Chapter 19: Bulk Deformation Processes

Rizwan M. Gul NWFP UET

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BULK DEFORMATION PROCESSES IN METALWORKING

Rolling Other Deformation Processes Related to Rolling Forging Other Deformation Processes Related to Forging Extrusion Wire and Bar Drawing

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Bulk Deformation
Metal forming operations which cause significant shape change by deformation in metal parts whose initial form is bulk rather than sheet Starting forms: cylindrical bars and billets, rectangular billets and slabs, and similar shapes Bulk deformation process also sometimes improve the mechanical properties of materials These processes work by stressing metal sufficiently to cause plastic flow into desired shape Performed as cold, warm, and hot working operations
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Importance of Bulk Deformation

When performed as hot working, significant shape change can be accomplished When performed as cold working , strength can be increased during shape change Little or no waste - some bulk deformation operations are near net shape or net shape processes The parts require little or no subsequent machining

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Four Basic Bulk Deformation Processes

1. Rolling slab or plate is squeezed between opposing rolls 2. Forging work is squeezed and shaped between opposing dies 3. Extrusion work is squeezed through a die opening, thereby taking the shape of the opening 4. Wire and bar drawing diameter of wire or bar is reduced by pulling it through a die opening

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BASIC BULK DEFORMATION PROCESSES

(a) Rolling

(b) Forging

(c) Extrusion

(d) Drawing

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Rolling
Rolling is a deformation process in which work thickness is reduced by compressive forces exerted by two opposing rolls The rotating rolls perform two main functions: Pull the work into the gap between them by friction between workpart and rolls Simultaneously squeeze the work to reduce cross section

Figure 19.1 - The rolling process (specifically, flat rolling)

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Types of Rolling
By geometry of work: Flat rolling - used to reduce thickness of a rectangular cross-section Shape rolling - a square cross-section is formed into a shape such as an I-beam By temperature of work: Hot Rolling most common due to the large amount of deformation required in shaping Cold rolling produces finished sheet and plate stock Rolling is a very capital intensive process, as massive pieces of equipment, called rolling mills, are required to perform it: The high investment cost requires the mills to be used for large production of standard items such as sheets and plates
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Steel Rolling Practice

The work starts out as a cast steel ingot that has just solidified by casting While it is still hot, the ingot is placed in a furnace where it remains for many hours until it has reached a uniform temperature throughout For steel the temperature is around 1200 C The heating operation is called soaking and furnace is called soaking pits The ingot is then rolled into one of three intermediate products called: Bloom, Slab, or Billet
Bloom: Square cross-section of 150 mm or higher Slab: Rectangular cross-section of width 20 mm o more and thickness 40 mm or more Billet: Square cross-section of 40 mm or higher

These intermediate shapes are subsequently rolled into product shapes

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Flat- and Shape-Rolling Processes

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Figure 19.2 - Some of the steel products made in a rolling mill

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Flat Rolling and Its Analysis

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Flat Rolling Terminology

Draft = amount of thickness reduction

d t o t f
where d = draft; to = starting thickness; and tf = final thickness

Reduction = draft expressed as a fraction of starting stock thickness:

d r to
where r = reduction
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Flat-Rolling

Figure 13.2 (a) Schematic illustration of the flat-rolling process. (b) Friction forces acting on strip surfaces. (c) The roll force, F, and the torque acting on the rolls. The width w of the strip usually increases during rolling, as is shown in Fig. 13.5.

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Ways to Reduce Force and/or Power in Rolling

Force and/or power to roll a strip of a given width and work material can be reduced by any of the following: 1. Using hot rolling rather than cold rolling to reduce strength and strain hardening (K and n) of the work material [ Y K n ] f 2. Reducing the draft in each pass [ L R(to t f ] 3. Using a smaller roll radius R to reduce force [ L R(to t f ] 4. Using a lower rolling speed N to reduce power

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Example 9.1
A 300 mm wide strip 25 mm thick is fed through a rolling mill with two powered rolls each of radius = 250 mm. The work thickness is to be reduced to 22 mm in one pass at a roll speed of 50 rev/min. The work material has a flow curve defined by K = 275 MPa and n = 0.15, and the coefficient of friction between the rolls and the work is assumed to be 0.12. Determine if the friction is sufficient to permit the rolling operation to be accomplished. If so, calculate the roll force, torque, and the horsepower.

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Shape Rolling
In shape rolling, the work is deformed into a contoured cross-section rather than flat (rectangular) Accomplished by passing work through rolls that have the reverse of desired shape Gradual transformation through several rolls to achieve final cross-section is achieved by designing a specific roll-pass design Products include: Construction shapes such as I-beams, L-beams, and U-channels Rails for railroad tracks Round and square bars and rods
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Shape Rolling

Figure 13.13 Stages in the shape rolling of an H-section part. Various other structural sections, such as channels and I-beams, are also rolled by this kind of process.

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Figure 19.5 - A rolling mill for hot flat rolling; the steel plate is seen as the glowing strip extending diagonally from the lower left corner (photo courtesy of Bethlehem Steel Company)

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Rolling Mill
Figure 13.10 A general view of a rolling mill. Source: Inland Steel.

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Rolling Mills
Equipment is massive and expensive Various rolling-mill configurations are available to deal with the variety of applications and technical problems in the rolling process Rolling mill configurations: Two-high: two opposing large diameter rolls

can be either reversing or nonreversing

Three-high: work passes through both directions Four-high: backing rolls support smaller work rolls,

smaller diameter rolls means lower forces, torque and power

Cluster mill multiple backing rolls on smaller rolls Tandem rolling mill sequence of two-high mills
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Various Configurations of Rolling mills

(a) 2-high rolling mill

(b) 3-high rolling mill

(c) four-high rolling mill

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Cluster Mill
Multiple backing rolls allow even smaller roll diameters

Figure 19 6 - Various configurations of rolling mills: (d) cluster mill

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Backing Roll Arrangements

Figure 13.11 Schematic illustration of various roll arrangements: (a) two-high; (b) three- high; (c) four-high; (d) cluster (Sendzimir) mill.

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Tandem Rolling Mill

A series of rolling stands (two-high mills) in sequence Helps achieve higher throughput rates in standard products As thickness is deccreased in each rolling step, work velocity increases, and the problem of synchronizing the roll speeds at each stand is a significant one

Figure 19.6 - Various configurations of rolling mills: (e) tandem rolling mill
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Tandem Rolling

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OTHER DEFORMATION PROCESSES RELATED TO ROLLING

Thread Rolling Gear Rolling Ring Rolling Roll Piercing or Mannesmann Mill

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Thread Rolling and Gear Rolling

Bulk deformation process used to form threads on cylindrical parts by rolling them between two dies Most important commercial process for mass producing bolts and screws Performed by cold working in thread rolling machines Advantages over thread cutting (machining): Higher production rates Better material utilization Stronger threads due to work hardening Better fatigue resistance due to compressive stresses introduced by rolling Gear rolling is a cold working process similar to thread rolling
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Figure 19.7 - Thread rolling with flat dies: (1) start of cycle, and (2) end of cycle

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Ring Rolling
Deformation process in which a thick-walled ring of smaller diameter is rolled into a thin-walled ring of larger diameter As thick-walled ring is compressed, deformed metal elongates, causing diameter of ring to be enlarged Hot working process for large rings and cold working process for smaller rings Applications: ball and roller bearing races, steel tires for railroad wheels, and rings for pipes, pressure vessels, and rotating machinery Advantages: material savings, ideal grain orientation, strengthening through cold working
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Figure 19.8 - Ring rolling used to reduce the wall thickness and increase the diameter of a ring: (1) start, and (2) completion of process

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Roll Piercing or Mannesmann Process

A specialized hot working process for making seamless thick-walled tubes Process is based on principle: When a solid cylindrical part is compressed on its circumference, high tensile stresses are developed at its center If compression is high enough, an internal crack is formed Compressive stresses on a solid cylindrical billet are applied by two rolls, whose axes are oriented at slight angles from the axis of the billet, so that their rotation tends to pull the billet though the rolls A mandrel is used to control the size and finish of the hole
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Roll Piercing or Mannesmann Process or Rotary Tube Piercing

Figure 13.17 Cavity formation in a solid round bar and its utilization in the rotary tube piercing process for making seamless pipe and tubing. (The Mannesmann mill was developed in the 1880s.)
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Forging
Deformation process in which work is compressed between two dies, using either impact or gradual pressure to form the part Oldest of the metal forming operations, dating from about 5000 B C Components: engine crankshafts, connecting rods, gears, aircraft structural components, jet engine turbine parts In addition, basic metals industries use forging to establish basic form of large components that are subsequently machined to final shape and size

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Classification of Forging Operations

Cold vs. hot forging: Hot or warm forging most common, due to the significant deformation and the need to reduce strength and increase ductility of work metal Cold forging - advantage is increased strength that results from strain hardening Impact vs. press forging: Forge hammer - applies an impact load Forge press - applies gradual pressure

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Types of Forging Dies

The distinction is based on the degree to which the flow of work metal s constrained by the dies Open-die forging - work is compressed between two flat (or almost flat) dies, allowing metal to flow laterally without constraint Impression-die forging - die surfaces contain a cavity or impression that is imparted to workpart, thus constraining metal flow - flash is created (excess material that is trimmed off) Flashless forging - workpart is completely constrained in die and no excess flash is produced
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Figure 19.10 - Three types of forging: (a) open-die forging

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Figure 19.10 - Three types of forging (b) impression-die forging

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Figure 19.10 - Three types of forging (c) flashless forging

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Open-Die Forging
Involves compression of workpart with cylindrical cross-section between two flat dies Similar to compression test Deformation operation reduces height and increases diameter of work Common names include upsetting or upset forging Open die hot forging is an important process to produce shafts, disks and rings: Used for shaping a large square ingot into a round cross-section creating favorable grain flow and metallurgical structure
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Open-Die Forging with No Friction

If no friction occurs between work and die surfaces, then homogeneous deformation occurs, so that radial flow is uniform throughout workpart height and true strain is given by:

ho ln h

where ho= starting height; and h = height at some point during compression At h = final value hf, true strain is maximum value Force required to continue the compression at any given height h: F =Yf A

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Figure 19.11 - Homogeneous deformation of a cylindrical workpart under ideal conditions in an open-die forging operation: (1) start of process with workpiece at its original length and diameter, (2) partial compression, and (3) final size
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Open-Die Forging with Friction

Friction between work and die surfaces constrains lateral flow of work, resulting in barreling effect In hot open-die forging, effect is even more pronounced due to heat transfer at and near die surfaces, which cools the metal and increases its resistance to deformation The above factors causes the actual upsetting force to be greater than with no friction case: F =Kf Yf A where Kf is the forging shape factor given by equation: 0.4D
K f 1 h

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Figure 19.12 - Actual deformation of a cylindrical workpart in open-die forging, showing pronounced barreling: (1) start of process, (2) partial deformation, and (3) final shape

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Example 19.2
Yf=Kn

A cylindrical workpiece is subjected to a cold upset forging operation. The starting piece is 75 mm in height and 50 mm in diameter. It is reduced in the operation to a height of 36 mm. The work material has a flow curve defined by K=350 MPa and n=0.17. Assume a coefficient of friction of 0.1. Determine the force as the process begins, at intermediate heights of 62 mm, 49 mm, and at the final height of 36 mm.

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Impression Die or Closed Die Forging

Compression of workpart by dies with inverse of desired part shape Flash is formed by metal that flows beyond die cavity into small gap between die plates Flash must be later trimmed from part, but it serves an important function during compression: As flash forms, friction resists continued metal flow into gap, constraining material to fill die cavity In hot forging, metal flow is further restricted by cooling against die plates

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Figure 19.15 - Sequence in impression-die forging: (1) just prior to initial contact with raw workpiece, (2) partial compression, and (3) final die closure, causing flash to form in gap between die plates

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Impression-Die Forging Practice

Several forming steps often required, with separate die cavities for each step Beginning steps redistribute metal for more uniform deformation and desired metallurgical structure in subsequent steps Final steps bring the part to its final geometry Impression-die forging is often performed manually by skilled operator under adverse conditions

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Forging a Connecting Rod

Figure 14.7 (a) Stages in forging a connecting rod for an internal combustion engine. Note the amount of flash required to ensure proper filling of the die cavities. (b) Fullering, and (c) edging operations to distribute the material when preshaping the blank for forging.

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Impression-Die Forging Advantages and Limitations

Advantages compared to machining from solid stock: Higher production rates Conservation of metal (less waste) Greater strength Favorable grain orientation in the metal Limitations: Not capable of close tolerances Machining often required to achieve accuracies and features needed, such as holes, threads, and mating surfaces that fit with other components
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Flashless Forging
Compression of work in punch and die tooling whose cavity does allow for flash Starting workpart volume must equal die cavity volume within very close tolerance Process control more demanding than impression-die forging Best suited to part geometries that are simple and symmetrical Often classified as a precision forging process

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Figure 19.18 - Flashless forging: (1) just before initial contact with workpiece, (2) partial compression, and (3) final punch and die closure
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Forging Hammers (Drop Hammers)

Apply an impact load against workpart - two types: Gravity drop hammers - impact energy from falling weight of a heavy ram Power drop hammers - accelerate the ram by pressurized air or steam Disadvantage: impact energy transmitted through anvil into floor of building Most commonly used for impression-die forging

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Figure 19.20 - Drop forging hammer, fed by conveyor and heating units at the right of the scene (photo courtesy of Chambersburg Engineering Company)

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Figure 19.21 - Diagram showing details of a drop hammer for impression-die forging

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Forging Presses
Apply gradual pressure to accomplish compression operation - types: Mechanical presses - converts rotation of drive motor into linear motion of ram Hydraulic presses - hydraulic piston actuates ram Screw presses - screw mechanism drives ram

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Impression-Forging Dies

Figure 14.18 Standard terminology for various features of a typical impressionforging die.

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Upsetting and Heading

Forging process used to form heads on nails, bolts, and similar hardware products More parts produced by upsetting than any other forging operation Performed cold, warm, or hot on machines called headers or formers Wire or bar stock is fed into machine, end is headed, then piece is cut to length For bolts and screws, thread rolling is then used to form threads
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Figure 19.23 - An upset forging operation to form a head on a bolt or similar hardware item The cycle consists of: (1) wire stock is fed to the stop (2) gripping dies close on the stock and the stop is retracted (3) punch moves forward (4) bottoms to form the head

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Figure 19.24 - Examples of heading (upset forging) operations: (a) heading a nail using open dies (b) round head formed by punch (c) and (d) two common head styles for screws formed by die (e) carriage bolt head formed by punch and die

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Swaging
Accomplished by rotating dies that hammer a workpiece radially inward to taper it as the piece is fed into the dies Used to reduce diameter of tube or solid rod stock Mandrel sometimes required to control shape and size of internal diameter of tubular parts

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Figure 19.25 - Swaging process to reduce solid rod stock; the dies rotate as they hammer the work In radial forging, the workpiece rotates while the dies remain in a fixed orientation as they hammer the work

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Trimming
Cutting operation to remove flash from workpart in impression-die forging Usually done while work is still hot, so a separate trimming press is included at the forging station Trimming can also be done by alternative methods, such as grinding or sawing

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Figure 19.30 - Trimming operation (shearing process) to remove the flash after impression-die forging

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Extrusion
Compression forming process in which the work metal is forced to flow through a die opening to produce a desired cross-sectional shape Process is similar to squeezing toothpaste out of a toothpaste tube In general, extrusion is used to produce long parts of uniform cross-sections Two basic types of extrusion: Direct extrusion Indirect extrusion

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Figure 19.31 - Direct extrusion

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Comments on Direct Extrusion

Also called forward extrusion As ram approaches die opening, a small portion of billet remains that cannot be forced through die opening This extra portion, called the butt, must be separated from extruded product by cutting it just beyond the die exit Starting billet cross section usually round, but final shape is determined by die opening

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Figure 19.32 - (a) Direct extrusion to produce a hollow or semi-hollow cross-section; (b) hollow and (c) semi-hollow cross- sections

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Figure 19.33 - Indirect extrusion to produce (a) a solid cross-section and (b) a hollow cross-section

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Comments on Indirect Extrusion

Also called backward extrusion and reverse extrusion Limitations of indirect extrusion are imposed by the lower rigidity of hollow ram and difficulty in supporting extruded product as it exits die

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General Advantages of Extrusion

Variety of shapes possible, especially in hot extrusion Limitation: part cross-section must be uniform throughout length Grain structure and strength enhanced in cold and warm extrusion Close tolerances possible, especially in cold extrusion In some operations, little or no waste of material

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Hot vs. Cold Extrusion

Hot extrusion - prior heating of billet to above its recrystallization temperature This reduces strength and increases ductility of the metal, permitting more size reductions and more complex shapes Cold extrusion - generally used to produce discrete parts The term impact extrusion is used to indicate high speed cold extrusion

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Extrusion Ratio
Also called the reduction ratio, it is defined as

Ao rx Af
where rx = extrusion ratio; Ao = cross-sectional area of the starting billet; and Af = final cross-sectional area of the extruded section Applies to both direct and indirect extrusion

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Figure 19.36 (a) Definition of die angle in direct extrusion; (b) effect of die angle on ram force

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Comments on Die Angle

Low die angle - surface area is large, leading to increased friction at die-billet interface Higher friction results in larger ram force Large die angle - more turbulence in metal flow during reduction Turbulence increases ram force required Optimum angle depends on work material, billet temperature, and lubrication

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Comments on Orifice Shape of Extrusion Die

Simplest cross section shape = circular die orifice Shape of die orifice affects ram pressure As cross-section becomes more complex, higher pressure and greater force are required

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Figure 19.37 - A complex extruded cross-section for a heat sink (photo courtesy of Aluminum Company of America)
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Extrusion Presses
Either horizontal or vertical Horizontal more common Extrusion presses - usually hydraulically driven, which is especially suited to semi-continuous direct extrusion of long sections Mechanical drives - often used for cold extrusion of individual parts

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Wire and Bar Drawing

Cross-section of a bar, rod, or wire is reduced by pulling it through a die opening Similar to extrusion except work is pulled through die in drawing (it is pushed through in extrusion) Although drawing applies tensile stress, compression also plays a significant role since metal is squeezed as it passes through die opening

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Figure 19.41 - Drawing of bar, rod, or wire

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Area Reduction in Drawing

Change in size of work is usually given by area reduction:

Ao Af r Ao
where r = area reduction in drawing; Ao = original area of work; and Ar = final work

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Wire Drawing vs. Bar Drawing

Difference between bar drawing and wire drawing is stock size Bar drawing - large diameter bar and rod stock Wire drawing - small diameter stock - wire sizes down to 0.03 mm (0.001 in.) are possible Although the mechanics are the same, the methods, equipment, and even terminology are different

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Drawing Practice and Products

Drawing practice: Usually performed as cold working Most frequently used for round cross-sections Products: Wire: electrical wire; wire stock for fences, coat hangers, and shopping carts Rod stock for nails, screws, rivets, and springs Bar stock: metal bars for machining, forging, and other processes

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Bar Drawing
Accomplished as a single-draft operation - the stock is pulled through one die opening Beginning stock has large diameter and is a straight cylinder This necessitates a batch type operation

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Figure 19.42 - Hydraulically operated draw bench for drawing metal bars

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Wire Drawing
Continuous drawing machines consisting of multiple draw dies (typically 4 to 12) separated by accumulating drums Each drum (capstan) provides proper force to draw wire stock through upstream die Each die provides a small reduction, so desired total reduction is achieved by the series Annealing sometimes required between dies

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Figure 19.43 - Continuous drawing of wire

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Features of a Draw Die

Entry region - funnels lubricant into the die to prevent scoring of work and die Approach - cone-shaped region where drawing occurs Bearing surface - determines final stock size Back relief - exit zone - provided with a back relief angle (half-angle) of about 30 Die materials: tool steels or cemented carbides

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Figure 19.44 - Draw die for drawing of round rod or wire

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Preparation of the Work for Wire or Bar Drawing

Annealing to increase ductility of stock Cleaning - to prevent damage to work surface and draw die Pointing to reduce diameter of starting end to allow insertion through draw die

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