CH 29 - Hydraulic Structures

Urban Stormwater Nanagement Nanual 29-i
29 HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES
29.1 !NTRODUCT!ON.......................................................................................................... 29-1
29.2 EROS!ON AND SCOUR PROTECT!ON............................................................................. 29-1
29.3 ENERGY D!SS!PATORS ................................................................................................ 29-2
29.3.1 Riprap Basins for Conduit Outlets..................................................................... 29-3
29.3.2 Stilling Basins................................................................................................. 29-3
29.3.3 Simple Energy-Dissipating Headwalls ............................................................... 29-5
29.3.+ Design Criteria and Practices ........................................................................... 29-5
29.+ DROP STRUCTURES .................................................................................................... 29-5
29.5 STORNWATER DRA!N OUTFALLS ................................................................................. 29-10
29.6 TRANS!T!ONS AND CONSTR!CT!ONS............................................................................ 29-13
29.6.1 Transition Analysis ......................................................................................... 29-13
29.6.2 Constriction Analysis....................................................................................... 29-13
29.7 BENDS AND CONFLUENCES ......................................................................................... 29-15
29.7.1 Bends............................................................................................................ 29-15
29.7.2 Confluences................................................................................................... 29-16
29.8 S!DE-OvERFLOW WE!RS.............................................................................................. 29-17
29.8.1 Design Considerations .................................................................................... 29-17
29.8.2 Design Practices............................................................................................. 29-17
29.9 FLOW SPL!TTER.......................................................................................................... 29-19
29.9.1 Design Consideration...................................................................................... 29-20
29.9.2 Design Criteria ............................................................................................... 29-20
29.10 FLOW SPREADER ........................................................................................................ 29-20
29.10.1 General Design Criteria ................................................................................... 29-20
29.10.2 Design Criteria for Flow Spreading Options ....................................................... 29-21
29.11 S!PHONS.................................................................................................................... 29-2+
29.11.1 Single-Barrel Siphons...................................................................................... 29-25
29.11.2 Nulti-Barrel Siphons ....................................................................................... 29-25
29.11.3 Design Criteria and Practices ........................................................................... 29-25
Hydraulic Structures
Urban Stormwater Nanagement Nanual 29-1
29.1 INTRODUCTION
Hydraulic structures are used to positively control water
flow velocities, directions and depths, the elevation and
slope of the stream bed, and the general configuration of a
waterway including its stability and maintenance
characteristics.
Nany of these structures appear as specials and are
expensive, which require careful and thorough hydraulic
engineering judgement. Proper application of hydraulic
structures can reduce initial and future maintenance costs
by changing the character of the flow to fit the needs of a
particular project, and by reducing the size and cost of
related facilities.
The shape, size, and other features of a hydraulic structure
can vary widely for different projects, depending upon the
functions to be accomplished. Hydraulic design procedures
must govern the final design of all structures. This may
include model testing when a proposed design requires a
configuration that differs significantly from known
documented guidelines.
29.2 EROSION AND SCOUR PROTECTION
When the flow velocity at a conduit outlet exceeds the
maximum permissible velocity for the local soil or channel
lining, channel protection is required. This protection
usually consists of an erosion resistant reach, such as
riprap, between the outlet and the stable downstream
channel to provide a stable reach at the outlet in which the
exit velocity is reduced to a velocity allowable in the
downstream channel. The design of such protection is
normally based on a 20 year design runoff event.
!f protection is needed at the outlet, a horizontal (zero
slope) apron must be provided.
(i) Apron Dimensions
- The length of an apron (L
a
) is determined using the
following empirical relationships that were developed
for the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1976):
o
o
a
D
D
Q
L 7
26 . 3
2 f 3
+ = for TW < D
o
f2 (29.1)
and
o
o
a
D
D
Q
L 7
++ . 5
2 f 3
+ = for TW > D
o
f2 (29.2)
where:
D
o
= maximum inside culvert diameter (m)
Q = pipe discharge (cumec)
TW= tailwater depth (m)
- Where there is no well defined channel downstream of
the apron, the width, W, of the outlet and of the
apron (as shown in Figure 29.+) should be as follows:-
'
+ . 0 3
a o
L D W + = for TW > D
o
f2 (29.3)
and
'
+ 3
a o
L D W + = for TW < D
o
f2 (29.+)
The width of the apron at the culvert outlet should be
at least 3 times the culvert width.
- On the contrary, where there is a well-defined channel
downstream of the apron, the bottom width of the
apron should be at least equal to the bottom width of
the channel and the lining should extend at least one
foot above the tailwater elevation and at least two-
thirds of the vertical conduit dimension above the
invert.
- The side slopes should be 2:1 or flatter.
- The bottom grade should be level.
- There should be an overfall at the end of the apron or
culvert.
(ii) Apron Naterials
- The median stone diameter, d
50
is determined from
the following equation:
) (
) ( 066 . 0
3 f +
50
o
D TW
Q
d = (29.5)
- Existing scour holes may be used where flat aprons
are impractical. Figure 29.5 shows the general design
of a scour hole. The stone diameter is determined
using the following equatons:
) (
) ( 0+1 . 0
3 f +
50
o
D TW
Q
d = for Y = D
o
f2 (29.6)
also
) (
) ( 027 . 0
3 f +
50
o
D TW
Q
d = for Y = D
o
(29.7)
where Y = depth of scour hole below culvert invert.
- Other riprap or gabion requirements are as indicated
in the previous sections for channel lining.
- Aprons constructed of man- made materials are often a
viable alternative. Refer to the above discussion of
man-made materials for design consideration.
29-2 Urban Stormwater Nanagement Nanual
3D
o
L
o
D
F
l
o
w
0.1
5
a
W = 3D + 0.+L
( Tailwater > 0.5D )
o a
o
F
l
o
w o
D
3D
o
1
2
L
a
o
a
W = 3D + 0.+L
( Tailwater < 0.5D )
o
Figure 29.1 Configuration of Conduit Outlet Protection (U.S. EPA, 1976)
1 on 3
1 on 3 1 on 3
1 on 3
2
W
3D
o o
o
W
A A
varies
y
3
1
D
o
3
1
(a)
(b)
PLAN
SECT!ON
Figure 29.2 Preformed Scour Hole (ASCE, 1975)
29.3 ENERGY DISSIPATORS
Energy dissipaters are required in the immediate vicinity of
hydraulic structures where high impact loads, erosive
forces, and severe scour are expected. !n other words,
they are usually required where the flow regime changes
from supercritical to subcritical, or where the flow is
supercritical and the tractive forces or flow velocities are
higher than the maximum allowable values. The basic
hydraulic parameter that identifies the flow regime, and is
used in connection with energy dissipaters in general, and
with hydraulic jump dissipaters in particular, is the Froude
number (Chapter 12).
The Froude number is a ratio of the flow velocity and wave
celerity. !n rectangular channels, the equation may be
rewritten in the following form:
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
3
2
2
1
m
d g
Q
B
F (29.8)
where,
B = width of channel (m)
Q = discharge (m
3
fs)
g = acceleration due to gravity (9.81 mfs
2
)
d
m
= hydraulic mean depth (m)
Energy dissipation structures act as transitions, which
reduce high flow velocities that may exist under a range of
flows. Energy dissipaters localise hydraulic jumps and act
as stilling basins. The use of energy dissipaters is very
common downstream of hydraulic structures where
common channel protection cannot be used alone because
of potential damage. !f riprap or other protection is used
for energy dissipation, it should be confined in a basin and
secured in place with grout or mesh.
The primary difference between energy dissipaters in
general and drop structures is that the former are used to
reduce high velocities at critical locations by hydraulic
jumps, while the latter are vertical structures used for
controlling velocities in channel reaches by reducing
channel slopes. Because of various appurtenances such as
sills, baffles, and weirs, and because of variations in the
geometry of stilling basins, a wide variety of energy
dissipaters may be used.
29.3.1 Riprap Basins for Conduit Outlets
The most commonly used energy dissipaters are riprap
basins (Figure 29.3). Their advantages include simplicity,
low cost, and wide application.
The riprap placed in the basin must be inspected and
repaired, if necessary, after major storms. The median
stone diameter can be estimated based on the exit velocity
of the pipe or culvert as shown in NcLaughlin Water
Engineers (1986) and the AASHTO Drainage Handbook
(1987). The length of the basin is estimated based on the
width or diameter of the conduit. The depth of the basin is
based on the median stone diameter.
29.3.2 Stilling Basins
!f a hydraulic jump is used for energy dissipation, it should
be confined to a heavily-armoured channel reach, the
bottom of which is protected by a solid surface such as
concrete to resist scouring. Since the cost of concrete
structures is relatively high, the length of the hydraulic
jump is usually controlled by accessories that not only
stabilise the jump action and increase the factor of safety,
but also reduce the cost of the structure.
(a) Design Considerations
There are several considerations that should be included in
designing hydraulic jumps and stilling basins (Chow, 1959;
US DOT, 1983):
1. Jump Position : There are three positions or
alternative patterns that allow a hydraulic jump to
form downstream of the transition in the channel.
These positions are controlled by tailwater.
2. Tailwater Conditions : Tailwater fluctuations due to
changes in discharge complicate the design procedure.
They should be taken into account by classification of
tailwater conditions using tailwater and hydraulic jump
rating curves.
3. Jump Types : various types of hydraulic jumps that
may occur are summarised in Figure 29.+. Oscillating
jumps in a Froude number range of 2.5 to +.5 are best
avoided unless specially designed wave suppressers
are used to reduce wave impact.
The greater the Froude number, the higher is the effect of
tailwater on the jump. Therefore, for a Froude number as
low as 8, the tailwater depth should be greater than the
sequent depth downstream of the jump so that the jump
will stay on the apron. When the Froude number is
greater than 10, the common stilling basin dissipater may
not be as cost-effective as a special bucket type dissipater
(see Peterka, 1958).
(b) Control of Jumps
Jumps can be controlled by several types of appurtenances
such as sills, chute blocks and baffle piers. The purpose of
a sill located at the end of a stilling basin is to induce jump
formation and to control its position under most probable
operating conditions. Sharp crested or broad crested weirs
can be used to stabilise and control the jump.
Chute blocks are used at the entrance to the stilling basin.
Their function is to furrow the incoming jet and lift a
portion of it from the floor, producing a shorter length of
jump than would occur without them.
Baffle piers are blocks placed in intermediate positions
across the basin floor for dissipating energy mostly by
direct impact action. They are useful for small structures
with low flow velocities. High flow velocities may result in
cavitation action on the piers and basin floor downstream.
(c) Stilling Basin Categories
The following three major categories of basins are used for
a range of hydraulic conditions. Design details can be
found in the AASHTO Drainage Handbook (1987), Chow
(1959), and US DOT (1983).
- The SAF (St. Anthony Falls" Stilling Basin) ( Chow
1959) : This basin, shown in Figure 29.5, is
recommended for use on small structures such as
spillways and outlet works where the Froude number
varies between 1.7 and 17. The appurtenances used
for this dissipater can reduce the length of the basin
by approximately 80. This design has great
potential in urban stormwater systems because of its
applicability to small structures. Stilling Basin !!!
developed by the US Bureau of Reclamation (UBSR) is
similar to the SAF basin, but it has a higher factor of
safety.
The UBSR Stilling Basin !! : This basin, shown in
Figure 29.6, is recommended for use with jumps with
Froude numbers greater than +.5 at large spillways
and channels. This basin may reduce the length of
the jump by a third and is used for high-dam and
earth-dam spillways. Appurtenances used in this basin
include chute blocks at the upstream end of the basin
and a dentated still at the downstream end. No baffle
piers are used in this basin because of the cavitation
potential.
29-+ Urban Stormwater Nanagement Nanual
Dissipator Pool
10 D or 3 W Nin
S o
Apron
5h or W Nin
Note A
S o
3d or 2d
1.5 Nin
50
300 mm Free
Board Ninimum
Top of Berm
Top of Riprap
Hori-
zontal
2d or
1.5d
50
2d or
1.5d
50
Note B Top of Natural Channel
D
C
B
A
A
p
p
ro
x
im
a
te
E
d
g
e
o
f
2

:

1
2

:

1
2

:

1
D
C B A
R
i
p
r
a
p
N
o
t

S
h
o
w
n
Culvert
W
2
o 2:1
Horizontal
2:1
Symmetrical About
Note B
Note B
Natural Channel
Sec A-A
1
2
2d or 1.5d
50
Excavate to this line
backfill with Riprap
1
2
2d or 1.5d
50
Sec C-C
2
o
Sec D-D
Berm as required
to Support Riprap
W
a
te
r
Thickened or sloping Toe optional -
Construct if downstream channel
degradation is anticipated
T
o
p
o
f R
ip
ra
p B
e
rm
Apron
2d or 1.5d
50
Excavate to this Line
Backfill With Riprap
Berm as required
to Support Riprap
S
h
(a) Centreline Section
(b) Half-plan
W
Nax
Nax Nax
Nax
Nax
Nax
Sec B-B
T
y
Centre Line
1
3
h
s
Figure 29.3 Typical Riprap Basin: (a) centreline section and (b) half plan: W
0
= diameter
for pipe culvert, barrel width for box culvert, or span of pipe-arch culvert
(US Federal Highway Administration, 1983).
Notes for Figure 29.3:
(1) !f a maximum allowable exit velocity, v
e
, from the basin is specified, extend the basin as required to obtain sufficient
cross-sectional area at section A-A (i.e. A
A-A
= Qfv
e
) for the specified velocity
(2) Warp the basin to conform to the natural stream channel. The top of the riprap in the basin floor should be at the
same elevation or lower than the natural channel bottom at section A-A
F = 1 - 1.7 Undular Jump
1
F = 2.5 - +.5 Oscillating Jump
1
F = 1.7 - 2.5 Weak Jump
1
F = +.5 - 9.0 Steady Jump
1
F > 9.0 Strong Jump
1
Oscillating Jet
Roller
L
y
2
F = v f gy
1 1
1
0 1 2 3 + 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 1+ 15 16 17 18 19 20
3
+
5
6
7
Figure 29.+ Lengths and Types of Hydraulic Jumps in Horizontal Channels (Bradley and Peterka, 1957; Chow, 1959)
- The UBSR Stilling Basin !v : This basin, shown in
Figure 29.7, is used where jumps are imperfect or
where oscillating waves occur with Froude numbers
between 2.5 - +.5. This design reduces excessive
waves by eliminating the wave at its source through
deflection of directional jets using chute blocks. When
a horizontal stilling basin is constructed without
appurtenances, the length of the basin is made equal
to the length of the jump.
29.3.3 Simple Energy-Dissipating Headwalls
Another simple type of energy dissipater that can be used
at culvert outlets is an energy dissipating headwall. Three
typical headwalls are shown in Figures 29.8 to 29.10.
29.3.4 Design Criteria and Practices
Nost of the design criteria for stilling basin dissipaters are
included in the previous paragraphs. Table 29.1 provides a
summary of selected parameters, and may be used for
preliminary identification of alternative types of energy
dissipaters. Because of the great variety and combination
of types of energy dissipaters and appurtenances, the
designer should review available references in sufficient
detail to arrive at a design that is suitable for specific field
conditions.
29.4 DROP STRUCTURES
vertical drop structures are controlled transitions for
energy dissipation in steep channels where riprap or other
energy dissipation structures are not as cost effective.
Drop structures used for stormwater drainage can be
categorised primarily as either open channel transitions
(drop spillways) or transitions between open channels and
closed conduits (drop shafts).
Drop structures should be constructed of concrete because
of the forces involved; however, riprap or gabion stilling
basins may be used where physical, economic, and other
conditions permit.
B
y

'

+

Z
2
L f3
B
L
B

=
B

+
2
L

f
D
'
3
1
B
n

a
t

0
.
7
5

y
2
B
2

B
1
B

=
B

+
2
L

f
3
D
'
2
1
B
v
38
y
1
n

a
t

0
.
7
5

y

_
1
1
B
1
0
.
3
7

y

_
1

0
.
3
7

y

_
1
0

t
o

9
0

d
e
g
+
5

d
e
g

P
r
e
f
e
r
r
e
d
Side Wall
y 1
varies
1
Chute Blocks
1
Floor Blocks End Sill
Cut-off Wall
z
y '
2
Z
1
varies
y ' + Z
2
varies
Wing Wall
Top Slope is 1:1
B =B +2L fD'
3 1 B
Trapezoidal Stilling Basin Rectangular Stilling Basin
Downstream Section
A
g
g
r
e
g
a
t
e
0
.
+
0

B

<

B
l
o
c
k

W
i
d
t
h

<

0
.
5
5

B
v
38
y
1
Side Wall
+
+
(a) Rectangular Stilling Basin Half-plan
D
(b) Trapezoidal Stilling Basin Elevation
(c) Centreline Section
y
C
Figure 29.5 Proportions of the SAF Basin (Chow, 1959).
Dentated Sill
2
2 2
2 2
2 2
Slope = 2:1
S = 0.15 D
S = 0.15 D
D f2
1
S = D
1 1
w = D
1 1
1
h = D
1
Chute Blocks
0
L
h = 0.2 D
0.02 D
Figure 29.6 Proportions of the USBR Basin !! (Chow, 1959)
w = Naximum Tooth Width D
1
Space = 2.5w
Fractional Space
2D
Top Surface on 5-deg slope
1
2D Nin
1
Sill Optional
L
Figure 29.7 Proportions of the USBR Basin !v (Chow, 1959)
750 600
6
0
0

m
m
Headwall
300 mm
300 mm
300 mm
300 mm
300 mm
300 mm
300 mm Square Solid Concrete Block Formed
and Poured in Place, Reinforced by
R8 Re-bars Dispersed Every 100 mm Throughout
Conduit
1
0
0

m
m

R8 Re-bar
600
100 mm
1
0
0

m
m
(a) Plan (b) Side Elevation
Figure 29.8 Standard Energy Dissipating Headwall Type ! (Chow, 1959)
NOTE:
should be 0.5 D
Headwall
Pipe
R8 at 300 mm
Centres
300 mm Ninimum
D
0
.5
y
600 mm
300 mm
6
0
0
m
m
Height of Energy Dissipators
Figure 29.9 Standard Energy Dissipating Headwall, Type !! (ASCE, 1992)
D D
0
.
2
5
D
0.5D
D
(a) Front Elevation
0
.
6
7
D
(b) Side Elevation
R8 200 mm Centres
Precast Concrete
R8 at 300 mm Centres
25 mm Ninimum
0.5D
150 mm
0.25D
+50 mm
5
0

m
m
2
0
0

m
m
Figure 29.10 Standard Energy Dissipating Headwall, Type !!! (ASCE, 1992)

Table 29.1 Dissipater Criteria (U.S. Department of Transportation, 1983)
Allowable Debris
Dissipater Type
Froude Number
F Silt and
Sand
Boulders Floating
Tailwater
TW
Special
Considerations
Free Hydraulic Jump > 1 H H H Required
CSU Rigid Boundary < 3 N L N -
Tumbling Flow > 1 N L L - + < S
o
< 25
!ncreased Resistance - N L L - Check Outlet
Control HW
USBR Type !! + to 1+ N L N Required
USBR Type !!! +.5 to 17 N L N Required
UBSR Type !v 2.5 to +.5 N L N Required
SAF 1.7 to 17 N L N Required
Contra Cost < 3 H N N < 0.5D
Hook 1.8 to 3 H N N -
USBR Type v! - N L L Desirable Q < 11 m
3
fs,
v < 15 mfs
Forest Service - N L L Desirable y < 900 mm
Drop Structure < 1 H L N Required Drop < 5 m
Nanifold - N N N Desirable
Corps Stilling Well - N L N Desirable
Riprap < 3 H H H -
Note: N = none, L = low, N = moderate, H = heavy
Drop structures in open channels change the channel slope
from steep to mild by combining a series of gentle slopes
and vertical drops. Flow velocities are reduced to non-
erosive velocities, while the kinetic energy or flow velocity
gained by the water as it drops over the crest of each
spillway is dissipated by an apron or stilling basin.
Open channel drop structures generally require aerated
nappes and subcritical flow conditions at both the
upstream and downstream section of the drop. The stilling
basin can vary from a simple concrete apron to baffle
blocks or sills as described previously.
Figure 29.11 shows the flow geometry and important
variables at a vertical (straight) drop structure. The flow
geometry at such drops can be described by the drop
number, D
N
, which is defined (Chow 1959) as:
3
2
h g
q
D
N
= (29.9)
where,
q = discharge per unit width of crest overfall (m
3
fsfm)
g = acceleration due to gravity (9.81 mfs
2
)
h = height of drop (m)
The drop functions are:
27 . 0
30 . +
N
d
D
h
L
= (29.10a)
22 . 0
00 . 1
N
p
D
h
y
= (29.10b)
+25 . 0
1
5+ . 0
N
D
h
y
= (29.10c)
+25 . 0
2
66 . 1
N
D
h
y
= (29.10d)
where,
L
d
= drop length (m)
y
p
= pool depth under the nappe (m)
y
1
= the depth of the toe of nappe (m)
y
2
= tailwater depth sequent to y
1
(m)
For a given drop height, h, and discharge, q, the drop
length, L
d
, and the sequent depth, y
2
, can be estimated
by Equations 29.10(a) and 29.10(d), respectively. The
length of the jump can be estimated by techniques
discussed in Section 29.3. !f the tailwater is less than y
2
,
the hydraulic jump will recede downstream. Conversely, if
the tailwater is greater than y
2
, the jump will be
submerged. !f the tailwater is equal to y
2
, no supercritical
flow exists on the apron and the distance L
d
is minimum.
When the tailwater depth is less than y
2
, it is necessary
(according to the US Department of Transportation 1983)
to provide either (1) an apron at the bed level and a sill or
baffles, or (2) an apron below the downstream bed level
and an end sill.
The choice of a design type and dimensions depends on
the unit discharge, q, drop height, h, and tailwater depth,
TW. The design should take into consideration the
geometry of the undisturbed flow. !f the spillway
(overflow crest) length is less than the width of the
approach channel, the approach channel must be designed
properly to reduce the effect of the end contractions to
avoid scour.
The two most common vertical open channel drops are the
straight drop structure and the box inlet drop structure.
(a) Straight Drop Structure
Figure 29.12 shows the layout of a typical straight drop
structure and hydraulic design criteria developed by US Soil
Conservation Service. NcLaughlin Water Engineers (1983)
provides specific criteria and reviews design considerations
related to the hydraulic, geotechnical, and structural
design of drop structures.
(b) Box !nlet Drop Structure
The box inlet drop structure is a rectangular box open at
the top and downstream end as shown in Figure 29.13.
Water is directed to the crest of the box inlet by earth
dikes and a headwall. Flow enters over the upstream end
and two sides. The long crest of the box inlet permits
large flows to pass at relatively low heads. The width of
the structure should not be greater than the downstream
channel. Box inlet drop structures are applicable to drops
from 0.6 to 3.6 m.
Design data and criteria for these structures, based on
US Soil Conservation Services and St. Anthony Falls
Hydraulic Laboratory, are available (US Department of
Transportation 1983; Blaisdell and Donnely 1956). The
parameters to consider for the hydraulic design of the drop
are:
- section (length) of the crease of the box inlet
- opening of the headwalls
- discharge, discharge coefficients, and flow regime
changes
- box inlet length and depth
- minimum length and width of stilling basin
29.5 STORMWATER DRAIN OUTFALLS
All stormwater drains of a locality have an outlet where
flow from the local drainage system is discharged. The
discharge point, or outfall, can be either a natural river or
stream, or an existing or proposed stormwater drain or
channel. The procedure for calculating the hydraulic grade
line through a storm drainage system begins at the outfall.
Therefore, consideration of the outfall conditions is an
important part of storm drain design.
h
Aerated
L
o
C
p
d
1
B
y
D =
gh
3
L
y
2
2
A
y
y
q .
.
q
Figure 29.11 Flow Geometry of a Straight Drop Spillway (Chow, 1959)
Sidewall
L
h
+
150 mm Fillets
Wing Wall
s=hf3 S + 300 mm
(1200 mm Ninimum) T
N K
1
2
(a) Section on Centreline
Headwall
Extension
Wing Wall
Headwall
150 mm L E
s
(b) Downstream Elevation
Footing
F
o
o
t
i
n
g
Transverse
Sill
Symmetrical
about C
L
Apron
Longitudinal
Sills
3
0
0

m
m
2
2
5

m
m
Level Area
2
.
8
2
8
:
1

S
l
o
p
e
2
:
1

S
l
o
p
e
100 mm
1
0
0

m
m
+
5
d
e
g
(c) Plan
E =Ninimum length of headwall extension = [3h+0.61| or [1.5F| whichever is greater
J =Height of wing wall and sidewall at junction = [2h| or
)
or [t+1| L + 0.13
B
2
whichever is greater
L = Length of basin = F 2.28
B
+
h
F
0. 52
N= [2 (F+ 1.3 h-J)|
K = [(L
B
+ 0.13)- N|
C (1200 mm Ninimum)
F + S
h
F
h
J
0
.
7
3
9
j
2
.
8
2
8

(
J
-
s
-

1
.
0
)
| [ (
[
( ) |
(d) Criteria
F+h+s-
Figure 29.12 Typical Drop Spillway and Some Hydraulic Design Criteria (US Soil Conservation Service, 195+).
W
1
W
2
Headwall
W
+
Toe of Dike
1
Z
W
60 > 0 > +5
3
h
L L
o
Free Flow
1 2
L
3
h
y
h =
2
3
3
1
1
+
3
(a) Plan
(b) Section on Centreline
3
o
y
3
6
h =
y
y
Figure 29.13 Box !nlet Drop Structure (US Dept. of Transportation, 1983)
Several aspects of outfall design must be given serious
consideration. These include the flowline or invert (inside
bottom) elevation of the proposed stormwater drain outlet,
tailwater elevations, the need for energy dissipation, and
the orientation of the outlet structure.
The flowline or invert elevation of the proposed outlet
should be equal to or higher than the flowline of the
outfall. !f this is not the case, there may be a need to
pump or otherwise lift the water to the elevation of the
outfall (see Chapter +6).
The tailwater depth or elevation in the storm drain outfall
must be considered carefully. Evaluation of the hydraulic
grade line for a storm drainage system begins at the
system outfall with the tailwater elevation. For most
design applications, the tailwater will either be above the
crown of the outlet or can be considered to be between
the crown and critical depth of the outlet. The tailwater
may also occur between the critical depth and the invert of
the outlet; however, the starting point for the hydraulic
grade line determination should be either the design
tailwater elevation, or (d
c
+ D)f2, whichever is higher.
An exception to the above rule would be for a very large
outfall with low tailwater where a water surface profile
calculation would be required to determine the location
where the water surface will intersect the top of the barrel
and full flow calculations can begin. !n this case, the
downstream water surface elevation would be based on
critical depth or the design tailwater elevation, whichever
was higher.
!f the outfall channel is a river or stream, it may be
necessary to consider the joint or coincidental probability
of two hydrologic events occurring at the same time to
adequately determine the elevation of the tailwater in the
receiving stream (see chapter +6.7.2 for details).
Energy dissipation may be required to protect the storm
drain outlet. This is to prevent erosion of the outfall bed
and banks. Riprap aprons or energy dissipaters should be
provided if high velocities are expected.
There may be instances in which an excessive tailwater
causes flow to back up the storm drainage system and out
of inlets and manholes, creating unexpected and perhaps
hazardous flooding conditions. The potential for this to
occur should be considered. Flap gates placed at the
outlet can sometimes alleviate this condition (see chapter
+6); otherwise, it may be necessary to isolate the storm
drain from the outfall by use of a pump station (see
Chapter +6).
The orientation of the outfall is another important design
consideration. Where practical, the outlet of the storm
drain should be positioned in the outfall channel so that it
is pointed in a downstream direction. This will reduce
turbulence and the potential for excessive erosion. !f the
outfall structure cannot be oriented in a downstream
direction, the potential for outlet scour must be considered.
For example, where a storm drain outfall discharges
perpendicular to the direction of flow of the receiving
channel, care must be taken to avoid erosion on the
opposite channel bank. !f erosion potential exists, a
channel bank lining of riprap or other suitable material
should be installed on the bank. Alternatively, an energy
dissipater structure could be used at the storm drain
outlet.
29.6 TRANSITIONS AND CONSTRICTIONS
Channel transitions (Figure 29.17) are typically used to
alter the cross-sectional geometry, to allow the waterway
to fit within a more confined right-of-way, or to purposely
accelerate the flow to be carried by a specialised high
velocity conveyance. Constrictions can appreciably restrict
and reduce the conveyance in a manner which is either
detrimental or beneficial. For example, a bridge, box
culvert, or other constriction may increase upstream
flooding by encroaching too far into the floodplain
conveyance, whereas in another situation, a hydraulic
control structure can be employed to purposely induce an
upstream spill into a storage facility.
The purpose of this section is to briefly outline typical
design procedures for transition and constriction structures
that may be required for engineered waterways.
29.6.1 Transition Analysis
(a) Subcritical Transitions
Transitions for subcritical flow frequently involve localised
or bank lining configurations which allow change in the
cross section and produce a water surface profile based on
gradually varied flow. The energy lost through a transition
is a function of the friction, eddy currents, and turbulence.
The intent is often to minimise friction losses andfor The
intent is often to minimise friction lossess andfor erosion
tendencies. Examples include transitions between
trapezoidal and rectangular sections, modest transitions at
bridges where little change takes place in cross section, or
slight encroachments into a channel to allow for utilities.
Standard water surface profile analysis is applied, with the
addition of an energy loss at the transition. The loss is
expressed as a function of the change in velocity head
occurring across the contraction or expansion transition
(from upstream to downstream locations). Figure 29.1+
illustrates some of these transitions. Loss coefficients
shown in Table 29.7 are applied to the difference in the
velocity head, as shown is Equation 29.11.
Table 29.2 Subcritical Transition Energy Loss Coefficients
Contraction Expansion
Less than 100 mm between
centreline and tangent lines 0.00 0.00
Less than 12.5 between
centreline and tangent lines
0 to 0.10 0 to 0.10
Warped Type 0.10 0.20
Cylindrical Quadrant Type 0.15 0.25
Nodest Transitions 0.30 0.50
Straight Line Type 0.30 0.50
Square Ended Type 0.30+ 0.75
Analysis of transitions requires careful water surface profile
analysis including verification of effective channel hydraulic
controls. !t is not uncommon to have a transition which is
first thought to be performing in a subcritical mode, but
subsequently found to produce a supercritical profile with a
hydraulic jump.
Energy Loss (m) = Coefficient ( )
2 1 v v
h h (29.11)
where,
( )
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
g
v
g
v
h h
v v
2 2
2
2
2
1
2 1
v
1
= flow velocity upstream of transition
v
2
= flow velocity downstream of transition
(b) Supercritical Transition Analysis
Supercritical transitions are beyond the scope of this
manual and require special analysis when used. The
configuration of a supercritical transition is entirely
different from subcritical transitions. !mproperly designed
and configured supercritical transitions can produce shock
wave patterns which result in channel overtopping and
other hydraulic and structural problems.
29.6.2 Constriction Analysis
(a) Constriction with Upstream Subcritical Flow
There are a variety of structures that are constrictions.
They can include bridges, culverts, drop structures, and
flow measurement devices. Constrictions of various types
are used intentionally to control bed stability and upstream
29-1+ Urban Stormwater Nanagement Nanual
water surface profiles. For example, a constriction may be
used to cause water to back up or overflow into a
detention basin.
The hydraulic distinction of constrictions is that they can
cause rapidly varied flow. The upstream transition loss
coefficients in Table 27.9 apply, but other factors come
into play. Significant eddies can form upstream and
downstream of the constriction depending upon the
geometry. Flow separation will start at the upstream edge
of the constriction, then the flow contracts to be narrower
than the opening width. Typically, the width of contraction
is 10 of the depth at the constriction for each side
boundary. For example, at a typical drop with an abrupt
crest contraction and assuming critical depth of 1.0 m, the
constriction on each side would be 100 mm, or 200 mm
total contraction from the opening width. Based on this
contracted width and an assumption of critical conditions
at that location, the upstream water surface profile may be
computed.
!n certain cases, the flow regime will remain subcritical
through the constriction. Chow, 1959, presents guidelines
developed by the USGS for constrictions where the Froude
number in the contracted section does not exceed 0.8.
These cases are generally mild constrictions.
A phenomenon of abrupt contractions (and abrupt
expansions) is that the velocities can be much higher in
the centre and change significantly across the constriction
throat section. This results in a large energy coefficient
and a further drop in water surface over what is first
anticipated. This condition can produce strong eddy
currents with a high erosion potential. A constriction in an
open channel needs to be carefully evaluated for velocity,
scour, water surface, and related problems.
C
L
r
Cylindrical Quardrant
C
L
Straight Line
Warped
C
L
C
L
Abrupt
Abrupt
C
L
C
L
Wedge
Figure 29.1+ Transition Types (UDFCD, 1969)
Constrictions used for flow depth control or flow
measurement devices require a high degree of accuracy.
The design information available that can be used for
ensuring a high degree of accuracy is limited. !t is
advisable to use models tested or proven prototype
layouts. As a secondary option, adjustable edge plates or
other components can be provided to allow later changes
at minimal cost if the constructed facilities should need
refinement.
(b) Constriction with Upstream Supercritical Flow
This situation is highly complex and beyond the scope of
this manual. Possible shock waves or choked flow causing
high upstream backwater or a hydraulic jump are major
concerns. The situation is to be avoided in urban drainage
because of inherent instabilities.
29.7 BENDS AND CONFLUENCES
General considerations for lined channels and conduits are
discussed in Chapters 26 and 25. Additional emphasis is
added herein for certain situations. Channels and conduits
that produce supercritical flow may require special
structural or design considerations. This discussion is
limited since these types of structures are associated with
hydraulic performance that generally exceeds the
recommended criteria for most engineered waterways.
Extensive study, specialised modelling, andfor analysis may
be required for these situations.
Channel confluences are commonly encountered in design.
Flow rates can vary disproportionately with time so that
high flows from upstream channel can discharge into
downstream channel when it is at high or low level.
Depending on the geometry of the confluence, either
condition can have important consequences, such as
supercritical flow and hydraulic jump conditions, and result
in the need for structures.
The main emphasis in this section is on subcritical flow
conditions. Since supercritical conditions can occur in
various situations, some conditions are generally reviewed;
however, supercritical flow analysis is not described in
detail.
29.7.1 Bends
(a) Subcritical Bends
Subcritical bends are required to have certain minimum
curvatures described in Chapters 25 and 26. !t is
important that the designer recognise the consequences of
approaching and exceeding these criteria. Chow, 1959,
Rouse, 19+9, and others illustrate flow patterns,
superelevation, and backwater or flow resistance
characteristics. Superelevation refers to a rise in the water
surface on the outer side of the bend. Effectively, the
bend can behave like a contraction, causing backwater
upstream and in accelerated velocity zones, with high
possibility of erosion on the outside of the bend and other
locations. Significant eddy currents, scour, sedimentation,
and loss of effective conveyance can occur on the inside of
the bend.
Concrete lined channels can be significantly affected by
superelevation of the water surface. The designer should
always add superelevation to the design freeboard of the
channel. The equation for the amount of superelevation of
the water surface, Ay, that takes place is given as:
|
|
.
|
\
|
= A
r g
T v
C y
2
(29.12)
where,
C = coefficient, generally 0.5 for subcritical flow
v = mean channel velocity (mfs)
T = width of water surface in channel (m)
g = acceleration of gravity (9.81 mfs
2
)
r = channel centreline radius (m)
(b) Supercritical Bends
As with supercritical transitions, the hydraulics for
supercritical bends are completely different from the
hydraulics for subcritical bends. Supercritical channels are
generally not desirable in urban drainage. However,
special situations may occur where supercritical flows enter
a curved channel, for example:
- at confluences where one channel is largely empty,
and the entering flow expands and becomes
supercritical
- at a sharp bend in a conduit whose slope inherently
leads to supercritical conditions
- at a channel drop that unavoidably ends up on a curve
The key phenomenon to be aware of is shock waves, of
which there are two types, positive and negative. On the
outside of an angular bend, a positive shock wave will
occur which results in a rise in the water surface. The
wave is stationary and crosses to the inside of the channel,
and then can continue to reflect back and forth. Where
the flow passes the inside angular bend, a separation will
occur and a negative shock wave or drop in the water
surface will occur. This stationary negative shock wave will
cross to the outside of the channel. Both shock waves will
continue to reflect off the walls, resulting in a very
disturbed flow pattern.
A basic control technique is to set up bend geometry to
cause the positive shock wave to intersect the point where
the negative wave is propagated. A bend usually requires
two deflections on the outside and one bend on the inside.
A beneficial aspect of the shock wave is that it turns the
flow in a predictable pattern, and thus the channel walls
have no more force imposed on them other than that
caused by the increased (or decreased) depths. This
technique is described by !ppen (Rouse, 19+9 and Corps of
Engineers, 1970) and is also reported by Chow, 1959.
Other control techniques include very gradual bends, super
elevated floors, and controls sills, but these methods are
generally less efficient. There is limited data on channels
with sloping side banks, but it is clear there is a great
tendency for shock waves to propagate up side slopes and
divert flow out of the channel.
Chow, 1959 shows several good photographs of these
problems. SCS, 1976 presents a documental report of a
curved spillway on a modest flood control storage. During
an overflow event, a shock wave pattern was produced
that resulted in no flow on one side of the spillway and
great depths on the opposite.
A special problem with long conduits used for flood control,
particularly large box culverts, is that they will have an
inherent tendency towards supercritical flow conditions at
less than full capacity. When the flow encounters bends,
shock waves can occur which hit the ceiling and can lead
to either pressurised conditions andfor unstable conditions
where the flow fluctuates between supercritical and
pressure conditions, often exacerbated by surging, air flow,
and other problems. very gradual bends and air vent
provisions are desirable and the designer should use
caution anytime should supercritical flow encounter a
bend.
29.7.2 Confluences
One of the most difficult problems to deal with is
confluences where the difference in flow characteristics
may be great. When entering the combined channel, the
flow can diverge and drop in level if the flow capacity is
suddenly increased. This can result in high velocity or
unstable supercritical flow conditions with a high erosion
potential. When significant sediment flows exist,
aggradation can occur at the confluence, resulting in the
loss of capacity in one or both upstream channels.
(a) Subcritical Flow Confluence Design
The design of channel junctions is complicated by many
variables such as the angle of intersection, shape and
width of the channels, flow rates, and type of flow. The
design of large complex junctions should be verified by
model tests.
Figure 29.15 illustrates two types of junctions. The
following assumptions are made for combining subcritical
flows:
1. The side channel cross-section is the same shape as
the main channel cross-section
2. The bottom slopes are equal for the main channel and
side channel
3. Flows are parallel to the channel walls immediately
above and below the junction
+. The depths are equal immediately above the junction
in both the side and main channel
5. The velocity is uniform over the cross-sections
immediately above and below the junction
Assumption No. 3 implies that hydrostatic pressure
distributions can be assumed, and assumption No. 5
suggests that the momentum correction factors be equal
to each other at the reference sections.
The equation governing flow conditions for a vertical
walled channel, with the main channel width being
constant, is (Figure 29.15(a)):
2
cos
2
1 1
2
2
2
1
2
1 2
3 1
3
2
3
y b
A g
Q
A g
Q
y b
A g
Q
+ + = + u (29.13a)
Or for a vertical walled channel; main channel width varies
(Figure 29.15(b)):
2
cos
2
1 3
2
2
2
1
2
1 2
3 3
3
2
3
y b
A g
Q
A g
Q
y b
A g
Q
+ + = + u (29.13b)
Or for a trapezoidal channel; main channel width constant
(Figure 29.15(a)):
2
1
1 1
2
2
2
1
2
1 2
3
3 1
3
2
3
3 2
cos
3 2
y
y Z b
A g
Q
A g
Q
y
y Z b
A g
Q
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ + + =
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ + u
(29.13c)
Or for a trapezoidal channel; main channel width varies
(Figure 29.15(b)):
2
1
1 3
2
2
2
1
2
1 2
3
3 3
3
2
3
3 2
cos
3 2
y
y Z b
A g
Q
A g
Q
y
y Z b
A g
Q
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ + + =
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ + u
(29.13d)
where,
b = bottom width of the trapezoidal cross-section
Z = side slope, Z(H):1(v)
Nomentum computations for a confluence involve a trial
and error process. Starting with a known depth above or
below the confluence, one iterates with an assumed depth
on the unknown side of the confluence until the
momentum has been balanced upstream to downstream
(b) Supercritical Flow in Confluences
!n contrast with subcritical flows at junctions, supercritical
flows with changes in boundary alignments are generally
complicated by standing waves (!ppen, 1951, Rouse,
19+9). !n subcritical flow, backwater effects are
propagated upstream thereby tending to equalise the flow
depths in the main and side channels. However,
backwater cannot be propagated upstream in supercritical
flow and flow depths in the main and side channels cannot
generally be expected to be equal. Junctions for rapid
flows and very small junction angles are designed
assuming equal water surface elevations in the side and
main channels.
Standing waves (!ppen, 1951) in supercritical flow at open
channel junctions complicate flow conditions. These waves
may necessitate increased wall heights in the vicinity of the
junction. The studies by Bowers, 1950 indicate that a
hydraulic jump may form in one or both of the inlet
channels, depending on the flow conditions. Behlke, 1966
completed a model study and presented design guidelines
to address these problems.
Wave conditions that may be produced by rapid flow in
and downstream of a typical junction are shown in
Figure 29.19. One area of maximum wave height can
occur on the side channel wall opposite the junction point
and another on the main channel right wall downstream
from the junction. Behlke, 1966 has conducted a series of
laboratory tests which indicate that wave pileup against
the channel walls can be up to seven times the initial depth
for a flow Froude number of four. The design of walls to
contain these wave heights over long channel distances is
usually not economical. The practical remedy is to reduce
or minimise standing waves.
Peak flows from the side channel may not occur
simultaneously with peak flows in the main channel.
Laboratory tests by Behlke, 1966 indicate that the
occurrence of design flow in one of the channels with zero
flow in the other can result in a very high wave pileup on
the junction walls.
Supercritical flow may unavoidably occur in certain
confluences. The designer should try to correct the
geometry and channel sections to avoid the situation. !f
the condition remains, a more detailed hydraulic study or
model study must be initiated to address the problem.
29.S SIDE-OVERFLOW WEIRS
Side-overflow weirs facilitate overflow and diversion of
stormwater by directing the discharge away from the
original channel. Such structures are commonly used to
direct channel discharges above predetermined levels into
off-line stormwater detention facilities. Flow diversions
occur only during storms (Figure 29.17).
29.S.1 Design Considerations
The design of side-overflow weirs is based on empirical
equations which quantify the relationship between the
discharge over the weir and geometric parameters at the
weir, including the length of the weir and head (Hager,
1987). Figure 29.18 (Netcalf and Eddy, 1972) shows three
head or water surface profile conditions that can prevail at
a side-overflow weir:
(a) Condition 1 : The channel bed slopes steeply,
producing supercritical flow. Under this condition, the weir
has no effect upstream and along the weir there is a
gradual reduction in depth. Downstream of the weir, the
flow depth in the original channel increases, tending
asymptotically to the normal depth corresponding to the
remaining discharge.
(b) Condition 2 : The channel bed slopes mildly. Under
this condition, subcritical flow prevails and the weir impact
is noticed upstream of the weir only. The water surface
profile downstream of the weir corresponds to the normal
depth of the remaining discharge. Along the weir there is
a gradual increase in depth and, upstream of the weir the
flow depth tends asymptotically to the normal depth for
the initial discharge.
(c) Condition 3 : The channel bed slopes mildly, but the
weir crest is below the critical depth corresponding to the
initial flow, and the flow at the weir is supercritical. Recent
studies (Frazer 1957) indicate that conditions 1 and 3 may
result in the development of a hydraulic jump at the weir.
The most common condition that a designer will encounter
is Condition 3, where the weir elevation is below the critical
depth. When only a relatively small amount of the flow is
diverted, a rising water surface profile occurs. According
to Netcalf and Eddy !nc. (1972), the falling profile results if
the ratio of the height of the weir, c, to the channel
specific energy, E
w
, referenced to the top of the weir, is
less than 0.6.
29.S.2 Design Practices
(a) Falling Water Surface
The equations and procedures for computing weir length
for the falling water surface profile were developed by
Ackers (Chow 1959). These equations combine Bernoulli's
theorem with a weir discharge formula. Netcalf and Eddy
!nc. (1972) suggests using:
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
w
E
c
B L 63 . 2 28 . 5 03 . 2 (29.1+)
where,
L = length of weir (m)
B = channel width (m)
c = height of weir (m)
E
W
= channel specific energy (m)
and,
b
1
A
B
b
3
v
1
1
v
3
3
S
i
d
e

C
h
a
n
n
e
l
2 b
C
v
1
2
1
b =
3
b
(a) Plan - Constant Width
(b) Plan - Unequal Width
2
b
v 2
1
b
3
b =
D
2
1
v
A
1
3
v
C
3
b
1
b
3
B
F
E
12
<_
<
_12
1
P
f
Figure 29.15 Channel Junction Definition Sketches
Nain Channel
v
1
1
Y
S
i
d
e

C
h
a
n
n
e
l
v
2
Y
2
2
S
h
e
a
r

Z
o
n
e
3
v
1
Y
3
Possible
Wave Fronts
Area of Naximum
Wave Height When B
2
>
Should Not be
Greater than 12
o
o
Reflected
Waves
Area of
Naximum
Wave Height
NOTE:
Figure 29.16 Open Channel Confluence, Standing Waves - Supercritical Flow
( ) c y
g
v
E
n w
' + = o o
2
2
(29.15)
where,
o = velocity coefficient
v = normal velocity in the approach channel (mfs)
g = acceleration due to gravity(9.81 mfs
2
)
o' = pressure-head correction
y
n
= normal depth of flow in approach channel (m)
c = height of the weir above the channel bottom (m)
values for o and o' of 1.2 and 1.0 respectively can be
used in the approach channel, while at the lower end of
the weir values of 1.+ and 0.95 can be used for o and o'
respectively.
(b) Rising Water Surface
The analysis for estimating the weir length for the rising
water surface profile is based on the theoretical equations
developed by DeNarchi (Collinge 1957):
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
E
y
E
y
C
B
L
1 2
| | (29.16)
where,
L = length of weir (m)
B = channel width (m)
C = constant (0.35 for a free nappe)
|
|
.
|
\
|
E
y
| = varied flow function (Figure 3, Collinge 1957)
y
1,
y
2
= depth in channel (m)
E = specific energy (m)
Equation 29.16 is recommended for use only in the case of
a rising water surface profile. Netcalf and Eddy !nc.
(1972) indicates that this equation works best when the
Froude number is between 0.3 - 0.92.
29.9 FLOW SPLITTER
A flow splitter is a special structure designed to divide a
single flow and divert the parts into two or more
downstream channels. A flow splitter can serve three
functions.
(a) Reduction in water surface elevation - By dividing the
flow from a large pipe into multiple conduits, the
height of flow (measured from the flow line to the
water surface (or for pipes flowing full, the inside
diameter) can be reduced. This may be necessary to
route flows under immovable obstructions.
A
A
v
v
v
2g
SECT!ON A-A
Energy Grade Line
LONG!TUD!NAL SECT!ON
Channel !nvert
W
ater Profile
Weir
2
n
2g
2
v
o
E
L
h
c
n
n
E
w
c
h = rE
w
E
w
2
+ o
1
B
n
h =
2
y
d
y
y
h
y
c
c
oc
v
h
1 n
v
1
2
L
=
Figure 29.17 Typical Cross-sections at a Side-Overflow Weir (Netcalf 8 Eddy, 1972)
Q
1
1
P
2
Q
Q P
(a) Condition 1
(b) Condition 2
C > d
crit
C > d and L
P Q
Q P
P Q
(c) Condition 3
1
1 crit
Q P
2
d
C
d
Q
2
Q
1 2
Q
d
2 d
C
1
Q
2
Q
d
C
d = d
crit
Figure 29.18 Possible Types of Water Surface Profiles
at a Side-overflow Weir
(Netcalf 8 Eddy, 1972).
(b) Dividing flows wherever necessary - Examples of this
include division of existing large special-design
conduits, such as arches or horseshoes, into less
expensive multiple-pipe continuations and division of
flow between low and high-flow conduits at the
intake of an inverted siphon.
(c) To restrict flows to water quality treatment facilities
and bypass the remaining higher flows around the
facilities (off-line). This can be accomplished by
splitting flows in excess of the water quality design
flow upstream of the facility and diverting higher
flows to a bypass pipe or channel. The bypass
typically enters a detention pond or the downstream
receiving drainage system. A crucial factor in
designing flow splitters is to ensure that low flows are
delivered to the treatment facility up to the water
quality design flow rate. Above this rate, additional
flows are diverted to the bypass system with minimal
increase in head at the flow splitting structure to
avoid surcharging the water quality facility under high
flow conditions.
Figure 29.19 shows a typical flow splitter made of
manholes with concrete baffles. Figure 29.20 shows a
typical diversionfisolation structure.
29.9.1 Design Consideration
Two major considerations exist for the design of flow-
splitting devices:
(a) Head Loss - Hydraulic disturbances at the point of
flow division result in unavoidable head losses. These
losses, however, may be reduced by the inclusion of
proper flow deflectors in the design of the structure.
Deflectors minimise flow separation by providing a
gradual transition for the flow, rather than by forcing
abrupt changes inflow direction.
(b) Debris - !n all transitions from large to smaller pipes,
debris accumulation is a potential problem. Tree
limbs and other debris that flow freely in the larger
pipe may not fit in the smaller pipe(s) and may restrict
flow. !n addition, flow splitters cause major flow
disturbances resulting in the regions of decreased
velocity. This reduction causes material suspended in
the stormwater flow to settle in the splitter box.
Although the deflector design should minimise velocity
reduction as much as possible, total elimination of the
problem is unlikely. Therefore, positive maintenance
access must be provided. Because flow splitting
devices are maintenance-intensive, their use should
be judiciously controlled by the engineer.
29.9.2 Design Criteria
- The flow splitter shall be designed to cater for 6
month AR! storm.
- The top of the weir shall be located at the water
surface for the 3-month AR! water quality design
storm.
- The maximum head over the weir shall be minimised
for flow in excess of the water quality design flows.
29.10 FLOW SPREADER
Flow spreaders are used to uniformly spread flows across
the inflow portion of water quality facility (e.g. sand filter,
biofiltration swale, or filter strip). Options A through C
(see Section 29.10.2) can be used for spreading flows that
have already concentrated. Option D is only for flows that
are already unconcentrated and enter a filter strip or
biofiltration swale.
29.10.1 General Design Criteria
- Where flow enters the spreader through a pipe, it is
recommended that the pipe be submerged to
practically dissipate energy.
- Rock protection is required at outfalls.
29.10.2 Design Criteria for Flow Spreading
Options
The following presents the design criteria for each of the
following spreading options:
- Anchored plate (Option A)
- Concrete sump box (Option B)
- Flat-topped notched curb spreader (Option C)
- Through-curb ports (Option D)
(a) Option A - Anchored Plate
Figure 29.21 shows the details of the spreader.
- The spreader shall be preceded by a sump having a
minimum depth of 200 mm and minimum width of 600
mm. The sump area shall be lined with steps to
reduce erosion and to provide energy dissipation.
- The top of the flow spreader plate shall be level,
projecting a minimum of 50 mm above the final grade
of the invert of the water quality facility.
- The plate shall extend horizontally beyond the bottom
width of the facility to prevent water from eroding the
side slope.
- The plate shall be securely fixed in place.
- The level spreader plate may be either wood, metal,
fibreglass reinforced plastic, or other durable material.
Reinforced Baffle Wall Grouted
to N.H Structure (both ends)
To Water Quality Facility !nflow
Type 2 N.H No Base
Channel Required
To Bypass Conveyance
System or Detention Pond
PLAN
Round Solid Lid
To Water Quality Facility
1220 mm or Provide Separate
Access to Either Side of Baffle Wall
2
1
+
0

m
m
Water Quality Design
Water Surface Elevation
Hands Holds (typ.)
!nflow
100 mm Thick Reinforced Concrete
Baffle Wall or Other Suitable Naterial
Sump (Optional)
Bypass Pipe
SECT!ON A-A
NOTE:
be installed on the Outlet to control the height of the design water
provide a minimum headwaterfdiameter ratio of 2.0 on the outlet Pipe.
surface (weir height). The design water surface should be set to
A A
The water quality discharge Pipe may require an orifice plate
Figure 29.19 Typical Flow Splitter Device
H!GH FLOW
Diversion Weir
PLAN
D
i
v
e
r
t
e
d

L
o
w
F
l
o
w

t
o

F
i
l
t
r
a
t
i
o
n
B
a
s
i
n
FLOW
Open Channel
Diversion Pipe Diameter, D
SECTION A-A
W
W

+

3
0
0
D + 200
A
A
to Filtration Basin
D
Diversion Weir
Open Channel
H!GH FLOW
Figure 29.20 Typical !solationfDiversion Structure
(b) Option B - Concrete Sump Box
This alternative uses a rectangular concrete sump (see
Figure 29.22 for details)
- The wall of the downstream side of the concrete sump
shall extend a minimum 50 mm above the invert of
the treatment bed.
- The downstream wall of the box shall have returns"
at both ends. Side walls and returns shall be slightly
higher than the weir so that erosion of the side slope
is minimised.
(c) Option C - Flat-Topped Notched Curb Spreader
Flat-topped notched curb spreader is shown in
Figure 29.23. The spreader sections are made of extruded
concrete laid side by side and level. Typically four teeth"
per 1.25 m section provide good spacing. The space
between adjacent teeth" forms a v-notch.
(d) Option D - Through Curb
Details of the spreader are shown in Figure 29.2+.
Unconcentrated flows from paved areas entering filter
strips or continuous flow biofiltration swales can use curb
ports to allow flows to enter the strip or swale. Curb ports
use prefabricated openings that allow concrete curbing to
be poured or extruded continuously while still providing an
opening through the curb to admit water to the water
quality facility.
Openings in the curbing shall be at regular intervals but at
least every 3.6 (minimum). The width of each curb port
opening shall be 275 mm minimum. Approximately 15
percent or more of the curb section length shall be in open
ports, and no port should discharge more than about 10
percent of flow.
A
A
Anchor posts
spaced 1.8 m O.C
or at each end
if width 1.8 m
v-Notched
or
!nlet Pipe
Extended into slope to protect from the
100 year flow or the highest flow
entering water quality facility
Edge of Sand
Pond Side Slope
Example of anchored plate used with a sand filter*
(Nay also be used with other water quality facilities)
*Sand filter may use other
spreading options
PLAN
Rock Rip Rap
!nlet Pipe
200 mm
Level Spreader Plate
bolted to anchor Post
600 mm
600 mm Embedded
into exisitng ground
Gravel Layer
Existing Grade
Sand Layer
SECT!ON A-A
Alternative Design
Example of Catch Basin recommended for higher flow situations
(Generally 1+0 LfS or greater for 100 year storm)
(Sand Bed)
Level Plate Spreader
200 mm
50 mm
Figure 29.21 Level Spreader (Option A)
29-2+ Urban Stormwater Nanagement Nanual
A A
!nlet Pipe
Outfall Rip Rap Pad
Concrete Sump
Side with Returns.
(See Note)
Swale Bottom
PLAN
Example of a Concrete Sump Flow Spreader
used with a biofiltration swale
(Nay be used with other W.Q. Facilities)
!nlet Pipe
600 mm
Wing Wall Outline
200 mm
Concrete Sump
(100 mm wall thickness)
SECT!ON A-A
50 mm Clearance
NOTE:
Extend sides into slope. Height of side wall and
returns must be sufficient to handle the 100 year flow
or the highest flow entering the Facility
Figure 29.22 Level Spreader (Option B)
29.11 SIPHONS
Any conduit that drops under an obstruction such as
railroad tracks, depressed roadways or utilities, and regains
elevation at the downstream side of the obstruction is
referred to as an inverted siphon.
Because of the inverted bottom, the siphon stands full
storm water even when there is no flow. Some drainage
districts discourage the use of siphons on the basis that
the siphon requires more frequent maintenance including
removal of debris that may clog the conduit. Nevertheless,
siphons have certain advantages in particular settings,
usually in urban areas where other solutions such as flow
re-routing may result in disruptions to traffic and higher
costs.
Siphons are normally single-or multi-barrel and consist of
an entrance section, drop, depressed reach, rise, and
outlet structure. Siphons require hydraulic head to operate
properly and the adequacy of available head should be
assessed early in the design process. Siphons can be
simpler or sophisticated, and the related design effort can
be nominal or complex. The following examples apply to
large, sophisticated siphons with multiple appurtenances -
some or which may not always be necessary.
29.11.1 Single-Barrel Siphons
Single-barrel siphons can be used for conveying
stormwater flows where there are periods of no flow
during which maintenance can be provided.
Even though some agencies limit the slope of the rising leg
of the siphon to 15, steeper slopes and even vertical
drops and risers are acceptable, if maintenance chambers
with debris collection sumps at the bottom are provided at
the drop and riser of the siphon, as shown in Figure 29.25.
Sloping legs of siphons (Figure 29.26) have been designed
without maintenance chambers; however, the chambers
provide maintenance flexibility with direct access to service
the siphon. The steeper the legs of the siphon, the more
difficult it is to clean the siphon from shallow manholes
located near the ground surface, and deep maintenance
chambers reaching to barrel inverts may be required.
Where a vertical drop and riser are provided, they should
serve as maintenance chambers and include access down
to the barrels and sumps. Sumps located at the bottom of
the maintenance chambers trap the debris that
accumulates in the siphon.
29.11.2 Multi-Barrel Siphons
!n channels or sewers that convey a continuous flow,
where one barrel does not have sufficient capacity and the
flow has to be divided, or where redundancy is required by
local agencies, the multi-barrel siphon is applicable. Plan
and profiles of such siphons are shown in Figure 29.26.
Where redundancy is required for maintenance purposes,
one additional equal capacity barrel is sufficient. To fulfil
its functions, the multi-barrel siphon requires equipment
and structure , including gates that close the barrel to be
maintained while the other barrel is open.
Special structure may also include a flow distribution
chamber and a flow adapter chamber. These chambers
are used to contract and expand the flows. The
distribution chamber serves to direct the flow from one
sewer to the two barrels of the siphon alternatively used,
while the flow adapter chamber serves to direct the flow
from the two barrels of the siphon to one conduit.
29.11.3 Design Criteria and Practices
One of the critical criteria for the design of siphons is the
maintenance of self-cleansing velocities under widely
varying flow conditions (ASCE 1969). Siphons used for
conveying storm water are usually designed for a velocity
of 0.9 mfs for a 5-year return interval design flow.
Siphons with water containing abrasive suspended
materials should be designed for a flow velocity less than 3
mfs.
The head losses through each of the siphon components
must be estimated for the purpose of plotting the hydraulic
grade line. Upstream surcharging should be avoided, and
therefore one of the main design objectives should be to
minimise the head losses through the siphon. The friction
losses can be estimated by using the combined Darcy-
Weisbach - Nanning equation is useful in the following
form (in metric units):
g r
Lv n
h
r
2
5 . 19
3 f +
2 2
= (29.17)
where,
h
f
= lead loss (m)
n = Nanning's frictions factor
L = length of conduit (m)
r = hydraulic radius (m)
v = velocity (mfs)
g = acceleration of gravity (mfs
2
)
Ninor losses (such as at bend, contraction and expansion,
and entrance and exit losses) can be estimated as
discussed in Chapter 25. !t should be noted that head
losses in siphons can be significant, particularly in flat
coastal areas, where the low terrain does not allow for
surcharge and the available project corridor is narrow.
The size of the barrel or conduit can be determined initially
based on the minimum required flow velocity. However,
the barrel can be sized accurately only after he hydraulic
losses are estimated. !f the head loss under the design
flow condition is excessive, increases in the size of the
conduit should be considered.
1.2m
300 mm
PLAN
B
300 mm
150 mm
FRONT
60
200 mm
SECT!ON B-B
30
2-R10 Rebar or Reinforce
as Necessary
!nlet Pipe
B
Figure 29.23 v-notch Level Spreader
N
ax 1
.8
m
o.c.
Concrete Curb
Grass Filter Strip
Opening 280 mm
Figure 29.2+ Through-Curb Port
!nlet Chamber
Nanhole Frame and Cover
Outlet Chamber
Removable Precast Concrete Slabs
R
i
v
e
r

F
l
o
w
!nlet Chamber Outlet Chamber
Water Level
Concrete Encasement
PLAN
PROF!LE
Figure 29.25 Profile and Plan of Double-Barrel Siphon vertical Legs (Engineering News, 1916)
+00 mm Cl Bypass
Old 1.6 m x 1.2 m Sewer
Dam Oulet Chamber
Cleanout Chamber
+00 mm Cl (Dry Weather) Pipe
1.5 m Circular Reinforced Concrete
(Storm) Pipes
1.+ m x 1.2 m Reinforced Concrete Overflow
Dam !ntake Chamber
Cleanout Chamber
Cleanout Nanhole
+00 mm Cl
1.+ m x 1.2 m Reinforced Concrete Overflow
Subway
+00 mm C!
Structure
B
B
A
A
1.5 m Circular
Storm Pipes
Cleanout Nanhole
+00 mm Cl (Dry Weather) Pipe
New 600 mm Sewer
Section B-B Section A-A
Two Circular Reinforced Concrete
(a) Sectional Plan
(b) Longitudinal Section
Figure 29.26 Profile and Plan of a Double-Barrel Siphon Sloping Legs (Engineering News, 1916)
Subject !ndex
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