LIC & Applications

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li480\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li480\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\p
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-546\slmult0 \fs34\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b \ul {UNIT \uc1\u8211X I}\b0 \ul0 \par\
pard\li0\ri0\sl-506\slmult0 \fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b \ul {IC FABRICATION}\b0
\ul0 \par\pard\li413\ri0\sl-546\slmult0 \fs32\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b \ul {PART
\uc1\u8211X A}\b0 \ul0 \par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pard\li720\ri0\sl-506\slmult
0 \fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {1. What are the advantages of Integrated circuit
s?}\b0 \par\pard\li1080\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1080\ri0\sl-440\
slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1. Miniature size and hence increases equipm
ent density}\par\pard\li1080\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {2. C
ost reduction due to batch processing}\par\pard\li1080\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs28\
cf0\f0\charscalex100 {3. Increased system reliability due to the elimination of
soldered joints.}\par\pard\li1080\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100
{4. Reduction in power consumption}\par\pard\li1080\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs30\cf0
\f0\charscalex100 {5. Increasing operation speed}\par\pard\li1080\ri0\sl-320\slm
ult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {6. Improved functional performance.}\par\pard\l
i720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-440\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0
\charscalex100\b {2. Classify the types of IC\uc1\u8217Xs.}\b0 \par\pard\li720\r
i0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-440\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\chars
calex100 {Integrated Circuits can be classified based on \uc1\u8211X}\par\pard\l
\charscalex100\b \ul {(i) Based on Mode of operation}\b0 \ul0 \par\pard\li1080\r
i0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1080\ri0\sl-440\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\char
scalex100 {(a) Digital I.C.}\par\pard\li1080\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\cha

rscalex100 {(b) Analog I.C. (Linear IC)}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18
\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-426\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b \ul {(ii) Ba
sed on fabrication}\b0 \ul0 \par\pard\li1080\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pa
rd\li1080\ri0\sl-440\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {(a) Monolithic I.C.}\pa
r\pard\li1080\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {(b) Hybrid I.C.}\pa
r\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-440\slmult0 \fs2
8\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b \ul {(iii) Based on Integration level}\b0 \ul0 \par\par
d\li1080\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1080\ri0\sl-426\slmult0 \fs30\c
f0\f0\charscalex100 {(a) SSI}{ }\fs54\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61614X}{ }\fs2
6\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Small Scale I.C.}\par\pard\li1080\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs
30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {(b) MSI}{ }\fs54\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61614X}{ }
\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Medium Scale I.C.}\par\pard\li1080\ri0\sl-320\slmult
0 \*\tx1920\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {(c) LSI}\tab \fs54\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {
\uc1\u61614X}{ }\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Large Scale I.C.}\par\pard\li1080\ri
0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {(d) VLSI}{ }\fs54\cf0\f1\charscalex
100 {\uc1\u61614X}{ }\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Very Large Scale I.C.}\par\pard
\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-440\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\
f0\charscalex100\b {3. What is meant by monolithic technology?}\b0 \par\pard\li1
440\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-440\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0
\charscalex100 {Monolithic technology all the active and passive elements along
with their interconnections}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\char
scalex100 {are manufactured on a single chip of Silicon. It is a highest order o
f reliability. Hence they are}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\c
harscalex100 {preferred only in low power applications.}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbk
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margtsxn66\margbsxn440\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs24\cf1\f0\charscalex100\b
\i \ul {{\field{\*\fldinst{HYPERLINK "www.vidyarthiplus.com"}}{\fldrslt {www.vid
yarthiplus.com}}}}\b0 \i0 \ul0 \par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\
pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\
cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult
0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-21
3\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\r
i0\sl-493\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {4. Name the different types of I
C packages (May-06)}\b0 \par\pard\li1080\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\l
i1080\ri0\sl-440\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1. Metal can package}\par\p
ard\li1080\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {2. Ceramic flat packag
e}\par\pard\li1080\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {3. Dual \uc1\u
8211X in \uc1\u8211X line package.}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\
par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-426\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {5. What is meant
by \uc1\u8220XEpitaxy\uc1\u8221X?}\b0 \par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18
\cf0\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-440\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {The word epi
taxy is derived from Greek word epi meaning \uc1\u8220Xupon\uc1\u8221X and the p
ast tense of}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {the
word tension meaning \uc1\u8220Xarranged\uc1\u8221X. So, one could describe epit
axy as arranging atoms in single}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0
\charscalex100 {crystal fashion upon a single crystal substrate; so that
the resulting layer is an extension of the}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmu
lt0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {substrate crystal structure.}\par\pard\li720\ri0
\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-440\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charsca
lex100\b {6. Distinguish between monolithic integrated circuits and hybrid integ
rated circuits.}\b0 \par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsx
n0\margrsxn133\cols2\colno1\colw6133\colsr-0\colno2\colw5626\pard\li1786\ri0\sl213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1786\ri0\sl-440\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex
100\b {Monolithic Integrated Circuits}\b0 \par\pard\li1013\ri0\sl-306\slmult0 \f
s26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {In Monolithic circuits, all circuit components both}\p
ar\pard\li1013\ri0\sl-293\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {active and
pas
sive elements and their}\par\pard\li1013\ri0\sl-293\slmult0 \fs24\cf0\f0\charsc
alex100 {interconnections are manufactured into or on top}\par\pard\li1013\ri0\s
l-306\slmult0 \fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {of a single chip of silicon.}\par\pard
\li1013\ri0\sl-306\slmult0 \fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {It is used for more ap
plications in Linear and}\par\pard\li1013\ri0\sl-293\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\char
scalex100 {digital IC}\par\pard\li1013\ri0\sl-306\slmult0 \fs24\cf0\f0\charscale
x100 {Cost wise is less.}\par\pard\li1013\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\
li1013\ri0\sl-386\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {They are preferred only
in low power}\par\pard\li1013\ri0\sl-293\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100
{applications.}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\s
l-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-400\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscale
x100\b {7. What is meant by thermal Oxidation?}\b0 \par\column\pard\li1066\ri0\s
l-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1066\ri0\sl-440\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscal
ex100\b {Hybrid Integrated Circuits}\b0 \par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-306\slmult0 \fs26\c
f0\f0\charscalex100 {Hybrid Integrated circuits separated component}\par\pard
\li0\ri0\sl-293\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {parts are attached to a c
eramic substrate and}\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-293\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex1
00 {interconnected by means of either metallization}\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-306
\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {pattern or wire boards.}\par\pard\li0\ri0\s
l-306\slmult0 \fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {It is used for adopt less applications
}\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-386\slmult0 \fs2
6\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Cost wise is slightly higher compared to monolithic}\par

\pard\li0\ri0\sl-293\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {ICs.}\par\pard\li0\ri0\
sl-306\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {They are preferred for high power app
lications.}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrs
xn133\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-440\slmult
0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {The process of oxidation is called Thermal Oxidati
on because high temperature is used to}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs26\
cf0\f0\charscalex100 {grow the oxide layer. The thickness of the film is governe
d by time, temperature and the moisture}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28
\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {content. The thickness of oxide layer is usually in the o
rder 0.02 to 2}{ }\fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61549X}\fs34\cf0\f0\charscal
ex100 {m.}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-440
\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {8. What are the important purpose of SiO}
\b0 \fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {2}\b0 \fs34\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {?}\b0 \par
\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-426\slmult0 \fs
30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {SiO}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {2}{ }\fs28\cf0\f0\chars
calex100 {has the property of preventing the diffusion of almost all impurities
through it.}\par\pard\li1080\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs32\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1. S
iO}\fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {2}{ }\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {is extremely har
d protective coating and is unaffected by almost all reagents except}\par\pard\l
i1453\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {hydrofluoric acid. Thus it
stands against any contamination.}\par\pard\li1080\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\
f0\charscalex100 {2. By Selective etching of SiO}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {2}\
fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {, diffusion of impurities through carefully defined w
indows in}\par\pard\li1453\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {the Si
O}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {2}{ }\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {can be accomplish
ed to fabricate various components.}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pgh
sxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\pard\sect\sectd\sbkpage
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i0\sl-493\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {9. List the disadvantage of ICs.
}\b0 \par\pard\li1080\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1080\ri0\sl-346\sl
mult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {(a) Inductors cannot be fabricated.}\par\pard\
li1080\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {(b) IC functions at fairly
low voltage.}\par\pard\li1080\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {(c
) They can handle only limited amount of power. Cannot with stand rough
handling and}\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {ex
cessive heat.}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl
-440\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {10. What are reasons for Aluminium is
mostly used for metallization of ICs?}\b0 \par\pard\li1080\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \
fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1080\ri0\sl-426\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1. It is
relatively a good conductor}\par\pard\li1080\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\ch
arscalex100 {2. It is easy to deposit aluminium films using vacuum deposition.}\
par\pard\li1080\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {3. Aluminium make
s good mechanical bands with silicon.}\par\pard\li1080\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs26\
cf0\f0\charscalex100 {4. Aluminium forms low resistance, non \uc1\u8211X rect
ifying contact with p \uc1\u8211X type silicon and the}\par\pard\li1440\ri0\
sl-333\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {heavily doped n \uc1\u8211X type sili
con.}\par\pard\li5333\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li5333\ri0\sl-480\sl
mult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {PART \uc1\u8211X B}\b0 \par\pard\li720\ri0\s
x100\b {1. Explain how the silicon wafer prepared and Epitaxial Growth?}\b0 \par
\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {silicon wafer prepa
ration:}\b0 \par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {The f
ollowing steps are used in preparation of Si \uc1\u8211X wafers.}\par\pard\li108
0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1080\ri0\sl-440\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\c
harscalex100 {1. Crystal growth and doping}\par\pard\li1080\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \
fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {2. Ingot trimming and grinding.}\par\pard\li1080\ri0\
sl-333\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {3. ingot slicing}\par\pard\li1080\ri0
\sl-320\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {4. wafer polishing and etching}\par\
pard\li1080\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {5. wafer cleaning.}\p
ar\pard\li1080\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1080\ri0\sl-440\slmult0 \
fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {The starting material for crystal growth is hig
hly purified (99.99999) polycrystalline silicon.}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\sl
mult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {The Czochralski crystal growth process is the
most often used for producing single crystal silicon}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\
slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {ingots. The poly crystalline silicon with
an appropriate amount of do pant is put in a quartz}\par\pard\li720\ri0
\sl-320\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {crucible and is then placed in a fur
nace. The material is then hated to a temperature in excess of}\par\pard\li720\r
i0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {the silicon melting point of 1420}
\fs26\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61616X}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {C. A small
single crystal rod of silicon called a seed crystal is then}\par\pard\li720\ri0\
sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {dipped in to the silicon \uc1\u8211X

melt and slowly pulled out as shown in fig. As the seed crystal is pulled}\par\p
ard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {out of the melt, it bri
ngs with it solidified mass of silicon with the same crystalline structure as}\p
ar\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {that of seed crysta
l. During the crystal pulling process, the seed crystal and the crucible are rot
ated}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {in opposite
directions in order to produce ingots of circular cross- section. The di
ameter of the}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {i
ngot is controlled by the pulling rate and the melt temperature. Ingot diameter
of about 10 to 15}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100
{cm is common and ingot length is generally of the order of 100cm.}\par\pard\li1
\charscalex100 {Next the top and bottom portions of the ingot are cut off and th
e ingot surface to produce}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbkpage
{\sp{\sn pVerticies}{\sv 8;2;(0,0);(2706,0);}}
{\sp{\sn pSegmentInfo}{\sv 2;5;16384;45824;1;45824;32768}}

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{\sp{\sn pVerticies}{\sv 8;61;(0,253);(0,253);(0,240);(13,226);(13,226);(13,213)
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{\sp{\sn pVerticies}{\sv 8;61;(0,0);(13,0);(26,13);(26,13);(40,13);(53,26);(66,2
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7;32768}}

7;32768}}

{\sp{\sn pVerticies}{\sv 8;127;(186,40);(173,40);(146,40);(106,40);(80,40);(66,4
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{\sp{\sn pVerticies}{\sv 8;17;(53,360);(53,93);(53,93);(66,93);(66,93);(66,93);(
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;(546,53);(546,53);(546,66);(546,66);(546,66);(120,120);(0,66);(120,0);(120,120)
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824;1;45824;1;45824;1;45824;1;45824;1;45824;1;45824;1;45824;1;45824;1;45824;1;45
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}

3);(13,560);(0,560);(0,560);(0,560);(0,546);(813,13);(946,0);(880,106);(813,13);
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824;1;45824;24577;32768}}

6);(13,66);(0,66);(0,66);(0,53);(13,53);(426,0);(546,66);(426,120);(426,0);(13,5
3);(13,53);}}
824;1;45824;1;45824;1;45824;1;45824;1;45824;1;45824;1;45824;1;45824;1;45824;1;45
824;1;45824;24577;32768}}
7;32768}}
i0\sl-493\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {an exact diameter (D = 10, 12.5, 1
5 cm). The ingot is also ground flat slightly along the length to get}\par\pard\
li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {a reference plane. The ingo
t is then sliced using a stainless steel saw blade with industrial}\par
\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {diamonds embedded in
to the inner diameter cutting edge. This produce circular wafers or slices}\par\
pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {as shown in fig. th
e orientation flat portion serves as a useful reference place for the va
rious}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {processes
described later. The silicon wafer so obtained have very rough surface due
to slicing}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {oper
ation.}\par\pard\li6520\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs22\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Rotation}

\par\pard\li6160\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li6160\ri0\sl-320\slmult0
\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Pull}\par\pard\li6160\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\
par\pard\li6160\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs22\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Seed crystal}\par
\pard\li6160\ri0\sl-360\slmult0 \fs22\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Silicon ingel}\par\p
ard\li7426\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li7426\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18
\cf0\par\pard\li7426\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li7426\ri0\sl-213\slm
ult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li7426\ri0\sl-226\slmult0 \fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Qu
artz}\par\pard\li7426\ri0\sl-226\slmult0 \fs22\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {crucible}\p
ar\pard\li4906\ri0\sl-173\slmult0 \fs22\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Silicon melt}\par\
pard\li4906\ri0\sl-240\slmult0 \fs22\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {T> 1420}\fs24\cf0\f1\
charscalex100 {\uc1\u61616X}{ }\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {C}\par\pard\li1440\ri
0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard
\li1440\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-386\slmult0 \fs26\cf
0\f0\charscalex100 {These wager undergo a number of polishing steps to produce a
flat surface. Then one side}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\cha
rscalex100 {of the wafer is given a final mirror \uc1\u8211X smooth highly
polished finish, whereas the other side is}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult
0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {simply lapped on an abrasive lapping machine to ob
tain an acceptable degree of flatness. Finally,}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmul
t0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {the wafer are toughly rinsed and dried. A raw cut
slice the thickness 23 \uc1\u8211X 40 mils produces wafers}\par\pard\li720\ri0\
sl-333\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {of 16 -32 mils thickness after all th
e polishing steps.}\par\pard\li6093\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li6093
\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li6093\ri0\sl-186\slmult0 \fs20\cf0\f0\ch
arscalex100 {D = 10, 12, 5,}\par\pard\li6093\ri0\sl-226\slmult0 \fs22\cf0\f0\cha
rscalex100 {15 cm}\par\pard\li4653\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li4653\
ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li4653\ri0\sl-306\slmult0 \fs34\cf0\f0\cha
rscalex100 {D}\par\pard\li5733\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li5733\ri0\
sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li5733\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\l
i5733\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li5733\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\
par\pard\li5733\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li5733\ri0\sl-280\slmult0
\fs22\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Orientation}\par\pard\li5733\ri0\sl-226\slmult0 \fs2
6\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {flat}\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-520\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\ch
arscalex100 {These silicon wafers will contain several hundred rectangular chips
, each one containing a}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscal
ex100 {complete integrated circuit. After all the IC fabrication processes a
re complete, these wafer are}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\ch
arscalex100 {sawed into 100 to 8000 rectangular chips having side of 10 to 1mm.
each chip is a single IC and}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\cha
rscalex100 {may contain hundreds of components. The wafer thickness therefore is
so chosen that is possible}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\char
scalex100 {to separate chips without breaking and at the same time. It gives suf
ficient mechanical strength to}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbkpage{\shp
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i0\sl-493\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {the IC chip.}\par\pard\li720\ri0\s
l-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li7
harscalex100\b {Epitaxial Growth :}\b0 \par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs30
\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {The word epitaxy is derived from Greek word epi meaning \
uc1\u8220XUpon\uc1\u8221X and the past tense of}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmul

t0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {the word tension meaning \uc1\u8220Xarranged\uc
1\u8221X. So, one could describe epitaxy as, arranging atoms in}\par\pard\li
720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {single crystal fashion upon a
single crystal substrate, so that the resulting layer is an extension of}\par\p
ard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {the substrate crystal s
tructure. The basic chemical reaction used for the epitaxial growth of pure}\par
\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {silicon is the hydrog
en reduction of silicon tetrachloride.}\par\pard\li2880\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18
\cf0\par\pard\li2880\ri0\sl-440\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1200}\fs26\c
f0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61616X}\fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {C}\par\pard\li2160
\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {SiC}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {
4}{ }\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {+2H}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {2}{ }\fs58\cf0\
f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61611X}{ }\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Si + 4HCI}\par\par
f0\f0\charscalex100 {Mostly, epitaxial films with specific impurity concent
ration are required. This is}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\c
harscalex100 {accomplished by introducing phosphine (PH}\fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex1
00 {3}\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {) for the n \uc1\u8211X type and bi \uc1\u8211
X borane (B}\fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {2}{ }\fs38\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {H}\fs24
\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {6}\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {) for p \uc1\u8211X type}\p
ar\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {doping into the sil
icon tetrachloride hydrogen gas stream.}\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs1
8\cf0\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-440\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {The process
is carried out in a reaction chamber consisting of a long cylindrical quartz tu
be}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {encircled by a
RF induction coil. Fig shows the diagrammatic representation of the system used
.}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {The silicon waf
ers are placed on a rectangular graphite rod called a boat. This boat is then pl
aced}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {in the reac
tion chamber where the graphite is heated inductively to a temperature 1200
}\fs24\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61616X}\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {C. The}\pa
r\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {various gasses requi
red for the growth of desired epitaxial layers are introduces into the system}\p
ar\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {through a control c
onsole.}\par\pard\li1600\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1600\ri0\sl-213
\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1600\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1600\
ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1600\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pa
rd\li1600\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1600\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\
cf0\par\pard\li1600\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1600\ri0\sl-213\slmu
lt0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1600\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1600\ri0\s
l-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1600\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li
1600\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1600\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\p
fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1600\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {Fig. A
diagrammatic representation of a system for growing silicon epitaxial fill}\b0
\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbkpage{\shp
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18\cf0\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0
\fs18\cf0\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slm
ult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213
\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl
-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li0\ri
0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li
0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\par
d\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par
\pard\li0\ri0\sl-413\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {Fig. Oxidation appara
tus}\b0 \par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn1
33\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-440\slmult0 \fs
26\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {2. Explain the Oxidation and Photolithography process
?}\b0 \par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-440\s
lmult0 \*\tx2000\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {SiO}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {2}\t
ab \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {has the property of preventing the diffusion
of almost all impurities through it. it}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0
\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {serves two very important purposes.}\par\pard\li108
harscalex100 {1. SiO}\fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {2}{ }\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100
{is an extremely hard protective coating and is unaffected by almost all reagen
ts except}\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {hydrof
luoric acid. Thus it stands against any contamination.}\par\pard\li1080\ri0\sl-2
13\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1080\ri0\sl-426\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex1
00 {2. By selective etching SiO}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {2}{ }\fs28\cf0\f0\ch
arscalex100 {diffusion of impurities through carefully defined windows in the}\p
ar\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {SiO}\fs26\cf0\f0\c
harscalex100 {2}{ }\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {can be accomplished to fabricate
various components.}\par\pard\li1080\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li108
0\ri0\sl-426\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {The silicon wafers are stacked
up in a quartz boat and then inserted into quartz furnace tube.}\par\pard\li720\
ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {The Si \uc1\u8211X wafers are rai
sed to a high temperature in the range of 950 to 1115}\fs26\cf0\f1\charscalex100
{\uc1\u61616X}\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {C and at the same}\par\pard\li720\ri0
\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {time, exposed to a gas containing O}
\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {2}{ }\fs32\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {or H}\fs26\cf0\f0\c
harscalex100 {2}\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {O or both. The chemical reaction is}
\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Si + 2H}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {2}\fs36\cf0\f0\

charscalex100 {O}{ }\fs64\cf0\f2\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61664X}{ }\fs30\cf0\f0\cha
rscalex100 {SiO}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {2}{ }\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {+ 2
H}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {2}\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\pa
r\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-440\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {This oxidation pr
ocess is called thermal oxidation because high temperature is used to}\par
\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {grow the oxide layer.
The thickness of the film is governed by time, temperature and the moisture}\pa
r\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {content. The thickne
ss of oxide layer is usually in the order of 0.02 to 2}{ }\fs32\cf0\f1\charscale
x100 {\uc1\u61549X}\fs34\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {m.}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\p
gwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\pard\sect\sectd\sbkpage
7;32768}}
i0\sl-493\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {Photolithography:}\b0 \par\pard\
li1440\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-440\slmult0 \fs28\cf0
\f0\charscalex100 {With the help of photolithography, it has become to produce m
icroscopically small circuit}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\cha
rscalex100 {and device patterns on Si \uc1\u8211X wafers. As many as 10,000 tra
nsistors can be fabricated on 1 cm}{ }\fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61620X}{
}\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1cm}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f
0\charscalex100 {chip. The conventional photolithographic process used ultra
violet light exposure and device}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \*\tx5000\
fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {dimension or line width as small as 2}\tab \fs3
0\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61549X}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {m can be obta
ined. However, with the advent of latest}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0
\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {technology using X \uc1\u8211X ray or electron
beam lithographic technique, it has become possible to}\par\pard\li720\ri0\s
l-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {produce device dimension down to submi
cron range (<1}{ }\fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61549X}\fs30\cf0\f0\charscal
ex100 {m).}\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl440\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Photolithography involves two process, n
amely; Making of a photographic mask.}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\c
f0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-426\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {Photo etching

:}\b0 \par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-440\s
lmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {The making of a photographic mask involves th
e following sequence of operations first the}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0
\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {preparation of initial artwork and secondly, its red
uction. The initial layout or artwork of an IC is}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slm
ult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {normally done at a scale several hundred times
larger than the final dimensions of the finished}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmu
lt0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {monolithic circuit. This is because, for a tiny
chip, larger the artwork, more accurate is the final}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\
slmult0 \*\tx10693\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {mask. For example it is often
required to make an opening of width about 1 mil (25}\tab \fs30\cf0\f1\ch
arscalex100 {\uc1\u61549X}\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {m).}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl
-320\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Obviously this cannot be managed by any
draftsman even with his thinnest of sketch pens. So the}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {drawings are made magnified and often by
a factor of 500. With the magnifications, it is easy to}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl333\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {see that a width of one mil is magnified
to a width of 500 mils. That is, about 1.2 cm. Therefore, for}\par\pard\li720\r
i0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {a finished monolithic chip area 50
mil}{ }\fs30\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61620X}{ }\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {
50 mil, the art work will be made on area of about 60 cm}{ }\fs30\cf0\f1\charsca
lex100 {\uc1\u61620X}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex1
00 {60 cm.}\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl440\slmult0 \fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {This initial layout is then decompo
sed into several mask layers, each corresponding to a}\par\pard\li720\ri0\s
l-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {proceeds step in the fabrication s
chedule. E.g. a mask for base diffusion, another for collector}\par\pard\li7
20\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {diffusion, another for metal
lization and so on. For photographic purpose, artwork should not}\par\pard\
li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {contain any line drawing bu
t must be of alternate clear and opaque regions. This is accomplished}\par\pard\
li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {by the use of clear Mylar c
oated with a sheet of red photographically opaque Mylar (trade name \uc1\u8211X}
\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Rubylith). The re
d layer can be easily peeled off this exposing clear with a knife edge from the}
\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {regions where im
purities have to be diffused. The artwork is usually produced on a precisi
on}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {drafting machi
ne, known as co-ordinatograph. The coordinatograph has a cutting heat that can b
e}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {positioned accu
rately and moved along two perpendicular axes. The coordinatograph outlines the}
\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {pattern cutting t
hrough the red Mylar without damaging the clear layer underneath.}\par\pard\li14
40\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-440\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\
charscalex100 {This rubylith pattern of individual mask is photograph an
d then reduced in steps by a}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0
\charscalex100 {factor of 5 or 10 several times to finally obtain the exact imag
e size. The final image also must be}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs30\cf
0\f0\charscalex100 {repeated many times in a matrix array, so that many ICs wil
l be produced in one process. The}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f
0\charscalex100 {photo repeating is done with a step and repeat camera. T
his is an imaging device with a}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf
0\f0\charscalex100 {photographic plate on a movable platform. Between exposure,
the plate is moved in equal steps so}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbkpage{\shp
{\*\shpinst

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i0\sl-493\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {that successive images form in an
array. When the exposed plate is developed it becomes a master}\par\pard\li720\r
i0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {mask. The masks, actually used in
IC processing are made by contact printing from the master.}\par\pard\li720\ri0\
sl-333\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {These working masks wear out with use
and are replaced as required. Images form in an array.}\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-426\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex
100 {Photo \uc1\u8211Xetching is used for the removal of SiO}\fs24\cf0\f0\c
harscalex100 {2}{ }\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {from desired regions so that
the desired}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {impur
ities can be diffused. The water is coated with a film of photosensitive
emulsion (Kodak}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {
Photo resist KPR). The thickness of the film is in the range of 5000 \uc1\u8211X
10000 A as shown fig (a) The}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\ch
arscalex100 {mask (negative of the desired pattern) as prepared by steps describ
ed earlier is placed over the}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\ch
arscalex100 {photo resist coated wafer as shown in fig. (b) This is now exposed
to ultraviolet light, so that KPR}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f
0\charscalex100 {becomes polymerized beneath the transparent region of the mask.
The mask is then removed and}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\ch
arscalex100 {the wafer is developed using a chemical (trichloroethylene) which d
issolves the unexposed / un-}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\cha
rscalex100 {polymerized regions on the photo resist and leaves the pattern as sh
own in fig. the polymerized}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\char
scalex100 {photoresist is next fixed or cured, so that it becomes immune to cert
ain chemicals called enchants}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\ch
arscalex100 {used in subsequent processing steps. The chip is immersed in the et
ching solution of hydrofluoric}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\c
harscalex100 {acid, which removes the SiO}\fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {2}{ }\fs26
\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {from the areas which are not protected by KPR as shown in
fig, after}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {diffu
sion of imurities; the photo resist is removed with a chemical solvent
(hot H}\fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {2}\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {SO}\fs24\cf0\f
0\charscalex100 {4}\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {) and}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333
\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {mechanical abrasion.}\par\pard\li1080\ri0\s
fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1080\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1080\ri0\sl-213

rscalex100 {The etching process described is a wet etching process and the chemi
cal reagents used are in}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charsca
lex100 {liquid form. A new process used these days is a dry etching proc
ess called plasma etching. A}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\
charscalex100 {major advantage of the dry etching process is that it is possible
to achieve smaller line opening (}\fs30\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61603X}{ }\
fs34\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs32\cf0\f1\cha
rscalex100 {\uc1\u61549X}\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {m) compared to wet process
is beyond the scope of this book.}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbkpage{\shp
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i0\sl-493\slmult0 \fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {X \uc1\u8211X ray and Electron B
eam Lithography:}\b0 \par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li14
40\ri0\sl-360\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {With conventional ultraviolet
(UV) photolithography process in which the UV wavelengths}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl
-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {used are in the range 0.3 to 0.4}{ }\fs
32\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61549X}\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {m, the minimum
device dimensions or line widths are limited by}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmu
lt0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {diffraction effects to around five wavelengths o
r about 2}{ }\fs30\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61549X}\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100
{m. This is what puts an upper limit on}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs2
8\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {the IC device density using UV photolithography.}\par\pa
cf0\f0\charscalex100 {With the advent of X \uc1\u8211X ray and electron beam lit
hography technique, it has become possible}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \f
s26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {to produce device dimensions down to submicron ra
nge (< 1}\fs30\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61549X}{ }\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100
{m). This is due to much shorter}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs26\cf
0\f0\charscalex100 {wavelength involved. With these techniques MOSFET with gate
length as small as 0.25}{ }\fs30\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61549X}\fs28\cf0\f0
\charscalex100 {m have}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscale
x100 {been made. The cost of X \uc1\u8211X ray or electron beam equipment is ver
y high and the exposure times}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\ch
arscalex100 {very much longer than with UV photolithography. So this becomes a v
ery expensive process and}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charsc
alex100 {is used only when very small device dimension (}\fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex
100 {\uc1\u61603X}{ }\fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1}{ }\fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex100
{\uc1\u61549X}\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {m) are needed.}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl

-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-360\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex
100\b {3. Explain about diffusion, ion implantation and Isolation?}\b0 \par\pard
f0\charscalex100\b {Diffusion:}\b0 \par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0
\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-360\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Another importan
t process in the fabrication of monolithic ICs is the diffusion of impurities}\p
ar\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {in the silicon chip
. This uses a high temperature furnace having a flat temperature profile over a}
\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {useful length (ab
out 20\uc1\u8221X length). A quartz boat containing about 20 cleaned wafers is p
ushed into}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {hot zo
ne with temperature maintained about a 1000}\fs26\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61
616X}\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {C. Impurities to be diffused are rarely used in
}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {their elemented
forms. Normally, compounds such as B}\fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {2}\fs34\cf0\f0\
charscalex100 {O}\fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {3}{ }\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {(B
oron oxide), BCI}\fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {3}{ }\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {(B
oron chloride)}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {ar
e used for Boron and P}\fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {2}\fs34\cf0\f0\charscalex100
{O}\fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {5}{ }\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {(phosphorous pen
taoxide) and POCI}\fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {3}{ }\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {(
phosphorous oxychloride) are}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\cha
rscalex100 {used as sources of Phosphorous. A carrier gas, such as dry oxygen or
nitrogen us normally used}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\chars
calex100 {for sweeping the impurity to the high temperature zone. The depth of d
iffusion depends upon the}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charsc
alex100 {time of diffusion depends upon the time of diffusion which normally ext
ends to 2 hours.}\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1440\r
i0\sl-360\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {The diffusion of impurities nor
mally takes places both laterally as well as vertically.}\par\pard\li720
\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Therefore, the actual junction
profiles will be curved as shown in fig. However for the sake of}\par\pa
rd\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {simplicity, lateral diff
usion will be omitted in all the drawings.}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbkpage{\shp
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i0\sl-493\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {ION IMPLANTATION:}\b0 \par\pard\
\f0\charscalex100 {On implantation is the other technique used to introduce impu
rities into a silicon wafer. In}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\
charscalex100 {this process, silicon wafer are placed in a vacuum chamber and ar
e scanned by a beam of high \uc1\u8211X}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs26
\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {energy doping ions (borons for p \uc1\u8211X type and pho
sphorus for n \uc1\u8211X type) as shown fig. these ions are}\par\pard\li720\ri0
\sl-333\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {accelerated by energies between 2
0 kV to 25 kV. As the ions strike the silicon wafers, they}\par\pard\li720\
ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {penetrate some small distance int
o the wafer. The depth of penetration of any particular type of}\par\pard\li720\
ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {ion increases with increasing acc
elerating voltage. Ion implantation technique has two important}\par\pard\li720\
ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {advantages:}\par\pard\li1080\ri0\
sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1080\ri0\sl-440\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charsca
lex100 {1. It is performed at low temperature. Therefore, previously diffu
sed regions have lesser}\par\pard\li1520\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charsc
alex100 {tendency for lateral spreading.}\par\pard\li1080\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs
30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {2. In diffusion process, temperature has to be controll
ed over a large area inside the oven,}\par\pard\li1520\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs26\
cf0\f0\charscalex100 {whereas in ion implantation techniques, accelerating
potential and the beam current are}\par\pard\li1520\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\
cf0\f0\charscalex100 {electrically controlled from outside.}\par\pard\li4386\ri0
\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li4386\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\
\fs18\cf0\par\pard\li4386\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li4386\ri0\sl-2
13\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li4386\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li438
6\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li4386\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\
pard\li4386\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li4386\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs1
8\cf0\par\pard\li4386\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li4386\ri0\sl-213\sl
mult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li4386\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li4386\ri0
06\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {Fig. Ion implantation system}\b0 \par\p
ard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-440\slmult0 \fs26\c
f0\f0\charscalex100\b {ISOLATION TECHNIQUES:}\b0 \par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-213\slm
ult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-440\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Si
nce a number of components are fabrication on the same IC chip, it becomes neces
sary to}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {provide e
lectrical isolation between different components and interconnection. Various t
ypes of}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {isolation
technique have been developed. However, we shall discuss here only two c
ommonly}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {used tech
niques namely.}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbkpage{\shp
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i0\sl-493\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {p \uc1\u8211X n junction isolati
on:}\b0 \par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-360
\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {In this isolation technique p* - type i
mpurities are selectively diffused into the n \uc1\u8211X type}\par\pard\li72
0\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {epitaxial later so as to reach
p \uc1\u8211X type substrate as shown fig (a) This produces islands surrounded}\
par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {by p \uc1\u8211X
type moats. It can be seen that these regions are separated by two back \uc1\u82
11X to \uc1\u8211X back p \uc1\u8211X n}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs26
\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {junction diodes. If the p \uc1\u8211X type substrate m
aterial is held at the most negative potential in the}\par\pard\li720\ri0\
sl-333\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {circuit, the diodes will be reverse b
iased providing electric isolation islands. The concentration of}\par\pard\li720
\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {the acceptor atoms in the region
s between isolation islands is usually \uc1\u8211X kept much higher (p*) than}\p
ar\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {the p \uc1\u8211X t
ype substrate. This prevents the depletions region of the reverse biased di
ode from}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {penetrat
ing more into p* region and possibly connecting the isolation islands.}\par\pard
0\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-213\slmult
0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li14
40\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par
18\cf0\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-386\s
lmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {There is, however, one undesirable by \uc1\u8
211X produce of this isolation process. It is the presence}\par\pard\li720\ri0\s
l-333\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {of a transition capacitance at the
isolating p \uc1\u8211X n junctions, resulting in an inevitable capacitor}\
par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {coupling between
the components and the substrate; these parasitic capacitances limit the}\
par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {performance of the
circuit a high frequencies. But being economical, this technique is commonly}\p
ar\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {used for general pu
rpose ICs.}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-36
0\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {Dielectric Isolation:}\b0 \par\pard\li14
charscalex100 {Here a layer of solid dielectric such as silicon diode or
ruby completely surrounds each}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f
0\charscalex100 {component, thereby producing isolation, both electrical and
capacitance is neglible. Also, it is}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \f
s26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {possible to fabricate both p \uc1\u8211X n- p and n \u

c1\u8211X p \uc1\u8211X n transistor within the same silicon substrate. Since}\p
ar\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {this method requir
es additional fabrication steps, it becomes more expansive. This technique
is}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {mostly used f
or fabricating professional grade ICs required grade ICs required for spec
ialized}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {applicati
ons viz, fig (b) shows such a structure.}\par\pard\li4466\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs
lmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li4466\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li4466\ri
0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li4466\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li4466\ri0\sl213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li4466\ri0\sl-466\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex
100\b {Fig. (b) Dielectric isolation}\b0 \par\pard\sect\sectd\sbkpage{\shp
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7;32768}}

i0\sl-493\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {4. Explain about metallization a
nd packaging?}\b0 \par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri
0\sl-426\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {METALLIZATION:}\b0 \par\pard\li14
charscalex100 {The purpose of this process is to produce at thin metal film laye
r that will serve to make}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charsc
alex100 {interconnections of the various components on the chip. Aluminium
is usually used for the}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\cha
rscalex100 {metallization of most ICs as it offers several advantages.}\par\pard
\li1080\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1. It is relatively a goo
d conductor}\par\pard\li1080\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {2. I
t is easy to deposit aluminum films using vacuum deposition.}\par\pard\li1080\ri
0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {3. Aluminium makes goods mechanical
bonds with silicon.}\par\pard\li1080\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex
100 {4. Aluminium forms low resistance, non \uc1\u8211X rectifying (i.e. ohmic)
contact with p \uc1\u8211X type silicon}\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs3
0\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {and the heavily doped n \uc1\u8211X type silicon.}\par\p
ult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1440\ri0\
\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\p
lex100 {The film thickness of about 1}{ }\fs30\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61549
X}{ }\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {m and conduction width of about 2 to 25}{ }\fs3
0\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61549X}{ }\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {m are common
ly}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {used. The proc
ess takes place in a vacuum evaporation chamber as shown fig. the pressure in th
e}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {chamber is redu
ced to the range of about 10 \uc1\u8211X 6 to 10 \uc1\u8211X 7 tar ( 1 atmospher
e = 760 torr = 760 mm}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex
100 {Hg). The tungsten coil or basket. A very high power density electro
n beam is focused at the}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\cha
rscalex100 {surface of the material to be evaporated. This vapours travel in str
aight line paths. The evaporated}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0
\charscalex100 {molecules hit the substrate and condense there to form a thin fi
lm coating.}\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl
-440\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {After the thin film metallization i
s done, the film is patterned to produce the required}\par\pard\li720\ri0\s
l-320\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {interconnections and bonding pad confi
guration. This is done by photolithographic process and}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-3
20\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {aluminium is etched away form unwanted pl
aces by using etchans like phosphoric acid (H}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {3}\fs3
0\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {PO}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {4}\fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex
100 {).}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbkpage{\shp
{\*\shpinst
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lmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Each of the water processed contains several
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0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {So these chips must be separated and individually
packaged. A common method called scribing}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs
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lmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {wafer is fractured along the scribe lines and
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slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {chip is then mounted on a ceramic wafer and
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r\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-440\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {There are three dif
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18\cf0\par\pard\li1080\ri0\sl-426\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1. TO - 5
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ar\pard\li1080\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {TO \uc1\u8211X 5 p
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0 {commonly available 8, 4 or 16 leads, but even 24 or 36 or 42 leads are also a
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s28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {process, but have the advantage or best hermetic seali
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\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {\uc1\u8211X in \uc1\u8211X line plastic packages due
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cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-360\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {Fabrication
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li720\ri0\sl-426\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {We shall here since various
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rd\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-440\slmult0 \fs24\cf
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i0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f1\charscalex101 {\uc1\u61559X \uc1\u61485X}{ }\fs28
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{\*\shpinst
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}}}}
7;32768}}

7;32768}}
7;32768}}
{\*\shpinst
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}}}}
7;32768}}
7;32768}}
charscalex100 {Steps in the fabrication of the circuit shown in fig impurities p
enetrate the n \uc1\u8211X type epitaxial}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \*\
tx8080\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {layer and reach this p \uc1\u8211X type sub
strate. The area under the SiO}\fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {2}\tab \fs28\cf0\f0\
charscalex100 {are n \uc1\u8211X type island that are}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-32
0\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {completely surrounded by p \uc1\u8211X typ
e moats. As long as the p \uc1\u8211X n junctions between the isolation}\par\par
d\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {islands are held at a neg
ative potential with respect to the n \uc1\u8211X type isolation islands, these
regions}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {are elect
rically isolated from each other by two back \uc1\u8211X to \uc1\u8211X ba
ck diodes, providing the desired}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\
f0\charscalex100 {isolation.}\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\p
ard\li1440\ri0\sl-426\slmult0 \*\tx7186\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {The concentra
tion of acceptor atoms (NA = 5}{ }\fs30\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61620X}{ }\
fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {10}\fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {20}\tab \fs30\cf0\f0\c
harscalex100 {cm}\fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {-3}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {) i
n the region between isolation}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \*\tx9360\fs2
6\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {islands is generally kept higher than p \uc1\u8211X type
substrate for which Na = 1.4}{ }\fs30\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61620X}{ }\fs
30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {10}\fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {15}\tab \fs28\cf0\f0\cha
rscalex100 {atoms / cm}\fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {3}\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100
{. This}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {ensure th
at the depletion region of the reverse biased diode will not extend into p* regi
on to the}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {extend
of electrically connecting the two isolation islands. There will, however, be as
significant}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {amou
nt of barrier of transition capacitance present as a by product of the isolation
diffusion. The}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {t
op view of the isolation islands is depicted in fig.}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\
slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-426\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b
{Step 5: Base Diffusion:}\b0 \par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\
pard\li1440\ri0\sl-440\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Refer to fig A layer
of SiO}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {2}{ }\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {is grown ove
r the entire wafer and a new pattern of openings is}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\s
lmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {formed using photolithographic technique. Now
, p \uc1\u8211X type impurities, such as boron, are diffused}\par\pard\li720\ri0
\sl-320\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {through the openings into the island
s of n \uc1\u8211X type epitaxial silicon. The depth of this diffusion must}\par
\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {be controlled so that
it does not penetrate through n \uc1\u8211X layer into the substrate. This diff
usion is}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {utilized
to form base region, of the transistor, resistor, the anode of the diode a
nd junction}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {capac
itor.}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbkpage{\shp
{\*\shpinst

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i0\sl-493\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {Step \uc1\u8211X 6: Emitter Diff
usion:}\b0 \par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl440\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Refer to fig (g) A new layer of SiO}\fs2
6\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {2}{ }\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {is again grown over the
entire wafer and selectively}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\ch
arscalex100 {etched to open a new set of windows and n \uc1\u8211X type impurity
.}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0
\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri
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0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\p
f0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0
ar\pard\li720\ri0\sl-440\slmult0 \fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {6. Explain about
Resistors Fabrications?}\b0 \par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\par
d\li720\ri0\sl-426\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b \ul {Integrated Resistor
s:}\b0 \ul0 \par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl
-440\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {The basic technique for obtaining a
resistor in integrated circuit is by utilizing the bulk}\par\pard\li720\r
i0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {resistance of a defined volume of
semiconductor region. Four different methods are available for}\par\pard\li720\r

i0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {fabricating integrated resistors,
namely:}\par\pard\li1800\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1800\ri0\sl-426
\slmult0 \fs60\cf0\f2\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61558X}{ }\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100
{Diffused Resistor}\par\pard\li1800\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs60\cf0\f2\charscalex10
0 {\uc1\u61558X}{ }\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Epitaxial Resistor}\par\pard\li18
00\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs60\cf0\f2\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61558X}{ }\fs28\cf0\f0\c
harscalex100 {Pinched Resistor}\par\pard\li1800\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs60\cf0\f2\
charscalex100 {\uc1\u61558X}{ }\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Thin Film Resistor}\p
28\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b \ul {Diffused Resistor:}\b0 \ul0 \par\pard\li1440\ri0\
lex100 {In this method, resistor is formed in one of the isolated regions of epi
taxial layer during}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex1
00 {base or emitter diffusions common to bipolar transistor fabrication. A no ex
tra fabricating steps}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbkpage{\shp
{\*\shpinst
\jpegblip
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}}}}
7;32768}}

i0\sl-493\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {are required this type of resist
or is very economical. However, a server limitation is the small}\par\pard
\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {range of resistance possib
le.}\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {The value of
the resistance depends upon the surface geometry. That is length, width and}\pa
r\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {upon the diffused i
mpurity profile. In this context, a very useful quantity sheet resistance
is}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {defined as di
ffused layers are very thin.}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pa
rd\li720\ri0\sl-426\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {Sheet Resistance Rs:}\
b0 \par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-440\slmu
lt0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Consider the square L}{ }\fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex
100 {\uc1\u61620X}{ }\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {L of a material of resistively
p, thickness t, and cross \uc1\u8211X sectional}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmul
t0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {area A = L}{ }\fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u6
1620X}{ }\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {t shown in Fig (a), the resistance of this
sheet of material can be written as}\par\pard\li746\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0
\par\pard\li746\ri0\sl-573\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {Rs}{ }\fs256\cf0\
f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61501X}{\super \fs30\up4\cf0\f3\charscalex100\ul {pL}\ul
0 }\fs256\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61501X}{\super \fs36\up4\cf0\f3\charscalex
100\ul {p}\ul0 }\fs8\cf0\f1\charscalex73 {\uc1\u61480X}\fs8\cf0\f1\charscalex73
{\uc1\u61480X}\fs8\cf0\f1\charscalex73 {\uc1\u61480X}\fs24\cf0\f3\charscalex100
{ohms per square}{ }\fs8\cf0\f1\charscalex73 {\uc1\u61481X}\par\pard\sect\sectd\
sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\pard\li1293\ri0\sl-320\slm
ult0 \*\tx2026\fs44\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {L t}\tab \fs48\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {t
}\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-480\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {The quantity R
s is independent of the size of the square and mainly depends upon the}
\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {diffusion charact
eristic of the material. Now consider Fig. (b, c) which shows a base resistor an
d}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {the emitter re
sistor. The resistance for these resistors can be expressed in terms of th
e sheet}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {resistanc
e Rs and the surface dimensions L and W.}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs1
8\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-426\slmult0 \fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Now
R = pL / W}{ }\fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61620X}{ }\fs54\cf0\f0\ch
arscalex100 {t}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Or
,
R = Rs L / W}\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\pa
r\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-440\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Where the ratio L/W
is called the aspect ratio of the surface geometry and is, therefore, the}\par\
pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {effective number of sq
uare contained in the resistor. The base resistor in the range of 20}{ }\fs40\cf
0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61527X}{ }\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {to 300}\par\pard
\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs40\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {k}\fs40\cf0\f1\charscalex1
00 {\uc1\u61527X}{ }\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {can be easily fabricated due t
o medium resistivity ( 200}\fs40\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61527X}{ }\fs28
\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {/ square) p \uc1\u8211X type base region.}\par\pard\li7
20\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {However, the sheet resistance
of the emitter diffusion is of the order the 5}{ }\fs40\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\u

c1\u61527X}{ }\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {/ sq. only. So emitter}\par\pard\li720
\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {resistors are usually in the ran
ge of 10 to 1 k}\fs42\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61527X}\fs54\cf0\f0\charscalex
100 {.}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\sl
i0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard
par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-426\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b \ul {Example:}\b0
\ul0 \par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133
\pard\sect\sectd\sbkpage
{\*\shpinst
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{\*\shpinst
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7;32768}}

0\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-386\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Design a 4}{ }\
fs42\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61527X}{ }\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {diffused
resistor.}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {The she
et resistance of p \uc1\u8211X type diffusion I s200 ohm / sq.}\par\pard\li1946\
rscalex101 {4Kt10}\fs24\cf0\f3\charscalex101 {4Kt10}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone
\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\pard\li746\ri0\sl-480\slmult0 \fs
30\cf0\f3\charscalex101 {Then}{\super \fs36\up5\cf0\f3\charscalex101 {L}}\fs32\c
f0\f1\charscalex101 {\uc1\u61501X}{ }\fs24\cf0\f3\charscalex101 {4Kt10}\fs24\cf0
\f3\charscalex101 {3}{ }\fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex101 {\uc1\u61501X}{\super \fs30\u
p4\cf0\f3\charscalex101 {20}}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn1682
6\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\cols3\colno1\colw2093\colsr-0\colno2\colw933\colsr-0\col
no3\colw8733\pard\li1400\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f3\charscalex101 {W}\par\c
olumn\pard\li0\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f3\charscalex101 {200}\par\column\pa
rd\li0\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs36\cf0\f3\charscalex101 {1}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbk
none\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-213\slmult
0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-400\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {So a
4 k}\fs42\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61527X}{ }\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {resi
stor can be fabricated by 1 m wide a shown by the top view in fig (d).}\par\pard
f0\charscalex100\b {Epitaxial Resistor:}\b0 \par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-213\slmult0
\fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-426\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Large v
alue of resistance than possible by base or emitter resistor can be achieved by
using}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {n \uc1\u821
1X epitaxial collector region as shown in Fig 1.23 (a). Sheet resistance
of epitaxial layer in the}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\c
harscalex100 {order 1 to 10 k}\fs42\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61527X}{ }\fs28\
cf0\f0\charscalex100 {/ square can be obtained.}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmul
t0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-2
13\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\
ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\par
d\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0
\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \
fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\s
lmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\
sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li
\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18
\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-493\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {Pinched Res
istor:}\b0 \par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl440\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {The sheet resistivity of a semiconductor
region can be increased by reducing its effective}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\sl
mult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {cross sectional area. In a pinched resistor, t
his technique is used to achieve a high value of sheet}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-32
0\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {resistance from the ordinary base diffused
resistor.}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrs
xn133\pard\sect\sectd\sbkpage{\shp
{\*\shpinst
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0\f0\charscalex100 {A pinched base diffused resistor is shown in Fig(b). It can
give resistances of the order of}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0
\charscalex100 {mega-ohm in a reasonably small area. In this structure, no curre
nt can flow through the n \uc1\u8211X type}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \f
s28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {material (dark region ) due to the diode at contact 2
in the reverse direction. Only a small reverse}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult
0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {saturation current can flow through n \uc1\u8
211X material. So, by creating these n \uc1\u8211X type regions the}\par\pard
\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {effective cross \uc1\u8211
X sectional area of the conduction path has been reduced and thus resista
nce}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {between 1 and
2 increases.}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl
-346\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b \ul {Thin Film Resistor:}\b0 \ul0 \par
26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Vapour thin film deposition techniques as discussed in
Sec. 1.5.8 can also be used for the}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0
\f0\charscalex100 {fabrication of IC resistors. In this, a very thin metallic fi
lm usually of Nichrome (NiCr) of thickness}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \f
s30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {less 1}{ }\fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61549X}\fs
30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {m is vapour deposited on the SiO}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscale
x100 {2}{ }\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {layer. Using masked etching, desired geom
etry of this}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {thin
film is achieved to obtain suitable values of resistors. The ohmic contacts are
made using A1}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {me
tallization and usual masked etching techniques. Nichrome resistors are availabl
e with typical}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {sh
eet resistance values of 40 to 400}{ }\fs42\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61527X}{
}\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {/ square depending upon film thickness, so that re
sistance in}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {the r
ange of 20 to 50 k}\fs42\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61527X}{ }\fs28\cf0\f0\char
scalex100 {can be easily obtained. Fig (c) shows the cross \uc1\u8211Xsectional
view of such a}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {re
sistor. These thin film resistors have three distinct advantages over the diffus
ed resistors.}\par\pard\li1800\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1800\ri0\
sl-346\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {a. The film resistors have lesser and
smaller parasitic components and hence their high}\par\pard\li2160\ri0\sl-320\s
lmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {frequency behaviour is better.}\par\pard\li18
00\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {b. The values of thin \uc1\u
8211X film resistors can be easily adjusted even after fabrication by}\p
ar\pard\li2160\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {cutting a part of
the resistors with a laser beam (Laser trimming).}\par\pard\li1800\ri0\sl-320\sl
mult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {c. Thin film resistors have low temperature co
\uc1\u8211X efficient, thereby making them more}\par\pard\li2160\ri0\sl-333\slm
ult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {stale.}\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs1
8\cf0\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-346\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Higher valu
es of thin film resistors have been obtained by depositing Tantalum over SiO}\fs
26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {2}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\chars
calex100 {layer. The main disadvantages of thin film resistors is the add
itional process steps required in}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs28\cf

0\f0\charscalex100 {their fabrication.}\par\pard\li4226\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18
\ri0\sl-520\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {(c) Cross-section of a thin fi
lm resistor}\b0 \par\pard\sect\sectd\sbkpage
7;32768}}
7;32768}}
{\sp{\sn pVerticies}{\sv 8;4;(1080,453);(0,0);(0,906);(1080,453);}}

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}
6);(66,66);(53,66);(53,66);(53,53);(66,53);(66,120);(40,120);(13,106);(0,80);(0,
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824;1;45824;1;45824;1;45824;1;45824;1;45824;1;45824;1;45824;1;45824;1;45824;1;45
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824;1;45824;1;45824;1;45824;1;45824;24577;32768}}
6);(66,66);(53,66);(53,66);(53,53);(66,53);(66,120);(40,120);(13,106);(0,80);(0,
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824;1;45824;1;45824;1;45824;1;45824;1;45824;1;45824;1;45824;1;45824;1;45824;1;45
824;1;45824;1;45824;1;45824;1;45824;1;45824;1;45824;1;45824;1;45824;1;45824;1;45
824;1;45824;1;45824;1;45824;1;45824;24577;32768}}

7;32768}}
7;32768}}

7;32768}}
7;32768}}
7;32768}}

7;32768}}
7;32768}}

7;32768}}
6);(66,66);(53,66);(53,66);(53,53);(66,53);(66,120);(40,120);(13,106);(0,80);(0,
66);(0,40);(13,13);(40,0);(66,0);(80,0);(106,13);(120,40);(120,66);(120,80);(106
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8\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmu
lt0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720
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0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0
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slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0
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i720\ri0\sl-386\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {1. What is an Op \uc1\u821
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lex100\b \ul {UNIT \uc1\u8211X II}\b0 \ul0 \par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-560\slmult0 \fs3
0\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b \ul {CHARACTERISTICS OF OPAMP}\b0 \ul0 \par\pard\li1560
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0 \par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\par
f0\f0\charscalex100 {An operational Amplifier is a direct-coupled high-gain ampl
ifier consisting of one or more}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\
charscalex100 {differential amplifiers and usually followed by a level translato
r and an output stage.}\par\pard\li1373\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li
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0\charscalex100 {Non INV /IP}\par\pard\li3866\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs36\cf0\f0\ch
arscalex100 {+}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\ma
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pard\li1920\ri0\sl-373\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {INV/IP}\par\column\pa
rd\li0\ri0\sl-280\slmult0 \fs48\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {-}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0
\sl-213\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {O/p terminal}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sb
knone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-213\slmul
t0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-506\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {It i
s a versatile device that can be used to amplify \uc1\u8216Xdc\uc1\u8217X as wel
l as \uc1\u8216Xac\uc1\u8217X input signals.}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0
\fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-440\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {2. Dra
w block diagram of a typical OP-Amp.}\b0 \par\pard\li733\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs1
8\cf0\par\pard\li733\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs22\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Non invertin
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0\sl-240\slmult0 \fs22\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {mediate Stage}\par\column\pard\li0\

ri0\sl-346\slmult0 \fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Level}\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-240\sl
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column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-280\slmult0 \fs
24\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Output}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn1
6826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\cols2\colno1\colw5453\colsr-0\colno2\colw6306\pard\li
4146\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs22\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Emitter}\par\column\pard\li0
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22\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Dual - input}\par\pard\li733\ri0\sl-240\slmult0 \fs22\c
f0\f0\charscalex100 {balanced}\par\pard\li773\ri0\sl-226\slmult0 \fs22\cf0\f0\ch
arscalex100 {output}\par\pard\li733\ri0\sl-226\slmult0 \fs22\cf0\f0\charscalex10
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t}\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-240\slmult0 \fs22\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {differential}\par
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ard\li0\ri0\sl-240\slmult0 \*\tx1306\fs22\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Follower using}\
tab \fs22\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Symmetry}\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-240\slmult0 \fs22\
cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Constant Current}\fs22\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Push-pull amp
lifier}\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-173\slmult0 \fs22\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {source}\par\
pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\pard\li720
\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-506\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\cha
rscalex100\b {3. Design an amplifier with a gain of -10 and Input resistance equ
al to 10 K}\b0 \fs42\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61527X}\fs54\cf0\f0\charscalex1
00\b {.}\b0 \par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl
-426\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Given the gain of the amplifier is \uc1
\u8211X ve so inverting amplifier has to be mode.}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\p
2\colw360\colsr-0\colno3\colw9186\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pa
slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Choose}\par\column\pard\li13\ri0\sl-213\slmu
lt0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li13\ri0\sl-466\slmult0 \fs34\cf0\f3\charscalex99\ul {V}\
ul0 {\sub \fs24\cf0\f3\charscalex99\ul {o}\ul0 }\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-320\slmult0
\fs34\cf0\f3\charscalex99 {V}\par\pard\li146\ri0\sl-186\slmult0 \fs22\cf0\f3\ch
arscalex99 {in}\par\column\pard\li373\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li37
3\ri0\sl-466\slmult0 \fs34\cf0\f3\charscalex99\ul {R}\ul0 {\sub \fs40\cf0\f3\cha
rscalex99\ul {f}\ul0 }\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-546\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f1\charscalex99
{\uc1\u61501X \uc1\u61485X}{\sub \fs34\cf0\f3\charscalex99 {R}}\fs24\cf0\f3\cha
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0 \fs34\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {R}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1}{ }\fs26\cf0\f0\ch
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0\sl-320\slmult0 \*\tx1760\fs34\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {R}\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex1
00 {f}\tab \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {= - ACL R}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1}\
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7;32768}}
7;32768}}
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7;32768}}
\li2160\ri0\sl-493\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {= - (-10) (10K}\fs42\cf0\
f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61527X}\fs44\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {)}\par\pard\li1453\ri
0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1453\ri0\sl-506\slmult0 \fs34\cf0\f3\chars
calex101 {R 100K}{\sub \fs40\cf0\f3\charscalex101\ul {f}\ul0 }\fs42\cf0\f1\chars
calex101 {\uc1\u61527X}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li7
pard\li720\ri0\sl-373\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {4. Describe the word
voltage follower and draw its circuit?}\b0 \par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-213\slmult0
\fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-440\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {The out
put voltage is equal to I/P voltage both in magnitude and phase. In other words
we}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {can also say
that the o/p voltage follows the I/P voltage exactly.}\par\pard\li5546\ri0\sl-21
f0\charscalex100\b {V}\b0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {o}\b0 { }\fs28\cf0\f0\ch
arscalex100\b {= V}\b0 \fs22\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {in}\b0 \par\pard\li720\ri0\
sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-440\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscal
ex100 {For this circuit voltage gain is unity.}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult
0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-426\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {5. G
ive the circuit diagram of differentiation?}\b0 \par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgw
sxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\cols5\colno1\colw4973\colsr-0\colno2\
colw306\colsr-0\colno3\colw853\colsr-0\colno4\colw226\colsr-0\colno5\colw5400\pa
\slmult0 \fs34\cf0\f3\charscalex99 {V}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \f
s18\cf0\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult
0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\sl
mult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-21
3\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li0\ri0\s
l-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li0\r

i0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\l
i0\ri0\sl-360\slmult0 \fs34\cf0\f3\charscalex99 {V}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-2
f0\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f1\charscalex99 {\uc1\u61501X \uc1\
u61485X}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-21
i0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pa
rd\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\pa
r\pard\li0\ri0\sl-426\slmult0 \fs36\cf0\f3\charscalex99\ul {d}\ul0 \par\column\p
\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-360\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f3\charscalex99 { V
(t)}\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f3\charscalex99 { V (t)}\par\par
d\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\cols2\colno1\
colw5613\colsr-0\colno2\colw6146\pard\li4973\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs34\cf0\f3\cha
rscalex99 {V}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \*\tx746\fs30\cf0\f3\charsc
alex99 {CR }\tab \fs30\cf0\f3\charscalex99 { V (t)}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\
pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\cols3\colno1\colw6093\colsr-0\coln
o2\colw480\colsr-0\colno3\colw5186\pard\li5120\ri0\sl-186\slmult0 \fs24\cf0\f3\c
harscalex99 {o}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\s
harscalex100\b {6. What are the characteristics of Ideal OP-Amp?}\b0 \par\pard\l
f0\charscalex100 {1. Infinite Voltage gain A.}\par\pard\li1080\ri0\sl-320\slmult
0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {2. Infinite input Impedance.}\par\pard\li1080\ri0\
sl-320\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {3. Zero Output Impedance.}\par\column
\pard\li0\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs32\cf0\f3\charscalex99 {dt}\par\column\pard\li0\
ri0\sl-186\slmult0 \fs22\cf0\f3\charscalex99 {in}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pg
wsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\pard\sect\sectd\sbkpage

7;32768}}
\li1080\ri0\sl-493\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {4. Zero Output Voltage}\p
ar\pard\li1080\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {5. Infinite Bandwi
dth.}\par\pard\li1080\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {6. Infinite
Common-mode Rejection ratio.}\par\pard\li1080\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\c
harscalex100 {7. Infinite slew rate.}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf
0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-426\slmult0 \fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {7. What are th
e Basic op \uc1\u8211X amp applications?}\b0 \par\pard\li1080\ri0\sl-213\slmult0
\fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1080\ri0\sl-440\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1. Sca

le changer inverter}\par\pard\li1080\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex1
00 {2. Summing amplifier}\par\pard\li1080\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charsc
alex100 {3. Inverting summing amplifier}\par\pard\li1080\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs3
0\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {4. Non \uc1\u8211X inverting summing amplifier}\par\pard
\li1080\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {5. sub tractor}\par\pard\
li1080\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {6. Adder \uc1\u8211X subtr
actor}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-440\slm
ult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {8. Write the equation of voltage gain in non
\uc1\u8211X inverting amplifier?}\b0 \par\pard\li3066\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\c
f0\par\pard\li3066\ri0\sl-360\slmult0 \fs34\cf0\f3\charscalex99 {R}\par\pard\sec
t\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\cols2\colno1\colw2
013\colsr-0\colno2\colw9746\pard\li1480\ri0\sl-506\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f3\charscal
ex99 {ACL}{\sub \fs34\cf0\f3\charscalex99 {V}}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-293\sl
mult0 \*\tx1240\fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex99 {\uc1\u61501X}{\super \fs256\up4\cf0\f3
\charscalex99\ul {V}\ul0 }\fs444\cf0\f3\charscalex99\ul {0}\ul0 { }\fs36\cf0\f1\
charscalex99 {\uc1\u61501X \uc1\u61483X}\tab \fs40\cf0\f3\charscalex99\ul {f}\ul
0 \par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\col
s2\colno1\colw3080\colsr-0\colno2\colw8680\pard\li2386\ri0\sl-186\slmult0 \fs24\
cf0\f3\charscalex99 {1}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-360\slmult0 \fs34\cf0\f3\char
scalex99 {R}{\sub \fs24\cf0\f3\charscalex99 {1}}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgw
sxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\c
f0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-426\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {9. What is co
mmon \uc1\u8211X mode rejection ratio.}\b0 \par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \
fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-440\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {The rela
tive sensitivity of an op \uc1\u8211X amp to a difference signal as compared to
a common \uc1\u8211X}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex1
00 {mode signal is called common \uc1\u8211X mode rejection ratio.}\par\pard\li1
\charscalex100 {P}{ }\fs256\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61501X}{\super \fs34\up4
\cf0\f3\charscalex100\ul {A}\ul0 }\fs24\cf0\f3\charscalex100\ul {d}\ul0 { }\fs24
\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {expressed in dB}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\
pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\pard\li1933\ri0\sl-346\slmult0 \fs34\cf0\f3\ch
arscalex100 {A}{\sub \fs24\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {c}}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\s
lmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b
{10. What are the methods to improve slew rate?}\b0 \par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone
\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\cols2\colno1\colw1440\colsr-0\col
no2\colw10320\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-426\
slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {(i)}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18
\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmul
t0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {(ii)}
\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-426\slmult
0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Slew rate can be improved with higher closed-loop
gain and dc supply voltage. Slew rate}\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs28\cf
0\f0\charscalex100 {decreases with increases in temperature.}\par\pard\li0\ri0\s
l-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-426\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex1
00 {Another method for improving slew rate is, the rate at which voltage across
the capacitor}\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-466\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {incre
ases is give by}{\super \fs256\up5\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {dV}}\fs24\cf0\f3\charsc
alex100\ul {c}\ul0 {\super \fs54\up0\cf0\f3\charscalex100\ul {I}\ul0 }\par\pard\
sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\pard\li3666\ri0
\sl-506\slmult0 \*\tx4040\fs32\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {dt}\tab \fs32\cf0\f1\charsc
alex100 {\uc1\u61501X}{\sub \fs34\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {C}}\par\pard\li1440\ri0\
sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {for higher the slew rate, OP-Amp sho
uld have either a higher current or a small value of a}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-32
0\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {capacitor.}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pg
wsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\pard\sect\sectd\sbkpage

7;32768}}
sl-546\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b \ul {PART \uc1\u8211X B}\b0 \ul0 \pa
r\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\pard\li7
harscalex100\b {1. Explain the following DC characteristics?}\b0 \par\pard\li180
harscalex100\b {b. Input bias current}\b0 \par\pard\li1800\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \f
s30\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {c. Input offset current}\b0 \par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-2
0\b {DC Characteristics:-}\b0 \par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\
pard\li1440\ri0\sl-440\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {An ideal op \uc1\u821
1X amp draws no current from the source and its response is also independent of}
\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {temperature. How
ever, a real op \uc1\u8211X amp does not work this way. Current is taken form t
he source}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {into th
e op \uc1\u8211X amp inputs. Also the two inputs respond differently to current
and voltage due to}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex10
0 {mismatch in transistors. A real op \uc1\u8211X amp also shifts its operation
with temperature. These non \uc1\u8211X}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs2
8\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {ideal dc characteristics that add error components to th
e dc output voltage are:}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\l
i720\ri0\sl-426\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Input bias current}\par\pard
\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Input offset current}\par\
pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Input offset voltage}\
par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Thermal drift}\par
\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {Input Bias Current:}\b0 \par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-213\slm
ult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-426\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Th
e op \uc1\u8211X amp\uc1\u8217Xs input is a differential amplifier, which may be
made BJT or FET. In either}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\cha
rscalex100 {case, the input transistors must be biased into their linear r
egion by supplying current into the}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs2
6\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {bases by the external circuit. In an ideal op \uc1\u821
1X amp, we assumed that no current is drawn form the}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\
slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {input terminals. However, practically, inpu

t terminals do conduct a small value of dc currents}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\s
lmult0 \*\tx8880\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {entering into the inverting and non
\uc1\u8211X inverting terminals are shown as I}\fs20\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {B}\t
ab \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {and I}\fs20\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {B}{ }\fs28\cf0\
f0\charscalex100 {respectively in}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f
0\charscalex100 {figure (a). Even through both the transistors are identical, I
}\fs20\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {B}{ }\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {are not exactly eq
ual due to internal}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \*\tx9613\fs28\cf0\f0\cha
rscalex100 {imbalances between the two inputs. Manufactures specify input
bias current I}\fs22\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {B}\tab \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100
{as the average}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100
{value of the base currents entering into the terminals of an op \uc1\u8211X am
p.}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {So,}\par\pard\
sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\cols2\colno1\co
lw1693\colsr-0\colno2\colw10066\pard\li1453\ri0\sl-533\slmult0 \fs54\cf0\f3\char
scalex101 {I}{\sub \fs24\cf0\f3\charscalex101 {B}}\par\column\pard\li240\ri0\sl373\slmult0 \fs256\cf0\f3\charscalex101\ul {I I}\ul0 {\sub \fs24\cf0\f3\charscal
ex101\ul {B}\ul0 }\fs24\cf0\f3\charscalex101\ul {B}\ul0 \par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-520
\slmult0 \fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex101 {\uc1\u61501X}{\sub \fs36\cf0\f3\charscalex1
01 {2}}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn13
3\pard\sect\sectd\sbkpage{\shp
{\*\shpinst
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0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl493\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {For 741, a bipolar op \uc1\u8211X amp, t
he bias current is 500 nA or less. The FET input op \uc1\u8211X amp will}\par\p
ard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {have bias current as lo
w as 50 pA at room temperature.}\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\pa
r\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-426\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Consider the basic
inverting amplifier of figure (b). If input voltage V}\fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex10
0 {1}{ }\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {is set to zero volts.}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl
-333\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Instead, we find that the output voltag
e is offset by,}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\
sl-426\slmult0 \fs34\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {V}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {0}{ }\f
s28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {= (I}\fs22\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {B}\fs30\cf0\f0\charsc
alex100 {) R}\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {f}\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \
fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-440\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {For a 74
1 op \uc1\u8211X amp, with a 1 M}\fs42\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61527X}{ }\fs
28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {feedback resistor}\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \
fs34\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {V}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {0}{ }\fs26\cf0\f0\chars
calex100 {= 500 nA x 1 M}\fs42\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61527X}{ }\fs28\cf0\f
0\charscalex100 {= 500 mV}\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard
\li1440\ri0\sl-440\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {The output is driven to 5
00 mV with zero input because of the bias currents. In application}\par\pard\li
720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {where signal levels are mea
sured in mill volts, this is totally unacceptable. This effect can be}
\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {compensated for
as shown in figure (C) where a compensation resistor room has been adde
d}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {between the no
inverting input terminal and ground. Current I + B flowing through th
e}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {compensating re
sistor room develop a voltage V}\fs38\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {i}{ }\fs28\cf0\f0\ch
arscalex100 {across it. Then, by KVL we get}\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-213\slmult0
\fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-373\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {-V}\fs
26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1}{ }\fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {+ 0 + V}\fs26\cf0\f0\c
harscalex100 {2}{ }\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {\uc1\u8211X V}\fs26\cf0\f0\charsc
alex100 {0}{ }\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {= 0}\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-333\slmult
0 \fs34\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {V}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {0}{ }\fs28\cf0\f0\ch
arscalex100 {= V}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {2}{ }\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {\u
c1\u8211X V}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbkpage

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0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {(C) Bias Current compensation}\b0 \par\pard\li14
charscalex100 {By selecting proper value of R}\fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {comp}\
fs34\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {, V}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {2}{ }\fs30\cf0\f0\cha
rscalex100 {can be cancelled with V}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1}{ }\fs30\cf0\f
0\charscalex100 {and the output V}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {0}{ }\fs30\cf0\f0\
charscalex100 {will be}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscale
x100 {zero. The value of R}\fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {comp}{ }\fs30\cf0\f0\cha
rscalex100 {is derived as}\par\pard\li1613\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard
\li1613\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1613\ri0\sl-280\slmult0 \fs256\c
f0\f3\charscalex100 {V I R}{\sub \fs24\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {1}}\fs18\cf0\f3\cha
rscalex100 {B comp}\par\pard\li1466\ri0\sl-360\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f3\charscalex10
0 {or}\par\pard\li2493\ri0\sl-373\slmult0 \fs34\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {V}\par\par
d\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\pard\li2493\r
i0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs34\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {V}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgw
sxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\cols3\colno1\colw1480\colsr-0\colno2\
colw1013\colsr-0\colno3\colw9266\pard\li1480\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f3\cha
rscalex100 {
I}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f3\charsca
lex100 {
I}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs34\cf0\f3\charscalex1
00 {V}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133
\cols2\colno1\colw2506\colsr-0\colno2\colw9253\pard\li1480\ri0\sl-506\slmult0 \f
s26\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {
I}\fs24\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {+}{\sub \fs24\cf0\
f3\charscalex100 {B}}\fs24\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {B}\fs24\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {B
}{ }\fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61501X}{\sub \fs34\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {R
}}\par\column\pard\li120\ri0\sl-186\slmult0 \fs24\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {1}\par\p
ard\li0\ri0\sl-186\slmult0 \fs14\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {comp}\par\pard\sect\sectd
\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slm
ult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-453\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {The
node \uc1\u8216Xa\uc1\u8217X is at voltage (-V}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1}\f
s28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {), because the voltage at the no inverting input termi
nal is (-V}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1}\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {). So,}\pa
r\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {with V}\fs38\cf0\f0\
charscalex100 {i}{ }\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {= 0 we get}\par\pard\li1440\ri0\
lex100 {I}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1}{ }\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {= V}\fs26
\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1}\fs32\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {/R}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex1
00 {1}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-426\slm
ult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Also,}\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18
\cf0\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-440\slmult0 \fs44\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {I}\fs26\cf0\
f0\charscalex100 {2}{ }\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {= V}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex10
0 {2}\fs32\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {/R}\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {f}\par\pard\li72
0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-440\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\ch
arscalex100 {For compensation, V}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {0}{ }\fs28\cf0\f0\c
harscalex100 {should be zero for V}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1}{ }\fs28\cf0\f0

\charscalex100 {= 0, that is, from equation V}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {2}\fs2
8\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {=V}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-426\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex1
00 {So that, I}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {2}{ }\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {= V}
\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1}\fs32\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {/R}\fs30\cf0\f0\charsc
alex100 {f}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-44
0\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {KCL at node \uc1\u8216Xa\uc1\u8217X gives}
\*\tx2653\*\tx3653\fs34\cf0\f3\charscalex99 {V}\fs34\cf0\f3\charscalex99 {V}\ta
b \fs34\cf0\f3\charscalex99 {V}\fs34\cf0\f3\charscalex99 {V}\tab \fs8\cf0\f1\cha
rscalex72 {\uc1\u61480X}\fs42\cf0\f3\charscalex99 {R R}\fs42\cf0\f3\charscalex99
{R R}\fs42\cf0\f3\charscalex99 {R R}{ }\fs8\cf0\f1\charscalex72 {\uc1\u61481X}\
par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\cols7\
colno1\colw733\colsr-0\colno2\colw0\colsr-0\colno3\colw240\colsr-0\colno4\colw15
06\colsr-0\colno5\colw173\colsr-0\colno6\colw573\colsr-0\colno7\colw8533\pard\li
733\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs54\cf0\f3\charscalex99 {I}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl320\slmult0 \fs54\cf0\f3\charscalex99 {I}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-320\slmult0
\fs54\cf0\f3\charscalex99 {I}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-413\slmult0 \fs42\cf0\
f1\charscalex99 {\uc1\u61501X \uc1\u61483X \uc1\u61501X}{ }\fs34\cf0\f3\charscal
ex99 {V}\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-293\slmult0 \fs42\cf0\f1\charscalex99 {\uc1\u61501X
\uc1\u61483X \uc1\u61501X}\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-293\slmult0 \fs42\cf0\f1\charsca
lex99 {\uc1\u61501X \uc1\u61483X \uc1\u61501X}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-293\sl
mult0 \fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex99 {\uc1\u61483X}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-320\sl
mult0 \fs34\cf0\f3\charscalex99 {V}\par\column\pard\li213\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs
34\cf0\f3\charscalex99 {V}\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs32\cf0\f1\charscal
ex99 {\uc1\u61501X}{ }\fs34\cf0\f3\charscalex99 {V}\fs34\cf0\f3\charscalex99 {V}
\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\cols9
\colno1\colw786\colsr-0\colno2\colw1266\colsr-0\colno3\colw106\colsr-0\colno4\co
lw626\colsr-0\colno5\colw106\colsr-0\colno6\colw680\colsr-0\colno7\colw333\colsr
-0\colno8\colw693\colsr-0\colno9\colw7160\pard\li800\ri0\sl-186\slmult0 \fs48\cf
0\f3\charscalex99 {'}\par\pard\li786\ri0\sl-186\slmult0 \fs24\cf0\f3\charscalex9
9 {B}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-186\slmult0 \fs24\cf0\f3\charscalex99 {B}\par\c
olumn\pard\li0\ri0\sl-186\slmult0 \fs24\cf0\f3\charscalex99 {1}\par\column\pard\
li0\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs34\cf0\f3\charscalex99 {R}\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-320\slm
ult0 \fs34\cf0\f3\charscalex99 {R}\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs34\cf0\f3\
charscalex99 {R}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-186\slmult0 \fs24\cf0\f3\charscalex9
9 {1}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs34\cf0\f3\charscalex99 {R}\par\p
ard\li0\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs34\cf0\f3\charscalex99 {R}\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-320
\slmult0 \fs34\cf0\f3\charscalex99 {R}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-186\slmult0 \f
s24\cf0\f3\charscalex99 {1}\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-186\slmult0 \fs24\cf0\f3\charsca
lex99 {1}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-186\slmult0 \*\tx480\fs24\cf0\f3\charscalex
99 {1}\tab \fs40\cf0\f3\charscalex99 {f}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-320\slmult0
\fs28\cf0\f3\charscalex99 {R R}\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f3\cha
rscalex99 {R R}\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f3\charscalex99 {R R}\
colno1\colw2333\colsr-0\colno2\colw733\colsr-0\colno3\colw506\colsr-0\colno4\col
w1200\colsr-0\colno5\colw6986\pard\li786\ri0\sl-186\slmult0 \*\tx1573\fs24\cf0\f
3\charscalex99 {B}{\super \fs256\up0\cf0\f3\charscalex99 {I I}}\fs24\cf0\f3\char
scalex99 {2}\tab \fs24\cf0\f3\charscalex99 {1}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-186\sl
mult0 \fs40\cf0\f3\charscalex99 {f}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-186\slmult0 \fs24
\cf0\f3\charscalex99 {1}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-186\slmult0 \fs24\cf0\f3\cha
rscalex99 {1}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-186\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f3\charscalex99 {
1 f}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\p
f0\f0\charscalex100 {Assuming, I \uc1\u8211X B = I + B and using equation and we
get,}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133
\pard\sect\sectd\sbkpage


7;32768}}

margtsxn66\margbsxn386\cols3\colno1\colw2733\colsr-0\colno2\colw373\colsr-0\coln
o3\colw8653\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs24\cf1\f0\charscalex100\b \i \ul {{\f
ield{\*\fldinst{HYPERLINK "www.vidyarthiplus.com"}}{\fldrslt {www.vidyarthiplus.
com}}}}\b0 \i0 \ul0 \par\pard\li1746\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li174
\sl-546\slmult0 \fs8\cf0\f1\charscalex73 {\uc1\u61480X}\fs42\cf0\f3\charscalex10
0 {R R}{\sub \fs24\cf0\f3\charscalex100\ul {1}\ul0 }\fs40\cf0\f3\charscalex100\u
l {f}\ul0 { }\fs8\cf0\f1\charscalex73 {\uc1\u61481X}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li0\ri0
\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li0
\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard
\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\
pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\
par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-453\slmult0 \fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61501X}\par\co
lumn\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18
\cf0\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \
{V}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\co
ls3\colno1\colw2920\colsr-0\colno2\colw186\colsr-0\colno3\colw8653\pard\li1480\r
i0\sl-506\slmult0 \fs34\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {V}{\sub \fs24\cf0\f3\charscalex100
{1}}\fs42\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {R R}\par\pard\li2000\ri0\sl-186\slmult0 \*\tx24
80\fs24\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {1}\tab \fs40\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {f}\par\column\p
ard\li0\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs34\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {R}\par\column\pard\li133\
ri0\sl-186\slmult0 \fs24\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {1}\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-186\slmult
0 \fs14\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {comp}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghs
xn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\cols4\colno1\colw2066\colsr-0\colno2\colw200\colsr
-0\colno3\colw813\colsr-0\colno4\colw8680\pard\li1466\ri0\sl-533\slmult0 \fs34\c
f0\f3\charscalex100 {R}\par\pard\li1640\ri0\sl-186\slmult0 \fs14\cf0\f3\charscal
ex100 {comp}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-506\slmult0 \fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {
\uc1\u61501X}\par\column\pard\li120\ri0\sl-373\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f3\charscalex10
0 {R R}\par\pard\li293\ri0\sl-186\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {1 f}\par\p
ard\li0\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs42\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {R R}\par\pard\li173\ri0\s
l-186\slmult0 \*\tx653\fs24\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {1}\tab \fs40\cf0\f3\charscalex
100 {f}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-533\slmult0 \fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\
u61501X}{ }\fs26\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {R || R}\par\pard\li346\ri0\sl-186\slmult0
\*\tx813\fs24\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {1}\tab \fs40\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {f}\par\p
ard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\pard\li1440
arscalex100 {That is to compensate for bias currents, the compensating resistor
R}\fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {comp}{ }\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {should be equa
l to}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {the parallel
combination resistors tied to the inverting input terminal.}\par\pard\li720\ri0
lex100\b {Input Offset Current:}\b0 \par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf
0\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-440\slmult0 \*\tx8200\*\tx8960\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex10
0 {Bias current compensation will work if both bias currents I}\fs16\cf0\f0\ch
arscalex100 {B+}\tab \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {and I}\fs20\cf0\f0\charscalex10
0 {B}\tab \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {are equal. Since the}\par\pard\li720\ri0\
sl-333\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {input transistors cannot be made iden
tical, there will always be some small difference between I}\fs18\cf0\f0\charsca

lex100 {B+}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {and I}
\fs22\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {B}\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {. This difference is
called the offset current I}\fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {OS}{ }\fs30\cf0\f0\chars
calex100 {and can be written as}\par\pard\li2626\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\pa
r\pard\li2626\ri0\sl-293\slmult0 \fs24\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61485X}\par\p
ard\li2240\ri0\sl-186\slmult0 \fs256\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {ISO I I}{\sub \fs24\c
f0\f3\charscalex100 {B}}\fs24\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {B}\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-21
0 {The absolute value sign indicates that there is no way to predict which of th
e bias currents}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {w
ill be larger.}\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1440\ri0
\sl-426\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Offset current I}\fs18\cf0\f0\charsc
alex100 {OS}{ }\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {for BJT op \uc1\u8211X amp is 200 nA
and that for FET op \uc1\u8211X amp is 10 pA. Even with}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-3
20\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {bias current compensation, offset current
will produce an output voltage when the input voltage}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-33
3\slmult0 \fs34\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {V}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1}{ }\fs26\c
f0\f0\charscalex100 {is zero. Referring to figure (c).}\par\pard\li1626\ri0\sl213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1626\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li16
26\ri0\sl-280\slmult0 \fs256\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {V I R}{\sub \fs36\cf0\f3\char
scalex100 {t}}\fs18\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {B comp}\par\pard\li1466\ri0\sl-613\slm
ult0 \fs28\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {and I}{\sub \fs24\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {1}}\fs3
2\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61501X}{\super \fs34\up3\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {V}}
\fs24\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {1}{\sub \fs34\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {R}}\par\pard\li2
746\ri0\sl-186\slmult0 \fs24\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {1}\par\pard\li1466\ri0\sl-320
\slmult0 \fs24\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {KCL at node 'a' gives}\par\pard\sect\sectd\
sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\cols5\colno1\colw2493\cols
r-0\colno2\colw133\colsr-0\colno3\colw480\colsr-0\colno4\colw706\colsr-0\colno5\
colw7946\pard\li1480\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1480\ri0\sl-346\slm
ult0 \fs26\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {
I}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-600\slmu
lt0 \fs24\cf0\f1\charscalex62 {\uc1\u61480X}\par\pard\li80\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \f
s70\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {I I}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\
par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs24\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {1}\par\column\pard\l
i0\ri0\sl-600\slmult0 \fs24\cf0\f1\charscalex62 {\uc1\u61481X}\par\column\pard\l
i0\ri0\sl-413\slmult0 \*\tx906\fs26\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61670X}{ }\fs24\
cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61483X}{\super \fs34\up0\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {R}}\f
s14\cf0\f3\charscalex100\ul {comp}\ul0 \tab \fs26\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61
686X}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\
cols2\colno1\colw4720\colsr-0\colno2\colw7040\pard\li2146\ri0\sl-186\slmult0 \fs
24\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {2}{ }\fs256\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61501X}{\sub \f
s24\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {B}}\fs256\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61485X}{\sub \fs
24\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {1}}\fs256\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {I}{\sub \fs24\cf0\f3\ch
arscalex100 {B}}\fs444\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61485X}{\sub \fs256\cf0\f3\ch
arscalex100 {I}}\fs24\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {B}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-293\sl
mult0 \fs26\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61687X}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgws
xn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\cols4\colno1\colw3813\colsr-0\colno2\c
olw453\colsr-0\colno3\colw453\colsr-0\colno4\colw7040\pard\li1480\ri0\sl-213\slm
ult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1480\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {Ag
ain}\par\pard\li1480\ri0\sl-386\slmult0 \fs34\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {V}{\sub \fs2
4\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {0}}\fs256\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61501X}{ }\fs256\c
f0\f3\charscalex100 {I R V}{\sub \fs28\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {2 1}}\fs24\cf0\f3\c
harscalex100 {1}\par\pard\li1480\ri0\sl-413\slmult0 \fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {
\uc1\u61501X}{ }\fs256\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {I R I R}{\sub \fs32\cf0\f3\charscal
ex100 {2 f}}\fs18\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {B comp}\par\pard\li2093\ri0\sl-546\slmul
t0 \*\tx2826\fs24\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61483X}{\super \fs34\up0\cf0\f3\ch
arscalex100 {R}}\fs14\cf0\f3\charscalex100\ul {comp}\ul0 \tab \fs26\cf0\f3\chars
calex100 {R I R}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-293\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f1\charscalex1
00 {\uc1\u61672X}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-346\slmult0 \fs34\cf0\f3\charscalex
100 {R}{\sub \fs24\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {1}}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-293\slmu
lt0 \fs26\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61688X}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn

11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\cols3\colno1\colw2386\colsr-0\colno2\col
w613\colsr-0\colno3\colw8760\pard\li1706\ri0\sl-186\slmult0 \fs256\cf0\f3\charsc
alex100 {I I}{\sub \fs24\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {B}}\fs24\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {B}
\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs34\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {R}\par\pard\
li173\ri0\sl-186\slmult0 \fs24\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {1}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\
sl-186\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {f B comp}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone
\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs
18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-426\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Substitutin
g equation and after algebraic manipulation}\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-213\slmult0
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7;32768}}
i0\sl-493\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {So,}\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-320\sl
mult0 \fs34\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {V}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {0}{ }\fs28\cf0\f
0\charscalex100 {= R}\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {f}\fs44\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {I
}\fs22\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {os}\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\pa
r\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-440\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {So even with bias c
urrent compensation and with the feedback resistor of 1 M}\fs42\cf0\f1\charscale
x100 {\uc1\u61527X}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {,, a 741 BJT}\par\pard\li720\ri0\
sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {op \uc1\u8211X amp has an output offs
et voltage}\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl440\slmult0 \fs34\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {V}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {0}{ }\fs28
\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {= 1M}\fs42\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61527X}{ }\fs26\cf
0\f0\charscalex100 {x 200 nA = 200 mV}\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\
cf0\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-426\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {With a zero i
nput voltage. It can be seen from equation that the effect of offset current ca
n}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {be minimized by
keeping feedback resistance small. Unfortunately to obtain high input}

\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {impedance, R}\fs2
4\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1}{ }\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {must be kept large. Wi
th R}\fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1}{ }\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {large, the fee
dback resistor R}\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {f}{ }\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {mu
st also be high so as}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex
100 {to obtain reasonable gain.}\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\pa
r\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \f
s18\cf0\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-213\
slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1440\r
i0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\par
f0\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-213\slmul
t0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl
440\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\pa
slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {The f \uc1\u8211X feedback network in figure
(d) is a good solution. This will allow large feedback}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl320\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {resistance while keeping the resistance
to ground (seen by the inverting input) low as shown in}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-3
20\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {the dotted network. The T \uc1\u8211X ne
twork provides a feedback signal as if the network were a single}\par\pard\li720
\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {feedback resistor. By To}{ }\fs
32\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61552X}{ }\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {conversion}
\fs24\cf0\f3\charscalex101 {2}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16
826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\pard\li1466\ri0\sl-466\slmult0 \*\tx1786\fs34\cf0\f3\c
harscalex101 {R}\tab \fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex101 {\uc1\u61501X}{\super \fs34\up4\
cf0\f3\charscalex101 {R}}\fs256\cf0\f1\charscalex101 {\uc1\u61483X}{ }\fs24\cf0\
f3\charscalex101 {2R R}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marg
lsxn0\margrsxn133\pard\li1466\ri0\sl-466\slmult0 \*\tx2493\fs34\cf0\f3\charscale
x101 {R}{\super \fs34\up5\cf0\f3\charscalex101 {R}}\fs36\cf0\f3\charscalex101 {t
}\tab \fs24\cf0\f3\charscalex101 {2R R}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\
pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\pard\li1466\ri0\sl-466\slmult0 \*\tx2493\fs34\
cf0\f3\charscalex101 {R}{\super \fs34\up5\cf0\f3\charscalex101 {R}}\fs36\cf0\f3\
charscalex101 {t}\fs36\cf0\f3\charscalex101 {t}\tab \fs24\cf0\f3\charscalex101 {
2R R}\par\pard\li1640\ri0\sl-346\slmult0 \*\tx2773\fs40\cf0\f3\charscalex101 {f}
\tab \fs28\cf0\f3\charscalex101\ul {1 s}\ul0 \par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn
11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\pard\li2413\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs34\cf0
\f3\charscalex101 {R}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\margls
xn0\margrsxn133\pard\li2413\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs34\cf0\f3\charscalex101 {R}\pa
r\pard\li2413\ri0\sl-346\slmult0 \fs34\cf0\f3\charscalex101 {R}{\sub \fs24\cf0\f
3\charscalex101 {s}}\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex1
00 {To design a T \uc1\u8211X network, first pick}\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-320\sl
mult0 \fs34\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {R}\fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {t}{ }\fs24\cf0\f
0\charscalex100 {<< R}\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {f}\fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {
/2}\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Then calculat
e}\par\pard\li1560\ri0\sl-373\slmult0 \fs34\cf0\f3\charscalex101 {R}{\super \fs2
4\up5\cf0\f3\charscalex101 {2}}\par\pard\li746\ri0\sl-693\slmult0 \*\tx1080\fs34
\cf0\f3\charscalex101 {R}\tab \fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex101 {\uc1\u61501X}{ }\fs36\
cf0\f3\charscalex101 {R 2R}{\super \fs34\up12\cf0\f3\charscalex101\ul {R}\ul0 }\
fs36\cf0\f3\charscalex101\ul {t}\ul0 \par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pg
hsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\pard\li746\ri0\sl-666\slmult0 \*\tx1280\fs34\cf0
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i0\sl-493\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {3. Explain about the following a
pplications?}\b0 \par\pard\li1080\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100\
b {1. Differentiator}\b0 \par\pard\li1080\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charsc
alex100\b {2. Integrator}\b0 \par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pa
rd\li720\ri0\sl-440\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {Differentiator:}\b0 \p
fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {One of the simplest of the op \uc1\u8211X amp cir
cuits that contain capacitor is the differentiating}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl320\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {amplifier, or differentiator. As the
name suggests, the circuit performs the mathematical}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl320\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {operations of differentiation, that is,
the output waveform is the derivative of input waveform. A}\par\pard\li720\ri0\
sl-333\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {differentiator circuit is shown in fi
gure (a).}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-426
\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {Analysis:}\b0 \par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-213
\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-440\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100
{The node N is at virtual ground potential i.e.,}{ }\fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex100
{\uc1\u61557X}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {N}{ }\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {= 0.
The current I}\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {c}{ }\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {thro
ugh the capacitor is,}\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1
440\ri0\sl-426\slmult0 \fs44\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {I}\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100
{c}{ }\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {= C}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1}{ }\fs30\cf0
\f0\charscalex100 {d/dt (}\fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61557X}\fs26\cf0\f0\
charscalex100 {1}\fs48\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {-}\fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\
u61557X}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {N}\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {) = C}\fs26\cf
0\f0\charscalex100 {1}{ }\fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {dv}\fs38\cf0\f0\charscalex1
00 {i}\fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {/dt}\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\

cf0\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-440\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {The current i
f through the feedback resistor is}{ }\fs30\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61557X}\
fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {0}\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {/ Rf and there is no cu
rrent into the op \uc1\u8211X}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\ch
arscalex100 {amp. Therefore the nodal equation at node N is}\par\pard\li1440\ri
0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {C}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1}{ }
\fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {dv}\fs38\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {i}\fs30\cf0\f0\charsc
alex100 {/dt +}\fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61557X}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex1
00 {0}\fs32\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {/R}\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {f}{ }\fs28\cf0\
f0\charscalex100 {= 0}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li72
0\ri0\sl-440\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {From which we have}\par\pard\li
1440\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61557X}\fs26\cf0\f0\ch
arscalex100 {0}{ }\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {= R}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1}
\fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {C}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1}{ }\fs42\cf0\f0\char
scalex100 {d}{ }\fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61557X}\fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex
100 {/dt}\par\pard\li5186\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li5186\ri0\sl-21
\ri0\sl-346\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {Differentiator}\b0 \par\pard\l
f0\charscalex100 {Thus, the output voltage}{ }\fs30\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u
61557X}\fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {0}{ }\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {is a constan
t (R}\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {f}{ }\fs34\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {C}\fs24\cf0\f0
\charscalex100 {1}\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {) times the derivate of the input
voltage}{ }\fs30\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61557X}\fs34\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {
1}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \*\tx8386\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {and th
e circuit is a differentiator. The minus sign indicates a 180}\fs24\cf0\f
1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61616X}\tab \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {phase shift of
the output}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {wavefo
rm}{ }\fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61557X}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {0}{ }
\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {with respect to the input signal.}\par\pard\sect\sec
td\sbkpage




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F759DC6A17718331655DCA88626DADB86DF9B68FBB581AAF806FA2F88136A9A6595BDC6853D943F6
BD325DBE4CAD0B2A08962DCAB9F2BE68F7EE5561FC3F295F58A28B8AC739A7CF7C9E2FF1058CD722
6B6F2AD6F2DD581CC3E62C91B275FBB983776E646ACAF8A5772D8FC3DD4EF22D42FAC658155924B1
9023B36EDAAA5BAEDDCCB9DB835DC570BF17ED65BDF857AEC76F1977548E42A3FBA92AB37FE3AA68
5B83D8E9B46D0F4CD06C52C748B182CAD57F8225DBB8E00DCDFDE6F957E63CD6AD14522828A28A00
28A28A0028A28A0028A28A0028A28A0028A28A0028A28A0028A28A004F4AE43E26DCC969F0DB5F92
30A4B5A3467271F2B7CA7F46AEBFD2B97F88BE4FFC2BBF1089F1B7EC13632D8F9B6FCBFF008F6DA6
B7265B33A7C53AB265D7F49816669F54B28D611BA42D3AAF963FDAE6AEDBDD43796F1DC412A4B04A
A1D2446DCAEADF74834AD608C93D8B34514505051451400514514005145140051451400514514005
14514005145140051451400514514005145140051451400514514005145140051451400514514005
14514005145140114B109226425B0CB8F94E0FE75E73ABF80347B0D0A495A649AF4C8A26D5355B0F
ED4BB9016DAAAAA7AB7DD55F95B81F76BD2EA9DDDA47A8594B04CF3AA31E4C13BC2E3E8C8430FC0D
34EC4C95CF3FF0CF81BC3171A9DE5D7D8DAF625892316FA9F8762B5553B9BE71FE8F1EEFF80FFC0B
F876FA2410436B6F1C3022C5146A152345DA1557B01597A4F87B4ED064BC6D3D6E15A721E4335DCB
3966F5FDE33735B9430885145148A0A28A2800A28A2800A28A2800A28A2800A28A2800A28A2800A2
8A2800A28A2800A28A2800A28A2800A28A2803FFD9}
}}}}




7;32768}}
\li1440\ri0\sl-493\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {The phasor equivalent of
equation is, V}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {0}\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {(s) = R}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1}\fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {C}\fs26\cf0\f0\char
scalex100 {1}{ }\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {s Vi(s) where V}\fs26\cf0\f0\charsca
lex100 {0}{ }\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {and V}\fs38\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {i}{ }
\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {is the phasor}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs
30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {representation of}{ }\fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u
61557X}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {0}{ }\fs34\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {and}{ }\fs32
\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61557X}\fs38\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {i}\fs28\cf0\f0\c
harscalex100 {. In steady state put s = j}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {w}\fs28\c
f0\f0\charscalex100 {. We may now write the magnitude of gain A}\par\pard\li720
\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {of the differentiator as,}\par\p
\cf0\f3\charscalex99 {V}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\mar
glsxn0\margrsxn133\cols3\colno1\colw3413\colsr-0\colno2\colw960\colsr-0\colno3\c
olw7386\pard\li2026\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs34\cf0\f3\charscalex99 {V}\par\pard\li
1520\ri0\sl-573\slmult0 \fs34\cf0\f3\charscalex99 {A}{ }\fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex9
9 {\uc1\u61501X}{\super \fs34\up3\cf0\f3\charscalex99 {V}}\fs24\cf0\f3\charscale
x99 {0}{\sub \fs34\cf0\f3\charscalex99 {V}}\fs34\cf0\f3\charscalex99 {V}\fs34\cf
0\f3\charscalex99 {V}\par\pard\li2440\ri0\sl-186\slmult0 \fs24\cf0\f3\charscalex
99 {1}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-186\slmult0 \fs256\cf0\f1\charscalex99 {\uc1\u
61501X \uc1\u61485X \uc1\u61559X}\fs256\cf0\f3\charscalex99 {j R C}{\sub \fs40\c
f0\f3\charscalex99 {f}}\fs24\cf0\f3\charscalex99 {1}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl186\slmult0 \fs256\cf0\f1\charscalex99 {\uc1\u61501X \uc1\u61559X}\fs256\cf0\f3\

charscalex99 {R C}{\sub \fs40\cf0\f3\charscalex99 {f}}\fs24\cf0\f3\charscalex99
{1}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\pa
cf0\f0\charscalex100 {From equation one can draw the frequency response of
the op \uc1\u8211X amp differentiator.}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs2
8\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Equation may be rewritten as}\par\pard\li4400\ri0\sl-546
\slmult0 \fs34\cf0\f3\charscalex99 {A}{ }\fs256\cf0\f1\charscalex99 {\uc1\u61501
X}{ }\fs44\cf0\f3\charscalex99 {f}{\sub \fs44\cf0\f3\charscalex99 {f}}\fs44\cf0\
f3\charscalex99 {f}\fs44\cf0\f3\charscalex99 {f}{\sub \fs26\cf0\f3\charscalex99
{a}}\fs36\cf0\f3\charscalex99 {s}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0
\charscalex100 {Where}\par\pard\li5106\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs36\cf0\f3\charscale
x100 {1}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn1
33\pard\li4360\ri0\sl-520\slmult0 \*\tx4800\fs44\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {f}\tab \f
s30\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {2 R C}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn1
6826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\pard\li4360\ri0\sl-520\slmult0 \*\tx4800\fs44\cf0\f3\
charscalex100 {f}\tab \fs30\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {2 R C}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbk
0 \fs44\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {f}{\sub \fs26\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {a}}\fs32\cf0\f
1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61501X}{ }\fs30\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {2 R C}\par\pard\li5
240\ri0\sl-186\slmult0 \fs32\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {f 1}\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-3
20\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {At t = fa\uc1\u8217X |A| = 1, i.e. 0 dB,
and the gain increases at a rate of +20 dB/decade. Thus at high}\par\pard\li720
\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {frequency, a differentiator may
become unstable and break into oscillation. There is one more}\par\pard\l
i720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {problem in the differentia
tor of figure (a).
The input impedance (i.e. 1/}\fs36\cf0\f1\charscalex100
{\uc1\u61559X}\fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {C1) decreases with}\par\pard\li720\
ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {increases in frequency, thereby m
aking the circuit sensitive to high frequency noise.}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\
slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {Integrator:}\b0 \par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-21
0 {If we interchange the resistor and capacitor of the differentiator of figure
(a), we have the}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {
circuit of figure (a) which as we will see, is an integrator. The nodal equatio
n at node N is}\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\
uc1\u61557X}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1}\fs32\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {/R}\fs26\c
f0\f0\charscalex100 {1}{ }\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {+ (Cf d}{ }\fs32\cf0\f1\ch
arscalex100 {\uc1\u61557X}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {0}\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex1
00 {/dt =0}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs34\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Or}\pa
r\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {d V}\fs26\cf0\f0\ch
arscalex100 {0}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {/dt = -1/R}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100
{1}{ }\fs32\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Cf}{ }\fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61557
X}\fs38\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {i}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn1
6826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\cols3\colno1\colw5946\colsr-0\colno2\colw493\colsr-0\
colno3\colw5320\pard\li5080\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li5080\ri0\sl213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li5080\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li50
0\par\pard\li5080\ri0\sl-520\slmult0 \fs34\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {V}\par\column\p

-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-373\slmult0 \fs36\cf0\f3\charscalex10
0 {1}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\s
f0\f3\charscalex100 {Vdt}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\ma
rglsxn0\margrsxn133\cols3\colno1\colw5093\colsr-0\colno2\colw1346\colsr-0\colno3
\colw5320\pard\li5226\ri0\sl-533\slmult0 \fs24\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {0}{ }\fs26\
cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61501X \uc1\u61485X}{\sub \fs28\cf0\f3\charscalex100
{R C}}\fs26\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61682X}\par\pard\li5093\ri0\sl-506\slmu
lt0 \*\tx5760\fs34\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {V}\tab \fs28\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {R C}
\fs28\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {R C}\par\pard\li5920\ri0\sl-186\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f3
\charscalex100 {1 f}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs34\cf0\f3\charsca
lex100 {V}\par\column\pard\li146\ri0\sl-186\slmult0 \fs40\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {
i}\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {Vdt}\par\pard\li0
\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {Vdt}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone
\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\pard\sect\sectd\sbkpage



7;32768}}

\li1440\ri0\sl-493\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Integrating both sides, w
e get}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133
\cols2\colno1\colw2333\colsr-0\colno2\colw9426\pard\li773\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs
18\cf0\par\pard\li773\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs24\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {1}\par\colu
mn\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs24\c
f0\f3\charscalex100 {1}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marg
lsxn0\margrsxn133\pard\li760\ri0\sl-506\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1
\u61682X}{ }\fs36\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {d}\fs26\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u6155
7X\uc1\u61488X \uc1\u61501X}{ }\fs26\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61485X\uc1\u614
89X}{\sub \fs28\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {R C}}\fs26\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u616
82X}{ }\fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61557X}{\sub \fs40\cf0\f3\charscalex100
{i}}\fs32\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {dt}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pgh
sxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\cols3\colno1\colw1960\colsr-0\colno2\colw813\cols
r-0\colno3\colw8986\pard\li773\ri0\sl-186\slmult0 \fs24\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {0}
\par\pard\li760\ri0\sl-466\slmult0 \fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61557X}\fs2
0\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61488X}{ }\fs8\cf0\f1\charscalex73 {\uc1\u61480X \
uc1\u61481X}\fs48\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {t}{ }\fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u6
1501X}{ }\fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61485X}\fs36\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {1}
\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-253\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {1 f}{\sub \f
s24\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {0}}\par\pard\li360\ri0\sl-186\slmult0 \fs24\cf0\f3\cha
rscalex100 {1}\par\pard\li346\ri0\sl-440\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc
1\u61682X}{ }\fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61557X}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\s
l-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-440\slmult0 \*\tx746\fs8\cf0\f1\char
scalex73 {\uc1\u61480X \uc1\u61481X}{ }\fs26\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61483X
\uc1\u61557X}\tab \fs8\cf0\f1\charscalex73 {\uc1\u61480X \uc1\u61481X}\par\pard\
sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\cols5\colno1\co
lw2586\colsr-0\colno2\colw40\colsr-0\colno3\colw786\colsr-0\colno4\colw200\colsr
-0\colno5\colw8146\pard\li1786\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {R
C}\par\pard\li1960\ri0\sl-186\slmult0 \fs24\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {1 f 0}\par\col
umn\pard\li0\ri0\sl-186\slmult0 \fs40\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {i}\par\column\pard\l
i0\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs36\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {d t}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\s
l-173\slmult0 \fs20\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61488X}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\
sl-320\slmult0 \fs36\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {0}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn
11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\pard\li720\ri0\sl-400\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\
f0\charscalex100 {Where}{ }\fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61557X}\fs28\cf0\f0
\charscalex100 {0, (0) is the initial output voltage.}\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-21
0 {The circuit, thus provides an output voltage which is proportional to the tim
e integral of}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {the
input and R}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1}\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {CF is the
time constant of the integrator. If may be noted that there is a negative}\par
\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {sign in the output vo
ltage, and therefore, this integrator is also known, as an inverting integrator.
}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \*\tx2786\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {A resis
tance, R}\fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {comp}\tab \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {= R}\
fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1}{ }\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {is usually connected
to the (+) input terminals to minimize the effect of}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320
\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {input bias current.}\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl
-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-440\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscale
x100 {A simple low pass RC circuit can also work as an integrator when
time constant is very}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs24\cf0\f0\charsc
alex100 {large. This requires very large values of R and C. The compo
nents R and C cannot be made}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0
\charscalex100 {infinitely large because of practical limitations. However, in
the op \uc1\u8211X amp integrator of figure a,}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult
0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {by miller\uc1\u8217Xs theorem, the effective input
capacitance becomes Cf (1-A), where AV is the gain of the}\par\pard\li720\ri0\s
l-320\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {op \uc1\u8211X amp. The gain AV is in
finite for an ideal op \uc1\u8211X amp, so the effective time constant of the op
\uc1\u8211X}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {amp

integrator becomes very large which results in perfect integration.}\par\pard\li
1440\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-440\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f
0\charscalex100 {The operation of the integrator can also be studied in th
e frequency domain. In phasor}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f
0\charscalex100 {notation, equation can be written as}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbkno
ne\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\cols3\colno1\colw2613\colsr-0\c
olno2\colw413\colsr-0\colno3\colw8733\pard\li1746\ri0\sl-480\slmult0 \fs8\cf0\f1
\charscalex73 {\uc1\u61480X \uc1\u61481X}\par\pard\li1480\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs
38\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {V S}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs36\cf0\f
3\charscalex100 {1}\par\column\pard\li240\ri0\sl-480\slmult0 \fs8\cf0\f1\charsca
lex73 {\uc1\u61480X \uc1\u61481X}\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs36\cf0\f3\c
harscalex100 {V s}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0
\margrsxn133\cols3\colno1\colw2160\colsr-0\colno2\colw1013\colsr-0\colno3\colw85
86\pard\li1626\ri0\sl-186\slmult0 \fs24\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {0}\par\column\pard
\li0\ri0\sl-506\slmult0 \fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61501X}{ }\fs26\cf0\f3
\charscalex100 {sR C}\par\pard\li493\ri0\sl-186\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f3\charscalex1
00 {1 f}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-186\slmult0 \fs24\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {1}\p
ar\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\pard\li
charscalex100 {In steady state, put s = j}\fs38\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u6155
9X}{ }\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {and we get}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn
11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\cols3\colno1\colw2746\colsr-0\colno2\col
w480\colsr-0\colno3\colw8533\pard\li1746\ri0\sl-466\slmult0 \fs8\cf0\f1\charscal
ex73 {\uc1\u61480X \uc1\u61481X}\par\pard\li1480\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs46\cf0\f3
\charscalex100 {V j}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs36\cf0\f3\charsca
lex100 {1}\par\column\pard\li240\ri0\sl-466\slmult0 \fs8\cf0\f1\charscalex73 {\u
c1\u61480X \uc1\u61481X}\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs42\cf0\f3\charscalex
100 {V j}\fs38\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61559X}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\p
2\colw1440\colsr-0\colno3\colw8400\pard\li1626\ri0\sl-186\slmult0 \fs24\cf0\f3\c
harscalex100 {0}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-506\slmult0 \fs36\cf0\f1\charscalex1
00 {\uc1\u61559X \uc1\u61501X}{ }\fs32\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {j R C}\par\pard\li9
33\ri0\sl-186\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {1 f}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\s
l-186\slmult0 \fs24\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {1}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn1
1893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\p
ar\pard\li720\ri0\sl-346\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {So, the magnitude o
f the gain or integrator transfer function is}\par\pard\li2280\ri0\sl-400\slmult
0 \*\tx3453\*\tx4426\fs8\cf0\f1\charscalex73 {\uc1\u61480X \uc1\u61481X}\tab \fs
36\cf0\f3\charscalex100\ul {1}\ul0 \tab \fs36\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {1}\par\pard\
li2000\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs46\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {V j}{\sub \fs24\cf0\f3\cha
rscalex100 {0}}\fs38\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61559X}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbk
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scalex73 {\uc1\u61480X \uc1\u61481X}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-293\slmult0 \fs2
6\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61501X \uc1\u61485X}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-29
3\slmult0 \fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61501X}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-2
93\slmult0 \fs38\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61559X}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone
\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\cols4\colno1\colw2426\colsr-0\col
no2\colw733\colsr-0\colno3\colw1160\colsr-0\colno4\colw7440\pard\li2160\ri0\sl-1
86\slmult0 \fs24\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {1}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-293\slmult0
\fs38\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61559X}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-320\slmult
0 \fs32\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {j R C}\par\pard\li386\ri0\sl-186\slmult0 \fs30\cf0
\f3\charscalex100 {1 f}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f3\char
scalex100 {R C}\par\pard\li173\ri0\sl-186\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {1
f}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\par
f0\f0\charscalex100 {The frequency response (or Bode plot of this basic integrat
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charscalex100 {bode plot is a straight line of slop \uc1\u8211X 6B / octave (or)
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l-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {in figure (b) is the frequency at whic
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0A28A2803CCA8A28A0028A28A0028A28A0028A28A0028A28A0028A28A0028A28A0028A28A0028A28
A0028A28A0028A28A0028A28A002B4FC3DFF0021CB6FF817FE8268A2803BAA28A2800A28A2800A28
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}}}}{\shp
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7;32768}}
\li1440\ri0\sl-493\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {It can further be seen fr
om equation that at}{ }\fs38\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61559X}{ }\fs30\cf0\f0\
charscalex100 {= 0 the magnitude of the integrator transfer}\par\pard\li720\ri0\
sl-320\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {function is infinite. At dc, the cap
acitor Cf behaves as an open circuit and there is no negative}\par\pard\li720\ri
0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {feedback. The op \uc1\u8211X amp t
hus operates in open loop, resulting in an infinite gain. In practice, of}\par\
pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {course, output never b
ecomes infinite, rather the output of the amplifier power supply depending}\par\
pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {on the polarity of the
input dc signal}\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1440\r
-426\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {As the gain of the integrator decreases
with increasing frequency, the integrator circuit does}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-3
20\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {not have any frequency problem as faced i
n a differentiator. However, at low frequency such as at}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl

-333\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {dc (}\fs38\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u
61559X}{ }\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {= 0), the gain becomes infinite (or satura
tes). The solution to the problem is discussed in the}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-32
0\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {following.}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmu
lt0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-426\slmult0 \*\tx2480\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex
100\b {3. In Figure R}\b0 \fs22\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {1}\b0 \tab \fs22\cf0\f0\
charscalex100\b {= 10 K}\b0 \fs40\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61527X}\fs26\cf0\
f0\charscalex100\b {, Rf = 100 K}\b0 \fs40\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61527X}\
fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {, V}\b0 \fs34\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {i}\b0 { }\fs
26\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {= 1V. A wad of 25 K}\b0 \fs40\cf0\f1\charscalex10
0 {\uc1\u61527X}{ }\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {is connected to the output}\b
0 \par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {terminal. Ca
lculate}\b0 \par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margr
sxn133\cols4\colno1\colw1800\colsr-0\colno2\colw0\colsr-0\colno3\colw720\colsr-0
\colno4\colw9240\pard\li1800\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1800\ri0\sl
-440\slmult0 \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {i.}\b0 \par\pard\li1800\ri0\sl-320\sl
mult0 \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {ii.}\b0 \par\pard\li1800\ri0\sl-333\slmult0
\fs32\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {iii.}\b0 \par\pard\li1800\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs34
\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {iv.}\b0 \par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\c
ult0 \fs34\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {iv.}\b0 \par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmul
sl-346\slmult0 \fs34\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {iv.}\b0 \par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl
-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-440\slmult0 \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex10
0\b {I,}\b0 \par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {V}\b0
\fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {0}\b0 \fs54\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {,}\b0 \par\pa
rd\li0\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs46\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {I}\b0 \fs22\cf0\f0\chars
calex100\b {L}\b0 { }\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {and}\b0 \par\pard\li0\ri0\sl320\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {Total current I}\b0 \fs28\cf0\f0\chars
calex100\b {o}\b0 { }\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {into the output pin}\b0 \par\
harscalex100 {x i}{\super \fs42\up5\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {v}}\par\pard\sect\sect
d\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\pard\li1480\ri0\sl-480\s
lmult0 \fs30\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {x i}{\super \fs42\up5\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {v
}}\par\pard\li1480\ri0\sl-480\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {x i}{\super \f
s42\up5\cf0\f3\charscalex100\ul {v}\ul0 }\fs24\cf0\f3\charscalex100\ul {1}\ul0 \
par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\pard\l
i1600\ri0\sl-506\slmult0 \fs16\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {1 1}{ }\fs32\cf0\f1\charsca
lex100 {\uc1\u61501X}{\sub \fs34\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {R}}\fs34\cf0\f3\charscale
x100 {R}\par\pard\li2040\ri0\sl-346\slmult0 \fs34\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {R}{\sub
\fs24\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {1}}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\c
harscalex100 {Given that}\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs34\cf0\f0\charsc
alex100 {V}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1}{ }\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {= 1V}\pa
r\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\pard\sec
t\sectd\sbkpage


7;32768}}
rscalex100 {R}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1}{ }\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {= 10
K}\fs42\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61527X}\par\pard\li1360\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \
fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1360\ri0\sl-440\slmult0 \*\tx2013\fs34\cf0\f3\charscalex100\
ul {V}\ul0 \tab \fs28\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {1V}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\s
f0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61501X}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsx
n16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\cols3\colno1\colw2733\colsr-0\colno2\colw5186\colsr
-0\colno3\colw3840\pard\li720\ri0\sl-360\slmult0 \fs42\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc
1\u61532X \uc1\u61501X}\fs60\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {i}{\sub \fs24\cf0\f3\charscal
ex100 {1}}\fs24\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {1}{ }\fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u615
01X}\par\pard\li1333\ri0\sl-360\slmult0 \fs34\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {R}{\sub \fs2
4\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {1}}\fs28\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {10K}\fs42\cf0\f1\charscal
ex100 {\uc1\u61527X}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-293\slmult0 \fs42\cf0\f1\charscalex10
0 {\uc1\u61532X \uc1\u61501X}\par\pard\li946\ri0\sl-360\slmult0 \fs60\cf0\f3\cha
rscalex100 {i}{\sub \fs24\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {1}}\fs24\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {0
.1mA}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {(ii)}\par\pa
rd\li1480\ri0\sl-480\slmult0 \*\tx1786\fs32\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {V}\tab \fs254\
cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61501X}{\super \fs32\up4\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {R}}\f
s32\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {V}\par\pard\li1626\ri0\sl-360\slmult0 \*\tx2173\*\tx24
80\fs24\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {0}\tab \fs40\cf0\f3\charscalex100\ul {f}\ul0 \tab
\fs24\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {0}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs24\cf0\
f3\charscalex100 {0.1mA}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\cha
rscalex100 {fig.}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\
margrsxn133\cols2\colno1\colw2440\colsr-0\colno2\colw9320\pard\li1986\ri0\sl-320
\slmult0 \fs34\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {R}\par\pard\li2160\ri0\sl-186\slmult0 \fs24
\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {1}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-186\slmult0 \fs24\cf0\f3\ch
arscalex100 {1}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\ma
rgrsxn133\pard\li1466\ri0\sl-346\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {Given that}
\par\pard\li1466\ri0\sl-386\slmult0 \fs34\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {R}{\sub \fs40\cf
0\f3\charscalex100 {f}}\fs256\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61501X}{ }\fs28\cf0\f3
\charscalex100 {100K}\fs42\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61527X}\par\pard\li1466\r

i0\sl-373\slmult0 \fs36\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {R 10K}{\sub \fs24\cf0\f3\charscale
x100 {1}}\fs42\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61527X}\par\pard\li1480\ri0\sl-346\sl
mult0 \fs38\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {V 1V}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\
pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\cols7\colno1\colw1786\colsr-0\colno2\colw373\c
olsr-0\colno3\colw586\colsr-0\colno4\colw360\colsr-0\colno5\colw800\colsr-0\coln
harscalex100 {1}\par\pard\li1480\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs34\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {
V}\par\pard\li1626\ri0\sl-186\slmult0 \fs24\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {0}\par\column\
pard\li0\ri0\sl-493\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61501X \uc1\u61485
X}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-360\slmult0 \fs34\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {R}\par\par
d\li173\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs40\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {f}{ }\fs34\cf0\f3\charsca
lex100 {V}\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-373\slmult0 \fs34\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {R}{\sub \
fs24\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {1}}\fs24\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {1}\par\column\pard\li0
\ri0\sl-493\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61501X \uc1\u61485X}\par\c
olumn\pard\li0\ri0\sl-373\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f3\charscalex100\ul {100K}\ul0 \fs42
\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61527X}\par\pard\li66\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\
f3\charscalex100 {10K}\fs42\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61527X}\par\column\pard\
li0\ri0\sl-493\slmult0 \fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61620X}\par\column\pard
\li0\ri0\sl-520\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {1V}{ }\fs256\cf0\f1\charscal
ex100 {\uc1\u61501X \uc1\u61485X}\fs30\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {10V}\par\pard\sect\
sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\cols2\colno1\colw144
0\colsr-0\colno2\colw10320\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li72
0\sl-506\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {(iii)}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-3
60\slmult0 \fs48\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61532X}{ }\fs34\cf0\f3\charscalex10
0 {V}{\sub \fs24\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {0}}\fs26\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u6150
1X \uc1\u61485X}\fs30\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {10V}\par\pard\li26\ri0\sl-213\slmult
0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li26\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li26\ri0\sl-213\
slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li26\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li26\ri0\s
\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li26\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\par
d\li26\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li26\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\p
ar\pard\li26\ri0\sl-613\slmult0 \fs60\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {i}{ }\fs32\cf0\f1\ch
arscalex100 {\uc1\u61501X}{\super \fs34\up4\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {V}}\par\pard\l
i66\ri0\sl-346\slmult0 \*\tx573\fs24\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {1}\tab \fs24\cf0\f3\c
harscalex100\ul {0}\ul0 \par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\mar
olw8440\pard\li1853\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs34\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {R}\par\pard\l
i2026\ri0\sl-186\slmult0 \fs24\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {L}\par\pard\li1466\ri0\sl-3
20\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {Given that}\par\pard\li1480\ri0\sl-360\sl
mult0 \fs34\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {V}{\sub \fs24\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {0}}\fs256\
cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61501X}{ }\fs30\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {10V}\par\pard\
li1466\ri0\sl-360\slmult0 \fs32\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {R}{\sub \fs24\cf0\f3\chars
calex100 {1}}\fs254\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61501X}{ }\fs26\cf0\f3\charscale
x100 {25K}\fs40\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61527X}\par\pard\li2093\ri0\sl-320\s
lmult0 \fs34\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {V}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs
\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {10V}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0
-480\slmult0 \fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61501X}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbkno
olno2\colw2066\colsr-0\colno3\colw8253\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\p
30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {(iv)}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-360\slmult0 \fs46\cf0\
f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61532X \uc1\u61501X}\fs60\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {i}{\sub
\fs24\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {L}}\fs24\cf0\f3\charscalex100\ul {0}\ul0 { }\fs32\cf
0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61501X}\par\pard\li653\ri0\sl-360\slmult0 \fs34\cf0\f3
\charscalex100 {R}{\sub \fs40\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {i}}\fs28\cf0\f3\charscalex10
0 {25K}\fs42\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61527X}\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-293\slmult0
\fs46\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61532X \uc1\u61501X}\par\pard\li226\ri0\sl-34
6\slmult0 \fs60\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {i}{\sub \fs24\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {L}}\fs
26\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {0.4mA}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs26\cf0
\f3\charscalex100 {0.4mA}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\ma
rglsxn0\margrsxn133\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {I
is calculated about is 0.1 mA}\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par
\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-426\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Therefore,}\par\pard
f0\charscalex100 {Total current i}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {0}{ }\fs30\cf0\f0\
charscalex100 {= i}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1}{ }\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {
+ i}\fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {L}\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\
f0\charscalex100 {=0.1mA + 0.4 mA}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsx
n16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\pard\sect\sectd\sbkpage{\shp
{\*\shpinst
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\li1440\ri0\sl-493\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {=0.5mA}\par\pard\li720\ri
0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-440\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charsc
alex100 {In an inverting amplifier for a +ve input output will be \uc1
\u8211X ve, therefore the direction of io is as}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\s
lmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {shown in the above figure.}\par\pard\li720\ri
0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-426\slmult0 \*\tx8466\fs30\cf0\
f0\charscalex100\b {4. a. In the following circuit for the non \uc1\u8211X inv
enting amplifier R}\b0 \fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {1}\b0 \tab \fs28\cf0\f0\ch
arscalex100\b {= 1 K}\b0 \fs42\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61527X}{ }\fs30\cf0\
f0\charscalex100\b {and R}\b0 \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {f}\b0 { }\fs28\cf0\f
0\charscalex100\b {= 10K}\b0 \fs42\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61527X}\fs54\cf0\
f0\charscalex100\b {.}\b0 \par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \*\tx6986\fs28\cf0\
f0\charscalex100\b {Calculate the maximum output offset voltage due to V}\b0 \fs
18\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {os}\b0 \tab \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {and I}\b0 \
fs22\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {B}\b0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {. The op \uc1\
u8211X amp is LM 307 quirt}\b0 \par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs36\cf0\f0\c
harscalex100\b {V}\b0 \fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {os}\b0 { }\fs28\cf0\f0\chars
calex100\b {= 10 mv and I}\b0 \fs22\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {B}\b0 \fs26\cf0\f0\c
harscalex100\b {=300nA, I}\b0 \fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {os}\b0 { }\fs28\cf0\
f0\charscalex100\b {= 50 nA.}\b0 \par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\pa
r\pard\li720\ri0\sl-426\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {b) Calculate the v
alue of R}\b0 \fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {comp}\b0 { }\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex1
00\b {needed to reduce the effect of I}\b0 \fs22\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {B}\b0 \
fs54\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {.}\b0 \par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\
par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-440\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {c) Calculate the
maximum output voltage if R}\b0 \fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {comp}\b0 { }\fs26
\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {as calculated in (b) is connected in the circuit.}\b0 \

i0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-346\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\chars
calex100\b {Solution:}\b0 \par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\m
arglsxn0\margrsxn133\cols4\colno1\colw2093\colsr-0\colno2\colw440\colsr-0\colno3
\colw426\colsr-0\colno4\colw8800\pard\li1480\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pa
cf0\f3\charscalex100 {V}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pa
rd\li0\ri0\sl-440\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61670X}\par\column\p
ard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-480\slmult0 \fs34\cf0\f
3\charscalex100\ul {R}\ul0 { }\fs26\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61686X}\par\pard
\li0\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs34\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {R}\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-320\s
lmult0 \fs34\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {R}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs
\*\tx573\fs34\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {V}\tab \fs28\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {R I}\par
\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\cols3\col
20\slmult0 \fs34\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {V}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-320\slmult0
\fs34\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {V}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-346\slmult0 \*\tx800\
*\tx1466\fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61501X}{ }\fs26\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {
\uc1\u61671X}\fs36\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {1}\fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u614
83X}\tab \fs40\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {f}{ }\fs26\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u6168
7X}{ }\fs34\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {V}\fs34\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {V}\tab \fs256\cf
0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61483X}{ }\fs28\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {R I}\fs28\cf0\f3
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c1\u61688X}\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-293\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61
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ct\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\pard\li746\ri0\sl
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0 {I}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u6
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b \fs24\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {B}}\fs256\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61501X}{ }\f
s28\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {300nA}\par\pard\li1573\ri0\sl-293\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f1
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f0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61686X}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-546\slmult0 \fs8\c
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d\li0\ri0\sl-360\slmult0 \fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61501X}{ }\fs26\cf0\f
1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61671X}\fs26\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61671X}\fs26\cf0
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cf0\f3\charscalex100 {10mV}\tab \fs28\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {10K}\par\pard\li760\
ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \*\tx1786\fs28\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {10mV}\tab \fs28\cf0\f3\c
harscalex100 {10K}\par\pard\li253\ri0\sl-480\slmult0 \*\tx1533\fs42\cf0\f1\chars
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f0\f3\charscalex100 {10K}\fs256\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61527X}{ }\fs28\cf0\
f3\charscalex100 {300nA}\par\pard\li253\ri0\sl-413\slmult0 \fs42\cf0\f1\charscal
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0\sl-440\slmult0 \fs24\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {1K}\fs42\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1
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e\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\cols4\colno1\colw1573\colsr-0\co
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lmult0 \fs26\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61688X}\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-293\slmult0
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93\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\pard\li760\ri0\sl-346\slmult0 \fs32\cf0\f1\
charscalex100 {\uc1\u61501X}{ }\fs30\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {110mV 3mV}\par\pard\l
i760\ri0\sl-360\slmult0 \fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61501X}{ }\fs24\cf0\f3
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harscalex100 {V}\tab \fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61501X}{ }\fs24\cf0\f3\ch
arscalex100 {113mV}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs46\cf0\f1\charscalex100
{\uc1\u61532X}{ }\fs34\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {V}\par\pard\li960\ri0\sl-346\slmul
t0 \fs34\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {V}{\sub \fs18\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {OT}}\par\pard
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d\sbkpage

7;32768}}
i0\sl-493\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {(b)}\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-213\sl
mult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-440\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {T
he value of R}\fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {comp}{ }\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {ne
eded is}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn1
33\cols2\colno1\colw1693\colsr-0\colno2\colw10066\pard\li746\ri0\sl-213\slmult0
\fs18\cf0\par\pard\li746\ri0\sl-453\slmult0 \*\tx1346\fs34\cf0\f3\charscalex100
{R}\fs14\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {comp}\tab \fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61501
X}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmu
lt0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-240\slmult0 \fs256\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {R 11R
}{\sub \fs24\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {1}}\fs40\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {f}\par\pard\se
ct\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\pard\li746\ri0\sl
-373\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {Given that}\par\pard\li760\ri0\sl-360\s
lmult0 \fs32\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {
R 1K}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgw
sxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\pard\li1466\ri0\sl-186\slmult0 \fs24\
cf0\f3\charscalex100 {1}\par\pard\li760\ri0\sl-346\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f3\charscal
ex100 {
R}{\sub \fs40\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {f}}\fs256\cf0\f1\charscalex10
0 {\uc1\u61501X}{ }\fs28\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {10K}\fs42\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\
uc1\u61527X}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margr
sxn133\cols2\colno1\colw1720\colsr-0\colno2\colw10040\pard\li720\ri0\sl-373\slmu
lt0 \fs48\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61532X}\fs34\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {R}\fs14
\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {comp}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-346\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f3
\charscalex100 {1K ||10K}\fs42\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61527X}\par\pard\sect
\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\pard\li720\ri0\sl-4
00\slmult0 \*\tx1546\fs48\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61532X}\fs34\cf0\f3\charsc
alex100 {R}\fs14\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {comp}\tab \fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc
1\u61501X}{ }\fs28\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {990}\fs42\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u6
1527X}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-466\slm
ult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {(c)}\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs30\c
f0\f0\charscalex100 {With R}\fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {comp}{ }\fs28\cf0\f0\cha
rscalex100 {in the circuit}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\
marglsxn0\margrsxn133\cols2\colno1\colw2533\colsr-0\colno2\colw9226\pard\li2093\
ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61670X}\par\column\pard\li0
\ri0\sl-373\slmult0 \fs34\cf0\f3\charscalex100\ul {R}\ul0 { }\fs26\cf0\f1\charsc
alex100 {\uc1\u61686X}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\margl
sxn0\margrsxn133\cols2\colno1\colw1906\colsr-0\colno2\colw9853\pard\li1480\ri0\s
l-320\slmult0 \fs34\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {V}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-346\slmu

lt0 \*\tx800\fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61501X}{ }\fs26\cf0\f1\charscalex1
00 {\uc1\u61671X}\fs36\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {1}\fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\
u61483X}\tab \fs40\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {f}{ }\fs26\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u
61687X}{ }\fs34\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {V}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893
\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\cols4\colno1\colw2093\colsr-0\colno2\colw440\
colsr-0\colno3\colw573\colsr-0\colno4\colw8653\pard\li1626\ri0\sl-186\slmult0 \f
s18\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {OT}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-293\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f
1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61672X}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs34\cf0\
f3\charscalex100 {R}\par\pard\li173\ri0\sl-293\slmult0 \fs24\cf0\f3\charscalex10
0 {1}{ }\fs26\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61688X}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-186
\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {OS}{ }\fs256\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61
483X}{ }\fs256\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {R I}\fs18\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {f OS}\par\p
ard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\cols3\colno
1\colw4586\colsr-0\colno2\colw773\colsr-0\colno3\colw6400\pard\li1466\ri0\sl-386
\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {Given that I}{\sub \fs18\cf0\f3\charscalex1
00 {OS}}\fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61501X}{ }\fs28\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {
50nA}\par\pard\li1760\ri0\sl-533\slmult0 \*\tx3586\fs256\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\
uc1\u61670X}\fs256\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61672X}{\super \fs36\up6\cf0\f3\c
harscalex100 {1}}\fs28\cf0\f3\charscalex100\ul {10K}\ul0 \fs42\cf0\f1\charscalex
100 {\uc1\u61527X}{ }\fs26\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61686X}\fs8\cf0\f1\charsc
alex73 {\uc1\u61480X}\tab \fs8\cf0\f1\charscalex73 {\uc1\u61481X \uc1\u61480X}\p
ar\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0
\fs18\cf0\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-493\slmult0 \fs8\cf0\f1\charscalex73 {\uc1\u61481X
\uc1\u61480X}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li0\ri0\
sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-493\slmult0 \fs8\cf0\f1\charscalex7
3 {\uc1\u61481X}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\m
argrsxn133\cols2\colno1\colw2173\colsr-0\colno2\colw9586\pard\li1480\ri0\sl-360\
slmult0 \*\tx1906\fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61501X}{ }\fs26\cf0\f1\charsc
alex100 {\uc1\u61671X}\tab \fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61483X}\par\column\
pard\li253\ri0\sl-506\slmult0 \*\tx1533\fs42\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61527X}
{ }\fs26\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61688X}\fs26\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61
687X}{ }\fs28\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {10mV}\tab \fs256\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\
u61483X}{ }\fs28\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {10K}\fs256\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61
527X}{ }\fs28\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {50nA}\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs24\
cf0\f3\charscalex100 {1K}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\ma
rglsxn0\margrsxn133\cols2\colno1\colw1440\colsr-0\colno2\colw10320\pard\li720\ri
30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {(ii)}\par\column\pard\li40\ri0\sl-346\slmult0 \fs32\cf0
\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61501X}{ }\fs30\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {110mV 0.5mV}\par\
pard\li40\ri0\sl-360\slmult0 \fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61501X}{ }\fs24\c
f0\f3\charscalex100 {110.5mV}\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-400\slmult0 \fs48\cf0\f1\chars
calex100 {\uc1\u61532X}{ }\fs34\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {V}{\sub \fs18\cf0\f3\chars
calex100 {OT}}\fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61501X}{ }\fs24\cf0\f3\charscale
x100 {110.5mV}\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {A non
\uc1\u8211X inventing amplifier with a gain of 100 is mulled at 25}\fs26\cf0\f1
\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61616X}\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {C. What will happen to
the}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\
pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {output voltage if the
temperature rises to 50}\fs26\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61616X}\fs28\cf0\f0\ch
arscalex100 {C for an offset voltage drift of 0.15 mV/C}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-2
0\b {Solution:-}\b0 \par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li144
0\ri0\sl-426\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Input offset voltage due to tem
perature rise = 0.15 mV/}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {0}{ }\fs28\cf0\f0\charscale
x100 {C x (50}\fs26\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61616X}\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex10
0 {C - 25}\fs26\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61616X}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {C
) = 3.75 mV. Since}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex10
0 {this is an input change, the output voltage will change by}\par\pard\li1480\r

scalex100 {V}{\sub \fs24\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {0}}\fs256\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\
uc1\u61501X}{ }\fs34\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {V}{\sub \fs18\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {O
S}}\fs256\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61620X}{ }\fs30\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {bA}{
\sub \fs18\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {CL}}\par\pard\li1480\ri0\sl-346\slmult0 \fs32\c
f0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61501X}{ }\fs28\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {3.75mV 100}\par
\pard\li1480\ri0\sl-360\slmult0 \fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61501X}{ }\fs2
4\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {375mV}\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-386\slmult0 \fs48\cf0\f1\c
harscalex100 {\uc1\u61532X}{ }\fs34\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {V}{\sub \fs24\cf0\f3\c
harscalex100 {0}}\fs256\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61501X}{ }\fs24\cf0\f3\chars
calex100 {375mV}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\
sl-440\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {This could represent a very major shi
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7;32768}}
i0\sl-493\slmult0 \fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {5. Explain about the AC characte
ristics?}\b0 \par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl426\slmult0 \fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {AC Characteristics}\b0 \par\pard\li144
harscalex100 {We have discussed so far the dc characteristics such as bias curre
nt; offset current, offset}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\chars
calex100 {voltage and thermal drift. These will affect the steady state (dc) re
sponse of the op \uc1\u8211X amp only.}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs26\
cf0\f0\charscalex100 {For small signal sinusoidal (ac) applications, one ha
s to know the ac characteristics such as}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0
\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {frequency response and slew \uc1\u8211X rate which
will be discussed in this section.}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\
par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-426\slmult0 \fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {FREQUENCY RESPON
SE}\b0 \par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-440\
slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Ideally, an op \uc1\u8211X amp should have a
n infinite bandwidth. This means that, if its open \uc1\u8211X loop}\par\pard\l
i720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {gain is 90 dB with dc signal
its gain should remain the same 90 dB through audio and on to high}\par\pard\li
720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {radio frequencies.
The pr
actical op \uc1\u8211X amp gain, however, decreases (rolls \uc1\u8211X off)
at higher}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {freque
ncies.}\par\pard\li4373\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li4373\ri0\sl-213\
x100\b {Fig. a. Positive Peak Detector}\b0 \par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \f
s28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {High frequency mod of an OP-amp with single corner fre
quency}\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-440\
slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {What causes the gain of the op \uc1\u821
1X amp to roll \uc1\u8211X off after a certain frequency is reached?}\par
\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Obviously, there must
be a capacitive component in the equivalent circuit of the op \uc1\u8211X amp.
This}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {capacitance
is due to the physical characteristics of the device (BJT or FET) used and the
internal}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {construc
tion of op \uc1\u8211X amp. For an op \uc1\u8211X amp with only one br
eak (corner) frequency, all the}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\
f0\charscalex100 {capacitor effects can be represented by a single capacito
r C as shown in figure (a). This figure}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult
0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {represents the high frequency model of the op \uc1
\u8211X amp with a single corner frequency. It may be}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-32
0\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {observed that the high frequency model of
figure (a) is a modified version of the low frequency}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333
\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {model with a capacitor C at the output.
There is one pole due to R}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {o}\fs28\cf0\f0\chars
calex100 {C and obviously one \uc1\u8211X 20}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0
\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {dB/decade roll \uc1\u8211X off comes into effect.}\
\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {The open loop voltage gain of an op \uc1\u8211X amp
with only one corner frequency is obtained from}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmul
t0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {figure (a) as}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbkpage



3);(160,13);(93,666);(80,666);(13,426);(0,453);(0,440);(0,440);}}
824;1;45824;1;45824;1;45824;1;45824;1;45824;1;45824;1;45824;24577;32768}}


7;32768}}
f0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61485X}{ }\fs32\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {jX}\par\column\
par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\
cf0\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \f
mult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-453\slmult0 \fs8\cf0\f1\charscalex73 {\uc1\u
61480X \uc1\u61481X}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsx
n0\margrsxn133\cols4\colno1\colw1880\colsr-0\colno2\colw200\colsr-0\colno3\colw8
93\colsr-0\colno4\colw8786\pard\li760\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f3\charscalex
100 {
V}\par\pard\li1720\ri0\sl-186\slmult0 \fs24\cf0\f3\charscalex10
0 {o}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-293\slmult0 \fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u6
1501X}\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs32\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {V}\par\column
\pard\li560\ri0\sl-186\slmult0 \fs24\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {c}\par\pard\li0\ri0\s
l-360\slmult0 \fs34\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {R}{\sub \fs24\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {o}
}\fs256\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61485X}{ }\fs32\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {jX}\pa
r\pard\li733\ri0\sl-186\slmult0 \fs24\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {c}\par\pard\li706\ri
0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs32\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {A}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-346\s
lmult0 \*\tx1440\fs30\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {A V
}\fs24\cf0\f3\charsca
lex100 {OL d}\tab \fs54\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61614X}{ }\fs36\cf0\f3\chars
calex100 {1}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margr
sxn133\cols2\colno1\colw4400\colsr-0\colno2\colw7360\pard\li2200\ri0\sl-480\slmu
lt0 \*\tx2546\fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61501X}\tab \fs42\cf0\f1\charscal
ex100 {\uc1\u61483X \uc1\u61552X}\par\pard\li746\ri0\sl-533\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f3
\charscalex100 {or,
A=}{\sub \fs34\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {V}}\fs24\cf0\f3\c
harscalex100\ul {o}\ul0 {\sub \fs24\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {4}}\fs32\cf0\f3\charsc
alex100 {1 j2 fR C}{\super \fs18\up11\cf0\f3\charscalex100\ul {OL}\ul0 }\fs24\cf
0\f3\charscalex100 {0}\par\pard\li746\ri0\sl-480\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f3\charscalex
100 {or,
A=}{\super \fs34\up5\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {A}}\fs18\cf0\f3\charsc
alex100 {OL}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li0\ri0\s
l-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-466\slmult0 \fs54\cf0\f1\charscalex1
00 {\uc1\u61614X}{ }\fs8\cf0\f1\charscalex73 {\uc1\u61480X \uc1\u61481X}\fs36\cf
0\f3\charscalex100 {2}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\margl
sxn0\margrsxn133\pard\li2186\ri0\sl-400\slmult0 \fs8\cf0\f1\charscalex73 {\uc1\u
61480X \uc1\u61481X}\par\pard\li1853\ri0\sl-346\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f3\charscalex1
00 {1+j f/f}{\sub \fs24\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {1}}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pg
wsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\cols5\colno1\colw1760\colsr-0\colno2
\colw213\colsr-0\colno3\colw440\colsr-0\colno4\colw2053\colsr-0\colno5\colw7293\
pard\li760\ri0\sl-546\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {where f}{\sub \fs24\c
f0\f3\charscalex100 {1}}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-493\slmult0 \fs32\cf0\f1\cha
rscalex100 {\uc1\u61501X}\par\column\pard\li280\ri0\sl-360\slmult0 \fs36\cf0\f3\
charscalex100 {1}\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-346\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {2
R C}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\sl
mult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-306\slmult0 \fs24\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {0}\p
ar\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-533\slmult0 \fs54\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61614X}{
}\fs8\cf0\f1\charscalex73 {\uc1\u61480X \uc1\u61481X}\fs36\cf0\f3\charscalex100
{3}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\p
f0\f0\charscalex100 {Is the corner frequency of the op \uc1\u8211X amp. The mag
nitude and the phase angle of the open loop}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \
fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {voltage gain are function of frequency and can be wri
tten as}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn1
33\cols6\colno1\colw1786\colsr-0\colno2\colw613\colsr-0\colno3\colw173\colsr-0\c
olno4\colw480\colsr-0\colno5\colw1240\colsr-0\colno6\colw7466\pard\li1520\ri0\sl
520\ri0\sl-360\slmult0 \fs34\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {A}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl
0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61501X}\par\column\pard\li0\r
i0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-413\slmult0 \fs34\cf0\f3\charsca
lex100 {A}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-240\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\f3\charscalex100
{OL}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\s
40\slmult0 \fs24\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {2}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0
\fs18\cf0\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-586\slmult0 \fs54\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u616

14X}{ }\fs8\cf0\f1\charscalex74 {\uc1\u61480X \uc1\u61481X}\fs36\cf0\f3\charscal
ex100 {4}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn
133\pard\li2293\ri0\sl-440\slmult0 \*\tx2946\fs24\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61
483X \uc1\u61671X}\fs26\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61670X}\tab \fs26\cf0\f1\cha
rscalex100 {\uc1\u61686X}\fs26\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61687X}\par\pard\sect
\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\pard\li2146\ri0\sl546\slmult0 \*\tx2466\fs36\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {1}\tab \fs256\cf0\f1\charscalex
100 {\uc1\u61672X}{\super \fs44\up8\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {f}}\fs44\cf0\f3\charsc
alex100 {f}{\sub \fs24\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {1}}\fs26\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1
\u61688X}\par\pard\li2533\ri0\sl-293\slmult0 \*\tx3026\fs26\cf0\f1\charscalex100
{\uc1\u61670X}\tab \fs26\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61686X}\par\pard\sect\sect
d\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\cols2\colno1\colw4293\co
lsr-0\colno2\colw7466\pard\li1466\ri0\sl-373\slmult0 \*\tx2746\fs24\cf0\f1\chars
calex100 {\uc1\u61542X \uc1\u61501X \uc1\u61485X}{ }\fs30\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {
tan}\fs24\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61485X}\fs24\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {1}\tab
\fs44\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {f}\par\pard\li2533\ri0\sl-293\slmult0 \*\tx3026\fs26
\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61671X}\tab \fs26\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61687
X}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-400\slmult0 \fs54\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u6161
4X}{ }\fs8\cf0\f1\charscalex74 {\uc1\u61480X \uc1\u61481X}\fs36\cf0\f3\charscale
x100 {5}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn1
33\pard\li2866\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs44\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {f}\par\pard\li2533
\ri0\sl-293\slmult0 \*\tx2920\fs26\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61672X}\tab \fs24
\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {1}{ }\fs26\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61688X}\par\pard\l
i1440\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {The magnitude and phase cha
racteristics from equation (4) and (5) are shown in figure (b,}\par\pard\li720\r
i0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {c). It can be seen that}\par\pard
\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\cols2\colno1\c
olw1800\colsr-0\colno2\colw9960\pard\li1080\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\par
d\li1080\ri0\sl-440\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {(i)}\par\pard\li1080\ri0
\sl-320\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {(ii)}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213
\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-440\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {F
or frequency f << f}\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {b}{ }\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100
{the magnitude of the gain is 20 log A}\fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {OL}{ }\fs30\c
f0\f0\charscalex100 {in dB.}\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charsc
alex100 {At frequency f = f}\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {b}{ }\fs28\cf0\f0\charsc
alex100 {the gain is 3 dB down from the dc value of A}\fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100
{OL}{ }\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {in dB. This frequency}\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl320\slmult0 \fs48\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {f}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1}{ }\fs28
\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {is called corner frequency.}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\
pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\pard\li1080\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \*\
tx1800\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {(iii)}\tab \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {For f>>
f}\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {b}{ }\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {the gain rolls \u
c1\u8211X off at the rate of \uc1\u8211X 20 dB / decade or \uc1\u8211X 6 dB/octa
ve.}\par\pard\li1080\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1080\ri0\sl-440\slm
ult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {It can further be seen from the phase character
istics that the phase angle is zero at frequency f =}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\
slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {0. At corner frequency f}\fs26\cf0\f0\chars
calex100 {1}{ }\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {the phase angle is \uc1\u8211X 45}\fs
26\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61616X}{ }\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {(lagging) a
nd at infinite frequency the phase}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\
f0\charscalex100 {angle is \uc1\u8211X 90}\fs24\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u6161
6X}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {. This shows that a maximum of 90}\fs24\cf0\f1\c
harscalex100 {\uc1\u61616X}{ }\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {phase change can occur
in an op \uc1\u8211X amp with a}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0
\charscalex100 {single capacitor. It may be mentioned here, that zero frequency
does not occur in log scale. From}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0
\f0\charscalex100 {all practical purposes, zero frequency is taken as one
decade below the corner frequency and}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs
26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {infinite frequency is one decade above the corner frequ
ency. The voltage transfer function in s \uc1\u8211X}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333

\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {domain can be written as}\par\pard\sect\sec
olsr-0\colno2\colw173\colsr-0\colno3\colw573\colsr-0\colno4\colw8800\pard\li1480
ard\li1480\ri0\sl-373\slmult0 \fs34\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {A}{ }\fs32\cf0\f1\char
scalex100 {\uc1\u61501X}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pa
rd\li0\ri0\sl-426\slmult0 \fs34\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {A}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0
\ri0\sl-253\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {OL}\par\column\pard\li533\ri0\sl
100 {A}\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-480\slmult0 \*\tx333\fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1
\u61501X}\tab \fs30\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61483X \uc1\u61559X\uc1\u61487X\
uc1\u61559X}{\super \fs18\up10\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {OL}}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sb
knone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\cols5\colno1\colw1706\colsr0\colno2\colw1440\colsr-0\colno3\colw893\colsr-0\colno4\colw93\colsr-0\colno5\co
lw7626\pard\li1480\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1480\ri0\sl-333\slmul
t0 \fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61501X}\par\column\pard\li613\ri0\sl-400\sl
mult0 \fs256\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {1 j f / f}\fs8\cf0\f1\charscalex73 {\uc1\u614
80X}{\sub \fs444\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {1}}\fs8\cf0\f1\charscalex73 {\uc1\u61481X
}\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-440\slmult0 \*\tx746\fs40\cf0\f3\charscalex100\ul {A .}\ul
0 {\sub \fs18\cf0\f3\charscalex100\ul {OL}\ul0 }\fs36\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1
\u61559X}\fs18\cf0\f1\charscalex100\ul {\uc1\u61489X}\ul0 \tab \fs30\cf0\f1\char
scalex100 {\uc1\u61501X}{\super \fs40\up4\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {A .}}\par\column
\pard\li0\ri0\sl-400\slmult0 \fs48\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {1 j}\fs8\cf0\f1\charsca
lex73 {\uc1\u61480X}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-173\slmult0 \fs20\cf0\f1\charsca
lex100 {\uc1\u61489X}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-400\slmult0 \fs8\cf0\f1\charsca
lex73 {\uc1\u61481X}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsx
n0\margrsxn133\cols2\colno1\colw2706\colsr-0\colno2\colw9053\pard\li1706\ri0\sl320\slmult0 \fs48\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {j}\fs26\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u6155
9X \uc1\u61483X \uc1\u61559X}\par\pard\li2293\ri0\sl-173\slmult0 \fs20\cf0\f1\ch
arscalex100 {\uc1\u61489X}\par\column\pard\li133\ri0\sl-186\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\f3
\charscalex100 {OL}{ }\fs256\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61559X}{\sub \fs24\cf0\
f3\charscalex100 {1}}\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs36\cf0\f3\charscalex100
{s}{ }\fs26\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61483X \uc1\u61559X}\par\pard\li493\ri0
\sl-173\slmult0 \fs20\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61489X}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sb
knone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\pard\sect\sectd\sbkpage{\shp
{\*\shpinst
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\fs18\cf0\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-400\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {b) aper
loop Magnitude Characteristics}\b0 \par\pard\li226\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0

ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li226\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs24\cf0\f0\char
scalex100\b {Phase characteristics for ar op-amp}\b0 \par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknon
e\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \
fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-440\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {A practi
cal op \uc1\u8211X amp, however, has number of stages and each stage produces a
capacitive}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {compon
ent. Thus due to a number of RC pole pairs, there will be a number of different
break}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {frequencie
s. The transfer function of an op \uc1\u8211X amp with three break frequencies
can be assumed as.}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\r
s18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-453\slmult0 \*\tx6960\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b
{6. (a) For the non \uc1\u8211X inverting amplifier of figure (b), R}\b0 \fs22\c
f0\f0\charscalex100\b {1}\b0 \tab \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {= 1 K}\b0 \fs40\
cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61527X}{ }\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {and R}\b0 \f
s34\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {f}\b0 { }\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {= 10 K}\b0 \f
s40\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61527X}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {. Calculat
e the}\b0 \par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \*\tx5546\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100
\b {maximum output offset voltage due to V}\b0 \fs16\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {OS}
\b0 \tab \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {and I}\b0 \fs20\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {B
}\b0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {. The op \uc1\u8211X amp is LM 307 with V}\b
0 \fs16\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {OS}\b0 { }\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {= 10 mV}
\b0 \par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {and I}\b0 \
fs22\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {B}\b0 { }\fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {= 300 nA, I}
\b0 \fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {OS}\b0 { }\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {= 50 n
A.}\b0 \par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {(b) Calc
ulate the value of R}\b0 \fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {comp=}\b0 { }\fs26\cf0\f0
\charscalex100\b {needed to reduce the effect of I}\b0 \fs22\cf0\f0\charscalex10
0\b {B}\b0 \fs54\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {.}\b0 \par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult
0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {(c) Calculate the maximum output offset voltage
if R}\b0 \fs16\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {comp}\b0 { }\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b
{as calculated in (b) is connected in the}\b0 \par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0
\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {circuit.}\b0 \par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \
fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-440\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {Solutio
n:}\b0 \par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn13
3\pard\sect\sectd\sbkpage

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i0\sl-186\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\f3\charscalex99 {OT}\par\column\pard\li746\ri0\sl-34
6\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f1\charscalex99 {\uc1\u61687X}{ }\fs34\cf0\f3\charscalex99 {
V}\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-493\slmult0 \*\tx440\*\tx746\fs26\cf0\f1\charscalex99 {\u
c1\u61671X}\fs26\cf0\f1\charscalex99 {\uc1\u61672X}\tab \fs34\cf0\f3\charscalex9
9 {R}\tab \fs26\cf0\f1\charscalex99 {\uc1\u61687X}\fs26\cf0\f1\charscalex99 {\uc
1\u61688X}{\super \fs18\up6\cf0\f3\charscalex99 {OS}}\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-493\sl
mult0 \*\tx440\fs26\cf0\f1\charscalex99 {\uc1\u61671X}\fs26\cf0\f1\charscalex99
{\uc1\u61672X}\tab \fs34\cf0\f3\charscalex99 {R}\fs34\cf0\f3\charscalex99 {R}{\s
ub \fs24\cf0\f3\charscalex99 {1}}\fs26\cf0\f1\charscalex99 {\uc1\u61687X}\fs26\c
f0\f1\charscalex99 {\uc1\u61688X}\fs26\cf0\f1\charscalex99 {\uc1\u61688X}\par\pa
rd\li0\ri0\sl-293\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f1\charscalex99 {\uc1\u61672X}\par\column\pa
rd\li0\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f3\charscalex99 {R I}\par\pard\li186\ri0\sl186\slmult0 \fs16\cf0\f3\charscalex99 {t OS}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn1
1893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\pard\li1480\ri0\sl-346\slmult0 \fs32\cf0\
f1\charscalex99 {\uc1\u61501X}{ }\fs30\cf0\f3\charscalex99 {110mV 0.5mV 110.5mV}
\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {It can be seen from this example that it is the inp
ut offset voltage which is more responsible}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \
fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {for producing an output offset voltage compared to in
put bias current I}\fs22\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {B}{ }\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {
or the input offset current}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs44\cf0\f0\char
scalex100 {I}\fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {OS}\fs54\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {.}\par\p
ard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\pard\sect\s
ectd\sbkpage

7;32768}}
r\column\pard\li1160\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1160\ri0\sl-213\slm
\fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1160\ri0\sl-546\slmult0 \fs34\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b \ul {U
NIT \uc1\u8211X III}\b0 \ul0 \par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-573\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\chars
calex100\ul {APPLICATIONS OF OPAMP}\ul0 \par\pard\li1200\ri0\sl-560\slmult0 \fs3
2\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b \ul {PART \uc1\u8211X A}\b0 \ul0 \par\pard\sect\sectd\s
bknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\pard\li720\ri0\sl-506\slmul
t0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {1. Name the important features of an Instrument
ation amplifier?}\b0 \par\pard\li1266\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li12
66\ri0\sl-440\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1. High gain Accuracy}\par\par
d\li1266\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {2. High CMRR}\par\pard\l
i1266\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {3. High gain stability}\par
\pard\li1266\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {4. Low dc offset}\pa
r\pard\li1266\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {5. Low O/P impedanc
e}\par\pard\li1266\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {6. Low power l
oss}\par\pard\li1266\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {7. High outp
ut Impedance}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720
rscalex100\b {2. List the applications of Instrumentation Amplifier?}\b0 \par\pa
rd\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\cols2\colno1
\colw2880\colsr-0\colno2\colw8880\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pa
rd\li720\ri0\sl-426\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {(a) Temperature}\par\col
umn\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-426\slmult0 \fs30\
cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Indicator}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn1
6826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex
100 {(b) Temperature controller}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\
charscalex100 {(c) water flow meter}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf
0\f0\charscalex100 {(d) Thermal conductivity meter}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\sl
mult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {(e) Analog weight scale.}\par\pard\li720\ri0\s
x100\b {3. What is meant by comparator?}\b0 \par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-213\slmult0
\fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-440\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {It is a
circuit which compares a signal voltage on one input of an op-amp with a known}
\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {voltage called th
e reference voltage on the other input.}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18
\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-426\slmult0 \fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {4. The basi

c step of a9 \uc1\u8211Xbit DAC is 10.3mV. If 000000000 represented by oV, what
is produced if}\b0 \par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100
\b {file I/P produced if the I/P is 101101110?}\b0 \par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\sl
mult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-346\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Th
e I/P voltage is =10.3MV (1X28+0x2}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {7}{ }\fs26\cf0\f0
\charscalex100 {+ 1X2}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {6}{ }\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex10
0 {+1X2}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {5}{ }\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {+0X2}\fs26\
cf0\f0\charscalex100 {4}{ }\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {+1X2}\fs26\cf0\f0\charsca
lex100 {3}{ }\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {+1X2}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {2}{ }\
fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {+1X2}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1}\fs26\cf0\f0\chars
calex100 {+X2}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {0}\fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {) = 3.7
6V.}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-360\slmul
t0 \fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {5. Calculate the value of LSB, MSB and full sca
le output for an a bit DAC for the 0 to 15 range?}\b0 \par\pard\sect\sectd\sbkno
ne\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\pard\sect\sectd\sbkpage



7;32768}}
f0\par\pard\li1480\ri0\sl-186\slmult0 \*\tx2080\fs32\cf0\f0\charscalex81 {1}\tab
\fs32\cf0\f0\charscalex81 {1}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\
6\slmult0 \fs32\cf0\f0\charscalex81 {1}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\
pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\cols8\colno1\colw1426\colsr-0\colno2\colw386\c
olsr-0\colno3\colw213\colsr-0\colno4\colw386\colsr-0\colno5\colw200\colsr-0\coln
o6\colw333\colsr-0\colno7\colw493\colsr-0\colno8\colw8320\pard\li760\ri0\sl-240\
slmult0 \fs20\cf0\f0\charscalex81\i {L S B}\i0 { }\fs26\cf0\f1\charscalex81 {\uc
1\u61501X}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-280\slmult0 \fs32\cf0\f0\charscalex81 {2}{
\super \fs22\up3\cf0\f0\charscalex81\i {n}\i0 }\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-240\s
lmult0 \fs26\cf0\f1\charscalex81 {\uc1\u61501X}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-280\s
lmult0 \fs32\cf0\f0\charscalex81 {2}{\super \fs22\up3\cf0\f0\charscalex81\i {a}\
i0 }\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-240\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f1\charscalex81 {\uc1\u615
01X}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-280\slmult0 \fs22\cf0\f0\charscalex81 {5 2}\par\
column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs
20\cf0\f0\charscalex81 {1 5 V}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\
par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-440\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f1\charscalex81 {\uc1\u61501X}\par\par
d\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\cols2\colno1\
colw3866\colsr-0\colno2\colw7893\pard\li800\ri0\sl-173\slmult0 \fs22\cf0\f0\char
scalex81\i {fo r}\i0 { }\fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex81 { 1 5 V ra n g e L S B = }
\par\pard\li2973\ri0\sl-173\slmult0 \fs20\cf0\f0\charscalex81 {5 1 L}\par\pard\l
i760\ri0\sl-293\slmult0 \fs22\cf0\f0\charscalex81\i {M S B}\i0 { }\fs26\cf0\f1\c
harscalex81 {\uc1\u61501X}{\super \fs32\up4\cf0\f0\charscalex81 {1}}\fs24\cf0\f0
\charscalex81\i {fu ll}\i0 \fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex81 { s c a le}\par\pard\li1493
\ri0\sl-173\slmult0 \fs32\cf0\f0\charscalex81 {2}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-173
\slmult0 \fs20\cf0\f0\charscalex81 {2 9 .2}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11
\fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex81 {= }\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-253\slmult0 \fs32\cf
0\f0\charscalex81 {1}\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-266\slmult0 \fs32\cf0\f0\charscalex81
{2}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-373\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f1\charscalex81 {\uc1\u6162
0X}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-373\slmult0 \fs22\cf0\f0\charscalex81 {1 5}{ }\fs
256\cf0\f1\charscalex81 {\uc1\u61501X}{ }\fs22\cf0\f0\charscalex81 {7 .5}\par\pa
rd\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\pard\li720\r
i0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {& full scale output =(full scale v
oltage - 1LSB)}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\s
l-426\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {6. What is the resolution of a conve
rter?}\b0 \par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsx
n133\cols2\colno1\colw3226\colsr-0\colno2\colw8533\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0
\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Resolution (in volts) =}\par\column\pard\l
i106\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par{\trowd\trleft106\trkeep\trftsWidth1\trpadd
l0\trpaddr0\trpaddfl3\trpaddfr3 \clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrnone\clbrdrl\brdrnone\clb
rdrb\brdrnone\clbrdrr\brdrnone\cltxlrtb\clNoWrap\clftsWidth3\clwWidth4294965096\
clpadt0\clpadr0\clpadft3\clpadfr3\cellx1000 \pard\li0\ri0\sl-400\widctlpar\intbl
\fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100\i {V}\i0 \par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-240\widctlpar\intbl \f
s32\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61501X}\fs22\cf0\f0\charscalex100\i {fs}\i0 \fs2
4\cf0\f0\charscalex100\i {n}\i0 \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1}\cell\clvertalt\cl
brdrt\brdrnone\clbrdrl\brdrnone\clbrdrb\brdrnone\clbrdrr\brdrnone\cltxlrtb\clNoW
rap\clftsWidth3\clwWidth7000\clpadt0\clpadr0\clpadft3\clpadfr3\cellx11200 \pard\
li0\ri0\sl-613\widctlpar\intbl \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {LSB increment Resolut
ion of a converter is the smaller change in}\cell\row}\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmul
t0 \*\tx266\fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {2}\tab \fs256\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\
u61485X}\fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\p
ghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\char
scalex100 {voltage which may be produced the O/P of the converter.}\par\pard\li7
harscalex100\b {7. What is a Multivibrator?}\b0 \par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-213\slmu
lt0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-440\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Mul
tivibrator is a wave shaping circuit which gives symmetric or a symmetric output
. It}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {has two stat
e. They may be either stable or quasi stable depends the type of the Multivibrat
or}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-426\slmult
0 \fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {8.What is Schmitt Trigger?}\b0 \par\pard\li1440\
rscalex100 {Schmitt Trigger is a regenerative comparator. It converts sinusoidal
input into square wave}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscal
ex100 {output. The output of Schmitt trigger swings between upper thresho
ld voltage and lower}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex1
00 {threshold voltage, the reference voltages of the input waveform.}\par\pard\l
\charscalex100\b {9.How many resistors are required in a 12-bit weighed resistor
DAC?}\b0 \par\pard\li1000\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1000\ri0\sl-3
60\slmult0 \fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {For 12 bit DAC the resistor required are
2}\fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {0}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {R, 2}\fs24\cf0\f0\ch
arscalex100 {1}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {R, 2}\fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {2}\f
s34\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {R\uc1\u8230X.2}\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {n}\fs24\cf0
\f0\charscalex100 {R. The largest resistor is 2048 times the}\par\pard\li720\ri0
\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {smallest one for only 12bit DAC}\par
\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {13 resistors are requ
ired.}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {12Connectec
d with switches}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1
is connected Br feedback resistor.}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0
\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-426\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {10. Mention the
Barkhauses criterion for oscillation?}\b0 \par\pard\li1080\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \
fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1080\ri0\sl-453\slmult0 \*\tx3826\fs60\cf0\f2\charscalex100
{\uc1\u61668X}{ }\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Magnitude condition}\tab \fs30\cf0\
f3\charscalex97 {A}{\sub \fs24\cf0\f3\charscalex97 {v}}\fs26\cf0\f1\charscalex97
{\uc1\u61538X \uc1\u61501X}{ }\fs30\cf0\f3\charscalex97 {1}\par\pard\li1080\ri0
\sl-386\slmult0 \fs60\cf0\f2\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61668X}{ }\fs28\cf0\f0\charsca
lex100 {Phase condition}{ }\fs128\cf0\f1\charscalex99 {\uc1\u61648X}\fs30\cf0\f3
\charscalex99 {A}{\sub \fs24\cf0\f3\charscalex99 {v}}\fs128\cf0\f1\charscalex99
{\uc1\u61538X}{ }\fs128\cf0\f1\charscalex99 {\uc1\u61501X}{ }\fs30\cf0\f3\charsc
alex99 {1}\par\pard\li1080\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {When A
}\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {v}{ }\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {=Amplifier gain}\p
ar\pard\li1720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f1\charscalex102 {\uc1\u61538X}{ }\f
s28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {= feed back gain}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11
893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\pard\sect\sectd\sbkpage{\shp
{\*\shpinst
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}}}}
7;32768}}

sl-546\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b \ul {PART \uc1\u8211X B}\b0 \ul0 \pa
harscalex100\b {1. Discuss about clipper & clamper circuits?}\b0 \par\pard\li720
rscalex100\b {CLIPPER}\b0 \par\pard\li1000\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard
\li1000\ri0\sl-440\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {A precision diode may als
o be used to clip-off a certain portion of the input signal to obtain, a}\par\pa
rd\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {desired output waveform.
}\par\pard\li1000\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1000\ri0\sl-440\slmult
0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Fig (a) Shows a positive clipper. The clipping lev
el is determined by the reference voltage V}\fs22\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {ref}\par
\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {and could be obtained
from the positive supply voltage V+. the input and output waveform are}\par\par
d\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {shown in fig. (b). It can
be seen that the portion of the output voltage for u0> V}\fs22\cf0\f0\charscale
x100 {ref}{ }\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {are clipped of}\par\pard\li4546\ri0\sl213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li4546\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li45
46\ri0\sl-360\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {(a) Positive clipper circuit
}\b0 \par\pard\li1000\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1000\ri0\sl-440\sl
mult0 \*\tx3346\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {For input voltage u}\fs26\cf0\f0\ch
arscalex100 {1}\tab \fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {< V}\fs22\cf0\f0\charscalex100
{ref}\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {, diode D conducts. The op-amp works as a v
oltage follower and}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex1
00 {output u0 follows input u1 till u1}\fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61603X}
\fs34\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {V}\fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {ref.}{ }\fs30\cf0\f0\c
harscalex100 {When u}\fs38\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {i}{ }\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100
{is greater than V ref, the output u0A of the op-amp}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320
\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {is large enough of drive D into cut-off. Th
e op-amp operates in the open-loop and output voltage}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333
\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {u0 =V}\fs22\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {ref}\fs28
\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {. However, if V}\fs22\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {ref}{ }\fs30
\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {is made negative, then the entire output waveform above
V}\fs22\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {ref}{ }\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {will get}\par\p
ard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {clipped off as shown in
figure.}\par\pard\li1000\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1000\ri0\sl-44
0\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {The positive clipper of fig. (a) can b

e easily converted into a negative clipper by simply}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl320\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {reversing diode D and changing the polar
ity of the reference voltage V}\fs22\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {ref}{ }\fs30\cf0\f0\c
harscalex100 {as shown in fig (a). The}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs30\
cf0\f0\charscalex100 {negative clipper clips off the negative parts of the input
signal below the reference voltage. The}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs2
8\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {circuit diagram of a negative clipper and the expected w
aveform for negative V}\fs22\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {ref}{ }\fs30\cf0\f0\charscale
x100 {and positive V}\fs22\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {ref}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\
slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {are shown in fig (b and c).}\par\pard\sect\s
ectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\pard\sect\sectd\sbkpa
ge{\shp
{\*\shpinst
\jpegblip
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\fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {CLAMPER:-}\b0 \par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmu
lt0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\
slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li0\ri0
s18\cf0\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-413\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {(b)}\par\par
d\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\pard\li1000\r
scalex100 {The clamper is also known as ac inserter or restorer. The circuit is
used to add a desired de level}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\c
harscalex100 {to the output voltage. In other words, the output is clamped to a
desired dc level. If the clamped}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0
\charscalex100 {de level is positive, it is called positive clamper. Similarly i
f the clamped dc level is negative, the}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28
\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {clamper is called negative clamper.}\par\pard\li1000\ri0\
lex100 {Fig (a) shows a clamper with a variable positive dc voltage applied at t
he (+) input terminal.}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscale
x100 {This circuit clamps the peaks of the input waveform and therefore is also
called a peak clamper.}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscale
x100 {The output voltage in the circuit is the net result of ac and dc input vol
tages applied to the (-) and}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\cha
rscalex100 {(+) input terminals respectively. Let us first see the effect of V}\
fs20\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {ref}{ }\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {the voltage u\uc1\
u8217X is also positive, so}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\char
scalex100 {that the diode D is forward biased. The circuit operates as a voltage
follower and therefore output}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\c
harscalex100 {voltage u0 = +V}\fs22\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {ref}\fs54\cf0\f0\chars
calex100 {.}\par\pard\li1000\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1000\ri0\sl
-440\slmult0 \*\tx5613\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Now consider the ac input sign
al u}\fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {i}{ }\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {= V}\fs22\cf0\
f0\charscalex100 {m}\tab \fs32\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {sin}{ }\fs36\cf0\f1\charsca
lex100 {\uc1\u61559X}\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {t applied at the (-) input term
inal. During the}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \*\tx7600\fs28\cf0\f0\charsc
alex100 {negative half cycle of u}\fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {i}\fs26\cf0\f0\c
harscalex100 {, does D conducts. The capacitor C}\fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100
{1}\tab \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {charges through diode D to the}\par\pard
\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \*\tx6013\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {negative peak vol
tage V}\fs22\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {m}\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {. since this vo
ltage V}\fs22\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {m}\tab \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {is in se
ries with the ac input signal, the output}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0
\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {voltage now will be u}\fs38\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {i}
{ }\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {+ V}\fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {m}\fs28\cf0\f0\ch
arscalex100 {. The total output voltage is}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11

{\*\shpinst
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-466\slmult0 \fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {(a) Peak clamper circuit}\b0 \par\par
d\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\pard\li720\ri
alex100 {V}\fs22\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {ref}{ }\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {+u}\fs
38\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {i}{ }\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {+Vm. the input and out
put waveforms are shown in fig(b). it is possible to obtain negative}\par\pard\l
i720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {peak clamping by reversin

g the diode D and using a negative reference voltage \uc1\u8211X V}\fs20\cf0\
f0\charscalex100 {ref}\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {. The}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-3
20\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {expected waveform are shown in fig. (c).}
fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {2. Discuss the following generators?}\b0 \par\pard\
\f0\charscalex100\b {a) Triangular Wave Generator b) Sine Wave Generator.}\b0 \p
fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {A triangular wave can be simply obtained by integrati
ng a square wave a shown in fig. (a). It is}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \
fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {obvious that the frequency of the square wave and tri
angular wave is the same as shown in fig}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs
28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {(a). It is obvious that the frequency of the square wav
e and triangular wave is the same as shown}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \*
\tx8946\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {in fig (b). Although the amplitude of the squ
are wave is constant at}{ }\fs30\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61617X}{ }\fs32\cf0
\f0\charscalex100 {V}\fs14\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {sat\uc1\u8217X}\tab \fs28\cf0\f
0\charscalex100 {the amplitude of the}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs26\c
f0\f0\charscalex100 {triangular wave will decrease as the frequency increas
es. This is because the reactance of the}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsx
n11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\pard\sect\sectd\sbkpage{\shp
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i0\sl-493\slmult0 \*\tx2133\*\tx9840\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {capacitor C}\fs
26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {2}\tab \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {in the feedback ci
rcuit decreases at high frequencies. A resistance R}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex
100 {4}\tab \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {is connected}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320
\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {across C}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {2}{ }\
fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {to avoid the saturation problem at low frequencies as
in the case of practical integrator.}\par\pard\li2893\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\

lt0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {(a) Triangular waveform generator (b) output w
aveform}\b0 \par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl
x100 {Another triangular wave generator using lesser number of components is sho
wn in fig(a). It}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {
basically consists of a two level comparator followed by an integrator.
The output of the}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \*\tx2413\*\tx6506\fs26\c
f0\f0\charscalex100 {comparator A}\fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1}\tab \fs28\cf0\
f0\charscalex100 {is a square wave of amplitude}{ }\fs30\cf0\f1\charscalex100
{\uc1\u61617X}\fs32\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {V}\fs20\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {sat}\tab
\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {and is applied to (-) input terminal of the}\
par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \*\tx2266\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {integrato
r A}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {2}\tab \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {producing a
triangular wave. This triangular wave is fed back as input to the}\par\
pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {comparator A1 through
a voltage divider R}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {2}\fs34\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {R}
\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {3}\fs54\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {.}\par\pard\li1440\ri0
\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-440\slmult0 \*\tx7986\fs26\cf0\
f0\charscalex100 {Initially, let us consider that the output of comparator
A}\fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1}\tab \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {is at}{ }\fs
30\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61617X}\fs32\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {V}\fs20\cf0\f0
\charscalex100 {sat}\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {. The output of the}\par\pard\
li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \*\tx2240\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {integrator A}\fs2
6\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {2}\tab \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {will be a negative
going ramp as shown in fig (b). Thus one end of the voltage}\par\pard\
li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {divider R}\fs26\cf0\f0\char
scalex100 {2}\fs34\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {R}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {3}{ }\fs2
8\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {is at a voltage + V}\fs22\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {sat}\f
s30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {. and the other at the negative going ramp of A}\fs26\
cf0\f0\charscalex100 {2}\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {. At a time t = t}\fs26\cf0\
f0\charscalex100 {1}\fs54\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {,}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slm
ult0 \*\tx6826\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {when the negative going ramp attains a
value of -V}\fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {ramp}\tab \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {t
he effective voltage at point P becomes}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28
\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {slightly less than OV.}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbkpage

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7;32768}}

\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0
\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-493\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {(a) Triangular wa
veform generator (b) waveforms}\b0 \par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghs
xn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\
li1440\ri0\sl-440\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {This switches the output o
f A}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1}{ }\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {from positive s
aturation to negative saturation level - V}\fs22\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {sat}\fs54
\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {.}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \*\tx5320\*\tx6533\*
\tx8493\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {During the time when the output of A}\fs2
6\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1}\tab \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {is at \uc1\u8211XV}\
fs16\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {sat\uc1\u8217X}\tab \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {the o
utput of A}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {2}\tab \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {incr
eases in the positive}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscal
ex100 {direction. And at the instant t = t}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {2}\fs28\c
f0\f0\charscalex100 {, the voltage at point P becomes just above thereby switchi
ng the}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {output of
A}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1}{ }\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {from - V}\fs22\cf
0\f0\charscalex100 {sat}{ }\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {to +V}\fs22\cf0\f0\charsc
alex100 {sat}\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {. The cycle repeats and generates a tri
angular waveform. It can be}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\char
scalex100 {seen that the frequency of the square wave and triangular wave will b
e the same. However, the}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charsca
lex100 {amplitude of the triangular wave depends upon the RC value of the integr
ator A2 and the output}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscale
x100 {voltage level of A1 the output voltage of A}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1}
{ }\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {can be set to desired level by using appropriate
zener}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {diodes. The
frequency of the triangular waveform can be calculated as follows.}\par\pard\li
720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {The effective voltage at poin
t P during the time when output of A}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1}{ }\fs28\cf0\
f0\charscalex100 {is at +V}\fs22\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {sat}{ }\fs30\cf0\f0\chars
calex100 {level given by,}\par\pard\li1746\ri0\sl-280\slmult0 \fs36\cf0\f0\chars
calex100\i {R}\i0 \par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0
\margrsxn133\pard\li1746\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100\i {R}\i0
\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\cols6
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\fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61485X}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-266\slmult0
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0 \fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61485X}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-293\slmul
t0 \fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61483X}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmu
lt0 \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100\i {R}\i0 \par\pard\li133\ri0\sl-120\slmult0 \fs26
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0\ri0\sl-253\slmult0 \fs44\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {[}{ }\fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100
\i {V}\i0 {\sub \fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100\i {sat}\i0 }\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\
sl-253\slmult0 \fs44\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {(}{ }\fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100\i {V}
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0 {)]}}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn13
3\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-453\slmult0 \fs2
8\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {At t = t}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1}\fs28\cf0\f0\char
scalex100 {, the voltage at point p becomes equal to zero. Therefore from eq.}\p
30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {-V}\fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {ramp}{ }\fs28\cf0\f0\cha
rscalex100 {= -R}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {2}{ }\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {/
R}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {3}{ }\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {(+V}\fs22\cf0\f0\
charscalex100 {sat}\fs44\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {)}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmu
lt0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-426\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Simi
larly, at t = t}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {2}\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {, when
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0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Switches from -V}\fs22\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {sat}{
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00A12B5006D259797ABCF7FBC7EF6DE18766DFBBE5B48DBBFF00227FE3B56E8A2800A28A280206B2
B692E649E48833BAC618B7CDFEAD99A3FF00BE5999AA7A28A0028A28A00C5B5D43C3D757567159EA
1A6C97102B2DBC76B70BB9576FCCAAAADF776AFDDFBBF2AFF76B61618D66699635F319555A4DBF33
2AEEDABFF8F37FDF55E69E1CF0E5D45E10D1AE2DB4B50EB791DEDCA1F2FCEBA556DD1B472336D5DA
ACBF2FCBBBE6FBBBBE6F40D2355B5D6F4AB7D46CD99ADE75DCBB976B2FF0B2FF00DF54012B69F66C
D74CD676ECD72BB6E1BCB5FDF2EDDBB5BFBDF2D677FC22FA447756B7565690585C5B4BBD64B5B78E
366F959595BE5FBACAD5B3450051D4B48B0D55635BCB5595A16DD0C9F7648DB72B6E565F997EEAFD
DAAB6DE1CB2B649CB4D792CF70DBA7B96B864965F9976EE64DBD36ED5DBF75777F79B76C51401977
7A159DE6BBA7EB2FB96F2C96458D976FEF15976ED6FF0077E6DBFEF54DA6E956BA635EB5B2B2FDAE
E9AEA4566DDFBC655DDB7FEF9DD57A8A00F27B03E22B1D7359BBB4B3BB4D25F53BA6B8B8B0B7864B
99BE6DAAAAB27DE556FEEAFF00149F8751A76B42FB54B8B3D37C571CF32FCA6D753B0DB2A32EEDDB
76F93FF025DADB76D6AF84AEA1BED0BED501DF0CF7975246DB76EE56B89196A6D73C3F65E20B78A3
BA3247340FBE0BAB76DB344DFECB5004696BAFCCBB6EB55B48572DF359DA32C9B777CBB5A4665FEE
EEF95BF8BFDEA9068B23B62EB57D4EE63FEEF9AB07CDFEF42B1B7FE3DB6A3D2A1D72C962B4BC6B4B
B8220AAB76B2491CCC8ABFC51B2B6E6DDFC5E656CD006643E1FD2E39525368279D5B724B72CD3BA7
FBB249B996B4E8A2800A28A2800A28A2803D0F4DFF00905DA7FD714FFD0455AAABA6FF00C82ED3FE
B8A7FE822AD50014514500145145001451450014514500145145001451450079951451401CE78AFC
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DBFBCBFDDFBAB51FF65E9FFD9FFD9FF61B5FB0FF00CFBF92BE5FDEDDF77EEFDEF9A8039CB9B7F08C
BA9437DA8EADA75DAFD9BC9B78AF26B791766EFBCACDF337CCADF33337DE6ADAFF00846F46539834
F8ED1BFE7A596EB691BFD9DD1ED6DBFECD5F8ED6DE1B89AE23B78E39AE36F9D22AED6936FDDDCDFC
54DBCD3ECF518561BDB3B7B98D5B72C7346B22EEFEF7CD401852C971E17BDB7926BF927D0EE24F2E
4376DBA4B466DCCADE66DF9A3FE1FDE7DDF97E6AE96B2BFE116F0F7FD00B4BFF00C038FF00F89AC6
8FC35A0F87D0C72E8B04FA7B3197ED93450C9F66CB7DD6DCBBBCBFBBF37CDFC5BB6AAD0075D45657
FC22DE1EFF00A01697FF008071FF00F1354F52D2FC21A359B5CEA1A66916B0AFF1496B1FCDFC5B57
E5F99BE5FBB401D0D15CE7877428ED2F6EF536D2D74C925668E1B38E4F9638FE5F99957E5591BCB5
DDB7F8557F8B76EE8E80286B9ABC1A0E9171A9DDC6F24506DDCB10CB7CCCABFF00B35715E04F18FD
B2DEF45D596A4636BC9A586486CDA68E3591B7797BA35DDBB73337DDAF44A86DAD6DEC6DD6DED2DE
38215FBB1C2BB557FE034019FF00F09158FF00CFBEA9FF0082BBAFFE3747FC24563FF3EFAA7FE0AE
EBFF008DD6B5140193FF0009158FFCFBEA9FF82BBAFF00E3754DFC77E1D8AE63827BF781E46DAAB3
DACC9FC5B7F897E5F99597FE02D5D1514018D178B7C3D2C2920D774D5575DCBBAE955BFEF96FBB52
7FC253E1EFFA0EE97FF8191FFF00155AB4500657FC253E1EFF00A0EE97FF008191FF00F1547FC253
E1EFFA0EE97FF8191FFF00155AB595FF0008B787BFE805A5FF00E01C7FFC4D00731E06B7D375DF06
C314F3C92CAD07D9EEADD75094ED5DDB57F77E67CBB957FD9FE2FE1AED6CACADB4DB28ACACE21141
12E11076AA3FF08B787BFE805A5FFE01C7FF00C4D1FF0008B787BFE805A5FF00E01C7FFC4D006AD1
595FF08B787BFE805A5FFE01C7FF00C4D509FE1F7856E64DD2691186F9B849244FE266FE16FF006B
FF0065A00E928AC6B3F0CE99616C6DAD16EE0802EDF2E3BF9D557E6DDF2FEF3E5F9BFBB533E8566E
B1AB4DA97C8BB576EA370BFC5BBE6FDE7CDF7A8034EB275BF12E91E1D16E754BBF204FBBCBFDDB36
EDBB777DD5FF006968FF008476C7FE7E354FFC1A5D7FF1CACAD67C03A6EB3B567D4B575857E6F27E
DCD247BBFBDFBCDDF37CD4010FC2E9FCDF025947E4C91F94F247BA418593F78CDB97FBCBF36DFF00
795ABB1A82C6CADB4EB55B5B38960B75662B1AFDD5DCDB9BFF001E6A9E800A28A2800A28A2800A28
A2800A28A2803D0F4DFF00905DA7FD714FFD0455AAABA6FF00C82ED3FEB8A7FE822AD50014514500
145145001451450014514500145145001451450079951451400514514005145140051451401CCEB7
F0F744F104AD3496D25BCFBB73CB6A5519FEF7DEFE13D7EF6DDD5674DF09E95A7D95844BE7DC4762
59EDDAE2666453B99B7797F773F337CDB775145006ED145140051451400514514005145140051451
40051451400514514005145140051451400514514005145140051451400514514005145140051451
401E87A6FF00C82ED3FEB8A7FE822AD5145001451450014514500145145001451450014514500145
145007FFD9}
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450014514500145145001451450014514500145145001451450014514500664BE1DD0AE269269746
20BB4FFAE29FFA08AB5400514514005145140051451400514514005145140051451401E654514500
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59EDDAE2666453B99B7797F773F337CDB775145006ED145140051451400514514005145140051451
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7;32768}}

i0\sl-493\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {=R}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {2}{
}\fs32\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {/R}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {3}{ }\fs30\cf0\f0\c
harscalex100 {(-V}\fs22\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {sat}\fs44\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {)}
fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Therefore, peak to peak amplitude of the triangular w
ave is}\par\pard\li2040\ri0\sl-453\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u616
82X}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\p
ard\li2040\ri0\sl-440\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61682X}\par\pard
\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\pard\li2040\ri
0\sl-440\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61682X}\par\pard\li1706\ri0\s
l-213\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100\i {RC V dt}\i0 \par\pard\sect\sectd\sbk
0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100\i {RC V dt}\i0 \par\pard\li746\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \
fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {( 0}{ }\fs256\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61501X \uc1
\u61485X}\fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1/}{ }\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100\i {RC V dt
}\i0 \fs44\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {)}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghs
xn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\cols3\colno1\colw2280\colsr-0\colno2\colw146\colsr
-0\colno3\colw9333\pard\li2106\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li2106\ri0\
sl-253\slmult0 \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-120\slm
ult0 \fs34\cf0\f0\charscalex100\i {i}\i0 \par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-320\slmult0
\fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100\i {T}\i0 { }\fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {/ 2}\par\par
d\li80\ri0\sl-440\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61682X}\par\pard\sec
t\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\pard\li2506\ri0\sl
-440\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61682X}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbkno
olno2\colw280\colsr-0\colno3\colw8973\pard\li1586\ri0\sl-293\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f
1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61501X \uc1\u61485X}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-440\slmul
t0 \fs26\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61682X}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-293\slmu
lt0 \fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61485X}\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-293\slmult0 \f
s32\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61485X}\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-293\slmult0 \fs32\cf
0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61485X}\fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100\i {V}\i0 \par\pard\s
ect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\cols3\colno1\col
w2093\colsr-0\colno2\colw600\colsr-0\colno3\colw9066\pard\li733\ri0\sl-213\slmul
t0 \fs34\cf0\f0\charscalex100\i {U}\i0 { }\fs32\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {0(}\fs256\
cf0\f0\charscalex100\i {PP}\i0 \fs44\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {)}\par\pard\li760\ri0
\sl-293\slmult0 \fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61501X}{ }\fs36\cf0\f0\charsca
lex100\i {V}\i0 \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100\i {V}\i0 \par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl120\slmult0 \*\tx426\fs256\cf0\f0\charscalex100\i {R C}\i0 {\sub \fs26\cf0\f0\ch
arscalex100 {1}}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1}\tab \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {0
}\par\column\pard\li213\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100\i {V}\i0 \
par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-253\slmult0 \fs44\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {(}{ }\fs36\cf0\f0\ch
arscalex100\i {V}\i0 {\sub \fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100\i {sat}\i0 }\fs44\cf0\f0\c
harscalex100 {)}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\m
pard\li920\ri0\sl-253\slmult0 \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100\i {V}\i0 {\sub \fs18\cf
0\f0\charscalex100\i {sat}\i0 }\fs50\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {/}\par\column\pard\li
0\ri0\sl-120\slmult0 \fs256\cf0\f0\charscalex100\i {R C}\i0 {\sub \fs26\cf0\f0\c
harscalex100 {1}}\fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1( / 2)}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl
-213\slmult0 \fs44\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {(}\fs256\cf0\f0\charscalex100\i {or}\i0
\fs44\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {)}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16
826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\pard\li1720\ri0\sl-360\slmult0 \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex
100\i {U PP}\i0 \par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\m
argrsxn133\pard\li1720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100\i {U PP}\i0
\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\pard
\li1720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100\i {U PP}\i0 \par\pard\li20
13\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \*\tx2400\fs44\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {(}\tab \fs44\cf0\f0\c

harscalex100 {)}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\m
pard\li746\ri0\sl-293\slmult0 \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100\i {T}\i0 { }\fs32\cf0\f
1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61501X}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-240\slmult0 \fs36\cf0\
f0\charscalex100 {2}\fs256\cf0\f0\charscalex100\i {R C}\i0 {\sub \fs26\cf0\f0\ch
arscalex100 {1}}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-120\sl
mult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {0}\par\pard\li26\ri0\sl-226\slmult0 \fs36\cf0\
f0\charscalex100\i {V}\i0 \par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\m
arglsxn0\margrsxn133\pard\li1933\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100\i
{V}\i0 \par\pard\li1933\ri0\sl-240\slmult0 \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100\i {V}\i0
{\sub \fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100\i {sat}\i0 }\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0
\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Putting the value of U}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {0
}{ }\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {(PP) from Eq. 5.21, we get}\par\pard\li1160\ri0\
lex100 {4}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsx
n133\cols3\colno1\colw960\colsr-0\colno2\colw453\colsr-0\colno3\colw10346\pard\l
i746\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100\i {T}\i0 \par\column\pard\li0
\ri0\sl-293\slmult0 \fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61501X}\par\column\pard\li
0\ri0\sl-120\slmult0 \*\tx426\fs256\cf0\f0\charscalex100\i {R C R}\i0 {\sub \fs2
6\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1}}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1}\tab \fs26\cf0\f0\chars
calex100 {2}\par\pard\li26\ri0\sl-226\slmult0 \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100\i {R}\i
d\li1440\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100\i {R}\i0 \par\pard\li1440
\ri0\sl-253\slmult0 \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100\i {R}\i0 {\sub \fs26\cf0\f0\chars
calex100 {3}}\par\pard\li1386\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100 { th
e frequency of oscillation f is,}\par\pard\li760\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f
0\charscalex100\i {Hence}\i0 \fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100 { the frequency of oscil
lation f is,}\fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100 { the frequency of oscillation f is,}\
colno1\colw2080\colsr-0\colno2\colw0\colsr-0\colno3\colw2120\colsr-0\colno4\colw
7560\pard\li2080\ri0\sl-373\slmult0 \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100\i {R}\i0 \par\col
umn\pard\li0\ri0\sl-373\slmult0 \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100\i {R}\i0 \par\column\
pard\li0\ri0\sl-373\slmult0 \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100\i {R}\i0 \par\column\pard
\li0\ri0\sl-120\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {0}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbkno
ne\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\cols5\colno1\colw760\colsr-0\co
lno2\colw613\colsr-0\colno3\colw226\colsr-0\colno4\colw613\colsr-0\colno5\colw95
46\pard\li760\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs48\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {f}\par\column\pard\
li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs48\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {f}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl
-213\slmult0 \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100\i {T}\i0 \par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-293
\slmult0 \fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61501X}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-12
0\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {3}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893
\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\pard\li746\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs48\cf0\f0\ch
arscalex100 {f}{ }\fs256\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61501X}{ }\fs36\cf0\f0\char
scalex100 {1/}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\mar
grsxn133\cols2\colno1\colw1800\colsr-0\colno2\colw9960\pard\li840\ri0\sl-120\slm
ult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {0}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-253\slmult0 \*\tx
680\fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {4}\fs256\cf0\f0\charscalex100\i {R C R}\i0 {\sub
\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1}}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1}\tab \fs26\cf0\f0\c
harscalex100 {2}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\m
argrsxn133\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-453\slm
ult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {Sine Wave Generators:}\b0 \par\pard\li1000\ri
calex100 {As oscillator is basically a feedback circuit where a fraction uf of t
he output voltage V}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {0}{ }\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100
{of an}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {amplifier
is fed back to the input in the same phase. The block diagram of an oscillator i
s shown in}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {figure
a}\par\pard\li1000\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1000\ri0\sl-213\slmu

rscalex100 {For sustained oscillation, AvB =1. That is, magnitude condition
|AvB| =1. and the phase}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charsca
lex100 {condition, AvB =0}\fs26\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61616X}{ }\fs28\cf0\
f0\charscalex100 {or 360}\fs26\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61616X}{ }\fs28\cf0\f
0\charscalex100 {must be simultaneously satisfied in the circuit.}\par\pard\li72
arscalex100 {There are different types of sine-wave oscillators available accord
ing to the range of frequency,}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\c
harscalex100 {namely RC oscillators for audio frequency and LC oscillators for r
adio frequency range. Here we}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\ch
arscalex100 {will discuss only two types of audio frequency RC oscillators.}\par
\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\pard\sect
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7;32768}}

i0\sl-493\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {3. Explain the square wave gener
ator.}\b0 \par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {(or)}
\b0 \par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {Explain the
Astable multivibrator.}\b0 \par\pard\li1000\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pa
rd\li1000\ri0\sl-440\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {A simple if-amp square
wave generator is shown in figure.}\par\pard\li3693\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0
\fs18\cf0\par\pard\li3693\ri0\sl-386\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {Simp
le OP-Amp Square Wave generators}\b0 \par\pard\li1000\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\c
f0\par\pard\li1000\ri0\sl-426\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {A square wave
generator is also called free running oscillator. The principle of generation of
}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {square wave outp
ut is to force an op-amp to operate in the saturation region. In fig fraction}{
}\fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61538X}\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {= R}\fs26\
ex100 {/(R}\fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {+R}\fs24\cf
0\f0\charscalex100 {2}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {) of the output is feedback to
the (+) input terminal. Thus the reference voltage V}\fs20\cf0\f0\charscalex100
{ref}{ }\fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {is}{ }\fs30\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u615
38X}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {V0.}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs26\cf0
\f0\charscalex100 {the output is also fed back to the (-) input terminal. Whenev
er input at the (-) input terminal just}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs28
\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {exceeds V}\fs22\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {ref}\fs28\cf0\f0\ch
arscalex100 {, switching takes place resulting in a square wave output.}\par\par
f0\f0\charscalex100 {Consider an instant of time when the output is at +
V}\fs20\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {sat}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {. The capacitor n
ow starts charging}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex1
00 {towards input terminal becomes just greater than this reference this voltage
, the output terminal}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex
100 {becomes just greater than this reference voltage, the output terminal becom
es just greater than this}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charsc
alex100 {reference voltage, the output is driven to -V}\fs20\cf0\f0\charscale
x100 {sat}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {. At this resistant the voltage in the
capacitor is}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {+}
\fs30\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61538X}\fs32\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {V}\fs20\cf0

\f0\charscalex100 {sat}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {. It begins to discharge t
hrough R, that is charged towards \uc1\u8211X capacitor charges more and}\
par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {more negatively un
til its voltage just exceeds -}\fs30\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61538X}\fs32\cf
0\f0\charscalex100 {V}\fs20\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {sat}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100
{. The output switches back to +V}\fs20\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {sat}\fs28\cf0\f0\
charscalex100 {. The cycle}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\chars
calex100 {repeats itself as shown in fig below}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbkpage
{\*\shpinst
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28A0028A28A0028A28A0028A28A00FFFD9}
}}}}
7;32768}}
\li1000\ri0\sl-493\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {The frequency is determin
ed by the time it takes the capacitor to charge from -}\fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex10
0 {\uc1\u61538X}\fs34\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {V}\fs22\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {sat}{

}\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {to +}\fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61538X}\fs34
\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {V}\fs22\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {sat}{ }\fs32\cf0\f0\charsca
lex100 {and}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {vice
versa. The voltage across the capacitor as a function of time is give by}\par\pa
rd\li2160\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs34\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {V}\fs30\cf0\f0\charscal
ex100 {c}\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {(t) = V}\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {f}{ }\f
s30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {+ (v}\fs38\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {i}{ }\fs36\cf0\f0\cha
rscalex100 {\uc1\u8211X v}\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {f}\fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex1
00 {)e}\fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {-t/ec}{ }\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {--------------------(1)}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0
\sl-440\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Where, the final value}\par\pard\li2
\charscalex100 {V}\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {f}{ }\fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {=
+ V}\fs22\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {sat}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf
0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-440\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {And the initial
value}\par\pard\li2160\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li2160\ri0\sl-440\s
lmult0 \fs34\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {V}\fs38\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {i}{ }\fs26\cf0\
f0\charscalex100 {= ----------------}{ }\fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61538X
}\fs34\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {V}\fs22\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {sat}\par\pard\li720\r
i0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Therefore,}\par\pard\li2160\ri0\sl
x100 {V}\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {c}\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {(t) = V}\fs22\
cf0\f0\charscalex100 {sar}{ }\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {+ (}\fs32\cf0\f1\charsc
alex100 {\uc1\u61538X}\fs34\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {V}\fs22\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {
sat}{ }\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {\uc1\u8211X V}\fs22\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {sat
}\fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {)e}\fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {-t/RC}\par\pard\li21
charscalex100 {V}\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {c}\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {(t) =
V}\fs22\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {sat}{ }\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {\uc1\u8211X V}
\fs22\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {sat}{ }\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {(1+}\fs32\cf0\f1\
charscalex100 {\uc1\u61538X}\fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {)e}\fs18\cf0\f0\charscal
ex100 {-t/RC}{ }\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {-------------- (2)}\par\pard\li720\r
i0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {At t = T}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex10
0 {1}\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-440\sl
mult0 \fs34\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {V}\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {c}\fs26\cf0\f0\c
harscalex100 {(T1) =}{ }\fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61538X}\fs34\cf0\f0\ch
arscalex100 {V}\fs22\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {sat}{ }\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {=
V}\fs22\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {sat}{ }\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {\uc1\u8211X V}\
fs22\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {sat}{ }\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {(1 +}{ }\fs32\cf0\
f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61538X}\fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {)e}\fs16\cf0\f0\chars
calex100 {-T1/RC}{ }\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {--------- (3)}\par\pard\li720\ri
alex100 {After algebraic manipulation, we get}\par\pard\li4120\ri0\sl-213\slmult
0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li4120\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex101 {\uc1\
u61538X}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn1
33\cols4\colno1\colw2906\colsr-0\colno2\colw960\colsr-0\colno3\colw1173\colsr-0\
colno4\colw6720\pard\li2906\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex101\i {T}\
i0 \par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex101\i {T}\i0 \
par\column\pard\li253\ri0\sl-226\slmult0 \fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex101 {\uc1\u61538
X}\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-293\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex101 {1+}\fs32\cf0\f1\c
harscalex101 {\uc1\u61538X}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\
charscalex100 {----------------- (4)}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pg
hsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\cols2\colno1\colw4093\colsr-0\colno2\colw7666\pa
rd\li2906\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex101\i {T}\i0 { }\fs256\cf0\f
1\charscalex101 {\uc1\u61501X}{ }\fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex101\i {R}\i0 \fs28\cf0\f
0\charscalex101 {, In}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-293\slmult0 \fs32\cf0\f1\char
scalex101 {\uc1\u61538X}\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-293\slmult0 \fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex
101 {\uc1\u61538X}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0
\margrsxn133\cols2\colno1\colw3893\colsr-0\colno2\colw7866\pard\li3000\ri0\sl-12
0\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex101 {1}\par\column\pard\li200\ri0\sl-293\slmult

0 \fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex101 {\uc1\u61538X}\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs3
2\cf0\f0\charscalex101 {1-}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\
marglsxn0\margrsxn133\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0
\sl-466\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {and the output wave form is symmetri
cal}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-440\slmul
t0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {5. Explain about weightier resistor DAC and R-2
R ladder DAC win required diagram ?}\b0 \par\pard\li1080\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs2
6\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {weightier resistor DAC:}\b0 \par\pard\sect\sectd\sbkno
ne\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\pard\sect\sectd\sbkpage

7;32768}}
\li1000\ri0\sl-493\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {One of the simplest circu
its showed in Figure uses a summing amplifier with a binary weighted}\par\pard\l
i720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {resistor network. It has n-e
lectronic switches d}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1}\fs34\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {,
d}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {2}{ }\fs42\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {\uc1\u8230X.. d}
\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {n}{ }\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {controlled by binar
y input to a particular}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs24\cf0\f0\charscal
ex100 {switch is 1, it connects the resistance to the reference voltage (V
}\fs22\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {R}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {). and if the input
bit is 0, the}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {
switch connects the resistor to the ground. From figure the output current 10 fo
r an ideal co-amp}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100
{can be written as}\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1440
\ri0\sl-440\slmult0 \fs44\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {I}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {0}
{ }\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {= I}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1}{ }\fs30\cf0\f0
\charscalex100 {+ I}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {2}{ }\fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100
{+ \uc1\u8230X\uc1\u8230X.. + I}\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {n}\par\pard\sect\sec
olsr-0\colno2\colw333\colsr-0\colno3\colw133\colsr-0\colno4\colw1560\colsr-0\col
\ri0\sl-293\slmult0 \fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex99 {\uc1\u61501X}\par\column\pard\li0
\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-386\slmult0 \fs36\cf0\f0\chars
calex99\i {V}\i0 \par\pard\li146\ri0\sl-120\slmult0 \fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex99\i
{R}\i0 \par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213
\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex99\i {
d}\i0 \par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\
slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-373\slmult0 \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex99 {1}\
fs256\cf0\f1\charscalex99 {\uc1\u61483X}{\super \fs256\up5\cf0\f0\charscalex99\i
{V}\i0 }\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex99 {2}{\super \fs444\up5\cf0\f0\charscalex99\i \
ul {R}\i0 \ul0 }\fs256\cf0\f0\charscalex99\i {d}\i0 { }\fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex99
{2 .....}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex99
{\uc1\u61483X}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li0\ri0
\sl-386\slmult0 \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex99\i {V}\i0 \par\pard\li146\ri0\sl-120\sl
mult0 \fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex99\i {R}\i0 \par\pard\li66\ri0\sl-120\slmult0 \fs24
\cf0\f0\charscalex99\i {n}\i0 \par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\
cf0\f0\charscalex99 {2}\fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex99\i {n}\i0 \par\pard\sect\sectd\s
bknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\cols3\colno1\colw2480\colsr
-0\colno2\colw1426\colsr-0\colno3\colw7853\pard\li1680\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs36\
cf0\f0\charscalex99 {2}\fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex99\i {R}\i0 \par\column\pard\li0\r
i0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex99 {2}{ }\fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex99\i {R
}\i0 \par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex99 {2}{ }\fs
36\cf0\f0\charscalex99\i {R}\i0 \par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn1
6826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1
440\ri0\sl-440\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {= V}\fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex10
0 {R}{ }\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {/ R (d}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1}\fs36\c
f0\f0\charscalex100 {2}\fs20\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {-1}{ }\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex
100 {+ d}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {2}\fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {2}\fs20\cf0\f
0\charscalex100 {-2}{ }\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {+ \uc1\u8230X.. + d}\fs30\cf0
\f0\charscalex100 {n}\fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {2}\fs22\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {n}\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-426\slmul
t0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {The output voltage}\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-213\sl
mult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-440\slmult0 \fs34\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {V
}\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {o}{ }\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {= I}\fs28\cf0\f0\c
harscalex100 {o}\fs34\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {R}\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {f}{ }\
fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {= V}\fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {R}\fs34\cf0\f0\charsc
alex100 {R}\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {f}\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {/R(d}\fs26\
cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1}\fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {2}\fs20\cf0\f0\charscalex100
{-1}{ }\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {+ d}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {2}\fs36\cf0\
f0\charscalex100 {2}\fs20\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {-1}\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {+
d}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {2}\fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {2}\fs20\cf0\f0\char
scalex100 {-2}{ }\fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {+ \uc1\u8230X.d}\fs30\cf0\f0\charsc
alex100 {n}\fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {2}\fs22\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {-n}\par\par
f0\f0\charscalex100 {Comparing equation (10.1) with equation (10.2) it can be se
en that if R}\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {f}{ }\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {= R th
at K = 1 and}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs34\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {V}\f
s18\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {FS}{ }\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {= V}\fs24\cf0\f0\cha
rscalex100 {R}\par\pard\li2160\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li2160\ri0\
sl-426\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {The circuit shown in figure uses
a negative reference voltage. The analog output}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmu
lt0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {voltage is therefore positive staircase shown fi
gure for a 3-bit weighted resistor DAC. It may be}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slm
ult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {noted that}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn1
{\*\shpinst
\jpegblip
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18\cf0\par\pard\li1693\ri0\sl-373\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {(a) A si
mple weighted resistor DAC (b) Transfer characteristics of a 3-bit DAC}\b0 \par\
pard\li1800\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {a) A simple weighted
resistor DAC}\par\pard\li1800\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {b)
Transfer characteristics of a 3-bit DAC}\par\pard\li1080\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs3
0\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {a. Although the co-amp in figure is connected in inverti
ng mode, it can also be connected in}\par\pard\li1080\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs30\c
f0\f0\charscalex100 {non inverting mode.}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs2
8\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {b. The op-amp is simply working as a current to voltage
converter.}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-33
3\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {c. The polarity of the reference voltag
e is chose in example. For TTL compatible switches, the}\par\pard\li720\ri0\s
l-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {reference voltage should be + 5v and t
he output, will be negative.}\par\pard\li1000\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\p
ard\li1000\ri0\sl-440\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {The accuracy and stabi
lity of a DAC depends upon the accuracy of the resistor and the tracking}\par\pa
rd\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {of each other with t
emperature. There are however a number of problems associated with this}\pa
r\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {type of DAC. One of
the disadvantage of binary weighted typed DAC is the observed that for}\pa
r\pard\sect\sectd\sbkpage

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i0\sl-493\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {better resolution, the input binar
y word length has to be increased.}\par\pard\li1000\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0
\par\pard\li1000\ri0\sl-360\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Thus, as the num
ber of bit increases, the rang of resistance value increases. For 8-bit DAC, the
}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {resistors requir
ed are 2}\fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {0}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {R, 2}\fs24\cf
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0 {2}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {R, 2}\fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {7}\fs26\cf0\f0
\charscalex100 {R, the largest resistor is 128 times the smallest one for only 8
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practical. Also the voltage drop across such a large resistor due}\par\pard\li72
0\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {to the bias current would also
affect the accuracy. The choice of smallest resistor value as 2.5 k}\fs42\cf0\f1
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i0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {reasonable; otherwise loading eff
ect will be there. The difficult of achieving and maintaining}\par\pard\li7
20\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {accurate ratios over such a wi
de range especially in monolithic form restricts the use of weighted}\par\pard\l
i720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {resistor DACs to bellow 8-bi
t.}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-386\slmult
0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {R-2R ladder DAC :}\b0 \par\pard\li1080\ri0\sl-21
0 {Wide range of resistors are required in binary weighted resistor type DA
C. They can be}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {
avoided by using R-2R ladder type DAC where only in two values of resistors are
required. It is}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {w

ell suited for integrated circuit realization. The typical values of R ranges fr
om 2.5 k}\fs42\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61527X}{ }\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100
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\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {For simplicity consider a 3-bit DAC as shown in fig
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harscalex100 {from of figure easily calculated by the set procedures of network
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{V}\i0 \par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-413
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7;32768}}
0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {R-2R ladder DAC (b) Equivalent ci

rcuit of (a), (c) Equivalent circuit of (b)}\b0 \par\pard\li1800\ri0\sl-213\slmu
lt0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1800\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {(a)
R \uc1\u8211X 2R ladder DAC.}\par\pard\li1800\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\c
harscalex100 {(b) Equivalent circuit of (a) (c) Equivalent}\par\pard\li1293\ri0\
lex100 {The output voltage}\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\par
d\li1440\ri0\sl-426\slmult0 \fs34\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {V}\fs28\cf0\f0\charscale
x100 {o}{ }\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {= -2R/R(-V}\fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {R}
\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {/16) = V}\fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {R}\fs28\cf0\f0\
charscalex100 {/2 = V}\fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {FS}{ }\fs32\cf0\f0\charscalex1
00 {/ 8}\par\pard\li2880\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li2880\ri0\sl-440
\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {The switch position corresponding to th
e binary word 001 in 3 bit DAC in}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs26\cf
0\f0\charscalex100 {figure the voltage at the nodes (A, B, C) formed by resistor
branches easily calculated in a similar}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs2
8\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {fashion and the output voltages becomes.}\par\pard\li288
harscalex100 {V}\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {o}{ }\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {= 2R/R(-V}\fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {R}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {/16) = V}\fs24
\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {R}\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {/2 = V}\fs18\cf0\f0\charsca
lex100 {FS}{ }\fs32\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {/ 8}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbkpage{\shp
{\*\shpinst
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18\cf0\par\pard\li2306\ri0\sl-466\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {(a) R-2R
ladder DAC for switch positions 001 (b) Equivalent circuit}\b0 \par\pard\li1080
arscalex100 {In a similar fashion, the output voltage for R-2R ladder type DAC c
orresponding to other 3-bit}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\char
scalex100 {binary words can be calculated.}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \f
s18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-440\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {Explain
the following Flash type, successive Approximation and dual slope ADC:}\b0 \par\
pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {6. converter ADC\uc1
\u8217Xs ?}\b0 \par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {
Flash type:}\b0 \par\pard\li1573\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {
The parallel comparator (Flash) A/D converter:}\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-213\slmul
t0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-346\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {This
is the simplest possible A/D converter. It is at the same time, the fa
stest and most}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {e
xpensive technique. Figure shows a 3-bit A/D converter.}\par\pard\li3520\ri0\sl213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li3520\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li35
0\sl-346\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {(a) Basic circuit of a flash type
A/D converter}\b0 \par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex10
0 {The circuit consists of a resistive divider network, 8 op-amp comparator and
its truth table}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {i
s shown in figure. A small amount of hysteresis is built into the com
parator to resolve any}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charsca
lex100 {problems that might if both inputs were of equal voltage as shown in the
truth table.}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbkpage
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4B385AE249D56F679D7CB9A7B8B787CC78F6AAF96DB55772FCB50DEE88DA8E91358DDDE3CCE5BCCB
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}}}}
7;32768}}

\li720\ri0\sl-400\slmult0 \*\tx2626\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {Voltage input}\
b0 \tab \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {Logic output X}\b0 \par\pard\sect\sectd\sb
knone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\cols2\colno1\colw2626\colsr0\colno2\colw9133\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs34\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {V}\f
s30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {a}{ }\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {> V}\fs30\cf0\f0\char
scalex100 {d}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs32\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {V}\f
scalex100 {d}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs32\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {V}\f
scalex100 {d}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100
{X = 1}\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {X= 0}\par\pa
rd\li0\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Previous value}\par\pard\s
ect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\cols2\colno1\col
w7586\colsr-0\colno2\colw4173\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\l
r\pard\li720\ri0\sl-346\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Voltage input Logic
output}\par\pard\li2453\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs32\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {X}\par\p
ard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \*\tx2453\fs34\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {V}\fs30\cf0\f0
\charscalex100 {a}{ }\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {> V}\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100
{d}\tab \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {X = 1}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \*\
tx2453\fs34\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {V}\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {a}{ }\fs28\cf0\f
0\charscalex100 {> V}\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {d}\tab \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex1
00 {X= 0}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \*\tx2453\fs34\cf0\f0\charscalex100
{V}\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {a}{ }\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {> V}\fs30\cf0\f0
\charscalex100 {d}\tab \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Previous value}\par\pard\li72
arscalex100\b \ul {Comparator and its Truth Table}\b0 \ul0 \par\column\pard\li0\
li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-426\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f3\ch
arscalex100 {Fig.}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0
\margrsxn133\cols2\colno1\colw2893\colsr-0\colno2\colw8866\pard\li946\ri0\sl-213
{Input Voltage}\par\pard\li1560\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs34\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {V
}\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {a}\par\pard\li1200\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\
charscalex100 {0 to VR/4}\par\pard\li986\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charsca
lex100 {VR/8 to VR/4}\par\pard\li906\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex1
00 {VR/4 to 3 VR/8}\par\pard\li906\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100
{3 VR/8 to VR/2}\par\pard\li906\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {
VR/8 to 5 VR/8}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li0\ri
0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-400\slmult0 \*\tx506\*\tx1000\*\t
x1506\*\tx2000\*\tx2506\*\tx3000\*\tx3506\*\tx4013\*\tx4506\*\tx5013\fs32\cf0\f0
\charscalex100 {X}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {7}\tab \fs32\cf0\f0\charscalex100
{X}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {6}\tab \fs32\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {X}\fs26\cf0\f0
\charscalex100 {5}\tab \fs32\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {X}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100
{4}\tab \fs32\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {X}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {3}\tab \fs32\c
f0\f0\charscalex100 {X}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {2}\tab \fs32\cf0\f0\charscale
x100 {X}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1}\tab \fs32\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {X}\fs26\c

f0\f0\charscalex100 {0}\tab \fs32\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Y}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscale
x100 {2}\tab \fs32\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Y}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1}\tab \f
s32\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Y}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {0}\par\pard\li53\ri0\sl493\slmult0 \*\tx560\*\tx1053\*\tx1560\*\tx2066\*\tx2560\*\tx3053\*\tx3560\*\tx4
066\*\tx4560\*\tx5066\fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {0}\tab \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex1
00\ul {0}\ul0 \tab \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100\ul {0}\ul0 \tab \fs36\cf0\f0\chars
calex100\ul {0}\ul0 \tab \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100\ul {0}\ul0 \tab \fs36\cf0\f0
\charscalex100\ul {0}\ul0 \tab \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100\ul {0}\ul0 \tab \fs36\
cf0\f0\charscalex100\ul {1}\ul0 \tab \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100\ul {0}\ul0 \tab
\fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100\ul {0}\ul0 \tab \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {0}\par\pa
rd\li53\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \*\tx560\*\tx1053\*\tx1560\*\tx2066\*\tx2560\*\tx3053
\*\tx3560\*\tx4066\*\tx4560\*\tx5066\fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {0}\tab \fs36\cf0
\f0\charscalex100\ul {0}\ul0 \tab \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100\ul {0}\ul0 \tab \fs
36\cf0\f0\charscalex100\ul {0}\ul0 \tab \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100\ul {0}\ul0 \t
ab \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100\ul {0}\ul0 \tab \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100\ul {1}\
ul0 \tab \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100\ul {1}\ul0 \tab \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100\u
l {0}\ul0 \tab \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100\ul {0}\ul0 \tab \fs36\cf0\f0\charscale
x100 {1}\par\pard\li53\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \*\tx560\*\tx1053\*\tx1560\*\tx2066\*\
tx2560\*\tx3053\*\tx3560\*\tx4066\*\tx4560\*\tx5066\fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {0
}\tab \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100\ul {0}\ul0 \tab \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100\ul {
0}\ul0 \tab \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100\ul {0}\ul0 \tab \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex10
0\ul {0}\ul0 \tab \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100\ul {1}\ul0 \tab \fs36\cf0\f0\charsc
alex100\ul {1}\ul0 \tab \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100\ul {1}\ul0 \tab \fs36\cf0\f0\
charscalex100\ul {0}\ul0 \tab \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100\ul {1}\ul0 \tab \fs36\c
f0\f0\charscalex100 {0}\par\pard\li53\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \*\tx560\*\tx1053\*\tx1
560\*\tx2066\*\tx2560\*\tx3053\*\tx3560\*\tx4066\*\tx4560\*\tx5066\fs36\cf0\f0\c
harscalex100 {0}\tab \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100\ul {0}\ul0 \tab \fs36\cf0\f0\cha
rscalex100\ul {0}\ul0 \tab \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100\ul {0}\ul0 \tab \fs36\cf0\
f0\charscalex100\ul {1}\ul0 \tab \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100\ul {1}\ul0 \tab \fs3
6\cf0\f0\charscalex100\ul {1}\ul0 \tab \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100\ul {1}\ul0 \ta
b \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100\ul {0}\ul0 \tab \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100\ul {1}\u
l0 \tab \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1}\par\pard\li53\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \*\tx560
\*\tx1053\*\tx1560\*\tx2066\*\tx2560\*\tx3053\*\tx3560\*\tx4066\*\tx4560\*\tx506
6\fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {0}\tab \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100\ul {0}\ul0 \tab \
fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100\ul {0}\ul0 \tab \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100\ul {1}\ul0
\tab \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100\ul {1}\ul0 \tab \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100\ul {1
}\ul0 \tab \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100\ul {1}\ul0 \tab \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100
\ul {1}\ul0 \tab \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100\ul {1}\ul0 \tab \fs36\cf0\f0\charsca
lex100\ul {0}\ul0 \tab \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {0}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknon
e\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\pard\li813\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \*
\tx2946\*\tx3453\*\tx3946\*\tx4453\*\tx4960\*\tx5453\*\tx5946\*\tx6453\*\tx6960\
*\tx7453\*\tx7960\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {5 VR/8 to 3 VR/4}\tab \fs36\cf0\f0\
f0\f0\charscalex100\ul {1}\ul0 \tab \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100\ul {1}\ul0 \tab \
fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100\ul {1}\ul0 \tab \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100\ul {1}\ul0
\tab \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100\ul {1}\ul0 \tab \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100\ul {1
}\ul0 \tab \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100\ul {1}\ul0 \tab \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100
\ul {0}\ul0 \tab \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1}\par\pard\li840\ri0\sl-333\slmult
0 \*\tx2946\*\tx3453\*\tx3946\*\tx4453\*\tx4960\*\tx5453\*\tx5946\*\tx6453\*\tx6
960\*\tx7453\*\tx7960\fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {3 VR/4 to 7VR/8}\tab \fs34\cf0\
f0\charscalex100\ul {0}\ul0 \tab \fs34\cf0\f0\charscalex100\ul {1}\ul0 \tab \fs3
4\cf0\f0\charscalex100\ul {1}\ul0 \tab \fs34\cf0\f0\charscalex100\ul {1}\ul0 \ta
b \fs34\cf0\f0\charscalex100\ul {1}\ul0 \tab \fs34\cf0\f0\charscalex100\ul {1}\u
l0 \tab \fs34\cf0\f0\charscalex100\ul {1}\ul0 \tab \fs34\cf0\f0\charscalex100\ul
{1}\ul0 \tab \fs34\cf0\f0\charscalex100\ul {1}\ul0 \tab \fs34\cf0\f0\charscalex
100\ul {1}\ul0 \tab \fs34\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {0}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\p
2\colw8813\pard\li1026\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {7VR/8 to V
R}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \*\tx506\*\tx1000\*\tx1506\*\tx2013\*\
tx2506\*\tx3000\*\tx3506\*\tx4013\*\tx4506\*\tx5013\fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1
}\tab \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100\ul {1}\ul0 \tab \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100\ul {
1}\ul0 \tab \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100\ul {1}\ul0 \tab \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex10
0\ul {1}\ul0 \tab \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100\ul {1}\ul0 \tab \fs36\cf0\f0\charsc
alex100\ul {1}\ul0 \tab \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100\ul {1}\ul0 \tab \fs36\cf0\f0\
f0\f0\charscalex100 {1}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marg
lsxn0\margrsxn133\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1440\ri0\s
l-440\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Coming back to figure, at each nod
e of the resistive divider, a comparison voltage is}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333
\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {available. Since all the resistors are of e
qual value, the voltage levels available at the nodes are}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl
-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {equally divided between the reference v
oltage VR and the ground. The purpose of the circuit is to}\par\pard\li720\ri0\s
l-320\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {compare that analog input voltage V}\f
s28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {a}{ }\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {with each of the node
voltages. The truth table for the flash}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs3
0\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {type AD converter is shown in Figure. The circuit
has the advantage of high speed as the}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \f
s26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {conversion take place simultaneously rather that seque
ntially. Typical conversion time is 100 nos}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \
fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {or less. Conversion time is limited only by the
speed of the comparator and of the priority}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmul
t0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {encoder. By using an Advanced Micro Devices
AMD 686A Comparator and a T1147 priority}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \
fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {encoder, conversion delays of the order of 20 nos can
be obtained.}\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1440\ri0\
sl-426\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {The type of ADC has the disadvantag
e that the number of comparators required almost}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\
slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {doubles for each added bit. A2-bit ADC requi
red 3 comparators, 3 bit ADC needs 7, whereas 4bit}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\sl
mult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {requires 15 comparators. In general, the numbe
r of comparators required are 2}\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {n}{ }\fs28\cf0\f0\ch
arscalex100 {-1 when n is the}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\ch
arscalex100 {desired number of bits. Hence the number of comparators approximate
ly doubles for each added}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\m
arglsxn0\margrsxn133\pard\sect\sectd\sbkpage{\shp
{\*\shpinst
\jpegblip
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i0\sl-493\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {bit. Also the larger the value of
n, the more complex is the priority encoder.}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0
slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {Successive Approximation Converter:}\b0 \p
fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {The successive approximation technique uses a very
efficient code search strategy to}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs26\c
f0\f0\charscalex100 {complete n-bit conversion in just n-clock periods. An eight
bit converter would require eight clock}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs2
8\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {pulses to obtain a digital output. Figure shows an eight
bit converter.}\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {
The circuit uses a successive approximation register (SAR) to find the req
uired value of}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {e
ach bit by trial and error. The circuit operates as follows. With the
arrival of the START}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs24\cf0\f0\charscale
x100 {command, the SAR sets the MSB=d1 = 1 with all other bits to zero so that t
he trial code is 10000000.}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\chars
calex100 {The output Vd of the DAC is now compared with analog input Va. If Va i
s greater than the DAC}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscale
x100 {output Vd then 10000000 is less than the correct digital representation. T
he MSB is left at \uc1\u8216X1\uc1\u8217X and}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0
\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {the next lower significant bit is made \uc1\u8216X1
\uc1\u8217X and further tested.}\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\pa
r\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-426\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {However, if Va is l
ess than the DAC output, then 10000000 is greater than the correct digital}\par\
pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {representation. So res
et MSB to \uc1\u8216X0\uc1\u8217X and go on to the next lower significant bit. T
his procedure is}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {
repeated for all subsequent bits, one at a time, until all bit positions have be
en tested. Whenever}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex10
0 {the DAC output crosses Va\uc1\u8217X the comparator changes state and th
is can be taken as the end of}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f
0\charscalex100 {conversion (EOC) command.}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbkpage
7;32768}}
7;32768}}

7;32768}}
7;32768}}
7;32768}}

7;32768}}
7;32768}}
7;32768}}

7;32768}}
7;32768}}
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0\f0\charscalex100\b {A tracking A/D converter (b) Wave forms associated with a
tracking A/D converter}\b0 \par\pard\li2800\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\par
800\ri0\sl-413\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {Functional diagram of the s
uccessive approximation ADC}\b0 \par\pard\li1000\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\pa
r\pard\li1000\ri0\sl-426\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Figure shows a typi
cal conversion sequence and Figure shows the associated waveforms. It can}\par\p
ard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {be seen that the D/A
output voltage becomes successively closer to the actual input voltage. I
t}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {requires eight
pulses to establish the accurate output regardless of the value of the analog in
put.}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {However, one
additional clock pulse is used to load the output register and reinitialize the
circuit.}\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-4
40\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Successive approximation conversion seque
nce for a typical analog I/P}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn1682
6\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\cols3\colno1\colw4746\colsr-0\colno2\colw2960\colsr-0\co
lno3\colw4053\pard\li2960\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li2960\ri0\sl-41
3\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Correct digital}\par\pard\li2960\ri0\sl-29
3\slmult0 \fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {representation}\par\pard\li3226\ri0\sl-453
\slmult0 \fs22\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {11010100}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\sl
mult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-413\slmult0 \fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Succ
essive approximation}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-293\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex1
00 {register o/p}\par\pard\li826\ri0\sl-306\slmult0 \fs22\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {
10000000}\par\pard\li826\ri0\sl-306\slmult0 \fs22\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {11000000
}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-413\slmul
t0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Comparator}\par\pard\li266\ri0\sl-293\slmult0 \fs
28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {output}\par\pard\li533\ri0\sl-306\slmult0 \fs36\cf0\f0\
charscalex100 {1}\par\pard\li533\ri0\sl-306\slmult0 \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {
1}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\par
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margtsxn66\margbsxn386\cols3\colno1\colw5573\colsr-0\colno2\colw2666\colsr-0\col
no3\colw3520\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs24\cf1\f0\charscalex100\b \i \ul {{\
field{\*\fldinst{HYPERLINK "www.vidyarthiplus.com"}}{\fldrslt {www.vidyarthiplus
.com}}}}\b0 \i0 \ul0 \par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\
18\cf0\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-480\slmult0 \fs22\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {11100000}\par
\pard\li0\ri0\sl-293\slmult0 \fs22\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {11010000}\par\pard\li0\
ri0\sl-293\slmult0 \fs22\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {11011000}\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-293
\slmult0 \fs22\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {11010100}\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-306\slmult0 \
fs22\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {11010110}\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-293\slmult0 \fs22\cf0\f
0\charscalex100 {11010101}\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-293\slmult0 \fs22\cf0\f0\charscal
ex100 {11010100}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li0\r

r\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf
0\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-480\slmult0 \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {0}\par\pard\li0\ri
0\sl-293\slmult0 \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1}\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-293\slmult0
\fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {0}\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-293\slmult0 \fs36\cf0\f0\char
scalex100 {1}\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-306\slmult0 \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {0}\par
\pard\li0\ri0\sl-293\slmult0 \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {0}\par\pard\sect\sectd\
sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-213\slm
ult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-453\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {A
comparison of the speed of an eight bit tracking ADC and an eight bit
successive}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {appr
oximation ADC is made in Figure C. Given the same clock frequency, we see that t
he tracking}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {circu
it is faster only for small changes in the input. In general, the succes
sive approximation}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100
{technique is more versatile and superior to all other circuits discussed so fa
r.}\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-426\slmu
lt0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Successive approximation ADCs are available as s
elf contained ICs. The AD 7592 (Analog}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs24\
cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Devices Co) a 28-pin dual in line CMOS package is a
12-bit A/D converter using successive}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \f
s28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {approximation technique.}\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-213\s
lmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-426\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {
Integrating Type of ADCs:}\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard
\li1440\ri0\sl-440\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {The integrating type of
ADCs does not require a S/H circuit at the input. If the input}\par\pard
\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {changes during conversion,
input averaged over the integration period.}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0
\fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-426\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {Charge
Balancing ADC:}\b0 \par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li144
0\ri0\sl-440\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {The principle of charge balanci
ng ADC is to first, convert the input signal to a frequency}\par\pard\li720\ri0\
sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {using a voltage to frequency (V/F) co
nverter. This frequency is then measured by the counter and}\par\pard\li720\ri0\
sl-333\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {converted to an output code propo
rtional to the analog input. The main advantage of these}\par\pard\li720\ri0
\sl-320\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {converters is that it is possib
le to transmit frequency even in noisy environment or in isolated}\par
\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {form. However, the li
mitation of the circuit is that one output of V/F converter depends upon an}\par
\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {RC product whose valu
e cannot be easily maintained with temperature and time. The draw back}\par\pard
\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {of the charge balancing AD
C is eliminated by the dual slope conversion.}\par\pard\li786\ri0\sl-213\slmult0
\fs18\cf0\par\pard\li786\ri0\sl-426\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {Dual
slope ADC:}\b0 \par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1440\ri0
\sl-440\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Figure shows the functional diagram
of the dual-slope or dual-ramp converter. The analog}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\
slmult0 \*\tx10560\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {part of the circuit consists o
f a high input impedance buffer A}\fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1}\fs26\cf0\f0
\charscalex100 {, precision integrator A}\fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {2}\tab \f
s30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {and a}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\
charscalex100 {voltage comparator. The converter first integrates the analog inp
ut signal Va for a fixed duration}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs24\cf0\f
0\charscalex100 {of 2n clock periods as shown in figure. Then it integr
ates an internal reference voltage VR of}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0
\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {opposite polarity until the integrator output is zer
o is proportional to the value of Va averaged}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0
\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {over the integration period. Hence N represents the
desired output code. The circuit operates as}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0

\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {follows:}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\p
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7;32768}}

lmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Before the START command arrives, the switch
SW1 is connected to ground and SW2 us}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs26\c
f0\f0\charscalex100 {closed. Any offset voltage present in the A1, A2, comparato
r loop after integration, appears across}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs2
8\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {the capacitor AZ till the threshold of the comparator is
achieved. The capacitor CAZ thus provides}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \f
s26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {automatic compensation for the input-offset voltages o
f all the three amplifiers. Later, when S}\fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {w2}\par\pa
rd\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \*\tx1933\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {opens, C}\fs16\
cf0\f0\charscalex100 {AZ}\tab \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {acts as a memory to ho
ld the voltage required to keep the offset nulled. AT the arrival}\par\pard\li72
0\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {of the START command at t=t}\fs
26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1}\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {, the control logic opens
SW}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {2}{ }\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {and connects SW
}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {2}{ }\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {and connects SW}\f
s26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1}{ }\fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {to}\par\pard\li720\ri
0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Va and enables the counter starin
g from zero. The circuit uses an n-stage ripple counter and}\par\pard\li7
20\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {therefore for counter resets t
o zero after counting 2}\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {n}{ }\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex
100 {pulses. The analog voltage Va integrated for a}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\s
lmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {fixed number 2}\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {n}
{ }\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {counts of clock pulses after which the counter re
sets to zero. If the clock period is}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf
0\f0\charscalex100 {T, the integration takes place for a time T1 = 2}\fs30\cf0\f
0\charscalex100 {n}{ }\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {x T and the output is a ramp g
oing downwards as}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100
{shown in Figure.}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbkpage

7;32768}}
\li1440\ri0\sl-493\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {The counter resets itself
to zero at the end of the interval T}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1}{ }\fs30\cf0
\f0\charscalex100 {and the switch SW}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1}{ }\fs30\cf0\
f0\charscalex100 {is connected}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\c
harscalex100 {to the reference voltage (-V}\fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {R}\fs28\c
f0\f0\charscalex100 {). The output voltage V}\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {o}{ }\f
s28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {will now have a positive slope. As long as V}\fs28\cf0
\f0\charscalex100 {o}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex1
00 {is negative, the output of the comparator is positive and the control logic
allows the clock pulse to}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charsc
alex100 {be counted. However, when v0 becomes just zero at time t = t}\fs26\cf0\
f0\charscalex100 {3}\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {, the control logic issues and e
nd of}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {conversion
(EOC) command and no further clock pulses enter the counter. It can be shown tha
t}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {the reading of
the counter at t}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {3}{ }\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {is
proportional to the analog input voltage Va.}\par\pard\li2960\ri0\sl-213\slmult
0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li2960\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f3\charscalex101 {n}\pa
r\pard\li1466\ri0\sl-520\slmult0 \fs54\cf0\f3\charscalex101 {T t}{\sub \fs24\cf0
\f3\charscalex101 {1}}\fs46\cf0\f1\charscalex101 {\uc1\u61501X \uc1\u61485X \uc1
\u61501X}{\sub \fs24\cf0\f3\charscalex101 {2}}\fs256\cf0\f3\charscalex101 {t}{\s
ub \fs24\cf0\f3\charscalex101 {1}}\fs26\cf0\f3\charscalex101 {Clock rate}\par\pa
cf0\f0\charscalex100 {And}{ }\fs256\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {t}{\sub \fs24\cf0\f3\c
harscalex100 {3}}\fs48\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {t}{\sub \fs24\cf0\f3\charscalex100
{2}}\fs26\cf0\f3\charscalex100\ul {Digital count N}\ul0 \par\pard\sect\sectd\sbk
0 \*\tx3093\fs46\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61485X \uc1\u61501X}\tab \fs26\cf0\
f3\charscalex100 {Clcok rate}\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\ch
arscalex100 {For an integrator,}\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs36\cf0\f1
\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61508X}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {v0 = (-1/RC) V (}\fs36\
cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61508X}\fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {t)}\par\pard\li10
charscalex100 {The voltage v}\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {o}{ }\fs28\cf0\f0\chars
calex100 {will be equal to v}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1}{ }\fs30\cf0\f0\chars
calex100 {at the instant t}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {2}{ }\fs30\cf0\f0\charsca
lex100 {and can be written as}\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\
pard\li1440\ri0\sl-426\slmult0 \fs34\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {V}\fs26\cf0\f0\charsc
alex100 {1}{ }\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {= (-1/F) V}\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100
{a}{ }\fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {(t}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {2}{ }\fs42\cf0\

f0\charscalex100 {\uc1\u8211Xt}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1}\fs44\cf0\f0\charsc
alex100 {)}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-44
0\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {The voltage v}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {
1}{ }\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {is also given by}\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-213\sl
mult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-426\slmult0 \fs34\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {V
}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1}{ }\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {= (-1/RC)(-V}\fs24
\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {R}\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {) (t}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscale
x100 {2}{ }\fs42\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {\uc1\u8211Xt}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {
3}\fs44\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {)}\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\pa
r\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-440\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {So,}\par\pard\li144
0\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Va (t}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex10
0 {2}{ }\fs42\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {\uc1\u8211Xt}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1}\
fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {) = V}\fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {R}{ }\fs36\cf0\f0\c
harscalex100 {(t}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {3}{ }\fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {\u
c1\u8211X t}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {2}\fs44\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {)}\par\par
\f0\charscalex100 {Putting the values of (t}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {2}{ }\fs
36\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {\uc1\u8211X t}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1}\fs28\cf0\f
0\charscalex100 {) = 2n and (t}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {3}{ }\fs36\cf0\f0\cha
rscalex100 {\uc1\u8211X t}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {2}\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex1
00 {) = N, we get}\par\pard\li2160\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li2160\
ri0\sl-426\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Va (2}\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100
{n}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {) = (V}\fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {R}\fs30\cf0\f0
\charscalex100 {) N}\par\pard\li2160\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li216
0\ri0\sl-440\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Or, Va = (V}\fs24\cf0\f0\charsc
alex100 {R}\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {) (N/2}\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {n}\fs4
4\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {)}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\
ar\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {7. Explain about
Instrumentation Amplifier?}\b0 \par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\
pard\li720\ri0\sl-346\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {Instrumentation Ampl
ifier}\b0 \par\pard\li1000\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1000\ri0\sl-3
60\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {In a number of industrial and consumer ap
plications, one is required to measure and control}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\sl
mult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {physical quantities. Some typical examples
are measurement and control of temperature,}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult
0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {humidity, light intensity, water flow etc. These p
hysical quantities are usually measured with the}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pg
wsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\pard\sect\sectd\sbkpage{\shp
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i0\sl-493\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {help of transducers. The output of
transducer has to be amplified so that it can drive the indicator}\par\pard\li7
20\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {or display system. This fun
ction is performed by an instrumentation amplifier. The important}\par\pard
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fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {ii)}\par\pard\li1080\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs36\cf0\f0\
charscalex100 {iii)}\par\pard\li1080\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex1
00 {iv)}\par\pard\li1080\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {v)}\par\
column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {High gain accurac
y}\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {High CMRR}\par\pa
rd\li0\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {High gain stability with l
ow temperature coefficient}\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charsca
lex100 {Low dc offset}\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex10
0 {Low output impedance}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\mar
glsxn0\margrsxn133\pard\li1000\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1000\ri0\
sl-346\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {There are specially designed op-amps
such as}{ }\fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61549X}\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {
A725 to meet the above stated requirements of a}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmul
t0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {good instrumentation amplifier are also available
commercially such as AD521, AD524, AD624 by}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0
\fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Analog Devices, LH0036, LH0037 by National semico
nductor and INA104, 3626, 3629 by Burr-}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \f
s30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Brown.}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\pa
r\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Consider the basic
differential amplifier shown in fig (a). It can be easily seen that t
he output}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {voltage
V}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {0}{ }\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {is given by,}\pa
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0\ri0\sl-293\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61674X}\par\pard\li80\ri0
\sl-213\slmult0 \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100\i {V}\i0 \par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl213\slmult0 \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100\i {V}\i0 \par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-293\
slmult0 \fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61485X}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213
\slmult0 \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1}\par\column\pard\li173\ri0\sl-213\slmult0
\fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100\i {R}\i0 \par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-346\slmult0 \*\tx453\*
\tx720\fs26\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61671X}\tab \fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {
\uc1\u61483X}\tab \fs26\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61687X}\fs26\cf0\f1\charscal
{\uc1\u61671X}{\super \fs26\up6\cf0\f0\charscalex100\ul {1}\ul0 }\fs26\cf0\f1\ch
ex100 {\uc1\u61671X}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs36\cf0\f0\charsca
lex100\i {V}\i0 \par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100\i {V
}\i0 \par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-293\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u6
1690X}\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-293\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61690X}
\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-293\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61690X}\par\p
ard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\cols11\coln
o1\colw1946\colsr-0\colno2\colw280\colsr-0\colno3\colw520\colsr-0\colno4\colw133
\colsr-0\colno5\colw200\colsr-0\colno6\colw293\colsr-0\colno7\colw600\colsr-0\co
lno8\colw120\colsr-0\colno9\colw0\colsr-0\colno10\colw320\colsr-0\colno11\colw73
46\pard\li746\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100\i {or}\i0 \fs28\cf0\

f0\charscalex100 {,
V}\par\pard\li1400\ri0\sl-120\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charsc
alex100 {0}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100\i
{R}\i0 \par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100\i {R}\i0 \par
\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100\i {R}\i0 \par\pard\li120
\ri0\sl-120\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1}\par\column\pard\li80\ri0\sl-2
13\slmult0 \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100\i {V}\i0 \par\pard\li213\ri0\sl-120\slmult
0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {2}\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-293\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f1\ch
{\uc1\u61674X}\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-293\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\
u61674X}\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-293\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61674
X}\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-293\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61674X}\par
\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-253\slmult0 \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1}\par\column\pa
rd\li0\ri0\sl-293\slmult0 \fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61483X}\par\column\p
ard\li13\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100\i {R}\i0 \par\pard\li13\r
i0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100\i {R}\i0 \par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\s
lmult0 \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100\i {R}\i0 \par\pard\li146\ri0\sl-120\slmult0 \f
s26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {3}\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs36\cf0\f0\charsc
alex100\i {R}\i0 \par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100\i {
R}\i0 \par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-253\slmult0 \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100\i {R}\i0 {\sub
\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {4}}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-293\slmult0 \fs26\cf
0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61672X}\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-293\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f1\c
harscalex100 {\uc1\u61672X}\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-293\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f1\charsca
lex100 {\uc1\u61672X}{ }\fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100\i {R}\i0 \fs36\cf0\f0\charsca
lex100\i {R}\i0 \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100\i {R}\i0 \par\pard\li293\ri0\sl-120\s
lmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {2}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs
36\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1}{ }\fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100\i {V}\i0 \par\pard\li34
6\ri0\sl-120\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1}\par\pard\li120\ri0\sl-293\sl
mult0 \fs26\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61688X}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-293\s
lmult0 \fs26\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61688X}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-293\
slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61688X}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-293
\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61690X}\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-293\slmul
t0 \fs26\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61690X}\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-293\slmult0 \fs
26\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61690X}\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-293\slmult0 \fs26\cf0
\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61690X}\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-293\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f1\ch
ex100 {\uc1\u61690X}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsx
n0\margrsxn133\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-400
\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {for R}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1}{ }\fs3
2\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {/R}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {2}\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex
100 {=R}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {3}\fs32\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {/R}\fs26\cf0\f
0\charscalex100 {4}\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {, we obtain}\par\pard\li986\ri0\s
l-426\slmult0 \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100\i {R}\i0 {\sub \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex1
00\i {V}\i0 }\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\marg
rsxn133\pard\li986\ri0\sl-360\slmult0 \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100\i {R}\i0 {\sub
\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100\ul {1}\ul0 }\fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100\i {V}\i0 \par\
pard\li760\ri0\sl-360\slmult0 \*\tx2000\fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61501X}
{\super \fs36\up4\cf0\f0\charscalex100\i {R}\i0 }\fs44\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {(}\
fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100\i {V}\i0 { }\fs60\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {'}\tab \fs40\c
f0\f0\charscalex100 {')}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\mar
glsxn0\margrsxn133\cols3\colno1\colw973\colsr-0\colno2\colw466\colsr-0\colno3\co
lw10320\pard\li973\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100\i {R}\i0 \par\c
olumn\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100\i {R}\i0 \par\colum
n\pard\li0\ri0\sl-120\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1}{\super \fs256\up1\c
f0\f0\charscalex100 {'}}\fs256\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61485X}{ }\fs256\cf0\
f0\charscalex100\i {V}\i0 {\sub \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {2}}\par\pard\sect\se
ctd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\pard\li973\ri0\sl-253\
slmult0 \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100\i {R}\i0 {\sub \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {2}
}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Since, no curren
t flows into op-amp, the current i flowing (upwards) in R is I = (V}\fs26\cf0\f0

\charscalex100 {1}{ }\fs34\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {\uc1\u8211XV}\fs26\cf0\f0\chars
calex100 {2}\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {) /R and}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmu
lt0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {passes through the resistor R\uc1\u8217X.}\par\p
ard\li733\ri0\sl-546\slmult0 \*\tx1400\fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100\i {V}\i0 \fs36\
cf0\f0\charscalex100\i {V}\i0 \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100\i {V}\i0 {\super \fs56\
up4\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {'}}\fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61501X}\tab \fs60
\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {'}{ }\fs42\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61483X \uc1\u61501
X}\fs42\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61483X \uc1\u61501X}\fs42\cf0\f1\charscalex1
00 {\uc1\u61483X \uc1\u61501X}\fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100\i {V}\i0 \fs36\cf0\f0\c
harscalex100\i {V}\i0 \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100\i {V}\i0 {\super \fs36\up5\cf0\
f0\charscalex100\i {R}\i0 }\fs60\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {'}{\sub \fs44\cf0\f0\char
scalex100 {(}}\fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100\i {V}\i0 \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100\i {
V}\i0 \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100\i {V}\i0 {\sub \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1}}\
fs256\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61485X}\fs256\cf0\f0\charscalex100\i {V}\i0 {\
sub \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {2}}\fs44\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {)}{ }\fs32\cf0\f1
\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61483X}{ }\fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100\i {V}\i0 \fs36\cf0\f0
\charscalex100\i {V}\i0 \par\pard\li853\ri0\sl-253\slmult0 \*\tx1893\*\tx3466\fs
26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1}\tab \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1}\tab \fs36\cf0\f0\
charscalex100\i {V}\i0 {\sub \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {2}}\par\pard\li2280\ri0
\sl-213\slmult0 \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100\i {R}\i0 \par\pard\li1453\ri0\sl-240\
slmult0 \*\tx2813\fs56\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {'}\tab \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100\i
{R}\i0 { }\fs60\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {'}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn1189
3\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\cols8\colno1\colw760\colsr-0\colno2\colw0\co
lsr-0\colno3\colw1826\colsr-0\colno4\colw480\colsr-0\colno5\colw693\colsr-0\coln
o6\colw120\colsr-0\colno7\colw146\colsr-0\colno8\colw7733\pard\li760\ri0\sl-213\
slmult0 \*\tx1746\*\tx2306\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100\i {and V}\i0 \tab \fs34\cf0
\f0\charscalex100\i {R I}\i0 \tab \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100\i {V}\i0 \par\colum
n\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \*\tx986\*\tx1546\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100\i {and
V}\i0 \tab \fs34\cf0\f0\charscalex100\i {R I}\i0 \tab \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex10
0\i {V}\i0 \par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \*\tx800\fs30\cf0\f0\charscal
ex100\i {and V}\i0 \tab \fs256\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61501X}{ }\fs34\cf0\f
0\charscalex100\i {R I}\i0 { }\fs256\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61483X}{ }\fs36
\cf0\f0\charscalex100\i {V}\i0 \par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-293\slmult0 \fs32\cf0
\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61501X}\par\column\pard\li66\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs36\c
f0\f0\charscalex100\i {V}\i0 \par\pard\li66\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs36\cf0\f0\char
scalex100\i {V}\i0 \par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-226\slmult0 \fs44\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {
(}\fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100\i {V}\i0 \par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \f
s44\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {)}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-293\slmult0 \fs32\cf0\f1
\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61483X}\par\column\pard\li13\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs36\cf0\
f0\charscalex100\i {V}\i0 \par\pard\li13\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs36\cf0\f0\charsca
lex100\i {V}\i0 \par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100\i {V
}\i0 \par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\
cols6\colno1\colw1933\colsr-0\colno2\colw506\colsr-0\colno3\colw400\colsr-0\coln
o4\colw413\colsr-0\colno5\colw920\colsr-0\colno6\colw7586\pard\li1413\ri0\sl-120
\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {2}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \
fs60\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {'}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-120\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f
0\charscalex100 {2}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs36\cf0\f0\charscal
ex100\i {R}\i0 \par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-120\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex10
0 {1}{ }\fs256\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61485X}\fs256\cf0\f0\charscalex100\i
{V}\i0 {\sub \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {2}}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-120\slmu
lt0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {2}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsx
n16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li
720\ri0\sl-346\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Putting the values of V\uc1\u
8217X}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1}{ }\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {and V\uc1\u82
17X}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {2}{ }\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {=in Eq we obtai
n,}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\co
ls2\colno1\colw1640\colsr-0\colno2\colw10120\pard\li1240\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs1
8\cf0\par\pard\li1240\ri0\sl-373\slmult0 \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100\i {R}\i0 \fs
36\cf0\f0\charscalex100\i {R}\i0 \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100\i {R}\i0 { }\fs26\cf
0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61673X}\par\column\pard\li2413\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs1

8\cf0\par\pard\li2413\ri0\sl-373\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61689
X}\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-360\slmult0 \fs48\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {2 '}{\sub \fs40\c
f0\f0\charscalex100 {( 1}}\fs256\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61485X}\fs256\cf0\f
0\charscalex100\i {V}\i0 { }\fs40\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {2) ( 1}\fs256\cf0\f1\cha
rscalex100 {\uc1\u61485X}{ }\fs256\cf0\f0\charscalex100\i {V}\i0 { }\fs32\cf0\f0
\charscalex100 {2)}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn
0\margrsxn133\cols5\colno1\colw733\colsr-0\colno2\colw0\colsr-0\colno3\colw293\c
36\cf0\f0\charscalex100\i {V}\i0 \par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs36\c
f0\f0\charscalex100\i {V}\i0 \par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs36\cf0\f
0\charscalex100\i {V}\i0 \par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-386\slmult0 \fs32\cf0\f1\ch
arscalex100 {\uc1\u61501X}{\super \fs26\up4\cf0\f0\charscalex100\ul {2}\ul0 }\fs
26\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61674X}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-293\slmult0 \f
s26\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61690X}\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-293\slmult0 \fs26\cf
0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61690X}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn
16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\cols3\colno1\colw1253\colsr-0\colno2\colw2800\colsr0\colno3\colw7706\pard\li866\ri0\sl-120\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100\i {o}
\i0 \par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100\i {R}\i0
\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100\i {R}\i0 \par\pard\l
i0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100\i {R}\i0 { }\fs256\cf0\f1\chars
calex100 {\uc1\u61675X}{ }\fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100\i {R}\i0 \par\column\pard\l
i0\ri0\sl-413\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61691X}\fs26\cf0\f1\char
scalex100 {\uc1\u61690X}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\mar
olw213\colsr-0\colno4\colw706\colsr-0\colno5\colw386\colsr-0\colno6\colw8480\par
d\li1373\ri0\sl-120\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1}\par\pard\li760\ri0\sl
-386\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100\i {or}\i0 \fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {,
V}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li0\ri0\s
l-293\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100\i {or}\i0 \fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {,
V}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-506\slmult0 \fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex100
{\uc1\u61501X}\par\column\pard\li280\ri0\sl-373\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f1\charscalex1
00 {\uc1\u61670X}\par\pard\li280\ri0\sl-293\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {
\uc1\u61670X}\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-293\slmult0 \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100\i {R}\i
0 { }\fs26\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61670X}\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \
fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100\i {R}\i0 \par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs36\cf0\f0
\charscalex100\i {R}\i0 \par{\trowd\trleft133\trkeep\trftsWidth1\trpaddl0\trpadd
r0\trpaddfl3\trpaddfr3 \clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrnone\clbrdrl\brdrnone\clbrdrb\brdr
none\clbrdrr\brdrnone\cltxlrtb\clNoWrap\clftsWidth3\clwWidth4294965616\clpadt0\c
lpadr0\clpadft3\clpadfr3\cellx506 \pard\li0\ri0\sl--1000\widctlpar\intbl \fs26\c
f0\f0\charscalex100 {2}\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-186\widctlpar\intbl \fs26\cf0\f1\cha
rscalex100 {\uc1\u61671X}\fs26\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61671X}\fs26\cf0\f1\c
harscalex100 {\uc1\u61671X}\cell\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrnone\clbrdrl\brdrnone\clb
rdrb\brdrnone\clbrdrr\brdrnone\cltxlrtb\clNoWrap\clftsWidth3\clwWidth146\clpadt0
\clpadr0\clpadft3\clpadfr3\cellx2840 \pard\li0\ri0\sl--880\widctlpar\intbl \fs26
\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61483X}\cell\row}\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-346\slmult
0 \fs48\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {2 '}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-373\slmult0 \fs26\
cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61686X}\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-293\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f1
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r\column\pard\li186\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li186\ri0\sl-213\slmul
\par\pard\li186\ri0\sl-546\slmult0 \fs34\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b \ul {UNIT \uc1\u
8211X IV}\b0 \ul0 \par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-560\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b
\ul {SPECIAL ICs}\b0 \ul0 \par\pard\li226\ri0\sl-573\slmult0 \fs32\cf0\f0\charsc
alex100\b \ul {PART \uc1\u8211X A}\b0 \ul0 \par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11
893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\pard\li720\ri0\sl-506\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0
\charscalex100\b {1. Draw as astable Multivibrator using a timer IC.}\b0 \par\pa
lt0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-466\slmult0 \fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {2.
What is 555 timer?}\b0 \par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\l
i1440\ri0\sl-440\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {555 timer is a highly stabl
e device for generating accurate time delay or oscillation. It can}\par\pard\li7
20\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {provide time delay ranging f
rom micro seconds to hours whereas counter timer can have a}\par\pard\l
i720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {maximum timing range or days
.}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0
\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {3. Give the Pin diagram of 555 timer.}\b0

0\f0\charscalex100\b {4. What is free running frequency?}\b0 \par\pard\li1440\ri
calex100 {The VCO is a free running multivibrator and operates at a set frequenc
y f}\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {o}\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {. This frequency}\
par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\pard\s
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i0\sl-493\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {is determined by an external timin
g capacitor and an external resistor.}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\c
\fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {5. Gi
ve the functional block diagram of PLL.}\b0 \par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \
0\b {6. What is Lock-in Range?}\b0 \par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0
\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-426\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {The range of fre
quencies over which the PLL can maintain lock with the incoming signal is}\par\p
ard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {called the lock-in rang
e or tracking range.}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720
\ri0\sl-426\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {7. Give the Block diagram of V
CO.}\b0 \par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\s
\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {8. What are the main blocks of a PLL?}\b0 \par\pard\sec
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yarthiplus.com}}}}\b0 \i0 \ul0 \par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16
0 {(a)}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {(b)}\par\p
ard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {(c)}\par\column\pard\li
\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18
\cf0\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-493\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Phase comparato
r}\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Low pass filter.}
\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Error Amplifier}\pa
20\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \*\tx1440\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {(d)}\tab \fs28\cf0\f0
\charscalex100 {Voltage controlled oscillator}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0
\fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-426\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {9. Dr
aw the Schematic symbol of Multiplier?.}\b0 \par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \
t0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-360\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {10.
Name the few applications of Analog multiplier.}\b0 \par\pard\li1080\ri0\sl-213
{1. Frequency doubling, frequency shifting, phase angle detection, real powe
r computation,}\par\pard\li1480\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {
multiplying}\par\pard\li1080\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {2. S
ignals, dividing & Squaring of signals.}\par\pard\li5333\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs1
8\cf0\par\pard\li5333\ri0\sl-400\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b \ul {PART
\uc1\u8211X B}\b0 \ul0 \par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li7
20\ri0\sl-440\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {1. Discuss about PLL and Der
ive Capture range also explain PLL Application:}\b0 \par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-213\
slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-440\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100
{The basic schematic of the PLL is shown in figure (a). This feedback system con
sist of}\par\pard\li1000\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1000\ri0\sl-426
\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {a) Phase detector / comparator}\par\pard\li
1000\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {b) A low pass filter}\par\pa
rd\li1000\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {c) An error amplifier}\
par\pard\li1000\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {d) A voltage cont
rolled Oscillator (VCO)}\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\l
i1440\ri0\sl-440\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {The VCO is a free running
multivibrator and operates at a set frequency f0 called free}\par\pard\li
720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {running frequency. This frequ
ency is determined by an external timing capacitor and an external}\par\pard\li7
20\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {resistor. It can also be shift
ed to either side by applying a dc control voltage uc to an appropriate}\par\par
d\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {terminal of the IC. The f
requency deviation is directly proportional to the dc control voltage and}\par\p

ard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {hence it is called a \u
c1\u8220XVoltage Control Oscillator\uc1\u8221X or, in short, VCO.}\par\pard\li14
charscalex100 {If an input signal os of frequency fs is applied to the PLL, the
phase detector compares the}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\char
scalex100 {phase and frequency of the incoming signal to that of the output V}\f
s28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {s}{ }\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {of the VCO. If the t
wo signals}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {differ
in frequency and/or phase, an error voltage V}\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {e}{ }
\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {is generated. The phase detector is basically a}\par
\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {multiplier and produc
es the sum (f}\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {s}{ }\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {+ F}\
fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {o}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {) and difference (f}\fs
28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {s}{ }\fs34\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {\uc1\u8211X f}\fs26\cf
0\f0\charscalex100 {o}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {) components at its output. Th
e high}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn13
3\pard\sect\sectd\sbkpage{\shp
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i0\sl-493\slmult0 \*\tx3533\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {frequency component (f}
\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {s}\tab \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {+ f}\fs28\cf0\f0
\charscalex100 {o}\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {) is removed by the low pass
filter and the difference frequency}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf
0\f0\charscalex100 {component is an amplified and then applied as control voltag
e V}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {0}{ }\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {to VCO.}\par\pa
rscalex100\b {Blocl schematic of the PLL}\b0 \par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-213\slmult0
\fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-440\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {The si
gnal V}\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {c}{ }\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {shifts the
VCO frequency in a direction a reduce the frequency difference}\par\pard\l
i720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {between f}\fs28\cf0\f0\chars
calex100 {s}{ }\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {and f}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {o}\

fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {. Once this action starts, we say that the signal is
in the capture range. The VCO}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\ch
arscalex100 {continues to change frequency till its output frequency is
exactly the same as the input signal}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \*\tx
10346\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {frequency. The circuit is then said to be l
ocked. Once locked, the output frequency f}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {o}\tab
\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {of VCO}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \*\tx8760
\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {identical to f}\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {s}{ }\fs2
6\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {except for a finite phase difference}{ }\fs28\cf0\f1\cha
rscalex100 {\uc1\u61542X}\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {. This phase difference}\ta
b \fs28\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61542X}{ }\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {genera
te a corrective}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {c
ontrol voltage V}\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {c}{ }\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {to
shift the VCO frequency from f}\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {o}{ }\fs32\cf0\f0\ch
arscalex100 {to f}\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {s}{ }\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {a
nd thereby maintain the lock. Once}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\
f0\charscalex100 {locked, PLL tracks the frequency changes of the input sig
nal. Thus, a PLL goes through three}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28
\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {stages (i) free running (ii) capture and (iii) locked or
tracking.}\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-4
40\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Figure b shows the capture transient. As
capture starts a small sine wave appears. This is}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slm
ult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {due to the difference frequency between the VCO
and the input signal. The dc component of the}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult
0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {beat drives the VCO and the input signal. The dc c
omponents of the beat drives the VCO towards}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0
\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {the lock. Each successive cycle causes the VCO fr
equency to move closer to the input signal}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmul
t0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {frequency. The difference in frequency becomes sm
aller and a large dc component is passed by the}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmul
t0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {filter, shifting the VCO frequency further. Th
e process continues until the VCO locks on to the}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {signal and the difference frequency is d
c.}\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-440\slmu
lt0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {The low pass filter controls the capture ran
ge if VCO frequency is far away, the bear}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult
0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {frequency will be too high to pass through the fil
ter and the PLL will not respond. We say that the}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slm
ult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {signal is out of the capture band. However, onc
e locked, the filter no longer restricts the PLL will}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333
\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {not respond. WE say that the signal is abou
t of the capture band. However, once locked, the filter}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-3
20\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {no longer restricts the PLL. The VCO
can track the signal well beyond the capture band. Thus}\par\pard\li720\ri0\
sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {tracking range is always larger than
the capture range.}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\r
i0\sl-440\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Some of the important definitions
in relation to PLL are:}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbkpage

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}}}}
7;32768}}
7;32768}}
i0\sl-493\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {Lock in Range:}\b0 \par\pard\li1

\charscalex100 {Once the PLL is locked, it can track frequency changes in the in
coming signals. The range of}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\cha
rscalex100 {frequency over which the PLL can maintain lock with the incom
ing signal is called the lock in}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf
0\f0\charscalex100 {range or tracking range. The lock range is usually exp
ressed as percentage of f}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {o}\fs28\cf0\f0\charscale
x100 {, the VCO}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {f
requency.}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213
\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {Capture Range:}\b0 \par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-213\sl
mult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-440\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {T
he range of frequencies over which the PLL can acquire lock with an input signal
is called}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {the ca
pture range. This parameter is also expressed as percentage of f}\fs28\cf0\f0\ch
arscalex100 {o}\fs54\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {.}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0
\fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-440\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {Pull-i
n time:}\b0 \par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl
-426\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {The total time taken by the PLL to est
ablish lock is called pull in time. This depends on the}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-3
33\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {initial phase and frequency difference be
tween the two signals as well as on the overall loop gain}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl
-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {and loop filter characteristics.}\par\p
ard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {Derivation of Capture
range:}\b0 \par\pard\li1146\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1146\ri0\sl
-440\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {When PLL is not initially locked to the
signal, the frequency of the VCO will be free running}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-32
0\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {frequency f}\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {o}
\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {. The phase angle difference between the signal and
the VCO output voltage will be,}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f1
\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61542X}{ }\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {= (}\fs38\cf0\f1\cha
rscalex100 {\uc1\u61559X}\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {s}{ }\fs30\cf0\f0\charscale
x100 {t +}{ }\fs30\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61553X}\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100
{s}\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {) \uc1\u8211X (}\fs38\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1
\u61559X}\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {o}{ }\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {t +}{ }\fs
30\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61553X}\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {o}\fs26\cf0\f0
\charscalex100 {) = (}\fs38\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61559X}\fs30\cf0\f0\char
scalex100 {s}{ }\fs48\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {-}\fs38\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u
61559X}\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {o}\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {) t +}{ }\fs26\
cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61508X\uc1\u61553X}{ }\fs32\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {\u
c1\u8230X (9.30)}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {
Thus the phase angle difference does not remain constant but will change with ti
me at a rate given}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs34\cf0\f0\charscalex100
{by}\par\pard\li893\ri0\sl-293\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61542X
}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\cols
2\colno1\colw2080\colsr-0\colno2\colw9680\pard\li773\ri0\sl-386\slmult0 \*\tx110
6\fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {d}\tab \fs256\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61501X}{
}\fs68\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {\uc1\u969X \uc1\u969X}\par\pard\li1453\ri0\sl-120\s
lmult0 \*\tx1906\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {s}\tab \fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {o
}\par\pard\li813\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs32\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {dt}\par\column\p
ard\li0\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {\uc1\u8230X.. (9.31)}\par
\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\pard\li72
arscalex100 {The phase detector output voltage will therefore not have a dc comp
onent but will produce an ac}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn1682
6\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\pard\sect\sectd\sbkpage

;(146,13);(93,320);(80,320);(26,213);(0,226);(0,213);(0,213);}}
824;1;45824;1;45824;1;45824;1;45824;1;45824;1;45824;1;45824;24577;32768}}

;(146,13);(93,320);(80,320);(26,213);(0,226);(0,213);(0,213);}}
824;1;45824;1;45824;1;45824;1;45824;1;45824;1;45824;1;45824;24577;32768}}

7;32768}}
i0\sl-493\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {voltage with a triangular waveform
of peak amplitude K}\fs24\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61542X}{ }\fs44\cf0\f0\ch
arscalex100 {(}\fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61552X}\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex1
00 {/2) and a fundamental frequency (f}\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {s}{ }\fs48\cf
0\f0\charscalex100 {\uc1\u8211X}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs48\cf0\f0\
charscalex100 {f}\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {o}\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {) =}{
}\fs36\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61508X}\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {f}\fs54\c
f0\f0\charscalex100 {.}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marg
lsxn0\margrsxn133\cols3\colno1\colw1493\colsr-0\colno2\colw973\colsr-0\colno3\co
lw9293\pard\li720\ri0\sl-453\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {T (jf) =}\par\c
olumn\pard\li346\ri0\sl-280\slmult0 \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex99 {1}\par\pard\li0\r
i0\sl-346\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex99 {1+j(f/f )}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\
sl-413\slmult0 \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {\uc1\u8230X\uc1\u8230X (9.32)}\par\pa
rd\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\pard\li2120\
ri0\sl-120\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex99 {1}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmul
t0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-373\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Where
f}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1}{ }\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {= 1/2}{ }\fs32\c
f0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61552X}{ }\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {RC is the 3 \uc
1\u8211X dB point of LPF. In the slope portion of LPF (f/f}\fs26\cf0\f0\charsca
lex100 {1}\fs44\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {)}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {2}{ }\fs28\c
f0\f0\charscalex100 {>> 1, then}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn1
720\ri0\sl-453\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {T (f) =}{\super \fs256\up6\cf
0\f0\charscalex102 {f}}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex102\ul {1}\ul0 \par\pard\li1480\ri
0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex102 {jf}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-413\
slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {\uc1\u8230X.. (9.33)}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sb
knone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult
0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-466\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {The fu
ndamental frequency term supplied to the LPF by the phase detector will be the d
ifference}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {frequen
cy}{ }\fs36\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61508X}\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {f = f
}\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {s}{ }\fs34\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {\uc1\u8211X f}\fs2
8\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {o}\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {. If}{ }\fs36\cf0\f1\char
scalex100 {\uc1\u61508X}\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {f > 3f}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscal
ex100 {1}\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {, the LPF transfer function will be approxi
mately,}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-426\s
lmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {T (}\fs36\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61508X}
\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {f) =f}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1}\fs44\cf0\f0\cha
rscalex100 {)}{ }\fs36\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61508X}\fs28\cf0\f0\charscale
x100 {f = f}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1}\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {/ (f}\fs30
\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {s}{ }\fs34\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {\uc1\u8211X f}\fs28\cf0\
f0\charscalex100 {o}\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {) \uc1\u8230X.. (9.34)}\par\pard
f0\charscalex100 {The voltage}{ }\fs30\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61550X}\fs30\
cf0\f0\charscalex100 {c}{ }\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {to drive the VCO is,}\par
\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61550X}\fs30\cf
0\f0\charscalex100 {c}{ }\fs32\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {=}{ }\fs30\cf0\f1\charscale
x100 {\uc1\u61550X}\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {c}{ }\fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {
\uc1\u61620X}{ }\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {T (f)}{ }\fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex100
{\uc1\u61620X}{ }\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {A \uc1\u8230X. (9.35)}\par\pard\li7
harscalex100 {Or,}{ }\fs30\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61550X}\fs18\cf0\f0\chars
calex100 {c (max)}{ }\fs32\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {=}{ }\fs30\cf0\f1\charscalex100
{\uc1\u61550X}\fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {c (max)}{ }\fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex100
{\uc1\u61620X}{ }\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {T (f)}{ }\fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex10
0 {\uc1\u61620X}\fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {A}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0
\fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-426\slmult0 \fs32\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {=}{ }\f
s32\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61617X}{ }\fs34\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {K}\fs24\cf
0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61542X}{ }\fs44\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {(}\fs32\cf0\f1\c
harscalex100 {\uc1\u61552X}\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {/2) A (f}\fs26\cf0\f0\cha
rscalex100 {1}\fs54\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {/}\fs36\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61
508X}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {f) (from Eq 9.24) \uc1\u8230X.. (9.37)}\par\par
\f0\charscalex100 {Then the corresponding value of the maximum VCO frequency shi
ft is,}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-426\sl
mult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {(f \uc1\u8211X f}\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {o
}\fs44\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {)}{ }\fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {max}{ }\fs28\cf0\f
0\charscalex100 {= K}\fs24\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61550X}{ }\fs30\cf0\f1\ch
arscalex100 {\uc1\u61550X}\fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {c (max)}{ }\fs32\cf0\f0\ch
arscalex100 {=}{ }\fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61617X}{ }\fs34\cf0\f0\chars
calex100 {K}\fs24\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61550X}{ }\fs30\cf0\f1\charscalex1
00 {\uc1\u61550X}\fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {c (max}\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {
) =}{ }\fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61617X}{ }\fs34\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {K
}\fs24\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61550X}{ }\fs34\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {K}\fs24
\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61542X}{ }\fs44\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {(}\fs32\cf0\f
1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61552X}\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {/2) A (f}\fs26\cf0\f0\
charscalex100 {1}\fs54\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {/}\fs36\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\
u61508X}\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {f) \uc1\u8230X (9.37)}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl
100 {For the acquisition of signal frequency, we should put f = f}\fs30\cf0\f0\c
harscalex100 {s}{ }\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {so that the maximum signal freque
ncy}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {range that ca
n be acquired by PLL is,}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\l
i720\ri0\sl-440\slmult0 \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {(f}\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex10
0 {s}{ }\fs34\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {\uc1\u8211X f}\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {o}
\fs44\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {)}{ }\fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {max}{ }\fs32\cf0\f0
\charscalex100 {=}{ }\fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61617X}{ }\fs34\cf0\f0\ch
arscalex100 {K}\fs24\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61550X}{ }\fs34\cf0\f0\charscal
ex100 {K}\fs24\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61542X}{ }\fs44\cf0\f0\charscalex100
{(}\fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61552X}\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {/2) A (f
}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1}\fs54\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {/}\fs36\cf0\f1\charsc
alex100 {\uc1\u61508X}\fs48\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {f}\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {
c}\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {) \uc1\u8230X. (9.38)}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\s
lmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-426\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {N
ow,}{ }\fs36\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61508X}\fs48\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {f}\f
s30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {c}{ }\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {= (f}\fs30\cf0\f0\cha

rscalex100 {s}{ }\fs34\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {\uc1\u8211X f}\fs28\cf0\f0\charscal
ex100 {o}\fs44\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {)}{ }\fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {max}\par\p
ard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {So, (}\fs36\cf0\f1\char
scalex100 {\uc1\u61508X}\fs48\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {f}\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100
{c}\fs44\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {)}{ }\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {2}{ }\fs30\cf0\
f0\charscalex100 {= k}\fs24\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61550X}\fs34\cf0\f0\char
scalex100 {K}\fs24\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61542X}{ }\fs44\cf0\f0\charscalex
100 {(}\fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61552X}\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {/2)
Af}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1}{ }\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {(from Eq (9.38)}
\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Since,}{ }\fs36\c
f0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61508X}\fs48\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {f}\fs24\cf0\f0\cha
rscalex100 {L}{ }\fs32\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {=}{ }\fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\u
c1\u61617X}{ }\fs34\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {K}\fs24\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61
550X}\fs34\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {K}\fs24\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61542X}{ }\
fs44\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {(}\fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61552X}\fs30\cf0\
f0\charscalex100 {/2) A}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-386\slmult0 \*\tx2653\*\tx3360\fs
30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {We get, (}\fs36\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61508X}\fs4
8\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {f}\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {c}\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex1
00 {) =}{ }\fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61617X}\tab \fs38\cf0\f0\charscalex
102 {f f}{\sub \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex102 {1}}\fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex102 {L}\t
ab \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {..... (9.39)}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \
fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-466\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Therefore
, the total capture range is,}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-400\slmult0 \*\tx1746\*\tx2
453\fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {2}\fs36\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61508X}\fs48\
cf0\f0\charscalex100 {f}\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {c}{ }\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex
100 {= 2}\tab \fs256\cf0\f0\charscalex102 {f f}{\sub \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex10
2 {1}}\fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex102 {L}\tab \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {\uc1\u8230X
.. (9.40)}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-466
\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Where the lock \uc1\u8211X in range = 2}\fs
36\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61508X}\fs48\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {f}\fs24\cf0\f0
\charscalex100 {L}{ }\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {= K}\fs24\cf0\f1\charscalex100
{\uc1\u61550X}{ }\fs34\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {K}\fs24\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\
u61542X}{ }\fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {A}{ }\fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61
552X}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {. In case of IC PLL 565, R = 3.6 k}\fs42\cf0\f1
\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61527X}\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {, so the capture}\par\p
ard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {range is}\par\pard\sect
\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\pard\sect\sectd\sbk
page{\shp
{\*\shpinst
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com}}}}\b0 \i0 \ul0 \par\pard\li933\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li933\
lmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li933\ri0\sl-426\slmult0 \*\tx1586\fs26\cf0\f1\charsca
lex99 {\uc1\u61673X}\tab \fs36\cf0\f1\charscalex99 {\uc1\u61508X}\par\pard\li158
6\ri0\sl-293\slmult0 \fs36\cf0\f1\charscalex99 {\uc1\u61508X}\fs48\cf0\f0\charsc
alex99 {f}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li0\ri0

f1\charscalex99 {\uc1\u61508X}\par\column\pard\li93\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0
\par\pard\li93\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li93\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs
18\cf0\par\pard\li93\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li93\ri0\sl-213\slmul
\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li93\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li93\ri0\
sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li93\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li9
3\ri0\sl-133\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex99 {1}\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-293\slmul
t0 \fs26\cf0\f1\charscalex99\ul {\uc1\u61689X}\ul0 \par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-293\slmu
lt0 \fs26\cf0\f1\charscalex99 {\uc1\u61689X}\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-293\slmult0 \fs
26\cf0\f1\charscalex99 {\uc1\u61689X}{\sub \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex99 {2}}\par\pa
rd\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\cols7\colno1
\colw760\colsr-0\colno2\colw0\colsr-0\colno3\colw933\colsr-0\colno4\colw386\cols
r-0\colno5\colw440\colsr-0\colno6\colw280\colsr-0\colno7\colw8960\pard\li760\ri0
\sl-293\slmult0 \fs24\cf0\f1\charscalex99 {\uc1\u61617X \uc1\u61674X}\par\pard\l
i933\ri0\sl-293\slmult0 \fs24\cf0\f1\charscalex99 {\uc1\u61675X}\par\column\pard
\li0\ri0\sl-293\slmult0 \fs24\cf0\f1\charscalex99 {\uc1\u61617X \uc1\u61674X}\pa
r\pard\li173\ri0\sl-293\slmult0 \fs24\cf0\f1\charscalex99 {\uc1\u61675X}\par\col
umn\pard\li0\ri0\sl-293\slmult0 \fs24\cf0\f1\charscalex99 {\uc1\u61617X \uc1\u61
674X}\par\column\pard\li133\ri0\sl-120\slmult0 \fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex99 {L}\par
\pard\li0\ri0\sl-293\slmult0 \fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex99 {\uc1\u61620X}\par\column
\pard\li0\ri0\sl-200\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex99 {3}\par\column\pard\li0\r
i0\sl-293\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f1\charscalex99 {\uc1\u61690X}\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-2
93\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f1\charscalex99 {\uc1\u61690X}\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-293\slmu
lt0 \fs26\cf0\f1\charscalex99 {\uc1\u61690X}\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-293\slmult0 \fs
26\cf0\f1\charscalex99 {\uc1\u61691X}\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-293\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\
f1\charscalex99 {\uc1\u61691X}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-253\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\
f0\charscalex100 {\uc1\u8230X. (9.41)}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\p
ghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\cols2\colno1\colw2520\colsr-0\colno2\colw9240\p
ard\li933\ri0\sl-293\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f1\charscalex99 {\uc1\u61675X}{ }\fs36\cf
0\f0\charscalex99 {2}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-293\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f1\charsc
alex99 {\uc1\u61691X}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\margls
xn0\margrsxn133\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-42
6\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Where C is in farads}\par\pard\li1146\ri0\
lex100 {The capture range is symmetrically located with respect to VCO free runn
ing frequency f}\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {o}{ }\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {as
is}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {shown in fig 9
.11. The PLL cannot acquire a signal outside the capture range, but once captur
ed, it}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {will hold
on till the signal frequency goes beyond the lock \uc1\u8211X in range. In orde
r to increase the}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100
{ability of lock \uc1\u8211X in range, large capture range in required. However
, a large capture range will}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\cha
rscalex100 {make the PLL more susceptible to noise and undesirable signal. Henc
e a suitable compromise is}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\chars
calex100 {often reached between these two opposing requirements of the capture r
ange. Many a times the}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscal
ex100 {LPF band \uc1\u8211X width is first set for a large value for initial acq
uisition of signal, then once the signal is}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \
fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {captured, the band \uc1\u8211X width of LPF is reduce
d substantially. This will minimize the interference of}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {undersirable signals and noise.}\par\par
t0 \fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {PLL Lock in range and Capture range}\b0 \par\pa
0\f0\charscalex100\b {PLL applications}\b0 \par\pard\li1146\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \
fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1146\ri0\sl-346\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {The outp
ut from a PLL system can be obtained either as the voltage signal}{ }\fs28\cf0\f
1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61550X}\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {c}{ }\fs26\cf0\f0\char
scalex100 {(t) corresponding}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\cha
rscalex100 {to the error voltage in the feedback loop, or as a frequency signal
at VCO output terminal. The}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\cha
rscalex100 {voltage output is used in frequency discriminator application
whereas the frequency output is}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\
f0\charscalex100 {used in signal conditioning, frequency synthesis or clock reco
very applications.}\par\pard\li1146\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1146
\ri0\sl-440\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Consider the case of voltage o
utput, when PLL is locked to an input frequency, the error}\par\pard\li720\
ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {voltage}{ }\fs30\cf0\f1\charscale
x100 {\uc1\u61550X}\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {c}{ }\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {
(t) is proportional to (f}\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {s}{ }\fs36\cf0\f0\charscal
ex100 {\uc1\u8211X f}\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {o}\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {)
. If the input frequency is varied as in the case of FM signal,}\par\pard\li720
\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61550X}\fs30\cf0\f0\charsc
alex100 {c}{ }\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {will also vary in order to maint
ain the lock. Thus the voltage output serves as a frequency}\par\pard\li7
20\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {discriminator which converts t
he input frequency changes to voltage changes.}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgws
xn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\pard\sect\sectd\sbkpage{\shp
{\*\shpinst
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}}}}
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0\par\pard\li1146\ri0\sl-386\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {In the case of
frequency output, if the input signal is comprised of many frequency}\
par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {components corrupt
ed with noise and other disturbances, the PLL can be made to lock, selectively}\
par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {on one particular
frequency component at the input. The output of VCO would then regenerate}\par\
pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {that particular freque
ncy (because of LPF which gives output for beat frequency) and attenuate}\par\pa
rd\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {heavily other frequenc
ies. VCO output thus can be used for regenerating or reconditioning a}
\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {desired frequency
signal (which is weak and buried in noise) out of many undesirable frequency}\p
ar\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {signals.}\par\pard\
li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-440\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f
0\charscalex100 {Some of the typical applications of PLL are discussed now.}\par
t0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {2. Describe about the functional diagram of 5
55 timer and its Monostable Operation of 555}\b0 \par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmu
lt0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {timer?}\b0 \par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-213\slmult0
\fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-426\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Figure
(1) gives the functional diagram for 555 IC timer. Referring to Figure (1), thr
ee 5 k}\fs40\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61527X}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmul
t0 \fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {internal resistors act as voltage divider, provid
ing bias voltage of (2/3) V}\fs16\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {cc}{ }\fs28\cf0\f0\chars
calex100 {to the upper comparator}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \*\tx2720\*

\tx7133\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {(UC) and (1/3) V}\fs16\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {
cc}\tab \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {to the lower comparator (LC), where V}\fs16\
cf0\f0\charscalex100 {cc}\tab \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {is the supply voltage.
Since these two}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {
voltages fix the necessary comparator threshold voltage, they also aid in determ
ining the timing}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {
interval. It is possible to vary time electronically too, by applying a
modulation voltage to the}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\char
scalex100 {control voltage input terminal (pin 5). In applications where no such
modulation is intended, it is}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\c
harscalex100 {recommended by manufacturers that a capacitor (0.01}{ }\fs30\cf0\f
1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61549X}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {F) be connected betwee
n control voltage}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100
{terminal (pin 5) and ground to by-pass noise or ripple from the supply.}\par\pa
rd\sect\sectd\sbkpage


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7;32768}}

ri0\sl-386\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {Figure: Functional diagram of 5
5 timer}\b0 \par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margr
sxn133\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-373\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {In the standby
(stable) state, the output}{ }\fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex105\i {Q}\i0 { }\fs28\cf0\
f0\charscalex100 {of the control flip-flop (FF) is HIGH. This makes}\par\pard\li
720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {the output LOW because of p
ower amplifier which is basically an inverter. A negative going}\par\pard
\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {trigger pulse is applied t
o pin 2 and should have its dc level greater than the threshold level of the}\pa
r\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {lower comparator (i.
e. V}\fs16\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {cc}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {/3), the output
of the lower comparator goes HIGH and sets the FF (Q =}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-37
3\slmult0 \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1,}{ }\fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex105\i {Q}\i0
{ }\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {= 0). During the positive excursion, when the thr
eshold voltage at pin 6 passes through (2/3)}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-360\slmult0
\fs34\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {V}\fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {cc}\fs28\cf0\f0\charsc
alex100 {, the output of the upper comparator goes HIGH and resets the FF (Q = 0
,}{ }\fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex105\i {Q}\i0 { }\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {= 1).}\p
fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {The reset input (pin 4) provides a mechanism to reset
the FF in a manner which overrides}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0
\f0\charscalex100 {the effect of any instruction coming to FF from lower compara
tor. This overriding reset is effective}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28
\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {when the reset input is less than about 0.4 V. When this
reset is not used, it is returned to V}\fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {cc}\fs30\cf0\
f0\charscalex100 {. The}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \*\tx2226\fs30\cf0\f0
\charscalex100 {transistor Q}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {2}\tab \fs28\cf0\f0\ch
arscalex100 {serves as a buffer to isolate the reset input from the FF a
nd transistor Q}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1}\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {. The
}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {transistor Q}\fs
26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {2}{ }\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {is driven by an intern
al reference voltage V}\fs22\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {ref}{ }\fs28\cf0\f0\charscale
x100 {obtained from supply voltage V}\fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {cc}\fs54\cf0\f0
\charscalex100 {.}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri
0\sl-426\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {Monostable Operation of 555 timer
:}\b0 \par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-440\s
lmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Figure (1) shows a 555 timer connected for mo
nostable operation and its functional diagram}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0
\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {is shown in figure (2). In the standby state, FF ho
lds transistor Q}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1}{ }\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {on
, thus clamping the external}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\cha
rscalex100 {timing capacitor C to ground. The output remains at ground potential
, i.e. LOW. As the trigger in}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-360\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\ch
arscalex100 {Figure 3(a) passes through V}\fs16\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {cc}\fs26\c
f0\f0\charscalex100 {/3, the FF is set, i.e.}{ }\fs34\cf0\f0\charscalex105\i {Q}
\i0 { }\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {= 0. This makes the transistor Q}\fs24\cf0\f0
\charscalex100 {1}{ }\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {off and the}\par\pard\li720\ri0
\sl-360\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {short circuit across the timing capa
citor C is released. As}{ }\fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex105\i {Q}\i0 { }\fs30\cf0\f0\c

harscalex100 {is LOW, output goes HIGH (= V}\fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {cc}\fs36
\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {).}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charsc
alex100 {The timing cycle now begins. Since C is unclamped, voltage across it ri
ses exponentially through R}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \*\tx1960\fs30\cf
0\f0\charscalex100 {toward V}\fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {cc}\tab \fs28\cf0\f0\ch
arscalex100 {with a time constant RC as in figure 3(b). After a time period T (c
alculated later) the}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-360\slmult0 \*\tx5626\fs28\cf0\f0\ch
arscalex100 {capacitor voltage is just greater than (2/3) V}\fs18\cf0\f0\charsca
lex100 {cc}\tab \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {and the upper comparator resets}{ }\
fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex105\i {Q}\i0 { }\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {=1, transistor
Q}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0
\charscalex100 {goes on (i.e. saturates), thereby discharging the capacitor
C rapidly to ground potential. The}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\c
f0\f0\charscalex100 {output returns to the standby state or ground potential as
shown in figure 3(c).}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\margl
sxn0\margrsxn133\pard\sect\sectd\sbkpage{\shp
{\*\shpinst
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14514500145145001451450014514500145145001451450014514500145145001451450014514500
7FFFD9}
}}}}
7;32768}}
ri0\sl-386\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {Figure: Monostable multivibrato
r}\b0 \par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133
\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {The voltage across th
e capacitor as in figure 3(b) is given by}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn118
\fs42\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {v}\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {c}{ }\fs28\cf0\f0\char
scalex100 {= V}\fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {cc}{ }\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {(1
\uc1\u8211X e}\fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {-t/RC}\fs44\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {)}\p

ar\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {At t = T,}\par\par
d\li720\ri0\sl-453\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Therefore}\par\column\par
d\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-426\slmult0 \fs42\cf0\f0\
charscalex100 {v}\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {c}{ }\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {=
(2/3) V}\fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {cc}\par\pard\li53\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs36\c
f0\f3\charscalex99\ul {2}\ul0 \par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\
cf0\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-466\slmult0 \fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61485X}{ }
\fs46\cf0\f0\charscalex100\i {e}\i0 \fs24\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61485X}{\s
uper \fs36\up5\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {/}}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-320\slmult0
\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {(1)}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn1
6826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\cols5\colno1\colw2880\colsr-0\colno2\colw1573\colsr-0
\colno3\colw333\colsr-0\colno4\colw1040\colsr-0\colno5\colw5933\pard\li720\ri0\s
l-480\slmult0 \fs34\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {or,}\par\column\pard\li773\ri0\sl-506\
slmult0 \*\tx1306\fs36\cf0\f3\charscalex99 {3}{\super \fs256\up6\cf0\f0\charscal
ex99\i {V}\i0 }\fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex99\i {cc}\i0 \tab \fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex9
9 {\uc1\u61501X}{ }\fs38\cf0\f0\charscalex100\i {V}\i0 \par\pard\li1573\ri0\sl-1
86\slmult0 \fs52\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61543X}\fs52\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {
\uc1\u61543X}\fs16\cf0\f0\charscalex100\i {CC}\i0 \par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-320\slmul
t0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {T = RC ln(1/3)}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-133\sl
mult0 \fs54\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61543X}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-320\s
lmult0 \fs30\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {(1}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \f
s44\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {)}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826
\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\cols2\colno1\colw1440\colsr-0\colno2\colw10320\pard\li720
\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs32\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {or,}\par\column\pard\li1440\ri0\
sl-320\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {T = 1.1 RC (seconds)(2)}\par\pard\li0
\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-440\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\chars
calex100 {It is evident from equation (2) that the timing interval is independen
t of the supply voltage.}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\ma
rglsxn0\margrsxn133\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {It
may also be noted that once triggered, the output remains in the HIGH s
tate until time T}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100
{elapses, which depends only upon R and C. Any additional trigger pulse coming
during this time}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {
will not change the output state. However, if a negative going reset puls
e as in figure 3(d) is}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charsc
alex100 {applied to the reset terminal (pin-4) during the timing cycle, transist
or Q}\fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {2}{ }\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {goes off, Q}\f
s24\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1}{ }\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {becomes on}\par\pard\
li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {and the external timing c
apacitor C is immediately discharged. The output now will be as in}\par\p
ard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Figure 3(e). It may be
seen that the output of Q}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {2}{ }\fs30\cf0\f0\charscal
ex100 {is connected directly to the input of Q}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1}{
}\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {so as to}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs30\c
f0\f0\charscalex100 {turn on Q}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1}{ }\fs28\cf0\f0\cha
rscalex100 {immediately and thereby avoid the propagation delay through the FF.
Now, even if the}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {
reset is released, the output will still remain LOW until a negative goin
g trigger pulse is again}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\char
scalex100 {applied at pin 2. Figure (4) shows a graph of the various combination
s of R and C necessary to}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charsc
alex100 {produce a given time delay.}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pg
hsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\pard\sect\sectd\sbkpage{\shp
{\*\shpinst

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7;32768}}
ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-466\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charsc
alex100\b {Fig. Timer in monostable operation with functional diagram}\b0 \par\p
ard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\pard\li1440
\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Sometimes the monostable circui
t of figure (1) mistriggers on positive pulse edges, even}\par\pard\li720\r
i0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {with the control pin bypass capaci
tor. To prevent this, a modified circuit as shown in figure 5 is}\par\pard\li720
\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {used. Here the resistor and cap
acitor combination of 10 k}\fs42\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61527X}{ }\fs28\
cf0\f0\charscalex100 {and 0.001}{ }\fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61549X}\fs2
8\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {F at the input forms a}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\sl
mult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {differentiator. During the positive going ed
ge of the trigger, diode D becomes forward biased,}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320
\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {thereby limiting the amplitude of the posit
ive spike to 0.7V.}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\r
i0\sl-426\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {Example:-}\b0 \par\pard\li1440\r

scalex100\b {In the monostable multivibrator of Figure (1) R = 100 k}\b0 \fs40\c
f0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61527X}{ }\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {and the time
delay T = 100 ms.}\b0 \par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex
100\b {Calculate the value of C. Verify the value of C obtained from the graphs
of Figure (4).}\b0 \par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\r
i0\sl-440\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {Solution:-}\b0 \par\pard\li1440\
ri0\sl-480\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {From Equation (2), we get}\par\pa
cf0\par\pard\li2706\ri0\sl-373\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {Figure: Gra
ph of RC combinations for different time delays}\b0 \par\pard\li3973\ri0\sl-213\
s28\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {Figure: Modified monostable circuit}\b0 \par\pard\se
ct\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\pard\sect\sectd\s
bkpage{\shp
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D4EC9FC55AA457F61A6DA8B2B486D63689A48D58B2F98DFC3F79BEEFFB3F357432FC0FF0149B71A3
C89B7FBB7527CDFF008F5007A2D79F78DEFEE6EB5BD1F406D1755B9D2E7B8867BBBBB4B4F363F964
DC91B37F08DCAACCDFDDFF007BE5ADFF000A1BC09FF3E575FF00814D4D93E047811D005B1BB8FDD6
E9BFAD005BB2653F1EF51DA54FFC53F1F4FF00AED5E855E4DE0EF09E99E0DF8BD7DA569465F21F44
8EE0ACB26EF9BCEDBFFB2AD7ACD0014514500145145001451450014514500145145001451450079D
7C4A6B38354F065F5F5C4705AC1ACAB49348EAAABF2332E5BD3E5A9CF893C373F8CE3D5A7F14E802
D6D2C5A0B65FED184B3492481A46FBDC7CB1C7FF007D352F8FAC6D752D73C1D6F7B6F15C5ABEA6CB
243322BABFEE643F32B7FBB5B9FF00082783FF00E855D0FF00F05F0FFF0013400BFF0009D7843FE8
6AD0FF00F0610FFF00155734ED7B47D64BAE95AB58DF347F7FECD70B2EDFAED354FF00E104F087FD
0ABA1FFE0BA1FF00E26B92D334AD3B46F8EF25BE99616B6503F867CC68ADA158D4BFDA40DDB57D94
5007A6D1451401485CA45A9436649124D0C92A8038C21407FF00462E055DA89154C9BB68DC01C1C7
404FF5C0C8F6A96800A28A2800A28A2800A28A2800A28A2800A28A2800A28A2800A28A2800A28A28
00A28A2803CF62217F680B9503EFF8695B3FF6F15E855C0C706FF8F33CDBB88FC34898FF007AE1BF
F89AEFA800A28A2800A28A2800A28A2800A28A2800A28A2800A28A280383F1EAA8F12782243FC3AC
6DFF00BEA36AEF2B89F1D283ADF82B3FF41B53FF009064AEDA800AF3FC7FC640EEDDFF0032B7DDFF
00B7AAF40AF3F3FF002702BFF62B7FEDD5007A051451400514514005145140051451400514514005
14514005145140051451400514514005145140051451401C25A42ABF1BB51919C96FEC2876AE7A0F
39BFF89AEEEB8BB519F8CBA873F7742B71FF0091A4AED2800A28A2800A28A2800A28A2800A28A280
0A28A2800A28A280385F1EAE75EF04FF00D8697E5FFB67257755C5F8E22126B5E0D520FF00C8695F
23FD98666AD7B3F13D9EA1E21BCD26D61B97367F2CD7223FDC2C9F2FEEF77F7BE61C5006ED703C7F
C2FDFF0077C2FF00FB75FF00D8D77D5E7F9FF8C810B81FF22B7FEDD5007A05145140051451400514
514005145140051451400514514005145140051451400514514005145140051451401C5D932AFC5F
D5C6396D1AD4FF00E449ABB4AE26C8A8F8CFAA2F73A25B9FFC8D2576D4005145140051451401E5FE
13F14EB779F10355D375EB9BB8206B89E0D36DDF4F58E095636FE197EF336DDDF2FF0077E6ACBF0A
78DFC597DA5EB2DAAC37E9AC2697717967673691E4C45A3FBBE5B6EDD272C9C63F8ABBC87C1F6D0F
895B5B9AFB54BA94492490417376CF15B338DAC635FE1F9770F6DDC536D3C216765AA5DDF3EA3ABD
CBDC4125BA0B8BE9185B46EC0B2C47EF2EE217E6DDBBE55DB4018DF0CB5FD5F5AB1BB5D72E3516D4
63F265686EF4E5B4F25640DB7CBDBFEB132ADF337F76BD0EB9CF0EF866D7C3D35E4B1DE6A5797176
5034B7F72D2BAC69BB646A7FBABB9BDFE6F9ABA3A0028A28A0028A29280385F1F3450EB5E0C9A465
8D575A553296DAABBA293E5FF81561786B48BDD13C6E624BD68F4E8EE2E6E269E5D47725DC737CD1
C6B0EEF9596466DCDB57EEFF00B55B3F12B4FB0D5AEBC29A6EA1009EDAE75951247BBEF7EE64FF00
EC6AE0F853E061D3C3567FF8F7FF0015401D4C77B673FDCBAB793FDD915AB815BDB56F8FAD2ADCC3
E52F8636EFF3176EEFB556C8F85DE081FF0032D69FFF007EEA4FF856BE0AFF00A1634CFF00C075A0
0E8BED96A23DFF006887CBFEF798BB6A39355D3A13B64BFB546F4699456427803C1F1AE0785B453F
EF58C6DFFB2D44BF0E7C1880EDF0C695CFF7AD55A80376D354B0BE90C7697D6D70E1771114AAE71E
B807DC55CAC8D2BC2DA0E8772D73A5E8B61653B218DA4B7B75462A4838C8038C81F956BD00145145
001451450014514500145145001451450014550B9D5B4EB4BDB6B3B8BFB586EAEBFD44524CAAF2FF
00BABFC557E800A29BBB3D29D40051494B40051451401C25B47B7E38EA127FD4021FFD1CDFFC4D77
75C2DAB67E38EA0A3B6810E7FEFF0035775400514514005145140051451400514514005145140051
451401C5F8E10C9AC7834AFF000EB8BFFA266FFE26BB4AE43C6D8FB7F84773945FEDC4F981C7FCBB
CF5D7D001451450014514500145145001451450014514500145145001451450014514500790F8CDF
4CB7D4BC5F0EA912C9ABEA36B147A18646791FE4DB1AC3FDD659F737CBFDE56A5B3F16EBB6579A77
876FAFBCCF10BEAB6914D6FE5AB16B5FB346D33676FDDDDE67CD5EBB45007856A1A92F87BC291C23
C47AB431C9E309EDF529FCC6F3638F748CCABB57E5DCBB24F947DE90D588BC7179A068DAA0D4354B
F06EEC245F0ECB716D234972CB2DCAC6CDFBBFF59B7ECFF7BAA956AF60BBB0B2BC96D9EE6DA295ED
A4F3A16750DE5C9C8DC3DF9AA5E27BABFB2F0B6A975A5C6D25F4369249022A6E6326D3B7E5EFF4A0
0E77C01632D86A3E298A7BBBCB8B83A9AC8C6E4FF0B411B2F6DBFC457E5FEEAD7795F3C7803C6BE3
33AB4B6DA44971E30B792D84F70972E2DBECF336DDCAB249FDDE9B7EEFF76BD1FF00E12CF887FF00
44CBFF002BF6FF00FC4D007A05711E319EF74AD5F42D46DF51D4024FA8DBE9E6D5150DB95924F99A
4F97767036AB6EE1B6FF0079AAB7FC25BF10FF00E8987FE57ADFFF0089AC3BD3E28BFD6A2D5EE7E1
497BC88C6C87FE1228C26E4DDE5B347F75997736D665F973401B90FF00C97FB9C74FF846D73FF811
5E815E4FE11D5357D57E32EAB26B3A38D22EA3D1A38FECA2E167F97CCDCADB97E5FE2AF58A0028A2
8A0028A28A0028A28A0028A28A0028A28A0028A28A00E37C74C5352F0730191FDBB18C7FDB19AB3F
C1ABAE5BEBF72BE214D6BEDD722691249AEA392CCC6B27CBE5C68DFBB6DAD1FDE5FEF527C53BCBAB
18FC2D35859ADDDD2EBB0F950197CBF31BCB9176EEFE1FBD59167278AEC357B8D4ED7E14A437571B
848C35F8B07710CDB57EEAEEDABBB68F9B6F3401EB54579FFF00C25BF10FFE898FFE57ADFF00F89A
9BC39E35D5F52F1749E1DD6FC33FD8D74961F6E8C7DB96E3747E604FE15F53FA5007754514500145
14500145145001451450014514500145145001451450014514500145145003155507CAA077E29F45
140051451401E7968157E3FEA1C727C3F1FF00E8EAF43AF37D3D8FFC3426ACB213BBFB0A3F2BFDDF
31777FE3D5E91400514514005145140051451400514514005145140051451401C27C460BF6AF0613
DBC496FF00FA0C95DDD70FF1066F2B50F0628CE5BC410FFE8B917FF66AEE2800AE1580FF0085EB11
EFFF0008D499FF00C095AEEAB847DBFF000BDA3C30F33FE1196DCBFECFDA97FF00B2A00EEE8A28A0
0627DE3EDDF3D7BD3E9ABD4F7F7FF3F8D3A800A28A2800A28A2800A28A2800A28A2800A28A2800A2
8A2800A28A2800A28A2800A28A2803CE7C4DE04D7EFF00C6FF00F093F87BC431E973B590B59035BF
9859776EFF00E27FEF9A21F0B7C468203FF1706095FF00E9A6931FFE85BABD1A8A00F3993C2FF126
6F9CFC428216FEEC7A4C7B7FF1EA0F85BE25AA617E22C0FF00EF68F08AF46A2803CFC681F1216344
FF0084D34E619E59B4BE7FF42A53A5FC4C57DA9E26D11D36FDE6D3995BFEF9DD5DFD1401C0FF0065
7C4EDA3FE2A5D0B39E7FE25EDFFC552BE93F13182E3C4BA227AEDD3DBFF8AAEF68A00E0468FF0013
4F27C55A3AFF00B234DFFECAA7FECBF88BFF0043368BFF0082B6FF00E395DBD1401E6B737BE35D37
5ED2F48B9F136822EEFB79B785B4C98F9DE5AEE6FBADB47FDF4B5149A97C4393C693F86E1D434153
1D8ADF7DA7EC522FCAD26DDBB7CC6FEEB574FAF6957B7BE28F0BDEDBC21EDECAEA692E1B705D8AD0
B2AFD7E66AA70F963E31DF824091B42B7DA3D57CF9B7500529B4FF008ABB3F73ADF8709FF6AD645F
FE2AB2B5093E2AE9B1096FBC43E0CB3899942C933491AEEFEEFCCB5EAD5C078F66D22D358D1EEBC4
10B4BA3ADB5E4254A332FDA1847B176AFF001347E72AFF00BD401892784FC75AB6B3A55FF8BBC41A
28D274AB95BF2B6AACA77273F79957E5FF0068B57A55AEA9A7DE5A43776F7B6D3DB4EDB629639959
246FBB8561F7BBD70DA941AC9F0059C7AE436D258451698D769E5C8D36D59236BAF3063EEED5FF00
BE776EA812CED7581717F636AF3D80F13DA5DD84B6E8C55B6A431BC8BEB1EEF31777DDFBCD401E89
757F6564631777905B97FB9E6C8ABBBE99AE2DB50B36F8D911FB5C185F0F488DFBC5F95BED11FCB5
5FE24DBF8466BED2FF00E129D0351D44B891619AD126658BEEFCADE5B0FBDF8F4AE2BEC7F0505C35
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0BB68EF9FC23A7DDDA249E5FDA1A78EE155B1BB6E0CBFEF37DDF5AEFE800A28A2800A28A2800A28A
2800A28A2800A28A2800AE3A21FF00178EF1B23FE401071DFF00E3E26AEC6B83FDDFFC2F96DC7E7F
F846576FFE04B5007795CDF8DB595F0E783352D59A24964B68F7408E9B81959B6C7C7FBCCB5D2566
EA1A4DBEA4F65F6A0EC96970B70A9BBE56655655DDFDEFBDBBEAAB401C0788BC6326AF61A859E877
705D247169CDE6585EED90C935DF96D179ABBB67CABD7EF2EEAEB7C25A65C58E9AC6F2D27B49DDB9
865D566BFDAA3A61A4FBBFF01AB365E18D074D8A48ECB45D3AD9247479161B445DECADB919B03F85
B95F4ADBA002B85603FE17BC471CFF00C234FF00FA54B5DD570EF115F8DF04BFC2DE1C9107FC06E6
3FFE2A803B7A5A28A0028A28A0028A28A0028A28A0028A28A0028A28A0028A28A0028A28A0028A28
A0028A28A0028A28A0028A28A0028A28A0028A28A0028A28A0028A28A002B87D73C1DAC5DF8E60F1
468FADC161711D87D85A296D3CE575DECDFDE5FEF2FF00DF35DC51401C80D2BC7617FE468D21BFDE
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3AE33AAF877DFF00E25937FF0024531AD7C7FD5757F0E7D3FB3A6FFE3D5D65140183A2C7E2B4BE73
AE5D68F2DA796762D95BCB1B87C8C1259C8C633FA56F540B30FB42C5B5B2CACC081C0C6DC83EFF00
37F3A9E800A28A2800A28A2800A28A2800A28A2800A28A2800A28A2800A28A2800A28A2800A28A28
00A28A2800A28A2800A28A2800A28A2800A28A2800A28A2803FFD9}
}}}}

7;32768}}
0\f0\charscalex100 {C = T/1.1 R = 100}{ }\fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61620
X}{ }\fs32\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {10}\fs20\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {-3}\fs28\cf0\f0\

charscalex100 {/1.1}{ }\fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61620X}{ }\fs28\cf0\f0\
charscalex100 {100}{ }\fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61620X}{ }\fs32\cf0\f0\c
harscalex100 {10}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {3}{ }\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {=
0.9}{ }\fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61549X}\fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {F}\p
28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {From the graph of figure 4, the value of C is found to
be 0.9}{ }\fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61549X}\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {F
also.}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-426\sl
mult0 \fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {3. Write about the operation of linear ramp
generator in 555 timer.}\b0 \par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\par
d\li720\ri0\sl-440\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {Linear Ramp Generator}\
b0 \par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-426\slmu
lt0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Linear ramp can be generated by the circuit
shown in figure (1). The resistor R of the}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slm
ult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {monostable circuit is replaced by a constant cu
rrent source. The capacitor is charged linearly by}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\sl
mult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {the constant current source formed by the tran
sistor Q}\fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {3}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {. The capacit
or voltage v}\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {c}{ }\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {can be
written as}\par\pard\li1533\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs36\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {t}\p
ar\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\pard\li
760\ri0\sl-693\slmult0 \fs34\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {V}\fs34\cf0\f3\charscalex100
{V}\fs34\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {V}{\sub \fs24\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {c}}\fs256\cf0
\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61501X}{\sub \fs34\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {C}}\fs36\cf0\f
3\charscalex100\ul {1}\ul0 { }\fs26\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61682X}\fs26\cf0
\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61682X}\fs26\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61682X}{\sub \
fs24\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {0}}\fs26\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {idt
(8.3)}\par\
pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Where I is the current
supplied by the constant current source. Further, the KVI equation can be}\par\
pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {written as}\par\pard\l
f0\charscalex100\b {Figure: Linear ramp generator}\b0 \par\pard\li1013\ri0\sl-21
{R}{\sub \fs34\cf0\f3\charscalex99 {V}}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893
\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\pard\li1013\ri0\sl-480\slmult0 \fs34\cf0\f3\c
harscalex99 {R}{\sub \fs34\cf0\f3\charscalex99 {V}}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\
pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\cols3\colno1\colw2706\colsr-0\coln
harscalex99 {R}{\sub \fs34\cf0\f3\charscalex99 {V}}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-3
6\slmult0 \fs8\cf0\f1\charscalex73 {\uc1\u61481X}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pg
wsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\pard\li2520\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \*\tx
4013\*\tx4693\fs26\cf0\f1\charscalex99 {\uc1\u61501X \uc1\u61538X \uc1\u61483X}{
}\fs28\cf0\f3\charscalex99 {1 I R}\tab \fs30\cf0\f3\charscalex99 {I R}\tab \fs2
6\cf0\f3\charscalex99 {iR
(8.4)}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\
pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\pard\li2520\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \*\tx4013\*\tx4
693\fs26\cf0\f1\charscalex99 {\uc1\u61501X \uc1\u61538X \uc1\u61483X}{ }\fs28\cf
0\f3\charscalex99 {1 I R}\tab \fs30\cf0\f3\charscalex99 {I R}\tab \fs26\cf0\f3\c
harscalex99 {iR
(8.4)}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn1682
6\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\cols5\colno1\colw760\colsr-0\colno2\colw0\colsr-0\colno3
\colw946\colsr-0\colno4\colw813\colsr-0\colno5\colw9240\pard\li1173\ri0\sl-186\s
lmult0 \fs24\cf0\f3\charscalex99 {1}\par\pard\li1066\ri0\sl-293\slmult0 \fs32\cf
0\f1\charscalex99 {\uc1\u61483X}\par\pard\li760\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs42\cf0\f3\
charscalex99 {R R}\par\column\pard\li306\ri0\sl-293\slmult0 \fs32\cf0\f1\charsca
lex99 {\uc1\u61483X}\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs42\cf0\f3\charscalex99 {
R R}\par\column\pard\li293\ri0\sl-293\slmult0 \fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex99 {\uc1\u6
1483X}\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs42\cf0\f3\charscalex99 {R R}\par\colum
n\pard\li0\ri0\sl-186\slmult0 \*\tx213\fs18\cf0\f3\charscalex99 {cc}\tab \fs256\
cf0\f1\charscalex99 {\uc1\u61485X}{ }\fs256\cf0\f3\charscalex99 {V}{\sub \fs18\c
f0\f3\charscalex99 {BE}}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-346\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f1\cha
rscalex99 {\uc1\u61501X \uc1\u61538X \uc1\u61483X}{ }\fs28\cf0\f3\charscalex99 {
1 I R}{\sub \fs26\cf0\f3\charscalex99 {B E}}\fs256\cf0\f1\charscalex99 {\uc1\u61
501X}{ }\fs30\cf0\f3\charscalex99 {I R}{\sub \fs28\cf0\f3\charscalex99 {c E}}\fs
256\cf0\f1\charscalex99 {\uc1\u61501X}{ }\fs26\cf0\f3\charscalex99 {iR
(8
.4)}{\sub \fs24\cf0\f3\charscalex99 {E}}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893
\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\pard\li933\ri0\sl-186\slmult0 \*\tx1413\fs24\
cf0\f3\charscalex99 {1}\tab \fs24\cf0\f3\charscalex99 {2}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl480\slmult0 \*\tx1773\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Where I}\fs22\cf0\f0\charscalex
100 {B}\tab \fs44\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {I}\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {c}{ }\fs28
\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {are the base current and collector current respectivel
y,}{ }\fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61538X}\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {is t
he current amplification}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charsc
alex100 {factor in CE-mode and is very high. Therefore.}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbk
\colno2\colw0\colsr-0\colno3\colw2013\colsr-0\colno4\colw8693\pard\li2213\ri0\sl
73 {\uc1\u61480X}\par\pard\li1053\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \*\tx1840\fs30\cf0\f3\chars
calex100 {R V}\tab \fs46\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {V R R}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl
-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-453\slmult0 \*\tx786\fs30\cf0\f3\char
scalex100 {R V}\tab \fs46\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {V R R}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\s
l-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-453\slmult0 \*\tx600\fs30\cf0\f3\cha
rscalex100 {R V}\tab \fs256\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61485X}{ }\fs46\cf0\f3\c
harscalex100 {V R R}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\l
i0\ri0\sl-466\slmult0 \fs8\cf0\f1\charscalex73 {\uc1\u61481X}\par\pard\sect\sect
d\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\cols5\colno1\colw1226\co
lsr-0\colno2\colw253\colsr-0\colno3\colw0\colsr-0\colno4\colw1720\colsr-0\colno5
\colw8560\pard\li746\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs60\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {i}{ }\fs32\c
f0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61501X}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-186\slmult0 \*\tx7
60\*\tx1240\*\tx1720\fs22\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {1 cc}\tab \fs18\cf0\f3\charscale
x100 {BE}\tab \fs24\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {1}\tab \fs24\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {2}\
par\pard\li573\ri0\sl-400\slmult0 \*\tx1413\fs8\cf0\f1\charscalex73 {\uc1\u61480
X}\tab \fs8\cf0\f1\charscalex73 {\uc1\u61481X}\par\pard\li560\ri0\sl-400\slmult0
\fs8\cf0\f1\charscalex73 {\uc1\u61480X}\par\pard\li253\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs42
\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {R R R}\par\pard\li426\ri0\sl-186\slmult0 \*\tx813\*\tx129
3\fs24\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {E}\tab \fs24\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {1}\tab \fs24\cf0
\f3\charscalex100 {2}\par\column\pard\li320\ri0\sl-400\slmult0 \fs8\cf0\f1\chars
calex73 {\uc1\u61480X}\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs42\cf0\f3\charscalex10
0 {R R R}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-346\slmult0 \fs42\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {R R
R}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {
(8.
5)}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\pa
0\f0\charscalex100 {Now putting the value of the current I in Eq. 8.3, we get}\p
ar\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\pard\se
ct\sectd\sbkpage

{\*\shpinst
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7;32768}}
com}}}}\b0 \i0 \ul0 \par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\l
0\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs1
\fs18\cf0\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-426\slmult0 \fs8\cf0\f1\charscalex73 {\uc1\u61480X
}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmul
li0\ri0\sl-426\slmult0 \fs8\cf0\f1\charscalex73 {\uc1\u61481X}\par\pard\sect\sec
34\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {V}\par\pard\li906\ri0\sl-186\slmult0 \fs24\cf0\f3\chars
calex100 {c}\par\column\pard\li200\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \*\tx800\fs30\cf0\f3\chars
calex100 {R V}\tab \fs256\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61485X}{ }\fs46\cf0\f3\cha
rscalex100 {V R R}\par\pard\li373\ri0\sl-186\slmult0 \*\tx1120\*\tx1613\*\tx2093
\fs22\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {1 cc}\tab \fs18\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {BE}\tab \fs24\
cf0\f3\charscalex100 {1}\tab \fs24\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {2}\par\pard\li1026\ri0\
sl-400\slmult0 \*\tx1880\fs8\cf0\f1\charscalex73 {\uc1\u61480X}\tab \fs8\cf0\f1\
charscalex73 {\uc1\u61481X}\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-506\slmult0 \*\tx533\fs32\cf0\f1
\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61501X}\tab \fs36\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {CR R R}\par\pard\l
i880\ri0\sl-186\slmult0 \*\tx1280\*\tx1760\fs24\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {E}\tab \fs
24\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {1}\tab \fs24\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {2}\par\column\pard\l
i0\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {xt
(8.6)}\par\pard\sect\s
ectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213

{At time t=T, the capacitor voltage V}\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {c}{ }\fs26\cf0
\f0\charscalex100 {becomes (2/3) V}\fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {cc}{ }\fs30\cf0\f
0\charscalex100 {then we get}\par\pard\li2626\ri0\sl-426\slmult0 \*\tx3480\fs8\c
f0\f1\charscalex73 {\uc1\u61480X}\tab \fs8\cf0\f1\charscalex73 {\uc1\u61481X}\pa
73\ri0\sl-533\slmult0 \*\tx3360\*\tx3600\fs28\cf0\f3\charscalex100\ul {2 V}\ul0
{\sub \fs24\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {c}}\fs256\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61501X}{
\super \fs30\up5\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {R V}}\fs22\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {1 cc}{ }
\fs256\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61485X}{ }\fs46\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {V R R}{
\sub \fs18\cf0\f3\charscalex100\ul {BE}\ul0 }\fs24\cf0\f3\charscalex100\ul {1}\u
l0 \tab \fs24\cf0\f3\charscalex100\ul {2}\ul0 \tab \fs26\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {x
T
(8.7)}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\marg
rsxn133\cols2\colno1\colw2946\colsr-0\colno2\colw8813\pard\li2106\ri0\sl-400\slm
ult0 \fs8\cf0\f1\charscalex73 {\uc1\u61480X}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-400\slmu
lt0 \fs8\cf0\f1\charscalex73 {\uc1\u61481X}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11
973\pard\li773\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs36\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {3}\par\column\pard
\li0\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs42\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {R R R C}\par\pard\sect\sectd
\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\pard\li1960\ri0\sl-186\sl
mult0 \*\tx2360\*\tx2840\fs24\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {E}\tab \fs24\cf0\f3\charscal
ex100 {1}\tab \fs24\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {2}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \
fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Which gives the time period of the linear ramp genera
tor as}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn13
3\cols4\colno1\colw1680\colsr-0\colno2\colw720\colsr-0\colno3\colw840\colsr-0\co
lno4\colw8520\pard\li1173\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1173\ri0\sl-46
\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-466\slmult0 \fs8\cf0\f1\charscalex73 {\uc
1\u61481X}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl466\slmult0 \fs8\cf0\f1\charscalex73 {\uc1\u61480X}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-2
13\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-466\slmult0 \fs8\cf0\f1\charscalex73 {\
uc1\u61481X}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margr
sxn133\pard\li1266\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs36\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {2/ 3 V R R R C
}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\cols
4\colno1\colw960\colsr-0\colno2\colw2346\colsr-0\colno3\colw266\colsr-0\colno4\c
olw8186\pard\li746\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs36\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {T}\par\column\
pard\li973\ri0\sl-186\slmult0 \*\tx1693\*\tx2173\fs24\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {cc E
}\tab \fs24\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {1}\tab \fs24\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {2}\par\pard
\li1506\ri0\sl-400\slmult0 \fs8\cf0\f1\charscalex73 {\uc1\u61480X}\par\pard\li0\
ri0\sl-506\slmult0 \fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61501X}{\sub \fs30\cf0\f3\c
harscalex100 {R V}}\fs256\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61485X}{ }\fs46\cf0\f3\cha
rscalex100 {V R R}\par\pard\li506\ri0\sl-186\slmult0 \*\tx1266\*\tx1760\*\tx2240
\fs20\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {1 cc}\tab \fs16\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {BE}\tab \fs22\
cf0\f3\charscalex100 {1}\tab \fs22\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {2}\par\column\pard\li0\
ri0\sl-400\slmult0 \fs8\cf0\f1\charscalex73 {\uc1\u61481X}\par\column\pard\li0\r
i0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {
(8.8)}\par\pard\li346\ri0\sl
arscalex100\b {Figure: Linear ramp generator output}\b0 \par\pard\sect\sectd\sbk
0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-440\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {The c
apacitor discharges as soon as its voltage reaches (2/3) V}\fs18\cf0\f0\charscal
ex100 {cc}{ }\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {which is the threshold of the}\par\pard
\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {upper comparator in the mo
no stable circuit functional diagram. The capacitor voltage remains}\par\pard\li
720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {zero till another trigger is
applied. The various wave forms are shown in fig. 8.11.}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-3
20\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {The practical values can be noted as}\par
\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {R}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1}\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex10
0 {=47k}\fs42\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61527X}\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {; R
}\fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {E}{ }\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {= 2.7k}\fs42\cf0\f
1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61527X}\fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {; c=0.1}\fs32\cf0\f1\c
harscalex100 {\uc1\u61549X}\fs34\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {F.}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl
100 {V}\fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {cc}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {=5V (any value
between 5 to 18v can be chosen)}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\pa
r\pard\li720\ri0\sl-440\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {4. Write about the
operation of frequency divider in 555 timer and PWM?}\b0 \par\pard\li720\ri0\sl
-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {frequency divider:}\b0 \par\pard\sect
page{\shp
{\*\shpinst
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}}}}{\shp
{\*\shpinst
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7;32768}}

\li1440\ri0\sl-493\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {A continuously triggered
mono stable circuit when triggered by a square wave generator}\par\pard\li720\ri
0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {can be used as frequency divider, i
f the timing interval is adjusted to be longer than the period of}\par\pard\li72
0\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {the triggering square wave inpu
t signal. The mono stable multivibrator will be triggered by the}\par\pard\li720
\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {first negative going edge of
the square wave ;input but the out will remain HIGH (because of}\par\pard
\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {greater timing interval) f
or next negative going edge of the input square wave as shown in fig.}\par\pard\
li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {8.12. The mono-shot will ho
wever be triggered on the third negative going input, depending on}\par\pard\li7
20\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {the choice of the time delay.
In this way, the out put can be made integral fractions of the}\par\par
d\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {frequency of the input tr
iggering square wave.}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li72
0\ri0\sl-373\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {pulse width modulation in 555
timer:}\b0 \par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl
-440\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {The circuit is shown in fig. 8.13.
This is basically a monostable multivibrator with a}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl320\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {modulating input signal applied at pin-5
. By the application of continuous trigger at pin-2, a series}\par\pard\li720\ri
0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {of output pulses are obtained, the
duration of which depends of the modulating input at pin 5.}\par\pard\li720\ri0\
sl-333\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {The modulating signal applied at pin5 gets superimposed upon the already existing voltage (2/3)}\par\pard\li720\ri0\
sl-320\slmult0 \*\tx1093\fs32\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {V}\fs16\cf0\f0\charscalex100
{cc}\tab \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {at the inverting input terminal of UC. Thi
s in turn changes the threshold level of the UC and}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\s
lmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {the output pulse width modulation takes place
. The modulating signal and the}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbkpage{\shp
{\*\shpinst

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s30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Out put wave form are shown in fig. 8.14. it may be no
ted from the out put wave form that the}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28
\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {pulse duration, that is, the duty cycle only varies, ke
eping the frequency same as that of the}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0
\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {continuous input pulse train trigger.}\par\pard\li72
arscalex100\b {5. Explain about Astable operation also explain astable as a FSK
generator?}\b0 \par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1440\ri
0\sl-440\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {The device is connected for astable
operation as shown in fig. 8.15. for better}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0
0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-480\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Understanding, t
he complete diagram of astable multivibtrator with detailed internal diagram of}
\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {555 is shown in
fig 8.16 Comparing with monostable operation, the timing resistor is now split
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0 {into two sections R}\fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {A}{ }\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex1
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f discharging transistor Q}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1}{ }\fs28\cf0\f0\charsca
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28A28A0028A28A00FFD9}
}}}}{\shp
{\*\shpinst

\jpegblip
FFD8FFE000104A46494600010100000100010000FFDB004300080606070605080707070909080A0C
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7;32768}}
d\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-453\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\
charscalex100\b {Figure: Functional diagram of multivibtrator using 555 timer}\b
d\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-426\slmult0 \*\tx1093
\*\tx8000\fs34\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {V}\fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {cc}\tab \fs28
\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {is connected the external timing capacitor c charges towa
rds V}\fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {cc}\tab \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {with a tim
e constant (R}\fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {A}{ }\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {+ R}\
fs22\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {B}\fs44\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {)}\par\pard\li720\ri0\s
l-333\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {C. during this time, out put (pin3) is
high (equals V}\fs16\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {cc}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {) as
Reset R=0. set S=1 and this combination}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-346\slmult0 \fs30

\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {makes}{ }\fs32\cf0\f3\charscalex101\ul {Q}\ul0 { }\fs28\c
f0\f0\charscalex100 {=0 which has unclamped the timing capacitor C.}\par\pard\li
1440\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-426\slmult0 \*\tx10120\
fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {When the capacitor voltage equals (to be precis
e is just greater than), (2/3) V}\fs16\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {cc}\tab \fs28\cf
0\f0\charscalex100 {the upper}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-346\slmult0 \*\tx6066\*\tx6
386\fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {comparator triggers the control flip-flop so
that}\tab \fs30\cf0\f3\charscalex101\ul {Q}\ul0 \tab \fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100
{=1. this in turn, makes transistor Q}\fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1}{ }\fs
28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {on and}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0
\charscalex100 {capacitor C starts discharging towards ground through R}\fs22\cf
0\f0\charscalex100 {B}{ }\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {and transistor Q1 with a ti
me constant}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {RBC(n
eglecting the forward resistance of Q1). Current also flows into transistor Q1 t
hrough R}\fs22\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {A}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \*\tx2
093\*\tx3106\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Resistor R}\fs22\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {
A}\tab \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {and R}\fs20\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {B}\tab \fs2
8\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {must be large enough to limit this current and pre
vent damage to the}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex1
00 {discharge transistor Q}\fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex
100 {. The minimum value of R}\fs22\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {A}{ }\fs26\cf0\f0\char
scalex100 {is approximately equal to V}\fs16\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {cc}\fs24\cf0\
f0\charscalex100 {/0.2 where 0.2A is}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf
0\f0\charscalex100 {the maximum current through the on transistor Q}\fs26\cf0\f0
\charscalex100 {1}\fs54\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {.}\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-213\slmu
lt0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-360\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Dur
ing the discharge of the timing capacitor C, as it reaches (to be prices, is jus
t less than)}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-346\slmult0 \*\tx9453\*\tx10720\fs32\cf0\f0\
charscalex100 {V}\fs16\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {cc}\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {/3,
the lower comparator is triggered and at this stage S=1,R=0, which turns}\tab \f
s30\cf0\f3\charscalex101\ul {Q}\ul0 { }\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {=0. Now}\tab
\fs30\cf0\f3\charscalex101\ul {Q}\ul0 { }\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {=0}\par\par
d\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {unclamps the external t
iming capacitor C. the capacitor C is thus periodically charged and}\par\p
ard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \*\tx5200\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {discharged bet
ween (2/3) V}\fs16\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {cc}{ }\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {and (
1/3) V}\fs16\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {cc}\tab \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {respectiv
ely. Figure 8.17 shows the timing sequence and}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult
0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {capacitor voltage wave form. The length of time th
at the out put remains HIGH is the time for the}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmul
t0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {capacitor to charge from (1/3) V}\fs18\cf0\f0\cha
rscalex100 {cc}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {to (2/3) V}\fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100
{cc}{ }\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {It may be calculated as follows:}\par\pard\s
ect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\pard\sect\sectd\
sbkpage

7;32768}}
ard\li0\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {Figure: Timing sequence
of astable multivibrator}\b0 \par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn168
26\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\
ri0\sl-360\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {The capacitor voltage for a low p
ass RC circuit subjected to step input of V}\fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {cc}{ }\f
s28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {volts is given by}\par\pard\li2920\ri0\sl-213\slmult0
\fs18\cf0\par\pard\li2920\ri0\sl-226\slmult0 \fs14\cf0\f3\charscalex99 {t / RC}\
par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\pard\l
i1480\ri0\sl-360\slmult0 \fs34\cf0\f3\charscalex99 {V}{\sub \fs24\cf0\f3\charsca
lex99 {c}}\fs256\cf0\f1\charscalex99 {\uc1\u61501X}{ }\fs36\cf0\f3\charscalex99
{V (1 e}{\sub \fs18\cf0\f3\charscalex99 {cc}}\fs24\cf0\f1\charscalex99 {\uc1\u61
485X}{\sub \fs44\cf0\f3\charscalex99 {)}}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-386\slmult0 \fs3
0\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {The t}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1}{ }\fs28\cf0\f0\char
scalex100 {taken by the circuit to charge form 0 to (2/3) V}\fs18\cf0\f0\charsca
lex100 {cc}{ }\fs34\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {is,}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsx
n11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\cols6\colno1\colw840\colsr-0\colno2\col
w906\colsr-0\colno3\colw1133\colsr-0\colno4\colw26\colsr-0\colno5\colw373\colsr0\colno6\colw8480\pard\li746\ri0\sl-613\slmult0 \fs8\cf0\f1\charscalex74 {\uc1\u
61480X}\par\column\pard\li413\ri0\sl-613\slmult0 \fs8\cf0\f1\charscalex74 {\uc1\
u61481X}\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {2/ 3 V}\par
\pard\li680\ri0\sl-186\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {cc}\par\column\pard\l
i0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-413\slmult0 \fs32\cf0\f1\cha
rscalex100 {\uc1\u61501X}{ }\fs34\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {V (1 e}{\sub \fs18\cf0\f
3\charscalex100 {cc}}\fs24\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61485X}\par\column\pard\l
i0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-240\slmult0 \fs16\cf0\f3\cha
rscalex100 {t / RC}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li
0\ri0\sl-253\slmult0 \fs20\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {1}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-2
{)}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\co
ls2\colno1\colw3653\colsr-0\colno2\colw8106\pard\li760\ri0\sl-573\slmult0 \fs32\
cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61485X}\fs28\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {1.09}{ }\fs256\cf
0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61501X \uc1\u61485X}\fs30\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {t /RC}
{\sub \fs24\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {1}}\fs256\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61660X}{
}\fs32\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {in}{ }\fs40\cf0\f1\charscalex51 {\uc1\u61480X \uc1
\u61481X}\par\pard\li746\ri0\sl-506\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {or}\par\
pard\li760\ri0\sl-386\slmult0 \fs48\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {t}{\sub \fs24\cf0\f3\c
harscalex100 {1}}\fs256\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61501X}{ }\fs24\cf0\f3\chars
calex100 {1.09RC}\par\pard\li773\ri0\sl-373\slmult0 \fs50\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {
2 1 e}\fs24\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61485X}\fs16\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {t / R
C}{\sub \fs20\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {1}}\par\pard\li773\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs36\
ex100 {1}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-440\slmult0 \fs38\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {in
e}\fs24\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61485X}\fs16\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {t / RC}{\
sub \fs20\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {1}}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghs
xn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133{\trowd\trleft773\trkeep\trftsWidth1\trpaddl0\trpad
dr0\trpaddfl3\trpaddfr3 \clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrnone\clbrdrl\brdrnone\clbrdrb\brd
rnone\clbrdrr\brdrnone\cltxlrtb\clNoWrap\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1000\clpadt0\clpadr
0\clpadft3\clpadfr3\cellx1640 \pard\li0\ri0\sl--26\widctlpar\intbl \fs24\cf0\f1\
charscalex100 {\uc1\u61485X}\fs24\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61485X\uc1\u61487X
\uc1\u61501X \uc1\u61485X \uc1\u61485X}\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-160\widctlpar\intbl
\fs20\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61487X}\fs16\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {t / RC}\fs
36\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {e}\fs20\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {1}\cell\clvertalt\clbrdrt
\brdrnone\clbrdrl\brdrnone\clbrdrb\brdrnone\clbrdrr\brdrnone\cltxlrtb\clNoWrap\c
lftsWidth3\clwWidth1520\clpadt0\clpadr0\clpadft3\clpadfr3\cellx3800 \pard\li0\ri
0\sl-133\widctlpar\intbl \fs26\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {
(8.9)}\cell\
row}\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\pard\
li826\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs36\cf0\f3\charscalex100 {3}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-40
0\slmult0 \*\tx7933\*\tx10186\fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Q}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscal
ex100 {1}{ }\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {when the variable resistors are at minim
um value. And, if R}\fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {A}\tab \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex10
0 {is made equal to R}\fs22\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {B}\tab \fs28\cf0\f0\charscale
x100 {then 50%}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {du
ty cycle is achieved.}\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1
440\ri0\sl-346\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Symmetrical square wave gener
ated by adding a clocked JK flip-flop to the out put of the}\par\pard\li720\ri0\
sl-320\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {nonsymmetrical square wave generated
is shown in Fig. 8.20. The clocked flip-flop acts as binary}\par\pard\li720\ri0\
sl-333\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {divider to the timer output. The outp
ut frequency in this case will be one half that of the timer.}\par\pard\li720\ri
0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {The advantage of this circuit is of
having output of 50% duty cycle without any restriction on the}\par\pard\li720\
ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {choice of R}\fs24\cf0\f0\charscal
ex100 {A}{ }\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {and R}\fs22\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {B}\fs5
4\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {.}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\
li720\ri0\sl-440\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {Application of astable mo
de in FSK generator:}\b0 \par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\l
i720\ri0\sl-346\slmult0 \fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {FSK Generator}\b0 \par\par
f0\f0\charscalex100 {In digital data communication, binary code is transmitt
ed by shifting a carrier frequency}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\c
f0\f0\charscalex100 {between two present frequencies. This type of transmission
is called frequency shift keying (FSK)}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs24
\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {technique. A 555 timer in astable mode can be used
to generate FSK signal. The circuit is as}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmu
lt0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {shown in fig 8.21. The standard digital data i
nput frequency is 150 Hz. When input is HIGH,}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult
0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {transistor Q is off and 555 timer works in the nor
mal astable mode of operation. The frequency of}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmu
lt0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {the output waveform given by Eq. (8.1) can be re
written as}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrs
xn133\pard\sect\sectd\sbkpage

{\*\shpinst
\jpegblip
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}}}}

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0\f0\charscalex100 {1.45}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\ma
rglsxn0\margrsxn133\cols2\colno1\colw1226\colsr-0\colno2\colw10533\pard\li720\ri
0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs36\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {F}\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {o}{ }
\fs32\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {=}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\
f0\charscalex100 {(R +2R ) C}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn1682
6\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\cols2\colno1\colw2053\colsr-0\colno2\colw9706\pard\li148
0\ri0\sl-120\slmult0 \fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {A}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-1
20\slmult0 \fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {B}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn1189
3\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\
pard\li720\ri0\sl-346\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {In a tele \uc1\u8211X
typewriter using a modulator \uc1\u8211X demodulator (MODEM), a frequency betwee
n 1070 Hz}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \*\tx9466\*\tx10346\fs28\cf0\f0\cha
rscalex100 {to 1270 Hz is used as one of the standard FSK signals. The c
omponents R}\fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {A}\tab \fs32\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {and
R}\fs22\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {B}\tab \fs32\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {and the}\par\pa
rd\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {capacitor C can be selec
ted so that F}\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {o}{ }\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {is 10
70 Hz.}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {When the i
nput is LOW, Q goes on and connects the resistance R}\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100
{c}{ }\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {across R}\fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {A}\fs28\c
f0\f0\charscalex100 {. The output frequency}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0
\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {is now given by}\par\pard\li1293\ri0\sl-293\slmult0
\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1.45}\par\pard\li773\ri0\sl-373\slmult0 \*\tx2160\fs
30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {(R ||R ) + 2R}{\sub \fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {A}}\fs3
0\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {c}\tab \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {a}\par\pard\li720\ri0
lex100 {The resistance R}\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {c}{ }\fs28\cf0\f0\charscale
x100 {can be adjusted to get an output frequency 1270 Hz.}\par\pard\li4760\ri0\s

\b {Figure: FSK generator}\b0 \par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn168
26\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\pard\sect\sectd\sbkpage
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r\column\pard\li640\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li640\ri0\sl-213\slmul
\par\pard\li640\ri0\sl-546\slmult0 \fs34\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b \ul {UNIT \uc1\u
8211X V}\b0 \ul0 \par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-560\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b \
ul {APPLICATION ICs}\b0 \ul0 \par\pard\li626\ri0\sl-573\slmult0 \fs32\cf0\f0\cha
rscalex100\b \ul {PART \uc1\u8211X A}\b0 \ul0 \par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsx
n11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\cols2\colno1\colw7453\colsr-0\colno2\co
lw4306\pard\li720\ri0\sl-506\slmult0 \fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {1. What are t
he limitations of 723 regulator?}\b0 \par\pard\li1080\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\c
f0\par\pard\li1080\ri0\sl-440\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1. It can be c
urrent boasted with an external pass}\par\pard\li1080\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\c
f0\f0\charscalex100 {2. not short circuit protection transistor}\par\pard\li1080
\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {3. O/P voltage is fixed}\par\par
d\li1080\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {4. Current fold back usi
ng external components}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li7
20\ri0\sl-346\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {2.Diffenretiate between line
ar and switching regulations?}\b0 \par\pard\li2320\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\
par\pard\li2320\ri0\sl-360\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {Linear regulati
ons}\b0 \par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-21
0\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-493\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {Switching regula
tions}\b0 \par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsx
n133\cols2\colno1\colw6133\colsr-0\colno2\colw5626\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0
\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1. The series pass transistor operates in the ac
tive}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-293\slmult0 \fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {region as a
linear devices as switching devices}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-306\slmult0 \fs26\cf0
\f0\charscalex100 {2. Since the pass transistor is always in the active}\pa
r\pard\li720\ri0\sl-293\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {region, power dissip
ation is more.}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-306\slmult0 \fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {3.
The efficiency is less}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs24\cf0\f0\cha
rscalex100 {The series pan transistor operator either at cut-off}\par\pard\
li0\ri0\sl-293\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {or at saturation.}\par\pard\l
i0\ri0\sl-306\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Power dissipation is less}\par
\f0\charscalex100 {The efficiency is more.}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11
893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\pa

6\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {3. What are the limitation of linear voltage regulator
?}\b0 \par\pard\li1080\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1080\ri0\sl-440\s
lmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1. The input step down transformer is bulky a
nd the most expensive component of the linear}\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-333\slmult
0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {regulated power supply mainly because of low line
frequency.}\par\pard\li1080\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {2. Be
cause of the low line frequency, larger values of filter capacitors are required
to decrease}\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {rip
ple.}\par\pard\li1080\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {3. The effi
ciency of a series regulator is very low.}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs
ult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {4
. What are the important features of 723 voltage regulator?}\b0 \par\pard\li1080
arscalex100 {\uc1\u61656X}{ }\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Input voltage 40v max}\
par\pard\li1080\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs54\cf0\f2\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61656X}{ }\
fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {O/p voltage adjustable from 2v to 37v}\par\pard\li108
0\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs54\cf0\f2\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61656X}{ }\fs28\cf0\f0\ch
arscalex100 {150mA O/P current without external pass transistor}\par\pard\li1080
\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs54\cf0\f2\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61656X}{ }\fs28\cf0\f0\cha
rscalex100 {Can be used as either linear or a switching regulator}\par\pard\sect
page{\shp
{\*\shpinst
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7;32768}}
i0\sl-493\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {5. Mention some applications of
I}\b0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {c}\b0 \fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {723 volt
age regulator?}\b0 \par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn
0\margrsxn133\cols2\colno1\colw2520\colsr-0\colno2\colw9240\pard\li1800\ri0\sl-2
00 {(i)}\par\pard\li1800\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {(ii)}\pa
fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Basic Low-voltage regulator [V}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscale
x100 {0}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {=2 to 7 Volts]}\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-320\slm
ult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {High voltage 723 regulator}\par\pard\sect\sectd
\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\pard\li1800\ri0\sl-320\sl
mult0 \*\tx2520\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {(iii)}\tab \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100
{Current boosting.}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\
ri0\sl-426\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {6. Name some of the application
s of power amplifiers?}\b0 \par\pard\li1080\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\par
d\li1080\ri0\sl-440\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1. Used to drive electro
nic values}\par\pard\li1080\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {2. pu
sh pull solenoids}\par\pard\li1080\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100
{3. Dc & ac motors}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\
d\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {7.Give the functional B
lock Diagram of ICL8038.?}\b0 \par\pard\li3613\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\
harscalex100 {222}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri
0\sl-426\slmult0 \fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {8. Give the test circuit for ICL8
038}\b0 \par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn1
33\pard\sect\sectd\sbkpage

7;32768}}
i0\sl-493\slmult0 \fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {9. What are the Important charac
teristics of opto coupler?}\b0 \par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsxn16
826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\cols2\colno1\colw2520\colsr-0\colno2\colw9240\pard\li1
\charscalex100 {(i)}\par\pard\li1800\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex1
00 {(ii)}\par\column\pard\li0\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-4
40\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {current \uc1\u8211Xintensity ratio}\par\p
ard\li0\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {isolation impedance}\par\
0\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \*\tx2520\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {(iii)}\tab \fs28\cf0\f
0\charscalex100 {Response time}\par\pard\li1800\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \*\tx2520\fs3
0\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {(iv)}\tab \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {CMRR}\par\pard\li7
harscalex100\b {10. What are the features of LM380.?}\b0 \par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl

x100 {It features an internally fixed gain of 50 (34 dB) and an output which au
tomatically centers}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex10
0 {itself at one-half of the supply voltage. A unique input stage allows
inputs to be ground}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex
100 {referenced or AC coupled as required. The output stage of the LM380 is prot
ected with both short}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex
100 {circuit current limiting and thermal shutdown circuitry. All of these inter
nally provided features}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscal
ex100 {result in a minimum external parts count integrated circuit for audio app
lications.}\par\pard\li5333\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li5333\ri0\sl480\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b \ul {PART \uc1\u8211X B}\b0 \ul0 \par\p
f0\f0\charscalex100\b {1. Explain briefly about Voltage regulator?}\b0 \par\pard
0\f0\charscalex100 {A voltage regulator is an electronic circuit that provides a
stable dc voltage independent of the}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs30\c
f0\f0\charscalex100 {load current, temperature and ac line voltage variations.
Figure 6.1 shows a regulated power}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\c
f0\f0\charscalex100 {supply using discrete components. The circuit consists of
following four parts:}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li72
0\ri0\sl-346\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1. Reference voltage circuit}\p
ar\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {2. Error amplifier}
\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {3. Series pass tr
ansistor}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {4. Feedb
ack network}\par\pard\li1146\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1146\ri0\sl
-360\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {It can be seen from fig 6.1 that the po
wer transistor Q}\fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1}{ }\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {is
in series with the unregulated dc}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0
\f0\charscalex100 {voltage V}\fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {in}{ }\fs28\cf0\f0\char
scalex100 {and the regulated output voltage V}\fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {0}\fs2
8\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {. so it must absorb the difference between these}\par\p
ard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {two voltages whenever
any fluctuation in output therefore provides sufficient current gain to
}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {drive the load.
The output voltage is sampled by the R}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1}{ }\fs32\c
f0\f0\charscalex100 {\uc1\u8211X R}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {2}{ }\fs30\cf0\f0
\charscalex100 {divider and fed back to the (-) input}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320
\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {terminal of the op \uc1\u8211X amp error am
plifier. This sampled voltage is compared with the reference}\par\pard\li720\ri
0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {voltage V}\fs20\cf0\f0\charscalex10
0 {ref}{ }\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {(usually obtained by a zener diode). The
output V}\fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {0}\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {\uc1\u8217X o
f the error amplifier drives the}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0
\charscalex100 {series transistor Q}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1}\fs54\cf0\f0\c
harscalex100 {.}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\
sl-360\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {If the output voltage increases, say,
due to variation in load current, the sampled voltage}{ }\fs30\cf0\f1\charscale
x100 {\uc1\u61538X}\fs32\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {V}\fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {0}{
}\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {also}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\
f0\charscalex100 {increases where}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghsx
n16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\cols2\colno1\colw1146\colsr-0\colno2\colw10613\pard
par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-346\slmult0 \fs32\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61538X}{ }\f
s32\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {=}\par\column\pard\li200\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\
par\pard\li200\ri0\sl-426\slmult0 \fs34\cf0\f0\charscalex101 {R}{\sub \fs26\cf0\
f0\charscalex101 {2}}\par\pard\li0\ri0\sl-306\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex101
{R +R}\par\pard\li160\ri0\sl-120\slmult0 \*\tx573\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex101 {1}
\tab \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex101 {2}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\pgwsxn11893\pghs
xn16826\marglsxn0\margrsxn133\pard\sect\sectd\sbkpage{\shp
{\*\shpinst
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7;32768}}
46\ri0\sl-440\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {This, in turn, reduces the out
put voltage V}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {0}\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {\uc1\u82
17X of the diff \uc1\u8211X amp due to the 180}\fs26\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\
u61616X}{ }\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {phase difference}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-3
33\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {provided by the op \uc1\u8211X amp amplif
ier. V}\fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {0}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {\uc1\u8217X is
applied to the base of Q}\fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1}\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex1
00 {, which is used as an emitter}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs24\cf0\f
0\charscalex100 {follower. So V}\fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {0}{ }\fs26\cf0\f0\c
harscalex100 {follows V}\fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {0}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100
{\uc1\u8217X, that is V}\fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {0}{ }\fs26\cf0\f0\charscale
x100 {also reduces. Hence the increase in V}\fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {0}{ }\f
s26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {is nullified. Similarly,}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\s
lmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {reduction in output voltage also gets regulat
ed.}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-426\slmul
t0 \fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {characteristics and parameters of voltage regul
ator:}\b0 \par\pard\li1080\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1080\ri0\sl-4
40\slmult0 \fs34\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1. V}\fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {0}\fs26\
cf0\f0\charscalex100 {: The regulated output voltage is fixed at a value as spec
ified by the manufacturer. There}\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\
f0\charscalex100 {are a number of models available for different output voltages
, for example, 78XX series has}\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\
charscalex100 {output voltage at 5, 6, 8 etc.}\par\pard\li1080\ri0\sl-320\slmult
0 \fs38\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {2. |V}\fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {in}\fs112\cf0\f0
\charscalex100 {|}{ }\fs30\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61619X}{ }\fs40\cf0\f0\ch
arscalex100 {|V}\fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {0}\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {|+2 vo
lts: The unregulated input voltage must be atleast 2 V more than the}\par\p
ard\li1440\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {regulated output volta

ge. For example, if V}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {0}{ }\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex1
00 {= 5 V, then V}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {in}{ }\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {
= 7 V}\par\pard\li1080\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs38\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {3. I}\fs16
\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {(0) max}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {: The load current
may vary from 0 to rated maximum output current. The IC is}\par\pard\li
1440\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {usually provided with a heat
sink, otherwise it may not provide the rated maximum output}\par\pard\li1440\ri
0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {current.}\par\pard\li1080\ri0\sl-32
0\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {4. Thermal shutdown: The IC has a temperat
ure sensor (built \uc1\u8211Xin) which turns off the IC when}\par\pard\li1440\ri
0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {it becomes too hot (usually 125}\fs
24\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61616X}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {C to 150}\fs24
\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61616X}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {C). the output
current will drop and remain there}\par\pard\li1440\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0
\f0\charscalex100 {until the IC has cooled significantly.}\par\pard\li1146\ri0\s
l-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1146\ri0\sl-440\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscal
ex100 {Table gives the electrical characteristics of 7805 voltage regulator and
the connection diagram}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscale
x100 {of packages available. Some of the important performance parameters liste
d in the data sheet are}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscal
ex100 {explained as follows:}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pa
rd\li720\ri0\sl-440\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {Line / Input regulatio
n}\b0 \par\pard\li1146\ri0\sl-533\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {It is defi
ned as the percentage change in the output voltage for a change in the input vol
tage.}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbkpage
7;32768}}
i0\sl-493\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {It is usually expressed in millivo
lts or as a percentage of the output voltage. Typical value of line}\par\pard\l
i720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {regulation from the data she
et of 7805 is 3 mV.}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\
ri0\sl-440\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {Load regulation}\b0 \par\pard\l

\charscalex100 {It is defined as the change in output voltage for a change in lo
ad current and is also expressed in}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs26\cf0
\f0\charscalex100 {millivolts or as a percentage of V}\fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100
{0}\fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {. Typical value of load regulation for 7805 is
15 mV for 5mA < I}\fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {0}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmul
t0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {< 1.5 A.}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18
\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-426\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {Ripple reje
ction}\b0 \par\pard\li1146\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1146\ri0\sl-4
40\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {The IC regulator not only keeps the outpu
t voltage constant but also reduces the amount of}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slm
ult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {ripple voltage. It is usually expressed in dB.
Typical value for 7805 in 78 dB.}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\
par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-440\slmult0 \fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {3 a). Specify s
uitable component values to get V}\b0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {o}\b0 {
}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {= 7.5 in the circuit of fig 6.5 using a 7805}
\b0 \par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {regulator}\
b0 \par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-440\slmult
0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {Solution:}\b0 \par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0
\fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-426\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {From th
e data sheet of 7805, I}\fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Q}{ }\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex
100 {= 4.2mA. Say we choose I}\fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {R1}\fs28\cf0\f0\chars
calex100 {=25mA.}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0
\sl-440\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {As V}\fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {R}{
}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {= 5 V for 7805,}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0
\fs18\cf0\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-440\slmult0 \fs34\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {R}\fs26
\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1}{ }\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {= 5V/25mA = 200}\fs42\cf
0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61527X}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\pa
r\pard\li720\ri0\sl-426\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {We have to choose R}
\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {2}{ }\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {so as to develop a
voltage of 2.5 V across it. So,}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par
\pard\li720\ri0\sl-440\slmult0 \fs34\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {R}\fs26\cf0\f0\charsc
alex100 {2}{ }\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {= 2.5V/ (I}\fs18\cf0\f0\charscalex100
{R1}{ }\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {+ I}\fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Q}\fs24\cf0\f
0\charscalex100 {) = 2.5/ (4.2 + 25) = 85.6}\fs42\cf0\f1\charscalex100 {\uc1\u61
527X}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Chose R}\fs2
6\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {2}{ }\fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {= 85}\fs42\cf0\f1\chars
calex100 {\uc1\u61527X}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li7
pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100\b {3 b). Write about 72
3 general purpose regulator?}\b0 \par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\pa
r\pard\li720\ri0\sl-426\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {The three terminal r
egulators discussed earlier have the following limitations:}\par\pard\li1080\ri0
\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1080\ri0\sl-440\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charsc
alex100 {1. No short circuit protection}\par\pard\li1080\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs2
8\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {2. Output voltage (positive or negative) is fixed.}\par\
8\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {These limitations have been overcome in the 723 gener
al purpose regulator, which can be}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs30\c
f0\f0\charscalex100 {adjusted over a wise range of both positive or negative reg
ulated voltage. Thus IC is inherently}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbkpage{\shp
{\*\shpinst

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7;32768}}
i0\sl-493\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {low current device, but can be boo
sted to provide 5 amps or more current by connecting external}\par\pard\li720\ri
0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {components. The limitation of 723
is that it has no in \uc1\u8211X built thermal protection. It also has no}\par\
pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {short circuit current
limits.}\par\pard\li1146\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1146\ri0\sl-426
\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {Figure 6.7 (a) shows the functional block d
iagram of a 723 regulator IC. It has two separate}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-333\sl
mult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {sections. The zener diode, a constant curr
ent source and reference amplifier produce a fixed}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\
slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {voltage of about 7 volts at the terminal V}\
fs20\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {ref}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {. The constant curre
nt source forces the zener to operate}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs28\c
f0\f0\charscalex100 {at a fixed point so that the zener outputs a fixed voltage.
}\par\pard\li1146\ri0\sl-213\slmult0 \fs18\cf0\par\pard\li1146\ri0\sl-440\slmult
0 \fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {The other section of the IC consists of an e
rror amplifier, a series pass transistor Q}{ }\fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1}
{ }\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {and a}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs26\cf
0\f0\charscalex100 {current limit transistor Q}\fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {2}\fs
26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {. The error amplifier compares a sample of the output v
oltage applied at}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100
{the INV input terminal to the reference voltage V}\fs22\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {r
ef}{ }\fs30\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {applied at the NI input terminal. The error}\
par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {signal controls
the conduction of Q}\fs24\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {1}\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {
. these two sections are not internally connected but the}\par\pard\li720
\ri0\sl-333\slmult0 \fs28\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {various points are brought out o
n the IC package. 723 regulator IC is available in a 14 \uc1\u8211X pin dual \u
c1\u8211X}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0 \fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {in \uc1
\u8211X line package or 10 \uc1\u8211X pin metal \uc1\u8211X can as shown i
n fig 6.7 (b) The important features and}\par\pard\li720\ri0\sl-320\slmult0
\fs26\cf0\f0\charscalex100 {electrical characteristics are given in table 6.2.}
\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbkpage

7;32768}}
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7;32768}}
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7;32768}}
{\s

LIC &amp; Applications

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LIC & Applications

LIC & Applications