Entropy and Art an Essay on Disorder and Order

by Rudolf Arnheim University Of California Press, Berkeley - Los Angeles - London, 1971 Contents

I Useful order Refle tions of !"ysi al order #isorder and degradation $"at t"e !"ysi ist "as in %ind Infor%ation and order Pro&a&ility and stru ture '(uili&riu% )ension redu tion and *ear and tear )"e virtue of onstraints )"e stru tural t"e%e II Order in t"e se ond !la e )"e !leasures of tension redu tion +o%eostasis is not enoug" A need for o%!le,ity Art %ade si%!le Call for stru ture -otes Plates Bi&liogra!"y

I
Order is a ne essary ondition for anyt"ing t"e "u%an %ind is to understand. Arrange%ents su " as t"e layout of a ity or &uilding, a set of tools, a dis!lay of %er "andise, t"e ver&al e,!osition of fa ts or ideas, or a !ainting or !ie e of %usi are alled orderly *"en an o&server or listener an gras! t"eir overall stru ture and t"e ra%ifi ation of t"e stru ture in so%e detail. Order %akes it !ossi&le to fo us on *"at is alike and *"at is different, *"at &elongs toget"er and *"at is segregated. $"en not"ing su!erfluous is in luded and not"ing indis!ensa&le left out, one an understand t"e interrelation of t"e *"ole and its !arts, as *ell as t"e "ierar "i s ale of i%!ortan e and !o*er &y *"i " so%e stru tural features are do%inant, ot"ers su&ordinate.

USEFUL ORDER In %any instan es, order is a!!re"ended first of all &y t"e senses. )"e o&server !er eives an organi/ed stru ture in t"e s"a!es and olors or sounds fa ing "i%. But it is "ard, !er"a!s i%!ossi&le, to find e,a%!les in *"i " t"e order of a given o&0e t or event is li%ited to *"at is dire tly a!!arent in !er e!tion. Rat"er, t"e !er eiva&le order tends to &e %anifested and understood as a refle tion of an underlying order, *"et"er !"ysi al, so ial, or ognitive. Our kinest"eti sense tells us t"roug" our %us ular rea tions *"et"er a devi e or engine *orks *it" a s%oot" ordering of its !arts1 in fa t, it infor%s us si%ilarly a&out t"e !erfe t or i%!erfe t fun tioning of our o*n &odies. )"e s!atial layout of a &uilding refle ts and serves t"e distri&ution and inter onne tions of various fun tions1 t"e grou!ings of t"e ans and !a kages on t"e s"elves of a store guide t"e usto%er to t"e ordered varieties of "ouse"old goods, and t"e s"a!es and olors of a !ainting or t"e sounds of a !ie e of %usi sy%&oli/e t"e intera tion of %eaningful entities. 2in e outer order so often re!resents inner or fun tional order, orderly for% %ust not &e evaluated &y itself, t"at is, a!art fro% its relation to t"e organi/ation it signifies. )"e for% %ay &e (uite orderly and yet %isleading, &e ause its stru ture does not orres!ond to t"e order it stands for. Blaise Pas al o&serves in "is Pensees 32e t. 1, no. 4756 7)"ose *"o %ake antit"eses &y for ing t"e *ords are like t"ose *"o %ake false *indo*s for sy%%etry8s sake6 t"eir rule is not to s!eak rig"t &ut to %ake rig"t figures.7 A la k of orres!onden e &et*een outer and inner order !rodu es a las" of orders, *"i " is to say t"at it introdu es an ele%ent of disorder. ',ternal orderliness "iding disorder %ay &e e,!erien ed as offensive. 9i "el Butor, dis ussing t"e -e* :ork City of t"e 19;<s, s!eaks of %arvelous *alls of glass *it" t"eir deli ate s reens of "ori/ontals and verti als, in *"i " t"e sky refle ts itself1 &ut inside t"ose &uildings all t"e s ra!s of 'uro!e are !iled u! in onfusion. )"ose ad%ira&le large re tangles, in !lan or elevation, %ake t"e tee%ing "aos to *"i " t"ey are &asi ally unrelated !arti ularly intolera&le. )"e %agnifi ent grid is artifi ially i%!osed u!on a ontinent t"at "as not !rodu ed it1 it is a la* one endures 31=, !. >;?5. @urt"er%ore, order is a ne essary ondition for %aking a stru ture fun tion. A !"ysi al %e "anis%, &e it a tea% of la&orers, t"e &ody of an ani%al, or a %a "ine, an *ork only if it is in !"ysi al order. )"e %e "anis% %ust &e organi/ed in su " a *ay t"at t"e various for es onstituting it are !ro!erly attuned to one anot"er. @un tions %ust &e assigned in kee!ing *it" a!a ity1 du!li ations and onfli ts %ust &e avoided. Any !rogress re(uires a "ange of order. A revolution %ust ai% at t"e destru tion of t"e given order and *ill su eed only &y asserting an order of its o*n. Order is a !rere(uisite of survival1 t"erefore t"e i%!ulse to !rodu e orderly arrange%ents is in&red &y evolution. )"e so ial organi/ations of ani%als, t"e s!atial for%ations of travelling &irds or fis"es, t"e *e&s of s!iders and &ee "ives are e,a%!les. A !ervasive striving for order see%s to &e in"erent also in t"e "u%an %ind-an in lination t"at a!!lies %ostly for good !ra ti al reasons. 4

REFLECTIONS OF !"SICAL ORDER +o*ever, !ra ti ality is not t"e only onsideration. )"ere are for%s of &e"avior suggesting a different i%!ulse. $"y *ould e,!eri%ents in !er e!tion s"o* t"at t"e %ind organi/es visual !atterns s!ontaneously in su " a *ay t"at t"e si%!lest availa&le stru ture resultsA315 )o &e sure, one %ig"t sur%ise t"at all !er e!tion involves a desire to understand and t"at t"e si%!lest, %ost orderly stru ture fa ilitates understanding. If a line figure 3@igure 1a5 an &e seen as a o%&ination of s(uare and ir le, it is %ore readily a!!re"ended t"an t"e o%&ination of t"ree units indi ated in @igure 1&. 'ven so, anot"er e,!lanation i%!oses itself *"en one re%e%&ers t"at su " ele%entary !er e!tual &e"avior is &ut a refle tion of analogous !"ysiologi al !ro esses taking !la e in t"e &rain. If t"ere *ere inde!endent eviden e to %ake it likely t"at a si%ilar tenden y to*ard orderly stru ture e,ists in t"ese &rain !ro esses also, one %ig"t *ant to t"ink of !er e!tual order as t"e ons ious %anifestation of a %ore universal !"ysiologi al and indeed !"ysi al !"eno%enon.

@igure 1a @igure 1& )"e orres!onding a tivities in t"e &rain *ould "ave to &e field !ro esses &e ause only *"en t"e for es onstituting a !ro ess are suffi iently free to intera t an a !attern organi/e itself s!ontaneously a ording to t"e stru ture !revailing in t"e *"ole. -o kno*n fa t !revents us fro% assu%ing t"at su " field !ro esses do indeed take !la e in t"e sensory areas of t"e &rain.345 )"ey are (uite o%%on in !"ysi s. It *as $olfgang Bo"ler *"o, i%!ressed &y t"e gestalt la* of si%!le stru ture in !sy "ology, surveyed orres!onding !"eno%ena in t"e !"ysi al s ien es in "is &ook on t"e 7!"ysi al gestalten,7 a naturphilosophische investigation !u&lis"ed in 194< 3?<5. In a later !a!er "e noted6 In !"ysi s *e "ave a si%!le rule a&out t"e nature of e(uili&ria, a rule *"i " *as inde!endently esta&lis"ed &y t"ree !"ysi ists6 '. 9a ", P. Curie, and $. Coigt. )"ey o&served t"at in a state of e(uili&riu%, !ro esses-or %aterials-tend to assu%e t"e %ost even and regular distri&utions of *"i " t"ey are a!a&le under t"e given onditions 3>9, !. ;<<5. )*o e,a%!les %ay onvey an idea of t"is sort of !"ysi al &e"avior. )"e !"ysi ist 2ir Dose!" D. )"o%son on e illustrated t"e e(uili&riu% of or!us les in a !lane &y t"e &e"avior of %agneti/ed needles !us"ed t"roug" ork dis s t"at float on *ater. )"e needles, "aving t"eir !oles all !ointing t"e sa%e *ay, re!el ea " ot"er like t"e ato%i or!us les. A large %agnet is !la ed a&ove t"e surfa e of t"e *ater, its lo*er !ole &eing of t"e o!!osite sign to t"at of t"e u!!er !oles of t"e floating %agnets. Under t"ese onditions, t"e needles, *"i " re!el ea " ot"er &ut are attra ted &y t"e larger %agnet, *ill arrange t"e%selves on t"e surfa e of t"e *ater around t"e enter of attra tion in t"e si%!lest !ossi&le for%6 t"ree needles in a triangle, four at t"e o%ers of a s(uare, five at >

t"e o%ers of a !entagon. )"us orderly s"a!e results fro% t"e &alan ing of t"e antagonisti for es 3E;, !. 11<5.3>5 )"e sa%e kind of effe t an &e o&served in anot"er de%onstration 3Plate 15, intended to si%ulate t"e &e"avior of !ro!ellant gases and li(uids under onditions of /ero-gravity. A lu ite %odel of t"e Centaur fuel tank is filled *it" lear oil and olored *ater. Bot" are of e(ual density and do not %i,, 7and t"e natural surfa e of t"e *ater for%s an interfa e of onstant e(ual tension &et*een t"e%, *"i " is al%ost like a %e%&rane.73?5 Cariously agitated or rotated, t"e segregating surfa e assu%es all sorts of a idental s"a!es. But *"en outside interferen e eases, t"e for es in"erent in t"e t*o li(uids organi/e t"e%selves to onstitute an overall state of e(uili&riu% or %ini%u% tension, *"i " results in !erfe tly regular s!"eri al s"a!e-t"e si%!lest s"a!e availa&le under t"e ir u%stan es. 2u " de%onstrations s"o* t"at orderly for% *ill o%e a&out as t"e visi&le result of !"ysi al for es esta&lis"ing, under field onditions, t"e %ost &alan ed onfigurations attaina&le. )"is is true for inorgani as *ell as organi syste%s, for t"e sy%%etries of rystals as *ell as t"ose of flo*ers or ani%al &odies.3;5 $"at s"all *e %ake of t"is si%ilarity of organi and inorgani strivingA Is it &y %ere oin iden e t"at order, develo!ing every*"ere in organi evolution as a ondition of survival and reali/ed &y %an in "is %ental and !"ysi al a tivities, is also striven for &y inani%ate nature, *"i " kno*s no !ur!oseA )"e !re eding e,a%!les "ave s"o*n t"at t"e for es onstituting a !"ysi al field "ave no alternative. )"ey annot ease to rearrange t"e%selves until t"ey &lo k ea " ot"er8s %ove%ent &y attaining a state of &alan e. )"e state of &alan e is t"e only one in *"i " t"e syste% re%ains at rest, and &alan e %akes for order &e ause it re!resents t"e si%!lest !ossi&le onfiguration of t"e syste%8s o%!onents. A !ro!er version of order, "o*ever, is also a !rere(uisite of good fun tioning and is as!ired to for t"is reason also &y organi nature and &y %an. DISORDER AND DE#RADATION )"e vision of su " "ar%onious striving for order t"roug"out nature is distur&ingly ontradi ted &y one of t"e %ost influential state%ents on t"e &e"avior of !"ysi al for es, na%ely, t"e 2e ond La* of )"er%odyna%i s. )"e %ost general a ount !"ysi ists are *illing to give of "anges in ti%e is often for%ulated to %ean t"at t"e %aterial *orld %oves fro% orderly states to an ever-in reasing disorder and t"at t"e final situation of t"e universe *ill &e one of %a,i%al disorder. )"us 9a, Plan k, in "is le tures on t"eoreti al !"ysi s delivered at Colu%&ia University in 194<, said6 )"erefore, it is not t"e ato%i distri&ution, &ut rat"er t"e "y!ot"esis of ele%entary disorder, *"i " for%s t"e real kernel of t"e !rin i!le of in rease of entro!y and, t"erefore, t"e !reli%inary ondition for t"e e,isten e of entro!y. $it"out ele%entary disorder t"ere is neit"er entro!y nor irreversi&le !ro ess 3;;, !. ;<5. And in a re ent &ook, Angrist and +e!ler for%ulate t"e 2e ond La* as follo*s6 79i ros o!i disorder 3entro!y5 of a syste% and its surroundings 3all of t"e relevant universe5 does not s!ontaneously de rease7 3>, !. 1;15. In t"is sense, t"erefore, entro!y is defined as t"e (uantitative %easure of t"e degree of disorder in a syste%-a definition t"at, as *e s"all see, is in need of onsidera&le inter!retation. ?

9ode% s ien e, t"en, %aintains on t"e one "and t"at nature, &ot" organi and inorgani , strives to*ards a state of order and t"at %an8s a tions are governed &y t"e sa%e tenden y. It %aintains on t"e ot"er "and t"at !"ysi al syste%s %ove to*ards a state of %a,i%u% disorder. )"is ontradi tion in t"eory alls for larifi ation. Is one of t"e t*o assertions *rongA Are t"e t*o !arties talking a&out different t"ings or do t"ey atta " different %eanings to t"e sa%e *ordsA )"e @irst La* of )"er%odyna%i s referred to t"e onservation of energy. It stated t"at energy %ay &e "anged fro% one for% to anot"er &ut is neit"er reated nor destroyed. )"is ould sound un!leasant if one took it to %ean 3as one of t"e leading !"ysi ists of t"e ti%e, Do"n )yndall, a tually did5 t"at 7t"e la* of onservation e, ludes &ot" reation and anni"ilation7 3>?, !. 1<E45. )"e !o!ular onnotations of t"e 2e ond La* of )"er%odyna%i s *ere (uite different. $"en it &egan to enter t"e !u&li ons iousness a entury or so ago, it suggested an a!o aly!ti vision of t"e ourse of events on eart". )"e 2e ond La* stated t"at t"e entro!y of t"e *orld strives to*ards a %a,i%u%, *"i " a%ounted to saying t"at t"e energy in t"e universe, alt"oug" onstant in a%ount, *as su&0e t to %ore and %ore dissi!ation and degradation. )"ese ter%s "ad a distin tly negative ring. )"ey *ere ongenial to a !essi%isti , %ood of t"e ti%es. 2te!"en F. Brus", in a !a!er on t"er%odyna%i s and "istory, !oints out t"at in 1=;7 t"ere *ere !u&lis"ed in @ran e Benedi t Auguste 9orel8s Traite des degenerescences physiques, intellectuelles et morales de lespece humaine as *ell as C"arles Baudelaire8s Fleurs du mal 317, !. ;<;5. )"e so&er for%ulations of Clausius, Belvin, and Bolt/%ann *ere suited to &e o%e a os%i %e%ento %ori, !ointing to t"e underlying ause of t"e gradual de ay of all t"ings !"ysi al and %ental. A ording to +enry Ada%sG *itty treatise, )"e Degradation of the Democratic Dogma, 7to t"e vulgar and ignorant "istorian it %eant only t"at t"e as" "ea! *as onstantly in reasing in si/e7 31, !. 1?45. )"e sun *as getting s%aller, t"e eart" older, and no day !assed *it"out t"e @ren " or Fer%an ne*s!a!ers !rodu ing so%e uneasy dis ussion of su!!osed so ial de re!itude1 falling off of t"e &irt"rate1 -de line of rural !o!ulation1 -lo*ering of ar%y standards1-%ulti!li ation of sui ides-in rease of insanity or idio y, -of an er, -of tu&er ulosis1 -signs of nervous e,"austion,-of enfee&led vitality, -H"a&its7 of al o"olis% and drugs, -failure of eyesig"t in t"e young-and so on, *it"out end... 31, !. 1=E5. )"is *as in 191<. In -1=94, 9a, -ordau "ad !u&lis"ed "is fa%ous Degeneration -a &ook %ost sy%!to%ati of t"e fin de siecle %ood, alt"oug" it annot &e said to i%!ly t"at %ankind as a *"ole *as on its *ay out 3;15. In "is diatri&e of nearly a t"ousand !ages, t"e +ungarian !"ysi ian and *riter, &asing "is ontentions on t"e *ork of 9orel and Lo%&roso, denoun ed t"e *ealt"y ity d*ellers and t"eir artists, o%!osers, and *riters as "ysteri s and degenerates. @or instan e, "e t"oug"t t"at t"e !i torial style of t"e I%!ressionists *as due to t"e nystag%us found in t"e eyes of 7degenerates7 and t"e !artial anest"esia of t"e retinae in "ysteri s. +e attri&uted t"e "ig" in iden e of degeneration to nervous e,"austion !rodu ed &y %odern te "nology as *ell as to al o"ol, to&a o, nar oti s, sy!"ilis. But "e !redi ted t"at in t"e t*entiet" entury %ankind *ould !rove "ealt"y enoug" to eit"er tolerate %odern life *it"out "ar% or re0e t it as intolera&le ;

3;1, !. ;<=ff5. )oday *e no longer regard t"e universe as t"e ause of our o*n undeserved trou&les &ut !er"a!s, on t"e ontrary, as t"e last refuge fro% t"e %is%anage%ent of our eart"ly affairs. 'ven so, t"e la* of entro!y ontinues to %ake for a &ot"erso%e dis re!an y in t"e "u%anities and "el!s to %aintain t"e artifi ial se!aration fro% t"e natural s ien es. Lan elot L. $"yte, a utely a*are of t"e !ro&le%, for%ulated it &y asking6 7$"at is t"e relation of t"e t*o os%i tenden ies6 to*ards %e "ani al disorder 3entro!y !rin i!le5 and to*ards geo%etri al order 3in rystals, %ole ules, organis%s, et .5A7 37<, !. 475. )"e visual arts "ave re ently !resented us *it" t*o stylisti trends *"i ", at first look, %ay see% (uite different fro% ea " ot"er &ut *"i " t"e !resent investigation %ay reveal to "ave o%%on roots. On t"e one "and, t"ere is a dis!lay of e,tre%e si%!li ity, initiated as early as 191> &y t"e Russian !ainter Basi%ir 9alevi "8s 2u!re%atist &la k s(uare on a *"ite ground 341, !. >?45. )"is tenden y "as a long "istory in t"e %ore ele%entary varieties of orna%entation as *ell as t"e frugal design of %any fun tional o&0e ts t"roug" t"e ages. In our o*n day, *e "ave !i tures li%ited to a fe* !arallel stri!es, anvases evenly stained *it" a single olor, &are &o,es of *ood or %etal, and so fort". )"e ot"er tenden y, relying on a idental or deli&erately !rodu ed disorder, an &e tra ed &a k to a !redile tion for o%!ositions of rando%ly gat"ered su&0e t %atter in #ut " still lifes, untidy s enes of so ial riti is% in t"e generation of +ogart", grou!s of unrelated individuals in @ren " genre s enes of t"e nineteent" entury, and so on 3?5. In %ode% !ainting *e note t"e %ore or less ontrolled s!las"es and s!rays of !aint, in s ul!ture a relian e on "an e te,tures, tears or t*ists of various %aterials, and found o&0e ts. Related sy%!to%s in ot"er &ran "es of art are t"e use of rando% se(uen es of *ords or !ages in literature, or a %usi al !erfor%an e !resenting not"ing &ut silen e so t"at t"e audien e %ay listen to t"e noises of t"e street outside. In t"e *ritings of t"e o%!oser Do"n Cage, one finds o&servations su " as t"e follo*ing6 I asked "i% *"at a %usi al s ore is no*. +e said t"at8s a good (uestion. I said6 Is it a fi,ed relations"i! of !artsA +e said6 Of ourse not1 t"at *ould &e insulting. 319, !. 475 9aga/ine and ne*s!a!er riti s often dis uss t"ese !"eno%ena *it" t"e &land or tonguein- "eek o&0e tivity of t"e re!orter. Or t"ey attri&ute to ele%entary signs t"e !o*er of onsu%%ate sy%&ols, for instan e, &y a e!ting a si%!le arro* as t"e e,!ression of os%i soaring or des ent, or t"e rus"ed re%ains of an auto%o&ile as an i%age of so ial tur%oil. $"en t"ey onde%n su " *ork, t"ey tend to a use t"e artists of i%!ertinen e and la k of talent or i%agination *it"out at t"e sa%e ti%e evaluating t"e *ork as sy%!to%ati and analy/ing its ause and !ur!ose. Aest"eti and s ientifi !rin i!les do not see% to &e readily at "and. O asional e,!li it referen es to entro!y an &e found in riti al *riting. Ri "ard Bostelanet/, in an arti le on 7Inferential Arts,7 (uotes Ro&ert 2%it"son8s Entropy and the New Monuments as saying of re ent to*ering s ul!tures of &asi s"a!es t"at t"ey are 7not &uilt for t"e ages &ut rat"er against t"e ages7 and 7"ave !rovided a visi&le analogue for t"e 2e ond La* of )"er%odyna%i s7 3?4, !. 445. 2urely t"e !o!ular use of t"e notion of E

entro!y "as "anged. If during t"e last entury it served to diagnose, e,!lain, and de!lore t"e degradation of ulture, it no* !rovides a !ositive rationale for 7%ini%al7 art and t"e !leasures of "aos.3E5 $!AT T!E !"SICIST !AS IN %IND )u%ing fro% t"e &ravura of t"e %arket !la e to t"e t"eoreti al issues, one %ay *ant to ask first of all6 $"at is it t"at indu es !"ysi ists to des ri&e t"e end state of ertain %aterial syste%s as one of %a,i%al disorder, t"at is, to use des ri!tive ter%s of distin tly negative onnotationA @or t"e ans*er one %ust look at t"eir vie* of 3a5 t"e s"a!e situations and 3&5 t"e dyna%i onfigurations !revailing in early and late states of !"ysi al syste%s. +ere one dis overs, first of all, t"at t"e !ro esses %easured &y t"e !rin i!le of entro!y are !er eived as t"e gradual or sudden destru tion of inviolate o&0e ts-a degradation involving t"e &reaking-u! of s"a!e, t"e dissolution of fun tional onte,ts, t"e a&olition of %eaningful lo ation. P. ). Lands&erg in a le ture, Entropy and the Unity of nowledge, "ooses t"e follo*ing "ara teristi e,a%!le6 )idy a*ay all your "ildren8s toys in a toy u!&oard, and t"e !ro&a&ility of finding !art of a toy in a u&i enti%eter is "ig"ly !eaked in t"e region of t"e u!&oard. Release a rando%i/ing influen e in t"e for% of an untidy "ild, and t"e distri&ution for t"e syste% *ill soon s!read 3?;, !. 1E5. )"e "ild8s !layroo% an indeed serve as an e,a%!le of disorder-es!e ially if *e do not grant t"e "ild a "earing to defend t"e "idden order of "is o*n toy arrange%ents as "e sees t"e%. But t"e %essed-u! roo% is not a good e,a%!le of a final t"er%odyna%i state. )"e "ild %ay "ave su eeded in &reaking all t"e fun tional and for%al ties a%ong "is i%!le%ents &y destroying t"e initial order and re!la ing it *it" one of %any !ossi&le, e(ually ar&itrary arrange%ents. )"ere&y "e %ay "ave in reased t"e !ro&a&ility t"at t"e !resent kind of state %ay o%e a&out &y "an e, *"i " a%ounts to a res!e ta&le in rease of entro!y. +e %ay even "ave dis!ersed t"e !ie es of a 0igsa* !u//le or &roken a fire engine, t"ere&y e,tending disintegration so%e*"at &eyond t"e relations a%ong o%!lete o&0e ts to in lude t"e relations a%ong !arts. -evert"eless, t"e "ild is a very ineffi ient rando%i/er. @ailing to grind "is &elongings to a !o*der of inde!endent %ole ules, "e "as !reserved islands of untou "ed order every*"ere. In fa t, it is only &e ause of t"is failure t"at t"e state of "is roo% an &e alled disorderly. #isorder 7is not t"e a&sen e of all order &ut rat"er t"e las" of un oordinated orders7 37, !. 14;5.375 )"e rando% *"irling of ele%entary !arti les, "o*ever, does not %eet t"is definition of disorder. Alt"oug" it %ay "ave o%e a&out &y dissolution, it is a tually a kind of order. )"is *ill &e o%e learer if I refer to anot"er o%%on %odel for t"e in rease of entro!y, na%ely s"uffling 34>, "a!. ?5. )"e usual inter!retation of t"is o!eration is t"at &y s"uffling, say, a de k of ards one onverts an initial order into a reasona&ly !erfe t disorder. )"is, "o*ever, an &e %aintained only if any !arti ular initial se(uen e of ards in t"e de k is onsidered an order and if t"e !ur!ose of t"e s"uffling o!eration is ignored. A tually, of ourse, t"e de k is s"uffled &e ause all !layers are to "ave t"e "an e of 7

re eiving a o%!ara&le assort%ent of ards. )o t"is end, s"uffling, &y ai%ing at a rando% se(uen e, is %eant to reate a "o%ogeneous distri&ution of t"e various kinds of ards t"roug"out t"e de k. )"is "o%ogeneity is t"e order de%anded &y t"e !ur!ose of t"e o!eration. )o &e sure, it is a lo* level of order and, in fa t, a li%iting ase of order &e ause t"e only stru tural ondition it fulfills is t"at a suffi iently e(ual distri&ution s"all !revail t"roug"out t"e se(uen e. A very large nu%&er of !arti ular se(uen es an %eet t"is ondition1 &ut it is an order nevert"eless, si%ilar, for e,a%!le, to t"e sort of sy%%etry of a so%e*"at "ig"er order t"at *ould e,ist in t"e initial set-u! of a ga%e in *"i " every !layer *ould &e dealt one ard of ea " kind syste%ati ally. Before s"uffling, t"e initial se(uen e of t"e ards in t"e de k, if onsidered &y and for itself, %ay "ave &een (uite orderly. Per"a!s all t"e a es or all t"e deu es *ere lying toget"er. But t"is order *ould &e like t"e false *indo*s in Pas al8s e,a%!le. It *ould &e in dis ord *it" t"e very different order re(uired for t"e ga%e, and t"e false relation &et*een for% and fun tion *ould onstitute an ele%ent of disorder. )"e orderliness in"erent in t"e "o%ogeneity of a suffi iently large rando% distri&ution is easily overlooked &e ause t"e !ro&a&ility statisti s of t"e entro!y !rin i!le is no %ore des ri!tive of stru ture t"an a t"er%o%eter is of t"e nature of "eat. Cyril 2. 2%it" "as o&served6 7Like %ole ular stru ture earlier, (uantu% %e "ani s &egan al%ost as a notational devi e, and even today !"ysi ists tend to ignore t"e rat"er o&vious s!atial stru ture underlying t"eir energy-level notation7 3E4, !. E?45. Pure t"er%odyna%i s, in t"e *ords of Plan k, 7kno*s not"ing of an ato%i stru ture and regards all su&stan es as a&solutely ontinuous7 3;;, !. ?11 >=5. In fa t, t"e ter% disorder, *"en used &y !"ysi ists in t"is onne tion, is intended to %ean no %ore t"an t"at 7t"e single ele%ents, *it" *"i " t"e statisti al a!!roa " o!erates, &e"ave in o%!lete inde!enden e fro% one anot"er7 3;7, !. ?45. It follo*s t"at t"e entro!y !rin i!le defines order si%!ly as an i%!ro&a&le arrange%ent of ele%ents, regardless of *"et"er t"e %a ro-s"a!e of t"is arrange%ent is &eautifully stru tured or %ost ar&itrarily defor%ed1 and it alls disorder t"e dissolution of su " an i%!ro&a&le arrange%ent. INFOR%ATION AND ORDER )"e a&surd onse(uen es of negle ting stru ture &ut using t"e on e!t of order 0ust t"e sa%e are evident if one e,a%ines t"e !resent ter%inology of infor%ation t"eory. +ere order is des ri&ed as t"e arrier of infor%ation, &e ause infor%ation is defined as t"e o!!osite of entro!y, and entro!y is a %easure of disorder. )o trans%it infor%ation %eans to indu e order. )"is sounds reasona&le enoug". -e,t, sin e entro!y gro*s *it" t"e !ro&a&ility of a state of affairs, infor%ation does t"e o!!osite6 it in reases *it" its i%!ro&a&ility. )"e less likely an event is to "a!!en, t"e %ore infor%ation does its o urren e re!resent. )"is again see%s reasona&le. -o* *"at sort of se(uen e of events *ill &e least !redi ta&le and t"erefore arry a %a,i%u% of infor%ationA O&viously a totally disordered one, sin e *"en *e are onfronted *it" "aos *e an never !redi t *"at *ill "a!!en ne,t. )"e on lusion is t"at total disorder !rovides a %a,i%u% of infor%ation1 and sin e infor%ation is %easured &y order, a %a,i%u% of order is onveyed &y a %a,i%u% of disorder. O&viously, t"is is a Ba&ylonian %uddle. 2o%e&ody =

or so%et"ing "as onfounded our language.3=5 )"e ause of t"e trou&le is t"at *"en *e o%%only talk a&out order *e %ean a !ro!erty of stru ture. In a !urely statisti al sense, on t"e ot"er "and, t"e ter% order an &e used to des ri&e a se(uen e or arrange%ent of ite%s unlikely to o%e a&out &y %ere "an e. -o* in a *orld of totally unrelated ite%s, *"i " "as t"e t"ro*ing of di e as its !aradig%, all !arti ular se(uen es or arrange%ents of ite%s are e(ually unlikely to o ur, *"et"er a series of straig"t si,es or a totally irregular &ut !arti ular se(uen e of t"e si, digits. In t"e language of infor%ation t"eory, *"i " ignores stru ture, ea " of t"ese se(uen es arries a %a,i%u% a%ount of infor%ation, i.e., of order, unless t"e !ro edure "a!!ens to &e a!!lied to a *orld t"at e,"i&its regularities. 2tru ture %eans to t"e infor%ation t"eorist not"ing &etter t"an t"at ertain se(uen es of ite%s an &e e,!e ted to o ur. 2u!!ose you *at " a straig"t line gro*ing-a va!or trail in t"e sky or a &la k %ark in an ani%ated fil% or on t"e !ad of an artist. In a *orld of !ure "an e, t"e !ro&a&ility of t"e line ontinuing in t"e sa%e dire tion is %ini%al. It is re i!ro al to t"e infinite nu%&er of dire tions t"e line %ay take. In a stru tured *orld, t"ere is so%e !ro&a&ility t"at t"e straig"t line *ill ontinue to &e straig"t. A !erson on erned *it" stru ture an atte%!t to derive t"is !ro&a&ility fro% "is understanding of t"e stru ture. +o* likely is t"e air!lane suddenly to "ange its ourseA Fiven t"e nature of t"e fil% or t"e artist8s dra*ing, "o* likely is t"e straig"t line -to ontinueA )"e infor%ation t"eorist, *"o !ersists in ignoring stru ture, an "andle t"is situation only &y deriving fro% earlier events a %easure of "o* long t"e straig"tness is likely to ontinue. +e asks6 $"at *as t"e lengt" of t"e straig"t lines t"at o urred &efore in t"e sa%e situation or in o%!ara&le onesA Being a ga%&ler, "e takes a &lind "an e on t"e future, on t"e &asis of *"at "a!!ened in t"e !ast. If "e &ets on t"e regularity of straig"tness, it is only &e ause straig"tness "as &een o&served &efore or "as &een de reed &y t"e rules of t"e ga%e. A !arti ular for% of rookedness *ould do 0ust as *ell as t"e straig"t line, if it "a!!ened to %eet t"e statisti al ondition, in a *orld in *"i " rookedness *ere t"e rule. -aturally, %ost of t"e ti%e su " !redi tions *ill &e la&orious and untrust*ort"y. @e* t"ings in t"is *orld an &e safely !redi ted fro% t"e fre(uen y of t"eir !revious o urren e alone1 and t"e voluntary a&stinen e &y *"i " !ure statisti s of t"is kind re0e ts any ot"er riterion, t"at is to say, any understanding of stru ture, *ill %ake al ulations very diffi ult. Any !redi ta&le regularity is ter%ed redundant &y t"e infor%ation t"eorist &e ause "e is o%%itted to e ono%y6 every state%ent %ust &e li%ited to *"at is needed. +e s"ares t"is o%%it%ent *it" s ientists and artists1 its %eaning, "o*ever, de!ends on *"et"er one "o!s u! !atterns into ele%entary &its or *"et"er one treats t"e% as stru tures.395 A straig"t line redu ed to a se(uen e of dots for t"e !ur!ose of !ie e%eal analysis or trans%ission an &e "ig"ly redundant1 in t"e dra*ing of a geo%etri ian, engineer, or artist it is not. )"e !ro essions of al%ost identi al "u%an figures on t"e *alls of 2an A!ollinare -uovo in Ravenna are not redundant. )"ey are intended to i%!ress t"e eyes of t"e &e"olders *it" t"e s!e ta le of a %ultitude of *ors"i!ers united in t"e sa%e religious fun tion. In our o*n day, Andy $ar"ol "as !resented one !"otogra!" in ro*s of identi al re!rodu tions in order to e,!lore onnotations of %e "ani al %ulti!li ation as a !"eno%enon of %odern life. 2tru tural redundan y does, of ourse, e,ist1 &ut it de!ends 9

entirely on "o* %u " re!etition is re(uired &y t"e visual nature of t"e total !attern. )"e effe t and %eaning of t"e single unit varies *it" t"e nu%&er of its re!etitions. I re%e%&er seeing a "ild8s dra*ing t"at re!resented a skys ra!er &uilding. )"e "ild "ad &egun to !ut in t"e ro*s of *indo*s &ut lost !atien e after a *"ile and avoided furt"er la&or &y t"e e,!edient s"o*n in @igure 4. @ro% t"e !oint of vie* of infor%ation t"eory, t"e "ild is to &e a!!lauded. +e "as re ogni/ed t"e redundan y of t"e *indo* !attern and "as !ra ti ed e ono%y &y a s"ort ut in o%%uni ation. If "is !ro edure strikes us as a%using, it is &e ause *e reali/e t"at to dis!lay stru ture to t"e eyes is t"e very !ur!ose of a !i ture. )"e "ild8s !ro edure *ould &e (uite !ro!er if t"e dra*ing *ere to &e di tated over t"e tele!"one. One *ould say6 79ake si,ty ro*s of t*elve *indo*s ea "I7 In dealing *it" stru ture, as is onstantly done in t"e arts, regularity of for% is not redundan y. It does not di%inis" infor%ation and t"ere&y di%inis" order. On t"e ontrary, for t"e !ur!oses of stru ture, regularity is a %ainstay of order, and t"is order is t"e &asi re(uire%ent for any ade(uate infor%ation a&out stru tured t"ings. )"e *ord 7infor%ation,7 taken literally, %eans to give for%1 and for% needs stru ture. )"is is *"y t"e te%!ting !ros!e t of a!!lying infor%ation t"eory to t"e arts and t"ere&y redu ing aest"eti for% to (uantitative %easure%ent "as re%ained largely unre*arding. )"e %ore

@igure 4 ade(uate t"e atte%!ts to a ount for a se(uen e of ite%s, e.g., in a !ie e of %usi &y al ulating t"e !ro&a&ility of its o urren e, t"e %ore ne essary is it to onsider o%!le, stru tural fa tors1 and t"is o%!le,ity of order tends to %ake t"e al ulation i%!ra ti a&le 3?=1 ?91 115. At t"is !oint, a signifi ant differen e &et*een infor%ation t"eory and t"e entro!y !rin i!le %ust &e leared u!. )"e infor%ation t"eorist8s o&0e t of in(uiry is an individual se(uen e or so%e ot"er arrange%ent of ite%s redu ed to su " a se(uen e. +e investigates t"e !ro&a&ility of its o urren e &y esta&lis"ing t"e nu%&er of !ossi&le se(uen es, one of *"i " is t"e !resent one. +e asks "o* likely is a !arti ular %elody *ritten &y 9o/art to ontinue in a ertain *ay, given t"e tone se(uen es 9o/art is kno*n to "ave *ritten on !revious o asions. )"e less !redi ta&le t"e se(uen e, t"e %ore infor%ation t"e se(uen e *ill &e said to yield, and if infor%ation is identified *it" order, t"e !arado, I %entioned *ill o ur and t"e least stru tured se(uen e *ill &e alled t"e %ost orderly. 'ntro!y t"eory, on t"e ot"er "and, is not on erned *it" t"e !ro&a&ility of su ession in a series of ite%s &ut *it" t"e overall distri&ution of kinds of ite%s in a given arrange%ent. )"e %ore re%ote t"e arrange%ent is fro% a rando% distri&ution, t"e lo*er *ill &e its entro!y and t"e "ig"er its level of order. )"is i%!lies t"e follo*ing differen e &et*een 1<

t"e t*o a!!roa "es6 a "ig"ly rando%i/ed se(uen e *ill &e said to arry %u " infor%ation &e ause infor%ation is on erned *it" t"e !ro&a&ility of t"is !arti ular se(uen e1 a si%ilarly rando%i/ed distri&ution *ill &e alled "ig"ly !ro&a&le and t"erefore of lo* order &y t"e entro!y t"eorist &e ause innu%era&le distri&utions of t"is kind an o ur. 31<5 A se(uen e of fifty *"ite &alls follo*ed &y fifty &la k ones *ill &e said to ontain %u " redundan y, little infor%ation, lo* order, if it o urs in an orderly *orld1 t"e o!!osite *ill &e true for a rando% se(uen e of *"ite and &la k &ars. )"e entro!y t"eorist, on t"e ot"er "and, *ill all t"e first distri&ution (uite orderly &e ause %ost unlikely to o ur &y "an e. +e *ill say of t"e rando% one t"at innu%era&le distri&utions of its kind an o ur and t"at t"erefore it "as lo* order and "ig" entro!y. RO&A&ILIT" AND STRUCTURE )"e differen e, t"en, is due to t"e fa t t"at t"e entro!y t"eorist is not on erned *it" sets of individual ite%s. 2u " sets *ould &e treated &y "i% as %i rostates, *"i " onstitute not"ing &ut 7 o%!le,ions7 of overall situations. )"e !arti ular nature of any one su " state does not %atter. Its stru tural uni(ueness, orderliness or disorderliness does not ount, and its entro!y annot &e %easured. $"at does %atter is t"e totality of t"ese innu%era&le o%!le,ions, adding u! to a glo&al %a rostate.3115 )"ink of a glassful of *ater, into *"i " a ta&let of as!irin "as 0ust &een dro!!ed. 9i ros o!i ally, %ole ules are in onstant %otion in &ot", t"e *ater and t"e as!irin. )"e onfiguration "anges fro% %i ro%o%ent to %i ro%o%ent. If *e "ad not"ing to *ork *it" &ut t"e situation at one of t"ese %i ro%o%ents, i.e., if *e "ad only a single o%!le,ion to look at, *e ould not tell *"et"er t"e unevenness of distri&ution -as!irin %ole ules ro*ded in one area, *ater !revailing else*"ere-*ere "ig"ly unusual or ty!i al for t"e state of affairs under investigation. Only &y adding u! a suffi ient nu%&er of %o%entary o%!le,ions over a suffi ient lengt" of ti%e an *e tell so%et"ing a&out t"e %a ros o!i state in t"e glass of *ater, i.e., esta&lis" its entro!y. As an analyti al %et"od t"is a!!roa " to t"er%odyna%i s re!resented a revolution. It %eant a &reak *it" t"e entury-old !ro edure of a ounting for a *"ole &y esta&lis"ing t"e relations a%ong its s%allest !arts. It dre* t"e onse(uen e of t"e fa t t"at t"e s*irling of %ole ules onstituting a !ool of *ater %i ros o!i ally s"o*s no kins"i! *it" t"e (uiet sig"t of t"e !ool looked at *it" t"e naked eye. Or, to use an e,a%!le of Le o%te du -ouy6 &y %i,ing a *"ite and a &la k !o*der one o&tains a !o*der of %ediu% grayness. )"is "o%ogeneous grayness. "o*ever, *ould not e,ist for a %i ros o!i inse t, *"i " *ould find itself ra*ling a%ong &la k and *"ite &oulders 3;4, !. 1<5. 'ntro!y t"eory is indeed a first atte%!t to deal *it" glo&al for%1 &ut it "as not &een dealing *it" stru ture. All it says is t"at a large su% of ele%ents %ay "ave !ro!erties not found in a s%aller sa%!le of t"e%. In arit"%eti , t"e assertion t"at innu%era&le su%s of !lus values and %inus values add u! to, for instan e, !lus ten or %inus ten or /ero is not a state%ent a&out stru ture &ut a&out t"e effe t of su%%ation. 2i%ilarly, an a u%ulation of &uilding stones %ay, at a ertain !"ase of t"e o!eration, !rodu e a regular s"a!e of t"e *"ole. As I !ointed out earlier, t"e statisti al t"eory of t"er%odyna%i s !resu!!oses a ondition in *"i " all !arti les are totally inde!endent of ea " ot"er, one in *"i " t"e 11

stru ture is /ero1 and it a!!lies its al ulations to a tual states of affairs in *"i " t"is ondition is %et *it" so%e a!!ro,i%ation. It !redi ts a steady in rease of entro!y in losed syste%s &e ause a%ong t"e !er%utations of a given nu%&er of ele%ents t"e irregular ones are %u " %ore fre(uent t"an t"e regular ones, and t"erefore s"uffling *ill in rease irregularity until it rea "es its %a,i%u%. Under t"ese ir u%stan es it is diffi ult to agree *it" t"e !"ysi ist Art"ur 'ddington, *"o %aintains t"at entro!y, as it is treated today, is 7an a!!re iation of arrange%ent and organi/ation7 and t"erefore deserves to &e !la ed 7alongside &eauty and %elody.7 Franted, "e says, t"at entro!y ad%its only t"e %etri al as!e ts of su " t"ings as &eauty and %elody1 &ut &y t"is li%itation it raises 7organi/ation7 fro% a vague des ri!tive e!it"et to one of t"e %easura&le (uantities of e,a t s ien e 34>, !!. 7>, 9;, 1<;5. +o*ever, *"at entro!y t"eory %easures is not t"e nature of organi/ation &ut only its overall !rodu t, na%ely, t"e degree of t"e dissi!ation of energy it entails, t"e a%ount of 7tension7 availa&le for *ork in t"e syste%. It o&tains t"e %easure of t"is tension level &y al ulating t"e !ro&a&ility of its o%ing a&out &y "an e. $it" su " an a!!roa " one %ig"t indeed &e a&le to esti%ate t"e differen e in t"e levels of interrelational tension &et*een a 9o/art sonata and t"e steady sound of an alar% lo k, or on eiva&ly even t"at &et*een a Ru&ens and a Piero della @ran es a, &ut "o* %u " *ould su " an overall s ore tell a&out t"e stru ture of ea " of t"ese o&0e ts or eventsA @or t"e !ur!ose of stru tural analysis, t"e state of total inde!enden e a%ong ele%ents is not si%!ly /ero stru ture &ut t"e li%iting ase of stru ture, in *"i " all onstraints are a&sent and in *"i " t"e a tion to *"i " t"e syste% is su&0e ted -&y "eat energy or s"uffling-"as an e(ual effe t on all ele%ents. All ele%ents assu%e an e(ual !osition in t"e *"ole and t"erefore, to re!eat *"at I said earlier a&out t"e s"uffled de k of ards, t"ey ea " fulfill t"e sa%e fun tion. 2i%ilarly in t"e sound of an alar% lo k or on a unifor%ly stained anvas all ele%ents do t"e sa%e *ork and are t"erefore indistinguis"a&le. -eedless to say, t"e entro!y t"eory *"i " "as given rise to t"e notion of disorder I a% dis ussing "ere is not ne essarily t"e only *ay of dealing *it" t"er%odyna%i events1 nor does t"e t"eory8s negle t of stru ture i%!ly t"at no su " stru ture a tually e,ists at t"e %ole ular level. Bo"ler "as !ointed out t"at t"e stru tural as!e ts 3!erteilungschara"ter5 of entro!y-in rease are %ost easily overlooked *"en, for s ientifi onvenien e, one on entrates on "o%ogeneous states6 Any syste% t"at attains t"e %a,i%u% of entro!y not t"roug" a "o%ogeneous state, &ut &y differentiating itself s!ontaneously into dis rete 7!"ases7 of very different %akeu!, de%onstrates t"at as!e t of t"er%odyna%i "a!!enings %u " %ore i%!ressively 3?<, !. ;>5. A tually, of ourse, even t"e %ole ular !arti les in a li(uid or gas are not truly inde!endent of ea " ot"er. )"ey "it and attra t one anot"er alt"oug" t"eir relations are loose enoug" to let t"e "eat energy s"uffle t"e% freely. Under t"ese onditions, !ro esses of s!atial distri&ution %ust take !la e, roug"ly o%!ara&le !er"a!s to *"at an &e o&served at t"e "u%an level *"en a large ro*d of !eo!le s ra%&les a ross an e%!ty auditoriu%, train, or &at"ing &ea " to find suita&le lo ations. +ere t"e struggle for el&o* 14

roo% and &reat"ing s!a e results in an ele%entary order even under onditions a!!roa "ing "o%ogeneity of stru ture. In t"e arts, t"e %ore su essful *orks of A&stra t ',!ressionis%, nota&ly Da kson Pollo k8s !aintings of t"e late 19?<s, s"o* a rando% distri&ution of s!rinkled and s!las"ed !ig%ent ontrolled &y t"e artist8s sense of visual order. +e 7sees7 to it t"at t"e overall te,ture is even and &alan ed and t"at t"e ele%ents of s"a!e and olor leave ea " ot"er suffi ient freedo%. And *"en Dean Ar! e,!eri%ented *it" t"e Jla*s of "an e,H *"i " a%ounted so%eti%es to letting s"a!es fall on a surfa e and studying t"e result, "e nevert"eless *orked *it" %u " are on t"e arrange%ent t"us o&tained. In a set of *ood reliefs of 19?4, Three #onstellations of $ame Forms 3Plates 4, >, ?5 "e !resented a visual inter!retation of t"e "an e effe t &y !la ing a nu%&er of self ontained for%s on an e%!ty ground in su " a *ay t"at t"ey did not fit any o%!re"ensive o%!ositional s "e%e &ut *ere ke!t in &alan e &y t"eir %utual *eig"t and distan e relations only. Also &y s"o*ing t"at t"e sa%e ite%s ould &e !ut toget"er in t"ree different, &ut e(ually valid *ays "e stressed t"e fortuitous nature of t"eir o%&ination-all t"is *it" t"e deli ate ontrol of order "e "ad o%e to re ogni/e as indis!ensa&le. It %ay see% t"at !ure, un ontrolled rando%ness ould !rodu e &y itself t"e sort of orderly "o%ogeneity o&served in t"e a&ove e,a%!les. +o*ever, one %ust distinguis" "ere &et*een %e "ani ally o&tained rando%ness, su " as is &ased on ta&les of rando% nu%&ers or t"e t"ro*ing of di e, and t"e visual re!resentation of rando%ness as a ty!e of order. 2in e %e "ani ally o&tained rando%ness ontains all kinds of !ossi&le !er%utations, in luding t"e %ost regular ones, it annot &e relied u!on al*ays to e,"i&it a !ervasive irregularity. )"e skylines of ities, derived so largely fro% t"e la*lessness of !rivate enter!rise, are !rodu ts of a!!ro,i%ately rando% &e"avior &ut do not all give t"e visual effe t of rando%ness to t"e sa%e degree. 2o%e "a!!en to look attra tively r"yt"%i al, ot"ers "ave a*k*ard &un "es of &uildings in so%e !la es, e%!ty s!ots in ot"ers. )"ey s"o* neit"er free variety nor arti ulate organi/ation &ut are "aoti . Alfred 9. Bork, in an arti le on 7Rando%ness and t"e 4<t" Century,7 dis usses, a%ong ot"er e,a%!les of t"e %ode% taste, t"e gro*ing !ra ti e in &ook and %aga/ine design to a&olis" 70ustifi ation,7 i.e., to let t"e line of ty!e run, *it"out s!a ing it out in su " a *ay as to o&tain a rig"t-"and verti al %argin of unifor% *idt" 31;5. -on-0ustified ty!e reates instead a *"ite stri! of rando%ly varying *idt", !leasing to t"e eye &y t"e free r"yt"% of its irregularity. But even "ere *e find aest"eti freedo% attained t"roug" ontrol. Unless t"e !rinter avoids it &y intuitive 0udg%ent, "e is likely to get t"e sa%e disorderly &un "es and "ollo*s t"at interfere *it" t"e effe t of rando%ness in so%e skylines. E'UILI&RIU% )"e !"ysi ist8s on e!tion of order, I said earlier, %ust &e onsidered in relation to "is vie* of 3a5 t"e s"a!e situations and 3&5 t"e dyna%i onfigurations in !"ysi al syste%s. +aving e,a%ined t"e for%er, I s"all no* refer to t"e latter &y %eans of a fa%iliar de%onstration. A &eaker %ay ontain t*o different (uantities of *ater, se!arated &y a !artition. )"e *ater level *ill &e "ig" on t"e one side, lo* on t"e ot"er. )"e asy%%etry of t"e distri&ution indi ates a store of !otential energy, *"i " an &e released to do *ork. 1>

If no* t"e !artition is !ulled out, t"e *ater *ill go t"roug" !endulous %otions of ad0ust%ent resulting in an even, "ori/ontal surfa e. )"e syste% "anges fro% a less !ro&a&le to a %ore !ro&a&le state and its entro!y in reases. But so%et"ing else "as also "a!!ened. )"e syste%, freed fro% t"e onstraint of t"e !artition, "as %oved to a state of e(uili&riu%. -aturally, !"ysi ists kno* full *ell t"at an in rease of entro!y often leads to a state of e(uili&riu%. In fa t, a leading te,t&ook says of t"e idea of e(uili&riu% t"at 7in all t"er%odyna%i s t"ere is no on e!t %ore funda%ental t"an t"is7 3?E, !. 1E5. -o* e(uili&riu% is t"e very o!!osite of disorder. A syste% is in e(uili&riu% *"en t"e for es onstituting it are arranged in su " a *ay as to o%!ensate ea " ot"er, like t"e t*o *eig"ts !ulling at t"e ar%s of a !air of s ales. '(uili&riu% %akes for standstill-no furt"er a tion an o ur, e, e!t &y outside influen e. It also re!resents t"e si%!lest stru ture t"e syste% an assu%e under t"e given onditions. )"is a%ounts to saying t"at t"e %a,i%u% of entro!y attaina&le t"roug" rearrange%ent is rea "ed *"en t"e syste% is in t"e &est !ossi&le order. -ot all states of order an &e des ri&ed &y t"e riterion of e(uili&riu%, &ut ail of t"e% an &e said to &e at a standstill, %eaning t"at t"e !resent distri&ution of for es and t"e s"a!es resulting fro% it are t"e si%!lest and %ost fitting e%&odi%ent of t"e syste%8s stru ture. $"en a syste% "anges, es!e ially *"en it gro*s, its ne* si/e, o%!le,ity, fun tion all for a orres!ondingly %odified order. @or e,a%!le, only in fairly si%!le organis%s is t"e e,ternal sy%%etry of t"e ani%al8s &ody refle ted in a si%ilar sy%%etry of t"e internal organs. In "ig"er ani%als, internal si%!li ity of s"a!e %ay e,ist at t"e early e%&ryoni stages. )"e intestine %ay &e a entral, straig"t tu&e, only to develo! later into a &undle of intri ate onvolutions. ',ternal differentiation of t"e t*o se,es is li%ited to t"e se, organs in t"e earliest for%s of %a%%als. Or again, t"e "ead deta "es itself fro% t"e overall s"a!e of t"e ani%al &ody as &rain fun tions &e o%e %ore o%!le, 3;95. At ea " ontogeneti or !"ylogeneti stage a !arti ular &alan ed order sta&ili/es itself as t"e &est !ossi&le s!atial solution for t"e given organi/ation. )"ere %ay &e transitional stages of disorder, at *"i " "anging re(uire%ents are in onfli t *it" outdated for%s. )"e in o%!lete, las"ing stru tures in states of disorder reate tensions dire ted to*ard t"e reali/ation of a !otential order. TENSION REDUCTION AND $EAR AND TEAR Persuaded &y t"e %at"e%ati al %odel of s"uffling, *"ere no stru tural for es ot"er t"an t"e s"aking-u! of inde!endent ele%ents are !resent, one tends to t"ink of t"e entro!y !ro ess as a la*ful gradual in rease, fro% %ini%u% to %a,i%u%, and indeed as t"e %anifestation of a os%i for e6 t"e for e of entro!y. But entro!y is no su " la*ful for e. It is no for e and it does not even des ri&e a !ro ess of nature &ut si%!ly notes its nu%eri al effe ts. It is a standard of %easure%ent like t"e gra% or t"e %eter, and alt"oug" t"e %at"e%ati s of !ro&a&ility &ased on "an e an !rodu e a ni ely gradual in rease of entro!y, t"e *orld around us and t"e universe in general do not o!erate &y s"uffling, and t"ey lose *orka&le energy &y no %eans s%oot"ly. In fa t, t"e !"ysi s of entro!y tends to onsider only t"e initial and t"e final state of a !ro ess, not t"e dyna%i 1?

events leading fro% t"e one to t"e ot"er. Le*is and Randall *rite6 $"en a syste% is onsidered in t*o different states, t"e differen e in volu%e or in any ot"er !ro!erty, &et*een t"e t*o states, de!ends solely u!on t"ose states t"e%selves and not u!on t"e %anner in *"i " t"e syste% %ay !ass fro% one state to t"e ot"er. And furt"er6 )"er%odyna%i s e,"i&its no uriosity1 ertain t"ings are !oured into its "o!!er, ertain ot"ers e%erge a ording to t"e la*s of t"e %a "ine, no ogni/an e &eing taken of t"e %e "anis% of t"e !ro ess or of t"e nature and "ara ter of t"e various %ole ular s!e ies on erned 3?E, !!. 1>, =;5. Can *e afford to e,"i&it no uriosityA If *e annot, *e %ay take a "an e and s!e ulate t"at t"e in rease of entro!y results fro% t*o funda%entally different kinds of !ro esses. One of t"e% is t"e !rin i!le of tension redu tion or of de reasing !otential energy, often &roug"t a&out s!ontaneously &y intera ting for es under field onditions. )"is is t"e favorite of gestalt t"eory, t"e tenden y to*ard si%!li ity, sy%%etry, regularity. Bo"ler "as alled it t"e La* of #yna%i #ire tion 3?1, "a!. =5. It is a genuine os%i !rin i!le, dire ted to*ard t"e %a,i%u% of orderliness o&taina&le under t"e given onditions of a syste%. +o*ever, t"is tenden y of in reasing entro!y &y in reasing orderliness de!ends on t"e free intera tion of for es and is t"erefore li%ited &y any onstraints *it"in t"e syste%. Any re%oval of onstraints *ill &roaden t"e range of its effi ien y. If t"e !artition is taken out of t"e *ater ontainer, t"e t*o une(ual &odies of *ater are set free to attain an e(uili&rated state of si%!ler order. 2u " onstraining !artitions an &e re%oved &y t"e "and of %an &ut also &y all sorts of natural violen e, &y ru%&ling and rusting, erosion or fri tion. I *ill all t"is destru tion of s"a!e t"e ata&oli effe t. It is t"e se ond of t"e t*o kinds of funda%ental !ro esses %entioned a&ove. Alt"oug" universally !resent, it an "ardly &e des ri&ed as a os%i !rin i!le or os%i la*. It is rat"er a &road, at "-all ategory, o%!rising all sorts of agents and events t"at a t in an un!redi ta&le, disorderly fas"ion and "ave in o%%on t"e fa t t"at t"ey all grind t"ings to !ie es. )"is is !ro&a&ly *"y it an &e treated only statisti ally. Cata&olis%, one %ig"t suggest, is due to t"e fa t t"at *e live in a suffi iently disorderly *orld, in *"i " innu%era&le !atterns of for es onstantly interfere *it" ea " ot"er. )"e ata&oli effe t, t"en, in reases entro!y in t*o (uite different *ays6 dire tly &y t"e fortuitous destru tion of !atterns t"at are unlikely to &e re&uilt &y %ere "an e1 indire tly &y re%oving onstraints and t"us enlarging t"e range of tension redu tion, *"i " in reases entro!y &y si%!lifying t"e order of a syste%. Order is re ogni/ed only *"en *e look at %a rostates rat"er t"an at t"e single ele%ents t"at o%!rise t"e%. )"e la*s governing t"e %a rostates deter%ine %u " of *"at is relevant in "u%an e,isten e and, as 2 "rodinger and ot"ers "ave !ointed out, are uns"aken &y t"e fa t t"at *ear and tear, su " as fri tion, *ill %odify t"eir !ra ti al %anifestation in *ays t"at an only &e des ri&ed statisti ally 3E1, !. =11 ?1, "a!. ;1 ;E, 11E1>>, !. 4;5. Be!ler8s la*s of !lanetary %otion "old, even t"oug" t"e solar syste% is slo*ing do*n.3145 @or any&ody engaged in t"e study of orderly %a rostru tures, su " as t"ose e,"i&ited &y 1;

*orks of art, it is interesting to o&serve *it" "o* %u " an,iety and a!ology t"e dis overy t"at ausality annot &e deter%ined for t"e s%allest ele%ents of %atter "as &een !resented to t"e $estern %ind. One is given t"e i%!ression t"at %a ros o!i or %olar states are &eing resorted to only as a *ay out of t"is ala%ity and as t"e se ond &est availa&le. Corres!ondingly, it is suggested t"at %a ros o!i la*fulness e,ists only &e ause t"e disorderly %i rostates "a!!en to average out to so%et"ing sensi&le. Lud*ig Bolt/%ann, *"o dis overed t"e %at"e%ati al relation &et*een entro!y and !ro&a&ility, *rote6 It is solely o*ing to t"e fa t t"at *e al*ays get t"e sa%e average values, even *"en t"e %ost irregular o urren es take !la e under t"e sa%e ir u%stan es, t"at *e !er eive !erfe tly definite la*s even in t"e &e"avior of *ar% &odies 31?, !. >1E5. Is it foolis" to assu%e t"at, on t"e ontrary, t"e %i rostates average out sensi&ly &e ause t"ey are ontrolled &y %a ros o!i la*s, su " as t"at of t"e tenden y to*ards e(uili&riu%1 and t"at *e take leave of %i roevents not only *"en t"ey elude !re ise o&servation &ut also *"en *e reali/e t"at t"e tra ing of ele%ents does not dis lose t"e nature and fun tioning of t"e *"olesA 'ven *"en %i roevents "ave a stru ture and &eauty of t"eir o*n, t"is stru ture %ay &ear only indire tly or negligi&ly on t"e "ara ter of t"e orres!onding glo&al events. Cyril 2. 2%it", *"o "as long argued for %ore attention to larger aggregates in !"ysi s and "e%istry, re%arks t"at 7t"e "e%i al e,!lanation of %atter is analogous to using an identifi ation of individual &ri k ty!es as an e,!lanation of +agia 2o!"ia7 3E4, !. E>=5. T!E (IRTUE OF CONSTRAINTS P"ysi ists s!eak of entro!y as a tenden y to*ards disorder *"en t"ey "ave t"eir %inds set on t"e ata&oli destru tion of for%. Festalt t"eorists, on t"e ot"er "and, on entrate on situations in *"i " a disorderly or relatively less orderly onstellation of for es is free and indeed o%!elled to &e o%e %ore orderly. )"e effe t of su " !ro esses is &est de%onstrated *"en definite onstraints arrest t"e% on t"eir *ay to*ard final "o%ogeneity. )"ey free/e t"e onstellation and kee! it sta&le. In a syste% of o%%uni ating !i!es, *ater *ill distri&ute evenly and stay t"at *ay as long as t"e !i!es are *atertig"t. Or, to use an e,a%!le fro% visual !er e!tion, if a so%e*"at i%!erfe t line dra*ing of a s(uare is seen under di% lig"t, it *ill &e !er eived as a regular s(uare as long as t"e sti%ulus re%ains a tive. A &it of oil dro!!ed on *ater *ill !lease t"e gestalt t"eorist &y for%ing a disk, t"e si%!lest s"a!e availa&le to t"e &arrier &et*een t"e t*o li(uids. +o*ever, t"e oil *ill ontinue to s!read and after a *"ile over t"e *"ole surfa e-a less satisfa tory gestalt. I "ave insisted t"at "o%ogeneous rando% distri&ution is a state of order, &ut at t"is !oint *e %ust ad%it t"at it is lo* grade order, a li%iting ase, not"ing to &rag a&out. An essential ounteragent is %issing. It is t"is defi iently one-sided sort of orderly o%!osition t"at !"ysi ists "ave in %ind *"en t"ey des ri&e t"e t"er%odyna%i end state %isleadingly as disorder. Let us take an e,a%!le fro% t"e arts. An o&server *it" good eyesig"t looks at a !ainting &y Poussin 3Plates E, 75 and ad%ires its !erfe t order. )"e various s"a!es and olors of 1E

t"e !i ture, sta&ili/ed &y t"e ontinuous sti%ulus in!ut, reate orres!onding units in t"e nervous syste% of t"e o&server. )"ese units intera t freely in t"e !"ysiologi al field *it"in t"e li%its set &y t"e sti%ulus onstraints and t"ere&y reate t"at syste% of interrelations a%ong segregated ele%ents *"i " t"e o&server e,!erien es as Poussin8s o%!osition. -o* let t"e i%age of t"e !ainting &e o%e so%e*"at &lurred. If t"e !i ture *ere a less good one, t"e &lurring %ig"t i%!rove it. '. +. Fo%&ri " "as de%onstrated t"is &y !la ing a !ainting &y Bonnen ontre, The Three %races, &e"ind a !ane of frosted glass, t"us eli%inating realisti and eroti irrelevan ies and redu ing t"e !i ture %ore nearly to its aest"eti ally a tive !attern 3>4, !. =5. In t"e ase of our Poussin, t"e &lurring %ig"t &ring out t"e overall s"a!e of t"e !rin i!al %asses %ore si%!ly, &ut at t"e !ri e of a distin t loss. In t"e &lurred i%age, t"e o%!ositional order *ould a!!ear as &eing o&tained %ore "ea!ly, t"at is, *it"out t"e o%!le,ity of for%al detail and re!resentational referen es *"i " %ake t"e order of t"e original so re%arka&ly ri ". Possi&ly t"e &lurred i%age %ay &e 0ust as orderly as t"e !ainting itself, &ut its order *ill &e at a lo*er, less valua&le level. $it" in reasing ata&oli &lur, t"e visual !attern *ill &e o%e si%!ler, and alt"oug" *e %ay assu%e for t"e argu%ent8s sake t"at it *ill re%ain orderly at ea " level, t"e value of its order *ill onstantly di%inis", leaving us finally *it" a "o%ogeneously filled and t"erefore e%!ty re tangular field.31>5 )"e de%onstration s"o*s, not une,!e tedly, t"at t"e tenden y to tension redu tion &y si%!lifi ation des ri&es order in o%!letely. )ension redu tion !ro%otes orderliness1 &ut orderliness is only one as!e t of order. )"e drive to straig"ten t"ings out, to redu e t"e% e ono%i ally to t"eir essentials annot o!erate in t"e void. It %ust "ave so%et"ing to *ork on. )"erefore our stru tural s "e%e %ust &e &roadened to in lude *"at I s"all all t"e ana&oli tenden y. )"is is t"e s"a!e-&uilding os%i !rin i!le t"at a ounts for t"e stru ture of ato%s and %ole ules, t"e !o*er to &ind and to loose, *"i " %akes its sy%&oli entran e in t"e Book of Fenesis *"en t"e reator se!arates t"e *aters fro% t"e dry land. )"er%odyna%i s refers to it as negative entro!y, &ut *e annot "ere ado!t t"e usage of des ri&ing stru ture as t"e a&sen e of s"a!elessness.31?5 )"e ana&oli tenden y ontri&utes *"at I *ill all t"e stru tural t"e%e of a !attern, and t"is t"e%e reates orderly for% t"roug" intera tion *it" t"e tenden y to tension redu tion. )"o%son8s e,!eri%ent %ay aid us "ere on e %ore. )"e s%all floating %agnets re!el ea " ot"er and try to *it"dra* fro% ea " ot"er. )"e large %agnet a&ove t"e &o*l attra ts t"e% all and t"ere&y %akes t"e% a!!roa " ea " ot"er. )"is antagonisti !lay of for es is t"e stru tural t"e%e1 a ting u!on it is t"e e(uili&rating tenden y, *"i " leads to t"e si%!lest and %ost sta&le arrange%ent t"e t"e%e an ado!t under t"e ir u%stan es, na%ely, t"e regular, ir ular distri&ution of t"e %agnets. )"e onstellations of t"e ato%i %odel or of rystals, flo*ers or of t"e uni ellular radiolaria are ot"er e,a%!les of stru tural t"e%es su&0e ted to t"e e(uili&rating !o*er t"at gives t"e% t"eir si%!lest, %ost regular, %ost sy%%etri al s"a!e. T!E STRUCTURAL T!E%E )"e stru tural t"e%e and a ordingly t"e resulting order are often (uite o%!le,. )"is is so in %ost *orks of art. In listening to a !ie e of %usi or looking at a s ul!ture or 17

!ainting, it is ne essary to sear " for t"is stru tural t"e%e of t"e *ork, t"e skeleton, *"i " "olds t"e key to its &asi %eaning. One e,a%!le %ay suffi e. $"at is t"e stru tural t"e%e of t"e Fot"i %adonna of t"e early fifteent" entury, re!rodu ed in Plate ;A One noti es a lateral deviation fro% t"e funda%ental frontal sy%%etry of t"e standing figure. )"e Cirgin is defle ted side*ays to*ards t"e se ondary enter of t"e o%!osition, !roviding a su!!ort for t"e "ild. )"is defle tion is 7%easured7 visually &y t"e s!atial orientation of t"e s e!ter, *"i " is tilted a*ay fro% t"e verti al like t"e needle of a o%!ass. +ere t"en is t"e &asi t"e%e6 t"e intera tion &et*een t"e %a0esti sy%%etry, verti ality, and o%!leteness of a (ueen and t"e s%all &ut !otentially !o*erful "ild t"at "as s!rung fro% "er and re eives its su!!ort fro% "er. )"e relation of %ot"er and "ild allo*s, of ourse, for innu%era&le inter!retations, differing in t"e distri&ution of *eig"ts, of a tivity and !assivity, do%inan e and su&%ission, onne tion and segregation. 'a " of t"ese %any solutions is not only a visual variation &ut a different inter!retation of t"e "u%an relation &et*een %ot"er and "ild in general and t"e t"eologi al relation &et*een Cirgin and C"rist %ore in !arti ular. It also onfor%s to t"e for%al and e,!ressive re(uire%ents of a !arti ular style and, indeed, a !arti ular artist. )"e stru tural t"e%e %ust &e on eived dyna%i ally, as a !attern of for es, not an arrange%ent of stati s"a!es. )"ese for es are %ade visi&le, for e,a%!le, &y t"e onfluen e of t"e large folds in t"e 9adonna8s gar%ent *"i " lead to t"e "and su!!orting t"e "ild. )"e syste% of folds onverging to*ards t"e asy%%etri ally !la ed se ondary enter is in ontra!untal tension *it" t"e i%!lied sy%%etry a,is of t"e larger figure, esta&lis"ed &y t"e 9adonna8s "ead &ut %odulated in "er &ody &y t"e se ondary t"e%e. )"e s%all "ild is given visual *eig"t &y its o%!a tness and relatively si%!le s"a!e, &ut is %ade su&ordinate &y &eing turned side*ays and !la ed so%e*"at lo*er t"an "is ent"roned %ot"er. )"is o%!le, t"e%e of for es is reada&le &y virtue of t"e deli ate visual &alan ing of si/es, distan es, dire tions, urvatures, volu%es. 'a " ele%ent "as its a!!ro!riate for% in relation to all t"e ot"ers, t"us esta&lis"ing a definitive order, in *"i " all o%!onent for es "old one anot"er in su " a *ay t"at none of t"e% an !ress for any "ange of t"e interrelation. )"e !lay of for es is at a standstill, t"e %a,i%u% of entro!y attaina&le for t"e given syste% of onstraints "as &een rea "ed. Alt"oug" t"e tension invested in t"e *ork is at a "ig" a&solute level, it is redu ed to t"e lo*est level t"e onstraints *ill let it assu%e. )ension redu tion, dire ted to*ards a %a,i%u% of entro!y, is &roug"t a&out in losed !"ysi al syste%s &y t"e intera tion of t"e for es t"at onstitute t"e field. )"is %eans t"at t"e in rease in orderliness is due to self-regulation. But su " an effe t an also &e a "ieved &y intervention fro% t"e outside. 'ven *it"in t"e &ody of ani%al or %an t"e !ro esses dire ted to*ards e(uili&riu% &y %e "ani al self-distri&ution differ fro% t"e servo%e "anis%s, lo ated in t"e "y!ot"ala%us and else*"ere, t"at steer various !ro esses in t"e &ody fro% t"e outside, as it *ere, in res!onse to %essages re eived fro% t"e riti al areas. 9an i%!oses orderliness on "is a tivities &e ause it is so useful, ognitively and te "nologi ally, in a so iety, a "ouse"old, a dis ourse, or a %a "ine. $orks of art also are 1=

e,a%!les of "u%an !rodu ts reated &y outside intervention, alt"oug" "ere t"e situation is so%e*"at o%!li ated &y t"e fa t t"at only in t"e !"ysi al sense is t"e *ork of art an o&0e t on *"i " a "u%an &ody o!erates fro% t"e outside. )"e a tual fun tioning of a !ainting or !ie e of %usi is all %ental, and t"e artist8s striving to*ard orderliness is guided &y t"e !er e!tual !ulls and !us"es "e o&serves *it"in t"e *ork *"ile s"a!ing it. )o t"is e,tent, t"e reative !ro ess an &e des ri&ed as self-regulatory. +o*ever, "ere again, as in t"e !"ysiologi al %e "anis%s %entioned a&ove, it is ne essary to distinguis" &et*een t"e &alan ing of for es in t"e !er e!tual field itself and t"e 7outside7 ontrol e,erted &y t"e artist8s %otives, !lans, and !referen es. +e an &e said to i%!ose "is stru tural t"e%e u!on t"e !er e!tual organi/ation. Only if t"e s"a!ing of aest"eti o&0e ts is vie*ed as a !art of t"e larger !ro ess, na%ely, t"e artist8s o!ing *it" t"e tasks of life &y %eans of reating "is *orks, an t"e *"ole of artisti a tivity &e des ri&ed as an instan e of self-regulation. At t"is !oint I an su%%ari/e &y returning to t"e (uestion of L. L. $"yte, *"o asked a&out t"e relation of 7t"e t*o os%i tenden ies6 to*ards %e "ani al disorder 3entro!y !rin i!le5 and to*ards geo%etri al order 3in rystals, %ole ules, organis%s, et .5.7 $"yte refers to t*o os%i tenden ies, and so did I1 &ut %ine 3@igure >5 do not (uite fit "is. I s!oke of t"e ana&oli tenden y, *"i " initiates all arti ulate e,isten e &y reating !atterns of for es. )"is tenden y, "o*ever, does not reate 7geo%etri al order7 &y itself. Organi/ed for% re(uires t"e inter!lay of t"e stru tural t"e%e, &roug"t a&out &y t"e ana&oli tenden y, *it" a se ond os%i tenden y, *"i " strives to*ard tension redu tion and t"ere&y attains t"e si%!li ity of orderliness. )"e entro!y !rin i!le, on t"e ot"er "and, annot &e des ri&ed ade(uately as a tenden y 7to*ards %e "ani al disorder,7 &e ause ata&oli destru tion is only one *ay of %oving fro% a less !ro&a&le to a %ore !ro&a&le distri&ution of %atter. -or is destru tion &y fri tion, erosion, or ooking t"e sort of orderly !ro ess *e tend to "ave in %ind

@igure > *"en *e s!eak of a os%i tenden y. $"at does su!!ly t"e entro!y !rin i!le *it" an as!e t of os%i order is Bo"lerGs La* of #yna%i #ire tion, *"i " redu es tension not &y dissi!ating or degrading energy &ut &y organi/ing it a ording to t"e si%!lest, %ost &alan ed stru ture availa&le to a syste%.

II
+ere t"e investigation ould sto!. )"e t"eoreti al state%ents on t"e !rin i!le of entro!y sounded as t"oug" !"ysi al %atter %oves fro% order to disorder. )"is tenden y see%ed 19

to &e in dis ord *it" t"e striving to*ards order, "ara teristi of t"e &e"avior of "u%an &eings and of organis%s %ore in general. I "ave tried to re%ind t"e reader t"at a tenden y to attain order is &y no %eans a&sent fro% inorgani syste%s1 it is in fa t a "ara teristi as!e t of %any !ro esses %easured &y t"e in rease in entro!y. Only in a *orld &ased e, lusively on t"e "an e o%&ination of inde!endent ele%ents is an orderly !attern a %ost i%!ro&a&le t"ing to turn u!1 in a *orld re!lete *it" syste%s of stru tural organi/ation, orderliness is a state universally as!ired to and often &roug"t a&out. )o t"is e,tent, our findings are reassuring to t"e friends of order. ORDER IN T!E SECOND LACE At t"e sa%e ti%e, "o*ever, *"at I "ave said does not assign to t"e striving for order or tension redu tion t"e do%inant !osition it "as o u!ied in t"e t"inking of %any t"eorists, es!e ially in t"e field of aest"eti s. A long tradition, going &a k to Freek !"iloso!"y and never (uite dislodged &y t"e voi es of t"e o asional dissenters, des ri&es t"e arts as !rin i!ally or *"olly on erned *it" t"e esta&lis"%ent of order, "ar%ony, !ro!ortion et etera. 311, !. 191f5. Indeed t"e onte%!t of so%e %ode% artists for t"e notion of 7&eauty7 derives !re isely fro% t"e e%!ty !erfe tion for *"i " &eauty "as o%e to stand in %u " t"eory and so%e art1 and art riti s and t"eorists *ould "ardly &e aug"t so *"olly *it"out defenses &y !rodu ts offering %ere orderliness or %ere "aos-t"e t*o fa es of entro!y-if t"ey *ere not !araly/ed &y t"eir o*n one-sidedness. )"erefore it %ay &e *ort" referring "ere to so%e of t"e t"oug"ts !"iloso!"ers and !sy "ologists "ave devoted to t"e ideas of order and tension redu tion during t"e last "undred years or so. )"eir *ritings suggest !ros!e ts as *ell as !itfalls and are onsidera&ly relevant to our !resent on erns. )"e nineteent" entury, *"i " !rodu ed t"e !rin i!le of entro!y, *as e(ually a*are of t"e ounter!rin i!le, t"e reation of arti ulate stru tural 7t"e%es,7 to *"i " I "ave referred as t"e ana&oli tenden y. In !arti ular, t"e #ar*inian t"eory e,"i&ited t"e triu%!"ant !rogress of t"e ani%al kingdo% fro% t"e si%!lest to t"e %ost ela&orate organi for%. It asserted t"at t"e ani%ate *orld "ad %oved fro% t"e si%!le to t"e %ore o%!le,-an evolution t"at ould &e inter!reted as t"e very o!!osite of *"at t"e 2e ond La* of )"er%odyna%i s des ri&ed as t"e ourse of t"e universe. +ere *as !rogress or at least in reasing arti ulation rat"er t"an degradation of energy. At t"e sa%e ti%e, #ar*inis% rese%&led t"e statisti al version of t"er%odyna%i s &y relying on "an e variation. )o &e sure, t"e t"eory of evolution did not assu%e t"at t"e %ere t"ro*ing of di e *as suffi ient to e,!lain t"e dire tion in *"i " t"e arro* of ti%e *as %oving1 nevert"eless, t"e varieties of s!e i%ens fro% *"i " t"e fittest *ere sele ted for survival *ere said to "ave o%e a&out &y "an e %utation. It see%ed %ost desira&le to attri&ute t"e !rogress of t"e for%s of life to a !ositively dire ted agent rat"er t"an to t"e &lind &attering of outside for es. )o so%e e,tent, at least, t"is need %ay "ave derived fro% t"e *is" to see nature a t in t"e deli&erate and !ur!oseful %anner of "u%an reativity and, inversely, to derive %an8s *ay of inventing and %aking t"ings fro% t"at of nature. 9ost "ara teristi in t"is res!e t are t"e *ritings of +er&ert 2!en er in 'ngland and Fustav )"eodor @e "ner in Fer%any. I a% not 4<

on erned "ere *it" t"e s ant s ientifi validity of t"eir s!e ulations &ut *it" t"e on e!ts t"ey ontri&ute to t"e t"eory of order. 2!en er in "is First Principles of 1=E4, sear "ing for a general la* t"at *ould a ount for t"e 7redistri&ution of %atter and %otion,7 a%e to t"e on lusion t"at su " a la* "ad to &e &ased on t"e antagonisti !ro esses of on entration or integration on t"e one "and and diffusion or dissi!ation on t"e ot"er 3E>5. +is La* of 'volution, *"i " "e &elieved "e ould refer &a k to t"e Persisten e of @or e, i.e., t"e La* of t"e Conservation of 'nergy, assu%ed, first of all, an agglutination of %atter, *"i " "e alled o%!ounding. #ra*ing on e,a%!les fro% inorgani and organi nature, "e o&served, for instan e, t"at in t"e !rogress of language 7t"e *ords used for t"e less fa%iliar t"ings are for%ed &y o%!ounding t"e *ords used for t"e %ore fa%iliar t"ings7 3E>, 1145. In *"at "e t"oug"t of as early !"ases of t"e visual arts, for e,a%!le, in 'gy!tian and Assyrian %urals or in %edieval ta!estries, "e failed to see t"e oordination of !arts attained &y 7!aintings sin e !rodu ed.7 In %usi , t"e endless "anting of t"e savages "ad evolved into integrated %usi al for%s. )"is !ri%ary redistri&ution of %atter and %otion, "o*ever, *as said to &e a o%!anied &y a se ondary and 7%ore re%arka&le7 one, na%ely, t"e !rogressive differentiation fro% t"e "o%ogeneous to t"e "eterogeneous. )"is differentiation a%e a&out &e ause t"e o%!ounding of t"e *"ole *ent *it" a o%!ounding of ea " of its !arts, t"ere&y se!arating !art fro% !art. )o ite again e,a%!les taken fro% t"e arts, 2!en er invented so%e art "istory of "is o*n &y assuring "is readers t"at t"e &as-reliefs of t"e an ients differentiated su&se(uently into t"e se!arate arts of !ainting and s ul!ture. In C"ristian ti%es, se ular art s!lit off fro% religious art1 and *"ereas early art "ad !resented standardi/ed figures, !la ed in one !lane and 7e,!osed to t"e sa%e degree of lig"t,7 a later develo!%ent led to individuali/ed figures of differentiated s"a!e and olor, varied in lig"ting and distan e 3E>, 14?5. )"is latter o&servation is !ro&a&ly t"e first instan e of t"e no* fa%iliar vie* t"at early art develo!s in la*ful stages fro% si%!li ity to in reasing o%!le,ity. In des ri&ing "eterogeneity, t"at is, differentiation, 2!en er took !ains to distinguis" it fro% *"at I "ave alled ata&olis%, na%ely, de o%!osition resulting fro% deat", disaster, or so ial disorder. )"at *ould &e #issolution rat"er t"an 'volutionI #ifferentiation *as an in"erent stru tural unfolding-a notion 2!en er took fro% t"e Fer%an &iologist Barl 'rnst von Baer8s treatise on t"e evolution of ani%als, !u&lis"ed in 1=4=.31;5 +eterogeneity *as unlike destru tive dissolution &e ause it involved a "ange fro% t"e indefinite to t"e definite6 Along *it" an advan e fro% si%!li ity to o%!le,ity, t"ere is an advan e fro% onfusion to order-fro% undeter%ined arrange%ent to deter%ined arrange%ent. #evelo!%ent, no %atter of *"at kind, e,"i&its not only a %ulti!li ation of unlike !arts, &ut an in rease in t"e distin tness *it" *"i " t"ese !arts are %arked off fro% one anot"er 3E>, 1495. +o*ever, 2!en er reali/ed t"at "eterogeneity ould not in rease forever. )"ere is 7a degree *"i " t"e differentiation and integration of 9atter and 9otion annot !ass.7 )"is i%!assa&le li%it of 'volution is a state of e(uili&riu%, des ri&ed &y 2!en er in t"e ter%s of t"e la* of entro!y, alt"oug" of ourse in its nonstatisti al for%ulation and *it"out any 41

indi ation t"at "e kne* of t"e ideas ri!ening in t"e %inds of !"ysi ists su " as Clausius and Lord Belvin in t"ose sa%e years. By a gradual advan e to*ard "ar%ony, evolution attained a state of os%i e(uili&riu%, *"i " 2!en er sa* as 7t"e esta&lis"%ent of t"e greatest !erfe tion and t"e %ost o%!lete "a!!iness7 3E>, 17E5. -eatly distinguis"ed fro% t"is ideal state *as #issolution, t"e o%!le%ent of 'volution, &roug"t a&out &y an e, ess of %otion t"roug" 7all a tions7 o!erative in t"e surroundings of t"e "a!!ily &alan ed state. 2!en er8s gras! of t"e relation &et*een e(uili&ration and dissolution %ay "ave &een vague1 &ut "e annot &e said to "ave onfused t"e t*o, as later generations did. T!E LEASURES OF TENSION REDUCTION 2!en er8s First Principles offered on e!tual tools, intended to deal *it" t"e intera tion &et*een stru tural t"e%e and ordering tenden y. )"ey ould "ave &een suggestive to t"e t"eory of art1 &ut I "ave &een una&le to tra e any su " a!!li ation. Anot"er as!e t of 2!en er8s a!!roa ", "o*ever, *as loser to t"e %ainstrea% of aest"eti s!e ulation. )"e !rin i!le of tension redu tion, for%ulated as a !rin i!le of least a tion, lent itself to a "edonisti inter!retation. An early e,a%!le an &e found in 2!en er8s re%arks on 7Aest"eti 2enti%ents,7 treated *it" %u " s orn &y Benedetto Cro e in "is &esthetics. 2!en er8s "a!ter o%es as a orollary at t"e very end of "is Principles of Psychology 3E?, !. E?;5. In t"e traditional %anner, art is derived fro% !lay, 7t"is useless a tivity of unused organs.7 Art s!e iali/es in e,er i/ing t"e least life-serving fun tions and endeavors to 7&ring t"e sensory a!!aratus into t"e %ost effe tual uni%!eded a tion.7 )"e %ost !erfe t for% of aest"eti e, ite%ent is rea "ed *"en t"e 7t"ree orders of sensational, !er e!tional, and e%otional gratifi ation are given, &y t"e fullest a tions of t"e res!e tive fa ulties, *it" t"e least dedu tion aused &y !ainful e, ess of a tion.7 )"is a!!roa " to Psy "i al e ono%y is *ort" %entioning &e ause it *as influential and &e ause it s"o*s t"e fatal dro! in relevan e aest"eti t"eory suffers *"en it on entrates on treating art as a sour e of gratifi ation. Frant Allen8s Physiological &esthetics of 1=77, dedi ated to 2!en er, endeavors 7to e,tend in a single dire tion t"e general !rin i!les *"i " "e "as laid do*n7 345. It is a tedious &ook, &ased on t"e assu%!tion t"at art is on erned *it" 7t"e e%otions.7 )"e 7intelle t7 o%es in only to t"e e,tent to *"i " it !rodu es e%otional effe ts. )"e attain%ent of !leasure is t"e ulti%ate !ur!ose, *"i ", in t"e ase of art, derives fro% no 7ulterior life-serving7 fun tion &ut is !ursued for !leasure8s o*n sake. In onse(uen e, t"e ognitive in!ut is vie*ed as not"ing &etter t"an !leasure-generating sti%ulation, and t"e *ork of art serves to %a,i%i/e t"is effe t. Order "as no ot"er fun tion &ut t"at of fa ilitating sti%ulation. 7)"e aest"eti ally &eautiful is t"at *"i " affords t"e 9a,i%u% of 2ti%ulation *it" t"e 9ini%u% of @atigue or $aste, in !ro esses not dire tly onne ted *it" vital fun tions7 34, !. >95. ' ono%y is !leasura&le, and !leasure is t"e o&0e tive of art. $"en, later on, t"is !sy "o!"ysi al e ono%y *as re ogni/ed as a %eans of redu ing tension, it %ade onta t *it" t"e energeti as!e t of t"e entro!y !rin i!le. Co%!are "ere, for e,a%!le, +. D. 'ysen k8s 7la* of aest"eti a!!re iation,7 for%ulated in 19?46 7)"e !leasure derived fro% a !er e!t as su " is dire tly !ro!ortional to t"e de rease of energy a!a&le of doing *ork in t"e total nervous syste%, as o%!ared *it" t"e original state of 44

t"e *"ole syste%7 34?, !. >;=5. At t"is !oint it is *ell to refer to *"at I alled earlier a se ond signifi ant atte%!t to esta&lis" evolution as a os%i for e, na%ely, Fustav )"eodor @e "ner8s $ome 'deas on the (istory of the #reation and E)olution of the *rganisms of 1=7> 34;5. Un onvin ed and indeed re!elled &y t"e #ar*inian notion of t"e survival of t"e fittest, @e "ner on eived of t"e original state of all &eing as t"at of a o%!re"ensive !ri%ordial reature, anti i!ating all e,isting t"ings in intri ate relations and %ove%ents, "eld toget"er only &y t"e for e of gravity, and o%!ara&le in its "aoti fertility to 7a Bra/ilian forest.7 Alt"oug" ou "ed in ter%s of natural s ien e, @e "ner8s 7 os%organi 7 %atri,, even %ore learly t"an 2!en er8s on e!tion, &etrays its !sy "ologi al origin. $"at "e des ri&es is %ost nearly t"e initial stage of "u%an reativity, *"en t"e %ind is a disorderly store"ouse of %any !ossi&ilities-a state of affairs t"at "as its e,ternal ounter!art in t"e !i tures(uely over ro*ded studios and studies of %any reative !ersons. @e "ner des ri&es "o* arti ulate inorgani and organi stru tures derive fro% t"e !ri%ordial %atri, t"roug" differentiation. )"is differentiation is distinguis"ed fro% %ere 7s!litting7 &y t"e fa t t"at it !rodu es at ea " level o!!osite entities o%!le%enting ea " ot"er, as, for e,a%!le, %ale and fe%ale 3Prin+ip der ,e+ugsweisen Differen+ierung5. )"roug" a La%ar kian kind of %utual ada!tation, *"i " @e "ner onsiders %ore effe tive t"an t"e egotisti fig"t for survival of every&ody against every&ody, and t"roug" t"e gradual slo*ing-do*n of varia&ility 3Prin+ip der a,nehmenden !eranderlich"eit5 evolution a!!roa "es a state of sta&ility6 @or *"at else do *e %ean &y ada!tation 3-usammenpassen5 &ut t"at ea " !art ontri&utes t"roug" t"e effe t of its for es to &ringing t"e ot"er !arts and t"ere&y t"e *"ole into a dura&le, and t"is %eans sta&le, state and to %aintaining t"e% in t"at stateA 34;, !. =95 @e "ner8s Prin i!le of 2ta&ility !ara!"rases t"e 2e ond La* of )"er%odyna%i s &y !ostulating t"at a syste% %ust ontinue to "ange until full sta&ility is attained, at *"i " !oint no furt"er alteration an &e generated fro% t"e inside of t"e syste%. @e "ner, like 2!en er, gives no indi ation of kno*ing a&out t"e orres!onding t"eoreti al develo!%ents in !"ysi s, alt"oug" "e does refer to a t"eory of t"e Lei!/ig astrono%er and !"ysi ist Do"ann Barl @riedri " Ko1lner 37>5. )o*ard t"e end of "is s!e ulations, @e "ner added a note in *"i " "e related "is sta&ility !rin i!le to t"e e,!erien es of !leasure and !ain. +e stated t"at any !sy "o!"ysi al e, itation, strong enoug" to !ass &eyond t"e t"res"old of ons iousness and to overste! t"e range of 7aest"eti indifferen e,7 is invested *it" !leasure to t"e e,tent to *"i " it a!!roa "es full sta&ility and *it" !ain t"roug" its deviation fro% it 34;, !. 9?5.31E5 )"is referen e "as ke!t @e "ner8s ot"er*ise little-kno*n essay in t"e strea% of t"e %ode% "istory of ideas &e ause it *as !ro%inently (uoted &y @reud in "is .eyond the Pleasure Principle of 1919L4<, *"en "e related t"e !leasure !rin i!le to t"at of tension redu tion, i.e., to t"e in rease or de rease of Psy "i al e, itation 3>15. )"e dire t !arallel to t"e 2e ond La* did not es a!e t"e attention of @reud8s dis i!les. 3175 +o*ever, no dire t referen e of @reud "i%self to t"e entro!y !rin i!le is kno*n, so t"at "is one e,!li it sour e %ay indeed &e @e "ner, t"e only !sy "ologist, a ording to 'rnest Dones, fro% 4>

*"o% @reud ever &orro*ed any ideas 3>;, vol. >, !. 4E=5. )"e state of sta&ility *as for @e "ner one of su!re%e os%i order. -o su " on e!tion e,ists for @reud, e, e!t *"en "e %entions t"e 7 onstan y !rin i!le,7 a tenden y to kee! e, itatory tension at an even keel. )"ese referen es, "o*ever, are !erfun tory and do not fit t"e trend of "is t"oug"t. $"at "e *is"es to !rove is t"at t"e striving to kee! tension at a %ini%u% or to eli%inate it entirely is t"e do%inant tenden y of !sy "o!"ysi al e,isten e 3-irvana !rin i!le5. 2u " tension redu tion is on eived &y @reud as ata&oli dissolution. Instin ts are drives of t"e live organis% to return to t"e inorgani state. )"e goal of life is deat" 347, "a!. ?5. )"e striving to*ard tension redu tion is, a ording to @reud, not only do%inant &ut indeed t"e only genuinely !ri%ary tenden y of t"e organis%. )"e life-sustaining instin ts are %ere detours, "esitations, i%!osed rea tions to distur&an es. )"ere is no in"erent drive to*ards "ig"er develo!%ent, !erfe tion, novelty. 31=5 +en e t"e essentially negative and stati "ara ter of @reud8s 7dyna%i 7 !"iloso!"y, *"ose affinity to t"at of 2 "o!en"auer "e e,!li itly a kno*ledges. 2ti%ulation fro% t"e outside and i%!ulses fro% t"e inside are vie*ed as !rodu ing distur&ing tension, and t"e strategy of t"e 'go endeavors to steer t"e %ind to*ard desira&le (uies en e. #avid Ries%an "as o&served6 7It see%s lear t"at @reud, *"en "e looked at love or *ork, understood %an8s !"ysi al and !sy "i &e"avior in t"e lig"t of t"e !"ysi s of entro!y and t"e e ono%i s of s ar ity7 3E<, !. >4;5. )"e notion of 7!sy "i e ono%y7 is a reinter!retation of t"e Prin i!le of Least A tion. In its early for%ulations, t"is !rin i!le, variously for%ulated &y Lei&ni/, 9au!ertuis, Lagrange, and ot"ers, dealt *it" %e "ani s and *as %eant to des ri&e t"e &e"avior "ara teristi of inorgani nature, *"i " tends to a o%!lis" "anges &y a %ini%u% of a tion. 3195 )"is e ono%y of effort *as related to t"e notion t"at 7nature is !leased *it" si%!li ity,7 as -e*ton !ut it in "is Mathematical Principles 3&ook III, rule 15. )"e rule of !arsi%ony in s ien e, a ording to *"i " a t"eory is to &e !referred *"en it is si%!ler and *"en it e%!loys a %ini%u% of o%!onents, *as 0ustified &y t"is !ro!erty of nature6 t"e si%!ler t"eory *as %ore likely to &e orre t. )"e very different notion t"at t"e si%!ler !ro edure is !refera&le &e ause a %an *ould &e foolis" if "e did %ore *ork t"an "e "ad to is !ro&a&ly a !at"ologi al outgro*t" of t"e industrial revolution. One %ust arefully distinguis" t"e assertion t"at tension redu tion in an organi/ed syste% *ill in rease orderliness and t"at t"e e ono%y of %eans *ill en"an e t"e effi ien y of a tion and !rodu t, fro% t"e &elief t"at %an is la/y and t"erefore !leased to get t"e %ost t"roug" t"e s%allest effort. O&viously, t"e *ork of art, like an organis% or a %a "ine or a so iety, !rofits fro% t"e e ono%y of orderly stru ture, &ut t"is &enefit is not o&tained &y a lessening of effort. On t"e ontrary, !arsi%onious stru ture is t"e fruit of la&orious struggle. 'ven t"e si%!lest s"a!es, su " as t"e straig"t line in dra*ing or t"e geo%etri ally s"a!ed li%&s of Afri an *ood figures are &y no %eans t"e si%!lest to %ake. @urt"er%ore, %ost *orks of art are very o%!le,. 2 ientists also are not kno*n to s"y a*ay fro% e,a ting tasks. 34<5 Uni%!aired %inds and &odies are not in lined to e,ert t"e%selves as little as !ossi&le or to redu e t"e o%!le,ity of t"eir a tions and !rodu ts for t"at reason. 4?

!O%EOSTASIS IS NOT ENOU#! )"e referen es to @reud8s &asi attitude %ay "ave "el!ed to s"o* t"at t"e !rin i!le of tension redu tion leads to a lo!sided vie* if one fails to a kno*ledge t"at one of its essential as!e ts is t"e reation of order and furt"er t"at &y li%iting attention to t"is one !rin i!le a stati and negative on e!tion results. One %ore nota&le e,a%!le fro% &iology and !sy "ology %ay o%!lete t"is sket "y survey. Around 19><, t"e !"ysiologist $alter B. Cannon s"o*ed t"at t"e steering %e "anis%s of t"e autono%i nervous syste% sustain an orderly state in t"e organis% t"roug" t"e &alan ing of o!!osite for es 3415. +o%eostasis, as "e alled it, is t"e %aintenan e of te%!erature and t"e su!!ly of o,ygen, *ater, sugar, and salt, fat, al iu% at suita&le levels. Cannon *as areful to distinguis" "o%eostasis, *"i " !rovides an o!ti%al relation &et*een out!ut and in!ut, fro% t"e uno!!osed tenden y to tension redu tion. @ar fro% re!resenting a striving to*ard deadly dissolution, t"e tenden y to "o%eostasis "ad o%e a&out in &iologi al evolution as a %eans of !reserving life. Instead of t"e stagnation reated &y a state of %a,i%u% entro!y, t"e o!en syste% of t"e organis% onstituted a steady strea% of a&sor&ed and e,!ended energy. Cannon8s t"esis not only illustrates t"e differen e &et*een %ini%al fun tioning and %a,i%al vigor &ut also t"e in o%!leteness of any on e!tion of order &ased on e(uili&riu% alone. )"ere *as great te%!tation to a!!ly Cannon8s !"ysiologi al %odel to !sy "ology and to des ri&e "u%an %otivation as a striving for t"e %aintenan e of sta&ility. )"e &a king of a res!e ta&le natural s ien e see%ed to &e availa&le for an a!!roa " lose enoug" to t"e t"eory of t"e onservative nature of "u%an drives, as @reud "ad first introdu ed it. +o*ever, soon t"ere *as trou&le. It &e a%e evident t"at su " a stati on e!tion of !sy "o!"ysi al fun tioning *as neit"er in kee!ing *it" Cannon8s vie* nor did it do 0usti e to t"e %otivational as!e ts of t"e %ind. As Cannon "ad seen it, t"e "o%eostati devi es *ere li%ited to taking are of t"e routine ne essities of life t"roug" auto%ati regulation in order to free &ody and %ind for 7t"e a tivity of t"e "ig"er levels of t"e nervous syste%17 and so%e !sy "ologists &egan to reali/e t"at, in t"e *ords of C"ristian O. $e&er, 7"o%eostati &alan e %akes it !ossi&le to live at all &ut ontri&utes little to living *ell7. 3E75 It esta&lis"es order &ut does not indi ate *"at t"is order is to &e a&out. @or a %ore ade(uate vie* of "u%an nature it is ne essary to take into a ount t"e goals of life, t"e striving to*ard gro*t" and sti%ulation, t"e lures of uriosity and adventure,. t"e 0oy of e,er ising &ody and %ind, and t"e desire for a o%!lis"%ent and kno*ledge. A NEED FOR CO% LE)IT" $"at does our look at t"e t"inking of !"ysi ists, !"iloso!"ers, !sy "ologists, and !"ysiologists suggest for t"e understanding and evaluation of artA I "ave tried to s"o* t"at t"e a tivities of nature and of %an annot &e said to &e &asi ally at odds *it" ea " ot"er. 9an8s striving for order, of *"i " art is &ut one %anifestation, derives fro% a si%ilar universal tenden y t"roug"out t"e organi *orld1 it is also !aralleled &y, and !er"a!s derived fro%, t"e striving to*ards t"e state of si%!lest stru ture in !"ysi al 4;

syste%s. )"is os%i tenden y to*ards order, I %aintained, %ust &e arefully distinguis"ed fro% ata&oli erosion, *"i " affli ts all %aterial t"ings and leads to disorder or %ore generally to t"e eventual destru tion of all organi/ed s"a!e. )"e re"a&ilitation of order as a universal !rin i!le, "o*ever, suggested at t"e sa%e ti%e t"at orderliness &y itself is not suffi ient to a ount for t"e nature of organi/ed syste%s in general or for t"ose reated &y %an in !arti ular. 9ere orderliness leads to in reasing i%!overis"%ent and finally to t"e lo*est !ossi&le level of stru ture, no longer learly distinguis"a&le fro% "aos, *"i " is t"e a&sen e of order. A ounter!rin i!le is needed, to *"i " orderliness is se ondary. It %ust su!!ly *"at is to &e ordered. I des ri&ed t"is ounter!rin i!le as t"e ana&oli reation of a stru tural t"e%e, *"i " esta&lis"es 7*"at t"e t"ing is a&out,7 &e it a rystal or a solar syste%, a so iety or a %a "ine, a state%ent of t"oug"ts or a *ork of art. 2u&0e ted to t"e tenden y to*ard si%!lest stru ture, t"e o&0e t or event or institution assu%es orderly, fun tioning s"a!e. In !ra ti al %atters, t"ere are good reasons for kee!ing a stru tural t"e%e as si%!le as !ossi&le and t"e e,!ense of energy at a %ini%u%. +o*ever, *"en it o%es to t"e *"ole of "u%an e,isten e, *"ose only goal is its o*n fullness, t"e stru tural t"e%e %ust not only &e !resent &ut also as ri " as !ossi&le. )"is de%and u!on all kno*ledge, invention, and reation is fores"ado*ed in t"e traditional vie* of t"e *orld as a reation of Fod. Art"ur O. Love0oy, in "is lassi %onogra!" on t"e !rin i!le of !lenitude, "as tra ed t"roug" t"e "istory of $estern t"oug"t t"e idea t"at t"e universe, in order to &e *ort"y of t"e on e!tion of Fod, "ad to ontain t"e o%!lete set of all !ossi&le for%s of e,isten e. And it is !re isely &e ause 7Fod %akes t"e greatest nu%&er of t"ings t"at "e an,7 t"at t"e la*s of nature "ave to &e as si%!le as !ossi&le 3?7, !. 1795. A &e*ildering o%!le,ity is ertainly "ara teristi of organi s"a!e. )"e arts, as a refle tion of "u%an e,isten e at its "ig"est, "ave al*ays and s!ontaneously lived u! to t"is de%and of !lenitude. -o %ature style of art in any ulture "as ever &een si%!le. In ertain ultures, an overall sy%%etry %ay on eal t"e o%!le,ity of t"e *ork at first glan e. 9ore areful e,a%ination reveals in 'gy!tian s ul!ture a su&tlety of urves *"i " only t"e sense of tou " an verify *it" ertainty, &ut *"i " is indis!ensa&le nevert"eless in ani%ating visually t"e si%!le ar "ite ture of t"e *"ole. 2i%ilarly, in Afri an arvings an ine,"austi&le for%al invention !resents ever ne* variations of t"e &asi "u%an for%. )"e Part"enon is not si%!le, nor are t"e &uildings of Le Cor&usier. 7)"e "u%an &rain, t"e %ost o%!le, o&0e t in t"e *orld, annot &e re!resented &y an easily e,"austed s"a!e or gesture7 3E, !. E>5. )"ere is no need to redis over "ere t"e an ient for%ula of Junity in variety.7 It *ill "ave &een noti ed t"at even in t"e "edonisti for%ulations of a 2!en er, Allen, 'ysen k, t"e !leasures of t"e least effort are to &e derived not fro% t"e si%!lest availa&le !atterns &ut !resu!!ose t"e 7fullest a tions7 of t"e !ertinent %ental fa ulties, t"e 7%a,i%u% of sti%ulation,7 dra*ing fro% t"e nervous syste% 7t"e %a,i%u% a%ount of energy7 34?, !. >;95. Re ent e,!eri%ental studies "ave led to t"e on lusion t"at a distinguis"ing feature of reative !ersons is 7a ognitive !referen e for o%!le,ity-t"e ri ", dyna%i , and asy%%etri al-as o!!osed to si%!li ity7 344, !. ;95. 'ven t"e %ost traditional aest"eti taste does not li%it itself, in t"e %ore sensitive 4E

o&servers, to onsidering &eauty e, lusively as t"e a&sen e of distorting stresses, alt"oug" Classi ist t"eory on entrates on t"is as!e t. Do"ann Doa "i% $in kel%ann, fa%ous for "is advo a y of 7edle 'infalt und stille Frosse7 3no&le si%!li ity and (uiet grandeur5 o&served nevert"eless6 )"e line t"at des ri&es t"e &eautiful is elli!ti al. It "as si%!li ity and onstant "ange. It annot &e des ri&ed &y a o%!ass, and it "anges dire tion at every one of its !oints. )"is is easily said &ut "ard to learn6 no alge&ra an deter%ine *"i " line, %ore or less elli!ti al, *ill %old t"e various !arts into &eauty. But t"e an ients kne* it, and *e find it in t"eir "u%an figures and even t"eir vessels. 0ust as t"ere is not"ing ir ular in t"e "u%an &ody, so no !rofile of an an ient vessel des ri&es a "alf ir le. $in kel%ann8s infatuated o&servations on +ellenisti statues, su " as t"e torso of t"e Belvedere, s"o* learly t"at in !ra ti e t"e visual tension ani%ating t"e "u%an for% *as to "i% as indis!ensa&le for &eauty as *ere si%!li ity and (uietness. 2tru tural analysis an live u! to t"ese re(uire%ents only &y distinguis"ing &et*een orderliness and order. 9ere orderliness is !ro%oted *"en t"e striving to*ard tension redu tion &alan es all o%!onents of a field against ea " ot"er. )ension redu tion is a "ieved also *"en, in t"e interest of orderliness, su!erfluous o%!onents are eli%inated fro% a syste% and needed ones are su!!lied1 for any ga! *it"in an order or any sur!lus ele%ent !rodu es a tension to*ard o%!letion or re%oval, *"i " is eased &y ordering. All su " ordering in reases entro!y1 alt"oug", as I !ointed out earlier, t"e o!!osite is not true. -ot every in rease of entro!y o%es a&out &y ordering6 an e,!losion, &lo*ing a stru ture to &its, rarely in reases orderliness. Orderliness o%es fro% t"e %a,i%u% of tension redu tion o&taina&le for a given !attern of onstraints. $"en %ore onstraints are re%oved, tension redu tion an !ro eed furt"er until it rea "es "o%ogeneity. +o%ogeneity is t"e si%!lest !ossi&le level of order &e ause it is t"e %ost ele%entary stru tural s "e%e t"at an &e su&0e ted to ordering. Orderliness o%es in degrees1 order o%es in levels. A stru ture an &e %ore or less orderly at any level of o%!le,ity. )"e level of ordered o%!le,ity is t"e level of order. )"e 7aest"eti %easure7 at *"i " Feorge Birk"off ai%ed *as %erely a %easure of order, derived fro% t"e relation &et*een orderliness and o%!le,ity 31>5. Order, I s"all suggest, is a ne essary alt"oug" not a suffi ient ondition of aest"eti e, ellen e. 3445 ART %ADE SI% LE Let %e return on e %ore to t"e fa t t"at t"e in rease of entro!y is due to t*o (uite different kinds of effe t1 on t"e one "and, a striving to*ard si%!li ity, *"i " *ill !ro%ote orderliness and t"e lo*ering of t"e level of order, and, on t"e ot"er "and, disorderly destru tion. Bot" lead to tension redu tion. )"e t*o !"eno%ena %anifest t"e%selves %ore learly t"e less t"ey are %odified &y t"e ountertenden y, na%ely, t"e ana&oli esta&lis"%ent of a stru tural t"e%e, *"i " introdu es and %aintains tension. In t"e arts t"e t"e%e re!resents *"at t"e *ork 7is a&out.7 $"en its influen e is *eakened, one of t*o t"ings *ill "a!!en. 'it"er t"e need for si%!li ity *ill no longer &e 47

ounter&alan ed &y o%!le, e,!erien e and invention. Released fro% t"ese onstraints, it *ill yield all t"e %ore strongly to t"e !leasure of tension redu tion and ontent itself *it" a %ini%al stru ture at a lo* level of order. In t"e e,tre%e, it *ill rea " t"e e%!tiness of "o%ogeneity. 34>5 Or, in t"e ot"er ase, organi/ed stru ture *ill si%!ly su u%& to disintegration, eit"er &y orrosion and fri tion or &y t"e %ere in a!a ity to "old toget"er. Colla!se &y e,"austion "as &een !o*erfully de%onstrated, alt"oug" not ne essarily e,!ressed and inter!reted artisti ally, &y an A%eri an s ul!tor, *"o re ently s"o*ed deflated giant %odels of orderly fun tional instru%ents, su " as ty!e*riters or ele tri fans. A *re k, unless it assu%es a s"a!e of its o*n, *ill &e disorderly and t"erefore %ore or less unreada&le to t"e eye, &ut it an &e o%inous and fore&oding as su&0e t %atter. A %ind released fro% t"e de%ands of organi/ed e,!erien e %ay ontent itself *it" t"e s"a!elessness of a idental %aterials, "a!!enings, or sounds. 9ere noise involves a %ini%u% of stru tural tension and t"erefore alls for a %ini%u% of energy e,!ended &y !rodu er and re i!ient, in s!ite of reating t"e illusion t"at %u " is going on. In t"e e,tre%e ase, again, it *ill rea " t"e e%!tiness of "o%ogeneity. )"e *ritings of t"e s ul!tor and !ainter Dean Ar! ontain a telling e,a%!le 39, !. 775. In a ru ial !eriod of "is life Ar! found "i%self %oving fro% t"e e,tre%e of 7i%!ersonal, severe stru tures,7 intended to eli%inate t"e &urden of !ersonal e,!erien e, to t"e forsaking of defined for% and t"e a e!tan e of dissolution. A&out 19>< t"e !i tures to% &y "and fro% !a!er a%e into &eing. +u%an *ork no* see%ed to %e even less t"an !ie e-*ork. It see%ed to %e re%oved fro% life. 'veryt"ing is a!!ro,i%ate, less t"an a!!ro,i%ate, for *"en %ore losely and s"ar!ly e,a%ined, t"e %ost !erfe t !i ture is a *arty, t"read&are a!!ro,i%ation, a dry !orridge, a dis%al %oonrater lands a!e. $"at arrogan e is on ealed in !erfe tion. $"y struggle for !re ision, !urity, *"en t"ey an never &e attained. )"e de ay t"at &egins i%%ediately on o%!letion of t"e *ork *as no* *el o%e to %e. #irty %an *it" "is dirty fingers !oints and dau&s at a nuan e in t"e !i ture. )"is s!ot is "en efort" %arked &y s*eat and grease. +e &reaks into *ild ent"usias% and s!rays t"e !i ture *it" s!ittle. A deli ate !a!er ollage of *ater olor is lost. #ust and inse ts are also effi ient in destru tion. )"e lig"t fades t"e olors. 2un and "eat %ake &listers, disintegrate t"e !a!er, ra k t"e !aint, disintegrate t"e !aint. )"e da%!ness reates %ould. )"e *ork falls a!art, dies. )"e dying of a !i ture no longer &roug"t %e to des!air. I "ad %ade %y !a t *it" its !assing, *it" its deat", and no* it *as !art of t"e !i ture for %e. But deat" gre* and ate u! t"e !i ture and life. )"is dissolution %ust "ave &een follo*ed &y t"e negation of au a tion. @or% "ad &e o%e unfor%, t"e @inite t"e Infinite, t"e Individual t"e $"ole. Clearly, t"e earlier insisten e on %ini%al s"a!es of t"e ut%ost !re ision and t"e su&se(uent dis!lay of orrosion, see%ingly at e,tre%e o!!osites, *ere in fa t sy%!to%s of t"e sa%e a&andon%ent. It *as t"e *ork of a fello*-artist, "is *ife 2o!"ie )aeu&er, t"at s"o*ed "i% 7t"e fine &alan e &et*een A&ove and Belo*, lig"t and darkness, eternity and transitoriness.7 And "e on luded6 7)oday even %ore t"an in %y yout" I &elieve t"at a return to an essential order, to a "ar%ony, is ne essary to save t"e *orld fro% &oundless onfusion.7 4=

)o &e sure, *"at looks like disorder today %ay turn out to &e t"e order of to%orro*. )"is "as "a!!ened &efore and is likely to re!eat itself in t"e future. But it does not release us fro% t"e res!onsi&ility of diagnosing disorder *"ere, to t"e &est of our 0udg%ent, it !revails. -or does it give us li ense to a e!t disorder in t"e *ork of an artist as an inter!retation of disorder *"en *e re ogni/e it as a %ere addition to it. )"en again, it is (uite true t"at a very si%!le dis!lay %ay release a strong and "ig"ly arti ulate e,!erien e in t"e re i!ient. Religious and !oliti al sy%&ols do so o%%only. An evenly stained anvas,, a nest of s(uares, a s"iny egg, a set of stri!es, or an assort%ent of refuse %ay stir u! !o*erful feelings "ere and t"ere. Anyt"ing in t"e *orld an do t"at. In su " ases, t"e tension of "ig" ana&oli order %ay &e alled fort" &y, &ut *ill not &e a !ro!erty of, t"e o&0e t or event a ting as atalyst. If a drug ould sti%ulate in so%e&ody8s %ind t"e invention of a great *ork of art, *ould *e redit it to t"e drug or to its userA A *ork of art does not ask for %eaning1 it ontains it. #isintegration and e, essive tension redu tion %ust &e attri&uted to t"e a&sen e or i%!oten e of arti ulate stru ture. It is a !at"ologi al ondition, on *"ose auses I an "ardly s!e ulate "ere. Are *e dealing *it" t"e sort of e,"austion of vital energy t"at !ro!"ets and !oets !ro lai%ed and de ried in t"e last enturyA Is t"e %ode% *orld so ially, ognitively, !er e!tually devoid of t"e kind of "ig" order needed to generate si%ilarly organi/ed for% in t"e %inds of artistsA Or is t"e order of our *orld so !erni ious as to !revent t"e artist fro% res!onding to itA $"atever t"e ause, t"ese !rodu ts, alt"oug" often su&standard artisti ally, reveal strongly !ositive o&0e tives6 an al%ost des!erate need to *rest order fro% a "aoti environ%ent, even at t"e %ost ele%entary level1 and t"e frank e,"i&ition of &ankru!t y and sterility *roug"t &y t"at sa%e environ%ent. CALL FOR STRUCTURE )"e all for arti ulate stru ture is not %erely a %atter of for%. Cariety is %ore t"an a %eans of avoiding &oredo%, sin e art is %ore t"an an entertain%ent of t"e senses. I %entioned in t"e &eginning t"at !er e!tual order rarely, if ever, e,ists for its o*n sake &ut is t"e e,ternal %anifestation of an internal order 3as in a rystal5 or of a fun tional order 3as in a &uilding or %a "ine5, or is intended as a !ortrayal of a signifi ant ty!e of order e,isting else*"ere. In t"is latter ase, t"e ase of t"e *ork of art, t"e stru tural t"e%e derives its value even %u " of its -value as a sti%ulant-fro% t"e "u%an ondition *"ose !arti ular for% of order it %akes visi&le or audi&le. A stru tural t"e%e deserves to &e ordered, to &e o%e a %essage, &e ause of *"at it says a&out %an and *orld. )"us *e annot ontent ourselves *it" t"e de%and t"at t"e !erfor%an e of t"e artist &e suffi iently ri " to fit t"e level of o%!le,ity at *"i " our &rains fun tion. A "ig" level of stru tural order is a ne essary &ut not suffi ient !rere(uisite of art. $"at is ulti%ately re(uired is t"at t"is order refle t a genuine, true, !rofound vie* of life. +ere, "o*ever, *e overste! t"e li%its of t"e !resent investigation. One %ore !oint. It *as noted t"at freely intera ting natural for es strive to*ards a state of e(uili&riu%, *"i " re!resents t"e final order of t"e onstellation. 2u " a final state, at *"i " all is *ell, is also foreseen &y !"iloso!"ers, so ial refor%ers, t"era!ists. But 49

!erfe tion, &eing a standstill, "as often &een vie*ed *it" 0ustified dis o%fort, and t"e definitive order of uto!ias and "eavens s%a ks inevita&ly of &oredo%. Bant, s!eaking of )"e 'nd of All )"ings, "as said of t"e #ay of 0udg%ent t"at it *ill still &elong to ti%e &e ause so%et"ing *ill still &e "a!!ening, as distinguis"ed fro% eternity, *"en, in t"e *ords of t"e angel of /e)elation, t"ere s"all &e ti%e no longer. -o* t"e *ork of art also re!resents a state of final e(uili&riu%, of a o%!lis"ed order and %a,i%u% relative entro!y, and t"ere are t"ose *"o resent it. But art is not %eant to sto! t"e strea% of life. $it"in a narro* s!an of duration and s!a e t"e *ork of art on entrates a vie* of t"e "u%an ondition1 and so%eti%es it %arks t"e ste!s of !rogression, 0ust as a %an li%&ing t"e dark stairs of a %edieval to*er assures "i%self &y t"e "anging sig"ts gli%!sed t"roug" its narro* *indo*s t"at "e is getting so%e*"ere after all. Notes* 315 @or t"e literature on !er e!tual organi/ation see Arn"ei% 3;, "a!. 45. 345)"is ontinues to &e true even t"oug" an i%!ortant grou! of re ent e,!eri%ents "as s"o*n t"at t"e s%allest units su&0e ted to !er e!tual organi/ation are not ne essarily t"e single !oint-si/ed re e!tors in t"e retina and t"eir e(ually ele%entary ounter!arts at t"e various !ro essing levels, es!e ially in t"e ere&ru%. Instead, ani%al e,!eri%ents indi ate t"at grou!s of s!e ial re e!tors oo!erate to signal t"e !resen e of ertain &asi s"a!es, %ove%ents, or s!atial orientations in t"e visual field. )"e &est kno*n e,a%!les are t"e 7&ug dete tors7 in t"e frog8s retina, *"i " res!ond only to %oving, dark, onve, o&0e ts in t"e field. M@or a survey of t"e findings and t"eir !ossi&le a!!li ation to "u%an vision see $eisstein 3E=5.N )"ese are &iologi al s"ort uts to !er e!tual organi/ation. )"e !er e!tion of ertain standard ite%s of t"e environ%ent is delegated to lo al and a!!arently (uite inde!endent organi/ational !ro esses. )"e studies s"o* t"at !er e!tual organi/ation &egins at a %u " %ore !eri!"eral level t"an *e *ere used to assu%ing1 &ut &y no %eans do t"ey suggest t"at *"at an ani%al or !erson !er eives o%es a&out as t"e su% of standardi/ed su&units. )y!i al !er e!tual organi/ation, of *"i " @igure 1 is an ele%entary e,a%!le, ontinues to re(uire field !ro esses, in *"i " t"e !arts are deter%ined &y t"e stru ture of t"e *"ole. 3>5 )"e sa%e illustration is used &y 2ir $illia% Bragg 31E, !. >=5. )"o%son %entions t"at t"e %et"od *as 7introdu ed for a different !ur!ose &y an A%eri an !"ysi ist, Professor 9ayer.7 I a% inde&ted for t"is referen e as *ell as for ot"er valua&le suggestions to Professors Ferald +olton and )"o%as von @oerster of t"e #e!art%ent of P"ysi s at +arvard University. 3?5 Advertise%ent in t"e $cientiflc &merican, fro% *"i " Plate 1 "as &een ada!ted &y !er%ission of Feneral #yna%i sLAstronauti s, 2an #iego, California. 3;5 )"e ter% 7order7 is used "ere not, or not only, in t"e sense of *"at *orks &est in our !arti ular environ%ent &ut as an o&0e tive des ri!tion of t"e si%!lest, %ost sy%%etri al, %ost regular for%. )"e s"a!e of a "i ken egg is less si%!le, and in t"is sense, of a %ore o%!le, order t"an t"at of a s!"ere1 &ut it is &etter ada!ted to its %e "ani al fun tion ><

t"an a s!"eri al egg *ould &e. 9ost ani%al &odies are ada!ted to t"e one-sided stress of t"e eart"8s gravitational field &y &eing sy%%etri al only a&out a !lane, not a&out t"e enter 3E5 Cf. 9onroe C. Beardsley8s ironi al o%%ent6 7. . . &e ause t"e 2e ond La* of )"er%odyna%i s !ro%ises an ine,ora&le do*n"ill %ar " to a statisti al "eat-deat", *"at else an a ons ientious artist do &ut !lay along *it" nature &y %a,i%i/ing t"e entro!y of "is *orkA7 3l1, !. 19E5. 375 $. Bo"ler6 7)"e *ord disorder a!!lies suita&ly to !"ysi al states in *"i " a %ulti!li ity of ele%ents !ursue %ostly inde!endent !at"s &ut, for s"ort ti%es, o%e into !"ysi al onne tion.7 3?<, !. 1=<5. Cf. also Da%es B. @ei&le%an6 7#isorder de!ends on t"e rando% dis!ersion of li%ited orders7 3?>, !. 115. In %edi al language, diseases are often alled 7disorders,7 %eaning t"e la k of oordination a%ong !artial syste%s of t"e &ody or t"e %ind. )"e Britis" !sy "iatrist R.#. Laing o%%ents on t"e ase of one of "is !atients6 7)"e overall unity of "er &eing "ad &roken u! into several 8!artial asse%&lies8 or 8!artial syste%s8 3(uasi-autono%ous 8 o%!le,es,8 8inner o&0e ts85 ea " of *"i " "ad its o*n little stereoty!ed 8!ersonality8 3%olar s!litting5. In addition, any a tual se(uen e of &e"avior *as frag%ented in a %u " %ore %inute %anner 3%ole ular s!litting57 3??, !. 19E5. A visual !arallel an &e found in *orks of art t"at a!!ear to onsist of unrelata&le units. )"e o%!onents strain to ada!t to one anot"er, fig"t ea " ot"er, o%e a!art. )"e disorderly !attern is !er eived as a o%&ination of inde!endent units lo ked in unreada&le onfli t. 3=5 In "is editorial Prefa e to t"e ne* edition of &spects of Form 3E9, !. OCI5, L.L. $"yte riti i/es t"e negle t of 7!ro esses leading to*ards s!atial order7 and adds6 7In %y vie* 2 "rodinger insulted t"is !re-e%inent lass of !ro esses &y giving t"e% a negative and, in ertain te "ni al res!e ts, %isleading na%e6 negati)e entropy 3no* stru tural negentro!y5.7 395 A &eautiful o&servation of t"e o%!oser Arnold 2 "on&erg is re!orted &y Do"n Cage, "is dis i!le. $"en 2 "on&erg, *"ose generation still &elieved in stru ture, *as told t"at so%eone t"reatened to ut one of "is *orks, "e %aintained t"at su " uts *ould not s"orten t"e o%!osition. It *ould still &e a long !ie e, *"i " *ould &e too s"ort in various !la es 319, !. ?=5. 31<5 )"e fa t t"at in an unstru tured o%&ination of ele%ents t"e !arti ular se(uen es or arrange%ents e%!loyed do not %atter &ut lead stru turally al*ays to one and t"e sa%e ondition is &roug"t "o%e for efully &y ertain avant garde atte%!ts in fil% editing or t"e %ulti!li ation or %i,ing of %edia to o%&ine dis!arate ele%ents %ore or less at rando%. )"ey are all different &ut t"ey all say t"e sa%e t"ing6 "aosI- *"i " is very lose to saying not"ing. )"ese ne* te "ni(ues, *"en "andled *it" a o%!etent sense of for%, an develo! ne* valid and !er"a!s &eautiful stru tures. )"ey are likely to &e (uite o%!le,1 &ut %ere rando%ness of o%&ination does not suffi e to reate reada&le o%!le,ity. 3115 Is it really sensi&le to all infor%ation and entro!y inversely related %easures, as -or&ert $iener does *"en "e says t"at 7t"e a%ount of infor%ation is a (uantity *"i " differs fro% entro!y %erely &y its alge&rai sign . . .7 371, !. 1495A )"e t*o %easures >1

ould &e re i!ro al only if t"ey referred to t"e sa%e !ro!erty of sets of ite%s1 &ut t"is t"ey do not do, as I 0ust !ointed out. 'ntro!y t"eory never leaves t"e *orld of !ure "an e, *"ereas infor%ation t"eory gets no*"ere unless it does, &e ause only t"en an it arrive at se(uen es varying in !ro&a&ility of o urren e. Its &usiness is to !redi t likeli"ood of o urren e in a *orld in *"i " se(uen es are not all e(ually likely to turn u!. Ignoring t"ese differen es leads to %u " onfusion. $iener states, for e,a%!le, t"at 7a "a!"a/ard se(uen e of sy%&ols an onvey no infor%ation7 371, !. E5. )"is is &y no %eans true, as any vi ti% of lotteries or ga%es of "an e an testify. Infor%ation, as defined &y t"e t"eory, is not 7t"e %easure of t"e regularity of a !attern,7 &ut rat"er t"e ontrary. -or an it &e said t"at 7regularity is to a ertain e,tent an a&nor%al t"ing.7 It an &e nor%al or a&nor%al, t"at is, likely or unlikely to turn u!, de!ending on *"et"er one is trying to !redi t t"e ne,t "undred o&0e ts !rodu ed &y an auto%o&ile fa tory or t"e ne,t "undred ite%s in a *"ite ele!"ant au tion. +el%ar @rank 34=, !. ?<5, as ited &y 9anfred Bie%le 3>7, !. ><5, "as dra*n attention to ontradi tions in $iener8s state%ents. 3145 2o%e e%!iri ally %inded t"inkers talk a&out natural la*s as t"oug" t"ey onfused t"e la*s *it" t"eir a tual %anifestations. Any la* is an If-)"en !ro!osition1 it indi ates *"at *ill "a!!en *"en ertain onditions are fulfilled. It refers to t"ese onditions and onse(uen es in t"eir !ure s"a!e, *"i " is never %et in !ra ti e &e ause any !"ysi al o!eration is %uffled &y t"e noise due to t"e interferen e of ot"er o!erations. It is t"is e%!iri al noise t"at !revents us fro% !redi ting any a tual o urren e *it" a&solute a ura y. By statisti al a!!ro,i%ation t"e underlying la*ful %e "anis% an &e %ade to trans!ire *it" %ore or less larity, de!ending on t"e strengt" of t"e noise. 2u " %uffling does not %ake t"e la* itself statisti al &ut only its !ra ti al e%&odi%ents1 and t"e insisten e on t"e a&solute !urity of a la* is not a Platoni fantasy &ut derives fro% t"e a*areness t"at to understand is to isolate t"e relatively si%!le underlying !atterns of for es fro% t"eir adulterating neig"&ors. 31>5 It is te "ni ally diffi ult to de%onstrate t"e redu tion of visual o%!le,ity resulting fro% t"e gradual re%oval of onstraints. In Plates E, 7 t"e &lurring "as &een o&tained &y !rinting t"e negative of a re!rodu tion *it" in reasing la k of fo us. )"is introdu es additional %odifi ations of s"a!e &y diffusion ir les, et . 31?5 Cf. note on !. 1;. 31;5 In a footnote to 119 of "is First Principles, 2!en er re!orts t"at in 1=;4 "e learned of von Baer8s assertion t"at every !lant and ani%al, originally "o%ogeneous, &e o%es gradually "eterogeneous. Con Baer8s treatise on t"e "istory of ani%al evolution 31<5 "as t"e %otto6 $imple0 est sigillum )eritatis1 +e o!!oses t"e &iogeneti ontention t"at t"e e%&ryo of every "ig"er ani%al !asses t"roug" t"e !"ases of t"e lo*er s!e ies. #istinguis"ing &et*een level of develo!%ent and ty!e of organi/ation 3&us,ildungsgrad and *rganisationstypus5, von Baer ontends t"at t"e e%&ryo e%&odies in t"e &eginning t"e %ost general for% of its genus 37t"e e%&ryo of a verte&rate is a verte&rate fro% t"e start75 and develo!s to*ards its !arti ular s!e ies fro% t"ere6 7)"e evolution of t"e individual is t"e "istory of gro*ing individuality in every res!e t7 3vol. I, s "oliu% CI5. 31E5 It is t"is !sy "ologi al version of t"e !rin i!le *"i " @e "ner see%s to "ave taken fro% Kollner. KollnerGs treatise on t"e nature of t"e o%ets ontains a "a!ter 7on t"e >4

general !ro!erties of %atter,H in *"i " "e e(uates !"ysi al tension redu tion *it" t"e striving to*ard !leasure and arrives at t"e follo*ing for%ulation6 7All *ork done &y organi or inorgani natural entities is deter%ined &y t"e sensations of !leasure and dis!leasure in su " a *ay t"at t"e %ove%ents *it"in a dosed real% of !"eno%ena &e"ave as t"oug" t"ey !ursued t"e un ons ious !ur!ose of redu ing t"e su% of un!leasant sensations to a %ini%u%7 37>, !. >4E5. 3175 )"us 2iegfried Bernfeld6 7P"ysi al syste%s for *"i " t"e entro!y !rin i!le "olds &e"ave as t"oug" t"ey !ossessed a drive to redu e t"eir internal (uantities of tension *it"in t"e syste% as a *"ole.H 314, !. ;>5. 31=5 'ven in "is later *ritings, in *"i " "e &ased "is on e!tion of t"e "u%an drives on t"e antagonisti !air of 'ros and #estru tiveness, orres!onding to inorgani attra tion and re!ulsion, @reud insisted t"at t"e drives, alt"oug" auses of all a tion, are onservative in nature6 t"ey strive to reesta&lis" t"e original inorgani states 3Cf. 49, "a!. 4, and ><, "a!. >45. 3195 On 9au!ertuis see Dero%e @ee 34E5. Also Plan k6 7#as Prin/i! der kleinsten $irkung7 3191;5 in Plan k 3;=5 and t"e literature ited in Ki!f 374, !. ;?;5. +ere again I a% not on erned *it" t"e validity of t"e !rin i!le in t"e lig"t of %ode% !"ysi s &ut *it" its nature as a !"iloso!"i al !ostulate. 34<5 A !ersonal re olle tion %ay find its !la e "ere. 9a, Plan k, t"e great !ioneer of (uantu% t"eory, *"o *rote in t"e afore%entioned !a!er t"at t"e Prin i!le of Least A tion 7is suited to o u!y t"e "ig"est !osition a%ong all !"ysi al la*s,7 *as a devoted %ountain li%&er. I re%e%&er sitting at a ta&le ne,t to "is in t"e &reakfast roo% of a s%all !ension in t"e #olo%ites. +e *as t"en in "is %iddle seventies. )"at %orning, 9rs. Plan k "ad o%e do*nstairs first and *"ile *aiting for "er "us&and *as studying a %a!. $"en Plan k 0oined "er, s"e told "i% t"at s"e "ad 0ust figured out a *ay of a!!roa "ing t"e !eak t"ey *ere to li%& t"at day. Plan k *as not !leased. 7:ou "ave "eated %e out of %y %orning !ro&le% ..7 I "eard "i% say-surely a %ost une ono%i al rea tion. 3415 2ee $in kel%ann8s 7'rinnerung fi&er die Betra "tung der alten Bunst,7 7Fedanken fi&er die -a "a"%ung der grie "is "en $erke in der 9alerei und Bild"auerkunst,7 !u&lis"ed in 17;;, and -Bes "rei&ung des )orso i% Belvedere /u Ro%.7 $illia% +ogart"8s 7line of &eauty,7 referring to a si%ilar o&servation, a!!ears first as a 7ser!entine-line lying on a !ainter8s !alletH in a self-!ortrait !u&lis"ed in 17?; as a frontis!ie e to "is engraved *orks and is a%!ly dis ussed, of ourse, in "is &nalysis of .eauty. On t"e dyna%i e,!ression of ir le and !ara&ola see also C"a!ter 1< of %y &rt and !isual Perception. )"e !referen e of t"e Renaissan e for ir ular s"a!e and of 9anneris% for t"e elli!se is des ri&ed &y Panofsky 3;>, !. 4;5. 3445 Order an &e analy/ed *it" t"e tools of gestalt !sy "ology, *"i ", in !rin i!le, "as *ays of deter%ining levels of o%!le,ity as *ell as degrees of orderliness. )"is does not %ean t"at a "ig" level of order is t"e sa%e as a 7good gestaltH -an unfortunate ter%, *"i ", in so%e of t"e early gestalt *ritings, &urdened a !urely des ri!tive on e!t *it" a value 0udg%ent and %ade a definite stru tural ondition look su&0e tive and vague. )"e ter% *as used to des ri&e t"e tenden y to*ard regularity, sy%%etry, si%!li ity, &est >>

na%ed 7t"e la* of si%!li ity7 or !er"a!s 7t"e la* of dyna%i dire tion,7 as Bo"ler alled it in 19>= 3?15. Be ause of t"e vagueness of t"e ter%, 7good gestalt,7 t"e la* of si%!li ity *as readily onfused *it" 7!raegnan/7, %eaning lear- ut stru ture, or *it" *"atever else %ay &e !er e!tually and aest"eti ally en0oya&le, interesting, a!!ro!riate, or useful. )"e result an &e 2tudied, e.g., in 'ysen k8s atte%!t to identify t"e 7good gestalt7 *it" t"e 7&eautiful7 34?5. +is !a!er, 0ust as t"e &ook &y Birk"off, !resents a t"eory of aest"eti order1 t"e la* of si%!li ity refers only to orderliness attained &y tension redu tion. 34>5 2o%e of t"e sa%e !eo!le *"o !rofess to &e re!elled &y t"e %onotonous ro*s of identi al "u%an d*ellings in so- alled su&divisions, see% to ad%ire ro*s of identi al &o,es in art galleries. lates* Plate 16

Plates 4-?6 Dean Ar!. Three #onstellations of $ame Forms. )ri!ty ".

Plate ;6 )"e 9adonna of $ur/&urg. P"oto K*i ker, $ur/&erg.

>?

Plates E,76 -i "olas Poussin. (oly Family on the $teps. -ational Fallery of Art. $as"ington, #.C. 2a%uel +. Bress Colle tion.

&iblio+raphy 1. Ada%s, +enry. )"e degradation of t"e de%o rati dog%a. -e* :ork6 Peter 2%it", 19?9. 4. Allen, Frant. P"ysiologi al aest"eti s. -e* :ork6 A!!leton, 1=77. >. Angrist, 2tanley $. and Loren F. +e!ler. Order and "aos6 La*s of energy and entro!y. -e* :ork6 Basi Books, 19E7. ?. Arn"ei%, Rudolf. A ident and t"e ne essity of art. In A%"ei% 3=5 !!. 1E4-1=<. ;. Arn"ei%, Rudolf. Art and visual !er e!tion. Berkeley and Los Angeles6 Univ. of >;

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4E. @ee, Dero%e. 9au!ertuis and t"e !rin i!le of least a tion. 2 ient. 9ont"ly, Dune 19?1, vol. ;4, !! ?9E-;<>. 47. @lugel, D. C. 2tudies in feeling and desire. London6 #u k*ort", 19;;. 4=. @rank, +el%ar. Kur 9at"e%atisier&arkeit des Ordnungs&egriffs. Frundlagenstudien aus By&ernetik und Feistes*issens "aft, vol. 4, 19E1. 49. @reud, 2ig%und. A&riss der Psy "oanalyse. In 2 "riften aus de% -a "lass, 1=9419>=. London6 I%ago, 19?1. 3Outline of !sy "oanalysis. -e* :ork6 -orton, 19?;.5 ><. @reud, 2ig%und. -eue @olge der Corlesungen /ur 'infii"rung in die Psy "oanalyse. Cienna6 Inte%. Psy "oanal. Cerlag, 19>>. 3-e* introdu tory le tures on !sy "oanalysis. -e* :ork6 -orton, 19E;.5 >1. @reud, 2ig%und. 0enseits des Lust!rin/i!s. Lei!/ig6 Intern. Psy "oanal. Cerlag, 194>. 3Beyond t"e !leasure !rin i!le. -e* :ork6 Liverig"t, 19E1.5 >4. Fo%&ri ", '. +. Psy "oanalysis and t"e "istory of art. Intern. Dournal of Psy "oanalysis, 19;?, vol. >;, !!. 1-11. >>. +eisen&erg, $erner. #as -atur&ild der "eutigen P"ysik. +a%&urg6 Ro*o"lt, 19;;. >?. +ie&ert, 'r*in -. )"e uses and a&uses of t"er%odyna%i s in religion. #aedalus, @all 19EE, !!. 1<?E-1<=<. >;. Dones, 'rnest. )"e life and *ork of 2ig%und @reud. -e* :ork6 Basi Books, 19;7. >E. Be!es, Fyorgy 3ed.5. 2tru ture in art and s ien e. -e* :ork6 Bra/iller, 19E;. >7. Bie%le, 9anfred. Aest"etis "e Pro&le%e der Ar "itektur unter de% As!ekt der Infor%ationsast"etik. Qui k&orn6 2 "nelle, 19E7. >=. Bo"ler, $olfgang. Kur Bolt/%anns "en )"eorie des /*eiten +au!tsat/es. 'rkenntnis 19>4, vol. 4, PP. >>E->;>. >9. Bo"ler, $olfgang. On t"e nature of asso iations. Pro . A%er. P"ilos. 2o ., Dune 19?1, vol. =?, !!. ?=9-;<4. ?<. Bo"ler, $olfgang. #ie !"ysis "en Festalten in Ru"e und i% stationaren Kustand. Brauns "*eig6 Cie*eg, 194<. ?1. Bo"ler, $olfgang. )"e !la e of value in a *orld of fa ts. -e* :ork and )oronto6 -e* A%er. Li&rary, 19EE. ?4. Bostelanet/, Ri "ard. Inferential art. Colu%&ia @oru%, 2u%%er 19E9, vol. 14, !!. 194E. ?>. Bunt/, Paul F. 3ed.5. )"e on e!t of order. 2eattle and London6 Univ. of $as"ington Press, 19E=. ??. Laing, R. #. )"e divided self. Balti%ore6 Penguin, 19E;. ?;. Lands&erg, P. ). 'ntro!y and t"e unity of kno*ledge. Cardiff6 Univ. of $ales Press, 19E1. >7

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