Circuit & Devices Lab Manual

Circuit and devices lab manual B.
KALAIMATHI AP/ ECE

EC 6211 CIRCUITS AND DEVICES LABORATORY

1. Characteristics of PN Junction Diode
2. Zener diode Characteristics & Regulator using Zener diode
3. Common Emitter input-output Characteristics
4. Common Base input-output Characteristics
5. FET Characteristics
6. SCR Characteristics
7. Clipper and Clamper & FWR
8. Verifications of Thevinin & Norton theorem
9. Verifications of KVL & KCL
10. Verifications of Super Position Theorem
11. Verifications of maximum power transfer & reciprocity theorem
12. Determination of Resonance Frequency of Series & Parallel RLC Circuits
13. Transient analysis of RL and RC circuits
Content beyond the syllabus
14. Half wave rectifier
15. Bridge wave rectifier

Circuit and devices lab manual B.KALAIMATHI AP/ ECE

STUDY OF CRO
An oscilloscope is a test instrument which allows us to look at the 'shape' of electrical
signals by displaying a graph of voltage against time on its screen. It is like a voltmeter with the
valuable extra function of showing how the voltage varies with time. Gratitude with a 1cm grid
enables us to take measurements of voltage and time from the screen. The graph, usually called
the trace, is drawn by a beam of electrons striking the phosphor coating of the screen making it
emit light, usually green or blue. This is similar to the way a television picture is produced.
Oscilloscopes contain a vacuum tube with a cathode (negative electrode) at one end to emit
electrons and an anode (positive electrode) to accelerate them so they move rapidly down the
tube to the screen. This arrangement is called an electron gun. The tube also contains electrodes
to deflect the electron beam up/down and left/right.
The electrons are called cathode rays because they are emitted by the cathode and this gives the
oscilloscope its full name of cathode ray oscilloscope or CRO.A dual trace oscilloscope can
display two traces on the screen, allowing us to easily compare the input and output of an
amplifier for example. It is well worth paying the modest extra cost to have this facility.

Figure 1: Front Panel of CRO

BASIC OPERATION:

Figure 2: Internal Blocks of CRO

Setting up an oscilloscope:
Oscilloscopes are complex instruments with many controls and they require some care to
set up and use successfully. It is quite easy to 'lose' the trace off the screen if controls are set
wrongly.
There is some variation in the arrangement and labeling of the many controls. So, the following
instructions may be adapted for this instrument.
1. Switch on the oscilloscope to warm up (it takes a minute or two).
2. Do not connect the input lead at this stage.
3. Set the AC/GND/DC switch (by the Y INPUT) to DC.
4. Set the SWP/X-Y switch to SWP (sweep).
5. Set Trigger Level to AUTO.
6. Set Trigger Source to INT (internal, the y input).
7. Set the Y AMPLIFIER to 5V/cm (a moderate value).
8. Set the TIMEBASE to 10ms/cm (a moderate speed).
9. Turn the time base VARIABLE control to 1 or CAL.
10. Adjust Y SHIFT (up/down) and X SHIFT (left/right) to give a trace across the middle of the
screen, like the picture.
11. Adjust INTENSITY (brightness) and FOCUS to give a bright, sharp trace.

The following type of trace is observed on CRO after setting up, when there is no input signal
connected.

Figure 3: Absence of input signal

Connecting an oscilloscope:
The Y INPUT lead to an oscilloscope should be a co-axial lead and the figure 4 shows its
construction. The central wire carries the signal and the screen is connected to earth (0V) to
shield the signal from electrical interference (usually called noise).
Most oscilloscopes have a BNC socket for the y input and the lead is connected with a push and
twist action, to disconnect we need to twist and pull. Professionals use a specially designed lead
and probes kit for best results with high frequency signals and when testing high resistance
circuits, but this is not essential for simpler work at audio frequencies (up to 20 kHz).

Figure 5: Oscilloscope lead and probes kit
Obtaining a clear and stable trace:
Once if we connect the oscilloscope to the circuit, it is necessary to adjust the controls to
obtain a clear and stable trace on the screen in order to test it.
- The Y AMPLIFIER (VOLTS/CM) control determines the height of the trace.
Choose a setting so the trace occupies at least half the screen height, but does not disappear off
the screen.
- The TIMEBASE (TIME/CM) control determines the rate at which the dot sweeps across
the screen. Choose a setting so the trace shows at least one cycle of the signal across the
screen. Note that a steady DC input signal gives a horizontal line trace for which the time
base setting is not critical
- The TRIGGER control is usually best left set to AUTO.
The trace of an AC signal with the oscilloscope controls correctly set is as shown in Figure 6.

Figure 6 : Stable waveform
Measuring voltage and time period
The trace on an oscilloscope screen is a graph of voltage against time. The shape of this graph is
determined by the nature of the input signal. In addition to the properties labeled on the graph,
there is frequency which is the number of cycles per second. The diagram shows a sine wave but
these properties apply to any signal with a constant shape


Figure 7: Properties of Trace

- Amplitude is the maximum voltage reached by the signal. It is measured in volts.
- Peak voltage is another name for amplitude.
- Peak-peak voltage is twice the peak voltage (amplitude). When reading an oscilloscope
trace it is usual to measure peak-peak voltage.
- Time period is the time taken for the signal to complete one cycle.
It is measured in seconds (s), but time periods tend to be short so milliseconds (ms) and
microseconds (s) are often used. 1ms = 0.001s and 1s = 0.000001s.
- Frequency is the number of cycles per second. It is measured in hertz (Hz), but
frequencies tend to be high so kilohertz (kHz) and megahertz (MHz) are often used.
1kHz =1000Hz and 1MHz =1000000Hz.
Frequency =1/Time period

Time period =1/Frequency

A) Voltage: Voltage is shown on the vertical y-axis and the scale is determined by the Y
AMPLIFIER (VOLTS/CM) control. Usually peak-peak voltage is measured because it can be
read correctly even if the position of 0V is not known. The amplitude is half the peak-peak
voltage.
Voltage = distance in cm volts/cm
B) Time period: Time is shown on the horizontal x-axis and the scale is determined by the
TIMEBASE (TIME/CM) control. The time period (often just called period) is the time for one
cycle of the signal. The frequency is the number of cycles per second, frequency =1/time period.
Time = distance in cm time/cm

STUDY OF FUNCTION GENERATOR
A function generator is a device that can produce various patterns of voltage at a variety
of frequencies and amplitudes. It is used to test the response of circuits to common input
signals. The electrical leads from the device are attached to the ground and signal input
terminals of the device under test.

Figure 1: A typical low-cost function generator.
- Features and controls :
Most function generators allow the user to choose the shape of the output from a small
number of options.
- Square wave - The signal goes directly from high to low voltage.

Figure 2: Square wave
The duty cycle of a signal refers to the ratio of high voltage to low voltage time in a
square wave signal.
- Sine wave - The signal curves like a sinusoid from high to low voltage.

Figure 3: Sine Wave
- Triangle wave - The signal goes
from high to low voltage at
a fixed rate.


Figure 4: Triangular Wave

The amplitude control on a function generator varies the voltage difference between the high and
low voltage of the output signal. The direct current (DC) offset control on a function generator
varies the average voltage of a signal relative to the ground.
The frequency control of a function generator controls the rate at which output signal oscillates.
On some function generators, the frequency control is a combination of different controls. One
set of controls chooses the broad frequency range (order of magnitude) and the other selects the
precise frequency. This allows the function generator to handle the enormous variation in
frequency scale needed for signals.
How to use a function generator
After powering on the function generator, the output signal needs to be configured to the desired
shape. Typically, this means connecting the signal and ground leads to an oscilloscope to check
the controls. Adjust the function generator until the output signal is correct, then attach the signal
and ground leads from the function generator to the input and ground of the device under test.
For some applications, the negative lead of the function generator should attach to a negative
input of the device, but usually attaching to ground is sufficient.

STUDY OF REGULATED POWER SUPPLY
There are many types of power supply. Most are designed to convert high voltage AC
mains electricity to a suitable low voltage supply for electronic circuits and other devices.
A power supply can by broken down into a series of blocks, each of which performs a
particular function. For example a 5V regulated supply:

Figure 1: Block Diagram of Regulated power supply
Each of the blocks is described in more detail below:
Transformer: Steps down high voltage AC mains to low voltage AC.
Rectifier: Converts AC to DC, but the DC output is varying.
Smoothing: Smooths the DC from varying greatly to a small ripple.
Regulator: Eliminates ripple by setting DC output to a fixed voltage.

Dual Supplies: Some electronic circuits require a power supply with positive and negative
outputs as well as zero volts (0V). This is called a 'dual supply' because it is like two ordinary
supplies connected together as shown in the diagram. Dual supplies have three outputs, for
example a 9V supply has +9V, 0V and -9V outputs.

Figure 2: Dual Supply

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

FORWARD BIAS:

REVERSE BIAS:

Ex.No:
CHARACTERISTICS OF PN DIODE
Date:

AIM:
To study the PN junction diode characteristics under Forward & Reverse bias conditions.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.No. Name of the Component Range Quantity Required
1 RPS (0-30)V 1
2 Ammeter
(030)mA 1
(0100)A 1
3 Voltmeter
(010)V 1
(01)V 1
4 Resistor 1KO, 10KO Each 1
5 Diode IN4007 1

TABULAR COLUMN:
FORWARD BIAS: REVERSE BIAS:

MODEL GRAPH

PROCEDURE:
S.No. VOLTAGE
(In Volts)
CURRENT
(In mA)

S..No. VOLTAGE
(In Volts)
CURRENT
(In A)

FORWARD BIAS:
1. Connect the circuit as per the diagram.
2. Vary the applied voltage V in steps of 0.1V.
3. Note down the corresponding Ammeter readings I.
4. Plot a graph between V & I

OBSERVATIONS
1. Find the d.c (static) resistance =V/I.
2. Find the a.c (dynamic) resistance r =oV / oI (r = V/I) =
1 2
1 2
I I
V V
.
3. Find the forward voltage drop =[Hint: it is equal to 0.7 for Si and 0.3 for Ge]

REVERSE BIAS:
2. Vary the applied voltage V in steps of 1.0V.
5. Find the dynamic resistance r = V / I.

Specification for 1N4001: Silicon Diode
Peak Inverse Voltage: 50V
I
dc
=1A.
Maximum forward voltage drop at 1 Amp is 1.1 volts
The maximum reverse current @50 volts is 5A



RESULT:
Forward and Reverse bias characteristics of the PN junction diode was studied and
Forward bias =---------------------
Reverse bias =----------------------.

Performance 2
Observation 2
Viva 2
Total 6

VIVA QESTIONS:-
1. Define depletion region of a diode?
2. What is meant by transition & space charge capacitance of a diode?
3. Is the V-I relationship of a diode Linear or Exponential?
4. Define cut-in voltage of a diode and specify the values for Si and Ge diodes?
5. What are the applications of a p-n diode?
6. Draw the ideal characteristics of P-N junction diode?
7. What is the diode equation?
8. What is PIV?
9. What is the break down voltage?
10. What is the effect of temperature on PN junction diodes?

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM (ZENER DIODE)
FORWARD BIAS:

REVERSE BIAS:

Ex.No:
CHARACTERISTICS OF ZENER DIODE
Date:

AIM:
To study the Zener diode characteristics under Forward & Reverse bias conditions.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
S.No. Name of the Component Range Quantity Required
1 RPS (0-30)V 1
2 Ammeter (030) mA 1
3 Voltmeter (030)V 1
4 Zener diode FZ5.1 1
5 Resistor 1KO 1

MODEL GRAPH


PROCEDURE:
FORWARD BIAS:
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.
2. Vary the power supply in such a way that the readings are taken in steps of 0.1V in the
voltmeter till the needle of power supply shows 30V.
3. Note down the corresponding ammeter readings.
4. Plot the graph :V (vs) I.

REVERSE BIAS:
2. Vary the power supply in such a way that the readings are taken in steps of 0.1V in the
voltmeter till the needle of power supply shows 30V.
6. Find the reverse voltage Vr at Iz=20 mA.

RESULT:
Forward and Reverse bias characteristics of the zener diode was studied and
Forward bias dynamic resistance =---------------------
Reverse bias dynamic resistance =----------------------
The reverse voltage at Iz =20 mA determined from the reverse characteristics of the
Zener diode is --------------------------.


VIVAQUESTIONS:-
1. What type of temperature Coefficient does the zener diode have?
2. If the impurity concentration is increased, how the depletion width effected?
3. Does the dynamic impendence of a zener diode vary?
4. Explain briefly about avalanche and zener breakdowns?
5. Draw the zener equivalent circuit?
6. Differentiate between line regulation & load regulation?
7. In which region zener diode can be used as a regulator?
8. How the breakdown voltage of a particular diode can be controlled?
9. What type of temperature coefficient does the Avalanche breakdown has?
10. By what type of charge carriers the current flows in zener and avalanche breakdown
diodes?

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

TABULAR COLUMN:
Input characteristics: V
CE
constant
V
CE
= V
CE
= V
CE
=
V
BE
(Volts)
I
B
(A)
V
BE
(Volts)

I
B
(A)
V
BE
(Volts)

I
B
(A)

Ex.No:
CHARACTERISTICS OF CE CONFIGURATION OF BJT
Date:

AIM:
To plot the transistor characteristic of common-emitter configuration and to find the h-
parameters for the same.

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:

S.No Name of the component Range Quantity
1 Power supply (0-30)V 2
2 Ammeter (0-10)mA,
(0-1)mA
Each 1
3 Voltmeter (0-30)V,(0-2)V Each 1

PROCEDURE:
i. Input characteristic:

1. Rig up the circuit as per the circuit diagram.
2. Set V
CE
=5V (say), vary V
BE
insteps of 0.1V till the power supply V
BB
shows
20V and note down the corresponding I
B
. Repeat the above procedure for
10V, 15V etc.,
3. Plot the graph: V
BE
vs I
B
for a constant V
CE.

4. Find the h-parameters: a. h
rc
: reverse voltage gain
b. h
fc
: input impedance

MODEL GRAPH:
Input Characteristics

TABULATION:
Output characteristics: I
B
constant
I
B
= I
B
= I
B
=
V
CE
(Volts)
I
C
(mA)
V
CE
(Volts)

I
C
(mA)
V
CE
(Volts)

I
C
(mA)

ii. Output characteristic:
2. Set I
B
=20A (say), vary V
CE
insteps of 1V and note down the corresponding
I
C
. Repeat the above procedure for 80A, 200A, 600A etc.,
CE
Vs I
C
for a constant I
B
.
oc
: output admittance
b. h
fc
: forward current gain

MODEL GRAPH:
Output Characteristics


Result:
Thus the input and output characteristics of BJT under CE configuration are obtained.
Parameters Practical readings
h
fc

h
ic

h
rc

h
oc

Performance 2
Observation 2
Viva 2
Total 6

VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. What is the range of for the transistor?
2. What are the input and output impedances of CE configuration?
3. Identify various regions in the output characteristics?
4. what is the relation between and
5. Define current gain in CE configuration?
6. Why CE configuration is preferred for amplification?
7. What is the phase relation between input and output?
8. Draw diagram of CE configuration for PNP transistor?

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

TABULAR COLUMN:
Input characteristics: V
CB
constant
V
CB
= V
CB
= V
CB
=
V
EB
(Volts)
I
E
(mA)
V
EB
(Volts)

I
E
(mA)
V
EB
(Volts)

I
E
(mA)


Ex.No:
CHARACTERISTICS OF CB CONFIGURATION
Date:

AIM:
To plot the transistor characteristic of common-base configuration and to find the h-
parameters for the same.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

1 Power supply (0-30) V 2
2 Ammeter (0-20)mA, 2
3 Voltmeter (0-20)V 2

PROCEDURE:
i. Input characteristic:
2. Set V
CB
=5V (say), vary V
EB
in a regular steps 0.1V till the power supply V
EE

shows 20V and note down the corresponding I
E
. Repeat the above procedure
for 10V, 15V etc.,
EB
Vs I
E
for a constant V
CB.

rb
: reverse voltage gain
b. h
fb
: input impedance
ii. Output characteristic:
6. Set I
E
=1mA (say), vary V
CB
insteps of 1V and note down the corresponding
I
C
. Repeat the above procedure for 3mA, 6mA, 10mA etc.,
CB
Vs I
C
for a constant I
E
.
ob
: output admittance
b. h
fb
: forward current gain

MODEL GRAPH:
Input characteristics

Output characteristics: I
E
constant
V
E
= V
E
= V
E
=
V
CB
(Volts)
I
C
(mA)
V
CB
(Volts)

I
C
(mA)
V
CB
(Volts)

I
C
(mA)


MODEL GRAPH:



RESULT:

Thus the input and output characteristics of BJT under CB configuration are obtained.
h
fb

h
ib

h
rb

h
ob

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
Performance 2
Observation 2
Viva 2
Total 6

PIN DIAGRAM:
BOTTOM VIEW OF BFW10:

SPECIFICATION:
Voltage : 30V, I
DSS
>8mA.

Ex.No:
CHARACTERISTICS OF JUNCTION FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTOR
Date:

AIM:
To Plot the characteristics of given FET & determine r
d,
g
m,
, I
DSS
,V
P
.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
S.No. Name of the component Range Quantity
1 RPS (0-30)V 2
2 Ammeter (030)mA 1
3 Voltmeter (030)V 2
4
FET BFW10
1
5 Resistor 1kO,68KO One Each
6 Bread Board 1

PROCEDURE:
DRAIN CHARACTERISTICS:
2. Set the gate voltage V
GS
=0V.
3. Vary V
DS
in steps of 1 V & note down the corresponding I
D.

4. Repeat the same procedure for V
GS
=-1V.
5. Plot the graph V
DS
Vs I
D
for constant V
GS
.

MODEL GRAPH:

TRANSFER CHARACTERISTICS:

OBSERVATIONS
1. d.c (static) drain resistance, r
D =
V
DS
/I
D
.
2. a.c (dynamic) drain resistance, r
d
=V
DS
/I
D
.
3. Open source impedance, Y
OS
=1/ r
d
.

2. Set the drain voltage V
DS
=5 V.
3. Vary the gate voltage V
GS
in steps of 1V & note down the corresponding I
D.

4. Repeat the same procedure for V
DS
=10V.
5. Plot the graph V
GS
Vs I
D
for constant V
DS.

FET PARAMETER CALCULATION:
Drain Resistancd rd =
GS
D
DS
V
I
V
A
A

Transconductance g
m
=
DS
GS
D
V
V
I
A
A

Amplification factor =rd . gm

TABULAR COLUMN:

V
GS
= 0V V
GS
= -1V
V
DS
(V)

I
D
(mA) V
DS
(V)

I
D
(mA)


V
DS
=5volts V
DS
= 10volts
V
GS
(V)

I
D
(mA) V
GS
(V)

I
D
(mA)


RESULT:
Thus the Drain & Transfer characteristics of given FET is Plotted.
R
d =
g
m=

=
I
DSS
=
Pinch off voltage V
P
=

Performance 2
Observation 2
Viva 2
Total 6

VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. What are the advantages of FET?
2. Different between FET and BJT?
3. Explain different regions of V-I characteristics of FET?
4. What are the applications of FET?
5. What are the types of FET?
6. Draw the symbol of FET.
7. What are the disadvantages of FET?
8. What are the parameters of FET?

SCR CIRCUIT
DIAGRAM:


MODEL GRAPH:

TABULAR COLUMN:

V
AK
(volts) I
A
(mA)

Ex.No:
CHARACTERISTICS OF SCR
IA
(mA)
Negative resistance region
VBO
VAK (VOLTS)
IH
IL
Date:

AIM:
To find the latching and holding current for a given SCR.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Power supply
SCR
Resistor
Ammeter
Voltmeter
Bread Board
(0-30)V

1K
(0-30)mA
(0-30)V
-
2
1
1
2
1
1

PROCEDURE FOR SCR:
2. Set gate current I
G

equal to firing current, vary anode to cathode voltage V
AK
in steps
of 0.5V and note down the corresponding anode current I
A
.
3. V
BO
is the point where the SCR voltage (V
AK
) suddenly drops and sudden increase
anode current I
A
.
4. Note down the current at that point called latching current.
5. Increase the V
AK
insteps of 1V till its maximum.
6. Open the gate terminal and decrease the anode voltage V
AK
.
7. Holding current is the current below, which the deflection in both voltmeter (V
AK
)
and an ammeter (I
A
) suddenly reduces to zero.
8. Holding current is the minimum current that a SCR can maintain its condition.
Holding current always less than latching current.



RESULT:

Thus the characteristics of SCR verified and graph were drawn.

Peak voltage
Valley voltage
q

Performance 2
Observation 2
Viva 2
Total 6
Clipper Circuit Diagram

Ex.No:
CLIPPER AND CLAMPER
Date:

AIM:
To design and construct the clipper, clamper, integrator, differentiator circuits and draw
the waveforms.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Procedure:
1.Ring up the circuit as per the circuit diagram.
2. Set input signal voltage (say 5V, 1 k Hz) using signal generator.
3. Observe the output waveform using CRO (DC mode).
4. Sketch the observed waveform on the graph sheet.

S.No APPARATUS REQUIRED RANGE QUANTITY
1 Resistors 1K 1
2 Diode 1N4007 1
3 Power supply 0-30V 1
4 Capacitors 0.1 F 1
5 CRO (0 -30)MHz 1
6 Bread board - 1
7 CRO Probes - 3
8. Signal generator (0-2)MHz 1
9. Bread Board



Clamper circuit diagram


RESULT:
Thus Clipper and Clamper circuits were constructed and their output was obtained.

Circuit diagram:
Without Filter:-
Performance 2
Observation 2
Viva 2
Total 6

With Filter:-

Ex.No:
FULL WAVE RECTIFIER
Date:

Aim:
To construct a full wave rectifier and to measure DC voltage under load and to calculate
the ripple factor.

Apparatus Required:
S.No. Name of the Component / Apparatus Specification / Range Quantity
1 Transformer (9 0 9 ) V 2
2 Diode 1N4007 2
3 Resistor 1k 2
4 Capacitor 47F 1
5 CRO (0-30)MHz 1
6 Bread Board - 1
7 Connecting wires -

Model Graph:

Procedure:
- Connections are given as per the circuit diagram without filter.
- Note the amplitude and time period of the input signal at the secondary winding of the
transformer and rectified output.
- Repeat the same steps with the filter and measure V
dc
.
- Calculate the ripple factor.
- Draw the graph for voltage versus time.

- as no such means is provided.

Tabulation:

S.No Condition
Input Signal Output Signal
Amplitude Frequency Amplitude Frequency
1 Without Filter
2 With Filter


RESULT:
Thus the full wave rectifier was constructed and its input and output waveforms are
drawn.
Theoretical Practical
DC Voltage
Ripple Factor

Performance 2
Observation 2
Viva 2
Total 6

VIVA QUESTIONS:-
1. Define regulation of the full wave rectifier?
2. Define peak inverse voltage (PIV)? And write its value for Full-wave rectifier?
3. If one of the diode is changed in its polarities what wave form would you get?
4. Does the process of rectification alter the frequency of the waveform?
5. What is ripple factor of the Full-wave rectifier?
6. What is the necessity of the transformer in the rectifier circuit?
7. What are the applications of a rectifier?
8. What is ment by ripple and define Ripple factor?
9. Explain how capacitor helps to improve the ripple factor?
10. Can a rectifier made in INDIA (V=230v, f=50Hz) be used in USA (V=110v, f=60Hz)?

Circuit diagram:


Thevenins Voltage Experiment set up:

Thevenins Resistance Experiment set up:

Thevenins circuit:

Ex.No:
VERIFICATION OF
THEVENIN AND NORTON THEOREMS

Date:

AIM:
To verify the Thevenin and Norton theorem for the given circuit diagram

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

2 Ammeter (0-10)V 1
3 Power supply (0 30)V 1
4 Resister 1K 4
500,50 Each 1

PROCEDURE:
THEVENIN THEOREM
2. Measure the voltage across the load using voltmeter.

To find Thevenins voltage:
2. Remove the load resistance and measure the open circuited voltage across the output
terminal using voltmeter (V
th
).

To find thevenins resistance:
2. Replace the supply by its internal resistance and open circuit the load.
3. Using multimeter in resistance mode measure the resistance across the output
terminal (R
th
).

TABULAR COLUMN: THEVENIN THEOREM
Voltage (volts) Open circuit
voltage (volts)
Thevenins
resistance (O)
Voltage (fig 2d)
(volts)


Circuit Diagram:

Nortons Voltage Experiment Set up:

Thevenins circuit:
1. Connect the power supply (V
th
) & resistance (R
th
) in series.
2. Connect the load resistance (1KO).
3. Switch on the power supply & measure the voltage drop across load resistance using
voltmeter.
4. Voltage measured should be equal to the voltage measured.

NORTON THEOREM
2. Measure the voltage across the load using voltmeter.

To find Nortons voltage:
2. Short-circuit the load resistance and measure the short-circuited current using
ammeter (I
NO
).

To find Nortons resistance:
2. Replace the supply by its internal resistance and open circuit the load.
3. Using multimeter in resistance mode measure the resistance across the output
terminal (R
th
).

To find Nortons circuit:
1. Connect the current source (I
NOR
) and R
th
in parallel.
2. Connect the load resistance (1KO).
3. Switch on the current source & measure the voltage drop across load resistance using
voltmeter.
4. Voltage measured should be equal to the voltage measured.

Nortons Resistance Experiment Set up:

Nortons Circuit:

TABULAR COLUMN:

I
1
(mA) I
2
(mA) I
1
+I
2
(mA) I (mA)


RESULT:
Thus the Thevenin and Notron theorem was verified.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Performance 2
Observation 2
Viva 2
Total 6
Circuit diagram for verification of KCL

Fig.1a Circuit diagram for verification of KCL

Fig.1b Circuit diagram for verification of KVL

Ex.No: VERIFICATION OF KIRCHOFFS CURRENT AND VOLTAGE LAWS

Date:

AIM:
Circuit diagram for verification of KVL
To verify Kirchhoffs Current law (KCL) and Kirchhoffs Voltage law (KVL).

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Required
1
Resistor
270, 330, 3560 1 each
2 Ammeter (0-10)mA 3
3 Regulated power supply(RPS) (0-30)V 1
5 Bread board - 1

PROCEDURE (KCL):
1. Connect the circuit as shown in Fig (1).
2. Switch ON the Regulated Power Supply (RPS) and set the RPS to a particular value of
voltage say 5V.
3. Record the readings of three ammeters namely I
1
,I
2
,I
3
with proper sign by taking current
entering the node as positive and leaving the node as negative in the observation
Table(1).
4. Add I
2
and I
3
and verify whether the added value is equal to I
1
. (As per KCL, I
1
=I
2
+I
3
).
5. Increase the RPS settings in steps of 5V up to a maximum of 25V.
6. Repeat the steps 3 to 5 by incrementing the RPS settings in terms of 5V.

TABULAR COLUMN (KCL)

SL.NO RPS VOLTAGE (Volts) I
1
(mA) I
2
(mA) I
3
(mA) I
1
=I
2
+I
3
(mA)
1 5
2 10
3 15
4 20
5 25

TABULAR COLUMN (KVL)

SL.NO RPS Voltage (Volts) V
1
(Volts) V
2
(Volts) V
3

(Volts)
V=V
1
+V
2
+V
3

(Volts)
1 5
2 10
3 15
4 20
5 25

PROCEDURE (KVL):
1. Connect the circuit as shown in Fig (2).
2. Switch ON the Regulated Power Supply (RPS) and set the RPS to a particular value of
voltage (V) say 5V.
3. Record the readings of two voltmeters namely V
1
, V
2
and RPS Voltage in the observation
table (2).
4. Add V
1
and V
2
and verify whether the added value is equal to V. (as per KVL V =
V
1
+V
2
).
5. Increase the RPS settings in steps of 5V up to a maximum of 25V.
Repeat the steps 2 to 5 for each value of RPS setting.

RESULT
Thus the verification of Kirchhoffs current law and Kirchhoffs voltage law is done.

Performance 2
Observation 2
Viva 2
Total 6

TABULAR COLUMN:

I
1
(mA) I
2
(mA) I
1
+I
2
(mA) I (mA)

Ex.No:
VERIFICATION OF SUPERPOSITION THEOREM
Date:
AIM:
To verify the superposition theorem

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

3 Resister 10K, 50 3,1
4 Bread board 1

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram [fig4a]
2. Switch on the DC power supplies (10V & 5V) and note down the corresponding
ammeter readings (say I A).
3. Replace the second power supply by its internal resistance [fig4b].
4. Switch on the power supply (10V) and note down the corresponding ammeter reading
(say I
1
).
5. Connect back the second power supply (5V) and replace the first power supply by its
internal resistance [fig4c].
6. Switch on the power supply (5V) and note down the corresponding ammeter reading
(say I
2
).
7. Verify the following condition:
I =I
1
+I
2



RESULT:
Thus the superposition theorem was verified.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Performance 2
Observation 2
Viva 2
Total 6

TABULAR COLUMN:

Case (A): R
L
=R
N
=1 KO

X
C
( ) V (Volts) I (mA) P =V I

Ex.No:
VERIFICATION OF MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER AND
RECIPROCITY THEOREMS
Date:

AIM:
To verify the maximum power transfer theorem for the given circuit diagram

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

1 Signal generator (0-1)MHz 1

PROCEDURE:

2. Set the network DRB and DIB at some random value (say 1KO & 1 mH).
3. Set the load DRB to the value equal to network DRB (1KO) and vary the DCB of the
load in regular steps.
4. Note down the corresponding voltmeter & ammeter readings.
5. Plot the graph: Power Vs capacitance reactance.
6. Now set the load reactance equal to the network reactance.
7. Vary the DRB of the load in regular steps.
8. Note down the corresponding voltmeter & ammeter readings.
9. Plot the graph: Power Vs load resistance.
10. Compare the peak power of both the cases.

Case (B): X
L
=-X
C
=1 mH/1mF

R
L
(O)
V (Volts) I (mA) P =V I

MODEL GRAPHS:

Fig 4b Fig 4c

P
watt
P
watt
Capaciatnce (f)
Resistance (O)

RESULT:

Thus the maximum power transfer theorem and reciprocity theorem were verified.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Performance 2
Observation 2
Viva 2
Total 6
Series resonance

MODEL GRAPH:

Ex.No: FREQUENCY RESPONSES OF SERIES AND PARALLEL

Date: RESONANCE CIRCUITS

AIM:
To design a RLC series and parallel resonance circuit and to obtain the frequency
response.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1 Signal generator (0-1)MHz 1
4 Resistor 1K 2
5 Capacitor 1F 1
6 Inductor 1mH 1
7 Bread board 1

PROCEDURE (Series Resonance):
2. Set input voltage, V
I
=5V using signal generator and vary the frequency from (0-1M)
Hz in a regular steps.
3. Note down the corresponding output voltage and current.
4. Plot the following graph:
a. Current Vs frequencies
b. Voltage Vs frequencies
c.
To measure the resonance frequency:
1. Plot the graph: Current Vs frequencies.

Parallel Resonance:


MODEL GRAPH:

1. Draw a horizontal line, which intersects the curve at
2
1
times the maximum current
reading.

2. Lower intersected point and upper intersected point are respectively called lower cut-
off frequency and upper cut-off frequency on frequency axis.

Bandwidth, BW =f
2
f
1
Selectivity =Bandwidth/f
0
=(f
2
f
1
)/ f
0

PROCEDURE (Parallel Resonance):

2. Set input voltage, V
I
=5V using signal generator and vary the frequency from (0-1M)
Hz in a regular steps.
3. Note down the corresponding output voltage and current.
4. Plot the graph: Normalized impedance
|
|
.
|
\
|
0
Z
Z
Vs frequencies

To measure the resonance frequency:
1. Plot the graph: Normalized impedance
|
|
.
|
\
|
0
Z
Z
Vs frequencies

2. Draw a horizontal line, which intersects the curve at
2
1
times the maximum current
reading.
3. Lower intersected point and upper intersected point are respectively called lower cut-
off frequency and upper cut-off frequency on frequency axis.
Quality factor:
Q
0
=
Reactance
Resistnace
=
L
R
0
=R
L
C


Bandwidth & selectivity:

In parallel resonance circuit, the specified points are the one at which normalized impedance
falls to
2
1
of its value at resonance.
Bandwidth, BW =f
2
f
1

Selectivity =Bandwidth/f
0
=(f
2
f
1
)/ f
0

RESULT:

Thus the parallel and series RLC circuit was designed and the frequency response curves
were drawn.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
RC circuit diagram:
Performance 2
Observation 2
Viva 2
Total 6

RL circuit diagram:

Ex.No: TRANSIENT ANALYSIS OF RL AND RC CIRCUITS

Date:

AIM:
To design a RL and RC circuit and to obtain the Steady state response.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
4 Resistor 12K 1
5 Capacitor 1000F 1
6 Inductor 1mH 1
7 Bread board 1

PROCEDURE (Series Resonance):
2. Switch over the contact to position 1.
3. Switch on the power supply and stopwatch simultaneously.
4. Take the ammeter and voltmeter reading in a regular time interval.
5. Switch over the contact to position 2 and simultaneously reverse the polarity of ammeter.
6. Note down the reading from the ammeter and voltmeter at regular time intervals.
7. Plot the graph: voltage vs time (charging and discharging)
Current vs time (charging and discharging)
Tabulation:
Voltage(volts) Time( sec)


MODEL GRAPH:
Charging graph:


Discharging graph:


RESULT:
Thus the RL & RC circuit was designed and the Steady state response curves were
drawn.

Performance 2
Observation 2
Viva 2
Total 6


CONTENT BEYOND THE SYLLABUS

CIRCUIT
DIAGRAM:

WITHOUT
FILTER:

WITH FILTER:

Ex.No:
HALF WAVE RECTIFIER
Date:

Aim:
To construct a half wave rectifier and to measure DC voltage under load and to calculate
the ripple factor.

Apparatus Required:
2 Diode 1N4007 1
3 Resistor 1k 2
4 Capacitor 100F 1
5 CRO (0-30)MHz 1
6 Bread Board - 1

Model Graph:

Tabulation:

S.No Condition
1 Without Filter
2 With Filter

Procedure:
dc
.


RESULT:
Thus the half wave rectifier was constructed and its input and output waveforms are
drawn.
DC Voltage
Ripple Factor

Performance 2
Observation 2
Viva 2
Total 6

Viva Questions and answers:
1. In a half-wave rectifier, the load current flows for only the
.. of the input signal.
2. A half-wave rectifier is equivalent to a circuit.
3. The output of a half-wave rectifier is suitable for running ........... motors.
4. The DC output polarity from a half-wave rectifier can be reversed by reversing the
.
5. In a half wave rectifier if a resistance equal to load resistance is connected in parallel with
the diode then the circuit will .
6. The efficiency and ripple factor of a half-wave rectifier is and
..
7. The main job of a voltage regulator is to provide a nearly . output voltage.
8. In a Zener diode voltage regulator, the diode regulates so long as it is kept in
.. bias condition.
9. In Zener diode regulator, the maximum load current which can be supplied to load resistor is
limited in between .. and .
10. The percentage voltage regulation of voltage supply providing 100 V unloaded and 95 V at
full load is

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
WITHOUT FILTER:

WITH FILTER:

Ex.No:
BRIDGE WAVE RECTIFIER
Date:

Aim:
To construct a bridge wave rectifier and to measure DC voltage under load and to
calculate the ripple factor.

Apparatus Required:
2 Diode 1N4007 4
3 Resistor 1k 2
4 Capacitor 100F 1
5 CRO (0-30)MHz 1
6 Bread Board - 1

Model Graph:

Tabulation:

S.No Condition
1 Without Filter
2 With Filter

Procedure:
dc
.


RESULT:
Thus the bridge wave rectifier was constructed and its input and output waveforms are
drawn.
DC Voltage
Ripple Factor

Performance 2
Observation 2
Viva 2
Total 6

VIVAQUESTIONS:-
1. What is the PIV of Bridge rectifier?
2. What is the efficiency of Bridge rectifier?
3. What are the advantages of Bridge rectifier?
4. What is the difference between the Bridge rectifier and fullwaverectifier?
5. What is the o/p frequency of Bridge Rectifier?
6. What is the disadvantage of Bridge Rectifier?
7. What is the maximum secondary voltage of a transformer?
8. What are the different types of the filters?
9. What is the difference between the Bridge rectifier and half wave Rectifier?
10. What is the maximum DC power delivered to the load?

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