Transducer Engineering by Nagaraj-1

TRANSDUCER ENGINEERING
B.NAGARAJ S. RENUKA
Department' of Electronics and Instrumentation 'Engineering
B.RAMPRIYA
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering
Kamaraj College of "Engineering & Technology
Virudhunagar - 626 001.
ANURADHA PUiBLICATIONS
KUMBAKONAM CHENNAI
© 2009, Anuradha Publications'
First Edition: 2009
PREFACE
This textbook has been written as per,the latest syllabus of Anna University
to meet the requirements for the syllabus of B.E., E.I.E., and I.c-iE.
The primary aim of this book is to acquaint the students with the basic principles
of Sensors and Transducer systems and their applications for the measurement of
various variables.
This book or part thereof cannot be ,
To illustrate the concepts, a large number of diagrams have been provided in
translated o'r reproduced in 'any form
without the written permission 'of the this book.
authors and the publisher.
This book uses a very simple everyday language to explain the subject and it
will be very useful not only to the students but also to the teachers.
We are very much grateful to our beloved Principal Dr.K.Arulmozhi, P~.D.,

ISBN: 978-81-8472-087-7
Kamaraj College of Engineering and Technology, Virudhunagar, who have been a
Price : Rs. 150.00 constant source of inspiration and guidance to all our efforts.
We wish to 'express our profound thanks to Mr. M. Sethuraaman,

M's. Anuradha Publications, the most leading technical book publisher for publishing
this -book in such a short span oftime with great enthusiasm and effort.
Head Office Branch Office
Vidayal Karuppur, Kumbakonam - RMS, G-68 Kamakoti Flats, 20 Rameswaram Road, We are indebted to Mr. J.Gnanavadivel, M.E., Mepco Schlenk Engineering
PIN: 612 605. T. Nagar, Chennai - 600 0-17. College, Sivakasi, for his timely help that motivated and encouraged us to write this
it : 04366 - 262237, 263237 R : 044 ..2436 0134 book.
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Our sincere thanks to our family members for much needed moral support
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Any comments and suggestions for this book will be thankfully acknowledged
and incorporated in the next edition.
Authors
, '>,.' . '. . ' . , . .... .. :" " . " . " , . . . ; .
Published by.:M, Sethuraalllan, ·Anur~ha PUblicatioR&,IYid.ay,~Kar~ppur, KumbJkonam - RMS.'

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CONTENTS
Unit 1 Science of measurements and Instrumentation of 1.1 -1.42

. Transducers
1.1 Introduction 1.1
1.2 Measurement 1.1
1.3 Standards, Dimensions and Units of Measurement 1.5
1.4. Calibration 1.. 18
1.5 Errors "in measurement 1.19
1.6 Odds and uncertainty 1.29
1.7 Sensors and Transducers 1.32
Two Mark Questions and Answers 1.40
Unit 2 Characteristics of Transducers 2.1 - 2.53

2.2 Static characteristics and static calibration 2.1
2.8 Dynamic 'characteristics of Transducers 2.14
2.4 Mathematical model of Transducers 2.33
Two Mark Questions and Answers 2.39
Unit 3 Variable Resistance Transducer 3.1 .- 3.49
3.2 Potentiometer 3.2

3.3 Strain gauges. 3.5
3.4· Resistance Thermometers 3.17
3.5 rrhermistors 3.21
3.6 Hot wire anemometer 3.28

Science of Measurements and Instrumentation of ... 1.1
8.7 Humidity measurement using Resistive Transducers 3.34
Two Mark Q"uestions and Answers 3.36
Unit 4 Variable inductance and variable capacitance 4.1 - 4.36

Transducers
UNIT · I
4:.1 Variable inductance Transducer 4.1 Science of Measurements and

4.5
1·.2 Transducers working on principle of production of Eddy
currents
Instrumentation of' Transducers
1:.8 Induction ·potentiometer 4.6.
1·.4 Linear variable Differential Transformer 4.7 1.1 INTRODUCTION

4:.5 Rotary variabledifferential Transformer 4.12 The study of any subject matter in engineering should be motivated by an
4.12 appreciation of the uses to which the material mightbeput in the every day
1·.6 Variable reluctance pressure Transducer.
practice of the profession. Measurement syst.emsareused for many detailed
4:. 7 Inductive thickness Transducer 4.15 purposes in a wide variety of application areas. The easiest way to assess the
4.17 amount of' vusc of science and technology is to examine the number of
I
4:.8 Capacitive Transducer

measurements that arc being made and how they are being used.
.'I'wo Mark Q'uestions and Answers 4.32
All the successful achievements in science and technology are entirely due
UnitB Other Transducers 5.1 ', 5.63 to the ability to measure the state, condition or characteristics of the physical.
systems, in quantitative terms with. sufficient accuracy.
5.1 Piezoelectric Transducers 5.1
Lord-Kelvin stressed the importance of measurement in this context, by
5.2 M.agnetostrictive Transducers 5.13 saying: "Wh.en you can measure what you are speaking about, and express it in
5.22 numbers, you know something about it".
5.8 rc Sensor
5.1: Digital Transducers 5.32 1.2 MEASUREMENT

5.38 The measurement is usually undertaken to ascertain and present the state,
condition or characteristic of a system in quantitative terms. To reveal the
5.6 . Fibre optic Transducers 5.4·8
performance of a physical or chemical system~ the' first operation carried out on it
Two Mark Q'uestions and Answers 5..56 is measurement. The process or the act of measurement consists of obtaining a
quantitative comparison between a pre defined standard and a measurand. The
word measurand is used to designate the particular physical parameter being
observed and quantified that is, the input quantity to .the measuring process.
Measurements are generally made

• to 'understand an eventor an operation,
1.2 Transducer Engineering Science of Measurements and Instrumentation of ... 1.3
• to monitor an event or an operation. Data storage

Playback/
• to control an event or an operation. element
• to collect data for future analysis and Measured

quantity Primary Variable Variable Data Data
• to validate an engineering design. - - - - . . Sensing Conversion Manipulation Transmission Presentation
(Measurand) element element element element element
Fig, 1.1 shows the fundamental measuring process
Fig. 1.2 functional elements of an instrument or a measurement srystem.
(i) Primary sensing element

Measurand Process Result
ofComparison 1------. Tho primary sensing clement is the one which first receives energy from
(Input) (measurement) (Readout)
the measured medium and produces an output depending in some way on the
Fig. 1.1 Fundamental measuring process measured quantity (measurand),
1.2.1 Fundamental methods of measurement (ii) Variable conversion element

-
There are two basic methods of measurement Tho output signal of the primary sensing element is some physical variable,
such as displaceme.nt or voltage. For the instrument to perform the desired
1. Direct comparison with either a' primary or a secondary standard. function, it maybe necessary to convert this variable to another more suitable
2. Indirect comparison through the use of a calibrated system. variable while' preserving the information content of the originalSIgnal:',---An
element that performs such a function is called a variable conversion clement.
Direct comparison
(iii) Variable manipulation element
To measure the length of a bar, we compare the length of the bar with a
The element that performs "manipulation" by which the numerical value of
.standard, and find that the bar is so many inches long because that many ,
the variable is changed according to some definite rule but the physical nature
inch-units on the standard has the same length as the bar. Thus we have
of the variable is 'preserved is called a variable-manipulation element.
determined the length by direct comparison. The standard that w~ have used
is called a secondary standard. Measurement by direct comparison is less (iu) Data-transmission element
common than the measurement by indirect comparison.
When the functional elements of an instrument are actually physically
separated, it becomes necessary to transmit the data from on.e to another. An
Indirect comparison
element performing this function is called a data-transmission element.
Indirect comparison makes use of some form of transducing device. This
device converts the basic form of input in ~o ananalogous form, which it then (o) Data-presentation. element
processes and presents at the output as a known function of the input. If the information .about the measured quantity is to be communicated to
a human being for monitoring, control, or analysis purposes, it must be put in
to a form recognizable by one of the human senses. An element that performs
1.2.2 Functional elements of a measurement system
this "translation" function is called ~ata:"presentationelement. This function
Fig. (1.2) shows the functional elements of an instrument or a measurement includes the simple indication of a pointer-moving over a scale and the recording
system. of a pen moving over a chart.
1.4 . Transducer .Engineering Science of/Measurements. and. Instrumentation of ... 1.5
(vi) Data storage/playback element This displacement is manipulated by the linkage and gearing to give a
Althou.gh ·data storage in the form of pen/ink recording is often employed, larger pointer motion. A scale and pointer again 'serve for data presentation.
some applications require a distinct data storage/play back function which can
easily recreate the stored data upon command. The magnetic tape 1.3 STANDARDS, DIMENSIONS ,AND UNITS OF MEAS·UREMENT
recorder/reproducer is the example.
• The term. "dimension" connotes the defining characteris)ics of an' entity.
Example for measurement 'system • .The "unit" is a basis for quantification of the entity.
Bourdon tube For example, length is a diniension where as centimeter-is a unit of length,
time is a dimension and the second is a unit of time.
1.3.1 Units and, standards
For the past years, a considerable number of systems of Units have been
'ty Linkage and
used at various time periods. However, there are some systems of units which
_-------~-.Pressure7~
Bulb
I Pressure Motion ~ have been accepted through out the world.
Temperature .Primary
- - - - . . Sensing
Variable
Conversion
Da1a
.Transmission
! Variab~e
Conversion
~bl~
Manipulation
Motion
Unit
Measured element element element element element
quantity We measure a physical quantity by the measurement system. ·The result of
'-----v-----' Bourdontube
Tubing Data
the measurement of the physical quantity must be defined both in kind and
Presentation magnitude, The standard measure of each kind. of physical quantity is called a
element
"Unit", In general, we can write:
'-----v-----'
Scaleand
Pointer Magnitude of a physical quantity = (Numericalratiorx.rljnit) (1.1)
The Numerical Ratio is the number of times the unit occurs in any given
Fig. 1.3 Pressure thermometer
amount of the same quantity and therefore, is called. the number of measures.
'Phis may be otherwisecalled a numerical multiplier.
As an example of the above concepts, consider a pressure type thermometer
For e.g., if we measureadistance of 10 metre, its magnitude may be,
[sec fig (I..8)]. The liquid-filled bulb acts as a primary sensor and
variable-conversio~ clement since a temperature change results in a pressure . . Distance ~ (IO) x (m)
build up with in the bulb, because of the constrained thermal expansion of the
• :Here . metre (m) is the' unit of .length and
filled fluid.
• 10 is the number of units in the length.
This pressure is .transmitted through the tube to a Bourdon-type pressure
• The physical quantity, distance, in this case is defined by the unit,
gaugevwhich converts pressure to displacemen~.
metre.
• Without unit, the numerical ratio has no physical meaning.
Transducer Engineering Science of Measurements and Instrumentation of ... 1.7
1.6
Types ()f Units [A] = [l~] [1.1] = [L 2].

• Fundamental units • Since the constant is a pure numerical ratio and is; therefore,
• Derived units dimensionless.
Units which are fundamental to most other physical quantities are called • The three fu.ndamental units are length, mass and time. Their
fundamental-units. dimensions are: Length = [L]; Mass = [MJ; Time = trJ
Fundamental units are measures of length, mass and time. Since length, Dimension of Mechanical Quantities
mass' and time are fundamental to most other physical quantities, they are called All mechanical quantities can be expressed in terms of the three
the "Primary Fundamental Units", fundamental quantities like length, mass and time.
Measures of certain physical quantities in the thermal, electrical, :::~.,=-,,--,. . ==--,:;:-'=-==============::r===================================il
1.. V loci length ..' [Ll 1
illumination fields are also represented by fundamental units. These units are e OCIty = time [u] = [TJ = [LY l
'used only where these particular disciplines are involved and therefore they are
called Auxiliary Fundamental Units, 2. Acceleration = velocity [al = [Lr 1] = [LY" 2]
time [TJ
All other units which can be expressed in terms of fundamental units with ..--.-.--------·-~----t-------------------------fl
3. Force = mass x acceleration . 2 '-2
the help of physical equations are called Derived Units. Every derived unit ·F= [MJ [Lr ] = [MLT ]
originates from some physical law or equation which defines that unit. For e.g.,
--_.. __ _.. - . .... ... __
. -~----
4. Work = force x distance [w] = [MLT 2] [L] = [ML 2 T- 2]

the area, A, of a room is equal to the product of its length l, and breadth, b.
= 1 x b. 5. . work 2 2
c
Therefore, A Power = -'-.-

time
[Pl = [ML r ] = [ML2 r 3]
[T]
If metre is chosen as the unit of length, then the area of a room 8m x 4m ..._ __._.__ ,.__ ._-_._----,-_.~._. __ ._---·-I-------.._·_·····_--_···_---~
is 24 m 2. Note that the number of measures (6 x 4· = 24) 'as well as the units 6. Energy = power x time [ML 2 r 3
[TJ = [=ML 2 r 2
]
2
(m x m = m 2 ) are multiplied. The derived unit of area is m . 7. Momentum = mass x velocity = [MJ [ML- 1] = [MIJT- 1]
1.3.2 Dimensions
8. Torque =force x distance = [MLr 2] [L] = [MI~ 2 T- 2]
Every quantity 'has a 'quality which distinguishes it from all other 9. torque
Stiffness =. --==--- [K] = [MI.I2 r 2]
quantities. This unique quality is called Dimension. The dimension is written angle
. . .-.-.-..--.. . -.-.--.,,------~------_+_--_--_.-----------.--D
in a characteristics notation, For eg., [L] for length, IT] for time etc. 10. S urJ:acc
e. • force
Tension =.--- [a] = [MLr 2] = [Mr 2]
A derived unit is always rec-ognized by its Dimensions, which can be defined length [Ll
as the complete algebraic formula for the derived unit. Thus when quantity such
as area A of a rectangle is measured in terms of other quantities (i.e) length, Table 1..1 Dimension of mechanical quantities
1 and breadth, b then the relationship is expressed as,
Area, A = a constant x 1 x b ~ . (1.2) 1.3.3 System of Units
Since I and b each have the dimensions of a length, [L], the dimensions of Anum'ber of systemsofunits are in use .since 16th centu.ry. The important
systems of unitsaro
area are
1. I~'PS system (foot, pound, second) Practical units

Practical units are derived either from the absolute units or by reference
2. (;(}S system (centimeter, gram, second)
to arbitrary standards, Table (1.2) shows the symbolsrand magnitudes of
8. M:KS system (meter, kilogram, second) practical units.
\
4. Rationalised MKSA system (meter, kilogram, second, ampere) Table 1.2Ptactical Units
5." 81 system (six fundamental units, two supplementary units and twenty ".
No. -Quantity' Practical unit Symbol

seven derived 'units) ------". -
1. Charge coulomb Q
-_.'._ .."._v _ _ _ ..._ _ _ _
--
1. CGS system of units 2. Current ampere' I
_.......
The most commonly used units in electrical work were eGS units. These 8. Potential difference volt E
..__. - - ----_.__..__ -
..
--
units involve the use ofunit of a fourth quantity in addition to units of mass, . 4·. Resistance ohm R
length and time. Two systems of eGS units are ----
5. Inductance henry L
(i) Electromagnetic Units (e.m, units)
6. Capacitance farad C
(ii) Electrostatic Units (e.s, units) watt P
Electromagnetic Units 8. Energy joule W
Units based on electromagnetic effects are known as electromagnetic units

and the system is known as electromagnetic system of units. This system. Dimensions in Electrostatic system
involves the">u~its of four quantities: permeability (u) of the medium and the In this system the dimension of permittivity E is taken as the fourth
'units of length, class and time. The value of permeability of free space (vacuum) fundamental dimension.
is taken as 'unity in this system.
1. Charge
Electrostatic Units According to coulomb's law, the force exerted between two charges Q1 and
Units based on electrostatic effects are known as electrostatic units and the (J2 is
system is electrostatic system. This system involves the units of four quantities: -,
permittivity (E). of the medium and -the units of length, mass and time. The
value of permittivity of free space is taken as unity in this system.
where d is . the distan.ce between charges'Q1 and Q2.
Absolute units
An abso' ute system of units is defined as a 'system in which the various
'units are all expressed in terms of a small number of fundamental units.
Absolute measurements do not compare the measured quantity with arbitrary.
units of the same type but are made in terms of Fundamental Units, .. Dimension of charge, [Q] = [£1/2 M 1 / 2 L 3 / 2 T- 1]
1.10 Transducer Engineering
Science of Measurements and Instrumentation of ... 1.11
2. Current
E
Current is charge per unit time = dI/dt
[E]
Dimension of inductance [1-] = [1] / [1']
[E] [TJ
=
[1]
3. Potential difference or Emf.
Potontialdifforence is work done per unit charge = [E-
1I 2
M
1I 2
L 112r 1] [1'] = [E- 1 L-1~]
1 2
[£1/2 M / L 3/2 r: 2]
Dimensions in .Electromagnette system
The permeability, Il is the fourth dimension in this system.
1. Pole strength
4. Capacitance
mlm2
Capacitance C = Q Force F = 2
E Ild·
where d is the distance between poles of strengths m1 and m2.

Dimension of capacitance [C] = ~~~
Dimensions of pole strength, [m] = [JJ1I2 M 1I 2 L 3 / 2 T" 1]

5. Resistance
2. Magnetizing force
Resistance II ., E
I Magnetizing force H·is measured by force exerted on a unit pole.
[Il] = [.E:] Dimensions ofmagnetizing force

Dimension of.. resistance
[1]
[H] = [FJ =. [MLr 2]
. [m] [1l 1 / 2 M 1 / 2 L3/2r 1]
=[JJ-1I2M1I2L~ 1I2 r 1]
6. Inductance
8. Current
.Inductance I = , emf.·
..J . •.
rate of change of current The magnetizing force .at the .centre ofa loop ofradius r is
Science of Measurements and Instrumentation of ' ... t. 13
2n· I
H=--
r
[IJ
[H] = [L]
2. M.K.S system (GiQrgi' system)
Dimensions of current [IJ = [H] [[oJ]
The C.Ci.S system suffers from the following disadvantages
(i) There are two, systems of units (e.m.u and e.s,u) for fundamental
4. Charge theoretical work and a third' (practical units) for, practical engineering
work.
Charge == current x time
(ii) 'I'here are two .sets of dimensional equations for the "s'arne quantity.
Dimensions of charge, [Q] = [IJ [TJ
In, ~:.K.S system, metre, kilogramme and second are the three fundamental
=J.l- 1 / 2 M 1 / 2 L 1/2p- 1] [TJ = [Jl- 1 / 2 M 1 / 2 t. 1/2] mechanical units, In order to connect the electrical and mechanical quantities,
a fourth fundamental quantity has to be used. This fourth quantity is' usually
5. Potential difference
permeability. The permeability of free space is taken as 110 = 10- 7. The
Potential difference is work done per unit charge. The dimensions of
potential difference are permeability of J.l of any other .medium is given by f.l = J.lrJ.lo' where ji; is the
relative permeability. Thcpermoability of free space in C.G.S system is unity.
:. M:.K.S 'unit of permeability =10 7 x C.G.S. unit of permeability
6. Capacitance
1. Charge
The dimensions of capacitance are
Th
, e diimensionao
. f charge In
· e.m.u '~, t'em are [J.l - 1/2 M"1 / 2 L 1/2]
, , sys oJ
M,.K.S. unit of length, metre = 100 centimetre
7. Resistance , = 100 x C.G·.S units of length

The dimensions of resistance are
M,.:K.S. 'unit of mass, kilogramme = 100·0 gm.= 1000 x C.G.S~units of mass
.. IE] [p.1/2M3/2 L 1/2 r- 2 ] 1
[Ii] = [IJ. = 1/2 1/2' 1/2' 1 = [Jl L T" ] M:.K,.S 'unit of time, second = C.G.S unit of time, second
[J.l- M L r-]
M:.:K.S u:nit of charge = 10- 1 x C.G.S. e.m unit of charge
8. Inductance
Dimensions of .inductance are = practicalunit.of charge
re] [E] [T] = 1 coulomb
[L} = [1] I[T] = [1]
2. Current 8. Energy
The dimensions of current in e.m. u system are Thedimensions of energy are [ML 2 r: 2]
[Jl- 1 / 2 M 1 / 2 £1/21' 1]
M.K.S unit of energy = 10 7 xC;G.S e.m unit of energy
M:.K.S unit of current = 10- 1 x C.G.S e.m units of current
= practical unit of energy
= practical unit of current = 1 ampere
= 1 joule
3. Potential. difference (EMF)
The dimensions of potential difference are Advantages of M.K.S system" of units are
(i) This system connects the practical units directly, with the fundamental
laws of electricity and magnetism.
M.K.S unit of emf = 108 x C.G.S. e.m unit of emf
(ii) This system gives specified formulae for expressions of
= practical unit of emf = 1 volt electromagnetism involving only practical units.
4. Resistance
Rationalised M.K.S.A system "
~rhe dimensions of resistance are [Jl L1' 1] Tho M.:K.S system in its rationalised form, utilizes four fundamental units.
9 They are metre, kilogram, second and ampere.
M:.:K.S unit of resistance = 10 x C.G.S e.munits of resistance
= practical unit of resistance = 1 ohm ~rable (1.1) shows rationalised M.K.S.Asysteni
5. Inductance
Table· .1.3 Rationalised M.K.S.A system
'I'he dimensions of inductance are [Jl L]
_..... ~.==::=~-
- ;.==
9 No. Quantity Symbol Dimension
M.K.S unit of inductance = 10 x C.G.S e.m units of inductance
.._ ._----
-"
6. Capacitance ent I [l]

- ,_...__ _ ... _- --- ---- __
.......... ....... ... ...... .... ..,.----
IIl- 1 L- 1 r]
...---.--.-~,._._
..- > •
~rhe dimensions of capacitance ·are 2. Charge Q [Tl]

_1' .... ____ ........_ _ _• _ _ •
·
.
~
·
M.K.S unit of "capacitance = 10"79 x C.G.S e.m units of capacitance 3. I~mf E [ML 2 r 3 1- 1 ]
= practical" unit of capacitance = 1 farad .., ........... "'_ .......-.-...--....--._._.. _._-

4. Reslstance R [ML 2 1'3 I-I]
7. Pouier ... _.-
(magnetic) [ML 2 r:? I-I]
~rhe dimensions of power are [AIL 2 l ' 3] .- \
density B [M1'2 I-I]
M:K.S unit of power = 107 X e.G.s e.m units of power _--...........
....
7. MM{4' Z [1]
= practical unit of power = 1 watt
_....,.
- 1.. International standards
No. Quantity Symbol Dimension
2. Primary standards
8. Magnetizin g force H [L- 1 1]
... -- 8. Secondary standards
9. Reluctance If [~ 1 L ~ 2 rf2 [2]
_ --_.
.,-..- .•. -- 4-. Working standards
10. Inductance L [ML 2 r: 2 1- 2 ] 1. International standards
1.1.. Electric flu x \}J [TIJ These standards are those defined and agreed upon internationally, They
----- arc maintained at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures and are
12. Electric flux D [£-2 Tl] not accessible outside for calibration of instruments.
density
..-..--_--_ . .-- _--
....
..-. ....
2. Primary standards
18. Electric field E [ML'T 3 I-I]
These standards are those maintained by national standards laboratories
: strength
--- in different parts of the world and they are also not accessible outside for
11:. Capacitance C [~ 1 1~ - 2 y4 [2] calibration. The primary standards established for the fundamental and some
_.~ .. ',~=J, ..,__.
derived units are independently calibrated by absolute measurements at each
of the national standards laboratories and an average value for the primary
3. 8.1 Units
standard is obtained with the highest accuracy possible. These are. ·used for
An international organizationof which most of the advanced and developing verification and calibration of the secondary standards.
countries, including India are members, called the General Conference of
Secondary standards
Weights and Measures (CGPM).
These standards are usually fixed standards for use in industrial
Tho Eleventh General conference of Weights and. Measures which met in laboratories, where as working standards are for day-to-day use in measurement
October, 1960 recommended a unified systematically constituted, coherent laboratories.
system of fundamental' supplementary and derived units for. international use.
'I'his system, called the International system of Units and designated by the Working standards.
abbreviation, 81, Systems International d Units has been accepted I
Working standards· may be lower in accuracy in comparison to secondary
internationally. standards. The accuracy of secondary standards is maintained by periodic
comparison with the primary standards, where as working standards may be
1.3.4 Standards checked against secondary standards.
Standards of mass, length and such other physical quantities are physical 1.4 CALIBRATION
devices ,and systems representing the fundamental unit of the particular
Calibration is an essential process to be undertaken for each instrument
quantity.
and measuring system frequently. A reference standard atleast ten times more
Standards have been developed for all the fundamental units as well as accurate than the instrument under test is normally used. Calibration is the
some of the derived- mechanical and electrical units. They arc classifie-d-as process where. the test instru:dLent (the instrument to he calibrated) is compased
follows: with the standard instrument. It consists of .reading the standard and test
l.18 . Transducer Eng')ineering Science of Measurements and Instrumentation of ...
1.19
instruments simultaneously when the input quantity is held constant at several • In general, static calibration refers to a situation in which all inputs
values over the range of the test instrument. The calibration is better carried except one are kept at some constant values.
out under the stipulated environme~tal conditions. All industrial grade • Then the one input under study is varied over some range of constant
instruments can be checked for accuracy in the laboratory by using the working values, which causes the outputs to vary over some range of constant
standards. values.
Generally, certification of an instrument' manufactured by ,an industry is • The input-output relations developed 'in this way comprise a static
'undertaken by the National Physical Laboratory and. other authorized calibration valid under ,the stated' constant conditions of all the other
laboratories where the secondary standards and the working standards are kept. inputs,
• This procedure may be repeated, by varying in turn each input
1.4.1 Generalized ' performance characteristics of Instruments considered to be' of interest and thus developing a family of static
input-output relations.
The .instrument performance characteristics are generally brokendown in
to two areas 1.4.3 Procedure for calibration
(i) Static characteristics 1. Exarninc th.e construction of the instrument, and identify and list all
the' possible inputs,
(ii) Dynamic characteristics
2. Decide, which of the inputs will be significant in the application for
(i) Static characteristics which the instrument is to be calibrated.
• Some applications involve the measurement of quantities that are a. Select the apparatus that will allow you to vary all the significant
constant or vary only slowly. inputs over 'the ranges considered necessary. Select standards to
measure each inpu.t.
• Under these conditions, it is, possible to define a set of performance
criteria that give a meaningful description of the quality of 1:. IJy holding 'some inputs constant, varying others and recording the
:measurement. So "Static characteristics are a set of performance outputs develop the desired static input-output relations.
criteria that give a meaningful description of the quality of
measurement while the measured quantities are either constant or 1.5 ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT
vary slowly. A measurement can not be made without errors. These errors can only be
minimized but not eliminated completely. It is important to find out the accuracy
(ii) Dynamic characteristics
of measurement and how different errors have entered in to the measurement.
• Dynamic characteristics describe the quality of measurement when the
Before that it is essential to know the different errors that can possibly enter
measured quantities are rapidly varying quantities. in to the measurement.
Let us study in detail about the characteristics in the Unit II.
1.5.1 Classification of errors
1.4.2 Static calibration 1. Gross errors
The static performance characteristics are obtained by one form or another 2. Systematic errors
of the process ofstatic calibration. 8. Random errors
Science of Measurements and Instrumentation of ... 1..21
1. Gross errors
V 20
This type of errors mainly covers human mistakes in reading the RA
.c1
=-=-=
I 2 10 kQ
instruments (misreading the instruments) making adjustments (incorrect
adjustments) and application of instruments (improper application). The. (b) Voltmeter resistance'
computational errors are also grouped under this type of error. l~V = 2000 x 40 = 80 k Q
'The human being may grossly misread the scale. For eg., due to an
oversight, he may read the temperature as 31.5°C while the actual reading may Since ,the voltmeter is connected in parallel with the unkriown resistor,
be 21.5°(~.He may transpose the reading while recording. For eg., he may read
25.8°(~ and record 28.5°C.
When 'human beings are involved in measurement, gross errors may be

committed. Although complete elimination of gross errors is probably impossible, where llx is the unknown resistance value
one should try to anticipate and correct them.
One common gross error frequently encountered involves the improper
selection of the instrument. When a voltmeter is used to measure the potential
.difference across two points 'in a circuit, the input impedance of the voltmeter
10 X 10 3 X 80x 10 3
chosen should be atleast 10 times greater than the output impedance of the = 3 =11.43kQ
measuring circuit. As the output impedance of a circuit is normally not known 10 [80- 10]
before hand, the selection of the voltmeter may not be made correctly, leading
to a gross error, The error caused by the improper .selection of a voltmeter is o/'Apparent - Actual
(c) 10 error = . A· 1 x 100
shown by the following example. ctua
10-11.43 "
Example 1.1: = 11.4.3' x 100' = ~ 12.5%
A voltmeter reads 20 V in its 40 V scale when connected across an unknown
resistor as shown in fig (1.4). The resistance of the voltmeter coil is 2000 This error is due to the appreciable current' drawn by the voltmeter which
is known asIoading effect.
ohms/volt. If the milliammeter reads 2 rnA, calculate (a) apparent value of the
'unknown resistor (b) actual value of the unknown resistor (c) gross error. Gross errors may be avoided by two means. They are
Solution 1. Great care should be .taken in reading and recording the data.
(a) Apparent value of'resistance 2. ~'I'wo, there or even more readings should be taken for the quantity
Rx under measurement.
2. Systematic errors
Systematic ," errors are due to 'shortcomings of the instrumehtand changes
Fig. 1.4 Example (1.1)
in external conditions affecting the measurement. These type of errors are
divided in to three' categories:
(i) Instrumental errors (iii) Observational errors

The observational error may be caused due to parallax..For eg., the pointer
(ii) Environmental errors
of a voltmeter rests slightly above the. surface of the scale. Thus an error on
(iii) Observational errors account of parallax willoccur unless the line of vision of the observer is exactly
above the pointer. This may be minimized by mirrored scales in the meters.
(i) Instrumental errors
These errors arise due to the following: s. Random (Residual) errors
(a) Due to inherent shortcomings of the instrument. Random errors are unpredictable errors and occur even when all systematic
errors arc accou.nted for, although the instrument is used under controlled
(b) Due to misuse of the instruments and environment and accurately pre-calibrated. before measurement. 'Over a period
of observation, the readings may vary slightly. The happenings or disturbances
(c) Due to loading effects of instruments.
about which we are unaware are lumped together and called "Random" or
(a) Inherent shortcomings of instruments "Residual". .Hence the errors caused bythesehappenings are called Random (or
These errors are inherent in instruments because of their mechanical Rosidual) errors.
structure. They may be due to construction, calibration or operation of the
instruments or measuring devices. 4. Limitrng errors (Guarantee errors)
(b) Misuse of instruments In most instruments tho accuracy is guaranteed to be with in certain
. percentage of full scale reading. The manufacturer has to specify the deviations
()ften, the errors caused in measurements are due to the fault of the
from the nominal value of a particular quantity.
operator than that of the instrument. A good instrument misused may cause
errors. There are some ill practices like using the instrument contrary to The limits of these deviations from the specified value are defined as
m.anufacturer's instructions and specifications which in addition to producing limiting errors or Guarantee errors. In general,
errors .cause permanent damage to the instruments as a result of overloading
Actual value of quantity,
an.d overheating.
(c) Loading effects

Errors occur when we use the instrument in an improper manner. For eg., where, Qs - nominal value of quantity
a well calibrated voltmeter may give incorrect reading when connected across a
high resistance circuit. The same voltmeter, when connected in a low resistance For cg., the nominal magnitude of resistor is 10 Q with a limiting error of
circuit, may give correct .readingvThis is due to the loading effect of voltmeter.' i 1. ~~. The magnitude of the resistance will be between the limits:
Qa = lO± lQ or
(Ii) Environmental errors I
Environmental errors are due to changes in the environmental conditions 'Q~ ~ 9Qand
. suchas temperature; humidity, pressure, electrostatic and magnetic fields. For
eg., the resistance of a strain gauge changes with variation in temperature.
• 1']1.e manufacturer guarantees that the value of resistance of the 2. Deoiation

resistor lies 'between 9 Q and 11 Q. Deviation is departure of tho observed reading from the arith:metic mean
of the group of readin.gs. Let the deviation of reading xl be d 1 and that of reading
1.5.2 Erroranalysis x2 'be d 2 , etc.
'rho analysis of the measurement data is necessary to obtain the probable
true value of the measured quantity. Any measurement is associated with a Then
certain amou.nt of uncertainty. The best method of analysis is the s~atistical
method.F'or the statistical analysis, a large number of measurements is
required. Also the systematic errors should be small compared with random
errors. When te:mperature of liquid in a tank is to be measured, 1.0 readings are
taken over a period of time by means of a thermocouple. Each of these 10
readings m.ay be different from the others. We can not find which reading is
correct. Here the statistical methods will give the most probable true value of
temperature. For statistical methods the terms like arithmetic mean, deviation,
mode & median arc to be determined.
1. Arithmetic mean
Average deviation is defined as the average of the modulus of the individual
Thc jnost probable value of measured variable is the arithmetic mean of
deviations and is given by
the number of readings taken. The best approximation is made when the number
of readings of the same quantity are very large. Theoretically, an infinite number
of readings would give the best result. But practically, only a finite number of
Id11 + Id2 1-
1) -= - - - - -
+ ... + Idnl
----
n
measurements can be m.ade.
Tho arithmetic :mean is given by

n
+ X2 + X3 + X4 + ... + X n
-:- xl
X=----------n n
n
a :.-: : 1
Xa =---.-----
n
a> 1
n
:-1. Standard deviation
x -) arit.hmetic mean Another term in the statistical analysis of. random. errors in tho standard
Xl' X2' ... X n -) readings or variates or samples. deviati~n or the root mean square deviation. The standard deviation of an
infinite number of data :is defined as the. square root of the sum o( individual
n -) number of readings deviations squared, divided by the number of readings.
Transducer Engineering
1.26 Science/of Measurements and Instrumentation of ... 1'.27
Standard deviation, 6. Mc)de

Mode is the value which occurs most frequently in a set of observations
and around which other items of the set cluster.
n
For example, the frequency distribution of a set of 100 obs<;rvations is given
below .
a=l
= n
Temperature readings in °C 30 \ 31 32 33 34: 35 36 87
4. Variance No. of readings 15 22 7

Variance is another term which is sometimes used in statistical analysis.
This is the square of the standard deviation and is given by The value of, temperature reading 33 has occurred 25 times (maximum).
'J /
2 2 'd2 Henco :mode is 33°(~. '

,. 2 d 1 + d 2 + ... + n
V = cr = - - - - - - -
n
\
n 1.5.2.1 Statistical methods of error analysis

L d a2
a=l
1. Probability of errors
= for n » 20
n By the nature of the :andom errors, the uncertainty associated with any
n moasuroment cannot be predetermined. Only the probable error can be specified
d a2 using statistical error analysis. The following are some of the statistical methods
L of analysing the errors.
a > 1
= for n s 20
n-l
(i) Normal distributionof errors
5. Median
Median is also 'used to indicate the most probable value of the measured Histogram
quantity when a set of readings are taken. When the readings arc arranged in When a number of multi sample observations are taken experimentally
the ascending or descending order of magnitude, the middle value of the set is there is a scatter of the data about some central value. One method of presenting
taken as the median. For example, the temperature of a bath is noted by ten test "res'ults is in the form of a "Histogram". 'The technique is illustrated in
observers as follows: fig.(1.5) representing the data given in table (1,.4). This table (1.4) shows a set
75.5°(;, 73.7°(~, 77.5°(;, 75.7°C, 74.8°C, 77.0°C, 75.9°C, 75.3°C, 73.9°C, 77.5°C. of fifty readings 'of a length measurement. The most probable or central value
It is rearranged in ascending order as follows: of length is. ~O mm.
73.7°C, 78.9°C, 74·.8°C, 75.8°C, 75.5°C" 75.7°C, 75.9°C, 77.0°C, 77.5°C
Now the median is the 75.5°C
Science .ot Measurements and Instrumentation of ... 1.29
1.28 TransducerEngi~eerina
. h .. 2 2
Table 1.4 Y= ..fit exp (- h x )
Length (mm) Number of readings where,

89.7 1 x '-) magnitude of deviation from' mean
89.8 3 y ~.,
number of readings at any deviation x (the probability of occurrence
• .J,~
of deviation x)
89.9 10
II-·_·_··__..···_
..·_..··_······_~ ..····.._.._···· ..•__ ..., ......_- •. _ . _....._ ...- - - - . - - - - - . - - - . -..- ..- - h -) a constant called precision index
90.0 19
Fig. (1.6) shows. the Normal probability C'urve
90.1 1.2
90.2 4·
_._._. __..
.._..--.. -.~_ ,_......•-."
.. _ _....
.. . __ _ _._
.. __ _---.--_ ..
.._....•..•-_ .. .. __ ._- .
90.8 1
Total number of readings = 50
Fig (1.5) shows the histogram which represents these data where the Ftg.. 1.6 Norma,1 probability curve
ordinate indicates the number of observed readings (frequency of occurrence) of
(iii) Pi-aba'bie error
a particular value. The histogram. is also called a "frequency distribution curve".
111.e most probable or best value of a Gaussian distribution is obtained by
19
taking arithmetic mean of the various values of the variate. The confidence in
No. of the best value (most probable value) is connected with the sharpness of the
observed
readings distribution curve.
89.7 89.8 89.9 90.0 90.1 90.2 90.3

1.6 ODDS AND U·NCERTA-fNTV
Length(mm)
1.6.1 Specifying Odds
. , if
Fig. 1.5 Histogram The probability of occurrence can be stated in terms .of Odds. Odds is the
number of chances that a particular reading willoccur when the error limit is
(ii) Normalor Gaussian curve of Errors specified. Forexample, if the error limits are specified as± 0.6745 0", the chances
'I'ho normal or Gaussian law of errors is the basis for the major part of ure that 50% of the observations will lie between the above limits or in other
study of random errors. words we can say that odds are 1 to 1.
The law of probability states the normal occurrence of deviations from The odds can' be .calculated by the following' formula,
average value of an infinite number of measurements or observations can be
expressed by: ility O'f .occurence
I..:>ro b a bili . .=. d'odds
ds 1
o s +.
Tho table (1.5) shows the corresponding values of Deviation and probability. x = the va!ue ifo~y one reading is avai~able on
. the arithmetic mean of several readings
Probability (0/0) Deviation d Odds W= uncertainty interval
50.0 ± 0.6745 (J 1. to 1
..............• __ __._ .. I-.. _.~- .•- - - _ . _ - - - -••- .- - - - - - - - - - - - .- ----.-----
b = odds or the chance that the true val~e. lies with in .
68.8 ±a 2.15 to 1 the stated range, based upon-the opinion of the experimenter
--.---------------l-------.--------
1~"Qr example, the results of a temperature measurement may be expressed
95.1· ±2 (J 21. to 1.
...... _---_ _.._-_ ---_._..- ._--_._------------ - - - - - - - _ . _ - - - - _.._.- as 0 = 9'OO(~ ± :1 O(~ .
99.7 ±3a 256 to i
This rneans that there is an uncertainty of ± 1.°C in the result. Kline and
Mc(~lintock proposed that the experimenter specify certain odds for the
1.6.2 Uncertainty uncertainty.
Uncertainty is ex~res~ive of the rangeJ.. o~ V~ria~t."i.,~

.i.f._t.:he. indica~d .valu.e So, 0 == 900(~ ± 16(~ (20, to 1)
from the true value. It indicates the probable-limits .:. ,hlch the indicated
""'.'
value may 'have due to the influence of disturbi~-~inputs. It is bipolar where as 'rho experimenter is willing to bet 20 to 1 odds that the temperature
error maybe positive or negative depending on whether the indicated value is measurement which he has made are with in ± 19 C of '90°C
higher or lower than the true value. Statement of uncertainty signifies the
quality of the measuring instrument and hence its accuracy, it is incumbent on (Ii) Propagation of 'Uncertainties
the part of every instrumentation engineer to express the uncertainty attendant 'I'hc uncertaintyanalysis in measurements when many variates are involved
on each measured value. is done on the same basis as' is done for error analysis when the results are
expressed as standard deviations or probable errors.
(i) Uncertainty Analysis Suppose X is a function of several variables,
Many times the data available is a single sample data and therefore the
statistical methods discussed earlier cannot be applied directly.
whore Xl' x2,X3 .... X n .-) independent variables with the same degree of odds.
Hence, Kline and Mcfllintock have proposed a method based upon
probability an.d statistics which analyses the data employing uncertainty The "uncertainty in the result is
distribution rather than frequency distribution.
'Kline and MC(~lintock suggest that a single sample result may be expressed
in terms of a 'mean value and an uncertainty interval based upon stated odds.
The result may be written as follows:

where, Wx = resultant uncertainty
x=x± W (b to 1.)
wXl' wX wx W xn-) uncertainties in the independent variables
2' a ···
where Xl' X2' x3 ... x n respectively.
1.32 Transducer .Engineering Scienc~. Qfl\l19a~urements and Instrumentation of eo' 1.,33
1.7 SENSORS AND TRANSDUCERS· 1.7.1 Classification of transducers

The transducers may be classified based on
Instrument Society of America defines a sensor or transducer as a device
which provides a usable output in response to a specified measurand. Here the 1. The physical effect employed
measured is a physical quantity and the output may be an electrical quantity,
2. The physical quantity measured
mechanical and- optical.
8. 'rhe source 'of energy
(i) Sensor
~.n.
element that senses a variation in input energy to produce a variation 1. Classification based on physical effect
in another or same form of energy is called a sensor. The physical iquarrtity applied as measurand (quantity to be measured) to
the transducer causes some physical changes in its element. By this physical
(Ii) Transducer effect the transducer converts the physical quantity in to electrical quantity. For
'I'ransducer converts a specified measurand into usable output using example, a change in' temperature to be measured causes variation of-resistance
transduction principle. For example, a properly cut piezoelectric crystal can be (physical change) in a copper wire (element) 'and 'this 'effect could, be used ·to
called a sensor where a..s it becomes a transducer with appropriate electrodes convert temperature in to anelectricaloutput,
and input/output mechanisms attached to it. So. the sensor is the ·primary The physical effects commonly employed are
element of a transducer.
(a) Variation of resistance
Table (1.6) shows the energy types and corresponding measurands.
(b) Variation. of inductance
Table 1.6 Energy types and corresponding measurands (c) Variation of capacitance
Enorgy Measurands (d) Piezo electric effect

Mechanical Length, area, volume, force, pressure, acceleration, torque,
(e) Magnetostrictive effect
mass flow, acoustic intensity and so on.
Thermal Temperature, heat flow, entropy, state of matter.
CD Elastic effect
--_.. ,-_.. ".__.. . _-_..-..-_..
_-~_._ . . -._.. . - - - - - - - - - - ' - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - f 1
~ _-~.
Electrical . Charge, current, voltage, resistance, inductance, capacitance, (g) IIal1 effect
dielectric constant, polarization, frequency, electric field, dipole (a) Variation. of resistance
moment, and so on.
...............- __ _ _ "._. __ ._-_._----_._-~--_ _-----------_ _--_._-_._-------
.. Thcresistanco of a length of metallic wire isgiven by
Magnetic Field intensity, flux density, permeability, magnetic moment,
and so on. R= pi
·..··..·_····....·-··_····_···_·--·-f·_·---····_-_···_·__·-..- - - - - . _ -..- . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - . - - - - - - - - - 8 a
Radiant Intensity, phase, refractive index, reflectance, transmittance,
absorbance, wavelength, polarization, and so on. where,
11-··--···_..··..···..· ..·..· ..·_ ..·····..__·_··..·_·..· .__. --.--.--..- - - - - - - - - - ' - - - - - - - - - - - - - -•.- - - ...-.-. -------1
Chemical Concentration, composition, oxidation/reduction potential,' .ll -) Resistanco in. ohm.
le~O,"~=~~"~="=,~=:eactionrate, pH an~ the like. .P -) Resistivity (or specific resistance) of the material in ohm-me
I -) length of wire in m. A --) area of cross section of the core
I ~ length of magnetic path

a ~) Area ofcross-section in m 2
As resistance is a function of p, l, a (i.e) Ii ;. f(p, l, a}, with any change in d<b --) rate 0"f ch ange
-" nee of . "fl ux.
o· magnetic
dt
anyone of the physical quantities p, a or 1 due to variation in resistance, a
variable resistance transducer can be designed to convert physical quantity. As L is a function, of N, Jl r , A, I,
Some of the transducers based on this principle are potentiometer, strain (i.e) L = I"(N, Jl r , A, I), when anyone of these quantities changes, the
gauge, resistance thermometer, carbon microphone, and photoconductive cell. inductance changes. This leads to the design of a variable inductance transducer.
• The resistance thermometer is based upon thermo resistive effect which Some of the transducers based on variation of inductance are induction
is the change in electrical resistivity of a metal or semiconductor due potentiometer, linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) andsynchros.
to change in temperature co-efficient of resistivity.
(c) Variation of capacitance
• Carbon microphone works on the principle of change in contact The capacitance between two conductor plates is given by
resistance due to applied pressure.
Eo E~A
• Photoconductive cell is based on photoconductive effect which is the (J=-d--
change in electrical conductivity due, to incident light.
• Potentiometer works on the principle of change in resistance due to (J --) capacitance in farad
linear or rotational motion. Eo ~ absolute permittivity
• Strain gauge works on the principle of change in resistance due to
Er ---) relative permittivity of the separating medium
applied pressure.
(b) Variation of inductance A ---) area of cross-section of the .plates
The inductance of a coil is given by As (J is a function of Er , A, d (i.e) C = f (cr , A, d), when anyone of these
quantities changes, the capacitance varies. This leads to the. design of a variable
ca pacitance transducer.
(d) Piezoelectric effect

= e
When a piezoelectric crystal like quartz or Rochelle salt is subjected to
mechanical stress, an electric charge is generated. This is known as piezoelectric
where, 1~ -) 'inductance in henry effect. The transducer based on this effect is piezoelectric transducer.
N -)No., of turns (e) Magnetostrictive· effect

When a magnetic material is subjected to mechanical stress, its
~l() ~ absolute permeability
permeability changes. This effect is magnetostrictive effect and the transducer
~lr~) relative permeability based on this effect ismagnetostrictive transducer.
1.36 Transducer Enqineerlnq
Scionceof Measurements and Instrumentation of ... 1.37
(f) Elastic effect

one which absorbs energy from the input medium and converts it directly into
When an elastic member is subjected to mechanical stress it is deformed. the output signal.
Tho transducer based on this effect is called elastic transducer.
Example
(g) Hall effect A Thermocouple extracts heat energy from the input medium and converts
When a magnetic field is applied to a current carrying conductor at right it into electrical energy (voltage).
an.gles to the direction of current, a transverse electric potential gradient is tu) Active Transducer
developed in the conductor. This effect is called as Hall effect and the transducer
An active transducer has an auxiliary source of power which supplies a
based on. this effect is called as Hall effect tr~nsducer. '
major part of the output power while the input signal supplies only an
insignificant portion (i.o) this transducer uses the e~~rgy it absorbs from the
2. Classification based on physical quantity measured
input medium as a control signal to transfer energy from the power supply to
'I'ho transducers may 'be classified based on the physical quantity they produce a proportion.al output.
measure 'as follows:
f4:xamplc
• Temperature transducers ~ Transducers used to measure temperature
strain gauge
• Pressure transdu.cers ~ To measure pressure
The energy extracted from ," thestrained member is very small. The energy
• Flow transducers ~ 'I'o measure flow
for the outputsignal is supplied "by an external power source.
• Liquid level transducers ~ 'I'orneasure liquid level
• Force/Torque transducers ~ To measure force & Torque Selection of Transducers
• Velocity/Speed transducers ~ To m~asure velocity & speed i/p ,to be .1 •passive ·1 ~ o/p
----+,
measured ,Transducer, .
• Humidity transducers ~ To measure humidity _ ,." J-
• Acceleration/vibration transducers ~ To measure acceleration &

vibration
• Displacement transducers ~Tomeasure displacement Input to be Measured
~ -+
measured olltput
3. Classification based on source of energy Fig. 1.7 Actlve and pas$ive transducers'
Transducers may be, classified based on source of energy into two types. Transducers are used for the measurement of physical quantities. The
• Active transducer selection of transducers for particular measurand is very important.. The
•
selection of transducers may be based on the following factors for effective
• Passive transducer
measurement.
(i) Passive transducer
1.. The physical quantity to be measured (measurand),
A component whose output energy is supplied entirely or almost entirely
by its input signal is called a passive transducer. A pea.ivo transducer is the
2. Therange of inputquantity,
1.38 Science of Measurements and Instrumentation of ... 1.39
-_....
1. Based on physical quantity to be measured

SI.No.
- .......,_ ....
.._~!!~.si~a1.9~~!!ty ---.--_·_·_-··~··Tr;~~d;ce~s
-"''-
"- --'--_. ....__

~--~-~--'-._-
..__ _.-..- __ av;ii;-bl;----..·--·. .·'.'--.'-"-"-

4:. Torque Torsion bar - - - - - .- _ __ ,.___...-.__ ...
_.~ ... ... ~
__ _._ _-
The correct type of transducer should'be selected for measuring the physical
quantity. The following table (1.7) shows the physical quantity and the Flat spiral springs
corresponding transducer types available. Dynamometer
~rable 1.7 Transducer types Gyroscope
__
•.. ...._.._.--•....•. __
_-----_..._._--_ ... ._-~ .._ -.-..--' 5. Density of liquids Hydrometer
_" . ......... . _.~~~~!~~!. q~~ntit~__
SI.No. Transducers available
.~. ..... .
,_ ' -
Air bubbler system

1. Temperature Bimetallic element
U-tube weighing system
Fluid expansion systems
6. ~'loat elements.
(i) Liquid-in-steel bulb thermometers
Manometer system
(ii) Liquid-in-glass thermometers
Diaphragms
(iii) Vapour pre-ssure thermometers
Container weight
Thermoresistive elements
7. Viscosity Capillary tube
(i) Resistance Temperature detector (RTD)
Concentric cylinder system
(ii) Thermistor
8. Flow rate of fluids Pitot static tube
Thermocouple
Flow-obstruction elements
Linear-Quartz thermometer
Rotating vane system
Pyrometry
2.. Rotameter float system
Pressure lJ-tube and ball type manometers
9. Displacement Flapper nozzle system
Ring balance manometer
1.0. Absolute Seismic system
Metallic·· diaphragms
displacement,
Capsules and bellows I
velocity
Bourdon tubes and acceleration
Membranes 11.' Vehicle attitude Gyroscope
___.._r... _ ..4_·_>60_U·__ '...-....-~ .... _ - . . ................_ _
.~. __......--. _." __.,,.__.•.._. __ .._...._...'_ .••,
~ •_ _....,. __....
__ .._......_.._:.•.."........__ ,_
..
_._~:.
8. Force (weight) Spring 'balance

Cantilever
Diaphragms
Pneumatic and hydraulic load cells
Column and proving ring load cells
Science of Measurements' and Instrumentation of ... 1.41
8. Define environmental error.

Environmental errors, .arc due to conditions in the measuring device,
including conditions in the area surrounding the instrument, such as the effects
1.. What is Irrstr-ument?
of cha.nges in temperature, humidity.
Instrument is a device for determining the value or magnitude of a quantity
or variable. 9. Define arithmetic mean.
The best approximation method will 'be madewhen the number of readings
2. Add 826 ± 5 to 628 ± 3
would give the best result,
N 1 =826 ± 5 (= ± 0.605%)
N 2 = 628 ± 8 (=± 0.477%)

x == _X_l_+_X_2_+_X_3_+_'._._x_n
n
Su:m = 1.1,54 ± 8 ( = ± 0.55%) LX
n
3. Subtract 628 ± 3 from 826 ± 5
N 1 = 826 ± 5 ( = ± 0.605) .where,
N 2 = 628 ± 5 ( = ± 0~477%) x Arithmetic mean

Readings taken
Difference =~ 198 ± 8 ( = ± 1:.04%)
n Number, of readings
4. List three sources of possible, errors in instruments.
Gross, systematic and random errors are produced in instruments. 10. Define average deviation.
5. Define Instr'umenral error. / , . " l·d11+ I d 2 1 + Id3 '1 + ... + I d n I
Average deviation D = . n , ' >
.
Those are the errors inherent in 'measuring instrument because of their
mechanical structure. It is 'usually divided into,
=
L Idl
(a) Instrumental errors
(b) Environmental errors 13y definit.ion,average deviation is the sum of absolute values of the value
deviations di.vided 'by the number of readings.
6. Define limiting error.
Components are guaranteed to be within a certain percentage of rated value. 11. 'I)efine upits~
Thus the manufacturer has to specify the deviations from tho nominal value of It is necessary to, define a physical quantity both in kind and magnitude
a particular quantity. in order, to 'use this inform-ation for, further proceedings. The standard measure
of each kind of physical quantity is named as the unit,
7. Define probable error. • '. I
Probable error is defined as r = ± O.675t1 o where (J i. ltandard deviation. 12. Define standards.
The physical embodiment of a unit of' measurement is a standard, For
Probable error has been used in experimental work to Hmo extent in past,
example, the'fundame,ntal unit of. mass in the International System i's' the
but standard deviation is more convenient in statistical werk,
Transducer Engineering Characteristics of Transducers 2.1
1.42
kilogram and defined as the mass of a cubic decimeter of water at, its
ternporature of maximum density of 4·0(~.
13. Mention the purposes of the measurement. UNIT II

Moasurement is used,
• 'I'o u.nderstand an event or an operation. Characteristics of Transducers

• 1'0 monitor an event, or an operation.
• 'flo control an event or an operation.
• 'I'o collect data for future analysis. 2.1 INTRODUCTION
• To validate an engineer design. • The .selection of most suitable transducer from commercially available
14. What are the methods of measurement? instruments is very important in designing an Instrumentation system.
The methods of measurement are, • For the proper selection of transducer, knowledge of the performance
characteristics ·of them are essential.
• Direct comparison method
• The performance characteristics can be classified into two namely
• Indirect ~~parison method
(i) Static characteristics
15. Classify standaras
Standards are classified as, (ii) Dynamic characteristics
• International standards • Static characteristics are a set of performance criteria that give a
meaningful description of the quality of measurement without
• Primary standards
becoming concerned with dynamic descriptions involving differential
• Secondary standards
equations.
• Working standards
• Dynamic characteristics describe the quality of measurement when the
measured quantities vary rapidly with time. Here the dynamic
relations between the instrument input and output must be examined,
generally by the use of differential equations.
2.2. STATIC CHARACTERISTICS AND STATIC CALIBRATION

• The most important static characteristics of a transducer are
1. Static sensitivity
2. Linearity
8. Precision / Accuracy
4·. }{esoIution
Transducer Engineering Characteristics. of Transducers 2.3
2.2
5. Hysteresis • If the curve is a straight line for a linear instrument, the sensitivity
will vary with the input value, as shown in fig. (2.1) a.
6. Range and span •. If the curve is not a straight line for a non-linear instrument, the
7. Input impedance and loading effect. sensitivity will vary with the input value, as shown in fig. (2.1) b.
.Hence the sensitivity should-be taken depending on the operating point.
Staticcalibr'ation • The sensitivity is expressed in output unit / input unit.

2.2.1
• All these static characteristics are obtained by one form or another of Zero and Sensitivity drift
the process of static calibration. • When the sensitivity of instrument to' its desired input .is concerned,
• In general, static calibration refers to a situation in which all inputs its sensitivity to interfering and/or modifying inputs is also to be
except the desired one are kept at some constant values. .considered.
The desired input is varied over some range in steps and the output • For example, consider temperature as an input to the pressure gauge.
•
values are noted. • Temperature can cause a relative expansion and contraction that will
The input - output relationship thus developed is called the static result in' a change in output reading eveJ? though the pressure has not
•
calibration valid under the stated constant conditions of all the other changed. Here, the temperature is. an .interfering input. This effect is
inputs. called a zero drift.
• Also, temperature can alter the modulus 6felasticity of the'
2.2.2 Static sensitivity pressure-gauge spring, thereby affecting the pressure sensitivity. Here,
it is a" modifyin.g input. This effect is a' sensitivity drift or scale-factor
• Static sensitivity of a transducer can be defined as the slope of the drift.
static calibrationcurve.
Linear instrument NonlinearinstrumeDt
Output, tlo Output

Output. q, o At 'off- design
o
........ -r- angular
........
0, I rotation tetllRCtature
o
•.•. AQo I
. Sensitivity = Aqi 1
-----------,
-- ---
o Sensitivity
~.::.:=----t
drift
o
At nominal design
o
o temperature
--------------------~---- Totalerror
due to temperature
Input, qi In put pressure
(a) (b) Fig. 2.1 (c) Zero and sensitivity drift
Fig. 2.1 (a) & (b) Definition of ••nattlvtty
2.4 Transducer Enqineennq Charactetistics of Transducers 2.5
• Fig. 2.1 (c) shows the zero and sensitivity drift. The best-fit straight line is mathematically determined by evaluating the
deviation of the response curve from the straight line at a number of calibration
.. I1Qo
• S ensitivity =~ points and choosing the one that gives the minimum of the sum of the squares
oQi
of the deviations.
where,
• This procedure is described as least squares fit.
~Qo = change in output quantity
2.2.4 rJlethod of least squares
Sq, = change in input quantity
• Assume that the input to a transducer 'x' is varied over its full range
and output 'y' is measured.
2.2.3 Linearity
• Let the total number of measurements be n.
• The calibration curve of a transducer may not be linear in many cases.
• The linearised relation between x and y can be expressed as
• If it is so, the transducer may still be highly accurate.
y = ax+ b ... (2.2)
• However, linear behaviour is most desirable in many applications.
where
• The conversion from a scale reading to the corresponding measured
value of input quantity is most convenient if it is to be multiplied by a&b .~ constants
a fixed constant rather than looking into a calibration chart or a graph.
• The constants 'a' and 'b' are determined using least-square fit.
• Linearity is a measure of the maximum deviation of the plotted • The deviation of the i th . reading from the straight .line sp~~ifiedby
transducer response from a specified straight line. y = ax + b =:;= Yi - tax, + b) ... (2.3)
• To select a straight line for a plotted calibration curve there are a
• Sum of the squares of the derivation
number of ways. Some of them are
n .. ~ (2.4)
1. The straight line connecting the calibration point at zero input to that
at full-scale input.
s= L
i=I
2. The straight line may be drawn through as many calibration points as
• Swould be minimised by setting the following derivatives equal to
possible.
zero.
3. The straight line may be determined by the least squares fit method
·n •.. (2.5)-
mathematically. The input-output relationship of a transducer is as 2
generally given by the equation aa =0= L tbx,t + ax;~w~
- x· v )
i=1
y = ao + alx + a~2,+ a3x3 + .... + anx n ... (2.1) n ... (2.6)
as_ O _ ~
where x ~ input quantity ab - -. L.J
i=1
.Y ~ output quantity
• Solving the above two equations, we get
ao, ai' ... an ~ calibration factors,
2.6 Transducer Engineering Characteristics of Transducers 2.7
/ .
..'{ (2.7) • For transducers which are considered linear, the specification of
linearity is the specification of overall accuracy.
• Hence if only linearity specification is given by the manufacturer it
... (2.8)
may be taken as the accuracy specification.
2.2.5 Accuracy,
• This method of least squares can also be used for determining higher
• It is the 'closeness with which an instrument reading approaches the
- order polynomial, for a data set.
true value of the quantity being measured.
• Linearity can be expressed as a percentage of the actual reading or a
• Thusaccuracy of a measurement means conformity to truth.
percentage of full-scale reading or a combination of both.
• The accuracy may be specified in terms of inaccuracy or limits of error.
• Tho most realistic method of expressing linearity is the combination of
both actual and full scale reading" which is known, as the independent • The accuracy can be expressed in the following ways.
linearity.
1. Point accuracy
• Independent linearity = ± A % of reading
or ± 13 % of full-scale, • This is the accuracy of the instrument only at one point on its scale.
whichever is greater. • The specification of this accuracy does not give any information about
the accuracy at other points on the scale. In ,other words, this accuracy
• The specification of independeritlinearity is illustrated in fig. (2.2). does not give any information about the general accuracy of the
• In com:mercial transducers, linearity is specified as the percentage of instrument..
full-scale reading only.
2. Accuracy as 'percentage of scale range'
Output • When an instrument has uniform scale, its accuracy may' be expressed
in terms of scale range.
• ,For example, the accuracy of a thermometer having a range of 500o.C
may be expressed as ±0.5 percent of scale range.
• This, means that the accuracy ,of the thermometer when the reading is
500°C is ±O.5 percent,
3. Accuracy as 'percentage of true value'

~------------';"""-'~---------'lnput
Fig. 2.2 Linearity specification • 'The .best way 'to express the accuracy is to specify it in terms of the
true value of the quantity being measured i.e., within ± 0.5 percent of
• In such cases, the transducer gives more accurate result only for true value.
readings above 50% of the full-scale value. • This: statement means that the errors, are smaller as the readings 'get
smaller.
• Thus at 5% of full scale the accuracy of the instrument would be 20% • . I.n 2ao there are three significant figures while in 230.0 Vi there are
better than that of an instrument which is accurate to + 0.5% of scale four.
range. • The latter, with more significant figures, expresses a measurement of
greater precision than the former.
2.2.6 Precision
2.2.8 Hysteresis
• It is a measure of the reproducibility of the measurements.
• Hysteresis is a phenomenon which depicts different output effects when
• precision is the degree of closeness with which a given value may be
loading and unloading ·whether it is a mechanical system or an
repeatedly measured.
electrical system.
• When a transducer is used to measure the same input at differ-ent
• Hysteresis is non-coincidence of loading and unloading curves.
instances, the output may not be same.
• When the input to a transducer which is initially at rest is increased
• The deviation from the nominal output in absolute units or a fraction from zero to full-scale and .then decreased back to zero, there may be
of full-scale is called th precision error or repeatability error. two output values for the same input (see fig. 2.3 (a))
• The term 'precise' means clearly or sharply defined. • This mismatching of the input-output curves is mainly due to internal
• precision is composed of two characteristics: friction and change in damping of the spring elements in the
(i) Conformity and (ii) Number of significant figures. transducer.
• In a system, it arises due .to the fact that all the energy put into the
• precision is used in measurements to describe the consistency or the
stressed parts when loading is not recoverable upon unloading.
reproducibility of results.
• Hysteresis. effects. can be minimised by taking readings corresponding
• A quantity called precision index describes the spread, or dispersion of
to .ascending and descending values of the input and then taking their
repeated result about some central value.
arithmetic 'average.
• High precision means a tight cluster of repeated results while low
precision indicates abroad scattering of results. • In case of instrumentswhich are used onboth sides of zero i.e. input
applied on both positive and negative side, the variation of output is
2.2.7 Significant figures as shown in fig. (2.3 (b)).
• An indication of the precision of the measurement is obtained from the Output

Output
number of significant figures in which it is expressed. Unloading
• Significant figures convey actual information regarding the magnitude
and the measurement precision of a quantity.
• The more the significant figures, the greater the precision of
measurement.
• For example, if a voltage is specified as 230 V its value should be taken (a)
Input
as closer to 230 V than to either 231 V or 229 V. Fig. 2.3 Hysteresis effects
• If the value of voltage is specified as 230.0 V, it means that thevoltage
is closer to 230~0 V than it is to 230.1 V or 229.9 V.
2.10 Transducer EnQineering Characteristics ofTransducers ,2.11
2.2.9 Threshold 2.2.11 Dead zone

• When the input to a transducer is increased gradually from zero, there • .It is defined as the largest change of input quantity for which there is
is a minimum value below which no output can be detected. no output of the instrument. (see fig. 2.5)
• This minimum value of the input is defined as the threshold of the • For example if the input applied to the instrument is insufficient to
transducers, overcome the friction, it will not move at all.
),
• This phenomenon is due to input hysteresis. In mechanical • It will only move when the input is such that it produces a driving
instruments, the first noticeable measurable change may not occur on force which can overcome friction forces.
account of backlash. • Dead zone is used to backlash and hysteresis in the instrument.
• In fig (2.4) which shows a gear train, the driven gear will not move
i.e. there will be no noticeable change in the movement of the driven
Measured
gear u~less the driving gear moves through a distance x which is the quantity
backlash between the gears. . 100
j, 80 ·c ClTOr
J+--ITlIRtnlltnent
Measured 60
quantity
40
20'-~~-~--
Fig. 2.5 . Dead time and: Dead zone

I .
I I
---.: x r+-- Backlash Dri
I : vengear
"Fig. (2.4) threshold because of Backlash 2.2.12 Resolution or Discrimination
• When the input.to a transducer is slowly increased from some arbitrary

(non-zero) value, the change in output is. not detected at all until a
2.2"10 Dead time certain input increment is exceeded.
• Dead time is defined as the time required by a measurement system • ~hi8 .increment is called res 01 utionor discrimination of the instrument..
to begin to respond to a change in the measurand,
• Thus the smallest increment in input (the quantity 'being measured)
• Fig (2.5) shows the measured quantity and its value as indicated by
which can be detected with certainty by an instrument is its. resolution
an instrument. or discrimination.
• Dead time is the time before the instrument begins to respond after
., So resolution defines the smallest meas urable input change while the
the measured quantity has been changed.
threshold defines the smallest measurable input.
• The resolution of digital .instruments is decided by the number of digits
used for display.
Characteristics of Transducers 2.13
2.12 Transducer' Engine2fjng
• The magnitude of the' input impedance is given by

• For example, the resolution of a four-digit voltmeter with a range of
999.9 volts is 0.1 volt. Whereas for a five-digit voltmeter of the same e·
Z1,· = ~
•
range, the resolution would be 0.01 volt. 'to1,
2.2.13 Range and span • The instantaneous power extracted by the input device from the signal
source is,
• Generally a transducer is recommended to be used between a high and
e?1, ... (2.10)
a low values of input. •
p=e·'t·=-
1, 1, z,
• The range of the transducer is specified as from the low value of input 1,
to the high value of input. • From equations (2.9) & (2.10), it is clear that a low input impedance
• The span of the transducer is specified as the difference between the device connected across the voltage signal source draws more current
high and the low .limits of recommended input values. and drains more power from signal source than a high input impedance
device.
• For example, if a temperature transducer is recommended to be used
between 1000e and 500°C, its range is specified as 1000e to 500°C, • In other words a low input'impedance device connected acrossa voltage
whereas its span is 400°C (i.e. 500°C - 100°C = 400°C). signal source loads the source more heavily than a high input
impedance device.
• - When an ammeter is specified to 'be used between 0 and 100 rnA, its
range is 0 to 100 rnA and its span is 100 rnA (i.e. 100 rnA - 0 rnA =
100 rnA).
Voltage
2.2.14 Input Impedance Input
signal
device
source
• A transducer used for any measurement normally extracts some energy z,
1
from the measuring medium and thereby disturbs the value of the
measured quantity.
Fig., (2.6) voltage source and input device
• '!'his 'property isknown as the loading effect of the transducer.
• An ideal transducer is one which does not absorb any energy and hence
does not disturb the prevailing state of the measured quantity. 2.2.15 Input admittance
• The loading effect of a transducer gives a measure of its disturbance • When the signal is of the form of current then series input devices, are
on the measuring quantity. used.
• The loading' effect is usually expressed in terms of input impedance • Consider a constant current source and an input device connected
and stiffness. across it 'as shown in fig. (2.7)
• The fig. (2.6) shows a.voltage signalsource and input device connected • The magnitude of input admittance is given by:
across it.
• '!'he magnitude of the impedance of element connected across the signal
source is called "Input Impedance",
.>
2.14 Transducer. Engineering Characteristics of Transducers 2.15
Order of a transducer
The order of a transducer is the highest derivative of the differential
Constant Input
current t equation which describes the dynamic behaviour of a transducer for a specified
device
source input,
Fig. 2.7 current source and input device

If the differential equation relating the input and output of a transducer is
si->:
".
t ... (2.11) d 3 (t)
Y
d 2 (t) d (t)
+3 Y + -y-- + 4y (t) = x (t) ... (2.14)
t e.
t dt 3 dt 2 dt
• r: ei 1' ... (2.12) where,

• Input Impedance, Zi = -;- = ~
"i Yi
y (t) ~ output
• The instantaneous power extracted from signal source is:
·2 ... (2.13) X (t)--7 input
. "i .2
P = £iei = Yi = £iZi • The highest derivative of the output is 3.
• From the above equations, it is clear that if the input admittance of • The order of the transducer is the same as the highest derivative of
the device is high, then the power drawn from the current signal source the output.
is small in case of series elements (i.e) input impedance is low.
Te~t Inputs
• Therefore, the loading effects are small when their input admittance
is- large (i.e, when their input impedance is small). • The transducers are normally subjected to inputs of random nature.
• The following test inputs are applied to the transducer to determine
2'.3 DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF TRANSDUCERS its dynamic behaviour.
• The dynamic characteristics of a transducer refers to the performance 1. impulse input
of the transducer when. it is subjected to time-varying input.
. .
2. step input
• 'I'he number of parameters required to define tho dynamic behaviour
of a transducer is decided by the group to which the transducer belongs. 8. ramp input
• The transducers can. be .categorized into
4. Parabolic input
1. Zero-order transducers
5. Sinusoidal input
2. first-order" transducers'
8. Second-order transducers • 'I'he various test inputs are represented in the following table (2.1).
4:. Higher-order transducers ~rable (2.1.):~rest inputs
2.16 Transduce,r Engin~ering
Characteristics of Tran.sducers 2.17
SI.No. -Name of the Time function Laplace function Pictorial
input Y(s) =K ... (2.16)
representation ,X(s) .
1. Impulse input x (t) = 0 (t) 1 ~
= 1 'for t =0 3(t)
• ThisequatioIi shows that the output varies in ,'thesame,'way 'as the
"Input.
=0 for t ¢ 0
....
2. Step input t - • Hence, a zero-order transducer. response, represents ideal dynamic'
x(t)=Kfort>O K , performance.
-
= 0 for t < 0 S
If K=l
x(t) ku(t) Example
x (t) = u (t)
I' = unit step - ...
• Potentiometer used for displacement, measurements is an example for
t zero-order transducer.
8. Ramp input x (t)=Kt K
V!
for r z 0 82 • The outputofa potentiometer is given by
x(t)
=0 for t~O . Xi
... eo =E.b · -L
4. Parabolic input x (t) =Kt2 2K
s3 4
~-
for t ~ 0
x(t)
= 0 for t~ 0
t
.. where,
5. Sinusoidal input x (t) = K sin wt Kw ~~
for t> 0 8
2
+ 002 x(t) bill cot Xi -) displacement of the slider
= 0 for t ~ 0 K <;»
f'!
- L -+ total length of.the potentiometer
2.3.1 Zero-order transducer E b -) excitation voltage
• The input .. output relationship of a zero-order transducer is given by
eo ,~'~output .in volts
Y (t)= Kx (t) ... (2~15)
• . The static sensitivityof.~e'potentiometer is
where,
E b" ••
x (t). ~ input K:-
IL volts/em.
,
y (t) ~ output
• The potentiometer behaves as a zero-order instrument when it is a
K ~ Static - sensitivity of the transducer . pure resistance. .
• The transfer function of the zero-order transducer is given by • The response of zero-order transducers for step input is given in figure .
(2.9).
Oharacterlstlce of Transducers 2.19
/
where,
bo . . ..
K=- = static sensitivity
ao
IL T=-
at
= time constant
ao
Example
Fig. (2.&1potentiometer (zero-order instrument) Thermocouple used for temperature measurements is an example for
first-order transducer.
• Let us consider a thermocouple immersedin fluid ina ,bath (see fig.

2.10).
• The heat balance equation is
... (2.19)
-----+ t
Fig. (2.9l step response of zero-order transducer
2.3.2 First - order transducer ------

- - - - - - -- -
- ------ . . . . - ..i--Temperatureoftluid
--- -
-----.- ..... - _--
- -
• The differential equation relating the input and output of a first-order - - - - -
_ _ _ _~.;=_~_......--Thermocouple sensor
transducer is - - - -
--- ---------- ---
-...
... (2.17) ------

al d~~t) + aoY (t) =bQu (t)
Fig. (2.10) Thermocouple (first-order, transducer)
where, where,
at, ao and' b o ~ Transducer parameters
Q' - Overall heat-transfer coefficient
• The transfer function. of the first-order transducer i. given by
-A - 'Heat transfer area
'bo ... (2.18)
y(s) ao K Tt - Temperature indicated by the thermocouple
x (8) = [, at ] = (ts + 1) ~2 .. .Temperature of the fluid
-8+1
aO
\
M - Mass of the sensing portion of the thermocouple,

2.20 Transducer Engineering- , Characteri'stios<,of·' Transducers
2.21
S - Specific heat of the sensing bead.
2.,9.2.1 Responses of First • order transducer
• The transfer function is given by • First - order systems are characterised by a' transfer function
., (2.20)' represented as
where,
. MS and rewritten as
. 't=QA
K, ,-
G (8) :;:-,. ... (2.23)
• .The voltage output of a thermocouple is proportional to the difference , 1 +ts
in temperature 'of hot junction .andcold junction.' where',
V'ce: T 1 - T 2
bo -7 S t a"le
K. = ao 't' iti
seOS11Vl"Y .
~t
• As· the cold junction is kept constant at O°C, the voltage output is
proportional to .the temperature of
the .bead at the hot junction. (i.e)
a] ' . -. '
Vee T 1 ·T = - ,. ~ time constant of the system
ao
, V,=KT1
• Let us study the response of Lorder transducer for standard input
. signals,
where,
.V·- Thermocoupleoutput In volts, 1. Il~sponse of I order transducer for "step "input
K,':' .proPortionality constant. • If the I order. transducer is excited by, a unit step input function
• The, overall transfer function of the thermocouple is given by· 1,
. X. (8) ='S then Y (8)
' ,
is given by.
... (2.21)
, ,1 K
Y(s)=-·-'-
, s 1 +1:8
... (2.22) So,
Y (t) = k (1- e-tl'C) ... (2.24)

• The equation (2.22) shows that the thermocouple is a first order
transducer~ . • Equation (2.24.) reveals the fact that' y (t) assumes 'a final value of k
slowly with time.
• When the hot junctionof a thermocouple is kept inaide a thermal wall
in order to protect it from .abrasive and cOlT08ive effects of the • The speed. of response is, dependent on the value of r,
surroundings, .the transducer becomes a second order ODe.
• , The smaller, the value of r, the higher thespeed of response.
• Fig, (2.11) shows the response of a first-order transducer for .a Y (t) = K.[e:-tt i + t --r] ... (2.25)
step-input function.
• The ramp response of first-order transducer is shown in fig. (2.12)
• If the transdticer is ideal, it should result in an output signal
K y (t) = Kt, but there is a deviation from this value due to its time .
constant.
i
y(t) • Hence the dynamic error is given by
Dynamic error = + K (re- tIT) - Kt ... (2.26)
Smaller r ~+- Step - input
I function
Larger r • The first term of the net dynamic error dies with time and hence it
o
I ... constitutes transient-error, whereas the second term Kt becomes the/
~
,
----:~
o T steady state error.

---+Time
• Under steady state conditions, the amplitude of output attains the true
Fig. 2.11 step response of a first - order transducer value after t seconds only.
2. Response of I-order transducer for ramp input

3. Response of I - order transducer· for unit - impulse function
• If the Input function is of the unit-ramp type, then the input-output
• The response for a unit - impulse function is represented by
relationship of a I-order transducer is 'given by
K
Y(s)=-·-
s =1- .. -
Y() K-
1 + rs
82 1. + rs
Y (t) = K e-tlT. ... (2.27)
and when solved, y (t) is given by
.t
• If the strength of the impulse is A· units, the response becomes ~ times

kI the one given by equ. (2.27).
i
y(t)
y(t)
x y(t)
A
T KA
TFiQite
\
\ T--..o
\
,,
OL.ll:i::::::..:::..::_..+- -.
- "
""' .........
o ..... ,
o L-
o
...L-----~=---- .. 0·1..--------;..;;:;..-_ _....
-' .... ........
--
T o
Fig. 2.12 Ramp of first-order transducer ----+ t
.Fig. (2.13) Response of first-order system (a) for a prolonged impulse - input;
. (b) for an ideal im/I;'ulse input,
• The impulse responses of I order transducer are shown in fig. (2.13)

(a) & fig. (2.13) (b).
)
4.' Frequency response of first - order transducer
• For sinusoidal input functions, the frequency response is determined

from the relation
(b)
Y (jro) _ K Fig. 2.14 frequency response.characterlstics of a first -erder system:
X (jm) - 1 +jlp'tc (8) for a~p~ltude (b) for phase
1.3.3 Second - order transducer

=
• Second - order systems are characterized by a transfer function given
~ ' . ' .
... (2'.28)
G (s) =Y (s)=. . . . 60 .
• At zero frequency, i.e., under de excitation, the value of IM I becomes" . X (8) a~2 + alB + ao
equal to K with = o.
which can be rewritten as
• Treating the natural frequency of the system, ron' as given by ~, the
'K
G (8)'= " ... (2.28)
co
frequency response curves relating"'IMI andL! with -(=on) .are
con
8
2
( a2 )+s(.a
00
1
ao
)+1. -'
shown in fig. (2.14).
where,
,
K - static sensitivity . =~ '( b')
1.0 • The undamped natural frequency ron of the second -. order system
\y.\
o.s becomes~
2 4 6 8 10 12
(a) • The ratio ( :: ). signifies. the .damping conditions of the system.
• . Tho damping factor' (or damping ~atio) is

2.26 Transducer Engineering Charactetistic$ .of Transducers 2.27
... (2.29) • The step responses of second-order transducer for various values of
damping ratios are shown in fig. (2.15).
• Whenever a second-order transducer is suddenly connected to an input,
... (2.30) it is equivalent to the application of step input.
• To have a quick indication of the measured values, the time taken for
• The equation (2.28) can be rewritten as the transduc'er-response to reach the steady - state --:\ralue should be
minimum.
Y(8) K ... (2.31)
Xes) = r $2 ···2~s
1-,"+ ,-
1
..-,., + 1 I
• As the second-order system subjected to step-input-takes infinite time
to reach the steady-statevalue, it is customary to define settling time
Lro~ ron J for such systems.
• The settling time is the time taken for the output to reach, and stay
within a specified percentage of steady-state. value.
1. Response of II order transducer for step input
• For example, 1Q% settling time means, the time taken for the system
• When a second-order transducer is subjected to an unit step input, output to reach and stay within 90% to 110% of the steady-state value.
1
X(8)=-
8
2.0
• The laplace transform of the output is given by
1.8
1.6
Kro~ 1 ... (2.32)
1.4
Y (8) = .-
82 +2~ron8 + ro~ 8
yo(t)
K
1.2
1.0
. K 0.8
Y (8) =r 8
2
2~8
1 0.6
0.4
81-+-,-+1 1
Lro~ ron J 0.2
0
0 2 3 4 S' 6 7 8 9 10mnt
• Y (t) for different damping conditions is given by
Fig. (2.15) step respons~__of a 'n - order transducer for various value of ~.
Yi)=[ l-~Sin{ron"(l-~~t+Sin-l~}] for~<l ... (2.33) ------- -.
(2) Response of second- order transducer for ramp input

• Let us consider a second-order transducer subjected to ramp input
given 'by
r(t)=At
... (2.34)
2.28 Characteristics of Transducers 2.29
Transducer· Epsineering
,.
R(8)=A
2 ... (2.35)
S
• The response of'a second-order system for ramp input is given by

y(t)
Kro: A ... (2.36)

y (8) = 82 + 2 J:ro 8 + ro2 · 82
':» n n
KA
y (8) = r
2 s
2 :
.2~s
1
11
s 1 -+-+
Lro: ron 'J Fig. 2.16 Ramp response of a II order system
• By partial- fraction, • The steady state error decreases as ron increases and is proportional
to ~.'
... (2.37)
• Under steady state conditions, there is a time lag of 2; in the indication
ron
• "By comparing the coefficients of S, BIt B 2 , B 3 , B 4 are determined of'the true value.
• For a given ron if ~. is reduced, oscillations persist for a longer time,
... (2.38) but the steady state time lag and steady error becomes less.
• The output for ~'= 1 is
y (t) = KAt - 2KA . (. 1 + T

ron [ 1 -e- cont CJlnt ) ]
• The output y (t).· [for ~ < 1] is
KA2; r
e- 90n 1 t
y (t) =KAt---1 1- ~8in(mn"l-t.z t+f) I ... (2.39)
ron L 2~ l"'~ J
where, .;. (2.41)
-12;~ ... (2.40)

~= t a n , 2
2~ -1
(3) Response of a II order transducer for terminated ramp input· .
• Theramp response of'a II order system in shown in fig. (2.16). '. Itis quite realistic toassumethat electrical and electronic instruments
. '. . ' K are subjected to step -and ramp-input excitations.
• It IS seen that there
,
IS a steady state error of ~ -
(J)n
.. ro .. .
• But other physical instruments, designed for measurement of pressure • Writing ; - = 11, the ratio of the frequency of the forcing function to its
or temperature are unlikely to experience step' changes of input n
quantities. natural frequency, the response is expressed as
• Hence the input is considered to change from the initial value in a ... (2.44)
ramp fashion until it becomes constant.
Such a change is treated as terminated ramp input function and IS
where'
represented in fig. (2.17), assuming that
t ... (2.42) =tan~l 2sn
x(t)=- for O~t~T 2
T -V1-11
=1 for T ~t ~ 00
= IMI 
dy (t) .
- - = 0 = Y (t) at t = 0 6
dt
~ S
y(t)
4
IMI3
'----' '--'
~Response 2
2 3 4 S co
Olo
(a)
o t
T Ol-
I 2 3 4 5 con
Fig'. (2.17) Terminated ramp tesponse of a second • order eystem
-30
(4) Frequency response of a second-order transducer
-60
• The frequency response of the II-order system is obtained from its
.2 -90
transfer function and is given by
·120
Y (jrn) K ... (2.43)
X (jro)
=-----------
r 2 1 -ISO
l- (~ J + 2~:~ + 1 J -180
(b)
Fig. 2.18 Frequency response Ch.a.. r.ac.t.. ~. . riStics of. second order system tor
<a) am.plitu·de (b) phase . .
2.32 Transducer Engine~ring Characteristics. of Transducers 2.33
• The frequency response characteristics of a second-order system for

amplitude (IMI) and phase (Let» are shown in fig. ,(2.18).
I
2.3.4 High-er Order Transducers

•
•
The system which can be described by higher order differential
equations is higher order system.
Many transducers have higher order dynamics which can be described
....
=i
0.7f11
1
I
1------
I
1
1
by higher order differential equations.
• For analysis, they can be represented by either first-order or
second-order differential equations with some assumptions. Fig. 2.1'9 Bandwidth of a transducer -frequency response
• However, for accurate analysis" the higher order equations can be taken
• If all the frequency components of the input .lie within the bandwidth
as it is and solved.
of the transducer, then the transducer will-faithfully jreprcduce the
• The response of the higher order transducers would be similar to that input.
of second-order transducers with a sluggish rise in the initial period.
• If' the frequency components of,' the input signal are .outside the
Frequency. response bandwidth of the transducer, then-the output will be distorted.
• The response of a system to a frequency input is called frequency • I" important information is in the frequencies outside the bandwith,
response. of a system. then this information may be missed..
• The, response of a transducer to a frequency input (frequency response
of transducer) is an Important characteristic, since most ofthe signals 2.4 MATHEMATICAL MODEL OF T_RANSDUCERS
can be considered to be a combination of signals of different frequencies.
• 'Ihe mathematicalmodels are the differential equations that describe
• The sensitivity of a transducer should be s_ame for all frequencies and
the dynamics of. transducers,
phase shift should be either zero or it should increase linearly with
frequency. • These models can be derived from the knowledge of the components,
their interconnection. and thephysical laws governing their 'functioning.
• That means, the amplitude .plot of the frequency response should be
flat for all frequencies. • A· number of assumptions are needed to derive, the' equations
• In general, this plot drops at higher frequencies. representing the model.
• The term bandwidth is used to quantify the flat useful region of the • But practically, the components used, their values, their behaviour,
amplitude plot of the frequency response. their interconnections-and the physieal laws followed by them maynot
be precisely known.
• The bandwidth is defined as the frequency range in which the
amplitude ratio is more than 0.707 of the final value. • Therefore using conventional' method, the model cannot be obtained.
• 'Ihia.isshown in fig. (2.1Q); • In such situations, the ~ransduc~r can be assumed to be a black box,
whose iriputs and outputs a~e accessible for measurements.
2.34 Transducer 'Engineering naracteristics of Transducers 2.35
• ·N·u.mber of methods are .available to identify the transducer model by • From the experimentally obtained outputs of (he transducer y (t 1) and
'measuring the inputs and outputs of the transducer. y (t2) at two different times t1and t 2, the two un.known parameters
• If the order of the model is known already, then the method of K and r of the transducer can be estimated.
identification becomes simple. ... (2.46)
(1) .Identification of transducer mathematical models

... (2.47)
Identification from Impulse re~ponse

... (2.48)
K
t 1_)
T = _(t_"2_--_
• When this transducer is excited with an input impulse, the output . In Y (tl)
transform y (t 2 )
K • K can be calculated by substitutingr in one of the above equations.
Yes) -
- (1+ rs)
• If the transfer function is of the form
as R (s) = 1 K
1 8
2
-,-+-s+l
2~
• Therefore y (t) = IJ- Y (s) 1'UJ1'\2 (J)
n
n
,TT - tIT. ... (2.45)
=.n.e
• where c, ffin:and K are the .unknown parameters.
• Theoutput of the transducer is shown in fig. (2.20) • WIlen such a system is subjected to an unit impulse, the response for
\
KIt the underemployed case will be as shown in fig. (2.21) I
---
yet) y(~) .f --- ---
i Yet)
_------------.. . . Time t
t
--- --- ---

~ Time,t
- -..
Fig. 2.20 First-order transdocer .response for ·Impul. . Ilgn.l. Fig.'2.21~{Re.ponsC! of II;-ordertransduce~ forim~ulseinput .slgnal.
2.36 TranSducer Engineering
• The response of an under damped transducer for an unit step input is

... (2·.49)
shown in fig. (2.22).
• The expression for the output y (t) of the transducer is given by
• From the experimental output. curve, ~,ron is calculated taking the r e-~Clv 1
y(t)=Kjl- .rr::« Isin(O)n\ll-~- t+cj)
.rr::« ... (2.53)
envelope (dotted line) only. L -\11- ~- J
1
• As the' envelope is a decaying exponential curve,
~ron
is the time • The time instances at which the maximum and minimum values of the
response curve occur can be found out by differentiatingy (t) with
constant of the exponential curve.
respect to time and equating to zero as shown below.
• The time between two successive peaksTd is determined which is equal
to
... (2.50)
t~
y(t)
•
... (2-.51)
t
which can be determined-from the experimental response. Fig•.f!.22) <second .,. order transducer· response· for step input.
• As\ ~ and ron have already been evaluated, K can be calculated.
(2) Identification from step response
• When the transfer function of the transducer is of the form (1 ~"Csf ... (2.54)
the parameters K and 1: have to be determined from the step response.

• The static sensitivity K is calculated as When this expression is equated to zero, one gets,
K = Steady state output charge ... (2.52)

Input change
• For a .second-order transducer, the parameters, K,~, and ron can be

determined from the step response.
2.38 :-Tr~n~duc~rE;nginee,ring Characteristics of Transducers 2.39
~
2 ' (bY de fiinition
.'. ) I · -1t~/~ ... (2.61)
= tan-
"l'" ~
1
• )
~ sin o
• Therefore, tan (ron ~ t + <p) = tan <p ... (2.55)
• This equation is true for all values of

= K[ 1 + e -1t~l'h _~2J as sin cj) = VI _~2 ... (2.62)
Y (t) Isteady state = Lt Y (t)

... (2.56) t~oo
=K(l- 0)
• when t = 0, Y (t) is 0, minimum value
=K
n ... (2.57)
t=tp= " -~.
a=Ke-nS/~
2, ... (2.63)
ro,n -V. 11 - \:)~- , :. Overshoot,
• Y. (t) is 'the first maximum and t p is the peak time. • From the step response plotted from .expe~mental results, t p , a and
K,can be obtained from equation (2.,52). ~ can be calculated from
2n ... (2.58) equation (2.63) as a and K are already known.
t=t =
v ron~
• Substituting this value of ~ in equ. (2.58), ron can be determined.
• Y (t) - second minimum and tv - valley time.
• As the oscillation is a damped one, the time at which the first

maximumoccurs will be: the 'maximum overshoot.
• Therefore this overshoot shown as 'a' in fig. (2.22) can be obtained as
a> y (t) max - I y, (t) Isteady state 1. Define transducer.

Transducer is a device which is used to convert non electrical quantities in
• y(t)max is obtained by substituting to electrical quantities,
2. Classify transducer.
tp = ~ in equation (2.59)
ron 1 - ~ On the basis of transduction form used, transducer. is classified. as,
i.e., • As primary and secondary transducers'

• As Active and passive transducers
-~O) ~~ j..
Sin(ron~'" ~2 +cj))
(2.60) • As analog and digital transducers
1- e
1 ri
nO)", 1t
y (t)lmax=K • As transducers and inverse transducers.
1- ~ (J)n 1- "J
2.40 Transducer Engineering Characteristics of_ Transducers 2.41
3. Define static characteristics.

• Parabolic input
Static characteristics of a measurement system are in' general, those that
• Sinusoidal input.
must b~- considered when the system or instrument is used to measure a
condition not varying with time. 8. Define zero-order transducer.
The input-output relationship of a zero-order transducer is given by,
4. Mention different types of static characteristics.
Static characteristics are, Y(t) =Kr (t)
(a) Accuracy where, r (t) is the input, Y (t) is the output, K is the static sensitivity of the
(b) Sensitivity transducer. Example for zero order transducer is potentiometer.
(c) Reproducibility I. What is mathematical model?

Mathematical model is a mathematical representation of 'a physical- model
(d) Drift and is achieved from the later by utilizing the physical loss.
(e) Static error 10. What is frequency response of ZOT?
-(0 Dead' zonc . Frequency response is thus defined ,S
the steady state output of a
transducer when it is excited with sinusoidal input. The frequency response
5.. What is -dynamic- characteristics? is represented with the help of two plots namely amplitude ratio versus
Many measurements are concerned with rapidly varying quantities and frequency and phase anile shift versus frequency.
therefore, for such cases we must examine the dynamic relations which
exist between the output and the input, This is normally done with the II.What is damping ratio?
help of differential equations. Performance criteria based Upon dynamic The 'damping ratio c is an important parameter 'which decides .the nature
relations _ constitute .thedynamic .eharaeteristies. ' • of oscillation in the tra~ducer output. When c =0, the second order system
is said to be un damped and the system 'behaves like an oscillator. When
6. Mention the applications of dynamio characteristics.
c =1, the second order system is said to be critical damped onwhen c> 1,
The applications of dynamic characteristics are,
the second order system is said to be over damped.
• Zero-order transducers
12. Define sensitivity..
• First-order -transducers Sensitivity should be taken depending on the operating point. The
• Second-order transducers sensitivity is expressed in output unit/input unit.
-,
• Higher-order transducers. 18. ne linearity.

7. What are the test inputs of the transducer? 'Llltrity is a measure- of the maximumdeviation of-the plotted transducer
The test inputs of the transducer are, response from a specified straight line.
• Impulse input. 14. Compare _accuracy and precision.

• Step input Accuracy is the closeness to true value where as precision is the closeness
amongst the readings. Precision is the -degree of closeness with which' a
~ Ramp input
given value may be repeatedly measured.
2.42 Transducer Engineering Characterlsticsof Transducers 2.43
15. What is threshold? 21. A temperature-sensitive transducer is subjected to a sudden'

When the input to a transducer is increased from zero, there is a minimum temperature change. It takes 10 sec for the transducer to reach
value below which no output can be detected. This minimum value of the equilibrium condition (5 time constant). How long will it take for
input is defined as the threshold of the transducer. the transducer ·to .readbalf ofthe temperature difference?
'rime to reach equilibrium conditions ='·5 't = lOs.
16. Define resolution.
'rime constant r = 10/5
When the input to a transducer is increased slowly from some non-zero
, arbitary value, the change in output is not detected at all until a certain == 2 sec
input increment is exceeded. This increment is defined as the resolution.
8= eo [1·- exp (1,- t/'t)]
17. Define hysteresis.
0.5= 1,. - [exp (- tI2)]
When the input to a transducer which is initially at rest is increased from
zero to full-scale and then decreased back to zero, there may be two output ~ .. t = '1.39 sec
values. for the same input. Hysteresis effects can be minimized by ·taking
readings corresponding to ascending and descending value of the input and 22. What' is primary transducer?
then taking their arithmetic average. Bourdon tube acting as a primary transducer, senses the pressure and
convert the pressure into displacement. No output is given to the input of
IS. What is' range and span? the a bourdon tube. So it is called primary" transducer. Mechanical device
The range of the transducer is specified as from the lower value of input can act as a primary transducer.
to higher value of input.
23. What is secondary transducer?
.The span of the transducer is. specified as, the difference between the higher The output of the bourdon tube is given to the .input of thcLVDT. There
and lower limits of recommended input values. are two stages of transduction, firstly ithe pressure is converted into a
displacement by the bourdon tube' then the displacement is converted into
19. What is .rise time? analog voltage byl..VDT. Here ·LVD'l' is .called secondary transducer.
Rise time is defined. as the time .required for the system to rise from 0 to Electrical device can act as a secondary. transducer.
100 percent of its final value.
24. Wh~t is' passive. transducer?
In the absence of external" power, transducer cannot. work and it is called
20. A thermometer has a time constant of 3.5 sec. It isquickly",t"e:Jl
a passive transducer. Example: Capacitive, inductive, resistance
from ate;mperatureO°C to a" water bath having tempe~.ture
transducers.
100°C. What temperarurewtlfbe indicated after 1.5 81
8 = 80 [1- exp (1- t/'t)l 25. What .Is active transducer?
In the absence of external power, transducer can work and it is called active
=.100 [1 - exp (1 - 1.5/3.5)] = 34.86°C transducer. Example: Velocity, temperature, light can be transduced with
the help of active transducer.
2.44 Transducer. Engineering ChQraclerlstlcs otTransducers 2.45
26. What is. analog transducer? Noise factor,

Analog transducers convert the input quantity into an analog output which
is a continuous function of time. Thus a strain gauge, an LVDT, a F::;: SIN at inEut .
SIN at output
thermocouple or a thermistors may be called analog transducer" as they
give an output which is continuous function of time. 9
= 5.76
27. (a) At the input, an amplifier has a signal voltage level of 3 J& V and
a noise voltage level of 1 J1 V. What is the signal to noise ratio. a~ = 1·56
the input? Noise figure,
(b) If the voltage gain of the amplifier is 20, what is the SIN ratio
at the output? nf= 10 logF
(c) If the amplifier adds 5.JI V of noise, what is SIN ratio at the
,output? Calculate also the noise factOr and the noise figure. = 10log 1.56
(a) SIN at the input is,

= 1.93 dB
28. The dead zone in certain pyrometer is 0.125% of span. The
calibration is 400°C' to 1900°C. What temperature change might
occur before it is detected?
(b) Voltage level of signal at the output = 20 x 3 = 60 J1 V Span = 1000 - 400 =600°0
Voltage .level of noise at .the output Dead zone =(0.125/100) x 600

., Signal to noise ratio at the output ~ .. A change of O.75°C must occur before it is detected.
2 29. A moving coil voltmeter has a. uniform (scale with 100 divisions,
6
=( 6.O·.. X 10- .\1=9 , 1~
l20XIO~6 ) the full scale reading)· is 200 V and ofa scale division can be
estimated with a fail degree of certainty. Determine the resolution
(c) If the amplifier adds 5 ."V to the noise, therefore the voltage level 'of of the instrument in volt.
noise atthe output. =20 + 5 =25.Jl,V 1 scale division = 200/100 = 0.2 V
SIN ratio at the output

Resolution =-
10lsea
Id e ·IV1S1on
· ·
6
=('. 60 x 10- 6
25x 10- )
y = 5.76
Characteristics of Transducers " 2.47
2.46
30. A circuit was tuned for resonance by 8 different students and the (d) ' .. The number of readings is8 < 20, standard deviation
value of resonant frequency in ~z was recorded as 532, 548, 543,
535, 546, 531 , 543 and 536. Calculate, (a) Arithmatic mean; (b)
.
S=~.·}:d2
Deviations from mean, (c) Average deviation, (d) Standard n-l
deviation, (e) Variance.
(a) The arithmetic mean of the readings is, V(- 7.25)2 + (8.75)2 + (3.75)2 + (- 4.25)2 + (6.75)2 + (- 8.25)~ T (3.75)2 + (- 3.25)2
=
(8 - 1)
- ~x
X=- = 6.54 kHz
n
532 + 548 + 543 +535 + 546 + 531 + 543 + 536 (e) Variance,
= 8 2 . 2
V = S = 4·2.77 (kHz)
= 539.25 kHz
31. A temperature sensing device can be modelled as a 18t order system
(b) The deviations are with a time constant of 6 seconds. It is suddenly subjected to a step
input ·of 25°C • 150°C. What temperature will be indicated in 10
d 1 = ~l - X = 532 - 539.25 = '-- 7;25 kHz
seconds after the process has started.
d 2 =x2 -X= 548 - 539.25 = 8.75 kHz Final steady state temperature, 80 = 150°C
d g = Xg - X = 543 - 539.25 = 3.75 kHz Initial temperature,
d 4 = x4- X = 535 - 539.25 =- 4.25 kHz Time constant, 't=6sec
:. Temperature after 10 sec, 8 = 80 + (8 i - 80) [exp (- tIt")]

d 5 = x5 - X = 546 - 539.25 = 6.75 kHz
= 150 + (25 -150) [exp(-10/60)]
d 6 = x6 - X = 531 - 539.25 = - 8.25 kHz
= 126.4°C
d 7 = X7 - X = 543 ..... 539.25 =3.75-kHz
32. A 6.25 mm 10Dg RTI) with a steady state gain of 0.3925 woe and a
d s ::;: Xs - X =·536 - 539~25 =- 3.25 kHz time constant of 5.5 sec expertenees a step change of 75°C in
temperature. B.efore the tell\p~r~tu.re change, it has a .stable 100 n
(c) Average deviation is,
resistance. Write the time. dOlJlai'D equation for resistance and find
its value after 15 sec of .pplicati.oll of step input.
Gain of RTD is 0.3925 woe and a step input 75°C is applied to it. This is
equivalent to the application of 0.3925 x 75= 29.44 Q step input in terms
7.25 + 8.75 +3.75 + 4.25 + 6.75+ 8'.25 + 3.75 + 8.25
= 8 of resistance.
... Change in value of resistance with time
=·5.75 kHz
= 29.44 [1 - exp (-: t/5.5)] Q 84. A 10,000 Q, variable resistance has a' linearity of 0.1% and the
movement of contact arm is '320° (a) Determine the maximum
Hence in order to obtain the time domain equation for resistance, the value position deviation in degrees and the resistance deviation in ohm.
of initial resistance must be added to .it, (b) If this instrument is to be used as a potentiometer with a linear
scale of 0 to 1.6 V, determine the maximum voltage error.
:. Equation for resistance at any time 't' after the application of step input
(a) Maximum displacement deviation
is,
Percent linearity x Full scale reading
R t = 29.44 [1- exp (- t/5.5)] + 100 Q =
100
The value of resistance at t = 15 sec is, 0.1 x 320 = 0.32 0

100 ·
R 15 = 29.44 [1- exp (-15/5.5)] + 100 Similarly, maximum resistance displacement
= 127.5Q '0.1 x 10,000

=
100
33. A Wheat~tone bridge requires a change of 7,C in the unknown arm = 10Q
of the bridge to produce .a change in deflection, of 3 mm of the
galvanometer. Determine the sensitivity. Also determine the (b) A displacement 320 0 corresponds to 1.6 V and therefore 0.32°
deflection factor. corresponds to a voltage of
. . . Magnitude of output response
' itu d eo
Sensitivity = ' M agm 'foemput (0.32/320) x 1.6 = 1.6 x 10- 3 V
Maximum voltage error

-3mm
--
- 7Q =1.6 x 10- 3 V
= 0.429 mmJQ '= 1.6mV
Inverse sensivity or scale factor 35. A multdmerer having a sensitivity of 20,00 Q/V is used for the
measurement of voltage across a circuit having an output
_Magnitude of input resistance of 10 kn. The open circuit voltage of the circuit is 6 V.
-Magnitu;deofoutput response
Find the reading, of the multimeter when it is set to its. 10 V scale.
Find,' the, percentage error.
7Q
=3mm Input resistance 'of voltmeter
= .2.33 Q/mm
Output resistance; of circuit
Zo = 10 kQ
Frequency
Temper
Open circuit voltage of circuit under measurement of Deviation
ature TXf fxd d2 fxd 2
occurrence, d
E o=6V 'roC
f
397 1. 397 -3.78 -3.78 14.288 .14.288
Reading .of voltmeter is
398 3 1194 -2.78 -8.34 \ 7.728 23.185
399 12 4788 -1.78 -21.36 3.168 38.020
4·00 23 9200 -0.78 + 17.94 0.608 13.993

6
=--~-
1 + 10/20 401 37 14837 +0.22 +8.14 0.048 1.708
=4V 402 16 6432 ,+ 1.22 + 19.52 1.488 23.814

-
403 4 1612 +2.22 +8.88 4.,928 19.714
., Percentage error in voltage reading -----.-.
4-04 2 808 +3.22 +6.44 10.368 20.737

(4 - 6) .
= 6x100 405 2 810 +4.22 +8.44 17.808 35.618
-
Total 100 40078 Lfix d] 'Lfd 2 = 191.08
= - 33% or 33% low
= 102.8 )
36. In a test, temperature is measured 100 times with variations in

apparatus and procedures. 40078 '
(a) Mean temperature = 100 = 400.78°C
After applying the corrections, the results are,
(b) Mean deviation, . D= 1~:08 = 1.208 °C

Temperature °C ~
397 398 399 400 401 402 403 404 405
Frequency 'of occurrence 1 3 12 23 37 16 4 2 2

(c) Standard deviation, c = ~1;~.~8 = 1.380°C
Calculate, (a) Arithmetic mean.fb) Mean deviation, (e) Standard (d) Probable error of one reading
deviation, (d) , The probable error of one reading, (e)- The standard
deviation. and' the probable error of the mean, (f) The standard Yl= 0.6745
deviation of the standard deviation. (J = 0.6745 x 1.38
The computations are done in a tabular form as under,
2.52 Transducer Engineering Characteristics· of Transducers 2.53
(e) Probable error of the mean Corresponding to 1.5, the are~ under the Gaussian curve is 0.43'32.
Therefore the probable number of resistors having a value of
.0.93
Ym ="100 92.2 ± 0.15 Q = 2 x 0.4332 x 1000
= 0.093°C =866
Standard deviation of the mean 38. The temperature of a furnace is increasing at a rate of O.I°Cts. What
is the maximum permissible time constant of a 1st order instrument
that can be used, so the temperature is read with a maximum error
of 5°C?
1.38 A ramp signal of O.l°C/s is applied to the instrument and thus A = 0.1.
= "100 Maximum steady state error for a ramp signal applied to a 1st order instrument
is given by ess =A 't.
Maximum allowable time constant

(f) Standard .deviation of the standard deviation
0.138
=V2~
= 50 s
37. A value R = 92.2 ± 0.1 Q (where 0.1 Q is the standard deviation) is

specified for a batch of 1000 'resistors. How many would you
estimate have values in the. range R = 92.2 ± 0.15 Q? Assumes normal
distribution consult probability tables.
Deviation, x = ± 0.15 Q
Standard deviation, o = ± 0.1 Q
x
:. Ratio, t=-
o
±0.15
=
±0.1
= 1.5
Variable. Resistance, Transducer 3.1
Unit · III
VariableResistance Transducer
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Electrical circuits consist of combinations of the three passive elements:
resistor, inductor and capacitor. The primary parameters that describe them are
respectively resistance, self or mutual inductance and capacitance. Any change
in the parameter of the element can be recognized only when the element is
made 'live' by electric energization or excitation, otherwise the element is in
'dead' state. Hence transducers that are based on the variation of the parameters
due to application of any external stimulus are known as passive transducers.
In this chapter,resistive, inductive and capacitive transducers are presented
along with the several possibilities available for making use of them for
measurement of physical and chemical variables. Wherever possible, 'sections
are subdivided in such a way. as to identify the element of the transducer and
the measurand, such as strain-gauge flow transducer and capacitive strain
transducer.
Basic characteristics of 'each transducer, its limitations and where

necessary, relevant signal processing circuitryare presented. Additional insight
is provided for transducers that are more powerful and popular, so as to acquaint
the reader with the developments in transducer technology. Though the criteria'
for the design of transducers have been enumerated, details concerning actual
designs' are not given.
Basic -Principle
It is generally seen that methods which involve the measurementof change

in resistance are preferred to those employing other principles. Thisis because
both alternating as well as direct currents and voltages are suitable for
resistance 'measurements.
3.2 Transducer Engineering Variable Resistance Transducer 3.3
The resistance of a metal cond/uctor is expressed by a simple equation that

involves a few physical quantities. The relationship is
R=pL
A
where
R- Resistance; Q
L - Length of conductor; m Mandrel

(a) Linear(translational) POT (b) RotaryPOT
A - Cross ~ sectional area of conductor; m 2 and
Fig. 3.1 Resistive potentiometers (POTs)
p - Resistivity of conductor material, Qm The translational resistive elements are straight devices and have a stroke
of 2 mm to 0.5 m., The rotational devices are circular in shape and used for
Any method of varying one of the quantities involved in the above
measurement of angular displacement. They may have a full scale angular
relationship can be the design basis of an electrical resistive transducer, There
are a number of ways in which resistance can be changed by a physical
+~
phenomenon. The translational and rotational potentiometers which work on the
""- ---J_,~+
basis of change in the value of resistance which change in length of the conductor
Helix
can be used for measurement of translational or rotary displacements. Strain
gauges work on the principle that the resistance of a conductor or a semi
conductor changes when strained. This property can be used for measurement
(a) Tranlational Single-tum Multi-turn
of displacement, force and pressure. The resistivity of materials changes with (b) Rotational (c) Helipot
change of temperature thus causing a change of resistance. This property may
Fig. 3.2 Diagrams for translational, rotational and helipots.
be used for measurement of temperature. Thus electrical resistance .transducers
have a wide field of application. displacement as small as 10°. A full single turn potentiometer may provide
accurate measurements upto 357°. Multiturn potentiometers may measure upto
3500° of rotation through use of helipots,
3.2 POTENTIOMETER
Fig 3.2 shows the diagrams for translational, single turn rotational, and
Basically a resistance potentiometer consists of a resistive element provided multiturn helix potentiometers.
with a sliding contact. This sliding contact. is called
. .
a wiper. The motion of the
sliding contact may be translatory or rotational. A linear pot and a-rotary pot Let ei and eo - input and output voltages respectively; V,
are shown in figure 3.1 (a) and (b) respectively.
Xt - total length of translational pot; m,
.Some potentiometers use the combination of the two motions, ie
Xi - displacement of wiper from its zero position; m,
translational as well as rotational. These potentiometers have their resistive
element in the' form of a helix and, therefore, they are called helipots. Rp - total resistance of the potentiometer; Q
Variable Resistance Transducer 3.5
3.3 STRAIN GAUGES

If the distribution of the resistance with respect to translational movement If a metal' conductor is stretched or compressed, its resistance changes on
R account of the fact that both length and diameter of conductor change. Also
is linear, the resistance per unit length is --l!...
X t there is a change in the value of resistivity of the conductor when it is strained
'The output voltage under ideal condition is: and this property is called piezoresistiveeffect. Therefore, resistance strain
gauges are also known as pie~oresistive gauges. The strainiauges are used for
e = resist-'
ance at the output
.'
terminals
. .
0-- ( resistance at the Input terminals
x Input voItage J· measurement of strain and associated stress in experimental stress analysis.
Secondly, many other detectors and transducers, notably-the load. cells, torque
Rp
J
=( Rp (xii Xt) e. =Xi x e.
1, Xt 1,
'meters, diaphragm type pressure gauges, temperature sensors, accelerometers
and flow meters employ strain gauges as secondary transducers.
Under the ideal circumstances, the output voltage varies linearly with 3.3.1 Theory of Strain Ga,uges
The change in the value of resistance by straining the gauge may be partly
explained by the normal dimensional behaviour of elastic material. If a strip of
1· ----------- i 1 -~~-~---- : elastic material is subjected to tension, as shown in figure 3.4 or in other words
e,
i
-.J!..
!
I
.•
e~'
...!!.
I
:
positively strained, its longitudinal dimension will increase while there will be
e. I ei : a reduction in the lateral dimension. 80 when a gauge is subjected to a positive
1 I
I
•I .;;: dectasing strain, its length increases while, its areas of cross-section decreases 'as shown
0,0 0,0 ~ 1 in Figure 3.4.
- --+
~
'Fig. 3.3Cha·racteristics ot,p6tentiometers

D
t
displacement as shown in figure 3.3
+
... 8
8··ensItIvIty .
- = Output
I nput =-=~
x·
Fig. 3.4.Change in. dimensions of a strain gauge element when .subjected to a tensi~e force
1
.Thus under ideal conditions the sensitivity is constant, and the output is
faithfully reproduced and hasalinear relationship with input. The same is true Since the resistance of a conductor is proportional to its length and inversely
.~. -
of rotational motion. proportional to· its area of cross sectionz the resistance, of' the (ga~ge increases
with positive strain. The change in the value of resistance of strained conductor
Let 8i =input angular displacement in degrees, ~ more than what can be accounted for an increase in resistance due to
dimensional changes. The .extra change in the' value of resistance is attributed
and at = total travel of the wiper in degrees to the change in the value of resistivity of a conductor when strained.
", I
, , (8'
:. output voltage eo = ei 0:.J-
3.6 Transducer ··Engineering Variable Resistance Transducer
3.7
Let us consider a strain gauge made of circular wire. The wire has the 1 aA (2n/4)D .an
dimensions: Length = L, area =A, diameter =D before being strained. The A as = (Tt/4) n 2 as
material of the wire has a resistivity p.
2an (3.4)
=D as
Resistance of unstrained gauge R = ~L
:. Eqn, 3.2 can be written as:
Let a tensile stress s be· applied to~ the wire. This produces a positive stain
causing the length to increase and to decrease. as shown in figure 3.4. 1 dR 1 aL 2 aD 1 a p (3.5)
--=----x-+--
Rds Las D as pas·
Thus when the wire is strained there are changes in its dimensions. Let
~ L· = change 'in length, Now;Poisson'sratio
~ A = change in area, ~ D = change in diameter and v= lateral strain __ a DID (3.6)

longitudinal·strain - d LIL
~ R = change ·in resistance
or aD=_Vx d L
In order to find how ~ R depends upon the material physical quantities, D L
the expression for R' is differentiated with respect to stress s. Thus we get:
:. 1. dR =.! aL + V 2 aL +! ap (3.7)
,dR paL pL aA Lap (3.1) Rds Las Las PdS
-=------+--
ds A a S A 2 d S A a s
or small variations, the above relationship can be written
DividingEqn (3.1) throughoutby resistance R = ~, we have ~R s i. si. Ap
as: - = - + 2 V - . - + - (3.8)
II L L p
1 dR 1 a L l d A 1 ap {3.2)
. ----+--
--=--
RdsIJds AdS pas The gauge factor is defined. as the ratio of per unit changes in resistance
to per unit change in length.
It is evident from Eqn, (3.2), that the per unit change in resistance is due'
to: Gauge factor Gt =
s uru (3.9)
~L/IJ
~L
(i) per unit change in length - L ' AR AL
(or) J1=GfT=Gf x E (3.10)
(ii) per unit change in area =!:1 A , and

A ~L
here
wi E =strain=T
(iii) per unit change in resistivity =!:1 P

P The gauge factor can be written as:
(3.3) , A pip
=,1+2V+-- (3.l1)
E
3.8 Transducer En9in~ering Variable Re.sistanceTransducer 3.9 "
=1 + 2V 11 pip Strain gauges are broadly used for two major types of application and they
+ E are:
Resistance change due Resistance change due Resistance change due to (i) experimental stress analysis of machines and 'structures, and
to change of length to change in area piezoresistive effect (ii) construction of force, torque, pressure, flow and acceleration
transducers
I1RIR . I1p/p
Gf = l1L/L = 1 + 2V + l1L/L 3.3.2Unbonded metal Strain Gauges
An unbonded metal strain gauge consists of a wire stretched between two
The strain' is usually expressed in terms of microstrain.
points in an insulating medium such as air. It made of various copper nickel
chrome nickel or nickel iron alloys. They are about 0.02'5 mm diameter are fixed'
1.. mIcros ·lJlm
. istraIn . --
m with ,some initial tension between two frames which can move relative to each
other. This initial tension or preload is necessary, to avoid buckling under
If the change in the value of resistivity of a material when strained is
, compression or negative displacement and this preloading should. be greater than
neglected, the gauge factor is:
finy expected compression or negative displacement. A simplified figure is shown
Gf = 1 +2V (3.12) J~ figure 3.5.
Eqn 8.12 is valid only when Piezoresistive Effect (i.e) change in resistivity
due to strain is almost negligible.
The Poisson's ratio for all metals is between 0 and 0.5,. This gives a gauge
factor of approximately 2. The common value for Poisson's ratio for wires is 0.3. Flexure
plate
This gives a value of 1..6 for wire wound strain gauges.
Types of Strain Gauges Flexure

I''''''--frame
The following are the major types of str ain gauges:
4
1. lJnbonded metal strain gauges
2. Bonded metal wire strain gauges
8. Bonded metal foil strain gauges Fig. 3.5 (a) Unbounded type strain gage Fig. 3.5 (b)CircuitConnec~ion
4. Vacuum deposited thin metal film strain gauges
5. Sputter deposited thin metal strain gauges

Unbonded type strain gauge for rotationalmotion is. shown in figure 3.6.
6. Bonded semiconductor strain gauges
7. Diffused metal strain gauges

3.10 Transducer' Engineering
This permits a good transfer of strain from carrier to grid of wires. The wires
cannot buckle as they are embedded in a matrix of cement and hence f~ithfully
follow both the tensile and compressive strains of the specimen. Since, the
materials and the wire sizes used for bonded wire strain gauges are the same
as used for unbonded wire strain gauges, the gauge factors and resistances for
\
\
both are comparable..The most commonly used forms of strain gjiuges are shown
in figure 8.7. ~ ,
Fig. 3.6 Unbonded type strain gage for rotational stress
The nominal values of resistance for these gauges range from 40.' ,to 2000
The angular motion gives to the inner member which is pivoted to the outer ohms, but 120, 350~nd 1000 are common values.
stationary member, increases the tension on' the 'wires and reduces the preload Carrier (base) Wtregrid
on the. other two wires. For example, clockwise twist given to the centre beam
increases the tension on wires A and C and reduces the reloaded tension on
wires 13 andD. If' they are connected .in a bridge as shown then the output
voltage available is four times the voltage that would have been obtained due, Terminals
to a single wire..This .arrangement is useful for measurement of Torsional Strain
and angular displacement. This type of gauges can be used to measure only very
small displacements of the order of 0.004 cm full scale. Normally these gauges-
1
are u~ed as sensors for force, pressure and acceleration. _In these cases the strain W1.re grid
wires serve as' the necessary spring elements to transduce force to displacement
(a) Linear strain guage (b) Rosette
and this displacement is sensed
\
as a resistance variation. The range of force
Wtre
and deflection values, are decided by the size, length of wires and the number
of wires used.
r;= Terminals ~
Base
The sensitivity for abridge excitation of 5 volts-is 40 mv f1111 scale output
for 0.006 em full scale displacement. The nominal value of resistance of the
bridge arms is 350 ohms. The thermal sensitivity shift is 0.02% per degree celsius
between - 18°e and 120°0.
(c) Torqueguage (d) Helical gauge

3.3.3 Bonded Wire Strain Gauges
Fig. 3.7 Resistance wire strain gauge
Construction
A resistance wire strain gauge. consists of a grid of fine resistance wire of Base (Carrier) Material
'about 0.025 mm in diameter or less. The grid is cemented to carrier (base) which 1. Epoxy - 200°0 to 150°0
may be a thin sheet of bakelite or a sheet of teflon. The wire is covered on top
with a thin sheet of material so as 'to prevent it from any mechanical damage. 2. Bakelitecellulose or fiberglass materials - 200°0 to 300°C
The spreading of wire permits a uniform distribution of stress over the grid.
The carrier material should have the following properties.
The carrier is bonded with an adhesive material to the specimen under study.
Variable Resistance Transducer
3.13
• High dielectric strength
• Minimum temperature restrictions In figure 3.8, for example, the three linear grid gauges are designed with
fat end turns. This local increase in area reduces the transverse sensitivity which
• Minimum Thickness consistent with other factors
is a spurious input since the gauge is designed to measure the strain component
• High mechanical strength along the length of grid elements.
• Good adherence to cements used
Adhesives t
Ethylcellulose cement, nitrocellulose cement, bakelite cement and epoxy
cement are -some of the commonly used adhesive materials. The temperature
range upto which they can be used is usuallybelowLffi'C.
Leads
The leads should be of such materials which have low and stable resistivity
ana also a 'low resistance temperature coefficient.
The recommended lead wire insulation material of the temperature range

is:
Nylon
Fig. 3.8 Metal foil strain gauges
Vinyl 65°C to 75°C
Polyethylene 75°C to 95°C
Teflon 75°C to 260°0
For foil type strain gauges, the manufacturing process also easily provides
3.3.4 Bonded Metal foil Strain Gauges convenient soldering tabs, which are integral to the sensing grid, on all four
gauges as shown in Figure 3.8.
Construction
Foil type of gauges are employed for both stress analysis as well as for
This class of strain gauges is only an extension of the bonded metal wire
constructiop. of transducers. Foil type of gauges are mounted on a flexible
strain gauges. The bonded' metal wire strain gauges have been completely
insulating carrier film about 0.025 mm thick which is made of polymide, glass
superseded by bonded metal foil strain gauges.
phenolic etc. Typical , gauge resistances are 120, 350 and 1000 Q with the
.' .
The sensing elements of foil gauges are formed from sheets less than 0.005 allowable gauge current of5 to 40 lIlA which is determined by the heat
mm thick by photo-etching processes, which allow greater flexibility with regard dissipation capabilities of the gauge. The gauge factors typically range from 2
to s.hape. to 4.
Resistance and gauge 'factors of film gauges are identical to those of foil
Material for foil type Strain Gauge
gauges. Since no organic-cementing materials are used, thin-film gauges exhibit
/
\ a better time and temperature stability.
Material \
Gauge factor
\
Nichrome - 2.5 3.3.6 Semiconductor strain gauges
Constantan - 2.1
l1
Semiconductor strain gauges are used/where a very hig gauge factor and
a small -envelope are required. The- resistance- of the semi conductors changes
Isoelastic - 3.6 with change in applied strain. Unlike in the case of metallic gauges where the
change in resistance is mainly due to change in dimensions when strained, the
Nickel - -12
semi conductor strain gauge depend for their action upon piezo-resistive effect.
Platinum - 4.8 Semi conducting materials such as silicon and germanium are used as
resistive materials for semi conductor strain gauges.
3.3.5 Evaporarion Deposited Thin Metal Strain Gauges A typical strain gauge consists of a strain sensitive crystal material and
leads are_sandwiched ina protective-matrix. The production of 'these gauge
Evaporation deposited thin film metal strain gauges are mostly used for
employs conventional semi conductor technology using semi conducting wafer
the fabrication of trans.ducers.They are of sputter deposited variety. Both
(or) filaments which-have a thickness of 0.05 mm and bonding them on a suitable
processes begin with a suitable elasticmetal element.i'I'he elastic metal element
insulating substrates, such as teflon. Gold leads are generally employed for
converts the physical quantity into a strain. To cite an example of a pressure
making the contacts: Some of the typical semi conductor strain gauges are shown
transducer, a thin, circular metal diaphragm is formed. Both the evaporation
in fig 3.'9. These strain gauges can be fabricated along with integrated circuit
and sputtering- processes form all the strain gauge elements directly on the strain
(Ie) operational amplifiers which can act as a pressure sensitive transducers.
surface, they are not separately attached as in the case of bonded strain gauges.
In the evaporation process, the diaphragm is placed in a vacuum chamber Top view
with some Insulating material. Heat is applied until the insulating material
vapourises and then condenses, forming a thin dielectric filmonthe diaphragm.
Suitably shaped templates are placed over the diaphragm, and the evaporation
and condensation processes are. repeated with the metallic- gauge material,
-{---,P e- AA - Cross sectionalview
forming the desired strain gauge pattern on top of the insulating substrate. (a) Unbondeduniformly n
doped gauge (b) Diffused p-type gauge
In the sputtering process, a thin dielectric layer- is deposited in vacuum
Fig. 3.9 Semi-conductor strain gauge
over -the entire diaphragm surface. The detailed mechanism -of deposition -is,
however, entirelydifferent from the evaporation method. -The complete layer of Advantages
metallic gauge is sputtered on the top of the dielectric .material without _using
1. High _gauge factor.
any substrate. Therliaphragms are now removed from the vacuum chamber,
and microimaging techniques using photo masking materials are used ·to form 2. Hysteresis, characteristics are. excellent.
the gauge pattern. The diaphragms -are then returnedto the vacuum -chamber. ·3. High fatigue life.
Sputter etching techniques are used to remove all unmasked metal layer, leaving
4., Very smallin size.
behind the desired gauge pattern.
3.16 Transducer Engineering Variable Resistance Transducer ' 3.17
Disadvantages
1. Very sensitive. to changes in temperature.
2. Linearity is poor.
3.3.7 Diffused strain gauges

The Diffusion process used in Ie- manufacture is .employed. In. pressure
/
transducer, for example, the diaphragm would be of silicon rather than metal
andLhe strain gauge effect would be realized by depositing impurities in the
diaphragm to form an intrinsic strain gauge. This type of construction may allow FABX-50-12SX
2-Elem.ent Rosette 3-ElementRosette
lower manufacturing costs in some designs, as a large. number of diaphragms 90° Stacked 45° Stacked
can be made on a single silicon wafer. (foil) (foil)
3.3.8 Rosettes
In addition to single element strain gauge, a ·combination of strain gauge
called "Rosettes" are available in many combinations for specific stress analysis
(or) transducer application.
2-ElementRosette 2-ElementRosette
90° Planar 45° Planar
(foil) (foil)
Fig. ·3.10 Some forms of Rosettes
3.4 RESISTANCE THERMOMETERS OR RESISTANCE

TEMPERATURE DETECTOR (RTD)
3.4.1 Introduction
Resistance thermometers are primary' electrical transducers enabling,
3-ElementRosette 3-ElementRosette measurement of temperature changes .in terms of resistance changes, The'
60° Planar 450 Stacked
(foil) resistive element is usually made of a solid material, .a metal, metallic alloy or
(wire)
a semiconductor compound. The resistivity' of metals increases with temperature,
Fig.' 3.10 Some forms of' Rosettes while that of semi conductors and insulators generally decreases.
Wire wound elements employ considerable length of wire, and if free to

expand, the length also· increases with increase in temperature. Hence as
3.18 Trensducer Enqlneennq
Variable Resistance Transducer s.ia
temperature changes, the change in resistance will be due to changes in both length
3.12. The resistance element is surrounded by arporcelain insulator which
J
and resistivity. Materials used. for resistance thermometers have temperature

prevents short circuit between wire and the metal sheath.
coefficient of resistivity much larger than the coefficient of thermal expansion.
" .
Two leads are attached to each side of the platinum wire. When this
3.4.2 Resistance thermometers instrument is placed in aIiquid or a gas medium whose tem,perature is to be
Resistance thermometers use conductive elements like nickel and copper or- ~7.~
tungsten and nickel/iron alloys. The variation of resistance R with temperature
T for most metallic materials can be, represented by an equation of the form nH
t": (3.13)
S~VInconeI Sheath
R T = R 0 ( 1 + al T + a2 T 2 + ... an
:~~v Porcelain Insulator
1.
where R o is the resistance at T = DoC .

:~~v Platinum Wrres
The changes in resistance fordifferent metals are given in the form of graph . . . ~,I•• ~
~'::.~::~
in figure 3.11. •....:0;.•
•~ ,••:. ').-=
AluminaPowder
s
I I
t 3 I-o---I----t--+--~r:o...-.,....--____t
R
Ro" 21--+-~~---I----4~---I
Fig. 3.12 A Resistance Thermometer
1.............--+-----t---+----1
measured, the sheath quickly reaches the temperature of the medium. This
changes in temperature causes the platinum wire inside the sheath to heat or
400° 6000 8000 1‫סס‬oo K. cool, resulting in a proportional change in the wires resistance. This change in
Temperature --+
resistance' can be directly 'calibrated to indicate the temperature.
Fig. 3.11 Characteristics of materials "used for reslstalnce thermometers.
For .engineering purposes and also if range of variation of temperature is Metals .used for Resistance Thermometers
narrow then
Metal Temperature Range °C
R t = R o {l+ at -"to (3.14) -,
Min Max
R t = Ro (1 + a ~ t) (3.15) -_._---
Platinum -260 110
where a is the temperature coefficient as to and, Ro is the resistance at to , -
Copper 0 180
Construction f----------
Nickel -220 I 300,
Resistance elements are generally long, spring like wires enclosed ina metal 1----,--.
-e,
sheath. The construction 'of practical resistance thermometer is shown in figure . Tungsten -200 1000
Va-riableResistance Transducer 3.21
3.20 . ~----~--------------
....-----.
C '
RTD Circuits '..~. ~ ~~)S:tC\.Jv"C~
~~OY'c1i.tQ-0
The variation in resistance is measured and converted into a voltage signal

with the help of a bridge circuit - Bridge circuits employ either deflection mode
of operation or the null mode. (manually or automatically balance). Figure 3.13
is a bridge for null ~ethod of measurement.
Fig. 3.15 Three wire resistance thermometer circuit
.Toget a fairly 'linear relationship. between the output voltage and the
temperature, the valuesof R 1 and R 2 of the above circuits are made atleast 10
times greater than that of the thermometer.
Advantages
• Good Reproducibility
Fig. 3.13 Null balance bridge circuit Of resistance thermometer • Fast in response
R 4 is varied until' balance is' achieved. When better accuracy is required the • Small in size
arrangement shown in figure 3.14 is preferred. • High Accuracy
'. Wide temperature range
• Temperature compensation is not required
Disadvantages
.>,Cost is high
• Excitation needed
• Large bulb size than thermocouple
Fig. 3.14 Bridge~ balance circuit for better accurecy • Produce mechanical .vibration.
In this circuit the contact resistance in the adjustable resistor has no

influence on the resistance of the bridge legs.
3.5.1 Introduction
If long lead wires subjected to temperaturevariations are unavoidablevthen Thermistorsvare thermal resistors with a .' .high negative temperature
three wire resistance thermometer is used with the circuit configuration as . coefficientof resistance.
shown in .figure 3.15.
3.23
They are made of manganese, nickel, copper, iron, uranium and cobalt
to detect very small changes in temperature which could not be observed with
oxides which were milled, mixed in proper proportions with binders pressed into a R'I'D or a th.ermocouple.
the desiredshape and sintered.
In some cases the resistance of thermistor at room temperature may
Construction decrease as much as 5 percent for each 1°C rise in temperature. This high
Thermistors are composed of ·sintered mixture of metallic oxides such as sensitivity to temperature changes makes thermistors extremely useful for
manganese, nickel, cobalt, copper, iron and uranium. They are available in precision temperatur-e measurements control and compenaation.
variety of sizes and shapes. The thermistors may be in the 'form of beads, rods
Thermistors are widely used in applicationswhich involve measurements
and discs. Some of the commercial forms are shown in figure 3.16.
in the range of -60°C to 15°C. The resistance of thermistors ranges from
Glasscoated Glass 0.5 Q to 0.75 M Q.Thertnistor is a highly sensitive device. The price to be paid
~.ad ~
Leads
. off for the high sensitivity is in terms of .linearity. The thermistor exhibits a
:1 :1=- Leads.
highly non-linear characteristic of resistance versus temperature.
(a) Bead (b) Probe

Characteristics of Thermistor
Lead Lead
Three important characteristics of thermistor make them extremely useful
~ J-<J.~ in measurement and control applications. These are:
(c) Disc (d) Rod (i) the resistance -' temperature characteristics
Fig. 3.16 Different terms of. construction of thermistors
(ii) the voltage current .characteristics
A thermistor in the form of a bead is smaller in size and the bead may
have a diameter of 0.015 mm to 1~25 mm. Beads may be sealed ill: the tips of (iii) the 'current-time characteristics
solid glass rods to form probes which maybe easier to mount than the beads. .Thermistors have a large negative temperature coefficient and it is highly
Glass probes have a diameter of about 2.5 mm and a length which varies from nonlinear. The resistance at different temperatures can be found out using the
6 mm to 50 mm. Discs are .made by pressing material under high pressure into following equation,
cylindrical flat shapes with diameters ranging from 2.5 mm to 25 mm.
(3.16)
Thermistors. where
Thermistor is .a contraction of a term "h t ermaI resis

istor"Th'··t
. errms ors are RT - resistance' at temperature T
generally composed of semi-conductor materials. Although positive temperature
R o - resistance at temperature To
co-efficient of' units (which exhibit an increase in the value of resistance with
increase in temperature) are available, most thermistors have /a>negative f3 -" constant characteristic of material
coefficient of temperature resistance ie. their resistance decreases with increase
of temperature. The negativefemperature coefficient of resistance can be as e· - base of natural log
large as several percent per degree 'celsius. This allows the thermistor circuits
and T1.To - absolute temperature K,
3.24, Transducer Engineering Variable Resistance Transducer
3.25
The value of ~ for the semi conductor made of the above material is 4000. when To = 25°C = 298.K
The temperature coefficient a for thermistor is expressed' as a =- (4000/2982) =- 0.045
1 dRT (3.17) The resistivity versus temperature graphs are shown in figure 3.17.
a= - - - -
R T dT
The voltage to current characteristics of thermistors is .as shown in figure
3.18. "
106
4
o8 10
Due to self heating the resistance decreases and the current increases. As
~102 Manganese &
nickeloxide
~
the current is more the heating is also more and hence resistance will decrease. :E 10°
rn
Some kind of chain action takes place here, This process will continue until the '6 10- 2 Manganese,
~
nickel &
thermistor reaches the maximum temperature possible for the amount of power 10- 4 cobalt oxide
available at which time a. steady state will exist. 10- 4 Platinum
Figure .3.19 show typical current time characteristic curves for' a
-200-100 0 100 200 300 400
semiconductor material. The thermal dissipation constant for typical thermistor ---+. temp.
ranges from 0.1 m W/oC for' glass covered beads to 7 m W/oC for relatively large Fig. 3.17 Resistivecu'rves for thermistors'
discs.' All are measured in still air. Other 'semiconductor temperature sensors
include carbon resistors, silicon and germanium devices.
15 ..... : ':' ~ ~ ~. ~ 0 • 00 0
Volts ::::::
Carbon resistors are merely the commercial carbon-composition elements
i · . . . . .
• • e _ • •
·T···T·····~······!·····:··· . ·l
• • • • 0 •
commonly used as resistance elements in electronic circuitry. The normal. power 10 ..

rating is from 0.1 to 1 watt and the resistance value varies from 2 to 150 ohm. 5 ..... ~ ... of...... ~ . . .. . I.~ ...... ~ • • • • o.~
·· .. .... .... ..
00
.
They are also used for cryogenic temperature measurements in the range 1 to ·...... ..... .. ..
..
..
.. ..
..
....
..
20 K. From about 20 K downward these elements exhibit a large increase in
lOrnA
resistance with decrease in temperature given by the relation --+ IDA
(3.19) Fig. 3.1.8 V-I characteristics of thermistors
R is the resistance, Tis the temperature in Kelvin and A, BandK are The current through the semiconductor element is time dependent for a
constants determined by calibration c~~staht voltage as the resistance varies due to self heating as shown in figure
3.19 of the individual resistors. Reproducitibitity of the order of 0.2% is obtained
1 dR (3.18) in the range of 0 to 20°C.
- - -T
RT dT
3.26 "Transducer Engineering Variable Resistance Transducer 3.27
Disadvantages
SO
• Highly non-linear.
Current 40
rnA 30 • In low temperature, sensitivity also low.
20
• Its upper limit is set by instability.
10
2 3 4 S 6 3.5.2 Temperature Compensation

..........:+ Timein seconds
Fig. 3.19 Current variation due to self heating in thermistor

Because Thermistors have a negative temperature coefficient of resistant -
opposite to the positive coefficient of most electrical conductors and
Silicon with boron impurities can be designed to have either a positive or 'semiconductors they are widely used to compensate for the effects of temperature
negative temperature coefficient over a particular temperature range. A typical on both component and circuit performance.
element shows from the normal value at 25°C a change of 80% at - 150°C to
Disk. t~pe thermistors are used for this purpose where the maximum
+ 180% at 200°C.
temperature does not exceed± 125°C. A properly selected. thermistor, mounted
Germanium doped with arsenic and gallium is used for cryogenic against or near a circuit element, such asa copper meter coil.. and experiencing
temperatures where it exhibits a large decrease in resistance with increase in the same ambient temperature changes, can be connected in. such a ·\vay that
temperature. the total circuit resistance is constant. over a wide range of temperatures. This
is shown in the curves of figure 3.20 which illustrates the effect of a
Applications compensation network.
lO...-......-.--r-o-....----...----.,...-.....-.....
1. Measurement of power at high frequencies.
9 ~-:-~. -I-!
t--+--+-:.'NM.l.
2. Vacuum measurement.
i~ ... :~
3.' Measurement of thermal conductivity. C Compensated copper
.w 6 ~-I---I-~~:::t=--=*=~I---I----1
.·4. Measurement of level, flow and pressure of liquids.

.1 S t--t---t--
~ 4 I---".......-..........~t----+----+----t~-t- ......
5. Measurement of composition of gases.
31---+-~~~.....-..--+----t--t-......
2t--...;p..~---ll--o\t----+----I!---+--I
Advantages
ll--+--
• Very high sensitivity,
o r...-.....&-..--'-----'r....-'"""----a-...........I . - -.........- . .
• It can be manufactured in any size 'or shape. 40
• Good stability.
Fig•. 3.20 Temperature compensation. of a copper··conductorby of a thermistor network
• Fast in Response. (In the order of IDS)
The compensator consists of a thermistor, shunted by a resistor, The

negative temperature coefficient of this combination equals the positive 3.6.2 B.aslcprinclpJe
coefficient of the copper coil. The coil resistance of 5000 Q at 25°C, varies from The two types of anemometers use the same basic principle but in different .
approximately 4500 Q at O°Cto 5700 Q.at60°C, representing a change of about ways.
± 12' percent. With a single thermistor compensation network, this variation is
In the constant current 'mode, the fine resistance wire c~Fying a fixed
reduced to about ± 15 Q or ± 1. / 4 percent. With double or triple compensation current is exposed to theflowvelocity, 'I'he flow'of current through the .wire
networks, variations can be reduced even further.
generates heat on account of t2 ;R loss. 'This heat is dissipated.from the surface
of the wire by convection to the surroundings. (The loss of heat due to conduction
andradiation is negligible). The wire attains equilibrium temperature when the
3.6 HOT WIRE ANEMOMETER
heat, generated. due to i 2.R l oss i s:';equ al tothe.heatdissipateddueto convective
loss.
3.6.1 Introduction
The circuit is so designed that i 2 R heat is essentially constant and therefore
Hot wire anemometers are hot wire resistance transducer which are used the wire temperature must adjust itself to change the convective loss until
for measurement of flow rates of fluids. In hot wire anemometers resistive wire equilibrium is reached. The resistance of the wire depends upon thetemperature
is used as a basic .sensor, which' is heated initially by passing an electric current. and the temperature depends the rate 'of flow. Therefore, the resistance of wire
This heated resistive. wire mounted·· on a' probe is exposed to air' flow .or wind, becomes a measure of the flow rate.
which is cooled because of fanning effect. The amount of cooling depends on the In the constant temperature mode, the current required .to maintain the
velocity of air flow. resistance and 'hence temperature eonstanf.becomes a measure of flnw velocity.
The resistance of the probe when it is hot is different from that when it is Heat generated .=12 s; (3.20)
cooled. This difference in resistance, or' this variation in resistance is converted
into a voltage variation. Broadly hot wire anemometers are commonly used in where
two different modes. 1·- current through the wire; A,
1. Constant current type R w - resistanceofwire;Q,
2. 'Constant temperature type: Heat dissipated due to convection = hA{8w -- Sf)

Inconel \ . Ineonel
wire Ceramic cement where
tubing
h -coefficient of heat transfer,W1m 2 --oC, .
A -heat transferarea;m 2, .
Ceramictubing
Fig. 3.21 Hotwlre-anememeter probe

Bw ·- temperatureof wire; °C,
and Sf - temperature of flowing fluid, °C,

3.30, Transducer Engineering Variable Resistance Transducer 3.31
For equilibrium conditions, we can write .the energy balance .for the hot
Hence, .a straight line relationship exists between [2 andW as shown in
wire as,
figure 3.22.
(3.21) For the purpose of measurement, the hot wire anemometer which is 'in the
form of an. insulated. probe is connected in a whetstone bridge as shown in
" Now from h is mainly, a function of flow velocity for a given fluid density.. fig 3.23.
From King's Law, for a range of velocities, this function canbewrittenas,
Potentiometer
(3.22) orEVM
where Co and C1 are constants and V is the flow velocity of fluid in mls.
Flow
--+ "-'-.............
- 0 1.......
Hence Eqn, 3.21, can be written as:
(3.23)
3.6.3 Constant Temperature Anemometer
Now, Eqn (3.23) can be written as:
(3.24)
Fig. 3.23 Bridge circuit used for constant temperature Hot wire anemometer
For constant temperature 8w of wire, its resistance R w is constant. A and
A standard resistor 118 is connected in series with the hot wire anemometer.
Sf are already constant and therefore Eqn, 3.24 can be written .as:
A galvanometer is used to detect the' balance conditions. The current through
(3.25) the hot wire is determined by measuring voltage drop across the standard
resistor R s with the help of a d.c potentiometer or an Electronic voltmeter (EVM).
where K 1 and K 2 are constants. R 4 is very large as compared to R 2 so that most of the current flows through
t .ll4·
~ SlopeIS
121 ----~
",,"" I
Themeasuring circuit is first calibrated by exposing the hot wire to known
.
i: I
velocities and using the same fluid forwhich it is ultimately used. The pressure
and temperature .of the fluid should be maintained at the same values during
K1 :
I
.calibration and usage later. The .velocities of fluid are measured accurately by
{VI {V--+ .some other 'method like static Pitot tube. The output is recorded over a range
Fig. 3.22 Relatif?nship between r and {V of velocity.
In ca.libration V is set at some known value VI. Then R 4 is adjusted to set

the hot wire current I at a value low enough to prevent wire burn out but high High resistance
enough' to give adequate sensitivity to velocity. The resistance R w will come to milli-voItmeter
a definite temperature and resistance. Thenthe resistor R 2 is adjusted to balance

the bridge. This adjustment is essentially a measurement of wire' temperature,
which is held fixed at all velocities.
The first on the calibration curve is thus plotted as I~ ~Vl. Now V is changed
to a .new value, causing wire temperature and hence R w to change there by
unbalancing the bridge. Then R w ' and thus wire temperature is restored to its
Fig. 3.24' Bridge circuit used for constant current Hot wire anemometer
original value by changing I (by changing R) till balance is restored. The 'value
of R 2 is not changed as this. assures the Il w 'has remained constant and so has resistance millivoltmeter. A calibration curve showing a plot of out of balance .
the temperature. The new point is plotted on the calibration curve, and this voltage eo V / s flow velocity V is shown in figure 3.25.
procedure is repeated for other velocities.
A plot 'of 12 VI s N show in figure 3.22 is used as the calibration curvefor

the specified medium of flow. 'Once calibrated, the probe ,can be used to measure
unknown velocities by balancing the bridge and finding the value of I. The
corresponding value of V'can be found from the calibration curve.
VI -+ V
·'l'he method described above can be used for 'measurement of average
Fig. 3.25 Relationship between out of balance voltage eo and flow velocil¥V
(steady) velocities as it is manual in nature. This mode of operation can be
(calibration curve)
extended to measure both average and fluctuation components of velocity by
making the bridge balancing operation automatic, rather than manual, through The value of any unknown value of flow velocity can be found from-the
feedback arrangements. calibration curve corresponding to the out, of balance voltage eo. Suppose while
measuring the velocity ofa fluid, an-out of balance voltage eOl is obtained; the
.3.6.4 Constant Current Anemometer velocity corresponding to this is VIas found from the calibratiorrmrrve.iThe
In. the. constant-current mode of operation, the current through the hot wire range 'of velocities .for which constant current type anemometer can-be-used -is
is 'kept at a suitable value. The hot wire anemometer is connected in a bridge necessarily low because of the possibility of .th~ wireburn out when theflow
circuit as shown in figure 3.24. The bridge iscalibrated first. stops. This means that choice of lower value-of I' for the' upper .limitofvelccity
or a lower value of velocity-for an upper limit with a satisfactory value of I.
The value of .current I through the ianemometer is selected and set at a
proper value taking precautions so that the burn out of hot wire does not occur. The measuring circuit of the constant current anemometer can be used for
The'hotwire iasubjected to different known values of velocities V of the fluid the measurement of steady velocities as well as the rapidly fluctuating
under test-. ·This changes the value of R w and therefore unbalances the bridge components such as the turbulent components superimposed on an average
thereby producing an out of balanced voltage eo which is measured by a high velocity.
Variable Beslstance Transducer 3.35
condensation may damage thedevice, Either they must be operated in a constant

3.7 HUMIDITY MEASUREMENT USING RESISTIVE TRANSDUCERS,
temperature environment or temperature corrections must be made. These are
Humidity accurate to within ± 2.5 percent or ± 1.5 percent in some cases. Response times
are typically of the order of few seconds. These are currently the most common
Humidity is the measure of water vapour present in a gas. It is usually
electronic. .hygrometers.
measured as absolute humidity, relative humidity or dew point temperature.
Absolute humidity or Specific humidity

It is the mass of water vapour present per unit volume.
Relative Humidity -Fig. 3.26 Resistive hygrometer

It is the ratio of water vapour pressure actually present to water vapour
'Working Principle
'pressure required for saturation at a given temperature. The ratio is expressed
in percent. Relative humidity (RH) is always dependent upon ,temperat'ure.. The resistance of the element changes when it is exposed to variations in
"humidity. The higher the relative humidity, the more moisture the lithium
m., Pv
$--'- - - chloride will absorb, and the lower will be its resistance.
- msat - P g
'I'he resistance of the sensing unit is a measure of the relative humidity,
PV - actual partial pressure Resistance should be measured by applying a.c to the whetstone bridge. D.C
])g- .saturation pressure of vapour voltage is not applied because it tends to breakdown the lithium chloride to its
lithium and chloride atoms. The current flow is a measure of the resistance and
Construction hence of the relative humidity.'
A typical resistive hygrometer.is shown in figure 3.26. It shows a mixture Thus ' hygrometer is called Dunmore type of hygrometer. The
of lithium chloride and carbon which acts as conducting film. This is 'put' on an resistance/relative humidity relationship is quite non-linear, and generally a
insulating substrate between metal electrodes. A mixture of lithium chloride and .. single transducer can cover" only a small range of the order of .10 percent
carbon exhibi~sa change in resistivity with humidity. This material 'with a humidity. Where large ranges, as great as 5 to 99 percent relative humidity,
binder may be coated on ~ wire or an electrodes. are needed, seven or eight 'of transducers, each designed for a specific 'part of
the total range, are combined in a single package.
Resulting resistance changes over a wide range, e.g. 10 4 to 10 9 Q as the
humidity changes from 100 .to o percent. This makes it impractical to design a , These transducers are widely used for contir uous recording and/or control
single element to operate from 1 to 100 percent relative humidity. or relative humidity. Another electrical type of transducer, .the sulfonated
polystyrene ion-exchange.device called the pope cell exhibits a non-linear change
Instead several clements are used, each in a narrow range,' with provision'
of resistance from a few if Q at 0 percent to about 1000 Q at 100perceIit relative
for switching elements. Resistance is measured either with' a whetstonebridge
humidityrand a single transducer can cover the entire range. Accuracy is
or by a combination of current and voltage measurements. Most of these must
'comparable to that of the Dunmore transducer.
not be exposed to conditions of 100 percent humidity as the resulting
(b) Based on material used
(i) Wire wound potentiometer

(ii) Non-wire wound potentiometer
4. What are the advantages and disadvantages of Dotentiometer?

1. What is potentiometer?
'I'he advantages of potentiometer are,
Basically a resistance potentiometer, or simply a -POT, (a resistive
potentiometer used for the purposesof voltage division is called a' POT) (a) Inexpensive.
consists of a resistive element provided. with a .sliding contact. The' POT' is (b) Useful for measurement of large amplitudes.
a passive transducer. (c) Efficiency ,is ,very high.
2. List the materials used for potentiometer. (d) Frequency response of wire wound .potentiometers is limited.
Materials used 'for potentiometer are 'I'he disadvantage of potentiometer is,
(a) Wire wound potentiometer (a) 'llequire a large force to move.
1. Platinum 5. Define resistive transducer. Give example.

2. Nickel chromium The resistance of the, metal conductoris expressed bya simple .expression,
II = eL / A which involves a few physical quantities.
3. Nicker copper'
4·. Some other precious, resistive element where,
(b) Non wire wound ·potentiometer R Resistance in Q

t. Length of conductor in m
(i) Cermet
A Cross sectional area in m 2
(ii) Hot moulded carbon e Resistivity of conductor material in Qm
(iii) Carbon .film
The device in which anyone of the above properties is changed.' for
(iv) Thin metal film measurement purpose is called a resistive transducer.
3. Classify potentiometers. Example: Strain gauge, potentiometer, resistance thermometer.

Potentiometers .are classified, 6. List the factors influencing the choice of transducers.
Factors influencingthe choice of a transducer are,
(a) Based on operation \
(a)' Operating principle

(i) Linear potentiometer
(b) 'Sensitivity
(ii)Rot~ry potentiometer
(c) Operating range
(iii) Helipot (d) Accuracy
(iv) Non-linear potentiometer.
3.38 Transducer Engin.eering Variable Resistance Transducer 3.39
(e) Cross sensitivity 10. What is strain?

Strain is a ratio of changing" length to original length.
(f) Loading effect
11. What is Young's modulus?
(g) Environmental compatibility
us iIS a rati10 '0 f S t ress and strai
. oung,s rno d.ulua
Y strain, dR/R
dl / 1
(h) Insensitivity to unwanted signals
(i) Usage and ruggedness 12. What is resistance thermometer?

(j) Stability. and reliability A resistance thermometer consists of a resistive. element which is exposed
to the temperature to be measured. If the conductors or metals are used to
(k) Static characteristics measure the temperature, they are known as resistance thermometers and
7. What is gauge factor? if semiconductors are used then they are known ·as thermistors.
The gauge factor is unit resistance change ·per unit strain. 13. What are the different approximation methods of resistance
8. What are the different types of strain gauge? thermometer?
'I'he various types of strain gauge are, The approximation methods of resistance thermometer are;
(a) Unbonded metal strain gauges • Linear approximation

• Quadratic approximation
(b) Bonded metal wire strain gauges
14. What is self heating error of thermometer?
(c) Bonded metal foil stain gauges
Resistance thermometer bridges may be excited with either DC or AC. The
(d) Vacuum deposited thin metal film stain gauges direct or rms alternating current through the thermometer is usually in
(e) Sputter deposited thin metal strain gauges the range of 2 to 20 rnA. This current causes, an [2 R heating which raises
the temperature of the thermometer above its surrounding, causing the so
(D Bonded semiconductor .strain gauges called self heating error.
(g) Diffused metal strain gauges.
15. What are the advantages and disadvantages of resistance
9. What are the factors to be considered for bonded strain gauge? thermometers?
Tho following factors are considered for bonded strain gauge. The advantages__of resistance thermometer are,
(a) Filament construction (a) '!'hey are suitable for measuring large temperature differences and high
temperatures,
(b) Material of the filament wire
(b) They are very accurate which make -them suitable for small
(c) Base carrier material or backing material temperature measurenaent.
(d) Cement used to bond the filament to tho carrier (c) Well designed resistance thermometers have excellent stability.
(e) Lead wire connections.

3.40 Transducer Enqineerinq Variable HesistanceTransduoar 3.41
(d) Unlike thermocouples, they do not need a reference junction and this • Self heating of thermistors is avoided.
favors them in many aerospace and industrial applications.
• Thermistors can be installed at a distance from their associated
The disadvantages of resistance thermometer' are, measuring circuits.
(a) Their relatively large volume compared to thermocouples results in 20. Mention the materials used for thermistors.
monitoring an average temperature over the length of the resistor Mixture of metallic o~des 'such as manganese, nickel, cobalt, copper, iron
rather than a point temperature. and uranium are use forfhermistors,
(b) They need auxiliary apparatus and power supply. 21. Give the principle of stain gauge.
(c) The resistance element is usually more expensive than a thermocouple. If a metal conductor is 'stretched or compressed, its resistance changes on
(d) There are errors due to self heating and thermoelectric effect of the the fact that both length and diameter of conductor change. There is a
resistive element and connecting leads {dissimilar metal junctions). , change in the value of resistivity of the conductor, when it is strained. This
property is called ipiezo-resistive effect. The strain gauges are resistive
16. What is the principle of hot wire anemometer?
transducers used for measurement of strain and associated stress in
Another resistance variation type transducers is hot wire anemometer. In
experimental stress analysis.
general, anemometers are devices 'used for measurement ofvelocity of flow.
22. Mention the applications 'of strain gauge.
'17. Why, d~amic compensation is required for hotwire anemometer?
The applications of strain gauge are, it is
To avoid the fluctuation, we need dynamic compensation circuits for the
hot wire anemometer. • Used to measure pressure
18. What are" the applications of thermistors? • Usedto measure torque

The applications of thermistors are, '. Used to measure acceleration
• Measurement of power at high frequencies. • Used to measure force
• Measurement of thermal conductivity. 23. List the' strain' gauge materials with its. gauge factor.
• Measurement of level, flow and pressure of liquids. -

SI.No. Material ' Gauge factor
• Measurement of composition of gases. (a) Nickel .; 12.1
• Vacuum measurements. (b) Manganin
<,
+0.47
• Providing time delay. (c) Nichrome +2.0
19. Mention the features of thermistors.
Cd) Constantan +2.1
The features of ,thermistors are,
(e) Soft iron +4.2
• Compact, rugged and inexpensive.
(f) Platinum + 4.8
• Good stability.
(g) Carbon +20
• The response time of thermistors can vary from a fraction of a second
(h) Doped-'crystal 100 - 5000
to minute.
24. Define POIsson's ratio. 28. Explain how linearity and sensitivity of a linear potentiometer
Poisson's ratio is' defined as the .ratio of lateral strain to longitudinal strain. conflicting with each other when loaded with o/p devices.
For high sensitivity, the i/p voltage should be large and in turn resistance
. " . ODID Rp should be high. On the other hand, for higher linearity, the resistance
P Olsson s ratio, r = aLIL
of the ,potentiometer R p should, be made as 'small as possi?le. If R p is low
25. Define stress and strain. power dissipation goes up which requires low input voltage ,orand hence lower
Stress is defined as the deforming force per unit area. sensitivity. Thus linearity and sensitivity are two conflicting. requirements.
Force 29. What'is meant by Poisson's arrangement in construction of .strain

Stress '=-A,N/m
rea gauge. List its features.
Strain is defined as the ratio of change in dimension to original dimension. Poisson's arrangement in construction of strain gauge is a method. of
temperature compensation that utilizes two 'active gau~esllgl and R g3
. Change in dimension '. .- which are 'bonded at right angles to the structural membrane.
Strain =0 · · al d'. ,'. (dimensionless)
TIgIn , ImenSlon
(a) Temperature compensation is obtained.
26. Write a note on semiconductor strain gauge.
(b) Bridge sensitivity is increased by a factor (1 + r) wherer is the Poisson's
Semiconductor strain gauges are used where a very high gauge factor .and
, a small envelope are required. The resistance of the semiconductor changes ratio at the material used.
with change in applied strain. They depend on piezo-resistive effect. 30. How is the .resolutton of a linear resistive potentiometer
Semiconducting materials 'like silicon and germanium are used as. resistive determined?
material. .The resolution of a potentiometer is the smallest change in displacement
that can be measured. If the excitation is fixed then it is the smallest change
27. n"l'·ite a note on' gauge sensitivity of full bridge and half bridge
> in resistance that ' can be obtained by ,slider movement. To get 'high
circuit.'
resolution a single, slide wire can he 'used as the resistance ·element of the
Gauge sensitivity' of'a full bridge circuit for strain measurement is
potentiometer.
'31. Mention, two advantages 'of. thermistors over 'resistance

, Gauge sensitivity of a half bridge circuit is thermometer.
The advantages' of thermistors over resistance, thermometer are,
e Thermistor gives, high .output and. it is fast acting.

where,
eRelatively small in size, low thermal. capacity and it offers high value
of temperature coefficient.
k Scaling factor
IIg Resistance of gauge material '32. What is ~e:ting etfect? Explain with example.
Gf 9-auge factor The incapability of the system to' faithfullymeas~~e, recordor control the
input signal in undistorted form is called the loading effect.
3.44 Transducer .Enginee~ilng
Example: The output of a potentiometer is normally connected' to a meter

36: Draw the characteristics of various RTD material.
which has a definite input impedance and hence a current will he drawn
hy this meter. Due to the presence of meter resistance R m , there exists a
8
non-linear relationship between (Vol and displacement Xl. Thus in order to
7
keep linearity, the resistance of the potentiometer Rp should he as small Nickel
6
as possible.
Copper "
R/Ro s
~3. Why is dynamic compensation network used with hot wire
4
instruments?
The time constant T cannot he reduced much below 0.001 sec in actual 3
practice, which would limit the flat frequency response to less than 160 ·Hz. 2
This is quite inadequate for turbulence studies since frequencies of 50 kHz
and more are ofinterest. This limitation is overcome by the use of electrical 100 200 300 400 SOO 600 .700 Tempemture (OC)
dynamic compensation network. Characteristics of various RTD material
37. Define thermistors.
34. What is piezoresistive effect?
Ifa metal conductor is stretched or compressed, its resistance changes on • Thermistors are also known as 'thermal resistors' or semiconducting
resistance temperature transducers. ' . " :
the. fact that both length and diameter of conductor change. There is a
change in the value of resistivityofthe conductor, when it is strained. This • Thermistors are thermal resistors with a high negative temperature "
property is called piezo resistive' effect. coefficient of resistance. ' .
• It is highly sensitive and it exhibits "highly non linear characteristics.
35. What is RTD?List, the general requirements of RTD.
38. What are the different' forms of' thermistors? .
I~TI) is also known as resistance thermometer. Resistance of material
Thermistors are composed of 'sintered mixture of metallic oxides' such as
changes with temperature changes..This property is used in' temperature
manganese, nickel, cobalt, copper, iron, uranium,
measurement.
They are classified into four forms
Requirements for RTDmaterial are,
(a) Bead. form .It hasdiameterofOi If mm
(a) The change in. resistance of a material per unit change in temperature
.should be aslarge as possible.
(h) The resistivity of material should be high, so that minimum volume of
\: .~~
to 1.25 mm
material is 'used for the construction.

(b) Probe form It has diameter of 2.5 rom and length
(c) The resistance should' have a continuous and stable relationship with
of 6 m.m to' 50 mm
temperature.
(d) The materialshould have. positive temperature resistance coefficient.
3.46' . Variable Resistance Transducer 3.47
(c) Disc form Disc are- made by pressing material 40. What is hot wire anemometer? Mention its .applications?
under high pressure into cylindrical Hot wire anemometer is used to study varying flow conditions.
flat shape with dia ranging from 2.5 When a fluid flows over a heated surface, heat .is transferred from the
mm to 25 mm, surface and therefore its temperature reduces. The rRt~of reduction of
Lead temperature is related to flow rate.
(d) Rod form
41. 'Compare RTDand thermistor.
SI.No. RTD Thermistor

Lead . . ' -_..- --- -~--_._-_.+._-~._._----_._---------
39. Illustrate the performance characteristics of thermistor. (a) When temperature increases, the When temperature decreases,
Between- lQO°C"and- 400C?C,the thermistor changes its resistivity from
i
resistance of materials increases. the resistance of material
It' has positive temperature decreases. It has negative
10 5 and 10-- 2 Qm , a factor of 10 7
coefficient. temperature coefficient.
106 . . ._ ,--_.-----.-~,_.- . . .- .-..----".------____4'------------.-----.---
(b) Nickel, copper, platinum are Sintered mixture of metallic
used. oxides are used.
_ .._ ...._ _. 1! •_ _---".- ---t
~
(c) To approximate the curve linear To approximate . the curve,

10 and quadratic equations are Steinhart equationis used
10-2 used.
._._. -----.---.. - --.---,------,-------1---------..- - - - - - - -
10 (d) It is used to measure largerange Small 'change in temperature 'can
of temperature. be detected.
-100 0100 200 300 400 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ~.---.---.,-_-_-,----,------L.----
.. ---------.-----I
Resistive curvetorthermlstor
42. Define humidity, relative humidity 'and absolute humidity.
Humidity is a measure of water vapour present in gas.
0
10 OoC Absolute humidity is the mass of water vapour/present per unit volume.
~ 10 25°C Relative humidity is the ratio . o f water vapour pressure actually present- to
.s
C1)
water vapour pressure required for 'saturation ata given temperature. The
~ 60°C ,,--
~ ratio isoxpressed in percent. Relative humidity· (RM) depends upon

temperature.
0
-l--1lt--~.--------..--- .. 43. Classify hygrometers.

10-7 10-6· 10-5 10-4 10-3 H.ygrometer is also known as 'humidity sensors'.
Current in (rnA)
V-I characteristics It is classified as,
(a) Resistive hygrometer.
(b) Capacitive hygrometer.
(c) Aluminium oxide hygrometer.
(d) Crystal hygrometer.
44. A strain gauge having gaugefactor of 4 is used for testing machine.

GP= (tlRIR)
If the gauge resistance is 100 Q and the strain is 20 x 10- 6, how e
much will be the resistance of strain gauge change?
~ll=4x 500 x 5 X 10- 6
GIJ = 4; R = 100Q; e = 20 x 10- 6 ~ R = ?
= 0.01 Q
GP= (tlRIR)
e
~ = 4 x 20 x 10-- 6 x 100
= 8x 10- 3
•
45.. Asemiconductor gauge havinga'resistance of 1000 Q' and" gauge
factor - 133 is subjected to a compressive strain of 500 micro strain.
Calculate the new value of resistance of strain gauge change.
"R = 1000 Q; GP =- 133; £ = 500 x 10- 6; Ii R =?
GP= (tlRIR)
e
~ R = - 133 x 500 x 10- 6 X 1000
=- 66.5 Q
46. A strain gauge has a resistance of 120 n unstrained and gauge

factor is - 12. What is the resistance value if the strain is 1%?
OP =-\ 12; R = 120 Q; Ll R =.? £=1/100 = 0.01
GP=(tlRIR)
E
Ll R = ~ 12 x 120 x 0.01
= -144.72 Q
Variable Inductance and Variable Capacitance Transducers 4.1
UNIT IV
Variable Inductance and' Variable

Capacitance Transducers
4.1 VARIABLE INDUCTANCE TRANSDUCER

The variable inductance transducers work, generally, upon one of the
following three principles
(i) Change' of self inductance
(ii) Changeof'mutual inductance
o and' (iii) Production of eddy currents
4.1.1 Transducers working on principle of. change of Self-Inductance

. 2
The self inductance of a coil L = ~
o where N - number of turns, and
R - reluctance of the magnetic circuit
The reluctance of the magnetic circuit R = Jl~

.. Inductance, L = N 2 Jl (A / l)
=N2 Jl G ... (4.1)
where Jl - effective permeability of the .medium in and around the coil; HIm.
G = A / l - geometric form factor

A··· - area' of cross-section of coil: m 2 , and
I - length of. coil, m
It is clear from Eqn, (4.1): that the variation in inductance may be caused by:
4.2 Transducer Enginee.ring
(i) change in number of turns, N,

(ii) change in geometric configurations, G,
and (iii) change in permeability, J.!
Inductive transducers are mainly used for measurement of displacement.

The displacement to be measured is arranged to cause variation of any three
variables in Eqn (4.1) and thus alter the self-inductance L by 6. L.
Thedifferellt . types of inductive transducers for. measurement of
translational and rotary displacements are shown in figure 4.1.
..
4.1.2 Differential output of Inductive Transducers
Normally the change in self-inductance Ii L is adequate for detection for

subsequent stages of instrumentation system. However, if the succeeding
z
LiJ
. instrumentation responds to 6. L, rather than to L + ~ L the sensitivity and
8
accuracy will be much higher. The transducer can be designed to provide two 5 fi
outputs one of which is an increase of self-inductance and the other isa decrease
=t]
e ~
~
in self-inductance. The succeeding stages of instrumentation system measure 2i:
~~ f~/-
the difference between the outputs, i.e 26.L. This is known as the differential
output. The advantages of differential outputs are ~ /
~~
(i) The sensitivity and accuracy are increased.

~
0
~
t-.::I
(ii) The output is less 'affected by external magnetic fields.
~
tIJ
(iii) The effective variations due to temperature changes are reduced.
. I
{iv) The effects ofchanges in supply voltage and frequency are reduced. Z
.The differential arrangement .consists of a coil which is divided into two

parts. In response to a physical signal, which is normally a displacement, the
inductance of one .part increases from I~ to L + Ii L while that of the other part
decreases from L to' L - AL.The change is measured as the difference of the
two resulting in an output of 26. L· instead 6. L when only a single winding is
NOI~~n<INI .nas NOIJ.JfiClNI 'IVlll.!lW
used. The differential arrangements are shown in figure 4.1. \
\
4.1.3 Transducers work.ingon principle of change of Mutual Inductance Fig. 4.j Vari~ble Inductance Transducers
An .inductance transducer working on the- principle variation of mutual
inductance uses multiple coils. The mutual inductance between two coils is
4.4 Transducer Engineering Variable Inductance and Variable Capacitance Transducers 4.5
M=K~I.llL'2 .ee (4.2) frequency. The frequency of supply voltage should not exceed 20 kHz for iron
core transducers to keep the core losses to acceptable values. Hence for accurate
where .l.ll and 1~2 -self inductance of t\VO coils andK - coefficient of coupling measurements the frequency of the input displacement should not exceed 2··kHz.
Thus mutual inductance between the coils can be varied by variation of The advantages of iron cored coil transducers are:
self-inductances· or the coefficient of coupling. However, the mutual inductance (i) Their size is much smaller-then that air cored transducers on account
can be converted into a self-inductance by connecting the coils in series. The of high ·permeability of iron cores.
self-inductance ,of such an arrangement varies between £1·+ 1..12 - 2M to
(ii) Iron, cored transducers are less likely to cause external magnetic fields
./"'1 + /"'2 + 2M with one of the coils being stationarywhile the other is movable. because their magnetic field is confined to the iron core of the
The self-inductance of each coil is constant but the mutual inductance changes transducer on account of high permeability and are less affected by
dependingupon the displacement of the movable coil. stray magnetic fields on account of .the high magnetic field produced
by them.
The different arrangements of measurement of translational and rotary
displacements are shown in figured.L. Most .iron cored transducers are of the variable reluctance type where the
In, the differential arrangement, the fixed coil is divided into two parts. The length of air gap in the magnetic circuit isvaried. In most applications the
movement of the movable coil increas~~he mutual inductance of one part by reluctance of, magnetic circuit is primarily that of air gap.
/j. M and decreases that of the other by ~ ItJ.
4.2 TRANSDUCERS WORKING ON PRINCIPLE OF PRODUCTION OF
4.1.4 Types of Inductive ,Transducers EDDY ,CURRENTS
Inductive transducers can. be classified as air cored or iron cored. These inductive transducers. work on the principle that if' aconducting plate
Air or iron cored coils can be used for inductive transducers. Both have is placed .near .a coil carrying alternating current, eddy currents are produced
their own advantages and disadvantages. in the conducting plate. The conducting plate acts as a short-circuited secondary
winding of a transformer. The eddy currents flowing in the plate produce a
Air cored coils magnetic field of their own which acts against the magnetic field produced by
the coil. This results in reduction of flux and thus the inductance, of the coil is
, Air cored coil transducers can be .operated at a higher carrier frequency
reduced. The nearer is the plate to the coil, the higher are the eddy currents
because of absence of eddy current losses' in air cores. The inductance of air
and thus higher is, the reduction in the inductance of the coil. Thus the
cored coils is independent of the current carried by the coil as the permeability
inductance of the coil alters with .variation' of distance- between the plate and
of air is constant and does not depend upon the current carried by the coil.
the coil.
Hence air cored coil transducers can be used for measurement of displacement
variations occurring at fairly high frequencies. A number of arrangements are possible and two arrangements are shown
In, figure 4.1. 'I'he iplate may' be at right angle to the axis of the coil. The
Iron cored coils· displacement of the plate causes a change in the inductance of the coil. In the
The greatest 'disadvantage of iron cored coils transducers is that their other arrangement a conducting sleeve runs in parallel and coaxially over a coil.
.inductance is not constant but .depends upon the value of the current carried If thetshcrt-circuited sleeve is away from the coil, the inductance of the coil is
by the coil. Also at high frequencies, the eddy current loss tends to be high and high while if the sleeve is covering the coil, its inductance is low. The change
therefore iron cored coil transducers cannot. be used beyond a particular ill inductance is a measure of displacement,
"Variable Inductance and Variable Capacitance Transducers 4.7
4.6 Transducer, Engineering
Figure 4.2 (a) shows such an arrangement, with the two coils mounted, one
4.3 INDUCTION POTENTIOMETERS on the stator and oth.er on the rotor. The rotor is usually dumbbell shaped or
Two coils coupled to each other, such that the orientation of one of them of any other suitable shape, which, as far as possible, provides uniform gap over
with respect to the other determines the induced emf in one of them, may be the e.ntire periphery. The coils may be concentrated or distributed over the
used for measurement of angular .deflections over a range of ± 90°. The two periphery. The concentrated coil system gives an output voltage which is
coils shown in figure' 4.2 constitute an equivalent of a transformer with variable proportional to 8i over a very small range 'around the null point as seen-from
coupling between primary and secondary. The mutual -inductance M is maximum Eq 4.2 (b), where as provision of distributed windings results ~in the extension
when the coils are coaxial, and zero when they are in quadrature. If'O, is the of the linear range to. ± 90 0 • The devices of this kind belong to the class of
angle between the coil axes, the mutual inductance and the induced emf in the induction potentiometers, under the patent names of linvar, indpot, etc. They
secondary coils are given by are normally designed for 'use at excitation frequencies of 50 Hz 'OF- 41lO :H~,
providing sensitivities of the order of'L volt/degree of rotation. The devices are
available in different sizes ranging from 10 mm to 75 mm in diameter. The need
for provision of a pair of slip rings and brushes to deliver the output signal
... (4.3) 'makes the induction potentiometer less popular as compared to microsyn, for
which the range of measurement is limited to ± 5°.
where K =a constant
En! sin w ex t = excitation voltage of frequency w ex 4.4 . LINEAR VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL TRANSFORMER (LVDT)
'I'he most widely 'used inductive transducer to' translate ·the linear motion
Although the above system can be considered ·to function. as a variable
into electrical signals is the linear variable differential transformer (LVDT).The
self-inductance potentiometer, with the effective self-inductance given by
'basic construction of .LVI)~r is shown in figure 4.8. The tra~sformer consists .of
a single primary winding ]J and two secondary windings S 1 and S 2 would on a
cylindrical former, The secondary windings have equal number of turns and are
Provision of a closed magnetic circuit with 'iron core yields some of the' identically' placed on either side of the primary winding. Theprimarywinding
advantages. Secondary Secondary
winding 8 1 winding P
Fonner
Arm
........... ' - - . . . . . _ _ - - - - 1
Displacement '----------'
(a) (b)
Fig. 4.3 Linear variable differential ~ransformer (L.V.D.T.)
Fig. 4.2 Ja) Coupled-coils for angUlar displacement; (b) rotary lnductlon potentiometer
4.8 Transducer Engineering Variable Inductance. and Variable Capacitance Transducers 4.9
with the primary voltage. Therefore, the two differential voltages are 18'0° out
of phase with each other.
A.C excitation A.C excitation'
Arm
re-r
~
Primary
winding r:J=
I
Displace:;:q------~_--IIDisplace~q------------I
Core
Since the primary winding is excited by an alternating current source, it

=1~l ·I~l
,. Sl . 82 Secondary ..........- - 1 - - - - . 1
windings
produces an alternating magnetic field which in turn induces alternating current
voltages in the two secondary windings.
Differential output Eo=Es1 - ES2
'I'he output voltage of secondary, 8 1 is E s 1 and that of secondary, 8 2 is
Fig. 4.4 Circuits of an LVDT
E s2 ' In, order to convert the outputs from 8 1 and 8 2 into a single voltage signal,
the two secondaries 8 1 andS 2are connected in series opposition as shown in 'I'he amount of voltage change in either secondary winding is proportional
fig. 4~.i1: (b).,r!'hustheoutput voltage of the transducer is the difference of the to the amount of movement of the core. Hence, we have an indication of amount
two v~ltages. Differential output voltage, <,
of linear motion. By noting which output voltage is increasing or decreasing, we
can determine the direction of motion. In other words .any physical displacement
of the core causes the voltage of one isecondary winding to increase while
... (4.4)
simultaneously reducing the voltage in the other secondary winding.. The
When the core is' at itsnorma,I(NifLL) position, the flux linking with both difference of two .voltages appears across the output terminals of the transducer
the secondary windings is equal and hence' equal emfs are induced in them. and gives a measure-of the physical" position of core arid hence the displacement.
Thus at null position:Es 1 = E s2 . Since the output voltage of the transducer is
As the core is moved in, one, direction from the null position, the differential
the difference of the two voltages, the output voltage Eo is zero at null position. voltage i.e. the difference of the two secondary voltages, . ~ill'i~crease while
maintaining an in..phase relationship with the voltagefromtheinput source. In
Now if the core is moved to the .left of the NULL position, move flux links the other, direction from the null position, the differential-voltage will also
with winding Sf and less with winding 8 2 . Accordingly output voltage E s1' of
increase but will be 180 0 out of phase with, the voltage' 'from the source.. By
the secondary winding S l' is greater than ~s2' the output voltage. of secondary
.....: . '.', ,_.-~ ~ .... ..........,.~.,.<-: - -. • comparing the magnitude and phase of the output (differential). voltage with
windingS2., The magnitude of output' voltage-is, thus, Eo =Es 1 - E s2 and the that-of the source, the amount and direction 'of the movement of the core and
output voltage is in phase with the primary voltage. Similarly, if the core is hence of displacement may be determined.
moved to the, right of the Ilull position, the flux linking with winding 8 2 becomes " \
Tho amount of .output 'voltage may be measured t.o determine the
larger-than that linking with winding 8 1, This results in E s2 becoming larger , displacement." 'I'he output signalrmay also be applied to a recorder or to a
than E s 1' The output voltage in this case is Eo = E s2 - E s 1 and 180°-out ofphase . controller that can restore the moving systemto.Itsnormalposition.
The output voltage of an I.JVI)r.r isa linear function of core displacement

Figure 4.6 shows the core of an LVDT at three different positions. In fig
within alimited range of motion, about 5 mm from the null position. Figure 4.5
4.6 (b) the core is at null position, it is symmetrical with respect to both the
shows the variation of output voltage against displacement for various positions
secondary windings. This is called the null position. At this position E s1 = E s2
of the core. The curve is practically linear for small displacements (up to about
5 mm), Beyond this range of displacement, the curve starts to deviate from a and hence the output voltage Eo = o. When the core is moved to the left as in
straight line. , fig 4.6 (a) and is at A, E s 1 is greater than E s2 and therefore ~pase angle cj> = o.
Output
When the core is moved to the right towards B shown in fig 4.6 (c) E s2 is greater
voltage,Eo than E s1 and hence the output voltage is negative or aphase angle of 180°.
The characteristics are linear up to 0 - A and 0 - B but after that they

Linear
+=180° range become non-linear as shown in fig 4.6. Ideally the output voltage at the null
Primary
winding
Djsplace~J-----r----:--:::--,
Fig~ 4.5 Variation of output voltage with linear displacement for an LVDT
Figure 4·.5 shows the variation of output voltage versus displacement for
various positions of core. The current is practically linear for a limited range of
displacement from the null position, 'Beyond this range of displacement the curve
starts to deviate from a straight line.
Primary
Fig. 4.6 (c) Core of ,LVDT at different positions
Primary
winding winding
position should be equal to zero. However, in actua1 practice there exists a small
voltage at the null position. This may be on account of presence of harmonics
in the input supply voltage and also due to harmonics produced in the output
voltage on account of use iron core. Theremaybe either an incomplete magnetic
or electrical unbalance o;both which result in a finite output voltage at the null
position. 'Ibis finite residual 'voltage is generally less than 1%of the maximum
output voltage in the linear range. Other causes of residual voltage are stray
magnetic fields and temperature effects. The residual voltage is shown in fig
4.7. However, with improved technological methods and with the use of better
a.c sources, the residual voltage can be reduced 'to almost a negligible value.
Fig. 4.6 Core of LVDT at different positions
Trans~ucer En~ineering Variable Inductance and Variable Capacitance Transducers 4.13 .
·4.5 ROTARY VARIABLE 'DIFFERENTIAL TRANSFORMER '(RVDT) (a) Linear Variable Differential Transformer
A variation .of linear variable differential transformer (I.JVDT) may be used It is the most widely used inductive transducer to translate linear motion in to
to sense angular displacement. '!'his is the Rotary Variable Differential an electrical signal. Figure 4.9 shows .an LVDT for the measurement of pressure.
/
"I'ransformer (RVDT).The .circuit of a RVDT is shown in fig 4.8. It is similar to AC Excitation

the ·I.JVDT except that its core is . cam shaped and may be rotated between' the Coil
windings by means of. a shaft.
Primary Pressure, P " - - - - - I I Magneqccore
Secondary
winding windings
_ A.C
~----,P~
source
Core v - output
Fig. 4.9 Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LV,DT)
Fig. 4.8 Rotary variable differential transformer (RVDT)

Construction and. Working
The operation of a RVI)T is similar to that of an I.JVDT. At the null position It consists of a primary winding (or coil) and two secondary windings (or
of the core,the output voltages of secondary windings 8 1 and 8 2 are equal and coils). The windings are arranged concentrically next to each other. They are
in oppo~ition. Therefore, the net output is zero. Any angular displacement from wound over a hollow bobbin which is usually of anon-magnetic and insulating
the null position will result in a differential voltage output. The greater this materials. A ferromagnetic core (armature) is attached to the transducer sensing
angular displacement, the greater will be the differential output. Hence the shaft (such as' bellows). The core is generally made of'a high permeability
response of the transducer is linear. ferromagnetic alloy and has the shape ofa rod or cylinder.
A.C excitation is applied across the primary winding and the movable core
Clockwise rotation produces .an increasing voltage of a secondary winding
varies the coupling between it and the two secondary windings. When the core.
of one phase while counter clock-wise rotation produces an increasing voltage of
is in the centre position, the coupling to the secondary coils is equal. As the core
opposite phase.:Hence, the amount of angular displacement and its direction
moves away from the centre position, .the coupling to one secondary, and hence
may be ascertained from the' magnitude and 'phase' of the output voltage of the
its output voltage, increases while the coupling and the output voltage of the
transducer.
other secondary decreases..
Any change in pressure. makes the bellows expand' or contract. This motion
4.6 . VARIABLE RI;LUCTANCEPRESSURE TRANSDUCER
moves the magnetic core inside the hollow portion of the bobbin. It causes the
Reluctancein a magnetic circuit is equivalent to resistance in an electrical voltage. of one secondary winding to increase, while simultaneously reducing the
circuit. Whenever the spacing (or coupling) between the two magnetic devices voltage inthe other secondarywinding, The difference 'of the two voltage appears
(or coils) ', changes, the reluctance .between ·them also changes. Thus a pressure across the output terminals of the transducers and .gives a measure of the
sensor 'can- be . used .to changethe.. spacing between two coils by moving one part physical position of the core and hence the' pressure.
of the magnetic .circuit. This motion changes' the reluctance between. the. coils,
Advantages
which in turn changes the voltage induced by one coil in the other. The change
in the induced voltage can/then be' interpreted as a change in pressure. • It possesses a high sensitivity.
4.14 Transducer Engineering Variable Inductance and Vartable Capacitance Transducers 4.15
• It has infinite resolution. An increase in pressure 1:J 1 over ]:J2 (fig 4.10) flexes the diaphragm and
• It is very rugged in construction and can usually tolerate ahigh degree moves the short end of the force beam. The force beam pivots,and the long end
of shock & vibration without any adverse effects. moves a magnetic .material in the reluctive detector. 'lbesignal from the
reductive detector is converted from a.c power to d.c power, and sent to an
• The .output voltage of this transducer is practically linear for
amplifier. 'I'he amplifier responds by activating an inductive motor that moves
displacements of about 5 mm,
the force beam back towards its original position. Very little flexing ever occurs
• It shows a low hysteresis, hence repeatability is excellent under a"ll in the diaphragm, even over the entire range of the instrument, As a result, the
conditions. diaphragm lasts along time.
• It is stable and easy to align and' maintain due to simplicity of Servo pressure transducers are available in a multitude of pressure ranges.
construction, small size and light body. The devices are generally used for measurement of pressure below 500 psi.
Disadvantages They do not respond to high frequency pressure oscillations. Other servo
• Temperature affects, the performance of the transducer. pressu.re instruments use capacitive detectors, and some use a Bourdon tube as
the sensing element.
• Relatively large core displacements are required, for appreciable
amount of differential output.
4.7 INDUCTIVE THICKNESS TRANSDUCER
.: Theyare sensitive. to stray magnetic fields ,but shielding is possible.
In industry, the measurement of the thickness of rolled sheets or
(b) Servo Pressure Transducer mass-produced objects is a common requirement. The material of the test sheet
.or object may be magnetic (iron or steel) nonmagnetic and conducting
Working principle Ei
(a)
(d)
Pressure cell
Fig. 4.11 Different arrangements for measurement of thickness of
Fig. 4.10 A Servo Pressure Transducer metallic and magnetic sheets
4.16 Transducer Engineering Variable Inductance and Variable Capacitance Transducers 4.17 .
(Aluminium or Copper) or .nonmagnetic and nonconducting (bakelite or paint). The primary coil of the system shown in fig 4.11 is excited from a relatively
Inductive transducers meant for such purposes are known as inductive thickness high frequency source as the reluctance variation with the thickness of the
gauges. As the thickness is of primary interest, it is important that the properties sample will be very small. However, it is possible to measure variations in the
of the materials, such as 'permeability and resistivity, should remain constant. thickness of conducting material sheets. The induced emf of the secondary coil
Each gauge is suitably designed for use with the test object and calibrated by may be used for direct indication and calibration.
making use of reference sheets or slabs of known' thickness but of the same
An alternative is shown in fig 4.11 where the test object of magnetic
material of the test object.
material forms a ,low reluctance shunt pathforthe magnetic flux across the gap
(J. The induced emfs of the search coil serve as the output 'signals of the
Variable reluctance type inductance, transducers prove handy for most of transducer-The primary coil is excited from a constant voltage source of suitable
the applications. An E -,lJ -, I - shaped yoke of high permeability material is frequency.
provided with one coil for the self-inductance type and a pair of coils for the
mutu.al inductance type. The magnetic path is completed through the test piece 4.8 CAPACITIVE TRANSDUCER
of magnetic material, as shown in figure 4.11. The yoke is usually laminated to The principle of operation of capacitive transducers is based upon the
limit the eddy currents produced when the coil is excited by alternating current. familiar equation for capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor.
The attraction force of the yoke on the armature and weight of the, yoke may
Capacitance,
help in reducing the air gap between the yoke and the test piece. However, the
surfaces ofthe test piece and the, yoke are kept smooth for a closer contact. ... (4.5)
If the reluctance of the yoke is made negligible as compared to that of the where A -overlapping area of plates; m 2
test piece, the self-inductance L of the coil is proportional to that of the test
piece, the self-inductance L of the coil is proportional to the thickness t of the d - distance between two plate; m
test piece and is given by E = LQ L r = permittivity of medium,f/m
Er " relative permittivity
EO - permittivity of free space; 8.85 x .10"':' 12 f/rn

where band' 1 are the width and length, respectively of the test piece, and ~r is
A parallel plate capacitor is shown in figure 4.12
the relative permeability of the material.
The capacitive transducer works on the principle of change of capacitance
The thickness of sheets .of'magnetic 'material as well as insulating material
which may be caused by:
'may ,be obtained by any of the arrangements as shown in figure 4.11. In the
Topplate
case of insulating material, the 'sheet iskept between the yoke, and a magnetic
Dielectric
material backing of known. ,thickness. The reluctance of the path is al~ost material
governed by the thickness of insulating sheet.
Measurement of thickness of test pieces ranging from 25 f.! m to 2.5 mm is

possible by the above methods with an accuracy of 2 - 5%. Fig. 4.12 Schematic diagram 01.a parallel plate, capacitive transducer
Variable Inductance and .Variable Capacitance Transducers 4.19
Fixedmetal
block Moving tube
(i) change in overlapping area A,
,-- Displacement
(ii) change in the distance d between the plates, and
(iii) change in dielectric constant

Output' Capacitance
These changes are caused by physical variables like displacement, force and +-- increases
~ Decreases
pressure in most of the cases. The change in capacitance may be caused by (a)
.change in dielectric constant as in the case in measurement of liquid or gas
Fixed
levels. plate \
The capacitance may be measured with bridge circuits. The output
impedance of a capacitive transducer is: X; =.1/2n{c,
T
w
4 •
Displacement
where e - capacitance 1~ .+--

Capacitance
increases
~.I>ecre8ses
f - frequency of excitation in Hz
(b)
In general, the output impedance of a capacitive transducer is high. This
Fig. 4.13 Capacitive transducers working on. the principle of change of
fact calls for a careful design of the output circuitry.
capacitance with change of area
, The capacitive transducers are commonly used for measurement of linear and w - width of overlapping part of plates, m
displacement. These transducers use. the following effects:
Sensitivity,
. (i) change in capacitance due to change in overlapping area of plates and
(ii) change in capacitance due to change in distance between the two plates. de w ... (4.7)
s=-=E -{1m
ax d
4.8.1 Transducer using change in Area of plates
The sensitivity-is constant and therefore there islinear relationshipbetween
The capacitance is directly proportionai to the area, A of the plates. Thus
capacitance and displacement.
the capacitan.ce changes linearly with change in area of plates. Hence this type
of capacitive transducer is useful for measurement of moderate to large Sensitivity for a fractional change in
displacements say from 1 mm to several em. The elementary diagrams of two
types of capacitive transducers are shown in figure 4.13 (a) & 4.13 (b). The area Capacitance
changes linearly with displacement and also the capacitance. Figure 4.13 shows· aC 1
S---- ... (4.8)
the variation of capacitance. - ,c ax - x
For ·a parallel plate capacitor, The capacitance is
This type of a capacitive' transducer. is suitable for measurement of linear
... (4.6) displacements ranging from 1 mm to 10 mm, The accuracy is as high as 0.005%.
For ·a· cylindrical capacitor the capacitance is: '

where x - length of overlapping part of plates, m
4.20 Transducer Engineerin/9 Variable Inductance and Variable Capacitance- Transducers 4.21
... (4.9) to. be measured is applied to movable plate.' The angular displacement changes
the effective area between the plates and thus changes the capacitance. The
capacitance is maximum when the two plates completely overlap each other i.e
where x - length of overlapping part of cylinders; m, when e = 180°.
D2 ... inner diameter of outer cylindrical electrode; m, .. Maximum value of capacitance
and D 1 - outer diameter of inner cylindrical electrode; m 2

EA 1tEr ... (4.11)
Emax=T= 2d
Sensitivity,
... (4.. 10) . E 8r 2 ... (4.12)
s == oC = 2n E f 1m Capacitance at an.gle 8 is C = - - -
'. 2d
ax loge (D21D 1)
where e - angular displacement in -radian
Therefore, the sensitivity is constant and the relationship between
capacitance and displacement is linearas shown in figure 4.14.
_ OC _ E r 2 ... (4.13)
k
S - as - 2d
Max.,
8 . Therefore, the variation of capacitance with angular displacement is linear.
.~ I
~u 'Ibis is shown in figure 4.1~ (b). It should be understood that the above
~
o mentioned capacitive transducer can be used. for a maximum .angular
Min. -z---+- --
-+-- Displacement --+f displacement of 180°.
Min. Max.
Fig. 4.14 Capacitance displacement curve of capacitive transducer (working on principle of 4.8.2 Transducer using change in _Distance. between plates
change of plate area .ceueed by change in displacement)
Capaci~ive transducer utilizing the effect of change of capacitance with
The principle of change of capacitance with change in area can be employed change in distance between the two plates. One is a fixed plate and the'
for measurement of angular displacement. Fig 4.15 (a) shows a two-plate displacement to be measured is applied to other plate which is movable. Since,
.capacitor. Oneplate is fixed and the other is movable. The angular displacement the capacitance, (J, varies inversely as the distance x, between the plates the
Fixed plate M·
ovmgp Iate
,/
Max., r------....,;,-.-
Max., o
.~~
I
CI) . I
B
·~u
I
I
I
I i
I o
~ I
C,) I Min. ---t------~....t
Min. .-&---+-------
I
Capacitance o +- Displacement ---,+I
+- Angular ~ x --, I
. - Increases Min., Max.
Movable plate . Displacement, a - + Decreases
MID. - . Max.
(b) (a) (b)

Fig. 4.16 Capacitive transducer using the principle of change of capacitance with change of
Fig. 4.15Capa~itive transducer for measurement of angular displacement
'.' distance between plates
4.22 Transducer Engineering Variable Inductance and Variable Capacitance Transducers 4~23
response of this transducer is not linear and as shown in figure 4.16 (b). Thus. • Capacitive Strain Transducer
this transducGr is useful only for measurement of extremely small displacements. • Capacitive Pressure Transducer
Sensitivity • Capacitive Proximity Transducer
,ac EA ... (4.14) • Capacitive Moisture Transducer
s=-=--
ax 2 x • Capacitive Hygrometer
From this equation it is clear that the sensitivity of this type of transducer • Capacitive Microphone
is not constant but varies over the range of the transducer. Thus, as explained 4.8.3.1 Cap~citive Level Transducer (Variation of Dielectric constant)
earlier this transducer exhibits non-linear characteristics.
Capacitive Transducers using the principle of change of capacitance with
The relationship between variation of capacitance C with variation of change of dielectric are normally used for measurement of liquid levels. Figure
distance' between plates, x, is hyperbolic and is only approximately linear over 4.18 Sl10WS a capacitive transducer used for measurement of lev'el of
a small range of displacement. The linearity can be closely approximated by use non-conducting liquid.
of a piece of dielectric material like mica having a high dielectric constant. In
this type of transducer, a thin piece of mica thinner than the minimum gap c
distance is inserted between the plates.
Tank
Rotational displacement can be measured with an arrangement shown in
-: figure 4.17. As the rotor plates of 'the capacitor are displaced in the counter .....--Vapours
clockwise direction the capacitance increases.
Stator
!M---- Liquid
.Rotor-~~~~
Plates
Fig. 4.18 Capacitive transducer for' measurement of level of a non-conductlnqllqutd
The electrodes are two concentric cylinders and the non-conducting liquid
Fig. 4.17 Capacitive transducer acts as the dielectric. At the lower end of the outer cylinder there are holes
which allow' passage of liquid. In case these holes are small, they provide
The change in the capacitance is a measure of the angular displacement. mechanical damping of the surface variation.
This capacitive transducer can ,be effectively used for measurement of torque.
The value of capacitance for the capacitor is
4.8.3 Different measurements of Capacitive Transducers ... (4.15)
• Capacitive Level Transducer

where hI -height of liquid; m,
• Capacitive Displacement Transducer
• Capacitive Thickness Transducer h2 - height of cylinder above liquid; m,
Transducer Engin~ering
4.24
The capacitance is given by,

E1 - relative permittivity of liquid,
A ... (4.16)
E 2 - relative permittivity of vapour above liquid,
r2 - inside radius of outer cylinder; m,

where A is the common area between the, plates
, .
rl - outside radius of inner cylinder; m, 't' is the thickness of the solid dielectric 'medium
I
\ Er is the relative 'permittivity of the solid portion

EO - permittivity of free space; {1m
E0 is th.epermittivity of 'air
Relationship (4.15) is based upon the assumption If the air gap is increased by x then the capacitance wilfget reduced to
n > > r2 and r2 > > "z - rl > > a ... (4.17)
Now, r2=r.+a and rj =r

The sensitivity is,
... (4.15)
Gx - (Cx - L\'C)
ex
! .. (4.18)
4.8.8.2 Capacitive Displacement Transducer
The most popular form of variable capacitor used in displacement
measurement is parallel plate capacitor with a variable air gap.
The .simplest form' of displacement transducer is ~parallel plate capacitor sc Ax ... (4.19)
with plate movable us shown in figure 4.19.
ex =(X+:rJ+~x
If ~ x is very small compared to x + ...£:. itcan he deleted, then

ixedplate . • ' . I • > 'I, .E ·
r
- Solid insulation L\·C 0 L\ X .... ·(4.20)
n------~ - Movableplate'
Cx - t
X+-'
E. r
:U= Theperunitvariation of capacitance is propcrtional-toaz.Thus it is linear
Fig. 4•.19 Simple .capacitiv~ Displacement Transducer over a small rrange QfL\x.'l"'herangeof i Iinearitycanbejncreased by having ,
another fixed electrode as shown in figure 4.20 (a). The circuit connection is
shown in figure 4.20 (b), which is a unity ratio arm wheatstone bridge. 4.8.t~.4 Capacitive' Strain Transducer
A strain gauge based on the principle of capacitance variation with plate
~:::cttode separation is developed making use of two arched metal strips to support the
electrodes of the capacitor, as shown in figure 4.2·3 (a). When the structure is
x .1 ~M"ovmgeecm
1 ode
strained, there is a .ehange in the differential height- of -the arches as well as
C2 ~ .<.conduCtingplate) the gap between the electrodes. The 'height variation of ~ach arch strip is
.. ~ calculated from
Fig. 4.20 (a) and 4.20 (b) Two fixed plate capacitive-transducer and its circuitry
- .... (4.21)
Dielectric block
I("" Capacitance plate
~~~::;::;:;:;;;:;::;::;r;;;:;::n:;:;:~m--- where E - strain
X'- height ofarch under strain
Xo - initial height of arch under no strain

Fig. 4.21 Capacitive transducer for large displacement
Wo - unstrained width of arch
For large linear displacements, capacitive transducers where the plates are L - gauge length
fixed and the dielectric medium is moved as shown in tigure 4.21 can be used.
Electrodes
4.8.3.8 Capacitive Thickness Transducer 'l1l~~~~~Afi~. cbed metal
f1fJ strips
I
If the material is being tested is an insulator, capacitive method using an
arrangement shown in figure 4.22 may be used.
Insulation
(a)
Electrode
Fig. 4.22 Electrode of thickness of insJ,llating materials L:t~~Et-Electrode
Two metal electrodes are placedon the' two sides of the insulating material
being tested. This arrangement forms a parallel plate .capacitor, the two Insulation Testpiece
(b)
electrodes acting as the two plates with the insulating material acting as the
dielectric. The capacitance naturally depends upon the thi~kness of the
insulating material under the test. Thus by measuring the capacitance 'of this Fig. 4.23 Capacitive .strai:n< transducers· _usin:g (a) -plate"separation (b) igap changing .by arching
arrangement,the thickness of the insulating material maybe determined.
Variable Inductance and Variable Capac.itance Transducers 4.29
The gauge fact~r ( = f... c; Co ) is about 100 and the gauge is used for
If one pressure is greater~t~~n the other the diaphragm deflects to the low
pressure side, giving an output eo"in·~ proportion to the differential pressure. For
the opposite pressure difference. eo exhibits a, 1800 phase change. The high
measurements of strain up to ±5000° J.l at temperatures as high as 600°C.
impedance level re quires a cathode follower amplifier at eo' A direction sensitive
An alternative 'arrangement is shown" in figure 4.23 (b) in which the bowing d.c output can be obtained by conventional phase sensitive'dkmodulation and
of the arched metallicparts dueto strain changes the gap betweentheelectrodes, filtering,
The flexible insulating strips 'and electrodes are cemented to the arched parts.
The capacitance between the two live electrodes gives a measure of the strain. 4.8.t~.6 Capacitive Proximity Transducer
4.8.3.5 Capacitive Pressure Transducer In certain applications, the proximity of an object with respect to the fixed
plate of the transducer is desired. Electrical circuits that develop output voltages
Differential-pressure can be transduced by a three terminal capacitor as
proportional to the separation between the plates are available. The circuit
shown in figure 4.24.
shown in figure 4.25 uses an operational amplifier of high gain, giving output
Glass,disks signal eo proportional .to x O "
The moving object is provided with a plane conducting surface, if it ·does
not behave' like one. The object. is. earthed and the fixed plate is so designed. as
to have much smaller area than the movable surface and is provided with a
guard ring as ShOWl~ in figure 4.25. The output signal eo is given 'by,
0 .. (4.22)
where Cf = capacitance of the standard capacitor
E";' sin ffiex t ='sinusoidal applied voltage

Metal guard
Insulator
Surface of
movingobjec-t....--.-*"'-~~I
Fig. 4.24 "'Diffet~ntialc~pacitor, pressure pick u'p
Spherical cavity of a depth of about 0.025 mm is ground in to the glass

disk, These depressions are gold coated to form fixed plates of a differential
High gain
capacitor. A thin stainlesssteel diaphragm is clamped between the disks which amplifier
_serves as the. movableplate..With equal pressures applied to both parts, the
diaphragm is in a neutral position and. the bridge is balanced and eo = O. Fig. 4.25 A proximity transducer' systemalong~ithsignal,processingcircuit
4.8.3.7 Capacitance Moisture. Transducer between the outer metallic layer and aluminium rod undergoes variation because
The dielectric constant of pure water is about 80 and that of most insulating of the amount of moisture absorbed. When equilibrium is reached with the moist
materials, .solids or liquids . is less than 10, and so it is possible to measure the atmosphere the resistance and capacitance of the capacitance are measured.
moisture content of these materials by measuring the dielectric constant of the
moist solid or solution of the, substance in water. The technique can be extended Insulation
for application to other combinations, if the variation in the dielectric constant
is due to variation of the proportion of one substance in the mixture. The
equivalent series on shunt resistance of the capacitor, representing the dielectric
losses of the sample, may also be used to indicate the moisture content.
Wetsample Porousconducting layer

---. (a)
/' acsupply
rr
C R
10
6
c
(PF) (0)
Fig. 4.26 A capacitive moisture transducer 10 ----+----f---
o 50 100
----+ Relative humidity
'I'wo identical capacitors, one holding the test sample and the other the dry
sample, may be used in an ac bridge circuit, and the equivalent loss resistance (b)
as well' as the capacitance may be measured' by balancing the bridge. As the Fig. 4,~27 (a) A capacitive hygrometer; (b) characteristic curves showing the effect of
capacitance value increase with moisture and equivalent shunt resistance falls, humidity on Rand G
the arm with dry sample may be shunted by a variable capacitor and resistor
The variation of both components is shown in figure 4.27 (b) and can be
as shown in figure 4.26, and their values may be calibrated against the moisture
used as a measure of the relative humidity. To some extent, the resistance
content. Otherwise, the unbalance voltage may .be directly used, for calibration.
variation is linear, but capacitance variation is non-linear.
One particular advantage of solids is that no additional means are necessary
for them to compact the test material between the electrodes for good contact
4.8.3.9 Capacitioe Microphone
as is the case with resistive moisture transducers.
Figure (4.28) is a simplified versionofa typical' capacitor microphone. The
4.8.3.8 Capacitance Hygrometer pressure response is found by assuming a uniform pressure Pi to exist all around
A more practical form of hygrometer employs the arrangement shown in the microphone at any instant of time. This is actually the case 'of sufficiently
figure 4.27 (a). The central part of the transducer is an aluminium rod acting low sound frequencies but reflection and diffraction effects distort this uniform
as one electrode. The rod is oxidized over part of its length over which is, provided field at higher frequencies. The diaphragm is generally a very thin metal
a thin layer of-graphiteor of an evaporated metal. Moisture is absorbed through membrane which is stretched by suitable clamping arrangement. Diaphragm
this thin porous layer, by the aluminium oxide, and the equivalent capacitance thickness ranges from about 0.0025 to 0.050 mIIl:~ The diaphragm is deflected
p.
1
2. Mention three principles of inductance transducer.
The three principles of inductance transducer are,
~--- "-~r-I""~-Air gap ~ O.6:l5 rom
-+ • Change of self inductance.
-+
_Pi -+ • Change of mutual inductance.
-+
-+ • Production of eddy currents.
Capillary air leak ~
for pressure ------ . 3. What is LVDT?
equalisation The Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT) is the most common
mutual inductance element. This can be considered to be a versatile
transducer element for most of the electromechanical measuring systems
with regards to resolution, hysteresis, dynamic response, temperature
characteristics, linearity and "life.
Polarising voltage (200 v)
Emitter followet amplifier 4. What are the advantages and disadvantages of LVDT?
The advantages of LVDT are,
Fig. 4.28 Condenser microphone
(a) High range.
by the sound pressure "and acts as a moving plate of a capacitance displacement (b) Friction and electrical isolation.
transducer. The other plate of the capacitor is stationary and may contain
properly designed damping holes. The damping effect is used to control the (c) Immunity from external effects.
resonant peak of the diaphragm response. A capillary air leak is provided to (d) High input and high sensitivity.
give equalisation of steady pressure on both sides of the diaphragm to prevent
(e) Ruggedness.
diaphragm busting.
The variable capacitor is connected into a simple series circuit with a high (D Low hysteresis.
resistanceE and polarised with a de voltage of about' 200 volts. This polarising (g) I..JOW power consumption.
voltage acts as a circuit excitation and also determines the neutral diaphragm
The disadvantages of LVDT .are,
position.
(a) Relatively large displacements are required for appreciable differential
output.
(b) They are sensitive to stray magnetic fields but shielding is possible.
1. What is inductance transducer?
(c) Many a; times, the transducer performance is affected by vibrations.
Transducers based on the 'variation of inductance are another group of
(d) The receiving instrument must be selected to operate on AC.
important- devices used in many applications. In these transducers, self
inductance or the mutual of a couple of coils is changed when the quantity (e) The dynamic response is limited.
to be measured is varied. (f) r.re!!!p~~ature affects the" performance of the transducer.
. Variable Inductance and Variable Capacitance Transducers 4.35
• As the moving plates have very little 'mass, design of transd'ucer with
5. What are the applications of LVDT? fast response characteristics is possible.
The applications ofLVDT are, • 'There is no physical between moving and stationary parts.
• Displacement measurement and LVDT gauge heads. • Does not depend on the conductivity of the metal electrode.
• I.. V DT pneumatic servo follower. • Shielded against the effect of external electric stray fields,
j:
• LVDT load cells. 12. What are the different practical capacitance ptekups?
'The different capacitance pickups are,
• LVDT pressure transducer.
• Equibar differential pressure transducer.
6. What is null voltage?
Ideally, the output voltage at the null position should be equal to zero. • Feedback .type capacitance proximity pickup.
However, in actual practice there exists a small voltage at the null position. • Condenser microphone.
7. Explain the principle of induction potentiometer. 13. What is Microphone?

The primary is excited with alternating current. This induces a voltage into Microphone is also a transducer which converts sound energy into electrical
the secondary. The amplitude of this output voltage varies with the mutual energy.. Example is condenser microphone.
inductance between the two coils and this varies with the angle of rotation. 14. What is the principle of change of capacitance?'
The capacitance can be changed by the,
8. Explain the principle of variable reluctance accelerometer.
Variable reluctance accelerometer is an accelerometer for measurement of • Change in overlapping area A,
acceleration in the range ± 4g. Since the force required to accelerate a • Change in the distance between the plates, d
mass is proportional to the acceleration.
• Change in dielectric constant.
9. What is the need of demodulator in variable reluctance 15. What are the advantages of capacitive transducers?
accelerometer? The advantages of capacitive transducer are,
To detect the motion on both sides of zero, a fairly involved phase sensitive
(a) They require only small force to operate.
demodulator would be required. To eliminate the demodulator, the iron core
and springs were adjusted so that core was offset to one side by an amount (b) Have a good frequency response.
equal to the spring deflection corresponding to 4 g acceleration. (c) Extremely sensitive.
10. What is the principle of capacitive transducer? (d) High input impedance.
Many industrial variables like displacement, pressure, level, moisture,
16. What are the disadvantages of capacitive .transducers?
thickness etc., can be transduced into an electrical variation using
The disadvantages of capacitive transducer are,
capacitance variation as the primary sensing principle.
"---. (a) The metallic parts ()fthecapacitive transducers must be insulated from
11. What are the . desirable features of capacitive transducer?
each other.
The desirable features of capacitive transducer are, .
(b) Non-linear behaviour.
• Its force . requirements are very small.
4.36 Transducer Engineering Other 1 ransducers 5.1
(c) This leads .loading effects.

(d) The cable may be source of loading resulting loss of sensitivity.
17. What are the uses of capacitive transducer? UNIT V

The uses of capacitive transducer are,
(a) Can be 'used for measurement of linear and angular displacement.

Other Transducers
(b) Can be used for measurement of force and pressure.
(c) It can be used as pressure transducer. 5.1 PIEZOELECTRIC TRANSDUCER
(d) Measurement of humidity in gases. • Certain materials can generate an electrical potential when subjected
(e) Commonly used for measurement of level, density, weight. to mechanical strain, or conversely, can change dimensions when
subjected to voltage. This is known as the piezoelectric effect [see fig.
18. What is the value of capacitance for measurement of level of a
5.1 (a) & (b)].
non-conducting liquid?
c = 27t£0 [el hI +£2 h 2/loge (r2/ rl)] +
where,
Height of liquid
Height of cylinder Thicknes shear
Face shear
Relative permittivity of liquid
£2 Relativepermittivity of vapour above liquid
Inside radius of outer cylinder Transverse
change tTo-----'
Outer radius of inner cylinder +

EO Relative permittivity of free space
Thickness change
19. What is analog transducer? (a)

Analog transducer converts input quantity into an analog output which is
I
a continuous function oftime.1busa strain gauge, LVI)T, thermocouple, I
thermistors may be called as analog transducer. ,: Q(t) t-oJ Cr (b)
20. What is digital tr-ansdueer? ~ - - - - - - - - -'

Digital-transducer converts input quantity into an electrical output which Fig. 5.1 (a) Basic detormatlon - modes for piezoelectric plates (b) Equivalent circuit for a
piezoelectric element.
is ,in the-form of pulses.
5.2 Transducer Engineering Other Transducers 5.3
• Piezoelectric transducers are converters of mechanical energy into • The application of electric potential between the surfaces of a crystal
electrical energy and are based on the direct piezoelectric effect results in a change of its physical dimensions.
observed in certain nonmetallic and insulating dielectric compounds.. • This is the reverse effect and is also known as electrostriction,
• Electrical change is developed on the surface of the crystals, when they • The effect is widely applied for generation of ultrasonic waves.
are under mechanical strain due to application of stress.
5.1.1 Piezoelectric phenomenon
• Due to .their high mechanical rigidity they are treated as near-ideal
transducers of measurement of force and thereby pressure, • Pierre and -Iacques Curie are credited with the discovery of
piezoelectric effect in ·1880.
acceleration, torque strain and amplitudes of vibration.
• Notable among these materials are quartz, Rochelle salt (Potassium
• They are popular due to their small size, high natural frequency,
sodium tartarate), properly polarized barium titanate, ammonium
linearity, high sensitivity, wide measuring range and polarity dihydrogen phosphate, and even ordinary sugar.
sensitivity.
• Of all the materials that exhibit the effect, none possesses all the
• Thecommonly used materials are stable enough for all applications at desirable properties, such as stability, high output, insensitivity to
temperatures up to 200°C. temperature extremes and humidity, and the ability to be formed into
any desired shape'.
• The small capacitance of the transducer and. its high insulation
resistance cause some problems for measurement of charge developed, • Rochelle salt provides the highest output, but requires protection from
and the consequent voltage across the faces. moisture in the air and cannot be used above about 45°C (115°F).
• '~uartz is the most stable, yet its output is low.
• '!'he charge leaks away through its insulation resistance, and hence
special amplifiers such as charge amplifiers are used to measure the • Because of its stability, quartz is quite commonly used for stabilizing
charge. electronic oscillators.
) . The transducer is unsuitable for measurement of steady quantities due • Quartz is silicon dioxide (Si0 2 ) and is available as a natural substance.
to .the leakage. of .charge. • The atoms "are arranged in the. crystal as shown .infig.(5.2),fo~ming
a hexagon in the plane of paper whilerthe ioptical axis (a-axis). is
• 'I'he "anisotropic effect" noticed in p-n junctions of semiconductor diodes
perpendicular to the xy-plane.
and transistors is allied to the piezoelectric phenomenon.
• For th~ three Si····atoms, the .six oxygen atoms are lumped in pairs,
• The application of localized stress on the upper surface of a thereby forming a hexagonal crystal.
semiconductor junction results in a change of current across the
junction.
• The x and y axes are referred to as electrical and mechanical axis
respectively.
'. Such devices are known as piezoelectric transistors and are used for
measurement of small pressure .and force.
• Under stress-free conditions, all charges are balanced, but when a force
is applied along the x-axis, the balance is' 'disturbed and electrical
• Conversion' of electrical energy- into mechanical energy is ·possibl~ by charge is developed on the two faces A and B as shown in fig. 5.2(b).
usingthe same device. This is known as "longitudinal effect".
Transducer Engineering Other Transducers 5.6
5.4
• The charge developed on a given area of the crystal face is proportional

to the area affected by the pressure and thus proportional to the total
x force applied normal to the surface.
• However, when a force is applied in the transverse (y) direction, the
charge generated on A and B depends. on..the lengt];s (Lx, L y ) of the
faces in the x andy directions. j
x x
• Application of shear stress ~ about any of the threeaxes may also yield
charge on the faces perpendicular to the x-axis.
(a)
• The .charge sensitivity or the piezoelectric d-coefficient is: the charge
developed per unit force.
A-....l---.:.--i-I----
• The net piezoelectric effect is represented ·by the vector of electric
polarization P as
y ... (5.1)
where, x, y and z refer to the conventional orthogonal system related to the

crystal axes Pxx indicates the net effect on thefaceperpendicular . to.the x-axis
due to application of axial stresses a and shear stresses 't to the crystal.
5.1.2 Piezoelectric materials
• The materials axhibiting the piezoelectric phenomenon are divided into

(b) (c) two groups: (i) Natural (ii) Synthetic
• The natural group consists of quartz, Rochellesalt and tourmaline.
Fig. 5.2 (a) Arrangement of atoms of a piezoelectric crystal and the crystal axes
(b) Crystal.under longitudinal effect (c) Cryst~1 under transverse effect • The synthetic group consists ofammoniumdihydrogen phosphate
(ADP), lithium sulphate (LS),andpipotassium tartarate (DKT).
• A force along the y-axis also distorts the. arrangement of atoms, and • Depending on the crystal structure, discs or wafers are-cut and used
charges are developed on the two faces A andB, as shown in fig. (5.2(c)) for measurement of force in one or the other of the modes described,
"and is referre d .to as "transverse ellec
.cc t" · '
• Quartz is the most stable material and artificially grown quartz is
• Due to the symmetry along the optical axis, no effects 'are noticed when normally preferred as it is purer than the natural quartz. .
force is applied along the a-axis.
• Tourmaline is the only material exhibiting a large sensitivity.
• The characteristic features of the longitudinal effect are that the charge
• Rochelle salt is the ma~erial that is being produced on industrial scale
generated is independent of area of the crystal and its thickness in the
for producing gramophone pick-ups.and"crystalmicrophones.
x-direction.
• It has the highest relative permittivity among the natural group.
5.6 Transducer Engineering,
Other Transducers 5.7

• ADP crystals possess the .lowest resistivity which is also temperature
dependent. With" temperature 'compensation they are used in • This phenomenon is due to the. anisotropic stress effect in p - n
acceleration and pressure transducers. junctions, and devices utilizing this effect are known as piezoelectric
• Lithium sulphate is highly sensitive. diodes and transistors.
• The variation of current across the junction of a Germanium diode for
5.1.3 Ferros'lectric Materials forward and reverse voltages is shown in fig. (5.3),)'
• They are certain polycrystalline ceramic compounds which exhibit the • It is observed that considerable change in the magnitude of the current
property of retaining electric polarization when exposed to intense results from application of a' few grams of localized force'.
electric fields. • Moreover, the change is reversible,
• These materials are known as ferroelectric materials (equivalent to
• Tho behavior ofa siliconn ~ P - TI: planar transistor is shown in fig.(5.4).
ferromagnetic materials), and after polarization, their behavior is
similar to the piezoelectric materials. • The force is applied to the surface by means of a pointed stylus.
• Three such common substances which are popularly used for • The current gain of the transistor decreases' with increase of force, and
piezoelectric transducers are Barium titanate (BaTi0 3 ), lead the capacitance between base and collector changes in a similar fashion.
zirconate-titanate, and lead metaniobate.
S'~,t.4' P'iezoetectric, semiconductors

• 'A localized stress on .the upper surface of the p - n junction of a
semiconductor diode caused a' very large reversible current change in
the current across the junction.
' J
~Nf
+
.. , F... :
'pp 400
Current 0.1
(mA) 1
Cae 200 '
-20 -10
(PF)
0.1 0.2 0......- ........ ---.
--+, Voltage (V) Q 2 4
0.5 ~ 2 4
---+ F(g)
Current (mA)
---+ F(g)
1.0
Fig. 5.4 Piezoelectric 'semiconductor translstor and its characteristics.
3g
(a) s.t .,S,PiezoelectricForce Transducer

• Piezoelectric crystal or element, primarily responds to force-
Fig. 5.3 Piezoefeclri'c semicondlictor diode .nd Its'characteristics
possesses all the desired characteristics of an' ideal force
,Other Transducers 5.9
• If the four corners can be subjected to concentrated forces as shown in

• The element can be directly stressed by application of force at one point
the four-point twister of fig. (5.6 (b)), the expanding diagonals will be
of the surface, perpendicular to each other, and on opposite sides ,of the bimorph,
• Multiple forces can also be applied at more than one point of the
F
surface, 'and summed by using ,one single 'crystal. + +
• To increase the charge sensitivity, more than one element can be used
to form a, transducer system and such combinations are known as
bimorphs or multimorphs (or piezopile), depending on whether they are
(a>
of two elements or more. F
F
• Theseries and parallelconnectedbimorphs are shown ill fig. (5.5).
• A multimorph of four elements, which develops four times the charge B

of a singleelement, is shown in fig. (5.6).
• The fout elements are mechanically in series but electrically in parallel
and hence the net capacitance of the transducer increases
(b)
correspondingly.
• When bimorphs are made up of ceramic elements, thedirection of Fig. 5.6 (a) Bender type bimorphs (b) Twister type bimorphs
polarization of the two elements should be noted, and then connected

so as to develop charges, and voltages under stress as shown in fig. 5.1.6 Piezoelectric Strain 'Transducer
(5.6(a)). These are called' as Bender-type bimorphs. • Any piezoelectric element cemented to' the surface of the structure is
• A twister bimorph is shown in fig. (5.6(b)), with the force applied at under stress, the strainin the structure is transmitted to the element.
A, while 'the remaining three corners B, C and D are held rigidly. • A voltage proportional to strain is directly available from the,
F transducer.
• The output is obtained by using the h-coefficientgiven by
V o = het ... (5.2)
where e ~ strain
Parallel , Series
(a) t ~ thickness of the element, -ni
• The 'sensitivity of the transducer is very high.

(b) .Piezo-resistive strain transducers, . though known to be suited for
Fig.. 5.5 (a) Parallel 'and 'Series connected' blmorphs
transient strain measurements, are not as sensitive as the, piezoelectric
(b) Multimorph of four piezoelectric elements. type.
• ,If accuracy and stability are of primary interest, metallic alloy resistive
Spindle
strain gauges are chosen, especially when static strain is monitored
over a long period of time, Bender bimorph
Sound --+
pressure --+
5.1.7 Piezoelectric Torque Transducer waves --+t-------=-~.I\.IA'
• A cantilever type bender bimorphcan be used as a twister bimorph

for the measurement of torque as shown infig.(5.7).
• The twisting moment may be due to a small force transmitted through
a lever or may be obtained directly by connecting it to a driving
Fig. 5.8 Piezoelectric microphone
shafts/spindle as obtained in instrument mechanisms.
• The sensitivity' is ·'high and is ·therefore very much ,useful for • Large pressure variations occurring at frequencies upto 20 KHz in
measurement of small driving torques under dynamic conditions. internal combustion engines ,are measured using multimorphs
(piezopile) of quartz elements.
• The surfaces of the elements, connecting electrode surfaces in between

and the diaphragm or load .plate at the extremes, should be optically
flat, and no air should be trapped in between as it would 'reduce the
natural frequency, of the system.
• The transducer is prestressed so as to enable pressure fluctuations

about a mean value to be measured.
• The prestressing is produced by a thin-walled tube under tension, as

Fig. 5.7 ~ A cantilever type twister bimorph shown in fig. 5.9 (a).
5.1.8. Piezoelectric Pressure Transducers

+ Vo + Vo _
• Piezoelectric transducers are more suitable for pressure measurements Housing

under dynamic conditions only and are often used as microphones,
hydrophones, and engine pressure indicators. Coolingcavity
• In the piezoelectric microphone, the diaphragm and the. bimorph are

1--+--...::
. . -If+,:-~h4--- Piezopile
connected together by means of a fine' needle (spindle) as shown in fig. (5.8). Thin walledtube
• The natural frequency of the diaphragm, the bimorph,and the
,,~--.-_ Diaphragm
associated system should be made higher than the highest frequency p
to be responded to (10 KHz normally).
p
.. When used in sound level meters, it is essential for microphone tohave - Fig. 5.9 Piezoelectric pressure transducersprestreesee by
flat frequency response upto 10 KHz. (a) a thin-walled tube (b) a thickdiaphragrri.
A very thin diaphragm of flexible material is used for sealing. • For a thin-walled hollow tube, the open circuit voltage generated by
• The preload may also be ~developed by a stiff diaphragm as shown in the radial, stress and tangential stress is given by
'fig. 5.9 (b). a -b ) ... (5.3)
V o = P, ( g33 ba + b - g31 b
• The net force F l to which the piezopile responds is given, by
r, = -K-1 - where
F K 1 +K2 g33' g31 ~ the g-coefficients of the material
where b ~ outer radius

F ~ the total force acting' on' the transducer a ~) inner radius
Kl ~ spring-rate of piezopile
5.1.9 Piezoelectric Acceleration Transducer
K 2 ~ spring-rate of the preloading tube or diaphragm.
• The acceleration transducer design is like that of a force transducer
• For the measurement of air-blast pressures and underwater pressure except that a proof .mass is added to the acceleration transducer for
transients. developing force under acceleration inputs.
. A small hollow cylinder shown in fig. 5.10 is used is most cases. The single crystal or the piezopile is prestressed by scr~wing down the
•
cap on the hemispherical spring shown in fig. 5.11 (a).
Thickness
mode • The input~outputcharacteristics of piezoelectric acceleration transducer
is-shown in fig. 5.11 (b).
Length
mode
Prestress
force
Fig. 5.10 . Pressure transducer for under water pressuremeasurement O'-------lL----i.---..&.:=--- _
Metallicbody o ~ Force
• The outer and inner surfaces' are metallized 'and used as electrodes. (a)
(b)
• The walls are polarized in a radialdirection, Fig. 5.11 (a) Piezoelectric acceleration transducer (b) Its input-outputcharacteristica
• Thetu1>e cavity may be sealed against the external pressure and the
5.2 MAGNETOSTRICTIVE TRANSDUCERS
blast pressure is
applied to the outer surfaces..
• Magn.etostrictive transducers are similar to piezoelectric tranaducers
• The cylinder responds to the pressure Pe in all the three modes as and are based on the, application 'of the magnetostriction phonomonon.
shown in fig. 5.1Q.
0.6
• They are converters of mechanical energy into magnetic energy and
are also known as magnetoelastic transducers.
8
• The phenomenon-is reversible and the devices developed convert energy = 0.3
from one form to another. t

• The natural frequency of the transducers can be as high as 10 KHz I
I
and are very much used as transmitters (senders) and receivers in •I ,,'
--+ H(Alm)
vibration and acoustic studies. III
-0.3 //:-0.8
~1 I
• The transducers possess very high mechanical input impedance and Nickel ~~
~~~" I
are suitable for measurement of force and rhence acceleration and -.I::.:~;:~ J ~
- 7
.
~::_--;
Nickel-iron
alloy
pressure. -0.6 0'=20 -1.6
Fig. 5.12 B-H characteristics under different stress values
• They can measure large forces, both static and dynamic. (a) For nickel (b) For nlckel-lron alloy
• They are rugged -in constructional features and, when used as active • The change in the shape of the B - H loop alters the remnance B; of
transducers, the output impedance is low.
the material.
• Nickel and nickel-alloys are mostly used. • When B; and permeability decrease with increase-in stress, it is known
• It is the basic non-linearity in the B-H characteristic which is as "negative magnetostrietion".
responsible for its limited scope of application, especially when pigh
accuracy -is desired.
5.2.1 Magnetostriction Phenomenon

B
• Certain ferromagnetic materials are considerably affected in their Tension

magnetic properties when they are mechanically stressed. This
phenomenon is known as "magnetostriction" (Villari effect) and is H increasing
particularly significant in nickel and nickel-iron alloys.

• The shape and size of the B - Hcharacteristic and the B - H loop is
sufficiently altered when the material is subjected to tensile, <?>mpression , Operating a
o
compressional or shear stress. --+Stress
• TheB - Hcharacteristicsof nickel and nickel-iron (Ni, 68%) alloy are (a) ~ Torsion+
presented in fig. (5.12) showing the effect of increasing tensile stress (b) Strong tension
o on the materials.
• Similarly, the magnetization characteristic is affected and it is observed Fig. 5.13 Characteristics of _a nickel s-a~pl,e
(a) For H variation (b) For -superposedcycli-c torsion.
that the _permeability increases with increase in tensile stress in the
case of nickel-iron alloys and decreases in the case of pure nickel.
• The percentage of nickel in the nickel-iron alloy has considerable • One of the simple configurations commonly employed is shown in fig.
influence 'on the characteristics. (5.14).
• The materials are sensitive to the polarity of stress and hence the • The arrangement in fig. (5.14) allows the measurement of large static
transducers enable measurement of alternating forces. forces and 10-20 percent change in self-inductance is observed with
• Some ferrite materials such as 'Ferroxcube B' exhibit magnetostriction nickel and nickel-iron alloy transducers.
of'considerable degree but due of their brittleness, they are not used. • Application of stress 0' results in a change ofB hv -+ MJ, depending on
the material.
Fig, 5.l3(a) shows the variation of B with stress at different values of H,
and fig. 5.13 (b) shows the effect of superposition of cyclic torsion on tensile • The sensitivity of the transducer is defined as the ratio of liB to o and
stress for the case of a nickel sample. is given by'
s= M
5.2.2 Magnetostrictive Force Transducer a
\. -,
B=Bo
• The self-inductance of an iron-cored coil change if the core
characteristic is changed due to application of force. where B o = operating point of flux density
• It is the mechanical strain that affects the orientation of the magnetic • For small sinusoidally varying 0', corresponding variations of M3 are
domains, and hence the change in the' value of effective permeability. assumed to be sinusoidal.
• The magnetic .path should be continuous with no air gap present. • If a coil is provided on the core, the induced emf-will be proportional
to o and sinusoidal.
• The core may be laminated.
• The sensitivity is observed to be maximum in the case of nickel-iron
• The laminations are stacked to form the core, and a' coil is provided to (Ni68%) -alloy when B o is adjusted to 11V3 of saturation -flux density.
en~ble measurement of its self-inductance.
It is approximately equal to 3 x 10- 8 TIN.
• The coil current is so adjusted as to make the self-inductance maximum
and make it most sensitive to stress. • The operating flux density B o m~y be chosen as the remnant flux
Force density B; for reasons of simplicity and stability.
• The sensitivity may be lower but it is preferred since bias winding is
not needed.
• The fall in sensitivity can be made up by providing .more turns in the
pick-up coil, utilizing the window space of the bias winding.
• The emf induced in "the winding is given by
e (t) = SAN do (I) ... (5.4)

Laminations cit
where A ~ area of coil

Fig. 5.14 Magnetostrictive force transducer
N ~ number of turns
5.18 Transducer Engineeri99
Other Transducers
5.19
• Transient forces and stresses can be measured by integrating e(t) 5.2.4 Magnetostrictive Torsion Transducer
before it is displayed on the oscillograph.
• Magnetostrictive torsion transducer consists of a nickel wire of 0.5 -
5.2.3 Magnetostrictive Acceleration Transducer 1 mm diameter kept stretched between the poles of a permanent
• To extend the application of the transducer for measurement of magnet and having a small stylus rigidly attached to it at the midpoint.
acceleration, addition of proof mass is required. • The wire is prestressed by twisting it, before being installed into the
position. ,.l
• The mass of the core itself serves as proof mass to some extent and
additional mass is provided by a brass cylinder of at least an equal • Two pick-up coils of fine wire arc .wound round the wireon eitherside
mass, as shown in fig. 5.15. of the mid-point, as shown in fig. 5.16.
• Any displacement of stylus to one side or the other increases the torsion
Diaphragm
on one side and decreases it by an equal amount on the other side. '
Seismic,--tr.~~~_--f......-_ ....... 1-1'/..1 • This results in an increase of 'magnetic flux in one-half and a decrease
mass
in the other half.
Coi1s-~.-....
Nickel wire
Laminations -~ ........ Stylus
Fig. 5.15 Magnetost.rictive acceleration transducer
• To prevent the transducer from responding to transverse accelerations, Permanent tDagnet

the brass cylinder is guided by a flexible diaphragm.
Fig. 5.16 Magnetostrictivetorsion transducer
• The induced emf of the coil is integrated in such a way as to extend
the bandwidth of the system towards the lower frequencies. • The corresponding .induoed emfs are .in .phase.opposition and are
• As compared to piezoelectric accelerometers, these transducers are of processed by suitable networks as in the case of linear variable
larger size and mass and are lower in accuracy. differential transformer.
• While measuring acceleration, the variation in the earth's magnetic .. ,It is used as phonograph I>.ick-up and is designed to have flat frequency
\
field affectsthe sensitivity. response over 150 Hz·- 15 KHz frequency range.
• Laminations and coil should be rightly held in position so as not to be • Due to the nonlinearity and hysteresis in the, performance, it is
affected under high accelerations. normally limited for use when time-varying torsions of small amplitude
are to be measured.
Other Transducers
5.2.5 Hall-Effect Transducers' En= Bbv(volts)
• The Hall-effect is one of the galvanomagnetic phenomena in which the where B ~ the magnetic. flux .density, T
interaction between the magnetic field and moving electrical charges
results in the development of forces that alter the motion of the charge. V -t velocity, mls
e The· Hall effect .is observed in all metals, but is very much prominent b-t width, ni
insemiconductor materials.
• The electrons and .the free charge carriers assume ,a velocityalong the.
A thin strip of bismuth or n-type..g ermanium i~ subjected to magnetic field length of' the strip, which is proportional to electric field along the
B normal to its surface as shown in fig. 5.17, while it carries a current I .along direction of motion.
the .length of the strip, but normal to B.
• It the mobility of the charge carriers is represented by X, then v is
given by
... (5.6)
l
and using E b =1 pL/bt, v is given by x1plbt
• Hence,EH = PXBI/t =KHBI/t ... (5.·7)
Fig. 5.17 Hall effect transducer, .where KIf -t Hall coefficient (or) Hall constant .'(= Xp)
t -t thickness of the strip, m

• . The .magnetic field exerts ..a force (known-as Lorentz force) on the
. electrons moving at. a 'velocity .v,with the result that some -of them L -t length of the strip, m
drift towards the edges of the strip, .
• " The . edge .·surfaces act like charged electrodes and the potential 5.2.6 Applications of Hall Transducers
difference measured 'between P.an~l Q is .known as. Hall.potential En • In the field of instrumentation, the .Hall element is highly valued for
which increases with increase of B and I. its .speedof response in detection changes in the·magn~e~field.towhich
• The build-up of the charge on the edge surfaces will, in turn, develop it .is exposed.
an electric field (Hall field) 'of such' a polarity' that ,counteracts the • The advantages are its small size .and high sensitivity.
collection of charges on .the surfaces.
• It is' used as a proximity detector as it does not require to establish a
'.. The. force on ,the electrons due-to Hall field and the Lorentz force mechanical link with the test object. ':.{';"
~
balance ..each other finally. • It' is used to measure the change' in .the strength or direction of till
.•. The time 'required to reach this 'equilibrium is about 10- 14
8. magnetic field due to the displacement. or-nearness of the ted . . . .
.' .. If e is the charge of electron, then the Lorentz force Bev and the force 5.2.6.1 Angular displaeement transdueer.andproximity del_.lIIII• •~(;T
due to Hall field are equal to .each other. Hence, • Fig. (5.18) .shows the··Hall·effectangulardisplacement.'• • ":~~'T7
Bel)=eEJI b Hall effect proximity. transducer..
5.22 Transducer. Engineering
Other .. Transducers 5.23
• As. the element can respond to quick changes in the field, it is equally
applicable .for 'measurement of amplitudes of vibration of objects and 5.3.1 Film Sensors
count the number of fast moving objects across the magnetic' field.
• Basically, such sensors are produced by film deposition of different
thickness on appro.priate substrates.
• The .deposition techniques used are .different for the ,t];rick and thin film
,Hallelements .i
sensors.
N
.' Sensors produced through these techniques have varying electrical and
mechanical properties while a variable is being sensed.
5.3.3 Thick Film Sensors
• Thick film process had been in use for producing capacitor, resistor
---.. ---. arid conductors-and for sensor development.
Ferromagneticobjeet
(a) (b) • The processing of a sensor can be expressed schematically as
,Fig.' 5.18 (a) Hall effect displacement transducer (b) Hall effect proximity transducer Step 1 Selection and preparation of a substrate.
Step'2 Preparation of the initial coating material in paste or paint
• In all the above applications, the current through the element should
be held constant at about 5 - 20 rnA dc .using constant current sources. form.
• The value ofEl ! for the case ofann-type gennaniumelement, carrying Step 3 Pasting or painting the substrate by the coating material or
a current of 10 rnA is 1.4mV when exposed to a magnetic fieldofOd mT. screen printing it.
• The output impedance varies from one element to another is about and Step 4 Firing the sample produced in step" 3. in anoxidisin-i"
5 - 200 ohms, depending ,on thematerialand sizeoftheelement, atmosphere at a programmed temperature format.'
• The substrates used. for developing thick film over, them are alumina
5.•3 I,CSE,NSPR (96% or 99.5%)andberylli~(99.5%).
Although conventional sensors are commercially still very much in use, over' • These are fired at' about 625°C.
the last three decades, the use ofsolidstate sensors also have been increased.
In this category,the semiconductor micro and .nano-sensors, ceramic and
• Others used are enamelled steel which isIow carbon steel coated with.
low alkali content glass first that are fired at around 850°C.
chemical sensors using new materials and technologies .such as Ie technology,
VIJSIchips, arid micromachining techniques are Included. • Alumina or beryllia have dielectricvconstants around 9.5 and 7
respectively with dielectric strength around 5600 V/Jlm.
.F or' ~semiconductormicro:,sen~ors, the IC ,technology comprismg of
photolithographicetching,deposi~ion,metallization, and assembling is essential • Sensors which are produced through thick film deposition (- 20J.1 m)
and this is .the basis for thick and thin 'film, chemical and electrochemical, and are used for sensing temperature, pressure, .gas concentration, and
biologieal.sensors. IC.·;elementsa-renowextensively used in the measurement of humidity.
temperature, flow. and magnetic field. • Temperature: Thick film sensors such as (i) thermopiles (ulually of
gold and gold-platinum alloy), (ii) Thermistors (usually with oxides of
5.24· Transducer Engineering
manganese, ruthenium, and cobalt), and (iii) temperature, dependent (b) Sputter deposition
resistances based on gold, platinum and / nickel .are used for" (i) DC with magnetron
temperature sensing. (ii)R}4' with magnetron
• Pressure.Bensing
§ :'
~-
pressure
-
~.-
is - possible
:
by making thick film diaphragms
. (c) Chemical vapor deposition (CVD)
or capacitive devices made with alumina (AI203) and Bi2Ru207, or
(d) Plasma enhanced chemical vapor depositi()n'(PECVD~);
piezoresistive devices made of same materials.
(e) Metallo-organic deposition (MOD)
• Concentration of gases: Gases such as methane (CH4 ), CO and
(f) Langmuir - Blodgett technique of monolayer deposition.
C2H5~H can be checked for concentration using films of
8n02 + I)d, Sn02frh02 +' hydrophobic 8i0 2. H 2, CO,C 2H5QH,' and 5.3.t'l.1 Plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition
• Plasma enhanced' chemical vapor deposition (PECVD) has been found
isobutane are sensed by 8n02 + Pd,Pt, Ba -, Sr - and CaTi0 3 (Nasicon).
to be particularly suitable for sensor fabrication.
Oxygen' and hydrogen gases also are separately sensed by these types
of films. • 'This isaIow temperature process in whichplasma .is introduced into
the deposition chamber to enhance thepyrolyticprocet;swmch in
• Humidity:
normal. CVD process is performed by thermal' 'decomposition that
It is sensed by requires' 'high, temperature.
(i) resistive films made from Ru02 (spinel type) I glass and
• In this process,the volatile compound-of the material to be. deposited
(ii) Capacitive films made from glass ceramic I Al203 . On the other hand, is thus vaporized, decomposedvand made to react with gaseous.species
dew' point is' sensed by films made. from .(BaTi03/Ru02)-glass. over .thesubstrate to produce a nonvolatile amorphous product on the,
surface of the substrate.
• Starting from the same basic material, 8n804 , one can produce
'. The deposition level is controlled by 'controlling the flow rates of the vapors.
8n02 - based sensors for H 2, CO·',and NH3. . .
• A par~llel,'plate" radial flow type,PECvp processing chamber, is' shown

• The other thick film variety is the ceramic metal or 'cemet' which in fig. 5.19.
consists of gold/silver/ruthenium/palladium based complex oxides in an
insulating medium, mainly' glass' (lead borosilicate).
5.3.3 Thin Film S'ensors AI electrode
• This film sensor processing. differs from thick film technology mainly
in the' film' deposition techniques,
• This technology is similar to that used in silicon micromechanics.
A 'number of techniques are used for thin film deposition such' as:
(a) Thermal evaporation
(i) Resistiveheating
. 'tOss in
Fig.·5.19A PEeve ·,proc:essi~gsyst~m' ,
,(ii) Electron beamheating
5.,1.3.2 Metallo-organic deposition (MOD) 5.3.4 Standa:rd Methods of Semiconductor Ie Technology

• This is another versatile technique which can be used both for thick • The solid state sensors (semiconductor micro-and nano-sensors, ceramic
and thin film sensor fabrication. and chemical sensors) are developed through standard Ie technology
• It consists of applying ink of metallo-organic compound to the', silicon as used in VLSI design and micromachining techniques.
substrate consisting of silicon wafer coated with silica, then spinning
• The necessary steps in the processing of sensors irr~~' semiconductor
the assembly at about 3000 rpm and finally heat treating the deposit. sensor fabrication using Ie technology are shown in fig.(5.20)
• Metallo-organic compounds consists of a central metal ion bonded with
• Starting with a polished Si, Ge, or, GaAs wafer".on which film IS
a ligand through a heterobridge containing oxygen, sulphur, nitrogen,
deposited by
,phosphorus, arsenic, ad '.so on.
(a) Epitaxial growth, or
• It is prepared by dissolving the compound in organic solvent.
• Specially prepared thin films, by this' technique are barium titanates (b) Oxidation, or
(BaTi0 3) and their derivatives that are mostly used in pyroelectric (c) Polysilicon and dielectric deposition, or
measurement, tin-oxides for gas sensors, superconducting oxides such
(d) .Metallization
as Yttrium-barium-copper oxides (YBax CUy Oz) for high temperature
and ZnO'2' Ti0 2 stabilized by Yttrium for oxygen sensors.
This film sensors measure the 'same variables as done by thick film
counterparts with: variations -in principles and materials. Table (5.1) shows the
variable, sensing element, and principle of sensing for certain different variables.
Table 5.1 Working principles of the materials
Variable Material Principle

Flow Thermoanemometry
Humidity Capacitance change Fig. S.20Processing steps in semiconductor technology
Magnetic field Ni81~'e19'.NiCo, 'C072FegB20 Magnetoresistive effect • 'Doping' (imparting impurity) is done .usually by ion implantation, or
diffusion.
Oxygen ZnO Variation in electrical
conductivity • At this ,. stage, the mask patterns are transferred to the film surface by
lithographic process.
Pressure Polysilicon Piezoresistive effect
(Diaphragm) • Theunwanted film and, substrate parts are then removed by 'etching'.
Radiation Au Bolometry • The 'process may be· repeated for n number of times for ··transfer of n
Strain mask patterns.
CrNi Piezoresistive effect
'I'emperature Pt . Resistance variation • A finished wafer would contain thousands of identical chips (features)
which are then separated by diamond sawing or laser cutting.
Transducer Engineer'ing
5.28 Other Transducers 5.29
• Single crystal and polyerystalline silicon have been grown oninsulator 5.3.2 .. Microelectromechanical Systems (MEMS)
surfaces such as sapphire (silicon-on-sapphire (80S» and 8i0 2·
• MEMS are basically miniature devices on .a silicon 'chip which have
• G·aAs can be grown on silicon by epitaxy. found a major use in sensors.
This process is important as optical sensors can be developed in this • In UK'and the European continent, these are often referred as
way. microsystem technology (M8T).
Oxidation of Si wafers can also be employed as it passivates the wafer • This is termed as micro engineering .and the terms micro machining
surface and serves as diffusion and ion implantation masks. and micromechanics are associated with it.
• "()xid'ation' can be dry (in dry oxygen) or wet (in steam' vapor).
5.3.6 Micromachining: (See Fig. 5.21)
• 'Lithography' transfers the pattern desired to a. layer of resist which
Micromachining can be done in many ways.. More important ones include:
transfers the pattern to the films or substrates. through etching.
• Resist is the radiation sensitive material. (a) Bulk micromachining

Lithography can be classified. as • There are differences in etch rates between the crystallographic'
directions of silicon with particular etchants.
(i) :Photolithography (with optical radiation)
• Using this property,features can be fabricated in particular crystal
(ii) X.-ray lithography (with Xvradiation) planes.
(iii) E-beam lithography (with electron beam), and • The ·,substrate is masked by Si02when ethylene diamine .pyrocatechol
(iv) Ion-beam lithography (with' ion-beam as radiation). is used as etchant, or SigN2 is used for KOH as the etchant.
(b) Surface micromachining

Etching
It is essential for surface polishing, removing contamination, drawing • Differences between the etch properties of polysilicon and 8i02 are
pattern, a.nd opening windows in the in-between insulator (Si02, say) and used for feature. development.
fabrication, specifically three dimensional features· by micromachining • The process is based on CMOS technology.
techniques. • Polysilicon layer is deposited on top of 8i0 2 and then etched.
/
Substrates used for etching are Si, GaAs, metals and insulators. .Etching is . • The thickness of the deposited layer is limited to a few microns only.
of two types: WetaIld dry.
(c) LIGA
.Diffusion. and, ion implantation • A process known as LIGA from the words LIthographic,
These are the two very important processes by whichdopanti~purityatoms Galvanoformung, Abformung, is an alternative to the process of surface
are introdu'ccd in controlled quantities into the selected regions of the wafer, to micromachining, i
make the semiconductor substrate regionsn or p-type. Selectivity is ensured by ., It uses the lithographic exposure' of thick photoresist, and then
masking the top surface of the wafer impurities. . electroplating is carried out for building mechanical parts.
Other Transducers
5.31
5.3.7 Nano-Sensors
• This process fabricates thicker structures than that by surface
• Microelectronics naturally leads to nanoelectrons for realizing
micromachining.
nano-devices which are expected to create an impact in the
• Lasers and UV sources have been used when the penetration depths ' enhancement of energy conversion, control of pollution, production of
are limited to 200 um and 20llm respectively. food, and improvement in the conditions of human health and
longevity. ~
(d) DRIE of BSOI • While progressing towards the development of fast. and miniaturized
• A new process in development is. based on bonded silicon-on-insulator memory structures, giant magnetoresistance structures have been
(BSOI) where siliconwafer is thermally bonded to an oxidized silicon produced using Thomson effect.
(Si0 2 ) substrate. • These giant magnetoresistance (GMR)· structures consist of layers of
The . bonded wafer is polished to the desired thickness, between 5 J.1m magnetic and nonmagnetic metal films where in the critical layers have
•
and 200 J.1m, and the etching is done by Deep. Reactive Ion Etching thickness of the order of nanometers.
(DI~IE). • They are used as extremely sensitive magnetic field sensors.
• Organic nanostructures have been developed combining chemical
self-assembly,with a mechanical device.
• The organic sample is reduced to a size that consists of a single
<a>
molecule and this is connected by two gold .Ieads.
• This structure has been successfully used to measure the electrical
conductivity of a single molecule.
(b) • ~'ig. 5.22 (a) shows the microstructure, while Fig. 5.22 (b) shows the
operation mechanism of aGMR.
(c) --+
Current
3
2
'(b)
Operation scheme of· aGMR
(d)
1. Antiferromagneticexchange film
2. Ni-!4'e GMR free film

Fig.(5~21l (a) Bulk micromachining, (b) ·Surface micromachlning,
(c) LIGA, and (d) DRIE of BSOI· ,,' 8. Co-GMI{ pinned film
4. Cu-Spacer
5.4 DIGITAL TRANSDUCERS 2. Absolute encoder

Transducers dealt with so far are analog transducers whose output signals These encoders present a digital readout for each angular position and do'
are in analog form. The ease and versatility provided by digital signal processing not. require a datum.
circuits and digital computers necessitates the development of digital
transducers providing digital output'signals directly. As there are only a few .All encoders require a sensing system of either the contacting. type using
brushes, or the, noncontacting optical technique. ~~ ,
such digital transducers, the analog outputs of analog transducers are converted
into digital signals using analog-to-digital converters. With the increasing . .~e encoders shown in figs. (5.23) and (5.24) consist oftwo distinct regions
application of digital computers, digital transducers that are compatible with signifying the two logic level signals, 0 and 1.
the' digital nature of the computer are under development. Direct digital
transducers provide output signals in the form of rectangular pulses of constant • The linear encoder of fig. (5.23) for the contacting type has a pattern
duration and amplitude, the presence or absence of which' in its time slot is ofmetallic areas on a matrix of nonconducting areas.
taken to stand for either l's orO's. However, transducers are treated as digital • All the metallic areas get connected together and energized through a
type, if theyprovide pulses whose pulse rate is counted. fix~d brush that rests on a continuous track and is in contact for all
positions.
Similarly, / transducers whose output signals are sinusoidal and the
15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
~--,----r-,---,-....,---r--"""':"''''''':'''''''::-'''''':--=-' , ./': Stationary brushes
frequency of which is related to measurand .are considered to be, digital type 23 ¥/
when working in combination with digital frequency measuring system. Such 2

2
1
transducer systems may be treated as indirect digital type. 2
2°
5.4.1 Digita~' Displacement Transducers

.Oneaf the direct digital transducers is the digital encoder for linear Readoutlamps-
and angular displacements. It is also known as linear or angular digital
Fig. 5.23 Linear digital encoder (LDE)
encoder (I~DE' or ADE).
Readoutlamps
• ;, Such transducers are available in different sizes with differing 20_ _~~..-;lS
21 ---..c:~
resolution and accuracy. 2
23
• Basically they are divided into two types 2
1. Incremental encoder'
2. Absolute encoder
Collector
1. Incremental encoders
These encoders require a counting system which adds increments of pulses
, , , / 'c'
8 7
generated by an encoder, a sensing system and some 'datum from which
Fig. 5.24 AngUlar digital .enccder (ADE)
increments are added or subtracted.
Incremental encoders are single track discs or scales provided with

• The- encoder shown has four tracks, resulting in digital output in four
alternating conducting and nonconducting areas as shown in fig. 5.26.
bits.
• The scales and discs shown in figs. (5.23 and 5.24) are encoders • All "incrementalencoders are designed to generate a fixed number of
providing digital outputs in four bits. pulses for each unit of angular or linear displacement of the encoder.
• The angular digital encoder of fig. 5.24 is also known· as shaft angle
encoder and is normally meant for a total angular displacement of 5.4.1.1 Optical encoders •
360°. • The majority of ·sha:ft~a~le encoders use noncontacting type sensing
• Both the encoders shown are absolute encoders. systems so as to make the .measurements free from the .problems of
the brush .contact.
• Linear digital encoders (LDE) may also be· obtained by converting
linear motion into rotary motion through a rack and pinion or some • Optical encoders use optical and photoelectric sensing systems.
such arrangement and using the shaft-angle encoders.
'. The linear and angular encoders have a pattern of transparent and
• Simple arrangements using a pulley ora cable are shown in fig. 5.25. opaque areas .corresponding to the conducting and nonconducting areas
.-.--.. respectiv~ly of the contacting brush type.
Rack
Pinion
Encoder
disc
Encoder
disc
Cable
Tension
spring
Fig. 5.25 Linear digital encoders .using ADE. Array of
Photocells
(1))
Arrayof
Photocells
Fig. 5.27 (a) O.ptical 'encoder; (b) Arrangement of light sources and photosensors
Fig. 5.26 Incremental digital encoder

• The sensing system consists of light sources, each provided with a 200kHz
focusing lens and an equal number of "photoelectric devices, and suppy
receiving the light beam from its corresponding light s.ource.

I coil Logic
• The 'light sources are kepton one side .and the photosensors on the
other side of the encoder as shown in fig. 5.27 (a). 1
r. output
Reoil
Instead of having a large number of light sources, a single lamp and a lens
is used as shown in fig. 5.27 (b) to flood the encoder on one side, while the Magnetized,'
sensors receive light through a' narrow 'slit .located accurately with respect to portion
the reference line.
• Alternatively, a cylindrical lens produces a single line. beam which is o o

so projected on to the. reference line of. the disc as to be incident on
Fig. 5.28 Magnetic encoder
the sensors, after passing through the-disc.
5.4.2 Digital Speed Transducers
5.4.1.2 Magnetic encoders
(a) Variable reluctance type
• In this' type of encoders,. magnetic tape with magnetised portions and
non magnetised portions, is' .moved.over sensing heads. (b) Variable capacitance type
• The sensing heads have toroidal cores.
• Each toroidal core has two coils namely reading coil and interrogate (a) 'Variable reluctance type
coil.
In variable reluctance type of transducer, a rotating shaft is 'attached with'
• The .interrogatacoif is energised with a constant voltage of 200 KHz a toothed rotor, which provides a variable reluctance in a magnetic circuit.
signal.
• '!'his trandcuer is shown in fig. 5.29
• The reading coil develops. output 'signal due 'to transformer action only
when the toroidal core is against, the noninagnetised portion.
• Whenthe core is against themagnetised portion no voltage is developed

because the cora is saturated.
I
I
• A schematic diagram of the arrangement is given' in· fig. 5.28. I
I
I
r!}
Fig. 5.29 Variable reluctance speed sensor.
Other Transducers
5.38
Tran~ducerEngineer(ng
• .When the teeth are against the stator poles the reluctance is less and I·"
hence eo is more. I
I
• (When the slot of the toothed shaft comes against the stator pole, the
reluctance is .high and hence the voltage induced across eo is small. I
\
_ I
• . Whenever the teeth crosses the' pole a voltage pulse appears across L.....
Serialb~
(a)
eo·
Communication
'. By counting the number of pulses per second, we can determine the ,.....-------------
Analog.interface
interface
speed.
The output of the transducer is a series of pulses, this can be interfaced I Sensor/
actuator
I Digital ouq,utADC Microprocessor
Frequency output
and memory
• Autoranging autocalibration
DSP
with any digital equipment. Offset and drift correction Condition
Monitoring
Intelligentfield device Serlalbus
(b)
(b) Variable capacitance type
. Fig. 5.30 (a> Typical intelligent sensor and actuator and (b) Simplified version of (a>
• The variation of the capacitance between a probe plate and a toothed
, Properties of intelligent field device
rotor may be used to generate pulses.
1. Automatic ranging and calibration through a built in digital system.
'. The number of pulses per second is equal to the rotor speed and the
number 'of -teeth in the serrated rotor· 2. Auto-acquisition and storage of calibration. constants in local memory
of the field device.
• By counting the number of pulses by suitable counters, a digital
readout proportional \to the 'speed can be designed. 3. Autocorrection of offsets, time and temperature .drifts.
4. Autoconfiguration and verification of hardware for correct operation
following internal checks.
5~5 ,SMART S'ENSORS 5. Auto linearization of nonlinear transfer .characteristics.
A sensor producing an electrical output when combined with interface 6. Self-tuning control algorithms, fuzzy logic control is being increasingly
electronic circuits is said to be an intelligent sensor if the interfacing circuits used now.
canperform(i) . ranging (ii) calibration and (iii) decision making for 7. Control programme may be locally stored or 'downloaded from a host
communication and ,utilization ofdata. system and dynamic reconfiguration performed.
Both sensors and actuators are used as intelligent components of 8. .Control is implementable through signal bus and a host system.
instrumentation systems, In fact th~yare used as field devices. The block 9. Condition monitoring is also used for fault diagnosis which, in tum,
diagram of one such intelligent equipment is shown in fig. 5.30. may involve additional sensors, digital signal ,processing and data
analysis software.
Fig. 5.30 shows the simplified version with facilities of processing that can
10. Communication through a serial bus.
be incorporated.
5.40 Transducer. Engineering Other Transducers 5.41
Intelligent. sensors are also called smart sensors. The initial motivation Certain sensors require supply, constant voltage or constant current along
behind the development of smart sensors include processing and bus interfacing with comparison capabilities; the feature is included in sensor subsystem.
for communication. Amplification is necessary which usually analog, may also be controlled digitally.
Sensors Analog filters were employed which have now been replaced by digital
ASPV counterparts,
Converter
Microcontroller These three systems, namely the supply, amplification, and filters, comprise
the Analog signal processing unit (ASPU). Smart sensor also requires a data
Bus
conversion module either from analog to digital (AID) or from-frequency to digital
(F/D) which interfaces with the microprocessors for information.' This supply
Fig. 5.31 A sensor interfaced with a host system
may be required to provide different output to different stages of the ·system.
Fig, 5.31 shows a sensor interfaced with a host system. In the thermocouple form' of sensors, no excitation to/the sensors is needed while
for resistive bridge" an extremely stable supply is, required. In stages of electronic
5.5.1 Prlmarysensors. processing units, ac supply or else pulsed form supply may be required for phase
-'E~xisting;sensors of
all kinds with a cascaded block for providing electrical sensitive detection in the processor 11nit.
output in the form of voltage or current can" be adapted to an integrated
processing system, but the system can then be called a smart sensor, 5.5.3 Amplification
. External stiIllulisuch as strain/stress, thermal/optical agitation, and. As the output of the sensors are small, amplification is essential in all smart
electric/magnetic field change the behavior of materials at atomic/molecular level sensors. If the gain requirement is very high, noise becomes a problem. However,
or in crystalline state. This concept is utilized in designing a primary sensing stage wise approach with adequate compensation realizes the 'requirement, the
element, for particular stimulus or a specific' physical variable. design and layout being critical.
5.5.2 Excitation
5.5.4 Filters
Excitation is a ge.neralized term used for supply to the primary sensors and
the processing units. Analog filters are often used as the digital type consume large real time
processing power.r -
(a) Compensation for the non-ideal behavior of the sensors and
(h) Provision for communication of the process data with the host system.
5.5.5 Converters
.Traditional sensors thatary being used, have varying requirements of
compensation and signal processing objectives. • Conversion is the stage' of internal interfacing between the continuous
Thus, for each type of variable a different-kind of processing is' required. and the discrete processing units. Often, controlled conversion through
'l'he smart sensor isiintended to sense as weIr' as do the sensing-related software is provided with range selection and so on.
processing within itself. Further, it communicates the response to the host • Data conversion from analog amplitude to frequency is often done for
system sp that the efficiency and .accuracy of information distribution are convenience of signal transmission, internally or externally and/or for
enhanced with cost reduction. subsequent 'digital conversion.
Transducer Engineering Other Transducers 5~43
5.42
2 m=2n-l
• Voltage-controlled oscillators are used for these purposes. One such VI
converter is a multivibrator shown in fig.(5.32). Analysis shows that
V2
the time period of the generated square wave is given by
... (5.8)
'..' .(, ',' ,R2 )
T = 2 Re In 1 + 2 R Vo ~!
1
Fig. 5.33 An integrated ring oscillator
IJ • If the MOS channel resistance is a piezoresistance whose value may

c
be made dependent on the pressure exerted on it; this would change
R
the gate delay and there is a frequency change.
Fig. 5.32 A:'mmttvibrafor
• Supply frequency and temperature changes are usually compensated
The parameters Rand:C can be related to the input voltage. Fixing by using two ring oscillators and the ratio of-two frequencies is taken
R 2 / R 1 at 0.859, T is obtained as as the output.
T=2RC ... (5.9)
or, frequency f is given by 5.5.7 Frequency to digital conversion
. 1 ... (5.10) • In digital conversion, frequency from the sensor oscillator is counted
f=2RC by actually counting clock pulses in a pulse-width of the oscillator.
• The capacitance or resistance may be the sensed instead of the input • Typical digital conversion is shown infig.(5.34J.
voltage or measurand/sensor output voltage.
, . Over the time period T x = 1/ fx' fref would be counted; dividing fx by a
5.5.6 V - (Converter suitable factor n, this time interval is suitably increased to obtain a
better resolution.
Ring oscillator realized with MOS technology is one popular V - f converter
(or signal to frequency converter). • The resolution, R n is given by
eLK
• A V - f converter which consists of an odd number of cascaded NOT,
NOR, or NAND gateswith its last gate-output fed back to the first
stage ··to form the ring.
Counter
• With the gain of .each stage greater than one, the circuit is
self-oscillatory with the frequency determined by the number of gates
and their delays. Pulseshaper
• Supply frequency and chip temperature need be controlled on which Fig. 5.34 A typical digital conversion. method
also depends the frequency.
R=l(f
nn.frer)I
x ... (5~11) • The methods of minimization of noise are appropriate. signal
conditioning techniques that include filtering, signal averaging, and
correlation among others.
where 1/ R n is the actual count.
• If the signal is periodic as in the case of the output of the frequency
converter, the correlation technique improves the signal-to-noise ratio
5.5.8 Compensation ) '
by a large value, the ratio by a large value. This <is due to the
Compensation is an attempt to counter all sorts of .nonideality in the superposition property of autocorrelation.
primary sensor characteristics as well as environment of measurement. The • Again, if the input is corrupted at any stage by noise, specifically white
common defects of sensor are: noise, a cross correlation technique can be used to obtain' the system
1. Non linearity response/function without this corruption.
2. Noise 3. Response time

Because of the presence of storage and dissipative elements, a sensor is
3. Response time
likely to have quite inferior time response characteristics and the dynamic
4. Drift correction of sensor becomes necessary.
5. Cross sensitivity and ,This is possible with the use of microprocessors/micro computers with'
suitable algorithm if the dynamic parameters arekriown through solving the
6. Interference convolution integral.
7. Data .communication 4. Drift
1. NonLinearity • Drift appears in a sensor because of slow changes in its physical
• Analog processing shows serious nonlinearity which at. one time, was parameters either.' due to ageing or deterioration in ways of oxidation,
solved by piecewise linear segment approach modelled by linear sulphation, and so on.
electronic circuits. • Drift is .a kind of noise and should be counteracted.
• A very common technique in use is to refer the look-up tables while • As drift tends to change the sensor characteristics, the reference points
other are polygon interpolation,polynomial interpolation, and cubic for polynomial interpolation also tend to drift.
splines interpolation .techniques of curve .fitting.
5. Cross sensitivity
2. Noise and Interference • A sensor, while responding to a specific variable, responds to others as
• Thermal noise is important in almost all sensors. well, may be, with much less sensitivity,
• Besides, there ate other unwanted signals that may be picked up due • It is therefore necessary to maximize the sensitivity for the desired
to external magnetic fields (sort of an interference) when the struct-ore measurand and minimize that for the others.
is not adequately screened. • 'The compensation is made through devising .algorithm by monitoring
• Noise is also introduced . at different stages of signal processing such the change in response characteristics because of any interfering
as data conversion;' analogtodigitalinterfacing by stray effects. quantity, is quite common as it is possible to develop the algorithm
Transducer Engineeri~g 01her Transducers 5.47
5.46
from measured data. Such a compensation is called as monitored • Voltage to frequency converter is another kind which is quite
compensation. extensively used (see fig. .5.33), then using a reference frequency
Other compensations are tailored compensation and deductive generator, frequency difference encoding is employed.
•
compensation. 7. Data communication
6. Information coding I Processing • Data communication is essential in smart transmitters where the
• The signal from a sensor is processed providing correction, sensor outputs are communicated with the host through bus system.
compensation, linearization, freedom from cross-sensitivity and drift. • Coded data are processed for communication by a software processor'
• Such a processed signal is finally made available in digital form and and a suitable interface system communicates between the processor
and the bus.
perhaps in a serial form.
• The smart sensors are generally multi-sensor systems and a number • Each .smart sensor/transmitter has always been provided with a local
of signals are available for either display or further processing. operating system in a ROM, that consists of an application programme
and library modules, for ADC and DAC hardwares, bus driving
• Information, the state of the process in the form. of a processed. signal
hardware, local interface hardware and LCDlkeyboardhardware.
through sensor and signal processing systems, is first received by the
• A typical transmitter with HART protocol appears as the one shown
infonnationcoding system,
in fig. 5.36.
• Some of these signals are released, some stored and some destroyed.
• Some other protocols that find use are High Level Data Link Control
• For indication purposes only, the signals are coded and displayed over
(HDLC), Synchronous Data Link Control (SDLC), Factory
appropriate display modules as is done in digital meters, indicators &
Instrumentation Protocol (FIP).
recorders.
The fig. 5~35 shows a typical Ie temperature sensor-based smart sensor.
Reference source
Fig. 5.36 A smart tran.mltt.,
Fig. 5.35 A typical Ie-temperature based sm-a-rt sensor.
• Information processing assembly in a smart sensor is basically an

encoder, the encoded data from this are fed to the communication unit.
• .The conventional signal processing provides an output of 4 - 20mA.
Ie Active
• The, basic multiloop connection method is presented in fig. 5.37 -& fig. 5.38
shows the hardware requirements for microprocessor-based field devices." 'I'he fibre is exposed to the energy source that affects the measurand arid
a consequent change in the optical propagation in the fibre is detected and
related to the measurand.
2. Passive
~~....:t------ ::~~::::::&5 Light transmitted through a fibre, called input fibre, is first modulated by
a conventional optical sensor and this intensity-modulated' light is' propagated
Fig. 5.37 The basic l1lultiloop connection through a second fibre called the output fibre and detected and corrected with
the measurand.
eLK
5.6.1 Temperature measurement

Microcomputer Duplexer
• 'I'wo identical optical fibres are used to propagate radiation from a

source (a laser source)
Carrier Detector
Fig. 5.38 Demonstration of hardware requirement of an intelligent field device • If one of these fibres is in a medium with temperature differentthan
that of the other, the optical outputs from the two fibres would have
• Frequency shift keying (FSK) is 'used for coding digital information. a phase difference which is a function of the difference of temperature.
• Logic 1 is represented by 120_0.~ Hz and 0 by 2200 Hz both with sine
• Thisphase difference is due to optical path length variations in the
wave of amplitude 0.5 mAo
two path's occurring due to temperature difference,
• Data rate is 1.2 Kb/s. The implementation of this digitally signalling
technique can be done by using a modem of telephony. standard. • This phase difference is so small that it can only be measured by.
producing interference patterns.
5.6 FIBRE OPTIC TRANSDUCERS (a) Phase difference method
• Fibre optic sensors could be classified asa separate group of sensors. • He-Ne 'laser is the source.
• , They are considered for sensing different types of variables such as • 'rho, detector is Mach-Zender interferometer.
temperature, liquid level; fluid flow, magnetic field, acoustic • Beam-splitter (13S) and mirrors (Mi) are used.
parameters, and so on.
• Two identical optical fibres (Reference path fibre and measuring path
• However, optical radiation happens to be theenergy source in these
fibre) are used to pro.pagate radiation from a He-Ne.Iaser source.
-, applications with the fibre acting as 'medium as well as a sensor.
• Optical fibres are basically considered as communication channels. • The laser beam is, split by Beam splitter (BS) and made to travel
through both reference path fibre and measuring path fibre.
• Optical 'transmission is affected by external parameters/stimuli such
as temperature, acoustic vibration .magnetic field and many more. • The .~e~suring path fibre is exposed to the temperature to be
measured'~
• Fibre-has been divided into two groups:
5.50 Other Transducers 5.51
• Due to the difference in temperature, the optical outputs from t~ese (c) Black body method
two fibres would have a phase difference which is a function of the
• This method of temperature measurement is based on the principle
temperature difference.
that a black body cavity changes radiance with varying temperature.
• The detector will detect the phase difference of the optical outputs from
• 'rhus, at the end of a fibre a black body cavity is formed.
these two fibres.
• The fibre is a high temperature fibre, usually a .sapphirc fibre, of
From laser dia:meter 0.25 - 1.25 mm.
source Reference
path fibre • A thin film of iridium is sputtered onto the end-surface and a protective
cover of Aluminium oxide (AI 203) is then provided.
• This measuring fibre has a length usually within 0.3 ill and not less
than 5 cm.
• This propagates the radiation from the formed cavity which is being
(a) heated by heat of the process.
Fig. 5.39 Temperature measurement using optical fibres (a) Phase difference method • At the propagation end, another fibre, a low temperature fibre made
Technique using fibre couplers ,(avoiding beam. splitter and mirror) of glass of about 0.6 mm diameter is coupled that has a length usually
within 10 m.
• He-Ne laser is the .source.
• The detector system consists of one lens and '. two narrow band filters
• The detector is Michelson interferometer. of close range middle wavelengths, two photomultiplier tubes in two
• Instead' of 'Beam splitters (BS) and mirrors (Mi), 3 dB-fibre couplers measuring channels fed by a beam-splitter .and ·a mirror.
are used.
• The 'reference path fibre and measuring path fibre are coupled by 3
dB fibre couplers. Dual channel .
filter-detector
• The He-Ne laser beam is propagated by both the fibres. system
• As the measuring .path fibre is exposed to temperature to be measured,

the phase difference in the optical outputs due to temperature
. Fig. 5.41 Temperature sensor fibre black body cavity
difference is detected by a detector system.
3dB- couplers
Referencepath • The filters have wavelengths of 600 and 700 nm respectively with a
spread at the centre of 0.1 urn.
• The two channels are used to measure temperature by comparison over
Detector system a range 500·- 2:000°C.
Measuring
path
• With an input power of 0.1 IlW, for 1°C change there occurs 20% optical .
Fig.5~40 Temperature measurement usingopticai -fibres (b) Using fibre couplers

flux 'change' and the system has a resolution of 1 in 10 8 .
.Other.Transducers 5.53
This principle is utilized in measuring liquid level at specific values as

• .This system is now being used as a temperature standard between
shown in fig. 5.43.
630.74 and- 176,goC which are aluminium and platinum points '>
respectively. Single position level detection.

(d) Temperature measurement using backscatter in optical fibre Source Detector
~
• Optical fibre can .beused for distributed temperature sensing. Fibre Fibre
• Optical pulse from a pulsed laser source is sent along a fibre over a
Level Level
distanceconvering a few kilometres,
• Any localized. change in temperature somewhere along the fibre (a) (b)
changes its backscattered intensity ratio (Stokes/anti-stokes Raman). Fig. 5.43 Level detector using optlcalflbre
(a) Level below .sensor and (b) Level covering sen~2~_.
• This backscattered light is filtered and Raman components' are detected $''}y.,--
byphotodetectors ,from which the temperature .can be known. • The bottom end of the fibre is shaped like a prism so that-with large
• From the pulse delay time, the location can also be identified. difference in refractive indices of the fibre and the. medium like air,
• c Resolution 'of 1 0 K and 2-3 metres can be obtained in this system. there is internal .reflection and the light travels to be detected as shown
in fig. 5.43 (a).
Laser source Coupler
When liquid level rises 'to cover the bottom of the fibre; light refracts into
the liquid and the detector fails to show any output, as shown in fig. 5.44 (b).
Multistep level detection

Pulsegenerator
• This single position level detection' has been extended for discrete
multistep detection covering the entire height of the tank.
Fig. 5.42 Temperaturesensi~g using backscatter in .optical fibre.
• In this, a step-index multimode fibre is used and the fibre goes down
carrying thelight but in the return upward path.its cladding is exposed
5.6.2 Liquid Level. Measurement and the fibre is also given a zig-zag rise with small bend radius at
• Usually, light propagates through a fibre by total internal reflection regular intervals in length.
with appropriate cladding or even without that, if the light incidence
• When noTiquid is there, cladding modeoperation" c6ritm.hes'and a
angle is properly chosen. detector at theend of the return path of the; fibte ;'sl16Ws"tuTI intensity.
• This is because the refractive indexo~ air is such, with respect to that
• But with liquid rising in the tank, refraction of light into liquid occurs
of the fibre, that no refraction can take place. at each bend /and the intensity detected by the ~'"dete~tbrBe~Om~s less.
• 1£, however, the fibre IS placed in a. liquid mediulll of a different
refractive index, it is possible that light refracts' into the liquid and
• Thus; for n bends there would be n-stepped intensityofsignal, reducing
in steps with rising liquid.
total internal -reflection inside the fibre stops, stopping light
propagation 'in it.. Fig.(5.45(a)fs!lows the system and fig. (5.45(b)) depicts the .intensity versus
height plot.
Other Transducers '5.55
Level t
'La 5.6.4 Acoustic P-ressureTransducer
L.-t
... • Acoustic .pressure sensing can be idone iby the microbendingofa
multimode fibre.
Detector output -+
• Fig. 5.47 (a) and (b) show how light loss occurs in microbends of a.
<a) (b)
fibre.
Fig. 5.4£ Liquid I.evel sensin~ . ln .steps • . The technique is utilized as shown in fig.(5.48)
Cladding Lost light

5.6.3 FI'uid ~Iow measurement
• Fluid flow rate has been .sensed by an .optical fibre mounted
transverselyin apipeline through which it flows.
•. Because of the fibre, mounted across the flow, vortex shedding occurs
(a)
in the channel and the fibre vibrates', which in turn, causes phase
Fig. 5.47 Microbend sensor. (8) Normal condition (nolossof.olight)
modulation' of the optical carrier wave propagating through the fibre. (b) Bent condition (Partial 108. of light)
Force appUecl
Tension acijust Fig. 5.48 Microbend force sens~r using ·optlea'·'I,br-e
Fig. 5•.46 Fluid flow sen·sing using. fibre'optics... • Optical fibre is placed in two corrugated plates to form a transducer
as shown.
•. .Th~ vibration frequency is' proportional to the flow, rate.
• Applied .force causes .microbending in the fibre.
• .Using-multirnode fibres of eore diameter 0.2 -O.3mm. and special
• Consequently, more light is lost and the receiver detector indicates less
. detecting- techniques, flow rates over ~ range of 0.2 .-:- 3 mls can be
intensity.
measured.'
• A .calibration of force in' terms of the intensity of detected light may
• Fig.(5.4·6) shows' the scheme to sense fluid flow.
also be made.
• The fibre ~ kept under tension by a tensian adjusting system and a
fibre clamp. .
• Flexible 'fillers' are often used for, small adjustment of tension,
8. What are the different magnetostrictive transducer?

The various types of magnetostrictive transducer are,
I. What is piezoelectric transducer? • Magnetostrictive load cell.

Piezoelectric converts pressure qr force into electrical charge. These • Magnetostrictive accelerometer.
tra:nsducers are -based upon the natural phenomenon of certain non-metal • Magnetostrictive phonographic pickup.
and dielectric components.
• Magnetostrictive torque transducer.
2. What are the suitable materials for piezoelectric transducer? 9. What are the errors in magnetostrictive transducer?
Primary 'quartz, Rochelle salt, ammonium dihydrogen phosphate (ADP), and The errors caused in magnetostrictive transducer are,
ceramics with barium titanate, dipotassium tartrate, potassium dihydrogen
phosphate and lithium sulphate are the suitable materials for piezoelectric • Hysteresis
transducer. • Temperature
• Eddy current
3. What is .'d~ .coefficient?
'd' coefficient gives the charge output per unit force input (or charge density • Input impedance.
per unit pressure) under shortcircuit condition, It is measured in Coulomb 10. What are -the special features -_of magnetostrictive transducer?
I Newton. The special features of magnetostrictive transducer are,
4. What is 'g' coefficient? • It is used to measure large force.

'g' coefficient represents the generated emf gradient per unit pressure input. • It is used to measure several thousand 'g.
.. "1m • Its characteristics depend upon temperature.
I ts unIt IS _, - ,2
. Newton/m": 11. Compare digi.tal transducer with analog.
Digital transducer gives digital outputs. Analog transducer outputs are
5.: What,is 'h'·coefficient? continuous functions of time. If these analog transducers are to be interfaced
'h' coefficient is obtained by multiplying the 'g'coefficient by Young's with digital devices, then one has to use analog- to, digital converters.
, )
modulus valid for the. 'appropriate cr;rstal orientation of the material, and
thus measures the e.m.. f gradient. per unit mechanical deformation, or 12. How will you achieve high resolutionIn -digital transducer?
(VIm) I tml m) In digital transducer, to achieve highresolution, the number of tracks must
be increased and the length ofeach coded sh~uld be reduced, which would
6~ .What are' the suitable materials formagnetostrictive transducer? require fine brushes.
Iron, nickel, 68 permalloy, ferroxcube material' are used in magnetostrictive 13. What are the different digital transducers a~ailable?
transducer.
The various digital transducers are,
7. What is magnetostrictive transducer? • Digitaldisplace~ent transducer
The- permeability can increase or decrease depending upon the material,
• Shaft angle encoder
type of stress and the magnetic flux density in the sample.
5.58 Transducer Engineering . Other Transducers '//~59
/ /"'/';
• Optical encoder 18. What are the advantages of semiconductor strain gauge?
• Magnetic encoder. The advantages of semiconductor strain gauge are,
14. What is piezoelectric effect? (a) Semiconductor strain gauges have the advantages that they have a
A piezoelectric material is one in which an electric potential appears across high gauge factor of about ± 130. 'Ibis allows measurement of very
certain surfaces of a crystal if the dimensions of the crystal are changed by small strains of the order of 0.01 micro strains. J'
the application of the mechanical force. (b) Hysteresis characteristics of semiconductor strain gauges are excellent.
Some units maintain it to less than 0.05%.
15. Give the applications of piezoelect.ric transducer.
The applications of piezoelectric transducer we, (c) Fatigue life is in excess of 10 x 10 6 operations and the frequency
(a) Insensitive to temperature variation and high stability output. So response is upto 10 12 Hz.
piezoelectric materials are used in electronic oscillators. (d) Semiconductor strain gaUK(~H cun be very small ranging in length from
(b) The 'use of piezoelectric transducer elements is confined primarily to 0.7 to 7 mm. They are very useful for measurement of local strain.
djnamic measurements. The voltage developed by applications of strain 19. Write notes on optical fiber.
is not held under static conditions. Hence, the elements are primarily An optical fiber is a hair line thin strnnd of glass or plastic having two or
used: in the measurements' of such quantities as surface roughness and more layers, called coreecladding nnd insulators, This cables can transmit
in accelerometers and vibration pickups. a wave of light of different colours without any loss using the principle of
(c) Ultrasonic titanate, generator elements also use barium titanate, a total internal reflection. The rofrucuvo index of core is much greater than
piezoelectric material. Such elements are used in industrial cleansing cladding.
apparatus and also in underwater direction system known as SONAR. 20. Write note on micro bend diaplact'ment llenaor.
16. List the modes, of operation of piezoelectric crystals. When a fiber is deformed into a convoluted .tlllpe. part of the light travelling
Piezoelectric crystals are operated ·in thefollowing modes. through the fiber is lost to radiation. 'rh., Ic),.,. of light is maximum when
the convolution have a spacing given by.
(a) Thickness shear
(b) Thickness expansion A = :~, where f). f3 is the difforenr« Ul pn)I*.ation constants between
(c) .Face' shear
propagating and radiation modes. I" ..r u... Iuminium coated multimode
(d) Transverse expansion. with 120 ~. diameter, the optimum MI)Art,,, .u found to be 3 mm. In this
17. List the applications of strain gaug~. sensor, the convolution spacing depend••In tM p..... ure. The light received
'by the detector varies according tAt lIMt convolution spacing. which is
The applications of strain gauge are,
proportional to the pressure.
(a) Primary application is stre~s strain analysis of structure.
21. Write notes on fiber optic displa. . . . .' . .-..or.
(b) Fabrication of various types of transducers. such as force, pressure, The set of fiber' cables on used to meu,... U. d.'.placement of a target
torque, load (weight) etc. from one end of the cable. There are _ _ ., transmitting and receiving
cables. The light is send through one onel at U. transmitting cables which
are opened at another end and face the. target. These are reflected by the
27. What is meant by bimorph twisters?
target and received and sensed through receiving cables. The intensity of
the received light depends or inversely proportional to the displacement of Two face shear plates are cemented together to have a series connection so
target (distance). that their expanding diagonals are perpendicular. If a voltage is applied
and if both plates are free to move then it will bend. For transducing torque,
22. Write short notes an optical encoders. the bimorph twisters can be used.
This transducer is used to measure the displacement of angular motion.
The output obtained by four bits. A rotatable disc consists of conducting 28. Write short notes on magnetostrictive accelerometer.
and insulating paths on which the numbers [from 1...16] encoded. When This transducer used for the measurement of several thousands of grams
angular displacement applied that can measure by the output binary bit. which is applied on seismicmass. This force which is on the magneto elastic
This transducer can .measure (0 - 360)° element changes the dimension, and change in permeability which causes
the magnetization change and change voltage drop.
23. List few IC sensors.
AD 592,.AD590, LM 335, I~M 34 are some of tc sensors. 29. A" platinum resistance thermometer has a resistance of 150 Q at
24. Explain about AD 592 Ie sensor. O°C. Whe.n a thermometer has a resistance of 400 Q, What is the
In case, the signal is to be transmitted over a large distance, value of temperature? The resistance temperature co-efficient of
AD 592 isa better choice as its.output is current signal which is not affected platinum is .0.0039/°C?
by the resistance of wiring. l~o = 150; a = 0.0039/o C ; R = 400 ~2; to = O°C
25. Draw the equivalent circuit of piezoelectric crystal.
R = R o (1 + a ~ T)
400 = 150 (1 + 0.0039 (t - 0))
Q Output
30. A barium titanate crystal has a thickness of 2 mm. Its voltage

sensitivity is 12 x 10- 3 VmIN. It i. subjected to a pressure of
Equivalent clrcult of piezoelectric crystal 0.5 MN/m 2 • Calculate the voltage generated.
26~ What is meant by bimorphs bender? ~~= g.p.t
Bimorphs bender co~sists of two; transverse expanding plates cemented
together in such a -. manner that one plate contracts and the other expands = 12 x 10- 3 x 0.5 X 10 6 x 2 x 10 a
when a voltage is applied. If the element is free to move, then it willbend.
= 12V
Thus bimorphs can be used to transduce force' into a voltage by using as a
simply supported beam or cantilever beam. .These bimorph elements has 31. What is digitiser?
got a .higher sensitivity and permits larger deflection than a-single solid
Digital encoding transducer or diIPti"er enables a linear or rotary
one.
displacement to be directly converted into digital form without intermediate
form of analog to digital (AID) conversion.
37. List few magnetostrictive materials.

32. What are the classifications' of encoder?
Some of the magnetostrictive materials are,
Encoder is classified as,
• Nickel
(a) Tachometer transducer
• Permalloy - (Nickel alloy with 68% Nickel)
(b) Incremental transducer
• Ferroxcube B (This is. highly brittle).
(c) Absolute transducer.
38. Write brief notes on magnetostrictive·load cell.
33. What are the' input ·characteristics of the transducer? Load cell uses the principle of effect of magnetostrictive and uses- the
The. input characteristics of the transducer are, measurement of strain or force from several grams upto several. tonnes
.directly.. The displacement at the -input of the transducer is very small
., Type of input and operating range.
(= micrometer). When a force of several grams applied, permeability ofthe
• Loading effect. material changes which increase the magnetic flux. This changes are
34. What is zero error of the t~ansducer? directly calibrated in terms of strain.
" .
In this case, output deviates. from the correct value by a constant factor 39. .List the applications of magnetostetctfve transducer.
over the entire range of transducer, The applications of Illagnetostrictive transducer are,
35. What are the different transfer characteristics of· the transduc~r? • 'These transducers can be built to measure large forces upto .several
The transfer. characteristics of transducer are, tonnes and for fast transient phenomena where frequency' is of the
(a) Transfer function order of several thousand cycles per second.
(b) Error • The accelerometers can be built to measure several thousand grams.
• Can also used for the measurement of torque.
(i) Scale error
(ii) Zero error
(iii) Sensitivity error
(iv) Non-conformity
(v) Hysteresis
-(c) Transducer response
36. What is magnetostrictive effect?

The permeability of a magneticmaterial changes when it is subjected to.
mechanicalstress. This effect is called Villari effect.
When a magnetic field -linked with a conductor changes, its permeability

changes due to. that dimensions of the .crystal changes. This effect is called
as magnetostrictive effect.

Transducer Engineering by Nagaraj-1

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TRANSDUCER ENGINEERING

We are very much grateful to our beloved Principal Dr.K.Arulmozhi, P~.D.,

We wish to 'express our profound thanks to Mr. M. Sethuraaman,

, '>,.' . '. . ' . , . .... .. :" " . " . " , . . . ; .

Published by.:M, Sethuraalllan, ·Anur~ha PUblicatioR&,IYid.ay,~Kar~ppur, KumbJkonam - RMS.'

Unit 1 Science of measurements and Instrumentation of 1.1 -1.42

1.2 Measurement 1.1

1.3 Standards, Dimensions and Units of Measurement 1.5

1.4. Calibration 1.. 18

1.5 Errors "in measurement 1.19

1.6 Odds and uncertainty 1.29

1.7 Sensors and Transducers 1.32

Two Mark Questions and Answers 1.40

Unit 2 Characteristics of Transducers 2.1 - 2.53

2.2 Static characteristics and static calibration 2.1

2.8 Dynamic 'characteristics of Transducers 2.14

2.4 Mathematical model of Transducers 2.33

Two Mark Questions and Answers 2.39

Unit 3 Variable Resistance Transducer 3.1 .- 3.49

3.1 Introduction 3.1

3.2 Potentiometer 3.2

3.5 rrhermistors 3.21

3.6 Hot wire anemometer 3.28

Two Mark Q"uestions and Answers 3.36

Unit 4 Variable inductance and variable capacitance 4.1 - 4.36

4:.1 Variable inductance Transducer 4.1 Science of Measurements and

1·.4 Linear variable Differential Transformer 4.7 1.1 INTRODUCTION

4:.8 Capacitive Transducer

5.1: Digital Transducers 5.32 1.2 MEASUREMENT

Measurements are generally made

• to monitor an event or an operation. Data storage

• to collect data for future analysis and Measured

(i) Primary sensing element

1.2.1 Fundamental methods of measurement (ii) Variable conversion element

1.3.1 Units and, standards

Types ()f Units [A] = [l~] [1.1] = [L 2].

4. Work = force x distance [w] = [MLT 2] [L] = [ML 2 T- 2]

Therefore, A Power = -'-.-

1. I~'PS system (foot, pound, second) Practical units

No. -Quantity' Practical unit Symbol

Electromagnetic Units 8. Energy joule W

Units based on electromagnetic effects are known as electromagnetic units

where d is the distance between poles of strengths m1 and m2.

Dimensions of pole strength, [m] = [JJ1I2 M 1I 2 L 3 / 2 T" 1]

[Il] = [.E:] Dimensions ofmagnetizing force

:. M:.K.S 'unit of permeability =10 7 x C.G.S. unit of permeability

M,.K.S. unit of length, metre = 100 centimetre

7. Resistance , = 100 x C.G·.S units of length

6. Capacitance ent I [l]

~rhe dimensions of capacitance ·are 2. Charge Q [Tl]

= practical" unit of capacitance = 1 farad .., ........... "'_ .......-.-...--....--._._.. _._-

1.4.2 Static calibration 1. Gross errors

When 'human beings are involved in measurement, gross errors may be

(i) Instrumental errors (iii) Observational errors

These errors arise due to the following: s. Random (Residual) errors

(c) Loading effects

• 1']1.e manufacturer guarantees that the value of resistance of the 2. Deoiation

Tho arithmetic :mean is given by

Standard deviation, 6. Mc)de

4. Variance No. of readings 15 22 7

2 2 'd2 Henco :mode is 33°(~. '

n 1.5.2.1 Statistical methods of error analysis

Length (mm) Number of readings where,