Thomas Fulbright Sociology of Education Dr.

John Rury May 17, 2011 Opinions on Integration versus Segregation Within the Black Community
The evils of separate colored schools are obvious to the common sense of all. Their very tendency is to produce feelings of superiority in the minds of white children and a sense of inferiority in those of colored children; thus producing pride on one hand and servility on the other, and making those who would be the best of friends the worst of enemies... -Frederick Douglas Colored Churches The North Star, March 10, 1848

African Americans have played an important role in leading the conversations which determined their futures. From the Abolitionist movement to the modern Civil Rights movement, the voices of African Americans have been the most important. Their opinions and actions have framed not only the conversations but also the outcomes. They were extremely important in the dispute to dismantle American Slavery and Jim Crow, possibly the two phases which held them back the most. Even though there is little argument about right versus wrong in the above examples, not all decisions were made without debate. The opinions within each debate are not the products of chance but rather the products of the social and economic conditions of the times which they were a part. One of the most important and longest lasting debates has focused on African American education. While many conversations have surrounded this topic, the most persistent has been the integration versus voluntary segregation dispute. The research goal of this paper is to explore what social and economic conditions influenced the two different sides of the debate within the African American community and how they changed over time. The most important phases to consider include the Antebellum United States, the Reconstruction Era, including the large movement of emancipated slaves, the failure of Reconstruction, the Nadir Race Relations phase and the beginning of the Legal phase of the Civil Rights movement. During each of these time periods some of the most

important social and economic conditions to consider include the African American Communitys overall opinion towards education, their legal/political status as citizens, their economic well being, their relative level of personal safety, among others. Each of these conditions within a certain historical phase had the ability to influence the opinions on education of the African American community. A discussion on African Americans opinions about education before the Civil War may, to some, seem like an exercise in futility. After all, in the year 1860 almost ninety percent of African Americans in the United States lived in some state of bondage.1 So why would the differing opinions of a few persons on education matter when the topic of their debate was not even available to ninety percent of those concerned? Were they wasting their time arguing about education? Absolutely not. For the debate to even occur there had to be an interest; and in this case interest in education displayed the communal belief in its importance. The Black newspaper The Northstar explained, There is no one subject that should claim so much of the attention of our people as the education of our youth, for on that alone, in a great measure depends our future prosperity and happiness.2 Many leaders of the African American community embraced education as a central feature of racial uplift during the first half of the nineteenth century and vigorously sought to secure education for black children3 Education was not only seen as a means to racial uplift and economic gain, but actual liberation. Many Abolitionists made the connection between education and emancipation, and for this reason many Abolitionists opened their own schools to serve the African American population. But, with these strong feelings about the importance of education, disagreements were bound to happen. A division grew between these advocates for education, some saw voluntary segregation in schools as a way to give blacks a better opportunity to challenge claims

"Slavery Fact Sheets." Digital History. Digital History University of Houston. Web. 14 May 2011. <http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/historyonline/slav_fact.cfm>. 2 Sacks, Marcy S., We Rise or Fall Together: Separatism and the Demand for Equality by Albanys Black Citizens, 1827-1860. Afro-Americans in New York Life and History 20 (July 1996) pg 12-13 3 Douglas, Davison M. Jim Crow Moves North: the Battle over Northern School Segregation, 1865-1954. New York: Cambridge UP, 2005. pg 17.

of inferiority and to promote pride among blacks.4 They felt African American children would be in a safer environment and would do better under the tutelage of an African American teacher. Others looked at segregation from a legal standpoint. Charles Sumner arguing before the Massachusetts State court appealed, the separation of children in the Schools, on account of race or color, is in the nature of Caste, and, on this account, a violation of Equality.5 Sumner was an attorney representing a student who was denied access to a white school based on segregation laws in Boston. To him and many of the other supporters of desegregation, any form of separation was putting young African American students at a disadvantage. However, we have to acknowledge the social situations for African Americans in the Antebellum Era were not the most fertile for the development of educational movements. For most slaves, obtaining an education was illegal, as per many southern states laws. For those who were not in bondage, the absence of the rights of a full citizen (as displayed in the Dred Scott decision), including enfranchisement, made it hard to advocate for legal changes to be made. The treatment faced by African Americans was full of challenges. With the dangers of race related violence, nothing was taken for granted, and a free person was always at risk of being accused of being a runaway, taken to the South and forced into slavery. Though African Americans were not always in harms way racism still barred them from the advantages granted full citizens. Yet, even with all of these challenges, the importance of the discussion about education does not wither, as Davison Douglas explains in his book Jim Crow Moves North: the Battle over Northern School Segregation, [t]his controversy was part of a larger debate over the issue of the extent to which blacks should attempt to assimilate into the dominant white culture.6 By the start of the Civil War African American education was illegal in the South, absent in the West and segregated in the North. Only in Abolitionist strongholds was education not segregated. There are those who say the social restrictions on African Americans during the Antebellum Era, slavery and
4

Silcox, Harry Charles. A Comparative Study in School Desegregation the Boston and Philadelphia Experience, 18001881. 5 Charles Sumner, Equality before the Law: Unconstitutionality of Separate Colored Schools in Massachusetts, in Charles Sumner: His Complete Works (New York: Negro Universities Press, 1969) 6 Douglas, Jim Crow Moves North. Pg 46.

their lack of full citizenship, made a discussion on education pointless, but it is the very existence of the debate and the groundwork it established that are important. The Antebellum period ended with the arrival of the Civil War, and slavery ended (in the Southern States still in Rebellion) with the Emancipation Proclamation in 1863. The defeat of the Confederate forces and the coming of the Era of Reconstruction brought a newfound hope with the 13th, 14th and 15th amendments and belief in the possibility of equality for African Americans. The work of Abolitionists, Republicans and the newly enfranchised African Americans opened up a decade of change, and because, for most of the thousands of newly emancipated slaves the desire for education was exceeded only by their desire for food an d shelter, educational reform was one of the areas of focus.7 However, while the desire for education was there, the consensus on what model of education should be used was lacking. Once again, many felt complete integration in schooling would be the best route, because, as explained by Wendell Phillips in 1869, the education of allchildren together is the most valuable elements of our school system and makes it the root of our Republican Institutions.8 Many felt so strongly about the need for integration that they were willing to deem those for voluntary segregation as enemies to their race.9 On the other hand, during Reconstruction, many of the newly emancipated slaves who had just been freed from their legal ties to white slaveholders did not desire to be legally forced into desegregated schools with whites. Plenty of African Americans were not just happy for the opportunity for education, but now saw segregated schools as holding a number of advantages. These schools would allow the African Americans to focus on themselves and their culture. Also, it would provide jobs for those capable of teaching the pupils. Some believed in this idea so much they saw any resistance to segregated schools as an attack not just on their institutions but on them. A teacher in a segregated school responded to anti-segregation legislation with I know of no better scheme to reduce the most intelligent classes of colored people to

7 8

Ibid pg 65. McPherson, James M. Abolitionists and the Civil Rights Act of 1875. 1965. 9 Mixed Schools Cleveland Gazette, Feb 14, 1885. pg 2.

penury and want, or to drive them from the state to become the victims of southern cruelty and barbarism.10 Overall during Reconstruction the momentum of the Equal Rights argument for integrated education carried the day. As Douglas writes, prohibition of segregated schools happened for a number of reasons, first, the Radical Republican support for the abolition of racial distinctions in public education, second, the move to capture black votes and last, the desire to end paying for two separate schools.11 Although there were many legal achievements, many of these laws were created at the state level and enforcement would be left up to local school boards and communities. The desire to expand access to civil rights for African Americans, which flourished on other levels of government, was not widespread. Unfortunately, the decisions made on the local level started to gain more influence because the momentum following the end of the Civil War had begun to die with the failure of Reconstruction. This happened for many different reasons, [m]ost important, the federal government did not provide the exslaves with land- an economic stake in society and the necessary material basis to complement their newfound political and civil rights.12 The failure of Reconstruction leads to what is recognized as one of the worst periods of race relations in the United States, known for the white counterinsurgency and the resulting institutionalization of white supremacy that we know as disfranchisement, antiblack terrorism and violence, and Jim Crow.13 This is known as the Nadir Era, because it took all of the energy, which had led to progress for African Americans, and moved it into reverse. This change in attitude manifested itself in many ways, and Ida B. Wells-Barnett explains it in its worst, [d]uring the slave regime, the Southern white man owned the Negro body and soul the white owner rarely permitted his anger to go so far as to take a life, which would entail upon him a loss of several

10

Gerber, David A. Education, Expediency, and Ideology: Race and Politics in the Desegregation of Ohio Public Schools in the Late 19th Century 11 Douglas, Jim Crow Moves North84. 12 Martin, Waldo E. Brown v. Board of Education: a Brief History with Documents. Boston, MA: Bedford/St. Martin's, 1998. Print 13 Martin, Waldo E. Brown v. Board of Education: a Brief History with Documents. Boston, MA: Bedford/St. Martin's, 1998. Print.

hundred dollars. The slave was rarely killed, he was too valuable [b]ut Emancipation came and the vested interests of the white man in the Negros body were lost. 14 It is hard to argue that around twenty to thirty years after the end of slavery things became worse for many African Americans, but for some it did, and for others it seemed to crush the hopes which Reconstruction had built. Most people incorrectly believe the racism and violence used against African Americans existed predominately in the South. In reality it was the consequences of the trends in the North which led to the failure of Reconstruction and the spread of racism and violence towards African Americans throughout the country. After the end of slavery many of the recently emancipated moved north. This northward movement increased not just contact with people who had different cultures, but more importantly it increased competition for the jobs, housing and political influence in these areas where there were already limitations on those resources. As a result [t]he migration of Southern blacks during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centurys accompanied a rise in racist ideology across the country grounded in white supremacy. In the south, this racist ideology manifested itself in segregation laws and disfranchisement. In the North, many whites also began to embrace white supremacist views that dismissed blacks as inferior and unfit for full participation in white civilization.15 The African Americans not only started to lose their rights, but they also no longer had many politicians in office who sympathized with them. The shifts in racist views changed the political landscape. The profound influence the Nadir Era had on education caused even more of a division between those who supported desegregation and those who believed in voluntary segregation. The introduction to Jim Crow Moves North summarizes the arguments very well; many African Americans have opposed school integration, fearing, with good reason, the loss of jobs for black teachers, mistreatment of black students, and the end of black-controlled educational institutions. Others have viewed the elimination of school segregation as essential to black efforts to achieve social and
14

Ida B. Wells-Barnett, The case Stated, in A Red Record, reprinted in Southern Horros and Other Writings: The Anti-Lynching campaign of Ida B. Wells, 1892-1900, ed. Jacqueline Jones Royster (Boston: Bedford Books, 1997) 15 Douglas, Jim Crow Moves North: the Battle over Northern School Segregation, 1865-1954.

political equality, construing state-mandated racial separation as contributing to a racial caste system with devastating consequences for assimilation.16 There were some tendencies for certain parts of the African American community to lean towards one side of the argument than the other. For example, those in the middle class tended to favor integration, while those in the more economically burdened working and lower classes tended to favor segregation. Those who had less contact or experience with race motivated violence did not have the same fears as those who had. Those who lived in an area where riots had occurred, or lived in an area where the gruesome system of lynch law condoned untold numbers of murders of black women, children and men, for crimes they did not commit were far more likely to support segregation.17 Many of those with an economic stake in the matter, such as principals and teachers also tended to favor segregation, since they had almost no chance of being hired by an integrated district. The Nadir time period is somewhat of a difficult era to simplify because most historians debate exactly what years it spanned. However, if one studies from one extreme of the timeline to the other, roughly the mid 1880s to the late 1920s, the opinions and the leaders of the integrationists and segregationists were somewhat fluid. Based on the social circumstances both had changes in their views on the importance of education for achieving equal rights and between which model of education would be most beneficial. One of the most interesting shifts was in the beliefs of one man, W.E.B. Du Bois who was one of the most influential African Americans throughout American History. In Du Bois you can see how both economic and social circumstances caused him to shift positions in a way which reflected many others shifts. Du Bois is most known for his earlier debates not on integration versus segregation but on which type of curriculum would be best for the African American child. Booker T. Washington is often seen as his rival, with Washington believing in education focusing on manual skills and Du Bois believing in a classical, liberal arts
16 17

Ibid, pg. 6,7 Martin, Waldo E. Brown v. Board of Education: a Brief History with Documents. Boston, MA: Bedford/St. Martin's, 1998

education. But by the time of Washingtons death in 1915 the debate between these two men had faded away with most people accepting it would a combination of the both curriculums which would best serve the youth. More importantly, both men believed in racial uplift through economic means and hard work and both men were ultimately concerned with Negroes gaining economic stability and becoming self-sufficient18 The shift experienced by Du Bois was a movement reflecting his knowledge of changes in the African American rights movement. He was involved in the founding of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). The NAACP was formed in 1909 by a group of both white and black progressives and reformers. Initially their work was mainly to secure the protection for black Americans of the basic rights to life and liberty19. While working to end outright violence against African Americans in the community was his and the NAACPs first objective, his opinions about schooling were very prominent. As the editor of the NAACPs magazine, The Crisis, he was in a prime position to have his opinions heard. In 1923 he comprised a list of six extraordinary costs imposed by school segregation: This list included: it plants race prejudice in children during their most impressionable years... it fosters among colored children a fear of white people and a belief that Negroes are inferior It increases the cost of the school system to such an extent that Negroes are bound to get inferior schools with lower standards calculated to fit them for the lowest places in society [and] the public school is the only real foundation for democracy.20 Even though violent acts were perpetrated against African Americans on a frequent basis, the early twentieth century was still a time period where integration fit into what he saw to be the best route to social and educational equality. But in the late 1920s and early 1930s he began to sympathize and agree with those who held that voluntary segregation would be the best path. The cultural and economic arguments held by the segregationists came together for him after decades of fighting the behemoth that was Jim Crow, along with the impact the Great Depression was having
18

Alridge, Derrick P. "Conceptualizing A Du Boisian Philosophy Of Education: Toward A Model For AfricanAmerican Education." Educational Theory 49.3 (1999): 359-79. Print 19 Meier, August, and John H. Bracy. "The NAACP as a Reform Movement, 1909-1965: "To Reach the Conscience of America"" The Journal of Southern History 59.1 (1993): 8. Print. 20 Du Bois, W.E.B. "The Negro and the Northern Public Schools, Part 1." The Crisis (1923).

on the African American community. His wrote his most famous summary of his opinions in a 1935 essay titled Does the Negro Need Separate Schools:
Are these separate schools and institutions needed? They are needed just so far as they are necessary for the proper education of the Negro race. The sympathetic touch between teacher and pupil: knowledge on the part of the teacher of his surroundings and background, and the history of his class and group; contact between pupils, and between teacher and pupil, on the basis of perfect social equality as will tend to induct the child into life If the public schools... were thrown open to all races tomorrow, the education that colored children would get in them would be worse than pitiable. It would not be education. ...there are many public school systems in the north where Negroes are admitted and 21 tolerated, but they are not educated; they are crucified

Many segregationists feared the treatment, and abuse, African American students might receive. Unfortunately their fears were often realized, with not only students receiving verbal abuse while in integrated schools, but also being segregated within the schools and subjected to humiliation at the hands of principals, teachers and their fellow students.22 Even though the mistreatment of students was one of the largest concerns, fear about the economic institutions was also widespread. Many felt that taking advantage of segregation to build their own separate businesses, owned and supported by the black community would be beneficial. As mentioned earlier, education based jobs- principals, teachers and other staff would provide income to a significant percent of the population. These groups mainly believed that if Plessy v. Fergusons separate but equal mandates were enforced the schools and communities would do just as well as white schools and communities. Most importantly equal funding would have to be provided to the schools. Even those outside of the African American community realized the disparity between the two school systems with blatant differences in the quality of the buildings, the supplies given, the teacher per pupil ratio, the limited amount of grades offered, even the practice of having multiple shifts of students going to school at different parts of the day made it hard to argue that the schools were equal. Another extremely relevant piece of African American history linked to segregationist opinion was the flourishing of the Harlem Renaissance- this burst of African American art, music and literature contributed to peoples feeling positive about segregated schools ability to build on, and celebrate this movement.
21 22

W.E.B. Du Bois Does the Negro Need Separate Schools Journal of Negro Education, July 1935, 328 -35 Douglas Jim Crow Moves North

However the segregationists started to face more and more opposition as the 20th century rolled along. Most notably, the increase in organization of African American communities and groups (such as the NAACP), the experiences of World War One soldiers abroad, the increasing number of legal victories especially ones focused on higher education and lastly the conflict between American Ideals and reality Americans had to face whilst arguing against the actions of Hitler and Stalin while discrimination was rampant on American soil. While many of the arguments made by integrationists had not changed very much since even the Antebellum period, the number of people supporting them, and their increased legal capabilities proved to be very helpful. Most of the arguments centered around beliefs that, integrated schools would promoted tolerance... [bring] black children into classroom contact with white children from better educational backgrounds would improve the academic performance and segregated schools cut blacks off from valuable networks that whites enjoyed, thereby worsening job discrimination and poverty Jim Crow in Education violated constitutional guarantees of equal protection under the law [and] deprived black parents of a basic right to send their children to neighborhood schools.23 Another tragedy of the Nadir period came when some scientists supported theories of racial superiority through the study of eugenics. This legitimized discrimination, racism and the Jim Crow system in some peoples opinion. However, during the 1930s and 1940s the science supporting eugenics was losing credibility. This allowed credible research to explain differences between racial classifications, and more importantly the lack of racial differences. Research on the negative consequences segregation inflicted on children also became more popular. For example, the research done for the White Houses Childrens Bureau in 1950 found; segregation, prejudices and discriminations, and their social concomitants potentially damage the personality of all children as a minority group children learn inferior sta tus to which they are assigned [i]n producing such effects segregated schools impair the

23

Patterson, James T. Brown v. Board of Education: a Civil Rights Milestone and Its Troubled Legacy . Oxford: Oxford UP, 2001.

ability of the child to profit from the educational opportunities provided him.24 This really helped the NAACPs legal teams in educational court cases. Due to all of the social and economic conditions which had developed by the 1930s the NAACP decided, to the great disappointment of W.E.B. Du Bois and other segregationists, that from then on, the goal of the NAACP would be to focus all of its efforts on desegregation. Within two decades, after various legal battles the Legal team of the NAACP led by Thurgood Marshall, convinced the Supreme Court of the United States to hear the arguments of Brown v. Topeka Board of Education. Using evidence on the consequences of segregation and the problems within the system Chief Justice Earl Warren, handed down the ruling: We conclude that in the field of public education the doctrine of separate but equal has no place. Separate educational facilities are inherently unequal.25 Just as the opinions on segregation versus integration differed greatly within the African American Community, so did the responses to the Supreme Courts decision. Many felt it was a great accomplishment, even Du Bois, in his autobiography wrote [w]e American Negroes therefore are freer, but we are not yet free. Many will say complete freedom and equality between black and white Americans is impossible. Perhaps; but I have seen the impossible happen. It did happen on May 17, 1954. Some segregationists lamented the decision, including the literary Zora Neale Hurston, who said, [i]f there are adequate Negro schools and prepared instructors and instructions, then there is nothing different except the presence of white people. For this reason, I regard the ruling of the U.S. Supreme Court as insulting rather than honoring my race. 26 Despite the variations in reaction, the ruling had been handed down and desegregation would become the official policy. While the passing of the verdict had many flaws and could not actually prevent the existence of segregation through local policy and noncompliance it did represent a victory for the proponents of de-segregation.
24

Clark, K.B., Effect of Prejudice and Discrimination on Personality Development, Fact Finding Report Mid-century White House Conference on Children and Youth, Childrens Bureau, Federal Security Agency, 1950. 25 Chief Justice Earl Warren, Opinion of the Court in Brown v. Board of Education May 17, 1954 26 Zora Neale Hurston, Court Order Cant Make Races Mix, Orlando Sentinel, The Public Thought, Aug. 11, 1955

African Americans have faced, and continue to face an extraordinary battle against racial oppression and inequality. If 1619 is used as the arrival of African American slavery on the North American continent; it would be three hundred and thirty five years until African American children gained the legal guarantee of the right to a free and equal education. When the Supreme Court declared segregation in schools to be illegal after the Brown v Board of Education of Topeka case in 1954 a generations old battle had been won. But, has true equality in education between the races been achieved? Gaps in education still exist. Did desegregation in education accomplish what had been hoped? Just as they have had for decades, the past and present economic and social conditions impact the argument of what is the best way to educate the youth of their community. Different members of the African American community influence the current approach to education. Their approaches are effected by an awareness of a past including enslavement, emancipation, violence, discrimination and also cultural celebration. Since the legal victories of the early Civil Rights movement integration has won out in practice, but there still is, and may still always be a debate between the two sides. As discussed in the section about the debate between the two sides during the Antebellum period, having the debate is in itself a very good thing. The presence of the debate over the best type of schooling shows a continued dedication to the importance of education, and that is the only thing that will ever help the goal of complete equality in education be achieved.

References
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