Nazi Experiments 1 Running Head: Nazi Medical Experiments

Nazi Medical Experiments & Ethical Research Karina Clerge R.N., B.S.N. Cath Hard!ic" R.N., B.S.N. #ndia Hughes$Hic"s R.N., B.S.N. #"u"eng M%a R.N., B.S.N. &inda Ngameduru R.N., B.S.N. Keir Reid$'(ung R.N., B.S.N. C(ppin State )ni*ersit Helene +uld Sch((l (, Nursing Nursing -.. Ethics /r. Emmanuel 0%ia"( 12 3ul 4.14

Nazi Experiments 2 Introduction Nati(nalism, the 5erman !(rd used t( deri*e Nazi, !as a ,(rm (, g(*ernment led % #d(l, Hitler during the Nazis6 regime. 0n 3anuar 7., 1277, Hitler ,(rced his !a int( the r(le (, Chancell(r (, 5erman . #cc(rding t( 8ither%ee 94..2:, the Nati(nalist (r Nazi part appr(*ed the Ena%ling #ct, !hich ga*e Hitler a%s(lute p(!er (*er the 5ermans. ;his included the p(!er t( in*estigate, detain, and punish !ith(ut trial. ;he Nazis6 primar g(als !ere t( impr(*e the 5erman arm during 8(rld 8ar << 988<<:, upli,t the 5erman s(ciet , and eradicate (ther races deemed in,eri(r t( the 5ermans. ;he Nazis %elie*ed that the 5ermans !ere superi(r t( the 3e!s, g psies, and %lac"s s( the targeted these racial gr(ups !ith acts (, *i(lence and hatred. ;hese pe(ple !ere captured, detained, and p(is(ned in c(ncentrati(n camps !here their rights !ere stripped a!a and the li*ed as the !ere t(ld % the Nazis6. &(cated primaril in =(land the c(ncentrati(n camps (riginated in Eur(pe. =h sicall gathered (r c(ncentrated in a single l(cati(n !as the %asis ,(r the name, C(ncentrati(n camps 9=(m(ni, 4.1.:. #cc(rding t( 8ither%ee 94..2: the H(l(caust led t( the massacre (, appr(ximatel six milli(n pe(ple in 5erman during the Nazi regime. ;he Nazis6 %elie*ed that 3e!s, g psies and %lac"s p(sed a threat t( the 5erman s(ciet . ;here,(re their primar g(al !as t( eliminate th(se races during the H(l(caust. ;he medical experiments !ere per,(rmed (n th(se pe(ple the Nazis6 %elie*ed t( %e in,eri(r 98ither%ee, 4..2:. ;he de,eat (, the 5erman arm a,ter 88<< ended the Nazi regime and led t( the capture (, the Nazis6 and the Nazis6 ph sicians. 0n 0ct(%er 4>, 12?@ in Nurem%erg, 5erman t!ent (, the Nazi ph sicians !ere trialed ,(r their r(les in the medical

Nazi Experiments 3 experiments during the H(l(caust. ;hese trials !ere c(mm(nl "n(!n as the /(ct(rs ;rials. Se*en (, the ph sicians !ere sentenced t( death !hile the (thers !ere ,(und guilt and sentenced t( li,e in pris(n !ith the l(ss (, their medical licenses 98ither%ee, 4..2:. ;h(se sentences ser*ed as Austice ,(r the cruelt and t(rture in,licted (n the pris(ners (, the c(ncentrati(n camps during the medical experiments. <n 12?>, as a direct result (, the *ari(us experiments per,(rmed % th(se ph sicians la! ma"ers de*el(ped the Nurem%erg C(de. ;his c(de is made up (, ten "e p(ints that guide medical experimentati(n practices (n human su%Aects. ;he essence (, the Nurem%erg C(de emphasizes the need ,(r in,(rmed c(nsent, *(luntar participati(n, and the imp(rtance (, su%Aect sa,et during %i(medical experimentati(n 9Burns & 5r(*e, 4.1.:. ;he Nurem%erg C(de ser*ed as the %asis ,(r the de*el(pment (, the /eclarati(n (, Helsins"i % the 8(rld Medical #ss(ciati(n 98M#: in 12@? 9Burns & 5r(*e, 4.1.:. ;herapeutic and n(n therapeutic research is di,,erentiated in the /eclarati(n (, Helsins"i. ;herapeutic research gi*es an (pp(rtunit (, high pr(%a%le %ene,it ,r(m the research n(! !hereasB n(n therapeutic research is c(nducted "n(!ing that the %ene,it ma n(t c(me until s(metime in the ,uture. ;he d(cument g(*erns internati(nal research ethics 9Burns & 5r(*e, 4.1.:. Purpose ;he purp(se (, this paper is t( pr(*ide in,(rmati(n regarding the Nazi ph sician6s %i(medical experiments and anal ze h(! the relate t( the ethical principles that are n(! in place. #cc(rding t( Burns and 5r(*e 94.1.:, the ethical c(nduct (, research has %een a ,(cus since the 12?.s %ecause (, the mistreatment (, human su%Aects % medical researchers during the H(l(caust. ;he Nazi medical experiments are regarded as the

Nazi Experiments 4 highest pu%licized unethical studies t( date. ;he ,(rmulati(n (, ethical c(des and regulati(ns that direct research studies, are a direct result (, the misc(nducts presented in the Nazi medical experiments 9Barnes & 5r(*e, 4.1.:. Bone, Muscle, and Nerve Transplantation Experiments ;he %(ne, muscle, ner*e and A(int experiment !as c(nducted ,r(m Septem%er 12?4 until /ecem%er 12?7 at the Ra*ens%urc" c(ncentrati(n camp, !hich c(nsisted (, m(stl !(men. /uring these experiments, secti(ns (, %(ne, muscles, and ner*es !ere rem(*ed ,r(m health su%Aects and placed int( (ther health su%Aects. ;he g(als (, these experiments !ere t( stud %(ne, muscle, and ner*e regenerati(n t( %ene,it the 5erman #rm mem%ers that !ere inAured during 8(rld 8ar <<. ;he Nazi ph sicians !anted t( see i, the %(ne, muscle, and ner*es !(uld pr(perl regenerate (nce placed int( an(ther su%Aect. ;he success (, %(ne, muscle, and A(int transplantati(n !(uld all(! the Nazi ph sicians t( replace lim%s l(st % the s(ldiers during %attle. ;hese experimental transplants !ere c(nducted !ith(ut the use (, anesthesia (r pain medicati(ns. Nazi ph sicians (,ten used the l(!er leg t( transplant smaller pieces (, %(ne. Each su%Aect that sur*i*ed the transplantati(n !(uld %e (perated (n se*eral times during the c(urse (, the experiment as l(ng as the su%Aect remained ali*e. Selected su%Aects recei*ed t(tal leg amputati(ns at the aceta%ul(,em(ral A(int. ;hese pe(ple !ere ,(rced t( participate in the experiment against their reCuests. 0nce the died their %(dies !ere disp(sed (, in a DpitE !ith n( regard. ;h(se !h( did sur*i*e su,,ered permanent, de%ilitating inAuries 9)S H(l(caust Mem(rial Museum F)SHMMG 4.11:. #cc(rding t( the Nati(nal <nstitutes (, Health FN<HG 94.11: (ne (, the three %asic m(ral principles that all ph sicians and scientist must adhere t( !hen experimenting (n

Nazi Experiments 5 human su%Aects is Austice. 3ustice re,ers t( the pr(tecti(n (, human su%Aects rights during medical experimentati(n. ;his principle assures that ris"H%ene,it and c(st are distri%uted e*enl thr(ugh(ut the experiment. /uring this experiment the ris" (, seri(us harm (r death (ut!eighed an p(tential %ene,it !hich in turn *i(lated the principle (, Austice 9N<H, 4.11:. Sulfanilamide Experiments +r(m 3ul 12?4 t( Septem%er 12?7 testing ,(r sul,anilamide and (ther drugs t( aid in the pre*enti(n (, in,ecti(ns su,,ered % s(ldiers in the 5erman arm !as the primar g(al ,(r the ph sicians at the Ra*ens%ruc" c(ncentrati(n camp. #s a part (, the stud the ph sicians deli%eratel in,licted %attle,ield$li"e !(unds (n the pris(ners. ;he !(unds !ere then intenti(nall in,ected !ith strept(c(ccus, tetanus, and gangrene. 5r(und glass and !((d sha*ings !ere ru%%ed int( the man made !(und %eds t( exacer%ate the !(und. <n (rder t( mimic the (ccurrences (, true !ar, %l((d *essels !ere tied (,, (n either side (, the !(unds. ;hese !(unds !ere incurred !ith(ut the use (, an anesthesia (r pain medicati(ns. ;he su%Aects su,,ered excruciating pain, illness, permanent disa%ilities and death 9; s(n, 4...:. ;he m(ral principle (, %ene,icence ensures n( harm is %r(ught t( research su%Aects during medical experimentati(n. ;his principle als( emphasizes ,reed(m ,r(m expl(itati(n. ;he su%Aects in*(l*ed in this experiment !ere at the merc (, the Nazis6 and the ph sicians used that t( their ad*antage. ;he principle (, %ene,icence !as *i(lated !hen the su%Aects %ecame *ictims (, deli%erate *i(lence % the Nazi ph sicians. ;he ris" (, ad*erse (ccurrence that !(uld result ,r(m intenti(nall in,licting an in,ected

Nazi Experiments 6 !(und (n a health indi*idual d(es n(t Austi, the %ene,it (, the research ,indings 9Beaucamp and Childress, 4..2:. High Altitude Experiments <n earl 12?4, at the /achau c(ncentrati(n camp human su%Aects !ere used % /r. Rascher t( test the limits (, human endurance at high altitudes !ith and !ith(ut (x gen. /r. Rascher attempted t( replicate the atm(spheric c(nditi(ns that the 5erman #ir +(rce pil(ts experienced during c(m%at !hen the !ere ,(rced (ut (, the c(m%at planes !ith(ut (x gen (r a parachute. ;he su%Aects !ere ,(rced t( participate in the experiment against their !ill. ;he experiment !as c(nducted % ,(rce,ull l(c"ing appr(ximatel t!( hundred su%Aects int( airtight, l(! pressure cham%ers and manuall altering the pressure t( simulate altitude pressures as high as @@,... ,t. 0nce the data !as c(llected ,r(m the pressure cham%ers /r. Rascher dissected the su%Aect6s %rains !hile the !ere ali*e t( n(te the changes that (ccurred in the %rain ,(ll(!ing high altitude exp(sure. H(!e*er, these dissecti(ns !ere d(ne under c(ntaminated c(nditi(ns, and !ith(ut the use (, anesthesia (r pain medicati(ns. ;he su%Aects that did n(t die during the experiment !ere later executed 9; s(n, 4...:. Each (, the su%Aects in*(l*ed in this experiment !ere harmed, highlighting the need ,(r the principle (, %ene,icence. ;he su%Aects !ere n(t a%le t( sel, determine i, the !anted t( participate in the stud . N(r did the recei*e an discl(sure (, the experimental details. ;he !ere ne*er gi*en the (pti(n t( !ithdra! ,r(m the experiment *i(lating the principle (, respect ,(r pers(ns. ;he !ere ,(rced int( the cham%ers and depri*ed (, (x gen !hile the experiment t((" place 9Spitz, 4..-:.

Nazi Experiments 7 T ins Experiment /r. 3(se, Mengele, M/, =h/ !as a chie, ph sician at the #usch!itz c(ncentrati(n camp 9C(ller, 4..@:. +r(m 12?7 t( 12?? he per,(rmed experiments (n appr(ximatel 1,-.. sets (, t!ins in the #usch!itz c(ncentrati(n camp. #ttempting t( ,ind a !a t( enhance and p(pulate the 5erman race, he searched ,(r the genetic reas(ning t( multiple %irths. # *ariet (, experiments !ere per,(rmed !hich included ,reCuent anat(mical measurements and (%ser*ati(ns, inAecting chemicals int( their e es t( assess c(l(r changes, dail %l((d dra!s that drained (*er a pint (, %l((d, neur(surger t( examine similarities in the t!ins spinal c(rd and se!ing the t!ins t(gether t( ma"e c(nA(ined t!ins. +(ll(!ing each experiment, data !as c(llected and interpreted, and then chl(r(,(rm !as inAected int( an sur*i*ing t!in6s hearts, "illing them instantl . 0ne th(usand sets (, t!ins !ere used during this experiment. H(!e*er, (nl t!( hundred sur*i*ed, and the sur*i*(rs su,,ered de%ilitating inAuries 9+re h(,er & H(rst 4..?B ; s(n, 4...:. ;he principle (, Austice !as (ne (, the ethical principles %reached during the t!ins experiment. ;he m(ral principle (, Austice re,ers t( pr(tecting human rights, ,air treatment t( all and %alancing c(st, %ene,it and ris" 9Beauchamp & Childress, 4..2:. +(rcing the su%Aects t( !ithstand pain,ul pr(cedures and surgeries !ith(ut anesthesia !as an inhumane *i(lati(n (, this principle 9; s(n, 4...:. /ue t( the su%Aect6s state (, impris(nment during the H(l(caust, the !ere una%le t( exercise an rights as citizens. ;here,(re, their rights !ere n(t pr(tected as the principal (, Austice emphasizes pr(tecti(n (, human su%Aect rights during medical experimentati(n 9#r(s"ar &/a*is, 4.1.:.

Nazi Experiments 8 Malaria Experiments +r(m +e%ruar 12?4 until #pril 12?-, a series (, Malaria experiments !ere c(nducted at the /achu c(ncentrati(n camp % /r. Klaus Schilling t( test *ari(us immunizati(ns and treatment (pti(ns ,(r malaria. ;he experiment intenti(nall in,ected health su%Aects !ith inAecti(ns (, di,,erent strands (, Malaria. 0ther su%Aects !ere exp(sed t( in,ecti(us *ect(rs 9m(sCuit(es: t( c(ntract the disease. 0nce the su%Aects !ere in,ected !ith the disease, the !ere treated !ith *ari(us medicati(ns t( test their e,,icienc . ;he medicati(ns used t( test ,(r treatment !ere n(t +/# appr(*ed, n(r !ere the sa,e. /uring the experiment, m(st (, the su%Aects %ecame ill, su,,ered and died. S(me (, the su%Aects died ,r(m the c(mplicati(ns (, the disease, !hile (thers died ,r(m the experimental drugs. ;h(se !h( did n(t die % the end (, the experiments !ere later murdered. 0*er (ne th(usand /achu c(ncentrati(n inmates !ere ,(rced t( ta"e part in the stud , and m(re than hal, (, the participants died as a result (, the stud 9+re h(,er & H(rst, 4..?:. /uring the malaria experiment (, the H(l(caust, the principal (, %ene,icence !as ign(red. ;he ris" (, in,ecting a health human su%Aect !ith a deadl disease !ith n( "n(!n cure !(uld put the patient at an increased ris" ,(r ad*erse (ccurrences !hich is n(t !(rth the %ene,it ass(ciated !ith researching the cure. ;he principal (, Austice relates t( ,airness. #ll %i(medical experiments sh(uld e*enl distri%ute %ene,its, ris" and c(st as much as p(ssi%le. ;his experiment had a high ris" ,(r ad*erse (ccurrence, c(st th(usands (, d(llars !ith(ut %ene,it ,(r an (ne 9Beauchamp & Childress, 4..2:.

Nazi Experiments 9 !ree"ing Experiment <n 12?1 /r. Sigmund Rascher !as searching ,(r a !a t( treat 5erman pil(ts a,ter extreme c(ld exp(sure (r a,ter succum%ing t( c(ld temperatures. His g(al !as t( disc(*er a !a t( pre*ent and treat h p(thermia in the 5erman arm during their %attle in the eastern ,r(nt. He c(nducted his ,reezing experiments (n pris(ners at the /achau c(ncentrati(n camp. Su%Aects !ere placed nude in c(ntainers (, ic !ater ,(r up t( ,i*e h(urs at a time, !hile (thers !ere ta"en (utside nude and strapped d(!n in the %itter c(ld. Changes in heart rate, %(d temperature, muscle re,lexes and (ther (%ser*ati(ns !ere d(cumented as the pris(ners su,,ered !ith the e,,ects (, h p(thermia. 0nce the su%Aect6s c(re %(d temperature reached a h p(thermic state, their %(dies !ere rapidl !armed using h(t sleeping %ags and scalding h(t %aths. #ppr(ximatel , 1.. *ictims died as a result (, this experimentati(n 9; s(n, 4...:. ;he pris(ners at the /achau camp !ere c(erced int( participati(n !ith(ut in,(rmed c(nsent (r the (pti(n t( !ithdra! !ith(ut penalt . ;he m(ral ,rame!(r" ,(r respect ,(r pers(ns and the Nurem%erg C(de emphasizes the imp(rtance ,(r *(luntar participati(n, and in,(rmed c(nsent !hich respects the su%Aect aut(n(m all(!ing each indi*idual t( ma"e their (!n decisi(ns 9Beauchamp and Childress, 4..2:. Sterili"ation Experiments ;he Sterilizati(n experiments !ere (rganized and carried (ut at the #usch!itz and Ra*ens%rIc" c(ncentrati(n camps ,r(m March 12?1 t( 3anuar 12?-. ;hese experiments !ere led % /r. Carl Clau%erg ,(r the purp(se (, mass sterilizati(n !ith minimal e,,(rt. ;he experiments !ere implemented using J$ra s, surgeries, and *ari(us drugs. ;he su%Aects als( recei*ed inAecti(ns c(ntaining i(dine and sil*er nitrate t( test the

Nazi Experiments 10 e,,ects (n their repr(ducti*e s stems. ;he ,emale su%Aects endured side e,,ects such as *aginal %leeding, se*ere a%d(minal pain, and cer*ical cancer. /r. Clau%erg disc(*ered that high d(ses (, radiati(n pr(*ided an eas and e,,ecti*e !a t( sterilize a mass num%er (, pe(ple in a sh(rt peri(d (, time. ;here,(re, the radiati(n exp(sure meth(d %ecame the techniCue (, ch(ice ,(r mass sterilizati(n. ;he radiati(n treatments !ere administered un"n(!ingl t( the su%Aects !h( !ere placed in a r((m and exp(sed t( the high le*els (, radiati(n. #,ter appr(ximatel three minutes (, the radiati(n exp(sure the su%Aects !ere deemed sterile 9Spitz, 4..-:. ;he sterilizati(n experiments *i(lated the m(ral principle (, respect ,(r pers(ns % !a (, n(n discl(sure. ;he su%Aects !ere placed in a r((m and !ere un"n(!ingl exp(sed t( lethal am(unts (, radiati(n. 0ther su%Aects !ere inAected !ith chemicals that led t( their demise !ith(ut their c(nsent. ;he Nazi ph sicians als( *i(lated the Nurem%erg C(de !hich emphasizes the imp(rtance (, in,(rmed c(nsent and sa,et 9Beaucamp and Childress, 4..2:. Sea #ater Experiments ;he sea !ater experiment !as an(ther t(rmenting experiment c(nducted % /r. Hans Eppinger at the /achau c(ncentrati(n camp in 5erman during the H(l(caust. ;he sea !ater experiments !ere c(nducted ,r(m 3ul 12?? t( Septem%er 12?? using 5 psies as test su%Aects. /r. Hans Eppinger tested di,,erent techniCues ,(r drin"ing sea !ater and n(ted the results (, each. ;his experiment !as d(ne t( %ene,it the 5erman #ir ,(rce and Na* during c(m%at at sea. ;he su%Aects !ere gi*en sea !ater !ith *ari(us chemicals t( drin" ,(r six t( t!el*e da s. ;he did n(t recei*e an ,resh !ater (r ,((d during the experiment. ;heir %(dies !ere intenti(nall deh drated and star*ed, leading t(

Nazi Experiments 11 deh drati(n and a sl(!, ag(nizing death. #,ter the experiment /r. Eppinger !as a%le t( rec(gnize the *ari(us stages (, deh drati(n the %(d experiences pri(r t( death. Scientist als( n(ted h(! much sea !ater the %(d can c(ntain %e,(re %ec(ming se*erel deh drated 9)SHMM 4.11:. /uring the sea !ater experiments the principle (, %ene,icence !as *i(lated % the ph sician6s !illingness t( harm and expl(it the su%Aects. ;hese su%Aects !ere ne*er a,,(rded the (pp(rtunit t( gi*e in,(rmed c(nsent (r exercise an sel, determinati(n !hich !as a direct in,ringement (, the principle (, respect ,(r pers(ns 9Beauchamp & Childress, 4..2:. $onclusion #s a result (, the h(rrend(us human experiments c(nducted % Nazi ph sicians during the H(l(caust, the Nurem%erg C(de 12?@ !as created. ;he c(nclusi(n (, the /(ct(rs ;rials all(!ed ,(r the de*el(pment (, internati(nal ethical c(des ,(r scientist and ph sicians t( use !hen experimenting (n humans. ;he Nurem%erg C(de !as the ,irst internati(nal ethics c(de that ad*(cates ,(r in,(rmed c(nsent. +(ll(!ing the experience (, the Nazi medical experiments la! ma"ers placed stringent ethical and m(ral standards in place t( pr(tect all human su%Aects during medical research 9Beauchamp & Childress, 4..2:. <n additi(n t( the Nurem%erg c(de and the Nati(nal C(mmissi(n ,(r the =r(tecti(n (, Su%Aects ethical principals ;itle ?- =art ?@ =r(tecti(n (, Human Su%Aect Regulati(ns !ere als( implemented. ;itle ?- =art ?@ emphasizes pr(tecti(n ,(r humans during research, in,(rmed c(nsent must %e pr(perl d(cumented, and the <RB pr(cess must %e implemented t( ensure the research is ethical 9Beauchamp & Childress, 4..2:.

Nazi Experiments 12 <n c(nclusi(n all (, the Nazi medical experiments *i(lated each (, the m(ral principals n(! in place in %i(medical ethics. 0riginall the 5erman militar !as l(("ing ,(r assistance *ia the medical experiments, during the !ar in disc(*ering ne! medicati(ns, pr(cedures, and healing techniCues ,(r their tr((ps. Re,erred t( as rats and li*ing (rganisms is !hat the Nazi ph sicians *ie!ed the c(ncentrati(n camp pris(ners. ;his thin"ing all(!ed the ph sicians t( experiment (n the pris(ners !ith(ut regard t( human li,e (r their !ell %eing. Each (, the medical experiments that !ere c(nducted *i(lated each m(ral, c(de, and ethical principal n(! in place t( pr(tect human su%Aects ,r(m such c(nditi(ns. ;he medical experiments that t((" place during the H(l(caust is the ,rame!(r" ,(r the current %i(medical ethical principles that are n(! used in practice 9Beauchamp & Childress, 4..2:.

Nazi Experiments 13

Re,erences Beaucamp, ;.&. and Childress, 3.+. 94..2:. =rinciples (, Bi(medical Ethics. 9-th Ed.: Ne! '(r": 0x,(rd )ni*ersit =ress Burns, N. and 5r(*e, S.K. 94.1.:. )nderstanding Nursing research 9-th Ed.:. St &(uis: Saunders Elser*ier. C(ller, B. 94..@:. ;he ph sician$scientist, the state, and the (ath: th(ught ,(r (ur times. Journal of Clinical Investigation, 11@91.:, 4-@>$4->.. +re h(,er, H(rst H., 94..?:. ;he Nurem%erg Medical ;rial: The Holocaust and the Origin of the Nuremberg Medical Code. Ne! '(r": =. &ang. /a*is, #. 3., +(!ler, M. and #r(s"ar, M. #. 94..2:. Ethical /ilemmas and Nursing =ractice 9-th Ed.:. N(r!al", C;: #pplet(n and &ange. Nati(nal <nstitutes (, Health. 94.11:. ;he Belm(nt Rep(rt. Ethical principles and guidelines for the protection of human subjects of research Retrie*ed 4? 3une 4.14 ,r(m: http:HH(hsr.(d.nih.g(*HguidelinesH%elm(nt.htmlKg(%. =(m(ni, C. 94.1.:. C(ncentrati(n camps during the h(l(caust. Retrie*ed 4? 3une 4.14 ,r(m Http:HH!!!.helium.c(mLitemsL11>>>44$c(ncentrati(n$camps$during$the$ h(l(caust. Spitz, M. 94..-:. /(ct(rs ,r(m Hell: The horrific account of na!i e"periments on humans B(ulder: Sentient =u%licati(ns. ;u,,s, #. 94..2:. Nazi !ar crimes and medicine -. ears (n. &ancet, 7?N92.7@:, 147?. ; s(n, =. 94...:. ;he experiments. Retrie*ed 4? 3une 4.14 ,r(m http:HH!!!.p%s.(rgH!g%hHn(*aHh(l(caustsHexperiments.html.

Nazi Experiments 14 )nited States H(l(caust Mem(rial Muesum. 94.11:. ;he H(l(caust. Holocaust enc#clopedia Retrie*ed 4? 3une 4.14 ,r(m: http:HH!!!.ushmm.(rgH!lcHenH. 8ither%ee, #. 94..2:. Chapter 0ne: Hitler6s Nazis. Holocaust, 1. Retrie*ed 4? 3une 4.14 ,r(m http:HH!!!.!(rldcat.(rgH!cpaH(clcH@1>.2>27LpageO,rame&urlOhttp P7#P4+P4+gri,,in.!su.eduP4+searchP>ES7P4+(@1>.2>27P4@chec"sum P7/%,4%@N,?d41Nc7@N?e,a.4>,7d%a72-d&titleO8ashingt(nQStateQ)ni*ersit P4CQ;ri$CitiesQCampus&lin"t peO(pac&detailOE<1P7#8ashingt(nQStateQ)ni*ersit P4CQ;ri$CitiesQCampusP7##cademicQ&i%rar .