UNIT 1: MOTION

Physics & Physical Measurements

Order of Magnitude Scientific Notation and Prefixes Fundamental Units Derived Units Significant Figures Uncertainties

The Realm of Physics

Order of Magnitude
The order of magnitude of a number is the power of ten closest to that number. When dealing with very big or very small numbers, scientists are more concerned with the order of magnitude of a measurement rather than the precise value.
Examples Mass of Sun Mass of the Earth One year Diameter of an atom Mass of proton 1050 kg 1025 kg 107 s 10-10 m 10-27 kg

Multiple

Prefix
petateragigamegakilodecicentimillimicronanopico-

Symbol
P T G M k d c m n p

Scientists tend to use scientific notation when stating a measurement. A x 10n 1 A 10 where, and n is an integer. The terms standard notation and standard form are synonymous with scientific notation. For example: 0.06 kg = 6 x 10-2 kg

1015 1012 109 106 103 10-1 10-2 10-3 10-6 10-9 10-12

10-15
10-18

femtoatto-

f
a

Scientific Notation and Prefixes

Exercise

Exercise

Fundamental Units
Quantity length mass Dimension L M SI unit meter (m) kilogram (kg)

time
electric current temperature amount of substance light intensity

T
Q

second (s)
ampere (A) kelvin (K)

mole (mol)
candela (cd)

The derived units enable us to measure more than basic quantities of length, mass, time, etc. For example, there is no unit for speed among the base units. However, a suitable unit can be derived from the equation for speed:
distance (m) average speed = time (s)

Derived units
Quantity speed acceleration force pressure energy charge potential difference resistance Derived unit m s-1 m s-2 kg m s-2 kg m-1 s-2 kg m2 s-2 As kg m2 A-1 s-2 kg m2 A-2 s-2 Dimension LT-1 LT-2 MLT-2 ML-1 T-2 ML2 T-2 QT ML2Q-1 T-2 ML2Q-2 T-2 Name newton (N) pascal (Pa) joule (J) coulomb (C) volt (V) ohm ()

Significant Figures
The concept of significant figures may be used to indicate the degree of accuracy or precision in a measurement. The following rules are applied 1. All non-zero digits are significant. (22.2 has 3 sf) 2. All zeros between two non-zero digits are significant. (1007 has 4 sf) 3. For numbers less than one, zeros directly after the decimal point are not significant. (0.0024 has 2 sf) 4. A zero to the right of a decimal and following a non-zero digit is significant. (0.0500 has 3 sf) 5. All other zeros are not significant. (500 has 1 sf) Scientific notation allows you to give a zero significance. For example, 10 has 1 sf but 1.00 x 101 has 3 sf.

How many significant figures are indicated by each of the following:

a) 1247 f) 0.00250 b) 10054 g) sin 45.2o c) 0.034 h) tan-1 0.24 d) 1.20 x 107 i) 3.2 x 10-16 e) 62.0 j) 0.0300

Exercise

6. When adding and subtracting a series of measurements, the least accurate place value in the answer can only be stated to the same number of significant figures as the measurement of the series with the least number of decimal places. For example, 24.2 + 0.51 + 7.134 = 31.8 (not 31.844) or 3.18 x 101. 7. When multiplying and dividing a series of measurements, the number of significant figures in the answer should be equal to the least number of significant figures in any of the data of the series. 3.22 x 12.34 x 1.8 = 72 (not 71.52264) or 7.2 x 101. 8. When rounding off a number, if the digit following the required rounding off digit is 4 or less, maintain the last reportable digit and if it is 6 or more increase the last reportable digit by one. If it is a 5 followed by more digits except an immediate zero, increase the last reportable digit. If there is only a 5 with no digits following, increase reportable odd digits by one and maintain reportable even digits.

Value 6.42 6.46 6.451 6.498 6.55 6.45

Round off 6.4 6.5 6.5 6.5 6.6 6.4

Calculate the area of square with a side of 3.2 m. Add the following lengths of 2.34 cm, 7.62 cm and 14.2 cm Calculate the volume of a rectangular block 1.52 cm by 103.4 cm by 3.1 cm. A metal block has a mass of 2.0 g and a volume of 0.01 cm3. Calculate the density of the metal in g cm-3. Round off the following to three significant figures: a) 7.1249 b) 2561 c) 2001 d) 21256 e) 6.5647

1. Determine the following to the correct number of significant figures: a) (3.74 1.3) x 2.12 x 17.65 b) (2.9 + 3.2 + 7.1) : 0.134 2. Add 2.76 x 10-6 cm and 3.4 x 10-5 cm.

Homework

Uncertainties, sometimes called errors, are not mistakes. The error in measurement is a mathematical way to show the uncertainty in the measurement. It is the difference between the result of the measurement and the true value of what you were measuring. They are natural variations in measurements that come about for a variety reason:

No instrument is exactly precise. Different people may be using different types of instrument. No two people read an instrument in exactly the same way.

Sometimes instruments are read wrongly.

The instruments adjustment may have changed

Uncertainties

Measuring length using a ruler

Example 1 A good straight ruler marked in mm is used to measure the length of a rectangular piece of paper as follow

The ruler measure to within 0.5 mm (we call this the uncertainty in the measurement) so the length in cm is quoted to 2 dp. This measurement is precise and accurate.

Example 2 A cheap ruler marked only in cm is used to measure the length of a paper.

This measurement are not precise but accurate, since you would get the same value every time.

The higher the accuracy and precision in carrying out investigations, the lower the degree of uncertainty. Accuracy is an indication of how close a measurement is to accepted value indicated by the relative or percentage error in the measurement. An accurate experiment has a low systematic error. Precision is an indication of the agreement among a number of measurements made in the same way indicated by the absolute error.

Estimating Uncertainties

Repeating a measurement several times and charting the results produce a distribution from which uncertainty can be obtained is the technique used by professional scientist.

In the case where the measurements are not repeated, some rules of thumb to estimate the uncertainty:
Measurement Reading scales Timing Types equipment Rulers, Verniers, dials, etc. Clocks, stopclocks, etc. Rule of thumb Halve the smallest division Halve the smallest scale division or reaction time typically -0.5 s, whichever is the larger.

Counting

Geiger counter

If the number of counts is N, then the uncertainty is always N

For digital instrument, the reading error is the smallest division that the instrument can read. So a digital weighing scale that records a mass as 184.5 g will have uncertainty of 0.1 g.

1. Greatest Possible Error: Because no measurement is exact, measurements are always made to the "nearest something", whether it is stated or not. The greatest possible error when measuring is considered to be one half of that measuring unit.

Expressing Error in Measurement

For example, you measure a length to be 3.4 cm. Since the measurement was made to the nearest tenth, the greatest possible error will be half of one tenth, or 0.05. 3.4 0.05 cm

2. Tolerance intervals: Error in measurement may be represented by a tolerance interval (margin of error). Machines used in manufacturing often set tolerance intervals, or ranges in which product measurements will be tolerated or accepted before they are considered flawed. To determine the tolerance interval in a measurement, add and subtract one-half of the precision of the measuring instrument to the measurement.
For example, if a measurement made with a metric ruler is 5.6 cm and the ruler has a precision of 0.1 cm, then the tolerance interval in this measurement is 5.6 0.05 cm, or from 5.55 cm to 5.65 cm. Any measurements within this range are "tolerated" or perceived as correct.

3. Absolute Error and Relative Error: The absolute error of the measurement shows how large the error actually is, while the relative error of the measurement shows how large the error is in relation to the correct value.
Absolute errors do not always give an indication of how important the error may be. If you are measuring a football field and the absolute error is 1 cm, the error is virtually irrelevant. But, if you are measuring a small machine part (< 3 cm), an absolute error of 1 cm is very significant. While both situations show an absolute error of 1 cm., the relevance of the error is very different. For this reason, it is more useful to express error as a relative error. We will be working with relative error.

Absolute error is the size of an error and its units For example, if you know a length is 3.535 m + 0.004 m, then 0.004 m is an absolute error. Absolute error is positive.

Relative error is the ratio of the absolute error of the measurement to the accepted measurement. The relative error expresses the "relative size of the error" of the measurement in relation to the measurement itself. For 5.6 0.05 cm, the relative error is 0.05/5.6 = 0.009 0r 0.9 %.
When the accepted or true measurement is known, the relative error is found using Eabsolute
Erelative xaccepted

which is considered to be a measure of accuracy.

4. Percent of Error: Error in measurement may also be expressed as a percent of error. The percent of error is found by multiplying the relative error by 100%. For example, if a measurement is written as 9.8 0.2 m, then:
Limit of reading = 0.1 m Uncertainty = 0.05 m Absolute uncertainty (or error) = 0.2 m Relative uncertainty (or error) = 0.2/9.8 = 0.02 Percentage uncertainty (or error) = 0.02 x 100% = 2%

Situation

Uncertainty

adding/subtracting measurements add uncertainties multiplying/dividing measurements add % uncertainty Functions of measurements (log, sin, etc.) add % uncertainty

Working with Uncertainties

If A = 12.8 0.05 cm and B = 3.2 0.05 cm , calculate:

a) b)

A+B AB

c)
d)

AxB
A:B

Working with Uncertainties

Answers:
a) b) c)

A + B = 12.8 0.05 cm + 3.2 0.05 cm = 16.0 0.1 cm A - B = 12.8 0.05 cm - 3.2 0.05 cm = 9.6 0.1 cm A x B = 41 0.8 cm2 1) 12.8 cm x 3.2 cm = 41 cm2 (40.96 cm2, but remember 2 sf) 2) Relative error 1: 0.05/12.8 = 0.004 (0.0039) Relative error 2: 0.05/3.2 = 0.016 (0.0156) Sum of relative errors = 0.02 (or 2%) Absolute error = 0.02 x 41 cm2 = 0.82 cm2 3) A x B = 41 0.8 cm2 (errors are expressed to 1 sf)

d)

A : B = 4.0 0.08
1) 2)

Working with Uncertainties

3)

12.8 cm : 3.2 cm = 4.0 Relative error 1: 0.05/12.8 = 0.004 (0.0039) Relative error 2: 0.05/3.2 = 0.016 (0.0156) Sum of relative errors = 0.02 (or 2%) Absolute error = 0.02 x 4.0 = 0.08 A : B = 4.0 0.08 (errors are expressed to 1 sf)

QUIZ

Quantities that have size and direction are vectors and those with only size are scalars.
Scalars Distance (s) Speed Mass (kg) Time (t) Volume (V) Temperature (T) Charge (Q) Density () Pressure (p) Vectors Displacement (s) Velocity (v) Acceleration (a) Momentum (p) Force (F) Torque () Angular momentum Flux density () Electric field

Vectors & Scalars

Energy (E) Power (P)

Magnetic field

Vectors can be represented by drawing arrows. The length of the arrow is proportional to its magnitude of quantity (size) and the direction of the arrow is the direction of the quantity. To add vectors the arrows are simply arranged so that the point of one touches the tail of the other. The resultant vector is found by drawing a line joining the free tail to the free point.

Addition of Vectors

A+B=B+A

Example

Worked example If a train moves 100 m forwards along a straight track then 50 m back, what is its final displacement?

Solution Figure below shows the vector diagram

Vectors in 1-D

The resultant is clearly 50 m forwards.

A negative vector is simply the opposite direction to a positive vector.

We can subtract vector B from vector A by changing the direction of vector B and adding it to A. A B = A + (-B)

Subtracting Vectors

Taking components of a vector

EXERCISE