EE 439/539

EE 439/539
EE 439/539
Basic
lithography
process flow
EE 439/539
EE 439/539
Defects kill yield and
drive up
manufacturing cost,
so defect inspection is
vital in the Fab.
EE 439/539
Crystal structure: How do atoms arrange
themselves to form solids?
Fundamental concepts and language
Unit cells
Crystal structures
Face-centered cubic
Body-centered cubic
Hexagonal close-packed
Close packed crystal structures
Types of solids
Single crystal
Polycrystalline
Amorphous
Crystal structure: How do atoms arrange
themselves to form solids?
Fundamental concepts and language
Unit cells
Crystal structures
Face-centered cubic
Body-centered cubic
Hexagonal close-packed
Close packed crystal structures
Types of solids
Single crystal
Polycrystalline
Amorphous
Types of Solids
Crystalline material: atoms
self-organize in a periodic
array
Single crystal: atoms are in a
repeating or periodic array
over the entire extent of the
material
Polycrystalline material:
comprised of many small
crystals or grains
Amorphous: lacks a
systematic atomic
arrangement
Crystal Properties of Solid
Three types of solids, classified according to atomic arrangement
(a) Crystalline (b) Amorphous (c) Polycrystalline
Crystal grains of a
ceramic material
Crystalline materials: The constituent atoms arranged in a pattern
that repeats itself periodically in 3-dimensions.
EE 439/539
Crystal structure
To discuss crystalline
structures it is useful to
consider atoms as being
hard spheres with well-
defined radii.
In this hard-sphere
model, the shortest
distance between two like
atoms is one diameter.
We can also consider
crystalline structure as a
lattice of points at
atom/sphere centers.
Unit Cell
The unit cell is the smallest
structural unit or building block
that can describe the crystal
structure. Repetition of the
unit cell generates the entire
crystal.
Example: 2D honeycomb net can
be represented by translation of
two adjacent atoms that form a
unit cell for this 2D crystalline
structure
Different choices of unit cells
possible, generally choose
parallelepiped unit cell with
highest level of symmetry
Crystals are characterized by a unit cell which repeats
in the x, y, z directions.
Face-Centered Cubic (FCC) Crystal Structure (I)
Atoms are located
at each of the
corners and on the
centers of all the
faces of cubic unit
cell
Cu, Al, Ag, Au have
this crystal
structure
Face-Centered Cubic Crystal Structure (II)
The hard spheres or ion cores touch one
another across a face diagonal the cube
edge length, a= 2R2
The coordination number, CN = the
number of closest neighbors to which an
atom is bonded = number of touching atoms,
CN = 12
Number of atoms per unit cell, n = 4. (For
an atom that is shared with m adjacent unit
cells, we only count a fraction of the atom,
1/m). In FCC unit cell we have: 6 face atoms
shared by two cells: 6 x 1/2 = 3 8 corner
atoms shared by eight cells: 8 x 1/8 = 1
Atomic packing factor, APF = fraction of
volume occupied by hard spheres = (Sum of
atomic volumes)/(Volume of cell) = 0.74
(maximum possible)
C
60
EE 439/539
Body-Centered Cubic Crystal Structure (II)
The hard spheres touch one
another along cube diagonal
the cube edge length, a= 4R/3
The coordination number, CN =
8
Number of atoms per unit cell, n
= 2
Center atom (1) shared by no
other cells: 1 x 1 = 1
8 corner atoms shared by eight
cells: 8 x 1/8 = 1
Atomic packing factor, APF =
0.68
Corner and center atoms are
equivalent
Hexagonal Close-Packed Crystal Structure
(II)
Unit cell has two lattice parameters a
and c. Ideal ratio
c/a = 1.633
The coordination number, CN = 12
(same as in FCC)
Number of atoms per unit cell, n =
6.
3 mid-plane atoms shared by no other
cells: 3 x 1 = 3
12 hexagonal corner atoms shared by
6 cells: 12 x 1/6 = 2
2 top/bottom plane center atoms
shared by 2 cells: 2 x 1/2 = 1
Atomic packing factor, APF = 0.74
(same as in FCC)
All atoms are equivalent
Semiconductor Lattice Structures
Diamond and Zincblende Lattices
Diamond lattice
Si, Ge
Zincblende lattice
GaAs, InP, ZnSe
Diamond lattice can be though of as an FCC structures with an
extra atoms placed at a/4+b/4+c/4 from each of the FCC atoms
The Zincblende lattice consist of a face centered cubic Bravais point lattice which contains
four different atoms per lattice point. The distance between the two atoms equals one quarter
of the body diagonal of the cube.
Identification of a plan in a crystal
Crystal Plans
Miller Indices (hkl)
1
1
/
2
1
1
1

(210)
z intercept at
a
b
c
x
y
x intercept at
a
/
2
y intercept at b
Unit cell
z
EE 439/539
Defects in crystal
Nothing in Nature is perfect, and crystals are no
exception. Any real crystal contains defects, and
these affect its properties in various ways.
Defects in diamond alter the color;
defects in semiconductors (of the right kind) allow
them to be used to make devices;
defects in metals alter their mechanical properties;
defects affect thermal and electrical conductivity.
Beneficial (crystal defects)
Deep states are added to increase the resistively ( > 10
6
-cm)
of semiconductor material used as substrates (semi-
insulating material). The best examples are GaAs:Cr and InP:Fe.
GaP is an efficient emitter of light. The red light is observed
if the crystal contains oxygen together with Zn or Cd. The light
is green if GaP is doped with nitrogen and the yellow emission
from GaP is obtained by Mg-O doping.
An increase of switching frequency in silicon junction is
obtained by added Gold as deep levels.
Sensitizing Centers have a large capture cross section for
minority carrier , and hence magnitude of photoconductivity, is
greatly increased.
Thus deep levels are essential for the designing of devices and for their
efficient performance.
Deep level defects may efficiently reduce the minority carrier-life
time. This is the main cause of the decrease in the energy
conversion efficiency of solar cells.
Deep levels may increase the leakage current of devices and also
deteriorate the efficiency of photovoltaics.
The performance of devices such as light-emitting diodes (LED ) is
degraded when the deep levels produce a parallel non-radiative
recombination path and act as a poison center.
Deep level can also act as a Donor or acceptor like , Trap, Killer
center and scattering center.
Thus reduction of deep levels is essential for the designing of
devices and for their efficient performance.
Detrimental (crystal defects) Point defects in semiconductors
A point defect in a crystal is an
entity that causes an interruption
in the lattice periodicity. This
occurs during due to following
events:
An atom is removed from its
regular lattice site; the defect is
a vacancy.
An atom is in a site different from
a regular lattice (substitutional)
lattice site; the defect is an
interstitial. An interstitial defect
can be of the same species as the
atoms of the lattice (it is an
intrinsic defect, the self-
interstitial) or of a different
nature ( it is then an extrinsic
defect, an interstitial impurity).
An impurity occupies a
substitutional site.
Foreign interstitial atoms


Self-
interstitial
Vacancy
Substitutional
Imurity
Substitutional
dopants
Foreign interstitial atoms


Self-
interstitial
Vacancy
Substitutional
Imurity
Substitutional
dopants
Point defects play critical role in impurity diffusion
and in ion implantation as well during space missions.
EE 439/539
Dislocations
Dislocations are line defects.
Simplest to visualize is an edge
dislocation
think of an extra half-plane
of atoms.
Affects deformation properties
to slide upper block over
lower now
only requires a line of bonds to
break at a time, not a whole
plane
process of slip. Explains low
yield strength of solids.
Sources:
i by stress due to temperature
gradient
ii agglomeration
Issues: anti-phase domain boundaries
(APBs)
1 m GaAs
Ge
APBs reduce reliability/performance
Planar shunt/diffusion paths
surface roughness
Zincblende III-V
(2 types of
atoms)
Group IV
(1 type of
atom)
A
P
B
= As
= Ga
= Ge or Si
Electrically active Ga-Ga or As-As bonds
APDs are a potential problem for any III-V/IV heteroepitaxy !!!
Crystal Structure Mismatch
Silicon Wafer
Manufacture
Packaging
Epitaxial
Growth
Oxidation
Photo-
lithography
Etching
Diffusion (Ion
Implantation)
Metallization
Fabrication Process Flow for VLSI Devices
Chip Fabrication Processes
Silicon Wafer Preparation
EE 439/539
Czochralski (CZ) Growth Method
CZ is more common
method to grow
silicon crystal today
because it is capable
of producing large
diameter crystals,
from which large
diameter wafer can
be cut.
Lecture # 4
Modern CZ Crystal Growth
The raw Si used for crystal
growth is purified from SiO2
(sand) through refining, fractional
distillation and CVD.
The raw material contains < 1 ppb
impurities except for O ( 10
18
cm
-3
) and C ( 10
16
cm
-3
)
Essentially all Si wafers used for
ICs today come from Czochralski
grown crystals. Polysilicon material
is melted, held at close to 1415
C, and a single crystal seed is
used to start the crystal growth.
Pull rate, melt temperature and
rotation rate are all important
control parameters.
Drawback of the CZ method
The only significant drawback
to the CZ method is that the
silicon is contained in liquid
form in a crucible during
growth and as a result,
impurities from the crucible
are incorporated.
in the growing crystal. Oxygen
and carbon are the two most
significant contaminants.
These impurities are not
always a drawback, however.
Oxygen in particular can be
very useful in mechanically
strengthening the silicon
crystal and in providing a
means for gettering other
unwanted impurities during
device fabrication.
V
pmax
= maximum crystal pull rate is inversely proportional to the square root of the
crystal radius.
EE 439/539
Modeling Dopant Behavior During CZ Crystal
Growth
Dopants are added
to the melt to
provide a controlled
n or p doping level
in the wafers.
However, the dopant
incorporation
process is
complicated by
dopant segregation.
K
o
is the segregation coefficient.C
S
and C
L
are the impurity concentration
just on the either side of the solid/
liquid interface.
f= Vs/Vo, a fraction of melt that has solidified
Doping concentration versus position along the grown CZ
crystal for common dopants in silicon.
Consider three cases: If K<1
If K>1
if K~1
EE 439/539
Curves for growth from the melt showing the doping
concentration in a solid as a function of the fraction
solidified.
Example-1
A ingot of single crystal silicon is pulled from the melt in a CZ process. The Si is
boron doped. After the ingot is pulled , it is sliced into the wafers. The wafer taken
from the top of the ingot has a boron concentration of 3 x 10
15
cm
-3
. What would
you expect for doping concentration of the wafer taken from the position
corresponding to 90% of the initial charge solidified?
Float Zone Growth Technique
CZ wafers are contaminated by O2 and C
from the crucible or graphite heaters.
This limits the resistivity to ~ 20 cm,
while intrinsic Si is 230 kcm.
Extremely high purity Si wafers are
made using float zone growth.
FZ does not use a crucible or carbon
heaters.
* More expensive.
* Carrier concentrations down to 10
11
atoms/cm
3
have been achieved.
* High purity needed for power
thyristors and rectifiers.
FZ Growth Considerations
Segregation and evaporation of impurities in the melt zone help
purify the Si further.
* Recall, if k < 1, then more dopants/impurities in the liquid than
in the solid.
* Thus, the impurities generally stay in the melt zone, and don't
solidify in the boule.
* You can "purify" FZ wafers further by successively passing the
coil along the boule. The impurities then segregate towards the
end of the boule.
Thermal instability in the melt zone can cause microvariations in
composition and doping.
Difficult in making a uniform dopant concentration.
EE 439/539
Crystal growth: Liquid Encapsulated
Czochralski (LEC) technique
The most common method for
preparing GaAs wafer for IC
application is the LEC technique.
The growth of GaAs from the
melt is significantly more difficult
than the growth of Silicon. The
main reason is the difference in
the vapor pressure of the two
materials.
At the melting temperature of
the GaAs (1238
o
C), the vapor
pressure of gallium is less than
0.001 atm, while the vapor
pressure of arsenic is 10
4
larger.
Liquid Encapsulated Czochralski (LEC)
technique
GaAS wafers are round and are limited to about 4" diameter
because:
GaAs has lower thermal conductivity than Si (0.07 vs. 0.21
W/cmK).
GaAs has a lower shear stress, and so heavy boules produce
more defects.
Using LEC, GaAs can be made semi-insulating (100 M cm).
Typically used for electronic devices
Disadvantage of LEC technique
The dislocation density in GaAs is higher than in Si and is of great
concern.
Under the same conditions, GaAs is more susceptible to dislocation
formation for two reason:
First, the bond in GaAs are not as stronger as in Si, so dislocation form
more easily. Second, the thermal conductivity of Si is about three-
fold that of GaAs. Therefore, it is more difficult to reduce thermal
gradients in GaAs crystals. As a result a GaAs boule is not able to
dissipate the latent heat of fusion as rapidly as a silicon boule.
Because of the difference in fundamental properties defect densities
in LEC grown GaAs is many order of magnitude larger than CZ grown Si.
It has also been suggested that while growing replacement of a Ga atom
with much larger indium atom creates a strain field that traps
dislocations
Bridgman Growth of GaAs
About of GaAs market is made this way.
Lower dislocation density than LEC and is commonly used to fabricate
optoelectronic devices (lasers).
Wafers are D shaped and are small --> typically 1" - 2" in diameter.
EE 439/539
Future Trends in Technologies
Silicon will be the dominant material used for ICs for as far into the future as
we can reliably see.
There will be increasing demand for larger diameter wafers since manufacturing
economics favor larger wafers and the resulting larger numbers of chips they
can carry.
It is also easy to predict that as device dimensions continue to shrink, in-
creasing demands will be made on wafer suppliers to reduce impurity levels in the
starting wafers or to tightly control these levels as in the case of oxygen.
The recently introduced MCZ should help in controlling wafer properties.
One of the change that may impact starting wafer in the future is the current
interest in Silicon On Insulator (SOI), which result a epitaxial layer.
The advantages of such a structure come about because the devices
are built in a thin silicon film on an insulator (SiO
2
in this case). This can
reduce parasitic capacitances and as a result, speed up circuits.
This process is know as SIMOX for separation by implanted oxygen
BESOI for Bonded and etch back technology
Clean Room
Clean Room
EE 439/539
Typical a person emit
5-10 million particle
Per minute.
Most modern IC plants
Use robots for wafer
Handling.
H
2
SO
4
+H
2
O
2
CO
2
+H
2
O
EE 439/539
Standard RCA cleaning procedure
Gettering
Gettering is a favorable mechanism observed in the presence of oxygen
at concentration near 10
17
cm
-3
.
When, prior to a device processing a silicon wafer is heated to ~1000
o
C
in N
2
atmosphere, most of the oxygen near the surface of the wafer is
removed by the atmosphere. Deep in the bulk of crystal , however,
oxygen remains at high concentration and precipitates as complexes and
acts as a sink that attracts impurities such as heavy metals.
Gettring can be also achieved by intentionally damage the back of the
wafer and then subjecting it to high temperature. The damage region
act as sink for impurities.
In GaAs replacement of gallium atom with a much larger indium atom
creates a strain field that traps the dislocations, effectively gettering
them from any active layer grown on top of the wafer.
EE 439/539
Intrinsic gettering
Generally, particles
On the order of the
Technology minimum
Features size or
Large will cause
Defect.
EE 439/539
Lithography
A light sensitive photoresist is spun onto the
wafer forming a thin layer on the surface. The
resist is then selectively exposed by shining
light through a mask which contains the
pattern information for the particular being
fabricated. The resist is then developed which
completes the pattern transfer from the mask to
the wafer.
Lithography comes from two Greek words, lithos which
means stone and graphein which means write.
writing a pattern on stone
Lithography
Lithography is the most complicated, expensive, and critical
process of modern IC manufacturing.
Lithography transforms complex circuit diagrams into pattern
which are define on the wafer in a succession of exposure and
processing steps to form a number of superimposed layers of
insulator, conductor, and semiconductors materials.
Typically 8-25 lithography steps and several hundred processing
steps between exposure are required to fabricate a packed IC.
The minimum feature size i. e., the minimum line width or line to
line separation that can be printed on the surface, control the
number of circuits that can be placed on the chip and has a
direct impact on circuit speed. The evolution of IC is therefore
closely linked to the evolution of lithographic tools.
EE 439/539
review
Basic
lithography
process flow-
chapter-5
Ten Basic Steps
of
Photolithography
1. Surface Preparation
2. Photoresist Application
3. Soft Bake
4. Align & Expose
*
5. Develop
6. Hard Bake
7. Inspection
8. Etch
9. Resist Strip
10. Final Inspection
* Some processes may include a Post-exposure Bake
Introduction to the Lithography
Process
Lithography Overview
While the lithography
concept is very simple, the
actual implementation is very
complex, because of the
following demands placed on
this process:
Resolution - demand for
smaller device structures
Exposure field - chip size
and need to expose at least
one full chip (8 wafer)
Placement accuracy -
alignment with respect to the
existing pattern
Throughput -
manufacturing cost
Reduction of defects
density - yield loss
0.7X in linear dimension every 3 years.
Placement accuracy 1/3 of feature size.
35% of total wafer manufacturing costs for
lithography.
Note the ???. This represents the single biggest
uncertainty about the future of the roadmap.
EE 439/539
Wafer Exposure Systems
Contact printing is capable of high resolution but has unacceptable defect
densities. Inexpensive, diffraction effects are minimize.
Proximity printing cannot easily print features below a few m (except for x-ray
systems). Poor resolution due to diffraction effects, required 1 X mask.
Projection printing provides high resolution and low defect densities and \
dominates today.
Typical projection systems use reduction optics (2X - 5X), step and repeat or step
and scan mechanical systems, print 50 wafers/hour and cost $5 - 10M.
electronic
interface
computer
Stepper
E-Beam Lithography
Wafer Exposure Systems
Photomask
A mask for optical lithography consists of a
transparent plate called blank, covered with a
patterned film of opaque material.
The blank is made of soda lime, borosilicate
glass, or fused quartz. The advantage of the
quartz is that it is transparent to deep UV
(365nm) and has a very low thermal
expansion coefficient.
EE 439/539
Photolithography
Three ways to
improve resolution
W
min
(also R is used
in the text)
We will derive this
expression and
analyze all the
different means of
reducing W
min
(also
R)
EE 439/539
An approach to improve resolution
EE 439/539
Pattern Generation using CAD tools
In a typical CAD system
pattern is designed with
a light pen on a cathode
ray tube. The output of
the CAD system is
usually in the form of a
binary data.
The data are first
translated into machine
language and then
transmitted to an
optical, electron beam,
or laser system and
finally design shapes on
the mask.
A laser pattern generation system
Projection Systems ( Fraunhofer Diffraction)
These are the dominant systems in use
today.
Performance is usually described in terms of
resolution
depth of focus
field of view
modulation transfer function
alignment accuracy
throughput

sin
61 . 0
) sin 2 (
22 . 1 22 . 1
n f n
f
d
f
R = = =
Where n has been included for generality and is the index of refraction of the
material between the object and the lens and R is the minimum feature size.
Two small adjacent features
on a mask
How close together
can they be and still
be resolved in the
image plan?

= K
1

NA
f
NA is the ability of
Lens to gather light.
The formula suggests
That decreasing the
and /or increasing the
NA are ways to print
a smaller image size.
Depth of the focus (DOF)
Aside from the difficulty of large
lenses, there is also a significant
draw back to using higher numerical
aperture (NA), of a lens. If is the
axis path length difference at the
limit of the focus, then the path
length difference for a ray from the
edge of the entrance aperture is
simply cos. The Raleigh criteria for
depth of the focus is simply that
these two lengths not differ by more
than /4 i. e.,
2 2 2
2 2
) ( ) ( 2
2
sin
,
2
)
2
1 ( 1
4
cos
4
NA
K
NA
DOF
NA
f
d
small is assume

= = =
= =

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
=
k
2
is usually experimentally determined.
(is a measure of how much of the diffracted light the lens accepts and image)
EE 439/539
Photolithography-DOF
The defocus tolerance (DOF)
Much bigger issue in
miniaturization science than in
ICs
A small aperture was used to ensure the foreground
stones were as sharp as the ones in the distance.
What you need here is a use a telephoto lens at its widest aperture.
Photolithography-DOF
This depth of focus is on the same order as the resist layer thickness itself.
Modulation Transfer Function
(MTF)
MTF is a measure of the optical
contrast in the aerial image by the
exposure system. The higher the
MTF the better the optical
contrast. MTF of an image can be
defined as
MTF increases with decreasing
wavelength.
For large features size MTF is unity.
As the features size decreases
diffraction effects cause the MTF
degrade to finally reached zero
when the features are so closely
spaced that there is no remaining
contrast in the image.
|
|
.
|

\
|
+

=
min max
min max
I I
I I
MTF
Partially dark
EE 439/539
Spatial Coherence
A useful definition of the spatial
coherence of practical light
sources for lithography is simply
S= light source diameter
condensed lens diameter
Practical light sources are not
point sources. Therefore, the light
striking the mask will not be plane
waves.
Typically, S ~ 0.5 to 0.7 in modern
systems.
Summary of wafer printing
systems
In the contact printing system , a very high resolution image is produced i. e.,
minimum diffraction effect.
In a proximity printing system, the resolution degrade because of near field
Fresnel diffraction effects.
In the projection printing system , diffraction effects are minimized by placing
a lens between mask and the wafer. And focus the aperture on the wafer.
It is clear from the figure that the resolution of the proximity system is
inferior to both of the other systems. This is why projection systems are used
in manufacturing today.
Discuss implications of following calculation for the technologist that must
manufacture transistors with 0.5 m features.
R R
Example
R
Photoresist Composition
The most commonly used positive resist consist of diazonaphtoquinone (DQ), which
is the photoactive compound (PAC), and novolac (N), a matrix material called resin.
Upon absorption of UV light, the PAC undergoes a structural transformation which
is followed by reaction with water to form a base soluble carboxylic acid, which is
readily soluble in basic developer (KOH, NAOH, TMAH etc.)
The base resin is novolac
a long chain polymer
consisting of hydrocarbon
rings with 2 methyl groups
and 1 OH group attached.
EE 439/539
Basic Properties of Resists: Contrast Curves
Two basic parameters are used to describe resist properties,
contrast and the critical modulation transfer function or CMTF.
Contrast is a measure of the ability of a resist to distinguish
between light and dark portion of the mask defined as ,
) / ( log
1
10 o f
D D
=
The higher the
contrast, the sharper
the line edge.
Resist with high contrast
Can actually sharpen up a poor
aerial image.
Example
Find the parameter for the
i Positive photoresist D
f
=90mJ/cm2
and D
o
=45 mJ/cm
2
ii Negative photoresist D
f
=7mJ/cm
2
D
o
=12mJ/cm
2
) / ( log
1
10 o f
D D
=
Critical modulation transfer function
(CMTF)
By analogy to the MTF (dark versus light intensities in the arial
image produced by the exposure system) defined earlier for
optical systems, the CMTF for resists is defined as
In terms of the contrast, can be written as,
In general CMTF < MTF is required for the resist to resolve the aerial
image.
There are often a number of additional issues that arise in exposing
resist.
0
0
D D
D D
CMTF
f
resist
f
+

=
1 10
1 10
1
1
+

resist
CMTF
EE 439/539
A 0.6 mm thick layer of a particular photoresist has D
0
=40mJ/cm
2
and D100 =85mj/cm
2
. (a)
Calculate the resist contrast (b) Calculate CMTF If resist thickness is cut in half, D
100
reduced to
70mJ/cm
2
while D
0
is Unchanged . What is the highest contrast possible in this resist without changing the
Resist processing?
Resolution enhancement techniques:
Mask engineering or wavefront
engineering
Sharp features are lost because higher frequencies are lost due
to diffraction. These effects are calculable and can be
compensated for.
The resolution of an optical system can be improved by
increasing the numerical aperture and reducing the wavelength.
Increasing the numerical aperture and reducing the wavelength,
however, decrease the depth of the focus. Further reduction in
the wavelength requires the development of new optical
systems and resist compositions.
It is known that in the sub 0.5m range, a perfect
image on the mask can, from diffraction effect, result
in a distorted pattern in the resist.
OPC mask attempt to reverse the situation by having
a distorted image on the mask that is design to,
produce a perfect image on the resist. A computer is
used to analyze exposure process conditions.
However, the use of OPC are so difficult that they are
unlikely to be implemented on a large scale in the
near future.
Resolution enhancement techniques: Mask
engineering
(1) Optical proximity corrections (OPC)
EE 439/539
Optical Proximity
Correction (OPC) can be
used to compensate
somewhat for diffraction
effects.
Sharp features are lost
because higher spatial
frequencies are lost due
to diffraction. These
effects can be calculated
and can be compensated
for. This improves the
resolution by decreasing
k
1
.
Photolithography- OPC
Resolution enhancement techniques:
(2) Optical Phase Shifting
Diffraction problem could
be more pronounced as two
mask patterns get closer
together
OPS uses phase shifting to
sharpen printed images.
These techniques can allow
existing exposure tools to
be used in manufacturing at
least one more technology
generation.
Unresolved pattern
When the angle of
illumination and the
angle of diffraction
are well matched, the
amount of light
diffracted can be
enhanced and the
contrast of the image
improved.
(3) Off-axis
Illumination
technique
Photolithography-NA
At the same time that exposure
wavelengths have been
reduced, improvements in lens
design has led to
improvements in the NA of
exposure systems lens, see
figure . In the mid eighties an
NA value of approximately 0.4
was typical, today 248nm
exposure systems are
available with an NA greater
than 0.8. The physical limit to
NA for exposure systems using
air as a medium between the
lens and the wafer is 1, the
practical limit is somewhere
around 0.9, with recent reports
suggesting that an NA as high
as 0.93 may be possible for
ArF systems in the future .
EE 439/539
The third element in the Rayleigh
equation is k
1
. k
1
is a complex
factor of several variables in the
photolithography process such
as the quality of the photoresist
and the use of resolution
enhancement techniques such
as phase shift masks, off-axis
illumination (OAI) and optical
proximity correction (OPC).
While exposure wavelengths
have been falling and NA rising,
k
1
has been falling as well, see
figure . The practical lower limit
for k
1
is thought to be about
0.25.
Photolithography- k
1
From the discussion to this point, the resolution limit for
193nm exposure systems may be calculated using the
Rayleigh equation with, l = 193nm, NA = 0.93 and k
1
=
0.25 or
From the above a highly optimized ArF exposure system
has an absolute maximum resolution of 52nm, sufficient
for 65nm linewidths forecast in 2005, but not capable of
meeting the 45nm linewidths forecast in 2007.
Photolithography-Immersion
Litho
NA is determined by the acceptance angle of the lens and the index of
refraction of the medium surrounding the lens. The physical limit for an air
based system is clear, but what if a medium with a higher index of
refraction is substituted for air? Microscopy has for years used oil between
the lens and the sample being viewed for resolution enhancement and it is
somewhat surprising that the semiconductor industry has taken this long
to seriously consider the merits of replacing air with an alternative.
Photolithography-Immersion
litho
Photolithography-Immersion
Litho
The medium between the lens and the wafer being exposed needs to
have an index of refraction >1, have low optical absorption at 193nm,
be compatible with photoresist and the lens material, be uniform and
non-contaminating. Surprisingly, ultrapure water may meet all of these
requirements. Water has an index of refraction n = 1.47, absorption of
<5% at working distances of up to 6mm, is compatible with photoresist
and lens and in its ultrapure form is non-contaminating.
EE 439/539
Next Generation lithographic
methods
Why is optical lithography so widely used and what makes it such a
promising method?
It has high throughput, good resolution, low cost and ease in operation.
However, due to deep submicron IC process requirements, optical
lithography has limitation that have not yet been solved.
Therefore, it is required to find alternatives to optical lithography. The
possible promising techniques are:
Electron beam lithography
Extreme Ultraviolet Lithography
X-ray lithography
Ion beam lithography
Schematic of an
electron beam
lithography machine.
Advantages:
Generation of submicron
Resist geometries
Greater depth of focus
Direct patterning on a
Semiconductor without
Using a mask.
Currently EBL is the
Technology of choice for
Mask generation due to
Its ability to accurately
define small features.
Disadvantage:
Low throughput
Next Generation Lithography: E-
Beam
oDiffraction is not a limitation on resolution ( < 1 for 10-50 keV electrons)
oResolution depends on electron scattering and beam optics the size of the beam, can
reach ~ 5 nm
oTwo modes of operation:
oDirect writing with narrow beam
oElectron projection lithography using a mask :EPL
oIssues:
oThroughput of direct writing is very low : research tool or low pattern density
manufacturing
oProjection stepper (EPL) is in development stage only (primarily by Nikon).
oMask making is the biggest challenge for the projection method
oBack-scattering and second electron result in proximity effect reduce
resolution with dense patterns there is also the proximity effect
oOperates in high vacuum (10
-6
10
-10
torr) slow and expensive
EE 439/539
The advantages of electron
lithography are:
(1) Generation of micron and
submicron resist geometries
(2) Highly automated and
precisely controlled
operation
(3) Greater depth of focus
(4) Direct patterning without
a mask
Next Generation Lithography: E-
Beam
The biggest disadvantage of
electron lithography is its low
throughput (approximately 5
wafers / hour at less than 0.1
resolution). Therefore,
electron lithography is
primarily used in the
production of photomasks
and in situations that require
small number of custom
circuits.
Issue associated with EBL: Proximity effect
In EBL the resolution is not
limited by diffraction
In EBL backscattering
causes the electron beam
to broaden and expose a
large volume of resist then
expected.
The proximity effect places
a limit on the minimum
spacing between pattern
feature.
SCALPEL

(SCattering with Angular Limitation Projection

Electron-beam Lithography)
EPL is e-baem with a mask for high-throughput
The aspect of SCALPEL which differentiates it
from previous attempts at projection electron-
beam lithography is the mask. This consists of a
low atomic number membrane covered with a
layer of a high atomic number material: the
pattern is delineated in the latter. While the
mask is almost completely electron-transparent
at the energies used (100 keV), contrast is
generated by utilizing the difference in electron
scattering characteristics between the
membrane and patterned materials. The
membrane scatters electrons weakly and to
small angles, while the pattern layer scatters
them strongly and to high angles.
An aperture in the back-focal (pupil) plane of the
projection optics blocks the strongly scattered
electrons, forming a high contrast aerial image
at the wafer plane
Uses very short 13.4 nm
light
All reflective optics (at this
wavelength all materials
absorb!)
Uses reduction optics (4 X)
Step and scan printing
Optical tricks seen before all
apply: off axis illumination
(OAI), phase shift masks and
OPC
Vacuum operation
Laser plasma source
Very expensive system
Next Generation Lithography : EUV
EE 439/539
Challenges:
EUV is strongly absorbed
In all materials.
Lithography process must be performed in vacuum
Mask blank must also be multilayer coated to minimize
Its reflection.
An extreme ultraviolet (EUV) lithography
system.
Schematic representation of a proximity x-ray lithography
system.
1nm
Problems:
Masks are the most
Difficult and critical
Element of an XRL system
lacking of photoresist
1:1 printing
High energy x-ray destroy conventional optics
Advantages:
Low diffraction
Shorter exposure time
Scattering is minimum
X rays pass through spots
Although all non optical lithography techniques have
100 nm or better resolution , each process has its
own limitations:
Proximity effect in electron beam lithography
Mask blank production difficulties in EUV
lithography
Mask fabrication complexity in X-ray lithography
Random space charge effect in ion beam lithography
Thermal Oxidation-Chapter 6
Basic Concepts
SiO
2
and the Si/SiO
2
interface are the principal
reasons for silicons dominance in the IC industry.
SiO
2
:
Easily selectively etched using lithography.
Masks most common impurities (B, P, As, Sb).
Excellent insulator ( > > 10
16
cm, Eg > 9eV).
High breakdown field (10
7
Vcm
-1
)
Excellent junction passivation.
Stable bulk electrical properties.
Stable and reproducible interface with Si.
EE 439/539
Uses of SiO
2
in Silicon Technology Silicon Oxidation System
Oxidation systems are the simplest types of semiconductor processing
Equipment. However, the effect to continue decreasing the size of VLSI
(MOS devices are <10nm thick) devices has in recent years demanded
very short high temperature steps. These issues have resulted in the
Investigation of RTO techniques for growing very thin SiO2 layers.
Rapid Thermal Oxidation (RTO)
In RTO the heat source is typically an array of halogen or arc
lamps in an optical system, typical temperature transition rates
range from 10
o
C/s to 350
o
C/s, compared to 0.1
o
C/s for furnace
processing.
One of the very difficult problem in an RTO system is in knowing
exactly what the wafer temperature really is.
Electrical defects found experimentally at the
Si/SiO
2
interface and in SiO
2
layer
Four charges are associated with
insulators and
insulator/semiconductor
interfaces.
Q
f
- fixed oxide positive charge
(dangling bond)
Q
it
- interface trapped charge,
positive, neutral, or negative
Q
m
- mobile oxide charge
Q
ot
- oxide trapped charge
(broken Si-O bond in bulk of Si)
EE 439/539
Physical measurements techniques
(destructive)
Etching (HF for SiO
2
layer),
AFM, STM, SEM, TEM
(resolution below 10nm).
All of these techniques required
sample preparation and as a
result are not well suited to in
process measurements on a
manufacturing line. They also
provide information on film
thickness.
SEM image
TEM image
Example
In an experimental structure in the following figure, a
phosphorus N
+
region is formed by ion implantation using a 50-nm
Sio2 mask. A metal electrode is then formed as shown and a CV
measurement is made in the region outside the N+ region. The
measurement gives C = C
ox
for all values of applied voltage as
shown. Explain what might have gone wrong in this experiment.
That is explain why no surface inversion is observed in the CV
measurement.
Linear Parabolic Model
(Deal Grove model)
The basic model for oxidation was developed in 1965
by Deal and Grove. It has been assumed that an oxide of some
thickness xi is already present on the Si surface. It has also
been assume that three steps are necessary for oxidation on
the silicon surface although only two of them are important.
F
1
F
2
F
3
Si+O
2
SiO
2
Si+2H
2
OSiO
2
+2H
2
Deal-Grove relation
Under steady state conditions these three flows must balance, F
1
= F
2
= F
3
. In
order to find a growth rate we need Henrys law , which says that concentration
of an absorbed species at the surface of a solid is proportional to the partial
pressure of the species in the gas just above the solid:
C
O
=HP
S
= HkTC
S
(7)
so combining equations (1-7) we can write as
Where h=h
G
/HkT
The growth rate can be determined by following equation
Where N
1
number of molecule of oxygen per unit volume of SiO
2
By using boundary (at time =0, x
i
=x
0
)- condition the solution of above differential
equation is written as
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
hG ks
D A where
1 1
2
D
x k
h
K
HP
C
o
S S
G
I
+ +
=
1
) (
0
2
+ = + t B Ax x
o
(8)
(9)
(

+ +
= = =
D
x k
h
K
N
P Hk
dt
dx
N
F
R
o S S
G s o
1
1
1
1
2
N
DHP
B
G
=
B
Ax x
i i
+
=
2

The parameters A and B are proportional to diffusitivity and follow an Arrenhious function.
the shift in time to account for initial oxide thickness.
(10)
EE 439/539
The Linear and Parabolic rate coefficients
(two limiting forms of Deal Grove model)
Case I: For very short oxidation time (thin oxides layer), the rate equation reduced to the
linear form
Case II: when t>>, the oxide is sufficiently thick, the rate equation reduced to the simple
parabolic expression,
B/A and B are often termed the linear and parabolic rate coefficients
respectively because of the x
o
and x
2
o
terms in which they appear. Physically,
they represent the contribution of fluxes F3 (interface reaction) and F2
(oxidant diffusion), respectively. SiO2 growth on a bare Si wafer usually starts
out with a linear x
x
versus x, which become parabolic as the oxide thickens.
In fact, B and B/A are normally determine experimentally by extracting them
from growth rate. The reason for taking this approach is simply that we usually
do not know all the parameters in Grove-Deal model equations. Ks (interface
reaction rate constant) is particular contains a lot of hidden physics associate
with the interface reaction. What we do, however, is compare experimental
values of B and B/A with the model equations. To test the reasonableness of the
liner parabolic model.
) (
/
) (
0
2
0 2
+ + = + + = + t
A
B
x t
A B
x
B
x
t B Ax x
o o
O
Bt t B x t
A B
x
B
x
o
+ + = + ) ( ) (
/
2
0
0
2

Analysis of the rate constants (B and B/A)
Experimentally, it has been found that both B and B/A are well describe by Arrhenious
expressions of the form
B=C
1
exp(-E
1
/kT)
B/A= C
2
exp(-E
2
/kT)
Where E 1 and E2 are the activation energies associated with the physical process that B
and B/A represent; C1 and C2 are the preexponential constant.
The physical mechanism responsible for E1 might be the oxidant diffusion through the
Sio2.
The physical origin of E2 is likely connected with the interface reaction rate constant Ks.
Ks really represent the number of process occurring at the interface.
10
9
B
Ax x
i i
+
=
2

) (
0
2
+ = + t B Ax x
o
EE 439/539
A p-type Si wafer with a resistivity of 10cm is placed in a wet oxygen system
to grow a field oxide of 0.45145m at a 1050C. Determine the time require to
Grow the oxide.
Problems in Deal Grove model: Initial
Oxidation Stage
A major problem with the Deal Grove
model was recognized when it was first
proposed - it does not correctly model
thin O2 growth kinetics (0-30 nm).
Experimentally dry O2 oxides grow
much faster for 200 than Deal
Grove predicts.
MANY suggestions have been made in
the literature about why. None have
been widely accepted.
Since modern technologies emphasize
this range of oxide thickness for
MOSFETs and capacitors, intense work
has been done to model the initial rapid
stage of oxidation.According to the
deal grove model the oxidation rate
should apporch at constant value i. e.
A
B
dt
dx
o
t
Lim
=
0
Instead, the oxidation rate increased
by a factor of 4 or more.
|
.
|

\
|
+ ) ( t
A
B
x
o
Effect of stress on Oxidation
Kinetics
Stress is created by two-
dimensional growth of oxide
and the resulting volume
expansion of the oxidize
region.
As the oxide grow the
newly formed oxide pushes
out the old oxide which
rearranges itself through
viscous flow.
Stress occurs typically on
curved surfaces, as
illustrated for the inside and
outside corners of a trench
in Si.
2D SiO
2
Growth Kinetics
Several physical mechanisms are important in
explaining these results:
Crystal orientation
2D oxidant diffusion
Stress due to volume expansion
To model the stress effects, Kao et. al.
suggested modifying the Deal Grove
parameters.
These models have been
implemented in modern
process simulators and allow
them to predict shapes
and stress levels for VLSI
structures.
EE 439/539
Local Oxidation of Silicon (LOCOS)
The ability to selectively oxidize the
silicon surface has become very
important in high density bipolar and
MOS processes.
The technique utilize for localized
oxidation of silicon are generally
refereed to as LOCOS processes.
LOCOS is widely used to isolate
region in Si, called active area, ,
where devices are constructed.
In the figure the role of pad oxide
is to relieve the stress transmitted
to silicon by the nitride at high
temperature. Typical LOCOS
thicknesses are in the range of 250-
800nm.
The penetration of the oxide underneath
the nitride results in a birds beak
structure, which loss the geometry so
minimization of the birds beak
phenomenon is control in VLSI structure,
an important goal in VLSI process design.
EE 439/539
Chapter 7: Dopant Diffusion
High temperature diffusion has historically been one
of the most important processing steps used in
fabrication of monolithic integrated circuits (IC).
Today, diffusion is used in the formation of deep
layers exceeding few tenths of micron in depth.
Therefore we must study diffusion process in order
to understand its limitation and various problems
associated with redistribution of impurities.
In this chapter we will discuss and explore
theoretical and practical aspects of the diffusion
process.
Diffusion: Basic Concepts
Diffusion is the redistribution of atoms from
regions of high concentration of mobile
species to regions of low concentration.
It occurs at all temperatures, but the
diffusivity has an exponential dependence on
T.
Diffusivity, a property that describe the
ease with which they move through the
medium.
The driving force of diffusion is the
concentration gradient.
Dopant Solid Solubility
Dopants are soluble in bulk silicon up to a maximum value before
they precipitate into another phase.
Discrepancy in dopant concentration: an
example
Dopants may have an electrical solubility that is
different than the solid solubility.
Two electrons form
a dangling bond
And do not contribute free electrons to the crystal
EE 439/539
Ficks first law diffusion equation (cont.)
Ficks first law is mathematically
described by the equation,
Proportionality constant is the
diffusivity D in cm
2
sec -1 . D is
related to atomic hops over an
energy barrier (formation and
migration of mobile species) and
is exponentially activated. D is
isotropic in the silicon lattice.
Negative sign indicates that
the flow is down the
concentration gradient.
x
t x C
D F

=
) , (
x
t x C
D J

=
) , (
Analytic Solutions of Ficks Laws:
Limited Source:
Consider a fixed dose Q,
introduced as a delta
function at the origin.
The solution that satisfies
Ficks second law is
Important consequences:
1. Dose Q remains constant
2. Peak concentration
decreases as 1/ t
3. Diffusion distance from
origin increases as 2 Dt
Introduced a spike of
dopant in the middle of
Lightly doped region.
The factor 2Dt is often termed as the
Diffusion length (how far the dopant has diffused?).
Analytic Solutions of Ficks Laws:
Limitted Source Near A Surface
This solution is also
called drive in diffusion.
In this case initial
amount of impurity Q
T
is
introduced into the
wafer subject the
boundary condition that
Q
T
is fixed.
Analytic Solutions of Ficks Laws:
constant Source Near A Surface
This condition is correspond to
putting a heavily doped epitaxial
layer on a lightly doped wafer.
The solution which satisfies
Ficks law is given by ,
Important consequences of Error
function solution:
Symmetry about mid-point allows
solution for constant surface
concentration to be derived.
Dose beyond x=0 continues to
increase with annealing time.
EE 439/539
Intrinsic diffusion coefficients
Intrinsic dopant diffusion coefficients
are found to be of the form,
Where is the activation energy of
the neutral vacancy and D
o
is the
measure of the frequency with which
an atom attempts to make a jump
over the barrier (10
13
-10
14
Hz).
The exponential term which represent
the probability that an atom will
have an energy equal to or in access
of the activation energy.
EA
Note the "slow" and "fast" diffusers. Solubility is also an issue in choosing a
dopant for a particular application.
3.2 Atomic Scale Diffusion: Fairs
vacancy model
Many effects that are very
important experimentally, cannot be
explained by the macroscopic
models discussed so far. Thus we
need to look deeper at atomic scale
effects.
In the vacancy model, vacancy can
be neutral (V
o
), positively charged by
donating an electron (V+), double
positively charged by donating two
electrons (V
++
), negatively charged
by accepting an electron (V
-
), double
negatively charged by accepting two
electrons (V
=
). However, the
probability for high level charged is
very low. Due to these probabilities,
the most general expression for the
diffusion coefficient in the vacancy
model is given by,
.... .......
2
2
3
3
2
2
D
n
p
D
n
p
D
n
n
D
n
n
D
n
n
D D
i i i i i
o
(

+ + +
(

+
(

+ + =
+
For substrate with excess free
Electron (n-type), positive charge term
can be neglected and for substrate
with excess free holes(p-type) the negati
charge terms can be neglected.
Concentration Dependent Diffusivity
.... .......
2
2
3
3
2
2
D
n
p
D
n
p
D
n
n
D
n
n
D
n
n
D D
i i i i i
o
(

+ + +
(

+
(

+ + =
+
The dash line show the erfc profiles. The solid lines are numerical
simulation which agree with experimental results
At high doping
concentrations, the
diffusivity
appears to increase.
Fick's equation must
then be solved
numerically since D
constant.
EE 439/539
Example
.... .......
2
2
3
3
2
2
D
n
p
D
n
p
D
n
n
D
n
n
D
n
n
D D
i i i i i
o
(

+ + +
(

+
(

+ + =
+
kT E o
o
o
o
a
e D D
/
=
The surface of a silicon wafer has a region that is uniformly doped with boron at the
concentration of 10
18
cm
-3
. This layer is 20 angstroms thick (1 angstrom = 10
-4
micrometer
= 10
-8
cm). The entire wafer, including this region, is uniformly doped with arsenic at a
concentration of 10
15
cm
-3
. The surface of the wafer is sealed and it is heated at 1000 degrees
Celsius for 30 minutes. Assume intrinsic diffusion.
a) Find the concentration of boron at the surface after the anneal.
b) Find the junction depth (boron concentration equal to arsenic concentration) after the
anneal.

Solution:
3.6a) This is a drive-in diffusion
sec
10 * 0 . 9 *
sec
41 . 0 *
sec
037 . 0
, * ) , (
2
2
15 1273 / 46 . 3
2
1273 / 46 . 3
2
4 /
cm
e
cm
e
cm
D
where e
Dt
Q
t x C
K eV K eV
Dt x T

= + =
=

At the surface of the wafer, x=0
3 16
10 * 8 . 2 ) , 0 (

= = cm
Dt
Q
t C
T

3.6b)
m
Dt C
Q
Dt x
sub
T
J

15 . 0 ln * 4 =
(
(

=
EE 439/539
Correction to simple theory: Electric
field effect
When the doping is higher
than n
i
at the diffusion
temperature, -field effects
become important.
The origin of the field comes
from the higher mobility of
the electrons and holes
compared to dopant atoms.
x
C
h D J

+ = ) 1 (
h is the field enhancement term. When C>>n
i
h2
A silicon wafer was doped in a 1000
o
C predeposition diffusion with phosphorus to its solid solubility limit. The
process time was 20 min. After the predeposition, the surface of the silicon was sealed and 1100
o
C drive in
was done. Find the drive in time necessary to obtained a junction depth of 4.0 micron. Assume a substrate
concentration of 10
17
cm
-3
. What is the surface concentration after the drive in?
(ref table 3.2)
(3.14)
(predeposition flux)
(3.19)
Ref fig 3.7
EE 439/539
Diffusion vs ion implantation
Ion implantation became the dominant doping method by the mid 1970s
and Continues to be so today.
The new emerging method for dopant diffusion is rapid thermal
processing
Comparison of (a) diffusion and (b) ion-implantation
techniques for the selective introduction of dopants into the
semiconductor substrate.
Chapter-7: Diffusion
Chapter-8
Ion-implantation
Five problems in thermal diffusion
process (chapter -7)
Lateral diffusion
Ultra thin junction
Poor doping control
Surface contamination interference
Dislocation generation
Ion Implantation drawbacks
There are also some significant
disadvantages:
Damage to crystal
Anomalous transient enhanced
diffusion (TED) upon annealing the
damage
Charging of insulating layers
Channeling
2
EE 439/539
Example : Mass Resolution
(

+ =

sin cos 1
2
1
R
L
M
M
R
D
5
Implant Profiles
Ion implantation is a
random process.
High energy ions (1-
1000keV) bombard
the substrate and
lose energy through
nuclear collisions
and electronic drag
forces.
6
Range distribution
The average depth below the surface an ion
penetrate is called the mean projected range
R
P
. This depth is typically shorter than the
actual distance the ion travels.
Some ion stop at a depth smaller than R
P
, and
other at a depth larger than R
P
. The
distribution about R
P
can be approximated by
a Gaussian with a standard deviation, or
straggle, R
P
can be estimated by,
Where Mi and Mt are the masses for incident
and target ion
The implanted ion also scatter laterally
around the impact point, which can also
approximated by Gaussian distribution with
transverse straggle, RT.
(
(

+

t i
t i
p p
M M
M M
R R
3
2
EE 439/539
Mathematical model for ion implantation
Profiles can often be
described by a Gaussian
distribution, with a projected
range and standard
deviation. (200KeV implants
shown in the Fig.)
|
|
.
|

\
|

=
p
p
p
R
R x
R
x N
2
2
2
) (
exp
2
) (

Where R
P
is the project range and R
P
is the
standard deviation of the projected
range and is dose.
The total number of ion implanted (dose)
can be also written as
This provide a useful relationship between
The dose and the peak concentration of the
Implant.
p p
C R = 2
C
P
is the peak concentration.
7
Fig. 6.20el
Range and implanted struggle (R
P
)
EE 439/539
A 30-KeV implant of B
11
is done into a bare silicon
The dose is 10
12
cm
-2
(a) What is the depth of peak
of implanted profile?
(b) What is the concentration
At this depth?
what is the concentration
at depth of 3000A
o
?
(d) The measured concentration
is found to be an order of magnitude
larger than the value predicted in part
although the profile agrees with
answers (a) and (b). Give a possible
explanation, assuming that the
measured value is correct.
Example
Lateral Spread of Implanted Ions
When a mask is used to implant
selective regions of the wafer,
there is also lateral scattering
perpendicular to the path of the
incident beam that causes a
transverse spread, R
T
, of
implanted ion from the mask
edge.
As the dimension of the modern
MOS devices shrink, RT.
becomes very important.
Deviation from the Gaussian Theory (Skewness)
When light ions such as boron,
impact atoms of the silicon target,
they experience a relatively large
amount of backward scattering and
fill in the distribution on the front
side of the peak.
Heavy atoms such as antimony,
experience a large amount of
forward scattering and tend to fill in
the profile on the substrate side of
the peak.
The different skewnress can be
visualized by thinking of forward
momentum.
A number of model has been
proposed to explain this behavior.
The most common one is known as
Pearson Type IV.
Implants in Real Silicon - Channeling
At least until it is damaged by
the implant, Si is a crystalline
material.
Channeling can produce
unexpectedly deep
profiles.
EE 439/539
Minimizing channeling. (a) Implantation through an
amorphous oxide layer.
(b) Misorientation of the beam direction to all crystal axes. (c)
Pre-damage on the crystal surfaces.
Modeling of range statistics:
Energy loss mechanism
The total energy loss during an ion trajectory is given by the
sum of nuclear and electronic losses.
The stopping power of the target is the loss of energy per unit
distance dE/dx, define as,
Where E is the ion energy Sn the nuclear stopping power Se the
electronic stopping power N, the density of the atom in the
Target material. R is the ion range.
Nuclear Stopping
If the ion and the target atoms
were bare nuclei, the scattering
potential would be given by simple
Coulomb potential. Because of
electron which surround the target
nucleus, the full effect of the
positive core potential is screened
from the incoming ion and is given by
modified Thomas-Fermi model of the
atom,
Where a is some screening distance.
The energy loss of the incident ion per unit
Length S
n
depends on the ion energy.
The nuclear energy loss is small at very
high energies, because fast particle have
Less interaction time with the scattering nucleus.
Thus the nuclear energy loss tends to
dominant to wards the end of the range
when ion has lost much of its energy
and where nuclear collisions produced most
Of the damage.
Where m
1
, Z
1
refer to the ion and m
2
, Z
2
=substrate atom mass and atomic number
Electron Stopping
Drag force caused by charged
ion in "sea" of electrons (non-
local electronic stopping). These
collisions are inelastic and result
in small energy losses in which
the electron are excited or
ejected from their shells and
then dissipate their energy
through thermal vibration of the
target.
Since electron stopping depends
directly on the ion velocity, we
can write
C and k are parameters depend
on ion, the substrate.
Local electron interaction
EE 439/539
Density and distribution of displaced
atoms
An implanted ion can increase the number of recoil atoms only if
it possesses an energy greater than 2E
d
(why?), where E
d
is the
minimum energy required to break four covalent bonds and
dislodge a lattice atom is called threshold energy or
displacement (for Si, E
d
~15eV). When the energy of the incident
ion or secondary knocked on atom reach Ed, they can be
considered stopped, because if they do damage to transfer all
their energy to a lattice atom, they can cause a single
displacement but remain at rest in the lattice position
themselves.
Thus the number of displaced atoms created by an energetic
particle can be estimated by
N=E
n
/2E
d
,where E
n
is the energy lost in nuclear
collisions
.
Example
How many displaced lattice
atoms are created by a single
incident 30 keV arsenic atom?
Solution:
N=30,000/2 X 15=1000
displaced atoms
Thus , each incident arsenic ion
creates a trail or cascade of
1000 displaced atoms.
It is to be noted that for a
heavy ion like arsenic, this
energy is mainly dissipated due
to nuclear collisions. How about
lighter ion (i.e. boron)?
Damage annealing
Goals:
Remove primary damage created by
the implant and activate the
dopants.
Restore silicon lattice to its perfect
crystalline state.
Restore the electron and hole
mobility.
Do this without appreciable dopant
redistribution.
Bulk and surface recombination take
place on a short time scale.
The origin of the interstitial type
defects is from the extra dopant
atom introduced into the lattice.
This gives rise +1 model.
Monte Carlo simulation of the recombination
of I and V damage generated by an implant
and following annealing at 800
o
C.
Origin of {311} clusters defects
after annealing
{311} clusters are formed by capturing a row of interstitials dimers
that lie on the {311} plan and grow by extending in the 110 directions
(annealing above 400
o
C).
After a 5-second anneal at 900
o
C, there may be very high concentration
(~10
11
cm
-2
) of these {311} defects.
{311} defects anneal out in sec - min at upon further annealing but
eject I TED.
Stable dislocation loops can form when the damage is greater
(amorphizing implant).
EE 439/539
Transient Enhanced Diffusion (TED)
TED occurs when an attempt
is made to anneal implant
damage and restore the
lattice to its crystalline
perfection. It consist of a
burst of diffusion many
thousand of time faster than
what is normally absorb for
similar anneal when no
implant damage is present
The basic model for TED
assumes that all the implant
damage recombines rapidly,
leaving only 1 interstitial
generated per dopant atom
when the dopant atom
occupies substitutional site
(the +1 model) [Giles].
THIN FILM DEPOSITION -
Introduction
Many films, made of many
different materials are
deposited during a standard
CMOS process. These layers
include silicon dioxide, silicon
nitride, poly silicon and
metal.
In this set of notes we
describe the requirements,
methods and equipment used
to deposit these thin films.
Requirements or desirable traits for
deposition:
1. Desired composition, low contaminates, good
electrical and mechanical properties.
2. Uniform thickness across wafer, and wafer-to
wafer.
3. Good step coverage (conformal coverage).
4. Good filling of spaces.
5. Planarized films .
Issue related to thin film
and their deposition
Quality of the deposited film
Uniform thickness across a
wafer
Chance of high resistivity
Mechanical cracking
Filling contact hole
with a metal
Filling between metal
lines with an oxide
Incomplete filling leading to a void
In dielectric between the lines.
A void in a metal layer can lead to
High sheet resistance and in a
dielectric can result in creaking
problem.
EE 439/539
Aspect ratio
An important parameter that can effect filling and
bottom coverage is the aspect ratio of a feature,
defined as,

w
h
AR =
A deep narrow contact hole
Would have a large aspect ratio
And would be harder to fill.
Historical Development and Basic
Concepts
Two main types of deposition methods
have been developed and are used in
CMOS technology:
Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD)
- APCVD, LPCVD, PECVD, HDPCVD
Physical Vapor Deposition (PVD)
- evaporation, sputter deposition
Atmospheric Pressure Chemical Vapor
Deposition ( APCVD)
Steps involved in a CVD process:
1. Transport of reactants to the deposition region.
2. Transport of reactants from the main gas stream through the boundary layer to the wafer
surface.
3. Adsorption of reactants on the wafer surface.
4. Surface reactions, including: chemical decomposition or reaction, surface migration to
attachment sites (kinks and ledges); site incorporation; and other surface reactions (emission
and redeposition for example).
5. Desorption or reemission of by-products.
6. Transport of by-products through the boundary layer.
7. Transport of by-products away from the deposition
region.
Kinetics of CVD thin film deposition
(cont.)
In steady state
F=F
1
=F
2

The growth rate (growth velocity) is now given by,

where N is the number of atoms incorporated per
unit volume in the film (5 x 10
22
cm
-3
for the case of
epitaxial Si deposition) and Y is the mole fraction
(partial pressure/total pressure) of the incorporating
species , can be written as
Y=C
G
/C
T
=P
G
/P
total
Where C
T
is the concentration of all the gas molecules in the
gas phase (i.e. SiCl
4
, H
2
)
Note the similarity of this analysis to the Deal Grove
oxidation model (Chapter 6).
EE 439/539
Limiting cases of growth velocity
1. If k
S
<< h
G
, then we have the surface reaction
controlled case:

2. If h
G
<< k
S
, then we have the mass transfer, or gas
phase diffusion controlled case:
Arrhenius plot of the growth velocity vs 1/T for CVD
process
The surface term is Arrhenius with E
a
depending on the particular reaction (1.6 eV
for single crystal silicon deposition).
h
G
is ~ constant (diffusion through boundary layer).
Key points:
k
S
limited deposition is VERY temp sensitive.
h
G
limited deposition is VERY geometry (boundary
layer) sensitive.
Si epi deposition often done at high T to get high quality
single crystal growth. hG controlled. horizontal
reactor configuration. Polysilicon is usually deposited at lower temperature and in the
surface reaction regime.
Experimental
data
Doping and Autodoping
Thin film deposited by
CVD can be doped while
grown by adding
controlled amounts of the
dopant compounds to the
gas stream.
Typical dopant sources
are phosphine (PH
3
),
arsine (AsH
3
), and
diborane (B
2
H
6
).
In addition, unintentional
dopants are introduced
from the substrate either
by solid state diffusion
or by evaporation.
EE 439/539
Possible methods to reduce autodoping
a) Back side seal with a film of polysilicon, silicon dioxide, or silicon nitride to
prevent evaporation from the substrate.
b) Extended 'prebake' at high temperature to reduce the surface concentration of
the heavily doped region by depleting the exposed region from impurities.
c) Use of dopants with lower vapor pressure, such as Sb instead As. (The lower
solid solubility limit of Sb in silicon, however, limits its maximum concentration
to about 2x10
19
cm
-3
).
d) Deposition of an undoped cap-film followed by the deposition of the desired
layer (two-step deposition).
e) Reduced pressure deposition,
increasing the dopant mean-free
path and hence the probability that
the species escape from the
boundary before being adsorbed at
the surface of the crystal (Fig.).
Low Pressure Chemical Vapor Deposition
( LPCVD)
Atmospheric pressure systems have
major drawbacks
If operated at high T, a horizontal configuration
must be used (few wafers at a time).
If operated at low T, the deposition rate goes
down
and throughput is again low.
LPCVD system Advantages
Lower chemical reaction temperature
Good step coverage and uniformity
Vertical loading of wafer-high
throughput
Less dependence on gas flow dynamics
Can be performed in standard tube
furnace
Low pressure extending the surface reaction
regime to higher temperature (review)
Since h
G
is much
larger at the lower
pressure, mass
transport through the
boundary layer
becomes much less
important compared
to the surface
reaction.
EE 439/539
Plasma Enhanced CVD ( PECVD)
Non-thermal energy to enhance processes at lower temperatures.
Plasma consists of electrons, ionized molecules, neutral molecules, neutral
and ionized fragments of broken-up molecules, excited molecules and free
radicals.
Free radicals are electrically neutral species that have incomplete bonding
and are extremely reactive. (e.g. SiO, SiH
3
, F)
The net result from the fragmentation, the free radicals, and the ion
bombardment is that the surface processes and deposition occur at much
lower temperatures than in non-plasma systems (APCVD, LPCVD).
By supplying additional energy
from the plasma to the reactants
gases, the reaction needed for
deposition can occur at
temperature much lower than
those needed when only thermal
energy is provided.
High Density Plasma ( HDP)CVD
Remote high density plasma
with independent RF
substrate bias.
Allows simultaneous deposition
and sputtering for better
planarization and void-free
films (later).
Mostly used for SiO
2
deposition.
Physical Vapor Deposition ( PVD)
PVD uses mainly physical
processes to produce reactant
species in the gas phase and to
deposit films.
In evaporation, source material is
heated in high vacuum chamber.
(P <10
-5
torr)
Mostly line-of-sight deposition
since pressure is low.
Deposition rate is determined by
emitted flux and by geometry of
the target.
EE 439/539
Sputter Deposition
Uses plasma to sputter target,
dislodging atoms which then
deposit on wafers to form
film.
Higher pressures than
evaporation - 1-100 mtorr.
Better at depositing alloys and
compounds than evaporation.
Typical sputtering energy range
from 0.5KeV- 5 KeV.
Plasma structure and voltage
distribution in DC sputter system
The plasma contains ~ equal
numbers of positive argon ions
and electrons as well as
neutral argon atoms.
Most of voltage drop of the
system (due to applied DC
voltage, Vc) occurs over
cathode sheath.
Ar
+
ions are accelerated
across cathode sheath to the
negatively charged cathode,
striking that electrode
(the target) and sputtering
off atoms (e.g. Al).
These travel through plasma
and deposit on wafers
sitting on anode.
Important process in Sputter deposition
A minimum energy on
the order of 10-
20eV, is needed to
sputter an atom.
Sputtering targets
are generally large
and provide a
wide range of arrival
angles in contrast to
a point
source.
EE 439/539
asymmetric depositions
Asymmetric deposition
means that thicker
deposition occurs on
one side of a feature (a
step, for example) than
the other
Target
Wafer
Wafer
Target
How can we
avoid
asymmetric
deposition?
Is there
another way
to reduce any
asymmetry ?
9.13. How does the ability to fill the bottom of a narrow trench using sputter
deposition change as the target is moved further away from the wafer?
Neglect any gas phase collision effects.

Answer:

The further away the target, the narrower the arrival angle distribution, similar to
making the target smaller. So n is greater and better filling of the bottom of a
narrow trench is achieved.
RF Sputter Deposition
For DC sputtering, target electrode
is conducting.
To sputter dielectric materials use
RF power source.
Due to slower mobility of ions vs.
electrons, the plasma biases
positively with respect to both
electrodes. (DC current must be
zero.) continuous sputtering.
When the electrode areas are not
equal, the field must be higher at
the smaller electrode (higher current
density), to maintain overall current
continuity.
Thus by making the target
electrode smaller, sputtering occurs
"only" on the target.
Wafer electrode can also be
connected to chamber walls, further
increasing V1/V2.
Ionized Sputter Deposition or
HDP Sputtering
In some systems the
depositing atoms
themselves are ionized.
An RF coil around the
plasma induces collisions
in the plasma creating
the ions.
This provides a narrow
distribution of arrival
angles which may be
useful when filling or
coating the bottom of
deep contact hole.
Little deposition at the
bottom of the hole due
to shadowing effect.
EE 439/539
. Calculate the mean free path of a particle in the gas phase of a deposition system
and estimate the number of collisions it experiences in traveling from the
source to the substrate in each of the cases below. Assume that in each case
the molecular collisional diameter is 0.4 nm, the source-to-substrate distance
is 5 cm, and that the number of collisions is approximately equal to the
source-to-substrate distance divided by the mean free path.

a. An evaporation system in which the pressure is 10
-5
torr and the
temperature is 25C.
b. A sputter deposition system in which the pressure is 3 mtorr and the
temperature is 25C.
c. An LPCVD system in which the pressure is 1 torr and the temperature is
600C.
d. An APCVD system in which the pressure is 1 atm and the temperature is
600C.
9.11
The mean free path of a gas particle is (Eqn. 9.26) =
kT
2d
2
P
where k =
1.36x10
-22
cm
3
atm K
-1
, T is the temperature in K, d is the collision diameter of the
molecule in cm (approximately 4x10
-8
cm for most molecules of interest), and P is
the pressure in atm. The # collisions is approximately equal to the source-to-
substrate distance divided by the mean free path in each case. Plugging in the
numbers gives:
(in cm) =
kT
2d
2
P
=
1.36x10
22
cm
3
atm K
1
T(K)
2 4x10
8
cm
( )
2
P(torr)
760torr / atm
= 1.45x10
5
T(K)
P(torr)


a. 433 cm, 1.2x10
-2
collisions;
b. 1.44 cm, 3.5 collisions;
c. 0.013 cm, 392 collisions;
d. 1.7x10
-5
cm, 3.0x10
5
collisions
Summary of the key ideas
In this chapter we have examined how thin films are deposited
as part of the fabrication of IC.
Important issues in thin film deposition include physical and
chemical properties of the films, step converge and filling of
the holes or trenches.
In the simple model for CVD presented, the deposition process
is seen to be limited by surface reaction or by mass transfer.
At low pressure the mass transfer is not a limiting step, and the
surface reaction become rate limiting.
In PVD arrival angle distribution of the source material at the
wafer surface is important.
Shadowing by topographical features can be very important in
PVD method.
Concurrent sputtering and redeposition of the material along
with the direct deposition of ionized species can lead to good
gap or hole filling of relatively high aspect ration features.
EE 439/539
ETCHING - Chapter 10
Introduction
Etching of thin films and sometimes the
silicon substrate are very common
process steps.
Usually selectivity, and directionality
are the first order issues.
Selectivity comes from chemistry;
directionality usually comes from
physical processes.
Modern etching techniques try to
optimize both.
Directionality is a measure of the
relative etch rates in different
directions ,usually vertical versus
lateral.
Selectivity (S=r
1
/r
2
) means that etch
rate of the layer to be etched should
be fast compared to the etch rate of
mask and substrate.
Simulation tools are beginning to play an
important role in etching just as they
are in deposition.
General etch requirements:
1. Obtain desired profile (sloped or vertical)
2. Minimal undercutting or bias
3. Selectivity to other exposed films and resist
4. Uniform and reproducible
5. Minimal damage to surface and circuit
6. Clean, economical, and safe
EE 439/539
The undercut can be described in terms of Anisotropy, which is
given by
A = 1 - R
L
/R
V
,
where R
L
and R
v
are the lateral and vertical etch rates.
What is value of A for isotropic etching ?
Anisotropy
Isotropic etching implies undercutting. This is often expressed in terms of the
etch bias b.
Because of their isotropic nature, wet chemical etches are rarely used in
mainstream IC manufacturing today.
Selectivity
The selectivity, S of an etch process between two materials, 1 and 2, is simply the
ratio of their etch rates, r, in the enchant , or
Material 1 is usually the film being etched, and material 2 is either the masking
material or material below the film.
2
1
r
r
S =
Common problems in wet etch processes
Illustration of etch bias and over etch.
10 - 20% over etches are common.
A common problem in wet etch processes is undetected resist scumming.
This occur when some of the exposed photoresist is not removed in the
develop process because of incomplete exposures and insufficient
Developing of the pattern .
During etching the by products can form bubbles that can prevent
the movement of fresh enchant to the surface. The problem is more
pronounced near pattern edges.
Mask erosion can be an issue for
both isotropic and anisotropic
etching profiles.\
EE 439/539
Ion Enhanced Etching
Figure shows etch rate of
silicon as XeF
2
gas (not
plasma) and Ar+ ions are
introduced to the silicon
surface.
Only when both are present
does appreciable etching
occur.
Etch profiles can be very
anisotopic, and selectivity
can be good.
Many different mechanisms
proposed for this synergistic
etching between physical and
chemical
mechanisms proposed for
synergistic etching
Inhibitor could be either direct byproduct of etch process, or indirect byproduct
(such as polymer formation from C in gas or from photoresist).
Whatever the exact mechanism (multiple mechanisms may occur at same time):
the two components act in series.
get anisotropic etching and little undercutting because of directed ion flux.
get selectivity due to chemical component.
many applications in etching today.
Etching by
radical is
negligible
Summary of plasma system and mechanism
Summery of trends of different
etch system
EE 439/539
BACKEND TECHNOLOGY-11
Backend technology:
fabrication of
interconnects and the
dielectrics that
electrically and physically
separate them.
More metal interconnect
levels increases circuit
functionality and speed.
Local interconnects
(polysilicon, silicides,
TiN) versus global
interconnects (usually
Al).
Early structures were very simple by today's standards.
Issues in VLSI Metallization
Speed: switching speed, RC delay
Intensity: electromigration (I), electric breakdown (V)
Stability: contact interface, stable I-V characteristics
Voltage drop: IR drop reduces voltage on transistor
Area: connection wires have to be narrow as device
density increases
Speed limitations: next generation
technology trends
The speed limitations of interconnects
can be estimated fairly simply.
R=LW/H
C = K
ox

o
WL / x
ox
+ K
o x

o
H L/ L
s
Where K
ox
is the dielectric constsant.
The tolat RC delay associated with global
interconnects
is:
To keep the analysis simple we assume
that x
ox
, H, as well as L
s
and W, are equal
to minimum feature size thus the above
equation can be written in terms of the
area A of the chip
2
min
) (
89 . 0
F
A
K
o ox L
=
The goal is to decrease
L
, or at
least to keep it from increasing too
much as some of the dimension
change.
EE 439/539
2
min
) (
89 . 0
F
A
K
o ox L
=
Recent analysis by Bohr based on
Intel's technology agree with the
qualitative predictions of this
simple analysis
Why Aluminum?
Low resistivity Al at room temperature (2-3cm).
It adheres (hold fast or stick by) well to Si and SiO
2
.
It makes good electric Ohmic contact to heavily
doped Si
It react with SiO
2
even at low T, forming a thin layer
of Al
2
O
3
at the interface, which act as a glue layer to
bind the Al to the SiO
2
.
In case of Al-to-Si contact, the Al reduce any native
oxide on top of Si, which could prevent ohmic contact.
Its presence assist the annealing out of interface
traps at the Si-SiO
2
interface., presumably by
converting H
2
O to free H, which passivate the traps.
Spiking problem
Because Si has a significant
solubility in Al, e.g. ~1% at
450
o
C, heat treatment result
in dissolution of Si, which
tends to proceed more slowly
along (111) than (110) or
(100) planes.
This creates voids in the
crystal into which Al
precipitates and form
conductive spikes (0.2-1m)
that can cause high leakage
or shorts in shallow
junctions.
Methods used to reduce spiking
One solution to the Al spiking
problem is to use Al films
that already have Si in them
(Al-Si alloy). Therefore, the
solubility requirement is
already fulfilled.
In this way spiking problem,
reduced but another arises.
Widely used, but Si can
precipitate when cooling
down, leaving Si nodules.
Better solution: use barrier
layer(s). Ti or TiSi
2
for
good contact and adhesion,
TiN for barrier
TiSi
2
/TiN is not the only choice, various barrier option are available. TiSi
2
/TiN is not the only choice, various barrier option are available.
EE 439/539
Interconnects and Vias
Al has been the dominant material
for interconnects.
- low resistivity
- adheres well to Si and SiO
2
- can reduce other oxides
- can be etched and deposited using
reasonable techniques
Problems:
X relatively low melting point and
soft.
X - need a higher melting point
material for gate electrode and
local interconnect polysilicon.
- hillocks and voids easily
formed in Al.
Still Al is dominant for global interconnects!
Hillocks,voids and Electromigration
Hillocks and voids form because
of stress and diffusion in Al
films.
Heating places Al under
compression hillocks.
Cooling back down can place Al
under tension voids.
Adding few % Cu stabilizes grain
boundaries and
minimizes hillock formation.
Coefficient of thermal expansion of
Si=2.6 x 10
-6 o
C
-1
Coefficient of thermal expansion of
Al: 23 x 10
-6 o
C
-1
A related problem with Al interconnects iselectromigration. High current
density (0.1-0.5 MA/cm
2
) causes movement of Al atoms in direction of electron
flow. Adding Cu (0.5-4 weight %) can also inhibit electromigration.
Next development
Adding Cu and Si to the Al
increases sheet resistivity of the
interconnect by as much as 35%, but
this was the necessary trade-off in
order to prevent the failure of the
circuits due to electromigration,
hilllocks and void formation.
Next development was use of other
materials with lower resistivity as
local interconnects, like TiN and
silicides (TiSi
2,
WSi
2,
NiSi
2
).
Silicides used to
1. strap polysilicon,
2. strap junctions,
3. as a local interconnect.
Silicide material can be used to reduce all
the above mentioned problems.
Silicide offer:
low electric resistivity
Stable at high temperature
Easy to plasma eatch
Provide good contact to other material
Do not exhibit much electrmigration
Planarization
Reducing the step heights and achieving more planer technology
through processing technique is called planarization. The degree
of planarization (DOP) is define as,
x
i
step
=the initial step height
x
f
step
=the final step height
EE 439/539
RC delay due to interconnects: Need of
multilayer
The design of multilayer system is
aimed at reducing lead resistance
and capacitance without
compromising yield and reliability.
Interconnect and via structures
made up of multilayers have been
developed for barrier and adhesion
reason. It is believed that overall
capacitance (line to line or line to
substrate) can be decreased by
increasing the number of
interconnect layers.
The time constant of various
interconnect material can be
estimated by simple lumped
parameter model:
ox met
ox
met
t t
L
RC
2

Memory makers found that long wire lines made from poly silicon with a silicide could decrease the
access time of the device. Assume that the line is 1 cm long, the oxide is 1m thick, the poly and
silicide are each 0.5mm thick, and the resistivites of the two films are 10-3 and 10-4 cm,
respectively. Use the simple lumped RC model to determine the delay associated with each of the two
lines.
Isolation materials: dielectrics
Dielectrics electrically and physically
separate interconnects from each
other and from active
regions.
Two types:
- First level dielectric (before Al
deposition)
- Intermetal dielectric (IMD) (after Al
deposition)
First level dielectric is usually SiO2
doped with P or B or both (2-8 wt. %)
to enhance reflow properties.
PSG: phosphosilicate glass, reflows
at 950-1100C
BPSG: borophosphosilicate glass,
reflows at 800C.
After 800
o
C reflow step
Requirements for VLSI dielectric
layers:
Good electric isolation (low dielctric constant)
High break down field strength
Low leakage (high resistivity)
Provide good adhesion to Si, metals, and silicide.
Low intrinsic stress.
Thermal stability ( up to 950
o
C for first level and up
to 500
o
C for intermetal dielectrics).
Impurities free.
Low defects densities.
EE 439/539
Device isolation: MOS transistor isolation
How close can be a transistor be placed?
When two properly biased MOS transistors are placed near each other,
they are isolated by reverse biased source-substrate and drain-
substrate junctions, as shown in the figure.
However, to maintain this isolation , the depletion layers surrounding
the various source-drain diodes must not merge, and this requirement
limits the minimum spacing between the devices. Usually the spacing
between adjacent transistor must be greater than twice the maximum
depletion layer width, which can be estimated by
W
d
=2K
s

o
(V
A
+V
bi
)/qN
B
V
bi
=0.56+(kT/q In(N
B
/n
i
)
Self isolated
In early technology >2m spacing does not represent a
problem but for advanced submicron features sizes, this
form of isolation is not satisfactory.
Wd=2Kso(V
A
+Vbi)/qN
B
Vbi=0.56+(kT/q In(N
B
/n
i
)
Shallow trench isolation (STI)
In STI the depletion layers are effectively cutoff and
separated by the oxide.
The minimum space between the drain diffusions is now
set by minimum width of the STI region and can ideally
approach a minimum feature size in the technology.
9.7(b)
Deep trench isolation process
Typical dimensions are 0.18 to 1 m width and 2 to 5 m in depth
Trenches with width 0.25m and depth of 10m have been demonstrated.