Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
INFO
This section covers the following ideas and material: An introduction to revision methods, including
concept mapping, ow charts and mind maps planned revision timing practising examination technique.
reading CD-ROM
COURSEWORK
review cards
how much?
when?
spider diagrams
Or gan isin
gn
ote
s O
n rga
g isin
tim
take breaks
REVISION SKILLS
use a timetable
u St
sk ill
dy bi ha
stick to timetable
or
ts
em
suitable place
regular reviews use summaries, spider diagrams and mind maps Figure 1 Revision involves organisation and the development of particular skills. alone or with a friend
time of day
Type of reading skimming scanning reflective reading detecting bias reading for pleasure
Method looking for the main topics looking for specific information reading carefully and thoughtfully, with attention to detail separating fact from opinion reading at own pace
Purpose to gain an overall impression to find particular facts or conclusions to obtain a thorough understanding of a topic to form a decided impression of a controversial area to gain a feel for a subject, and for enjoyment
This book, and the accompanying materials, are aimed specifically at students taking the Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry course. This is a course and qualification with a very high international reputation.
INFO
There is an excellent website for Cambridge IGCSE students, at: www.cambridgestudents.org.uk/subjectpages/chemistry/igcsechemistry Do take a good look at this website. You will nd copies of past papers, model answers to past questions, some simulations, and revision checklists based on the syllabus. The tips from examiners are there to help you do well in the exam and are certainly worth taking note of. The website is worth visiting regularly, as new material and up-to-date papers are added to it.
Getting started
We have said it earlier, and it can be boring to repeat it, but it remains true all the same: to make sure of a high grade in your final examinations you will need to work hard throughout your course. Here are some tips to help you make the best use of the time you put in on your work in chemistry. Make sure you have a copy of the IGCSE Chemistry syllabus. There is one provided on this CD which also gives you guidance as to where in the book the different topics are covered. It is important you know the course you are taking and the way in which you will be assessed. IGCSE exams arent just about learning facts. You need to be able to understand your work and become sufficiently confident in your understanding to answer questions about things you have never met before. You need to be able to transfer your knowledge in a particular area to an example that will be unfamiliar to you. The IGCSE examiners will be setting questions to test three sets of skills (they are known as Assessment Objectives). These are: Skill A: knowledge with understanding Skill B: handling information and solving problems Skill C: experimental skills and investigations. About 50% of all the marks in the exam are for skill A, 30% for skill B and 20% for skill C. Skill A is about learning and understanding all the facts and concepts in the syllabus. These are covered in your textbook, and your teacher will make sure you have met them all in class as your course progresses. There are no crafty shortcuts, it is simply a case of getting your head down and working at these. Skill B is about using these facts and concepts and applying them to an unfamiliar context. Its important that you become confident in tackling questions that, at first sight, look completely new. The workbook will give you lots of practice at this. Trying past question papers will also help to test this skill, but there will still be unusual material that you will meet for the first time in the exam. The following model exam question is similar to the type of question found on an extended paper and will give you some idea of what to expect. Cathodic protection of steel objects is not mentioned in the syllabus whereas sacrificial protection is. Yet here you are asked to compare the two using your knowledge and understanding of electrolysis. Skill C is about practical skills. You should have plenty of opportunity to do experiments in a laboratory throughout your course. The workbook also has exercises that will help you to improve your skills at handling and interpreting data obtained from experiments, and designing experiments. But make sure you gain the most you can from your practical sessions. Chapter 12 gives you clear guidance about what is involved in the assessment of your practical work.
Model Q Questions For relevant material, see Chapter 9. Titanium is very resistant to corrosion. One of its uses is as an electrode in the cathodic protection of large steel structures from rusting.
+
power
a Define oxidation and reduction in terms of electron transfer. Oxidation is the loss of electrons Reduction is the gain of electrons
HINT: Remember OIL RIG to help remember oxidation is loss; reduction is gain
[2]
b The steel oil rig is the negative electrode (cathode) in this protective electrolytic arrangement. Name the gas formed at this electrode. Hydrogen
HINT: Discharge of H+ ions from the seawater.
[1]
c Name one of the two possible gases formed at the titanium anode. Oxygen (or chlorine)
HINT: Discharge of OH ions or Cl from the seawater.
[1]
d Explain why the oil rig does not rust. T he oil rig legs are the cathode in the cell that is set up (see diagram)and oxidation does not take place at the cathode (electrons are moving towards the cathode, not away from it).
HINT: See Chapter 4 oxidation takes place at the anode in electrolysis; reduction takes place at the cathode. Do not confuse this with sacricial protection.
[2]
e Another way of protecting steel from corrosion that involves using another metal is sacrificial protection. Give two differences between sacrificial protection and cathodic protection. Cathodic protection involves electrolysis and needs electricity; it uses an inert electrode (here made of titanium). Sacrificial protection needs a more reactive metal; this metal corrodes instead of the steel. Sacrificial protection does not need electricity. f What is the name of the method of rust protection that uses zinc? Galvanisation
[2]
[1]
Keeping up progress
During the course you will be given work to do. Try to work steadily through all the necessary material throughout your course. It is really important that you keep up with this. Dont set out to make life difficult for yourself. Do make sure that you understand each piece of work you do. Research shows that we find it much easier to learn and remember things if we understand them. If there is something you dont understand, make sure you do everything you can to put this right straight away. Quite often working through a topic with a friend will help. Use your school library or the internet. Be careful of the internet, though, as many chemistry sites are written for other courses in different countries. These can use different approaches and it is difficult to apply the explanations you see. Ask your teacher for a (short) list of reliable sites you can go to regularly.
Strategies of study
Your study sessions should use a variety of techniques to aid your understanding and learning of the material. Simply reading over your notes is not a particularly productive strategy. Try to summarise topics as you read, then shorten the summary down to a set of key words. Having learnt these, try to reconstruct notes on the topic. Your learning and understanding can also be checked and developed by answering questions from past examination papers. Keep the length of time taken to answer questions in mind when testing yourself. There is no point in preparing over-elaborate answers to short questions. An important aspect of understanding a topic is to see the connections between the ideas involved. Establishing these links makes it so much easier to remember the details of a topic. Pictorial methods of linking ideas can be very useful for this. INFO
The methods available include:
The importance of all these methods is that they force us to sort out the material into key ideas, and then to establish the links between them. It is useful to draw up the diagrams for yourself. Remember that your maps may well differ from other peoples. Comparing notes with others, or even drawing them up together as a group, can also be very useful. Sharing ideas and comparing maps helps you to think things through. As you use these methods, you will develop greater skill in drawing them up. Flow charts are linear in their approach and work down from a major idea by a series of subdivisions. They are useful for emphasising the different types of chemical substance, for example (see examples of charts in Chapters 2 and 3 in the textbook). Concept maps and mind maps are particularly useful for helping you to see the flow of ideas. In a concept map (Figure 2), the interlinking idea is written alongside the connecting arrow.
combustion neutralisation precipitation synthesis redox are types of a catalyst speeds up a chemical reaction can be written down as a word or symbol equation
2Zn + O2 2ZnO
this is a compound
b is the process that positive ions undergo at the cathode during is the gain of
ELECTROLYSIS transferred during ELECTRONS is the loss of is the opposite process to is the process that negative ions undergo at the anode during
REDUCTION
REDOX
OXIDATION
is a special form of
OXYGEN
element removed from metal ores by carbon in Figure 2 a Spider diagrams, and b concept maps involve organising ideas and their connections.
Venn diagrams are useful for showing where different categories overlap. For example, the different ways in which we categorise reactions can result in overlaps. Figure 3 shows this. It also shows how the term redox reaction covers a wide range of reactions.
REDOX
Synthesis
Displacement
Figure 3 A Venn diagram showing various types of reaction. Can you think of examples to ll each space? (One has been done for you.)
Figure 4 shows a mind map covering aspects of the nature of atoms and molecules. This particular map covers a wide range of ideas radiating from the central idea that matter is made up of very small particles (atoms or molecules, depending on the substance being talked about). The interconnections of ideas are emphasised. Putting the map on paper helps you to sort out your ideas! There are obviously overlaps between different topics. There are various pieces of mind-mapping software available (one was used to construct Figure 4) and you can find these on the internet. However, it is important not to get over-involved in the processes of a particular IT package. In many ways the important thing about mind-mapping is that it can be practised quite casually, and frequently, simply on a piece of rough paper. Sketching different mind maps on different topics is a way of looking at the subject from different angles to aid the memory. The main point is the thinking that is done while constructing the map.
describes the states of matter and the movement of particles in these states
ion init de f
different substances contain different types of particles, e.g. atoms, ions or molecules Kinetic theory
the higher the temperature, the higher the average energy of the particles
Diffusion
heavier particles move more slowly than lighter particles at the same temperature
often energy given out various types, e.g. synthesis and decomposition usually not easily reversible
Chemical reactions
Physical changes
Daltons idea
no new chemical substances made Atomic theory atoms of different elements can combine to make the molecules of a compound a pure element contains only atoms with the same number of protons in the nucleus atoms of an element are each given their own symbol
atoms are the smallest particles that take part in a chemical reaction
(isotopes)
(atoms can be subdivided) everything is made from about 100 elements, each made up of different atoms everything is made of invisibly small atoms, linked together in different patterns everything can be made from a few substances combined in different ways structures weigh the same as the total mass of their parts the total amount of matter stays the same (by mass) during chemical changes
amount of matter stays the same (by atom count) during chemical changes
visible objects may be made of large numbers of very small invisible particles
magnifiers and microscopes often show that objects are made of smaller parts small parts can be put together in different ways to make different things
PROPERTIES OF SUBSTANCES
COMMON ELEMENTS
CONSERVATION OF MATTER
Figure 5 The different storylines behind the maps branch into each other.
Figure 5 shows how several storylines can be linked together. This type of diagram can help you see the overall pattern of a section of the course you are taking and begin to see the connections between ideas. The more connections, or associations, you can make between ideas, the more likely you are to understand and remember them. When a particular part of a course, or a particular topic, is finished it can be useful to produce a diagrammatic summary. This helps reinforce the linked ideas while they are still fresh in your mind. The charts can provide a useful checklist when it comes to revision. The next three charts (Figure 6a,b,c) show how parts of a course can be summarised. Figure 6a summarises a great deal of the material covered in Chapters 2 and 3, and Figures 6b and 6c flow into each other and show how much of chemistry develops from a consideration of the Earths resources. This map of chemistry provides a context for your studies.
1 1840
CHEMICAL BONDS FORMING IONS Metals lose electrons Non-metals gain electrons GROUP 1 THE ALKALI METALS Reaction with Water Storage Variation down group Density m.p. IONIC COVALENT SHARING ELECTRONS
GROUP 7 THE HALOGENS Reaction with iron Displacement Colour Variation down group m.p.
TRANSITION METALS Coloured compounds Catalysts High m.p.s NOBLE GASES No reactions Coloured lights
METALS
NON-METALS
REACTIVITY OF METALS
BASIC OXIDES
ACIDIC OXIDES
Figure 6 a, b, c Flow charts can show very clearly the links between different areas of chemistry and help provide an overall pattern to a course.
10
WATER
ACID
POTASSIUM
Rapid
Rapid
CALCIUM
MAGNESIUM
Quite Quick
Rapid
ALUMINIUM
ZINC SULFATE Sulfuric Acid CHLORIDE Hydrochloric Acid NITRATE Nitric Acid
Slow
Slow
IRON
COPPER No
SILVER
No
GOLD
No
N2 + 3H2
2NH3
DISPLACEMENT REACTIONS
RATE(Speed) OF REACTION Reactions happen when particles collide. BUT they must collide hard enough. More collisions or harder collisions = Faster reaction.
More reactive metals displace Less reactive metals from their compounds. BIG DIFFERENCE = FAST REACTION TEMPERATURE ALL REACTIONS Higher Temp Faster Particles Harder Collisions Faster Reaction Faster Reaction More Collisions More Particles More Conc REACTIONS WITH SOLUTIONS REACTIONS WITH SOLIDS Small Pieces More Surface More Collisions Faster Reaction CONCENTRATION SURFACE AREA
CATALYST SOME REACTIONS Catalyst not used up. Less energy needed More collisions succeed
11
12
BAUXITE ROCK Crust HEMATITE REDUCTION MALACHITE BLAST FURNACE ELECTROLYSIS OF MOLTEN OXIDE ALUMINIUM IRON LIME O2 STEEL
THE EARTH
RAW MATERIALS
N2
AIR
O2
CO2
WATER H2O
Photosynthesis
Decay
COPPER
ANIMALS
NITRIC ACID
O2 FOSSIL FUELS
N2
ELECTROLYSIS OF SOLUTION
HABER PROCESS
COAL PETROLEUM
COKE
HYDROGEN Fuel CHLORINE Water Treatment SODIUM HYDROXIDE Soap. BLEACH FUEL +or ELECTRICITY FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION
ALKENES GAS PETROL NAPHTHA KEROSINE DIESEL LUBRICATING OIL FUEL OIL BITUMEN CRACKING PLASTICS
13