Effective Training

Chapter 3 Learning, Motivation, and Performance

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A Few Words about Theory Theories are speculative road maps for how things work. Good theories assemble a number of facts, show the relationship among those facts, and develop a logical rationale for what is likely to be true, given those facts. From theories, predictions and hypotheses can be generated and tested. o If tests show that the predictions are correct, the theory is supported; if inconsistent, the theory is revised or discarded. The process of developing, testing and reformulating a theory is the basis of science how new knowledge is created, and consequently, practiced since it: o Explains facts as simply as possible, o Predicts future events, and o Provides information on what can be done to prevent undesirable things from happening. Theory an abstraction that allows us to make sense out of a large number of facts related to an issue. Effective training practices are developed from theories and theoretical constructs that describes how learning occurs, and what motivates people. Each organization is unique with different elements different missions, strategies, environments, technologies, and people creating a different chemistry in each of them and thus making a one best way approach ineffective. o Theories provide guidelines, principles, and predictions that allow the organization to create the right recipe for their situation. o Successful people in business pay attention to theory. Companies that applied the underlying models and theories correctly were getting the best results; those that simply put programs into place were getting the worst results. To design a and implement effective training programs, you need to understand how people learn, what motivates learning and performance, how the learning and work environment affect the motivation and performance Understanding Motivation and Performance Your job performance and your behavior in general are a function of what you know, what you are able to do and what your believe [KSA]. Without requisite KSAs, you cannot perform. Performance Model [P=M x KSA x E] indicates that a persons performance [P] depends on the interaction of motivation [M], KSAs, and the environment [E]. o Motivation arises from your needs and beliefs about how best to satisfy those needs. o Both motivation and KSAs are part of your memory and thinking systems (i.e. cognitive structure) o Environment refers to the physical surroundings in which performance must occur , including barriers and aids to performance, objects and event you might see that would indicate that performance will be rewarded/punished. o This would also indicate that the weakest factor limits the likelihood of engaging in any activity (it also could be the trainings focus).

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Effective Training
Chapter 3 Learning, Motivation, and Performance

Blanchard & Thacker

Motivation: Why Do They Act Like That? o Motivation the direction, persistence and amount of effort expanded by an individual to achieve a specified outcome Motivation is part of a persons cognitive structure and is not directly observable, thus it is defined in terms of its effects on behavior, which are observable. o Factors that reflect motivation: What need/s the person is trying to satisfy What types of activities the person engages in to satisfy the need How long the person engages in the activity How hard the person works at the activity o It is goal-directed and derived from both personal needs and the decision processes used to satisfy those needs. o NEED THEORY Need theories attempt to describe the types of needs people have, their relative performance, and how they are related to one another. ERG Theory (Clayton Adlerfrer) Existence Needs correspond to Maslows lower-order physiological and security needs; immediate needs required to sustain life needs for food, shelter, and the like and the need for some security in the future for a safe and healthy life. Relatedness Needs reflect peoples need to be valued and accepted by others. Interpersonal relationships and group membership act to satisfy these needs. Growth Needs include feelings of self-worth and competence and achieving our potential. Recognition, accomplishment, challenging opportunities, and a feeling of fulfillment are outcomes that can satisfy these needs. People can experience needs in all three areas simultaneously, but the relative satisfaction level in each area determines the importance of the needs Unsatisfied needs motivates us, and motivation decreases as needs in an area are satisfied; at times, our needs conflict with one another, or one need might become more important than the others. Needs in each area tend to renew themselves as well as expand. The best training incorporates opportunities to satisfy all three categories of needs. o Training facilities and accommodations partly address existence needs. o Demonstrating how the training will improve the trainees competencies, in turn, increase job security and fulfill existence needs will also motivate the trainee. o Building a network of positive relationships among trainees and between trainees and the trainer will address relatedness needs. o Using methods that provide challenging experiences that lead to attainment of the target KSAs will address growth needs. o By having training address all three types of needs in some way, you can be assured that all trainees will find at least one need that can be satisfied . Carl Johnave M. Monzon, 4PSY3 | 2

Effective Training
Chapter 3 Learning, Motivation, and Performance

Blanchard & Thacker

Need theory leads to implications for the training process even after completion of training. Trainers must make sure that trainees can see how learning fulfills their needs. PROCESS THEORY Process theories attempt to describe and explain how a persons needs are translated into actions to satisfy the needs. Process theories of motivation describe how a persons needs translate into action. Classical Conditioning (Ivan Pavlov) Classical conditioning the association of a generalized response to some signal in the environment. It typically involves learning to emit a non-voluntary response to some signal that in the past did not produce that response. o STEP 1 unconditioned stimulus Unconditioned response (automatic) o STEP 2 conditioned stimulus paired with unconditioned stimulus Unconditioned response (automatic) o STEP 3 Conditioned Stimulus Conditioned response Reinforcement Theory (B.F. Skinner) Foundation of this theory is E.L. Thorndikes law of effect, which states that behavior followed by satisfying experiences tend to be repeated, and behavior followed by annoyance or dissatisfaction tends to be avoided. Operant Conditioning o A person is faced with an object or event in the environment ( stimulus) and behaves in a certain way (response). That behavior results in an outcome (consequences) to the individual that is positive or negative. o A persons motivation (i.e. direction, magnitude, and persistence of behavior), then, is a function of her reinforcement history o Types of Consequences: Positive Reinforcement occurs when your behavior results in something desirable happening to you either tangible, psychological, or some combination of the two. Negative Reinforcement occurs when your behavior results in removing something you find annoying, frustrating, or unpleasant. Both positive and negative reinforcement increases the likelihood that the behavior will occur in similar future circumstances. Punishment occurs when behavior results in something undesirable happening to you and decreases the likelihood of the response occurring in the future. Punishment can be tangible, psychological, or both and can come from the environment or be self-administered. Extinction occurs when a persons behavior no longer produces the desired outcomes, and thus the behavior becomes less likely to occur in the future.

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Effective Training
Chapter 3 Learning, Motivation, and Performance Desirable Consequences Behavior Positively Reinforced Behavior Punished (Extinction) Undesirable Consequences Behavior Punished Behavior Negatively Reinforced

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Trainee Receives Trainee Loses

Reinforcement vs. Punishment o Punishment It can eliminate undesirable behavior in the workplace, but due to several reasons, is undesirable as a management and training tool. It does not motivate people to do things, only no to do things. It requires constant vigilance on the part of the supervisor, and encourages employee efforts to beat the system. If a persons undesired behavior is rewarding, the punishment must be severe enough to offset the behaviors reinforcing properties, which could raise ethical, moral and commonsense objections. Someone must do the punishing, and this person will become the one to be avoided which could lead to leadership problems. o Positive and Negative Reinforcement Negative reinforcement can cause the desired behavior to become selfreinforcing. The person doing the reinforcing does not always need to be present for the desired behavior to occur. Sometimes, the employee actively seeks to make the reinforcing agent aware of his/her behavior . Used in combination, positive and negative reinforcement appear more effective than either used alone. It does not provide explanation of the processes involved in storing, retrieving, or using the lessons of past reinforcement. It leaves us wondering how future behavior becomes influenced by previous reinforcement history. Nevertheless, the theory does convincingly predict the various effects on future behavior caused by the consequences of past behavior. It suggests that any training must be concerned not only with teaching KSAs but also with the consequences that are attached to the following: o The learning process, o The old way of doing the job, and o The new way of doing the job Expectancy Theory (Victor Vroom) o The theory describes the cognitive processes involved in deciding the best course of action for achieving our goals (i.e. satisfying our needs). Carl Johnave M. Monzon, 4PSY3 | 4

Effective Training
Chapter 3 Learning, Motivation, and Performance o o

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o o

Cognitive process mental activity such as information storage, retrieval, or use. The theory proposes that a persons motivation can be explained by the relationship among three conceptually distinct elements Effort = Expectancy 1ij x ij(Expectancy 2ij x Valenceij) The level of success expected by the individual (expectancy 1) The individuals beliefs about what the outcomes will be if she is successful. The expected outcomes and their likelihood of occurrence make up expectancy 2 The individuals feelings about the various outcomes positive or negative value. An outcomes subjective value is referred to as its valence. Effort is the individuals motivation to engage in a particular course of action. Expectancy Theory in Training: For Expectancy 1 for a person to be willing to try, a person must expect that there is a reasonable chance of success. For Expectance 2 trainers must make sure that the right outcomes are attached to the successful completion of training. Trainees should be able to see the clear connections between the content of the training and important organizational and personal outcomes. For Valence the training outcomes must be as desirable as possible for the trainees rather than just for the organization, the supervisor, or the trainer.

Self-Efficacy and Motivation o Self-efficacy feeling about our own competency. High self-efficacy is associated with a belief that we can and will perform successfully, while those low in self-efficacy are preoccupied with concerns about failure. High Self-Efficacy = better performance, and tries harder in difficult situations Low Self-efficacy = reduce effort, give up o Factors that provide the employees the estimate of their ability to be successful: Prior Experiences past success and failures, and their consequences. Behavioral Models success and failure of others observed attempting the behavior. Others feedback the encouragement or discouragement provided by others. Physical and Emotional State the physical and emotional conditions the person believes will affect their ability to perform. o It is the prime factor in Expectancy 1 evaluation, and such feelings are translated into behavior. Expect success work harder, longer and more creatively. Expect failure acts to minimize the negative consequences of failure. Self-efficacy sets up the persons behavior to fulfill the self -efficacy beliefs. Thus, determining a trainees self-efficacy before training and, if low, providing means to improve the trainees sel fefficacy would seem to be worthwhile endeavor. o How to improve self-efficacy? Carl Johnave M. Monzon, 4PSY3 | 5

Effective Training
Chapter 3 Learning, Motivation, and Performance Persuasion from the supervisor (confidence) Seeing others who are similar to the employee succeed Training (can affect self-efficacy directly or indirectly)

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Understanding Learning What is learning? o Learning is closely tied to memory; whatever is learned, must be retained if it is to be useful. Electrochemical changes created during learning apparently create a relatively permanent change in neural functioning that becomes what is commonly termed Memory. It is clear from physiological evidence that learning is related to changes in the physical, neuronal structure of the brain and its related electrochemical functioning. There is little evidence that learning is stored in the central nervous system. o Definitions of Learning: Behaviorists relatively permanent changes in behavior. A relatively permanent change in behavior in response to a particular stimulus or set of stimuli. Cognitive a relatively permanent change in cognition occurring as a result of experience. A change in the content, organization and storage of information/building and reorganization of schema to make sense of new information. (i.e. the ways in which people respond to information and the ways in which different types of behavior are grouped or separated.) Cognition mental processing of information Implications of Behaviorist and Cognitive Approaches o Control in learning Behavioral approach suggests that the environment controls learning. That is, the trainer controls learning by controlling the stimuli and consequences that the learner experiences; and the learner depends on the trainer to elicit the correct associations between stimulus and response. Learning occurs when new consequences are experienced Cognitive approach suggests that the learned controls learning (both what is learned and how it is learned). ISSUE COGNITIVE APPROCH BEAHVIORIST APPROACH Learners Role Active, self-directed, self-evaluating Passive, dependent Instructors Role Facilitator, coordinator, and presenter Director, monitor, evaluator Training Content Problem/task-oriented Subject-oriented Learner Motivation More internally motivated More externally motivated Training Climate Relaxed, mutually trustful, respectful and Formal, authority-oriented, judgmental, and collaborative competitive Instructional Goals Collaboratively developed Developed by instructor Instructional Activities Interactive, group, project-oriented, and Directive, individual, and subject oriented experiential Carl Johnave M. Monzon, 4PSY3 | 6

Effective Training
Chapter 3 Learning, Motivation, and Performance

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Example of Cognitive Theory o Cognitive Processes Critical for Learning (Piaget): Accommodation the process of changing our construction (cognitive map) of the world to correspond with our experience in it. Through the creation of new categories, or schemata, to accommodate experience that does not fit into existing categories. Assimilation the incorporation of new experience into existing categories. Accommodation changes the map, whereas Assimilation fills in the detail. Integration of Cognitive and Behavioral Approaches o Learning relatively permanent change in cognition resulting from experience and directly influencing behavior. It is not defined here as not dependent on behavior, but rather in cognition thus learning can occur in the absence of observable behavior. However, it is through engaging in behavior that a person would know that learning had taken place. Moreover, it is through the frequency of its use that it becomes permanent (i.e. resistant to forgetting). Thus behavior is both an important measure and means of learning .

Social Learning Theory (Albert Bandura) Also known as Observational Learning and Vicarious Learning. Basic Premise: Events and consequences in the learning situation are cognitively processed before they are learned or influence behavior. Consequently, the processing of information leads to learning, and finally to changes in behavior. o Consequences of behavior (reinforcement & punishment) influence the likelihood of that behavior in the future, but they do as a result of how they are perceived, interpreted, and stored in memory. o Thus, a person can learn by observing the behavior of others and the consequences that result (Contradictory from the behaviorists views that it must be a result of a persons own behavior) Learners Cognitive Processes STIMULUS STIMULUS STIMULUS STIMULUS

A T T E N T I O N

Motivation

Retention
1. Symbolic Coding 2. Cognitive Disorganization 3. Symbolic Rehearsal

Behavioral Consequences of Behavior Reproduction

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External Environment

Effective Training
Chapter 3 Learning, Motivation, and Performance

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Cognitive Processes Involved: o Motivation o Attention o Retention o Behavioral Reproduction Motivation o The learners needs determine what things receive attention and are processed for retention. o Social learning theory incorporates the operant conditioning concept of behavioral consequences (i.e. the more rewarding the consequence, the more likely it would done in the future), however, compared to operant conditioning, social learning theory suggests that behavioral consequences can be acquired through anticipatory learning. o Anticipatory Learning occurs when a person learns what consequences are associated with a behavior (or set of behaviors) without actually engaging in the behavior and receiving the consequences (e.g. through observing someone elses behavior). Attention o The beginning of the learning process, wherein the person becomes focused on particular objects and events in the typical environment (stimuli). o The things that we pay attention to and are more likely to be our model of behavior is someone who is spotlighted in some way/receives a lot of reinforcement than of someone who is not. o In training, learning is improved by making key points stand out so that their trainees will focus attention on them. Elimination of extraneous objects keeps trainees from becoming too distracted during training. Retention o Once attention is focused on an object or event, the incoming information is processed for possible retention. o The more training is designed to facilitate the retention processes, the more learning will occur. o Phases of Retention: i. Symbolic Encoding the translation of the information into symbols of meaningful to the individual. ii. Cognitive Organization Once objects and events are transformed into internal images and verbal symbols, it is then organized into the existing cognitive structure through associations with previously stored information. e.g. ask trainees to provide examples of how the new information related to what they already know (this exercise allows the trainee to code and store the information more easily, and it allows the trainer to see whether the desired association are being made). iii. Symbolic Rehearsal after which, the learner should practice the learned material through visualizing or imagining how the knowledge or skill will be used (mental practice). Behavioral Reproduction o Repeated practice; the more a person practices using new information, the more it is learned and retained. Carl Johnave M. Monzon, 4PSY3 | 8

Effective Training
Chapter 3 Learning, Motivation, and Performance o

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o o

Behavioral reproduction is part of both the learners cognitive processes and the external environment. This duality reflects the fact that the persons cognitive processes initiate the behavior (i.e. retrieving the appropriate behavior from storage and directing the body to perform) and then the behavior actually occurs in, and becomes part of, the environment. If consequences are to affect behavior and obtain the desired effect, the individual must be aware of these consequences. Effective training programs need to call attention to the desirable consequences of learning and of using the learning back on the job.

Aligning Training Design with Learning Process Gagne and his associates suggest that for instruction to be effective, a set of events external to the learner must be designed to facilitate the internal learning process. o Micro Theory of Instructional Design A guide for designing training events to achieve the learning outcomes (KSAs) that you want to create, consisting of nine (9) steps/set of events to which would be followed in developing training for a leaning objective. To be most effective, it must be done in the specific order, as specified in the table; however, not all are necessary for every learning objective or that that sequencing must be exactly as indicated. Each event is used to stimulate the internal information processes. Instructional Event Gaining Attention Informing the trainee of goal (objective) Stimulating recall of prior knowledge (learning) Presenting the material Providing learning guidance This Event Causes the Trainee To focus on the trainer To begin to focus on the goal To retrieve prior learning to working memory To selectively perceive important parts of training To consider how the new material fits into the trainees overall schema and clarify where it belongs for ease of retrieval To do it To perform effectively by reinforcing correct responses and assisting when incorrect To attempt a number of similar problems to determine if the trainee has the concept To do more complex and varied examples of the concept and assess the success

1) 2) 3) 4) 5)

6) Eliciting the performance 7) Providing Feedback 8) Assessing Performance 9) Enhancing retention and transfer

Motivation to Learn It is the intensity and the persistence of the trainees learning-directed activities related to the content of the training program. Resistance to learning occurs when the trainees motivation to learn is not high enough to overcome with other forces acting on the trainee that discourage learning.

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Effective Training
Chapter 3 Learning, Motivation, and Performance

Blanchard & Thacker

The trainees motivation will be determined by individual factors (i.e. self-efficacy, valence, anxiety, and cognitive ability) and environmental factors (i.e. organizational context such as climate for learning, peer and supervisor support) Environmental Factors and Resistance 1) Peer Support It is the encouragement and assistance that trainees receive from their coworkers. The effect of group dynamics in the work unit on individual group member behavior and motivation is significant and is one reason trainees might resist new learning. The power of the group comes from the rewards the group gives to members who follow group norms or punishment for those who do not. Group dynamics is a powerful force that can drastically inhibit both learning and transfer of skills. Peer support for training is a strong predictor of the likelihood that trainees will transfer what they learned to the job. Positive results occur when the norms created within the group are in line with the organizational goals; to ensure that the right norms are developed, these work groups need to be nurtured and made to feel that they are a valuable part of the organization. 2) Supervisor Support Supervisors are the official source of rewards in most organizations. If the supervisor thinks that the training is not worthwhile and communicates them to the trainees, he/she will probable think the same way and that their attitude with the training will be negative. 3) Climate for Transfer For learning to be successful, the learning must be transferred back to the job, and thus requiring a positive climate for transfer. It includes alignment of organizational systems and procedures to support the new job behaviors and the training process in addition to removing the barriers. It also includes organizational reward systems, job materials and equipment, and job procedures. Individual Factors and Resistance o Difference in personality and other individual characteristics are related to trainees motivation and ability to learn and thus are also factors in resistance to learning. o However, in most organizations, personality traits are measure, since it would be too complex, costly and impractical. 1) Cognitive Ability It refers to individual differences in information-processing capacity and the level of cognitive resources that a person can bring to bear on a problem. Also known as General Intelligence Goal Setting Goal setting as a motivational incentive does not always operate with the same magnitude for high- and low- ability individuals. When those with low ability are starting to learn a moderately difficult task, providing goals to them will inhibit, rather than enhance, learning. Carl Johnave M. Monzon, 4PSY3 | 10

Effective Training
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The same consequence also occur for high ability individuals but is not nearly as sever. It seems that these individuals have the additional cognitive capacity to focus on goals in addition to the new learning in the early learning stage. Once the task has been learned, goals then enhances performance for both groups. In training, it is suggested that difficult tasks should be broken down into a set of simpler tasks so that they are easily mastered; if not possible, then it is best not to introduce goal setting as a motivational device early in the training process. KSA Base Trainees with higher levels of cognitive ability not only process information more quickly but also typically have a larger store of knowledge. Thus, those with less knowledge will need to have more training materials available to them than the others. Speed at which trainees can process the training information can also make a big difference (slowing down will bore more knowledgeable trainees, while hastening will hinder those less in cognitive ability from keeping up with the material). o One solution is to design separate training programs; o Another is to create two phases with the first phase designed for developing KSA base and other prerequisite knowledge to be used for the second phase; o Another approach is to use electronic, self-paced training methods that would allow each trainee to move through the material at a pace consistent with their cognitive abilities. 2) Valences If training is perceived as leading to attractive outcomes, there is a higher probability that learning will take place and transfer to job will occur. However, even when trainees acknowledge the value of the training, they might believe that the effort required to master the learning is just not worthwhile. Accommodation is difficult since it would require a learner to create new categories, and then link them to other related categories; while Assimilation is relatively easy since the learner simply adds new elements and rearranges associations among elements within a single category. 3) Anxiety It is a heightened state of arousal related to feelings of apprehension or fear. High levels of anxiety interfere with other cognitive processes and cause the trainee to withdraw from or actively resist the learning process; moreover, change creates anxiety. Anxiety can be reduced through pre-training counseling, the setup of the training facility, and the way in which training is introduced. Fear of Incompetence Rooted from the experienced trainee or newbie trainee feeling that they are not good enough and thus should be sent to training; from being told that the trainer knows more about how to do their job than they do; and many more. It leads to defensive behaviors to protect themselves.

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Effective Training
Chapter 3 Learning, Motivation, and Performance

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For adults, the key factor in discarding old learning and acquiring new learning is its practical usefulness. Thus, training that can demonstrate its value and practical utility will find trainees eager to learn. 4) Goal Orientation It is the degree to which an individual is predisposed toward either a learning orientation or performance orientation. Those with a Learning Goal Orientation focus on the learning process; seek challenging tasks to increase competence, see negative feedback as important information to master a task, and see failure as a learning experience. One result of this is persistence when having problems doing a complex task; they are more motivated to continue to try and solve the problem. They also focus on mastery of the task to develop their competence, acquire new skills, and learn from their experience. Those with a Performance Goal Orientation differ because they focus on the end result; wishing to be seen as competent and therefore desire favorable, not negative feedback. They prefer easier tasks wherein they could demonstrate their competence rather than learning something new. Avoidance of complex tasks for fear of failure, limited persistence and a tendency to be easily distracted; strong desire to impress others and focus on the outcome of their performance. However, learning orientation is a trait that can be influenced by the situation. Training that Motivates Adults to Learn Learning occurs quite frequently in adults when it appears to offer practical application immediately or in the near future. Training Relevance, Value, and Readiness to Learn o Most often reasons for adults engaging in new learning Problems on the job Job/occupational changes Home and personal responsibilities Competency at some hobby or recreational activity o The need to learn and the readiness to learn are critical aspects in the success of adult learning programs. Need to Know the value of knowledge to the learner. Often life-, task-, or problem- centered. Readiness to Learn the amount of prerequisite knowledge (KSAs) the trainee possess and the trainees belief that they can learn the material Expectancy 1 that if they put forth effort, they will be successful in their learning. Expectancy 2 they must feel that the benefits of learning KSAs outweigh the benefits of not learning them.

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Effective Training
Chapter 3 Learning, Motivation, and Performance o

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The challenge is to provide instruction in a context that overcomes the natural resistance of adult learners to changing their cognitive structures. Making the relevance and value of learning clear as it relates to the trainee and the organizational goal addresses one source of resistance to learning. Ensuring that the trainee believes he/she can successfully master the training content is another important motivator. Allowing Trainees Control Over their Learning o Trainees often view differences as hindrances to their learning and resist training with others who are dissimilar; however, these can be viewed as learning resource if the trainees are willing to share their experiences and strategies and if the training environment supports such exchange. Adult learners prefer sharing their learning experiences with others if the environment is supportive. Have the desire to set their own pace, adopt a self-directed approach, establish their own structure for learning, and employ flexibility in the learning methods. o Training that provides instruction on the how to and includes the why and when results in improved performance and continued use of skills across appropriate situations ; while, those that only provided instructions on how to perform a set of skills improve performance, but fail to generalize them to similar situations. Involving Trainees in the Process o Involving trainees in the learning process from needs assessment to design and evaluation addresses many issues; moreover, Involvement is a key part in overcoming resistance to change. Involving those affected by the change in planning and implementing the changes create a sense of ownership, which results to increased commitment to the change and better implementation of the changes (especially the supervisors and trainees). Supervisors have a clearer understanding of why new KSAs are necessary, how they fit in with the overall plans for the work unit, and the consequences of their employees learning or not learning the new KSAs. The trainees see what KSAs they need to improve, and understand why those KSAs will be of value. Principles in Developing Training Programs for their Employees (9) o Identify, where possible, the trainees strengths and challenges relating to motivation to learn and design the training to address as many of these as is practical. o Align learning objectives to organizational goals and show how learning is important to the trainee and organizational success. o Describe program goals and objectives clearly at the start of training. o Engage the trainee early, thus maximizing attention, expectations, and memory. o Use a systematic, logically connected sequencing of learning activities so that trainees master lower levels of learning before moving to higher levels. o Use a variety of training methods. o Use realistic job- or life- relevant training material. o Allow trainees to work together and share experiences. o Provide constant feedback and reinforcement while encouraging self-assessment. Carl Johnave M. Monzon, 4PSY3 | 13

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