Chapter

22
The France of Napoleon III
After 1850, new consecutive leaders came into urope! Napoleon III
was one of them" #e tau$ht others his ideas of how the $overnment could
use li%eral and nationalistic forces to $ain their power"
&ouis Napoleon' Toward the (econd mpire
)eople referred Napoleon as *Napoleon the (mall+ due to the fact
that he $ained his success %ecause of his name" ,nce he was elected
)resident of his countr-, he made it clear that he wanted onl- his personal
power" #e didn.t want an-one else to ma/e decisions for him"
#e waited for the French people to support him for three -ears and
was ver- patient durin$ the wait" #e tried to revise the constitution, %ut the
National Assem%l- wouldn.t let him, so he used his troops to $ain control of
the constitution on 0ecem%er 1
st
, 1851" Napoleon as/ed the French people
to elect him for president for the ne1t ten -ears after he restored male
suffra$e" The ma2orit- voted -es" ,n Novem%er 21, 1852 Napoleon as/ed
to restore the mpire" 34 percent of the people said -es" 0ecem%er 2, 1852
he was $iven the title of Napoleon III and the (econd mpire had %e$un"
The (econd Napoleonic mpire
Napoleon III was the chief of state, and in that position, had control of
the armed forces, police, and civil services" #e was the onl- person who
was a%le to introduce le$islation and declare war" The &e$islative Corps
showed up and represented representative $overnment %ecause the- were
elected for male suffra$e for a si1 -ear term" The- could not initiate
le$islation or do an-thin$ a%out the %ud$et"
arl- 0omestic )olicies
Napoleon III %elieved in ta/in$ the $overnmental recourses and usin$
them to support industrial $rowth" 5overnment recourses were used to
ma/e railroads, roads, har%ors, and canals" 0urin$ Napoleon.s lifetime, the
ma2or French railroads were completed, which tripled the iron production"
#e wanted to reduce the tension and ma/e the social welfare %etter for the
nation" #e provided hospitals and $ave out free medicine for the wor/ers
and provided %etter houses for the wor/in$ class"
Napoleon III reconstructed the cit- of )aris durin$ this economic
e1pansion period" The narrow streets and old walls were smashed down
and replaced %- a wider street and more spacious %uildin$s, circular
pla6as, pu%lic s7uares, a sewa$e s-stem under$round, a pu%lic water
suppl-, and $asli$hts" )aris served a militar- and made it hard for people to
%loc/ the wide roads" Therefore, the troops could ta/e down revolts"
&i%erali6ation of the 8e$ime
0urin$ the 1890.s, Napoleon III $ranted the wor/in$ class the ri$ht to
stri/e, he le$ali6ed trade unions and he li%erali6ed the political process"
)eople were a%le to campai$n with more freedom and the &e$islative
Corps had more sa- in fairs of state" These policies helped to stren$then
the $overnment" Forei$n )olic- ended up failin$ and the affect of it was
criticism and war with )russia in 1840"
Forei$n )olic-' The :e1ican Adventure
Napoleon III sent French troops to :e1ico hopin$ to ta/e over the
:e1ican mar/ets for French $oods" The troops met up with ;ritish and
(panish forces to protect their interests, %ut a stru$$le %etween li%eral and
conservative :e1ican factions" ,nce order had %een restored, the ;ritish
and (panish troops left, %ut the French troops sta-ed" Napoleon III
assi$ned Archdu/e :a1imilian from Austria to %e the new emperor of
:e1ico" :a1imilian wasn.t much of a $ood emperor" The French troops
were called to %e in urope and :a1imilian %ecame an emperor without an
arm-, so he surrendered to the li%eral :e1ican forces and was e1ecuted
<une 1894"
Forei$n )olic-' The Crimean =ar
Napoleon III participated $reatl- in the Crimean war %ecause he
wanted to free France from the peace settlement restrictions of 181>?1815,
and he wanted to ma/e France the chief ar%iter of urope" #e was also
heir to the Napoleonic mpire, so that made him feel more important"
The ,ttoman mpire
The ,ttoman mpire was the controller of (outheastern urope %ut
lost #un$ar-, Trans-lvania, Croatia, and (lovenia to the Austrian mpire in
1933" The 8ussian mpire too/ the Crimea in 148@ and ;essara%ia in
1812"
The ,ttoman mpire started a new period of decline in the %e$innin$
of the nineteenth centur-" Nationalist revolts $ained independence for
(er%ia in 1814 and 5reece in 18@0" 8ussians had %ecome protective of the
0anu%ian provinces of :oldavia and =allachia in 1823"
uropean $overnments started to $et curious with the fact that the
,ttoman mpire was startin$ to $et wea/" Austrian, France, and ;ritain
saw that the ,ttoman mpire was failin$ and the- craved more land"
8ussia.s relationship with the ,ttoman mpire and the 5ree/ ,rthodo1
Christians $ave 8ussia an opportunit- to enlar$e its sphere of influence"
=ar in the Crimea
The 8ussian.s as/ed the ,ttoman mpire for the ri$ht to protect the
Christian shrines in )alestine and when the ,ttoman mpire told them no,
8ussia attac/ed :oldavia and =allachia" 8ussia wouldn.t a$ree on an- of
the ne$otiations that the ,ttoman mpire su$$ested, so the ,ttoman
mpire called war on 8ussia on ,cto%er >, 185@" 5reat ;ritain and France
called war the followin$ -ear on 8ussian on :arch 28, 185>"
France and 5reat ;ritain called war on 8ussia %ecause the- were
afraid that there would %e an upset in the ;alance of )ower" France
%elieved that 8ussia would ta/e sei6e of the mpire.s wea/ness and ta/e
over ,ttoman territor-! if 8ussia did this, than it would ma/e them the top
power in astern urope" Napoleon III was insulted %- the 8ussians
%ecause of the actions at the Con$ress of Aienna, and now the-.re callin$
the French the protectors of Christians livin$ in the ,ttoman mpire" The
8ussians relied on the Austrians %ecause the 8ussians had once saved the
Austrian $overnment, %ut the Austrians said no" 8ussia had to fi$ht alone"
The Crimean =ar wasn.t planned well and wasn.t fou$ht well" The
8ussian fortress of (evastopol fell in (eptem%er 1855" Ale1ander II sued
for peace" =ith the Treat- of )aris si$ned, 8ussia had to $ive up
;assara%ia and had to accept the ;lac/ (ea" :oldavia and =allachia were
ta/en under securit- of all five $reat powers"
:ore than 250,000 soldiers died in the war and 90 percent of the
deaths came from diseases, mainl- cholera" Florence Ni$htin$ale had strict
restrictions of ever-thin$ %ein$ sanitar- for the ;ritish soldiers, which saved
most of them from infections" It also $ave middle?class women more ri$hts
to wor/ in the medical profession"
The Crimean =ar destro-ed the Concert of urope" Austria and
8ussia are now enemies %ecause Austria refused to help 8ussia in the war"
8ussia wasn.t reall- heard of for the ne1t two decades so that it could
strai$hten itself out" 5reat ;ritain did the same" Austria didn.t have an-
more friends out of the $reat powers due to its actions in war"
National Bnification' Ital- and
5erman-
The Bnification of Ital-
Austria is still the dominant power on the Italian )eninsula in 1850"
(ince the failure of the revolution of 18>8?18>3, people $ave up on
achievin$ their $oal of Italian Bnification and instead focused more on the
northern Italian state to achieve their $oal there" (ince the Austrians had
defeated the )iedmont, Cin$ Charles made a $reat effort to ma/e )iedmont
the ruler of national unit-" There wasn.t enou$h power for the small state to
ta/e over such leadership until Aictor mmanuel II chose Count Camillo di
Cavour as the )rime :inister"
The &eadership of Cavour
Cavour was a no%le?man who was reall- $ood in a$riculture! he also
too/ a livin$ in %an/in$, railroads, and shippin$" #e reall- li/ed
constitutional $overnment" #e was a politician that could persuade people
to do as he as/ed" =hen he was )rime :inister, he %uilt in the econom-
with roads, canals, and railroads" =ith the $rowth of the econom-, mone-
poured in and he used it in %uildin$ a vast arm-"
Cavour /new that he wouldn.t %e a%le to call war on Austria alone! he
needed the help of France" #e convinced Napoleon III to fi$ht with him and
to$ether the- drove the Austrians out of Ital-" Ital- was reor$ani6ed and
)iedmont was e1tended into the Cin$dom of Bpper Ital- of &om%ard-,
Aenetia, )arma, :odena, and some of the )apal (tates" (ince France
helped Ital- in the war, it received Nice and (avo-" For Napoleon III.s
cousin, )rince Napoleon, a Cin$dom of )iedmont in Central Ital- was
created" Cavour provo/ed the Austrians to invade )iedmont %ecause
Cavour %elieved that it would $ive him control of Ital-"
Instead of fi$htin$, the French made peace with the Austrians without
lettin$ Ital- /now" )russia was supportin$ Austria and France didn.t have
enou$h power to ta/e on %oth at once" )iedmont onl- had &om%ard- and
Austria still had control over Aenetia" This made Cavour reall- mad" In Ital-,
the nationalists had ta/en over )arma, :odena, Tuscan-, and some of the
)apal (tates" The nationalists $ave these to France, which France happil-
too/, and $ave %ac/ Nice and (avo-"
The fforts of 5ari%aldi
A new leader of Italian Bnification, 5iuseppe 5ari%aldi, raised an arm- of a
thousand 8ed (hirts on :a- 11, 1890 and went to (icil- and a fi$ht %ro/e
out a$ainst the ;our%on Cin$ of the Two (icilies"
5ari%aldi won the fi$ht, %ut his forces were ma2orl- outnum%ered"
:ost of (icil- had %een under 5ari%aldi.s control %- the end of <ul- 1890"
In Au$ust, the- marched the Italian )eninsula showin$ victor-" In earl-
(eptem%er, the Naples and the Two (icilies fell" 5ari%aldi planned on
marchin$ to 8ome, and Cavour was afraid that it would cause war with the
French" The )iedmontese arm- invaded the )apal (tates and moved into
the Cin$dom of Naples" This action caused 5ari%aldi to surrender %ecause
he didn.t want to have a civil war" )le%iscites in the )apal (tates and the
Two (icilies $ave a lot of support to the union with )iedmont" ,n :arch 14,
1891, a new centrali6ed Cin$dom of Ital- was $iven to )iedmont and Cin$
Aictor mmanuel II" Cavour died three months later"
The )russian arm- was the one that completed Italian Bnification"
The Franco?)russian =ar caused the French troops to leave 8ome" The
Italian arm- anne1ed the cit- and 8ome was the new capital of the united
Italian state"
The Bnification of 5erman-
5erman nationalists focused on Austria and )russia %ecause the-
were the two powerful enou$h to dominate the 5erman affairs for them to
%e unified" Austria had %een controllin$ the 5ermanic Confederation"
)russia had contacted the Dollverein who too/ awa- fairs on rivers and
roads and had made trade stron$er and added prosperit- to the mem%er
states" )eople loo/ed up to )russia to $ive unification to 5erman-"
)russia had made a constitution in 18>8 that was voted %- the
universal male suffra$e" The votin$ was divided into three classes
dependin$ on how much ta1es the- paid" The lowest house was
accidentall- fallin$ into the hands of the middle class" The- wanted a real
parliamentar- s-stem, %ut the e1ecutive power was too stron$" The Cin$
could onl- choose, not the parliament"
Cin$ =illiam I had $reat ideas a%out an arm- %ecause of his own
militar- trainin$" #e thou$ht that the arm- had to chan$e since )russia was
of the hi$hest power, so the arm- had to %e stron$" The /in$ planned to
dou%le the si6e of the arm- and all -oun$ men in the arm- had to have at
least three -ears of trainin$"
:iddle?class li%erals feared that the $overnment would use this new
law a$ainst them to ma/e them o%edient and to stren$then the
conservative?militar- cli7ue" The 8ussian le$islature didn.t allow the new
militar- chan$es, so =illiam I appointed a new prime minister, Count ,tto
von ;ismarc/" ;ismarc/ dominated the 5erman and uropean politics until
1830"
;ismarc/
;ismarc/ was %orn as an aristocrat and %elieved that he was to
alwa-s %e lo-al to it" #e loved wine, women, and son$, %ut he did read a lot
a%out 5erman histor-" #e earned a law de$ree and he went into a )russian
civil service career, %ut soon $ot %ored of it" #e retired and wor/ed to
mana$e his countr- estates" #e wanted to have more e1citement and
power in his life, so he went %ac/ into pu%lic life" Four -ears later, he
%ecame a )russian dele$ate of the parliament of the 5ermanic
Confederation"
#e succeeded in $uidin$ )russia.s unification of 5erman-" #e onl-
called war if there was no other alternative or if he was positive that
ever-thin$ was on his side and that he would for sure win"
In 1892, ;ismarc/ too/ the arm- appropriations %ill to the parliament
and a devoted appeal to his li%eral opponents" #is opponents werenEt
impressed, so the- re2ected the %ill" ;ismarc/ i$nored them thou$h and
collected the ta1es and reor$ani6ed the arm- an-wa-" #e %lamed the
li%erals for the %rea/down of the $overnment" 0urin$ 1892?1899, ;ismarc/
$overned )russia %- i$norin$ parliament, %ut it didnEt do an-thin$" #is
opposition turned him to the domestic polic- which led him to his first war in
189>"
The 0anish =ar
;ismarc/ declared the 0anish =ar of 189>" #e onl- declared war if
he was sure that heEd onl- %e fi$htin$ a$ainst one countr-" #e also made
sure that the- were fi$htin$ diplomaticall-"
The 0anish =ar was %etween the duchies of (chleswi$ and #olstein"
A$ainst the treat-, the 0anish $overnment moved to put to$ether the two
duchies into 0enmar/ in 189@" ;oth the 0uchies had lar$e populations of
5ermans and so the- were called 5erman (tates! the 5erman nationalists
were reall- mad %ecause of this" ;ecause of the 5ermanic Confederation,
the mem%er states sent troops a$ainst 0enmar/, %ut ;ismarc/ didnEt want
to send his troops out to the Austrian?dominated 5erman parliament" #e
as/ed the Austrians to $o to war with him a$ainst 0enmar/ on Fe%ruar- 1
st
,
189>" The people of 0enmar/ were defeated and $ave (chleswi$ and
#olstein to )russia and Austria" Austria too/ #olstein and )russia too/
(chleswi$" It was ;ismarc/Es idea"
;ismarc/ reali6ed that in order for )russia to %e the hi$hest of power,
heEd have to remove Austria from 5erman affairs" The two 0uchies offered
)russia a lot of opportunities to help rid Austria and to have reasons for war
a$ainst Austria" ;ismarc/ planned an isolation for Austria"
The Austro?)russian =ar
;ismarc/ was a%le to $ain 8ussiaEs a$reement to remain neutral
durin$ the Austro?)russian =ar %ecause )russia had supported 8ussia
durin$ a )olish revolt" ;ismarc/ and Napoleon III made an alliance to$ether
and if the- succeeded in defeatin$ Austria, than Napoleon III would $ain
Aenetia"
(ince the Austrians were in isolation, ;ismarc/ used (chleswi$ and
#olstein to provo/e Austria into war on <une 1>, 1899" At Coni$$rat6 on
<ul- @, the Austrian arm- was defeated" Austria didnEt lose an- territor-
e1cept for Aenetia and was /ic/ed out of the 5erman affairs" The 5erman
(tates north of the :ain 8iver were made into the North 5erman
Confederation" #anover and #esse?Cassel were added to (chleswi$ and
#olstein %ecause the- were teamed on AustriaEs side"
After the war, ;ismarc/ as/ed the parliament to pass %ill of indemnit-
to le$ali6e the ta1es that he had %een collectin$ ille$all-" :ost people voted
for this new law %ecause the- had %een impressed %- ;ismarc/Es use of
the :ilitar-" ;ismarc/ proved to Napoleon III that nationalism and
authoritarian $overnment could %e com%ined" #e also proved that
li%eralism and nationalism could %e separated"
;ismarc/ allowed for each 5erman state to /eep its own local
$overnment, %ut the Cin$ of )russia had to %e the leader of the
Confederation" The arm- and the forei$n polic- still could onl- %e decided
%- the /in$ and his chancellor" The parliament had two %odies, the
;undesrat, or federal council"
The Franco?)russian =ar
)russia had dominated all of northern 5erman-" ;ismarc/ /new that
France wouldnEt %e a $ood idea to attac/ %ecause of the France securit-"
France didnEt li/e the turn of events in 5erman-, so the- loo/ed for ideas to
humiliate )russia"
,nce Fueen Isa%ella had retired, the throne was offered to )rince
&eopold of #ohen6ollern Cin$ of )russia" ;ismarc/ li/ed the idea of that
%ecause the throne would $o to the line of the #ohen6ollern famil-" The
French o%2ected to this idea so Cin$ =illiam I had to /ic/ his relative out"
The French forced Cin$ =illiam I to apolo$i6e to France and the- didnEt
want &eopold to %e a candidate a$ain" ;ismarc/ too/ a film of the speech
and edited it so that it loo/ed even more insultin$ even thou$h he /new that
the French would %e an$r- and declare war on him" The French declared
war on )russia on <ul- 15, 1840" The French prime minister su$$ested that
the- went to war with a li$ht heart"
The French lost to )russia %ecause the- were no match" The
southern 5erman (tates helped )russia to defeat France" ,n (eptem%er
2, 1840, the entire French arm- and Napoleon III were captured" The
(econd French mpire had collapsed" The French had tried to resist, %ut
the- finall- surrendered on <anuar- 28, 1841 and a peace treat- was
si$ned in :a-" France had to pa- 1 million dollars and had to $ive up
Alsace and &orraine"
The southern 5erman (tates had a$reed to 2oin the 5erman
Confederation" ,n <anuar- 18, 1841, in the #all of :irror in &ouis GIAEs
palace at Aersailles, =illiam I was named emperor of the (econd 5erman
mpire" 5erman- had %een moved into )russia" The )russian leadership
of 5erman unification meant the triumph of authoritarian, militaristic values
over li%eral, constitutional sentiments in the development of the new
5erman state" The new state had %ecome the stron$est power on the
continent"
Nation ;uildin$ and 8eform' The
National (tate in :idcentur-"
The Austrian mpire' Toward a 0ual
:onarch-
=hen the #a%s%ur$s destro-ed the revolutions of 18>8?18>3, it
caused them to restore the centrali6ed, autocratic $overnment to the
empire" The e1pected last part of the revolution was the act of
emancipation of (eptem%er 4, 18>8" It freed the serfs and too/ out all
compulsor- la%or services"
The revolutionar- constitutions were replaced with a $roup of
centrali6ed autocrac- in 1851" The ruler of this $roup was Ale1ander von
;ach" #e had local privile$es that were replaced with a s-stem of
administration, law, and ta1es" #un$ar- had to have militar- officers, and
the Catholic Church was named the (tate Church and had to care for
education" After Austria had %een defeated in the Italian war, Francis
<oseph tried to ma/e an imperial parliament named 8eichsrat that had a
upper house and a lower house of representatives" The s-stem was
supposed to have representation for the nationalists of the empire" It
wanted to alienate the ethnic minorities" It made it so that the 5erman
spea/in$ minorit- was $oin$ to win"
Aus$leich of 1894
The nationalistic #un$arians $ot reall- mad at Austria" This caused a
ne$otiation of Aus$leich, or Compromise, of 1894, which created the 0ual
:onarch- of Austria?#un$ar-" ach part of the empire had itEs own
constitution, %icameral le$islature, $overnmental machiner- for domestic
affairs, and its own capital" The #un$arians had %ecome an independent
nation" The dual monarch- $ave the ri$ht to dominate the minorities to their
place to the 5erman?spea/in$ Austrians and #un$arian :a$-ars"
Imperial 8ussia
8ussia was fallin$ %ehind the western uropean powers" (erfdom
was the worst pro%lem in tsarist 8ussia" The su%2u$ation of peasants to
their land and their landlords was a corrupt and failin$ s-stem" 8ussian
landowners counted compete with forei$n a$riculture" The serfs were
uneducated and couldnEt handle the more comple1 machines and weapons
of war"
A%olition of (erfdom
Ale1ander II issued his emancipation edict on :arch @, 1891" This
made it so that )easants could own their own propert-, marr- as the-
choose, and %rin$ suits into the law courts" )easants could %u- land from
landowners, %ut most of the landowners /ept the %est land and $ave the
worst to the peasants" The peasants found that the- didnEt have ver- $ood
land, so the land couldnEt support them as $ood"
The state made it so that the peasants had to pa- in lon$?term
installments" )easants had to $o to the authorit- of their mir, or villa$e
commune, which was responsi%le for the land pa-ments" The villa$e
commune was prett- much the owners of the land that the peasants were
%u-in$" If the peasants couldnEt afford the pa-ments, than the- wouldnEt %e
allowed to leave the land" mancipation wasnEt reall- all that free to
peasants for landownin$, it lead to unhapp- land ownin$, otherwise /nown
as the old wa-s of farmin$"
,ther 8eforms
In 189>, Ale1ander II tried to create a s-stem of 6emstvos otherwise
/nown as local assem%lies, that $ave self?$overnment" The representatives
were voted %- the no%le landowners, townspeople, and peasants, %ut the
no%le landowners had the vast ma2orit- of the the vote due to the
landownin$ s-stem" Demstvos $ave a limited suppl- of pu%lic services li/e
education, famine relief, and road and %rid$e maintenance" The- could
ta/e ta1es to pa- for it, %ut %ureaucrats didnEt li/e an- idea of self?
$overnment so the- alwa-s disrupted the idea" The le$al reforms of 189>
proved to %e successful"
The autocratic tsar couldnEt even control the forces that heEd released
%- his reform pro$ram" Conservatives didnEt li/e the ideas %ecause the-
understood it as the tsarEs attempt to undermine the institutions of
8ussianEs societ-" 0urin$ 1840, 8ussia had a lot of reform movements that
were increasin$" ,ne was from writin$s of Ale1ander #er6en who had a
slo$an of &and and Freedom" It showed his %elief that the 8ussian peasant
has to %e the num%er one motive for social reform" #e %elieved that the
peasant could %e an independent, self?$overnin$ %od- that could %rin$ in a
new 8ussia" )eople who followed his ideaEs made a movement called
populism who wanted to ma/e a new societ- throu$h acts %- peasants"
(ome peasantsE lac/ of interest in these ideas caused some populists to
%ecome violent to overthrow the tsarist autocrac-" ,ne of those people was
Aera Dasulich" (he shot and wounded the $overnor?$eneral of (aint
)eters%ur$" =hen she was put on trial, she was met %- a s-mpathetic 2ur-"
ncoura$ed %- Aera, another $roup of radicals, named the )eopleEs
=ill, assassinated Ale1ander II in 1881" #is son, Ale1ander III turned
a$ainst the reform and went %ac/ to repression"
5reat ;ritain' The Aictorian A$e
;ritain wasnEt trou%led %- revolutionar- distur%ances durin$ 18>8"
The 8eform Act of 18@2 had led to political representation for the industrial
middle class" In 1890, the li%eral parliamentar- s-stem showed it a%ilit- to
ma/e social and political reforms that allowed the countr- to remain sta%le
and prosperous"
;ritain had continuin$ economic $rowth, which caused it to %e sta%le"
The wor/in$ class $ot some improvements added to it" =a$es increased
a%out 25 percent from the 1850Es to the 1840Es" Fueen AictoriaEs rei$n
lasted from 18@4 to 1301 which was the lon$est in histor-" #er sense of
dut- and moral respecta%ilit- showed the attitudes of her a$e, which have
%een /nown as the Aictorian A$e"
This was an era of uneas- sta%ilit- and as the aristocratic and upper?
middle?class representatives %lurred part- lines with their internal strife and
shiftin$ positions" #enr- <ohn Temple, &ord )almerston found it eas- to
ma/e political compromises" #e wasnEt a reformer and opposed e1pandin$
the franchise"
0israeli and the 8eform Act of 1894
After )almerstonEs death, the movement for the e1tension of the franchise
onl- $ot worse" The li%erals H=hi$sI who had %een responsi%le for the
8eform Act discussed passin$ another le$islation, %ut it was the Tories that
carried it throu$h" ;en2amin 0israeli, the leader of the Tories thatEs in
parliament, wanted to win over the newl- made $roups to the Conservative
)art-" (ince the 8eform Act lowered the monetar- re7uirements for votin$,
it allowed more men wor/ers to vote" The num%er of voters increased from
one million to over two million" 0israeli %elieved that this would help the
Conservatives, %ut it helped the industrial wor/ers which helped to produce
a &i%eral Aictor- in 1898"
The &i%eral )olicies of 5ladstone
=illiam 5ladstone was responsi%le for a series of reforms from 1898
to 184>" &e$islative and 5overnment orders opened civil service positions
to e1ams rather than patrona$e, the secret %allot for votin$, and a%olished
the practice of purchasin$ militar- commissions" The ducation Act of 1840
tried to ma/e it so that elementar- schools were availa%le to all children" ;-
ta/in$ awa- a%uses and allowin$ people with talent to compete fairl-, the-
wanted to ma/e the nation stron$er and its institutions"
The Bnited (tates' (laver- and =ar
American national unit- was threatened %- slaver- %- the mid
nineteenth centur-" The North and (outh had $rown a lot %- population"
The development was %ased on the collection of %lac/ Africans" A%out 3@
percent of cotton was produced %- a slave in the southern area in 1850"
There werenEt supposed to %e slaves in the B"(, %ut there was a%out >
million" The- tried to stop slaver-, %ut the (outh reall- didnEt li/e it, so the-
%ecame ver- defensive" A Civil =ar was created %etween the North and the
(outh due to an a%olition in the North that threatened the (outhern order"
(laver- had caused the =hi$ part- to %ecome defunct and so the
0emocrats split alon$ the North?(outh lines" The Cansas?Ne%ras/a Act of
185> led a vote on if slaver- should sta- or not" This enra$ed the North
which led to the creation of a new sectional part-" The 8epu%licanEs were
united %- antislaver- principles and were afraid that the slave power from
the (outh would spread throu$hout the whole countr-"
=hen slaver- $ot worse, compromise %ecame less feasi%le" =hen
A%raham &incoln was elected president in Novem%er 1890, the die was
cast" &incoln onl- carried 2 out of the 1,103 countries in the south! the
8epu%licans werenEt on the %allet in ten southern states" A (outh Carolina
convention voted to chan$e the stateEs ratification of the B"(" Constitution"
In Fe%ruar- 1891, si1 more southern states did the same, and a rival
nation? the Confederate (tates of America? was formed" In April fi$htin$
%etween the North and the (outh started"
The Civil =ar
:ore than 900,000 soldiers died, from %attle, or from deadl-
infections due to filth- conditions" The North finall- wore down the
Confederate forces of the (outh" As the war happened, it had the effect of
radicali6in$ pu%lic opinion in the North" It was a war a$ainst slaver-" ,n
<anuar- 1, 189@, &incolnEs mancipation )roclamation made most of the
slaves forever free" The Bnion %loc/a$e of the (outh with fi$htin$ men,
made the Confederate cause desperate in 189>" The Bnion troops of
5eneral Bl-sses (" 5rant forced 5eneral 8o%er " &eeEs Confederate Arm-
to surrender on April 3, 1895" The Bnion victor- confirmed that the Bnited
(tates would %e ,ne Nation, Indivisi%le"
The mer$ence of a Canadian Nation
;- the treat- of )aris in 149@ Canada was passed into the hands of
the ;ritish" :ost Canadians wanted more autonom-, %ut the colonists
disa$reed %ecause of the form that the autonom- should ta/e" Bpper
Canada was n$lish spea/in$ while &ower Canada was dominated %-
French Canadians" A %i$ increase in immi$ration to Canada from 5reat
;ritain $ave more desire for self?$overnment"
In 18@4, Canadian $roups rose in re%ellion a$ainst ;ritish authorit-"
)eople in &ower Canada wanted to %e separated from ;ritain, the- wanted
a creation of a repu%lic, universal male suffra$e, and freedom of the press"
The ;ritish $overnment now wanted to fill the CanadianEs commands" The
;ritish $overnment wanted to fill the Canadian commands %ecause the-
didnEt want to cause a Civil =ar" In 1894, the CanadianEs had their own
constitution" Canada now ruled itself, %ut the ;ritish $overnment still had
control of forei$n control"
Industriali6ation and the :ar1ist
8esponse
Industriali6ation on the Continent
The formation of hand looms to power looms had %een completed in
;ritain %- the 1850Es for cotton and 1890Es for wool" Cotton and wool
production increased $reatl-" In 1840, hand looms completel- vanished and
were replaced %- power looms in ;ritain" ;etween 1850 and 1840, railroad
trac/ milea$e rose from 1>,500 to almost 40,000"
;etween 1850 and 1840, iron industries went from charcoal iron
smeltin$ to co/e%last smeltin$" In 1840, the ;ritish iron industries made half
the worlds pi$ iron"
International waterwa-s were opened up %- ta/in$ out restrictive tolls"
Tal/in$ a%out trade treaties in the 1890Es minimi6ed the protective tariffs
throu$hout astern urope"
5overnments allowed the formation of 2oint?stoc/ investment %an/s"
The- mo%ili6ed capital resources for investments" The- were productive
with the railroad construction" In 189>, the (panish %an/in$ s-stem
collapsed"
Capitalist factor- owners sta-ed free to hire la%or on their own terms"
The unions represented onl- a small part of the industrial wor/in$ class and
proved to %e ineffective" (ocialist trade parties and trade unions came after
1840"
:ar1 and :ar1ism
Carl :ar1 and Friedrich n$els wrote a short treatise called The
Communist :anifesto" :ar1 had earned a )h"0 in philosoph- at the
Bniversit- of ;erlin" #e wanted to %e a teacher at the universit-, %ut his
atheism wouldnEt allow it" #e chose to wor/ in 2ournalism and %ecame the
editor of a newspaper named Colo$ne in 18>2" #e moved to )aris %ecause
his papers were reall- famous, where he found his %est friend, Freidrich
n$els"
n$els had $otten /nowled$e of wa$e slaver- of the ;ritish wor/in$
class and tal/ed a%out what heEd /nown in his %oo/, The Conditions of the
=or/in$ Class in n$land" n$els tal/ed a%out wor/in$ conditions and
monetar- assistance to :ar1"
In 18>4, :ar1 and n$els 2oined a $roup called the Communist
&ea$ue" :ar1 and n$els were reall- e1cited a%out tal/in$ a%out the
wor/in$?class movement and made a %oo/ a%out their own ideas for the
&ea$ue" Communist :anifesto was pu%lished in <anuar- 18>8 and was
showed on the eve of revolutions of 18>8" The last words in the %oo/ was
supposed to rouse the wor/in$ class, %ut it went unnoticed" The %oo/
%ecame one of the most influential treaties in the uropean histor-"
The French told :ar1 that a revolution could restructure societ-, and
the- $ave him e1amples of socialism" :ar1 too/ the ideas of ever-thin$
evolves, and all chan$e in histor- is the result of conflicts %etween
anta$onistic elements" :ar1 didnEt %elieve that histor- is determined %-
ideas manifestin$ themselves in historical forces" #e %elieved that the
course of histor- is determined %- material forces"
Ideas of the Communist :anifesto
In earlier times, the feudal classes of the :iddle A$es had to o%e- the
emer$in$ middle class or %our$eoisie" The %our$eoisie too/ control of its
power and its ideas %ecame the ones ever-one %elieved in" The
$overnment was their weapon" The $overnment chose to %elieve in the
thin$s that the hi$her power said"
The %our$eoisie were the anta$onists in the class?stru$$le, %ut the-
had to face the proletariat, or the industrial wor/in$ class" :ar1 and n$els
predicted that the wor/ers would overthrow the %our$eoisie" After this
happened, the proletariat would create a dictatorship that reco$ni6es the
means of production" A classless societ- would emer$e and the state would
die %ecause it no lon$er represented the interests of a particular class"
Class stru$$les would no lon$er e1ist" :ar1 %elieved that a classless
societ- would $row in science, technolo$-, and industr-"
After the failures of 18>8, :ar1 went to &ondon, where he passed
awa-" #e continued his wor/s and wrote his most famous wor/, 0as
Capital" This was onl- one volume, %ut his n$els edited the rest"
,r$ani6in$ the =or/in$ Class
A reason wh- 0as Capital wasnEt completed was %ecause he was
wor/in$ on the wor/in$?class movement" :ar1 had said that the
communists were the most advanced section of the wor/in$?class" The
=or/in$ :enEs Association was formed in 189> and was an or$ani6ation
for wor/in$?class interests" :ar1 was the dominant personalit- on the
5eneral Council and devoted a lot of time for activities" Internal dissension
soon destro-ed the or$ani6ation and it failed in 1842" The fate of socialism
relied in the hands of national socialist parties"
(cience and Culture in an A$e of
8ealism
A New A$e of (cience
(cience was havin$ a $reater impact of life %- the mid?nineteenth
centur-" The (cientific 8evolution had transformed the =estern worldview
and lead to the stud- of the natural world" These developments were
preserved for an educated elite and didnEt have ver- man- developments"
The technolo$ical advances had %een more out of e1periments on
technolo$- than out of science" Advances in technolo$- had lead to people
%ein$ curious and doin$ actual science e1periments which lead to a lot
discoveries that advanced the technolo$-"
The steam en$ine lead scientists to thermod-namics, which is the
relationship %etween heat and mechanical ener$-" &ouis )asteur made the
$erm theor- of disease which lead to medical practices %ein$ more
sanitar-" In the 1890Es, 0mitri :endele-ev found the periodic law" :ichael
Farada- discovered electricit- and made $enerators from it"
The increasin$ of scientific discoveries lead to a spiritual %elief %ased
on o%servation, e1periment, and lo$ical anal-sis" :aterialism is the %elief
that ever-thin$ mental, spiritual, or ideal was a result of ph-sical forces"
Charles 0arwin and the Theor- of ,r$anic
volution
Charles 0arwin studied theolo$- at Cam%rid$e Bniversit- and also
had an interest in ;iolo$- and 5eolo$-" In 18@1, he was sent on an
assi$nment as a naturalist on the 8o-al Nav- scientific e1pedition on the
#":"(" Beagle. It was to stud- (outh America and the (outh )acific"
0arwin was assi$ned to stud- the forms of animal and plant life" #e
compared animals on islands at farawa- distances and compared them to
the mainland animals" #e came to the idea that animals evolved over time
due to their environment" #e e1plained this idea in the principle of natural
selection" #e presented this principle in his %oo/, ,n the ,ri$in of (pecies
%- :eans of Natural (election"
The Theor- of volution
,r$anic evolution is the lon$ period of time in which an animal
evolves over time" The animals that made it throu$h the stru$$le of survival
of the fit had adapted %etter to their environment" Chance variations in the
process of inheritance allowed some or$anisms to %e more adapted to the
environment than others" The more evolved species had passed on their
$enes that allowed them to survive onto their offsprin$, which this process
continued until a new species emer$ed" In the 0ecent of :an, he ar$ued
that humans were descendants from another species and that we 2ust
evolved over time from that species"
)eople thou$ht that 0arwinEs ideas made people sound li/e %ein$s of
ordinar- products instead of uni7ue %ein$s" 0arwinEs theor- seemed to ta/e
awa- purpose and desi$n from the universe" After a while, 0arwinEs theor-
was accepted %- scientists and other people" (ome people even tried to
appl- them to societ-"
A 8evolution in #ealth Care
Natural science led to %rea/outs in health care" New medicines were
startin$ to ta/e place in the medical field" Autopsies were startin$ to %e
formed and e1aminations of patients were startin$ to happen, which lead to
new discoveries of medicine"
)asteur and 5erms
The %rea/out of medicine occurred when microscopic or$anisms, or
$erms, were discovered" 5erms were found %- &ouis )asteur" )asteur
wasnEt a doctor, %ut a chemist who researched medicines" )asteur went to
)aris at the cole Normale in 1854, to prove that microscopic or$anisms
were the thin$s causin$ diseases"
)asteur soon found a thin$ called pasteuri6ation, which is the heatin$
of an o%2ect to /ill $erms so that -ou couldnEt $et sic/" #e soon wanted to
rid an- sic/ness he could, so he found a vaccine for ra%ies in 1885" In the
1830Es, vaccination was used for diphtheria, t-phoid fever, cholera, and
pla7ue" This created a immunolo$ical science"
New (ur$ical )ractices
(ur$eons usuall- would set %ro/en %ones, treated wounds, and
amputated lim%s shattered in war" A ma2or o%stacle in hospitals was the
postoperative infection"
<oseph &ister was one of the first people that dealt with this pro%lem"
#e developed the antiseptic principle" &ister thou$ht that %acteria could $et
into a wound and cause infection" Car%olic acid was a disinfectant that
/illed $erms durin$ sur$er-" This idea transformed hospitals ma2orl-
%ecause patients didnEt suffer from hospital $an$rene"
Ne1t, hospitals wanted to find somethin$ that lessened the pain of the
patient" :an- e1periments were preformed on patients %ut it wasnEt until
the- found sulfuric ether that the pain was lessened at :assachusetts
5eneral #ospital in 18>9" =ithin a -ear, chloroform %e$an to rival ether as
an anesthetic a$ent"
New )u%lic #ealth :easures
;acteriolo$- furthered the pu%lic health movements development"
The pu%lic health movement of the 18>0Es and 1850Es was a response to
the cholera epidemic" ,ne man called cholera a friend in pu%lic h-$iene"
The pre%acteriolo$ical h-$iene movement provided clean water, %etter
sewa$e disposal, and less crowded houses" ;acterial discoveries lead to
the pasteuri6ation of mil/, improved purification of water supplies,
immuni6ation a$ainst disease, and control of water%orne diseases" It also
lead to the $overnmentEs hirin$ medical doctors to help the pu%lic health"
New :edical (chools
The scientific development also lead to the trainin$ of doctors for
health care" :ost medical teachin$s were done %- apprenticeship" 0e$rees
were $iven after a couple months of lectures and entrance re7uirements
were practicall- none1istent" The <ohns #op/ins Bniversit- (chool of
:edicine had a four -ear re7uirement and use of la%oratories for teachin$
purposes" This school convinced other schools to have the same
curriculum"
=oman and :edical (chools
Females werenEt allowed to $o to medical school durin$ most of the
nineteenth centur-" #arriet #unt applied to #arvard :edical (chools, %ut
the male students made resolutions for wh- she couldnEt %e allowed"
li6a%eth ;lac/well $ave the first ma2or %rea/ throu$h for women in
medicine" (he was accepted to 5eneva Colle$e of :edicine %- mista/e ,
%ut she had won the respect of her male classmates" (he received her :"0
de$ree in 18>3 and opened up a clinic in New Jor/ Cit-"
(ome women e1perienced pro%lems similar to ;lac/wellEs" li6a%eth
5arret and (ophia <e1?;la/e had stru$$led for a reall- lon$ time %efore
the- were finall- admitted to practice medicine" (ince some medical
schools wouldnEt allow women into their schools, separate schools were
made for woman" The Female :edical Colle$e of )enns-lvania was made
in 1850, was the first women medical in the Bnited (tates and the &ondon
(chool of :edicine for =omen was founded in 184>" ven after women
$raduated from medical school, the- still had pro%lems findin$ wor/ as
doctors" )arliament finall- created a %ill in 1849 that allowed women to ta/e
e1aminations for the 2o%s" ;- the 1830Es woman were allowed into
universities in a %unch of places for medical practices" 5erman- and
Austria didnEt allow it until after 1300" :edical associations still didnEt full-
accept women as e7uals in the profession" =omen werenEt accepted all the
wa- in the American :edical Association until 1315"
(cience and the (tud- of (ociet-
Au$uste Comte com%ined the methods of science to the stud- of
societ-" #is ma2or wor/ was the (-stem of )ositive )hilosoph- and was
pu%lished %etween 18@4 and 18>2 %ut its %i$$est impact was after 1850"
Comte made a s-stem of positive /nowled$e which was %ased off of
a hierarch- of all the sciences" :athematics was %ased on the ph-sical
sciences, earth sciences, and %iolo$ical sciences" The top was sociolo$-,
which is the science of human societ-, which Comte put in economics,
anthropolo$-, histor-, and social ps-cholo$-" The findin$s of the $eneral
laws of societ- would %e %ased on the collection of data on humans and
their social environments"
8ealism in &iterature
)eople thou$ht that the world should %e viewed realisticall-" 8ealism
was a description of paintin$ and literature"
&iterar- 8ealists were noticed %- their disli/e in 8omanticism" The-
wanted to deal with real life characters instead of made up ones" The-
wanted thin$s with an accurate description" The- tried to com%ine their
interests in their lives with social 7uestions"
5ustave Flau%ert was the leadin$ novelist and he perfected the
8ealist novel" #is :adame ;ovar- descri%ed the small?town life in France"
mma ;ovar- is a woman thatEs married to a provincial doctor" (he has a
reall- %i$ interest in romance %oo/s" (he wants to have the same t-pe of
life in her adulterous affairs" (ince her wish doesnEt come true, she commits
suicide"
=illiam Thac/era- wrote Aanit- Fair' A Novel =ithout a #ero in 18>8"
#e %elieves that a novel should have ever-thin$ that real life has, nothin$
made up" Charles 0ic/ens novels focused on the lower and middle classes
in ;ritainEs earl- a$e" #is descriptions of life were ver- realistic"
8ealism in Art
8omanticism in art had %een showed throu$h paintin$s" )aintin$s in
realism was showed on ever-da- life of people and ver- natural scenes"
Cour%et
5ustave Cour%et was the most famous artist in the realism school"
8ealism was first used in one of his paintin$s" #is pictures were of factor-
wor/ers, peasants, wor/ers, and the wives of saloon wor/ers" To Cour%et,
no%od- was too u$l-, too ordinar-, or too harsh to interest him"
:illet
<ean?Francois :illet was interested in scenes from rural life" #is
scenes still had a %it of 8omantic sentimentalit-" In The 5leaners, he shows
the relationship %etween humans and nature" :illet made landscape and
countr- life an important thin$ for French artists"
:usic' The Twili$ht of 8omanticism
A new $roup of musicians came as the New 5erman (chool" The-
showed emotional content and e1pressed literar- and pictorial ideas"
&is6t
Fran6 &is6t was an outstandin$ concert artist %- the a$e of twelve"
#is performances made him the most hi$hl- esteemed virtuoso of his a$e"
#eEs %een called the $reatest pianist of all times"
#e mainl- did piano music, %ut he also did sacred music" #e invented
the term s-mphonic poem to refer to his wor/s"
=a$ner
&is6tEs son in law" #ad a desire for opera" #e was also a propa$andist
and a writer" #is music is descri%ed as a monumental development in
classical music"
#e transformed opera music into music drama throu$h his
5asamt/unstwer/, total art wor/, where music, actin$, dance, poetr-, and
scenic desi$n are com%ined as one" #e replaced the ori$inal ideas of opera
into leitmotiv, which is a recurrin$ musical theme when the human voice is
com%ined with the orchestra instead of risin$ a%ove it" #is themes came
from m-th and epic tales from the past" #is most famous wor/ was the
8in$ of the Ni%elun$" ItEs a series of four music dramas dealin$ with
m-thical $ods of the ancient 5erman epic"
Chapter
2>
Toward the :odern
Consciousness' Intellectual and
Cultural 0evelopments
0evelopments in the (ciences' The
mer$ence of a New )h-sics
(cience was one of the main supporters of optimistic and rationalistic
views of the world" (cience $ave new %eliefs to people and opened up
man- other views of science" )eople thou$ht that science would open up a
sense of the ph-sical world and $ave a real picture of realit-"
Isaac Newton created a %ias that the universe was a $iant machine
that time, space, and matter were different realities that e1isted
independentl- %- the people that were o%servin$ them" #e said that :atter
was composed of indivisi%le solid material %odies called atoms" )eople
%elieved him ri$ht awa-"
At the end of the nineteenth centur-, people weren.t so sure a%out if it
was true or not" (cientists :arie Curie, and her hus%and )ierre, found that
the element radium $ave off radiation ra-s that came from the atoms
themselves" Atoms weren.t hard, material %odies! the- were small worlds
that have su%atomic particles that called electrons and protons that
%ehaved in random fashions" Atoms %ecame a new theme in ph-sics"
In 1300, :a1 )lanc/ found that ener$- is radiated discontinuousl-, in
pac/ets that he called quanta" The 7uantum theor- $ot people wonderin$
a%out the realm of the atom"
The =or/ of instein
In 1305, instein pu%lished a paper named The lectro?0-namics of
:ovin$ ;odies that had his theor- of relativit-" 8elativit- theor- sa-s that
space and time aren.t a%solute, %ut the-.re relative to the o%server! the-
are interwoven into a four?dimensional space?time continuum" (pace and
time haven.t had a time when it was 2ust the human e1istence e1periencin$
it, another time has seen it as well" instein said that if ever-thin$ in the
universe was destro-ed, time and space would %e the onl- thin$s left"
:atter and ener$- reflected the relativit- of time and space" #e also said
that matter was 2ust another form of ener$-" In his epochal formula ?E =
mc? it means that each particle of matter is e7uivalent to its mass times
the s7uare of the velocit- of li$ht" It e1plained the ener$ies inside an atom"
:an- people didn.t understand instein.s theories" ,n an eclipse of
the sun on :a- 1313, scientists were a%le to show that li$ht was deflected
in the $ravitational field of the sun, 2ust li/e what instein predicted" This
proved instein.s theor- of relativit-"
Toward a New Bnderstandin$ of the
Irrational
Niet6sche
Friedrich Niet6sche said that the %our$eois societ- was i$norant and
incapa%le of possessin$ cultural creativit- %ecause the- were rich and the-
didn.t have an- /nowled$e of emotions, passions, and instincts" #e said
that reason didn.t have much of a rule of in human life %ecause humans
had irrational life forces"
Niet6sche thou$ht that Christianit- should hold a lot of the %lame the
=estern civili6ation.s enfee%lement, which created slave morality" (lave
moralit- said that Christianit- had ta/en the human impulse for life and had
crushed the human will"
Niet6sche told people that 5od was dead! that uropeans had /illed
5od" #e said that the- couldn.t %elieve in a cosmic order" #e thou$ht that
people should eliminate 5od and create another power hi$her than that
named superman" #e %elieved that superior people should stop thin/in$ of
the so called ordinar- thou$hts and should create their own values and
lead the masses" #e re2ected political democrac-, social reform, and
universal suffra$e"
;er$son
#enri ;er$son thou$ht that rational, scientific thou$ht was a practical
instrument for $ivin$ useful /nowled$e, %ut it wasn.t capa%le of %ein$ truth
or ultimate realit-" To him, realit- was the life force and it could not %e
divided into anal-6a%le parts" 8ealit- was a whole and could onl- %e loo/ed
at as a whole and e1perience it as a whole" =hen we loo/ at it, we $et a
description, not the realit- that we have seen"
(orel
5eor$e (orel too/ ;er$son.s and Niet6sche.s ideas and com%ined
them on the limits of rational thin/in$ with his own interest of revolutionar-
socialism" (orel /new what political potential of the nonrational and
advocated action as the onl- wa- to $ain the aims of socialism" In order to
destro- the capitalist societ-, he said to tr- $eneral stri/e %ecause if man-
wor/ers stri/e a$ainst this, than it could overpower the capitalist order" #e
also %elieved that the socialist societ- would need a small elite rulin$ %od-
to $overn it since the mass would %e too %i$ to rule them"
(i$mund Freud and )s-choanal-sis
(i$mund Freud made theories a%out the rational nature of the human
mind" #is ideas were pu%lished in 1300 in The Interpretation of 0reams,
which were /nown as psychoanalysis"
8ole of the Bnconscious
Freud said that human %ehavior was determined %- the unconscious!
e1periments were made when people were o%livious" #e relied on h-pnosis
and on dreams"
Freud said that if -ou had an unsettlin$ dream, -our %ehavior
chan$es %ecause -ou still have patches of it in memor- while -ou.re
conscious, %ut -our dream still is stuc/ in -our unconscious memor-, so it
causes -our %ehavior to chan$e"
A human %ein$s inner life had three forces' the id, e$o, and
supere$o" The id was the center of unconscious drives termed the
pleasure principle" )eople are creatures of desire, so the- want pleasure,
not pain" The ego is the seat of reason and the coordinator of the inner life"
It was $overned %- the realit- principle" )eople re2ected pleasure so that
the- could live to$ether in societ-" The superego was the locus of the
conscious and represented the inhi%itions and moral values that people
impose on people" The supere$o was a force to the e$o to end the
unsatisfactor- drives of the id"
The $o and (upere$o served to stop the unconscious id and /ept
out of consciousness what the- wanted to" The most important repressions
were the se1ual and so he developed theories of infantile se1ual drives in
the ,edipus comple1 Hlectra comple1 for femalesI, or the infant.s cravin$
for e1clusive possession of the parent of the opposite se1" 8epression
starts in childhood, and ps-choanal-sis is $ained throu$h a ps-chotherapist
and patient" The ps-chotherapist $oes into the memor- to find the chain of
repression all the wa- %ac/ to its childhood ori$ins" This made the
conscious mind aware of the unconsciousness and the patient.s ps-chic
conflict was resolved"
The Impact of 0arwin
(ome scientific theories were used the wron$ wa-s so that other
thin$s were achieved" The or$anic evolution was put to$ether with the
social order which made the social 0arwinism"
(ocial 0arwinism
Social Darwinism was put to$ether %- #er%ert (pencer" #e said that
societies were or$anisms that evolved due to chan$e in their environment!
the stron$ advanced while the wea/ declined" (pencer tal/ed a%out how
this wor/ed in his %oo/ (ocial (tatics"
8acism
Friedrich von ;ernhardi said that war was somethin$ that we need, if
we didn.t have it, than an unhealth- development would follow" The
Nationalist Association a$reed with ;ernhardi.s statement" The- said that if
our international stru$$le was war, than war is what we.ll have"
8acism was stren$thened %- the %iolo$ical ar$uments" 1treme
nationalism and racism was most common in 5erman-" Aol/ Hnation,
people, or raceI had %een a consideration in 5erman histor- since the
%e$innin$ of the nineteenth centur-" Houston Steward Chamberlain, a
main supporter of 5erman vol/ish thou$ht, was an n$lishman who
%ecame a 5erman citi6en" #e wrote The Foundations of the Nineteenth
Centur-" #e %elieved that :odern?da- 5ermans were the onl- full?%lood
successors of the Ar-ans, who were thou$ht of as the true and ori$inal
creators of =estern culture" The Ar-an race must alwa-s %e prepared to
fi$ht for =estern civili6ation and save it from the lower races of <ews,
Ne$roes, and ,rientals" To the 5erman vol/ish nationalists, the <ews were
the enem- and were parasites that wanted to destro- the Ar-an race"
The Attac/ in Christianit-
Industriali6ation and ur%ani6ation had a %i$ effect on reli$ious
institutions" ;ecause of people movin$ from the countr-side to the cit-, the
traditional ties of the villa$e in which the church had %een a /e- force to
new ur%an patterns of social life from where the churches were e1cluded
from" The Christian churches were losin$ their wor/ers"
uropean $overnments had imposed control over the church courts,
reli$ious orders, and appointments for the cler$-" After the failure of the
revolutions of 18>8, the $overnments wanted the church.s aid in
reesta%lishin$ order and rela1ed these controls"
The union of the state authorities and the esta%lished churches made
a %ac/lash in the form of anticlericalism" Catholic churches were outlawed
in 1301, and in 1305, the church and state were separated"
(cience %ecame a threat to churches and reli$ion" 0arwin.s theor- of
evolution contradicted the doctrine of divine creation" The church tried to
for%id the teachin$s of the evolutionar- h-pothesis, %ut it 2ust made people
re2ect reli$ions more"
The scientific spirit made %i%lical scholars to add critical principles to
the %i%le, leadin$ to hi$her criticism" Ernest enan 7uestioned the
accurac- of the histor- of the ;i%le and showed a different picture of <esus
in his %oo/ &ife of <esus" #e saw <esus not as 5od.s son, %ut as a human
%ein$ whose value laid in the e1ample he showed throu$h his life and
teachin$"
8esponse of the Churches
The Christian churches started the re2ect an- modern ideas or forces
as a response to the attac/s" )rotestant fundamentalist sects were reall-
important in /eepin$ a literal interpretation of the ;i%le" The Catholic
Church under !ope !ius "# re%elled a$ainst modern ideas" )ope )ius
made a papal enc-clical called the (-lla%us of rrors where he said that it.s
an error to %elieve that the 8oman )ontiff can a$ree with pro$ress,
li%eralism, socialism, reli$ious toleration, and freedom of speech and press"
:odernism was an attempt to connect Christianit- %ac/ into the new
developments made %- the churches" :odernists saw the ;i%le as a %oo/
of useful ideas" It encoura$ed Christians to %e involved in social reforms,
and it insisted that the churches should have a %i$$er sense of communit-"
The Catholic Church condemned :odernism shortl- %efore the %e$innin$
of =orld =ar I"
!ope $eo #""" allowed the teachin$ of evolution in Catholic schools
and responded to the challen$es of moderni6ation in the economic and
social spheres" #e wrote an enc-clical 0e 8erum Novarum, which tal/ed
a%out a person.s ri$ht to private propert-, %ut he also 2ud$ed the na/ed
capitalism for the mone- it too/ from the wor/in$ class, which led the
wor/in$ class to povert-" #e condemned :ar1ist socialism %ecause of its
materialistic and antireli$ious foundations" #e su$$ested that Catholics
should form socialist parties and la%or unions of their own to help wor/ers"
(ects of missionaries were helpful with supportin$ Christianit-" The
(alvation Arm- made food centers for homeless that could sleep, and
rescue homes for women" These all had a lar$er purpose thou$h, to save
the soul and the salvation of the %od-"
The Culture of :odernit-' &iterature
(ince the revolution in ph-sics and ps-cholo$-, writers and artists
have %een re%ellin$ a$ainst old st-les of literar- and artistic wor/s! the-
now have new st-les called :odernism"
Naturalism
&iterature was dominated %- Naturalism durin$ the nineteenth
centur-" Naturalists felt that %ecause the world was natural, the art wor/
should %e nothin$ %ut realistic" =riters could address social pro%lems,
which $ave them a %etter understandin$ of the world" Naturalism was a
continuation of 8ealism, %ut it didn.t have li%eral optimism a%out people
and societ-" The Naturalists were pessimistic of urope.s future and
showed characters cau$ht in thin$s that the- couldn.t control"
Emile %ola showed a $ood e1ample of Naturalism when he showed
how alcoholism and %ad environments affected people.s lives" (he had
read 0arwin.s ,ri$en of (pecies and was impressed how or$anisms have
to stru$$le for survival and how important the environment and heredit- is"
Dola wrote a twent-?volume series called 8ou$on?:ac7uart that tal/s a%out
the natural and social histor- of a famil-" #e said that an artist must anal-6e
and dissect life as a %iolo$ist would to a livin$ or$anism"
Leo Tolstoy wrote a %oo/ named =ar and )eace, which tal/ed
a%out the %ac/$round of Napoleon.s invasion on 8ussia in 1812" It has
vivid descriptions of militar- life and character portra-al" #e imposed a
fatalistic view of histor- and proved irrelevant in human love and trust"
F-odor 0ostoevs/- too/ narrative s/ill and acute ps-cholo$ical and
moral o%servant with profound insi$hts into human nature and com%ined
them to$ether" #e said that the ma2or pro%lem in his a$e was the loss of
spiritual %elief" )eople were tr-in$ to $ain salvation %- the paradise put
to$ether %- human will and human reason" #e feared that if the- couldn.t
incorporate spirit, than it would lead to total t-rann-" #is life e1periences
made him %elief that -ou can.t purif- the soul until -ou suffer and have faith"
#is %est /nown wor/s are Crime and )unishment and The ;rothers
Carama6ov"
(-m%olism
Symbolists, a new $roup of writers, reacted a$ainst 8ealism" The-
li/ed to write poetr-, %ut the- thou$ht that an o%2ective /nowled$e of the
world was impossi%le" The e1ternal world wasn.t real, %ut it was a %unch of
s-m%ols that reflected the true realit- that was collected in the human mind"
Art, instead of servin$, critici6in$, or see/in$ to understand societ-, %ut
should function for its own sa/e" )oetr- couldn.t %e popular culture
%ecause -ou could onl- understand a poems words if -ou /new the poet.s
personal lan$ua$e"
:odernism in the Arts
Artists had %een tr-in$ to imitate realit- since the 8enaissance"
Impressionism
"mpressionism was created %- a $roup of artists who went out into
the wilderness to $et the true paintin$ of nature %ecause the- didn.t want to
paint what was inside museums or studios" Camille !issarro said that
precise drawin$ destro-s all sensations" Jou should paint what -ou o%serve
and feel"
Claude &onet was enchanted with water and painted pictures on
how he cau$ht the interpla- of li$ht, water, and atmosphere" #e drew the
Impression, Sunrise" Impressionists didn.t 2ust paint scenes of nature, the-
also painted cit- thin$s with people or wherever people con$re$ated for
wor/ and leisure"
;erthe :orisot showed that women could also %e professional
painters instead of 2ust amateur painters" (he %elieved that women had a
more $entle touch with paintin$ than men do" #er special touch was usin$
li$hter colors and flowin$ %rush stro/es" (he painted Young Girl by the
Window"
)ost?Impressionism
!ost'"mpressionism had an emphasis on li$ht and color! it focused
more on structure and form" Impressionists used %oth color and line to
show inner feelin$s and a real show of realit- instead of an imitation" )ost?
Impressionists moved from o%2ective realit- to su%2ective realit-" )ost?
Impressionism was the %e$innin$ of modern art"
!aul Ce(anne was one of the most important )ost?Impressionists"
#e was at first influenced %- Impressionists, %ut ended up re2ectin$ their
wor/" In his Woman with Coffee Pot, he structured ever-thin$
$eometricall-" #e sa-s that in nature, -ou must see the c-linder, the
sphere, and the cone"
)incent van *ogh thou$ht that art was a spiritual e1perience" #e
was interested in color and felt as if it had its own form of lan$ua$e" #e felt
as if artist should paint as the- felt" #e painted Starry Night"
The (earch for Individual 1pression
)s-cholo$- and the new ph-sics made it so that people were sure
what constituted realit-" )hoto$raph- was invented in the 18@0.s and
%ecame ver- famous when *eorge Eastman made the first Coda/ camera
and put it in mar/et in 1888" The camera could onl- mirror realit-, while
artists could create realit-" Individual e1pression made a wide variet- of
schools of paintin$, which had the $reatest impact after =orld =ar I"
)a%lo )icasso painted in man- different st-les and was reall- fle1i%le
with it" #e created Cubism which used $eometric desi$ns to re?create
realit- in the viewer.s mind" )icasso.s es !emoiselles d"#$ignon was
painted in 1304 and has %een called the first Cu%ist paintin$"
+bstract !ainting ,E-pressionism. %e$an in 1810" =assil-
Candins/- was one of the founders of a%stract paintin$" #e tried to avoid
representation full- in his S%uare with White Border" #e thou$ht that art
should spea/ directl- to the soul and in order to do that, it should avoid
visual realit- and focus on color"
:odernism in :usic
8omantics. had started to have an interest in fol/ music, and it
%ecame ver- important to musicians %ecause the- could e1press their
national identities"
5rie$
dvard 5rie$ was a supporter of Norwe$ian nationalism" #is
nationalism was e1pressed in l-ric melodies that were in the fol/ music of
his homeland" ,ne of his %est /nown wor/s was Peer Gynt Suite,
incidental music to %e pla-ed %- #enri/ I%sen" #is music made a new
music st-le in Norwa-"
0e%uss-
Impressionist music had elusive moods and hauntin$ sensations and
is noticea%le %- its %eaut- and ele$ance of sound" Claude 0e%uss- was
most lin/ed to this movement" #is compositions were inspired %- visual
arts" #is most famous arts is Prelude to the #fternoon of a &aun, which was
actuall- inspired %- a poem named Afternoon of a Faun written %- his
friend, (tephane :allarme" The son$ recreated the feelin$ of the poem"
,ther composers used st-listic idioms that imitated primitive forms to
tr- and e1press less refined and more $enuine feelin$s" "gor Stravins/y
was an important composer for his compositions and for other composers"
#e was a %allet composer and with the ;allet 8usse, under the direction of
(er$ei 0ia$hilev, made the world of music and %allet %etter" The three most
si$nificant %allets were 'he &irebird, Petrush(a, and 'he )ite of Spring"
The- were %ased on 8ussian fol/ tales" 'he )ite of Spring.s premiere on
:a- 23, 131@, overwhelmed the audience and caused a riot in the theater"
)olitics' New 0irections and New
Bncertainties
The :ovement for =omen.s 8i$hts
A lot of women had %ecome mad a%out the pre2udices a$ainst women
in the 18@0.s" =omen had started to thin/ a%out improvements for them"
The- didn.t even tr- to do an-thin$ a%out famil- and marria$e laws
%ecause it was difficult for women to even tr- to $et a divorce or /eep their
propert- %ecause the men had complete control over their wives" =omen
still hadn.t $otten their ri$hts to own their own propert- until 1840 in ;ritain,
1300 in 5erman-, and 1304 in France" The ;ritish did le$ali6e divorce in
1854, %ut the French onl- allowed a limited de$ree of it in 188>" In the
Catholic countries, women didn.t have an- success in divorcin$ their
hus%ands"
New )rofessions
(ome of the middle? and upper?class women were a%le to $et a
hi$her education, and some even tried to have access to the same
occupations dominated %- men" The ver- first to fall was teachin$" The-
also weaved their wa- into nursin$ from the medical trainin$" ,ne of the
nurses was Amalie (ieve/in$" (he made the Female Association for the
Care of the )oor and (ic/" Florence Ni$htin$ale and Clara ;arton made
nursin$ a profession of trained, middle?class women in white"
The 8i$ht to Aote
The movement for women.s ri$hts had %een considered in the
political arena for the call of e7ual political ri$hts %- the 18>0.s and 1850.s"
A lot of women thou$ht that havin$ the ri$ht to vote would lead to the
improvements of the position of women" The ;ritish women.s movement
was the most vocal and active, %ut it divided into different tactics" :illicent
Fawcett put to$ether a $roup that %elieved that if women could have the
chance to vote, the- would use it responsi%l-" mmeline )an/hurst and her
dau$hters Christa%el and (-lvia made the =omen.s (ocial and )olitical
Bnion in 130@, which enrolled mostl- middle? and upper?class women" This
or$ani6ation /new the value of the media and used it to put its pu%licit- to
call attention to its demands" The- were called su00ragettes %- male
politicians %ecause the- threw e$$s at $overnment officials, chained
themselves to lampposts, smashed the windows of stores on rich shoppin$
streets, %urned railroad cars, and went on hun$er stri/es in 2ail" mil-
0avidson accepted death as a mart-r after she threw herself in front of the
/in$.s horse at an psom 0er%- horse race" (uffra$ists had an aim to full
citi6enship for women in the nation?state"
0emands for women.s ri$hts were heard %efore =orld =ar I" ,nl- in
Finland, Norwa-, and some American states did women $et the ri$ht to
vote %efore 131>" =orld =ar I was what %rou$ht the $overnments to $ive
in"
fforts for )eace
;ertha von (uttner was the leader of the Austrian )eace (ociet- and
went a$ainst the $rowin$ arms race of the 1830s" (he wrote the &a- 0own
Jour Arms and she won the No%le )eace )ri6e in 1305" A $roup of female
wor/ers demanded that the mone- of the state to %e spent on the needs of
the people"
The New =omen
The 1ew 2omen were women who wanted chan$e and wanted to
have 2o%s other than %ein$ wives and mothers" &aria &ontessori went to
medical school in 8ome and was left out %- the men students" (he /ept
doin$ what she wanted and was the first Italian women to have medical
de$ree" Three -ears later, she went on a lecture tour in Ital- on the su%2ect
of the new women" (he said that a new woman was a woman who followed
a scientific perspective" (he too/ her medical histor- and used it to wor/ in
a school for mentall- handicapped children" (he made new teachin$
materials that let the children learn how to read and write" (he made a
childhood education that had natural and spontaneous activities that let
students learn at their own pace" ;- the 13@0s, hundreds of schools had
%een esta%lished in urope and the Bnited (tates"
<ews in the uropean Nation?(tate
8acism and reall- %ad nationalism was aimed directl- at the <ews"
Anti?(emitism was not new thou$h" <ews had %een thou$ht of as the /illers
of <esus, and su%2ected to mo% violence" ;ecause of this, the-.re ri$hted
had %een restricted, and the- couldn.t %e within the Christians in a place
called the $hettos"
;ecause of the enli$htenment and the French 8evolution, <ews had
slowl- $ained le$al e7ualit-" The <ews $ot full citi6enship %ecause of the
French revolutionar- decrees of 1430 and 1431" mancipation %ecame a
fact of life for <ews after the revolutions of 18>8" mancipation had allowed
<ews to leave the $hettos and were a%le to $o into parliaments and
universities" ;en2amin 0israeli said that a <ew could *leave his <ewishness
%ehind+"
Anti?(emitism in the Austrian mpire and 5erman-
Christian (ocialists put a$itation for wor/ers with a virulent anti?
(emitism" &ed %- Carl &ue$ar, anti?(emitism was most powerful in Aienna"
Aienna was the center of uropean culture, %ut it was also the home of
Adolf #itler who %lamed <ews for the corruption of 5erman culture"
;etween 1304 and 131@ he claimed that he found his worldview, and that
was %ased on 5erman nationalism and ra%id anti?(emitism"
The Adolf (toc/er.s Christian (ocial =or/ers used anti?(emitism to
$et the votes of lower?middle?class $roups that felt threatened %- the
economic forces" This part- was %ased on race" <ews used to %e a%le to
move to Christianit- from their reli$ion in the medieval times" To the anti?
(emites, <ews were %orn with their race and couldn.t %e chan$ed %-
conversion" (ome%od- couldn.t %e a 5erman and a <ew" #ermann
Ahlwardt said that a <ew %orn in 5erman- does not ma/e him a 5erman,
some%od- %orn a <ew is a <ew" After 1838, the political stren$th of the
5erman anti?(emitic parties %e$an to decline"
)ersecution of <ews in astern urope
42 percent of the <ewish population lived in astern urope" 8ussian
<ews had to $o to secondar- schools and universities under a 7uota
s-stem and were onl- allowed to live in certain areas of the countr-"
)ersecutions and po$roms Hor$ani6ed massacresI were widespread"
)o$roms were in almost seven hundred 8ussian towns and villa$es, mostl-
in the B/raine %etween 130@ and 1309" :an- <ews emi$rated to escape
the persecutions" ;etween 1881 and 1833, 2@,000 <ews left 8ussia each
-ear" :ost of them went to the Bnited (tates and Canada" A%out 25,000
moved to )alestine, which %ecame the main point for a <ewish movement
called Dionism"
The Dionist :ovement
The emancipation had $iven <ews a lot of opportunities, %ut $ave
dilemmas for others" )alestine was a land of <ewish dreams" Theodor
#er6l helped with the $rowth of political %ionism and wrote The <ewish
(tate in 1839 and claimed that the <ews that wish it will have it" =ealth-
<ewish %an/in$ families donated mone- to a financial support for the
development of settlements for a refu$e for persecuted <ews" The
settlements were difficult thou$h %ecause the ,ttoman mpire and
,ttoman authorities didn.t want <ews to immi$rate" The First Dionist
Con$ress met in 1834 and set a $oal to create a home with a pu%lic law for
the <ewish people" ,ne thousand <ews moved to )alestine in 1301 and the
population went to three thousand annuall- %etween 130> and 131>"
The Transformation of &i%eralism' 5reat
;ritain and Ital-
&i%eral $overnments followed policies lead %- the %asic tenets of
li%eralism"
5reat ;ritain
The wor/in$?class movement made &i%erals move awa- from their
ideals" The- had to adopt si$nificant social reforms %ecause of the new
wor/in$?class or$ani6ations' trade unions and the &a%our )art-" Trade
unions wanted a chan$e of the economic s-stem, the- wanted collective
ownership and control over production, distri%ution, and e1chan$e %ecause
the- were frustrated at the $overnment for not enactin$ social reform" This
also led to the or$ani6ation of steel factor- wor/ers and confrontations in
&ondon as ;ritish wor/ers demanded for a minimum wa$e and other
%enefits"
The 3abian Socialists wanted wor/ers to use their ri$hts to vote and
to use that to ta/e hold of the #ouse of Commons and pass the le$islation
that would help the la%orin$ class" The Fa%ian (ocialists and the ;ritish
trade unions were not :ar1ist" The- a$reed with a socialist state %- a
democratic mean" The trade union and the Fa%ian (ocialists 2oined to
ma/e the &a%our )art-" It onl- one seat in 1300, %ut it $ot twent-?nine
mem%ers to the #ouse of Commons in 1309"
The &i%erals $ained control of the #ouse of Commons in 1309 and
was in control of the $overnment from 1309 to 131>" The- thou$ht that if
the- didn.t $ive a social welfare for the wor/ers, than the- would lose the
support of the wor/ers" David $loyd *eorge made the polic- of reform
%etter" The &i%erals a%andoned laisse6?faire and voted %- a series of
reforms" The National Insurance Act of 1311 $ave wor/ers %enefits in case
the- $ot sic/ or the- were unemplo-ed, so the wor/ers $ot paid %-
contri%utions from wor/ers, emplo-ers, and the state" )eople over sevent-
that were retired and people who $ot in2ured on the 2o% $ot paid a little %it
as well" &lo-d 5eor$e raised the ta1 prices on the wealth- classes to help
pa- for these new insurances"
&lo-d 5eor$e had to $o in front of the #ouse of &ords! the &ords
didn.t li/e it much how he raised ta1es for the wealth- classes to pa- for the
social reforms" 5eor$e made a law in 1311 that didn.t allow the #ouse of
&ords to ma/e le$islation enactments for the #ouse of Commons" After
this, the #ouse of &ords was mainl- a de%atin$ societ-"
The &i%erals also tried to help with the Irish.s pro%lems" Irish
)rotestants didn.t want to %e part of an Irish Catholic state" =ith =orld =ar
I, the ;ritish $overnment pushed aside the Irish.s pro%lem and started to
$et read- for war"
Ital-
(ta%ilit- was $ained from 130@ to 131> when 5iovanni 5iolitti was
prime minister" #e was reall- $ood at tras0ormismo, or transformism,
where old political $roups were chan$ed into new $overnment coalitions %-
usin$ political and economic %ri%er-" These attempts made the politics even
worse and unmana$ea%le" Br%an wor/ers ended up $ettin$ mad a%out
their livin$ and wor/in$ conditions, so 5iolitti attempted to please them with
social welfare le$islation and universal male suffra$e in 1312" #e also
con7uered &i%-a to tr- and add to his popularit-" =or/ers were still mad
and it $ot so %ad that in 131>, $overnment troops had to calm down mad
wor/ers"
France' Travails of the Third 8epu%lic
In 1835, +l0red Drey0us was claimed to %e $uilt- %- a secret militar-
court of sellin$ arm- secrets and was condemned for life on the 0evil.s
Island" #e was found to %e innocent after the- found evidence of his
innocence" Instead, a Catholic aristocrat was found to %e the true traitor!
%ut the arm- was a follower of aristocratic and Catholic officers, so the-
refused to hold another trial" 8epu%lic &eaders wanted another trial to %e
held due to pu%lic outra$e" The trial failed to find the $uilt- verdict" The
$overnment pardoned 0re-fus in 1833, and in 1309, he was found $uilt-"
:oderate repu%licans lost control to radical repu%licans who wanted
to ma/e pro$ress toward a democratic societ- %- destro-in$ the 8epu%lic.s
enemies, mainl- the arm- and the Catholic Church" The arm- was pur$ed
of all hi$h?ran/in$ officers who had antirepu%lican reputations" The
Churches reli$ious orders over the schools were forced to leave France"
The church and state were separated in 1305 and throu$hout the ne1t two
-ears, the $overnment too/ church propert- and started to pa- clerical
salaries"
These stopped the political threat from the ri$ht of the Third 8epu%lic,
which commanded the lo-alt- of the French people" The French trailed
%ehind ever-one in industrial activit-" After a $ain in industriali6ation after
1839, the French reali6ed how little the wor/in$ classes had $ained" The
wor/in$ classes saw that stri/es were appealin$ after a fourth of the wa$e
earners wor/ed in industr- and the la%or le$islation had less pressure" It
onl- $ot worse after the la%or wal/outs in 1311 made %- the $overnment"
5rowin$ Tensions in 5erman-
The imperial 5erman- made %- ;ismarc/ continued as an
authoritarian, conservative, militar-?%ureaucratic power state durin$ the
rulin$ of mperor =illiam II" =illiam II was /nown as unsta%le, a$$ressive,
and $ave out tactless remar/s" #e once told the soldiers of a ;erlin
re$iment that the- had to %e prepared to shoot their parents if he told them
to" A small $roup of twent- men 2oined with him to set up a $overnment
polic-"
5erman- had %ecome the most powerful on the continent %- 131>"
:ore than 50 percent of people had 2o%s in industr- with onl- @0 percent
was still in a$riculture" The chan$es in =illiam II.s 5erman- helped ma/e a
societ- in %etween moderni6ation and traditionalism"
=illiam II was 2ust li/e ;ismarc/ with slowin$ down the $rowth of
(ocial 0emocrats" It had %ecome the lar$est sin$le part- %- 1312" The
part- also %ecame less revolutionar- and more revisionist" The $rowth of
this part- scared the middle and upper classes"
)eople started demandin$ thin$s to %e done for democrati6ation
$rowth" The !an'*erman $eague was made for such reasons" The
Conservative forces tried to %loc/ these ideas %- supportin$ =illiam II.s
forei$n polic-" The- thou$ht that e1pansionism would ma/e people stop
wantin$ democrati6ation"
Austria?#un$ar-' The )ro%lem of the
Nationalities
Austria?#un$ar- was still facin$ pro%lems with its man- nationalities"
Bniversal male suffra$e was supposed to help with the pro%lems, %ut
nationalities now distur%ed the parliament for autonom-" The prime
ministers i$nored the parliament and relied on imperial emer$enc- de$rees
to $overn after 1300" )arliament %ecame a cra6- force as well"
The threat that the nationalities said came %ac/ to them as virulent
5erman nationalism" The (ocial 0emocrats were a :ar1ist $roup, %ut the-
supported the Austrian $overnment" The- were afraid that the different
nationalities would slow industrial development and prevent %etter thin$s
for wor/ers" The Christian (ocialists made wor/ers even madder with a
virulent anti?(emitism"
The :a$-ars in #un$ar- made a movement that would separate itself
from Austria" The- demanded in 130@ that the #un$arian arm- and the
Imperial arm- to %e separated, %ut mperor Francis <oseph threatened to
put universal male suffra$e on #un$ar-! this would challen$e :a$-ar
domination of the minorities" The #un$arian leaders surrendered and the
new leader of #un$ar-, Count Istvan Tis6a, sta-ed in the 0ual :onarch-"
The death of the 0ual :onarch- could lead to the fallin$ of :a$-ar
landownin$ class"
Industriali6ation and 8evolution in Imperial
8ussia
8ussia e1perienced a state?sponsored industrialism due to (er$ei
=itte" #e saw that industrial $rowth was reall- important to national
stren$th" #e %elieved that railroads were a hu$e contri%ute to economic
development, so he had a hu$e railroad e1pansion" ;- 1300, a%out @5,000
miles of railroads had %een %uilt, includin$ a lot of the 5,000?mile trans?
(i%erian line %etween :oscow and Aladivosto/, on the )acific ,cean" #e
encoura$ed protective tariffs to help 8ussian industr- and to persuade Tsar
Nicholas II that forei$n capital was needed for fast industrial $rowth" =itte.s
pro$ram was responsi%le for the fast $rowth of modern steel and coal
industrial and made them the fourth?lar$est producer of steel"
;ecause of industriali6ation factories, an industrial wor/in$ class,
industrial su%ur%s, and %ad wor/in$ and livin$ conditions came alon$ with
it" (ocialist and socialist parties developed, %ut the- were forced to $o
under$round and %ecome revolutionar-" The (ocialist 8evolutionaries
wanted to ta/e over the tsarist autocrac- and esta%lish peasant socialism"
#avin$ no other ideas, the- started political terrorism and tried to /ill
$overnment officials and mem%ers of the d-nast-"
The 8evolution of 1305
0efeat in war led to political upheaval at home" 8ussia.s e1pansion
had led to a confrontation with <apan, which lead to the ussio'4apanese
2ar" <apan attempted a surprise attac/ on 8ussia at )ort Arthur on
Fe%ruar- 8, 130>" 8ussia sent its ;altic fleet halfwa- around the world to
the east, %ut $ot defeated %- the <apanese nav- at Tsushima (trait off the
coast of <apan" uropeans were ama6ed that an Asian state had defeated
the $reat uropean power" The- 8ussians claimed defeat and sued for
peace in 1305"
The 8ussian population had $rown and led to upheaval" The middle
class wanted li%eral institutes and a li%eral political s-stem" Nationalities
were upset with the 8ussian population that contained >0 percent of the
empire.s total population" )easants still suffered from lac/ of land, and
la%orers were oppressed %- their wor/in$ and livin$ conditions in a lar$e
cit-" The transport s-stem had failed due to the <apanese =ar and led to
food shorta$es in the ma2or cities" ,n <anuar- 3, 1305, a %unch of wor/ers
went to the =inters )alace in (aint )eters%ur$ to show a petition of
$rievances to the tsar" Troops shot the peaceful people, /illin$ hundreds
and launchin$ a revolution" This 5loody Sunday influenced wor/ers to call
stri/es and form unions" Demstvos wanted parliamentar- $overnment,
ethnic $roups revolted, and peasants %urned the houses of landowners" ,n
,cto%er 1305, the $overnment capitulated after a $eneral stri/e" The
,cto%er :anifesto, issued %- Nicholas II, $ave civil li%erties and created a
le$islative assem%l- named the 0uma, elected %- a franchise" The middle?
class moderates supported the $overnment.s repression in 1305"
Failure of the 8evolution
!eter Stolypin a$rarian reforms dissolved the villa$e ownership of
land and opened the door to private ownership %- enterprisin$ peasants"
Nicholas II didn.t li/e reform" ;- 1304 the tsar too/ over the power of the
0uma and fell %ac/ on the arm- and %ureaucrac- to rule 8ussia"
The 8ise of the Bnited (tates
;etween 1890 and 131>, the Bnited (tates went from an a$rarian to
an industrial nation" In 1300, Carne$ie (teel Compan- alone produced
more steel than 5reat ;ritain.s" Industriali6ation led to the $rowth in cities"
Four?fifths of the population $rew over mi$ration"
The Bnited (tates %ecame the world.s richest and $reatest industrial
power" In 1830, the richest 3 percent of Americans owned 41 percent of all
the wealth" &a%or unrest over unsafe wor/in$ conditions, strict wor/
discipline, and periodic c-cles of devastatin$ unemplo-ment led wor/ers to
or$ani6e" American Federation of &a%or showed to %e la%or.s dominant
voice" Its power was lac/in$ in its mem%ership thou$h"
(tate $overnments made economic and social le$islation" The- soon
reali6ed thou$h that state laws didn.t wor/ with dealin$ with nationwide
pro%lems, so it lead to a )ro$ressive movement at the national level" The
:eat Inspection Act and )ure Food and 0ru$ Act $ave a limited amount of
federal re$ulation of industrial practices" =oodrow =ilson saw the
enactment of federal income ta1 and the esta%lishment of the Federal
8eserve (-stem that allowed the $overnment to pla- a role in economic
decisions made %- %an/ers"
The 5rowth of Canada
Bnit- was hard to $et %ecause there was distrust %etween the
n$lish?spea/in$ and the French?spea/in$ Canadian" =ilfred &aurier, the
first French Canadian prime minister in 1839, was a%le to reconcile the two
$roups" Industriali6ation %oomed as well" A lot of immi$rants came into
Canada" :an- settled in the west, which helped to populate Canada.s
territories"
The New Imperialism
Causes of the New Imperialism
uropean states made colonies that $ave ports and coalin$ places
for navies %ecause the uropean affairs $ot stiff" 5reat ;ritain often
e1panded their propert- into new re$ions so that the nei$h%orin$ countries
could set up camps that could harm ;ritish interests" Colonies were also a
place where reputation and self?esteem was found" ,nce the ma/in$ of the
colonies started, those who didn.t %ecome a colon- at the ver- %e$innin$
were considered wea/, which wasn.t accepted to the $reat power"
Imperialism was similar to nationalism"
)atriotic fervor was used to $et people interested in imperialism" The
media used soldiers. letters to ma/e imperialism seem li/e a heroic deed"
)la-s were also written for this reason" Aoluntar- $roups also used
enthusiasm for imperial adventures"
The 8ole of (ocial 0arwinism and 8acism
Imperialism was similar to social 0arwinism and racism as well"
(ocial 0arwinists %elieved that when the nations are stru$$lin$, the fit and
the stron$er ones would survive" The hi$her races have to ta/e over the
lower races %- usin$ militar- force to show that the- are the alphas" A
mathematics professor, Carl )earson, said that our path of pro$ress is
done %- the failures of others in the past! that is what ma/es us stron$er"
8eli$ious :otives
(ome people too/ a reli$ious or humanitarian path towards
imperialism %ecause the- said that the- have the responsi%ilit- to civili6e
the i$norant people" The white man6s burden was that people thou$ht
that it was their responsi%ilit- to teach people superiorit- and how to /eep
the world a clean environment" This helped the idealistic people handle
imperialism in their own wa-s" The- tau$ht these wa-s to the non?whites,
another form of racism" =ith these ideas from people, the- decided to
ma/e new industries and new medicines for the non?white people"
The conomic :otive
#istorians decided to start a new economic motivation for
imperialism" A $reat demand of natural resources li/e ru%%er, oil, and tin
came up! %ut those were thin$s that weren.t found in the =estern
countries" uropean investors too/ over the places that natural resources
were found instead of 2ust tradin$ with the other countries for the resources"
The amount of mone- that %an/ers and industrialists $ot for these
resources was so vast that the- wanted more and more of it so that the-
could $et even more mone-" This created an economic imperialism where
uropean finance was the hi$hest in economic activit- of a %i$ part of the
world" conomic imperialism was different than colonial e1pansion"
;usinesses $ot their mone- from where it would sell %est, not where the
colonial empires were" Colonial territor- was ver- popular with the
surroundin$ lands, %ut more with the lands farther awa- from it"
)eople that a$reed with Carl :ar1 said that imperialism was
motivated economicall- %ecause it was similar to the capitalist s-stem" A"I"
&enin said in Imperialism, the #i$hest (ta$e of =orld Capitalism that
capitalism leads to imperialism" The capitalist s-stem cares more a%out the
wealth- thin$s, %uildin$ onto investin$ houses is e1haustin$, so the- have
to %uild stron$ colonies and /ic/ out the small and wea/ nations" #e
%elieved that the onl- wa- to fi1 imperialism was to /ill capitalism"
The (cram%le for Africa
None of the countries ever reall- cared for an- part of Africa, until
the- wanted control over more land" In the last two decades of the
nineteenth centur-, all the uropean states tried to $et as much land as
the- could"
(outh Africa
The ;ritish had moved to (outh Africa and too/ control of Cape Town
durin$ the Napoleonic wars" After the wars ended, the ;ritish invited
settlers into what the- called the Cape Colon-" The ;ritish policies didn.t
li/e the descendents of the 0utch colonists, the Afri/aners, or ;oers, so
the- led them in 18@5 to move north on the 5reat Tre/ to the area %etween
the ,ran$e and Aaal rivers and north of the Aaal 8iver HTransvaalI" The
;ritish and the ;oers still didn.t li/e each other, so in 1844, the $overnor of
Cape Colon- /idnapped the Transvaal, %ut the ;oers led a revolt a$ainst
them" The ;ritish soon reali6ed that the Transvaal was the independent
(outh African 8epu%lic" These e1periences didn.t stop either $roup to tr-
and ta/e over the Dulu and Ghosa people"
In the 1880s, the ;ritish polic- in (outh Africa was under the control
of Cecil hodes" 8hodes founded diamond and $old companies that
e1panded the production of the products which $ained him the control the
territor- north of Transvaal which he named 8hodesia" #e was ver- $ood
and ;ritish e1pansion" #is $oal was to ma/e a series of ;ritish colonies
from Cape to Cairo all connected %- a railroad" #is am%itions led him to his
downfall" #e tried to ta/e over the ;oer $overnment without ;ritish
approval, so the ;ritish $overnment /ic/ed him off his throne" The ;ritish
$overnment tried to prevent war with the ;oer communit-, %ut the
e1tremists on %oth sides /ept ma/in$ conflict %etween it" The 5oer war
continued from 1833 to 1302" The war was won %- the ;ritish when the
;oer arm- was overwhelmed %- the ;ritish.s %i$ arm-" Transvaal and the
,ran$e Free (tate had representative $overnments %- 1304, and the
Bnion of (outh Africa was created in 1310" It %ecame a self?$overnin$
dominion in the ;ritish mpire alon$ with Canada, Australia, and New
Dealand"
)ortu$uese and French )ossessions
The onl- other uropean settlements made in Africa had %een made
%- the French and the )ortu$uese %efore 1880" The )ortu$uese still had
their properties of An$ola and :o6am%i7ue" The French had started to tr-
and win Al$eria in 18@0, %ut didn.t succeed until 1843" ;- the ne1t -ear,
ever- countr- in urope was tr-in$ to $ain possession of an- place in
Africa" France had added French =est Africa and Tunisia to their empire %-
1300" In 1312, the- too/ over most of :orocco and (pain $ot the rest"
,ther ;ritish )ossessions
The ;ritish started to have an interest in $-pt once the French had
esta%lished the Sue( Canal in 1893" The ;ritish tried to ta/e control over
the area %ecause the- %elieved that it was their tic/et to $et to India" $-pt
had a :uslim $overnment and was a well?esta%lished state, %ut ;ritish
didn.t care, so the- landed their forces on $-pt in 1882" As a tric/, the-
told $-pt that the- were onl- there temporaril-" From $-pt the- moved to
(edan and narrowl- missed a war with France" Ital- wanted to 2oin in with
the sei6in$ of places" The- were defeated %- the thiopians in 1839, %ut
the- tried a$ain in 1311 where the- invaded and too/ ,ttoman Tripoli and
renamed it &i%-a"
;el$ium and Central Africa
Central Africa was also added to the uropean colonies" The dense
tropical 2un$les of Central Africa were what cau$ht ever-one.s e-e" It was
started in the 1890s and 1840s when e1plorers went to loo/ at the place"
0avid &ivin$stone and #enr- :" (tanle- were a couple of the e1plorers"
Cin$ &eopold II wanted Africa and rushed to claim it" #e claimed that Africa
was the onl- part of the world that wasn.t claimed %- civili6ation and that
the- should %e the ones that opens it up to it" )rofit to him thou$h was
more important than pro$ress" #is treatment of the Africans was so %rutal
that even uropeans condemned his actions" &eopold created the
International Association for the 1ploration and Civili6ation of Central
Africa and made #enr- (tanle- esta%lish ;el$ian settlements in the Con$o"
The French also moved into the territor- north of the Con$o 8iver %ecause
the- were scared of his actions"
5erman )ossessions
;etween 188> and 1300, most of Africa was claimed %- uropean
powers" 5erman- was one of the new mem%ers of the imperialist powers"
;ismarc/ never cared for the ma/in$ of colonies, %ut as the pressures for a
5erman mpire $rew, ;ismarc/ %ecame a political convert to colonialism"
#e claimed that colonial %usiness was a sham, %ut the- needed it for
elections" The- soon made colonies in (outh?=est Africa, the Cameroons,
To$oland, and Tan$an-i/a"
Impact on Africa
;ritain, France, 5erman-, ;el$ium, (pain and )ortu$al had claimed
the entire African continent %- 131>" &i%eria and thiopia had %een the onl-
free states" &i%eria was founded %- emancipated American slaves" I$norin$
the *white man.s %urden+ Africa had %een claimed to create colonial
empires" An-%od- who tried to resist was %urdened %- the militar- force of
the uropeans" (udanese tri%esmen tried to defend their independence
and stop a ;ritish e1pedition armed with a newl- developed machine $un"
The so called ;attle of ,mdurman murdered hundreds of (udanese
people" (ome people said that this %attle wasn.t a %attle, it was an
e1ecution" The %attle casualties tell a one?sided stor- of conflicts %etween
uropeans and Africans' twent-?ei$ht ;ritish deaths and 11,000 (udanese
deaths" The militar- demandin$ of thin$s upon %lac/s also came with %rutal
treatments for them" The uropeans didn.t hesitate to do an-thin$ rude to
%lac/s to $et their wa-" A (outh African Cin$, &o ;en$ula, told Fueen
Aictoria that she had cheated him %- as/in$ for a si$nature of a document
that said that he would allow the countr- to di$ for $old as lon$ as he $ot
some of what the- $ot out" #e actuall- si$ned a paper sa-in$ that he would
$ive all the minerals of the countr- to Fueen Aictoria.s countr-"
Imperialism in Asia
Asia had %een open to =estern influence since the si1teenth centur-,
%ut not ver- much of its territor- was under uropean control" The 0utch
were in the ast Indies, the (panish were in the )hilippines, and the
French and )ortu$uese had tradin$ posts on the Indian coast" China,
<apan, Corea, and (outheast Asia had e1cluded =esterners" The ;ritish
and 8ussians had ta/en over most of the Asian territor-"
The ;ritish in Asia
=hen Captain <ames Coo/ e1plored Australia in 1489 and 1441,
;ritain too/ an interest in the ast" =hen ever-one found out that there
was $ood land for sheep to $ra6e on and that there was $old on Australia,
the- wanted the land" The settlers that lived there thou$h alwa-s /illed the
inha%itants" In 1850, the ;ritish $overnment $ave the Australian colonies
self?$overnment and on <anuar- 1, 1301, all of the colonies were unified in
Australia" New Dealand was $ranted dominion status in 1304"
The ;ritish ast India Compan- was a private tradin$ compan- that
had %een responsi%le for $ivin$ awa- much of India" In 1858, the Indian
troops of the ast India Compan-.s arm- had %een destro-ed" The
compan-.s powers were $iven to the $overnment in &ondon %- the ;ritish
)arliament" In 1849, Fueen Aictoria was titled mpress of India which
made Indians her colonial su%2ects"
8ussian e1pansion in Asia was a chan$e from its traditional territorial
power" 8ussian e1plorers too/ over the wilderness of (i%eria and
eventuall- reached the )acific coast in 19@4" 8ussians made a claim on
Alas/a, which the- sold to the Bnited (tates in 1894" (lowl-, 8ussian
settlers moved into the coldness of (i%eria" ;etween 1800 and 131>, seven
million 8ussians had moved into (i%eria, so there was 30 percent of the
(i%erian population was (lavic, not Asiatic"
The 8ussians started to move toward warmer climates and the
,ttoman mpire which was startin$ to fail" ;- 18@0, the 8ussian $ained
control of the ;lac/ (ea and moved onto Central Asia ta/in$ over the trans?
Caspian area %- 1881 and Tur/estan in 1885" After the- $ained control of
these areas, the- went to the %orders of )ersia and Af$hanistan %ecause
the- wanted to protect their holdin$s in India" In 1304, the 8ussians and
;ritish decided to ma/e Af$hanistan a %uffer state %etween 8ussian
Tur/estan and ;ritish India and to divide )ersia into two spheres of
influence" ;ecause of the ;ritish e1pansion in the south, the 8ussians had
to move east into Asia" The- occupied :anchuria and tried to move into
Corea, %ut that 2ust started a war %etween the new imperialist power,
<apan" The 8ussians lost the 8usso?<apanese =ar in 1305, so the-
a$reed with <apan to have a <apanese protectorate in Corea" The Asian
e1pansion was put to a standstill for a while"
China
The imperialism movement in 1880 led =esterners to move into new
areas of Asia that was free of =estern influence" The :anchu d-nast- was
showin$ si$ns of decline %- the end of the nineteenth centur-" In 18>2, the
;ritish too/ over the island of Hong 7ong %- war and had $ained tradin$
posts to a couple of Chinese cities" ,ther =estern nations wanted the
same privile$es so the- tried to $et them as well" The Chinese tried to
resist the demands, %ut the- led to militar- defeats and new demands" The
onl- thin$ that prevented the destruction of the Chinese mpire was the
rivalr- of the $reat powers that stopped it from happenin$" ;ritain, France,
5erman-, 8ussia, the Bnited (tates, and <apan made spheres of influence
and lon$?term leases of Chinese territor-" In 1833, the- a$reed to an open
door policy where a countr- couldn.t restrict the commerce of the other
countries in its sphere of influence"
<apan and Corea
<apan didn.t want =estern intrusion to happen, so the- tried to avoid
it until 185@?185> when American naval forces under Commodore
&atthew !erry forced <apan to $ive the Bnited (tates tradin$ and
diplomatic privile$es" <apan somehow mana$ed to avoid that fate" Corea
also tried to avoid =esterners" Corea.s fate was determined %etween China
and <apan in 183>?1835 and later %etween <apan and 8ussia in 130>?
1305" <apan $ained superiorit- and in 1310, <apan and Corea were 2oined"
(outheast Asia
;ritain too/ over ;urma and the :ala- (tates" France helped to ta/e
over Indochina" The cit- of (ai$on was ta/en in 1858, and Cochin China
was ta/en in 1892" The French provided protection over Cam%odia,
Annam, Ton/in, and &aos and put them into the Bnion of French Indochina
in the 1880.s" ,nl- (iam HThailandI was a free %uffer state %ecause of
;ritish?French rivalr-"
American Imperialism
The )acific islands were a scene of $reat power competition and saw
the Bnited (tates $o into the imperialist sta$e" The (amoan Islands
%ecame the first most important colon-! the #awaiian Islands were ne1t"
After the Americans made the )earl #ar%or into a naval station in 1884,
American settlers $ot control over the su$ar industr- on the islands" =hen
#awaiian natives tried to tell their authorit- a$ain, the B"( :arines were
used to protect American lives" #awaii was com%ined with the Bnited
(tates in 1838 durin$ the time that American nationalistic fervor made %-
the (panish?American =ar" America defeated (pain, which made
Americans e1pand their empire %- ta/in$ )uerto 8ico, 5uam, and the
)hilippine Islands" The Filipinos wanted independence, %ut America
refused to $ive it to them" )resident =illiam :cCinle- said that America
had a 2o% to do, and that was to teach the Filipinos and uplift and
Christiani6e them" :ost of the Filipinos were 8oman Catholics alread-" It
too/ three -ears and 90,000 troops to ta/e over the )hilippines and put it
under American Control"
8esponses to Imperialism
Attempts to $et rid of forei$ners led to defeats at the hands of the
=esterners" The =esterners had technolo$- that $ave them modern
weapons of war that the- used to destro- the indi$enous people" :ost
people accepted their new $overnors, which made =estern rule prett-
eas-" The con7uered people usuall- acted to it in different wa-s"
Traditionalists wanted thin$s to sta- the wa- that the- alread- were, while
moderni6ers thou$ht that the adoption of =estern wa-s would let them
reform their societies and would eventuall- challen$e =estern rule" :ost
people stoop %etween these two ideas"
Africa
A new class of African leaders that were educated came to Africa"
The- were educated in colonial schools and the- /new a lot a%out the =est
and the- /new how to write in the lan$ua$e of their colonial masters" The-
li/ed =estern culture, %ut the- didn.t li/e the wa-s of their countr- and the-
didn.t li/e how the forei$ners were o%sessed with colonial people"
=esterners thou$ht that democrac-, e7ualit-, and political freedom were
reall- important, %ut these values weren.t applied to the colonies" There
weren.t ver- man- democratic institutions, and so colonial people could
onl- hold the lower 2o%s in the colonial %ureaucrac-" The economic
prosperit- of the =est never applied to the colonies" To Africans,
colonialism meant the loss of their farmlands or reall- %ad 2o%s on
plantations or in factories run %- forei$ners"
:iddle?class Africans didn.t suffer li/e the peasants or wor/ers on
plantations did, %ut the- did have complaints" The- usuall- were accepted
onl- for menial 2o%s in the $overnment or %usiness" The superiorit- of the
uropeans over the natives was e1pressed in a variet- of wa-s"
(e$re$ated clu%s, schools, and churches were put up as more uropean
officials %rou$ht their wives to raise families" uropeans called natives %-
their first name of %- callin$ an adult male *%o-"+
;ecause of these conditions, man- of the new ur%an educated
classes had mi1ed feelin$s a%out their colonial masters and the civili6ation
the- showed" The new intellectuals hated the colonial rule and wanted to
show and ma/e their own nationalit- and cultural destin-" This mi1ture of
hopes and resentments came the first showin$ of modern nationalism in
Africa" ducated native people started to or$ani6e political parties and
movements see/in$ the end of forei$n rule"
China
(ince China was humiliated %- the =estern powers, the- %ecame
reall- mad" The =esterners used this lawlessness as an e1cuse to ta/e
more thin$s from the Chinese" A %i$ out%urst of violence a$ainst forei$ners
happened in the 5o-er ebellion in 1300?1301" *;o1ers+ was the name
$iven to Chinese who was in a secret or$ani6ation called the (ociet- of
#armonious Fists, whose aim was to ta/e the forei$ners out of China" The
;o1ers murdered forei$n missionaries, Chinese who had converted to
Christianit-, railroad wor/ers, forei$n %usinessmen, and the 5erman envo-
to ;ei2in$" An allied arm- of the ;ritish, French, 5erman, 8ussian,
American, and <apanese troops attac/ed ;ei2in$, restored order, and
demanded more thin$s from the Chinese $overnment" The imperial
$overnment was so wea/ that the forces of the revolutionar- leader (un
Jat?sen, who adopted a pro$ram of nationalism, democrac-, and socialism,
overthrew the :anchu d-nast- in 1312" The new 8epu%lic of China
remained wea/ and ineffective"
<apan
In the 1850s and 1890s, it loo/ed li/e <apan would follow China.s
fate" A shot$un showed real power in <apan" The emperor.s functions had
%ecome primaril- reli$ious" After the shot$un.s concessions to the =estern
nations, antiforei$n sentiment led to a samurai revolt in 1894 and the
restoration of the emperor as the head of the $overnment" The new
emperor was :utsuhito who called his ro-alt- time the :ei2i Hnli$htened
5overnmentI" The new leaders transformed <apan and have since %een
/nown as &ei8i estoration"
The new leaders decided to moderni6e <apan %- tr-in$ and adoptin$
=estern methods" Thousands of -oun$ <apanese were sent to have
=estern educations, mainl- in the social and natural sciences" A 5erman?
st-le arm- and a ;ritish?st-le nav- were made" The- too/ the ideas of
industrial and financial methods of the Bnited (tates and made a modern
commercial and industrial s-stem" An administrative s-stem copied %- the
French replaced the old s-stem" The- also too/ the French principles of
social and le$al e7ualit-, %ut in 1830, the- created a political s-stem that
was democratic in form %ut authoritarian in practice"
<apan imitated the =est and developed a powerful militar- state" A
universal militar- was showed in 1842, and a modern peacetime arm- of
2>0,000 was esta%lished" The- then pursued the =estern imperialistic
model" The- defeated China in 183>?1835, too/ some Chinese territor- and
made their own sphere of influence in China" After the- defeated the
8ussians in 1305, the- made Corea a colon- under harsh rule" The
<apanese proved that an Asian power could pla- the *white man.s+
imperialistic $ame and provided a $ood e1ample in other re$ions li/e Asia
and Africa"
India
The ;ritish $overnment had %een in control of India since the mid?
nineteenth centur-" After destro-in$ a revolt in 1858, the ;ritish ruled India
completel-" Bnder )arliament supervision, a small $roup of ;ritish civil
servants directed the affairs of India.s almost three hundred million people"
The ;ritish $ave order to a societ- that was divided %- civil wars for a
while and made an honest and efficient $overnment" The- also %rou$ht
=estern technolo$-? railroads, %an/s, mines, industr-, medical /nowled$e,
and hospitals" The- also showed =estern?st-le secondar- schools and
colle$es where the Indian upper and middle classes and professional
classes were educated so that the- could serve as trained su%ordinates in
the $overnment and arm-"
;ecause of population $rowth in the nineteenth centur-, man- Indian
natives were livin$ in povert- and almost two?thirds of the population was
malnourished in 1301" ;ritish industriali6ation %rou$ht some, %ut little
improvement for this" &ocal industries were destro-ed %- ;ritish
manufactured $oods, and Indian wealth was used to pa- ;ritish officials
and a lar$e arm-" ducation was tau$ht to onl- the upper?class Indians,
and it was tau$ht in the n$lish ton$ue while 30 percent of the population
was illiterate" ;ritish rule was de$radin$ the Indians who $ot the %est out of
=estern educations" The %est 2o%s and %est housin$ was saved for the
;ritons" For$ettin$ their education, Indians were never considered e7uals
to the ;ritish! &ord Citchener made that clear when he claimed that Indians
never will %e even close" ;ecause of these racial attitudes, ;ritish rule was
never full- accepted %- the Indians, so it led to an Indian nationalist
movement" In 188@, the "ndian 1ational Congress was formed where
educated Indians were startin$ to see/ self $overnment" ;- 1313, due to
the ;ritish.s violence and insensitivit-, the Indians were demandin$
complete independence"
8esults of the New Imperialism
;- 1300, almost all the societies of Africa and Asia were under
continental rule, or at a point of virtual collapse" ,nl- a small amount of
states were a%le to escape colonial rule"
International 8ivalr- and the
Comin$ of =ar
The ;ismarc/ian (-stem
The showin$ of a unified 5erman- in 1841 had upset the %alance of
power that was put up in 1815" ;ismarc/ was afraid that the French wanted
reven$e on )russia %ecause the- had ta/en Alsace?&orraine in the Franco?
)russian =ar" #e made an alliance in 184@ with Austria?#un$ar- and
8ussia" The Three mperors. &ea$ue didn.t wor/ ver- well %ecause the
8ussian?Austrian.s had a rivalr- in the ;al/ans"
The ;al/ans' 0ecline of the ,ttoman )ower
There was a pro%lem in the ;al/ans, and the %rea/a$e of the
,ttoman mpire was a cause for it" )eople in the ;al/ans wanted
independence, %ut the corruption and inefficienc- wea/ened the ,ttoman
$overnment even more" The onl- thin$ that /ept the ,ttoman mpire alive
was the interference of the $reat uropean powers" :a/in$ the situation
worse was the rivalr- %etween 8ussia and Austria, who %oth had desi$ns
on the ;al/ans" 8ussia was onl- interested in it %ecause the ;al/ans had
the shortest land route to Constantinople and the :editerranean" Austria
was onl- interested in it %ecause it was fertile $round for Australian
e1pansion" )russia didn.t have an interest in the ;al/ans, %ut ;ismarc/
was worried that a war %etween 8ussia and Austria would have %ad
conse7uences that would cause restrainin$ influence on %oth countries"
The ;al/an states of (er%ia and :ontene$ro called war on the
,ttoman mpire in 1849" ;oth were defeated, %ut 8ussia $ot Austria.s
approval to completel- defeat the ,ttomans" The Treat- of (an (tefano
created a lar$e ;ul$arian state, comin$ from the 0anu%e in the north to the
Ae$ean (ea in the south in 1848" ;ul$aria was seen as a 8ussian satellite,
%ut the success of the 8ussians created the call of the uropean powers
for a con$ress to tal/ a%out a revision of the treat-"
;ismarc/ too/ over the Congress o0 5erlin that met in the summer
of 1848" The con$ress successfull- destro-ed the Treat- of (an (tefano,
much to 8ussia.s humiliation" The ;ul$arian state was reduced and put
%ac/ in ,ttoman control" The ;al/an states of (er%ia, :ontene$ro, and
8omania were /nown as independent under ,ttoman control" The other
states of ;osnia and #er6e$ovina were put under Austrian protection!
Austria could occup- them, %ut the- couldn.t anne1 them"
New Alliances
(ince the 8ussian.s were reall- mad at the Three mperors. &ea$ue
for the Con$ress of ;erlin, the- ended the Three mperors. &ea$ue"
;ismarc/ made an alliance with Austria in 1843 and Ital- 2oined in 1882"
The 9riple +lliance of 1882 was an a$reement %etween 5erman-, Austria,
and Ital- to support the e1istin$ political order that also provided a
defensive alliance a$ainst France or an- other $reat powers that weren.t
mem%ers of the alliance" ;ismarc/ also tried to %e on 8ussia.s $ood side
and so si$ned the 8einsurance Treat- with 8ussia in 1884, hopin$ to
prevent a French?8ussian alliance that would threaten 5erman- with the
chance of a two?front war" The ;ismarc/ian s-stem of alliances was set up
to preserve peace and the status 7uo and had wor/ed until 1830 when
mperor =illiam II dismissed ;ismarc/ and came up with other directions
for 5erman-.s forei$n polic-"
New 0irections and New Crises
Emperor 2illiam "" started on an activist forei$n polic- driven to
ma/in$ 5erman power %- findin$ 5erman-.s ri$htful place in the sun" A
chan$e in ;ismarc/.s polic- was to drop the 8einsurance Treat- with
8ussia %ecause he thou$ht it was at odds with )russia.s alliance with
Austria" The endin$ of the alliance was 2ust as ;ismarc/ predicted, 8ussia
and France paired up" France was isolated %- ;ismarc/.s policies, so as
soon as the- had the chance, the- ran to pair up with 8ussia" In 183>, the-
%oth concluded a militar- alliance"
0urin$ the ne1t ten -ears, 5erman policies caused the ;ritish to draw
closer to France" ;- 1304, 5reat ;ritain, France and 8ussia, /nown as the
9riple Entente, stood up a$ainst the Triple Alliance of 5erman-, Austria?
#un$ar-, and Ital-" urope was divided into two sides that were a$ainst
each other and unwillin$ to compromise" =hen the mem%ers of the two
alliances were involved in a crisis in 1308 and 131@ over what will happen
to the remains of the ,ttoman mpire in the ;al/ans, =orld =ar I was
%ein$ prepared"
Crises in the ;al/ans, 1308?131@
(ince 1848, ;osnia and #er6e$ovina were under the protection of
Austria, %ut in 1308, Austria anne1ed the territories" (er%ia was reall- mad
at this %ecause the- had hoped to create a lar$e (er%ian /in$dom, which
was wh- Austria did that" Austria /new that if a (er%ian /in$dom was %uilt,
it would %e a threat to the unit- of the Austro?#un$arian mpire since a
lar$e part of its population was (lavic" (ince the 8ussians were protectors
of the (lavs, and %ecause the- wanted to increase their own authorit- in
the ;al/ans, the- a$reed with the (er%s and went a$ainst the Austrians
action" ;ecause the 8ussians were helpin$ the (er%s, the- prepared for
war a$ainst Austria" =illiam II said that if 8ussia didn.t accept Austria.s
anne1ation, than 5erman- would declare war on them as well" ;ecause
the 8ussians were still wea/ from the 8usso?<apanese =ar, the- %ac/ed
down, -et a$ain humiliated, %ut the- wanted reven$e"
(er%ia, ;ul$aria, :ontene$ro, and 5reece created the ;al/an
&ea$ue in 1312 and defeated the ,ttomans in the First ;al/an =ar" The
allies couldn.t decide how to split up the land of the ,ttoman provinces, the
(econd ;al/an =ar came in 131@" 5reece, (er%ia, 8omania, and the
,ttoman mpire attac/ed and defeated ;ul$aria" ;ul$aria onl- owned a
small part of :acedonia, and the rest was divided %etween (er%ia and
5reece" (er%ia.s wants still %ecame unfulfilled" The two ;al/an wars left
the people em%ittered and created even more tensions amon$ the $reat
powers"
(er%ia.s ma2or am%ition was to ta/e Al%anian territor- %ecause it
would $ive it a port on the Adriatic" At the &ondon Conference made %-
Austria at the end of the tow ;al/an wars, the Austrians too/ (er%ia.s
chances of ta/in$ the Al%anian territor- %- ma/in$ it an independent
Al%ania" The 5erman.s supported this act %ecause the- were Austria.s
allies" (er%ian nationalists called the Austrians monsters who /ept the
(er%s from %ecomin$ a $reat nation" The 8ussians were on (er%ia.s side,
so the- were also upset" The 8ussians had $otten to the point that the-
were so mad with the Austrians and 5ermans and their acts a$ainst them
and with the ;al/ans"
Austria?#un$ar- was still winnin$, %ut the- felt that (er%ia was a
$reat threat to its empire and must %e destro-ed at some point" The French
and 8ussian $overnments renewed their alliance and promised that the-
would not ditch each other at the ne1t crisis" ;ritain $rew closer to France"
;- the %e$innin$ of 131>, the two teams a$ainst each other were /eepin$
close e-es on each other"
Chapte
r 25
The 8oad to =orld =ar I
,n <une 28, 131>, +rchdu/e 3rancis 3erdinand, who was heir to
the Austrian throne, was assassinated in the ;osnian cit- of (ara2evo"
2orld 2ar " was the event that too/ place %ecause of this action %etween
Austria and (er%ia" The assassinations of previous leaders had never lead
to war %ecause the uropean statesmen were usuall- a%le to control such
conflicts"
Nationalism
The nation?states that had %een new the urope had %een thou$ht
that the- would %rin$ cooperation, not competition" The rivalries over
colonial and commercial interests $ot worse as urope.s $reat powers
were split into two alliances? 5erman-, Austria, and Ital- a$ainst France,
5reat ;ritain, and 8ussia ?that onl- added to the tension" The num%er of
crises durin$ this time that tested the alliances had tau$ht the uropean
states a ver- dan$erous lesson" The 5overnment.s that had tried to restrain
the order of war were pu%licall- humiliated and those that a$reed with war
to maintain their national interests were praised for their national honor" ;-
131>, the hi$hest uropean states had come to the case that their allies
were important and that their securit- depended on supportin$ their allies,
even when stupid ris/s came"
Diplomacy %ased on %rin/manship was ma2orl- scar- in the e-es of
nature of the uropean state s-stem" The nation?states considered
themselves as a soverei$n su%2ect to no hi$her interest or authorit-" The-
were motivated %- their self?interest and success" :ost statesmen %elieved
that war was a $ood wa- to e1press their nation.s power" ,thers thou$ht
that war was a $ood wa- to achieve their $oals"
Internal 0issent
Not all ethnic $roups had %een a%le to $ain the $oal of nationhood"
(ocialist la%or movements were more powerful and people used that as an
e1cuse to use more vial stri/es to $ain their $oals" Consecutive leaders
feared that the- were on a ver$e of a revolution due to the increase in la%or
strife and class division" (tatesmen wanted war to happen %ecause the-
%elieved that it would $et rid of forei$n policies and inner trou%les"
:ilitarism
;ecause armies were $rowin$ so much after the 1330.s, people were
%e$innin$ to fear that war would %e e1tremel- destructive" Conscription'
&ilitary dra0ting' was a re$ular practice in 131>" :ilitar- machines had
dou%led in si6e %etween 1830 and 131>" The 8ussian arm- was the
lar$est, with 1"@ million men, France and 5erman- had 300,000 each" The
rest were %etween 250,000 and 500,000 men" :ost of the armies consisted
of peasants! wor/in$?class men were usuall- reall- -oun$, so the- weren.t
passed for the militar- e1aminations"
:ilitarism was when militar- leaders came up with difficult plans on
how to transport lots of supplies and vast amounts of people to $et read-
for war" The militar- leaders insisted that the plans were not to %e chan$ed
%ecause the- were afraid that chan$es could lead to arm- into complete
chaos" ;ecause the $enerals. weren.t fle1i%le with this, it made the political
leaders ma/e decisions for the militar- and not for the political reasons in
the summer of 131>"
The ,ut%rea/ of =ar' The (ummer of
131>"
Another Crisis in the ;al/ans
The rivalr- %etween Austria?#un$ar- and 8ussia due to %oth wantin$
the states in southeastern urope, lead to the (er%ia supportin$ 8ussia,
and Austria was a$ainst the possi%ilit- of (er%ia and 8ussia winnin$"
(er%ia wanted to have part of the states in southeastern urope %ecause
the- wanted to %uild a (lavic state in the ;al/ans" Austria didn.t want this to
happen %ecause the- /new that if 8ussia and (er%ia too/ over this area,
the Austrian mpire would surl- fall" The rivalr- %etween Austria?#un$ar-
and 8ussia alon$ with Austria?#un$ar- and (er%ia were the reasons that
created the events of the summer of 131>"
Assassination of Francis Ferdinand
The assassination of Archdu/e Francis Ferdinand and his wife
(ophia on <une 28, 131>, was completed %- a ;osnian activist who wor/ed
for the ;lac/ #and, a terrorist movement dedicated to the creation of a pan?
(lavic /in$dom" The Austrian $overnment didn.t /now if the (er%ian
$overnment had %een directl- involved with this assassination, %ut the- had
had enou$h of their crap and saw it as an opportunit- to $et rid of them %-
a displa- of force" Austria was afraid thou$h that 8ussia would intervene
and team up with (er%ia, so the- sou$ht their allies help" 5erman- said
that Austria?#un$ar- had their full support even if it went to war %etween
Austria?#un$ar- and 8ussia"
Austria?#un$ar- then sent an ultimatum to (er%ia on <ul- 2@"
Austrian leaders made their demands so e1treme that (er%ia had to re2ect
some of them in order to /eep its honor of hi$h power" ,n <ul- 28, Austria
declared war on (er%ia" 5erman- and Austria had %een tr-in$ to /eep the
war limited to (er%ia and Austria so that the- could ma/e sure that Austria
would win"
0eclarations of =ar
8ussia was still tr-in$ to recover from the ;osnian crisis of 1308, %ut
the- were also determined to support (er%ia.s cause" ,n <ul- 28, (er%ia
made it so that 8ussia onl- had partial mobili(ation in the war a$ainst
Austria" The 8ussian 5eneral (taff said that their mo%ili6ation plans were
%ased off of a war a$ainst Austria and 5erman- simultaneousl-" The-
couldn.t ta/e awa- partial mo%ili6ation without creatin$ chaos in the arm-"
The- did it an-wa- on <ul- 23 even thou$h the- /new that the 5ermans
would consider this an act of war a$ainst them" The 5ermans acted %-
$ivin$ an ultimatum claimin$ that the 8ussians must wait their mo%ili6ation
for twelve hours" =hen the 8ussians i$nored it, 5erman- declared war on
8ussia on Au$ust 1"
5erman war plans decided whether or not France would %e involved
in the war" Bnder 5eneral Alfred von (chlieffen, chief of staff from 1831 to
1305, the- came up with a militar- plan %ased on the thou$ht of a two?front
war with France and 8ussia %ecause the two powers formed a militar-
alliance in 183> called the Schlie00en !lan" A small troop was sent a$ainst
8ussia while most of the 5erman arm- made an invasion of western
France %- wa- of neutral ;el$ium" After the- 7uic/l- defeated France, the
5erman arm- was supposed to $o to the east a$ainst 8ussia" 5erman-
couldn.t move their troops to 8ussia so the- declared war a$ainst France
on Au$ust @ after issuin$ an ultimatum to ;el$ium on Au$ust 2 demandin$
to %e let throu$h ;el$ian territor-" ,n Au$ust >, 5reat ;ritain called war on
5erman- not %ecause the- were mad a%out war on France, %ut %ecause
the- wanted to $ain world power" ;- Au$ust >, all the $reat powers of
urope were at war" All the $reat powers were willin$ to ris/ war"
The =ar
131>?1315' Illusions and (talemate
=hen the $overnments %e$$ed the civilians to defend their nation,
there were man- volunteers and the- were all e1cited" The new war fever
was now one of the %i$$est interests" Nationalism proved to %e hi$her in
power than wor/in$?class solidarit- %ecause socialist parties and stri/es
stopped as ever-one $ot read- to fi$ht for their countr-" 5erman (ocial
0emocrats found it to %e important to protect their culture and
independence of their countr-"
ver-one %elieved that the war would %e over in a few wee/s" )eople
/new that most of the wars ended in a matter of wee/s, %ut the- for$ot how
lon$ the American Civil =ar was, which was the protot-pe for =orld =ar I"
The- also %elieved that in an a$e of modern industr-, war couldn.t %e made
for more than a few months without destro-in$ the nation.s econom-" The
soldiers and the citi6ens all thou$ht that the-.d %e %ac/ from war %-
Christmas"
=ar in the =est
The (chleiffen )lan had caused the 5ermans to circle around
;el$ium into northern France that would $o around )aris and surround
most of the French arm-" The plan didn.t wor/ ver- well thou$h %ecause it
called for a stron$ ri$ht flan/ for the encirclin$ of )aris, and the- sent most
of their forces to the east %ecause the- were afraid that there would %e a
8ussian invasion in the east"
,n Au$ust >, the 5erman troops moved into ;el$ium and %- the first
wee/ of (eptem%er, the- had reached the :arne 8iver, which was onl- 20
miles awa- from )aris" The 5ermans had seemed to almost succeed, %ut
the- didn.t thin/ of how fast the ;ritish would %e a%le to move their forces
into France" The ;ritish and French arm- counterattac/ed under the
French commander 5eneral <oseph <offre at the First ;attle of the :arne
east of )aris" The 5erman troops fell %ac/, %ut the French troops were too
wea/ to ta/e their advanta$e" (ince %oth armies had %een in a draw, the-
were stuc/ in the trenches that the- were %uildin$ for shelter" Two lines of
trenches came from the n$lish Channel to the frontiers of (wit6erland"
The =estern Front had %ecome %o$$ed down in trench war0are, which
/ept %oth sides in the same positions for four -ears"
=ar in the ast
The 8ussian arm- had moved into eastern 5erman- %ut was
defeated at the 5attles o0 9annenberg on Au$ust @0 and the &asurian
$a/es on (eptem%er 15" Commandin$ 5eneral )aul von #inden%ur$ and
his chief of staff, 5eneral rich &udendorff were $iven credit for these
victories" The 8ussians were no lon$er a threat to 5erman territor-"
The Austrians had %een defeated %- the 8ussians in 5alicia and
thrown out of (er%ia" The Italians had also %ro/e their alliance with the
5ermans and went to the other side %- attac/in$ the Austrians in :a-
1315" The 5erman arm- and the Austrian arm- had now 2oined forces all
to$ether and defeated and routed the 8ussian arm- in 5alicia and pushed
the 8ussians %ac/ @00 miles into their own territor-" The 8ussians had 2"5
million /illed, captured, or in2ured and were almost /ic/ed out of the war"
0ue to their success, the 5ermans and Austrians, 2oined %- the ;ul$arians
in (eptem%er 1315, the- attac/ed and eliminated (er%ia from the war"
1319?1314' The 5reat (lau$hter
The 5ermans were a%le to move %ac/ to the offensive in the west"
The trenches that had %een du$ in 131> were then used as ela%orate
defense s-stems" The lines of trenches were protected %- %ar%ed wire
entan$lements @ to 5 feet hi$h and @0 -ards wide, concrete machine?$un
nests, and mortar %atteries, supported further %ac/ %- heav- artiller-"
Troops lived in holes in the $round called no?man.s land"
Trench warfare had surprised the militar- leaders %ecause the- were
used to and trained to fi$ht in wars of movement and maneuver" )u%lic
outcries for action put them under pressure" The onl- thin$s that the
$enerals could reall- thin/ of where to send masses of men out a$ainst
their enem-.s camps that had %een attac/ed %efore and wea/ened" ,nce
the- had successfull- accomplished their $oal, the- thou$ht that it.d %e safe
to $o %ac/ to their usual wa-s of war" The hi$h command on either side
would order an attac/ that would %e$in with sendin$ an artiller- %arra$e to
flatten the enem-.s %ar%ed wire and leave the enem- in a state of shoc/"
,nce the enem-.s were softened up a %it, soldiers would clim% out of their
trenches with fi1ed %a-onets and tr- to wor/ their wa- toward enem-
trenches" These attac/s didn.t often wor/ thou$h" The machine $un shot
unprotected men across open fields at a severe disadvanta$e" In 1319 and
1314, millions of -oun$ men were /illed tr-in$ to find a %rea/throu$h" In the
5erman offense at Aerdun in 1319, the ;ritish campai$n on the (omme in
1319, and the French attac/ in Champa$ne in 1314, the wor/in$ of trench
warfare %ecame all too o%vious" In ten months at Aerdun, 400,000 men lost
their lives over a few s7uare miles of terrain"
0ail- &ife in the Trenches
=hen attac/in$ soldiers entered the no man.s land, the one %ein$
attac/ed were often confused" The noise, the machine?$un fire, and
e1plodin$ artiller- shells often caused them to panic and lose their
%earin$s! the- continued on %ecause the- were carried on %- the
momentum of the soldiers %eside them" The %attles were as ordinar- as
the- were e1pressed throu$h the civilian newspapers and on militar- maps"
(oldiers had to live with dead %odies and %odies that were %lown to pieces
%- artiller- %arra$es for months at a time" A lot of the soldiers remem%er the
smell of the decomposin$ %odies and all the rats that $rew fat from eatin$
the raw meat off the %odies"
(oldiers didn.t spend their time as 2ust one pla-er, the- rotate what
the- do" An infantr-man had to spend one wee/ of ever- month in the front?
line trenches, one wee/ on the reserve lines, and the remainin$ two wee/s
somewhere %ehind the lines" The- had a prett- normal schedule each da-
in the trenches" Thirt- minutes %efore sunrise, the- had to *stand to+ of %e
read- to repel an- attac/" If there weren.t an- attac/s that da- the schedule
would %e' %rea/fast, inspection, sentr- dut-, restoration of the trenches,
care of personal items, or doin$ whatever the- could to /ill time" (oldiers
descri%ed life to %e %orin$ durin$ this time in the drear-, lice?ridden, mudd-
or dust- trenches"
A *live and let live+ s-stem was made %ecause people /new that
neither side was $oin$ to drive out the other" This s-stem said that -ou
can.t shoot the latrines or -ou can.t attac/ durin$ %rea/fast" (ome parties
also came up with ma/in$ noise %efore lesser raids so that the opposin$
side could $o %ac/ to their %un/ers" ,n %oth sides, the troops came up with
their own funn- ma$a6ines to help pass the da- and to lau$h when it.s
reall- hard to do so in the mist of the madness" The 5:E:3 9imes was one
of the ma$a6ines that defined militar- terms" ,ne of the definitions was
0B0(, which has two definitions, a shell on impact failin$ to e1plode, which
is less common, and a shell that e1plodes for no reason, which was more
common"
The =idenin$ of the =ar
;oth sides had %een searchin$ for allies that would $ive them the
winnin$ advanta$e" The ;ttoman Empire had alread- 2oined 5erman-.s
side in 131>" 8ussia, 5reat ;ritain, and France declared war on the
,ttoman mpire in Novem%er" The ;ritish mpire tried to open a ;al/an
front %- puttin$ forces at 5allipoli in April 1315, ;ul$aria entered the war on
5erman-.s side and a %ad campai$n at 5allipoli cause them to withdraw"
The Italians entered the war when France and ;ritain promised to $ive
them more Austrian territor-"
A 5lo%al Conflict
&awrence of Ara%ia ur$ed Ara% princes to $o a$ainst their ,ttoman
rulers in 1314" In 1318, the ;ritish forces destro-ed the rest of the ,ttoman
mpire in the :iddle ast" For ;ritain.s :iddle ast campai$ns, the-
mo%ili6ed forces from India, Australia, and New Dealand" :an- of the
soldiers made up son$s and san$ while the- were in the field and their
most favorite is 9he 2atch on the hine:
The Allies too/ advanta$e of 5erman-.s preoccupations in urope
and their lac/ of naval stren$th to sei6e 5erman colonies in Africa and Asia"
In Africa, Allied $overnments attac/ed mainl- African soldiers, %ut some
states, li/e France, recruited African troops to fi$ht in urope" The French
drafted more than 140,000 =est African soldiers, most of them fou$ht in
the trenches on the =estern Front" A%out 80,000 Africans were /illed or
in2ured in urope" The- were at a distinct advanta$e %ecause the- weren.t
used to the unfamiliar terrain or climate"
Africans were also used as slaves for carr-in$ supplies and %uildin$
roads and %rid$es" In ast Africa, %oth sides drafted African la%orers as
carriers for the armies" :ore than 100,000 died from disease and starvation
caused %- ne$lect"
In ast Asia and the )acific, <apan teamed up with the Allies on
Au$ust 2@, 131>, mainl- %ecause the- wanted to ta/e control of 5erman
territories in Asia" The <apanese too/ 5erman territories in China and the
5erman?occupied islands in the )acific" New Dealand and Australia too/
the 5erman?held parts of New 5uinea"
ntr- of the Bnited (tates
The Bnited (tates wanted to sta- neutral durin$ the war, %ut it
%ecame more difficult as the war dra$$ed on" The cause of the Bnited
(tates 2oinin$ the war was %ecause of the 5erman and ;ritish naval forces
en$a$in$ in direct com%at at the ;attle of <utland on :a- @1, 1319, when
the 5ermans won a %i$ victor-"
(ince ;ritain had hi$her naval power, the- used it to %uild a naval
%loc/ade on 5erman-" 5erman- hit %ac/ with a counter?%loc/ade %- usin$
unrestricted su%marine warfare" In the %e$innin$ of 1315, the 5erman
$overnment declared the area around the ;ritish Isles as a war 6one and
threatened that if an- ship is found in that area, the- will torpedo it" =hen
the 5erman.s san/ passen$er liners, li/e the ;ritish ship usitania on :a-
4, 1315, where more than one hundred Americans lost their lives, the-
forced the 5erman $overnment to chan$e its polic- of unrestricted
su%marine warfare startin$ in (eptem%er 1315 and then a -ear later, to
suspend unrestricted su%marine warfare"
In <anuar- 1314, the 5ermans decided to return to unrestricted
su%marine warfare" mperor =illiam II was convinced %- 5erman naval
officers that usin$ unrestricted su%marine warfare would starve the ;ritish
into su%mission within five months" The- told the emperor not to worr-
when he started to have concerns a%out the Americans" The ;ritish would
starve %efore the Americans could act" The officer said that even if the
Americans intervene, the- wouldn.t step foot on their continent"
;ecause unrestricted su%marine warfare was %rou$ht %ac/, the-
Bnited (tates stepped into the war on April 9, 1314" The American troops
didn.t come in %i$ num%ers, %ut it did $ive the Allies a ps-cholo$ical %oost"
Allied offensives on the =estern Front were disastrousl- defeated" The
Italian armies were defeated in ,cto%er, and in Novem%er, the ;olshevi/
8evolution in 8ussia led to 8ussia.s withdrawal from the war"
A New Cind of =ar
Near the end of 1315, airplanes had appeared in war for the first time
in histor-" At first, planes were used to trac/ and find the enem-.s position,
%ut the- soon %e$an to attac/ $round tar$ets, especiall- enem-
communications" Fi$hts %ro/e out for control of the air and increased over
time" The pilots shot with hand held $uns, %ut eventuall-, machine $uns
were mounted on them and the s/ies %ecame dan$erous as well as the
$round"
The 5ermans started to use their $iant airships? the 6eppelins? to
%om% &ondon and eastern n$land" This fri$htened man- people, even
thou$h it caused little dama$e" 5erman-.s enemies reali6ed thou$h that
the 6eppelins were filled with h-dro$en $as, which %ecame ra$in$ infernos
when hit %- antiaircraft $uns"
Tan/s
The first tan/ in 1319, a ;ritish model, used caterpillar trac/s, which
let it move around on rou$h terrain" The tan/s were armed with mounted
$uns, so the- could attac/ enem- machine?$un positions alon$ with enem-
infantr-" The first tan/s didn.t wor/ ver- well, %ut in 1318, the ;ritish :ar/ A
model had more powerful en$ines and $reater maneuvera%ilit-" Now, the-
could %e used in lar$e num%ers, and since the- were %uilt with infantr- and
artiller-, the- %ecame more effective defense weapon that helped push
%ac/ the retreatin$ 5erman arm-" The tan/ wasn.t made earl- enou$h that
it.d have a $reat effect on =orld =ar I"
The #ome Front' The Impact of Total =ar
=orld =ar I affected ever-one in the world, no matter how far awa-
the- were from war" It transformed the $overnments, economies, and
societies of the uropean %elli$erents in fundamental wa-s" The need to
or$ani6e man- of men and supplies for man- -ears of com%at led to
increased centrali6ation of $overnment powers, economic re$imentation,
and manipulation of pu%lic opinion to /eep the war effort $oin$"
Total =ar' )olitical Centrali6ation and conomic
8e$imentation
5overnments had to plan out how to wor/ out economic problems"
=hen the- let volunteers come for war, the- had to ma/e sure that
important factor- wor/ers didn.t volunteer" =alter 8athenau was head of
the 5erman 5eneral lectric Compan- and he was as/ed to or$ani6e the
=ar 8aw :aterials ;oard, which would allocate the raw materials to
produce the $oods that were most needed" #e made it possi%le for the
war machines to %e well supplied" The 5erman.s weren.t as successful with
rationin$ the food" The ;ritish %loc/a$e of 5erman- made 0ood supplies
inevitable due to there not %ein$ much 0arm labor and %ecause the-
import a%out 20 percent of their food suppl-" 0ail- food rations were cut
from 1,@50 calories in 1319, to 1,000 %- 1314, which is %arel- ade7uate for
survival" There was a poor potato harvest in the winter of 1319?1314, so
the poor had to live off of turnips" An estimated 450,000 5erman civilians
died from hun$er durin$ =orld =ar I"
The Au1iliar- (ervice &aw of 0ecem%er 2, 1319, was created %-
5eneral )aul von #inden%ur$ and rich &udendorff" This law re7uired all
male noncom%atants %etween the a$es of si1teen and si1t- to wor/ onl- in
2o%s that were crucial to the war effort"
5reat ;ritain had tried to avoid usin$ $overnment interference, %ut
the pressure of circumstances forced them to chan$e it" The :inistr- of
:unitions was created %- 0avid &lo-d 5eor$e in <ul- 1315" The :inistr- of
:unitions made sure that private industr- would produce war materiel at
limited profits" It made a %ureaucrac- of 95,000 cler/s to see munitions
plants" The ;ritish $overnment also rationed food supplies and imposed
rent controls"
(ince the 5ermans too/ control of northeastern France, the French
lost 45 percent of its coal production and almost 80 percent of its
steelma/ing capacit-" The French had %een stru$$lin$ with civil and
militar- authorities until the- found 5eor$e Clemenceau" 8ussia, Austria?
#un$ar-, and Ital- were even %elow this %ecause the- couldn.t support
their soldiers with weapons" The- finall- found a $ood leader for the French
war $overnment, *eorge Clemenceau, who said, *war is too important to
%e left to $enerals"+
)u%lic ,rder and )u%lic ,pinion
In 1319, 50,000 5erman wor/ers carried out a three da- protest of
the arrest of a radical socialist leader" In France and ;ritain, the num%er of
stri/es increased dramaticall- and worse than that was when mem%ers of
the Irish 8epu%lican ;rotherhood and Citi6ens Arm- sta-ed in the
$overnment %uildin$s in 0u%lin on aster (unda- in 1319" ;ritish forces
destro-ed the aster 8e%ellion and sentenced its leaders to death"
&i%erals called for peace resolutions for a ne$otiated peace without
an- territorial ac7uisitions" (ocialists also did the same" ;- 1314, war moral
had $otten so intense that even more protests too/ place" :utinies in the
Italian and French armies were put down with difficult-" In April 1314,
200,000 wor/ers in ;erlin went on stri/e a$ainst the reduction of %read
rations for a wee/" The threat of militar- force and prison $ot them to %e
7uiet"
At the %e$innin$ of war, the ;ritish )arliament issued the De0ense o0
the ealm act, which allowed the pu%lic authorit- to arrest dissenters as
traitors" In France, $overnment authorities wanted to stop the pu%lic from
/nowin$ a%out the war, %ut the- later thou$ht that if the pu%lic didn.t /now
ever-thin$ a%out it, than it could cause them to not want to $o to war" The
editor of an antiwar newspaper was e1ecuted at the char$e of treason"
The (ocial Impact of Total =ar
The draftin$ of men for the war left thousands of 2o%s open for those
who didn.t have one %efore" =ar also $ave women more opportunities than
%efore" (ince men had to leave for war, there were man- 2o%s to do that
women had to %e in char$e of that the-.d never had to do %efore" 1,@>5,000
women in ;ritain had new 2o%s" In France, 98>,000 women wor/ed in
armaments plants for the first time! 320,000 in ;ritain" @8 percent of the
wor/ers in the Crupp armaments wor/s in 5erman- in 1318 were women"
=omen had started to demand e7ual wa$e as the men, so in <ul-
1315, the- passed a law that women wor/ers could have minimum wage
%ecause of the needs for militar- uniforms" In 1314, the $overnment
allowed that men and women should receive equal rates for piecewor/"
:ost men %elieved that women wor/in$ in their forces were onl-
$oin$ to %e there temporaril-" At the end of the war, the $overnments had
7uic/l- removed the women from their 2o%s" ;- 1313, there were 950,000
unemplo-ed women in ;ritain and even the women who still had 2o%s had
their wa$es lowered"
After the war, women were $iven the ri$ht to vote in 5erman- and
Austria! ;ritain $ot theirs in <anuar- 1318" The Nineteenth Amendment to
the B"( Constitution $ave women their ri$ht to vote in 1320" The -oun$
women in the upper? and middle?class too/ 2o%s, had their own apartments,
and started to smo/e in pu%lic and wearin$ shorter dresses, cosmetics, and
%o-ish hairst-les"
The 4unior o00icers durin$ war that led the char$es across the no?
man.s land that separated the lines of trenches had death rates that were
three times hi$her than re$ular casualt- rates" The uns/illed wor/ers and
peasants who made up the hi$h num%ers of soldiers mowed down %-
machine $uns also had hi$h casualties" The s/illed la%orers that $ained
e1emptions from militar- service were luc/- %ecause the- were needed at
home to train wor/ers in the war industries"
=ar and 8evolution
The 8ussian 8evolution
8ussia had fallen durin$ =orld =ar I %ecause the- couldn.t support
their arm- with weapons" 9sar 1icholas "" relied on the arm- and
%ureaucrac- to /eep up his re$ime" :ost wor/ers couldn.t find wor/ and
the- were havin$ more difficulties with their econom-" The people of 8ussia
felt that the- needed to do somethin$, so the- assassinated 8asputin, son
of Tsar Nicholas and his wife, Ale1andria in 0ecem%er 1319"
The :arch 8evolution
=hen :arch came, a %unch of stri/es started to %rea/ out" 0urin$
this time, women had started to $ain their independence" =omen marched
around town sa-in$ peace and %read and there were enou$h of them that
all the factories were shut down on :arch 10, /nown as International
=omen.s 0a-" A provisional $overnment was also made on :arch 15" This
created a li%eral a$enda that consisted of universal male suffra$e, civil
e7ualit-, and an ei$ht hour wor/da-"
The soviets were councils of wor/ers. and soldiers. deputies" The
soviet of )etro$rad was made in :arch 1314, and this was when soviets all
of a sudden showed up in arm- units and towns" ,ne of $roups was the
:ar1ist (ocial 0emocratic )art- that was created in 1838, %ut split into two
in 130@ called the :enshevi/s and the ;olshevi/s" The :enshevi/s wanted
the (ocial 0emocrats to %e a %i$ electoral socialist part- %ased on =estern
model"
The ;olshevi/s were (ocial 0emocrats that were under Aladimir
Blianov, ":): $enin" #e was an enem- of tsarist 8ussia %ecause the-
e1ecuted his %rother since he had plans to assassinate the tsar" This led
him to :ar1ism, where he made a $roup called the Bnion for the &i%eration
of the =or/in$ Class" #e was arrested" =hen he was free, he too/
leadership of the ;olshevi/ win$ of the 8ussian (ocial 0emocratic )art-"
The ;olshevi/s planned for a violent revolution that would destro- the
capitalist s-stem" The war in 131> made him come up with the idea in 1314
that ;olshevi/ could ta/e control of 8ussia" #e hid in a sealed train and
was shipped to 8ussia"
&enin drew a %lueprint called +pril 9heses and showed 8ussia
how the- didn.t need a %our$eois revolution to move into socialism" #e
stated that soldiers, wor/ers, and peasants were our instruments of power"
The- could use them to over throw the provisional $overnment" The-
claimed that there would %e an end to the war, the-.d $et all their land %ac/,
wor/ers would %e a%le to wor/ in factories and industries, and the
$overnmental power would $o to the soviets"
In late sprin$, the provisional $overnment had pro%lems with $ainin$
the control of the o%stacles" )easants started to ta/e their own propert-
%ac/ without %ein$ allowed to" The )etro$rad soviet made the Arm- order
No" 1, which encoura$ed militar- forces to remove their officers and
replace them with the committees that consisted of the elected
representatives of the lower ran/s of the arm-" This led to the collapse of all
discipline and created militar- chaos" =hen the )rovisional $overnment
tried a$ain, the arm- 7uit and went %ac/ to their normal lives"
The ;olshevi/ 8evolution
The ;olshevi/s were %elieved to have tried to overthrow the
provisional $overnment, so the- had to leave to Finland" Ale1ander
Cerens/- was named the prime minister in the provisional $overnment in
<ul- 1314" 5eneral &avr Cornilov tried to $ain power of the )etro$rad in
(eptem%er, and so Cerens/- let the ;olshevi/s out of prison and as/ed the
)etro$rad soviet for help" This had shown &enin how wea/ the provisional
$overnment reall- was"
;- the end of ,cto%er, the ;olshevi/ ran/s were read- to overthrow
the provisional $overnment" &eon Trots/- was the chairman of the
)etro$rad soviet and was teamed up with &enin and to$ether the- were
read- to do it in the name of the soviets" The ni$ht of Novem%er 9, the-
too/ control of the $overnment and the ne1t ni$ht, it was announced" ,n
Novem%er 8, the- announced as well, the new $overnment, and the
Council of )eople.s Commissars, with him as the head"
The Constituent Assem%l- was arran$ed %- the provisional
$overnment and it was for the new $overnment and the old provisional
$overnment in <anuar- 1318" lections at the assem%l- %- the universal
suffra$e $ave the ;olshevi/s 225 votes, while the provisional $overnment
$ot >20 votes"
The ;olshevi/s were later named the communists" &enin had to win
so that he could fulfill his promises that he made to the ;olshevi/s" ,ne of
the laws he made on his first da- was that all the land nationali6ed will %e
returned to the local rural land communities" The increased the peasants
ta/e of land returned power to the landlords" The factories were also made
as a place that people could find wor/ at"
Ale1ander Collontai %ecame a supporter of the 5olshevi/ pro$ram
for women.s ri$hts and social welfare reforms" (he provided healthcare for
women and children" A new re$ime came that allowed marria$e to %e a civil
act, it le$ali6ed divorce, decreed the e7ualit- of men and women, and
allowed a%ortions" (he created a women.s %ureau named Dhenotdel within
the Communist )art-" :an- supporters were murdered %- men %ecause
the- didn.t want their wives and dau$hters to have those ri$hts"
&enin couldn.t fulfill his promises to the peasants %ecause he had to
$ive up 8ussian propert-" ,n :arch @, 1318 he had to si$n the 9reaty o0
5rest'$itovs/ with 5erman- and $ave up eastern )oland, the B/raine,
Finland, and the ;altic provinces"
Civil =ar
;etween 1318 and 1321, the ;olshevi/ HredI arm- had to fi$ht on
man- fronts %- force" The first %ad threat was from (er%ia where a force
moved alon$ the Aol$a 8iver %efore the- were stopped" Another one was
when the- went throu$h the B/raine and almost to :oscow" In 1320, the
white forces were defeated and B/raine was ta/en %ac/" The- too/ %ac/
control of the Caucasus too"
=hen the tsar was ta/en %ac/, the ro-al famil- was a%ducted" ,n
<ul- 19 1318, mem%ers of the local soviet murdered the famil- and %urned
their %odies in a mine shaft"
The 8ed Arm- %ecame reall- stron$ %ecause ever-one was /ind of
afraid of them" The- called in a draft and tau$ht former officers" 0iscipline
was a ma2or thin$, if soldiers didn.t o%e-, the- were e1ecuted" The- were
a%le to move rapidl-"
The war communism was made to ma/e sure that the arm- had the
ri$ht supplies" 8evolutionar- terror was used to destro- an- opponents of
the new re$ime" The classes also mattered with this pro%lem" An accused
person would %e as/ed what class the- were and if the- were %our$eoisie,
their fate pro%a%l- wouldn.t %e $ood"
The Allied countries weren.t happ- at all with 8ussia %ecause of the
fact that the- 7uit the war" Finall-, in 1321, 8ussia $ained control of all of
8ussia" =ithout =orld =ar I happenin$, 8ussia wouldn.t have %een a%le to
$ain their revolution"
The &ast Jear of the =ar
5erman- tried to %rea/ the militar- stalemate, %ut failed when
Americans defeated them at the on <ul- 18" ,n (eptem%er 23, 1318,
5eneral &udendorff didn.t want to put the %urden on his arm- for the loss,
so he told the $overnment to sue for peace at once" The Allies refused to
$ive peace, so the 5ermans %uilt a li%eral $overnment" ,n Novem%er 3,
the- announced the ma/in$ of a new repu%lic" This was accepted"
The Casualties of the =ar
=orld =ar I caused the deaths of < to = million soldiers on the
%attlefields" >> million were wounded" The %irthrate decreased
dramaticall- due to the deaths" :an- of the e1?soldiers later %ecame
supporters of #itler due to their e1posure of ma2or violence"
The war also affected man- civilians" =hen the Armenian people
attac/ed the ,ttoman $overnment, the $overnment attac/ed %ac/ and
/illed the Armenian men and e1pelled the women and children" ;-
(eptem%er 1315, a%out one million of them were dead" The- were /nown
as the victims of genocide"
8evolutionar- Bpheavals in 5erman- and
Austria?#un$ar-
5erman- had created an Independent (ocial 0emocratic )art- in
1319 for themselves and a revolution came to them as well" Carl
&ie%/necht and 8osa &u1em%ur$ formed the 5erman Communist )art- in
0ecem%er 1318" Two different $overnments were made' the parliamentar-
repu%lic proclaimed %- the ma2orit- (ocial 0emocrats and the revolutionar-
socialist repu%lic declared %- the radicals" The radicals failed to control the
$overnment"
The radical socialists tried to ta/e control of the power in ;erlin in
<anuar- 1313, %ut the arm- tried to stop them" The creators were
murdered" Another attempt was made at the Communist revolution in the
cit- of :unich, which was also %rou$ht down" This second revolution
created a fear of communism, which would intensif- with the rise of #itler"
In 131>, Austria?#un$ar- had an imperial re$ime that attempted to
crush the nationalistic forces that were %elieved were $oin$ to destro- the
empire" It happened a$ain in 1318, which destro-ed the Austro?#un$arian
mpire" thnic minorities tried to find national independence" ;- the end of
the war, it was /nown as the independent repu%lics of Austria, #un$ar-,
and Ju$oslavia"
The )eace (ettlement
)eace Aims
The American president, =oodrow =ilson sent an outline named the
*Fourteen )oints+ to the B"(" Con$ress %ecause he %elieved that it would
2ustif- the militar- stru$$le" #e also called for peace for a point consistent
with domestic safet- and self?determination" #e said that =orld =ar I was
a people.s war a$ainst a%solutism and militarism and that the onl- wa- to
fi$ht it would %e with a democratic $overnment"
The others states at the !aris !eace Con0erence had more
pra$matic ideas" National interests had also %een one of the thin$s that
complicated the deli%erations of the conference" The states also had %een
fearful of the ;olshevi/ revolution spreadin$ to other countries" The three
voices, =ilson, Clemenceau, and &lo-d 5eor$e said that in the terms of
armistice, friendship is the motivation"
At the conference, Ital- was considered one of the ma2or powers"
8ussia wasn.t invited to the conference %ecause of its civil war and
5erman- 2ust wasn.t invited"
It wasn.t ver- li/el- that the three ma2or countries would $o to war, %ut
=ilson wanted to create a *lea$ue of nations+ to help prevent future wars"
,nl- compromise made it possi%le to $ain a peace settlement" ,n <anuar-
25, 1313 the conference too/ in the principle of the &ea$ue of Nations"
The Treat- of Aersailles
The )eace (ettlement of )aris had five separate treaties" The one
si$ned with 5erman- on <une 28, 1313 was the most important one" The
one the- didn.t li/e was the Article 2@1, called the 2ar *uilt Clause, which
said that the- were responsi%le for the war and had to pa- reparations for
all the dama$e that the- caused" The- also had to cut %ac/ their arm- to
100,000 men, cut %ac/ its nav-, and ta/e awa- its air force" The- had to
$ive up a part of Alsace and &orraine to France and part of )russia to the
new )olish state" 5erman land west and @0 miles east of 8hine was made
into a demilitari6ed 6one and all the material that could %e used for another
attac/ on France was ta/en awa-" The- were mad, %ut the- couldn.t do
an-thin$ cause if the- did, it would %e a renewal of the war, which the-
couldn.t afford"
The ,ther )eace Treaties
France too/ control of &e%anon and (-ria, and ;ritain too/ Ira7 and
)alestine! these are called mandates" A nation administrated a territor- on
%ehalf of the &ea$ue of Nations" The peace settlement that was a$reed on
in )aris was attac/ed %- the defeated Central )owers" The &ea$ue of
Nations, to some people, $ave hope to them that future conflicts could %e
fi1ed peacefull-" The B"( retreated into "solationism and never 2oined the
&ea$ue on Nations" The- tried to remove their direct involvement in future
wars"
Chapte
r
24
)relude to =ar H13@@?13@3I
The 8ole of #itler
=orld =ar II %e$an %ecause of Adolf #itler and his %eliefs that onl-
Ar-ans were a%le to %uild a $reat civili6ation" #e felt that the 5ermans were
threatened %- the (lavs, who had learned how to use 5erman weapons
and technolo$-" #e %elieved in &e%ensraum, which is livin$ space, created
%- Carl #aushofer" It also stated that the amount of land and /ind of land
states the power of the nation" In #itler.s second volume of :ein Campf, he
stated that to find land, the-.d have to loo/ in the east instead of the south
and west, 8ussia was in mind"
#itler saw that the 8ussian 8evolution had $iven them the
opportunit- to $ain the land in the east" The onl- reason wh- 8ussia is
powerful is %ecause of its 5erman leaders" (ince the ;olshevi/s too/
power, 8ussia had %een wea/" #itler %elieved that the ;olshevi/s were
<ewish" ,nce 5erman- had $ained power over 8ussia, the- would use the
(lavic.s as slaves to %uild the Ar-an racial state that would dominate
urope for the ne1t thousand -ears" 5erman- has to %e read- for war
a$ainst the (oviet Bnion in #itler.s e-es" #is ideas and plans were clearl-
sent out, %ut no one full- understood what he trul- wanted to do"
5erman- had to anne1 lands if it wanted to sta- in the $reat powers
and %e a%le to compete with the other countries" The- were defeated in
=orld =ar II, %ut the- a$reed with #itler %ecause the- wanted to %ecome a
$reater place" The- didn.t reali6e until it was too late to do an-thin$ to stop
his e1terminations" #itler %elieved that onl- he had the capa%ilit- of what
needed to %e accomplished to $et what 5erman- needed" #is impatience
%ecause of his fear of his health was what %rou$ht him to his downfall"
The *0iplomatic 8evolution+ H13@@?
13@9I
France was 5erman-.s enem- then %ecause the- posed a threat"
#itler saw that as lon$ as France doesn.t want war with them, then the-.d
%e safe" #itler made himself and his acts loo/ li/e acts of peace so that
people would a$ree with him" #e said that he onl- wanted to ma/e
5erman- part of the hi$h powers in its ri$htful place, and that he wanted to
do it peacefull-" In ,cto%er 13@@, he too/ 5erman- out of the 5eneva
0isarmament Conference and the &ea$ue of Nations, for domestic political
reasons"
5erman 8earmament
In 13@5, #itler %elieved that 5erman- could %rea/ some of the rules
of the Treat- of Aersailles without %i$ ;ritish and French opposition" #e
%elieved that %oth countries wanted to /eep the rules, %ut without usin$
force" ,n :arch 3, 13@5, #itler told the people that the- created a new air
force and a wee/ later a new militar- draft that would raise the militar-
population from 100,000 to 550,000 people"
,nce France, 5reat ;ritain, and Ital- found this out, the- warned him
of the future thin$s that the- would do a$ainst it" ,n <une 18, 13@5, ;ritain
$ave 5erman- the ri$ht to rearm when the- a$reed to the An$lo?5erman
Naval )act" This allowed 5erman- to create a nav- with @5 percent of the
si6e of the ;ritish nav- with the e7ual amount of su%marines" This was a
polic- of appeasement, which was when the hi$her states $ave the lower
states what the- wanted to prett- much $et them to shut up in order to /eep
peace and prevent war %etween them"
,ccupation of the 8hineland
#itler sent 5erman troops to 8hineland %ecause he %elieved that the
=estern democracies didn.t have an intention of usin$ force to maintain the
aspects of the Treat- of Aersailles" France had the ri$ht to use an- force
a$ainst an- act li/e this, %ut didn.t want to without havin$ ;ritain.s support,
%ut ;ritain %elieved that this was 2ust another act of a dissatisfied power"
This act made %- the ;ritish onl- made #itler.s statement even more true,
which made him do more" 5ermans were %e$innin$ to li/e #itler %ecause
he was ma/in$ 5erman- even stron$er"
New Alliances
In ,cto%er 13@5, ;enito :ussolini had allowed Ital- to $o into
imperial e1pansion %- invadin$ thiopia" #e was mad %ecause of the
French and ;ritish opposition to his invasion that he %ecame closer to
#itler" The closeness of 5erman- and Ital- was due to 5eneral Francisco
Franco in the (panish Civil =ar in 13@9" #itler and :ussolini created the
new 8ome?;erlin A1is" In Novem%er 13@9, 5erman- and <apan made the
Anti?Comintern )act and a$reed to sta- awa- from communism"
;- the end of 13@9, the- had $ained a diplomatic revolution in
urope" The Treat- of Aersailles was discontinued and 5erman- was a
world power a$ain" :ost people wanted to %elieve that #itler wanted
peace, %ut his moves had made war more possi%le"
The )ath to =ar in urope H13@4?13@3I
,n Novem%er 5, 13@4, #itler told his future aims" 5erman-.s livin$
space in the east was the $oal, and to $ain that the- had to deal with
Austria and C6echoslova/ia and secure its eastern and southern flan/s"
,n$oin$ 8earmament
The rate of rearmaments rose reall- fast in 13@@' 1 %illion
8eichsmar/s! in 13@5' 5 %illion! in 13@4' 3"5 %illion! and in 13@3' @0 %illion"
Important to this was a new t-pe of warfare was ;lit6/rei$, or li$htnin$ war"
#itler wanted to avoid trench warfare and instead move to mechani6ed
columns and massive air power to 7uic/l- destro- entire armies" ;lit6/rei$
meant the 7uic/ defeat and determined the %uildin$ of a lar$e air force
H&uftwaffeI and lar$e num%ers of tan/s and armored truc/s to carr- infantr-"
The tan/s, mechani6ed infantr-, and mo%ile artiller- formed the new pan6er
divisions with air support could lead the ;lit6/rei$ attac/" The arm-
increased from 550,000 men in 13@5 to >"5 million in 13@3" The naval force
also rose"
Bnion with Austria
Neville Cham%erlain, prime minister of 5reat ;ritain in 13@4, %elieved
that in order for 5reat ;ritain to survive, the- needed an accommodation
with 5erman-" #itler first hit Austria %- threatenin$ them that if the- didn.t
let an Austrian Na6i %ecome in char$e of the $overnment, the-.d invade"
,n :arch 12, 13@8, the 5erman Na6i.s came in and said that Curt von
(chuschni$$ wanted them to come in to esta%lish law and order" #itler
anne1ed Austria to 5erman-"
Now #itler.s ne1t tas/ was to destro- C6echoslova/ia" This seemed
unrealistic %ecause C6echoslova/ia could defend itself and France and
(oviet 8ussia would protect them" #e didn.t %elieve that the-.d use force to
protect it thou$h"
C6echoslova/ia
The 5ermans as/ed for autonom- for the (udetenland, which was
home to @ million ethnic 5ermans" This place also had the most important
frontier defenses and industrial resources" #itler threatened that if he didn.t
$et this, than he would ris/ world war for it, on (eptem%er 15, 13@8" ,n
(eptem%er 23, at the :unich Conference, the ;ritish, French, 5ermans,
and Italians a$reed to meet #itler.s demands" 5erman- too/
C6echoslova/ia over in the northwestern %order area" ,n ,cto%er 13@8,
#itler told his $enerals that the- were $oin$ to completel- ta/e over
C6echoslova/ia" ,n :arch 15, 13@3, #itler declared that he was the
$reatest 5erman of all"
)oland
#itler threatened to ta/e %ac/ )oland and when ;ritain reali6ed how
%i$ of a threat it was to )oland, the- promised to protect it at the event of
war" )oland was made a free cit- %- the Treat- of Aersailles" ;ritain and
France also reali6ed that onl- the (oviet Bnion was stron$ enou$h to
prevent this, so the- made political and militar- ne$otiations with <oseph
(talin and the (oviets" #itler %elieved that the- wouldn.t fi$ht to protect
)oland" ,n (eptem%er 1, 13@3, he told his $enerals to prepare for the
invasion of )oland" #itler prepared a nona$$ression pact with (talin and
shoc/ed the world with his announcement on Au$ust 2@, 13@3" Finland, the
;altic (tates, and eastern )oland would $o to the (oviet Bnion" 5erman-
would ta/e over western )oland" ,n (eptem%er 1, 5erman forces invaded
)oland! two da-s later, ;ritain and France declared war on 5erman-" ,n
(eptem%er 14, the (oviet Bnion, on 5erman-.s side, sent its troops into
eastern )oland"
The )ath to =ar in Asia
<apan.s population had risen from @0 million in 1840 to 80 million in
13@4" <apan had to rel- on the manufacture of heav- industrial $oods and
te1tiles to feed its population" In the 13@0s, =estern nations made tariff
%arriers to protect their own economies from the effects of the depression"
<apan also e1perienced a slow $rowth of political democrac- with universal
male suffra$e in 132> and the emer$ence of mass political parties"
(ocieties allied themselves with the arm- and nav- to push a pro$ram of
e1pansion at the e1pense of China and the (oviet Bnion, while the nav-
tried to ma/e <apan self?sufficient in raw materials %- ta/in$ over ;ritish
:ala-a and the 0utch ast Indies" In 13@5, <apan started to ma/e a
modern naval fleet, and after 13@9, the armed forces e1ercised a lot of
influence over the $overnment"
<apanese 5oals in ast Asia
In (eptem%er 13@1, <apanese soldiers too/ over :anchuria" The
&ea$ue of Nations condemned the <apanese sei6ure, and made them
withdraw from the &ea$ue" <apan renamed :anchuria to :anchu/uo, and
continued their e1pansion" The armed forces were in control of the
<apanese politics %- the mid?13@0s"
China and <apan started to %rea/ up in fi$hts and China tried to stop
<apan %- offerin$ areas in North China" Chinese said rude thin$s to the
<apanese while the- were passin$ throu$h the cities" Another fi$ht
happened at the :arco )olo ;rid$e in <ul- 13@4, and China refused to
apolo$i6e"
<apan didn.t want to declare war on China, %ut neither side wanted to
compromise" The <apanese went to the Jan$t6e valle- and too/ over the
Chinese capital of Nan2in$ and raped and /illed thousands of innocent
civilians in the process" The Chinese leader refused to capitulate and
moved his $overnment to #an/ou" 0urin$ the late13@0s, <apan tal/ed to
the Na6i 5erman- and thou$ht that the two countries could attac/ the
(oviet Bnion and divide its resources %etween them" 5erman- had si$ned
a nona$$ression pact with the (oviets in 13@3, and <apan couldn.t do it %-
theirselves" The- loo/ed toward the recourses of (outheastern Asia"
=hen the <apanese too/ over Indochina in <ul- 13>1, America
stopped the sales of vital scrap iron and oil to <apan" <apan attac/ed the
American naval fleet in the )acific"
The Course of =orld =ar II
Aictor- and (talemate
5erman forces used armored columns or pan6er divisions supported
%- airplanes to destro- the )olish armies" A pan(er division was a stri/e
force of three hundred tan/s with forces and supplies" There were also air
assaults that used (tu/a dive %om%ers that had sirens that had a %lood?
curdlin$ shrie/! this all caused a horri%le destruction" In four wee/s, )oland
surrendered" ,n (eptem%er 28, 13@3, 5erman- and the (oviet Bnion
divided the propert- %etween each other"
#itler.s Attac/ in the =est
;etween 13@0 and 13@5, France %uilt a series of concrete and steel
fortifications armed with heav- artiller- named the :a$inot &ine, alon$ the
%order of France and 5erman-"
The phon- war was when #itler resumed his war after winter on April
3, 13>0 a$ainst 0enmar/ and Norwa-" The Na6is landed troops alon$ the
coast and dropped paratroopers into airfields and ma2or cities" The- had an
arm- of 50,000 men, %ut were eventuall- driven out" Norwa- surrendered
on <une 3"
,n :a- 10, 5erman- attac/ed the Netherlands, ;el$ium, and
France" The Netherlands fell in five da-s" The 0utch cit- was destro-ed %-
%om%in$ and %ecame a s-m%ol of ruthless Na6i destruction of civilian life"
The- tried to tric/ the French %- movin$ into ;el$ium as if the- were $oin$
to move into France that wa-" The- attac/ed usin$ their main assault
throu$h &u1em%our$ and the Ardennes, which was une1pected to the
French and ;ritish" The 5erman pan6er divisions outflan/ed the :a$inot
&ine and raced to the n$lish Channel to defeat the Allied armies on :a-
21" The ;el$ian arm- surrendered on :a- 28, and the ;ritish and French
forces were trapped in 0un/ir/" #itler stopped the 5erman armored units
from advancin$ and told the &uftwaffe, the 5erman air force, to /ill the
Allied arm- on the %eaches of 0un/ir/" The %om%in$ had a malfunction,
and while #itler was orderin$ his armored units to advance, France had
re%uilt their defensives enou$h that @50,000 French and ;ritish troops were
a%le to evacuate in small ships" This was called the *miracle of 0un/ir/"+
,n <une5, 5erman- attac/ed France a$ain on the southern side"
Five da-s later, ;enito :ussolini thou$ht that the war was over, and he
wanted some of the land of France, so he declared war on France and
invaded on the same side as 5erman-" France had to surrender on <une
22" The 5ermans owned three?fifths of France, while :arshal #enri )etain,
the French hero of ==I, made an authoritarian re$ime, the Aich- France,
over the rest of the countr-" The Allies thou$ht of the Aich- France
$overnment as a Na6i puppet state"
The )ro%lem of ;ritain
Neville Cham%erlain sent a mem%er of his part- to the prime minister
and made him resi$n and on :a- 10, 13>0, =inston Churchill %ecame
prime minister" #e was an inspirin$ leader that hoped to $uide ;ritain to
victor-" #itler hoped that ;ritain could %e persuaded to ma/e peace with
5erman- so that he could $et land in the east" Churchill refused and #itler
had to come up with a plan to invade ;ritain, which he wasn.t so confident
a%out"
#itler soon reali6ed that in order to attac/ ;ritain, he.d have to $ain
control of the air" In Au$ust 13>0, the &uftwaffe launched an offensive
a$ainst ;ritish air and naval %ases, har%ors, communication centers, and
war industries" ;ritain fou$ht %ac/ and the- had a radar s-stem that let
them /now whenever the 5ermans were comin$ to attac/" The Bltra
intelli$ence operation %ro/e 5erman militar- codes" This told the ;ritish
where the 5ermans were $oin$ to attac/" #itler chan$ed one of his tar$ets
to hu$e %om%in$ of cities in (eptem%er" The ;ritish re%uilt their air stren$th
and inflicted ma2or losses on &uftwaffe %om%ers" ;- the end of (eptem%er,
the ;attle of ;ritain had %een won %- ;ritain and the invasion of ;ritain %-
5erman- was postponed"
#itler thou$ht of another plan" If he captured urope and the (ue6
Canal, the- could close the :editerranean to the ;ritish ships, so the-
couldn.t $et their suppl- of oil" #e hoped that the Italians would secure the
;al/an and :editerranean flan/s, defeat the ;ritish in North Africa, %ut the
;ritish routed the Italian arm-" #e then set troops to the North African area,
%ut he noticed that he had alread- $otten a lot of land in the east"
Invasion of the (oviet Bnion
#itler didn.t want a two?front war, %ut he fi$ured out that ;ritain ma-
onl- still %e fi$htin$ %ecause the- e1pected the (oviet Bnion.s help" If the
(oviet Bnion was destro-ed, than ;ritain.s last hope of support would %e
$one" The attac/ was planned for sprin$ 13>1, %ut it was canceled %ecause
of pro%lems in the ;al/ans"
#itler alread- had the support of #un$ar-, ;ul$aria, and 8omania,
%ut :ussolini was upset with the fact that 5erman- had ta/en so much
from southeastern urope" To ensure the e1tension of Italian influence,
:ussolini attac/ed 5reece on ,cto%er 28, 13>0" The Italians were ver-
prepared for this war, so the invasion stopped prett- 7uic/l-" #itler was
reall- mad at this %ecause this attac/ in 5reece had left his flan/ open to
;ritish air forces" #itler invaded Ju$oslavia on April 9, 13>1, to secure his
;al/an flan/" ,n April 14, the- surrendered and #itler destro-ed 5reece on
April 2@" After this he turned his notice on the war he planned with the
(oviet Bnion, which he thou$ht would %e over %efore winter hit" #e reall-
didn.t notice the real potential of the (oviet Bnion"
,n <une 22, 13>1, the- attac/ed the (oviet Bnion! this was the
lar$est attac/ %- the 5ermans durin$ this war" The 5ermans had 180
divisions, includin$ 20 pan6er divisions, 8,000 tan/s, and @,200 airplanes"
The- were stretched out alon$ a 1,800?mile front" The (oviets had 190
infantr- divisions and were a%le to $et another @00 more out of reserves
within half a -ear"
The 5erman troops captured 2 million (oviet soldiers" ;- Novem%er,
one $roup went throu$h the B/raine while a second was %esie$in$
&enin$rad! a third was within 25 miles of :oscow, the (oviet.s capital" The
5ermans didn.t succeed thou$h"
The 5erman advance was put on a halt due to an earl- winter and
the (oviets une1pected power" Armor and transport vehicles /ept stallin$ in
@0 de$ree weather" #itler commanders wanted to stop and wait until ne1t
sprin$, %ut #itler wouldn.t allow it" The (oviets counterattac/ed in
0ecem%er 13>1 that supposedl- was e1hausted %- Na6i victories" In
0ecem%er 13>1, #itler decided to also call war on the Bnited (tates"
The =ar in Asia
,n 0ecem%er 4, 13>1, <apanese carrier?%ased aircraft attac/ed the
Bnited (tate naval %ase at )earl #ar%or in the #awaiian Islands" ,ther
attac/s were focused on the )hilippines and started to move toward the
;ritish colon- of :ala-a" The ne1t da-, the Bnited (tates called war on
<apan" Three da-s later, #itler also called war on the Bnited (tates even
thou$h he wasn.t as/ed to %- <apan" After the American conflicts, <apan
invaded the 0utch Indies and too/ over a %unch of islands in the )acific
,cean" ;- sprin$ of 13>2, most of (outheast Asia and the western )acific
had %een ta/en over %- the <apanese" To/-o created the 5reat ast Asia
Co?)rosperit- (phere and too/ the whole area under <apanese tutela$e,
and said that the- wanted to li%erate the colonial areas of (outheast Asia
from =estern colonial rule"
<apan hoped that their li$htnin$ stri/e at American %ases would
destro- the B"(" )acific Flee and $et the 8oosevelt administration to
accept the <apanese domination of the )acific"
The Turnin$ )oint of the =ar H13>2?13>@I
(ince the Bnited (tates entered the war, the 5rand Alliance holdin$
the Bnited (tates, ;ritain, and the (oviet Bnion" The A1is powers held
5erman-, Ital-, and <apan" The 5rand Alliance saw that their first o%2ective
was to defeat 5erman-" The Bnited (tates increased the (oviet.s and
;ritain.s num%er of truc/s, planes, and other arms" The tacit a$reement
was also important to them in means of the war %ecause the- were tr-in$
to prevent war" In <anuar-, 13>@, the Allies a$reed to fi$ht until the A1is
powers surrendered" This unconditional surrender had the effect of
ma/in$ it impossi%le for #itler to separate his enemies"
#itler sent his 5eneral, rwin 8ommel and the 5erman Afri/a Corps
to &i%-a in Fe%ruar- 13>1, who he %elieved were his most darin$ troops in
the 5erman arm-" The- attac/ed on :arch @0 and %- the end of :a-, had
made it to the $-ptian frontier, where he had to stop" In North Africa,
reinforcements allowed the Afri/a Corps to %rea/ throu$h the ;ritish
defenses in $-pt and captured To%ru/ in <une and moved toward
Ale1andria"
At the ;attle of the North Atlantic, 5erman su%marines were attac/in$
the Allied ships carr-in$ supplies to 5reat ;ritain" In the sprin$ of 13>2, a
5erman offensive in the (oviet Bnion led to the capture of the entire
Crimea" ;- the fall of 13>2, the war had turned a$ainst the 5ermans"
In North Africa, ;ritish forces had stopped 8ommel.s troops at l
Alamein in the summer of 13>2 and then forced them %ac/ across the
desert" In Novem%er, ;ritish and American forces invaded French North
Africa and made the 5erman and Italian troops to surrender in :a- 13>@"
,n the Allies side, new detection devices allowed them to destro- a lot of
5erman su%marines in the shippin$ war in the Atlantic"
;attle of (talin$rad
#itler wanted to ta/e over (talin$rad, so he issued a war order called
*Not a (tep ;ac/"+ The 5ermans destro-ed much of the cit-, %ut the
(oviets used the %om%ed %uildin$s and factories as well?fortified defensive
positions" In (eptem%er, ,cto%er, and Novem%er, %oth sides too/ losses"
,n Novem%er 8, #itler told ever-one that the- had won (talin$rad, %ut on
Novem%er 13 and 20, the (oviets attac/ed 5ermans north and south of
(talin$rad and on Novem%er 2@, the- surrounded 5erman forces" #itler
told them to sta- in formation and to stand firm" =inter and (oviet attac/s
forced them to surrender on Fe%ruar- 2, 13>@" Now #itler /new that he
couldn.t defeat the (oviet.s arm-"
;attle of :idwa-
At the ;attle of the Coral (ea on :a- 4?8, 13>2, American naval
forces stopped the <apanese advance and stopped the threat of invasion
on Australia for a while" ,n <une >, at the ;attle of :idwa- Island,
American planes destro-ed all four of the attac/in$ <apanese aircraft
carriers and too/ American naval hi$h power in the )acific" Almost all of the
American planes were shot down at the encounter" ;- the fall of 13>2,
Allied forces started to plan for offensive operations in three areas' from
;urma into (outh China! throu$h the Indonesian islands usin$ *island
hoppin$+! and across the )acific"
The &ast Jears of the =ar
The A1is forces had surrendered in Tunisia on :a- 1@, 13>@" Allied
troops had ta/en (icil-, and then moved onto Ital- in (eptem%er" ;enito
:ussolini was arrested and replaced and the new Italian $overnment
surrendered to the Allied forces" 5erman troops put up heav- defensives in
the hills south of 8ome were reall- effective %ecause when the Allied forces
tried to advance up the Italian peninsula, the- had man- casualties" 8ome
didn.t fall to them until <une >, 13>>"
Allied Advances in the =est
The Allies had %een plannin$ a cross?channel invasion of France
from ;ritain, and the- tric/ed 5erman- into %elievin$ that the- were $oin$
to enter from the flat plains of northern France" Instead the- landed five
assault divisions on the Normand- %eaches on <une 9" Three air%orne
divisions also were sent to secure the flan/s of the areas" The- put 150,000
troops there in one da- with more than 4,000 naval ships" In three months,
the- had 2 million men and a half?million vehicles that pushed throu$h the
5erman defensives"
(oviet ,ffensive in the ast
#itler.s $enerals told #itler to %uild and *east wall+ that were river
%arriers to halt the (oviets, %ut #itler decided to use newl- developed
heav- tan/s" The- were defeated %- the (oviets at the ;attle of Curs/ from
<ul- 5?12, the $reatest tan/ %attle of =orld =ar II" The (oviets had ta/en
B/raine, &enin$rad, and the ;altic (tates %- 13>>" The- too/ =arsaw,
;erlin, #un$ar-, 8omania, and ;ul$aria in 13>5"
0efeat of <apan
American forces had ta/en supplies from an- enemies that the- too/
over" The- decided to drop the new atomic %om% on <apan and on Au$ust
1>, the <apanese surrendered"
The New ,rder
The Na6i mpire
:ost of urope that #itler too/ over was left under 5erman control,
%ut )oland and others, were anne1ed into 5erman provinces" The Na6i.s
new order was that 5erman occupations were set in Norwa-, 0enmar/,
and the Netherlands %ecause the 5ermans found them to %e ancestors of
the Ar-an" Inferior &atin people were $iven militar- administration" ,nce the
Na6i.s losses continued, the- had to e1ploit their territories of northern and
western urope for material $oods and wor/ers for 5erman-.s war needs"
)lans for an Ar-an 8acial mpire
The lands in the east that 5erman- had ac7uired had a lot of the
inferior people, so Na6i administration was even worse" After #itler had
ac7uired )oland, he set #einrich #immler in char$e of $atherin$ all the
inferior people and replacin$ them with 5ermans" thnic 5ermans, people
who were 5erman that moved to different places, were encoura$ed to
move into )oland" ;- 13>2, 2 million ethnic 5ermans had settled into
)oland"
The Na6i.s were reall- mad at the (oviet Bnion %ecause of the fact
that the- invaded 5erman-" #itler ima$ined that after the war, the-.d ta/e
the )oles, B/rainians, and the (oviets would %ecome 5erman-.s slaves
and the a%andoned lands that the- left would %e *5ermani6ed"+ )eople
involved in this idea were well aware of the human costs"
conomic 1ploitation
The 5ermans needed a lot of recourses in order to /eep up with this
new order" 5erman- too/ ever-thin$ from the people so that the- could
onl- live with the %are minimum" These recourses would $o to the arm-
and an-thin$ else that the- needed it for" :an- uropeans suffered
drasticall-"
Bse of Forei$n =or/ers
The man- prisoners that 5erman- captured from the (oviets were
put to harsh la%or and a%out @ million of them died from ne$lect" Forced
la%or proved to %e counterproductive %ecause it created economic chaos
and disrupted industrial production that could have helped 5erman-" The
%rutal character of the recruitment policies lead more and more people to
resist the Na6i occupation forces"
8esistance :ovements
8esistance :ovements in Na6i?,ccupied urope
:an- people committed acts of sa%ota$e a$ainst 5erman officials"
The worse cases were when the- /illed 5erman officials and spied on the
5erman militar- positions for the Allies" <osip ;ro6 led a $roup of $uerrillas
a$ainst 5erman occupation forces" ;- 13>>, his $roup had 250,000 people
and 100,000 were women" Charles de 5aulle created the Free French
movement, which created $overnments?in?e1ile"
=omen served as messa$e carriers, planted %om%s in Na6i
head7uarters, assassinated Na6i officers, spied on 5erman militar-
movements and positions, and used shoppin$ %as/ets to carr- weapons,
medicines, and mone- to help their causes"
8esistance in 5erman-
8esistance in 5erman- was ver- dan$erous and ineffectual" The
=hite 8ose movement was created %- students and a teacher passin$
pamphlets around sa-in$ that Na6i re$ime was lawless, criminal, and
$odless" The mem%ers were cau$ht, arrested, and were e1ecuted"
A $roup on militar- officers and conservative politicians that hated
an- idea that #itler had, %elieved that the onl- wa- to stop the Na6i re$ime
was to $et rid of #itler" ,n <ul- 20, 13>>, a %om% planted %- Colonel Count
Claus von (tauffen%er$ e1ploded at #itler.s ast )russian head7uarters,
%ut it failed to /ill #itler" Five thousand people were e1ecuted that were in
that $roup"
The #olocaust
The <ews, in #itler.s mind, were parasites that were tr-in$ to /ill the
Ar-ans" Anti?(emitism was somethin$ that /ept poppin$ up in Na6ism and
resulted in a %unch of le$islative acts a$ainst the <ews %etween 13@@ and
13@3"
arl- Na6i )olic-
Na6i.s mainl- focused on the so called *emi$ration+ of the <ews at the
%e$innin$ of 13@3" ,n <anuar- @0, 13@3, #itler warned that the <ews
lau$hed at what he said that he would accomplish, and that he would
e1terminate the <ews" For a while, the- thou$ht a%out the :ada$ascar
)lan, which the- would move all the <ews onto the island of :ada$ascar"
The war made this plan impossi%le thou$h"
The (( and the insat6$ruppen
The Na6i.s planned that the 3inal Solution to the <ewish pro%lem
would %e to /ill them all" 8einhard #e-drich was put in char$e of the final
solution" After the- too/ )oland, he ordered his special stri/e forces, the
insat6$ruppen, to ta/e all the <ews to $hettos in )olish cities" In <une,
13>1, the- were $iven new responsi%ilities to wor/ as a mo%ile /illin$ unit"
The <ews were $athered and had to di$ mass $raves and were told that
the- were $oin$ into resettlement" The- had to stand %efore the $rave and
were shot" Cillin$ people was so normal for the (( officers that the- $ot
morale pro%lems"
The 0eath Camps
A%out one million <ews were /illed %- the insat6$ruppen, and the-
soon reali6ed that this wasn.t fast enou$h" The- created death camps that
<ews would %e pac/ed li/e cattle in trains and shipped to )oland to the si1
massive death camps" The lar$est was the Auschwit6?;ir/enau" Technical
assistance for the construction of the camps were from the T?> pro$ram"
The T?> pro$ram was responsi%le for 80,000 deaths of raciall- unfit people
with an- disa%ilit-" The- chose that D-/lon ; was the most effective $as in
/illin$ a %unch of people at once" The people thou$ht that the- were $oin$
to ta/e showers, %ut the- were /illed instead" The corpses were ta/en out
and %urned in the crematorium"
A conference was held on <anuar- 20, 13>2, where the- e1plained
their solution to the <ewish pro%lem" ;- the summer of 13>2, <ews were
shipped from France, ;el$ium, and the Netherlands" Children that were
sent to the camps that were too -oun$ to wor/ were automaticall- sent to
the e1termination rooms" A%out @0 percent of the people sent to Auschwit6
were sent to do la%or, the rest were to die" Female hair was used to ma/e
mattresses or cloth" (ome people were even sent to cruel and painful
*medical+ e1periments" The 5ermans /illed %etween 5 and 9 million <ews!
a%out @ million of them in death camps"
The ,ther #olocaust
The Na6i.s were responsi%le for the shootin$, starvation, or outwor/
of a%out 3 to 10 million people" The- also /illed people li/e 5-ps-.s and
homose1uals %ecause the- saw them as *alien+ %lood"
The New ,rder in Asia
<apan wanted to use its new materials that the- had $ained to ma/e
a new 5reat ast Asia Co?)rosperit- (phere and a self?sufficient
communit- desi$ned to provide %enefits to the home areas of <apan and
new areas" *Asia for the Asians+ was that <apan promised that an
independent $overnment would %e made under <apanese tutela$e"
The economic resources were used for the %enefits of the <apanese
war machine, while natives were rounded up to wor/ on pu%lic wor/s
pro2ects or to %e trained in the militar-" These people sometimes had to live
with severe hardships" <apanese militar- forces didn.t have ver- much
respect for their su%2ected people" In Nan2in$, <apanese soldiers spent a lot
of da-s /illin$, rapin$, and lootin$ people" A%out 800,000 Coreans were
sent to <apan overseas as forced la%orers" :an- women had to %e
*comfort women+, or prostitutes, for <apanese troops" The- also used
e1tensive use of la%or forces that had prisoner and locals" :an- of them
died due to an inade7uate diet and wor/in$ conditions in an unhealth-
climate"
The #ome Front
Almost 20 million civilians died due to =orld =ar II"
The :o%ili6ation of )eoples
5reat ;ritain
;- the summer of 13>>, a%out 55 percent of the ;ritish people were
put in the armed forces or civilian *war wor/"+ :ost women that were under
>0 -ears of a$e were as/ed to do some t-pe of war wor/" =omen had held
a%out 50 percent of the civil service positions and the num%er of women
wor/in$ in a$riculture dou%led since the- too/ over positions usuall-
wor/ed under %- men" The- were /nown as *land $irls"+
The $overnment encoura$ed the people to *0i$ for Aictor-"+ This was
used to increase food production" Fields that were reserved for use for
athletic events were $iven to civilians to plant $ardens in the *5row Jour
,wn Food+ campai$ns" ;ritain now had 1"> million new $ardens in 13>@,
%ut the- still faced food shorta$es when their su%marines san/ hundreds of
;ritish merchant vessels" The ;ritish had to live on a diet of %read and
potatoes" The ;ritish had to also *0i$ for Aictor-+ which was for the Civil
0efense or the #ome 5uard" The #ome 5uard was created in 13>0 to fi$ht
off 5erman invaders" lderl- people were also e1pected to help
manufacture airplane parts in their homes"
In 13>2, the ;ritish $overnment made a ministr- for fuel and power to
control the coal industr- and a ministr- for production to oversee supplies
for the armed forces" The citi6ens of ;ritain soon reali6ed that the
$overnment would have to interfere with their lives" Tan/ production
7uadrupled %etween 13>0 and 13>2, and the production of aircraft $rew
from 8,000 in 13@3 to 29,000 in 13>@ and 13>>"
The (oviet Bnion
Two out of ever- five people /illed in =orld =ar II were soviet
citi6ens" <oseph (talin created *supercentrali6ation+ which stated that all
civil and militar- or$ani6ations were su%2ected to the control of the
Communist )art- and the (oviet police" The defeats of the (oviet Bnion led
to mo%ili6ation that effected the civilian population" The (oviets had
eventuall- created 48,000 tan/s and 38,000 artiller- pieces" Fift-?five
percent of their national income went to ma/in$ war material" 0ue to this,
(oviet citi6ens e1perienced a lot of shorta$es of food and housin$"
The women had ta/en over a lot of the 2o%s" :ost of the wor/ers
durin$ the war were women" The (oviet Bnion was the onl- countr- in
=orld =ar II that used women as com%atants" The female pilots that
helped to defeat the 5ermans at (talin$rad were /nown as the *Ni$ht
=itches"+
The (oviet peasants had to wor/ in the arm- and had to feed the 8ed
Arm- and the (oviet people" These people had to wor/ hardships and
didn.t $et an- pa-" The (oviets soon reali6ed after 5erman- had invaded
that the- were protectin$ Communist ideolo$-, %ut the- were protectin$
*:other 8ussia"+
The Bnited (tates
The Bnited (tates didn.t have to reall- worr- a%out %ein$ attac/ed,
%ut the- tal/ed to Bniversities and scientists a%out creatin$ %i$ war
weapons" The- wanted to %uild an atomic %om% that would have to emplo-
1@0,000 people and would cost K2 %illion dollars" The B"( also supplied the
Allies with war weapons needed to win the war" ;- Novem%er 13>@, the-
were ma/in$ 9 ships a da- and K9 %illion worth of other militar- e7uipment"
The mo%ili6ation of the econom- had created %oomtowns where
thousands of people came to wor/, %ut the- faced shorta$es of houses,
health facilities, and schools" )eople moved ever-where %ecause the-
were loo/in$ for places to wor/" African Americans who did this were
attac/ed due to racial comments and whatnot" =hen <apanese Americans
came, the- were put in areas surrounded %- %ar%ed wire and had to ta/e
lo-alt- oaths" This didn.t happen with 5erman Americans or Italian
Americans"
5erman-
5erman- used the materials the- won in wars a$ainst other countries
for their arm- instead of ta/in$ awa- the civilians materials" After America
2oined the war, #itler had to chan$e his plans" #e too/ in more men for war
and increased the armaments production" (chools, movie theaters, and
cafes were closed down so that #itler could use the rest of those materials
for war $oods" =omen were as/ed to wor/ in the places that 5erman-
wanted them to, %ut man- women refused to do so"
<apan
<apan decided to create a plannin$ %oard to control their prices,
wa$es, la%or, and the use of resources" The- tried to encoura$e their
people to $ive up their recourses and sometimes their lives to help the
natural cause" The- used ;ushido, the wa- of the warrior, to help
encoura$e people to 2oin war, li/e he did" ;ushido was code that -ou were
to fi$ht for -our emperor, -our countr-, and -our famil- and if this failed,
-ou.d $ive up -our life" Joun$ <apanese were encoura$ed to wor/ as pilots
in suicide missions, Cami/a6e? 0ivine =ind, a$ainst B"( %attleships"
=omen had to sacrifice some stuff too" The <apan $overnment told
them that the- had to start %earin$ more children and the- had to espouse
the slo$an of the 5reater <apanese =omen.s Association" =omen had to
wor/ onl- in areas that the- were e1pected in" Instead of usin$ women, the
<apanese too/ in wor/ers from Corea and China"
Front?&ine Civilians' The ;om%in$ of Cities
&uftwaffe Attac/s
5erman &uftwaffe had tar$eted &ondon and other ;ritish cities to air
raids" ;ritish people had started to call these air raids ;lit6"
The ;om%in$ of 5erman-
The ;ritish decided to %om% 5erman- too, 2ust to $et %ac/ at them"
The- /new that %om%in$ cities too/ a lot of people lives awa-, %ut the-
weren.t reall- thin/in$ full-" :a2or %om%in$s too/ place and Colo$ne
%ecame the first one to %e %om%ed %- 1,000 %om%ers" ;ritain %elieved that
destro-in$ the 5erman communities would %rea/ civilian morale and %rin$
victor- to them" :ost of the %om%in$s onl- too/ place in areas where there
were more than 100,000 people livin$ in the areas" The Allied leaders soon
%e$an to thin/ that this was unnecessar- terror" :ost civilians moved into
%om% shelters" :ost civilians fou$ht reall- hard %ecause the- had a desire
to live"
The ;om%in$ of <apan' The Atomic ;om%
America and ;ritain had teamed up to create an atomic %om% to drop
on <apan" The- wanted to do this %ecause the- /new that 5erman- would
want to %uild a hu$e %om% with <apans supplies, so if <apan had %een
destro-ed, than 5erman- wouldn.t %e a%le to do such thin$s"
Aftermath of the =ar
=orld =ar II was the most destructive war in histor-"
The Costs of =orld =ar II
At least 21 million soldiers and a%out >0 million civilians died! 28
million of the civilians were 8ussian and Chinese" The (oviet Bnion lost 10
million soldiers, and 13 million civilians" The cost of the war ever-where
was estimated at K> trillion"
The Allied =ar Conferences
The Cold 2ar dominated uropean and world politics for more than
fort- -ears"
The Conference at Tehran
(talin, 8oosevelt, and Churchill, the leaders of the ;i$ Three of the
5rand Alliance, met at Tehran in Novem%er 13>@ to decide the future
course of the war" The final decision was the final assault on 5erman-"
Churchill wanted to have an indirect attac/ on 5erman- throu$h the
;al/ans" 8oosevelt and (talin chose to invade the Continent throu$h
France, which the- set up for the sprin$ of 13>>"
The Jalta Conference
The =estern powers %elieved that the (oviets were wea/, %ut the-
faced the truth that there were 11 million 8ed Arm- soldiers ta/in$ over the
eastern and central urope" (talin wanted to prevent the =estern powers
in attac/in$ the (oviet Bnion" 8oosevelt wanted to create the *0eclaration
on &i%erated urope+, which the 5rand Alliance accepted" This allowed
li%erated uropean nations to create *democratic institutions of their own
choice+"
(ince America set the Atomic ;om% on <apan, the- were afraid that
<apan would retaliate a$ainst them" 8oosevelt teamed up with (talin for
militar- power a$ainst <apan" (talin wanted these thin$s in return thou$h'
(a/halin, the Curile Islands, two warm?water ports and railroad ri$hts in
:anchuria" The 5reat Alliance decided to create the Bnited Nations
or$ani6ation"
The 5reat Alliance also decided what to do with 5erman-" 5erman-
had to surrender and that the- could onl- have four occupation 6ones"
The- were at the &u%lin )oles, the &ondon )oles, a ;ritish and American
6one to$ether for the French to handle, and )oland" A new $overnment
was to %e set up for 5erman- as well"
Intensif-in$ 0ifferences
The (oviets had started to ta/e control of eastern uropean
countries"
mer$ence of the Cold =ar
The (oviets had started to seem as if the- wanted to create a new
5erman state of their own! ever-%od- %ecame cautious of thi
Chapte
r
28
0evelopment of the Cold =ar
Confrontation of the (uperpowers
0isa$reement over astern urope
There were man- disa$reements %etween the (oviet Bnion and the
Bnited (tates and the first one was over astern urope" The ;ritish and
the B"(" wanted astern urope to %e a%le to have li%erated elections, %ut
the (oviets didn.t want that %ecause the- were afraid that this would lead
astern urope to %ecome anti?(oviet a$ain"
The Truman 0octrine
The Communist )eople.s &i%eration Arm- and the anti?Communist
forces made %- ;ritain %oth wanted control over 5reece" ;ritain had
ori$inall- called for the postwar reconstruction in 5reece, %ut the- had
economic pro%lems and so ;ritain had to %ac/ awa- from it" The Bnited
(tates saw ;ritain.s wea/ness and was also afraid of the (oviet e1pansion,
so the- created the Truman 0octrine, which said that an- countr- that said
the- were threatened %- Communist e1pansion would %e $iven mone- from
the Bnited (tates" If communism went throu$h 5reece, than the B"(" would
have to fi$ht throu$h the spread of it throu$hout the world"
The :arshall )lan
The Truman 0octrine was followed %- a uropean 8ecover- )ro$ram
called the :arshall )lan! this was used to re%uild prosperit- and sta%ilit-"
The American )olic- of Containment
Containment a%out future a$$ressive (oviet moves" This %ecame a
formal American polic-"
Contention over 5erman-
The (oviets tried to prevent 5erman- from creatin$ a separate =est
5erman state" The (oviets wanted to secure economic control of all ;erlin"
The =estern Allied air forces wanted to create the ;erlin Air &ift" The- tried
to suppl- the cit- of ;erlin with food, coal, oil, and $asoline to /eep the cit-
up and runnin$"
New :ilitar- Alliances
The North Atlantic Treat- ,r$ani6ation was formed where ;el$ium,
;ritain, 0enmar/, France, Iceland, Ital-, &u1em%our$, the Netherlands,
Norwa-, and )ortu$al si$ned a treat- with the Bnited (tates and Canada"
This was used if one of them were attac/ed, than the other ones would
help and fi$ht with them" 5erman-, 5reece, and Tur/e- 2oined later" The
astern uropean states also did so" The- eventuall- created the Council
for :utual conomic Assistance for economic cooperation" Al%ania,
;ul$aria, C6echoslova/ia, ast 5erman-, #un$ar-, )oland, 8omania, and
the (oviet Bnion formed the =arsaw )act"
5lo%ali6ation of the Cold =ar
The Corean =ar
(ince Corea had %een removed from <apan, the Bnited (tates and
the (oviet Bnion a$reed to split it in half for the %oth of them" In the north, a
Communist $overnment was made, and in the south, an anti?Communist
$overnment was made" ,n <une 25, North Corea invaded (outh Corea"
China $ot involved and chose to help the Communist side"
The First Aietnam =ar
#o Chi :inh too/ over northern and central Aietnam" =ar %ro/e out
and the Bnited (tates and the Communist $overnment in China entered"
The Americans supported the French while China supported the Aietminh
to protect their %orders" A peace settlement was created to stop the war"
Aietnam was divided into a northern Communist and the southern was a
non?Communist"
scalation of the Cold =ar
America created a polic- where the- would use American nuclear
%om%s to fi$ht a$ainst a (oviet $round attac/" 5reat ;ritain, Iran, Ira7,
)a/istan, Tur/e-, and the Bnited (tates created The Central Treat-
,r$ani6ation" Australian, ;ritain, France, New Dealand, )a/istan, the
)hilippines, Thailand, and the Bnited (tates created the (outheast Asia
Treat- ,r$ani6ation"
Another ;erlin Crisis
The (oviet Bnion launched its first intercontinental %allistic missile
and after that, (putni/ I, the first space satellite was launched"
The Cu%an :issile Crisis
Fidel Castro overthrew the Cu%an dictator and created a (oviet?
supported totalitarian re$ime" This %rou$ht the world reall- close to nuclear
war"
urope and the =orld
0ecoloni6ation
Africa' The (tru$$le for Independence
Cwame N/rumah created the Convention )eople.s )art- for the
African political parties and <omo Cen-atta created the Cen-a African
National Bnion for the economic issues, %ut also focused on self?rule" The-
were fi$htin$ for their independence" A $roup of Al$erian nationalists
created the National &i%eration Front and thou$ht up of a $uerrilla war to
li%erate their homeland" The- $ained their independence in 1392" The
African National Con$ress was also created to $ain economic and political
reforms" ,thers were tr-in$ to put whites and %lac/s to$ether, /nown as
apartheid"
Conflict in the :iddle ast
<ordan, (-ria, and &e%anon %ecame independent states" The Ara%
&ea$ue was created due to s-mpath- for the Ara%ians"
The Fuestion of )alestine
A <ewish independent state was created in )alestine %ecause
ever-one 2ust found out a%out the #olocaust, so the- all felt %ad for the
<ews" The <ews were $iven so much that the Ara%ians $ot so mad that
)alestine was separated in two, one half <ewish, the other Ara%ian, that
the- tried to invade the <ewish part, %ut failed"
Nasser and )an?Ara%ism
Colonel 5amal A%del Nasser too/ control of the $-ptian $overnment
and nationali6ed the (ue6 Canal Compan-" The ;ritish and French
attac/ed them %ecause the- were a threat to their investment to a route to
the Indian ,cean" Israel 2oined them" The Bnited (tates 2oined with the
(oviet Bnion with Nasser a$ainst ;ritain and France" $-pt was united with
(-ria in the Bnited Ara% 8epu%lic" Nasser.s plans ended %ecause militar-
leaders too/ control of (-ria and removed it from its union with $-pt"
The Ara%?Israeli 0ispute
$-pt presented the )alestine &i%eration ,r$ani6ation at a meetin$ of
Ara% leaders to represent the interests of the )alestinians" This movement
was called al?Fatah which launched terrorist attac/s on Israeli territor-"
Israeli launched air stri/es a$ainst $-pt and its Ara% nei$h%ors" It then
too/ <ordanian territor- off of the =est ;an/ of the <ordan 8iver, too/ over
all of <erusalem, and attac/ed (-rian militar- positions"
Asia' Nationalism and Communism
;ritish India had to %e divided into two separate countries, one #indu
HIndiaI, and the other :uslim H)a/istanI" ,nl- :ahatma 5andhi re2ected
the splittin$ of it" 5andhi had %een ri$ht" India and )a/istan had %ecome
independent" The movement of all the #indus and :uslims across the
%orders led to violence and over a million people were /illed" 5andhi was
one of them" #e was assassinated on <anuar- @0, 13>8, %- a #indu
militant" Ce-lon, ;urma, Indonesia, &aos, and Cam%odia $ained their
independence too" Aietnam was divided"
China Bnder Communism
The )eople.s &i%eration Arm- had surrounded ;ei2in$" The
Communists too/ over (han$hai" The Nationalist $overnment fled to the
island of Taiwan" The Communist side wanted to create a socialist s-stem"
)eople.s communes were created %- them to create more food, which
collective farms were com%ined to create these lar$e farms, where @0,000
people could live" This plan was called The 5reat &eap Forward" It failed in
the end" The weather was %ad and the people hated the s-stem, so that.s
what lead it to its downfall"
0ecoloni6ation and Cold =ar 8ivalries
,nce independent nations came in, the- were cau$ht in %etween
choosin$ %etween the (oviet Bnion and the Bnited (tates"
8ecover- and 8enewal in urope
The (oviet Bnion' From (talin to
Chrushchev
(ince the (oviet Bnion had %een a%out destro-ed, (talin wanted to
use the ac7uisition of development capital from (oviet la%or" The (oviet
people had a%out no pa-, poor housin$, and few consumer $oods while
havin$ to produce $oods for e1port" The capital that was earned from this
was sent to %e used to %u- machiner- and =estern technolo$-" =omen
had to ta/e over a lot of the manual wor/, so almost >0 percent of the
wor/ers were women" New power plants, canals, and factories were %uilt
within five -ears due to (talin.s plan"
(talin.s )olicies
Consumer $oods have started to %ecome scarce" Thermonuclear
weapons, :I5 fi$hters, and (putni/ was created to tr- and help with the
pro%lems, %ut it was shortchan$ed" The $overnment said that all literar-
and scientific wor/s had to meet the needs of the state" <ewish doctors
were eventuall- set out /ill hi$h?level part- officials" (talin died on :arch 5,
135@! this prevented an- more %loodshed"
Chrushchev.s 8ule
Ni/ita Chrushchev soon came to %e the chief (oviet polic- ma/er" #e
was the person who stopped the forced?la%or camps" #e allowed
Ale1ander (ol6henits-n.s %oo/ A 0a- in the &ife of Ivan 0enisovich, which
e1plained what life was li/e in the forced?la%or camps" #e also e1tended
de?(talini6ation %- cuttin$ %ac/ the secret police and closin$ some of the
(i%erian prison camps" This encoura$ed re%ellion in (oviet satellite
countries" These $ot out of control, so the- had to cut %ac/ their de?
(talini6ation campai$n" #e tried to increase a$ricultural output, %ut that hurt
his reputation and the (oviet econom-" Forei$n polic- failures led the
(oviet )olit%uro to force him into retirement"
astern urope' ;ehind the Iron Curtain
After ==II ended, the (oviets still sta-ed in all the places the- had
ac7uired from the Na6is e1cept for 5reece, Al%ania, and Ju$oslavia"
5overnment control for the (oviets came on Fe%ruar- 25 and Clement
5ottwald %ecame the new president of C6echoslova/ia"
Al%ania and Ju$oslavia
Al%ania had a Communist $overnment that came ri$ht after the war
ended and Ju$oslavia had a non?Communist $overnment and the-
followed the polic- of (talini6ation"
Bpheaval in astern urope
In the late 1350.s, the (oviet Bnion wouldn.t allow their satellites to
%ecome independent of (oviet control" )oland eventuall- started to have
protests a$ainst Chrushchev.s denunciation of (talin" The- wanted to sta-
lo-al to the =arsaw )act" (oviet allowed it too" This inspired national
Communists to tr- the same thin$ to $ain the same thin$s as )oland"
0e%ates happened and the- voted Imr- Na$- to %ecome the new
#un$arian leader" #un$ar- was created as a free nation on Novem%er 1,
1359" Na$- declared that the-.d have free elections" Three da-s after this,
the 8ed Arm- invaded the capital cit- of ;udapest" <anos Cadar replaced
Na$- and wor/ed with the (oviets to destro- the revolt"
=estern urope' The 8evival of 0emocrac-
and the conom-
Communist parties had $ained a lot after the war, %ut it didn.t last
lon$ %ecause the- lost the support of ever-one" Christian 0emocrats soon
%ecame important in achievin$ urope.s economic restoration" The
:arshall )lan had donated 3"> %illion dollars to fi1 ever-thin$ up"
France' The 0omination of de 5aulle
Charles de 5ualle had a mission to reesta%lish the $reatness of the
French nation" 0urin$ the war, he had acted as leader to some of the
resistant $roups and after the war, helped with creatin$ a French
provisional $overnment" The declaration of the Fourth 8epu%lic and a
parliamentar- s-stem %ased on parties that he considered wea/, caused
him to move awa- from politics" #e created the French )opular :ovement
which was a ri$htist or$ani6ation" It %lamed the parties for Frances political
mess"
The French arm- had %een defeated in Indochina and the- wanted to
resist Al$erian demands for independence" An antiwar movement in France
almost created a civil war in France" The leaders of the Fourth 8epu%lic let
de 5ualle ta/e over the $overnment to fi1 the constitution" #e as/ed for a
constitution that would allow the president to choose the prime minister,
dissolve parliament, and supervise defense and forei$n polic-" #e wanted
to ma/e France a %i$ power a$ain, so he was $oin$ to move into the Civil
=ar" #e removed France out of the NAT, and $ave Al$eria independence"
France started to invest in nuclear arms and e1ploded a nuclear %om% in
1390" France %ecame the *third nuclear power"+ #e never a%used the
power of French econom- even thou$h the weapons were started to catch
up price wise" Nationali6ation is the $overnment.s ownership" 0e 5ualle
couldn.t /eep up with the pro%lems in France, so people %ecame violent"
#e retired in April 1393 and died a -ear later"
=est 5erman-' A 8econceived Nation
The Bnited (tates, ;ritain, and France, had allowed 5erman- to use
political parties a$ain" Three ma2or parties came up' the (ocial 0emocrats
H()0I, the Christian 0emocrats HC0BI, and the Free 0emocrats HF0)I"
Conrad Adenauer was the leader of the C0B and he %ecame the *foundin$
hero+ of the Federal 8epu%lic" #e wanted respect for =est 5erman- %-
cooperatin$ with the Bnited (tates and the other =estern uropean
nations" 5erman- and France were enemies, and there were rumors that
France would team up with Corea in the Corean =ar and 5erman- was
afraid that the-.d %e attac/ed, so the- tried to $et the leadin$ nations to
allow them to open arms for their safet-" =est 5erman- rearmed in 1355
and %ecame a mem%er of NAT,"
&udwi$ rhard helped contri%ute to the *economic miracle+ where he
created a polic- of a new currenc-, free mar/ets, low ta1es, and elimination
of controls with America.s financial help, which led to rapid economic
$rowth" =est 5erman- also imported *$uest wor/ers+ form Ital-, (pain,
5reece, Tur/e-, and Ju$oslavia"
:ost of the Na6i leaders had %een trialed and condemned as war
criminals" The =est 5erman $overnment started to ma/e pa-ments to
Israel and to #olocaust survivors as a %it of a restitution for the crimes of
the Na6i era"
5reat ;ritain' The =elfare (tate
The &a%our )art- promised reforms for help with their economic
pro%lems" The leader of this $roup was Clement Attlee created reforms that
made a welfare state" Nationali6in$ the ;an/ of n$land, the coal and steel
industries, pu%lic transportation, and pu%lic utilities was what the- %e$an
with" This acted as the National Insurance Act and the National #ealth
(ervice Act" The Insurance Act $ave a social securit- pro$ram that $ave
medical insurance" The health act made a s-stem of sociali6ed medicine
that made doctors wor/ with state hospitals and still $ave private practices"
Ital-' =ea/ Coalition 5overnment
A %unch of Italians didn.t want a ro-al house, so the- re2ected it!
therefore it made Ital- a democratic repu%lic" The Italian Communist )art-
was one of the lar$est parties out of three" It $ained power eventuall-
thou$h" The Christian 0emocrats couldn.t hold their power %ecause the
upper and middle classes didn.t support them" The :arshall )lan
eventuall- reall- helped Ital- out with their economic pro%lems"
=estern urope' The :ove Toward Bnit-
France, =est 5erman-, the ;enelu1 countries, and Ital- created the
uropean Coal and (teel Communit- created a common mar/et for coal
and steel products amon$ the si1 nations" The- also made the uropean
Atomic ner$- Communit- to loo/ at how the- could use nuclear ener$-
peacefull-" The- si$ned the 8ome Treat- which turned the uropean
conomic Communit- into the Common :ar/et" It %ecame the world.s
lar$est e1porter and purchaser of raw materials"
The Bnited (tates and Canada' A
New ra
American )olitics and (ociet- in the 1350.s
8oosevelt.s New 0eal involved an increase in the role and power of
the federal $overnment, the rise of or$ani6ed la%or as a si$nificant force in
the econom- and politics, the %e$innin$ of a welfare state, and a reali6ation
of the need to deal fairl- with the concerns of minorities" )a-chec/s had
raised %- three percent a -ear within 13>5 and 134@"
0ecade of Bpheaval' America in the 1390.s
<ohn F" Cenned- was the -oun$est president in the Bnited (tate.s
presidential histor-" #e was shot %- an assassin on Novem%er 22, 139@
%ecause of forei$n affairs" #is successor, &-ndon ;" <ohnson created the
5reat (ociet- where he $ave the people health care for the elderl-, food
stamps and the new <o% Corps to the povert-, the new 0epartment for
housin$ and Br%an 0evelopment, and federal assistance for education"
Civil 8i$hts :ovement
<ohnson wanted to $ive all Americans e7ual ri$hts" The B"("
(upreme Court too/ down the raciall- se$re$atin$ pu%lic schools" :artin
&uther Cin$ <r" was the leader of a racial movement and a $roup named
Cin$.s (outhern Christian &eadership Conference was made to stop racial
se$re$ation" In Au$ust 139@, Cin$ led a march for <o%s and Freedom for
e7ual ri$hts and opportunities" The Con$ress passed the Civil 8i$hts Act of
139> which stopped se$re$ation and discrimination in the wor/place and
all pu%lic places" A votin$ ri$hts act was created the followin$ -ear" :artin
&uther was assassinated in 1398"
The 0evelopment of Canada
Canada had started to $ain electronic, aircraft, nuclear, and chemical
en$ineerin$ industries" The Bnited (tates donated mone- for them to $ain
all this stuff thou$h" Canada 2oined NAT, and sent militar- to fi$ht in Corea"
The- supported to Bnited Nations as well to avoid su%ordination to the
Bnited (tates" The North American Air 0efense Command maintained
cooperation with Canada to defend North America from missile attac/s"
The &i%eral )art- sta-ed in control even thou$h the Conservator- )art-
won once, %ut the- $ained %ac/ their control" The- created Canada.s
welfare state %- creatin$ a national social securit- s-stem and a health
insurance pro$ram"
)ostwar (ociet- and Culture in the
=estern =orld
The (tructure of uropean (ociet-
#avin$ a $ood education allowed middle class people to $et hi$her
2o%s than the- used to $et" ;usinesses started to loo/ at what t-pe of
education -ou had, not what class -ou were in"
A (ociet- of Consumers
The lower classes started to %e a%le to move from rural to ur%an
areas" The- were also a%le to ta/e hold of 2o%s that the- couldn.t $et to
%efore" Consumer societ- was startin$ to ta/e place %ecause the wor/in$
classes $ot hi$her amount of pa-, so it was as if the- were in the middle
class" The installment plan allowed people to %u- the stuff that the middle
class could %u- li/e televisions, washin$ machines, refri$erators, vacuum
cleaners, and stereos" The automo%ile was the most noticea%le of mass
consumerism" Cars used to %e onl- sold to the upper classes"
:ass &eisure
New times came when people were $ettin$ hi$her incomes with
wor/in$ less" New thin$s in popular culture allowed for more leisure
activities li/e concerts, sportin$ events, and television viewin$" Tourism was
the ne1t thin$" :ostl- the upper and middle classes were a%le to travel, %ut
lower rates and less e1pensive lod$in$s allowed for more people to start
travelin$"
Creation of the =elfare (tate
The welfare state was created to $ive the state more power to care
for the lives of its citi6ens" It helped to allow people live %etter and have
more meanin$ful lives" The advocates %elieved that $ettin$ rid of povert-
and homelessness, $ivin$ medical services for all, $ivin$ di$nit- to older
people, and $ivin$ out educational opportunities to ever-one, would help to
$et rid of the people.s pro%lems and help them to achieve happiness" :en
were a%le to have old?a$e pensions at a$e si1t-?five and women at si1t-"
The- also wanted to tr- to $ive out health care" Famil- allowance $ave
people some of the stuff that the- needed to have for children" There was
usuall- a fi1ed amount per child" This was also used to tr- to $et people to
have children to $et the population %ac/ up a$ain %ecause of the war"
Class %arriers were also removed"
5ender Issues in the =elfare (tate
,ne ma2or 7uestion was should women %e cate$ori6ed as mothers,
or as individualsL )eople %elieved that women should sta- home with their
children, not wor/" The- started to $ive women %enefits if the- sta-ed home
with their children instead of wor/in$" =omen started to $et lower pa-
chec/s for wor/in$ in forces %ecause people hoped that this would
influence the women to sta- home" The =est 5erman $overnment made
the same laws" Communist $overnments wanted women to wor/, so the-
created a da-?care center for women with /ids while women were wor/in$"
France allowed the same thin$s to their women and declared women e7ual
as men"
=omen in the )ostwar =estern =orld
=omen.s 2o%s were ta/en awa- after ==II and after this, a *%a%-
%oom+ happened" The %a%- %oom was when the %irthrates raised"
=omen in the =or/force
:arried women in the wor/ forces had started to increase" )eople for
the (oviet Bnion and its satellites were even hi$her" The development of
the (oviet Bnion relied on female la%or" =omen still earned lower wa$es
than men"
(uffra$e and the (earch for &i%eration
(imone de ;eauvoir helped with leadin$ the intellectual movement
that lead to her involvement in political causes" (he wrote The (econd (e1
where she tal/s a%out how women don.t have e7ual ri$hts as men and that
the- deserve to have the same ri$hts"
)ostwar Art and &iterature
Art
<ean 0u%uffet created Art ;rut which was a $ritt- st-le that su$$ested
no formal trainin$" #e fled to the Bnited (tates to tr- to $et awa- from
possi%le persecution from the Na6is due to his wor/ a$ainst Na6is in his
paintin$s" ,ne of the new st-les that came out was called A%stract
1pressionism"
A%stract 1pressionism was ener$etic and spontaneous" )op Art was
another st-le! it too/ pictures of popular culture and turned them into wor/s
of art" The Independent 5roup was students who put science fiction and
American advertisin$ into their e1hi%itions" And- =arhol was the most
famous American )op artist"
&iterature
*Theater of the A%surd+ was the new st-le and most popular st-le in
postwar literature! (amuel ;ec/ett was its creator" #e wrote =aitin$ for
5odot, he ma/es the audience have suspense and no%od- /nows what will
happen ne1t" This st-le had disillusion and ideolo$ical %eliefs in politics or
reli$ion" 5unter 5rass wrote The Tin 0rum, where he reflected 5erman-.s
preoccupation in Na6i 5erman-"
The )hilosophical 0ilemma' 1istentialism
The Theater of the A%surd influenced the philosoph- of e1istentialism"
It was created as a reflection of the an1ieties of the twentieth centur- %-
<ean?)aul (artre and Al%ert Camus" The point of this was the a%sence of
5od in the universe! if 5od was without meanin$ and purpose, than
humans were as well" The onl- wa- that the world could %e a%surd is if
humans %elieved it to %e so" ,nl- throu$h one.s acts can one determine
one.s values" 1istentialism involved an ethics of action and of involvement
in life"
The 8evival of 8eli$ion
The )rotestant Carl ;arth and the Catholic Carl 8ahner attempted to
infuse traditional Christian teachin$s with the new life" ;arth %elieved that
humans could /now reli$ious truth not throu$h reason %ut onl- throu$h the
$race of 5od! that.s what %ein$ a human %ein$ meant" 8ahner tried to
revise Catholic theolo$- %- puttin$ modern thou$ht into it" )ope <ohn GGII
helped %- summonin$ the twent-?first ecumenical council of the Catholic
Church" This $roup was /nown as Aatican II"
The 1plosion of )opular Culture
Culture as a Consumer Commodit-
:odern popular culture is tied with the mass consumer societ-"
The Americani6ation of the =orld
:otion pictures influenced a %unch of different st-les" Famous
sin$ers and others had traveled and came %ac/ to America to influence
others to %ecome li/e them"
Chapte
r
23
A Culture of )rotest
A 8evolt in (e1ual :ores
The permissive societ- was a name used %- the critics to descri%e
the new societ-" After ==II, there were chan$es in morals and manners"
)orno$raph- and se1ual freedom started to come out in the 1320s" (e1
education and decriminali6ation of homose1ualit- were also showin$ up"
;irth control was soon $iven out to the pu%lic in the 1390s and so people
started to have more se1ual %ehavior freedom" (e1ual movies, %oo/s, and
pla-s were soon shown even thou$h it was once hidden su%2ects" 0ivorce
rates, premarital, and e1tramarital se1ual e1periences rose as well" The
)la-%o- ma$a6ine also helped with the rates of these"
Jouth )rotest and (tudent 8evolt
This was a time of a dru$ culture" :ari2uana was the most favorite
dru$ to use" Joun$ people wanted to tr- and find hi$her levels of
consciousness, so the- tried dru$s for the e1perience" Timoth- &ear- did
research on &(0 and %ecame the hi$h priest of hallucino$enic
e1periences" These new attitudes of teens 7uestioned authorit- and
fostered re%ellion a$ainst the older $eneration" The -outh re%ellion %ecame
a -outh protest %- 1395"
ducation had %een the hi$her preserve of urope.s wealthier
classes" The uropean states had tried to lower fees for school and since
then, people had %een pourin$ in! even from the lower classes" There were
pro%lems with this thou$h" (ome classes had too man- students,
professors didn.t pa- attention to their students, and administrators that
acted in an authoritarian fashion led students to resentment"
The Feminist :ovement
=omen had started to assert their ri$hts a$ain and this attempt was
called the feminism, or the women.s li%eration movement" ;ett- Friedman
wrote The Feminine :-sti7ue where she stated the pro%lems of American
women and their e7ualit- with women" (he %ecame famous from the %oo/
and she created he National ,r$ani6ation for =omen where their $oal was
to $ain e7ualit- with men" (he was also a voice for puttin$ women.s
e7ualit- with men in the B"(" constitution"
Antiwar )rotests
Jouths %elieved that the Aietnam =ar was an act of a$$ression and
imperialism" )rotests that %ro/e out caused the ,hio National 5uard to /ill
four students from Cent (tate Bniversit-" 0ue to these t-pes of thin$s
happenin$ *law and order+ was esta%lished %- 8ichard Ni1on"
A 0ivided =estern =orld
(ta$nation in the (oviet Bnion
The leader of the (oviet Bnion, &eonid ;re6hnev, lived %- the slo$an
*No e1perimentation"+ #e created the ;re6hnev 0octrine, which was the
ri$ht of the (oviet Bnion to intervene if socialism was threatened in another
socialist state"
The ;re6hnev Jears
A re$ime that the- created allowed more access to =estern st-les of
music, dress, and art, %ut dissenters were still punished" (ome of the
pro%lems that the (oviet Bnion had was' reduced productivit- of $oods, a
lac/ of incentives, %red apath-, complacenc-, a%senteeism, drun/enness,
and a$ricultural pro%lems" The people that supported the Communist )art-
had to have the support of successful )art- leaders" ;- 1380, the (oviet
Bnion was ailin$"
Conformit- in astern urope
&ech =alesa had led an independent la%or movement called
(olidarit-" The flow of concessions for this $roup $rew rapidl- until the
)olish $overnment arrested =alesa and other (olidarit- leaders, outlawed
the union, and imposed militar- rule" The $overnment of <anos Cadar
le$ali6ed small private enterprises! this act was termed as *Communism
with a capitalist facelift"+
The )ra$ue (prin$
C6echoslova/ia had a new ruler, Antonin Novotn-" #e had alienated
man- of his mem%ers of his own part- and was resented %- man- writers"
Ale1ander 0e%ce/ was later elected first secretar- of the Communist )art-
and created a %unch of reforms such as, freedom of speech and the press,
freedom to travel a%road, and a rela1ation of secret police activities" The
)ra$ue (prin$ soon erupted" The 8ed Arm- had invaded C6echoslova/ia
and crushed the reform"
8epression in ast 5erman- and 8omania
The rulin$ Communist $overnment led %- =alter Bl%richt had
%ecome a faithful (oviet satellite" (/illed la%orers had ended up creatin$
economic pro%lems that led the ast 5erman $overnment to %uild the
infamous ;erlin =all separatin$ ast from =est ;erlin" )rosperit- and
repression were the two mainsta-s of ast 5erman.s sta%ilit-" In 8omania,
repression had allowed the Communist )eople.s 0emocratic Front to $ain
complete power" Nicolae Ceausescu used a secret police force as his
weapon a$ainst dissent"
=estern urope' The =inds of Char$e
=est 5erman-
The (ocial 0emocrats had %ecome the leadin$ part-! the- created
the Free 0emocratic )art-" =ill- ;randt had a plan called ,stpoliti/, or
openin$ toward the east" #elmut (chmidt was his successor and he
eliminated a deficit of 10 %illion mar/s in three -ears" The Free 0emocrats
fell apart, so the- 2oined with the Christian 0emocratic Bnion of #elmut
Cohl and formed a new $overnment"
5reat ;ritain' Thatcher and Thatcherism
The Conservative and &a%our )arties couldn.t fi$ure out how to solve
the pro%lem of the fi$htin$ %etween Catholics and )rotestants" The
Conservatives had re$ained power ruled %- :ar$aret Thatcher" (he was
the first woman to %e the prime minister in ;ritish histor-" (he pled$ed to
lower ta1es, reduce $overnment %ureaucrac-, limit social welfare, restrict
union power, and end inflation" (he was called the *Iron &ad-"+ (he did
%rea/ the power of the la%or unions, %ut didn.t eliminate the %asic
components of the social welfare s-stem" #er economic polic- was called
*Thatcherism"+
Bncertainties in France
The (ocialists were the leadin$ power, and their leader, Francois
:itterrand, was elected president" #e wanted to ma/e the econom- %etter,
so he fro6e prices and wa$es" #e also passed a %unch of li%eral measures
to aid wor/ers' an increased minimum wa$e, e1panded social %enefits, a
mandator- fifth wee/ of paid vacation for salaried wor/ers, a thirt-?nine?
hour wor/wee/, and hi$her ta1es for the rich" The administrative reforms
included centrali6ation and decentrali6ation" The policies lar$el- failed
thou$h"
Confusion in Ital-
The Italian Communists had %ecome advocates of urocommunism,
which was %asicall- an attempt to %roaden communism.s support %-
droppin$ its :ar1ist ideolo$-" Aldo :oro, a former prime minister, was
/idnapped and /illed %- the 8ed ;ri$ades, a terrorist or$ani6ation, %ecause
of political and social pro%lems in 1348"
The uropean Communit-
The =estern uropean states had created the si1 states, the
uropean conomic Communit- e1panded, where 5reat ;ritain, Ireland,
and 0enmar/ 2oined it and chan$ed the name to the uropean Communit-!
5reece, (pain, and )ortu$al 2oined it later"
The Bnited (tates' Turmoil and Tran7uilit-
Ni1on had %ecome paranoid a%out conspiracies and %e$an to use
ille$al methods to find out stuff a%out his political opponents" This
eventuall- led to the =ater$ate scandal? the attempted %u$$in$ of
0emocratic National #ead7uarters" Ni1on lied a%out his attempts and proof
was shown that he was l-in$, so he 7uit his 2o% %efore he had to $o to trial
with the B"(" con$ress"
conomic )ro%lems
<imm- Carter too/ over Ni1on.s 2o% as president" (ta$flation was a
com%ination of hi$h inflation and hi$h unemplo-ment" ,il was a cheap
thin$ to $et, %ut since humans had %een so dependent on it, the oil prices
were raised %- the )etroleum 1portin$ Companies" Fift-?three Americans
were a%ducted %- the Iranian $overnment of A-atollah Chomeini" Carter
didn.t have enou$h power to release the hosta$es, so people saw him as a
wea/ president"
The 8ea$an 8evolution
8onald 8ea$an had ta/en over presidenc- and had cut %ac/ on the
welfare state %- reducin$ spendin$ mone- on food stamps, school lunch
pro$rams, and 2o% pro$rams"
Canada
The &i%erals had $ained power in Canada" )ierre Trudeau was the
most prominent" #is $overnment ended up passin$ the ,fficial &an$ua$es
Act which allowed n$lish and French to %e used in the federal civil
service" conomic recession %rou$ht ;rian :ulrone- to %ecome leader of
the )ro$ressive Conservative )art-"
The Cold =ar' The :ove to
0Mtente
The (econd Aietnam =ar
The B"(" /ept sendin$ in troops to (outh Aietnam to help them fi$ht
off the Aietcon$" In Novem%er 139@, the B"(" $overnment supported a
militar- coup that overthrew the 0iem re$ime" The new $overnment that
was then set up didn.t do too well" The Aietcon$ soon came close to
$ainin$ power a$ain, %ut the B"(" didn.t want that, so the- went on
%om%in$ raids on the north and sent B"(" com%at troops in to (outh
Aietnam to prevent a total defeat of the Anti?Communist $overnment to
/eep the Communism acts from spreadin$ across urope" Americans saw
that this could cause a domino theor- from the other countries doin$ the
same thin$s as northern Aietnam"
The B"(" was proven to %e wea/ a$ainst the Aietcon$ %ecause the-
could also surprise the B"(" troops" :an- places and people started to
%elieve that the B"(" was the $reatest dan$er in the world toda- to peace"
=ar videos were soon shown in Americans houses also turned American
pu%lic opinion a$ainst the war" )resident Ni1on ended up si$nin$ an
a$reement with North Aietnam that the Bnited (tates could withdraw its
troops from the war" The domino theor- that ever-one thou$ht was $oin$ to
happen didn.t happen"
China and the Cold =ar
The thin$ that the Bnited (tates was worried a%out wasn.t the (oviet
Bnion, %ut the Communist China"
The 5reat )roletarian Cultural 8evolution
:ao %elieved that an atmosphere of constant revolutionar- fervor
could ma/e the Chinese achieve the final sta$e of communism" #e
unleashed the 8ed 5uards who were unhapp- Communist )art- :em%ers
and discontented -oun$ people who were sent into the streets to cleanse
Chinese societ- of impure elements $uilt- of ta/in$ the capitalist road" This
was the 5reat )roletarian Cultural 8evolution and it lasted for ten -ears"
)eople wanted to $et rid of the *four olds+ which were the old ideas, old
culture, old customs, and old ha%its" The- destro-ed temples, %oo/s written
%- forei$ners, and 2a66 records" The- too/ down street si$ns and replaced
them with ones carr-in$ revolutionar- names"
B"("?China 8elations
)resident Ni1on and :ao a$reed to for$et their hatred for what the-
%oth wanted and formed a *strate$ic relationship+ with each other and
focused on the (oviet.s possi%le intervention in Asia"
The )ractice of 0Mtente
0Mtente was mar/ed %- a reduction of tensions %etween the two
superpowers" An appropriate s-m%ol was the Anti%allistic :issile Treat-
where the two nations a$reed to limit their s-stems for launchin$
anti%allistic missiles" The B"(" did this %ecause the- wanted to ma/e it
unli/el- that either superpower could win a nuclear e1chan$e %- launchin$
preemptive stri/e a$ainst the other" This e7uivalence was the %est wa- to
avoid a nuclear confrontation" The #elsin/i A$reement was si$ned %- the
Bnited (tates, Canada, and all uropean nations where it reco$ni6ed all
state %orders since the end of ==II" The- also had to reco$ni6e and
protect the human ri$hts of their citi6ens"
The &imits of 0Mtente
The ne1t president, <imm- Carter, was strict a%out protectin$ the civil
ri$hts" The (oviets ended up attac/in$ Af$hanistan, which hardened
relations %etween the Bnited (tates and the (oviet Bnion" )resident
8ea$an called the (oviet Bnion an *evil empire"+ The- then created the
nuclear?tipped cruise missile that could fl- at low altitudes and was harder
to detect" 8ea$an %ecame an ardent proponent of the (trate$ic 0efense
Initiative where its purpose was to %ecome a space shield that could
destro- oncomin$ missiles"
(ociet- and Culture in the =estern
=orld
The =orld of (cience and Technolo$-
(cientists li/ed to wor/ with true science, %ut $overnments started to
as/ them to wor/ in %uildin$ new weapons and practical instruments of war"
;ritish ph-sicists improved the radar s-stem that helped defeat the 5erman
air force in the ;attle of ;ritain" 5erman scientists created self?propelled
roc/ets and 2et airplanes" The computer was created %- Alan Turin$ to
assist ;ritish /nowled$e in %rea/in$ the 5erman secret codes if their
cipherin$ machines" The atomic %om% was created %- <" 8o%ert
,ppenheimer" The (oviets had launched a space satellite called sputni/
and so the Bnited (tates wanted to land a spacecraft on the moon within
the ne1t decade"
The Computer
arl- computers had thousands of vacuum tu%es in order for it to
function and it too/ up a lot of space" 5race #opper was an important
fi$ure in the development of the computer" #e created the C,;,& which
was a computer lan$ua$e that ena%led the computer to respond to words
and num%ers" The development of the transistor and the silicon chip were
ma2or steps for the computer" The microprocessor was a even hi$her step"
New Conception of the Bniverse
)h-sicists %e$an to 7uestion the nature of realit-" The universe
wasn.t a collection of o%2ects, %ut a complicated we% of relations %etween
various parts of a unified whole"
0an$ers of (cience and Technolo$-
)eople came to the idea that scientific /nowled$e $ave humans the
a%ilit- to manipulate the environment for their %enefit" "F" (chumacher
wrote (mall Is ;eautiful, where he e1plained the dan$ers of the new
science and technolo$-" The d-in$ of nature made environmentalism one
of the important issues of the late twentieth centur-"
The nvironment and the 5reen
:ovements
The ecolo$ical pro%lems was causin$ respirator- illnesses and
havin$ effects on %uildin$s and monuments" 8ivers, la/es, and seas had
%ecome so polluted that the- posed serious health ris/s" nvironmental
concerns forced the ma2or political parties in urope to advocate new
re$ulations for the protection of the environment" The 5reen movements
and 5reen parties had spread out for the environmental pro%lems" The
5reen )art- had elected fort-?two dele$ates to the =est 5erman
parliament"
)ostmodern Thou$ht
)ostmodernism re2ects the modern =estern %elief in an o%2ective
truth and instead on the relative nature of realit- and instead focuses on the
relative nature of realit- and /nowled$e" Ferdinand de (aussure created
structuralism %- sa-in$ that the ver- nature of si$ns is ar%itrar- and that
lan$ua$e is a human construct" &an$ua$e has si$ns to devote meanin$
and had to have two components' the si$nifier, the e1pression of a concept,
and the si$nified, its meanin$" <ac7ues 0errida saw that spellin$ altered
pronunciation and %ecause of that, oral speech isn.t superior"
)oststructuralism, or deconstruction, %elieves that culture is created and
can %e anal-6ed in man- wa-s" :ichel Foucault %elieved that power is
e1ercised, rather than possessed! the diffusion of power and oppression
mar/s all relationships" In his The #istor- of (e1ualit-, he thou$ht that
homose1ualit- was created %- culture that tried to define and limit
homose1ual acts" )ower re7uires resistance for it to e1ist! otherwise, it
loses all meanin$"
Trends in Art, &iterature, and :usic
)ostmodernism moves awa- from the futurism 7ualities of :odernism"
Art
Allen Caprow thou$ht that the *happenin$s,+ wor/s of art rooted in
performance, came from <ac/son )olloc/.s process of action paintin$"
Caprow.s thou$hts of the relationship of art to its surroundin$s, was
continued in the *land art+ of the earl- 1340s"The (piral <ett- %- 8o%ert
(mithson was when he used a %ulldo6er to move 9,000 tons of earth into a
15,000 foot cor/screw in the 5reat (alt &a/e" 8o%ert Aenturi said that
architects should loo/ at the commercial strips and the historical st-les of
places for inspiration" #e advocated an architecture of *comple1it- and
contradiction"+ )hotorealism was another response to :odernism"
&iterature
The most common literature st-le was *ma$ic realism,+ which
com%ined realistic events with dreamli/e or fantastic %ac/$rounds" ,ne of
the most famous e1amples is of ,ne #undred Jears of (olitude, %- 5a%riel
5arcia :ar7ue6" :ilan Cundera also mi1ed fantas- with realism" #e wrote
The Bn%eara%le &i$htness of ;ein$"
:usic
(erialism was the popular music trend" The twelve?tone music of
(chon%er$ $ave the ideas for specific values' pitch, loudness, and units of
time" The composition removes the role of intuition and emotion in favor of
intellect and mathematical precision" The first serialist was ,livier
:essiaen" :inimalism uses repeated patterns and series and stead-
pulsation with chan$es over time! it.s usuall- tonal and more harmonic" The
fist minimalist composer is )hilip 5lass who showed that this could %e
chan$ed to full?scale opera"
)opular Culture' Ima$e and 5lo%ali6ation
1perimentation in roc/ and pun/ music too/ place" The people that
did this thou$h were usuall- -oun$ people" ,ffshoots of pun/ had $roup
names called Crisis, (ewa$e, and 0ead ,r$anism" A new video music
channel had come out called :TA and man- people %ecame popular with
their music for it" 8ecords had %een made with music recorded on it" #ip?
hop and rap had come out in the 1340.s as well"
The 5rowth of :ass (ports
(ports %ecame a popular thin$ in popular culture and in the leisure
industr-" (atellite television helped sports to %ecome worldwide" The
,l-mpic 5ames had %ecome /nown as the *war without weapons"+ At the
:unich 5ames once, a )alestinian terrorist $roup called ;lac/ (eptem%er
sei6ed eleven Israeli athletes as hosta$es! the- all died" (ome athletes
too/ dru$s to enhance their conditionin$" The ,l-mpic 5ames had to start
doin$ dru$ tests %efore athletes could compete"
)opular Culture' Increasin$l- 5lo%al
:arshall :c&uhan predicted that advances in mass communication
would lead to a shrin/in$ of the world and leavin$ in its place, a sin$le
*$lo%al villa$e"+