PT.

INSPEKTINDO PRATAMA
INSPEKTION, CERTIFICATION & TECHNICAL SERVICES

TRAINING HAND OUT

MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING

General

PT. INSPEKTINDO PRATAMA

Jakarta : Gedung Wisma Raharja lt. 4, Jl. TB Simatupang Kav-1, Jakarta Selatan 12560, phone (021)-78841462,Fax (021)-78841461, workshop : Jl. Ciputat Raya No. 20 E Pondok Pinang, Jakrta Selatan 12310, Phone (021)-7509518, Fax (021)-7509517, web : www.inspektindo.co.id, Email :info@inspektindo.co.id Balikpapan : Jl. Jend. Sudirman Ruko Bandar Balikpapan Blok B-22 Balikpapan 76122 Phone (0542)-739310, Fax (0542)-739311
Rev. 0, december 2011

Page 0

CONTENTS
page CHAPTER ONE Introduction Theory of Magnetization Vector Field Magnetic Materials Magnetic Flux Flux Density Right-hand Rule vs Left-hand Rule Chapter One Review CHAPTER TWO Circular Magnetization Longitudinal Magnetization Chapter Two Review CHAPTER THREE Introduction Alternating Current (AC) Direct Current (DC) Penetration Characteristics Magnetic Hysteresis Curve Chapter Three Review CHAPTER FOUR Direct Current Field Distribution 4 4 5 8 8 9 9 10 13 14 14 17 20 21 21 21 22 23 24 29 30 30

Page 1

Alternating Current Field Distribution Chapter Four Review CHAPTER FIVE Introduction Current Requirements (Circular Magnetization) Current Requirements with Prods Current Requirements (Longitudinal Magnetization) Fill Factors L/D Ratio Demagnetization Leakage Field Indicators Chapter Five Review CHAPTER SIX Magnetic Particle Testing Equipment Limitations of Magnetic Particle Testing Safety Precautions Magnetic Particle Mediums and Their Preparation Control and Verification of Equipment Functions Chapter Six Review CHAPTER SEVEN Magnetic Particle Applications Testing Medium (Powder and Suspensions) Surface Preparation Location of Discontinuities

35 37 38 38 38 42 43 44 46 47 53 54 55 55 58 59 60 62 65 66 66 67 68 68
Page 2

Demagnetization Requirements Application of Magnetic Particle Testing Procedures Chapter Seven Review CHAPTER EIGHT Introduction Categories of Discontinuities Classification of Magnetic Particle Discontinuities Classification of Discontinuities by Origin Casting Discontinuities Processing Discontinuities Service Discontinuities Preservation of Indications Chapter Eight Review CHAPTER NINE Introduction Identification and Comparison of Dicontinuities Training and Certification Chapter Nine Review CHAPTER TEN Procedures, Standards, and Specifications A Magnetic Particle Testing Procedure Chapter Ten Review REFERENCES

68 69 79 80 80 80 81 85 86 88 95 96 98 99 99 99 100 102 103 103 106 110 114

Page 3

CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION A magnet is a material that has the ability to attract iron or steel (and some other metallic materials). Lodestone (magnetite) is naturally magnetic. Other materials can become magnets artificially. When any material is magnetized it has a magnetic field that will attract certain metals and other magnetic fields. Because magnetization of certain metals is possible, it is possible to reveal discontinuities by using a medium (iron powder) having magnetic attraction. The medium is applied to the surface of the test object after or during induction of a magnetic field. The sketches below show a build-up of the magnetic particle medium over the discontinuity in the magnetized part. PENDAHULUAN Sebuah magnet adalah material yang memiliki kemampuan menarik besi atau baja (dan material logam lain). Lodestone (magnetite) adalah magnet alam. Material lain dapat dibuat menjadi magnet buatan. Apabila sembarang material dimagnetisasi, ia memiliki medan magnet yang akan menarik logam tertentu dan medan magnet lain. Karena memungkinkan untuk memagnetisasi logam tertentu, dimungkinkan pula untuk menampakkan diskontinuitas menggunakan suatu media (serbuk besi) yang memiliki daya tarik magnet. Medium tersebut diaplikasikan pada permukaan benda uji setelah atau selama induksi medan magnet. Gambar berikut memperlihatkan pengumpulan media partikel magnet di atas diskontinuitas dari suatu benda yang dimagnetisasi.

Magnetic particle testing is a relatively easy and simple test method that can be applied at various stages of manufature and processing operations. The objective of magnetic particle testing is to insure product reliability by providing a means of: A. Obtaining a visual image of an indication on the surface of a material. B. Disclosing the nature of discontinuities without impairing the material. C. Separating acceptable and unacceptable material in accordance with predetermined standards.

Pengujian partikel magnet adalah metoda pengujian yang relatip mudah dan sederhana yang dapat diaplikasikan pada berbagai tahapan operasi manufaktur dan pemrosesan. Tujuan dari pengujian pertikel magnet adalah untuk memastikan keandalan produk dengan cara sebagai berikut: A. Memperoleh citra visual dari sebuah indikasi pada permukaan material. B. Mengungkap sifat diskontinuitas tanpa merusak material. C. Memisahkan material yang diterima dan ditolak dengan berpedoman pada standard yang telah ditetapkan.

Page 4

THEORY OF MAGNETIZATION An object is magnetized when part or all of its magnetic domains have their north and south poles oriented as in the sketches below.

TEORI MAGNETISASI Suatu benda termagnetisasi apabila sebagian atau seluruh domain magnetnya memiliki orientasi ke kutub utara dan selatan seperti gambar di bawah.

The ability of a magnet to attract or repel is concentrated at the local areas called POLES. The north and south poles exhibit attraction and repulsion as shown in the sketches below.

Kemampuan sebuah magnet untuk menarik atau menolak terpusat pada daerah yang dinamakan KUTUB. Kutub utara dan selatan memperlihatkan daya tarik dan daya tolak seperti pada gambar.

With all of the magnetic domains lined up, the magnetic bar develops a total force equal to the sum of all of the magnetic domains. These are the MAGNETIC LINES OF FORCE which form a closed loop or circuit.

Dengan semua domain magnet yang tersusun, magnet batang menghasilkan gaya total yang sama dengan jumlah semua domain magnetnya. Di bawah ini yang dinamakan GARIS GAYA MAGNET yang membentuk sebuah rangkaian tertutup.

All of the lines of force make up the MAGNETIC FIELD.

Semua garis-garis MEDAN MAGNET.

gaya

magnet

membentuk

Page 5

The lines of force associated with permanent magnets have the following properties: 1. They form closed loops between north and south poles. 2. They do not cross one another. 3. They seek paths of least magnetic resistance. 4. Their density decreases with increasing distance from the poles. 5. They are considered to have direction; by convention, from NORTH POLE TO SOUTH POLE EXTERNAL to the magnet, and from south to north internally. The force that attracts other magnetizable materials to the magnetic poles is known as MAGNETIC FLUX. Magnetic flux is made up of all of the lines of force. The horseshoe magnet will attract other magnetizable material only where the lines of force leave or enter the magnet.

Garis-garis gaya magnet dari sebuah magnet permanen memiliki sifat sebagai berikut: 1. Membentuk rangkaian tertutup antara kutub utara dan selatan. 2. Tidak memotong satu sama lainnya. 3. Selalu mencari lintasan dengan tahanan magnetis yang terkecil. 4. Kerapatannya berkurang dengan bertambahnya jarak dari kutub. 5. Memiliki arah, menurut kesepakatan, dari KUTUB UTARA KE KUTUB SELATAN DI LUAR MAGNET, dan dari kutub selatan ke kutub utara di dalam magnet. Gaya yang menarik material magnet lain ke kutub suatu magnet dinamakan FLUX MAGNETIS. Flux magnetis tersusun dari semua garis-garis gaya magnet. Magnet tapal kuda akan menarik material magnetis lain hanya pada tempat dimana garis-garis gaya meninggalkan atau memasuki magnet. Jika sebuah magnet dibengkokkan hingga membentuk lingkaran tertutup, seluruh medan magnet berada di dalamnya, dan TIDAK ADA GAYA LUAR. Namun demikian, sebuah retakan pada magnet tersebut akan mengganggu aliran garis gaya dan menciptakan sebuah KEBOCORAN FLUX.

If a magnet is bent into a complete loop as shown below, the magnetic field is entirely within, thus NO EXTERNAL FORCE. However, a crack in the circular magnet will disrupt the flow of lines of force and create a FLUX LEAKAGE.

FIELD IS ENTIRELY WITHIN, THUS NO EXTERNAL FORCE Leakage field (flux leakage) are actually magnetic lines of force that leave the part and pass through air from one pole to the other of opposite polarity.

LEAKAGE FIELD WILL ATTRACT MAGNETIC PARTICLES Kebocoran medan (kebocoran flux) sebenarnya adalah garis-garis gaya magnet yang meninggalkan komponen, bergerak melalui udara dari satu kutub ke kutub lain yang berlawanan muatan.

Page 6

REMEMBER that iron particles will be attracted ONLY in places where lines of force or flux enter or leave the magnet. Since there are no magnetic poles in circular magnet, there will be no place for the magnetic lines of force or flux to leave or enter the magnet. Whenever the leakage field is forced out of the part, iron particles would be attracted showing an indication of a discontinuity. Even some subsurface discontinuities may be detected if the leakage field is strong enough as shown below.

INGAT bahwa partikel besi akan tertarik HANYA pada tempat dimana garis-garis gaya atau flux memasuki atau meninggalkan magnet. Karena magnet melingkar tidak memiliki kutub, maka tidak ada tempat bagi garis-garis gaya magnet atau flux untuk meninggalkan atau memasuki magnet. Pada tempat dimana terjadi kebocoran medan magnet, partikel besi akan tertarik dan membentuk suatu indikasi diskontinuitas. Diskontinuitas bawah permukaan bahkan juga bisa terdeteksi jika kebocoran medannya cukup kuat untuk menarik partikel besi seperti dalam gambar.

Now let's look at a magnet with a shallow surface irregularity, such as a bowed or cupped surface.

Sekarang perhatikan sebuah magnet dengan permukaan melekuk seperti pada gambar di bawah.

In the area of the shallow, cupped surface above, the lines of force stay within the magnet. The lines of force tend to follow the path of least resistance, which is to stay within the magnet. As a result, no magnetic poles with flux leakage are created.

Pada daerah lekukan di atas, garis-garis gaya tetap berada di dalam magnet. Garis-garis gaya cenderung mengikuti lintasan dengan tahanan paling kecil, yang berada di dalam magnet. Sebagai akibatnya, tidak terbentuk kutub dan kebocoran medan magnet.

Page 7

VECTOR FIELD When two magnetizing forces are imposed simultaneously in the same part, the object is NOT magnetized in TWO directions at the same time. A vector field is formed which is the resultant direction and strength of the two imposed fields. This is illustrated below, where F A is the first magnetizing force, FB is the second force, and FA+B equals the resultant magnetizing force.

MEDAN VEKTOR Jika dua buah gaya magnet bekerja secara serempak di suatu lokasi yang sama, benda TIDAK termagnetisasi dalam DUA arah pada waktu yang bersamaan. Pada kejadian di atas, terbentuk medan vektor yang merupakan resultan/paduan arah dan kekuatan dari dua medan magnet yang bekerja tersebut. Hal tersebut digambarkan di bawah ini, dimana FA adalah gaya magnet pertama, FB gaya magnet kedua, dan FA+B adalah gaya magnet resultan.

MAGNETIC MATERIALS If an object is placed in a magnetic field, a force is exerted on it and it is said to become magnetized. The intensity of magnetization depends upon the susceptibility of the material to become magnetized. The magnetic characteristics of materials are shown in Table 1.1.

MATERIAL MAGNETIS Jika sebuah benda diletakkan dalam suatu medan magnet, gaya magnet akan mempengaruhinya dan benda tersebut dikatakan menjadi termagnetisasi. Intensitas magnetisasi tergantung pada kerentanan material tersebut untuk dapat berubah menjadi magnet. Karakteristik magnet material diperlihatkan dalam Tabel 1.1.

Table 1.1. Magnetic characteristics of materials.

Page 8

Diamagnetic Metals have a small and negative susceptibility to magnetization (slightly repelled). Mercury, bismuth, zinc, copper, silver, and gold are examples of diamagnetic materials. Paramagnetic Metals have a small and positive susceptibility to magnetization (slightly attracted). Aluminum, platinum, copper sulfate, magnesium, molybdenum, lithium, and tantalum are examples. Ferromagnetic Metals have a large and positive susceptibility to magnetization, they have a strong attraction and are able to retain their magnetization after the magnetizing field has been removed. Iron, cobalt, nickel, and gadolinium are examples of ferromagnetic metals. Ferromagnetic materials are the only metals commonly inspected with magnetic particle testing method. MAGNETIC FLUX The total number of magnetic lines of force existing in a magnetic circuit is called magnetic flux. The lines of force in a magnetic circuit are always closed loops. Therefore a magnetic circuit is always closed as shown below.

Logam-logam Diamagnetik memiliki kerentanan yang kecil dan negatip terhadap magnetisasi (sedikit menolak). Air raksa, bismuth, seng, tembaga, perak, dan emas adalah contoh material diamagnetik. Logam-logam Paramagnetik memiliki kerentanan yang kecil dan positip terhadap magnetisasi (sedikit tertarik). Aluminium, platina, tembaga sulfat, magnesium, molybdenum, lithium, dan tantalum adalah contohnya. Logam-logam Ferromagnetik memiliki kerentanan yang besar dan positip terhadap magnetisasi, memiliki daya tarik yang kuat, dan mampu menahan magnetisasi setelah medan magnet dihilangkan. Besi, cobalt, nikel, dan gadolinium adalah contoh logam ferromagnetik. Hanya logam-logam ferromagnetik yang umumnya diperiksa menggunakan metoda pengujian partikel magnet. FLUX MAGNET Jumlah garis-garis gaya magnet total yang terdapat dalam rangkaian magnet dinamakan flux magnet. Garis-garis gaya dalam sebuah rangkaian magnet selalu tertutup. Oleh karenanya sebuah rangkaian magnet selalu tertutup seperti gambar di bawah.

FLUX DENSITY Flux density or induction is usually designated in GAUSS units and refers to the FLUXPER-UNIT AREA at right angles to the direction of the flux.

KERAPATAN FLUX Kerapatan flux atau induksi biasanya dinyatakan dalam unit GAUSS yang artinya adalah FLUX PER UNIT LUASAN, tegak lurus terhadap arah flux.

Page 9

RIGHT-HAND RULE VS LEFT-HAND RULE To find the direction of an electrically induced magnetic field, place your THUMB on the conductor in the direction of CURRENT FLOW and your FINGERS will then point in the direction of the LINES OF FLOW. The circular magnetic field is produced in the sketch below.

KAIDAH TANGAN KANAN VS TANGAN KIRI Untuk menentukan arah medan magnet yang diinduksi memakai arus listrik, tempatkan IBU JARI pada penghantar sebagai arah ALIRAN ARUS LISTRIK dan JARI LAINNYA akan menunjuk ke arah GARIS-GARIS GAYA MANET. Medan magnet melingkar terbentuk dalam gambar di bawah.

Figure above shows the right-hand rule which uses current flow theory. In this current flow theory, electricity is considered to flow from + to . If the more commonly accepted electron flow theory were used, it would be necessary to use the left-hand rule. The electron flow theory considers electricity to flow from to +. IMPORTANT The two theories of determining the flow of electricity should not become confusing. They both result in a magnetic field flowing in the same direction.

Gambar di atas memperlihatkan kaidah tangan kanan yang memakai teori aliran arus listrik. Pada teori aliran arus, listrik dianggap mengalir dari kutub + ke . Jika dipakai teori aliran elektron, maka perlu menggunakan kaidah tangan kiri. Teori aliran elektron menganggap bahwa elektron mengalir dari kutub ke +. PENTING Kita tidak perlu bingung pada kedua teori untuk menentukan aliran listrik tersebut, karena mereka akan menghasilkan medan magnet dengan arah yang sama.

Page 10

The sketch below shows how a magnetic field is produced utilizing a coil. The field is circular around the cable but produces a longitudinal field in the specimen. Using Figure A below, try the right hand rule (current flow + to -) to demonstrate the direction of the magnetic field with the current flow theory.

Gambar di bawah memperlihatkan bagaimana sebuah medan magnet dihasilkan menggunakan kumparan. Di sekitar kabel terjadi medan magnet melingkar, namun pada benda dihasilkan medan magnet memanjang. Memakai gambar A di bawah, cobalah kaidah tangan kanan (aliran arus + ke ) untuk menunjukkan arah medan magnet memakai teori aliran listrik.

CURRENT FLOW THEORY RIGHT-HAND RULE + to -

Figure A
Also try the left-hand rule on Figure B below to demonstrate that the electron flow theory (- to +) will produce a magnetic field in the same direction.

Juga cobalah kaidah tangan kiri dalam gambar B di bawah untuk menunjukkan bahwa teori aliran elektron akan menghasilkan medan magnet dengan arah yang sama.

ELECTRON FLOW THEORY LEFT-HAND RULE - to +

Figure B

Page 11

The following properties of a metal can determine how effective the magnetic particle method will be in evaluating a part. These properties will be discussed in greater detail in the next chapter. 1. Permeability this refers to the ease with which a magnetic flux is established in the article being inspected. High permeability easy to magnetize Low permeability difficult to magnetize 2. Reluctance this is the opposition of a magnetic material to the establishment of a magnetic flux. A material with high permeability will have a low reluctance. 3. Residual Magnetism this refers to the amount of magnetism retained after the magnetizing force is removed. 4. Retentivity refers to the ability of the material to retain a certain amount of residual magnetism. 5. Coercive force refers to the reverse magnetizing force necessary to remove the residual magnetism from the part. For example: if a piece of HIGH CARBON STEEL were placed in a magnetizing field, it would exhibit the following: a. It would have low permeability because it would be hard to magnetize. b. It would be highly reluctant to accept a magnetic flux because of the high carbon content. c. It would have a high residual magnetic field. The high carbon steel is reluctant to accept a magnetic flux but is also reluctant to give it up once has been accepted. d. It would be highly retentive of the magnetic field that it has accepted. e. It would take a high coercive force to remove the residual magnetism from the high carbon steel part.

Sifat-sifat logam berikut ini dapat menentukan seberapa efektip penggunaan metoda partikel magnet untuk mengevaluasi sebuah komponen. Sifat-sifat berikut akan didiskusikan lebih rinci dalam bab berikutnya. 1. Permeabilitas mengacu pada mudah tidaknya medan magnet terbentuk di dalam benda yang diperiksa. Permeabilitas tinggi mudah menjadi magnet. Permeabilitas rendah sulit menjadi magnet. 2. Reluktansi lawan dari permeabilitas magnet. Material dengan permealitias tinggi akan memiliki reluktansi yang rendah. 3. Magnetisme Sisa mengacu pada jumlah magnetisme yang tertahan setelah gaya magnet dihilangkan. 4. Retentivity yaitu kemampuan suatu material untuk menahan sejumlah tertentu magnetisme sisa. 5. Gaya Coercive yaitu gaya magnet pembalik yang diperlukan untuk menghilangkan magnetisme sisa dari benda. Sebagai contoh: jika sebuah BAJA KADAR KARBON TINGGI ditempatkan dalam medan magnet akan menunjukkan hal-hal berikut: a. Baja tersebut memiliki permeabilitas rendah karena sulit termagnetisasi. b. Baja memiliki reluktansi yang tinggi untuk menerima medan magnet karena tingginya kadar karbon. c. Baja memiliki medan magnetisme sisa yang tinggi. Baja karbon tinggi enggan untuk menerima medan magnet, namun enggan juga untuk mengeluarkannya setelah menerima. d. Baja memiliki penahanan yang tinggi terhadap medan magnet yang telah ia peroleh. e. Diperlukan gaya magnet pembalik yang tinggi untuk menghilangkan magnetisme sisa dari komponen baja berkadar karbon tinggi.

Page 12

CHAPTER ONE REVIEW

_______ 1. _______ 2. _______ 3. _______ 4. _______ 5. _______ 6. The Electron Flow theory considers electricity to flow from + to -. The magnetic lines of force that develop around a magnetic bar are referred to as the magnetic field A surface crack in a circular magnet will disrupt the flow of lines of force and will create a flux leakage. A surface crack in a bar magnet will disrupt the flow of lines of force and will create a flux leakage. A subsurface discontinuity could be detected if the leakage field that is forced out of the part is strong enough to attract iron particles. When two magnetizing forces are imposed in the same part at the same time, a flux density is produced equal to one-half the strength of the strongest. Diamagnetic and paramagnetic metals are both commonly inspected using the magnetic particle method. Because ferromagnetic metals have a large susceptibility to magnetization, they have a high reluctance to the establishment of a magnetic flux. A material that has a high reluctance to a magnetic flux will probably also have a high retentivity. The property of a material that refers to the ease with which a magnetic flux is established is called_________ Magnetic lines of force that leave the part and pass through the air are called__________ If you were to use the "right-hand rule" to show the direction of the magnetic field in the part below, would the current flow be from + to or to +?

_______ 7. _______ 8. _______ 9.

___________________________ 10. ___________________________ 11. ___________________________ 12.

___________________________ 13. ___________________________ 14. ___________________________ 15. What type of magnetic field is shown in the above partlongitudinal or circular? The amount of force necessary to remove residual magnetism in a part is called__________ A magnet will attract other magnetizable material only where the__________ leave or enter the magnet. Page 13

CHAPTER TWO
CIRCULAR MAGNETIZATION A circular magnetic field is induced into a specimen by: DIRECT INDUCTION of a circular field into an article. This is accomplished by passing a current through the article as shown the HEAD SHOT below. MAGNETISASI MELINGKAR Medan magnet melingkar diinduksikan ke dalam spesimen dengan memakai: INDUKSI LANGSUNG medan melingkar ke dalam benda. Dilakukan dengan mengalirkan arus ke dalam benda memakai HEAD SHOT.

Direct induction using PRODS. Prod magnetization is used where the size or location of an article does not permit the use of a head shot or central conductor. Current flow and circular field distributions are shown below.

Induksi langsung memakai PRODS. Magnetisasi prods dipakai apabila ukuran atau lokasi suatu artikel tidak memungkinkan penggunaan head shot atau central conductor. Aliran arus dan distribusi medan melingkar diperlihatkan di bawah.

INDIRECT INDUCTION of a circular fields. This is accomplished by placing a currentcarrying conductor into the specimen. This method is known as the CENTRAL CONDUCTOR technique and is illustrated below

INDUKSI TAK LANGSUNG medan melingkar. Dilakukan dengan menempatkan konduktor pembawa arus ke dalam spesimen. Metoda ini dikenal sebagai teknik CENTRAL CONDUCTOR dan digambarkan di bawah ini.

Page 14

Circular magnetic field in a nonmagnetic material. In a nonmagnetic material, the lines of force will NOT stay in the material. For example, when a copper bar is used, the magnetic field is established AROUND the bar as shown below.

Medan magnet melingkar di dalam material nonmagnetis. Pada material nonmagnetis, garis-garis gaya TIDAK berada di dalam material. Contohnya, apabila dipakai sebuah batang tembaga, medan magnet berada di SEKELILING batang tersebut.

Circular magnetic field in a ferromagnetic material In a ferromagnetic material, the lines of force are established WITHIN the material. Iron is permeable and readily conducts the magnetic field as shown below.

Medan magnet melingkar di dalam material ferromagnetik. Pada material ferromagnetik, garis-garis gaya berada DI DALAM material. Besi mudah menjadi magnet dan menghantarkan medan magnet seperti dalam gambar di bawah.

In both ferromagnetic and nonmagnetic materials, the lines of force are at RIGHT ANGLE (90 o) to the direction of electric current flow. Iron particles will not be attracted to a magnetized part except where a flux leakage exists. A crack in the part as shown below would cause a typical indication.

Pada material-material ferromagnetik dan nonmagnetik, posisi garis-garis gaya magnet adalah TEGAK LURUS (90o) terhadap arah aliran arus listrik. Partikel besi tidak akan tertarik ke bagian yang dimagnetisasi kecuali jika terjadi kebocoran medan. Retakan pada benda di bawah ini akan menyebabkan indikasi tertentu.

Page 15

Circular magnetization will detect discontinuities that are between 45 and 90 degrees to the lines of force. A crack that runs parallel to the lines of force will not attract particles because no poles or flux leakage exists at the crack (see below).

Magnetisasi melingkar akan mendeteksi diskontinuitas yang arahnya antara 45 dan 90 derajat terhadap garis-garis gaya magnet. Retak yang arahnya sejajar dengan garis-garis gaya magnet tidak akan menarik partikel karena tidak terjadi kutub magnet atau kebocoran medan.

The circular magnetization created with prods will also only detect discontinuities that are essentially PERPENDICULAR to the lines of force.

Magnetisasi melingkar yang dihasilkan oleh prods juga hanya akan mendeteksi diskontinuitas yang arahnya TEGAK LURUS terhadap garis-garis gaya magnet.

Page 16

LONGITUDINAL MAGNETIZATION A longitudinal magnetic field is induced into a specimen by: Yoke A yoke may be used to magnetize a specimen longitudinally as shown below. The yokes is essentially a temporary horseshoe magnet. It is made of soft, low retentivity iron, which is magnetized by a small coil wound around its horizontal bar.

MAGNETISASI MEMANJANG Medan magnet memanjang diinduksikan ke dalam spesimen dengan cara: Yoke Yoke dapat dipakai untuk memagnetisasi spesimen secara memanjang seperti gambar. Yoke pada dasarnya merupakan sebuah magnet tapal kuda temporer. Yoke dibuat dari inti besi lunak, ber-retentivity rendah, yang dimagnetisasi memakai kumparan kecil di sekeliling batang horizontalnya.

Coil (solenoid) When the length of the specimen is several times its diameter or cross section, the specimen can be successfully magnetized by placing it lengthwise in the field of the coil (see below).

Kumparan (solenoid) Jika panjang spesimen beberapa kali lebih besar dari diameter atau penampangnya, spesimen dapat dimagnetisasi dengan menempatkannya di dalam kumparan.

Note: both illustration above use the older convention (+ to using the right-hand rule) to demonstrate current flow.

Catatan: kedua gambar di atas menggunakan kesepakatan pertama (+ ke menggunakan kaidah tangan kanan) untuk menunjukkan aliran arus.

Page 17

When copper wire is wound into a coil, the lines of flux around each turn of the coil COMBINE with those of each of the other turns in the coil. This increases the flux density in the longitudinal direction. The flux density is the greatest at the surface of the copper wire; therefore, FLUX DENSITY will be GREATEST at the INSIDE SURFACE OF THE COIL. Parts being magnetized should be placed NEAR the INSIDE SURFACE OF THE COIL as shown below.

Jika kawat tembaga dibentuk menjadi sebuah kumparan, medan magnet di sekeliling tiap lilitan BERGABUNG dengan medan magnet dari lilitan yang lain. Hal tersebut akan meningkatkan kerapatan flux dalam arah memanjang. Kerapatan flux paling besar terjadi pada permukaan kawat tembaga, karenanya, KERAPATAN FLUX PALING BESAR terjadi pada PERMUKAAN BAGIAN DALAM KUMPARAN. Bagian yang dimagnetisasi sebaiknya diletakkan DEKAT PERMUKAAN BAGIAN DALAM KUMPARAN seperti diperlihatkan di bawah ini.

Field strength developed within a coil depends on three factors: 1. The number of turns in the coil. 2. The current flowing through the coil. 3. The diameter of the coil.

Kekuatan medan yang dihasilkan di kumparan tergantung pada tiga faktor: 1. Jumlah lilitan dalam kumparan. 2. Kuat arus yang melalui kumparan. 3. Diameter kumparan.

dalam

Which of the discontinuities on the surface of the bar below would be detected if it were inspected in the coil on the left?

Diskontinuitas manakah pada permukaan batang di bawah ini yang akan terdeteksi jika diperiksa memakai kumparan?

Answer: Discontinuities A and B.

Jawab: Diskontinuitas A dan B. Page 18

Magnetization by Cable Sometimes test articles are too big to fit into the ordinary coil. When this happens, an insulated copper cable can be used to form a coil for longitudinal magnetization of the article. Here is an example.

Magnetisasi memakai Kabel Kadangkala benda uji terlalu besar ukurannya untuk dimasukkan ke dalam kumparan. Jika ini terjadi, kabel tembaga berisolasi dapat dipakai membuat kumparan untuk menghasilkan magnetisasi memanjang pada benda.

When the cable is wrapped around the object to be magnetized, electric current passing through the cable creates a longitudinal magnetic field. The effective distance of the longitudinal magnetic field created by the cable is the same as the effective distance of a stationary coil (6 to 9 inches on both sides of the cables).

Pada saat kabel dibelitkan ke sekeliling obyek yang dimagnetisasi, arus listrik yang dialirkan melalui kabel akan menghasilkan medan magnet memanjang. Jarak efektip medan magnet memanjang yang dihasilkan oleh lilitan kabel sama seperti jarak efektip pada kumparan (6 sampai 9 inchi di kanankiri ujung kabel).

Above is another example using an insulated copper cable to create a longitudinal magnetic field in an article. In this case, the cable is connected to the heads for a source of electric current.

Gambar di atas adalah contoh pemakaian kabel tembaga berisolasi untuk menghasilkan medan magnet memanjang pada benda. Dalam hal ini, kabel dihubungkan ke sumber arus listrik.

Page 19

CHAPTER TWO REVIEW

_______ 1. 2. Prod magnetization is considered direct induction which results in a longitudinal magnetic field A circular magnetic field induced into a ferromagnetic material establishes lines of force that are essentially within the material. Lines of force that do not stay within the material are the result of using a nonmagnetic material as a conductor. A flux leakage will often result where a discontinuity such as a crack runs parallel to the lines of force. In ferromagnetic materials the lines of force are at right angles (90) to the direction of electric current flow. In nonmagnetic materials the lines of force are at right angles (90o) to the direction of electric current flow. Prods and yokes both produce a longitudinal magnetic field. Where the highest flux density possible is needed to longitudinally magnetize a part, it should be placed as close as possible to the center of the coil. A central conductor and prods can both be used to induce a circular magnetic field.

_______

_______ 3. _______ 4. _______ 5. _______ 6. _______ 7. _______ 8.

_______ 9.

_______ 10. Indirect induction with a central conductor is used to, produce a circular magnetic field. _______ 11. Either a yoke or prods could be used to effectively detect a longitudinal crack in a weld. _______ 12. A head shot is a method of direct induction that produces a longitudinal magnetic field in the part. _______ 13. The flux density will be the greatest at the surface of a nonmagnetic central conductor. _______ 14. A yoke is often used where the part is too large to permit the use of a head shot to induce a longitudinal field. _______ 15. In the sketch below, which of the three defects could be detected if the part contained circular magnetization?

_______ 16. In the sketch above, which of the three defects could be detected if the part contained longitudinal magnetization? Page 20

CHAPTER THREE
INTRODUCTION Direct current, alternating current, half-wave rectified current (HWDC), and full-wave rectified current (FWDC) are used as magnetizing currents in magnetic particle testing. Only one type is required for a test. It is generally accepted that the best types of magnetizing current for magnetic particle testing are alternating and half-wave rectified currents. Alternating current is best suited for locating surface discontinuities (because of skin effect). HWDC is best suited for locating near-surface discontinuities. ALTERNATING CURRENT (AC) Alternating Current (AC) is the most widely used power source for conducting magnetic particle testing. AC can be readily converted to the low voltages used in magnetic particle inspection by the use of transformers. AC has little penetrating power and provides the best detection of surface discontinuities. It is NOT effective for subsurface. Since AC is continuously reversing direction, the magnetic field has a tendency to agitate or make the iron particles more mobile. This causes the iron particles to be more responsive to the flux leakage current reversal. PENDAHULUAN Arus searah, arus bolak-balik, arus yang disearahkan sebagian (HWDC), dan arus yang disearahkan seluruhnya (FWDC) dipakai sebagai arus magnetisasi dalam pengujian partikel magnet. Hanya satu jenis saja yang disyaratkan untuk pengujian. Umum diterima bahwa jenis arus magnetisasi terbaik untuk pengujian partikel magnet adalah arus bolak-balik dan arus yang disearahkan sebagian (HWDC). Arus bolak-balik paling cocok untuk menemukan diskontinuitas permukaan (akibat adanya efek kulit). HWDC paling sesuai untuk menemukan diskontinuitas dekat permukaan. ARUS BOLAK-BALIK (AC) Arus AC paling banyak digunakan sebagai sumber tenaga untuk melakukan pengujian partikel magnet. AC dapat diubah dengan cepat menjadi tegangan rendah untuk dipakai dalam pemeriksaan partikel magnet menggunakan trafo. AC memiliki kemampuan penetrasi yang kecil namun sangat sensitip untuk mendeteksi diskontinuitas permukaan. Arus AC TIDAK efektip untuk bawah permukaan. Karena AC memiliki arah bolak-balik, medan magnetnya cenderung menggetarkan atau membuat partikel besi lebih gesit. Hal ini menyebabkan partikel besi lebih responsip terhadap kebocoran medan magnet arus bolakbalik.

Page 21

DIRECT CURRENT (DC) Single phased AC can be rectified to produce halfwave alternating current (HWAC), commonly called halfwave direct current (HWDC). HWDC means that the reverse polarity or negative portion of the sine curve is eliminated as below.

ARUS SEARAH (DC) Arus AC fasa tunggal dapat disearahkan untuk menghasilkan arus AC separo gelombang (HWAC), yang umum disebut arus DC separo gelombang (HWDC). HWDC berarti bagian kutub negatip dari kurva sinus dihilangkan seperti dalam gambar di bawah:

With HWDC there are intervals of individual pulses of direct current and also intervals when no current is flowing. Full wave direct current rectification inverts the negative curent to positive current so that the number of positive pulses is doubled.

Dengan HWDC terdapat rentang antara pulsa DC tunggal dan juga rentang dimana tidak ada arus mengalir. Arus DC gelombang penuh membalik arus negatip menjadi arus positip sehingga jumlah pulsa positip menjadi ganda.

AC is also available in three-phase circuits. This provides three cycles that follow each other at intervals of 60 o. When these peaks are then fullwave rectified, a very smooth DC is obtained as figures below.

AC juga terdapat dalam rangkaian tiga fase. Pada rangkaian ini terdapat tiga siklus yang mengikuti satu sama lain dengan selisih 60o. Apabila puncakpuncak ini disearahkan akan diperoleh arus DC yang halus seperti gambar di bawah ini.

Three-phase full wave direct curent.

Page 22

The use of rectified current has the following advantages: 1. Alternating current at any commercial frequency may be used (if three-phase, the load may be distributed over the three phases). 2. Penetration is comparable to that of straight direct current. 3. The pulsating effect of the rectified wave is helpful in adding mobility to the magnetic particles. 4. There is a definite advantage in locating deep-lying discontinuities. 5. It can be combined in the same equipment with alternating current. PENETRATION CHARACTERISTICS It is well established that the AC method is best suited for finding surface defects. However, the chart below illustrates the ability of various currents using both wet and dry magnetic particles in locating subsurface discontinuities. The experiments were carried out using Betz Ring Test.

Penggunaan arus yang disearahkan memiliki keuntungan sebagai berikut: 1. Arus AC pada sembarang frekuensi dapat digunakan (jika tiga fase, beban bisa didistribusikan pada ketiga fasenya). 2. Kemampuan penetrasi sebanding dengan arus DC. 3. Efek getaran dari gelombang yang disearahkan membantu menambah mobilitas partikel magnet. 4. Ada keuntungan nyata dalam menemukan diskontinuitas yang letaknya dalam. 5. Dapat digabung dengan peralatan yang memakai arus AC. KARAKTERISTIK PENETRASI AC telah ditetapkan sebagai metoda terbaik untuk menemukan cacat permukaan. Grafik di bawah ini menggambarkan kemampuan berbagai macam arus dengan menggunakan partikel magnet basah dan kering dalam mencari diskontinuitas bawah permukaan. Percobaan tersebut dilakukan dengan memakai uji Betz Ring.

The points to remember are: 1. Dry magnetic particles are more sensitive than particles used in the wet bath medium whether AC or DC is used. 2. AC is most effective for locating surface defects. AC is not effective in locating subsurface defects. 3. DC using dry powder particles is much more sensitive than DC with the wet bath medium.

Beberapa poin untuk diingat adalah: 1. Partikel magnet kering lebih sensitip ketimbang partikel basah, baik memakai arus AC maupun DC. 2. AC paling efektip untuk menemukan cacat permukaan. AC tidak efektip dalam nenemukan cacat bawah permukaan. 3. Arus DC dengan menggunakan partikel serbuk kering lebih sensitip ketimbang DC memakai pertikel basah. Page 23

MAGNETIC HYSTERESIS CURVE At the heart of understanding magnetism in materials is the MAGNETIC HYSTERISIS CURVE. From this simple curve a Level II technician can come to a more complete understanding of why certain magnetic particle testing process steps are used. The magnetic hysteresis curve is also called THE HYSTERESIS LOOP. If a piece of steel is placed in a coil, through which alternating current is flowing, the relation between magnetizing force H and the flux density B can be plotted. H is shown in Henry or Oersteds, and B is normally shown in Gausses.

KURVA HISTERISIS MAGNETIS Sebagai inti dari pemahanan masalah magnetisme dalam material adalah KURVA HISTERISIS MAGNETIS. Dari kurva sederhana ini, seorang teknisi Level II dapat memperoleh pemahaman menyeluruh mengenai bagaimana tahapan pengujian partikel magnet digunakan. Kurva histerisis magnet juga disebut sebagai LINGKARAN HISTERISIS. Jika sepotong baja ditempatkan di dalam sebuah kumparan yang di dalamnya mengalir arus AC, dapat diplot hubungan antara gaya magnetisasi H dan kerapatan flux B. H dalam satuan Henry atau Oersteds, dan B dalam Gauss.

Permeability, , is defined as B/H, which is the slope of the curve and varies continuously at any point on the curve. Permeability of a material can be determined by increasing the magnetizing force (electric current strength) until the material reaches its saturation point (point a). Each type of material has a point of maximum flux density (saturation). At each increase of the magnetizing force H there is an increase in flux density B which is quite rapidly at first, then more slowly until it reaches a point beyond which any increase in the magnetizing force does not increase the flux density (point a). The dashed line (point o-a) shows the maximum flux density and is often referred to as the virgin curve since the material was unmagnetized at the beginning.

Permeabilitas, , didefinisikan sebagai B/H, merupakan kemiringan kurva dan bervariasi secara menerus pada sembarang titik pada kurva. Permeabilitas dari sebuah material dapat ditentukan dengan peningkatan gaya magnetisasi (kekuatan arus listrik) hingga material mencapai titik jenuhnya (titik a). Masing-masing material memiliki titik kerapatan flux maksimum (titik jenuh) tertentu. Tiap penambahan gaya megnetisasi H mengakibatkan peningkatan kerapatan flux B yang pada mulanya cukup cepat, kemudian berlangsung lambat hingga mencapai sebuah titik dimana penambahan gaya magnetisasi tidak akan menambah kerapatan flux (titik a). Garis putus-putus (titik o-a) memperlihatkan kerapatan flux maksimum dan seringkali disebut sebagai kurva virgin karena pada mulanya material tidak termagnetisasi. Page 24

As the magnetizing force H is reduced to zero (from point a to b), the flux density B slowly drops but does not return to zero, but lags behind H along the segment a to b. The hysteresis loop gets its name from the lag between the applied magnetizing force and the actual flux density in the part. This lag is shown between points o-b and o-f. The ability of the steel to retain a certain amount of RESIDUAL MAGNETISM is called RETENTIVITY or REMANENCE, as shown between points o and b.

Selama gaya magnetisasi H dikurangi hingga nol (dari titik a ke b), kerapatan flux B berkurang dengan lambat tapi tidak kembali ke nol, namun tertinggal di belakang H sepanjang ruas a ke b. Kurva histerisis memperoleh namanya dari ketertinggalan (lag) antara gaya magnetisasi yang diaplikasikan dan kerapatan flux aktual dalam benda. Lag diperlihatkan antara titik o-b dan o-f. Kemampuan suatu baja untuk menahan sejumlah tertentu MAGNETISME SISA dinamakan RETENTIVITAS atau REMANENCE, seperti diperlihatkan antara titik o dan b.

When the magnetizing force is reversed, as always happens with AC, the flux density is reduced to zero at point c as shown below.

Pada saat gaya magnetisasi dibalik arahnya, seperti selalu terjadi dengan arus AC, kerapatan flux berkurang hingga nol pada titik c di bawah.

COERCIVE FORCE is the reverse magnetizing force required to remove residual magnetism from the material as shown above. Hardened steel would require a stronger reverse magnetizing force to remove the residual magnetism.

Gaya coersive adalah gaya magnetisasi pembalik yang diperlukan untuk menghilangkan magnetisme sisa dari dalam material seperti ditunjukkan di atas. Baja yang dikeraskan memerlukan gaya magnetisasi pembalik yang lebih besar untuk menghilangkan magnetisme sisa. Page 25

As the reverse magnetizing force is increased beyond point c, the flux density increases to the saturation point in the reverse direction shown in the point d below. Point e below shows the residual magnetic field in the reverse direction.

Pada saat gaya magnetisasi pembalik ditingkatkan hingga melalui titik c, kerapatan flux bertambah hingga mencapai titik jenuh dalam arah yang berlawanan seperti pada titik d di bawah. Titik e menunjukkan besarnya medan magnet sisa dalam arah yang berlawanan.

REVERSE RESIDUAL MAGNETISM

The force required to remove this residual field is shown between points o and f, and is again called coercive force (see below).

Gaya yang diperlukan untuk menghilangkan medan magnet sisa ditunjukkan antara titik o dan f, yang disebut gaya coercive.

The hysteresis loop is completed as the magnetizing force is again increased to a maximum flux density at point a. As shown before, a hysteresis loop is formed with every complete cycle of 60 cps current. A hysteresis loop also be used to describe the MAGNETIZATION or DEMAGNETIZATION with DC where the current is either manually or automatically reversed between straight (+) polarity and reverse (-) polarity.

Kurva histerisis menjadi lengkap saat gaya magnetisasi ditambah besarnya hingga mencapai kerapatan flux maksimum pada titik a. Seperti telah diperlihatkan sebelumnya, lingkaran histerisis terbentuk secara penuh tiap 1/60 detik. Lingkaran histerisis dapat dipakai juga untuk menjelaskan proses MAGNETISASI atau DEMAGNETISASI memakai arus DC dimana pembalikan arah aliran arus antara kutub + dan kutub dilakukan secara manual atau otomatis. Page 26

A hysteresis loop for a metal is dependent on the materials alloy or chemical composition, microstructure, and grain size. A WIDE HYSTERESIS LOOP indicates a material that is difficult to magnetize (one with a high reluctance).

Lingkaran histerisis dari sebuah logam tergantung pada paduan material atau komposisi kimia, struktur mikro, dan ukuran butiran. LINGKARAN HISTERISIS yang GEMUK menunjukkan sebuah material yang sulit dijadikan magnet (material yang memiliki reluktansi tinggi).

The distance between points o and f above will depend on the coercive force needed to overcome the reluctance of the steel. A HARD STEEL such as HIGH CARBON STEEL would have the following qualities and would produce a wide hysteresis loop. 1. LOW PERMEABILITY hard to magnetize 2. HIGH RETENTIVITY retains a strong residual magnetic field 3. HIGH COERCIVE FORCE requires a high reverse magnetizing force to remove the residual magnetism. 4. HIGH RELUCTANCE high resistance to magnetizing force 5. HIGH RESIDUAL MAGNETISM retain a strong residual magnetic field.

Jarak antara titik o dan f di atas akan tergantung pada gaya coercive yang diperlukan untuk mengatasi reluktansi baja tersebut. BAJA KERAS seperti BAJA KADAR KARBON TINGGI akan memiliki sifat seperti berikut dan akan menghasilkan lingkaran histerisis yang lebar. 1. PERMEABILITAS RENDAH sulit dijadikan magnet. 2. RETENTIVITAS TINGGI menahan medan magnet sisa secara kuat. 3. GAYA COERCIVE TINGGI memerlukan gaya magnetisasi pembalik yang besar untuk menghilangkan magnetisme sisa. 4. RELUKTANSI TINGGI memiliki ketahanan yang tinggi terhadap gaya megnetisasi. 5. MAGNETISME SISA yang TINGGI mampu menahan medan magnet sisa secara kuat.

Page 27

A THIN/SLENDER HYSTERESIS indicates a material of low retentivity.

LOOP

LINGKARAN HISTERISIS yang RAMPING menunjukkan suatu material yang memiliki retentivitas rendah. Kurva di bawah ini memperlihatkan sifat sebuah MATERIAL LUNAK seperti BAJA KADAR KARBON RENDAH. Gaya coercive yang rendah disebabkan material hanya menahan medan magnet sisa yang kecil.

The loop below shows the qualities of A SOFT MATERIAL such as LOW CARBON STEEL. The coercive force is low because the material retains only a weak residual magnetic field.

A soft or low carbon steel would have the following qualities: 1. HIGH PERMEABILITY magnetize easy to

Baja lunak atau baja karbon rendah akan memiliki sifat-sifat sebagai berikut: 1. PERMEABILITAS TINGGI mudah dijadikan magnet. 2. RETENTIVITAS RENDAH lemah dalam menahan medan magnet sisa. 3. GAYA COERCIVE RENDAH memerlukan gaya magnetisasi pembalik yang kecil untuk menghilangkan magnetisme sisa. 4. RELUKTANSI RENDAH memiliki ketahanan yang rendah terdapat gaya magnetisasi. 5. MAGNETISME SISA yang RENDAH hanya mampu menahan medan magnet sisa dalam jumlah kecil.

2. LOW RETENTIVITY retains a weak residual magnetic field 3. LOW COERCIVE FORCE requires a low reverse magnetizing force to remove the residual magnetism. 4. LOW RELUCTANCE low resistance to magnetizing force. 5. LOW RESIDUAL MAGNETISM retains a weak residual magnetic field.

Page 28

CHAPTER THREE REVIEW

1. What type of steel (HARD or SOFT) would apply to the following? _______ low permeability _______ high coercive force _______ high residual magnetism _______ high permeability _______ low reluctance _______ low residual magnetism _______ high retentivity _______ low retentivity _______ high reluctance _______ low coercive force _______ 2. _______ 3. _______ 4. _______ 5. _______ 6. _______ 7. _______ 8. _______ 9. A thin hysteresis loop could indicate a hard metal which has a high carbon content. A high carbon steel will make a good permanent magnet. A hysteresis loop can be formed only with AC due to the coercive force needed to remove the residual magnetism. Coercive force is the amperage needed to remove residual magnetism. Maximum flux density is shown on the hysteresis loop. Most ferromagnetic materials are easily magnetized. When a part reaches maximum flux density, it is said to be fully retentive. The magnetic field that remains in the part after the current is shut off is called the coercive force.

_______ 10. Finish sketching the hysteresis loop and identify the parts indicated by numbers 1 through 3. 1. _________________________ 2. _________________________ 3. _________________________ 3 1 2

Page 29

CHAPTER FOUR
DIRECT CURRENT FIELD DISTRIBUTION SOLID NONMAGNETIC CONDUCTOR When direct current is passed directly through a solid nonmagnetic conductor, such as a copper bar, the following can be observed. DISTRIBUSI MEDAN ARUS SEARAH (DC) PENGHANTAR NONMAGNETIS PEJAL Saat arus DC dilewatkan secara langsung melalui penghantar nonmagnetis pejal, seperti pada batang tembaga, dapat diamati hal-hal sebagai berikut:

A. Magnetic field strength varies from zero at the center to a maximum at the surface. B. The field strength at the surface of the conductor decreases as the radius of the conductor increase. For example, if the current is held constant , the radius of the conductor is doubled and the field strength at the surface is halved. C. When the current is increased, the field strength increases in proportion, i.e. doubling the current doubles the field strength. D. The field strength outside the conductor diminishes with the distance from the central conductors center (e.g. the field at two times the radius from the center is half the field at the surface as shown above).

A. Kekuatan medan magnet bervariasi dari nol di pusat hingga terbesar pada permukaan. B. Kekuatan medan pada permukaan penghantar berkurang seiring penambahan jarijarinya. Sebagai contoh, jika arus dipertahankan konstan , dan jari-jari penghantar diperbesar dua kalinya, maka kekuatan medan di permukaan akan berkurang separo. C. Ketika arus diperbesar, kekuatan medan bertambah secara proporsional, yaitu melipatgandakan arus akan melipatgandakan kekuatan medan. D. Kekuatan medan di luar penghantar berkurang dengan penambahan jarak dari pusat central conductor (misalnya, kuat medan pada jarak dua kali jari-jari dari pusat besarnya separo dari kuat medan pada permukaan).

Page 30

SOLID MAGNETIC CONDUCTOR Distribution of a direct current magnetic field within a magnetic article can be illustrated graphically as shown below.

PENGHANTAR MAGNETIS PEJAL Distribusi medan magnet arus searah di dalam sebuah benda magnetik dapat digambarkan secara grafis seperti di bawah ini.

The flux density increases evenly from zero until it reaches peak strength at the surface. Because of the permeability of steel, the field strength is much greater WITHIN a magnetic conductor as compared to a nonmagnetic conductor. The flux density drops rapidly just outsides the surface of the steel bar shown above. The field strength outside a solid magnetic conductor is exactly the same as with a nonmagnetic conductor if the current and radius are unchanged.

Kerapatan flux bertambah secara merata dari nol hingga mencapai kekuatan puncak di permukaan. Karena permeabilitas baja, kuat medan jauh lebih besar di DALAM penghantar magnetik jika dibandingkan dengan penghantar nonmagnetik. Kerapatan flux turun drastis permukaan batang baja. tepat di luar

Kuat medan di luar penghantar magnetis pejal persis sama seperti pada penghantar nonmagnetis jika besar arus dan diameter kedua penghantar tersebut sama.

Page 31

HOLLOW MAGNETIC CONDUCTOR Permeability is again a factor in determining field strength If the outer diameter and current flow are identical when comparing a solid and hollow conductor, the field strength at the outer surface will be the same. The field strength at the inner surface is slight and the field outside the conductor is the same as for other conductors.

PENGHANTAR MAGNETIS BERONGGA Sekali lagi, permeabilitas merupakan sebuah faktor dalam menentukan kekuatan medan magnet. Jika diameter luar dan aliran arus sama besarnya antara penghantar pejal dan berongga, maka kuat medan pada permukaan bagian luar juga akan sama. Kuat medan pada permukaan bagian dalam adalah kecil dan kuat medan di luar penghantar besarnya sama seperti pada penghantar yang lain.

Page 32

HOLLOW NONMAGNETIC CONDUCTOR Both magnetic and nonmagnetic hollow conductors; there is no current flow within the void. The field strength is zero at the center of the void, and increases to a maximum at the outer surface.

PENGHANTAR NONMAGNETIS BERONGGA Pada kedua penghantar berongga, baik magnetis maupun nonmagnetis, tidak ada arus yang mengalir di dalam rongganya. Kuat medan adalah nol pada pusat rongga, dan bertambah hingga terbesar pada permukaan bagian terluar.

As with both solid and hollow, and both magnetic and nonmagnetic conductors, the field strength outside the conductor diminishes with the distance from the central conductors center. However, the difference between the permeability of magnetic and nonmagnetic materials affects the field strength within the conductor. Because of the low permeability of a nonmagnetic conductor, the field strength is relatively low. If a hollow nonmagnetic conductor and a solid nonmagnetic conductor have the same outer diameter and the same current flow, their outside field strengths are equal.

Seperti halnya pada penghantar pejal dan berongga, serta penghantar magnetis dan nonmagnetis, kuat medan di luar penghantar akan berkurang dengan bertambahnya jarak dari pusat penghantar. Namun demikian, perbedaan antara permeabilitas material magnetis dan nonmagnetis mempengaruhi kuat medan di dalam penghantar. Akibat rendahnya permeabilitas sebuah penghantar nonmagnetis, kuat medannya juga relatip rendah. Jika sebuah penghantar nonmagnetis berongga dan penghantar nonmagnetis pejal memiliki diameter luar yang sama dan aliran arus listrik yang sama pula, kuat medan di luar penghantar juga akan sama.

Page 33

Figure below shows the distribution of the magnetic field that occurs when a hollow magnetic cylinder is placed around a solid, nonmagnetic central conductor.

Gambar di bawah ini menunjukkan distribusi medan magnet yang terjadi apabila silinder magnetis berongga (tube) ditempatkan mengelilingi sebuah central conductor nonmagnetis pejal.

As shown above, direct current flowing through a central conductor will produce a maximum field on the inside surface of the tube being inspected. Since the tube has HIGH PERMEABILITY, the field tends TO CONCENTRATE IN THE CYLINDER rather than in the surrounding air. Since the magnetizing force is from the field external to the central conductor, it is obvious that EITHER A MAGNETIC OR NONMAGNETIC BAR could be used for A CENTRAL CONDUCTOR. However, material such as copper is often recommended as a central conductor because there is less heat build-up due to better conductivity.

Seperti terlihat dari gambar di atas, arus searah yang mengalir melalui central conductor akan menghasilkan medan magnet terbesar pada permukaan bagian dalam tube. Karena tube memiliki PERMEABILITAS TINGGI, medan magnet cenderung TERPUSAT DI DALAM SILINDER ketimbang di udara sekitarnya. Karena gaya magnetisasi berasal dari medan magnet di luar central conductor, jelas bahwa baik BATANG MAGNETIS ATAU NONMAGNETIS dapat dipakai sebagai sebuah CENTRAL CONDUCTOR. Namun demikian, material seperti tembaga seringkali direkomendasikan sebagai central conductor karena pengumpulan panas yang rendah akibat daya hantar listrik yang lebih baik.

Page 34

ALTERNATING CURRENT FIELD DISTRIBUTION Up to this point, all field distributions have assumed the use of direct current (DC). Alternating current (AC) tends to flow near the surface of a conductor. This phenomenon is known as SKIN EFFECT. It must be remembered, however, that while alternating current is flowing, the field is constantly varying both in strength and direction. SOLID MAGNETIC CONDUCTOR

DISTRIBUSI MEDAN ARUS BOLAK-BALIK (AC) Hingga saat ini, semua distribusi medan magnet diasumsikan menggunakan arus searah (DC). Arus bolak-balik (AC) cenderung mengalir di dekat permukaan penghantar. Fenomena ini dikenal sebagai EFEK KULIT. Harus diingat bahwa pada saat arus AC mengalir, besarnya medan magnet yang ditimbulkannya bervariasi secara konstan, baik dari segi kekuatan maupun arah. PENGHANTAR MAGNETIS PEJAL

HOLLOW MAGNETIC CONDUCTOR

PENGHANTAR MAGNETIS BERONGGA

Page 35

It is shown above that AC provides a concentrated flux density NEAR THE SURFACE which provides for good detection of surface discontinuities. It is also shown above that DC provides THE BEST conditions for locating SUBSURFACE discontinuities because of the distribution of the flux density. The field strength outside the conductor is comparable for both AC and DC. As with DC, both conductivity and permeability affect the field strength and distribution.

Diperlihatkan di atas bahwa AC menghasilkan kerapatan flux magnet yang terpusat DEKAT PERMUKAAN yang cocok untuk mendeteksi diskontinuitas permukaan. Diperlihatkan juga di atas bahwa DC merupakan arus TERBAIK untuk mencari diskontinuitas DI BAWAH PERMUKAAN karena distribusi medan magnetnya. Kuat medan di luar penghantar adalah sama, baik untuk AC maupun DC. Seperti halnya dengan DC, daya hantar dan permeabilitas mempengaruhi distribusi dan kuat medan magnet.

Page 36

CHAPTER FOUR REVIEW

_______ 1. _______ 2. _______ 3. _______ 4. _______ 5. _______ 6. _______ 7. _______ 8. The field strength at the center of a magnetic conductor is essentially zero when direct current is used. The field strength outside of a conductor using DC is considered to be onethird the field at the surface. Because of the low permeability of steel, the field strength is greater within a nonmagnetic conductor as compared to a magnetic conductor, The field strength outside a solid conductor is the same with either a magnetic or nonmagnetic conductor. When a central conductor is used to induce a field into a hollow specimen, the field strength in the hollow specimen is greatest at the outside surface. When a current is passed directly through a hollow conductor, the field strength just past the outside surface drops to zero. Point A in the sketch best describes the maximum peak strength within the magnetic field. In the sketch shown, the D level best describes the field strength of two times the radius. The field strength (F) would be at the same comparative level for both magnetic and nonmagnetic bars.

_______ 9.

_______ 10. The field strength illustrated best describes a hollow magnetic conductor with high permeability. _______ 11. The sketch illustrates that AC was probably used as the magnetizing current. _______ 12. Point A would drop to the B level if the bar were solid instead of hollow.

Page 37

CHAPTER FIVE
INTRODUCTION The required amount of magnetizing current is affected by: Permeability of the material, Shape and thickness of the article, Type of discontinuity sought. When an article is not uniform in section, it is necessary to use one value of current for the thinner sections and a second, third, or more values of current for heavier sections. In circular magnetization, length of test specimen does not affect the current requirement. The electrical resistance will increase with length and will therefore require more electrical energy to develop the required amperage. In longitudinal magnetization, specimen length is a factor to be considered. It is always proper to use THE SMALLER CURRENT VALUE FIRST to test the thinner section and then proceed with successively-higher currents to test the increasingly-larger sections. CURRENT REQUIREMENTS (CIRCULAR MAGNETIZATION) The amount of current will vary with the shape and permeability of the material being tested. A test specimen with a typical indication is a good method to assure that only enough current is used to show the indication. To much current will burn the part or may cause heavy accumulation of iron particles. Too little current may not provide sufficient flux leakage to attract the iron particles. The authority on the amount of current to use in circularly magnetizing a test specimen is the procedure for the test being performed. PENDAHULUAN Besar arus magnetisasi yang diperlukan dipengaruhi oleh: Permeabilitas material, Bentuk dan ketebalan benda uji, Jenis diskontinuitas yang dicari. Jika penampang melintang benda tidak seragam, arus magnetisasi pertama didasarkan pada penampang terkecil dulu, baru kemudian ke penampang yang lebih besar dan seterusnya. Pada magnetisasi melingkar, panjang spesimen uji tidak mempengaruhi besarnya arus. Jika spesimen lebih panjang, maka hambatan listrik akan bertambah besar, sehingga akan memerlukan potensial yang lebih besar untuk menghasilkan arus yang disyaratkan. Pada magnetisasi memanjang, panjang spesimen adalah faktor yang harus diperhitungkan. Selalu gunakan ARUS TERKECIL TERLEBIH DAHULU untuk menguji penampang terkecil, baru kemudian arus yang lebih besar untuk diameter penampang berikutnya PERSYARATAN ARUS (MAGNETISASI MELINGKAR ) Besarnya arus akan bervariasi, mengikuti bentuk dan permabilitas material yang diuji. Sebuah spesimen uji dengan indikasi khusus merupakan metoda yang bagus untuk menjamin bahwa arus yang digunakan cukup untuk menampakkan indikasi. Arus yang terlalu tinggi akan memanaskan komponen atau bisa menimbulkan pengumpulan partikel besi secara berlebihan. Arus yang terlalu kecil tidak cukup untuk menghasilkan kebocoran flux guna menarik partikel besi. Yang menentukan besarnya arus untuk magnetisasi melingkar suatu spesimen adalah prosedur untuk pengujian yang dilakukan tersebut.

Page 38

The following rule is used to determine the current needed: USE 700 TO 1000 AMPERE PER INCH (280 TO 400 AMPERE PER CENTIMETER) OF ARTICLE THICKNESS/DIAMETER OR DIAGONAL MEASUREMENT. To use this rule on articles of greater thickness, just multiply the 700 and 1000 by the number of inches of article thickness.

Kaidah berikut ini dipakai untuk menentukan besarnya arus yang diperlukan: GUNAKAN 700 1000 AMPERE PER INCHI (280 400 AMPERE PER CENTIMETER) KETEBALAN/ DIAMETER ATAU DIAGONAL KOMPONEN Untuk menggunakan kaidah ini pada benda dengan ketebalan lebih besar, langsung kalikan 700 dan 1000 dengan inchi ketebalan benda.

What amperage would be used on the following part? Steel bar 10 x 3 x 2 inches thick
Answer : 1400 to 2000 amps

Berapa arus yang diperlukan untuk benda berikut ini? Batang baja ukuran 10 x 3 x 2 inchi tebal.
Jawab: 1400 sampai 2000 amperes.

What amperage range is requires to circularly magnetize the bar shown in the head below?

Berapa arus yang disyaratkan untuk memagnetisasi melingkar sebuah poros pada head shot berikut?

Answer : 700 1000 for first shot 1750 2500 for second shot The following formula will give the current required for direct contact magnetization of oddly-shaped uniform cross-sections.

Jawab: 700 1000 untuk shot pertama 1750 2500 untuk shot kedua Rumus berikut ini menghitung arus yang diperlukan untuk magnetisasi kontak langsung dari penampang melintang benda yang bentuknya aneh.

x (700 to 1000 A)

Where: I = magnetizing current P = perimeter of cross-section in inches

Dimana: I = arus magnetisasi P = keliling dari penampang melintang dalam inchi

Page 39

The rule of using 700 to 1000 ampere per inch of thickness also applies to circular magnetization with a CENTRAL CONDUCTOR. Article thickness is taken from the OUTSIDE DIAMETER of the article.

Kaidah penggunaan 700 sampai 1000 ampere per inchi ketebalan juga diaplikasikan untuk magnetisasi melingkar memakai CENTRAL CONDUCTOR. Tebal benda diukur dari DIAMETER TERLUARnya.

What would the ampere ranges be for the three parts shown on the central conductor below?

Berapakah rentang arus untuk memagnetisasi tiga komponen pada central conductor di bawah ini?

Answer: 700 1000 for 1-inch nut 1400 2000 for 2-inch ring 2100 3000 for 3-inch spacer

Jawab: 700 1000 untuk mur 1 inchi 1400 2000 untuk ring 2 inchi 2100 3000 untuk spacer 3 inchi

Page 40

When using a central conductor to magnetize an article, always use the LARGEST CONDUCTOR that is practical for the situation, since the diameter of the conductor does have an affect on the magnetizing field produced. The effective field of the central conductor is approximately four times the diameter of the conductor, as illustrated below.

Pada saat menggunakan central conductor untuk memagnetisasi sebuah benda, selalu gunakan PENGHANTAR TERBESAR yang cocok untuk situasi tersebut, karena diameter penghantar mempengaruhi medan magnet yang dihasilkan. Lebar medan magnet efektip dari sebuah central conductor kira-kira empat kali diameternya seperti dalam gambar berikut.

For cylindrical articles having a large diameter with respect to the central conductor, it is necessary to reposition the article on the conductor and reinspect allowing for APPROXIMATELY 10 PERCENT OVERLAP of the magnetic field. Table 5.1 shows magnetizing current for circular magnetization of a solid and tubular articles.

Untuk benda-benda silinder berdiameter besar bila dibandingkan central conductornya, perlu dilakukan beberapa kali magnetisasi dan pemeriksaan dimana posisi medan megnetnya harus OVERLAP KIRA-KIRA 10%. Tabel 5.1 memperlihatkan besarnya arus magnetisasi untuk medan magnet melingkar dari sebuah silinder padat dan berongga.

Table 5.1. Magnetizing current for circular magnetization of solid and tubular articles.

Page 41

CURRENT REQUIREMENTS WITH PRODS Prods are current carrying conductors (usually copper) which are used to magnetize localized areas as shown below. Caution: the use of prods may be restricted for some applications due to the possibility of burns at the point of contact.

PERSYARATAN ARUS MEMAKAI PRODS Prods adalah penghantar arus listrik (biasanya tembaga) yang dipakai untuk memagnetisasi daerah tertentu seperti gambar di bawah ini. Perhatian: penggunaan prods dilarang pada beberapa aplikasi karena kemungkinan terjadinya kebakaran pada ujung sentuh.

Prods magnetization creates magnetic field in the part.

circular

Magnetisasi prods menghasilkan medan magnet melingkar pada benda. Pada gambar di atas, dapatkah anda memakai kaidah tangan kiri untuk menentukan apakah arus listrik mengalir dari A ke B atau dari B ke A. Saat menggunakan prods, besar arus listrik yang dipakai akan bervariasi dengan hal-hal berikut: Ketebalan benda Jarak antar prods. Pedoman untuk menentukan seberapa besar arus DC dan jarak terbaik antar prod untuk sembarang pengujian ditunjukkan pada tabel di bawah ini.

In the sketch above can you use the left hand rule to determine if the current is flowing from A to B or from B to A. When using prods, the electric current used will vary with the following: The thickness of the material. The distance between prods. A guideline for determining how much direct current and what prod spacing are best for any given testing problem is shown below.

Table 5.2. Prod current characteristics.

Page 42

When halfwave direct current HWDC is used, the field strength per ampere as about the same as with direct current (DC) at typical prods spacing (6 to 8 inches). However, since HWDC consumes less power and produces lower heating effects at the prods contact points, it is often recommended. HWDC also produces better powder mobility than DC.

Jika dipakai arus HWDC, kuat medan per ampere kurang lebih sama seperti arus DC pada jarak antar prods tertentu (6 sampai 8 inchi). Namun demikian, mengingat HWDC membutuhkan daya yang lebih kecil dan menghasilkan efek pemanasan lebih rendah pada titik sentuh prods, arus ini lebih direkomendasikan. HWDC juga menghasilkan mobilitas partikel yang lebih baik ketimbang DC.

The prods should be placed on the part so that the resultant circular field is at 90 degrees to the suspected discontinuities. CURRENT REQUIREMENTS (LONGITUDINAL MAGNETIZATION) When a coil is used to produce longitudinal magnetization, the strength of the field is determined by the product of the number of amperes and the number of turns in the coil. Most coils typically have THREE to FIVE turns. For example, a current of 800 amperes through a five-turn coil creates a magnetizing force of 4000 ampere-turns. There are several formulas for determining the amperage requirements for inducing longitudinal magnetism in a material. The thing an NDT technician must determine is the degree of FILL FACTOR between the coil and part, and the LENGTH-DIAMETER RATIO of the item.

Prods sebaiknya diposisikan pada benda sehingga medan magnet melingkar yang dihasilkannya pada arah 90o terhadap diskontinuitas yang dicari. PERSYARATAN ARUS (MAGNETISASI MEMANJANG) Jika memakai kumparan untuk menghasilkan medan magnet memanjang, kuat medan ditentukan oleh hasil kali antara besar arus dan jumlah lilitan dalam kumparan. Kebanyakan kumparan memiliki TIGA hingga LIMA lilitan. Sebagai contoh, arus 800 ampere yang melalui kumparan lima lilitan akan menghasilkan gaya magnet sebesar 4000 ampere-lilitan. Ada beberapa rumus untuk menentukan besarnya arus yang disyaratkan untuk menginduksikan medan magnet memanjang pada benda. Hal yang harus ditentukan oleh teknisi NDT adalah FAKTOR PENGISIAN antara kumparan dan benda, serta perbandingan PANJANG-DIAMETER dari benda yang diperiksa.

Page 43

FILL FACTORS The three fill factors are: 1. Low fill factor The cross sectional area of the coil is TEN TIMES OR GREATER than the cross sectional area of the material being magnetized. CSAcoil 10 x CSAobject 2. Intermediate fill factor All situations between low fill factor and high fill factor. 2 x CSAobject CSAcoil < 10 x CSAobject 3. High fill factor The cross sectional area of the coil is LESS THAN TWO TIMES the cross sectional area of the material being magnetized. CSAcoil < 2 x CSAobject Low Fill Factor The basic formula for calculating the ampere requirements for inducing longitudinal magnetism where there is a low fill factor, the part is solid, and against the coil wall is:

FAKTOR PENGISIAN Ada tiga macam faktor pengisian: 1. Faktor pengisian rendah luas penampang melintang kumparan SEPULUH KALI ATAU LEBIH BESAR daripada luas penampang melintang material yang dimagnetisasi. CSAkump 10 x CSAbenda 2. Faktor pengisian sedang kondisi di antara faktor pengisian rendah dan tinggi. 2 x CSAbenda CSAkump < 10 x CSAbenda 3. Faktor pengisian tinggi luas penampang melintang kumparan KURANG DARI DUA KALI luas penampang melintang material yang dimagnetisasi. CSAkump < 2 x CSAbenda Faktor Pengisian Rendah Rumus dasar perhitungan besar arus untuk induksi medan magnet memanjang pada benda padat dengan faktor pengisian rendah dan menempel sisi kumparan adalah:

where N

NI =

I L D

= = = =

number of turn in coil coil current in amperes length of article diameter of thickness of article

Formula below should be used for test object with low fill factor positioned in the center of the coil.

Rumus di bawah ini dipakai untuk benda dengan faktor pengisian rendah yang diletakkan di pusat kumparan.

NI =

43000 x R

where R = coil radius in inches

Page 44

High Fill Factor Formula below should be used for high fill factor coil. In this case when fixed coils or cable wrap are used and the cross sectional area of the coil is less than twice the cross sectional area of the test object, the coil has a high fill factor.

Faktor Pengisian Tinggi Rumus di bawah ini dipakai untuk kumparan berfaktor pengisian tinggi. Dalam kasus ini jika digunakan kumparan tetap atau lilitan kabel dimana luas penampang kumparan kurang dari dua kali luas penampang benda, kumparan dikatakan memiliki faktor pengisian yang tinggi.

NI =

35000

Intermediate Fill Factor Formula below should be used for intermediate fill factor coils when the cross section of the coil is equal to or greater than twice and less than ten times the cross section of the test object.

Faktor Pengisian Sedang Rumus di bawah ini dipakai untuk kumparan dengan faktor pengisian sedang apabila penampang melintang kumparan lebih besar atau sama dengan dua kali dan kurang dari sepuluh kali penampang melintang benda.

NI =

where NIhf NIif Y

= value of NI calculated for high fill factor coils = value of NI calculated for low fill factor coils = ratio of the cross sectional area of the coil to the cross section of the test object

Page 45

L/D RATIO The L/D ratio and the number of turns in a coil determines the required amperage for coil shots, providing the following conditions are met: 1. The article has an L/D ratio of between 2 and 15. 2. The article or section to be magnetized is not greater than 18 inches (46 cm ) long. 3. An article greater than 18 inches (46 cm) long requires more than one coil shot. 4. The cross sectional area of the article is not greater than 1/10 the area of the coil opening. 5. The article is placed against the inside wall of the coil and NOT in the center of the coil where the flux density is zero. 6. The L/D ratio assumes the part is solid. If the part is hollow then D effective (D eff) must be used for the diameter of the part. Deff is calculated using the following formula:

HARGA L/D Harga L/D dan jumlah lilitan dalam sebuah kumparan menentukan besarnya arus yang disyaratkan untuk pemeriksaan, asalkan kondisi berikut ini terpenuhi: 1. Benda memiliki harga L/D antara 2 dan 15. 2. Benda atau bagian yang dimagnetisasi tidak melebihi panjang 18 inchi (46 cm). 3. Benda dengan panjang lebih dari 18 inchi (46 cm) mensyaratkan lebih dari satu shot. 4. Luas penampang melintang benda tidak lebih dari 1/10 luas bukaan kumparan. 5. Lokasi benda menempel ke dinding kumparan dan TIDAK berada di pusat kumparan dimana kerapatan medan magnetnya nol. 6. Harga L/D mengasumsikan bahwa benda adalah pejal. Jika bendanya berongga, harus dipakai harga Deff sebagai diameter benda. Deff dihitung memakai rumus:

REMEMBER As mentioned earlier, the effective length of a longitudinal magnetic field is 6 to 9 inches (15 to 23 cm) on either side of coil. An article with a length greater than 18 inches will require two or more coil shots.

INGAT Seperti telah disebutkan sebelumnya, panjang efektip dari medan magnet memanjang adalah 6 sampai 9 inchi (15 sampai 23 cm) pada kedua sisi kumparan. Sebuah benda dengan panjang lebih dari 18 inchi mensyaratkan dua shot atau lebih.

Page 46

DEMAGNETIZATION Ferrous materials usually retain some residual magnetism after the magnetizing current is shut off. The strength of the residual field depends upon the permeability of the material and the strength and direction of the magnetizing force. Complete demagnetization is difficult, if not impossible, to obtain; thus, the demagnetization process is limited to REDUCING the residual field to an acceptable level. Review of residual magnetism: 1. The residual field is in the same direction as the magnetic field. 2. The residual field is weaker than the magnetizing field. 3. The original magnetizing force causes the residual field. 4. When an article has been magnetized in more than one direction, the second field applied completely overcomes the first field. However, this is only true if the second field is stronger than the first. When the second field applied is weaker than the first field, then a combination circular-longitudinal residual field will result.

DEMAGNETISASI Material-material ferrous umumnya menahan magnet sisa setelah arus magnetisasi dimatikan. Kuat medan magnet sisa tergantung pada permeabilitas material dan kekuatan dan arah gaya magnet. Demagnetisasi menyeluruh sulit diperoleh. Proses demagnetisasi dibatasi untuk MENGURANGI medan magnet sisa hingga ke tingkat yang diijinkan. Tinjauan mengenai magnetisme sisa: 1. Medan sisa memiliki arah yang sama dengan medan magnet pembentuknya. 2. Medan sisa lebih lemah ketimbang medan untuk memagnetisasi. 3. Gaya magnetisasi awal menyebabkan medan magnet sisa. 4. Jika sebuah benda dimagnetisasi lebih dari satu arah, medan magnet kedua akan mengatasi medan magnet pertama jika besar medan kedua lebih dari medan magnet pertama. Jika medan magnet kedua lebih lemah ketimbang medan pertama, akan terjadi kombinasi medan magnet sisa secara melingkar-memanjang.

Page 47

It is difficult to tell whether a circularly magnetized bar is demagnetized because the flux lines do not normally leave the bar. On the other hand, it is easy to tell if a longitudinally magnetized bar is still magnetized or demagnetized. Therefore, it is often recommended that a circularly magnetized part be longitudinally magnetized and then go through the demagnetization procedure.

Sulit mengatakan apakah medan magnet sisa pada sebuah batang yang dimagnetisasi melingkar telah didemagnetisasi karena garis-garis gaya tidak meninggalkan benda. Sebaliknya, mudah mengatakan apakah medan magnet memanjang dalam sebuah batang telah didemagnetisasi. Oleh karena itu, seringkali direkomendasikan agar benda yang dimagnetisasi melingkar ditumpuki dengan magnetisasi memanjang baru kemudian didemagnetisasi.

DEMAGNETIZING A PART THAT HAS BEEN LONGITUDINALLY MAGNETIZED Each time the magnetizing field is reduced and reversed, the residual field is reduced. Reversing the magnetic field 1. Reversing the part in the magnetic field. 2. Reversing the current through the coil. 3. Reversing the coil (turn the coil 180o). Reducing the magnetic field 1. Reduce the magnetizing current. 2. Move the part away from the coil. 3. Move the coil away from the part. Any method of demagnetization will combine one of the methods to reduce the magnetizing field with one of the methods to reverse the magnetizing field. Demagnetization is defined as: The removal of residual magnetism by simultaneously or alternately reducing the strength and reversing the direction of a magnetic field.

DEMAGNETISASI BENDA YANG TELAH DIMAGNETISASI MEMANJANG Tiap kali medan magnet dikurangi dan dibalik arahnya, besar medan magnet sisa akan berkurang. Membalik medan magnet 1. Membalik benda dalam medan magnet. 2. Membalik arus dalam kumparan. 3. Membalik arah kumparan sebesar 180o. Mengurangi besarnya medan magnet 1. Mengurangi arus magnetisasi. 2. Menjauhkan benda dari kumparan. 3. Menjauhkan kumparan dari benda. Sembarang metoda demagnetisasi merupakan penggabungan salah satu dari metoda untuk mengurangi besarnya medan magnet dengan metoda untuk membalik arah medan magnet. Demagnetisasi didefinisikan sebagai: Penghilangan medan magnet sisa secara serentak atau bergantian, antara mengurangi kuat medan dan membalik arah medan magnet. Page 48

DEMAGNETIZATION PROCEDURES 1. Alternating Current Coil Method: Alternating current is electrical current flowing through a wire, first in one direction, then in the opposite direction. Each time the current reverses direction, the magnetic field of the coil reverses. (this meets one of the two requirements for demagnetization). To complete the demagnetization process, the part is placed in the reversing magnetic field as shown below, and the current is slowly reduced which reduces the strength of the magnetic field. A rheostat is often used to reduce the current through the coil. Reducing the magnetizing field in an AC coil demagnetizer can also be done by SLOWLY MOVING the article AWAY from the coil.

PROSEDUR DEMAGNETISASI 2. Metoda Kumparan Arus Bolak-Balik Arus bolak-balik adalah arus listrik yang mengalir melalui sebuah kabel dalam arah bolak-balik. Tiap kali arus berbalik arah, medan magnet dalam kumparan juga berbalik arahnya. (hal ini memenuhi salah satu dari dua persyaratan demagnetisasi). Untuk melengkapi proses demagnetisasi, benda diletakkan dalam sebuah medan magnet bolak-balik, dan arus dikurangi pelan-pelan yang akan mengurangi kuat medan magnet seperti pada gambar di bawah ini. Sebuah rheostat dipakai untuk mengurangi besarnya arus di dalam kumparan. Pengurangan medan magnet di dalam kumparan demagnetisasi AC juga dapat dilakukan dengan cara menjauhkan benda secara perlahan dari kumparan.

Page 49

3. Demagnetization Using Direct Current With DC, the current is not automatically reversed, it is therefore necessary to have some mechanical means to reverse the current. Because DC is more penetrating than AC, it is used on large parts and is usually more complete and effective than AC demagnetization. The maximum degree of demagnetization can be obtained with DC when the field is reversed at a frequency of one reversal per second. In DC demagnetization, the magnetizing field should be reduced first, then reversed. A rule of thumb for demagnetizing soft iron: at least 10 reversals, but not over 30. DEMAGNETIZING EQUIPMENT The most common type of demagnetizing equipment consists of an open coil through which AC is flowing. A typical unit is shown below and includes a track that will carry the part through the coil. As the part is carried away from the coil, the magnetic field is reduced; the continuously alternating current in the coil completes the demagnetization.

4. Demagnetisasi Memakai Arus Searah Dengan DC, arus tidak dengan sendirinya berbalik arah, oleh karena itu perlu adanya mekanisme untuk membalik arah aliran arus. Karena daya tembus yang lebih besar dari AC, arus DC dipakai pada benda berukuran besar, dan biasanya menghasilkan efek demagnetisasi yang lebih baik dibandingkan demagnetisasi memakai AC. Tingkat demagnetisasi tertinggi yang bisa diperoleh dengan DC jika medan magnet dibalik dengan frekuensi satu pembalikan per detik. Pada demagnetisasi DC, medan demagnetisasi sebaiknya dikurangi dulu baru kemudian dibalik. Sebagai pedoman untuk demagnetisasi besi lunak: antara 10 sampai 30 pembalikan PERALATAN DEMAGNETISASI Jenis peralatan demagnetisasi yang umum dipakai terdiri dari sebuah kumparan terbuka yang dialiri arus AC. Salah satu unit yang diperlihatkan di bawah ini memiliki rel yang akan membawa benda melalui kumparan. Saat benda dijauhkan dari kumparan, medan magnet dikurangi; arus AC yang mengalir di dalam kumparan melengkapi proses demagnetisasi.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Track Demagnetization coil Carriage Timer and switch Indicator light

Page 50

OTHER DEMAGNETIZATION TECHNIQUES There are a couple of other little tricks that you may run into. The first is TAPPING the article. Tapping the article with a hammer while the article is in a magnetic field can cause a more favorable distribution of the field. This is rarely done, and then only with pieces that are extremely difficult to demagnetize. The article is never tapped with enough force to damage it. The second trick is: when an article is demagnetized, the earths field will leave a smaller amount of residual magnetism in the article if the demagnetizing field is also in a north-south direction. Where complete demagnetization is required, the demagnetization field must be placed in an east-west direction (the coil opening facing east and west).

TEKNIK DEMAGNETISASI LAINNYA Ada beberapa cara lain yang dapat anda lakukan untuk demagnetisasi. Pertama adalah dengan mengetuk-ngetuk benda. Mengetuk-ngetuk benda dengan palu pada saat benda masih dalam medan magnet dapat menyebabkan penyebaran medan. Hal ini jarang dilakukan, dan hanya cocok untuk benda yang sangat sulit didemagnetisasi. Jangan memukulbenda terlalu kuat karena akan merusaknya. Kedua: saat benda sedang didemagnetisasi, medan magnet bumi akan meninggalkan sejumlah kecil magnet sisa di dalam benda jika medan demagnetisasi juga berada dalam arah utara-selatan. Jika disyaratkan demagnetisasi yang menyeluruh, medan demagnetisasi harus diarahkan ke arah timur-barat (kumparan membuka ke arah timur dan barat).

Page 51

EFFICIENCY OF DEMAGNETIZATION Demagnetization is usually required if: Residual field can cause arc blow which deflects the molten metal during DC welding operation; or magnetic chips may cling to the cutting tool and interfere with machining. Residual fields in rotating parts will attract metal particles, causing excessive wear or binding. Residual fields will affect magnetic compasses or create problems with delicate instruments. Residual fields might interfere with proper cleaning of the article. The article is to be magnetized at a lower magnetizing force in a different direction than the original or previous test. Specified by procedural standards. Demagnetization is usually NOT required or necessary in the following instances: On articles of soft steel or iron where retentivity is low. If the article is to be heat-treated after the magnetic particle test. On large castings, weldments, or vessels where residual fields will have no material effect. If the article is to be magnetized again in another direction at the same or higher amperage. If the article is likely to become remagnetized during handling by being placed on a magnetic chuck or lifted with an electromagnetic lifting fixture.

EFISIENSI DEMAGNETISASI Demagnetisasi biasanya disyaratkan jika: Medan magnet sisa menyebabkan tiupan busur yang mengubah arah deposisi logam cair saat pengelasan memakai arus DC; atau serpihan magnetis bisa menempel pada perkakas potong dan mengganggu permesinan. Medan magnet sisa pada bagian berputar akan menarik partikel logam, mengakibatkan keausan dan kemacetan. Medan magnet sisa dapat mengganggu kompas dan menimbulkan masalah pada peralatan yang peka magnet. Medan magnet sisa dapat mengganggu pembersihan benda. Benda dimagnetisasi dengan gaya magnet yang lebih rendah dalam arah yang berbeda dari pengujian sebelumnya. Disyaratkan oleh standard prosedur. Demagnetisasi biasanya TIDAK disyaratkan atau diperlukan pada kondisi berikut: Pada benda yang terbuat dari baja lunak atau besi dimana retentivitasnya rendah. Jika benda akan dilakupanaskan setelah pengujian partikel magnet. Pada benda cor yang besar, sambungan las, atau bejana dimana medan magnet sisa tidak mempengaruhi material. Jika benda akan dimagnetisasi lagi pada arah lain dengan arus yang sama atau lebih besar daripada sebelumnya. Jika benda kemungkinan akan kena magnetisasi selama proses pemindahan menggunakan alat pemindah atau pengangkat magnetis.

Page 52

LEAKAGE FIELD INDICATORS At present time, there is no known technique by which the magnetic field can be measured inside the article without destroying it. Take, for example, a ring that is circularly magnetized. There is no flux leakage to indicate that the piece is magnetized. If the ring is cut in half as shown, the strength of the magnetic field at the cut surfaces where the magnetic field leaves the article can be measured. This, however, destroys its usefulness In practice, an indication of flux leakage can be obtained with an instrument called a FIELD INDICATOR.

INDIKATOR KEBOCORAN MEDAN MAGNET Hingga saat ini, tidak ada cara yang bisa dipakai untuk mengukur medan magnet di dalam sebuah benda tanpa merusaknya. Contohnya, sebuah cincin yang dimagnetisasi melingkar. Tidak ada kebocoran medan magnet yang menunjukkan bahwa benda termagnetisasi. Jika cincin dipotong separo, kuat medan pada permukaan potong dimana medan magnet meninggalkan benda dapat diukur. Namun demikian hal ini akan merusak fungsinya. Secara praktis, indikasi kebocoran flux dapat diketahui dengan sebuah alat yang disebut INDIKATOR MEDAN.

For practical purposes, it is always correct to utilize a field indicator after performing demagnetization to determine that residual field strength has been reduced to a desired level. The field indicator: Compares the strength of the external field of the article with a fixed field inside the indicator Is used more to locate flux leakage than to measure field strength Is used to show when the part is demagnetized.

Untuk tujuan praktis, dibenarkan memakai indikator medan setelah melakukan demagnetisasi guna menentukan bahwa kuat medan magnet sisa telah dikurangi hingga tingkat yang diinginkan. Indikator medan: Membandingkan kuat medan di luar benda dengan medan magnet tetap di dalam indicator. Lebih dipakai untuk menunjukkan letak kebocoran flux daripada mengukur kuat medan. Dipakai untuk menunjukkan apakah benda sudah didemagnetisasi.

Page 53

CHAPTER FIVE REVIEW

_______ 1. _______ 2. _______ 3. If the operator has a question as to the proper amperage to use, it is always safe to use the maximum output of the machine. A one-inch diameter part that is being circularly magnetized would require between 700 and 1000 amperes for proper magnetization. The rule used to determine the proper magnetization for circular magnetization with a head shot is also used when using a central conductor. The formula NI = circular magnetization. _______ 5. The effective field produced by longitudinal magnetization is determined by multiplying the number of amperes in the circuit by the number of turns in the coil. As a general rule, when the part is longer than 18 inches, more than one head shot should be used. Prod magnetization creates a longitudinal field in the part which is excellent for inspecting large and heavy specimens. The prods should be placed on the part so that the field produced is in the same direction as the suspected defects. As the prod spacing is increased (e.g., from 4 to 8 inches), the amperage should be decreased because the two fields produced are then in less conflict with each other. is used to determine the proper amperage for

_______ 4.

_______ 6. _______ 7. _______ 8. _______ 9.

_______ 10. A part that has been inspected with the magnetic particle method may cause problems during welding if it is not properly demagnetized. _______ 11. A combination circular-longitudinal residual field can result if the demagnetizing force does not exceed the original circular field. _______ 12. Field indicators can be effective in determining if the specimen contains a circular magnetic field. _______ 13. Demagnetization is essentially a matter of reducing the magnetic field and then reversing it. _______ 14. Because of the automatic current reversal, alternating current is usually preferred for demagnetization units. _______ 15. When an article is demagnetized, the best results will be obtained if the demagnatizing unit faces north and south. _______ 16. The cables of a portable magnetic particle unit could be wrapped into a coil which could be used for demagnetization.

Page 54

CHAPTER SIX
MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING EQUIPMENT The following should be considered when selecting equipment for magnetic particle testing: 1. Is equipment for wet or dry method? 2. Magnetization requirements (AC or DC) 3. Demagnetization incorporated or separated unit? 4. Amperage required. 5. Line voltage requirements 6. Accessories needed or required WET HORIZONTAL EQUIPMENT To obtain circular magnetization, the specimen is clamped between the head and tail stocks. For longitudinal magnetization the coil is moved so that the area to be tested is encircled by the coil. A typical wet horizontal unit usually accommodated both AC and HWDC magnetization. THE WET CONTINUOUS-FIELD METHOD has three basic steps: 1. Flow wet bath through nozzle and over entire surface of part. 2. Stop bath flow. 3. Apply current at the instant bath flow is stopped. PERALATAN PENGUJIAN PARTIKEL MAGNET Hal-hal berikut ini sebaiknya dipertimbangkan saat memilih peralatan untuk pengujian partikel magnet: 1. Metoda yang dipakai basah atau kering? 2. Jenis arus magnetisasi (AC atau DC) 3. Demagnetisasi memakai unit terpisah atau terpadu? 4. Besarnya arus yang disyaratkan. 5. Ketersediaan sumber arus listrik. 6. Peralatan tambahan yang diperlukan. PERALATAN HORIZONTAL PARTIKEL BASAH Untuk memperoleh magnetisasi melingkar, spesimen diklem antara head dan tail stocks. Untuk magnetisasi longitudinal, kumparan digerakgerakkan sehingga daerah yang diperiksa dikelilingi oleh kumparan. Unit horizontal basah biasanya mengakomodasi magnetisasi memakai arus AC dan HWDC. METODA MEDAN MAGNET MENERUS DENGAN PARTIKEL BASAH memiliki tiga langkah: 1. Alirkan cairan melalui nosel dan basahi seluruh permukaan benda. 2. Hentikan aliran cairan. 3. Aplikasikan arus segera setelah aliran cairan dihentikan.

Page 55

DRY CONTINUOUS-FIELD METHOD With this method the powder is usually applied from a shaker, bulb, or blower and follows these steps: 1. Apply magnetizing current. 2. Blow powder particles over magnetized area. 3. Blow excess powder off part. 4. Shut off magnetizing current. The powder should float to the magnetized area so the particles will be attracted to any flux leakage. The dry powder method is typically used with both mobile and portable equipment which will be discussed on the following pages.

METODA MEDAN MAGNET MENERUS PARTIKEL KERING Dengan metoda ini, serbuk magnet biasanya diaplikasikan dari alat pengocok, atau peniup, dan mengikuti langkah-langkah berikut: 1. Aplikasikan arus magnetisasi. 2. Tiup serbuk partikel ke daerah yang dimagnetisasi. 3. Tiup partikel berlebih dari permukaan benda. 4. Matikan arus magnetisasi. Serbuk magnet harus tersebar ke daerah yang dimagnetisasi sehingga partikel akan tertarik ke tempat terjadinya kebocoran medan magnet. Metoda partikel kering cocok dipakai bersama dengan peralatan mobile dan portabel yang akan didiskusikan pada halaman berikut.

Page 56

MOBILE EQUIPMENT In many cases it is necessary to bring the equipment to the specimen.

PERALATAN MOBILE Seringkali perlu untuk membawa peralatan ke tempat spesimen yang diuji.

Typical mobile equipment such as the one above usually operates on 220/440 volts AC and will produce about 4000 amperes. Mobile equipment will usually produce both AC and HWDC magnetizing current. The cables used on the unit above vary from 15 feet to 100 feet (4.5 to 30 m). Shorter cables will permit the maximum current output. Prods and cables are usually used with the mobile equipment. It often takes two technicians to manipulate the prods and apply the magnetic powder. However, longitudinal magnetization can be produced by wrapping the cable into a coil. It also possible to use a central conductor clamped between the two cables to produce circular magnetization. Typical mobile equipment uses the dry powder method but can be used with aerosol cans or external tanks.

Peralatan mobile seperti gambar di atas biasanya dioperasikan pada tegangan 220/440 volts AC dan akan menghasilkan arus sebesar 4000 amperes. Peralatan mobile biasanya akan menghasilkan arus magnetisasi AC dan HWDC. Panjang kabel yang digunakan pada unit di atas bervariasi antara 15 feet sampai 100 feet (4.5 m sampai 30 m). Kabel yang pendek mampu menghasilkan arus tertinggi. Prods dan kabel biasanya dipakai bersama dengan peralatan mobile. Seringkali diperlukan dua orang teknisi untuk mengoperasikan prods dan mengaplikasikan serbuk magnet. Di samping itu, magnetisasi longitudinal dapat dihasilkan dengan cara melilitkan kabel membentuk sebuah kumparan. Dimungkinkan juga untuk menggunakan central conductor yang diklemkan di antara kedua kabel untuk menghasilkan megnetisasi melingkar. Peralatan mobile biasanya menggunakan serbuk kering, namun dapat juga menggunakan kaleng bertekanan atau tangki terbuka.

Page 57

PORTABLE EQUIPMENT Portable equipment is a lighter and less expensive than other types of magnetic particle testing equipment.

PERALATAN PORTABEL Peralatan portabel lebih ringan dan murah ketimbang jenis peralatan pengujian partikel magnet lainnya.

Typical portable equipment as shown above operates on 110/200 volts AC with an output of between 500 and 1200 amperes. These units usually have a choice of either AC or HWDC. As with mobile equipment, the cable can be used for prods, wrapping into a coil, or connecting to a central conductor. Portable equipment also uses the dry powder method for most applications. LIMITATIONS OF MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING 1. Only applicable to ferromagnetic materials. 2. Magnetic particle testing will not detect discontinuities that are deeper than approximately inch (6 mm) below the surface. However, the penetration depends on the permeability of the material, type of discontinuity, and amount and type of current used.

Peralatan portable seperti diperlihatkan di atas beroperasi pada tegangan 110/220 volts AC dengan luaran arus antara 500 dan 1200 amperes. Unit-unit ini biasanya memiliki pilihan jenis arus, AC atau HWDC. Seperti halnya pada peralatan mobile, kabel dapat dipakai sebagai prods, dililitkan menjadi kumparan, atau dihubungkan ke sebuah central conductor. Peralatan portabel juga menggunakan metoda serbuk kering untuk kebanyakan aplikasinya. KETERBATASAN METODA PENGUJIAN PARTIKEL MAGNET 1. Hanya berlaku untuk material ferromagnetik. 2. Pengujian partikel magnet tidak mampu mendeteksi diskontinuitas yang letaknya lebih dalam dari inchi (6 mm) di bawah permukaan. Namun demikian, kedalaman penetrasi akan tergantung pada permeabilitas material, jenis diskontinuitas, dan besar serta jenis arus yang dipakai.

Page 58

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS 1. Electrical arcing is a hazard. It is usually caused by poor contact or by using excessive current.

KESELAMATAN KERJA 1. Bunga api listrik beresiko kebakaran. Biasanya hal ini disebabkan karena kontak yang jelek atau penggunaan arus yang terlalu tinggi.

It can also be caused by allowing the prods to slip which may result in arcing or damaging the surface of the part. The arcing causes sparks which may result in a fire.

Juga bisa terjadi karena prods yang tergelincir, yang bisa menimbulkan bunga api atau merusak permukaan benda yang diperiksa. Bunga api mengakibatkan percikan yang bisa menimbulkan kebakaran.

2. The dust from the magnetic particles is nontoxic, but excessive amounts should not be inhaled, use a dust respirator. 3. Smoking or open flame should not be permitted near the wet bath process. 4. Burns can be caused due to the resistance heating in the part or in the prods. Caution should be used in handling the parts or touching the prods immediately after the magnetic particle test. 5. Fluorescent particles are particularly appropriate for magnetic particle testing, since their greater reliability and sensitivity than visible particle. Fluorescent dyes emit a yellowish-green light when energized by a source of black light. Only mercury vapor lamps have a large enough output of black light to be satisfactory for use in magnetic particle inspection. The black light which is used with fluorescent particles will not damage the skin or eyes if a dark red-purple filter is used on the light. It is possible to experience a clouding of vision if the black light is directed into the eyes. This happens because the fluid in the eyes will momentarily fluoresce.

2. Debu dari partikel magnet tidak beracun, namun jangan menghirup debu tersebut berlebihan, gunakan alat pernapasan. 3. Jangan merokok atau bermain api di dekat unit pemroses dengan partikel basah. 4. Panas dapat diakibatkan karena tahanan listrik pada benda atau prods. Hati-hati saat menangani benda atau saat menyentuh prods ketika selesai melakukan pengujian partikel magnet. 5. Partikel fluorescent lebih sesuai untuk pengujian partikel magnet karena keandalan dan sensitivitasnya yang lebih tinggi ketimbang partikel visible. Pewarna fluorescent memancarkan cahaya hijau-kekuning-kuningan saat disinari lampu ultraviolet. Hanya lampu uap mercury yang memiliki cukup energi ultraviolet yang sesuai untuk dipakai dalam pemeriksaan partikel magnet. Lampu ultraviolet yang digunakan bersama dengan partikel fluorescent tidak akan merusak kulit atau mata jika memakai filter berwarna merah tua-ungu. Saat pemeriksaan, mungkin terjadi gangguan penglihatan sejenak jika cahaya ultraviolet terkena mata. Ini terjadi karena cairan di dalam mata kita berpendar sesaat.

Page 59

MAGNETIC PARTICLE MEDIUMS AND THEIR PREPARATION When the medium, whether dry or liquid, is applied to the specimen while the magnetizing current is flowing, the procedure is known as the CONTINUOUS METHOD. If the medium is applied after the magnetizing current is shut off, the procedure is known as the RESIDUAL METHOD. In the dry method, the powder is applied by sprinkling or dusting the specimen.

MEDIA PARTIKEL MAGNET DAN PENYIAPANNYA Jika suatu media, baik itu kering maupun basah diaplikasikan pada suatu spesimen pada SAAT arus magnetisasi mengalir, prosedur tersebut dikenal dengan METODA MENERUS. Jika media diaplikasikan magnetisasi dihentikan, dinamakan METODA SISA. SETELAH arus prosedur tersebut

Pada metoda kering, serbuk diaplikasikan dengan cara menaburkan atau menyapukannya di atas permukaan spesimen.

In the wet method, the medium is mixed with a liquid to make a bath which is then applied to the surface of the specimen.

Pada metoda basah, media serbuk dicampur dengan suatu cairan yang kemudian diaplikasikan ke permukaan spesimen.

Particles of the testing medium must possess four important properties: 1. High permeability. 2. Low retentivity. 3. Ferromagnetic. 4. Nontoxic. Magnetic particles containing these characteristic will give maximum response in a leakage field, but will not remain magnetized when the field is removed The size of the particles used in the dry method varies but they will usually all pass through a 100-mesh screen.

Partikel-partikel magnet yang dipakai untuk pengujian harus memiliki empat sifat penting: 1. Permeabilitas tinggi. 2. Retentivitas rendah. 3. Ferromagnetik. 4. Tidak beracun. Partikel magnet yang memiliki sifat-sifat tersebut akan memberikan respon terbaik jika ada kebocoran medan, namun tidak menahan magnet saat medan dihilangkan. Ukuran partikel yang dipakai pada metoda kering barvariasi, namun biasanya akan lolos saringan berukuran 100-mesh. Page 60

The SHAPE of the magnetic particle should be SPHERICAL and must have a high degree of mobility and still have substantial attractive power. ROUND SMOOTH particles offer GOOD MOBILITY but have low attractive power. LONG, SLENDER, JAGGED particles have EXCELLENT ATTRACTIVE POWER, but do not have the mobility to move on a leakage field. In the wet method, magnetic oxides of iron are used because they are extremely fine and have a lower permeability than the metallic dry particles. The particle size must be small in the wet method to permit the particles to remain in suspension in the liquid. MOBILITY is important because when the particles are brought into a leakage field they must be able to move to form a pattern or indication. In the dry method, mobility is assisted by dusting or blowing the particles over the surface of the specimen. Mobility can also be assisted by vibrating the specimen after the particles have been dusted on the surface. Alternating current also assists mobility, since the alternating field causes the particles to dance. In the wet method mobility is greatly assisted because the particles are suspended in a liquid bath. VISIBILITY is important in magnetic particle testing and a good light source is essential. Magnetic particles are usually available in grey, red, and black, and the choice of color is determined by the best contrast with the specimen surface Fluorescent particles are commonly used in the wet method to aid visibility, but this requires the use of a black light.

BENTUK partikel magnet sebaiknya BULAT dan harus memiliki tingkat mobilitas tinggi serta memiliki daya tarik yang besar. Partikel yang BULAT dan HALUS memberikan MOBILITAS yang BAIK namun daya tariknya kecil. Partikel yang PANJANG, RAMPING, BERGERIGI memiliki DAYA TARIK TERBAIK, namun tidak memiliki mobilitas yang baik untuk bergerak ke arah kebocoran medan magnet. Pada metoda basah, dipakai oksida besi yang bersifat magnetis karena ukurannya sangat halus dan memiliki permeabilitas lebih rendah ketimbang partikel logam kering. Ukuran partikel harus sangat kecil pada metoda basah agar partikel tetap berada dalam suspensi cairan. MOBILITAS adalah sifat yang penting karena jika ada kebocoran medan, partikel harus sanggup bergerak untuk membentuk sebuah pola atau indikasi. Pada metoda kering, mobilitas dibantu dengan penyapuan atau peniupan partikel ke permukaan yang diperiksa. Mobilitas dapat juga dibantu dengan cara menggetar-getarkan spesimen setelah partikel disapukan ke permukaan benda. Arus bolak-balik juga membantu mobilitas, karena medan arus bolak-balik menyebabkan partikel bergerak-gerak. Pada metoda basah, mobilitas sangat terbantu karena partikel tersuspensi di dalam cairan VISIBILITAS merupakan sifat yang penting dalam pengujian partikel magnet dan diperlukan sumber cahaya yang memadai. Partikel magnet biasanya tersedia dalam warna abu-abu, merah, dan hitam, dimana pemilihan warna ditentukan oleh kontras terbaik dengan permukaan benda. Partikel fluorescent umumnya digunakan dalam metoda basah untuk membantu visibilitas, namun mensyaratkan pemakaian lampu ultraviolet.

Page 61

CONTROL AND VERIFICATION OF EQUIPMENT FUNCTIONS The magnetic particle inspection process cannot be reliable if the equipment or other parts of the process are not adequately controlled. The process can be broken down into the variables of the system and each evaluated separately. These variables are: 1. Electrical system and controls 2. Mechanical components 3. Instrumentation 4. Suspension vehicle 5. Magnetic particles and bath a. Concentration b. Magnetic properties c. Fluorescent brightness 6. Black light intensity and wavelength

PENGENDALIAN DAN VERIFIKASI FUNGSI PERALATAN Proses pemeriksaan partikel magnet tidak akan handal jika peralatan atau bagian-bagian lain dari proses tersebut tidak dikendalikan secara memadai. Proses tersebut dapat dipecah menjadi beberapa sistem variabel dan masing-masing dievaluasi secara terpisah. Variabel-variabel tersebut yaitu: 1. Sistem kelistrikan dan pengendalian. 2. Komponen-komponen mekanis. 3. Instrumentasi. 4. Kondisi cairan pensuspensi. 5. Partikel magnet dan suspensinya a. Konsentrasi b. Sifat magnet c. Kecemerlangan fluorescent 6. Intensitas dan panjang gelombang cahaya ultraviolet. PENGENDALIAN CAIRAN Suspensi yang dipakai dalam metoda basah terdiri dari cairan dimana partikel magnet tersuspensi di dalamnya. Partikel yang digunakan dapat diperoleh dalam bentuk konsentrat dan dapat berupa fluorescent atau nonfluorescent. Untuk memperoleh tingkat sensitivitas uji yang disyaratkan, konsentrasi partikel di dalam cairan harus benar, Pengadukan harus konstan saat cairan digunakan untuk menjaga meratanya campuran partikel di dalam suspensi. Pengadukan biasanya dilakukan dengan pompa listrik. Sistem cairan harus diperiksa TIAP HARI karena penguapan dan hilangnya partikel akibat pengujian.

BATH CONTROL The wet suspensions bath used in the wet method consist of a liquid in which the particles are suspended. The particles used are obtainable in a highly concentrated form and may be either fluorescent or nonfluorescent. To achieve the required test sensitivity, the degree of particle concentration in the bath must be correct. Agiation must be constant while the bath is in use to maintain the particles in suspension. Agiation is usually accomplished by electrically driven pumps. The bath should be checked DAILY due to evaporation and loss of particles that are removed from the bath by the specimen.

Page 62

The SETTLING TEST is essential to check the STRENGTH of the bath and is accomplished by gravity settling in a graduated PEAR SHAPED centrifuge tube as shown below.

UJI ENDAPAN adalah penting untuk memeriksa KEKUATAN cairan dan dilakukan secara gravitasi dalam sebuah tabung khusus seperti dalam gambar di bawah ini.

1. Agitate the suspension thoroughly to assure particle distribution. 2. Fill 100 cc sample from the delivery hose into the centrifuge tube. 3. Demagnetize, if necessary (when clumping occurs in the tube). 4. Allow settling for 30 minutes. 5. Take reading and record in log. 6. Adjust bath, either by adding particles or vehicles, if necessary. The reading should be between 1.2 and 2.4 cc for a nonfluorescent bath, and between 0.1 and 0.4 cc for a fluorescent bath as shown below. These data are guidelines and will vary from one specification to another.

1. Aduk suspensi secara merata untuk menjamin penyebaran partikel. 2. Masukkan 100 cc sampel dari selang pengalir ke dalam tabung. 3. Demagnetisasi, jika perlu (jika terjadi penggumpalan partikel di dalam tabung). 4. Biarkan mengendap selama 30 menit. 5. Baca dan catat hasilnya. 6. Atur konsentrasi cairan dengan menambahkan partikel atau pencairnya. Pembacaan sebaiknya antara 1.2 dan 2.4 cc untuk suspensi nonfluorescent, dan antara 0.1 dan 0.4 cc untuk suspensi fluorescent seperti ditunjukkan dalam tabel. Data ini hanya pedoman saja dan akan bervariasi tergantung spesifikasi.

Table 6.1. Concentration for wet suspension.

1.2 2.4 0.1 0.4 Page 63

LIGHTING Control of lighting is a key part of the process control. The ultraviolet light must be checked for lens cleanliness and possible cracks. The ultraviolet light intensity must be checked against the applicable specification. Ultraviolet lights from mercury vapor lamp normally produce higher intensities than the 1000 W/cm 2 at a distance of 38 cm (15 in.). Daily checks of ultraviolet light intensity is a necessity for adequate process control. For systems used during multiple 8 h shifts, ultraviolet lights should be checked at the start of each shift. The darkness of the fluorescent magnetic particle inspection area is important. Most specifications require no more that 20 lux. (2 fc) of white light in the area. In addition, inspectors must allow their eyes to adjust when first entering the darkened test area. Normally, 5 min is enough time for the eye to adapt to a dark environment. Tests should not start until the inspector's eyes have adapted to the darkened conditions.

PENCAHAYAAN Pencahayaan merupakan bagian penting dari pengendalian proses. Filter cahaya ultraviolet harus diperiksa kebersihan lensanya dan kemungkinan adanya retak pada lensa. Intensitas cahaya juga harus diperiksa dengan mengacu pada spesifikasi yang berlaku. Cahaya ultraviolet dari lampu uap mercury biasanya menghasilkan intensitas lebih besar dari 1000 W/cm2 pada jarak 38 cm (15 in). Pemeriksaan harian intensitas cahaya ultraviolet diperlukan untuk pengendalian proses yang memadai. Untuk sistem yang digunakan tiap pergantian 8 jam, lampu harus diperiksa pada awal tiap pergantian. Tingkat kegelapan daerah pemeriksaan partikel magnetik fluorescent juga penting. Kebanyakan spesifikasi mensyaratkan intensitas cahaya tampak tidak lebih dari 20 lux (2 fc) di daerah pemeriksaan. Inspektor harus membiasakan matanya untuk beradaptasi saat pertama kali memasuki ruang gelap. Umumnya perlu waktu selama 5 menit bagi mata untuk beradaptasi terhadap lingkungan gelap. Pengujian jangan dilakukan hingga mata inspektor terbiasa pada lingkungan gelap.

Page 64

CHAPTER SIX REVIEW

_______ 1. When using wet horizontal magnetic particle equipmenf, it is usually advisable to flow the bath over the part for the entire period the current is on. The only equipment designed for the wet horizontal method produces only longitudinal magnetization. When dry powders are used, they should first be applied gently to the part, and then the proper amount of current should be turned on. One method of applying dry powder utilizes a container that looks and performs much like a salt shaker. Because portable and mobile equipment use cables, they are not capable of creating a longitudinal magnetic field. If the cables of a portable unit were attached to a copper bar, typical inspertion requiring a central conductor could be performed. The cables of a portable magnetic particle unit could be wrapped into a coil which could be used for demagnetization. Nonmagnetic materials can be inspected with the magnetic particle method, but they cannot be demagnetized properly. The magnetic particle method will detect only discontinuities that are completely open to the surface.

_______ 2. _______ 3. _______ 4. _______ 5. _______ 6. _______ 7. _______ 8. _______ 9.

_______ 10. To achieve maximum mobility, the magnetic particle should be long and jagged and have a low permeability. _______ 11. The black light used in the magnetic particle method will not damage the eyes as long as the filter is properly in place. _______ 12. Parts that have a polished surface should probably not be inspected with prods because of the danger of arc burns. _______ 13. Precautions must be taken never to touch the prods during a magnetic particle inspection because the high amperage will instantly electrocute the operator. _______ 14. The settling test is used in the wet magnetic particle method to determine the strength of both fluorescent and nonfluorescent particles. _______ 15. When a black light is used, it must be allowed to warm up for about five minutes before being used.

Page 65

CHAPTER SEVEN
MAGNETIC PARTICLE APPLICATIONS Prior to discussing the applications, some previously mentioned principles are recapped below. Several different bases are used for classifying magnetizing methods: 1. Whether or not the magnetizing force is maintained during the application of the medium. This includes the residual and continuous methods. 2. The character of the field utilized for magnetization which includes the circular and longitudinal methods. 3. The type of magnetizing current used which may be either AC, DC, or HWDC. RESIDUAL METHOD The medium is applied AFTER the specimen has been magnetized and the magnetizing force removed. This method is NOT used on specimens that have low retentivity. CONTINUOUS METHOD Magnetizing operation is conducted SIMULTANEOUSLY with the application of the dry powder or wet suspension. APLIKASI PARTIKEL MAGNET Sebelum mendiskusikan aplikasinya, beberapa prinsip yang telah disebutkan sebelumnya dapat diringkas sebagai berikut. Beberapa perbedaan dasar dipakai untuk mengklasifikasikan metoda magnetisasi: 1. Apakah gaya magnetisasi tetap dipertahankan selama aplikasi media. Hal ini menyangkut metoda sisa dan menerus. 2. Sifat dari medan magnet yang dipakai untuk magnetisasi, dalam hal ini menyangkut metoda melingkar dan memanjang. 3. Jenis arus magnetisasi yang dipakai, apakah itu AC, DC, atau HWDC. METODA SISA Media diaplikasikan SETELAH spesimen selesai dimagnetisasi dan gaya magnet dihilangkan. Metoda ini TIDAK dipakai pada benda-benda yang memiliki retentivitas rendah. METODA MENERUS Magnetisasi dilakukan BERSAMAAN dengan aplikasi serbuk kering atau suspensi basah.

Page 66

CIRCULAR MAGNETIZATION PROCEDURES Where it is necessary to pass a current through the specimen, care must be exercised to prevent arcing or overheating at the contact areas. All contact areas must be clean, and suitable head pressure must be exerted to insure uniform magnetization. LONGITUDINAL MAGNETIZATION PROCEDURES When a solenoid or coil is used to magnetize the specimen, it should be no larger than necessary to accommodate the specimen.

PROSEDUR MAGNETISASI MELINGKAR Apabila diperlukan untuk mengalirkan arus melalui sebuah benda, harus diperhatikan untuk mencegah timbulnya bunga api atau panas berlebih pada daerah kontak. Semua daerah kontak harus bersih, dan gunakan tekanan yang sesuai untuk memastikan magnetisasi yang merata. PROSEDUR MAGNETISASI SECARA MEMANJANG Jika sebuah solenoid atau kumparan dipakai untuk memagnetisasi spesimen, arus yang dipakai sebaiknya tidak lebih besar dari yang diperlukan untuk mengakomodasi spesimen tersebut ARUS SEARAH Untuk memperoleh indikasi diskontinuitas yang letaknya di bawah permukaan, sebaiknya dipakai arus DC atau HWDC. ARUS BOLAK-BALIK AC digunakan apabila diskontinuitas yang dicari letaknya pada permukaan benda.

DIRECT CURRENT To obtain indications of discontinuities that may be subsurface, direct current (DC) or halfwave rectified direct current (HWDC) should be used. ALTERNATING CURRENT AC is used when the discontinuities are suspected to be on the surface of the specimen. TESTING MEDIUM (POWDERS AND SUSPENSIONS) Dry powder is commonly used for testing weldments where the prod method is employed The powder is sprinkled on the surface while the magnetizing current is flowing. Liquid medium (NONFLUORESCENT) can be used for both WET RESIDUAL and WET CONTINUOUS methods. Liquid medium (FLUORESCENT) can also be used with both WET RESIDUAL and WET CONTINUOUS methods. The particles are coated with a fluorescent dye which, when inspected under a black light, fluoresce brilliantly. The bath strength can be checked by the settling test described in Chapter Six. The frequency of the test is determined by the degree of bath usage with the strength usually dependents upon the manufacturers specifications.

MEDIA PENGUJIAN (SERBUK DAN SUSPENSI) Serbuk kering umumnya digunakan untuk pengujian sambungan las yang memakai prods. Serbuk ditaburkan pada permukaan sementara arus magnetisasi dialirkan. PARTIKEL BASAH (NONFLUORESCENT) dapat dipakai untuk metoda magnetisasi SISA dan MENERUS. PARTIKEL BASAH (FLUORESCENT) juga dapat digunakan untuk metoda magnetisasi SISA dan MENERUS. Partikel dilapisi dengan zat pewarna fluorescent yang jika diperiksa memakai sinar ultraviolet akan berpendar dengan cemerlang. Kekuatan cairan suspensi dapat diperiksa dengan uji endapan seperti dijelaskan dalam Bab Enam. Frekuensi pengujian ditentukan oleh tingkat penggunaan cairan, dengan konsentrasi yang biasanya bergantung pada spesifikasi pabrik pembuat. Page 67 benda

SURFACE PREPARATION Prior to magnetic particle, the specimen should be thoroughly cleaned. Cleaning may involve removal of flake, slag, heavy build-up of paint, rust, grease, or other organic material that may interfere with the test results. The smoother the surface and the more uniform the color, the more favorable are the conditions for formation of a magnetic particle indication. LOCATION OF DISCONTINUITIES Discontinuities can be located either on or directly below the surface of the specimen. Discontinuities located on the surface appear as sharp, distinct lines, whereas, discontinuities located below the surface appear as irregular, rough, hazy indications. DEMAGNETIZATION REQUIREMENTS If a specimen is to be magnetized in two directions, i.e. circular magnetization followed by longitudinal magnetization, the last applied field will drive out the residual field from the preceeding magnetization. However, this will happen only if the magnetizing force last applied is equal to or higher than the previous residual field. A field indicator is used after performing demagnetization on an article that has been longitudinally magnetized to determine if the field strength is reduces to the desired level. Large specimens can be found difficult to demagnetize completely. Shifting the specimen to align it in an east-west position from an original north-south position facilitates demagnetization. The reason for this is the influence of the earths magnetic field.

PERSIAPAN PERMUKAAN Sebelum pengujian partikel magnet, spesimen harus dibersihkan secara cermat. Pembersihan meliputi penghilangan serpihanserpihan, slag, lapisan cat tebal, karat, gemuk, atau material organik lainnya yang bisa mengganggu hasil pengujian. Makin halus kondisi pemukaan dan makin seragam warnanya, lebih menguntungkan kondisi tersebut untuk pembentukan indikasi partikel magnet. LOKASI DISKONTINUITAS Diskontinuitas dapat terletak pada atau di bawah pemukaan spesimen. Diskontinuitas yang letaknya pada permukaan tampak sebagai garis yang tajam dan nyata, sebaliknya, diskontinuitas yang letaknya di bawah permukaan tampak sebagai indikasi yang tak teratur, kasar, dan kabur. PERSYARATAN DEMAGNETISASI Jika sebuah spesimen dimagnetisasi dalam dua arah, yaitu magnetisasi melingkar yang diikuti magnetisasi memanjang, medan magnet yang diaplikasikan terakhir akan menumpuki medan magnet sisa dari magnetisasi sebelumnya. Hal ini hanya akan terjadi jika gaya magnetisasi terakhir besarnya sama atau lebih dari medan magnet sisa sebelum itu. Indikator medan digunakan setelah melakukan demagnetisasi pada sebuah benda yang dimagnetisasi secara memanjang untuk menentukan apakah kuat medan telah berkurang ke tingkat yang diinginkan. Spesimen berukuran besar sulit didemagnetisasi secara sempurna. Memindahkan posisi spesimen ke arah timur-barat dari posisi awal utara-selatan akan memudahkan demagnetisasi. Alasan melakukan hal ini adalah untuk mengurangi pengaruh dari medan magnet bumi.

Page 68

APPLICATION OF MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING PROCEDURES The remainder of this chapter contains typical applications of magnetic particle testing. The magnetic particle technician must have a good understanding of the reasons for applying the different techniques to the same part. It is even more important to be able to select the proper technique and procedure to obtain the best result.

APLIKASI PROSEDUR PENGUJIAN PARTIKEL MAGNET Sisa dari bab ini membahas aplikasi dari pengujian partikel magnet. Teknisi pengujian partikel magnet harus memiliki pengertian yang baik mengenai alasan penggunaan teknik-teknik yang berbeda untuk barang yang sama. Yang lebih penting lagi adalah agar mampu memilih teknik dan prosedur yang sesuai untuk memperoleh hasil terbaik.

Page 69

MAGNETIZATION OF A SOLID CYLINDRICAL SPECIMEN

MAGNETISASI SEBUAH SPESIMEN SILINDER PEJAL

What methods must be used to find all of the discontinuities shown in the bar below?

Metoda apakah yang harus digunakan untuk menemukan diskontinuitas pada batang berikut?

Head Shot (circular magnetization) inspect for discontinuities showing a longitudinal indication.

Head Shot (magnetisasi melingkar) untuk memeriksa diskontinuitas yang menghasilkan indikasi memanjang.

Coil Shot (longitudinal magnetization) inspect for transverse indications.

Coil shot (magnetisasi memanjang) untuk memeriksa indikasi melintang.

Page 70

MAGNETIZATION OF A LARGE GEAR

MAGNETISASI RODA GIGI BERUKURAN BESAR

What methods must be used to find all of the discontinuities in the gear below?

Metoda apakah yang harus dipakai untuk menemukan semua diskontinuitas pada roda gigi berikut?

Head Shot (circular magnetization) with central conductor inspect for discontinuities perpendicular to the circular field.

Head Shot (magnetisasi melingkar) dengan central conductor untuk memeriksa diskontinuitas yang tegak lurus arah medan magnet melingkar.

Head Shot (circular magnetization) using at least two shots and turning the gear 90o.

Head Shot (magnetisasi melingkar) menggunakan paling sedikit dua shot dan memutar roda gigi 90o.

Page 71

MAGNETIZATION OF SHORT HOLLOW CYLINDERS

MAGNETISASI SILINDER PENDEK BERONGGA

What methods must be used to find the discontinuities on the inside and outside of this ring?

Metoda apakah yang harus dipakai untuk menemukan diskontinuitas di bagian dalam dan luar ring ini?

Heat shot (circular magnetization) with central conductor.

Head Shot (magnetisasi melingkar) memakai central conductor.

If necessary the ring can also be magnetized by two head shots across the diameter or by placing in a coil.

Jika perlu, ring dapat juga dimagnetisasi dengan dua kali shot melintang diameter, atau dengan meletakkannya di dalam sebuah kumparan.

This will produce a longitudinal field which will detect discontinuities in the direction shown below.

Hal ini akan menghasilkan medan magnet memanjang yang akan mendeteksi diskontinuitas dalam arah seperti gambar di bawah.

Page 72

MAGNETIZATION OF MULTIPLE-DIAMETER ARTICLES

MAGNETISASI ARTIKEL DENGAN DIAMETER BERVARIASI

What methods must be used to find the discontinuities on the multiple-diameter shaft below?

Metoda apakah yang harus digunakan untuk menemukan diskontinuitas pada poros dengan diameter bervariasi seperti dalam gambar?

Head Shot (circular magnetization) using three steps.

Head shot (magnetisasi melingkar) menggunakan tiga langkah.

Coil Shot (longitudinal magnetization) using three steps.

Coil Shot (magnetisasi memanjang) menggunakan tiga langkah.

Page 73

MAGNETIZATION OF HOLLOW CYLINDRICAL SPECIMENS

MAGNETISASI SPESIMEN SILINDER BERONGGA

What methods must be used to find the discontinuities on the inside and outside of this cylinder?

Metoda apakah yang harus dipakai untuk menemukan diskontinuitas pada bagian dalam dan luar silinder?

Coil Shot (Longitudinal Magnetization) inspect for discontinuities showing transverse indications on the inside and outside of the cylinder as shown below.

Coil Shot (magnetisasi memanjang) memeriksa diskontinuitas yang memperlihatkan indikasi melintang pada permukaan bagian dalam dan luar silinder.

Head Shot (Circular Magnetization) with central conductor inspect for longitudinal discontinuities on the inside and outside of the cylinder as shown below.

Head Shot (magnetisasi melingkar) dengan central conductor - memeriksa diskontinuitas longitudinal pada permukaan bagian dalam dan luar silinder seperti dalam gambar di bawah ini.

Page 74

MAGNETIZATION OF IRREGULARLY SHAPED SPECIMENS Each specimen must be thoroughly analyzed to determine which methods will be necessary to find discontinuities in all directions. The part shown below requires the use of a central conductor, head shots, and coil.

MAGNETISASI SPESIMEN DENGAN BENTUK TAK BERATURAN Tiap-tiap spesimen harus dianalisa secara menyeluruh guna menentukan metoda yang sesuai untuk menemukan diskontinuitas di semua arah. Benda dalam gambar mensyaratkan penggunaan central conductor, head shot, dan kumparan.

Page 75

MAGNETIZATION OF SPRINGS

MAGNETISASI PEGAS

Page 76

MAGNETIZATION OF LARGE WELDMENTS OR CASTING Circular magnetization of large specimens is usually accomplished with the use of prods. Longitudinal magnetization of large specimens is usually done with either a yoke or by wrapping the part with the cables. The weldment shown below requires a crisscrossed pattern in applying the magnetizing current with prods to insure 100 percent coverage of discontinuities.

MAGNETISASI SAMBUNGAN LAS ATAU BENDA COR BERUKURAN BESAR Magnetisasi melingkar untuk sebuah spesimen berukuran besar biasanya dilakukan dengan memakai prods. Magnetisasi longitudinal untuk sebuah spesimen berukuran besar biasanya dilakukan dengan yoke atau meliliti benda dengan kabel. Sambungan las yang ditunjukkan di bawah ini mensyaratkan aplikasi arus magnetisasi memakai prods secara selang-seling untuk menjamin cakupan diskontinuitas sebesar 100%.

Page 77

The large shaft shown below requires the cables to be wrapped at two different locations to insure 100 percent coverage. However, longitudinal discontinuities will not be detected with this method.

Poros pada gambar di bawah ini mensyaratkan kabel yang dililitkan pada dua lokasi berbeda untuk memperoleh cakupan pemeriksaan 100%. Namun demikian, diskontinuitas memanjang tidak akan terdeteksi dengan cara ini.

Page 78

CHAPTER SEVEN REVIEW

_______ 1. _______ 2. _______ 3. _______ 4. Because it is changing directions, alternating current is the best choice when attempting to locate discontinuities that are below the surface. Parts damaged due to arcing may be the result of insufficient pressure on the part during a head shot. When a longitudinal magnetization procedure is called for, a solenoid or coil will usually be used. Because the magnetic field is external on a part that has been longitudinally magnetized, a field indicator is commonly used to determine the extent of demagnetization. Demagnetization can be accomplished by placing a part in a DC coil and slowly reducing the amperage. It is difficult to detect if a longitudinally magnetized part is still magnetized. In the residual method, the medium (magnetic powder) is applied after the part has been magnetized and the magnetizing force removed. When using a dry powder with the prod method, the medium is sprinkled on with the magnetizing current flowing.

_______ 5. _______ 6. _______ 7. _______ 8.

Which of the following methods would you select to provide the best technique on this high tolerance machined part, with the discontinuities as shown below. (Methods may be used more than once ) A. Longitudinal field between heads. B. Longitudinal field in a coil. C. Circular field between heads. D. Circular field with a central conductor. E. Prods using alternating current. _______ 9. _______ 10. _______ 11. _______ 12. _______ 13.

Page 79

CHAPTER EIGHT
INTRODUCTION This chapter discusses types of discontinuities that can be evaluated with the magnetic particle method. CATEGORIES OF DISCONTINUITIES Discontinuities can be divided into THREE general categories: inherent, processing, and service. 1. Inherent. They are usually related to discontinuities found in the molten metal. Inherent wrought discontinuities relate to the melting and solidification of the original ingot before it is formed into slabs, blooms, and billets. Inherent cast discontinuities relate to the melting, casting, and solidification of a cast article. Usually caused by inherent variables such as inadequate feeding, gating, excessive pouring temperature, and entrapped gases. 2. Processing discontinuities. They are usually related to the various manufacturing processes such as machining, forming, extruding, rolling, welding, heat treating, and plating. 3. Service discontinuities. They are related to the various service conditions such as stress corrosion, fatigue, and erosion. During the manufacturing process, many discontinuities that were subsurface (and not detectable by magnetic particle inspection) will be made open to the surface by machining, grinding, and the like. Remember that discontinuities are not necessarily defects. Any indication that is found by the inspector is called a discontinuity until it can be identified and evaluated as to the effect it will have on the service of the part. PENDAHULUAN Bab ini mendiskusikan jenis-jenis diskontinuitas yang dapat dievaluasi menggunakan metoda partikel magnet. KATAGORI DISKONTINUITAS Diskontinuitas dapat dibagi menjadi TIGA katagori umum: bawaan, proses, dan servis. 1. Bawaan. Biasanya berhubungan dengan diskontinuitas yang ditemukan dalam logam cair. Diskontinuitas wrought bawaan berhubungan dengan peleburan dan pembekuan ingot sebelum dibentuk menjadi slabs, bloom, dan billet. Diskontinuitas tuangan bawaan berhubungan dengan peleburan, pengecoran, dan pembekuan benda cor. Biasanya disebabkan karena variabel bawaan seperti kurang pengisian, gating, suhu tuang berlebihan, dan gas yang terperangkap. 2. Diskontinuitas Proses. Biasanya berhubungan dengan aneka proses manufaktur seperti permesinan, pembentukan, extruding, pengerolan, pengelasan, laku panas, dan pelapisan. 3. Diskontinuitas Servis. Berhubungan dengan aneka kondisi pengoperasian seperti korosi tegangan, kelelahan, dan erosi. Selama proses manufaktur, banyak diskontinuitas yang tadinya berada di bawah permukaan (dan tidak terdeteksi memakai pemeriksaan partikel magnet) menjadi membuka ke permukaan karena permesinan, penggerindaan, dan sejenisnya. Ingat bahwa diskontinuitas belum tentu cacat. Sembarang indikasi yang ditemukan oleh inspektor dinamakan sebagai diskontinuitas hingga dikenali dan dievaluasi pengaruhnya terhadap pengoperasian komponen.

Page 80

CLASSIFICATION OF MAGNETIC PARTICLE DISCONTINUITIES The greatest aid in interpretation is a knowledge of what is likely to be present in any given instance. Knowing the history of a part, what it is made of and what processes it has been through; all form important considerations. Every magnetic particle pattern produced is due to some magnetic disturbance set up in a leakage field. The inspector must be able to determine whether there is a serious crack, or some insignificant or unimportant nonrelevant indication. Surface indications produce sharp, distinct, clean-cut, and tightly held indication patterns. Subsurface indications tend to produce indications which are less distinct, forming diffused, or fuzzy patterns. NONRELEVANT INDICATIONS This is a group of nonrelevant magnetic disturbance NOT due to discontinuities or actual breaks in the metal. A common nonrelevant indication could be caused by a constriction in a metal through which lines of force must pass, such as the shaft with keyway shown below. Nonrelevant indications can be caused by the following: 1. Excessive magnetizing current. 2. Structural design of the article. 3. Variance of permeability within the article.

PENGELOMPOKAN DISKONTINUITAS PARTIKEL MAGNET Alat bantu terbaik dalam menginterpretasi indikasi adalah pengetahuan mengenai apa yang mungkin terjadi dalam suatu kejadian. Mengetahui sejarah sebuah benda, terbuat dari bahan apa dan proses apa dilakukan padanya; semuanya merupakan masukan penting. Setiap pola partikel magnet yang dihasilkan adalah akibat gangguan magnetis di daerah kebocoran medan. Inspektor harus mampu menentukan apakah terdapat retak yang serius, atau hanya indikasi nonrelevant yang tidak begitu penting. Indikasi permukaan menghasilkan pola yang tajam, nyata, jelas, dan melekat. Indikasi bawah permukaan cenderung menghasilkan pola yang kurang nyata, tersebar, dan kabur. INDIKASI NONRELEVANT Merupakan kelompok gangguan magnetis nonrelevant yang BUKAN akibat adanya diskontinuitas atau kepecahan pada logam. Indikasi nonrelevant umumnya dapat diakibatkan oleh penahanan di dalam logam dimana garis-garis gaya harus melewatinya, seperti poros yang ada alurnya ( lihat gambar). Indikasi nonrelevant dapat disebabkan karena hal-hal berikut: 1. Arus magnetisasi yang berlebihan. 2. Disain struktur benda tersebut. 3. Perbedaan permeabilitas di dalam benda.

Page 81

Overmagnetization could cause a nonrelevant indication due to the leakage field attracting particles as shown below.

Overmagnetisasi dapat mengakibatkan indikasi nonrelevant karena kebocoran medan menarik partikel magnet seperti dalam gambar di bawah.

Excessive magnetization can also cause nonrelevant indications on a simple square object as shown on the circularly magnetized part below.

Magnetisasi berlebih dapat juga mengakibatkan indikasi nonrelevant pada benda kotak sederhana yang dimagnetisasi secara memanjang seperti dalam gambar di bawah.

Abrupt change of section thickness of a longitudinally magnetized part will cause flux leakage where the lines of force leave or enter the part, causing nonrelevant indications.

Perubahan ketebalan penampang yang drastis dari sebuah benda yang dimagnetisasi secara memanjang akan menyebabkan kebocoran medan di tempat garis-garis gaya meninggalkan atau memasuki benda, menimbulkan indikasi nonrelevant.

Page 82

Permeability differences in the part can also cause nonrelevant indications. Cold working a metal can change the permeability. Example: bending and straightening a nail will cause the metal to become hard at the point of bending. When the nail is mgnetized, there will be a flux leakage where the permeability is changed. (see below)

Perbedaan permeabilitas pada benda juga dapat mengakibatkan indikasi nonrelevant. Pengerjaan dingin logam dapat mengubah permeabilitasnya. Contoh: pembengkokan dan pelurusan sebuah paku akan mengakibatkan logam menjadi keras pada lokasi pembengkokan. Jika paku ini dimagnetisasi, akan terjadi kebocoran medan di daerah dimana permeabilitas berubah. (lihat gambar di bawah ini)

A nonrelevant indication would also appear across the shank of a cold chisel where the heat-treated portion ends and the soft shank begins. (see below)

Indikasi nonrelevant juga akan muncul di sekeliling pahat pada ujung daerah yang dilaku panaskan (batas antara bagian lunak dan keras).

Nonrelevant indications would appear where lines of force leave or enter the article. In this case, lines of force are also leaving and entering the article at the abrupt change of section thickness in the article.

Indikasi nonrelevant akan muncul pada tempat garis-garis gaya magnet meninggalkan atau memasuki benda. Dalam kasus ini, garis-garis gaya meninggalkan dan memasuki benda pada ketebalan penampang yang berubah drastis.

As a result, leakage fields would be formed, and nonrelevant indications would appear at the following points.

Sebagai hasilnya, kebocoran medan akan terbentuk, dan indikasi nonrelevant akan muncul pada lokasi-lokasi berikut ini.

Page 83

Problems in identifying nonrelevant indications can be reduced if the operator remembers that: 1. They can be identified by a fuzzy, rather than a sharp indication. 2. They are usually associated with some features of construction like a keyway or sharp corner. 3. They are usually uniform in direction and size. FALSE INDICATIONS False indications are caused when particles are accumulated and held mechanically or by gravity. If the part has a rough surface, this may cause false indications.

Masalah dalam mengidentifikasi indikasi nonrelevant dapat dikurangi jika operator mengingat bahwa: 1. Mereka dapat diidentifikasi sebagai indikasi yang samar, daripada indikasi yang tajam. 2. Mereka biasanya berhubungan dengan beberapa fitur konstruksi seperti alur atau pojok tajam. 3. Mereka biasanya seragam dalam arah dan ukuran. INDIKASI PALSU Indikasi palsu disebabkan jika partikel terkumpul dan tertahan secara mekanis atau gravitasi. Jika benda memiliki permukaan kasar, ini akan mengakibatkan indikasi palsu.

Page 84

CLASSIFICATION OF DISCONTINUITIES BY ORIGIN Inherent discontinuities related to the original melting and solidification of the metal in ingot or in casting. Typical discontinuities found in the ingot are inclusions, blowholes, pipe, and segregations. 1. Porosity caused by entrapped gas in the molten metal. 2. Nonmetallic inclusions caused by impurities accidentally included in the molten metal. 3. Pipe caused by shrinkage at the center of the ingot as the molten metal solidifies. 4. Segregations occurs when the distribution of the various elements is not uniform throughout the ingot. This condition is called banding and is not usually significant.

KLASIFIKASI DISKONTINUITAS MENURUT ASALNYA Diskontinuitas bawaan berhubungan dengan pencairan dan pembekuan logam di dalam ingot atau saat pengecoran. Jenis diskontinuitas yang terdapat dalam ingot adalah inklusi, lubang tiup, pipe, dan segregasi. 1. Porositas disebabkan oleh gas-gas yang terperangkap di dalam logam cair. 2. Inklusi Nonlogam disebabkan karena ketidakmurnian yang tanpa sengaja terjadi dalam logam cair. 3. Pipa disebabkan karena penyusutan pada bagian tengah ingot selama pembekuan. 4. Segregasi terjadi karena ketidakseragaman distribusi aneka elemen di dalam ingot. Kondisi ini dimanakan banding dan dianggap tidak begitu berarti.

The hot top is usually cropped off to remove most of the above discontinuities.

Bagian hot top biasanya dipotong untuk menghilangkan sebagian besar diskontinuitas di atas.

Page 85

CASTING DISCONTINUITIES Typical inherent discontinuities found in castings are cold shuts, hot tears, shrinkage cavities, microshrinkage, blowholes, and porosity. A COLD SHUT is caused when molten metal is poured over solidified metal as shown below.

DISKONTINUITAS TUANGAN Jenis diskontinuitas bawaan yang terdapat dalam bahan cor-coran adalah cold shut, sobek panas, rongga susut, susut mikro, lubang tiup, dan porositas. COLD SHUT terjadi jika ada logam menumpuki logam yang sudah membeku. cair

When the metal is poured, it hits the mold too hard and spatters small drops of metal. When these drops of metal hit higher up on the mold, they stick and solidify. When the rising molten metal reaches and covers the solidified drops of metal, a crack-like discontinuity is formed. HOT TEARS (SHRINKAGE CRACKS) occurs when there is unequal shrinkage between light and heavy sections as shown below.

Saat logam cair dituangkan dan membentur dinding cetakan terlalu keras akan terjadi percikan logam cair. Jika percikan ini mengenai dinding cetakan, dia akan lengket dan membeku. Apabila logam cair menutupi percikan beku tersebut, terbentuk diskontinuitas yang menyerupai retakan. SOBEK PANAS (RETAK SUSUT) terjadi apabila terjadi penyusutan yang tidak merata antara bagian ringan dan berat seperti dalam gambar.

In a casting having light and heavy sections, the light sections, being smaller, solidify faster; they shrink faster pulling the heavier sections, which are hotter and not shrinking as fast, toward the light sections.

Pada benda cor, makin ringan suatu bagian maka makin cepat pembekuan dan penyusutannya, yang akan menarik bagian berat yang lebih panas dan lebih lambat penyusutannya dibandingkan bagian tipis. Page 86

SHRINKAGE CAVITIES occur when there is insufficient molten metal to fill the space created by shrinkage, just as pipe is formed in an ingot.

RONGGA SUSUT terjadi jika volume logam cair tidak cukup mengisi rongga akibat penyusutan, sama seperti halnya pipe yang terbentuk di dalam ingot.

GATE (ENTRANCE FOR MOLTEN METAL)

Shrinkage cavities can be eliminated, or the possibility of shrinkage cavities can be greatly reduced, by adding a feeder head or reservoir as shown above on the right. MICROSHRINKAGE is usually many small subsurface holes that appear at the gate of the casting caused by premature blocking of the gate. Microshrinkage can also occur when the molten metal must flow from a thin section into a thicker section of a casting. BLOW HOLES are small holes at the surface of the casting caused by gas which comes from the mold itself. Many molds are made of sand, and when molten metal comes into contact with the mold, the water in the sand is released as steam. POROSITY is caused by entrapped gas. Porosity is usually subsurface but can occur on the surface depending on the design of the mold.

Rongga susut dapat dicegah atau dikurangi kemungkinan terjadinya dengan menambahkan corong pengisian seperti dalam gambar kanan atas. SUSUT MIKRO biasanya berupa lubang-lubang kecil di bawah permukaan yang muncul pada gate akibat penyumbatan gate sebelum pengisian selesai seluruhnya. Susut mikro dapat juga disebabkan ketika logam cair harus mengalir dari bagian tipis ke bagian yang lebih tebal di dalam cetakan. LUBANG TIUP adalah lubang-lubang kecil pada permukaan benda cor akibat gas-gas yang berasal dari dinding cetakan. Banyak cetakan yang dibuat dari pasir, dan saat logam cair bersentuhan dengannya kelembaban yang terkandung dalam pasir berubah menjadi uap air. POROSITAS disebabkan karena gas-gas yang terperangkap. Porositas biasanya di bawah permukaan namun dapat pula terjadi di permukaan, tergantung pada disain cetakan.

Page 87

PROCESSING DISCONTINUITIES Processing discontinuities are those found or produced by forming or fabrication operations including rolling, forging, welding, machining, grinding, and heat treating. When an ingot is further processed into slabs, blooms, and billets, it is possible for the discontinuities to change size and shape. As a billet is flattened and spread out, nonmetallic inclusions may cause a lamination. Pipe, and porosity could also cause laminations in the same manner as shown below.

DISKONTINUITAS PROSES Diskontinuitas proses ditemukan atau dihasilkan saat pembentukan atau operasi fabrikasi, termasuk pengerolan, penempaan, pengelasan, permesinan, penggerindaan, dan perlakuan panas. Ketika ingot diproses lebih lanjut menjadi slabs, blooms, dan billets, diskontinuitas bisa berubah ukuran dan bentuk. Saat billet diratakan dan digepengkan, inklusi nonlogam dapat menyebabkan laminasi. Pipa dan porositas juga dapat menyebabkan laminasi dengan cara yang sama seperti dalam gambar di bawah ini.

As a billet is rolled into bar stock, nonmetallic inclusions are squeezed out into longer and thinner discontinuities called stringers.

Saat billet dirol menjadi batang tongkat, inklusi nonlogam tertekan menjadi diskontinuitas yang panjang dan tipis dinamakan stringers.

A nonmetallic inclusion in bar stock extends in the direction of grain formation. As the billet is rolled smaller around and longer, the stringer also becomes smaller around and longer.

Inklusi nonlogam dalam batang tongkat menyebar ke arah pembentukan butiran. Saat billet dirol semakin kecil dan panjang, stringer juga menjadi lebih kecil dan panjang. Page 88

As a billet is rolled into round bar stock, surface irregularities may cause SEAMS. Seams are caused by folding of metal due to improper rolling or by a crack in the billet as shown below.

Saat billet dirol menjadi batang tongkat, ketidakteraturan permukaan bisa mengakibatkan seams. Seams terjadi akibat lipatan logam karena pengerolan yang salah atau karena retakan pada billet seperti dalam gambar berikut.

A seam could also occur when the billet is formed into a rectangular bar as shown below.

Seam juga bisa terjadi saat billet dibentuk menjadi batang kotak seperti berikut.

Page 89

GRINDING CRACK are a processing-type discontinuity caused by stresses which are built up from excess heat created between grinding wheel and metal. Grinding cracks will usually occur at right angle to the rotation of the grinding wheel.

RETAK GERINDA adalah diskontinuitas proses, disebabkan karena tegangan yang terjadi akibat panas berlebih yang ditimbulkan antara mata gerinda dan logam. Retak gerinda biasanya akan terjadi pada arah tegak lurus terhadap arah putar mata gerinda.

HEAT TREAT CRACKS are often caused by the stresses built up during heating and cooling. Unequal cooling between light and heavy sections may cause heat treat cracks. Heat treat cracks have no specific direction and usually start at sharp corners which act as stress concentration points. During inspection of heat treated parts, the first areas of concern will be: Any sharp area, such as corner, ridges, etc. Junction of light and heavy sections. The photo below shows a part that has cracked from heat treatment. Notice that the crack cuts across the grain. Since heat treatment cracks have no specific direction, the crack might just as well have followed the grain.

RETAK LAKU PANAS seringkali disebabkan tegangan yang terjadi selama pemanasan dan pendinginan. Laju pendinginan yang tidak sama antara bagian ringan dan berat bisa menyebabkan retak. Retak laku panas tidak mempunyai arah tertentu, dan biasanya bermula dari pojok-pojok tajam yang bertindak sebagai titik konsentrasi tegangan. Selama pemeriksaan komponen yang dilaku panas, daerah pertama yang menjadi perhatian: Daerah tajam seperti pojok-pojok, permukaan kasar, takik, dll. Pertemuan antara bagian ringan dan berat. Foto di bawah ini memperlihatkan komponen yang retak akibat perlakuan panas. Perhatikan bahwa retak tersebut melintang terhadap butiran logam. Karena retak laku panas tidak memiliki arah tertentu, arahnya bisa juga mengikuti butiran logam.

Page 90

FORGING DISCONTINUITIES Forging discontinuities occur when metal is hammered or pressed into shape, usually while the metal is very hot. A forged part gains strength due to the grain flow taking the shape of the die, and the process is shown below.

DISKONTINUITAS TEMPAAN Diskontinuitas tempaan terjadi saat logam dipukul atau ditekan menjadi bentuk tertentu, biasanya ketika logam dalam kondisi sangat panas. Benda tempa memperoleh kekuatan akibat aliran butiran yang berlangsung ke semua arah mengikuti bentuk cetakan seperti gambar.

A FORGING BURST is a rupture caused by forging at improper temperatures. Forging metal at too low temperature may cause burst. Burst may be either internal or open to the surface a shown below.

PECAH TEMPA adalah kepecahan yang disebabkan karena suhu penempaan yang salah. Penempaan logam pada suhu terlalu rendah mengakibatkan kepecahan. Pecah tempa bisa berada di dalam, maupun membuka ke permukaan.

Improper temperatures caused these parts to break as the material was being shaped by forging. The metal was not hot enough and did not want to flow with the forging. When squeezed by the heavy forging press, the metal in the center simply ruptured.

Suhu tempa yang terlalu rendah mengakibatkan komponen tersebut pecah saat ditempa. Logam tidak cukup panas sehingga tidak terjadi aliran saat ditempa. Saat ditekan pada waktu penempaan, logam akan pecah di bagian tengahnya.

Page 91

A FORGING LAP is caused by folding of metal on the surface of the forging, usually when some of the forging metal is squezeed out between the two dies that do not match.

LIPATAN TEMPA disebabkan lipatan logam pada permukaan benda tempa, terjadi karena logam terjepit antara cetakan bagian atas dan bawah yang tidak lurus.

Forging laps can also be caused by poor die design. As the metal is pressed into the cavity in this die, the metal is forced up at the bottom of the die and tends to fold over on itself, forming the forging lap shown on the right.

Lipatan tempa dapat juga disebabkan disain cetakan yang keliru. Saat logam ditekan di dalam rongga cetakan, logam dipaksa memenuhi cetakan dan cenderung terlipat ke arahnya sendiri membentuk lipatan tempa seperti dalam gambar kanan bawah.

Page 92

WELDING DISCONTINUITIES below are types of processing discontinuities. Crater cracks

DISKONTINUITAS PENGELASAN dibawah termasuk ke dalam diskontinuitas proses. Retak kawah

ini

Stress cracks

Retak tegang

Porosity

Porositas

Slag Inclusion

Inklusi Slag

Page 93

Tungsten Inclusion

Inklusi Tungsten

Lack of Penetration

Kurang Penembusan

Lack of Fusion

Kurang Peleburan

Undercut

Undercut

Page 94

SERVICE DISCONTINUITIES FATIGUE CRACKS are service-type discontinuities that are usually open to the surface where they start from concentration points. Fatigue cracks occur crosswise to the direction of strees movement. The stress on the driven shaft below would have been clockwise the direction of its rotation. The fatigue crack occured across the direction of stress movement.

DISKONTINUITAS SERVIS RETAK FATIK merupakan diskontinuitas servis yang biasanya membuka ke permukaan dimana mulainya dari titik-titik konsentrasi tegangan. Arah perambatan retak fatik melintang terhadap arah tegangan. Arah tegangan yang bekerja pada poros penggerak di bawah ini searah jarum jam yaitu arah putaran poros. Retak fatik yang timbul arahnya melintang terhadap arah tegangan.

Fatigue cracks are possible only after the part is placed into service, but may be the result of porosity, inclusions, or other discontinuities in a highly stressed metal part.

Retak fatik hanya mungkin timbul setelah komponen menjalankan fungsinya, dan bisa disebabkan karena porositas, inklusi, atau diskontinuitas lain pada bagian logam yang konsentrasi tegangannya tinggi.

Page 95

PRESERVATION OF INDICATIONS It is often desirable to preserve magnetic particle indications for future reference. There are several methods used to accomplish this purpose. 1. Lacquer technique This technique requires the indication to be sprayed with a clear lacquer and later photographed. 2. Transparent tape transfer This is commonly used technique to lift the indication from the part. The tape can be photographed or placed directly into a permanent record book. This method works satisfactorily with dry particle type. 3. Direct photography This technique is used to record the indication immediately after performing the test. 4. Magnetic rubber Magnetic rubber inspection is the name given to a test technique developed to look for discontinuities in holes, recesses, and other hard-to-get-to places. It utilizes a room-temperature-curing liquid rubber containing magnetic particles in suspension. The rubber is allowed to harden on the part after the magnetic field has arrange the magnetic particles.

PENGAWETAN INDIKASI Seringkali diinginkan untuk mengawetkan indikasi partikel magnet untuk referensi di masa yang akan datang. Ada beberapa metoda yang digunakan untuk melakukan tujuan ini. 1. Teknik Pernis Teknik ini mensyaratkan penyemprotan pernis transparan ke permukaan indikasi dan selanjutnya difoto. 2. Pemindahan dengan selotip transparan Teknik ini umum digunakan untuk mengangkat indikasi dari permukaan benda. Selotip selanjutnya dapat difoto atau disertakan di dalam laporan permanen. Metoda ini cocok digunakan dengan partikel kering 3. Fotografi Teknik ini digunakan untuk merekam indikasi segera setelah pengujian dilakukan. 4. Karet magnetis Pemeriksaan karet magnetis adalah nama yang diberikan pada sebuah teknik pengujian yang dikembangkan untuk menemukan diskontinuitas dalam lubang, cekungan, dan tempat yang sulit dijangkau. Teknik ini memakai karet cair yang mengandung suspensi partikel magnet yang membeku pada suhu ruang. Karet tersebut dibiarkan mengeras pada benda setelah medan magnet mengatur partikel magnet.

Page 96

Page 97

CHAPTER EIGHT REVIEW

_______ 1. _______ 2. _______ 3. _______ 4. _______ 5. _______ 6. _______ 7. _______ 8. _______ 9. Inherent discontinuities are considered to be those formed when the metal is in a molten condition. Discontinuities involving fatigue are often considered critical and are referred to as a processing type discontinuity, Discontinuities and defects are terms that are considered to have the same meaning in magnetic particle testing. Knowing the history of a part is usually considered important in selecting the test method and knowing the type of discontinuity to look for. A false indication and a nonrelevant indication are considered to have the same meaning in magnetic particle testing. Excessive magnetization is a typical cause for the formation of a false indication. A nonrelevant indication could be caused where a specific area on the part has a permeability change due to heat treatment. Stringers and laminations could be found in a finished product because of nonmetallic inclusions in the original ingot. Hot tears and shrinkage cracks are often the result of metal cooling too rapidly in the ingot stage.

_______ 10. Porosity is caused by gas which is trapped in the molten metal as it solidifies. _______ 11. Laps and bursts are examples of processing type discontinuities. _______ 12. The magnetic particle method is excellent for finding slag inclusion in weldments. _______ 13. Grinding cracks are often caused by the stresses created by the excessive heating of the metal surface. _______ 14. It is possible to preserve magnetic particle indications by several methods including ones that utilize lacquer and rubber. _______ 15. Transparent tape is often used to preserve magnetic particle indications by lifting the particles out of the crack before the part is magnetized. _______ 16. Lack of fusion between passes in a weldment is easily detected with the magnetic particle method.

Page 98

CHAPTER NINE
INTRODUCTION It should be obvious that magnetic particle inspection is NOT the best method in all cases. The selection of one testing method over another is based upon variables such as: 1. Type and origin of discontinuity. 2. Material manufacturing process. 3. Accessibility of article. 4. Level of acceptability desired. 5. Equipment available. 6. Cost. IDENTIFICATION AND COMPARISON OF DISCONTINUITIES Each of the specific discontinuities below are divided into three general categories: INHERENT, PROCESSING, and SERVICE. Burst Cold shut Fillet crack Grinding crack Heat-affected zone cracking Heat-treat crack Shrinkage crack Hydrogen flake Inclusions Lack of penetration Lamination Laps and seams Laps and seams Hot tears PENDAHULUAN Perlu ditekankan bahwa pemeriksaan partikel magnet BUKAN metoda terbaik untuk semua kasus. Pemilihan satu metoda pengujian atas metoda lainnya didasarkan pada variabel-variabel seperti: 1. Jenis dan asal diskontinuitas. 2. Proses pembuatan material. 3. Akses ke artikel. 4. Tingkat keberterimaan yang diinginkan. 5. Ketersediaan peralatan. 6. Biaya. PENGENALAN DAN PEMBANDINGAN DISKONTINUITAS Tiap jenis diskontinuitas di bawah ini dibagi menjadi tiga katagori umum: BAWAAN, PROSES, dan SERVIS. Pecah

Cold shut
Retak fillet Retak gerinda Retak daerah pengaruh panas Retak laku panas Retak susut

Hydrogen flake
Inklusi Kurang penembusan Laminasi Lipatan dan lapisan Lipatan dan lapisan Sobek panas

Page 99

TRAINING AND CERTIFICATION It is important that the technician and supervisor be qualified in the magnetic particle method before the technique is used and test results evaluated. The American Society for Nondestructive Testing recommends the use of its document Recommended Practice No. SNT-TC-1A. This document provides the employer with necessary guidelines to properly qualify and certify the NDT technician in all methods. To comply with this document, the employer must establish a WRITTEN PRACTICE which describes in detail how the technician will be trained, examined, and certified. The student is advised to study the 2006 Edition of SNT-TC-1A to determine the recommended number of hours of classroom instruction and months of experience necessary to be certified as a magnetic particle testing technician. Certification of NDT personnel is the responsibility of the employer and is usually at THREE levels. Level I is qualified to properly perform specific calibrations, specific NDT, and specific evaluations for acceptance or rejection determinations according to written instructions and to record results. Should receive the necessary instruction and supervision from a certified NDT Level II or III individual. Level II is qualified to set up and calibrate equipment and to interpret and evaluate results with respect to applicable codes, standards, and specifications. Should be thoroughly familiar with the scope and limitations of the methods for which qualified. Should exercise assigned responsibility for on-the-job training and guidance of trainees and NDT Level I personnel. Should be able to organize and report the results of NDT tests.

PELATIHAN DAN SERTIFIKASI Adalah penting bahwa teknisi dan pengawas dikualifikasi untuk metoda partikel magnet sebelum menggunakan teknik ini dan mengevaluasi hasil uji. ASNT merekomendasikan penggunaan dokumen Recommended Practice No. SNT-TC-1A. Dokumen tersebut memberikan pedoman bagi perusahaan dalam mengkualifikasi dan mensertifikasi teknisi NDT untuk semua metoda. Dalam rangka mengikuti dokumen tersebut, perusahaan harus menyusun sebuah WRITTEN PRACTICE yang menjelaskan secara detil, cara melatih, menguji dan mensertifiksi teknisi NDT. Peserta disarankan untuk mempelajari dokumen SNT-TC-1A edisi 2006 untuk mengetahui jumlah jam pelajaran yang direkomendasikan dan pengalaman (dalam bulan) yang diperlukan dalam proses sertifikasi sebagai teknisi pengujian partikel magnet. Sertifikasi personil NDT merupakan tanggung jawab perusahaan dan biasanya dibagi menjadi TIGA level. Level I memiliki kualifikasi untuk melakukan kalibrasi, NDT, dan evaluasi tertentu untuk menentukan penerimaan atau penolakan dengan mengacu pada pedoman tertulis, dan untuk merekam hasil. Menerima perintah dan pengawasan seperlunya dari NDT level II atau III. Level II memiliki kualifikasi untuk mengatur dan mengkalibrasi peralatan dan mengiterpretasi serta mengevaluasi hasil dengan mengacu pada code, standard, dan spesifikasi yang berlaku. Mengenal dengan baik lingkup dan batasan metoda dimana ia terkualifikasi. Melakukan tanggung jawab yang dibebankan untuk memberi-kan petunjuk kepada siswa dan NDT Level I. Mampu mengorganisir dan membuat laporan hasil pengujian NDT.

Page 100

Level III Should be capable of developing, qualifying, and approving procedures, establishing and approving techniques, interpreting codes, standards, specifications, and procedures; and designating the particular NDT methods, techniques, and procedures to be used. Should be capable of interpreting and evaluating results in terms of existing codes, standards, and specifications. Should have sufficient practical background in applicable materials, fabrication, and product technology to establish techniques and to assist in establishing acceptance criteria when none are otherwise available. Should have general familiarity with other appropriate NDT methods. Should be capable of training and examining NDT Level I and II personnel for certification in those methods. The SNT-TC-1A document recommends that the level I and II NDT technician be examined in the following areas: A. B. C. General examination. Specific examination. Practical examination.

Level III mampu mengembangkan, mengkualifikasi, dan menyetujui prosedur, menyusun dan menyetujui teknik, menginterpretasi code, standard, dan prosedur; dan menunjuk metoda NDT tertentu, teknik, dan prosedur yang akan digunakan. Mampu menginterpretasi dan mengevaluasi hasil sesuai code, standard, dan spesifikasi yang ada. Memiliki latar belakang kemampuan praktis yang mencukupi dalam aplikasi material, fabrikasi, dan teknologi produksi yang berlaku untuk menyusun teknik dan untuk membantu dalam menetapkan kriteria penerimaan dimana tidak tercakup dalam code, standard, atau spesifikasi yang ada. Memiliki pengetahuan tentang semua metoda NDT. Mampu mengadakan pelatihan dan pengujian terhadap personil NDT Level I dan II untuk disertifikasi pada metode NDT tertentu.

Dokumen nomer SNT-TC-1A merekomendasikan bahwa teknisi NDT Level I dan II diuji dalam bidang berikut: A. Ujian General. B. Ujian Specific. C. Ujian Practical. ASNT menyediakan layanan kepada industri dengan mengadakan ujian Level III dalam bidang basic dan method. Mengingat banyaknya persyaratan industri pengguna NDT yang berbeda-beda, ujian specific masih merupakan tanggung jawab perusahaan.

ASNT provides a service to the industry by providing Level III examination in the basic and method areas. Because of the individual requirements of the many industries using NDT, the specific examination is still the responsibility of the employer.

Page 101

CHAPTER NINE REVIEW

_______ 1. _______ 2. _______ 3. _______ 4. _______ 5. The selection of one test method over another is usually the decision of the Level I technician performing the test. ASNT provides a service for examining Level I, II, and III personnel in the General and Specific areas. The responsibility of issuing a certificate to the NDT technician is always given to the employer if the SNT-TC-1A document is to be complied with. If the SNT-TC-1A document is to be used as a recommended guideline, the Written Practice must be submitted to ASNT for approval. If the SNT-TC-1A guidelines are to be followed, the Level III technician should have a knowledge of other commonly used methods of NDT eventhough certification is needed only in the magnetic particle area. A Level I technician performing a magnetic particle test is permitted to accept or reject the part provided that written instructions or procedures are given to him by a level II or level III technician. It is essential that every employer using the SNT-TC-1A document establish a Written Practice. If an employer does not have a Level III technician in his company, he can retain the services of an outside agency to perform these functions.

_______ 6.

_______ 7. _______ 8.

Page 102

CHAPTER TEN
PROCEDURES, STANDARDS, AND SPECIFICATIONS PROCEDURES Scope The scope of the procedure is intended to cover only one complex or critical component or a group of like items. The procedure should specifically present everything that the inspector needs to know in order to inspect the parts as intended. Procedures are frequently developed in laboratory conditions on special test objects. Under such circumstances, procedures should also be tried under production conditions by production personnel before their actual implementation. Details The procedure should detail at least the following items: 1. Materials, shapes, or sizes to which the procedure is specifically applicable; 2. Type of magnetization to be used; 3. Equipment to be used for magnetization; 4. Surface preparation (finishing and cleaning); 5. Ferromagnetic particles to be used; manufacturer; color; wet or dry particles; 6. Magnetization current; time involved; 7. Sketches or chart indicating the location, type, and amperage of each inspection area and, if necessary, the sequence of inspections. Occasionally, THE PROCEDURE WILL CONTAIN THE ACCEPTANCE CRITERIA from the specification that relates to the specific part. This would present the exact procedure and acceptance criteria for each specific part. PROSEDUR, STANDARD, DAN SPESIFIKASI PROSEDUR Lingkup Lingkup dari prosedur dimaksudkan untuk mencakup hanya satu komponen kritis atau komplek, atau satu kelompok barang yang sejenis. Prosedur sebaiknya menampilkan secara terperinci segala sesuatu yang perlu diketahui inspektor untuk memeriksa benda seperti yang dimaksudkan. Prosedur seringkali dibuat di dalam kondisi laboratorium menggunakan benda uji khusus. Dalam kondisi seperti itu, prosedur sebaiknya juga dicoba pada kondisi produksi oleh personil produksi sebelum diaplikasikan untuk pelaksanaan sebenarnya. Detil Prosedur seharusnya mendetilkan paling tidak, halhal sebagai berikut: 1. Material, bentuk, atau ukuran dimana prosedur tersebut berlaku secara khusus; 2. Jenis magnetisasi yang digunakan; 3. Peralatan yang dipakai untuk magnetisasi. 4. Persiapan permukaan (penyelesaian dan pembersihan). 5. Partikel ferromagnetik yang digunakan; pabrik; pewarna; partikel basah atau kering. 6. Arus magnetisasi; lamanya. 7. Sketsa atau gambar yang menunjukkan lokasi, jenis, dan arus dari tiap daerah pemeriksaan dan, jika perlu, urutan pemeriksaan. Adakalanya, PROSEDUR AKAN MEMUAT KRITERIA PENERIMAAN dari spesifikasi yang behubungan dengan bagian khusus dari sebuah komponen. Hal ini memberikan prosedur yang terperinci dan kriteria penerimaan untuk tiap bagian khusus.

Page 103

STANDARDS General Scope Standards are applied for controlling factors in the inspection process that are measurable and reproducible. For example, standards are available to measure and control acceptable ranges of particle concentrations, black light wavelength and intensity, meter variations, and other equipment factors. Detail of Standards Standards set forth the details for controlling specific processes; in this case, they are details of the magnetic particle testing process. 1. The scope should establish the limits of applicability of the document or special conditions which make the preparation of the standard necessary. 2. The applicable documents are company documents that are referenced. 3. Materials and other expendable supplies are occasionally listed with their trade name and source. 4. Equipment to be used is listed. 5. Requirements are presented; these state the acceptable ranges of the factors being measured and controlled as well as the frequency with which they should be measured. 6. Procedures detail the manner and means of obtaining the desired measurements. 7. Safety requirements are presented where applicable. 8. Notes may be included regarding items of advice or of caution. 9. Reference documents are sometimes listed to provide background information for the user.

STANDARDS Lingkup Umum Standard diaplikasikan untuk mengendalikan faktor-faktor dalam proses pemeriksaan sehingga terukur dan dapat diulangi lagi. Sebagai contoh, terdapat standard untuk mengukur dan mengendalikan rentang yang dapat diterima dari konsentrasi partikel, panjang gelombang dan intensitas cahaya ultraviolet, dan faktor peralatan lainnya. Detil dari suatu Standard Standard yang ditujukan untuk memperinci pengendalian proses-proses khusus; dalam hal ini, mendetilkan proses pengujian partikel magnet. 1. Lingkup sebaiknya menetapkan batasanbatasan yang berlaku dari dokumen, atau kondisi khusus yang membuat perlunya penyiapan standard tersebut. 2. Dokumen yang berlaku adalah dokumen perusahaan yang dirujuk. 3. Material dan bahan habis lainnya kadangkala dimasukkan dengan menyebut merek dagang dan asalnya. 4. Daftar peralatan yang dipakai. 5. Persyaratan-persyaratan; menyatakan rentang yang dapat diterima dari faktor-faktor yang sedang diukur dan dikendalikan seperti frekuensi yang seharusnya diukur. 6. Prosedur mendetilkan tujuan dan cara memperoleh pengukuran yang diinginkan. 7. Persyaratan keselamatan yang berlaku. 8. Catatan-catatan mengenai item, atau saransaran, atau peringatan-peringatan. 9. Dokumen referensi kadangkala dimasukkan untuk memberikan dasar informasi bagi pemakai.

Page 104

SPECIFICATIONS Specifications are documents for communication at the engineering, management, and purchasing levels. Specifications are contractual documents. The revision of a specification that is current at the time that a contract is signed and dated is the applicable revision. The main purpose of a specification is to convey the limitations of perfection or imperfection of the object being described. Between buyers and sellers, the specification quantitatively describes the object that the buyer is willing to accept from the seller. Component specifications may or may not contain specific acceptance criteria for each and every test and/or inspection of the component. Acceptance Criteria Acceptance criterias are included in some specifications to provide ranges, classes, and grades of quality that are acceptable. The acceptance criteria state the size and type of discontinuities acceptable in a specified area. In some cases, acceptance criteria only have one flaw size above which either the defect must be removed or removed and repaired, or the part must be scrapped.

SPESIFIKASI Spesifikasi adalah dokumen-dokumen untuk berkomunikasi pada tingkat engineering, manajemen, dan pembelian. Spesifikasi adalah dokumen yang berhubungan dengan kontrak. Revisi dari sebuah spesifikasi yang berlaku pada kurun waktu dimana kontrak ditandatangani dan diberi tanggal adalah revisi yang dipakai. Tujuan utama dari sebuah spesifikasi adalah untuk menyampaikan batasan kesempurnaan atau ketidaksempurnaan dari barang yang dijelaskan. Antara pembeli dan penjual, spesifikasi menggambarkan secara kuantitatip mengenai barang yang hendak diterima oleh pembeli dari penjual. Spesifikasi komponen bisa memuat kriteria penerimaan tertentu dari tiap-tiap pengujian dan/atau pemeriksaan dari komponen tersebut. Kriteria Penerimaan Kriteria penerimaan dimasukkan ke dalam beberapa spesifikasi untuk memberikan rentang, kelas, dan golongan kualitas yang dapat diterima. Kriteria penerimaan menyatakan ukuran dan jenis diskontinuitas yang dapat diterima dalam bidang tertentu. Pada beberapa kasus, kriteria penerimaan hanya menyebutkan satu ukuran cacat dimana cacat tersebut harus dihilangkan atau dihilangkan dan direparasi, atau barang tersebut harus dibuang.

Page 105

A MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING PROCEDURE On the next few pages is a sample procedure for performing a magnetic particle test. This procedure is typical of many found in industry. P-3650 (Rev. C), Nov. 1, 1980 Supercedes Rev. B, Jan. 14, 1978 PROCEDURE P-3650 STEEL CLEANLINESS BY THE MAGNETIC PARTICLE METHOD 1.0 Scope This document provides a procedure for magnetic particle inspection of the steel cleanliness specimens prepared in accordance with Procedure P-2468. 2.0 References PBA-1004 Aircraft Quality Steel Cleanliness Magnetic Particle Method PBA-906 Magnetic Particle Inspection Mil-1-6868 Inspection Process, Magnetic Particle SNT-TC-1A Personnel Qualification and Certification in Nondestructive Testing (1980 edition) P-2468 Steel Cleanliness Specimen Preparation 3.0 Personnel Personnel shall be certified in accordance with SNT-TC-1A, June 1980 edition. These tests shall be conducted by certified Level I personnel working to this procedure under the supervision of certified Level II personnel. 4.0 Equipment 1. Wet horizontal magnetic particle machine with fluorescent suspension 2. Betz Ring 3. 1-inch diameter copper bar, 12-inches long 4. 100 watt minimum pressure mercury-vapor black light 5. 100 ml pear-shaped centrifuge tube 5.0 Definition of Terms Stringers Nonmetallic inclusions in the steel Steel Cleanliness Specimen A steel specimen that has been machined in accordance with Procedure P-2468 Perimeter Perimeter of a square or rectangle is the sum of the four sides Magnetizing Current for a Square or Rectangular Specimen Cross-Section

X 1000
For example, for a bar 1/2" thick and 4" wide, the perimeter = 4 + 4 + 1/2 + 1/2 = 9; the amperage = 9/3.1416 x 1000 = 2964. Note: The next highest current available shall be used if current selection is not continuous.

Page 106

6.0

Standardization Prior to any test in accordance with this procedure, the pump on the machine shall be operated continuously for 30 minutes. A 100 ml centrifuge tube shall be filled with suspension taken from the exit nozzle to the 100 ml level and allowed to stand for 30 minutes. A range of 0.2 to 0.7 ml of particles shall be indicated in the tube. If necessary, the suspension shall be adjusted or changed to comply with the requirements of PBA-906. Conduct a slurry sensitivity test in accordance with Mil-1-6868, using the Betz Ring. At least 4 holes in the ring must be indicated at 2500 amperes on a one-inch copper bar. This test must be made immediately prior to the cleanliness test in accordance with this procedure.

7.0

Test Procedure 7.1 7.2 Cleaning Degrease the specimens to remove oil or antirust coatings in accordance with PBA-906 Inspection Using a wet continuous DC fluorescent particle procedure, start at the smallest size on the specimen and magnetize at 1000 amperes per inch diameter. To compute the amperage for a rectangular specimen, measure the perimeter of each step of the specimen and divide by 3.1416. The formula for the amperage of a 1 inch square bar would be: Amperage = 4/3.1416 x 1000 = 1270. (Note: The next highest current available shall be used.if current selection is not continuous.) The specimen shall be clamped between the contact plates and direct circular magnetism used. Magnetize one time, cover the part with suspension, stop the flow of suspension, and magnetize three times in a fast sequence. The magnetization shall not be less than 0.2 second. 7.3 7.4 7.5 On each successive step of the specimen, count the number of stringers and record on the record sheet as required by Paragraph 8.0 of this procedure. Repeat steps 7.2 and 7.3 for each step of the specimen. Post-Cleaning Wipe the specimen with a clean cloth to remove magnetic particles and oil, then wrap in paper.

8.0

Recording Procedure A separate recording form shall be used for each specimen. The form used shall be attached to this procedure. a. From the forms accompanying the specimens, record the Material Spec., P.O. Number, and Heat Number in the upper corner. Fill in the size of the largest diameter in "Size" in the upper corner. Fill in the date. Fill in the diameter of the first step in the first column. Compute the area of the step and record in the second column. The area of the circular cross-section = diameter x 3.14 x length of step. The area of the rectangular cross section step = perimeter x length of step. Count and measure the length of each indication on each step. Record the number of indications according to their length in the proper column. Add all of the indications for each step and record in the Sum column. Divide the Sum by the Area; enter in Sum/Area column. Add all of the Sum/Area entries and record in Frequency per Specimen column. Page 107

b. c. d.

e. f. g. h.

i. j. k. l.

Multiply the number of indications of each length range by the Progression Factor at the top of the column. Add all of the products for each step and record in the Total Product column. Divide the Total Product by the Area for each step and enter in Product/Area column. Total the Product/Area column and enter in the Severity per Specimen space.

m. If more than one specimen is tested for a single Heat Number, P.O. Number, and Material Spec., sum the Frequency per Specimen from each record sheet to obtain the TOTAL FREQUENCY OF HEAT. Divide the TOTAL FREQUENCY OF HEAT by the NUMBER OF SPECIMENS and enter in the AVERAGE FREQUENCY OF HEAT space on each record sheet. n. Similarly, sum the severity Per Specimen from each record sheet to obtain the TOTAL SEVERITY OF HEAT. Divide the TOTAL SEVERITY OF HEAT by the NUMBER OF SPECIMENS and enter in the AVERAGE SEVERITY OF HEAT space on each record sheet.

9.0

Sign each sheet in the lower right-hand corner.

Page 108

Page 109

CHAPTER TEN REVIEW

_______ 1. Which of the following would NDT Level I personnel normally use on a daily basis? a. The model specification b. Component quality specification c. The AWS Structural Welding Code d. The magnetic particle process specification e. Magnetic particle inspection procedures A document in wide-spread use by large segments of industry is entitled, Recommended Practice for Measurement and Control of Magnetic Particle Materials used in Magnetic Particle Inspection. What type of document i's most probably represented? a. Code b. Standard c. Process specification d. Maintenance manual e. Component quality specification Of the following, what type of organization most probably developed and issued the document referenced in question no. 2 above? a. A large corporation b. An industry association representing a number of corporations which all produce the same type of product c. A technical or professional society representing design engineers d. An association of magnetic particle equipment manufacturers e. A national or international consensus standards-writing organization Small parts are sometimes fabricated from engineering drawings that contain acceptance criteria in the notes on the face of the drawing. In such cases, what type of document does the drawing most nearly represent? a. Code b. Standard c. Specification d. Procedure During an audit, a magnetic particle inspector was found to be inspecting a particular part by a procedure that differed substantially from the one that was indicated to be used. On questioning the departure from standard practices, the auditor was informed that the inspectors procedure was better than the one required. As the inspectors supervisor, which of the following actions would be most appropriate? a. Immediately fire the inspector. b. Side with the inspector and inform the auditor that the inspectors procedure was probably better than the one required. c. Verify that the required procedure properly fulfills the engineering specification requirements and inform the inspector in writing that in the future he or she shall only use the required procedure. d. Verify that the inspectors procedure is better than the required procedure in that it is much more sensitive in revealing very small defects. Then, change the required procedure and compliment the inspector for being innovative. e. Report to the auditor's supervisor that the auditor is incapable of recognizing a better procedure being performed.

_______ 2.

_______ 3.

_______ 4.

_______ 5.

Page 110

_______ 6.

A customer's specifications for a particular part include a detailed procedure for magnetic particle inspection. Your facilities do not include equipment of the specific manufacture that the customer has required. However, as the Level II, you are familiar with the customer's equipment and can verify that your equipment is at least as effective. You are being asked to comment on the customer's procedure because your company wishes to bid competitively. Which of the following should be your recommendation? a. Management should be informed that your equipment, while different, has equal capabilities on the equipment specified and that you will prepare a procedure based on your equipment that can be sent to the customer for approval along with the bid. b. Since this situation represents an opportunity for you to get additional equipment, you should inform management that the only safe way to bid on this job is to promise to purchase the customer-specified equipment. c. You should recommend that the company not bid on the job because you don't have the proper equipment. d. You should inform management that after you get the job, you can work out the details with the customer. e. Inform management that it is inappropriate for you as a Level II to be asked to supply such comments, since such touchy situations should be dealt with by a higher level of responsibility. Of the following types of controlling documents, which is most likely to contain acceptance criteria for defects indicated by a magnetic particle inspection on a particular casting? a. Standard b. Component specification c. Code d. Process specification e. None of the above In the following list of document types, which sequence represents the order of documents with the most contractually binding listed first and the least binding listed last? 1. Magnetic particle inspection procedure 2. Magnetic particle equipment operators' manual 3. Engineering specification (component specification) 4. ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code a. 4, 3, 2, 1 b. 3, 4, 1, 2 c. 4, 3, 1, 2 d. 2, 1, 4, 3 e. 2, 1, 3, 4 One step in a procedure makes reference to a sequence of steps contained in another document without reproducing them in the procedure being used. Which of the following statements is true? a. The referenced document is for advisory use only; it i's not necessary to perform the steps included in the referenced document. b. It is improper to reference one procedure in another. The referenced document steps need not be performed unless they are reproduced in the document being used. c. The referenced document steps should be performed, but only if the inspector is familiar with the referenced document and can perform the steps without having the document in hand. d. The referenced document steps should be performed, based on oral instructions in the steps contained in the referenced document by the inspector's supervision. e. None of the above statements represent the proper approach. Page 111

_______ 7.

_______ 8.

_______ 9.

The following questions refer to the procedure P-3650, Steel Cleanliness by the Magnetic Particle Method. _______ 10. What specific inspection personnel should perform the magnetic particle tests of P-3650? a. Certified Level I working under the supervision of a Certified Level II. b. Certified Level II working under the supervision of a Certified Level III. c. A Certified Level I should perform the magnetizing procedure and a Certified Level II should count the indications and record the results. d. This procedure is of sufficient complexity that only a Level II or Level III should perform the test. e. This procedure should be performed only by laboratory personnel; they need not be qualified or certified as NDT Magnetic Particle inspection personnel. _______ 11. Procedure P-2468 provides for step-down specimens that have various step lengths. If specimens were received for testing under P-3650 that had step diameters of 1.0, 2.0, and 3.0 inches and step lengths of 3.0 inches, the areas of the survey surfaces for each step would be, for the 1.0, 2.0, and 3.0 inch diameter steps, respectively: a. 9.42, 6.28, and 3.14 square inches. b. 3.14, 6.28, and 9.42 square inches. c. 9.42, 18.84, and 28.26 square inches. d. 28.26, 18,84, and 9.42 square inches., e. None of the above is correct. _______ 12. Fluorescent particles are not readily available for these tests. Under which of the following conditions would it be permissible to use visible magnetic particles? a. Under no condition is it permissible. b. Visible particles may be used if the concentration as measured in the centrifuge tube ranges between 1.0 and 1.2 c. Visible particles may be used if the slurry sensitivity test produces indications of at least 4 holes in the Betz Ring. d. Any technique may be used since the procedure does not specify the use of either fluorescent or visible particles. _______ 13. From the manner by which it is referenced, PBA-906 is apparently: a. a component quality specification. b. a Code c. an internal process specification. d. a military process specification. e. a procedure for preparing test specimens for magnetic particle inspection for steel cleanliness. _______ 14. In order to reveal all of the inclusions of interest, the specimens should be magnetized by: a. AC longitudinal magnetization. b. DC circular magnetization. c. DC circular magnetization followed by three fast AC circular shots. d. AC circular magnetization. e. Both circular and longitudinal magnetization.

Page 112

_______ 15. A specimen was received for testing in accordance with P-3650. The specimen was 1.251 x 2.38 cross-section and 4.06 long. What minimum magnetizing current should be used? a. 1156 amperes b. 2311 amperes c. 4691 amperes d. 7260 amperes e. none of the above is correct. _______ 16. For the specimen in question no. 15, what is the area of the survey section? a. 3.84 in2 b. 7.26 in2 c. 9.38 in2 d. 12.08 in2 e. 29.48 in2

Page 113

REFERENCES
ASNT, NDT Training Program Magnetic Particle Method, Columbus, 1979. Eick, Charles W., ASNT Level II Study Guide Magnetic Particle Testing Method, ASNT, Columbus, 2003. McKelvey, Ed W., Level III Study Guide Magnetic Particle Method, ASNT, Columbus, 1980. Smilie, Robert W., Classroom Training Handbook, Nondestructive Testing Magnetic Particle, PH Diversified, Inc., South Harrisburg, 1995. Smilie, Robert W., Programmed Instruction Handbook, Nondestructive Testing Introduction, PH Diversified, Inc., South Harrisburg, 1995. Smilie, Robert W., Programmed Instruction Handbook, Nondestructive Testing Magnetic Particle, PH Diversified, Inc., South Harrisburg, 1997. Smith, Gordon E., Magnetic Particle Testing Classroom Training Book, ASNT, Columbus, 2004.

Page 114