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1
[x(n)] = x(n) x(n 1)
is connected with the nite difference given in the chapter as follows
1
[x(n + 1)] = x(n + 1) x(n) = [x(n)]
That is, [x(n)] is
1
[x(n)] shifted one sample to the left.
(b) (c) The average of the two nite differences gives
0.5 {
1
[x(n)] + [x(n)]} = 0.5[x(n + 1) x(n 1)]
which gives a better approximation to the derivative than either of the given nite differences. The following
script is used to compute
1
and the average
% Pr. 0.4
% compares forward/backward differences
% with new average difference
Ts=0.1;
for k=0:N-2,
x1=4
*
cos(2
*
pi
*
(k-1)
*
Ts);
x2=4
*
cos(2
*
pi
*
k
*
Ts);
der_x(k+1)=x2-x1; % backward difference
end
der_x=der_x/Ts;
Tss=0.0001;t1=0:Tss:3;
y=-8
*
pi
*
sin(2
*
pi
*
t1); % actual derivative
n=0:N-2;
figure(3)
subplot(211)
stem(n
*
Ts,der_x,k);grid
hold on
stem(n
*
Ts,der1_x,b,filled) % derv1_x forward difference
% from Pr. 0.2
hold on
plot(t1,y,r); xlabel(t, nT_s)
legend(bck diff,forwd diff, derivative)
hold off
subplot(212)
stem(n
*
Ts,0.5
*
(der_x+der1_x));grid;xlabel(t, nT_s) % average
hold on
plot(t1,y,r)
hold off
legend(average diff,derivative)
Copyright 2010, Elsevier, Inc. All rights reserved.
Chaparro Signals and Systems using MATLAB 0.7
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
30
20
10
0
10
20
30
t, nT
s
bck diff
forwd diff
derivative
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
30
20
10
0
10
20
30
t, nT
s
average diff
derivative
Figure 3: Comparison of different nite differences.
Copyright 2010, Elsevier, Inc. All rights reserved.
Chaparro Signals and Systems using MATLAB 0.8
Pr 0.5 (a) According to Kirchoffs current law
i
s
(t) = i
R
(t) + i
L
(t) =
v
L
(t)
R
+ i
L
(t)
but v
L
(t) = Ldi
L
(t)/dt so that the differential equation relating the input i
s
(t) to the output current in the
inductor i
L
(t) is
di
L
(t)
dt
+ i
L
(t) = i
s
(t)
after replacing L = 1 and R = 1. Notice that this d.e. is the dual of the one given in the Chapter, so that the
difference equation is
i
L
(nT
s
) =
T
s
2 + T
s
[i
s
(nT
s
) + i
s
((n 1)T
s
)] +
2 T
s
2 + T
s
i
L
((n 1)T
s
) n 1
i
L
(0) = 0
(b)(c) The scripts to solve the difference and differential equations are the following
% Pr. 0.5
clear all
% solution of difference equation
Ts=0.01;
t=[0:Ts:100];
figure(4)
for k=0:2;
if k==0, subplot(311)
elseif k==1, subplot(312)
else, subplot(313)
end
W0= 0.005
*
10k
*
pi; % frequency of source
is=cos(W0
*
t); % source
a=[1 (-2+Ts)/(2+Ts)]; % coefficients of i_L(n), i_L(n-1)
b=[Ts/(2+Ts) Ts/(2+Ts)]; % coefficients of i_s(n), i_s(n-1)
il=filter(b,a,is); % current in inductor computed by
% MATLAB function filter
H=1/sqrt(1+W02)
*
ones(1,length(t)); % filter gain at W0
plot(t,is,t,il,r,t,H,g); xlabel(t); ylabel(i_s(t),i_L(t))
axis([0 100 1.1
*
min(is) 1.1
*
max(is)])
legend(input current,output current,filter gain); grid
pause(0.1)
end
%%%%
% solution of differential equation for cosine input of frequency 0.5pi
clear all
syms t x y
x=cos(0.5
*
pi
*
t);
y=dsolve(Dy+y=cos(0.5
*
pi
*
t),y(0)=0,t)
Copyright 2010, Elsevier, Inc. All rights reserved.
Chaparro Signals and Systems using MATLAB 0.9
figure(5)
subplot(211)
ezplot(x,[0 100]);grid
subplot(212)
ezplot(y,[0 100]);grid
axis([0 100 -1 1])
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
0
0.5
1
t
i
s
(
t
)
,
i
L
(
t
)
input current
output current
filter gain
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
1
0
1
t
i
s
(
t
)
,
i
L
(
t
)
input current
output current
filter gain
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
1
0
1
t
i
s
(
t
)
,
i
L
(
t
)
input current
output current
filter gain
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
1
0.5
0
0.5
1
t
cos(1/2 t)
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
1
0.5
0
0.5
1
t
...+2 (2 cos(1/2 t)+ sin(1/2 t))/(4+
2
)
Figure 4: Left (top to bottom): solution of difference equation for
0
= 0.005, 0.05, 0.5 (rad/sec). Right:
input (top), solution of differential equation (bottom).
Copyright 2010, Elsevier, Inc. All rights reserved.
Chaparro Signals and Systems using MATLAB 0.10
Pr 0.6 (a) The distributive and the associative laws are equivalent to the ones for integrals, indeed
k
ca
k
= c( + a
1
+ a
0
+ a
1
+ ) = c
k
a
k
since c does not depend on k. Likewise
k
[a
k
+ b
k
] = ( + a
1
+ b
1
+ a
0
+ b
0
+ a
1
+ b
1
) =
k
a
k
+
k
b
k
Finally, when adding a set of numbers the order in which they are added does not change the result. For
instance,
a
0
+ a
1
+ a
2
+ a
3
= a
0
+ a
2
+ a
1
+ a
3
(b) Gauss trick can be shown in general as follows. Let S =
N
k=0
k then
2S =
N
k=0
k +
0
k=N
k
letting = k + N in the second summation we have
2S =
N
k=0
k +
N
=0
(N ) =
N
k=0
(k + N k) = N
N
k=0
1 = N(N + 1)
where we let the dummy variables of the two sums be equal. We thus have that for N = 10
4
S =
N(N + 1)
2
=
10
4
(10
4
+ 1)
2
0.5 10
8
(c) Using the above properties of the sum,
S
1
=
N
k=0
( + k) =
N
k=0
1 +
N
k=0
k
= (N + 1) +
N(N + 1)
2
(d) The following script computes numerically and symbolically the various sums
% Pr. 0.6
clear all
% numeric
N=100;
S1=[0:1:N];
S2=[N:-1:0];
S=sum(S1+S2)/2
% symbolic
syms S1 N alpha beta k
simple(symsum(alpha+beta
*
k,0,N))
% computing sum for specific values of alpha, beta and N
subs(symsum(alpha+beta
*
k,0,N),{alpha,beta,N},{1,1,100})
Copyright 2010, Elsevier, Inc. All rights reserved.
Chaparro Signals and Systems using MATLAB 0.11
S = 5050
((2
*
alpha + N
*
beta)
*
(N + 1))/2
5151
The answers shown at the bottom.
Copyright 2010, Elsevier, Inc. All rights reserved.
Chaparro Signals and Systems using MATLAB 0.12
Pr 0.7 (a) The following gure shows the upper and lower bounds when approximating the integral of t:
upper bound
lower bound
0
0.25
0.5
0.75
1
t
x(t) = t
0.25 0.5 0.75
1
Figure 5: Upper and lower bounds of the integral of t.
(b) (c) The lower bound for the integral is
S
=
N1
n=1
(nT
s
)T
s
= T
2
s
N1
n=1
n = T
2
s
N2
=0
( + 1)
= T
2
s
_
(N 1)(N 2)
2
+ (N 1)
_
The denite integral is
_
1
0
tdt =
1
2
The upper bound is
S
u
=
N
n=1
(nT
s
)T
s
= S
+ NT
2
s
Letting NT
s
= 1, or T
s
= 1/N we have then that
_
(N 1)(N 2) + 2(N 1)
2N
2
_
1
2
_
(N 1)(N 2) + 2(N 1)
2N
2
_
+
1
N
for large N the upper and the lower bound tend to 1/2.
The following script computes the lower and upper bound of the integral of t,
% Pr. 0.7
clear all
Ts=0.001;N=1/Ts;
% integral of t from 0 to 1 is 0.5
syms S1 n T k
% lower bound
n=subs(N);T=subs(Ts);
y=simple(symsum(k
*
T2,1,n-1));
yy=subs(y)
Copyright 2010, Elsevier, Inc. All rights reserved.
Chaparro Signals and Systems using MATLAB 0.13
% upper bound
z=simple(symsum(k
*
T2,1,n));
zz=subs(z)
% average
int= 0.5
*
(yy+zz)
giving the following results (the actual integral is 1/2)
yy = 0.4995
zz = 0.5005
int = 0.5000
(d) For y(t) = t
2
, 0 t 1, the following script computes the upper and the lower bounds and their average:
%% integral of t2 from 0 to 1 is 0.333
% lower bound
y1=simple(symsum(k2
*
T3,1,n-1));
yy1=subs(y1)
% upper bound
z1=simple(symsum(k2
*
T3,1,n));
zz1=subs(z1)
% average
int= 0.5
*
(yy1+zz1)
giving the following results, in this case the value of the denite integral is 1/3.
yy1 = 0.3328
zz1 = 0.3338
int = 0.3333
Copyright 2010, Elsevier, Inc. All rights reserved.
Chaparro Signals and Systems using MATLAB 0.14
Pr 0.8 The indenite integral equals 0.5t
2
. Computing it in [0, 1] gives the same value as the sum of the
integrals computed between [0, 0.5] and [0.5, 1].
As seen before, the sum
S =
100
n=0
n =
100(101)
2
= 5050
while
S
1
= S + 50 = 5100
S
2
= S
the rst sum has an extra term when n = 50 while the other does not. To verify this use the following script:
% Pr. 0.8
clear all
N=100;
syms n,N
S=symsum(n,0,N)
S1=symsum(n,0,N/2)+symsum(n,N/2,N)
S2=symsum(n,0,N/2)+symsum(n,N/2+1,N)
giving
S = 5050
S1 = 5100
S2 = 5050
Copyright 2010, Elsevier, Inc. All rights reserved.
Chaparro Signals and Systems using MATLAB 0.15
Pr 0.9 (a) If = 1 then
S =
N1
n=0
1 = 1 + 1 + + 1
. .
N times
= N
(b) The expression
S(1 ) = S S
= (1 + + +
N1
) ( +
2
+ +
N1
+
N
)
= 1
N
as the intermediate terms cancel. So that
S =
1
N
1
, = 1
Since we do not want the denominator 1 to be zero, the above requires that = 1. If = 1 the sum was
found in (a). As a nite sum, it exists for any nite values of .
(c) Putting (a) and (b) together we have
S =
_
(1
N
)/(1 ) = 1
N = 1
(d) If N is innite, the sum is of innite length and we need to impose the condition that || < 1 so that
n
decays as n . In that case, the term
N
0 as N , and the sum is
S =
1
1
|| < 1
If || 1 this sum does not exist, i.e., it becomes innite.
(e) The derivative becomes
S
1
=
dS
d
=
n=0
n
n1
=
1
(1 )
2
or that a new sum
n=0
n
n
=
(1 )
2
Copyright 2010, Elsevier, Inc. All rights reserved.
Chaparro Signals and Systems using MATLAB 0.16
Pr 0.10 (a)(b) We have that
0 < e
t
< e
t
for > 0.
% Pr. 0.10
clear all
% compare two exponentials
t=[0:0.001:10];
x=exp(-0.5
*
t);
x1=exp(-1
*
t);
figure(6)
plot(t,x,t,x1,r); legend(Exponential Signal, a=-0.5,Exponential Signal, a=-1)
grid
axis([0 10 0 1.1 ]); xlabel(time)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
time
Exponential Signal, a=0.5
Exponential Signal, a=1
(c) Sampling x(t) = e
at
using T
s
= 1, we get
x(t)|
t=n
= e
an
=
n
where = e
a
> 0
(d) The voltage in the capacitor is given by
v
c
(t) =
1
C
_
t
0
e
0.5
d + v
c
(0)
Copyright 2010, Elsevier, Inc. All rights reserved.
Chaparro Signals and Systems using MATLAB 0.17
with a initial voltage v
c
(0) = 0. Letting C = 1, we have
v
c
(t) =
e
0.5
0.5
|
t
0
= 2(1 e
0.5t
)
so that at t = 1 the voltage in the capacitor is v
c
(1) = 2 2e
0.5
= 0.79.
(e) Letting NT
s
= 1, the denite integral is approximated, from below, by
N1
n=0
T
s
e
0.5(n+1)Ts
if we let = e
0.5Ts
the above sum becomes
T
s
N1
n=0
n+1
= T
s
1
N
1
which is computed using the following script:
% compute value of Int (the integral)
N=1000;Ts=1/N;alpha=exp(- 0.5
*
Ts);
Int=Ts
*
alpha
*
(1-alphaN)/(1-alpha)
Int = 0.7867
approximating the analytic result found above.
Copyright 2010, Elsevier, Inc. All rights reserved.
Chaparro Signals and Systems using MATLAB 0.18
Pr 0.11 (a) The point (1,1) in the two-dimensional plane corresponds to z = 1 +j. The magnitude and phase
are
|z| =
1 + 1 =
2
z = tan
1
(1) = /4
(b) For the other complex numbers:
|w| =
2, w = /4 = 3/4
|v| =
2, v = + /4 = 5/4
|u| =
2, u = /4
The sum of these complex numbers
z + w + v + u = 0
(c) The ratios
z
w
=
1 + j
1 + j
=
2e
j/4
2e
j3/4
= 1e
j/2
= j
w
v
=
1 + j
1 j
=
2e
j3/4
2e
j5/4
= 1e
j/2
= j
u
z
=
1 j
1 + j
=
2e
j/4
2e
j/4
= 1e
j/2
= j
Also, multiplying numerator and denominator by the by the conjugate of the denominator we get the above
results. For instance,
z
w
=
1 + j
1 + j
=
(1 + j)(1 j)
2
=
1 j j j
2
2
=
2j
2
= j
and similarly for the others.
(d) y = 10
6
= j10
6
= 10
6
z so that
|y| = 10
6
|z| = 10
6
y = /4
Although the magnitude of y is negligible, its phase is equal to that of z.
Copyright 2010, Elsevier, Inc. All rights reserved.
Chaparro Signals and Systems using MATLAB 0.19
Pr 0.12 (a) If w = e
z
then
log(w) = z
given that the log and e functions are the inverse of each other.
(b) The real and imaginary of w are
w = e
z
= e
1
e
j1
= e cos(1)
. .
real part
+j e sin(1)
. .
imaginary part
(c) The imaginary parts are cancelled and the real parts added twice in
w + w
= 2Re[w] = 2e cos(1)
(d) Replacing z
w = e
z
= e
1
e
j1
so that |w| = e and w = 1.
(e) Using the result in (a)
| log(w)|
2
= |z|
2
= 2
(f) According to Eulers equation
cos(1) = 0.5(e
j
+ e
j
) = 0.5
_
w
e
+
w
e
_
which can be veried using w + w
obtained above.
Copyright 2010, Elsevier, Inc. All rights reserved.
Chaparro Signals and Systems using MATLAB 0.20
Pr 0.13 A long way to do this problem is by using the exponential expression for the sinusoids we have
cos() cos() = 0.5(e
j
+ e
j
) 0.5(e
j
+ e
j
)
= 0.25(e
j(+)
+ e
j(+)
) + 0.25(e
j()
+ e
j()
)
sin() sin() = Pr0.5j(e
j
e
j
)(Pr0.5j)(e
j
e
j
)
= 0.25(e
j(+)
+ e
j(+)
) 0.25(e
j()
+ e
j()
)
adding these two terms we get
0.5(e
j(+)
+ e
j(+)
) = cos( + )
Same for the other expression.
A short way is to consider e
j
e
j
= e
j(+)
. The product
e
j
e
j
= (cos() + j sin())(cos() + j sin())
= [cos() cos() sin() sin()] + j[sin() cos() + cos() sin()]
while
e
j(+)
= cos( + ) + j sin( + )
so that equating the real part of the above two equations we get the desired trigonometric identities.
Copyright 2010, Elsevier, Inc. All rights reserved.
Chaparro Signals and Systems using MATLAB 0.21
Pr 0.14
cos() cos() = 0.5(e
j
+ e
j
) 0.5(e
j
+ e
j
)
= 0.25(e
j(+)
+ e
j(+)
) + 0.25(e
j()
+ e
j()
)
= 0.5 cos( + ) + Pr0.5 cos( )
Now,
sin() sin() = cos( /2) cos( /2)
= 0.5 cos( /2 + /2) + 0.5 cos( /2 + /2)
= 0.5 cos( + ) + 0.5 cos( )
= 0.5 cos( + ) + 0.5 cos( )
Copyright 2010, Elsevier, Inc. All rights reserved.
Chaparro Signals and Systems using MATLAB 0.22
Pr 0.15 (a) Using the expression for the complex conjugate we have
zz
= (x + jy)(x jy) = x
2
jxy + jyx (j
2
)y
2
= x
2
+ y
2
since j
2
= (
1)
2
= 1. Likewise,
1
z
=
z
zz
=
x jy
x
2
+ y
2
(b) Instead of doing the multiplication using the rectangular representation, if z = |z|e
j
(polar representa-
tion) then we have that
zz
= |z|
2
= (
_
x
2
+ y
2
)
2
= x
2
+ y
2
because z
= |z|e
j
and so the exponents cancel out. In the same way,
1
z
=
1
|z|e
j
=
e
j
|z|
=
|z|e
j
|z|
2
=
x jy
x
2
+ y
2
(c) Using rectangular forms of z = x + jy, w = v + jq we have
(z + w)
+ w
= (|z||w|e
j(+)
)
= |z||w|e
j(+)
= |z|e
j
|w|e
j
= z
1
0
=
2
3
+ j1
(d) The integral
_
1
0
x
(t)dt =
_
1
0
(1 t
2
2jt)dt =
_
1
0
(1 t
2
)dt 2j
_
1
0
t dt = t
t
3
3
j
2t
2
2
1
0
=
2
3
j1
which is the complex conjugate of the integral calculated in (c). So yes, the expression is true.
5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5
25
20
15
10
5
0
5
Real part of x(t)
5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5
10
5
0
5
10
Imaginary part of x(t)
Time
5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5
25
20
15
10
5
0
5
COMPLEX Signal x(t)?
Time
Copyright 2010, Elsevier, Inc. All rights reserved.
Chaparro Signals and Systems using MATLAB 0.25
Pr 0.18 (a) Using Eulers identity
e
jn
= cos(n) + j sin(n) = cos(n) = (1)
n
so it is a real signal.
e
jn
n
1
1
0
1
2
3
Figure 7: The complex exponential e
jn
= cos(n) which is real.
(b) Replacing the sines by exponentials we have
sin() sin() =
1
4
(e
j
e
j
)(e
j
e
j
)
=
1
4
_
e
j(+)
+ e
j(+)
e
j()
e
j(+)
_
=
1
4
[2 cos( + ) 2 cos( )]
=
1
2
[cos( ) cos( + )]
(c) Similarly
cos() sin() =
1
4j
(e
j
+ e
j
)(e
j
e
j
)
=
1
4j
_
e
j(+)
e
j(+)
e
j()
+ e
j(+)
_
=
1
4j
[2j sin( + ) 2j sin( )]
=
1
2
[sin( + ) sin( )]
If = then cos() sin() = (1/2) sin(2) since sin(0) = 0. We have that T
0
= 2 is the period of sin(t),
cos(t) as well as sin(2t) (indeed, sin(2(t + 2)) = sin(2t + 4) = sin(2t)), therefore the integral
_
T0
0
sin(t) cos(t)dt = 0.5
_
T0
0
sin(2t)dt = 0
since the area under the sin(2t) from [0, 2], which is the above integral, is zero. Thus sin(t) and cos(t)
are orthogonal.
Copyright 2010, Elsevier, Inc. All rights reserved.
Chaparro Signals and Systems using MATLAB 0.26
Pr 0.19 In the previous problem we obtained
sin() sin() =
1
2
[cos( ) cos( + )]
When we let = in this equation, we have that
sin
2
() = 0.5[1 cos(2)]
and the integral
_
1
0
sin
2
(2t)dt =
_
1
0
0.5dt 0.5
_
1
0
cos(4t)dt = 0.5
since the area under cos(4t) from 0 to 1 is zero.
Copyright 2010, Elsevier, Inc. All rights reserved.
Chaparro Signals and Systems using MATLAB 0.27
Pr 0.20 (a) Replacing z
k
= ||
1/N
e
j(+2k)/N
in z
N
we get z
N
k
= ||e
j(+2k)
= ||e
j()
= for any
value of k = 0, , N 1.
(b) Applying the above result we have:
For z
2
= 1 = 1e
j2
the roots are z
k
= 1e
j(2+2k)/2
, k = 0, 1. When k = 0, z
0
= e
j
= 1 and
z
1
= e
j2
= 1.
When z
2
= 1 = 1e
j
the roots are z
k
= 1e
j(+2k)/2
, k = 0, 1. When k = 0, z
0
= e
j/2
= j, and
z
1
= e
j3/2
= j.
For z
3
= 1 = 1e
j2
the roots are z
k
= 1e
j(2+2k)/3
, k = 0, 1, 2. When k = 0, z
0
= e
j2/3
; for
k = 1, z
1
= e
j4/3
= e
j2/3
= z
0
; and for k = 2, z
2
= 1e
j(2)
= 1.
When z
3
= 1 = 1e
j
the roots are z
k
= 1e
j(+2k)/3
, k = 0, 1, 2. When k = 0, z
0
= e
j/3
; for
k = 1, z
1
= e
j
= 1; and for k = 2, z
2
= 1e
j(5)/3
= 1e
j()/3
= z
0
(c) Notice that the roots are equally spaced around a circle of radius r and that the complex roots appear as
pairs of complex conjugate roots.
Copyright 2010, Elsevier, Inc. All rights reserved.
Chaparro Signals and Systems using MATLAB 0.28
Pr 0.21 (a) The log (using the naperian base) of a product is the sum of the logs of the terms in the product,
and the log and the exponential are the opposite of each other so the last term in the equation.
(b) Using the above expression for the log of a complex number (log of real numbers is a special case):
log(2) = log(2e
j
) = log(2) j
log(1 + j1) = log(
2e
j/4
) = log(
+ e
) = cosh()
(b) The hyperbolic sine is dened as
sinh() =
1
2
(e
)
which is connected with the circular sine as follows
sin(j) =
1
2j
(e
> 0 then cosh() = cosh() > 0, the smallest value is for = 0 which gives cosh(0) = 1
(d) Indeed,
sinh() =
1
2
(e
) = sinh()
% Pr. 0.22
clear all
theta=sym(theta);
x= 0.5
*
(exp(-theta)+exp(theta));
y= 0.5
*
(exp(theta)-exp(-theta));
figure(9)
subplot(211)
ezplot(x,[-10,10])
grid
subplot(212)
ezplot(y,[-10,10])
grid
10 8 6 4 2 0 2 4 6 8 10
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
1/2exp()+1/2exp()
10 8 6 4 2 0 2 4 6 8 10
2000
1000
0
1000
2000
1/2exp()1/2exp()
Copyright 2010, Elsevier, Inc. All rights reserved.
Chaparro Signals and Systems using MATLAB 0.30
Pr 0.23 (a) Shifting to the right a cosine by a fourth of its period we get a sinusoid, thus
sin(
0
t) = cos(
0
(t T
0
/4)) = cos(
0
t
0
T
0
/4) = cos(
0
t /2)
since
0
= 2/T
0
or
0
T
0
= 2.
(b) The phasor that generates a sine is Ae
j/2
since
y(t) = Re[Ae
j/2
e
j0t
] = Re[Ae
j(0t/2)
] = Acos(
0
t /2)
which equals Asin(
0
t).
(c) The phasors corresponding to x(t) = Acos(
0
t) = Acos(
0
t + ) is Ae
j
. For
y(t) = Asin(
0
t) = Acos(
0
t /2) = Acos(
0
t /2 + ) = Acos(
0
t + /2)
the phasor is Ae
j/2
. Thus, relating any sinusoid to the corresponding cosine, the magnitude and angle of
this cosine gives the magnitude and phase of the phasor that generates the given sinusoid.
(d) If z(t) = x(t) + y(t) = Acos(
0
t) + Asin(
0
t), the phasor corresponding to z(t) is the sum of the
phasors Ae
j0
, corresponding to Acos(
0
t), with the phasor Ae
j/2
, corresponding to Asin(
0
t), which
gives
2Ae
j/4
(equivalently the sum of a vector with length A and angle 0 with another vector of length
A and angle /2). We have that
z(t) = Re
_
2Ae
j/4
e
j0t
_
=
2Acos(
0
t /4)
Copyright 2010, Elsevier, Inc. All rights reserved.