Pulse Width Modulation

For Power Converters

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Pulse Width Modulation
For Power Converters
Principles and Practice
D. Grahame Holmes
MonashUniversity
Melbourne, Australia
Thomas A. Lipo
University of Wisconsin
Madison, Wisconsin
IEEE Series on Power Engineering,
Mohamed E. El-Hawary, Series Editor
+IEEE
IEEE PRESS
ffiWlLEY-

A JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC., PUBLICATION
Copyright 2003 by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc. All rights reserved.
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Library ofCongress Cataloging-in-Publication Data is available.
Printed in the United States of America.
ISBN 0-471-20814-0
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3
Contents
Preface xiii
Acknowledgments xiv
Nomenclature xv
Chapter 1 Introduction to Power Electronic Converters 1
1.1 Basic Converter Topologies 2
1.1.1 Switch Constraints 2
1.1.2 Bidirectional Chopper 4
1.1.3 Single-Phase Full-Bridge (H-Bridge) Inverter 5
1.2 Voltage Source/Stiff Inverters 7
1.2.1 Two-Phase Inverter Structure 7
1.2.2 Three-Phase Inverter Structure 8
1.2.3 Voltage and Current Waveforms in Square-Wave Mode ..9
1.3 Switching Function Representation of Three-Phase Converters 14
1.4 Output Voltage Control 17
1.4.1 Volts/Hertz Criterion 17
1.4.2 Phase ShiftModulation for Single-Phase Inverter 17
1.4.3 Voltage Control with a Double Bridge 19
1.5 Current Source/Stiff Inverters 21
1.6 Concept of a Space Vector 24
1.6.1 d-q-O Components for Three-Phase Sine Wave Source/
Load 27
1.6.2 d-q-O Components for Voltage Source Inverter Operated
in Square-Wave Mode 30
1.6.3 Synchronously Rotating Reference Frame 35
1.7 Three-Level Inverters 38
1.8 Multilevel Inverter Topologies 42
1.8.1 Diode-Clamped Multilevel Inverter 42
1.8.2 Capacitor-Clamped Multilevel Inverter 49
1.8.3 Cascaded Voltage Source Multilevel Inverter 51
v
vi
1.9
Chapter 2
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
2.10
Contents
1.8.4 Hybrid Voltage Source Inverter 54
Summary 55
Harmonic Distortion................................................................57
Harmonic Voltage Distortion Factor 57
Harmonic Current Distortion Factor 61
Harmonic Distortion Factors for Three-Phase Inverters 64
Choice of Performance Indicator 67
WTHD of Three-Level Inverter 70
The Induction Motor Load 73
2.6. I Rectangular Squirrel Cage Bars 73
2.6.2 Nonrectangular Rotor Bars 78
2.6.3 Per-Phase Equivalent Circuit 79
Harmonic Distortion Weighting Factors for Induction Motor
Load 82
2.7.1 WTHD for Frequency-Dependent Rotor Resistance 82
2.7.2 WTHD Also Including Effect of Frequency-Dependent
Rotor Leakage Inductance 84
2.7.3 WTHD for Stator Copper Losses 88
Example Calculation of Harmonic Losses 90
WTHD Normalization for PWM Inverter Supply 91
Summary 93
Chapter 3 Modulation of One Inverter Phase Leg 95
3.1 Fundamental Concepts ofPWM 96
3.2 Evaluation ofPWM Schemes 97
3.3 Double Fourier Integral Analysis of a Two-Level Pulse Width-
Modulated Waveform 99
3.4 Naturally Sampled Pulse Width Modulation 105
3.4.1 Sine-Sawtooth Modulation l 05
3.4.2 Sine-Triangle Modulation 114
3.5 PWM Analysis by Duty Cycle Variation 120
3.5.1 Sine-Sawtooth Modulation 120
3.5.2 Sine-Triangle Modulation 123
Contents
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.9
3.10
Chapter 4
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
Vl1
Regular Sampled Pulse Width Modulation 125
3.6.1 Sawtooth Carrier Regular Sampled PWM 130
3.6.2 Symmetrical Regular Sampled PWM 134
3.6.3 Asymmetrical Regular Sampled PWM 139
"Direct" Modulation 146
Integer versus Non-Integer Frequency Ratios 148
Review of PWM Variations 150
Summary 152
Modulation of Single-Phase Voltage Source Inverters 155
Topology of a Single-Phase Inverter 156
Three-Level Modulation of a Single-Phase Inverter 157
Analytic Calculation of Harmonic Losses 169
Sideband Modulation 177
Switched Pulse Position 183
4.5.1 Continuous Modulation 184
4.5.2 Discontinuous Modulation 186
Switched Pulse Sequence 200
4.6.1 Discontinuous PWM - Single-Phase Leg Switched 200
4.6.2 Two-Level Single-Phase PWM 207
Summary 211
Chapter 5 Modulation of Three-Phase Voltage Source Inverters 215
5.1 Topology of a Three-Phase Inverter (VSI) 215
5.2 Three-Phase Modulation with Sinusoidal References 216
5.3 Third-Harmonic Reference Injection 226
5.3.1 Optimum Injection Level. 226
5.3.2 Analytical Solution for Third-Harmonic Injection 230
5.4 Analytic Calculation of Harmonic Losses 241
5.5 Discontinuous Modulation Strategies 250
5.6 Triplen Carrier Ratios and Subharmonics 251
5.6.1 Triplen Carrier Ratios 251
5.6.2 Subharmonics 253
viii
5.7
Chapter 6
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.7
6.8
6.9
6.10
6.11
6.12
6.13
6.14
Contents
Summary 257
Zero Space Vector Placement Modulation Strategies 259
Space Vector Modulation 259
6.1.1 Principles of Space Vector Modulation 259
6.1.2 SYM Compared to Regular Sampled PWM 265
Phase Leg References for Space Vector Modulation 267
Naturally Sampled SVM 270
Analytical Solution for SVM 272
Harmonic Losses for SVM 291
Placement of the Zero Space Vector 294
Discontinuous Modulation 299
6.7.1 120
0
Discontinuous Modulation 299
6.7.2 60
0
and 30
0
Discontinuous Modulation 302
Phase Leg References for Discontinuous PWM 307
Analytical Solutions for Discontinuous PWM 311
Comparison of Harmonic Performance 322
Harmonic Losses for Discontinuous PWM 326
Single-Edge SYM 330
Switched Pulse Sequence 331
Summary 333
Chapter 7 Modulation of Current Source Inverters 337
7.1 Three-Phase Modulators as State Machines 338
7.2 Naturally Sampled CSI Space Vector Modulator 343
7.3 Experimental Confirmation 343
7.4 Summary 345
Chapter 8 Overmodulation of an Inverter ............................................349
8.1 The Overmodulation Region 350
8.2 Naturally Sampled Overmodulation of One Phase Leg of an
Inverter 351
Contents
8.3
8.4
8.5
8.6
8.7
Chapter 9
9.1
9.2
9.3
9.4
9.5
9.6
ix
Regular Sampled Overmodulation of One Phase Leg of an
Inverter 356
Naturally Sampled Overmodulation of Single- and Three-Phase
Inverters 360
PWM Controller Gain during Overmodulation 364
8.5.! Gain with Sinusoidal Reference 364
8.5.2 Gain with Space Vector Reference 367
8.5.3 Gain with 60 Discontinuous Reference 37!
8.5.4 Compensated Modulation 373
Space Vector Approach to Overmodulation 376
Summary 382
Programmed Modulation Strategies 383
Optimized Space Vector Modulation 384
Harmonic Elimination PWM 396
Performance Index for Optimality 411
Optimum PWM 416
Minimum-Loss PWM 421
Summary 430
Chapter 10 Programmed Modulation ofMultilevel Converters 433
10.1 Multilevel Converter Alternatives 433
10.2 Block Switching Approaches to Voltage Control 436
10.3 Harmonic Elimination Applied to Multilevel Inverters 440
10.3.1 Switching Angles for Harmonic Elimination Assuming
Equal Voltage Levels 440
10.3.2 Equalization of Voltage and Current Stresses 441
10.3.3 Switching Angles for Harmonic Elimination Assuming
Unequal Voltage Levels 443
10.4 Minimum Harmonic Distortion 447
10.5 Summary 449
Chapter 11 Carrier-Based PWM of Multilevel Inverters 453
11.1 PWM of Cascaded Single-Phase H-Bridges 453
x Contents
Overmodulation of Cascaded H-Bridges 465
PWM Alternatives for Diode-Clamped Multilevel Inverters 467
Three-Level Naturally Sampled PO PWM 469
11.4.1 Contour Plot for Three-Level PD PWM 469
11.4.2 Double Fourier Series Harmonic Coefficients 473
11.4.3 Evaluation of the Harmonic Coefficients 475
11.4.4 Spectral Performance of Three-Level PD PWM 479
Three-Level Naturally Sampled APOD or POD PWM 481
Overmodulation of Three-Level Inverters 484
11.5
11.6
11.7 Five-Level PWM for Diode-Clamped Inverters 489
11.7.1 Five-level Naturally Sampled PO PWM 489
11.7.2 Five-Level Naturally Sampled APOD PWM 492
11.7.3 Five-Level POD PWM 497
11.8 PWM of Higher Level Inverters 499
11.9 Equivalent PD PWM for Cascaded Inverters 504
11.10 Hybrid Multilevel Inverter 507
11.11 Equivalent PO PWM for a Hybrid Inverter 517
11.2
11.3
11.4
11.12 Third-Harmonic Injection for Multilevel Inverters 519
11.13 Operation of a Multilevel Inverter with a Variable Modulation
Index 526
11.14 Summary 528
Chapter 12 Space Vector PWM for Multilevel Converters 531
12.1 Optimized Space Vector Sequences 531
12.2 Modulator for Selecting Switching States 534
12.3 Decomposition Method 535
12.4 Hexagonal Coordinate System 538
12.5 Optimal Space Vector Position within a Switching Period 543-
12.6 Comparison of Space Vector PWM to Carrier-Based PWM 545
12.7 Discontinuous Modulation in Multilevel Inverters 548
12.8 Summary 550
Contents xi
Chapter 13 Implementation of a Modulation Controller 555
13.1 Overview of a Power Electronic Conversion System 556
13.2 Elements of a PWM Converter System 557
13.2.1 VSI Power Conversion Stage 563
13.2.2 Gate Driver Interface 565
13.2.3 Controller Power Supply 567
13.2.4 I/O Conditioning Circuitry 568
13.2.5 PWM Controller 569
13.3 Hardware Implementation of the PWM Process 572
13.3.1 Analog versus Digital Implementation 572
13.3.2 Digital Timer Logic Structures 574
13.4 PWM Software Implementation 579
13.4.1 Background Software 580
13.4.2 Calculation of the PWM Timing Intervals 581
13.5 Summary 584
Chapter 14 Continuing Developments in Modulation 585
14.1 Random Pulse Width Modulation 586
14.2 PWM Rectifier with Voltage Unbalance 590
14.3 Common Mode Elimination 598
14.4 Four Phase Leg Inverter Modulation 603
14.5 Effect of Minimum Pulse Width 607
14.6 PWM Dead-Time Compensation 612
14.7 Summary 619
Appendix 1 Fourier Series Representation of a Double Variable Con-
trolled Waveform 623
Appendix 2 Jacobi-Anger and Bessel Function Relationships 629
A2.1 Jacobi-Anger Expansions 629
A2.2 Bessel Function Integral Relationships 631
Appendix 3 Three-Phase and Half-Cycle Symmetry Relationships 635
xii Contents
Appendix 4 Overmodulation of a Single-Phase Leg 637
A4.1 Naturally Sampled Double-Edge PWM 637
A4.1.1 Evaluation of Double Fourier Integral for Overmodulated
Naturally Sampled PWM 638
A4.1.2 Harmonic Solution for Overmodulated Single-Phase Leg
under Naturally Sampled PWM 646
A4.1.3 Linear Modulation Solution Obtained from
Overmodulation Solution 647
A4.1.4 Square-Wave Solution Obtained from Overmodulation
Solution 647
A4.2 Symmetric Regular Sampled Double-Edge PWM 649
A4.2.1 Evaluation of Double Fourier Integral for Overmodulated
Symmetric Regular Sampled PWM 650
A4.2.2 Harmonic Solution for Overmodulated Single-Phase Leg
under Symmetric Regular Sampled PWM 652
A4.2.3 Linear Modulation Solution Obtained from
Overmodulation Solution 653
A4.3 Asymmetric Regular Sampled Double-Edge PWM 654
A4.3.1 Evaluation of Double Fourier Integral for Overmodulated
Asymmetric Regular Sampled PWM 655
A4.3.2 Harmonic Solution for Overmodulated Single-Phase Leg
under Asymmetric Regular Sampled PWM 660
A4.3.3 Linear Modulation Solution Obtained from
Overmodulation Solution 661
Appendix 5 Numeric Integration of a Double Fourier Series Representa-
tion of a Switched Waveform 663
A5.1 Formulation of the Double Fourier Integral 663
A5.2 Analytical Solution of the Inner Integral 666
A5.3 Numeric Integration of the Outer Integral 668
Bibliography 671
Index 715
Preface
The work presented in this book offers a general approach to the development
of fixed switching frequency pulse width-modulated (PWM) strategies to suit
hard-switched converters. It is shown that modulation of, and resulting spec-
trum for, the half-bridge single-phase inverter forms the basic building block
from which the spectral content of modulated single- phase, three-phase, or
multiphase, two-level, three-level, or multilevel, voltage link and current link
converters can readily be discerned. The concept of harmonic distortion is used
as the performance index to compare all commonly encountered modulation
algorithms. In particular, total harmonic distortion (THO), weighted total har-
monic distortion (WTHD), and harmonic distortion criterion specifically
designed to access motor copper losses are used as performance indices.
The concept of minimum harmonic distortion, which forms the underlying
basis of comparison of the work presented in this book, leads to the identifica-
tion of the fundamentals ofPWM as
Active switch pulse width determination.
Active switch pulse placement within a switching period.
Active switch pulse sequence across switching periods.
The benefit of this generalized approach is that once the common threads
of PWM are identified, the selection of a PWM strategy for any converter
topology becomes immediately obvious, and the only choices remaining are to
trade-off the "best possible" performance against cost and difficulty of imple-
mentation, and secondary considerations. Furthermore, the performance to be
expected from a particular converter topology and modulation strategy can be
quickly and easily identified without complex analysis, so that informed trade-
offs can be made regarding the implementation of a PWM algorithm for any
particular application. All theoretical developments have been confirmed
either by simulation or experiment. Inverter implementation details have been
included at the end of the text to address practical considerations.
Readers will probably note the absence of any closed loop issues in this
text. While initially such material was intended to be included, it soon became
apparent that the inclusion of this material would require an additional volume.
A further book treating this subject is in preparation.
xiii
Acknowledgments
The authors are indebted to their graduate students, who have contributed
greatly to the production of this book via their Ph.D. theses. In particular the
important work of Daniel Zmood (Chapter 7), Ahmet Hava (Chapter 8) and
Brendan McGrath (Chapter 11) are specifically acknowledged. In addition,
numerous other graduate students have also assisted with the production of this
book both through their technical contributions as well as through detailed
proof-reading of this text. The second author (Lipo) also wishes to thank the
David Grainger Foundation and Saint John's College of Cambridge University
for funding and facilities provided respectively. Finally, we wish to thank our
wonderful and loving wives, Sophie Holmes and Chris Lipo, for nuturing and
supporting us over the past five years as we have written this book.
xiv
Nome.nclature
Generic Variable Usage Conventions
Variable Format Meaning
F CAPITALS: peak AC or average DC value
I
LOWER CASE: instantaneous value
<f> BRACKETED: low-frequency average value
1
OVERBAR: space vector (complex variable)
It DAGGER: conjugate of space vector
I
BOLD LOWER CASE: column vector
F BOLD CAPITAL: matrix
IT TRANSPOSED VECTOR: row vector
Specific Variable Usage Definitions
Variable Meaning
Page First
Used
a, b, c Phase leg identifiers for three phase inverter 9
- '21t/3
a Complex vector el 34
y Third-harmonic component magnitude M3/M 227
A
mn
, :
Coefficients of Fourier expansion 102
- --
C
mn
Complex Fourier coefficient C
mn
= A
mn
+jB
mn
102
Ok' k=I,2..
Diode section of inverter switch 7
e
az
Motor EMF w.r.t. DC bus midpoint 169
la'!b,l
e
Generic variables in a-b-c reference frame 26
las,lbs,l
es
Generic variables in a-b-c reference frame referenced
29
to load neutral (star) point
r,
Frequency of carrier waveform 112
1
0
Frequency of fundamental component 112
xv
xvi Nomenclature
Variable Meaning
PageFirst
Used
is
S . fS
34 tationary space vector qs - J ds
I
qdO
Vector[fqs,fds,fOsY 36
s s
Generic variables in d-q-Q stationaryreference frame 26
fq,fd'f
o
s s
Stationaryreference frame (d-q-{) ) variables refer-
fqs,fds,fos
29
enced to load neutral (star) point
f{x,y) Unit cell variable 100
HDF Harmonicdistortion factor 248
i
a
, i
b
, i
e
Three phase Iine currents 13
Ide
DC linkcurrent 13
I
h
RMSvalue of the overall harmonic currents 172
-
Instantaneous harmonic current over internal k
i
h
, k
385
tli
a
Ripplecomponent of current in phase a 170
j

34
In(x) Bessel functionof order n and argumentx 110
L Number of multilevel inverter voltage levels 434
L
I
Theveninequivalent stator leakage inductanceof
81
1
inductionmotor
La
Effectivemotor inductanceof one phase 170
m
k,
k=I,2.. ora,b,c Inverter switching functions 14
m.n Harmonicindex variables 102
M Modulationindex(modulationdepth) 92
M
3
Modulationindex for third harmonic 227
n Negative inverter DCrail
9
n Harmoniccomponent number 18
p Positiveinverter DCrail 9
p p = dldt, time derivative operator 16
Nomenclature xvii
Variable Meaning
Page First
Used
p pthcarrier interval 131
p Pulse ratio 250
p Pulse number 384
Ph
.
cu
Harmonic copper loss 173
q Charge 26
q m+ n(roo/ro
c)
137
R Rotating transformation matrix 36
r
t
,
Thevenin Equivalent stator resistance of induction
motor
81
R
e
Equivalent load resistance 172
RMS Root mean square 10
-
Voltage space vector corresponding to three-phase
SV
x'
x =
I, ... ,7
31
inverter states
-
Current space vector corresponding to three-phase
SCx,x =
1, ... ,7
338
inverter states
Sk,k=I,2.. Inverter switch 31
T
c
Carrier interval 99
Tk ' k=I,2..
Transistor section of inverter switch 7
T Transformation matrix 37
THD Total harmonic distortion 58
T Period of fundamental waveform 100
0
T.
Switching time of inverter switch "i"
218
I
Carrier period - life 158
u per unit EMF - ea!Vdc
170
U Unbalance factor 597
vas' Vbs' Vcs
Phase voltages with respect to load neutral 11
xviii
Variable Meaning
Nomenclature
Page First
Used
Vab' Vbc' Vca
Vaz' Vbz' Vcz
s s s
vqs' vds: vOs
WTHD
WTHD2
WTHOI
WTHOO
x(t)
y(l)
y'
z
Z(P)
Line-to-line (I-I) voltages for a three phase inverter
Phase voltages with respect to DC link midpoint
Stationary reference frame (d-q-O) voltages
Voltage between load neutral and negative DC bus
Peak magnitude of fundamental voltage component
DC link voltage
One-half the DC link voltage
Space vector magnitude or phase voltage amplitude
Amplitude of positive and negative phase voltages
Target output space vector
Peak input I-I voltage
RMS voltage
Weighted total harmonic distortion
Weighted THO for rotor bar losses
Weighted TH0 for stator losses
Weighted THO normalized to base frequency
Pulse width
Time variable corresponding to modulation angular
frequency 0) ct = 21tfct
Rising and falling switching instants for phase leg
Time variable corresponding to fundamental angular
frequency 0) ot = 21tfot
(0
Variable for regular sampling: y - .-(x - 21tp)
(0
C
DC bus midpoint (virtual)
Load impedance
11
14
28
23
13
7
5
35
595
260
226
57
63
85
89
92
146
99
128
99
131
9
16
Nomenclature XIX
Variable Meaning
Page First
Used
a Phase shift delay 17
a Skin depth 76
a
l
Amplitude of modulating function 178
aI' aI' ... , a
2N
Switching angles for harmonic elimination 397
badvance
Advance compensation for PWM sampling delay
581
e Phase offset angle of carrier waveform 99
c
eo
Phase offset angle of fundamental component 99
eo(k)
Phase offset angle of fundamental component at
581
sampling time k
A,
Flux linkage 17
cPmp'
Phase angle of positive and negative sequence phase
595
voltages respectively
'l'
Overmodulation angle 353
(oc
Angular frequency of carrier waveform 99
(00
Angular frequency of fundamental component 7
roo/roc
Fundamental to carrier frequency ratio 106