Historical Development of Quantum Mechanics

classical

. mechanics

) - - ..... ( . macroscopic particles

Thermodynamics Bulk properties

. microscopic particles

Quantum mechanics

. subatomic particles

macroscopic

" ".

" "

.
atomic and sub-atomic

phenomena

-
Failures of Classical Mechanics

.
.

--
Black - Body Radiation
" "
.

.Infra - red

" "

.
) ( - .

) ( -

- -

max

. T
max /T

2000 K

5000

1750 K
1000

(du / d) / J m-

3000

1250 K

4 5
3
x10 nm

) : ( .
.

Wien's displacement law
= T max
)(
.x - m. K

max K

. nm

.
.

) ( Energy density
Stefan' s law :
)( -

F=a.T

a .

)( -

M=.T

M .F

Stefan-Boltzmann constant
x- Js-m-K-

K . w

Reyleigh and Jeans

)( -
dF ( ) = ( k T / ) d

) .(-

Max Plank

. " "
" " Principle of quantization of energy
.

" " Quantum

E
E = h
)(-
h . h

) (

E = nh ; n = , , , " " .
) (
n = E / h
)( -

" "
Oscillators

) hc exp( hckT
dF( ) =
d
) exp( hckT

)( -
) - (
.
) exp ( -hc / kT hc /kT

) (nm

) :(- .

) (- ) ( -

. h
x - J.s

) ( - ) ( -

) ( - ) h =
) - hc / kT exp(- hc /kT

.( h = ) ( -

) ( - . h

" "

principle of quantization
of energy .

Quantum h h

.
:

. k

:
(

) - nm (

) - nm (

( = ; nm

nm = d

)( -
J.s ) (x ms ) / (x- m) }dF= {

(x

]}d[ .x x.x x
x{exp-
-
-
-
=[)= x Jm ] x m[] x Jm e (-
x- J
.x x .x

nm

d = nm

x- J

-- Atomic and Molecular spectra

. .

.
) (- .

<sp> :

) :(- .

( highly characteristic
.

( sharp lines
.

principles of quantization of matter

.
.

) (- .

h = E - E

E
E

h = E - E
h = E - E
E

) :(- .

--
Photoelectric Effect
) (-
. ) (

photo sensitive

) (A ) ( )( .
) (

) ( .

)( . .

) ( B )( .

)( . .

) ( / mv
/ mv = e .V
V . stopping voltage
:

Threshold frequency o
-
.

- .

B
R

) :(-
.

.

.

E = h
. photon

photon

.
.

)
(

/ mv = h - ho
= h - W
. W = ho

Work Function ) (- W

. ) (
) (

) : (-

)(eV

.
-

.
) (

Dual - Nature of Light

-
x J

nm

nm x J
:

E (Photon) = h = hc/
. x x. x
= . x J
=

x
:
Eelectron = Ephoton - -
W
-
= x - - x
= x J

Eelectron = e .V
-
-
V = Eelctron / e = x / x
= . J / C = V

E(total) = nh
-
-
n = E / h = x / x
= x
Photon

--
Compton Effect

. .

" "Compton Effect )(-

h`/c

h/c

electron

) :(- .
.

h
=
) ( cos
mc
h/mc

kg

Compton Wavelength of the Electron

; m = x

c = x m/s

= pm

-
Bohr Theory for the Hydrogen Atom

Microscopic Phenomena

.
.
.

. :

- )
) ( - - (

n . n = , , , ....

- Angular Momentum

; n = , , , .... m.v.r = n h/

"

"Bohr Quantum Condition

.

. .

.
.

. :

-
.

Zeeman Effect

De Broglei Hypothesis
.
) ( -- Dual Nature .
. Wave nature

.
Particle - Nature

)
( .

Dual Nature of the Electron

.
E = mc
c .
E = h = h c/

h c/ = mc
= h/mc

v m/s c

= h/mv
)( -
m v

.
: -

( g . m/s

( . eV

(
h
. x Js
=
=
= . x m
mv x kg x m / s
( eV SI
T = eV x x- J/eV = x - J

mv P
=

m
m
P

= T = mv

h
=T
m

h
.x

=
=
m
= .x

mT (x.x x.x J )
= nm

Macroscopic

.
.

-
Electron Diffraction

Monochromatic .

) (-

..

. x
:

n = d sin
, n = , , , ...
d .

.

) :(- .
:

eV .

n =
= d sin = ( nm)(sin ) = nm

T = ( eV)(x- J/eV) = x- J
h
. x
-
= = x m
=
) mT (x.x x. x
= nm
.

-
Physical Significance of De Broglei Hypothesis

. ) (
.

.
.

Propagating Waves ) In-Phase

(

) Outof Phase (

.
" " Constructive Interference

" " . Destructive Interference

) -( : .

) -( : .

Standing Waves

. ) (- .


.

In Phase

) Constructive Interference ) -( (

Out of Phase

)Destructive Interference ) -((.

.
.
n n . n = , , ,

r n
)(b

r = n
)(a

) :(- .

) (
)) ((- r = n

r .

.

r = n h/mv

mvr = n h/
.
:

Fundamental

.
Microscopic

( .

- T
:

( K

- . " "

. max = .

. K max
.

-
:

) ( b) nm

) d) pm (X -

) ( a) nm

) ( c) nm

- .

nm .

- ) ( = nm

x - J

nm
.

- nm
V
.

- :
( . eV

( . eV

(
nm

) (
). ( oC

(
.

(
eV = eV

. =

( .

( .

. K

nmd = .