Running head: FORESTS OF MADAGASCAR

Conservation and Restoration of the Forests of Madagascar D. Chase Bennett University of North Carolina Wilmington

Running head: FORESTS OF MADAGASCAR Abstract

The forests of Madagascar are home to an estimated 10,000 species of plants and animals, but this array of biodiversity is severely threatened by deforestation. Unsustainable and inefficient agricultural practices and the economic status of the Malagasy citizens are two of the primary forces behind this deforestation. It is estimated that the loss of one hectare of Malagasy forest has a greater negative ecological impact than a one hectare loss anywhere else in the world. Less than 15% of the primary forest cover remains today and may be lost within the next 25 years if management and restoration practices are not introduced. The U.S. Forest Service (USFS) has provided technical support to the Malagasy Directorate of Water and Forests in the re-zoning of lands; however, a more intensive strategy is needed in order to protect the remaining forests. The aid of the USFS is undoubtedly helpful, but the extent of instruction is limited to zoning and the conservation and restoration of the forest flora. As habitats disappear competition and crowding will diminish the diversity flora and fauna species, 80% of which are endemic to Madagascar. To help prevent further deforestation, the citizens of Madagascar need to be educated on the benefits of preserving the forests and the consequences of losing them. Improved agricultural practices and knowledge of crops and rotations need to be implemented to prevent further erosion and deforestation. The use of taungya forest management practices would allow farmers to provide food for their families with the bonus of an eventual pay-off from a timber crop. Further practices could result in the restoration of forests which would boost ecotourism and the chance of being offered debt-for-nature swaps or payments for ecosystem services. Furthermore, additional aid from outside organizations and agencies is needed to provide aid in regulation and law enforcement as well as political support and land use planning.

Running head: FORESTS OF MADAGASCAR Conservation and Restoration of the Forests of Madagascar

Introduction Rainforests are arguably the most important ecosystems on earth due to the abundant species of wildlife they support and the vital resources they provide. However, current studies estimate that rainforests cover only about 6% of the earth, down from 14% (Taylor, 2012). While the loss of forests anywhere is detrimental, deforestation in certain areas will have greater impacts due to forest composition. Some of the largest impacts of deforestation are and will continue to be seen in Madagascar, the forests of which showcase some of the greatest biodiversity on the planet. The conditions that the Malagasy people live in fuel deforestation which greatly impacts the biodiversity, soils and waterways, and the people themselves.

Background The forests of Madagascar are notable for their biodiversity; about 80% of all flora and fauna found here is endemic. Studies indicate that the loss of one hectare of Malagasy forest has a greater impact than a one hectare loss anywhere else in the world (U.S. Forest Service, n.d.). Currently, the annual deforestation rate for Madagascar is about 0.3%, or 37,000 hectares per year. As of 2010, approximately 21.59% of the land was covered by forests, most of which are primary growth (Butler, 2006). Although possibly unknown to the inhabitants, the forests of Madagascar hold great economic potential if left intact. From an economic standpoint, Madagascar is one of the poorest countries in the world, with a per capita GDP of $250 (U.S. dollars). Approximately 50% of the population is below the poverty line, with less than 47% of the population completing their education (Raik, 2007). With

Running head: FORESTS OF MADAGASCAR a median age of 18.3 and a birth rate of 4.45 children per woman, these statistics do not bode well for this young and quickly growing population (CIA, 2013). The Ministry of Environment, Water, and Forests is the main agency working to protect the remaining forests of Madagascar. The Ministry is aided by the U.S. Forest Service and the U.S. Agency for International Development, however, most of the assistance granted by these agencies has been limited to the process of strategically zoning the forests for sustainable development. The Directorate General of Water and Forests is the main forest law enforcement

body but, due to a lack of political will, is currently unable to enforce regulations. The European Union (E.U.) has also been involved with conservation efforts by assisting Malagasy farmers. However, its efforts have had some unintended results, as will be discussed later on (U.S. Forest Service, n.d.).

Causes of Deforestation The degradation and loss of forests in Madagascar has two main causes: unsustainable agricultural practices and the economic status of the Malagasy people. These causes are not exclusive of each other, but are rather interconnected in such a way that when their balance is highly detrimental under the wrong conditions. Agriculture With more than 80% of the population being agrarian, Madagascar is largely dependent on the land for agricultural purposes (Marcus & Kull, 1999). However, the combination of chosen crops, and the erosion resulting from deforestation, quickly strips the soils of their nutrients, diminishing the Malagasy peoples ability to grow food and the forests ability to

Running head: FORESTS OF MADAGASCAR regenerate (Nagel & Guinness, 2002). In the eyes of the citizens, this leaves no option but to employ tavy a slash and burn technique and create more rice plantations, the main crop. The E.U. has also contributed to the role of agriculture in deforestation. One of

Madagascars most lucrative crops is vanilla, which is an eco-friendly crop that grows best under the shaded canopy ideal for farmers that live at the edges of forests. However, an E.U.-funded economic support program for vanilla farmers turned the eco-friendly crop into a force for deforestation. The program introduced a sun-tolerant variety of vanilla, which was better suited for plantation style agriculture. The adoption of this variety brought about increased deforestation rates for the creation of vanilla plantations (Butler, 2006). Similar occurrences have been seen in Madagascar, as well as other countries around the world, with crops such as coffee and cacao. Economic Status As mentioned in the background, the Madagascar is one of the poorest countries in the world. Studies indicate that a strong correlation between debt and deforestation exists in that the accumulation of debt increases the pressure on individuals or governments to engage in illegal or unsustainable practices in order to meet current needs (Kahn & McDonald, 1995). With nearly half of the population uneducated and below the poverty line, it is difficult for the members of the population to escape the cycle of debt and deforestation, especially since the median age is 18.3 (CIA, 2013). These conditions, in conjunction with the lack of policy enforcement, offer no deterrence of illegal loggers. Under the belief that many children are needed to help cultivate land, many families are likely to be sucked further into debt, using the land in unsustainable manners to

Running head: FORESTS OF MADAGASCAR temporarily sustain themselves. Given that 80% of the population is agrarian, it is entirely possible that this manner of deforestation could become an epidemic (CIA, 2013).

Impacts The loss of forests in Madagascar has many victims, all of which interconnected. But three of the most impacted parties in Madagascar are the soils and waterways, biodiversity, and the people. By focusing on the troubles of these areas, it is possible that more inclusive solutions may be found later on. Biodiversity Madagascar has the potential to be a prime ecotourism destination. However, since a large portion of the biodiversity depends on the forests for survival, any deforestation threatens the likelihood of ecotourism ever becoming prominent in Madagascars economy (Butler, 2006). The forests and wildlife found within them should also be considered one of Madagascars most prominent sources for economic development. Their loss would eliminate Madagascars chance for influential deals, such as debt-for-nature swaps and payments for ecosystem services (Wedland et al., 2010). Ecosystem services, while not necessarily considered biodiversity, are products of the living organisms of the forests. These services include flood control, water purification, protection from erosion, and oxygen generation (Foley et al., 2007). However, while it is possible to restore the physical aspects of forests, the services they provide may not be restored depending on the initial condition and human impact. Since the forests of Madagascar are mostly primary growth forests, their potential to recover to post-deforestation conditions is slim (Chazdon, 2008). This is just one reason that deforestation needs to be, at the very least, slowed.

Running head: FORESTS OF MADAGASCAR In the near future, the new faces of conservation efforts will undoubtedly become the

lemurs of Madagascar. All species of lemurs are endemic to Madagascar and are now considered to be the most endangered family of mammals in the world. It has been found that 52 of the 103 lemur species are classified as endangered and 23 are classified as critically endangered. Only three of the species are classified as least concern. As the most widely recognized symbol of Madagascar, it would be devastating, economically and ecologically, for this family to disappear. However, loss of habitat as a result of deforestation and development is the main force behind their declining population (Conservation International, 2012). Soils and Waterways A major impact of deforestation is the loss of fertile soils and the resulting siltation of waterways. While these may seem like two separate impacts, they should be viewed together as they are intricately linked in a cyclical cause-and-effect manner. As forest cover is removed to open land for agriculture, soils are easily washed into nearby rivers. As exposed lands gradually lose their fertility, the demand for more land will rise, propelling further deforestation. In certain areas, the run-off and erosion from deforested lands is so severe that it may be seen from space. The Betsiboka river delta and Bombetoka Bay of northern Madagascar looks as though the island is bleeding due to the amount of sediment in the water (Raharimahefa & Kusky, 2010). Run-off and sedimentation have also brought about the shrinking of Madagascars largest lake, Lake Alaotra. As a result of silt and sediment clogged streams, Lake Alaotra was essentially gone by 2003, leaving only a swampy basin. The agriculture of the surrounding area has also suffered. Rice-cultivation, which strives in the marshy regions near lakes and rivers, has dropped by nearly 40% with 60,000 m2 of rice fields being afflicted by silt (Bakoariniaina, Kusky, & Raharimahefa, 2006).

Running head: FORESTS OF MADAGASCAR People The final major group impacted by deforestation is the population. While the Malagasy citizens are a main cause of the deforestation, they are equally victims, trapped in cycle of poverty and environmental degradation. With 50% of the population below the poverty line, many citizens resort to unsustainable or illegal practices in order to just scrape: illegal logging, inefficient crop choices and rotations, increasing family size, and abandoning education. Conditions are unlikely to change if solutions are not found (Kahn & McDonald, 1995).

Discussion The issue of deforestation is complex and there is no single way to solve it. Since the impacts are higher in Madagascar, and the circumstances may not be the same as those elsewhere, any solutions will be trial-and-error at best. The best solutions would involve changes to multiple aspects of the Malagasy society and government: education, agriculture, and international involvement. Education Since only about 45% of the Malagasy population completes primary school (grade 5), the only employment for many citizens will be agricultural labor and service jobs (Raik, 2007). Emphasizing the importance of education is vital to bringing about change. However, education should not be restricted to the school setting; it should encompass the areas that Madagascar struggles with most. Developing educational programs that build trade skills and encourage the students to continue their education could help many escape poverty and improve the overall welfare of the country. But programs aimed at health and hygiene could also have a great impact. A s health

Running head: FORESTS OF MADAGASCAR and hygiene tudy conducted by Mahr, Wuestefeld, Haaf, and Krawinkle revealed that the knowledge, attitudes and practices (KAP) of school age children closely resembled those of adults in southern Madagascar. In the region of interest, only 15% of the children attend school, with the remaining 85% depending on family and the community for their education. The study concluded that the relation between hygiene and sickness was not made among the study group, but the children responded positively to activity-based and empowered learning strategies. This study highlighted the potential for literacy programs and additional academic enrichments to affect the children (Mahr, Wuestefeld, Haaf, & Krawinkle, 2004). Another important area to develop educational programs in is that of gender roles. The previously mentioned study also found that gender roles are recognized from an earlier age on. Women are expected to complete traditional tasks within the home, such as fetching water,

tending gardens, and washing clothes. Men, on the other hand, tend to care for livestock and hold service jobs outside the home (Mahr, Wuestefeld, Haaf, & Krawinkle, 2004). Educational programs aimed at women, and focusing on birth control, could eliminate the traditional view that women are strictly homemakers. Furthermore, empowering women and increasing their education would give them the opportunity to join the workforce, establishing their importance outside of household duties and childbirth. This could, in turn, reduce birth rates, thus reducing an individual familys dependence on the environment. A final area to educate the citizens in is the value and potential of their natural environment. With so many living in poverty, the potential benefits of preserving the forests are outweighed by the need to survive. Given these circumstances, it is no wonder that the process of creating national parks and enforcing rules is heavily protested in developing countries. Many protests occur due to outrage at the loss of property or livelihoods and may also occur to indicate

Running head: FORESTS OF MADAGASCAR

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symbolic or historical significance. Despite the validity of the anger fueling such protests, it also points out a lack of communication. The afflicted are not aware of what they are gaining by having their homes protected and may retaliate with illegal activities (Brockington & Igoe, 2006). Additionally, a study complete by Maille & Mendelsohn indicated that the average consumer surplus (the difference between what a consumer is willing to pay and what they actually pay) of ecotourists $349 (U.S.) by 1992 standards. Clearly, this number would be much larger today, and knowing this information could encourage many Malagasy citizens to protect their environment (Maille & Mendelsohn, 1992). Agricultural Revolution With a population that is 80% agrarian, the land is of great value to the Malagasy people. It is important that agricultural techniques and planning be improved to compensate for the major losses of forests. An agricultural revolution of sort is needed to allow the farmers to provide for their families without heavily impacting the remaining forests. The simplest way to do this is through teaching sustainable practices. Monocrop plantations are the predominant agricultural practice seen in Madagascar. Since this practice is mostly done with rice, which has a negative effect in the form of flooding soils and washing away nutrients, it is no wonder that the erosion and sedimentation of rivers is as bad it currently is. In order to sustain families for long periods of time, farmers need to adopt different practices. Intercropping with appropriate soil-enriching crops, such as legumes and alfalfa, would regenerate soils and increase their growing potential while providing sustenance for the families. This practice would also reduce the chance that an entire crop would be decimated by a disease or pest. However, this option mainly focuses on preventing the spread of farm land.

Running head: FORESTS OF MADAGASCAR

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The most notable practice is taungya, which has been used in Burma and South China for over 300 years (Menzies, 1988). Taungya is a form of forest management as well as an integrated agricultural practice that is reflective of plantation style agriculture and possesses traits of intercropping (Agricultural Information Bank, 2011). Taungya has different compositions and can benefit the farmer and the forests in various ways. In the first taungya method, annual crops are planted along with a desired timber crop which will be harvested at a later time. This practice allows farmers to continue producing food while raising a crop of trees for a larger payout once they have matured. In the second method, annual crops are planted among tree species found in neighboring forests. The annual plants are harvested and replanted until the tree cover reduces the ability to grow them. The farmer then moves to a new plot of land and begins again. Both methods occur on cycles of 1-3 years depending on species chosen. Coupled economic compensation for leaving the trees standing, the second taungya method could slowly restore deforested areas. Although the first method does not include the restorative goals of the second, it is still a viable option for sustaining farmers and slowing deforesation (Menzies, 1988; Agricultural Information Bank, 2011). International Involvement My final solution is increased collaboration and involvement from organizations and agencies outside of Madagascar. The Malagasy government already has policies and legal framework in place, but has shown that it caves easily when pressured with debt and poverty. The U.S. Forest Service, U.S. Agency for International Development, and the United Nations Foreign aid is needed to assist the Ministry of Environment, Water, and Forests in enforcing environmental laws and regulations and improving the existing policies (U.S. Forest Service, n.d.).

Running head: FORESTS OF MADAGASCAR This involvement would hopefully be welcomed and would not bring about unintended consequences like those of the E.U.-funded economic support plan. As long as changes are introduced gradually, the risk of backlash or protests from the Malagasy citizens would be minimal. Communication is key so that all those affected are fully aware of what is happening, why, and how they will benefit. Preferred Option

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While all of these solutions would be effective individually, the ideal solution would be a balanced combination of all three. However, if only one option were possible, the prime choice would be the agricultural revolution, specifically the use of taungya. With increased knowledge of crops and practices, the Malagasy farmers would be able to provide food for their families while receiving the benefits of economic compensation or pay-off from timber crop later-on. This could lead to the revitalization of degraded areas, with the chance that ecosystem services could be restored, which in turn could bring about economic incentives such as payments for these services.

Conclusion There is a multitude of solutions to the deforestation predicament in Madagascar, many of which must be found through trial-and-error. But no matter how difficult the process is, stopping the deforestation of one of the most biodiverse areas on the planet is of great importance. Many undiscovered organisms likely exist within the forests of Madagascar, along with potential pharmaceutical ingredients and natural cures to diseases. However, the consequences of taking no action are severe. If agricultural practices are not improved, the Malagasy people will remain trapped in the spiral of poverty and deforestation.

Running head: FORESTS OF MADAGASCAR In the short term, forest cover would continue to decline and waterways would continue

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receiving the erosion and run-off from agricultural lands. Biodiversity would begin decreasing, and with it, scientific potential. In the long term, Madagascar could see the complete loss of its forests and the eventual elimination of its biodiversity, ultimately locking the country out of much needed economic benefits. In this event, the Malagasy people would need cutting-edge science and agricultural practices to sustain themselves in what could eventually become a complete savannah landscape. Halting deforestation is vital to the local and global welfare.

Running head: FORESTS OF MADAGASCAR Works Cited My Agricultural Information Bank (2011). Taungya System. Retrieved from http://agriinfo.in/?page=topic&superid=2&topicid=1687

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Bakoariniaina, L.N., Kusky, T., Raharimahefa, T. (2006). Disappearing Lake Alaotra: Monitoring catastrophic erosion, waterway silting, and land degradation hazards in Madagascar using Landsat imagery. Journal of African Earth Sciences, 44, 241-252. Brockington, D., Igoe, J. (2006). Eviction for Conservation: A Global Overview. Conservation & Society, 4(3), 424-470. Butler, R. A. (2006). Madagascar. Mongabay.com/ A Place Out of Time: Tropical Rainforests and the Perils They Face. Retrieved from http://rainforests.mongabay.com/20madagascar.htm. Central Intelligence Agency (2013). Africa: Madagascar. The World Factbook. Retrieved from https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ma.html. Chazdon, R. L. (2008). Beyond Deforestation: Restoring forests and ecosystem services on degraded lands. Science, 320, 1458-1460. Conservation International (2012). New assessment finds Madagascars lemurs to be the most threatened mammal species in the world. Retrieved from http://www.conservation.org. Foley, J.A., Asner, G.P., Costa, M.H., Coe, M.T., Defries, R., Gibbs, H.K., Howard, E.A., Olson, S., Patz, J., Ramankutty, N., Snyder, P. (2007). Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, 5(1), 25-32. Gezon, L.L., Freed, B.Z. (1999). Agroforestry and conservation in Northern Madagascar: Hopes and hindrances. African Studies Quarterly, 3(2), 9-35. Kahn, J. R., McDonald, J.A. (1995). Third-world debt and tropical deforestation. Ecological Economics, 12, 107-123. Mahr, J., Wuestefeld, M., Haaf, J.T., Krawinkle, M.B. (2004). Nutrition education for illiterate children in southern Madagascar addressing their needs, perceptions, and capabilities. Public Health Nutrition, 8(4), 366-372. Maille, P., Mendelsohn, R. (1993). Valuing ecotourism in Madagascar. Journal of Environmental Management, 38, 213-218. Marcus, R.R., Kull, C. (1999). Setting the stage: The politics of Madagascars environmental Efforts. African Studies Quarterly, 3(2), 1-8.

Running head: FORESTS OF MADAGASCAR Menzies, N. (1988). Three hundred years of taungya: A sustainable system of forestry in South China. Human Ecology, 16(4), 361-376.

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Nagel, G., Guinness, P. (2002). Deforestation of tropical rainforests A case study of Madagascar. Geocases: Access to Geographical Case Studies for A Level. Retrieved from http://www.geocases1.co.uk. Raik, D. (2007). Forest management in Madagascar: A historical overview. Madagascar Conservation and Development, 2(1), 5-10. Raharimahefa, T., Kusky, T.M. (2010). Environmental monitoring of Bombetoka bay and the Betsiboka estuary, Madagascar, using multi-temporal satellite data. Journal of Earth Science, 21(2), 210-226. Taylor, L. (2012). Rainforest Facts. Retrieved from http://www.raintree.com/facts.htm#.UXR3PUr4KSo U.S. Forest Service International Programs (n.d.). Africa: Madagascar. Retrieved from http://www.fs.fed.us/global/globe/africa/madagascar.htm. Wedland, K.J., Honzak, M., Portela, R., Vitale, B., Rubinoff, S., Randrianarisoa, J. (2010). Targeting and implementing payments for ecosystem services: Opportunities for bundling biodiversity conservation with carbon and water services in Madagascar. Ecological Economics, 69(11), 2093-2107.