Urban Archaeology

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London artefact series No 1: ROMAN CERAMIC BUILDING MATERIAL

Identifying Roman CBM CBM can sometimes be confused with Roman and post-medieval pottery, look for sand or straw marks on the surface from mould-made CBM as opposed to the wheel-marks from thrown pottery. Post-Roman CBM was made using the same basic techniques and raw materials as Roman CBM, however Roman CBM often has a denser fabric than later bricks and tiles, and is often better made. Roman bricks are also thinner than later bricks, whilst Roman tiles are usually thicker than later tiles. Underfired Roman CBM often has a blue core. Try and inspect recognisable pieces of dated CBM to help identify less-diagnostic fragments. Types There are four common types of Roman CBM: roofing tiles, structural bricks, floor tiles and tesserae, and box-flue tiles. There are also other forms such as water pipes and wall tiles. Individual pieces were often reused for other functions in later structures, or could be cut down to form tesserae.

During the Roman period ceramic building material (CBM) was used for various construction purposes across Britain. Due to the lack of building stone local to London brick and tile (ceramic building material: CBM) was extensively used, however 'clay and timber' construction types were the most common technique of building in Londinium, with a smaller number of masonry buildings (often using brick 'string courses'). No Roman buildings solely built of brick have been found to date in London, however brick and tile were extensively used as is attested by the amount of CBM found on London sites, even in rural areas where it suggests a 'background noise' of Roman presence. CBM was made relatively locally to Londinium, with major kiln sites to the west of London along Watling Street, as well as material from other production sites around London and beyond. There is some evidence for tile making within Londinium itself. Finished products were transported by road, or by boat. Different fabrics were produced at different sites, and CBM can be broadly dated by fabric and form.

Roller stamped flue tile

10cm 0 10cm 0 10cm

Tegula tile Roofing tile

10cm

Cutaway on underside of a tegula

Imbrices (sing. imbrex) are the curved tile that spans two flanged tegulae. The tile tapers to one end. Ridge tiles are similar to imbrices, but have straight sides. Imbrices may also be used as ridge tiles. Antefix tiles are decorated tiles that fit on the end of imbrices at the eaves, or at the end of roof ridges.

10cm

Imbrex tile
approximately 2x2 Roman feet, Sesquepedalis 1.5x1.5 foot, Pedalis 1x1 foot, and Lydion bricks used for building walls are 1x1.5 foot. Bessalis measure approximately 0.75x0.75 foot and were often used for pilae capped by pedalis bricks (a Roman foot was approximately 296mm). Tegulae mammatae: there are two types of tegulae mammatae, Type A are probably for flooring and have shallow lugs (mammae) to help the tiles bond with each other or the bedding material. Type B has not been found in London.

Bessalis brick with PPBRLON stamp

there were tessellated floors of small tesserae. Tesserae were cut from fired tiles, as well as from pottery, amphorae and various stones including marble.

Opus spicatum bricks Scales 10 cm

cutaway rather than at the ends.

A roof of tiles was extremely heavy, and was only suitable for wellconstructed buildings, other roof coverings included wooden shingles and thatch. Tegulae are large, flat tiles with flanges along two sides. They are rectangular in shape or slightly tapered.The tiles were used on low angled roofs, with imbrices covering the joint between tegulae. Some tegulae have nail-holes on the upper edge to fix them, although most are not nailed and rely on gravity. Tegulae have 'cut aways' on the corners to allow the rows of tiles to overlap, these cut aways can be broadly dated by form. Due to their broadly flat shape tegulae are often reused in other structures or surfaces.

Wall tiles
Wall tiles (parietals) are thin tiles used in making cavity walls as part of a hypocaust system. They are notched to allow fixing with bobbin spacers and nails to the wall. They are frequently keyed on one face to allow plaster to bond to the outside surface.

Voussoir tiles
Voussoir tiles were small wedge shaped tiles used to form arches; some are shaped to support flat tiles for vaulted roofs ('armchair' voussoirs).

Water pipes
Ceramic water pipes are occasionally found on sites, lead and wooden pipes were also used. The ceramic pipes have one narrower end to fit inside the next section.

Structural bricks
Roman bricks were flat and usually rectangular or square, with round bricks for pillars. Bricks were used to form structures, arches, and as string courses in masonry buildings. Pilae bricks were used to create the characteristic stacks of tiles supporting floors in hypocaust systems. B i p e d a l i s b r i c k s m e a s u re

Box flue tiles

Box flue tiles were used in hypocaust systems to create ducts for hot air within walls. They are usually heavily keyed on two sides to allow plaster to adhere. Vent holes are cut in the unkeyed sides. Hollow voussoir tiles were used to extend the ducts within vaulted ceilings. Half box-flue tiles are similar to box flue tiles, but are only half of the box. The flanges are taller than on tegulae and there is a central

Floor tiles and tesserae

Roman flooring was usually of beaten earth, with opus signinum (Roman concrete) floors in higher status buildings. Small rectangular tiles known as opus spicatum were set in herringbone patterns, and

Detail of PPBRLON stamp

A Lydion brick found in London had been inscribed with the graffito

AVSTALIS DIBVS XIII VAGATVR SIB COTIDIM

0 10cm 0 10cm
0 10cm

Fragment of tesselated floor using tesserae made from CBM and amphora

Box flue tile

impressions and fingerprints may also be seen on tiles from handling after moulding. Tiles were often wiped after production, possibly to remove excess moulding sand, and the wipe-marks may be visible. Sunken margins may be visible depressed margins on the edge of the bricks from the moulding process.

Ceramic water pipe

'signature' marks, usually impressed using fingertips or a stick and possibly denoting a maker or yard. Tally marks interpreted as Roman numerals were usually cut with a knife on the edge of the bricks or tile.

Austalis has been wandering off on his own everyday for the past 13 days

On excavations all CBM should be retained unless there is a specific sampling policy agreed with a specialist. Even where there is a selective sampling strategy each fragment should be inspected for marks and stamps.

Retention and sampling:

Graffiti
Several tiles and bricks have been found with scratched graffiti, often inscribed prior to firing.

kilns, or from house fires or the wider Boudiccan and Hadrianic fires. CBM may have been mortared in place or have opus signinum adhering, and floor tiles may be worn by use. All these can indicate the use and or reuse of an individual tile. Roman CBM was often reused later in the period, including in new structures and as rubble and can indicate earlier structures on or near the site. Roman bricks and tiles were also reused in later periods when brick and tile was not readily available.

Accidental marks
Dog, cat, foot and hobnail boot impressions are all found on the surfaces of bricks and tiles, impressed when the object was drying prior to firing.

Stamps
Some bricks and tiles were stamped, usually indicating a production site. Some of the most common stamps are the variants on PPBRILON: P(rocuratores) P(rovinciae) Bri(taniae) Lon(dini): The procurators (or procurator) of the province of Britannia at London. Civilian stamps are also known.

Surface treatment:
Cutting and handling
Some tiles were cut or trimmed after the initial tile is formed in the mould, tegula are the main example, with a series of types of 'cutaway' to allow the tiles to overlap, some tiles were pierced for nailing before firing. Finger

Keying
Keying can be scored with a knife or sharp implement, combed, or roller-stamped with a wooden roller.

Post-firing treatment and reuse

Folowing firing bricks and tiles may have been cut to size to fit their intended use, nail holes may also be added. CBM may be scorched or burnt (even vitrified) or sooted from use in hypocausts, ovens and

Signature marks and tallies

Some tiles and bricks have

Bibliography and further reading Factsheet produced by Urban Archaeology, with thanks to Ian Betts for comments on the text. Betts, IM 1986 Identifying ceramic building material, Museum of London Department for Urban Archaeology Brodribb, , 1987 Roman Brick and Tile, Alan Sutton Publishing Warry, P. 2006 Tegulae: Manufacture,Typology and Use in Roman Britain, BAR 417 Oxford: Archaeopress Urban Archaeology factsheets are available to download for FREE from http://urban-archaeology.blogspot.co.uk/ Urban Archaeology 2013