Koki Youkhana 1 Introduction In the industrialized world, desired metals for building products are becoming increasingly scarce

e (Kastrenakes). In order for business tycoons to make their fortunes, the ability to identify the composition of potentially rare metal samples can play a critical role in their success as entrepreneurs. Researchers recently performed a series of experiments in which they attempted to do just that. One unknown metal sample was tested in order to determine if its composition was the same as a second sample in which the composition was previously determined. In the experiments, the known metal rod sample was found to be comprised of elemental tantalum. Therefore, the reason the researchers performed the experiments was to decide whether or not the unknown metal rod sample had a composition of elemental tantalum. In order for the researchers to complete their objective of deciding the composition of the unknown rod sample, two very important intensive properties, specific heat and linear thermal expansion, were exploited through the conducting of two experiments. Extensive research was conducted on each of these properties prior to running the experiments. The first of these experiments involved calculating the specific heat, or the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of one gram of a substance by one degree Celsius or Kelvin for both metal samples. This was done through the use of homemade calorimeters. After the experimenters completed 30 trials, 15 for the known samples and 15 for the unknown samples, the results were statistically analyzed using a two-sample t-test to provide evidence to support their conclusion.

Koki Youkhana 2 The experimenters also conducted a second experiment exploiting linear thermal expansion, a second intensive property, in order to provide more evidence to help them make an accurate scientific conclusion. This coefficient is a value by which the change in length is proportional to the product of the change in temperature of a metal and the metals original length. This experiment was carried out through the use of a thermal expansion jig, a device that measures the change in length of a rod, as well as the use of boiling and room temperature water samples. These materials gave the experimenters access to the information necessary to calculate the thermal expansion coefficient of the rods. Once 30 trials of data were collected were gathered from this experiment, it was statistically analyzed using the same method as in the specific heat experiment. Data other than the specific heat and linear thermal expansion coefficient were also recorded; the experimenters used data points from each trial to calculate a percent-error, which allowed the experimenters to somewhat gauge the effectiveness and accuracy of their methods by comparing experimental values with scientifically-accepted values. The researchers also took qualitative data in the form of observations for each in order to attempt to justify outliers or skewness in their data. All of this data was collected during the experiment in hopes of being able to correctly determine whether or not the composition of the unknown metal rod sample was composed of tantalum, the composition of the known metal rod sample.

Koki Youkhana 3 Background / Review of Literature Tantalum, a transition metal on the Periodic Table of Elements with 73 protons and an atomic mass of 180.95 amu, was first discovered in 1802 by Swedish chemist Anders Gustaf Ekeberg (Chemistry). Charles Hatchett discovered an element a year earlier, which would later be called niobium (Niobe is the mythical daughter of Tantalus) (Chemistry). Over the next forty years, many chemists believed niobium to be the same as tantalum due to their many similarities (Chemistry). Due to their similarities, tantalum and niobium are often found together in nature, in an "isomorphous series of oxide minerals, called columbites and tantalites" (Little 519). Their similarities also make the isolation of either element a very complex procedure, especially due to the fact that there are usually other elements within these minerals. In the final step of the extraction process, Potassium tantalum fluoride (K2TaF7) and sodium (Na) react to form pure elemental tantalum, (Ta) sodium fluoride, (NaF) and potassium fluoride (Little 519). ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

Tantalum is a very useful material in many areas of production, for it almost never reacts with other chemicals and is rarely dissolved by strong acids (Chemistry). Due to its great resistance to reaction, it is commonly used in the creation of "chemical, medical, and dental equipment" (Chemistry). Capacitors, devices similar to batteries that store a charge, are commonly made from tantalum as well as parts of prosthetic limbs due to its distinctive properties.

Koki Youkhana 4 Tantalum has many other considerable properties that add to its uniqueness. Tantalum has one of the highest melting points of all metals at 2996 degrees Celsius, third to only tungsten and rhenium, with melting points of 3410 degrees Celsius and 3167 degrees Celsius, respectively (Tantalum). Tantalum is also highly resistant to corrosion and "almost completely immune to attack by acids and liquid metals" (Tantalum). Additionally, tantalum is extremely rare, "slightly more common than tungsten, but less common than arsenic" with an abundance of approximately 1.7 parts per million (Chemistry). On top of all that, tantalum is relatively dense with a density of 16.65 grams per cubic centimeter (Helmenstine). This value falls between Protactinium and Rutherfordium, with densities of 15.37 grams per cubic centimeter and 18.1 grams per cubic centimeter, respectively (Helmenstine). Lastly, the electron configuration for tantalum is shown below in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Tantalum Electron Configuration Figure 1 shows tantalums electron configuration at its ground state. The element has three valence electrons in the d-block, the first of which is removed with less energy due to less shielding from the core electrons while the final sorbital is full (Thermal). With more energy being exerted to remove the three valence electrons, it makes it less likely for tantalum to bond with other elements. In the real world, tantalums inability to easily bond with other elements would be one way to easily identify the metal.

Koki Youkhana 5 Specific heat and linear thermal expansion are the properties of interest in this experiment. Tantalum has a specific heat of 0.140 J/gC (What) and a thermal expansion coefficient of 6.5 10-6 C-1 (Thermal). Compared to the specific heat of water, 4.184, tantalums lower specific heat means that it metal requires relatively less heat in order to raise a one gram of a sample by one degree Celsius than water. Both of these properties will be useful in the identification of the element in this experiment because they are both intensive properties, meaning that they do not depend upon the sample size of the metal sample. There are many ways to measure the specific heat of a material, but it can be considerably difficult to find ways to measure it within a classroom setting accurately. Specific heat is the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of one gram of a substance by one degree Celsius or one Kelvin (ChemTeam). Specific heat essentially finds the amount of energy that must be applied to a substance to raise its temperature by one degree Celsius or one Kelvin, and the units of either J/gK or J/gC can be used to describe it. Celsius and Kelvin can be used interchangeably because one unit of either scale measures the same amount of energy, but only by a staggered, or translated, amount. One experiment that will allow the researchers to measure the specific heat of an unknown element will involve the calculating the change in temperature using different temperatures of water to find the specific heat of the element (Specific). Another other experiment that may be used could involve a

Koki Youkhana 6 method called constant-pressure calorimetry, which utilizes Styrofoam cups and other insulators to create an isolated system in the calorimeter to prevent any heat from escaping or being lost (Calorimetry). These experiments can be very easily applied within the experimenters research because they do not require complicated or complex tools. In the first method, the experimenters deployed the metal into a container of water with a known temperature with the purpose of bringing the metal to that temperature reading. The experimenters then inserted the metal into a new container of water with a known temperature as quickly as possible so that a significant amount of heat was not transferred to the surrounding air. The experimenters then found much heat was transferred from the metal to its surroundings, which was the water in this case. The experimenters also knew the mass of the metal by weighing it on a laboratory scale. Knowing the change in temperature of the water and the mass of the element allows the experimenters to calculate the specific heat of the sample. The amount of heat given off by a material, q, is equal to its specific heat, s, times its mass, m, times its change in temperature, T.

The other experiment the researchers used to identify their metal was relatively simple but employed constant-pressure calorimetry. This experiment required the researchers to construct a calorimeter using a Styrofoam cup and other common materials, which allowed the experimenters to directly calculate the enthalpy of the reaction between the metal and the water. The enthalpy of a

Koki Youkhana 7 system is the overall heat transfer of the reaction. At a constant pressure, (which would be obtained due to the fact Styrofoam is a good insulator) the enthalpy of the system is equivalent to the heat applied or transferred from or to its surroundings (Dube, Billings, Morris, Starr). According to the First Law of Thermodynamics, energy is neither created nor destroyed in the universe. When a heated metal rod is placed into an isolated system, the excited molecules from the rod are then transferred to the water inside the calorimeter. Hence, all energy lost by the metal rod in the calorimeter is gained by the water. Therefore, the transfer of energy that occurs inside the calorimeter can provide accurate readings for the specific heat of a metal sample due to the minimal loss of heat. These calculations are vital in the industrialized world today. Many of the metals for building products are becoming increasingly scarce, but with the use of such calculations, miners and science firms abroad can perform simple experiments like the ones above to confirm the identity of metals extracted from Earth. That way, there will be no false advertising (Kastrenakes). The linear thermal expansion of an object is the amount it expands when an amount of heat is applied to it. This is explained by kinetic molecular theory. An object expands when heat is applied to it because heat is a form of energy, and when it flows throughout the metal, the atoms of the element are excited and possess more energy. This, in turn, causes the metal to expand (Metal). The amount a material expands by is dependent upon the original length of the object, the amount of heat that was applied to the object, and a constant value

Koki Youkhana 8 that every material possesses called the thermal expansion coefficient (ThermalLinear). The unit that this coefficient, , is measured in is the reciprocal of either degrees Celsius or Kelvin, for it is the only way to allow the other units in the equation to cancel with each other. To calculate the thermal expansion coefficient, , divide the change in length of the sample, L, by the quantity of the initial length of the rod, Li, times the change in temperature, T.

The understanding of linear thermal expansion has many important applications. One way it is commonly applied in the real world is in the construction field. Workers must use materials that minimally expand to avoid large cracks in the pavement from appearing. Thermal expansion is also useful in fitting together objects tightly by changing the temperature so that one object can expand and fit more snug around another object. One object can also be cooled in order to contract and fit more tightly around the other object. In addition to roads, this process often practiced in the riveting of parts of ships and many other like items (Applications). Common ways in which thermal expansion coefficients of metals were determined and used to determine the linear thermal expansion of an element include the use of a strain gauge or a thermal expansion jig. These instruments can detect the amount by which a metal expands through measurements of the length at room temperature and its length after it has been heated to a certain temperature (Experiment). From there, the experimenters can use the data

Koki Youkhana 9 obtained to calculate the thermal expansion coefficient of the metal. Due to the relatively simple nature of the experiments described as well as the fact that a thermal expansion jig doesn't require very costly materials and parts, they can easily be performed within a classroom environment to calculate the linear thermal expansion coefficients of unknown metal samples (Experiment).

Koki Youkhana 10 Problem Statement Problem Statement: To determine whether the identity of an unknown elemental rod is tantalum using the intensive properties of specific heat and linear thermal expansion.

Hypothesis: If the second elemental rods specific heat and thermal expansion coefficient are determined within 3% error and 1% error of the values of tantalum, respectively, then the second rods composition will be deemed tantalum.

Data Measured: The first experiment that will be conducted will involves specific heat. Specific heats for both the water in the calorimeter and the metal rod will be measured in joules per gram Celsius (J/gC). Also, the mass of the water in the calorimeter and the metal rod will be measured in grams (g). Lastly, the initial and final temperatures for the water in the calorimeter as well as the metal rod will be measured in degrees Celsius (C). The second experiment that will be performed will utilize linear thermal expansion. The thermal expansion coefficient, , will be measured in a unit of 10-6 C-1. The initial length of the metal rod as well as its change in length will be measured in millimeters (mm). Finally, both the initial and final temperatures of the metal rod will be measured in degrees Celsius (C).

Koki Youkhana 11 Specific Heat Experimental Design Materials: (2) Tantalum (Ta) Rods (2) Unknown Metal Rods Scout Pro Electronic Scale (0.1 g precision) TI-nspire CX Graphing Calculator Thermometer (0.1C precision) Calorimeter Stopwatch 100 mL Graduated Cylinder 22C Distilled Water Tongs 15.5 cm x 8.5 cm x 4.25 cm Loaf Pan LabQuest Temperature Probe (0.1C precision) Hot Plate

Procedure: 1. Using the TI-nspire CX graphing calculator, randomize all trials to ensure accurate results. Make sure to allocate 15 trials to the two tantalum rods and the remaining 15 trials to the two unknown rods. Assign integers 1 and 2 to the tantalum rods A and B and integers 3 and 4 to the unknown rods A and B. Fill the 15.5 cm x 8.5 cm x 4.25 cm loaf pan with 125 mL of 22C distilled water using the 100 ml graduated cylinder. Place the 15.5 cm x 8.5 cm x 4.25 cm loaf pan filled with water on the hot plate. Bring the water in the pan to a boil (around 100C). Refill the loaf pan with more water as needed. Find the temperature of the hot water bath using the thermometer to the nearest tenth of a degree Celsius. Assume the initial temperature of the metal rod is that of the initial temperature of the boiling water. Using the Scout Pro electronic scale, find the mass of the metal rod in grams to the nearest tenth by placing it on the scale after it has been tarred. Record the result in the appropriate column of the corresponding data table. Construct the calorimeter (see Appendix A). Using the 250 ml beaker, measure out 100 ml of the 22C distilled water and pour it into the calorimeter.

2.

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Koki Youkhana 12 8. Using the thermometer, record the temperature of the water placed into the calorimeter to the nearest tenth of a degree Celsius. Find the mass of the water contained inside calorimeter. Since the density of water is 1.00 g/ml, the number of milliliters poured into the calorimeter is the amount of grams the water weighs. Record the result in the appropriate column of the corresponding data table. Submerge the metal rod in the hot water bath. With the help of the stopwatch, leave the rod completely submerged in the water for three minutes. Record the initial temperature of the boiling water using the thermometer. Assume this is the initial temperature of the metal rod. Record the result in the appropriate data table. Set up the LabQuest and the thermometer probe (see Appendix B). Remove the metal rod from the hot water bath with the tongs and place the metal rod in the calorimeter. Use the LabQuest and the thermometer probe to collect temperature data for three minutes. Record any observations in the appropriate data table until the boiling water and the metal rod reach equilibrium. Do let the thermometer probe touch the metal rod. After reviewing the LabQuest data, record the equilibrium temperature, or the highest temperature reached over the data collection period. Record the result in the appropriate data table. This value will represent the final temperatures for both the water and the metal rod. Find the specific of the metal rod. To find the specific heat of the metal rod, set the specific heat of the water, sw, times the mass of the water, mw, times the change in temperature of the water, T w equal to the specific heat of the metal rod, sm, times the mass of the metal rod, mm, times the change in temperature of the metal rod, Tm.

9.

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Repeat steps 4 15 for 30 trials.

Koki Youkhana 13 Diagram:

Thermometer probe

Calorimeter

LabQuest

Figure 2. Specific Heat Experimental Setup Figure 2 shows the proper setup of the calorimeter and the LabQuest for the specific heat experiment. After the LabQuest is plugged in to an outlet and connected to the thermometer probe, the experimenters drop the hot metal rod into the calorimeter and cap the pipe as quickly as possible to avoid any loss of heat to the air. Once securely capped, the thermometer probe is placed through the hole in the top of the PVC cap, and data collection begins over a threeminute window of time.

Koki Youkhana 14 Linear Thermal Expansion Experimental Design Materials: (2) Tantalum, (Ta) Rods (2) Unknown Metal Rods TESR Caliper 00530085 (0.01 mm precision) TI-nspire CX Graphing Calculator Thermometer (0.1C precision) Thermal Expansion Jig 100 mL Graduated Cylinder 22C Distilled Water Stopwatch Tongs 15.5 cm x 8.5 cm x 4.25 cm Loaf Pan Hot Plate Spray Bottle Expo Dry Erase Marker

Procedure: 1. Using the TI-nspire CX graphing calculator, randomize all trials to ensure accurate results. Make sure to allocate 15 trials to the two tantalum rods and the remaining 15 trials to the two unknown rods. Assign integers 1 and 2 to the tantalum rods A and B and integers 3 and 4 to the unknown rods A and B. Fill the 15.5 cm x 8.5 cm x 4.25 cm loaf pan with 125 mL of 22C distilled water with the 100 ml graduated cylinder. Place the 15.5 cm x 8.5 cm x 4.25 cm loaf pan filled with water on the hot plate. Bring the water in the pan to a boil (around 100C). Refill the loaf pan with more water as needed. Find the temperature of the hot water bath using the thermometer to the nearest tenth of a degree Celsius. Assume the final temperature of the metal rod is that of the temperature of the boiling water. Using the TESR caliper 00530085, record the initial length of the metal rod to the nearest hundredth of a millimeter. Record the result in the appropriate data table. Using the thermometer, record the initial temperature of the metal rod. Assume the initial temperature of the rod is the same as the temperature boiling water bath prepared earlier. Record the result in the appropriate data table. Submerge the metal rod in the hot water bath. With the help of the stopwatch, leave the rod completely submerged in the water for three minutes.

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Koki Youkhana 15 8. After the three minutes have elapsed, quickly pull the rod from the boiling water bath using the tongs and into the thermal expansion jig. Make note of the initial reading on the gauge of the thermal expansion jig using the Expo dry erase marker. Fill the spray bottle with 125 mL of the 22C water. Find the temperature of the water placed in the spray bottle to the nearest tenth of a degree Celsius using the thermometer. Record the value in the appropriate column of the appropriate data table. This value will be the assumed final temperature of the metal rod in the thermal expansion equation. Allow the heated metal to cool on the thermal expansion jig for three minutes. Spray the rod with room temperature water to help facilitate the process. Do not bump the thermal expansion jig in the process. Refill the spray bottle with more water as needed. Make note of the final reading on the gauge of the thermal expansion jig after the three minutes have elapsed using the Expo dry erase marker. Find the change in length of the metal rod. To do so, subtract the initial gauge reading from the final gauge reading. Record the result in the appropriate column of the data table. Find the thermal expansion coefficient of the mteal rod. To find the alpha coefficient, , divide the change in length of the sample, L, by the quantity of the initial length of the rod, Li, times the change in temperature, T.

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Repeat steps 4 15 for 30 trials.

Koki Youkhana 16 Diagram:

Initial reading Jig dial

Thermal expansion jig Metal rod

Figure 3. Thermal Expansion Experimental Setup Figure 3 shows the proper setup for the thermal expansion jig for the thermal expansion experiment. After the experimenters drop the hot metal rod on the jig and secure it into place, the three-minute window of time begins. Once one experimenter puts the metal rod in place, the other can mark the initial reading on the jigs dial with the Expo dry erase marker, as circled in above. From there, water can be sprayed on the metal rod until the three-minute period has elapsed.

Koki Youkhana 17 Data and Observations Data: Table 1 Tantalum Specific Heat Data Initial Temp. (C) Trial Rod Water Metal 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Avg: B B A B A B A A B A B B A A B 21.3 21.4 22.2 21.1 21.1 20.4 20.8 23.9 22.9 21.3 19.1 19.2 19.5 19.2 19.3 20.8 99.3 99.4 99.7 99.5 99.4 99.2 99.2 98.7 98.7 99.6 99.6 99.4 99.8 99.5 99.7 99.4

Equilib. Temp. (C) 24.2 25.0 25.3 24.9 24.3 24.0 24.5 27.4 27.4 24.3 23.1 22.4 22.5 23.6 22.7 24.4

Change in Temp. (C) Water Metal 2.9 3.6 3.1 3.8 3.2 3.6 3.7 3.5 4.5 3.0 4.0 3.2 3.0 4.4 3.4 3.5 -75.1 -74.4 -74.4 -74.6 -75.1 -75.2 -74.7 -71.3 -71.3 -75.3 -76.5 -77.0 -77.3 -75.9 -77.0 -75.0

Mass (g) Water Metal 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 51 51 50 50 50 51 50 67.9 68.0 67.9 68.0 67.7 68.0 67.9 67.8 68.0 67.8 68.0 68.0 67.8 67.8 68.0 67.9

Specific Heat (J/gC) 0.119 0.149 0.128 0.157 0.132 0.147 0.153 0.151 0.194 0.125 0.164 0.128 0.120 0.179 0.139 0.146

Table 1 shows the data attained for the specific heat of the tantalum rods over the course of 15 trials. As shown in the table, an average specific heat of 0.146 J/gC was attained for the tantalum rods. Compared to 0.140 J/gC, tantalums true specific heat, the average of the results shows that the procedures followed by the experimenters were followed and executed with both accuracy and precision. See Appendix C for a sample calculation utilizing the data from the first trial of this table.

Koki Youkhana 18 Table 2 Unknown Specific Heat Data Initial Temp. (C) Trial Rod Water Metal 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Avg: B A A B A B A B A B A B B A B 21.3 22.2 22.3 23.2 21.5 22.4 22.8 23.3 21.4 21.2 20.7 20.8 20.5 20.2 20.8 21.6 99.3 98.6 99.1 98.4 99.2 99.1 99.1 99.0 99.2 98.9 98.8 99.3 99.3 99.0 99.1 99.0

Equilib. Temp. (C) 24.2 26.4 26.5 26.5 24.4 26.6 27.0 27.3 24.0 25.7 24.3 25.1 24.8 24.3 24.3 25.4

Change in Temp. (C) Water Metal 2.9 4.2 4.2 3.3 2.9 4.2 4.2 4.0 2.6 4.5 3.6 4.3 4.3 4.1 3.5 3.8 -75.1 -72.2 -72.6 -71.9 -74.8 -72.5 -72.1 -71.7 -75.2 -73.2 -74.5 -74.2 -74.5 -74.7 -74.8 -73.6

Mass (g) Water Metal 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 67.9 67.7 67.8 67.9 67.7 67.9 67.7 67.9 67.9 67.9 67.7 67.9 67.9 67.7 67.9 67.8

Specific Heat (J/gC) 0.119 0.180 0.179 0.141 0.120 0.178 0.180 0.172 0.107 0.189 0.149 0.179 0.178 0.170 0.144 0.159

Table 2 expresses the data acquired for the specific heat of the unknown metal rods for 15 trials. As shown in the table above, an average specific heat of 0.159 J/gC was attained for the tantalum rods. Compared to 0.140 J/gC, tantalums true specific heat, the average of the results is slightly higher than those attained for the known tantalum rods. However, at the same time, the average specific heat seems close enough to where the rods could in fact be composed of tantalum. This critical decision will be made later on with the help of a statistical test.

Koki Youkhana 19 Table 3 Tantalum Thermal Expansion Data Trial 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Avg: Rod B B A A A B A B B A B A B A A L (mm) 0.05 0.04 0.04 0.06 0.05 0.05 0.06 0.05 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.07 0.04 0.04 0.06 0.05 Initial Length (mm) 127.92 127.88 127.58 127.61 127.69 127.87 127.57 127.95 127.94 127.65 127.89 127.54 127.63 127.62 127.90 127.75 Initial Temp. (C) 99.4 99.0 98.7 98.2 98.4 98.5 99.3 98.6 99.0 98.8 99.4 99.3 98.9 99.2 99.0 98.9 Final Temp. (C) 21.8 21.0 20.9 21.8 22.6 22.6 21.5 22.5 22.6 22.6 21.5 19.4 19.8 19.8 19.8 21.3 Alpha Coefficient (C-1 x 10-6) 5.289 4.010 4.282 6.154 4.649 4.637 6.045 4.622 5.627 5.654 5.521 6.624 3.962 3.947 5.430 5.097

Table 3 shows the data attained for the thermal expansion coefficient, , of the tantalum rods over the course of 15 trials. As shown in the table, an average value of 5.097 x 10-6 mm was attained for the tantalum rods. Compared to 6.5 x 10-6 mm, tantalums true thermal expansion coefficient, the average of the results is notably distant from that of the true value. In order to get an idea of whether or not the unknown rod sample is composed of elemental tantalum, the average attained from these trials can be compared to the average attained from the unknown sample. See Appendix C for a sample calculation utilizing the data from the first trial of this table.

Koki Youkhana 20 Table 4 Unknown Thermal Expansion Data Trial Rod L (mm) A B A B A B A B B A A B B A A 0.06 0.04 0.05 0.04 0.04 0.05 0.04 0.05 0.05 0.06 0.05 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.05 0.05 Initial Length (mm) 127.24 127.83 127.26 127.84 127.26 127.81 127.21 127.85 127.73 127.22 127.29 127.73 127.81 127.22 127.23 127.50 Initial Temp. (C) 99.5 99.3 99.3 99.5 99.5 99.4 99.7 99.6 99.4 99.5 98.9 99.2 99.1 99.3 99.5 99.4 Final Temp. (C) 20.2 20.2 20.7 20.7 20.9 21.3 21.3 21.3 19.3 19.3 20.2 20.2 20.8 20.8 21.3 20.6 Alpha Coefficient (C-1 x 10-6) 5.946 3.956 4.749 4.219 4.249 5.009 4.011 4.995 4.643 6.126 4.742 5.946 5.746 5.507 5.025 4.991

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Avg:

Table 4 displays the data attained for the thermal expansion coefficient of the unknown metal rods over the course of 15 trials. As shown in the table above, an average value of 4.991 x 10-6 mm was attained for the tantalum rods. Compared to the average value for the tantalum trials, 5.097 x 10 -6 mm, the average of the results is relatively close to the data attained for the tantalum rods. However, in order to determine whether or not the unknown rod sample is truly composed of elemental tantalum, the two averages will be compared with the help of a statistical test.

Koki Youkhana 21 Observations: Table 5 Tantalum Specific Heat Observations Trial 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Observations First trial was executed well; specific heat is relatively close to tantalum's known value of 0.140 J/gC Specific heat value was slightly higher than the last trial; trial was redone Specific heat value was extremely higher (double) previous run; trial was redone to avoid the issue Specific heat value dropped down significantly from the fluked third trial Specific heat value was slightly lower than the previous trial Specific heat value was slightly higher than the last trial; trial was redone Specific heat value was slightly lower than the previous run; trial was redone Specific heat value dropped even lower than previous trial; closest value to tantalum's specific heat yet Specific heat value spiked up from previous trial Specific heat value slightly dropped down from previous trial Specific heat value slightly dropped down even more than previous trial Specific heat value dropped down even more than previous trial Specific heat value dropped down even more than previous trial; value undershoots tantalum's true specific heat Specific heat value rose up significantly from the previous trial Experimental value of tantalum was found within one percent error of tantalum's true value; closest value of all the trials conducted Table 5 shows the observations noted during the specific heat trials for the tantalum rods. As shown in the table above, there was much fluctuation in the experimental value for specific heat from trial to trial. In cases like trials 2, 3, 6, and 7, the variation was so severe that the trials had to be redone in order to maintain consistent data collection. Nevertheless, data collection for the specific heat of the tantalum rods turned out to be an overall success.

Koki Youkhana 22 Table 6 Unknown Specific Heat Observations Trial 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Observations Slightly higher specific heat value than first trial for the known rod; trial was redone Specific heat value was slightly lower than the previous trial Specific heat value was slightly lower than the previous trial Specific heat value was within one percent error of that of tantalum (0.140 J/gC) Specific heat value spiked slightly higher than in the previous trial; trial was redone Specific heat value was slightly lower than the previous trial Specific heat value was slightly higher than the previous run Specific heat value was slightly lower than the previous trial Specific heat value was even lower than it was in the previous run; trial was redone Specific heat value was higher than the previous trial Specific heat value significantly dropped from the previous trial Specific heat value was slightly higher than the previous run Specific heat value was slightly lower than the previous trial Specific heat value was slightly lower than the previous trial Specific heat value was even lower than it was in the previous run Table 6 shows the observations recorded during the specific heat trials for the unknown metal rods. As shown in the table, fluctuation in the experimental value for specific heat from trial to trial remained an issue for this set of runs. Trials that varied severely, like 1, 5, and 9, were redone in order to maintain consistent data collection. Overall, data collection for the specific heat of the unknown metal rods ended up being a success.

Koki Youkhana 23 Table 7 Tantalum Thermal Expansion Observations Trial 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Observations First thermal expansion trial was a success; alpha coefficient was found within 18 percent error of tantalum's true value (6.5 x 10 -6 C-1) Alpha value dropped significantly lower than the previous trial Alpha value was slightly higher than the previous trial Alpha value was found within five percent error of tantalum; most accurate results yet Alpha value was significantly higher than the previous run Alpha value was slightly lower than the previous trial Alpha value was even lower the previous trial; least accurate trial yet; trial was redone to avoid the inconsistent result Alpha value was significantly higher than the previous run Alpha value was even higher than the previous trial Alpha value was slightly higher than the previous trial Metal rod was dropped after it was removed from the hot water bath; trial was redone First, and only, trial where alpha was found above that of tantalum Alpha value was moderately lower than the previous trial Alpha value was slightly lower than the previous trial Alpha value spiked up compared to the previous trial Table 7 shows the observations noted during the thermal expansion trials for the tantalum rods. As shown in the table above, there was much variation in the experimental value for from trial to trial. In cases like trials 7 and 11, the fluctuation was so severe that the trials had to be redone in order to maintain consistent data collection. Nevertheless, data collection for the thermal expansion coefficient of the tantalum rods turned out to be an overall success.

Koki Youkhana 24 Table 8 Unknown Thermal Expansion Observations Trial 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Observations Unknown alpha level seems eerily similar to that of tantalum Alpha value was slightly lower than the previous trial Alpha value was higher than the previous trial; results similar to the known tantalum trials are still being attained Alpha value was slightly lower than the previous trial Alpha value was slightly higher than the previous run Alpha value was significantly lower than all of the previous trials; trial was redone to maintain consistent results Alpha value was slightly lower than the previous trial Alpha value was slightly higher than the previous trial Alpha level was slightly lower than the previous trial; water in the spray bottle was changed in hopes of keeping consistent results Alpha value was significantly higher than the previous trial; found within eight percent error of tantalum Alpha value dropped down from the previous trial Alpha value was slightly higher than the previous run Alpha value was slightly lower than the previous trial Alpha value was even lower than the result in the previous trial Alpha value dropped even further from the result of the last trial Table 8 shows the observations recorded during the thermal expansion trials for the unknown metal rods. As shown in the table, fluctuation in the experimental value of from trial to trial remained an issue for this set of runs. Any trials that varied severely, like 6, were redone in order to maintain consistent data collection. Overall, data collection for the thermal expansion coefficient of the unknown metal rods ended up being a success.

Koki Youkhana 25 Data Analysis and Interpretation The experimenters collected both quantitative and qualitative data over the course of the experiment. Quantitative data for the specific heat experiment included the initial temperature, final temperature, and mass. This data was then used to calculate the specific heat of the metals as data collection took place. Similarly, in the linear thermal expansion experiment, the experimenters measured the initial length, initial temperature, and final temperature of the metal rods and used this quantitative data to calculate the linear thermal expansion of the metal rods. Qualitative observations were also taken by the experimenters, which aided the experimenters in keeping track of the validity of the results. While the results of the experimenters were generally consistent, there were occasional trials that yielded poor results. This forced the experimenters to go as far as redoing these inconsistent trials in order to maintain valid data collection. The percent error tables that assisted the experimenters in deeming the results valid are shown below.

Koki Youkhana 26 Table 9 Tantalum Specific Heat Percent Error Experimental Value True Value Trial (J/gC) (J/gC) 1 0.119 0.140 2 0.149 0.140 3 0.128 0.140 4 0.157 0.140 5 0.132 0.140 6 0.147 0.140 7 0.153 0.140 8 0.151 0.140 9 0.194 0.140 10 0.125 0.140 11 0.164 0.140 12 0.128 0.140 13 0.120 0.140 14 0.179 0.140 15 0.139 0.140 Avg: 0.146 0.140

Percent Error (%) -15.019 6.330 -8.304 11.936 -5.951 5.198 9.005 8.189 38.691 -10.437 17.199 -8.676 -14.465 27.766 -1.028 4.029

Table 9 shows the percent error calculated for each of the 15 trials conducted in finding the specific heat of the tantalum rods. As shown in the table above, an average percent error of 4.029% was present in the calculations. This meant that the experimental value for the specific heat of the tantalum rods overshot tantalums true value by around four percent. Note that all of the trials yielded relatively similar percent error values; any trials that yielded 40% percent error above or below the true specific heat of tantalum were redone in order to maintain consistent data collection and to avoid obtaining possible outliers.

Koki Youkhana 27 Table 10 Unknown Specific Heat Percent Error Experimental Value True Value Trial (J/gC) (J/gC) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Avg: 0.119 0.180 0.179 0.141 0.120 0.178 0.180 0.172 0.107 0.189 0.149 0.179 0.178 0.170 0.144 0.159 0.140 0.140 0.140 0.140 0.140 0.140 0.140 0.140 0.140 0.140 0.140 0.140 0.140 0.140 0.140 0.140

Percent Error (%) -15.019 28.398 27.502 1.006 -14.426 27.490 28.576 22.774 -23.911 35.290 6.657 27.535 27.021 21.146 2.975 13.534

Table 10 shows the percent error calculated for each of the 15 trials that were run to find the specific heat of the unknown metal rods. As shown in the table above, the experimental value for the specific heat of the unknown metal rods overshot tantalums true value by nearly 14 percent with an average percent error of 13.534% present in the calculations. Make note that all of the trials yielded relatively consistent percent error values, for any trials that produced 40% percent error above or below the true specific heat of the unknown metal were repeated in order to maintain consistent data collection and to avoid obtaining possible outliers.

Koki Youkhana 28 Table 11 Tantalum Thermal Expansion Percent Error Experimental Value True Value Trial (J/gC) (J/gC) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Avg: 5.289 4.010 4.282 6.154 4.649 4.637 6.045 4.622 5.627 5.654 5.521 6.624 3.962 3.947 5.430 5.097 6.500 6.500 6.500 6.500 6.500 6.500 6.500 6.500 6.500 6.500 6.500 6.500 6.500 6.500 6.500 6.500

Percent Error (%) -18.633% -38.305% -34.126% -5.320% -28.472% -28.667% -6.994% -28.899% -13.434% -13.009% -15.067% 1.905% -39.044% -39.269% -16.468% -21.587%

Table 11 shows the percent error calculated for each of the 15 trials conducted in finding the thermal expansion coefficient of the tantalum rods. As shown in the table above, an average percent error of -21.587% was present in the calculations. This meant that the experimental value for the thermal expansion coefficient of the tantalum rods undershot tantalums true value by around 22 percent. Note that all of the trials yielded relatively similar percent error values; any trials that yielded 40% percent error above or below the true thermal expansion coefficient of tantalum were redone in order to maintain consistent data collection and to avoid obtaining possible outliers. See Appendix C for a sample calculation utilizing the data from the first trial of this table.

Koki Youkhana 29 Table 12 Unknown Thermal Expansion Data Experimental Value Trial (J/gC) 1 5.946 2 3.956 3 4.749 4 4.219 5 4.249 6 5.009 7 4.011 8 4.995 9 4.643 10 6.126 11 4.742 12 5.946 13 5.746 14 5.507 15 5.025 Avg: 4.991

True Value (J/gC) 6.500 6.500 6.500 6.500 6.500 6.500 6.500 6.500 6.500 6.500 6.500 6.500 6.500 6.500 6.500 6.500

Percent Error (%) -8.517 -39.139 -26.942 -35.094 -34.633 -22.938 -38.297 -23.159 -28.574 -5.760 -27.052 -8.522 -11.605 -15.273 -22.686 -23.213

Table 12 shows the percent error calculated for each of the 15 trials that were run to find the thermal expansion coefficient of the unknown metal rods. As shown in the table above, the experimental value for the specific heat of the unknown metal rods undershot tantalums true value by nearly 23 percent with an average percent error of -23.213% present in the calculations. Make note that all of the trials yielded relatively consistent percent error values; any trials that produced 40% percent error above or below the true specific heat of the unknown metal were repeated in order to maintain consistent data collection and to avoid obtaining possible outliers.

Koki Youkhana 30

Figure 4. Specific Heat Box Plots Figure 4 shows the box plots for the known and unknown data sets for the specific heat experiment. As shown above, the relative median for the known data set, sk, fell within the interquartile range of the unknown data set, s u. The bold line plotted at 0.140 represented the scientifically-accepted value for tantalums true specific heat. Since this value falls within both sets of data nearly at the middle 50 percent of each set, these box plots give a visual demonstration as to how close the two sets of data were to each other. However, a formal statistical test needed to be calculated before the experimenters could make a valid decision.

Koki Youkhana 31

Figure 5. Thermal Expansion Box Plots Figure 5 shows the box plots for the known and unknown data sets for the thermal expansion experiment. As shown above, the interquartile range for the known data set, tk, fell almost entirely within the interquartile range of the unknown data set, tu. The bold line plotted at 0.0000065 represented the scientifically-accepted thermal expansion coefficient for elemental tantalum. Although this value lies way beyond both sets of data, it is important to note how similarly the first box plot mirrors the second. Even if errors occurred, these plots prove that the same errors occurred in both the known and unknown trials; in other words, the experimenters were consistent. Hence, these box plots give a visual demonstration as to how close the two sets of data were to each other. Nevertheless, a formal statistical test needed to be calculated before the experimenters could make a valid decision.

Koki Youkhana 32 Once the data collection was complete, the collected data was ready to be analyzed using a statistical test. Two two-sample t-tests were used to do so, one for the known and unknown specific heat values, and the other for the known and unknown thermal expansion coefficient values. A t-test statistically analyzes data from two independent populations and tells us how likely the data sets come from the same population. Thus, at an alpha level of 0.10, these tests would give the researchers statistical evidence as to whether or not the unknown metal sample was elemental tantalum. This test was appropriate for many reasons. First and foremost, the experiment contained two distinct samples, the known tantalum metal rods and the unknown metal rods. Not only were the trials for each property independent populations, but they were also randomly selected with the help of the TI-nspire CX graphing calculators random integer function for all 60 trials. However, there were only 15 trials conducted for each property of each rod. This meant that the normality of the data had to first be confirmed using a normal probability plot before any true analysis could begin.

Figure 1. Tantalum Specific Heat Normality

Figure 6. Tantalum Specific Heat Normality

Koki Youkhana 33 Figure 6 shows a normal probability plot that for the specific heat data of the tantalum rods. In plots like these, data points that form linear patterns are considered normal. Since the data points do seem to form a linear pattern, the data obtained for the specific heat of tantalum can be assumed normal.

Figure 7. Unknown Specific Heat Normality Figure 7 shows a normal probability plot that resembles the specific heat data for the unknown metal. Again, in plots like these, data points that form linear patterns are considered normal in nature. Although the pattern is not as linear as the data in the previous plot, the data points still form a somewhat linear pattern. Hence, for the experimenters sake, the data obtained for the specific heat of the unknown metal rods was assumed normal.

Once all of the assumptions were met for the specific heat two-sample ttest for the known and unknown tantalum rods, the hypotheses were then stated. The null hypothesis was that the average specific heat value for the known tantalum rods, xSK, would equal the average specific heat value for the unknown

Koki Youkhana 34 metal rods, xSU. However, the alternative hypothesis stated that the average specific heat value for the known tantalum rods would not equal the average specific heat value for the unknown metal rods.

The test statistic and corresponding P-value were then calculated using these hypotheses. Finding the test statistic, t, was a complicated procedure. It was found by subtracting the unknown average specific heat average, xSU, from the known specific heat average, xSK. This difference was then divided by the square root of the sum of the standard deviation of the known specific heat average squared, sSK, over the number of data points in the sample, nSK, and the standard deviation of the unknown specific heat average squared, sSU, over the number of data points in that sample, nSU.

See Appendix C for a sample calculation utilizing the data from the specific heat experiments.

Koki Youkhana 35

Figure 8. Specific Heat Two-Sample t-Test Results Figure 8 shows the results of the two-sample t-test for the specific heat values of the known and unknown metal rods. As circled in the figure above, the test statistic was found to be about 1.4940 with an associated P-value of 0.1468. This P-value was above the alpha level of 0.10, which made this P-value insignificant in proving the alternative hypothesis true.

Figure 9. Specific Heat P-value Sketch Figure 9 gives a visual representation of how relatively close the test statistic is to the mean. The P-value is represented in the shaded regions of the

Koki Youkhana 36 normal distribution graph, and it also gave the experimenters a visual representation of the P-values insignificance.

In the end, the experimenters failed to reject H0 at = 0.10. There was no significant evidence that the specific heat values obtained from the tantalum rods were any different from the specific heat values obtained for the unknown metal rods. Assuming H0 is true, there was a 14.57% chance of obtaining results this extreme from the experiment by chance alone. Therefore, the experimenters have no reason to believe the unknown metal is anything other than elemental tantalum. A second two-sample t-test was carried out for the thermal expansion coefficient values obtained for the known and unknown metal rods. As discussed earlier on, all assumptions were met for the test, excluding the fact that each sample only had a total of 15 data points. Normal probability plots would again be used to verify the normality of the thermal expansion data.

Figure 10. Tantalum Thermal Expansion Normality

Koki Youkhana 37 Figure 10 shows a normal probability plot that resembles the thermal expansion data of the tantalum rods. Since the data points do seem to form a linear pattern, the data obtained for the thermal expansion coefficient of tantalum can be assumed normal.

Figure 11. Unknown Thermal Expansion Normality Figure 11 shows a normal probability plot that resembles the thermal expansion data for the unknown metal. Again, in plots like these, data points that form linear patterns are considered normal in nature. Just like the data in the previous plot, the data points form a linear pattern. Hence, the data obtained for the thermal expansion coefficient of the unknown metal rods can be assumed normal.

Once all of the assumptions were met for the thermal expansion twosample t-test for the known and unknown tantalum rods, the hypotheses were then stated. The null hypothesis was that the average thermal expansion coefficient for the known tantalum rods, xTK, would equal the average thermal

Koki Youkhana 38 expansion coefficient for the unknown metal rods xTU. However, the alternative hypothesis stated that the average thermal expansion coefficient for the known tantalum rods would not equal the average thermal expansion coefficient for the unknown metal rods.

The test statistic and corresponding P-value were then calculated using these hypotheses. Finding the test statistic, t, was a complicated procedure the second time around as well. However, the equation essentially remained the same; it was merely changed to fit the context of the thermal expansion two-sample t-test. It was found by subtracting the unknown thermal expansion coefficient average, xTU, from the known thermal expansion coefficient average, xTK. This difference was then divided by the square root of the sum of the standard deviation of the known thermal expansion coefficient average squared, sTK, over the number of data points in the sample, nTK, and the standard deviation of the unknown thermal expansion coefficient average squared, sTU, over the number of data points in that sample, nTU.

Koki Youkhana 39

Figure 12. Specific Heat Two-Sample t-Test Results Figure 12 shows the results of the two-sample t-test for the thermal expansion coefficient values of the known and unknown metal rods. As circled in the figure above, the test statistic was found to be about -0.3634 with an associated P-value of 0.7191. This P-value was way above the alpha level of 0.10, which made this P-value insignificant in proving the alternative hypothesis true.

Figure 13. Thermal Expansion P-value Sketch Figure 13 gives a visual representation of how relatively close the test statistic is to the mean. The P-value is represented in the shaded regions of the

Koki Youkhana 40 normal distribution graph, and it also gave the experimenters a visual representation of the P-values insignificance.

The experimenters failed to reject H0 at = 0.10. There was no evidence that the thermal expansion coefficients obtained from the tantalum rods were any different from the thermal expansion coefficients obtained for the unknown metal rods. Assuming H0 is true, there was a 71.91% chance of obtaining these results from the experiment by chance alone. Therefore, the experimenters have a second reason to believe the unknown metal is elemental tantalum.

Koki Youkhana 41 Conclusion The experimenters rejected their original hypothesis; although the unknown rods were correctly identified as tantalum, they were not identified within 3% of tantalums true specific heat or 1% of its true alpha coefficient value. The pair of unknown metal rods in the experiment was indeed found to be elemental tantalum through the process of conducting successive trials on both the known rods as well as the unknown rods. For the first experiment, after all the values for variables such as the change in temperature of the water, rod, and their equilibrium temperatures, were obtained, the researchers applied the data to scientific formulas that allowed them to calculate individual specific heats for all of the rods. The average specific heats from each sample were then statistically analyzed, and which gave them evidence that supported their null hypothesis. In the second experiment, the change in length of each rod was found in addition to its original length and change in temperature. The researchers then used this information to calculate individual linear thermal expansion coefficients for each rod. Averages were also computed in this experiment and statistically analyzed using the same statistical test as the specific heat experiment. The results of this test only strengthened the evidence in support of the experimenters null hypothesis. In the experiment, the average specific heat calculated for the known rods was 0.146 J/gC, while the average specific heat for the unknown rods was calculated to be 0.159 J/gC. Additionally, the experimenters used a 10% alpha level this statistical tests. This meant that if the t-test showed results that were

Koki Youkhana 42 not extreme enough to occur 10% of the time or less assuming their null hypothesis was true, the experimenters would fail to reject their hypothesis. This was the case with the specific heat experiment, in which the P-value obtained was 14.57%. Although this result was greater than the established alpha level of 10%, it was fairly border-line and the experimenters were still hesitant in accepting their null hypothesis since the results were still extreme enough to be fairly unlikely to have occurred by chance alone. This is why the experimenters research called for the second experiment involving linear thermal expansion to strengthen their position. The average linear thermal expansion coefficient calculated for the known rods was 5.097 x 10-6 C-1, which was used in conjunction with the average alpha coefficient of the unknown rods, found to be 4.991 x 10-6 C-1, in another twosample t-test. This experiment reassured the experimenters that their null hypothesis was correct with a significant P-value 71.91%. The fact that the experimenters used two different experiments to obtain evidence to support their null hypothesis greatly reinforced their decision in deeming the unknown metal sample elemental tantalum with significant confidence. Although the experiment was largely successful, there were areas of error and uncertainty that came from a few assumptions. For instance, the experimenters assumed the rods were exactly at the same temperature of the water in which they were submerged. This could have flawed the experiment, for if the reading was even a few degrees off from the temperature of the water, the experimenters could have obtained experimental values far from the true values

Koki Youkhana 43 of tantalum that they were attempting to calculate. Another similar assumption was made when the rod cooled down in the thermal expansion experiment; its equilibrium temperature was assumed that of the water from the spray bottle. This would not necessarily be the case, which would result inaccurate alpha values upon entering the values into the mathematical formula. The researchers did attempt to combat this error from consuming the experiment by calculating percent error for each trial, which allowed them to attain precise results, even if not entirely accurate. This simple procedure helped eliminate some of the error that may have biased the experiment and kept the experimenters from reporting their results with greater confidence. Lastly, the wooden thermal expansion jig absorbed water upon being sprayed by the water bottle, which caused it to swell on an atomic level. Since the alpha coefficient was so small, expansion of the jig itself could have easily contributed to inaccurate readings on the jigs dial. This research can be expanded upon in many ways. Due to the limitations of the equipment provided, the experimenters could easily improve their findings by investing in higher-tech lab equipment that yields more accurate results. A simple experiment that utilizes density, another intensive property, could also be conducted to give even more evidence to support the researchers findings. This data would be more vital to them, as there are fewer assumptions made in calculating the mass and volumes of the metal rods. Without the help of such research from scientists, many of todays industrial empires would possess the essential information in regards to identifying the rare metals of Earth in which all of their profits depend on.

Koki Youkhana 44 Acknowledgement The researchers would like to thank Mr. and Mrs. Youkhana for investing in all of the materials used over the course of the research project. Without their contributions, the entire research process would not have even been possible. The researchers would also like to acknowledge Mr. Ray Kamp for putting his engineering skills to work in order to design efficient calorimeters to use in the specific heat portion of the research project. Without his help, the specific heats attained for the metal rods surely would have been fraught with more error; the calorimeters would not have been nearly as insulated as they were.

Koki Youkhana 45 Appendix A: Calorimeter Construction Materials: 2 Diameter PVC Piping 2 Diameter PVC Base 3/4 Diameter PVC Piping (2) 3/4 Diameter PVC Caps PVC Cleaner PVC Glue 3/16 Diameter Drill Bit Power Drill FoamSealerR Insulation

Procedure: 1. Cut the 2 diameter PVC pipe to 6 lengthwise. Apply PVC cleaner to one end after cutting. Apply PVC cleaner and PVC glue to the 2 diameter PVC base. Quickly apply the base to the side of the 2 diameter PVC pipe that was cleaned earlier. Allow the PVC glue to dry for about ten minutes. Cut the 3/4 diameter PVC pipe to 6 lengthwise. Apply PVC cleaner to one end after cutting. Apply PVC cleaner and glue to the inside of one of the 3/4 diameter PVC caps. Quickly apply the cap to the side of the 3/4 diameter PVC pipe that was cleaned earlier. Allow the PVC glue to dry for about ten minutes. Using the power drill and a 3/16 diameter drill bit, drill a single hole through the top of the other 3/4 diameter PVC cap. Attach the drilled 3/4 PVC cap to the other end of the 3/4 PVC pipe. Wrap one layer of FoamSealerR insulation around the 3/4 PVC pipe. This will prevent any heat from escaping when the hot metal rod is dropped into this section of piping. Wrap two layers of FoamSealerR insulation around the 2 PVC pipe. This will serve as extra protection and prevent any excess heat from escaping when the hot metal rod is into the nearby 3/4 section of piping. Place the capped 3/4 diameter PVC pipe into the 2 diameter PVC pipe attached to its base. Stand upright. The calorimeter is now completed and ready to use.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6. 7.

8.

9.

10.

Koki Youkhana 46 Diagram:

Thermometer probe 3/4 diameter PVC cap 2 diameter PVC pipe

FoamSealerR insulation

2 diameter PVC base

Figure 14. Completed Calorimeter Figure 14 shows the completed calorimeter after construction has been completed. Labeled to the right of the figure are the various materials used in the construction of the isolated system. As shown above, the thermometer probe fits into the 3/4 pipe through the 3/16 hole drilled through the 3/4 PVC cap in order to collect data as the hot metal rods heat is absorbed by the water inside the calorimeter.

Koki Youkhana 47 Appendix B: LabQuest Setup Materials: LabQuest Thermometer Probe (0.1C precision) AC Adapter

Procedure: 1. 2. Connect the AC adapter to the LabQuest. Plug the AC adapter into an electrical outlet. This will prolong the battery life of the LabQuest. Press the power button on the LabQuest to turn it on. Choose New from the File menu Connect the thermometer probe to the LabQuest. On the Meter screen, tap Rate. Change the data collection rate to 0.5 samples / second and the data collection length to 300 seconds. Press OK. You are now ready to begin data collection.

3.

4. 5.

6.

Diagram:

LabQuest AC adapter

Thermometer probe

Figure 15. LabQuest Setup Figure 15 shows the proper setup for the LabQuest. As shown above, simply plug the LabQuest into an electrical outlet and connect the thermometer probe to it, and you are ready to begin data collection.

Koki Youkhana 48 Appendix C: Sample Calculations To find the specific heat of the metal rods, set the specific heat of the water, sw, times the mass of the water, mw, times the change in temperature of the water, Tw equal to the specific heat of the metal rod, sm, times the mass of the metal rod, mm, times the change in temperature of the metal rod, Tm.

See Figure 16 below for a sample calculation utilizing the specific heat formula.

) ( )

( ) ( )

( (

) )

Figure 16. Specific Heat Sample Calculation Figure 16 shows a sample calculation of the specific heat for Rod B using the data found for the known tantalum rods in trial one. After the appropriate values were plugged in to the formula, the equation had to be manipulated in order to find the variable of interest, sm. Once the variable was isolated and the math had been carried out, the specific heat for the tantalum rod in trial one was found to be 0.119 J/gC.

Koki Youkhana 49 To find the thermal expansion coefficient of the metal rods, , divide the change in length of the rod, L, by the quantity of the initial length of the rod, Li, times the change in temperature, T.

See Figure 17 below for a sample calculation utilizing the linear thermal expansion formula.

( ( (

) ) )

( )

) ( )

Figure 17. Linear Thermal Expansion Sample Calculation Figure 17 shows a sample calculation of the thermal expansion coefficient for Rod B using the data found for the known tantalum rods in trial one. After the appropriate values were plugged in to the formula, the math was simply carried out by the experimenters. This gave them an alpha coefficient value of 5.289 * 10-6 C-1.

Koki Youkhana 50 To find the percent error, PE, of the results found for any trial of either experiment, divide the quantity of the experimental value, EV, minus the true value, TV, by the true value, TV. Finally, multiply the calculated value by 100 to convert it to percentage form. ( )

See Figure 18 below for a sample calculation utilizing the percent error formula.

( )

) ( )

( )

( ) Figure 18. Percent Error Sample Calculation Figure 18 shows a sample calculation of the percent error for Rod B using the data found for the known tantalum rods in the first thermal expansion trial. After the appropriate values were plugged in to the formula, the math was simply carried out by the experimenters. This gave them a percent error of -18.633% for the experimental value of 5.289 J/gC. This meant that this experimental value undershot the scientifically-proven specific heat of 6.500 J/gC for tantalum.

Koki Youkhana 51 To find the test statistic, t, of a set of data, subtract the average of the first sample, x2, from the average of the first sample, x1. This difference is then divided by the square root of the sum of the standard deviation of the first sample squared, s1, over the number of data points in the first sample, n1, and the standard deviation of the second sample squared, s2, over the number of data points in the second sample, n2.

See Figure 19 below for a sample calculation utilizing the t-test statistic formula.

Figure 19. t-Test Statistic Sample Calculation Figure 19 shows a sample calculation for the t-test statistic using the averages of the data found for the known and unknown rods in the specific heat experiments. After the appropriate values were plugged in to the formula, the math was simply carried out by the experimenters. This gave them a test statistic value around 1.4940 with an associated P-value of 0.1468. This P-value was above the alpha level of 0.10, which made this P-value insignificant.

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Dube, Michelle, Allison Billings, Rachel Morris, and Ryan Starr. "Constant Pressure Calorimetry - ChemWiki." Constant Pressure Calorimetry ChemWiki. UC Davis ChemWiki, n.d. Web. 26 Mar. 2013. <http://chemwiki.ucdavis.edu/Physical_Chemistry/Thermodynamics/Calori metry/Constant_Pressure_Calorimetry>.

Koki Youkhana 53 "Experiment T3." Physics.dcu.ie. N.p., n.d. Web. 19 May 2013. <http://www.physics.dcu.ie/~jpm/PS128/T3-experiment.pdf>.

Helmenstine, Anne M. "Tantalum Facts." About.com Chemistry. N.p., n.d. Web. 24 Mar. 2013. <http://chemistry.about.com/od/elementfacts/a/tantalum.htm>.

Kastrenakes, Jacob. "The Verge." The Verge. Vox Media, 25 Mar. 2013. Web. 19 May 2013. <http://www.theverge.com/2013/3/25/4145144/japandiscovers-large-rare-earth-metals-reserve-hurt-chinese-monopoly>.

Little, Arthur D. "Tantalum." Tantalum 8.3 (1931): 519. - Journal of Chemical Education (ACS Publications and Division of Chemical Education). Web. 24 Mar. 2013. <http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/ed008p519>.

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