Consiglio, Bittinger, Burns, Ullman, Vida 1

By: Joanna Consiglio, Sarah Bittinger, Emily Burns, Coree Ullman, and Leah Vida

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Joanna Consiglio, Sarah Bittinger, Emily Burns, Coree Ullman, Leah Vida Mr. Harrell English Composition I 19 November 2013

Introduction
Mathematics is defined as the study of number, quantity, shape, and space and their interrelationships by using a specialized notation. It is deemed to be one of the most important subjects taught in society today and used on a daily basis. Math is incorporated into school curriculum at a young age and is continued to be taught in higher levels of education. Many other subjects, including many science classes, require a strong math background in order for students to be successful. The importance of gaining proficiency in basic math courses is commonly recognized and can result is math anxiety. Students have the primary responsibility on how they perform but teachers have an important role of helping their students become successful as well. Ultimately, different strategies that teachers provide will correspond to the level and subject of the course while influencing a students success in their math career.

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("20th Century Mathematics)

History
Mathematics is a subject that never will be outdated. It began many years ago and has adapted to the changes in society. Mathematical concepts can be seen dating back to prehistoric times and continuing throughout history. The study of math began in the 6th century B.C. by the Pythagoreans, who devised the term "mathematics" from the ancient Greek culture. The Sumerian and Babylonians in ancient Egypt also began to develop mathematical concepts (Swetz 121). They initially developed these concepts a response to bureaucratic needs such as the measurement of plots of land and the taxation of individuals. In addition, the Sumerians and Babylonians needed to describe quite large numbers as they attempted to chart the course of the night sky and develop their lunar calendar. They are believed to be the first people to assign symbols in order to make the depiction of larger numbers easier. The Babylonians also developed the circle character to represent a zero. By the 7th century B.C. the Greeks continued to make advancements to their math a mathematical principles. The ancient Greek numeral system, known as Attic or Herodianic numerals, was fully developed (Swetz 123). In the late 15th and early 16th Centuries, Luca Pacioli, from Italy, published a book on arithmetic, geometry which contained mathematical puzzles. It also introduced symbols for plus and minus for the first time in a printed book. During the 16th and early 17th Century, the equals, multiplication, division,

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radical, decimal and inequality symbols were introduced and standardized. The 17th century in known as the Age of Reason (Swetz 127). The invention of the logarithm in the early 17th Century contributed to the advance of science, astronomy and mathematics. The 20th Century continued the trend of the 19th towards increasing the simplification in mathematics. Mathematics started to become a major profession, involving thousands of new degrees and jobs each year (Swetz 130).

Famous Mathematicians
Pythagoras (570B.C. - 500 B.C.) was a Greek mathematician who developed the geometric theorem that describes the relationship between a hypotenuse of a triangle and its sides.

Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727) invented calculus and helped establish the field of classical mechanics with his work, "Philosophi Naturalis Principia Mathematica." He also had a great influence on many science subjects by building the first reflecting telescope, decomposing white light into its component colors, and creating the three laws of motion, known as Newton's laws.

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Carl Guass (1777-1855) published "Arithmetical Investigations," a foundational textbook that laid out the tenets of number theory. He influenced algebra, statistics, geometry, optics, astronomy and many other subjects that underlie our modern world.

Albert Einstein (1879-1955) is one of the worlds most famous physicists. He made contributions to physics as well as calculus and geometry.

John von Neumann

(1903-1957) worked at Princeton University with Albert Einstein in 1930. He made important discoveries in set theory, geometry, quantum mechanics, game theory, statistics, and computer science. Alan Turing (1912 - 1954) was a British mathematician who has been called the father of computer science. Alan Turing was involved in the development of the modern day computer. His design remains central to how computers operate today. Benoit Mandelbrot (1924-2010) discovered fractal geometry. Fractals are fundamental to computer graphics and animation. Without fractals, we would be decades behind where we are now in the field of computer-generated images. Fractal formulas are also used to design cellphone and computer chips.

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(Swetz 121)

Learning Math at a Younger Age

Learning math at a younger age is reassured in todays society. Its required in preschool and elementary as it first introduces the subject. This is where the first major development in number, quantities, and shapes begin. This start helps the minds of children flourish as they evolve, expand, and show progress during the buildup for later use. Teachers often use models to help children better understand how basic math problems are solved; such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division; such as the example shown in

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Figure 2. They also use real-world situations to give children a good visual of the problem. Figure 3 shows an example of a real-world situation or an orange being cut into pieces.

(Peretz 381)

Along with models teachers utilize acronyms that help children remember information better. PEMDAS is a commonly used mnemonic device for the order of operations. Order of operations is used in every level of math.

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Students are expected to learn measurements, patterns, and functions. Measurement is significant in all aspects of life and real-life situations. Teachers use rulers, meter sticks, tape measures, trundle wheels, graduated beakers, measuring cups and spoons, bathroom scales, thermometers, timers, and protractors to aid students. Measuring is used in carpentry or even if you are cooking. Students are also taught how to use data tables and graphs. They use bar graphs, scatter plots, etc. to help model problems visually. An example is shown of this comparing students favorite colors in class.

In geometry, teachers to use geometric rods, isometric papers, symmetry mirrors, etc. to help children construct geometric ideas. Ultimately, the use of manipulatives in math is to help children understand abstract concepts and symbols that are used to represent concepts. Since all types of math come from real world situations, the symbolism of the mathematics must be translated. Manipulatives make it easier for students to relate to real world situations, to work together in solving problems, to discuss their mathematical ideas, make presentations in a large group, and to express their math thinking. The most important concept teachers want their students to comprehend is that there are many ways to solve problems and that math problems can be symbolized in different ways (Ernest).

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Isometric Paper

High School Math

As we become young adults, we engage in higher levels of math. We are taught to use basic concepts that we have been taught before, and apply them to more difficult concepts. For example, in Algebra, you must use the Order of Operations (taught in elementary school) to solve more challenging equations. We follow math through middle school years and reconnect with it in high school when it becomes a whole new level.

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High school math is not taught much different from previous years of math. Teachers use similar methods and daily routines. This routine can include taking notes, completing bell work, working through many examples, assigning worksheets or bookwork, or giving quizzes before tests. These are the steps taken by teachers in order to engage their students with different types of experiences. Together, math teachers all have one common goal: to prepare their students for the next level in their math career. For high school teachers, the focus becomes targeted mainly on the preparation for the OGT, ACT, SAT, future college courses, and potential careers. Some general high school math classes are:

A. Algebra 1 B. Geometry C. Algebra 2 D. Pre-calculus E. Calculus Algebra 1 is a course that students generally take in either 8th or 9th grade depending on

placement. In this class students learn more about real numbers, polynomials, factoring, a continuation of using the order of operations, solving equations and functions, as well as graphing them. This course sets the basis for further math courses, including Algebra 2. Geometry is a course designed to teach students about finding different facts related to geometric shapes. It also sometimes introduces some basic trigonometry. Students learn about area, volume, angles, and graphing these things as well as the formulas that go with them. Algebra 2 is an in depth version of Algebra 1 and can be more difficult as well. Topics get harder as imaginary and complex numbers are introduced. It also contains lessons about functions and the numerous types of them, polynomials, inequalities, and more.

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Pre-calculus is a course designed to ready students for Calculus. Sometimes, this course covers algebra concepts that were not taught in previous algebra classes because of the complication level. It mostly covers topics that will be covered more in depth in calculus. Calculus is a course where students are taught topics that they generally havent seen before. Some of the topics are: limits, continuity, derivatives, anti-derivatives, and integrals. This course prepares students for college level math and careers such as engineering. For students to perform well in their high school math classes, part of the responsibility is on the student, and part is on the teacher. The teacher should explain concepts well, and students should ask questions when necessary. Cernajeva writes, , If the lessons are interesting, the teacher is smiling and well-disposed, mistakes are explained tolerantly, students gain satisfaction and joy during the time spent for learning mathematics, and that creates a positive motivation for the acquisition of mathematics (Cernajeva 2). For the most part, high school teachers try their hardest to help their students in any way possible to understand lessons, and do well on tests and quizzes. It is then up to the students to try and make an effort to understand their math lessons.

College Math
The transition between high school and college can be one of the most difficult transitions in a young adults life. Joanna Consiglio, a current freshman at the University of Akron, has experienced these hardships throughout her first semester in college. She finds the transition most difficult in her Pre-Calculus class. To my surprise, I was able adapt to most of my college course fairly quickly. I found that college was not that much different from high school in the fact that, if you study for an exam you are more likely to do well. I soon found out one of my courses was an

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expectation to this. My senior year of high school I took a Pre-Calculus, so when I saw I would be taking it my first semester of college I was not too worried. I did fairly well in my high school Pre-Calculus, even with the little effort I put into the class. I figured college Pre-Calculus would be the same way. I was wrong. Even with the hours of studying I struggled to maintain a passing grade in my Pre-Calculus class. On the first day of class, I walked into a small room set up similar to my classes in high school. There were rows of desks facing a chalkboard in the front of the room. The room held about thirty students, which was only slightly larger than the amount in my high school classes. My professor was a young man, about in his mid-thirties, he looked to be from African decent and had a heavy accent. He began teaching the way my high school math teachers taught. He wrote concepts on the chalk board and then began working out problems. I thought I would easily pass this class with the amount of effort I put into my high school Pre-Calculus class. When I sat down to take the first quiz, this idea was soon erased from my mind. My professor gave us about ten minutes to complete the quiz. I spent half the time staring at the questions trying to remember if my professor even taught us it. I received a 30% on the quiz, the class average was a 50%. This was the moment it hit me that I was no longer in high school. To be successful in a college math class, a few adjustments have to be made on a persons view on learning math. There can many similarities between a high school math class and a college class, but the differences can be over whelming. In college, a test covers on average about six to nine sections and multiple chapters worth of material. Most college classes only hold about three exams for the semester. This only gives students a few attempts to earn the grade they desire. In high school, a test is usually given after every chapter. Throughout the course of a semester or quarter there are multiple exams, every few weeks. In high school, students have

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more opportunities to improve their grades, if they do not receive a satisfactory grade on one of their tests. In high school, a class usually lasts the entire year, but in college a class is only one semester long. In college, the same amount of material as in high school is packed into a few weeks. In general, college class are a lot more fast pace and a majority of the learning is the students responsibly and less of the teachers. The student teacher relationships are often less personal in college. College professors have a significantly larger amount of students than high school teachers. This makes it harder for students to feel comfortable asking their professors for clarification on topics.

Why is Mathematics Taught?

Students are not limited when putting mathematical skills to use. Its taken far beyond the classroom into special cases of real life. Ever since the beginning of existence, problem solving has been a major basic requirement. Its been applied in instances such as sustaining sufficient amounts of food or constructing multifunctional homes. The continuation of teaching math, as more discoveries and development arise, has increased strategies that are applied in everyday use. Everybody uses math whether they realize it or not. Its put forth in many situations such as figuring time or distance, calculating money, building or creating, or cooking. Vacationers must figure arrival and departure times to plan a trip. Builders and crafters create furniture, buildings, houses, framework, landscaped gardens, or painted walls. Cooks modify amounts when dealing with a recipe (Karadimos). Fundamentally, if we are not taught math, it would be a struggle to complete tasks and make new creations. At a young age, we develop, increase knowledge, and learn to appreciate creativity. We are taught the beauty of literature, music, art, or poetry. We do this by attending concerts or museums to gaze and experience. Mathematics is not viewed the same way because its widely

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seen as a necessity or a gateway for achieving a career and for educational success. As a teacher, its crucial to understand that todays society is technologically advancing and a good mathematical foundation must be established. It becomes essential for a large number of careers. In school, strong applications of mathematics are required when certain fields constitute much more than just skill (Myers 694). Teachers are instrumental in effects on career-related outcomes. Achievement is perceived from teacher support and playing a critical role in providing students with a sense of belonging and engagement. Classroom tasks influence positive school behavior and future success (RowanKenyon 4). For high school and college students, math self-efficacy and positive outcome expectations have been shown to have strong association with specific educational and career interest. Todays, national priorities of education include science, technology, engineering, and mathematics that are also known as STEM (Rowan-Kenyon 2). Successfully using math can improve ability or communicate clearly in order to deal with extreme structures in a job. These employees should be able to reason, work with technical equipment, and communicate thoughts with other employees. Math oriental careers that can require these expectations include accountants, agriculturists, architects, biologists, chemists, computer programmers, engineers (chemical, civil, electrical, industrial, and material), geologists, lawyers, managers, medical doctors, meteorologists, military personnel, nurses, politicians, technicians, or tradesmen (Karadimos). Conclusively, teachers must understand that their impact is followed by the result of a students future and a hopeful achievement outcome.

Helping Students Further

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At different ages or at different levels of math, many people tend to experience some type of struggle in Math. It is common to hear students say I hate math or I am just not good at math when not completely understanding their lesson. But what if there was a way to change this? Today, teachers and future teachers must recognize all the different ways to teach math better. Theres always room for improvement while helping students achieve farther than expected. In Canada and England they have begun to take a new approach in teaching math. This new curriculum is call Jump. This program strongly relies on the idea that everyone can learn math at an advanced level. John Mighton, the founder of Jump Math has his own beliefs as to why Math has become such a threatening subject. Mighton explains to The New York Times, Its because very early in school many kids get the idea that theyre not in the smart group, especially in math. We kind of force a choice on them: to decide that either theyre dumb or math is dumb (Peretz 381). In most schools, classrooms consist of large amounts of students. This prevents a teacher from spending one on one time with students. Math also becomes a complicated subject for students when curriculum is jammed pack and leaves little time to spend on one section. Students are being taught the basics and then expected to know advanced skills. Educators need to take into consideration that math is unlike any other subject, it does not come down to memorizing and studying a book or notes. Math is a subject of practice, and sufficient time needs to be allotted for student to fully understand the material they are being taught. Bornstein makes the point, Asking children to make their own discoveries before they solidify the basics is like asking them to compose songs on guitar before they can form a C chord (Peretz 381). Despite the numerous problems, that seem to be contributing to the lack of understanding in math classes John Mighton thinks he may have found the answer. The first step is to build confidence in students, without confidence success in academics is virtually impossible. This is done by breaking everything down into micro steps. What may

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seem like common sense to one may completely confuse and discourage another. Mighton says. Math is like a ladder. If you miss a step, sometimes you cant go on. And then you start losing your confidence and then the hierarchies develop. Its all interconnected (Peretz 382). Jumps Curriculum take this into consideration and allows the time for every little step to be fully taught and understood before moving on. By doing this, students are able to have a full understanding of the material and are then able to make their own discoveries. Students are showing amazing improvements after partaking in the Jump program.

( Peretz 382) Mighton says, More than anything, kids love success, and they love getting to higher levels, like in a video game (Peretz 382). By using these ideas and reconstructing the way math is taught teachers can level the field between peers in the classroom. Instead of having a few students who will excel in mathematics they can help majority of their students flourish. Students will have a fun with math, as they should, as they keep succeeding in their academic careers.

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Math is often taught to address different intelligence areas. Mathematics teachers start lessons with music and collect songs related to the topic, which refers to the musical/rhythmic intelligence area. One of the strategies math teachers use is asking questions uses the thinking skills. They also try to teach a different ways to solve each math problem, while revealing different problem states and their similarities and differences. By using different ways of teaching, individuals can adapt to society, find solutions to an every problem. It also teaches individuals where and how they can gain the information and skills they need along with providing information and skills for them to prepare the child for the adult society (Peretz 382). These provisions have led to the conclusion on focusing on the student. Teachers may need to put their selves in the students shoes. Finding time to focus on students individually, when in need, can be found useful. It increases communication and allows students to ask questions. Encouraging students to ask questions and supplying time after class or after school with studying, reviewing, or tutoring programs can help improve the students comprehension. It's beneficial to know the different paces of students and knowing that they grasp different concepts at different levels. Helping students farther can be demonstrated by reviewing what went wrong on quizzes or tests, providing retakes, letting them make test corrections for points back, allowing them work together during class and compare answers. Teachers should always remember to keep a positive attitude while keeping class fun, entertaining, and interesting to draw the students attention.

Conclusion

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Mathematics is like pulling a string on a sweater and having the whole sweater unravel. As we pull, we unravel the barrier that hides the root of the issue and leads to more problems (Myers 693). Without the engagement, motivation, and impact from teachers, students would build up confusion and anxiety. We must learn to appreciate the enlightenment of math and early mathematicians who brought us this knowledge. Math is not just a subject. Its a way of life. It is passed onto us from the beginning of time to improve society and everyday living. Constructing mathematic understanding at an early age and carrying it through the classroom each day prepares us for real life. Teachers are a fitting puzzle piece in a child's world because of their influence on their students. Teachers are required to gather, know, organize, demonstrate, and explain information correctly to students. They must have confidence in each and every student while aware that their guidance, significance, and leadership determines the fortune of one's future.

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Works Cited Cernajeva, Sarmite. Humanistic Approach to Teaching the Course in Mathematics. Boundary Field Problems and Computer Stimulation.51. (2012): 84-91. Web. 10 Nov.2013. Ernest, P. The Impact of Beliefs on the Teaching of Mathematics. 6th International Congress of Mathematical Education. (1988): N.P. Web. 17. November 2013. Karadimos, Mark. Why Must I Learn Math? Math Guide. (2013): N.P. Web. 16 Nov 2013. Myers, Perla. "Why? Why? Why? Future Teachers Discover Mathematical Depth." Phi Delta Kappan. 88.9 (2007): 691-96. Web. 10 Nov. 2013. Peretz, Dvora. "Enhancing Reasoning Attitudes of Prospective Elementary School Mathematics Teachers." Journal of Mathematics Teacher Education. 9.4 (2006): 381-400. Web. 17 Nov. 2013. Rowan-Kenyon, Heather T., Amy K. Swan, and Marie F. Creager. "Social Cognitive Factors, Support, and Engagement: Early Adolescents' Math Interests as

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Precursors to Choice of Career." Career Development Quarterly. 60.1 (2012): 215. Web. 13 Nov. 2013. Swetz, Frank. "The History of Mathematics: A Journey of Diversity." Yearbook (National Council of Teachers of Mathematics) 1997. (1997): 121-30. Web. 17 Nov. 2013. "20th Century Mathematics - The Story of Mathematics." 20th Century Mathematics The Story of Mathematics. N.p., n.d. Web. 26 Nov. 2013.