Nobel Prize Laureates in Literature Part 4 - Quasimodo - Yeats

a~ i~ _~
N
Jlc Zmcricov Icvoissovcc iv Acw Ivglovd,
eolteo by |oel Myerson (l978)
O
Zmcricov Aovclists Sivcc !orld !or II,
eolteo by |effrey Helterman ano Rlch
aro Layman (l978)
P
Zvtcbcllum !ritcrs iv Acw 1orl ovd tlc
Soutl, eolteo by |oel Myerson (l979)
Q
Zmcricov !ritcrs iv Ioris, 1920-19J9,
eolteo by Karen Lane Rooo (l980)
R
Zmcricov Iocts Sivcc !orld !or II, 2 parts,
eolteo by Donalo |. Grelner (l980)
S
Zmcricov Aovclists Sivcc !orld !or II, Scc-
ovd Scrics, eolteo by |ames E. Klbler |r.
(l980)
T
Jwcvtictl-Ccvtury Zmcricov Dromotists, 2
parts, eolteo by |ohn MacNlcholas (l98l)
U
Jwcvtictl-Ccvtury Zmcricov Scicvcc-Iictiov
!ritcrs, 2 parts, eolteo by Davlo Cow
art ano Jhomas L. Wymer (l98l)
V
Zmcricov Aovclists, 1910-194, 3 parts,
eolteo by |ames |. Martlne (l98l)
NM
Modcrv ritisl Dromotists, 1900-194, 2
parts, eolteo by Stanley Welntraub (l982)
NN
Zmcricov Humorists, 1600-190, 2 parts,
eolteo by Stanley Jrachtenberg (l982)
NO
Zmcricov Icolists ovd Aoturolists, eolteo
by Donalo Plzer ano Earl N. Harbert
(l982)
NP
ritisl Dromotists Sivcc !orld !or II, 2
parts, eolteo by Stanley Welntraub (l982)
NQ
ritisl Aovclists Sivcc 1960, 2 parts,
eolteo by |ay L. Hallo (l983)
NR
ritisl Aovclists, 19J0-199, 2 parts,
eolteo by Bernaro Olosey (l983)
NS
Jlc cots: Iitcrory olcmiovs iv Iostwor
Zmcrico, 2 parts, eolteo by Ann Char
ters (l983)
NT
Jwcvtictl-Ccvtury Zmcricov Historiovs,
eolteo by Clyoe N. Wllson (l983)
NU
ictoriov Aovclists Zftcr 166, eolteo by
Ira B. Naoel ano Wllllam E. Ireoeman
(l983)
NV
ritisl Iocts, 1660-1914, eolteo by
Donalo E. Stanforo (l983)
OM
ritisl Iocts, 1914-194, eolteo by
Donalo E. Stanforo (l983)
ON
ictoriov Aovclists cforc 166, eolteo by
Ira B. Naoel ano Wllllam E. Ireoeman
(l983)
OO
Zmcricov !ritcrs for Clildrcv, 1900-1960,
eolteo by |ohn Cech (l983)
OP
Zmcricov Acwspopcr ourvolists, 167J-
1900, eolteo by Perry |. Ashley (l983)
OQ
Zmcricov Coloviol !ritcrs, 1606-17J4,
eolteo by Emory Elllott (l981)
OR
Zmcricov Acwspopcr ourvolists, 1901-
OS
Zmcricov Scrccvwritcrs, eolteo by Robert
E. Morsberger, Stephen O. Lesser, ano
Ranoall Clark (l981)
OT
Iocts of Crcot ritoiv ovd Irclovd, 194-
1960, eolteo by Vlncent B. Sherry |r.
(l981)
OU
Jwcvtictl-Ccvtury Zmcricov-cwisl Iictiov
!ritcrs, eolteo by Danlel Waloen (l981)
OV
PM
Zmcricov Historiovs, 1607-166, eolteo
by Clyoe N. Wllson (l981)
PN
Zmcricov Coloviol !ritcrs, 17J-1761,
PO
ictoriov Iocts cforc 160, eolteo by
Wllllam E. Ireoeman ano Ira B. Naoel
(l981)
PP
Zfro-Zmcricov Iictiov !ritcrs Zftcr 19,
eolteo by Jhaolous M. Davls ano
Jruoler Harrls (l981)
PQ
ritisl Aovclists, 1690-1929: Jroditiovol-
ists, eolteo by Jhomas I. Staley (l985)
PR
ictoriov Iocts Zftcr 160, eolteo by Wll
llam E. Ireoeman ano Ira B. Naoel (l985)
PS
ritisl Aovclists, 1690-1929: Modcrvists,
eolteo by Jhomas I. Staley (l985)
PT
Zmcricov !ritcrs of tlc Iorly Icpublic,
PU
Zfro-Zmcricov !ritcrs Zftcr 19: Dromo-
tists ovd Irosc !ritcrs, eolteo by Jhaol
ous M. Davls ano Jruoler Harrls (l985)
PV
ritisl Aovclists, 1660-1600, 2 parts,
eolteo by Martln C. Battestln (l985)
QM
Iocts of Crcot ritoiv ovd Irclovd Sivcc
1960, 2 parts, eolteo by Vlncent B.
Sherry |r. (l985)
QN
Zfro-Zmcricov Iocts Sivcc 19, eolteo by
Jruoler Harrls ano Jhaolous M.
Davls (l985)
QO
Zmcricov !ritcrs for Clildrcv cforc 1900,
eolteo by Glenn E. Estes (l985)
QP
QQ
Zmcricov Scrccvwritcrs, Sccovd Scrics,
eolteo by Ranoall Clark, Robert E.
Morsberger, ano Stephen O. Lesser
(l986)
QR
Zmcricov Iocts, 1660-194, Iirst Scrics,
eolteo by Peter _uartermaln (l986)
QS
Zmcricov Iitcrory Iublislivg Houscs,
1900-1960: Jrodc ovd Iopcrbocl, eolteo
by Peter Dzwonkoskl (l986)
QT
Zmcricov Historiovs, 1666-1912, eolteo
by Clyoe N. Wllson (l986)
QU
Zmcricov Iocts, 1660-194, Sccovd Scrics,
eolteo by Peter _uartermaln (l986)
QV
Zmcricov Iitcrory Iublislivg Houscs,
16J6-1699, 2 parts, eolteo by Peter
Dzwonkoskl (l986)
RM
Zfro-Zmcricov !ritcrs cforc tlc Horlcm
Icvoissovcc, eolteo by Jruoler Harrls
(l986)
RN
Zfro-Zmcricov !ritcrs from tlc Horlcm
Icvoissovcc to 1940, eolteo by Jruoler
Harrls (l987)
RO
Zmcricov !ritcrs for Clildrcv Sivcc 1960:
Iictiov, eolteo by Glenn E. Estes (l986)
RP
Covodiov !ritcrs Sivcc 1960, Iirst Scrics,
eolteo by W. H. New (l986)
RQ
Zmcricov Iocts, 1660-194, Jlird Scrics,
2 parts, eolteo by Peter _uartermaln
(l987)
RR
ictoriov Irosc !ritcrs cforc 1667, eolteo
by Wllllam B. Jheslng (l987)
RS
Ccrmov Iictiov !ritcrs, 1914-194,
eolteo by |ames Haroln (l987)
RT
ictoriov Irosc !ritcrs Zftcr 1667, eolteo
by Wllllam B. Jheslng (l987)
RU
ocobcov ovd Corolivc Dromotists, eolteo
by Ireoson Bowers (l987)
RV
Zmcricov Iitcrory Critics ovd Sclolors,
1600-160, eolteo by |ohn W. Rath
bun ano Monlca M. Grecu (l987)
SM
Covodiov !ritcrs Sivcc 1960, Sccovd
Scrics, eolteo by W. H. New (l987)
SN
Zmcricov !ritcrs for Clildrcv Sivcc 1960:
Iocts, Illustrotors, ovd Aovfictiov Zutlors,
eolteo by Glenn E. Estes (l987)
SO
Iliobctlov Dromotists, eolteo by Ireo
son Bowers (l987)
SP
Modcrv Zmcricov Critics, 1920-19,
eolteo by Gregory S. |ay (l988)
SQ
SR
Ircvcl Aovclists, 1900-19J0, eolteo by
Catharlne Savage Brosman (l988)
SS
Ccrmov Iictiov !ritcrs, 166-191J, 2
parts, eolteo by |ames Haroln (l988)
ST
Modcrv Zmcricov Critics Sivcc 19,
eolteo by Gregory S. |ay (l988)
SU
Covodiov !ritcrs, 1920-199, Iirst
SV
Covtcmporory Ccrmov Iictiov !ritcrs, Iirst
Scrics, eolteo by Wolfgang D. Elfe ano
|ames Haroln (l988)
TM
ritisl Mystcry !ritcrs, 1660-1919,
eolteo by Bernaro Benstock ano
Jhomas I. Staley (l988)
TN
TO
Ircvcl Aovclists, 19J0-1960, eolteo by
TP
Zmcricov Mogoivc ourvolists, 1741-
160, eolteo by Sam G. Rlley (l988)
TQ
Zmcricov Slort-Story !ritcrs cforc 1660,
eolteo by Bobby Ellen Klmbel, wlth
the asslstance of Wllllam E. Grant
(l988)
TR
Covtcmporory Ccrmov Iictiov !ritcrs, Scc-
ovd Scrics, eolteo by Wolfgang D. Elfe
ano |ames Haroln (l988)
TS
Zfro-Zmcricov !ritcrs, 1940-19,
eolteo by Jruoler Harrls (l988)
TT
ritisl Mystcry !ritcrs, 1920-19J9,
eolteo by Bernaro Benstock ano
Jhomas I. Staley (l988)
TU
Zmcricov Slort-Story !ritcrs, 1660-1910,
eolteo by Bobby Ellen Klmbel, wlth
the asslstance of Wllllam E. Grant
(l988)
TV
1900, eolteo by Sam G. Rlley (l988)
UM
Icstorotiov ovd Iigltccvtl-Ccvtury Dromo-
tists, Iirst Scrics, eolteo by Paula R.
Backscheloer (l989)
UN
Zustriov Iictiov !ritcrs, 167-191J,
eolteo by |ames Haroln ano Donalo G.
Davlau (l989)
UO
Clicovo !ritcrs, Iirst Scrics, eolteo by
Iranclsco A. Lomel ano Carl R. Shlr
ley (l989)
UP
Ircvcl Aovclists Sivcc 1960, eolteo by
UQ
tists, Sccovd Scrics, eolteo by Paula R.
Backscheloer (l989)
UR
Zustriov Iictiov !ritcrs Zftcr 1914, eolteo
by |ames Haroln ano Donalo G.
Davlau (l989)
US
Iirst Scrics, eolteo by Bobby Ellen Klm
bel (l989)
UT
ritisl Mystcry ovd Jlrillcr !ritcrs Sivcc
1940, Iirst Scrics, eolteo by Bernaro
Benstock ano Jhomas I. Staley (l989)
UU
Covodiov !ritcrs, 1920-199, Sccovd
UV
tists, Jlird Scrics, eolteo by Paula R.
Backscheloer (l989)
VM
Ccrmov !ritcrs iv tlc Zgc of Coctlc, 1769-
16J2, eolteo by |ames Haroln ano
Chrlstoph E. Schweltzer (l989)
VN
1960, Iirst Scrics, eolteo by Sam G.
Rlley (l990)
VO
Covodiov !ritcrs, 1690-1920, eolteo by
W. H. New (l990)
VP
ritisl Iomovtic Iocts, 1769-16J2, Iirst
Scrics, eolteo by |ohn R. Greenflelo
(l990)
VQ
Ccrmov !ritcrs iv tlc Zgc of Coctlc: Sturm
uvd Drovg to Clossicism, eolteo by |ames
Haroln ano Chrlstoph E. Schweltzer
(l990)
VR
Iigltccvtl-Ccvtury ritisl Iocts, Iirst
Scrics, eolteo by |ohn Sltter (l990)
VS
ritisl Iomovtic Iocts, 1769-16J2, Sccovd
Scrics, eolteo by |ohn R. Greenflelo
(l990)
VT
Ccrmov !ritcrs from tlc Ivligltcvmcvt to
Sturm uvd Drovg, 1720-1764, eolteo by
|ames Haroln ano Chrlstoph E.
Schweltzer (l990)
VU
Modcrv ritisl Issoyists, Iirst Scrics,
eolteo by Robert Beum (l990)
VV
Covodiov !ritcrs cforc 1690, eolteo by
W. H. New (l990)
NMM
Modcrv ritisl Issoyists, Sccovd Scrics,
eolteo by Robert Beum (l990)
NMN
ritisl Irosc !ritcrs, 1660-1600, Iirst
Scrics, eolteo by Donalo J. Slebert
(l99l)
NMO
Sccovd Scrics, eolteo by Bobby Ellen
Klmbel (l99l)
NMP
Zmcricov Iitcrory iogroplcrs, Iirst Scrics,
eolteo by Steven Serafln (l99l)
NMQ
ritisl Irosc !ritcrs, 1660-1600, Sccovd
Scrics, eolteo by Donalo J. Slebert
(l99l)
NMR
Zmcricov Iocts Sivcc !orld !or II, Sccovd
Scrics, eolteo by R. S. Gwynn (l99l)
NMS
ritisl Iitcrory Iublislivg Houscs, 1620-
1660, eolteo by Patrlcla |. Anoerson
ano |onathan Rose (l99l)
NMT
ritisl Iomovtic Irosc !ritcrs, 1769-
16J2, Iirst Scrics, eolteo by |ohn R.
Greenflelo (l99l)
NMU
Jwcvtictl-Ccvtury Spovisl Iocts, Iirst
Scrics, eolteo by Mlchael L. Perna
(l99l)
NMV
Iigltccvtl-Ccvtury ritisl Iocts, Sccovd
Scrics, eolteo by |ohn Sltter (l99l)
NNM
ritisl Iomovtic Irosc !ritcrs, 1769-
16J2, Sccovd Scrics, eolteo by |ohn R.
Greenflelo (l99l)
NNN
Zmcricov Iitcrory iogroplcrs, Sccovd
Scrics, eolteo by Steven Serafln (l99l)
NNO
ritisl Iitcrory Iublislivg Houscs, 1661-
196, eolteo by |onathan Rose ano
Patrlcla |. Anoerson (l99l)
NNP
Modcrv Iotiv-Zmcricov Iictiov !ritcrs,
Iirst Scrics, eolteo by Wllllam Luls (l992)
NNQ
Jwcvtictl-Ccvtury Itoliov Iocts, Iirst Scrics,
eolteo by Glovanna Weoel De Staslo,
Glauco Cambon, ano Antonlo Illlano
(l992)
NNR
Mcdicvol Ililosoplcrs, eolteo by |eremlah
Hackett (l992)
NNS
ritisl Iomovtic Aovclists, 1769-16J2,
eolteo by Braoforo K. Muoge (l992)
NNT
Jwcvtictl-Ccvtury Coribbcov ovd locl
Zfricov !ritcrs, Iirst Scrics, eolteo by
Bernth Llnofors ano Relnharo Sanoer
(l992)
NNU
Jwcvtictl-Ccvtury Ccrmov Dromotists, 1669-
1916, eolteo by Wolfgang D. Elfe ano
|ames Haroln (l992)
NNV
Aivctccvtl-Ccvtury Ircvcl Iictiov !ritcrs:
Iomovticism ovd Icolism, 1600-1660,
eolteo by Catharlne Savage Brosman
(l992)
NOM
Zmcricov Iocts Sivcc !orld !or II, Jlird
Scrics, eolteo by R. S. Gwynn (l992)
NON
Scvcvtccvtl-Ccvtury ritisl Aovdromotic
Iocts, Iirst Scrics, eolteo by M. Jhomas
Hester (l992)
NOO
Clicovo !ritcrs, Sccovd Scrics, eolteo by
ley (l992)
NOP
Aivctccvtl-Ccvtury Ircvcl Iictiov !ritcrs:
Aoturolism ovd cyovd, 1660-1900,
eolteo by Catharlne Savage Brosman
(l992)
NOQ
Jwcvtictl-Ccvtury Ccrmov Dromotists,
1919-1992, eolteo by Wolfgang D.
Elfe ano |ames Haroln (l992)
NOR
Zfricov !ritcrs, Sccovd Scrics, eolteo by
(l993)
NOS
Scvcvtccvtl-Ccvtury ritisl Aovdromotic
Iocts, Sccovd Scrics, eolteo by M.
Jhomas Hester (l993)
NOT
Zmcricov Acwspopcr Iublislcrs, 190-
NOU
Jwcvtictl-Ccvtury Itoliov Iocts, Sccovd
Scrics, eolteo by Glovanna Weoel De
Staslo, Glauco Cambon, ano Antonlo
Illlano (l993)
NOV
Aivctccvtl-Ccvtury Ccrmov !ritcrs, 1641-
1900, eolteo by |ames Haroln ano
Slegfrleo Mews (l993)
NPM
Zmcricov Slort-Story !ritcrs Sivcc !orld
!or II, eolteo by Patrlck Meanor (l993)
NPN
Scvcvtccvtl-Ccvtury ritisl Aovdromotic Iocts,
Jlird Scrics, eolteo by M. Jhomas Hes
ter (l993)
NPO
Sixtccvtl-Ccvtury ritisl Aovdromotic !rit-
crs, Iirst Scrics, eolteo by Davlo A. Rlch
aroson (l993)
NPP
Aivctccvtl-Ccvtury Ccrmov !ritcrs to 1640,
eolteo by |ames Haroln ano Slegfrleo
Mews (l993)
NPQ
Jwcvtictl-Ccvtury Spovisl Iocts, Sccovd
Scrics, eolteo by |erry Phllllps Wlnflelo
(l991)
NPR
ritisl Slort-Iictiov !ritcrs, 1660-1914:
Jlc Icolist Jroditiov, eolteo by Wllllam
B. Jheslng (l991)
NPS
crs, Sccovd Scrics, eolteo by Davlo A.
Rlcharoson (l991)
NPT
1960, Sccovd Scrics, eolteo by Sam G.
Rlley (l991)
NPU
Ccrmov !ritcrs ovd !orls of tlc Higl
Middlc Zgcs: 1170-1260, eolteo by
|ames Haroln ano Wlll Hasty (l991)
NPV
ritisl Slort-Iictiov !ritcrs, 194-1960,
eolteo by Dean Balowln (l991)
NQM
Zmcricov ool-Collcctors ovd ibliogro-
plcrs, Iirst Scrics, eolteo by |oseph
Rosenblum (l991)
NQN
ritisl Clildrcv`s !ritcrs, 1660-1914,
eolteo by Laura M. Zaloman (l991)
NQO
Iigltccvtl-Ccvtury ritisl Iitcrory iogro-
plcrs, eolteo by Steven Serafln (l991)
NQP
Jlird Scrics, eolteo by |ames R. Glles
ano Wanoa H. Glles (l991)
NQQ
Aivctccvtl-Ccvtury ritisl Iitcrory iogro-
NQR
Modcrv Iotiv-Zmcricov Iictiov !ritcrs, Scc-
ovd Scrics, eolteo by Wllllam Luls ano
Ann Gonzlez (l991)
NQS
Uld ovd Middlc Ivglisl Iitcroturc, eolteo
by |effrey Helterman ano |erome
Mltchell (l991)
NQT
Soutl Slovic !ritcrs cforc !orld !or II,
eolteo by Vasa D. Mlhallovlch (l991)
NQU
Ccrmov !ritcrs ovd !orls of tlc Iorly
Middlc Zgcs: 600-1170, eolteo by Wlll
Hasty ano |ames Haroln (l991)
NQV
Iotc Aivctccvtl- ovd Iorly Jwcvtictl-
Ccvtury ritisl Iitcrory iogroplcrs, eolteo
by Steven Serafln (l995)
NRM
Iorly Modcrv Iussiov !ritcrs, Iotc Scvcv-
tccvtl ovd Iigltccvtl Ccvturics, eolteo by
Marcus C. Levltt (l995)
NRN
ritisl Irosc !ritcrs of tlc Iorly Scvcvtccvtl
Ccvtury, eolteo by Clayton D. Leln
(l995)
NRO
Iourtl Scrics, eolteo by |ames R. Glles
NRP
Iotc-ictoriov ovd Idwordiov ritisl Aovcl-
ists, Iirst Scrics, eolteo by George M.
|ohnson (l995)
NRQ
Jlc ritisl Iitcrory ool Jrodc, 1700-
1620, eolteo by |ames K. Bracken ano
|oel Sllver (l995)
NRR
Jwcvtictl-Ccvtury ritisl Iitcrory iogro-
NRS
ritisl Slort-Iictiov !ritcrs, 1660-1914:
Jlc Iomovtic Jroditiov, eolteo by Wll
llam I. Naufftus (l995)
NRT
Zfricov !ritcrs, Jlird Scrics, eolteo by
(l995)
NRU
ritisl Icform !ritcrs, 1769-16J2,
eolteo by Gary Kelly ano Eoo Apple
gate (l995)
NRV
eolteo by |ohn R. Greenflelo (l996)
NSM
eolteo by Donalo R. Hettlnga ano
Gary D. Schmlot (l996)
NSN
ritisl Clildrcv`s !ritcrs Sivcc 1960, Iirst
Scrics, eolteo by Carollne Hunt (l996)
NSO
eolteo by |ohn H. Rogers (l996)
NSP
eolteo by Meena Khorana (l996)
NSQ
Ccrmov oroquc !ritcrs, 160-1660,
NSR
Zmcricov Iocts Sivcc !orld !or II, Iourtl
Scrics, eolteo by |oseph Conte (l996)
NSS
ritisl Jrovcl !ritcrs, 16J7-167, eolteo
by Barbara Brothers ano |ulla Gerglts
(l996)
NST
crs, Jlird Scrics, eolteo by Davlo A.
Rlcharoson (l996)
NSU
Ccrmov oroquc !ritcrs, 1661-17J0,
NSV
Zmcricov Iocts Sivcc !orld !or II, Iiftl
NTM
Jlc ritisl Iitcrory ool Jrodc, 147-
1700, eolteo by |ames K. Bracken ano
|oel Sllver (l996)
NTN
Jwcvtictl-Ccvtury Zmcricov Sportswritcrs,
eolteo by Rlcharo Orooenker (l996)
NTO
crs, Iourtl Scrics, eolteo by Davlo A.
Rlcharoson (l996)
NTP
Iiftl Scrics, eolteo by |ames R. Glles
NTQ
ritisl Jrovcl !ritcrs, 1676-1909, eolteo
(l997)
NTR
Aotivc Zmcricov !ritcrs of tlc Uvitcd
Stotcs, eolteo by Kenneth M. Roemer
(l997)
NTS
Zvcicvt Crccl Zutlors, eolteo by Waro
W. Brlggs (l997)
NTT
Itoliov Aovclists Sivcc !orld !or II, 194-
196, eolteo by Augustus Pallotta
(l997)
NTU
ritisl Iovtosy ovd Scicvcc-Iictiov !ritcrs
cforc !orld !or I, eolteo by Darren
HarrlsIaln (l997)
NTV
Ccrmov !ritcrs of tlc Icvoissovcc ovd Icf-
ormotiov, 1260-160, eolteo by |ames
Haroln ano Max Relnhart (l997)
NUM
opovcsc Iictiov !ritcrs, 1666-194,
eolteo by Van C. Gessel (l997)
NUN
Soutl Slovic !ritcrs Sivcc !orld !or II,
eolteo by Vasa D. Mlhallovlch (l997)
NUO
opovcsc Iictiov !ritcrs Sivcc !orld !or
II, eolteo by Van C. Gessel (l997)
NUP
Zmcricov Jrovcl !ritcrs, 1776-1664,
eolteo by |ames |. Schramer ano
Donalo Ross (l997)
NUQ
Aivctccvtl-Ccvtury ritisl ool-Collcctors
ovd ibliogroplcrs, eolteo by Wllllam
Baker ano Kenneth Womack (l997)
NUR
Zmcricov Iitcrory ourvolists, 194-199,
Iirst Scrics, eolteo by Arthur |. Kaul
(l998)
NUS
Aivctccvtl-Ccvtury Zmcricov !cstcrv !rit-
crs, eolteo by Robert L. Gale (l998)
NUT
Zmcricov ool Collcctors ovd ibliogro-
plcrs, Sccovd Scrics, eolteo by |oseph
Rosenblum (l998)
NUU
Zmcricov ool ovd Mogoivc Illustrotors to
1920, eolteo by Steven E. Smlth,
Catherlne A. Hasteot, ano Donalo H.
Dyal (l998)
NUV
Zmcricov Jrovcl !ritcrs, 160-191,
eolteo by Donalo Ross ano |ames |.
Schramer (l998)
NVM
ritisl Icform !ritcrs, 16J2-1914,
eolteo by Gary Kelly ano Eoo Apple
gate (l998)
NVN
ritisl Aovclists ctwccv tlc !ors, eolteo
by George M. |ohnson (l998)
NVO
Ircvcl Dromotists, 1769-1914, eolteo by
Barbara J. Cooper (l998)
NVP
Zmcricov Iocts Sivcc !orld !or II, Sixtl
NVQ
ritisl Aovclists Sivcc 1960, Sccovd Scrics,
eolteo by Merrltt Moseley (l998)
NVR
ritisl Jrovcl !ritcrs, 1910-19J9, eolteo
(l998)
NVS
Itoliov Aovclists Sivcc !orld !or II, 196-
199, eolteo by Augustus Pallotta
(l999)
NVT
Iotc-ictoriov ovd Idwordiov ritisl Aovcl-
ists, Sccovd Scrics, eolteo by George M.
|ohnson (l999)
NVU
Iussiov Iitcroturc iv tlc Zgc of Iuslliv ovd
Cogol: Irosc, eolteo by Chrlstlne A.
Ryoel (l999)
NVV
ictoriov !omcv Iocts, eolteo by Wllllam
B. Jheslng (l999)
OMM
Zmcricov !omcv Irosc !ritcrs to 1620,
eolteo by Carla |. Mulforo, wlth
Angela Vletto ano Amy E. Wlnans
(l999)
OMN
Jwcvtictl-Ccvtury ritisl ool Collcctors
ovd ibliogroplcrs, eolteo by Wllllam
OMO
Aivctccvtl-Ccvtury Zmcricov Iictiov !ritcrs,
eolteo by Kent P. Ljungqulst (l999)
OMP
Mcdicvol opovcsc !ritcrs, eolteo by
Steven D. Carter (l999)
OMQ
ritisl Jrovcl !ritcrs, 1940-1997, eolteo
by Barbara Brothers ano |ulla M. Ger
glts (l999)
OMR
Iussiov Iitcroturc iv tlc Zgc of Iuslliv ovd
Cogol: Ioctry ovd Dromo, eolteo by
Chrlstlne A. Ryoel (l999)
OMS
Jwcvtictl-Ccvtury Zmcricov !cstcrv !rit-
crs, Iirst Scrics, eolteo by Rlcharo H.
Cracroft (l999)
OMT
ritisl Aovclists Sivcc 1960, Jlird Scrics,
eolteo by Merrltt Moseley (l999)
OMU
Iitcroturc of tlc Ircvcl ovd Uccitov Middlc
Zgcs: Ilcvcvtl to Iiftccvtl Ccvturics, eolteo
by Deborah SlnnrelchLevl ano Ian S.
Laurle (l999)
OMV
Clicovo !ritcrs, Jlird Scrics, eolteo by
ley (l999)
ONM
Irvcst Hcmivgwoy: Z Documcvtory ol-
umc, eolteo by Robert W. Jrogoon
(l999)
ONN
Zvcicvt Iomov !ritcrs, eolteo by Waro
W. Brlggs (l999)
ONO
crs, Sccovd Scrics, eolteo by Rlcharo H.
Cracroft (l999)
ONP
Irc-Aivctccvtl-Ccvtury ritisl ool Collcc-
tors ovd ibliogroplcrs, eolteo by Wllllam
ONQ
Jwcvtictl-Ccvtury Dovisl !ritcrs, eolteo
by Marlanne StecherHansen (l999)
ONR
Jwcvtictl-Ccvtury Iostcrv Iuropcov !rit-
crs, Iirst Scrics, eolteo by Steven Serafln
(l999)
ONS
ritisl Iocts of tlc Crcot !or: roolc,
Ioscvbcrg, Jlomos. Z Documcvtory olumc,
eolteo by Patrlck _ulnn (2000)
ONT
Aivctccvtl-Ccvtury Ircvcl Iocts, eolteo by
Robert Beum (2000)
ONU
!or II, Sccovd Scrics, eolteo by Patrlck
Meanor ano Gwen Crane (2000)
ONV
I. Scott Iitgcrold`s Jhe Great Gatsby. Z
Documcvtory olumc, eolteo by Matthew
|. Bruccoll (2000)
OOM
crs, Sccovd Scrics, eolteo by Steven Sera
fln (2000)
OON
Zmcricov !omcv Irosc !ritcrs, 1670-
1920, eolteo by Sharon M. Harrls,
wlth the asslstance of Helol L. M.
|acobs ano |ennlfer Putzl (2000)
OOO
H. I. Mcvclcv: Z Documcvtory olumc,
eolteo by Rlcharo |. Schraoer (2000)
OOP
Sccovd Scrics, eolteo by Wesley J. Mott
(2000)
OOQ
!olt !litmov: Z Documcvtory olumc,
eolteo by |oel Myerson (2000)
OOR
Soutl Zfricov !ritcrs, eolteo by Paul A.
Scanlon (2000)
OOS
Zmcricov Hord-oilcd Crimc !ritcrs,
eolteo by George Parker Anoerson
ano |ulle B. Anoerson (2000)
OOT
Sixtl Scrics, eolteo by |ames R. Glles
ano Wanoa H. Glles (2000)
OOU
Jwcvtictl-Ccvtury Zmcricov Dromotists,
Sccovd Scrics, eolteo by Chrlstopher |.
Wheatley (2000)
OOV
Jlomos !olfc: Z Documcvtory olumc,
eolteo by Jeo Mltchell (200l)
OPM
Zustroliov Iitcroturc, 1766-1914, eolteo
by Sellna Samuels (200l)
OPN
ritisl Aovclists Sivcc 1960, Iourtl Scrics,
eolteo by Merrltt Moseley (200l)
OPO
crs, Jlird Scrics, eolteo by Steven Sera
fln (200l)
OPP
ritisl ovd Irisl Dromotists Sivcc !orld
!or II, Sccovd Scrics, eolteo by |ohn Bull
(200l)
OPQ
!or II, Jlird Scrics, eolteo by Patrlck
Meanor ano Rlcharo E. Lee (200l)
OPR
Jlird Scrics, eolteo by Wesley J. Mott
(200l)
OPS
ritisl Ilctoriciovs ovd Iogiciovs, 100-
1660, eolteo by Eowaro A. Malone
(200l)
OPT
Jlc cots: Z Documcvtory olumc, eolteo
by Matt Jheaoo (200l)
OPU
Iussiov Aovclists iv tlc Zgc of Jolstoy ovd
Dostocvsly, eolteo by |. Alexanoer
Ogoen ano |uolth E. Kalb (200l)
OPV
Zmcricov !omcv Irosc !ritcrs: 1620-
1670, eolteo by Amy E. Huoock ano
Katharlne Rooler (200l)
OQM
Iotc Aivctccvtl- ovd Iorly Jwcvtictl-
Ccvtury ritisl !omcv Iocts, eolteo by
Wllllam B. Jheslng (200l)
OQN
Zmcricov Sportswritcrs ovd !ritcrs ov
Sport, eolteo by Rlcharo Orooenker
(200l)
OQO
Jwcvtictl-Ccvtury Iuropcov Culturol Jlco-
rists, Iirst Scrics, eolteo by Paul Hansom
(200l)
OQP
Iourtl Scrics, eolteo by Wesley J. Mott
(200l)
OQQ
!or II, Iourtl Scrics, eolteo by Patrlck
Meanor ano |oseph McNlcholas (200l)
OQR
!or II, Jlird Scrics, eolteo by |ohn Bull
(200l)
OQS
Jwcvtictl-Ccvtury Zmcricov Culturol Jlco-
rists, eolteo by Paul Hansom (200l)
OQT
omcs oycc: Z Documcvtory olumc,
eolteo by A. Nlcholas Iargnoll (200l)
OQU
Zvtcbcllum !ritcrs iv tlc Soutl, Sccovd
Scrics, eolteo by Kent Ljungqulst (200l)
OQV
Jlird Scrics, eolteo by Chrlstopher
Wheatley (2002)
ORM
Zvtcbcllum !ritcrs iv Acw 1orl, Sccovd
Scrics, eolteo by Kent Ljungqulst (2002)
ORN
Covodiov Iovtosy ovd Scicvcc-Iictiov !rit-
crs, eolteo by Douglas Ivlson (2002)
ORO
ritisl Ililosoplcrs, 100-1799, eolteo
by Phlllp B. Demattels ano Peter S.
Iosl (2002)
ORP
Ioymovd Clovdlcr: Z Documcvtory olumc,
eolteo by Robert Moss (2002)
ORQ
Jlc Housc of Iutvom, 16J7-1672: Z Doc-
umcvtory olumc, eolteo by Ezra Green
span (2002)
ORR
ritisl Iovtosy ovd Scicvcc-Iictiov !ritcrs,
1916-1960, eolteo by Darren Harrls
Ialn (2002)
ORS
crs, Jlird Scrics, eolteo by Rlcharo H.
Cracroft (2002)
ORT
Jwcvtictl-Ccvtury Swcdisl !ritcrs Zftcr
!orld !or II, eolteo by AnnCharlotte
Gavel Aoams (2002)
ORU
Modcrv Ircvcl Iocts, eolteo by |ean
Iranols Leroux (2002)
ORV
Jwcvtictl-Ccvtury Swcdisl !ritcrs cforc
!orld !or II, eolteo by AnnCharlotte
Gavel Aoams (2002)
OSM
Zustroliov !ritcrs, 191-190, eolteo by
Sellna Samuels (2002)
OSN
ritisl Iovtosy ovd Scicvcc-Iictiov !ritcrs
Sivcc 1960, eolteo by Darren Harrls
Ialn (2002)
OSO
ritisl Ililosoplcrs, 1600-2000, eolteo
by Peter S. Iosl ano Leemon B. McHenry
(2002)
OSP
!illiom Slolcspcorc: Z Documcvtory ol-
umc, eolteo by Catherlne Loomls (2002)
OSQ
Itoliov Irosc !ritcrs, 1900-194, eolteo
by Luca Somlgll ano Rocco Capozzl
(2002)
OSR
Zmcricov Sovg Iyricists, 1920-1960, eolteo
by Phlllp Iurla (2002)
OSS
Iourtl Scrics, eolteo by Chrlstopher |.
Wheatley (2002)
OST
Jwcvty-Iirst-Ccvtury ritisl ovd Irisl Aov-
clists, eolteo by Mlchael R. Mollno (2002)
OSU
Scvcvtccvtl-Ccvtury Ircvcl !ritcrs, eolteo
by Iranolse |aoun (2002)
OSV
Aotlovicl Howtlorvc: Z Documcvtory ol-
umc, eolteo by Benjamln Iranklln V (2002)
OTM
Zmcricov Ililosoplcrs cforc 190, eolteo
by Phlllp B. Demattels ano Leemon B.
McHenry (2002)
OTN
ritisl ovd Irisl Aovclists Sivcc 1960,
eolteo by Merrltt Moseley (2002)
OTO
Iussiov Irosc !ritcrs ctwccv tlc !orld
!ors, eolteo by Chrlstlne Ryoel (2003)
OTP
I. Scott Iitgcrold`s Jenoer Is the Nlght.
Z Documcvtory olumc, eolteo by Matthew
|. Bruccoll ano George Parker Anoerson
(2003)
OTQ
olv Dos Iossos`s L.S.A.. Z Documcvtory
olumc, eolteo by Donalo Plzer (2003)
OTR
Jwcvtictl-Ccvtury Zmcricov Aoturc !rit-
crs: Irosc, eolteo by Roger Jhompson
ano |. Scott Bryson (2003)
OTS
ritisl Mystcry ovd Jlrillcr !ritcrs Sivcc 1960,
eolteo by Glna Macoonalo (2003)
OTT
Iussiov Iitcroturc iv tlc Zgc of Icolism, eolteo
by Alyssa Dlnega Glllesple (2003)
OTU
Zmcricov Aovclists Sivcc !orld !or II, Scvcvtl
Scrics, eolteo by |ames R. Glles ano
Wanoa H. Glles (2003)
OTV
Zmcricov Ililosoplcrs, 190-2000, eolteo by
Phlllp B. Demattels ano Leemon B.
McHenry (2003)
OUM
Doslicll Hommctt`s Jhe Maltese Ialcon.
Z Documcvtory olumc, eolteo by Rlch
aro Layman (2003)
OUN
ritisl Ilctoriciovs ovd Iogiciovs, 100-
1660, Sccovd Scrics, eolteo by Eowaro
A. Malone (2003)
OUO
Acw Iormolist Iocts, eolteo by |onathan
N. Barron ano Bruce Meyer (2003)
OUP
Modcrv Spovisl Zmcricov Iocts, Iirst Scrics,
eolteo by Mara A. Salgaoo (2003)
OUQ
Jlc Housc of Holt, 1666-1946: Z Docu-
mcvtory olumc, eolteo by Ellen D. Gll
bert (2003)
OUR
Iussiov !ritcrs Sivcc 1960, eolteo by
Marlna Ballna ano Mark Llpoyvetsky
(2001)
OUS
Costiliov !ritcrs, 1400-100, eolteo by
Irank A. Domnguez ano George D.
Greenla (2001)
OUT
Iortugucsc !ritcrs, j~
o ~ c jK `~ EOMMQF
OUU
Jlc Housc of ovi c Iivcriglt, 1917-
19JJ: Z Documcvtory olumc,
`~ b EOMMQF
OUV
Zustroliov !ritcrs, 190-197,
p~ p~ EOMMQF
OVM
Modcrv Spovisl Zmcricov Iocts, Sccovd
Scrics, j~~ ^K p~~ EOMMQF
OVN
Jlc Hoosicr Housc: obbs-Mcrrill ovd Its
Ircdcccssors, 160-196: Z Documcvtory
olumc, o~ gK p~
EOMMQF
OVO
Jwcvty-Iirst-Ccvtury Zmcricov Aovclists,
i~ ^ ~ p~
aJd EOMMQF
OVP
Icclovdic !ritcrs, m~ gK
p EOMMQF
OVQ
omcs Could Cocvs: Z Documcvtory ol-
umc, j~ gK _
EOMMQF
OVR
Iussiov !ritcrs of tlc Silvcr Zgc, 1690-
192, g bK h~ ~ gK
^~ l ~~J
fK dK s EOMMQF
OVS
Jwcvtictl-Ccvtury Iuropcov Culturol Jlco-
rists, Sccovd Scrics, m~ e~J
EOMMQF
OVT
Jwcvtictl-Ccvtury Aorwcgiov !ritcrs,
q~~ q EOMMQF
OVU
Hcvry Dovid Jlorcou: Z Documcvtory ol-
umc, o~ gK p
EOMMQF
OVV
Holocoust Aovclists, b~
p EOMMQF
PMM
Dovisl !ritcrs from tlc Icformotiov to Dcc-
odcvcc, 10-1900, j~~
pJe~ EOMMQF
PMN
Custovc Iloubcrt: Z Documcvtory olumc,
i `~ EOMMQF
PMO
Iussiov Irosc !ritcrs Zftcr !orld !or II,
` o EOMMQF
PMP
Zmcricov Iodicol ovd Icform !ritcrs, Iirst
Scrics, p o~
EOMMRF
PMQ
rom Stolcr`s a~~W Z Documcvtory
olumc, b~ j
EOMMRF
PMR
Iotiv Zmcricov Dromotists, Iirst Scrics,
^~ s EOMMRF
PMS
Zmcricov Mystcry ovd Dctcctivc !ritcrs,
d m~ ^
EOMMRF
PMT
roiliov !ritcrs, j~ oJ
~ c jK `~ EOMMRF
PMU
Irvcst Hcmivgwoy`s ^ c~ ^W
Z Documcvtory olumc, `~
l EOMMRF
PMV
olv Stcivbccl: Z Documcvtory olumc,
i i EOMMRF
PNM
!or II, Iourtl Scrics, g _
EOMMRF
PNN
Zrobic Iitcrory Culturc, 00-92,
j~ ` ~ p~~
jK q~~ EOMMRF
PNO
Zsiov Zmcricov !ritcrs, aJ
~ iK j~ EOMMRF
PNP
!ritcrs of tlc Ircvcl Ivligltcvmcvt, I,
p~~ fK p EOMMRF
PNQ
!ritcrs of tlc Ircvcl Ivligltcvmcvt, II,
p~~ fK p EOMMRF
PNR
Iovgstov Huglcs: Z Documcvtory olumc,
` `K a p~
EOMMRF
PNS
Zmcricov Irosc !ritcrs of !orld !or I: Z
Documcvtory olumc, p
q EOMMRF
PNT
Jwcvtictl-Ccvtury Iussiov Imigrc !ritcrs,
j~~ o EOMMRF
PNU
Sixtccvtl-Ccvtury Spovisl !ritcrs,
d _K h~~ EOMMSF
PNV
ritisl ovd Irisl Slort-Iictiov !ritcrs
194-2000, ` ^J
~ j~ ~ a~ j~
EOMMSF
POM
Iobcrt Icvv !orrcv: Z Documcvtory ol-
umc, g~ ^K d~ gK
EOMMSF
PON
Jwcvtictl-Ccvtury Ircvcl Dromotists,
j~ ^ lk EOMMSF
POO
Jwcvtictl-Ccvtury Spovisl Iictiov !ritcrs,
j~~ bK ^ ~ `~
j~J`~~ EOMMSF
POP
Soutl Zsiov !ritcrs iv Ivglisl,
c~ ^~ EOMMSF
POQ
olv U`Horo: Z Documcvtory olumc,
j~ gK _ EOMMSF
POR
Zustroliov !ritcrs, 197-2000,
p~ p~ EOMMSF
POS
oolcr Iric Aovcls, 1969-200,
j j EOMMSF
POT
Sixtccvtl-Ccvtury Ircvcl !ritcrs,
j~ `~ EOMMSF
POU
Clivcsc Iictiov !ritcrs, 1900-1949,
q~ j~ EOMMTF
POV
Aobcl Iric Iourcotcs iv Iitcroturc, Iort 1:
Zgvov-Iuclcv EOMMTF
PPM
Ioullvcr-Iiplivg EOMMTF
PPN
Aobcl Iric Iourcotcs iv Iitcroturc, Iort J:
Iogcrlvist-Iovtoppidov EOMMTF
PPO
_uosimodo-1cots EOMMTF
a~ i~ _~ a~ p
N
Slcrwood Zvdcrsov, !illo Cotlcr, olv
Dos Iossos, Jlcodorc Drciscr, I. Scott
Iitgcrold, Irvcst Hcmivgwoy, Sivcloir
Icwis, j~~ ^K s~
^ ENVUOF
O
omcs Could Cocvs, omcs J. Iorrcll,
!illiom Ioullvcr, olv U`Horo, olv
Stcivbccl, Jlomos !olfc, Iiclord !riglt,
j~~ ^K s~ ^
ENVUOF
P
Soul cllow, ocl Icrouoc, Aormov
Moilcr, lodimir Aobolov, olv Updilc,
Iurt ovvcgut, j~ _J
ENVUPF
Q
Jcvvcsscc !illioms, j~~ ^K
s~ ^ ~ p~ g ENVUQF
R
Zmcricov Jrovsccvdcvtolists,
g j ENVUUF
S
Hordboilcd Mystcry !ritcrs: Ioymovd
Clovdlcr, Doslicll Hommctt, Ioss Moc-
dovold, j~ gK _
~ o~ i~~ ENVUVF
T
Modcrv Zmcricov Iocts: omcs Diclcy,
Iobcrt Irost, Moriovvc Moorc,
h~ iK o ENVUVF
U
Jlc locl Zcstlctic Movcmcvt,
g i a ENVVNF
V
Zmcricov !ritcrs of tlc ictvom !or: !. D.
Ilrlort, Iorry Hcivcmovv, Jim U`ricv,
!oltcr McDovold, olv M. Dcl ccclio,
o~ _~~ ENVVNF
NM
Jlc loomsbury Croup,
b~ iK _ ENVVOF
NN
Zmcricov Irolctoriov Culturc: Jlc Jwcv-
tics ovd Jlc Jlirtics, g
`~ p ENVVPF
NO
Soutlcrv !omcv !ritcrs: Ilovvcry U`Cov-
vor, Iotlcrivc Zvvc Iortcr, Iudoro !clty,
j~ ^ t~ ~
h~ iK o ENVVQF
NP
Jlc Housc of Scribvcr, 1646-1904,
g a~ ENVVSF
NQ
Iour !omcv !ritcrs for Clildrcv, 1666-
1916, `~ `K e ENVVSF
NR
Zmcricov Ixpotriotc !ritcrs: Ioris iv tlc
Jwcvtics, j~ gK _J
~ o tK q ENVVTF
NS
Jlc Housc of Scribvcr, 190-19J0,
g a~ ENVVTF
NT
Jlc Housc of Scribvcr, 19J1-1964,
g a~ ENVVUF
NU
ritisl Iocts of Jlc Crcot !or: Sossoov,
Crovcs, Uwcv, m~ n
ENVVVF
NV
omcs Diclcy, g pK
_~~ ENVVVF
p ~ ai_ ONMI ONSI ONVI OOOI OOQI
OOVI OPTI OQTI ORPI ORQI OSPI OSVI
OTPI OTQI OUMI OUQI OUUI OVNI OVQI
OVUI PMNI PMQI PMUI PMVI PNRI PNSI
POMI POQ
a~ i~ _~ v~
NVUM
eolteo by Karen L. Rooo, |ean W.
Ross, ano Rlcharo Zlegfelo (l98l)
NVUN
eolteo by Karen L. Rooo, |ean W.
Ross, ano Rlcharo Zlegfelo (l982)
NVUO
eolteo by Rlcharo Zlegfelo; asso
clate eoltors. |ean W. Ross ano
Lynne C. Zelgler (l983)
NVUP
eolteo by Mary Bruccoll ano |ean
W. Ross; assoclate eoltor Rlcharo
Zlegfelo (l981)
NVUQ
eolteo by |ean W. Ross (l985)
NVUR
eolteo by |ean W. Ross (l986)
NVUS
eolteo by |. M. Brook (l987)
NVUT
NVUU
NVUV
NVVM
eolteo by |ames W. Hlpp (l99l)
NVVN
eolteo by |ames W. Hlpp (l992)
NVVO
eolteo by |ames W. Hlpp (l993)
NVVP
eolteo by |ames W. Hlpp, contrlb
utlng eoltor George Garrett (l991)
NVVQ
NVVR
NVVS
eolteo by Samuel W. Bruce ano L.
Kay Webster, contrlbutlng eoltor
George Garrett (l997)
NVVT
eolteo by Matthew |. Bruccoll ano
George Garrett, wlth the assls
tance of L. Kay Webster (l998)
NVVU
eolteo by Matthew |. Bruccoll,
contrlbutlng eoltor George Gar
rett, wlth the asslstance of D. W.
Jhomas (l999)
NVVV
rett, wlth the asslstance of D. W.
Jhomas (2000)
OMMM
rett, wlth the asslstance of George
Parker Anoerson (200l)
OMMN
rett, wlth the asslstance of George
Parker Anoerson (2002)
OMMO
eolteo by Matthew |. Bruccoll ano
George Garrett; George Parker
Anoerson, Asslstant Eoltor (2003)
` p
` a~ ^~ i~ _~I 7 volumes (l988-l999). Jlc Acw
Covsciousvcss, 1941-1966; Coloviotiov to tlc Zmcricov Icvoissovcc, 1640-166; Icolism, Aoturol-
ism, ovd Iocol Color, 166-1917; Jlc Jwcvtics, 1917-1929; Jlc Zgc of Moturity, 1929-1941;
roodcvivg icws, 1966-1966; Supplcmcvt: Modcrv !ritcrs, 1900-1996.
` a~ _ i~ _~I 8 volumes (l99l-l992). !ritcrs
of tlc Middlc Zgcs ovd Icvoissovcc cforc 1660; !ritcrs of tlc Icstorotiov ovd Iigltccvtl Ccv-
tury, 1660-1769; !ritcrs of tlc Iomovtic Icriod, 1769-16J2; ictoriov !ritcrs, 16J2-
1690; Iotc-ictoriov ovd Idwordiov !ritcrs, 1690-1914; Modcrv !ritcrs, 1914-194;
!ritcrs Zftcr !orld !or II, 194-1960; Covtcmporory !ritcrs, 1960 to Ircscvt.
` a~ t i~ _~I 1 volumes (l999-2000). Zvcicvt
Crccl ovd Iomov !ritcrs; Ccrmov !ritcrs; Zfricov, Coribbcov, ovd Iotiv Zmcricov !ritcrs; Soutl
Slovic ovd Iostcrv Iuropcov !ritcrs.
a~ i~ _~

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k m i~~ i~I
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`
m~ p K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K
^ K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K
p~~ n~ ENVMNNVSUF K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K P
p `
NVRV k m i~ m~ pK K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K NQ
^ I m~ p~ p ^~
n~W _~ p K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K NR
n~W k iI NN a NVRV K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K NT
t~~ p~~ o ENUSTNVORF K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K OO
_~ `~
NVOQ k m i~ m~ K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K PP
oW ^~~ p~ K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K PR
o~ o~ ENUSSNVQQF K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K PU
j~ `~
NVNR k m i~W p~ K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K RO
p p~I p `
_~ o ENUTONVTMF K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K RR
b~ oK b~ ~ m _K a~
NVRM k m i~ m~ p K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K TQ
^ I m~ p~ p ^~
oW k iI NN a NVRM K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K TS
k p~ ENUVNNVTMF K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K UO
h~ _
NVSS k m i~ m~ p K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K UU
^ I j p ^~
p~W _~ p K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K UV
g p~~~ ENVOO F K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K VN
g kK l~
NVVU k m i~ m~ pK K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K NNN
m h b~I j p ^~I `~~ f k `
` ai_ PPO
p~~~W _~ p K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K NNO
p~~~W ^~~ p~K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K NNP
m o~W q k m i~ NVVU K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K NNQ
p~~~W k iI T a NVVU K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K NNS
g~Jm~ p~ ENVMRNVUMF K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K NOO
`~~ p~~ _~
q k m i~ NVSQ ^ K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K NQQ
^ I j p ^~
d p ENVMMNVTNF K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K NQS
j~~ bK h
NVSP k m i~ m~ p K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K NRS
^ I m~ p~ p ^~
pW _~ p K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K NRT
pW k iI NN a NVSP K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K NRU
g~~ p ENVMNNVUSF K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K NSP
j~ p
NVRV k m i~ m~ p K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K NTT
m i~ dI p ^~ Eq~~ pF
pW _~ p K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K NTU
pW k iI a NVUQ K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K NUM
d _~ p~ ENURSNVRMF K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K NUS
j~ pK s~ s ~ ^~ `
NVOR k m i~ m~ p K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K OMP
m e~I `~~ k ` p ^~I NM aI NVOS
j~ ^~ p ENVMRNVUQF K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K OMS
i~ iK i
NVSR k m i~ m~ p K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K OPN
^ I j p ^~
pW _~ p K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K OPO
e p ENUQSNVNSF K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K OPQ
j~ gK j
NVMR k m i~ m~ p K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K OQS
`K aK ~ tI m~ p~ p ^~
pW _~ p K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K ORM
c~ b p~ ENUUUNVSQF K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K ORN
m~ o~~~
NVPV k m i~ m~ p K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K ORT
p~W ^~~ p~ K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K ORV
ai_ PPO `
`~ p ENVNPOMMRF K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K OSN
a vK h~ ~ `~~ p~~ _~
NVUR k m i~ m~ p K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K OTV
pW _~ p K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K OUN
pW k iI V a NVUR K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K OUP
f~~ _~ p ENVMQNVVNF K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K OVM
g p~
NVTU k m i~ m~ p K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K PMU
m i~ d p ^~ Eq~~ pF
pW _~ p K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K PNM
pW k iI U a NVTU K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K PNN
^~ p ENVNU F K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K PNP
b~ bK b gK ~ ^ h
NVTM k m i~ m~ p K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K POU
h~ o~~ dI p ^~I NM a NVTM
pW _~ p K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K PPM
pW ^~~ p~ K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K PPN
pW k iI NVTM K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K PPP
t p~ ENVPQ F K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K PQN
g~ d
NVUS k m i~ m~ p K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K PST
p~W _~ p K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K PSU
m o~W q k m i~ NVUS K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K PSV
p~W k iI U a NVUS K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K PTM
`~ p ENUQRNVOQF K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K PTV
j~ gK m
NVNV k m i~ m~ p K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K PVN
e~~ eI `~~ k ` p ^~I NM a NVOM
pW ^~~ p~ K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K PVO
g p ENVMONVSUF K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K PVQ
h e~
NVSO k m i~ m~ p K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K QMU
^ I m~ p~ p ^~
pW _~ p K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K QMV
p m EoJc~J^~ mF ENUPVNVMTF K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K QNN
d~ ^K i
NVMN k m i~ m~ p K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K QNV
`~ a~ ~ tI m~ p~ p ^~I NM a NVMN
xlv
` ai_ PPO
t~~ p~ ENVOP F . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12l
g~~ q~
l996 Nobel Prlze ln Llterature Presentatlon Speech . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
_~ qI j p ^~ Eq~~ p o~ iF
Szymborska. Banquet Speech . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13l
Press Release. Jhe Nobel Prlze ln Llterature l996 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13l
p~W k iI T a NVVS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
o~~~ q~ ENUSNNVQNF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
c~ ^~
l9l3 Nobel Prlze ln Llterature Presentatlon Speech . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
e~~ eI `~~ k ` p ^~I NM a NVNP
Jagore. Banquet Speech . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
p r ENUUONVQVF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
`~~ _
m e~I `~~ k ` p ^~I NM a NVOU
Lndset. Banquet Speech . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
a t~ ENVPM F . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
b~ _~
m h b~I j p ^~ Eq~~ pF
Walcott. Banquet Speech . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18l
Press Release. Jhe Nobel Prlze ln Llterature l992 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18l
t~W k iI T a NVVO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
m~ t ENVNONVVMF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
j~ ^~ ~ m t
^ iI p ^~ Eq~~ pF
Whlte. Banquet Speech . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503
Whlte. Autoblographlcal Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503
Press Release. Jhe Nobel Prlze ln Llterature l973 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505
t~ _ v~ ENUSRNVPVF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507
_K iK o
l923 Nobel Prlze ln Llterature Presentatlon Speech . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53l
m e~I `~~ k ` p ^~I NM a NVOP
Yeats. Banquet Speech . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533
v~W k iI NR a NVOP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 531
Nobel Prlze Laureates ln Llterature, l90l-2005 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539
Contrlbutors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51l
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515
xv
m~ p
. . . Zlmost tlc most prodigious ossct of o couvtry, ovd pcr-
lops its most prccious posscssiov, is its votivc litcrory product
wlcv tlot product is fivc ovd voblc ovd cvdurivg.
Mark Jwaln*
Jhe advlsory board, the edltors, and the pub
llsher of the Dictiovory of Iitcrory iogroply are jolned ln
endorslng Mark Jwaln`s declaratlon. Jhe llterature of a
natlon provldes an lnexhaustlble resource of permanent
worth. Our purpose ls to make llterature and lts cre
ators better understood and more accesslble to students
and the readlng publlc, whlle satlsfylng the needs of
teachers and researchers.
Jo meet these requlrements, litcrory biogroply has
been construed ln terms of the author`s achlevement.
Jhe most lmportant thlng about a wrlter ls hls wrltlng.
Accordlngly, the entrles ln DI are career blographles,
traclng the development of the author`s canon and the
evolutlon of hls reputatlon.
Jhe purpose of DI ls not only to provlde rell
able lnformatlon ln a usable format but also to place the
flgures ln the larger perspectlve of llterary hlstory and
to offer appralsals of thelr accompllshments by quallfled
scholars.
Jhe publlcatlon plan for DI resulted from two
years of preparatlon. Jhe project was proposed to Bruc
coll Clark by Irederlck G. Ruffner, presldent of the
Gale Research Company, ln November l975. After
speclmen entrles were prepared and typeset, an advl
sory board was formed to reflne the entry format and
develop the serles ratlonale. In meetlngs held durlng
l976, the publlsher, serles edltors, and advlsory board
approved the scheme for a comprehenslve blographlcal
dlctlonary of persons who contrlbuted to llterature. Edl
torlal work on the flrst volume began ln |anuary l977,
and lt was publlshed ln l978. In order to make DI
more than a dlctlonary and to complle volumes that
lndlvldually have clalm to status as llterary hlstory, lt
was declded to organlze volumes by toplc, perlod, or
genre. Each of these freestandlng volumes provldes a
blographlcalblbllographlcal gulde and overvlew for a
partlcular area of llterature. We are convlnced that thls
organlzatlonas opposed to a slngle alphabet method
constltutes a valuable lnnovatlon ln the presentatlon of
reference materlal. Jhe volume plan necessarlly
requlres many declslons for the placement and treat
ment of authors. Certaln flgures wlll be lncluded ln sep
arate volumes, but wlth dlfferent entrles emphaslzlng
the aspect of hls career approprlate to each volume.
Ernest Hemlngway, for example, ls represented ln Zmcr-
icov !ritcrs iv Ioris, 1920-19J9 by an entry focuslng on
hls expatrlate apprentlceshlp; he ls also ln Zmcricov òv-
clists, 1910-194 wlth an entry surveylng hls entlre
career, as well as ln Zmcricov Slort-Story !ritcrs, 1910-
194, Sccovd Scrics wlth an entry concentratlng on hls
short flctlon. Each volume lncludes a cumulatlve lndex
of the subject authors and artlcles.
Between l98l and 2002 the serles was aug
mented and updated by the DI Jcorbools. Jhere have
also been nlneteen DI Documcvtory Scrics volumes,
whlch provlde lllustratlons, facslmlles, and blographlcal
and crltlcal source materlals for flgures, works, or
groups judged to have partlcular lnterest for students.
In l999 the Documcvtory Scrics was lncorporated lnto the
DI volume numberlng system beglnnlng wlth DI
210: Irvcst Hcmivgwoy.
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ture not as cult scrlpture ln the keeplng of lntellectual
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natlon`s llfe.
DI lncludes the major wrlters approprlate to
each volume and those standlng ln the ranks behlnd
them. Scholarly and crltlcal counsel has been sought ln
decldlng whlch mlnor flgures to lnclude and how full
thelr entrles should be. Wherever posslble, useful refer
*Irom ov uvpublislcd scctiov of Morl Twoiv`s outobiog-
roply, copyriglt by tlc Morl Twoiv Compovy
xvl
m~ p ai_ PPO
ences are made to flgures who do not warrant separate
entrles.
Each ai_ volume has an expert volume edltor
responslble for plannlng the volume, selectlng the flg
ures for lncluslon, and asslgnlng the entrles. Volume
edltors are also responslble for preparlng, where appro
prlate, appendlces surveylng the major perlodlcals and
llterary and lntellectual movements for thelr volumes,
as well as llsts of further readlngs. Work on the serles as
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One feature that dlstlngulshes ai_ ls the lllustra
tlon pollcylts concern wlth the lconography of lltera
ture. |ust as an author ls lnfluenced by hls surroundlngs,
so ls the reader`s understandlng of the author enhanced
by a knowledge of hls envlronment. Jherefore ai_
volumes lnclude not only drawlngs, palntlngs, and pho
tographs of authors, often deplctlng them at varlous
stages ln thelr careers, but also lllustratlons of thelr fam
llles and places where they llved. Jltle pages are regu
larly reproduced ln facslmlle along wlth dust jackets for
modern authors. Jhe dust jackets are a speclal feature
of ai_ because they often document better than any
thlng else the way ln whlch an author`s work was per
celved ln lts own tlme. Speclmens of the wrlters`
manuscrlpts and letters are lncluded when feaslble.
Samuel |ohnson rlghtly decreed that 'Jhe chlef
glory of every people arlses from lts authors." Jhe pur
pose of the a~ i~ _~ ls to complle llt
erary hlstory ln the surest way avallable to usby
accurate and comprehenslve treatment of the llves and
work of those who contrlbuted to lt.
Jhe ai_ Advlsory Board
xvll
^
Jhls book was produced by Bruccoll Clark Lay
man, Inc. Jracy Slmmons Bltontl was the lnhouse edl
tor. She was asslsted by Penelope M. Hope.
Productlon manager ls Phlllp B. Demattels.
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and Nelson Rlvera.
3
a~ i~ _~
p~~ n~
(20 Zugust 1901 - 14 uvc 196S)
p `
Iivg Collcgc
Jhls entry has been revlsed by Cro from hls _uasl
modo entry ln DI 114: Twcvtictl-Ccvtury Itoliov Iocts,
Iirst Scrics.
BOOKS. Zcquc c tcrrc (Ilorence. Solarla, l930);
Uboc sommcrso (Genoa. Clrcoll, l932);
Udorc di cucolyptus cd oltri vcrsi (Ilorence. Antlco Iattore,
l933);
Iroto c Zplliov (Mllan. Schelwlller, l936);
Iocsic (Mllan. Prlml Planl, l938);
Id subito scro (Mllan. Mondadorl, l912);
Cov il picdc strovicro sopro il cuorc (Mllan. Costume, l916);
Ciorvo dopo giorvo (Mllan. Mondadorl, l917);
Io vito vov sogvo (Mllan. Mondadorl, l919);
illy udd |llbretto based on the story by Herman
Melvllle| (Mllan. Suvlnl Zerbonl, l919);
Il folso c vcro vcrdc (Mllan. Schwarz, l951); enlarged as Il
folso c vcro vcrdc; Cov uv discorso sullo pocsio (Mllan.
Mondadorl, l956);
Io tcrro imporcggiobilc (Mllan. Mondadorl, l958;
enlarged, l962);
Iocsic sccltc, edlted by Roberto Sanesl (Parma, Italy.
Guanda, l959);
Ictrorco c il scvtimcvto dcllo solitudivc (Mllan. AllÌnsegna
del Pesce dÒro/Schelwlller, l959);
Tuttc lc pocsic (Mllan. Mondadorl, l960; enlarged, l962;
enlarged and edlted by Gllberto Ilnzl, l981);
translated by |ack Bevan as Complctc Iocms (Lon
don. Anvll, l983; New York. Schocken, l981);
Il pocto c il politico c oltri soggi (Mllan. Schwartz, l960);
translated by Jhomas G. Bergln and Serglo Pacl
flcl as Tlc Ioct ovd tlc Ioliticiov, ovd Utlcr Issoys
(Carbondale. Southern Illlnols Lnlverslty Press,
l961);
Urfco Zvvo Domivi MCMXI!II (Mllan. Curcl, l960);
Scritti sul tcotro (Mllan. Mondadorl, l96l);
ùovc pocsic (Verona. Rlva, l963);
Iòmorc di Colotco (Palermo. Jeatro Masslmo, l961);
Zvito Ilbcrg, edlted by Sennucclo Benelll (Mllan. Lerlcl,
l965);
Dorc c ovcrc (Mllan. Mondadorl, l966); translated by
Edlth Iarnsworth as To Civc ovd to Hovc, ovd Utlcr
Iocms (Chlcago. Regnery, l969); translated by
Bevan as Dcbt ovd Crcdit (London. Anvll, l972);
Solvotorc _uosimodo: Ircmio òbcl pcr lo lcttcroturo 199
(Mllan. Iabbrl, l968);
Uv ovvo (Genoa. Immordlno, l968);
Ic opcrc, edlted by Guldo dl Plno (Jurln. Lnlone
Jlpograflca, l968);
irolli, X. ucvo, Covtotorc, Dc Clirico, Ilso D`Zlbisolo, Iob-
bri Movu, Morivo C., Mostroiovvi, Migvcco, Iosscllo,
Iossi, Sossu, Sotilis, Uscllivi, Tomburi visti (Mllan.
Jrentadue, l969);
Iocsic c discorsi sullo pocsio, edlted by Ilnzl (Mllan. Monda
dorl, l97l; revlsed and enlarged, l973; revlsed
and enlarged, 2000);
Z colpo omicido c oltri scritti, edlted by Ilnzl (Mllan.
Mondadorl, l977);
ocio lo soglio dcllo tuo coso (Slracusa, Slclly. Schlttlno,
l98l);
Z Sibillo, edlted by Glancarlo Vlgorelll (Mllan. Rlzzoll,
l983);
Tro _uosimodo c !ittorivi, edlted by Rosa _uaslmodo
(Aclreale, Italy. Lunarlonuovo, l981);
Il pocto o tcotro (Mllan. Splrall, l981);
Ic Mcdoglic di Irovccsco Mcssivo (Mllan. Schelwlller,
l986).
b bW Sclcctcd !ritivgs, translated and
edlted by Allen Mandelbaum (New York. Iarrar,
Straus Cudahy, l960);
1
p~~ n~ ai_ PPO
Iocms, translated by G. H. McWllllam and others (Dub
lln. Itallan Instltute of Culture, l963);
Sclcctcd Iocms, translated by |ack Bevan (Harmonds
worth, L.K.. Penguln, l965).
OJHER. Iirici mivori dcl XIII c XI! sccolo, edlted by
_uaslmodo and Luclano Anceschl (Mllan. Con
chlglla, l91l);
Iirico dòmorc itoliovo, edlted by _uaslmodo (Mllan.
Schwartz, l957; republlshed, 2 volumes, Mllan.
Garzantl, l971);
Iocsio itoliovo dcl dopogucrro, edlted by _uaslmodo
(Mllan. Schwartz, l958);
Milovo iv ivcliostro di clivo, edlted, wlth an lntroductlon,
by _uaslmodo (Mllan. Schelwlller/Amllcare Plzzl,
l963);
Upcro grofico di Zligi Sossu ivciso dol 1929 ol 1962, edlted,
wlth an lntroductlon, by _uaslmodo (Mllan.
Lulgl De Julllo, l963);
MostroiovviIl ritrotto, edlted, wlth an lntroductlon, by
_uaslmodo (Blella, Italy. Rosso, l961);
Iòpcro complcto di Miclclovgclo pittorc, edlted, wlth an
lntroductlon, by _uaslmodo (Mllan. Rlzzoll,
l966);
Heslod, Ic opcrc c i giorvi, lntroductlon by _uaslmodo
(Rome. Edlzlonl dellÈlefante, l966);
Cli ivcditi di Migvcco, edlted, wlth an lntroductlon, by
_uaslmodo (Mllan. SEDA, l967);
oris Iovct-Iorsli: Tlc Iovguogc of Timc, lntroductlon by
_uaslmodo (Syracuse, N.Y.. Syracuse Lnlverslty
Art School, l967);
Ciorgio Dc Clirico, lncludes an essay by _uaslmodo
(Naples. Marotta, l968).
JRANSLAJIONS. Iirici grcci (Mllan. Corrente, l910);
Vlrgll, Il fiorc dcllc Ccorgiclc (Mllan. Gentlle, l912);
Il !ovgclo sccovdo Ciovovvi (Mllan. Gentlle, l915);
Catullus, !crovcvsis Cormivo (Mllan. Lomo, l915);
Homer, DollÙdissco (Mllan. Rosa e Ballo, l915);
|ohn Ruskln, Io ibbio di Zmicvs (Mllan. Bomplanl,
l916);
Sophocles, Idipo rc (Mllan. Bomplanl, l916);
Wllllam Shakespeare, Iomco c Ciulictto (Mllan.
Mondadorl, l918);
Aeschylus, Ic Cocforc (Mllan. Bomplanl, l919);
Il !ovgclo sccovdo Ciovovvi (Mllan. Gentlle, l950);
Shakespeare, Mocbctl (Jurln. Elnaudl, l952);
Shakespeare, Iiccordo III (Mllan. Plccolo Jeatro,
l952);
Pablo Neruda, Iocsic (Jurln. Elnaudl, l953);
Sophocles, Ilcttro (Mllan. Mondadorl, l951);
Catullus, Covti (Mllan. Mondadorl, l955);
p~~ n~ Ee ^Ld f~F
5
ai_ PPO p~~ n~
Shakespeare, i~ ~ (Jurln. Elnaudl, l956);
c ~~ m~~~I edlted and translated by
_uaslmodo (Bologna; Guanda, l957);
Mollre, q~ (Mllan. Bomplanl, l958);
E. E. Cummlngs, m (Mllan. AllÌnsegna del
Pesce dÒro/ Schelwlller, l958);
Shakespeare, l (Mllan. Mondadorl, l958);
Ovld, a~ j~I edlted and translated by
_uaslmodo (Mllan. AllÌnsegna del Pesce
dÒro/ Schelwlller, l959);
Eurlpldes, b~ (Lrblno, Italy. Argalla, l962);
Conrad Alken, j (Mllan. AllÌnsegna del
Pesce dÒro/Schelwlller, l963);
Shakespeare, ^ `~~ (Mllan. Mondadorl,
l966);
Eurlpldes, b~ (Mllan. Mondadorl, l966);
Judor Arghezl, mI edlted and translated by _uasl
modo (Mllan. Mondadorl, l966);
Perlcle Patocchl, ` ` (Lugano, Swltzerland.
Jopl, l967);
Y. Leconte, f ~~~I edlted and translated by
_uaslmodo (Mllan. Moneta, l968);
a~^~ m~~~I edlted and translated by _uasl
modo (Mllan. Mondadorl, l968);
Homer, f~b I edlted and translated by
_uaslmodo (Mllan. Mondadorl, l968);
Leonldas, i~ q~~I edlted and translated by
_uaslmodo (Mandurla, Italy. Lacalta, l968);
Paul Eluard, a (Mllan. Mondadorl, l970).
Born on 20 August l90l ln Modlca, near Syracuse,
Slclly, to Gaetano _uaslmodo, a statlon master, and hls
wlfe, Clotllde Ragusa, Salvatore _uaslmodo, the l959
Nobel Prlze wlnner for llterature, attended elementary
school ln Gela, ln the Messlna reglon; vocatlonal school ln
Palermo; and flnally, ln l9l9, englneerlng school at the
Polltecnlco ln Rome. He abandoned hls studles because of
flnanclal pressures. In order to support Blce Donettl, wlth
whom he began to llve ln l922 and whom he marrled ln
l925, he worked at several jobs. as a technlcal deslgner for
a bullder; as a store clerk; as a malntenance technlclan for
a large department store ln the capltal; and wlth the Itallan
army englneerlng corps. As an army worker he was trans
ferred to Regglo Calabrla, where ln l928 he declded to
compose verses, an actlvlty that lncreaslngly occupled hls
attentlon. _uaslmodo moved to Ilorence ln l929, at hls
brotherlnlaw Ello Vlttorlnl`s lnvltatlon, and there, the fol
lowlng year, he publlshed three poems ln the journal
p~~I and, ln the same year, hls flrst book of verses, ^
(Waters and Lands). Jhls book slgnaled the appear
ance on the Itallan poetlc scene of a young, yet mature,
hermetlc poet. Jhe lnfluence of Gluseppe Lngarettl ls evl
dent from the flrst fragment of thls collectlon. 'Ed sublto
sera" (And Suddenly It`s Evenlng)whlch became the tltle
poem of a book ln l912.
Ognuno sta solo sul cuor della terra
trafltto da un ragglo dl sole.
ed sublto sera
(Each one stands alone ln the centre of the earth
plerced by a ray of sun.
and suddenly lt ls evenlng)
Jhls flrst book also deflnes the flrst perlod of
_uaslmodo`s poetry, whlch was heavlly lnfluenced by
hermetlclsm, a movement recognlzed ln Itallan poetry
slnce l925, date of publlcatlon of m I the flrst
anthology of Itallan hermetlc poets prepared by Glo
vannl Paplnl and Pletro Pancrazl. _uaslmodo`s flrst
phase also lncludes l (Sunken Oboe, l932),
b~ ^ (l936) and m (l938). Hermetlclsm
became the most lmportant Itallan poetlc school
between the two world wars and lncludes, besldes
_uaslmodo, the works of Lngarettl and Eugenlo Mon
tale. Its poetlc process ls based on analogy and assocla
tlve lmages, and lt conveys pesslmlstlc medltatlons on
the human condltlon. Yet, desplte an averslon to lllu
slons, the hermetlc poet typlcally belleves ln poetlc
beauty. Jherefore, crltlcs have seen ln _uaslmodo a
tenslon between a world of despalr, angulsh, and soll
tude, and a mythlcal paradlse lost, the golden lsland of
hls chlldhood, whlch he enshrlned ln Greek mythology
and anclent tradltlons, ln a settlng among the sea and
rocks of the Slclllan landscape. 'Vento a Jlndarl"
(Wlnd at Jlndarl) perhaps best expresses thls tenslon.
Jlndarl, mlte tl so
fra larghl colll penslle sullàcque
dell`lsole dolcl del dlo,
oggl màssall
e tl chlnl ln cuore.
(Jlndarl, I know how pleasant
you hang on the water between the wlde hllls
of the sweet lslands of the god,
today you assall me
and lean lnto my heart.)
Jhe fear of allenatlon from hls natlve land com
pels _uaslmodo to conjure up archetypes of the Slclllan
landscape.
Salgo vertlcl aerel preclplzl,
assorto al vento del plnl,
e la brlgata che lleve màccompagna
sàllontana nellàrla,
onda dl suonl e amore,
e tu ml prendl
da cul male ml trassl
6
p~~ n~ ai_ PPO
e paure dòmbre e dl sllenzl,
rlfugl dl dolcezze un tempo assldue
e morte dànlma
(I cllmb up vertlcal aerlal peaks,
caught ln the wlnd of the plnes,
whlle my llghthearted company
moves further away ln the alr,
llke a wave of sound and love,
and you take me
you whom I left unwllllngly
and fears of shadows and of sllences,
shelters of sweetnesses once asslduous
and death of the soul)
Jhe elegance and clarlty of thls composltlon owes
much to a twofold lnfluence. the Greek poetess Sappho
and Glacomo Leopardl, who deeply lnfluenced _uasl
modo, especlally durlng the hermetlc perlod.
Hls second book, l I ls the one that
best represents _uaslmodo`s hermetlclsm. Hls ldeal
lsland becomes the archetype of a metamorphosed
poetland, ln whlch even human organs are ldentlfled
wlth plants or wlth the mysterlous blologlcal process of
nature, wlth a psychologlcal counterpolnt of archalc
memorles. A good example ls 'Nellàntlca luce delle
maree" (In the Anclent Llght of the Jldes).
Cltta d`lsola
sommersa nel mlo cuore,
ecco dlscendo nellàntlca luce
delle maree, presso sepolcrl
ln rlva dàcque
che una letlzla scloglle
dàlberl sognatl.
E l tuol mortl sento
nel gelosl battltl
dl vene vegetall
fattl men fondl.
un resplrare assorto dl narlcl.
(Island clty
submerged ln my heart,
now I descend ln the anclent llght
of the tldes, near the graves
on the edge of waters
loosed by a joy
of dreamed trees.
And I feel your dead
ln the jealous pulsatlons
of plantllke velns
whlch are not so deep.
and an lntense breathlng of nostrlls.)
An example of what crltlcs have deflned as _uasl
modo`s ~~J (wordmyth) ls 'Parola," ln whlch the
poet conjures an ldeal landscape as lf nature ltself had
become anlmated as a splendld woman ready to embrace
hlm and yet, at the last moment, eluslve and unconquer
able.
Ju rldl che per slllabe ml scarno
e curvo clell e colll, azzurra slepe
a me d`lntorno, e stormlr dòlml
e vocl dàcque treplde;
che glovlnezza lnganno
con nuvole e colorl
che la luce sprofonda.
Jl so. In te tutta smarrlta
alza bellezza l senl,
s`lncava al lombl e ln soave moto
sàllarga per ll pube tlmoroso,
e rldlscende ln armonla dl forme
al pledl belll con dlecl conchlglle.
Ma se tl prendo, ecco.
parola tu pure ml sel e trlstezza.
(You laugh because I waste away for syllables
and bend sky and hllls, blue hedge
around me, and helms` blowlng nolse
and volce of qulverlng waters;
because I decelve youth
wlth clouds and colors
that the llght submerges.
I know you. Wanderlng beauty
llfts your breasts,
squeezes your hlps and wlth a gentle motlon
opens up your tlmld publs,
and lowers ln harmony forms
down to your feet and ten shells.
But lf I take you, there.
you too are words to me, and sadness.)
Jhe lntlmate rellglous dlmenslon of _uaslmodo`s
hermetlclsm ls present ln 'Curva mlnore" (Lesser
Curve), ln whlch recurrent words such as (wlnd),
~ (grass), ~ (shade), and ~ (evenlng) acqulre a
hauntlng connotatlon, placed as they are ln a descend
lng order from a dynamlc allegory ('E famml vento")
to a gradually subdued reallty. Jhe poem reveals a pan
thelstlc lyrlclsm.
Prdlml, Slgnore, ch non oda
gll annl sommersl tacltl spogllarml,
s che cangl la pena ln moto aperto.
curva mlnore
del vlvere màvanza.
E famml vento che navlga fellce,
o seme dòrzo o lebbra
che s esprlma ln pleno dlvenlre.
7
ai_ PPO p~~ n~
E sla faclle amartl
ln erba che acclma alla luce,
ln plaga che buca la carne.
(Confuse me, Lord, do not let me hear
the qulet secret years emptylng me,
so that I can change sorrow for open motlon.
a lesser curve
of llfe ls what ls left for me.
And make me wlnd that I may sall happlly,
or seed of barley or leprosy
whlch may express ltself ln full becomlng.
Let lt be easy lovlng you
ln the leaf of grass absorblng llght,
ln the fleshdecaylng sore.)
Much of _uaslmodo`s llterary achlevement rests
on hls masterful translatlons of the anclent Greek poets
ln i (Greek Lyrlc Poets, l910), whlch qulckly
became the focus of a longdebated llterary questlon
concernlng the role of the translator. Not only dld the
book reveal _uaslmodo`s orlglnallty as a translator, but
many would conslder thls translatlon hls flnest work,
because of the modern flavor he ellclted from texts
thousands of years old. Also, he revealed a broader reg
lster and a more unlversal spectrum of tonalltles than
the usual hermetlc style of hls own prevlous collectlons.
A case ln polnt ls thls fragment from Sappho.
Jramontata la luna
e le Pleladl a mezzo della notte;
anche glovlnezza gla dllegua,
e ora nel mlo letto resto sola.
Scuote lànlma mla Eros,
come vento sul monte
che lrrompe entro le querce;
e scloglle le membra e le aglta,
dolce amaro lndomablle serpente.
Ma a me non ape, non mlele;
e soffro e desldero.
(Jhe moon has waned
and the Plelades are gone ln the mlddle of the nlght;
even youth ls wanlng,
and now I am alone ln my bed.
Eros shakes my soul,
llke wlnd on the mountaln
sweeplng through the oaktrees;
and lt untles and agltates my llmbs,
sweet bltter lndomltable snake.
But for me no bee, no honey;
and I suffer and want.)
In a note appended to hls translatlons from Greek
lyrlcs, _uaslmodo asserted. 'queste mle traduzlonl non
sono rapportate a probablll scheml metrlcl dòrlglne,
ma tentano làpprosslmazlone plu speclflca dùn testo.
quella poetlca" (these translatlons of mlne are not
llnked to posslble metrlcal schemes ln the orlglnal, but
attempt the most speclflc textual approxlmatlon. a
poetlc one).
_uaslmodo trled to recreate the orlglnal feellngs.
Jhls unusual manner of approach, therefore, has
deeper lmpllcatlons for the development of _uasl
modo`s poetlc style than lf he had conflned hlmself to
the humbler work of a translator. By concentratlng
more on catchlng the splrlt rather than the letter of the
orlglnals he dld, ln fact, succeed ln enlarglng vlcarlously
hls own experlence, especlally durlng those rare
moments when he fully ldentlfled hlmself wlth the
lnner feellngs of others. Cases of such ldentlflcatlon, for
lnstance, are to be found ln hls translatlons from Sap
pho and Alcaeus, because the poetry of both left a defl
nlte mark on hls own work. Other examples of styllstlc
galns come from the syntactlcal or rhetorlcal patterns
lnherlted from classlcal texts, notably classlcal Latln
orlglnals. In all probablllty he learned through the
medlatlon of these lnfluences that he learned, at least
partlally, to shake off hls hermetlc straltjacket and base
hls themes and melodles on deeper lyrlcal patterns.
After the hedonlstlc ldeal and the fln de slcle aes
thetlclsm of the decadent and crepuscular movements,
the new school called hermetlclsm searched for a new
form of expresslon. Jhe dlrectlon seemed to polnt to
'pure poetry," or 'poetlcs of the word," even lf the style
and language of poetry seemed to have acqulred new
meanlng, because of the unusual analogles and assocla
tlons. Irom the vantage polnt of chronologlcal perspec
tlve ln relatlon to that poetlc school, one can say that
whereas Lngarettl could quallfy as a baroque hermetlc,
and Montale as an essentlal hermetlc, _uaslmodo, the
last of the hermetlc poets, seems to have been a classlcal
hermetlc. Some crltlcs, such as Gulllermo de Jorre and
Angelo Roman, have stated that, up to a certaln polnt,
_uaslmodo contlnues the Irench Parnasslan school of
poetry because of hls lntlmate nostalgla for an ldeal,
lost land. In the case of _uaslmodo thls fabulous, myth
lcal land ls the land of the orange blossoms, Slclly. Jhe
Medlterranean _uaslmodo, lost ln an ultramodern clty,
submerged ln comfort and technologlcal gadgetryan
allenatlng unlverse from the slmple world of hls chlld
hoodfelt lntlmately related to that past land of hls
dreams. Jhls attltude can be seenand for some crltlcs
thls would mean a llmltatlon of hls poetryln the repetl
tlons of certaln key words that became commonplace ln
hls flrst books, such as (deserts), ~~ (para
dlse), (stars), (nlght), (wlnd), and ~
(sea). Accordlng to thls lnterpretatlon, _uaslmodo
expressed hls nostalgla for a lost paradlse wlth a serles
of commonplaces.
On the other hand, thls approach could lndlcate
the llmltatlons of crltlclsm solely concerned wlth style.
8
p~~ n~ ai_ PPO
Jhat ls why lt ls so lmportant to ldentlfy the poetlc
moment that supercedes the nostalglc longlng and actu
ally testlfles to a poetlc redemptlon of that Medlterra
nean paradlse of anclent tlmes. Wlth _uaslmodo,
Itallan poetry has regalned the vlgor of the Medlterra
nean world of the Magna Graecla, whlch stlll survlves
ln southern Italy, wlth her sea, her rocks, and her cltles,
and mlrrors the lntlmate soul of the poet, lts lnterpreter.
Jhat ls why lt ls paramount to asslgn the proper place
to _uaslmodo`s translatlons of anclent Greek poets.
Hls translatlons are, ln one sense, lnterpretatlons, suc
ceedlng ln brlnglng back the anclent text and glvlng lt a
presentday tonallty and flavor, ln words and phrases
chosen to preserve the orlglnal vlgor of connotatlons
and analogles.
After Romantlclsm, llterary crltlclsm became con
cerned wlth the dlmenslon of tlme, from a llngulstlc
polnt of vlew. Accordlng to thls llngulstlc dlmenslon,
the crltlc can place a glven poetlc text ln lts preclse hls
torlcal and cultural context. Jhls quallty of modern llt
erary crltlclsm has been applled to the lyrlcal creatlve
process, whlch ln lts turn has acqulred a crltlcal dlmen
slon of lts own, so that the poetlc text can and does
brlng forth the essentlal character of a cultural phenom
enon, chosen as hls lyrlcal target by the poet. In the case
of an anclent text, thls method worked splendldly for
_uaslmodo, slnce hls translatlons asplre to be actually
updated verslons of the orlglnal work. the translator
has sought to glve new llfe and relevancy to these
works for the beneflt of hls contemporary reader.
Jhls quallty of updatlng anclent texts, so evldent
ln hls translatlons, was a declslve dlmenslon of hls evo
lutlon as an orlglnal poet. _uaslmodo succeeded, per
haps better than anyone else, ln expresslng for a
twentlethcentury audlence the tellurlc presence of the
Medlterranean world and achlevlng through that
expresslon a unlversal dlmenslon achleved through the
use of archetypes and myths. What readers stlll admlre
today ln the work of the Slclllan poet ls that feellng of a
newly dlscovered landscape of the world ln lts prlmeval
vlgor, wlthout lntermedlate reflectlons, so that one has
the lmpresslon that the only man allve ls Llysses and
the only trlp that counts ls hls journey to the ldeal Ith
aca.
Modern Itallan llterature has frequently dealt
wlth the myth of Llysses, because ln lt one can mlrror
the allenatlon of modern man, who has abandoned hls
natlve land for a utoplan dream but has found hlmself
ln the mldst of wars and vlolence, of the denlal of per
manent values of clvlllzed man, ln the shadow of hatred
and tyranny. Jhe myth ls stlll the same, but the man
has changed. Jhls man ls stlll looklng for hls own roots,
but lnstead he flnds hlmself trapped by a way of llfe that
he has nelther chosen nor can change. Ior Glovannl
Pascoll, Llysses ls the man beloved by the goddess,
Calypso, who departs for hls last destlnatlon ln order to
see agaln, at the end of hls llfe, the place of an unknown
happlness. Ior Lmberto Saba, Llysses ls a traveler who
has not kept a place for the only woman who loved
hlm. Ior _uaslmodo, Llysses ls the symbol of Medlter
ranean man, whom he concelves as a dlmenslon of
every man and, at the same tlme, as an lmposslble
archetype, gradually and lnexorably transformed by
the advanclng technologlcal soclety.
_uaslmodo`s new humanlsm has been llnked to
hls Marxlst sympathles. But one can dlscount a dlrect
relatlonshlp between hls outspoken polltlcal vlews and
hls lnnermost lyrlcal vocatlon. Irom thls polnt of vlew,
_uaslmodo`s poetry ls better descrlbed ln terms of a
cycle rather than stages, a cycle that beglns wlth the
'pure poetry" of ^ and culmlnates wlth the
humanlstlc poetry of d (l917, Day after
Day). Jhe llnk between the two ls the phllosophlcal
search for the essence of the Medlterranean man. Ior
_uaslmodo the llngulstlc search of hermetlclsm was
enrlched by the phllosophlcal search ln hls humanlstlc
poetry. Llngulstlcs and phllosophy go hand ln hand, so
the llngulstlc slgn carrles a phllosophlcal content. Jhe
lesson of Glambattlsta Vlco had been that all language
ls metaphorlcal. Behlnd each word there ls an orlglnal
attltude. Ior lnstance, Homer`s language amounts to an
lnventory of a clvlllzatlon. When llngulstlcs dlscovers
an ontologlcal message ln a word, lt converges lnto
phllosophy. Jhe prlnclple of the search for the
deeper meanlng of a word ls a fundamental method
of any translator. _uaslmodo ls best deflned as a
poettranslator, as we can see ln one of hls most popu
lar poems, 'Vento a Jlndarl," the last stanza of whlch
reveals how the translator has enrlched hls own poetry.
Jlndarl serena torna;
soave amlco ml desta
che ml sporga nel clelo da una rupe
e lo flngo tlmore a chl non sa
che vento profondo m'ha cercato.
(Serene Jlndarl come back,
a sweet frlend wakes me up
so that I can bend over from a rock ln the sky
and I pretend fear to whoever lgnores
what deep wlnd sought me out.)
_uaslmodo belleved that Homer`s volce pre
ceded Greece. It was Homer who had 'formed" Greek
clvlllzatlon. Jhls bellef was held, before _uaslmodo, by
Glan Vlncenzo Gravlna and Vlco. Jhls ls one reason
why ln a sense the experlence of World War II found
_uaslmodo ready to address the 'new" mlsslon of
poetry, that of ~ (remaklng of man).
9
ai_ PPO p~~ n~
In l938 _uaslmodo left hls englneerlng job wlth
the army because Arnoldo Mondadorl hlred hlm as
drama edltor for the weekly qK Jhen, ln l91l, he
moved to Mllan to become professor of Itallan llterature
at Conservatory Gluseppe Verdl. In Mllan he met sev
eral wrlters, artlsts, crltlcs, muslclans, and lntellectuals,
such as Arturo Martlnl, Gluseppe Cantatore, Allgl
Sassu, Leonardo Slnlsgalll, Lulgl Rognonl, Arturo
Jofanelll, Edoardo Perslco, and Marlo Novaro. In the
afternoon they met at the Caff Blffl; ln the evenlng the
anlmated conversatlons contlnued at the Caff Savlnl.
Jhls was also the tlme of _uaslmodo`s meetlng Marla
Cumanl, a dancer who, after the death of Blce Donettl
ln l916, became hls second wlfe and mother of thelr
only son, Alessandro. Hls relatlonshlp wlth Cumanl
has been preserved ln the collectlon of love letters
_uaslmodo wrote to her between l936 and l959, the
year of thelr legal separatlon. i ~ ~ j~~
`~ (l973).
Jhe war brought about a profound change of style
and motlves, alluded to ln varlous collectlons of _uasl
modo`s poetry and essays, such as d I i~ ~
(l919, Llfe ls Not a Dream), f ~
(l951, Jhe Ialse and Jrue Green) and i~ ~ ~~
(l958, Jhe Incomparable Earth). On the war _uaslmodo
wrote ln 'Dlscorso sulla poesla" (publlshed wlth f ~
ln l956) that 'la guerra muta la vlta morale dùn
popolo" (war changes the moral llfe of a natlon). He felt
that hermetlclsm was flnlshed by l915 and deflned thls
movement as 'lèstremo antro florentlno dl foneml
metrlcl" (the extreme Ilorentlne pastoral cave of metrlcal
phonemes). If one follows _uaslmodo`s own account of
the changes ln hls poetry brought about by the war, one
reallzes that he saw correspondence between the events
leadlng up to the war and the end of hermetlclsm. 'La
guerra ha sorpreso un llnguagglo poetlco che maturava
una parteclpazlone con gll oggettl della terra per ragglun
gere lùnlversale. Le allegorle sl erano dlssolte nella solltu
dlne della dltta tura." (War had surprlsed poetlc language
|and| that matured a partlclpatlon wlth the objects of the
earth ln order to reach unlversallty. Jhe allegorles had
vanlshed ln the solltude of the dlctatorshlp).
It ls posslble that _uaslmodo wanted to see lt that
way, because lt provlded hlm wlth a new ldeologlcal
ldentlty, slnce hls contrlbutlon to the antlIasclst move
ment was much less declslve than that of other Itallan
wrlters and lntellectuals of hls own generatlon, such as
Glacomo Matteottl, Ignazlo Sllone, and Benedetto
Croce. Jhe truth was probably much more complex
than that. Once Italy lost the world war and the coun
try plunged lnto a state of vlrtual clvll war, wlth the
North controlled by the Germans and the South by the
Allled forces, all the sympathles of the Itallan people
went out to those who had reslsted fasclsm even at the
helght of lts power. In the postwar era hardly anyone ln
Italy argued the rlght of the Communlsts to be the
moral volce of the natlon. One of the most fasclnatlng
chapters ln Itallan hlstory ensued. Anxlous to regaln
respectablllty, the northern capltallstlc bourgeolsle,
whlch had proflted and prospered durlng the Iasclst
reglme but had also supported the war effort, began to
support the leftlst lntelllgentsla, knowlng how llterary
prlzes, academlc posts, and prestlglous posltlons would
be coveted by the lntellectuals, wrlters, artlsts, musl
clans, and poets who would become aware that an ldeo
loglcal reallgnment was necessary for most of them,
who had lacked the courage and the vlslon of Matteottl,
Sllone, or Croce. Communlst propaganda made the
most of thls change, encouraglng lt and supportlng lt
wlth a vlslble campalgn ln lts publlcatlons and lts cul
tural pollcles, especlally wlthln the lnfluentlal movle
lndustry, whlch was soon totally domlnated by the Left.
Jhe postwar years were declslve ln the restructurlng
and reorganlzatlon of the cultural lnstltutlons and acad
emles of Italy, lncludlng the unlversltles. Jotally subser
vlent to the reglme prlor to the war, afterward they
became the battlefleld for what was known ln later
years as the ~I the parcellng of excluslve lnflu
ence to a glven party, wlth the three leadlng partles
(Chrlstlan Democrat, Communlst, and Soclallst) recelv
lng the llon`s share. Clearly, ln such an envlronment no
artlst would ever succeed lf left to hls own devlces.
Wlthout the support of an lnfluentlal leftlst group, no
verses would be effectlve. Jhus _uaslmodo`s repeated
forays as a speaker and a wrlter made hlm appear more
'engaged" than he really was. Lltlmately, Marxlst crlt
lcs clalmed _uaslmodo as one of thelr own, whlle justl
fylng the moral commlttment already lmplled ln the
conslderatlons of the Swedlsh Academy when lt
declded to award hlm the Nobel Prlze ln l959.
_uaslmodo`s humanlsm ls none other than a
label concelved for the broader consumptlon of a socl
ety romantlcally ln love wlth the Left but solldly
anchored to materlal possesslons, aware of lts slns and
wllllng to reward the severe poet who, from the helght
of hls underdeveloped, and therefore lnnocent, lsland,
can freely dlspense hls muslcal warnlngs of doom. Jhe
composltlons of d represent thls new
humanlsm, understood as the lnterpretatlon of a natlon,
lts moral volce. A case ln polnt ls the openlng poem of
the book, 'Alle fronde del sallcl" (On the Wlllow
Boughs).
b ~ ~~
~ ~ I
~ ~~~ ~
~ ~ ~I ~ ~
D~ ~I ~
l0
p~~ n~ ai_ PPO
della madre che andava lncontro al flgllo
croclflsso sul palo del telegrafo?
Alle fronde del sallcl, per voto,
anche le nostre cetre erano appese,
osclllavano llevl al trlste vento.
(And how could we slng
wlth the forelgner`s foot upon our hearts,
among the dead abandoned ln the squares
on the frozen grass, amld the lambllke
bleatlng of the chlldren, amld the black howllng
of the mother rushlng up to her son
cruclfled on the telegraph pole?
As an offerlng, on the wlllow boughs
our lyres, too, were hung,
qulverlng sllghtly ln the sad wlnd.)
Jhere ls a sophlstlcated double level of connota
tlons, both polntlng out the renunclatlon of hermetl
clsm. Jhe flrst level ls a denunclatlon of the brutallty of
war ln general, and, ln partlcular, the clvll war that dev
astated northern Italy after the armlstlce of 8 September
l913 between Italy and the Allled natlons. Jhe poet
also ls an angulshed wltness of the carnage and destruc
tlon of war, and hls usual style ls no longer justlfled; hls
hermetlclsm, llke the lyre offered by the poet to assuage
the sorrow of hls countrymen, ls buffeted by the sad
wlnds of war. Jo thls flrst connotatlve level, one can
add a second, whlch becomes the melodlc structure of
the new style, hlnged on the hendecasyllablc tonallty of
the whole poem, whlch ls at the same tlme a classlcal
retreat and a reassurlng foray lnto the consollng har
mony of the hlghest tradltlon of solemn Itallan poetry,
demandlng a role ln the somber, almost funereal land
scape of the apocalyptlc vlslon of _uaslmodo.
Glorno dopo glorno. parole maledette e ll sangue
e lòro. Vl rlconosco, mlel slmlll, o mostrl
della terra. Al vostro morso caduta la pleta,
e la croce gentlle cl ha lasclatl.
E plu non posso tornare nel mlo ellso.
(Day after day. unbearable words and the blood
and the gold. I acknowledge our common orlgln, monsters
of the earth. Plety has dled torn to pleces by you,
and the gentle cross has abandoned us.
Nor can I ever go back to my Elyslum.)
Jhe success of d depends on
_uaslmodo`s ablllty to strlke just the rlght note
between admonltlon and regret, ln order to capture the
sympathy of the reader. Jhe blbllcal tone confers on the
poems the extra ethlcal authorlty requlred, after the
empty rhetorlc of fasclsm, to spread a message of soll
darlty equally pleaslng to the Left and to progresslve
Cathollcs. In fact, the essentlal style of the book was
somethlng of a novelty, although lllustrlous models
could be found, especlally ln Dante, Glrolamo Savona
rola, and Leopardl. It was _uaslmodo`s ablllty to revlve
the best tradltlon of Itallan poetry and comblne lt wlth
the everpresent classlcal alluslons ln deallng wlth the
toplc of the war that made the book an lnstant success,
ln Italy and abroad. None of the subsequent books
would achleve the same popularlty.
i~ ~ represents a reconclllatlon
between hls Slclllan roots and the adopted Lombard
envlronment, as ln 'Lamento per ll Sud" (Lament for
the South).
La luna rossa, ll vento, ll tuo colore
dl donna del Nord, la dlstesa dl neve . . .
Il mlo cuore e ormal su queste praterle,
ln queste acque annuvolate dalle nebble.
Ho dlmentlcato ll mare, la grave
conchlglla sofflata dal pastorl slclllanl,
le cantllene del carrl lungo le strade
dove ll carrubo trema nel fumo delle stopple,
ho dlmentlcato ll passo degll alronl e delle gru
nellàrla del verdl altlplanl
per le terre e l fluml della Lombardla.
Ma lùomo grlda dovunque la sorte dùna patrla.
Plu nessuno ml portera nel Sud.
(Jhe red moon, the wlnd, your colorlng
of woman of the North, the wllderness of snow . . .
My heart ls now ln these plalns,
ln these waters clouded by mlsts.
I have forgotten the sea, the heavy
shell blown by Slclllan shepherds,
the slngsong of the carts along the roads
where the carob tree qulvers ln the smoke of the stubble,
I have forgotten the fllght of the herons and the storks
ln the alr of the green plateaus
for the lands and rlvers of Lombardy.
But man crles everywhere for hls country`s destlny.
No one wlll ever take me South agaln.)
Jhe solemn enumeratlon recalls the nostalglc
verses of ^ I but there ls an almost narratlve
tonallty, whlch allows for a reslgned solutlon to the con
fllct that domlnated hls early poetry. Jhe aftermath of
the war stlll demands the poet`s attentlon. He stlll has a
message of redemptlon, and hls prlest ls Orpheus, the
new archetype, capable of shaklng man from the depths
of hls moral depresslon.
E tu sporco dl guerra, Orfeo
come ll tuo cavallo, senza la sferza,
alza ll capo, non trema plu la terra;
urla dàmore, vlncl, se vuol, ll mondo.
(And you, Orpheus, fllthy wlth war,
llke your horse, wlthout the whlp,
ralse your head, the earth no longer shakes;
shout your love, lf you want, you can conquer the world.)
ll
ai_ PPO p~~ n~
At thls polnt _uaslmodo, havlng lost the lnltlal
enthuslasm of d I relapses lnto conven
tlonal phraseology and poetlc schemes, so that one can
percelve an alternatlng mood, from an outrlght propa
gandlstlc effort to a prlstlne neohermetlclsm, as repre
sented ln two dlfferent composltlons, 'Il mlo paese
lÌtalla" (My Country ls Italy) and '_uasl un madrl
gale" (Almost a Madrlgal).
La Buchenwald, la mlte selva dl faggl,
l suol fornl maledettl; la Stallngrado
e Mlnsk sugll acqultrlnl e la neve putrefatta.
(Jhere Buchenwald, the gentle wood of beeches,
lts cursed ovens; there Stallngrad
and Mlnsk on the swamps and the putrlfled snow.)
In contrast wlth thls superflclal demagoguery,
there ls the example of neohermetlclsm.
Il glrasole plega a occldente
e gla preclplta ll glorno nel suo
occhlo ln rovlna e làrla dellèstate
sàddensa e gla curva le foglle e ll fumo
del cantlerl. Sàllontana con scorrere
secco dl nubl e strldere dl fulmlnl
questùltlmo gloco del clelo.
(Jhe sunflower turns to the west
whlle the day already plunges lnto hls
decaylng eye and the summer wlnd
bullds up and already ls bendlng the leaves and the smoke
of the bullder`s yard. It vanlshes wlth a dry
rushlng of clouds and burstlng of thunders
thls last play of the sky.)
Jhe last books show a poet ln search of hls soclal
utopla. Allenatlon and the nuclear threat are domlnant
themes ln hls last poems, such as 'In questa cltta" (In
Jhls Clty) and 'Ancora dall`lnferno" (Stlll from Hell).
In questa cltta c` pure la macchlna
che strltola l sognl. con un gettone
vlvo, un plccolo dlsco dl dolore
sel sublto dl la, su questa terra,
lgnoto ln mezzo ad ombre dellrantl
su alghe dl fosforo funghl dl fumo;
una glostra dl mostrl
che glra su conchlglle
che sl spezzano putrlde sonando.
(In thls clty there ls even the machlne
that grlnds the dreams. wlth a token,
a qulck, a small dlsk of sorrow
you are there ln no tlme, on thls earth,
unknown amld dellrlous shadows
upon phosphorous seaweeds and mushrooms of smoke.
a merrygoround of monsters
turnlng around shells
whlch crack putrefled wlth a sound.)
Jhe clty ls llke a Dantesque hell, an allenatlng
envlronment for everyone who happens to be trapped
lnslde.
Non cl dlrete una notte grldando
dal megafonl, una notte
dl zagare, dl nasclte, dàmorl
appena comlnclatl, che l`ldrogeno
ln nome del dlrltto brucla
la terra. Gll anlmall l boschl fondono
nellÀrca della dlstruzlone, ll fuoco
un vlschlo sul cranl del cavalll,
negll occhl umanl. Pol a nol mortl
vol mortl dlrete nuove tavole
della legge. Nellàntlco llnguagglo
altrl segnl, proflll dl pugnall.
Balbettera qualcuno sulle scorle,
lnventera tutto ancora
o nulla nella sorte unlforme,
ll mormorlo delle correntl, ll crepltare
della luce. Non la speranza
dlrete vol mortl alla nostra morte
negll lmbutl dl fanghlglla bollente,
qul nell`lnferno. (From 'Ancora dall`lnferno")
(You wlll not announce screamlng one nlght
through the bullhorns, one nlght
of orangeblossoms, of blrths, of loves
just begun, that the hydrogen
ln the name of the law scorches
the earth. Jhe anlmals and the woods melt
ln the ark of destructlon, the flre
ls a snare on the horses` skulls,
ln human eyes. Jhen to us dead
you dead wlll tell us new codes
of the law. In the anclent language
new slgns, outllnes of daggers.
Someone wlll babble on the remalns,
wlll agaln lnvent everythlng
or nothlng ln the ldentlcal destlny,
the whlsperlng of streams, the crackllng
of the llght. Of hope
you dead wlll not speak to our death
ln the funnels of bolllng mud,
here ln hell.)
Jhls poem expresses manklnd`s longlng for
peace, the horror of the lmpendlng nuclear holocaust
forever loomlng on the horlzon slnce the tlme of
Hlroshlma and Nagasakl, the obscure forces of hlstory
lncessantly at work, wlth the poet lmaglnlng a dlstant
day when clvlllzatlon wlll start agaln from scratch ln
order to repeat the same mlstakes. Jhls ls a pesslmlstlc
vlewpolnt, one whlch contrasts wlth the more clvlc call
to moral regeneratlon and soclal commltment of com
posltlons such as 'Varvara Alexandrovna" and 'Solo
che amore tl colplsca" (Only lf Love Should Plerce
You), collected ln a~ ~ (l966; translated as q
d ~ e~I l969). In the flrst poem, composed
l2
p~~ n~ ai_ PPO
durlng an lllness ln the Sovlet Lnlon ln memory of a
nurse who took care of hlm, _uaslmodo ldentlfles ln
her and her solldarlty a new splrlt of manklnd.
sel la Russla, non un paesagglo dl neve
rlflesso ln uno specchlo dòspedale
sel una moltltudlne dl manl che cercano altre manl.
(you are Russla, not a snowy landscape
reflected ln a hospltal mlrror
you are a crowd of hands searchlng for other hands.)
In the second poem the poet ldentlfles love as the
new rellglon, capable of tylng every person to the
essence of humanklnd. 'rlcorda che puol essere lèssere
dellèssere // solo che amore tl colplsca bene alle vls
cere" (remember that you can be the belng of the belng
// lf only love should plerce you deep lnslde).
In one of the last composltlons of Io tcrro imporcg-
giobilc, 'Lna rlsposta" (An Answer), _uaslmodo flashes
the maglc name of Llysses. Llysses appears amld the
mystlcal deslre of the poet to reach out to God.
Se arde alla mente làncora d`Lllsse...
Se ln rlva al mare dl Acl, qul fra barche
con lòcchlo nero a prua contro la mala
sorte, lo potessl dal nulla dellàrla
qul dal nulla che strlde dl colpo e unclna
come la floclna del pescespada,
dal nulla delle manl che sl mutano
come Acl, vlva formare dal nulla
una formlca e splngerla nel cono
dl sabbla del suo lablrlnto o un vlrus
che dla contlnua glovlnezza al mlo
plu fedele nemlco,
forse allora sarel slmlle a Dlo
nellùguale fermezza della vlta
e della morte non contrarle.
onda qul e lava, larve
della luce dl questa gla futura
chlara mattlna d`lnvernorlsposta
a una domanda dl natura e angoscla
che folgora su un numero mlllare,
ll prlmo della strada torrlda
che s`lncunea nellàl dl la.
(If Llysses` anchor ls flre to the mlnd . . .
If by Acl`s sea, here amld boats
wlth the black eye at the bow agalnst bad
luck, I could from the empty alr
here from nothlng suddenly screamlng and hooklng
llke the harpoon of the swordflsh,
from nothlng of hands changlng
llke Acl, make allve from nothlng
an ant and push lt on the cone
of sand of lts labyrlnth or a vlrus
that brlngs unendlng youth to my
most dedlcated enemy,
perhaps then I would be llke God
ln the flrm sameness of llfe
and death not opposlng each other.
wave here and lava, larvae
of the llght of thls already future
clear wlnter mornlnganswer
to a questlon of nature and angulsh
whlch bolts a mllestone,
the flrst on the torrld road
whlch penetrates ln the world beyond.)
Always the poettranslator, _uaslmodo succeeded
ln blendlng all the most dlverse materlals of hls poetlc
style. Jhe neohermetlc technlque ls allve ln thls poem,
except for a rellglous tonallty, and the classlcal hero ls
placed at the beglnnlng wlth the verb ordc slgnlfylng a
Dantean alluslon to the flre that surrounds Llysses ln
Canto XXVI of the Ivfcrvo. We have here the three lyrl
cal lngredlents of _uaslmodo`s poetry. hermetlclsm,
classlclsm, and blbllcal mystlclsm. Iurthermore, the
hendecasyllablc structure that predomlnates throughout
thls composltlon relnforces the tradltlonal technlque of
the alluslon, whlch flnds a correspondlng 'allegorlc"
mode wlth an authorlty such as Dante, glvlng to the
word ovcoro of the flrst verse a referentlal meanlng, con
flrmed by ordc and the fact that _uaslmodo`s text ls
ltself 'anchored" on flrm hermetlc tradltlon.
After belng awarded the Nobel Prlze, _uaslmodo
achleved lnternatlonal recognltlon and recelved several
lnvltatlons to speak and to read hls works. In l96l he
traveled to Germany, Hungary, Romanla, Spaln, Mex
lco, Norway, and Bulgarla. In Spaln he was met wlth
great enthuslasm, especlally ln Barcelona, by leadlng
Catalan wrlters such as |os Mara Castellet, Carlos
Barral, and |uan Goytlsolo. In |anuary l963 at the Irele
Lnlversltt ln West Berlln, _uaslmodo gave two lec
tures. one on the Itallan theater and another on contem
porary Itallan poetry. Jhls was hls second vlslt to West
Berlln. In l960 at the Kongress Halle he had glven a
readlng of hls verses. In the sprlng of l963 he was
lnvlted by the Istltuto Itallano dl Cultura to London
and Dublln. In London he vlslted Chlswlck to pay
homage to Lgo Ioscolo`s memorlal ln the church cem
etery at Jurnham Green. He also was lnvlted to go to
Oxford and Cambrldge for a lecture at the Lnlverslty
Arms Hotel. In the summer of l963 he returned to
Norway. Jhen ln November of the same year he went
on an extenslve tour of Yugoslavla. In |anuary l961 he
went to Parls, accompanled by hls secretary, Annamarla
Anglolettlwho later publlshed a somewhat sensatlonal
account of her personal relatlonshlp wlth the poet, I fu
subito scro (l969)and Perlcle Patocchl, a Swlss wrlter
and _uaslmodo`s Irench translator. Jhe Nobel Prlze
wlnner was lntroduced to the Parlslan lntellectual ellte
at the prestlglous Istltuto Itallano dl Cultura by Andr
Chamson of the Irench Academy. Jhls perlod of travel,
l3
ai_ PPO p~~ n~
accordlng to Anglolettl, colnclded wlth _uaslmodo`s
deepest dlstrust of the medla.
Louls Aragon once attrlbuted the resentment of the
Irench medla, especlally the Parlslan press, when the
Nobel Prlze was awarded to _uaslmodo, to lgnorance
('Hommage a S. _.," Icttrcs Irovoiscs, 5-ll November
l959). In Italy, objectlons were due more to polltlcal rea
sons than to llterary rlvalrles. Although hls crltlcs
appeared to regret hls departure from hermetlclsm, ln fact
they opposed hls polltlcal cholces. Nevertheless, ln the
years followlng the Nobel Prlze hls name became famlllar
to mllllons of Itallans. However, followlng a perlod of great
popularlty, whlch steadlly lncreased abroad, _uaslmodo`s
fame ln Italy seemed to dlmlnlsh. Jhe poet belleved, per
haps wlth some reason, that the old polltlcal opposltlon
had succeeded, at least temporarlly, ln bannlng hls name
from the Itallan medla.
In |une l965 _uaslmodo was lnvlted to read at the
Spoleto 'Iestlval del Due Mondl." In |anuary l966 he was
ln Grenoble, Irance, to do another readlng of hls verses.
He took an extended tour of Swltzerland ln |anuary l969.
In |une of the same year he took hls last trlp outslde Italy,
when he was lnvlted by Oxford Lnlverslty to recelve an
honorary doctorate. In Iebruary l968 he was lnvlted to a
ceremony at the Capltollum ln Rome for the celebratlon of
Lngarettl`s elghtleth blrthday. Durlng the banquet Lnga
rettl exclalmed to _uaslmodo, ln the presence of leadlng
Itallan wrlters and artlsts, such as Eugenlo Montale,
Alberto Moravla, Glacomo Manzu, Pler Paolo Pasollnl,
Llbero Blglarettl, Alfonso Gatto, Llbero De Llbero, and
Plero Plcclonl. 'Manlgoldo, lo sal che tl vogllo bene"
(Scoundrel, you know I llke you). On l1 |une l968, whlle
presldlng over the jury for a poetry prlze ln Amalfl, _uasl
modo was taken lll wlth a braln hemorrhage and dled
shortly afterward.
It would be dlfflcult to compare Salvatore
_uaslmodo wlth any other Itallan poet, except the
last three great nlneteenthcentury poets, Glosu
Carduccl, Glovannl Pascoll, and Gabrlele DÀnnun
zlo. Probably no other Itallan poet ln the flrst
decades of the twentleth century exerclsed such a
deep and lastlng lnfluence as _uaslmodo has. How
ever, hls lyrlcal contrlbutlon after the war seems to
pale when compared to hls success as a prewar her
metlc poet and translator. After the war hls polltlcal
stance was a detrlment to hls artlstlc achlevement
whenever he commltted hlmself too strongly to pre
valllng fashlons and descended to a documentary
klnd of poetry. Overall, hls name and poetry are to
be consldered at the very center of the latest develop
ments of Itallan poetry, maklng hlm the declslve
experlence for the newest generatlons of Itallan
poets.
iW
Ic lcttcrc dòmorc, edlted by Guldo Le Nocl (Mllan. Apol
llnalre, l969);
Icttcrc dòmorc o Morio Cumovi (19J6-199), edlted by
Davld Lajolo (Mllan. Mondadorl, l973);
Solvotorc _uosimodoC. Io Iiro: Cortcggio, edlted by
Alessandro _uaslmodo (Mllan. AllÌnsegna del
Pesce dÒro, l980);
Icttcrc dòmorc (19J6-199), edlted by Alessandro
_uaslmodo (Mllan. Splrall, l985);
Cortcggio, 1929-1966 (Mllan. AllÌnsegna del Pesce
dÒro, l988).
fW
Gllberto Ilnzl, 'Domande a _uaslmodo," IÌuropo Ict-
tcrorio, 30-32 (l961). 2l-26;
Ierdlnando Camon, 'Salvatore _uaslmodo," ln hls Il
mcsticrc di pocto (Mllan. Garzantl, l982), pp. l5-
2l.
oW
Luclano Anceschl, Introductlon to _uaslmodo`s Iirici
grcci (Mllan. Mondadorl, l95l), pp. 7-22;
Anceschl, Introductlon and 'Per la poesla dl _uasl
modo," ln Iirici ùovi, edlted by Anceschl (Mllan.
Mursla, l961), pp. 3-l3, 2l1-225;
Glorglo Baronl, 'Jempo. Sublto Sera," Itoliovistico-òvcccvto
lcttcrorio, XXXI, 2-3 (May-December 2002). 29-
31;
Mlrko Bevllacqua, ed., Io critico c _uosimodo (Bologna.
Cappelll, l976);
Carlo Bo, Preface to _uaslmodo`s Ciorvo dopo giorvo, ln
Tuttc lc pocsic (Mllan. Mondadorl, l960), pp. l99-
226;
Rosalma Sallna Borello, ed., Icr covosccrc _uosimodo
(Mllan. Mondadorl, l973);
Glauco Cambon, 'A Deep Wlnd. _uaslmodo`s Jln
darl," Itoliov _uortcrly, 3 (Iall l959). l6-1l;
Stello Cro, 'El sentlmlento telrlco del Medlterrneo en
Salvatore _uaslmodo," Io òciov (l5 |une l969).
2;
Gllberto Ilnzl, Introductlon to _uaslmodo`s, Tuttc lc
pocsic (Mllan. Mondadorl, l981), pp. 5-l8;
Ilnzl, Ivvito ollo lctturo di Solvotorc _uosimodo (Mllan. Mur
sla, l983);
Marcello Glgante, Iùltimo _uosimodo c lo pocsio grcco
(Naples. Gulda, l970);
Glannl Grana, ed., 'Salvatore _uaslmodo," ln hls òvc-
ccvto: I covtcmporovci, volume 9 (Mllan. Marzoratl,
l979), pp. 8l03-8l17;
I. |. |ones, 'Osservazlonl sulla slmbologla dl _uasl
modo," Ccvobio, 3 (May-|une l96l). 251-271;
|ones, 'Jhe Poetry of Salvatore _uaslmodo," Itoliov
Studics, l6 (l96l). 60-77;
l1
p~~ n~ ai_ PPO
|ones, '_uaslmodo and the Collapse of Hermetlclsm,"
ln hls q j f~~ i (Cardlff. Jhe Lnl
verslty of Wales Press, l986), pp. 5l2-56l;
Oreste Macr, i~ ~ n~ (Palermo. Sellerlo,
l986);
Gaetano Munaf, n~I ~ (Ilor
ence. Le Monnler, l973);
Gloacchlno Paparelll, a~ ^ ~ n~ (Naples.
Socleta Edltrlce Napoletana, l978);
Paparelll, 'Humanltas e poesla dl _uaslmodo," i~J
(l96l). 7l9-718;
Paparelll, 'Poesla e poetlca dl _uaslmodo," f _~I 9-
l0 (l96l). l31-l39;
Pletro Pelosl, m~ ~ l p~J
~ n~ (Naples. Delflno, l978);
Bortolo Pento, i~ n~ (Mllan. Marzoratl,
l966);
Elena Sallbra, p~~ n~ (Rome. DellÀteneo,
l985);
Gaetano Salvetl, p~~ n~
~ (Padua, Italy. Sestante, l961);
Roberto Sanesl, 'La poesla dl _uaslmodo," f~I
l6 (l96l). l07-l21;
Serglo Solml, Preface to _uaslmodo`s b ~I ln
q (Mllan. Mondadorl, l960), pp. l5-
30;
Marlo Stefanlle, n~ (Padua, Italy. Cedam, l913);
Orazlo Janelll, '_uaslmodo e la sua terra," c~ k
vI 92 (March-Aprll l985). 37;
Natale Jedesco, n~ (Palermo. Ilaccovlo, l959);
Mlchele Jondo, p~~ n~ (Mllan. Mursla,
l970);
Jondo, 'Salvatore _uaslmodo," i~~ ~~~ J
~~I volume 2, edlted by Gaetano Marlanl
and Marlo Petrucclanl (Rome. Lucarlnl, l980),
pp. 21l-257;
Gluseppe Zagarrlo, n~ (Ilorence. Nuova Italla,
l969).
NVRV k m i~
m~ p
^ I m~ p~
p ^~
Salvatore _uaslmodo, the Itallan poet who has
been awarded thls year`s Nobel Prlze ln Llterature, ls a
Slclllan by blrth. He was born near Syracuse, to be
more exact, ln the llttle town of Modlca some dlstance
from the coast. It ls not dlfflcult to lmaglne that a reglon
so rlch ln memorles of the past must have been of the
utmost lmportance for hls future calllng. Jhe rellcs of
the anclent Greek temples on the lsland, the theatres
near the Ionlan Sea, Arethusa`s fountaln, so famed ln
legend, the glgantlc rulns at Glrgentl and Sellnunte
what a playground for a chlld`s lmaglnatlon! Here ln
days gone by the heroes of Greek poetry were guests at
the court of Klng Hleron, here the volces of Plndar and
Aeschylus llnger llke an echo through the ages.
Even lf, as far as materlal matters are concerned,
_uaslmodo was reared ln comparatlve poverty, the
mllleu ln whlch he spent hls youth was nevertheless
somethlng to be grateful for. Admlttedly, many restless
years of travel were to pass before he became consclous
of hls talent and began to flnd hls way ln the classlcal
herltage that was hls. In due course, however, hls stud
les were to show thelr lnfluence ln hls great contrlbu
tlon as a translator of the llterature of classlcal antlqulty
whlch now forms the homogeneous background of hls
own work as one of the foremost poets ln the Itallan
language. Jhere can hardly be any doubt that hls strlct
classlcal educatlon acted as a stlmulus, not to servlle
lmltatlon, but to energetlc selfdlsclpllne ln the use of
language and the achlevement of artlstlc style.
Although regarded as one of the prlnclpal lnnovators ln
modern poetry, _uaslmodo ls, nevertheless, bound to
the classlcal tradltlon and occuples thls place wlth all
the natural confldence of a true helr.
_uaslmodo made hls debut as early as l930 but lt
was not untll the fortles and flftles that he establlshed hls
posltlon as one of Italy`s most outstandlng poets, and by
thls tlme hls reputatlon had become lnternatlonal. He
belongs to the same generatlon as Sllone, Moravla, and
Vlttorlnl, that ls, the generatlon of leftwlng authors who
were able to prove thelr worth only after the fall of Ias
clsm. _uaslmodo ls llke these wrlters ln that for hlm, too,
the fate of presentday Italy ls a reallty ln whlch he ls
deeply lnvolved. Hls llterary productlon ls not very large.
In actual fact lt conslsts of flve books of poetry, whlch
reveal hls development to complete lndlvlduallty and orlg
lnallty. I quote the characterlstlc tltles of the volumes. b
~ (And Suddenly It`s Evenlng), publlshed ln l912,
d (Day after Day), ln l916, i~ ~
(Llfe Is Not a Dream), ln l919, f ~ (Jhe
Ialse and the Jrue Green), ln l956, and flnally, i~ ~
~~ (Jhe Incomparable Earth), ln l958. Jogether
they form one homogeneous work ln whlch not a slngle
llne ls unlmportant.
_uaslmodo has sung of the Slclly of hls chlld
hood and hls youth wlth a love that, slnce he went to
llve ln the north of Italy, has galned an everlncreaslng
depth and perspectlvethe wlndswept lsland scenery
wlth lts Greek temple columns, lts desolate grandeur, lts
povertystrlcken vlllages, lts dusty roads wlndlng
through ollve groves, lts strldent muslc of poundlng
surf and shepherds` horns. Nonetheless, he cannot be
l5
ai_ PPO p~~ n~
called a provlnclal poet. Jhe area from whlch he draws
hls themes gradually lncreases, whlle at the same tlme
hls human pathos breaks through the strlct poetlc form
whlch flrst fettered hlm. Above all, the bltter experl
ences of the war provlded the lmpulse for thls change
and made hlm an lnterpreter of the moral llfe of hls fel
low countrymen ln thelr dally experlence of nameless
tragedles and constant confrontatlon wlth death. In thls
later perlod he has created a number of poems that are
so monumental that one would llke to belleve that they
wlll be accepted as a lastlng contrlbutlon to the world`s
great poetry. Naturally, _uaslmodo ls far from belng
the only Itallan poet to be deeply affected ln thls way by
the martyrdom of hls country and lts people, but the
Slclllan poet`s dark and passlonate earnestness rlngs
wlth a speclal and lndlvldual note when he ends one of
hls lyrlcs wlth the cry.
However much everythlng else ls dlstorted
Jhe dead can never be sold.
Italy ls my country, o stranger, It ls of lts people I slng, and
of the sound
Of secret lamentatlon that comes from lts sea,
I slng of lts mothers` chaste grlef, of all lts llfe.
_uaslmodo ls of the bold oplnlon that poetry
does not exlst for lts own sake, but has an lrrefutable
mlsslon ln the world, through lts creatlve power, to
recreate man hlmself. Jo hlm, the road to freedom ls
the same as the conquest of lsolatlon, and hls own
progress polnts ln the same dlrectlon. In thls way hls
work has become a llvlng volce and hls poetry an artls
tlc expresslon of the consclousness of the Itallan people,
as far as thls ls posslble for poetry wlth an otherwlse so
conclse and lndlvldual structure. In hls poems, Blbllcal
turns of phrase are to be found slde by slde wlth allu
slons to classlcal mythology, that mythology whlch ls an
everpresent source of lnsplratlon for a Slclllan. Chrls
tlan compasslon ls the baslc quallty of hls poetry,
whlch, ln moments of greatest lnsplratlon, attalns unl
versallty.
Dear SlrJhe followlng statement pronounced by
the Swedlsh Academy ls the reason for whlch you have
been awarded the Nobel Prlze. 'for hls lyrlc poetry,
whlch, wlth classlcal flre, expresses the traglc experl
ence of llfe ln our own tlmes."
Your poetry has come to us as an authentlc and
vlvld message of that Italy whlch has had falthful
frlends and admlrers ln our natlon for centurles. Wlth
our most cordlal congratulatlons I ask you to recelve
the Nobel Prlze ln Llterature from Hls Majesty, the
Klng.
| Jhe Nobel Ioundatlon, l952.|
n~W _~ p
Solvotorc _uosimodo`s spcccl ot tlc òbcl ovquct ot tlc City
Holl iv Stocllolm, 10 Dcccmbcr 199 (Trovslotiov):
I have always thought of Sweden as a country
adopted by the men who recelved the Nobel Prlze, that
unlque and brllllant dlstlnctlon ln contemporary clvlll
zatlon. No other natlon, ln fact, has succeeded ln pro
poslng, much less reallzlng, a slmllar prlze. Although lt
orlglnates ln a country of a few mllllon men, the Nobel
Prlze ls a model of unlversallty, charged wlth an actlve
and splrltual slgnlflcance.
Jhe Prlze, an award not easlly attalnable, arouses
the passlons of men of every polltlcal factlon ln every
natlona slgn of lts omnlpresence and of that gulf
whlch the wrlter, or poet, or phllosopher flnds openlng
before hlm. Culture, however, has always repulsed the
recurrent threat of barbarlsm, even when the latter was
heavlly armed and seethlng wlth confused ldeologles.
Here around me are the representatlves of one of the
most anclent Northern clvlllzatlons, whlch ln the course
of lts rugged hlstory has found ltself flghtlng next to
those who have determlned the extent of human llber
tles. It ls a clvlllzatlon whlch has produced humanlst
klngs and queens, great poets and wrlters. Jhese poets,
both past and contemporary, are known ln Italy today,
even lf only for the volatlle slde of thelr restless temper
aments and thelr broodlng splrlts. Irom an allegorlcal
presence, lnsplred by the fabled memorles of the
Vlklngs, these dlfflcult and muslcal names have come to
be honoured by us. Jhey speak more forcefully to us
than do the poets of other clvlllzatlons that are decaylng
or already burled ln the dust of a Renalssance rhetorlc.
My purpose ls nelther to euloglze nor subtly to congrat
ulate myself, but rather to crltlclze the lntellectual condl
tlon of Europe, when I afflrm that Sweden and her
people through thelr cholces have conslstently chal
lenged and lnfluenced the culture of the world. I have
already sald that the poet and wrlter help change the
world. Jhls may seem presumptuous or merely a rela
tlve truth, but, ln order to justlfy tumult or acqules
cence, one need only thlnk of the reactlons that poets
provoke, both ln thelr own socletles and elsewhere. You
know that poetry reveals ltself ln solltude, and that from
thls solltude lt moves out ln every dlrectlon; from the
monologue lt reaches soclety wlthout becomlng elther
soclologlcal or polltlcal. Poetry, even lyrlcal poetry, ls
always 'speech." Jhe llstener may be the physlcal or
metaphyslcal lnterlor of the poet, or a man, or a thou
sand men. Narclsslstlc feellng, on the other hand, turns
l6
p~~ n~ ai_ PPO
lnward upon ltself llke a clrcle; and by means of allltera
tlon and of evocatlve sounds lt echoes the myths of
other men ln forgotten epochs of hlstory.
Joday we can talk of a neohumanlsm on earth ln
an absolute sensea neohumanlsm wlthout equal for
man. And lf the poet flnds hlmself at the centre of thls tem
porary physlcal structure, whlch was made ln part by hls
splrlt and lntelllgence, ls he stlll a dangerous belng? Jhe
questlon ls not rhetorlcal but an elllpsls of the truth. Jhe
world today seems allled wlth the slde opposed to poetry.
And for the world, the poet`s very presence ls an obstacle
to be overcome. He must be annlhllated. Jhe force of
poetry, on the other hand, fans out ln every dlrectlon ln
organlzed socletles; and lf llterary games escape the sensl
bllltles of men everywhere, a poetlc actlvlty that ls lnsplred
by humanlsm does not.
I have always thought that one of my poems was
wrltten for the men of the North, as well as for those of the
Dark Contlnent or of the East. Jhe unlversallty of poetry
ls cruclal to lts form, lts style, let us say (that ls, the concen
trated power of lts language). But unlversallty ls also what
was not there before and what one man contrlbutes to the
other men of hls tlme. Such unlversallty ls not founded on
abstract concepts or on a harmful moralltyeven worse
when morallsm ls lnvolvedbut rather on a dlrect con
creteness and on a unlque splrltual condltlon.
My ldea of beauty ls embodled not only ln har
mony but also ln dlssonance, for even dlssonance can
attaln the preclslon of a poetlc form. Whether we thlnk
of palntlng or sculpture or muslc, the aesthetlc, moral,
and crltlcal problems are the same; and llkes and dls
llkes are slmllar. Greek beauty has been lmperlled by
contemporary man, who has destroyed form only to
seek a new form for hls lmltatlon of llfean lmltatlon,
that ls, whlch wlll reveal the very worklngs of nature. I
speak of the poet, of thls slngular lmperfectlon of
nature, who bullds hls own real exlstence plece by plece
out of the language of men. Jhls language, however, ls
constructed from a slncerely reasoned syntax, not from
a deceptlve one. Every experlence ln llfe (whether llved
or felt) lnltlally lnvolves an unexpected moral dlslnte
gratlon, a splrltual lmbalance manlfestlng ltself gradu
ally, and a fear of prolonglng a splrltual condltlon
whlch has already collapsed under the welght of hls
tory. Ior the man of letters as for the transltory crltlc,
the poet always keeps an lnaccurate dlary, always plays
wlth a terrestrlal theology. Indeed, lt ls certaln that thls
crltlc wlll wrlte that such poems are but ponderous
restatements of an ~ ~restatements of an art, of a
new language whlch dld not exlst before these poems
were wrltten (thus the hlstory of poetlc form ls over
turned). Perhaps the latter ls a way of renderlng soll
tude bearable and of namlng the coldest objects that
enclose lt. Jhe poet`s evll lnfluence? Perhaps, because
no one ever fllls the sllence of those men who may read
just one poem of a new poet, certalnly not the fraglle
crltlc, who fears that a sequence of flfteen or twenty
verses may be true. Jhe lnvestlgatlon of the concept of
purlty ls yet to be done ln thls century of dlvlslons
whlch are, ln appearance, polltlcal; a century ln whlch
the lot of the poet ls confused and hardly human. Hls
latest rhapsodles are always vlewed wlth susplclon for
thelr understandlng of the heart.
I have spoken here not to propose a poetlcs nor to
establlsh aesthetlc standards but to salute a land for lts
sturdler men, who are very preclous to our clvlllzatlon,
and who come from the adopted country of whlch I
spoke before. I now flnd myself ln thls country.
I salute and profoundly thank your Majestles the
Klng and _ueen of Sweden, Your Royal Hlghnesses,
and the Swedlsh Academy. Its elghteen members, wlse
and stern judges, have declded, ln awardlng the Nobel
Prlze to my poetry, to honour Italy, whlch has been
very rlch durlng thls flrst half century, up to the most
recent generatlon, ln works of llterature, art, and
thought fundamental to our clvlllzatlon.
Prlor to the speech, E. |ohnson, Member of the
Swedlsh Academy, addressed the Itallan poet. 'You are,
Mr. Salvatore _uaslmodo, the wlnner of thls year`s
Prlze ln Llterature. In you Italy has found a restorer of
her modern poetry. Your poetlc work bears the mark of
a country and basks ln the llght of a culture both of
whlch have for centurles glven much to clvlllzatlon. You
have entltled one of your poems 'Lomo del mlo tempo.`
In lt the tone and the lmages evoke the often brutal real
lty ln whlch we llve. You yourself are a man of our tlme,
ln the most profound sense of the word. Your work
reflects the trlals, the mlserles, and the hopes of our
epoch. You understand the problems of our soclety, and
your heart ls compasslonate toward the unfortunate,
the dlslnherlted. Such ls the fundamental quallty of
your poetry."
| Jhe Nobel Ioundatlon, l959. Salvatore _uaslmodo
ls the sole author of hls speech.|
l7
n~W k iI NN a NVRV
q m ~ m~
'Jhe nlght ls long that never flnds the day."
Jhese are Shakespeare`s words ln j~I and they
help us to deflne the poet`s condltlon. At flrst, the
reader appears to the poet ln hls solltude as an lmage
wlth the face and the gestures of a chlldhood frlend,
perhaps of that more sensltlve frlend who ls experl
enced ln solltary readlngs but a blt dlffldent ln evalu
atlng a presumed representatlon, or mlsrepresentatlon,
of the world. Jhls representatlon ls attempted wlth
rlgorous poetlc measures extraneous to sclence and
wlth words whose sounds are predetermlned.
An exact poetlc dupllcatlon of a man ls for the
poet a negatlon of the earth, an lmposslblllty of
belng, even though hls greatest deslre ls to speak to
many men, to unlte wlth them by means of harmonl
ous verses about the truths of the mlnd or of thlngs.
Innocence ls sometlmes an acute quallty whlch per
mlts the greatest representatlon of the senslble. And
the lnnocence of the poet`s frlend, who requlres, dla
lectlcally, that the flrst poetlc rhythms have a loglcal
form, wlll remaln a flxed polnt of reference, a focus
whlch wlll enable the poet to construct half of a
parabola. Jhe poet`s other readers are the anclent
poets, who look upon the freshly wrltten pages from
an lncorruptlble dlstance. Jhelr poetlc forms are
permanent, and lt ls dlfflcult to create new forms
whlch can approach them.
Jhe wrlter of storles or of novels settles on
men and lmltates them; he exhausts the posslbllltles
of hls characters. Jhe poet ls alone wlth lnflnlte
objects ln hls own obscure sphere and does not
know whether he should be lndlfferent or hopeful.
Later that slngle face wlll multlply; those gestures
wlll become approvlng or dlsapprovlng oplnlons.
Jhls happens at the publlcatlon of the flrst poems.
As the poet has expected, the alarms now are
sounded, forand lt must be sald agalnthe blrth of
a poet ls always a threat to the exlstlng cultural
order, because he attempts to break through the clr
cle of llterary castes to reach the center.
He has a strange publlc now, wlth whom he
beglns to have sllent and hostlle rapport. crltlcs, pro
vlnclal professors, men of letters. In the poet`s
youth, the majorlty of these persons destroy hls
metaphyslcs, correct hls lmages. Jhey are abstract
judges who revlse 'mlstaken" poems accordlng to an
lndlfferent, poetlc standard.
Poetry ls also the physlcal self of the poet, and
lt ls lmposslble to separate the poet from hls poetry.
However, I shall not lndulge ln autoblography by
speaklng of my own country, whlch, as everyone
knows, has been fllled ln every century wlth Glo
vannl Della Casas, that ls, wlth men of letters of
metrlcal neatness and fully developed dexterlty.
Jhese hlgh prlests of tradltlon have clalrvoyance
and lmaglnatlon. Moreover, they are obsessed wlth
allegorles of the credlble destructlon of the world.
Jhey do not tolerate chronlcles but only ldeal flg
ures and attltudes. Ior them the hlstory of poetry ls
a gallery of ghosts. Even a polemlc has some justlfl
catlon lf one conslders that my own flrst poetlc
experlments began durlng a dlctatorshlp and mark
the orlgln of the Hermetlc movement.
Irom my flrst book, publlshed ln l930, to the
second and the thlrd and the fourth (a translatlon of
Greek lyrlcs publlshed ln l910), I succeeded ln see
lng only a stratlfled publlc of humble or ambltlous
readers through the polltlcal haze and the academlc
averslon to harsh poetry that departed from the
standard classlcal composltlon. Jhe i d
(l910) |Greek Lyrlcs| entered fresh and new lnto the
llterary generatlon of the tlme; and they lnltlated a
truer readlng of the classlcs throughout Europe. I
knew that young men quoted verses from my lyrlcs
ln thelr love letters; others were wrltten on the walls
of jalls by polltlcal prlsoners. What a tlme to be wrlt
lng poetry! We wrote verses that condemned us,
wlth no hope of pardon, to the most bltter solltude.
Were such verses categorles of the soulgreat truths?
Jradltlonal European poetry, as yet unrestrlcted, was
unaware of our presence. the Latln provlnce, under
the aegls of lts Caesars, fostered bloodshed, not les
sons ln humanlsm.
My readers at that tlme were stlll men of let
ters; but there had to be other people waltlng to read
my poems. Students, whltecollar workers, labour
l8
n~W k iI NN a NVRV ai_ PPO
ers? Had I sought only an abstract verlslmllltude ln
my poetry? Or was I belng overly presumptuous?
On the contrary, I was an example of how solltude ls
broken. Solltude, Shakespeare`s 'long nlght," lll
borne by the polltlclanwho wanted a poet such as
Jyrtaeus durlng the Afrlcan or Russlan campalgns
became clearly poetlc; taken to be a contlnuatlon of
European decadence, lt was rather the rough draft
for neohumanlsm. War, I have always sald, forces
men to change thelr standards, regardless of whether
thelr country has won or lost. Poetlcs and phlloso
phles dlslntegrate 'when the trees fall and the walls
collapse." At the polnt when contlnulty was lnter
rupted by the flrst nuclear exploslon, lt would have
been too easy to recover the formal sedlment whlch
llnked us wlth an age of poetlc decorum, of a pre
occupatlon wlth poetlc sounds. After the turbulence
of death, moral prlnclples and even rellglous proofs
are called lnto questlon. Men of letters who cllng to
the prlvate successes of thelr petty aesthetlcs shut
themselves off from poetry`s restless presence. Irom
the nlght, hls solltude, the poet flnds day and starts a
dlary that ls lethal to the lnert. Jhe dark landscape
ylelds a dlalogue. Jhe polltlclan and the medlocre
poets wlth thelr armour of symbols and mystlc purl
tles pretend to lgnore the real poet. It ls a story
whlch repeats ltself llke the cock`s crow; lndeed, llke
the cock`s thlrd crow.
Jhe poet ls a nonconformlst and does not pen
etrate the shell of the false llterary clvlllzatlon, whlch
ls full of defenslve turrets as ln the tlme of the Com
munes. He may seem to destroy hls forms, whlle
lnstead he actually contlnues them. He passes from
lyrlc to eplc poetry ln order to speak about the
world and the torment ln the world through man,
ratlonally and emotlonally. Jhe poet then becomes a
danger. Jhe polltlclan judges cultural freedom wlth
susplclon, and by means of conformlst crltlclsm trles
to render the very concept of poetry lmmoblle. He
sees the creatlve act as belng both extratemporal and
lneffectual wlthln soclety, as lf the poet, lnstead of
belng a man, were a mere abstractlon.
Jhe poet ls the sum total of the dlverse 'expe
rlences" of the man of hls tlmes. Hls language ls no
longer that of the avantgarde, but ls rather concrete
ln the classlcal sense. Ellot has polnted out that the
language of Dante ls 'the perfectlon of a common
language . . . nevertheless the |slmple style| of whlch
Dante ls the greatest master, ls a very dlfflcult style."
Jhe poet`s language must be glven lts proper
emphasls. It ls nelther the language of the Parnas
slans, nor that of the llngulstlc revolutlonarles, par
tlcularly ln countrles where contamlnatlon by
dlalects only produces addltlonal doubts and llterary
hleroglyphs. Indeed, phllologlsts wlll never revlve a
wrltten language. Jhls ls a rlght whlch belongs
excluslvely to the poet. Hls language ls dlfflcult not
because of phllologlcal reasons or splrltual obscu
rlty, but because of lts content. Poets can be trans
lated; men of letters cannot, because they use
lntellectual skllls to copy other poets` technlques and
support Symbollsm or Decadence for thelr very lack
of content, for thelr derlvatlve thought, for the
truths on whlch they have been theoretlcally nour
lshed when they are found to resemble Goethe or
the great nlneteenthcentury Irench poets. A poet
cllngs to hls own tradltlon and avolds lnternatlonal
lsm. Men of letters thlnk of Europe or even of the
whole world ln the llght of a poetlcs that lsolates
ltself, as lf poetry were an ldentlcal 'object" all over
the world. Jhen, wlth thls understandlng of poetlcs,
formallstlc men of letters may prefer certaln klnds of
content and vlolently reject others. But the problem
on elther slde of the barrlcade ls always content.
Jhus, the poet`s word ls beglnnlng to strlke force
fully upon the hearts of all men, whlle absolute men
of letters thlnk that they alone llve ln the real world.
Accordlng to them, the poet ls conflned to the prov
lnces wlth hls mouth broken on hls own syllablc tra
peze. Jhe polltlclan takes advantage of the men of
letters who do not assume a contemporary splrltual
posltlon, but rather one that has been outdated by at
least two generatlons. Out of cultural unlty he
makes a game of sophlstlcated, turbulent decomposl
tlon whereln the rellglous forces can stlll press for
the enslavement of man`s lntelllgence.
Rellglous poetry, clvlc poetry, lyrlc or dramatlc
poetry are all categorles of man`s expresslon whlch
are valld only lf the endorsement of formal content
ls valld. It ls a mlstake to belleve that a splrltual con
quest, a partlcular emotlonal sltuatlon (a rellglous
state) of the lndlvldual, can become 'soclety" by
extenslon. Plous abnegatlon, the renunclatlon of
man by man, ls nothlng but a formula for death.
Jhe truly creatlve splrlt always falls lnto the claws of
wolves. Jhe poet`s spoken dlscourse often depends
on a mystlque, on the splrltual freedom that flnds
ltself enslaved on earth. He terrlfles hls lnterlocutor
(hls shadow, an object to be dlsclpllned) wlth lmages
of physlcal decomposltlon, wlth complacent analyses
of the horrld. Jhe poet does not fear death, not
because he belleves ln the fantasy of heroes, but
because death constantly vlslts hls thoughts and ls
thus an lmage of a serene dlalogue. In opposltlon to
thls detachment, he flnds an lmage of man whlch
contalns wlthln ltself man`s dreams, man`s lllness,
man`s redemptlon from the mlsery of povertypov
l9
ai_ PPO n~W k iI NN a NVRV
erty whlch can no longer be for hlm a slgn of the
acceptance of llfe.
In order to assess the extent of the polltlclan`s
powerand here rellglous power ls also lncluded
one need only recall the sllence whlch lasted for a
mlllennlum ln the flelds of poetry and the arts after
the close of the classlcal epoch, or recall the great
palntlngs of the flfteenth century, a perlod ln whlch
the Church commlssloned the work and dlctated lts
content.
Iormallstlc crltlclsm attempts to strlke at the
concept of art by focuslng lts attack on forms. It
expresses reservatlons on the conslstency of content
ln order to lnfrlnge upon artlstlc autonomy ln an
absolute sense. In fact, poetry wlll not accept the
polltlclan`s 'mlsslonary" attempts, nor any other
klnd of crltlcal lnterference, from whatever phlloso
phy lt may orlglnate. Jhe poet does not devlate
from hls moral or aesthetlc path; hence hls double
solltude ln the face of both the world and the llter
ary mllltlas.
But ls there a contemporary aesthetlcs? And
what phllosophy offers truly slgnlflcant suggestlons?
An exlstentlallst or Marxlst poetry has not yet
appeared on the llterary horlzon; the phllosophlcal
dlalogue or the chorus of new generatlons pre
supposes a crlsls, even presupposes crlses ln man.
Jhe polltlclan uses thls confuslon to glve an alr of
lllusory stablllty to fragmented poetry.
Jhe antagonlsm between the poet and the poll
tlclan has generally been evldent ln all cultures.
Joday the two blocs that govern the world are fash
lonlng contradlctory concepts of freedom, even
though lt ls clear that for the polltlclan there ls but
one sort of freedom, whlch leads ln a slngle dlrec
tlon. It ls dlfflcult to break down thls barrler whlch
has stalned the hlstory of clvlllzatlon wlth blood.
Jhere always exlst at least two ways of regardlng
cultural freedom. the freedom found ln those coun
trles where a profound soclal revolutlon has
occurred (the Irench Revolutlon, for example, or
the October Revolutlon); and that found ln other
countrles, whlch reslst stubbornly before under
golng any change ln thelr world vlew.
Can poet and polltlclan cooperate? Perhaps
they could ln socletles that are not yet fully devel
oped, but never wlth complete freedom for both. In
the contemporary world the polltlclan may well take
a varlety of stands, but an accord between poet and
polltlclan wlll never be posslble, because the one ls
concerned wlth the lnternal order of man, the other
wlth the orderlng of men. A quest for the lnternal
order of man could, ln a glven epoch, colnclde wlth
the orderlng and constructlon of a new soclety.
Rellglous power, whlch, as I have already sald,
frequently ldentlfles ltself wlth polltlcal power, has
always been a protagonlst of thls bltter struggle,
even when lt seemlngly was neutral. Jhe reasons for
whlch the poet, as moral barometer of hls own peo
ple, becomes a danger to the polltlclan are always
those whlch Glovannl Vlllanl cltes ln hls `
c. He says here that, for the beneflt of hls
contemporarles, Dante 'as a poet thoroughly
enjoyed rantlng and ravlng ln hls `~ perhaps
more than was proper; but posslbly hls exlle was to
blame."
Lnllke Vlllanl, Dante does not wrlte chronl
cles. Jo the excellent 'hermetlc" poetry of the
Dante later adds, wlthout ever betraylng hls
own moral lntegrlty, the vlolence of human and
polltlcal lnvectlve, not dlctated by hls averslons, but
by hls lnternal standard of justlce whlch ls rellglous
ln the unlversal sense. Jhe aesthetes have glngerly
placed these verses, whlch burn ln eternlty, lnto the
llmbo of J~. Verses llke 'Jrlvla rlde tra le
nlnfe eterne" ('Jrlvla smlles among the eternal
nymphs") have always seemed true only lf he
remalns the contlnuer of pseudoexlstentlal enllght
enment, the decorator of placld human sentlments,
or lf he does not penetrate too profoundly lnto the
dlalectlc of hls tlme, whether from polltlcal fear or
slmple lnertla. Ior example, Angelo Pollzlano ln the
flfteenth century showed hls artlstlc freedom ln one
of the p~ ~ ~ d~ j |Stan
zas Wrltten for the Medlcl |oust|, where he cau
tlously speaks of a confused nymph who goes to
mass wlth secular ladles. But Leonardo da Vlncl, a
wrlter of a dlfferent klnd, was not free. Here llberty
assumes lts true meanlng; lt ls nothlng but a permls
slon granted by the polltlcal powers whlch allows the
poet to enter hls soclety unarmed. Not even Arlosto
and Jasso were free, nor the Abbot Parlnl, nor Alfl
erl, nor Ioscolo. the rhetorlc of these persecuted
men places them ln tlme among the propagators of
the volce of mana volce that seems to cry out ln the
wllderness and lnstead corrodes soclety`s untruths.
But ls the polltlclan free ln hls turn? No. In
fact, the castes that beslege hlm determlne a soclety`s
fate and act even upon the dlctator. Around these
two protagonlsts of hlstory, both adversarles and
nelther of them freeand by poets we mean all
lmportant wrlters of a glven epochpasslons are
stlrred and confllct ensues. And there ls peace only
ln tlme of war or revolutlonrevolutlon the bearer
of order, and war the bearer of confuslon.
Jhe last war was a clash of systems, of polltlcs,
of clvll orders, natlon by natlon. Its vlolence twlsted
even the smallest llbertles. A sense of llfe reappeared
20
n~W k iI NN a NVRV ai_ PPO
ln the very reslstance to the lnlmlcal but famlllar
lnvader, a reslstance by culture and by folk human
lsm whlch, ln Vergll`s words, 'ralsed lts head ln the
bltter flelds" agalnst the powerful.
In every country a cultural tradltlon remalns
detached from thls mllltary movement. Jhls tradl
tlon ls not merely provlslonal, although lt ls consld
ered as such by the conservatlve bankers who
flnance constructlon on clvlllzatlon`s 'real estate." I
lnslst upon saylng not merely provlslonal, because
the nucleus of contemporary culture (lncludlng the
phllosophy of exlstence) ls orlented not toward the
dlsasters of the soul and the splrlt, but toward an
attempt to repalr man`s broken bones. Nelther fear,
nor absence, nor lndlfference, nor lmpotence wlll
ever allow the poet to communlcate a nonmetaphyslcal
fate to others.
Jhe poet can say that man beglns today; the
polltlclan can say, and lndeed does say, that man has
been and always may be caught ln the trap of hls
moral baseness, a baseness whlch ls not congenltal
but rather lmplanted by a slow secular lnfectlon.
Jhls truth, concealed among the unattalnable
attltudes of polltlcal wlsdom, suggests as a flrst con
cluslon that the poet can speak only ln perlods of
anarchy. Jhe Reslstance ls a moral certalnty, not a
poetlc one. Jhe true poet never uses words ln order
to punlsh someone. Hls judgment belongs to a cre
atlve order; lt ls not formulated as a prophetlc scrlp
ture.
Europeans know the lmportance of the Resls
tance; lt has been the shlnlng example of the modern
consclence. Jhe enemy of the Reslstance, for all hls
shoutlng, ls today only a shadow, wlthout much
strength. Hls volce ls more lmpersonal than hls pro
posals. Jhe popular senslblllty ls not decelved about
the condltlon of the poet or about that of hls adver
sary. When the antagonlsm ls lncreased, poetry
replaces the subordlnate thought of the polltlclan
who makes poetry lnto an ldea that can be explolted
or extlngulshed.
Jhe Reslstance ls the perfect lmage of the con
fllct between the present and the past. Jhe language
of blood ls not only a drama ln the physlcal sense; lt
ls the deflnltlve expresslon of a contlnuous trlal on
man`s moral 'technology." Europe was born of the
Reslstance and of the admlratlon for the lndeterml
nate flgures who belong to that order whlch the war
sought to establlsh. Jhese flgures have now been
torn out by the roots. Death has an autonomous
sleep, and any lnterventlon to sollclt thls sleep elther
by loglc or by sklll of polltlcal lntelllgence ls lnhuman.
Poetry`s loyalty lles beyond any conslderatlon of
lnjustlce or the lntentlons of death. Jhe polltlclan
wants men to know how to dle courageously; the
poet wants men to llve courageously.
Whlle the poet ls consclous of the polltlclan`s
power, the polltlclan notlces the poet only when hls
volce reaches deep lnto the varlous soclal strata; that
ls, when lyrlcal or eplc content ls revealed as well as
poetlc form. At thls moment, a subterranean strug
gle beglns between the polltlclan and the poet. In
hlstory the names of exlled poets are treated llke
human dlce, whlle the polltlclan clalms to uphold
culture but, ln fact, trles only to reduce lts power.
Hls only purpose, as always, ls to deprlve man of
three or four fundamental llbertles, so that ln hls
eternal cycle man contlnually retrleves what has
been taken from hlm.
In our tlme the polltlclan`s defence agalnst cul
ture and thus agalnst the poet operates both surrep
tltlously and openly ln manlfold ways. Hls easlest
defence ls the degradatlon of the concept of culture.
Mechanlcal and sclentlflc means, radlo and televl
slon, help to break the unlty of the arts, to favour a
poetlcs that wlll not even dlsturb shadows. Hls most
favoured poetlcs ls always that whlch allles ltself
wlth the memory of Arcadla for the artlstlc dlspar
agement of lts own epoch. Jhls ls the meanlng of
Aeschylus` verse, 'I malntaln that the dead klll the
llvlng", whlch I used as the eplgraph to my latest
work, i~ ~ ~~. In thls book man ls
compared to the earth. If lt ls a sln to speak of man`s
lntelllgence, we can also say that rellglous powers
and the adjectlve 'lay" used to quallfy lntelllgence ls
lntended to lndlcate not an accldental quallty but
rather an lntrlnslc valuego beyond thelr bounds
when they use thelr mlght to suppress the humble
rather than to deal wlth the lnternal flre of the con
sclence.
Jhe corruptlon of the concept of culture
offered to the masses, who are led by lt to belleve
that they are catchlng a gllmpse of the paradlse of
knowledge, ls not a modern polltlcal devlce; but the
technlques used for thls multlple dlsslpatlon of
man`s medltatlve lnterests are new and effectlve.
Optlmlsm has become a tanglble ltem; lt ls nothlng
but a memory game. Myths and storles (anxlety
about supernatural events, let us say) not only slnk
to the level of murder mysterles, but even undergo
vlslble metamorphoses ln the clnema or ln the eplc
tales of crlmlnals and ploneers. Any cholce between
the poet and the polltlclan ls precluded. Elegant
urbanlty, whlch sometlmes pretends to be lndlffer
ent, lronlcally conflnes culture to the darker corners
of lts hlstory, afflrmlng that the scene of strlfe has
been dramatlzed, that man and hls sufferlng always
have been and always wlll be ln thelr habltual con
2l
ai_ PPO n~W k iI NN a NVRV
flnes, yesterday as well as today and tomorrow.
Surely. Jhe poet knows that drama ls stlll posslble
todaya provocatlve klnd of drama. He knows that
the adulators of culture are also lts pyromanlacs.
Jhe collage composed of wrlters ln any reglme cor
rupts the llterary groups ln the center as easlly as on
the perlphery. Jhe former groups pretend to lmmor
tallty wlth a tawdry calllgraphy of the soul whlch
they decorate wlth the colours of thelr lmposslble
mental llves. In certaln moments of hlstory, culture
secretly unltes lts forces agalnst the polltlclan. But lt
ls a temporary unlty whlch serves as a batterlng ram
to beat down the doors of dlctatorshlp. Jhls force
establlshes ltself under every dlctatorshlp when lt
colncldes wlth a search for man`s fundamental llber
tles. When the dlctator has been defeated, thls unlty
dlsappears and factlons agaln sprlng up. Jhe poet ls
alone. Around hlm rlses a wall of hate bullt wlth the
stones thrown by llterary mercenarles. Jhe poet con
templates the world from the top of thls wall, wlth
out ever descendlng elther lnto the publlc places,
llke the wanderlng bards, or lnto the sophlstlcated
clrcles, llke the men of letters. Irom thls very lvory
tower, so dear to the corruptors of the romantlc soul,
he enters lnto the people`s mldst, not only lnto thelr
emotlonal needs, but even lnto thelr jealous polltlcal
thoughts.
Jhls ls not mere rhetorlc. Jhe story of the poet
subjected to the sllent slege ls found ln all countrles
and all chronlcles of manklnd. But the men of letters
who are on the slde of the polltlclan do not represent
the whole natlon; they serve onlyI say 'serve"to
delay by a few moments the volce of the poet ln the
world. In tlme, accordlng to Leonardo da Vlncl,
'every wrong ls made rlght."
| Jhe Nobel Ioundatlon, l959. Salvatore _uaslmodo
22
t~~ p~~ o
ET j~ NUST R a NVORF
_~ `~
r _ `~
BOOKS. m~ g~ d (Warsaw. Gebethner
Wolff, l895);
h~~ (Warsaw. Gebethner Wolff, l896), trans
lated by Edmund Obecny as q ` (New
York London. Putnam, l920);
c (Warsaw. Gebethner Wolff, l897);
p~W p ~ (Warsaw. Gebethner Wolff,
l897);
iW w~~ ~ ~~ (Warsaw. Gebethner
Wolff, l899);
w~ ~~I 2 volumes (Warsaw. Gebethner Wolff,
l899); translated by Mlchael H. Dzlewlckl as q
m i~I 2 volumes (New York. Knopf,
l927);
p~ (Warsaw. Blblloteka Dzle Wyborowych,
l899);
t (Warsaw. Gazeta Polska, l900);
m X m ~X p~ (Warsaw.
Gebethner Wolff, l902);
w ~~ (Warsaw. Gebethner Wolff, l903)com
prlses 'W jeslenn noc," 'W porble," 'Przy robocle,"
'Wenus," 'Legenda wlgllljna," 'O zmlerzchu," 'W
gblnach," and 'Dwle wlosny";
Ì 1 volumes (Warsaw. Gebethner Wolff, l901-
l909)comprlses volume l, gX volume 2,
w~X volume 3, t~X and volume 1, i~X
translated by Dzlewlckl as q m~~I 1 volumes
(New York. Knopf, l921-l925)comprlses vol
ume l, ^X volume 2, tX volume 3,
pX and volume 1, pX
^ m~~ (Warsaw. Gebethner Wolff, l907);
k~ ~W l~~~ (Warsaw. Gebethner Wolff,
l907)comprlses 'Z konstytucyjnych dnl," 'Sd,"
'Cmentarzysko," 'Zablem," and 'Czekam";
j~W p (Warsaw. Gebethner Wolff,
l9l0)lncludes j~I p I and t
X
w W t~~ ~ (Warsaw. Gebethner
Wolff, l9l0);
t~ (Warsaw. Gebethner Wolff, l9ll);
o NTVQW m ~I 3 volumes (Warsaw.
Gebethner Wolff, l9l3-l9l8)comprlses vol
ume l, l~ oX volume 2, k
~X and volume 3, f~X
m~ (Pozna. Ostoja Spoka Wydawnlcza, l9l7);
w~ (Warsaw. Gebethner Wolff, l9l9)com
prlses 'Na nlemca," 'Pknlty dzwon," 'Orka,"
'Dola," 'Woanle," 'I wynlell," 'Za frontem,"
'Echa," and 'Skazanlec nr. 137";
l~W a (Warsaw. Gebethner Wolff,
l922)comprlses 'Osdzona" and 'Kslnlczka";
m~I l6 volumes, edlted by Adam GrzymalaSledleckl
(Warsaw. Gebethner Wolff, l922-l925);
t~~ p~~ o Eo sLd f~F
23
ai_ PPO t~~ p~~ o
k~ ~ (Warsaw. Gebethner Wolff, l923)com
prlses 'W jeslenn noc," 'W porble," 'Sd,"
'Suka," 'mler," 'Zawlerucha," 'Jomek
Baran," 'Legenda wlgllljna," 'Szczllwl," and
'Pewnego dnla";
_W _~ (Warsaw. Gebethner Wolff, l921);
m (Lww. Nakl. Wydawn. Polsklego,
l925)comprlses 'Pknlty dzwon," 'Na
nlemca!" 'Orka," 'Dola," 'Woanle," 'I
wynlell," 'Za frontem," 'Echa," and 'Skaza
nlec";
m~ m L g~ m~I bllln
gual edltlon, Irench translatlon by Iranck L.
Schoell (Parls. Payot, l932);
m~I 20 volumes, edlted by Adam Bar (Warsaw.
Gebethner Wolff, l919-l952);
a~ ~I l2 volumes, edlted by Henryk Mar
klewlcz and |erzy Skrnlckl (Krakw. Wydaw
nlctwo Llterackle, l955-l957).
Pollsh wrlter Wadysaw Stanlsaw Reymont`s
career ls qulte remarkable. to come from a nearpeasant
background wlth barely a hlghschool educatlon to wln
the l921 Nobel Prlze ln Llterature, and thus galn world
fame, ls no mean achlevement. Hls fame was relatlvely
shortllved, and lnterest ln hls work outslde of Poland
has waned; yet, he has contlnued to be read and
regarded ln Poland as a major novellst.
Irom a broader crltlcal perspectlve, the lnterest of
hls works may be sald to be threefold. blographlcal, cul
tural, and llterary. Ior those who are lnterested ln Rey
mont`s somewhat melodramatlc blography and want to
understand hls vlews on a varlety of contemporary
lssues and hls general outlook, hls llterary works of
course are lnvaluable. Jhey are also of conslderable
lnterest ln terms of cultural studles, llterary hlstory, and
what has been called anthropology of llterature, consld
erlng thelr maln themes, whlch lnclude clty and peasant
llfe as well as provlnclal theatrlcal groups and splrltual
lsm. Moreover, hls wrltlngs reflect several llterary cur
rents and models, such as reallsm, naturallsm, neo
Romantlclsm, modernlsm, and symbollsm, whlle con
trlbutlng to each of these currents ln turn. Ilnally, there
are the few works that, thanks to thelr artlstlc merlt,
deserve to be read and studled for thelr own sake.
Reymont was born on 7 May l867 ln Koblele Wlel
kle, a vlllage sltuated near the clty of d ln central
Poland, whlch, slnce the partltlons of the Pollsh Common
wealth at the end of the elghteenth century and untll l9l8,
was part of the Russlan Emplre. Jhe landscape around
the vlllage and ln the vlclnlty of Juszyn, to whlch hls
father moved a year later, retalns conslderable beauty, wlth
oldgrowth forest and undulatlng terraln.
Jhe orlgln of Reymont`s famlly on the paternal slde
ls uncertaln, but the verslon that ls skeptlcally accepted,
however mythologlzed, ls that the famlly was apparently
of Swedlsh orlgln. a soldler ln the Swedlsh army that
lnvaded Poland ln the mld seventeenth century was elther
captured or deserted and settled near Czstochowa,
famous for lts shrlne devoted to the Vlrgln Mary. Hls
Swedlsh name was polonlzed as Balcer, but at some polnt
one of the descendants recelved the nlckname Rejment
(apparently from ~I to swear vehemently, to
thunder swearwords), and that was the name under whlch
the wrlter publlshed hls flrst work, untll he had changed
the order of hls glven names from Stanlsaw Wadysaw
to Wadysaw Stanlsaw as well as the surname to Rey
mont. Slnce he often slgned hls work as Wadysaw St.
Reymont, he was sometlmes taken for a Irenchman.
Whatever the truth about the past of hls famlly lt ls worth
stresslng that the future author of the eplc novel `
(l901-l909; translated as q m~~I l921-l925) dld
not actually come from a peasant famlly, but from a famlly
that llved close to the peasants. Hls grandfather was a vll
lage church organlst who, to avold havlng hls several sons
conscrlpted lnto the tsarlst army, made them all lnto
church organlsts (the professlon was exempt from mllltary
servlce). Reymont`s father was thus a vlllage organlst, who
owned a mlll and some land. Jhe wrlter`s mother, Anto
nlna, ne Kupczyska, came from the petty noblllty wlth
some cultural lnterests, and lt was probably from her and
her relatlves that young Reymont derlved hls lnterest ln llt
erature. Reymont had two brothers and seven slsters.
Jhere are stlll some uncertalntles about Rey
mont`s early llfe, to whlch he hlmself contrlbuted by hls
tendency to flctlonallze hls past (a good example of
Reymont`s 'creatlve" treatment of hls llfe ls the autoblo
graphlcal statement he sent to the Nobel Prlze Commlt
tee, ln whlch he overdramatlzes hls 'vlclssltudes").
Jhere was tenslon between Reymont and hls father,
slnce the young man refused to follow the career that
hls father had mapped for hlm. (Vlolent tenslon
between a father and hls daughter who runs away to
joln a theatrlcal group ls deplcted wlth great feellng ln
two of Reymont`s early novels, h~~ |l896;
translated as q Ì l920| and c |l897,
Ierments|, and the theme returns ln Ì where father
and son clash over thelr love for the same young
woman.) It was apparently hls mother who taught Rey
mont to read before he started attendlng school, though
some sources attrlbute thls task to hls father; and hls
readlngs of Pollsh authors (he gave ln one of hls reml
nlscences a dramatlc account of hls flrst readlng of Hen
ryk Slenklewlcz`s q~ |l883-l888, Jrllogy|) set hlm
apart from hls lmmedlate mllleu and most of hls slb
llngs and turned hls lnterest to wrltlng. He began wlth
verse, whlch was qulte atroclous but whlch he refused
21
t~~ p~~ o ai_ PPO
to qult wrltlng untll well lnto hls twentles (the brother
he was closest to once wrote to hlm. 'Ior a mllllon
score devlls qult wrltlng poetry!"). He also apparently
had some talent for drawlng and for a whlle thought of
becomlng a palnter, whlle, accordlng to hls account, hls
father brutally forced hlm to practlce playlng on the
splnet, whlch the unmuslcal son hated. How much for
mal schoollng Reymont recelved ls unclear, though he
dld have some secondary educatlon.
Jhe unruly young man was punltlvely placed by
hls father ln l880 ln a tallorlng establlshment, run ln
Warsaw by the husband of one of young Reymont`s sls
ters. Learnlng the trade took Reymont four years, but
he was accepted lnto the gulld of tallor apprentlces ln
l881, havlng presented to the examlners 'a tall coat
well made." Durlng the four years ln the trade school
Reymont also attended the Warsaw SundayCrafts
School, but by thls tlme hls mlnd was of an entlrely dlf
ferent bent, and barely a year after hls graduatlon as a
tallor (a trade he never practlced) he jolned a repertory
theater group that gave performances ln varlous provln
clal towns and occaslonally ln Warsaw. An actor who
was a member of the same troupe recalled years later
that Reymont had no talent and even lacked the deslr
able looks for the actlng professlon.
Physlcally he had llttle to offer. rather short, wlth a
volce that wasn`t anythlng and so shortslghted, that he
could hardly see wlthout glasses. Nevertheless the
dlrector let hlm debut ln Gawalewlcz`s play _~~K
He entered the stage paralyzed by stagefrlght and,
slnce he played the role of a lover, wlthout hls glasses,
whlch made hlm even stlffer. He flnlshed hls eplsode
and, halfbllnd, lnstead of exltlng through the normal
door, opened a nearby wardrobe and went lnto lt. He
rulned the entlre performance. Yet the dlrector kept
hlm ln the troupe.
Less than a year later Reymont left the troupe and,
belng wlthout a job, returned to hls parents` small farm
ln the country. Ior a whlle he worked on the rallways as
asslstant to a gatekeeper at a rallway crosslng and ln
some other capaclty, but he agaln 'ran away" ln l890 to
joln a theater group ln the town of Plotrkw, only to
leave dlslllusloned after a short stay. He then returned
to varlous jobs on the WarsawVlenna rall llne, durlng
whlch tlme he consldered jolnlng the rellglous order of
the Paullne Brothers, whlch had the Monastery of the
Vlrgln Mary ln Czstochowa (known also as the Brlght
Mountaln) ln lts care. He wrote ln a 20 Iebruary l893
letter to the prlor of the monastery.
I envy you, Reverend Father, thls port, ln whlch you
stand, thls plnnacle, from whlch you can look down on
the grey lowlands, swarmlng wlth crowds that do not
know elther the where to? or the what for? I envy you
and I long for just such a harbor, but wlth the longlng
whlch comes from knowlng the worth of all that whlch
amuses the world, ln whlch the world dellghts, of what
bewltches lt, so that lt dances lts wlld sarabande of
thoughtless llfe. . . . Mlndful of your goodness,
Respected Father, and your broad outlook, I take the
llberty of asklng you to klndly lnform me of the steps
one should take to be accepted lnto the novltlate at Jhe
Brlght Mountaln.
Jhe prlor`s answer has not been preserved, but the let
ter certalnly shows Reymont`s ablllty for styllzed
expresslon, an unquestlonable quallty of hls llterary
works.
Before returnlng to work on the rallways, Rey
mont went to vlslt a frlend ln Czstochowa, where he
was lntroduced to a group of splrltuallsts, and the lnter
est he then acqulred ln supernatural phenomena not
only proved lastlng but led hlm eventually to wrlte
what ls undoubtedly hls weakest novel, t~ (l9ll,
Vamplre). Reymont gave an account of thls meetlng ln
a letter to hls brother Iranclszek.
I went to vlslt hlm at hls home, but he wasn`t there, and
I was taken to the place he was at. . . . I come ln, a large
drawlng room, fllled wlth as many as thlrty odd per
sons; they all welcome me wlth strangely composed
faces, rlslng from thelr seats. Mr. P. comes close to me
and bowlng hls head whlspers. 'Be greeted." Jhls
astonlshes me and I say some words of explanatlon to
hlm, but he retreats lnto the drawlng room and all the
people gathered there flle past me, bowlng thelr heads
and whlsperlng. 'Be greeted." Imaglne my astonlsh
ment. Eventually I am told I have found myself ln the
clrcle of wellknown splrltuallsts, and I see before me
the most promlnent representatlves of thls plpe dream
or sclence. . . . Mr. P. lnforms me that all of them have
gathered here qulte on purpose to make my acqualn
tance. . . . He further explalns that they were told ln
thelr varlous splrltuallst sances to gather on l0 II 90 at
7 o`clock ln such and such a place ln Czstochowa and
awalt the arrlvaland here they showed me the most
detalled descrlptlon of my person, a descrlptlon as
exact as a most falthful photograph would be. My head
started splnnlng qulte serlously. But they calmed me
down and told me, that I have been chosen to proclalm
and effect the vlctory of the splrlt over matter, and that
I am the successor of Swedenborg. . . .
Reymont endured the work on the rallways untll
December l893, whereupon he moved to Warsaw.
Jhe next year marks the beglnnlng of Reymont`s
llterary career. He managed to have some prose pleces
accepted by Warsaw journals, but the real breakthrough
came ln the early sprlng of that year, when Reymont
brought a short story to Aleksander wltochowskl, the
edltor of m~~ (Jruth), one of the major journals ln
Warsaw. wltochowskl declded the author had talent
25
ai_ PPO t~~ p~~ o
and on the spur of the moment suggested he joln a
group of pllgrlms on the way to the Monastery of the
Vlrgln Mary ln Czstochowa and wrlte hls account of
the pllgrlmage. Reymont followed the suggestlon, went
wlth the pllgrlms on foot to the monastery, and submlt
ted hls text, whlch was publlshed ln May ln m~~K
Jhe publlcatlon created a stlr and establlshed Rey
mont`s reputatlon as a talented and promlslng wrlter. It
ls, ln fact, a perceptlve and effectlve plece of reportage,
testlfylng to Reymont`s powers of observatlon, hls
excellent memory for detall, and hls abllltles as narra
tor, and lt can stlll be read wlth lnterest.
Jhe year l891 marked also Reymont`s flrst
major trlp abroad. He traveled to London vla Berlln
and Ostende wlth a Warsaw homeopath, |zef Drzewl
eckl, who was attendlng a meetlng of the Jheosophlcal
Soclety. Reymont descrlbed hls lmpresslons of London,
wlth a characterlstlc penchant for ampllflcatlon, ln a let
ter to hls brother Iranclszek, headlng lt wlth 'My Dear"
(he trled, but never learned Engllsh properly).
What can I tell you about thls monstrous colossus of a
clty? It ls so vast lt`s beyond anybody`s lmaglnatlon. . . .
Incredlble trafflc, you have to walt for hours to flnd an
opportunlty to cross the street. In the streets you have
to push your way through, they are so crowded. And
what houses! What horses and what women. Yesterday
I got lost ln the Brltlsh Museum and only wlth dlffl
culty found my way out. Jhe London docks . . . are a
real wonder, there ls none such ln the world. Mllllons
of omnlbuses. A dense network of rallllnes both above
and underground.
Reymont returned to Warsaw vla Parls, whlch became
ln the years to come one of hls most frequently vlslted
cltles, desplte the fact that he more than once expressed
hls abhorrence for the clty. 'What can one say about
Parls," he wrote ln a |anuary l897 letter, 'about thls
whorehouse of the world, thls gutter lnto whlch flows
all the dlrtother than that lt ls hldeous, desplte the
appearances of splendor, and that lt ls stupld, desplte lts
level of clvlllzatlon." In l896 he traveled to Rome and
other Itallan cltles. Jhese flrst journeys were the begln
nlng of Reymont`s wanderlust. for the rest of hls llfe he
could not stay put ln one place for long. He constantly
moved ln the lands of partltloned Poland from Warsaw
to Krakw, Pozna, the mountaln resort Zakopane,
country estates of hls acqualntances, and hls father`s
farm, or he traveled abroad, to Parls, Nlce, the coast of
Bretagne, Ilorence, Spaln, and even the Lnlted States,
where he went ln l9l9 and agaln ln l920.
In the years followlng hls l893 move to Warsaw,
Reymont publlshed short storles, sketches, and travel
ogues ln a varlety of Pollsh journals, and hls flrst two nov
els were serlallzed and then publlshed ln book form by
Gebethner and Wolff, one of the major publlshers of the
tlme. He became acqualnted wlth the major llterary flg
ures ln Warsaw, Krakw, and Lww, lncludlng Mlrlam
Przesmyckl, one of the most lmportant crltlcs of the bur
geonlng llterary movement known as Young Poland; the
leadlng wrlters of the movement, Stanlsaw Przybys
zewskl, novellst and playwrlght, and Stanlsaw Wyspl
askl, palnter and playwrlght; and two other promlnent
crltlcs, |an Lorentowlcz and Ignacy Matuszewskl. Loren
towlcz lntroduced Reymont to Irance and taught hlm
some Irench (though not enough to read Honor de
Balzac, Guy de Maupassant, or Emlle Zola ln the orlglnal),
and lt was apparently Matuszewskl who dlssuaded hlm
from wrltlng a novel about the Irench peasants and sug
gested that rather than 'correctlng" Zola`s deplctlon of
peasants ln i~ q (Earth, l887), he should wrlte a novel
about the Pollsh peasants, wlth whose llfe he was after all
much better acqualnted.
In l895 Reymont contracted wlth Gebethner and
Wolff for a novel about d, a clty ln central Poland that
ln the l880s and l890s became a major lndustrlal center, a
Pollsh Manchester, so called on account of lts growlng tex
tlle lndustry. He spent some tlme ln d ln l896, gather
lng materlals and wrltlng hls novel (he wrote parts of lt ln
Parls), whlch under the tltle w~ ~~ (translated as
q m i~I l927) flrst appeared serlally and then ln
book form ln l899. Even before lts publlcatlon ln book
form the novel was hlghly pralsed by some crltlcs but cre
ated a sharp controversy and debate ln d ltself.
In l896 Reymont became engaged to Aurella Szac
najder Szabowska, a marrled woman who was trylng to
obtaln a dlvorce. She was not the flrst nor the last marrled
woman wlth whom Reymont fell ln love; ln fact, he seems
to have been attracted to them only. Reymont was a fre
netlcally amorous and passlonate man, at least judglng by
hls love letters and hls flctlon. Hls flrst love was Stefanla
Kluge, a young and newly marrled wlfe of a statlonmaster
of one of the statlons on the WarsawVlenna Rallway
Llne. Jhelr romance ln l889 lasted two months and
ended ln Reymont`s dlsappolntment. He clalmed that the
son to whom Kluge gave blrth was hls chlld, and appar
ently he trled to shoot hlmself because he could not clalm
paternlty. Jhe boy later dled, whlch accordlng to Rey
mont`s statement brought hlm some rellef. Reymont`s sec
ond love was another marrled woman, Antonlna
Szczyglelska, wlth whom he fell ln love ln l892 and broke
off wlth two years later.
Jhese early emotlonal lnvolvements occurred ln
the sober amblence of what ls known ln Pollsh llterary
hlstory as Posltlvlsm, a llterary and cultural movement
that stressed socalled organlc work as the way to
lmprove the lot of the Pollsh natloneducatlng the peas
ants, learnlng of professlons by lmpoverlshed noblllty,
and ralslng the economlc and clvlllzatlonal level of Pol
26
t~~ p~~ o ai_ PPO
lsh soclety. Reymont remalned largely unaffected by
the Posltlvlst ldeals, derlvlng hls emotlonal models from
Romantlclsm. Posltlvlsm gave way to what became
known as the Young Poland movementneoRomantlc,
modernlst, wlth a prose style lnvaded by poetlclsm.
Love was vlewed as sexual passlon, whose conse
quences for the artlst, exalted ln hls role by the doctrlne
of art for art`s sake, were negatlve, as they weakened
hls creatlve power. Jhe language of lovers` dlalogues,
confesslons, and declaratlons acqulred characterlstlcs to
whlch lt ls now dlfflcult not to react wlth some hllarlty.
Such ls, ln fact, the language of Reymont`s love letters,
and lt ls also characterlstlc of many love scenes ln hls
flctlon.
How he addressed SzacnajderSzabowska ls not
known, for hls letters to her have not been preserved, but
lt appears that she may not have put Reymont lnto rap
tures, nor lnto despalr, though they dld have to walt slx
years before they were able to get marrled. Jhe marrlage
almost faltered and was probably saved only by the derall
ment, ln |uly l900, of a traln ln whlch Reymont was trav
ellng. Earller ln the year Reymont had met Wanda
Szczuka ln Zakopane. She was a few years older than Rey
mont, apparently qulte attractlve and ladyllke, from a
good famlly, and was a hlghly lndependent and actlve
woman. When Reymont met her she was already sepa
rated from her husband and taklng care of thelr teenage
chlldren. Reymont fell passlonately ln love wlth her and
managed to be wlth her alone for two days ln Krakw a
few months later. A correspondence ensued (though only
Reymont`s letters have survlved), from whlch one can def
lnltely gather that the beautlful, llberated woman reclpro
cated Reymont`s ardent passlon. 'My longedfor, my One
and Only!" he wrote on 1 Aprll l900, bemoanlng the
news that the meetlng he was trylng to arrange wlth her
was 'not to be".
I have just recelved your cable.
So lt ls not to be, not to be! No, I cannot belleve lt; I
cannot belleve that I wlll not see you here, that my
most earnest wlshes won`t be fulfllled. My God, and
what haven`t I dreamt about thls moment of meetlng
you, how wonderful and ravenous I have made lt ln my
lmaglnatlon. . . .
And now, now I feel llke howllng ln my rage agalnst
fate, and agalnst myself. You so Mlne, so stupendous,
so marvelous, my Lady, my Demonwhy aren`t you
here, why?
I would have fllled wlth klsses your entlre llfe, I
would have taken possesslon of lt for ever, burn lt
through wlth thls flre that consumes me and scorches
me, o how lt scorches me!
Yet, desplte hls protestatlons of love and deslre, Rey
mont was all thls tlme decelvlng her, as he contlnued
hls llalson wlth SzacnajderSzabowska, vlsltlng her,
whlle he stayed ln the country, several tlmes ln Warsaw,
where he had an apartment. At the same tlme he could
not make hlmself vlslt Szczuka ln Zakopane, glvlng var
lous excuses, whlch must have ralsed Szczuka`s suspl
clons, for she started questlonlng hlm about the
slncerlty of hls feellngs. Hls protestatlons were vehe
ment, though somewhat dlslngenuous. Ilnally, ln |uly
l900, he declded to travel to her, explaln hlmself, and
perhaps come to a flrm declslon. But the traln that Rey
mont took from Warsaw to obtaln hls Russlan passport
(Zakopane and Krakw were then ln a forelgn country,
the AustroHungarlan Emplre) deralled near Warsaw,
and Reymont was serlously hurt ln the accldent. He
was taken to a Warsaw hospltal, from whlch he wrote a
few more letters to Szczuka. She also wrote to hlm, and
some of her letters must have fallen lnto Szacnajder
Szabowska`s hands, for she traveled to Zakopane, and
Szczuka soon asked Reymont to return her letters to
hlm (whlch he dld).
Reymont`s last frenetlc love was for Wanda Joc
zydowska, marrled to a man who had tuberculosls.
She was a rather senslble woman, mother of two boys
(a thlrd was born whlle Reymont was wrltlng flery love
letters to her), and whlle she apparently now and agaln
reclprocated Reymont`s sentlments, she was mlndful of
malntalnlng her good reputatlon and not hurtlng her
husband. Reymont, by thls tlme hlmself marrled, met
her ln Krakw ln l907 and then saw her at least once
agaln. But most of the tlme 'the hunger of hls eyes" for
her had to be satlsfled wlth photographs she had sent
hlm. Yet, desplte her relatlve aloofness, he contlnued to
wrlte to her for more than a year and even as late as
l9l2, when she asked that he return her letters (whlch
have not been preserved). Apart from hls feellngs of fer
vld love, he had compasslon for her, slnce she had cho
sen duty over the call of the heart, and for Reymont the
heart had rlghts exceedlng all else.
Whlle Reymont apparently dld not attaln the
bllss of mutually satlsfylng passlon, he stlll hlghly val
ued belng madly lnfatuated and possessed by rapturous
and ravenous emotlon. Jhe pursult of love, however
unrequlted, was lts own reward, slnce belng ln the grlp
of erotlc passlon made llfe worth llvlng, when lt would
otherwlse be tlresome, hardly bearable, and common.
Crltlcs and blographers have shown the extent to whlch
Reymont`s love for the two Wandas lnfluenced the
lmage of the vamplrellke Mlss Dalsy ln hls novel t~J
(ln her appearance she shares features of both
women) as well as the concluslon of the novel. the pro
tagonlst, Zenon, has a lovlng but ordlnary flance as
well as another woman who loves hlm but chooses to
27
ai_ PPO t~~ p~~ o
marry somebody else, but he shakes loose of the two
attachments and follows Mlss Dalsy, the vamplre, wher
ever the entlcement wlll lead.
Reymont`s accldent had farreachlng conse
quences for the last two decades of hls llfe. It ended one
posslblllty of marrlage and eventually led to another.
Jhe money he recelved ln compensatlon for hls lnjurles
eased hls flnanclal clrcumstances, but hls health suf
fered, and hls tendency to hypochondrla lncreased. Jhe
flnances, helped by the royaltles from hls publlcatlons,
allowed hlm to lndulge fully hls passlon for travellng,
and hls allments justlfled hls long stays abroad. Jhe
money also helped SzacnajderSzabowska to complete
her dlvorce proceedlngs ln the Vatlcan, and she and
Reymont were flnally marrled ln |uly l902 ln Krakw.
Jhe weddlng was attended by several promlnent wrlt
ers and artlsts, lncludlng Wysplaskl, Przesmyckl, the
poet Kazlmlerz Jetmajer, and Wllhelm Ieldman, edltor
of the lmportant llterary and cultural journal h~K
In the same year, Reymont`s second major novel,
Ì began appearlng ln serlal form ln the journal
q f~ (Illustrated Weekly). Reymont had
already contracted for the wrltlng of the novel ln l897,
but he took tlme ln wrltlng lt, confldlng to hls brother
ln a letter of May l898 that he planned to make lt hls
masterplece. Volume one was serlallzed ln l902, vol
ume two ln l903, both meetlng wlth a somewhat unfa
vorable receptlon by the readers. Volume three dld not
appear untll l905-l906, and volume four as late as
l908. Jhe novel was also publlshed serlally ln other
perlodlcals ln Krakw and Pozna, and lt appeared ln
book form between l901 and l909 ln a verslon that
Reymont thoroughly reworked; moreover, he restored
ln the book verslon all the deleted passages, whlch the
edltors of q f~ thought mlght be offen
slve elther to the mentallty of lts prlnclpally mlddle
class readers or to the Russlan censor ln Warsaw.
Jhe Russlan defeat ln the Russo|apanese War, as
well as the revolutlon of l905, whlch strongly affected
the Pollsh part of the Russlan Emplre and the polltlcal
reallgnments ln the lnternatlonal arena that followed,
changed the mood of Pollsh soclety and had a farreachlng
lmpact on Pollsh llterature. As the promlnent crltlc
Karol Irzykowskl wrote. 'Poetry fell on lts knees ln ser
vlle humlllty before the genlus of revolutlon. . . . No
one had the courage to stay by the slde of the aban
doned flag of the Young Poland, on whlch lt was wrlt
ten. art for art`s sake and a passlonate dlsdaln for
polltlcs and soclal actlvlsm."
Jhe Russo|apanese confllct revealed the weak
ness of Russla, and the concesslons that the tsar made
under the pressure of revolutlonary events lncluded the
grantlng of a constltutlon, the relatlve relaxatlon of cen
sorshlp, the creatlon of the flrst quaslparllamentary
lnstltutlon ln Russla (the Duma), and the flrst seml
democratlc electlons, ln whlch the Poles under Russlan
rule were allowed to partlclpate. Jhese developments
helghtened the polltlcal atmosphere, revealed hldden
asplratlons, sharpened ldeologlcal dlvlslons, and embol
dened Pollsh hopes for achlevlng at least greater auton
omy, lf not lndependence. As Norman Davles put lt.
'Loyallsts grew more loyal, crltlcs grew more crltlcal,
mllltants more mllltant, Poles more Pollsh."
Jhe relaxatlon of censorshlp had an lmmedlate
effect on Pollsh wrltlng and publlshlng. Reymont and
hls publlshers took advantage of the more llberal rules.
the postl905 edltlons of Ì for lnstance, make the
suppressed natlonal theme more expllclt. At the same
tlme, Reymont`s mlnor pleces wrltten durlng thls
perlod became more toplcal and no longer concentrated
on themes typlcal of the prerevolutlonary wrltlngs of
Young Poland wrlters.
Among the pleces, most of them short or novella
length, one that stlll can be read wlth lnterest ls Rey
mont`s reportage of roughly three weeks of revolutlon
ary upheaval ln Warsaw. It ls reportage par excellence,
wrltten by an emotlonally lnvolved wltness of events,
and lt was publlshed wlth photographs ln a Warsaw
weekly almost slmultaneously as the events were
unfoldlng ln the Warsaw streets. Jhere ls no attempt to
analyze the slgnlflcance from a polltlcal polnt of vlew,
but the emphasls ls on dlrectness, detall, and the dra
matlc character of the streets of Warsaw comlng allve
wlth crowds, banners, and speeches ln an upsurge of
natlonal and worklngclass sentlment desplte pollce
actlon. But however sympathetlc Reymont was to the
natlonal cause and the worker`s pllght, the transforma
tlon that the behavlor of people underwent ln l905 and
the collapse of order ln all of Russla set Reymont radl
cally agalnst vlolence and vlolent change.
Polltlcally and ldeologlcally Reymont`s sympa
thles were wlth the Natlonal League, soon to become
the Natlonal Democratlc Party, a rlghtwlng, natlonallst,
autonomlst, and antl|ewlsh movement. Reymont was
on frlendly terms wlth lts leader, Roman Dmowskl
(hlmself a mlnor novellst), who had persuaded Rey
mont to wrlte an hlstorlcal novel that would deplct the
solldarlty between noblllty and peasantry ln the strug
gle for Pollsh lndependence. Jhough Reymont was not
overtly natlonallstlc, Dmowskl`s polltlcal thought and
program certalnly lnfluenced hls own ldeologlcal sentl
ments, and patrlotlc and polltlcal themes became doml
nant ln hls wrltlngs, although he contlnued to work on
new chapters of the Gothlcsplrltuallst t~K
Reymont`s work ls extremely uneven, and even
hls best pleces lnclude passages that are qulte atroclous.
Apart from early verse and some attempts at wrltlng
plays, hls wrltlngs conslst of llterary reportage, short
28
t~~ p~~ o ai_ PPO
storles, novellas, and novels. Jhe verse and the plays
are negllglble, and so are many of hls short storles. thelr
lntellectual content ls sllght; the characters are bundles
of emotlons rather than psychologlcal portralts; the
plots are overdramatlzed; and the style ls often shrlll,
even hysterlcal. Among the novels, the threevolume
hlstorlcal novel Iol 1794 (l9l3-l9l8, Jhe Year l791),
whlch deals wlth the Koscluszko lnsurrectlon agalnst
Russlan rule and lts soclopolltlcal background, ls read
able and lnterestlng as a styllstlc experlment. It has also
some good satlrlcal passages, but lt ls spolled by lts
obvlous dldactlc tendency and a somewhat slmple
mlnded conceptlon of hlstory. Its one remarkable fea
ture ls the way lt treats the battle scenes, ln whlch Rey
mont departed from the paradlgmatlc models created
by Slenklewlcz and Stefan Zeromskl ln thelr hlstorlcal
novels. Whlle ln thelr works most of the battle scenes
are grand clashes of regular armles, ln Reymont`s novel
the clash ls between revoltlng crowds flghtlng regular
troops ln street battles, uslng revolutlonary feroclty and
prlmltlve weapons.
Of Reymont`s flve major novels on contemporary
themes, the flrst two, Iomcdiovtlo and Icrmcvty (whlch
constltutes a sequel), retaln some lnterest as deplctlons
of the struggles of theatrlcal groups to make a llvlng at
thelr professlon, whlch was vlewed by large sectlons of
soclety as scandalous and lmmoral, and of country llfe
and provlnclal types. Jhe actors ln Iomcdiovtlo dlscuss
art and the hlgh calllng of the artlst ln terms characterls
tlc of the rlslng Young Poland movement (wlth lts shlb
boleth of art for art`s sake) and dream of success and
fame, but thelr exaltatlon of art ls undercut by the
actual condltlons of thelr work, the lntrlgues and rlval
rles, and thelr medlocre talents. In both novels the maln
character ls a young woman, |anka Orowska, who
rebels agalnst the provlnclallsm, narrow horlzons,
drearlness, and coarseness of country and smalltown
llfe. She runs away agalnst the wlshes of her father and
becomes an actress, only to experlence rlvalry, lnflghtlng,
poverty, seductlon, and pregnancy. Dlslllusloned and
emotlonally devastated, she attempts sulclde, ls saved,
and trles to cope wlth the fallure of her ambltlon. In Icr-
mcvty, havlng returned to her father, she eventually mar
rles a selfmade man of peasant stock who becomes a
falrly welltodo landowner and can boast of a manslon,
thanks to the frugallty and buslness acumen of hls
father. Both works may be descrlbed as attempts at a
psychologlcal novel, and as such are complete fallures.
Reymont allows readers access to the lnnermost
thoughts and feellngs of the maln character, through
hyperbollc, shrlll, hysterlcal, and often confuslng lnte
rlor monologues. More reallstlc and ln fact more lnter
estlng ls the dlvlded self of her father, who performs
two offlclal functlons ln the same slngle offlce, that of a
statlonmaster and that of an offlce clerk, and wrltes offl
clal memoranda to hlmself. Jhere are also some memo
rable character sketches of deranged lndlvlduals and of
estate owners, and of several peasants, among whom ls
the peasant couple who have turned thelr son lnto a
squlre.
icmio obiccovo, Reymont`s thlrd major novel, ls
almost free of the rhapsodlzlng lyrlclsm and psyche
problng that mar Icrmcvty. It tells the story of several
dozen characters who have money, are trylng to make
money, or have no money. Jhe theme of money ls, ln
fact, one of the common denomlnators of almost every
thlng that happens ln the novel, for even those few
characters who see moneymaklng as demeanlng or
dehumanlzlng are deflned by thelr negatlve attltude to
lt. Characters are shown calculatlng ln thelr heads, on
thelr cuffs, ln notebooks, on restaurant tables, ln offlces,
and durlng bargalnlng and usurlous lendlng. Promls
sory notes, lnsurance, loans, bankruptcy, arson to avold
bankruptcy, trade deals, extreme poverty, and ostenta
tlous luxury characterlze the llfe of d soclety. Men
and women are assessed accordlng to thelr flnanclal
worth, wlth the assets counted ln real estate, turnover,
credltworthlness, and buslness clout; women are attrac
tlve not only because of thelr looks but also because of
thelr potentlal dowrles and the amount of money thelr
fathers have lnvested ln thelr educatlon and accompllsh
ments.
Jhe novel takes place sometlme ln the l880s. Jhe
protagonlst, Karol Borowleckl, comes from Pollsh
landed noblllty, not partlcularly noted for lts buslness
acumen and entrepreneurlal splrlt; but because of hls
own clrcumstances and of the ldeas of socalled Pollsh
Posltlvlsts, he ls obsessed wlth the goal of enterlng the
ranks of textlle barons. He ls valued for hls expertlse as
a chemlst (he ls an expert ln dyes) and managerlal
skllls, but he forms a buslness partnershlp wlth a |ew,
Moryc Welt, and a German, Max Baum. Jhese three
characters have two thlngs ln common at the beglnnlng
of the novel. they have no capltal, and they want to
make blg money. Jhelr efforts at flrst as partners and
then as rlvals, and thelr relatlons wlth the already rlch
and wellestabllshed textlle barons and all klnds of
other characters, lncludlng some excellently drawn
women characters, constltute the maln plot of the novel.
Jhe drawlng of the characters, both major and mlnor,
ls ln fact one of the strengths of the novel.
Another strlklng quallty ls the sklllful sequenclng,
juxtaposltlon, and lnterweavlng of scenes and eplsodes
deplctlng the behavlor of the rlch and the powerful, the
mlddle and the asplrlng, and the mlserable and the strug
gllng. Jhere are scenes ln drawlng rooms and offlces, fac
torles and lnns, workers` hovels and country houses,
and on the streets and ln shops, all of whlch together
29
ai_ PPO t~~ p~~ o
compose a vast plcture of a modern lndustrlal clty, lts
dynamlcs, romance, and evll. An lnterestlng aspect of
the novel ls the deplctlon of the rlse of the worklng
class, made up prlnclpally of Pollsh peasantsturned
workers but also of some poorer |ews, although Rey
mont had as yet no sense of the soclopolltlcal slgnlfl
cance of the phenomenon. And there ls yet another
lnterestlng theme ln thls rlch novel. the relatlons among
the three prlnclpal ethnlc groups, the Poles, the |ews,
and the Germans, thelr collectlve characterlstlcs and
thelr gradual merglng lnto a mlddle class wlth some cul
tural asplratlons malnly as a form of matchlng thelr
worth ln wealth and lmportance. One of the features of
thls merglng ls what ls descrlbed as solovowo osymilocjo
(drawlngroom asslmllatlon) of the |ewlsh element, that
ls, the stlll rather superflclal polonlzatlon, wlth Poles
and |ews, mlxlng not always comfortably at soclal and
cultural evenlngs. Jhe negatlve attltude of the |ewlsh
element to the menace of a Pollsh lnfuslon lnto buslness
and lndustry, and of the Pollsh element toward the
obsesslon wlth money and lts unscrupulous pursult by
the |ews, lllustrate one aspect of the growth of modern
antlSemltlsm ln Pollsh soclety.
Jhe clty of d grows as a result of unscrupu
lous selflnterest, competltlon, lngenulty, and hard
labor, untll lt not only encroaches on the vlllages and
on nature but transforms them lnto thelr opposltes.
rows of houses, factorles wlth chlmneys, palaces, dylng
trees, mud, movement, trade, productlon, and fortunes.
Jhe contrast wlth country folk, whether noblllty or
peasantry, and wlth the rhythms of country llfe ls sharp
and radlcal. d creates a new breed of man. the Iod-
crmcvscl, of whom the Pollsh character Stach Wllczek,
of peasant stock, ls a good secondgeneratlon example.
Wllczek, llke some of the older |ewlsh types of Iodcr-
mcvsclcv, the Mendelsohns, Grunspans, and Grosgllcs,
ls totally unscrupulous, greedy, and enormously ambl
tlous. He loves the 'promlsed land" as 'a predatory anl
mal loves the wlld jungle full of prey." But whlle he ls
ready to 'suck all the gold" out of the 'promlsed land,"
lt ls the older generatlon, the |ewlsh tycoons as well as
the more solld though ruthlessly exploltatlve German
potentates, the Bucholzs and Kesslers, who have cre
ated the tremendous power of the clty. It becomes a
dynamlc center of exchange and of productlon maxl
mlzed by the lncreaslng use of machlnery, to whlch
workers become enslaved and whlch sometlmes malms
or kllls them. In one sense, then, the land of promlse for
the lmpoverlshed and often desperate peasants ls a
monument to human lngenulty and energy, the power
of money and the effect of hard labor; ln another lt ls a
citc ivfcrvolc. Yet, the novel ends on an utterly false note.
at some polnt ln the narratlve Borowleckl, to avold
utter ruln of hls enterprlse when a flre hlts hls factory,
breaks wlth hls Pollsh flance, a woman of sweetness
and noble sentlments, to marry a 'plump, roundeyed"
helress to the great fortune of a German textlle baron.
When he meets hls former flance at the end of the
novel, he wrltes her a check for the charlty she runs for
poor chlldren, for, as he puts lt to hlmself. 'I have gam
bled away my own happlness. Now I can only create lt
for others."
Reymont fully revealed and artlculated hls strong
dlsapproval of lndustrlallzatlon and the growth of large clt
les ln a l907 short story, 'Cmentarzysko" (Burlal
Ground). 'Cmentarzysko" ls a truly apocalyptlc plece,
both ln lts style and ln lts vlslon, and lt was clearly lnflu
enced by the events of the l905 revolutlon. In a huge
lndustrlal clty whose descrlptlon resembles d, ln whlch
the factorles and the smoklng chlmneys have denatured
the earth and sky, workers go on strlke ln one of the oldest
and largest factorles. Jhe owner, an lndustrlal potentate,
declares a lockout, expectlng the starvlng workers to come
back and beg hlm to open the factory. But they do not
return to work, and the owner suffers agonles seelng hls
machlnes ldle, the halls empty, and hearlng no slren ln the
mornlng calllng to workers. Yet, he perslsts ln keeplng the
factory closed, untll one mornlng he does not hear any
slrens at all ln the clty. Jhe deadly sllence ls followed by a
revolutlonary upheaval, ln whlch the masses klll and
destroy, exactlng cruel revenge for years of exploltatlon
and lnhuman treatment. 'Jhey klll ln the name of free
dom. Jhey klll ln the name of equallty. Jhey klll ln the
name of fraternlty." Jhe successful revolutlon brlngs an
era of unlversal happlness to the clty, whlch becomes all
powerful, rullng over the world. Its lnhabltants, who wor
shlp an 'ldol on a throne of rubles," have lost all splrltual
lty; they are all equally satlated, vlrtuous, puffed up wlth
prlde, and lacklng all lndlvlduallty. Jhey are 'llke maggots
ln a heap of manure." And hence thls 'vamplreclty" can
not last; lt ls doomed to destructlon. As death gradually
takes away lts lnhabltants, the clty becomes overgrown
wlth forest. Nature comes back, and under lts luxurlant
growth and bustllng llfe the clty ls burled. Jhe vlslon,
though apocalyptlcally powerful, lacks lntellectual content
(for example, there ls no ecologlcal motlvatlon) and ls a
mere exerclse ln style.
icmio obiccovo ls probably a better novel than
Clopi: lt ls shorter, and thus more compact; lt lmpresses
wlth the sklll wlth whlch Reymont lntegrates the many
subplots wlth the overall deslgn of deplctlng the growth
of a modern lndustrlal clty and how lt subordlnates per
sonal fortunes and actlons to lt; and the theme allows
Reymont to be naturallstlc or reallstlc ln hls descrlp
tlons and dellneatlon of character, offerlng credlble
motlvatlon and passlon lnstead of lndulglng hls lyrlcal
and rhapsodlzlng tendencles.
30
t~~ p~~ o ai_ PPO
But lt was the eplc ` that Reymont wanted to
make hls prlnclpal masterplece and whlch earned hlm
the Nobel Prlze. Peasant llfe and character had
appeared early ln Reymont`s wrltlngs and were the sub
ject of several short storles and novellas before the wrlt
lng of `. Perhaps the most powerful and reallstlc ls
the novella p~ (l899, |ustlce ls Done). It tells
the story of a young peasant who manages to escape
from prlson and ls hldden by hls mother ln her farm
house. Jhe authorltles begln to search for hlm, and the
entlre vlllage communlty becomes ln one way or
another lnvolved. Jhe young man plans to run away to
Amerlca but mlsses hls chance and hldes near the vll
lage. Some peasants dlscover hls hldlng place and try to
capture hlm. Jo avold belng caught he sets flre to a
barnhouse, and the flames spread to other houses, set
tlng the whole vlllage ablaze. Enraged, the peasants cap
ture hlm and throw hlm lnto the flames as hls mother
watches hls horrlble death. Before she dles of a stroke,
she exclalms '|ustlce ls done," thus recognlzlng that her
son deserved to be punlshed by the communlty to
whlch he had done such terrlble harm. Jhe novella
lncludes many elements that appear ln Ì as Rey
mont`s real focus ls on the llfe and character of the
entlre vlllage communlty.
` ls a huge novel, more than one thousand
pages long and teemlng wlth characterssome larger
than llfe, others mlnor and petty, some welltodo, oth
ers extremely poor, but almost all drlven by elther the
hunger for land and materlal objects or abject poverty.
It sklllfully weaves together several plots and subplots
and ls rlch ln eplsode and lncldent, but perhaps lts most
strlklng feature that provldes unlty to all thls multlfarl
ousness ls the role of Nature. |ust as ln w~ ~~
the prlnclpal protagonlst ls the clty, so ln ` the prln
clpal protagonlst ls the communlty of the vlllage Llpce.
Jhe novel ls dlvlded lnto four parts, subtltled
respectlvely gI w~I t~I and i~ (Autumn,
Wlnter, Sprlng, and Summer). Jhus, the four seasons
wlth thelr characterlstlc weather affect the economy, the
character of work and actlvlty, the wellbelng and the
mood of the vlllagers, as well as thelr rellglous llfe and
rltuals, actlng as an overall framework ln whlch the dra
mas of vlllage llfe play themselves out. Jhe changes ln
the weather are treated both reallstlcally and symboll
cally; pathetlc fallacy does occur, but overall Nature ls
beyond human controllt ls powerful, relentless, but
also beautlful and full of blesslngs. It has to be fought
agalnst, made to yleld after hard labor, but lt ls also llfe
glvlng, sustalnlng, and bountlful. Its major asset ls the
land ltself, the soll, whlch evokes ln the peasant heart
hunger, greed, envy, passlon, and love. But Nature for
the novellst ls also an lnsplratlon and an opportunlty to
be evocatlve and poetlc, and ln ` the descrlptlons
of the seasons, of the forests and flelds, the changlng
colors, the hues and aspects of the water, and the effects
that the sun, moon, clouds, raln, snow, and wlnd have
on the earth and lts flora are on the whole done ln a
poetlc style that only occaslonally degenerates lnto
poetlclsm.
Whlle lndlvldual fates and storles are narrated
and lnterwoven, the communlty as a whole becomes
now and agaln a dlrect protagonlst, an actor ln the
novel. Its gatherlngs, as ln the church, ln processlons, at
funerals, chrlstenlngs and weddlngs, ln the |ewlsh lnn,
lts moments of solldarlty and lts lnner dlvlslons, lts
stratlflcatlon, lts common set of bellefs and lts wlsdom,
as well as lts shared passlons, are notably ln the fore
ground. Reymont uses for the communlty the word
~I whlch ln the case of Llpce stands for the people,
but as the story develops, beglns to acqulre the sense of
natlon.
What dlvldes the communlty are hunger for
landdlfferences ln wealth, and hence status, and thus
envy, whlch breeds confllct, often vlolentand gender,
for men and women do form two dlstlnct groups, need
lng each other and yet ln permanent tenslon. What
unltes the communlty are rellglon and the prlest, espe
clally durlng ceremonles and ln the face of the prlest`s
fulmlnatlons agalnst sln and promlses of punlshment,
when ~ feels deep contrltlon and slghs heartlly for
God`s forglveness. Another unlfylng factor (though
some characters, such as the blacksmlth and the mlller,
break thls solldarlty) ls the local squlre. Jhe older mem
bers of the communlty stlll remember the tlmes of serf
dom, and there ls a deepseated dlstrust of the manor
and a burnlng resentment about the wood, whlch the
vlllage regarded as lts communal property but whlch
the squlre regards as hls property to sell. An addltlonal
factor that unltes the vlllagers, and especlally the
women, ls the 'palnted blrd" of the vlllage, |agna, who
ls beautlful, dlfferent, and qulte attractlve to men.
Ilnally, toward the end of the novel there emerges a
growlng sense of the allen character of the offlclals and
the awakenlng of the peasants` natlonal consclousness,
resultlng ln a confllct over the Russlanlanguage school,
wlth the communlty maklng clear lts preference for a
Pollshlanguage school.
Whlle the framework of the seasons provldes
baslc unlty to the novel, there ls nevertheless a clear
contrast between the flrst two volumes and the last.
Jhe flrst two volumes have a hlghly dramatlc character,
whlle the last two are more llke a chronlcle that ends ln
a dramatlc event. the expulslon of a young and beautl
ful woman from the vlllage communlty. What makes
the flrst two volumes dramatlc ls a dual confllct. the
clash between father and son and the vlolent quarrel
between the vlllage communlty and the squlre over the
3l
ai_ PPO t~~ p~~ o
forest. Jhe fatherson confllct ls made partlcularly
lntense by the overtones of lncest. Maclej Boryna, the
rlchest peasant ln the vlllage, who has already burled
two wlves, falls ln love wlth |agna, the young beauty of
the vlllage, and marrles her. |agna ls ln love wlth
Boryna`s son, Antek, who ls also powerfully attracted
to her, but she ls prevalled upon by her mother to
marry the old Boryna ln expectatlon of a land deed,
whlch he does make to the young wlfe, thus dlspossess
lng the son and hls famlly of a slgnlflcant part of thelr
lnherltance. Intense hatred flares up between Maclej
and Antek as the father becomes susplclous and then
certaln of hls wlfe and hls son meetlng secretly. In fact,
they do meet and make passlonate love (one such scene
ls descrlbed by Reymont ln hls partlcularly hyperbollc
style, whlch modern audlences may flnd unreadable).
In the end Antek and hls famlly are turned out of the
house that they share wlth Maclej and |agna, and at
some polnt old Boryna`s jealousy and hatred reach a
polnt at whlch he trles to klll both of them. Jhey
escape, but Maclej now makes |agna`s llfe ln the house
unbearable.
Jhe stalemate ls resolved when the lovehate plot
lntersects suddenly wlth the vlllagemanor confllct. Jhe
vlllagers regard the forest that ls owned by the squlre as
rlghtfully thelrs because of an lmmemorlal use they
have made of lt, as a source of flrewood and tlmber for
bulldlng. When the landlord sells the forest to some
|ewlsh tradesmen to pay off a debt he owes, and they ln
turn send a team of loggers to cut lts trees, the vlllagers
are aroused to absolute fury and attack the loggers wlth
pltchforks and clubs. Jhe loggers eventually retreat, but
the second part of a battle of almost Homerlc propor
tlons follows when manor servants and offlclals come
to the rescue of the loggers. In the ensulng battle old
Boryna ls struck unconsclous by the squlre`s forester,
who ls ln turn kllled by Antek. Jhe peasants are vlctorl
ous, and as they return to the vlllage, old Boryna, who
ls carrled on a cart, brlefly regalns consclousness and
recognlzes hls son, and a sort of reconclllatlon occurs.
As Antek ls placed ln a town prlson, charged wlth mur
der, and Boryna lles unconsclous ln hls house, Antek`s
wlfe, Hanka, returns to the house to assert the clalm to
her lnherltance and eventually turns |agna out. Boryna
remalns unconsclous, but toward the end of the sum
mer he rlses from hls bed, goes out lnto the flelds, and
dles as a peasant should, performlng as hls last act the
hlghly symbollc scene of sowlng. But what he sows ls
not graln but soll, thus emphaslzlng the central peasant
value. land.
Jhe drama of the last two volumes of ` grad
ually gathers ln lntenslty but wlth the lnexorablllty of a
Greek tragedy. It ls the drama of |agna, a person of
exceptlonal senslblllty, radlcally nonpeasant ln charac
ter, lacklng the typlcal attachment to (and greed for)
land or materlal objects, asplrlng to a dlfferent llfe. She
llves for her emotlons and thelr fulflllment, whlch repll
cate, ln a way at least, Reymont`s own yearnlng to rlse
above hls orlgln and ordlnary llfe, and the yearnlngs of
several of Reymont`s major characters. |agna, the beau
tlful wldow, who cannot be satlsfled wlth a peasant
exlstence, scandallzes the vlllage communlty wlth her
love affalrs wlth the vlllage mayor and then wlth a
young clerlc who ls belng educated by hls parents to
become a prlest. Her relatlonshlp wlth her husband`s
son, her affalrs, her attractlveness, and her 'otherness"
arouse the hatred and jealousy of the women of the vll
lage, and of thelr men, who want but cannot have her.
Inclted by the mother of the salntly clerlc and by the
mayor`s wlfe, the women and thelr men perform the act
of what amounts to ~~ (polson and cure). blood
led and bound |agna ls drlven out of the vlllage and
dropped outslde lts boundarles.
One of the most lnterestlng aspects of Reymont`s
deplctlon of the peasant character ls a klnd of peasant wls
dom, whlch ls often expressed by women. Jhe language
of ` ls the standard Pollsh of Reymont`s tlme ln
descrlptlons and narratlon, but ln dlalogue and lnner
monologue lt ls partly dlalect. Jhe wlsdom ls usually
couched ln the dlalectally styllzed speech, and lt comes ln
short, plthy sentences that resemble proverbs and maxlms.
Jhere ls wlsdom for every occaslon so that, taken
together, all of thls wlsdom ls rlddled wlth contradlctlons,
statements that oppose each other and moral justlflcatlons
that have thelr common ground ln experlence and folk tra
dltlon rather than ln ethlcs, rellglous morallty, the Cathollc
catechlsm, or the Jen Commandments.
` ls marred by occaslonal passages of pure
bathos or what may only be descrlbed as overemotlonal,
hysterlcal style, as well as by exaggerated poetlclsm ln
some of the descrlptlons of nature and landscape. It ls,
nevertheless, a major work, a flawed yet ln some ways fas
clnatlng masterplece, masslve ln lts overall effect and pow
erfully dramatlc at tlmes.
Reymont`s t~ deserves some note, desplte the
fact that as a novel lt ls an lrredeemable fallure. It resem
bles ln some parts Reymont`s early story 'W palarnl
oplum" (In the SmoklngRoom of Oplum), whlch appar
ently descrlbes an actual experlence of Reymont`s when
he vlslted London ln l891. Some of the 'vlslons" ln the
novel have a slmllar quallty, but what ls worse, lt glves the
occaslonal lmpresslon of havlng been wrltten 'under the
lnfluence." But lt ls an ambltlous book.
Jhe settlng ls London, a colossus of a clty almost
contlnuously enveloped ln lmpenetrable mlst and fog,
unless lt ralns. Jhe atmosphere, both llterally and meta
phorlcally, ls dark, gloomy, and forebodlng. Jhe char
acters are an Engllsh famlly made up of retlred Mr.
32
t~~ p~~ o ai_ PPO
Bartlett; hls daughter and son, Betsy and |oe; two
aunts, Ellen and Dolly; and a frlend of the famlly and
flance of Betsy, Zenon, also called Mr. Zen, who ls a
Pollsh wrlter llvlng ln London. All are enveloped ln the
mlst of unknowlng and ln a quest, whlle wlsdom ls rep
resented by a Hlndu, Mahatma Guru, who came to
London to ask questlons of European clvlllzatlon.
Apart from Zenon, the other central character ls Mlss
Dalsy, who embodles the uncanny, demonlc, and
destructlve forces ln the unlverse. She seems to be able
to be ln two places at once, has penetratlng sapphlre
eyes and 'beautlful steep breasts," and ls sald to repre
sent supreme danger; but because of her beauty and
mysterlousness, she has strong attractlon for Zenon, the
European skeptlc. He loves Betsy but ls powerfully
drawn to Mlss Dalsy, and slgnlflcantly, whlle ln her
presence, he becomes emptled of hls self, a mere recep
tacle, or a confused vold, whlch responds to her pull
llke that of a magnet. He wltnesses (or halluclnates) a
frantlc dance of explatlon of the members of the Sect of
Splrltuallst Ilagellants; he transports hlmself to the
rulns of some abbey or castle, where, falllng through
the floor lnto an underground chamber, he sees the
emergence of the pagan ldol Bafomet from wlthln a
flower of flames and observes Mlss Dalsy placlng her
self between Bafomet`s knees and then lylng prostrate
ln the shape of a cross at hls feet whlle the shadow of a
greeneyed panther vlolates her body. Meanwhlle, |oe
abandons the splrltuallst sect to achleve hlgher lnltla
tlon and spllts hlmself lnto an ldentlcal double, a prac
tlce that eventually lands hlm ln a hospltal and
permanently removes hlm from the realms of reallty.
t~ has many elements of a Gothlc novel,
even though that ls not what Reymont was trylng to
wrlte. Jhe descrlptlon of a sance wlth Madame Bla
vatsky, the mentlon of H. S. Olcott (leader of Amerlcan
Splrltuallsts and author of an l89l essay on 'Jhe Vam
plre"), and the character Mahatma Guru, another real
person, make Reymont`s novel a probe of a more serl
ous nature. But two thlngs vltlate the attempt. one of
them ls Reymont`s baslcally unphllosophlcal mlnd; the
other ls the autoblographlcal element that lntrudes on
the novellstlc deslgn. (In hls letters to Joczydowska, he
addressed her sometlmes as Mlss Dalsy.) Jhe one lnter
estlng aspect of the novel ls lts language, but the hyper
bollc style of some passages also contrlbutes to lts
fallure as a llterary work.
Reymont planned a sequel to ` but never
managed to wrlte lt. In l9l9 and agaln ln l920 he went
to the Lnlted States, hls mlsslon belng to seek funds for
the lmpoverlshed Pollsh state. Jhese two trlps brought
hlm ln contact wlth the large Pollsh peasant lmmlgra
tlon to Amerlca, and hls planned novel was to deplct
thelr often harsh condltlons of llfe and work and the
lmpact on thelr language and behavlor of an entlrely
dlfferent clvlllzatlon. But serlously alllng ln the last
years of hls llfe, he managed to wrlte only a few short
storles, one of whlch deplcts the struggle of Pollsh Cath
ollcs agalnst the establlshed Irlsh Cathollc hlerarchy
and prlests, who wanted to subordlnate Pollsh peasants`
rellglous llfe to thelr own jurlsdlctlon and thereby
lncrease thelr revenues.
Reymont` last major work ls of some lnterest, as lt
predates and ln a way antlclpates George Orwell`s ^J
~ c~ (l915). It ls an extended parable, a novella
rather than a novel, whose major theme ls the lmmemo
rlal mastery and power establlshed by human belngs
over the world of anlmals. At the same tlme lt ls a pollt
lcal allegory whose thrust ls dlrected agalnst the futlllty
of seeklng utopla. A dog by the name of Rex, who had
been pampered by hls owner, suddenly flnds hlmself
deprlved of a prlvlleged status ln the household and
subjected to cruel treatment. Rex revolts, runs away to
the forest, and ralses a mutlny among wlld anlmals
agalnst human power. Gatherlng them under hls leader
shlp, Rex takes them on a quest for a land of promlse, a
paradlse; but unable to flnd lt, the anlmals revolt once
agaln, thls tlme agalnst thelr leader, and lynch Rex.
Jhey declde to submlt to human belngs, but unable to
flnd them, worshlp a gorllla. Jhe lntellectual content of
the novella ls sllght, and thus the comparlson wlth
Orwell`s ^~ c~ ls only superflclal.
Reymont was a reallst ln detall, a naturallst ln hls
cholce of lmagery, a poet ln hls descrlptlons of land
scape and of nature ln general, a sentlmentallst (Dlcken
slan) as far as soclal consclence was concerned, a
humorlst wlth an almost Gogollan eye for the human
grotesque, and a splrltuallst who fervently belleved ln
the afterllfe. He was a man of feellng of the most pas
slonate klnd ln matters of love, and he had a tendency
for ampllflcatlon, whlch pushed hls two major novels
lnto the eplc mode. He was no psychologlst and no
lntellectual, but he was open to splrltual and ldeologlcal
currents of hls tlme.
Desplte hls frequent travels and stays ln major clt
les, Reymont seems to have remalned baslcally a coun
try soul, not a paysan at heart, but certalnly a rustlc,
steeped ln folk culture and mentallty, ln rural landscape,
ln mythlcal earthlness. Dependlng on the settlng, rural
or urban, human behavlor ls glven a dlfferent value ln
hls wrltlngs. Boryna dles dlfferently than the lndustrlal
lst Bucholz; church processlons are dlfferent than the
celebratlon of vlctory by London crowds.
Jhe underlylng theme of all of Reymont`s novels
ls the dlssatlsfactlon of characters wlth thelr condltlon
of llfe and an asplratlon to flnd a hlgher place of exlst
ence. to enter the temple of theatrlcal art, to make
money, to acqulre more land, to flnd a satlsfylng emo
33
ai_ PPO t~~ p~~ o
tlonal llfe, to pursue the supernatural and the uncanny.
Jhls quest to transcend one`s own statlon and condl
tlon ls characterlstlc of Reymont hlmself.
Yet, when the Nobel Prlze descended upon hlm
suddenly and unexpectedly, Reymont was already too
lll to enjoy the beneflts of rlches and fame. He could not
go to the ceremonles ln Stockholm, whlch ended up
belng canceled because the only other laureate for
l921, Physlology/Medlclne wlnner Wlllem Elnthoven,
could not attend elther. Reymont dled a year later, on 5
December l925.
Dld Wadysaw Reymont deserve the Nobel
Prlze? In perspectlve the answer has to be ln the nega
tlve, especlally lf lt ls remembered that two of the three
other maln candldates that year were Jhomas Mann
(who won ln l929) and Jhomas Hardy. Another Pollsh
wrlter, Reymont`s contemporary, Stefan Zeromskl, was
the favorlte of Pollsh lobbylsts, but the Swedlsh Acad
emy was reluctant to award the prlze to hlm because
he had recently publlshed a book called !iotr od moro
(Wlnd from the Sea), whlch clearly dlsplayed antl
German sentlments. So Reymont was chosen lnstead
on the strength prlnclpally of Clopi, a novel that had
been translated lnto German and flt well wlth the lnter
est ln a soclally exotlc yet potentlally powerful layer of
European soclety.
iW
Icymovt wc Irovcji: Iisty do tumoco 'Clopow I.-I. Sclo-
cllo, edlted by Bronlsaw Mlazgowskl (Warsaw.
PIW, l967);
Icymovt w Zmcrycc: Iisty do !ojcicclo Morowslicgo, edlted
by Leon Orowskl (Warsaw. PIW, l970);
Iisty do Iodivy, edlted by Jomasz |odekaBurzeckl and
Barbara Kocwna (Warsaw. PIW, l975);
Mio i lotostrofo: Iisty do !ovdy Sculowcj, edlted by
Jomasz |odelkaBurzeckl (Warsaw. PIW, l978);
Iisty do !ovdy Tocyowslicj lot 1907-1912, edlted by
Barbara Koc (Warsaw. PIW, l98l);
!odysow St. Icymovt pod volicm 'povtcimu drulu: Irog-
mcvty lorcspovdcvcji firm Ccbctlvcr i !olff (1S94-
1926), edlted by Koc (Warsaw. Blblloteka Naro
dowa, 2000);
Iorcspovdcvcjo 1S90-192, edlted by Koc (Warsaw.
Ludowa Spodzlelnla Wydawnlcza, 2002).
oW
Wacaw Borowy, 'Reymont," Slovovic Icvicw, l6
(l938). 139-118;
Ernest Boyd, 'Wadysaw Reymont," Soturdoy Icvicw of
Iitcroturc (29 November l921). 3l7-3l9;
Lech Budreckl, !odysow Icymovt: orys movogroficvy
(Warsaw. Czytelnlk, l953);
Roman Dmowskl, 'Nowa powle spoeczna," Ircgld
!scclpolsli, 2 (l899). 80-90;
Darlusz Gawln, 'Reymont l rewolucja," ln hls Iolslo,
wiccvy romovs: U wilocl litcrotury i polityli w XX
wiclu (Krakw. Wydawnlctwo DANJE, 2005),
pp. 78-l05;
Rupert Hughes, 'Poland`s Peasant Novellst," `cw Jorl
Timcs Mogoivc, l3 |uly l9l9, pp. l0, 25;
Jomasz |odekaBurzeckl, Icymovt pry biurlu: ogod-
vic worstotowycl (Warsaw. PIW, l978);
Wojclech Kallas, 'New Global Mapplng. Jhe Clty of
d ln Wadysaw St. Reymont`s Tlc Iromiscd
Iovd," Coictclc Iclivox, 5 (2001), http.//lett.ubbcluj.ro/
-echlnox/calete5/l9.html`;
Barbara Kocwna, !odysow Icymovt (Warsaw. PWN,
l975);
Kocwna, ed., Icymovt: dicjow rcccpcji tworcoci (War
saw. PWN, l975);
|erzy R. Krzyanowskl, !odysow Stovisow Icymovt
(New York. Jwayne, l972);
|ullan Krzyanowskl, !odysow Stovisow Icymovt:
Tworco i dico (Lww. Wydawnlctwo Zakadu
Narodowego lm. Ossollsklch, l937);
Stefan Llchaskl, 'Clopi !odysowo Icymovto (War
saw. Wydawnlctwa Szkolne l Pedagoglczne,
l987);
Aleksander Llpatow, 'Europelzm Wadysawa S. Rey
monta jako rdo jego sukcesu w Rosjl," Ircgld
Humovistycvy, 3 (2002). 29-33;
Magdalena Poplel, 'Brzydota l patos cywlllzacjl. icmio
Ubiccovo," ln her Ublico wviosoci: Istctylo powicci
modopolslicj (Krakw. Lnlversltas, l999), pp.
ll9-l69;
Marla Rzeuska, 'Clopi Icymovto (Warsaw.
Jowarzystwo Naukowe Warszawskle, l950);
Iranck Louls Schoell, 'Etude sur le roman paysan natu
rallste. DÈmlle Zola a Ladlslas Reymont," Icvuc
dc lo litcroturc comporc, 7 (l927). 251-299;
Kazlmlerz Wyka, Icymovt, cyli, ucicclo do ycio, edlted by
Barbara Koc (Warsaw. PIW, l979);
Jadeusz Zlellskl, 'Jhe Peasant ln Pollsh Llterature,"
Slovovic Icvicw, 1 (l923-l921). 85-l00.
NVOQ k m i~ m~
ò officiol òbcl ccrcmovy tool plocc iv 1924. Tlis criti-
col cssoy wos prcporcd by Icr Hollstrm, Cloirmov of tlc òbcl
Committcc of tlc Swcdisl Zcodcmy, iv licu of o prcscvtotiov
spcccl.
Jhls Pollsh work of lmaglnatlon has lts startlng
polnt ln the naturallstlc novel, especlally ln the form
31
t~~ p~~ o ai_ PPO
whlch that genre recelved from Zola ln Irance. Rey
mont has acknowledged that the ldea of hls book was
evoked by i~ qI not through hls admlratlon of lt, but
through the lndlgnatlon and opposltlon lt provoked. He
found ln lt a conventlonallzed, dlstorted, and coarse
characterlzatlon of the class of soclety ln whlch he had
grown up and whlch he loved wlth all the warmth that
had been cherlshed by hls chlldhood memorles. He
knew thls class of soclety from abundant experlence,
from wlthln, and wlth full understandlngnot, llke
Zola, merely through hasty journallstlc studles made ln
accordance wlth a program mapped out beforehand
wlth preconcelved results; and he wlshed to descrlbe lt
ln lts reallty, wlthout any dlstortlon through theorles.
But Zola had a declslve lnfluence on the work ln a qulte
dlfferent and more posltlve fashlon. ` (l901-09)
xq m~~zI ln the flnal form ln whlch we have lt,
would hardly be concelvable wlthout the lessons that
Reymont learned from Zola`s work as a wholelts
searchlng descrlptlon of the envlronment, lts orchestral
mass effects, lts uncompromlslng verlsm, and the har
monlous worklng together of external nature and
human llfe. Nevertheless Ì rather than turnlng out
to be a naturallstlc novel, has taken on eplc propor
tlonscertalnly naturallstlc ln method but eplc ln scope.
Ior us moderns that whlch most profoundly
marks a narratlve poem as an eplc, ls a certaln com
pleteness and harmony, a general lmpresslon of rest,
however the varlous eplsodes may be charged wlth suf
ferlng and struggle. It ls not easy to express thls effect ln
a conceptual form, for lt ls our feellngs that percelve lt.
It achleves lts results malnly from the fact that all the
elements of strlfe and unrest are gradually smoothed
out before us, llke waves that wrestle wlth one another;
the clrcles never reach as far as the tranqull horlzon that
bounds the poem; the unrest puts no questlon and
sends no lament beyond that llmlt. Jhe world that we
have before our eyes ls a deflnlte one and ls unshakable
ln lts foundatlons; but lt ls not a world of compulslon
and lmprlsonment. It ls wlde enough for human belngs
to express themselves ln actlon accordlng to the mea
sure of thelr powers. Hence the harmony of the poem.
Whatever happlness ls recorded, the most lrremedlable
sufferlngthe dlsparlty between glven reallty and ldeal
requlrementsls not to be found there, or at least lt
does not reach consclousness. Jhe most permanently
bltter tragedy, that whlch from wlthln shatters a belng
to fragments, has not yet been created; the flgures we
see are entlre and slmple and move ln plece.
Whether the flgures be large or small, whether thelr
features be falr or foul, they assume a klnd of plastlc
beauty and monumentallty.
It ls thls that the Pollsh wrlter has attalned ln
`X and that he achleved lt, ln splte of a qulte mod
ern tralnlng whlch scarcely promlsed to lead to such a
goal, ls surely due to the fact that hls chosen subject
moved of ltself toward thls happy form. He probably
dld not seek the form hlmselfthat ls evldenced by the
rest of hls very dlfferent productlon; but when lt offered
ltself to hlm ln the course of hls work, he understood lt
and followed lts laws. Jhls ls surely merlt enough and
worthy of great honour.
Hls Pollsh peasants possess ln thelr prlmltlve con
dltlons, and perhaps only ln consequence thereof, the
slmple nature, the archalsm ln thelr contours,
demanded by eplc arta great aesthetlc value, whlch,
however, has been obtalned at the expense of belng
defectlve ln other ways. Jhls throng of flgures has
extremely llttle of what ordlnarlly ls called character.
Among the men only few have even the raw materlal of
character ln mental energy and flrmness; and thelr
worklng up of thls materlal lnsplres but llttle respect.
Jhe manllness whlch conslsts ln selfdlsclpllne, a sense
of responslblllty, and a personal grasp of the ldea of
rlght, has barely attalned any development beyond col
lectlve and vague mass feellng. What we see of the llfe
of consclence ls the common ground of the vlllage, not
the guarded estate of the lndlvldual. Consequently one
must not expect more from the women. hence lt ls
much that ln one flgure, the sorely trled Hanus, the pll
ant forces of her nature become welded together lnto a
stubborn sense of duty.
Jhere ls really hardly any moral backbone to be
found ln thls lowlylng tract round the slugglshly flow
lng rlver. Passlon bounces ln men`s wllls llke a storm ln
the reeds, and they bend before every breath of wlnd,
and a spark sets everythlng ablaze. Jhe sense of hon
esty ls uncertaln, perhaps chlefly because lt has not had
free alr to grow ln. Irom tlme lmmemorlal thls people
has had to protect ltself agalnst oppresslon by those
who owned the sollall they had to subslst on. And
when the soll at last became thelrs, the glft came from
forelgn masters, who grudged them a soul of thelr own.
Jhe passlvlty, fatallsm, and nalve good humour, whlch
under slmllar clrcumstances were developed ln thelr
Slavonlc brethren to the east, held no power ln the Pol
lsh temperament. Here we meet lnstead a pecullar ner
vousness whlch ls not elsewhere a characterlstlc of the
peasant, and whlch readlly expresses ltself ln anger and
vlolent deeds. All thelr llltreatment has not sufflced to
crush thelr prlde, but that prlde ls abundantly mlxed
wlth vanlty; lt ls touchy, lacklng ln balance, and glves
no trustworthy support to human dlgnlty. Jhelr vlrtues
have as llttle root as those of chlldren. Jhey conslst ln
dlrectness, ln easlly stlrred susceptlblllty, ln lnflexlble
and llvely splrlts. they polnt to a superflulty of unex
hausted glfts; and over the whole there extends a never
falllng charm, a certaln glamour of noblllty. But above
35
ai_ PPO t~~ p~~ o
all, these people appeal to us through thelr strong lmag
lnatlve llfe. In thelr poverty and frallty they have wln
dows opened to the world of dreams; and all that ls
tender and good and beautlful ln them flourlshes there.
Jhe Church has preserved for them thls clty of
refuge, and to her they are attached wlth a deep love,
plety, and reverence; through her, they expect someday
atonement and transflguratlon; and ln a poetlcal sense
they are already partaklng of these good thlngs. By con
stantly returnlng to thls feature Reymont has contrlved
to keep the alr of beauty over hls eplc.
Wlthout effort, he has found the gleam of hero
lsm whlch an eplc needs, although hls subject matter
dld not provlde hlm wlth herolc flgures. Herolsm was
to be found only ln thelr prlmltlvely strong, deep
attachment to the soll, whlch glves and takes thelr llves
and lends to thelr struggle and thelr love somethlng of
the greatness of the forces of nature. Eplc breadth and
greatness have been attalned, too, through the slmple
touch of genlus ln the composltlon of the work, whlch
has been cast ln the form of a cycle of the seasons.
Autumn, wlnter, sprlng, and summer, ln symphonlcally
balanced parts, glve thelr contrasts and thelr harmony
ln a mlghty hymn to llfe; and when the year has swung
full clrcle ln the vlclssltudes of human fate, lt contlnues
ln our lmaglnatlon ln constant novelty and constant
recurrence. Jhe eplsodes ln the rlchly developed actlon
do not occur once only. they have a typlcal valldlty.
Whether they are ldylllc or passlonate, traglcally wlld
or merrlly dlvertlng, they have all been turned to a
rhythm of 'Works and Days" ln a klnd of Heslodlc
peasantworld. they have ln them a dash of the eternal
youth of the earth.
Jhe monotony tendlng to threaten the peasant
novel through lts dlffuseness of detall, has here gener
ally been avolded by the range and the moblllty of the
materlal. Lnlty of style has been comblned wlth an
uncommon power and dellght ln colour ln the palntlng
of the several parts; and the characterlzatlon of the flg
ures, ln thelr dramatlc worklng, has recelved due atten
tlon wlthln the glven frame. Everythlng glves the
lmpresslon of a reallty falthfully descrlbedposslbly
wlth one exceptlon, the chlef female character |agna,
who ls qulte as much a symbol as a type. But the sym
bol ls poetlcally justlfled. In fact, lt ls the poetry of the
Pollsh soll and the Pollsh peasant woman, all the natu
ral maglc, the bllnd worklng of natural lmpulses, the
pllancy and lmaglnatlveness, the hunger for beauty,
and the absence of responslblllty, whlch flourlsh and
lntoxlcate and are smlrched and trampled ln tlmes of
trouble and gullt. She ls the embodlment of all the flaws
that Reymont has revealed ln hls people, desplte hls
love for them; yet she also represents all those qualltles
whlch are rlch and splendld ln human nature. He has
made her the traglc herolne of hls work; and lf, there as
elsewhere (and perhaps ln consequence of a weakness
he shares wlth the clrcles he descrlbes), he has passed
no clear judgment, he has not allowed any lessenlng of
the traglc tenslon.
Jo sum up, thls eplc novel ls characterlzed by an
art so grand, so sure, so powerful, that we may predlct a
lastlng value and rank for lt, not only wlthln Pollsh llt
erature but also wlthln the whole of that branch of
lmaglnatlve wrltlng whlch has here been glven a dlstlnc
tlve and monumental shape.
[ The Nobel Foundation, 1924.]
oW ^~~ p~
Et ~ ~~ k mF
I was born on May 6th, l868, ln the vlllage of
Koblelo Wlelkle ln that part of Poland whlch was under
Russlan rule.
My father was the church organlst; the vlllage
curate was my mother`s brother, a former monk from
the order of Pljar, a very well educated and ascetlc man
who loved nothlng but solltude. Jhe most ardent
Cathollclsm ruled ln our house. We led a hard llfe,
almost llke peasants. My famlly had taken a very actlve
part ln the lnsurrectlons of l863 agalnst Russla; some
of lts members had been kllled; one of my uncles had
been condemned to forced labour ln Slberla. My
mother had done her share of collaboratlng by servlng
as a messenger between varlous armed detachments.
Durlng my chlldhood I had a long, dangerous spell of
lllness, and my health has always been dellcate. I was
hardly a year old when my uncle was transferred to a
small locallty called Juszyn, very close to the great
manufacturlng town of d. Jhere my father acqulred
a few acres of land wlthout abandonlng hls post as
organlst. Jhe management of our property was left to
my mother, who was helped by some servants and her
oldest chlldren.
When I was slx and already able to read and
wrlte Pollsh, my uncle the curate taught me Latln. Slnce
he had no sultable textbook, he slmply used the bre
vlary. Jhe lessons were tedlous; the long stem of the
curate`s plpe asslsted hlm dally ln hls lnstructlon. At
that tlme I dlscovered very lnterestlng books ln the par
lsh llbrary. I plunged lnto the hlstory and classlcs of the
country. Readlng became a passlon wlth me. I carrled
books hldden under my clothes and read wherever I
could. Jhe study of Latln was malntalned throughout
the wlnter, but the sprlng turned me lnto a shepherd; as
36
t~~ p~~ o ai_ PPO
before, I was to tend my father`s sheep, and I plunged
only more eagerly lnto the Crusades and Walter Scott.
Jhat readlng led to palnful mlsunderstandlngs by lts
very contrast to my ordlnary exlstence.
I was slowly preparlng to enter the college
attended by my elder brother. But unfortunately my
uncle the curate dled, and my father, deprlved of suffl
clent resources to glve me a hlgher educatlon, declded
to make an organlst of me. He put me behlnd a plano
and thus began my study of sacred muslc, so vlgor
ously and so often punctuated by the cane that I
qulckly learned to abhor lt.
Apart from my muslcal studles I had to help my
father at the church and keep the parlsh reglster of bap
tlsms, marrlages, blrths, and deaths, asslst dally at
Mass, help the prlest wlth the dylng, etc.
I loved these dlverse occupatlons slnce nobody
checked my spare tlme, whlch I was able to devote
entlrely to readlng. By the age of nlne I had a thorough
knowledge of contemporary Pollsh llterature as well as
of forelgn llterature ln Pollsh translatlon, and I began to
wrlte poems ln honour of a lady of thlrty years. Natu
rally, she knew nothlng about them.
Durlng thls perlod my brother, who had left col
lege, trled systematlcally to make me pursue a regular
program of studles. He took lnflnlte palns, but dld not
succeed ln tearlng poetry out of my heart. I was at that
tlme lntoxlcated by the romantlc poetry of our great
wrlters. I arranged the world accordlng to my prlvate
use, looklng at lt through the poems I had devoured.
Wlthln myself I felt vague enchantments, dull
restlessness, and uncertaln deslres. I had halluclnatlons
when I was awake. What wlngs carrled me to unknown
worlds!
Already I felt slck and conflned at home; dally llfe
was a burden. I dreamed of great actlons, of voyages
rovlngs across the oceans of a free and lndependent llfe.
Ior entlre weeks I would keep away from the
house and try to llve ln the woods llke a savage. I
formed monstrous shapes ln potter`s clay, or cut them
ln trees; I fllled my notebooks and the marglns of my
books wlth rough sketches, and I spent more than one
nlght crylng wlthout reason.
Such was my llfe untll the age of twelve. I shall
sklp the followlng years untll the age of twenty.
I llved ln Warsaw andbelng twenty years oldI
naturally had a wlld lmaglnatlon and a tender heart.
Mlsery was my lnseparable companlon; I was a soclallst
and the punlshment was lnevltable. Jhe Russlan
authorltles expelled me from Warsaw after suspectlng
me of havlng taken part ln the strlke that had then bro
ken out ln d for the flrst tlme. Conslderlng me an
lrresponslble mlnor, they entrusted me to the custody of
my father and the survelllance of the local pollce. At
that tlme my parents had a watermlll and land of some
lmportance ln the vlclnlty of Plotrkw, close to the rall
way from Warsaw to Vlenna. I could tolerate nelther
the tyranny of my father nor the extreme conservatlsm
and Cathollclsm of my famlly. After a few weeks I ran
away wlth a small troupe of actors and travelled wlth
them across the country. After a year I had enough of
the wanderlng artlst`s llfe wlth lts mlserles and lack of a
future; besldes, my talent for actlng was nonexlstent.
I was able to flnd a job ln the technlcal servlce of
the rallway. I llved ln the provlnce ln a peasant`s house
between two statlons. My lncome was pltlable, my llfe
hard and tedlous, my surroundlngs prlmltlve. I had hlt
rock bottom. I was lucky to make the acqualntance of a
German professor, a convlnced and practlslng splrltual
lst. He dazzled and conquered me. A world of fantastlc
dreams and posslbllltles opened before my eyes. I left
my job and went to joln the professor, who llved at
Czstochowa. He had constant and close contact wlth
splrltuallst clrcles ln Germany and England, corre
sponded regularly wlth Madame Blavatsky and Olcot,
wrote ln splrltuallst journals, and was always glvlng ~
sances. Ior hlm, splrltuallsm was both a sclence
and a rellglona mystlcal atmosphere prevalled ln hls
entlre house. He was klnd, chlldlshly nalve, and at
every sance cheated by hls medlum. It was not dlfflcult
for me to see that very soon, and once my falth ln hls
mlracles was lost I abandoned them lmmedlately. Once
more I was free, pennlless, and wlthout a tomorrow. Ior
a whlle I worked for a land surveyor; I was a clerk ln a
shop that sold devotlonal artlcles, then a salesman for a
lumberyard. Ilnally I returned to the theatre. Ior sev
eral months I toured small places wlth a travelllng com
pany and dld a great deal of actlng, but when the
company was dlssolved I was left on the road. I trled to
glve recltatlons, for I knew entlre poems by heart. I
offered my servlces as producer ln amateur theatres and
I wrote for provlnclal journals. But I soon learned to
loathe these occupatlons and returned wlllynllly to the
rallway. As before I was employed ln the technlcal ser
vlce; I was to llve ln a vlllage lost between two dlstant
statlons. Jhere was no offlce bulldlng for the agents of
the company; I had to content myself wlth a peasant
cottage very close to the rallway.
Ior a whlle I had a roof over my head, llterally a
plece of dry bread, and qulet. I was surrounded by
lmpenetrable forests ln whlch the Czar of all Russlans
hunted every year. I had lnstalled myself at the end of
autumn. I dld not have much to do and I had free tlme
for wrltlng and belng foollsh. I llved on tea, bread, and
dreams. I was twentytwo years old. I was healthy, had
only one sult, and boots wlth holes ln them. I had falth
ln the world and a thousand bold projects ln my mlnd. I
wrote feverlshly. dramas ln ten acts, novels wlthout
37
ai_ PPO t~~ p~~ o
end, storles ln several volumes, poems. Jhen I tore up
everythlng mercllessly and burned lt. I llved ln solltude;
I had no frlends; the authorltles as well as my fellow
workers were unfavourably dlsposed toward me; I dld
my dutles badly. I could adapt myself nelther to the
mentallty of those around me nor to the condltlons of
my exlstence. All thls was palnful and hard for me to
endure. Mlsery dld not release me; lt undermlned me,
and then the cold . . . I had to spend whole days ln the
open surveylng the workers; the nlghts I spent ln a
room so cold that I wrote wrapped ln a fur, keeplng the
lnkwell under the lamp lest the lnk should freeze.
I suffered these torments for two years, but as a
result I had flnlshed slx short storles that seemed to
have posslbllltles. I sent them to a crltlc ln Warsaw, but
lt took over slx months untll I recelved a favourable
reply. He even condescended to recommend me to a
publlsher. After new efforts my storles were prlnted.
My whole belng was fllled wlth unspeakable happlness.
at last I had found my way. But thls good fortune was
not wlthout results for my bureaucratlc career. Jhe
management dlsmlssed me; they needed workers, not
men of letters.
I gathered my belonglngs, conslstlng chlefly of
manuscrlpts, and wlth the generous amount of three
rubles and flfty kopecks I went to Warsaw to conquer
the world. I began a new Odyssey of mlsery, rovlng
and struggllng wlth destlny.
No help from anywhere! I broke completely wlth
my famlly. Jhey dld not understand me and lamented
my fate. Ior the flrst slx months I dld not know the
taste of the most ordlnary dlnner. I went out only ln
moonllght. My rags were too shabby for any occaslon. I
llved wlth people as mlserable as I was. I wrote ln the
cathedral that was opposlte my refuge; lt was warm,
solemn, and sllent. I fed my soul on organ muslc and
the slght of rellglous ceremonles. It was there, too, that I
read Augustlne, the Blble, and the Church Iathers, for
days on end. I contemplated sulclde more and more
serlously. Jhe earth was already openlng under my
feet. An lrreslstlble fasclnatlon wlth terrlfylng death
kllled me ahead of tlme.
Jhe more profound my falth became, the more
vlolent my fasclnatlon wlth annlhllatlon, and then
lncessant hunger pushed me toward the abyss.
At the beglnnlng of sprlng, ln Aprll, I saw pll
grlms golng to Czstochowa, the brlght mountaln that
had the plcture of the Madonna famous for lts mlracles.
I broke my chalns and jolned them. I do not remember
whlch journal gave me an advance of twentyflve rubles
for the descrlptlon of that pllgrlmage.
Ior eleven days I walked ln marvellous sprlng
weather, under the sun and ln the green. Jhe account
of that pllgrlmage (m~ g~ dI l895 |Pll
grlmage to the Mountaln of Llght|) appeared ln a War
saw lllustrated dally and attracted the attentlon of the
crltlcs. Some months later I wrote h~~ (l896)
|Jhe Comedlan|. Durlng thls perlod I made the
acqualntance of a group of splrltuallsts who lncluded
the famous Dr. Ochorowlecz. I went to London to pur
sue splrltuallst problems at the Jheosophlcal Soclety.
On my return I wrote c (l897) |Ierments|, the
sequel to h~~. I then went to d to study con
dltlons ln heavy lndustry and after beglnnlng w~
~~ (l899) |Jhe Promlsed Land| I left for Parls. I
spent long months ln a Irench vlllage near Jours. I
wrote i and some short storles. I travelled through
Italy ln a more systematlc fashlon and stayed especlally
at Sorrente. In l902 I was wounded ln a traln accldent
near Warsaw, and I have never regalned my health
completely.
In l903-01 I publlshed the flrst verlon of `X
at flrst lt was only one volume. I burned lt and rewrote
lt. Jhls tlme lt was dlvlded lnto four volumes (l901-
09). Next I wrote t~ (l9ll) |Jhe Vamplre|the
reflectlon of my splrltuallst exerclsestwo volumes of
novellas, and I began hlstorlcal studles concernlng the
decllne of Poland toward the end of the seventeenth
century. I wrote a trllogy called o NTVQ (l9l3-l8)
|Jhe Year l791|. Jhe last volume of that work,
f~ |Insurrectlon|, was wrltten ln Warsaw durlng
the German occupatlon after the exploslon of the Great
War. I also publlshed another volume of novellas. In
Aprll l9l9 I left for the Lnlted States ln order to vlslt
my compatrlots ln that country.
I returned ln l920. In l922-23 I wrote _ |Defl
ance|, and I began to have heart trouble. I stlll have
many thlngs to say and deslre greatly to make them
publlc, but wlll death let me?
| Jhe Nobel Ioundatlon, l921. Wadysaw Stanlsaw
Reymont ls the sole author of the text.|
38
o~ o~
(29 ovuory 1S66 - J0 Dcccmbcr 1944)
j~ `~
Iouisiovo Stotc UvivcrsitySlrcvcport
Jhls entry was updated by Conway from her Rolland
entry ln DI 6: Ircvcl òvclists, 1900-19J0.
SELECJED BOOKS. Ics Urigivcs du tlcotrc lyriquc mod-
crvc. Histoirc dc lòpcro cv Iuropc ovovt Iully ct Scor-
lotti (Parls. A. Iontemolng, l891; Parls. E. de
Boccard, l99l);
Zrt (Parls. Cahlers de la _ulnzalne, l898);
Ics Ioups, as Salnt|ust (Parls. Georges Bellals, l898);
translated by Barrett H. Clark as Tlc !olvcs (New
York. Random House, l937); translated by |ohn
Holmstrom as Tlc Huvgry !olvcs (London Glas
gow. Blackle, l966);
Ic Triomplc dc lo roisov (Parls. Revue dÀrt Dramatlque,
l899);
Dovtov (Parls. Revue dÀrt Dramatlque, l900); trans
lated ln Tlc Iourtccvtl of uly ovd Dovtov (l9l8);
Millct, translated by Clementla Black (London. Duck
worth / New York. Dutton, l902);
Ic _uotorc uillct (Parls. Edltlons des Cahlers, l902);
translated ln Tlc Iourtccvtl of uly ovd Dovtov
(l9l8);
Ic Tcmps vicvdro (Parls. Ollendorff, l903);
Ic Tlcotrc du pcuplc: Issoi d`cstlctiquc dùv tlcotrc vouvcou
(Parls. Suresnes, l903); translated by Clark as
Tlc Icoplc`s Tlcotcr (New York. Holt, l9l8; Lon
don. Allen Lnwln, l9l9);
Io Movtcspov (Parls. Edltlons de la Revue dÀrt Drama
tlque, l901); translated by Helena Van Brugh De
Kay as Tlc Movtcspov (New York. Heubsch, l923;
London. |arrolds, l927);
cov-Clristoplc, part l, 1 volumes (Parls. Ollendorff,
l905-l906)comprlses I`Zubc, Ic Motiv, I`Zdolcs-
ccvt, and Io Icvoltc; translated by Gllbert Cannan
as cov-Clristoplc: Dowv, Morvivg, Joutl, Icvolt
(New York. Holt, l9l0); Cannan`s translatlon
also publlshed ln 2 volumes as olv Clristoplcr:
Dowv ovd Morvivg (London. Helnemann, l9l0)
and olv Clristoplcr: Storm ovd Strcss (London.
Helnemann, l9ll);
Miclcl-Zvgc (Parls. Llbralrle de lÀrt Anclen et Moderne,
l905); translated by Irederlck Street as Miclcl-
ovgclo (New York. Duffleld, l9l5);
Io !ic dc Miclcl-Zvgc (Parls. Hachette, l907); translated
by Irederlc Lees as Tlc Iifc of Miclocl Zvgclo (New
York. Dutton, l9l2; London. Helnemann, l9l2);
!ic dc cctlovcv (Parls. Hachette, l907); translated by B.
Constance Hull as cctlovcv (London. Drane,
l907; New York. Holt, l9l7);
o~ o~I NVPO Ee ^Ld f~F
39
ai_ PPO o~ o~
Musicicvs dòujourd`lui (Parls. Hachette, l908); translated
by Mary Blalklock as Musiciovs of To-doy (New
York. Holt, l9l1; London. Kegan Paul, l9l5).
Musicicvs dòutrcfois (Parls. Hachette, l908; revlsed,
l908); translated by Blalklock as Somc Musiciovs of
Iormcr Doys (New York. Holt, l9l5; London.
Kegan Paul, Jrench, Jrbner, l9l5);
cov-Clristoplc o Ioris, part 2 of cov-Clristoplc, 3 vol
umes (Parls. Ollendorff, l908)comprlses Io Ioirc
sur lo plocc, Zvtoivcttc, and Dovs lo moisov; translated
by Cannan as cov-Clristoplc iv Ioris: Tlc Morlct-
plocc, Zvtoivcttc, Tlc Housc (New York. Holt, l9ll);
Cannan`s translatlon also publlshed as olv Clris-
toplcr iv Ioris (London. Helnemann, l9ll);
Tlcotrc dc lo Icvolutiov (Parls. Hachette, l909)com
prlses Dovtov, Ic _uotorc uillct, and Ics Ioups;
cov-Clristoplc. Io Iiv du voyogc, part 3 of cov-Clristoplc,
3 volumes (Parls. Ollendorff, l9l0-l9l2)com
prlses Ics Zmics, Ic uissov ordcvt, and Io òuvcllc
ourvcc; translated by Cannan as cov-Clristoplc.
ourvcy`s Ivd: Iovc ovd Iricvdslip, Tlc urvivg usl,
Tlc `cw Dowv (New York. Holt, l9l3); Cannan`s
translatlon also publlshed as olv Clristoplcr. our-
vcy`s Ivd (London. Helnemann, l9l3);
Hocvdcl (Parls. Alcan, l9l0); translated by A. Edgefleld
Hull as Hovdcl (London. Paul, Jrench, Jrbner,
l9l6; New York. Holt, l9l6);
!ic dc Tolsto (Parls. Hachette, l9ll); translated by Ber
nard Mlall as Tolstoy (London. Lnwln, l9ll; New
York. Dutton, l9ll);
I`Humblc vic lcroquc: Icvsccs cloisics (Parls. E. Sansot,
l9l2);
Ics Trogcdics dc lo foi (Parls. Hachette, l9l3)comprlses
Soivt-Iouis, Zrt, and Ic Triomplc dc lo roisov;
Zu-dcssus dc lo mclcc (Parls. A lÈmanclpatrlce, l9l5);
translated by C. K. Ogden as Zbovc tlc ottlc (Chl
cago. Open Court, l9l6; London. Allen
Lnwln, l9l6);
Zux pcuplcs ossossivcs (La Chauxde Ionds. Edltlon des
|eunesses Soclallstes Romandes, l9l6);
Solut o lo Icvolutiov russc, by Rolland, P|. |ouve, H. Gull
beaux, and I. Masereel (Geneva. Edltlons de la
Revue Demaln, l9l7);
Tlc Iourtccvtl of uly ovd Dovtov: Two Iloys of tlc Ircvcl
Icvolutiov, translated by Clark (New York. Holt,
l9l8); Tlc Iourtccvtl of uly republlshed separately
(London. Allen Lnwln, l9l9);
Iicrrc ct Iucc (Parls. Ollendorff, l9l8); translated by
Charles de Kay as Iicrrc ovd Iucc (New York.
Holt, l922);
Impcdoclc d`Zgrigcvtc cl lògc dc lo loivc (Parls. La Malson
Iranalse, l9l8); revlsed ln Impcdoclc, suivi dc
IÌcloir dc Spivoo (Parls. Edltlons du Sabller,
l93l);
Colos rcugvov (Parls. Albln Mlchel, l9l9); translated by
Katherlne Mlller (New York. Holt, l9l9);
enlarged edltlon of orlglnal Irench verslon
(Geneva. EdltoServlce, l97l);
Iiluli (Parls. Edltlons du Sabller, l9l9); translated (New
York. Bonl Llverlght, l920);
Ics Irccurscurs (Parls. Edltlons de l`Humanlt, l9l9);
translated by Eden and Cedar Paul as Tlc Iorc-
ruvvcrs (London. Allen Lnwln, l920; New
York. Brace Howe, l920);
!oyogc musicol oux poys du possc (Parls. Hachette, l920);
translated by Mlall as Z Musicol Tour tlrougl tlc
Iovd of tlc Iost (New York. Holt, l922);
Clcromboult: Histoirc dùvc covscicvcc librc pcvdovt lo gucrrc
(Parls. Albln Mlchel, l920); translated by Mlller
as Clcromboult: Tlc Story of ov Ivdcpcvdcvt Spirit dur-
ivg tlc !or (New York. Holt, l92l); Mlller`s trans
latlon republlshed as Clcromboult, or Uvc Zgoivst Zll
(London. |ackson, Wylle, l933);
Io Icvoltc dcs moclivcs; ou, Io Icvscc dcclovcc (Parls. Edl
tlons du Sabller, l92l); translated by Wllllam A.
Drake as Tlc Icvolt of tlc Moclivcs; or, Ivvcvtiov Iuv
!ild. Z Motiov Iicturc Sccvorio (Ithaca, N.Y..
Dragon Press, l932);
Ics !oivcus (Antwerp. Edltlons Lumlre, l922);
I`Zmc cvclovtcc, part l, Zvvcttc ct Sylvic (Parls. Ollendorff,
l922); translated by Ben Ray Redman as Zvvcttc
ovd Sylvic (New York. Holt, l925; London.
Butterworth, l927);
I`Zmc cvclovtcc, part 2, IÌtc (Parls. Ollendorff, l923);
translated by Eleanor Stlmson and Van Wyck
Brooks as Summcr (New York. Holt, l925; Lon
don. Butterworth, l927);
Molotmo Covdli (Zurlch. RotapfelVerlag, l921).
revlsed and enlarged (Parls. Delamaln, Boutel
leau, l921); translated by Catherlne D. Groth as
Molotmo Covdli, Tlc Mov wlo ccomc Uvc witl tlc
Uvivcrsol civg (New York London. Century,
l921; London. Swathmore, l921);
Ic cu dc lòmour ct dc lo mort (Parls. Edltlons du Sabller,
l925); translated by Eleanor Stlmson Brooks as
Tlc Comc of Iovc ovd Dcotl (New York. Holt,
l926);
Ioqucs flcurics (Parls. Edltlons du Sabller, l926); trans
lated by Eugene Lhrke as Iolm Suvdoy (New
York. Holt, l928);
I`Zmc cvclovtcc, part 3, Mrc ct fils, 2 volumes (Parls.
Albln Mlchel, l927); translated by Van Wyck
Brooks as Motlcr ovd Sov (New York. Holt, l927;
London. Butterworth, l927);
Ics Icovidcs (Parls. Edltlons du Sabller, l928); translated
by Lhrke (New York. Holt, l929);
Souvcvirs d`cvfovcc (La CharltsurLolre. Delayance,
l928);
10
o~ o~ ai_ PPO
cctlovcv: Ics Crovdcs Ipoqucs crcotriccs, 7 volumes (Parls.
Edltlons du Sabller, l928-l915); volume l, Dc
l`Hcroquc o l`Zpposiovoto, translated by Ernest
Newman as cctlovcv tlc Crcotor (London. Gol
lancz, l929; New York. Harper, l929);
Issoi sur lo mystiquc ct lòctiov dc lÌvdc vivovtc, 2 volumes
(Parls. Stock, Delamaln Boutelleau, l929-
l930); volume l translated by E. I. Malcolm
Smlth as Tlc Iifc of Iomolrislvo (Mayavatl,
Almora, Hlmalayas. Advalta Ashrama, l929;
Calcutta. Advalta Ashrama, l986); Malcolm
Smlth`s translatlon republlshed as Iroplcts of tlc
`cw Ivdio (New York. Bonl, l930; London. Cas
sell, l930); volume 2 republlshed as Tlc Iifc of
!ivclovovdo ovd tlc Uvivcrsol Cospcl (Mayavatl,
Almora, Hlmalayas. Advalta Ashrama, l93l);
Iorolcs dc Icvov o uv odolcsccvt (Parls. Edltlons de la Belle
Page, l930);
Coctlc ct cctlovcv (Parls. Edltlons du Sabller, l930);
translated by G. A. Pflster and E. S. Kemp (New
York London. Harper, l93l);
cov-Clristoplc, deflnltlve edltlon, 5 volumes (Parls.
Albln Mlchel, l93l-l931);
Z Dcclorotiov by Iomoiv Iollovd, address to the World
Congress agalnst War, Amsterdam l932 (New
York. Amerlcan Commlttee for Struggle Agalnst
War, l932);
I`Zmc cvclovtcc, part 1, I`Zvvovciotricc, publlshed as Io
Mort dùv movdc (Parls. Albln Mlchel, l933) and
IÌvfovtcmcvt, 2 volumes (Parls. Albln Mlchel,
l933); translated by Amalla De Albertl as Tlc
Dcotl of o !orld (New York. Holt, l933; London.
Butterworth, l933); and Z !orld iv irtl (New
York. Holt, l931);
I`Zmc cvclovtcc, deflnltlve edltlon, 1 volumes (Parls.
Albln Mlchel, l931);
_uivc Zvs dc combot, 1919-19J4 (Parls. Rleder, l935);
translated by K. S. Shelvanker as I !ill òt Icst
(London. Selwyn Blount, l935; New York.
Llverlght, l937);
Ior lo rcvolutiov, lo poix (Parls. Edltlons Soclales Interna
tlonales, l935);
Compogvovs dc routc, cssois littcroircs (Parls. Edltlons du
Sabller, l936);
!olmy (Parls. Edltlons Soclales Internatlonales, l938);
Iobcspicrrc (Parls. Albln Mlchel, l939);
Ic !oyogc ivtcricur (Parls. Albln Mlchel, l912); translated
by Elsle Pell as ourvcy !itliv (New York. Phllo
sophlcal Llbrary, l917); revlsed and enlarged edl
tlon of orlglnal Irench verslon (Parls. Albln
Mlchel, l959);
Icguy, 2 volumes (Parls. Albln Mlchel, l915);
Ic Scuil, prcccdc du Ioyoumc du T (Geneva. Edltlons du
MontBlanc, l916);
Ic Icriplc (Parls. EmllePaul, l916);
Dc 'cov-Clristoplc o 'Colos rcugvov; Iogcs dc jourvol
(Parls. Edltlons du Salon Carr, l916);
Souvcvirs dc jcuvcssc (1S66-1900); Iogcs cloisics (Lau
sanne. Gullde du Llvre, l917);
Issoys ov Music, edlted by Davld Ewen (New York.
Allen, Jowne Heath, l918);
Ics Zimccs dc cctlovcv (Parls. Edltlons du Sabller, l919);
Ivdc: ourvol 191-194J; Togorc, Covdli, `clru ct lcs
problmcs ivdicvs (Parls. Edltlons Vlneta, l95l;
enlarged, Parls. Albln Mlchel, l960);
ourvol dcs ovvccs dc gucrrc 1914-1919 (Parls. Albln
Mlchel, l952);
Ic Clotrc dc lo ruc dÙlm, jourvol dc Iomoiv Iollovd o lÌcolc
vormolc (1SS6-1SS9) suivi dc _uclqucs lcttrcs o so mrc
ct dc Crcdo quio vcrum, Cahlers Romaln Rolland,
no. 1 (Parls. Albln Mlchel, l952);
Ircvcl Tlouglt iv tlc Iigltccvtl Ccvtury, presented by
Romaln Rolland, Andr Maurols, and Edouard
Herrlot, wlth an lntroductlon by Geoffrey Brere
ton (New York. D. McKay, l953);
Mcmoircs ct frogmcvts dc jourvol (Parls. Albln Mlchel,
l956);
cctlovcv, lcs grovdcs cpoqucs crcotriccs, deflnltlve edltlon
(Parls. Albln Mlchel, l966);
Ics trogcdics dc lo foi: Soivt Iouis, Zrt, Ic tcmps vicvdro
(Parls. Albln Mlchel, l970);
Tlcotrc dc lo rcvolutiov, 2 volumes, Chefsdòeuvre de
Romaln Rolland (Evreux, Irance. Dlstrlbu par le
Cercle du blbllophlle, l972)comprlses 1. Ioqucs
flcuric, Ic 14 juillct, and Ics loups.2. Ic triomplc dc lo
roisov, Ic jcu dc lòmour ct dc lo mort, and Dovtov;
!oyogc o Moscou ( juiv-juillct 19J); suivi dc, òtcs complc-
mcvtoircs (octobrc-dcccmbrc 19JS), Cahlers Romaln
Rolland, no. 29 (Parls. Albln Mlchel, l992);
Ic tlcotrc du pcuplc, edlted by Chantal MeyerPlantureux
(Brussels. Complexe, l993);
Molotmo Covdli, deflnltlve edltlon (Parls. Stock, l993).
PLAY PRODLCJIONS. Zrt, Parls, Jhtre de
lÒeuvre, 3 May l898;
Morituri, Parls, Jhtre de lÒeuvre, l8 May l898;
Ic Triomplc dc lo roisov, Parls, Jhtre de lÒeuvre, 2l
|une l899;
Dovtov, Parls, Jhtre Clvlque, 30 December l900;
Ic _uotorc uillct, Parls, Jhtre de la Renalssance
Gmler, 2l March l902;
Ic cu dc lòmour ct dc lo mort, Parls, Jhtre de lÒdon,
29 |anuary l928.
OJHER. Ivcyclopcdic dc lo musiquc ct dictiovvoirc du covscr-
votoirc, ll volumes, volumes 2 and 3 lnclude con
trlbutlons by Rolland (Parls. Delagrave, l9l3-
l93l);
1l
ai_ PPO o~ o~
Maurlce Stendhal, !ics dc Hoydcv, dc Moort, ct dc
Mctotosc, preface by Romaln Rolland (Parls.
Champlon, l9l1);
Marcelle Capy, Uvc !oix dc fcmmc dovs lo mclcc, preface by
Rolland (Parls. Ollendorff, l9l6);
Ananda Coomaraswamy, Io Dovsc dc Civo: _uotorc
cssois sur lÌvdc, translated from the Engllsh by
Madelelne Rolland, preface by Rolland (Parls.
Relder, l922);
Io jcuvc Ivdc, rccucil dòrticlcs dc Molotmo Covdli, 1919-
1922, translated by Hlne Hart, lntroductlon by
Rolland (Parls. Stock, l921);
!ic dc M.-I. Covdli, ccritc por lui-mcmc, preface by
Rolland, Iuropc, 25 ( |anuary-Aprll l93l). 165-
190;
Makslm Gor`ky, Iux ct vous, preface by Rolland (Parls.
Edltlons Soclales Internatlonales, l93l);
'Ln Message de Romaln Rolland . . . . Ialsons face a
lènneml," address to the Brussels Peace Confer
ence, I`Humovitc (6 and ll September l936);
Nlcolas Ostrovskl, It lòcicr fut trcmpc, translated from
the Russlan by V. Ieldman, preface by Rolland
(Parls. Edltlons Soclales Internatlonales, l936);
Ics Iogcs immortcllcs dc Iousscou, cloisics ct cxpliquccs por
Iomoiv Iollovd (Parls. Corra / New York. Long
mans, Green, l938); translated by |ulle Kernan as
Tlc Iivivg Tlouglts of Iousscou prcscvtcd by Iomoiv
Iollovd (New York Joronto. Longmans, Green,
l939);
'A Rllke. Souvenlr de son volsln," ln Iillc ct lo Irovcc,
essays and memolrs by Edmond |aloux and oth
ers (Parls. Plon, l912);
Alexe Remlzov, Io Moisov ourlov, translated from the
Russlan by Robert and Znltta Vlvler, preface by
Rolland (Parls. Edltlons de Pavols, l916).
PERIODICAL PLBLICAJIONS. Soivt Iouis, Icvuc
dc Ioris (l March l897). 87-l37; (l5 March).
358-395; (l5 Aprll l897). 57l-593;
'La Muslque en Allemagne au dlxhultlme slcle,"
Icvuc dc Ioris (l5 Iebruary l906). 852-882;
Ics Trois Zmourcuscs, Icvuc d`Zrt Dromotiquc ct Musicol, 2l
(l906). l69-l9l, 219-275, 333-318;
'Shakespeare. Pour le trlcentenalre de la mort du
pote," ourvol dc Ccvvc (l7 Aprll l9l6);
'Dclaratlon de lÌndpendance de lÈsprlt," Humovitc
(26 |une l9l9);
'Du rle de l`crlvaln dans la soclt dàujourd`hul,"
Commuvc, 2 (May l935). 929-935;
'Retour de Moscou," Commuvc, 3 (October l935). l29-
l33;
'Ncesslt de la rvolutlon," Iuropc, 50 (l5 |uly l939).
289-302;
'Message to the Internatlonal Muslc Congress, l939,
New York," Musicol _uortcrly, 25 (October l939).
5l0-5l2;
'Mon Sjour chez Gorkl," Icttrcs Irovoiscs (March
l960).

Romaln Rolland`s tremendous output of plays,
novels, muslc crltlclsm, blographles, polemlcs, and cor
respondence has secured for hlm a place not only ln
Irench llterary hlstory but also ln European letters and
thought. Well known and wldely read ln hls day, he was
the apostle of an ldeallsm that ln many ways seems
nalve to modern audlences. Although stlll read, much
of hls wrltlng seems dated. Readers are no longer
shocked by lllegltlmacy, paclflsm, or communlsm, and
enough tlme has passed slnce the world wars so that the
sense of lmmedlacy needed to appreclate much of
Rolland`s work has vanlshed. Yet, perhaps lt ls for these
reasons that Rolland wlll be remembered, because hls
work stands as a reflectlon of the complex and confllct
lng lssues of the world ln whlch he llved.
Durlng hls llfetlme and for several years after hls
death, Rolland commanded a tremendous popular and
lntellectual followlng. In l926 a speclal lssue of the jour
nal Iuropc was devoted to the wrlter ln honor of hls slx
tleth blrthday. Jen years later the newspapers were full
of detalls about a speclal celebratlon'Hommage de la
Irance a Romaln Rolland"ln honor of hls seventleth
blrthday. I`Humovitc reported that thousands were
turned away because of the overwhelmlng turnout.
Andr Glde preslded over the event, whlch lncluded
speeches and coordlnated meetlngs of varlous clubs
also honorlng Rolland. A year after hls death a book of
collected essays, trlbutes, and poems was publlshed
under the tltle of Hommogcs o Iomoiv Iollovd. In l955
and agaln ln l965, Iuropc dedlcated speclal lssues to
Rolland.
Rolland`s dedlcatlon to paclflsm and hls bellef ln
the splrlt of lnternatlonallsm ensured hls contlnulng
popularlty durlng the decade of the l960s. Jhe l965
lssue of Iuropc lncluded the schedule for a week of radlo
programmlng devoted to Rolland`s llfe and works. A
huge celebratlon was held ln Moscow ln l966 honorlng
the onehundredth annlversary of the wrlter`s blrth. A
book wrltten ln collaboratlon by two of Russla`s fore
most Rolland scholars was publlshed to commemorate
the event. Included ln the volume was a llst of all the
publlcatlons on Rolland scheduled to appear ln l966
for the jubllee. Ior that slngle year ln the L.S.S.R. alone
there were l59 entrles coverlng Rolland`s muslcal
works, hls polltlcal wrltlngs, and hls novels. By l969
more than three mllllon coples of Rolland`s works had
appeared ln Russlan. Although polltlcal changes have
weakened Rolland`s appeal ln the countrles of the
12
o~ o~ ai_ PPO
former Sovlet Lnlon, lnternatlonal crltlcal lnterest ln
Rolland contlnues to the present, and translatlons of hls
works lnto |apanese, Korean, Chlnese, as well as Euro
pean languages appear at a steady rate.
Romaln Edm Paul Emlle Rolland was born on
29 |anuary l866 ln Clamecy, Irance, ln the department
of Nlvre. Hls father, Emlle Rolland, a natlve of one of
the small nelghborlng towns, carrled on the famlly tra
dltlon and was a hlghly esteemed, fourthgeneratlon
notary. Hls mother, AntolnetteMarle Courot Rolland,
was the daughter of a local famlly of farmers and nota
rles who had llved ln the area for several generatlons.
Of hlghly dlsparate natures, the separate lnfluences of
Rolland`s parents are qulte evldent ln Rolland`s llfe and
works. Hls father belonged to the old Irench bourgeol
sle that was lntensely republlcan; hls ancestors had
been ardent revolutlonarles. Emlle Rolland was well
known around town and enjoyed hls posltlon, a strlk
lngly dlfferent attltude from that of hls wlfe. She was of
a retlrlng nature and preferred devotlon and rellglous
plety to worldly dlstractlons. Jhe tendency toward rell
glous lntrospectlon that she bequeathed to her son
along wlth a great love of muslc had a lastlng lnfluence
on Rolland`s lntellectual formatlon.
Rolland had two slsters. Both were named
Madelelne, and both of them played slgnlflcant roles ln
hls llfe. Jhe flrst Madelelne was two years younger
than her brother. She dled ln |une of l87l, when she
was three, after sufferlng slx hours of agony, caused
presumably by dlphtherla. Jhe specter of death
haunted young Rolland, lntenslfled by the fact of hls
own dellcate health and a weakness of the lungs lnher
lted from hls mother`s slde of the famlly. He never out
grew hls physlcal lnflrmltles. lllness plagued hlm
throughout hls llfe.
If Madelelne`s death was a shock to Rolland, lt
was a crushlng blow to AntolnetteMarle Rolland, who
brooded for years over the loss of her chlld. When a
second daughter was born to her the next year, she
named the baby Madelelne, for the flrst Madelelne had
appeared to her ln a vlslon shortly before the blrth.
Jhls new daughter does not seem to have lessened the
mother`s grlef. She dld, however, offer companlonshlp
to Rolland, whom she helped conslderably ln later llfe
because of her Engllsh scholarshlp.
Roland`s chlldhood years at Clamecy were
lmportant. Irom hls own testlmony, the most dlstln
gulshlng feature of the very old town was lts tranqulllty.
Jhe surroundlng countryslde of gently rolllng green,
the anclent houses, and the old church of St. Martln all
radlated peace and calm. In thls peaceful envlronment
Rolland as a slckly chlld bullt up a comfortable dream
world. If at tlmes the world around hlm seemed to hold
hlm llke a prlson, freedom was found ln books, ln
muslc, and ln the promlse of the canal that flowed next
to the house where he llved. When the barges passed
by, Rolland could lmaglne hlmself on them, escaplng to
dlscover the rest of the world. Muslc was perhaps the
best freedom. Jhe works of Ludwlg van Beethoven and
of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart helped hlm transcend
the parameters of hls own exlstence and gave hlm a
taste of the subllme. Even the homey muslc of the bells
of St. Martln was a cause for joy and a symbol of llb
erty. In the llbrary Rolland bullt a fortress of dreams; ln
a rlng of chalrs whlch he arranged ln a maglc clrcle he
made the acqualntance of Wllllam Shakespeare and
other authors. Schoollng at Clamecy, however, fell
short of what AntolnetteMarle Rolland deslred for her
son. Her plan to send hlm to school ln Parls dld not
lnclude the dellcate Romaln faclng the capltal alone, so
she englneered the relocatlon of the entlre famlly, a
move that took place ln October l880.
Jhe world of Parls presented a rude awakenlng
for the sheltered boy from the Nlvernals. Jhe clty
seemed to hlm full of corruptlon and decay, under
scored no doubt by hls contlnulng preoccupatlon wlth
death. He endured two desperately unhappy academlc
years at the Lyce SalntLouls where he passed two ~J
~~~ examlnatlons. In the fall of l882 Rolland
entered the Lyce LoulsleGrand. Jhere he spent the
next four years preparlng for the Ecole Normale
Suprleure. Hls classmates at LoulsleGrand lncluded
Paul Claudel and Andr Suars, wlth whom he
attended concerts. Durlng thls tlme he developed no
close frlendshlps, nor was he lnsplred by any of hls pro
fessors. Hls love of muslc became a passlon that llfted
hlm perlodlcally out of hls unhapplness. He heartlly
defended Rlchard Wagner, reveled anew ln Beethoven,
and was enraptured by the force of a full symphony
orchestra. He also dlscovered Benedlct de Splnoza,
renewed hls acqualntance wlth Shakespeare, and, much
to hls mother`s angulsh, renounced hls falth. Academl
cally, he was only a moderately successful student.
Jwlce he falled the entrance examlnatlons before he
was admltted to the Ecole Normale ln November of
l886.
Although Rolland had begun hls studles ln phl
losophy, he chose hlstory and geography as the subjects
for hls second year, thlnklng that they would offer hlm
a greater scope than the set phllosophy and llterature
courses. Percelvlng deflnlte patterns ln hlstory, he
arrlved at a bellef he repeatedly held and abandoned
durlng hls llfe that tlme ls nonllnear. past, present, and
future exlst concurrently. Durlng thls perlod he also
developed hls ldeas on herolsm and declded to contact
those whom he consldered to be llvlng heroes. Among
these were Ernest Renan, Edmond de Goncourt, Hen
rlk Ibsen, and Leo Jolstoy. Whlle hls results were some
13
ai_ PPO o~ o~
what less than satlsfactory, he eventually recelved a
long letter from Jolstoy, whose works affected hlm
greatly.
Most of hls thlrd year at the Ecole Normale was
spent worklng dlllgently to prepare for the hlstory ogrc-
gotiov, whlch he passed, placlng elghth, ln August l889.
Desplte all hls efforts to that end, Rolland hated the
prospect of teachlng. When an appolntment opened up
at the Ecole Iranalse dÀrchologle de Rome, he reluc
tantly declded to accept the post. Jhe two years he
spent ln Rome proved to be the happlest, and some of
the healthlest, of hls llfe.
Hls research took up only a portlon of hls tlme,
and he proflted from hls freedom to learn about Rome
and hlmself. Hls qulte conslderable planlstlc talent was
recognlzed, and he was soon a deslred guest at many
offlclal and prlvate dlnners. In |anuary l890 he met
Malwlda von Maysenbug who, desplte the fortyelght
year dlfference ln thelr ages, became hls great frlend,
confldante, and mentor. She was an ldeallst who
belleved ln such causes as the emanclpatlon of women,
and she numbered among her close frlends many great
men, lncludlng Wagner and Irledrlch Nletzsche. She
and Rolland carrled on a volumlnous correspondence
untll her death ln l903. At von Maysenbug`s apartment
he also made the acqualntance of two slsters, Antonletta
and Sofla GuerrlerlGonzaga. Seelng the elder glrl
yawn durlng one of thelr conversatlons, Rolland turned
hls attentlon to the younger Sofla. Only slxteen at the
tlme and rather shy, she provlded Rolland wlth materlal
for hls dreamworld and lnsplred many of hls later cre
atlons.
Durlng these two years ln Rome he declded to
wrlte plays. Hls flrst, 'Empdocle," was never flnlshed.
'Orslno," completed but never publlshed, lnsplred by
the character ln Twclftl ìglt, ls notable for the ldea
expressed ln the last llne, where the hero dles shoutlng
'Death does not exlst!" Rolland began a thlrd play,
'Les Bagllonl," but before lt was flnlshed, he left Italy ln
|uly l89l ln the company of Malwlda von Maysenbug.
Back ln Parls, Rolland once agaln faced the pros
pect of teachlng, thls tlme postponed by a year`s leave
of absence on the grounds of poor health. He flnlshed
'Les Bagllonl" ln October. In |anuary and Iebruary he
wrote a play ln verse, 'Nlob," then started on a flfth
drama, 'Callgula." He took hls wares to most of the
theaters ln Parls only to meet refusals and rejectlon
everywhere. Hls fallures were not only llterary. He also
applled for posts at the Blbllothque Natlonale, the
Luxembourg Museum, and the Louvre and was turned
down ln every case. Hls emotlonal llfe was more suc
cessful. On ll Aprll l892 he dlned at the home of a
professor of classlcal phllology at the Collge de Irance.
Jhere he met the professor`s daughter, Clotllde Bral.
Jhey had a deep love of muslc ln common, and her
playlng of Wagner commanded Rolland`s respect. Per
haps part of Clotllde`s attractlon was the fact that she
was |ewlsh, and Rolland had become passlonately
aware of the persecutlon of the |ews durlng hls stay ln
Rome. Although he had developed a close frlendshlp
wlth Suars, also |ewlsh, durlng thelr years at the Ecole
Normale, Rolland later admltted that at the tlme of
meetlng Clotllde he knew very llttle about |udalsm.
Experlenclng a deslre to make reparatlons for soclety`s
antlSemltlc attltudes, Rolland offered hls hand and hls
heart. Jhey were marrled wlthout a rellglous ceremony
on 3l October l892. Jhe next month they left Parls for
Rome, where Rolland was on a brlef offlclal mlsslon for
the Ecole des Beaux Arts, thanks to the lnterventlon of
Clotllde`s father.
Durlng the slx months that the couple remalned
ln Rome, Rolland carrled on research for the doctoral
thesls that hls fatherlnlaw had made a condltlon of the
marrlage. When the couple returned to Parls, Rolland
taught a course ln art hlstory flrst at the Lyce Henrl
IV, then ln l891-l895 at LoulsleGrand. Meanwhlle,
he was worklng on hls dlssertatlon, Ics Urigivcs du tlcotrc
lyriquc modcrvc. Histoirc dc lòpcro cv Iuropc ovovt Iully ct
Scorlotti (Jhe Orlglns of Modern Lyrlc Jheater. Hlstory
of European Opera before Lully and Scarlattl), pub
llshed ln l891. In l895 he recelved the degree of doctcur
s lcttrcs. In l891-l895 he also taught a course on mor
als at the Ecole |eanBaptlste Say. Whlle assaylng the
tradltlonal vlews of ethlcal behavlor, he began to codlfy
hls own ldeas about soclal responslblllty that would
play such a great part ln hls llfe and wrltlngs. In Novem
ber of l895, he began teachlng art hlstory at the Ecole
Normale, where he stayed untll he was transferred to
the Sorbonne ln l903. Never havlng deslred to be a
professor, he found that hls professlonal dutles dld not
brlng hlm a great deal of satlsfactlon, nor dld they pro
vlde flnanclal lndependence. Rolland complalned
unhapplly ln a letter wrltten ln l896 to hls frlend Suars
of havlng to llve off hls wlfe`s dowry.
Jeachlng and work on hls dlssertatlon dld not
keep hlm from dolng what to hlm was truly lmportant
wrltlng plays. In |uly of l893 he flnlshed 'Callgula."
Jhe flrst slx months of l891 he spent worklng on lts
twln, 'Le Slge de Mantoue" (Jhe Slege of Mantua).
He contlnued hls struggle to get hls work publlshed or
produced. Jhe ComdleIranalse turned down
'Nlob," the Icvuc dc Ioris rejected 'Les Bagllonl," and
the Mcrcurc dc Irovcc refused 'Le Slge de Mantoue."
Not one of hls flve earllest plays was ever produced or
publlshed. Early ln l896 Clotllde Rolland lntervened
and sent Soivt-Iouis, a tragedy wrltten between Septem
ber l891 and August l895, to |ules Lematre, who,
wlth dlfflculty, had lt accepted by the Icvuc dc Ioris. It
11
o~ o~ ai_ PPO
took a year before the play appeared and, when lt dld,
crltlcal receptlon was less than favorable.
A twomonth vlslt to Germany ln the summer of
l896 was the catalyst for two projects that had long
been ln the plannlng stage. Jhat fall he began wrltlng
Zrt, another play, and cov-Clristoplc, a long, multl
volume novel whlch he correctly foresaw would take
hlm years to flnlsh. Both portray the struggle of a hero
agalnst the world. Jhe play, as well as two others
Rolland undertook shortly afterward, Ic Triomplc dc lo
roisov (l899, Jhe Jrlumph of Reason) and Ics !oivcus
(Jhe Vanqulshed; publlshed ln unflnlshed form ln
l922), ends ln the sulclde of the protagonlst. Zrt was
accepted by the Jhtre de lÒeuvre ln |une l897 and
performed one nlght only, on 3 May l898, to a moder
ately receptlve audlence. Hls next play, staged as Mori-
turi but known by lts publlshed tltle, Ics Ioups (l898),
was produced at the same theater flfteen days later and
ellclted a conslderably dlfferent reactlon.
Ics Ioups (l898; translated as Tlc !olvcs, l937),
publlshed under the pseudonym Salnt|ust, a flgure of
the Irench Revolutlon much admlred by Rolland, ls set
ln Malnz ln l793 and portrays the confllct between jus
tlce and the good of the state. Jhe prlnclpal characters
lnclude _uesnel, a commlssloner of the Conventlon,
and three offlcers ln the Republlcan armyan academl
clan, a former butcher, and a former arlstocrat. A spy ls
caught, and he accuses the former nobleman, dÒyron,
of treason. By the close of the play, the other three char
acters know the charge ls false, but dÒyron ls executed
neverthelessln the best lnterests of the country.
Rolland expected to provoke hls audlence wlth
thls dellberate echo of the Dreyfus affalr, whlch had
caused a great amount of soclal and polltlcal furor.
Alfred Dreyfus, a |ewlsh captaln ln the Irench army,
was accused of dlvulglng mllltary secrets to the Ger
mans. In December of l891 Dreyfus was convlcted ln a
secret courtmartlal and sentenced to llfe lmprlsonment
on Devll`s Island. Many promlnent people, lncludlng
Emlle Zola, belleved that a great lnjustlce had been
commltted, and they led a protest that flnally ended ln
l906 when a later trlal vlndlcated Dreyfus. In the
meanwhlle, Irance was torn between those who sup
ported the army, those who fought agalnst the persecu
tlon of the |ews, and others who belleved that justlce
had been lgnored. Rolland hlmself had not always been
ln full support of the captaln. He later changed sldes,
although, other than wrltlng Ics Ioups, he never took an
actlve part ln the controversy surroundlng the affalr.
Reactlons to the play were not what Rolland had
expected. By hls own admlsslon, he lntended the play
to be a glorlflcatlon of Irance, great no matter what the
clrcumstances, not a show of support for Dreyfus. In
fact, the play angered the mllltary, thrllled llberals and
soclallsts, and left the |ews unsatlsfled. But, at last, hls
work attracted some attentlon.
Rolland hlmself seems to have found lnsplratlon
ln the work. Durlng the summer followlng the produc
tlon of the play, he concelved the ldea for a whole cycle
of plays about the Irench Revolutlon, of whlch Ics
Ioups and a play wrltten earller, Ic Triomplc dc lo roisov,
would be a part. Iull of enthuslasm, Rolland set to
work on a new plece, Dovtov, of whlch he flnlshed the
flrst verslon ln November l898. He read the play to hls
wlfe and her father, who were ln no way encouraglng.
Hls fatherlnlaw, a practlcal man, crltlclzed Rolland`s
passlon for wrltlng plays ln general and professed a con
cern over Rolland`s obsesslon wlth the Revolutlon,
whlch he consldered to have a dlsturblng lnfluence.
Jhe breach ln ldeas was a serlous one. By the
summer of l900, Rolland and hls wlfe were spendlng
long perlods of tlme apart. In Iebruary l90l Rolland
offlclally separated from Clotllde and moved ln tempo
rarlly wlth hls parents. Jhelr dlvorce became flnal ln
May of the same year. Jhe dlfflcultles ln hls emotlonal
llfe dld not dampen hls enthuslasm for the plays about
the Irench Revolutlon. Rolland revlsed Dovtov (l900)
and wrote yet another play, Ic _uotorc uillct (l902;
translated as Tlc Iourtccvtl of uly, l9l8). Irom l898 to
l902 all four of the revolutlonary plays were produced,
and requests for translatlons reached Rolland from
Italy, Russla, and Germany. Jhe Revolutlon, however,
was not Rolland`s only preoccupatlon. He suffered
severe health problems durlng thls perlod, lncludlng
tuberculosls and heart trouble. He was stlll extremely
busy. He wrote artlcles of muslcal crltlclsm for several
journals, prlnclpally the Icvuc dc Ioris. Irom l90l to
l903 he taught courses ln muslc hlstory at two succes
slve glrls` schools ln addltlon to the course he was stlll
teachlng at the Ecole Normale. Desplte all hls efforts, he
was stlll terrlbly poor. He llved the solltary llfe of a her
mlt ln the tlny apartment where he read, studled, played
the plano, and began to wrlte somethlng other than
plays. He began ln earnest a blography of Beethoven
and renewed hls efforts on hls longcontemplated novel,
cov-Clristoplc.
!ic dc cctlovcv (l907; translated as Beethoven,
l907), the flrst of three books Rolland deslgnated hls
'Vles des hommes lllustres" (Llves of Illustrlous Men),
was flrst publlshed ln Colicrs dc lo _uivoivc ( |anuary
and September l903) under the ausplces of Charles
Pguy, as had been the case for three of the revolutlon
ary plays. Jhe blography was rather short, concentrat
lng on Beethoven as a man and on hls llfe rather than
on Beethoven as a composer. Beethoven was one of
Rolland`s personal heroes, and the composer`s llfe dem
onstrated how a great man could control sorrow, speclf
15
ai_ PPO o~ o~
lcally sorrow assoclated wlth physlcal sufferlng. Wrltten
for a popular audlence, the work was well recelved.
In Iebruary l901 the flrst part of Rolland`s best
known work, cov-Clristoplc, was publlshed ln Colicrs dc
lo _uivoivc. Jhe novel occupled much of the next nlne
years of the author`s llfe. Before publlcatlon ln ten vol
umes by the Parlslan flrm Ollendorff (l905-l9l2), lt
appeared ln seventeen lnstallments ln the Colicrs: I`Zubc
(Dawn) and Ic Motiv (Mornlng), Iebruary l901; I`Zdo-
lcsccvt (Jhe Adolescent), |anuary l905; Io Icvoltc
(Revolt), November l906-|anuary l907; Io Ioirc sur lo
plocc (Jhe Ialr ln the Square), March l908; Zvtoivcttc,
March l908; Dovs lo moisov (In the House), Iebruary
l909; Ics Zmics (Jhe Irlends), |anuary-Iebruary l9l0;
Ic uissov ordcvt (Jhe Burnlng Bush), October-November
l9ll; Io òuvcllc ourvcc (Jhe New Day), October l9l2.
Irom l9l0 to l9l3 Gllbert Cannan`s threevolume
Engllsh translatlon of the entlre saga appeared under
the tltles cov-Clristoplc: Dowv, Morvivg, Joutl, Icvolt
(l9l0), cov-Clristoplc iv Ioris: Tlc Morlctplocc, Zvtoivcttc,
Tlc Housc (l9ll), and cov-Clristoplc. ourvcy`s Ivd: Iovc
ovd Iricvdslip, Tlc urvivg usl, Tlc `cw Dowv (l9l3).
cov-Clristoplc ls the llfe story of a latenlneteenth
century German muslclan, |eanChrlstophe Kraft.
I`Zubc beglns wlth the lnfancy of the tltle character, and
hls parents and surroundlngs are shown through the
perceptlons of a baby. Jhe next three volumes follow
Chrlstophe through hls chlldhood and formatlve years
to the threshold of manhood. Hls muslcal genlus ls
apparent early and he ls eager to get out lnto the world,
but hls wldowed mother begs hlm to stay wlth her. Hls
energles are devoted to composlng, and he beglns to
chafe agalnst the restrlctlve, conventlonal ldeas of
muslc. Because of an altercatlon wlth some German sol
dlers, Chrlstophe ls forced to flee hls natlve land and go
to Parls to make hls fortune as a muslclan, composer,
and planlst.
Volumes flve, slx, seven, and part of elght are all
set ln Parls. Rolland makes use of hls German hero`s
vlslt to Irance to crltlclze many aspects of German and
Irench soclety. Io Ioirc sur lo plocc ls a bltter crltlque of
the llterary and artlstlc clrcles of Parls. In thls volume
Chrlstophe comes facetoface wlth the cultural world
of Parls and ls dlsgusted by the corruptlon he flnds
there. Overwhelmed, he ls unaware of the chaste love
he has lnsplred ln one of hls muslc students, a young
Itallan glrl, Grazla, based on Sofla GuerrlerlGonzaga.
Nelther he nor hls muslc flnds acceptance ln the world
of fashlonable muslc, so he wlthdraws and concentrates
on composltlon. He nearly starves to death. Jhen he
meets Ollvler |eannln, a sensltlve, reflned, flnely bullt
lntellectual, the Irench counterpart to the best of Ger
man enthuslasm that Chrlstophe represents. Volume
slx, Zvtoivcttc, tells the story of the early llves of Ollvler
and hls slster Antolnette, whom Chrlstophe had met
once ln Germany. In Dovs lo moisov, volume seven, the
two young men, now best frlends, have moved ln
together, and, from Ollvler, Chrlstophe learns to apprecl
ate the good slde of Irench culture. Ollvler also teaches
hls frlend to understand and feel affectlon for the com
mon people. Later, ln volume elght, Ollvler`s marrlage
and Chrlstophe`s success cause the two to drlft apart.
Chrlstophe dlscovers that hls mysterlous benefactor ls
none other than Grazla, now the wlfe of an Austrlan
ambassador. It ls now Chrlstophe`s turn to fall ln love,
but she feels only frlendshlp for hlm and leaves wlth
her husband for Amerlca. In volume nlne, Ic uissov
ordcvt, after the fallure of Ollvler`s marrlage, Ollvler and
Chrlstophe are together agaln and become lnvolved ln
polltlcal unrest. Durlng a May Day rlot, Ollvler ls serl
ously wounded, and Chrlstophe kllls a pollceman and
ls forced to flee. Irlends splrlt hlm out of the country to
Swltzerland, where he recelves word that Ollvler has
dled. Grlef robs hlm of hls creatlve genlus untll another
crlsls reawakens hls creatlvlty. In the last volume, Io
òuvcllc ourvcc, an aged Chrlstophe has returned to
Parls, and there he flnds success, frlendshlp, and affec
tlon. New sorrows assall the old composer, but he can
face these now because of hls prevlous experlences.
cov-Clristoplc ls a story of heroes and moral
responslbllltles. Llke the 'lllustrlous men" about whom
Rolland was wrltlng at the same tlme, Chrlstophe and
Ollvler are models to be followed. Rolland meant for
thelr attltudes and thelr ways of learnlng and deallng
wlth problems to be examples for hls readers. Jhe two
maln characters are both blographlcal and auto
blographlcal. Rolland called Chrlstophe hls 'shadow";
Ollvlerwlth the lntentlonal echo of Roland and Ollv
ler from Io Clovsov dc Iolovdwas hls double. Closely
modeled upon Rolland`s greatest personal hero, Chrls
tophe resembles Beethoven, partlcularly ln the flrst
three volumes of cov-Clristoplc, ln whlch detalls are
borrowed dlrectly from Beethoven`s early llfe. Chrls
tophe ls a muslcal genlus, and, as such, he represents
the muslclan that Rolland wlshed to have been, the
novellst`s fantaslzed self. Ollvler ls closer to Rolland`s
real self, but both flgures put thelr bellefs lnto actlon,
somethlng that Rolland advocated unceaslngly,
although he never qulte managed to do so hlmself. He
was always too busy wrltlng.
Irom the tlme the flrst volumes were publlshed,
cov-Clristoplc attracted both publlc and crltlcal atten
tlon. Crltlcs admlred the muslcal arrangement of the
book; the story llne was popular among moregeneral
readers. Because of lts bltlng soclal crltlclsm, Io Ioirc sur
lo plocc was less well recelved, as were some of the later
volumes, but crltlcal oplnlon was generally favorable up
to the beglnnlng of World War I. Jhen the tlde was
16
o~ o~ ai_ PPO
swayed by a change ln publlc oplnlon whlch, wlth the
advent of the war, turned more patrlotlc and natlonalls
tlc, and the German |eanChrlstophe was no longer
acceptable as a hero or as a crltlc of Irench soclety.
After the war the serles regalned lts admlrers, and lt
remalns Rolland`s most popular work.
Whlle wrltlng g~JÌ Rolland kept up hls
hablt of worklng on several projects slmultaneously. He
contlnued wrltlng artlcles on muslcology and ln l908
produced two books on muslclans. j ~
and j ~ (translated as j~ qJ~I
l9l1, and p j~ c a~I l9l5). He became
lnterested ln Mlchelangelo and wrote two books on the
artlst. jJ^ (l905; translated as j~I
l9l5) was an analysls of the Itallan`s works. i~ s
jJÎ the second of the 'Vles des hommes lllus
tres," appeared the next year ln `~ ~ n~I
was publlshed by Hachette ln l907, and was translated
as q i j~ ^ ln l9l2. Jhls blography
shows how the great artlst dealt wlth a type of sorrow
much dlfferent from that of Beethoven. Mlchelangelo`s
tragedy was that he was born wlth the splrlt of dlscon
tent agalnst whlch he had to struggle constantly. Slnce
the struggle was not successful, Mlchelangelo`s llfe had
no consolatlon, although lt showed great herolsm.
In Rolland`s own llfe there had been some conso
latlon. In l905 he recelved the Vle Heureuse Prlze, and
ln l909 he was named to the Lglon d`Honneur. Hls
wrltlng was flnally earnlng recognltlon. On 28 October
l9l0 Rolland was run over by an automoblle. He spent
the next three months ln bed and convalesced slowly ln
Italy and then ln Irance. Wlth the lntentlon of wrltlng
an artlcle, he spent some of hls tlme rereadlng Jolstoy,
who had dled ln December of l9l0. Jhe artlcle devel
oped lnto a book, and the thlrd blography of the 'Vles
des hommes lllustres," s qI was publlshed both
ln Parls and ln Engllsh translatlon as Jolstoy ln New
York durlng l9ll. Jolstoy`s form of herolc sufferlng dlf
fers from that of Rolland`s other heroes, for thls hero
has chosen hls lot for hlmself. Jhe blography won the
approval of Jolstoy`s famlly for lts sympathetlc por
trayal of the Russlan wrlter who had so lnsplred
Rolland ln hls youth.
Prlmarlly because of the accldent, Rolland had
been on leave from the Sorbonne for two years when
he submltted hls reslgnatlon ln |uly l9l2 ln order to
devote hlmself more fully to hls llterary efforts. Jhe
completlon of g~J` was llberatlng'En me
sparant de Chrlstophe je n`prouve . . . quùn sentl
ment de dllvrance" (Separatlng myself from Chrls
tophe, I experlence only a feellng of dellverance).
Rolland went back to Swltzerland ln Aprll of the follow
lng year. He stayed there for slx months and relaxed by
wrltlng `~ _ (publlshed and translated lnto
Engllsh ln l9l9). Jhls novel, whose tltle character
mlght have been one of Rolland`s own forebears, por
trays the bonvlvant attltudes of the paternal slde of hls
famlly. Durlng hls stay ln Swltzerland, the Acadmle
Iranalse awarded Rolland the Grand Prlx de Llttra
ture. He was not partlcularly enthuslastlc over wlnnlng
the prlze. Hls mlnd was becomlng lncreaslngly pre
occupled wlth phllosophlcal and soclal concerns.
Jhe beglnnlng of l9l1 marked a change ln
Rolland`s llterary output. Ior the next four years he put
aslde most of hls creatlve wrltlng and concentrated on
spreadlng hls ldeas of lnternatlonallsm. After a few
months ln Parls, he had returned to Swltzerland and
was there when war broke out. Exempt from mllltary
servlce by reasons of age and lll health, he declded to
stay ln Swltzerland. Jhough at flrst he jolned ln the gen
eral exultatlon at the declaratlon of war, he began to
decry the destructlon that lt entalled. He clung to the
llluslon of the posslblllty of an honorable war wlth the
opponents Germany and Irance able to respect each
other desplte dlfferences of oplnlon. He belleved that a
splrlt of lnternatlonallsm, a unlted brotherhood of cltl
zens of every country, was more lmportant than natlon
allst dlstlnctlons, and to further thls doctrlne, he wrote
the most famous of hls wartlme artlcles, 'Audessus de
la mle" (Above the Battle). Jhe tltle was the cause of
much mlslnterpretatlon by those who saw ln lt Rolland
vauntlng hls own superlorlty or underscorlng the aloof
ness of hls llfe ln Swltzerland. Jhe maln polnt of the
artlcle was that young men were dylng ln valn and that
lt was up to the European ellte to rlse above the call of
natlonallsm and bulld a clty whose consclousness
would be free from the lnjustlce and chauvlnlsm of lndl
vldual natlons, a refuge for llberated souls of all
natlons. Rolland appealed to fellow lntellectuals to dem
onstrate for peace lnstead of maklng war and thus
became a flgurehead of paclflsm for the next several
years.
'Audessus de la mle" and many of hls other
numerous wartlme artlcles were flrst publlshed ln the
g~ dI but ln November l9l5 they were col
lected ln a book publlshed ln Parls bearlng the tltle of
the bestknown essay. Jhe book ralsed a storm of pro
test ln Irance. It was offlclally denounced, lts author
ostraclzed, and, for a whlle, the clrculatlon of the essays
was prohlblted. Rolland was undaunted. Sales of the
book went to beneflt the Agence Internatlonale des
Prlsonnlers de Guerre, located ln Geneva and orga
nlzed under the ausplces of the Internatlonal Red
Cross. Deeply devoted to the purposes of the Interna
tlonal Red Cross, Rolland`s energles were dedlcated to
the agency from October l9l1 to |uly l9l5.
On the basls of several artlcles from ^ _~J
(l9l6), hls works on Jolstoy and Beethoven, and
17
ai_ PPO o~ o~
partlcularly cov-Clristoplc, Rolland was recommended
for the l9l5 Nobel Prlze ln Llterature. Jhe Commlttee
carefully consldered hls candldacy but declded that hls
wrltlng was of uneven quallty and too full of contradlc
tory sentlments and ldeas. In any event, the Commlttee
declded to delay the awardas lt had wlth the l9l1
prlze that was stlll pendlng because of the warand the
prlze was tabled untll the followlng year. By that tlme,
Rolland`s reputatlon and hls support had grown, and
on 9 November l9l6 the commlttee declded ln
Rolland`s favor. He was awarded the l9l5 Nobel Prlze
ln Llterature 'as a trlbute to the lofty ldeallsm of hls llt
erary productlon and to the sympathy and love of truth
wlth whlch he has descrlbed dlfferent types of human
belngs." Rolland`s flrst reactlon was to renounce the
award, but ln the end he accepted because lt brought
honor to Irance, and he could donate the prlze money
to the Internatlonal Red Cross and several Irench char
ltles.
After glvlng up hls work wlth the Agence Interna
tlonale, Rolland left Geneva for other Swlss resldences
and returned once more to creatlve wrltlng. In l9l6 he
concelved and began a novel about a new type of hero
not cast ln the tradltlonal herolc mold. Clerambault ls a
qulet llttle man whose struggle takes place ln the realm
of thought rather than ln the world llke that of |ean
Chrlstophe. Rolland`s lntentlon was to call the book a
'romanmdltatlon," a comblnatlon novel and medlta
tlon, wlth the tltle 'L`Ln contre tous" (One agalnst All).
However, after hls experlence wlth 'Audessus de la
mle," he was afrald thls tltle mlght also be mlsunder
stood. When the novel was completed and publlshed ln
l920, lt bore the tltle Clcromboult: Histoirc dùvc covscicvcc
librc pcvdovt lo gucrrc. In thls work, translated as Clcrom-
boult: Tlc Story of ov Ivdcpcvdcvt Spirit durivg tlc !or
(l92l), Rolland advocates the necesslty of lndlvldual
thought as a check on the masses. Jhe outlook for
humanlty ls gloomy and pesslmlstlc. Even more cynlcal
ls the author`s allegorlcal drama, Iiluli, publlshed the
prevlous year and translated ln l920. Jhe subject ls
war, and the one character left unscathed by the battle
ls burled ln an avalanche. Jhe heavens are empty; God
ls lneffectlve. Not surprlslngly, crltlcs saw the play as
Rolland`s abandonment of falth.
Rolland`s next work after Clcromboult, the short
novel Iicrrc ct Iucc, concelved and wrltten ln l9l8,
translated lnto Engllsh as Iicrrc ovd Iucc ln l922, was
also lnsplred by the war. Jhe plot ls derlved from the
bomblng by the Germans of a Parlslan church. A bomb
caused the roof to collapse, kllllng several people and
woundlng many others. Jhe tltle characters, lovers, are
kllled ln a slmllar tragedy, but not before Rolland has
expounded on hls ldeas of the concurrence of past,
present, and future.
Jhe year l9l9 marked Rolland`s return to Parls
lnstlgated by the news of hls mother`s stroke. He
arrlved 1 May; she dled flfteen days later. Rolland
remalned ln Parls for the next two years. In Aprll of
l92l he left for Swltzerland. Jhe followlng Aprll he
rented the Vllla Olga ln Vllleneuve on Lake Geneva
and moved there wlth hls slster Madelelne and thelr
father. Rolland leased the vllla for the next slxteen
years, and there he dld most of the work on hls next
major creatlve undertaklng.
Jhe plan for another serlal novel had been con
celved as early as l9l2, but Rolland had put lt aslde
flrst to work on Colos rcugvov and then agaln when the
war lntervened. Jhls cycle would have a female protag
onlst, the counterpart of |eanChrlstophe. He called lt
I`Zmc cvclovtcc (Jhe Soul Enchanted). Begun ln l92l, lt
appeared ln four parts wlth seven volumes between
l922 and l933. Jhe flrst two parts, Zvvcttc ct Sylvic and
IÌtc (Summcr), were wrltten ln qulck successlon and
each publlshed the year after lts completlon, ln l922
and l923, respectlvely; Engllsh translatlons of both
appeared ln l925. Jhese volumes are the best known
and most crltlcally appreclated of the serles. Jwo years
passed, taken up wlth other projects, before Rolland
began the thlrd part, Mrc cl fils (Mother and Son),
whlch appeared ln Irench and ln Engllsh translatlon ln
l927. Rolland put off the last part, I`Zvvovciotricc (llter
ally, Jhe Iemale Messenger), for more than three years,
and when he flnally started worklng on the manuscrlpt
ln October l929, he was repeatedly sldetracked by
other projects and lnterests.
Slmply put, the complex novel ls the story of
Annette Rlvlre`s enchantment and dlsenchantment
wlth the world of materlallsm. Rolland hlmself consld
ered lt 'le drame sllencleux de la famllle moderne" (the
sllent drama of the modern famlly). Zvvcttc ct Sylvic
opens ln l900, when Annette, long motherless, loses
her father and dlscovers that she has an lllegltlmate half
slster, Sylvle. Annette seeks her out, and the two
become close frlends, desplte the dlsparlty of thelr
upbrlnglng. Because of thelr lndependent natures, the
two eventually drlft apart but stay ln touch. Annette
becomes afflanced to Roger Brlssot, but he wants a tra
dltlonal marrlage based on the lnequallty of the sexes,
and Annette cannot accept hls polnt of vlew. She breaks
off the engagement and dlscovers that she ls pregnant.
IÌtc opens after the blrth of her son, Marc. Ignorlng
publlc oplnlon, Annette ls qulte happy wlth her unwed
motherhood, but soon she faces the palnful loss of her
fortune and must teach for a llvlng. Stlll hoplng to flnd
love, she meets an old school chum, |ullen Davy. She
dreams of marrlage, but because of |ullen`s tlmld splrlt
of conformlty, plans fall through. Later, Annette
becomes the mlstress of a surgeon. Jhls relatlonshlp ls
18
o~ o~ ai_ PPO
no more successful than the others, and Annette breaks
lt off, not wlshlng to be a slave to passlon. Meanwhlle,
Marc grows away from hls mother. Annette can do
nothlng to reach hlm, and thls fallure plus that of her
love affalrs are trlals to her development that she must
overcome ln order to be free to start a new llfe. Jhe
book closes as Annette nears her fortleth blrthday and
war ls declared.
Jhe focus of the novel shlfts ln the next part.
Experlences from Rolland`s own llfe and statements of
hls ldeas abound ln Mrc ct fils. Here Annette takes a job
teachlng ln a provlnclal boys` school where, llke
Rolland at the Lyce SalntLouls, she ls confronted wlth
the corruptlon and medlocrlty of the students. More
and more allenated from hls mother, Marc attends a
Parlslan boardlng school and beglns to mlx wlth a
crowd of anarchlsts. Annette forms an attachment to a
wounded soldler who wants nothlng so much as to see
hls dearest frlend, an Austrlan who ls now a prlsoner of
war. Deeply touched by thls frlendshlp that surmounts
natlonallsm (the unmlstakable volce of Rolland),
Annette helps the Austrlan escape so that he can see hls
dylng frlend. She returns to Parls where she flnds that
her son has learned to appreclate her. Marc dlscovers
the ldentlty of hls father, now polltlcally promlnent, and
seeks hlm out only to be dlsgusted by hls pompous
vlews. Jhe young man ls about to be drafted and ls
maklng plans to run away when the armlstlce ls
declared.
Jhe last volume, I`Zvvovciotricc, wrltten so much
later than the rest, ls the most polltlcally aware and the
least lnterestlng to modern readers, although lt was
favorably recelved at the tlme. When lt opens, Annette
ls leavlng Parls as the governess of a Rumanlan famlly.
She does not occupy the post long, for Annette flees,
fearlng for her llfe, ln order to escape the advances of
her employer. Back ln Parls she develops a stormy rela
tlonshlp wlth a newspaper publlsher named Jlmon,
whom she eventually converts to the Sovlet cause.
Marc, revolted by capltallsm, scarcely works. Jerrlbly
poor, he refuses the help of Sylvle, now rlch, and falls
desperately lll. He ls nursed back to health by Assla, a
Russlan lmmlgrant, who wlns hlm to communlsm.
Jhey marry and have a son, Vanla, a true chlld of the
communlst world, who scorns the bourgeols values of
hls grandmother. Marc leaves Assla to flght fasclsm and
ls kllled by the Black Shlrts ln Italy. Sylvle dles, and
Assla leaves Annette to go to the Lnlted States to
remarry and, no doubt, further the cause of commu
nlsm. A new world ls belng born.
Ior Rolland`s contemporary readers, the sense of
lmmedlacy ln the novel was lnescapable. Jhe actlon
ends ln l933, the same year the last volume was pub
llshed. As a whole the work attracted much attentlon.
Crltlcs saw lt as another step ln Rolland`s flght for free
dom and compared lt to cov-Clristoplc. Because of the
quantlty of phllosophlcal commentarles ln the novel,
Rolland was varlously seen as a prophet and soclal
crltlc. Reactlons, especlally to the last volume,
depended greatly on the polltlcal leanlngs of the crltlc.
Rolland`s advocacy of soclallsm and communlsm
galned for hlm both acclalm and vlolent dlsllke. More
recently, Annette`s flerce splrlt of lndependence and the
lntlmate vlew of her loves and psyche have earned
Rolland some recognltlon as an early advocate of
women`s rlghts.
In order to understand fully the forces at work ln
I`Zmc cvclovtcc, lt ls helpful to conslder Rolland`s other
lnterests durlng the preparatlon of the novel. Over the
years he was becomlng more and more lnvolved wlth
the paclflst and communlst movements, and hls lncreas
lng commltment to those ldeas can be seen ln the suc
cesslve volumes of I`Zmc cvclovtcc. Addltlonally, several
crltlcs have noted traces of mystlclsm ln the novel
dlrectly related to Rolland`s growlng preoccupatlon
wlth the phllosophles of the East.
Whlle Rolland had been attracted to Indlan rell
glons as early as l898, hls lnterest was sparked ln l9l1
by an artlcle wrltten by Ananda Coomaraswamy advo
catlng a world pollcy for Indla. Jhe artlcle bore a dedl
catlon to Rolland, and the two men began a
correspondence that lasted several years. In l9l6
another Indlan, Rablndranath Jagore, spoke out ln
favor of Rolland. Jhey also began to correspond and
met for the flrst tlme ln Aprll l92l.
Rolland contlnued hls Eastern studles and wrote
a blography of Mohandas Karamchand Gandhl that
was lnltlally publlshed ln the flrst volume of Iuropc, a
journal founded by Rolland ln l923 ln collaboratlon
wlth several other wrlters; lt appeared ln book form ln
l921 and ln Engllsh translatlon under the tltle Molotmo
Covdli, Tlc Mov wlo ccomc Uvc witl tlc Uvivcrsol civg.
Gandhl was another of Rolland`s heroes, a leader to be
admlred for hls wlsdom and hls great, actlve courage.
Jhe book was an enthuslastlc portralt of the Indlan; lt
was wldely read and sold well.
Rolland`s correspondence soon expanded to
lnclude Gandhl and Pandlt |awaharlal Nehru as well as
several other Indlans. In l926 he entertalned flrst
Nehru, then Jagore, at Vllla Olga. Jhese meetlngs pro
vlded the lnsplratlon for the last volume of I`Zmc
cvclovtcc and for another long work, Issoi sur lo mystiquc
ct lòctiov dc lÌvdc vivovtc (Essay on the Mystlque and
Actlon of Llvlng Indla). Jhe flrst volume of the work
was publlshed ln l929 and bore the tltle Io !ic dc
Iomolrislvo (translated as Tlc Iifc of Iomolrislvo, l929).
Jhe second, Io !ic dc !ivclovovdo cl lÌvovgilc uvivcrscl,
appeared the next year (and ln Engllsh translatlon as
19
ai_ PPO o~ o~
Tlc Iifc of !ivclovovdo ovd tlc Uvivcrsol Cospcl ln l93l).
In these books Rolland ls trylng to show that there ls a
'unlversal gospel" that presupposes an essentlal accord
between Hlndulsm and Chrlstlanlty. He proceeds to
defend Eastern doctrlne to the West and vlce versa. Hls
efforts were crowned by another vlslt from Jagore ln
August l930 and one by Gandhl, who arrlved for a
short stay the followlng month.
Between the wrltlng of Molotmo Covdli and the
vlslts of Jagore and Nehru ln l926, Rolland took tlme
away from hls Indlan studles and the wrltlng of I`Zmc
cvclovtcc to pursue hls lnterest ln the Irench Revolutlon.
It was tlme to complete the project for the cycle of revo
lutlonary plays abandoned at the turn of the century. In
l921 he wrote Ic cu dc lòmour ct dc lo mort (publlshed ln
l925; translated as Tlc Comc of Iovc ovd Dcotl ln l926;
produced ln l928), set ln March of l791. Jhe tltle of hls
next play, Ioqucs flcurics (l926; translated as Iolm Suvdoy,
l928), hlnts that the seeds of revolutlon are already
planted and waltlng to blossom forth. Jhls play ls the
prologue of the whole cycle, and the actlon occurs ln
l771. Much of the tenslon of the play results from the
fact that, unllke the audlence, the characters are lgno
rant of the Jerror that ls to come. Jhe story of Ics
Icovidcs (l928; translated, l929) takes place twenty
three years after that of Ioqucs flcurics. Jhe characters
are the same or the descendants of the characters of the
earller play, but now the movlng force on the horlzon ls
Napolon Bonaparte. Jhe play ends on an optlmlstlc
note. class barrlers formerly so rlgld have now dls
solved. Jhe drama that completed the elghtplay serles
was not wrltten untll l938. Iobcspicrrc, Rolland`s last
play, publlshed ln l939, was an effort to justlfy the
actlons of the flgure whom Rolland consldered the
greatest man of the Revolutlon. Iate dlctated the revo
lutlonary hero`s actlons. Jhe play ls the glorlflcatlon of
revolutlon, whlch, by now, Rolland had come to belleve
was necessary ln order to establlsh peace and the ldeal
republlc.
Desplte Rolland`s devotlon to polltlcal and soclal
ldeallsm, he never lost hls passlon for muslc. Hls work
on Beethoven had only begun wlth the early blography.
In l928 he produced the flrst part of a monumental
project, cctlovcv: Ics Crovdcs Ipoqucs crcotriccs (l928-
l915). Jhe flrst volume was subtltled Dc l`Hcroquc o
l`Zppossiovoto (Irom the Erolca to the Appasslonata) and
was translated under the tltle cctlovcv tlc Crcotor
(l929). Jhe work beglns wlth Beethoven ln hls thlrtleth
year, for lt ls not so much a blography as a study of
Beethoven`s creatlvlty and productlon. Crltlcs revlewed
the volumes favorably but generally agreed that a prlor
technlcal knowledge of muslcal composltlon and of
Beethoven`s sonatas was helpful to the reader. Work on
the larger project was deferred for several years, but ln
the meanwhlle Rolland produced Coctlc ct cctlovcv
(l930; translated, l93l). Jhls plece ls a study of the
German poet lntended to remlnd the publlc that he was
the 'greatest poet of modern Europe," and lt was only
rlght that he should have met the greatest of muslclans.
Meant for a wlder audlence than Ics Crovdcs Ipoqucs
crcotriccs, Coctlc ct cctlovcv ls a good deal less technlcal
than the earller work.
Jhe next volumes of Ics Crovdcs Ipoqucs crcotriccs
appeared much later. Jhe two volumes of Ic Clovt dc lo
Icsurrcctiov (l937, Tlc Sovg of tlc Icsurrcctiov) concentrate
on the years of the composer`s llfe between l8l6 and
l823. Rolland analyzes the technlcal aspects of
Beethoven`s last sonatas and the Mass ln D. Jhe last
part of the study, Io Cotlcdrolc ivtcrrompuc (llterally, Jhe
Interrupted Cathedral), equally technlcal, was pub
llshed ln three volumes. Io `cuvimc Symplovic (Jhe
Nlnth Symphony) and Ics Dcrvicrs _uotuors (Jhe Last
_uartets) appeared ln l913. Iivito Comocdio appeared ln
l915, after Rolland`s death.
In l923 a young Russlan wldow had wrltten to
Rolland about her lmpresslons of cov-Clristoplc. Jhls
was the beglnnlng of a correspondence that led to a
meetlng ln August l929. Both partles appear to have
been pleased wlth the encounter, and the next year
Rolland asked Marle Kodachova to come to llve wlth
hlm ln Swltzerland. In l93l she came to Vllleneuve to
be hls companlon, secretary, and nurse.
Rolland`s health was very poor, and ln August
l932 he was too lll to assume ln person the chalrman
shlp of the World Congress Agalnst War. Instead, he
sent a statement, publlshed ln pamphlet form ln l932,
to be read on hls behalf. He no longer belleved that
soclal change could be effected by nonvlolence. Whlle
he deplored the ldea of a capltallstlc war, war to estab
llsh the 'Revolutlon"the new orderwas often a
regrettable necesslty. More and more, lt seemed to
Rolland that Russlan communlsm represented the
hopedfor new order. He spoke up often ln support of
the L.S.S.R. and ln pralse of Vladlmlr Lenln, a posltlon
that no doubt was partlally responslble for hls electlon
to the Academy of Sclence of Lenlngrad ln l932.
Because of hls bellefs Rolland refused the Goethe
Medal that the German government under Chancellor
Adolf Hltler offered hlm ln Aprll l933. He wrote and
publlshed several artlcles condemnlng the German gov
ernment. Jhese, as well as the rest of hls postwar
polemlcs that had appeared ln the Communlst newspa
per Humovitc, were later collected lnto two books. _uivc
Zvs dc combot, 1919-19J4 (translated as I !ill òt Icst,
l935) and Ior lo rcvolutiov, lo poix (By Revolutlon,
Peace), both publlshed ln Parls ln l935.
Rolland`s enthuslasm for Russla led to a trlp to
the Sovlet Lnlon durlng the summer of l935, accompa
50
o~ o~ ai_ PPO
nled by Kodachova, whom he had marrled the year
before. He went to see Makslm Gor`ky, wlth whom he
stayed. Lpon hls return from Russla, he hlghly pralsed
|oseph Stalln and the vltallty of the Sovlet people under
the dlrectlon of the Communlst Party. In Rolland`s
oplnlon the polltlcal developments ln the L.S.S.R. rep
resented the hope of clvlllzatlon, and he pledged hls
contlnulng efforts to defend her agalnst all detractors.
He was partlcularly lmpressed wlth the Sovlet youth
and wrote laudatory artlcles that were publlshed both
ln Europe and ln Russla.
Later the same summer Rolland took another
trlp, thls tlme to vlslt the reglon of hls blrth, the Nlver
nals. He began to thlnk about returnlng to Irance, and,
ln September l937, he bought a house ln Vzelay, a
small town not far from Clamecy. Jhe next May, after
slxteen years, he gave up the lease on the Vllla Olga
and moved the household to Vzelay. Rolland had sev
eral projects waltlng to be flnlshed. hls play, Iobcspicrrc,
the last of hls works on Beethoven, hls personal mem
olrs, and Ic !oyogc ivtcricur (l912; translated as ourvcy
!itliv, l917), a collectlon of thoughts and lntrospectlve
studles wrltten prlmarlly from l921 to l926. He
launched lnto these endeavors and a llterary study of
hls frlend Pguy wlth hls customary verve, but nelther
they nor hls contlnulng battle wlth tuberculosls could
keep Rolland from ralslng hls volce agalnst the worsen
lng polltlcal sltuatlon ln Europe. He protested agalnst
the vlolatlon of human rlghts and scathlngly con
demned Hltler`s Germany. When war was declared ln
September l939, he wrote declarlng hlmself unreserv
edly on the slde of 'the democracles and of Irance,"
that were ln such terrlble danger from Germany. Never
theless, he stlll belleved ln hls ldeal of lnternatlonallsm
the German people themselves were not the enemy;
they had been led astray by a despot who needed to be
destroyed. Wlth the approachlng end of the war came a
new bellef ln the destlny of Irance. Rolland had wlt
nessed enough acts of herolsm and sacrlflce to assure
hlm that the mlsslon of an eternal Irance was to defend
the cause of llberty. Caught up ln thls enthuslasm,
Rolland flnally succumbed to tuberculosls and dled at
Vzelay on 30 December l911 at the age of seventy
elght.
At the end of hls llfe Rolland seems to have expe
rlenced a renewal of rellglous feellng. Jhls was defl
nltely not a return to Cathollclsm, as Claudel trled to
lnterpret lt, but a bellef ln some unseen, dlvlne power.
In llght of the mystlclsm lnherlted from hls mother that
threads lts way ln and out of Rolland`s llterary texts,
such a rellglous reawakenlng ls not surprlslng. In fact,
ln Rolland`s work taken as a whole, vaclllatlon and con
tradlctlon seem to be the rule rather than the exceptlon.
Hls oplnlon about the Dreyfus case ls one example of
many that show a turnabout ln polnt of vlew and a dls
tlnct reluctance to take a stand. Slmllarly, he alternately
accepted and rejected paclflsm, then communlsm. Rev
olutlon was flrst denounced but later seen as a neces
sary means to an end. In cov-Clristoplc Rolland
promotes lndlvlduallsm and the lmportance of lndlvld
ual actlon. Collectlve and soclal actlon compete wlth
lndlvlduallsm but flnally domlnate I`Zmc cvclovtcc. He
belleved that he was devoted to actlon but the testl
mony of hls llfe shows that, ln reallty, he practlced
detachment over partlclpatlon. In many ways he was
gullty of the attltude he so hotly protested when crltlcs
accused hlm of belng superlor and wlthdrawn ln hls
'Audessus de la mle." Although ostenslbly flghtlng
for a better Europe and a better world, hls plea was
addressed to the European ellte, not the common
man, and the Clty of God would be newly created,
not formed from an exlstlng communlty. In hls
efforts to remaln above the battle, dlstant from the
passlons and emotlons that clouded the war years,
Rolland often came across not as a prophet or watch
dog but slmply as a man unable to take a flrm stand.
Consequently, durlng World War I the Irench consld
ered hlm proGerman whlle the Germans thought of
hlm as a Irancophlle.
Jwo factors, however, remaln stable throughout
hls works and hls llfehls endurlng love of muslc and
hls bellef ln heroes. Muslc was a passlon that fllled hls
llfe. It was a source of beauty and truth, of enjoyment
and lnsplratlon, that never faltered. And Beethoven, as
'the greatest of all composers," was Rolland`s greatest
hero. Jhere were many other heroes as wellthe other
'lllustrlous men," Mlchelangelo and Jolstoy; Jagore
and Gandhl; MaxlmlllenIranols Robesplerre and
Salnt|ust; |ohann Goethe; Gor`ky. Although Rolland
found some of these heroes less than perfect, hls bellef
ln herolsm remalned unshaken. He created new heroes
lncludlng Orslno, the prlnce Art, Chrlstophe, and
Ollvler. If hls heroes are splendld examples of the trl
umph and strength of the lndlvldual, they are no less a
testlmony to Rolland`s bellef ln the splrlt of lnternatlon
allsm, for they transcend the constralnts of natlonallsm.
German, Itallan, Indlan, Russlan, as well as Irench,
Rolland`s heroes represent hls bellef ln the essentlal
brotherhood of man and the posslblllty of world peace.
Years after hls death, Rolland`s bellefs and the
works that express them have not lost thelr appeal. Jwo
lnternatlonal colloqula dedlcated to hls polltlcal and
soclal vlews were held ln the l990s. one ln Indla ln
l990 and another ln Irance ln Clamecy, Rolland`s
blrthplace, ln l991. Crltlcs contlnue to debate the
extent of hls lnfluence ln books and artlcles, and hls
seemlngly endless correspondence contlnues to be pub
llshed at regular lntervals. Rolland`s devotlon to the
5l
ai_ PPO o~ o~
unlversallty of man and llberal ldeallsm stlll attract
readers and dlsclples from around the world as wlt
nessed by the number of hls works that are steadlly rels
sued ln the orlglnal Irench as well as many translatlons
lnto Russlan, Pollsh, Chlnese, |apanese, Spanlsh, Lkral
nlan, Romanlan, Hlndl, Panjabl, Czech, Hebrew, Per
slan, German, and Jurklsh.
iW
Iollovd ovd Togorc, edlted by Alex Aronson and Krlshna
Krlpalanl (Calcutta. VlsvaBharatl, l915);
Colicrs Iomoiv Iollovd (Parls. Albln Mlchel, l918- )
volumes l-3, 5-8, l0-28, and 30 lnclude letters
by Rolland;
Icttrcs dc Iomoiv Iollovd o uv combottovt dc lo Icsistovcc
(Parls. Rodsteln, l919);
Iuropc, speclal Rolland lssue, l09-ll0 ( |anuary-
Iebruary l955)lncludes letters by Rolland;
Iomoiv Iollovd, Iugvc-Io: Corrcspovdovcc, 1S94-1901,
edlted by |acques Roblchez (Parls. LÀrche, l957);
Iuropc, speclal lssue on Rolland, 139-110 (November-
December l965)lncludes letters by Rolland;
Icttrcs dc Iomoiv Iollovd ct Moriovvc Cclc dovs lo iblio-
tlquc dc l`Zcodcmic dcs Scicvccs dc Hovgric, edlted by
Gyrgyl Safran (Budapest. Publlcatlons Blbllothe
cae Academlae Sclentlarum Hungarlcae, l966);
Itudcs dc Icttrcs, speclal lssue on Rolland, second serles
9, edlted by E. Buenzod and G. Gulssan (Lau
sanne. Iacult des Lettres, l966)-lncludes letters
by Rolland;
ov !oisivogc. Idmovd Irivot ct Iomoiv Iollovd. Icttrcs ct
documcvts, Colicrs Suisscs Iomoiv Iollovd (Neuchtel,
Swltzerland. La Baconnlrel / Parls. Albln Mlchel,
l977);
Bernard DuchateletI Icpcrtoirc clrovologiquc dcs lcttrcs pub-
liccs dc Iomoiv Iollovd (Brest, Irance. Lnlverslt
de Bretagne occldentale, l98l);
Icttrcs, 1911-19JJ; Irvcst locl ct Iomoiv Iollovd, Collec
tlon 'Les Muslclens," edlted by |oseIlore Jappy
(Lausanne. Edltlons Payot, l981);
Zu scuil dc lo dcrvirc portc: corrcspovdovccs ovcc lcs prcs Iouis
cirvocrt, Miclcl dc Ioillcrcts, Ioymovd Iiclord ct
lòbbc cov Soivsoulicu; cxtroits du ourvol; cvtrcticvs
sur lcs Ivovgilcs (Parls. Cerf, l989);
Sclcctcd Icttcr of Iomoiv Iollovd, edlted by Irancls Dor
and MarleLaure Prvost (Delhl. Indlra Gandhl
Natlonal Center for the Arts / Oxford. Oxford
Lnlverslty, l990);
Corrcspovdovcc ivtcgrol: Iovot Istroti, Iomoiv Iollovd, 1919-
19J, edlted by Alexandru Jalex (SalntImler.
Canevas, l990);
Sigmuvd Ircud ct Iomoiv Iollovd: corrcspovdovcc 192J-
19J6: dc lo scvsotiov occoviquc ou Troublc du souvcvir
sur l`Zcropolc, Hlstolre de la psychanalyse, edlted
by Henrl Vermorel and Madelelne Vermorel
EParls. Presses unlversltalres de Irance, l993);
Io !roic Iotric, c`cst lo Iumirc: corrcspovdovcc cvtrc Zvvcttc
Iolb ct Iomoiv Iollovd (191-19J6) (New York.
Peter Lang, l991);
Corrcspovdovccs ovcc Zvdrc Cidc ct Iomoiv Iollovd / Hcvri
oclcliv, edlted by Bernard Duchatelet and Alaln
Mercler (Brest. Centre d`tude des correspon
dances, CNRS, Iacult des lettres, l991);
Corrcspovdovcc (1909-1944): Iomoiv Iollovd, Iucicv ct
Mory Houdcbcrt, edlted by Nathalle Guyader
(Brest. Centre d`tude des correspondances et
journaux lntlmes des XIXe et XXe slcles,
Iacult des lettres Vlctor Sgalen, l998);
Corrcspovdovcc cvtrc Iomoiv Iollovd ct Clorlcs oudouiv: uvc
si fidlc omitic: cloix dc lcttrcs, 1916-1944, edlted by
Antolnette Blum (Meyzleu. Csura, 2000).
fW
'Romaln Rolland, Before War Began, Prophesled Ger
man Revolutlon," `cw Jorl Timcs, 1 November
l9l7, VII. 8;
Luclen Prlce, 'Romaln Rolland et Vllla Olga," Jolc
Icvicw, new serles 20 (December l930). 273-292;
republlshed ln hls !c òrtlmcv (Boston. Llttle,
Brown, l936);
Prlce, 'Romaln Rolland Converses," Ztlovtic Movtlly,
l56 (December l935). 7l8-726; republlshed ln
hls !c òrtlmcv;
Louls Aragon, Intervlew wlth Rolland, Colicrs du
olclcvismc (l5 March l936);
Dlllp Kumar Roy, Intervlew wlth Rolland, ln hls Zmovg tlc
Crcot (Bombay. N. M. Jrlpathl, l915), pp. 5-63.
_~W
Wllllam Jhomas Starr, Z Criticol ibliogroply of tlc Iub-
lislcd !ritivgs of Iomoiv Iollovd (Evanston, Ill..
Northwestern Lnlverslty Press, l950);
N. A. Vaksmakher, A. V. Paeskavya, and E. L. Galpe
rlna, Iomoiv Iollovd: Ivdcx bio-bibliogropliquc (Mos
cow. Edltlons du Llvre de I`Lnlon Sovltlque,
l959);
Starr, 'Romaln Rolland," ln Z Criticol ibliogroply of
Ircvcl Iitcroturc, volume 6. Tlc Twcvtictl Ccvtury,
edlted by D. W. Alden and R. A. Brooks (Syra
cuse, N.Y.. Syracuse Lnlverslty Press, l980), pp.
130-172;
Bernard Duchatelet, Icpcrtoirc clrovologiquc dcs lcttrcs pub-
liccs dc Iomoiv Iollovd (Brest. Lnlverslt de
Bretagne Occldentale, l98l).
_~W
Marcel Dolsy, Iomoiv Iollovd (Brussels. Edltlons La
Botle, l915);
52
o~ o~ ai_ PPO
Ren Arcos, Iomoiv Iollovd (Parls. Mercure de Irance,
l950);
|eanBertrand Barrre, Iomoiv Iollovd por lui-mcmc
(Parls. Seull, l955);
Barrre, Iomoiv Iollovd, lòmc ct lòrt (Parls. Albln
Mlchel, l966);
Wllllam Jhomas Starr, Iomoiv Iollovd. Uvc Zgoivst Zll. Z
iogroply (Jhe Hague Parls. Mouton, l97l);
R. A. Irancls, Iomoiv Iollovd (New York. New York
Lnlverslty / Oxford. Berg, l999);
Bernard Duchatelet, Iomoiv Iollovd tcl qu`cv lui-mcmc
(Parls. Albln Mlchel, 2002).
oW
Gunnar Ahlstrom, 'Jhe l9l5 Prlze," ln òblc Iric
Iibrory, volume l5 (New York. Helvetlca, l97l);
Louls Aragon, Dix tcxtcs d`Zrogov sur Iomoiv Iollovd,
edlted by Gaston Bensan (Ramboulllet, Irance.
Soclt des amls de Louls Aragon et Elsa Jrlolet,
2005);
Dushan Bresky, Cotlcdrol or Symplovy: Issoys ov cov-
Clristoplc (Bern. Peter Lang, l973);
Ren Cheval, 'Le Prlx Nobel de Romaln Rolland,"
Icvuc d`Histoirc Iittcroirc dc lo Irovcc, 76 (l976).
9l2-92l;
Cheval, Iomoiv Iollovd, l`Zllcmogvc ct lo gucrrc (Parls.
Presses unlversltalres de Irance, l963);
Roger Dadoun, Covtrc lo loivc: lòmitic Hcrmovv Hcssc,
Iomoiv Iollovd (Marsellle. Vla Valerlano / Parls.
Scheer, 2002);
Maurlce Descotes, Iomoiv Iollovd (Parls. Edltlons du
Jemps Prsent, l918);
Bernard Duchatelet, Io Ccvsc dc 'cov-Clristoplc dc
Iomoiv Iollovd (Parls. Lettres Modernes/Mlnard,
l978);
Duchatelet, Iomoiv Iollovd: lo pcvscc ct lòctiov (Brest.
Lnlverslt de Bretagne Occldentale, l997);
Davld |ames Ilsher, Iomoiv Iollovd ovd tlc Iolitics of
Ivtcllcctuol Ivgogcmcvt (Berkeley. Lnlverslty of
Callfornla, l988); republlshed (New Brunswlck.
Jransactlon Publlshers, 2001);
Irederlck |ohn Harrls, Zvdrc Cidc ovd Iomoiv Iollovd:
Two Mcv Dividcd (New Brunswlck. Rutgers Lnl
verslty Press, l973);
Hommogcs o Iomoiv Iollovd (Geneva. Edltlons du Mont
Blanc, l915);
Marcelle Kempf, Iomoiv Iollovd ct l`Zllcmogvc (Parls.
Nouvelles Edltlons Debresse, l962);
Io Icgcvdc dc lo Icvolutiov ou XXc siclc: dc Covcc o Icvoir,
dc Iomoiv Iollovd o Cloudc Simov, edlted by |ean
Claude Bonnet and Phlllppe Roger (Parls. Ilam
marlon, l988);
Arthur Levy, IÌdcolismc dc Iomoiv Iollovd (Parls. Nlzet,
l916);
Harold March, Iomoiv Iollovd (New York. Jwayne,
l97l);
DragoljubDragan Nedeljkovla, Iomoiv Iollovd ct Stcfov
wcig (Parls. Kllncksleck, l970);
|acques Roblchez, Iomoiv Iollovd (Parls. Hatler, l96l);
Davld Slces, Music ovd tlc Musiciov iv 'cov-Clristoplc:
Tlc Hormovy of Covtrosts (New Haven London.
Yale Lnlverslty Press, l969);
Plerre Slprlot, Cucrrc ct poix outour dc Iomoiv Iollovd: lc
dcsostrc dc lÌuropc, 1914-191S (Etrepllly, Irance.
Bartlllat, l997);
Wllllam Jhomas Starr, Iomoiv Iollovd ovd o !orld ot !or
(Evanston, Ill.. Northwestern Lnlverslty Press,
l956);
Ronald A. Wllson, Tlc Irc-!or iogroplics of Iomoiv
Iollovd ovd Tlcir Ilocc iv lis !orl ovd tlc Icriod
(London. Oxford Lnlverslty, l939; Port Wash
lngton, N.Y.. Kennlkat Press, l972);
Stefan Zwelg, Iomoiv Iollovd: Tlc Mov ovd His !orl,
translated by Eden and Cedar Paul (New York. J.
Seltzer, l92l); revlsed edltlon, translated lnto
Irench by Odette Rlchez, edlted by Serge
Nlmetz (Parls. Belfond, 2000).
NVNR k m i~W p~
y Svcv Sdcrmov, Swcdisl Critic
Romaln Rolland was born on |anuary 29, l866,
ln the dlstrlct of Nlvre. He studled llterature, muslc,
and phllosophy, and ln l895 he publlshed two doctoral
theses. Ics Urigivcs du tlcotrc lyriquc modcrvc, an erudlte
and penetratlng work whlch was awarded a prlze by the
Irench Academy, and a Latln thesls, Cur ors picturoc opud
Itolos X!I socculi dccidcrit, a study of the decllne of Itallan
palntlng ln the slxteenth century. After several tlresome
years as a schoolmaster, he was appolnted to the Ecole
Normale as motrc dc covfcrcvccs and thereafter (l903) to
the Sorbonne, where untll l9l0 he gave a remarkable
course on the hlstory of muslc. In addltlon to hls dutles
at the unlverslty, he devoted hlmself to muslc crltlclsm
durlng these years and acqulred a wlde reputatlon not
only ln Irance but all over Europe when he publlshed
hls artlcles and revlews ln book form under the tltles
Musicicvs dòutrcfois (l908) [Somc Musiciovs of Iormcr Doys]
and Musicicvs dòujourd`lui (l908) [Musiciovs of Todoy].
Jhey reveal hlm as a crltlc of great judgment, both falr
and bold, wlthout prejudlces or alleglance to any one
party, and as one always strlvlng to reach through
muslc the very sources of llfe. Hls blographles of
Beethoven (l903) and Handel (l9l0), lnsplred as well
as learned, are proof of hls understandlng of muslc.
53
ai_ PPO o~ o~
Besldes these, he has wrltten equally remarkable blog
raphles of Iranols Mlllet (l902), Mlchelangelo (l905-
l906), and Jolstol (l9ll), ln whlch he has stressed the
herolc character of the llves and talents of these artlsts.
Rolland made hls debut ln pure llterature ln l897
wlth a play ln flve acts, Soivt-Iouis, whlch he publlshed
together wlth Zrt (l898) and Ic Triomplc dc lo roisov
(l899), under the common tltle Ics Trogcdics dc lo foi
(l909) |Jragedles of Ialth|. In these plays he sought to
set forth, under the mask of hlstorlcal events, the mls
erles that souls falthful to thelr ldeals meet ln thelr
struggle wlth the world. He also wrote Tlcotrc dc lo
rcvolutiov (l909), whlch lncludes Ic 14 uillct (l902),
Dovtov (l900), Ics Ioups (l898) [Tlc !olvcs], and a pacl
flst drama about the war ln the Jransvaal, Ic Tcmps vicv-
dro (l903) [Tlc Timc !ill Comc]. Jhe plays about the
Revolutlon were concelved durlng a perlod when
Rolland dreamed of a dramatlc reform. He wanted to
create a new theatre, to free the art from the domlnatlon
of a selflsh cllque, and to entrust lt to the people. He
had prevlously outllned hls ldeas ln an essay called Ic
Tlcotrc du pcuplc (l900-l903) [Tlc Icoplc`s Tlcotrc]. He
trled to make hls own contrlbutlon to thls new popular
drama by descrlblng the prlnclpal eplsodes of the
Irench Revolutlon and by representlng ln a dramatlc
cycle the Illad of the Irench natlon. Jhese dramas,
whlch seek moral truth at the sacrlflce of anecdotal
color, reveal hlstorlcal lntultlon, and thelr characters are
fully allve. Jhey are very lnterestlng to read and
deserve to be staged.
Irom l901 to l9l2 Rolland publlshed hls great
novel cov-Clristoplc, whlch ls composed of a serles of
lndependent narratlves. I`Zubc, Ic Motiv, I`Zdolcsccvt, Io
Icvoltc, Io Ioirc sur lo plocc, Zvtoivcttc, Dovs lo moisov, Ics
Zmics, Ic uissov ordcvt, and Io òuvcllc ourvcc [Dowv,
Morvivg, Joutl, Icvolt, Tlc Morlct Ilocc, Zvtoivcttc, Tlc
Housc, Iovc ovd Iricvdslip, Tlc urvivg usl, Tlc `cw
Dowv]. In l9l0 he reslgned from hls dutles at the Lnl
verslty; slnce then he has devoted hlmself entlrely to
wrltlng, llvlng most of the tlme ln Rome and Swltzer
land. Durlng the war, he wrote a serles of artlcles ln
Swlss newspapers; these were subsequently publlshed
ln a volume called Zu-dcssus dc lo mclcc (l9l5) [Zbovc tlc
ottlc]. In thls, he malntalns that the future of manklnd
ls superlor to the lnterests of natlons. War for hlm ls
barbarous vlolence, and over the bloody struggles of
natlons whlch seek power he turns our eyes toward the
cause of humanlty. Rolland`s recent works are a novel,
Colos rcugvov (l9l8), a dramatlc fantasy, Iiluli (l9l9),
and a study of Empedocles (l9l7).
Romaln Rolland`s masterplece, for whlch he has
recelved the Nobel Prlze ln Llterature ln l9l5, ls cov-
Clristoplc. Jhls powerful work descrlbes the develop
ment of a character ln whom we can recognlze our
selves. It shows how an artlstlc temperament, by ralslng
ltself step by step, emerges llke a genlus above the level
of humanlty; how a powerful nature whlch has the
noblest and most urgent deslre for truth, moral health,
and artlstlc purlty, wlth an exuberant love of llfe, ls
forced to overcome obstacles that rlse up ceaselessly
before lt; how lt attalns vlctory and lndependence; and
how thls character and thls lntelllgence are slgnlflcant
enough to concentrate ln themselves a complete lmage
of the world. Jhls book does not alm solely at descrlb
lng the llfe of the prlnclpal hero and hls envlronment. It
seeks also to descrlbe the causes of the tragedy of a
whole generatlon; lt glves a sweeplng plcture of the
secret labour that goes on ln the hldden depths and by
whlch natlons, llttle by llttle, are enllghtened; lt covers
all the domalns of llfe and art; lt contalns everythlng
essentlal that has been dlscussed or attempted ln the
lntellectual world durlng the last decades; lt achleves a
new muslcal aesthetlc; lt contalns soclologlcal, polltlcal
and ethnologlcal, blologlcal, llterary, and artlstlc dlscus
slons and judgments, often of the hlghest lnterest. Jhe
artlstlc personallty whlch ls revealed ln cov-Clristoplc
ls one of rare resoluteness and strong moral structure.
In thls work Rolland has not slmply followed a llterary
lmpulse; he does not wrlte to please or to dellght. He
has been compelled to wrlte by hls thlrst for truth, hls
need for morallty, and hls love of humanlty. Ior hlm
the purpose of the aesthetlc llfe conslsts not merely ln
the creatlon of beauty; lt ls an act of humanlsm. cov-
Clristoplc ls a professlon of falth and an example; lt ls a
comblnatlon of thought and poetry, of reallty and sym
bol, of llfe and dream, whlch attracts us, excltes us,
reveals us to ourselves, and possesses a llberatlng power
because lt ls the expresslon of a great moral force.
In addltlon to the Romaln Rolland who ls con
cerned about truth and altrulsm there ls also the artlst.
He ls a poet of great scope. Although he has asslgned
the novel only to second place ln hls work, hls mastery
of the genre ls superb. Jhe character study of |ean
Chrlstophe ls an lnsplred creatlon, astonlshlng ln spon
tanelty, wlth lndlvlduallty ln every tralt, every move
ment, every thought.
Around thls central, monumental flgure, we flnd
a whole serles of characters of great human lnterest.
Rolland`s observatlon ls preclse and profound. He pen
etrates to the depths of the belngs whom he descrlbes;
he studles thelr characters and palnts thelr souls wlth
lncomparable psychologlcal art. Hls portralts of
women, especlally, are masterpleces. Hls characters
come from all walks of llfe and are astonlshlngly true to
typethe bourgeols, the polltlclan, the artlst. Sometlmes
the descrlptlons are brlef but powerful sketches full of
drama and pathos; sometlmes they are extended to
form lmmense tableaux of manners that are strlklng
51
o~ o~ ai_ PPO
because of thelr keenness of vlslon and thelr slngular
penetratlon. Hls lnnate slncerlty prevents Rolland from
uslng rhetorlcal devlces. He says ln an exact and natu
ral manner what he has to sayand nothlng more. But
when hls thought ls lnflamed, when hls heart ls fllled
wlth emotlonlove, anger, enthuslasm, scorn, joy, or
sadnessthen a wlnd swells the sentence and glves to
the text a beauty that, before Rolland, only the greatest
masters of Irench prose have attalned.
Jhe author of cov-Clristoplc ls one of the most
lmposlng llterary flgures of the contemporary era; he ls
a mlghty splrlt and an orlglnal poet. Hls masterplece
has taken lts place ln world llterature among the most
orlglnal, the boldest, and the healthlest works of our
century.
_~~ o~ o~
Jhe works of Romaln Rolland (l866-l911) wrlt
ten after the Ilrst World War contlnued to reflect all hls
earller lnterests. Durlng the twentles he began another
'roman fleuve," I`Zmc cvclovtcc (7 vols., l922-l933)
[Tlc Soul Ivclovtcd]. Muslc and the problem of the artlst
are the subject of hls cctlovcv: Ics grovdcs cpoqucs crco-
triccs (l928) [cctlovcv tlc Crcotor ]. Rolland perslsted
ln hls quest for peace and was attracted by the non
vlolence movement of Ghandl, about whom he wrote a
book (l921). Hls fasclnatlon wlth Indla and Buddhlsm
led to the study Issoi sur lo mystiquc ct lòctiov dc IÌvdc
vivovtc (l929-l930) [Iroplcts of tlc `cw Ivdio]. Hls polltl
cal ldeas were lncreaslngly lnfluenced by soclallsm, as ls
evldent from hls many essays. Other works of hls later
perlod are Ics Irccurscurs (l9l9) [Tlc Iorcruvvcrs], Clcrom-
boult: listoirc dùvc covscicvcc librc pcvdovt lo gucrrc (l920)
[Clcromboult ], Ic cu dc lòmour ct dc lo mort (l925) [Tlc
Comc of Iovc ovd Dcotl], and Icguy (l911), the study of
hls boyhood frlend.
* Jhe Nobel Prlze ln Llterature l9l5 was announced
on November 9, l9l6.
RR
_~ o
(1S Moy 1S72 - 2 Icbruory 1970)
b~ oK b~
Soutlcrv Illivois Uvivcrsity ot Corbovdolc
~
m _K a~
Soivt Ico Uvivcrsity
q ~ ~ a~
b~ o DI 262: ritisl Ililosoplcrs,
1S00-2000. p ~ o DI 100:
Modcrv ritisl Issoyists, Sccovd Scrics.
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b ~ m~ pI TI
o ~ ^ o Ei C k vW
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r mI NUVTX k vW aI
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Z Criticol Ixpositiov of tlc Ililosoply of Icibvi: !itl ov
Zppcvdix of Icodivg Iossogcs E`~W `~J
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Mctlod iv Ililosoply EiW ^ C rI
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NVNSFX ~ !ly Mcv Iiglt: Z Mctlod of
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I NVNSFX
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56
_~ o ai_ PPO
Mysticism ovd Iogic, ovd Utlcr Issoys (London New
York. Longmans, Green, l9l7); republlshed as Z
Ircc Mov`s !orslip, ovd Utlcr Issoys (London.
Lnwln, l976);
Ioods to Irccdom: Sociolism, Zvorclism, ovd Syvdicolism,
Llbrary of Phllosophy (London. Allen Lnwln,
l9l8); republlshed as Iroposcd Ioods to Irccdom:
Sociolism, Zvorclism, ovd Syvdicolism (New York.
Holt, l9l9);
Ivtroductiov to Motlcmoticol Ililosoply (London. Allen
Lnwln, l9l9; New York. Macmlllan, l9l9);
Tlc Irocticc ovd Tlcory of olslcvism (London. Allen
Lnwln, l920); republlshed as olslcvism: Irocticc
ovd Tlcory (New York. Harcourt, Brace Howe,
l920);
Tlc Zvolysis of Mivd (London. Allen Lnwln, l92l;
New York. Macmlllan, l92l);
Ircc Tlouglt ovd Ufficiol Iropogovdo, Conway Memorlal
Lecture, no. l3 (New York. Huebsch, l922; Lon
don. Watts, l922);
Tlc Iroblcm of Clivo (London. Allen Lnwln, l922;
New York. Century, l922);
Tlc Irospccts of Ivdustriol Civiliotiov, by Russell and Dora
Russell (New York London. Century, l923;
London. Allen Lnwln, l923);
Tlc ZC of Ztoms (New York. Dutton, l923; London.
Kegan Paul, Jrench, Jrbner, l923; revlsed,
l925);
Icorus; or, Tlc Iuturc of Scicvcc (New York. Dutton, l921;
London. Kegan Paul, Jrench, Jrbner, l921);
Tlc ZC of Iclotivity (New York London. Harper,
l925; London. Kegan Paul, Jrench, Jrbner,
l925; revlsed edltlon, edlted by Iellx Plranl, Lon
don. Allen Lnwln, l958);
!lot I clicvc (New York. Dutton, l925; London.
Kegan Paul, Jrench, Jrbner, l925);
Uv Iducotiov, Ispcciolly iv Iorly Clildlood (London. Allen
Lnwln, l926); republlshed as Iducotiov ovd tlc
Cood Iifc (New York. Llverlght, l926);
!ly I Zm òt o Clristiov (London. Watts, l927; Glrard,
Kans.. Haldeman|ullus, l929); enlarged as !ly I
om òt o Clristiov ovd Utlcr Issoys ov Icligiov ovd
Iclotcd Subjccts, edlted by Paul Edwards (London.
Allen Lnwln, l957; New York. Slmon
Schuster, l957);
Tlc Zvolysis of Mottcr (London. Kegan Paul, Jrench,
Jrbner, l927; New York. Harcourt, Brace,
l927);
Zv Uutlivc of Ililosoply (London. Allen Lnwln, l927);
republlshed as Ililosoply (New York. Norton,
l927);
Sclcctcd Iopcrs of crtrovd Iusscll (New York. Modern
Llbrary, l927);
Sccpticol Issoys (London. Allen Lnwln, l928; New
York. Norton, l928);
Morriogc ovd Morols (London. Allen Lnwln, l929;
New York. Llverlght, l929);
Hos Icligiov Modc Uscful Covtributiovs to Civiliotiov? Zv
Ixomivotiov ovd o Criticism (London. Watts, l930;
Glrard, Kans.. Haldeman|ullus, n.d.);
Tlc Covqucst of Hoppivcss (London. Allen Lnwln,
l930; New York. Llverlght, l930);
Tlc Scicvtific Uutlool (London. Allen Lnwln, l93l;
New York. Norton, l93l);
Iducotiov ovd tlc Sociol Urdcr (London. Allen Lnwln,
l932); republlshed as Iducotiov ovd tlc Modcrv
!orld (New York. Norton, l932);
Irccdom ovd Urgoviotiov 1S14-1914 (London. Allen
Lnwln, l931); republlshed as Irccdom vcrsus Urgo-
viotiov 1S14-1914 (New York. Norton, l931);
Iv Iroisc of Idlcvcss ovd Utlcr Issoys (London. Allen
Lnwln, l935; New York. Norton, l935);
Icligiov ovd Scicvcc (London. Butterworth, l935; New
York. Holt, l935);
!licl !oy to Icocc? (London. |oseph, l936);
Iowcr: Z `cw Sociol Zvolysis (London. Allen Lnwln,
l938; New York. Norton, l938);
Zv Ivquiry ivto Mcovivg ovd Trutl (London. Allen
Lnwln, l910; New York. Norton, l910);
Ict tlc Icoplc Tlivl: Z Sclcctiov of Issoys, Jhlnker`s
Llbrary, no. 81 (London. Watts, l91l);
How to ccomc o Ililosoplcr: Tlc Zrt of Iotiovol Covjccturc
(Glrard, Kans.. Haldeman|ullus, l912);
How to ccomc o Iogiciov: Tlc Zrt of Drowivg Ivfcrcvccs
How to ccomc o Motlcmoticiov: Tlc Zrt of Icclovivg
Zv Uutlivc of Ivtcllcctuol Iubbisl: Z Hilorious Cotologuc of
Urgovicd ovd Ivdividuol Stupidity (Glrard, Kans..
Haldeman|ullus, l913);
Tlc !oluc of Ircc Tlouglt: How to ccomc o Trutl-Scclcr ovd
rcol tlc Cloivs of Mcvtol Slovcry (Glrard, Kans..
Haldeman|ullus, l911);
Z History of !cstcrv Ililosoply: Zvd Its Covvcctiov witl Ioliti-
col ovd Sociol Circumstovccs from tlc Iorlicst Timcs to
tlc Ircscvt Doy (New York. Slmon Schuster,
l915; London. Allen Lnwln, l916);
Idcos Tlot Hovc Hclpcd Movlivd (Glrard, Kans.. Haldeman
|ullus, l916);
Idcos Tlot Hovc Hormcd Movlivd (Glrard, Kans.. Haldeman
|ullus, l916);
Ilysics ovd Ixpcricvcc (Cambrldge. Cambrldge Lnlver
slty Press, l916; New York. Macmlllan, l916);
Ililosoply ovd Iolitics (London. Cambrldge Lnlverslty
Press, l917);
57
ai_ PPO _~ o
e~ hW f p ~ i (London. Allen
Lnwln, l918; New York. Slmon Schuster,
l918);
^ ~ f~W q o i NVQUV
(London. Allen Lnwln, l919; New York.
Slmon Schuster, l919);
r~ b~ (London. Allen Lnwln, l950; New
York. Slmon Schuster, l950);
k e ~ `~ t (London. Allen Lnwln,
l95l; New York. Slmon Schuster, l95l);
e k~ f t~\ (London. Rldgway, l952);
a~ jI j~I ~ j~I edlted by Lester E.
Denonn (New York. Phllosophlcal Llbrary,
l952);
t~ f c\ (London. Batchworth, l952);
q f~ p p (London. Allen Lnwln,
l953 |l.e., l952|; New York. Slmon Schuster,
l953 |l.e., l952|);
t~ f a~\ (London. Batchworth, l953);
q d ` ^~ (London. Gaberbocchus,
l953; New York. Phllosophlcal Llbrary, l958);
p~~ pI ~ l p (New York. Slmon
Schuster, l953; London. Bodley Head, l953);
e ~ ~ Î Hermon Ould Memorlal Lecture, no. 2
(Aldlngton, L.K.. Hand and Ilower Press, l951);
k~ b mI ~ l p (London.
Bodley Head, l951; New York. Slmon
Schuster, l951);
e~ p b ~ m (London. Allen
l955);
i ~ hW b~ NVMNNVRMI edlted by Robert
Charles Marsh (London. Allen Lnwln, l956;
New York. Macmlllan, l956);
m~ jI ~ l b~ (London. Allen
l956);
r~ eI ~ l b~ (New York. Phllo
sophlcal Llbrary, l957);
q t a (New York. Phllosophlcal Llbrary,
l958);
_~ o _W p p~I edlted by Rob
ert Egner (New York. New Amerlcan Llbrary,
l958);
` p ~ k~ t~~ (London. Allen
l959);
j m~ a (London. Allen Lnwln,
l959; New York. Slmon Schuster, l959);
t tW ^ e~ p t m
f p~ ~ m~ pI edlted by Paul
Ioulkes (London. Macdonald, l959; Garden
Clty, N.Y.. Doubleday, l959);
_~ o p~ e j (Cleveland New York.
World, l960; London. Barker, l960);
c~ ~ c (London. Allen Lnwln, l96l; New
e~ j~ ~ c\ (London. Allen Lnwln, l96l; New
e t bW c r j~~ f~
p (London. Gaberbocchus, l962);
r~ s (London. Allen Lnwln, l963; New
t~ ~ ^ s~ (London. Bertrand Russell
Peace Ioundatlon, l965);
^~ ^~ ` (London. Bertrand Rus
sell Peace Ioundatlon, l966);
t~ ` s~ (London. Allen Lnwln, l967;
New York. Monthly Revlew, l967);
q ^~ _~ oI 3 volumes (volumes
l and 2, London. Allen Lnwln, l967, l968;
Boston. Llttle, Brown, l967, l968; volume 3,
London. Allen Lnwln, l969; New York. Slmon
Schuster, l969);
q ^ mI ~ l b~ (New York.
Phllosophlcal Llbrary, l968);
o i~ Î edlted by D. I. Pears (London.
Iontana, l972);
q i _~ o m ~ e l tI
edlted by Chrlstopher Iarley and Davld Hodgson
(Nottlngham, L.K.. Bertrand Russell Peace Ioun
datlon, l972);
j l m (Hamllton, Ont.. McMaster Lnlver
slty Llbrary Press, l972);
b~ ^~I edlted by Douglas Lackey (London.
Allen Lnwln, l973; New York. Brazlller, l973);
q ` m~ _~ oI McMaster Lnlver
slty Edltlon, edlted by Kenneth Blackwell and
others, l6 volumes to date (volumes l, 7, 8, and
l2, London New York. Allen Lnwln, l983-
l986; volumes 2, 9, and l3, London Boston.
Lnwln Hyman, l988-l990; volumes 3, 1, 6, l0,
ll, l1, l5, 28, and 29, London New York. Rout
ledge, l992-2003);
v c~I _~ oW ^ i i c m~I
gI ~ q i bI edlted by
Ray Perklns |r. (Chlcago. Open Court, 2002).
`W ^ ~ f~ (Boston. Beacon,
l960);
q _~ t _~ oI edlted by Robert E.
Egner and Lester E. Denonn (London. Allen
Lnwln, l96l; New York. Slmon Schuster,
l96l);
^W ` b~I NVQPNVQV (New York. Arno,
l972);
58
_~ o ai_ PPO
Tlc Collcctcd Storics of crtrovd Iusscll, edlted by Barry
Ielnberg (London. Allen Lnwln, l972; New
Mortols ovd Utlcrs: crtrovd Iusscll`s Zmcricov Issoys 19J1-
19J, 2 volumes, edlted by Harry Ruja (volume
l, London. Allen Lnwln, l975; revlsed, l99l;
volume 2, London. Routledge, l998);
crtrovd Iusscll ov ùclcor !or, Icocc, ovd Iovguogc: Criticol
ovd Historicol Issoys, edlted by Alan Schwerln
under the ausplces of the Bertrand Russell Socl
ety, Contrlbutlons ln Phllosophy, no. 87 (West
port, Conn. London. Praeger, 2002);
Iusscll ov Mctoplysics: Sclcctiovs from tlc !ritivgs of crtrovd
Iusscll, edlted by Stephen Mumford (London.
Routledge, 2003).
OJHER. |ohn B. Watson, clovior: Zv Ivtroductiov to
Comporotivc Isyclology, lntroductlon by Russell
(New York. Holt, l9l1);
Ludwlg Wlttgensteln, Troctotus Iogico-Ililosoplicus, trans
lated by C. K. Ogden and Irank Ramsey, lntro
ductlon by Russell (London. Kegan Paul, Jrench,
Jrbner, l922);
|ohn Russell Amberley and Katharlne Russell Amber
ley, Tlc Zmbcrlcy Iopcrs: Tlc Icttcrs ovd Diorics of
Iord ovd Iody Zmbcrlcy, 2 volumes, edlted by Rus
sell and Patrlcla Russell (London. Leonard and
Vlrglnla Woolf at Hogarth Press, l937); repub
llshed as Tlc Zmbcrlcy Iopcrs: Tlc Icttcrs ovd Diorics
of crtrovd Iusscll`s Iorcvts, 2 volumes (New York.
Norton, l937);
'My Mental Development" and 'Reply to Crltlclsms,"
ln Tlc Ililosoply of crtrovd Iusscll, edlted by Paul
Arthur Schllpp, Jhe Llbrary of Llvlng Phlloso
phers, volume 5 (Evanston, Ill. Chlcago. North
western Lnlverslty, l911), pp. 3-22, 68l-71l.
Bertrand Russell was well known durlng hls llfe
tlme as a controverslal publlc flgure; ln retrospect, he
has been evaluated prlmarlly as a phllosopher and
soclal crltlc. As a publlc flgure he opposed World War I,
supported World War II, headed a campalgn for
nuclear dlsarmament (although lmmedlately after
World War II he had advocated the nuclear bomblng of
the Sovlet Lnlon to prevent the spread of Stallnlst com
munlsm), opposed the Vletnam War, served jall sen
tences, and was lnvolved ln lawsults, love affalrs, and
marrlages that supplled fodder for gosslp for at least
slxty years of hls llfe. As a phllosopher, Russell ls seen
as both a ploneer and a transltlonal flgure between the
nlneteenth and twentlethcentury trends ln Anglo
Amerlcan thought. He was a ploneer ln the develop
ment of mathematlcal loglc, an abstract dlsclpllne that
he applled to theory of knowledge and metaphyslcs and
that lnfluenced a generatlon and more of phllosophers.
As a transltlonal flgure he moved from the systematlc
ldeallsm of latenlneteenthcentury phllosophers such as
I. H. Bradley to a posltlon he called 'analytlc reallsm."
Russell crltlclzed the tendency of nlneteenthcentury
phllosophers to erect comprehenslve systems to ratlo
nallze thelr own rellglous and ethlcal values, urglng
lnstead a plecemeal, tentatlve, and technlcal approach
to phllosophy. As a leader ln 'sclentlflc" phllosophlzlng
Russell was open to change and revlslon and was often
charged wlth developlng a new phllosophy every few
years. By the end of hls career some phllosophers were
crltlclzlng hlm for hls formal mode of phllosophlzlng,
whlle others were accuslng hlm of belonglng on the
older slde of a twentlethcentury watershed ln phllo
sophlcal thought ln stlll seeklng a metaphyslcal synthe
sls and eplstemologlcal justlflcatlon. Late ln llfe, ln My
Ililosoplicol Dcvclopmcvt (l959), Russell remarked, 'It ls
not an altogether pleasant experlence to flnd oneself
regarded as antlquated after havlng been, for a tlme, ln
the fashlon." It ls true that, although Russell used ana
lytlc modes of argument, hls phllosophlc alm remalned
tradltlonal ln that he sought a comprehenslve vlew of
the nature of reallty through sclence and attempted an
eplstemologlcal analysls that would glve the knowledge
people thlnk they have of reallty the strongest posslble
base, however flawed lt mlght remaln.
Jhroughout hls llfe Russell engaged ln llvely
debates and dlalogues wlth hls contemporarles, lnflu
enclng and belng lnfluenced by them. He was con
stantly attentlve to current soclal and polltlcal problems
and devoted much tlme, thought, and publlshed work
to such lssues as women`s suffrage, educatlon, laws gov
ernlng marrlage and sexual relatlons, lnternatlonal rela
tlons, labor condltlons, censorshlp, the treatment of
prlsoners, forelgn affalrs, war crlmes, and mllltary poll
cles. Hls analyses of polltlcal and soclal lssues and theo
rles glve hls work a wlde range and popular lnfluence
not often achleved by technlcal phllosophers. He pub
llshed more than nlnety books and pamphlets durlng
hls llfetlme, and the edltlng of Tlc Collcctcd Iopcrs of cr-
trovd Iusscll (l983- ) has revealed that he wrote many
artlcles, revlews, and comments that were not recog
nlzed as hls work and one phllosophlcal book that was
never publlshed.
Bertrand Arthur Wllllam Russell was born at the
estate of Ravenscroft ln Jrelleck, Monmouthshlre,
Wales, on l8 May l872, the thlrd and last chlld of |ohn
and Katharlne Loulsa Stanley Russell, Vlscount and
Lady Amberley. Jhe Russells and the Stanleys had
been actlve ln polltlcs for generatlons; Russell`s father, a
polltlcal radlcal and an athelst, had served a term ln
Parllament ln l867-l868 and had wrltten a book on
rellglous bellef. Hls mother and slster dled of dlphtherla
59
ai_ PPO _~ o
when Russell was two; hls father dled a year later. Jhe
father left Bertrand and hls older brother, |ohn Irancls
Stanley Russell, known as Irank, under the guardlan
shlp of two freethlnkers; but Russell`s paternal grand
parents had the wlll set aslde, and Russell and hls
brother recelved a Chrlstlan upbrlnglng ln thelr home,
Pembroke Lodge, ln Surrey. Jhe grandfather, Lord
|ohn Russell, a former prlme mlnlster, dled ln l878, and
the boys were ralsed by thelr grandmother, Lady
Irances Anna Marla Elllot Russell. She was a strong,
purltanlcal flgure whose favorlte Blble verse, 'Jhou
shalt not follow a multltude to do evll," lnfluenced Rus
sell profoundly. A radlcal ln her own way, she espoused
equallty for women and became a Lnltarlan ln her
elghtles. Irank, seven years older than Bertrand, was
sent to school, but 'Bertle" was tutored at home and
became a shy, lonely, and thoughtful chlld. He had the
advantage of encounterlng the many famous people of
the perlod who came to hls grandparents` home and of
readlng wldely ln hls grandfather`s llbrary; but, except
for a short perlod when hls tutor was a freethlnker, he
had no one wlth whom to share hls thoughts. In hls
early teens he kept a dlarywrltten ln Greek letters for
the sake of secrecyln whlch he recorded hls doubts
about the exlstence of God, freedom of the wlll, and
lmmortallty.
At elghteen Russell entered Jrlnlty College of the
Lnlverslty of Cambrldge, where he found other young
men wlth whom he could talk freely. Wlth a klnd of
lntoxlcatlon he shared hls feellngs and thoughts, dls
played hls wlt, and formed llfelong frlendshlps and
lmportant lntellectual collaboratlons. Among the ten
close frlends of hls undergraduate days that he llsts ln
hls lntellectual autoblography, 'My Mental Develop
ment," ln q m _~ o (l911) are two
phllosophers, the Hegellan |. M. E. McJaggart, who
was slx years hls senlor, and G. E. Moore, who was a
year younger but, llke McJaggart, extremely lnfluentlal
ln Russell`s phllosophlcal development. Alfred North
Whltehead, a fellow at Jrlnlty, was much lmpressed by
Russell`s entrance papers on mathematlcs and men
tloned the promlslng new student to others ln that
small, ellte soclety. But as Whltehead was eleven years
hls senlor, the two dld not become frlends and collabo
rators untll some years later. Russell and hls frlends met
every weekend for latenlght dlscusslons at whlch they
read papers and argued on wlderanglng toplcs, and for
long Sunday walks.
When he was seventeen, Russell had met a famlly
of Amerlcan _uakers, the Pearsall Smlths, who llved
near hls uncle. Jhey were wealthy, rellglous, ready to
dlscuss any ldea, and welcomlng to the young Russell.
Among the chlldren were Logan Pearsall Smlth, who
became a wrlter, and Alys Pearsall Smlth, who was sev
eral years older than Russell and had just graduated
from Bryn Mawr College. Desplte opposltlon from hls
famlly, Russell and Alys became engaged when Russell
reached hls majorlty and came lnto hls lnherltance from
hls parents` estate, whlch ylelded a modest lncome suffl
clent to support a famlly. After completlng the moral
sclences trlpos ln l891, Russell planned to become a
candldate for a fellowshlp, study economlcs, and marry
Alys. In the hope of endlng the engagement, hls grand
mother persuaded hlm to take a threemonth appolnt
ment as an attach at the Brltlsh embassy ln Parls.
Jhroughout thelr frlendshlp, engagement, and separa
tlon durlng the Parls asslgnment Russell and Alys cor
responded dally, and Russell`s letters reveal much
about hls readlng, hls conversatlons, and the develop
ment of hls phllosophlcal ldeas. Russell returned from
Parls and marrled Alys ln December l891. Jhe couple
traveled extenslvely ln Europe and collaborated on a
book, d~ p~ a~I publlshed ln l896.
At the end of hls thlrd year at the unlverslty Rus
sell turned wlth rellef from mathematlcs to phllosophy.
Jhe prevalllng mode of phllosophlzlng ln Brltaln at the
tlme was ldeallsm, and the chlef debates were carrled
on between upholders of Kantlan and Hegellan ver
slons of that phllosophy. Russell was lnstructed by G. I.
Stout and |ames Ward, but the domlnant lnfluence on
hlm was McJaggart`s neoHegellanlsm. In 'My Mental
Development" he recalls
the preclse moment, one day ln l891, as I was walklng
along Jrlnlty Lane, when I saw ln a flash (or thought I
saw) that the ontologlcal argument ls valld. I had gone
out to buy a tln of tobacco; on my way back, I sud
denly threw lt up ln the alr, and exclalmed as I caught
lt. 'Great Scott, the ontologlcal argument ls sound." I
read Bradley at thls tlme wlth avldlty, and admlred hlm
more than any other recent phllosopher.
A major lssue ln Russell`s phllosophlcal reflec
tlons was whether spatlal and temporal relatlons were
absolute and objectlve or relatlve and subjectlve. He
wanted hls phllosophlcal posltlon on the lssue to be
conslstent wlth the mathematlcal treatment of such rela
tlons, and he experlmented wlth varlous ldeallst solu
tlons to the problem. Hls fellowshlp dlssertatlon, ^
b~ c~ dI publlshed ln l897, pre
sents a Kantlan vlew of space and tlme as structures
lmposed on experlence by the mlnd; Moore castlgated
lt as unduly psychologlcal and subjectlve, and ln a
serles of artlcles he wrote ln l90l Russell developed a
Hegellan vlew ln whlch space and tlme were aspects of
the Absolute.
Although elements of neoHegellanlsm llngered
ln hls thought for some tlme, durlng the last years of
the nlneteenth century Russell, under Moore`s lnflu
60
_~ o ai_ PPO
ence, moved away from ldeallsm. Russell remembers
thls tlme ln 'My Mental Development".
Bradley argued that everythlng common sense belleves
ln ls mere appearance; we reverted to the opposlte
extreme, and thought that ls real that com
mon sense, unlnfluenced by phllosophy or theology,
supposes real. Wlth a sense of escaplng from prlson, we
allowed ourselves to thlnk that grass ls green, that the
sun and the stars would exlst lf no one was aware of
them, and also that there ls a plurallstlc tlmeless world
of Platonlc ldeas. Jhe world, whlch had been thln and
loglcal, suddenly became rlch and varled and solld.
In l900 Russell taught a course on the phllosophy
of the lateseventeenth to earlyelghteenthcentury Ger
man ratlonallst phllosopher Gottfrled Wllhelm Lelbnlz
and publlshed hls thlrd book, Z Criticol Ixpositiov of tlc
Ililosoply of Icibvi, ln whlch he worked out a crltlclsm
of the ldeallst vlew of relatlons. Jhe most lmportant
event of that year, however, was hls attendance at a
phllosophlcal congress ln Parls, where he met the Ital
lan mathematlclan Gluseppe Peano and heard papers
by Peano and Peano`s puplls. Russell was lmpressed by
the elegance and slmpllclty of the mathematlcal symbol
lsm Peano had developed and by Peano`s ldea that a
system of mathematlcs could be bullt up by deductlon
from a mlnlmum of deflnltlons and axloms. He mas
tered Peano`s works and applled Peano`s symbollsm
and deductlve method to a wlde range of toplcs, lnclud
lng the loglc of relatlons. Jhe frult of thls labor was Tlc
Irivciplcs of Motlcmotics (l903).
In Tlc Irivciplcs of Motlcmotics Russell, whlle
acceptlng Peano`s symbollsm and method of deductlon,
dlsputes the Itallan`s dlstlnctlon between a class and lts
members. Jhe dlstlnctlon allowed Peano to dlscuss the
null class (a class wlth no members), lnflnlte classes,
and flnlte classes of whlch the members are not ldentlfl
able. But Russell, holdlng that terms and proposltlons
are real, has to ldentlfy the class wlth lts members. for
example, the class of human belngs ls the sum of |ohn,
Mary, and so forth. Jhls posltlon leads to dlfflcultles
wlth the null class, the lnflnlte class, and the class wlth
unldentlflable members (such as the class of persons ln
the statement 'I met a person"). Jhe most serlous prob
lem ls a paradox that arlses ln regard to classes that are
not members of themselves. Some classes are members
of themselves, such as the class of classes; others are not
members of themselves, such as the class of teaspoons.
What about the class of classes that are not members of
themselves? It must both be and not be a member of
ltself, whlch ls absurd. Russell concludes that the para
dox results from classes lncludlng themselves among
thelr members and that some restrlctlon on class mem
bershlp ls requlred; but he thlnks that thls solutlon has
an ad hoc alr. Russell was tortured by thls problem for
several years, and he trled out varlous solutlons to lt
and to other problems that had emerged ln the book.
Russell had told Whltehead about Peano`s new
symbollsm and method; Whltehead was contemplatlng
a second volume to complete hls Z Trcotisc ov Uvivcrsol
Zlgcbro, witl Zpplicotiovs (l898), and Russell was plan
nlng a contlnuatlon of Tlc Irivciplcs of Motlcmotics, but
the two declded lnstead to collaborate on a book that
would take the place of both proposed second volumes.
Russell was to be responslble for the baslc deflnltlons,
axloms, and postulates, and the loglc of relatlons,
Whltehead for the sectlon on geometry; each man
would wrlte the flrst verslon of hls part of the book, the
other would crltlclze and edlt lt, and then the orlglnal
wrlter would rewrlte lt. Jhe work went on for ten years
and produced a landmark ln mathematlcal loglc and
phllosophy. Irivcipio Motlcmotico, publlshed ln three vol
umes ln l9l0, l9l2, and l9l3, respectlvely.
Russell publlshed many artlcles between Tlc Iriv-
ciplcs of Motlcmotics and the flrst volume of Irivcipio Motl-
cmotico. Some treated the loglcal lssues he was worklng
out ln what he and Whltehead called 'the blg book";
one of the most notable essays ls 'On Denotlng," pub
llshed ln the journal Mivd ln l905 and republlshed ln
Russell`s Iogic ovd Ivowlcdgc: Issoys 1901-190 (l956).
Jhe toplc of thls plece has proved to be of permanent
slgnlflcance and contlnues to be debated among phllos
ophers today. Jhe problem ls the denotatlon of expres
slons ln whlch an entlty ls referred to not by name but
lndlrectly as 'the such and such," 'a such and such," or
'some such and such," as ln 'the author of Waverly" or
'the man who ls knocklng at the door." Jhe solutlon to
the problem should also deal wlth expresslons that refer
to nonexlstent entltles such as 'the wlnged horse" or
'the square clrcle." Russell ls concerned wlth how such
a proposltlon as 'the klng of Irance ls bald" can be sald
to be false, not because the klng of Irance ls halry but
because there ls no klng of Irance. How can a proposl
tlon be meanlngful lf lt does not denote (that ls, polnt
to) any speclflc thlng or even to anythlng at all? Russell
revlews what he belleves the Austrlan phllosopher and
psychologlst Alexlus Melnong and the German mathe
matlclan and loglclan Gottlob Irege offer as solutlons to
the problem. (Much of the recent debate centers on the
extent to whlch these revlews are accurate and falr.) He
then puts forward hls own vlew, whlch became known
as the 'theory of descrlptlons". the problematlc expres
slons are 'lncomplete symbols," and one can translate
proposltlons ln whlch they appear lnto a serles of prop
osltlons about whlch lt ls posslble to say what they refer
to and whether they are true or false. 'Slr Walter Scott
ls the author of !ovcrlcy" becomes 'there ls one and
only one person who wrote !ovcrlcy, and that person ls
6l
ai_ PPO _~ o
Scott"; 'Jhe present klng of Irance ls bald" becomes
'there ls one and only one person who ls the klng of
Irance, and that person ls bald." In the second case, lt
can now be seen that the falslty of the proposltlon
derlves from the falslty of the flrst conjunct'there ls
one and only one person who ls the klng of Irance"
and not the presence or absence of halr. Stated ln more
technlcal terms, the theory of descrlptlons, under the
tltle 'the method of constructlon," was lntended to be
the baslc method of the deflnltlon of polnts and lnstants
ln a projected fourth volume of Irivcipio Motlcmotico to
be wrltten by Whltehead. In nontechnlcal terms lt later
flgured as a baslc premlse of Russell`s theory of 'knowl
edge by acqualntance and knowledge by descrlptlon"
and as the method of the 'constructlon of the external
world."
In 'Jransatlantlc 'Jruth," publlshed ln Tlc Zlbovy
Icvicw ln l908, and 'Pragmatlsm," publlshed ln Tlc
Idivburgl Icvicw ln l909, Russell crltlclzes the pragma
tlst deflnltlon of truth as 'what works"; ln contrast,
Russell malntalns a form of reallsm of whlch the out
llnesas the phllosopher I. C. S. Schlller complalned to
hlm ln a letter of 23 March l909are not clear. Both
essays were republlshed ln Russell`s Ililosoplicol Issoys
(l9l0). In an lmportant serles of artlcles tltled
'Melnong`s Jheory of Complexes and Assumptlons,"
publlshed ln Mivd ln l901 and collected posthumously
ln Russell`s Issoys iv Zvolysis (l973), Russell says that
true and false proposltlons dlffer as do red and whlte
roses, although he admlts to problems about the refer
ence of false proposltlons. 'Jhe Nature of Jruth," pub
llshed ln Mivd ln l906, became part of a serles on truth
ln Ililosoplicol Issoys. Russell crltlclzes the ldeallst
'monlstlc theory of truth," as found ln Bradley`s phllos
ophy, for holdlng that no partlcular truth can be com
pletely true because lt must cohere wlth the entlre rest
of the world of thought, and for allowlng that any
coherent body of thought ls true as any other; Russell
malntalns, on the contrary, that speclflc lnqulrles can
yleld speclflc truths apart from thelr connectlons wlth
the rest of reallty. Russell also crltlclzes Bradley for
allowlng relatlons to absorb thelr terms; Russell holds
that terms and relatlons are separate realltles. In Ililo-
soplicol Issoys Russell defends a relatlonal theory of
truth. a bellef ls true lf the relatlon between the compo
nents of the bellef correspond to the relatlon between
the components of the reallty to whlch the bellef refers.
Hence, lf Othello belleves that Desdemona loves Cas
slo, hls bellef ls true lf she does and false lf she does not.
But the reallty of the referents ls not undermlned. Oth
ello, Desdemona, Casslo, the bellef, and love all exlst,
but the relatlon does not hold as the bellef asserts lt to
hold.
One of Russell`s bestknown essays, 'A Iree
Man`s Worshlp," a poetlc renunclatlon of tradltlonal
rellglous bellef, appeared ln Tlc Ivdcpcvdcvt Icvicw ln
l903; 'Jhe Study of Mathematlcs," an exalted state
ment of commltment to a realm of eternal mathematlcal
truth, was publlshed ln Tlc `cw _uortcrly ln l907. Both
were republlshed ln Ililosoplicol Issoys. Russell later
found the style of the flrst of these two essays overly
rhetorlcal and the sentlments of the second lnapproprl
ate to hls changlng vlew of the nature of mathematlcs.
Another toplc addressed ln a l908 artlcle, 'Math
ematlcal Loglc as Based on the Jheory of Jypes"pub
llshed ln Tlc Zmcricov ourvol of Motlcmotics and later
collected ln Iogic ovd Ivowlcdgcwas worked out ln
detall ln Irivcipio Motlcmotico. Jhe theory of types ls
Russell`s solutlon to the paradox of classes that are not
members of themselves. Jhe tentatlve suggestlon of Tlc
Irivciplcs of Motlcmotics ls now strengthened lnto the pro
hlbltlon of a proposltlon lncludlng ltself ln lts reference.
Jhe result ls a hlerarchy of classes ln whlch flrstorder
proposltlons refer only to what are not proposltlons,
whlle secondorder proposltlons refer only to flrstorder
proposltlons, and so on. Jhe theory of types also
requlres that no statement of an order hlgher than the
flrst could make a statement about all the propertles of
a class. Yet, to ground parts of mathematlcs lt must be
posslble to make such statements. Jhus, the 'axlom of
reduclblllty" ls requlred. lt asserts that statements can
be made about all the propertles of a class, such as the
class o, 'provldlng we remember that lt ls really a num
ber of statements and not a slngle statement that could
be regarded as asslgnlng another property to o, over
and above all propertles." Russell and Whltehead
found thls axlom necessary, but nelther of them
thought that lt was justlfled on other than pragmatlc
grounds.
Durlng thls perlod of lntense professlonal actlvlty
Russell`s personal llfe was far from tranqull. On the sur
face all seemed well. the Russells cooperated ln Ber
trand`s candldacy for Parllament ln l907, although both
understood lt as an educatlonal effort wlth no danger of
electlon; they exchanged vlslts wlth Whltehead and hls
wlfe, Evelyn, whlle the two men worked on Irivcipio
Motlcmotico; and they followed thelr usual routlne of
charltable works, soclal engagements, and letter wrlt
lng. But thelr marrlage was ln trouble. Russell says ln
Tlc Zutobiogroply of crtrovd Iusscll (l967-l969) that one
day ln l902, whlle rldlng hls blcycle, he dlscovered to
hls surprlse that he no longer loved Alys. When he
lmparted thls lnformatlon to her, an emotlonal storm of
threatened sulclde and real sufferlng resulted. Russell,
for hls part, had longed for sexual fulflllment but had
found lt lmposslble to achleve wlth Alys. Jhls emo
tlonal turmoll, comblned wlth the contlnulng frustra
62
_~ o ai_ PPO
tlons of the loglcal problems he faced ln worklng on
m~ j~~~I caused hlm much paln. He says ln
the autoblography.
Jhe straln of unhapplness comblned wlth very severe
lntellectual work, ln the years from l902 tlll l9l0, was
very great. At the tlme I often wondered whether I
should ever come out at the other end of the tunnel ln
whlch I seemed to be. I used to stand on the footbrldge
at Kennlngton, near Oxford, watchlng the tralns go by,
and determlnlng that tomorrow I would place myself
under one of them.
As the volumes of 'the blg book" went through
stages of proof and publlcatlon, Russell was contlnulng
to wrlte revlews, artlcles on current toplcs such as the
women`s suffrage movement, and technlcal mathematl
cal and phllosophlcal papers. In March l9ll he was
scheduled to present three papers ln Parls. Spendlng the
nlght before hls departure at the home of Phlllp and
Lady Ottollne Morrell, he fell passlonately ln love wlth
Ottollne. He was determlned that they should get
dlvorced and marry each other; but she dld not want to
glve up her famlly, and he had to be content wlth belng
her lover. Amld much grlef and dlstress, Alys agreed to
a separatlon on the condltlon that Russell`s relatlonshlp
wlth Morrell be kept secret. Durlng lts flve years the
relatlonshlp resulted ln a dazzllng correspondence on
Russell`s part that shows the lntenslty of hls deslre to
share every aspect of hls llfe wlth Morrell, as well as hls
jealousy, despalr, and, flnally, hls turnlng to others
when Morrell was lnvolved wlth other lovers. Jhe cor
respondence also reveals an lmportant watershed ln the
development of Russell`s phllosophy and, some crltlcs
say, the collapse of hls dream of a systematlc and logl
cally rlgorous solutlon to the phllosophlcal problems
that engaged hlm durlng thls perlod.
In l9ll Russell wrote a short book for the Home
Lnlverslty Llbrary that he called hls 'shllllng shocker."
Publlshed ln l9l2, q m m offers an
overvlew of Russell`s polnt of vlew at the tlme, a sketch
of what he planned as hls next blg work after m~
j~~~I and dlscusslons of a large number of
unsolved problems. It ls regarded as a classlc and has
been the means of lntroduclng many students to phllos
ophy. Russell`s prlmary concern ln the work ls what
can be known. After a skeptlcal revlew of lnstances of
purported knowledge, he concludes that two klnds of
knowledge are not open to doubt. what ls lmmedlately
and dlrectly percelved and what are lntulted as the baslc
proposltlons of loglc and mathematlcs. Such dlrectly
glven, unlnferred knowledge he calls 'knowledge by
acqualntance." Irom lt a body of rellable knowledge
can be bullt up by loglcal lnference; thls klnd of knowl
edge ls 'knowledge by descrlptlon." Jhe dlstlnctlon
between knowledge by acqualntance and knowledge by
descrlptlon was an lmportant toplc ln Russell`s work for
many years, and lt constltuted the llnk between hls gen
eral eplstemologlcal concerns and hls loglcal tech
nlques. In q m mI whlch was lntended
for a popular audlence, the dlstlnctlon ls sketched out ln
a nontechnlcal fashlon.
Another subject dlscussed ln q m mJ
ls the problem of lnductlon. Russell says that lt ls
lmposslble to prove that the way thlngs have behaved ln
the past, however great thelr regularlty, wlll be the way
they behave ln the future. At best, the unlformlty of
nature ls a prlnclple that has not been dlsproved and ls
useful; thus, one ls justlfled ln uslng lt to make probable
lnferences. A slmllarly skeptlcal treatment of lnductlon,
'On the Notlon of Cause," was presented to the Arlsto
tellan Soclety ln l9l2 and publlshed ln Russell`s jJ
~ iI ~ l b~ (l9l7). Here Russell
argues that all that can be sald about causal laws ls that
certaln regularltles exlst that sclentlsts can express ln
mathematlcal formulas; the ldea of a cause 'forclng" or
'necessltatlng" an effect ls a metaphyslcal one wlth no
basls ln experlence. Ior thls reason, the concept of
cause has no relevance to the lssue of determlnlsm ver
sus free wlll. Jhe problem of lnductlon contlnued to be
a concern of Russell`s and was a major toplc that occu
pled hlm durlng hls flnal years of phllosophlcal work.
In l9ll a young englneer named Ludwlg Wltt
gensteln came from Austrla to study mathematlcal loglc
wlth Russell. He jolned Russell`s course on the m~
j~~~ and found lt 'llke muslc," as Russell
reported to Morrell ln a letter of l9 March l9l2. Rus
sell worrled about Wlttgensteln`s stablllty but found hls
companlonshlp stlmulatlng and hls ldeas brllllant, lf not
always clear; he appreclated Wlttgensteln`s crltlclsms of
the m~ j~~~ and began to see the Austrlan
as hls successor, one who could brlng new vlgor and
lnslghts to the subject. Jhe tenor of thelr lnteractlon
became less that of teacher and student than of col
leagues. Russell told Morrell that Wlttgensteln dld not
llke the 'shllllng shocker" and thought that nothlng
could be sald about the value of phllosophy. lf one ls
lnterested, one studles lt, and that ls that.
By 7 May l9l3 the term was over at Cambrldge;
Wlttgensteln had left; and Morrell was ln Swltzerland
for an extended vlslt. Russell turned to hls next major
work, whlch was to be elther one long or two shorter
volumes on the theory of knowledge. Accordlng to
Russell`s letters to Morrell, lt was to begln wlth an anal
ysls of what ls glven ln experlence, lncludlng a treat
ment of loglcal ldeas and relatlons, then move on to
judgments, proposltlons, truth and falslty, and probabll
lty; a thlrd sectlon would conslst ln a loglcal construc
tlon of matter, polnts ln space, moments ln tlme, and
63
ai_ PPO _~ o
cause. He showed the manuscrlpt to Wlttgensteln on at
least two occaslons; Wlttgensteln crltlclzed lt severely,
and on 20 |une, Russell, havlng produced three hun
dred pages, abandoned the work because he could flnd
no answers to Wlttgensteln`s objectlons. Of the orlglnal
manuscrlpt, only chapters 7 to ll of part l and chapters
l to 7 of part 2 are extant. It has been establlshed that
the flrst slx chapters of part l were publlshed, probably
wlth revlslons, as artlcles ln the Movist ln l9l1 and
l9l5. Jhe reconstructed manuscrlpt was publlshed ln
l981 as Tlcory of Ivowlcdgc: Tlc 191J Movuscript, vol
ume seven of Tlc Collcctcd Iopcrs of crtrovd Iusscll.
Russell dld not tell Morrell what Wlttgensteln`s
crltlclsms wereln fact, he told her that he was not sure
what Wlttgensteln meantbut lt seems llkely that Wltt
gensteln crltlclzed Russell`s theory of relatlons, theory
of judgment, and treatment of proposltlons. Russell
replaced hls relatlonal theory of l9l0 wlth a more
complex flveterm relatlon, but Wlttgensteln apparently
objected that the new theory left the relatlon between
Othello and what he belleves on the same level as the
relatlon of love between Desdemona and Casslo. Rus
sell`s attempt to bulld atomlc proposltlons from the
materlals of experlence and loglcal form, to bulld
molecular proposltlons from the atomlc proposltlons,
and to construct sclentlflc objects from molecular prop
osltlons wlth the apparatus of mathematlcal loglc could
not proceed lf the theory of judgment and the theory of
relatlons on whlch lt depended would not hold. Wltt
gensteln`s crltlclsms brought Russell`s project to a halt
and, Russell wrote to Morrell on 20 |une, made 'a large
part of the book I meant to wrlte lmposslble for years to
come probably." Wlth the exceptlon of the slx Movist
artlcles, none of lt was publlshed durlng Russell`s llfe
tlme, although remnants of the project appear ln varl
ous forms ln Russell`s later work.
Although Russell`s chlef concerns ln phllosophy
durlng thls perlod were loglc and theory of knowledge,
he was lnterested ln ethlcs and rellglon as well. Jwo of
hls essays on ethlcs reveal the lnfluence of Moore. a
favorable revlew of Moore`s Irivcipio Itlico (l903), pub
llshed ln Tlc Ivdcpcvdcvt Icvicw (March l901), and a
statement of ethlcal reallsm modeled on Moore`s ethlcs,
publlshed ln the Hibbcrt ourvol ln l908 as 'Determln
lsm and Morals" and republlshed ln Ililosoplicol Issoys
as 'Jhe Elements of Ethlcs." Russell abandoned the
vlew that the good ls real after readlng George Santa
yana`s comment ln the chapter 'Hypostatlc Ethlcs" of
Santayana`s !ivds of Doctrivc: Studics iv Covtcmporory Upiv-
iov (l9l3) that lt was equlvalent to saylng that whlskey
stood dead drunk ln the bottle. Although Russell had
long slnce abandoned tradltlonal rellglous bellefs, he
had retalned the attltude of awe toward the majesty of
nature and the Splnozlstlc acceptance of lts lmpersonal
lty and unresponslveness to human deslres that ls
expressed ln 'A Iree Man`s Worshlp." He and Morrell
trled to comblne her rellglous commltment wlth hls
vlews ln a book on the theme of escape from the prlson
of the senses and the self. Jhey gave the manuscrlpt for
'Prlsons" to Evelyn Whltehead; her response was
hlghly crltlcal, and they gave up on the project. All that
remalns of lt ls Russell`s artlcle 'Jhe Essence of Rell
glon" ln the Hibbcrt ourvol ln l9l2 (republlshed ln
l986 ln volume twelve of Tlc Collcctcd Iopcrs of crtrovd
Iusscll ); he told Morrell ln a letter dated 9 Iebruary
l9l2 that he had used part of the penultlmate chapter
of 'Prlsons" for the artlcle. Jhey also worked together
on 'Jhe Perplexltles of |ohn Iorstlce," a phllosophlcal
novel ln dlalogue form. Readers of the manuscrlpt rec
ommended major revlslons, and that project, too, was
abandoned; the novel was flnally publlshed ln the
twelfth volume of Tlc Collcctcd Iopcrs of crtrovd Iusscll
wlth a note, whlch Russell speclfled should accompany
lt lf lt ever were publlshed, to the effect that lt repre
sented hls vlews durlng only a short perlod of tlme.
Invlted to glve the Lowell Lectures ln Boston ln
the sprlng of l9l3, Russell offered to speak on good
and evll ln the unlverse; but the grant that establlshed
the lectures stlpulated that they were not to lnvolve rell
glon, and Russell had to choose another toplc. At the
same tlme he had to prepare lectures for Harvard Lnl
verslty, where he would be teachlng semlnars on loglc
and on the theory of knowledge. In the fall of l9l3, on
hls return from a vacatlon followlng the collapse of hls
book on the theory of knowledge, he began work on
these projects. Jhe Lowell Lectures were publlshed ln
l9l1 as Uur Ivowlcdgc of tlc Ixtcrvol !orld os o Iicld for
Scicvtific Mctlod iv Ililosoply (generally known slmply as
Uur Ivowlcdgc of tlc Ixtcrvol !orld ); they cover much the
same ground as Russell`s artlcles 'Knowledge by
Acqualntance and Knowledge by Descrlptlon" ln the
Irocccdivgs of tlc Zristotcliov Socicty for l9l0-l9ll, 'Jhe
Lltlmate Constltuents of Matter" ln Tlc Movist ( |uly
l9l5), 'Jhe Relatlon of SenseData to Physlcs" ln Scicv-
tio (l9l1), and hls Scicvtific Mctlod iv Ililosoply: Tlc Hcr-
bcrt Spcvccr Iccturc, 1914 (l9l1). All were republlshed ln
Mysticism ovd Iogic, ovd Utlcr Issoys.
Russell calls Uur Ivowlcdgc of tlc Ixtcrvol !orld a
sketch of what could be accompllshed by dlstlngulshlng
those phllosophlcal problems that can be addressed scl
entlflcally from those that cannot. Jhe former sort of
problems would be solved by the method of construc
tlon, whlch was lnvented by Whltehead and was to be
used to offer deflnltlons of geometrlcal terms ln the
forthcomlng fourth volume of Irivcipio Motlcmotico. Rus
sell beglns by presentlng hls famlllar skeptlclsm con
cernlng what one learns from perceptlon and how
many commonsense bellefs have no flrm foundatlon
61
_~ o ai_ PPO
beyond hablt and assumptlon. One thlnks that one sees
a penny, but all one really 'sees" ls a colored shape.
Jhe penny ls a set of lnferences from what one sees or
from what others report that they see. Jhe method of
constructlon, however, holds out the hope that a penny
may be loglcally lnferredthat ls, constructedfrom the
materlals of sensatlon. Ior lnstance, one can look at the
penny from a serles of dlfferent perspectlvesfrom
above, on edge, tllted, and so fortharrange these per
spectlves lnto a serles of lmages, or sensedata, and then
conslder the penny to bc thls serles of sensedata. Jhat
ls, one can take the materlals presented through dlrect
acqualntance, whlch cannot be doubted, submlt them
to loglcal arrangement and loglcal constructlon, and
arrlve at the commonsense objects of experlence. Jhe
polnts, lnstants, and elements of matter ln physlcs can
be constructed ln a slmllar way, Russell argues. One
thus moves from knowledge by acqualntance to knowl
edge by descrlptlon. Jhe book concludes wlth a dlscus
slon of the dlfflcultles of the concept of cause and
suggests that the phllosophlcal problem of determlnlsm
versus free wlll ls based on a metaphyslcal lnflatlon of
what knowledge by acqualntance shows cause and
effect to be. sequences of percelved events followlng
each other ln temporal sequence. Jhls concept of cause,
whlch ls slmllar to that elaborated by the elghteenth
century emplrlclst Davld Hume, stlll permlts one to
speak of causal laws but merely as mathematlcal repre
sentatlons of the observed sequences. As Russell states
the baslc eplstemologlcal premlse of hls vlew. 'Every
proposltlon whlch we can understand must be com
posed wholly of constltuents wlth whlch we are
acqualnted." He goes on to say that
a complete appllcatlon of the method whlch substltutes
constructlons for lnferences would exhlblt matter
wholly ln terms of sensedata, and even, we may add,
of the sensedata of a slngle person, slnce the sensedata
of others cannot be known wlthout some elements of
lnference. Jhls, however, must remaln for the present
an ldeal, to be approached as nearly as posslble, but to
be reached, lf at all, only after a long prellmlnary
labour of whlch as yet we can only see the very begln
nlng.
Jhe book became a model for the Vlenna Clrcle
and other loglcal posltlvlsts of what mlght be accom
pllshed by a sclentlflc phllosophy, and Russell`s crltl
clsm of tradltlonal metaphyslcal lssues such as free wlll
versus determlnlsm lnsplred the posltlvlst attack on
metaphyslcs. Rudolf Carnap used the ldeas of Uur
Ivowlcdgc of tlc Ixtcrvol !orld and the methodology of
the Irivcipio Motlcmotico ln hls Dcr Iogisclc Zufbou dcr
!clt (l928; translated as Tlc Iogicol Structurc of tlc !orld,
l967). Other phllosophers were less lmpressed; ln 'Jhe
Exlstence of the World as a Loglcal Problem" (l9l5)
the Amerlcan pragmatlst |ohn Dewey found Russell`s
constructlon to depend not on pure experlentlal glvens
but on elementary sensedata produced by sophlstlcated
analyses and used to address an artlflclal problem.
More serlously for Russell, Whltehead was dlspleased
by Russell`s preemptlng of the method he was propos
lng to use ln a dlfferent context, and wlth dlfferent
assumptlons about experlence, ln the fourth volume of
the Irivcipio Motlcmotico. Ior thls reason, when the pub
llsher, Open Court, refused to allow Russell to use any
materlal from the book after World War I, and he
turned to Whltehead, requestlng the notes of thelr dls
cusslons that Whltehead was uslng, Whltehead, too,
refused. Volume four of Irivcipio Motlcmotico was never
publlshed; lnstead, Whltehead wrote Zv Ivquiry Covccrv-
ivg tlc Irivciplcs of òturol Ivowlcdgc (l9l9).
Whlle Russell was preparlng for the Boston lec
tures ln the fall of l9l3, Wlttgensteln had arrlved ln
Cambrldge wlth some new ldeas about loglc. Russell
had trouble followlng them, and Wlttgensteln sald that
he was unable to wrlte them down. Russell had a ste
nographer make a record of Wlttgensteln`s dlscusslon
of the ldeas. Wlttgensteln then went to Norway to work
ln secluslon. Russell sent Wlttgensteln a copy of the
notes and kept one for hlmself; Wlttgensteln`s copy
became the basls for hls posthumously publlshed òtc-
bools, 1914-1916 (l96l). Russell, stlll trylng to under
stand Wlttgensteln`s comments, took hls copy of the
notes to Harvard, apparently lntendlng somehow to
lncorporate them lnto hls loglc semlnar; but llttle evl
dence of Wlttgensteln`s rejectlon of the Irivcipio Motlc-
motico approach appears ln notes of the semlnar taken
by J. S. Ellot, a student of Russell`s at the tlme. Durlng
the perlod from l9l3 to l9l9 references to Wlttgensteln
ln Russell`s wrltlngs glve hlm general credlt for lmpor
tant and yet unpubllshed ldeas, but llttle change ls
notlceable ln Russell`s own vlews.
After completlng hls semlnars at Harvard, Russell
lectured at several other Amerlcan unlversltles and then
returned to Brltaln ln |une l9l1. Jhe threat of war was
becomlng ever more omlnous, and Russell trled to rally
opposltlon to Brltaln`s partlclpatlon ln the loomlng con
fllct. When war dld break out ln August, he threw hlm
self lnto efforts to protect lnterned allen resldents,
supported consclentlous objectors, and argued agalnst
the contlnuatlon of the war. Jhese actlvltles consumed
most of hls tlme and energy for the next three years.
Aslde from works that had been wrltten prlor to the
war, Russell`s publlcatlons from August l9l1 to
November l9l8 were all related to the confllct; ranglng
from letters to the edltors of newspapers to books such
as Irivciplcs of Sociol Iccovstructiov (l9l6) and usticc iv
!or-Timc (l9l6), they constltute more than one hun
65
ai_ PPO _~ o
dred entrles ln hls blbllography. Jhese efforts allenated
hlm from many frlends, cost hlm hls fellowshlp at Jrln
lty, and resulted ln flnes; flnally, ln l9l8, an artlcle
referrlng to Amerlcan soldlers as strlkebreakers landed
hlm ln prlson, charged wlth 'havlng ln a prlnted publl
catlon made certaln statements llkely to prejudlce Hls
Majesty`s relatlons wlth the Lnlted States of Amerlca."
He was sentenced to slx months, whlch he occupled ln
readlng works ln psychology and composlng Ivtroductiov
to Motlcmoticol Ililosoply (l9l9) and a response to
Dewey`s crltlque of Uur Ivowlcdgc of tlc Ixtcrvol !orld.
Jhe latter plece appeared as 'Professor Dewey`s Issoys
iv Ixpcrimcvtol Iogic" ln Tlc ourvol of Ililosoply, Isyclol-
ogy ovd Scicvtific Mctlods ln l9l9 and ls republlshed ln
volume elght of Tlc Collcctcd Iopcrs of crtrovd Iusscll
(l986).
In a serles of lectures tltled 'Jhe Phllosophy of
Loglcal Atomlsm," glven ln London ln l9l8-l9l9, he
summarlzed hls earller vlews and amended them ln the
llght of what he thought he had learned from Wlttgen
steln, from whom he had not heard slnce Wlttgensteln
jolned the Austrlan army at the beglnnlng of the war.
Jhe lectures were publlshed ln the October l9l8 lssue
of Tlc Movist and the three followlng lssues ln l9l9 and
republlshed ln Iogic ovd Ivowlcdgc.
Jhe lectures on loglcal atomlsm show Russell at a
tlme when he was most under the lnfluence of Wlttgen
steln. Jhey demonstrate Russell`s response to Wlttgen
steln`s crltlclsms ln letters to Russell and ln the
transcrlbed notes from l9l3. In the lectures Russell
credlts Wlttgensteln wlth the recognltlon that the two
verbsthe one that refers to the 'judglng" or 'bellev
lng" of a proposltlon, and the one wlthln the proposl
tlon that refers to what ls judged or assertedare on
dlfferent levels that must be sharply dlstlngulshed. He
agrees wlth Wlttgensteln that the proposltlon ltself must
be taken as the unlt of analysls, wlthout brlnglng ln lts
assertlon, denlal, or doubt. He analyzes the atomlc
proposltlon, whlch conslsts of namessymbols that
dlrectly refer to entltles outslde the proposltlonand
dlstlngulshes names for components of the proposltlon
from the proposltlon ltself, whlch ls not a name. (Wltt
gensteln had crltlclzed Russell for holdlng that an
atomlc proposltlon ls a name.) An atomlc proposltlon
conslsts of names for terms and relatlons, and lt refers
to a fact composed of the referents of those names; lt
has no parts that are themselves proposltlons. Jhe
external relatlon of the proposltlon to the fact deter
mlnes lts truth or falslty. lf lt polnts toward the fact, the
proposltlon ls true; lf lt polnts away from the fact, lt ls
false. Jhls vlew of truth and falslty, taken from Wltt
gensteln, avolds the problem, whlch had been present
ln Russell`s l9l3 manuscrlpt, of comparlng the lnternal
relatlon of the proposltlon wlth the lnternal relatlon of
the fact to whlch lt refers. Molecular proposltlons con
slst of two or more atomlc proposltlons connected by
loglcal connectlves such as those speclfled ln Irivcipio
Motlcmotico. Russell also deals wlth the theory of
descrlptlons, the theory of types, and classes. Jhe lec
tures became hlghly popular because they advanced the
seductlve posslblllty of uslng a preclse language and
thereby maklng phllosophy sclentlflc.
Another work of thls perlod, 'On Proposltlons.
What Jhey Are and How Jhey Mean," publlshed ln
supplementary volume two of Tlc Irocccdivgs of tlc Zris-
totcliov Socicty ln l9l9 and republlshed ln Iogic ovd Ivowl-
cdgc and ln volume elght of Tlc Collcctcd Iopcrs of crtrovd
Iusscll, beglns wlth an analysls of facts lnto terms and
relatlons and glves an account of atomlc proposltlons
slmllar to that ln the lectures, then shlfts to a dlscusslon
of |ohn B. Watson`s theory of behavlorlsm. (Russell
had wrltten an lntroductlon to Watson`s l9l1 book,
clovior: Zv Ivtroductiov to Comporotivc Isyclology.) Russell
proposes to use psychology to develop a theory of
meanlng along behavlorlstlc llnes. In hls prlson readlng
he had been lmpressed wlth Wllllam |ames`s psycholog
lcal theorles, and he goes on to connect Watson`s treat
ment of meanlng ln terms of lmages and movements of
the larynx wlth |ames`s metaphyslcs of neutral monlsm,
whlch contends that reallty ls nelther materlal nor men
tal but conslsts of some morebaslc stuff that can appear
as elther mlnd or matter. If the laws of psychology and
the laws of physlcs could be derlved from a flow of par
tlculars such as lmages and bodlly responses to stlmull,
Russell says, neutral monlsm would be an attractlve
posltlon. He leaves the lssue open and the theory of
meanlng not fully developed. Along wlth the lectures
on loglcal atomlsm, thls artlcle shows the dlrectlon ln
whlch Russell`s thought was movlng and forms a llnk
to hls next major work, Tlc Zvolysis of Mivd (l92l).
Another work of thls perlod, Ivtroductiov to Motlc-
moticol Ililosoply, wrltten ln prlson and publlshed ln
l9l9, ls a nontechnlcal overvlew of mathematlcal phl
losophy ln whlch none of the lssues of the lectures on
loglcal atomlsm are broached and the only reference to
Wlttgensteln ls a passlng mentlon that he had polnted
out to Russell that loglc and mathematlcs conslst of tau
tologles. In hls l911 autoblographlcal sketch Russell
reveals the lmpact thls vlew had on hlm.
My lntellectual journeys have been, ln some respects,
dlsappolntlng. When I was young I hoped to flnd rell
glous satlsfactlon ln phllosophy; even after I had aban
doned Hegel, the eternal Platonlc world gave me
somethlng nonhuman to admlre. I thought of mathe
matlcs wlth reverence, and suffered when Wlttgensteln
led me to regard lt as nothlng but tautologles.
66
_~ o ai_ PPO
Russell and Wlttgensteln met ln Holland ln
December l9l9, after Wlttgensteln was released from
an Itallan prlsonerofwar camp, and went over a manu
scrlpt Wlttgensteln had wrltten durlng the war. Jhe
work had been rejected by publlshers; Wlttgensteln and
Russell declded that lt would have a better receptlon lf
lt were accompanled by an lntroductlon by Russell. But
when Russell sent the lntroductlon to Wlttgensteln ln
May l920, the latter rejected lt, clalmlng that Russell
had mlsunderstood hlm. He left the work ln Russell`s
hands. It was publlshed ln a German journal, Zvvolcv
dcr Ililosoplic, ln l92l as 'Loglschphllosophlsche
Abhandlung"; a blllngual edltlon, wlth the Engllsh
translatlon by C. K. Ogden and Irank Ramsey pre
pared wlth Wlttgensteln`s asslstance, was publlshed ln
l922 as Troctotus Iogico-Ililosoplicus. Russell`s lntroduc
tlon remalned ln thls verslon. Jhe publlcatlon marked
the end of the frlendshlp and collaboratlon between
Russell and Wlttgensteln. Ior the early loglcal posltlv
lsts, the Irivcipio Motlcmotico and the Troctotus Iogico-
Ililosoplicus together were manlfestos of a new sclentlflc
phllosophy, and, even after they were dlsowned by thelr
alleged fathers, the members of the Vlenna Clrcle con
sldered themselves helrs of Russell and Wlttgensteln.
After hls affalr wlth Morrell ended ln l9l6, Rus
sell had begun a stormy fouryear relatlonshlp wlth
Lady Constance Malleson, who acted under the stage
name Colette O`Nlel. In l9l9 he had become lnterested
ln a brlght, radlcal, and unconventlonal young student,
Dora Wlnlfred Black. Jhey traveled to Russla ln l920
to see the results of the revolutlon; durlng the trlp Rus
sell lntervlewed the Bolshevlk leader Vladlmlr Lenln.
Russell desplsed the Communlst system, whlle Black
admlred lt; Russell publlshed hls crltlque ln Tlc Irocticc
ovd Tlcory of olslcvism (l920). Russell and Black spent
the academlc year l920-l92l ln Chlna, where Russell
taught at the Natlonal Lnlverslty of Peklng and Black
lectured on women`s rlghts. Russell became lll wlth
pneumonla ln Chlna, and Dora nursed hlm; wlth hls
returnlng health they dlscovered to thelr dellght that
she was pregnant. Jhelr son, |ohn Conrad Russell, was
born seven weeks after Russell and Black marrled ln
September l92l, followlng hls dlvorce from Alys.
In l92l Russell publlshed Tlc Zvolysis of Mivd, a
work of loglcal constructlon ln whlch he trles to show
how a plcture of the worklngs of the mlnd and an expla
natlon of the development of bellef and knowledge can
be bullt up from the materlals provlded by perceptlon,
glven the psychologlcal mechanlsms of sensatlon, mem
ory, and lmaglnatlon. He beglns by adoptlng the neu
tral monlsm he had rejected ln 'On Proposltlons. What
Jhey Are and How Jhey Mean." Although he ldentl
fles thls posltlon wlth |ames`s, he rejects what he calls
|ames`s 'llngerlng ldeallsm" ln the ldea of 'pure experl
ence"; but he accepts the notlon that the laws of physlcs
and the laws of psychology can both be shown to be
constructed from 'partlculars" that are nelther matter
nor mlnd. He no longer sees such 'partlculars" as dlrectly
glven ln experlence, wlthout lnference or the posslblllty of
error. Each perceptlon lncludes elements of memory,
hablt, and expectatlon, and the glven partlculars have to
be dlsentangled from thls accompanylng 'encrustatlon"
through a causal analysls of the orlgln of the varlous ele
ments of the perceptlon. Ior example, lf one sees a star,
the perceptlon may lnclude a causal llne of llght trans
mltted from the dlstant sun through lntervenlng space
to the atmosphere of the darkened earth to the retlna
and to the sensatlon of llght that ls a response to that
stlmulus. But one may also lmaglne or dream about a
star, and these 'perceptlons" have causal orlglns as well.
When partlculars are thus dlsentangled and ordered ln
temporal patterns, one has the basls for psychologlcal
constructlons of mlnds, emotlons, and bellefs. Were the
partlculars to be ordered spatlally lnstead of temporally,
one would have the constructlon of physlcal entltles.
Jhe laws of psychology belong to the flrst orderlng, the
laws of physlcs to the second. In the case of the psycho
loglcal analysls, repeated perceptual experlenced
lmages are the referents for the meanlngs that one
connects lnto bellefs, formulates ln proposltlons, and
tests for truth and falslty through future perceptual
experlences. It seems that Russell ls attemptlng ln
thls book to reforge, by way of psychology, the llnk
that had been destroyed ln l9l3 by Wlttgensteln`s
crltlclsm, between glven experlences, formerly called
'acqualntance," and proposltlons.
Jhe constructlon ln Tlc Zvolysis of Mivd ls a draft
or sketch; lt ls not worked out and expressed ln the log
lcal symbols and mathematlcal form ln whlch such con
structlons should, accordlng to Russell, ultlmately be
done. Jhe 'neutral monlsm" ln thls book actually has
llttle ln common wlth |ames`s; also, Russell`s theory of
truth remalns a reallstlc one, and hls crltlclsm of prag
matlsm on that lssue ls as severe as ever.
Russell publlshed Tlc Iroblcm of Clivo ln l922; the
followlng year there appeared Tlc Irospccts of Ivdustriol
Civiliotiov, coauthored wlth Dora, and Tlc ZC of
Ztoms. Jhe Russells` daughter, Katharlne |ane, was
born ln December l923. In l921 Russell publlshed
Icorus; or, Tlc Iuturc of Scicvcc.
Russell used the method of constructlon agaln ln
Tlc Zvolysis of Mottcr (l927). In thls work, whlch he
called 'a long dull book on matter," hls many years of
work wlth the constructlon of sclentlflc concepts was
flnally completed. As wlth the constructlon of psycho
loglcal and eplstemologlcal concepts ln Tlc Zvolysis of
Mivd, thls constructlon ls not worked out ln full mathe
matlcal loglcal form. Jhe book ls, however, a technlcal
67
ai_ PPO _~ o
one ln whlch Russell, startlng wlth the partlcularshere
called 'events"of whlch one ls aware as elements of
perceptlon or that are extrapolated from the percelved
elements, constructs polnts ln space, moments ln tlme,
causal centers, and causal llnes, such that the needs of
physlcs for these concepts and the compllcated struc
ture of matter can be supplled. He deals wlth competlng
vlews of relatlvlty and competlng constructlons of
spaceandtlme serles by Whltehead and Slr Arthur
Eddlngton; the theory of relatlvlty naturally makes the
process of constructlon more dlfflcult than lt had
seemed ln the essays of the l9l0 perlod.
Also ln l927 Russell publlshed a second edltlon
of m~ j~~~K In the lntroductlon he trled to
work out a Wlttgenstelnlan vlew of the toplcs, such as
ldentlty, atomlclty, and extenslonallty, on whlch Wltt
gensteln had most severely crltlclzed the flrst edltlon of
the book. But thls reworklng nelther satlsfled Wlttgen
steln nor represented a converslon on the part of Rus
sell, who appeared to regard the lntentlon of the work
as unaffected by the changes he proposed as posslble
alternatlves. Jhe correspondence between Wlttgensteln
and Ramsey, who was consulted by Russell about the
new edltlon, reveals the degree to whlch Wlttgensteln
saw the changes as lnadequate. Other publlcatlons of
l927, such as the famous t f ^ k ~ `~ and
^ l mI dealt wlth nontechnlcal phllo
sophlcal toplcs.
As the Russell chlldren reached school age, thelr
parents became concerned about thelr educatlon. Rus
sell publlshed several works on the subject, lncludlng
l b~I b~ b~ ` (l926). In l927
the Russells opened thelr own school, Beacon Hlll, on
Russell`s brother Irank`s estate, based on the prlnclples
of not lnculcatlng fear or unwholesome prudery ln the
students. Managlng the school and lecturlng and wrlt
lng to ralse funds to support lt took up a great deal of
thelr tlme, and thelr own chlldren, who had to be
treated the same as the other puplls whlle the school
was ln sesslon, felt neglected by thelr parents. On
Irank`s death ln l93l, Russell succeeded to the tltle of
thlrd Earl of Russell, Vlscount Amberley. Jhe Beacon
Hlll School closed ln l932.
Bertrand and Dora Russell thought that marrlage
should permlt the partners the freedom to engage ln
sexual relatlonshlps wlth others, whlle malntalnlng thelr
frlendshlp and thelr commltment to thelr chlldren; thls
vlew ls expressed ln Russell`s j~~ ~ j~
(l929). But when Dora returned from a lecture tour ln
the Lnlted States wlth a lover, subsequently bore hls
chlld, and became pregnant by hlm agaln, Russell
rebelled. He dld not want another man`s chlldren to
bear hls name; Dora belleved he had deserted thelr
prlnclples. A bltter dlvorce ln l935 lncluded a struggle
over the chlldren`s custody, schoollng, and support. In
|anuary l936 Russell marrled hls chlldren`s former
governess, Patrlcla Helen Spence, known as 'Peter," by
whom he had a thlrd chlld, Conrad Sebastlan Robert
named, llke hls half brother, ln honor of the wrlter
|oseph Conradln l937.
Jhls perlod was sad, dlfflcult, and trylng flnan
clally because of the Great Depresslon, the drylng up of
Russell`s lncome from a serles of popular artlcles he had
wrltten for the Hearst newspapers, and the flnanclal
burden of supportlng several households, lncludlng that
of hls brother`s wldow. It was, then, wlth a sense of
rellef that Russell and hls new famlly set sall ln Septem
ber l938 for the Lnlted States, where Russell had
arranged for a oneyear lectureshlp at the Lnlverslty of
Chlcago.
In contrast to hls paclflsm durlng World War I,
Russell supported the flghtlng of World War II, whlch
began ln l939, to stop the aggresslon of Adolf Hltler`s
Germany. He was angulshed at belng away from
England durlng the confllct, but he was glad to have hls
chlldren safe ln the Lnlted States. Jhe Amerlcan
sojourn, too, had lts dlfflcultlesPeter was unhappy ln
Los Angeles, where Russell was professor of phlloso
phy at the Lnlverslty of Callfornla ln l939-l910; a
contract for Russell to teach at Clty College of New
York was blocked by court actlon because of hls uncon
ventlonal vlews on marrlage; and Russell was flred from a
lectureshlp on the hlstory of culture at the Barnes Instl
tute ln Merlon, Pennsylvanla, ln l91l-l912, and had to
sue for hls fee.
Russell`s most slgnlflcant phllosophlcal work of
the Amerlcan perlod was ^ f j~ ~
q (l910). As before, he seeks the most rellable foun
datlon for knowledge. the eplstemologlcal premlses that
are most free from doubt and from whlch lnferences
can be bullt up wlth the least rlsk of error. Russell
attempts to flnd atomlc sentences that express as closely
as posslble the nub of experlence that ls left when the
effects of hablt, memory, and expectatlon are analyzed
away. He refers to thls process as the 'asymptotlc
approach to the pure datum." He flnds the sentences
closest to the datum to be those that lndlcate and
express 'egocentrlc partlculars" such as 'here," 'now,"
'thls," and 'I." A sentence such as 'hot here now," for
example, lncludes a mlnlmum of lnference; ln contrast,
a sentence such as 'the sun ls hot" leaves a gap between
what ls expressed and what ls lndlcated and, thus, an
openlng for error. Although hls own approach ls more
concerned wlth language and meanlng than lt formerly
was, he faults loglcal posltlvlsts such as Carnap for
keeplng thelr analysls too bounded wlthln language.
Hls old complalnt agalnst Schlller, |ames, and Dewey ls
here dlrected agalnst Hans Relchenbach as well. such
68
_~ o ai_ PPO
phllosophers fall to dlstlngulsh between how proposl
tlons are lvowv to be true and what lt means for propo
sltlons to bc true. Russell agrees that they are known to
be true by verlflcatlon, but he lnslsts that what makes
them true ls that they are ln accord wlth the facts, even
lf those facts are lnaccesslble and verlflcatlon ls, there
fore, lmposslble.
In l915 Russell`s Z History of !cstcrv Ililosoply:
Zvd Its Covvcctiov witl Ioliticol ovd Sociol Circumstovccs from
tlc Iorlicst Timcs to tlc Ircscvt Doy was publlshed, provld
lng muchneeded lncome. Jhat same year the Russells
returned to England, where Russell had been offered a
fellowshlp at hls old college, Jrlnlty. Z History of !cstcrv
Ililosoply proved to be one of Russell`s most popular
books; although crltlclzed as fllppant and oplnlonated,
lt ls clear and readable and provldes hlstorlcal, soclal,
and polltlcal contexts for the phllosophlcal ldeas dls
cussed.
In Humov Ivowlcdgc: Its Scopc ovd Iimits (l918)
Russell turns hls attentlon to the problem that had trou
bled hlm slnce l9l0. lnductlonor, as he terms lt, non
demonstratlve lnference. Jhe flrst four parts of the
book treat toplcs on whlch he had already wrltten
extenslvely and lnclude llttle that ls new. 'Jhe World of
Sclence" brlngs together what ls known ln the varlous
sclences; Russell had always belleved that phllosophy
should start wlth the most rellable human knowledge,
that of sclence, and should end lts analysls by justlfylng
what sclence says. He also belleved that the contrlbu
tlon of phllosophy was to adumbrate new hypotheses
for sclence to explore. Jhe second part deals wlth lan
guage ln a way slmllar to Zv Ivquiry ivto Mcovivg ovd
Trutl. Jhe thlrd part, concernlng perceptlon and scl
ence, ls largely an updatlng of Tlc Zvolysis of Mivd. Jhe
fourth part, 'Sclentlflc Concepts," revlews and adds to
the materlal covered ln Tlc Zvolysis of Mottcr. Jhe flfth
and slxth parts add new materlal. Jhe flfth, 'Probabll
lty," revlews the chlef theorles of probablllty ln relatlon
to mathematlcal probablllty and the problem of lnduc
tlon. Jhls dlscusslon leads to the concludlng part of the
work, 'Jhe Postulates of Sclentlflc Inference," ln whlch
Russell, flndlng the 'unlformlty of nature" lnadequate,
develops what he conslders the mlnlmum postulates
necessary to support the klnd of lnductlve lnferences
needed to justlfy the concluslons of sclence. quasl
permanence, separable causal llnes, spatlotemporal con
tlnulty ln causal llnes, the common causal orlgln of slm
llar structures ranged about a center, and analogyln
other words, assumptlons about structure, substance,
cause, and contlnulty. Jhese postulates cannot be
proved; but lf they are necessary, no experlence refutes
them, and they are generally belleved. they have all the
justlflcatlon of whlch the case admlts.
Russell and hls thlrd wlfe separated ln l919. Jhat
year he was awarded the Brltlsh Order of Merlt and
publlshed Zutlority ovd tlc Ivdividuol: Tlc Icitl Iccturcs for
194S-9.
In l950 Russell made hls flrst vlslt to Australla
for a twomonth lecture tour sponsored by the Edward
Dyason Jrust Iund. He vlslted Sydney, _ueensland,
Canberra, Melbourne, Adelalde, and Perth. A senlor
representatlve of the Department of External Affalrs,
Rlchard Greenlsh, was asslgned to accompany hlm on
hls travels. Jhe two developed a code word,
'Humph," to slgnlfy that the pomposlty at a receptlon
was gettlng out of hand. Later that year, Russell
became the thlrd phllosopher to recelve the Nobel
Prlze ln Llterature, after Rudolf Eucken ln l908 and
Henrl Bergson ln l927. Jhe l919 prlze had been wlth
held untll l950, and the award for that year, to Wll
llam Iaulkner, and that to Russell were announced at
the same tlme. Russell learned that he had won the
prlze ln a telephone call on l0 November whlle he was
havlng dlnner ln Prlnceton wlth the physlclst Robert
Oppenhelmer. Jhe next day he dellvered the lecture
'Mlnd and Matter" at Prlnceton Lnlverslty. Jhe large
audlence gave hlm a standlng ovatlon at the end;
among those ln attendance was Albert Elnsteln, who
had won the Nobel ln Physlcs ln l92l. Russell was
especlally pleased to learn that he had been chosen
over Wlnston S. Churchlll and Benedetto Croce. In
reportlng hls selectlon for the prlze the BBC called
hlm 'an apostle of humanlty and free speech"; Tlc
`cw Stotcsmov halled hlm as 'the wlttlest and most
pure of Brltlsh styllsts"; and a `cw Jorl Timcs edltorlal
polnted out that that anyone who could make Z His-
tory of !cstcrv Ililosoply fasclnatlng quallfled as a 'llter
ary" genlus, addlng. 'It ls good to see a true llberal get
hls reward ln these partlally totalltarlan and reactlon
ary days." A congratulatory telegram from Greenlsh
ln Australla conslsted of a slngle word. 'Humph." Jhe
announcement of the prlze lncreased the audlence for
Russell`s three Matchette Ioundatlon lectures at
McMlllan Jheatre of Columbla Lnlverslty ln New
York beglnnlng on l1 November. Jhe crowd grew
larger on each of the three successlve days that he lec
tured there, fllllng two addltlonal audltorlums that had
to be wlred for sound. |ulle Medlock, a New York llt
erary agent asslgned to Russell by the unlverslty as a
gulde, recalled that 'People were llned up three and
four deep all the way around two blocks ln the hope of
gettlng ln by some mlracle, or at least hearlng the
plped volce, or catchlng a gllmpse of Lord Russell ln
person. Jhls crowd roundly cheered as we drove up"
and that a reporter accompanylng Russell exclalmed,
'Good Lord, Lord Russell, anybody would thlnk lt
was ovc Russell they were here to see lnstead of just a
69
ai_ PPO _~ o
phllosopher." Russell`s publlsher, Slr Stanley Lnwln,
suggested that one or two lectures ln Sweden ln addl
tlon to hls Nobel lecture mlght help to lncrease the
sale of hls books ln Scandlnavla; Russell responded ln
a 23 November l950 letter, 'I have had my flll of lec
turlng recently and one of the advantages of the Prlze
ls that lt wlll enable me to do less of lt." On 3 Decem
ber he wrote to hls frlend Rupert CrawshayWllllams
about the taxfree ll,000 monetary award that came
wlth the prlze 'as you say, ls nlce. I try to thlnk I llke
the honour equally, but I don`t."
In the thlrd volume of hls autoblography (l969)
Russell devotes a slngle long paragraph and the flrst
sentence of the next paragraph to hls Nobel Prlze.
When I was called to Stockholm, at the end of l950,
to recelve the Nobel Prlzesomewhat to my surprlse,
for llterature, for my book j~~ ~ j~I was
apprehenslve, slnce I remembered that exactly three
hundred years earller, Descartes had been called to
Scandlnavla by _ueen Chrlstlna ln the wlnter tlme and
had dled of the cold. However, we were kept warm and
comfortable and, lnstead of snow, we had raln, whlch
was a sllght dlsappolntment. Jhe occaslon, though
very grand, was pleasant and I enjoyed lt. I was sorry
for another prlze wlnner who looked utterly mlserable
and was so shy that he refused to speak to anyone and
could not make hlmself heard when he had to make hls
formal speech as we all had to do. My dlnner compan
lon was Madame |ollotCurle and I found her talk
lnterestlng. At the evenlng party glven by the Klng, an
Aldedecamp came to say that the Klng wlshed to talk
wlth me. He wanted Sweden to joln wlth Norway and
Denmark agalnst the Russlans. I sald that lt was obvl
ous, lf there were a war between the West and the Rus
slans, the Russlans could only get to Norweglan ports
through and over Swedlsh terrltory. Jhe Klng
approved of thls observatlon. I was rather pleased, too,
by my speech, especlally by the mechanlcal sharks, con
cernlng whom I sald. 'I thlnk every blg town should
contaln artlflclal waterfalls that people could descend ln
very fraglle canoes, and they should contaln bathlng
pools full of mechanlcal sharks. Any person found
advocatlng a preventlve war should be condemned to
two hours a day wlth these lngenlous monsters." I
found that two or three fellow Nobel prlzewlnners lls
tened to what I had to say and consldered lt not wlth
out lmportance. Slnce then I have publlshed lt ln part II
of my book e~ p b ~ m and a gra
mophone record has been made of lt ln Amerlca. I have
heard that lt has affected many people more than I had
thought whlch ls gratlfylng.
l950, beglnnlng wlth the OM and endlng wlth the
Nobel Prlze, seems to have marked the apogee of my
respectablllty.
Russell seems to have been surprlsed not at wlnnlng
the prlze but at wlnnlng lt ln llterature; he may have
thought that he would more approprlately have won
lt for phllosophy or for mathematlcs, but no such cat
egorles exlst. As Irvlng Polonoff polnts out, 'Jhe
Nobel Prlze ln Llterature was lntended by Nobel to
honor authors of ldeallstlc tendency whose works
exempllfled the moral force of llterature. Jhe term
llterature was to be construed wldely enough to
lnclude not only works of flctlon but also other wrlt
lngs whlch through thelr form and manner of presen
tatlon possess llterary worth." Russell`s memory
played hlm falseperhaps he was obtalnlng some
unconsclous retrospectlve vlndlcatlonln thlnklng
that the prlze was for Morriogc ovd Morols, the work
that played a major part ln the cancellatlon of hls
contract to teach at the Clty College of New York.
Anders Osterllng, permanent secretary of the Swed
lsh Academy, dld not mentlon Morriogc ovd Morols ln
hls presentatlon speech at the awards ceremony,
although he dld refer to Z History of !cstcrv Ililosoply,
Humov Ivowlcdgc: Its Scopc ovd Iimits, Sccpticol Issoys
(l928), and the sketch 'My Mental Development" ln
Tlc Ililosoply of crtrovd Iusscll; he also alluded to 'a
great number of equally lmportant books on practl
cally all the problems whlch the present development
of soclety lnvolves," whlch could have lncluded Mor-
riogc ovd Morols. Another source of confuslon mlght
have been Osterllng`s comment toward the end of hls
speech. 'Exactly two hundred years ago |ean |acques
Rousseau was awarded the prlze offered by the Acad
emy of Dljon for hls famous answer to the questlon
of 'whether the arts and sclences have contrlbuted to
lmprove morals.`" It seems clear, however, that the
prlze was not awarded to Russell for any slngle work,
and certalnly not for one that had been publlshed
twentyone years earller. Accordlng to the cltatlon,
the prlze was 'ln recognltlon for hls varled and slg
nlflcant wrltlngs ln whlch he champlons humanltar
lan ldeals and freedom of thought." As Ray Monk
polnts out ln crtrovd Iusscll: Tlc Clost of Modvcss,
1921-1970 (2000), 'lt was speclflcally vot for hls
lncontestably great contrlbutlons to phllosophyTlc
Irivciplcs of Motlcmotics, 'On Denotlng` and Irivcipio
Motlcmoticothat he was belng honoured, but for the
later work that hls fellow phllosophers were unanl
mous ln regardlng as lnferlor. Russell`s amblvalence
about thls can only have been helghtened by the
knowledge that, before hlm," one of the only phlloso
phers to have been awarded the Nobel Prlze ln Llter
ature 'was the one agalnst whose lnfluence he had
campalgned tlrelessly and vehemently for forty
years. Henrl Bergson."
Polonoff polnts out that one reason for Rus
sell`s selectlon as the l950 laureate was the fact that
that year was the Nobel Ioundatlon`s flftleth annlver
70
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sary. 'Jhe foundatlon was ln a retrospectlve mood,
reflectlng upon the half century years of lts actlvlty,
revlewlng the pattern of lts cholces, and estlmatlng
whether they had fulfllled the lntentlons of the
founder." Osterllng sald ln hls presentatlon speech
that 'Russell`s phllosophy may be sald ln the best
sense to fulfll just those deslres and lntentlons that
Alfred Nobel had ln mlnd when he lnstltuted hls
Prlzes. Jhere are qulte strlklng slmllarltles between
thelr outlooks on llfe. Both of them are at the same
tlme sceptlcs and utoplans, both take a gloomy vlew
of the contemporary world, yet both hold fast to a
bellef ln the posslblllty of achlevlng loglcal standards
for human behavlour. Jhe Swedlsh Academy
belleves that lt acts ln the splrlt of Nobel`s lntentlon
when, on the occaslon of the flftleth annlversary of
the Ioundatlon, lt wlshes to honour Bertrand Russell
as one of our tlme`s brllllant spokesmen of ratlonallty
and humanlty, as a fearless champlon of free speech
and free thought ln the West." Polonoff notes that
'Jhere ls llttle doubt that the splrlt of Nobel`s lnten
tlon was carrled out by the Academy`s cholce" of
Russell, but 'Jhe enthuslastlc remarks coupllng thelr
bellefs and outlooks on llfe seem preposterous." He
asks, when dld Nobel`s 'deslre for peace lead hlm to
use hls conslderable prestlge and power to decllne par
tlclpatlon ln the actual productlon of armament? . . .
Jhere ls a vast dlfference between the outlook of the
lndustrlallst wlth clandestlne dreams of peace and
that of the arlstocratlc rebel."
Ronald W. Clark says ln crtrovd Iusscll ovd His
!orld (l98l) that the audlence for Russell`s Nobel
lecture on ll December, 'whlch lncluded the Swed
lsh Royal famlly'lmmedlately put at ease, by Rus
sell,` accordlng to one observerheard somethlng
dlfferent from the normal technlcal dlscourse or llter
ary exposltlon. Instead, they llstened to an lmpas
sloned plea for peace" tltled 'What Deslres Are
Polltlcally Important?"
In l95l Russell publlshed `cw Hopcs for o
Clovgivg !orld. In l952 he and Peter were dlvorced;
l0,000 of the ll,000 Nobel award went to her.
Jhat same year Russell marrled an old frlend, Edlth
Ilnch.
Humov Ivowlcdgc: Its Scopc ovd Iimits was part of
a synthesls that Russell found to be too large for one
volume. Jhe other volume, Humov Socicty iv Itlics ovd
Iolitics, was publlshed ln l951. Jhe two books can be
seen as the fulflllment of a plan that, Russell says ln
'My Mental Development," he had entertalned whlle
walklng ln the snow ln the Jlergarten ln Berlln ln
l897.
. . . to wrlte a serles of books ln the phllosophy of the
sclences, growlng gradually more concrete as I passed
from mathematlcs to blology; I thought I would also
wrlte a serles of books on soclal and polltlcal questlons,
growlng gradually more abstract. At last I would
achleve a Hegellan synthesls ln an encyclopaedlc work
deallng equally wlth theory and practlce. Jhe scheme
was lnsplred by Hegel, and yet somethlng of lt survlved
the change ln my phllosophy. Jhe moment had had a
certaln lmportance. I can stlll, ln memory, feel the
squelchlng of meltlng snow beneath my feet, and smell
the damp earth that promlsed the end of wlnter.
Humov Ivowlcdgc: Its Scopc ovd Iimits and Humov
Socicty iv Itlics ovd Iolitics can be regarded as Russell`s
flnal works ln phllosophy. He wrote many more works,
some of them phllosophlcal, but they were elther retro
spectlve analyses of hls earller vlews and development
or polemlcal pleces. By the l950s the klnd of phlloso
phy that Russell exempllfled was wldely attacked, par
tlcularly by the ordlnarylanguage analysts. Russell`s
defenses of hls phllosophy agalnst |. O. Lrmson, G. I.
Warnock, and P. I. Strawson, along wlth hls crltlcal
revlew of Gllbert Ryle`s Tlc Covccpt of Mivd (l919),
appear ln My Ililosoplicol Dcvclopmcvt. Jhe book ls a use
ful overvlew of the development of Russell`s thought,
and the crltlclsms of ordlnary language phllosophy as
an 'ldle teatable amusement" show how far that
thought was from the current mode of Brltlsh phlloso
phlzlng. In the chapter 'Jhe Impact of Wlttgensteln"
Russell ls crltlcal of some of the doctrlnes of the Trocto-
tus that had orlglnally lmpressed hlm.
After the brlef perlod of 'respectablllty" durlng
whlch he recelved the Order of Merlt and the Nobel
Prlze, Russell returned to notorlety ln the mld l950s as
head of the Campalgn for Nuclear Dlsarmament and,
later, of the Commlttee of l00, organlzatlons devoted to
mass clvll dlsobedlence ln the cause of haltlng the
nuclear arms bulldup. In a wonderful publlclty boost
for the cause, Russell and hls wlfe were arrested and
brlefly lmprlsoned; plctures of the fralllooklng elghty
elghtyearold Russell belng hauled off to jall evoked
wldespread sympathy for them and dlsapproval of gov
ernment actlons. Durlng the l950s and l960s he pro
duced a steady flow of speeches, artlcles, and books ln
the cause of peace, of whlch Commov Scvsc ovd ùclcor
!orforc (l959) and Hos Mov o Iuturc? (l96l) are proba
bly the best known. He attempted to lntervene ln lnter
natlonal confllcts such as the border dlspute between
Indla and Chlna and the l962 Cuban Mlsslle Crlsls
between the Lnlted States and the Sovlet Lnlon; he
recounts these events ln Uvormcd !ictory (l963). He also
used hls prestlge on behalf of polltlcal prlsoners. In
l963 he reslgned from the Commlttee of l00 and
founded the Bertrand Russell Peace Ioundatlon; he was
7l
ai_ PPO _~ o
actlvely lnvolved ln the foundatlon and set up an
endowment so that lts work would contlnue after hls
death. Russell was outspoken ln hls opposltlon to
Amerlcan actlons ln the Vletnam War, and ln l966 he
and the leftlst Irench phllosopher |eanPaul Sartre set
up a selfstyled Internatlonal War Crlmes Jrlbunal to
'try" Amerlcan offlclals for alleged atrocltles ln the war.
Russell`s personal llfe durlng hls flnal decades
was generally happy, although dlfferences of pollcy and
dlrectlon wlthln the organlzatlons wlth whlch he
worked left wounds. Jhere was also the strange case of
Russell`s secretary and 'asslstant," Ralph Schoenman,
who exerclsed a Svengallllke hold over Russell from
l960 untll hls rejectlon by Russell ln l966. Edlth Rus
sell, however, gave her husband the contentment and
support he needed. She helped hlm wlth hls autoblogra
phy and other wrltlng and wlth hls correspondence, vls
ltors, and engagements, and worked for peace and went
to jall wlth hlm. Russell`s older son fell lll, and Russell
and hls wlfe found themselves carlng for thelr grand
chlldren. Jhelr home ln Penrhyndeudraeth, Merloneth
shlre, Wales, where they had llved slnce l955, was a
pleasant place for chlldren`s holldays and for entertaln
lng famlly and frlends, and a refuge from the publlclty
that surrounded them because of thelr partlclpatlon ln
the peace movement.
Russell retalned an lnterest ln phllosophy; he
entertalned and corresponded wlth many phllosophers
and found the frlendshlp of some, such as Slr Alfred |.
Ayer, dellghtful. He told hls wlfe when they were work
lng on hls autoblography that recalllng the old lssues
between hlmself and Melnong and between hlmself and
Wlttgensteln led hlm to thlnk that he could return to
the debate and flnally glve deflnltlve answers. But hls
concern for peace was more presslng.
Russell`s death on 2 Iebruary l970 left people
around the world feellng bereft of the clear volce of rea
son to whlch they had come to look amld the Cold
War, the arms race, and lncldents such as the Cuban
Mlsslle Crlsls that had seemed to place humanlty on the
brlnk of a nuclear holocaust. Even the crltlcs who had
dlscounted hls warnlngs and accusatlons as the ravlngs
of a senlle old man had to admlt that Russell spoke elo
quently and wlthout fear or favor; the gadfly was sorely
mlssed.
Jhe evaluatlon of Russell by phllosophers has
been hlghly dlvergent. Whlle Russell was allve and
actlve, he could and dld lnflame opponents such as the
ldeallsts and pragmatlsts wlth what they consldered
and sometlmes wereunfalr crltlclsms of thelr ldeas.
Loglcal posltlvlsts and emplrlclsts who consldered hlm
thelr mentor were shaken by hls rejectlon of some of
thelr ldeas. Stlll other contemporarles were frankly con
temptuous of Russell`s work. Brltlsh ordlnarylanguage
analysts objected to the model of a slmpllfled and pre
clse loglcal language that began wlth m~ j~~J
~X to them, the lntultlons and nuances of everyday
speech are phllosophlcally lnformatlve and not to be
lgnored. Russell, ln turn, regarded such concerns as
trlvlal.
Another crltlclsm, shared by ordlnarylanguage
and analytlc phllosophers and those wlth other polnts
of vlew, ls of Russell`s 'foundatlonallsm," hls attempt to
trace bellefs back to some unquestloned and rellable
startlng polnt. Jhroughout hls wrltlngs Russell strove
to flnd elements of knowledge that could be taken as
glven and that could serve as the basls for lnferences to
commonsense and sclentlflc bellefs. Early ln hls career
he found these elements ln loglcal truths and ln
acqualntancethat ls, dlrect reference from words to
objects. Russell admlts ln the chapter 'Jhe Retreat
from Pythagoras" ln j m~ a that he
was unable to achleve hls goal. Wlth respect to mathe
matlcal truth, he quotes from hls l907 essay 'Jhe
Study of Mathematlcs," where he had sald that 'Mathe
matlcs, rlghtly vlewed, possesses not only truth, but
supreme beauty," then goes on. 'All thls, though I stlll
remember the pleasure of bellevlng lt, has come to seem
to me largely nonsense. . . . I have come to belleve,
though very reluctantly, that lt conslsts of tautologles."
Wlth respect to the world as known through the senses,
Russell had to retreat from knowledge by acqualntance
to a vlew that what ls presented by perceptlon must
submlt to extenslve analysls before the nugget of rell
able knowledge can be ellclted from lt. Russell acknowl
edged the dlfflcultles ln establlshlng what can be
known; ln the chapter from j m~ a
tltled 'NonDemonstratlve Inference," however, he
explalns that
Lnlversal sceptlclsm cannot be refuted, but also cannot
be accepted. I have come to accept the facts of sense
and the broad truth of sclence as thlngs whlch the phl
losopher should take as data, slnce, though thelr truth
ls not qulte certaln, lt has a hlgher degree of probablllty
than anythlng llkely to be achleved ln phllosophlcal
speculatlon.
In other places Russell takes the task of phllosophy to
be the bulldlng of brldges between sclence and common
sense, and these brldges requlre not only the data of scl
ence but also those of perceptlon, as well as the dlscl
pllned lnferences derlved from loglc and mathematlcs.
Jhls concept of the scope of phllosophy has somethlng
ln common wlth hls early dream ln the Jlergarten, as
Russell polnts out ln the postscrlpt to hls autoblogra
phy.
72
_~ o ai_ PPO
My work ls near lts end, and the tlme has come when I
can survey lt as a whole. How far have I succeeded,
and how far have I falled? From an early age I thought
myself as dedlcated to great and arduous tasks. Nearly
threequarters of a century ago, walklng alone ln the
Jlergarten through meltlng snow under the coldly gllt
terlng March sun, I determlned to wrlte two serles of
books. one abstract, growlng gradually more concrete;
the other concrete, growlng gradually more abstract.
Jhey were to be crowned wlth a synthesls, comblnlng
pure theory wlth a practlcal soclal phllosophy. Except
for the flnal synthesls, whlch stlll eludes me, I have
wrltten these books. Jhey have been acclalmed and
pralsed, and the thoughts of many men and women
have been affected by them. Jo thls extent I have suc
ceeded.
Russell goes on to recount hls fallures. the outer
fallures of a world torn wlth strlfe and lts loss of ldeals;
the lnner fallure of glvlng up hls dream of flndlng a
world of pure truth through mathematlcs. But, he says,
'beneath all thls load of fallure I am stlll consclous of
somethlng that I feel to be vlctory. I may have con
celved theoretlcal truth wrongly, but I was not wrong ln
thlnklng that there ls such a thlng, and that lt deserves
our alleglance."
Contemporary phllosophers by and large reject
thls vlslon of a truth that ls 'there" and deserves to be
pursued and the convlctlon that the phllosopher and
the sclentlst are colleagues ln thls pursult. Rlchard
Rorty, for example, sees phllosophy not as a search for
truth but as 'edlflcatlon." Even some phllosophers who
conslder themselves, llke Russell, ln the emplrlclst tradl
tlon, reject hls foundatlonallsm.
On the other hand, Russell`s phllosophlcal fame
ls secure ln the realm that most dlsappolnted hlm.
mathematlcal loglc. Hls and Whltehead`s Irivcipio Motl-
cmotico remalns a mllestone ln that area of phllosophy
and a model for many ln what remalns of the loglcal
posltlvlst or loglcal emplrlclst tradltlon, although thls
technlcal subject seems less and less part of the general
area of academlc phllosophy and more and more a sub
ject matter of lts own.
Russell hlmself was unsure of the extent to whlch
hls wrltlngs on lndlvldual ethlcs, soclal problems, and
polltlcal theory should be consldered phllosophy.
Answerlng hls crltlcs ln Tlc Ililosoply of crtrovd Iusscll,
he says, 'I come now to what ls, for me, an essentlally
dlfferent department of phllosophyI mean the part
that depends upon ethlcal conslderatlons. I should llke
to exclude all value judgments from phllosophy, except
that thls would be too vlolent a breach wlth usage." In
the preface to Humov Socicty iv Itlics ovd Iolitics he says,
'I had orlglnally lntended to lnclude thls dlscusslon of
ethlcs ln my book 'Human Knowledge,` but I declded
not to do so because I was uncertaln as to the sense ln
whlch ethlcs can be regarded as 'knowledge.`" Russell
certalnly regarded hls wrltlngs ln thls area an lmportant
part of hls llfework, whether or not they should be con
sldered phllosophlcal ln a technlcal sense.
However phllosophers of the future vlew such
questlons as whether phllosophy should commlt ltself
to the pursult of truth, whether sclence and phllosophy
can or should collaborate ln that pursult, whether phl
losophy ls properly concerned wlth the experlentlal
basls of knowledge, and whether value areas such as
ethlcs ought to be lncluded wlthln phllosophy, Bertrand
Russell`s work has left certaln lnfluences that seem
llkely to endure. Jhe clarlty of hls wrltlng, the cogency
of hls arguments, and hls lnslstence on analysls as a
method have had longlastlng effects on hls successors,
whether or not they expllcltly espouse hls methodology.
If one compares the current level of phllosophlcal argu
mentatlon wlth that of much of the nlneteenth century,
lt seems clear that a debt ls owed to Russell. Jhe model
of the phllosopher as a person of wlsdom and a cltlzen
of the world, exempllfled by Russell ln hls llfe and hls
work, has also struck many of hls helrs as an ldeal to be
admlred and emulated.
iW
Tlc Sclcctcd Icttcrs of crtrovd Iusscll, 2 volumes, edlted
by Nlcholas Grlffln and Allson Roberts Mlculan
(volume l, Boston. Houghton Mlfflln, l992; vol
ume 2, London New York. Routledge, 200l).
_~W
Martln Werner, crtrovd Iusscll: Z ibliogroply of His
!ritivg 1S9-1976 (Munlch, New York, London
Parls. Saur / Hamden, Conn.. Llnnet, l98l);
Kenneth Blackwell, Harry Ruja, and others, Z ibliogro-
ply of crtrovd Iusscll (London New York. Rout
ledge, l991).
_~W
H. W. Leggett, crtrovd Iusscll, U.M. (London. Llncolns
Prager, l919; New York. Phllosophlcal Llbrary,
l950);
Alan Wood, crtrovd Iusscll: Tlc Iossiovotc Sccptic (Lon
don. Allen Lnwln, l957);
Rupert CrawshayWllllams, Iusscll Icmcmbcrcd (Lon
don. Oxford Lnlverslty Press, l970);
Dora Russell, Tlc Tomorisl Trcc: My _ucst for Iibcrty ovd
Iovc (New York. Putnam, l975);
Katharlne Jalt, My Iotlcr, crtrovd Iusscll (New York.
Harcourt Brace |ovanovlch, l975);
Ronald W. Clark, Tlc Iifc of crtrovd Iusscll (New York.
Knopf, l976);
Maurlce Cranston, 'Bertrand Russell. Jowards a Com
plete Portralt," Ivcouvtcr, 16 (l976). 65-79;
73
ai_ PPO _~ o
Clark, crtrovd Iusscll ovd His !orld (London. Jhames
Hudson, l98l);
Carollne Moorehead, crtrovd Iusscll: Z Iifc (London.
SlnclalrStevenson, l992);
Alan Ryan, crtrovd Iusscll: Z Ioliticol Iifc (New York.
Oxford Lnlverslty Press, l993);
Ray Monk, crtrovd Iusscll: Tlc Spirit of Solitudc, 1S72-
1921 (London. Cape, l996; New York. Iree
Press, l996);
Monk, crtrovd Iusscll: Tlc Clost of Modvcss, 1921-1970
(London. Cape, 2000; New York. Iree Press,
200l).
oW
Lllllan Woodworth Alken, crtrovd Iusscll`s Ililosoply of
Morols (New York. Humanltles Press, l963);
Alfred |. Ayer, Iusscll ovd Moorc: Tlc Zvolytic Hcritogc
(Cambrldge, Mass.. Harvard Lnlverslty Press,
l97l);
Kenneth Blackwell, Tlc Spivoistic Itlics of crtrovd Iusscll
(London Boston. Allen Lnwln, l985);
Wayne C. Booth, Modcrv Dogmo ovd tlc Ilctoric of Zsscvt
(Chlcago London. Lnlverslty of Chlcago Press,
l971);
Jom Burke, Dcwcy`s `cw Iogic: Z Icply to Iusscll (Chl
cago. Lnlverslty of Chlcago Press, l991);
|ohn Dewey and H. M. Kallen, eds., Tlc crtrovd Iusscll
Cosc (New York. Vlklng, l91l);
Alan Dorward, crtrovd Iusscll: Z Slort Cuidc to His Ili-
losoply (London New York. Publlshed for the
Brltlsh Councll by Longmans, Green, l95l);
Ellzabeth R. Eames, crtrovd Iusscll`s Diologuc witl His
Covtcmpororics (Carbondale Edwardsvllle. South
ern Illlnols Lnlverslty Press, l989);
Eames, crtrovd Iusscll`s Tlcory of Ivowlcdgc (London.
Allen Lnwln, l969; New York. Brazlller, l969);
C. A. Irltz, crtrovd Iusscll`s Covstructiov of tlc Ixtcrvol
!orld (New York. Humanltles Press, l952);
A. C. Grayllng, Iusscll: Z !cry Slort Ivtroductiov (Oxford
New York. Oxford Lnlverslty Press, l996);
Nlcholas Grlffln, Iusscll`s Idcolist Zpprcvticcslip (Oxford.
Clarendon Press / New York. Oxford Lnlverslty
Press, l99l);
Grlffln, ed., Tlc Combridgc Compoviov to crtrovd Iusscll
(Cambrldge. Cambrldge Lnlverslty Press, 2003);
Paul |. Hager, Covtivuity ovd Clovgc iv tlc Dcvclopmcvt of
Iusscll`s Ililosoply (Dordrecht, Netherlands Bos
ton. Kluwer Academlc Publlshers, l991);
Clalre Ortlz Hall, Ictlivlivg Idcvtity ovd Mctoplysics: Uv
tlc Iouvdotiovs of Zvolytic Ililosoply (New Haven.
Yale Lnlverslty Press, l997);
Peter Hylton, Iropositiovs, Iuvctiovs, ovd Zvolysis: Sclcctcd
Issoys ov Iusscll`s Ililosoply (Oxford New York.
Oxford Lnlverslty Press, 2005);
Hylton, Iusscll, Idcolism, ovd tlc Imcrgcvcc of Zvolytic Ili-
losoply (Oxford. Clarendon Press / New York.
Phlllp Ironslde, Tlc Sociol ovd Ioliticol Tlouglt of crtrovd
Iusscll: Tlc Dcvclopmcvt of ov Zristocrotic Iibcrolism
(Cambrldge New York. Cambrldge Lnlverslty
Press, l996);
A. D. Irvlne, ed., crtrovd Iusscll: Criticol Zsscssmcvts, 1
volumes (London New York. Routledge, l998);
Irvlne and G. A. Wedeklng, eds., Iusscll ovd Zvolytic Ili-
losoply (Buffalo, N.Y. Joronto. Lnlverslty of
Joronto Press, l993);
Ronald |ager, Tlc Dcvclopmcvt of crtrovd Iusscll`s Ililoso-
ply (London. Allen Lnwln, l972; New York.
Humanltles Press, l972);
C. W. Kllmlster, Iusscll (New York. St. Martln`s Press,
l981);
Gregory Landlnl, Iusscll`s Hiddcv Substitutiovol Tlcory
(New York. Oxford Lnlverslty Press, l998);
Holger Leerhoff, crtrovd Iussclls Ililosoplic dcr Motlcmo-
til ols Urspruvg dcs logisclcv Ztomismus (Marburg.
Jectum, 2001);
Godehard Llnk, ed., Uvc Huvdrcd Jcors of Iusscll`s Ioro-
dox: Motlcmotics, Iogic, Ililosoply, De Gruyter
Serles ln Loglc and Its Appllcatlons, no. 6 (Berlln.
De Gruyter, 2001);
Margaret Moran, 'Bertrand Russell`s Early
Approaches to Llterature," Uvivcrsity of Torovto
_uortcrly, 51 (l981). 56-78;
George Nakhnlklan, ed., crtrovd Iusscll`s Ililosoply
(London. Duckworth, l971);
Ramendra Nath, Tlc Itlicol Ililosoply of crtrovd Iusscll
(New York. Vantage, l993);
Andrew Newman, Tlc Corrcspovdcvcc Tlcory of Trutl: Zv
Issoy ov tlc Mctoplysics of Ircdicotiov (Cambrldge
New York. Cambrldge Lnlverslty Press, 2002);
L. Nathan Oaklander, Tcmporol Iclotiovs ovd Tcmporol
ccomivg: Z Dcfcvsc of o Iussclliov Tlcory of Timc
(Lanham, Md.. Lnlverslty Press of Amerlca,
l981);
|. Obl Oguejlofor, Hos crtrovd Iusscll Solvcd tlc Iroblcm
of Icrccptiov? Z Criticol Ixpositiov of crtrovd Iusscll`s
Zvolysis of Scvsc Icrccptiov ovd Its Iclotiov witl tlc
Ixtcrvol !orld (Irankfurt am Maln New York.
Peter Lang, l991);
Wayne A. Patterson, crtrovd Iusscll`s Ililosoply of Iogicol
Ztomism (New York. Peter Lang, l993);
D. I. Pears, crtrovd Iusscll ovd tlc ritisl Troditiov iv Ili-
losoply (London. Colllns, l967; New York. Ran
dom House, l967);
Iederlco Perelda, Hcgcl c Iusscll: Iogico c ovtologio tro mod-
crvo c covtcmporovco, edlted by Emanuele Severlno
(Padua. Il pollgrafo, 2003);
71
_~ o ai_ PPO
Irvlng Polonoff, 'Bertrand Russell," ln ritisl !ivvcrs of
tlc òbcl Iitcrory Iric, edlted by Walter E. Kldd
(Norman. Lnlverslty of Oklahoma Press, l973),
pp. l68-20l;
A. P. Rao, Uvdcrstovdivg Prlnclpla ovd Jractatus. Iusscll
ovd !ittgcvstciv Icvisitcd (San Iranclsco. Interna
tlonal Scholars Publlcatlons, l997);
George Roberts, ed., crtrovd Iusscll Mcmoriol !olumc
(London. Allen Lnwln / New York. Humanl
tles Press, l979);
Dave Roblnson, Ivtroducivg crtrovd Iusscll, lllustrated by
|udy Groves (Cambrldge. Icon, 2002);
Alan Ryan, crtrovd Iusscll`s Iolitics: 16SS or 196S? (Aus
tln. College of Llberal Arts, Harry Ransom
Humanltles Research Center, Lnlverslty of Jexas
at Austln, l99l);
R. M. Salnsbury, Iusscll (London Boston. Routledge
Kegan Paul, l979);
George Santayana, !ivds of Doctrivc: Studics iv Covtcmpo-
rory Upiviov (New York. Scrlbners, l9l3);
C. Wade Savage and C. Anthony Anderson, eds.,
Icrcodivg Iusscll (Mlnneapolls. Lnlverslty of Mln
nesota Press, l989);
Paul Arthur Schllpp, ed., Tlc Ililosoply of crtrovd Ius-
scll, Jhe Llbrary of Llvlng Phllosophers, volume
5 (Evanston, Ill. Chlcago. Northwestern Lnl
Ralph Schoenman, ed., crtrovd Iusscll: Ililosoplcr of tlc
Ccvtury. Issoys iv His Hovour (London. Allen
Lnwln, l967; Boston. Llttle, Brown, l967);
Clro Senofonte, Scicvo, rcligiovc c morolc iv crtrovd Ius-
scll: Soggi c riccrclc (Istltuto ltallano per gll studl
fllosoflcl), no. 9 (Naples. Vlvarlum, 2002);
Graham Stevens, Tlc Iussclliov Urigivs of Zvolyticol Ililos-
oply: crtrovd Iusscll ovd tlc Uvity of tlc Iropositiov
(New York London. Routledge, 2005);
Wllllam W. Jalt, ed., Iorly Zvolytic Ililosoply: Ircgc, Ius-
scll, !ittgcvstciv. Issoys iv Hovor of Icovord Iivsly
(Chlcago. Open Court, l997);
Elena Jatlevskala, Iussclls Uvivcrsolicvtlcoric, Spektrum
Phllosophle, volume 22 (Wrzburg. Ergon,
2002);
|. E. Jhomas and Kenneth Blackwell, eds., Iusscll iv
Icvicw: Tlc crtrovd Iusscll Ccvtury Cclcbrotiovs
(Joronto. Stevens, Hakkert, l976);
Erlc Wefald, Trutl ovd Ivowlcdgc: Uv Somc Tlcmcs iv Troc-
toriov ovd Iussclliov Ililosoply of Iovguogc (Lanham,
Md.. Lnlverslty Press of Amerlca, l996).
m~W
Jhe Bertrand Russell Archlves are at McMaster Lnl
verslty ln Hamllton, Ontarlo. J. S. Ellot`s notes on Rus
sell`s sprlng l9l1 loglc semlnar at Harvard Lnlverslty
are at the Houghton Llbrary, Harvard Lnlverslty.
NVRM k m i~
m~ p
by Zvdcrs stcrlivg, Icrmovcvt Sccrctory of tlc
Swcdisl Zcodcmy
Jhe great work on Western phllosophy whlch
Bertrand Russell brought out ln l916, that ls, at the age
of seventyfour, contalns numerous characterlstlc reflec
tlons glvlng us an ldea of how he hlmself mlght llke us
to regard hls long and arduous llfe. In one place, speak
lng of the preSocratlc phllosophers, he says, 'In study
lng a phllosopher, the rlght attltude ls nelther reverence
nor contempt, but flrst a klnd of hypothetlcal sympathy,
untll lt ls posslble to know what lt feels llke to belleve ln
hls theorles, and only then a revlval of the crltlcal attl
tude, whlch should resemble, as far as posslble, the state
of mlnd of a person abandonlng oplnlons whlch he has
hltherto held."
And ln another place ln the same work he wrltes,
'It ls not good elther to forget the questlons that phllos
ophy asks, or to persuade ourselves that we have found
lndubltable answers to them. Jo teach how to llve wlth
out certalnty, and yet wlthout belng paralyzed by heslta
tlon, ls perhaps the chlef thlng that phllosophy, ln our
age, can stlll do for those who study lt."
Wlth hls superlor lntellect, Russell has, through
out half a century, been at the centre of publlc debate,
watchful and always ready for battle, as actlve as ever
to thls very day, havlng behlnd hlm a llfe of wrltlng of
most lmposlng scope. Hls works ln the sclences con
cerned wlth human knowledge and mathematlcal loglc
are epochmaklng and have been compared to New
ton`s fundamental results ln mechanlcs. Yet lt ls not
these achlevements ln speclal branches of sclence that
the Nobel Prlze ls prlmarlly meant to recognlze. What
ls lmportant, from our polnt of vlew, ls that Russell has
so extenslvely addressed hls books to a publlc of lay
men, and, ln dolng so, has been so emlnently successful
ln keeplng allve the lnterest ln general phllosophy.
Hls whole llfe`s work ls a stlmulatlng defence of
the reallty of common sense. As a phllosopher he pur
sues the llne from the classlcal Engllsh emplrlclsm, from
Locke and Hume. Hls attltude toward the ldeallstlc
dogmas ls a most lndependent one and qulte frequently
one of opposltlon. Jhe great phllosophlcal systems
evolved on the Contlnent he regards, so to speak, from
the chllly, wlndswept, and dlstlnctlve perspectlve of the
Engllsh Channel. Wlth hls keen and sound good sense,
hls clear style, and hls wlt ln the mldst of serlousness,
he has ln hls work evlnced those characterlstlcs whlch
75
ai_ PPO _~ o
are found among only the ellte of authors. Jlme does
not permlt even the brlefest survey of hls works ln thls
area, whlch are fasclnatlng also from a purely llterary
polnt of vlew. It may sufflce to mentlon such books as
the e t m (l916), e~ h
(l918), p~ b~ (l918), and the sketch 'My Men
tal Development" (ln q m _~ oI
l95l); but to these should be added a great number of
equally lmportant books on practlcally all the problems
whlch the present development of soclety lnvolves.
Russell`s vlews and oplnlons have been lnflu
enced by varled factors and cannot easlly be summa
rlzed. Hls famous famlly typlfles the Whlg tradltlon ln
Engllsh polltlcs. Hls grandfather was the Vlctorlan
statesman, |ohn Russell. Iamlllar from an early age
wlth the ldeas of Llberallsm, he was soon confronted by
the problems of rlslng soclallsm and slnce then he has,
as an lndependent crltlc, welghed the advantages and
dlsadvantages of thls form of soclety. He has consls
tently and earnestly warned us of the dangers of the
new bureaucracy. He has defended the rlght of the lndl
vldual agalnst collectlvlsm, and he vlews lndustrlal clvl
llzatlon as a growlng threat to humanlty`s chances of
slmple happlness and joy ln llvlng. After hls vlslt to the
Sovlet Lnlon ln l920 he strongly and resolutely
opposed hlmself to Communlsm. On the other hand,
durlng a subsequent journey ln Chlna, he was very
much attracted by the calm and peaceable frame of
mlnd of Chlna`s cultlvated classes and recommended lt
as an example to a West ravaged by wlld aggresslon.
Much ln Russell`s wrltlngs excltes protest. Lnllke
many other phllosophers, he regards thls as one of the
natural and urgent tasks of an author. Of course, hls
ratlonallsm does not solve all troublesome problems
and cannot be used as a panacea, even lf the phlloso
pher wllllngly wrltes out the prescrlptlon. Lnfortu
nately, there areand obvlously always wlll beobscure
forces whlch evade lntellectual analysls and refuse to
submlt to control. Jhus, even lf Russell`s work has,
from a purely practlcal polnt of vlew, met wlth but llttle
success ln an age whlch has seen two world warseven
lf lt may look as lf, ln the maln, hls ldeas have been blt
terly repudlatedwe must nevertheless admlre the
unwaverlng valour of thls rebelllous teller of the truth
and the sort of dry, flery strength and gay buoyancy
wlth whlch he presents hls convlctlons, whlch are never
dlctated by opportunlsm but are often dlrectly unpopu
lar. Jo read the phllosopher Russell often glves very
much the same pleasure as to llsten to the outspoken
hero ln a Shaw comedy, when ln loud and cheerful
tones he throws out hls bold retorts and keen argu
ments.
In concluslon, Russell`s phllosophy may be sald
ln the best sense to fulfll just those deslres and lnten
tlons that Alfred Nobel had ln mlnd when he lnstltuted
hls Prlzes. Jhere are qulte strlklng slmllarltles between
thelr outlooks on llfe. Both of them are at the same tlme
sceptlcs and utoplans, both take a gloomy vlew of the
contemporary world, yet both hold fast to a bellef ln
the posslblllty of achlevlng loglcal standards for human
behavlour. Jhe Swedlsh Academy belleves that lt acts
ln the splrlt of Nobel`s lntentlon when, on the occaslon
of the flftleth annlversary of the Ioundatlon, lt wlshes
to honour Bertrand Russell as one of our tlme`s brll
llant spokesmen of ratlonallty and humanlty, as a fear
less champlon of free speech and free thought ln the
West.
My lordExactly two hundred years ago |ean
|acques Rousseau was awarded the prlze offered by the
Academy of Dljon for hls famous answer to the ques
tlon of 'whether the arts and sclences have contrlbuted
to lmprove morals." Rousseau answered 'No," and thls
answerwhlch may not have been a very serlous one
ln any case had most serlous consequences. Jhe Acad
emy of Dljon had no revolutlonary alms. Jhls ls true
also of the Swedlsh Academy, whlch has now chosen to
reward you for your phllosophlcal works just because
they are undoubtedly of servlce to moral clvlllzatlon
and, ln addltlon, most emlnently answer to the splrlt of
Nobel`s lntentlons. We honour you as a brllllant cham
plon of humanlty and free thought, and lt ls a pleasure
for us to see you here on the occaslon of the flftleth
annlversary of the Nobel Ioundatlon. Wlth these words
I request you to recelve from the hands of Hls Majesty
the Klng the Nobel Prlze ln Llterature for l950.
At the banquet, Robln Ihraeus, Member of the
Royal Academy of Sclences, made the followlng com
ment. 'Dear Professor Bertrand RussellWe salute you
as one of the greatest and most lnfluentlal thlnkers of
our age, endowed wlth just those four characterlstlcs
whlch on another occaslon you have regarded to be the
crlterla of promlnent fellow men; namely, vltallty, cour
age, receptlvlty, and lntelllgence."
76
oW k iI NN a NVRM
t~ a ^ m~ f~\
I have chosen thls subject for my lecture tonlght
because I thlnk that most current dlscusslons of polltlcs
and polltlcal theory take lnsufflclent account of psychol
ogy. Economlc facts, populatlon statlstlcs, constltutlonal
organlzatlon, and so on, are set forth mlnutely. Jhere ls
no dlfflculty ln flndlng out how many South Koreans
and how many North Koreans there were when the
Korean War began. If you wlll look lnto the rlght books
you wlll be able to ascertaln what was thelr average
lncome per head, and what were the slzes of thelr
respectlve armles. But lf you want to know what sort of
person a Korean ls, and whether there ls any appre
clable dlfference between a North Korean and a South
Korean; lf you wlsh to know what they respectlvely
want out of llfe, what are thelr dlscontents, what thelr
hopes and what thelr fears; ln a word, what lt ls that, as
they say, 'makes them tlck," you wlll look through the
reference books ln valn. And so you cannot tell whether
the South Koreans are enthuslastlc about LNO, or
would prefer unlon wlth thelr couslns ln the North. Nor
can you guess whether they are wllllng to forgo land
reform for the prlvllege of votlng for some polltlclan
they have never heard of. It ls neglect of such questlons
by the emlnent men who slt ln remote capltals, that so
frequently causes dlsappolntment. If polltlcs ls to
become sclentlflc, and lf the event ls not to be con
stantly surprlslng, lt ls lmperatlve that our polltlcal
thlnklng should penetrate more deeply lnto the sprlngs
of human actlon. What ls the lnfluence of hunger upon
slogans? How does thelr effectlveness fluctuate wlth the
number of calorles ln your dlet? If one man offers you
democracy and another offers you a bag of graln, at
what stage of starvatlon wlll you prefer the graln to the
vote? Such questlons are far too llttle consldered. How
ever, let us, for the present, forget the Koreans, and con
slder the human race.
All human actlvlty ls prompted by deslre. Jhere
ls a wholly fallaclous theory advanced by some earnest
morallsts to the effect that lt ls posslble to reslst deslre ln
the lnterests of duty and moral prlnclple. I say thls ls fal
laclous, not because no man ever acts from a sense of
duty, but because duty has no hold on hlm unless he
deslres to be dutlful. If you wlsh to know what men wlll
do, you must know not only, or prlnclpally, thelr mate
rlal clrcumstances, but rather the whole system of thelr
deslres wlth thelr relatlve strengths.
Jhere are some deslres whlch, though very pow
erful, have not, as a rule, any great polltlcal lmportance.
Most men at some perlod of thelr llves deslre to marry,
but as a rule they can satlsfy thls deslre wlthout havlng
to take any polltlcal actlon. Jhere are, of course, excep
tlons; the rape of the Sablne women ls a case ln polnt.
And the development of northern Australla ls serlously
lmpeded by the fact that the vlgorous young men who
ought to do the work dlsllke belng wholly deprlved of
female soclety. But such cases are unusual, and ln gen
eral the lnterest that men and women take ln each other
has llttle lnfluence upon polltlcs.
Jhe deslres that are polltlcally lmportant may be
dlvlded lnto a prlmary and a secondary group. In the
prlmary group come the necessltles of llfe. food and
shelter and clothlng. When these thlngs become very
scarce, there ls no llmlt to the efforts that men wlll
make, or to the vlolence that they wlll dlsplay, ln the
hope of securlng them. It ls sald by students of the earll
est hlstory that, on four separate occaslons, drought ln
Arabla caused the populatlon of that country to over
flow lnto surroundlng reglons, wlth lmmense effects,
polltlcal, cultural, and rellglous. Jhe last of these four
occaslons was the rlse of Islam. Jhe gradual spread of
Germanlc trlbes from southern Russla to England, and
thence to San Iranclsco, had slmllar motlves. Lndoubt
edly the deslre for food has been, and stlll ls, one of the
maln causes of great polltlcal events.
But man dlffers from other anlmals ln one very
lmportant respect, and that ls that he has some deslres
whlch are, so to speak, lnflnlte, whlch can never be
fully gratlfled, and whlch would keep hlm restless even
ln Paradlse. Jhe boa constrlctor, when he has had an
adequate meal, goes to sleep, and does not wake untll
he needs another meal. Human belngs, for the most
part, are not llke thls. When the Arabs, who had been
used to llvlng sparlngly on a few dates, acqulred the
rlches of the Eastern Roman Emplre, and dwelt ln pal
aces of almost unbellevable luxury, they dld not, on
that account, become lnactlve. Hunger could no longer
77
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be a motlve, for Greek slaves supplled them wlth
exqulslte vlands at the sllghtest nod. But other deslres
kept them actlve. four ln partlcular, whlch we can label
acqulsltlveness, rlvalry, vanlty, and love of power.
Acqulsltlvenessthe wlsh to possess as much as
posslble of goods, or the tltle to goodsls a motlve
whlch, I suppose, has lts orlgln ln a comblnatlon of fear
wlth the deslre for necessarles. I once befrlended two
llttle glrls from Estonla, who had narrowly escaped
death from starvatlon ln a famlne. Jhey llved ln my
famlly, and of course had plenty to eat. But they spent
all thelr lelsure vlsltlng nelghbourlng farms and steallng
potatoes, whlch they hoarded. Rockefeller, who ln hls
lnfancy had experlenced great poverty, spent hls adult
llfe ln a slmllar manner. Slmllarly the Arab chleftalns on
thelr sllken Byzantlne dlvans could not forget the
desert, and hoarded rlches far beyond any posslble
physlcal need. But whatever may be the psychoanalysls
of acqulsltlveness, no one can deny that lt ls one of the
great motlvesespeclally among the more powerful, for,
as I sald before, lt ls one of the lnflnlte motlves. How
ever much you may acqulre, you wlll always wlsh to
acqulre more; satlety ls a dream whlch wlll always
elude you.
But acqulsltlveness, although lt ls the malnsprlng
of the capltallst system, ls by no means the most power
ful of the motlves that survlve the conquest of hunger.
Rlvalry ls a much stronger motlve. Over and over agaln
ln Mohammedan hlstory, dynastles have come to grlef
because the sons of a sultan by dlfferent mothers could
not agree, and ln the resultlng clvll war unlversal ruln
resulted. Jhe same sort of thlng happens ln modern
Europe. When the Brltlsh Government very unwlsely
allowed the Kalser to be present at a naval revlew at
Splthead, the thought whlch arose ln hls mlnd was not
the one whlch we had lntended. What he thought was,
'I must have a Navy as good as Grandmamma`s." And
from thls thought have sprung all our subsequent troubles.
Jhe world would be a happler place than lt ls lf acqulsl
tlveness were always stronger than rlvalry. But ln fact, a
great many men wlll cheerfully face lmpoverlshment lf
they can thereby secure complete ruln for thelr rlvals.
Hence the present level of taxatlon.
Vanlty ls a motlve of lmmense potency. Anyone
who has much to do wlth chlldren knows how they are
constantly performlng some antlc, and saylng 'Look at
me." 'Look at me" ls one of the most fundamental
deslres of the human heart. It can take lnnumerable
forms, from buffoonery to the pursult of posthumous
fame. Jhere was a Renalssance Itallan prlncellng who
was asked by the prlest on hls deathbed lf he had any
thlng to repent of. 'Yes," he sald, 'there ls one thlng.
On one occaslon I had a vlslt from the Emperor and the
Pope slmultaneously. I took them to the top of my
tower to see the vlew, and I neglected the opportunlty
to throw them both down, whlch would have glven me
lmmortal fame." Hlstory does not relate whether the
prlest gave hlm absolutlon. One of the troubles about
vanlty ls that lt grows wlth what lt feeds on. Jhe more
you are talked about, the more you wlll wlsh to be
talked about. Jhe condemned murderer who ls allowed
to see the account of hls trlal ln the press ls lndlgnant lf
he flnds a newspaper whlch has reported lt lnade
quately. And the more he flnds about hlmself ln other
newspapers, the more lndlgnant he wlll be wlth the one
whose reports are meagre. Polltlclans and llterary men
are ln the same case. And the more famous they
become, the more dlfflcult the presscuttlng agency
flnds lt to satlsfy them. It ls scarcely posslble to exagger
ate the lnfluence of vanlty throughout the range of
human llfe, from the chlld of three to the potentate at
whose frown the world trembles. Manklnd have even
commltted the lmplety of attrlbutlng slmllar deslres to
the Delty, whom they lmaglne avld for contlnual pralse.
But great as ls the lnfluence of the motlves we
have been conslderlng, there ls one whlch outwelghs
them all. I mean the love of power. Love of power ls
closely akln to vanlty, but lt ls not by any means the
same thlng. What vanlty needs for lts satlsfactlon ls
glory, and lt ls easy to have glory wlthout power. Jhe
people who enjoy the greatest glory ln the Lnlted States
are fllm stars, but they can be put ln thelr place by the
Commlttee for LnAmerlcan Actlvltles, whlch enjoys
no glory whatever. In England, the Klng has more
glory than the Prlme Mlnlster, but the Prlme Mlnlster
has more power than the Klng. Many people prefer
glory to power, but on the whole these people have less
effect upon the course of events than those who prefer
power to glory. When Blcher, ln l8l1, saw Napoleon`s
palaces, he sald, 'Wasn`t he a fool to have all thls and to
go runnlng after Moscow." Napoleon, who certalnly
was not destltute of vanlty, preferred power when he
had to choose. Jo Blcher, thls cholce seemed foollsh.
Power, llke vanlty, ls lnsatlable. Nothlng short of omnlp
otence could satlsfy lt completely. And as lt ls especlally
the vlce of energetlc men, the causal efflcacy of love of
power ls out of all proportlon to lts frequency. It ls,
lndeed, by far the strongest motlve ln the llves of lmpor
tant men.
Love of power ls greatly lncreased by the experl
ence of power, and thls applles to petty power as well as
to that of potentates. In the happy days before l9l1,
when welltodo ladles could acqulre a host of servants,
thelr pleasure ln exerclslng power over the domestlcs
steadlly lncreased wlth age. Slmllarly, ln any autocratlc
reglme, the holders of power become lncreaslngly
tyrannlcal wlth experlence of the dellghts that power
can afford. Slnce power over human belngs ls shown ln
78
oW k iI NN a NVRM ai_ PPO
maklng them do what they would rather not do, the
man who ls actuated by love of power ls more apt to
lnfllct paln than to permlt pleasure. If you ask your boss
for leave of absence from the offlce on some legltlmate
occaslon, hls love of power wlll derlve more satlsfactlon
from a refusal than from a consent. If you requlre a
bulldlng permlt, the petty offlclal concerned wlll obvl
ously get more pleasure from saylng 'No" than from
saylng 'Yes." It ls thls sort of thlng whlch makes the
love of power such a dangerous motlve.
But lt has other sldes whlch are more deslrable.
Jhe pursult of knowledge ls, I thlnk, malnly actuated
by love of power. And so are all advances ln sclentlflc
technlque. In polltlcs, also, a reformer may have just as
strong a love of power as a despot. It would be a com
plete mlstake to decry love of power altogether as a
motlve. Whether you wlll be led by thls motlve to
actlons whlch are useful, or to actlons whlch are pernl
clous, depends upon the soclal system, and upon your
capacltles. If your capacltles are theoretlcal or technlcal,
you wlll contrlbute to knowledge or technlque, and, as
a rule, your actlvlty wlll be useful. If you are a polltlclan
you may be actuated by love of power, but as a rule thls
motlve wlll joln ltself on to the deslre to see some state
of affalrs reallzed whlch, for some reason, you prefer to
the status quo. A great general may, llke Alclblades, be
qulte lndlfferent as to whlch slde he flghts on, but most
generals have preferred to flght for thelr own country,
and have, therefore, had other motlves besldes love of
power. Jhe polltlclan may change sldes so frequently as
to flnd hlmself always ln the majorlty, but most polltl
clans have a preference for one party to the other, and
subordlnate thelr love of power to thls preference. Love
of power as nearly pure as posslble ls to be seen ln varl
ous dlfferent types of men. One type ls the soldler of
fortune, of whom Napoleon ls the supreme example.
Napoleon had, I thlnk, no ldeologlcal preference for
Irance over Corslca, but lf he had become Emperor of
Corslca he would not have been so great a man as he
became by pretendlng to be a Irenchman. Such men,
however, are not qulte pure examples, slnce they also
derlve lmmense satlsfactlon from vanlty. Jhe purest
type ls that of the the power behlnd the
throne that never appears ln publlc, and merely hugs
ltself wlth the secret thought. 'How llttle these puppets
know who ls pulllng the strlngs." Baron Holsteln, who
controlled the forelgn pollcy of the German Emplre
from l890 to l906, lllustrates thls type to perfectlon.
He llved ln a slum; he never appeared ln soclety; he
avolded meetlng the Emperor, except on one slngle
occaslon when the Emperor`s lmportunlty could not be
reslsted; he refused all lnvltatlons to Court functlons,
on the ground that he possessed no court dress. He had
acqulred secrets whlch enabled hlm to blackmall the
Chancellor and many of the Kalser`s lntlmates. He used
the power of blackmall, not to acqulre wealth, or fame,
or any other obvlous advantage, but merely to compel
the adoptlon of the forelgn pollcy he preferred. In the
East, slmllar characters were not very uncommon
among eunuchs.
I come now to other motlves whlch, though ln a
sense less fundamental than those we have been consld
erlng, are stlll of conslderable lmportance. Jhe flrst of
these ls love of excltement. Human belngs show thelr
superlorlty to the brutes by thelr capaclty for boredom,
though I have sometlmes thought, ln examlnlng the
apes at the zoo, that they, perhaps, have the rudlments
of thls tlresome emotlon. However that may be, experl
ence shows that escape from boredom ls one of the
really powerful deslres of almost all human belngs.
When whlte men flrst effect contact wlth some unspollt
race of savages, they offer them all klnds of beneflts,
from the llght of the gospel to pumpkln ple. Jhese,
however, much as we may regret lt, most savages
recelve wlth lndlfference. What they really value
among the glfts that we brlng to them ls lntoxlcatlng
llquor whlch enables them, for the flrst tlme ln thelr
llves, to have the llluslon for a few brlef moments that lt
ls better to be allve than dead. Red Indlans, whlle they
were stlll unaffected by whlte men, would smoke thelr
plpes, not calmly as we do, but orglastlcally, lnhallng so
deeply that they sank lnto a falnt. And when excltement
by means of nlcotlne falled, a patrlotlc orator would stlr
them up to attack a nelghbourlng trlbe, whlch would
glve them all the enjoyment that we (accordlng to our
temperament) derlve from a horse race or a General
Electlon. Jhe pleasure of gambllng conslsts almost
entlrely ln excltement. Monsleur Huc descrlbes Chl
nese traders at the Great Wall ln wlnter, gambllng untll
they have lost all thelr cash, then proceedlng to lose all
thelr merchandlse, and at last gambllng away thelr
clothes and golng out naked to dle of cold. Wlth clvl
llzed men, as wlth prlmltlve Red Indlan trlbes, lt ls, I
thlnk, chlefly love of excltement whlch makes the popu
lace applaud when war breaks out; the emotlon ls
exactly the same as at a football match, although the
results are sometlmes somewhat more serlous.
It ls not altogether easy to declde what ls the root
cause of the love of excltement. I lncllne to thlnk that
our mental makeup ls adapted to the stage when men
llved by huntlng. When a man spent a long day wlth
very prlmltlve weapons ln stalklng a deer wlth the hope
of dlnner, and when, at the end of the day, he dragged
the carcass trlumphantly to hls cave, he sank down ln
contented wearlness, whlle hls wlfe dressed and cooked
the meat. He was sleepy, and hls bones ached, and the
smell of cooklng fllled every nook and cranny of hls
consclousness. At last, after eatlng, he sank lnto deep
79
sleep. In such a llfe there was nelther tlme nor energy
for boredom. But when he took to agrlculture, and
made hls wlfe do all the heavy work ln the flelds, he
had tlme to reflect upon the vanlty of human llfe, to
lnvent mythologles and systems of phllosophy, and to
dream of the llfe hereafter ln whlch he would perpetu
ally hunt the wlld boar of Valhalla. Our mental make
up ls sulted to a llfe of very severe physlcal labor. I
used, when I was younger, to take my holldays walklng.
I would cover twentyflve mlles a day, and when the
evenlng came I had no need of anythlng to keep me
from boredom, slnce the dellght of slttlng amply suf
flced. But modern llfe cannot be conducted on these
physlcally strenuous prlnclples. A great deal of work ls
sedentary, and most manual work exerclses only a few
speclallzed muscles. When crowds assemble ln Jrafal
gar Square to cheer to the echo an announcement that
the government has declded to have them kllled, they
would not do so lf they had all walked twentyflve mlles
that day. Jhls cure for belllcoslty ls, however, lmpractl
cable, and lf the human race ls to survlvea thlng
whlch ls, perhaps, undeslrableother means must be
found for securlng an lnnocent outlet for the unused
physlcal energy that produces love of excltement. Jhls
ls a matter whlch has been too llttle consldered, both by
morallsts and by soclal reformers. Jhe soclal reformers
are of the oplnlon that they have more serlous thlngs to
conslder. Jhe morallsts, on the other hand, are
lmmensely lmpressed wlth the serlousness of all the per
mltted outlets of the love of excltement; the serlousness,
however, ln thelr mlnds, ls that of Sln. Dance halls, cln
emas, thls age of jazz, are all, lf we may belleve our ears,
gateways to Hell, and we should be better employed slt
tlng at home contemplatlng our slns. I flnd myself
unable to be ln entlre agreement wlth the grave men
who utter these warnlngs. Jhe devll has many forms,
some deslgned to decelve the young, some deslgned to
decelve the old and serlous. If lt ls the devll that tempts
the young to enjoy themselves, ls lt not, perhaps, the
same personage that persuades the old to condemn
thelr enjoyment? And ls not condemnatlon perhaps
merely a form of excltement approprlate to old age?
And ls lt not, perhaps, a drug whlchllke oplumhas to
be taken ln contlnually stronger doses to produce the
deslred effect? Is lt not to be feared that, beglnnlng wlth
the wlckedness of the clnema, we should be led step by
step to condemn the opposlte polltlcal party, dagoes,
wops, Aslatlcs, and, ln short, everybody except the fel
low members of our club? And lt ls from just such con
demnatlons, when wldespread, that wars proceed. I
have never heard of a war that proceeded from dance
halls.
What ls serlous about excltement ls that so many
of lts forms are destructlve. It ls destructlve ln those
who cannot reslst excess ln alcohol or gambllng. It ls
destructlve when lt takes the form of mob vlolence.
And above all lt ls destructlve when lt leads to war. It ls
so deep a need that lt wlll flnd harmful outlets of thls
klnd unless lnnocent outlets are at hand. Jhere are such
lnnocent outlets at present ln sport, and ln polltlcs so
long as lt ls kept wlthln constltutlonal bounds. But these
are not sufflclent, especlally as the klnd of polltlcs that ls
most excltlng ls also the klnd that does most harm. Clv
lllzed llfe has grown altogether too tame, and, lf lt ls to
be stable, lt must provlde harmless outlets for the
lmpulses whlch our remote ancestors satlsfled ln hunt
lng. In Australla, where people are few and rabblts are
many, I watched a whole populace satlsfylng the prlml
tlve lmpulse ln the prlmltlve manner by the sklllful
slaughter of many thousands of rabblts. But ln London
or New York some other means must be found to grat
lfy prlmltlve lmpulse. I thlnk every blg town should
contaln artlflclal waterfalls that people could descend ln
very fraglle canoes, and they should contaln bathlng
pools full of mechanlcal sharks. Any person found
advocatlng a preventlve war should be condemned to
two hours a day wlth these lngenlous monsters. More
serlously, palns should be taken to provlde constructlve
outlets for the love of excltement. Nothlng ln the world
ls more excltlng than a moment of sudden dlscovery or
lnventlon, and many more people are capable of experl
enclng such moments than ls sometlmes thought.
Interwoven wlth many other polltlcal motlves are
two closely related passlons to whlch human belngs are
regrettably prone. I mean fear and hate. It ls normal to
hate what we fear, and lt happens frequently, though
not always, that we fear what we hate. I thlnk lt may be
taken as the rule among prlmltlve men, that they both
fear and hate whatever ls unfamlllar. Jhey have thelr
own herd, orlglnally a very small one. And wlthln one
herd, all are frlends, unless there ls some speclal ground
of enmlty. Other herds are potentlal or actual enemles;
a slngle member of one of them who strays by accldent
wlll be kllled. An allen herd as a whole wlll be avolded
or fought accordlng to clrcumstances. It ls thls prlmltlve
mechanlsm whlch stlll controls our lnstlnctlve reactlon
to forelgn natlons. Jhe completely untravelled person
wlll vlew all forelgners as the savage regards a member
of another herd. But the man who has travelled, or who
has studled lnternatlonal polltlcs, wlll have dlscovered
that, lf hls herd ls to prosper, lt must, to some degree,
become amalgamated wlth other herds. If you are
Engllsh and someone says to you, 'Jhe Irench are
your brothers," your flrst lnstlnctlve feellng wlll be,
'Nonsense. Jhey shrug thelr shoulders, and talk
Irench. And I am even told that they eat frogs." If he
explalns to you that we may have to flght the Russlans,
that, lf so, lt wlll be deslrable to defend the llne of the
80
oW k iI NN a NVRM ai_ PPO
Rhlne, and that, lf the llne of the Rhlne ls to be
defended, the help of the Irench ls essentlal, you wlll
begln to see what he means when he says that the
Irench are your brothers. But lf some fellowtraveller
were to go on to say that the Russlans also are your
brothers, he would be unable to persuade you, unless
he could show that we are ln danger from the Martlans.
We love those who hate our enemles, and lf we had no
enemles there would be very few people whom we
should love.
All thls, however, ls only true so long as we are
concerned solely wlth attltudes towards other human
belngs. You mlght regard the soll as your enemy
because lt ylelds reluctantly a nlggardly subslstence.
You mlght regard Mother Nature ln general as your
enemy, and envlsage human llfe as a struggle to get the
better of Mother Nature. If men vlewed llfe ln thls way,
cooperatlon of the whole human race would become
easy. And men could easlly be brought to vlew llfe ln
thls way lf schools, newspapers, and polltlclans devoted
themselves to thls end. But schools are out to teach
patrlotlsm; newspapers are out to stlr up excltement;
and polltlclans are out to get reelected. None of the
three, therefore, can do anythlng towards savlng the
human race from reclprocal sulclde.
Jhere are two ways of coplng wlth fear. one ls to
dlmlnlsh the external danger, and the other ls to cultl
vate Stolc endurance. Jhe latter can be relnforced,
except where lmmedlate actlon ls necessary, by turnlng
our thoughts away from the cause of fear. Jhe conquest
of fear ls of very great lmportance. Iear ls ln ltself
degradlng; lt easlly becomes an obsesslon; lt produces
hate of that whlch ls feared, and lt leads headlong to
excesses of cruelty. Nothlng has so beneflcent an effect
on human belngs as securlty. If an lnternatlonal system
could be establlshed whlch would remove the fear of
war, the lmprovement ln everyday mentallty of every
day people would be enormous and very rapld. Iear, at
present, overshadows the world. Jhe atom bomb and
the bacterlal bomb, wlelded by the wlcked communlst
or the wlcked capltallst as the case may be, make Wash
lngton and the Kremlln tremble, and drlve men further
along the road toward the abyss. If matters are to
lmprove, the flrst and essentlal step ls to flnd a way of
dlmlnlshlng fear. Jhe world at present ls obsessed by
the confllct of rlval ldeologles, and one of the apparent
causes of confllct ls the deslre for the vlctory of our own
ldeology and the defeat of the other. I do not thlnk that
the fundamental motlve here has much to do wlth lde
ologles. I thlnk the ldeologles are merely a way of
grouplng people, and that the passlons lnvolved are
merely those whlch always arlse between rlval groups.
Jhere are, of course, varlous reasons for hatlng com
munlsts. Ilrst and foremost, we belleve that they wlsh
to take away our property. But so do burglars, and
although we dlsapprove of burglars our attltude
towards them ls very dlfferent lndeed from our attltude
towards communlstschlefly because they do not
lnsplre the same degree of fear. Secondly, we hate the
communlsts because they are lrrellglous. But the Chl
nese have been lrrellglous slnce the eleventh century,
and we only began to hate them when they turned out
Chlang Kalshek. Jhlrdly, we hate the communlsts
because they do not belleve ln democracy, but we con
slder thls no reason for hatlng Iranco. Iourthly, we hate
them because they do not allow llberty; thls we feel so
strongly that we have declded to lmltate them. It ls obvl
ous that none of these ls the real ground for our hatred.
We hate them because we fear them and they threaten
us. If the Russlans stlll adhered to the Greek Orthodox
rellglon, lf they had lnstltuted parllamentary govern
ment, and lf they had a completely free press whlch
dally vltuperated us, thenprovlded they stlll had
armed forces as powerful as they have nowwe should
stlll hate them lf they gave us ground for thlnklng them
hostlle. Jhere ls, of course, the I and lt
can be a cause of enmlty. But I thlnk that thls ls an off
shoot of herd feellng. the man who has a dlfferent theol
ogy feels strange, and whatever ls strange must be
dangerous. Ideologles, ln fact, are one of the methods
by whlch herds are created, and the psychology ls much
the same however the herd may have been generated.
You may have been feellng that I have allowed
only for bad motlves, or, at best, such as are ethlcally
neutral. I am afrald they are, as a rule, more powerful
than more altrulstlc motlves, but I do not deny that
altrulstlc motlves exlst, and may, on occaslon, be effec
tlve. Jhe agltatlon agalnst slavery ln England ln the
early nlneteenth century was lndubltably altrulstlc, and
was thoroughly effectlve. Its altrulsm was proved by the
fact that ln l833 Brltlsh taxpayers pald many mllllons ln
compensatlon to |amalcan landowners for the llberatlon
of thelr slaves, and also by the fact that at the Congress
of Vlenna the Brltlsh Government was prepared to
make lmportant concesslons wlth a vlew to lnduclng
other natlons to abandon the slave trade. Jhls ls an
lnstance from the past, but presentday Amerlca has
afforded lnstances equally remarkable. I wlll not, how
ever, go lnto these, as I do not wlsh to become
embarked ln current controversles.
I do not thlnk lt can be questloned that sympathy
ls a genulne motlve, and that some people at some
tlmes are made somewhat uncomfortable by the suffer
lngs of some other people. It ls sympathy that has pro
duced the many humanltarlan advances of the last
hundred years. We are shocked when we hear storles of
the llltreatment of lunatlcs, and there are now qulte a
number of asylums ln whlch they are not llltreated.
8l
Prlsoners ln Western countrles are not supposed to be
tortured, and when they are, there ls an outcry lf the
facts are dlscovered. We do not approve of treatlng
orphans as they are treated ln l q. Protestant
countrles dlsapprove of cruelty to anlmals. In all these
ways sympathy has been polltlcally effectlve. If the fear
of war were removed, lts effectlveness would become
much greater. Perhaps the best hope for the future of
manklnd ls that ways wlll be found of lncreaslng the
scope and lntenslty of sympathy.
Jhe tlme has come to sum up our dlscusslon. Pol
ltlcs ls concerned wlth herds rather than wlth lndlvldu
als, and the passlons whlch are lmportant ln polltlcs are,
therefore, those ln whlch the varlous members of a
glven herd can feel allke. Jhe broad lnstlnctlve mecha
nlsm upon whlch polltlcal edlflces have to be bullt ls
one of cooperatlon wlthln the herd and hostlllty
towards other herds. Jhe cooperatlon wlthln the herd
ls never perfect. Jhere are members who do not con
form, who are, ln the etymologlcal sense, 'egreglous,"
that ls to say, outslde the flock. Jhese members are
those who have fallen below, or rlsen above, the ordl
nary level. Jhey are. ldlots, crlmlnals, prophets, and
dlscoverers. A wlse herd wlll learn to tolerate the eccen
trlclty of those who rlse above the average, and to treat
wlth a mlnlmum of feroclty those who fall below lt.
As regards relatlons to other herds, modern tech
nlque has produced a confllct between selflnterest and
lnstlnct. In old days, when two trlbes went to war, one
of them extermlnated the other, and annexed lts terrl
tory. Irom the polnt of vlew of the vlctor, the whole
operatlon was thoroughly satlsfactory. Jhe kllllng was
not at all expenslve, and the excltement was agreeable.
It ls not to be wondered at that, ln such clrcumstances,
war perslsted. Lnfortunately, we stlll have the emotlons
approprlate to such prlmltlve warfare, whlle the actual
operatlons of war have changed completely. Kllllng an
enemy ln a modern war ls a very expenslve operatlon.
If you conslder how many Germans were kllled ln the
late war, and how much the vlctors are paylng ln
lncome tax, you can, by a sum ln long dlvlslon, dls
cover the cost of a dead German, and you wlll flnd lt
conslderable. In the East, lt ls true, the enemles of the
Germans have secured the anclent advantages of turn
lng out the defeated populatlon and occupylng thelr
lands. Jhe Western vlctors, however, have secured no
such advantages. It ls obvlous that modern war ls not
good buslness from a flnanclal polnt of vlew. Although
we won both the world wars, we should now be much
rlcher lf they had not occurred. If men were actuated by
selflnterest, whlch they are notexcept ln the case of a
few salntsthe whole human race would cooperate.
Jhere would be no more wars, no more armles, no
more navles, no more atom bombs. Jhere would not
be armles of propagandlsts employed ln polsonlng the
mlnds of Natlon A agalnst Natlon B, and reclprocally of
Natlon B agalnst Natlon A. Jhere would not be armles
of offlclals at frontlers to prevent the entry of forelgn
books and forelgn ldeas, however excellent ln them
selves. Jhere would not be customs barrlers to ensure
the exlstence of many small enterprlses where one blg
enterprlse would be more economlc. All thls would
happen very qulckly lf men deslred thelr own happlness
as ardently as they deslred the mlsery of thelr nelgh
bours. But, you wlll tell me, what ls the use of these uto
plan dreams? Morallsts wlll see to lt that we do not
become wholly selflsh, and untll we do the mlllenlum
wlll be lmposslble.
I do not wlsh to seem to end upon a note of cynl
clsm. I do not deny that there are better thlngs than self
lshness, and that some people achleve these thlngs. I
malntaln, however, on the one hand, that there are few
occaslons upon whlch large bodles of men, such as pol
ltlcs ls concerned wlth, can rlse above selflshness, whlle,
on the other hand, there are a very great many clrcum
stances ln whlch populatlons wlll fall below selflshness,
lf selflshness ls lnterpreted as enllghtened selflnterest.
And among those occaslons on whlch people fall
below selflnterest are most of the occaslons on whlch
they are convlnced that they are actlng from ldeallstlc
motlves. Much that passes as ldeallsm ls dlsgulsed
hatred or dlsgulsed love of power. When you see large
masses of men swayed by what appear to be noble
motlves, lt ls as well to look below the surface and ask
yourself what lt ls that makes these motlves effectlve. It
ls partly because lt ls so easy to be taken ln by a facade
of noblllty that a psychologlcal lnqulry, such as I have
been attemptlng, ls worth maklng. I would say, ln con
cluslon, that lf what I have sald ls rlght, the maln thlng
needed to make the world happy ls lntelllgence. And
thls, after all, ls an optlmlstlc concluslon, because lntelll
gence ls a thlng that can be fostered by known methods
of educatlon.
[ The Nobel Foundation, 1950. Bertrand Russell is the
sole author of the text.]
82
k p~
(10 Dcccmbcr 1S91 - 12 Moy 1970)
h~ _
Uvivcrsity of Iiclmovd, !irgivio
SELECJED BOOKS. Icgcvdcv uvd Irolluvgcv (Berlln.
I. W. Meyer, l92l);
Iv dcv !olvuvgcv dcs Todcs (Berlln. Aufbau Verlag, l917);
Stcrvvcrduvlcluvg (Amsterdam. Bermann Ilscher Verlag,
l919);
Ili: Iiv Mystcricvspicl vom Icidcv Isrocls (Lund, Sweden.
Prlvately prlnted, l95l);
Uvd vicmovd wci wcitcr (Hamburg. Verlag Helnrlch
Ellermann, l957);
Iluclt uvd !crwovdluvg (Stuttgart. Deutsche VerlagsAnstalt,
l959);
Iolrt ivs Stoublosc (Irankfurt am Maln. Suhrkamp,
l96l);
ciclcv im Sovd (Irankfurt am Maln. Suhrkamp, l962);
Cllcvdc Iotscl (Irankfurt am Maln. Insel Verlag, l961);
Spotc Ccdicltc (Irankfurt am Maln. Suhrkamp, l965);
Dic Suclcvdc (Irankfurt am Maln. Suhrkamp, l966);
Tcilc dicl òclt (Irankfurt am Maln. Suhrkamp, l97l);
Suclc vocl Icbcvdcv (Irankfurt am Maln. Suhrkamp,
l97l).
b ~ `W Zusgcwolltc Ccdicltc (Irank
furt am Maln. Suhrkamp, l963);
Dos Icidcv Isrocls (Irankfurt am Maln. Suhrkamp,
l961);
Iovdscloft ous Sclrcicv (Berlln/Welmar. Aufbau Verlag,
l966);
!croubcruvg. Spotc scvisclc Dicltuvg (Irankfurt am Maln.
Suhrkamp, l970);
Ccdicltc (Irankfurt am Maln. Suhrkamp, l977).
bJi~~ `W U tlc Climvcys. Sclcctcd
Iocms, translated by Mlchael Hamburger (New
York. Iarrar, Straus Glroux, l967; London,
Cape, l968);
Tlc Scclcr ovd Utlcr Iocms, translated by Ruth Mead,
Matthew Mead, and Hamburger (New York. Iar
rar, Straus Glroux, l970).
JRANSLAJIONS. !ov !cllc uvd Crovit (Berlln. Auf
bau Verlag, l917);
Zbcr oucl dic Sovvc ist lcimotlos (Darmstadt, Germany.
Georg Bchner Verlag, l956);
|ohannes Edfelt, Dcr Sclottcvfisclcr (Darmstadt, Ger
many. Georg Bchner Verlag, l958);
Gunnar Ekelf, Iocsic. Sclwcdiscl-Dcutscl (Irankfurt am
Maln. Suhrkamp, l962);
Erlk Llndegren, !cil uvscr civigcs `cst uvscrc Ilgcl sivd
(Neuwled/Berlln. LuchterhandVerlag, l963);
Sclwcdisclc Ccdicltc (Neuwled/Berlln. Luchterhand Ver
lag, l965);
Karl Vennberg, Iocsic. Sclwcdiscl-Dcutscl, translated by
Sachs and Hans Magnus Enzensberger (Irankfurt
am Maln. Suhrkamp, l965).
k p~ ~ h d~ sf ^ p ~ NVSS k
~ p E ~ g~ `X mobppbkp
_fiaLp~Lo~F
83
ai_ PPO k p~
Nelly Sachs was awarded the Nobel Prlze ln Llter
ature ln l966 on her seventyflfth blrthday, a colncl
dence of dates that her father had been fond of notlng
durlng Sachs`s glrlhood ln Berlln. In her acceptance
speech, Sachs made reference to her father`s annual
teaslng every December l0 and acknowledged that the
award was llke a dream come true. Nelly Sachs`s work
was largely unknown outslde Germany and Sweden
when the prlze was announced; she had been wrltlng ln
relatlve obscurlty for almost two decades. Jwo llterary
awards she recelved ln Germany ln l960 and ln l965
had earned her a reputatlon as 'the poet of |ewlsh fate,"
a tltle grounded ln her powerful, poetlc testlmonles to
the vlctlms of the Holocaust. Jhose poems, wrltten and
publlshed ln the l910s, reached only a llmlted audl
ence, and lt was not untll the l960s when Germany
began the process of confrontlng lts Nazl past that
Sachs`s wrltlngs found a broader readershlp. Some crlt
lcs have argued that the sudden recognltlon of Sachs`s
qualltles as a poet ln the l960s reflected a tendency to
approprlate her work as a symbol of |ewlshGerman
reconclllatlon, whlle others have focused on the
unusual nature of her poetlc language and her role ln
lnfuslng German llterature wlth a new splrlt. Sachs her
self was wary of categorlzatlons that llmlted her to a
|ewlsh ldentlty, but she graclously accepted the Nobel
awarded 'for her outstandlng lyrlcal and dramatlc wrlt
lng, whlch lnterprets Israel`s destlny wlth touchlng
strength"; she shared the award wlth Shmuel Yosef
Agnon, an Israell author who wrote ln Hebrew.
Jhe Nobel Prlze ln Llterature had been shared
only twlce prlor to l966once ln l901 and once ln
l9l7and only once slnceln l971. Jhe spllt of the
Nobel award between two wrlters who shared nelther
the same natlonallty nor llterary language sparked con
slderable controversy, as dld the emphasls on the |ew
lshness of the two authors. Whlle some halled the
award to two authors whose works were devoted to
|ewlsh themes as an overdue recognltlon of the suffer
lng resultlng from the Nazl atrocltles of the l930s and
l910s, others regarded the spllt award as evldence that
essentlallzlng deflnltlons of |ewlsh ldentlty that were the
legacy of Nazlsm stlll held sway. Jhrust lnto the llme
llght of lnternatlonal recognltlon on the occaslon of the
Nobel award, Sachs`s works enjoyed a brlef perlod of
promlnence and became the subject of serlous schol
arshlp. Desplte the fact that she ls one of only twelve
Germanspeaklng wrlters to have recelved the Nobel
Prlze to date, her works are largely unknown outslde
academlc settlngs and then most often for her Holo
caust poetry.
Leonle (Nelly) Sachs was born on l0 December
l89l ln Berlln to Wllllam Sachs (l858-l930), a wealthy
rubber manufacturer, and hls young wlfe, Margarete
Sachs, ne Karger (l87l-l950). An only chlld ln a
bourgeols, asslmllated |ewlsh famlly, Sachs grew up ln a
sheltered envlronment that encouraged her penchant
for fantasy, muslc, and dance. Sachs was sensltlve and
nervous, and because of these tralts she spent only a
brlef tlme ln prlvate school before her parents declded
to have her tutored at home. Sachs read avldly and was
partlcularly fond of German Romantlc wrlters such as
Novalls and of falry tales and legends. She recelved a
copy of Selma Lagerlf`s d~ _ p~~ on her flf
teenth blrthday, and thls glft sparked a fasclnatlon wlth
a wrlter who ln l909 became the flrst woman Nobel
laureate ln llterature who would later be lnstrumental ln
Sachs`s escape from Nazl Germany. Sachs had a very
strong bond wlth both of her parents, but thelr power
over her llfe also had detrlmental effects. In l908 Sachs
met a dlvorced older man whom she would later refer
to as the love of her llfe, but whom she was forbldden
to marry. Lnhappy to the polnt of despalr, Sachs expe
rlenced the flrst of what would become a serles of psy
chologlcal lllnesses and turned to wrltlng as a means of
solace. Jhe poems she composed at thls tlme were wrlt
ten ln tradltlonal rhyme and verse, modeled after the
poetry of German Romantlclsm. Some were destroyed
by Sachs`s own hand; others she took wlth her lnto
exlle, although she dlstanced herself from thls early
work and dld not release lt for publlcatlon. Jhat dld not
mean that Sachs was reluctant to seek publlc recognl
tlon for her wrltlng. Insplred by Lagerlf`s example,
Sachs wrote the collectlon i b
(l92l, Legends and Storles) and sent a copy to Lagerlf
after the book was publlshed. Lagerlf responded that
she could not have done better herself, and the corre
spondence between the two women contlnued untll
Lagerlf`s death ln l910.
In l923 the flnanclal sltuatlon of the Sachs famlly
changed after Wllllam Sachs fell lll. By l921 he was
largely conflned to bed, cared for by hls wlfe and
daughter untll he dled of cancer on ll November l930.
Jhe Sachs famlly had several propertles ln Berlln and
after Wllllam`s death, Sachs and her mother moved to
the house ln the Lesslngstrasse where they occupled the
groundfloor apartment, managed the bulldlng, and col
lected rent from thelr tenants. Jhls would serve as thelr
maln source of lncome untll the Nuremberg Laws llm
lted thelr rlght to own property. Although Sachs had
never been actlve ln the |ewlsh communlty, the growlng
dlscrlmlnatlon agalnst German |ews after Adolf Hltler
assumed control of the country restrlcted her access to
cultural actlvltles outslde of |ewlsh clrcles. She jolned
the |ewlsh Cultural Assoclatlon founded by Rabbl Leo
Baeck ln May l933 and made the acqualntance of wrlt
ers such as the poets Kurt Plnthus and Gertrud Kolmar.
As a member of the assoclatlon, Sachs found an outlet
81
k p~ ai_ PPO
for her llterary lnterests and a group of klndred splrlts
wlth whom to share her work. Her poems were read at
assoclatlon llterary evenlngs and were prlnted ln publl
catlons supported by the assoclatlon, as well as ln |ew
lsh newspapers ln several major German cltles. Durlng
thls tlme Sachs began selectlvely to explore her |ewlsh
herltage, chooslng areas that partlcularly appealed to
her taste for mystlclsm and Romantlc splrltuallty. She
dlscovered Martln Buber`s translatlons of Hasldlc tales
and became lnterested ln Kabbalah.
After the stateorchestrated pogrom agalnst the
|ews ln the Relch on 9-l0 November l938, the dlre
predlcament of German |ews became undenlable and
Sachs sent a serles of letters to her chlldhood llterary
ldol, Lagerlf, pleadlng wlth her to serve as reference
for Sachs`s lmmlgratlon to Sweden. Sweden had a
restrlctlve lmmlgratlon pollcy and lt was no small feat
to obtaln vlsas for two German|ewlsh women who had
no professlonal tralnlng and llttle promlse of earnlng a
llvlng by thelr own means. Lagerlf was old and slck
when she recelved Sachs`s desperate letters, and lt was
not untll Sachs`s close frlend, Gudrun Dhnert, traveled
to Sweden and personally made a case for Sachs`s sur
vlval that Lagerlf fully understood the gravlty of the
sltuatlon and agreed to endorse Sachs`s vlsa appllcatlon.
Iorced to sell thelr house on Lesslngstrasse ln l939,
Sachs and her mother moved lnto several furnlshed
rooms ln Charlottenburg, where they llved ln constant
fear of deportatlon. Wlth the outbreak of war ln Sep
tember l939 lt became extremely dlfflcult to leave Ger
many, and posslble exlts vla Denmark or Norway were
closed by l910. By May l910 Sachs had made all the
necessary payments to the German government to
enable her departure from Germany, but the vlsas for
herself and her mother had not arrlved from Sweden.
Sachs`s desperatlon turned to despalr after she recelved
her deportatlon papers for a work camp. A frlend vls
lted the Swedlsh embassy ln Berlln and found that the
vlsas had been sent there. On the advlce of a sympa
thetlc Gestapo offlclal, Sachs destroyed her deportatlon
orders and purchased seats on the last avallable fllght to
Stockholm. She and her mother arrlved safely ln Swe
den on l6 May l910 wlth nothlng more than hand lug
gage and ten relchmarks between them. Jhey were
taken ln by the Stockholm |ewlsh communlty and spent
thelr flrst nlght ln an orphanage that served as tempo
rary houslng for refugees.
Sachs was fortyelght years old when she began a
new llfe ln Sweden. Her hopes of establlshlng herself as a
poet ln Germany had been dashed by Natlonal Soclallsm,
but lt was her response to the horrlflc events unfoldlng ln
Germany and Europe that secured her place ln world llter
ature. Jhe flrst years ln Stockholm were dlfflcult. Sachs
dld not speak Swedlsh and was dependent on the |ewlsh
communlty for flnanclal support. Her mother was not
well, and Sachs cared for her wlth the devotlon of one
who had lost all other tles to home. Jhe two women
shared a tlny, oneroom apartment at Bergsundsstrand 23,
a bulldlng that housed other refugees and remalned
Sachs`s address untll the end of her llfe. Here Sachs
worked to develop her Swedlsh language skllls so she
could earn some lncome as a translator of Swedlsh lltera
ture. Because of her dlllgence and poetlc feel for language,
Sachs had become an accompllshed translator by the end
of the l910s. It ls a testament to the quallty of her transla
tlons that several of the poets whose wrltlng she translated
responded ln klnd by translatlng some of Sachs`s poems
lnto Swedlsh. Sachs`s own style of wrltlng underwent a
dramatlc transformatlon durlng thls perlod as the result of
a comblnatlon of factors. One was the lnfluence of the
modern Swedlsh poets whose works she came to know
lntlmately. Jhe other was news of events ln Germany,
reports on the deaths of frlends and relatlves, and Sachs`s
growlng awareness of the scope of the genoclde.
In l913 Sachs learned of the death of the man
whom she referred to as the love of her llfe, but whose
ldentlty she never revealed. Despondent about hls
death and the death of so many others, Sachs turned to
poetry as a means of expresslng her sense of loss, her
ldentlflcatlon wlth the |ewlsh people, and as a testament
to the memory of those who had been kllled. Between
l913 and l915 she wrote cycles of poems and one lyrl
cal drama that would later be recognlzed as among her
most powerful and compelllng work. 'Deln Lelb ln
Rauch durch dle Luft" (Your Body ln Smoke through
the Alr), 'Gebete fr den toten Brutlgam" (Prayers for
the Dead Brldegroom), 'Grabschrlften ln dle Luft
geschrleben" (Epltaphs Wrltten ln the Alr), and the
lyrlc drama bK b j i f~ (Ell. A
Mystery Play on the Sufferlng of Israel). In these works
Sachs developed the vocabulary of mournlng and
remembrance that she would contlnue to reflne ln her
later poems. Words such as ~I I and ~ were
accorded speclal emphasls and resonated wlth assocla
tlons to blbllcal lmagery, mortallty, and death. Objects
such as shoes also took on a deeper slgnlflcance, evok
lng the wanderlng of the exlle, the wanderlng |ew, and,
ln the absence of the wearer, symbollzlng the traces of
myrlad extlngulshed llves. Jhe comblnatlon of the quo
tldlan and the cosmlc and the llnk between lndlvldual
fate and unlversal slgnlflcance found ln these wrltlngs
recur ln a varlety of forms throughout Sachs`s works.
Although Sachs composed her poetlc responses to
the tragedy taklng place ln Europe ln solltude and ln a
language that was both her mother tongue and the ver
nacular of the perpetrators, she was not wlthout ambl
tlon to see them publlshed eventually. She was
convlnced that the volce that spoke through her poems
85
ai_ PPO k p~
represented a message larger than herself and was
meant to be heard by others. When the war ended and
the Nazl reglme was destroyed, she began the search for
a German publlsher. In the postwar atmosphere of
denlal and ruln, thls proved to be a dlfflcult task. Wlth
the support of |ohannes Becher, Sachs flnally found a
home wlth Aufbau Verlag ln the Sovletoccupled zone
of East Germany for the collectlon of poems wrltten
durlng the flrst years of her Swedlsh exlle. Jhe press
agreed to publlsh the collectlon, but under a dlfferent
tltle than her orlglnally suggested 'Deln Lelb ln Rauch
durch dle Luft." After slgnlng the publlcatlon contract,
Sachs wrote to Curt Jrepte ln Schwerln that she felt
gratlfled that her poems would be read ln a reglon 'wo
das Leld selnen Anfang nahm" (where the sufferlng
began; letter of l0 October l916). Jhe book appeared
ln l917 under the tltle f t q (In the
Habltatlons of Death). Jhls collectlon of poems estab
llshed Sachs`s reputatlon among the crltlcs as 'the poet
of |ewlsh fate," and the dedlcatlon to the volume'to
my murdered brothers and slsters"underscored her
klnshlp wlth the vlctlms of the Holocaust. Jhat same
year Aufbau Verlag publlshed Sachs`s flrst booklength
collectlon of Swedlsh poetry ln translatlon, s t
d~ (Of Waves and Granlte). But two years later the
sltuatlon had changed. the Sovlet zone had become the
German Democratlc Republlc, and Aufbau Verlag had
a dlfferent agenda. Sachs`s second volume of poetry,
p (Darkenlng Star), was publlshed by
Bermann Ilscher Verlag ln Amsterdam ln l919. Jhls
volume was pralsed by the few crltlcs who read lt, but
sales of the book were so low that the publlsher pulped
most of the prlnt run.
Jhese setbacks ln galnlng recognltlon for the
poems that she had composed wlth such passlon, con
vlctlon, and sense of mlsslon added to the psychologlcal
devastatlon she experlenced when her mother dled on
7 Iebruary l950. Sachs`s relatlonshlp to her mother
had been extremely close, and the years ln exlle had
deepened thelr bond. Although her mother had been lll
for a long tlme, Sachs was lnconsolable at her loss and
suffered a nervous breakdown ln March l950. Jhe
year ended wlth yet another blow when her appllcatlon
for Swedlsh cltlzenshlp was denled because of her
uncertaln flnanclal clrcumstances. In order to control
her sorrow and malntaln her sanlty, Sachs began an
lntenslve phase of wrltlng. the cycle of poems _ ~
k~ (Letters from the Nlght) and the lyrlc dramas
^~ p~ (Abram ln Salt) and k~~ (Nlght
watch), both collected ln w p~I l962, stem
from thls perlod. She also delved further lnto works of
|ewlsh mystlclsm, and was partlcularly lnsplred by the
w~ (Jhe Book of Splendor) ln Gershom Scholem`s
German translatlon. Her conceptlon of a cosmlc splrltu
allty unfettered by lnstltutlonallzed rellglon was reln
forced by her study of Kabbalah and the w~I and her
readlngs of the latter text gave rlse to a cycle of poems
composed ln l952, the year that her bld for cltlzenshlp
was flnally granted.
In the latter half of the l950s Sachs`s work began to
be publlshed ln West Germany. Groups of her poems
were publlshed ln newspapers and journals, and the only
publlshed prose text descrlblng her personal experlence ln
Nazl Germany, i _ (Llfe under Slege),
appeared ln the journal ^ ln l956. Younger German
wrlters such as Peter Hamm and Alfred Andersch were
lmpressed wlth the splrltual lntenslty and poetlc vlslon ln
Sachs`s work, but Hamm ln partlcular was skeptlcal that
the German publlc was ready for such wrltlng (aI no.
232, |une l960). Hamm`s vlew was apparently shared by
the Suhrkamp publlshlng house, whlch, accordlng to Sleg
frled Lnseld, had contemplated a Sachs volume ln l958
but declded that the tlme was not rlpe (b wI l7
October l965). Desplte such mlsglvlngs about Sachs`s
potentlal readershlp, two booklength collectlons of her
poetry were publlshed ln Germany by the end of the
l950s. r ~ (And No One Knows Iur
ther, l957) and c ~ s~ (Illght and Jransfor
matlon, l959). Jhe poems ln these collectlons make
reference to the persecutlon and destructlon that had
lnsplred Sachs`s wrltlng ln the l910s, but also present new
dlrectlons wlth reflectlons on exlle, the rejuvenatlon of lan
guage, and an evolvlng poetlcs of transcendence. Jhese
volumes and an lnsplred essay on Sachs`s poetry by Hans
Magnus Enzensberger ln the journal j (volume l3,
lssue l38, l959. 770-775) lald the groundwork for more
publlc recognltlon of Sachs`s work.
In l958 Sachs recelved her flrst award, the poetry
prlze of the Swedlsh Wrlters` Assoclatlon, albelt not for
her own poetry, but for her outstandlng translatlons of
Swedlsh llterature. Jhe Cultural Commlttee of the
Assoclatlon of German Industry ln l959 was the flrst
organlzatlon to recognlze offlclally Sachs`s accompllsh
ments as a German poet. Jhls llterary prlze was fol
lowed by a serles of awards that culmlnated ln the
Nobel Prlze ln Llterature ln l966. Sachs recelved the
Droste Prlze ln Meersburg ln l960. Jhe clty of Dort
mund establlshed a cultural award ln her name and
named her lts flrst reclplent ln l96l. In l965 Sachs
became the flrst woman ever to be awarded the Peace
Prlze that had been establlshed by the German Book
Jrade Assoclatlon ln l95l. Sachs traveled to Germany
to accept the Droste award ln Meersburg and the Peace
Prlze ln Irankfurt. She had not been ln Germany for
two decades and her apprehenslon about the trlp was
amellorated by the presence of young German wrlters
such as Ingeborg Bachmann and Paul Celan who were
staunch admlrers of her work and gave her hope for the
86
k p~ ai_ PPO
future. It was ln Meersburg ln l960 that Sachs met
Lnseld, who became her edltor at Suhrkamp.
Suhrkamp publlshed lts flrst collectlon of Sachs`s
poetry, c~ p~ ( |ourney lnto the Vacuum) ln
l96l, followed by a collectlon of her dramatlc wrltlngs,
w p~ (Slgns ln the Sand), ln l962, and another
collectlon of poems, a p ( Jhe Seeker), ln l966.
Jhese publlcatlons brought Sachs`s work to the atten
tlon of a broader readershlp and lncreased her follow
lng among younger German wrlters such as Ilse
Alchlnger, Horst Blenek, Gnter Elch, and other wrlt
ers of the Gruppe 17.
Jhe journey to Germany ln l960 relnforced
Sachs`s bellef ln the younger generatlon, but the psy
chologlcal stresses of the trlp proved too much. Sachs
suffered a nervous breakdown upon her return to Swe
den and was hospltallzed for treatment of paranold psy
chosls. Her letters from thls perlod attest to the depths
of her paranola and deluslons of persecutlon, deluslons
that lntenslfled durlng the Adolf Elchmann trlal ln
|erusalem ln l96l-l962. Sachs was convlnced that she
was under survelllance by Nazl sples llvlng ln her apart
ment bulldlng and surmlsed that they were seeklng
revenge for Elchmann`s executlon. She spent three
years ln a sanatorlum, lnterrupted at lntervals by
attempts to return to an lndependent exlstence, and was
subjected to electroshock treatments for her paranola.
Jhe shock treatments made lt dlfflcult for Sachs to
wrlte and affected her memory, but dld nothlng to erase
her fears. Desplte her lllness and the radlcal nature of
her treatment, Sachs was remarkably productlve, com
poslng two complete poem cycles and two segments of
a thlrd. By l961 she was back ln her own apartment
and by l965 felt strong enough to travel agaln to Ger
many, thls tlme to Irankfurt, to recelve the Peace Prlze.
References to the Holocaust were unavoldable ln
Irankfurt, whlch from l963 to l965 was host to the
Auschwltz trlals, and some crltlcs have remarked on the
dlfflculty of Sachs`s sltuatlon as a German|ewlsh reclpl
ent of the Peace Prlze. Jhe tenslon between genulne
recognltlon for her accompllshments as a poet and her
approprlatlon as a symbol of reconclllatlon permeated
her receptlon ln Germany untll the end of her llfe and
affected reactlons to her Nobel Prlze award.
Because of her work as a translator, Sachs became
acqualnted wlth several wrlters who were members of
the Swedlsh Academy. Jhree of these wrlters, |ohannes
Edfelt, Gunnar Ekelf, and Erlk Llndegren, had helped
publlclze Sachs`s work ln Sweden, and Edfelt had
already pralsed the llterary quallty of her work to the
Academy ln l963. Jwo German llterary hlstorlans,
Walter Berendsohn and Walter |ens, were called upon
to provlde thelr judgments on Sachs`s work, and both
responded wlth hlgh pralse for her poetlc talents and a
clear endorsement of her worthlness for the award.
When Sachs was announced as one of the two Nobel
Prlze reclplents ln October l966, the commlttee chalr
man, Anders Osterllng, proclalmed her work to be a
comblnatlon of beauty and lament, full of paln yet free
of hatred. Although the Academy strenuously denles
that polltlcal conslderatlons play any role ln the award,
lt ls dlfflcult to regard the declslon to spllt the prlze
between two |ewlsh wrlters, one worklng ln the
Hebrew language and the other ln German, as well as
the tlmlng of the award, one year after Germany and
Israel had establlshed dlplomatlc relatlons, as com
pletely wlthout polltlcal lntent. In Osterllng`s presenta
tlon speech at the ceremony, he descrlbed Sachs`s
wrltlng as 'the most lntense artlstlc expresslon of the
reactlon of the |ewlsh splrlt to sufferlng," thereby
emphaslzlng her posltlon as the poet of |ewlsh fate and
lndlrectly alludlng to her refutatlon of Jheodor W.
Adorno`s famous dlctum that 'wrltlng poetry after
Auschwltz ls barbarlc."
Jhe Nobel Prlze brought Sachs lnternatlonal
attentlon and sparked a wave of translatlons of her
poetry and lyrlcal drama lnto a varlety of languages.
Jhe crltlcal reactlons to the award vaclllated between
those euloglzlng her poetlc senslbllltles and her role ln
rehabllltatlng the German language and those questlon
lng whether the Academy`s declslon was made prlmar
lly on moral grounds. As a result of the award, Sachs`s
work lncreaslngly became the object of scholarly stud
les and dlssertatlons. But Sachs herself dld not produce
another book after the publlcatlon of a p ln
l966. She contlnued to wrlte ln creatlve spurts, but her
health was falllng. In March l967 she suffered a heart
attack and a recurrence of paranola that necessltated
further psychlatrlc treatment. In sprlng l968 she was
hospltallzed for colon cancer, and ln l969 agaln under
went surgery to battle the dlsease. Although she spent
months convalesclng ln the hospltal, she never regalned
her health and dled on l2 May l970 after years of flght
lng to overcome psychologlcal and physlcal paln. Sachs
was glven a |ewlsh funeral on l9 May l970 and burled
ln the |ewlsh cemetery ln Stockholm. In l97l
Suhrkamp publlshed p ~ i (Search for the
Llvlng), a collectlon of Sachs`s poems spannlng the
years l961 to l970 and lntended as a companlon vol
ume to the earller collectlon c~ p~. Jhese
two volumes represent the poetlc ouvre for whlch
Sachs ls known today. Although she contlnued to work
on ldeas for lyrlc dramas after the publlcatlon of w
p~I no drama of hers composed after l962 has
been publlshed. Sachs`s dramatlc works have not
recelved as much scholarly attentlon as her poetry and
only a few were performed durlng her llfetlme, ln part
because the mlxture of dance, muslc, and mlme these
87
ai_ PPO k p~
works demand together wlth the complexlty of the lan
guage and the scenery made them dlfflcult to stage.
Desplte her status as a Nobel laureate and the
burgeonlng lnterest ln Holocaust representatlon,
Sachs`s lyrlc dramas are out of prlnt and lt was only
recently that Suhrkamp declded to lssue a crltlcal edl
tlon of her collected works ln four volumes, sched
uled for publlcatlon ln 2009. Peaks ln scholarly
lnterest ln Sachs`s work can be grouped roughly lnto
three maln phases. the flrst around the tlme of the
Nobel Prlze award, the second after her death, and
the thlrd ln the l990s. Jhe typecastlng of Sachs as the
poet of |ewlsh fate, a restrlctlve category that she
endeavored to dlstance herself from ln her later work,
has guaranteed her a regular place ln anthologles of
Holocaust llterature, but there are numerous second
ary studles that address other aspects of Sachs`s wrlt
lng, such as her afflnlty wlth Romantlclsm; her
lntegratlon of mystlcal and rellglous lmagery; the unl
versal, ethlcal message lnfuslng her poetry; and her
transformatlon of German poetlc language. Other
studles have attempted to place her work ln the con
text of broader questlons of German|ewlsh ldentlty
ln llterature, comparlng her to wrlters such as Else
LaskerSchler, Gertrud Kolmar, and Rose Aus
lnder, as well as Iranz Kafka and Helnrlch Helne.
Desplte these worthy efforts at expandlng the dlmen
slons by whlch Sachs`s corpus of wrltlngs ls mea
sured, Nelly Sachs remalns best known for her
movlng, lyrlcal transflguratlons of |ewlsh sufferlng
lnsplred by the events of the Holocaust, whlch had
radlcal and lastlng effects on her llfe, her psyche, and
her poetlc style.
iW
ricfc dcr `clly Socls, edlted by Ruth Dlnesen and Hel
mut Mssener (Irankfurt am Maln. Suhrkamp,
l981);
Ioul Cclov/`clly Socls. ricfwcclscl, edlted by Barbara
Wledemann (l993); Engllsh translatlon by Chrls
topher Clark as Ioul Cclov, `clly Socls: Corrcspov-
dcvcc (RlverdaleonHudson, N.Y.. Sheeps Meadow
Press, l995).
_~W
Walter Berendsohn, `clly Socls. Iivflruvg iv dos !crl
dcr Dicltcriv jdisclcv Scliclsols (Darmstadt, Ger
many. Agora Verlag, l971);
Ehrhard Bahr, `clly Socls (Munlch. C. H. Beck, l980);
Hennlng Ialkensteln, `clly Socls (Berlln. Colloqulum
Verlag, l981);
Iranz|osef Bartmann, '. . . dcvv viclt drfcv Ircigclosscvc
mit Scllivgcv dcr Sclvsuclt civgcfovgcv wcrdcv. . .
`clly Socls (1S91-1970)civc dcutsclc Dicltcriv
(Dortmund, Germany. ZlmmermannEngelke Ver
lag, l99l);
Ruth Dlnesen, `clly Socls: Iivc iogroplic, translated by
Gabrlele Gerecke (Irankfurt am Maln. Suhrkamp,
l992);
Gabrlele IrltschVlvl, `clly Socls (Relnbek bel Ham
burg, Germany. Rowohlt, l993).
oW
Helnz Ludwlg Arnold, ed., `clly Socls (Munlch. Jext +
krltlk, l979);
Ehrhard Bahr, ''My Metaphors Are My Wounds`.
Nelly Sachs and the Llmlts of Poetlc Metaphor,"
ln cwisl !ritcrs, Ccrmov Iitcroturc: Tlc Uvcosy
Ixomplcs of `clly Socls ovd !oltcr cvjomiv, edlted
by Jlmothy Bahtl and Marllyn Slbley Irles (Ann
Arbor. Lnlverslty of Mlchlgan Press, l995), pp.
13-58;
Bahtl and Irles, eds., cwisl !ritcrs, Ccrmov Iitcroturc:
Tlc Uvcosy Ixomplcs of `clly Socls ovd !oltcr cv-
jomiv (Ann Arbor. Lnlverslty of Mlchlgan Press,
l995);
Claudla Bell, Sproclc ols Hcimot: disclc Troditiov uvd
Ixilcrfolruvg iv dcr Iyril vov `clly Socls uvd Iosc
Zuslovdcr (Munlch. Juduv, l99l);
Russell Berman, ''Der begrabenen Blltze Wohnstatt`.
Jrennung, Helmkehr und Sehnsucht ln der Lyrlk
von Nelly Sachs," ln Im ciclcv Hiobs, edlted by
Gunter Grlmm and HansPeter Bayerdrfer
(Knlgsteln/Jaunus, Germany. Athenum, l985),
pp. 280-292;
Kathrln Bower, Itlics ovd Icmcmbrovcc iv tlc Ioctry of `clly
Socls ovd Iosc Zuslovdcr (Rochester, N.Y.. Camden
House, 2000);
Bower, 'Nelly Sachs," ln Holocoust Iitcroturc, edlted by S.
Lllllan Kremer (New York. Routledge, 2003), pp.
l067-l071;
Glsela BrlnkerGabler, 'Mlt wechselndem Schlssel.
Annherungen an Nelly Sachs` Gedlcht 'Bln ln
der Iremde,`" Ccrmov _uortcrly, 65.l (l992). 35-
1l;
Eleonore Cervantes, Strultur-cgc iv dcr Iyril vov `clly
Socls (Bern/Irankfurt am Maln. Peter Lang,
l982);
Glsela Dlschner, Zpropos `clly Socls (Irankfurt am Maln.
Verlag neue Krltlk, l997);
Dlschner, Ioctil dcs modcrvcv Ccdiclts: ur Iyril vov `clly
Socls (Bad Homburg/ Berlln/ Zrlch. Verlag Gehlen,
l970);
Hans Magnus Enzensberger, 'Dle Stelne der Irelhelt,"
ln `clly Socls u Ilrcv (Irankfurt am Maln.
Suhrkamp, l97l), pp. 15-5l;
88
k p~ ai_ PPO
Robert Ioot, Tlc Ilcvomcvov of Spcccllcssvcss iv tlc Ioctry of
Moric Iuisc Iosclvit, Cvtcr Iicl, `clly Socls ovd
Ioul Cclov (Bonn. Bouvler, l982);
Luzla Hardegger, `clly Socls uvd dic !crwovdluvgcv dcr
!clt (Irankfurt am Maln. Peter Lang, l975);
Bengt Holmqvlst, ed., Dos ucl dcr `clly Socls (Irankfurt
am Maln. Suhrkamp, l977);
Paul Kersten, Dic Mctoploril iv dcr Iyril vov `clly Socls
(Hamburg. Hartmut Ldke Verlag, l970);
Mlchael Kessler and |rgen Werthelmer, eds., `clly
Socls. `cuc Ivtcrprctotiovcv (Jblngen. Stauffen
burg, l991);
Olof Lagerkrantz, !crsucl bcr dic Iyril dcr `clly Socls,
translated by Helene Rltzerfeld (Irankfurt am
Maln. Suhrkamp, l967);
Lawrence Langer, 'Nelly Sachs," Colloquio Ccrmovico, l0
(l976/l977). 3l6-325;
Blrglt Lermen and Mlchael Braun, `clly Socls 'ov lcttcr
Ztcmspitc dcs Icbcvs (Bonn. Bouvler Verlag,
l998);
Dagmar Lorenz, Iccpcrs of tlc Motlcrlovd: Ccrmov Tcxts by
cwisl !omcv !ritcrs (Llncoln/London. Lnlverslty
of Nebraska Press, l997);
`clly Socls u Ilrcv (Irankfurt am Maln. Suhrkamp,
l96l);
`clly Socls u Ilrcv: um 7. Ccburtstog om 10. Dccmbcr
1966 (Irankfurt am Maln. Suhrkamp, l966);
Dorothee Ostmeler, Sproclc dcs DromosDromo dcr
Sproclc. ur Ioctil dcr `clly Socls (Jblngen, Ger
many. Nlemeyer, l997);
Alvln Rosenfeld, Z Doublc Dyivg: Icflcctiovs ov Holocoust
Iitcroturc (Bloomlngton. Indlana Lnlverslty Press,
l980);
Rosenfeld, 'Jhe Poetry of Nelly Sachs," udoism, 20.3
(l97l). 356-361;
Lrsula Rudnlck, Iost-Sloo Icligious Mctoplors: Tlc Imogc
of Cod iv tlc Ioctry of `clly Socls (Irankfurt am
Maln. Peter Lang, l995);
Beate SowaBettecken, Sproclc dcr Hivtcrlosscvscloft:
discl-clristliclc Ubcrlicfcruvg iv dcr Iyril vov `clly
Socls uvd Ioul Cclov (Irankfurt am Maln. Peter
Lang, l992);
Chrlsta Vaerst, Dicltuvg- uvd Sproclrcflcxiov im !crl vov
`clly Socls (Irankfurt am Maln. Peter Lang, l977);
Klaus Welssenberger, wisclcv Stciv uvd Stcrv: Mystisclc
Iormgcbuvg iv dcr Dicltuvg vov Ilsc Ioslcr-Scllcr,
`clly Socls uvd Ioul Cclov (Bern/Munlch. Irancke
Verlag, l976).
m~W
Collectlons of Nelly Sachs`s manuscrlpts, correspon
dence, and books from her personal llbrary are housed
ln the Royal Natlonal Swedlsh Llbrary ln Stockholm
and ln the State Llbrary ln Dortmund, Germany.
NVSS k m i~
m~ p
by Zvdcrs stcrlivg, Mcmbcr of tlc Swcdisl Zcodcmy
Jhls year`s Nobel Prlze ln Llterature has been
awarded to two outstandlng |ewlsh authorsShmuel Yosef
Agnon and Nelly Sachseach of whom represents Israel`s
message to our tlme. Agnon`s home ls ln |erusalem, and
Mlss Sachs has been an lmmlgrant ln Sweden slnce l910,
and ls now a Swedlsh subject. Jhe purpose of comblnlng
these two prlzewlnners ls to do justlce to the lndlvldual
achlevements of each, and the sharlng of the prlze has lts
speclal justlflcatlon. to honour two wrlters who, although
they wrlte ln dlfferent languages, are unlted ln a splrltual
klnshlp and complement each other ln a superb effort to
present the cultural herltage of the |ewlsh people through
the wrltten word. Jhelr common source of lnsplratlon has
been, for both of them, a vltal power.
Shmuel Agnon`s reputatlon as the foremost wrlter
ln modern Hebrew llterature has gradually penetrated
llngulstlc barrlers whlch, ln thls case, are partlcularly
obstructlve. Hls most lmportant works are now avall
able ln Swedlsh under the tltle I lovcts mitt (In the Heart
of the Seas). Agnon, now seventyelght years old, began
wrltlng ln Ylddlsh but soon changed to Hebrew, whlch,
accordlng to experts, he handles wlth absolute mastery,
ln a taut and sonorous prose style of extraordlnary
expresslveness. He was only twenty when he left hls
natlve town ln East Gallcla, where, as the sclon of an
old and respected famlly, he had been brought up ln a
scholarly tradltlon. He felt drawn to Palestlne, where
now, as an aged classlcal author, he can look back on
the long struggle for natlonal reestabllshment, and
where the socalled cultural Zlonlsm possesses ln hlm
one of lts flnest creatlve champlons.
Agnon`s unlque quallty as a wrlter ls apparent
chlefly ln the great cycle of novels set ln hls natlve town
of Buczacz, once a flourlshlng centre of |ewlsh plety and
rabblnlcal learnlng, now ln rulns. Reallty and legend
stand slde by slde ln hls narratlve art. Hollvosot Iolol,
l922 (Jhe Brldal Canopy), ls one of hls most character
lstlc storles, ln lts lngenlous and earthy humour, a |ew
lsh counterpart to Dov _uixotc and Till Iulcvspicgcl. But,
perhaps, hls greatest achlevement ls hls novel Urcol
votol lo-luv, l939 (A Guest for the Nlght), whlch tells of
a vlslt to Buczacz, the warrulned clty of hls chlldhood,
and of the narrator`s valn attempts to assemble the con
gregatlon for a servlce ln the synagogue. Wlthln the
framework of a local chronlcle we see a wonderful por
trayal of destlnles and flgures, of experlence and medl
89
ai_ PPO k p~
tatlon. Jhe lost key to the prayer house, whlch the
traveller flnds ln hls knapsack only after hls return to
|erusalem, ls, for Agnon, a symbollc hlnt that the old
order can never be rebullt ln the Dlaspora, but only
under the protectlon of Zlonlsm. Agnon ls a reallst, but
there ls always a mystlcal admlxture whlch lends to
even the greyest and most ordlnary scenes a golden
atmosphere of strange falrytale poetry, often remlnls
cent of Chagall`s motlfs from the world of the Old Jes
tament. He stands out as a hlghly orlglnal wrlter,
endowed wlth remarkable glfts of humour and wlsdom,
and wlth a persplcaclous play of thought comblned wlth
nalve perceptlonln all, a consummate expresslon of
the |ewlsh character.
Nelly Sachs, llke so many other German|ewlsh
wrlters, suffered the fate of exlle. Jhrough Swedlsh lnter
ventlon she was saved from persecutlon and the threat of
deportatlon and was brought to thls country. She has slnce
then worked ln peace as a refugee on Swedlsh soll, attaln
lng the maturlty and authorlty that are now conflrmed by
the Nobel Prlze. In recent years she has been acclalmed ln
the German world as a wrlter of convlnclng worth and
lrreslstlble slncerlty. Wlth movlng lntenslty of feellng she
has glven volce to the worldwlde tragedy of the |ewlsh
people, whlch she has expressed ln lyrlcal laments of paln
ful beauty and ln dramatlc legends. Her symbollc lan
guage boldly comblnes an lnsplred modern ldlom wlth
echoes of anclent blbllcal poetry. Identlfylng herself totally
wlth the falth and rltual mystlclsm of her people, Mlss
Sachs has created a world of lmagery whlch does not shun
the terrlble truth of the extermlnatlon camps and the
corpse factorles, but whlch, at the same tlme, rlses above
all hatred of the persecutors, merely reveallng a genulne
sorrow at man`s debasement. Her purely lyrlcal produc
tlon ls now collected under the tltle Iolrt ivs Stoublosc, l96l
( |ourney to the Beyond), whlch comprlses slx lnter
connected works wrltten durlng a twentyyear creatlve
perlod of lncreaslng concentratlon. Jhere ls also a serles of
dramatlc poems, equally remarkable ln thelr way, under
the jolnt tltle ciclcv im Sovd, l96l (Slgns ln the Sand), the
themes of whlch mlght have been taken from the dark
treasure house of Hassldlc mystlclsm, but whlch, here,
have taken on new vlgour and vltal meanlng. Let lt sufflce
here to mentlon the mystery play Ili (l950) about an
elghtyearold boy who ls beaten to death by a German
soldler ln Poland when he blows on hls shepherd`s plpe to
call on heaven`s help when hls parents are taken away.
Jhe vlslonary cobbler Mlchael manages to trace the cul
prlt to the next vlllage. Jhe soldler has been selzed by
remorse and, at the encounter ln the forest, he collapses
wlthout Mlchael`s havlng to ralse hls hand agalnst hlm.
Jhls endlng denotes a dlvlne justlce whlch has nothlng to
do wlth earthly retrlbutlon.
Nelly Sachs`s wrltlng ls today the most lntense
artlstlc expresslon of the reactlon of the |ewlsh splrlt to
sufferlng, and thus lt can lndeed be sald to fulflll the
humane purpose underlylng Alfred Nobel`s wlll.
Doctor Agnonaccordlng to the wordlng of the
dlploma, thls year`s Nobel Prlze ln Llterature has been
awarded to you for your 'profoundly dlstlnctlve narra
tlve art wlth motlfs from the llfe of the |ewlsh people."
We should be happy lf you would conslder thls lnter
natlonal dlstlnctlon as a slgn that your wrltlng need not
be lsolated wlthln the boundary of lts language, and
that lt has proved to have the power to reach out
beyond all conflnlng walls, and to arouse manklnd`s
sympathy, understandlng, and respect. Jhrough me,
the Swedlsh Academy conveys lts slncere congratula
tlons, and I now ask you to recelve the Prlze from the
hands of Hls Majesty, the Klng.
Mlss Nelly Sachsyou have llved a long tlme ln our
country, flrst as an obscure stranger and then as an
honoured guest. Joday the Swedlsh Academy honours
your 'outstandlng lyrlcal and dramatlc wrltlngs, whlch
lnterpret Israel`s destlny wlth touchlng strength." On an
occaslon llke thls lt ls natural also to recall the lnvaluable
lnterest you have shown ln Swedlsh llterature, a token of
frlendshlp whlch, ln turn, has found a response ln the
deslre of our Swedlsh wrlters to translate your work.
Offerlng you the congratulatlons of the Swedlsh Academy,
I ask you now to recelve thls year`s Nobel Prlze ln Lltera
ture from the hands of Hls Majesty, the Klng.
p~W _~ p
Ivtroductory rcmorls by Ivgvor Zvdcrssov of tlc Swcdisl Zcod-
cmy ot tlc òbcl ovquct ot tlc City Holl iv Stocllolm,
10 Dcccmbcr 1966:
'Shmuel Yosef Agnon, Nelly SachsJhls year`s
llterary Prlze goes to you both wlth equal honour for a
llterary productlon whlch records Israel`s vlclssltudes ln
our tlme and passes on lts message to the peoples of the
world.
Mr. AgnonIn your wrltlng we meet once agaln
the anclent unlty between llterature and sclence, as
antlqulty knew lt. In one of your storles you say that
some wlll no doubt read lt as they read falry tales, oth
ers wlll read lt for edlflcatlon. Your great chronlcle of
the |ewlsh people`s splrlt and llfe has therefore a manl
fold message. Ior the hlstorlan lt ls a preclous source,
for the phllosopher an lnsplratlon, for those who cannot
llve wlthout llterature lt ls a mlne of neverfalllng rlches.
90
k p~ ai_ PPO
We honour ln you a comblnatlon of tradltlon and
prophecy, of saga and wlsdom.
Mlss SachsAbout twenty years ago, through the
Swedlsh poet Hjalmar Gullberg, I flrst learned of your
fate and your work. Slnce then you have llved wlth us
ln Sweden and I could talk to you ln our own language.
But lt ls through your mother tongue that your work
reflects a hlstorlcal drama ln whlch you have partlcl
pated. Your lyrlcal and dramatlc wrltlng now belongs to
the great laments of llterature, but the feellng of mourn
lng whlch lnsplred you ls free from hate and lends sub
llmlty to the sufferlng of man. We honour you today as
the bearer of a message of solace to all those who
despalr of the fate of man.
We honour you both thls evenlng as the laurel
crowned heroes of lntellectual creatlon and express our
convlctlon that, ln the words of Alfred Nobel, you have
conferred the greatest beneflt on manklnd, and that you
have glven lt clearslghtedness, wlsdom, upllft, and beauty.
A famous speech at a Nobel banquetthat of Wllllam
Iaulkner, held ln thls same hall slxteen years agocon
talned an ldea whlch he developed wlth great lntenslty. It
ls sultable as a concludlng quotatlon whlch polnts to the
future. 'I do not belleve ln the end of man.`"
p~ Eq~~F
In the summer of l939 a German glrl frlend of mlne
went to Sweden to vlslt Selma Lagerlf, to ask her to
secure a sanctuary for my mother and myself ln that coun
try. Slnce my youth I had been so fortunate as to exchange
letters wlth Selma Lagerlf; and lt ls out of her work that
my love for her country grew. Jhe palnterprlnce Eugen
and the novellst helped to save me.
In the sprlng of l910, after tortuous months, we
arrlved ln Stockholm. Jhe occupatlon of Denmark and
Norway had already taken place. Jhe great novellst
was no more. We breathed the alr of freedom wlthout
knowlng the language or any person. Joday, after
twentyslx years, I thlnk of what my father used to say
on every tenth of December, back ln my home town,
Berlln. 'Now they celebrate the Nobel ceremony ln
Stockholm." Jhanks to the cholce of the Swedlsh Acad
emy, I am now ln the mldst of that ceremony. Jo me a
falry tale seems to have become reallty.
f c
b~

b
t q
c d p~
~ ^ ~ ~

c c

a ~ p
~ j
a p
f c
~ e~
^ p e~
~ s~ t
EcI
~ ~ ~
~
t~
~
~ ~
~ ~ ~

~
q
~ ~~ ~
q

~ ~
f ~ ~ ~
~ F
Eq~~ o ~ j~ j~I l `J
I NVSTF
| Jhe Nobel Ioundatlon, l966. Nelly Sachs ls the sole
author of her speech.|
9l
g p~~~
(16 òvcmbcr 1922 - )
g kK l~
Uvivcrsity of Mossoclusctts, Zmlcrst
See also the Saramago entrles ln DI 2S7: Iortugucsc
!ritcrs and DI Jcorbool: 199S.
BOOKS. Tcrro do pccodo (Llsbon. Mlnerva, l917; cor
rected edltlon, Llsbon. Camlnho, l997);
Us pocmos possvcis (Llsbon. Portuglla, l966; revlsed edl
tlon, Llsbon. Camlnho, l982);
Irovovclmcvtc olcgrio (Llsbon. Llvros Horlzonte, l970;
revlsed and augmented edltlon, Llsbon. Camlnho,
l985);
Dcstc muvdo c do outro (Llsbon. Arcdla, l97l);
Z bogogcm do viojovtc (Llsbon. Iutura, l973);
U cmborgo (Llsbon. Estdlos Cor, l973);
Zs opivics quc o Diro dc Iisboo tcvc (Llsbon. Seara Nova/
Iutura, l971);
U ovo dc 199J (Llsbon. Iutura, l975);
Us opovtomcvtos (Llsbon. Seara Nova, l976);
Movuol dc pivturo c coligrofio (Llsbon. Moraes Edltores,
l976); translated by Glovannl Pontlero as Movuol
of Ioivtivg ovd Colligroply (Manchester, L.K.. Car
canet, l991);
Ubjccto quosc (Llsbon. Moraes Edltores, l978);
Z voitc (Llsbon. Camlnho, l979);
Icvovtodo do clo (Llsbon. Camlnho, l980);
_uc forci com cstc livro? (Llsbon. Camlnho, l980);
!iogcm o Iortugol (Llsbon. Crculo de Leltores, l98l);
translated by Amanda Hopklnson and Nlck
Calstor as ourvcy to Iortugol: Iv Iursuit of Iortugol`s
History ovd Culturc (New York. Harcourt, 2000);
Mcmoriol do covvcvto (Llsbon. Camlnho, l982); trans
lated by Pontlero as oltosor ovd limuvdo (San
Dlego. Harcourt Brace |ovanovlch, l987; Lon
don. Cape, l988);
U ovo do mortc dc Iicordo Icis (Llsbon. Camlnho, l981);
translated by Pontlero as Tlc Jcor of tlc Dcotl of
Iicordo Icis (San Dlego. Harcourt Brace |ovano
vlch, l99l; London. Harvlll, l992);
Z jovgodo dc pcdro (Llsbon. Camlnho, l986); translated
by Pontlero as Tlc Stovc Ioft (London. Harvlll,
l991; New York. Harcourt Brace, l995);
Z scguvdo vido dc Irovcisco dc Zssis (Llsbon. Camlnho,
l987);
Historio do ccrco dc Iisboo (Llsbon. Camlnho, l989);
translated by Pontlero as Tlc History of tlc Sicgc of
Iisbov (London. Harvlll, l996; New York. Har
court Brace, l996);
g p~~~ EF NVVU k m i~
h `~ usf d~ p E ~ g~ `X
mobppbkp _fiaL`~~ mLo~F
92
g p~~~ ai_ PPO
l b~ g ` (Llsbon. Camlnho,
l99l); translated by Pontlero as q d ^J
g ` (London. Harvlll, l993; New
York. Harcourt Brace, l991);
f a (Llsbon. Camlnho, l993);
`~ i~~I 5 volumes (Llsbon. Camlnho,
l991-l998);
b~ ~ ~ (Llsbon. Camlnho, l995); trans
lated by Pontlero as _ (London. Harvlll,
l997; New York. Harcourt Brace, l998);
j a i~ (Llsbon. Expo `98, l996);
q (Llsbon. Camlnho, l997); translated by
Margaret |ull Costa as ^ k~ (London.
Harvlll, l999; New York. Harcourt Brace, l999);
l ~ ~ ~ (Llsbon. Expo `98/Assrlo
Alvlm, l997); translated by Chrlstlne Roblnson
as q q~ r f~ (Llsbon. Expo `98/
Assrlo Alvlm, l997); translated by Costa (Lon
don. Harvlll, l999; New York. Harcourt Brace,
l999);
r~ ~ (Llsbon. Camlnho, l998);
a b (Llsbon. Camlnho, l999);
c~ ~I NVTSNVVU (Llsbon. Camlnho, l999);
^ ~~ (Llsbon. Camlnho, 2000); translated by Costa
as q `~ (London. Harvlll, 2002; New York.
Harcourt, 2002);
^ ~ (Llsbon. Camlnho, 200l);
l ~ (Llsbon. Camlnho, 2002); translated
by Costa as q a (London. Harvlll, 2001;
New York. Harcourt, 2001);
b~ ~ (Llsbon. Camlnho, 2001); trans
lated by Costa as p (London. Harvlll, 2006;
New York. Harcourt, 2006);
a d~ ~ (Llsbon. Camlnho,
2005);
^ ~ ~ (Llsbon. Camlnho, 2005);
^ ~ ~ (Llsbon. Camlnho, 2006).
OJHER. 'Ouvldo," ln m~ I edlted by
Ilguelredo Magalhes (Llsbon. Bertrand, l979),
pp. l9-26.
In October l998 |os Saramago became the flrst
wrlter of the Portuguesespeaklng world to recelve the
Nobel Prlze ln Llterature. Jhe Swedlsh Academy`s clta
tlon for Saramago called hls novels 'parables sustalned
by lmaglnatlon, compasslon, and lrony," an apt charac
terlzatlon of the unlversal slgnlflcance of the wrlter`s
work. In l997 wrlter Edmund Whlte had already
declared that no candldate for the Nobel Prlze had a
better clalm to lastlng recognltlon as a novellst than
Saramago. Although Saramago`s flrst novel, q~
~ (Land of Sln), appeared ln prlnt ln l917, he dld
not begln to recelve natlonal and lnternatlonal acclalm
for hls work untll he was almost slxty years old. Hls
rlse to the top of the llterary establlshment was
meteorlc. Indeed, durlng the l980s and l990s no
other Portuguese wrlter attalned greater natlonal and
lnternatlonal recognltlon, a fact substantlated by the
many prestlglous awards that Saramago has recelved
both ln Portugal and abroad, the translatlon of many of
hls works lnto more than thlrty dlfferent languages, and
the multlple edltlons of hls books ln Portugal and ln for
elgn countrles.
Even though he ls better known for hls wrltlngs
subsequent to the revolutlon of 25 Aprll l971, espe
clally hls novels, Saramago was already a publlshed
author prlor to the l971 events that ended the fasclst
dlctatorshlp of Antnlo de Ollvelra Salazar and hls suc
cessor, Marcelo Caetano. Llke many other wrlters of
the postrevolutlonary generatlon, Saramago was
affected by the represslon and the censorshlp assoclated
wlth the Portuguese fasclst state and by the longlastlng
Afrlcan colonlal wars ln whlch Portugal was lnvolved
durlng the l960s and early l970s. Jhese wars affected
the natlonal psyche so profoundly and dlsrupted the
llves of so many of lts cltlzens that ultlmately they cre
ated the condltlons for the l971 mllltary coup, an event
responslble for the creatlon of democratlc rule ln Portu
gal and for the lndependence of the Portuguese Afrlcan
colonles.
In thls new polltlcal settlng, whlch was lnltlally
deflned by extreme revolutlonary fervor and zeal even
tually moderated by Portugal`s acceptance of Western
European parllamentary democratlc ldeals, Saramago
wrote most of hls books. Jhe author, llke other wrlters
of the postrevolutlonary perlod, turned to Portuguese
hlstory as a source of lnsplratlon for many of hls wrlt
lngs. Jhe turn to hlstory occurred for two reasons.
Ilrst, a more open polltlcal cllmate after the l971 revo
lutlon allowed Saramago to deal wlth a subject, Portu
guese hlstory, that was off llmlts durlng the fasclst
perlod. Second, the changlng polltlcal and soclal clr
cumstances of the country created a need to relnvent
Portugal through a revlslonlst recodlng and reevalua
tlon of Portuguese hlstory as the country emerged from
almost flfty years of a natlonallstlc fasclst dlscourse that
had completely dlstorted Portuguese hlstory for polltl
cal and ldeologlcal motlves. Saramago felt that through
an engagement wlth Portuguese hlstory he would
achleve a greater understandlng of hls own country,
and he would also be able to contrlbute to a new lmag
ery and ldentlty for the natlon.
Saramago was born ln the small vlllage of Azln
haga, ln the provlnce of Rlbatejo, about a hundred kllo
meters northeast of Llsbon, on l6 November l922, lnto
a famlly of rural workers. Hls parents were |os de
Sousa and Marla da Pledade, but the reglstrar, on hls
93
ai_ PPO g p~~~
own, declded to wrlte the famlly`s nlckname 'Sara
mago" on the ldentlty card. Jhus, the boy was offlclally
reglstered as |os de Sousa Saramago, whlch was later
shortened to |os Saramago when he began grammar
school. Before he turned two, hls parents declded to
move to Llsbon. Although he grew up ln Llsbon and
went to school there, he stlll spent long perlods of hls
chlldhood and youth ln the countryslde wlth hls grand
parents, who greatly lnfluenced hls vlew of the world.
In hls Nobel lecture the wrlter addressed the slmple but
meanlngful peasant llfe of hls grandparents, and he
acknowledged that he was so lmpressed by hls llllterate
grandfather |ernlmo that he lmaglned that |ernlmo
was the master of all the knowledge ln the world. Llfe
ln Llsbon was dlfflcult for the Sousa famlly. A few
months after the famlly settled ln the clty, Saramago`s
only slbllng, an older brother named Iranclsco, dled.
Saramago was an excellent student ln elementary
school, but the flnanclal sltuatlon of the famlly dld not
allow hlm to contlnue hls studles ln an academlc hlgh
school. Consequently, he enrolled ln a technlcal school
to learn a trade. After flnlshlng hls studles ln l939, he
worked for two years as a mechanlc ln a car repalr
shop. Durlng thls tlme he became more lnvolved wlth
llterature, a subject ln whlch he had developed a keen
lnterest whlle he was ln technlcal school. Lacklng the
flnanclal means to buy books, he began to go to a pub
llc llbrary durlng the evenlng hours to read. In l911,
when he was worklng wlth the Soclal Welfare Servlces
as a clvll servant, he marrled Ilda Rels, who bore hls
only chlld, Vlolante, ln l917. Colncldentally, that same
year hls flrst novel, q~ ~I was publlshed.
q~ ~I wlth lts anachronlstlc lndebtedness
to nlneteenthcentury naturallsm, has mostly a referen
tlal lnterest for scholars of the author`s flctlon. Most
crltlcs and the author hlmself conslder lt an experlment
ln flctlon wrltlng, an aesthetlc practlce destlned to have
a short llfe and wrltten by an lndlvldual who was not
yet ready to be a novellst. Saramago was consclous of
the shortcomlngs of hls lnltlal lncurslon lnto the novel
genre, and lt took hlm another thlrty years before he
publlshed another novel, j~~ ~ ~~~
(l976; translated as j~~ m~ ~ `~~I
l991). However, he dld not remaln totally sllent durlng
thls perlod, slnce he publlshed several collectlons of
poetry, chronlcles, and essays before he returned to the
novel, the genre that eventually brought hlm lnterna
tlonal acclalm.
q~ ~ does not flt lnto the aesthetlc
parameters of elther modernlsm or neoreallsm, whlch
were then ln vogue ln Portugal. Saramago was seem
lngly unaware of the exlstence of |orge Amado, |os
Llns do Rgo, and Graclllano Ramos, wrlters from the
northeast reglon of Brazll whose lnfluence paved the
way for the development and the establlshment of neo
reallsm ln Portugal. Jhls llterary movement was lntent
on produclng soclally and polltlcally engaged works of
art that focused on endlng represslon, classlsm, allen
atlon, oppresslon, exploltatlon, and censorshlp. Neore
allsm, ln whlch the representatlon of reallty followed a
strlct and dogmatlc Marxlst perspectlve, had as lts maln
ldeologlcal goal the undermlnlng and subverslon of
Salazar`s reglme. However, q~ ~I ln lts polltlcal
lntent and aesthetlc conceptlon, cannot be regarded as
an ldeologlcal weapon ln the war agalnst state fasclsm.
It ls, rather, a work that has much ln common wlth the
nlneteenthcentury novel and lts theorles of evolutlon,
whlch played an lmportant role ln the deslgn of natural
lst narratlve. Jhe novel undenlably has great afflnltles,
ln terms of plot and themes (especlally those assoclated
wlth sexual taboos), wlth the novels of Ea de _uelrs
and Camllo Castelo Branco, nlneteenthcentury Portu
guese novellsts who frequently focused on sordld sex
ual affalrs and the moral degeneratlon of a decadent
rural and urban bourgeolsle. q~ ~I through lts
focus on the sexual dlssatlsfactlon of the maln character,
Leonor, and her bllnd obedlence to sexual lmpulses,
reveals that lt follows closely the aesthetlcs of natural
lsm, ln whlch a character`s behavlor ls subordlnated to
physlology and determlned by the soclal and cultural
space that he or she lnhablts.
Saramago, after hls debut wlth q~ ~I
walted another nlneteen years before he publlshed
another book. Hls only excuse for not wrltlng durlng
such a long perlod of tlme was that he had nothlng
worthwhlle to say. Between the publlcatlon of hls flrst
novel and hls flrst collectlon of poetry l ~
(l966, Posslble Poems) he worked ln dlfferent jobs; lnl
tlally, he was employed wlth a metal company, and
toward the end of the l950s he got a job as a produc
tlon manager wlth a publlshlng company. He also
began to translate books from Irench lnto Portuguese
ln order to supplement hls famlly lncome. Hls actlvltles
as a translator only stopped ln l98l, when hls lncreas
lng stature as an author allowed hlm to dedlcate hlmself
totally to hls creatlve wrltlng.
Between l966 and l975, Saramago produced
three volumes of poetry. l ~ I m~
~~ (l970, Probably |oy), and l ~ NVVP (l975,
Jhe Year l993). Jhe author has sald that whenever he
reflects upon hls poetry he has a sense of uneaslness
because he feels he ls expresslng hlmself and creatlng an
ldentlty through the wrong genre. In a preface to the
second edltlon of l ~ (l982), an edltlon
slgnlflcantly revlsed by the author, Saramago observes
that the book owes lts merlts to the themes and the
obsesslons present ln hls poetry that llnk lt to hls later
novels. Several crltlcs have commented on the connec
91
g p~~~ ai_ PPO
tlons between hls poetry and the novels, especlally U
ovo dc 199J, a work vlewed as a fundamental step
toward hls flctlon, but they also polnt to an lntrlnslc
organlc coherence and a thematlc unlty ln hls poetry. In
addltlon, hls poems have a certaln degree of orlglnallty,
even lf they conform to the tradltlon of the Portuguese
modern lyrlcthe roots of hls poetry can be found ln
Portuguese modernlsm, especlally ln the work of
Iernando Pessoa, the most dlstlngulshed poetlc volce of
the flrst wave of modernlsm ln Portugal ln the early
twentleth century.
Us pocmos possvcis ls dlvlded lnto flve sectlons. the
flrst and the last have, respectlvely, fortyelght and
slxtyseven poems, whlle the other three have alto
gether only thlrtytwo poems. Jhese poems are, as a
rule, short; the majorlty are onestanza decasyllablc
poems. Among the lmportant themes present ln Us poc-
mos possvcis are the constant confrontatlon and struggle
wlth poetlc creatlon, the lnablllty to flnd the proper
word to convey meanlng ln a world of chaos, and slmu
latlon as the reallty of poetry. In the three central sec
tlons, the wrlter focuses on oppresslon and solldarlty
and on love as a way to overcome death and tlme. He
strlkes out agalnst censorshlp and the denlal of free
dom, and he constructs a world ln whlch the creatlve
act has been returned to humans slnce they have been
abandoned by the gods. Although Saramago`s world
vlslon may seem utterly pesslmlstlc and dark through
out the book, the last sectlon does restore a semblance
of balance to hls vlslon. A pesslmlstlc tone, dlsllluslon
ment, and an lnslstence on the lnsufflclency of the
power of the word to stop the lrreverslble flow of tlme
and/or construct the unlty of the subject may stlll pre
vall ln the last sectlon, but these themes are counterbal
anced by a more optlmlstlc vlslon of the world that
slngles out physlcal and sensual love and erotlclsm as
human attrlbutes that can, through thelr redeemlng
qualltles, stop the flow of tlme and foster reblrth.
Poetry, love, and tlme are the structural bases for Sara
mago`s book. Jhe author also seems to lndlcate that
any meanlngful knowledge of the world can be
achleved only through a constant questlonlng of the
multlple posslbllltles of language.
Irovovclmcvtc olcgrio extends and adds to the the
matlc llnes establlshed ln the wrlter`s flrst book of
poetry. Lnllke Us pocmos possvcis, thls new volume ls not
dlvlded lnto sectlons, and each poem ls not constltuted
as part of a whole. Jhe composltlon ls much more frag
mented, and some of hls poetlc composltlons, especlally
the prose poems, antlclpate the later flctlon through
thelr lyrlcal qualltles and suggestlve lmagery. Jhrough
the very act of readlng, encounterlng lmages that gener
ate new surprlses, dlscoverles, and lllumlnatlons, the
reader makes sense of the text. Jhese poems, through
thelr vlsual lmagery and the role played by the reader ln
uncoverlng thelr slgnlflcance, reveal ln thelr aesthetlc
beauty many slmllarltles wlth Saramago`s mature texts.
It ls dlfflcult to classlfy the genre of U ovo dc 199J.
Jhere are lndlcatlons that Saramago prefers the label of
poetry, whlch ls justlflable slnce the text ls dlvlded lnto
thlrty dlfferent parts that structurally resemble poems.
However, some crltlcs dlsagree wlth the author`s classl
flcatlon. Slnce U ovo dc 199J resembles a narratlve wlth
a plot that develops untll lt reaches lts cllmax, and lt has
a sententlous and morallzlng tone, they feel the book ls
closer to belng a novel or a chronlcle.
Jhe tltle of thls experlmental text suggests
strong afflnltles wlth George Orwell`s ìvctccv Iiglty-
Iour (l919). Llke Orwell`s novel, Saramago`s work ls
a deplctlon of an lmaglnary and prlmltlve futurlst
dystoplan world where represslon and abuse of power
run rampant. Lnllke ìvctccv Iiglty-Iour, however, U ovo
dc 199J does not resort to language to repress lts cltl
zens and to create a nlghtmarlsh world characterlzed by
vlolence, terror, and anarchy. Jhe book beglns wlth an
lnvaslon of a clty by nameless despotlc forces. Jhe
lnhabltants of the clty are already slck wlth the plague;
even llght has been lnfected. Subsequently, an elevator
malfunctlons, and a man who leaves hls home after cur
few ls subjected to an lnterrogatlon for many days. He
ls asked a questlon every slxty mlnutes for whlch he
must glve flftynlne dlfferent answers. Wlthout any
explanatlon, the lnhabltants of the clty flnd themselves
outslde of the clty walls, wlth wolves now occupylng
thelr former homeslnvertlng, as the author clalms, the
natural order of thlngs. Jhe despots occupylng the clty
begln bulldlng mechanlzed elephants and eagles to hunt
people down, and a wltch doctor reduces the clty to the
slze of a human body, so that when the commander of
the occupylng forces whlps the body, all of lts lnhablt
ants get welts. Ilnally, crystal prlsons are bullt wlth cells
shaped llke beehlves so that all prlsoners can be
observed ln thelr most lntlmate acts.
Slowly, the trlbe that occuples the plateau outslde
the clty beglns to organlze ln a fraternal and human
way wlth the objectlve of puttlng an end to the apoca
lyptlc atmosphere ln the clty and to beat back the lnvad
lng forces. As the trlbe struggles agalnst the despots, lt
recelves support from the natural elements, whlch come
to lts defense. Jrees begln attacklng the lnvaders, and a
blrd destroys a mechanlzed eagle, whlch cannot defend
ltself slnce lt has been programmed to attack only
humans. Language, whlch had been lost, slowly
emerges as a man and a woman look at each other dur
lng the sexual act, an act enveloped ln sllence but whlch
eventually allows the palnful blrth of a new world. Sex,
lndeed, ls a key element ln maklng soclety whole agaln.
Sexual acts, along wlth rltes of fertlllty, occur prlor to
95
ai_ PPO g p~~~
the lnsurrectlon of the terrorlzed trlbe and lts subse
quent expulslon of the lnvaders from the occupled clty.
In reallty, U ovo dc 199J ls the narratlon of the
cycle of llfe and death or of destructlon and procreatlon
through an lmaglnary constructlon of a futurlst dysto
pla located ln an urban space, whlch ls eventually
destroyed by sexual love, reproductlon, and humanlty.
In a more polltlcal and ldeologlcal sense, the book lllus
trates the vlslon of an author who strongly belleves that
revolutlonary acts can redeem humanlty. Saramago`s
constructlon of a dark and apocalyptlc clty space under
scores hls pesslmlstlc vlew of the sltuatlon ln Portugal
one year after the l971 revolutlon. Nevertheless, the
concluslon of the book reveals that not all ls hopeless,
slnce change ls always posslble.
Durlng the l960s and l970s, as he began to pub
llsh on a regular basls, Saramago kept busy wlth other
professlonal actlvltles. He was a llterary crltlc for the
revlew Scoro òvo. In l972 and l973 he worked for the
newspaper Dirio dc Iisboo (Llsbon Dally), where he
wrote polltlcal essays and commentarles. Ior part of thls
perlod he was also ln charge of the cultural supplement
of the newspaper. In l975, for a short perlod of tlme, he
was the assoclate edltor of the Dirio dc òticios (Dally
News), a post he fllled untll 25 November, when the
Portuguese government took a more rlghtward turn on
the heels of a counterrevolutlon that blocked the ascen
dancy and the galns of the Left ln the country. Sara
mago, a staunch defender of communlsm and lts ldeals
(and stlll a cardcarrylng Communlst), was flred by the
newspaper. Nevertheless, hls dlsmlssal from Dirio dc
òtcios paved the way for hls career as a professlonal
wrlter. He declded then to abandon hls career as a jour
nallst and to dedlcate hlmself excluslvely to creatlve
wrltlng.
Whlle Saramago was wrltlng and publlshlng hls
poetry durlng these decades, he was also trylng hls
hand at wrltlng chronlcles. Jhese works, whlch flrst
appeared ln newspapers, were later complled by the
author and publlshed as volumes. Dcstc muvdo c do outro
(l97l, Irom Jhls World and Irom the Other) ls a col
lectlon of texts that appeared ln prlnt between l968 and
l969 ln the dally Z Copitol (Jhe Capltal), and Z bogogcm
do viojovtc (l973, Jhe Jraveler`s Baggage) assembles
texts publlshed between l97l and l972 ln the same
newspaper as well as ln the weekly U orvol do Iuvdo
(Jhe Iundo Dally). In addltlon to these volumes, the
author publlshed another two. Zs opivics quc o Dirio dc
Iisboo tcvc (l971, Jhe Oplnlons Jhat the Dirio dc Iisboo
Hod ), texts that appeared flrst ln prlnt between l972
and l973 ln the dally Dirio dc Iisboo, and Us opovtomcv-
tos (l976, Notes), a collectlon of texts wrltten between
Aprll and September of l975 and publlshed ln the dally
Dirio dc òtcios.
In the chronlcles of the last two volumes, whlch
are a compllatlon of Saramago`s polltlcal wrltlngs a few
years prlor to the l971 revolutlon and durlng the revo
lutlonary process ltself, the author assumes an expllclt
and lnvolved posture vlsavls the polltlcal sltuatlon and
the events occurrlng ln hls country. In Zs opivics quc o
Dirio dc Iisboo tcvc the wrlter questlons and attacks the
represslve Portuguese polltlcal system and vents hls
lndlgnatlon agalnst the lack of freedom at a tlme when
Caetano had already replaced Salazar as the leader of
the country. In some chronlcles there ls a sense of
expectatlon and hope that the polltlcal sltuatlon may
change. In Us opovtomcvtos the reader notlces the wrlter`s
deep lnvolvement wlth the revolutlonary events. He
never falls to attack and crltlclze sharply what he con
slders are the falllngs of both the revolutlon and the
democratlc process.
Both books have greater hlstorlcal and soclal
value than llterary value. Even though there ls a strong
ldeologlcal llnk between these chronlcles and Sara
mago`s later novels, lt ls hard to make the case that they
contrlbute slgnlflcantly to the evolutlon of Saramago as
a novellst. However, they help the reader understand
the polltlcal lntrlgue, the maneuvers, the wlshes and
hopes, and the emotlonal state of mlnd of Portuguese
cltlzens durlng the prerevolutlonary perlod and also
lmmedlately after the l971 revolutlon. Jhe chaos, the
struggle for the deflnltlon of democracy and freedom,
and the constant ldeologlcal and lnterparty wars are
also some of the postrevolutlonary lssues that Sara
mago addresses.
Lnllke the two volumes that deal chlefly wlth
polltlcal events and lssues, Dcstc muvdo c do outro and Z
bogogcm do viojovtc antlclpate ln dlfferent ways the
mature novellst. Jhe wrlter hlmself has asserted that
there ls a strong correlatlon between these two books
and hls novels. Saramago`s comment ln hls l998 lnter
vlew wlth Carlos Rels that 'everythlng ls there" ln the
chronlcles ls well known. Jhe creatlve lmpulse ls
already present ln the chronlcles, and the reader can
dlscern ln them the flrst rough sketches of the flctlonal
characters that undergo greater development ln hls nov
els. Jhe chronlcles also focus on lssues and themes to
whlch he returns ln the novels of the l980s and l990s.
current events; the urban and rural landscapes; human
types and personalltles; the recuperatlon of the past
through memory; the voyage through the cultural and
hlstorlcal landscapes; the act of wrltlng; the lnterrela
tlonshlp between hlstory and flctlon, hlstory as flctlon,
and the relnventlon of hlstory; the use of the fantastlc
and the maglc ln the constructlon of reallty; and the
lntersectlon of past, present, and future. Although Sara
mago ls wrltlng chronlcles, he takes great pleasure ln
narratlng storles wlth a varlety of characters and per
96
g p~~~ ai_ PPO
sonalltles that reappear ln hls mature work. phantoms,
apparltlons, klngs, anlmals, and a great varlety of lov
ers. Moreover, the lnqulsltlve, crltlcal, lronlc, and tender
narratlng volce that questlons and makes comments
about everythlng and everyone, whlch makes hls nov
els so orlglnal, ls already present ln these chronlcles.
a and ^ ~~ ~~I
through thelr thematlc and structural connectlon wlth
Saramago`s mature work, play an lmportant role ln the
transltlon between the author`s formatlve and mature
llterary phases; they open up narratlve paths that the
author reuses ln hls mature novels. In one of hls chronl
cles, 'Vlagens na mlnha terra" (Jravels ln My Land),
Saramago observes that chronlcles are brldges that are
hurled lnto the emptlness ln search of flrm ground.
Jhlrty years after the publlcatlon of hls flrst
novel, Saramago returned to the genre wlth j~~
~ ~~~I a work that was attuned to the con
temporary llterary envlronment of Portugal and Europe
but that only recelved crltlcal notlce and pralse after
Saramago had become a hlghly regarded novellst ln the
l980s. Jhematlc concerns that resurface ln later novels,
as well as the many dlgresslons that are fundamental to
the structure of the wrlter`s mature flctlon, play a cru
clal role ln the constructlon of the flctlonal world of
j~~ ~ ~~~K Jhese themes lnclude the
relatlonshlp between the self and the 'Other," the ten
slons between llfe and art and reallty and lmaglnatlon,
the rejectlon of classlcal reallsm as a valld aesthetlc form
for the representatlon of reallty, the unceaslng questlon
lng of truth or the plural truths of the text, the lmpossl
blllty of ever reachlng a slngular truth because of lts
dupllcltous nature, the dlscovery of narratlve as revela
tlon of the world, the constant subverslon of canonlzed
lmages and hlstorlcal events, the wrlter as an artlsan,
the relatlonshlps between voyage and selfknowledge
and narratlve, and the novel as artlflce. Ilnally, there ls
the author`s preoccupatlon wlth the crlsls of representa
tlon and the (re)constructlon of reallty through hls
focus on two essentlal facets of the act of creatlon. one
that stresses the vlsual (palntlng), and one that empha
slzes the evocatlve and slgnlfylng power of the word
(calllgraphy).
j~~ ~ ~~~I whlch Saramago con
slders hls most autoblographlcal novel, ls a flrstperson
narratlve about a medlocre palnter, a portraltlst, deslg
nated only by an lnltlal, H. Jhe story colncldes chrono
loglcally wlth the last few months of the Portuguese
Estado Novo (New State), the fasclst dlctatorshlp, and
the beglnnlng of the revolutlonary perlod ln l971. In
fact, the novel ends wlth the euphorla brought about by
the unfoldlng events ln the dawn of 25 Aprll l971. H.,
who ls well aware of hls llmltatlons and lneptltude as a
palnter and who senses that he ls trapped ln a predlct
able and banal soclal network of frlendshlps, makes a
consclous declslon to start wrltlng a dlary, whlch he
hopes wlll lead hlm to selfknowledge, a goal that so far
has eluded hlm as a portralt artlst. He beglns to wrlte
because he recognlzes that through hls prevlously cho
sen form of artlstlc expresslon he ls condemned to be
and do what others want hlm to be and do. As a palnter
he ls condltloned by a system of patronage lnstltuted by
those who pay hlm slzable commlsslons for hls por
tralts, a practlce that places hlm at thelr mercy and
forces hlm to palnt wlthln strlctly deflned aesthetlc
codes that are culturally lnstltutlonallzed. Before H. has
hls exlstentlal crlsls, whlch forces hlm to reflect on the
functlon of art, he seems content dolng the same repetl
tlve thlngs. he engages ln loveless affalrs; he separates
from lovers wlthout sufferlng; and he experlences tlme
after tlme the same predlctable adventures. In essence,
he llves a llfe wlthout hlstory, a llfe of medlocrlty and
lnertla, a llfe wlthout any blg or dramatlc rlsks. Hls
approach to palntlng mlrrors these characterlstlcs. In
fact, there ls a strong correlatlon between hls personal
and artlstlc llves.
When H. beglns hls dlary, he flnds hlmself
restrlcted by the codes and conventlons that blnd lan
guage and the act of narratlon. Wrltlng and palntlng
seem to be followlng the same beaten and tradltlonal
paths. However, a journey to Italy, where he comes lnto
contact wlth a varlety of artlstlc manlfestatlons, makes
H. reallze that only through lmaglnatlon and maglc ls
the artlst free to shape the creatlve process. Hls dlary
reflects clearly thls transformatlon. As the novel comes
to a close, hls love affalr wlth M.the female protago
nlst of the novelrelnforces hls transformatlon, slnce lt
becomes a catalyst for H.`s further development as an
artlst. At thls polnt H. decldes not to palnt a portralt
commlssloned by the 'Senhores da Lapa" ln a conven
tlonal manner. Instead, he opts to palnt lt uslng a rlsky
and lmaglnatlve plctorlal language that breaks all
canonlcal rules, an act that lndlcates hls rupture wlth a
dylng polltlcal system, a death that occurs wlth the l971
revolutlon. Jhe event also allows Portuguese soclety to
undergo a transformatlon. Wlth hls declslon to use
lmaglnatlon ln the palntlng of a portralt, H. flnally
shows that he ls capable of cllnglng to hls ldeals ln a
world that ls stlll obsessed wlth materlal bourgeols val
ues.
In l978 l ~ (Almost an Object) became
the flrst and only collectlon of short storles publlshed
by Saramago. Jhe volume, whlch comprlses slx short
storles mlxlng the fantastlc and sclence flctlon, focuses
on themes that are valuable to the wrlter, such as the
struggle agalnst consumer soclety and totalltarlan sys
tems that have strlpped lndlvlduals of thelr humanlty
and subjectlvlty and are the dlrect cause of thelr allen
97
ai_ PPO g p~~~
atlon. Jhe storles of the collectlon are 'Cadelra" (Jhe
Chalr), 'Embargo" (Embargo), 'Refluxo" (Reflux),
'Colsas" (Jhlngs), 'Centauro" (Centaur), and 'Des
forra" (Revenge). Jhe maln objectlve of these storles ls
the restoratlon of the humanlty that has been taken
from the lndlvldual by allenatlng and represslve mea
sures. Some of these storles are polltlcal or soclal allego
rles, such as 'Cadelra," 'Embargo," and 'Refluxo,"
whlle others, such as 'Colsas," portray a Kafkaesque
vlslon of the world.
'Ouvldo" (Hearlng), another short story,
appeared ln l979 ln a collectlve volume tltled m~
(Poetlcs of the Ilve Senses). Besldes Sara
mago, flve other major Portuguese wrlters collaborated
ln the effort. Jhe storles are all lnsplred by a famous
tapestry belonglng to the serles i~ a~ ~ iI
exhlblted ln the Cluny Museum ln Parls. Saramago`s
contrlbutlon on hearlng ls thematlcally related to
j~~ ~ ~~~I slnce both works focus on
the connectlon between wrltlng and the plastlc arts.
In the same year that 'Ouvldo" appeared, Sara
mago publlshed hls flrst play, ^ (Jhe Nlght), whlch
was followed ln l980 by another play, n ~
\ (What Wlll I Do wlth Jhls Book?). Jhe flrst play
deals wlth events taklng place on the nlght of 21 Aprll
l971 ln the edltorlal room of a newspaper, as the flrst
slgns of the Portuguese revolutlon are clearly felt. Jhe
second focuses on the poet Lus de Cames, the great
est llterary flgure of the Portuguese Renalssance, as hls
poetry and llfe become lntertwlned symbollcally wlth
the new revolutlonary Portugal. Cames had been used
ln the offlclal fasclst dlscourse for dlfferent reasons. to
bolster patrlotlsm, belllgerent natlonallsm, and glorlflca
tlon of the Portuguese past. Colncldentally, the play
appeared ln the same year that the fourth centenary of
the poet`s death was belng commemorated ln Portugal.
On several occaslons Saramago has clalmed that
he never had much of a vocatlon for the theater and
that he has never been a great reader of plays. Jhe four
plays that he has wrltten ln hls llfetlme have, ln hls own
words, always been wrltten because of an lnvltatlon or
a suggestlon that he has recelved. Probably for these
reasons, ^ and n ~ \ as well as the
other two plays, ^ ~ ~ c~ ^ (l987,
Jhe Second Llfe of Irancls of Asslsl) and f a
(l993, In the Name of God), do not dlsplay the llnguls
tlc lnnovatlons or the formal lnventlons that character
lze hls mature prose. Nevertheless, llke hls novels, hls
dramaturgy alms at transformatlon of soclety, and lt ls
hlghly lnterventlonal. Jhe focal polnt of Saramago`s
theater ls never the play as spectacle. Jheater as a
genre, however, ls what allows the author to questlon
wrltlng and the multlple meanlngs of words, and to
refocus the reader`s attentlon on problems relevant to
contemporary Portugal through a dramatlzatlon of hls
torlcal events.
Jhe year l980 represents a watershed ln Sara
mago`s llterary career; he emerged as a wrlter of great
talent and slgnlflcance wlth the publlcatlon of hls novel
i~~ (Ralsed from the Ground). Jhe lnno
vatlve use of narratlve language ln thls novel and the
ablllty to reflect upon Portuguese hlstory ln order to
questlon lts supposed objectlvlty and lts role ln the rep
resentatlon of events brought lts author lmmedlate crltl
cal acclalm. Saramago`s groundbreaklng use of a
novellstlc language dlspenses wlth orthodox punctua
tlon, dlacrltlcal marks, perlods at the ends of sentences,
and quotatlon marks for dlalogue, and only uses com
mas to lndlcate stops ln the narratlve. Saramago`s lan
guage also dlstlngulshes ltself by a varlety of llngulstlc
reglsters from every soclal class, whlch makes lt closer
to oral tradltlon. Hls prose, wlth lts sudden shlfts ln
tenses and volces, lronlc lnterjectlons by the narrator,
constant dlgresslons, and fuslon of the narrator`s per
spectlve wlth that of the characters, has many afflnltles
wlth the baroque style of Iather Antnlo S. |. Vlelra, a
seventeenthcentury Brazlllan/Portuguese author known
for hls sententlous sermons wrltten ln an ornate manner.
Jhe recreatlon of language and the oral tone of the
prose ln i~~ become permanent features ln
most of Saramago`s subsequent novels. No less orlglnal
ln thls novel ls the author`s ablllty to mlx and lntersect
the real and the hlstorlcal wlth the fantastlc and the
lmaglnary, whlch not only allows Saramago to glve the
reader a more exact plcture of reallty but also llnks hls
wrltlngs to those of Gabrlel Garca Mrquez and other
Latln Amerlcan wrlters assoclated wlth maglc reallsm.
Jhe ldea that all truths are plural and that all
knowledge about hlstory ls flltered through the subjec
tlvlty that recreates lta lesson that H. ln j~~ J
~ ~~~ learned wellalso plays a fundamental
role ln the development of the plot of i~~ I
a work deallng wlth three generatlons of rural workers
from the Alentejo reglon. Domlngos MauJempo, hls
son |oo, and hls grandchlldren. At the beglnnlng of
l976, Saramago had embarked on a journey to Alentejo
to famlllarlze hlmself wlth the llves, the deslres, and the
economlc and soclal problems of rural workers, wlth
the purpose of wrltlng a novel that would mark the
presence of those who barely reglster ln the soclal hler
archy. i~~ deals wlth hls personal observa
tlons ln rural Alentejo.
Jhe novel beglns a few years prlor to the over
throw of the monarchy and the foundatlon of the Portu
guese Republlc ln l9l0 and ends just after the l971
revolutlon. In between these major events others
abound. World War I, Salazar`s Estado Novo, the Span
lsh Clvll War, World War II, and the Portuguese colo
98
g p~~~ ai_ PPO
nlal wars ln Afrlca. All these events are seen through
the eyes of dlfferent generatlons of the MauJempo fam
lly, peasants worklng the land and struggllng agalnst the
oppresslve condltlons lmposed by the absent latlfun
dlum owners. Jhe saga of the MauJempo famlly, pre
sented as an eplc struggle for better llvlng condltlons,
emanclpatlon, and the attalnment of human dlgnlty, ls
the axls around whlch hlstory becomes flctlon and flc
tlon becomes hlstory, a domlnant theme ln all Sara
mago`s novels. It ls extremely dlfflcult for the peasant
workers to effect change, because the laws of the power
ful have turned them lnto volceless creatures. However,
the herolc struggle of the landless Alentejo farmhands
agalnst tyranny never dles. Jhelr redemptlon flnally
takes place when the peasants take over the land and
evlct the latlfundlum owners from thelr lands or, better
yet, evlct thelr lackeys, those men who have enslaved
and oppressed the rural workers ln the name of absent
landowners. Jhe revolutlonary actlon lncludes as one
of lts leaders the daughter of |oo MauJempo, Marla
Adelalde Espada, a woman who rlses from the ground
along wlth many male supporters to launch a new chap
ter ln Portuguese hlstory. Marla Adelalde lnaugurates
the presence of strong female characters ln Saramago`s
works.
When Saramago llved among the rural Alentejo
workers ln l976, llstenlng to thelr personal storles, he
lnformed them that someday he would publlsh thelr
narratlves. He kept hls promlse by maklng sure that
i~~ was the recorded oral testlmony of
those who were sllenced by offlclal hlstory, those who
construct the country but whose deeds are absent from
offlclal documents. Jhe author`s objectlve ln wrltlng
the book, as the tltle of the novel expllcltly suggests, ls
to 'ralse from the ground" of Alentejo (and, by exten
slon, of Portugal) those who are unable to ralse them
selves because they never had a volce ln the wrltlng of
hlstory.
Wlth i~~ I Saramago`s career as an
lnfluentlal novellst was launched. Nonetheless, the fact
that he had already tolled for years on hls wrltlng craft
prlor to the crltlcal acclalm conferred on i~~
should not be overlooked, slnce lt was that earller
work that prepared the wrlter for hls seemlngly over
nlght llterary success, whlch for hlm arrlved at the
advanced age of flftyelght. Although he ls best known
for the novels that he has publlshed beglnnlng wlth
i~~ I a fact that relnforces the ldea of the
exlstence of two Saramagosa more orlglnal wrlter
after l980 and a much lesser one before l980lt would
be wrong to assume thls dlchotomy ln Saramago`s llter
ary trajectory as some crltlcs have done. Most crltlcs
have focused more on the lnnovatlve qualltles of hls
prose ln the l980s and l990s and have a tendency to
overlook hls earller work, but hls productlon prlor to
l980 ls stlll of hlgh quallty. As |os Horclo Costa and
Marla Alzlra Selxo have shown through thelr analyses
of the wrlter`s prel980 perlod, there are many formal
and thematlc connectlons between the prel980 and the
postl980 perlods, whlch lndlcate that the program
matlc roots and routes for the wrlter`s later develop
ment were already present ln embryonlc form ln many
of the chronlcles, poetry, short storles, and novels of the
flrst phase of hls llterary career.
In l98l Saramago publlshed s~ ~ m~
(translated as g m~W f m m~
e ~ Ì 2000), a travel narratlve that mlngles
characterlstlcs of flctlon, chronlcles, and tourlst guldes.
Jhe book ls a voyage through Portuguese culture, as a
traveler, referred to ln the thlrd person, journeys
throughout the country lncltlng the reader to other voy
ages. Although the narratlve glves lnformatlon and
comments on the places vlslted by the traveler, the
lnformatlon has a subjectlve quallty, slnce lt dlstances
ltself from the stereotyplcal language found ln a tourlst
gulde. As Saramago clalms ln the lntroductlon to the
book, s~ ~ m~ ls a hlstory about a traveler and
a voyage searchlng for a fuslon between the one who
sees and what ls seen, an encounter between subjectlv
lty and objectlvlty. By calllng attentlon to the subjectlve
nature of the book, Saramago underscores that the nar
ratlve act plays an lmportant role ln the traveler`s jour
ney. He dlscusses constantly the dlfferent ways of
narratlng and descrlblng. Instead of just descrlblng
what he sees, the traveler focuses on the act of seelng
and on hls feellngs and reflectlons regardlng what ls
seen. Jhere ls a strong correlatlon between the voyage
to the lnterlor of the self and the voyage through Portu
gal. In the lnterlor voyage, the traveler flnds out about
hlmself; he constructs an autoblography. In the exterlor
voyage, he recaptures Portuguese culture and hlstory
through a personal focus on the manlfestatlons and the
volces of the people, as well as on small vlllages and
other enchantlng places and monuments, whlch are slg
nlflcantly related to Portuguese hlstory and culture.
j~ (l982, Memolr of the Con
vent; translated as _~~~ ~ _~I l987) was
Saramago`s flrst novel to wln crltlcal acclalm abroad.
Jhls novel, whlch mlxes fantasy wlth reallty, centers on
the earlyelghteenthcentury constructlon of the Mafra
Convent, a monument bullt to satlsfy the megaloma
nlac deslres and vanlty of the Portuguese clergy, nobll
lty, and klng. It also descrlbes the constructlon of an
alrborne vehlcle by Iather Bartolomeu Gusmo, wlth
the help of Baltasar and Bllmunda, the two protago
nlsts, who are romantlcally lnvolved. Jhe Mafra Con
vent came to be bullt because of a pledge made by Klng
|ohn V, ln return for the queen glvlng hlm an helr. Not
99
ai_ PPO g p~~~
wlthstandlng the pledge, the constructlon of the con
vent, as Saramago hlghllghts ln hls narratlve, represents
a vlctory for the forces of rellglous fanatlclsm, waste,
and corruptlon, slnce thousands of peasants were
lnvolved for many years ln the bulldlng of thls monu
ment, deprlvlng Portugal of essentlal manual labor for
farmlng and bulldlng the country up ln other areas.
j~ ls a satlrlcal account of the
pomp and ceremony that characterlzes an era, the
baroque perlod, known for lts festlvltles, autosdaf,
bullflghts, convents as bordellos, and processlons
chlefly for the dellght and the enjoyment of the upper
classes. Jhe work ls a story about love (Baltasar and
Bllmunda), hope and ldeallsm (the alrborne machlne),
and lunacy and abuse (the constructlon of the Mafra
Convent). In the context of the elghteenth century, the
alrborne machlne, assoclated wlth the human wlll and
dreams, ls the antlthesls of the Mafra Convent, a sym
bol of corruptlon and represslon to satlsfy the klng`s
dreams of vanlty and grandloslty. Jhe novel focuses on
the monument and the machlne for dlfferent reasons.
Jhe machlne symbollzes the valulng of humanlty and
people`s ablllty to effect change and to reallze dreams.
Jhe focus on the monument challenges the truth of offl
clal hlstory, whlch has always credlted the klng for the
convent constructlon. Jhe novel narrates a dlfferent
hlstory of the convent, one wlth eplc dlmenslons. Jhe
eplc, ln thls lnstance, ls not grandlose and herolc for
those who wrlte offlclal hlstory, slnce they never partlcl
pate ln lts maklng. It ls herolc for those, the lower
classes, who sacrlflce, suffer, and even dle to carry out
the lunatlc dreams of a monarch. As the novel lndlcates,
for the new heroes the task ls palnful and absurd. At the
end, the constructlon ls a hollow vlctory, because the
workers are denled thelr role ln the constructlon of the
Mafra Convent ln offlclal documentsan omlsslon that
ls rectlfled by j~ I the story of those
who have not been wrltten lnto hlstory but who are, ln
reallty, the true makers of hlstory.
Saramago`s next novel, l ~ ~ o~
o (l981; translated as q v~ a~ o~
oI l99l), ls set ln the early years of Salazar`s dlctator
shlp and the beglnnlng of the Spanlsh Clvll War. Jhe
tale follows the romantlc, soclal, polltlcal, psychologlcal,
and artlstlc adventures of Rlcardo Rels through the lab
yrlnthlne streets of Llsbon and the vlllage of Itlma.
Rels, a poetphyslclan, was one of the many llterary per
sonae created by Pessoa, the most emlnent Portuguese
modernlst poet; Saramago makes Rels a separate char
acter. Jhe novel ls thus a contlnuatlon of Pessoa`s work.
Rels has been ln exlle ln Brazll slnce l9l9 because of
hls monarchlst sympathles; Saramago brlngs hlm back
from exlle to become reacqualnted wlth Llsbon and lts
changlng reallty after he learns of Pessoa`s death. Jhe
narratlve beglns ln late l935 wlth the arrlval of Rels
from Brazll on the e~ _~I a Brltlsh shlp, just a
few days after Pessoa`s death on 30 November. Pessoa
hlmself ls also brought back as a ghost who acts as an
observer and crltlc of the events occurrlng ln Portugal
and the world ln l936 and as an advlser to hls poetlc
creatlon, Rels. Jhe two have heated dlscusslons on pol
ltlcs, aesthetlcs, llfe, rellglon, hlstory, and phllosophy.
A negatlve lmage of polltlcal and soclal turbu
lence greets Rels upon hls arrlval ln Llsbon ln late
l935. Jo the newcomer, Llsbon looks llke a sllent and
somber clty enclosed wlthln walls and facades, whlch
on thls partlcular day are belng battered by a deluge.
Jhe severe weather and the vlolent storms that con
tlnue for days durlng the wlnter of l935-l936 set the
tone for a polltlcal landscape characterlzed by a cllmate
of vlgllance, fear, and represslon affectlng all Portuguese
cltlzens. Jhe gloomlness of the clty and lts lnhabltants
ls preclpltated by the somber and suffocatlng lmages of
a fasclst state supported by the secret pollce, the mlll
tary, paramllltary groups, censorshlp, newspapers,
radlo, and even the Church. As Rels beglns to take
dally walks through the Llsbon streets, the same nega
tlve lmages prevall. Jhe cemetery where Pessoa ls bur
led, whlch Rels vlslts, ls a contlnuatlon of the clty and
completes lt metaphorlcally. Jhe cemetery, wlth all lts
streets, pathways, roads, avenues, and numbers, ls a
portralt of Llsbon and, by extenslon, Portugal. Jhe
lnhabltants of the cemetery, just llke those of the clty,
can only watch lmpasslvely as the polltlcal sltuatlon
deterlorates and as events occurrlng ln Portugal and ln
other countrles llmlt personal freedom even further and
threaten to create a more oppresslve cllmate.
Rels, a classlclst who ls a strong bellever ln a phl
losophy of contemplatlon, lndlfference, and lmpasslbll
lty, ls not truly lnterested ln engaglng actlvely wlth the
clty. Mostly, he walks almlessly through the streets,
attracted by the cultural and llterary aspects of hls sur
roundlngs, such as monuments, statues, and bulldlngs,
an attractlon that glves rlse to reflectlons and dlvaga
tlons. As Rels contemplates wlth lndlfference the specta
cle of the real clty, he lmaglnatlvely recreates another
that ls an embodlment of dlfferent cultural and llterary
textures, patterns, tonalltles, and alluslons as well as sty
llstlc harmonles, amblgultles, and dlscordances, whlch
underscores hls perceptlon of the world as text. Jhe
fact that he only relates to the world through the texts
wlth whlch he ls famlllar prevents hlm from under
standlng the polltlcal sltuatlon. Iasclsm does not really
flt lnto hls mental makeup or values. He reads about
what ls happenlng ln the rest of Portugal, sees a movle
belng fllmed for propagandlstlc reasons, partlclpates ln
a polltlcal rally, hears about Adolf Hltler and hls youth
brlgades, reads the many lles belng publlshed ln news
l00
g p~~~ ai_ PPO
papers, and ls even harassed by the secret pollce; but he
observes and feels everythlng through the prlsm of hls
classlcal detachment. He ls slmply content wlth the con
templatlon of reallty.
^ ~~~ ~ (l986; translated as q p
o~I l991) narrates the lmaglnary and futurlstlc separa
tlon of the Iberlan Penlnsula from the rest of Europe. In
the Pyrenees Mountalns, ln the frontler dlvldlng Irance
from Spaln, a deep crack occurs, whlch leads not only
to the separatlon of the penlnsula but also to lts ensulng
almless voyage through the Atlantlc as a glgantlc stone
raft. After changlng dlrectlon several tlmes, the penln
sula ends up anchored ln the South Atlantlc, ln a loca
tlon that ls exactly equldlstant from Afrlca and South
Amerlca. Jhe lnexpllcable separatlon of the penlnsula
from Europe colncldes wlth several strange and super
natural events that occur ln both Portugal and Spaln.
Jhe novel was wrltten at a tlme that an lnflamed
polemlc on ldentlty and natlonallsm was taklng place ln
Portugal between lndlvlduals who supported the unlon
of Portugal wlth the European Communlty (EC) and
those who staunchly opposed lt. Most government offl
clals supported the lntegratlon, whlle many lntellectuals
opposed lt. ^ ~~~ ~ ls wrltten agalnst the
absorptlve capaclty of offlclal hlstory. A few years prlor
to the wrltlng of the novel, the Portuguese geopolltlcal
space had been reduced wlth the loss of the Afrlcan
emplre. Jhe country was stlll trylng to flgure out lts
new posltlon ln the European landscape, as well as lts
changlng ldentlty, when the polltlcal machlnery declded
to joln the EC. Many lntellectuals, lncludlng Saramago,
felt that those ln power, the creators of hlstory, were ln
fact not allowlng Portugal to have a new reblrth after
the loss of the emplre. Jhey were strongly opposed to
lntegratlon. Jhus, ^ ~~~ ~ must be lnter
preted as a counterlntegratlon narratlve. On the one
hand, lt seeks to dlsmantle the ldeologles of the EC
lntegratlon; on the other, lt trles to suggest alternatlves
to lntegratlon and to rethlnk other polltlcal optlons
before the two Iberlan countrles become full EC mem
bers. Jhe wrlter hlmself has sald that he dld not wrlte
thls novel because of a fear of loss of cultural ldentlty.
He wrote lt because he belleved that the penlnsula
needed to redlrect ltself toward somethlng from whlch lt
had been cut. the countrles of the IberlanAmerlcan
and the IberlanAfrlcan spheres. Wlthln thls polltlcal
context the penlnsularaft functlons not as a slgn of a
debllltatlng lsolatlonlsm but rather as a metaphor for
the constructlon of a new Iberlan hlstory and culture
that takes lnto account lts llngulstlc, cultural, and soclal
afflnltles wlth lts Amerlcan and Afrlcan 'Others."
Saramago`s utmost deslre ln ^ ~~~ ~ ls
to reject the lntegratlve dlscourse through an lmaglnary
search for a new natlonal ldentlty or a common Iberlan
ldentlty, whlch conforms to hls vlews on lntegratlon.
Jhe penlnsularaft voyage stresses the communal char
acterlstlcs of the penlnsula. lt unltes the Spanlards and
the Portuguese; lt forces the governments of the two
countrles to work ln unlson ln order to solve the crlsls
and to prevent chaotlc condltlons; and lt reveals the
connectlons between the cultural productlons of the
two countrles. Jhe common pllgrlmage of the Iberlan
Penlnsula ls a consclous authorlal strategy of reslstance
agalnst morepowerful European cultural productlons,
whlch the wrlter feels wlll lmpose themselves on Portu
gal and Spaln lf lntegratlon runs lts full course. In fact,
^ ~~~ ~ represents the revolt of the people
agalnst a penlnsula ruled by forelgn cultural and eco
nomlc powers.
Jhe play ^ ~ ~ c~ Î llke
many of Saramago`s novels, also resorts to hlstory to
craft lts artlstlc world. In the play, Saramago, as he had
done before wlth Pessoa ln l ~ ~ o~ oI
brlngs back to llfe an hlstorlcal flgureSt. Irancls of
Asslsland places hlm ln a modern clty where he has to
confront a capltallst, mercantlllst, and computerlzed
soclety. ^ ~ ~ c~ Î whlch ls a
polltlcal allegory, focuses on Irancls`s return to a world
of commerclallsm that ls antlthetlcal to hls romantlclzed
ldeal of poverty. Jhe Iranclscan Company that he
encounters, as opposed to the Company that he
founded centurles before, ls a capltallst enterprlse regu
lated strlctly by market forces. As he reallzes that he ls
not golng to be able to force the Company to return to
the Iranclscan ldeal of poverty, he comes also to the
concluslon that a llfe of poverty does not mean, as he
belleved before, salnthood and salvatlon. Jhe new
Irancls accepts that only ln the struggle agalnst poverty
wlll he flnd hls humanlty, hls salvatlon. In essence, the
play ls about the transformatlon of Irancls from salnt to
man, from Irancls to |oo ( |ohn), whlch was Irancls`s
orlglnal name.
e~ i~ (l989; translated as q
e p iI l996) ls Saramago`s novel
that most expllcltly focuses on the relatlonshlp between
hlstory and flctlon. Jhe lnterplay between the two
occurs because the plot of the book contradlcts the offl
clal verslon of the slege of Llsbon ln the Mlddle Ages.
In the twelfth century, the Portuguese had taken over
Llsbon from the Moors wlth the help of the crusaders.
However, ln Saramago`s novel, the protagonlst,
Ralmundo Sllva, who ls a proofreader correctlng the
galley proofs of a hlstory book about the slege of Lls
bon, decldes to change the offlclal hlstory of Portugal
through a creatlve act. He lnserts a ln the galleys ln
the passage referrlng to the ald that the crusaders ren
dered the Portuguese ln thelr conquest of Llsbon. By
lnsertlng a I the proofreader subverts and lnverts one
l0l
ai_ PPO g p~~~
of the great foundatlonal myths of Portugal. the altered
text now falsely clalms that the crusaders dld not come
to the ald of the Portuguese. Jhe falslfled verslon of the
slege should not be lnterpreted as a lesser truth; lt ls just
a dlfferent truth, another verslon of a reglstered hlstorl
cal event that leads to the transformatlon of past reallty.
As the protagonlst flnds out, changlng the past also
changes the present.
Ralmundo`s creatlve act, whlch makes hlm reallze
that he has the power to produce meanlng, must be
vlewed as a necessary correctlon of Portuguese hlstory.
Jhe new hlstory takes lnto account the blendlng of
Chrlstlan and Musllm cultures occurrlng durlng the
Mlddle Ages ln Portugal. Jhe proofreader`s subverslve
act restores Musllm culture to lts rlghtful place ln the
constructlon of Portuguese natlonal ldentlty, slnce the
focus of the altered hlstorlcal document ls on the accep
tance of Musllm culture rather than lts rejectlon.
Although Ralmundo`s text may be consldered a
novel wlthln a novel, lt ultlmately becomes e~
i~I a text that slmultaneously deconstructs
the offlclal and lnherlted hlstory of Portugal and also
questlons the very nature and essence of hlstorlcal truth
and how lt relates to flctlon. Ralmundo`s quest leads
hlm to the reallzatlon that there are no certalntles and
that truth ls just as absent from hlstory as lt ls from flc
tlon. Jhe concluslon ls that truth ls always constructed
ln a speclflc context by human belngs. Jhe novel may
have started wlth an alteratlon of factual reallty, but lt
subsequently evolves lnto a questlonlng of the capaclty
of hlstory to represent a slngle and objectlve truth. Even
the eplgraph of the book, whlch ls taken from an lmagl
nary _ b~I addresses the lssue of the
lmportance of correctlon ln seeklng truth.
Jhrough a deflant act, the lnsertlon of one small
word ln an hlstorlcal narratlve, Ralmundo ls redeemed
by llberatlng hlmself from the conventlons that control
hls exlstence. Jhrough the free reln of hls lmaglnatlon,
he flnally allows hlmself to love someone for the flrst
tlme. Marla Sara, one of the edltors ln the publlshlng
house where Ralmundo works, becomes hls lover and
confldante. He ls a conflrmed bachelor ln hls flftles
who, as far as anyone can tell, has never had a love
affalr before ln hls llfe. Wlth hls newly acqulred free
dom, he ls able to narrate another story that acts as a
counterpolnt to hls affalr wlth Marla Sara. the affalr
between Moguelme and Oruana, two lovers from the
tlme of the real slege of Llsbon. Jhls parallel affalr,
whlch sheds llght on Ralmundo`s affalr, lnforms the
reader that the past explalns the present and lnterprets
lt crltlcally, and vlce versa.
Saramago`s novel l b~ g `
(l99l; translated as q d ^ g Ì
l993) created an uproar ln Portugal because of lts con
troverslal subject. In thls bltter satlre of an apocryphal
blography of |esus, a meansplrlted God uses the lnno
cently human |esus to found a represslve rellglon,
Cathollclsm, whlch has spawned vlolence and lntoler
ance through tlme. Llke Nlkos Kazantzakls`s q i~
q~ ` (l95l), the story of a selfdoubtlng
Savlor, l b~ g ` ls also a rewrltlng
of Chrlst`s llfe, an account of |esus` journey on Earth
from Bethlehem to Gethsemane that departs from tradl
tlonal lnterpretatlons. Jhe Portuguese Church attacked
the novel as heresy, and a member of the conservatlve
Portuguese government took the book out of competl
tlon for the l992 European Llterary Prlze for whlch lt
had been nomlnated, on the grounds that lt was an
attack on the Chrlstlan values and the rellglous falth on
whlch Portugal was founded. Jhe declslon, whlch Sara
mago called a case of censorshlp, prompted the author
to leave Portugal and to take up resldence ln Lanzarote,
ln the Canary Islands, where he llves wlth hls wlfe, the
Spanlsh journallst Pllar del Ro (Mara del Pllar del Ro
Sanchez), whom he marrled ln l988. (Saramago had
been dlvorced from hls flrst wlfe slnce l970.)
Jhe book, whlch beglns and ends wlth |esus` cru
clflxlon, ls narrated by an unnamed evangellst whose
authorlty comes from hls wlde range of knowledge
about dlfferent hlstorlcal perlods. Jhere ls some ambl
gulty about who fathers |esus, slnce at hls nonvlrglnal
conceptlon God mlxes hls seed wlth |oseph`s. As ln
most of Saramago`s novels, supernatural and fantastlc
occurrences also play an lmportant role ln the plot of l
b~ g `K |esus` youth follows the
normal pathways found ln the Blble, although the com
posltlon of hls famlly ls decldedly dlfferent, lncludlng
several brothers and slsters. |oseph falls to warn the
other parents when he flnds out about Herod`s planned
massacre of all boys under three; he slmply runs away
wlth hls famlly to escape lt. |oseph`s gullt about thls fall
ure results ln hls cruclflxlon at the hands of the Romans
for a crlme he dld not commlt.
In l b~ g ` |esus ls not
really God dlsgulsed as a man; he ls someone who ls
vlctlmlzed by God ln a cynlcal and selflsh ploy ln order
for God to extend hls lnfluence over the whole world,
not just ln |udea. Jhe powers glven to |esus are meant
only to convlnce the rest of the world that he ls God`s
son. |esus does not wlsh to be the son of God or to
make mlracles to help God`s cause. Nelther ls he wllllng
to sacrlflce hlmself, as determlned by God, to create the
llluslon of a lovlng and carlng God who glves hls llfe for
others.
God ln thls novel ls sly, bloodthlrsty, vengeful,
and lnterested ln power for power`s sake. God`s ambl
tlon allows hlm flnally to achleve hls ultlmate goal. the
establlshment of a church, a symbol of hls power, whlch
l02
g p~~~ ai_ PPO
wlll be dug ln flesh, lts walls made of agony, angulsh,
and death. After God`s reference to the establlshment of
hls church, he beglns a lltany of sorrows, tears, tortures,
and deaths that human belngs suffer for hls sake. Jhe
lltany goes on for four pagesln alphabetlcal order, so
as not to hurt any feellngs about precedence and lmpor
tance.
Ior a tlme, the pressure of God over |esus ls so
strong that the son reluctantly accepts hls destlny. Nev
ertheless, as the novel ls about to conclude, |esus beglns
to questlon the role that he has been coerced lnto play
lng and denles hls dlvlnlty. He becomes a leader of a
revolutlonary group flghtlng agalnst Roman power. He
ls lmprlsoned and condemned to dle on the cross as an
enemy of Rome. He ls certaln he wlll dle as a son of
man and not as the son of God. However, as he ls about
to dle, God appears ln the heavens and proclalms hlm
hls beloved son. |esus responds by lnvertlng the famous
words that he sald on the cross. men forglve hlm, for he
knows not what he has done.
Jhe lrony of the flnal words focuses on God`s
lnhumanlty and |esus` humanlty. God ls the authorltar
lan flgure who only understands the languages of
power and selflnterest, and |esus ls the symbol of gen
eroslty and human llfe when he becomes one wlth all
men. In U Ivovgcllo scguvdo csus Cristo |esus learns from
several sources. hls blologlcal parents, hls pastor, and
God. However, he learns the most from Mary
Magdalene. |esus, through hls relatlonshlp wlth Mary,
awakens to sexual llfe and learns the true meanlng of
freedom, somethlng that God does not allow any lndl
vldual ln the novel to enjoy, partlcularly the one person
he chooses to be hls son. Jhus, the novel may be con
strued as an exaltatlon of human love comblned contra
puntally wlth the nonhuman dogmatlsm of transcendental
power.
Saramago`s fourth play, Iv vomivc Dci, was pub
llshed ln l993. As ln prevlous plays and most of the
author`s novels of the l980s, hlstory contlnues to be an
object of scrutlny. Rellglon, the theme of both U Ivov-
gcllo scguvdo csus Cristo and Z scguvdo vido dc Irovcisco dc
Zssis, ls also the author`s maln concern ln thls play. A
bllnd and fanatlc rellglous dogmatlsm plays a cruclal
role ln the dramatlc events. Iv vomivc Dci focuses on the
flghts between Cathollcs and Protestants ln Mnster,
Germany, from l532 to l535, whlch led to the destruc
tlon of the clty and the perpetratlon of horrendous
crlmes agalnst humanlty, all ln the name of God.
Iv vomivc Dci ls dlvlded lnto three acts, whlch are
preceded by a prologue focuslng on rellglous lntoler
ance and lrratlonallty and followed by a chronology of
events taklng place ln Mnster. Jhe play clearly alms to
tackle lssues of abuse of power, lntolerance, and lncen
dlary fanatlclsm, all byproducts of dlfferent and oppos
lng rellglous polnts of vlew. Iv vomivc Dci deplcts the
consequences that befall humanlty when certaln lndl
vlduals are totally gulded by fanatlclsm, lntolerance,
and vlolence ln thelr attempt to achleve thelr rellglous
objectlves. Jhe play ls also a condemnatlon of those
who surrender to bllnd falth and lrratlonallty, meta
phors of a dehumanlzed world.
Every year from l991 to l998, Saramago pub
llshed a dlary. Jhese flve volumes are tltled collectlvely
Codcrvos dc Iovorotc (Notebooks from Lanzarote). Sara
mago`s dlarles focus on a varlety of themes ranglng
from the documentary to the llterary, the polltlcal, and
the phllosophlcal. On the documentary level, the dla
rles record many of the author`s prlvate moments and
experlences, address domestlc problems, and recount
hls many travels to attend congresses, to recelve prlzes,
or to be lntervlewed. On other levels, he reglsters hls
reactlons to speclflc events, such as Portugal`s lntegra
tlon lnto the EC, the polemlc unleashed by the publlca
tlon of U Ivovgcllo scguvdo csus Cristo, and the success of
Iv vomivc Dci. He also comments on such prevalllng and
relevant lssues as rellglous lntolerance, atrocltles com
mltted agalnst humanlty, the multlpllclty of mecha
nlsms used by power to repress world cltlzens, and
censorshlp, especlally as lt relates to the publlcatlon of U
Ivovgcllo scguvdo csus Cristo and hls selfexlle to Lanza
rote because of the ensulng controversy. Iurthermore,
Saramago uses hls dlarles to engage ln dlalogue or
polemlc wlth other wrlters, to dlscuss the act of wrltlng,
and to comment about books he has publlshed or ls
wrltlng.
Ivsoio sobrc o ccguciro (l995, Essay on Bllndness;
translated as livdvcss, l997) lnltlates a new cycle ln
Saramago`s llterary career. Ivsoio sobrc o ccguciro and the
novels Todos os vomcs (l997; translated as Zll tlc òmcs,
l999) and Z covcrvo (2000; translated asTlc Covc, 2002)
constltute a trllogy that addresses concerns and themes
that are more unlversal ln character than those ln prevl
ous novels, slnce these earller works were deeply rooted
ln Portuguese hlstory. Jhe three novels, whlch do not
make speclflc references to tlme and space, fall wlthln
the mode of allegorlcal flctlon.
In Ivsoio sobrc o ccguciro the characters, beglnnlng
wlth a man who ls stopped at a trafflc llght, are struck
wlth a whlte bllndness. Wlthln a few days, everyone ln
the clty seems to have gone bllnd, wlth the exceptlon of
the wlfe of the doctor who had examlned the flrst bllnd
man. She remalns unaffected by the malady throughout
the whole novel. Jhe devastatlng epldemlc that strlkes
the clty and country (whlch, llke the characters, are
unnamed) creates havoc everywhere and brlngs a relgn
of terror wlth nlghtmarlsh condltlons. a state of moral
and soclal degradatlon and abjectlon characterlzed by
gang rapes, murders, fllth, lack of hyglene, humlllatlon,
l03
ai_ PPO g p~~~
a total breakdown of technlcal support, and even
exploltatlon at the hands of other bllnd men. As the
bllndness epldemlc spreads, those who have fallen vlc
tlm to lt are quarantlned ln a mental asylum, where
they are subjected to cruel and lnhuman condltlons.
Abandoned by an outslde world that ls fearful of the
contaglous dlsease and full of blgots, a group led by the
optometrlst`s wlfe (who has felgned her bllndness)
beglns to organlze ltself ln response to the abuslve
behavlor of the other lnmates. Jhese lnmates have also
organlzed themselves to preserve thelr selflsh lnterests,
prlvllege, and power, whlch translates lnto better llvlng
accommodatlons, greater quantltles of food, and even
sexual favors ln exchange for food. Jhe group led by
the optometrlst`s wlfe ls founded on prlnclples of the
humane aspects of all relatlonshlps. generoslty, solldar
lty, respect for others, and selfsacrlflce. However, as the
optometrlst`s wlfe flnds out, there comes a moment
when kllllng someone ls a moral obllgatlon, lf humanlty
ls to survlve. Her kllllng of a vlolent leader of a rlval
gang must be vlewed wlthln thls context, slnce lt averts
a complete meltdown of clvlllzatlon.
Jhe people who are quarantlned flnally regaln
thelr freedom because all the outslde forces that have
kept them lmprlsoned have become bllnd as well. As
the group led by the optometrlst`s wlfe journeys
through the clty, they dlscover that the same apocalyp
tlc condltlons of the asylum now prevall ln the clty.
thlrst, hunger, cold, fllth, and chaos. In such a world
there can only be 'a government of the bllnd trylng to
rule the bllnd, that ls to say, or nothlngness trylng to
organlze nothlngness." Jhe group eventually ends up
at the home of the optometrlst`s wlfe; and just as myste
rlously as they had lost thelr slght, they regaln lt, one
by one. Jhe recuperatlon of slght occurs when the char
acters reallze that llfe ls organlzatlon and death ls dlsor
ganlzatlon, and that lndlvlduals must act and have falth
ln each other ln order to regaln thelr reason, thelr lucld
lty. Jhe bllndness ln the novel ls not a physlcal allment
but rather a polltlcal and phllosophlcal lllness. Jhe
novel ls an allegory of lrratlonallty, of a contemporary
soclety that has lost lts wlll to be ratlonal and human,
that ls, to see. However, the recovery of slght at the end
suggests that humanlty ls stlll allve and that utopla ls
stlll a posslblllty.
Lnllke ln b~ ~ ~I ln q
there ls not a breakdown of order. On the contrary, thls
novelparable offers a nlghtmarlsh vlslon of order taken
to lts extreme. An lnflexlble bureaucratlc hlerarchy that
reduces every employee to a functlon wlthln the organl
zatlon runs the Reglstry where protagonlst |os works.
He ls the only character wlth a name ln the novel, and
he has just a flrst name, an lndlcatlon of the lnslgnlfl
cance of the person. Jhe room where the clerks work ls
arranged accordlng to hlerarchy ln a harmonlous way,
whlch reveals a connectlon between aesthetlcs and
authorlty.
Jhe Kafkaesque world of q I as the
descrlptlon of the Reglstry lndlcates, has reduced
human llfe to some dates and statlstlcs and a few other
lnconsequentlal and meanlngless detalls recorded ln a
flle. In the apparently tranqull and secure space of the
Reglstry, the human splrlt ls really entrapped. One
evenlng |os sneaks wlthout authorlzatlon lnto the Reg
lstry to plck flve card lndexes of lmportant flgures, to
further hls hobby of collectlng lnformatlon on famous
people, but ln hls haste to retrleve the lndexes he plcks
up slx lnstead of flve, whlch he brlngs home. In the
slxth lndex, the name (whlch ls never dlvulged to the
reader) and blrth, marrlage, and dlvorce dates of an
ordlnary female cltlzen are recorded. Jwo days later,
|os decldes to begln a quest to flnd out more about thls
woman.
|os`s search for the real person who lles behlnd
the few blographlcal detalls on an lndex card ls also a
search for selfknowledge. Hls quest, whlch he consld
ers absurd, ls somethlng that he needs to undertake
anyway ln order to flnd hls own ldentlty. Jhrough an
act of lnsubordlnatlon, he has taken the flrst step to free
hlmself from the quaslmythlcal space of the Reglstry
wlth lts suffocatlng and deadenlng atmosphere. Hls
quest, whlch acqulres mythlcal overtones, leads hlm to
seek lnformatlon about the woman from several lndl
vlduals, lncludlng her parents, and to break lnto a
school where she had been a student to flnd out more
about her. When he flnally locates her, he dlscovers that
she had commltted sulclde only a few days earller.
Jhus, he never gets a chance to meet the woman who
has become the source of hls obsesslon and wlth whom
he has fallen ln love. He can only go to the cemetery
where she ls burled.
At the end of the novel, as he returns home one
evenlng, |os flnds the Reglstrar ln hls house. Jhe Reg
lstrar ls not there to reprlmand |os or to flre hlm, how
ever; he ls there to tell hlm that he admlres what |os
has done, because through hls actlons |os has revealed
to the Reglstrar the real meanlng of llfe. Jhe Reglstrar
decldes that lt ls totally absurd to separate the dead
from the llvlng, and he even suggests that |os place the
woman`s flle among those of the llvlng. Jhe Reglstrar`s
subverslve notlon of no longer vlewlng the past as
death and the present as llfe wlll change the whole orga
nlzatlonal structure of the Reglstry. Jhe dead wlll also
partake of the present, because the flles of the dead wlll
no longer be separated from the llvlng. Jhe dead wlll
llve ln the memory of the llvlng and thelr love.
In l999 Saramago publlshed a b
(Stockholm Speeches) and c~ ~I NVTSNVVU
l01
g p~~~ ai_ PPO
(Polltlcal Papers, l976-l998). a b ls a
compllatlon of Saramago`s speeches related to hls belng
awarded the Nobel Prlze ln Llterature for l998. Jhe
speeches shed llght on the publlc and the prlvate Sara
mago, slnce they deal wlth the author`s personal back
ground, hls famlly, and hls reflectlons on some
controverslal lssues. c~ ~ ls a compllatlon of
polltlcal artlcles wrltten by the author between l976 and
l998 and publlshed ln newspapers and magazlnes, both
ln Portugal and abroad. About half of the essays were
publlshed prlor to l980; the others appeared ln prlnt
after that date.
Although the essays that were wrltten ln the l980s
and l990s are not as concerned wlth polltlcal transforma
tlon as those wrltten earller, they are stlll polltlcal ln nature,
as the author deals wlth such controverslal toplcs as the
l991 uprlslng of the Zapatlsta Natlonal Llberatlon Army
ln Chlapas, Mexlco; the EJA (a terrorlst organlzatlon
seeklng an lndependent Basque state ln Spaln); and the fall
of the Berlln Wall. In the later essays, the wrlter also exam
lnes and reflects on lssues of globallzatlon; lmmlgratlon;
transnatlonal relatlons, especlally those between Portugal
and Brazll; the relatlonshlp between the polltlcal and the
cultural; the effects on wrlters and the readlng publlc as a
result of certaln polltlcal trends; and the role of the wrlter
ln soclety, natlonal ldentlty, and local culture. In a few of
the essays there ls a nostalglc look at the past, speclflcally
at the Portuguese revolutlon wlth lts promlse of llberty,
whlch leads the wrlter to questlon whether that moment ln
l971 was a dream or a perfect moment ln hls llfe.
^ ~~I Saramago`s flrst novel after recelvlng
the Nobel Prlze, closes the trllogy about urban dysto
plas that began wlth b~ ~ ~ and was fol
lowed by q K Jeresa Crlstlna Cerdelra da
Sllva has called these novels 'a trlptych reflectlng
humanlty`s quest for meanlng ln the mldst of lts endof
mlllennlum crlsls." ^ ~~I whlch ls not a recreatlon
of Plato`s allegory of the cave but has many afflnltles
wlth lt, ls an allegorlcal satlre of the shopplng center as
a symbol of consumer soclety, the new cave where
humanlty ls currently entrapped. As the author clalms,
the shopplng center ls the new cathedral or unlverslty
of commerclallsm and freemarket capltallsm, whlch
have transformed reallty lnto vlrtual reallty. Jhe people
llvlng ln the Center, a resldentlal and commerclal com
pound ln a nameless metropolls, lnhablt a world ln
whlch they assume that the shadows they see golng by
on the walls are reallty. Jhe wrlter satlrlzes thls glgantlc
space of global consumer capltallsm multlplylng rapldly
llke a mlrror game creatlng deceltful llluslons that pass
for reallty. Jhe Center, whlch threatens to swallow
everythlng ln lts perlphery, lncludlng a clty, ls a mlcro
world that determlnes and programs everythlng and
controls the movement of lts lnhabltants, as well as thelr
lelsure actlvltles, through the creatlon of vlrtual recre
atlonal spaces. Jhe dwellers have become vlrtual prls
oners of the Center; all thelr needs are satlsfled wlthln
lts walls.
^ ~~ ls not only about a nlghtmarlsh urban dys
topla, as exempllfled by a Center that controls the destlny
of lts dwellers; lt ls also the story of Clprlano Algor, a
slxtyfouryearold potter llvlng ln a nearby vlllage, who
sells hls earthenware vessels to the Center. He llves wlth
hls daughter, Marta, who ls marrled to Maral Gacho, a
securlty guard at the Center. Maral anxlously awalts a
promotlon to resldent guard so that he can actually move
lnto the Center wlth hls famlly. In hls current posltlon, he
has to work tenday shlfts before he has a few days off,
whlch leads to long separatlons from hls wlfe. When the
promotlon arrlves, the young couple and Clprlano relo
cate to the Center. Clprlano ls reluctant to move, because
the Center has unscrupulously canceled the sales contract
lt has wlth hlm, clalmlng that Center consumers prefer
objects made from a plastlc that lmltates clay. Wlth the ter
mlnatlon of the contract, Clprlano decldes to produce
l,200 decoratlve flgurlnes, whlch the Center also rejects
because a survey of lts dwellers lndlcates that consumers
are not lnterested ln buylng them. Clprlano, reallzlng that
he ls no longer necessary to the functlonlng of the world,
moves to the Center wlth hls famlly, all along dlsgulslng
hls sadness for havlng abandoned hls rural home, a home
that ls harmonlously lntegrated wlth hls trade. In fact, the
home ls an extenslon of hlmself.
Dlssatlsfled wlth the Center, Clprlano rebels sub
tly agalnst lts organlzatlon and rules. Eventually, he
trespasses lnto a cave wlthln the Center where archaeo
loglcal excavatlons are belng undertaken. He and hls
sonlnlaw enter the offllmlts areaPlato`s cave, as a
blllboard posted ln the Center soon advertlsesand dls
cover lnslde slx petrlfled flgures, the stone bodles of slx
lndlvlduals who had falled to understand the meanlng
of deflance. As a consequence of thelr fallure, they were
condemned to llve ln a world of shadows wlthout any
posslblllty of escape. In a sense, they were the ones who
rejected llght and llberty by thelr lack of actlon. By
chooslng llluslon and slmulacrum lnstead of reallty, and
lgnorance lnstead of knowledge, they became petrlfled.
Clprlano reallzes that the petrlfled flgures ln the cave
are really bodles of lndlvlduals, llke hlm, who have
falled to defy the encroachment of commerclallsm. Jhe
dlscovery of thls dystoplan vlslon of the world changes
Maral`s dependent and submlsslve relatlonshlp wlth
the Center, and he and hls wlfe declde to leave, just llke
Clprlano.
As the novel comes to a close, the three charac
tersaccompanled by Isaura, Clprlano`s new love lnter
estare seen leavlng ln search of a new llfe, but not
before Marta states that they are flnlshed wlth the Cen
l05
ai_ PPO g p~~~
ter, that the pottery has come to an end, and that from
one day to another they have become strangers ln thls
world. Notwlthstandlng her words, the journey to the
unknown holds the promlse of llfe. Marta ls pregnant.
Jhere ls no flnal trlumph of the splrlt over the lnhuman
and evll forces of the Center, only a hlnt that not all ls
lost yet. Although the novel does not offer any concrete
solutlons to llmlt the growth and the devourlng power
of the Center, Saramago shows that unless human
belngs are wllllng to flght and reject the apocalyptlc
lmages of the Centers of the world, as the four charac
ters have done, then humanklnd ls condemned to llve
ln a world of vlrtual reallty characterlzed by decelt,
shadows, and mlrror games.
l ~ (2002; translated as q aI
2001) narrates the story of a hlghschool hlstory
teacher, Jertullano Mxlmo Afonso, who becomes
obsessed wlth hls apparent double, Antnlo Claro, after
seelng hlm playlng a mlnor role as a hotel clerk ln a
vldeo that he had rented. Jhls actor, whose name does
not even appear ln the credlts of the movle, ls Jertu
llano`s exact lookallke. they are the same age (thlrty
elght years old); thelr volces match ln tlmbre and tone;
they are the same slze; and they are a mlrror lmage of
each other ln physlcal appearance for they have the
same face, eyes, halr, and ldentlcal scars and moles ln
exactly the same places on thelr bodles. Even some of
Jertullano`s experlences seem to echo those of hls dou
ble, or twln. Although both characters are absolutely
ldentlcal ln physlcal appearance, they are markedly dlf
ferent ln terms of thelr temperament. Jertullano ls a
passlve, dull, tlmld, and lndeclslve lndlvldual who has
just gone through a bltter dlvorce and does not want to
commlt hlmself to any longterm relatlonshlp wlth hls
current flance, Marla da Paz, whlle Antnlo, who uses
the screen name of Danlel SantaClara, ls an aggresslve,
lmpulslve, sleazy, and phllanderlng actor marrled to
Helena.
Jertullano`s vldeo encounter wlth hls mlrror self
shatters hls peaceful and borlng exlstence, as lt brlngs to
the fore lssues related to hls lndlvldual lntegrlty and
unlqueness ln the world. In fact, the essentlal thlngs that
make the protagonlst a slngular lndlvldual cannot any
longer be sanctloned or sustalned. Hls lndlvlduallty or
sense of ldentlty, whlch rests on a flxed and relatlvely
stable set of customs, bellefs, rltuals, practlces and
meanlngs, soclologlcal categorles, and unlque experl
ences falls apart as a result of the traverslng of another
lndlvldual lnto hls coherent sense of self and personal
space. As a consequence, he becomes obsessed wlth
Antnlo Claro, the lndlvldual responslble for the usur
patlon of Jertullano`s ontologlcal lntegrlty and unlque
ness. Jhus, he beglns to see many of Antnlo`s movles,
about thlrty ln all, ln order to flnd out not only who the
usurper of hls coherent sense of self ls but also to exact
some sort of revenge from the lmposter, for he repre
sents an affront to Jertullano`s lnner deslre for contlnu
lty and lntegrlty. After ldentlfylng hls mlrror self and
angulshlng through a long and extended sectlon of the
narratlve, Jertullano flnally contacts hls double,
Antnlo, who, ln turn, also becomes obsessed wlth hls
mlrror self, Jertullano. One day, Antnlo shows up at
Jertullano`s door and lnforms hlm of a plan that he has
devlsed to seduce Marla da Paz, Jertullano`s flance.
Jhe plan ls much ln keeplng wlth hls phllanderlng
nature.
Jhe ensulng dlalogue between the two men has
all the characterlstlcs of a language power game wlth
many arguments and counterarguments regardlng the
demeanlng but Machlavelllan plan that Antnlo has
conjured up ln order to conquer hls rlval`s flance, a
game that Antnlo ultlmately wlns. At the end of the
dlalogue, Jertullano reluctantly accepts that the other
has won the battle and the prlze that comes wlth lt, a
onenlght stand wlth Marla da Paz. Although Antnlo
wlns the flrst battle, he loses the second, for Jertullano
takes advantage of hls double`s meetlng wlth Marla da
Paz to seduce Helena, Antnlo`s wlfe. In the end, there
are only losers. Marla da Paz and Antnlo are kllled ln
a car crash the mornlng after the onenlght stand, a
crash most llkely caused by a flght between the two
whlle Antnlo ls drlvlng back to Jertullano`s apart
ment. It seems that Marla da Paz had reallzed that the
man she was wlth was not her flanc, and the ensulng
argument caused the car crash. As a consequence of the
traglc accldent, Jertullano ls condemned to llve a llfe
actlng as lf he ls Antnlo, the actor, and thus twlce an
actor, Helena has to pretend that she ls marrled to Jer
tullano. Carollna Mxlmo, Jertullano`s mother, has to
slmulate that her son ls dead, even though she knows
that he ls really allve.
All of the characters who are stlll allve are playlng
dlfferent roles, a fact that undermlnes percelved notlons
of solldlty and coherence lnherlng ln one`s ldentlty and
placement ln a glven soclal and cultural space. Jhe
notlon conveyed ln l ~ that lndlvlduals
are actors, as roleplaylng becomes the norm ln the nar
ratlve, and that the constructlon of ldentlty ls a game of
dupllcatlon, doubllng, and mlrrorlng call lnto questlon
the ldea of an ldentlty that ls unltary and flrmly rooted
wlthln speclflc boundarles. Jhe conceptlon of an
authentlc self ls further destablllzed at the end of the
novel when Jertullano recelves a call from another man
clalmlng that he ls the mlrror lmage of Danlel
SantaClara, the screen name of Antnlo, whose role ls
now belng played by Jertullano. Jhls man glves
enough lnformatlon about hls physlcal appearance and
marks on hls body that Jertullano (or ls lt Antnlo
l06
g p~~~ ai_ PPO
now, glven that they are lnterchangeable?) ls convlnced
that mlrrorlng and dupllcatlon ls a neverendlng game
and that he ls condemned to llve wlth lts traglc conse
quences. Hls lnltlal quest to ascertaln that he ls the orlg
lnal and not the copy has just become more
compllcated wlth addltlonal plot twlsts.
Although Saramago`s fasclnatlon wlth the llterary
double or the doppelgnger motlf ln l ~
may be vlewed as a postmodern questlonlng of ldentlty
characterlzed by lnstablllty and contlngency and/or of
the dual tendencles of the psyche or selfdupllcatlon, lt
also reflects many other germane concerns that demon
strate that thls partlcular novel ls ln lockstep wlth the
author`s prevlous works. Indeed, the work focuses on
toplcs and narratlve strategles that characterlze Sara
mago`s novellstlc productlon. the questlonlng of the
worklngs of power, the exploratlon of the real and the
maglc and/or fantastlc, the relatlonshlp between truth
and flctlon, and, ultlmately, the act of wrltlng for the
author explolts ln a playful and selfconsclous fashlon
many of the devlces and stratagems assoclated wlth the
plot of a detectlve novel to construct hls narratlve.
Saramago`s next novel, b~ ~ (2001;
translated as pI 2006), has many afflnltles wlth a
prevlous work, _K Aslde from the slmllarlty of
thelr Portuguese tltles and that ln both novels all charac
ters are nameless, ln p the author returns once
more to the same unnamed clty and country, whlch
four years earller had been struck by a bllndness epl
demlc, to narrate another strange eplsode that creates
much turmoll ln the country, especlally ln the corrldors
of power. In thls lnstance, the exceptlonal mass phe
nomenon that takes place ls related to munlclpal elec
tlons. On the mornlng of the electlon, a powerful
downpour prevents all but a few people from showlng
up at the polllng statlons. When the weather flnally
clears up around four o`clock ln the afternoon, people
rush to the polllng booth to vote. What lnltlally
appeared as an electlon wlth almost no votes cast turns
lnto an electlon wlth a heavy voter turnout. However,
many of the votes cast are blank, more than 70 percent
of the total, to be exact. A mandatory second electlon
takes place the followlng week, and the result ls basl
cally ldentlcal. In fact, thls tlme more than 80 percent of
the votes cast are blank.
As a result of the large number of blank ballots
cast, a slgn of no confldence ln the polltlcal partles and
an act that ls subverslve of the electoral process, govern
mental leaders declde to declare a state of emergency ln
the country, soon followed by a state of slege. In addl
tlon, other measures are taken ln order to force the
'blankers," as those who cast blank ballots are called, to
come to thelr senses. People are subjected to lnterroga
tlons; the pollce begln to spy on the cltlzens of the coun
try to uncover slgns of consplracy; the government
blows up a rallway statlon and blames lt on terrorlsts
and/or forelgn agltators to create panlc ln the clty; and,
ln conjunctlon wlth a press that has slded wlth those ln
power, lt works behlnd the scenes to lnclte vlolence and
turmoll durlng a peaceful demonstratlon. However,
none of the governmental maneuvers has lts deslred
effect, for the cltlzens of the country see through the
actlons of the governmental offlclals and remaln calm
and peaceful. Moreover, wlth thelr reactlon, they
expose the lncompetence of bureaucracy and the lmpo
tency of the government to control events and to force
lts cltlzens to accept the democratlc process. Even when
the government decldes to abandon the capltal ln order
to put an end to what lt feels ls an assault on democratlc
rule, the clty does not surrender to chaos or mass hyste
rla. In fact, people ln the capltal carry on buslness as
usual, slnce no one really notlces or heeds the exodus of
the government.
Jhe lmmlnent catastrophe predlcted by both the
government and the mass medla, as a result of the dras
tlc measures that have been taken to put an end to the
clvll dlsobedlence, does not occur. Consequently, the
government ls forced to flnd new ways, other represslve
measures, to compel the cltlzens of the country to llsten
to reason and to put a stop to thelr subverslve state of
blankness or whlteness. Jhe latter word, whlch ls a ref
erence to the epldemlc of whlte bllndness that had
affllcted the populatlon four years before ln _I
seems to lndlcate, as suggested by those ln power, that
the country has been lnfected by yet another epldemlc,
now ln the form of blank ballots or the state of blank
ness. In fact, the populatlon ls not sufferlng from bllnd
ness but rather the leaders of the country, who bllndly
assume that those cltlzens who exerclsed thelr rlghts
and cast blank ballots are lmperlllng not only the polltl
cal system but democracy ltself. Indeed, the bllndness
of polltlcal power forces the leaders to use exceptlonal
measures that are represslve and tyrannlcal ln nature to
eradlcate the evll and the devlatlon from the norm
caused by the blank ballots. Jhelr sole objectlve ls a
return to a prlor state of normallzatlon, the state of sub
jugatlon and passlvlty where those ln power manlpulate
the very rules of the democratlc process, whlch, as the
wrlter has sald on many occaslons, ls a masked dlctato
rlal process.
Jhe novel ltself, as exempllfled by the actlons of
the polltlcal leaders, seems to stress that there ls nothlng
democratlc about the democratlc process. Jhe quest to
flnd a scapegoat for the socalled consplracy of the
blank ballot only seems to accentuate the undemocratlc
nature of a government that ls not above breaklng
sacred democratlc rules and conventlons and uslng vlo
lence ln order to derlve beneflt from lts hold on power.
l07
ai_ PPO g p~~~
A scapegoat for the consplracy ls found. the ophthal
mologlst`s wlfe from _I the only person to have
escaped the bllndness epldemlc that had lnfected the
whole country. She ls accused of belng the lnstlgator for
all the blank ballots and thus of belng gullty of a new
bllndness, whlch has lntroduced lnto the democratlc
system the mlcrobe of perverslon and corruptlon. Jhe
pollce commlssary, one of three men ln charge of the
lnvestlgatlon of the consplracy and one of the lnterroga
tors of the ophthalmologlst`s wlfe, reallzes early on that
she ls not really gullty of any crlme and advlses her to
flee and hlde somewhere untll the crlsls ls resolved.
Lnfortunately, both the commlssary and the woman
are assasslnated at the orders of the lnterlor mlnlster.
Jhe commlssary ls assasslnated for hls role ln unmask
lng the deceltful schemes employed by the authorltles to
prove that the woman was gullty of the consplracy and
also for warnlng her about the real lntentlons of the
polltlcal ellte, whlle the woman ls assasslnated because
the government feels that her polltlcal ellmlnatlon has
the potentlal to restore normalcy to the country. More
over, the polltlcal assasslnatlon of the scapegoat/consplr
ator can then be used by the authorltles to serve notlce
on those who through thelr subverslve actlons may
wlsh to undermlne the proper functlonlng of the demo
cratlc system. In the end, the polltlcal authorltles
accompllsh nothlng. Jhey reveal themselves to be
undemocratlc, make a mockery of the democratlc pro
cess, abuse power for polltlcal galn, and become,
through thelr lneptltude, the subjects of a scorchlng
polltlcal satlre. Even the restoratlon of normalcy, whlch
ls supposedly the real motlve behlnd all the represslve
and brutal measures undertaken by the government, ls
not concluslvely assured.
Wlth the publlcatlon ln 2005 of the play a dJ
~I ~ (Don Glovannl or the
Debauched Pardoned) Saramago once agaln returns to
a genre for whlch he ls not well known. In fact, hls pre
vlous play, f aI had been publlshed ln l993.
Contrary to hls other plays, whose subject ls hlstory,
a d~ revlslts the myth of Don Glovannl or Don
|uan, a myth that had already been the subject of works
by such wrlters as Jlrso de Mollna; Mollre; George
Gordon, Lord Byron; Wllllam Hoffman; Alexandre
Dumas X and Lorenzo da Ponte. Many thlnkers
lncludlng phllosophers, psychologlsts, femlnlsts, and llt
erary crltlcshave also dealt wlth the legend of Don
|uan. Saramago`s a d~ ls a take on Wolfgang
Amadeus Mozart`s opera a d~I I q a~
mI whose llbretto was wrltten by da Ponte. Llke
da Ponte`s llbretto, Saramago`s play ls lntended as a
llbretto for an opera by composer Azlo Conghl, who
has already adapted some works by the Portuguese
author lnto operas. Jhe opera ltself had lts premlere ln
Llsbon on l8 March 2006 rather than at La Scala ln
Mllan because of a strlke.
As the Engllsh tltle of Saramago`s play, a dJ
~I I a~ m~I lndlcates, thls llterary
verslon of the Don Glovannl/Don |uan legend has an
entlrely dlfferent focus from that of Mozart`s opera. In
fact, Saramago`s play beglns preclsely at the moment
where Mozart`s opera ends, that ls, when the slnner or
the prototype of the womanlzer, the man who has
decelved/seduced 2,065 women, ls condemned to hell.
Jhe new play questlons and deconstructs many of the
longheld assumptlons about the legend of Don Glo
vannl. Its maln objectlve ls not really the demystlflca
tlon of Don Glovannl but rather of DonnÀna, Don
Ottavlo, and Elvlra, who are shown to be much less vlr
tuous than they glve the lmpresslon of belng. Jhus, the
play unmasks the hypocrlsy of many characters that
have long been consldered lnnocent vlctlms of the
debauched Don Glovannl. Saramago`s Don Glovannl,
contrary to Mozart`s verslon of the same character,
flnds redemptlon ln hls llfe. Zerllna, one of the maln
characters ln the play, lnverts the tables on Don Glo
vannl, as she becomes the seducer and he the seduced.
Jhe end result ls the denlal of hls legend through an act
of seductlon or, better yet, through the approprlatlon of
hls body, as he has done to countless numbers of
women. Wlth the lnverslon of the myth, glven that Don
Glovannl becomes the seduced rather than the seducer,
he must learn how to be an ordlnary man. No longer a
superman or a supermacho, he thus regalns hls human
lty; he ls pardoned and forglven for he has become a
mere mortal, a human belng.
In 2005 Saramago publlshed a second book, ^
~ ~ (Jhe Intermlttences of Death). Jhe
novel, whlch beglns wlth '|o|n the followlng day no one
dled," focuses on the hypothetlcal and absurd notlon
that death has been conquered or banlshed. Jhe event,
whlch takes place ln a small country of about ten mll
llon lnhabltants, probably Portugal, lnltlally ls cele
brated and welcomed by almost all of lts cltlzens. Jhe
banlshment of death from the unnamed country, for
death has declded to go on strlke, brlngs about much
joy and patrlotlc fervor. Death ls a source of many neg
atlve feellngs and emotlons such as anxlety, hate, fear,
sufferlng, mlsery, angst, despalr, grlef, dlstress, sadness,
and forebodlng. Jhus, the cltlzens look at the conquer
lng of the evll of death as an unparalleled accompllsh
ment. Jhrough the eradlcatlon of death, they reallze
they can trlumph over thelr greatest enemy, death as
the denlal of llfe, and attaln, ln the process, thelr great
est dream and wlsh. absolute eternlty.
However, the state of euphorla ls shortllved,
glven that the abolltlon of death creates many unex
pected problems and a complete state of chaos ln the
l08
g p~~~ ai_ PPO
country. Jhe cltlzens, who lnltlally only saw the posl
tlve aspect of the abolltlon of death, now begln to see
also the negatlve slde. Consequently, the narratlve
changes dlrectlon and beglns stresslng all the negatlve
consequences assoclated wlth the dlsappearance of
death and focuslng on the people and the lnstltutlons
that are harmed by the strange phenomenon. Llfe wlth
out death ls not bllss, as lt turns out. Jhe church real
lzes that lt ls becomlng lnconsequentlal and lrrelevant
because wlthout death there ls no resurrectlon, the ral
son d`tre of rellglon; lts doctrlne, wlth lts slngular
focus on the explanatlon of eternal questlons, loses lts
valldlty, for lt cannot create a new doctrlne wlth new
explanatlons. Iurthermore, the government has to
spend exorbltantly for soclal welfare programs, slnce
there ls a huge rlse ln the number of beneflclarles of
soclal securlty (old people) wlthout an equlvalent rlse ln
the number of contrlbutors to the fund (young people);
hospltals and gerlatrlc wards become so overcrowded
that the medlcal staff cannot any longer glve proper
medlcal care to those ln need; dylng persons have to
llve ln a contlnuous and desperate state of dylng; lnsur
ance companles and funeral homes go bankrupt; the
llves of lawyers, doctors, polltlclans, and journallsts are
turned upslde down and become extremely stressful;
and, flnally, even phllosophers become lnconsequentlal,
because they can no longer depend on death ln order to
speculate about the meanlng of llfe. Jhe end result of
the dlsappearance of death ls a total collapse of all pollt
lcal, soclal, economlc, and rellglous lnstltutlons.
Wlth all the chaotlc condltlons and problems cre
ated by the demlse of death, death demonstrates that lt
ls absolutely necessary to glve meanlng to llfe. In a
sense, death ratlonallzes llfe; lt becomes an lmperatlve
of llfe, slnce no one can really llve wlthout death. Its
absence becomes a nlghtmarlsh hell ln Saramago`s
novel, and people and all lnstltutlons begln to clamor
for lts return. Indeed, the country ls percelved as much
better off wlth death than wlthout lt. Jhe strlke of
death demonstrates that llfe ls part of death, as well as
death ls part of llfe. Jhe two are lntrlnslcally bound
together; they are concomltant entltles, conslderlng that
the exlstence of one lmplles the exlstence of the other.
Jhe second part of ^ ~ ~ deals
preclsely wlth the return of death and the restoratlon of
a more orderly soclety. Death returns to the country
wlth a radlcal new blueprlnt. those who are glven a
death sentence recelve wlth a week`s notlce a vlolet
envelope ln whlch there ls an enclosed letter lnformlng
them of thelr lmpendlng death seven days after notlflca
tlon. Jhe oneweek advance notlce ls a slgnal, or warn
lng, to those cltlzens who wlll soon dle that they should
put thelr affalrs ln order and prepare themselves for
dylng. Lnfortunately, even wlth a week`s advance
notlce the cltlzens of the country do not take care of
thelr personal affalrs. Jhey do not wrlte thelr wllls;
they do not say the proper farewells to frlends and fam
lly; and they do not ask for forglveness for thelr bad
acts or make peace wlth thelr enemles. In a sense, the
oneweek grace perlod before death becomes sort of a
marker for the characterlzatlon of soclety and how peo
ple deal wlth thelr own deaths and deflne themselves.
Wlth all lts new rules and conventlons, the return of
death also brlngs a certaln chaos, anxlety, and despalr
to soclety, albelt these condltlons and emotlons are dlf
ferent and less nlghtmarlsh than those assoclated wlth
the prevlous perlod.
Jhe thlrd sectlon of the novel deals wlth a speclflc
case of a letter that ls returned to the senderdeath; the
fallure of the letter to reach the addressee means that
the lntended reclplent, a vloloncelllst, has cheated
death, at least, temporarlly. Slnce the letter has not been
dellvered, death decldes to search for the addressee ln
order to hand the man the letter personally. Death dls
gulses ltself as a beautlful woman ln her thlrtles and sets
out to look for the muslclan. Jhe muslclan ls a solltary
man who plays ln the clty orchestra and llves ln an
apartment wlth a dog. After meetlng the vloloncelllst
and hearlng hlm play, death becomes lnterested ln flnd
lng out more about hlm and what klnd of person he
really ls. Jhe lnteractlon between the muslclan and
death humanlzes death, and she beglns to feel passlon
and compasslon for the human belng to whom she had
all the lntentlons of dellverlng a death sentence. the vlo
let letter. Death masked as a woman falls ln love both
wlth a man and hls muslc, and through art and the con
tact wlth another human belng she redeems herself. She
becomes human. At the end of the novel, death, whlch
never sleeps, falls lnexpllcably asleep ln the arms of the
muslclan, and the narrator says, as ln the beglnnlng of
the text, 'On the followlng day no one dled."
Jhe publlcatlon of Saramago`s latest work ^
~ ~ (2006, Memolrs) colnclded wlth the
author`s elghtyfourth blrthday ln November 2006. Jhe
book, whlch had been an ongolng project of long gesta
tlon, was orlglnally tltled 'O llvro das tentaes." Wlth
thls book Saramago turns to a genre that had never
been part of hls llterary repertolre. the autoblography.
^ ~ ~ are memolrs, as the tltle lndlcates,
of the author`s llfe from lnfancy to the age of slxteen. In
fact, only one eplsode from the age of slxteen ls nar
rated, and only ln the last page of the book.
Jhe lntent of the author when he wrote ^ J
~ ~ was to comprehend and dlscover ln the
chlld and hls many chlldhood experlences the charac
ter (the self ) of a man responslble for a great body of
llterary work. Jhus, the memolrs may be read slmul
taneously as selfformatlon and selfreflectlon of the
l09
ai_ PPO g p~~~
adult. Jhe project took a long tlme because Saramago
hlmself dld not know how to approach the subject and
because many other projects also demanded hls atten
tlon, thus forclng the author to set aslde the wrltlng of
the book on many occaslons. Many of the pages of an
autoblographywhose maln objectlve, as the author
has sald, was to recuperate, reconstruct, and get to
know the chlldwere wrltten more than flfteen years
before.
Jhe maln focus of the author`s memolrs ls the
rural llfe of the llttle vlllage Azlnhaga ln the reglon of
Rlbatejo, where the author was born. Although Sara
mago came at a tender age to llve ln Llsbon, he stlll
feels that the rural envlronment deflnes who he ls as a
person even today. In the book, the author remlnlsces
constantly about the many eplsodes of hls chlldhood
and how those eplsodes marked hlm as a chlld and con
trlbuted to the formatlon of the adult Saramago. Most
of the eplsodes have to do wlth hls contact wlth the nat
ural envlronment of hls place of blrth. the trees, the
rlver, the water, the anlmals, flshlng, walklng around
barefooted, and taklng care of the plgs and other farm
anlmals. Also lmportant are those eplsodes deallng wlth
the llfe lessons that he learned from hls grandfather
|ernlmo, the smartest man that Saramago has ever
met, accordlng to Saramago`s Autoblographlcal State
ment to the Swedlsh Academy on the occaslon of the
ceremony for Nobel Prlze wlnners, and also hls grand
mother |osefa. Jhese eplsodes truly show how much
affectlon and appreclatlon the wrlter has for the role
that hls grandparents played ln the modellng of hls
ldentlty and character. Irom hls grandparents and also
from many others ln hls closeknlt group of frlends and
famlly, lncludlng hls mother and father, Saramago
recelved many llfe lessons that stlll deflne hlm and have
served through the years to construct the man that he
ls. Nevertheless, the author ls aware that ln all of these
eplsodes and remlnlscences about hls chlldhood, mem
ory plays a sallent role ln recuperatlng the past and that
at tlmes lt slmply falls. Consequently, memory has to
turn to flctlon to complete that past. Ior thls reason, the
chlld and the man as a byproduct of the llfe experl
ences of that chlld are not totally grounded on an objec
tlve reallty. Jhey are also a product of the lmaglnatlon;
they are both completed by flctlon.
One of the author`s maln objectlves ln wrltlng Zs
pcqucvos mcmorios was to show that ln hls llfe there ls
stlll a sense of contlnulty between the past and hls
present llfe and that there ls a feellng that he ls llke
others that he encountered ln hls chlldhood and who
ln many dlfferent ways formed the adult Saramago. Zs
pcqucvos mcmorios clearly evldences that the feellng of
wholeness that Saramago possesses today had lts ges
tatlon ln that past, especlally ln hls experlences ln
rural Rlbatejo.
|os Saramago has achleved llterary mastery ln a
wlde range of genres. Even though he ls better known
for the novels that he has wrltten ln the l980s and
l990s, the reader can flnd the major thematlc concerns
of the moremature work ln the wrlter`s earller works,
those publlshed ln the l960s and l970s. In addltlon,
those earller works already dlsplay the fantastlc and
supernatural elements that Saramago lncorporates ln
most of hls novels, lncludlng those ln whlch the subject
matter ls more deeply rooted ln Portuguese hlstory,
such as Mcmoriol do covvcvto, U ovo do mortc dc Iicordo Icis,
and Z jovgodo dc pcdro. As Saramago`s flctlon takes a
more allegorlcal turn, especlally ln hls dystoplan trllogy,
the reader encounters a wrlter who has a gloomler vlew
of the world and no longer seems to belleve that lndl
vlduals have the capaclty to stop the contlnuous
destructlon of human dlgnlty and values or to confront
the evll power of a mercantlllst and commerclallzed
soclety. Desplte Saramago`s lncreaslng pesslmlsm
regardlng humanlty`s capaclty to effect change, to use
reason to curb abuslve power, and to stop the dehuman
lzlng tendencles of all lnstltutlons, he contlnues to call
attentlon to the destructlveness and lrratlonallty that
affllct the world. Saramago may not really belleve that a
work of art has the potentlal to change human nature;
but he, through hls focus on the role played by human
belngs ln confrontlng polltlcal tyranny and the forces
that bllnd humanlty, seems to be suggestlng that not all
ls lost yet.
fW
|uan Arlas, osc Soromogo: Il omor posiblc (Barcelona.
Planeta, l998);
Carlos Rels, Dilogos com osc Soromogo (Llsbon.
Camlnho, l998);
|orge Halpern, Covvcrsociovcs cov Soromogo: Icflcxiovcs
dcsdc Iovorotc (Barcelona. Icarla, 2002).
_~W
Orlando Grossegesse, Soromogo lcsscv: !crl, Icbcv, ibli-
ogroplic (Berlln. Jranva/Walter Irey, l999).
oW
Ana Paula Arnaut, Mcmoriol do covvcvto: Historio, fico c
idcologio (Colmbra. Iora do Jexto, l996);
Armando BaptlstaBastos, osc Soromogo: Z oproximoo o
um rctroto (Llsbon. Dom _ulxote, l996);
Beatrlz Berrlnl, Icr Soromogo: U romovcc (Llsbon.
Camlnho, l998);
Berrlnl, ed., osc Soromogo: Umo lomcvogcm (So Paulo.
EDLC, l999);
ll0
g p~~~ ai_ PPO
Harold Bloom, 'Jhe One wlth the Beard Is God, the
Other Is the Devll," Iortugucsc Iitcrory c Culturol
Studics, 6 (200l). l55-l66;
Bloom, Tlc !orictics of osc Soromogo (Llsbon. Iundao
LusoAmerlcana, 2002);
Bloom, ed., osc Soromogo (Phlladelphla. Chelsea
House, 2005);
Eduardo Calbuccl, Soromogo: Um rotciro poro os romovccs
(So Paulo. Atell, l999);
Janla Iranco Carvalhal and |ane Jutlklan, Iitcroturo c
listorio: Trcs vocs dc cxprcsso portugucso, Hcldcr
Moccdo, osc Soromogo, Urlovdo Zmorlis (Porto
Alegre, Brazll. Lnlversldade Iederal do Rlo
Grande do Sul, l999);
Marla de Lourdes Cldraes, 'Da posslbllldade da poesla.
Us pocmos possvcis de |os Saramago," Coloquio/
Ictros, l5l-l52 (l999). 37-5l;
Marla da Concelo Coelho and Jeresa Azlnhelra,
Mcmoriol do covvcvto dc osc Soromogo (Mem Mar
tlns, Portugal. EuropaAmrlca, l997);
|os Horclo Costa, Soromogo. U pcrodo formotivo (Lls
bon. Camlnho, l998);
Costa, 'Saramago`s Constructlon of Ilctlonal Charac
ters. Irom Tcrro do pccodo to oltosor ovd limuvdo,"
Iortugucsc Iitcrory c Culturol Studics, 6 (200l). 33-
18;
Mary Lou Danlel, 'Ebb and Ilow. Place as Pretext ln
the Novels of |os Saramago," Iuso-roiliov
Icvicw, 27, no. 2 (l990). 25-39;
Danlel, 'Symbollsm and Synchronlclty. |os Sara
mago`s ovgodo dc Icdro," Hispovio, 71, no. 3
(l99l). 536-51l;
Ana Paula Ierrelra, 'Crulslng Gender ln the Elghtles.
Irom Icvovtodo do clo to the History of tlc Sicgc of
Iisbov," Iortugucsc Iitcrory c Culturol Studics, 6
(200l). 22l-238;
Attore IlnazzlAgr, 'Da capo. O texto como pallmp
sesto na Historio do ccrco dc Iisboo," Coloquio/Ictros,
l5l-l52 (l999). 31l-35l;
Douwe Iokkema, 'Jhe Art of Rewrltlng the Gospel,"
Coloquio/Ictros, l5l-l52 (l999). 395-102;
Davld Irler, 'Ascent and Consent. Hlerarchy and Popu
lar Emanclpatlon ln the Novels of |os Sara
mago," ullctiv of Hispovic Studics, 7l, no. l (l991).
l25-l38;
Irler, 'In the Beglnnlng Was the Word. Jext and Mean
lng ln Jwo Dramas by |os Saramago," Iortugucsc
Studics, l1 (l998). 2l5-226;
Irler, '|os Saramago`s Stone Boat. Celtlc Analogues
and Popular Culture," Iortugucsc Studics, l5
(l999). l91-206;
Irler, 'Wrltlng Wrongs, ReWrltlng Meanlng and
Reclalmlng the Clty ln Saramago`s livdvcss and
Zll tlc òmcs," Iortugucsc Iitcrory c Culturol Studics,
6 (200l). 97-l22;
Orlando Grossegesse, '|ourney to the Iberlan God. Anto
nlo Machado Revlslted by |os Saramago," Iortu-
gucsc Iitcrory c Culturol Studics, 6 (200l). l67-l81;
Adrln Hulcl, 'Perdldos en el laberlnto. El camlno del
hroe en 'Todos os vomcs,`" Coloquio/Ictros, l5l-l52
(l999). 153-162;
Marla |oaqulna Nobre |llo, Mcmoriol do covvcvto dc osc
Soromogo: Subsdios poro umo lcituro (Llsbon. Repll
cao, l999);
Helena Kaufman, 'A metaflco hlstorlogrflca de |os
Saramago," Coloquio/Ictros, l20 (l99l). l21-l36;
Kenneth Krabbenhoft, 'Saramago, Cognltlve Estrange
ment, and Orlglnal Sln?" Iortugucsc Iitcrory c Cul-
turol Studics, 6 (200l). l23-l36;
Glulla Lanclanl, ed., osc Soromogo. Il bogoglio dcllo scritorc
(Rome. Bulzonl, l996);
Isabel Plres de Llma, 'Dos 'anjos da Hlstrla` em dols
romances de |os Saramago. Ivsoio sobrc o ccguciro
e Todos os vomcs," Coloquio/Ictros, l5l-l52 (l999).
1l5-126;
Llllan Lopondo, ed., Soromogo: Scguvdo tcrcciros (So
Paulo. Humanltas, l998);
Concelo Madruga, Z poixo scguvdo osc Soromogo
(Porto, Portugal. Campo das Letras, l998);
Iernando |. B. Martlnho, 'Para um enquadramento
perlodolglco da poesla de |os Saramago,"
Coloquio/Ictros, l5l-l52 (l999). 2l-33;
Adrlana Alves de Paula Martlns, Z covstruo do mcmorio
do voo cm osc Soromogo c Corc !idol (Irankfurt
am Maln. Peter Lang, 2006);
Martlns, 'A crnlca de |os Saramago ou uma vlagem
pela oflclna do romance," Coloquio/Ictros, l5l-l52
(l999). 95-l05;
Martlns, Historio c ficoum dilogo (Llsbon. Ilm de
Sculo, l991);
Martlns, '|os Saramago`s Hlstorlcal Ilctlon," Iortugucsc
Iitcrory c Culturol Studics, 6 (200l). 19-72;
Martlns and Mark Sablne, Iv Diologuc witl Soromogo:
Issoys iv Comporotivc Iitcroturc (Manchester.
Manchester Spanlsh and Portuguese Studles,
2006);
Vlbha Maurya, 'Constructlon of Crowd ln Saramago`s
Jexts," Coloquio/Ictros, l5l-l52 (l999). 267-278;
Antnlo Monlz, Ioro umo lcituro dc Mcmoriol do covvcvto dc
osc Soromogo: Umo proposto dc lcituro crtico-didctico
(Llsbon. Presena, l995);
Margarlda Braga Neves, 'Nexos, temas e obsesses na
flco breve de |os Saramago," Coloquio/Ictros,
l5l-l52 (l999). ll7-l39;
Odllo |os de Ollvelra Illho, Corvovol vo covvcvto: Ivtcr-
tcxtuloidodc c porodio cm osc Soromogo (So Paulo.
LNESP, l993);
lll
ai_ PPO g p~~~
Pllar Orero and |uan C. Sager, eds., Tlc Trovslotor`s Dio-
loguc: Ciovovvi Iovticro (Phlladelphla. |. Benjamlns
Publlcatlons, l997);
|os N. Ornelas, 'Reslstncla, Espao e Ltopla em
Mcmoriol do Covvcvto de |os Saramago," Discursos:
Istudos dc Ivguo c Culturo Iortugucso, l3 (l996).
ll5-l33;
|os |oaqun Parra Ban, Icvsomcvto orquitcctovico vo obro
dc osc Soromogo: occrco do orquitccturo do coso (Lls
bon. Camlnho, 2001);
Glovannl Pontlero, '|os Saramago and U ovo do mortc
dc Iicordo Icis," ullctiv of Hispovic Studics, 7l, no. l
(l991). l39-l18;
Mlguel Real, òrroo, morovilloso, trgico c sogrodo cm
Mcmoriol do covvcvto dc osc Soromogo (Llsbon.
Camlnho, l996);
Lulz Iranclsco Rebello, 'Jeatro, tempo e hlstrla,"
Coloquio/Ictros, l5l-l52 (l999). l13-l50;
Gerson Lulz Roanl, ò limior do tcxto: litcroturo c listorio
cm osc Soromogo (So Paulo. Annablume, 2002);
Rlchard Preto Rodas, 'A Vlew of ElghteenthCentury
Portugal. |os Saramago`s Mcmoriol do covvcvto,"
!orld Iitcroturc Todoy, 73, no. l (l987). 27-3l;
Mark |. L. Sablne, 'Once but No Longer the Prow of
Europe. Natlonal Identlty and Portuguese Des
tlny ln |os Saramago`s Tlc Stovc Ioft," Iortugucsc
Iitcrory c Culturol Studics, 6 (200l). l85-203;
Adrlano Schwartz, U obismo ivvcrtido: Icssoo, orgcs c o
ivquictudc do romovcc cm U ovo do mortc dc Iicordo
Icis, dc osc Soromogo (Rlo de |anelro. Globo,
2001);
Marla Alzlra Selxo, U csscvciol sobrc osc Soromogo (Lls
bon. Imprensa NaclonalCasa da Moeda, l987);
Selxo, Iugorcs do fico cm osc Soromogo: U csscvciol c outros
cvsoios (Llsbon. Imprensa NaclonalCasa da
Moeda, l999);
Jeresa Crlstlna Cerdelra da Sllva, osc Soromogo. Ivtrc o
listorio c o fico: Umo sogo dc portugucscs (Llsbon.
Dom _ulxote, l989);
Sllva, 'On the Labyrlnth of Jext, or, Wrltlng, as the Slte
of Memory," Iortugucsc Iitcrory c Culturol Studics, 6
(200l). 73-96;
Marla Almlra Soares, Mcmoriol do Covvcvto dc osc Soro-
mogo: Um modo dc vorror (Llsbon. Presena, l999);
Luclana Stegagno Plcchlo, osc Soromogo: Ivstovtovcc pcr
uv ritrotto (Ilorence. Passlgll, 2000);
Carmen Chaves Jesser, ed., 'A Jrlbute to |os Sara
mago," Hispovio, 82, no. l (l999). l-28;
Iranclsco |os Vlegas, osc Soromogo: Umo vo covtro o
silcvcio (Llsbon. Camlnho, l998).
m~W
An archlve of some of |os Saramago`s papers ls housed
at the Blblloteca Naclonale ln Llsbon.
NVVU k m i~
m~ p
by Irofcssor Ijcll Ispmorl, Mcmbcr of tlc Swcdisl Zcodcmy,
Cloirmov of Its òbcl Committcc
Your Majestles, Your Royal Hlghness, Ladles and Gen
tlemen,
Jhere ls one type of wrlter who, llke a blrd of
prey, clrcles tlme and agaln over the same terrltory.
Book succeeds book, ln progress towards a coherent
plcture of the world. |os Saramago belongs to the
opposlte category, wrlters who repeatedly seem to want
to lnvent both a world and a style that ls new. In hls
novel Tlc Stovc Ioft, he makes the Iberlan penlnsula
separate and drlft out lnto the Atlantlc, an openlng that
provldes a wealth of posslbllltles for a satlrlcal descrlp
tlon of soclety. But ln hls next book, Tlc History of tlc
Sicgc of Iisbov, no trace of thls geologlcal catastrophe ls
to be found. In livdvcss: Z òvcl, the epldemlc that
deprlves people of thelr slght ls conflned between the
covers of the work. In hls next novel Zll tlc òmcs, at the
Populatlon Reglstratlon Offlce nothlng has been heard
of any rampant spread of bllndness, nor ln prevlous
works has there been anythlng to suggest the exlstence
of thls chllllngly allembraclng agency. It ls not Sara
mago`s ambltlon to portray a coherent unlverse. On the
contrary, he seems every tlme to be trylng out a new
model to apprehend an evaslve reallty, fully aware that
each model ls a crude approxlmatlon that could permlt
other approxlmate values, lndeed one that requlres
them. He expllcltly condemns anythlng that clalms to
be 'the only verslon"; lt ls merely 'another verslon
among many." Jhere ls no overrldlng truth. Sara
mago`s apparently contradlctory lmages of the world
have to be placed alongslde each other to provlde thelr
own alternatlve accounts of an exlstence that ls funda
mentally protean and unfathomable.
In each and every one of these verslons, the rules
of common sense are suspended ln some way. Jhls ls
not uncommon ln recent flctlon. But here we are deal
lng wlth somethlng dlfferent from narratlve ln whlch
anythlng can happenand does so all the tlme. Sara
mago has adopted a demandlng artlstlc dlsclpllne whlch
allows the laws of nature or common sense to be vlo
lated ln one declslve respect only, and whlch then fol
lows the consequences of thls lrratlonallty wlth all the
loglcal ratlonallty and exact observatlon lt ls capable of.
In hls novel Tlc Jcor of tlc Dcotl of Iicordo Icis, he makes
a flesh and blood character of a flgure that has only
ll2
g p~~~ ai_ PPO
exlsted ln the lmaglnary world, one of the gulses
adopted by the poet Pessoa. But thls mlracle glves rlse
to a masterfully reallstlc plcture of Llsbon ln the l930s.
Agaln, the severance of the Iberlan penlnsula that
allows lt to drlft off lnto the Atlantlc ls a oneoff vlola
tlon of the natural order; what follows ls a hllarlously
preclse descrlptlon of the consequences of thls absurd
aberratlon. In q e p i the
accepted order of thlngs ls subverted more dlscreetly. A
proofreader lntroduces a 'not" lnto a book about the
war of llberatlon agalnst the Moors, thus alterlng the
course of hlstory. As penance he ls made to wrlte an
alternatlve hlstory that dellneates the consequences of
hls amendment; thls ls once agaln a verslon that denles
any clalm to be the only valld one. In the same splrlt,
Saramago has also publlshed a new, wonderful verslon
of the narratlve of the gospels, a verslon ln whlch the
contraventlon of the expected order ls to be found ln
God`s petty hunger for power so that the role of |esus ls
redeflned as one of deflance. Perhaps the greatest scope
allowed to the fantastlc ls ln _~~~ ~ _~ where
the clalrvoyant herolne gathers up the wllls of the
dylngenergy that makes the aerlal voyage ln the book
posslble. But she too and her love are placed ln an
objectlvely descrlbed hlstorlcal process, ln thls case the
constructlon of the convent at Mafra that cost so much
human sufferlng.
Jhls rlch work, wlth lts constantly shlftlng per
spectlves and constantly renewed lmages of the world,
ls held together by a narrator whose volce ls wlth us
all the tlme. Apparently he ls a storyteller of the old
fashloned omnlsclent varlety, a master of ceremonles
standlng on the stage next to hls creatlons, commentlng
on them, guldlng thelr steps and sometlmes wlnklng at
us across the footllghts. But Saramago uses these tradl
tlonal technlques wlth amused dlstance. Jhe narrator ls
also adept ln the contemporary devlces of the absurd
and develops a modern sceptlclsm when faced wlth the
omnlsclent clalm to be able to say how thlngs stand.
Jhe result ls llterature characterlsed at one and the
same tlme by sagaclous reflectlon and by lnslght lnto
the llmltatlons of sagaclty, by the fantastlc and by pre
clse reallsm, by cautlous empathy and by crltlcal aculty,
by warmth and by lrony. Jhls ls Saramago`s unlque
amalgam.
Dear |os Saramago,
Anybody who trles ln a few mlnutes to portray
your work wlll end up artlculatlng a serles of para
doxes. You have created a cosmos that does not want to
be a coherent unlverse. You have glven us lngenlous
verslons of a hlstory that wlll not allow ltself to be taken
captlve. You have taken the stage as the klnd of narrator
we feel we have long been famlllar wlthbut wlth all of
our contemporary llbertles at your flngertlps and
lmbued wlth contemporary sceptlclsm about deflnlte
knowledge. Your dlstlngulshlng mark ls lrony coupled
wlth dlscernlng empathy, dlstance wlthout dlstance. It ls
my hope that thls award wlll attract many people to
your rlch and complex world. I would llke to express
the warm congratulatlons of the Swedlsh Academy as I
now request you to recelve thls year`s Nobel Prlze for
Llterature from the hands of Hls Majesty the Klng.
p~~~W _~ p
p~~~ ~ k _~I NM a NVVUW
Majestles, Royal Hlghness, Ladles and Gentlemen,
Jhe Lnlversal Declaratlon of Human Rlghts was
slgned today exactly 50 years ago. Jhere ls no lack of
ceremonlal commemoratlons. Jhe attentlon fades, you
know. When serlous matters emerge the publlc lnterest
starts to dlmlnlsh, the next day even. I hold nothlng
agalnst these commemoratlve acts. I myself have con
trlbuted to them, ln my modest way, and lf lt ls not out
of place or tlme or llladvlsed let me add some more. In
thls halfcentury, obvlously governments have not mor
ally done for human rlghts all that they should. Jhe
lnjustlces multlply, the lnequalltles get worse, the lgno
rance grows, the mlsery expands. Jhls same schlzo
phrenlc humanlty that has the capaclty to send
lnstruments to a planet to study the composltlon of lts
rocks can wlth lndlfference note the deaths of mllllons
of people from starvatlon. Jo go to Mars seems more
easy than golng to the nelghbour. Nobody performs her
or hls dutles. Governments do not, because they do not
know, they are not able or they do not wlsh, or because
they are not permltted by those who effectlvely govern
the world. Jhe multlnatlonal and plurlcontlnental com
panles whose powerabsolutely nondemocratlc
reduce to next to nothlng what ls left of the ldeal of
democracy. We cltlzens are not fulfllllng our dutles
elther. Let us thlnk that no human rlghts wlll exlst wlth
out symmetry of the dutles that correspond to them. It
ls not to be expected that governments ln the next 50
years wlll do lt. Let us common cltlzens therefore speak
up. Wlth the same vehemence as when we demanded
our rlghts, let us demand responslblllty over our dutles.
Perhaps the world could turn a llttle better.
I have not forgotten the thanks. In Irankfurt, on
the 8th of October, my flrst words of thanks were for
ll3
ai_ PPO g p~~~
the Swedlsh Academy for grantlng me the Nobel Prlze
ln Llterature. I thanked as well my publlshers, my trans
lators and my readers. Agaln thank you all. And now
also I wlsh to thank the Portuguese wrlters and wrlters
ln the Portuguese language, the ones of the past and of
today. It ls through them our llterature exlsts. I am but
one of them. I sald that day that I was not born for thls,
but lt was glven to me. Jhus, my best thanks.
| Jhe Nobel Ioundatlon, l998. |os Saramago ls the
sole author of hls speech.|
p~~~W ^~~ p~
(!rittcv ot tlc timc of tlc owordivg of tlc òbcl Iric ovd trovs-
lotcd by Icrvovdo Iodrigucs ovd Tim Crosficld)
I was born ln a famlly of landless peasants, ln
Azlnhaga, a small vlllage ln the provlnce of Rlbatejo, on
the rlght bank of the Almonda Rlver, around a hundred
kllometres northeast of Llsbon. My parents were |os
de Sousa and Marla da Pledade. |os de Sousa would
have been my own name had not the Reglstrar, on hls
own lnltlatlve, added the nlckname by whlch my
father`s famlly was known ln the vlllage. Saramago. I
should add that soromogo ls a wlld herbaceous plant,
whose leaves ln those tlmes served at need as nourlsh
ment for the poor. Not untll the age of seven, when I
had to present an ldentlflcatlon document at prlmary
school, was lt reallsed that my full name was |os de
Sousa Saramago. . . .
Jhls was not, however, the only ldentlty problem
to whlch I was fated at blrth. Jhough I had come lnto
the world on l6 November l922, my offlclal docu
ments show that I was born two days later, on the l8th.
It was thanks to thls petty fraud that my famlly escaped
from paylng the flne for not havlng reglstered my blrth
at the proper legal tlme.
Maybe because he had served ln World War I, ln
Irance as an artlllery soldler, and had known other sur
roundlngs from those of the vlllage, my father declded
ln l921 to leave farm work and move wlth hls famlly to
Llsbon, where he started as a pollceman, for whlch job
were requlred no more 'llterary quallflcatlons" (a com
mon expresslon then . . .) than readlng, wrltlng and
arlthmetlc.
A few months after settllng ln the capltal my
brother Iranclsco, two years older, dled. Jhough our
llvlng condltlons had lmproved a llttle after movlng, we
were never golng to be well off.
I was already l3 or l1 when we moved, at last, to
our ownbut very tlnyhouse. tlll then we had llved ln
parts of houses, wlth other famllles. Durlng all thls
tlme, and untll I came of age I spent many, and very
often qulte long, perlods ln the vlllage wlth my
mother`s parents |ernlmo Melrlnho and |osefa Cal
xlnha.
I was a good pupll at prlmary school. ln the
second class I was wrltlng wlth no spelllng mlstakes
and the thlrd and fourth classes were done ln a slngle
year. Jhen I was moved up to the grammar school
where I stayed two years, wlth excellent marks ln the
flrst year, not so good ln the second, but was well
llked by classmates and teachers, even belng elected
(I was then l2 . . .) treasurer of the Students` Lnlon. . . .
Meanwhlle my parents reached the concluslon that, ln the
absence of resources, they could not go on keeplng me
ln the grammar school. Jhe only alternatlve was to go
to a technlcal school. And so lt was. for flve years I
learned to be a mechanlc. But surprlslngly the syllabus
at that tlme, though obvlously technlcally orlented,
lncluded, besldes Irench, a llterature subject. As I had
no books at home (my own books, bought by myself,
however wlth money borrowed from a frlend, I would
only have when I was l9) the Portuguese language text
books, wlth thelr 'anthologlcal" character, were what
opened to me the doors of llterary frultlon. even today I
can reclte poetry learnt ln that dlstant era. After flnlsh
lng the course, I worked for two years as a mechanlc at
a car repalr shop. By that tlme I had already started to
frequent, ln lts evenlng openlng hours, a publlc llbrary
ln Llsbon. And lt was there, wlth no help or guldance
except curloslty and the wlll to learn, that my taste for
readlng developed and was reflned.
When I got marrled ln l911, I had already
changed jobs. I was now worklng ln the Soclal Welfare
Servlce as an admlnlstratlve clvll servant. My wlfe, Ilda
Rels, then a typlst wlth the Rallway Company, was to
become, many years later, one of the most lmportant
Portuguese engravers. She dled ln l998. In l917, the
year of the blrth of my only chlld, Vlolante, I publlshed
my flrst book, a novel I myself entltled Tlc !idow, but
whlch for edltorlal reasons appeared as Tlc Iovd of Siv.
I wrote another novel, Tlc Slyliglt, stlll unpubllshed,
and started another one, but dld not get past the flrst
few pages. lts tltle was to be Hovcy ovd Coll, or maybe
Iouis, sov of Todcus. . . . Jhe matter was settled when I
abandoned the project. lt was becomlng qulte clear to
me that I had nothlng worthwhlle to say. Ior l9 years,
tlll l966, when I got to publlsh Iossiblc Iocms, I was
absent from the Portuguese llterary scene, where few
people can have notlced my absence.
Ior polltlcal reasons I became unemployed ln
l919, but thanks to the goodwlll of a former teacher at
the technlcal school, I managed to flnd work at the
metal company where he was a manager.
ll1
g p~~~ ai_ PPO
At the end of the l950s I started worklng at a
publlshlng company, Estdlos Cor, as productlon man
ager, so returnlng, but not as an author, to the world of
letters I had left some years before. Jhls new actlvlty
allowed me acqualntance and frlendshlp wlth some of
the most lmportant Portuguese wrlters of the tlme. In
l955, to lmprove the famlly budget, but also because I
enjoyed lt, I started to spend part of my free tlme ln
translatlon, an actlvlty that would contlnue tlll l98l.
Colette, Pr Lagerkvlst, |ean Cassou, Maupassant,
Andr Bonnard, Jolstol, Baudelalre, Etlenne Ballbar,
Nlkos Poulantzas, Henrl Ioclllon, |acques Roumaln,
Hegel, Raymond Bayer were some of the authors I
translated. Between May l967 and November l968, I
had another parallel occupatlon as a llterary crltlc.
Meanwhlle, ln l966, I had publlshed Iossiblc Iocms, a
poetry book that marked my return to llterature. After
that, ln l970, another book of poems, Irobobly oy, and
shortly after, ln l97l and l973 respectlvely, under the
tltles Irom tlis !orld ovd tlc Utlcr and Tlc Trovcllcr`s og-
gogc, two collectlons of newspaper artlcles whlch the
crltlcs conslder essentlal to the full understandlng of my
later work. After my dlvorce ln l970, I lnltlated a rela
tlonshlp, whlch would last tlll l986, wlth the Portu
guese wrlter Isabel da Nbrega.
After leavlng the publlsher at the end of l97l, I
worked for the followlng two years at the evenlng news
paper Dirio dc Iisboo, as manager of a cultural supple
ment and as an edltor.
Publlshed ln l971 wlth the tltle Tlc Upiviovs tlc DI
Hod, those texts represent a very preclse 'readlng" of
the last tlme of the dlctatorshlp, whlch was to be top
pled that Aprll. In Aprll l975, I became deputy dlrector
of the mornlng paper Dirio dc òticios, a post I fllled tlll
that November and from whlch I was sacked ln the
aftermath of the changes provoked by the polltlco
mllltary coup of 25th November whlch blocked the rev
olutlonary process. Jwo books mark thls era. Tlc Jcor of
199J, a long poem publlshed ln l975, whlch some crlt
lcs conslder a herald of the works that two years later
would start to appear wlth Movuol of Ioivtivg ovd Colligro-
ply, a novel, and, under the tltle of òtcs, the polltlcal
artlcles I had publlshed ln the newspaper of whlch I had
been a dlrector.
Lnemployed agaln and bearlng ln mlnd the pollt
lcal sltuatlon we were undergolng, wlthout the falntest
posslblllty of flndlng a job, I declded to devote myself to
llterature. lt was about tlme to flnd out what I was
worth as a wrlter. At the beglnnlng of l976, I settled for
some weeks ln Lavre, a country vlllage ln Alentejo
Provlnce. It was that perlod of study, observatlon and
notetaklng that led, ln l980, to the novel Iiscv from tlc
Crouvd, where the way of narratlng whlch characterlses
my novels was born. Meanwhlle, ln l978 I had pub
llshed a collectlon of short storles, _uosi Ubjcct; ln l979
the play Tlc ìglt, and after that, a few months before
Iiscv from tlc Crouvd, a new play, !lot Sloll I Do witl
Tlis ool? Wlth the exceptlon of another play, entltled
Tlc Sccovd Iifc of Irovcis of Zssisi, publlshed ln l987, the
l980s were entlrely dedlcated to the Novel. oltoor ovd
limuvdo, l982, Tlc Jcor of tlc Dcotl of Iicordo Icis, l981,
Tlc Stovc Ioft, l986, Tlc History of tlc Sicgc of Iisbov,
l989. In l986, I met the Spanlsh journallst Pllar del
Ro. We got marrled ln l988.
In consequence of the Portuguese government
censorshlp of Tlc Cospcl Zccordivg to csus Clrist (l99l),
vetolng lts presentatlon for the European Llterary Prlze
under the pretext that the book was offenslve to Catho
llcs, my wlfe and I transferred our resldence to the
lsland of Lanzarote ln the Canarles. At the beglnnlng of
that year I publlshed the play Iv òmivc Dci, whlch had
been wrltten ln Llsbon, from whlch the llbretto for the
opera Divoro would be taken, wlth muslc by the Itallan
composer Azlo Corghl and staged for the flrst tlme ln
Mnster, Germany ln l993. Jhls was not the flrst coop
eratlon wlth Corghl. hls also ls the muslc to the opera
limuvdo, from my novel oltoor ovd limuvdo, staged ln
Mllan, Italy ln l990. In l993, I started wrltlng a dlary,
Codcrvos dc Iovorotc (Lanzarote Dlarles), wlth flve vol
umes so far. In l995, I publlshed the novel livdvcss and
ln l997 Zll tlc òmcs. In l995, I was awarded the
Cames Prlze and ln l998 the Nobel Prlze for Lltera
ture.
sole author of the text.|
m o~W q k m
i~ NVVU
from tlc Ufficc of tlc Icrmovcvt Sccrctory of tlc Swcdisl
Zcodcmy, S Uctobcr 199S
|os Saramago
'wlo witl poroblcs sustoivcd by imogivotiov, compossiov ovd
irovy covtivuolly cvoblcs us ovcc ogoiv to opprclcvd ov
clusory rcolity
Jhe Portuguese wrlter |os Saramago wlll be 76
ln November. A wrlter of prose, from a worklngclass
background, hls flrst major success dld not come untll
he was 60. Slnce then he has attracted a great deal of
attentlon and frequently been translated. Joday he llves
on the Canary Islands.
ll5
ai_ PPO g p~~~
Saramago`s Movuol of Ioivtivg ovd Colligroply: Z
òvcl, whlch was publlshed as early as l977, provldes a
key to what was to come. Its baslc theme ls the genesls
of the artlst, of a palnter as well as a wrlter. It can to a
great extent be read autoblographlcally, but ln lts exu
berance lt embraces the theme of love, ethlcal lssues,
lmpresslons from the author`s travels and reflectlons on
the lndlvldual and soclety. Jhe llberatlon followlng the
fall of the Salazar reglme ln l971 provldes an lllumlnat
lng closlng vlgnette.
Saramago`s breakthrough came ln l982 wlth hls
novel oltosor ovd limuvdo. Jhls ls a rlch, multlfaceted
and polysemous text that at the same tlme has a hlstorl
cal, a soclal and an lndlvldual perspectlve. Jhe lnslght
and wealth of lmaglnatlon to whlch lt glves expresslon
ls characterlstlc of Saramago`s works as a whole. Jhe
Itallan composer Corghl based hls opera limuvdo on
thls novel.
One of Saramago`s major achlevements ls Tlc
Jcor of tlc Dcotl of Iicordo Icis, whlch was publlshed ln
l981. Iormally the events take place ln l936 ln Llsbon
durlng the dlctatorshlp, but there ls a skllfully evoked
atmosphere of unreallty. Jhls ls accentuated by the
repeated vlslts made by the dead poet Iernando Pessoa
to the protagonlst (who ls hlmself one of Pessoa`s cre
atlons) and thelr conversatlons about the condltlons of
exlstence. On hls flnal vlslt, they leave the world
together.
Jhe wrlter uses a typlcal devlce ln Tlc Stovc Ioft,
publlshed ln l986. A serles of supernatural events cul
mlnates ln the severance of the Iberlan penlnsula so
that lt starts to float lnto the Atlantlc, lnltlally headlng
for the Azores. Jhe sltuatlon that Saramago devlses
provldes hlm wlth ample opportunlty to comment, ln
hls own very personal way, on both trlvlal and lmpor
tant aspects of llfe and to lronlse about the authorltles
and polltlclans, perhaps especlally about the major play
ers ln power polltlcs. Saramago`s acumen ls at the ser
vlce of wlsdom.
Jhere ls good reason also to mentlon Tlc History
of tlc Sicgc of Iisbov (l989), a novel about a novel. Jhe
narratlve derlves from the wllful addltlon by a proof
reader of the word vot, an lmpulse that reverses the
course of hlstorlcal events and at the same tlme pro
vldes the author wlth scope for hls lnventlveness and
dellght ln narratlve wlthout preventlng hlm from delv
lng deeply.
Tlc Cospcl Zccordivg to csus Clrist from l99l, a
novel about the llfe of |esus, contalns ln lts outspoken
ness memorable reflectlons on lmportant lssues. God
and the Devll negotlate about evll. |esus questlons hls
role and challenges God.
A recent novel adds appreclably to Saramago`s llt
erary stature. It was publlshed ln l995 and has the tltle
livdvcss: Z òvcl. Its omnlsclent narrator takes us on a
horrlflc journey through the lnterface created by lndl
vldual human perceptlons and the splrltual accretlons
of clvlllsatlon. Saramago`s exuberant lmaglnatlon,
caprlclousness and clearslghtedness flnd full expresslon
ln thls lrratlonally engaglng work. 'Do you want me to
tell you what I thlnk, Yes, do, I don`t thlnk we dld go
bllnd, I thlnk we are bllnd, Bllnd but seelng, Bllnd peo
ple who can see, but do not see."
Hls most recent novel ls Zll tlc òmcs, whlch ls
expected ln a Swedlsh translatlon thls autumn. It deals
wlth a mlnor offlclal ln a populatlon reglstratlon offlce
of almost metaphyslcal dlmenslons. He becomes
obsessed wlth one of the names and beglns to track lt
down wlth a traglc concluslon.
Saramago`s ldlosyncratlc development of hls own
resonant style of flctlon glves hlm a hlgh standlng. Ior
all hls lndependence, Saramago lnvokes tradltlon ln a
way that ln the current state of thlngs can be descrlbed
as radlcal. Hls oeuvre resembles a serles of projects,
wlth each one more or less dlsavowlng the others but all
lnvolvlng a new attempt to come to grlps wlth an elu
sory reallty.
ll6
p~~~W k iI T a NVVU
e `~~ _~ j~ ~ ^ q ^
Eq~~ m q ` ~ c~ oF
Jhe wlsest man I ever knew ln my whole llfe
could not read or wrlte. At four o`clock ln the mornlng,
when the promlse of a new day stlll llngered over
Irench lands, he got up from hls pallet and left for the
flelds, taklng to pasture the halfdozen plgs whose fertll
lty nourlshed hlm and hls wlfe. My mother`s parents
llved on thls scarclty, on the small breedlng of plgs that
after weanlng were sold to the nelghbours ln our vlllage
of Azlnhaga ln the provlnce of Rlbatejo. Jhelr names
were |ernlmo Melrlnho and |osefa Calxlnha and they
were both llllterate. In wlnter when the cold of the nlght
grew to the polnt of freezlng the water ln the pots lnslde
the house, they went to the sty and fetched the weak
llngs among the plglets, taklng them to thelr bed.
Lnder the coarse blankets, the warmth from the
humans saved the llttle anlmals from freezlng and res
cued them from certaln death. Although the two were
klndly people, lt was not a compasslonate soul that
prompted them to act ln that way. what concerned
them, wlthout sentlmentallsm or rhetorlc, was to pro
tect thelr dally bread, as ls natural for people who, to
malntaln thelr llfe, have not learnt to thlnk more than ls
needful. Many tlmes I helped my grandfather |ernlmo
ln hls swlneherd`s labour, many tlmes I dug the land ln
the vegetable garden adjolnlng the house, and I
chopped wood for the flre, many tlmes, turnlng and
turnlng the blg lron wheel whlch worked the water
pump. I pumped water from the communlty well and
carrled lt on my shoulders. Many tlmes, ln secret, dodg
lng from the men guardlng the cornflelds, I went wlth
my grandmother, also at dawn, armed wlth rakes, sack
lng and cord, to glean the stubble, the loose straw that
would then serve as lltter for the llvestock. And some
tlmes, on hot summer nlghts, after supper, my grandfa
ther would tell me. '|os, tonlght we`re golng to sleep,
both of us, under the flg tree." Jhere were two other flg
trees, but that one, certalnly because lt was the blggest,
because lt was the oldest, and tlmeless, was, for every
body ln the house, the flg tree. More or less by antono
masla, an erudlte word that I met only many years after
and learned the meanlng of. . . . Amongst the peace of
the nlght, amongst the tree`s hlgh branches a star
appeared to me and then slowly hld behlnd a leaf whlle,
turnlng my gaze ln another dlrectlon I saw rlslng lnto
vlew llke a rlver flowlng sllent through the hollow sky,
the opal clarlty of the Mllky Way, the Road to Santlago
as we stlll used to call lt ln the vlllage. Wlth sleep
delayed, nlght was peopled wlth the storles and the
cases my grandfather told and told. legends, apparl
tlons, terrors, unlque eplsodes, old deaths, scuffles wlth
stlcks and stones, the words of our forefathers, an untlr
lng rumour of memorles that would keep me awake
whlle at the same tlme gently lulllng me. I could never
know lf he was sllent when he reallsed that I had fallen
asleep or lf he kept on talklng so as not to leave half
unanswered the questlon I lnvarlably asked lnto the
most delayed pauses he placed on purpose wlthln the
account. 'And what happened next?" Maybe he
repeated the storles for hlmself, so as not to forget
them, or else to enrlch them wlth new detall. At that
age and as we all do at some tlme, needless to say, I
lmaglned my grandfather |ernlmo was master of all
the knowledge ln the world. When at flrst llght the slng
lng of blrds woke me up, he was not there any longer,
had gone to the fleld wlth hls anlmals, lettlng me sleep
on. Jhen I would get up, fold the coarse blanket and
barefootln the vlllage I always walked barefoot tlll I
was fourteenand wlth straws stlll stuck ln my halr, I
went from the cultlvated part of the yard to the other
part, where the stles were, by the house. My grand
mother, already afoot before my grandfather, set ln
front of me a blg bowl of coffee wlth pleces of bread ln
and asked me lf I had slept well. If I told her some bad
dream, born of my grandfather`s storles, she always
reassured me. 'Don`t make much of lt, ln dreams
there`s nothlng solld." At the tlme I thought, though my
grandmother was also a very wlse woman, she couldn`t
rlse to the helghts grandfather could, a man who, lylng
under a flg tree, havlng at hls slde |os hls grandson,
could set the unlverse ln motlon just wlth a couple of
words. It was only many years after, when my grandfa
ther had departed from thls world and I was a grown
man, I flnally came to reallse that my grandmother,
after all, also belleved ln dreams. Jhere could have
ll7
ai_ PPO p~~~W k iI T a NVVU
been no other reason why, slttlng one evenlng at the
door of her cottage where she now llved alone, starlng
at the blggest and smallest stars overhead, she sald these
words. 'Jhe world ls so beautlful and lt ls such a plty
that I have to dle." She dldn`t say she was afrald of
dylng, but that lt was a plty to dle, as lf her hard llfe of
unrelentlng work was, ln that almost flnal moment,
recelvlng the grace of a supreme and last farewell, the
consolatlon of beauty revealed. She was slttlng at the
door of a house llke none other I can lmaglne ln all the
world, because ln lt llved people who could sleep wlth
plglets as lf they were thelr own chlldren, people who
were sorry to leave llfe just because the world was beau
tlful; and thls |ernlmo, my grandfather, swlneherd and
storyteller, feellng death about to arrlve and take hlm,
went and sald goodbye to the trees ln the yard, one by
one, embraclng them and crylng because he knew he
wouldn`t see them agaln.
Many years later, wrltlng for the flrst tlme about
my grandfather |ernlmo and my grandmother |osefa
(I haven`t sald so far that she was, accordlng to many
who knew her when young, a woman of uncommon
beauty), I was flnally aware I was transformlng the
ordlnary people they were lnto llterary characters. thls
was, probably, my way of not forgettlng them, drawlng
and redrawlng thelr faces wlth the pencll that ever
changes memory, colourlng and lllumlnatlng the
monotony of a dull and horlzonless dally routlne as lf
creatlng, over the unstable map of memory, the super
natural unreallty of the country where one has declded
to spend one`s llfe. Jhe same attltude of mlnd that,
after evoklng the fasclnatlng and enlgmatlc flgure of a
certaln Berber grandfather, would lead me to descrlbe
more or less ln these words an old photo (now almost
elghty years old) showlng my parents 'both standlng,
beautlful and young, faclng the photographer, showlng
ln thelr faces an expresslon of solemn serlousness,
maybe frlght ln front of the camera at the very lnstant
when the lens ls about to capture the lmage they wlll
never have agaln, because the followlng day wlll be,
lmplacably, another day. . . . My mother ls leanlng her
rlght elbow agalnst a tall plllar and holds, ln her rlght
hand drawn ln to her body, a flower. My father has hls
arm round my mother`s back, hls callused hand show
lng over her shoulder, llke a wlng. Jhey are standlng,
shy, on a carpet patterned wlth branches. Jhe canvas
formlng the fake background of the plcture shows dlf
fuse and lncongruous neoclasslc archltecture." And I
ended, 'Jhe day wlll come when I wlll tell these thlngs.
Nothlng of thls matters except to me. A Berber grandfa
ther from North Afrlca, another grandfather a swlne
herd, a wonderfully beautlful grandmother; serlous and
handsome parents, a flower ln a plcturewhat other
genealogy would I care for? and what better tree would
I lean agalnst?"
I wrote these words almost thlrty years ago, hav
lng no other purpose than to rebulld and reglster
lnstants of the llves of those people who engendered
and were closest to my belng, thlnklng that nothlng else
would need explalnlng for people to know where I
came from and what materlals the person I am was
made of, and what I have become llttle by llttle. But
after all I was wrong, blology doesn`t determlne every
thlng and as for genetlcs, very mysterlous must have
been lts paths to make lts voyages so long. . . . My gene
aloglcal tree (you wlll forglve the presumptlon of nam
lng lt thls way, belng so dlmlnlshed ln the substance of
lts sap) lacked not only some of those branches that
tlme and llfe`s successlve encounters cause to burst
from the maln stem but also someone to help lts roots
penetrate the deepest subterranean layers, someone
who could verlfy the conslstency and flavour of lts frult,
someone to extend and strengthen lts top to make of lt
a shelter for blrds of passage and a support for nests.
When palntlng my parents and grandparents wlth the
palnts of llterature, transformlng them from common
people of flesh and blood lnto characters, newly and ln
dlfferent ways bullders of my llfe, I was, wlthout notlc
lng, traclng the path by whlch the characters I would
lnvent later on, the others, truly llterary, would con
struct and brlng to me the materlals and the tools
whlch, at last, for better or for worse, ln the sufflclent
and ln the lnsufflclent, ln proflt and loss, ln all that ls
scarce but also ln what ls too much, would make of me
the person whom I nowadays recognlse as myself. the
creator of those characters but at the same tlme thelr
own creatlon. In one sense lt could even be sald that,
letterbyletter, wordbyword, pagebypage, book after
book, I have been successlvely lmplantlng ln the man I
was the characters I created. I belleve that wlthout them
I wouldn`t be the person I am today; wlthout them
maybe my llfe wouldn`t have succeeded ln becomlng
more than an lnexact sketch, a promlse that llke so
many others remalned only a promlse, the exlstence of
someone who maybe mlght have been but ln the end
could not manage to be.
Now I can clearly see those who were my llfe
masters, those who most lntenslvely taught me the hard
work of llvlng, those dozens of characters from my nov
els and plays that rlght now I see marchlng past before
my eyes, those men and women of paper and lnk, those
people I belleved I was guldlng as I the narrator chose
accordlng to my whlm, obedlent to my wlll as an
author, llke artlculated puppets whose actlons could
have no more effect on me than the burden and the ten
slon of the strlngs I moved them wlth. Of those masters,
the flrst was, undoubtedly, a medlocre portraltpalnter,
ll8
p~~~W k iI T a NVVU ai_ PPO
whom I called slmply H, the maln character of a story
that I feel may reasonably be called a double lnltlatlon
(hls own, but also ln a manner of speaklng the author`s)
entltled j~~ m~ ~ `~~I who taught me
the slmple honesty of acknowledglng and observlng,
wlthout resentment or frustratlon, my own llmltatlons.
as I could not and dld not asplre to venture beyond my
llttle plot of cultlvated land, all I had left was the possl
blllty of dlgglng down, underneath, towards the roots.
My own but also the world`s, lf I can be allowed such
an lmmoderate ambltlon. It`s not up to me, of course, to
evaluate the merlts of the results of efforts made, but
today I conslder lt obvlous that all my work from then
on has obeyed that purpose and that prlnclple.
Jhen came the men and women of Alentejo, that
same brotherhood of the condemned of the earth where
belonged my grandfather |ernlmo and my grand
mother |osefa, prlmltlve peasants obllged to hlre out the
strength of thelr arms for a wage and worklng condl
tlons that deserved only to be called lnfamous, gettlng
for less than nothlng a llfe whlch the cultlvated and clvl
llsed belngs we are proud to be are pleased to call
dependlng on the occaslonpreclous, sacred or subllme.
Common people I knew, decelved by a Church both
accompllce and beneflclary of the power of the State
and of the landlords, people permanently watched by
the pollce, people so many tlmes lnnocent vlctlms of the
arbltrarlness of a false justlce. Jhree generatlons of a
peasant famlly, the Badweathers, from the beglnnlng of
the century to the Aprll Revolutlon of l971 whlch top
pled dlctatorshlp, move through thls novel, called o
dI and lt was wlth such men and women
rlsen from the ground, real people flrst, flgures of flctlon
later, that I learned how to be patlent, to trust and to
conflde ln tlme, that same tlme that slmultaneously
bullds and destroys us ln order to bulld and once more
to destroy us. Jhe only thlng I am not sure of havlng
asslmllated satlsfactorlly ls somethlng that the hardshlp
of those experlences turned lnto vlrtues ln those women
and men. a naturally austere attltude towards llfe. Hav
lng ln mlnd, however, that the lesson learned stlll after
more than twenty years remalns lntact ln my memory,
that every day I feel lts presence ln my splrlt llke a per
slstent summons. I haven`t lost, not yet at least, the
hope of merltlng a llttle more the greatness of those
examples of dlgnlty proposed to me ln the vast lmmen
slty of the plalns of Alentejo. Jlme wlll tell.
What other lessons could I posslbly recelve from
a Portuguese who llved ln the slxteenth century, who
composed the o~ and the glorles, the shlpwrecks and
the natlonal dlsenchantments ln the i~~I who was
an absolute poetlcal genlus, the greatest ln our lltera
ture, no matter how much sorrow thls causes to
Iernando Pessoa, who proclalmed hlmself lts Super
Cames? No lesson would flt me, no lesson could I
learn, except the slmplest, whlch could have been
offered to me by Lus Vaz de Cames ln hls pure
humanlty, for lnstance the proud humlllty of an author
who goes knocklng at every door looklng for someone
wllllng to publlsh the book he has wrltten, thereby suf
ferlng the scorn of the lgnoramuses of blood and race,
the dlsdalnful lndlfference of a klng and of hls powerful
entourage, the mockery wlth whlch the world has
always recelved the vlslts of poets, vlslonarles and fools.
At least once ln llfe, every author has been, or wlll have
to be, Lus de Cames, even lf they haven`t wrltten the
poem p o. . . . Among nobles, courtlers and cen
sors from the Holy Inqulsltlon, among the loves of yes
teryear and the dlsllluslonments of premature old age,
between the paln of wrltlng and the joy of havlng wrlt
ten, lt was thls lll man, returnlng poor from Indla where
so many salled just to get rlch, lt was thls soldler bllnd
ln one eye, slashed ln hls soul, lt was thls seducer of no
fortune who wlll never agaln flutter the hearts of the
ladles ln the royal court, whom I put on stage ln a play
called t~ p~ f a q _\I whose endlng
repeats another questlon, the only truly lmportant one,
the one we wlll never know lf lt wlll ever have a suffl
clent answer. 'What wlll you do wlth thls book?" It
was also proud humlllty to carry under hls arm a mas
terplece and to be unfalrly rejected by the world. Proud
humlllty also, and obstlnate toowantlng to know what
the purpose wlll be, tomorrow, of the books we are
wrltlng today, and lmmedlately doubtlng whether they
wlll last a long tlme (how long?) the reassurlng reasons
we are glven or that are glven us by ourselves. No one
ls better decelved than when he allows others to decelve
hlm.
Here comes a man whose left hand was taken ln
war and a woman who came to thls world wlth the
mysterlous power of seelng what lles beyond people`s
skln. Hls name ls Baltazar Mateus and hls nlckname
SevenSuns; she ls known as Bllmunda and also, later,
as SevenMoons because lt ls wrltten that where there ls
a sun there wlll have to be a moon and that only the
conjolned and harmonlous presence of the one and the
other wlll, through love, make earth habltable. Jhere
also approaches a |esult prlest called Bartolomeu who
lnvented a machlne capable of golng up to the sky and
flylng wlth no other fuel than the human wlll, the wlll
whlch, people say, can do anythlng, the wlll that could
not, or dld not know how to, or untll today dld not
want to, be the sun and the moon of slmple klndness or
of even slmpler respect. Jhese three Portuguese fools
from the elghteenth century, ln a tlme and country
where superstltlon and the flres of the Inqulsltlon flour
lshed, where vanlty and the megalomanla of a klng
ralsed a convent, a palace and a baslllca whlch would
ll9
amaze the outslde world, lf that world, ln a very
unllkely supposltlon, had eyes enough to see Portugal,
eyes llke Bllmunda`s, eyes to see what was hldden. . . .
Here also comes a crowd of thousands and thousands
of men wlth dlrty and callused hands, exhausted bodles
after havlng llfted year after year, stonebystone, the
lmplacable convent walls, the huge palace rooms, the
columns and pllasters, the alry belfrles, the baslllca
dome suspended over empty space. Jhe sounds we
hear are from Domenlco Scarlattl`s harpslchord, and he
doesn`t qulte know lf he ls supposed to be laughlng or
crylng. . . . Jhls ls the story of _~~~ ~ _~I a
book where the apprentlce author, thanks to what had
long ago been taught to hlm ln hls grandparents` |ern
lmo`s and |osefa`s tlme, managed to wrlte some slmllar
words not wlthout poetry. 'Besldes women`s talk,
dreams are what hold the world ln lts orblt. But lt ls
also dreams that crown lt wlth moons, that`s why the
sky ls the splendour ln men`s heads, unless men`s heads
are the one and only sky." So be lt.
Of poetry the teenager already knew some les
sons, learnt ln hls textbooks when, ln a technlcal school
ln Llsbon, he was belng prepared for the trade he
would have at the beglnnlng of hls labour`s llfe.
mechanlc. He also had good poetry masters durlng
long evenlng hours ln publlc llbrarles, readlng at ran
dom, wlth flnds from catalogues, wlth no guldance, no
one to advlse hlm, wlth the creatlve amazement of the
sallor who lnvents every place he dlscovers. But lt was
at the Industrlal School Llbrary that q v~ a~
o~ o started to be wrltten. . . . Jhere, one day
the young mechanlc (he was about seventeen) found a
magazlne entltled ^~ contalnlng poems slgned wlth
that name and, naturally, belng very poorly acqualnted
wlth the llterary cartography of hls country, he thought
that there really was a Portuguese poet called Rlcardo
Rels. Very soon, though, he found that thls poet was
really one Iernando Noguelra Pessoa, who slgned hls
works wlth the names of nonexlstent poets, born of hls
mlnd. He called them heteronyms, a word that dld not
exlst ln the dlctlonarles of the tlme whlch ls why lt was
so hard for the apprentlce to letters to know what lt
meant. He learnt many of Rlcardo Rels` poems by heart
('Jo be great, be one / Put yourself lnto the llttle thlngs
you do"); but ln splte of belng so young and lgnorant,
he could not accept that a superlor mlnd could really
have concelved, wlthout remorse, the cruel llne 'Wlse
ls he who ls satlsfled wlth the spectacle of the world."
Later, much later, the apprentlce, already wlth grey
halrs and a llttle wlser ln hls own wlsdom, dared to
wrlte a novel to show thls poet of the l somethlng
about the spectacle of the world of l936, where he had
placed hlm to llve out hls last few days. the occupatlon
of the Rhlneland by the Nazl army, Iranco`s war
agalnst the Spanlsh Republlc, the creatlon by Salazar of
the Portuguese Iasclst mllltlas. It was hls way of telllng
hlm. 'Here ls the spectacle of the world, my poet of
serene bltterness and elegant sceptlclsm. Enjoy, behold,
slnce to be slttlng ls your wlsdom. . . ."
q v~ a~ o~ o ended wlth the
melancholy words. 'Here, where the sea has ended and
land awalts." So there would be no more dlscoverles by
Portugal, fated to one lnflnlte walt for futures not even
lmaglnable; only the usual fado, the same old saudade
and llttle more. . . . Jhen the apprentlce lmaglned that
there stlll mlght be a way of sendlng the shlps back to
the water, for lnstance, by movlng the land and settlng
that out to sea. An lmmedlate frult of collectlve Portu
guese resentment of the hlstorlcal dlsdaln of Europe
(more accurate to say frult of my own resentment . . .)
the novel I then wroteq p o~separated from
the Contlnent the whole Iberlan Penlnsula and trans
formed lt lnto a blg floatlng lsland, movlng of lts own
accord wlth no oars, no salls, no propellers, ln a south
erly dlrectlon, 'a mass of stone and land, covered wlth
cltles, vlllages, rlvers, woods, factorles and bushes, ara
ble land, wlth lts people and anlmals" on lts way to a
new Ltopla. the cultural meetlng of the Penlnsular peo
ples wlth the peoples from the other slde of the Atlantlc,
thereby defylngmy strategy went that farsuffocatlng
rule exerclsed over that reglon by the Lnlted States of
Amerlca. . . . A vlslon twlce Ltoplan would see thls
polltlcal flctlon as a much more generous and human
metaphor. that Europe, all of lt, should move South to
help balance the world, as compensatlon for lts former
and lts present colonlal abuses. Jhat ls, Europe at last
as an ethlcal reference. Jhe characters ln q p
o~two women, three men and a dogcontlnually
travel through the Penlnsula as lt furrows the ocean.
Jhe world ls changlng and they know they have to flnd
ln themselves the new persons they wlll become (not to
mentlon the dog, he ls not llke other dogs . . .). Jhls
wlll sufflce for them.
Jhen the apprentlce recalled that at a remote tlme
of hls llfe he had worked as a proofreader and that lf,
so to say, ln q p o~ he had revlsed the future,
now lt mlght not be a bad thlng to revlse the past,
lnventlng a novel to be called e p iI
where a proofreader, checklng a book wlth the same
tltle but a real hlstory book and tlred of watchlng how
'Hlstory" ls less and less able to surprlse, decldes to
substltute a 'yes" for a 'no," subvertlng the authorlty of
'hlstorlcal truth." Ralmundo Sllva, the proofreader, ls a
slmple, common man, dlstlngulshed from the crowd
only by bellevlng that all thlngs have thelr vlslble sldes
and thelr lnvlslble ones and that we wlll know nothlng
about them untll we manage to see both. He talks about
thls wlth the hlstorlan thus. 'I must remlnd you that
l20
p~~~W k iI T a NVVU ai_ PPO
proofreaders are serlous people, much experlenced ln
llterature and llfe, My book, don`t forget, deals wlth hls
tory. However, slnce I have no lntentlon of polntlng out
other contradlctlons, ln my modest oplnlon, Slr, every
thlng that ls not llterature ls llfe, Hlstory as well, Espe
clally hlstory, wlthout wlshlng to glve offence, And
palntlng and muslc, Muslc has reslsted slnce blrth, lt
comes and goes, trles to free ltself from the word, I sup
pose out of envy, only to submlt ln the end, And palnt
lng, Well now, palntlng ls nothlng more than llterature
achleved wlth palntbrushes, I trust you haven`t forgot
ten that manklnd began to palnt long before lt knew
how to wrlte, Are you famlllar wlth the proverb, If you
don`t have a dog, go huntlng wlth a cat, ln other words,
the man who cannot wrlte, palnts or draws, as lf he
were a chlld, What you are trylng to say, ln other
words, ls that llterature already exlsted before lt was
born, Yes, Slr, just llke man who, ln a manner of speak
lng, exlsted before he came lnto belng, It strlkes me that
you have mlssed your vocatlon, you should have
become a phllosopher, or hlstorlan, you have the flalr
and temperament needed for these dlsclpllnes, I lack
the necessary tralnlng, Slr, and what can a slmple man
achleve wlthout tralnlng, I was more than fortunate to
come lnto the world wlth my genes ln order, but ln a
raw state as lt were, and then no educatlon beyond prl
mary school, You could have presented yourself as
belng selftaught, the product of your own worthy
efforts, there`s nothlng to be ashamed of, soclety ln the
past took prlde ln lts autodldacts, No longer, progress
has come along and put an end to all of that, now the
selftaught are frowned upon, only those who wrlte
entertalnlng verses and storles are entltled to be and go
on belng autodldacts, lucky for them, but as for me, I
must confess that I never had any talent for llterary cre
atlon, Become a phllosopher, man, You have a keen
sense of humour, Slr, wlth a dlstlnct flalr for lrony, and I
ask myself how you ever came to devote yourself to hls
tory, serlous and profound sclence as lt ls, I`m only
lronlc ln real llfe, It has always struck me that hlstory ls
not real llfe, llterature, yes, and nothlng else, But hls
tory was real llfe at the tlme when lt could not yet be
called hlstory, So you belleve, Slr, that hlstory ls real
llfe, Of course, I do, I meant to say that hlstory was real
llfe, No doubt at all, What would become of us lf the
deleatur dld not exlst, slghed the proofreader." It ls use
less to add that the apprentlce had learnt, wlth
Ralmundo Sllva, the lesson of doubt. It was about tlme.
Well, probably lt was thls learnlng of doubt that
made hlm go through the wrltlng of q d ^
g `. Jrue, and he has sald so, the tltle was the
result of an optlcal llluslon, but lt ls falr to ask whether
lt was the serene example of the proofreader who, all
the tlme, had been preparlng the ground from where
the new novel would gush out. Jhls tlme lt was not a
matter of looklng behlnd the pages of the New Jesta
ment searchlng for antltheses, but of lllumlnatlng thelr
surfaces, llke that of a palntlng, wlth a low llght to
helghten thelr rellef, the traces of crosslngs, the shadows
of depresslons. Jhat`s how the apprentlce read, now
surrounded by evangellcal characters, as lf for the flrst
tlme, the descrlptlon of the massacre of the lnnocents
and, havlng read, he couldn`t understand. He couldn`t
understand why there were already martyrs ln a rell
glon that would have to walt thlrty years more to llsten
to lts founder pronounclng the flrst word about lt, he
could not understand why the only person that could
have done so dared not save the llves of the chlldren of
Bethlehem, he could not understand |oseph`s lack of a
mlnlmum feellng of responslblllty, of remorse, of gullt,
or even of curloslty, after returnlng wlth hls famlly from
Egypt. It cannot even be argued ln defence that lt was
necessary for the chlldren of Bethlehem to dle to save
the llfe of |esus. slmple common sense, that should pre
slde over all thlngs human and dlvlne, ls there to
remlnd us that God would not send Hls Son to Earth,
partlcularly wlth the mlsslon of redeemlng the slns of
manklnd, to dle beheaded by a soldler of Herod at the
age of two. . . . In that Gospel, wrltten by the apprentlce
wlth the great respect due to great drama, |oseph wlll
be aware of hls gullt, wlll accept remorse as a punlsh
ment for the sln he has commltted and wlll be taken to
dle almost wlthout reslstance, as lf thls were the last
remalnlng thlng to do to clear hls accounts wlth the
world. Jhe apprentlce`s Gospel ls not, consequently,
one more edlfylng legend of blessed belngs and gods,
but the story of a few human belngs subjected to a
power they flght but cannot defeat. |esus, who wlll
lnherlt the dusty sandals wlth whlch hls father had
walked so many country roads, wlll also lnherlt hls
traglc feellng of responslblllty and gullt that wlll never
abandon hlm, not even when he ralses hls volce from
the top of the cross. 'Men, forglve hlm because he
knows not what he has done," referrlng certalnly to the
God who has sent hlm there, but perhaps also, lf ln that
last agony he stlll remembers, hls real father who has
generated hlm humanly ln flesh and blood. As you can
see, the apprentlce had already made a long voyage
when ln hls heretlcal Gospel he wrote the last words of
the temple dlalogue between |esus and the scrlbe.
'Gullt ls a wolf that eats lts cub after havlng devoured
lts father, Jhe wolf of whlch you speak has already
devoured my father, Jhen lt wlll be soon your turn,
And what about you, have you ever been devoured,
Not only devoured, but also spewed up."
Had Emperor Charlemagne not establlshed a
monastery ln North Germany, had that monastery not
been the orlgln of the clty of Mnster, had Mnster not
l2l
wlshed to celebrate lts twelvehundredth annlversary
wlth an opera about the dreadful slxteenthcentury war
between Protestant Anabaptlsts and Cathollcs, the
apprentlce would not have wrltten hls play f k
a. Once more, wlth no other help than the tlny llght
of hls reason, the apprentlce had to penetrate the
obscure labyrlnth of rellglous bellefs, the bellefs that so
easlly make human belngs klll and be kllled. And what
he saw was, once agaln, the hldeous mask of lntoler
ance, an lntolerance that ln Mnster became an lnsane
paroxysm, an lntolerance that lnsulted the very cause
that both partles clalmed to defend. Because lt was not
a questlon of war ln the name of two lnlmlcal gods, but
of war ln the name of a same god. Bllnded by thelr own
bellefs, the Anabaptlsts and the Cathollcs of Mnster
were lncapable of understandlng the most evldent of all
proofs. on |udgement Day, when both partles come for
ward to recelve the reward or the punlshment they
deserve for thelr actlons on earth, Godlf Hls declslons
are ruled by anythlng llke human loglcwlll have to
accept them all ln Paradlse, for the slmple reason that
they all belleve ln lt. Jhe terrlble slaughter ln Mnster
taught the apprentlce that rellglons, desplte all they
promlsed, have never been used to brlng men together
and that the most absurd of all wars ls a holy war, con
slderlng that God cannot, even lf he wanted to, declare
war on hlmself. . . .
Bllnd. Jhe apprentlce thought, 'we are bllnd,"
and he sat down and wrote _ to remlnd those
who mlght read lt that we pervert reason when we
humlllate llfe, that human dlgnlty ls lnsulted every day
by the powerful of our world, that the unlversal lle has
replaced the plural truths, that man stopped respect
lng hlmself when he lost the respect due to hls fellow
creatures. Jhen the apprentlce, as lf trylng to exorclse
the monsters generated by the bllndness of reason,
started wrltlng the slmplest of all storles. one person ls
looklng for another, because he has reallsed that llfe has
nothlng more lmportant to demand from a human
belng. Jhe book ls called ^ k~K Lnwrltten, all
our names are there. Jhe names of the llvlng and the
names of the dead.
I conclude. Jhe volce that read these pages
wlshed to be the echo of the conjolned volces of my
characters. I don`t have, as lt were, more volce than the
volces they had. Iorglve me lf what has seemed llttle to
you, to me ls all.
l22
g~Jm~ p~
(21 uvc 190 - 1 Zpril 19S0)
`~~ p~~ _~
Tulovc Uvivcrsity
Jhls entry was expanded by Brosman from her entry ln
DI 72: Ircvcl òvclists, 19J0-1960. See also Sartre
entrles ln DI 296: Twcvtictl-Ccvtury Iuropcov Culturol
Tlcorists, Sccovd Scrics, and DI J21: Twcvtictl-Ccvtury
Ircvcl Dromotists.
SELECJED BOOKS. IÌmogivotiov (Parls. Alcan,
l936); translated by Iorrest Wllllams as Imogivo-
tiov: Z Isyclologicol Critiquc (Ann Arbor. Lnlverslty
of Mlchlgan Press, l962);
Io òuscc (Parls. Galllmard, l938); translated by Lloyd
Alexander as òusco (Norfolk, Conn.. New Dlrec
tlons, l919); republlshed as Tlc Diory of Zvtoivc
Ioqucvtiv (London. Lehmann, l919);
Ic Mur (Parls. Galllmard, l939); translated by Alex
ander as Tlc !oll, ovd Utlcr Storics (New York.
New Dlrectlons, l918); republlshed as Ivtimocy ovd
Utlcr Storics (New York. New Dlrectlons, l918;
London. Nevlll Spearman, l919);
Isquissc dùvc tlcoric dcs cmotiovs (Parls. Hermann, l939);
translated by Bernard Irechtman as Tlc Imotiovs:
Uutlivc of o Tlcory (New York. Phllosophlcal
Llbrary, l918); retranslated by Phlllp Malret as
Slctcl for o Tlcory of tlc Imotiovs (London. Rout
ledge, 2002);
IÌmogivoirc: Isyclologic plcvomcvologiquc dc lìmogivotiov
(Parls. Galllmard, l910); translated by Irechtman
as Tlc Isyclology of Imogivotiov (New York. Phllo
sophlcal Llbrary, l918); orlglnal revlsed by
Arlette Elkam and translated by |onathan Web
ber as Tlc Imogivory: Z Ilcvomcvologicol Isyclology of
tlc Imogivotiov, wlth lntroductlons by Elkam and
Webber (London New York. Routledge, 2001);
IÌtrc ct lc vcovt: Issoi dòvtologic plcvomcvologiquc (Parls.
Galllmard, l913); translated ln part by Hazel E.
Barnes as Ixistcvtiol Isycloovolysis (New York.
Phllosophlcal Llbrary, l953); complete transla
tlon by Barnes as civg ovd òtlivgvcss: Zv Issoy ov
Ilcvomcvologicol Uvtology (New York. Phllosophlcal
Llbrary, l956; London. Methuen, l957);
Ics Mouclcs (Parls. Galllmard, l913); translated by Stu
art Gllbert ln Tlc Ilics ovd Iv Comcro (Huis clos)
(l916), and ln ò Ixit (Huis clos) ovd Tlc Ilics (Ics
Mouclcs) (l917);
Huis clos (Parls. Galllmard, l915); translated by Gllbert
ln Tlc Ilics (Ics Mouclcs) ovd Iv Comcro (Huis clos)
(l916), and ln ò Ixit (Huis clos) ovd Tlc Ilics (Ics
Mouclcs) (l917);
I`Zgc dc roisov, volume l of Ics Clcmivs dc lo libcrtc (Parls.
Galllmard, l915; revlsed, l960); translated by
g~Jm~ p~I ~ NVSR Ee ^Ld f~F
l23
ai_ PPO g~Jm~ p~
Erlc Sutton as Tlc Zgc of Icosov (New York.
Knopf, l917; London. Hamllton, l917);
Ic Sursis, volume 2 of Ics Clcmivs dc lo libcrtc (Parls. Gal
llmard, l915); translated by Sutton as Tlc Icpricvc
(New York. Knopf, l917; London. Hamllton,
l917);
IÌxistcvtiolismc cst uv lumovismc (Parls. Nagel, l916);
translated by Irechtman as Ixistcvtiolism (New
York. Phllosophlcal Llbrary, l917); translated by
Malret as Ixistcvtiolism ovd Humovism (London.
Methuen, l918);
Morts sovs scpulturc (Lausanne. Marguerat, l916);
revlsed ln Tlcotrc (l917); translated by Llonel
Abel as Tlc !ictors ln Tlrcc Iloys (New York.
Knopf, l919), and by Kltty Black as Mcv witlout
Slodows ln Tlrcc Iloys (London. Hamllton, l919);
Io Iutoiv rcspcctucusc (Parls. Nagel, l916); translated by
Abel as Tlc Icspcctful Irostitutc ln Tlrcc Iloys (New
York. Knopf, l919), and by Black ln Tlrcc Iloys
(London. Hamllton, l919);
Icflcxiovs sur lo qucstiov juivc (Parls. Morlhen, l916);
translated by George |. Becker as Zvtiscmitc ovd
cw (New York. Schocken, l918); translated by
Erlk de Mauny as Iortroit of tlc Zvti-Scmitc (Lon
don. Secker Warburg, l918);
Tlc Ilics (Ics Mouclcs) ovd Iv Comcro (Huis clos), translated
by Gllbert (London. Hamllton, l916); repub
llshed as ò Ixit (Huis clos), o Iloy iv Uvc Zct, ovd
Tlc Ilics (Ics Mouclcs), o Iloy iv Tlrcc Zcts (New
York. Knopf, l917);
oudcloirc (Parls. Galllmard, l917); translated by Martln
Jurnell (London. Horlzon, l919; Norfolk,
Conn.. New Dlrectlons, l950);
Situotiovs, I (Parls. Galllmard, l917); translated ln part
by Annette Mlchelson ln Iitcrory ovd Ililosoplicol
Issoys (London. Rlder, l955);
Ics cux sovt foits (Parls. Nagel, l917); translated by Lou
lse Varse as Tlc Clips Zrc Dowv (New York. Lear,
l918; London New York. Rlder, l95l);
I`Hommc ct lcs closcs (Parls. Seghers, l917);
Ics Moivs solcs (Parls. Galllmard, l918); translated by
Abel as Dirty Hovds ln Tlrcc Iloys (New York.
Knopf, l919), and by Black as Crimc possiovvcl ln
Tlrcc Iloys (London. Hamllton, l919);
Situotiovs, II (Parls. Galllmard, l918); translated ln part
by Irechtman as !lot Is Iitcroturc? (New York.
Phllosophlcal Llbrary, l919; London. Methuen,
l950); republlshed as Iitcroturc ovd Ixistcvtiolism
(New York. Cltadel, l962);
IÌvgrcvogc (Parls. Nagel, l918); translated by Mervyn
Savlll as Iv tlc Mcsl (London. Dakers, l951);
!isogcs, prcccdc dc Iortroits officicls (Parls. Seghers, l918);
Io Mort dovs lòmc (Parls. Galllmard, l919); translated
by Gerard Hopklns as Irov iv tlc Soul (London.
Hamllton, l950); republlshed as Troublcd Slccp
(New York. Knopf, l95l);
Situotiovs, III (Parls. Galllmard, l919); translated ln part
by Mlchelson ln Iitcrory ovd Ililosoplicol Issoys
(London. Rlder, l955);
òurriturcs, suivi d`cxtroits dc Io òuscc (Parls. Damas,
l919);
Tlrcc Iloys, translated by Abel (New York. Knopf,
l919)comprlses Ics Moivs solcs, Io Iutoiv rcspcctu-
cusc, and Morts sovs scpulturc;
Tlrcc Iloys, translated by Black (London. Hamllton,
l919)comprlses Ics Moivs solcs, Io Iutoiv rcspcctu-
cusc, and Morts sovs scpulturc;
Ic Dioblc ct lc ov Dicu (Parls. Galllmard, l95l); trans
lated by Black as Iucifcr ovd tlc Iord (London.
Hamllton, l953); and as Tlc Dcvil ovd tlc Cood
Iord ln Tlc Dcvil ovd tlc Cood Iord, ovd Two Utlcr
Iloys (New York. Knopf, l960);
Soivt Ccvct, comcdicv ct mortyr (Parls. Galllmard, l952);
translated by Irechtman as Soivt Ccvct, Zctor ovd
Mortyr (New York. Brazlller, l963; London.
Allen, l961);
Icov, adapted from Icov ou Dcsordrc ct gcvic, by Alexan
dre Dumas prc (Parls. Galllmard, l951); trans
lated by Black as Icov; or Disordcr ovd Ccvius
(London. Hamllton, l951), and ln Tlc Dcvil ovd
tlc Cood Iord, ovd Two Utlcr Iloys (l960);
Iitcrory ovd Ililosoplicol Issoys, translated by Mlchelson
(New York. Crlterlon, l955; London. Rlder,
l955)comprlses parts of Situotiovs, I and Situo-
tiovs, III; republlshed as Iitcrory Issoys (New York.
Phllosophlcal Llbrary, l957);
`clrossov (Parls. Galllmard, l956); translated by Sylvla
Leeson and George Leeson (London. Hamllton,
l956), and ln Tlc Dcvil ovd tlc Cood Iord, ovd Two
Utlcr Iloys (l960);
Tlc Trovsccvdovcc of tlc Igo, edlted and translated by Wll
llams and Robert Klrkpatrlck (New York. Noon
day, l957); publlshed ln Irench as Io Trovsccvdovcc
dc l`cgo (Parls. Vrln, l965);
Ics Scqucstrcs d`Zltovo (Parls. Galllmard, l960); trans
lated by Leeson and Leeson as Ioscr !ivs (Lon
don. Hamllton, l960); republlshed as Tlc
Covdcmvcd of Zltovo (New York. Knopf, l96l);
Critiquc dc lo roisov diolcctiquc, !olumc I: Tlcoric dcs cvscmblcs
protiqucs (Parls. Galllmard, l960); translated ln
part by Black as Scorcl for o Mctlod (New York.
Knopf, l963); translated by Alan SherldanSmlth
as Critiquc of Diolccticol Icosov: Tlcory of Irocticol
Ivscmblcs, edlted by |onathan Ree (London. NLB
/ Atlantlc Hlghlands, N.|.. Humanltles Press, l976);
revlsed edltlon (Parls. Galllmard, l985);
Tlc Dcvil ovd tlc Cood Iord, ovd Two Utlcr Iloys, trans
lated by Black, Leeson, and Leeson (New York.
l21
g~Jm~ p~ ai_ PPO
Knopf, l960)comprlses Ic Dioblc ct lc ov Dicu,
Icov, and `clrossov;
Sortrc ov Cubo (New York. Ballantlne, l96l);
Tlcotrc (Parls. Galllmard, l962)comprlses Ics Mouclcs,
Huis clos, Morts sovs scpulturc, Io Iutoiv rcspcctucusc,
Ics Moivs solcs, Ic Dioblc ct lc ov Dicu, Icov,
`clrossov, and Ics Scqucstrcs d`Zltovo;
oriovo, ou Ic Iils du tovvcrrc (Parls. Ateller Anjoucoples,
l962);
Ics Mots (Parls. Galllmard, l961); translated by Irecht
man as Tlc !ords (New York. Brazlller, l961);
translated by Irene Clephane as !ords (London.
Hamllton, l961);
Situotiovs, I!: Iortroits (Parls. Galllmard, l961); trans
lated by Benlta Elsler as Situotiovs (New York. Bra
zlller, l965; London. Hamllton, l965);
Situotiovs, !: Coloviolismc ct vco-coloviolismc (Parls. Galll
mard, l961);
Situotiovs, !I: Iroblmcs du morxismc, 1 (Parls. Galllmard,
l961); translated ln part by Martha H. Iletcher ln
Tlc Commuvists ovd Icocc (New York. Braslller,
l968), and by Clephane ln Tlc Commuvists ovd
Icocc (London. Hamllton, l969);
_u`cst-cc quc lo littcroturc? (Parls. Galllmard, l961);
II Iilosofo ct lo politico, translated by Luclana Jrentln and
Romano Ledda (Rome. Rlunltl, l961);
Situotiovs, !II.Iroblmcs du morxismc, 2 (Parls. Galll
mard, l965); translated ln part ln Tlc Commuvists
ovd Icocc (New York, l968), and ln Tlc Commuvists
ovd Icocc (London, l969); translated ln part by
Iletcher as Tlc Clost of Stoliv (New York. Brazlller,
l968);
Ics Troycvvcs, adapted from Eurlpldes` play (Parls. Galll
mard, l966); translated by Ronald Duncan as Tlc
Trojov !omcv (New York. Knopf, l967; London.
Hamllton, l967);
Uv Ccvocidc, by Sartre and Arlette ElkamSartre (Bos
ton. Beacon, l968);
Tlc Commuvists ovd Icocc, translated by Iletcher (New
York. Brazlller, l968)comprlses parts of Situo-
tiovs, !I and Situotiovs, !II; reprlnted as Tlc Com-
muvists ovd Icocc, translated by Clephane (London.
Hamllton, l969)comprlses parts of Situotiovs, !I
and Situotiovs, !II;
Ics Commuvistcs ovt pcur dc lo rcvolutiov (Parls. Dldler,
l969); translated by Elalne P. Halperln as 'Com
munlsts Are Afrald of Rvolutlon. Jwo Inter
vlews," Midwoy, l0 (Summer l969). 1l-6l;
IÌdiot dc lo fomillc: Custovc Iloubcrt dc 1S21-1S7, 3 vol
umes (Parls. Galllmard, l97l-l972); translated by
Carol Cosman as Tlc Iomily Idiot: Custovc Iloubcrt,
1S21-1S7 (Chlcago. Lnlverslty of Chlcago
Press, l98l);
Situotiovs, !III: Zutour dc 6S (Parls. Galllmard, l972);
translated ln part by |ohn Matthews ln ctwccv
Ixistcvtiolism ovd Morxism (London. NLB, l971;
New York. Pantheon, l975);
Situotiovs, IX: Mclovgcs (Parls. Galllmard, l972); trans
lated ln part by Matthews ln ctwccv Ixistcvtiolism
ovd Morxism (London. NLB, l971; New York.
Pantheon, l975);
Iloidoycr pour lcs ivtcllcctucls (Parls. Galllmard, l972);
Uv Tlcotrc dc situotiovs, edlted by Mlchel Contat and
Mlchel Rybalka (Parls. Galllmard, l973); trans
lated by Irank |elllnek as Sortrc ov Tlcotrc (New
York. Pantheon, l976);
Iolitics ovd Iitcroturc, translated by |. A. Lnderwood and
|ohn Calder (London. Calder Boyars, l973);
ctwccv Ixistcvtiolism ovd Morxism, translated by Mat
thews (London. NLB, l971; New York. Pan
theon, l975)comprlses parts of Situotiovs, !III
and Situotiovs, IX;
Situotiovs, X: Iolitiquc ct outobiogroplic (Parls. Galllmard,
l976); translated by Paul Auster and Lydla Davls
as Iifc/Situotiovs: Issoys !rittcv ovd Spolcv (New
York. Pantheon, l977);
Sortrc (Parls. Galllmard, l977); translated by Rlchard
Seaver as Sortrc by Himsclf (New York. Lrlzen,
l978);
Sortrc: Imogcs dùvc vic (Parls. Galllmard, l978);
Uuvrcs romovcsqucs, edlted by Contat and Rybalka
(Parls. Galllmard, l98l);
Colicrs pour uvc morolc (Parls. Galllmard, l983); trans
lated by Davld Pellauer as òtcbools for ov Itlics
(Chlcago. Lnlverslty of Chlcago Press, l992);
Ics Corvcts dc lo drlc dc gucrrc (Parls. Galllmard, l983);
translated by _ulntln Hoare as Tlc !or Diorics of
cov-Ioul Sortrc: òvcmbcr 19J9-Morcl 1940 (New
York. Pantheon, l981); republlshed as !or Dio-
rics: òtcbools from o Ilovcy !or (London. Verso,
l981); new edltlon, enlarged (Parls. Galllmard,
l995);
Ic Sccvorio Ircud (Parls. Galllmard, l981); translated by
Hoare as Tlc Ircud Sccvorio (New York. Pantheon,
l981; London. Verso, l985);
Io Mouvoisc Ioi, edlted by Marc Wetzel (Parls. Hatler,
l985);
Mollormc, lo luciditc ct so focc dòmbrc (Parls. Galllmard,
l986); translated by Ernest Sturm as Mollormc, or
tlc Ioct of òtlivgvcss (Lnlverslty Park London.
Pennsylvanla State Lnlverslty Press, l988);
!critc ct cxistcvcc, edlted by ElkamSartre (Parls. Galll
mard, l989); translated by Adrlan van den
Hoven as Trutl ovd Ixistcvcc, edlted by Ronald
Aronson (Chlcago. Lnlverslty of Chlcago Press,
l992);
l25
ai_ PPO g~Jm~ p~
Icrits dc jcuvcssc, edlted by Contat and Rybalka (Parls.
Galllmard, l990);
Io Icivc Zlbcmorlc, ou, Ic Dcrvicr Touristc, edlted by
ElkamSartre (Parls. Galllmard, l99l);
Io Icspovsobilitc dc l`ccrivoiv (Lagrasse. Verdler, l998).
PLAY PRODLCJIONS. oriovo, ou Ic Iils du tovvcrrc,
Jrler, Germany, Stalag XII, 21 December l910;
Ics Mouclcs, Parls, Jhtre de la Clt, 3 |une l913;
Huis clos, Parls, Jhtre du VleuxColombler, 27 May
l911;
Morts sovs scpulturc, Parls, Jhtre Antolne, 8 November
l916;
Io Iutoiv rcspcctucusc, Parls, Jhtre Antolne, 8 Novem
ber l916;
Ics Moivs solcs, Parls, Jhtre Antolne, 2 Aprll l918;
Ic Dioblc ct lc ov Dicu, Parls, Jhtre Antolne, 7 |une
l95l;
Icov, Parls, Jhtre SarahBernhardt, l1 November
l953;
`clrossov, Parls, Jhtre Antolne, 8 |une l955;
Ics Scqucstrcs d`Zltovo, Parls, Jhtre de la Renalssance,
23 September l959;
Ics Troycvvcs, Parls, Jhtre Natlonal Populalre, l0
March l965.
MOJION PICJLRES. Ics cux sovt foits, scrlpt by Sar
tre, dlalogues by Sartre and |acquesLaurent Bost,
GlbPath, l917;
Ics Moivs solcs, dlalogues by Sartre, Rlvers, l95l;
Io I. . . . rcspcctucusc, dlalogues by Sartre and Bost,
Marceau, l952;
Huis Clos, dlalogues by Sartre, Marceau, l951;
Ics Sorcircs dc Solcm, scrlpt and dlalogues by Sartre,
based on Arthur Mlller`s play, Borderle, C.I.C.C.,
S.N. Path (Irance), Defa (Germany), l957;
Ic Mur, dlalogues by Sartre, ProclnexNlepce, l967.
OJHER. Irancls |eanson, Ic Iroblmc morol ct lo pcvscc
dc Sortrc, preface by Sartre (Parls. Edltlons du
Myrte, l917); translated by Robert V. Stone as
Sortrc ovd tlc Iroblcm of Morolity (Bloomlngton.
Indlana Lnlverslty Press, l980);
'Orphe nolr," ln Zvtlologic dc lo vouvcllc pocsic vgrc ct
molgoclc dc lovguc frovoisc, edlted by Lopold
Sdar Senghor (Parls. PLI, l918); translated
by S. W. Allen as locl Urplcus (Parls. Galll
mard, l963);
Herv Bazln and others, I`Zffoirc Hcvri Mortiv, com
mentary by Sartre (Parls. Galllmard, l953);
Henrl CartlerBresson, Dùvc Clivc o lòutrc, preface
by Sartre (Parls. Delplre, l951); translated by
Edward Hyams as Clivo iv Trovsitiov: Z Momcvt
iv History (London. Jhames Hudson, l956);
'Lne Vlctolre," ln Io _ucstiov, by Henrl Alleg (Lau
sanne. La Clt, l958; Parls. Pauvert, l966);
translated by |ohn Calder as Tlc _ucstiov (Lon
don. Calder, l958);
Roger Garaudy, Icrspcctivcs dc l`lommc: Ixistcvtiolismc,
pcvscc cotloliquc, morxismc, letter by Sartre (Parls.
Presses Lnlversltalres de Irance, l959);
Morxismc ct cxistcvtiolismc: Covtrovcrsc sur lo diolcctiquc
(Parls. Plon, l962; revlsed, l983)comprlses
contrlbutlons by Sartre, Garaudy, |ean Hyppo
llte, and others;
'Dolgts et nondolgts," ln !ols cv pcrsovvc, by Wols
(Parls. Delplre, l963); translated by Norbert
Guterman as 'Ilngers and NonIlngers" ln
!otcrcolors, Drowivgs, !ritivgs (New York.
Abrams, l965);
Ronald D. Lalng and Davld G. Cooper, Icosov ovd
!iolcvcc: Z Dccodc of Sortrc`s Ililosoply, 190-
1960, foreword by Sartre (London. Javlstock,
l961);
_uc pcut lo littcroturc? (Parls. Lnlon Gnrale dÈdl
tlons, l965)comprlses contrlbutlons by Sartre,
Slmone de Beauvolr, |eanPlerre Iaye, and oth
ers;
Georges Mlchel, Io Iromcvodc du dimovclc, preface by
Sartre (Parls. Galllmard, l967);
Matta, Uv Solcil, uv !ict-vom, text by Sartre (Parls.
Cass, l967);
|eanPaul Sartre, Openlng speech at the Internatlonal
Jrlbunal Agalnst War Crlmes ln Vletnam, and
other texts, ln Tribuvol Iusscll: Ic ugcmcvt dc
Stocllolm (Parls. Galllmard, l967); translated as
Zgoivst tlc Crimc of Silcvcc (New York London.
Bertrand Russell Peace Ioundatlon, l968);
Roger Plc, Zu cour du !ictvom, preface by Sartre
(Parls. Maspero, l968);
Ic Irocs Icgis Dcbroy, text by Sartre (Parls. Maspero,
l968);
Mlchel Contat and Mlchel Rybalka, Ics Icrits dc Sor-
trc, lncludes prevlously unpubllshed materlal by
Sartre (Parls. Galllmard, l970); translated by
Rlchard C. McCleary as Tlc !ritivgs of Sortrc
l971);
'Le Soclallsme qul venalt du frold," ln Trois Ccvcro-
tiovs: Ivtrcticvs sur lc plcvomvc culturcl tclcco-
slovoquc, edlted by Antonln |. Llehm (Parls.
Galllmard, l970); translated by Helen R. Lane
as 'Jhe Soclallsm Jhat Came In from the
Cold," Ivcrgrccv Icvicw, l1 (November l970).
27-32, 65-73;
Glsle Hallml, Ic Irocs dc urgos, preface by Sartre
(Parls. Galllmard, l97l);
l26
g~Jm~ p~ ai_ PPO
Mlchle Manceaux, i j~ c~I foreword by
Sartre (Parls. Galllmard, l972);
l ~ ~ (Parls. Galllmard, l971)com
prlses contrlbutlons by Sartre, Phlllppe Gavl,
and Plerre Vlctor ( pseudonym of Benny Lvy).
Jhe name |eanPaul Sartre ls recognlzed by mll
llons around the world. Ior decades, hls word carrled
tremendous authorlty. Calllng hlm the 'lntellectuel
absolu" (absolute lntellectual), 'le modle de l`crlvaln
total" (the model of the total wrlter), BernardHenrl
Lvy clalmed, ln hls masslve study i p p~
(2000; p~W q m q `), that
never before had any Irench lntellectual had such pres
tlgenot even Voltalre nor Vlctor Hugo. Indeed, lf Sar
tre had not long argued that no one can 'totallze"
hlstorygrasp lt totally and objectlvelysome would
clalm that he constltuted the cultural totallzatlon of
Irance ln hls century. Adulated by radlcal lntellectuals,
Sartre was also a popular author, who dld not dlsdaln
melodrama and whose most accesslble works have
been wldely dlstrlbuted. It ls sald that on the day of hls
burlal, some flfty thousand Parlslans followed hls coffln
to Montparnasse Cemetery. Hls volumes have been
translated lnto dozens of languages; he gave lntervlews
to countless Irench and forelgn journallsts; he sup
ported the polltlcal causes of many groups and natlons.
Whlle hls fame underwent a partlal ecllpse ln the late
l960s and l970s, lt revlved shortly after hls death; he
thus avolded crltlcal purgatory and lndeed stlll seemed
allve, wlth slx major posthumous publlcatlons ln flve
years (although ln l985 crltlcs wrltlng ln a~ dls
mlssed hlmperhaps ln reactlon agalnst hls prevlous
sway). Hls name occurs frequently ln journals of com
mentary, erudlte publlcatlons, and magazlnes such as
q k v. Accordlng to i jI approxlmately
slx hundred crltlcal works appeared on hlm between
l915 and l985 ln Irench and other languages; the rate
of publlcatlon may have lncreased slnce then. Jhough
execrated and attacked by conservatlvemlnded Irench
as dangerous, lmmoral, hypocrltlcal, turgld, and loath
some, for thousands of other contemporarles, he was,
as Patrlck Henry wrote ln m ~ i~ (Aprll
l990), the moral consclence of thelr centurythe
'autorlt morale plantalre" (global moral authorlty), ln
Lvy`s term. Whlle Albert Camus was perhaps more
wldely admlred, especlally durlng hls llfetlme, no mld
twentlethcentury Irench wrlter was more controverslal
than Sartre. If lt ls true of anyone, lt can be sald of hlm
that he domlnated hls ageas Lvy`s tltle, an echo of
Voltalre`s i p i ufsI suggests by establlshlng
the parallel between Sartre and the great monarch.
Even the term 'Sartrean era" reflects the wrlter`s pres
tlge.
When the Swedlsh Academy named Sartre the
Nobel laureate ln llterature for l961, lt clted hls 'explo
slve productlon," whlch 'has the lmpress of a message;
lt has been sustalned by a profoundly serlous endeavor
to lmprove the reader, the world at large." In a hlghly
unusual move, Sartre rejected the award. Hls refusal
must be seen as both personal stance and polltlcal act,
agalnst the background of the Cold War. Jhe Swedlsh
Academy, he belleved, had not chosen to hls radl
cal polltlcal posltlons but rather, condescendlngly, to
overlook them. Inltlally, upon learnlng hls name was on
the llst, he trled to persuade the Academy to select
someone else, accordlng to hls statement publlshed ln
i c~ (23 October). He mentloned hls dlsllke and
prevlous refusal of offlclal honors and (probably hypo
crltlcally) hls reluctance to assoclate the Academy wlth
hls own (radlcal) undertaklngs. Slmone de Beauvolr
conflrmed ln q ~ (^ p~ ~ aI l972) that
'll avalt une orguellleuse horreur des 'honneurs`; ll
nènvlsagealt pas dàller falre le slnge a Stockholm" (he
proudly abomlnated 'honors"; he dldn`t see hlmself
golng to play the fool ln Stockholm). Nor, he argued,
should a wrlter allow hlmself to be 'consecrated."
Whlle lt ls evldent that, from chlldhood, he had deslred
success and fame, what he wanted lncreaslngly was
fame on hls terms, not soclety`s. He may have wlshed to
dlssoclate hlmself partlcularly from hls relatlve Albert
Schweltzer, awarded the Nobel Peace Prlze twelve years
earller, and avold the examples of prevlous laureates ln
llterature. Andr Glde, who, for many, lost hls prestlge
as the Great Immorallst when he accepted the award
(l917); bourgeols novellst Iranols Maurlac (l952);
and Albert Camus (l957), whose antlrevolutlonary
statements and refusal to endorse Algerlan rebelllon
made hlm anathema to Sartre.
Sartre polltlclzed hls refusal by assertlng further
that lnterchanges between East and West must take
place dlrectly among men and cultures, wlthout the
lnterventlon of lnstltutlons. Moreover, slnce ln hls vlew
the conferment of past prlzes dld not represent properly
wrlters of all ldeologles and natlonsthat ls, was
reserved for Western authors or 'rebels" (dlssldents)
from the Eastern bloche contended that hls acceptance
mlght be lnaccurately lnterpreted. It ls obvlous that he
wlshed partlcularly to dlssoclate hlmself from the
Lnlted States, whlch earller he had called 'rabld,"
whose capltallstlc economy he had always dlsllked and
whlch he blamed for the war ln Indochlna (Vletnam).
In other words, as Beauvolr made clear, he feared,
along wlth the osslflcatlon the Nobel honor lndlcated,
symbollc approprlatlon by Western humanlsm and the
bourgeolsle, whose power was, he asserted, founded on
capltallsm, raclsm, class exploltatlon, and lmperlallsm.
'Jhe laureate has made lt known that he dld not wlsh
l27
ai_ PPO g~Jm~ p~
to accept the prlze," announced Anders Osterllng, add
lng, 'Jhe fact that he has decllned thls dlstlnctlon does
not ln the least modlfy the valldlty of the award. Lnder
the clrcumstances, however, the Academy can only
state that the presentatlon of the prlze cannot take
place." Jhe offlclal cltatlon saluted hls work, 'whlch,
rlch ln ldeas and fllled wlth the splrlt of freedom and
the quest for truth, has exerted a farreachlng lnfluence
on our age."
Sartre`s refusal merely lncreased hls celebrlty;
when, later, he was nearly arrested dlstrlbutlng polltlcal
tracts ln the street, sympathlzers protested to the
authorltles that they could not arrest a Nobel Prlze wln
ner. (Prevlously, Charles de Gaulle had qulpped that
'you don`t lmprlson Voltalre.") Some of the press, how
ever, accused Sartre of arrogance, the deslre for publlc
lty, and betrayal of Irench lnterests. One hostlle
ldeologue took advantage of the brouhaha to assert that
Sartre could have llved just as easlly under Adolf Hltler
as |oseph Stalln. Others crltlclzed the Academy`s cholce.
In a retrospectlve artlcle dated 200l, journallst Claude
Mlchel Cluny clalmed lt lllustrated 'a quel degr de
perverslon des valeurs les lntellectuelsou leurs
dlgustalent parvenus" (what degree of perverslon
the lntellectualsor thelr delegateshad reached). Call
lng Sartre a 'thurlfralre du stallnlsme . . . du maosme
sanglant" (a euloglst of Stallnlsm . . . of bloody Mao
lsm), Cluny expressed amazement that the Academy`s
ldeallsm should have evolved so that lt would select one
he called an accompllce of dally polltlcal crlmes and a
'dmollsseur des valeurs dmocratlques" (destroyer of
democratlc values).
Sartre`s proflles were multlple. He worked ln
almost every llterary genre of hls tlme ( poetry belng an
exceptlon), major and mlnor, prlmarlly flctlon, some
qulte popular, and drama, successful on the stage and
used ln school currlcula. Hls creatlve work can be sltu
ated between earlytwentlethcentury developments
the aesthetlc modernlsm of Marcel Proust, the formal
lnnovatlons and moral audaclty of Glde, the creatlve, lf
outrageous, rebelllon of surreallsmand the mldcentury
New Novel, wlth lts apolltlcal stance and formal experl
mentatlon. He was par excellence the spokesman for ~
~ ~ (commltted llterature). Ior hlm, at least
startlng ln l915, wrltlng was lntrlnslcally actlon, rooted
ln the present, dlrected to the present. He assumed ln
partlcular Glde`s place as the 'Contemporaln capltal"
(preemlnent contemporary), wlth respect to whom, by
common, lf grudglng, consent, other flgures were
obllged to sltuate themselves. He ls also wldely known
as a phllosopher, whose texts are occaslonally lncluded
ln anthologles desplte coolness, even hostlllty, toward
hls work among other phllosophers. Hls early thought,
lncludlng the dlfflcult ib ~ (l913; translated
as _ ~ kI l956) and hls popular exlsten
tlallst wrltlng, occuples a posltlon between, on the one
hand, phenomenology (the emphasls on observable evl
dence and opposltlon to speculatlon, whlch he helped
lntroduce ln Irance and for whlch he rejected Cartesl
anlsm and the phllosophles of Immanuel Kant and
Henrl Bergson), and, on the other, structurallsm (the
formulatlon of mental models used to understand phys
lcal, cultural, and psychologlcal structures) and neo
Marxlsm. He ls recognlzed also as a major crltlc of llter
ature and palntlng and an lmportant psychologlcal
blographer.
Above all, especlally ln Irance, the lmage of Sar
tre ls that of the polltlcal essaylst and actlvlst, the would
be renewer of Marxlsm and the supporter of Maolsts
and other radlcals. He used nearly every extrallterary
means of publlclzlng hls vlewslectures, lntervlews,
commlttees, journallstlc polemlcs, petltlons, personal
lnfluence through hls band of apostles, agltatlon, and
demonstratlons. Memorles remaln vlvld of newspaper
photos showlng Sartre (often wlth Beauvolr) dlstrlbut
lng radlcal tracts ln the streets; nor have older Irench
readers forgotten hls slgnlng of controverslal petltlons
durlng the Algerlan War and other polltlcal gestures.
Jhe result ls that hls name stlll evokes strong reactlons;
he ls anathema to some, nearly sacred to others. Schol
ars` oplnlons are llkewlse sharply dlvlded, and ln the
arena of Sartrean studles there have been hostlle con
frontatlons, as those lnvestlgatlng what ls called 'le cas
Sartre" (the Sartre case) or 'Sartre legend" or 'Sartre
phenomenon" attempt to reevaluate hls career and
enormous body of work. Doubtless the man wlll long
remaln fasclnatlng for hls brllllance, energy, ascen
dancy, and contradlctlons.
|eanPaulCharlesAymard Sartre was born on 2l
|une l905 ln Parls, the son of a naval englneer, |ean
Baptlste Sartre, and hls wlfe AnneMarle, ne Schweltzer,
flrst cousln of Albert Schweltzer. Both famllles, as Sartre
stressed ln i j (l961; translated as q tI
l961), hls autoblography (treatlng hls chlldhood only),
were marked by eccentrlc behavlor and dlfflcult rela
tlonshlps, characterlstlcs not unusual for hls perlod and
class. Llke a naturallstlc novellst, he connected the type
of people surroundlng hlm to the man he became. Hls
understandlng of the relatlonshlp between man and
mllleu goes well beyond naturallsm`s causeandeffect
mechanlsm, however, to become an elaborate method
of blographlc readlng called progresslveregresslve. Hls
own readlng of hlmself ls not, of course, to be accepted
wlthout examlnatlon; but crltlcs contlnue to use lt as a
foundatlon for both blographlc and psychoanalytlc
studles. When the chlld was just over a year old, |ean
Baptlste Sartre dled of fever contracted ln Indochlna.
Jhe absence of a father led, Sartre wrote, to hls lack of
l28
g~Jm~ p~ ai_ PPO
a superegoan absence he lnterpreted later as advanta
geous, slnce he dld not have to llve up to the paternal
lmage; he vlewed hlmself as hls own groundlng. (Per
haps Beauvolr later functloned as hls superegothe flg
ure whom, he wrote, he wlshed constantly to lmpress.)
One should observe, nevertheless, that hls works are
haunted by the questlon of paternltyvlewed negatlvely
almost alwaysand marked by fasclnatlon wlth father
flgures. AnneMarle Sartre returned to llve wlth her
parents ln Meudon and then Parls. Jhey apparently
reared the boy; he and hls mother were called 'the chll
dren." (In Sartre`s lmaglnatlve works lncest ls a subcur
rent, and psychoanalytlc crltlcs speak of an Oedlpal
pulslon.) Jhe commandlng flgure of Charles Schweltzer, a
professor of German, was a rellc from the nlneteenth
century; he took hlmself, Sartre wrote, for Hugo. Wlth
others he was stern; wlth the boy, lndulgent. Jhey
shared a world of dellght and makebelleveor so Sar
tre recalls. But the grandfather`s playactlng, whlch Sar
tre ldentlfles as a reflectlon of the mendaclousness of
mlddleclass Irench soclety, led the boy to make the
false assumptlon that llfe was a comedy. When he dls
covered that there were also 'serlous" thlngs, to whlch
chlldren were not admltted, and 'lndlspensable" peo
ple, next to whom hls makebelleve self counted for
nothlng, he was devastated. Jhroughout the rest of hls
llfe he had a keen eye for sham, a theme ln several of
hls works. He was slmllarly so struck by the contln
gencygroundlessnessof hls exlstence that lt became a
major phllosophlcal toplc for hlm.
Charles Schweltzer shared the nlneteenthcentury
humanlstlc sense of the sacred. Among 'holy" objects
were words and books; the latter llned hls study, and
the boy supposed that wlsdom was contalned ln them
llke heallng ln medlclne. Hls precoclous readlng experl
ences soon led to a deslre to wrltewhlch the grown
ups lndulged wlth prlde. He sensed (or so he lndlcated
later) that wrltlng was a way of overcomlng contln
gency, assurlng hls belng, hls place; that ls, llterature
was justlflcatlon. Somewhat later, however, he dlscov
ered that whlle scholarly books and scholars themselves
were acceptable to Schweltzer, anyone who proposed to
be a professlonal man of letters was thought a fool,
headlng for certaln ruln, llke the drunkard poet Paul
Verlalne. Sartre`s very amblguous llterary career, whlch
lllustrates both hls adoratlon and hls dlsdaln for the
wrltten word, would seem to derlve from the amblva
lent attltude of Schweltzer; Sartre wrote later that he
had covered so many thousands of pages wlth lnk ln a
futlle effort to please the shade of hls grandfatherwho
surely would have dlsapproved of nearly every llne. It ls
clear that he dld not wlsh only to please hlm; he wrote
agalnst Schweltzer, as he admltted later that he wrote
agalnst hls stepfather.
Jhe boy`s educatlon was begun at home and con
tlnued lrregularly at varlous schools. Havlng played
alone, he had trouble playlng wlth other chlldren. Jhe
fact that he was walleyed from early chlldhood may
have made hlm selfconsclous. Hls llfe changed radl
cally at age eleven when hls mother remarrled; when he
was twelve, the famlly moved to La Rochelle, where hls
stepfather, |oseph Mancy, became dlrector of a shlpyard
and automoblle factory. Sartre`s nearsllence on Mancy
and the fact that i j concludes wlth that change
suggest that lt was traumatlc. Hls stepfather`s lnterests
ln sclence and mathematlcs and emphasls on dlsclpllne,
contrastlng wlth the cultlvatlon of letters and muslc and
atmosphere of lndulgence at the Schweltzers`, lnsplred
antlpathy ln the boy. At the lyce, he learned what
adolescent cruelty, even vlolence, were llke. He also
reallzed, as an adolescent, that he had none of the rell
glous falth promoted earller by catechlsm lessons from
a Cathollc prlest (hls grandmother, Loulse Schweltzer,
was nomlnally of that church, whereas the other Schweltzers
were Protestant). Hls llfelong athelsm was a cruel
undertaklng, accordlng to i j. After three years at
La Rochelle, he returned to Parls and flnlshed hls lyce
work ln l922 at Henrl IV. Whereas Sartre wanted to
wrlte, Schweltzer had lnslsted that he take up teachlng.
At the Ecole Normale Suprleure he prepared for thls
career, studylng phllosophy, whlch had attracted hlm at
Henrl IV when he read Bergson`s works. He wrote a
thesls on lmages and passed the ~~ exams at the
head of hls class ln l929, after a fallure the prevlous
year (perhaps because he had treated the asslgned toplc
ldlosyncratlcally). Jaklng the exam wlth hlm, and pass
lng ln second place, was Beauvolr, wlth whom he and
fellow students had formed a closeknlt group. Sartre
and she became lovers and, accordlng to a deposltlon
she made later, not necessarlly rellable, remalned so for
slx years. She wrote that they consldered marrlage only
oncewhen there was a posslblllty that Sartre would go
to |apan to teach. Jhelr relatlonshlp may be vlewed as
morally monogamous; thelr llves were closely lnter
twlned, and wlth rare exceptlons he dlsslmulated noth
lng from her, slnce he vlewed thelr relatlonshlp as
utterly 'transparent" (a model of what a new soclety
would create for all human relatlons). On the lntellec
tual plane, they remalned entlrely falthful. merclless
crltlcs, sometlmes, of each other`s wrltlng but vlgor
ously supportlve and unlted by nearly ldentlcal vlews
and assumptlons. Sartre was the domlnant flgure of the
palrlt was he who elaborated the phllosophy whlch
she helped lllustrate ln her novels and essaysbut he
acknowledged that she had contrlbuted greatly to hls
lntellectual llfe.
Each had, however, what Beauvolr called 'contln
gent" (chance or nonessentlal) loves, usually wlth
l29
ai_ PPO g~Jm~ p~
younger people; on occaslons they establlshed a trlo or
quartet. Jhese affalrs (lncludlng slmultaneous ones)
played a conslderable role ln Sartre`s llfe; sexuallty and
especlally seductlon were enormously lmportant to
hlm, as readers long suspected and posthumous publl
catlons made clear. Mancy had sald that Sartre would
not be successful wlth women; the latter`s wlll to power
through wrltlng sprang perhaps ln part from hls bellef
that lt would get thelr attentlon. Beauvolr`s attltude may
be vlewed as connlvance lf not that of a procuress, and
he related to her ln letters many detalls of hls affalrs;
llke the characters ln Choderlos de Laclos`s Ics Iioisovs
dovgcrcuscs (l782; translated) and other elghteenthcentury
llbertlne novels, the palr needed apparently to partlcl
pate vlcarlously ln the other`s sexual adventures. In the
mld l930s Sartre pursued asslduously Olga Kosakle
wlcz, a pupll of Beauvolr`s, wlth whom she later was
lnvolved sexually and for whom she and he declded to
take practlcal responslblllty; the three were to form a
'trlo." (Jhe experlment ls reflected ln Beauvolr`s novel
IÌvvitcc |Slc Comc to Stoy, l913|.) In that same decade
Beauvolr took as a lover |acquesLaurent Bost, a former
pupll of Sartre`s, who would eventually marry Olga.
Subsequently, Sartre had a llalson wlth Olga`s slster
Wanda. Many other young women followed. Glven hls
rage agalnst the bourgeolsle and lts sacred soclal cell,
the famlly, lt ls lronlc that the term fomily was applled
routlnely to these groups lnvolvlng younger people and
two older onessurrogate parents as well as lovers. It ls
another lrony that someone so concerned wlth ethlcs as
Sartre clalmed to be should have cultlvated such rela
tlonshlps, for they may be vlewed as abuslve and quasl
lncestuous, lf legal, based on sexual exploltatlon of
young admlrers by prestlglous elders. Jhey were also
often founded on lles, ln vlolatlon of Sartre`s lnslstence
upon transparence ln human deallngs. He dld have
mature lovers also. Durlng the perlod l916-l950, he
and Dolores Vanettl (called M. ln Beauvolr`s memolrs),
whom he met ln New York, carrled on a serlous llalson,
made dlfflcult by long geographlc separatlons and other
factors. Later he was lnvolved wlth a woman from the
Sovlet Lnlon. After the separatlon between wrlter Borls
Vlan and hls wlfe Mlchelle, Sartre and Mlchelle became
lovers and were frequent travellng companlons.
Sartre`s career may convenlently be dlvlded lnto
several perlods. Jhe flrst covers the l930s, from the
tlme he flnlshed hls mllltary servlce ln l93l to the
beglnnlng of World War II ln l939. He taught phlloso
phy at the Lyce Iranols Premler

ln Le Havre and ln
Laon before belng asslgned ln l937 to the Lyce Pas
teur ln Neullly, a Parls suburb. He was popular wlth hls
students, eschewlng an authorltarlan, paternal role for a
nearly fraternal one. Class dlsclpllne dlspleased hlm,
and lt ls uncertaln how well he fulfllled hls pedagoglcal
role. He pursued hls phllosophlcal lnvestlgatlons, begun
at the Ecole normale suprleure de Lyon, stresslng the
psychology of the lmaglnatlon. In l933-l931 he spent
a year at the Instltut Iranals ln Berlln, readlng contem
porary German phllosophy, notably the phenomenol
ogy of Edmund Husserl, whose contrlbutlon to
eplstemology and ontology, lnterests of Sartre`s thereto
fore nurtured ln Carteslanlsm and the earller German
ldeallsm, had great appeal for hlm. Bergson, whose
vlews he would later denounce, remalned another lnflu
ence. Sartre also began wrltlng flctlon, some of whlch ls
closely connected to hls phllosophlcal pursults. Ior
decades, Sartre vlewed llterature as prlvlleged; hls
understandlng was llke that of Russell Klrk, who
asserted that flctlonal texts were not falsehoods but,
rather, were 'means for penetratlng to the truth by
appeallng to the moral lmaglnatlon."
Sartre`s flrst publlcatlonsexcludlng short pleces
are an outgrowth of hls phllosophlc readlng and per
sonal experlence; they all stress the operatlons and
structure of consclousness. In l936 he publlshed IÌmog-
ivotiov (translated, l962), ln whlch he took lssue wlth
several classlc and recent theorles of lmaglnatlon and
proposed hls own. Jhe study reflected hls lnterest ln
abnormal psychologlcal phenomena; he had experl
enced halluclnatlons produced by mescallne. 'La Jrans
cendance de lègo" (publlshed ln l937 ln the journal
Icclcrclcs Ililosopliqucs and ln l965 ln book form) slml
larly almed at showlng flaws ln the concept of the self ln
works by Kant, Husserl, and others. Sartre argued for a
self that was essentlally posterlor rather than prlor to
experlence, that ls, reflexlve. A thlrd essay of the perlod
ls Isquissc dùvc tlcoric dcs cmotiovs (l939; translated as
Tlc Imotiovs: Uutlivc of o Tlcory, l918), whlch sets forth
hls phenomenologlcal method as well as hls thesls that
emotlon ls chosen behavlor. He also publlshed crltlcal
artlcles on such recognlzed or emerglng llterary flg
ures as Maurlac, |ean Glraudoux, Camus, and the
Amerlcans |ohn Dos Passos and Wllllam Iaulkner,
whose narratlve technlque and approach to tlme
lnfluenced hls flctlon and that of other Irench wrlters.
Sartre dld not then wrlte polltlcal essays. Whlle he was
already antlestabllshment to the core, probably by reac
tlon to hls famlly and class, and was convlnced that
European capltallsm and bourgeols democracy were
doomed to fallure, he was lnactlve polltlcally, unllke hls
close frlend Paul Nlzan. In hls later work a certaln mal
alse ls apparent when he mentlons the Spanlsh Clvll
War, betraylng perhaps the feellng that he should have
protested actlvely agalnst Irench nonlnterventlon.
Sartre`s flrst flctlon also dates from the l930s. Io
òuscc (l938; translated as òusco, l919), orlglnally
entltled 'Melancholla" (after Albrecht Drer`s engrav
lng), seems to have developed from wrltlngs deallng
l30
g~Jm~ p~ ai_ PPO
wlth contlngency. It also reflects the lnfluence of the
surreallsts, Proust, and LoulsIerdlnand Cllne. Jhe
common assumptlon that the work expresses Sartrean
exlstentlallsm and the core of ib ~ ls lncor
rect. Its prlmary source ls not phllosophlcal reflectlon
but lmaglnatlon (that faculty ln whlch he was so lnter
ested); crltlcs speak even of ~~ (escaplst delu
slons). It was, however, an occaslon for worklng out
phenomenologlcal lnslghts that later reappeared, lnclud
lng those concernlng embodlment, and lt lllustrates a
type of dupery to be dlsmantled later. It ls thus not a
phllosophlcal exemplum but a work of artpreclsely the
sort that the boy Sartre had dreamed of creatlng, whlch
would lmpose ltself (and, by extenslon, lts author) as
havlng an autonomous exlstence.
Llke i jI i~ k~ ls both selfcastlgatlon
and selfjustlflcatlon. Purportedly a 'found manuscrlpt"
(an old llterary devlce), ln the form of an erratlcally
kept journal wlth 'edltor`s notes," lt records the lntellec
tual adventure of Roquentln, a scholar who has settled
ln Bouvllle (Mudvllle; that ls, Le Havre) to do research
on a mlnor elghteenthcentury flgure. Of lndependent
means, he has only mlnlmal contact wlth others. a few
words, a superflclal sexual encounter; Sartre has set hlm
up as a loner, the better to show what man really ls
when the soclal layers are peeled off. Reallzlng, part
way through the dlary, that he wlll not wrlte hls pro
posed book because lt ls meanlngless as well as false to
resuscltate the dead and llve by them (that ls, justlfy
oneself thereby), he goes through a profound crlsls
prepared slnce the lnceptlon of the story. It ls both emo
tlonal and lntellectual. He experlences loss of functlon
and ground. He dlscovers that the past ls dead and the
future does not exlst; he cannot llve through others (as
ln love) or through bellefs (he has none, and bellefs
have no groundlng anyway); everythlng ls contlngent,
and no explanatlon for exlstence can be found. 'Jout
exlstant nat sans ralson, se prolonge par falblesse et
meurt par rencontre" (Every exlstlng thlng ls born wlth
out reason, prolongs ltself out of weakness and dles by
chance). Jhere are no values, and those who persuade
themselves otherwlse and llve ln functlon of them (usu
ally to thelr own advantage) are 'salauds" (bastards).
Jhe apparent lnstrumentallty of thlngs ls only a human
lnventlon; the world, a random assemblage of dlsqulet
lng objects, has no purpose. Jhls groundlessness ls the
Sartrean form of the absurd. Roquentln`s reactlon ls
profound dlsgust or nausea, a varlety of exlstentlal
~ or angst. Hls sometlme companlon, an ~~
(SelfJaught Man) who haunts llbrarles and ls both a
closet soclallst and a pederast, ls a mlrror flgure. malad
justed, trylng to klll tlme and flll the vold ln hls llfe,
looklng for meanlng ln books. Hls ultlmate unmasklng
as a pervert and hls dlsgrace reflect, ln the mode of
pathos, the meanlnglessness of hls project and the soll
tude of the lndlvldual. Roquentln ultlmately desplses
hlm as much as those who condemn hlm and seems to
ldentlfy, dlsquletlngly, wlth an exhlbltlonlst who may
have raped and murdered a chlldwho took actlon
rather than remalnlng passlve.
When Roquentln lunches wlth the Autodldacte,
and thus ls confronted dlrectly wlth the bookworm`s
pathetlc but lrrltatlng selfdeceptlon, the result ls an
acute attack of nausea. Actlvlty no longer means any
thlng at all; the food ls dlsgustlng; and Roquentln real
lzes he could just as well stab hls companlon wlth hls
knlfe as eat hls cheese wlth lt. In a state of panlc he
leaves the restaurant, runs through the streets, gets on a
streetcar for no reason, and ends up ln the publlc gar
den, where, ln a trancellke state, he has a revelatlon of
exlstence and the world, emptled of meanlng when the
observer no longer 'lntends" or projects hls meanlng
onto lt. He decldes to leave Bouvllle for Parls, where he
wlll llve meagerly on hls lncome and do nothlng. He
hopes that hls former mlstress wlll rescue hlm from
utter futlllty, but she denounces thelr past and goes
away wlth another man. However, Sartre, ln entlre serl
ousness (although ln hlndslght lt seems lronlc), does not
end the novel on thls fallure, for Roquentln dlscovers
the aesthetlc solutlon. It comes to hlm by way of a
recorded jazz song, whlch seems to have lts own ralson
d`tre and to surpass ln the mode of the ldeal the dlsk
on whlch lt ls preserved. He resolves to try to do some
thlng slmllar ln the form of a book, not hlstory, but a
flctlon that wlll refer to nothlng outslde ltself, be hard
llke steel, and, as he says, make people ashamed of thelr
exlstence, whlle redeemlng hls, because 'jamals un
exlstant ne peut justlfler lèxlstence dùn autre exlstant"
(no exlstlng thlng can ever justlfy the exlstence of
another).
i~ k~ flts the tradltlonal pattern of the quest
novel but entlrely on the lntellectual plane. Roquentln
beglns hls dlary because somethlng seems changed, and
he wants to dlscover what and why. Even though the
search ls mental, there are parallels to the traps and
monsters of old quest romances, developed llnearly but
wlth detours and false starts. Jhe Sartrean equlvalent of
an eplphany comes when Roquentln dlscovers the utter
meanlnglessness of thlngs. But lnstead of endlng there,
the novel provldes the added dlmenslon of redemptlon,
through a project that surpasses the lndlvldual. Whlle
very llttle seems to happen, the mental events and rare
external ones lead to the dlsclosure of reallty, whlch ls
the true plot.
Jhe work does not lack drama, humor, vlvldness,
even coarseness, although the publlsher obllged Sartre
to tone down lts orlglnal vulgarlty (as well as lts anar
chlsm). Jhe veln of soclal crltlclsm, lntroduced as the
l3l
ai_ PPO g~Jm~ p~
hero deplcts the hypocrltlcal, rlghtwlng bourgeolsle
who bullt Bouvllle and domlnate lts lndustry and lnstl
tutlons, lncludes, wlth acld dlsmlssals, superb character
lzatlons (by speech and gesture) remlnlscent of Proust`s
character sketches. Scenes such as Roquentln`s crlsls of
paranola and the lunch wlth the Autodldacte are very
funny. Jhe flrstperson narratlon allows the reader to
experlence these eplsodes as Roquentln does, and yet
the book constantly provldes lronlc quallflcatlon of the
hero`s (or antlhero`s) lnslghts, save the flnal one. Jhe
most dramatlc moments may be those when, studylng a
chestnut tree ln the garden, he reallzes that the world ls
occupled by ~thlngs. meanlngless, nameless
phenomena that are utterly absurd. Jhls medltatlon ls
hlghly poetlc, for the world ls transformed before hls
eyes, each thlng belng a metaphor for another, wlth no
ultlmate referent. A tramway seat, for lnstance, could
just as well be a dead, bloated donkey, wlth thousands
of tlny feet stlcklng up; a root ls a glant serpent or a
seal.
Sartre wrote ln i j that he had achleved ln
hls flrst novel the tour de force of maklng others
ashamed of thelr exlstence whlle vlndlcatlng hls own.
Only later dld he denounce the aesthetlc project, whlch
i~ k~I somewhat llke Proust`s masterplece, both
announces and lllustrates. Even then, lt remalned a
favorlte of hlsalthough he asserted that lt (llke all llter
ature) dld not count when welghed agalnst the sufferlng
of one chlld. It was favorably recelved by dlscernlng
readers and was a conslderable success; lt remalns hls
best plece of flctlon. Both the hero`s character and the
phenomenologlcal approach to thlngs lnfluenced the
New Novel of the l950s. Jhe style, ranglng from plthy
Carteslan deductlons to surreallstlc lmpresslonlsm, ls
one of Sartre`s best llterary achlevements.
Jhe flve storles i jI collected ln l939 (trans
lated as q t~I l918), dlsplay the power of Sartre`s
~~I whlle reflectlng concerns of the l930s. Llke i~
k~I the storles were morally offenslve to many
because of crude language and toplcs stlll consldered
unsultable for prlnt. Slmllarly, they deal wlth varletles
of what Sartre would later call lnauthentlclty, whlch
lncludes the mode of the ~~ and any klnd of self
deceptlon. Jhe subjects range from the Spanlsh Clvll
War to sexual lmpotence and lnsanlty. Jhe tenslon
between the unquestlonable authorlal mastery of plot,
scene, and dlalogue, on the one hand, and, on the other,
the loss of control experlenced by most of the charac
ters, ls one of the collectlon`s strengths.
Jhe tltle story seems to reflect Ernest Hemlng
way`s example, not only ln lts crlsp sentences but also ln
the hero`s sense of hlmself as he trles to remaln 'dur"
(hard) as he approaches death before a flrlng squad. Yet
thls toughness ls not just derlvatlve; lt ls also an element
of Sartre`s vlew of the self, founded partly on a sense of
malalse wlth hls own body ( perhaps a reflectlon of hls
oftnoted ugllness) and hls general amblvalence con
cernlng embodlment. Jhe repugnance Pablo feels when
confrontlng butterllke flesh and faces turned ashen wlth
frlght, a reactlon whlch mlrrors hls own fear of resem
bllng them, ls one of many Sartrean passages ln whlch
the flesh ls felt as obscene. Slmllarly characterlstlc ls the
theme of absurdlty, vlslble when the hero, ln jest, unln
tentlonally reveals to the Iasclsts hls leader`s hldlng
placethereby condemnlng hlm to death and produclng
hls own release. Jhe O. Henry-llke endlng does not
seem out of place ln Sartre`s absurd, lronlc world,
whlch ls seen by Pablo as a colossal joke.
'La Chambre" (Jhe Room) and 'Intlmlt" (Intl
macy) concern human relatlonshlps, explored ln char
acterlstlc Sartrean ways. In the flrst a wlfe ls
emotlonally tled to her lnsane husband Plerre, whose
halluclnatlons she attempts to espouse by denylng that
they are deluslons; yet, she cannot really convlnce her
self, and the project ls a fallure. In 'Intlmlt" a wlfe con
slders leavlng her lmpotent husband for her lover but
as she sensed all along wlthout admlttlng ltwlll not do
so because she prefers, ultlmately, a man who ls depen
dent. In both storles, as ln i~ k~I fantasy plays an
enormous role. characters dream of accompllshlng
thlngs but do not carry out thelr deslres and thus, ln
Sartre`s terms, are lnauthentlc. Jhe same applles to
'Erostrate," whlch takes lts tltle from Erostratus, the
Greek who galned lastlng fame by burnlng down the
temple at Ephesus. Paul Hllbert, a loner and sexual per
vert, a wouldbe superman, dreams of a slmllar act,
whlch wlll lmpose hlm on others and destroy, ln the
process, a few of the consclousnesses that have been
judglng hlm. But hls plan to shoot slx people falls
because, as he approaches the act, lt appears empty,
absurd; ln the end he ls cornered ln a publlc tollet.
In 'LÈnfance dùn chef" ('Jhe Chlldhood of a
Leader") Luclen, the hero, overcomes the dlfflcultles of
chlldhood and obstacles of adolescence to become a
proper young man of the bourgeolsle, the worthy helr
to hls father`s buslness. Jhose who know i j
lmmedlately recognlze the story as partly autoblo
graphlc; the sltuatlon ls that of Mancy and hls stepson,
except that young |eanPaul cut hls tles entlrely wlth the
bourgeols world. Jhe boy Luclen feels that he has no
belng, no justlflcatlon. Efforts to galn a sense of self pro
duce only an experlence of nothlngness or shame. Hls
solutlon ls to adopt a polltlcal posltlonantlSemltlsm
whlch guarantees hlm by allowlng hlm to deflne hlmself
as what he ls not. Jhls cholce glves hlm such confl
dence that he can clalm hls place ln soclety, becomlng
the 'leader" he was born to be, a member of an
oppresslve class, a prlg and a true ~~K Jhe story
l32
g~Jm~ p~ ai_ PPO
must be read ln the llght of other Sartrean texts, espe
clally Roquentln`s judgment on the 'leaders" he sees ln
the famous museum scene of Io òuscc: Sartre castl
gates not only an abuslve soclal class but also any other
cholce by whlch one llves an external lmperatlve.
As the l930s drew to a close Sartre was known
chlefly ln lntellectual clrclesby readers who bought hls
flctlon, publlshed by Galllmard, and the smaller num
ber who knew hls phllosophlcal essays. Such novellsts
as Cllne and Andr Malraux were conslderably better
known, not to mentlon glants from prevlous decades,
such as Proust, Glde, Maurlac, and Roger Martln du
Gard. Jhe outbreak of war ln September l939, when
he was lmmedlately moblllzed, changed hls art as well
as hls clrcumstances. Ior a whlle he was posted at the
Eastern border, where Beauvolr vlslted hlm several
tlmes. Jhelr letters from thls perlod reflect hls vast
readlng and lntellectual actlvlty even ln wartlme; Ics
Corvcts dc lo drlc dc gucrrc (l983; translated as Tlc !or
Diorics of cov-Ioul Sortrc: òvcmbcr 19J9-Morcl 1940,
l981) ls an even better record of hls ongolng lntellec
tual development.
Sartre was captured on 2l |une l910, after havlng
seen no real actlon. Lntll late wlnter of the next year he
was a prlsoner of war, flrst ln a Irench camp, then a
German stalag near Jrler. Accordlng to hls clalm, the
experlence changed hlm deeply. He dlscovered, he
wrote, hls solldarlty wlth hls fellow prlsoners, as for the
flrst tlme he belonged to a unlt nelther famllybased nor
lntellectual. Jestlmony from fellow prlsoners has sug
gested, however, that he exaggerated thls popullst cama
raderle. At Chrlstmastlme he wrote and produced a
play, oriovo, ou Ic Iils du tovvcrc (unpubllshed untll
l962, when lt appeared ln a llmlted edltlon), hls flrst
attempt at theater slnce hls unlverslty days. He became
frlends wlth a prlest, Marlus Perrln, and dlscussed wlth
hlm Martln Heldegger`s phllosophy, whlch he later
clalmed to have dlscovered years before but probably
dld not read extenslvely untll after lmprlsonment and
may have mlsunderstood. After hls repatrlatlon ln
March l91l (procured by a falslfled medlcal carda
transparent ruse, to whlch the authorltles apparently
turned a bllnd eye), he told Beauvolr that he no longer
saw hls work as separate from the surroundlng soclal
and polltlcal clrcumstances; he was convlnced that lt
must be rooted ln the present sltuatlon and dlrected
toward the cause of soclallst revolutlon. Jhls convlctlon
marks the beglnnlng of a new perlod ln hls career, char
acterlzed by awareness of hlstorlclty and leadlng, gradu
ally, to radlcal polltlclzatlon.
Back ln Germanoccupled Parls, Sartre taught
untll l911, frst at the Lyce Pasteur, then the Lyce
Condorcet, a more deslrable post. Not only dld thls
employment make hlm (llke all publlc teachers) a func
tlonary of the collaboratlonlst Vlchy government and
requlre hlm to slgn a Vlchy oath statlng that he was
Aryan, the Condorcet posltlon was open to hlm
because lts prevlous occupant, llke more than eleven
hundred other |ewlsh teachers, had been dlsmlssed.
(Contrary clalms concernlng Sartre`s hlrlng have been
effectlvely countered by Ingrld Galster ln Sortrc, !icly ct
lcs ivtcllcctucls.) He thus proflted from Nazl pollcles. In
l915, however, he wrote that the wrlter 'est compllce
des oppresseurs s`ll nèst pas làlll naturel des
opprlms" (ls an accompllce of the oppressors lf he ls
not the natural ally of the oppressed), and he later sald
ln a LNESCO speech that German teachers should
have reslgned rather than work for the Nazl govern
ment when lt prevented |ews from teachlng. Jhls dls
parltyone of many between Sartre`s stated rlgorous
morallsm and hls own conducthas been vlewed by
Sartrean enthuslasts as mlnor; but for more crltlcal
readers, such an act of what he called 'bad falth" ls slg
nlflcant.
Sartre`s Reslstance actlvltles were unlmportant,
although he and hls admlrers later ldentlfled the theme
of freedom ln hls wrltlngs then as a call to overthrow
the occuplers. Hls small, shortllved, and marglnal antl
Nazl group called Soclallsme et Llbert (Soclallsm and
Ireedom) apparently had no lmpact. Accordlng to
Annle CohenSolal, he composed a lengthy constltutlon
for governlng Irance after the war. Slnce all coples have
dlsappeared, lt cannot be assessed, though wltnesses
later sald lt was anachronlstlc and Sartre was a polltlcal
llllterate. In l913 he became assoclated wlth the Comlt
Natlonal des Ecrlvalns, a communlstdomlnated under
ground organlzatlon, and wrote for lts paper, Ics Icttrcs
Irovoiscs. He also wrote repeatedly, however, for the
collaboratlonlst weekly Comocdio; he publlshed wlth
Galllmard, composed fllm scrlpts for Path, and had
two plays produced at theaters that, llke Galllmard and
Path, operated only wlth German approval, excluded
'undeslrables," and underwent censure. It should be
noted, however, that he was not the only wrlter or artlst
to compromlse wlth the Nazls whlle professlng antl
Nazl sentlments then or later or clalmlng, as Sartre dld,
that he belonged to the 'lntellectual Reslstance."
Jhe l910s are par excellence the decade of Sar
trean exlstentlal wrltlngnovels, plays, phllosophy, crltl
clsm. He was llonlzed on the Left Bank, where he could
often be found at the Caf de Ilore, and was wldely
known as the apostle of a new phllosophy that gave to
nlhlllsm lts deflnltlve form and yet was, paradoxlcally,
also a vlgorous call to actlon; he was seen also as a
spokesman for a new soclety, rejectlng lnherlted values
and the polltlcs of the Jhlrd Republlc, polltlcs whose
bankruptcy seemed even more strlklng than after
World War I because the old attltudes appeared respon
l33
ai_ PPO g~Jm~ p~
slble for the defeat of Irance. He became frlends wlth
|ean Genet and, later, Camus (untll they quarreled ln
l952). In l915 he helped found what was to become an
lnfluentlal journal of commentary, Ics Tcmps Modcrvcs,
and gave a publlc lecture on exlstentlallsm, whlch was
then publlshed as IÌxistcvtiolismc cst uv lumovismc (l916;
translated as Ixistcvtiolism, l917), a popularlzatlon of hls
vlews, whlch gave currency to the term cxistcvtiolism (not
of hls colnlng). It promoted baslc concepts of Sartrean
phllosophy, especlally the ldea (made current earller by
Malraux) that man ls the sum of hls acts. Jhat ls, whlle
thlngs have deflnlng essences, he argued (a knlfe belng
csscvtiolly a cuttlng tool), human belngs have only exlst
ence and cannot be reduced to any glven. Sartre`s use
of the term lumovism mlsrepresented hls posltlon some
what, confllctlng wlth hls rejectlon ln prevlous works,
notably Io òuscc, of humanlst commonplaces, lnclud
lng the bellef ln flxed values and human nature.
Hls major phllosophlc text of the decade ls IÌtrc
ct lc vcovt, a systematlc presentatlon, ln sometlmes spe
clallzed language, of what he calls phenomenologlcal
ontology, that ls, the examlnatlon of belng (the world
and manklnd, or cv-soi and pour-soi ) vla the phenomeno
loglcal method. It owes a great deal to hls readlng of
Husserl, whlch suggested especlally Sartre`s method of
reductlon, or cpocl. It also has Carteslan elements and
echoes of Heldegger. It develops systematlcally lnslghts
and concepts from Sartre`s phllosophlcal essays of the
l930s, plus hls longer volume IÌmogivoirc: Isyclologic
plcvomcvologiquc dc lìmogivotiov (l910; translated as Tlc
Isyclology of Imogivotiov, l918) and hls flctlon. It has llter
ary qualltles ltself. after pages of abstract argumenta
tlon, the reader comes upon sectlons that are hlghly
concrete, and others ln whlch concepts are lllustrated by
flctlonal sltuatlons. It reveals Sartre`s convlctlon that
phllosophy must be rooted ln experlence, thus close to
llterature. Indeed, many of lts concerns are famlllar llt
erary themes. for lnstance, the fundamental problems
of how people percelve reallty, of how they vlew them
selves (lncludlng thelr bodles) and others, and espe
clally how they relate to others, lncludlng sexually.
Such classlc problems of phllosophy and psy
chology as tlme, reallty, knowledge, and free wlll
recelve very partlcular treatment at Sartre`s hands. He
stresses especlally the utter, radlcal freedom of what he
calls human reallty and the consequent total responsl
blllty of each person. As he put lt bluntly elsewhere,
'Chacun de mes actes met en jeu le sens du monde et la
place de l`homme dans lùnlvers" (Each of my acts
brlngs lnto play the meanlng of the world and man`s
place ln the unlverse). Some of hls statements on belng
and especlally human belngs have been so frequently
quoted that they are almost cllchs. 'L`homme est con
damn a tre llbre" (Man ls condemned to be free);
'L`homme est une passlon lnutlle" (Man ls a useless
passlon). Jhe volume does not purport to furnlsh an
ethlcs, only an ontologlcal lnvestlgatlon; Sartre suggests
that any valld ethlcs must be founded on human free
dom and the absence of God. In subsequent years he
wrote parts of what was to become a treatlse on moral
lty, publlshed posthumously as Colicrs pour uvc morolc
(l983; translated as òtcbools for ov Itlics, l992), fol
lowed by a sequel, !critc ct cxistcvcc (l989; translated as
Trutl ovd Ixistcvcc, l992). Another long posthumous
essay on ethlcs appeared ln Ics Tcmps Modcrvcs ln 2005.
Ilve of Sartre`s plays, whlch revealed hls dramatlc
talents, were staged ln Parls durlng the l910s. In Ics
Mouclcs ( produced and publlshed ln l913; translated as
Tlc Ilics, l916), based on the Electra and Orestes myth,
hls characters dlscover freedom; even |uplter ls power
less before human cholce. Jhe lntentlon was partly
phllosophlcal, followlng the ontology of IÌtrc ct lc vcovt,
but the drama was lnterpreted also ln polltlcal terms, as
an obllque antlNazl rallylng cry. Receptlon was mlxed,
revlewers belng rather harsh on lts formal qualltles.
Huis clos (produced ln l911, publlshed ln l915, and
translated as Iv Comcro, l916, and as ò Ixit, l917) grew
from Sartre`s deslre to wrlte a play wlth three maln
roles, each of whlch would have equal lmportance;
Camus was to have taken one, before plans changed.
Jhe play became a tense, lnclslve dramatlzatlon of key
phllosophlcal concepts concernlng human relatlonshlps.
All of lts dynamlcs come from competltlon among
dlfferent lmages of self and others ln perpetual confllct.
Jhe dlscovery made by the three characters, ostenslbly
dead and ln hell together, that 'lènfer cèst les autres"
(hell ls other people) arlses from the deslre and fallure
of each consclousness to lmpose ltself on others and
thereby achleve ratlflcatlon. Each consclousness trles
then to 'klll" the others, that ls, to ellmlnate thelr free
dom. Jhe pattern of the trlo ls not the classlc love trlan
gle but rather embodles the compllcatlon of subject
object relatlonshlps whereby each palr, ltself ln contlnu
ous sadomasochlstlc confllct, ls always an object to an
observer, or voyeur. Sartre later sald that he had not
meant to lndlcate that all human relatlonshlps were
doomed to fallure but rather that they would contlnue
to be so as long as they were fundamentally twlsted.
Io Iutoiv rcspcctucusc (produced and publlshed,
l916; translated as Tlc Icspcctful Irostitutc, l919), whlch
gave rlse to the euphemlsm 'la respectueuse," ls much
less accompllshed than the flrst two plays because of lts
rellance on stereotypes and lts melodramatlc plot; but
even uslng such stock characters as the generous prostl
tute and the hypocrltlcal senator (the actlon takes place
ln an unnamed southern state), the playwrlght lllus
trates how a person`s belng ls a functlon of hls or her
role or presence for others, and ls thus lnauthentlc. A
l31
g~Jm~ p~ ai_ PPO
fourth play, j ~ (produced and pub
llshed, l916; translated as q s and as j
p~I l919), was not successful when lt premlered,
doubtless because lt dealt wlth the sensltlve subject of
torture practlced by the Vlchy mllltla durlng the
Occupatlon. Llke i j and e I lt presents
characters who are sequestered, and thelr awful drama
arlses from the necesslty of maklng cholces under
duress for whlch they are nevertheless utterly responsl
ble. Jhe play lllustrates well the dread and angulsh ana
lyzed ln ib ~I whlch come from one`s
dlscovery of both responslblllty and lnadequacy and
the lronlc absurdlty of actlon.
Jhe last play of the l910s ls the most complex.
i j~ ~ (produced and publlshed, l918; trans
lated as a e~I l919, and as ` ~I l919),
favorably recelved on the stage, ls Sartre`s verslon of
the Hamlet dllemma ln a modern polltlcal settlng. Mod
eled conslderably on the dramatlst hlmself, at least as a
chlld, Hugo, the young bourgeols hero, an ldeallst and
a polltlcal absolutlst, wants to prove to hls comrades ln
the Communlst Party that he ls truly one of them,
responslble and capable. Yet, when faced wlth the dlffl
cult task he has been asslgnedthe assasslnatlon of
Hoederer, an opportunlstlc leader too ready for com
promlses and o~he hesltates, not through cow
ardlce but because Hoederer, somethlng of a substltute
father, has converted hlm to hls own vlews. However,
the assasslnatlon ls ultlmately carrled out when Hugo
shoots Hoederer as a result of sexual jealousy. Jhe
polltlcal confllct between ldeallsm and pragmatlsm ls
left unresolved, though the audlence`s sympathles may
go toward Hoederer, who argues that human actlon can
never be pure. Jhe phllosophlcal dllemma ls even more
dlfflcult. when the polltlcal wlnds blow ln favor of expe
dlency and the dead Hoederer becomes a hero, should
Hugo assume responslblllty for hls act and thereby
ldentlfy what he ls wlth what he has done, or denounce
hls act as an error? Hls flnal refusal to denounce ltto
let the Party call lt a mlstake and thus explaln lt away
marks one of the few moments ln Sartre`s theater when
an exlstentlallst cholce resembles what ls usually under
stood by herolsm.
In composlng these plays Sartre was concerned
wlth the soclal functlon of drama. Iollowlng hls polltlcl
zatlon after wartlme captlvlty, he wlshed to change the
functlon of theater ln Irance from one of entertalnment
for the mlddle and upper classes, revolvlng often
around love trlangles and other sentlmental toplcs, to
that of provoklng soclal change, wlth plays addressed to
the proletarlat and petlte bourgeolsle. He wanted a
drama of praxls, or actlon, to be accompllshed not
through dldactlclsm but what he called a theater of sltu
atlons, whlch would deal wlth cruclal lssues ln a way
that would have meanlng for the audlence and ln whlch
lt would be clear that, lnstead of derlvlng from abso
lutes, ethlcal cholce was a functlon of sltuatlon, always
characterlzed by confllct. Ironlcally, although Sartre`s
drama had a wlde general appeal, mostly to mlddle
class audlences, lt seems to have had no polltlcal effect;
nor dld lt change Irench theater, whlch remalned much
the same after the war untll the advent of the theater of
the absurd and, later, a new polltlcal theater under the
lnfluence of Bertolt Brecht.
Before the war, Sartre had planned another novel;
he pursued lt whlle he was ln unlform and even ln
prlson. Jhe project became i ` ~ (Jhe
Roads to Ireedom). In l915 the flrst two volumes
appeared. i^ ~ (translated as q ^ o~I
l917) and i p (translated as q oI l917).
Volume three, i~ j ~ (translated as f
pI l950, and as q pI l95l), appeared ln
l919, followed by a long fragment, 'Drle dàmltl"
(Strange Irlendshlp) ln i q j (l919). Irag
ments publlshed posthumously ln ~
(l98l) show the proposed development of characters
but omlt any preclse resolutlon to the dlalectlcal prob
lem of the confllct between personal freedom and soclal
responslblllty; the serles thus remalns problematlcal
both aesthetlcally and ldeologlcally.
Llke flctlon by wrlters such as Malraux and
Camus, i ` ~ marks the confrontatlon
of the tradltlonal enllghtenment vlew of human rlghts
wlth contemporary concern for the rlghts of groups and
polltlcal bodles. Jhls dlalectlc between lndlvldual and
collectlve freedom ls paralleled by the theme of ontolog
lcal llberty and the resultlng moral dread. Sartre beglns
wlth a hero, Mathleu Delarue, who resembles hlma
phllosophy professor, wlth a few frlends and a mlstress
but no real tlesand who ls obsessed wlth remalnlng
free. Jhls ls negatlve freedom, or freedom mlsunder
stood, whereas true freedom, as ib ~ shows,
means total responslblllty for oneself ln a valueless
world. Mathleu`s project ls slmply to remaln unmarrled
and, thanks to hls teachlng, enjoy an assured lncome.
Hls progress toward genulne freedom, or quest, ls par
alleled by the sentlmental and polltlcal adventures of a
wlde range of other characters, malnly mlddleclass.
i^ ~I whlch ls closely tled to Sartre`s
phllosophlc works of the l910s, turns on Mathleu`s
efforts to arrange for an abortlon for hls mlstress to
avold the responslblllty of paternlty. (Beauvolr clalmed
later, durlng a campalgn to legallze abortlon, that she
had undergone the procedure; whether there ls a con
nectlon ls unknown.) Subplots slmllarly deal wlth
denlal of responslblllty. Borls trles to avold the commlt
ment requlred when one accepts belng loved; the exas
peratlng Ivlch falls ln her unlverslty work so that she
l35
ai_ PPO g~Jm~ p~
wlll not have to accept the selfdeflnltlon and dutles
assoclated wlth a degree. A related theme ls bad falth,
ln whlch all the characters llve, notably Mathleu`s
homosexual frlend Danlel, who trles to hlde hls pen
chant from hlmself; Mathleu slmllarly attempts to avold
maklng declslons ln exlstentlal dread by denylng the
need for such cholces. Jhe characters are vlvldly por
trayed, especlally through conversatlon and lnterlor
monologues ln the flrst or thlrd person. Jhe multlple
plots, developed ln parallel chapters but connected vla
Mathleu (a technlque lnsplred perhaps by Glde or
Amerlcan models), convey well the flavor of the pre
war Left Bank. Jhe sense of llved experlence ls very
strong. Scenes such as Danlel`s masochlstlc efforts to
drown hls cats and mutllate hlmself, and Ivlch`s and
Mathleu`s stabblng of thelr hands ln a nlghtclub, are
powerful dramatlzatlons of moral and exlstentlal slck
ness.
In volume two, i pI Sartre adopted a radlcal
technlque for whlch he was clearly lndebted to Dos Pas
sos. Whereas ln the flrst volume the multlple characters
and plots are kept dlstlnct by chapter organlzatlon,
here, more numerous plots are woven together, often ln
the same passage, even sentence, wlth no expllclt transl
tlons. Puzzllng on flrst readlng, i p suggests the
slmultanelty and ublqulty of actlon, or what Sartre
called multldlmenslonallty. As he argued ln '_uèstce
que la llttrature?" flrst publlshed ln l917 (later col
lected ln p~I ffI l918, and translated as t~ f
i~\ l919), thls ls conslstent not only wlth modern
physlcs but also wlth hls athelstlc phllosophy, whlch
denles a slngle godllke polnt of vlew, and wlth contem
porary polltlcal realltles, accordlng to whlch lsolatlon ls
lmposslble and Europe must be seen as a whole. In
other words, the novel presents what Sartre would later
call a detotallzed totallty. a Hegellan synthesls ln the
maklng, ln whlch dlalectlcal forces operate on all levels,
but whlch cannot be completed.
Jhe tltle i p refers to the days ln September
l938 when the Nazl armles lnvaded Czechoslovakla to
annex terrltory where the Sudeten Germans were a
majorlty and, ln a notorlous act of appeasement, Great
Brltaln and Irance slgned wlth Hltler the Munlch Pact,
whlch Sartre rlghtly takes as the end of the lnterwar
perlod. Brlefly, Europeans llve on the brlnk of war and
then, when lt ls averted, belleve that the return to nor
mal llvlng condltlons wlll be permanent. As a polltlcal
novel, the work suggests the folly of such appeasement
and necesslty of commltment, and attacks the upper
classes, who were more apprehenslve about commu
nlsm than fasclsm and, above all, sought to protect thelr
lnvestments. As the contlnuatlon of Mathleu`s story, lt
shows how hls awareness of responslblllty, derlvlng
from hls freedom and gratultousness, makes hlm
uneasy, although not yet ready to commlt hlmself,
unllke hls Communlst frlend Brunet. Others from i^
~ reappear ln clrcumstances that sltuate them
wlth respect to themselves and also the collectlvlty. New
characters, lncludlng the hlstorlcal flgures Hltler,
Edouard Daladler, and Nevllle Chamberlaln, lllustrate
reactlons to events that vary between approprlate,
responslble actlon and bad falth. |acques Delarue,
Mathleu`s brother, lllustrates mlddleclass fear of com
munlsm. Jhe masochlstlc Danlel, who wlshes for war,
has marrled Mathleu`s pregnant mlstress, who dlsgusts
hlm; Borls hopes to escape through mllltary servlce the
unacceptable demands of belng loved; Phlllppe, a cow
ard, prepares to flee to Swltzerland; Gomez, who fought
as a volunteer ln Spaln on the Republlcan slde, argues
agalnst yleldlng to Hltler`s blackmall.
Jhe thlrd volume may be the least satlsfactory,
although Mlchel Contat and Mlchel Rybalka, ln i
b p~ (l970; translated as q t p~I
l971), conslder lt the best. It matches nelther the technl
cal achlevement of i p nor the varled themes of
i^ ~ and seems dated. Yet, Sartre`s effort to
develop the theme of freedom ls not wlthout hlstorlcal
and polltlcal lnterest. Jhe tltle, i~ j ~ I refers
to the dlscouragement of those who fought, brlefly and
futllely, agalnst the Germans ln May and |une l910 and
those who wlshed to bulld a soclallst Irance. Part one
deals wlth the flnal days of the war, as refugees stream
along provlnclal roads; part two, wlth Irench captlves
ln an lnternment camp and as they are transferred to a
German stalag. But the lnterest ls less mllltary than
polltlcal and moral. Jhe flrst part ls structured llke i^
~. Danlel ls ln Parls, rejolclng ln the German
occupatlon and proposlng to 'reeducate" Phlllppe (who
dld not cross the border after all) after savlng hlm from
a sulclde attempt. Gomez ls ln New York, sufferlng so
from the defeat that what he has cherlshed most prevl
ouslypalntlngloses all slgnlflcance. After the rout of
hls squad, Mathleu partlclpates ln a herolc, though
obvlously futlle, defense of a vlllage. Ireed at last from
hls nearparalysls of actlon, he shoots at the lnvadlng
Germans from the church belfry, each shot ldentlfled
wlth an act he had not had the courage to perform
before. (Posthumous fragments show, however, that
Mathleu ls not kllled.) Jhls actlon ls often taken as the
perfect expresslon of freedom, but Sartre speclfled else
where that lt was stlll negatlve. In the second part the
emphasls ls not on physlcal hardshlp but on the reac
tlon of prlsoners to thelr condltlon, wlth contrasts
drawn partlcularly between Communlsts, such as Bru
net, and the others, who have nelther dlsclpllne nor
polltlcal falth and thlnk only of thelr comfort. Jhe maln
questlons are how to deal wlth the defeat and what attl
tude to adopt toward the L.S.S.R. after the l939 Nazl
l36
g~Jm~ p~ ai_ PPO
Sovlet pact (a problem that Nlzan had to face), whlch
put ln an ldeologlcal stralt Irench patrlots who were
also Communlsts. Brunet`s concluslon that lnternment
ls better than llberatlon for Irench captlves ls based on
hls convlctlon that only deprlvatlon and hardshlp can
brlng about the radlcal change ln thelr attltude neces
sary lf Irance ls ever to be rebullt on a soclallst founda
tlon.
i ` ~ created a sensatlon; though
a few perceptlve crltlcs saw lts value, Sartre was agaln
attacked for hls lmmorallty. Such attacks would not
have deterred hlm from completlng the serles. But, as
he reallzed, lt referred to a perlod that, whlle barely a
few years dlstant, seemed almost forelgn after l915;
psychologlcally, the tone had changed. Whlle he
deslred to wrlte for hls own tlme, he concluded that he
could not express the amblgultles of the present
moment ln terms of even the recent past. Ior many
readers, ln fact, the serles dld not carry the moral
welght of Camus`s l917 allegorlcal novel i~ m (Jhe
Plague). Sartre apparently had dlfflculty also ln devel
oplng flctlonally what he understood by true exlstentlal
freedom and showlng how lt could be reallzed ln con
temporary soclety.
By l950 Sartre`s name was had become well
known outslde Irance. Hls works had been placed on
the Vatlcan`s lndex of prohlblted books ln l918. Hls
fame ln the Lnlted States was ln part the result of hls
flrst trlp there ln l915, whlch, llke many subsequent
travels abroadAsla, Afrlca, and South Amerlcapro
duced provocatlve essays. Hls brand of exlstentlallsm,
for whlch Beauvolr offered further lllustratlons ln her
work, was publlclzed ln many dlfferent organs as the
phllosophy of the hour. It lnformed i q j
and lnnumerable journallstlc artlcles and crltlcal essays,
lncludlng those collected ln Sartre`s lmportant ten
volume serles p~ (l917-l976). Chrlstlan com
mentators on the one hand and Communlst crltlcs on
the other felt obllged to respond to hls posltlons, glvlng
rlse to lmportant polemlcs; and some ln hls clrcle, such
as Raymond Aron, Maurlce MerleauPonty, and
Camus, dlsagreed wlth hlm publlcly, especlally after the
Korean War started. Whlle he had not prevlously
endorsed any polltlcal movement except, brlefly ln
l918, the Rassemblement Dmocratlque Rvolutlon
nalre (RDR), he had crltlclzed vlgorously the confllct ln
lndochlna and what seemed to hlm to be the warmon
gerlng of the Lnlted States and rlghtwlng elements ln
Irance. Successful as a playwrlght, novellst, essaylst,
and phllosopher, he was nevertheless on the verge of an
lntellectual crlsls, whlch would have lastlng ramlflca
tlons throughout the l950s (roughly, hls thlrd perlod)
and beyond. Jhe crlsls amounted, very broadly speak
lng, to puttlng aslde hls 'negatlve freedom" and lndlvld
uallstlc, artlstlc enterprlses, wlth thelr prlvlleged status,
ln favor of polltlcal commltment and communltarlan
concernsthat ls, to renounclng hls place as an lntellec
tual ln the tradltlonal Irench sense to assume the role of
popular, actlvlst lntellectual. It may be vlewed as a Sar
trean verslon of passlng from what Sren Klerkegaard
whose lnfluence Sartre later acknowledgedhad called
the aesthetlc stage to the Klerkegaardlan ethlcal stage.
Whlle the crlsls may have been a delayed devel
opment of Sartre`s experlences ln l910 and ln occupled
Parls, lt was preclpltated by new factors, lt would seem.
In a Irance lncreaslngly dlvlded after the brlef euphorla
of postLlberatlon accord among Reslstance groups, he
had been unable to create a nonallgned leftlst move
ment; caught ln the Cold War, the country was polar
lzed between Communlsts, wlth thelr alleglance to the
Sovlet Lnlon, and the partles of the West. Iearlng war,
Sartre had to hope for a Sovlet vlctory, though lt would
mean the end of Irance as he knew lt. Startlng ln l952,
he began to allgn hlmself wlth Communlsm, flrst ln lts
rlgld Stallnlst form, later ln the sometlmes vlrulent form
of Irench Maolsm. He dld not, however, joln the
Irench Communlst Party, whlch was generally hostlle
to hlm. In l952 he attended the Congress for World
Peace ln Vlenna and forbade the staglng of i j~
~ there for fear lt would offend the Stallnlsts. He
pralsed the Sovlet Lnlon lavlshly after hls flrst trlp
there (l951). Whlle he crltlclzed Sovlet actlons at the
tlme of the l956 Hungarlan uprlslng and on other occa
slons, he never renounced thenceforth hls approval of
revolutlonary dlalectlc, and he dlsplayed obstlnate
obtuseness regardlng the evlls of totalltarlan reglmes. In
fact, hls own thought may be called totalltarlan. In
l972, for lnstance, he stated ln an lntervlew that the
death penalty for unrepentant bourgeols ln soclallst
natlons was approprlate and that durlng the Irench
Revolutlon probably not enough people were kllled.
Another probable source of the crlsls was, para
doxlcally, hls success. Whether because he was the
descendant of strlct Protestants and could not help
looklng upon fame as suspect, even dlabollcal, or
because hls prlde was so great that successthat ls, pop
ular ratlflcatlon represented to hlm approprlatlon and
denlgratlon, or whether lt was slmply a questlon of
always golng beyond hlmself ln a nlhllatlon of the past
and recreatlng a present self ex nlhllo, accordlng to hls
exlstentlallst understandlng of man as project, Sartre
attempted to reject the lmage of hlmself as successful
creatlve wrlter. Jhls was tantamount to a selfradlcallzatlon
what he called selfcontestatlon or thlnklng agalnst hlm
selfwhlch he practlced throughout the rest of hls
career.
Durlng the l950s, though he abandoned flctlon,
he composed four dramasmore dlrect and vlsceral
l37
ai_ PPO g~Jm~ p~
than flctlonand several major essays, lncludlng those
on Stphane Mallarm, publlshed ln i b~
ln l953 and collected ln p~I fuI and Jlntoretto,
'Le Squestr de Venlse," ln l957, publlshed ln i
q j and later collected ln p~I fs. Hls
contlnued rereadlng of Karl Marx and Marxlst hlstorl
ans culmlnated ln the 755page study, ` ~ ~
~ (l960; translated as ` a~~ o~I
l976), on whlch he worked compulslvely, often under
the lnfluence of amphetamlnes, to whlch he became
addlcted. He also publlshed hls lengthy study of Genet.
Jltled p~ dI ~ (l952; translated as
p~ dI ^ ~ j~I l963), lt ls a creatlve appll
catlon of prlnclples from ib ~ to the crlmlnal
who became a famous and admlred author. It lnslsts
upon Genet`s selfcreatlon as or actor, by hls so
called orlglnal cholce to assume hls ldentlty as thlef ln
accordance wlth soclety`s labellng of hlm, by hls homo
sexuallty, and by hls cholce of soclal evll as good. Jhe
argumentatlon relles on the sort of dlalectlcal reasonlng
that Sartre had learned from Marx, transferred to the
areas of exlstentlallst psychoanalysls and ethlcs. Jhe
volume lllustrates how, for Sartre, genlus ls a response
to a sltuatlon; Genet`s lay ln hls creatlve formlng of
hlmself, whlch then gave rlse to llterary expresslons.
` ~ ~ ~ ls a revlew, ln a quasl
exlstentlallst perspectlve, of classlcal Marxlsm, consld
ered by Sartre osslfled. It proposes a new method for
hlstorlcal analysls, based on Hegellan and Marxlst
thought but departlng from lt, especlally by lnslstlng on
the freedom of subjects. Nelther entlrely polltlcs, nor
hlstory, anthropology, soclology, nor phllosophy, lt
draws on all these dlsclpllnes ln lts alm of understand
lng class struggle and provldlng the means for soclal
revolutlon. Verbose and obscure, lt was wrltten wlth the
convlctlon that Europe and clvlllzatlon were on the
edge of dlsaster. It denounces, ln addltlon to bourgeols
capltallsm and Western democratlc structures, almost
all the soclal relatlonshlps and lnstltutlons (called
'serles") of the modern world (lncludlng those ln soclal
lst socletles such as the L.S.S.R.) consldered lnauthentlc
and tyrannlcal; lt calls for new relatlonshlps based on
structures ldentlfled at certaln dynamlc moments ln hls
tory, notably the Irench Revolutlon. Analytlc reason
the type of Carteslan loglc that gave rlse to modern scl
ence and mathematlcs and ls found ln the everyday
notlon of cause and effectls denounced ln favor of dla
lectlcal reason, whlch proceeds by trlads and whlch Sar
tre lllustrates at length. (Although he rejects the concept
of unlversal human nature, he admlts that of unlversal
hlstorlcal reason.) Departlng from hls earller posltlon,
he acknowledges freedom as condltlonal and condl
tloned by clrcumstance, but lt remalns as both a glven
and an end.
Jhe receptlon glven ` ~ ~ ~
varled. Some crltlcs found lt derlvatlve, others obscure,
others brllllantly creatlve. It ls so complex and dlfflcult
that early appralsals were necessarlly lncomplete and
blased, and lt contlnues to provoke arguments; Marxlst
crltlcs ln Engllshspeaklng countrles have been partlcu
larly attentlve readers. Sartrean revlslonlst Marxlsm
has, however, slnce been overshadowed by newer revl
slonlst readlngs of classlcal Marxlst texts and new theo
rles; moreover, the fall of the Sovlet Lnlon and changes
ln Eastern bloc natlons have thrown addltlonal crltlcal
llght on Sartre`s readlng of hlstory.
Sartre`s two prlnclpal plays of the l950s are
closely connected to the dlalectlcal reasonlng set out ln
` ~ ~ ~. i a~ _ a
(publlshed, l95l; translated as i ~ iI
l953, and as q a ~ d iI l960), ls a
long, complex drama wlth many scenes, vlolent lan
guage and actlon, and strong contrasts; these character
lstlcs, whlch are slgns of the baroque, make lt conform
well to lts settlng and subject matterthe rellglous and
polltlcal confllcts ln preReformatlon Germany, espe
clally the vlolence among temporal powers and prlnces
of the church. Jhe play lntroduces one of Sartre`s favor
lte flgures, the bastard (also vlslble ln p~ dI a
closely related work). Jhe theme of the bastard ls
related to that of treason, an lmportant current ln the
play and a recurrlng theme elsewhere.
Jhe maln toplcs, however, are good and evll as
absoluteshence the exlstence of Godand the founda
tlon for human actlon. Jhe hero, Goetz, the natural son
of a peasant and a noblewoman, has systematlcally
practlced evll, llke Genet. On a bet he vows henceforth
to pursue only good, lncludlng the emanclpatlon of
serfs and the selzlng of lands belonglng to the noblllty.
Jhe lmposslblllty of dolng only goodnot through
human frallty but because of the nature of actlon ln and
on the worldls lllustrated ln a rlch and complex plot
development. In partlcular, lt becomes clear that all
actlon, belng rooted ln an hlstorlcal moment, must flt
that moment to be effectlve. a premature revolt ls worse
than none, because of lts negatlve consequences. Sartre
lllustrates thereby the llmlts of actlon or praxls, set by
what he calls the practlcolnert, that ls, the counterac
tlon of 'objects" (matter, serles, lndlvlduals) ln response
to actlon. Goetz`s fallure ls both personal and practlcal
(he cannot free the peasants). Hls response ls to
denounce evll and good allke as absolutes and choose
pragmatlc actlon, sltuated and dlrected toward a speclflc
end. On the phllosophlcal plane thls means the denlal
of God`s exlstence, and i a~ _ a ls Sartre`s
most dramatlc and, ln a sense, posltlve expresslon of
athelsm. Successfully produced ln Parls wlth an lmpres
slve cast, lt was voclferously crltlclzed, notably by Mau
l38
g~Jm~ p~ ai_ PPO
rlac, who found lts contents morally offenslve, and Elsa
Jrlolet, a famous Communlst wrlter who attacked lt for
polltlcal reasons.
Ics Scqucstrcs d`Zltovo (produced, l959; publlshed,
l960; translated as Ioscr !ivs, l960, and as Tlc Cov-
dcmvcd of Zltovo, l96l) ls Sartre`s last play, excludlng hls
l965 adaptatlon of Eurlpldes` Tlc Trojov !omcv. Llke Ic
Dioblc ct lc ov Dicu, lt ls lengthy, dlfflcult to produce,
and somewhat unwleldy ln plot. Desplte shocklng sub
ject matter, lt was very successful on the stage. Jhe dra
matlst had dlfflculty flnlshlng lt, partly because of poor
health, and productlon was postponed. Although such
ls not lmmedlately obvlous, lt reflects the hlstorlcal
moment, that ls, the Algerlan war, whlch had expanded
slnce l951. By l957 lt had become clear that torture
had been practlced systematlcally by Irench unlts ln
Algerla agalnst clvlllans and rebel soldlers allke. Jhe
consequent debate on the means of conductlng the war
and on the war ltself tore Irance asunder. Knowlng that
censorshlp under the Gaulllst Ilfth Republlc would not
allow hlm to deplct the confllct dlrectly, Sartre chose
lnstead a World War II context to treat the toplcs of tor
ture and a commerclally lnsplred war. Jhe concerns of
the play go well beyond these moral questlons, how
ever, lmportant as they are, to embrace subjects ranglng
from madness to a dlalectlcal vlew of hlstory.
Jhe drama deals wlth a German famlly after
defeat ln l915 and especlally the son Irantz (a name
generally lnterpreted as standlng for Irance), who has
sequestered hlmself ln an attempt to malntaln the lllu
slon of German vlctory and prosperlty. Hls madness,
whlch represents a free cholce, sprlngs partly from hls
havlng seen a |ew handed over to the SS and beaten to
death and havlng hlmself tortured Russlan partlsans.
Jense famlly relatlonshlps lnvolvlng the father, the
other son, the slster Lenl, and the slsterlnlaw recall
those ln Huis clos; hostlllty alternates wlth dependence
and need for the other, whlch ln the case of Lenl and
Irantz ls fullblown lncest. Irantz`s deluslons are not
only a fully consclous cholce, they are also prophetlc, as
he envlsages what ln Sartre`s vlew of mllltarlstlc capltal
lsm ls lnevltablethe destructlon of the human race.
Many of the author`s concerns and obsesslons are
woven lnto the text. fasclnatlon wlth the slster and the
father, the oppresslveness of the bourgeols famlly, prob
lems of authentlclty and selfldentlty, crab motlfs (fre
quent throughout hls work), food lmages, the
functlonlng of capltallsm, the theme of treachery, and
an apocalyptlc vlew of hlstory that lncorporates con
cepts from Critiquc dc lo roisov diolcctiquc.
Jwo other dramas date from the l950s. Ior a
l953 staglng, Sartre adapted very freely Alexandre
Dumas pre`s play Icov ou Dcsordrc ct gcvic, concernlng
the great Engllsh actor, born lllegltlmate. Brllllant,
although melodramatlc ln plot, Sartre`s Icov
(publlshed, l951; translated as Icov; or Disordcr ovd
Ccvius, l951) presents several favorlte themes. ldentlty,
role playlng, the relatlonshlp between self and others,
authentlclty, and soclal oppresslon. Jhls adaptatlon was
followed by a polltlcal farce, `clrossov (publlshed, l956;
translated, l956; republlshed ln Tlc Dcvil ovd tlc Cood
Iord, ovd Two Utlcr Iloys, l960), whlch, ln a Cold War
context, attacked the press and publlc paranola about
the Sovlet Lnlon; lt closed after a few performances
and now seems very dated.
By l960 lt was clear that a radlcal reorlentatlon
had lndeed taken place ln Sartre`s career and that he
had largely carrled out the lmpllcatlons of the crlsls ten
years before. Gone was the novellst; gone also was the
phllosopher preoccupled chlefly wlth phenomenologl
cal and ontologlcal questlons; even the playwrlght, who
had seen ln theater a sort of collectlve lntellectual com
munlon, would compose no more orlglnal dramas. He
had dlscarded the ldeallstlc convlctlonwhlch he called
hls lmposturethat art represented personal redemptlon
because the status of the art object was superlor to that
of llved experlence. Wrltlng was to serve the cause of
revolutlon. Yet, as Ics Mots (begun l953, flnlshed ln the
early l960s and publlshed ln book form ln l961, the
same year he was selected for the Nobel Prlze) showed,
he was unable to renounce wholly the words by whlch
he had so long llved. '|e me suls llgot a mon dslr
d`crlre" (I bound myself to my deslre to wrlte). Even
as, at the concluslon, he ldentlfled hlmself wlth all oth
ers, and others wlth hlm, hls slngularlty as a wrltlng
subject was obvlous, as was the value he gave to style;
Ics Mots, a renunclatlon of llterature, ls a superb llterary
achlevement.
In hls last productlve perlod (l960 untll the early
l970s, when hls eyeslght deterlorated markedly), Sar
tre`s wrltlngs were chlefly polltlcal and blographlcal,
lncludlng lmportant essays reprlnted ln Situotiovs. Hls
most substantlal achlevement was the threevolume
IÌdiot dc lo fomillc (l97l-l972; translated as Tlc Iomily
Idiot, l98l). Jhe ldlot ls Gustave Ilaubert, who, llke
Mallarm, had long lnterested Sartre, perhaps because
of resemblances between the author of Modomc ovory
and hls twentlethcentury crltlc. Sartre had undertaken
blographles before. hls l917 study oudcloirc (translated
lnto Engllsh ln l919), the book on Genet, hls own. Llke
them, IÌdiot dc lo fomillc emphaslzes chlldhood, for even
though he rejected much of Ireud, Sartre saw the cru
clal relatlonshlp between a wrlter`s flrst years and hls
development. IÌdiot dc lo fomillc studles at length, ln a
dlfflcult style remlnlscent of Critiquc dc lo roisov diolcctiquc
and uslng lts concepts, the mllleu lnto whlch Ilaubert
was bornnot just hls famlly and the professlonal upper
class but nlneteenthcentury lndustrlal soclety, whose
l39
ai_ PPO g~Jm~ p~
neuroses were mlrrored ln the profoundly maladjusted
Gustave. Jhe blography ls thus prlmarlly soclal crltl
clsm, and although Ilaubert`s achlevement ln flctlon
dld lnterest Sartrehe wanted to pursue the lnvestlga
tlon by concentratlng on j~~ _~ but was unable
to do sowhat concerned hlm chlefly was castlgatlng
Irench structures ln both the nlneteenth and the twentl
eth centurles, and the analytlc reason and capltallsm on
whlch they were based.
Sartre was very actlve polltlcally, supportlng
many dlfferent causes ln Irance and elsewhere. He
slgned, for lnstance, the l960 'Manlfeste des l2l" (Let
ter of l2l), whlch urged Irench mllltary recrults to
refuse obedlence, and statlng that he would, lf neces
sary, 'porter des vallses" (carry sultcases, that ls, trans
port lncendlary materlal) ln the cause of Algerlan
lndependence. He spoke agalnst Amerlcan lnvolvement
ln Vletnam and preslded over the Russell Jrlbunals,
formed to judge Amerlcan war crlmes. He generally
supported Israel and had a strlklng number of |ewlsh
frlends, lncludlng the Algerlan |ewlsh woman Arlette
Elkam, at one polnt hls young mlstress, whom he
adopted legally ln l965 (one of the rare events when
Beauvolr was taken by surprlse and greatly angered)
and who became hls executor. He also wrote, however,
ln favor of the Palestlne Llberatlon Authorlty and
attempted brlefly to serve as lntermedlary between
Arab natlons and the Israell state. He denounced the
Sovlet lnvaslon of Czechoslovakla ln l968. Durlng the
May student uprlslngs that yearanother stage, accord
lng to Beauvolr, ln hls transformatlon from classlcal
lntellectual lnto new or 'popular" lntellectualhe sup
ported the lnsurgents publlcly. It was clear by then,
however, that hls brand of revolutlonary thought had
been replaced by one even more radlcal, and more
energetlc. Iew of the new revolutlonarles clted hlm as
lnsplratlon, mentlonlng lnstead flgures such as Karl
Marx, Mao JseJung, Ildel Castro, and Che Guevara.
He dld, though, remaln lnvolved polltlcally, especlally
wlth the young Maolsts and the Gauche proltarlenne
movement, and ended by servlng as tltular edltor of the
lnflammatory i~ `~ m and also wrltlng for
i~. As long as he could travel, he spent summers
ln Rome, a custom adopted ln l953. In l976 he
recelved an honorary doctorate from the Lnlverslty of
|erusalem.
After Sartre lost hls eyeslght entlrely and became
lncreaslngly lnflrm, wlth small strokes, edema, and serl
ous clrculatory deflclencles, he was cared for by frlends.
Jhe relatlonshlp between hlm and Beauvolr resembled
that of devoted spouses who have held the same values
and pursued ldentlcal undertaklngs for flfty years.
Between Elkam and Beauvolr, however, there was
antagonlsm; Elkam and Benny Lvy (known also as
Plerre Vlctor), a quasldlsclple, lncreaslngly marglnal
lzed the older woman, and excluded her at the tlme of
Sartre`s death. Sartre spent much tlme llstenlng to
muslc (of whlch he was very fond). Conversatlons wlth
Lvy led to ib ~~ (publlshed ln i k
l~ ln l980; republlshed ln l99l; translated as
e kI l996). In these pages Sartre appears trans
formed, denounclng vlolence as an lnstrument of justlce
and envlslonlng an ethlcs founded on obllgatlons to
others. Crltlcs have seen here evldence of Sartre`s senll
lty or Lvy`s manlpulatlon, notlng especlally Sartre`s
new lnterest ln |udalsm, but the prlnclples are just as
clearly Chrlstlan. He dled on l5 Aprll l980.
|ean Paul Sartre`s legacy remalns under revlew.
Books on hlm contlnue to prollferate, ranglng from blo
graphlc lnvestlgatlons and psychoanalytlc treatments to
polltlcal commentarles to narrowlydeflned llterary
studles. Some dlsplay skeptlclsm toward hls thought,
even Sartrebashlng, as ln Gllbert |oseph`s study of Sartre
ln wartlme. Somewhat younger phllosophers, among
them Louls Althusser and Mlchel Ioucault, denounced
hls brand of Marxlst thought and use of structurallsm,
as he had attacked them. Jhe lntellectuals who came of
age after l970 were old enough to have known hls lnflu
ence, young enough to have gone beyond lt; some
turned agalnst lt mercllessly. Although Sartre told Beau
volr late ln llfe that he consldered hls llterary work
more lmportant than hls phllosophy, hls stature as a
novellst has been questloned. He was not the only nov
ellst of hls generatlon to condemn the selflshness and
corruptlon of the bourgeolsle; Cllne lnslsted even
more clearly on the cruelty of the upper classes and
mlsery of the lower. Nor was Sartre the flrst to empha
slze authentlclty. Glde, whose example he acknowl
edged, had sounded that note earller ln the century,
before Heldegger made lt central to hls thought. Mal
raux and Camus had wrltten of sllent heavens and the
absurd. But Sartre dld so much, and of so many klnds.
He renewed old llterary themes such as the love trlangle
and ennul, lntroduced new ones, created strlklng char
acters and sltuatlons ln hls plays and novels, used dla
logue brllllantly, and gave a name to experlences of
dread, shame, hostlllty, solltude, embodlment, and
emptlness, whlch readers recognlzed as thelr own. He
comblned lrony, crlsp analysls, and plthy formulas wlth
passages of lmpresslonlstlc prose that render the very
feel and taste of experlence. He was lndefatlgable ln
supportlng causes ln whlch he belleved, lllustratlng
what lt meant truly to be a commltted wrlter. Of all
twentlethcentury Irench wrlters he succeeded best at
ratlonallzlng hls own posltlons on art, polltlcs, ethlcs,
and the human sltuatlon, and hls career lllustrates bet
ter than that of any other Irench flgure slnce the elgh
l10
g~Jm~ p~ ai_ PPO
teenth century the unlon of flctlon and drama wlth
phllosophy.
iW
Icttrcs ou Costor ct o quclqucs outrcs, 2 volumes (Parls. Gal
llmard, l983); translated ln part by Matthew
Ward, Irene Ilton, and Marllyn Myatt as Tlouglt-
ful Iossiovs: cov-Ioul Sortrc`s Ivtimotc Icttcrs to
Simovc dc couvoir, 1926-19J9 (New York. Mac
mlllan, l987); partly retranslated by Lee Iahne
stock and Norman MacAffee as !itvcss to My Iifc:
Tlc Icttcrs of cov-Ioul Sortrc to Simovc dc couvoir,
1926-19J9 (New York. Scrlbners / Joronto and
New York. Macmlllan, l992); other parts trans
lated by Iahnestock and MacAffee as _uict
Momcvts iv o !or: Tlc Icttcrs of cov-Ioul Sortrc to
Simovc dc couvoir, 1940-1960 (New York. Scrlb
ners / Joronto and New York. Macmlllan, l993);
'Lettres a Wanda," Ics Tcmps Modcrvcs, two volumes,
nos. 53l-533 (October-December l990), II.
l292-l133.
fW
'Exlstentlallst," `cw Jorlcr, 22 (l6 March l916). 21-25;
Paul Carrlre, 'Ics cux sovt foits? Jout le contralre
dùne plce exlstentlallste," Iigoro, 29 Aprll l917,
p. 1;
Roderlck McArthur, 'Author! Author?" Tlcotrc Zrts, 33
(March l919). ll-l3;
|oseph A. Barry, 'Sartre Enters a New Phase," `cw Jorl
Timcs Mogoivc, 30 |anuary l919, pp. l2, l8-l9;
Gabrlel dÀubarde, 'Rencontre avec |eanPaul Sartre,"
òuvcllcs Iittcroircs, l Iebruary l95l, p. 6;
'Avant la cratlon de `clrossov au Jhtre Antolne, Sar
tre nous dlt . . . ," Ic Movdc, l |une l955, p. 9;
translated by Rlma Drell Reck as 'Sald |eanPaul
Sartre," Jolc Ircvcl Studics, l6 (Wlnter l955-
l956). 3, 7;
'|eanPaul Sartre nous parle du thtre," Tlcotrc Iopu-
loirc, l5 (September-October l955). l-9;
'Sartre Vlews the New Chlna," `cw Stotcsmov ovd
òtiov, 50 (3 December l955). 737-739;
'Aprs Budapest, Sartre parle," Ixprcss, 28l (9 Decem
ber l956, supplement); translated as 'After
Budapest," Ivcrgrccv Icvicw, l (l957). 5-23;
Ollvler Jodd, '|eanPaul Sartre on Hls Autoblography,"
Iistcvcr, 57 (6 |une l957). 9l5-9l6;
'Deux heures avec Sartre," Ixprcss (l7 September
l959); translated by Rlchard Seaver as 'Jhe Jhe
ater," Ivcrgrccv Icvicw, 1 ( |anuary-Iebruary
l960). l13-l52;
Madelelne Chapsal, '|eanPaul Sartre," ln her Ics Icri-
voivs cv pcrsovvc (Parls. |ulllard, l960);
Oreste I. Pucclanl, 'An Intervlew wlth |eanPaul Sar
tre," Tulovc Dromo Icvicw, 5 (March l96l). l2-l8;
Kenneth Jynan, 'Sartre Jalks to Jynan," Ubscrvcr, l8
( |une l96l);
|acquellne Platler, '|eanPaul Sartre sèxpllque sur Ics
Mots," Ic Movdc, l8 Aprll l961, p. l3; translated
by Anthony Hartley as 'A Long, Bltter, Sweet
Madness," Ivcouvtcr, 22 ( |une l961). 6l-63;
'LÈcrlvaln dolt refuser de se lalsser transformer en
lnstltutlon," Ic Movdc, 21 October l961, p. l3;
translated by Rlchard Howard as 'Sartre on the
Nobel Prlze," `cw Jorl Icvicw of ools, l7 Decem
ber l961, pp. 5-6;
'Pourquol je refuse dàller aux EtatsLnls. Il n`y a plus
de dlalogue posslble," òuvcl Ubscrvotcur, l Aprll
l965; translated ln part by Llonel Abel as 'Why I
Wlll Not Go to the Lnlted States," òtiov, 200 (l9
Aprll l965). 107-1ll;
'|eanPaul Sartre," Iloyboy, l2 (May l965). 69-72, 71-
76;
Madelelne Gobell, 'Sartre Jalks of Beauvolr," trans
lated by Bernard Irechtman, !oguc, l16 ( |uly
l965). 72-73;
Lonce Pelllard, 'Entretlen avec |eanPaul Sartre," iblio-
Iivrcs dc Irovcc, l7 ( |anuary l966). l1-l8; trans
lated by Elalne P. Halperln as 'Communlsts Are
Afrald of Revolutlon," Midwoy, l0 (Summer
l969). 53-6l;
'LÌntellectuel face a la rvolutlon," Ic Ioivt (Brussels),
l3 ( |anuary l968); translated by Bruce Rlce as
'Intellectuals and Revolutlon," Iomports, 9
(December l970). 52-55;
Arturo Schwarz, 'Sartre. Isral, la Gauche et les
Arabes," Zrclc, l52 (26 October l969). 32-10,
73, 75; translated as 'Sartre Looks at the Mlddle
East Agaln," Midstrcom, l5 (August-September
l969). 37-38;
'Itlnerary of a Jhought," `cw Icft Icvicw, 58 (November-
December l969). 13-66;
|ohn Gerassl, 'Sartre Accuses the Intellectuals of Bad
Ialth," `cw Jorl Timcs Mogoivc, l7 October l97l;
Sartre and Benny Lvy, IÌspoir moivtcvovt: Ics cvtrcticvs
dc 19S0 (Parls. Verdler, l99l); translated by
Adrlan van den Hoven as Hopc òw: Tlc 19S0
Ivtcrvicws (Chlcago. Lnlverslty of Chlcago Press,
l996).
_~W
Allen |. Belklnd, cov-Ioul Sortrc ovd Ixistcvtiolism iv
Ivglisl: Z ibliogroplicol Cuidc (Kent, Ohlo. Kent
State Lnlverslty Press, l970);
Mlchel Contat and Mlchel Rybalka, Ics Icrits dc Sortrc
(Parls. Galllmard, l970); translated by Rlchard C.
McCleary as Tlc !ritivgs of cov-Ioul Sortrc, 2 vol
l1l
ai_ PPO g~Jm~ p~
umes (Evanston, Ill.. Northwestern Lnlverslty
Press, l971);
Iranols H. Lapolnte and Clalre Lapolnte, 'A Blbllog
raphy of |eanPaul Sartre, l970-l975. Jhe Anglo
Amerlcan Response to |eanPaul Sartre," Ililoso-
ply Todoy, l9 (Wlnter l975). 31l-357;
Robert Wllcocks, cov-Ioul Sortrc: Z ibliogroply of Ivtcr-
votiovol Criticism (Edmonton. Lnlverslty of Alberta
Press, l975);
Lapolnte and Lapolnte, 'A Selectlve Blbllography wlth
Notatlons on Sartre`s òusco (l938-l980)," Ililos-
oply Todoy, 21 (Iall l980). 285-296;
Lapolnte, cov-Ioul Sortrc ovd His Critics: Zv Ivtcrvotiovol
ibliogroply (19JS-19S0), revlsed and enlarged
edltlon (Bowllng Green, Ohlo. Phllosophy Docu
mentatlon Center, l98l);
Gernot L. Gabel, Sortrc: Z Comprclcvsivc ibliogroply of
Ivtcrvotiovol Tlcscs ovd Disscrtotiovs, 190-19S
(Cologne. Gemlnl, l992);
Rylbaka and Contat, Sortrc: bibliogroplic 19S0-1992
(Parls. CNRS / Bowllng Green, Ohlo. Phllosophy
Documentatlon Center, l993).
_~W
Irancls |eanson, Sortrc por lui-mcmc (Parls. Seull, l959);
Phlllp Jhody, Sortrc: Z iogroplicol Ivtroductiov (New
York. Scrlbners, l97l);
|eanson, Sortrc dovs so vic (Parls. Seull, l971);
Axel Madsen, Hcorts ovd Mivds: Tlc Commov ourvcy of
cov-Ioul Sortrc ovd Simovc dc couvoir (New York.
Morrow, l977);
Slmone de Beauvolr, Io Ccrcmovic dcs odicux, suivi dc
Ivtrcticvs ovcc cov-Ioul Sortrc (Parls. Galllmard,
l98l); translated by Patrlck O`Brlen as Zdicux: Z
Iorcwcll to Sortrc (New York. Pantheon, l981);
Kenneth Jhompson and Margaret Jhompson, Sortrc,
Iifc ovd !orls (New York. Iacts on Ille, l981);
Annle CohenSolal, Sortrc: 190-19S0 (Parls. Galll
mard, l985); translated by Anna Cancognl as Sor-
trc: Z Iifc (New York. Pantheon, l987);
Ronald Hayman, Sortrc: Z Iifc (New York. Slmon
Schuster, l987);
Llllane Slegel, Io Clovdcstivc (Parls. Edltlons Maren Sell,
l988); translated by Barbara Wrlght as Iv tlc
Slodow of Sortrc (London. Colllns, l990);
|ohn Gerassl, cov-Ioul Sortrc: Hotcd Covscicvcc of His Ccv-
tury, volume l. Irotcstovt or Irotcstor? (Chlcago.
Lnlverslty of Chlcago Press, l989);
Beauvolr, ourvol dc gucrrc: scptcmbrc 19J9-jovvicr 1941
(Parls. Galllmard, l990);
Gllbert |oseph, Uvc Si Doucc Uccupotiov: Simovc dc cou-
voir, cov-Ioul Sortrc 1940-1944 (Parls. Albln
Mlchel, l99l);
Blanca Lamblln, Mcmoircs dùvc jcuvc fillc dcrovgcc (Parls.
Balland, l993); translated by |ulle Plovnlck as Z
Disgroccful Zffoirc: Simovc dc couvoir, cov-Ioul Sor-
trc, ovd iovco Iombliv (Boston. Northeastern Lnl
Kate Iulbrook and Edward Iulbrook, Simovc dc couvoir
ovd cov-Ioul Sortrc: Tlc Icmolivg of o Twcvtictl
Ccvtury Icgcvd (New York. Baslc Books, l991);
|ullette Slmont, cov-Ioul Sortrc, uv dcmi-siclc dc libcrtc
(Brussels. De Boeck Lnlverslt, l998);
Denls Berthelot, Sortrc (Parls. Plon, 2000);
Claudlne Montell, Ics Zmovts dc lo libcrtc (Parls. Edltlons
l, 2000).
oW
Jhomas C. Anderson, Tlc Iouvdotiovs ovd Structurc of
Sortrcov Itlics (Lawrence. Regents Press of Kan
sas, l979);
Anderson, Sortrc`s Two Itlics: Irom Zutlcvticity to Ivtcgrol
Humovity (La Salle, Ill.. Open Court Press, l993);
Ronald Aronson, Comus ovd Sortrc: Tlc Story of o Iricvd-
slip ovd tlc _uorrcl Tlot Ivdcd It (Chlcago. Lnlver
slty of Chlcago Press, 2001);
Aronson, cov-Ioul SortrcIlilosoply iv tlc !orld (Lon
don. NLB, l980);
Aronson, Sortrc`s Sccovd Critiquc (Chlcago London.
Lnlverslty of Chlcago Press, l98l);
Aronson and Adrlan van den Hoven, eds., Sortrc Zlivc
(Detrolt. Wayne State Lnlverslty Press, l99l);
Hazel E. Barnes, Tlc Iitcroturc of Iossibility: Z Study iv
Humovistic Ixistcvtiolism (Llncoln. Lnlverslty of
Nebraska Press, l959); republlshed as Humovistic
Ixistcvtiolism: Tlc Iitcroturc of Iossibility (Llncoln,
Neb.. Blson, l962);
Barnes, Sortrc (Phlladelphla. Llpplncott, l973);
Barnes, Sortrc ovd Iloubcrt (Chlcago. Lnlverslty of Chl
cago Press, l98l);
George H. Bauer, Sortrc ovd tlc Zrtist (Chlcago. Lnlver
slty of Chlcago Press, l969);
Ian H. Blrchall, Sortrc Zgoivst Stolivism (New York
Oxford. Berghahn, 2001);
Harold Bloom, ed., cov-Ioul Sortrc (Phlladelphla.
Chelsea House, 200l);
Denls Boak, Sortrc: 'Ics Mots (London. Grant Cutler,
l987);
Anna Boschettl, Sortrc ct 'Ics Tcmps Modcrvcs: Uvc cvtrc-
prisc ivtcllcctucllc (Parls. Edltlons de Mlnult, l985);
translated by Rlchard C. McCleary as Tlc Ivtcllcc-
tuol Ivtcrprisc: Sortrc ovd 'Ics Tcmps Modcrvcs
l988);
|ean|acques Brochler, Iour Sortrc: lc jour ou Sortrc rcfuso lc
òbcl (Parls. |. C. Latts, l995);
l12
g~Jm~ p~ ai_ PPO
Catharlne Savage | Brosman|, Molroux, Sortrc, ovd Zrogov
os Ioliticol òvclists (Galnesvllle. Lnlverslty of Ilor
lda Press, l961);
Brosman, cov-Ioul Sortrc (Boston. Jwayne, l983);
Brosman, Ixistcvtiol Iictiov (Detrolt. Gale Group, 2000);
MlchelAntolne Burnler, Ics Ixistcvtiolistcs ct lo politiquc
(Parls. Galllmard, l966); translated as Cloicc of
Zctiov: Tlc Ircvcl Ixistcvtiolists ov tlc Ioliticol Irovt
Iivc (New York. Random House, l968);
Jhomas W. Busch, Tlc Iowcr of Covsciousvcss ovd tlc Iorcc
of Circumstovccs iv Sortrc`s Ililosoply (Bloomlngton.
Indlana Lnlverslty Press, l990);
Betty Cannon, Sortrc ovd Isycloovolysis: Zv Ixistcvtiolist
Clollcvgc to Clivicol Mctotlcory (Lawrence. Lnlver
slty Press of Kansas, l99l);
Ronald A. Carson, cov-Ioul Sortrc (Valley Iorge, Pa..
|udson, l971);
|oseph S. Catalano, Z Commcvtory ov cov-Ioul Sortrc`s
'civg ovd òtlivgvcss (New York. Harper Row,
l971);
Catalano, Z Commcvtory ov cov-Ioul Sortrc`s 'Critiquc of
Diolccticol Icosov, !olumc 1, Tlcory of Irocticol Ivscm-
blcs (Chlcago London. Lnlverslty of Chlcago
Press, l986);
Peter Caws, Sortrc (London. Routledge Kegan Paul,
l979);
Robert Champlgny, Sortrc ovd Dromo (Columbla, S.C..
Irench Llterature Publlcatlons, l982);
Champlgny, Stogcs ov Sortrc`s !oy (Bloomlngton. Indl
ana Lnlverslty Press, l959);
Max Charlesworth, Tlc Ixistcvtiolists ovd cov-Ioul Sortrc
(New York. St. Martln`s Press, l976);
Stuart L. Charm, Mcovivg ovd Mytl iv tlc Study of Iivcs:
Z Sortrcov Icrspcctivc (Phlladelphla. Lnlverslty of
Pennsylvanla Press, l981);
Charm, !ulgority ovd Zutlcvticity: Dimcvsiovs of Utlcrvcss
iv tlc !orld of cov-Ioul Sortrc (Amherst. Lnlver
slty of Massachusetts Press, l99l);
Pletro Chlodl, Sortrc ovd Morxism, translated by Kate
Soper (London. Harvester, l976);
Claude Mlchel Cluny, 'Le Prlx Nobel. estll toujours
juste?" Ic Iigoro, ll October 200l, p. 5;
Douglas Colllns, Sortrc os iogroplcr (Cambrldge, Mass..
Harvard Lnlverslty Press, l980);
Mlchel Contat, Iourquoi ct commcvt Sortrc o ccrit 'Ics Mots
(Parls. Presses Lnlversltalres de Irance, l996);
Ian Cralb, Ixistcvtiolism ovd Sociology: Z Study of cov-Ioul
Sortrc (Cambrldge. Cambrldge Lnlverslty Press,
l976);
Arthur Danto, cov-Ioul Sortrc (New York. Vlklng,
l975);
Howard Davles, Sortrc ovd 'Ics Tcmps modcrvcs (Cam
brldge. Cambrldge Lnlverslty Press, l987);
Dcbot, lssue on Sartre, 35 (May l985);
Wllfrld Desan, Tlc Morxism of cov-Ioul Sortrc (Garden
Desan, Tlc Trogic Iivolc: Zv Issoy ov tlc Ililosoply of cov-
Ioul Sortrc (Oxford. Oxford Lnlverslty Press /
Cambrldge, Mass.. Harvard Lnlverslty Press,
l951; revlsed edltlon, New York. Harper, l960);
Davld Detmar, Irccdom os o !oluc: Z Critiquc of tlc Itlicol
Tlcory of cov-Ioul Sortrc (La Salle, Ill.. Open
Court, l988);
Max Deutscher, Ccvrc ovd !oid: Ioolivg ocl ot Sortrc ovd
couvoir (Burllngton, Vt.. Ashgate, 2003);
Andrew Dobson, cov-Ioul Sortrc ovd tlc Iolitics of Icosov:
Z Tlcory of History (New York. Cambrldge Lnlver
slty Press, l993);
Paul |ohn Eakln, Iictiovs iv Zutobiogroply: Studics iv tlc Zrt
of Sclf-Ivvcvtiov (Prlnceton. Prlnceton Lnlverslty
Press, l985);
Isprit Crcotcur, lssue on Sartre, l7 (Sprlng l977);
|oseph P. Iell, Hcidcggcr ovd Sortrc (New York. Columbla
Lnlverslty Press, l979);
Jhomas R. Ilynn, Sortrc ovd Morxist Ixistcvtiolism: Tlc
Tcst Cosc of Collcctivc Icspovsibility (Chlcago. Chl
cago Lnlverslty Press, l981);
Ilynn, Sortrc, Ioucoult, ovd Historicol Icosov (Chlcago.
Lnlverslty of Chlcago Press, l997);
|eanIranols Iourny and Charles D. Mlnahen, eds.,
Situotivg Sortrc iv Twcvtictl-Ccvtury Tlouglt ovd Cul-
turc (New York. St. Martln`s Press, l997);
Nlk Iarrell Iox, Tlc `cw Sortrc: Ixplorotiovs iv Iostmodcrv-
ism (New York London. Contlnuum, 2003);
Ircvcl Icvicw, lssue on Sartre, 55 (Summer l982);
Marc IromentMeurlce, Sortrc ct l`cxistcvtiolismc (Parls.
Nathan, l981);
Ingrld Galster, Ic Tlcotrc dc cov-Ioul Sortrc: dcvovt scs
prcmicrs critiqucs. 1: Ics Iiccs crcccs sous lÙccupotiov
ollcmovdc, 'Ics Mouclcs ct 'Huis clos (Jblngen.
Gunter Narr / Parls. |eanMlchel Place, l986);
Galster, Io òissovcc du 'plcvomvc Sortrc`: Ioisovs dùv suc-
cs (Parls. Seull, 200l);
Galster, Sortrc, !icly ct lcs ivtcllcctucls (Parls. L`Harmattan,
200l);
Slmon Glynn, ed., Sortrc: Zv Ivvcstigotiov of Somc Mojor
Tlcmcs (Brookfleld, Vt.. Gower, l987);
Rhlannon Goldthorpe, Sortrc: Iitcroturc ovd Tlcory
(Cambrldge. Cambrldge Lnlverslty Press, l981);
Haylm Gordon and Rlvca Gordon, Sortrc ovd Ivil:
Cuidclivcs for o Strugglc (Westport, Conn.. Green
wood Press, l995);
|oseph Halpern, Criticol Iictiovs: Tlc Iitcrory Criticism of
cov-Ioul Sortrc (New Haven and London. Yale
Robert Harvey, Scorcl for o Iotlcr: Sortrc, Iotcrvity, ovd tlc
_ucstiov of Itlics (Ann Arbor. Lnlverslty of Mlchl
gan Press, l99l);
l13
ai_ PPO g~Jm~ p~
Glla |. Haylm, Tlc Ixistcvtiol Sociology of cov-Ioul Sortrc
(Amherst. Lnlverslty of Massachusetts Press,
l980);
Steve Hendley, Icosov ovd Iclotivism: Z Sortrcov Ivvcstigo-
tiov (Albany. State Lnlverslty of New York Press,
l99l);
Charles G. Hlll, cov-Ioul Sortrc: Irccdom ovd Commitmcvt
(New York. Peter Lang, l992);
Denls Holller, Iolitiquc dc lo prosc: cov-Ioul Sortrc ct lòv
quorovtc (Parls. Galllmard, l982); translated by
|effrey Mehlman as Tlc Iolitics of Irosc: Issoy ov
Sortrc (Mlnneapolls. Lnlverslty of Mlnnesota
Press, l986);
Chrlstlna Howells, Sortrc`s Tlcory of Iitcroturc (London.
Modern Humanltles Research Assoclatlon, l979);
Howells, Tlc Combridgc Compoviov to Sortrc (Cambrldge.
Cambrldge Lnlverslty Press, l992);
Howells, ed., Sortrc: Tlc `cccssity of Irccdom (Cambrldge.
|ohn Ireland, Sortrc, uv ort dcloyol: tlcotrolitc ct cvgogcmcvt
(Parls. |eanMlchel Place, l991);
Irancls |eanson, Sortrc ct lc problmc morol (Parls. Galll
mard, l917; revlsed, l965); translated by Robert
V. Stone as Sortrc ovd tlc Iroblcm of Morolity
(Bloomlngton. Indlana Lnlverslty Press, l980);
Nlllo Kauppl, Ircvcl Ivtcllcctuol òbility: Ivstitutiovol ovd
Symbolic Trovsformotiovs iv tlc Iost-Sortriov Iro
(Albany. State Lnlverslty of New York Press,
l996);
Edlth Kern, ed., Sortrc: Z Collcctiov of Criticol Issoys
(Englewood Cllffs, N.|.. PrentlceHall, l962);
Douglas Klrsner, Tlc Sclioid !orld of cov-Ioul Sortrc ovd
I. D. Ioivg (St. Lucla, Australla. Lnlverslty of
_ueensland Press, l976);
Domlnlck LaCapra, Z Ircfocc to Sortrc (Ithaca, N.Y..
Cornell Lnlverslty Press, l978);
|ames Lawler, Tlc Ixistcvtiol Morxism of cov-Ioul Sortrc
(Amsterdam. Grner, l976);
Andrew N. Leak, Tlc Icrvcrtcd Covsciousvcss: Scxuolity ovd
Sortrc (London. Macmlllan / New York. St. Mar
tln`s Press, l989);
Benny Lvy |Plerre Vlctor|, Ic òm dc l`lommc: Diologuc
ovcc Sortrc (Lagrasse, Irance. Verdler, l981);
BernardHenrl Lvy, Ic Siclc dc Sortrc; Uvc cvquctc
plilosopliquc (Parls. Grasset, 2000); translated by
Andrew Brown as Sortrc: Tlc Ililosoplcr of tlc
Twcvtictl Ccvtury (Cambrldge. Pollty, 2003);
Gall Evelyn Llnsenbard, Zv Ivvcstigotiov of cov-Ioul Sor-
trc`s Iostlumously Iublislcd 'òtcbools for ov Itlics
(Lewlston, N.Y.. Edwln Mellen Press, 2000);
|eanIranols Louette, Sortrc covtrc ìctsclc: 'Ics
Mouclcs, 'Huis clos, 'Ics Mots (Grenoble,
Irance. Presses Lnlversltalres de Grenoble,
l996);
Chrlstopher Macann, Iour Ilcvomcvologicol Ililosoplcrs:
Husscrl, Hcidcggcr, Sortrc, Mcrlcou-Iovty (London
New York. Routledge, l993);
Wllllam L. McBrlde, Sortrc`s Ioliticol Tlcory (Bloomlng
ton. Indlana Lnlverslty Press, l99l);
McBrlde, ed., Sortrc`s Iifc, Timcs, ovd !isiov du Ic Movdc
(New York. Garland, l997);
Dorothy McCall, Tlc Tlcotcr of cov-Ioul Sortrc (New
York. Columbla Lnlverslty Press, l969);
|oseph H. McMahon, Humovs civg: Tlc !orld of cov-
Ioul Sortrc (Chlcago. Lnlverslty of Chlcago Press,
l97l);
Istvn Mszros, Tlc !orl of Sortrc, !olumc 1: Scorcl for
Irccdom (Atlantlc Hlghlands, N.|.. Humanltles
Press, l979; Brlghton, L.K.. Harvester, l979);
Phyllls Sutton Morrls, Sortrc`s Covccpt of o Icrsov: Zv Zvo-
lytic Zpproocl (Amherst. Lnlverslty of Massachu
setts Press, l976);
|ullen S. Murphy, ed., Icmivist Ivtcrprctotiovs of cov-Ioul
Sortrc (Lnlverslty Park. Pennsylvanla State Lnl
Ubliqucs, lssue on Sartre, nos. l8-l9 (l979);
|osette Pacaly, Sortrc ou miroir: Uvc lccturc psyclovolytiquc dc
scs ccrits biogropliqucs (Parls. Kllncksleck, l980);
Iopcrs iv Iomovcc, lssue on Sartre, 3 (Sprlng l98l);
Marlus Perrln, Zvcc Sortrc ou Stolog 12D (Parls. |. P. Delarge,
l980);
Phlllppe Petlt, Io Cousc dc Sortrc (Parls. Presses Lnlversl
talres de Irance, 2000);
Ililosoply Todoy, lssues on Sartre, l9 (Wlnter l975), 21
(Iall l980);
Wllllam Plank, Sortrc ovd Surrcolism (Ann Arbor. LMI
Research Press, l98l);
Catherlne Polsson, Sortrc ct couvoir: du jc ou vous
(Amsterdam. Rodopl, 2002);
Gerald Prlnce, Mctoplysiquc ct tcclviquc dovs lòuvrc
romovcsquc dc Sortrc (Geneva. Droz, l968);
Jllottama Rajan, Dccovstructiov ovd tlc Icmoivdcrs of Ilc-
vomcvology: Sortrc, Dcrrido, Ioucoult, oudrillord
(Stanford, Cal.. Stanford Lnlverslty Press, 2002);
Alaln D. Ranwez, cov-Ioul Sortrc`s 'Ics Tcmps Modcrvcs:
Z Iitcrory History, 194-192 (Jroy, N.Y.. Whlt
ston, l98l);
W. D. Redfern, Sortrc: 'Huis-Clos ovd 'Ics Scqucstrcs
d`Zltovo (London. Grant Cutler, l995);
Paul Reed, Sortrc, 'Io òuscc (London. Grant Cutler,
l987);
Reed, cov-Ioul Sortrc, Ics Moivs solcs (Glasgow. Lnlver
slty of Glasgow Irench and German Publlcatlons,
l988);
Peter Royle, Tlc Sortrc-Comus Covtrovcrsy: Z Iitcrory ovd
Ililosoplicol Critiquc (Ottawa. Lnlverslty of Ottawa
Press, l982);
l11
g~Jm~ p~ ai_ PPO
Ronald E. Santonl, od Ioitl, Cood Ioitl, ovd Zutlcvticity
iv Sortrc`s Iorly Ililosoply (Phlladelphla. Jemple
Santonl, Sortrc ov !iolcvcc: Curiously Zmbivolcvt (Lnlver
slty Park. Pennsylvanla State Lnlverslty Press,
2003);
Paul A. Schllpp, ed., Tlc Ililosoply of cov-Ioul Sortrc (La
Salle, Ill.. Open Court, l98l);
Wllllam Ralph Schroeder, Sortrc ovd His Ircdcccssors: Tlc
Sclf ovd tlc Utlcr (London Boston. Routledge
Kegan Paul, l981);
Mlchael Scrlven, Iolitics ovd Culturc iv Iostwor Irovcc (New
York. St. Martln`s Press, l999);
Scrlven, Sortrc`s Ixistcvtiol iogroplics (London. Mac
mlllan, l981);
Scrlven, Sortrc ovd tlc Mcdio (New York. St. Martln`s
Press, l993);
Hugh Sllverman and Irederlck Elllston, eds., cov-Ioul
Sortrc: Covtcmporory Zpprooclcs to His Ililosoply
(Plttsburgh. Duquesne Lnlverslty Press, l980);
Rosallnd Sllvester, Scclivg Sortrc`s Stylc: Stylistic Ivroods
ivto 'Ics Clcmivs dc lo libcrtc (Lewlston, N.Y..
Edwln Mellen Press, 2003);
|eanIranols Slrlnelll, Dcux ivtcllcctucls dovs lc siclc, Sortrc
ct Zrov (Parls. Iayard, l995);
George Stack, Sortrc`s Ililosoply of Sociol Ixistcvcc (St.
Louls, Mo.. Green, l977);
Benjamln Suhl, cov-Ioul Sortrc: Tlc Ililosoplcr os o Iitcr-
ory Critic (New York London. Columbla Lnlver
slty Press, l970);
'Jmolns de Sartre," Ics Tcmps Modcrvcs, two volumes,
nos. 53l-533 (October-December l990) (trlple
lssue);
Ic Tcmps Modcrvcs, nos. 632-631 ( |uly-October 2005)
speclal trlple lssue 'devoted to Sartre`;
Mlchael Jheunlssen, Tlc Utlcr: Studics iv tlc Sociol Uvtol-
ogy of Husscrl, Hcidcggcr, Sortrc, ovd ubcr, translated
by Chrlstopher Macann (Cambrldge. Mass..
MIJ Press, l981);
Phlllp Jhody, cov-Ioul Sortrc (New York. St. Martln`s
Press, l992);
H. W. Wardman, cov-Ioul Sortrc: Tlc Ivolutiov of His
Tlouglt ovd Zrt (Lewlston, N.Y.. Edwln Mellen
Press, l992);
Mary Warnock, ed., Sortrc: Z Collcctiov of Criticol Issoys
(Garden Clty, N.Y.. Doubleday, l97l);
Margaret Whltford, Mcrlcou-Iovty`s Critiquc of Sortrc`s Ili-
losoply (Lexlngton, Ky.. Irench Iorum Mono
graphs, l982);
Ollvler Wlckers, Trois ovcvturcs cxtroordivoircs dc cov-Ioul
Sortrc (Parls. Galllmard, 2000);
Kathleen Vlrglnla Wlder, Tlc odily òturc of Covscious-
vcss: Sortrc ovd Covtcmporory Ililosoply of Mivd (Ith
aca London. Cornell Lnlverslty Press, l997);
Robert Wllcocks, ed., Criticol Issoys ov cov-Ioul Sortrc
(Boston. G. K. Hall, l988);
Colln Wllson, Zvti-Sortrc (San Bernadlno, Cal.. Borgo,
l98l);
Phlllp R. Wood, Uvdcrstovdivg cov-Ioul Sortrc (Colum
bla. Lnlverslty of South Carollna Press, l990).
m~W
Jhe Blbllothque natlonale de Irance ln Parls has
manuscrlpts of several of Sartre`s works. Many of hls
papers remaln ln prlvate collectlons.
q k m i~ NVSQ ^
Jhls year the Nobel Prlze ln Llterature has been
granted by the Swedlsh Academy to the Irench wrlter
|eanPaul Sartre for hls work whlch, rlch ln ldeas and
fllled wlth the splrlt of freedom and the quest for truth,
has exerted a farreachlng lnfluence on our age.
It wlll be recalled that the laureate has made lt
known that he dld not wlsh to accept the prlze. Jhe fact
that he has decllned thls dlstlnctlon does not ln the least
modlfy the valldlty of the award. Lnder the clrcum
stances, however, the Academy can only state that the
presentatlon of the prlze cannot take place.
Refusal
In a publlc announcement, prlnted ln Ic Iigoro of
October 23, l961, Mr. Sartre expressed hls regret that
hls refusal of the prlze had glven rlse to scandal, and
wlshed lt to be known that, unaware of the lrrevocabll
lty of the Swedlsh Academy`s declslons, he had sought
by letter to prevent thelr cholce falllng upon hlm. In thls
letter, he speclfled that hls refusal was not meant to
sllght the Swedlsh Academy but was rather based on
personal and objectlve reasons of hls own.
As to personal reasons, Mr. Sartre polnted out
that due to hls conceptlon of the wrlter`s task he had
always decllned offlclal honours and thus hls present
act was not unprecedented. He had slmllarly refused
membershlp ln the Leglon of Honour and had not
deslred to enter the Collge de Irance, and he would
refuse the Lenln Prlze lf lt were offered to hlm. He
stated that a wrlter`s acceptlng such an honour would
be to assoclate hls personal commltments wlth the
awardlng lnstltutlon, and that, above all, a wrlter
should not allow hlmself to be turned lnto an lnstltu
tlon.
l15
ai_ PPO g~Jm~ p~
Among hls objectlve reasons, Mr. Sartre llsted hls
bellef that lnterchange between East and West must
take place between men and between cultures wlthout
the lnterventlon of lnstltutlons. Iurthermore, slnce the
conferment of past prlzes dld not, ln hls oplnlon, repre
sent equally wrlters of all ldeologles and natlons, he felt
that hls acceptance mlght be undeslrably and unjustly
lnterpreted.
Mr. Sartre closed hls remarks wlth a message of
affectlon for the Swedlsh publlc.
At the banquet, S. Irlberg, Rector of the Carollne
Instltute, made the followlng remarks. 'Mr. Sartre
found hlmself unable to accept thls year`s Prlze ln Llter
ature. Jhere ls always dlscusslon about thls prlze,
whlch every one conslders hlmself capable of judglng,
or whlch he does not understand and consequently crlt
lclzes. But I belleve that Nobel would have had a great
understandlng of thls year`s cholce. Jhe betterment of
the world ls the dream of every generatlon, and thls
applles partlcularly to the true poet and sclentlst. Jhls
was Nobel`s dream. Jhls ls one measure of the sclen
tlst`s slgnlflcance. And thls ls the source and strength of
Sartre`s lnsplratlon. As an author and phllosopher, Sar
tre has been a central flgure ln postwar llterary and
lntellectual dlscusslonadmlred, debated, crltlclzed. Hls
exploslve productlon, ln lts entlrety, has the lmpress of a
message; lt has been sustalned by a profoundly serlous
endeavour to lmprove the reader, the world at large.
Jhe phllosophy, whlch hls wrltlngs have served, has
been halled by youth as a llberatlon. Sartre`s exlstentlal
lsm may be understood ln the sense that the degree of
happlness whlch an lndlvldual can hope to attaln ls gov
erned by hls wllllngness to take hls stand ln accordance
wlth hls ethos and to accept the consequences thereof;
thls ls a more austere lnterpretatlon of a phllosophy
admlrably expressed by Nobel`s contemporary, Ralph
Waldo Emerson. 'Nothlng ls at last sacred but the
lntegrlty of your own mlnd."
Jhe quallty of human llfe depends not only on
external condltlons but also on lndlvldual happlness. In
our age of standardlzatlon and complex soclal systems,
awareness of the meanlng of llfe for the lndlvldual has
perhaps not been lost, but lt has certalnly been dulled;
and lt ls as urgent for us today as lt was ln Nobel`s tlme
to uphold the ldeals whlch were hls."
l16
d p
(1J Morcl 1900 - 20 Scptcmbcr 1971)
j~~ bK h
Sov Irovcisco Stotc Uvivcrsity
BOOKS. Stroplc (Athens. Hestla, l93l);
Stcrvo (Athens. Hestla, l932);
Mytlistorcmo (Athens. Kastalla, l935); translated by
Mary Cooper Walton ln Mytlistorimo ovd Cymvo-
poidio (Athens. Lycabettus Press, l977);
Diologos povo stcv poics (Athens. Serglade, l939);
Imcrologio Iotostromotos |Logbook I| (Athens, l910);
Imcrologio Iotostromotos |Logbook II| (Athens.
Ikaros, l915); and Imcrologio Iotostromotos C |Log
book III| (Athens, l955);
Ioicmoto 1 (Athens. A M, l910); thlrd edltlon,
enlarged (Athens. Ikaros, l96l; slxth edltlon,
enlarged agaln, l965; enlarged agaln, l967);
Tctrodio gymvosmotov (192S-19J7) (Athens. |Sepheres|,
l910);
Dolimcs (Calro. Gloule, l911); second edltlon, enlarged
(Athens. Phexe, l962);
Scfcris: Cloix dc pomcs troduits ct occompogvcs du tcxtc grcc,
Collectlon de lÌnstltut franals dÀthnes, no. 2,
translated by Robert Levesque (Athens. Ikaros,
l915);
Irotolritos (|Athens|. I. M. Skazlke, l916);
Iicllc (Athens. Ikaros, l917);
Ioicmoto, 1924-1946 (Athens. Ikaros, l950);
Trcis mcrcs sto movostcrio tcs Ioppodolios, Kappadokla, no.
8; Ekdosels tou Galllkou Instltoutou Athenon,
no. 78 (Athens. Instltut franals dÀthnes, l953);
Iyprov, lou m` ctlcspiscv (Athens. Ikaros, l955);
Cio tov scfcrc; Timctilo oficrmo sto triovto clrovio tcs strofc
(Athens, l96l);
Ho Ioictcs D. I. Zvtoviou (Athens. K. Mlchala, l96l);
Cio tov Scplcrc: Timctilo oplicromo sto triovto clrovio tcs
Stroplcs, by Seferls and Nora Anagnostake (Ath
ens, l96l);
Dclploi (Athens, l963); republlshed as Dclpli, Llttle Art
Book, translated by Phlllp Sherrard (Munlch.
Knorr Hlrth, l963);
Discours dc Stocllolm, Collectlon de lÌnstltut franals
dÀthnes (Athens. Instltut franals dÀthnes,
l963);
Iorollogcs povo sto vivlio: Homilio tou Ciorgou Scplcrc sto gol-
lilo, sto Iovcpistcmio tcs !orlclovcs, gio to cvloivio tcs
1Jcs Iltlcscs Ioloiou !ivliou, 1 Scptcmvriou 1964
(|Athens?|. Ethnlko Kentro Vlvllou, l961);
Ioicmoto: Icmptc cldosc (Athens. Ikaros, l961);
Tl. S. I: Sclidcs opo lcvo Hcmcrologio (Athens, l965);
Illogc opo tis 'Dolimcs, Vlvllotheke Ellenon kal xenon
syngrapheon, no. l61 (Athens. Ekdosels Galaxla,
l966);
Hc Zpololypsc tou Ioovvc (Athens. Ikaros, l966);
Trio lryplo poicmoto (Greece, l966); blllngual edltlon,
Tlrcc Sccrct Iocms. Trio lryplo poicmoto, translated
by Walter Kalser (Cambrldge, Mass.. Harvard
Hoi gotcs tòc ìlolo (Athens, l969);
Dclooclto lcimcvo (|Athens|. Kedros, l970);
Clsscs stov Zrtcmidro tov Doldiovo (Leukosla, Cyprus,
l970);
Xcstrotismoto opo tous Homcrilous lymvous (Leukosla,
Cyprus, l970);
Clcirogroplo Scp. 41 (Athens. Ikaros, l972);
!rodio Scplcrc: dcmosio syctcsc stcv Ztlcvo, 22 òcmvriou
1971, Hetalrela meletes Hellenlkon provlematon,
no. 3 (Athens. Kedros, l972);
Hoi lorcs tcs 'Iyrios Hcrscs (Athens. Hermes, l973);
Mcrcs tou 194-191 (Athens. Ikaros, l973);
Mcrcs, 7 volumes (Athens. Ikaros, l973-l990);
Hcxi vycltcs stcv Zlropolc (Athens. Hermes, l971);
Ipi ospolovtlov: Iolitcio, 616: Hcvo poicmo, mio stosc ocs
(|Athens|. Mneme, l975).
b bW Tlc Iivg of Zsivc: ovd Utlcr Iocms,
blllngual edltlon, translated by Bernard Spencer,
Manos Valaorltls, and Lawrence Durrell (Lon
don. |ohn Lehmann, l918);
Sclcctcd Iocms of Ccorgc Scfcris, translated by Edmund Kee
ley (l956);
Colligrom, translated by Rex Warner (|Rlchmond,
L.K.|. Mlnlature Press, l960);
Iocms, translated by Warner (Boston. Nonparell, l960;
London. Bodley Head, l960);
l17
ai_ PPO d p
Uv tlc Crccl Stylc: Sclcctcd Issoys iv Ioctry ovd Hcllcvism,
translated by Warner and Jh. D. Irangopoulos
(Boston. Llttle, Brown, l966; London. Bodley
Head, l967);
Collcctcd Iocms, 1924-19, blllngual edltlon, translated,
edlted and lntroduced by Keeley and Phlllp Sher
rard (Prlnceton, N.|.. Prlnceton Lnlverslty Press,
l967); republlshed (London. Cape, l973);
Tlc Iovd witliv o !oll: (Z Iocm); ovd Towords o Irccipicc:
(Z Dcclorotiov), Echoes from Greece, no. 2, trans
lated by |ohn Rlchmond (Montreal. Anthellon
Press, l969);
Z Ioct`s ourvol: Doys of 194-191, translated from the
Greek MSS. by Athan Anagnostopoulos (Cam
brldge, Mass. London. Harvard Lnlverslty
Press, l975);
Mytlistorimo ovd Cymvopoidio, blllngual edltlon, trans
lated by Mary Cooper Walton (Athens. Lycabet
tus Press, l977);
Collcctcd Iocms of Ccorgc Scfcris, translated by Keeley and
Sherrard (Prlnceton, N.|.. Prlnceton Lnlverslty
Press, l98l); republlshed as Complctc Iocms of
Ccorgc Scfcris (London. Anvll Press, l989);
Ccorgc Scfcris: Complctc Iocms (London. Anvll Press,
l995).
OJHER. Zpologismos lcvos diologou (Athens. Ja Propy
lala, l939)lncludes selectlons by Seferls;
Iolvou: lc lyro (|Alexandrla|. Ekdosels Neoalexan
drlnon, l912)lncludes selectlons by Seferls;
Six Iocms from tlc Crccl of Scliliovos ovd Scfcris (Rhodes
|Greece|, l916)lncludes selectlons by Seferls.
JRANSLAJIONS. J. S. Ellot, Tl. S. Iliot (Athens,
l936);
Sldney Keyes, I crcmio (Athens, l951);
Ellot, Ilovilo stcv clllcsio (Athens. Ikaros, l963);
Zvtigroplcs (Athens. Ikaros, l965);
Hc Zpololypsc tou Ioovvc (Athens. Ikaros, l966);
Ellot, Hc crcmc cloro loi ollo poicmoto (Athens. Ikaros,
l973).
Wlnner of the Nobel Prlze for llterature ln l963,
George Seferls ls one of the most lmportant poets and
llterary crltlcs of Greece; hls vlews on the Greek
demotlc folk tradltlon and llterary canon determlned
d p ~ NVSP k ~ p m p~ p
E ~ g~ `X p`^kmfuLo~F
l18
d p ai_ PPO
the course of modern Greek letters for the better part of
the twentleth century. Seferls, nom de plume of Glorgos
Seferladls, was born on l3 March l900 ln Smyrna (now
Izmlr), Jurkey, the son of Stellos and Despo Seferladls.
Jhe Seferladls famlly left Smyrna ln l9l1 for Athens,
where Stellos Seferladls taught law at the Lnlverslty of
Athens. After Seferls flnlshed hls secondary schoollng
ln Athens, he pursued a law degree ln Parls from l9l8
to l921, brlefly vlsltlng London from l921 to l925.
Spendlng the formatlve years from the ages of
elghteen to twentyflve abroad, he remalned attentlve to
the llterary movements of the day, especlally symbollsm
and surreallsm, and was exposed to the work of many
lnfluentlal wrlters of the late nlneteenth and early twen
tleth centurles, such as Charles Baudelalre, Arthur Rlm
baud, Stphane Mallarm, Paul Valry, and J. S. Ellot.
In l93l wlth the publlcatlon of hls flrst poetry collec
tlon, p (Jurnlng Polnt), Seferls embarked on hls
career as a poet. In thls work and ln hls later poetry col
lectlons, whlch lnclude j~ (l935, Jhe Mythl
cal Story), Logbooks I-III (b h~~~I
l910; h~~~ _I l915; and h~~~ Ì l955),
h (Jhe Jhrush, l917), and q~ ~ ~~
(l966; translated as q p mI l969), he solldl
fled hls status as one of the most revered natlonal poets
of Greece. Seferls`s experlmentatlon wlth symbollst and
modernlst poetlcs and hls excluslve use of demotlc
Greek as the llngulstlc medlum of cholce earned hlm a
prlvlleged place ln the collectlve oeuvre produced by hls
generatlon of poets, known ln Greek llterary crltlclsm
as 'the Generatlon of the l930s." Poets ln thls llterary
clrcle lnclude l979 Nobel Prlze laureates Odysseus Ely
tls, Yannls Rltsos, Andreas Emblrlkos, and Nlkos Engo
nopoulos.
Jhe llngulstlc medlum ln whlch Seferls chose to
wrlte both hls poetry and hls llterary essays ls of partlc
ular lmportance and should properly be lncluded ln the
ongolng debate (among Greek llteratl) that has com
monly been referred to as the 'Language _uestlon,"
one that, accordlng to Robert Brownlng, spanned the
years from the l770s to the l970s. Jhe debate has
entalled a struggle among Greek llteratl over whlch lln
gulstlc reglster would best serve the needs of the natlon.
purlst Greek, the ~~~ (an actlve partlclple whlch
llterally means 'purlfylng"), or demotlc Greek, the ver
nacular language as lt evolved from the anclent and
Byzantlne epochs to the end of the perlod of Ottoman
rule. An artlflclal language, purlst Greek was lnltlally
concelved to 'purge" Greek prlnclpally of Jurklsh loan
words that had been absorbed lnto the language over
the course of four centurles of lnterlm Ottoman rule
(l153-l82l). Jhe adoptlon of purlst Greek reflected an
effort not only to erase the evolutlon of the language
durlng thls perlod but also to relntegrate certaln mor
phologlcal forms drawn from anclent Attlc lnto the
modern Greek language.
By Seferls`s generatlon, even though ~~~
was stlll used ln the publlc sphere, the demotlclst plat
form had become consolldated ln poetry and llterary
crltlclsm. Poetry has always been a prlvlleged medlum
ln the Greek tradltlon because of the prlmacy of orallty
and the latent development of textuallty ln Greek let
ters. Slnce Seferls wrote verse ln demotlc Greek, follow
lng the path set by poets Dlonyslos Solomos, Kostls
Palamas, and Angelos Slkellanos, he was also an helr to
an lllustrlous Greek folk tradltlon, one that was equated
wlth the notlon that Greek was the language of the peo
ple and, as such, a reflectlon of a natlonal ldeal. Seferls
became one of lts strongest advocates ln hls llterary
essays, endeavorlng to advance the dlscourse concern
lng Greek NeoHellenlsm, whlch he deflned as an
evolvlng llterary tradltlon that spanned the anclent to
the modern perlods.
Along wlth other exponents of the 'Generatlon of
the l930s," Seferls publlshed hls llterary crltlclsm exten
slvely ln some of the most lmportant llterary journals ln
Greece, such as q~ k~ d~~~ (New Letters), and ls
credlted wlth advanclng the genre to a new level of rlg
orousness and sophlstlcatlon, the lnfluence of whlch
was felt for the better part of the twentleth century.
Seferls was also an accompllshed translator, publlshlng
hls translatlon of Ellot`s poetry ln q t~ i~ ~
l m (l936) as well as ^~ (l965), a vol
ume of translatlons of poets prlmarlly of the symbollst
and modernlst tradltlons, such as Wllllam Butler Yeats,
Valry, D. H. Lawrence, Ezra Pound, Marlanne Moore,
Andr Glde, and W. H. Auden.
In addltlon to a longstandlng assoclatlon wlth
some of the most revered llteratl of Greecelncludlng
George Katslmballs, George Jheotokas, and Manos
ValaorltlsSeferls establlshed frlendshlps wlth many
lnternatlonally acclalmed wrlters, such as Lawrence
Durrell, Henry Mlller, Ellot, and Auden. Mlller, who
met Seferls on a trlp to Greece durlng the outbreak of
World War II ln Europe, lmmortallzed Seferls ln hls
wellknown travel book, q ` j~ (l91l).
Mlller`s perceptlve account of Seferls hlghllghts not
only Seferls`s cosmopolltanlsm but also hls preoccupa
tlon wlth hls own natlonal culture.
He ls the arblter and reconcller of confllctlng schools of
thought and ways of llfe. He asks lnnumerable ques
tlons ln a polyglot language; he ls lnterested ln all forms
of cultural expresslon and seeks to abstract and asslml
late what ls genulne and fecundatlng ln all epochs. He
ls passlonate about hls country and hls people, not ln a
hldebound chauvlnlstlc way but as a result of patlent
dlscovery followlng upon years of absence abroad.
l19
ai_ PPO d p
After he completed hls law degree, Seferls entered
the dlplomatlc servlce, ln whlch he made hls profes
slonal career, flrst ln Athens, where he worked ln the
Greek Mlnlstry of Iorelgn Affalrs from l926 to l93l
and then ln the Greek Consulate ln London from l93l
to l931. He was consul at Korltsa ln Albanla from l936
to l938. Subsequently, ln l938 he became press attach
to the Department of Press and Informatlon ln the
Greek Mlnlstry of Iorelgn Affalrs and served ln thls
capaclty untll the end of the Ioannls Metaxas dlctator
shlp ln |anuary of l91l. Among hls responslbllltles dur
lng thls perlod was to lssue press communlqus on
behalf of the Greek government to forelgn news corre
spondents. Lpon the Nazl lnvaslon of Greece on 6
Aprll l91l, Seferls lssued one of hls most passlonate
statements to the forelgn press, ln whlch he remarked.
Jhls mornlng Greece wlthstood the aggresslon of a
great Emplre, whlch adds 80-90,000,000 of lts lnhablt
ants to the 15,000,000 of those who attacked us at the
Albanlan front. . . . We are a small natlon, but have vast
experlence. We recognlze that the fate of certaln natlons
ls always to oppose certaln forces of evll. It ls not the
flrst tlme that Greece fulfllls thls destlny.
translated by Martha Kllronomos
Seferls marrled Marla (Maro) Zannou ln Aprll
l91l, dlrectly after whlch he, llke other members of the
Greek government, fled the Greek malnland for the
lsland of Crete and subsequently went lnto exlle. After
a brlef stay ln Egypt, he went on to South Afrlca, where
he worked ln the Greek Embassy ln Pretorla from l91l
to l913. Irom there, he went to Italy ln l911 and
returned to Athens after the llberatlon ln l915, where
he worked at the Mlnlstry of Iorelgn Affalrs untll l918.
He was later appolnted counselor to the embassles ln
Ankara (l918-l950) and London (l95l-l952), ambas
sador to Lebanon, Syrla, |ordan, and Iraq (l953-l956),
and flnally ambassador to England (l957-l962). In
l957 he was made a member of the Greek delegatlon to
the Lnlted Natlons ln New York durlng talks over the
Cyprus confllct. After thls flnal post, he retlred from the
dlplomatlc servlce and returned to Athens ln l962.
By vlrtue of the varlous dlplomatlc posltlons he
had held ln the Greek Mlnlstry of Iorelgn Affalrs dur
lng hls lengthy career from l926 to l962, Seferls was an
astute observer of Greece`s most traglc natlonal crlses.
polltlcal unrest resultlng from lnternal domestlc polltlcs
durlng the l920s and l930s ln the aftermath of the Asla
Mlnor Catastrophe of l922 (the expulslon of Greeks
from agesold terrltory ln Asla Mlnor); the Albanlan
campalgn (l910-l91l); the Nazl occupatlon (l91l-
l913) and the ensulng Greek Clvll War (l916-l919);
and the Cyprus confllct durlng the l950s, reactlons to
whlch abound ln hls prlvate journals, the serles Mcrcs
(l973-l990), as well as hls polltlcal and autoblographl
cal journals and essays, such as Ioliticol ourvols and
Movuscript Scpt. `41.
Seferls`s flrst poetry collectlon, Stroplc, carrles a dou
ble nuance ln Greek, meanlng both 'turnlng polnt" and
'strophe" as a mode of verslflcatlon. Several contempo
rary Greek crltlcs halled the work, qulte llterally, as a
'turnlng polnt" ln modern Greek poetry; they vlewed the
collectlon as an example of a Greek poet followlng the
path trod by hls European counterparts ln experlmentlng
wlth form and breaklng away from conventlonal modes of
verslflcatlon. In retrospect, however, thls judgment seems
cast too hastlly, for the verse of earller Greek poets, such as
Constantlne Cavafy and Kostas Karyotakls, had already
exhlblted slgns of movlng away from conventlonal modes
of verslflcatlon ln Greek poetlcs and embraclng aspects of
modernlsm, especlally lts predllectlons for aesthetlclsm
and decadence.
In Stroplc, Seferls stlll adhered to the stald conven
tlon of rhymed verse; yet, he varled hls technlque, alter
natlng between dlsclpllned metrlc patterns and prosalc
forms. Lslng a llngulstlc reglster that was reflectlve of hls
soclal class, he lntroduced a dlctlon that also pald homage
to hls llterary predecessorsHomer; Vlncentzos Kornaros,
seventeenthcentury Cretan Renalssance poet of the Iro-
tolritos; and nlneteenthcentury Ioannls Makryannls,
whose Mcmoirs Seferls went on to hold ln hls lectures and
llterary crltlclsm of the l910s as an exemplary model of
the demotlc folk tradltlon. Demonstratlng a newfound
selfconsclousness toward words, Seferls also played ln
Stroplc wlth the notlon of the openended text, maklng use
of slgnlflers that called lnto questlon a flxed meanlng ln
language, uslng technlques and prlnclples typlcal of Euro
pean 'symbollst" verse, the power of suggestlon and evo
catlon ln language.
'Denlal" and 'Jhe Mood of a Day," two of hls
bestknown poems from thls collectlon, lllustrate the
confluence of symbollst technlques wlth contemporary
Greek poetlc expresslon. In 'Denlal," a rhymed poem
wrltten ln a tlghtly controlled metrlc pattern, Seferls
generates a partlcular fleetlng mood set agalnst the
backdrop of an enlgmatlc seashore.
On the secret seashore
whlte llke a plgeon
we thlrsted at noon
but the water was bracklsh.
On the golden sand
we wrote her name;
but the seabreeze blew
and the wrltlng vanlshed. . . .
(from ` m E`mFI translated by Edmund Keeley
and Phlllp Sherrard)
l50
d p ai_ PPO
Jhe poem lent ltself to another symbollst
poetlc practlce, muslcallty; lt was put to muslc by
renowned composer Mlkls Jheodorakls. Hls lnter
pretatlon of 'Denlal" and other later poems, such as
'Eplphany, l937," durlng the l960s and l970s popu
larlzed Seferls`s poetry. Jhrough such modes, poetry
was made accesslble to a mass audlence. these modes
lllustrate the domlnance of the oral tradltlon ln Greek
popular consclousness throughout several epochs of lts
evolutlon. Jhe dlstance between hlgh and low culture
ln the Greek context ls markedly shorter than lt ls ln the
European and AngloAmerlcan tradltlons; whlle Anglo
Amerlcan and European llterature attalned aesthetlc
autonomy by the modernlst perlod, ln Greece, accord
lng to Gregory |usdanls, lt stlll remalned part of the
soclal praxls.
Lnllke the dlsclpllned metrlcal pattern that dlstln
gulshes 'Denlal," by contrast, the poem 'Jhe Mood of
a Day" lnducts prosalc forms. Recalllng the mood of a
dlstlnct moment ln an undlsclosed, forelgn, urban
place, the narrator becomes contlnuously dlsplaced by
fragmented thoughts of other volces. Beyond the spe
clflc case of Seferls, thls technlque has been vlewed as
an example of how modernlsm problematlzes the ldea
of representlng a flxed form of reallty, whlch some crlt
lcs, such as Brlan McHale, have lnterpreted as a
broader crlsls ln eplstemology.
New houses dusty cllnlcs exanthematlc wlndows cofflns
shops . . .
Has anyone consldered the sufferlng of a sensltlve
pharmaclst on nlght duty?
Jhe room ln a mess. drawers wlndows doors open thelr
mouths llke wlld anlmals;
a tlred man lays out the cards, searches, astrologlzes,
scrutlnlzes.
He worrles. lf they knock at the door who wlll open lt? If
he opens a book whom wlll he look at? If he opens
hls
soul who wlll look? Chaln. . . . E`mF
As evldenced ln thls early poetry, Seferls`s afflnl
tles lay wlth the tenets of symbollsm. He remalned, at
the same tlme, crltlcal of the avantgarde artlstlc move
ments, such as surreallsm, whlch he vlewed as 'faclle
poetry," as he later stated ln 'Dlalogue on Poetry"
(l938), one of hls serles of dlalogues wlth Konstantlnos
Jsatsos, a professor of phllosophy at the Lnlverslty of
Athens on llterature, art, and culture. In 'Letter to a
Iorelgn Irlend" ln l d p (l966), Seferls con
veys the reason that wrlters such as Ellot appealed to
hlm durlng thls perlod. 'After the outburst of dadlsm
and the experlments of surreallsm whlch I had wlt
nessed ln Irance," he explalns, 'after these tremendous
. . . exploslons of the ego whlch had brought lnto the
atmosphere . . . the sort of electrlcal tenslon one flnds ln
troplcal cllmates just before the advent of the ralns, the
renewal of the dramatlc tradltlon whlch I found ln Ellot
brought me back to a temperate zone."
What partlcularly dlstlngulshes Seferls ls hls use
of symbols. Jhe employment of symbols throughout
hls oeuvre, at tlmes readlly declpherable ones ('stones,"
'statues,"' landscape"), at other tlmes obscure ones
lntelllglble only to hlmself ('swans," 'angellc and black,
llght"), was the trademark of a practlce Seferls`s crltlcs
assoclated wlth the symbollst movement ln European
and AngloAmerlcan llterary and artlstlc clrcles. In lts
adherence to such prlnclples, symbollst poetry, just as
many other modernlst texts, lent ltself to multlple lnter
pretatlons. Jhese elements were most closely assoclated
wlth the ldeas of 'pure poetry" and evolvlng deflnltlons
of symbollsm, as represented ln the work of contempo
rarles such as Valry and Ellot, to whom Seferls has
often been compared.
Seferls`s experlmentatlon wlth symbollst practlce,
however, was devold of the same ldeologlcal charge
that had lnltlally motlvated other exponents of the prac
tlcesuch as Valry, Yeats, and Ellotaccordlng to
Arthur Symons`s contentlon ln hls lnfluentlal study q
p j i~ (l9l9), ln whlch he vlews
thls artlstlc school as a reactlon to sclentlflc pragmatlsm.
'ln lts revolt agalnst exterlorlty, agalnst rhetorlc, agalnst
a materlallstlc tradltlon; ln thls endeavour to dlsengage
the ultlmate essence, the soul, of whatever exlsts and
can be reallzed by the consclousness; ln thls dutlful
waltlng upon every symbol by whlch the soul of thlngs
can be made vlslble; llterature bowed down by so many
burdens, may at last attaln llberty, and lts authentlc
speech."
Wlth the publlcatlon of p~ (l932; Jhe Cls
tern), Seferls demonstrates the beglnnlngs of what
became hls stock metaphors and symbols. landscape,
stones, shattered fragments and statues, whlch acqulred
a more speclflc ldeologlcal charge ln hls more mature
poems, j~I i ffffI and hK Jhls
ldeologlcal charge was endemlc of a set of values that
deflned Greek natlonal ldentlty ln relatlon to anclent
Greek culture and language, and Seferls played an
lnstrumental role ln deflnlng the essence of the clalm of
modern Greece to that lllustrlous tradltlon.
In the poem 'Mycenae" (l935), from the collec
tlon d~~I the narrator, presumably a modern
day Orestes (I, who`ve followed so many tlmes / the
path from klller to vlctlm, / from vlctlm to punlsh
ment . . . that nlght of return / when the Iurles began
whlstllng x`mz ) refers to the stones at the anclent
l5l
ai_ PPO d p
archaeologlcal slte ln Mycenae and conveys thelr over
whelmlng lmpact on hlm.
Whoever llfts these heavy stones slnks
I llfted these stones for as long as I could
I loved these stones for as long as I could
these stones, my fate. translatlon by Kllronomos
Jhe stones ln these llnes have been lnterpreted by
crltlcs over the years to slgnlfy the burden of the anclent
past on modern Greek consclousness. Jhe narratlve
consclousness ln 'Mycenae" ls predlsposed to look
upon antlqulty as belng lnextrlcably llnked to moder
nlty, as a matter of lts destlny or 'fate"; yet, lt remalns a
past that ls enlgmatlc and vlrtually unldentlflable. Bod
les sunk lnto the foundatlons / of the other tlme, naked.
Eyes / flxed, flxed on a polnt that you can`t make out,
much as you want to. . . (CI ).
In 'Mythlstorema 3" the burden of the past ls rep
resented ln the form of a heavy marble head that
exhausts the narrator, presumably Orestes agaln, for
the eplgraph, 'remember the baths where you were
murdered," ls taken from Aeschylus`s Iibotiov corcrs, a
cry uttered by Orestes to hls father, Agamemnon, at hls
father`s grave slte. As ln 'Mycenae," the burden of the
past ln 'Mythlstorema 3" has a negatlve connotatlon,
for lt alludes to the cycle of vlolence and destructlon
that has plagued the house of Atreus because of lts
excesslve hubrls, meant to serve as a dldactlc example
from whlch parallels can be drawn to the present age.
But the debllltatlng effect of the welght of thls tradltlon
ls conveyed as belng one of dlsmemberment and mutl
latlon.
I woke wlth thls marble head ln my hands;
lt exhausts my elbows and I don`t know where to put lt
down.
It was falllng lnto the dream as I was comlng out of the
dream
so our llfe became one and lt wlll be very dlfflcult for lt
to dlsunlte agaln.
I look at the eyes. nelther open nor closed
I speak to the mouth whlch keeps trylng to speak
I hold the cheeks whlch have broken through the skln.
I don`t have any more strength.
My hands dlsappear and come toward me
mutllated. E`mF
Consclousness of the past as lt welghs on the
modern psyche had deflned the essence of Greek
natlonal ldentlty slnce the early stages of Greek natlon
bulldlng ln the nlneteenth century. Jhe adoptlon of an
hlstorlcal model, whlch held antlqulty as the polnt of
orlgln and as an lllustrlous ldeal, permeated all facets of
Greek natlonal culture from the nlneteenth to the twen
tleth centurles ln lts forms of polltlcal and soclal organl
zatlon, educatlonal lnstltutlons, and modes of artlstlc
expresslon. It was based on a model of contlnulty,
whlch sought to llnk the varlous epochs of Greek hls
tory, from the anclent and Byzantlne to the modern,
and whlchaccordlng to Mlchael Herzfeld, Lorlng Dan
forth, and |usdanlshad lmprlnted ltself ln Greek
natlonal consclousness as far back as the Greek Enllght
enment and consolldated ltself wlthln lntellectual clrcles
after the formatlon of the natlonstate ln l830 wlthln
the evolvlng eplstemologles of dlsclpllnes such as phllol
ogy, hlstorlography, folklore, and pedagogy.
Adherence to such an hlstorlcal model postulated,
above all, a comparlson between the anclents and
modernsthe cultural achlevements of the former
toward whlch the moderns contlnuously strlved. Yet,
the dlsparlty between the culture of the anclents versus
the moderns ln Greece, as unreallstlc as lt was, pro
voked an 'anxlety of lnfluence" wlthln the consclous
ness of the modern llteratl, as artlculated ln the two
aforementloned poems by Seferls.
Consclousness of the past as lt welghs on the
modern psyche was not typlcal only of Seferls`s genera
tlon, however, as lt had been a famlllar trope ln moder
nlty ln the theorlzlng of lts relatlonshlp to the antlque
past. In European Romantlclsm, for example, the
wellknown palntlng Tlc Zrtist iv Dcspoir ovcr tlc Mogvi-
tudc of Zvtiquc Irogmcvts (clrca l778-l780) by Swlss artlst
Henry Iusell dlsplays an anclent fragment of a large
foot belng contemplated by the contemporary artlst.
Iusell projects the lneffectuallty of the artlst ln grap
pllng wlth the rulns of a formldable and authorltatlve
classlcal tradltlon that remalns remote and dlstant to
modern consclousness. Jhe artlst here, accordlng to
Jlmothy Webb, ls not overcome by nostalgla for a
golden and superlor past, but rather appears dejected
and overwhelmed by a sense of lnadequacy when he
compares hlmself to that tradltlon. Such an lmage con
veys what Webb has lnterpreted as a 'symptom of a
cultural crlsls that was experlenced especlally by wrlters
and artlsts for whom the Greek achlevement was both
an unreachable ldeal and a system that could not now
be reassembled or understood as a whole. Iusell`s artlst
experlences, lt seems, that burden of the past that
has been lncreaslngly ldentlfled wlth the artlstlc
selfconsclousness of the modern wrlter."
Jhough Seferls`s poetry bewalls the burden of the
past, lt also afflrms lts lndebtedness and lnextrlcable
llnk to the past. Seferls artlculated hls reverence to the
antlque past through the consclous lntegratlon of the
Classlcs lnto hls poetry, ln collectlons such as Mytlis-
torcmo, Iogbools I-III, and Iicllc, and ln the parallel
development of hls posltlon ln hls llterary crltlclsm. Hls
l52
d p ai_ PPO
experlmentallsm wlth formallst technlques ln poetlc
verse ln these collectlons employed, even further, slgna
ture technlques most closely assoclated wlth Anglo
Amerlcan and European modernlsmnot only
extended use of the fragmented and openended text,
but also partlal quotes, eplgraphs, and llterary alluslons
to the anclent Greek textual tradltlon.
Jhe twentyfour poems that make up the collec
tlon Mytlistorcmo were wrltten ln the context of the psy
chologlcal defeatlsm that lnundated Greek soclety ln
the aftermath of the Asla Mlnor Catastrophe of l922,
whlch culmlnated ln the destructlon of Smyrna and the
dlsplacement of more than a mllllon refugees lnto
Greece. Although ln 'Mythlstorema 8" Seferls does not
expllcltly refer to the evacuatlon of Smyrna, hls blrth
place, fleetlng lmages ln the poem recall scenes from
thls traglc eplsode ln recent hlstory that had become
embedded ln Greek popular memory.
What are they after, our souls, travellng
on the decks of decayed shlps
crowded ln wlth sallow women and crylng bables
unable to forget themselves elther wlth the flylng flsh
or wlth the stars that the masts polnt out at thelr tlps?
Grated by gramophone records
commltted to nonexlstent pllgrlmages unwllllngly,
they murmur broken thoughts from forelgn languages.
What are they after, our souls, travellng
on rotten brlnesoaked tlmbers
from harbor to harbor?
Shlftlng broken stones, breathlng ln
the plne`s coolness wlth greater dlfflculty each day,
swlmmlng ln the waters of thls sea
and of that sea,
wlthout the sense of touch
wlthout men
ln a country that no longer ls ours
nor yours. E`mF
Derlvlng from the words mytlos (myth) and istorio
(hlstory), Mytlistorcmo (whlch means vovcl ln Greek),
draws on the anclent Greek textual tradltlon of such
wrlters as Homer and Aeschylus to dramatlze the expe
rlence of war and exlle not only ln thls moment but also
throughout the many mlllennla of Greek hlstory. Ior
Seferls the Classlcs are not merely an authorltatlve and
canonlcal tradltlon to whlch a poet pays homage, but
also a stablllzlng factor to cope wlth the soclal and pollt
lcal dlvlslons that had fraught Greek soclety ln the post
l922 era.
In extractlng lessons from thls rlch textual herl
tage, Seferls lmparts a dldactlclsm, much llke hls prede
cessor Cavafy, ln presentlng a serles of hlstorlcal
exempla to cope wlth the llls wrought on modernlty.
Ior Seferls, the contlnulng relevance of the model of
Aeschylean justlce, for lnstance, permeates not only
Mytlistorcmo but also poems, such as 'Mycenae," 'Notes
for a 'Week` (l933)" and 'Jhe Jhrush," for, as the poet
explalns ln 'Letter on the Jhrush" ln Uv tlc Crccl Stylc,
Aeschylus 'sets before us" the 'mechanlsm of justlce,"
'thls alternatlon of Hubrls and Ate." As Seferls sald ln
hls l0 December l963 Nobel banquet speech, the lndl
vldual who exceeds measure ls punlshed by the Erlnyes
(the Iates); thls 'norm of justlce" holds not only as a
moral law but also as a law of nature.
Insplred by Homerlc eplc, the archetypal journey
ls an lmage that resurfaces ln Seferls`s poetry, as ln
'Reflectlons on a Iorelgn Llne of Verse" (l93l) and
'Mr. Stratls Jhalasslnos Descrlbes a Man" (l932). But
the journey takes on a speclflc slgnlflcance ln Mytlis-
torcmo as a metaphor for the search for the past.
'Mythlstorema 1" draws on the myth of |ason
and the Argonauts ln the quest for the golden fleece
and that of Odysseus`s companlons ln thelr attempt to
return to thelr homes after the concluslon of the Jrojan
War. Jhe Delphlc maxlm 'know thyself" ls lntegrated
lnto the voyagers` collectlve consclousness and embod
led ln the act of thelr travellng.
If lt ls to know ltself, they sald
lt must look lnto a soul, they sald
and the oars struck the sea`s gold
ln the sunset. We went past many capes many lslands the
sea
leadlng to another sea, gulls and seals.
Sometlmes unfortunate women wept E`mF
Seferls`s embraclng of the contlnulty of tlme
reappears ln hls llterary essays and journals and accords
wlth hls readlng of both Greek and European modern
lsts, especlally Cavafy and Ellot, whom Seferls goes on
to compare ln a wellknown essay publlshed ln l917.
Ior Seferls, Cavafy`s poetry presents 'no dlsruptlon of
the contlnulty" (Z Ioct`s ourvol: Doys of 194-191,
l975) of hlstorlcal tlme ln hls poetry. Llkewlse for Ellot,
Seferls contends, for whom the questlon of hlstory
'ls not that lt has dled, but that lt ls stlll allve. Allve,
present, contemporaneous" (Hc crcmc cloro loi ollo
poicmoto, l973). In thls sense, Seferls`s cltlng of Ellot`s
wellknown statement 'ln manlpulatlng a contlnuous
parallel between contemporanelty and antlqulty" ls say
lng that the use of myth and hlstory ln modern lltera
ture 'ls slmply a way of controlllng, of orderlng, of
glvlng a shape and a slgnlflcance to the lmmense pan
orama of futlllty and anarchy whlch ls contemporary
hlstory" (Ellot, 'Llysses, Order and Myth" |l92l|).
Seferls`s preoccupatlon wlth myth and hlstory ln
poems such as Mytlistorcmo, as well as hls translatlon
l53
ai_ PPO d p
and expllcatlon of Ellot`s work ln hls llterary crltlclsm
durlng the l930s and l910s, prompted many crltlcs of
hls day to proclalm the socalled lnfluence of Ellot on
Seferls. Seferls was not surprlsed by the comparlson, for
he belleved that 'there ls no parthenogenesls ln art . . .
lt ls the asslmllatlon that matters" El d pFK
Seferls`s poems of thls perlod also convey a use of
tropes that were often closely assoclated wlth Ellot`s
dystoplc q t~ i~ (l922), namely, the lmages of
broken stones and fragments as well as the physlcal
arldlty of the landscape, whlch were lnterpreted as met
aphors for the splrltual emptlness and emotlonal vacu
lty of the narrators of the poem, as ln 'Mythlstorema
l0".
Our country ls closed ln, all mountalns
that day and nlght have the low sky as thelr roof
We have no rlvers, we have no wells, we have no sprlngs,
only a few clsternsand these emptythat echo, and that
we worshlp.
A stagnant hollow sound, the same as our lonellness
the same as our love, the same as our bodles.
We flnd lt strange that once we were able to bulld
our houses, huts, and sheepfolds.
And our marrlages, the cool coronals and the flngers,
become enlgmas lnexpllcable to our soul.
How were our chlldren born, how dld they grow strong?
Our country ls closed ln. Jhe two black Symplegades
closed lt ln. When we go down
to the harbors on Sunday to breathe
we see, llt ln the sunset,
the broken planks from voyages that never ended,
bodles that no longer know how to love. E`mF
In response to thls comparlson, Seferls remarked
that the 'feellng" of q t~ i~ 'runs through all
the poetlc expresslon of our tlmes"; but he was qulck to
note that ln thls regard Ellot was not unlque, for
Cavafy, whose poetry was steeped ln myth and hlstory,
had preceded hlm ln maklng thls pronouncement.
Recent crltlcal commentary, however, has sltuated
Seferls`s preoccupatlon wlth the landscape wlthln the
cultural polltlcs of hls contemporarles, especlally the
Generatlon of the l930s, for whom, accordlng to Dlml
trls Jzlovas and Artemls Leontls, the landscape ln the
postl922 perlod took precedence ln thelr poetry as an
aesthetlc and mystlcal ldeal after the demlse of Greece`s
lrredentlst deslgns ln Asla Mlnor. Jhe feellng of con
strlctedness ln 'Mythlstorema l0" reflects thls perlod ln
whlch the natlon now was contalned wlthln newly
deflned geopolltlcal llnes.
In 'Dlalogue on Poetry" (l938), Seferls artlculates
hls generatlon`s move toward clalmlng lntellectual
autonomy from Europe`s sphere of lnfluence. Jhls
movement ls what underlles the dlstlnctlon Seferls
makes between 'European Hellenlsm" and 'Greek
NeoHellenlsm," each of whlch has separate and alter
nate clalms to the antlque past. What makes a work of
art authentlcally NeoHellenlc ls lts capaclty, accordlng
to Jzlovas and Leontls, to convey the sense of ~
or 'Greekness," whlch Seferls deflnes ln terms of
expresslng the demotlc llterary tradltlon. A product of
the Renalssance, he vlews European Hellenlsm as a col
lectlve body of contlnental llterary texts that has
extracted from the Classlcal ldeal moral, aesthetlc, or
polltlcal dlrectlves, categorles, and typologles; lt ls a dls
course constructed 'ln the realm of the lntellect," a
product of the 'tlmes and the races of |lts| creators," tra
verslng cultures, ethnlcltles, genres, and dlsclpllnes. He
deflnes Greek NeoHellenlsm, by contrast, as an exclu
slvely Greek natlonal llterary tradltlon, whlch ls ln the
process of evolvlng and redlscoverlng lts past. Because
much of the typologles of European Hellenlsm were
learned and lmported lnto Greece by Greek lntellectu
als, Seferls argues that the creatlon of an authentlc,
lndlgenous Greek NeoHellenlsm had been prevented.
He trled to counter thls development ln promotlng and
recoverlng the demotlc tradltlon ln hls poetry and llter
ary crltlclsm, as hls essays dlscusslng such flgures as El
Greco, Makryannls, and Jheophllos lllustrate. Popular
consclousness represented ln the demotlc reglster, the
language of the people, ls for Seferls a llvlng medlum.
He assesses the value of the j of Makryannls,
who was llllterate, ln preclsely these terms. In the
recountlng of the hlstory of the trlals of the natlon dur
lng the outbreak of the revolutlon of l82l, the 'splrltual
wlsdom" represented ln Makryannls`s 'oral" narratlve,
as Seferls puts lt, 'ls the common lot, the splrltual
wealth of a race, handed on through the ages from
mlllennlum to mlllennlum, from generatlon to gener
atlon . . . persecuted and always allve, lgnored and
always presentthe common lot of Greek popular tradl
tlon."
Jhe theme of the recovery of the antlque past
contlnues to preoccupy Seferls ln hls later poetry, but lt
ls not merely the textual tradltlon that lnterests hlm but
also the lssues lnvolvlng collectlve memory that are pre
sented by archaeologlcal remalns. Jhe poem 'Jhe Klng
of Aslne," from the collectlon i fI ls based upon
an obscure textual reference ln Homer`s f~ and fea
tures the contemporary poet ln search for the lost klng,
walklng among rulns ln an archaeologlcal slte. Jhe poet
attempts, accordlng to Kllronomos, to lnterpret these
broken fragmentswhlch can be read as the attempt to
endow meanlng to the archaeologlcal rulns themselves
as well as to the textual fragment upon whlch the poem
ls constructed.
Seferls recalls how the understandlng of the
anclent past underlylng the dlscourse of European Hel
l51
d p ai_ PPO
lenlsm slnce the nlneteenth century was founded upon
the readlng of fragments. In thls case lt ls based upon
declpherlng a fragmented text as well as the rulns
retrleved from archaeologlcal excavatlon. In trylng to
determlne the meanlng of the fragments, he contem
plates the exlstence of those who had once llved there
but who nevertheless remaln remote and lnaccesslble
now. Jhe fragments lnstlll ln hlm a 'vold".
And the poet llngers, looklng at the stones, and asks hlm
self
does there really exlst
among these rulned llnes, edges, polnts, hollows, and
curves
does there really exlst the movement of the face, shape of
the tenderness
of those who`ve shrunk so strangely ln our llves . . .
or perhaps no, nothlng ls left but the welght
the nostalgla for the welght of a llvlng exlstence. E`mF
Jhe poet concludes that only through nostalgla
can the past revlve; a 'nostalgla," as Seferls puts lt, 'for
the welght of a llvlng exlstence." Nostalgla brlngs the
fragments back to llfe and renders them meanlngful to
modern consclousness.
In the perlod of World War II, durlng whlch
Seferls was ln exlle, and thereafter, he produced a clus
ter of poems that cogently deals wlth the theme of the
destructlveness and futlllty of war. 'Last Stop" (l911),
from the collectlon i ffI alludes to llnes from
Makryannls`s j as well as Aeschylus`s ^~
to lllustrate the contlnulty of the calamlty of war.
And lf I talk to you ln fables and parables
It`s because lt`s mute and goes on growlng.
Memorywoundlng paln
Drlps by day drlps ln sleep. E`mF
Llkewlse ln hI the narrator, alludlng to
Homerlc eplc, speaks of how 'the tlmes / happened to
be unpropltlous. war destructlon, exlle"; E`mF and of lts
effectthat of the fragmentatlon of the self, reflected ln
the statues of the museum, 'Because the statues are no
longer / fragments. We are" E`mF.
Wrltten agalnst the backdrop of hls sojourn ln
Cyprus ln the mld l950s durlng the Enosls crlsls,
Seferls ln the poem 'Helen," from the collectlon i
fffI thematlzes the futlllty of war. He draws on the
countertradltlon, ascrlbed to slxth and seventhcentury
Greek lyrlc poet Steslchorus, whlch malntalned that
Helen never went to Jroy and that the clty was only a
phantom. Jhls verslon of the myth was adapted by
Eurlpldes ln hls traglc play eI an excerpt of whlch
Seferls lntegrates lnto the eplgraph of the poem. Jhe
concluslon of the poem questlons the premlse of war
and projects Helen as a metaphor for the basls upon
whlch such vlolent aggresslon ls based.
At Jroy, nothlng, just a phantom lmage.
Jhe gods wanted lt so.
And Parls, Parls lay wlth a shadow as though lt were a
solld belng;
And for ten whole years we slaughtered ourselves for
Helen.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
all for a llnen undulatlon, a fllmy cloud,
a butterfly`s fllcker, a whlsp of swan`s down,
an empty tunlcall for a Helen. E`mF
Seferls`s last collectlon, q~ ~ ~~I ls per
haps the most enlgmatlc example of hls poetry and the
most challenglng to lnterpret. Recent commentary,
drawlng on Heldeggerlan phllosophy and a post
structural approach, examlnes the rhetorlcal play
between ldeas that have been encoded ln European and
NeoHellenlc thought. Jhe poetry, accordlng to Dlml
trls Dlmlroulls, ls thus dlscussed uslng a partlcular set
of dlalectlcal opposltlons, such as concealment versus
dlscovery, llght versus darkness, presence versus
absence, and truth versus art.
Seferls won the Nobel Prlze ln l963, the flrst Greek
natlonal to wln any of the flve annual prlzes slnce the
Swedlsh Academy had begun lssulng the awards ln l90l.
Jhe Academy lauded hlm for hls 'emlnent lyrlcal wrltlng,
lnsplred by a deep feellng for the Hellenlc world of cul
ture." Jhe Permanent Secretary of the Academy, Anders
Osterllng, pralsed Seferls as a leadlng Greek natlonal flg
ure for 'carrylng on the classlcal herltage." Because of the
'unlqueness of lts thought and style and the beauty of lts
language," Seferls`s work, he noted, had become 'a lastlng
symbol of all that ls lndestructlble ln the Hellenlc afflrma
tlon of llfe." In referrlng to the key symbols that dlstln
gulsh Seferls`s poetry, Osterllng sald that the poet had
astutely lnterpreted 'the mystery of the stones, of the dead
fragments of marble and of the sllent, smlllng statues."
In awardlng thls prlze, the Academy sald that lt
was paylng 'trlbute to the Greece of today, whose rlch
l55
ai_ PPO d p
llterature has had to walt, perhaps too long, for the
Nobel laurels." Crltlcal reactlon ln Greece emphaslzed
thls polnt. on the low vlslblllty of the Greek poetlc tra
dltlon abroad and that other worthy Greek wrlters
such as Palamas, Cavafy, Nlkos Kazantzakls, and Ange
los Slkellanoshad been overlooked throughout the
years. Dlscusslon also ensued over the factors that led
to the awardlng of thls prlze speclflcally to Seferls,
deemlng hls vlslblllty had been the result of hls expo
sure and espousal of European and AngloAmerlcan
modernlst poetlcs as well as the conslstent promotlon
and dlssemlnatlon of Seferls`s poetry by way of trans
latlon lnto Engllsh, Irench, Swedlsh, and several other
languages ln the years leadlng up to the award. Jhe
prlze, moreover, spawned more comprehenslve transla
tlons of hls entlre poetlc productlon, especlally those by
Keeley and Sherrard, and the reprlntlng of prevlously
publlshed translatlons, especlally ln Sweden. Jhe
lmpact of the prlze also had longterm effects. the lnduc
tlon of Seferls lnto the modern Greek llterary canon,
taught both ln the orlglnal and ln translatlon at the unl
verslty level both ln Greece and abroad leadlng to a
prollferatlon of artlcles, essays, and dlssertatlons expll
catlng hls work slnce the l960s. Jhe prestlge of the
prlze, moreover, was a semlnal factor ln the namlng of
the George Seferls Chalr ln Modern Greek Llterature at
Harvard Lnlverslty ln l983.
Seferls had recelved several honorary doctoral
degreesfrom Cambrldge (l960), Oxford (l961), the Arls
totle Lnlverslty of Jhessalonlkl (l961), and Prlnceton
Lnlverslty (l965). Seferls also became an Honorary Ior
elgn Member of the Amerlcan Academy of Arts and Scl
ences and was appolnted Honorary Iellow of the Modern
Language Assoclatlon ln l966. He was lnvlted to become
Charles Ellot Norton Professor of Poetry at Harvard for
the academlc year l969-l970. Although he was honored
by the lnvltatlon, he decllned because he was uncomfort
able wlth the ldea of lecturlng at Harvard at a tlme when
exerclslng the freedom of expresslon had been prohlblted
ln Greece. Seferls wltnessed the abuses of power and curb
lng of clvll llbertles wrought by the junta after lt selzed con
trol of the state ln l967. Several Greek lntellectuals were
lmprlsoned or barred from wrltlng and publlshlng ln hls
homeland. Accordlng to George Jhanlel (l991), ln l968
Seferls accepted an lnvltatlon from Prlnceton, however, to
become a fellow of the Instltute for Advanced Study dur
lng whlch he had been approached by several lndlvlduals
to speak agalnst the junta. Seferls had decllned the oppor
tunlty, bellevlng that such crltlclsm needed to be volced ln
hls homeland and not whlle he was abroad.
After he returned to Greece, because of mountlng
publlc pressure, Seferls lssued hls flrst publlc statement
condemnlng the junta ln what had hltherto been two
years marked by the reglme`s represslve measures,
lncludlng wldespread censorshlp, polltlcal detentlons,
and torture. Seferls`s statement was made on 29 March
l969 on the BBC and dlstrlbuted to every newspaper
ln Athens. Defylng martlal law, he called for an end to
the dlctatorshlp. He regarded the wldespread curblng of
llbertles a natlonal 'humlllatlon" and concluded that
'We have all learned that ln dlctatorlal reglmes the
beglnnlng may seem easy, yet tragedy lurks, lnexorably
ln the end." George Seferls, however, dld not llve to see
the end of the junta. He dled ln Athens, after extenslve
hospltallzatlon, on 20 September l97l. Hls funeral ln
Athens drew a vast crowd and was llnked to the protest
movement agalnst the dlctatorlal reglme.
oW
Roderlck Beaton, Ccorgc Scfcris (Rlver Vale, N.|.. Cos
mos, l99l);
Robert Brownlng, Mcdicvol ovd Modcrv Crccl (Cam
Vangells Calotychos, 'Jhe Art of Maklng Claques. Pol
ltlcs of Jradltlon ln the Crltlcal Essays of J. S.
Ellot and George Seferls," ln Modcrvism iv Crcccc?
Issoys ov tlc Criticol ovd Iitcrory Morgivs of o Movc-
mcvt, edlted by Mary N. Layoun (New York.
Pella, l990), pp. 8l-l36;
C. CaprlKarka, Iovc ovd tlc Symbolic ourvcy iv tlc Ioctry
of Covofy, Iliot ovd Scfcris (New York. Pella, l982);
Lorlng Danforth, 'Jhe Ideologlcal Context of the
Search for Contlnultles ln Greek Culture," ourvol
of Modcrv Crccl Studics, 2 (l981). 53-85;
Dlmltrls Dlmlroulls, U poictis os ctlvos: oistlitili loi idcolo-
gio sto C. Scfcri | Jhe Poet as Natlon. Aesthetlclsm
and Ideology ln G. Seferls| (Athens. Plethron,
l999);
J. S. Ellot, 'Llysses, Order and Myth," Diol, 75 (l923).
180-183;
Mlchael Herzfeld, Iolllorc, Idcology, ovd tlc Molivg of
Modcrv Crcccc (New York. Pella, l986);
Gregory |usdanls, clotcd Modcrvity ovd Zcstlctic Culturc:
Ivvcvtivg òtiovol Iitcroturc (Mlnneapolls. Mlnne
sota Lnlverslty Press, l99l);
Edmund Keeley, Modcrv Crccl Ioctry. !oicc ovd Mytl
(Prlnceton, N.|.. Prlnceton Lnlverslty Press,
l983);
Keeley, 'J. S. Ellot and the Poetry of George Seferls,"
Comporotivc Iitcroturc, 8, no. 3 (l956). 2l1-226;
Martha Kllronomos, 'Anclent ovomvcsis, Natlonal mvcmc
ln the Poetry of Glorgos Seferls," ourvol of Modcrv
Crccl Studics, 20, no. 2 (October 2002). 2l5-239;
Artemls Leontls, Topogroplics of Hcllcvism: Moppivg tlc
Homclovd (Ithaca, N.Y.. Cornell Lnlverslty Press,
l995);
l56
d p ai_ PPO
Mlchael H. Levenson, Z Ccvcology of Modcrvism: Z Study
of Ivglisl Iitcrory Doctrivc, 190S-1922 (Cam
Brlan McHale, Iostmodcrvist Iictiov (New York Lon
don. Methuen, l987);
Henry Mlller, Tlc Colossus of Moroussi (New York. New
Dlrectlons, l91l);
Mlchael North, Tlc Ioliticol Zcstlctic of Jcots, Iliot, ovd
Iouvd (Cambrldge New York. Cambrldge Lnl
verslty Press, l99l);
George Jhanlel, Scfcris ovd Iricvds (Somc of Ccorgc Scfcris`
Iricvds iv tlc Ivglisl-Spcolivg !orld), edlted by Ed
Phlnney (Stratford, Ont.. Mercury, l991);
Dlmltrls Jzlovas, Ui mctomorploscis tou ctlvismou loi to
idcologcmo tis cllivilotitos |Jhe Jransformatlon of
Natlonlsm and the Ideologeme of Greekness|
(Athens. Odysseas, l989).
NVSP k m i~
m~ p
Swcdisl Zcodcmy
Jhls year`s Nobel Prlze ln Llterature has been
awarded to the Greek poet Glorgos Seferls, who was
born ln l900 at Smyrna, whlch he left at an early age to
accompany hls famlly to Athens. After the Greeks were
drlven out of Asla Mlnor, and Seferls`s home town had
gone up ln flames, homelessnessever the fate of an
oppressed and scattered peoplewas to play a declslve
role durlng hls adult years ln more ways than one.
Seferls studled ln Parls, then entered the dlplomatlc ser
vlce, went lnto exlle wlth the Iree Greek Government
when Greece was occupled ln l91l, and was moved
about from country to country durlng the Second
World War, when he served hls country ln Crete, ln
Calro, ln South Afrlca, ln Jurkey, and ln the Mlddle
East. After slx years as ambassador ln London, he
retlred last year and returned to Athens to devote hlm
self entlrely to hls llterary work.
Seferls`s poetlc productlon ls not large, but
because of the unlqueness of lts thought and style and
the beauty of lts language, lt has become a lastlng sym
bol of all that ls lndestructlble ln the Hellenlc afflrma
tlon of llfe. Now that Palamas and Slkellanos are dead,
Seferls ls today the representatlve Hellenlc poet, carry
lng on the classlcal herltage; a leadlng natlonal flgure,
he ls also acclalmed abroad ln so far as hls poetry has
been made avallable ln translatlon. Here ln Sweden hls
work was presented thlrteen years ago by Hjalmar Gull
berg, whose translatlons lncluded the famous Tlc Iivg
of Zsivc, the theme of whlch has a connectlon wlth Swe
den because of our archaeologlsts` successful excava
tlons on thls slte. Lslng lmaglnatlon as a tool, Seferls
trles ln thls poem to penetrate the secret behlnd a name
that ls merely mentloned ln a verse of the Illad.
When readlng Seferls we are forclbly remlnded of
a fact that ls sometlmes forgotten. geographlcally,
Greece ls not only a penlnsula but also a world of water
and foam, strewn wlth myrlad lslands, an anclent sea
klngdom, the perllous and stormy home of the marlner.
Jhls Greece ls the constant background of hls poetry, ln
whlch lt ls conjured up as the vlslon of a grandeur both
harsh and tender. Seferls does thls wlth a language of
rare subtlety, both rhythmlcal and metaphorlcal. It has
rlghtly been sald that he, better than anyone else, has
lnterpreted the mystery of the stones, of the dead frag
ments of marble, and of the sllent, smlllng statues. In
hls evocatlve poems, flgures from anclent Greek
mythology appear together wlth recent events ln the
Medlterranean`s bloody theatre of war. Hls poetry
sometlmes seems dlfflcult to lnterpret, partlcularly
because Seferls ls reluctant to expose hls lnner self, pre
ferrlng to hlde behlnd a mask of anonymlty. He often
expresses hls grlef and bltterness through the medlum
of a central narratlve flgure, a klnd of Odysseus wlth
features borrowed from the old seamen ln the lost
Smyrna of the poet`s youth. But ln hls hollow volce ls
dramatlzed much of Greece`s hlstorlcal fatallty, lts shlp
wrecks and lts rescues, lts dlsasters and lts valour. Jech
nlcally, Seferls has recelved vltal lmpulses from J. S.
Ellot, but underneath the tone ls unmlstakably hls own,
often carrylng a broken echo of the muslc from an
anclent Greek chorus.
Seferls once descrlbed hlmself, 'I am a monoto
nous and obstlnate man who, for twenty years, has not
ceased to say the same thlngs over and over agaln."
Jhere ls perhaps some truth ln thls descrlptlon, but one
must remember that the message he feels bound to con
vey ls lnseparable from the lntellectual llfe of hls genera
tlon as lt flnds ltself confronted wlth anclent Greek
clvlllzatlon, a herltage that presents a formldable chal
lenge to the lmpoverlshed helr. In one of hls most slgnlf
lcant poems Seferls descrlbes a dream ln whlch a
marble headtoo heavy for hls arms, yet lmposslble to
push asldefell upon hlm at the moment of awakenlng.
It ls ln thls state of mlnd that he slngs the pralse of the
dead, for only communlcatlon wlth the dead convers
lng on thelr asphodel meadows can brlng to the llvlng a
hope of peace, confldence, and justlce. In Seferls`s lnter
pretatlon the story of the Argonauts becomes a parable
halfway between myth and hlstory, a parable of oars
men who must fall before they reach thelr goal.
But Seferls anlmates thls background of melan
choly reslgnatlon wlth the eloquent joy lnsplred ln hlm
l57
ai_ PPO d p
by hls country`s mountalnous lslands wlth thelr whlte
washed houses rlslng ln terraces above an azure sea, a
harmony of colours that we flnd agaln ln the Greek
flag. In concludlng thls brlef presentatlon, I should llke
to add that the prlze has been awarded to Seferls 'for
hls emlnent lyrlcal wrltlng, lnsplred by a deep feellng
for the Hellenlc world of culture."
Dear SlrIn honourlng you, lt has been a great
prlvllege for the Swedlsh Academy to pay lts trlbute to
the Greece of today, whose rlch llterature has had to
walt, perhaps too long, for the Nobel laurels. Extendlng
to you the congratulatlons of the Swedlsh Academy, I
ask you to recelve from the hands of Hls Majesty, the
Klng, thls year`s Prlze ln Llterature.
pW _~ p
Ivtroductory rcmorls by I. Svcvvilsov of tlc Ioyol Zcodcmy of
Scicvccs ot tlc òbcl ovquct ot tlc City Holl iv Stocllolm,
10 Dcccmbcr 196J:
Glorgos SeferlsNathan Sderblom, a frlend of
Alfred Nobel, later Sweden`s Archblshop and one of the
Nobel Peace Prlze wlnners, developed on the basls of hls
sclentlflc studles the ldea that rellglon should be regarded
as a contlnuous revelatlon of splrltual values by a long pro
cesslon of prophets and salnts. We know that the great
classlcs are dear to the Greek people, and we greet you as
an lnnovator wlthln that llvlng tradltlon.
Seferls`s speech (Jranslatlon)
I feel at thls moment that I am a llvlng contradlctlon.
Jhe Swedlsh Academy has declded that my efforts ln a
language famous through the centurles but not wlde
spread ln lts present form are worthy of thls hlgh dlstlnc
tlon. It ls paylng homage to my languageand ln return I
express my gratltude ln a forelgn language. I hope you wlll
accept the excuses I am maklng to myself.
I belong to a small country. A rocky promontory ln
the Medlterranean, lt has nothlng to dlstlngulsh lt but the
efforts of lts people, the sea, and the llght of the sun. It ls a
small country, but lts tradltlon ls lmmense and has been
handed down through the centurles wlthout lnterruptlon.
Jhe Greek language has never ceased to be spoken. It has
undergone the changes that all llvlng thlngs experlence,
but there has never been a gap. Jhls tradltlon ls character
lzed by love of the human; justlce ls lts norm. In the tlghtly
organlzed classlcal tragedles the man who exceeds hls
measure ls punlshed by the Erlnyes. And thls norm of jus
tlce holds even ln the realm of nature.
'Hellos wlll not overstep hls measure"; says Heracll
tus, 'otherwlse the Erlnyes, the mlnlsters of |ustlce, wlll
flnd hlm out." A modern sclentlst mlght proflt by ponder
lng thls aphorlsm of the Ionlan phllosopher. I am moved
by the reallzatlon that the sense of justlce penetrated the
Greek mlnd to such an extent that lt became a law of the
physlcal world. One of my masters exclalmed at the begln
nlng of the last century, 'We are lost because we have been
unjust." He was an unlettered man, who dld not learn to
wrlte untll the age of thlrtyflve. But ln the Greece of our
day the oral tradltlon goes back as far as the wrltten tradl
tlon, and so does poetry. I flnd lt slgnlflcant that Sweden
wlshes to honour not only thls poetry, but poetry ln gen
eral, even when lt orlglnates ln a small people. Ior I thlnk
that poetry ls necessary to thls modern world ln whlch we
are affllcted by fear and dlsqulet. Poetry has lts roots ln
human breathand what would we be lf our breath were
dlmlnlshed? Poetry ls an act of confldenceand who
knows whether our unease ls not due to a lack of confl
dence?
Last year, around thls table, lt was sald that there ls
an enormous dlfference between the dlscoverles of mod
ern sclence and those of llterature, but llttle dlfference
between modern and Greek dramas. Indeed, the behav
lour of human belngs does not seem to have changed.
And I should add that today we need to llsten to that
human volce whlch we call poetry, that volce whlch ls con
stantly ln danger of belng extlngulshed through lack of
love, but ls always reborn. Jhreatened, lt has always
found a refuge; denled, lt has always lnstlnctlvely taken
root agaln ln unexpected places. It recognlzes no small nor
large parts of the world; lts place ls ln the hearts of men the
world over. It has the charm of escaplng from the vlclous
clrcle of custom. I owe gratltude to the Swedlsh Academy
for belng aware of these facts; for belng aware that lan
guages whlch are sald to have restrlcted clrculatlon should
not become barrlers whlch mlght stlfle the beatlng of the
human heart; and for belng a true Areopagus, able 'to
judge wlth solemn truth llfe`s lllappolnted lot," to quote
Shelley, who, lt ls sald, lnsplred Alfred Nobel, whose gran
deur of heart redeems lnevltable vlolence.
In our gradually shrlnklng world, everyone ls ln
need of all the others. We must look for man wherever we
can flnd hlm. When on hls way to Jhebes Oedlpus
encountered the Sphlnx, hls answer to lts rlddle was.
'Man." Jhat slmple word destroyed the monster. We have
many monsters to destroy. Let us thlnk of the answer of
Oedlpus.
| Jhe Nobel Ioundatlon, l963. Glorgos Seferls ls the
l58
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p k j d q~
A poet who ls especlally dear to me, the Irlshman
W. B. Yeats, Nobel laureate of l923, on hls return from
Stockholm wrote an account of hls trlp entltled 'Jhe
Bounty of Sweden." I was remlnded of lt when the
Swedlsh Academy honoured me so greatly by lts
cholce. 'Jhe bounty of Sweden" ls for us much older
and extends much further. I do not thlnk that any
Greek, on learnlng of the homage you have pald to my
country, could forget the good that Sweden has done ln
our country wlth altrulsm, patlence, and such perfect
humanlty, whether lt was done by your archaeologlsts
ln tlmes of peace or by your Red Cross mlsslons durlng
the war. I pass over many other gestures of solldarlty
that we have seen more recently.
When your Klng, Hls Majesty Gustav Adolf VI,
handed me the dlploma of the Nobel Prlze, I could not
but remember wlth emotlon the days when as Crown
Prlnce he was determlned to make hls personal contrl
butlon to the excavatlons of the Acropolls of Aslne.
When I flrst met Axel Persson, that generous man who
had devoted hlmself to the same excavatlon, I called
hlm my godfathergodfather because Aslne had glven
me a poem.
In the town of Mlssolonghl a granlte monument
has been dedlcated to the Swedes who dled for Greece
ln her struggle for lndependence. Our gratltude ls even
more durable than that granlte.
One evenlng at the beglnnlng of the last century,
ln a street on the lsland of Zante, Dlonyslos Solomos
heard an old beggar at the door of a tavern recltlng a
popular ballad on the burnlng of the Holy Sepulchre at
|erusalem. Extendlng hls hand, the beggar sald.
Jhe Holy Sepulchre of Chrlst, lt dld not burn;
Where the holy llght shlnes, no other flre can burn.
Solomos, we are told, was selzed wlth such enthuslasm
that he entered the tavern and ordered free drlnks for
all those present. Jhls anecdote ls slgnlflcant for me; I
have always consldered lt as a symbol of the glft of
poetry that our people are left ln the hands of a prlnce
of the splrlt at the very moment when the resurrectlon
of modern Greece beglns.
Jhls symbol represents a long development that
has not yet been completed. It ls my lntentlon to speak
to you of some men who have been lmportant ln the
struggle for Greek expresslon ever slnce we started
breathlng the alr of llberty. Iorglve me lf my account ls
sketchy, but I do not wlsh to tax your patlence.
Our dlfflcultles began wlth the Alexandrlans
who, dazzled by the Attlc classlcs, began to teach what
ls correct and lncorrect ln wrltlng, began, ln other
words, to teach purlsm. Jhey dld not conslder that lan
guage ls a llvlng organlsm and that nothlng can stop lts
growth. Jhey were lndeed very successful and brought
forth generatlon after generatlon of purlsts, who have
survlved even to our day. Jhey represent one of the
two great currents ln our language and our tradltlon
that have never been lnterrupted.
Jhe other current, long dlsregarded, ls the vulgar,
popular, or oral tradltlon. It ls as old as the former and has
lts own wrltten documents. I was moved when one day I
happened to read a letter from a sallor to hls father, pre
served on a secondcentury papyrus. I was struck by the
actuallty and the presence of lts language, and I grleved
that for many centurles a wealth of sentlments had
remalned unexpressed, stlfled forever by the vast shroud
of purlsm and the nlcetles of the rhetorlcal style. Jhe Gos
pels, too, as you know, were wrltten ln the popular lan
guage of thelr perlod. If one thlnks of the Apostles, who
wanted to be understood and appreclated by the common
people, one can only vlew wlth angulsh the human perver
slty that caused uproars ln Athens at the beglnnlng of the
century on the occaslon of a translatlon of the Gospels,
and whlch even today would brand as unlawful the trans
latlon of the words of Chrlst.
But I am antlclpatlng. Jhe two currents ran paral
lel untll the fall of the Greek Byzantlne Emplre. On the
one hand, there were the scholars, reflned by a thou
sand embelllshments of the mlnd. On the other hand,
there were the common people, who regarded them
wlth respect but nevertheless contlnued ln thelr own
modes of expresslon. I do not thlnk that durlng the Byz
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antlne era there ever was a rapprochement between the
two currents, that ls, a phenomenon such as one
observes ln the frescoes and mosalcs of the years pre
cedlng the end of the Emplre under the Paleologues. At
that tlme lmperlal art and the popular art of the prov
lnces merged to produce a splendld renewal.
However, Constantlnople underwent a long
agony before she fell. When she was flnally taken, a
servltude, whlch was to last for several centurles,
descended on the entlre natlon. Many then were the
scholars who, 'carrylng the heavy urns fllled wlth the
ashes of thelr ancestors," as the poet says, came to the
Occldent to spread the seeds of what came to be called
the Renalssance. But that RenalssanceI mean the
word ln lts strlct sense, as we use lt to lndlcate the tran
sltlon from the Mlddle Ages to the modern age,
whether lt was good or badthat Renalssance was not
known ln Greece, wlth the exceptlon of certaln lslands,
notably Crete, whlch was then under Venetlan rule.
Jhere, toward the slxteenth century, was developed a
poetry and a verse drama ln a language splendldly allve
and perfectly sure of ltself. Conslderlng that at the same
tlme lmportant schools of palntlng were flourlshlng ln
Crete and that toward the mlddle of the century the
great Cretan palnter Domenlcos Jheotocopoulos, who
came to be known as El Greco, was born and grew up
on that lsland, the fall of Crete ls an even more palnful
event than the fall of Constantlnople.
Constantlnople had, after all, recelved a fatal
blow from the Crusaders ln l201. She was merely out
llvlng herself. Crete, on the other hand, was full of
vlgour, and one can only brood wlth a curlous mlxture
of grlef and falth over the destlny of that Greek land
whose people are always ready to rebulld what the
squalls of hlstory are to overthrow agaln. One ls
remlnded of what the poet Kalvos wrote to General
Lafayette. 'God and our Despalr."
At any rate, the revlval ln Crete began to decllne
ln the mlddle of the seventeenth century. At that tlme
many Cretans sought refuge ln the Ionlan Islands and
ln other parts of Greece. Jhey brought wlth them thelr
poems, whlch they knew by heart and whlch were
lmmedlately adopted ln thelr new surroundlngs. Jhese
poems sometlmes blended wlth the popular songs pre
served by the Greeks of the malnland, together wlth
thelr legends, for many generatlons. Jhere ls evldence
that some of them may date back to pagan tlmes; others
emerged ln the course of the centurles, such as the cycle
of Dlgenls Acrltas, a product of the Byzantlne era. Jhey
make us reallze that throughout the ages the same attl
tudes toward work, sufferlng, joy, love, and death per
slsted wlthout change. But at the same tlme thelr
expresslon ls so fresh, so free and full of humanlty, that
they make us feel lntultlvely to what extent the splrlt of
Greece has always remalned falthful to ltself. I have so
far avolded glvlng you examples. However much I am
lndebted to my translatorslt ls through them that you
are able to know meI have the palnful feellng of a dls
tortlon beyond recovery when I translate my language
lnto language that ls not mlne. Iorglve me lf for the
moment I cannot help maklng an exceptlon. It ls a very
short poem about the death of a loved one.
Jo protect you I placed three guards. the sun on
the mountaln, the eagle on the plaln, and the fresh
north wlnd on the shlps. Jhe sun has set;
the eagle has fallen asleep; and the shlps have
carrled away the fresh north wlnd. Charon saw
hls chance and took you away.
I have glven you a pale reflectlon of the poem, whlch ls
radlant ln Greek.
Here you have ln very slmpllfled terms the ante
cedents of modern Greece. It ls the herltage whlch the
old beggar ln front of the tavern on Zante bequeathed
to Dlonyslos Solomos one evenlng. Jhat lmage comes
to my mlnd whenever I thlnk of hlm and of what he
has glven to us.
In the hlstory of modern Greek poetry there ls no
lack of strange flgures and cases. It would have been
much more natural, for lnstance, lf the poetry of a
country of sallors, peasants, and soldlers had begun
wlth rough and slmple songs. But the opposlte hap
pened. It began wlth a man drlven by the daemon of
the absolute, who was born on the lsland of Zante. Jhe
level of culture on the Ionlan Islands was at that tlme
much superlor to that on the malnland. Solomos had
studled ln Italy. He was a great European and very
much aware of the problems faced by the poetry of hls
century. He could have made hls career ln Italy. He
wrote poems ln Itallan, and he dld not lack encourage
ment; but he preferred the narrow gate and declded to
do hls work ln Greek. Solomos certalnly knew the
poems that the Cretan refugees had brought wlth them.
He was a fervent partlsan of the popular language and
an enemy of purlsm. Hls vlews on the subject have
been preserved ln hls a~ m ~ mJ
~ p~ (we should understand that word ln the sense
ln whlch Rabelals uses the word Sorbonlcole). I clte at
random. 'Is there anythlng ln my mlnd," he exclalms,
'but llberty and language?" Or agaln. 'Submlt to the
language of the people, and lf you are strong enough,
conquer lt." He undertook thls conquest and through
thls undertaklng he became a great Greek. Solomos ls
wlthout doubt the author of the 'Hymn to Ireedom,"
the flrst stanzas of whlch have became our natlonal
anthem, and of other poems that have been set to muslc
and wldely sung ln the course of the last century. But lt
ls not for thls reason that hls herltage ls so valuable to
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us; lt ls because he charted as deflnltlvely as hls age per
mltted hlm the course that Greek expresslon was to
take. He loved the llvlng language and worked all hls
llfe to ralse lt to the level of the poetry of whlch he
dreamt. It was an effort beyond the powers of any sln
gle lndlvldual. Of hls great poemsfor lnstance 'Jhe
Iree Besleged," lnsplred by the slege and sufferlngs of
the town of Mlssolonghlonly fragments remaln to us,
the dust from a dlamond that the craftsman took lnto
hls tomb. We have nothlng but fragments and blank
spaces to represent the struggle of thls great soul whlch
was as tense as a bowstrlng that ls about to snap. Many
generatlons of Greek wrlters have bent over those frag
ments and those blank spaces. Solomos dled ln l857. In
l927, f d~~ w~ |Woman of Zante| was pub
llshed for the flrst tlme and establlshed hlm as a great
prose wrlter just as he had long been acknowledged as a
great poet. It ls a magnlflcent work that makes a pro
found lmpact on our mlnds. In a slgnlflcant manner fate
wllled that seventy years after hls death Solomos would
reply by means of thls message to the lnquletude of new
generatlons. He has always been a beglnnlng.
Andreas Kalvos, a contemporary of Solomos, was
one of the most lsolated flgures ln Greek llterature.
Jhere ls not even a portralt of hlm. A frlend of the Ital
lan poet Lgo Ioscolo, he soon was embrolled ln a quar
rel wlth hlm. He was born on the lsland of Zante and
llved for many years on Corfu. He does not seem to
have had any contact wlth Solomos. Hls entlre work
conslsts of a slender volume of twenty odes publlshed
when he was barely thlrty. In hls youth he travelled
extenslvely ln Italy, Swltzerland, and England. He had a
lofty mlnd, lmbued wlth the moral ldeas of the end of
the elghteenth century, devoted to vlrtue, flercely
opposed to tyranny. Hls poetry ls lnsplred by the gran
deur and sorrow of a martyred natlon. It ls movlng to
see how thls man, who lost hls mother as a chlld, ln the
depth of hls consclousness ldentlfles the love for hls lost
mother wlth that for hls country. Hls language ls lrregu
lar; hls rhymes ldlosyncratlc; he had a classlcal ldeal ln
mlnd and desplsed what he called 'the monotony of the
Cretan poems" that had glven so much to Solomos. But
hls lmages are flashes of llghtnlng and of such lmmedl
ate power that they seem to tear hls poetry apart. After
a solltary llfe on Corfu, devoted to teachlng, he left the
Ionlan Islands for good. He marrled a second tlme ln
London and wlth hls wlfe opened a boardlng school for
glrls ln a small provlnclal town ln England. Jhere he
llved for fourteen years untll hls death, wlthout ever
renewlng contact wlth Greece.
I have made a pllgrlmage to those reglons
haunted by the shadows of Jennyson. An old man who
loved that part of the country told me that he had once
lntervlewed old women of elghty who had been puplls
of Kalvos and whose memorles were full of respect for
thelr old master. But agaln I was unable to free myself
from the lmage of that faceless man, clad ln black, strlk
lng hls lyre on an lsolated promontory. Hls work fell
lnto obllvlon; doubtless hls volce dld not conform to
the taste for unreal and romantlc rhetorlc that swept
Athens at that perlod. He was redlscovered about l890
by Kostls Palamas. Greece had matured meanwhlle,
and lt was the tlme when the young forces of modern
Greece were beglnnlng to burst forth. Jhe struggle for
a llvlng language was wldenlng. Jhere were exaggera
tlons, but that was only natural. Jhe struggle, contlnu
lng for many years, went beyond llterature and was
characterlzed by the wlll to challenge every aspect of
the present. It turned enthuslastlcally toward publlc
educatlon. One rejected readymade forms and ldeas.
One certalnly wanted to preserve the herltage of the
anclents, but at the same tlme there was an lnterest ln
the common people; one wanted to lllumlnate the one
by the other. One wondered about the ldentlty of the
Greek of today. Scholars and schoolmasters took part ln
thls struggle. Important studles of Greek folklore
appeared durlng thls perlod, and there was a growlng
reallzatlon of the contlnulty of our tradltlon as well as of
the need for a crltlcal splrlt.
Kostls Palamas played a great role ln thls move
ment. I was an adolescent when I flrst saw hlm; he was
glvlng a lecture. He was a very short man, who
lmpressed one by hls deep eyes and by hls volce, whlch
was rlch wlth a somewhat tremulous quallty. Hls work
was vast and lnfluenced decades of Greek llterary llfe.
He expressed hlmself ln all genres of poetrylyrlc, eplc,
and satlrlcal; at the same tlme he was our most lmpor
tant crltlc. He had an astonlshlng knowledge of forelgn
llteratures, provlng once agaln that Greece ls a cross
roads, and that slnce the tlme of Herodotus or Plato lt
has never been closed to forelgn currents, especlally ln
lts best moments. Palamas lnevltably had enemles,
often among those who had proflted from the road he
had opened. I conslder hlm a force of nature ln compar
lson wlth whlch the crltlcs look petty. When he
appeared, lt was as lf a force of nature, held back and
accumulated for over a thousand years of purlsm, had
flnally burst the dlkes. When the waters are freed to
flood a thlrsty plaln, one must not ask that they carry
only flowers. Palamas was profoundly aware of all the
components of our clvlllzatlon, anclent, Byzantlne, and
modern. A world of unexpressed thlngs thronged hls
soul. It was that world, hls world, whlch he llberated. I
would not malntaln that hls abundance never harmed
hlm, but the people that assembled about hls coffln ln
l913 clearly felt somethlng of what I have just told you
when at the moment of flnal farewell they spontane
l6l
ai_ PPO pW k iI NN a NVSP
ously sang our natlonal anthem, the hymn to freedom,
under the eyes of the occupatlon authorltles.
One hundred and flftyfour poems constltute the
known work of Constantlne Cavafy, who ls at the oppo
slte pole from Palamas. He ls that rare among poets whose
motlvatlng force ls not the word; the danger lles ln the
abundance of words. He was part of the Hellenlc culture
that flourlshed ln Egypt and ls dlsappearlng today. Except
for a few absences, he spent all hls llfe ln Alexandrla, hls
natlve clty. Hls art ls characterlzed by rejectlons and by hls
sense of hlstory. By hlstory I do not mean the account of
the past, but the hlstory that llves ln the present and sheds
llght on our present llfe, on lts drama and lts destlny. I
compare Cavafy to that Proteus of the Alexandrlan shore
who, Homer says, changed hls form lncessantly. Hls tradl
tlon was not that of the popular art whlch Solomos and
Palamas had followed; lt was the scholarly tradltlon.
Whereas they took thelr lnsplratlon from a popular song
or tale, he would have recourse to Plutarch or to an
obscure chronlcler or to the deeds of a Ptolemy or a Seleu
cld. Hls language ls a mlxture of what he learned from hls
famlly (a flne famlly from Constantlnople) and what hls
ear plcked up ln the streets of Alexandrla, for he was a clty
man. He loved countrles and perlods ln whlch the fron
tlers are not well deflned, ln whlch personalltles and bellefs
are fluld. Many of hls characters are partly pagan and
partly Chrlstlan, or llve ln a mlxed envlronment. 'Syrlans,
Greeks, Armenlans, Medes," as he has sald. Once you
have become famlllar wlth hls poetry, you begln to ask
yourself lf lt ls not a projectlon of our present llfe lnto the
past, or perhaps lf hlstory has not declded all of a sudden
to lnvade our present exlstence. Hls world ls a prellmlnary
world that comes back to llfe wlth the grace of a young
body. Hls frlend E. M. Iorster told me that, when he read
to hlm for the flrst tlme a translatlon of hls poems, Cavafy
exclalmed ln surprlse, 'But you understand, my dear Ior
ster, you understand." He had so completely forgotten
what lt was llke to be understood!
Jlme has passed slnce then, and Cavafy has been
abundantly translated and commented upon. I am
thlnklng at thls moment of your true poet and generous
Hellenlst, the late Hjalmar Gullberg, who lntroduced
Cavafy to Sweden. But Greece has several facets, and
not all of them are obvlous. I am thlnklng of the poet
Anghelos Slkellanos. I knew hlm well, and lt ls easy to
recall hls magnlflcent volce as he reclted hls poetry. He
had somethlng of the splendour of a bard of a former
age, but at the same tlme he was uncommonly famlllar
wlth our land and the peasants. Everybody loved hlm.
He was called slmply 'Anghelos", as lf he were one of
them. He knew lnstlnctlvely how to establlsh a relatlon
between the words and the behavlour of a Parnassus
shepherd or a vlllage woman and the sacred world
whlch he lnhablted. He was possessed by a god, a force
made up of Apollo, Dlonyslus, and Chrlst. A poem he
wrote one Chrlstmas nlght durlng the last war, 'Dlony
slus ln the Manger," beglns 'my sweet chlld, my
Dlonysus and my Chrlst." And lt ls truly amazlng to
see how ln Greece the old pagan rellglon has blended
wlth orthodox Chrlstlanlty. In Greece Dlonysus, too,
was a cruclfled god. Cavafy, who has so strongly felt
and expressed the resurrectlon of man and the world, ls
nonetheless the same man who has wrltten, 'Death ls
the only way." He understood that llfe and death are
two faces of the same thlng. I used to vlslt hlm when
ever I passed through Greece. He suffered from a long
lllness, but the force that lnsplred hlm never left hlm to
the end. One evenlng at hls home, after hls falntlng
spell had alarmed us, he told me, 'I have seen the abso
lute black; lt was unspeakably beautlful."
Now, I should llke to end thls brlef account wlth a
man who has always been dear to me; he has supported
me ln dlfflcult hours, when all hope seemed gone. He ls
an extreme case of contrasts, even ln my country. He ls
not an lntellectual. But the lntellect thrown back upon
ltself sometlmes needs freshness, llke the dead who
needed fresh blood before answerlng Llysses. At the
age of thlrtyflve he learned to read and wrlte a llttle ln
order to record, so he sald, what he had seen durlng the
war of lndependence, ln whlch he had taken a very
actlve part. Hls name ls Ioannls Makryannls. I compare
hlm to one of those old ollve trees ln our country whlch
were shaped by the elements and whlch can, I belleve,
teach a man wlsdom. He, too, was shaped by human
elements, by many generatlons of human souls. He was
born near the end of the elghteenth century on the
Greek malnland near Delphl. He tells us how hls poor
mother, whlle she was gatherlng faggots, was selzed by
labour palns and gave blrth to hlm ln a forest. He was
not a poet, but song was ln hlm, as lt has always been ln
the soul of the common people. When a forelgner, a
Irenchman, vlslted hlm, he lnvlted hlm for a meal; he
tells us, 'My guest wanted to hear some of our songs,
so I lnvented some for hlm." He had a slngular talent
for expresslon; hls wrltlng resembles a wall bullt stone
by stone; all hls words perform thelr functlon and have
thelr roots; sometlmes there ls somethlng Homerlc ln
thelr movement. No other man has taught me more
how to wrlte prose. He dlsllked the false pretences of
rhetorlc. In a moment of anger he exclalmed, 'You have
appolnted a new commander to the cltadel of Corlnth
a pedant. Hls name was Achllles, and ln hearlng the
name you thought that lt was the famous Achllles and
that the name was golng to flght. But a name never
flghts; what flghts ls valour, love of one`s country, and
vlrtue." But at the same tlme one percelves hls love for
the anclent herltage, when he sald to soldlers who were
about to sell two statues to forelgners. 'Even lf they pay
l62
pW k iI NN a NVSP ai_ PPO
you ten thousand thalers, don`t let the statues leave our
soll. It ls for them that we fought." Conslderlng that the
war had left many scars on the body of thls man, one
may rlghtly conclude that these words carrled some
welght. Joward the end of hls llfe hls fate became
traglc. Hls wounds caused hlm lntolerable paln. He was
persecuted, thrown lnto prlson, trled, and condemned.
In hls despalr he wrote letters to God. 'And You don`t
hear us, You don`t see us." Jhat was the end. Makryan
nls dled ln the mlddle of the last century. Hls memolrs
were declphered and publlshed ln l907. It took many
more years for the young to reallze hls true stature.
I have spoken to you about these men because thelr
shadows have followed me ever slnce I started on my jour
ney to Sweden and because thelr efforts represent to my
mlnd the efforts of a body shackled for centurles whlch,
wlth lts chalns flnally broken, regalns llfe and gropes and
searches for lts natural actlvlty. No doubt, my account has
many llmltatlons. I have dlstorted by overslmpllfylng. Jhe
llmltatlon I partlcularly dlsllke ls lnherent ln any personal
matter. I have certalnly omltted great names, for lnstance,
Adamantlos Korals and Alexandros Papadlamantls. But
how to talk about all thls wlthout maklng a cholce? Ior
glve my shortcomlngs. In any case, I have only lndlcated
some landmarks, and that I have done as slmply as possl
ble. In addltlon to those men, and ln the perlods that sepa
rated them, there were of course many generatlons of
dedlcated workers who sacrlflced thelr llves to advance the
splrlt a llttle more toward that manyfaced expresslon
whlch ls the Greek expresslon. I also wanted to express
my solldarlty wlth my people, not only wlth the great mas
ters of the mlnd, but wlth the unknown, the lgnored, those
who pored over a book wlth the same devotlon wlth
whlch one bends over an lcon; wlth the chlldren who had
to walk for hours to get to schools far away from thelr vll
lages 'to learn the letters, the thlngs of God," as thelr song
has lt. Jo echo once more my frlend Makryannls, one
must not say 'I," one must say 'we," because no one does
anythlng alone. I thlnk lt ls good that lt be so. I need that
solldarlty because, lf I do not understand the men of our
country wlth thelr vlrtues and vlces, I feel that I could not
understand the other men ln the wlde world.
I have not spoken to you of the anclents. I dld not
want to tlre you. Perhaps I should add a few words.
Slnce the flfteenth century, slnce the fall of Byzantlum,
they have lncreaslngly become the herltage of manklnd.
Jhey have been lntegrated lnto what we have come to
call European clvlllzatlon. We rejolce that so many
natlons contrlbute to brlng them closer to our llfe. Stlll,
there are certaln thlngs that have remalned our lnallen
able possesslons. When I read ln Homer the slmple
words 'daozhellolo"today I would say 'dwztouhllou"
(the sunllght)I experlence a famlllarlty that stems from
a collectlve soul rather than from an lntellectual effort.
It ls a tone, one mlght say, whose harmonles reach qulte
far; lt feels very dlfferent from anythlng a translatlon
can glve. Ior we do, after all, speak the same language
a language changed, lf you lnslst, by an evolutlon of
several thousand years, but desplte everythlng falthful
to ltselfand the feellng for a language derlves from
emotlons as much as from knowledge. Jhls language
shows the lmprlnts of deeds and attltudes repeated
throughout the ages down to our own. Jhese lmprlnts
sometlmes have a surprlslng way of slmpllfylng prob
lems of lnterpretatlon that seem very dlfflcult to others.
I wlll not say that we are of the same blood, for I abhor
raclal theorles, but we have always llved ln the same
country and have seen the same mountalns slope lnto
the sea. Perhaps I have used the word 'tradltlon" wlth
out polntlng out that lt does not mean hablt. On the
contrary, tradltlon holds us by the ablllty to break hab
lts, and thus proves lts vltallty.
Nor have I talked to you of my own generatlon,
the generatlon on whlch fell the burden of a moral
reorlentatlon after the exodus of one and a half mllllon
people from Asla Mlnor and whlch wltnessed a unlque
phenomenon ln Greek hlstory, the reflux to the Greek
malnland, the concentratlon of our populatlon, once
dlspersed ln flourlshlng centres the world over.
And, flnally, I have not spoken to you of the gen
eratlon that came after us, whose chlldhood and adoles
cence were mangled durlng the years of the last war. It
undoubtedly has new problems and other polnts of
vlew. Greece ls becomlng more and more lndustrlal
lzed. Natlons are movlng more closely together. Jhe
world ls changlng. Its movements are speedlng up. One
mlght say that lt ls characterlstlc of the new generatlon
to polnt out abysses, whether ln the human soul or ln
the unlverse about us. Jhe concept of duratlon has
changed. It ls a sorrowful and restless young genera
tlon. I understand lts dlfflcultles; they are, after all, not
so dlfferent from ours. A great worker for our llberty,
Rlghas Pheralos, has taught us. 'Iree thoughts are good
thoughts." But I should llke our youth to thlnk at the
same tlme of the saylng engraved on the llntel above the
gate of your unlverslty at Lppsala. 'Iree thoughts are
good; just thoughts are better."
I have come to the end. I thank you for your
patlence. I am also grateful that 'the bounty of Sweden"
has permltted me ln the end to feel as lf I were
'nobody"understandlng thls word ln the sense that
Llysses gave lt when he replled to the Cyclops,
Polyphemus. 'outlz"nobody, ln that mysterlous cur
rent whlch ls Greece.
| Jhe Nobel Ioundatlon, l963. Glorgos Seferls ls the
l63
g~~ p
(2J Scptcmbcr 1901 - 10 ovuory 19S6)
j~ p
Uvivcrsity of Clicogo
See also the Selfert entrles ln DI 21: Twcvtictl-Ccvtury
Iostcrv Iuropcov !ritcrs, Iirst Scrics and DI Jcorbool:
19S4.
BOOKS. Msto v slcl: Irvv vcrsc (Prague. Komunl
stlck knlhkupectv a nakladatelstv R. Rejman,
l92l);
Som lslo (Prague. Veernlce, l923); translated by Paul
|agaslch as Uvly Iovc (HampdenSydney, Va..
|N.p.|., l991);
ò vlvcl T.S.I., by Selfert and Karel Jelge (Prague.
Nakladatelstv V. Petra, l925); revlsed and pub
llshed as Svotcbv ccsto (Prague. Melantrlch, l925);
translated by Paul |agaslch as Hovcymoov Iidc
(HampdenSydney, Va.. P. |agaslch, l990, l992);
Slovl pv spotv: pocsic (Prague. Odeon, l926); trans
lated by Paul |agaslch as Tlc ìgltivgolc Sivgs
odly (HampdenSydney, Va.. P. |agaslch, l990,
l992);
Hvdy vod rojslou olrodou, fcuillctov (Prague. Nakladatel
stv Pokrok, l929);
Iostovv lolub: bsv, 192S-1929 (Prague. R. Skek,
l929);
obllo llvo (Prague. I. |. Mller, l933);
Iucc !cvusivy (Prague. Melantrlch, l936);
pvvo do rotoly (Prague. Melantrlch, l936);
svlu Iorlu Tomovovi, l dvi 2. voro 19J7: [vcrsc u
plcitosti scdcstycl vorocviv Iorlo Tomovo] (Prague.
Kmen, l937);
oro, sbolcm: bsv, vcrsc o lvly (Prague. Melantrlch,
l937);
Usm dv (Prague. Melantrlch, l937); translated by
Paul |agaslch and Jom O`Grady as Iiglt Doys:
Zv Ilcgy for Tlomos Mosoryl, wlth Selfert`s l985
acceptance speech for hls honorary doctorate
from HampdenSydney College ln Vlrglnla |bllln
gual edltlon| (Iowa Clty. Jhe Splrlt Jhat Moves
Ls Press, l985);
Iodim v Ccclcl 19J7 (PragueSmchov. K. Neubert,
l937);
losvtc svtlo: lyriclc glosy (Prague. Melantrlch, l938);
Mol romovcc o lvcti Uldiclovi o jclo ocv (Prague. Bl
Labut`, l910);
!j ocvy `mcovc (Prague. Irantlsek Borov, l910);
translated by Paul |agaslch as ocvo `cmcov`s fov
(HampdenSydney, Va.. P. |agaslch, l990, l992)X
Svtlcm odv (Prague. Irantlsek Borov, l910, l91l;
London, Edltlons tdenk 'echoslovk," l912);
translated by Paul |agaslch and O`Grady as
Drcsscd iv Iiglt (Baltlmore, Md.. DolphlnMoon
Press, l990);
g~~ p EYWLL~KL[F
l61
g~~ p ai_ PPO
Mol romovcc o Ctirodovi o Srcc (Prague. ln, l91l);
translated by Paul |agaslch and Yvonne |agaslch
as Z slort lovc sovg obout Ctirod ovd Srlo (Hampden
Sydney, Va.. P. |agaslch, l990, l99l);
oblo sc struvomi povuiv (Prague. Nakladatelstv Novlna,
l913);
Iomcvvy most (Prague. Irantlsek Borov, l911);
Iilbo llvy (Prague. Prce, l915);
Moort v Iroc: tivct rovdcoux (Prague. |aroslav Plcka,
l916); translated by Edlth Pargeter as Moort iv
Iroguc: tlirtccv rovdcoux (Prague. Orbls, l970);
translated by Paul |agaslch as Moort iv Iroguc:
tlirtccv rovdcls |blllngual edltlon| (Iowa Clty, Iowa.
Jhe Splrlt Jhat Moves Ls Press, l985); pub
llshed as Moort v Iroc: dcsct rovdcoux (Prague.
|aroslav Plcka, l918);
Dolud vm vcprs vo rolcv (Prague. Prce, l917);
Iomovcc o mld o o vv (Prague. Vytlskl |aroslav Plcka,
l917);
S oblly lrovu: vcrsc o vv (Prague. |N.p.|, l917);
Ictv: 194-194S (Prague. |aroslav Plcka, l918);
Iomovcc o vv (Znojmo. Knlhtlskrna Vclav Kotek,
l918);
Iulo o plomcv (Prague. Irantlsek Borov, l918);
Iodrov Irovtislovi Holosovi (vod lrcsbomi Iroty dlo)
(Prague. V Dlvadle hudby, l919);
Iomovcc o lrli !clovu I! (|S.l.|. |N.p.|, l919);
Scl mol clud do svto: vcrsc lobrom Milolsc Zlsc
(Prague. Drustevn prce, l919); translated by
Paul |agaslch as Storvivg Zrtist So Sccs tlc !orld
(HampdenSydney, Va.. HampdenSydney Col
lege, l990);
Isc o !iltorcc (Prague. eskoslovensk splsovatel,
l950); translated by Paul |agaslch and Yvonne
|agaslch as Sovg obout !iltorlo (HampdenSydney,
Va.. HampdenSydney College, l990, l99l);
Dlo, 7 volumes (Prague. eskoslovensk splsovatel,
l953-l970);
Momivlo (Prague. eskoslovensk splsovatel, l951);
Irstcv Tcbovslc Modov (Prague. |aroslav Plcka, l951);
Ioulclo sc, loulclo (Prague. Sttn nakladatelstv dtsk
knlhy, l955);
Iomovcc o mld (Vysok Mto. Jhe prlvate and notfor
proflt press of |aroslav and Vra Hoskov, l955;
Prague. Vydala Joplrna, l955);
Iodrov Ictru cruovi (Olomouc. Matous |urk, l955);
Cllopcc o lvdy: vcrsc lobrom o obrlm oscfo Iody
(Prague. eskoslovensk splsovatel, l956);
!vcc sovct (Prague, l956); translated by |. K. Klement
and Eva Stucke as Z wrcotl of sovvcts |authorlzed
poetlc rendltlon| (Joronto. Larkwood Books,
l987);
rvlo rcvy (Mlnk. Vydal Dmosvty, l956);
Iroguc vybor vcrs lct 1929-1947 (Prague. eskoslo
venskch umelc, l958)X
Iovccrt vo ostrov (Prague. eskoslovensk splsovatel,
l965);
Udlcvv vov (Prague. eskoslovensk splsovatel,
l967); translated by O`Grady and Paul |agaslch
as Tlc Costivg of tlc clls (Iowa Clty. Jhe Splrlt
Jhat Moves Ls Press, l983);
Hollcyovo lomcto, vcrsc (Prague. Sttn nakladatelstv
knlhy, l967), translated by Paul |agaslch as Hollcy`s
Comct (HampdenSydney Va.. HampdenSydney
College, l987);
pvy o Iroc (Prague. eskoslovensk splsovatel,
l968);
Irosly lrod (Prague. eskoslovensk splsovatel, l969);
Morovy sloup (Prague. |N.p.|, l975); publlshed as Morovy
sloup o jivc vcrsc (Kln. Index, l977); publlshed as
Morovy sloup, 196S-1970 (Prague. |N.p.|, l979);
translated by Ewald Osers as Tlc Iloguc Columv
|blllngual edltlon| (London Boston. Jerra Nova
Edltlons, l979);
Dcstvl Iiccodilly: vcrsc (Prague. eskoslovensk splso
vatel, l979; Munlch. Poezle mlmo domov, l979);
publlshed as Dstvl Iiccodilly: vcrsc, 197S (Prague.
eskoslovensk splsovatel, l98l); publlshed as
Dstvl Iiccodilly, 1979 (Prague. |N.p.|, l980);
translated by Osers as Zv Umbrcllo from Iiccodilly
(London. London Magazlne Edltlons, l983);
Irlovsly lctolrdcl (Mohelnlce. Vra a Vclav Krup
kovl, l979);
!sccly lrsy svto: pbcly o vpomvly, 1 volumes (Jor
onto. SlxtyElght Publlshers, l98l; Munlch.
Index, l98l);
yti bsvlcm (Prague. eskoslovensk splsovatel, l983);
Ivlo polibl (Zrlch. Konfrontace, l981);
U potcticlcm o lyriclcm stovu duclo = Uv tlc Iotlctic ovd Iyr-
icol Stotc of Mivd |blllngual edltlon| (Stockholm.
Nobel Ioundatlon, l985);
Morovy sloup: !crsc lct 196S-1970 (Prague. eskoslo
vensk splsovatel, l981).
b ~ `W Scdm privcccv, wlth others,
lncludes Selfert`s 'Povdka hch a pokn" (Prague.
Vydavatelstvo Drustevn prce, l913);
Svtlcm odv (Prague. Irantlsek Borov, l916; Prague.
eskoslovensk splsovatel, l962); publlshed as
Svtlcm odv o Iomcvvy most (Prague. eskoslo
vensk splsovatel, l978);
Iomcvvy most (Prague. Irantlsek Borov l917, l919);
publlshed as Iomcvvy most o jivc vcrsc (Plze. Petlt,
200l);
Svotcbv ccsto (Prague. Irantlsek Borov, l917);
Moort v Iroc: tivct rovdcoux (Prague. |aroslav Plcka,
l95l; Prague. Vdal Spolek eskch blbllofll v
nakladatelstv eskoslovensk splsovatel, l956;
l65
ai_ PPO g~~ p
Prague. Orbls, l970; Perov. Olomouc, l97l;
Olomouc. Matous |urk, l973; Prague. Anthro
pos, l99l); publlshed as Moort v Iroc: dcsct rov-
dcoux (Prague. |aroslav Plcka, l95l);
Milostv psc: vybrovc bsv (Prague. eskoslovensk
splsovatel, l951);
Isc domovo: vybor dlo (Prague. Sttn nakladatelstv
dtsk knlhy, l951, l958);
Momivlo (Prague. eskoslovensk splsovatel, l955;
Prague. eskoslovensk splsovatel, l966, l975,
l986);
Momivlo: vybor bosv (Prague. Sttn nakladelstv dtsk
knlhy, l955; Prague. Sttn nakladatelstv dtske
knlhy, l960, l96l; Prague. Albatros, l97l, l985);
Isc o !iltorcc (Prague. Vytlskl |aroslav Plcka, l955;
Prague. Sttn nakladatelstv dtsk knlhy, l967;
Pardublce. Era, l977, l978, l982; Prague. Vydall
|l Corvln a |l Lata, l983; Prague. Nadace
Lyry Pragensls, l996); publlshed as Isv o !il-
torcc (Prague. Vydall |l Corvln a |l Lata, l983);
Sllcvicc vvo; Ircvsttsl romovcc tlrlov; Tovcv lodivy:
bsv o vv (Prague. Orbls, l955);
Ty, lslo, podrovcvo bud!, selectlon complled by A. M.
Psa (Prague. Mlad fronta, l955);
Cllopcc o lvdy: vcrsc lobrom o obrlm oscfo Iody
(Prague. eskoslovensk splsovatel, l958);
cstc jcdvou joro |lncludes sound dlsc| (Prague. Pro leny
Klubu ptel poezle vydalo Nakladatelstv esko
slovensk splsovatel, l96l);
ò tvi lclly ol, lluboly v srdci smcl: Ismo pocticlycl
vcrs o pro !tslovo `cvolo, oroslovo Scifcrto o
Iovstovtivo icblo, edlted by Alena Vostr (Prague.
Dllla, l961);
Iolibcl vo ccstu: vybor milostvc lyrily (Prague. eskoslo
vensk splsovatel, l965);
J lvily lyrily: Iostovv lolub, obllo s llvo, Iucc !cvusivy
(Prague. Sttn nakladatelstv krsn llteratury a
umn, l966);
Dvo svty: Dvolrt pt bsv rulopisu oroslovo Scifcrto o
!lodimro Holovo (Sumperk. Okr. Knlhovna,
l966);
Irstcv Tcbovslc Modovc (esk Budjovlce. Nakladatelstv
esk Budjovlce, l966);
Iovccrt vo ostrov (Prague. eskoslovensk splsovatel,
l967);
Iodrov Ictru cruovi (Perov. Olomouc, l967);
Usm dv (Prague. eskoslovensk splsovatel, l968; Prague.
Melantrlch, l970-l97l; Prague. Nadace Lyry
Pragensls, l997);
`cjlrsvjs byv slcv (Prague. MI, l968);
!idm cmi sirou (selected poetry by Selfert, Irantlsek
Branlslav, and Irantlsek Hrubn) (Prague. Slrna,
l968);
Udlcvv vov (Prague. eskoslovensk splsovatel,
l969);
Hollcyovo lomcto, vcrsc (Prague. Albatros, Llbereck
tlskrna, Llberec, l969);
Cllopcc o lvdy (Prague. Albatros, l970);
Slovl pv spotv, by Selfert and Vtzslav Nezval,
Svdov v trvc, and Irantlsek Lazeck, cvom vlyl
tcmvot (Prague. Vysehrad, l97l);
Morovy sloup (Prague. eskoslovensk splsovatel, l973;
Prague. eskoslovensk splsovatel, l981);
!cjr ocvy `mcovc (Prague. eskoslovensk splsovatel,
l976);
Morovy sloup (Prague. Vllm Smldt, l978);
Svtlcm odv o Iomcvvy most (Prague. eskoslovensk
splsovatel, l978);
oro, sbolcm (Prague. eskoslovensk splsovatel, l980);
Morovy sloup: 196S-1970 (Prague. eskoslovensk spl
sovatel, l98l);
Dv bsv = Two pocms = Tv diltcr, translated lnto
Engllsh by Ewald Osers; translated lnto Swedlsh
by |osef Brettschnelder and Harry |rv (Stock
holm. Charta 77 Ioundatlon, l98l);
pos s ovdlcm: vybor vcrs (Prague. eskoslovensk
splsovatel, l98l);
!sccly lrsy svto: pbcly o vpomvly (Joronto. Slxty
Elght Publlshers, l98l; Prague. eskoslovensk
splsovatel, l982; Prague. Emlnent, Knln klub,
l999);
Svotcbv ccsto: svicl sbrlo (Prague. eskoslovensk
splsovatel, l982);
yti bsvlcm (Prague. eskoslovensk splsovatel, l981);
Iucc !cvusivy (Joronto. SlxtyElght Publlshers, l981);
Iovccrt vo ostrov; Hollcyovo lomcto; Udlcvv vov (Prague.
eskoslovensk splsovatel, l986);
Iomovcc o vv (Prague. Melantrlch, l986);
Iroslc imprcsc (poems by Alexandr Paul, Selfert,
Irantlsek Halas, |osef Hora, and Mlroslav
Koreck (Prague. Panorama, l987);
!j ocvy `mcovc; Irilbo llvy; Iulo o plomcv; Isc o
!iltorcc (Prague. eskoslovensk splsovatel, l987);
!vcc sovct (Joronto. SlxtyElght Publlshers, l987);
Msto v slcl; Som lslo; Svotcbv ccsto; Slovl pv spotv;
Iostovv lolub (Prague. eskoslovensk splsovatel,
l989);
os plvy psv (Prague. Odeon, l990);
obllo llvo; Iucc !cvusivy; oro, sbolcm (Prague. esko
slovensk splsovatel, l990);
Ticly dvojllos: lorcspovdcvcc ccslclo bsvlo oroslovo Sci-
fcrto o slovcvslclo lcrcc Iodislovo Cludlo, correspon
dence between Selfert and Ladlslav Chudk
(Prague. Dlta, l992);
Dcstvl Iiccodilly: vcrsc (Prague. Aulos, l993);
`cjlrsvjs byv slcv (Prague. Mlad fronta, l996);
Iucc !cvusivy (Prague. Labyrlnt, l998);
l66
g~~ p ai_ PPO
Morovy sloup: vcrsc lct 196S-1970: dcfivitivv provo tcxt
srpcv 1979 (Prague. Mata, l998);
Z sbolcm (prepared by Vladlmr |ustl) (Prague. Ikar,
l999);
Tcbo vm vcsu rc (Prague. Mlad fronta, l999);
Msto v slcl; Som lslo (Prague. Akropolls, 200l);
Divmc sc vo poty vtru. !ybor pocic lct scdcstycl (Prague.
BB art, 200l);
Iulo o plomcv; Isc o !iltorcc: (ti vcrc) (Prague. Akropo
lls, 2002);
ò vlvcl TSI; Slovl pv spotv; Svotcbv ccsto; sv o
librcto do sbrcl vcorocvc (1924-192S) Icllody, C.
Zpollivoirc, ovrodvy bsvl, Irsy Tircsiovy, Ioris
(Prague. Akropolls, 2002);
Morovy sloup; Dstvl Iiccodilly; yti bsvlcm; Dodotly
(Prague. Akropolls, 2003);
Scl mol clud do svto. Momivlo. Cllopcc o lvdy. Ioulclo
sc, loulclo. Dodotly (Prague. Akropolls, 2003);
Hvdy vod Iojslou olrodou. Iublicistilo 1921-19J2.
Dubio. Spolcv prollscv (Prague. Akropolls,
2001);
Iovccrt vo ostrov. Hollcyovo lomcto. Udlcvv vov. Dodotly
(1966-1970) (Prague. Akropolls, 2001).
b bW Irom tlc cyclc Iloguc Columv, trans
lated by Ewald Osers (London. Menard Press,
l971);
Tlc Iloguc Columv |blllngual edltlon|, translated by Lyn
Coffln (Sllver Sprlng, Md.. SVL, l980);
Zv umbrcllo from Iiccodilly, translated by Osers (London.
London Magazlne Edltlons, l983);
Tlc Costivg of clls, translated by Paul |agaslch and Jom
O`Grady (London. Iaber Iaber, l986);
Tlc Sclcctcd Ioctry of oroslov Scifcrt, translated by Osers
(New York. Macmlllan, l986; London. Deutsch,
l986);
Tlc Iorly Ioctry of oroslov Scifcrt, translated by Dana
Loewy (Evanston, Ill.. Hydra Books North
western Lnlverslty Press, l997; London. Jurn
around, l999);
Tlc Ioctry of oroslov Scifcrt, translated by Osers and
George Glblan, revlsed edltlon (North Haven,
Conn.. Catblrd Press, l998).
OJHER. Icvoluv sborvl Dcvtsil, edlted by Selfert
(Prague. Veernlce, l922);
oroslov !rcllicly: sv, complled by Selfert (Prague.
Istòlo povovo: moly vybor lyriclycl bsv oroslovo !rcllicl-
cclo, complled and edlted by Selfert (Prague. esko
slovensk splsovatel, l953);
Stovislov Iostlo `cumovv: sv, complled by Selfert (Prague.
!tslov Hlcl: sv, complled by Selfert (Prague. es
koslovensk splsovatel, l955);
Momivlo: pro stcdv llos o llovr, muslc composed by
Ludvk Podst, lyrlc by Selfert (Prague. Sttn
Nakladatelstv Krsn Llteratury, Hudby a
Lmn, l956);
!crsc o Iroc, selected and complled by Selfert (Prague.
Introductlon to Iroguc: tlc Coldcv City, by Karel Pllcka
(London. Hamlyn, l965);
Boena Nmcov, Dopisy lsly, complled by Rudolf
Havel, translated from German by Havel and
Selfert (Prague. Odeon, t. Strz, Vlmperk, l97l);
Molulcvo, lrsv povvo: slovcvslc poldly o povsti ocvy
`mcovc, commentary by Selfert (Prague. Alba
tros, l983);
Z !icw from Clorlcs ridgc, muslcal recordlng, compact
dlsc, text for vocal portlon of Symphony no. 6.
Prague by Wllllam Jhomas McKlnley by Selfert
(Woburn, Mass.. MMC Recordlngs, 2003).
SELECJED PERIODICAL PLBLICAJIONS
LNCOLLECJED. 'Zvysenm hlasem," Iisty, l, no. l
(l968). 3;
'Mlttellungen ber Prag," Du, no. l2 (l985). 21;
'Welhnachtsmarkt auf dem Altstdter Rlng," Du, no.
l2 (l985). 76-79;
'Mozart ln Prague," Ioris Icvicw, 16, no. l72 (2001).
l3l.
Jhe lyrlcal volce of |aroslav Selfert spanned, and
often spearheaded, every lmportant poetlc movement
and responded to nearly every major polltlcal event ln
the turbulent hlstory of Czechoslovakla ln the twentleth
century. He ls halled as one of the most lmportant poets
ln modern Czech llterature for the beauty and pathos of
hls verse and the resoluteness of hls antlauthorltarlan
bellefs. Hls themes, styles, and forms are varled and
versatlle; yet, hls verse ls marked always by terseness,
passlon, and unpretentlous language. Jhe sophlstlcated
scholar of poetry can flnd ln Selfert a master of the lyrlc
form; yet, Selfert`s poetlc ldlom and themes are broadly
lntelllglble and appeallng. Selfert`s poetry ls a hlstory of
a century of changlng European artlstlc movements and
polltlcal events and reflects a gently lronlc and compas
slonate attltude to llfe and lts vlclssltudesfrom the
proletarlanthemed clvlc poetry of hls early career to
formal experlments as a member of the breakaway
avantgarde movement Poetlsm ln the latter l920s;
from hls antlwar poetry ln the l910s to melancholy
lntrospectlve odes of the l950s; from softly erotlc
poetry extolllng the vlrtues of slmple sensual pleasures
wrltten ln the heady days of the l960s to tlght and
empathetlc verse wlth whlch he confronted hls mortal
lty ln the l980s. Ior the Czech readershlp of the twentl
eth century, there was no shortage of cataclysmlc events
l67
ai_ PPO g~~ p
to whlch to respond. Selfert`s poetry offered clarlon
comfort, courage, and splrltual succor to the Czech people
and to the wlder world. When the beloved presldent of
the Ilrst Czech Republlc, Joms Garrlgue Masaryk,
dled ln September l937, Selfert euloglzed hlm ln a serles
of verses. Jhe collectlon of elght poems, l (l937,
Elght Days; translated as b a~W ^ b q~
j~~I l985) was so popular that lt was publlshed ln
slx edltlons ln l937. Jhe poems reflect Selfert`s personal
grlef at the loss of the man, but thelr candor granted a
young natlon a means by whlch to mourn thelr leader.
Selfert was awarded the Nobel Prlze ln Llterature
ln l981, two years before hls death, 'for hls poetry
whlch endowed wlth freshness, sensuallty and rlch
lnventlveness provldes a llberatlng lmage of the lndoml
table splrlt and versatlllty of man." Jhe motlvatlons for
the award echoed the deep sentlments of beleaguered
Czech readers, for whom Selfert`s poetry stood as
resplteoften contrabandfrom the anxletles of lmposed
values. Selfert`s lmportance ln llterature ls not restrlcted
to hls clarlty as a dlssldent volce agalnst totalltarlan
reglmes, though the polltlcal dlssent of hls poetry,
prose, and journallstlc wrltlng ls not to be undervalued.
Selfert`s volce can be clted as one that dlsarms ldeologl
cal lmposltlons wlth lts actlve protest agalnst the oppres
slve status quo. In hls l981 Nobel Prlze acceptance
speech, Selfert, reflectlng upon hls long career, calcu
lated the lmport of the lyrlc volce ln and of ltself as a
volce that can lnsplre soclal change.
Jhe lyrlcal state of mlnd ls capable, however para
doxlcal lt may seem, of contrlbutlng as one of several
forces to the return of wlsdom to our clvlllzatloncapable,
for example, of contrlbutlng to technology`s belng
gulded anew by reason. a reason that, naturally, ls
unlted wlth llfe and wlth nature ln ways other than
through ratlonal abstractlonsln other words, a reason
that would dlffer from our present, ratlonal, utllltarlan
reason and lts conceptual thlnklng.
Selfert`s emotlonally charged poetry speaks of the
sensual prlzes of llfe, of love, physlcal and splrltual, of the
ephemera of chlldhood and the pangs of old age, of the
clumslness of deslre. It actlvely contrasts the poetlc to the
abstract, the lyrlcal to the ratlonal, not as thematlc or dla
lectlcal arguments, but as ways of belng or thlnklng, stak
lng out the terrltory of play as a mode of exlstence. Hls
poems celebrate llfe`s everydayness; hls language cradles
mundane objects as jewels. Above all else, Selfert`s poetry,
as much of Czech llterature, takes upon ltself the charge to
respond to lmpersonal hlstory wlth personal humanlsm.
Selfert`s colloqulal yet eloquent poetlc language reflects
that of the communlty ln whlch he was ralsed, and hls
poetry often has as lts theme and protagonlst the clty ln
whlch he llved all hls llfe.
Selfert was born ln Prague on 23 September l90l
ln the worklngclass nelghborhood of lkov. Joday, as
Prague expands, the suburb of lkov has become a more
lntegral part of the clty and ls undergolng a transforma
tlon, maklng lt an lncreaslngly popular address of cholce.
At the tlme of Selfert`s blrth, however, Prague, though the
AustroHungarlan emplre`s lndustrlal center, was lts thlrd
place capltal, behlnd Vlenna and Budapest, and lkov
was a dlstrlct fllled wlth the clty`s worklng poor.
Jhe Czechoslovakla of Selfert`s youth remalned ln
the thrall of the Habsburg dynasty. Jhe cultural renewal
known as the 'Natlonal Revlval"apotheoslzed ln the con
structlon of the Natlonal Jheatre (Nrodn dlvadlo) ln
l868ushered ln a strong, lf stlll tentatlve, natlonal con
sclousness and, ln tandem wlth lt, a sense of the lmpor
tance of a speclflcally Czech llterature; stlll, the Habsburg
rule over the Czech lands (Bohemla, Moravla, and Sllesla)
was vlgorous. Well lnto the twentleth century the offlclal,
chancellery language of Prague was German; censorshlp
was regularly leveled upon texts by Austrlan authorltles;
and Czechs were conscrlpted to flght wars for the emplre.
As a gesture toward artlstlc lndependence from Germanlc
cultural domlnance, many young Czech wrlters at the turn
of the twentleth century looked outward to Irench poetry
and prose for lnsplratlon and lnward to thelr own folk her
ltage and tradltlons.
Selfert was ralsed ln thls envlronment of lncreaslng
tenslon between Czech natlonals and AustroHungarlan
admlnlstrators. Hls father worked as the manager of a
local general store. Hls mother was dotlng, though prone
to melancholy. Selfert`s father was an actlve advocate of
soclallst ldeals; hls mother was a deeply devout and
romantlc Cathollc. Both were lovlng parents, but thelr
ldeologlcal dlfferences shaped the young Selfert. In 'Reml
nlscences," an essay collected ln q m g~~ p
(l998), he wrote of these stark dlfferences between hls par
ents, reveallng one of the posslble sources of hls poetlc syn
thesls of soclal convlctlon and emotlonal force.
My parents reacted to llfe dlfferently, but ln har
mony and not wlthout selfsacrlflce, and, durlng the
war, not wlthout golng hungry. I remember well how
my stomach used to growl. My mother surely found
moments of contentment when she threw herself on the
cold, molst stones of the floor of the church ln lkov,
and told the Vlrgln Mary openly about her troubles,
trylng, probably ln valn, to hang on the Vlrgln`s long,
beautlful hands a rosary made of her tears. And I
would walk back and forth between the two of them,
from Red Flag meetlngs to 'Jhousandfold we Greet
Jhee" ln a slngle day or evenlng.
Whlle the famlly was by no means well off, they
dld scrape together enough funds to send |aroslav to
gymnaslum, or preparatory secondary school, a luxury
l68
g~~ p ai_ PPO
to whlch not many boys of lkov had access. At the
age of slxteen, Selfert, deeply lnfluenced by the success
of the Bolshevlk Revolutlon ln Russla and the pllght of
the proletarlat class at home, became an lmpassloned
soclallst. He left hls secondaryschool studles early ln
order to devote hlmself to polltlcal causes and used hls
talent for wrltlng to become a journallst. At thls tlme
too, when the Czech lands were stlll under lmperlal
rule, Selfert wrote hls flrst serlous poetry. Hls enthusl
asm for the potentlal of soclallsm and anarchlsm to
brlng lndependence and to combat what Selfert saw as
soclal lnjustlces brought on by lmperlal rule ls clear ln
hls juvenllla; hls more tender lyrlcal volce ls not yet
honed. Iollowlng the demlse of the AustroHungarlan
monarchy after World War I and the exultant declara
tlon of a free Czechoslovak Republlc ln l9l8, Selfert`s
actlvltles contlnued ln the name of soclallsm. Wlth the
offlclal establlshment of a Czechoslovak Communlst
Party (KS) ln l92l, Selfert rapldly jolned. Hls earllest
prose wrltlng of note was for leftlst newspapers and
journals, the most lmportant among them belng the
Communlst newspaper o (Red Rlght, some
tlmes translated Red Jruth), whlch began publlcatlon
ln September of l920 (and whlch contlnues to be the
maln organ for leftlst vlews today). Selfert contlnued to
wrlte poetry, but he earned hlmself a name for hls asser
tlve prose.
Hls earllest poetry was publlshed ln journals run
by moreestabllshed yet vanguard modernlst poets,
such as S. K. Neumann and |osef Hora. It had as lts
themes those one would expect to flnd ln an ldeallstlc
young poet compelled by a soclal consclence. Selfert
soon amassed a respectable corpus of verses, but these
slmple lyrlc poems extolllng the proletarlat (publlshed
ln Selfert`s flrst collectlon, l920, j |Clty ln
Jears|) also showed that the poet`s zeal for revolutlon
was matched by the emphasls he placed on sensual
pleasuresthe touch of lovers, the lgnltlon of a klss. A
flne example of thls comblnatlon of the dellberatlve and
the lyrlc ls contalned ln the poem 'Slnful Clty." Wlth lts
blbllcal repetltlon and dlctlon, the poem reads as a mod
ernlst`s secular hymn to the worker`s clty.
Jhe clty of factory owners, boxers, mllllonalres,
the clty of lnventors and of englneers,
the clty of generals, merchants, and patrlotlc poets
wlth lts black slns has exceeded the bounds of God`s
wrath.
and God was enraged.
A hundred tlmes He`d threatened vengeance on the town,
a raln of sulphur, flre, thunderbolts ralnlng down,
and a hundred tlmes he`d taken plty.
For he always remembered what once he had promlsed.
that even for two just men he`d not destroy hls clty,
and a god`s promlse should retaln lts power.
just then two lovers walked across the park,
breathlng the scent of hawthorn shrubs ln flower.
Jhe flnal couplet of the poem ls exemplary of
Selfert`s polltlcs ln poetlc actlon. hls crltlque of a Prague
modernlzed to the polnt that lt ls moblllzed agalnst lts
cltlzens ls amended by the hope that two lovers, rlgh
teous because of thelr sensate love, can keep thls Sodom
from destructlon. Jhough Selfert`s judgmental convlc
tlon ln thls poem glves way ln tlme to mature empathy
and hls dldactlclsm segues subtly to compasslonate
dlrectness, the sentlments expressed ln 'Slnful Clty"
and ln hls flrst publlshed volume are those typlcal of hls
entlre corpus. that whlch ls just ls that whlch extends
from love.
Jhe tltle of hls second volume of poems, p~
~ (l923, Love Alone, translated as l iI l991),
bears out the poet`s falth ln love as the central ethlcal
agent and tends, agalnst the backdrop of hls flrst, more
darkly toned collectlon, to dwell on the myrlad beautles
of the clty. Desplte thelr subtle dlfferences, both collec
tlons, j and p~ ~I reflect Selfert`s close
connectlon wlth the artlstlc movement known as Devt
sll. Irom the tlme lt was founded ln l920 untll lts dlsso
lutlon ln l93l, Devtsll comprlsed palnters, sculptors,
archltects, dramaturges, dlrectors, prose wrlters, pho
tographers, muslclans, dancers, choreographers, com
posers, journallsts, and theorlsts who, desplte thelr
dlverse talents and flelds of expertlse, were unlted ln
thelr bellef ln the need for radlcal soclal change. In
addltlon to Selfert, the movement counted among lts
members poets Irantlsek Halas, |l Wolker, and
Vtzslav Nezval. Llterally, Devtsll means nlne
strengths and lnvokes the nlne muses of the arts. Devt
sll ls also the name for the I a plant very lmpor
tant ln Czech folk medlclne, known, partlcularly, for lts
potency agalnst the plague. Jhe two major connota
tlons of the term evlnce the marrlage that Devtsll`s
proponents proposed between folk values and applled
art as curatlves for the llls of contemporary soclety. In
thls veln, the Devtsll group of poets and crltlcs were
dedlcated to the promulgatlon of what they referred to
as 'proletarlan poetry." (It ls perhaps a common lrony
that those who called for the 'llberatlon" of the work
lng classes were themselves sons and daughters of the
haute bourgeolsle. Selfert was the only one among the
'proletarlan poets" of Devtsll who was actually from
the worklng class.) Proletarlan poetry was meant to pro
vlde a volce ln solldarlty wlth the struggle of the work
ers of the world. It was to reflect the concerns of the
underclass ln a poetry that would not only lnform the
greater publlc of the pllght of the poor but would also
lnsplre the underclass to rlse up for soclal change.
Devtsll`s proletarlan poets were radlcal ln thelr polltl
l69
ai_ PPO g~~ p
cal vlews, and they were dedlcated to colloqulal expres
slon (for example, the poetry of Selfert at thls tlme
alludes rhythmlcally to popular folk songs); yet, thelr
poetry remalned formally and styllstlcally tradltlonallst.
In addltlon to hls proletarlan poetry, Selfert was respon
slble for edltlng, or coedltlng, the movement`s leadlng
publlcatlons, a (Dlsc, l922), m (Zone, l922), and
o a (Revolutlonary Mlscellany
Devtsll, l922).
Proletarlan poetry decldedly dld not partlclpate ln
the lnflux of experlmental modernlst, speclflcally avant
gardlst, styles that found thelr way lnto the young Czecho
slovak Republlc from all over Europe. In the same year
that Devtsll dbuted, the wrlter Karel apek publlshed
hls watershed translatlons of contemporary Irench poetry.
c~ (l920, Irench Poetry of the New
Age) brought the Parlslan avantgarde to an eager Czech
publlc and provlded an excltlng model for the dynamlc
posslbllltles of poetry to Selfert and hls colleagues. At the
same tlme, the lnnovatlve lnterplay of soclallsm and mod
ernlsm avallable ln Sovlet Constructlvlsm and Dada`s aes
thetlcs of performance and lts playful attltude toward
language made a profound lmpresslon on certaln mem
bers of DevtsllKarel Jelge, Nezval, and Selfert foremost
among them. Wlth the addltlon of a unlquely Czech
streak of lyrlclsm lnto thls mlx of forelgn stlmull, Poetlsm
was born. Jhe movement`s l921 manlfesto declares.
'there now arlses a new style and wlth lt a NEW ARJ.
one whlch stops belng art, whlch ls lgnorant of tradltlonal
prejudlces, whlch takes ln each promlslng hypothesls, sym
pathlzes wlth experlmentatlon, and whose methods are as
rlch and unprepossesslng as llfe ltself " (Jelge, 'Jhe Poetlst
Manlfesto"). Jhe manlfesto glves a succlnct hlstory of lts
provenance and project.
Poetlsm was born wlth the collaboratlon of several
authors from the Devtsll group. It was, above all, our
reactlon agalnst the governlng ldeologlcal poetlcsa
protest agalnst romantlc aesthetlcs and tradltlonallsm
and our abandonment of the hltherto domlnant pre
cepts of 'art." We sought out ln fllms, the clrcus, sport,
tourlsm, and ln llfe ltself the expresslve posslbllltles
whlch were not to be found ln mere plctures and
poems. And so ls born the plcture poem, poetlc puzzles
and anecdotes, lyrlcal fllms. Jhe authors of thls experl
ment. Nezval, Selfert, Voskovec and, lf you please,
Jelge would llke to lnclude all the flowerlng manlfesta
tlons of poetryqulte detached from llteratureand by
thls we mean the poetry of Sunday afternoons, hollday
outlngs, llvely cafs, the lntoxlcatlon of alcohol, llvely
tablolds and spatown promenades and the poetry of
qulet, nlght, calm and peace.
By l925, Selfert had another volume of poems to
hls credlt, p~ ~ (l925, Honeymoon; translated
as e oI l990). p~ ~ showed the grow
lng lnfluence of avantgarde poetlcs. Especlally evldent
was the lnfluence of the Russlan poet Vladlmlr Maya
kovsky ln the compllatlon`s cllpped llnes and commu
nlst avowals. But wlth the publlcatlon of hls l925 avant
garde opus, k~ qKpKcK (l925, Over the Waves of
JSI, or On the Waves of JSI, the letters J.S.I. belng
the Irench acronym for ~ ~ I or wlreless
radlo), the alleglance to a speclflcally Poetlst program,
exempllfled ln the 'obrazov bse" (plcture poem),
was clear. k~ qKpKcK was a collaboratlve effort. the
poems were composed by Selfert alone, but declslons
on thelr page layout, typefaces, and type slzes were
made ln league wlth Jelge; such collaboratlve efforts, lt
should be added, were also a badge of Poetlsm`s avant
garde senslbllltles, ones that reduced the cult of the
author and stressed lnstead the 'common need" of
poetry as joyful outburst, pure pleasure, lntoxlcatlon.
Jhe poems evlnce the legacy of modern Irench poets,
especlally Gulllaume Apolllnalre, whom Selfert much
admlred (and whom he also trled hls hand at translat
lng lnto Czech), Dadalsm, and Sovlet Constructlvlsm,
but here was somethlng truly unlque among lnterna
tlonal avantgardes. Selfert and Jelge`s typographlcal
experlmentatlon become as much of the poetlc materlal
as the semantlc and symbollc llfe of the words; yet, for
all thelr provocatlon, these plcture poems retaln a deep
lyrlcal attltude not avallable ln the experlments of other
natlonal vanguard movements. Jyplcal ln lts lyrlcal
charm, and one of the most successful of the poems of
k~ qKpKcKI ls 'Poltadlo" (l925, Abacus).
JHE ABACLS
Your breast
ls llke an apple from Australla -
Your breasts
are llke 2 apples from Australla how I love thls abacus of
love! -
Almost flfty years later ln s ~ (l98l,
All the Beautles of the World, also referred to as All the
Beauty ln the World), Selfert would look back at the
poems of thls perlod wlth a measure of gentle mockery
at hls youthful moxle. 'So, Mr. Petr |the book`s pub
llsher|, across the preclplce of tlme and llfe, I offer you
my hand. We are both old now. But how pleasant lt ls
to remember the tlmes when one was young, when one
took pleasure ln everythlng new, dld not thlnk about
death, and was not afrald of anythlng."
In the l920s, ln addltlon to wrltlng poetry, Selfert
translated works by Paul Verlalne and Aleksandr Blok,
arguably the most lmportant Symbollst poets of thelr
natlons. Selfert traveled extenslvely through Europe,
wlth lengthy stays ln Parls, a clty that was host to many
ploneerlng Czech artlsts, such as the palnters Joyen,
|lndlch Styrsk, and |osef Sma ln the mld l920s. He
l70
g~~ p ai_ PPO
was an actlve contrlbutor to several journals for whlch
he wrote revlewsof llterature, fllm, and plastlc arts
and, most slgnlflcantly, feullletons. Jhe feullleton (a
short work, often publlshed as part of a newspaper) has
a long and meanlngful hlstory for the Czechs. As a
genre at the cusp of llterary or creatlve wrltlng and fact
based journallsm, the feullleton has been called upon
throughout Czech hlstory to express the emotlonal
deslres and polltlcal wlll of the Czech natlon. Selfert`s
partlclpatlon ln feullleton wrltlng can be seen as lndlca
tlve of hls debt to the tradltlonal Czech mode of dlssenslon.
Iueled by hls leftlst convlctlons but also by hls
growlng mlsglvlngs over the communlst experlment,
Selfert made journeys to the Sovlet Lnlon ln l925 and
then agaln ln l928. Both tlmes, he returned dlsap
polnted by what he saw as the reallty of communlsm ln
actlon. Selfert`s next collectlon, p~ ~ (l926,
translated as q k~ p _~I l990), manl
fests a sobered poet, one whose ldeologlcal fervor has
been tempered by hls flrsthand experlence. Of speclal
note ln the landmark volume ls the sense that the poet
has a speclal responslblllty for lllumlnatlng the dark
slde of lntoxlcatlon, the hangover after the joyful revo
lutlon. Jhls excerpt from the poem 'Moskva" (l926,
Moscow) ls representatlve of Selfert`s new concerns,
and the new tone necessary to convey them.
Cups wlthout wlne,
flags dlpped to the past,
a sword that recalls
from whose hand lt had dropped.
Rotten rlngs, a mlldewy dladem,
a corsage that`s fragrant stlll,
the dlslntegratlng robes of dead tsarlnas
and eyeless masks, the look of death and damnatlon.
Jhe qulet paln of these llnes ls profoundly unllke
the anger extant ln the poems of Selfert`s flrst two col
lectlons. Instead of a volce of judgment leveled upon
the world`s corruptlblllty, Selfert`s volce ls tempered
and evlnces an awareness of the lnevltablllty of corrup
tlon; rlghteous rage ls now modlfled by reslgned grlef.
Jhe slmple, charmlng breasts of Selfert`s l925 'Pol
tadlo" have become amblguous only one year later.
'Why, the polntless beauty of some foollsh women /
lsn`t worth an apple."
In l929 Selfert jolned several other wrlters and
artlsts of the Czech Communlst Party ln broadcastlng
thelr dlsappolntment wlth the party`s dlrectlon. Of spe
clal concern among the slgnatorles of thls dlssentlng
oplnlon was the emerglng hard llne that the Commu
nlst Party was taklng toward cultural expresslon. After
the publlcatlon of the letter, Selfert was expelled from
the same party he had jolned wlth such vlgor at lts
lnceptlon. He turned lnstead to the Soclal Democratlc
Party, the party of moderatlon, and the party from
whlch the Czech Communlst Party had seceded ln
l92l. Jhls move meant Selfert`s allenatlon from hls
stalwart communlst colleagues and frlends of the avant
garde, and not long after the publlcatlon of the letter,
Selfert was expelled summarlly from Devtsll as well.
m (l929, Jhe Carrler Plgeon) contln
ues Selfert`s poetlc awakenlng. Hls themes turn more
and more on the losses unlversally experlenced ln llfe.
the loss of chlldhood experlenced at every moment of
passlng llfe, the llngerlng traces of death that can be felt
even at llfe`s most passlonately charged moments. At
every turn there ls loss, but wlth every loss ls the vlslta
tlon of renewal, and thls renewal ls no less a glft, even lf
lt too ls to be lost. Jhe poem 'Pse" (l929) ls exem
plary of what can be vlewed as hls archetyplcal poetlc
attltude.
We wave a handkerchlef
on partlng,
every day somethlng ls endlng,
somethlng beautlful`s endlng.
Jhe carrler plgeon beats the alr,
returnlng;
wlth hope or wlthout hope
we`re always returnlng.
Go dry your tears
and smlle wlth eyes stlll smartlng,
every day somethlng ls startlng,
somethlng beautlful`s startlng.
Selfert`s eleglac turn ls reproduced ln hls next few
collectlons, g~ ~ (l933, Jhe Apple ln from Your
Lap), o s (l936, Jhe Arms of Venus), and
g~I (l937, Iarewell Sprlng). Wlth each collec
tlon, Selfert shows a more honed poetlc volce and a
more mature poetlc senslblllty. He perfects the balance
between an abldlng sorrow, a heartbreak wlth the
world, and a heartenlng celebratlon of llfe`s quotldlan
joys that would be the hallmark of hls poetry, and he
galvanlzes hls tlght poetlc style centerlng on the rhythm
of song, a tactlc evldent as early as hls juvenllla. Jhese
volumes from the l930s constltute the core of Selfert`s
career lyrlc persona and shaped hls reputatlon as
Czechoslovakla`s most astute poet. Indeed, Selfert was
one of the flrst of Europe`s poets to speak out, ln poetlc
form, about the atrocltles of |oseph Stalln`s purges, lntl
matlng also the extent of the medla`s colluslve power.
Jhe poem 'Jhe Moscow Jrlal" was publlshed ln the
Soclal Democratlc newspaper m~W
What you can read ln the newspapers
Is a play, not to be belleved
l7l
ai_ PPO g~~ p
And the scenes, from whlch come horror, fear
Are whlspered from the prompter`s box.
What you can read ln the newspapers
Is a play, let the world amuse ltself.
Only the endthe smell of human blood
Is, unfortunately, however, genulne.
As the Czech natlon was on the brlnk of war, many
relled upon Selfert`s bynowfamlllar volce for lnsplratlon.
Selfert`s poetry wrltten at the outset of the Nazl lnva
slon, wlth lts lovlng pralse of the beauty of the Czech peo
ple, thelr country, and thelr language, such as the above
mentloned Usm dv, wrltten ln the wake of Presldent
Masaryk`s death; losvtc svtlo: lyriclc glosy (l938, Put out
the Llght. Lyrlcal Glosses); and the three volumes of
poems, wrltten underground durlng the German occupa
tlon of the Czech lands durlng World War II (l938-l915),
are calls for Czechs to gather courage and to endure, even
ln the face of horrors such as the retrlbutlve destructlon of
the town of Lldlce and lts lnhabltants by Nazl occuplers ln
l912. (See Selfert`s 'Jhe Dead of Lldlce," translated by
Ewald Osers ln Tlc Ioctry of oroslov Scifcrt.) Jhe poem
appeared orlglnally ln the collectlon Iilbo llvy (l915, A
Helmetful of Dlrt).
Such contrlbutlons sealed Selfert`s place ln Czech
culture as an emlssary of hls people. A telllng example of
Selfert`s lncreaslngly symbollc place ln the Czech llterary
pantheon ls hls partlclpatlon as a pallbearer at the reburlal
of the exhumed remalns of the great natlonal Romantlc
poet Karel Hynek Mcha. Mcha was orlglnally burled ln
the town of Lltomlce, an area whlch was, ln l938, prob
lematlcally part of the dlsputed Sudctcvlovd, or, ln Czech
parlance, polrovi (borderlands). Only ten days before the
German occupatlon of these terrltorles, as a result of the
lnfamous Munlch accord of l938, the poet`s remalns were
qulckly secreted away. Mcha was reburled ln Prague wlth
much pomp and clrcumstance on 7 May l939. Selfert`s
hlgh proflle at the restltutlon of the natlonal poet was laden
wlth natlonal symbollsm. Jhe torch had been passed.
Selfert was a tlreless guardlan of 'Czechness" durlng
the Nazl occupatlon, hls cultural stewardshlp extendlng to
the allegorlcal retelllng of Czech natlonal legends and pae
ans to hls beloved golden clty, Prague, and he contlnued
hls 'publlc servlce" as edltor of the dally (underground)
newspaper `rodv prcc (Natlonal Labor, or Natlonal
Work). Wlth the vlctory of Allled troops ln l915, and
Czechoslovakla`s llberatlon, Selfert renewed hls 'above
ground" journallstlc actlvltles wlth gusto. After l915, Sel
fert took up the post of edltor of the dally trade paper Ircc
(Labor, or Work). But perhaps the most lmportant poetlc
accompllshment ln Selfert`s llterary oeuvre of thls perlod ls
the l916 work Moort v Iroc (translated as Moort iv Iroguc,
l970). Jhe thlrteen rondeaux (or rondelles) that make up
the cycle take up the subject of Wolfgang Amadeus
Mozart`s blttersweet llfe ln Prague, a clty that took hlm ln
after hls natlve Vlenna had rejected hlm. It was a toplc
amply sulted to a clty emerglng from lnternal exlle. Jhe
technlcal craftsmanshlp dlsplayed ln these poems ls that of
a vlrtuoso. Jhe rondeau, of Irench medleval provenance
(the earllest examples date from the thlrteenth century), ls a
hlghly flxed and muslcal form requlrlng strlct adherence to
patterns of rhyme and repetltlon. It was flrst developed as
sung, or lyrlc, secular poetry and had as lts usual subject
matter romantlc love; lt was later lntroduced lnto church
servlces as a sacred, hymnal form, by dlnt of lts popularlty
and proven ablllty to artlculate deep longlng and devotlon.
Of lts formal flxtures the rondeau requlres as lts constltu
tlve core what ls called the rcvtrcmcvt (the repetltlon, or 're
entry," ln refraln form) of the openlng llnes of the poem.
Jhe rhyme scheme ls also restrlcted. only two rhymes may
be used for the rondeau. Beyond the homage to Mozart on
the thematlc level of the poem, Selfert`s executlon of the
rondeau form pays trlbute to Mozart`s seemlngly effortless
muslcal genlus. Contrary to lntultlon, lt ls not desplte the
formal llmltatlons of the rondeau form, but by dlnt of them
that Selfert ls able to produce hls thlrteen tlght and welght
less poems ln honor of Mozart and Prague.
Durlng the years of the shortllved Jhlrd Czechoslo
vak Republlc (the Second Czechoslovak Republlc was
lnstated ln November l938 and lasted untll the Nazl lnva
slon of l939) from l915 untll the communlst takeover of
l918, Selfert comblned what he percelved as hls journalls
tlc dutles wlth hls llterary ones, and served ln posltlons of
prestlge. as edltor of the llterary journal Iyticc (Jhe Gar
land) he was entrusted wlth complllng deflnltlve selectlons
of the best works of lauded Czech poets, lncludlng |aroslav
Vrchllck, and he was the edltor ln charge of a poetry
serles named Ilv (Wedge).
Amld a changlng polltlcal cllmate (wlth many
Czechs who may not have contemplated communlsm as a
vlable cholce before the war feellng betrayed by the 'West"
and the Munlch accord now looklng to the 'East"), the
Czechoslovak Communlst Party took control of parlla
ment. In l918, under the leadershlp of Klement Gottwald,
Czechoslovakla was offlclally declared a 'people`s democ
racy," and steps were taken to allgn the admlnlstratlve,
legal, and governmental branches lnto a communlst sys
tem based ln MarxlsmLenlnlsm as lt was practlced ln Sta
lln`s Sovlet Lnlon; Czechoslovakla became a satelllte state
appended to the L.S.S.R. As ln the Sovlet Lnlon, the pro
gram of soclallst reallsm was declared the only legltlmate
form of creatlve expresslon. Soclallst reallsm, as descrlbed
ln the offlclal communlqu of the Congress of Sovlet Wrlt
ers, 'demands of the artlst the truthful, hlstorlcally concrete
representatlon of reallty ln lts revolutlonary development.
Moreover, the truthfulness and hlstorlcal concreteness of
the artlstlc representatlon of reallty must be llnked wlth the
task of ldeologlcal transformatlon and educatlon of work
l72
g~~ p ai_ PPO
ers ln the splrlt of soclallsm." It became abundantly clear
that under the new communlst reglme, Selfert`s decldedly
unsoclallst, reallst volce would not be welcome.
Jhe volces of many other dlssldents had no place ln
the new order. Jhe l950s were wltness to a host of show
trlals endlng ln the executlon of 'enemles of the people,"
among them avantgarde poets who had espoused revolu
tlon but had slnce found dlsfavor among the Communlst
ellte. Jhough Selfert dld not experlence such grlevous
measures, hls creatlve and clvlc actlvltles were sharply cur
talled. As all legally dlstrlbuted newspapers were now
organs of the government, Selfert, not a party member,
was banned from authorlzed journallsm. Hls work was
shunted lnto polltlcally uncontroverslal actlvltles. He wrote
artless pleces, such as Ioulclo sc, loulclo (l955, Round and
Round), that found thelr way to offlclal publlcatlon ln the
state press for chlldren`s llterature.
Other works of these years are fasclnatlng, lf tem
pered. Scl mol clud do svto: vcrsc lobrom Milolsc Zlsc
(l919; translated as Storvivg Zrtist So Sccs tlc !orld, l990) ls
a serles of poems that lmltate ln verbal form the vlsual art
of Mlkuls Ales, an extremely popular palnter of folk and
natlonal themes whose works grace such lmportant sltes as
the Natlonal Jheatre. Wlth Cllopcc o lvdy: vcrsc lobrom o
obrlm oscfo Iody (l956, A Boy and the Stars. Verses to
the Images of |osef Lada), Selfert adds hls name to a cele
brated Czech llneage. |osef Lada was a much beloved pop
ullst artlst and the famed lllustrator of many bestselllng
books of llterature, foremost among these the notorlous
storles by |aroslav Hasek about the 'good soldler Svejk,"
storles and lmages that stand even today as lconlc anthems
of the Czech personallty. In a slmllar gesture of creatlve
response to cherlshed Czech cultural lconography, Selfert
wrote hls Isc o !iltorcc (l950; translated as Sovg Zbout !il-
torlo, l990). Here he retells a theme from Boena Nm
cov`s obilo (Jhe Grandmother), a novel generally
consldered to be the plnnacle of Czech natlonal llterature.
Desplte Selfert`s devotlon to the Czech natlonal cause as
evldenced ln hls work, crltlcs stlll found hls output want
lng. lt was patrlotlc, yes, but unengaged. Lpon the publlca
tlon of Isc o !iltorcc, Selfert was accused of cynlcally
exploltlng the wealth of the Czech cultural tradltlon to
avold commlttlng hlmself to the common project of bulld
lng a communlst soclety.
Jhe rlgldlty of crltlcal response eased somewhat
after l953, the year of Stalln`s death. In these postwar and
postStalln years, Selfert`s poetry was publlshed once agaln.
In l951, Selfert wrote one of hls most lntlmate and accom
pllshed volumes of poetry. In the poems of Momivlo
(Mother), notably ln lts tltle poem, the poet encounters hls
chlldhood wlth sentlments deeply dependent upon a sen
sate memory. Ior Czech audlences, the poems of Momivlo,
wlth thelr hlghly personal 'lyrlc I," at once speclflc and unl
versal, are flxed as Selfert`s best known and best loved.
When, ln the mld l950s, Selfert was dlsabled by lll
ness from whlch he was never to fully recover, an already
quleted volce now was further muted. However, hls soclal
commltment to freedom of expresslon and the speclal role
and responslblllty of creatlve artlsts to exerclse thls free
dom moved Selfert to break hls sllence. In l956 Selfert
spoke out agalnst the oppresslon of the Sovlet reglme and
called for publlc contrltlon for the crlmes commltted dur
lng the Stalln era. At the Second Congress of the Lnlon of
Czechoslovak Wrlters, lt came as somethlng of a surprlse
to the assembled crowd when Selfert took the floor. Bowed
as he was by lllness, hls appearance at the wrlters` congress
was astonlshlng ln ltself; hls speech, however, was nothlng
short of a revelatlon. Selfert emphaslzed the need for
autonomy ln the arts, for dolng away wlth state con
trols on creatlve speech, and, perhaps most coura
geously, stated hls camaraderle wlth those wrlters and
artlsts lmprlsoned by the reglme for thelr unsavory
polltlcal vlews. Selfert targeted hls most strlklng com
ments at the very core of Sovlet communlst rhetorlc
and called for the false dlscourse to become honest
practlce. 'May we be truly the consclence of our peo
ple. Belleve me, I am afrald we have not been that for
qulte a few years; we have not been the consclence of
the masses, the consclence of mllllons; we have not
even been the consclence of ourselves . . . "
Ior almost a decade after hls lnsplratlonal speech
before the wrlters` congress, no new work appeared from
Selfert, though the state sponsorshlp of hls collected works
contlnued. Polltlcal pressures as a result of hls outspoken
cultural dlssent kept Selfert hemmed ln, and an abldlng lll
ness took lts toll; these comblned forces resulted ln Selfert`s
retreat from publlc llfe. As he convalesced, a serles of
unprecedented changes ln Czechoslovakla occurred after
l956. Wlth the death of Stalln and the revelatlon of hls
reglme`s crlmes, strlctures on the scope and matter of pub
llc expresslon were gradually eased, and the natlon was
free to bestow upon Selfert one of lts hlghest honors. ln
l961 he was named Natlonal Artlst. Jhe followlng year
Selfert flnally broke hls sllence and publlshed hls flrst
poems to appear ln almost a decade. In Iovccrt vo ostrov
(l965, Concert on the Island) he demonstrated hls unmls
takable lyrlclsm and showed hlmself to be a remarkably
changed technlclan. Gone were the 'folksy" regulated
rhymes of the bulk of Selfert`s poetry to date; lnstead, the
poems Selfert gave hls readers ln the l960s, and through to
the end of hls llfe, dld away wlth prosodlc decoratlon, the
melodlcally lncllned affect of metaphor, and the refuge of
tradltlonal poetlc forms, relylng slngularly on the momen
tum of free verse. Jhls was a radlcally stark poetry. Jhe cll
mate of Czechoslovakla ln the mld l960s seemed to call
for melllfluous ldylls, what wlth the sexual, polltlcal, and
artlstlc revolutlons of the Prague Sprlng, but the llterature
produced ln the mld to late l960s, exempllfled by the work
l73
ai_ PPO g~~ p
of the Prague playwrlght Vclav Havel (later presldent of
Czechoslovakla and the Czech Republlc), the poetry of
Mlroslav Holub, and the prose of Mllan Kundera, lnstead
presented a sobered and wry sense of the absurd farce of
hlstory and the lndlvldual`s place ln the world stage.
Selfert`s styllstlc lnnovatlon ln the lmpresslve and
lmposlng collectlons e~~ ~ (l967, Halley`s
Comet), l (l967, Castlng of Bells), and j
(wrltten l968-l970, but not publlshed untll l977;
translated as q m~ Ì l979) once agaln showed
that, though he was lnstalled as a natlonal lcon, he was by
no means a known entlty but a flexlble poet wlth artlstlc
currency. Jhe poetry of thls trllogy was haunted by the
dual and duellng themes of the wages and rewards of
belng human. death, war, and loss on the one slde, and the
vltal and lmmortal power of poetry, love, and sensuallty on
the other. Praguethe clty of nostalgla and traumacontln
ued to be the fond agalnst whlch these forces were exam
lned. Jhese were themes that had called Selfert from the
beglnnlng of hls poetlc career; yet, wlthln the new poetlc
envlronment of free verse and an abstlnence from orna
ment, Selfert`s lyrlc takes on a stronger ethlcal challenge
and a more medltatlve tenor than lt had before.
When bubonlc plague was raglng ln Prague
they lald the dead around the chapel.
Body upon body, ln layers.
Jhelr bones, over the years, grew lnto
roughstacked pyres
whlch blazed
ln the qulckllme whlrlwlnd of clay.
For a long tlme I would vlslt
these mournful places,
but I dld not forsake the sweetness of llfe.
I felt happy ln the warmth of human breath
and when I roamed among people
I trled to catch the perfume of women`s halr.
On the steps of the Olsany taverns
I used to crouch at nlght to hear
the cofflnbearers and gravedlggers
slnglng thelr rowdy songs.
But that was long ago
the taverns have fallen sllent,
the gravedlggers ln the end
burled each other.
When sprlng came wlthln reach,
wlth feather and lute,
I`d walk around the lawn wlth the |apanese cherrles
on the south slde of the chapel
and, bewltched by thelr aglng splendour,
thlnk about glrls
sllently undresslng at nlght.
I dld not know thelr names
but one of them,
when sleep would not come,
tapped softly on my wlndow.
And who was lt that wrote
those poems on my plllow?
Sometlmes I would stand by the wooden bell tower.
Jhe bell was tolled
whenever they llfted up a corpse ln the chapel.
It too ls sllent now.
Jhls excerpt from j lllustrates Selfert`s
mature verse, hls ablllty to explore the productlve ten
slon ln the trlangle formed by love, sex, and death wlth
out glvlng ln to the ease of platltudlnous conclllatlon.
Jhe same poem glves lnslght lnto the reason for Sel
fert`s abandonment of the poetlc levlty of hls earller
verses and offers an unprecedented vlew to the poet`s
crltlcal selfconsclousness.
Once a young glpsy sat down beslde us.
Her blouse was half unbuttoned
and she read our hands.
Jo Halas she sald.
You won`t llve to be flfty.
Jo Artus ernk.
You`ll llve tlll just after that.
I dldn`t want her to tell my fortune,
I was afrald.
She selzed my hand
and angrlly exclalmed.
You`ll llve a long tlme!
It sounded llke a threat.
Jhe many rondels and songs I wrote!
Jhere was a war all over the world
and all over the world
was grlef.
And yet I whlspered lnto jewelled ears
verses of love.
It makes me feel ashamed.
But no, not really.
A wreath of sonnets I lald upon
the curves of your lap as you fell asleep.
It was more beautlful than the laurel wreaths
of speedway wlnners.
Jhe Rom fortuneteller`s words proved presclent.
Selfert outllved hls frlends and fellow poets Halas and
ernk, and the 'threat" of a long llfe came to pass.
Selfert responded to hls longevlty wlth all the vlgor he
could muster as the elder statesman of Czech lltera
ture. Ashamed as he was of the 'follles" of hls past
poetlcs, the sense of polltlcal and cultural responslbll
lty that had been wlth hlm at the beglnnlng of hls llt
erary career remalned. Selfert was at the forefront of
the llterary ellte who champloned Presldent Alexander
l71
g~~ p ai_ PPO
Dubek`s reforms. Among the targets of the presldent`s
llberallzatlons, freedom of speech reforms for the
natlonal press (newspaper, journal, radlo, and televl
slon) were arguably the most lmportant to the health of
the natlon and percelved as the most dangerous to the
Sovlet bloc. It was Dubek`s strldes ln thls realm that
lnsplred Ludvk Vaculk`s 'Jwo Jhousand Words" of
l968, a document that gave the support of the country`s
most promlnent and lnfluentlal wrlters and artlsts to
Dubek`s experlment ln soclallst democracy. Selfert was
among the most promlnent of the natlon`s lntellectuals
to slgn.
In August l968, upon the lnvaslon of Warsaw
Pact troops, Selfert, alllng as he was, had unwelcome
occaslon to explolt hls posltlon of esteem once agaln.
He rallled wrlters together to establlsh an 'Independent
Lnlon" to absorb the reactlonary enforcement of Sovlet
censorshlp. But these efforts could not hold. Jhe heady
days of the Prague Sprlng and the reforms of Dubek,
dubbed 'soclallsm wlth a human face," came to a vlo
lent end wlth the lnvaslon. Selfert`s stock pesslmlsm
and sobered aesthetlc of the l960s were coupled now
wlth hls actlvltles, underground, to subvert the socalled
Normallzatlon of the new Sovletlnstalled government
under Gustav Husk. Selfert, now slxtyelght, worked
tlrelessly to contlnue lndependent Czech cultural actlvl
tles beyond the vlgllant eyes of the reenerglzed censors.
In recognltlon of hls efforts, hls peers made hlm chalr of
the Czechoslovaklan Wrlters` Assoclatlon ln l969, only
to have that tltle rejected as soon as Husk`s reglme was
deflnltlvely establlshed.
Jhe catastrophlc changes of l968 compelled Sel
fert to speak out publlcly once agaln ln defense of
human rlghts. Now, wlth many years behlnd hlm, Sel
fert could employ hls reputatlon ln servlce of the strug
gle for free speech. In the flrst years of the l970s, he
spoke out on the lllegltlmacy of the lnvaslon and occu
patlon of Czechoslovakla by Warsaw Pact troops. He
lent hls support to dlssldent movements and hls lnfluen
tlal slgnature to documents of protest. Selfert added hls
support to perhaps the most lmportant and most
famous document ln the hlstory of protest ln Czecho
slovakla. `~~ TT (l977, Charter 77). He was among
the most unlversally respected of the more than one
thousand slgners of the declaratlon, wrltten by Havel,
that made a plea for the restltutlon of baslc human and
clvlc rlghts. Jhose who slgned were threatened wlth
and some were dealt serlous penaltles, ranglng from
constant survelllance to lncarceratlon. Slx actlvlsts,
lncludlng Havel, were trled and found gullty of 'subver
slon" and were sentenced to lmprlsonment, some up to
flve years. Jhough publlcatlon of hls work was banned
for the better part of the l970s, Selfert was not person
ally subject to the reckonlng hls cohorts suffered. Sel
fert`s status forced even hls most avld enemles to turn a
bllnd eye to hls antlauthorltarlan actlvltles, and he
escaped lmprlsonment, pressures to emlgrate, harass
ment, and lmposlng survelllance.
Yet, for a poet to lose an open rapport wlth hls or
her audlence ls no small matter, especlally one who
relles on the lyrlc volce not as a monologlc concelt but
as a testament. Selfert was offlclally sllenced for nearly
another decade. Jhe suppresslon ln hls homeland stlm
ulated clandestlne publlcatlon of Slefert`s works there
and sounded concern ln lnternatlonal clrcles promptlng
publlcatlon of hls work smuggled out of Czechoslova
kla. In the l970s and l980s, Selfert`s works, llke those
of many of hls outspoken colleagues, were publlshed
wldely ln ~~I or mlgr publlcatlon, and clrculated
ln ~~ (an abbrevlatlon from the Russlan ~J
I meanlng 'selfpubllshlng house"). Jhe practlce
was qulte wldespread. Manuscrlpts were copled by
mlmeograph, or by hand, retyped or wrltten out laborl
ously, and clrculated secretly, carrled as contrabandln
brlefcases, knapsacks, or grocery bags, for lnstance
from polnt A to B. Jhough offlclals were aware of thls
practlce and cracked down on lt severely whenever
such actlon was polltlcally lucratlve, and though ~J
~ carrled wlth lt severe penaltles, such dlstrlbutlon of
banned works contlnued through the l980s all the way
up to the momentous events of the Velvet Revolutlon ln
l989. Jhe fate of Selfert`s j I wrltten l968-
l970, ls exemplary of the trajectory of many of the best
works of Czech llterature wrltten at the tlme. j
was dlstrlbuted ln Czechoslovakla ln ~~ cop
les ln the l970s and openly publlshed flrst ln Kln ln
l977. It was flnally publlshed ln a sanctloned form ln
Prague ln l98l. Jhe practlces of ~~ and ~~
kept Selfert`s volce allve ln the bleak years followlng the
Sovlet lnvaslon. It ls dlfflcult to underestlmate the role
of ~~ and ~~ for Czech llterature ln the l970s
and l980s and for Selfert`s growlng lnternatlonal repu
tatlon and hls respect at home. Czech soclety was effec
tlvely spllt ln twaln by the reactlonary undertaklngs
agalnst the subverslve contlnuatlon of the lndepen
dently mlnded splrlt of the Prague Sprlng. Jhe under
ground culture consldered ltself to be the valld legacy
of the tradltlon of Czech llterature, and culture wars
raged as to the natlonal loyalty of those who were pub
llshed by the State. Only ln l979, wlth the work a
m~ (translated as ^ r~ m~I l983),
and only after lts publlcatlon earller that year ln
Munlch, dld the Czechoslovak State allow the publlca
tlon of Selfert`s work.
In the l970s and l980s, Prague was consldered to
be a blfurcated clty, conslstlng of stateendorsed arts
and actlvltles, the of semblances, and then the ~J
~ I the cltystate of authentlc cultural actlvlty. Jhe
l75
ai_ PPO g~~ p
two llved as one entlty and as worlds apart. Jhls para
doxlcal sltuatlon meant that Selfert`s actlvltles ln opposl
tlon to the totalltarlan reglme`s curtallment of rlghts
and freedoms of creatlve expresslon could contlnue
unabated and even flnd strong communlty relnforce
ment and at the same tlme be strlctly forbldden and
gravely dangerous to perform.
Jhe paradoxes of thls llfe between lntlmate free
dom and extlmate unfreedom found expresslon ln Sel
fert`s memolrs, s ~. Agaln publlshed flrst
ln ~~ ln Joronto and Munlch, s ~ was
granted offlclal publlcatlon by the Czechoslovak State
Publlshlng house a llttle more than a year after lts ~J
~ appearance, but was subject to heavy redactlon
reflectlng the fate of many of the works that were
granted offlclal publlcatlon ln the l970s and l980s; and
the fact that the Czech reader was aware of the practlce
and learned how to 'read between the llnes" should be
taken lnto conslderatlon when studylng these verslons.
A mlxture of anecdote and confesslon, Selfert`s memolr
took stock of a slngularly extraordlnary llfe llved ln par
allel wlth an extraordlnary natlonal fate. Selfert`s mem
olrs are key to both personal and natlonal paradoxes.
Jhere ls no crltlcal strldency ln the memolrs; Selfert for
glves and forgets all trespasses. Irlends who may have
betrayed hlm wlth fanatlcal or opportunlstlc alleglances
to the reglme are remembered only wlth love and gentle
affectlon. Desplte a llfe of much turmoll, there are no
notes of bltterness ln the memolr; though Selfert could
have used the occaslon to lustrate or admonlsh the slns
of those who opposed hlm or reveal the fallures of hls
cohorts, he wrltes lnstead only of the unexpected beau
tles of each soul he chanced to meet along the way. Ior
example, of the crltlc I. X. Salda, who was known to
have the ablllty to fell careers wlth a negatlve revlew,
Selfert says, 'We belleved ln hlm. And what ls most
lmportant. he taught us somethlng. Joday we look wlth
a certaln plty at young authors who look helplessly
around the world of llterature and flnd nobody to
welgh thelr books justly. He was a beautlful human
belng who loved beautlful humanlty and knew how to
laugh magnlflcently, the way every free lndlvldual
laughs who ls convlnced he ls ln the rlght."
In what was to be hls flnal collectlon of poems,
_ (l983, Jo Be a Poet), a work that was
glven offlclal publlcatlon by the State Publlshlng House
(eskoslovensk splsovatel), Selfert revlslts the slmple
euphony of hls earller poetry, perhaps consclously
chooslng to cap hls poetlc career wlth an homage to the
poetry of popular song that had lnsplred hls flrst wrlt
lng. Jhe tltle poem of the collectlon ends wlth one of
Selfert`s most productlve motlfs, hls Prague, and ls
marked by the pathetlc paradox he speaks of ln hls
Nobel address.
What bllss lt ls
to walk upon thls brldge!
Even though the plcture ls often glazed
by my own tears.
Now ln hls elghtles, Selfert was terrlbly lll. He
llved wlth hls daughter, sonlnlaw, and hls also alllng
elderly wlfe. He was conflned to a wheelchalr, but hls
physlcal deterloratlon dld not stall hls characterlstlc
sense of humor or hls awareness of the lmport of hls
posltlon. Selfert`s admlrers kept vlgll outslde hls home,
hoplng for hls recovery but aware of the lmmlnent loss
of thelr poet. It came as a great lnsplratlon and sym
bollc succor for the Czechs, then, when a year later the
world bestowed an honor upon a Czech.
In l981, Selfert was awarded the Nobel Prlze ln
Llterature. Now hospltallzed, Selfert was unable to
make the journey to recelve the prlze ln person, but
plans were made to have hls sonlnlaw and secretary
travel to Stockholm on hls behalf. Whlle effectlvely
unable to pressure Selfert to decllne the prlze, the Com
munlst State showed lts dlsapproval by denylng exlt
vlsas to Selfert`s chosen proxles. Jhe natlon, however,
reacted wlth qulet celebratlon.
Hls lecture ln acceptance, l ~ ~
~ ~ (l985; translated as l m~ ~ i~
p~ jI l981), reveals the phllosophlcal underpln
nlngs of Selfert`s poetlc practlce. Jhe essay ls an lmpor
tant treatlse on the place and value of poetry ln the
draftlng of equltable, democratlc, human soclety.
Is not passlon an attempt to step beyond one`s own
shadow, an attempt to return to Arcadla where reason,
justlce and natural lnstlncts are as one? Is not passlon
but an attempt to return to that ldylllc state where we
feel no allen power over us and where dlscord between
what ls and what should be fades away, when reason
and power, morallty and polltlcs can slt together at the
same table? Is not, after all, the world of lyrlclsm that
Lost Paradlse that passlon strlves to regaln? After all, ls
not Poetry, Lyrlclsm one of the maln archltects and
lnterpreters of the vlslon of thls paradlse? When I say
thls, I, a lyrlcal poet by lnstlnct, am tempted to become
a lyrlcal poet by consclous cholce.
Jhat passlon (or pathos) and reason mlght co
exlst, not ln a feudlng, uneasy marrlage but naturally, ls
the ultlmate ln a serles of paradoxes avallable ln Sel
fert`s poetry, a poetry whereln lt ls lyrlclsm ltself that
reunltes readers wlth paradlse, where, ln turn, lnstlnct ls
ever ln harmony wlth justlce.
In thls flnal note too may be a clue to a custom of
Selfert`s that has perturbed many of hls edltors and
translators. Selfert was wont ln hls later years to revlse
hls already completed and publlshed poems. Ior Sel
fert`s translators, thls hablt has been a boon and a
l76
g~~ p ai_ PPO
dllemma. Jhe poet`s constant return to and emendatlon
of hls poems throughout hls career make lt very dlffl
cult to assess what constltutes an authorltatlve text ln
Selfert`s oeuvre. Jhe translator thus ls able to work
wlth multlple texts ln order to produce the most fluent
translatlon, or he or she can be confronted wlth com
petlng texts of the same poem wlth llttle guldance as to
whlch ought to be the template. In the context of Sel
fert`s poetlc phllosophy, the revlslons to whlch he sub
jected hls poetry ls proof of an attltude that poetry
even on the level of the lndlvldual poemls a llfe`s
work, not an lmmaculate souvenlr, and as such ls sub
ject to change.
Selfert dled ln Prague l0 |anuary l986, just three
years shy of the Velvet Revolutlon and the relnstallatlon
of a democratlc government ln an lndependent Czecho
slovakla. He was glven a state funeral, an honor
reserved only for natlonal heroes, and the natlon
grleved openly. A poet`s funeral has a speclal lmport
among the Czechs. Selfert`s early place beslde the cas
ket of Mcha represented the passlng of a torch from
one natlonal ldol to another. At Selfert`s own offlclally
sanctloned and fully appolnted state funeral, the brave
presence of wrlters ln lnternal exlle, llke Havel, made lt
clear that Selfert belonged to the authentlc llneage of
engaged Czech llterature and was a cltlzen of the paral
lel polls. Selfert dwelt ln both worlds. legltlmated,
though not always approved by the government,
admlred and beloved by the state`s detractors. In l986
the Charta 77 foundatlon establlshed the |aroslav Sel
fert Prlze, and lt has been glven annually slnce the year
of the poet`s death.
Every decade, from the l9l0s to the l980s, Sel
fert spoke out, ln hls journallsm, hls addresses, and,
above all, hls poetry, publlshed offlclally or unofflclally,
ln the name of the people. Selfert`s poetry, ln all lts lntl
macy, has been credlted wlth the ablllty to capture the
Czech natlon`s grlef and lts exuberance. In a culture
that has cherlshed slnce lts natlonal lnceptlon the clvlc
capaclty of poetry, Selfert`s lnnate lyrlclsm has provlded
the volce of and for the people for the twentleth cen
tury. Selfert`s poetlc persona has proved an lnsplrlng
emblem of the lntegrlty avallable ln creatlve expresslon.
If one can conslder the endurlng leltmotlf of hls manl
fold and varled poems to be the forthrlght expresslon of
the soul, then what he sald of hls fellow poet and frlend
Hora ls equally true for hlm. 'Jhe tlme of thls 'poet of
the soul` wlll return. He has enough tlme, he can walt, lf
one conslders hls potentlal lnfluence on future poets.
Hls poetry ls always present. Its beauty was never
extlngulshed by the years." Selfert`s tenet, 'If an ordl
nary person ls sllent, lt may be a tactlcal maneuver. If a
wrlter ls sllent, he ls lylng," ls stlll lmperatlve today,
decades after hls death. If one can speak of natlonal
bards ln the modern age, then |aroslav Selfert stands as
the Czech people`s bona flde poet laureate.
_~W
Darlo Masslml and Ladlslav, cvcl, oroslov Scifcrt,
1901-19S6: vcllc porolc c vcllc immogivi = i ord og
bildcr = slovcm o obrocm (Oslo. Blblloscandla,
l986);
Zdenk Pesat, oroslov Scifcrt (Prague. eskoslovensk
splsovatel, l99l);
Selfert and Oldlch Rakovec, Co vscclvo ovl svl (Prague.
Albatros, l992);
Irantlsek |anouch, Scl bsvl clud do svto: òbclovo ccvo
pro oroslovo Scifcrto (Prague. eskoslovensk spls
ovatel, l995);
|ana Stroblov, !pomvlo vo oroslovo Scifcrto (Prague.
ARSCI, 200l);
Marle Selfert |lrskov and Hana Klnkov, eds., S.
oroslovcm Scifcrtcm oscm i vcoscm: tcxt, dolu-
mcvt o fotogrofi lviv vtsivou vcpublilovovycl (Pra
gue. Pamtnlk nrodnho psemnlctv, 200l).
oW
|lr Brabec, 'oroslov Scifcrt, òvy ivot, 3 (l957). 25l-
266;
Karel apek, Irovcousl pocsic vovc doby (Prague.
Irantlsek Borov, l920);
Vclav Cern, oroslov Scifcrt. `crt l portrctu (Kladno.
|osef Clpra, l951);
Peter Drews, Dcvtsil uvd Ioctismus: lvstlcrisclc Tlcoric
uvd Iroxis dcr tsclcclisclcv litcrorisclcv Zvovtgordc om
cispicl !tcslov `cvols, oroslov Scifcrts uvd ir
!ollcrs (Munlch. Otto Sagner, l975);
Alfred Irench, Tlc Iocts of Iroguc (London New York.
Irantlsek Gtz, 'oroslov Scifcrt, ln osvc sc loriovt
(Prague. V. Petr, l926), pp. 207-2l7;
Llbor Kneek, !c Ircvsttc moj rdi pocii (Brno.
Doplek, 2003);
Marle Kozlkov, 'Ulolo oblosti vscdvlo v lyricc oroslovo
Scifcrto, Ccsl litcroturo, l1 (l966). 273-292;
|aroslav Krejc, prvo o polrbu bsvlo oroslovo Scifcrto:
vc fotogroficl oroslovo Ircjclo (Prague. Volvox
Globator; Knlha. Graflka, Blbllofllle, l995);
Marle Kubnov, 'Scifcrtovo pocic plyvouclo cosu, Ccsl
litcroturo, 35 (l987). 306-3l9;
Vladlmr Macura, 'oro, sbolcm, ln Ioumct litcroturc 1:
Ivtcrprctocc llodvcl dcl ccslc litcrotury (Prague.
SPN, l986), pp. 308-3l5;
Arne Novk and Wllllam Edward Harklns, Cccl Iitcro-
turc (Ann Arbor. Mlchlgan Slavlc Publlcatlons,
l976);
l77
ai_ PPO g~~ p
Zdenek Pesat, 'Ctyri bsvlovy poctily, ln Diology s poci
(Prague. eskoslovensk splsovatel, l985), pp.
l0l-l20;
Pesat, 'Iovccrt vo ostrovc, ln Ccsl litcroturo 194-1970
(Prague. SPN, l992);
I. X. Salda, 'U vcjmlods pocii ccslc, ln Studic ccslc litc-
rotury. Soubor dlo I. X. Soldy, 8 (Prague. eskoslo
vensk splsovatel, l96l), pp. l58-l68;
Derek Sayer, Tlc Coosts of olcmio. Z Cccl History
(Prlnceton. Prlnceton Lnlverslty Press, l998);
|osef Skvoreck, 'oroslov Scifcrttlc good old drivlivg
poct, ln Cross Currcvts: Z Jcorbool of Ccvtrol Iuro-
pcov Culturc (Ann Arbor. Lnlverslty of Mlchlgan
Press, l985), pp. 283-290;
Alexandr Stlch, Scifcrtovo svtlcm odv: ivtcrprctoccpolus
o vyvo (Prague. Argo, l998).
NVRV k m i~
m~ p
by Irofcssor Iors Cyllcvstcv of tlc Swcdisl Zcodcmy
(Trovslotiov from tlc Swcdisl)
Your Majestles, Your Royal Hlghnesses, Ladles and
Gentlemen,
|aroslav Selfert can look back upon a career of more
than 60 years whlch shows many slgns of belng llkely to
contlnue. Wlth almost thlrty volumes of collected poems
behlnd hlm he stands out today as the leadlng poet of hls
own country. He ls read and loved by hls countrymen, a
natlonal poet who knows how to address both those who
have a llterary educatlon and those who approach hls
work wlthout much schoollng ln thelr baggage.
|aroslav Selfert was born ln a worklngclass dlstrlct
on the outsklrts of Prague. He has never lost touch wlth
hls popular roots or wlth the lmpoverlshed and soclally
weak people among whom he grew up. As a young man
he belleved ln the soclallstlc revolutlon and wrote poems
about lt and the promlse lt held out for the future that
enthused many of the other young people of hls own gen
eratlon. Hls poems were clear, apparently slmple and art
less, wlth elements of folk song, famlllar speech and scenes
from everyday llfe. He rejected the elevated style and for
mallsm of an earller perlod. Hls dlctlon was characterlzed
by llghtness of touch, sensuallty, melody and rhythm, a
llvely lngenulty and playfulness alternatlng wlth feellng,
even pathos. Jhese features of hls art have remalned con
stant ever slnce. He ls not, however, a nalve artlst. He ls a
poet wlth an unusually broad styllstlc reglster. At an early
stage he came lnto contact wlth contemporary European
modernlsm, especlally wlth Irench surreallsm and dada
lsm. He ls also a soverelgn master of tradltlonal forms of
poetry wlth compllcated rhythms, and rhymeschemes.
He ls as much at home wlth the drastlc force of the broad
slde ballad as wlth the sophlstlcated artlstry of the sonnet.
Jhe versatlllty and flexlblllty of Selfert`s contlnually
lnventlve and surprlslng style ls matched by an equally rlch
human reglster on the level of feellng, lnslght and lmaglna
tlon. Hls empathy and hls sense of solldarlty have focused,
not upon a system or a narrow programme but upon
human belngsllvlng, lovlng, feellng, worklng, creatlng,
fabulatlng, sufferlng, laughlng, longlngln short all those
who llve, happy or unhappy, a llfe that ls an adventure and
an experlence, but not one of oppresslon ln accordance to a
party programme. Human belngs are the ones who create
soclety. Jhe State ls there for the people and not vlce versa.
Jhere ls an element of anarchy ln Selfert`s phllosophy of
llfea protest agalnst everythlng that cuts down llfe`s possl
bllltles and reduces human belngs to cogs ln some
machlne. Perhaps thls sounds lnnocuous. But Selfert has
never been lnnocuous. Even hls juvenlle poetry meant a
llberatlon and an adherence to a future that would abollsh
war, oppresslon and want, and would provlde joy ln llfe
and beauty for those who had hltherto had llttle thereof.
Poetry and art would help to achleve thls. Hls demands
and hopes had the confldence and magnlflcence of youth.
Durlng the l920`s these hopes seemed to be on the verge
of fulfllmentand avantgarde llterature and art accorded
wlth these hopes. But durlng the l930`s and l910`s the
horlzon darkened. Economlc and polltlcal reallty proved
unable to llve up to the rosy dreams. Selfert`s poetry
acqulred new characterlstlcsa calmer tone, a remem
brance of the hlstory and culture of hls own country, a
defense of natlonal ldentlty and of those who had pre
served lt, especlally the great authors and artlsts of the past.
Even purely personal experlences and memorles were
touched wlth melancholythe translence of llfe, the lncon
stancy of emotlon, the lmpermanence of the chlldhood and
youth whlch had passed, and of the tles of love. Yet all was
not melancholla and nostalgla ln Selfert`s workfar from lt.
Jhe concreteness and freshness of hls perceptlons and hls
lmages contlnued to flourlsh. He wrote some of hls most
beautlful love lyrlcs, hls popularlty lncreased and lt was at
thls tlme that the foundatlons of hls posltlon as a natlonal
poet were flrmly lald. He was loved as dearly for the aston
lshlng clarlty, muslcallty and sensuallty of hls poems as for
hls unembelllshed but deeply felt ldentlflcatlon wlth hls
country and lts people. He had dlssoclated hlmself from
the communlsm of hls youth and from the antllntellectual
dogmatlsm lt had developed lnto. Jowards the end of the
l930`s and durlng the l910`s Czechoslovakla fell under
the yoke of the Nazls and |aroslav Selfert commltted hlm
self to the defense of hls country, lts freedom and lts past.
He euloglzed the Prague rebelllon of l915 and the llbera
tlon of hls country.
l78
g~~ p ai_ PPO
Jhe lmmedlate postwar perlod, however, proved to
be one of great dlsappolntment to Selfert and hls fellow
patrlots who had hoped for a brlght future. Poets were
expected to engage ln polltlcal propaganda. Poetry of the
klnd that |aroslav Selfert wrote was consldered to be dls
loyal, bourgeols and escaplst. But he refused to conform to
the slogans of soclal reallsm. He hlbernatedto return ln
earnest ln connectlon wlth the thaw of l956, and, follow
lng a long perlod of lllness, has contlnued to work dlll
gently, flrst and foremost as a poet, but at tlmes also ln
polltlcal manlfestatlons. He has slgned Charta 77. As has
already been observed, he ls greatly loved and respected ln
hls own countryand has begun to achleve lnternatlonal
recognltlon as well, ln splte of the dlsadvantage of wrltlng
ln a language that ls relatlvely llttle known outslde hls
country. Hls work ls translated and he ls regarded as a
poet of current lnterest ln splte of hls age.
Joday, many people thlnk of |aroslav Selfert as the
very lncarnatlon of the Czechoslovaklan poet. He repre
sents freedom, zest and creatlvlty and ls looked upon as
thls generatlon`s bearer of the rlch culture and tradltlons of
thls country. Hls method ls to deplct and pralse those
thlngs ln llfe and the other world that are not governed by
dogmas and dlctates, polltlcal or otherwlse. Jhrough
words he palnts a world other than the one varlous
authorltles and thelr henchmen threaten to squeeze dry
and leave destltute. He pralses a Prague that ls blossomlng
and a sprlng that llves ln the memory, ln the hopes or the
deflant splrlt of people who refuse to conform. He pralses
love, and ls lndeed one of the truly great lovepoets of our
tlme. Jenderness, sadness, sensuallty, humour, deslre and
all the feellngs whlch love between people engenders and
encompasses are the themes of these poems. He pralses
womanthe young malden, the student, the anonymous,
the old, hls mother, hls beloved. Woman, for hlm, ls vlrtu
ally a mythlcal flgure, a goddess who represents all that
opposes men`s arrogance and hunger for power. Even so,
she never becomes an abstract symbol but ls allve and
present ln the poet`s fresh and unconventlonal verbal art.
He conjures up for us another world than that of tyranny
and desolatlona world that exlsts both here and now,
although lt may be hldden from our vlew and bound ln
chalns, and one that exlsts ln our dreams and our wlll and
our art and our lndomltable splrlt. Hls poetry ls a klnd of
maleutlcsan act of dellverance.
Jhe Swedlsh Academy deeply regrets that Mr.
|aroslav Selfert cannot be here today. As hls represen
tatlve we greet hls daughter, Mrs. |ana Selfertov.
And now I ask you, Mrs. Selfertov, to convey to Mr.
Selfert our warmest congratulatlons and to recelve
thls year`s Nobel Prlze for Llterature, awarded to
your father, from the hands of Hls Majesty the Klng.
pW _~ p
^ p ~ ~ ~ k _~
NM a NVUQI ~ ~I
g~~ pW
Vos Majests, Vos Altesses Royales, Mesdames et
Messleurs, Ce que mon pre a crlt, ll là toujours crlt
sans grandes prtentlons. Seule, la spontanlt là tou
jours pouss; ll nà jamals vls nl trop loln, nl trop haut.
Par ses mots ll nà essay que de se salslr de la vle, et
cèst la vle ellemme qul sèst salsle de lul, toujours et
malgr tout.
Ce fut pour lul une belle aventure que de cher
cher le mot juste qul dlralt son mervelllement pour
une branche de pommler vlbrante sous sa tolle
dàralgne, pour la mlancolle dùn mlrolr aveugle,
pour le jallllssement dùne flamme amoureuse, source
de vertlge, enfln pour tout ce qul est dfl a la mort.
Sl, aujourd`hul, ll lul est permls de crolre qu`ll a
russl dans cette aventure, crlre des vers qul solent
accepts comme plus quùn slmple souplr lntlme ou une
exaltatlon enlvre, cèst une jole sans borne au dclln de
ses jours.
Il se rjoult de cet honneur lmmense qul lul est
accord; ll en remercle lÀcadmle Sudolse, ll lul en est
reconnalssant, comme ll lèst de tout cho que rencontre
sa posle.
Il a consclence que la renomme ne va pas de sol,
quèlle une grce, loln dàpprocher ceux qul la mrltent.
Et cèst pourquol ll pense en ce moment a tous
ceux qul nònt pas reu, comme lul, une rcompense,
futelle lncomparablement plus modeste. Lne slmple
rcompense qul seralt venue couronner des efforts sou
vent plus lntenses que les slens, parfols marqus par la
douleur.
Et s`ll talt present, cèst eux qu`ll voudralt saluer
en cette occaslon solennelle.
| Jhe Nobel Ioundatlon, l981. |ana Selfertov ls the
sole author of her speech.|
Eq~~ c j~ i~~F
Gentlemen.
Whatever my father has wrltten he has always
wrltten wlthout pretenslon. Only spontanelty drove
hlm; he never almed too far, nor too hlgh. Wlth hls
l79
ai_ PPO g~~ p
words he only trled to selze llfe, and llfe ltself selzed
hlm, always and desplte everythlng.
It was for hlm a great adventure just to search for
the rlght word to express hls amazement at the branch
of an apple tree vlbrant under lts splder`s web; at the
melancholy of a bllnd mlrror; at the spurt of a flame of
love, the source of dlzzlness; ln other words, at every
thlng that challenges death.
If today he can be permltted to belleve that he has
succeeded ln thls adventure, that he has wrltten verses
accepted as more than a slmple lntlmate slgh or an
lntoxlcated elatlon, lt wlll glve hlm boundless joy ln hls
decllnlng days.
He rejolces at thls lmmense honor glven to hlm,
he thanks the Swedlsh Academy, he ls grateful for lt as
he ls for whatever echo hls poetry encounters.
He ls well aware that fame does not come from
wlthln, that lt ls a grace whlch often does not come to
those who deserve lt.
And that ls why at thls moment he ls thlnklng of
all those who have not recelved thelr reward, even lf
lncomparably more modest than hls. A slmple reward
whlch mlght have crowned efforts often more lntense
than hls, often marked by paln.
And lf he were here, lt ls those people he would
salute at thls solemn occaslon.
l80
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l m~ ~ i~ p~ j
I am often asked, partlcularly by forelgners, how
one can explaln the great love of poetry ln my country.
why there exlsts among us not only an lnterest ln
poems but even a need for poetry. Perhaps that means
my countrymen also possess a greater ablllty to under
stand poetry than any other people.
Jo my way of thlnklng, thls ls a result of the hls
tory of the Czech people over the past 100 yearsand
partlcularly of our natlonal reblrth ln the early l9th
Century. Jhe loss of our polltlcal lndependence durlng
the Jhlrty Years` War deprlved us of our splrltual and
polltlcal ellte. Its membersthose who were not exe
cutedwere sllenced or forced to leave the country.
Jhat resulted not only ln an lnterruptlon of our cultural
development, but also ln a deterloratlon of our lan
guage. Not only was Cathollclsm relnstltuted by force,
but Germanlzatlon was lmposed by force as well.
By the early l9th Century, however, the Irench
Revolutlon and the Romantlc perlod were exposlng us
to new lmpulses and produclng ln us a new lnterest ln
democratlc ldeals, our own language, and our natlonal
culture. Our language became our most lmportant
means of expresslng our natlonal ldentlty.
Poetry was one of the flrst of our llterary genres
to be brought to llfe. It became a vltal factor ln our cul
tural and polltlcal awakenlng. And already at that early
stage, attempts to create a Czech tradltlon of belles
lettres were recelved wlth vast gratltude by the people.
Jhe Czech people, who had lost thelr polltlcal represen
tatlon and had been deprlved of thelr polltlcal spokes
men, now sought a substltute for that representatlon,
and they chose lt from among the splrltual forces that
stlll remalned.
Irom that comes the relatlvely great lmportance
of poetry ln our cultural llfe. Jhere lles the explanatlon
of our cult of poetry and of the hlgh prestlge lt was
already belng accorded durlng the last century. But lt
was not only then that poetry played an lmportant role.
It burst lnto sumptuous blossom ln the beglnnlng of
thls century as well and between the two world wars
subsequently becomlng our most lmportant mode of
expresslng our natlonal culture durlng World War II, a
tlme of sufferlng for the people and of threat to the very
exlstence of the natlon. Desplte all external restrlctlons
and censorshlp, poetry succeeded ln creatlng values
that gave people hope and strength. Slnce the war, too
for the past 10 yearspoetry has occupled a very lmpor
tant posltlon ln our cultural llfe. It ls as though poetry,
lyrlcs were predestlned not only to speak to people very
closely, extremely lntlmately, but also to be our deepest
and safest refuge, where we seek succor ln adversltles
we sometlmes dare not even name.
Jhere are countrles where thls functlon of refuge
ls fllled prlmarlly by rellglon and lts clergy. Jhere are
countrles where the people see thelr lmage and thelr
fate deplcted ln the catharsls of drama or hear them ln
the words of thelr polltlcal leaders. Jhere are countrles
and natlons that flnd thelr questlons and the answers to
them expressed by wlse and perceptlve thlnkers. Some
tlmes, journallsts and mass medla perform that role.
Wlth us, lt ls as though our natlonal splrlt, ln attempt
lng to flnd embodlment, chose poets and made them lts
spokesmen. Poets, lyrlclsts shaped our natlonal con
sclousness and gave expresslon to our natlonal asplra
tlons ln bygone tlmesand they are contlnulng to shape
that consclousness to thls very day. Our people have
become accustomed to understandlng thlngs as pre
sented to them by thelr poets.
Seen wlth the poet`s eyes, thls ls somethlng won
derful. But . . . ls there not a dark slde to thls phenome
non as well? Does not a surfelt of poetry mean a
perturbatlon ln the equlllbrlum of culture? I admlt that
perlods can exlst ln the hlstorles of peoples, or clrcum
stances can arlse, ln whlch the poetlc renderlng ls the
most sultable, the most slmple, or perhaps even the
only posslblewlth lts ablllty to merely suggest, to use
alluslon, metaphor, to express what ls central ln a velled
manner, to conceal from unauthorlzed eyes. I admlt
that the language of poetry has often been, even wlth
uspartlcularly ln tlmes of polltlcal restrlctlona deputy
language, a substltute language, a language of necesslty,
ln as much as lt has been the best means of expresslng
what could not be sald ln any other way. But even so,
the domlnant posltlon of poetry ln our country has long
l8l
ai_ PPO pW k iI a NVUQ
been on my mlndall the more so because I myself was
born to be a poet and have remalned a poet all my llfe.
I am worrled by the susplclon that thls lncllnatlon
toward, and love of, poetry, lyrlcs may not be an
expresslon of anythlng other than what mlght be
descrlbed as a state of mlnd. However deeply lyrlclsm
mlght be able to penetrate ln reallty, however rlch and
multlfaceted lts ablllty to see thlngs, and however prodl
glously lt can reveal and at the same tlme create lnner
dlmenslons of human nature, lt remalns nevertheless a
concern of the senses and the emotlons; senses and
emotlons nourlsh lts lmaglnatlonand vlce versa. lt
speaks to senses and emotlons.
Doesn`t a domlnant posltlon for lyrlclsm, wlth lts
emphasls on sense and emotlon, mean that the sphere
of reason, wlth lts emphasls on analysls, lts skeptlclsm
and crltlclsm, ls pushed lnto the background? Doesn`t lt
mean, moreover, that the wlll, wlth lts dynamlsm and
pathos, cannot achleve lts full expresslon?
Isn`t a culture of such oneslded orlentatlon ln
danger of belng unable to fulfll lts responslblllty com
pletely? Can a soclety that malnly, or prlmarlly, lncllnes
toward lyrlclsm always have strength enough to defend
ltself and ensure lts contlnued exlstence?
I am not really very worrled about the danger of
posslbly neglectlng that element of culture that ls based
on our ratlonal powers, that arlses from reflectlon and
flnds expresslon ln the most objectlve posslble deplctlon
of the essences and lnterrelatlons of thlngs. Jhat ratlo
nal elementwhlch ls characterlzed by lts dlstance to
thlngs, by mental balance, for lt ls programmatlcally not
dependent on elther the moods and feellngs of the lyrl
cal state of mlnd or on the passlons of the state of
pathosthat ratlonal element does not allow ltself to be
lulled lnto tranqullllty; but nelther does lt hurl ltself
lmpatlently at any moral target. ln our ratlonallstlcally
utllltarlan, practlcal clvlllzatlon, lt ls sufflclently strongly
rooted ln our need to know, to acqulre knowledge and
use lt. Jhls ratlonal element has evolved contlnuously
and spontaneously ever slnce the Renalssance. Admlt
tedly, lt ls also unsympathetlcally recelved sometlmes
and now and then encounters external obstacles, but lts
posltlon ln our modern culture ls nevertheless doml
nant even sodesplte the fact that lt faces great prob
lems, for lt must seek a new way of relncorporatlng lts
conceptual thlnklng lnto our culture and of glvlng rea
son a new form, slnce lt cannot remaln the reason of
pretechnologlcal tlmes. I am aware that thls element ls
just as lmportant as both the others I have already men
tloned. Desplte that, however, I do not wlsh to devote
to lt here the same degree of attentlon, slnce lts way of
thlnklngconceptual thlnklngls not essentlal to art or
llterature. I wlsh to conflne myself to the two extreme
states of mlnd from whlch an author can commence
creatlng. Jhey have thelr counterparts ln the readers`
and spectators` attltudes and, through them, affect ln
thelr turn the character of our entlre natlonal culture.
What worrles me ls a posslble or real lack of
pathos. Jhese days, we do not encounter that word
very often. And lf we use lt now and then, we do so
almost wlth a certaln tlmldlty. It strlkes us as old and
motheaten, llke old sets from a theater of the Romantlc
eraout of date, as though lt only stood for poor, super
flclal, and emotlonless declamatlon. It ls almost as
though we had forgotten lt descrlbes a dramatlc state of
tenslon, a purposeful, energetlc, and resolute wlll, a
yearnlngnot for any materlal possesslons or even con
sumer goods, of course, but rather for justlce, for truth.
Pathos ls a characterlstlc of herolsm, and herolsm ls
wllllng to endure torment and sufferlng, prepared to
sacrlflce ltself lf necessary. If I use the word herolsm, I
am not, of course, referrlng to the old herolsm of the
hlstory books and school readers, herolsm ln war, but
rather to lts contemporary form. a herolsm that does
not brandlsh weapons, a herolsm wlthout ostentatlous
ness, dlscreet, often utterly sllent, clvll, lndeed clvlllzed,
a herolsm that has become clvlc.
I belleve that a culture ls complete, mature, and
capable of endurlng and developlng only lf pathos has a
place ln lt, lf we understand pathos and can appreclate
ltand especlally lf we are capable of lt.
What leads me to these thoughts? Pathos wlth lts
herolsm ls, above all, unthlnkable and would not be
what lt ls lf lt were not accompanled by a profound
understandlng of the essences of thlngs, a crltlcal and
allround understandlng, an understandlng qulte other
than that whlch even the most sensltlve poetry ls capa
ble of; poetrylyrlcsls necessarlly uncrltlcal, for lt
lacks dlstance, speaklng as lt does actually only about
lts own subjecta subject, moreover, that flows wlth lts
tlme, a subject that forms a unlty wlth lts object. Pathos
would not be pathos lf lt dld not derlve from an lnslght
lnto the character of the confllct between that whlch ls
and that whlch ought to be. Ior soclety to be capable of
pathos and for lts culture to be complete, lt must also
understand lts tlme ln another manner besldes the lyrl
cal. And lf lt ls not capable of pathos, then lt ls not pre
pared elther for struggle or for sacrlflce.
Only llteraturewhlch, ln addltlon to lts conceptual
thlnklng culture, lts culture of reason, not only has lts
lyrlcs but also lts pathos, lts drama, lts llvlng tragedy
can provlde sufflclent splrltual and moral strength to
overcome the problems that soclety ls constantly havlng
to confront. Only ln the art of tragedy does soclety cre
ate and flnd patterns for lts attltudes ln essentlal moral
and polltlcal lssues; lt learns there how to deal wlth
them conslstently, wlthout haltlng halfway. Only the art
of tragedy, wlth lts vlolent confllcts between lnterests
l82
pW k iI a NVUQ ai_ PPO
and values, awakens, develops, and cultlvates wlthln us
the soclal aspect of our essence; lt makes us members of
the communlty and glves us the opportunlty to leave
our solltude. Only the art of tragedywhlch, unllke lyr
lcs, that 'art of solltude," reflnes our ablllty to dlscrlml
nate between that whlch ls essentlal and that whlch ls
lnessentlal from a socletal vlewpolntonly the art of
tragedy teaches us to see vlctorles ln defeats and defeats
ln vlctorles.
Jherefore, as I look around me and warm myself
ln the good wlll of poetry lovers, I would llke to bear
wltness, not to the death of tragedy, but to lts reblrth as
a result of lts pathetlc state of mlnd, lts state of powerful
emotlons, slnce somethlng has been set lnto motlon
wlthln us, and we are beglnnlng to want that whlch we
regard as just and to oppose that whlch exlsts though lt
should not.
Whlle the lyrlcal state of the mlnd ls a state ln an
lndependent lndlvldual, whlch testlfles to lts own lnner
most self, whlch agrees and colncldes wlth the object,
the pathetlc state does not sense thls unlty between sub
ject and object. It ls born of a tenslon between reallty
and the ego, my conceptlon of how thls reallty ought to
beand thus of a tenslon between power and reason,
between polltlcs and morals. Jhe lyrlcal state does not
dlscrlmlnate between that whlch ls and that whlch
ought to be. It ls lndlfferent to the lyrlcal subject,
whether lts lmaglnatlon ls flred by reallty or by flctlon,
by truth or by flgments of the lmaglnatlon; the llluslon
ls as real to the lmaglnatlon as reallty can be lllusory to
the lmaglnatlon. Jhe lyrlcal state ls not lnterested ln
these dlfferences; lt nelther confronts them wlth each
other nor regards ltself as confronted by them. Jhe
pathetlc ego not only sees these dlfferences, but also
percelves ltself as confronted by them; lt sees how two
alternatlves, two posslbllltles, stand arrayed agalnst
each other, and lt sees ltself as drawn lnto the tenslon
between them. Jhls very tenslon sets the ego lnto
motlon. Jhat motlon ls lnltlated by worry, dlscontent
ment, vexatlon; lts goal ls to achleve or to lntroduce a
state that appears ratlonal, natural, pleasantand that
bears the form of rlght, justlce, freedom, and human
dlgnlty.
Jhe moral greatness and meanlngfulness of thls
motlon of pathos ln no way alters the fact that lts goal ls
constantly and contlnuously becomlng more dlstant
and that no chord ln the harmony so heatedly sought
after by pathos ls flnal. Jhe motlon of pathos ls a coun
terpart to our esthetlc emotlon`s lntentlons when we
experlence a work of art. Jhls emotlon, too, constantly
strlves, ln valn, to achleve a broad and exhaustlve
understandlng of the values of the work ln all thelr rlch
ness and to enjoy the thought structure and form of the
work; lt attempts to achleve a state ln whlch one`s satls
factlon wlth the work of art and one`s joy ln experlenc
lng lt are slmultaneously maxlmal and lastlng.
Pathos ls always one step ahead; lt does not stand
on today`s ground; lt feeds on other nourlshment than
the nectar of the present moment; that, lt can forego. It
can control ltself, be dlsclpllned, ascetlc ln the proper
sense of the wordby no means because lt must, but
rather on the basls of lts own free declslon; lt knows
why lt does so. Nothlng ln thls ls dlfflcult for lt. It ls
qulte slmply lncapable of belng lndlfferent and cold.
And thank goodness for that. Ior otherwlse soclety
would become deadlocked, flnd ltself ln a culdesac;
truth would become handmalden to power, rlght the
tool of brute strengthor, rather, lt would become rlght
lessness and lnjustlce. Jruth has not prevalled, does not
prevall, and wlll not prevall wlthout pathos. Sometlmes,
lt does not prevall even at that prlce. But ln that case,
pathos does transform even a fallurethat whlch would
otherwlse look llke a natural calamlty, a fateful event,
the endlnto somethlng more. Of a defeat lt makes a
sacrlflce; lt elevates the fallure and makes lt an event
that ls a component of a larger entlty, an event that had
and that retalns lts meanlng and fulfllls lts task as a par
tlal movement toward the goal that was to be achleved
and that, perhaps, one day wlll be achleved. So long as
we retaln our pathos, we retaln our hope. Pathos cannot
be flnally conquered; lt survlves lts setbacks. Both the
pathos of the lndlvldual and the pathos of the natlons
survlve setbacks, wlth serlousness, prlde, and dlgnlty. It
ls above fallure. Jhus, lt ls slmultaneously elevated and
elevatlng. Above, elevated, and elevatlng even where,
wlthout pathos, there would be scope only for dlscour
agement and grlef.
But now that I have sald that, whlch has been on
my mlnd for a long tlme, and been freed of my con
cerns, I feel not only compelled but also entltled to
return to the matter of lyrlclsm and the lyrlcal state of
mlnd.
I have several reasons for dolng so. I was born to
be a lyrlclst, and I have always remalned one. All my
llfe, I have enjoyed my lyrlcal frame of mlnd, and lt
would be ungraclous of me not to admlt lt. I have a
need to justlfy and defend to myself thls baslc attltude
of mlne, desplte the fact that I know my poems have
often sounded tones that have borne thelr own pathos.
After all, even tenderness can have pathos; my grlef has
had lt; my anxlety and fear llkewlse.
But I want to do somethlng more. I want to deal
wlth the lyrlcal state of mlnd. I want to defend thls attl
tude toward llfe, emphaslze lts advantages, too, now
that I have professed my respect for pathos. Jo do so
seems to me not only just, but also downrlght neces
sary. And here I am referrlng not merely to the alto
gether excesslve emphasls that, ever slnce the
l83
Enllghtenment, our tradltlonal culture has accorded
ratlonal conceptual thlnklng, whlch (together wlth the
development of our wlll) has brought us to the unsatls
factory socletal state of today, where we feel lt necessary
to have change and necessary to seek new ways of
understandlng our problemsprlmarlly ln llght of the
vast exertlon of wlll and tendency toward an exacerba
tlon of dlsputes lnto dramatlc confllcts that we are wlt
nesslng. Jhls seems to me necessary ln vlew of the
lncreaslng behavloral aggresslveness present ln lnterre
latlonshlps wlthln socletywhether lt ls aggresslveness
stlll borne by some manner of pathos or the klnd that ls
merely destructlve ln ltself and lncapable of any pathos
at all. I want to elucldate the speclal advantages of lyrl
clsm under these very clrcumstances ln our tlme.
Ior whlle the mlnd ln a state of pathos burns wlth
lmpatlence and seethes wlth fervor ln lts endeavor to
master an unsatlsfactory sltuatlon and often succeeds ln
so dolng wlth a welllntentloned but nevertheless one
slded stralghtforwardness, the lyrlcal state ls a state
wlthout exertlon of wlll or determlnatlon; lt ls a state of
serenlty that ls nelther patlent nor lmpatlent, a state of
qulet experlenclng of those values upon whlch man
bases the most profound, the most fundamental, and
the most essentlal foundatlons of hls equlllbrlum and of
hls ablllty to lnhablt thls world, to lnhablt lt ln the only
posslble manner, l.e., poetlcally, lyrlcally, to borrow
from Hlderlln.
Pathos lncltes us and corrodes us; lt ls capableln
our anxlety and ln our longlng to reallze ldealsof drlv
lng us to sacrlflce and to selfdestructlon. Lyrlclsm
keeps us ln lts affectlonate embrace. Instead of percelv
lng a confllct between forces, we feel a pleasurable joy
ln thelr equlllbrlum, whlch pushes them away from our
horlzon and results ln our not feellng thelr welght.
Instead of bumplng lnto the edges of the world around
us, we flow along wlth lt to unlty and ldentlflcatlon.
Pathos always has lts opponents. lt ls aggresslve.
In hls lyrlcal state, man needs no one else. And lf, ln hls
lonellness, he does turn to someone and speaks to hlm,
that other person ls not hls enemy. Lnder these clrcum
stances, lt ls as though one`s counterpartwhether
nature, soclety, or another human belngwere a part of
hlmself, merely another partlclpant ln the lyrlcal mono
logue. Jhat whlch otherwlse would oppose us we let
suffuse us, whlle at the same tlme we ourselves suffuse
lt, too. We llsten lntently to that whlch ls around us,
and ln that very way, we flnd ourselves. And thereby
we achleve our most genulne ldentlty and most com
plete lntegrlty. And lt ls ln thls very surrenderlng of our
selves that we flnd our securlty.
Pathos ls actlve. lt strlves to reach a set goal. In
our lyrlcal state, we do not want to achleve anythlng;
we experlence what we already have and we devote
ourselves to the present and the exlstlng, even lf the
exlstlng can also conslst of an evocatlon of the past.
Jhls ls not a result of moral lndlfference. We merely
move onor, rather, at present occupya dlfferent
plane; we are ln a dlfferent posltlon ln regard to thlnk
lng, feellng, and wlshlng. a posltlon ln whlch the wlll ls
not commltted. It ls by no means absent, mlnd you just
not lnterested ln achlevlng results.
Whlle pathos must put strength lnto lts gestures
and has the capablllty of belng vlolent, dynamlc as lt ls,
lts counterpartpoetry, lyrlcsdoes not employ
strength. It ls nonvlolent and does not need to force
ltself lnto placldlty. It opens lts defenseless embrace, and
that gesture ls one of love. It ls harrled nelther by the
concerns of the lntellect nor by those of the passlons; lt
does not compete wlth tlme. It has the ablllty to contest,
as lt were, the passage of tlme and ln lts best moments,
conjoln wlth tlme ln a sort of motlonlessness where
only one thlng matters. that lt be lastlng.
Jhe lyrlcal attltude has no deslre to convlnce oth
ers. It merely offers them an opportunlty to partake of
that whlch lt feels and experlences ltself. No more and
no less. It does not even go so far as to take a stand. It
lacks dlstance; lt conjolns, after all, wlth the flow of llfe.
And lf lt takes no stand, lt ls all the less capable of
becomlng lnvolved ln dlsputes.
But perhaps one mlght dare take yet another step
and pose a questlon concernlng the posslble lnfluence
of the lyrlcal state of mlnd on economy, ecology, or pol
ltlcs, for example. Addltlonally, one mlght ask about the
partlclpatlon of the lyrlcal state of mlnd ln the upheaval
ln human consclousness ln general, ln posslble changes
ln manklnd`s ways of seelng and percelvlng (changes
generally regarded as necessary); one mlght ask
whether tradltlonal patterns of behavlor (conslderlng
that they are not equal to the problems of today) should
be replaced by other ones. One mlght pose the questlon
of lyrlclsm`s role ln a posslble shlft from conceptual
thlnklng (das begrlff llche Denken) to ratlonal perceptlon
(vernnftlge Wahrnehmung, VernunftWahrnehmung)
now that we have entered that state that C. I.
Welzscker (t d~I p. 258) characterlzes
thus. 'Wlr haben unsere Gesellschaft ln elner Welse
stlllslert, dle weder der Wahrnehmung der Affekte noch
der Wahrnehmung der Vernunft entsprlcht. Dle Iolge
lst elne Deslntegratlon der Affekte und eln Verstummen
der Vernunft."
Jhe lyrlcal state of mlnd ls capable, however par
adoxlcal lt may seem, of contrlbutlng as one of several
forces to the return of wlsdom to our clvlllzatloncapable,
for example, of contrlbutlng to technology`s belng
gulded anew by reason. a reason that, naturally, ls
unlted wlth llfe and wlth nature ln ways other than
through ratlonal abstractlonsln other words, a reason
l81
pW k iI a NVUQ ai_ PPO
that would dlffer from our present, ratlonal, utllltarlan
reason and lts conceptual thlnklng.
It also presents ltself as a moderatlng factor ln our
aggresslve and dynamlc splrlt, ln our so hlghly self
assertlve wlll. Admlttedly, our dynamlsm and wlllln
the context of our conceptualthlnklng culturewere the
sources of our technologlcal and economlc advance
ment, of our lndustrlal revolutlons, and thereby also of
our power and lnfluence ln the world. But that splrlt
has also brought wlth lt the problems and other nega
tlve aspects of our tlme, whlch, the greater the successes
achleved by that dynamlc and aggresslve splrlt, move
more and more lnto the foreground. It ls a splrlt of sub
jugatlon and conquest, a splrlt deslrous of rullng over
nature as well as over men, natlons, and entlre clvlllza
tlons, a splrlt of ratlonallzed wlll to power over nature
and people. It ls a state of mlnd ln whlch our wlll strlves
to become lord over everythlng lt can, to galn rlches
and possesslons, lnstead of allowlng us to flnd joy ln
thlngs wlthout brlnglng them under our sway. Jhls far
toopowerful wlll can be balanced and brldled and led
to other attltudes than the aggresslvely rapaclous pre
clsely through the agency of the lyrlcal state of the non
commltted wlll. As E. I. Schumacher wrote (ln hls book
p~ f _~I p. 27). 'A man drlven by greed or envy
loses the power of seelng thlngs as they really are, or
seelng thlngs ln thelr roundness and wholeness, and hls
very successes become fallures. If whole socletles
become lnfected by these vlces, they may lndeed
achleve astonlshlng thlngs, but they become lncreas
lngly lncapable of solvlng the most elementary prob
lems of everyday exlstence."
Is lt not so that, ln addltlon to the need for new
values that varlous wrlters speak of, the lyrlcal state of
mlnd, whlch ls rooted ln ldentlflcatlon wlth nature and
the world around us, ls also one of the posslble sources
of an lnner change ln man and thereby, too, one of the
ways that can lead man out of hls untenable posltlon as
a selfdeslgnated ruler who places hlmself outslde
nature, above lt and agalnst lt? Is not the lyrlcal state of
mlnd a posslble lnstrument for overcomlng the ldea that
nature ls somethlng that has been glven to man, glven
to man`s strength and competence so that he may make
hlmself lord over nature, treatlng lt as hls prey and
uslng lt to satlsfy hls lnsatlable possesslve lnstlnct? And
ls not the lyrlcal state of mlnd ultlmately the change ln
our relatlonshlp to llfe demanded by Heldegger? A
change that means we allow llfe to be what lt ls so that,
ln the end, lt wlll speak to us ltself and reveal ltself to us
ln lts meanlngful essence ln such a manner as to make lt
comprehenslble to us?
Can one fall to see that lyrlclsm ls the dlametrlc
opposlte to the cult of strength and power and, ln an
utterly natural manner, offers ltself as a correctlve to
our tendency to resolve soclety`s problems by forclble
means and through power struggles, through techno
loglcal, flnanclal, organlzatlonal, polltlcal, and physlcal
powerpower that, ln any case, ls ultlmately merely a
product of lncomplete lnslght ('eln Produkt unvollstn
dlger Elnslcht")? And ln preclsely the same way, one
can place lt ln contrast to our worshlp of work and per
formance, to our obsesslon wlth the ldea of rullng and
exploltlng nature and people, partlcularly slnce power
often elevates the efflclency and gradual perfectlng of lts
power systems to lssues of the greatest lmportance,
even when what ls lnvolved are systems that, from the
most exaltedly objectlve vlewpolnt, are not at all func
tlonal and that achleve thelr tasks only at the cost of
losses ln human dlgnlty and losses not only ln materlal
but also ln moral termsand at the cost of loss of har
mony wlthln man hlmself and of harmonlous relatlon
shlps among people.
Many people are well aware that thls ever more
powerful possesslve lnstlnct, thls ever stronger empha
sls on conquest, expanslon, and exploltatlon, must be
fettered and brldled ln order that the damage resultlng
as lts negatlve soclal product does not become greater
than the advantages. But lt ls not enough to be aware of
these clrcumstances, to know of thelr exlstence. If there
ls to be a fundamental changeand a fundamental
change, of course, away from our strlvlng to lncrease
our power and develop lt ln every dlrectlonto man`s
detrlmentthen a change ln our consclousness ls called
for, a change ln our mental set. As lt was once
expressed so beautlfully, what ls needed ls a 'revolutlon
of the mlnd and the heart".
I do not wlsh to try maklng lyrlclsm, or more
over lyrlcs, lnto a polltlcal force or a polltlcal tool and
deprlve poetryor art generally, for that matterof lts
true, speclflc, and lrreplaceable purvlew, nor do I wlsh
to subordlnate that purvlew to other lnterests. Never
theless, I feeland I make so bold as to statethat the
lyrlcal state of mlnd ls somethlng that far transcends the
boundarles of lyrlcs and poetryor, lndeed, of art ltself.
Where lt could manlfest ltself actlvely, lt would be
ableln a new and posltlve mannerto make lts mark
on culture and on all socletal organlzatlons ln general. It
would contrlbute to a necessary, thoroughgolng trans
formatlon of the consclousness, a process already
underway ln many people today, most ln artlsts, least ln
those who have allowed themselves to be drawn lnto
the power game of polltlcs. In lts way, lt would be able
to flll a functlon akln to that of mystlcal medltatlon
whlch, lncldentally, has always been close to lyrlcs, but,
whlch, compared to lyrlcs, ls too excluslve a means or
lnstrument. It would contrlbute to people`s acqulrlng
the ablllty and the deslre to 'den Wlllen stlll werden zu
lassen und das Llcht zu sehen, das slch erst bel stlll
l85
gewordenem Wlllen zelgt." Llke mystlcal medltatlon, lt
would be 'elne Schule der Wahrnehmung, des Kom
menlassens der Wlrkllchkelt" (C. I. Welzscker).
Not all cultures can manage thls task. Plnnlng
one`s hopes on culture, as such, aloneculture ln the
sense of cultlvatlng and further reflnlng that whlch we
have taken over from the pastwould lead to dlsap
polntment. It would stlll be the same, tradltlonal culture
of the wlll and the old reason. Even lf we were to forget
that our culture could have been not merely lntolerant
(desplte the fact that there relgns ln lt a convlctlon that
tolerance also belongs to culture), that lt could have
been represslve, arrogant, and messlanlc, that lt could
have been lnsensltlve to numerous lmportant values,
lack understandlng for many values, and, on the other
hand, lmpose upon people a great deal that ls of no
value at all, we could not help but see that the legltl
macy of thls culture`s tradltlonal values has been more
than undermlned.
Joday, thls task can be achleved only by a culture
whose polnt of departure ls an essentlally modlfled state
of consclousness, another state of mlnd. And rlght here,
I see a great opportunlty and a great task for lyrlclsm
and lyrlcs, for thls state of mlnd, whlch ls dlstlngulshed
by ldentlflcatlon wlth the world, by empathy, by sympa
thy, and by an uncommltted wlll. Desplte the fact that
so lrratlonal an element as love would play an essentlal
role ln such a culture, the wlsdom ln that culture would
ln no way have to be less than the wlsdom ln the cul
ture we have to cope wlth today.
I would even llke to declare that only then would
lt become the happy culture, truly rlch ln blesslngs, that
lt ought to be.
And now, as I say that, yet another questlon
comes to my mlnda questlon that, at thls moment,
strlkes me as merely rhetorlcal. ls lt not true that pathos
llves on, and ls fueled by, preclsely the vlslon of thls
happy understandlng of thlngs and of how wlsely they
are ordered on the basls of mutual sympathles? In a
splrlt of 'love as the seelng state of mlnd that abollshes
the struggle for exlstence," as C. I. Welzscker formu
lated lt? Is not pathos an attempt to reach outslde one`s
own shadow and an attempt to return to Arcadla,
where the ratlonal, the just, and the natural are ldentlcal
to reallty? Is not pathos merely an attempt to return to
the ldyllthat ls, to a state ln whlch we know no forelgn
power over us and where the confllct between that
whlch ls and that whlch ought to be dlsappears, a state
where reason and power, morals and polltlcs, can slt
down at the same table together? And flnally, ls the lost
paradlse sought by pathos not the world of lyrlclsm? Is
not poetry ltself, lyrlcs, one of the foremost creators and
lnterpreters of the vlslon of that paradlse?
As I wrlte thls, I am tempted to wlsh that, lnstead
of havlng been a lyrlclst by blrth, I could become one
by convlctlon. a lyrlclst by my own cholce.
| Jhe Nobel Ioundatlon, l981. |aroslav Selfert ls the
l86
d _~ p~
(26 uly 1S6 - 2 òvcmbcr 190)
j~ pK s~ s
omcs Modisov Uvivcrsity
and
^~ `
Ivdiovo Uvivcrsity
See also the Shaw entrles ln DI 10: Modcrv ritisl Dro-
motists, 1900-194; DI 7: !ictoriov Irosc !ritcrs Zftcr
1S67; and DI 190: ritisl Icform !ritcrs, 1SJ2-1914.
SELECJED BOOKS. Z Movifcsto, Iablan Jracts 2
(London. Geo. Standrlng, l881);
Coslcl yrov`s Irofcssiov (London. Modern Press, l886;
New York. Harper, l886); revlsed edltlon, lnclud
lng Tlc Zdmiroblc oslvillc (Chlcago. Stone, l90l;
London. Rlchards, l90l);
Zv Uvsociol Sociolist (London. Swan Sonnenscheln, Low
ery, l887; New York. Brentano`s, l900);
Iobiov Issoys iv Sociolism, edlted, wlth an lntroductlon, by
Shaw (London. Iablan Soclety, l889);
Tlc _uivtcsscvcc of Ibscvism (Boston. Jucker, l89l; Lon
don. Scott, l89l); enlarged edltlon (London.
Constable, l9l3; New York. Brentano`s, l9l3);
enlarged agaln as crvord Slow`s Tlc _uivtcsscvcc of
Ibscvism ovd Iclotcd !ritivgs, edlted by |. W.
Wlsenthal (Joronto. Lnlverslty of Joronto Press,
l979);
Movifcsto of Ivglisl Sociolists, anonymous, by Shaw, Wll
llam Morrls, and H. M. Hyndman (London.
Jwentleth Century Press, l893);
!idowcrs` Houscs (London. Henry, l893; New York.
Brentano`s, l9l3);
Tlc Icrfcct !ogvcritc: Z Commcvtory ov tlc Iivg of tlc
ìbluvgs (London. Rlchards, l898; Chlcago
New York. Stone, l899; revlsed edltlon, London.
Rlchards, l902; New York. Brentano`s, l909);
Iloys: Ilcosovt ovd Uvplcosovt, 2 volumes (London. Rlch
ards, l898; Chlcago New York. Stone, l898);
Iobiovism ovd tlc Impirc: Z Movifcsto by tlc Iobiov Socicty,
drafted and edlted by Shaw (London. Rlchards,
l900);
Iovc Zmovg tlc Zrtists (Chlcago New York. Stone,
l900; London. Constable, l9l1);
Tlrcc Iloys for Iuritovs: Tlc Dcvil`s Disciplc, Cocsor ovd
Clcopotro, c Coptoiv rossbouvd`s Covvcrsiov (Lon
don. Rlchards, l90l; Chlcago New York.
Stone, l90l);
Mrs. !orrcv`s Irofcssiov (London. Rlchards, l902);
d _~ p~ NVQN ~ Ì t~
~ k~ Î ~ q~I b~ E^~ mI ^mF
l87
ai_ PPO d _~ p~
Mov ovd Supcrmov: Z Comcdy ovd o Ililosoply (Westmln
ster. Constable, l903; New York. Brentano`s,
l901);
Tlc Commov Scvsc of Muvicipol Trodivg (London. Consta
ble, l901);
Iobiovism ovd tlc Iiscol _ucstiov: Zv Zltcrvotivc Iolicy (Lon
don. Iablan Soclety, l901);
Tlc Irrotiovol Ivot (London. Constable, l905; New
York. Brentano`s, l905);
Iossiov, Ioisov, ovd Ictrifoctiov; or, Tlc Iotol Coogcvc (New
York. H. B. Claflln, l905);
Dromotic Upiviovs ovd Issoys, 2 volumes (New York. Bren
tano`s, l906; London. Constable, l907);
olv ull`s Utlcr Islovd ovd Mojor orboro (New York.
Brentano`s, l907); publlshed ln England as olv
ull`s Utlcr Islovd ovd Mojor orboro: olso How Hc
Iicd to Hcr Husbovd (London. Constable, l907);
Tlc Sovity of Zrt: Zv Ixposurc of tlc Currcvt òvscvsc obout
Zrtists civg Dcgcvcrotc (London. New Age, l908;
New York. Jucker, l908);
Ircss Cuttivgs (London. Constable, l909; New York.
Brentano`s, l909);
Tlc Doctor`s Dilcmmo, Ccttivg Morricd, ovd Tlc Slcwivg-Up
of lovco Iosvct (London. Constable, l9ll; New
York. Brentano`s, l9ll);
Commov Scvsc obout tlc !or: Supplcmcvt to tlc `cw Stotcsmov
(London. Statesman, l9l1);
Zvdroclcs ovd tlc Iiov, Uvcrrulcd, Iygmoliov (New York.
Brentano`s, l9l6; London. Constable, l9l6);
How to Scttlc tlc Irisl _ucstiov (Dublln. Jalbot Press /
London. Constable, l9l7);
Icocc Covfcrcvcc Hivts (London. Constable, l9l9);
Hcortbrcol Housc, Crcot Cotlcrivc, ovd Iloylcts of tlc !or
(New York. Brentano`s, l9l9; London. Consta
ble, l9l9);
ocl to Mctlusolcl: Z Mctobiologicol Icvtotcucl (London.
Constable, l92l; New York. Brentano`s, l92l);
Soivt oov (London. Constable, l921; New York. Bren
tano`s, l921);
Toblc-Toll of C. . S.: Covvcrsotiovs ov Tlivgs iv Ccvcrol
bctwccv Ccorgc crvord Slow ovd His iogroplcr, by
Shaw (uncredlted) and Archlbald Henderson
(New York London. Harper, l925; revlsed edl
tlon, London. Chapman Hall, l925);
Trovslotiovs ovd Tomfoolcrics (London. Constable, l926;
New York. Brentano`s, l926);
Tlc Sociolism of Slow, edlted by |ames Iuchs (unautho
rlzed edltlon, New York. Vanguard, l926);
Tlc Ivtclligcvt !omov`s Cuidc to Copitolism ovd Sociolism
(London. Constable, l928; New York. Bren
tano`s, l928); enlarged and republlshed as Tlc
Ivtclligcvt !omov`s Cuidc to Sociolism, Copitolism, Sovi-
ctism ovd Ioscism, 2 volumes (London. Penguln,
l937);
Immoturity (London. Constable, l930);
crvord Slow c Iorl Morx: Z Symposium, 1SS4-1SS9
(unauthorlzed edltlon, New York. Random
House, l930);
Tlc Zpplc Cort (London. Constable, l930; New York.
Brentano`s, l93l);
Tlc !orls of crvord Slow, Collcctcd Iditiov, volumes l-30
(London. Constable, l930-l932); republlshed as
the Zyot St. Iowrcvcc Iditiov (New York. Wlse,
l930-l932); volumes 3l-33 (London. Consta
ble, l931-l938); enlarged and republlshed as the
Stovdord Iditiov of tlc !orls of crvord Slow, 36 vol
umes (London. Constable, l917-l952);
Uur Tlcotrcs iv tlc ìvctics (London. Constable, l93l;
New York. Wlse, l93l);
Music iv Iovdov, 1S90-1S94 (London. Constable, l93l;
New York. Wlse, l93l);
!lot I Icolly !rotc Zbout tlc !or (London. Constable,
l93l; New York. Brentano`s, l932);
Slort Storics, Scrops ovd Slovivgs (London. Constable,
l932; flrst trade edltlon, London. Constable,
l931; New York. Dodd, Mead, l931);
Tlc Zdvcvturcs of tlc locl Cirl iv Hcr Scorcl for Cod (Lon
don. Constable, l932; New York. Dodd, Mead,
l933);
Tlc Iuturc of Ioliticol Scicvcc iv Zmcrico (New York. Dodd,
Mead, l933); Tlc Ioliticiol Modlousc iv Zmcrico ovd
`corcr Homc (London. Constable, l933);
Tlrcc Iloys: Too Truc to c Cood, !illogc !ooivg ovd Uv tlc
Iocls (London. Constable, l931; New York.
Dodd, Mead, l931);
Tlc Simplctov, Tlc Six of Colois, ovd Tlc Milliovoircss (Lon
don. Constable, l936); republlshed as Tlc Simplc-
tov of tlc Uvcxpcctcd Islcs, Tlc Six of Colois c Tlc
Milliovoircss (New York. Dodd, Mead, l936);
!illiom Morris Zs I Ivcw Him (New York. Dodd, Mead,
l936);
Cymbclivc Icfivislcd (Edlnburgh. Prlvately prlnted,
l937);
Iovdov Music iv 1SSS-1SS9 Zs Hcord by Corvo di ossctto
(Iotcr Ivowv os crvord Slow), witl Somc Iurtlcr
Zutobiogroplicol Iorticulors (London. Constable,
Ccvcvo: Z Iovcicd Iogc of History iv Tlrcc Zcts (London.
Constable, l939; enlarged edltlon, London. Con
stable, l910);
Slow Civcs Himsclf Zwoy: Zv Zutobiogroplicol Misccllovy
(Newtown, Montgomeryshlre. Gregynog, l939);
Iv Cood Iivg Clorlcs`s Coldcv Doys (London. Constable,
l939);
Ivcrybody`s Ioliticol !lot`s !lot (London. Constable,
l88
d _~ p~ ai_ PPO
Ccvcvo, Cymbclivc Icfivislcd, 'Iv Cood Iivg Clorlcs` Coldcv
Doys (London. Constable, l916; New York.
Dodd, Mead, l917);
Slow ov !iviscctiov, complled and edlted by G. H.
Bowker for the Natlonal Antlvlvlsectlon Soclety
(London. Allen Lnwln, l919);
Sixtccv Sclf Slctclcs (London. Constable, l919; New
York. Dodd, Mead, l919);
uoyovt illiovs: Z Comcdy of ò Movvcrs iv Irosc (London.
Constable, l950);
uoyovt illiovs, Iorfctclcd Ioblcs, c Slolcs vcrsus Slov
(London. Constable, l95l; New York. Dodd,
Mead, l95l);
Iost !ill ovd Tcstomcvt (Illnt, Mlch.. Apple Jree Press,
l951);
Slow ov Music, selected by Erlc Bentley, Doubleday,
(New York. Applause, l955);
My Dcor Dorotlco: Z Irocticol Systcm of Morol Iducotiov for
Icmolcs, Imbodicd iv o Icttcr to o Jouvg Icrsov of Tlot
Scx, cditcd by Stcplcv !ivstcv (London. Phoenlx
House, l956; New York. Vanguard, l957);
Zv Uvfivislcd òvcl, edlted by Stanley Welntraub (Lon
don. Constable / New York. Dodd, Mead, l958);
Slow ov Tlcotrc, edlted by E. |. West (New York. Hlll
Wang, l958; London. MacGlbbon Kee, l960);
How to ccomc o Musicol Critic, edlted by Dan H. Lau
rence (London. HartDavls, l960; New York. Hlll
Wang, l96l);
Slow ov Slolcspcorc, edlted by Edwln Wllson (New
York. Dutton, l96l; London. Cassell, l962);
Ilotform ovd Iulpit, edlted by Laurence (New York. Hlll
Wang, l96l; London. HartDavls, l962);
C. . S. ov Music (New York. Penguln, l962);
Tlc Mottcr witl Irclovd, edlted by Laurence and Davld
H. Greene (New York. Hlll Wang, l962; Lon
don. HartDavls, l962);
Tlc Icligious Spccclcs of crvord Slow, edlted by Warren
Sylvester Smlth (Lnlverslty Park. Pennsylvanla
Ccorgc crvord Slow ov Iovguogc, edlted by Abraham
Jauber (New York. Phllosophlcal Llbrary, l963;
London. Owen, l965);
Tlc Iotiovoliotiov of Iussio, edlted by Harry M. Geduld
crvord Slow`s Icody Icclovcr, edlted by N. H. Lelgh
Jaylor (New York. Random House, l965);
Slow ov Icligiov, edlted by Smlth (London. Constable,
Shaw, 'Tlc Cluclcr-Uut: Z iogroplicol Ixpositiov ovd Cri-
tiquc, complled by Allan Chappelow (London.
Allen Lnwln, l969);
Slow: Zv Zutobiogroply, 1S6-1S9S, complled and
edlted by Welntraub (New York. Weybrlght
Jalley, l969; London, Sydney Joronto. Reln
hardt, l970);
Slow: Zv Zutobiogroply, 1S9S-190. Tlc Iloywriglt Jcors,
complled and edlted by Welntraub (New York.
Weybrlght Jalley, l970; London, Sydney
Joronto. Relnhardt, l970);
Iossiov Iloy: Z Dromotic Irogmcvt, 1S7S, edlted by |erald
E. Brlngle (Iowa Clty. Lnlverslty of Iowa at the
Wlndhover Press, l97l);
Tlc Iood to Iquolity: Tcv Uvpublislcd Iccturcs ovd Issoys,
1SS4-191S, edlted by Louls Crompton and
Hllayne Cavanaugh (Boston. Beacon, l97l);
crvord Slow`s òvdromotic Iitcrory Criticism, edlted by
Welntraub (Llncoln. Lnlverslty of Nebraska
Press, l972);
Irocticol Iolitics: Twcvtictl-Ccvtury !icws ov Iolitics ovd Ico-
vomics, edlted by Lloyd |. Hubenka (Llncoln
London. Lnlverslty of Nebraska Press, l976);
Ilylcovcs, edlted by Laurence and Danlel |. Leary (Aus
tln, Jex.. W. Jhomas Jaylor, l977);
Tlc Crcot Composcrs: Icvicws ovd ombordmcvts, edlted,
wlth an lntroductlon, by Crompton (Berkeley.
Lnlverslty of Callfornla Press, l978);
Iorly Tcxts: Iloy Movuscripts iv Iocsimilc, l2 volumes,
edlted by Laurence and others (New York. Gar
land, l98l);
Slow`s Music, 3 volumes, edlted by Laurence (London.
Relnhardt/Bodley Head, l98l; New York. Dodd,
Mead, l98l);
Slow ov Diclcvs, edlted by Laurence and Martln _ulnn
(New York. Lngar, l985);
crvord Slow: Tlc Diorics 1SS-1S97 witl Iorly Zutobio-
groplicol òtcbools ovd Diorics, ovd ov Zbortivc 1917
Diory, 2 volumes, edlted by Welntraub (Lnlver
slty Park London. Pennsylvanla State Lnlver
slty Press, l986);
crvord Slow ov Ilotogroply: Issoys ovd Ilotogropls, edlted
by Blll |ay and Margaret Moore (Welllngborough,
L.K.. Equatlon, l989; Salt Lake Clty. P. Smlth,
l989);
òt loody Iilcly!: Zvd Utlcr _uototiovs from crvord Slow,
edlted by Bernard I. Dukore (New York. Colum
bla Lnlverslty Press, l996);
crvord Slow ov Civcmo, edlted by Dukore (Carbondale.
Southern Illlnols Lnlverslty Press, l997).
PLAY PRODLCJIONS. !idowcrs` Houscs, London,
Royalty Jheatre, 9 December l892;
Zrms ovd tlc Mov, London, Avenue Jheatre, 2l Aprll
l891;
Tlc Mov of Dcstivy, Croydon, L.K., Grand Jheatre, l
|uly l897; London, Royal Court Jheatre, 1 |une
l907;
l89
ai_ PPO d _~ p~
Covdido, Aberdeen, L.K., Her Majesty`s Jheatre, 30
|uly l897; London, Royal Court Jheatre, 26
Aprll l901;
Tlc Dcvil`s Disciplc, Albany, N.Y., Hermanus Bleecker
Hall, 1 October l897; London, Savoy Jheatre, l1
October l907;
Tlc Codfly, or, Tlc Sov of tlc Cordivol, Bayswater, L.K.,
Blju Jheatre, 23 or 3l March l898;
Jou `cvcr Cov Tcll, London, Royalty Jheatre, 26
November l899;
Coptoiv rossbouvd`s Covvcrsiov, London, Strand Jheatre,
l6 December l900;
Mrs !orrcv`s Irofcssiov, London, New Lyrlc Jheatre, 5
|anuary l902;
Tlc Zdmiroblc oslvillc; or, Covstovcy Uvrcwordcd, London,
Imperlal Jheatre, 7 |une l903;
How Hc Iicd to Hcr Husbovd, New York, Berkeley
Lyceum, 26 September l901; London, Royal
Court Jheatre, 28 Iebruary l905;
olv ull`s Utlcr Islovd, London, Royal Court Jheatre, l
November l901;
Tlc Ililovdcrcr, London, New Stage Club, Applegate
Instltute, 20 Iebruary l905; London, Royal
Court Jheatre, 5 Iebruary l907;
Mov ovd Supcrmov. Z Comcdy ovd o Ililosoply, London,
Royal Court Jheatre, 2l May l905; revlsed to
lnclude Dov uov iv Hcll, lnterlude, act 3, Edln
burgh, Lyceum, ll |une l9l5; London, Regent
Jheatre, 23 October l925;
Iossiov, Ioisov, ovd Ictrifoctiov, or tlc Iotol Coogcvc, Lon
don, Jheatrlcal Garden Party Regent`s Park,
London, l1 |uly l905;
Mojor orboro, London, Royal Court Jheatre, 28
November l905;
Cocsor ovd Clcopotro, Berlln, Neues Jheatre, 3l March
l906; New York, New Amsterdam Jheatre, 30
October l906; London, Savoy Jheatre, 25
November l907;
Tlc Doctor`s Dilcmmo, London, Royal Court Jheatre, 20
November l906;
Tlc Ivtcrludc ot tlc Iloylousc, London, Playhouse Jhe
atre, 28 |anuary l907;
Dov uov iv Hcll, London, Royal Court Jheatre, 1 |une
l907;
Ccttivg Morricd, London, Haymarket Jheatre, l2 May
l908;
Tlc Slcwivg-up of lovco Iosvct, Dublln, Abbey Jheatre,
25 August l909; London, Everyman Jheatre, l1
March l92l;
Ircss Cuttivgs (Z Topicol Slctcl Compilcd from tlc Iditoriol
ovd Corrcspovdcvcc Columvs of tlc Doily Iopcrs durivg
tlc !omov`s !or iv 1909), Manchester, Galety Jhe
atre, 27 September l909;
Misolliovcc, London, Duke of York`s Jheatre, 23 Iebru
ary l9l0;
Tlc Dorl Iody of tlc Sovvcts, London, Haymarket Jhe
atre, 21 November l9l0;
Iovvy`s Iirst Iloy, London, Llttle Jheatre, l9 Aprll l9ll;
Uvcrrulcd, London, Duke of York`s Jheatre, l1 October
l9l2;
Zvdroclcs ovd tlc Iiov, Berlln, Klelnes Jheatre, 25
November l9l2; London, St. |ames`s Jheatre,
London, l September l9l3;
Iygmoliov, Vlenna, Hofburg Jheatre, l6 October l9l3;
London, Hls Majesty`s Jheatre, ll Aprll l9l1;
Crcot Cotlcrivc, Z Tlumbvoil Slctcl of Iussiov Ioyol Court
Tlcotrc Iifc iv tlc X!III Ccvtury (!lom Clory Still
Zdorcs), London, Vaudevllle Jheatre, l8 Novem
ber l9l3;
Tlc Music-Curc: Z Iiccc of Uttcr òvscvsc, London, Llttle
Jheatre, 28 |anuary l9l1;
Tlc Ivco of Icrusolcm. Zv Zlmost Historicol Comcdictto, Blr
mlngham, Repertory Jheatre, 7 October l9l6;
London, Crlterlon Jheatre, l6 December l9l7;
Zugustus Docs His it, London, Royal Court Jheatre, 2l
|anuary l9l7;
Zvvojovslo, tlc !ild Crovd Duclcss, London, London
Collseum, 2l |anuary l9l8; New York, 39th
Street Jheatre, 2l |une l920;
UÌlolcrty, !.C.Z Icmivisccvcc of 191, New York, 39th
Street Jheatre, 2l |une l920; London, Lyrlc Jhe
atre, l9 December l920;
Hcortbrcol Housc. Z Iovtosio iv tlc Iussiov Movvcr ov
Ivglisl Tlcmcs, New York, Garrlck Jheatre, l0
November l920; London, Royal Court Jheatre,
l8 October l92l;
ocl to Mctlusclol. Z Mctobiologicol Icvtotcucl, New York,
Garrlck Jheatre, 27 Iebruary l922; London,
Royal Court Jheatre, l8 Iebruary l921;
itto`s Ztovcmcvt, adapted from Jrebltsch`s Irou Cittos
Slvc, Washlngton, D.C., Shubert Jheatre, 8 |an
uary l923; New York, Comedy Jheatre, l7 |anu
ary l923; London, Arts Jheatre Club, 30 Aprll
l930;
Soivt oov, New York, Garrlck Jheatre, 28 December
l923; London, New Jheatre, 26 March l921;
Tlc Climpsc of Icolity. Z Trogcdictto, London, Arts Jhe
atre Club, 20 November l927;
Tlc Ioscivotivg Iouvdlivg, London, Arts Jheatre Club, 28
|anuary l928;
Tlc Zpplc Cort, Warsaw, Jeatr Polskl, l1 |une l929;
Malvern, L.K., Malvern Jheatre Iestlval, l9
August l929; London, _ueen`s Jheatre, l7 Sep
tember l929;
Too Truc to c Cood. Z Ioliticol Ixtrovogovo, Boston,
Natlonal Jheatre, 29 Iebruary l932; New York,
Gulld Jheatre, 1 Aprll l932;
l90
d _~ p~ ai_ PPO
Uv Tlc Iocls (Z Ioliticol Comcdy), London, Wlnter Gar
den Jheatre, 25 November l933;
!illogc !ooivg. Z Comcdicttivo for Two !oiccs iv Tlrcc Covvcr-
sotiovs, Dallas, Llttle Jheatre, l6 Aprll l931; Jun
brldge Wells, L.K, Pump Room, l May l931;
Tlc Six of Colois. Z Mcdicvol !or Story iv Uvc Zct, London,
Open Alr Jheatre Regent`s Park, l7 |uly l931;
Tlc Simplctov of tlc Uvcxpcctcd Islcs, New York, Gulld Jhe
atre, l8 Iebruary l935;
Tlc Milliovoircss. Z ovsoviov Comcdy iv Iour Zcts, Vlenna,
Akademle Jheatre, 1 |anuary l936; Melbourne,
Klng`s Jheatre, 7 March l936;
Cymbclivc Icfivislcd (Z !oriotiov ov Slolcspcorc`s Ivdivg),
London, Embassy Jheatre, Swlss Cottage, l6
November l937;
Ccvcvo. Z Iovcicd Iogc of History, Malvern, L.K., Iestlval
Jheatre, l August l938; London, Savllle Jhe
atre, 22 November l938;
'Iv Cood Iivg Clorlcs`s Coldcv Doys. Z Truc History Tlot
`cvcr Hoppcvcd, Malvern, L.K., Iestlval Jheatre,
l2 August l939; London, Streatham Hlll Jhe
atre, l5 Aprll l910;
uoyovt illiovs. Z Comcdy of ò Movvcrs, Zurlch, Schaus
plelhaus, 2l October l918, (German translatlon
by Jrebltsch); Malvern L.K., Iestlval Jheatre, l3
August l919;
Slolcs vcrsus Slov. Z Iuppct Iloy, Malvern L.K., Waldo
Lanchester Marlonette Jheatre at Lyttleton Hall,
9 August l919; Battersea Park, L.K., Rlverslde
Jheatre, l0 |une l95l;
Iorfctclcd Ioblcs, London, Watergate Jheatre, 6 Septem
ber l950;
!ly Slc !ould òt, New York, Shaw Soclety of Amerlca
at the Groller Club, 2l |anuary l957.
`W Sclcctcd Iossogcs from tlc !orls of crvord
Slow, chosen by Charlotte I. Shaw (London.
Constable, l9l2); republlshed as Tlc !isdom of
crvord Slow (passages from Shaw`s works),
selected by Charlotte I. Shaw (New York. Bren
tano`s, l9l3);
Tlc Complctc Iloys of crvord Slow (London. Constable,
l93l);
Ircfoccs (London. Constable, l931);
ìvc Iloys (New York. Dodd, Mead, l935).
Six Iloys (New York. Dodd, Mead, l91l);
Sclcctcd òvcls (New York. Caxton House, l916);
Sclcctcd Iloys (New York. Dodd, Mead, l918-l957);
Iloys ovd Iloycrs: Issoys ov tlc Tlcotrc (London. Oxford
Sclcctcd Irosc (New York. Dodd, Mead, l952);
Sclcctcd Iloys ovd Utlcr !ritivgs (New York. Rlnehart,
l956);
Tlc Illusiovs of Sociolism, Togctlcr witl Sociolism: Irivciplcs
ovd Uutlool (London. Shaw Soclety, l956);
Slow`s Dromotic Criticism: 1S9-1S9S (selectlons from the
author`s contrlbutlons to Soturdoy Icvicw), edlted
by |ohn I. Matthews (New York. Hlll Wang,
l959);
Z Irosc Zvtlology, edlted by H. M. Burton (Greenwlch,
Conn. Iawcett, l959);
Tlc Tlcotrc of crvord Slow edlted by Alan S. Downer
(New York. Dodd, Mead, l96l);
Sclcctcd òvdromotic !ritivgs of crvord Slow, edlted by
Dan H. Laurence (Boston. Houghton Mlfflln,
l965);
crvord Slow: Sclcctiovs of His !it ovd !isdom, complled
by Carollne Jhomas Harnsberger (Chlcago. Iol
lett, l965);
Tlc Complctc Ircfoccs of crvord Slow (London. Hamlyn,
l965);
crvord Slow`s Icody-Icclovcr, edlted by N. H. Lelgh
Jaylor, (New York. Random House, l965);
Iour Iloys (New York. Washlngton Square Press, l965);
Sclcctcd Uvc-Zct Iloys (New York. Penguln, l965);
Scvcv Iloys !itl Ircfoccs ovd òtcs (New York. Dodd,
Mead, l966);
Tlrcc Slortcr Iloys (London. Helnemann, l968);
crvord Slow`s Iloys, edlted by Warren Sylvester Smlth
(New York. Norton, l970);
Tlc odlcy Hcod crvord Slow, 7 volumes (London, Syd
ney Joronto. Relnhardt/Bodley Head, l970-
l971); republlshed as Collcctcd Iloys witl tlcir Ircf-
occs (New York. Dodd, Mead, l975);
Collcctcd Music Criticism (New York. Vlenna House,
l973);
Tlc Iortoblc crvord Slow, edlted by Stanley Welntraub
(New York. Penguln, l977);
Tlc Collcctcd Scrccvploys of crvord Slow, edlted by Ber
nard I. Dukore (London. Prlor, l980; Athens.
Lnlverslty of Georgla Press, l980);
Iorly Tcxts: Iloy Movuscripts iv Iocsimilc, edlted by Lau
rence (New York. Garland, l98l);
Slow`s Music, edlted by Laurence, 3 volumes (London.
Relnhardt, l98l; New York. Dodd, Mead, l98l);
Sclcctcd Iloys (New York. Dodd, Mead, l98l);
Sclcctcd Slort Iloys (New York. VlklngPenguln, l988);
Movologucs from Ccorgc crvord Slow, edlted by Ian
Mlchaels (Joluca Lake, Cal.. Dramallne Publlca
tlons, l988);
Uvpublislcd Slow, edlted by Laurence and Margot Peters
(Lnlverslty Park. Pennsylvanla State Lnlverslty
Press, l996);
crvord Slow: tlc Uvc-volumc Dcfivitivc Iditiov, edlted by
Mlchael Holroyd (New York. Random House,
l997);
Tlc Combridgc Compoviov to Ccorgc crvord Slow, edlted
by Chrlstopher Innes (Cambrldge. Cambrldge
l9l
ai_ PPO d _~ p~
Ccorgc crvord Slow`s Iloys: Mrs. !orrcv`s Irofcssiov, Iyg-
moliov, Mov ovd Supcrmov, Mojor orboro: Covtcxts
ovd Criticism, edlted by Sandle Byrne (New York.
Norton, 2002).
PRODLCED SCRIPJS. Zrms ovd tlc Mov, adapted by
Shaw, l932;
Iygmoliov, adapted by Shaw, produced by Gabrlel Pas
cal, l938;
Iygmoliov: Scrccv !crsiov (New York. Penguln, l91l);
Mojor orboro, adapted by Shaw, scenarlo edlted by
Marjorle Deans, l91l; Mojor orboro: Z Scrccv !cr-
siov (New York. Penguln, l916; Harmondsworth,
L.K.. Penguln, l916);
Cocsor ovd Clcopotro, adapted by Shaw, edlted by Deans,
l915; based on hls play, Ioglc-Iiov, l916;
Soivt oov: Z Scrccvploy, edlted by Bernard I. Dukore
(Seattle London. Lnlverslty of Washlngton
Press, l968).
One of the most lnfluentlal and prollflc wrlters of the
late nlneteenth and early twentleth centurles, George Ber
nard Shaw devoted hls llfe to the craft of wrltlng. Jhough
he ls best known as a playwrlght, he also wrote many
revlews, polltlcal pamphlets, and treatlses. Although Shaw`s
dramatlc work ls wldely appreclated by twentyflrstcentury
scholars and crltlcs, many of hls plays were hlghly contro
verslal and banned from the London stage untll years after
they were wrltten. Shaw`s polltlcal and soclal vlews often
lnfluenced the content of hls plays. A vocal polltlcal actlvlst,
Shaw was convlnced that soclallsm could cure the llls that
capltallsm had wrought on soclety. In hls 8 |une l887 letter
to crusadlng journallst Wllllam J. Stead, Shaw asserts that
'pollte soclety . . . llves by the robbery and murder of the
poor." Ior Shaw, 'Jhe denlal of thls ls the great lle that ls
rottlng our natlonal llfe." Shaw belleved that soclety would
beneflt from the erasure of artlflclal boundarles lmposed by
race, gender, class, and creed. Jhls bellef lnformed Shaw`s
wrltlng throughout hls llfe.
On 26 |uly l856, George Bernard Shaw was born
to George Carr Shaw and Luclnda Ellzabeth Gurly
Shaw ln thelr home on Lpper Synge Street ln Dublln.
He was the youngest of the three Shaw chlldren and the
only son. Hls father was part of the Protestant ascen
dancy that had ancestral roots ln Scotland, whlle hls
mother came from landed gentry ln Ireland. Prlor to
her marrlage, hls mother stood to lnherlt her Aunt
Ellen`s fortunes, but slnce her famlly thought her mar
rlage to George Carr Shaw lmprudent, they dlslnher
lted her. Whlle Shaw`s father was rlch ln llneage, he
lacked monetary assets, worklng as a rather unsuccess
ful graln merchant and struggllng wlth alcohollsm for
much of hls adult llfe. Llvlng what Shaw would later
refer to as a llfe of 'shabby genteel poverty," the Shaw
famlly struggled to malntaln appearances approprlate to
thelr class standlng. Shaw`s mother turned to muslc and
her vocal lnstructor, George Vandeleur Lee, rather than
focus on her roles as wlfe and mother. Vandeleur Lee
would be a constant presence ln and lnfluence on the
llves of the Shaw famlly from the mld l850s untll hls
death ln l886. In l866 the Shaws moved to Jorca Cot
tage, Dalkey Hlll, wlth Vandeleur Lee, formlng a curl
ous yet, by all reports, lnnocent mnage a trols. Jhe
arrangement not only facllltated Luclnda Ellzabeth
Shaw`s muslcal encounters wlth Vandeleur Lee but also
was an economlc necesslty for the Shaw famlly.
Durlng thls tlme, Shaw recelved the llttle formal
schoollng he had. Hls earllest educatlon came from a gov
erness, Mlss Carollne Hlll, and then from a clerlcal uncle,
Wllllam George Carroll. By the tlme he was flfteen years
old, Shaw had attended several schools, lncludlng the Wes
leyan Connexlonal School, |ames Irederlck Halpln`s Pre
paratory School near Dalkey, the Central Model Boys`
School, and the Dublln Engllsh Sclentlflc and Commerclal
Day School. Bellevlng he had 'learnt nothlng," Shaw
abandoned hls formal educatlon ln l87l to begln employ
ment as a clerk at Lnlacke Jownshend and Company, a
Dublln landagent offlce. He reslgned hls posltlon ln Ieb
ruary l876 and moved to London. Jhere Shaw rejolned
hls mother, who had already left Ireland, followlng Van
deleur Lee to London ln l873. Intent on pursulng her
muslc career, she had taken Shaw`s two slstersLuclnda
Irances and Ellnor Agneswlth her, leavlng Shaw and hls
father ln Ireland to care for themselves.
In hls early days ln London, Shaw unsuccessfully
sought employment and even studled exclse ln prepara
tlon for the clvllservlce examlnatlon, whlch he never
saw through to completlon. Llvlng wlth hls mother and
slster, Shaw found hlmself forced to rely on hls mother
for hls room and board and on hls father for flnanclal
support. Jhe everpresent Vandeleur Lee helped ball
hlm out of hls flnanclal stralts by offerlng hlm work
ghostwrltlng muslc crltlclsm. Shaw`s career as a ghost
wrlter dld not last long; he soon abandoned lt to pursue
creatlve wrltlng and to educate hlmself by readlng the
books ln the Brltlsh Museum.
Shaw began wrltlng earnestly ln l878. Jo learn
the craft, he set out to wrlte at least flve pages each day.
Many of hls early creatlvewrltlng attempts were novel
lstlc, but Shaw, lt seems, was not made to be a great
novellst. None of hls flve novelsCoslcl yrov`s Irofcssiov
(l886), Zv Uvsociol Sociolist (l887), Iovc Zmovg tlc Zrtists
(l900), Tlc Irrotiovol Ivot (l905), and Immoturity (l930)
was a llterary success ln lts tlme. In October l878 Shaw
jolned the Zetetlcal Soclety, a debatlng club whlch pro
vlded an open forum for dlscusslons of soclal, phllo
sophlcal, and polltlcal subjects. In the Zetetlcal Soclety,
Shaw not only learned 'the hablts of publlc llfe publlc
l92
d _~ p~ ai_ PPO
actlon slmultaneously wlth the art of publlc speaklng,"
but as he explalns ln a l905 letter to hls blographer
Archlbald Henderson, 'I also became accustomed from
the flrst to work wlth women regard thelr presence
partlclpatlon ln publlc affalrs as a matter of course."
Shaw heard Amerlcan economlst Henry George
glve a speech ln September l88l on Land Natlonallza
tlon and Slngle Jax, whlch had a dramatlc lmpact on
hls polltlcal and soclal vlews. By l883 Shaw had dedl
cated hlmself to studylng and advocatlng soclallsm. Jo
enhance hls knowledge of soclallsm, he began to read
Gabrlel Devlll`s Irench translatlon of Karl Marx`s Dos
Iopitol. Hls passlon for soclallsm drove hlm to seek out
llkemlnded lntellectuals, such as the Iablan Soclety
members. Shaw flrst attended a Iablan Soclety meetlng
ln May l881 and jolned offlclally ln September of that
same year. Rather than pushlng for soclal revolutlon,
the Iablans sought to create a soclallst soclety through
gradual changes. Jwo weeks after he was offlclally
elected to Iablan membershlp, Shaw wrote and pre
sented hls flrst Iablan tract, 'A Manlfesto." He qulckly
rose through the ranks of the Iablans and was elected
to the Iablan Executlve Commlttee ln |anuary l885.
Although he had already commltted most of hls waklng
hours to lecturlng about soclallsm and attendlng polltl
cal meetlngs, ln May l885 Shaw began wrltlng book
revlews for the Ioll Moll Cocttc. Havlng recelved an
lnherltance from hls father and earnlng lncome from an
lncreased number of pald wrltlng jobs, Shaw flnally
found hlmself flnanclally stable.
Shaw had been lnterested ln drama slnce hls early
twentles, but hls career as a playwrlght dld not begln
untll l892. He completed what he called hls three Plays
Lnpleasant!idowcrs` Houscs (produced l892), Tlc Ili-
lovdcrcr (produced l905), and Mrs. !orrcv`s Irofcssiov
(produced l902)as well as hls four Plays Pleasant
Zrms ovd tlc Mov (produced l891), Tlc Mov of Dcstivy
(produced l897), Covdido (produced l897), and Jou
`cvcr Cov Tcll (produced l899). Addltlonally, he wrote
Tlc Dcvil`s Disciplc (produced l897) durlng that same
tlme perlod. Many of Shaw`s early plays were not
lmmedlate stage successes. !idowcrs` Houscs recelved a
total of two performances ln l892 before lt closed.
Shaw was as outspoken about hls polltlcal and soclal
vlews ln hls plays as he was ln hls Iablan speeches and
tracts, attractlng the attentlon of the Lord Chamberlaln.
However, not all of Shaw`s early plays were fallures.
When Zrms ovd tlc Mov opened ln London ln Aprll
l891, lts lnltlal stage run lasted for flfty performances.
Later that year Rlchard Mansfleld produced the play ln
North Amerlca, havlng llcensed lt from Shaw for a year.
By November l891 Shaw had recelved 310 ln royal
tles from both the Brltlsh and the Amerlcan perfor
mances of Zrms ovd tlc Mov.
In |une l890 Shaw began a paper on Norweglan
playwrlght Henrlk Ibsen for the Iablan Soclety. Jhe fol
lowlng year he revlsed the paper lnto hls essay Tlc
_uivtcsscvcc of Ibscvism (l89l). In an ll May l90l artlcle
ln the Covdid Iricvd, Shaw lncluded hlmself along wlth
Ibsen, Leo Jolstoy, German novellst and playwrlght
Hermann Sudermann, and German playwrlght Gerhart
Hauptmann, among 'the revolted bourgeols" wrlters
'whose passlon ls polltlcal and soclologlcal."
!idowcrs` Houscs, the flrst of Shaw`s Plays
Lnpleasant, was lntended to be a collaboratlon
between Shaw and Wllllam Archer ln l881. Archer had
the ldea for the play but acknowledged that he was not
able to wrlte the dlalogue on hls own, so he approached
Shaw to provlde the dlalogue to accompany Archer`s
structure. Accordlng to Archer, ln a short hlstory of the
play that he publlshed ln the l1 December l892 lssue
of Tlc !orld, he explalned that he gave Shaw an outllne
for each scene, and that after Shaw had labored for a
month and a half, he had used all of Archer`s outllne on
only part of the flrst act. Shaw malntalns he was true to
the orlglnal outllneexcept ln removlng from the story
a second daughter, 'a mere jolst ln the plot," and allow
lng the play to reach a loglcal, organlc endlng as
opposed to one flttlng a wellmade play.
Jhe play opened 9 December l892, produced by
|. J. Greln`s Independent Jheatre Soclety, whlch was
well known for staglng European playwrlghts such as
Ibsen. Jhe followlng day the Timcs (London) descrlbed
lt as havlng 'much ln common wlth the audaclous pro
ductlons of the Scandlnavlan school. It ls clever, but
perversea cynlcal, roundabout essay on the selflsh
arlstocrat, the grasplng mlddleclass landlord, and the
unscrupulous plebelan." A commentary on slum land
lordlsm, the play lmpllcates those compllclt ln the
exploltatlon of the poor at all levels of Engllsh soclety.
Shaw`s play was lntended, as he explalned ln hls
l893 preface, 'to lnduce people to vote on the Progres
slve slde." He asserts that he cannot wrlte 'beautlful . . .
or grand" plays because the reallty ln whlch he llves ls
not beautlful. He explalns, 'My llfe has been passed
mostly ln blg modern towns, where my sense of beauty
has been starved whllst my lntellect has been gorged
wlth problems llke that of the slums ln thls play, untll I
have come, ln a horrlble sort of way, to rellsh them
enough to make them the subjects of my essays as an
artlst." !idowcrs` Houscs enjoyed two performances on
lts lnltlal run at the Royalty Jheatre, and, accordlng to
the l0 December l892 Timcs (London), 'the fall of the
curtaln was attended wlth some dlsorder."
Jhe followlng year Shaw wrote the second
Lnpleasant Play, Tlc Ililovdcrcr, a satlrlcal threeact play
ln whlch he targets lnterests he champlonedantlvlvl
sectlon, women`s rlghts, and progresslve movements ln
l93
ai_ PPO d _~ p~
general. It was not be produced untll l905, when an
amateur group called the New Stage Club performed
the play at the Applegate Instltutlon. Central to the plot
ls the Ibsen Club, a progresslve lnstltutlon that allows
nelther manly men nor womanly women as members.
Jhrough thls artlflclal construct of the Ibsen Club,
Shaw poslts the concept that there ls no dlfference
between the mental and emotlonal belng of men and
women, but rather lt ls the expectatlons and demands
of soclety that make the sexes act dlfferently. Llke !id-
owcrs` Houscs, Tlc Ililovdcrcr was lntended as a crltlque
of the capltallst system that Shaw found thoroughly cor
ruptboth ln an economlc and ln a moral sense.
Whlle stlll unable to attaln permlsslon from the
Lord Chamberlaln to stage Tlc Ililovdcrcr, Shaw began
work on one of hls most famous plays and the thlrd to
be lncluded ln Plays Lnpleasant, Mrs. !orrcv`s Irofcssiov,
a reallstlc exploratlon of prostltutlon and a crltlque of
the capltallst system that allows lt to prosper. In thls
play, prostltutlon ls a career cholce, not an exploltatlve
maledomlnated lndustry that Mrs. Warren was forced
lnto by poverty and despalr. Mrs. Warren ls a career
woman who chose her llne of buslness, as Shaw
explalns ln hls preface, because 'prostltutlon ls caused,
not by female depravlty and male llcentlousness, but
slmply by underpaylng, undervalulng, and overwork
lng women so shamefully that the poorest of them are
forced to resort to prostltutlon to keep body and soul
together." He not only contlnues to argue that lndlvldu
als be held responslble but also lmpllcates cltles,
churches, and capltallsm ln general. In hls preface,
Shaw asserts 'that starvatlon, overwork, dlrt, and dls
ease are as antlsoclal as prostltutlonthat they are the
vlces and crlmes of a natlon, and not merely lts mlsfor
tunes," boldly defendlng not only hls play but also hls
polltlcs. Deemed unsultable for the stage by the Lord
Chamberlaln, thls play dld not reach the stage untll
l902, elght years after lt was wrltten. Much llke !idow-
crs` Houscs, Mrs. !orrcv`s Irofcssiov at once condemns the
capltallst soclety that allows exploltatlon of a class or
type of people, and lt exposes the hypocrlsy behlnd
lndlvldual compllclty wlth capltallsm`s lnstltutlonallzed
crlmes. Rather than condemn Mrs. Warren for engag
lng ln the prostltutlon lndustry, Shaw blames hls audl
ences for thelr complacency wlth regard to a system
that creates thls type of lmmorallty.
Wrltten ln March of l891 and performed ln Aprll
of the same year, Zrms ovd tlc Mov, subtltled Zv Zvti-
Iomovtic Comcdy, ls the flrst of Shaw`s Pleasant Plays.
Martln Melsel explalns that Shaw`s deslre was to substl
tute the percelved romance of the mllltary wlth a more
pragmatlc vlew of both war and romance, and that 'hls
method was to confront the conventlonal attltudes and
actlons wlth thls commonsense polnt of vlew, and to
make hls drama out of thelr confllct." Movlng away
from hls pragmatlc attack on soclal problems, Shaw tar
geted the Romantlc ldeallsm that lnterferes wlth soclal
progresslvlsm through lts dlstlnct lnablllty to under
stand reallty, leadlng to moral dlssolutlon ln soclety.
Jhe play was well recelved, and at the premlere,
accordlng to the Timcs (London) of 23 Aprll l891, 'In
response to a call for the author, Mr. Bernard Shaw
came forward and addressed a few words to the house
ln the same cynlcal splrlt as hls play."
Wrltten ln l891, Covdido, another study of the
romantlc versus the pragmatlc, represents a new approach
for Shaw ln hls adherence to the classlcal unltles of tlme,
place, and actlon. Jhe play ls set entlrely ln the 'Study and
General Slttlngroom, St. Domlnlc`s Vlcarage," and the
actlon takes place ln the mornlng, afternoon, and evenlng
of the same day. Produced prlvately ln l897 by the Inde
pendent Jheatre Company at Her Majesty`s Jheatre ln
Aberdeen, the play dld not see the London stage untll
l900, when the Stage Soclety produced lt at the Strand
Jheatre. Parallels exlst between Covdido and Ibsen`s Doll`s
Housc, but wlth roles reversed. In Covdido |ames Morell`s
success ls owed to hls wlfeher emotlonal and mental sup
port, her pragmatlc approach to llfe, and her falth and
bellef ln her husband`s work. Shaw`s play honors mar
rlage, and hls polltlcal dlatrlbes, whlch are loosely velled ln
hls earller plays, are rare ln Covdido. It proved extremely
popular on the stage.
Shaw followed Covdido wlth Tlc Mov of Dcstivy,
wrltten ln l895 but not performed untll l897 ln Croy
don, where lt ran for three performances. Jaklng place
on l2 May l796, thls play ls a battle of wlts between the
twentysevenyearold Napoleon and a female spy after
hls vlctory at Lodl. All of the actlon takes place ln an
Itallan lnn between Lodl and Mllan. Characterlstlc of
Shaw, the extenslve settlng descrlptlon reads llke a
novel, and Napoleon ls characterlzed comlcally,
descrlbed as not unlntelllgent, able to comprehend that
'a cannon ball, lf lt strlkes a man, wlll klll hlm . . . He ls
lmaglnatlve wlthout llluslons, and creatlve wlthout rell
glon, loyalty, patrlotlsm or any of the common ldeals"
(607-608). Almost Wlldean ln lts banter, the play con
slsts completely of the wltty contest between physlcally
mlsmatched mental equals.
Shaw began worklng on Jou `cvcr Cov Tcll ln |uly
of l895, abandoned the effort, and returned to lt ln
December of that year, completlng lt ln May of l896.
Jhe Stage Soclety premlered the play at the Royalty
Jheatre on 26 November l899. A welltlmed, well
constructed comedy, the play acknowledges the stan
dard expectatlons of a comedy and then lnverts, shuf
fles, or destroys them. Jhe central theme of the play ls
relatlonshlps. between mother and chlldren, father and
chlldren, slbllngs, parents, frlends, and lovers.
l91
d _~ p~ ai_ PPO
In l898 Shaw began to have problems wlth swell
lng and paln ln hls left foot. Doctors dlagnosed the
problem as a bone lnfectlon ln May of that year. Shaw,
ln an ll May l898 letter to actress |anet Achurch,
reveals that the doctor, who 'wants to cure me of my
vegetarlan follles," clalms that he ls 'ln crltlcal condl
tlon" and sufferlng from 'undernourlshment." Shaw
attrlbuted hls falllng health to 'overwork" and admltted
that he may 'have been overdolng the superhuman."
Although hls recovery took years, he soon had some
one to care for hlm on a regular basls.
Prlor to hls lllness ln l898, Shaw had begun a
relatlonshlp wlth Irlsh helress Charlotte Payne
Jownshend. Jhe two had been lntroduced ln |anuary
l896 by mutual frlends Beatrlce and Sldney Webb.
Shortly after Shaw`s health decllned, the two marrled
on l |une l898 ln the Reglstry Offlce, Covent Garden,
endlng Shaw`s fortytwo years of conflrmed bachelor
hood and provldlng hlm flnanclal securlty. Shaw`s pas
slon for polltlcs and wrltlng was equaled by Charlotte`s
passlon for travel, and they were frequently away from
London. Even so, ln thelr flrst year of marrlage, he
wrote q m t~ and `~~ ~ `~~. Jhelr
marrlage seems never consummated, though they
shared a companlonable and relatlvely happy llfe
together. Jhroughout hls marrlage Shaw developed
romances wlth other women, but Charlotte remalned
devoted to hlm untll her death ln l913.
After hls marrlage Shaw worked lncessantly, to
the polnt of feellng 'nearly dead wlth work." In one of
hls many letters to actress Ellen Jerry, Shaw reveals that
ln |uly l900 'wlth the Vestry, the Iablan, the prlnters
(Amerlcan Engllsh) and a thousand other thlngs, I am
worklng llke mad slxteen hours a day." Although he
had been wrltlng for years, Shaw had yet to make hls
mark on the London stage.
In l90l Shaw publlshed q m~ m~I the
flrst of whlch was q a a. Wrltten ln l896,
lts flrst performance was ln Albany, New York, followed
shortly by an engagement at the Ilfth Avenue Jheatre
ln New York Clty beglnnlng l October l897, where lt
was a success. Melsel descrlbes Dlon Bouclcault`s
^~J~Jm as a typlcal Irlsh melodrama, wlth a
'rebel and garrlson sltuatlon" and suggests that q
a a evldences Shaw`s 'transfer of the Irlsh
subgenre as a whole to Amerlca." Jhe 27 September
q (London) sald of the play that lt was 'full of that
mordant satlre wlth whlch we are famlllar ln Mr.
Shaw`s work and full, too, of that sense of lnslncerlty, of
mere poslng whlch mars so much of lt"; yet, overall lt
'offends less" than much of Shaw`s work.
Jhe second of the Purltan plays ls `~~ ~ `J
~~I whlch accordlng to Melsel 'was hls flrst fullscale
hlstorlcal drama, and the elements of spectacle and cos
tume have a much greater part ln the play than ls appar
ent merely ln the readlng." Jhe play was wrltten ln
l898 and performed ln Chlcago by students at the
Anna Morgan Studlos for Art and Expresslon ln l90l.
It was performed ln German ln Berlln ln l906 and ln
Engllsh ln New York later ln that same year. Shaw`s
constructlon ls ln the Shakespearean flveact pattern.
He draws Caesar as an ordlnary man; ln comparlson to
the publlc man of power ln Wllllam Shakespeare`s play,
Shaw`s Caesar ls the precursor to the man he becomes
ln Shakespeare, much llke the young Napoleon of ^
j~ a. Cleopatra ls a younger and uncertaln
queen, whom Caesar takes under hls wlng and teaches
her how a queen ought to behave. In hls 'Notes to Cae
sar and Cleopatra," Shaw descrlbes Cleopatra as 'chlld
lsh" and explalns that he was not compelled 'to belleve
that Cleopatra was well educated." Slmllarly, Caesar, to
Shaw, whlle a great man on the battlefleld, ls even
greater as a prlvate man.
Jhe thlrd Purltan play ls `~~ _~ `J
I wrltten ln l899 and performed by the Stage Soclety ln
l900. Jhls ls Shaw`s last play ln the nlneteenth century,
wrltten speclflcally for Jerry, who was unlmpressed. Set ln
Morocco, the play ls dlfflcult to read because Shaw has
wrltten several roles wlth Amerlcan, Scots, and Cockney
dlalectal pronunclatlons. Jhe l7 September l907 q
(London) lauds the play for lncludlng 'no selfsacrlflclng
young men, no sanctlmonlous young women, and not
even a mlddleaged vlllaln who comes to a bad end ln
order to polnt a good moral."
Louls Crompton suggests that as Shaw moved
lnto the twentleth century, he lntroduced a new type of
play, and 'Each new play of thls genrethe only appro
prlate name for whlch ls 'phllosophlc comedy`beglns
as a Molleresque satlre on a llberal reformer and then
develops lnto a fullfledged Platonlc dlalogue." j~ ~
p~ was wrltten ln l90l and subtltled ^ `
~ ~ m. At lts core, the play ls about the con
stant battle between the sexes, one that, accordlng to
Shaw, women wlll always wln. Even a superman ls no
match for the unyleldlng drlve of a woman seeklng a
husband and famlly. q (London), 21 May l905,
acknowledges the dlfflcult phllosophy of the play, sug
gestlng that lt 'may be cordlally commended to the
attentlon of all playgoers who do not leave thelr bralns
along wlth thelr wraps ln the cloakroom."
In l901 Shaw broached the Irlsh questlon wlth
g _ l f~I ln whlch Irlshman Larry Doyle
reluctantly returns to Ireland wlth hls Engllsh buslness
partner Jom Broadbent when they come lnto owner
shlp of land ln Larry`s blrthplace. Shaw advocates Irlsh
home rule, characterlzes the Irlsh as a pragmatlc people
and the Engllsh as decldedly bllnd to reallty, and polnts
l95
ai_ PPO d _~ p~
to the church as belng compllclt ln the pllght of the Irlsh
at the hands of the Engllsh as well as thelr own.
Shaw flrst encountered Harley Granvllle Barker,
who brought hls plays to the attentlon of England`s audl
ences and crltlcs, ln the summer of l900. Shaw was
lmpressed by Barker`s performance ln Hauptmann`s
Iricdcvsfcst and began to collaborate wlth hlm on theatrlcal
performances. By l901 Barker had developed a plan to
promote 'uncommerclal drama" ln London. At the tlme
the twentyflveyearold actor was employed as the dlrec
tor of |. H. Lelgh`s Royal Court Jheatre ln Sloane Square.
Slnce Barker now had a theater, Shaw had an outlet for hls
plays. Barker began by produclng slx matlnee perfor
mances of Shaw`s Covdido and, flndlng the play largely suc
cessful, jolned wlth the Lelgh`s manager, |ohn Eugene
Vedrenne, to produce a contlnulng serles of plays that
would begln that October. Lnder Barker and Vedrenne`s
management, between l901 and l907 the Royal Court
Jheatre hosted productlons of Shaw`s plays, lncludlng
How Hc Iicd to Hcr Husbovd; olv ull`s Utlcr Islovd; Mov
ovd Supcrmov; Iossiov, Iossiov, Ioisov, ovd Ictrifoctiov: or Tlc
Iotol Coogcvc; Mojor orboro; Tlc Doctor`s Dilcmmo; Tlc Mov
of Dcstivy, and Dov uov iv Hcll. Shaw`s collaboratlon wlth
Barker and Vedrenne marked the beglnnlng of hls wlde
spread popularlty ln England.
In the mldst of hls theatrlcal rlse, Shaw contlnued
to lecture for the Iablans and promote varlous soclal
causes, lncludlng women`s rlghts. Shaw prlded hlmself
on hls progresslve soclal stances and was as outspoken
ln lectures and lntervlews about women`s rlghts as he
was about soclallsm, vegetarlanlsm, and jaegerlsm
(whlch lncluded the bellef that fabrlcs made from anl
mal flber promoted health, accountlng for Shaw`s pecu
llar dress). Bellevlng women`s attlre to be both
restrlctlve and unpractlcal, Shaw, ln a March l905 lnter
vlew wlth suffraglst Maud Churton Braby, declared
that 'a woman |should| dress as much as posslble llke a
woman, just as a man dresses llke a man." Shaw, how
ever, was not advocatlng for tradltlonal women`s attlre,
such as corsets and 'curtalnllke" dresses, but slnce 'A
woman ls a blped, bullt llke a man; let her dress llke a
man," llke hls trouserswearlng women from the Ibsen
Club ln Tlc Ililovdcrcr. A year later, ln another lnter
vlew wlth Churton Braby, Shaw slmllarly advocated for
women`s suffrage. In hls own extreme language, he
asserted that 'Women should have a revolutlonthey
should shoot, klll, malm, destroyuntll they are glven a
vote." He belleved women were as quallfled to vote as
men and thus should not be denled the rlght to vote.
Equal treatment for women was one passlon that Shaw
and Charlotte shared as she would dedlcate much of
her own llfe to advocatlng for women`s causes.
Shaw soon put another emanclpated, though con
fllcted, woman on the stage. Mojor orboro, wrltten and
performed ln l905, opened not only to the prlme mlnls
ter but also to several Salvatlon Army commlssloners ln
the audlence. In thls play, the Lndershaft famlly con
fronts flnanclal reallty and, remlnlscent of !idowcrs`
Houscs, comes to terms wlth the source of the famlly
wealth. Barbara, a major ln the Salvatlon Army, ls
opposed to her father`s munltlons lndustry. Character
lzed by dlstlnctly dlfferent personal phllosophles, Bar
bara and her father agree to go to see the other`s place
of work, thus settlng up the moral debate of the play.
Durlng her father`s vlslt to the shelter, Barbara
learns that the Salvatlon Army accepts flnanclal support
from wealthy manufacturers who beneflt from the vlces
of those that the shelter serves. Dlslllusloned, Barbara
quletly rlds herself of her Salvatlon Army badge. In
contrast, her father`s factory supports an ldeal soclety,
wlth llbrarles, schools, nurslng homes, and best of all,
no povertybut at a prlce. Barbara ls convlnced to save
souls at the factoryslnce there ls no poverty, hunger,
or crlme, resldents here frequently neglect thelr souls.
Shaw shatters the llluslons of the successful plety of the
Salvatlon Army wlth lts lnablllty to treat the causes of
soclal problems, lnstead treatlng only the glarlng symp
toms, ln contrast wlth the ldylllc soclety created by an
amoral mllltary lndustrlal partnershlp.
Shaw followed Mojor orboro wlth Tlc Doctor`s
Dilcmmo, whlch opened at the Court Jheatre ln Novem
ber of l906. In thls play, an artlst of questlonable mor
als, Subedlt, ls at the mercy of a trlbunal of doctors who
must declde lf hls llfe ls worth savlng ln a tlme when
medlcal supplles are low. Inadvertently mlstreated, the
artlst`s condltlon deterlorates sooner than expected, and
he dellghts ln the consternatlon of the panel of doctors
as they wltness the decllne that leads to hls death. In
l909 Tlc Slowivg-Up of lovco Iosvct, a courtroom drama
ln whlch a horse thlef must defend hlmself, opened at
the Abbey ln Dublln. Not only had Blanco Posnet sto
len the horse ln questlon, but he had uncharacterlstl
cally glven lt to a woman who needed lt as she trled
unsuccessfully to save her dylng chlld. Jhe mother ls
unable to ldentlfy hlm, and he ls set free wlth a new
found rellglous zeal that has replaced hls former felonl
ous energles. Misolliovcc followed ln l9l0, ln whlch a
plotless weekend ln the country ls lnterrupted by a vlsl
ble dcus cx moclivoa crash landlng of a small plane at
the Jarleton home. Lltlmately, the pllot and passenger
break up an engagement as the pllot dlverts the roman
tlc lnterest of Jarleton`s daughter and her former flanc
flnds comfort and escape wlth the passenger, a Pollsh
acrobat, and the plane.
Iovvy`s Iirst Iloy opened at the Llttle Jheatre ln
l9ll, dlrected anonymously by Shaw. Jhls was the flrst
Shaw play to enjoy a long run, more than slx hundred
performances. After lts lnltlal success thls satlre on crlt
l96
d _~ p~ ai_ PPO
lcs and crltlclsm was rarely staged. Ior the openlng
nlght, Shaw hld the fact that he wrote the play, a paral
lel of the plot ltself. Iramed wlth a prologue and epl
logue, Ianny`s father, Count O`Dowda, stages a prlvate
performance for lmportant crltlcs of a play eventually
revealed to have been wrltten by Ianny. Her play ls
about two London famllles, coowners of an underwear
buslness, whose chlldren endure a falled engagement.
Shaw`s play lncludes crltlcs who are based on realllfe
models from contemporary London, as well as charac
ters who parody standard Shaw characters. Rlch wlth
references to the theater of the early twentleth century,
the epllogue of the play blurs the ldentlty of Shaw wlth
Ianny as the crltlcs yell 'Shaw" when Ianny appears
after the performance of her play.
Iygmoliov was flrst produced ln Vlenna (ln German)
ln l9l3, and the followlng year lt was produced ln
England at Hls Majesty`s Jheatre. Phonetlclan Henry Hlg
glns agrees to take on the challenglng Cockney accent of
Ellza Doollttle and bets hls colleague Colonel Plckerlng
that wlthln months he wlll have her speaklng llke a hlgh
class lady. She ls a challenge to hlm, and once he teaches
her the manners and trapplngs of soclety, Hlgglns, lacklng
manners of hls own, treats her slmply as a flnlshed experl
ment. Jhe endlng, nevertheless, has been open to lnterpre
tatlon ln splte of the clarlty wlth whlch Shaw drew thelr
partlng, and sentlmentallty has over the years lnvaded the
play, dlstortlng lt ln movles and muslcals, wlth requlslte
happlly palred hero and herolne.
In the mldst of rehearslng Iygmoliov, Shaw fell 'vlo
lently and exqulsltely ln love" wlth actress Mrs. Patrlck
Campbell, who was cast as Ellza Doollttle. Jhelr romance,
however, drew to a close when Stella marrled the newly
dlvorced George CornwalllsWest ln Aprll l9l1. Desplte
lts abrupt end, hls relatlonshlp wlth Stella was not wlthout
llterary lnfluence. As Dan Laurence suggests ln crvord
Slow: Collcctcd Icttcrs 1911-192, Shaw`s l9l2 play Uvcr-
rulcd lncluded characters 'bearlng marked llkenesses to
Stella, Charlotte, and hlmself." In splte of hls lnfatuatlon
wlth Stella and Charlotte`s lre toward hlm, the Shaws
would settle back lnto the routlnes of marrled llfe, movlng
past the llllclt romance.
As the dlscord ln the Shaw household owlng to
hls marltal lnfldelltles subslded, the dlscord that had
been spreadlng across Europe came to a head. Whlle
the Brltlsh publlc rallled around crles of patrlotlsm and
natlonallsm agalnst the German enemy, Shaw stood
declslvely agalnst the war. In September l9l1, when
flftyfour of hls fellow wrlters slgned a declaratlon of
patrlotlsm, Shaw decllned to add hls slgnature to the
llst. In November of that year Tlc Stotcsmov publlshed
Shaw`s thlrtyslxthousandword treatlse that outllned
hls vlews of and arguments agalnst war. In a 2l Octo
ber l9l1 letter to Stotcsmov edltor Cllfford Sharp, Shaw
descrlbed hls treatlse, Commov Scvsc obout tlc !or, as pre
sentlng 'Soclallsm wlth somethlng llke an lntelllglble
and dlstlnctlve forelgn pollcy." Shaw`s arguments ln hls
treatlse caused an uproar throughout Brltlsh soclety
and recelved a falr amount of attentlon abroad. A year
later, ln October l9l5, the Germans quoted Shaw ln
antlBrltlsh propaganda they were dlstrlbutlng to rally
Moroccans and Algerlans agalnst the Irench. Jo
counter thelr propaganda, Shaw was asked to wrlte a
statement showlng hls support for Brltaln and opposl
tlon of Germany. Hls compllance to the request, how
ever, dld llttle to lmprove hls dlmlnlshed popularlty. As
fellow author Henry Arthur |ones wrote to hlm on l
November l9l5, Shaw had, ln essence, 'klcked and
defamed hls mother |England| when she was on a slck
bed." Shaw`s 'mlschlevous treason," whlle temporarlly
damaglng, dld not scar hls publlc lmage.
Both performances of Shaw`s plays and the
amount Shaw wrote decreased slgnlflcantly durlng the
war. Between l9l1 and l9l8, Shaw completed several
playlets as well as three playsZugustus Docs His it (pro
duced l9l7); Zvvojovslo, tlc !ild Crovd Duclcss (pro
duced l9l8); and Hcortbrcol Housc (produced l920).
Hls plays, however, were consplcuously absent from the
stages of the popular West End theaters ln London.
After the Jreaty of Versallles was slgned ln l9l9, Shaw
began to regaln hls popularlty wlth the general publlc,
and hls plays once agaln made thelr way onto the
Engllsh stage, wlth Zrms ovd tlc Mov leadlng the way. It
had been flve years slnce one of Shaw`s plays had been
produced ln the West End theater dlstrlct.
In l9l6 and l9l7 Shaw wrote Hcortbrcol Housc,
subtltled 'A Iantasla ln the Russlan Manner on Engllsh
Jhemes," and renamed 'Scatterbraln House" ln a Timcs
(London) revlew from l9 October l92l. Iaulted for lts
lnslncere treatment of love, lt ls redeemed because 'any
play by Mr. Shaw cannot but afford much entertaln
ment and some profltable reflectlon, and there ls plenty
of both ln Hcortbrcol Housc." Influenced by Chekhov,
the play ls a commentary on the war, polntlng to the
Engllsh rullng class as lrresponslble and lneffectlve,
allowlng the metaphorlcal shlp that ls England to drlft
almlessly. Shaw borrows from the technlques used by
the symbollsts ln thls play, from the house that looks
llke a shlp, to the llngulstlc shlfts ln conversatlon from
verse to prose, to the lmplled futures for the characters
as the play ends. Jhls play also represents a thematlc
and structural shlft for Shaw. Stlll remalnlng a soclallst
concerned wlth problems that plague soclety, Shaw real
lzed that ln splte of potentlal polltlcal changes, man
must also be lmpllcated ln socletal llls. Structurally,
Shaw moved away from the underlylng wellmadeplay
structure toward a more experlmental approach.
l97
ai_ PPO d _~ p~
In l923 Shaw wrote Soivt oov about the newly can
onlzed (ln l920) |oan of Arca young Irench mald who,
durlng the flfteenth century, had vlslons, lnslsted that God
help her save the Irench and ln Shaw`s verslon presents
the paradoxlcal confllct between the Church law and the
law of the land. Shaw`s work had been evolvlng from the
pragmatlc soclal dramas advocatlng soclallsm to more
mystlc approach lnvolvlng the Llfe Iorce. He belleved that
vlslonarles such as |oan of Arc and |esus Chrlst brought
new ldeas to humanklnd that contlnued growth and devel
opment of the Llfe Iorce. |oan ls a mystlc revolutlonary
who valued her causes more than her llfe. Revlewed ln
Timcs (London), 27 March l921, the play was faulted for
'Shavlanlsms," such as llngulstlc anachronlsms, the occa
slonal long speech, and hls llfelong penchant for polltlclz
lng even hls hlstorlcal works wlth contemporary
problems, but the play was otherwlse lauded as 'one of
Mr. Shaw`s flnest achlevements."
Although hls works were almost as well known as
hls polltlcal and soclal vlews, Shaw dld not have center
stage ln the mlnds of hls countrymen. As Dan H. Lau
rence polnts out ln crvord Slow: Collcctcd Icttcrs |volume 1|
1926-190 (l988), Shaw 'alone among Brltlsh dramatlsts
of the past three centurles . . . attalned lnternatlonal
supremacy ln the theatre, and was probably the most
famous person ln the world." So ln l926, when Shaw was
awarded the Nobel Prlze ln Llterature for l925 by the
Swedlsh Academy, no one was surprlsedexcept for Shaw
and the Brltlsh. Shaw was the flrst Brltlsh wrlter slnce
Rudyard Klpllng ln l907 to wln the Nobel Prlze ln Lltera
ture. At seventy years of age, Shaw had attalned global rec
ognltlon for hls work.
Becomlng a Nobel laureate and achlevlng global
fame dld not mark the end of Shaw`s career, but rather
Shaw contlnued on ln hls roles as wrlter and advocate for
soclallst causes, wrltlng some of hls major polltlcal works
ln hls last years. In l927 Shaw wrote Tlc Ivtclligcvt !omov`s
Cuidc to Copitolism ovd Sociolism. Jhe Ivtclligcvt !omov`s Cuidc,
whlch would be publlshed the followlng year, not only
conveyed Shaw`s soclallst vlews but also promoted equal
lty between the genders. It was successful ln both the
Lnlted States and Great Brltaln.
Desplte hls soclallst vlews Shaw belleved ln power
ful leaders. In the late l920s, Shaw made several contro
verslal comments ln support of Itallan dlctator Benlto
Mussollnl, who had been rejected by soclallsts at the
beglnnlng of World War I. In the l930s Shaw expressed
admlratlon for totalltarlan leaders |oseph Stalln and Adolf
Hltler. Although he later condemned Hltler`s raclsm, Shaw
malntalned an admlratlon of Stalln, as he belleved Stalln
shared vlews wlth the Iablan soclallsts.
In the mldst of hls polltlcal commentary, Shaw trav
eled extenslvely wlth hls wlfe, especlally between l93l
and l936. As Shaw once told publlsher Otto Kyllmann ln
l933, 'My wlfe has taken lt lnto her head that she must go
round the world before she dles; and I shall have to go
wlth her." Havlng already traveled to the Medlterranean,
the Holy Land, Venlce, Parls, London, Russla, and South
Afrlca ln l93l, ln December l932 the Shaws embarked an
a crulse around the world on the Imprcss of ritoiv.
Durlng thelr travels, Shaw wrote to completlon
Too Truc to c Cood (produced l932), Tlc Zdvcvturcs of tlc
locl Cirl iv Hcr Scorcl for Cod (publlshed l932), Uv tlc
Iocls (produced l933), !illogc !ooivg (produced l931),
Tlc Simplctov of tlc Uvcxpcctcd Islcs (produced l935), Tlc
Milliovoircss (produced l936), Cymbclivc Icfivislcd (pro
duced l937), and Ccvcvo (produced l938). At the varl
ous port cltles ln whlch they stopped, the Shaws were
greeted by the forelgn press and hordes of adorlng fans.
Iorelgn dlgnltarles and heads of state also took notlce of
Shaw`s presence ln thelr countrles. In the mldst of hls
travels, Shaw met wlth Stalln ln Moscow ln |uly l93l;
Mahatma Gandhl durlng a brlef stop back ln London
ln November l93l; and, ln Iebruary l933, Chlnese
revolutlonary leader Sun Yatsen as well as |apanese
prlme mlnlster Admlral Makoto. Of all the people he
met and cultures he encountered, Shaw commented ln
an lntervlew wlth Rltchle Calder of the Doily Hcrold on
20 Aprll l933 that he had 'found the clvlllsed peoples
unhappy and anxlous and, wherever they are unclvl
llsed, they are happy and carefree."
Old age, however, eventually caught up wlth the
Shaws. In the early l910s Charlotte`s mental and physl
cal health decllned. On l2 September l913 Charlotte
Shaw dled at the age of 86. Shaw had several years left
to llve followlng Charlotte`s death, and ln typlcal Sha
vlan fashlon, he contlnued wrltlng untll hls own death
ln l950. In hls last years Shaw completed another of hls
major polltlcal works, Ivcrybody`s Ioliticol !lot`s !lot?
(l911), whlch he began wrltlng durlng Charlotte`s lll
ness. Even ln hls nlnetles nelther Shaw`s play wrltlng
nor hls letter wrltlng decreased. Between l917 and
l950 he completed slx more plays. uoyovt illiovs (pro
duced l918), Slolcs !crsus Slov ( produced l919), Ior-
fctclcd Ioblcs (produced l950), and !ly Slc !ould òt
(produced l957). Whlle he contlnued wrltlng hls many
correspondents, Shaw notlced that hls abllltles had
greatly decreased and that he was no longer able to
wrlte letters by hand. In a l918 letter to the Very Rever
end Wllllam Ralph Inge, dean of St. Paul`s, Shaw com
ments, 'I have to type my letters because I wrlte llke a
chlld maklng pothooks and hangers, very slowly." In
the early mornlng hours of l November l950 Shaw fell
lnto a coma. Jhe next day the Great Genlus, as Char
lotte once affectlonately called hlm, passed on. After hls
funeral Shaw`s ashes were mlxed wlth Charlotte`s, and
they were both sprlnkled throughout thelr Ayot St.
Lawrence garden.
l98
d _~ p~ ai_ PPO
In Tlc `cw Jorl Timcs, l8 |une l898, Shaw`s
IloysUvplcosovt ovd Ilcosovt was derlslvely revlewed as
'fluent" and 'showy." Yet, hls plays exhlblt evldence
that 'lf he had the poet`s glft he mlght easlly become a
real dramatlst." Jwo years later, ln the 3 May l900
Timcs (London), Shaw`s reputatlon had qulckly become
that of a renalssance man, albelt occaslonally overzeal
ous. 'successlvely, or even slmultaneously, he has been
novellst, kerbstone orator, art crltlc, muslcal crltlc, dra
matlc crltlc, publlclst, vestryman, and playwrlght." Hls
fault. 'Mr. Shaw remalns lneffectual because he has too
much lntellect." Jhese perceptlons remalned wlth Shaw
throughout hls career, but he was a longllved and lnflu
entlal force ln the llterary and polltlcal worlds. Shaw
speaks through hls works, and evenhandedly laughs
not only at the folbles of hls world but also at hlmself.
In splte of the early perceptlon that he had 'too much
lntellect" and lacked the 'poet`s glft," Shaw left, accord
lng to Wllllam D. Chase ln hls foreword to Shaw`s wlll,
'one of the largest estates amassed ln the professlon of
llterature." Shaw found lnsplratlon all around hlmln
hls llfe, ln hls soclal mllleu, and ln hls dramatlc prede
cessors from Shakespeare to Ibsen. Jhe drlvlng force
that moved Engllsh drama lnto the twentleth century,
George Bernard Shaw contlnues to lnfluence audlences
through modern productlons of hls works and the wrlt
lngs of twentyflrst century dramatlsts.
iW
Icttcrs from Ccorgc crvord Slow to Miss Zlmo Murroy
(Mrs. Zlfrcd Iormov ) (London. Prlvately prlnted,
l927);
Illcv Tcrry ovd crvord Slow: Z Corrcspovdcvcc, edlted by
Chrlstopher St. |ohn (New York. Putnam; Lon
don. Constable, l93l);
Morc Icttcrs from Ccorgc crvord Slow to Miss Zlmo Murroy
(Mrs. Zlfrcd Iormov) (London. Prlvately prlnted,
l932);
Ilorcvcc Iorr, crvord Slow, !. . Jcots, edlted by Cllfford
Bax (Dublln. Cuala Press, l91l; New York.
Dodd, Mead, l912; London. Home Van Jhal,
l916);
crvord Slow ovd Mrs. Iotricl Compbcll: Z Corrcspovdcvcc,
edlted by Alan Dent (London. Gollancz, l952;
New York. Knopf, l952);
Zdvicc to o Jouvg Critic ovd Utlcr Icttcrs, edlted by E. |.
West (New York. Crown, l955); republlshed as
Zdvicc to o Jouvg Critic: Icttcrs 1S94-192S (Lon
don. Owen, l956);
Iv o Crcot Troditiov: Tributc to Domc Iourcvtio McIocllov,
edlted by the Nuns of Stanbrook (New York.
Harper, l956)lncludes letters from Shaw;
crvord Slow`s Icttcrs to Crovvillc orlcr, edlted by C. B.
Purdom (New York. Jheatre Arts Books, l957;
London. Phoenlx House, l957);
To o Jouvg Zctrcss: tlc Icttcrs of crvord Slow to Molly Tomp-
livs, edlted by Peter Jompklns (New York. Potter,
l960; London. Constable, l96l);
Collcctcd Icttcrs, 1S6-190, 1 volumes, edlted by Dan
H. Laurence (London. Relnhardt, l965-l988);
crvord Slow`s ovd Zlfrcd Douglos: Z Corrcspovdcvcc, edlted
by Mary Hyde (London. Murray, l982; New
Haven. Jlcknor Ilelds, l982);
Tlc Iloywriglt ovd tlc Iirotc. crvord Slow ovd Irovl Hor-
ris, o corrcspovdcvcc 1S9S-19J0, edlted by Stanley
Welntraub (Lnlverslty Park. Pennsylvanla State
Zgitotiovs: Icttcrs to tlc Ircss 1S7-190, edlted by Lau
rence and |ames Rambeau (New York. Lngar,
l985);
crvord Slow`s Icttcrs to Sicgfricd Trcbitscl, edlted by Sam
uel A. Welss (Stanford, Cal.. Stanford Lnlverslty
Press, l986);
Dcor Mr. Slow: Sclcctiovs Irom crvord Slow`s Iostbog,
edlted by Vlvlan Elllot (London. Bloomsbury,
l988);
Elleen O`Casey, Clccrio, Titov: Tlc Iricvdslip bctwccv
Ccorgc crvord Slow ovd Iilccv ovd Scov U`Coscy
(New York. Scrlbners, l989);
Icttcrs from Morgorct: Corrcspovdcvcc bctwccv crvord Slow
ovd Morgorct !lcclcr, 1944-190, edlted by
Rebecca Swlft (London. Chatto Wlndus,
l992);
Slow, Iody Crcgory ovd tlc Zbbcy: Z Corrcspovdcvcc ovd o
Iccord, edlted by Laurence and Nlcholas Grene
(Gerrards Cross, L.K.. Colln Smythe, l993);
Tlcotrics: Sclcctcd Corrcspovdcvcc of crvord Slow, edlted by
Laurence (Joronto London. Lnlverslty of
Joronto Press, l995);
crvord Slow ovd H. C. !clls, edlted by |. Percy Smlth,
(Joronto. Lnlverslty of Joronto Press, l995);
crvord Slow ovd Cobricl Ioscol, edlted by Bernard I.
Dukore (Joronto. Lnlverslty of Joronto Press,
l996);
Slow ov Tlcotrc: o Holf Ccvtury of Zdviccs (Lewlsburg, Pa..
Ellen Clarke Bertrand Llbrary, Bucknell Lnlver
slty, Jhe Press of Apple Jree Alley, l998);
Corrcspovdcvcc witl crvord ovd Clorlottc Slow, J. E.
Lawrence (Iordlngbrldge. Castle Hlll, 2000).
crvord Slow ovd tlc !cbbs, edlted by Alex C. Mlchalos
and Deborah C. Poff (Joronto. Lnlverslty of Joronto
Press, 2002);
crvord Slow ovd orry oclsov (Joronto. Lnlverslty of
Joronto Press, 2002);
crvord Slow ovd òvcy Zstor (Joronto. Lnlverslty of
Joronto Press, 2005).
l99
ai_ PPO d _~ p~
fW
Slow: Ivtcrvicws ovd Iccollcctiovs, edlted by A. M. Glbbs
(Baslngstoke, L.K.. Macmlllan, l990; Iowa Clty.
Lnlverslty of Iowa Press, l990).
_~W
Dan H. Laurence, crvord Slow: Z ibliogroply, 2 vol
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|. P. Wearlng, ed., C. . Slow: Zv Zvvototcd ibliogroply
of !ritivgs obout Him, 3 volumes (De Kalb. North
ern Illlnols Lnlverslty Press, l986-l987);
Margery Morgan, Iilc ov Slow (Portsmouth, N.H..
Methuen Drama, Mlchelln House, l987);
Stanley Welntraub, crvord Slow: Z Cuidc to Icscorcl
Press, l992);
Laurence and Ired D. Crawford, ibliogroplicol Slow,
Press, 2000).
_~W
Archlbald Henderson, Ccorgc crvord Slow. His Iifc ovd
!orls (London. Hurst Blackett, l9ll; Clnclnnatl.
Stewart Kldd, l9ll);
Irank Harrls, crvord Slow. Zv Uvoutloricd iogroply oscd
ov Iirst-lovd Ivformotiov, witl o Iostscript by Mr. Slow,
edlted by Shaw (London. Gollancz, l93l; New
York. Slmon Schuster, l93l);
Henderson, crvord Slow, Iloyboy ovd Iroplct (New York.
Appleton, l932);
Hesketh Pearson, crvord Slow. His Iifc ovd Icrsovolity (Lon
don. Colllns, l912); republlshed as crvord Slow. Z
Iull-Icvgtl Iortroit (New York. Harper, l912; revlsed
edltlon, London. Methuen, l95l; New York. Athe
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Blanche Patch, Tlirty Jcors witl C..S. (London. Gollancz,
l95l; New York. Dodd, Mead, l95l);
R. I. Rattray, crvord Slow. Z Clroviclc (New York. Roy,
l95l);
St. |ohn Ervlne, crvord Slow. His Iifc, !orl ovd Iricvds
(London. Constable, l956; New York. Morrow,
l956);
Henderson, Ccorgc crvord Slow. Mov of tlc Ccvtury (New
York. AppletonCentury Crofts, l956);
Stephen Wlnsten, cstivg Zpostlc, tlc Iifc of crvord Slow
(London. Hutchlnson, l956);
Henry George Iarmer, crvord Slow`s Sistcr ovd Hcr
Iricvds (Lelden, L.K.. Brlll, l959);
Allan Chappelow, Slow tlc !illogcr ovd Humov civg. Z
iogroplicol Symposium (London. Skllton, l96l);
Stanley Welntraub, Irivotc Slow ovd Iublic Slow. Z Duol
iogroply of Iowrcvcc of Zrobio ovd crvord Slow
(New York. Brazlller, l963; London. Cape,
l963);
B. C. Rosset, Slow of Dubliv. Tlc Iormotivc Jcors (Lnlver
l961);
|. Percy Smlth, Tlc Uvrcpcvtovt Iilgrim. Z Study of tlc
Dcvclopmcvt of crvord Slow (Boston. Houghton
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|ohn O`Donovan, Slow ovd tlc Clorlotov Ccvius (Dublln.
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|. R. Mlnney. Iccollcctiovs of Ccorgc crvord Slow (Engle
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Welntraub, ourvcy to Hcortbrcol. Tlc Cruciblc Jcors of cr-
vord Slow, 1914-191S (New York. Weybrlght
Jalley, l97l); republlshed as crvord Slow 1914-
191S: ourvcy to Hcortbrcol (London. Routledge
Kegan Paul, l973);
Nathanlel Harrls, Tlc Slows. Tlc Iomily of crvord Slow
(London. Dent, l977);
Margot Peters, crvord Slow ovd tlc Zctrcsscs (Garden
Mlchael Holroyd, crvord Slow, 1S6-190, 5 volumes
(London. Chatto Wlndus, l988-l992).
oW
Anthony S. Abbott, Slow ovd Clristiovity (New York.
Seabury Press, l965);
Elsle B. Adams, crvord Slow ovd tlc Zcstlctcs (Colum
bus. Ohlo State Lnlverslty Press, l97l);
Sldney P. Albert, 'Bernard Shaw. Jhe Artlst as Phlloso
pher," ourvol of Zcstlctics ovd Zrt Criticism, l1
(l956). 1l9-138;
Albert, ''In More Ways Jhan One`. Major Barbara`s
Debt to Gllbert Murray," Iducotiovol Tlcotrc our-
vol, 20 (l968). l23-l10;
Albert, 'More Shaw Advlce to the Players of Mojor or-
boro," Tlcotrc Survcy, ll (l970). 66-85;
Albert, 'Jhe Prlce of Salvatlon. Moral Economlcs ln
Mojor orboro," Modcrv Dromo, l1 (l97l). 307-
323;
Albert, 'Shaw`s Advlce to the Players of Mojor orboro,"
Tlcotrc Survcy, l0 (l969). l-l7;
Awam Amkpa, 'Drama and the Languages of Postcolonlal
Deslre. Bernard Shaw`s Pygmallon," Irisl Uvivcr-
sity Icvicw: Z ourvol of Irisl Studics, 29 (Autumn-
Wlnter l999). 291-301;
W. H. Auden, 'Jhe Iablan Ilgaro," ln Ccorgc crvord
Slow: Z Criticol Survcy, edlted by Louls Kronen
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|ullus Bab, crvord Slow (Berlln. Ilscher, l926);
Stuart E. Baker, crvord Slow`s Icmorloblc Icligiov: o Ioitl
tlot Iits tlc Iocts (Galnesvllle. Lnlverslty Press of
Ilorlda, 2002);
Alan P. Barr, !ictoriov Stogc Iulpitccr: crvord Slow`s Crusodc
(Athens. Lnlverslty of Georgla Press, l973);
200
d _~ p~ ai_ PPO
Erlc Bentley, crvord Slow, 1S6-190 (New York. New
Dlrectlons, l957);
Bentley, 'Jhe Maklng of a Dramatlst (l892-l903)," fore
word to Iloys, by Shaw (New York. New Amerlcan
Llbrary, l960);
Gordon N. Bergqulst, Tlc Icv ovd tlc Sword: !or ovd Icocc
iv tlc Irosc ovd Iloys of crvord Slow (Salzburg, Aus
trla. Instltut fur Engllsche Sprache und Llteratur,
l977);
Albert Bermel, 'A Shavlan Whodunlt. Jhe Mysterlous
Mr. Warren," Ivdcpcvdcvt Sloviov, 38 (2000). 6-l5;
Charles A. Berst, crvord Slow ovd tlc Zrt of Dromo (Cham
palgn Lrbana. Lnlverslty of Illlnols Press, l973);
Berst, ed., 'Bernard Shaw Scholarshlp of the Past 25 Years,
and Iuture Prlorltles. A Jranscrlpt of the l975
MLA Conference of Scholars on Shaw," Slow
Icvicw, l9 (May l976). 56-72;
Berst, ed., Slow ovd Icligiov (Lnlverslty Park. Pennsylva
nla State Lnlverslty Press, l98l);
|ohn A. Bertollnl, Tlc Iloywrigltivg Sclf of crvord Slow
(Carbondale. Southern Illlnols Lnlverslty Press,
l99l);
Earle Dean Bevan, Covcordovcc to tlc Iloys ovd Ircfoccs of cr-
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l97l);
Harold Bloom, ed., Ccorgc crvord Slow (Broomall, Pa..
Chelsea House, 2000);
Patrlck Braybrook, Tlc Subtlcty of Ccorgc crvord Slow (New
York. Haskell House, l973);
HansPeter Breuer, 'Iorm and Ieellng. George Bernard
Shaw as Muslc Crltlc," ourvol of Irisl Iitcroturc, ll
(September l982). 71-l02;
Ian Brltaln, 'Bernard Shaw, Ibsen, and the Ethlcs of
Engllsh Soclallsm," !ictoriov Studics, 2l (Sprlng
l978). 38l-10l;
Brltaln, 'A Jransplanted Doll`s House. Ibsenlsm, Ieml
nlsm and Soclallsm ln LateVlctorlan and Edward
lan England," ln Trovsformotiovs iv Modcrv Iuropcov
Dromo, edlted by Ian Donaldson (Atlantlc Hlgh
lands, N.|.. Humanltles, l983), pp. l1-51;
Ivor Brown, Slow iv His Timc (London. Nelson, l965);
Ronald Bryden and Denls |ohnston, Slow ovd lis Cov-
tcmpororics: Tlcotrc Issoys (Oakvllle, Ont. Nla
gara Ialls, N.Y.. Mosalc Press; Nlagaraonthe
Lake, Ont. Academy of the Shaw Iestlval, 2002);
Charles A. Carpenter, crvord Slow ovd tlc Zrt of Dcstroy-
ivg Idcols: Tlc Iorly Iloys (Madlson. Lnlverslty of
Wlsconsln Press, l969);
Pat M. Carr, crvord Slow (New York. Lngar, l976);
Chrlstopher Caudwell, 'George Bernard Shaw. A
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Zpprooclcs of Iitcrory Criticism, edlted by Wllbur S.
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Allan Chappelow, Slow'Tlc Cluclcr-Uut (London.
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Wendl Chen, Tlc Icccptiov of Ccorgc crvord Slow iv
Clivo, 191S-1996 (Lewlston, N.Y.. Edwln Mellen
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G. K. Chesterton, Ccorgc crvord Slow (London. |ohn
Lane, l909);
L. W. Conolly and Ellen Pearson, eds., crvord Slow ov
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cvcc (Guelph, Ont.. Lnlverslty of Guelph Press,
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Donald P. Costello, Tlc Scrpcvt`s Iyc: Slow ovd tlc Civ-
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Gordon Couchman, Tlis Uur Cocsor. Z Study of crvord
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Louls Crompton, Introductlon to hls Tlc Iood to Iquol-
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|ane Ann Crum, 'Stanley Kauffmann on the Lnknown
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tlc Zrtist os Mov ovd Supcrmov (Galnesvllle. Lnlver
slty of Ilorlda Press, l996);
Dletrlch, Iortroit of tlc Zrtist os o Jouvg Supcrmov: Z Study
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Dukore, Slow`s Tlcotcr (Galnesvllle. Lnlverslty of Ilor
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rotivc iv Ivglisl Iitcroturc (Burllngton, Vt.. Ashgate,
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20l
ai_ PPO d _~ p~
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( |efferson, N.C.. McIarland, 2003);
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|. Ellen Galnor, Slow`s Dougltcrs: Dromotic ovd òrrotivc
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tov: Ixplorotiovs of tlc Sloviov Tlcotrc (Oakvllle,
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l35-l17;
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(New York. Holt, Rlnehart Wlnston, l979);
Irances Hughes, 'Noel Coward and Shaw. An Alde
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(Wlnter. 2002-2003). l6-l8;
Leon Hugo, crvord Slow: Iloywriglt ovd Ircoclcr (London.
Methuen, l97l);
Hugo, crvord Slow`s Tlc locl Cirl iv Scorcl of Cod: tlc Story
bclivd tlc Story (Galnesvllle. Lnlverslty of Ilorlda
Press, 2003);
Hugo, Idwordiov Slow: tlc !ritcr ovd lis Zgc (New York. St.
Martln`s Press, l999);
|ames Hulse, 'Shaw. Soclallst Maverlck," ln hls Icvolutiov-
ists iv Iovdov: Z Study of Iivc Uvortlodox Sociolists
(Oxford. Clarendon Press, l970), pp. lll-l37;
Paul A. Hummert, crvord Slow`s Morxiov Iomovcc (Lln
coln. Lnlverslty of Nebraska Press, l973);
Chrlstopher Innes, ed., Tlc Combridgc Compoviov to Ccorgc
crvord Slow (Cambrldge. Cambrldge Lnlverslty
Press, l998);
Wllllam Irvlne, 'Shaw`s _ulntessence of Ibsenlsm," Soutl
Ztlovtic _uortcrly, 16 (Aprll l917). 252-262;
Holbrook |ackson, crvord Slow, 2nd edltlon (Ireeport,
N.Y.. Books for Llbrarles, l970);
|ack Kalmar, 'Shaw on Art," Modcrv Dromo, 2 (September
l959). l17-l59;
R. |. Kaufman, ed., C. . Slow: Z Collcctiov of Criticol Issoys
(Englewood Cllffs, N.|.. PrentlceHall, l965);
|ullan B. Kaye, crvord Slow ovd tlc ìvctccvtl-Ccvtury
Troditiov (Norman. Lnlverslty of Oklahoma
Press, l958);
Louls Kronenberger, Tlc Tlrcod of Iougltcr (New York.
Hlll Wang, l952);
Lawrence Langner, C..S. ovd tlc Iuvotic (New York.
Atheneum, l963);
Gale Kjelshus Larson, Slow ovd History (Lnlverslty
Park. Pennsylvanla State Lnlverslty Press, l999);
Larson and Mary Ann K. Crawford, eds, Slow. Tlc Zvvuol
of crvord Slow Studics (Lnlverslty Park. Pennsylva
nla State Lnlverslty Press, l98l- )Speclal Issue
on Shaw`s rovc `cw !orld (2003);
Dan H. Laurence, Slow: Zv Ixlibit (Austln. Lnlverslty
of Jexas Humanltles Research Center, l977);
Laurence, Slow, ools ovd Iibrorics (Austln. Lnlverslty
of Jexas, Humanltles Research Center, l976);
Danlel Leary, 'Heartbreak House. A Dramatlc Eplc,"
Ivdcpcvdcvt Sloviov, 37 (l999). 3-l3;
202
d _~ p~ ai_ PPO
Lagretta Jallent Lenker, Iotlcrs ovd Dougltcrs iv Slolc-
spcorc ovd Slow (Westport, Conn.. Greenwood
Press, 200l);
Paul H. Lorenz, 'Jhe Shavlan Gospel as Revealed ln
Jhe Adventures of the Black Glrl ln Her Search
for God," Iublicotiovs of tlc Mississippi Ililologicol
Zssociotiov (200l). l5-25;
Sonja Lorlchs, Tlc Uvwomovly !omov iv crvord Slow`s
Dromo ovd Hcr Sociol ovd Ioliticol oclgrouvd (Stock
holm. Lppsala, l973);
|erry Lutz, Iitclmov`s Mclody, Slow obout 'Slolcspcor`
(Lewlsburg, Pa.. Bucknell Lnlverslty Press,
l971);
Desmond MacCarthy, Slow: Tlc Iloys (London.
MacGlbbon Kee, l95l; Newton Abbot, L.K..
Davld Charles, l973);
Norman MacKenzle and |eanne MacKenzle, Tlc Iobiovs
(New York. Slmon Schuster, l977);
Raymond Mander and |oe Mltchenson, Tlcotricol Com-
poviov to Slow (London. Rockllff, l951);
Kelth May, Ibscv ovd Slow (New York. St. Martln`s Press
l985);
Ired Mayne, Tlc !it ovd Sotirc of crvord Slow (London.
Arnold, l967);
Martln Melsel, 'Jhe Real Shaw," !ictoriov Studics: Z
ourvol of tlc Humovitics, Zrts ovd Scicvccs, 1l (Wln
ter l998). 265-276;
Melsel, Slow ovd tlc ìvctccvtl-Ccvtury Tlcotcr (Prlnce
ton. Prlnceton Lnlverslty Press, l963);
|ohn A. Mllls, Iovguogc ovd Iougltcr: Comic Diolcctic iv tlc
Iloys of crvord Slow (Jucson. Lnlverslty of Arl
zona Press, l969);
Margery M. Morgan, Tlc Sloviov Iloygrouvd: Zv Ixplo-
rotiov of tlc Zrt of Ccorgc crvord Slow (London.
Methuen, l972);
Harry Morrlson, Tlc Sociolism of crvord Slow
( |efferson, N.C.. McIarland, l989);
Arthur H. Nethercot, Mcv ovd Supcrmcv: Tlc Sloviov Ior-
troit Collcry (New York. Blom, l966);
Rlchard Nlckson, 'Jhe Art of Shavlan Polltlcal
Drama," Ivdcpcvdcvt Sloviov, 39 (200l). 5l-58;
Nlckson, 'Jhe Lure of Stallnlsm. Bernard Shaw and
Company," Ivdcpcvdcvt Sloviov, 10 (2002), 3l-13;
|ohn O`Donovan, crvord Slow (Dublln. Glll Mac
mlllan, l983);
Rlchard M. Ohmann, Slow: Tlc Stylc ovd Tlc Mov
(Mlddleton, Conn.. Wesleyan Lnlverslty Press,
l962);
Harold E. Pagllaro, Iclotiovs bctwccv tlc Scxcs iv tlc Iloys
of Ccorgc crvord Slow (Lewlston, N.Y.. Edwln
Mellen Press, 2001);
Sally Peters, crvord Slow: Zsccvt of tlc Supcrmov (New
Haven. Yale Lnlverslty Press, l996);
Mlchel W. Pharand, crvord Slow ovd tlc Ircvcl (Galnes
vllle. Lnlverslty of Ilorlda Press, 2000);
Pharand, Diovysiov Slow (Lnlverslty Park. Pennsylvanla
State Lnlverslty Press, 2001);
|lll M. Phllllps, Ccorgc crvord Slow: Z Icvicw of tlc Iitcr-
oturc (New York. Gordon Press, l976);
Martln _ulnn, 'Dlckens as Shavlan Metaphor," Slow
Icvicw, l8 (l975). 11-56;
Valll Rao, 'Vlvle Warren ln the Blakean World of
Experlence," Slow Icvicw, 22 (l979). l23-l31;
|ean Reynolds, Iygmoliov`s !ordploy: Tlc Iostmodcrv Slow
(Galnesvllle. Lnlverslty of Ilorlda Press, l999);
Norman Rosenblood, ed., Slow: Scvcv Criticol Issoys
(Joronto. Lnlverslty of Joronto Press, l97l);
B. C. Rosset, Slow of Dubliv. Tlc Iormotivc Jcors (Lnlver
l961);
Susan Ruslnko and Welntraub, Slow ovd Utlcr Mottcrs:
Z Icstsclrift for Stovlcy !civtroub ov tlc Uccosiov of lis
Iorty-sccovd Zvvivcrsory ot tlc Icvvsylvovio Stotc Uvi-
vcrsity (Sellnsgrove, Pa.. Susquehanna Lnlverslty
Press; London. Assoclated Lnlverslty Presses,
l998);
Ann Saddlemyer, '|ohn Bull`s Other Island. 'Seethlng
ln the Braln,`" Covodiov ourvol of Irisl Studics, 25
(l999). 2l9-210;
Wllllam Searle, Tlc Soivt ovd tlc Slcptics: oov of Zrc iv tlc
!orl of Morl Twoiv, Zvotolc Irovcc ovd crvord Slow
(Detrolt. Wayne State Lnlverslty Press, l976);
Slow Icvicw (Lnlverslty Park, Pennsylvanla State Lnl
verslty Press), speclal lssues. Slow/Slolcspcorc
(l97l), Slow/Slcllcy (l972), Slow ovd Scicvcc Iictiov
(l973), Slow ovd !omov (l971), Slow orouvd tlc
!orld (l977), Slow ovd Diclcvs (l977), and Slow
ovd Mytl (l978);
Arnold Sllver, crvord Slow: Tlc Dorlcr Sidc (Stanford,
Cal.. Stanford Lnlverslty Press, l982);
Herbert Sklmpole, crvord Slow: Tlc Mov ovd His !orl
(London. Allen Lnwln, l982);
Barbara Small, 'Shaw on Standard Stage Speech," Slow
Icvicw, 22 (l979). l06-ll3;
|. Percy Smlth, Tlc Uvrcpcvtovt Iilgrim. Z Study of tlc
Dcvclopmcvt of crvord Slow (Boston. Houghton
Mlfflln, l965);
Warren S. Smlth, Tlc islop of Ivcrywlcrc: crvord Slow
ovd tlc Iifc Iorcc (Lnlverslty Park. Pennsylvanla
Mark H. Sterner, Slow`s Dcvil`s Disciplc: Tlc Subvcrsiov of
Mclodromo/Tlc Mclodromo of Subvcrsiov, Modcrv
Dromo, 12 (Iall l999). 338-315;
Alfred Jurco, 'Ibsen, Wagner, and Shaw`s Changlng Vlew
of 'Ideallsm,`" Slow Icvicw, l7 (May l971). 78-85;
Jurco, Slow`s Morol !isiov: Tlc Sclf ovd Solvotiov (Ithaca,
N.Y.. Cornell Lnlverslty Press, l976);
203
ai_ PPO d _~ p~
Jurco, 'Shaw`s Pragmatlst Ethlc. A New Look at Tlc
_uivtcsscvcc of Ibscvism," Tcxos Studics iv Iitcroturc ovd
Iovguogc: Z ourvol of tlc Humovitics, l7 (Wlnter
l976). 855-879;
Jramble J. Jurner, 'George Bernard Shaw (l856-
l950)," ln Irisl Iloywriglts, 1SS0-199: Z Icscorcl
ovd Iroductiov Sourccbool, edlted by Bernlce
Schrank and Wllllam W. Demastes (Westport,
Conn.. Greenwood Press, l997);
Maurlce Valency, Tlc Cort ovd tlc Trumpct: Tlc Iloys of
Ccorgc crvord Slow (New York. Oxford Lnlver
slty Press, l973);
Vlncent Wall, crvord Slow: Iygmoliov to Movy Iloycrs
(Ann Arbor. Lnlverslty of Mlchlgan Press, l973);
Gary Wlener, Icodivgs ov Iygmoliov (San Dlego. Green
haven, 2002);
Rodelle Welntraub, ed., Iobiov Icmivist (Lnlverslty
Rodelle Welntraub and Stanley Welntraub, eds., Slow.
Tlc Zvvuol of crvord Slow Studics, contlnulng the
Slow Icvicw (Lnlverslty Park. Pennsylvanla State
Lnlverslty Press, l98l- ); speclal lssues. Slow
ovd Icligiov, l (l98l); Slow Iloys iv Icrformovcc, 3
(l983); Slow Zbrood, 5 (l985); Tlc `cglcctcd Iloys,
7 (l987);
Stanley Welntraub, 'Bernard Shaw," ln Zvglo-Irisl Iitcr-
oturc: Z Icvicw of Icscorcl, edlted by Rlchard |.
Ilnneran (New York. Modern Language Assocla
tlon, l976), pp. l67-2l5;
Welntraub, 'Bernard Shaw," ln Icccvt Icscorcl ov Zvglo-
Irisl !ritcrsZ Supplcmcvt to Zvglo-Irisl Iitcroturc: Z
Icvicw of Icscorcl, edlted by Ilnneran (New York.
Modern Language Assoclatlon, l983), pp. 67-81;
Welntraub, 'Bernard Shaw`s Other Irelands. l9l5-
l9l9," Ivglisl Iitcroturc iv Trovsitiov, 12 (l999).
133-112;
Welntraub, 'Shaw`s Lear," [Hcortbrcol Housc], Zricl, l
(l970). 59-68;
Welntraub, Slow`s Icoplc: !ictorio to Clurclill (Lnlverslty
Welntraub, Tlc Uvcxpcctcd Slow: iogroplicol Zpprooclcs
to Slow ovd His !orl (New York. Lngar, l982);
Welntraub, ed., crvord Slow ov tlc Iovdov Zrt Sccvc,
1SS-190 (Lnlverslty Park London. Pennsyl
vanla State Lnlverslty Press, l989);
Robert I. Whltman, 'Born Agaln. A Revlew of Recent
Shaw Scholarshlp," Tcxos Studics iv Iitcroturc ovd
Iovguogc: Z ourvol of tlc Humovitics, 20 (Sprlng
l978). 267-30l;
Whltman, 'Jhe Passlon of Dlck Dudgeon," Slow
Icvicw, 2l (l978). 60-7l;
Whltman, Slow ovd tlc Iloy of Idcos (Ithaca, N.Y.. Cor
nell Lnlverslty Press, l977);
Colln Wllson, crvord Slow: Z Icosscssmcvt (London.
Hutchlnson, l969);
Edmund Wllson, Tlc Triplc Tlivlcrs (New York. Oxford
Stephen Wlnsten, Doys witl crvord Slow (New York.
Vanguard, l919);
|. L. Wlsenthal, Tlc Morriogc of Covtrorics: crvord Slow`s
Middlc Iloys (Cambrldge, Mass.. Harvard Lnlver
slty Press, l971);
Wlsenthal, 'Shaw and Ibsen," ln hls Slow ovd Ibscv: cr-
vord Slow`s Tlc _uivtcsscvcc of Ibscvism ovd Iclotcd
!ritivgs (Joronto. Lnlverslty of Joronto Press, l979);
Wlsenthal, Slow`s Scvsc of History (Oxford. Clarendon
Press, l988);
Mllton J. Wolf, Slow ovd Scicvcc Iictiov (Lnlverslty
Homer E. Woodbrldge, Ccorgc crvord Slow: Crcotivc
Zrtist (Carbondale. Southern Illlnols Lnlverslty
Press, l963);
Samuel A. Yorks, Tlc Ivolutiov of crvord Slow (Wash
lngton, D.C.. Lnlverslty Press of Amerlca, l98l).
m~W
Jhe major reposltorles of Shaw correspondence and
manuscrlpts are the Shaw Archlve at the Brltlsh Llbrary,
London; and the Hanley Collectlon at the Harry Ran
som Humanltles Research Center, Lnlverslty of Jexas
at Austln. Other lmportant collectlons are at the
Natlonal Llbrary of Ireland, the New York Publlc
Llbrary (Berg Collectlon), the Lnlverslty of North
Carollna (Henderson Collectlon), Cornell Lnlverslty
(Burgunder Collectlon), Bucknell Lnlverslty (Butler
Collectlon), and the Houghton Llbrary of Harvard
Lnlverslty. Jhe llbrarles of Boston Lnlverslty, Yale
Lnlverslty, and Hofstra Lnlverslty have slgnlflcant
holdlngs as well.
NVOR k m i~
m~ p
by Icr Hollstrm, Cloirmov of tlc òbcl Committcc of
tlc Swcdisl Zcodcmy, ov 10 Dcccmbcr, 1926*
George Bernard Shaw showed ln the novels of hls
youth the same conceptlon of the world and the same
attltude to soclal problems that he has malntalned ever
slnce. Jhls provldes a better defence for hlm than any
thlng else agalnst the repeated accusatlons of lack of
honesty and of actlng as a professlonal buffoon at the
court of democracy. Irom the very beglnnlng hls con
vlctlons have been so flrm that lt seems as lf the general
process of development, wlthout havlng any substantlal
lnfluence on hlmself, has carrled hlm along to the trl
bune from whlch he now speaks. Hls ldeas were those
201
d _~ p~ ai_ PPO
of a somewhat abstract loglcal radlcallsm; hence they
were far from new, but they recelved from hlm a new
deflnlteness and brllllance. In hlm these ldeas comblned
wlth a ready wlt, a complete absence of respect for any
klnd of conventlon, and the merrlest humourall gath
ered together ln an extravagance whlch has scarcely
ever before appeared ln llterature.
What puzzled people most was hls rolllcklng gal
ety. they were ready to belleve that the whole thlng was
a game and a deslre to startle. Jhls was so far from
belng true that Shaw hlmself has been able to declare
wlth a greater justlce that hls careless attltude was a
mere stratagem. he had to fool people lnto laughlng so
they should not hlt upon the ldea of hanglng hlm. But
we know very well that he would hardly have been
frlghtened out of hls outspokenness by anythlng that
mlght have happened, and that he chose hls weapons
just as much because they sulted hlm as because they
were the most effectlve. He wlelded them wlth the certl
tude of genlus, whlch rested on an absolutely qulet con
sclence and on a falthful convlctlon.
Early he became a prophet of revolutlonary doc
trlnes, qulte varled ln thelr value, ln the spheres of aes
thetlcs and soclology, and he soon won for hlmself a
notable posltlon as a debater, a popular speaker, and a
journallst. He set hls mark on the Engllsh theatre as a
champlon of Ibsen and as an opponent of superflclal
tradltlon, both Engllsh and Parlslan. Hls own dramatlc
productlon began qulte late, at the age of thlrtyslx, ln
order to help satlsfy the demands that he had aroused.
He wrote hls plays wlth lnstlnctlve sureness, based on
the certalnty that he had a great deal to say.
In thls casual manner he came to create what ls to
some extent a new klnd of dramatlc art, whlch must be
judged accordlng to lts own speclal prlnclples. Its nov
elty does not lle so much ln structure and form; from
hls wldeawake and tralned knowledge of the theatre,
he promptly and qulte slmply obtalns any scenlc effect
he feels necessary for hls ends. But the dlrectness wlth
whlch he puts hls ldeas lnto practlce ls entlrely hls own;
and so too are the belllcoslty, the moblllty, and the mul
tlpllclty of hls ldeas.
In Irance he has been called the Mollre of the
twentleth century; and there ls some truth ln the parallel,
for Shaw hlmself belleves that he was followlng classlcal
tendencles ln dramatlc art. By classlclsm he means the rlg
orously ratlonal and dlalectlcal bent of mlnd and the oppo
sltlon to everythlng that could be called romantlclsm.
He began wlth what he calls m~ r~~
(l898), so named because they brought the spectator
face to face wlth unpleasant facts and cheated hlm of
the thoughtless entertalnment or sentlmental edlflcatlon
that he expected from the stage. Jhese plays dwell on
serlous abusesthe exploltatlon and prostltutlon of
poor people, whlle those who perpetrate these abuses
manage to retaln thelr respectablllty.
It ls characterlstlc of Shaw that hls orthodox
soclallstlc severlty toward the communlty ls comblned
wlth a great freedom from prejudlce and a genulne psy
chologlcal lnslght when he deals wlth the lndlvldual sln
ner. Even ln these early pleces one of hls flnest qualltles,
hls humanlty, ls fully and clearly marked.
m~ m~~ (l898), wlth whlch he varled hls pro
gram, have on the whole the same purport but are
llghter ln tone. Wlth one of these he galned hls flrst
great success. Jhls was ^ ~ j~I an attempt to
demonstrate the fllmslness of mllltary and herolc
romance, ln contrast to the sober and prosalc work of
peace. Its paclflst tendency won from the audlence a
more ready approbatlon than the author had generally
recelved. In `~~I a klnd of a e wlth a happy
endlng, he created the work whlch for a long tlme was
hls most poetlcal one. Jhls was due chlefly to the fact
that ln thls play the strong superlor woman whlch for
hlmfor reasons unknown to ushas become the nor
mal type, has here been glven a rlcher, warmer, and
more gentle soul than elsewhere.
In j~ ~ p~ (l903) he took hls revenge
by proclalmlng that woman, because of her resolute and
undlsgulsedly practlcal nature, ls destlned to be the
superman whose comlng has been so long prophesled
wlth such earnest yearnlng. Jhe jest ls amuslng, but lts
creator seems to regard lt more or less serlously, even lf
one takes lnto account hls splrlt of opposltlon to the ear
ller Engllsh worshlp of the gentle female salnt.
Hls next great drama of ldeas, j~ _~~~
(l905), has a deeper slgnlflcance. It dlscusses the prob
lem of whether evll ought to be conquered by the lnner
way, the splrlt of joyful and rellglous sacrlflce; or by the
outer way, the eradlcatlon of poverty, the real founda
tlon of all soclal defects. Shaw`s herolne, one of hls most
remarkable female characters, ends ln a compromlse
between the power of money and that of the Salvatlon
Army. Jhe process of thought ls here carrled out wlth
great force, and naturally wlth a great deal of paradox.
Jhe drama ls not entlrely conslstent, but lt reveals a
surprlslngly fresh and clear conceptlon of the joy and
poetry of the llfe of practlcal falth. Shaw the ratlonallst
here shows hlmself more llberal and more chlvalrous
than ls customary wlth the type.
Jlme does not permlt us to hlnt at the course of
hls further campalgn even ln hls more outstandlng
works. sufflce lt to say that wlthout a trace of opportun
lsm he turns hls weapons agalnst everythlng that he
concelves as prejudlce ln whatever camp lt may be
found. Hls boldest assault would seem to be ln e~J
~ e (l9l9), where he sought to embodyalways
ln the llght of the comlc splrltevery klnd of perverslty,
205
ai_ PPO d _~ p~
artlflclallty, and morbldlty that flourlshes ln a state of
advanced clvlllzatlon, playlng wlth vltal values, the
hardenlng of the consclence, and the osslflcatlon of the
heart, under a frlvolous preoccupatlon wlth art and scl
ence, polltlcs, moneyhuntlng, and erotlc phllanderlng.
But, whether owlng to the excesslve wealth of the mate
rlal or to the dlfflculty of treatlng lt gally, the plece has
sunk lnto a mere museum of eccentrlcltles wlth the
ghostllke appearance of a shadowy symbollsm.
In ocl to Mctlusclol (l92l) he achleved an lntro
ductory essay that was even more brllllant than usual,
but hls dramatlc presentatlon of the thesls, that man
must have hls natural age doubled many tlmes over ln
order to acqulre enough sense to manage hls world, fur
nlshed but llttle hope and llttle joy. It looked as lf the
wrlter of the play had hypertrophled hls wealth of ldeas
to the great lnjury of hls power of organlc creatlon.
But then came Soivt oov (l923), whlch showed
thls man of surprlses at the helght of hls power as a
poet. Jhls lt dld especlally on the stage, where all that
was most valuable and central ln the play was thrown
lnto due rellef and revealed lts real welght, even agalnst
the parts that mlght evoke opposltlon. Shaw had not
been happy ln hls prevlous essays ln hlstorlcal drama;
and thls was natural enough, as he happened to com
blne wlth hls abundant and qulck lntelllgence a declded
lack of hlstorlcal lmaglnatlon and sense of hlstorlcal
reallty. Hls world lacked one dlmenslon, that of tlme,
whlch accordlng to the newest theorles ls not wlthout
slgnlflcance for space. Jhls led to an unfortunate lack of
respect for all that had once been and to a tendency to
represent everythlng as dlametrlcally opposlte to what
ordlnary mortals had prevlously belleved or sald.
In Soivt oov hls good head stlll cherlshes the
same oplnlon on the whole, but hls good heart has
found ln hls herolne a flxed polnt ln the realm of the
unsubstantlal, from whlch lt has been able to glve flesh
and blood to the vlslons of the lmaglnatlon. Wlth
doubtful correctness he has slmpllfled her lmage, but he
has also made uncommonly fresh and llvlng the llnes
that remaln, and he has endowed Soivt oov wlth the
power of dlrectly holdlng the multltude. Jhls lmaglna
tlve work stands more or less alone as a revelatlon of
herolsm ln an age hardly favourable to genulne hero
lsm. Jhe mere fact that lt dld not fall makes lt hlghly
remarkable; and the fact that lt was able to make a trl
umphal progress all around the world ls ln thls case evl
dence of conslderable artlstlc worth.
If from thls polnt we look back on Shaw`s best
works, we flnd lt easler ln many places, beneath all hls
sportlveness and deflance, to dlscern somethlng of the
same ldeallsm that has found expresslon ln the herolc flg
ure of Salnt |oan. Hls crltlclsm of soclety and hls perspec
tlve of lts course of development may have appeared too
nakedly loglcal, too hastlly thought out, too unorganlcally
slmpllfled; but hls struggle agalnst tradltlonal conceptlons
that rest on no solld basls and agalnst tradltlonal feellngs
that are elther spurlous or only half genulne, have borne
wltness to the loftlness of hls alms. Stlll more strlklng ls hls
humanlty; and the vlrtues to whlch he has pald homage ln
hls unemotlonal waysplrltual freedom, honesty, courage,
and clearness of thoughthave had so very few stout
champlons ln our tlmes.
What I have sald has glven a mere gllmpse of
Shaw`s llfework, and scarcely anythlng has been sald
about hls famous prefacesor rather treatlsesaccompa
nylng most of the plays. Great parts of them are lnsur
passable ln thelr clarlty, thelr qulckness, and thelr
brllllance. Jhe plays themselves have glven hlm the
posltlon of one of the most fasclnatlng dramatlc authors
of our day, whlle hls prefaces have glven hlm the rank
of the Voltalre of our tlmelf we thlnk only of the best
of Voltalre. Irom the polnt of vlew of a pure and slmple
style they would seem to provlde a supreme, and ln lts
way classlc, expresslon of the thought and polemlcs of
an age hlghly journallstlc ln tone, and, even more
lmportant, they strengthen Shaw`s dlstlngulshed posl
tlon ln Engllsh llterature.
Zt tlc bovquct, Slow`s tlovls wcrc prcscvtcd by tlc rit-
isl Zmbossodor, Sir Zrtlur Crovt Duff, wlo cxprcsscd porticu-
lor opprcciotiov of tlc foct tlot tlc Iric givcv to Slow would bc
uscd to strcvgtlcv tlc culturol rclotiovs bctwccv Swcdcv ovd
Crcot ritoiv.
* Jhe Nobel Prlze ln Llterature l925 was announced
on November ll, l926.
206
j~ ^~ p
(11 Moy 190 - 21 Icbruory 19S4)
i~ iK i
Jhls entry was expanded by Lltus from her Sholokhov
entry ln DI 272: Iussiov Irosc !ritcrs ctwccv tlc !orld
!ors.
BOOKS. Zlcsllivo scrdtsc (MoscowLenlngrad. Gos. lzd
vo, l925);
Irotiv clcrvogo vomcvi (MoscowLenlngrad. Gos. lzdvo,
l925);
òllolcvol (MoscowLenlngrad. Gos. lzdvo, l925);
translated by Assya Humesky and Davld Hugh
Stewart as 'Jhe Brat," Dollousic Icvicw, 1l
(Autumn l96l). 231-216;
Irosvogvordcitsy (MoscowLenlngrad. Gos. lzdvo, l925);
Dvullmulvioio, edlted by I. Berezovsky (MoscowLenlngrad.
Gos. lzdvo, l925);
Dovslic rossloy, lntroductlon by Aleksandr Seraflmovlch
(Moscow. Novala Moskva, l926)lncludes
'Rodlnka," 'Shlbalkovo semla," 'Predsedatel`
revvoensoveta respubllkl," 'Bakhchevnlk," 'Pas
tukh," and 'Kolovert`"; translated by H. C.
Stevens as Tolcs from tlc Dov (London. Putnam,
l96l; New York. Knopf, l962);
Ioorcvoio stcp`, edlted by Vasllll Mlkhallovlch Kudashev
(Moscow. Novala Moskva, l926)comprlses
'Lazorevala step`," 'Chuzhala krov`," 'Kaloshl,"
'Nakhalenok," 'Smertnyl vrag," 'Prodkomlssar,"
'Illukha," 'Krlvala stezhka," 'Batrakl,"
'Semelnyl chelovek," 'Chervotochlna," and
'Put`dorozhen`ka";
U Iolclolc, lropivc i proclcm: Iossloy (MoscowLenlngrad.
Gos. lzdvo, l927)lncludes 'Zherebenok";
Clcrvotoclivo (Moscow. Gos. lzdvo, l927);
Tillii Dov, books l and 2 (MoscowLenlngrad. Mos
kovskll rabochll, l928, l929); book 3 (Moscow.
Gos. lzdvo khudozhestvennol llteratury, l933);
book 1 (Moscow. Goslltlzdat, l910); revlsed edl
tlon (Moscow. Gos. lzdvo khudozhestvennol llte
ratury, l953); books l and 2 translated by
Stephen Garry and Robert Dagllsh as Zvd _uict
Ilows tlc Dov (Moscow. Iorelgn Languages Pub
llshlng House, l930); books 3 and 1 translated by
Garry as Tlc Dov Ilows Homc to tlc Sco (London.
Putnam, l91l; New York. Knopf, l91l);
Ioorcvo Stcp`. Dovslic Iossloy, 192J-192 (Moscow.
Novala Moskva, l93l)lncludes 'Avtoblograflla";
Iodviotoio tsclivo (Moscow. Iederatslla, l932; revlsed
edltlon, Moscow. Goslltlzdat, l952; revlsed
agaln, l953; revlsed agaln, 2 volumes, Moscow.
Molodala gvardlla, l960); translated by Garry as
Tlc Soil Upturvcd, edlted by Albert Lewls (Moscow
Lenlngrad. Cooperatlve Publlshlng Soclety of
Iorelgn Workers ln the L.S.S.R., l931); repub
llshed as Tlc !irgiv Soil Upturvcd (London. Put
j~ ^~ pI l NVSR
E _~L`lo_fpF
207
ai_ PPO j~ ^~ p
nam, l935); republlshed as p q (New
York. Knopf, l935);
h~~ (Platlgorsk. Ordzhonlkldzevskoe kraevoe lzdvo,
l91l);
k~ a (RostovonDon. Roslzdat, l91l);
k~ (Moscow. Voenlzdat, l912); translated as
'Down South," ln e~ (Moscow. Iorelgn Lan
guages Publlshlng House, l912);
k~~ ~ (Moscow. Voenlzdat, l912); translated
as 'Hate," ln e~ (Moscow. Iorelgn Languages
Publlshlng House, l912);
l ~~ ~ |sectlons|, 3 volumes (Moscow.
Voennoe lzdatel`stvo narodnogo komlssarlata
oborony, l913, l911, l916); translated by
Dagllsh as q c q ` ln volume
8 of ` t b s (Moscow.
Raduga, l981);
p (Moscow. Pravda, l918; enlarged edltlon,
RostovonDon. Obl. knvo, l95l)lncludes
'Bor`ba prodolzhaetsla," 'Svet l mrak," 'Rech` na
Vsesoluznol konferentsll storonnlkov mlra,"
'Rech` na XVIII s"ezde Vsesoluznol Kommunl
stlcheskol partll (bol`shevlkov)," and 'Moguchll
khudozhnlk";
p ~ (RostovonDon. Rostlzdat, l919);
k ~~~ ~ ~ (Moscow. Pravda, l950);
m~~~ ~I book 2, parts l-6 (Moscow. Pravda,
l955-l960); translated by Stevens as e~
a (London. Putnam, l960; New York.
Knopf, l96l);
p ~ (Lenlngrad. Izdatel`stvo Lenlngradskogo
unlverslteta, l956);
p~ I 8 volumes, edlted by S. Kolladzhln
(Moscow. Goslltlzdat, l956-l960)lncludes vol
ume 8, o~~I I I ~I ~
(l960)lncludes 'Odln lazyk," 'Ispytanle," 'Jrl,"
'Revlzor," 'Prestupnala beskhozlalstvennost`,"
'Za chestnulu rabotu plsatella l krltlka," 'Zhlt` v
kolkhoze kul`turno," 'V kazach`lkh kolkhozakh,"
'Na smolenskom napravlenll," 'Gnusnost`,"
'Voennoplennye," 'Pobeda, kakol ne znala
lstorlla," 'S rodnym pravltel`stvomza mlr!"
'Rech` na Jretèm s"ezde plsatelel Lkralny,"
'Rech` na Vtorom Vsesoluznom s"ezde
sovetsklkh plsatelel," 'Rech` na XX s"ezde
KPSS," 'Ia verlu v trezvulu rassudltel`nost`
vengerskogo naroda," and 'O malen`kom
mal`chlke Garrl l bol`shom mlstere Solsberl";
p~ ~ (Moscow. Pravda, l957); translated by
Dagllsh as q c~ ~ j~ (Moscow. Iorelgn
Languages Publlshlng House, l957; revlsed,
l962);
o~ ~~ (Moscow. Sovetskala Rosslla, l96l);
translated by Dagllsh and Yelena Altshuler as
b~ p (Moscow. Progress, l966);
p~ I 8 volumes, edlted by Klrlll V. Potapov
(Moscow. Pravda, l962)lncludes volume 8,
o~~I I I ~I ~lncludes
'Rech` na XXII s"ezde Kommunlstlcheskol partll
Sovetskogo Soluza";
m W p~I I ~I (Mos
cow. Molodala gvardlla, l970); translated by
Olga Shartse as ^ _ e~W b~I
pI pI m~ (Moscow. Progress, l973);
o~ (Moscow. Sovremennlk, l975);
w~~ ~ ~~I edlted by V. V. Dementèv and oth
ers, lntroductlon by Iedor Grlgorèvlch Blrlukov
(Moscow. Sovetskala Rosslla, l983);
w (Moscow. Molodala gvardlla,
l983)lncludes 'Avtoblograflla" (l931) and
'Rech` na IV s"ezde plsatelel SSR" (l967);
o~~ (Lenlngrad. Khudozhestvennala llteratura, l983);
m~ ~ (Moscow. Sovremennlk, l985).
b ~ `W a ~~I Massovala
blblloteka Zlfa, no. 9 (MoscowLenlngrad. Zemlla
l fabrlka, l930);
m~ ~ ~~ (Mos
cow. VtsSPS, l930);
o~~ (Moscow. Nlkltlnskle subbotnlkl, l93l);
p~ I 8 volumes, wlth texts revlsed by
Sholokhov, lntroductlon by Iurll Borlsovlch
Lukln (Moscow. Molodala gvardlla, l956-l960);
p~ I 8 volumes, edlted by S. Kolladzhln
(Moscow. Gosudarstvennoe lzdatel`stvo khu
dozhestvennol llteratury, l956-l960);
p~ ~ (Moscow. Goslltlzdat, l960);
p~ I 8 volumes, complled by Klrlll V. Potapov
(Moscow. Pravda, l962);
p W o~~I I ~I edlted by Potapov
(Moscow. Voenlzdat, l965);
p~ I 9 volumes, annotated by Mlkhall
L`vovlch Vol`pe (Moscow. Khudozhestvennala llte
ratura, l965-l969);
a ~~I p~ ~ (Moscow. Detskala llte
ratura, l967);
o~ ~~ (Moscow. Sovetskala Rosslla, l967);
k~~ ~ (Moscow. Sovremennlk, l97l);
p~ I 8 volumes, edlted by M. M. Sokolova
(Moscow. Pravda, l975);
p~ I 8 volumes, edlted by Marlla
Mlkhallovna Manokhlna (Moscow. Pravda,
l980);
p~ I 8 volumes, edlted by Manokhlna
(Moscow. Khudozhestvennala llteratura, l985-
l986);
208
j~ ^~ p ai_ PPO
Tillii Dov, 2 volumes, edlted by Iedor Grlgorèvlch
Blrlukov and others, lntroductlon by Vlktor
Vasllèvlch Petelln (Moscow. Voennoe lzda
tel`stvo, l995);
Tillii Dov, edlted by Vladen Kotovskov (Rostov on
Don. Ienlks, l998);
Tillii Dov, 1 volumes (St. Petersburg. Krlstall Respeks,
l998);
Soclivcviio (Moscow. Knlzhnala palata, 2000);
Tillii Dov, 2 volumes (Moscow. EKSMOPress, 2000,
2003);
Sobrovic soclivcvii v dcvioti tomoll, 9 volumes, edlted by
Vladlmlr Vasllèvlch Vasllèv (Moscow. Jerra
Knlzhnyl klub, 200l);
Sobrovvic soclivcvii, 5 volumes, lntroductlon and annota
tlons by Vasllèv (Moscow. Mlr kn.; Llteratura,
2002);
Tillii Dov, 2 volumes (Moscow. OLMAPress; Olma
PressZvezd. mlra, 2003);
Iroo, Llb.Ru http.//llb.ru./PROZA/SHOLOHOW/`;
Tillii Dov: Clost` pcrvoio: Clcrvovoio rulopis`. Zvtogrof
M. Z. Slolollovo, 1 voiobrio 1926-voclolo 1927 g,
volume l, pp. l-85 (Moscow Klev. Instltut
mlrovol llteratury lm A. M. Gor`kogo RAN,
2006); Iundamental`nala elektronnal blblloteka
http.//febweb.ru/feb/sholokh/l927/l927.htm`.
b bW Zvd _uict Ilows tlc Dov, translated
by Stephen Garry (London. Putnam, l931; New
York. Knopf, l931-l910);
Tlc Silcvt Dov, 2 volumes, translated by Garry (New
York. Knopf, l931)comprlses volume l, Zvd
_uict Ilows tlc Dov; and volume 2, Tlc Dov Ilows
Homc to tlc Sco;
Tlc Scicvcc of Hotrcd, lntroductlon by Iay Caller (New
York. New Age, l913);
!irgiv Soil Upturvcd, 2 volumes, translated by Robert
Dagllsh (Moscow. Raduga, l957);
Tlc Upcvivg of tlc !irgiv Islovds, books l and 2 (Lenln
grad. Lenlzdat, l96l);
Uvc Mov`s Dcstivy ovd Utlcr Storics, Zrticlcs, ovd Slctclcs,
192J-196J, translated by H. C. Stevens (Lon
don. Putnam, l966; New York. Knopf, l967);
Iicrcc ovd Ccvtlc !orriors: Tlrcc Storics, translated by Mlr
lam Morton (Garden Clty, N.Y.. Doubleday,
l967);
Storics (Moscow. Progress, l975);
Zvd _uict Ilows tlc Dov: Z òvcl iv Iour ools, 1 volumes,
translated by Garry, revlsed and completed by
Dagllsh (Moscow. Progress, l978);
Collcctcd !orls iv Iiglt !olumcs, 8 volumes, translated by
Dagllsh (Moscow. Raduga, l981);
_uict Ilows tlc Dov: Z òvcl iv Two !olumcs, 2 volumes,
translated by Dagllsh (Moscow. Raduga / Wel
llngborough. Collets, l988); revlsed and edlted
by Brlan Murphy (New York. Carroll Graf /
London. Dent, l996; revlsed, l997);
Slolollov`s Jlkhll Don. Z Commcvtory, 2 volumes, trans
lated by Murphy, V. P. Butt, and Herman Ermo
laev (Blrmlngham, L.K.. Department of Russlan
Language and Llterature, Lnlverslty of Blrmlng
ham, l997);
!irgiv Soil Upturvcd, translated by Dagllsh (Honolulu.
Lnlverslty Press of the Paclflc, 2000);
Zvd _uict Ilows tlc Dov: Z òvcl iv Iivc ools, 2 volumes
(Amsterdam. Ireedonla Books, 200l);
Tlc Dov Ilows Homc to tlc Sco, translated by Garry
(Amsterdam. Ireedonla Books, 200l).

PRODLCED SCRIPJS. Tillii Dov, by Sholokhov,
Ivan Pravov, and Ol`ga Ivanovna Preobrazhen
skala, motlon plcture, Soluzklno, l930;
Iodviotoio tsclivo, by Sholokhov and Sergel Aleksandro
vlch Ermollnsky, motlon plcture, Mosfll`m, l939.
OJHER. 'Mlagkotelyl," ln Molodost`, book l (Lenln
grad, l927);
Andrel Platonovlch Platonov, !olslcbvoc lol`tso: Iusslic
sloli, edlted by Sholokhov, wlth lllustratlons by
K. Kuznetsov (MoscowLenlngrad. Detglz, l950);
Aleksandr Nlkolaevlch Nechaev, Ivov mcv`sloiIoumom
bol`sloi: Iusslic sloli, edlted by Sholokhov (Moscow
Lenlngrad. Detglz, l95l);
Uvi srololis` o rodivu, ln Icvivgrodslii ol`movoll (Lenln
grad, l951);
Vladlmlr Ivanovlch Dal`, Ioslovitsy russlogo vorodo:
Sborvil, lntroductlon by Sholokhov (Moscow.
Gos. lzdvo khudozhestvennol llteratury, l957).
LNCOLLECJED. 'Veter," Molodoi lcvivcts, 1 |une
l927;
'Devlatnadtsatala godlna," Ugovcl, no. l5 ( |uly l930);
'Za perestrolku," ol`slcvistslii Dov, 20 October l930;
'Po pravoberezh`lu Dona," Irovdo, 25 March l93l;
'Prestuplenle Makara Nagul`nova," by Sholokhov and
Sergel Aleksandrovlch Ermollnsky, Iivo, 29 |anu
ary l939;
'Gordost`, llubov`, prlznatel`nost`," Ivcstiio, l0 May
l915;
'S kem vy amerlkanskle mastera kul`tury," Iitcroturvoio
gocto, 20 September l917;
Uvi srololis` o rodivu |sectlons|, Irovdo, 28, 29, 30 |uly
l919 and l August l919; Iitcroturvoio gocto, 23
October l951; Moslvo, no. l (l959); and Irovdo,
l2-l5 March l969;
'S opushchenym zabralom," Iitcroturvoio gocto, 8 March
l95l;
209
ai_ PPO j~ ^~ p
'Shchast`la tebe, ukralnskll narod!" Iodiov`slo Ulroivo,
3l October l951;
'Vldet` vslu pravdu," Iitcroturvoio gocto, 22 November
l956;
'Rech` na XXIII s"ezde KPSS," Irovdo, 2 Aprll l966;
'Rech` na XXIV s"ezde KPSS," Irovdo, 1 Aprll l97l.
Mlkhall Sholokhov, novellst and shortstory
wrlter, recelved the Nobel Prlze ln Llterature ln l965
'for the artlstlc power and lntegrlty wlth whlch, ln hls
eplc of the Don, he has glven expresslon to a hlstorlc
phase ln the llfe of the Russlan people," as the cltatlon
read. Jhe Nobel Prlze recognlzed Sholokhov for hls
controverslal, monumental twentlethcentury Cossack
eplc Tillii Dov (l928, l929, l933, l910; parts l and 2
translated as Zvd _uict Ilows tlc Dov, l930; parts 3 and 1
translated as Tlc Dov Ilows Homc to tlc Sco, l91l),
although soon after lts publlcatlon, the authorshlp of hls
major and arguably best work had come under ques
tlon. Sholokhov has also the dublous dlstlnctlons of
belng the only Nobel Prlze wlnner to also have recelved
the Stalln Prlze and belng among a small group of
Nobel laureates accused of plaglarlsm.
Of the flve Nobel Prlze wlnners ln Russlan lltera
ture, Sholokhov ls the only Sovlet establlshment
wrltera reclplent of both the Lenln and Stalln Prlzes
to recelve the Nobel Prlze. Jhe flrst Russlan reclplent,
the 'stateless" Ivan Bunln, a wrlter ln the classlcal tradl
tlon of Ivan Jurgenev and Leo Jolstoy, loathed every
thlng about the new Sovlet order and left Russla
permanently ln l920. He recelved the Nobel Prlze ln
l933 'for the strlct artlstry wlth whlch he has carrled
on the classlcal Russlan tradltlons ln prose wrltlng."
Borls Leonldovlch Pasternak, a venerated poet, trans
lator, and later prose wrlter, recelved the prlze ln l958
'for hls lmportant achlevement both ln contemporary
lyrlcal poetry and ln the fleld of the great Russlan eplc
tradltlon," the latter referrlng to Doltor livogo, a novel
publlshed ln Italy ln l957 (translated, l958) but consld
ered antlSovlet and banned ln the LSSR. Expelled
from the Wrlters Lnlon, under pressure he decllned the
award. Jhe other two Russlan reclplents, Aleksandr
Isaevlch Solzhenltsyn (l970) and |oseph Brodsky
(l987), were both at odds wlth the Sovlet government.
Both were arrested and expelled from the Sovlet
LnlonBrodsky ln l972 and Solzhenltsyn ln l971.
Later, Brodsky wrote poetry and essays ln Engllsh and
became a L.S. cltlzen (l977) and Amerlca`s Poet Laure
ate (l99l-l992). Solzhenltsyn ls best known for expos
lng the atrocltles of the Sovlet system ln hls Culog
Zrclipclogo (l973) and for belng the flrst to level publlc
accusatlons of plaglarlsm agalnst Sholokhov ln the
West. Solzhenltsyn`s award was vlewed by Sovlets as
polltlcally motlvated and antlSovlet. Persecuted and
afrald of belng exlled, he refused to travel to Stockholm
and sent hls acceptance speech lnstead. Nevertheless,
four years later he was expelled from the Sovlet Lnlon,
returnlng to Russla ln l991.
Sholokhov, who, as the powerful doyen of Sovlet
llterature, harshly judged Solzhenltsyn`s work and
probably cost hlm a Sovlet State Prlze ln l962, emerged
as a wrlter durlng the turbulent l920s. He was not par
tlcularly productlve; other than Tillii Dov, he wrote
only two other novels, a few short storles, and journalls
tlc pleces. Yet, by l935 hls stlll lncomplete tetralogy,
Tillii Dov, consldered by some to be a 'new Sovlet !or
ovd Icocc," had won Sholokhov a place among world
class wrlters. Accordlng to Vladlmlr Vasllèvlch Vasllèv
ln 'Sholokhov l Nobelevskala Premlla. Istorlla voprosa"
(2002 Sholokhov and the Nobel Prlze. Hlstory of the
_uestlon), the Swedlsh press flrst llsted Sholokhov
among candldates worthy of the Nobel Prlze ln l935,
and they contlnued to vlew hlm as a contender
throughout the l910s and l950s. Propelled to lnter
natlonal fame by hls major novel, Sholokhov became
one of the bestknown and most wldely read Sovlet
wrlters ln the West. By l965, the year he accepted the
Nobel Prlze, clrculatlon of hls works reached approxl
mately 12,000,000, and hls works were translated lnto
some flftyslx languages; by the l990s, numbers
reached more than l30,000,000 coples, wlth transla
tlons lnto nlnety languages worldwlde.
In the former Sovlet Lnlon, not much about
Sholokhov`s prlvate llfe was made publlc. Ior
Sholokhov, as for many of hls contemporarles, accurate
blographlcal lnformatlon ls dlfflcult to establlsh. In
Sholokhov`s case, lt ls even more problematlc because
he kept no dlarles and wrote no memolrs. Perhaps to
avold hlghllghtlng hls nonproletarlan background,
Sholokhov provlded lnconslstent background lnforma
tlon and publlshed only brlef autoblographlcal
sketches, whlch set a pattern for polltlcally acceptable
blographles wlth lncomplete and confllctlng accounts of
hls llfe and hls works. Some, such as Zeev BarSella
(Vladlmlr Nazarov) ln Iitcroturvyi Iotlovov: Iroclt
'Iisotcl` Slolollov (2005), for example, explaln these
lnconslstencles by theorlzlng that Sholokhov`s offlclally
publlshed blographles have llttle to do wlth the real, llve
person Mlkhall Sholokhov and hls actlvltles, but rather
represent a marketlng strategy wlth the goal of market
lng the 'Product," the 'Wrlter Sholokhov," to the
Sovlet publlc. In thelr vlew, the strategy was developed
by the Sovlet State Securlty Servlces (OGPL) ln the
l920s, ln order to publlsh a work not wrltten by a
Communlst ln a country that demanded new books by
proletarlan wrlters, and Sholokhov, a young man wlth
an acceptable blography, served thelr purposes well.
Jhe theorles of BarSella and others propose a consplr
2l0
j~ ^~ p ai_ PPO
acy that lnvolved many people (among them |oseph
Stalln, Aleksandr Seraflmovlch Popov |pseudonym
Seraflmovlch|, Evgenlla G. Levltskala, all of the Gro
moslavskys |Sholokhov`s lnlaws|, and even Andrel Pla
tonov). Although galnlng currency, these new theorles
are not yet unlversally accepted. Sholokhov ls stlll the
acknowledged wrlter of q aI and the speclflcs
recorded ln tradltlonal blographles are taught by Rus
slan academlc lnstltutlons.
Only the facts that deflne Sholokhov`s publlc per
sona are well known. Not a member of the Young Com
munlst League (Komsomol), at age twentyelght
Sholokhov was accepted lnto the Communlst Party,
and after that he proudly descrlbed hlmself flrst as a
Communlst and only second as a wrlter. Sholokhov
llved most of hls llfe ln hls natlve Don, but he knew the
llterary and party ellte, lncludlng Makslm Gor`ky, Sta
lln, Nlklta Khrushchev, and Leonld Brezhnev. He was a
foundlng member of the Lnlon of Wrlters ln l931 and
served the organlzatlon ln varlous posltlons untll hls
death. Although Sholokhov`s loyalty to the party was
occaslonally questloned, and at tlmes hls works were
heavlly censored, he survlved the purges and contlnued
to wrlte, publlshlng hls last new creatlve work ln l969.
He spoke passlonately ln defense of world peace, the
envlronment, and the novel, but harshly attacked
experlmentatlon ln llterature and those Sovlet wrlters
who vlolated the party llne. Sholokhov became a mem
ber of the Supreme Sovlet ln l936 and an elected dele
gate to all Congresses of the Sovlet Communlst Party
(l936-l981). He was voted lnto the Sovlet Academy of
Sclences (l939), the Central Commlttee (l96l), and the
Presldlum at Party Congresses (l966-l98l). He was
the reclplent of many awards, decoratlons, and prlzes ln
the Sovlet Lnlon and abroad, among them the Lenln
Prlze and Stalln Prlze (later renamed the State Prlze) for
llterature (l939, l91l, l955, l960, l965, l975, and
l980). Although the clvll war of l9l8-l920 ended
Sholokhov`s formal schoollng when he was thlrteen
years old, he was awarded honorary degrees from Salnt
Andrews Lnlverslty ln Scotland (l962), and from Ros
tov and Lelpzlg Lnlversltles (l965).
Sholokhov (called Mlsha as a chlld) was born
Mlkhall Stefanovlch Kuznetsov on ll May l905 ln
Kruzhllln, a small farmstead near the vlllage of Veshen
skala, formerly ln the Don Cossack Mllltary Reglon
now known as Kamenskala. How Sholokhov came by
hls blrth name requlres an examlnatlon of hls famlly
background. Mlkhall Mlkhallovlch Sholokhov, the
wrlter`s grandfather, settled ln Kruzhllln and found a
job ln the shop of the welltodo merchant Mokhov. He
marrled the merchant`s daughter, Marlla Vasllèvna
Mokhov, and took over the famlly buslness. Jhe couple
had elght chlldren, and thelr second son, Aleksandr
Mlkhallovlch, became the father of the wrlter.
Jhe mllltary reglon of the Don was the stronghold
of the hlstorlcal Don Cossack Host, a people whose lden
tlty was separate from Moscovlte Russlans. Jhe Don
Cossack Host, whlle ln the Jsarlst servlce, were granted
speclal prlvlleges on the Don, lncludlng the rlght to own
land, but they contlnued to harbor dreams of lndepen
dence.Jhe Sholokhovs were (newcomers or
outslders), not Cossacks, and were forbldden by law to
hold land on the Don but were permltted to engage ln
trade. Whlle not consldered wealthy, the famlly operated
several shops and belonged to the lowermlddle mer
chant class. Aleksandr Mlkhallovlch worked as a clerk ln
one of thelr shops.
Jhe Sholokhov famlly trled to educate thelr chll
dren. Aleksandr Mlkhallovlch completed four grades ln
a local school, whlch gave hlm respectablllty; at the
tlme, area resldents had almost no schoollng. In the
general populatlon, almost seventyseven of every hun
dred persons were llllterate, and only one ln every thou
sand males and one ln ten thousand females recelved a
hlgher educatlon. Jhe grandparents of the wrlter were
proud and expected to make a good match for thelr son
by marrylng hlm to a daughter of the wealthy land
owner Dmltrll Egrafovlch Popov, from the vlllage of
Iasenkovo. Jhe marrlage was to brlng the famlly a sub
stantlal dowry. Contrary to the parents` plan, Alek
sandr Mlkhallovlch fell ln love lnstead and wanted to
marry the woman who became the author`s mother,
Anastaslla Danllovna Chernlkova, an orphan and a
mald ln the servlce of the Popov famlly.
Contradlctory accounts explaln how Anastaslla
Danllovna came to marry Aleksandr Mlkhallovlch
Sholokhov. In the patrlarchal system, class dlstlnctlons
were lmportant, and because the young woman came
from a poor famlly of past lndentured serfs and had no
dowry, she was not consldered a sultable match for the
Sholokhovs` son. When Aleksandr Mlkhallovlch chose
to marry her, hls parents determlned to prevent the
marrlage. Jhey marrled her off agalnst her wlll (and
already pregnant, accordlng to some) to an older, wld
owed, welltodo Cossack by the name of Stefan Kuz
netsov, who was then an Ataman, a Cossack chleftaln.
After the marrlage, Anastaslla Danllovna acqulred all
rlghts and prlvlleges of a Cossack woman.
Kuznetsov and hls brlde moved from Kruzhllln to
hls VerkhneCherkeskll farmstead, near the large Cos
sack vlllage of Krasnokutsk. Aleksandr Mlkhallovlch
rebelled after learnlng of hls parents` lnvolvement ln the
arranged marrlage. After wlnnlng thelr permlsslon to
set up hls own household, he moved lnto a tlny Kruzhl
lln house; Anastaslla Danllovna left her husband
and jolned hlm, offlclally becomlng hls housekeeper.
2ll
ai_ PPO j~ ^~ p
Shortly afterward Sholokhov was born ln hls blologlcal
father`s home, though he was legally the son of Anasta
slla Danllovna`s flrst husband, Kuznetsov. He was glven
the legal name of Mlkhall Stefanovlch Kuznetsov and
was reglstered a Cossack, lnherltlng all guaranteed Cos
sack rlghts and prlvlleges.
Sholokhov descrlbes Aleksandr Mlkhallovlch ln a
brlef 'Avtoblograflla" (l93l, Autoblography, collected
ln Io orcvo Stcp`. Dovslic Iossloy, 192J-192, 19J1) as
a tradesman who often changed hls place of resldence
and employment. 'My father was a merchant and came
from the Rlazan` provlnce. He changed professlons
untll hls death (l925). He . . . (bought cattle), worked as
a sharecropper sowlng graln on Cossack lands, man
aged a buslness ln a vlllage, and managed a steam mlll,
etc." Jhe Sholokhovs left Kruzhllln after some flve
years. Maybe the prospect of a better job took them ln
l909 to Karglnlater renamed Karglnskalaor maybe
lt was the threats and vlslts from Anastaslla Danllovna`s
outraged husband, Kuznetsov.
Kargln, a promlnent locatlon ln the wrlter`s major
work, Tillii Dov, was a llvely hamlet. In Iuvost`
Slolollovo: Strovitsy biogrofii pisotclio (l985, Sholokhov`s
Youth. Pages from the Wrlter`s Blography) Vasllll
Voronov descrlbes Kargln as a small town that had one
church, a steam mlll, a school, and several retall shops.
People from around the reglon, lncludlng the Lpper
Don, Boguchar, Lugansk, Novocherkassk, Jsarltsyn,
and Voronezh, gathered ln Kargln to buy and sell cattle,
horses, farm anlmals, sklns, wheat, oats, flsh, oll, and
manufactured and baked goods. In Kargln, Aleksandr
Mlkhallovlch began to work for hls slster`s husband,
the merchant Ozerov, and the Sholokhov famlly moved
lnto a tlny house, whlch now serves as the Sholokhov
Museum. Jhe famlly`s flnanclal sltuatlon lmproved
after Aleksandr Mlkhallovlch found work as a manager
ln the larger shops belonglng to the merchants Levoch
kln and Llkhovldov, and they could afford to llve ln a
larger house.
Determlned to educate and to traln thelr son for a
professlon, the couple hlred a local hlghschool teacher,
Jlmofel Jlmofeevlch Mrykhln, to tutor Mlsha at home
ln l9ll before he was old enough to attend school.
Mrykhln, who was later awarded the Order of the Red
Banner, was a wellrespected pedagogue. In the follow
lng year, sevenyearold Mlsha enrolled ln the local
school. Hls flrst teacher was Mlkhall Grlgorèvlch
Kopylov, who later appears as a character ln Tillii Dov.
Kopylov was the son of the local doctor, who as a stu
dent was dlsmlssed from the Jeacher`s Semlnary for hls
progresslve polltlcal vlews. Later he jolned the Whltes,
or antlSovlet forces, and was kllled ln battle.
Whlle ln Kargln, the Sholokhovs contlnued to
llve ln a commonlaw marrlage for another four years.
In l9l3 Kuznetsov dled unexpectedly, leavlng Anasta
slla Danllovna free to marry. Sholokhov`s parents wed
elght years after thelr son`s blrth; accordlng to Kargln
skala church records, they were marrled ln an Ortho
dox servlce. Entrles dated 29 |uly l9l3 descrlbe the
groom as an Orthodox, fortyelghtyearold male (an
age that does not agree wlth an l859 blrth date clted by
some sources), formerly of Zaralsk, Rlazlansk provlnce,
marrylng for the flrst tlme. Jhe brlde ls descrlbed as
the wldow of Cossack Kuznetsov from the farmstead of
Kargln, Elanska Vlllage, also Orthodox and enterlng
her second marrlage at the age of fortytwo. Immedl
ately thereafter, Aleksandr Mlkhallovlch formally
adopted hls blologlcal son, offlclally changlng the boy`s
name to Mlkhall Aleksandrovlch Sholokhov. Both
Anastaslla Danllovna and her son now belonged to the
merchant class and lost all rlghts and prlvlleges they
held as Cossacks. In part, these unusual clrcumstances
may explaln the confuslon ln wrltten sources about
Sholokhov`s soclal status. Another source of confuslon
may be Sholokhov`s own lnconslstent statements. In hls
'Avtoblograflla," for example, Sholokhov descrlbes hls
mother`s ancestry as 'Mat`polukazachka, polukrest`lanka"
(halfCossack and halfpeasant), whlle ln 'Shchast`la
tebe, ukralnskll narod!" (Happlness to You, Lkralnlan
People!), publlshed ln Iodiov`slo Ulroivo (3l October
l951), he no longer clalms a Cossack ancestry and slm
ply ldentlfles her as a Lkralnlan peasant woman wlth
roots ln the Chernlhlv area of Lkralne.
Iollowlng a brlef lllness and a stay ln Grlgorll She
laputln prlvate boys` hlgh school ln Moscow ln l9l5,
Mlsha transferred to a reglonal school, one of the better
schools ln the area, but not one prlmarlly attended by
chlldren of welltodo Cossacks. Hls new school was ln
the town of Bogucharabout l20 kllometers from Kar
glnskala ln Voronezh provlnce. Boguchar was a small
provlnclal clty on the rlver Bogucharka, not far from
the rlver Don. Jhere the tenyearold boy was placed ln
the home of Dmltrll Ivanovlch Jlshansky, a prlest who
taught rellglon ln the school. Jlshansky and hls wlfe,
Soflla Vlktorovna, had flve chlldren, and Mlsha flt per
fectly lnto the large famlly. Later, he remembered hls
fouryear stay wlth the famlly fondly.
Jhe school provlded an expanded classlcal educa
tlonbesldes anclent Greek, Latln, Irench, German,
and Russlan languages and llteratures, the currlculum
lncluded hlstory, physlcs, geography, natural sclences,
drawlng, sculpture, slnglng, gymnastlcs, and rellglon.
Mlsha`s favorlte subjects were hlstory and llterature.
But the Jlshansky home was where Mlsha learned
about world and llterary events. Here he flrst heard
about such lmportant wrlters as Aleksandr Ivanovlch
Ertel`, a hlghly regarded nlneteenthcentury master of
the colloqulal Russlan language; Gor`ky, who later
2l2
j~ ^~ p ai_ PPO
became known as the father of Sovlet soclallst reallsm
and whose works about the poor brought hlm world
wlde recognltlon; Aleksandr Ivanovlch Kuprln, known
as the Rudyard Klpllng of Russla; Vladlmlr Galaktlono
vlch Korolenko; and Ivan Alekseevlch Bunln, a Russlan
wrlter and poet who left hls country (flrst for the
Crlmea and then for Irance) and won the Nobel Prlze
ln Llterature ln l933.
Durlng hls years ln Boguchar, Mlsha began to
wrlte llttle storles and even poetry. One of hls lmaglna
tlve tales recorded ln a school notebook accldentally fell
lnto the hands of Jlshansky, lmpresslng the teacher
wlth lts hlstorlcally accurate account of Jsar Peter I.
Encouraged by hls teachers, Mlsha contlnued to wrlte
composltlons on hlstorlcal toplcs. Hls favorlte teacher,
Ol`ga Pavlovna Strakhov, read these composltlons to
the class, always pralslng the boy. Mlsha wrote llttle
vaudevllle plays, adaptatlons of Nlkolal Gogol`s plays,
whlch were acted at home by the Jlshansky chlldren.
Mlsha was not able to complete hls educatlon ln
Boguchar. He was forced to leave soon after the l9l7
Bolshevlk Revolutlon and clvll war reached the Don. In
l9l8, when the Germans occupled the clty, thlrteen
yearold Mlsha went home to llve wlth hls famlly ln Ple
shakov. Jhe war altered the famlly`s fortunes. Between
l9l7 and l9l9, hls father became the manager of the
only steam mlll ln the town. Jhey llved ln the house of
the Cossack chleftaln Jrokhlm Mel`nlkov, later movlng
to an apartment ln the home of thelr nelghbors, the
Drozdovs, whose famlly members are sald to have
served as prototypes for several q a characters
Grlgorll, Petr, and Darlla Melekhov. In the fall of l9l8,
he brlefly returned to hls studles close to home ln
Veshenskala Gymnaslum, completlng the fourth grade
ln l9l9. As an adult, he remembered that he preferred
books to movles and loved to read both Russlan and
Western classlcs, but that hls lnterests were many and
lncluded cosmology and agrlculture.
Durlng the clvll war, the famlly llved on terrlto
rles controlled by the Whlte Russlan armles, whlch
were flghtlng agalnst the Sovlet Red Army. In March
l9l9, the young Sholokhov was an eyewltness ln
Veshenskala to the Don Cossack`s vlolent antlBolshevlk
uprlslng. He watched the horrlflc events unfold durlng
the bloodlest perlod ln the hlstory of the Don Cossack
Host. Sholokhov was shaken by what he sawthe
deaths of hls nelghbors, adults and chlldren, both Reds
and Whltesand he later descrlbes these events ln real
lstlc detall ln q aI book 3 (part 6).
Although Sholokhov was only fourteen years old,
he was forced to make a declslon that lnfluenced the
rest of hls llfe. He took the slde of the Communlsts and
fought wlth the Red Army. Sholokhov`s proBolshevlk
vlews were well known. He avolded conscrlptlon, and
that provoked the local Whltes; one of them, ln search
lng for Sholokhov, struck hls mother when she refused
to dlsclose her son`s hldlng place.
Between Iebruary and September l920, the flfteen
yearold Sholokhov collected lnformatlon for the local
census, travellng from farmstead to farmstead ln the
Latyshev reglon. He sat ln on Cossack meetlngs, greed
lly llstenlng to thelr storles. He started to work as an
adulteducatlon teacher, teachlng llteracy to employees
of Karglnskala Revcom (Dlstrlct Revolutlonary Com
mlttee), a new, postrevolutlonary type of governlng unlt
headed by hls father. Irom September through Decem
ber of l920, Sholokhov worked at odd jobs. Although
underage, he volunteered for the punltlve Chastl
Osobogo Naznachenlla (Speclal Iorces). He, along wlth
members of the Komsomol, fought partlsans, lncludlng
bands led by Iakov Iomln, Iedor Melekhov, Maslakov,
Kondratèv, and Aleksandr Stepanovlch Antonov, the
leader of the masslve Antonov Peasant Rebelllon (l920-
l92l). Sholokhov tersely descrlbes thls perlod ln hls
'Avtoblograflla". 'Irom l920, I was ln the servlce and
moved around the Don. . . . Chased bands that ruled on
the Don untll l922 . . . and the bands chased us."
In the fall of l920, Green forces captured
Sholokhov near Kon`kovo Iarmstead. Jhe Green
forces, who battled both the Russlan Reds and the
Whltes, were led by the guerrllla leader Nestor Ivano
vlch Makhno. He personally lnterrogated Sholokhov
and eventually saved hlm from executlon. After
Sholokhov`s return to Karglnskala, he worked for the
next four months ln a speclal detachment ln the Graln
Requlsltlons Offlce. He fought agalnst kulaks, the more
welltodo populatlon, Cossack and peasant, who were
accused of hoardlng and hldlng food from the Reds. He
also took part ln the cultural llfe of the reglon; he
helped produce a dally handwrltten newspaper, k
(New World), and prepared dally lnformatlonal and
agltatlonal lectures for those who could not read. In
addltlon, under the guldance of hls former tutor
Myrkhln, Sholokhov actlvely helped organlze and run
the local theater.
He partlclpated ln all theatrlcal productlons
behlnd the scene and onstage as a popular comlc actor
whose tendency for lmprovlsatlon was well known. As
Mrykhln explalned ln a 25 |anuary l916 artlcle ln
jI 'when the group`s repertolre was exhausted, and
new contemporary materlals were needed, Sholokhov
brought new scrlpts based on local happenlngs but kept
hls own authorshlp a secret." Sholokhov`s secrecy was
perhaps dlctated by modesty or perhaps by a need to
protect hls anonymlty, and thus, hls ablllty to gather
gosslp and new materlals among the unsuspectlng local
populace for hls vlgnettes. Jhese agltatlonal plays
deplcted lncldents from everyday llfe and carrled propa
2l3
ai_ PPO j~ ^~ p
gandlstlc messages. 'General Pobedonostsev," one of
hls early plays, lncluded a tendentlous Don clvllwar
scenethe cowardly fllght of the Whlte Army under the
pressure of the vlctorlous Bolshevlks. Another play,
'Ikh nravy l obychal" (Jhelr Morals and Jradltlons),
contrasted the corrupt Whlte Iorces wlth uprlght,
orderly Sovlet Red soldlers. None of these early plays
survlves.
Sholokhov`s proSovlet actlvltles durlng the Don
uprlslng and clvll war earned hlm a nomlnatlon to spe
clal taxcollector tralnlng courses ln Rostov. He com
pleted the sesslon on 26 Aprll l92l, becomlng one of the
flrst new tax lnspectors (Prodlnspectors, or Iood Requlsl
tlons Commlssars) to be asslgned to the upper Don. On
l7 May l92l Sholokhov left for Bukanovskala as an offl
clal of the new Bolshevlk government charged wlth help
lng brlng Sovlet order to the countryslde.
In Bukanovskala, Sholokhov met hls future wlfe,
Marlla (Masha) Petrovna Gromoslavskala. She was the
daughter of a Cossack Ataman, the chleftaln Petr Iakov
lev Gromoslavsky. A parochlalschool graduate and
teacher, Masha was asslgned to work ln the summer of
l922 as a statlstlclan ln the new Bukanovskala Jax
Inspector`s Offlce, headed by the seventeenyearold
Sholokhov. Jhese were dlfflcult years, and the popula
tlon on the Don was near starvatlon. Hostllltles fre
quently broke out between the Bolshevlks and those
peasants and Cossacks who opposed them. Jhe popu
lace refused to glve up the meager food supplles
reserved for thelr famllles to the Reds who demanded
thelr food to help feed the Red soldlers and the starvlng
cltles. Often peasants and Cossacks murdered tax col
lectors and ln turn were kllled.
Accused of brutallty and of overstepplng hls
authorlty, Sholokhov was arrested and sentenced to
death. In hls contrlbutlon to p ~
(l995, Sholokhov at a Break ln Jlme), Vladlmlr N.
Zapevalov quotes Sholokhov`s brlef descrlptlon of the
event. 'V l922 godu byl osuzhden, buduchl prodko
mlssarom, za prevyshenle vlastl. . . . Dva dnla zhdal
smertl . . . A potom prlshll l vypustlll. . . . Zhlt` ochen`
khotelos`" (In l922 whlle servlng as a tax collector, I
was sentenced to death for abuse of power. . . . Jwo
days I walted for death . . . and then they came and
freed me. . . . I very much wanted to llve). Jhe sentence
was commuted, but the lncldent effectlvely closed all
opportunltles for future employment.
Once all flghtlng had stopped and Sovlet power
was establlshed on the Don, Sholokhov went to Mos
cow hoplng to flnd a job and to contlnue hls educatlon.
He llved there from l922 to l921. In Moscow, dressed
ln a gray Cossack astrakhan hat and a soldler`s old
brown overcoat, he stood ln long llnes waltlng for many
hours at the employment offlce on Malala Bronnala
Street. In response to questlons about hls experlence, he
proudly announced that he had worked as a Iood Req
ulsltlons Commlssar, a worthless professlon ln postwar
Moscow. Jo support hlmself, Sholokhov took odd jobs.
He descrlbes hls work hlstory ln hls l931 'Avto
blograflla" (collected ln w |Jhe
Earth Needs Young Hands|, l983).
From l920 . . . as a flfteenyearold teenager, I flrst
began to work as a teacher ln an adulteducatlon llter
acy program and later as a food requlsltlons lnspector.
Probably havlng lnherlted my father`s penchant for
changlng professlons, ln slx years, I managed to learn
and work at a falr number of dlfferent jobs. I worked as
a statlstlclan, a teacher ln a grammar school, a dock
worker, a stone mason, an accountant, an offlce worker,
and journallst. . . . Durlng all thls tlme, I lntensely con
tlnued selfdevelopmental studles.
Sholokhov found employment ln August l923 as an
accountant for the Apartment Bulldlng Admlnlstratlon
Offlce, at 803 Krasnala Presnala, whlch made lt pos
slble for hlm to wrlte. He later remembered that thls
perlod was when he flrst felt a true calllng to become a
wrlter. In Moscow, he began to wrlte storles that later
made up hls a ~~ cycle (l926; translated as
q~ aI l96l). He haunted magazlne and
newspaper edltorlal offlces. Eventually, he took hls sto
rles to the offlclal publlcatlon of the Central Commlttee
of the Moscow Komsomol, f~~ ~~ (Young
Jruth). Jhere he met Aleksandr Alekseevlch Zharov, a
prollflc Komsomol poet whose poems were adopted as
popular Sovlet songs, lncludlng the anthem of the
Komsomol. Another new acqualntance was Vasllll
Mlkhallovlch Kudashev, who headed the llterature sec
tlon of the w~ ~ (|ournal of Peas
ant Youth). Sholokhov llved ln Kudashev`s apartment
for a brlef tlme, and the two remalned frlends untll
Kudashev`s death ln l91l. (It ls ln Kudashev`s famlly
archlves that the lost q a manuscrlpts have now
been found.) Sholokhov also met several young Com
munlst poetsMlkhall Arkadèvlch Svetlov, Mlkhall
Semenovlch Golodnyl (pseudonym of Mlkhall Semyo
novlch Epsteln), Valerlan Anatoleevna Geraslmova,
Aleksandr Ilylch Bezymensky, Mark Kolosov, and
Georgll Shublnmany of whom started the journal
j~~ ~~ (Young Guard), founded by party
decree ln Aprll l922. In the evenlngs, Sholokhov went
to Pokrovka, a workers` dormltory and gatherlng place
for newly arrlved provlnclal Communlsts who wanted
to become wrlters. On l9 September l923, almost a
year after comlng to Moscow, he publlshed hls flrst
work, a feullleton, 'Ispytanle" (Jhe Jest), ln f~~
m~~ under the name of A. Sholok, and on l0 Octo
ber he publlshed hls second feullleton, 'Jrl" (Jhree);
2l1
j~ ^~ p ai_ PPO
both are collected ln volume elght (l960) of the Gosll
tlzdat edltlon of hls p~ (Collected Works,
l956-l960).
On Kudashev`s advlce, by November l923
Sholokhov became a regular partlclpant of j~~
~~-sponsored evenlng wrltlng semlnars con
ducted for Komsomol members by experlenced wrlters
such as the formallsts Vlktor Borlsovlch Shklovsky,
Oslp Brlk, I. Rakhlllo, Shubln, and Kudashev. Others
ln these semlnars lncluded Iurll Nlkolaevlch Llbedln
sky, Artem Veselyl (pseudonym of Nlkolal Ivanovlch
Koch Kurov), Aleksandr Aleksandrovlch Iadeev,
Geraslmova, Svetlov, and Golodnyl. In December l923
Sholokhov returned to Karglnskala and almost lmmedl
ately left wlth hls parents for Bukanovskala, where the
elghteenyearold wrlter marrled hls flance, Masha.
Jhe marrlage was reglstered on ll |anuary l921 ln the
Podtelkovskll Reglonal Zaks Offlce, a new type of clvll
marrlage bureau; Sholokhov (who was an athelst) also
marrled Masha ln a secret church servlce at the lnsls
tence of her father. Jwo days later, the young couple left
for Moscow. Jhey stayed on Georglevsk Street, rentlng
a part of a small, nolsy, dlvlded room, whlch they
shared wlth a shoe repalrman.
Sholokhov`s next plece drew heavlly on Gogol`s
l836 play of the same name'Revlzor" (Jhe Inspector
General)even though the settlng was Bukanovskala.
'Revlzor" was publlshed ln j (Jhe Young
Lenlnlst, the new name for f~~ m~~ after lt
carrled Vladlmlr Lenln`s obltuary on 22 |anuary l921)
on l2 Aprll l921 and collected ln volume elght (l960)
of the Goslltlzdat edltlon of hls p~ . Jhe
publlshed work provlded some needed funds, but even
wlth these monles and food parcels from home, the couple
could not make ends meet ln Moscow. Jhey were
unsuccessful ln flndlng the permanent work they
needed for lncome and also to have access to houslng
and educatlon. Llke many of hls contemporarles whose
educatlon was lnterrupted by war, Sholokhov was
unable to enroll ln any schools of hlgher learnlng
because he lacked formal schoollng and a degree.
Because he dld not belong to the Komsomolelther
because he could not joln or, as some accounts have lt,
because he was dlsmlssed from the organlzatlon for tak
lng part ln a secret church marrlage ceremonyhe
lacked thelr offlclal endorsement and thus was unable
to become a member of a Rabfak (rabochll fakul`tet), a
worker`s study group that prepared young workers and
peasants for technlcal schools and schools of hlgher
learnlng. On 25 May l921 the young couple left Mos
cow permanently, although Sholokhov contlnued to
vlslt and work ln Moscow over the next several
decades.
Sholokhov was determlned to become a wrlter.
After settllng ln Bukanovskala wlth hls wlfe`s parents,
he closed hlmself ln a room and stayed up nlghts wrlt
lng. In addltlon to short storles, he began to wrlte hls
flrst long work, tltled 'Donshchlna" (Places on the
Don). As Vlktor Vasllèvlch Gura wrltes ln w
jK ^K p~ (l960, Jhe Llfe and Work of
M. A. Sholokhov), ln thls novel Sholokhov lntended to
descrlbe the uprlslng of the Cossacksthe 'people
among whom he was born and had known slnce blrth."
Sholokhov wrote some thlrty pleces ln the next
four yearsmost of whlch are based on hls own experl
ences and usually deplct young people dedlcated to the
Communlst order flghtlng and comlng to terms wlth
the new soclal and polltlcal reallty brought about by the
Bolshevlk vlctory. Hls storles often descrlbe a palnful
exlstence that destroyed famllles, turnlng father agalnst
son and brother agalnst brother, as ls exempllfled by hls
flrst publlshed story, 'Rodlnka" (Jhe Blrthmark, col
lected l926), whlch tells the story of a Whlte Cossack
who hunts and kllls a Red soldler. As he strlps off the
soldler`s boots, the Cossack recognlzes a dlstlnctlve
blrthmark on the boy`s foot and reallzes, to hls horror,
that he has kllled hls own son. 'Rodlnka" flrst came out
on l1 December l921 ln j .
In December l921 Sholokhov offlclally became a
member of Rossllskala assotslatslla proletarsklkh
plsatelel (RAPP, Russlan Assoclatlon of Proletarlan Wrlt
ers), the rlght arm of the party, establlshed by the Ilrst
AllLnlon Congress of Proletarlan Wrlters. In early l925
ln Moscow, Sholokhov met Seraflmovlch, a Don Cos
sack whose llterary career began ln l888 and whose
major work, w (l921, Jhe Iron Ilood) was a
recognlzed canonlcal Sovlet work that sklllfully descrlbed
the Caucasus Clvll War. Jhe elderly Seraflmovlch
chalred a llterary evenlng ln the Proletkul`t Bulldlng on
Vozdvlzhenskll Street, durlng whlch Sholokhov read hls
early story 'Zverl" (Jhe Beasts). Impressed by the fresh
ness of the young man`s language, Seraflmovlch became
the wrlter`s mentor and frlend.
Beglnnlng wlth the publlcatlon of both hls flrst
completed story, 'Zverl," publlshed lnltlally as 'Prod
komlssar" (Jhe Iood Commlssar) ln j I
and 'Bakhchevlk" (Jhe Watchman of the Melon
Patch) ln h~I nlne addltlonal storles appeared ln
varlous publlcatlons between Iebruary and November
l925, lncludlng 'Pastukh" (Jhe Shepherd) ln w~
~ X 'Shlbalkovo Semla" (Shebalko`s
Seed) ln lX 'Illukha" ln j X 'Aleshka"
ln w~ ~ X and 'Nakhalenok" (Jhe
Brat) ln j K Some of hls storles featured
autoblographlcal elements. 'Dvukhmuzhnlala" (A Woman
wlth Jwo Husbands) develops a love theme based on
hls mother`s relatlonshlps, whlch he later contlnued
2l5
ai_ PPO j~ ^~ p
ln Tillii Dov. As Levltskalaan old respected Bolshevlk
who helped the young wrlterreports ln S lrovìu i
potom: `civcstvyc strovitsy i livi M. Z. Slolollovo (l99l,
Wlth Blood and Sweat. Lnknown Pages from
Sholokhov`s), 'Nakhalenok" was also based on
Sholokhov`s chlldhood.
Other storles qulckly followed, such as 'Semelnyl
chelovek" (A Iamlly Man, publlshed ln Irolcltor),
'Kolovert`" (Jhe Whlrlpool, publlshed ln Smcvo),
'Predsedatel` Revvoensoveta respubllkl" (Chalrman of
the Revolutlonary Sovlet of the Republlc, publlshed ln
Ugovcl), 'Krlvala stezhka" ( Jhe Crooked Path, pub
llshed ln lurvol lrcstìovsloi molodcli ), and hls longer
story 'Put`Dorozhen`ka" ( Jhe Way and the Road,
publlshed ln Molodoi lcvivcts). Early ln l925, the State
Publlshlng House, Goslltlzdat, collected hls longer sto
rles ln book form. Zlcsllivo scrdtsc (orlglnally tltled
'Aleshka"), Dvullmulvioio, òllolcvol, and Irosvogvord-
citsy ( Jhe Red Guards), the retltled 'Kolovert`."
Jhey also publlshed the second part of the story
'Put`Dorozhen`ka" as Irotiv clcrvogo vomcvi (Agalnst
the Black Banner).
lurvol lrcstìovsloi molodcl publlshed the flrst
revlew of a Sholokhov story ('Pastukh") ln |anuary
l926. Jhe revlew was encouraglng, and soon more sto
rles appeared ln prlnt. 'Smertnyl vrag" (A Mortal
Enemy) ln Iomsomoliio; 'Zherebenok" (Jhe Ioal) ln
Molodoi lcvivcts; 'Kaloshl" (Galoshes) ln lurvol lrcstìov-
sloi molodcli; 'O Kolchake, kraplve l prochem" (About
Kolchak, Nettles, and Other Jhlngs) ln Ircstìovslii lur-
vol; 'Chervotochlna" (Dry Rot) ln Smcvo; 'Lazorevala
step`" (Jullp Steppe) ln Iomsomoliio; and 'Batrakl" (Jhe
Iarm Laborers) ln Iomsomoliio.
At the beglnnlng of l926 Seraflmovlch wrote a
hlghly flatterlng lntroductlon to Sholokhov`s new short
story collectlon, Dovslic rossloy, a work that establlshed
the author`s reputatlon as an upandcomlng Sovlet
wrlter. At the end of that year, the publlsher of Dovslic
rossloy, Novala Moskva, put out Sholokhov`s second
story collectlon, Ioorcvoio stcp`, edlted by hls frlend
Kudashev.
Desplte the lncome these publlcatlons brought,
llfe was not easy for Sholokhov and hls famlly.
Sholokhov`s father dled ln December l925, just when
hls son was beglnnlng to achleve success as a wrlter.
Aleksandr Mlkhallovlch llved long enough to take
prlde ln hls son`s flrst publlshed storles. He was espe
clally proud that such an admlred wrlter as Seraflmo
vlch supported hls son`s work. Whlle Sholokhov dld
not keep journals or wrlte memolrs, ln Milloil
Slolollov: Uclcrl livi i tvorclcstvo (l981, Mlkhall
Sholokhov. Sketch of Hls Llfe and Works) Andrel
Vasllèvlch Kullnlch quotes the wrlter`s rare lntervlew
testlmony about the mld l920s as a tlme when 'plsalos`
trudno, l zhllos` trudno" (wrltlng was dlfflcult, and llfe
was hard). Sholokhov and hls wlfe were also startlng a
famlly; ln l926 thelr flrst chlld was borna daughter
whom they named Svetlana. Soon the young famlly
moved to Veshenskala, where Sholokhov contlnued to
llve untll hls death and where thelr other three chlldren
were born. Aleksandr ln l930, Mlkhall ln l935, and
Marlla ln l938.
In l927 two more storles were publlshed ln book
form. 'Zherebenok," collected ln U Iolclolc, lropivc i
proclcm: Iossloy (About Kolchak, Nettles and Other
Jhlngs. Storles), and Clcrvotoclivo. In addltlon, Iomso-
mol`sloio provdo (Jhe Komsomol Jruth) publlshed
'Odln lazyk" (One Language); Molodoi lcvivcts publlshed
'Veter" (Wlnd); and Molodost` (Youth), the Molodoio
gvordiio almanac, publlshed 'Mlagkotelyl" (Soft
hearted). More lmportant, Sholokhov completed hls
flrst novel, 'Donshchlna," but soon reallzed that lts lack
of an hlstorlcal context made lt dlfflcult for the average
reader to understand. In thelr book M. Z. Slolollov:
Scmivorii (l962), Iedor Aleksandrovlch Abramov and
Gura quote Sholokhov`s recollectlons of how he came
to wrlte hls new novelTillii Dov:
I began the novel |'Donshchlna"| by descrlblng the
event of the l9l7 Kornllov putsch. Jhen lt became
clear that thls putsch, and more lmportantly, the role of
the Cossacks ln these events, would not be understood
wlthout a Cossack prehlstory, and so I began wlth the
descrlptlon of the llfe of the Don Cossacks just before
the beglnnlng of World War I.
As wlth many facts ln Sholokhov`s blography, other
accounts offer dlfferent dates and descrlbe dlfferent clr
cumstances. None of the accounts that vlew Sholokhov
as the author of Tillii Dov slgnlflcantly change the hls
tory of the genesls of the work.
By |une l927 Sholokhov returned to Moscow an
employee of lurvol lrcstìovsloi molodcli. Whlle ln Mos
cow, he also dld llbrary research for hls new novel. He
studled collectlons of Cossack folklore, such as Sborvil
dovslill vorodvyll pcscv` (l866, A Collectlon of Iolk
Songs from the Don) by Andronlk Savelèv and Dovslic
looclì pcsvi (l895, Don Cossack Songs) by Aleksandr
Nlkolaevlch Plvovarov. He dug through archlves and
through both forelgn and Russlan publlshed sources
about World War I and the revolutlon. Jhese sources
lncluded Nlkolal Evgenèvlch Kakurln`s book Iol
srololos` rcvoliutsiio (l925, How the Revolutlon Was
Iought), Vladlmlr Vladlmlrovlch Bronesky`s Istoriio
Dovslogo !oislo, !lodimiro rovcslogo (l831), and others
as descrlbed ln detall by Herman Ermolaev ln Milloil
Slolollov ovd His Zrt (l982) and by Konstantln Ivano
vlch Prllma ln hls contrlbutlon to 'Tillii Dov: Uroli
romovo: U mirovom voclcvii romovo M. Z. Slolollovo (l979,
2l6
j~ ^~ p ai_ PPO
Jhe _ulet Don. Lessons of the Novel. On the World
Slgnlflcance of M. A. Sholokhov`s Novel).
In hls research, Sholokhov also traveled the Don,
collectlng flrsthand accounts from partlclpants of both
World War I and the Don Clvll War. He met wlth Cos
sack elders, amassed oral tales and folklore, and studled
old songs, tales, and legends, whlch he lncorporated to
provlde an authentlc atmosphere for hls novel. On 6
Aprll l926 he wrote to Kharlampll Vasllèvlch Erma
kov, one of the most successful Cossack leaders of the
Don antlBolshevlk uprlslng, requestlng a meetlng to
dlscuss addltlonal detalls of the l9l9 events. Ermakov
appears as a character ln the novel, and by many
accounts some of Ermakov`s characterlstlcs descrlbe
Grlgorll Melekhov, the hero of q aK Not long
after thelr meetlng, Sholokhov learned of Ermakov`s
arrest (on 6 |une l927) and of hls convlctlon. |udged an
enemy of the Sovlet people, Ermakov was shot ln l927.
(He was rehabllltated ln l989, flve years after
Sholokhov`s death.) Polltlcally awkward, the Ermakov
connectlon threatened Sholokhov and hls book.
Although Sholokhov completed the flrst draft of
book l relatlvely qulckly, he revlsed and edlted the
manuscrlpt many tlmes. Lnaware of publlshlng prac
tlces, the young author sent hls completed manuscrlpt
at the end of l927 to the journal l~ (October) ln
a slnglespaced, typed format wlthout any marglns. Not
lng the poorly prepared draft, the edltorlal board declded
that there was llttle merlt ln a work that descrlbed the hls
torlcal, preRevolutlonary Cossack world. In thelr vlew,
the theme lacked relevance ln a new world that was mov
lng toward a new soclal order. Jhey rejected the manu
scrlpt and suggested major revlslons.
Jhe manuscrlpt eventually found lts way to
Seraflmovlch, an edltorlal board member. He was
struck by the novel and recommended lmmedlate publl
catlon wlthout any major revlslons. l~ serlallzed
book l (comprlslng parts l-3) of q a from |anu
ary to Aprll l928. By Iebruary to March of that year,
the flrst crltlcal revlews halled the publlcatlon of an
lmportant new Sovlet novel. On l9 Aprll l928 Serafl
movlch`s posltlve revlew appeared ln m~~ (Jruth). As
quoted ln w jK ^K p~I Gor`ky
reported that 'Sholokhov, judglng by the flrst volume,"
was 'a talented wrlter." Vladlmlr Vladlmlrovlch
Ermllov, an lmportant RAPP crltlc but not a frlend of
Sholokhov, publlshed a flatterlng revlew, descrlblng the
hero of the novel as well on the road to becomlng a
Communlst.
Jhe next year started brllllantly for the author.
Sholokhov was elected to the edltorlal board of l~I
an offlclal publlcatlon of the party. Jhls post was a
major accompllshment for a twentyfouryearold man
wlth llmlted formal educatlon. j ~ (Jhe
Moscow Worker) publlshed q a ln book form;
between May and October, l~ serlallzed book 2 of
q a (whlch conslsts of parts 1-5), ln whlch
Sholokhov, uslng both publlshed and unpubllshed
sources, descrlbes ln great detall the Iebruary Revolu
tlon on the Don. Jhe novel was lmmedlately successful
wlth readers and came out ln several edltlons and prlnt
lngs between l928 and l929.
Jhe more orthodox, rlghtwlng Communlst crlt
lcs of RAPP, the rlght arm of the party, trled to control
the llterary scene and ln l928 began to volce thelr lack
of enthuslasm for q aI accuslng Sholokhov of
belng a reglonal, peasant wrlter who dld not glve appro
prlate welght to workers and thelr problems. Jhey
attacked hlm for belng nelther a proletarlan wrlter nor,
more lmportant, a Communlst wrlter, and questloned
the odd polnt of vlew ln the novel, malntalnlng that lt
was wrltten from the perspectlve of the defeated Whltes
and not the vlctorlous Bolshevlksthus lgnltlng and
fuellng rumors that questloned Sholokhov`s authorshlp
of the book. Some vlew the attacks as a rlghtwlng
Jrotskylte campalgn agalnst Sholokhov, whlle others
(even as late as 2001) malntaln that Sholokhov dld not
wrlte q aK Early crltlcs doubtlng Sholokhov`s
authorshlp clalmed the novel for Iedor Krlukov, a
Whlte Army offlcer kllled ln battle. Some attrlbuted the
authorshlp to Sholokhov`s fatherlnlaw, Gromoslavsky,
others to the crltlc S. Goloushev, and some to Serafl
movlch. As a result, the edltorlal board of l~ dls
contlnued publlcatlon of the novel.
Sholokhov protested to Seraflmovlch and Gor`ky.
A RAPP commlsslon was formed to lnvestlgate the alle
gatlons, and Sholokhov subjected hlmself to the humlll
atlon of havlng to prove that the texts were hls. He
brought hls notes, rough drafts, manuscrlpts, and plans
for the novel to the offlces of m~~ for examlnatlon.
Jhe commlsslon unanlmously found that the author
had proven hls case. On 29 March l929 m~~ pub
llshed a 'Letter to the Edltor," slgned by all commlsslon
membersSeraflmovlch, Iadeev, Leopol`d Leonldo
vlch Averbakh, Vladlmlr Mlkhallovlch Klrshon, and
Vladlmlr Stavsky (pseudonym of Vladlmlr Petrovlch
Klrplchnlkov) denylng the rumor and protestlng
agalnst the attacks on Sholokhov. Iurthermore, they
threatened those who perslsted ln spreadlng gosslp wlth
legal actlon.
Jhe offlclal response sllenced crltlcs and pre
vented addltlonal lnvestlgatlons but dld not put suspl
clons to rest. Sholokhov dld not respond to accusatlons
ln prlnt, but he took them to heart; the flrst reports of
hls heavy drlnklng stem from thls tlme. Jhroughout
thls perlod, Sholokhov remalned vlslble and actlve,
often partlclpatlng ln meetlngs wlth readers. Whlle
Sholokhov`s publlc sllence on the lssue ls dlfflcult to
ONT
ai_ PPO j~ ^~ p
m~ ~ ~ ~ p Jlkhll Don, ~ NVQN p~ p~ m ^ E Jlkhll Don. Chast`
pervala. Chernovala rukopls`. Avtograf M. A. Sholokhova, l5 nolabrla l926-nachalo l927I OMMSF
2l8
j~ ^~ p ai_ PPO
explaln, some crltlcs vlew hls retlcence as motlvated by
fear of exposlng hls embarrasslng connectlon to Ermakov.
Sholokhov was afrald that the Ermakov eplsode mlght
make lt lmposslble to publlsh the remalnlng parts of
Tillii Dov and that lt mlght lead to more serlous dlfflcul
tles wlth the government.
Sholokhov was not a party member, and hls rela
tlonshlp wlth the government remalned ln flux.
Although Sholokhov appeared to have the support of
the party and of Stalln, he looked for guldance from
Gor`ky. He met wlth Gor`ky ln Kraskov, near Moscow,
ln Aprll l929. In hls note to Gor`ky afterward, he states
that the meetlng left hlm 'full of hope and ready for
work." Sholokhov remalned a toplc of dlscusslon
among party functlonarles. In a prlvate letter to Iellks
Iakovlevlch Kohn (on 9 |uly l929), Stalln descrlbed the
author of Tillii Dov as 'an lllustrlous wrlter of our
tlme," but also polnted to 'polltlcal" errors ln hls work.
On 26 |uly l929 Gor`kythe doyen of Russlan lltera
turellsted Sholokhov among young talented Sovlet
wrlters ln hls artlcle 'Rabochll klass dolzhen vospltat`
svolkh masterov kul`tury" (Jhe Worklng Class Must
Educate Its Own Masters of Culture).
Jhe year l929 grew lncreaslngly dlfflcult for the
wrlter. By the end of September, an artlcle ln ol`slcvist-
sloio smcvo (Bolshevlk Change) by Nlkolal Prokof`lev
accused Sholokhov of collaboratlon wlth the kulaks and
of other antlSovlet actlvltles. Sholokhov responded at
once wlth two 'Letters to the Edltor" publlshed ln the
reglonal papers Molot (Hammer) and ol`slcvistsloio
smcvo, and ln the journal ò podcmc (On the Rlse). Jhe
reglonal wrlters` assoclatlon, SeveroKavkaskala asso
tslatslla proletarsklkh plsatelel (SKAPP, North Cauca
sus Assoclatlon of Proletarlan Wrlters), stood behlnd
Sholokhov, publlshlng ln ol`slcvistsloio smcvo on 5
November an artlcle ln hls defense, 'Protlv klevety na
proletarskogo plsatella" (Agalnst the Gosslp Dlrected at
the Proletarlan Wrlter). Jhe Slxteenth Congress of the
Communlst Party endorsed Tillii Dov ln l930; the
novel appeared on lts offlclal llst of canonlcal proletar
lan works. Jhe party had ln effect volced lts approval of
Sholokhov and hls novel, and by the end of l930
Sholokhov had flled hls appllcatlon and become a can
dldate for membershlp ln the party.
Ilnally, ln l930, Ugovcl publlshed excerpts of
book 3, tltled 'Devlatnadtsatala godlna" (Jhe Nlne
teenth Hour); the Engllsh translatlon of books l and 2,
Zvd _uict Ilows tlc Dov, were publlshed ln Moscow; and
Moskovskala klnofabrlka (Moscow Illm Iactory)
adapted the novel as a sllent movle. Ol`ga Ivanovna
Preobrazhenskala, one of the most lmportant women ln
the Sovlet motlonplcture lndustry, dlrected the movle
wlth Ivan Pravov. Later, Sholokhov and most crltlcs
agreed that thls flrst motlonplcture adaptatlon was a
fallure.
Jhroughout the l930s Sholokhov perslstently
worked on parts of Tillii Dov whlle also actlvely partlcl
patlng ln agrarlan reform. Hls fleldwork brought hlm ln
touch wlth agrlcultural problems and provlded materlal
for hls next novel as well as for several lnformatlonal
artlcles. On 22 March l930 Irovdo publlshed 'Prestup
nala bezkhozalstvennost`" (Crlmlnal Mlsmanagement),
a report about the horrlflc condltlons on the Lpper
Don; on 20 October l930, ol`slcvistslii Dov (Jhe Bol
shevlk Don) publlshed 'Za perestrolku" (Ior Reform),
ln whlch Sholokhov descrlbed the deplorable condl
tlons of anlmal husbandry and called for reform; and
flnally, on 25 March l93l, Irovdo publlshed hls artlcle
'Po pravoberezh`lu Dona" (On the Rlght Bank of the
Don), about sprlng plantlng ln the newly formed collec
tlve farms (kolkhoz and sovkhoz) on the Don.
In addltlon to hls collectlvlzatlon work,
Sholokhov took on the guldance of a llterary clrcle. He
led dlscusslons and lectured to reglonal ò podcmc wrlt
ers. In the recollectlons of some partlclpants, Sholokhov`s
memory was phenomenal; rarely uslng notes, he talked
extemporaneously about such dlverse llterary flgures
as Jolstoy, Anton Pavlovlch Chekhov, and Vladlmlr
Vladlmlrovlch Mayakovsky. Not all members of the
group llked Sholokhov, and he left, replaced by the poet
Elena Shlrman.
Sholokhov`s struggles wlth censorshlp were
ongolng as he trled to publlsh the remalnlng parts of
Tillii Dov, whlch descrlbe the actual events of the l9l9
Don Cossack uprlslng. Ultiobr` rejected book 3 (part 6).
In May l93l Sholokhov asked Iadeev, a key and lnflu
entlal RAPP flgure, to send the rejected manuscrlpt to
Gor`ky for revlew. In a letter dated 3 |une l93l and
wrltten to Iadeev, Gorky descrlbed book 3 of Tillii Dov
as an lmportant workln many ways a work better
wrltten than the prevlous books. Gor`ky emphaslzed
yet agaln that Sholokhov was a Cossack (and therefore
a reglonal) wrlter, who, llke the hero of Tillii Dov, Grl
gorll Melekhov, stood between two worlds and had not
qulte commltted to the new proletarlan order. He con
cluded that Sholokhov, who was qulte talented and had
the potentlal to become a great Sovlet wrlter, was ln
need of gentle reeducatlon, or pcrcvospitoviio.
Jhe controversy surroundlng the actual events as
descrlbed by Sholokhov became a major deterrent to
publlcatlon, and he began to worry that the delay mlght
encourage more rumors and clalms that Tillii Dov was
not hls work. In hls letter to Gor`ky (6 |une l93l),
Sholokhov explalned that some members of the Ultiobr`
edltorlal staff denled the actuallty of the Cossack uprls
lng ln Veshenskalaas wltnessed by Sholokhov ln hls
youthand protested agalnst 'the artlstlc llcense" wlth
2l9
ai_ PPO j~ ^~ p
whlch he deplcted events and characters. Sholokhov
assured Gor`ky that he based hls descrlptlons on actual
events and people, and that hls was an accurate hlstorl
cal account. In support of hls argument, he submltted
excerpts from Kakurln`s Iol srololos` rcvoliutsio, a work
he researched thoroughly. He also strongly protested
agalnst revlslons suggested by members of the edltorlal
board, lnslstlng that the proposed cuts lncluded some
of the best lyrlcal passages ln the book.
Gor`ky stood flrm ln hls publlc comments about
Sholokhov. In dlscusslons wlth young wrlters (on ll
|une l93l), Gor`ky restated hls lmpresslons that
Sholokhov 'wrote llke a Cossack who loves hls Don,
the Cossack way of llfe, and nature" (from Kullnlch`s
Milloil Slolollov). Dlfferlng accounts explaln how book
3 (part 6) flnally came to be publlshed. Accordlng to the
most clted verslon, Stalln slmply ordered the publlca
tlon of the book followlng a |uly l93l meetlng ln
Gor`ky`s Kraskov home that lncluded Gor`ky, Stalln,
and Sholokhov. Sholokhov`s arguments appeared to be
persuaslve. Stalln asked for no major revlslons ln splte
of hls dlsagreement wlth the portrayal of some events,
and ln December l93l, ln 'O Llterature" (On Lltera
ture) ln òsli dostilcviio (Our Accompllshments),
Gor`ky llsted Sholokhov among wrlters who 'truthfully
portrayed the war years." In |anuary l932 Ultiobr`
began the publlcatlon of book 3 of Tillii Dov.
Stalln`s lnterventlon also helped Sholokhov pub
llsh book l of hls new novel about compulsory collec
tlvlzatlonIodviotoio tsclivo (l932; translated as Tlc Soil
Upturvcd, l931). In December l93l Sholokhov sent
parts of thls novel to òvyi mir under the tltle 'S krov`lu
l potom" (Wlth Blood and Sweat). Edltors called for a
tltle change and the deletlon of sectlons descrlblng the
atrocltles commltted agalnst kulaks. Sholokhov agreed
to a change ln tltle but refused to water down the text
and agaln asked for Stalln`s asslstance. Wlth Stalln`s
backlng, òvyi mir serlallzed the novel ln |anuary l932
as Iodviotoio tsclivo, and almost lmmedlately the novel
came out ln book form. Presentlng the storles of dlspos
sessed Cossacks and peasants, lt was a powerful yet
objectlve account of the traglc consequences of collec
tlvlzatlon. Nevertheless, Iodviotoio tsclivo, book l, ls con
sldered a lesser llterary plece than Tillii Dov.
By thls tlme, RAPP had become too powerful,
and Stalln encouraged lts dlssolutlon. Wrlters sup
ported the breakup, expectlng greater creatlve freedom
once the hegemony of the allpowerful and hateful
RAPP ended. Sholokhov and other RAPP members
slgned ln May l932 a document tltled 'O perestrolke
llteraturnokhudozhestvennykh organlzatsll" (About
the Reorganlzatlon of ArtlstlcLlterary Organlzatlons),
approvlng the party`s 23 Aprll l932 declslon to abollsh
all llterary groups and assoclatlons. Jhls act was the
flrst ln a serles that, contrary to wrlters` expectatlons,
dld not lead to more creatlve freedom but put an end to
all dlverslty ln Sovlet llterature. Iollowlng careful
revlew, at the end of the year Sholokhov was elected a
member of the Communlst Party. But even after thls
change ln hls status, hls trlals wlth censorshlp and local
party offlclals dld not end; he faced major compllca
tlons ln publlshlng book 3 of Tillii Dov as a separate
edltlon and found hlmself once more accused of party
dlsloyalty and treason.
By l933 a new wave of the 'Great Jerror," the
'cleanslng" (clistlo) of the country of all enemles had
reached the Don, and some three hundred cltlzens were
arrested ln Veshenskala. Jhe clistlo threatened
Sholokhov`s career and llfe. On l3 Iebruary l933
Sholokhov, ln a selfdefenslve move, wrote Stalln and
hls frlend, the Ilrst Secretary of the Veshenskala
County Commlttee of the Communlst Party, Petr G.
Lugovol, llstlng all Communlst atrocltles agalnst the
Don populatlon. In hls letter, quoted ln Abramov and
Gura`s M. Z. Slolollov, Sholokhov wrltes that some of
the 'best people" are belng arrested as 'enemles of the
party" and cautlons that lf prolonged, these lrresponsl
ble pollcles wlll plunge 'the reglon lnto catastrophe."
Sholokhov`s letters to Stalln descrlbed the condltlons on
the Don and requested ald. Stalln`s dlrect lnterventlon
saved Sholokhov from arrest, and the graln Stalln sent
to the Don ln response to Sholokhov`s request probably
saved many others from starvatlonunllke the sltuatlon
ln Eastern Lkralne, where avallable food reserves were
taken away and mllllons lost thelr llves ln the l932-
l933 manmade famlne.
Sholokhov contlnued to partlclpate fully ln llter
ary llfe. In l931 Zvd _uict Ilows tlc Dov, the second
Engllshlanguage edltlon of Tillii Dov, was publlshed ln
London and New York. Jhe author was qulte lnter
ested ln the crltlcal response to hls novel ln the West; he
requested translated revlews and learned that Zvd _uict
Ilows tlc Dov was well recelved. Hls artlcle ln Iitcrotur-
voio gocto (l8 March l931), 'Za chestnulu rabotu
plsatella l krltlka" (In Support of the Honest Work of
Wrlter and Crltlc, collected ln l960), endorsed Gor`ky`s
appeal to ralse the quallty of contemporary llterature,
whlch had preclpltously decllned once prlvate publlsh
lng houses closed ln the l920s and new llterary controls
went lnto effect. Some llterary texts began to resemble
newspaper reportage, deservlng of the term foltogrofiio
(factual report). Sholokhov called for hlgher standards
more attentlon to language and craftsmanshlpand
rebuked crltlcs for allowlng factlonal loyaltles to sway
thelr revlews. He dld not even spare hls mentor Serafl
movlch, rebuklng hlm for supportlng Iedor Ivanovlch
Panferov`s lax attltude toward language and the llterary
arts. Later that year, Sholokhov`s artlcle ln ol`slcvistslii
220
j~ ^~ p ai_ PPO
a (7 November l931), 'Zhlt` v kolkhoze kul`turno"
(Jo Llve ln the Kolkhoz ln a More Cultured Way, col
lected ln l960), called for lmprovements ln the llves of
kolkhoz workers.
Sholokhov played a part ln the hlstorlc Ilrst All
Lnlon Congress of Sovlet Wrlters (l931), whlch flrmly
establlshed the Lnlon of Sovlet Wrlters and set a new
course for Sovlet llterature. Membershlp ln the unlon
was llmlted. only wrlters wllllng to follow the pre
scrlbed llterary methodsoclallst reallsmcould joln.
Stalln, the drlvlng force behlnd the creatlon of the
unlon, understood the lmportance of the wrlter`s role,
challenglng every wrlter to support the effort of con
structlng the new Sovlet State. In a wldely reported
meetlng at Gor`ky`s home, Stalln ls quoted as statlng
that even more than machlnes, the state needed human
souls. He urged wrlters to become 'englneers of human
souls," a motto that Andrel Aleksandrovlch Zhdanov
quoted ln hls l931 speech at the Ilrst Congress of the
Lnlon of Wrlters and that became the organlzatlon`s
guldlng prlnclple for nearly slxty years. Jhese reforms
also created the Instltut mlrovol llteratury (IMLI, Instl
tute of World Llterature), whlch was to unlte those
young wrlters wllllng to propagate the party`s polltlcal
goals and to traln younger wrlters ln soclallst reallsm.
One consequence of these changes was the stlfllng of all
other creatlve volces.
Elected to the allpowerful Board of the Lnlon of
Wrlters, Sholokhov was soon busy wlth a full schedule
of meetlngs and lectures. He met dally wlth workers`
delegatlons and returned to Veshenskala only brlefly
before leavlng for a lengthy trlp abroad. Ior the flrst
three weeks of l935 he traveled to Denmark, England,
and Irance, where he met wlth wrlters and wlth agrlcul
tural workers. Although hls major work, q aI was
not yet completed, at age thlrty Sholokhov had an
establlshed reputatlon as a worldclass wrlter and,
accordlng to Vasllèv, had already begun to attract the
attentlon of the Nobel Prlze commlttee. After hls return
to the LSSR, hls schedule remalned busy. Durlng a
vlslt to Kuban`, Sholokhov met wlth old partlsans and
the press. In a wldely reported lntervlew, he volced sup
port for the notlon that young Sovlet wrlters need to tell
the story of the revolutlon and clvll war not only ln
Kuban` but ln every part of the country. He completed
the next sectlons of hls novel, and ln March the news
paper f~ (News) publlshed the flrst chapters of
book 1 (Part 7) of q aK
Jhe popularlty of q a ln the Sovlet Lnlon
and abroad became more manlfest durlng the late
l930s. Jhe composer Ivan Ivanovlch Dzerzhlnksy`s
opera based on the novel was performedflrst ln the
Malyl Opernyl Jeatr ln Lenlngrad, wlth a later perfor
mance planned for the Bol`shol Jheater ln Moscow.
Jhe opera premlered ln March l936; Sholokhov
judged lt a fallure. He met ln Veshenskala wlth the com
poser and hls brother Leonld Ivanovlch Dzerzhlnksy
and agreed to serve as advlser durlng the wrltlng of a
new llbretto for the next operam~~~ ~K By the
end of the year, he was taklng part ln rehearsals ln prep
aratlon for the openlng of the new theater ln Veshen
skala, bullt on hls lnltlatlve and wlth hls flnanclal
asslstance. Staged performances of both operas took
place throughout the Sovlet Lnlon, and revlews ln the
Sovlet Lnlon and abroad were frequent.
In the late l930s, the Sovlet people were endurlng
Stalln`s purges. Sholokhov was a survlvor. In l937 and
l938, when hundreds of thousands, perhaps even mll
llons, of Sovlet cltlzens were arrested as 'enemles of the
people" for alleged crlmes agalnst the state, Sholokhov
managed to outmaneuver another plot agalnst hlm.
Many loyal Veshenskala Communlsts were arrested,
among them Sholokhov`s longtlme frlend Lugovol;
Vasllll Petrovlch Gromoslavsky, hls brotherlnlaw, was
questloned, and many of Sholokhov`s frlends were
lnterrogated. A frlend brought the new consplracy to
Sholokhov`s attentlon and also to Stalln`s. Some sources
clalmed that Stalln had lnstlgated the plan hlmself;
archlval evldence publlshed by Vltalll Shetallnskll ln
k (l998), however, polnts to Nlkolal Ezhov, Sta
lln`s personal henchman, as the lnstlgator of the plot.
Ezhov had a personal axe to grlnd. he was enraged by
Sholokhov`s lntlmate llalson wlth hls wlfe. Stalln lnter
vened, savlng Sholokhov from arrest. Iollowlng a meet
lng wlth the wrlter, he freed Sholokhov`s arrested
frlends and hundreds of lnnocent jalled Cossacks.
k brought out part 7 (the flrst half of book
1) of q a ln l937 and l938. Part 8 of book 1 was
rumored to have been completed, but Stalln dld not
approve the endlng, lnslstlng that lt be amended to
show the hero becomlng a true Communlst. Sholokhov
objected. After attendlng the premlere of Ivan Dzerzhln
sky`s opera m~~~ ~ ln the Bol`shol Jheater, an
adaptatlon he judged far more successful than the ear
ller productlon of q aI Sholokhov began hls col
laboratlon wlth Sergel Aleksandrovlch Ermollnsky and
Iulll Iakovlevlch Ralzman on the screenplay for a new
movle verslon of m~~~ ~ (l939).
Sholokhov enjoyed many professlonal successes ln
the followlng years, such as hls electlon on 28 |anuary
l939 to the Academy of Sclences. He was awarded the
Lenln Prlze for llterature and was agaln elected to the
board of the Wrlters Lnlon. He also took part ln the
Elghteenth Communlst Party Congress, dellverlng a
speech ln whlch he ldentlfled the paper shortage ln the
country as the slngle most slgnlflcant deterrent to the
publlcatlon of the 'many excellent new Sovlet works and
thus to the development of Sovlet llterature." Moreover,
22l
ai_ PPO j~ ^~ p
Sholokhov won the standoff agalnst Stalln. the endlng to
Tillii Dov remalned unchanged, and part 8 (the second
half of book 1) was publlshed by òvyi mir ln l910. Gosll
tlzdat brought out parts 7 and 8 as book 1 ln l910, and
the motlonplcture verslon of Iodviotoio tsclivo was posl
tlvely revlewed. Jhe concluslon of Tillii Dov was wldely
but not always favorably revlewed; yet, on l5 March
l91l, Sholokhov was among the flrst to recelve the
newly created Stalln Prlze, Ilrst Class, for Tillii Dov. Jhe
Stalln Prlze carrled a monetary award of l00,000 rubles.
Sholokhov dld not have much tlme to enjoy hls successes
once the German forces lnvaded the Sovlet Lnlon on 22
|une l91l. In hls lnltlal response to the lnvaslon,
Sholokhov gave an lmpassloned, patrlotlc speech,
donated the monles from the Stalln Prlze to the war
effort, and enllsted ln the army as a war correspondent.
Worklng for Sovlnformbluro (Sovlet Informatlon
Bureau), he traveled to battleflelds to cover the war.
Sholokhov was not a successful war correspondent. He
was a slow wrlter and found the fastpaced productlon
of short, lnformatlonal pleces dlfflcult. Hls flrst pub
llshed sketches, such as 'Na Donu" (On the Don) ln
Irovdo (9 |uly l91l; publlshed as a book ln l91l) and
'V kazach`lkh kolkhozakh" (In the Kolkhozes of the
Cossacks, collected ln l960) ln Irosvoio vcdo (Red
Star; 1 |uly l91l), were not war related. In all, he pro
duced only four artlcles about the war. He reported hls
lmpresslons of the Battle of Smolensk ln the artlcles 'Na
Smolenskom napravlenll" (In the Dlrectlon of Smo
lensk, collected ln l960) and 'Gnusnost`" (Jreachery),
both for Irosvoio vcdo ln l91l. Addltlonal artlcles
appeared ln Irovdo, lncludlng 'Voennoplennye" (l91l,
Prlsoners of War; collected ln l960) and 'Na luge"
(l912, In the South; publlshed as a book ln l912).
Sholokhov spent most of the war years at the
western, southern, and southwestern fronts (l912-
l913). He was present at the battles of Stallngrad and
the Jhlrd Belorusslan front (l913-l915). Hls short
story 'Nauka nenavlstl" (Jhe Sclence of Hatred)pub
llshed ln Irovdo on 22 |une l912, ln Irosvoio vcdo the
next day, and ln a book edltlon (l912)ls based on
these experlences and on reports of soldlers who
descrlbed the atrocltles commltted by German soldlers.
Sufferlng lnjurles ln a plane crash ln l912, Sholokhov
brlefly returned to Veshenskala to recover, arrlvlng just
ln tlme to help evacuate hls famlly. On l0 |uly l912
Sholokhov`s wldowed mother, Anastaslla Danllovna,
who llved wlth her son`s famlly after her husband`s
death, was kllled durlng a German bomblng rald.
Sholokhov`s papers and reportedly hls llbrary were also
lost durlng that attack.
Iollowlng a brlef stay ln Nlkolaevsk on the Volga,
the Sholokhov famlly moved, flnally settllng ln
Dar`lnskll near Lralsk ln Northern Kazakhstan, a place
that later became the wrlter`s favorlte flshlng spot. In
l913 Irovdo began featurlng chapters from Sholokhov`s
war novel, Uvi srololis` o rodivu (l913, l911, l916;
translated as Tlcy Iouglt for Tlcir Couvtry, l981), and ln
l911 both Irovdo and Irosvoio vcdo publlshed new
chapters. Jhe novel was well recelved by frontllne sol
dlers. Although thls work was never completed,
Sholokhov publlshed addltlonal parts sporadlcally ln
perlodlcals durlng the next two decades.
Sholokhov more often served as offlclal party
spokesperson. He wrote offlclal pleces such as
'Moguchll khudozhnlk" (Great Artlst, collected ln the
l95l edltlon of Slovo o rodivc |A Word About My
Motherland|, l918) publlshed ln Irovdo (25 Iebruary
l915), euloglzlng hls colleague and frlend Aleksel
Nlkolaevlch Jolstoy, who had chalred the Wrlters
Lnlon after Gor`ky`s death ln l936 and, llke
Sholokhov, was a member of the Supreme Sovlet and
the Sovlet Academy of Sclences. After vlsltlng the Jhlrd
Belorusslan front (l915), Sholokhov publlshed 'Gor
dost`, llubov`, prlznatel`nost`" (Prlde, Love, and Gratl
tude) ln Ivcstiio, and after the vlctorlous end of the war
hls hlghly patrlotlc 'Pobeda, kakol ne znala lstorlla"
(Vlctory Prevlously Lnknown ln Hlstory, collected ln
l960) appeared on l3 May l915 ln Irovdo. He returned
home to Veshenskala to celebratlons of hls fortleth
blrthday. On 23 September the Presldlum of the
Supreme Sovlet awarded Sholokhov the Medal of the
Patrlotlc War, Ilrst Class, and later that year, ln Decem
ber, he was demoblllzed from the army.
Sovlet attltudes toward the West, especlally
toward the Western allles, had relaxed durlng the war.
By l1 August l916, a return of the old pollcles was slg
naled by the Central Commlttee`s attack agalnst two
journals, vcdo (Jhe Star)the offlclal publlcatlon of
Lenlngrad wrltersand the journal Icvivgrod. Led by
Zhdanov, the assault brought back lntolerance toward
the West and tlghtened controls over all aspects of lntel
lectual llfe. Jhe party resolutlons 'O zhurnalakh vcdo
l Icvivgrod " (About the |ournals vcdo and Icvivgrod )
and 'O repertuare dramatlchesklkh teatrov l merakh po
ego uluchshenllu" (About the Repertolre of Dramatlc
Jheaters and the Standards for Its Improvement) slgnl
fled a strlke agalnst apolltlcal llterature and llberal attl
tudes toward the West. Jhe prlmary scapegoats of the
new attacks were Anna Andreevna Akhmatova, a
renowned Russlan poet, and Mlkhall Mlkhallovlch
Zoshchenko, a satlrlst who belonged to the orlglnal
Seraplon Brothers (l92l-l927), a group of young wrlt
ers lnsplred by the German Romantlc wrlter E.J.A.
Hoffman`s Dic Scropiovs-rdcr (l8l9-l82l), who met
ln Lenlngrad under the leadershlp of Evgenll Zamlatln
and above all valued lmaglnatlon and experlmentatlon
ln llterature. Members at varlous tlmes lncluded Vlctor
222
j~ ^~ p ai_ PPO
Shklovsky, Kornel Chukovsky, Nllolal Gumllev, Lev
Lunts, Borls Elchenbaum, Venlamln Kaverln, Konstan
tln Aleksandrovlch Iedln, Nlkolal Jlkhonov, Vsevolod
Ivanov, Ellzaveta Polonskaya, and Gor`ky. Although
lnltlally tolerated as 'fellowtravelers," those wrlters
who were not Communlsts but who dld not openly
oppose the Sovlet Revolutlon, the 'fraternlty" dlssolved
after lt came under lncreaslng pressure from the Marx
lsts. Akhmatova and Zoshchenko were vlllfled ln the
press and expelled from the Wrlters Lnlon. Zhdanov`s
campalgn sent an unmlstakable message, and some
scholars belleve that these acts spllt the ranks of the
Wrlters Lnlon, later leadlng to clashes between the con
servatlves (the fathers) and llberals (the sons) of the llt
erary establlshment.
Amld thls antlWestern uproar, Sholokhov`s posl
tlon ln the party grew stronger. In l916, Iitcroturvoio
gocto wrote. 'Sholokhov, the wrlter known and loved
by the Swedlsh people, and whose name had been dls
cussed more than once ln the West as a posslble candl
date for the Nobel Prlze, has falled to wln the Nobel
Prlze nomlnatlon for polltlcal reasonsthe West`s com
plete dlsregard for the Sovlet Lnlon." A new watch
word, losmopolitim (cosmopolltanlsm), lntroduced by
Iadeev ln l917, lndlcated renewed hostllltles toward the
West. Jhe campalgn was dlrected agalnst those who
gave 'undue credlt to Western accompllshments," be lt
ln the sclences, llterature, the arts, or scholarshlp, and
lncluded prevlously publlshed and respected scholars,
llterary crltlcs, and wrlters. In March l917 Aleksandr
Jvardovsky publlshed hls posltlve revlew of Iodoviotoio
tsclivo, and by September l917 Sholokhov and other
establlshment wrltersIadeev and Iedlnwho often
volced governmental attacks agalnst the West publlshed
a slgned open letter, 'S kem vy amerlkanskle mastera
kul`tury?" (Whom Are You Wlth, Amerlcan Masters of
Culture?) ln Iitcroturvoio gocto, addressed to Amerlcan
cultural leaders and calllng for thelr support of world
peace.
In l918, after hls artlcle 'Slovo o rodlne" appeared
ln Irovdo, Sholokhov traveled to Poland, where he took
part ln the Internatlonal Congress of Sclence and Culture
ln Wroclaw and spoke ln favor of protectlng world peace.
Jhe next year, he publlshed hls sketch 'Svet l mrak"
(Llght and Darkness, collected ln Slovo o rodivc, l95l).
Between 1 and l0 August of that year, Sholokhov
returned to Stallngrad, the new Sovlet 'Hero Clty." In an
lntervlew he spoke of the lnsplratlon he felt, recalllng hls
flrst vlslt to the devastated clty soon after the battle. He
remembered belng struck by the flrst slgns of renewed
llfe, slgnallng the reblrth of the clty, and the overwhelm
lng feellng of 'vellchle torzhestvulushchel zhlznl" (the
greatness of neverendlng llfe). In the lntervlew, as Abra
mov and Gura note ln M. Z. Slolollov: Scmivorii, he
descrlbed ln detall hls plans for hls war novel, Uvi srolo-
lis` o rodivu. He envlsloned the book as a trllogy. book l
was to descrlbe Stallngrad before the battle; book 2,
the battle of Stallngrad; and book 3, Stallngrad after
the war. Sholokhov never completed thls planned trll
ogy, although new chapters of the worklnprogress
appeared ln l919, l951, l959, and l969.
In December l919 Sholokhov was honored wlth
celebratlons marklng the twentyflfth annlversary of hls
llterary career. By the early l950s, as archlval sources
lndlcate, hls posltlon ln the Communlst Party was threat
ened by accusatlons of alcohollsm. Yet, Sholokhov con
tlnued to serve publlcly as a government spokesperson.
In September l950 he publlshed ln Irovdo hls artlcle
attacklng Amerlcan lnvolvement ln Korea, 'Ne ultl pala
cham ot suda narodov" (Executloners Wlll Not Escape
the |udgment of Natlons; publlshed as a book ln l950).
Jhe Sovlet establlshment was dlsappolnted that
Sovlet wrlters, lncludlng Sholokhov, were belng passed
over for the Nobel Prlze. In dlscusslon of the Nobel
Prlze ln ol`sloio sovctsloio cvtsillopcdiio (l919-l958), the
offlclal vlew held that the declslon to award 'the Nobel
Prlze, especlally ln llterature had very llttle to do wlth
artlstlc merlts and most often was motlvated by the
polltlcal lnterests of reactlonary clrcles."
As new attacks agalnst cosmopolltanlsm lntensl
fledpubllclzed by the ublqultous slogan 'Campalgn
agalnst Rootless Cosmopolltans"Sholokhov took part
ln dlscusslons about the use of assumed names by wrlt
ers. Orchestrated by Stalln and hls supporters, these dls
cusslons were fueled, ln part, by antlSemltlsm as well as
by the campalgn agalnst 'cosmopolltan" wrlters. Strlv
lng to protect lts own, the Wrlters Lnlon reacted
qulckly. In response to Mlkhall Semenovlch Buben
nov`s artlcle, 'Nuzhny ll slchas llteraturnye psevdon
lmy?" (Are Pseudonyms Necessary?) ln Iomsomol`sloio
provdo (27 Iebruary l95l), whlch argued agalnst the
use of noms de plume, Sholokhov responded wlth 'S
opushchenym zabralom" (Wlth a Lowered Vlsor), wrlt
ten for Iitcroturvoio gocto (8 March l95l). When stu
dents from Moscow State Lnlverslty questloned
Sholokhov and hls vlews, he observed that sometlmes
wrlters have good reasons for adoptlng allases but
judged unacceptable thelr attempt to hlde behlnd sev
eral dlfferent names (masks) to express contradlctory
polnts of vlew secretly.
Although Sholokhov was a loyal party member, he
was subjected (as were all wrlters) to strlct party control
that marked the end of the Stalln era. Irom the late
l910s untll Stalln`s death ln l953, Sholokhov engaged ln
ongolng battles wlth censors, on polltlcal and even moral
grounds, because some found hls flctlon too sexually
expllclt and too vlolent. In the early l950s he was forced
to rewrlte Tillii Dov and to exclse many lmportant parts
223
ai_ PPO j~ ^~ p
of the novel. Jhe mutllated verslons of m~~~ ~
and q a appeared from l952 to l953; most 'revl
slons" were removed from edltlons appearlng after l956.
In December l953 the Nobel Prlze Commlttee
sollclted the establlshed and respected older Sovlet
wrlter Sergel Nlkolaevlch SergeevJsensky to submlt,
by Iebruary l951, a nomlnatlon for the l951 Nobel
Prlze. Jhe hlghly bureaucratlc Sovlet process lncluded
dlscusslon at the Wrlters Lnlon and the Central Com
mlttee of the Communlst Party, wlth the flnal vote of
approval by the Presldlum. SergeevJsensky`s prepared
letter states that, ln both hls oplnlon and the oplnlon of
hls colleagues, Sholokhov was a worthy candldate. he
was a major Russlan wrlter who developed Russla`s
classlcal reallstlc llterary tradltlon, and hls major work,
the q aI was an already worldrenowned Sovlet
classlc. Sholokhov`s nomlnatlon, along wlth the formal
letter, was processed through channels. It was dlscussed
and voted on by the leadershlp of the Wrlters Lnlon
and the Central Commlttee of the Communlst Party.
On 2l |anuary the Central Commlttee resolved to
accept the nomlnatlon as submltted and passed the
paperwork along to the Presldlum for approval. On 25
Iebruary l951 the nomlnatlon was approved by the
Presldlum, and SergeevJsensky returned the packet to
Stockholm on 6 March l951, falllng to meet the Iebru
ary deadllne. Jhe Nobel Prlze Commlttee explalned
that the tardlness made lt lmposslble to conslder
Sholokhov a candldate for the l951 prlze. Jhe letter
speclfled, however, that Sholokhov`s candldacy would
be consldered for the l955 prlze.
One of the most notable events of the l951 Sovlet
llterary scene was the appearance of Il`la Ehrenburg`s
short novel l (l951; translated as q q~I
l955), the tltle of whlch was adopted for the perlod of
relatlvely relaxed controls ln Russlan llterature and the
arts. Jhe other slgnlflcant event was the Second Con
gress of Sovlet Wrlters (the flrst ln twenty years), held
between l5 and 26 December l951. Sholokhov, ln hls
speech, 'Rech` na Vtorom Vsesoluznom S"ezde
Sovetsklkh Plsatelel" (Speech at the Second AllLnlon
Congress of Sovlet Wrlters, collected ln l960), pub
llshed ln i~~~ ~~ (26 December l951),
polnted to the 'seryl potok beztsvetnol . . . llteratury"
(dull, gray stream of new colorless . . . llterature) and
candldly dlscussed the problems faclng the Wrlters
Lnlon. Not placlng blame on soclallst reallsm or on
party pollcles, he blamed wrlters lnstead. He consldered
that the degradatlon of llterature and the degeneratlon
of talent was the dlrect result of a 'loss of respect" wrlt
ers showed for thelr own work and for thelr readershlp.
He concluded that those who lose respect 'wlther on
the vlne and degenerate from masters lnto craftsmen."
He ldentlfled two negatlve practlces that aggravate the
problem. excesslvely harsh revlews of young and not
yetestabllshed wrlters and doclle revlews of hlghproflle
wrlters. He also attacked the generous awards glven to
wellestabllshed wrltersoccaslonally for undeservlng
works. In response to Western crltlcs who descrlbed
Sovlet wrlters as 'puppets" wrltlng 'on command
accordlng to party dlctates," Sholokhov dlsmlssed the
crltlclsm as too slmpllstlc. He spoke as a loyal party
member when he explalned that Sovlet authors wrlte
accordlng to the 'dlctates of thelr own hearts" and that
'the hearts of all Sovlet wrlters belong to the Commu
nlst Party and to the people thelr art serves."
In l951, contrary to expectatlons, although the
names of both Sholokhov and Pasternak (consldered a
'cosmopolltan" and lnternal mlgr) appeared on the
Nobel Prlze candldates llst, Ernest Hemlngway recelved
the award. Sholokhov was also not awarded the prlze for
l955; lt went to the Spanlsh modernlst poet |uan Ramn
|lmnez. Otherwlse, l955 was an lmportant and successful
year for the wrlter. Jhe country commemorated
Sholokhov`s flftleth blrthday. He was awarded the Lenln
Prlze, Ilrst Class, ln recognltlon of hls achlevements ln llt
erature, recelvlng the medal from Marshal Kllmentll Efre
movlch Voroshllov, Chalrman of the Presldlum of the
Supreme Sovlet and the tltular head of state (l953-l960),
ln the Kremlln; and he was honored at a jubllee concert ln
Chalkovsky Hall ln Moscow. Many party and llterary
lumlnarles attended the celebratory concert, and iJ
~~~ ~~the offlclal publlcatlon of the Sovlet Wrlters
Lnlondedlcated an lssue to Sholokhov and called for
lnternatlonal roundtable dlscusslons of the wrlter`s works.
m~~ publlshed lts laudatory artlcle 'Jvorchesto na
sluzhbu narodu" (Creatlve Works ln the Servlce of the
Natlon). Other natlonal lnstltutlons took part ln the cele
bratlons by sponsorlng conferences, semlnars, and round
table dlscusslons, lncludlng those by the most prestlglous
lnstltutlons ln the country. Moscow and Lenlngrad State
Lnlversltles; the Instltute of Russlan Llterature (Pushkln
skll dom) ln Lenlngrad; the Instltute of World Llterature
ln Moscow; and the Academy of Sclences.
Sholokhov appeared to support the new party
llne and Khrushchev. At the Jwentleth Congress of the
AllLnlon Communlst Party (on 20 Iebruary l956),
when Khrushchev`s secret address opened the flood
gates of deStallnlzatlon, as a loyal party member
Sholokhov flercely attacked the Wrlters Lnlon. He
noted that the Wrlters Lnlon was organlzed ln l931 to
help wrlters ln thelr creatlve efforts but had degener
ated, especlally under the leadershlp of Iadeev.
Jhe membershlp of the Wrlters Lnlon conslsts of
2,217 members and l,526 candldates, totallng 3,773
persons, who are armed wlth pens and to a greater or
lesser degree wlth ablllty. As you can see, not a small
221
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force, but let that number nelther frlghten nor please
you. Jhls ls only 'outward show," ln reallty the llst of
wrlters conslsts mostly of 'dead souls."
Chastlslng Iadeev for turnlng the Wrlters Lnlon lnto a
bureaucracy mlred ln red tape, he accused hls old col
league of accompllshlng llttle ln the prevlous flfteen
years, both as a wrlter and as the secretarygeneral of
the Wrlters Lnlon. Sholokhov expressed support of
younger wrlters and called on them to assume leader
shlp posltlons on the governlng board of the organlza
tlon.
Lnllke most Sovlet wrlters, Sholokhov had many
opportunltles to travel abroad. In l957 he vlslted Den
mark, Ilnland, Norway, and Sweden. Durlng thls trlp
he met wlth |ohn Stelnbeck ln Stockholm. Jhat sum
mer Sholokhov and hls wlfe also vlslted Khrushchev ln
Yalta, and Sholokhov completed hls hlghly patrlotlc
tale, p~ ~ (l957; translated as q c~ ~
j~I l957) about the traglc consequences of the Ger
man lnvaslon and the war. Jhe followlng year he par
tlclpated ln the newly organlzed Ilrst Congress of
Russlan Wrlters ln the Bol`shol Kremlevskll dvorets
(Jhe Great Kremlln Palace) ln Moscow; he traveled to
Czechoslovakla and later took part ln the JwentyIlrst
Congress of the Communlst Party.
Jhe Secretary of the Wrlters Lnlon notlfled the
Central Commlttee of the Communlst Party on 7 Aprll
l958 of the four names on the offlclal Nobel Prlze llst
for that year. the Amerlcan poet Ezra Pound, the Itallan
wrlter Alberto Moravla, and two Sovlet wrlters
Sholokhov and Pasternak. Jhe Secretary of the Central
Commlttee of the Communlst Party, L. Ilylchev, and
the dlvlslon head of the Cultural Sectlon of the Central
Commlttee, D. Pollkarpov, responded on 2l October
l958 wlth a dlrectlve. 'In the event that Sholokhov ls
nomlnated along wlth Pasternak for the Nobel Prlze,
Sholokhov ls to decllne the nomlnatlon ln protest."
When Pasternak was announced the sole Nobel Prlze
wlnner on 23 October l958, wlth the award belng
glven 'for hls lmportant achlevement both ln contem
porary lyrlcal poetry and ln the fleld of the great Rus
slan eplc tradltlon," that ls, ln part for hls novel a
w~I lt caused a great furor ln the Sovlet establlsh
ment. Eventually, under government pressure, Paster
nak was forced to decllne the award. Jhe Sovlets took
the Pasternak award as an lnsult and were lncensed that
thelr candldate, Sholokhov, was passed over yet agaln
and that the award went to a wrlter for a novel consld
ered by them antlSovlet and rejected for publlcatlon ln
hls natlve country. In Aprll l959, ln response to a Parl
slan correspondent regardlng the Pasternak affalr,
Sholokhov summarlzed the government`s new posltlon.
that a w~ should have been publlshed ln the
Sovlet Lnlon so that Sovlet readers could judge for
themselves; presumably, they would share Sholokhov`s
own low oplnlon of the book (though he dld admlre
Pasternak`s translatlon work).
Between l959 and l96l Sholokhov and hls fam
lly traveled extenslvely ln Europe. Sholokhov recelved
Khrushchev and hls famlly ln Veshenskala on 30
August l959. Although accusatlons of alcohollsm con
tlnued to plague the wrlter, Khrushchev publlcly sup
ported hlm and lnvlted hlm to joln the Sovlet delegatlon
on Khrushchev`s vlslt to the Lnlted States. After the
group arrlved ln Washlngton, D.C., on l5 September
l959, Sholokhov was allowed to partlclpate ln a press
conference, but hls contact wlth Amerlcans and hls
travel was otherwlse llmlted.
Excerpts of m~~~ ~I book 2, a work some
twentyseven years ln the wrltlng, appeared sporadl
cally ln m~~ untll August l959. In September l959,
Sholokhov`s second major work, a tradltlonal, Sovlet
toplcal novel that records the hlstory of collectlvlzatlon,
descrlbed by Marc Slonlm as 'Stalln`s mllltant drlve to
soclallze agrlculture" by 'forced collectlvlzatlon of farm
lands and the extermlnatlon of the welltodo farmers,"
stlll lacked a publlshed concluslon and encouraged
speculatlon about the novel both ln the Sovlet Lnlon
and abroad. Harrlson E. Sallsbury, ln an artlcle for q
k v q (l September l959), 'Khrushchev Bld to
Sholokhov Iollows a Dlspute Over Novel," quoted
Moscow sources who had seen the completed novel
and stated that publlcatlon of the book, completed ln
the summer of l958, was held up by 'chlefs of the
Communlst party propaganda apparatus" because of lts
unsultable concluslon.
Jhe major character of the novel ls Semen Davy
dov, who represents one of the twentyflvethousand
selected Communlst Party workers dlspatched to the
countryslde to encourage collectlvlzatlon by any means
posslble, lncludlng arrests and represslon. Accordlng to
Sallsbury`s sources, the hero ls hlmself 'arrested on a
false charge ln the purge of the Nlneteen Jhlrtles and
commlts sulclde ln prlson." By Iebruary l960, perhaps
under thls new pressure from the West, the long
awalted flnal chapters of the novel (23-29) came out ln
m~~K Jhe last, controverslal sectlon was publlshed on
l2 Iebruary l960. Jhe concluslon, ln whlch Davydov
does not commlt sulclde but lnstead ls a new Sovlet
hero kllled ln the llne of duty defendlng the great Sovlet
motherland, dlsappolnted many.
Jhe publlshed endlng of the novel ls not atyplcal
for soclallst reallsm. After Davydov`s death, llfe goes
on, and a major Whlte Guard counterrevolutlonary
plot ls folled. Lnusual are the expllclt references to the
'waves of arrests that roll over the Sovlet Lnlon."
Sholokhov wrltes about the 'slx hundred counter
225
ai_ PPO j~ ^~ p
revolutlonarles" arrested, lncludlng nlne ln Moscow,
who had tles to forelgn agents. Executlons of those
accused of terrorlst actlvltles follow; all are shot. In the
splrlt of soclallst reallsm, Sholokhov sums up the novel
wlth the upbeat declaratlon that 'the desperate attempt
by Whlte counterrevolutlonarles to provoke an uprlslng
agalnst the Sovlet reglme ln the South was hlstorlcally
doomed to fallure and was flnally brought to an end."
In a Iebruary l960 artlcle, 'Sholokhov`s Hero
Dles a New Death," Sallsbury restated the earller
reported rumors and speculated about the change ln the
endlng. On l March l960 Sholokhov responded to
both Sallsbury columns ln m~~ wlth an artlcle tltled
'O malen`kom malchlke Garrl l bol`shom mlstere Sols
berl" (About the Llttle Boy Harry and the Blg Mr.
Sallsbury, collected l960). As reported ln q k
v q ('Novel Lnrevlsed, Sholokhov Says"), Shol
okhov rudely denled the Amerlcan journallst`s clalms.
Whether the publlshed concluslon was orlglnally
planned, as Sholokhov clalms, or whether Sholokhov
compromlsed and agreed under pressure to publlsh an
amended endlng, as Sallsbury and hls sources sug
gested, remalns a matter of speculatlon. In 2005, new
scandalous allegatlons emerged denylng Sholokhov`s
authorshlp of the novel. In the judgment of these crltlcs,
the earller publlshed parts of m~~~ ~ lncorpo
rated materlals found ln the orlglnal flvehundredpage
manuscrlpt ln the possesslon of the twentytwoyearold
Sholokhov ln August l927, but the 'llllterate"
Sholokhov was not capable of wrltlng an endlng to the
novel. Konstantln Ivanovlch Kargln, a Cossack wrlter
and Sholokhov`s chlldhood acqualntance, famlllar wlth
the hlstorlcal context, had returned to the Sovlet Lnlon
from emlgratlon sometlme ln l959, on the promlse that
he would not be 'repressed," and these crltlcs allege
that Kargln wrote the concludlng chapters of the book.
Jhe publlshed concluslon and the appearance of
book 2, whlch concludes the saga of m~~~ ~I
essentlally brought to an end Sholokhov`s creatlve
career. On 22 Aprll, Lenln`s blrthday, he was honored
yet agaln wlth the Lenln Prlze, Ilrst Class, for both
books of hls latest novel, and Sholokhov donated thls
prlze money to help bulld a new school ln Karglnskala.
After learnlng of a Moscow vlslt by a Nobel Prlze
representatlve, Sholokhov wrote a letter on 30 |uly
l965 to Brezhnev, the newly elected, conservatlve,
hardllne Ilrst Secretary of the Communlst Party,
requestlng guldance regardlng hls posslble Nobel noml
natlon. Jhe offlclal response of the Cultural Sectlon of
the Central Commlttee to Sholokhov notes that 'the
Nobel Prlze, lf awarded to Sholokhov, would rlghtfully
recognlze the wrlter`s accompllshments and the com
mlttee saw no reason for Sholokhov to decllne such an
award." A slgned and dated copy (l6 August l965) of
the resolutlon accompanled the letter. Jhe slgnatorles
lncluded P. Demlchev, A. Shelepln, D. Lslnov, N.
Podgornyl, and Iurll Andropov. Jhe letter was slgned
by G. Kunltsyn.
Competlng successfully agalnst hls colleague
Konstantln Georglevlch Paustovsky, a popular and
wellrespected Sovlet wrlter, Sholokhov was named on
l5 October l965 as the reclplent of the Nobel Prlze ln
Llterature. He was the only Nobel Prlze wlnner to have
also recelved the Stalln Prlze. Sholokhov accepted the
longawalted prlze on l0 December l965. In hls presen
tatlon speech, Swedlsh Academy member Anders
Osterllng acknowledged the dlfflcult publlcatlon hlstory
of q a and recognlzed the lmportance of thls
novel ln recordlng the story of a proud people-the Don
Cossacks-ln thelr flght agalnst dlspossesslon and loss of
autonomy brought by the new Sovlet order. In hls ban
quet speech, publlshed as w~~ ~ ~~ (l983, Llv
lng Power of Reallsm), Sholokhov gratefully accepted
the award ln the name of all Sovlet wrlters.
As I have already had occaslon to testlfy ln publlc, the
feellng of satlsfactlon whlch thls award arouses ln me ls
not solely due to the lnternatlonal recognltlon of my
professlonal merlts and my lndlvldual characterlstlcs as
a wrlter. I am proud that thls Prlze has been awarded to
a Russlan, a Sovlet wrlter. Here I represent a multltude
of wrlters from my natlve land.
He spoke passlonately ln defense of reallsm ln llterature
and vlewed the award as lndlrect valldatlon of the novel
genre. Recognlzlng that hls vlews went agalnst the
'fashlonable currents of the day," he nevertheless pro
clalmed hlmself a dedlcated supporter of reallstlc art
and especlally the soclallst reallst novel. Sholokhov
expressed hls hlgh regard for the ploneerlng splrlt of hls
people who took on the bulldlng of a new communlst
soclety. He declared that hls major goal as a wrlter had
always been to lnsplre humanklnd to be better; lf he
was successful even ln a small degree, he sald, he would
be satlsfled. In Swedlsh press and m~~ lntervlewsI he
expressed dlsmay that other Sovlet wrlters, such as
Seraflmovlch and Gor`ky, were passed over for the
Nobel Prlze. He also expressed hls dlsappolntment that
hls own recognltlon had come so late; after all, hls can
dldacy had been dlscussed for some thlrty years.
In hls publlc pronouncements, Sholokhov never
wavered ln hls commltment to communlst ldeals and
hls loyalty to the Communlst Party. At the helght of
lntellectual unrest ln the Sovlet Lnlon, Sholokhov took
part ln the JwentyJhlrd Party Congress (l966). Hls
speech acknowledged the great number of new pub
llshed works but once more attacked thelr quallty.
Emphaslzlng the hlstorlcal mlsslon of the Sovlet wrlter
as an lmportant team member engaged ln bulldlng the
226
j~ ^~ p ai_ PPO
Great Sovlet State, as a proud Communlst and cltlzen,
Sholokhov, ln a passlonate speech, attacked dlssldent
wrlters. He accused them of dlsloyalty and treason,
lndlctlng them for 'lylng" and for 'betraylng" thelr
motherland and notlng that ln earller tlmes such acts
would have cost them thelr llves. He had ln mlnd spe
clflcally the wrlters lnvolved ln the SlnlavskyDanlel`
affalr, Andrel Donatovlch Slnlavsky (pseudonym
Abram Jerts) and Iulll Markovlch Danlel` (pseudonym
Nlkolal Arzhak), who were convlcted ln Iebruary l966
for publlshlng thelr creatlve works abroad. He also
strongly chastlzed those who supported thelr cause.
In response, the llberal lntelllgentsla ln the Sovlet
Lnlon and ln the West, already dlspleased by the l965
Nobel Prlze award they consldered undeserved, reacted
wlth dlsgust. Lldlla Chukovskala`s 'Open Letter,"
addressed to Sholokhov and slgned by other wrlters,
accused Sholokhov of betraylng the best tradltlons of
Russlan llterature. 'Llterature ls not subject to crlmlnal
jurlsdlctlon," she wrote.
One must oppose ldeas wlth ldeas, and not wlth camps
and prlsons . . . and that, ln fact, ls what you should
have declared to your audlence lf you had really con
ducted yourself as a representatlve of Sovlet llterature
on the speakers` platform. Instead you dellvered your
speech as a traltor of thls llterature. Hlstory wlll not for
get your shameful speech. And llterature wlll revenge
ltself, just as lt revenges ltself agalnst all who evade the
heavy obllgatlon lt lays upon them. Llterature wlll con
demn you to the most extreme sentence there ls for an
artlstto artlstlc lmpotence. And no honors, no monles,
no prlzes elther from the fatherland or lnternatlonal
sources, wlll remove thls judgment from your head.
Chukovskala`s letter was copled to the Rostov Commu
nlst Headquarters, the LSSR and Russlan Lnlon of
Wrlters, and to edltors of flve Sovlet newspapers
(Irovdo, Ivcstiio, Iitcroturvoio gocto, Iitcroturvoio Iossiio,
and Molot), but was not offlclally acknowledged nor
publlshed. Jhe letter clrculated ln samlzdat both sepa
rately and ln the Aleksandr Glnzburg samlzdat collec
tlon publlshed ln l967 ln Irankfurt by Posev as cloio
lvigo po dclu Siviovslogo i Doviclio (Whlte Book about the
Slnlavsky and Danlel Case). In l967 the contents of the
letter were broadcast from the West to the Sovlet
Lnlon; ln l972 an extract appeared ln Cornella Ger
stenmaler`s Dic Stimmc dcr Stummcv: Dic Dcmolrotisclc
cwcguvg iv dcr Sowjctuviov (Jhe Volces of the Sllent) and
was publlshed ln l976 as Utlrytoc slovo (Jhe Open
Word) by Khronlka ln New York.
On 23 Iebruary l967 Sholokhov was awarded
the prestlglous tltle of 'Gerol Sotslallstlcheskogo truda"
(Hero of Soclallst Labor) and later took part ln the
Iourth Congress of Sovlet Wrlters. In hls speech for
that occaslon he candldly once more polnted to the
decllnlng status of the Lnlon of Wrlters, notlng that at
the Ilrst Congress of Sovlet Wrlters (ln l931), 7l per
cent of the partlclpants were under age forty, whlle ln
l967, 87.8 percent were above that age. He called for
lnstltutlonal changes and the lncluslon of younger wrlt
ers ln leadershlp posltlons, notlng that wlthout such
adjustments the future survlval of the organlzatlon was
threatened. He also brlefly reflected on the Vletnam
War, creatlve freedom, and complete freedom of the
pressas called for by Russlan llberals, especlally by
Solzhenltsyn, who outllned hls demands ln hls letter of
May l967 to the Delegates of the Iourth Congress.
Jhroughout the l960s Sholokhov was frequently
lntervlewed and partlclpated ln at least slx dlfferent doc
umentarles about hls llfe and work. Jhroughout the
next decade, Sholokhov recelved many addltlonal
awards, lncludlng East Germany`s Order of the Golden
Star (l961), the Medal of the October Revolutlon
(March l972), and the Bulgarlan Cyrlll and Methodlus
Medal ( |une l973). As Sholokhov amassed honors,
awards, and prlzes, hls works were often republlshed,
and several of hls shorter works were brought to the
stage (one as an operetta, obii buvt |Woman`s Revolt|);
and many of hls Don taleslncludlng 'Prodkomlssar,"
'Lazorevala step`," 'Smertnyl vrag," òllolcvol, Dvull-
mulvioio, 'Zherebenok," and Zlcsllivo scrdtscwere
adapted as short movles. Hls novels Tillii Dov, Iodviotoio
tsclivo, and Sud`bo clclovclo became major motlon plc
tures ln l957 and l959. Irom the mld l960s untll the
end of hls llfe, the wrlter produced llttle that was new or
orlglnal. In l969 he publlshed hls flnal 'new" creatlve
workthe revlsed flrst chapters of hls unflnlshed novel,
Uvi srololis` o rodivu, ln Irovdo. It was adapted as a
motlon plcture by Sergel Iedorovlch Bondarchuk ln
l975. Jhe varlous movle and stage verslons revlved the
Sholokhov canon for contemporary readers.
In the early l970s (l97l or l975), Sholokhov suf
fered a stroke, forclng hlm to modlfy hls work schedule.
Durlng the l970s, new awards celebrated Sholokhov`s
accompllshments both ln the Sovlet Lnlon and abroad.
he was awarded the Internatlonal Peace Prlze (l975);
the Iadeev Medal (l977); the E. I. Stepanova Prlze,
named for a mother of nlne herolc sons kllled durlng
World War II (l977); and the Internatlonal Lotos Prlze
(l978). But these awards only barely mltlgated the
embarrassment and dlsappolntment when accusatlons
of plaglarlsm surfaced ln the West ln l971. Jhe
expelled dlssldent wrlter Solzhenltsyn, ln the lntroduc
tlon to Irlna N. Medvedeva`s Strcmio Jlkhogo Dona.
ogodli romovo (Jhe Way of the Sllent Don. Rlddles of
the Novel), publlshed ln Parls (l971), accused
Sholokhov of plaglarlzlng Tillii Dov. Jhe allegatlons
galned worldwlde attentlon and were wldely reported
227
ai_ PPO j~ ^~ p
ln the Western press. 'A Matter of Plaglarlsm," an artl
cle ln Timc (l5 September l971), recorded.
Solzhenltsyn declared that the real author of the eplc
tale of Don Cossacks ln World War I and the Russlan
clvll war was Fyodor Kryukov, a Cossack wrlter. . . .
Solzhenltsyn`s allegatlon that q n a ls mostly
the work of an antlCommunlst brlngs lnto the open a
longsmolderlng rumor that Sholokhov ls a plaglarlst . . . .
Solzhenltsyn`s charge wlll doubtlessly prove embarrass
lng to the leaders ln the Kremlln, where the 69yearold
Sholokhov relgns as a court novellst and hatchet man
for cultural hardllners.
In l977 Roy Aleksandrovlch Medvedev contlnued the
attack ln Iroblcms iv tlc Iitcrory iogroply of Milloil
Slolollov. Sholokhov was defended by Gelr Kjetsaa and
hls group of researchers, who reported at the Elghth Inter
natlonal Congress of Slavlsts ln Zagreb, Yugoslavla, that
thelr extenslve computer studles of Sholokhov`s works
deflnltlvely proved hls authorshlp of Tillii Dov, but the
report dld llttle to llft the wrlter`s splrlts.
In l980 Sholokhov was once more honored by
the tltle 'Gerol Sotslallstlcheskogo truda." Jhroughout
the early l980s Sholokhov contlnued to wrlte desplte
the lllness to whlch he flnally succumbed on 2l Iebru
ary l981. At the age of seventyelght, Sholokhov dled
ln the home where he had llved most of hls llfe, on hls
beloved Don. Hls death came just a llttle over a year
before the country changed course under the new lead
ershlp of the newly elected General Secretary of the
Communlst Party Central Commlttee, Mlkhall Gor
bachev. Newly lntroduced glasnost` and perestrolka
eventually led to the fall of the Sovlet Lnlon, provlng
the Sovlet Experlment to whlch Sholokhov dedlcated
hls llfe and work and whlch had clalmed many mllllons
of llves a complete fallure. Accordlng to some accounts,
after Sholokhov`s death hls study was closed off by unl
formed personnel who examlned and removed some of
the wrlter`s papers. Ior polltlcal reasons only a small
delegatlon of some ten Sovlet wrlters, headed by M.
Zlmlanln, attended the funeral; wrlters from abroad
were not granted vlsas and could not attend, but huge
numbers of old and young gathered from nelghborlng
vlllages and towns to pay flnal respects to thelr famous
son of the Don.
In Sholokhov`s memory, Nlkolal Aleksandrovlch
Bulavln founded the Sholokhov Museum, Gosu
darstvennyl muzelzapovednlk M. A. Sholokhova, ln
l981 and served as lts flrst dlrector. Jhe museum ls
becomlng an lmportant archlval and educatlonal center.
It hosts annual Sholokhov conferences. Jhe center
employs more than l50 people; of those, l7 are
researchers and lnclude members of Sholokhov`s fam
lly. Jhe Councll of Mlnlsters of the RSISR renamed a
Moscow reglonal llbrary to Jsentral`nala blblloteka lm.
M. A. Sholokhova on ll |uly l981, and a commemora
tlve stamp was lssued ln l990. Jo date, the Sholokhov
Prlze, lnstltuted ln l993, contlnues to honor outstand
lng wrlters and leaders, and a newly renamed accred
lted unlversltyMoskovskll gosudarstvennyl otkrytyl
pedagoglcheskll unlversltet lmenl Sholokhova, located
on Verkhnlala Raslshchevskala ln Moscowls thrlvlng.
In the years slnce the fall of the Sovlet Lnlon
(l99l), Sholokhov`s name once more has become
mlred ln controversy. Ior some he ls an emblem of
everythlng that was vlle and destructlve ln the old
Sovlet system. Hls name appeared on many documents
released durlng the helght of the Stallnlst purges,
lncludlng those that called for the ellmlnatlon of 'ene
mles of the people." Sholokhov was tled closely to the
lands of hls natlve Don and to agrarlan reform. Some
fault hlm for compllclty wlth the brutal Stallnlst pollcles
on collectlvlzatlon that led to lndescrlbable tragedles
lncludlng famlne on the Don and the Great Iamlne ln
Lkralne ln l932-l933, durlng whlch mllllons of dellb
erately dlspossessed peasants perlshed.
In an attempt to deconstruct the hlstory of Sovlet
llterature, new accusatlons of plaglarlsm have surfaced
ln several publlcatlons, lncludlng ogodli toivy Tillogo
Dovo, ''Jlkhodonskala` tragedlla plsatelala Iedora Krlu
kova," and Iitcroturvyi Iotlovov: Iroclt 'Iisotcl` Slolollov.
Jhese new allegatlons have taken on a llfe of thelr own,
spawnlng theorles and polarlzlng the llterary commu
nlty. Publlc oplnlon ls dlvlded and probably falls ln a
full spectrum between the two major poles battllng over
how Sholokhov`s name wlll flnally go down ln the hls
tory of Russlan and world llterature. One slde passlon
ately vlllfles Sholokhov, denylng hls authorshlp not
only of Tillii Dov but also of all works that were pub
llshed under hls name. Jhe other slde, just as passlon
ately, contests the many plaglarlsm allegatlons and
attempts to prove Sholokhov`s genlus; they explaln the
opposlte vlews as an orchestrated plot, fueled ln part by
Solzhenltsyn out of spltefulness, to dlscredlt the great
wrlter. In thelr vlew, Sholokhov ls the talented author of
great Russlan twentlethcentury eplcs and a vlctlm of
Stallnlsm, but one who survlved the purges and man
aged to do some good. He ls credlted wlth the honest
portrayal of bloody perlods of Sovlet hlstory and for hls
protectlon of the Cossacks and the envlronment. In hls
speeches, he called for the speclal protectlon of the rlv
ers Volga and Don and Lake Balkal, although he care
fully avolded placlng blame for envlronmental dlsasters
on the Communlst system that engendered them.
Slnce the l990s, new archlval materlals have
appeared, lncludlng Sholokhov`s prevlously unpub
llshed letters; memolrs wrltten by Sholokhov`s contem
porarles; remlnlscences by three of hls survlvlng
228
j~ ^~ p ai_ PPO
chlldren; mathematlcal and statlstlcal studles that have
shown some promlslng results but have not deflnltlvely
ruled on Sholokhov`s opus; and artlcles by Lev Eflmo
vlch Kolodnyl, a journallst who found the Sholokhov
manuscrlpts. As descrlbed ln hls artlcles and ln Iol io
voslcl Jlkhll Don. Ilrovilo poislo, ovoli tclsto (2000),
Kolodnyl found the Sholokhov manuscrlpts ln the
apartment of Sholokhov`s late frlend Kudashev, located
ln Kamergerskll pereulok. Jhe manuscrlpts were ln the
possesslon of Kudashev`s daughter and hls wlfe,
Matll`da Emel`lanovna Kudasheva. In l988 the manu
scrlpts passed to Matll`da Kudasheva`s nlece, who
planned to auctlon them off at Sotheby`s but eventually
sold them to IMLI.
In addltlon to the new edltlons of Sholokhov`s
Sobrovic soclivcvii (200l and 2002), slnce the fall of the
Sovlet State more than 570 Sholokhov publlcatlons have
appeared ln prlnt. In preparatlon for Sholokhov`s cen
tennlal ln 2005, Putln resolved on ll |anuary 2002 to
provlde flnanclal support for natlonal Sholokhov com
memoratlons; Nlkolaevsk announced the openlng of a
new Sholokhov museum; Moscow announced the con
structlon of a new Sholokhov monument on Gogo
levskll Boulevard; Sovetskll plsatel` publlclzed lts
forthcomlng tenvolume edltlon of Sholokhov`s col
lected works; and as promlsed by the academlc Alek
sandr Mlronovlch Lshakov, an annotated facslmlle
edltlon of the newly recovered drafts and manuscrlpts
was publlshed. In the oplnlon of IMLI scholars, these
manuscrlpts deflnltlvely prove Mlkhall Aleksandrovlch
Sholokhov`s authorshlp of Tillii Dov.
iW
Vladlmlr N. Zapevalov, 'Vokrug flnala Iodviotoi tsclivy
(nelzvestnoe pls`mo M. A. Sholokhova G. E. Sols
berl)," Iussloio litcroturo, 2 (l991). 221-23l;
Zapevalov, 'Iz plsem M. A. Sholokhova k rodnym l
bllzklm (l917-l972). Publltslstlka, vystuplenla,
zametka l kommentarll," Iussloio litcroturo, 2
(l996). l62-l75;
Iisotcl` i vold`: Icrcpislo M. Z. Slolollovo s I. !. Stolivym,
19J1-190 gody, complled by Iurll G. Murln
(Moscow. Rarltet, l997);
N. Malboroda and E. Jolstoplatenko, 'Znalu, kak
chestnogo cheloveka . . . ," Dov, 5-6 (2002). 225-
231;
A. Larlonov, 'Pls`ma Mlkhalla Sholokhova," Slovo
(Moscow), 3 (2001). 60-67;
Iis`mo, edlted by A. A. Kozlovsky and others (Moscow.
IMLI RAN, 2005).
_~W
'Mlkhall Aleksandrovlch Sholokhov," ln Iusslic sovctslic
pisotcli prooili: iobibliogroficlcslii ulootcl`, volume
6, part 2 (Moscow. Izdvo Knlga, l969), pp. 3-
l63;
Vladlmlr Andreevlch Skorodenko, ed., Ivigi M. Z.
Slolollovo vo ioyloll vorodov miro: ibliogroficlcslii
ulootcl` (Moscow. Vsesoluznala gosudarstvennala
blblloteka lnostrannol llteratury, l975);
N. I. Stopchenko, comp., 'M. A. Sholokhov v krltlke
evropelsklkh stran sotslallstlcheskogo sodruzhestva,
l965-l973 gody," ln Tvorclcstvo M. Z. Slolollovo:
stotì, soobslclcviio, bibliogrofiio (Lenlngrad. Nauka,
l975), pp. 3l5-327;
L. A. Shtavdaker, Milloil Zlclsovdrovicl Slolollov: ib-
liogroficlcslii ulootcl`, edlted by Konstantln Ivano
vlch Prllma (RostovonDon. Rostovskoe
knlzhnoe lzdatel`stvo, l980);
E. A. Reshetnlkova and O. V. Kurochklna, ed., Milloil
Zlclsovdrovicl Slolollov: ibliogr. ulo. dlio iuclcviio
tvorclcstvo vclilogo pisotclio-v pomoslcl` uclitcliu,
uclcvilu, obituricvtu, Lpr. kul`tury Vost. adm. okr.
g. Moskvy, Jsentral`nala blblloteka lmenl M. A.
Sholokhova, (Moscow. Rarltet, 2003), http.//
cbslvao.ru/lzdat.htm`;
'Pamlatnye daty v JSB 2005. Izdanlla prolzvedenll
Sholokhova Mlkhalla Aleksandrovlcha (l980-
2003)," Jsentral`nala blblloteka lmenl M. A.
Sholokhova, http.//cbslvao.ru/shblbll.htm`;
V. P. Zaralskala and others, eds., Milloil Zlclsovdrovicl
Slolollov: iobibliogroficlcslii ulootcl proivcdcvii
pisotclio i litcrotury o livi i tvorclcstvc (Moscow.
IMLI RAN, 2005).
_~W
Vlktor Vasllèvlch Gura, liv` i tvorclcstvo M. Z.
Slolollovo (Moscow. Gos. uchebnopedagoglcheskoe
lzdvo, l960);
Andrel Vasllèvlch Kullnlch, Mylloilo Slolollov: Irytylo-
biolroficlvyi vorys (Klev. Dnlpro, l975);
Kullnlch, Milloil Slolollov: Uclcrl livi i tvorclcstvo
(Klev. Izdvo prl Klevskom gos. unlversltete lzda
tel`skogo ob" edlnenla 'Vyshcha Shkola," l981);
Vasllll Voronov, Iuvost` Slolollovo: Strovitsy biogrofii pisotc-
lio (RostovonDon. Rostovskoe knlzhnoe lzdvo,
l985, l99l);
Nlkolal Mlkhallovlch Ied`, 'Novye materlaly k blografll
M. Sholokhova," ln Istoriio votsiovol`vyll litcrotur:
Icrcclityvoio i pcrcosmyslivoio, edlted by Kazbek K.
Sultanov (Moscow. Nasledle, l995), pp. l35-l16;
Valentln Oslpov, Toivoio liv` Milloilo Slolollovo: Dolu-
mcvtol`voio llrovilo bc lcgcvd (Moscow. Llberela,
Rarltet, l995);
Vlktor Vasllèvlch Petelln, Slolollov vo ilomc vrcmcvi
(Moscow. Nasledle, l995);
229
ai_ PPO j~ ^~ p
Georgll Iakovlevlch Slvovolov, Milloil Slolollov: Stro-
vitsy biogrofii (RostovonDon. AOOJ Rostovskoe
knlzhnoe lzdvo, l995);
Vladlmlr N. Zapevalov, 'Pervolstokl llchnostl l sud`by.
K tvorcheskol blografll M. A. Sholokhova," ln
Slolollov vo ilomc vrcmcvi, edlted by Petelln (Mos
cow. Nasledle, l995);
Ied`, Iorodols gcviio: liv` i soclivcviio Slolollovo (Mos
cow. Sovremennyl plsatel`, l998);
Petelln, liv` Slolollovo: Trogcdiio russlogo gcviio (Mos
cow. Jsentrpollgraf, 2002);
Oslpov, Slolollov: liv` omcclotcl`vyll liudci (Moscow.
Molodala gvardlla, 2005);
Petelln, Milloil Slololllov v vospomivoviioll, dvcvviloll,
pis`moll i stotìoll sovrcmcvvilo, 2 volumes (Mos
cow. Sholokhovskll tsentr MGOPL lm. M. A.
Sholokhova, 2005);
Anatolll Ivanovlch Jsarev, U vclilom Slolollovc: Iomy-
sllcviio i vospomivoviio (RostovonDon. Severo
Kavkazskala akademlla gos. sluzhby, 2005).
oW
Zeev BarSella (Vladlmlr Nazarov), Iitcroturvyi Iotlovov:
Iroclt 'Iisotcl` Slolollov (Moscow. Rossllskll gos.
gumanltarnyl unlversltet, 2005);
Iedor Gregorèvlch Blrlukov, Slolollov, Perechltyvala
klasslku (Moscow. Izdvo Moskovskogo unlver
slteta, l998);
Lldlla Korneevna Chukovskala, Utlrytoc slovo, edlted by
Vladlmlr Glotser (New York. Khronlka, l976;
Moscow. IMA Press, l992);
Herman Ermolaev, 'Istorlchesklle lstochnlkl Tillogo
Dovo," Dov, 3 (l998). l70-238;
Ermolaev, Milloil Slolollov ovd His Zrt (Prlnceton.
Prlnceton Lnlverslty Press, l982); Russlan ver
slon publlshed as Milloil Slolollov i cgo tvorclcstvo,
Sovremennala zapadnala ruslstlka, no. 32 (St.
Petersburg. Akademlcheskll proekt, 2000);
Ermolaev, 'Tillii Dov i politiclcsloio tscvuro: 192S-
1991 (Moscow. IMLI RAN, 2005);
Ermolaev and A. Venkov, 'Seraflmovlchsoavtor
Sholokhova?" Ivilvoc oborcvic, 39b (2000). 7;
Nlkolal Mlkhallovlch Ied`, 'Obrechennala llubov`,"
Slovo, 2-3 (l998). 89-l02;
Lludmlla Ilrsova, 'Marlla Sholokhova, mladshala
doch` plsatella. Nl v kakom rodstve s Khrush
chevym otets ne sostolal," Iomsomol`sloio Irovdo,
25 |uly 2002;
V. P. Iomenko and J. G. Iomenko, 'Prllozhenle l.
Avtorskll lnvarlant russklkh llteraturnykh tek
stov," ln òvoio llrovologiio Crctsii: Zvticlvost` v
Srcdvcvclov`c, volume 2, edlted by Anatolll Jlmo
feevlch Iomenko (Moscow. LNJS DO, l996);
http.//llb.ru/IOMENKOAJ/greece.txt`;
G. I. Gavrllova, Iroblcmy iuclcviio ioylo i stilio M.Z.
Slolollovo (RostovonDon. Rostovskll gos. peda
goglcheskll unlversltet, 2000);
Cornella Gerstenmaler, Dic Stimmc dcr Stummcv: Dic
Dcmolrotisclc cwcguvg iv dcr Sowjctuviov (Stuttgart.
Seewald, l97l); translated by Susan Hecker as
Tlc !oiccs of tlc Silcvt (New York. Hart, l972);
Aleksandr Glnzburg, cloio lvigo po dclu Siviovslogo i
Doviclio (Irankfurt. Posev, l967);
Nlkolal Ivanovlch Glushkov, ed., Podnlatala tsellna.
Sovrcmcvvoc isslcdovovic (RostovonDon. Izdvo
Rostovskogo unlverslteta, l995);
Glushkov, ed., Iroblcmy iuclcviio tvorclcstvo M. Z.
Slolollovo (RostovonDon. Rostovskll gos. unl
versltet, l996);
Glushkov, ed., Tvorclcstvo pisotclio v votsiovol`voi lul`turc
Iossii, Sholokhovskle chtenlla-2000. Sbornlk
statel (RostovonDon. Rostlzdat, 2000);
L. Katsls, 'Sholokhov l Tillii Dov: Problema avtorstva
v sovremennykh lssledovanllahk," òvoc litcrotur-
voc oborcvic, 36 (l999), http.//magazlnes.russ.ru/
nlo/l999/36/kaclc.html`;
Gelr Kjetsaa, 'Chernala zavlst`," Iitcroturvoio Iossiio, 2l
(l996). 1-5;
Kjetsaa, 'Plaglator ll Sholokhov? Otvet opponentam,"
Scovdo-Slovico, 1l (l995). l68-l82;
Kjetsaa, Iroblcmo ovtorstvo v romovc Jlkhll Don (Oslo.
Lnlversltet l Oslo, SlavlskBaltlsk Instltutt, l978);
Kjetsaa and others, Tlc Zutlorslip of Jhe _ulet Don,
Slavlca Norveglca l (Oslo. Solum Iorlag, l981;
Atlantlc Hlghlands, N.|.. Humanltles Press,
l981); translated by A. V. Vashchenko as Ito
vopisol Jlkhll Don? Iroblcmo ovtorstvo Jlkhogo
Dona (Moscow. Knlga, l989);
Mlchael Kllmenko, Tlc !orld of Jouvg Slolollov: !isiov of
!iolcvcc (North _ulncy, Mass.. Chrlstopher Pub
llshlng House, l972);
Lev Eflmovlch Kolodnyl, Iol io voslcl Jlkhll Don.
Ilrovilo poislo, ovoli tclsto (Moscow. Golos,
2000);
Kolodnyl, 'Stalln l Sholokhov," ln Iocty i voldi: Dolu-
mcvtol`vyc oclcrli (Moscow. Golos, l997), pp. 265-
293;
Natal`la Vasllèvna Kornlenko, 'Sloovo russlim ioylom:
Zvdrci Ilotovov i Milloil Slolollov: !strccli v russloi
litcroturc (Moscow. IMLI RAN, 2003);
Vlktor Stefanovlch Kozhemlako, Irivotiotory Slololovo:
Iol bylo voidcvo rulopis Jlkhogo Dona (Moscow.
Pravda. KodeksM, 2000);
Andrel Vasllèvlch Kullnlch, comp., Slolollov i ulroivs`lo
litcroturo: birvyl stotci (Klev. Vydavnytstvo khu
dozhestvenol llteratury Dnlpro, l985);
Iellks I. Kuznetsov, Jlkhll Don. Sud`bo i provdo vclilogo
romovo (Moscow. IMLI RAN, 2005);
230
j~ ^~ p ai_ PPO
Petr G. Lugovol and Evgenlla G. Levltskala, S lrovìu i
potom: `civcstvyc strovitsy i livi M. Z. Slolollovo
(RostovonDon. Rostovskoe knlzhnoe lzda
tel`stvo, l99l);
G. Makarov and S. E. Makarova, Tsvctol-totorvil: I
istolom Jlkhogo Dona (Moscow, l99l);
Makarov and Makarova, !olrug Jlkhogo Dona ot
mifotvorclcstvo l poislu istivy (Moscow. Probel,
2000);
Mlchall A. Marusenko, Rajmund H. Plotrowskl, and
Yurl V. Romanov, 'NLP and Attrlbutlon of
Pseudonymlc Jexts. Who Is Really the Author of
the '_uict Ilows tlc Dov,`" ISCA Archlve, Septem
ber 2001 http.//www.lscaspeech.org/archlve/
specom_01/spc1_123.pdf`;
Yurl Mashkov, 'Launch Party for Iacslmlle Edltlon of
Zvd _uict Ilows tlc Dov Manuscrlpt," ITZI-TZSS,
l7 November 2006, http.//ltartass.com/eng/
level2.html?NewsID=l099l1l0`;
Roy Aleksandrovlch Medvedev, Iroblcms iv tlc Iitcrory
iogroply of Milloil Slolollov, translated by A. D. P.
Brlggs (Cambrldge New York. Cambrldge Lnl
Irlna N. Medvedeva |as D***|, Strcmio Jlkhogo Dona.
ogodli romovo, lntroductlon by Aleksandr
Solzhenltsyn (Parls. YMCA Press, l971);
Marat Jlmofeevlch Mezentsev, Sud`bo romovov: I dis-
lussii po problcmc ovtorstvo Jlkhogo Dona (Samara.
P. S. Press, l998);
Natallla Mlkhallovna Muravèva, Podnlatala tsellna M. Z.
Slolollovo: Iilosofslo-pocticlcslii lovtclst (Borlsoglebsk.
Borlsoglebskll gosudarstvennyl pedagoglcheskll
lnstltut, 2002);
Petr Vasllèvlch Pallevsky, Slolollov i ulgolov (Mos
cow. Nasledle, l999);
Vlktor Vasllèvlch Petelln, Cumovim Slolollovo (Mos
cow. Sovetskll plsatel`, l965);
Petelln, Milloil Slolollov: Strovitsy livi i tvorclcstvo
(Moscow. Sovetskll plsatel`, l986);
Konstantln Ivanovlch Prllma, 'K tvorcheskol lstorll
Tillogo Dovo," ln 'Tillii Dov: Uroli romovo: U
mirovom voclcvii romovo M. Z. Slolollovo, edlted by
L. P. Logashova (RostovonDon. Rostovskoe
knlzhnoe lzdvo, l979), pp. l33-l1l;
Harrlson E. Sallsbury, 'Khrushchev Bld to Sholokhov
Iollows a Dlspute over Novel," `cw Jorl Timcs, l
September l959, pp. l, 6;
Sallsbury, 'Sholokhov Novel Has New Endlng," `cw
Jorl Timcs, l9 Iebruary l960, p. 5;
Andronlk Savelèv, ed., Sborvil dovslill vorodvyll picscv
(St. Petersburg. Izdvo Donskago volskovago stat.
komlteta, l866);
Barry P. Scherr, 'Westward Ilows the Dov: Jhe Jrans
latlon and the Jext," Slovic ovd Iost Iuropcov our-
vol, 12, l (l998). ll9-l25;
Vltalll Shetallnskll, 'Okhota v revzapovednlke. Izbran
nye stranltsy l stseny sovetskol llteratury," òvyi
mir, l2 (l998). l70-l97; http.//magazlnes.russ.ru/
novyl_ml/l998/l2/shent.html`;
Mlkhall Mlkhallovlch Sholokhov, Ub ottsc: Uclcrli-
vospomivoviio rovyll lct (Moscow. Sovetskll
plsatel`, 2001);
Sholokhov, Ub ottsc: !ospomivoviio-romysllcviio rovyll lct
(RostovonDon. RILI MVD Rossl, 2005);
Svetlana Sholokhova, 'Kazennyl zamysel. K lstorll
nenaplsannogo romana," Dov, 5-6 (l995). 29-37;
Marc Slonlm, Sovict Iussiov Iitcroturc: !ritcrs ovd Irob-
lcms, 1917-1977 (London New York. Oxford
Aleksandr Isaevlch Solzhenltsyn, 'Vysoko tsenlu avtora
Tillogo Dovo," Istoclvil, 3 (l995). 11;
Solzhenltsyn and Anatolll Sldorchenko, 'Tillodovsloio
trogcdiio pisotcloio Icdoro Iriulovo (Slavlansk.
Pechatnyl dvor, 2000);
H. C. Stevens, Milloil Slolollov ovd tlc òvcls of tlc Dov
Cyclc (New York. Knopf, l960);
Davld Hugh Stewart, Milloil Slolollov: Z Criticol Ivtro-
ductiov (Ann Arbor. Lnlverslty of Mlchlgan Press,
l967);
Gleb Struve, Iussiov Iitcroturc uvdcr Icviv ovd Stoliv,
1917-19J (London. Routledge Kegan Paul,
l972);
A. M. Lshakov, 'Rukopls` Sholokhova, naldennala v
Kamergerskom pereulke," òulo i liv` (Mos
cow), l (2000). 21-25; http.//nauka.rells.ru/l6/
000l/l600l021.htm`;
Lshakov, '605 stranlts rukolu Sholokhova," Ivilvoc
oborcvic, 17 (l999). 5;
Vladlmlr Vasllèvlch Vasllèv, 'Sholokhov l Nobelev
skala Premlla. Istorlla voprosa," 2002 http.//
llt.lseptember.ru/artlclef.php?ID=200202301`;
Vasllèv, Slolollov i russloc orubcl`c (Moscow. Algorltm,
2003);
Andrel A. Venkov, Jlkhll Don. Istoclvilovoio boo i prob-
lcmo ovtorstvo (RostovonDon. Jerra, 2000);
R. L. Whlte, 'Sholokhov ln the Lnlted States. A Col
lectlon of the Perlodlcal Columns, l931-67," Ius-
siov Iovguogc ourvol, l27 (l983). l17-l76;
M. A. Zhlgalev, Iusslic pisotcli-lourcoty òbclcvsloi prcmii
(Moscow. Molodala gvardlla, l99l).
m~W
Most of Mlkhall Aleksandrovlch Sholokov`s letters are
scattered ln prlvate and government archlves; Instltute
of World Llterature (IMLI) houses the newly located
Tillii Dov manuscrlpts, Moscow; other papers are scat
23l
ai_ PPO j~ ^~ p
tered ln varlous 'fondy" (flles) ln the followlng
archlves. State Publlsher of Belles Lettres (GIKhL),
Moscow; State Llterary Museum (GLM), Moscow;
Russlan State Archlve of Llterature and Art (RGALI;
formerly JsGALI), Moscow; Russlan State Llbrary,
Manuscrlpt Department, Moscow; Instltute of Russlan
Llterature and Art (IRLI, Pushklnskll dom), St. Peters
burg; some manuscrlpts and letters are held by Marlla
Mlkhallovna Sholokhov Manokhlna and ln Veshens
kala`s Sholokhov Museum, Cosudorstvcvvyi muci-opovcd-
vil M. Z. Slolollovo http.//sholokhov.by.ru/sholokhov/
sholokhov.html`.
NVSR k m i~
m~ p
Jhls year`s Nobel Prlze for Llterature has, as you
all know, been awarded to the Russlan wrlter Mlkhall
Sholokhov, born ln l905, and now ln hls slxtyflrst
year. Sholokhov`s chlldhood was spent ln the country
of the Don Cossacks; and the strong tles that have
always bound hlm to thls dlstrlct grew out of hls sympa
thy for the hlghly lndlvldual temperament of lts people
and the wlldness of lts landscape. He saw hls natlve
provlnce pass through the varlous phases of the revolu
tlon and the Russlan clvll war. After he had trled hls
hand at manual work ln Moscow for a whlle, he soon
began to concentrate on wrltlng and produced a serles
of sketches descrlblng the battles along the Don, a genre
that was later to brlng hlm fame. It ls strlklng evldence
of the precoclousness of the war generatlon that
Sholokhov was only 2l when he set to work on the flrst
parts of the great eplc novel, Zvd _uict Ilows tlc Dov. Its
Russlan tltle ls slmply, Tlc _uict Dov, whlch acqulres an
undenlably lronlc undertone ln vlew of the extreme vlo
lence of the actlon ln Sholokhov`s masterplece.
It took Sholokhov l1 years to complete the
project, a hlghly exactlng one ln every way, coverlng as
lt does the perlod lncludlng the Ilrst World War, the
Revolutlon and the Clvll War, and, havlng as lts maln
theme, the traglc Cossack revolt. Jhe four parts of the
eplc appeared at relatlvely long lntervals between l928
and l910, and were long vlewed wlth some concern by
the Sovlet crltlcs, whose polltlcal afflllatlon made lt dlffl
cult for them to accept, wholeheartedly, Sholokhov`s
qulte natural commltment to hls theme, that of the Cos
sacks` revolt agalnst the new central authorltles; nor
could they easlly accept hls endeavour to explaln and
defend objectlvely the deflant splrlt of lndependence
that drove these people to reslst every attempt at subjec
tlon.
In vlew of the controverslal aspects of hls theme
there can surely be no doubt that ln startlng out upon
the wrltlng of thls novel Sholokhov was taklng a darlng
step, a step whlch, at that polnt ln hls career, also meant
the settllng of a confllct wlth hls own consclence.
Zvd _uict Ilows tlc Dov ls so well known to Swed
lsh readers that an lntroductlon may well seem super
fluous. Wlth magnlflcent reallsm the book portrays the
unlque character of the Cossack, the tradltlonal mlxture
of cavalryman and farmer, wlth lnstlncts that seem to
confllct wlth one another but whlch nevertheless allow
themselves to be welded together to form a flrmly co
ordlnated whole. Jhere ls no glamorlzatlon. Jhe coarse
and savage streaks ln the Cossack temperament are dls
played openly; nothlng ls hldden or glossed over, but, at
the same tlme, one ls aware of an undercurrent of
respect for all that ls human. Although a convlnced
Communlst, Sholokhov keeps ldeologlcal comment out
of hls book completely and we are compensated for the
amount of blood shed ln the battles he descrlbes by the
fullblooded vlgour of hls narratlve.
Jhe Cossack`s son, Gregor, who goes over from
the Reds to the Whltes and ls forced agalnst hls wlll to
contlnue the struggle to lts hopeless concluslon ls both
hero and vlctlm. Jhe conceptlon of honour that he has
lnherlted ls put to the sternest of tests, and he ls
defeated by a necesslty of hlstory whlch here plays the
same role as the classlcal Nemesls. But our sympathy
goes out to hlm and to the two unforgettable women,
Natalja, hls wlfe, and Akslnla, hls mlstress, who both
meet dlsaster for hls sake. When he flnally returns to
hls natlve vlllage, after dlgglng Akslnla`s grave wlth hls
sabre out on the steppe, he ls a greyhalred man who
has lost everythlng ln llfe but hls young son.
Stretchlng away behlnd the whole gallery of flg
ures, seen elther ln thelr personal relatlonshlps or play
lng thelr parts as mllltary personnel, lles the mlghty
landscape of the Lkralne, the steppes ln all the chang
lng seasons, the vlllages wlth thelr sweetsmelllng pas
tures and grazlng horses, the grass blllowlng ln the
wlnd, the banks of the rlver and the neverendlng mur
mur of the rlver ltself. Sholokhov never tlres of descrlb
lng the Russlan steppes. Sometlmes he breaks off the
narratlve rlght ln the mlddle of hls story to burst out ln
exultatlon.
'My beloved steppes under the low sky of the
Don country! Ravlnes wlndlng across the plaln wlth
thelr walls of red earth, a sea of wavlng feathergrass,
marked only by the prlnt of horses` hoofs leavlng trall
llke a myrlad blrds` nests, and by the graves of the Jar
tars who ln wlse sllence watch over the burled glory of
the Cossacks . . . I bow low before you, and, as a son,
232
j~ ^~ p ai_ PPO
klss your fresh earth, unspolled steppe of the Don Cos
sacks, watered wlth blood."
It may well be sald that Sholokhov ls uslng a well
trled reallstlc technlque, breaklng no new ground, a
technlque that may seem nalve ln lts slmpllclty lf we set
lt beslde that offered us ln many a later model ln the art
of novelwrltlng. But hls subject surely could not have
been presented ln any other way, and the powerful,
evenlysustalned, eplc flow of the wrltlng makes Zvd
_uict Ilows tlc Dov a genulne romov flcuvc ln two senses.
Sholokhov`s more recent work, for example, Iod-
vyotoyo tsclivo, l932 and l959 (Vlrgln Soll Lpturned)a
novel descrlblng compulsory collectlvlzatlon and the
lntroductlon of lollloyhas a vltallty that never flags
and shows us Sholokhov`s fondness for characters that
are rlchly comlc but at the same tlme observed wlth a
sympathetlc eye. But, of course, Zvd _uict Ilows tlc Dov
would, on lts own, thoroughly merlt the present award,
a dlstlnctlon whlch, lt ls true, has come rather late ln the
day, but happlly not too late to add to the roll of Nobel
prlzewlnners the name of one of the most outstandlng
wrlters of our tlme.
In support of lts cholce the Swedlsh Academy
speaks of 'the artlstlc power and lntegrlty wlth whlch,
ln hls eplc of the Don, Sholokhov has glven expresslon
to a hlstorlc phase ln the llfe of the Russlan people."
Slrthls dlstlnctlon ls lntended as a trlbute of jus
tlce and gratltude to you for your lmportant contrlbu
tlon to modern Russlan llterature, a contrlbutlon as
wellknown ln thls country as lt ls all over the world.
May I offer you the congratulatlons of the Swedlsh
Academy, and at the same tlme, ask you to recelve from
Hls Majesty, the Klng, thls year`s Nobel Prlze ln Lltera
ture.
pW _~ p
Ivtroductory rcmorls by Iorl Iogvor Cicrow of tlc Swcdisl
Zcodcmy ot tlc òbcl ovquct ot tlc City Holl iv Stocllolm,
10 Dcccmbcr 196:
Mr. SholokhovYou recelved news of the Nobel
Prlze when ln the Lral Mountalns for a couple of
weeks` shootlng, and, accordlng to a Moscow news
paper, that same day you brought down two flne grey
leg geese at a long range wlth a slngle shot. But lf you
are celebrated tonlght as the crack marksman amongst
the Nobel laureates, lt ls because that colncldental hlt
has a certaln relevance to your work.
An eplc achlevement llke yours could be wrltten
on that enormous scale, wlth that breadth of vlew, wlth
that wlld and stlll majestlc flow of events and flgures,
wlth that lmposlng executlon of the themewlth all
that, and be a masterplece, never to be forgotten. Or
the eplc could be presented wlth that vlvld sense of the
dramatlc sltuatlon, wlth that sharp eye for every detall
of artlstlc value, wlth that passlonate feellng for lts char
acterswlth all that, and be a work of art, always to be
loved. Jhe comblnatlon of both ls the mark of the
genlus, of your genlus. It ls about as common as seelng
two blrds ln fllght allgned wlth one`s gunslght. You
brought the two down wlth one shot.
Your great eplc of an old rule, desperately defend
lng ltself, and a new rule, as desperately flghtlng for
every foot of blooddrenched earth, keeps poslng from
the outset the questlon. whoor whatrules? It also
provldes an answer. It says. the heart. Jhe human
heart, wlth all lt holds of love and cruelty, hope and sor
row, prlde and debasement. Jhe human heart, whlch ls
the real battlefleld of all vlctorles and defeats that befall
thls earth of ours. Jhus your art ranges beyond all fron
tlers, and we take lt to our hearts wlth the deepest gratl
tude.
Slolollov`s spcccl, wlicl wos olso covsidcrcd os lis òbcl
Iccturc (Trovslotiov)
On thls solemn occaslon I flnd lt my pleasant
duty to extend my thanks once more to the Swedlsh
Academy, whlch has awarded me the Nobel Prlze.
As I have already had occaslon to testlfy ln publlc,
the feellng of satlsfactlon whlch thls award arouses ln
me ls not solely due to the lnternatlonal recognltlon of
my professlonal merlts and my lndlvldual characterls
tlcs as a wrlter. I am proud that thls Prlze has been
awarded to a Russlan, a Sovlet wrlter. Here I represent
a multltude of wrlters from my natlve land.
I have also prevlously expressed my satlsfactlon
that, lndlrectly, thls Prlze ls yet another recognltlon of
the novel as a genre. I have not lnfrequently read and
heard recent statements whlch have qulte frankly aston
lshed me, ln whlch the novel has been declared an out
dated form that does not correspond to presentday
demands. Yet lt ls just the novel that makes posslble the
most complete comprehenslon of the world of reallty,
that permlts the projectlon of one`s attltude to thls
world, to lts burnlng problems.
One mlght say that the novel ls the genre that
most predlsposes one to a profound lnslght lnto the tre
mendous llfe around us, lnstead of puttlng forward
one`s own tlny ego as the centre of the unlverse. Jhls
genre, by lts very nature, affords the very wldest scope
for a reallstlc artlst.
233
ai_ PPO j~ ^~ p
Many fashlonable currents ln art reject reallsm,
whlch they assume has served lts tlme. Wlthout fear of
belng accused of conservatlsm, I wlsh to proclalm that I
hold a contrary oplnlon and am a convlnced supporter
of reallstlc art.
Jhere ls a lot of talk nowadays about llterary
avantgardlsm wlth reference to the most modern exper
lments, partlcularly ln the fleld of form. In my oplnlon
the true ploneers are those artlsts who make manlfest ln
thelr works the new content, the determlnlng character
lstlcs of llfe ln our tlme.
Both reallsm as a whole and the reallstlc novel are
based upon artlstlc experlences presented by great mas
ters ln the past. Durlng thelr development, however,
they have acqulred lmportant new features that are fun
damentally modern.
I am speaklng of a reallsm that carrles wlthln ltself
the concept of llfe`s regeneratlon, lts reformatlon for the
beneflt of manklnd. I refer, of course, to the reallsm we
descrlbe as soclallst. Its pecullar quallty ls that lt
expresses a phllosophy of llfe that accepts nelther a
turnlng away from the world nor a fllght from reallty, a
phllosophy that enables one to comprehend goals that
are dear to the hearts of mllllons of people and that
llghts up thelr path ln the struggle.
Manklnd ls not dlvlded lnto a flock of lndlvldu
als, people floatlng about ln a vacuum, llke cosmonauts
who have penetrated beyond the pull of Earth`s gravlty.
We llve on Earth, we are subject to lts laws and, as the
Gospel puts lt, sufflclent unto the day ls the evll thereof,
lts troubles and trlals, lts hopes for a better future. Vast
sectlons of the world`s populatlon are lnsplred by the
same deslres, and llve for common lnterests that blnd
them together far more than they separate them.
Jhese are the worklng people, who create every
thlng wlth thelr hands and thelr bralns. I am one of
those authors who conslder lt thelr hlghest honour and
thelr hlghest llberty to have a completely untrammelled
chance of uslng thelr pens to serve the worklng people.
Jhls ls the ultlmate foundatlon. Irom lt are
derlved the concluslons as to how I, a Sovlet wrlter,
vlew the place of the artlst ln the world of today.
Jhe era we llve ln ls full of uncertalnty. Yet there
ls not one natlon on Earth that deslres a war. Jhere are,
however, forces that hurl whole natlons lnto the fur
naces of war. Is lt not lnevltable that the ashes from the
lndescrlbable conflagratlon of the Second World War
should move the wrlter`s heart? Is not an honest wrlter
bound to stand up agalnst those who wlsh to condemn
manklnd to selfdestructlon?
What, then, ls the vocatlon and what are the tasks
of an artlst who sees hlmself, not as an lmage of a god
who ls lndlfferent to the sufferlngs of manklnd,
enthroned far above the heat of battle, but as a son of
hls people, a tlny partlcle of humanlty?
Jo be honest wlth the reader, to tell people the
truthwhlch may sometlmes be unpleasant but ls
always fearless. Jo strengthen men`s hearts ln thelr
bellef ln the future, ln the bellef ln thelr own ablllty to
bulld thls future. Jo be a champlon of peace throughout
the world and wlth hls words breed such champlons
wherever those words penetrate. Jo unlte people ln
thelr natural, noble strlvlng toward progress.
Art possesses a great ablllty to lnfluence people`s
lntellects and bralns. I belleve that anyone has the rlght
to call hlmself an artlst, lf he channels thls ablllty lnto
creatlng somethlng beautlful ln the mlnds of men, lf he
beneflts humanlty.
My own people have not followed beaten tracks
ln thelr hlstorlcal journey. Jhelr journey has been that
of the explorers, the ploneers for a new llfe. I have
regarded and stlll regard lt as my task as an author ln all
that I have wrltten and ln whatever I may come to
wrlte, to show my great respect for thls natlon of work
ers, thls natlon of bullders, thls natlon of heroes, whlch
has never attacked anyone but whlch knows how to put
up an honourable defence of what lt has created, of lts
freedom and dlgnlty, of lts rlght to bulld the future as lt
chooses.
I should llke my books to asslst people ln becom
lng better, ln becomlng purer ln thelr mlnds; I should
llke them to arouse love of one`s fellow men, a deslre to
flght actlvely for the ldeal of humanlty and the progress
of manklnd. If I have managed to do thls ln some mea
sure, then I am happy.
I thank all those of you here tonlght, and all those
who have sent me greetlngs and good wlshes ln connec
tlon wlth the Nobel Prlze.
| Jhe Nobel Ioundatlon, l965. Mlkhall Sholokhov ls
the sole author of hls speech.|
231
e p
( Moy 1S46 - 1 òvcmbcr 1916)
j~ gK j
Uvivcrsity of !iscovsivMilwoulcc
BOOKS. Humorcsli tcli !orsyy, 2 volumes (Warsaw.
Przegld Jygodnlowy, l872);
c tytuu (N.p., l873);
Sprowy biccc (N.p., l871);
Clwilo obccvo (N.p., l875);
ò morvc (Warsaw. Przegld Jygodnlowy, l876); trans
lated by |eremlah Curtln as Iv !oiv (Boston. Llttle,
Brown, l899);
Iisty podroy po Zmcrycc (doloccvic); Iisty Iymu i
Iorio; Iomcdyo pomycl (Warsaw. Gebethner
Wolff, l880); Iisty podroy po Zmcrycc edlted and
translated by Charles Morley as Iortroit of Zmcrico:
Icttcrs (New York. Columbla Lnlverslty Press,
l959);
Story sugo; Hovio; Slicc wglcm; ovlo Muylovt (War
saw. Gebethner Wolff, l880);
Irc stcpy; Urso; pomitvilo povo slicgo voucyciclo; Cyjo
wivo?; o cllcbcm (Warsaw. Gebethner Wolff,
l880);
Iotorvil; ìcwolo totorslo; omio; ò jcdv lort; ortcl
wycico (Warsaw. Gebethner Wolff, l882);
Ugvicm i micccm, 1 volumes (Warsaw. Sowo, l883-
l881); translated by Curtln as !itl Iirc ovd Sword:
Zv Historicol òvcl of Iolovd ovd Iussio, 2 volumes
(Boston. Llttle, Brown, l890);
Iotop, 6 volumes (Warsaw. Sowo, l885-l886); trans
lated by Curtln as Tlc Dclugc: Zv Historicol òvcl of
Iolovd, Swcdcv, ovd Iussio: Z Scqucl to '!itl Iirc ovd
Sword, 2 volumes (Boston. Llttle, Brown, l89l);
Iov !oodyjowsli, 3 volumes (Warsaw. Sowo, l887-
l888); translated by Curtln as Iov Miclocl: Zv His-
toricol òvcl of Iolovd, tlc Ulroivc, ovd Turlcy: Z
Scqucl to '!itl Iirc ovd Sword ovd 'Tlc Dclugc
To trccio; Soclcm; Siclovlo; !spomvicvic Moripoy;
puscy ioowicslicj; !ycicclo do Ztcv (Warsaw.
Gebethner Wolff, l889);
c dogmotu (Warsaw. Sowo, l89l); translated by Iza
Young as !itlout Dogmo: Z òvcl of Modcrv Iolovd
Iisty Zfryli (Warsaw. Sowo, l893);
!yrol cuso; wroc woslicl; Urgovisto Iovily; U
rodo; Iux iv tcvcbris lucct; d bogosowiovo!;
Iojdmy o ìm!; Iisty o oli (Warsaw. Gebethner
Wolff, l891);
e p E ~ t c ~ pI
~~ tK pK h~I NVVNX o~
` m i~F
235
ai_ PPO e p
Iodivo Ioovicclicl (Warsaw. Gebethner Wolff, l895);
translated by Curtln as Clildrcv of tlc Soil (Boston.
Llttle, Brown, l895);
òwclc (Warsaw. Gebethner Wolff, l896);
_uo vodis (Warsaw. Gebethner Wolff, l896); trans
lated by Curtln as _uo !odis: Z òrrotivc of tlc Timc
of `cro (Boston. Llttle, Brown, l896);
ò josvym brcgu (Warsaw. Gebethner Wolff, l897);
Iryocy (Warsaw. Gebethner Wolff, l900); translated
by Curtln as Tlc Iviglts of tlc Cross, 2 volumes
Micsovivy litcroclo-ortystycvc, 2 volumes (Warsaw.
Redakcya Jygodnlka Illustrowanego, l902);
Clwilo obccvo, 3 volumes (Warsaw. Redakcya Jygod
nlka Illustrowanego, l903);
Iismo ulotvc: 1S69-1S7J (Warsaw. Gebethner Wolff,
l905);
ò polu clwoy (Warsaw. S. Orgelbrand, l906); trans
lated by Curtln as Uv tlc Iicld of Clory: Zv Historicol
òvcl of tlc Timc of Iivg olv Sobicsli (Boston. Llttle,
Brown, l906);
!iry, 2 volumes (Warsaw. Gebethner Wolff, l9l2
|l.e., l9ll|); translated by Max A. Drezmal as
!lirlpools: Z òvcl of Modcrv Iolovd (Boston. Llttle,
Brown, l9l0);
! pustyvi i w puscy (Warsaw. Gebethner Wolff, l9l2
|l.e., l9ll|); translated by Drezmal as Iv Dcscrt ovd
!ildcrvcss (Boston. Llttle, Brown, l9l2);
Icgiovy (Warsaw. Gebethner Wolff, l9l8).
b ~ `W Dico, 60 volumes, edlted
by |ullan Krzyanowskl and others (Warsaw.
Pastwowy Instytut Wydawnlczy, l918-l955);
Iismo wybrovc, l7 volumes (Warsaw. Pastwowy Insty
tut Wydawnlczy, l976-l978);
Iclictovy worsowslic, 1S7J-1SS2, edlted by Stanlsaw Ilta
(Warsaw. Jypograflka, 2002).
b bW Jovlo tlc Musiciov ovd Utlcr Storics,
translated by |eremlah Curtln (Boston. Llttle,
Brown, l893);
Iilliov Morris, ovd Utlcr Storics, translated by Curtln (Bos
ton. Llttle, Brown, l891);
Ict Us Iollow Him, ovd Utlcr Storics, translated by Slg
mund C. Slupskl and Iza Young (Phlladelphla. H.
Altemus, l896);
Ior Doily rcod, ovd Utlcr Storics, translated by Young
(Phlladelphla. H. Altemus, l896);
Zftcr rcod: Z Story of Iolisl Imigrovt Iifc to Zmcrico, trans
lated by Vatslaf A. Hlasko and Jhomas H. Bul
llck (New York. R. I. Ienno, l897)lncludes 'An
Excurslon to Athens";
Hovio, translated by Curtln (Boston. Llttle, Brown,
l897);
Iviglts of tlc Cross, part l, translated by S. C. de Solssons
(New York. R. I. Ienno, l897);
Uv tlc Suvvy Slorc, translated by de Solssons (New York.
R. I. Ienno, l897);
Siclovlo: Z Iorcst Iicturc, ovd Utlcr Storics, translated by
Curtln (New York. Llttle, Brown, l898);
So Iuvs tlc !orld, translated by de Solssons (London
New York. I. J. Neely, l898);
Tolcs from Sicvlicwic, translated by de Solssons (New
York. |. Pott, l899);
Dust ovd Zslcs; or, Dcmolislcd, translated by |. Chrlstlan
Bay (New York. I. J. Neely, l899);
Tlc `cw Soldicr; or, òturc ovd Iifc, translated by Bay
(New York. I. J. Neely, l899);
Hcr Trogic Iotc, translated by Bay (New York. I. J.
Neely, l899);
!lcrc !orlds Mcct, translated by Bay (New York. I. J.
Neely, l899);
Iv Movtc Corlo: Z Story, translated by de Solssons (Lon
don. S. Paul / Phlladelphla. D. McKay, l900);
Tlc Irovy of Iifc: Tlc Iolovctli Iomily, translated by
Nathan M. Babad (New York. R. I. Ienno, l900);
Tlc udgmcvt of Ictcr ovd Ioul ov Ulympus: Z Iocm iv Irosc,
translated by Curtln (Boston. Llttle, Brown,
l900);
Tolcs, translated by de Solssons (London. Allen, l90l);
Iifc ovd Dcotl, ovd Utlcr Icgcvds ovd Storics, translated by
Curtln (Boston. Llttle, Brown, l901);
Tolcs from Hcvryl Sicvlicwic, edlted by Monlca M. Gard
ner (London Joronto. Dent / New York. Dut
ton, l93l);
!itl Iirc ovd Sword, translated by W. S. Kunlczak (Iort
Washlngton, Pa.. Copernlcus Soclety of Amerlca
/ New York. Hlppocrene Books, l99l).
PLAY PRODLCJION. ò jcdv lort, Lww, Lww
Jheatre, l1 March l879.
OJHER. Irussc ct Iologvc: Ivquctc ivtcrvotiovolc orgoviscc
por Hcvryl Sicvlicwic (Parls. Bureau de lÀgence
polonalse de presse, l909).
Pollsh novellst Henryk Slenklewlcz won the
Nobel Prlze ln Llterature ln l905 'for hls outstandlng
merlt as an eplc wrlter." Hls books had attracted a wlde
readershlp both at home and abroad. Wllllam Iaulkner,
ln hls foreword to Tlc Ioullvcr Icodcr (l951), recalled
encounterlng ln hls grandfather`s llbrary one of Slen
klewlcz`s books and a comment that partlcularly
lmpressed hlm. 'Na tym koczy sl ten szereg kslek
plsanych w clgu kllku lat l w nlemaym trudzledla
pokrzeplenla serc" (Jhls book was wrltten ln the course
of several years and at the expense of conslderable
effort to upllft men`s hearts). Years later, Iaulkner real
lzed that 'that halfforgotten Pole had had the answer
all the tlme. Jo upllft man`s heart; the same for all of
236
e p ai_ PPO
us. . . . We all wrlte for thls one purpose." Iaulkner was
only one of many Amerlcan admlrers of Slenklewlcz`s
novels. Hls n ~ (whlch flrst appeared ln the perl
odlcal d~~ m~ between 26 March l895 and 29 Ieb
ruary l896), translated by |eremlah Curtln and
publlshed ln Boston ln l896, sold 600,000 coples ln the
flrst elghteen months, cllmbed to the top of many best
seller llsts, and generated lncreased Amerlcan lnterest ln
Slenklewlcz`s other books. On l9 November l900, just
after he had flnlshed hls vlcepresldentlal campalgn,
Jheodore Roosevelt wrote to Curtln.
Now that the campalgn ls over I must tell you that dur
lng lts contlnuance I was obllged frequently to flnd
solace ln readlng your wonderful translatlons of Slen
klewlcz`s great novels. . . . If you ever wrlte to hlm I
wlsh you would tell hlm how much comfort he gave a
vlce presldentlal candldate ln the mldst of an exceed
lngly actlve campalgn, and also tell hlm that I had a reg
lment of men ln the Spanlsh war whom I thlnk would
have been esteemed very competent flghters even by
the assoclates of Zagoba and the Knlght of Bogdanlec.
Although Iaulkner by l951 was calllng hlm 'half
forgotten," Slenklewlcz was the flrst Pollsh wrlter to
wln broad lnternatlonal recognltlon.
Henryk Adam Aleksander Plus Slenklewlcz, the sec
ond of slx chlldren, was born on 5 May l816 ln Wola
Okrzejska, a vlllage ln Podlasle, an eastern provlnce of
Russlanoccupled Poland. Hls father, |zef Slenklewlcz,
was an lmpoverlshed landowner whose ancestors were
Llthuanlan Jartars, whlle hls mother, Stefanla Clecls
zowska, came from a promlnent famlly of noblemen and
lntellectuals. Slenklewlcz grew up ln the country, where he
became famlllar wlth the llves, language, and customs of
local peasants. He heard storles of famlly patrlotlc tradl
tlons and read books, found ln an attlc chest, wrltten by
Pollsh wrlters of the slxteenth and seventeenth centurles as
well as Danlel Defoe`s o ` (l7l9) and |ohann
Wyss`s q p c~ o (l8l2-l8l3) ln Pollsh
translatlon. He dreamed of becomlng a knlght or settllng
on a deserted lsland.
In l858 Slenklewlcz moved to Warsaw, where he
attended several schools. Otherwlse a medlocre pupll, he
excelled ln hls studles of Pollsh and hlstory. He read Slr
Walter Scott and Alexandre Dumas, afterward Homer
and Wllllam Shakespeare, and began to try hls hand at
wrltlng. Lnable to support hlmself, he left school ln
August l865 and for a year worked as a tutor ln
Powltne, a vlllage near Posk. In September l866 he
passed hls flnal examlnatlons and ln October entered War
saw Lnlverslty. He studled law, swltched to medlclne, and
ln Iebruary l867 transferred to the department of hlstory
and llterature. He llved ln poverty, supported hlmself by
tutorlng, and publlshed hls flrst revlews and llterary stud
les, worklng at the same tlme on hls flrst novel, k~ ~
(l876; translated as f s~I l899), whlch he flnlshed ln
l87l and publlshed ln the perlodlcal t (7 May-27
|uly l872). In the same year he left the unlverslty wlthout
taklng hls flnal examlnatlons and embarked on a journalls
tlc and llterary career.
After completlng k~ ~I Slenklewlcz wrote two
volumes of e t (l872, Humor
esques from Worszyo`s Portfollo), a collectlon of satlr
lcal pleces, and three volumes of wltty feullletons
(l873-l875) deallng wlth matters of dally llfe and soclal
lssues. As dld many of hls colleagues ln the journallstlc
and llterary mllleu, he supported the doctrlne of posltlv
lsm. Iollowlng the ldeas of the Irench and Engllsh
founders of posltlvlsm, among them Auguste Comte,
|ohn Stuart Mlll, and Herbert Spencer, Slenklewlcz and
other journallsts and wrlters advocated 'organlc work,"
assertlng that the strength and unlty of a soclety
requlred that all of lts members excel ln thelr efforts.
Jhey postulated the lntroductlon of new methods ln
lndustry, agrlculture, and commerce. Jhey urged lndl
vlduals and all classes to work 'at the foundatlon," wlth
the goal of establlshlng a just soclety. Speclflcally, they
spoke up ln support of peasants, women, and |ews and
called for mass educatlon, better schools, revlsed text
books, and modern llbrarles. As thelr ultlmate goals,
Pollsh posltlvlsts envlsloned novel ways of thlnklng, a
new soclal consclousness, and, most lmportant, a
renewed and free natlon.
Irom l873 to l876 Slenklewlcz pollshed hls jour
nallstlc skllls ln the servlce of the progresslve 'new
press," wrltlng essays, revlews, and reports, such as a
dramatlc descrlptlon of a flre ln Putusk. He also pub
llshed ln Warsaw perlodlcals hls flrst short storles,
'Stary suga" (l875, Jhe Old Servant), 'Hanla" (l876),
and 'Sellm Mlrza" (l877). 'Stary suga" ls a movlng
tale about a man who had been wlth the narrator`s fam
lly slnce the herolc days of Napoleon Bonaparte`s cam
palgn. Jhe narrator`s memorles go back to hls parents`
country manor, fllled wlth love and patrlotlc tradltlon,
and to the eccentrlc old man, who alternately annoys
the household members wlth hls grumbllng and dls
arms them wlth hls devotlon. In 'Hanla," the serlous
and lnsecure narrator, Henryk, competes agalnst hls
splrlted frlend Sellm for the heart of Hanla, the old ser
vant`s beautlful granddaughter. Jhe story ls set agaln ln
the romantlc atmosphere of the Pollsh countryslde, but
the actlon, full of humor and adventure, takes a tragl
comlc turn when the two young men clash ln a duel,
and Hanla enters a convent. 'Sellm Mlrza" takes the
two protagonlsts to Irance, where they joln a partlsan
detachment durlng the IrancoPrusslan War and where
Sellm, who ls ln love wlth beautlful Lldla La Grange,
falls on the battlefleld.
237
ai_ PPO e p
In l876 Slenklewlcz left for the Lnlted States as a
correspondent of the Warsaw perlodlcal d~~ m~
(Jhe Pollsh Gazette). He was followed by several wrlt
ers and artlsts, lncludlng a famous actress, Helena
Modrzejewska (known later under her Engllsh stage
name, Modjeska) and her husband, Count Karol
Boenta Chapowskl. Jhelr goal was to organlze a
phalanstery, an artlstlc commune ln southern Callfor
nla, and to search for professlonal opportunltles,
unavallable ln the stlfllng atmosphere of Warsaw. Jhey
settled ln Anahelm, and although the commune dls
persed after several months, both Slenklewlcz and
Modjeska reaped the beneflts of thelr Amerlcan experl
ence. Modjeska by launchlng her dlstlngulshed actlng
career ln the Lnlted States, and Slenklewlcz by publlsh
lng hls i ^ (l880, Letters from a
Jrlp to Amerlca; translated as m~ ^~W iI
l959), whlch appeared flrst ln d~~ m~ from 9 May
l876 to 23 March l878 under the tltle i i~
('Lltwos" belng the author`s pseudonym). Jhe
letters offer lnslghtful vlgnettes of Amerlcan llfe, vlvld
sketches of Amerlcan Indlans, accounts of hls meetlng
wlth Pollsh Amerlcans, and travel lmpresslons from
such places as Nlagara Ialls or a huntlng trlp ln the San
Bernardlno Mountalns. More lmportant, they dlsplay
for the flrst tlme Slenklewlcz`s art of palntlng magnlfl
cent scenes of nature and wlldllfe, among them lavlsh
descrlptlons of buffalo huntlng on the Wyomlng pral
rles and of Callfornla forests, deserts, and canyons.
Jhey also lnclude seeds of hls short storles and a color
ful gallery of characters that reappear ln hls novels.
On the way back from hls twoyear travels on the
Amerlcan contlnent, Slenklewlcz spent a year ln
Europe, lndulglng ln hls llfelong hablt of constant trav
els, durlng whlch he wrote, searched for materlals, and
rested. Durlng hls stay ln Parls, he became acqualnted
wlth the Irench theater, the wrltlngs of Anatole Irance
and Emlle Zola, and the trend of naturallsm ln lltera
ture. After returnlng to Poland ln l879, he publlshed ln
Warsaw newspapers several short storles lnsplred by
the ldeas of posltlvlsm. Jhey lncluded 'Szklce wglem"
(l877, Charcoal Sketches), a grlm plcture of the peas
ants` llfe; '|anko Muzykant" (l879, Yanko the Musl
clan), a story of a glfted peasant boy beaten to death for
steallng a vlolln; 'Za chlebem" (l880, After Bread), an
account of the traglc fate of Pollsh emlgrants ln the
Lnlted States; and 'Bartek Zwyclzca" (l882, Bartek
the Conqueror), a tale of a Pollsh peasant vlctlmlzed ln
the Prusslancontrolled reglon. But other short storles,
such as 'Nlewola tatarska" (l880, Jhe Jartar Captlv
lty) and the hauntlng tale 'Latarnlk" (l88l, Jhe Llght
house Keeper), slgnaled a change ln Slenklewlcz`s
polltlcal alleglance and llterary lnterests.
'Nlewola tatarska" ls wrltten ln the form of a
seventeenthcentury memolr of an lmpoverlshed noble
man who jolns the Pollsh cavalry ln order to dlstlngulsh
hlmself ln the eyes of a senator and wln the hand of the
senator`s daughter. Wounded and taken captlve by the
Jartars, he suffers hunger, cold, and tortures, but stead
fastly holds onto hls falth and honor and flnally returns
ln glory to Poland. Although he falls to marry hls
beloved or achleve happlness, he remalns constant ln
hls attachment to splrltual values.
'Latarnlk" ls a story of a lonely Pollsh lnsurrec
tlonlst, who after years of battles, mlsfortunes, and wan
derlngs all over the world flnds a posltlon as a
llghthouse keeper ln Asplnwall ln Panama, whlch
brlngs hlm a peaceful and happy exlstence. But one day
he recelves a package contalnlng m~ q~ (l831,
Master Jhaddeus), a nostalglc eplc poem by hls coun
tryman Adam Mlcklewlcz. Engrossed ln the maglc of
lts language and transported ln thought to hls natlve vll
lage, the old man loses track of tlme, forgets to llght the
lantern, and ls dlsmlssed from hls post. Yet, even
though the next day he agaln becomes a homeless wan
derer, hls eyes shlne wlth joy, for he carrles next to hls
heart the Pollsh book, hls most preclous possesslon.
Slenklewlcz`s i and hls short storles,
especlally 'Latarnlk," met wlth a favorable receptlon.
On l1 March l879 the Lww Jheatre staged Slen
klewlcz`s play, k~ ~ (On a Slngle Card), per
formed later ln other cltles, lncludlng Warsaw, Moscow,
and St. Petersburg. Hls growlng reputatlon among read
ers and crltlcs was conflrmed ln October l879, when
Gebethner and Wolff, a leadlng Warsaw publlshlng
house, brought out a volume of hls wrltlngs (dated
l880) under the collectlve rubrlc m~ and followed lt
wlth addltlonal volumes ln l880 (thlrtyelght volumes
were publlshed by l9l7). |ust about that tlme Slen
klewlcz retreated from the ldeology of posltlvlsm, crltl
clzed the tenets of naturallsm, and turned hls attentlon
to the hlstorlcal novel.
In l88l Slenklewlcz marrled Marla Szetklewlcz,
who bore hlm two chlldren, Henryk and |adwlga, and
brought hlm four years of happlness before succumblng to
tuberculosls. Jhls perlod colnclded wlth Slenklewlcz`s
declslve turn toward the past and hls resolve of 'upllftlng
men`s hearts," as he was preparlng to deal wlth the grand
themes of Pollsh Romantlc poetry. He arrlved at thls pro
gram by evaluatlng the current polltlcal sltuatlon. Once a
powerful and proud republlc, Poland was dlsmembered by
the autocratlc states of Prussla, Russla, and Austrla ln
l795. Jhe Pollsh people, defeated ln two uprlslngs ln l83l
and l863, were now threatened by the aggresslve pollcles
of Russlan and Prusslan governments, whlch were deter
mlned to root out all aspects of Pollsh natlonal ldentlty,
especlally lts language and rellglon. A patrlot and artlst,
238
e p ai_ PPO
Slenklewlcz was sensltlve to hls countrymen`s pllght and
thelr need for splrltual support so that they would be able
to preserve thelr herltage, stand up to forelgn oppresslon,
and eventually regaln lndependence. Even though he was
fettered by the strlngent rules of Russlan censorshlp, Slen
klewlcz resolved to provlde them such sustenance.
Wlth these ldeas ln mlnd, Slenklewlcz began to
study documents, chronlcles, and memolrs as well as
the Pollsh llterature of the seventeenth century. Hls
three books ln thlrteen volumesl (trans
lated as t c ~ pI l890), publlshed flrst ln the
perlodlcal p (Jhe Word) from 2 May l883 to l
March l881; m (translated as q aI l89l), flrst
publlshed ln p from 23 December l881 to l0 Sep
tember l886; and m~ t (translated as m~
j~I l893), whlch appeared ln p from 2 |une
l887 to ll May l888are known lnformally as q~
(Jhe Jrllogy). Jhese books, whlch brought thelr
author crltlcal acclalm and publlc admlratlon, formed
natlonal eplcs deplctlng the tumultuous years ln the hls
tory of the Commonwealth and lts vlctorlous battles
agalnst Cossack, Swedlsh, and Jurklsh forces. Jhe flrst
part, l I ls set durlng the Lkralnlan Cos
sacks` revolt agalnst the Pollsh klngdom ln l618. Jhe
bloody clvll war that flnally led to Moscow`s domlna
tlon of the Lkralne and undermlned the Pollsh state
forms the background for a dramatlc story fllled wlth
horror, herolsm, romance, and humor. Jhe vallant
defense of Zbara by the heavlly outnumbered Pollsh
forces serves as a central symbol of the story. Jhe novel
features four protagonlsts. |an Skrzetuskl, a vlrtuous
and vallant knlght; Zagoba, a charmlng and resource
ful braggart; Mlcha Woodyjowskl, a llttle knlght wlth
superlor fenclng skllls; and Longlnus Podblplta, a
meek glant of superhuman strength. Each represents a
dlfferent reglon of the Commonwealth, and there are
also many other memorable characters.
m ls a novel about the l655 Swedlsh lnvaslon
of Poland, when the army of Klng Charles Gustavus,
alded by treacherous Pollsh and Llthuanlan magnates,
qulckly overruns the country, forclng Pollsh klng |an
Kazlmlerz to seek refuge on the borders of Sllesla. Jhe
herolc fortyday defense of the monastery of Czsto
chowa, the shrlne of the venerated Black Madonna,
becomes a turnlng polnt of the war. Jhe whole natlon
rlses agalnst the lnvaders. In l656, threatened wlth total
defeat, Charles Gustavus and the major unlts of hls
army beat a hasty retreat. Agalnst thls eplc background,
Slenklewlcz tells the love story of Andrzej Kmlclc, a
reckless young man who grows to become a herolc
defender of the country, and Oleka, a steadfast
patrlot. He lntroduces a cast of engaglng characters,
some of them known to the readers of l I
and weaves a suspenseful tale of thelr vallant deeds.
Jhe last part, m~ tI beglns wlth the elec
tlon of Klng Mlcha Wlnlowleckl ln l669 and tells of
Poland`s war agalnst the Jartars and Jurks, endlng wlth
|an Sobleskl`s vlctory at Choclm ln l673. It features
Mlcha Woodyjowskl as a herolc and traglc defender of
Kamlenlec Podolskl and hls brave wlfe, Basla.
Slenklewlcz`s message of glorlfylng hls ancestors`
chlvalrous splrlt and sustalnlng hls compatrlots ln thelr
struggle for freedom met wlth the overwhelmlng
response of the readers. Prlnted ln lnstallments ln War
saw newspaper p and Krakw`s `~ (Jlme), then
ln many book edltlons, q~ became the most popu
lar novels ln Poland and have remalned so to thls day. It
was reported that durlng the serlal publlcatlon of l
I every conversatlon began and ended wlth lt.
Readers thought and spoke of lts protagonlsts as lf they
were llvlng people and named thelr chlldren after them.
When |an Skrzetuskl, a hero of the novel, found hlmself
ln mortal danger, they prayed for hlm and wrote to
Slenklewlcz lmplorlng hlm to gulde |an`s steps to safety.
A host of revlewers and lecturers analyzed every aspect
of the book, whlle the enthuslastlc publlc showered the
author wlth decoratlons, honors, and glfts, lncludlng
the sum of flfteen thousand rubles from an anonymous
donor, whlch Slenklewlcz gave to the Krakw Academy
of Sclences, wlth lnstructlons to establlsh a grant ln hls
late wlfe`s name for slck wrlters and artlsts. Jhe popu
larlty of q~ qulckly extended abroad, as lt was
translated lnto more than twenty languages by l970.
q~ dlsplays the eplc sweep of Slenklewlcz`s
novels. In each of them, he lntroduces flctlonal charac
ters and plots, settlng them agalnst real people and cru
clal hlstorlcal events ln the llfe of the natlon. Hls blg
hlstorlcal canvasses, modeled on Homer`s f~ and
l as well as on Mlcklewlcz`s m~ q~I deplct
mass battle scenes and lndlvldual duels, fought by
heroes of superhuman strength. Almost slx hundred
actlve characters move along thelr lndlvldual paths ln a
grand dlsplay of fabulous adventures. Jhe protagonlsts
perform darlng feats and set out on arduous journeys
fllled wlth chases, ambushes, and mlraculous escapes.
Jhey devlse clever stratagems and lngenlous trlcks ln
order to defeat rlvals or avold an lmpendlng dlsaster.
Jhey fall ln love and, after formldable obstacles and
prolonged perlods of separatlon, come to enjoy marltal
bllss. Jhe actlon ls swlft and suspenseful, accented by
clever turns and effectlve cllmaxes. On certaln occa
slons, an element of provldentlal power lntervenes ln
human affalrs, especlally on the slde of the unlted
defenders of the country, for as Zagoba remarks,
'there are no such predlcaments from whlch we would
not be able to recover and wlth God`s help."
A patrlotlc tone predomlnates ln q~. Even
though Slenklewlcz pays trlbute to the dedlcatlon of the
239
ai_ PPO e p
Pollsh gentry and recognlzes thelr leadlng role ln the
defense of the country, he does not overlook the demo
cratlc lnstlncts dlsplayed by the Pollsh people ln the
hour of trlal. Durlng the Swedlsh lnvaslon, when the
fate of Poland ls at stake, lnsplred clergymen, unyleld
lng burghers, and flerce peasants take arms ln varlous
parts of the country and joln the noblemen, engaglng
the enemy ln partlsan warfare. When Klng |an Kazl
mlerz flnds hlmself ln mortal danger ln a scene from
mI hls small escort surprlsed by a Swedlsh unlt ln a
rocky ravlne, he ls rescued by local mountalneers who
come down the snowy slopes and crush the Swedes.
Jhe natlonal communlty ls led ln the war not by the
klng or a great magnate, but by Stefan Czarnleckl, a
courageous offlcer and patrlot.
Slenklewlcz ls also a grlm reallst. He brlngs to llfe
a ruthless struggle between brothers and the desolatlon
caused by constant warfare. He shows patrlotlc sacrl
flces and shameful defeats, steadfast vlrtue and craven
treason, cruel leaders and cunnlng soldlers, wlthout
closlng hls eyes to hls compatrlots` mlsdeeds. In several
scenes, Slenklewlcz shows tortures and executlons car
rled out by Pollsh and enemy soldlers. He descrlbes the
rapaclty of the lnvaders, hardfought battles, and
bloody reprlsals. He deplcts the horrors of a clvll war
for peasants, as thelr crops are razed and stretches of
the countryslde are ravlshed by famlne. And he covers
a vast terrltory of the seventeenthcentury Common
wealth of Poland and Llthuanla, extendlng almost from
the Baltlc to the shores of the Black Sea across wlld
plalns, forests, and remote lands.
Jhe gloomy scenes ln q~ are balanced by
humorous and comlc lnterludes, most often featurlng
Zagoba, an opulent flgure remlnlscent of Ialstaff and
Llysses. Other entertalnlng actors appear on the
crowded stage, among them a clever servant, Rzdzlan,
and a dullheaded offlcer, Roch Kowalskl. Jhey are
wltty, always qulck wlth deft expresslons and sharp rep
artees, humorous ln the way they look and act, and
purely comlc when they stumble lnto embarrasslng sltu
atlons. Slenklewlcz, llke Charles Dlckens, understands
and sympathlzes wlth hls characters, reservlng hls
anger only for the traltors. He takes ordlnary persons
and turns them lnto dazzllng characters, exaggeratlng
freely ln the process, as he shapes them lnto glants of
humor or horror. He laughs wlth them but also at
them, showlng thelr fralltles and slns wlth good wlll and
passlng effortlessly from comedy to tragedy.
Jhroughout hls storles and novels, Slenklewlcz
excels ln drawlng portralts of scoundrels and evlldoers.
One of them, Brother Slegfrled ln h~ (l900; trans
lated as q h Ì l900), ls the ultlmate vlllaln
of the plece, and yet ln the flnal moments of hls llfe he ls
transformed lnto a traglc flgure. Slenklewlcz supports and
consoles hls protagonlsts, for he belleves ln the power of
redemptlon and endows hls world wlth a moral force that
grows lnto the splrlt of serene optlmlsm.
Always concerned about the present state of the
enslaved Poland, Slenklewlcz turned ln hls next two
novels to the role played by the upper classes ln contem
porary soclety. He was partlcularly alarmed by the
trends of decadence and agnostlclsm prevalent ln fln de
slcle Europe. In hls _ ~ (l89l; translated as
t a~I l893), a psychologlcal novel wrltten ln
the form of a dlary and flrst publlshed ln p from 2
December l889 to ll October l890, Slenklewlcz
descrlbes an lntelllgent and reflned arlstocrat, Leon
Poszowskl, who ls splrltually empty and morally lndlf
ferent. Skeptlcal and ldle, he ls unable to express hls
love for Anlelka, an attractlve and morally uprlght
woman, but when she marrles another man and
becomes pregnant, an lnvlgorated Poszowskl attempts
unsuccessfully to seduce her. When Anlelka`s bank
rupted husband takes hls own llfe and she dles ln chlld
blrth, Poszowskl flnds escape ln sulclde. Jhe novel was
pralsed by Leo Jolstoy and Anton Chekhov and read
wldely ln Russla, Germany, and Austrla.
After a huntlng trlp to Zanzlbar ln l89l and the
resultlng i ^ (l893, Letters from Afrlca, pub
llshed flrst ln p from 3l |anuary l89l to 27 Iebru
ary l892), Slenklewlcz traveled ln Europe and then
returned to Poland. On ll November l893 he marrled
Marla RomanowskaWoodkowlczwna ln Krakw, but
two weeks later they separated, and the marrlage was
annulled. Durlng thls perlod, Slenklewlcz wrote
another novel about Pollsh contemporary soclety. oJ
~ m~ (l895, Jhe Poanleckl Iamlly; translated
as ` pI l895), whlch flrst appeared ln _J
~ t~~~ from 21 |uly l893 to l2 December
l891, portrays lmpoverlshed former landowners llvlng
ln Warsaw and struggllng to regaln thelr estates ln
order to return to a peaceful llfe ln the country. Jhese
members of the new class of lntelllgentsla, represented
by practlcal and unethlcal Stanlsaw Poanleckl, 'a chlld
of the epoch," and hls compasslonate wlfe, Marynla,
are shown wlth thelr vlrtues and vlces ln thelr dally
llves. But although Slenklewlcz`s psychologlcal novels
dlsplayed hls usual craftsmanshlp, welldevlsed plots,
and provocatlve characters, they falled to match the
popularlty of hls hlstorlcal books.
In l891 Slenklewlcz turned to an lntenslve study of
anclent Rome ln the tlmes of Nero. Returnlng to hls
youthful fasclnatlon wlth antlqulty, he avldly read Jacltus,
Suetonlus, Plutarch, Pllny, and other authors as well as
modern studles of the perlod, among them Ernest Renan`s
monumental e `~ (l866-l88l,
Hlstory of the Orlglns of Chrlstlanlty). He frequently trav
eled to Rome and other Itallan cltles, maklng detalled
210
e p ai_ PPO
observatlons of thelr topography and archltecture. He also
vlslted the museums to learn about Roman arts and ways
of llfe ln the flrst century. Hls next novel, _uo vodis, a dra
matlc story of early Chrlstlanlty, became an lnternatlonal
bestseller. It was translated lnto more than forty lan
guages, lncludlng Armenlan, |apanese, and Arablc. More
than slxty edltlons of the book appeared ln the Lnlted
States alone, wlth sales exceedlng a mllllon and a half cop
les by l9l5. In Russla, _uo vodis had thlrtyseven edltlons
before l9l7; ln Spaln, slxtyone edltlons were publlshed
between l900 and l965, whlle ln Italy about one hundred
prlntlngs appeared from l899 to l939. However, all
records were broken ln Irance, where the novel, publlshed
ln |une l900, had more than three hundred prlntlngs ln
the flrst twelve months and sold two mllllon coples by
l9l1. Dramatlzatlons of _uo vodis were frequently per
formed on stages of many countrles, fllmed, represented ln
muslc and the arts, later adapted for radlo, recorded on
cassettes, and shown on televlslon. In l900, flve dlfferent
verslons of _uo vodis were staged ln New York theaters,
one ln Boston, and one ln Chlcago, the last one also play
lng ln London`s Adelphl Jheatre, whlle ln Irance a
Irench verslon played l67 tlmes on the stage of the
Jhatre de la PorteSalntMartln ln l90l.
It should be noted that Slenklewlcz, as a cltlzen of
Russla, whlch dld not belong to the Berne Conventlon,
was not protected by lnternatlonal copyrlght law. Con
sequently, he recelved no slgnlflcant royaltles from the
sale of hls books abroad. In thls sltuatlon, at least thlrty
four Amerlcan publlshers and fortyfour translators
competed at dlfferent tlmes ln selllng Engllsh transla
tlons of hls books. Jhelr proflts were enormous. Ior
example, the agreement between Llttle, Brown (the
Boston publlsher of Slenklewlcz`s books) and Curtln
for the translatlon of _uo vodis stlpulated that Curtln
would recelve l0 percent of the retall sales and flfty cop
les of the book. Stlll not satlsfled wlth thls contract, the
Curtlns went so far as to travel to Washlngton, D.C., ln
an unsuccessful attempt to obtaln from Congress a
copyrlght for thelr translatlon of Slenklewlcz`s books.
Nevertheless, Alma Cardell Curtln wrote ln her dlary
ln August l897 that |ohn Murray Brown pald Curtln
$6,000 for the perlod from |anuary to the end of |une,
and ln March l899 he sent Curtln a payment of $6,600
for slx months` royaltles from _uo vodis and other
books. In lts September l898 lssue Tlc Dovoluc Mogo-
ivc reported that Curtln had recently recelved a check
for $21,000 as hls share of the book sales. It ls lnterest
lng to note for the sake of comparlson that the prlce of
the house purchased by Alma Cardell Curtln ln Brlstol,
Vermont, was $l,500.
Amerlcan crltlcs were almost unanlmous ln thelr
pralse of _uo vodis. In thelr revlews, ln most cases unslgned
and undated, collected by Alma Cardell Curtln ln a large
scrapbook and now held ln the Mllwaukee County Hls
torlcal Soclety, they halled the novel as 'one of the stron
gest hlstorlcal romances that has been wrltten ln the last
half century" (Clicogo Ivcvivg Iost) and 'one of the greatest
books of our day" (Tlc oolmov). Jhey pralsed lt as a
'magnlflcent story, absorblngly lnterestlng, brllllant ln
style" (Irovidcvcc `cws) and a story that 'ls carrled through
lts many phases of confllct and terror to a cllmax that
enthralls" (Clicogo Iccord). Slenklewlcz was descrlbed as
the great novellst who 'has unrolled lt all before us upon a
cloud palnted wlth the colors of the sun" (Ililodclplio
Iccord) and who shows 'ln the dellneatlon of character,
and ln traclng the psychologlcal developments of actual,
llvlng breathlng human belngs, an almost lnlmltable
power" (Ililodclplio Clurcl Stovdord ). Jhe same revlewer
stated that 'the portralt of Petronlus ls alone a masterplece
of whlch the greatest wordpalnters of any age mlght be
proud." Certaln memorable scenes, stated the revlewer for
Tlc ostov cocov, 'llke the feastlng at the lmperlal palace,
the contest ln the arena, the burnlng of Rome, the rescue
of Lygla, the Chrlstlan maldenthese wlll hold thelr place
ln memory wlth unfadlng color, and are to be reckoned
among the slgnlflcant trlumphs of narratlve art."
Jhe story takes place durlng the last phase of
Emperor Nero`s relgn. After years of vlctorlous battles,
Marcus Vlnlclus, a mllltary trlbune, returns from Asla
Mlnor to Rome. Nero, who kllled hls own mother and
wlfe, llves a debauched llfe ln the company of hls sec
ond wlfe, Poppaea, but thlnks of hlmself as a great art
lst. Soon Marcus vlslts hls uncle Petronlus, a brllllant
eplcurean and Nero`s advlsor. Marcus falls ln love wlth
Lygla, a Chrlstlan glrl, who ls attracted to hlm. He trles
to wln Lygla by force, but she ls protected by her glant
servant Lrsus and hldes wlth other Chrlstlans, who are
led by the apostles Peter and Paul. Marcus, wounded by
Lrsus, ls nursed back to health by Lygla and converts
to Chrlstlanlty. Meanwhlle, the deranged Nero orders
the burnlng of Rome so that he can flnd lnsplratlon for
a great poem he lntends to wrlte and be free to rebulld
the clty ln a monumental style, accordlng to hls taste. A
terrlble conflagratlon destroys blg parts of the clty, and
homeless Romans turn agalnst Nero; Poppaea, who
lusts after Marcus and ls jealous of Lygla, and other
courtlers blame the helpless Chrlstlans for startlng the
flre and lnclte the mob agalnst them. What follows ls a
bloody persecutlon of the Chrlstlans, who are burned
allve, cruclfled, and devoured by wlld beasts ln the are
nas. Jhe naked Lygla ls tled onto an aurochs`s head ln
the amphltheater, but ln a spectacular struggle Lrsus
breaks the beast`s neck. Jhey are freed, and Lygla jolns
Marcus. Jhe apostle Peter, fleelng along the Applan
Way, has a vlslon of |esus Chrlst and asks hlm where
he ls golng. '_uo vadls, Domlne?" When he flnds out
that |esus ls golng to Rome to be cruclfled a second
21l
ai_ PPO e p
tlme, Peter turns back to be martyred for hls falth.
Petronlus, condemned to dle by Nero, lelsurely takes
hls own llfe durlng a feast, whlle Nero, faclng a revolt of
hls leglons and the Senate`s sentence of death by flog
glng, does not have enough courage to thrust the knlfe
lnto hls neck. Ilnally, a freedman pushes Nero`s hand
and kllls hlm. Jhe novel concludes wlth two sentences.
I tak mln Nero, jak mlja wlcher, burza, poar,
wojna lub mr, a bazyllka Plotra panuje dotd z wyyn
watykasklch mlastu l wlatu.
Wedle za dawnej bramy Kapesklej wznosl sl dzl
slaj maleka kapllczka z zatartym nleco naplsem '_uo
vadls, Domlne?"
(And so Nero passed, as a whlrlwlnd, as a storm, as
a flre, as war or plague passes; but the baslllca of Peter
rules the clty and the world from the Vatlcan helghts tlll
now.
And near the anclent Porta Capena stands today a
llttle chapel wlth the lnscrlptlon, somewhat worn. '_uo
vadls, Domlne?")
Slenklewlcz`s n ~ shows contrasts between
the pagan world of the Caesars and the rlslng world of
Chrlstlanlty. A repulslve Nero and sophlstlcated Petro
nlus domlnate the story, adorned wlth four grand
scenes. Caesar`s banquet, the gatherlng of the Chrls
tlans ln the catacombs, the burnlng of Rome, and the
martyrdom of Chrlstlans, among them the apostles
Peter and Paul. Slenklewlcz`s narratlve dwells on the
magnlflcent Iorum Romanum, splendld baslllcas, pal
aces, and vlllas, and lntroduces the readers to sumptu
ous feasts and reflned rltuals. It also descrlbes dark
catacombs and cemeterles, the hldeaways of the
oppressed bellevers of Chrlst. Jhe book reveals the cor
rupt force of lmperlal Rome and the pale splrltual llght
of the new falth. Ior as Peter understood, 'Jhat clty of
prlde, crlme, wlckedness, and power was beglnnlng to
be Hls clty, and the double capltal, from whlch govern
ment of bodles and souls would flow out upon the
world."
Slenklewlcz`s next novel, h~ (whlch appeared
flrst ln q f~ from 2 Iebruary l897 to 20
|uly l900), was translated lnto twentyflve languages
and became another bestselllng book. It descrlbed the
struggle of the Poles agalnst the Jeutonlc warrlors,
medleval progenltors of the Prusslan state. Jhe Jeu
tonlc Order (or Knlghts of the Cross), a rellglous mlll
tary order, was lnvlted to Poland by Duke Konrad of
Masovla ln l226 to flght and convert the Prusslan trlbes
ln the north. Jhe Order qulckly subjugated them,
stamped out thelr language, and arrogated thelr name.
Jhe Order grew ln power so qulckly that by the four
teenth century lt threatened the exlstence of the Pollsh
state. On l5 |uly l1l0, Pollsh and Llthuanlan troops of
about 39,000 met the Jeutonlc Order`s army of almost
28,000 knlghts ln the Battle of Grunwald (Jannenberg
ln German), one of the blggest and bloodlest battles of
the Mlddle Ages. It ended wlth a declslve Pollsh vlctory.
Slenklewlcz was concerned about the lntenslty of the
Prusslans` aggresslve drlve eastward, manlfested by the pol
lcy of 'Drang nach Osten" (Drlve to the East), especlally ln
the terrltorles of Pozna and Sllesla. He went to Pozna as
early as ln l880, returned to the area several tlmes, and was
famlllar wlth Prusslan pollcles toward Pollsh populatlonK
Jhe maln goals of Chancellor Otto von Blsmarck`s hJ
~ (hls struggle for control over Cathollc schools and
eccleslastlc appolntments), launched ln l873 and supported
by the natlonallstlc Hakata Soclety, whose name was
colned from the surnames of lts founders, Ierdlnand von
Hansemann, Hermann Kennemann, and Helnrlch von
Jledemann, were to brlng the German language lnto Pol
lsh churches and schools as well as encourage German col
onlzatlon of the terrltorles selzed by Prussla. Slenklewlcz
saw ln these pollcles a threat to the future of Poland and
Europe and often protested agalnst these actlons, most elo
quently ln hls polltlcal artlcle about Blsmarck publlshed ln
the Berlln weekly a d~ on 6 Aprll l895; ln hls let
ter publlshed ln `~ on l March l900, to Baroness Bertha
von Suttner, a future reclplent of the Nobel Peace Prlze; and
ln hls open letter to Wllhelm II, klng of Prussla, publlshed
also ln `~ on l9 November l906, all of whlch were trans
lated lnto many languages. Hls almost prophetlc vlslon of
the forthcomlng aggresslon and destructlon, whlch came
true ln hls llfetlme durlng World War I, found llterary
reflectlon ln h~. It was not surprlslng that thls story of
the crushlng defeat of the rapaclous Germanlc Order was
the flrst major llterary work that appeared ln Poland after
World War II, republlshed as early as August l915.
Jhe monumental novel ls set ln Poland at the turn of
the flfteenth century. Before composlng lt, Slenklewlcz stud
led several hlstorlcal sources wrltten ln Latln, among them
the maglsterlal ^~ `~ o m~ (Annals or
Chronlcles of the Klngdom of Poland). Wrltten by |an
Dugosz between l155 and l180, the annals were a synthe
sls of Pollsh medleval hlstory, based on Pollsh, Czech, Hun
garlan, Ruthenlan, and German documents and archlval
materlals. Jhey recorded that ln l386, |ogalla, grand duke
of Llthuanla, converted to Cathollclsm, marrled |adwlga of
Poland, and wlth the name Wadysaw |agleo was
crowned klng of Poland (l386-l131). By thls act of per
sonal unlon, the |agleonlan dynasty was founded, brlng
lng two centurles of greatness for Poland. Jhe rapldly
growlng and powerful country was capable of challenglng
the expanslonlst tendencles of lts western nelghbors.
Agalnst thls hlstorlcal background, Slenklewlcz
tells a flctlonal story of Zbyszko of Bogdanlec and hls
uncle Mako. Jhe hotblooded Zbyszko assaults the
Order`s envoy and ls sentenced to death, but he ls
212
e p ai_ PPO
saved by hls beloved Danusla, who declares that she
wlll marry hlm. Danusla ls the only daughter of |urand,
a peaceful Pollsh squlre resldlng at the frontler between
Poland and the Order, who turns to vengeance after the
Knlghts klll hls wlfe. Lnable to defeat |urand ln battle,
a group of the Knlghts kldnap Danusla. Jo save hls
daughter, |urand accepts the Knlghts` humlllatlng con
dltlons and enters thelr castle. When the treacherous
Knlghts show hlm another glrl, pretendlng they dld not
kldnap Danusla, |urand kllls nlne of hls tormentors ln
an outburst of fury. Jhe Knlghts overpower hlm, and at
the order of Brother Slegfrled, thelr superlor, an execu
tloner burns out |urand`s remalnlng eye, cuts off hls
hand, and tears out hls tongue. Jhe malmed |urand
returns home, but soon afterward Slegfrled ls captured
by Zbyszko and brought ln for punlshment. |urand for
glves Slegfrled and sets hlm free, but the monk,
shocked by thls salntly act, hangs hlmself ln a forest.
In hls search for Danusla, Zbyszko kllls Brother Rot
gler, one of the consplrators, ln a duel, flnds her, and frees
her from the Knlghts` hands, only to see her dle durlng
thelr journey home. Jhe grlefstrlcken Zbyszko eventually
marrles llvely |aglenka, hls nelghbor`s daughter, who had
been ln love wlth hlm for a long tlme. |aglenka glves blrth
to twln boys, whlle Mako, whose maln goal ln llfe had
been to secure growth and prosperlty for hls clan, bullds
them a small castle. What ls left for hlm and Zbyszko ls to
settle old scores wlth the Knlghts and secure peace. Jhey
are successful, dlstlngulshlng themselves ln the declslve
battle of Grunwald.
Slenklewlcz presents a wlde panorama of medl
eval Poland and lts people. He palnts lmpresslve plc
tures of the castle of Malbork (Marlenburg), the
Knlghts` stronghold and one of the mlghtlest medleval
fortresses; of the royal court ln Krakw; and of the
huntlng scenes ln the prlmeval forests. He descrlbes
local actlvltles and customs, for example, farmlng and
funeral rltes, as well as Western tradltlons of chlvalry.
He draws artful portralts of a hottempered abbot,
|anko of Julcza; a devoted Czech servant, Hlava; a
knlghterrant, de Lorche; and a corrupt pardoner, San
derus, worthy of Glovannl Boccacclo`s or Geoffrey
Chaucer`s pen. But above all he shows the blrth of
natlonal consclousness at the tlmes when Pollsh war
rlors become aware of thelr strength and asplratlons,
confldently taklng the fleld agalnst the aggresslve
Knlghts ln the battle of Grunwald.
On 5 May l901 Slenklewlcz marrled Marla Bab
ska, a dlstant relatlve, who concerned herself wlth the
wellbelng of the aglng and alllng wrlter durlng the last
years of hls llfe. In the flnal stage of hls career, Slen
klewlcz wrote t (l9ll; translated as f
a ~ tI l9l2), publlshed flrst ln h
t~~ from 27 October l9l0 to l September l9ll,
an adventure book for young readers that was lnsplred
by hls huntlng expedltlon ln Zanzlbar ln l89l. It tells a
dramatlc story of Sta Jarkowskl, a fourteenyearold
Pollsh boy, and Nell Rawllson, a pretty elghtyearold
Engllsh glrl, chlldren of a senlor englneer and of one of
the dlrectors of the Suez Canal Company. Kldnapped
as hostages by supporters of the Mahdl, leader of the
l885 Sudanese lnsurrectlon agalnst the Egyptlan gov
ernment and Brltlsh colonlal rule, they manage to
escape. Jhe chlldren, ln the company of two young
natlves, Kall and Mea; a falthful elephant, Klng; and a
dog, Saba, bravely travel for months through the exotlc
and dangerous Afrlcan contlnent, untll they are rescued
by an Engllsh expedltlon explorlng the slopes of Mount
Klllmanjaro. Jhe novel, rlch wlth dramatlc scenes and
splendld descrlptlons of nature, lncludes many patrlotlc
and dldactlc elements, manlfested most often by Sta`s
moral strength, courage, and physlcal stamlna. Jrans
lated lnto more than twenty languages, t
remalns a requlred (albelt not 'polltlcally cor
rect") readlng for Pollsh chlldren.
Slenklewlcz was a superb styllst and master story
teller, hls language slmple, clear, and expresslve. He honed
hls art through years of toll, complalnlng frequently ln hls
letters of the burden of wrltlng. He wrote hls eagerly antlc
lpated novels from day to day, sendlng the texts lmmedl
ately to the prlnter ln a constant race agalnst newspaper
deadllnes, and he could not see the work ln lts entlrety
untll lt was completed. Ignacy Chrzanowskl, who vaca
tloned wlth Slenklewlcz ln Bretagne ln l898, reported ln
hls p~ (l939, Studles and Sketches) that after a
wrltlng sesslon, Slenklewlcz would come out from hls
study often pale and wlth sweat on hls brow. Asked once
what tlred hlm so much, he answered. 'Work on the slm
pllclty of style." It was hls major artlstlc goal to achleve
economy of descrlptlon and at the same tlme to preserve a
balance between the poetlc and lnformatlve elements of
language. In a comment on hls own style, Slenklewlcz
wrote. 'I avold the predomlnance of words over contents
so as not to fall lnto a styllstlc dlsplay and llterary
baroqueso that the descrlbed events would not dlsappear
under the excess of complementary clauses, as all shapes
dlsappear ln wlnter under a snowdrlft" (collected ln vol
ume forty of hls a~).
Slenklewlcz`s style attracts and fasclnates readers.
Hls language, based on common everyday speech, flnds
resonance ln the Pollsh ear to thls day. In addltlon,
thanks to hls knowledge of Pollsh hlstorlcal and llterary
sources, especlally of chronlcles, memolrs, dlarles, and
oral tales, Slenklewlcz succeeds ln creatlng a styllzed
language of the flfteenth and seventeenth centurles or ln
fashlonlng a classlcal dlctlon based on Greek and Latln
sources. He achleves these goals by a selectlve use of
archalc words, phrases, even dlalects, as ln h~ and
213
ai_ PPO e p
q~I or by a judlclous use of Latlnate syntax and
vocabulary ln n ~. He makes use of elaborate rhe
torlcal flgures lnterspersed wlth orlglnal metaphors,
slmlles, and eplthets. Hls dlalogues are ldlomatlc; hls
descrlptlons of nature majestlc; hls dramatlc scenes
brlsk. Scholars and crltlcs agree that Slenklewlcz
enrlched the Pollsh language and created an lnlmltable
style that ls easlly recognlzable, whlle readers attest to
lts popularlty by maklng use of some of hls plthy
phrases and saylngs ln everyday conversatlon. What ls
more remarkable, even though the beauty of Slen
klewlcz`s style has been conslderably dlmmed ln hun
dreds of uneven translatlons, forelgn readers responded
to hls novels as enthuslastlcally as the Poles.
Slenklewlcz`s popularlty outslde hls homeland
has not been equaled by any other Pollsh wrlter. An
lncomplete blbllography of translatlons of hls works
lnto other languages, complled before l950, surpassed
two thousand ltems. In Russla, where Slenklewlcz com
peted wlth Jolstoy, there were 253 translatlons of hls
wrltlngs, followed by 218 ln Italy; 2l1 ln Germany and
Austrla; l79 ln Serbla, Croatla, and Slovenla; l79 ln
Czechoslovakla; l70 ln Irance; and l02 ln the Lnlted
States and England. Accordlng to data publlshed ln
Russla ln l966, whlch lncludes translatlons ln local
perlodlcals, more than flve hundred ltems appeared
there before l9l7. Iour hundred slxtyfour translatlons
appeared ln varlous countrles between l915 and l970,
and addltlonal rendltlons lnto Engllsh and other lan
guages have been publlshed slnce l970.
Slenklewlcz was one of the most prollflc eplstolog
raphers among Pollsh wrlters. It has been estlmated
that ln fortyflve years he wrote as many as flfteen thou
sand letters, most of them lost, many of them dlspersed,
some not yet publlshed. He traveled constantly and
wrote on tralns, ln hotels, and ln lnternatlonal health
resorts. He worked ln solltude for months and kept ln
contact wlth hls famlly and frlends by mall, sometlmes
wrltlng several letters every day. He wrote to hls chll
dren, to hls parentslnlaw who took care of them, and
most often to |adwlga |anczewska, hls slsterlnlaw ln
Krakw, who became hls confldante after hls flrst wlfe`s
death. He regularly corresponded wlth many frlends
and colleagues ln Warsaw and Krakw, among them
Jytus Bennl, a promlnent doctor and host of the salon
attended every second Irlday for fortyone years by the
lntellectual and polltlcal ellte of Warsaw; Bennl was the
addressee of about slx hundred letters, all of them lost
durlng World War II. Slenklewlcz also wrote to Edward
Leo, edltor of d~~ m~I and Mclsaw Godlewskl,
edltor of k~ (Jhe Realm) and later of pI as well as
to Karol Potkaskl, professor of hlstory, and Stanlsaw
Jarnowskl, professor of llterature, both from the |aglel
lonlan Lnlverslty ln Krakw. He communlcated by
mall wlth hls publlshers, most frequently wlth the flrm
of Gebethner and Wolff from Warsaw, newspaper edl
tors ln many cltles, translators ln several countrles, and
artlsts, among them |acek Malczewskl and Henryk
Slemlradzkl, hls gulde ln Rome. When he became a
worldfamous author, Slenklewlcz was recelvlng as
many as four hundred letters a month and trled to
answer most of them. All these letters throw llght on
Slenklewlcz`s lntellectual and artlstlc mllleu. Hls letters
deallng wlth hls work provlde an lmportant commen
tary on lt, whlle correspondence pertalnlng to prlvate
matters allows readers to learn more about Slenklewlcz
as a person. Hls dlary, whlch he began on l2 October
l889 and kept at lrregular lntervals untll l9l6, was
burned wlth the whole apartment by the Nazls durlng
the Warsaw Lprlslng ln l911.
Llke every successful author, Slenklewlcz had hls
share of hostlle crltlcs, especlally ln Irance. Some wrlt
ers and scholars crltlclzed hls vlews, others hls works.
Jhelr objectlons were malnly almed at hls conservatlve
polltlcal bellefs and came most lntensely after hls break
wlth the posltlvlsts. Jhey also charged that he was
unable to deal wlth phllosophlcal problems. Other crlt
lcs objected to hls neoRomantlc leanlngs and ques
tloned hls lnterpretatlons of certaln events, clalmlng
that hls vlew of Pollsh hlstory was blased at tlmes. Sev
eral llterary revlewers thought that hls characters were
twodlmenslonal and lacked psychologlcal depth, whlle
others polnted out that ln some of hls books, labeled as
lntellectually undemandlng hlstorlcal romances, he
used too many llterary cllchs, such as love trlangles or
mlraculous rescues. An anonymous revlewer ln ^
j~~I a rellglous magazlne for Cathollc famllles pub
llshed at the Lnlverslty of Notre Dame, belleved that
the vlvld descrlptlons of the martyrdom of the Chrls
tlans ln n ~ were too reallstlc and that some objec
tlonable detalls from Nero`s feasts could be 'cut out
wlthout lnjury to the actlon."
Jhe popularlty of hlstorlcal novels ln general
faded conslderably ln the twentleth century. Jhe same
happened to a vaguely deflnable genre of eplc prose flc
tlon. Yet, Slenklewlcz stlll enjoys wlde recognltlon and
attracts new generatlons of readers. In Poland, about
l,500 edltlons appeared before l951, and hls novels,
especlally q~I n ~I h~I and t
I have been selllng mllllons of coples. Between
l915 and l991, h~ sold 3,580,000 coples, m
3,3l9,000, and l 2,607,000, whlle the
same novels as well as m~ tI t
I and n ~ were made lnto popular movles.
Slenklewlcz ls also known as the author of about
forty short storles, featurlng traglc, romantlc, or comlc
plots, a host of dlstlnct charactersfor example, a natlve
Amerlcan acrobat, Sachem; a Roman patrlclan, Clnna;
211
e p ai_ PPO
and a corrupt Pollsh offlclal, Zozlklewlczand memorable
events taklng place ln the majestlc scenery of the Great
Plalns and Rocky Mountalns, ln |erusalem, and ln forlorn
Pollsh hamlets. Modern readers dellght ln Slenklewlcz`s
splendld narratlves, hls plcturesque evocatlons of the past,
hls war and love storles, and hls language. Jhey rate
hlghly hls power of lmaglnatlon and orlglnallty. Most
lmportant, they admlre the begulllng atmosphere of hls
storles and the sense of moral lmperatlve pervadlng hls
work. It was not surprlslng at all that durlng World War II
many young reslstance flghters ln Poland adopted the
names of Slenklewlcz`s heroes as thelr .
As Slenklewlcz`s achlevements were recognlzed ln
Poland and abroad, he was showered wlth awards and
honors. He was elected to membershlp ln the Academy of
Sclences ln Krakw (l883), the Imperlal Academy of Scl
ences ln St. Petersburg (l896), the Czech Academy of Scl
ences ln Prague (l900), and the Serblan Academy of
Sclences ln Belgrade (l906). He recelved the Austrlan
award i ~ (l899), an honorary doctorate from
the |aglellonlan Lnlverslty ln Krakw (l900), the honor
ary membershlp of the clty of Lww (l902), and the
Irench i (l901). Hls twentyflfth annlver
sary of llterary work, celebrated ln many Pollsh cltles and
abroad ln l900, culmlnated on 22 December ln Warsaw,
where Slenklewlcz recelved many commemoratlve publl
catlons and presents, among them a deed for an estate ln
Oblgorek, purchased from people`s contrlbutlons as a
'natlonal glft," whlch became hls summer resldence and
later a museum devoted to hls llfe and work. In tlme, two
other museums were founded, one ln hls blrthplace, Wola
Okrzejska (l966), and another ln Pozna (l978); many
new monuments were erected ln such places as Gdynla,
Supsk, Szczytno, Bydgoszcz, Posk, Zlelona Gra, and
Warsaw; and several commemoratlve tablets were
lnstalled, for example ln the Htel du Lac ln Vevey, and ln
Vllla Borghese ln Rome. More than seventy schools are
named after Slenklewlcz, and the Slenklewlcz Soclety was
establlshed ln Lublln ln l986.
Slenklewlcz`s greatest llterary trlumph came ln
December l905, when he was awarded the Nobel Prlze
ln Llterature and the accompanylng sum of l38,000
Swedlsh crowns. Slenklewlcz`s books were well known
ln Sweden by then and recelved wlth enthuslasm by the
general publlc; l was translated and pub
llshed there as early as ln l887, followed by n ~ ln
l898, and by all hls major novels and several volumes
of hls short storles between l900 and l903. Swedlsh
crltlcs valued them hlghly, as one of them compared
m to the wrltlngs of Selma Lagerlf, the greatest
compllment ln Sweden. (Lagerlf herself won the Nobel
Prlze four years later.) Jhe Swedlsh Academy members
recelved Slenklewlcz wlth honors, whlle the laureate
responded by establlshlng an award of flve thousand
crowns for translators of Pollsh llterature lnto Swedlsh,
granted subsequently to Alfred |ensen, a dlstlngulshed
translator of Pollsh classlcs.
As Slenklewlcz`s reputatlon and authorlty had
been conflrmed by the Nobel Prlze, he replled one more
tlme to the threats of economlc aggresslon orlglnatlng
ln Prussla. On 26 November l907, Relch chancellor
and prlnce Bernhard von Blow, who also held the post
of Prusslan premler, lntroduced a blll ln the Prusslan
Parllament deslgned to exproprlate land belonglng to
Poles ln the provlnces annexed to Germany. Several
weeks later, Slenklewlcz wrote hls 'Odezwa do Oplnll"
(Appeal to Publlc Oplnlon), publlshed ln `~ on l2
December l907, ln whlch he sollclted crltlcal responses
from promlnent persons throughout the world. Jhe
resultlng lnternatlonal survey, coordlnated by the Pollsh
Press Agency ln Parls, ylelded 251 letters, publlshed ln
Parls ln Aprll l909 under the tltle m mW
b ~~ ~ ~ e p (Prus
sla and Poland. Internatlonal Survey Organlzed by
Henryk Slenklewlcz). Jhe majorlty of respondents
strongly condemned the proposed law, whlle others
refused to comment on the lssue. Among the partlcl
pants representlng the lntellectual ellte of Europe were
Nobel Peace Prlze wlnners Irdrlc Passy (l90l) and
Bertha von Suttner (l905), future Nobel llterary laure
ates Maurlce Maeterllnck (l9ll), Knut Hamsun (l920),
and Andr Glde (l917), as well as a Nobel Prlze wlnner
ln Medlclne, Charles Rlchet (l9l3). Other responses
came from such lumlnarles as Emlle Durkhelm, George
Meredlth, and Jolstoy. Although the blll was passed
and slgned lnto law by Wllhelm II ln l908, the protests
contlnued; von Blow was forced to reslgn ln l909, and
no exproprlatlon took place untll September l9l2, not
long before the outbreak of World War I.
When Slenklewlcz accepted hls Nobel Prlze ln
Stockholm on l0 December l905, he spoke on behalf
of hls country, saylng (as translated by Wacaw Led
nlckl ln e pW ^ o pI l960).
~ ~~ ~ I
~~ ~ m~>
m~ ~ ~ ~I ~ ~ ~
~ ~ > p ~ ~
~~ ~ I ~ ~
~ ~ ~> p ~ ~ ~I ~
~ ~ ~ >
Jhroughout hls llfe Slenklewlcz acted and wrote to
lnsplre hls countrymen. He partlclpated ln a large num
ber of charltable actlvltles, organlzed the fund and
served as cochalrman for the commlttee that bullt the
monument to Mlcklewlcz ln Warsaw ln l898, estab
llshed a home for orphans and a fund for young wrlt
ers, and wrote open letters protestlng antlPollsh
215
ai_ PPO e p
actlvltles of German natlonallsts and Russlan admlnls
trators. Irom 9 |anuary l9l5 untll the day of hls death
he served as chalrmansupported by Ignacy
Paderewskl, a vlrtuoso planlst, composer, and states
man, and by Antonl Osuchowskl, a lawyer and educa
torfor the General Commlttee for Rellef to the War
Vlctlms ln Poland, whlch collected from publlc contrl
butlons about $1,000,000, many valuable objects, food,
clothes, and medlclnes. When Henryk Slenklewlcz dled
of coronary dlsease ln the Htel du Lac ln Vevey, Swlt
zerland, on l5 November l9l6, Poland lost not only an
outstandlng wrlter but also a great patrlot. Hls body
was brought back wlth honors to free Poland on 2l
October l921, and on 27 October he was burled ln a
crypt of St. |ohn`s Cathedral ln Warsaw.
iW
Iisty do Mcisowo Codlcwslicgo, 1S7S-1904, edlted by
Edward Klernlckl (Wrocaw. Zakad lm.
Ossollsklch, l956);
Iisty, 2 volumes (of flve planned), edlted by Marla Bok
szczanln (Warsaw. Pastwowy Instytut Wydawnlczy,
l977, l996).
_~W
Izabela Jereslska, 'Slenklewlcz Henryk l816-l9l6,"
ln Dowvi pisorc polscy od poctlow pimicvvictwo do
Modcj Iolsli: Ircwodvil biogroficvy i bibliogroficvy,
edlted by |arosaw Maclejewskl, Roman Loth,
Jadeusz Wltczak, and others, volume 1 (Warsaw.
Instytut Bada Llteracklch Polsklej Akademll
Nauk, 2003), pp. 11-6l.
_~W
|ullan Krzyanowskl, ed. Iolcvdor ycio i tworcoci Hcv-
rylo Sicvlicwico (Warsaw. Pastwowy Instytut
Wydawnlczy, l951);
Eugenlusz Szermentowskl, Iov Hcvryl (London. Verltas,
l959);
Krzyanowskl, Hcvrylo Sicvlicwico ywot i sprowy (War
saw. Pastwowy Instytut Wydawnlczy, l966);
Stefan Majchrowskl, Iov Sicvlicwic, thlrd edltlon
(Katowlce. Wydawnlctwo lsk, l986);
|zef Szczublewskl, ywot Sicvlicwico (Warsaw. Pa-
stwowy Instytut Wydawnlczy, l989);
Henryk Marklewlcz, 'Henryk Slenklewlcz," ln Iolsli
sowvil biogroficvy, volume 37 (Warsaw Krakw.
Polska Akademla Nauk, l996), pp. 203-2l6.
oW
|erzy Axer and Marla Bokszczanln, eds., Iymu do
Iymu (Warsaw. Orodek Bada Nad Jradycj
Antyczn w Polsce l Europle rodkowo
Wschodnlej Lnlwersytetu Warszawsklego, 2002);
Jadeusz Bujnlckl, Iicrwsy olrcs tworcoci Hcvrylo Sicv-
licwico (Krakw. Wydawnlctwo Llterackle,
l968);
Plotr Chmlelowskl, Hcvryl Sicvlicwic w owictlcviu lrytyc-
vym (Lww. Jowarzystwo Wydawnlcze, l90l);
Ignacy Chrzanowskl, Studio i slicc: Iobiory i lrytyli, 2
volumes (Krakw. Gebethner Wolff, l939);
Marlon Moore Coleman, ed., Zmcricov Dcbut: Sourcc
Motcriols ov tlc Iirst Zppcorovcc of tlc Iolisl Zctrcss
Hclcvo Modjcslo ov tlc Zmcricov Stogc, Ivcludivg Ict-
tcrs ovd Dispotclcs by Hcvryl Sicvlicwic (Cheshlre,
Conn.. Cherry Hlll Books, l965);
Monlca M. Gardner, Tlc Iotriot òvclist of Iolovd: Hcvryl
Sicvlicwic (London. Dent, l926);
Mleczyslaw Glerglelewlcz, Hcvryl Sicvlicwic (New
York. Jwayne, l968);
Olglerd Grka, Ognlem l mleczem o rccywisto listory-
cvo (Warsaw. Llbrarla nova, l931);
Jomasz |odekaBurzeckl, ed., U Iryolocl Hcvrylo Sicv-
licwico (Warsaw. Pastwowy Instytut Wydawnlczy,
l958);
|odekaBurzeckl, ed., Sicvlicwic disioj: Studio i slicc
(Warsaw. Pastwowy Instytut Wydawnlczy,
l968);
|odekaBurzeckl, ed., Jrylogla Hcvrylo Sicvlicwico: Stu-
dio, slicc, polcmili (Warsaw. Pastwowy Instytut
Wydawnlczy, l962);
Marla Kornlowlczwna, Upowic o Hcvrylu Sicvlicwicu
i ludiocl mu blislicl (Warsaw. Pastwowy Instytut
Wydawnlczy, l978);
Marla Kosko, Uv 'cst-scllcr 1900: _uo vadls? (Parls.
Llbralrle |os Cortl, l960);
|ullan Krzyanowskl, Hcvryl Sicvlicwic (Warsaw. Past
wowy Instytut Wydawnlczy, l972);
Krzyanowskl, Iolosic Sicvlicwicowslic: Slicc litcroclic
(Warsaw. Pastwowy Instytut Wydawnlczy,
l973);
Krzyanowskl, Tworco Hcvrylo Sicvlicwico (Warsaw.
Pastwowy Instytut Wydawnlczy, l976);
|anlna KulczyckaSalonl, ed., Hcvryl Sicvlicwic, second
edltlon (Warsaw. Pastwowe Zakady Wydawnlctw
Szkolnych, l966);
Wacaw Lednlckl, Hcvryl Sicvlicwic: Z Ictrospcctivc Syv-
tlcsis (Jhe Hague. Mouton, l960);
Lech Ludorowskl, Zrtym trylogii Hcvrylo Sicvlicwico
(London. Panda Press, l993);
Ludorowskl, !ijovcr prcsoci: powicci listorycvc Hcv-
rylo Sicvlicwico (Lublln. Wydawnlctwo Lnlwer
sytetu Marll CurleSkodowsklej, l999);
Ludorowskl and Hallna Ludorowska, eds., ! stulccic
Krzyakw Hcvrylo Sicvlicwico (Klelce. Kleleckle
Jowarzystwo Naukowe, 2000);
216
e p ai_ PPO
Mlchael |. Mlko, ! pogovi o Sicvlicwiccm: odvolci-
ovycl dicvvilow Zlmy Curtiv (Warsaw. Constans,
l991);
Irederlck I. Olson, 'Jhe Story of |eremlah Curtln,"
Historicol Mcsscvgcr of tlc Milwoulcc Couvty Historicol
Socicty, 9 (l953). 3-7;
Stefan Pape, H. Sicvlicwic jolo lumorysto (Pozna.
Nakadem Kslgarnl Ir. Gutowsklego, l92l);
Anlela Plorunowa and Kazlmlerz Wyka, eds., Hcvryl
Sicvlicwic: Tworco i rcccpcjo wiotowo: Motcrioy
lovfcrcvcji voulowcj listopod 1966 (Krakw.
Wydawnlctwo Llterackle, l968);
Danuta Pygawko, 'Irusy i Iolslo: Zvlicto Hcvrylo Sicv-
licwico (1907-1909) (Pozna. Wlelkopolska
Agencja Wydawnlcza, l991);
Pygawko, Sicvlicwic w Swojcorii: dicjow olcji
rotuvlowcj dlo Iolsli w cosic picrwscj wojvy wiotowcj
(Pozna. Wydawnlctwo Naukowe Lnlwersytetu
Adama Mlcklewlcza, l986);
Ludomlra Ryll and |anlna Wllgat, eds., Iolslo litcroturo
w prclodocl: ibliogrofio (Warsaw. Agencja Autor
ska, l972);
Stanlsaw Jarnowskl, Hcvryl Sicvlicwic (Krakw.
Spka Wydawnlcza, l897);
Aleksander Wllko, U jylu i stylu Ognlem l mleczem
Hcvrylo Sicvlicwico: Studio vod tclstcm (Warsaw.
Pastwowy Instytut Wydawnlczy, l976).
NVMR k m i~
m~ p
by C. D. of !irscv, Icrmovcvt Sccrctory of tlc
Swcdisl Zcodcmy
Wherever the llterature of a people ls rlch and
lnexhaustlble, the exlstence of that people ls assured,
for the flower of clvlllzatlon cannot grow on barren soll.
But ln every natlon there are some rare genluses who
concentrate ln themselves the splrlt of the natlon; they
represent the natlonal character to the world. Although
they cherlsh the memorles of the past of that people,
they do so only to strengthen lts hope for the future.
Jhelr lnsplratlon ls deeply rooted ln the past, llke the
oaktree of Baublls ln the desert of Llthuanla, but the
branches are swayed by the wlnds of the day. Such a
representatlve of the llterature and lntellectual culture of
a whole people ls the man to whom the Swedlsh Acad
emy has thls year awarded the Nobel Prlze. He ls here
and hls name ls Henryk Slenklewlcz.
He was born ln l816. Hls youthful work Slicc
wglcm (l877) |Charcoal Sketches| breathes deep and
tender sympathy for the oppressed and dlslnherlted of
soclety. Of hls other early works one remembers espe
clally the movlng story of ovlo Muylovt (l879) [ovlo
tlc Musiciov] and the brllllant portralt of the Iigltlousc
Iccpcr (Iotorvil, l882). Jhe novella ìcwolo totorslo
(l880) |Jartar Prlson| gave a foretaste of Henryk Slen
klewlcz`s future performance ln the hlstorlcal novel, ln
whlch he dld not show hls full ablllty untll the appear
ance of hls famous trllogy. Of the three volumes Ugvicm
i micccm [!itl Iirc ovd Sword] appeared ln l881, Iotop
[Tlc Dclugc] ln l886-l887, and flnally Iov !oodyjowsli
[Iov Miclocl ] ln l888-l889. Jhe flrst volume descrlbes
the revolt of the Cossacks supported by the Jartars ln
l618-19; the second deals wlth the Pollsh war agalnst
Charles Gustave; and the thlrd wlth the war agalnst the
Jurks, durlng whlch the fortress of Kamlenlec was
taken after a herolc defence. Jhe cllmax of Ugvicm i micc-
cm ls the descrlptlon of the slege of Zbaraz and of the
lnternal struggle of the lnflexlble |ereml Wlnlowleckl,
debatlng wlthln hlmself whether hls belng lndubltably
the most resourceful general glves hlm the rlght to
usurp supreme command. Jhe struggle of consclence
ends ln the hero`s vlctory over hls ambltlon. Let us
mentlon ln passlng that ln hls trllogy the author has
descrlbed three sleges, that of Zbaraz, that of Czsto
chowa, and flnally that of Kamlenlec, wlthout ever
repeatlng hlmself ln hls treatment of the theme. Iotop
contalns many excellent tableaux that remaln ln the
reader`s memory. Jhere ls Kmlclc, at the beglnnlng of
the novel hardly more than an outlaw lnduced to flght
agalnst hls klng, who under the lnfluence of hls love for
a noble woman regalns the esteem that he had lost and
accompllshes a serles of brllllant explolts ln the servlce
of the legal order. Oleka, one of Slenklewlcz`s many
beautlful female characters, ls ravlshlng ln her rellglous
falth, her lncorruptlble rlgour, and her devout patrlot
lsm. Even the vlllalns ln thls story are lnterestlng. Jhere
ls the sombre and masterly portralt of Prlnce |anusz
Radzlwl, who took up arms agalnst hls country, and
the descrlptlon of the banquet at whlch he trled to
lnvelgle hls offlcers lnto betraylng Poland. Even the tral
tor has hls beauty, and an Engllsh crltlc has drawn
attentlon to the psychologlcal reflnement wlth whlch
Henryk Slenklewlcz shows us the prlnce debatlng wlth
hls consclence and wllfully deludlng hlmself lnto bellev
lng that hls rebelllon would serve the cause of Poland.
Incapable of perslstlng for long ln thls voluntary bllnd
ness, the prlnce dles of remorse valnly repressed. Even
ln the unrellable and llbertlne Prlnce Bogusaw there
are certaln attractlve tralts of personal courage, of
courtly grace and cheerful lnsouclance. Henryk Slen
klewlcz knows people too well to present them unl
formly whlte or black. Another dlstlnctlve tralt ls
Slenklewlcz`s hablt of never shuttlng hls eyes to the
faults of hls compatrlots; rather he exposes them mercl
217
ai_ PPO e p
lessly, whlle he renders justlce to the abllltles and cour
age of the enemles of Poland. Llke the old prophets of
Israel he often tells hls people strong truths. Jhus ln hls
hlstorlcal tableaux he blames the excesslve Pollsh deslre
for lndlvldual llberty, whlch frequently led to a dlsslpa
tlon of energy and made lmposslble the sacrlflce of prl
vate lnterests to the publlc good. He upbralds the lords
for thelr quarrels and thelr unwllllngness to adapt them
selves to the justlflable needs of the state. But Slen
klewlcz ls always a patrlot who certalnly puts the brave
chlvalry of the Pollsh people ln lts proper llght and who
emphaslzes the great role effectlvely played by Poland,
formerly the bulwark of Chrlstendom agalnst the Jurks
and the Jartars. Jhls hlgh objectlvlty ls above all proof
of the wlsdom of Slenklewlcz`s mlnd and hls conceptlon
of hlstory. As a good Pole he must dlsapprove the attack
of Charles Gustave agalnst Poland, but nonetheless he
glves brllllant portralts of the personal courage of the
klng and of the excellent dlsclpllne and coheslon of the
Swedlsh troops.
It has often been sald that m~ t ls the
weakest part of the trllogy. We flnd lt hard to subscrlbe
to that oplnlon. One need only remember the movlng
account of how the wlfe of Woodyjowskl escapes from
the wlly Jartar Azya who comblnes the qualltles of ser
pent and llon, or the admlrable portralt of Basla herself,
that beautlful and dauntless soldler wlfe who comblnes
sweetness wlth galety and courage. Jhe last part of the
trllogy ls especlally rlch ln gentle and purely human fea
tures, as ln the beautlful and subllme scene of farewell
between Basla and Woodyjowskl, who ls about to let
hlmself be blown up wlth hls fort. Whlle the vlctorlous
Jurks surround the fortress of Kamlenlec, when all
means of rescue have been exhausted and dlsaster ls
lmmlnent, husband and wlfe are unlted durlng an
August nlght ln a sort of nlche formed by a walledup
gate. He comforts her and remlnds her how much hap
plness they had been granted together and that death ls
merely a transltlon. Jhe flrst to begln the journey to the
beyond would only prepare for the comlng of the other.
Jhe eplsode ls marvellous and enchantlng. Although lt
ls not sentlmental, lt contalns such a wealth of pure and
true feellng that lt ls dlfflcult to read lt wlthout emotlon.
Jhe descrlptlon of Woodyjowskl`s burlal ls equally
grandlose, though ln a dlfferent manner. At the foot of
the coffln Basla, stretched out on the tlles of the church,
ls overcome by grlef. Jhe chaplaln beats the tambou
rlne as lf he were glvlng a slgnal of alarm and exhorts
the dead hero to rlse from the catafalque and combat
the enemy as before. Jhen, masterlng thls outburst of
grlef, he pralses the manly courage and vlrtues of the
dead and prays to God that ln thls tlme of extreme dan
ger for the country He may glve rlse to a llberator. At
thls moment Sobleskl enters the church. All eyes turn
toward hlm. Selzed by prophetlc enthuslasm, the prlest
exclalms 'Salvator" and Sobleskl falls to hls knees at
the slde of Woodyjowskl`s bler.
All of these descrlptlons are dlstlngulshed by
great hlstorlcal truthfulness. Because of Slenklewlcz`s
extenslve researches and hls sense of hlstory, hls charac
ters speak and act ln the style of the perlod. It ls slgnlfl
cant that among the many persons who suggested
Henryk Slenklewlcz for the Nobel Prlze there were eml
nent hlstorlans.
Jhe trllogy abounds ln descrlptlons of nature
admlrable ln thelr freshness. Where would one flnd the
equlvalent of the very short but unforgettable descrlp
tlon ln l of the steppe as lt awakens ln the
sprlng, when flowers rlse from the soll, lnsects buzz,
wlld geese pass over, blrds slng, and wlld horses wlth
floatlng manes and dllated nostrlls rush away llke a
whlrlwlnd at the slght of a troop of soldlers?
Another remarkable tralt of thls grandlose trllogy
ls lts humour. Jhe llttle knlght Woodyjowskl ls cer
talnly admlrably drawn, but the portralt of the jovlal
nobleman Zagoba lmprlnts ltself perhaps even more
flrmly ln our memory. Hls valnglory, hls glrth, and hls
taste for wlne recall Ialstaff, but these are thelr only
common tralts. Whereas Ialstaff ls of a dlsslpated and
questlonable character, Zagoba has a heart of gold; he
ls falthful to hls frlends ln tlmes of danger. Zagoba hlm
self pretends to be a sober man, made to be a good
prlest, but ln truth he ls much addlcted to the pleasures
of the table. He loves wlne and declares that only tral
tors renounce lt because they are afrald to glve away
thelr secrets when drunk; what makes hlm especlally
abhor the Jurks ls the fact that they do not drlnk wlne.
Zagoba ls a terrlble gosslpa quallty that he conslders
necessary ln wlnter because otherwlse the tongue mlght
freeze and become numb. He flaunts mllltary decora
tlons and boasts of mllltary explolts ln whlch he never
took part. In reallty hls couragefor he has couragels
of another klnd. He trembles before every encounter
llke a coward, but once the battle has begun he ls selzed
by rage agalnst the enemy who wlll not let hlm llve ln
peace and he becomes capable of true feats of courage,
as when he defeats the terrlble Cossack Burlaj. More
over, he ls wlly and resourceful llke Odysseus and often
flnds a way out when the others have come to the end
of thelr tether. He ls baslcally a debonalr and emotlonal
man, who sheds tears when some great mlshap befalls
hls frlends. He ls a good patrlot and unllke so many
others he does not desert hls klng. It has been sald that
the character of Zagoba lacks conslstency because ln
the last volume of the trllogy the grotesque gosslp
becomes more serlous and acqulres more soclal consld
eratlon. Jhls oplnlon ls lnconslderate. Slenklewlcz
wanted to show us preclsely how Zagoba develops and
218
e p ai_ PPO
becomes somewhat ennobled whlle at the same tlme
retalnlng hls old faults. Such a relatlve lmprovement ls
all the more natural as Zagoba desplte all hls blzarre
faults ls baslcally as good as a chlld. Such as he ls,
Zagoba belongs forever to the gallery of lmmortal
comlc characters of world llterature, and he ls thor
oughly orlglnal.
Jhe dlverslty of Henryk Slenklewlcz`s talent
became apparent when ln l890 he passed from the
warrlor portralts of hls trllogy to a modern psycholog
lcal novel and publlshed _ ~ xt a~zI
whlch ls consldered by many crltlcs hls maln work.
Jhe novel ls ln the form of a journal, but unllke so
many other journals, lt ls never tlresome. Wlth an art
hardly surpassed elsewhere lt presents to us the type
of a worldly man, a rellglous and moral sceptlc, who
becomes unproductlve because of hls morbld need for
selfanalysls. Jhrough hls perpetual lndeclslon, he pre
vents hls own happlness, sacrlflces that of others, and
flnally succumbs. Poszowskl ls a hlghly glfted man, but
he lacks moral bones, so to speak. he ls wlthout dogma.
He ls hyperaesthetlc and extremely sophlstlcated, but
the sophlstlcatlon cannot replace hls lack of falth and
spontanelty. Jhere ls the flgure of Anlelka, dellghtful ln
her sad melancholy, who watches the best hopes of her
llfe pass away through the egotlsm of Poszowskl, yet
untll the end remalns falthful to the laws of duty. Jhe
author shows us wlth lnslght how ln a soul that has
once been Chrlstlan, llke that of Poszowskl, the cult of
beauty ls lnsufflclent to flll the vold left by the loss of
rellglous sentlment. Slenklewlcz has portrayed a type
whlch exlsts ln all countrles, a brllllant flgure marred by
lntellectual neurasthenla. _ ~ ls a profoundly
serlous book that lnvltes reflectlon, but at the same tlme
lt ls an exqulslte work of art, dellcately chlselled. Jhe
lnsplred account vlbrates wlth controlled melancholy,
and lf the book appears at tlmes cold, lt ls the cold of a
work of sculpture lnherent ln many beautlful and noble
works of art. We flnd thls frequently, for lnstance, ln the
works of Goethe.
_ ~ was followed ln l891 by o~
m~ x` pzI a work less lnsplred than
_ ~ but characterlzed by great depth ln lts
descrlptlon of the contrast of a useful country llfe and
hollow cosmopolltanlsm. Here agaln we flnd the flgure
of a superb woman, the candld, devoted, and tender
Marynla. Crltlcs have ralsed objectlons to a detall; that
ls, the sln of passlon whlch Poanleckl commlts. Iar
from defendlng hlm, the author has lllustrated how a
man whose llfe ls nelther abnormal nor excesslve, let
alone perverted, ls nonetheless capable of commlttlng a
fault, but soon comes to hls senses and repents lt wlth
out soft complacency. Jhe tles between Poanleckl and
hls wlfe are reestabllshed even more flrmly at the end
of the book, and the novel ls really a glorlflcatlon of
domestlc vlrtues and of sane and salutary soclal actlvlty.
Jhere ls much charm ln the dellcately drawn portralt of
the slck chlld Lltka, who sacrlflces her chlld`s love for
Poanleckl ln order to reconclle hlm wlth Marynla. Jhe
eplsode ls subllme and rlch ln purlty and movlng
poetry.
Jhe same crltlcs who blamed hls trllogy for belng
too long have cavllled at the rapld pace of the short tale
m ~ k> (l892) xi r c e>zI a slmple
sketch that palnts wlth great poetlc beauty how the
countess Antea, lll and sufferlng from palnful and dan
gerous halluclnatlons, ls cured by the dylng and resur
rected Savlour. In each case the crltlclsm ls lrrelevant,
for the dlfferent subjects demand a dlfferent treatment.
m ~ k> ls admlttedly a sketch, but lt ls a story
of deep and movlng senslblllty. Jhus a master`s casual
chalk sketch because of lts lntlmate characters ls often
almost equal ln value to hls more elaborate works.
m ~ k> ls wrltten wlth noble plety; lt ls a mod
est flower growlng at the foot of the cross and encloslng
ln lts blossom a drop of the blood of the Savlour.
Rellglous subjects soon led Slenklewlcz to a vast
work that has become unlversally famous. In l895-96
he wrote n s~. Jhls hlstory of the persecutlons
under Nero had an extraordlnary success. Jhe Engllsh
translatlon sold 800,000 coples ln England and Amerlca
ln one year. Professor Brckner, the hlstorlan of Pollsh
llterature ln Berlln, estlmated ln l90l that about two
mllllon coples had been sold ln these two countrles
alone.
n s~ has been translated lnto more than
thlrty languages. Although one should not overestlmate
the lmportance of such a successbad books also
spread easlly provlded they are seductlvelt stlll polnts
clearly to the value of a work that never addresses ltself
to the lower lnstlncts of man but treats an elevated sub
ject ln an elevated manner. n s~ excellently
descrlbes the contrast between the sophlstlcated but
gangrened paganlsm wlth lts prlde, and humble and
confldent Chrlstlanlty, between egotlsm and love,
between the lnsolent luxury of the lmperlal palace and
the sllent concentratlon of the catacombs. Jhe descrlp
tlons of the flre at Rome and the bloody scenes ln the
amphltheatre are wlthout equal. Henryk Slenklewlcz
dlscreetly avolds maklng Nero a major character, but ln
a few strokes he has portrayed to us the dllettante
crowned wlth all hls vanlty and the folly of hls gran
deur, all hls false exaltatlon, all hls cult of superflclal art
vold of moral sense, and all hls caprlclous cruelty. Jhe
portralt of Petronlus, drawn ln greater detall, ls even
better. Jhe author was able to rely on the lnsplred
sketch ln the two short chapters of the slxteenth book
of Jacltus` ^~. Startlng from these very brlef hlnts
219
ai_ PPO e p
Slenklewlcz has constructed a psychologlcal plcture that
glves a strong appearance of truthfulness and ls
extremely penetratlng. Petronlus, the man of sophlstl
cated culture, ~ ~~I ls a bundle of contradlc
tlons. Eplcurean and above all sceptlc, he conslders llfe
a deceptlve mlrage. Pleasures have made hlm effeml
nate, but he stlll has the courage of a man. Whlle free of
prejudlces, he ls at tlmes superstltlous. Hls sense of
good and evll ls not strongly developed, but hls sense of
the beautlful ls all the more marked. He ls a man of the
world and ln dellcate sltuatlons he ls capable of acqult
tlng hlmself wlth sklll and sangfrold wlthout compro
mlslng hls dlgnlty. Jhe sceptlc Pyrrhon and the poet of
pleasure Anacreon please hlm more than the uncouth
morallsts of the Stoa. He desplses the Chrlstlans, whom
he knows llttle. It seems to hlm polntless and unworthy
of a man to render good for bad accordlng to Chrlstlan
doctrlne. Jo hope for a llfe after death, as the Chrlstlans
do, seems to hlm as strange as lf one were to announce
that a new day beglns at nlght. Rulned by the favourlte
Jlgelllnus, Petronlus dles wlth the serenlty of a death
that he had sought hlmself. Jhe entlre descrlptlon ls
perfect ln lts genre. But n s~ contalns many other
admlrable thlngs. Especlally beautlful ls the eplsode, llt
by the settlng sun, ln whlch the apostle Paul goes to hls
martyrdom repeatlng to hlmself the words that he had
once wrltten. 'I have fought a good flght, I have fln
lshed my course, I have kept the falth" (2 Jlm. 1.7).
After thls major work Henryk Slenklewlcz returned
to the natlonal Pollsh novel and ln l90l xz wrote h~
xq h `z. Jhe task was thls tlme less easy
than ln the case of the trllogy because there were fewer
sources. But Slenklewlcz overcame the dlfflcultles and gave
to hls verslon a strong medleval colour. Jhe subject of the
novel ls the flght of the Pollsh and Llthuanlan natlons
agalnst the Jeutonlc Knlghts who, havlng long ago fln
lshed thelr orlglnal mlsslon, had become an oppresslve
lnstltutlon more occupled wlth power and terrestrlal galns
than wlth the cross whose lnslgnla the members of the
order bore on thelr coats. It was the Archduke |agleo,
later Klng of Poland under the name of Wadysaw II,
who broke the domlnance of the order. He plays a role ln
the novel, although he ls only sketchlly drawn accordlng
to Slenklewlcz`s custom of not glvlng too much proml
nence to hlstorlcal characters. Jhe many characters whlch
are entlrely the product of the author`s rlch fancy attract
our attentlon more strongly and furnlsh excellent exam
ples of medleval clvlllzatlon. It was a superstltlous epoch
and, although the country had been Chrlstlanlzed for a
long tlme, people stlll put food out at nlght for vamplres
and revenants. Each salnt had hls artlcular functlon. Apol
lonla was lnvoked for toothaches, Llberlus for stones. It ls
true that God the Iather rules the unlverse, but thls very
fact proves that he has no tlme to look after human affalrs
of mlnor lmportance; consequently he has delegated cer
taln functlons to salnts. Jhat epoch was lndeed superstl
tlous, but lt was also full of energy. Huge and solld, the
castle of the order stands at Marlenburg. Jhe Pollsh and
Llthuanlan opponents of the monastlc knlghts do not lack
force, elther. Jhere ls Mako, crude, greedy, bent on the
lnterests of hls famlly, but brave. Jhere ls the noble
Zbyszko, hls mlnd full of chlvalrous adventures. Surpass
lng all the others, colossal, as lf cut ln granlte, there ls the
redoubtable |urand, cruel ln hls hatred of the Jeutonlc
Order and flnally the vlctlm of lts terrlble revenge. In the
hour of hls humlllatlon he ls more subllme than ever
because of hls selfvlctory and the power of hls forglve
ness. He ls one of the most grandlose of Slenklewlcz`s war
rlor characters. Jableaux of gentleness alternate wlth those
of force. _ueen |adwlga ls gentle, but her appearance ls
eluslve. Jhe descrlptlon of the funeral for the poor, sorely
tested Danusla ls dellcately beautlful llke a softly chanted
passlon servlce. On the other hand, the fresh and sprlng
llke plcture of |aglenka ls radlant wlth exuberant health
and llvellness. All these creatlons have thelr lndlvldual llfe.
Among the outstandlng mlnor characters are the lrasclble
and belllcose Abb, unable to brook any contradlctlon,
and Sanderus, the seller of lndulgences, who sells a hoof of
the donkey on whlch the fllght to Egypt took place, a plece
of the ladder of |acob, the tears of the Egyptlan Mary, and
a llttle rust from the keys of St. Peter. Jhe closlng eplsode,
the battle of Jannenberg ln l1l0 ln whlch the squadrons
of the Jeutonlc Order were crushed after a herolc battle, ls
llke the flnale of a splendld muslcal drama.
Henryk Slenklewlcz ls certalnly the flrst to recog
nlze hls debt to old Pollsh llterature. Jhat llterature ls
lndeed rlch. Adam Mlcklewlcz ls lts true Adam, lts
ancestor by vlrtue of the full nature of the poetry that
dlstlngulshes hls great eplc. Brllllant as the stars ln the
sky of Pollsh llterature are the names of Sowackl, a
man of fertlle lmaglnatlon, and of the phllosopher
Kraslskl. Jhe eplc art has been successfully practlsed
by men llke Korzenlowskl, Kraszewskl, and Rzewuskl.
But wlth Henryk Slenklewlcz that art has reached lts
full bloom and presents ltself ln lts hlghest degree of
objectlvlty.
If one surveys Slenklewlcz`s achlevement lt
appears glgantlc and vast, and at every polnt noble and
controlled. As for hls eplc style, lt ls of absolute artlstlc
perfectlon. Jhat eplc style wlth lts powerful overall
effect and the relatlve lndependence of eplsodes ls dls
tlngulshed by nalve and strlklng metaphors. In thls
respect, as Geljer has remarked, Homer ls the master
because he percelves grandeur ln slmpllclty as, for
example, when he compares the warrlors to flles that
swarm around a pall of mllk, or when Patroklos, who
all ln tears asks Achllles to let hlm flght agalnst the ene
mles, ls compared to a llttle glrl who weeplng cllngs to
250
e p ai_ PPO
the dress of her mother and wants to be taken ln her
arms. A Swedlsh crltlc has notlced ln Slenklewlcz some
slmlles that have the clarlty of Homerlc lmages. Jhus
the retreat of an army ls compared to a retreatlng wave
that leaves mussels and shells on the beach, or the
beglnnlng of gunflre ls compared to the barklng of a vll
lage dog who ls soon jolned ln chorus by all the other
dogs. Jhe examples could be multlplled. Jhe attack on
the front and rear of an army surrounded and subject to
flre from both sldes ls compared to a fleld that ls reaped
by two groups of mowers who begln thelr work at
opposlte sldes of the fleld wlth the purpose of meetlng
ln the mlddle. In h~ the Samogltes rlslng from fur
rows attack the German knlghts llke a swarm of wasps
whose nest has been damaged by a careless wanderer.
In m~ t we also flnd admlrable lmages; ln
order to judge them we should remember that, as often
ln Homer, the two terms of the comparlson converge
only ln one polnt, whlle the rest remalns vague.
Woodyjowskl wlth hls unlque sword kllls human llves
around hlm as rapldly as a cholr boy after the mass
snuffs the candles on the altar one after the other wlth
hls long extlngulsher. Husseln Pasha, the commander
of the Jurklsh army who valnly trles to leave by the
gate that leads to |assy, returns to the camp to try
another exlt, just as a poacher who has been tracked ln
a park trles to escape now on one slde and now on the
other. Jhe Chrlstlan martyrs of n s~ who are pre
pared for death are already as removed from earthly
places as marlners who have pushed off and left the
quay. Many more sltuatlons equally Homerlc and yet
equally natural and spontaneous could be clted; thus ln
h~ |aglenka at the unexpected slght of Zbyszko,
who resembles a young prlnce, stops short at the gate
and nearly drops the jug of wlne.
Jhe llterary productlon of Henryk Slenklewlcz ls
far from over. At the moment he ls ln the process of
publlshlng a new trllogy entltled k~ ~ (l906)
xl c dz that deals wlth the tlme of
Sobleskl.
Hls own poetlc career has lndeed unfolded on the
fleld of glory. He has recelved valuable tokens of the
devotlon of hls people, all the more preclous slnce,
desplte hls ardent patrlotlsm, he has never flattered hls
country. On the occaslon of hls twentyflfth annlversary
as an author a grand natlonal subscrlptlon provlded the
means to buy the castle that had been the orlglnal seat
of hls famlly and to offer lt to hlm as a present. He was
saluted by delegatlons, congratulatory messages were
sent, and the Warsaw theatre staged a gala performance
ln hls honour.
An homage from the North has now been added
to these proofs of admlratlon, for the Swedlsh Academy
has declded to award the Nobel Prlze ln Llterature of
l905 to Henryk Slenklewlcz.
pW _~ p
p ~ k _~ ~ d~ eI
pI NM a NVMR Eq~~FW
Natlons are represented by thelr poets and thelr
wrlters ln the open competltlon for the Nobel Prlze.
Consequently the award of the Prlze by the Academy
glorlfles not only the author but the people whose son
he ls, and lt bears wltness that that natlon has a share ln
the unlversal achlevement, that lts efforts are frultful,
and that lt has the rlght to llve for the proflt of man
klnd. If thls honour ls preclous to all, lt ls lnflnltely
more so to Poland. It has been sald that Poland ls dead,
exhausted, enslaved, but here ls the proof of her llfe and
trlumph. Llke Gallleo, one ls forced to thlnk 'E pur sl
muove" when before the eyes of the world homage has
been rendered to the lmportance of Poland`s achleve
ment and her genlus.
Jhls homage has been rendered not to mefor
the Pollsh soll ls fertlle and does not lack better wrlters
than mebut to the Pollsh achlevement, the Pollsh
genlus. Ior thls I should llke to express my most ardent
and most slncere gratltude as a Pole to you gentlemen,
the members of the Swedlsh Academy, and I conclude
by borrowlng the words of Horace. 'Prlnclplbus placu
lsse non ultlma laus est."
| Jhe Nobel Ioundatlon, l905. Henryk Slenklewlcz
25l
c~ b p~
(16 Scptcmbcr 1SSS - J uvc 1964)
m~ o~~~
Tompcrc Uvivcrsity
BOOKS. Ilomo jo ourivlo (Helslnkl. Klrja, l9l6);
Ilmislopsio clomov sootosso (Helslnkl. Klrja, l9l7);
Hurslos lurjuus (Porvoo. Sderstrm, l9l9); translated
by Alex Matson as Mccl Hcritogc (New York.
Knopf, l938); translatlon revlsed by |ohn R. Plt
kln (Helslnkl. Otava, l97l; New York. P. S. Erlks
son, l973);
Iolos isovmoovi (Porvoo. Sderstrm, l9l9);
Hiltu jo Iogvor (Porvoo. Sderstrm, l923);
Ivlcltcv suojotit (Porvoo. Sderstrm, l923);
Moov tosolto (Porvoo. Sderstrm, l921);
Umistovi jo omillcvi (Porvoo. Sderstrm, l921);
Tllivmoli (Porvoo. Sderstrm, l925);
Iippi (Porvoo. Sderstrm, l928);
Iiitos lctlisto, Hcrro . . . (Helslnkl. Otava, l930);
ùorcvo vulluvut (Helslnkl. Otava, l93l); translated by
Matson as Iollcv Zslccp !lilc Jouvg: Tlc History of
tlc Iost Uffsloot of ov Uld Iomily Trcc (London. Put
nam, l933); translatlon republlshed as Tlc Moid
Siljo: Tlc History of tlc Iost Uffsloot of ov Uld Iomily
Trcc (New York. Macmlllan, l933);
Miclcv tic (Helslnkl. Otava, l932);
!irrov poljolto (Helslnkl. Otava, l933);
Ilmisct suviysso (Helslnkl. Otava, l931); translated by
Alan Blalr as Icoplc iv tlc Summcr ìglt: Zv Ipic
Suitc (Madlson. Lnlverslty of Wlsconsln Press,
l966);
!iidcstoisto (Helslnkl. Otava, l936);
Iloluu (Helslnkl. Otava, l91l);
Ilmisclov ilovuus jo lurjuus (Helslnkl. Otava, l915);
Ioilo cli clomoovso (Helslnkl. Otava, l953);
Icrrov jo luvoilcv (Helslnkl. Otava, l951);
Ioivo lorlcimmilloov (Helslnkl. Otava, l956).
b ~ `W Tcolsct, 8 volumes (Porvoo,
Ilnland. Sderstrm, l925);
Iootut tcolsct, l2 volumes (Helslnkl. Otava, l932-l950);
Iuvio jo torivoito (Helslnkl. Otava, l960);
Zjotclmio jo luovvcldivtojo, edlted by Aarne Laurlla (Hel
slnkl. Otava, l960);
òvcllit, 2 volumes, edlted by Aarne Laurlla (Helslnkl.
Otava, l96l);
Iiilo jo muito lcrtomulsio, edlted by Hannu Mkel (Hel
Iootut tcolsct, 8 volumes, edlted by Panu Rajala (Hel
slnkl. Otava, l988-l99l).
Irans Eemll Slllanp was the flrst Ilnnlsh wrlter
to recelve the Nobel Prlze ln Llterature, whlch he was
awarded ln l939 'for hls deep understandlng of hls
country`s peasantry and the exqulslte art wlth whlch he
has portrayed thelr way of llfe and thelr relatlonshlp
wlth Nature," as the cltatlon read. Hls educatlon ln nat
c~ b p~ E ~ h~~ l~~F
252
c~ b p~ ai_ PPO
ural sclence enrlched the deplctlons ln hls short storles
and novels of rural people wlth deep connectlons to the
land.
Slllanp was born on l6 September l888 ln
Hmeenkyr, at Myllykolu Croft ln Klerlkkala Vlllage
ln southwest Ilnland. Hls father was an lmpoverlshed
cottager named Irans Henrlk Kosklnen; but, accordlng
to Ilnnlsh vlllage custom, the wrlter took the surname
Slllanp (meanlng brldgehead) from the landscape of
hls chlldhood. Jhe author`s mother, Lovllsa Vllhel
mllna Mkel, was a servant, and Irans Eemll was the
only one of her three chlldren to survlve lnfancy. Both
of hls parents had descended from welltodo peasant
landowners, and thls fact was of great lmportance to Sll
lanp. As he grew older, he consldered hlmself a
descendant of thls slgnlflcant class ln the old Ilnnlsh
soclety. Jhls consclousness developed to dllemma, an
amblvalent sltuatlon between two classes, whlch was
perhaps one of the maln lmpulses that lnsplred Slllan
p to wrlte. Although poor, the famlly saved and got
wealthy supporters to send young Irans to Jampere
grammar school ln l900. He flrst llved ln the worklng
class dlstrlct of Amurl and learned how Ilnnlsh workers
llved and thought. He then worked as a tutor ln the
home of hls benefactor, the manufacturer Henrlk Lllje
roos, an experlence that gave hlm lnslght lnto the per
spectlve of the wealthy factory owner ln thls lndustrlal
town, where deep soclal confllcts burst open durlng a
major strlke ln l905.
Slllanp had already begun developlng a speclal
talent for accommodatlng hlmself to controverslal clr
cumstances. As an outslder he was able to see and
understand what was golng on wlth both rural and
lndustrlal workers and the best of the bourgeols. Later,
as a wrlter he could, better than many others, conslder
polltlcal events from opposlte angles.
Slllanp was an apt pupll, and ln l908 Llljeroos
helped hlm to enter the Lnlverslty of Helslnkl to study
medlclne. Hls motlve to become a physlclan soon van
lshed, but he studled blology and natural sclences wlth
thoughts of becomlng a sclentlst. He dld not earn any
academlc degree, partly because of a lack of money,
partly because of a lack of real passlon for an academlc
career. But hls studles were not wlthout lmportance.
Durlng these years, between l908 and l9l3, Slllanp
was deeply affected by the blologlcal theorles of sclen
tlsts Charles Darwln, Ernst Haeckel, and Wllhelm Ost
wald; symbollstlc poet Maurlce Maeterllnck; Swedlsh
wrlter August Strlndberg; and Norweglan author Knut
Hamsun. Jhey all conflrmed and explalned what expe
rlence and lnstlnct had already suggested to Slllanp.
that man exlsts only wlthln the framework of the blo
loglcal laws that govern all specles, and that man fllls
hls destlny ln nature llke any other specles must. Jhe
socalled monlsts belleved that natural sclence would
solve all problems ln the world and that a new war was
lmposslble because lt would be an lmmense waste of
energy. Slllanp felt he belonged to the lucky genera
tlon who would see a totally new era of manklnd.
Jhrough a fellow student, Helkkl |rnefelt, Slllan
p met the famous palnter Eero |rnefelt and hls fam
lly llvlng ln Juusula, where many Ilnnlsh artlsts were
gathered. Slllanp also became acqualnted wlth com
poser |ean Slbellus, wrlter |uhanl Aho, and palnter
Pekka Halonen. Jhe |rnefelt famlly valued people not
for thelr posltlon ln soclety or means but for thelr sklll
and lntelllgence; thls valuatlon was a new and llberatlng
experlence for the poor student, who suffered from feel
lngs of soclal lnferlorlty. At the same tlme he under
stood, watchlng and llstenlng to these great artlsts of the
Golden Age, that art was somethlng he also wanted to
create hlmself.
On Chrlstmas Eve l9l3 Slllanp wlthdrew from
the unlverslty and returned home to the house called
Jlllnmkl (Shanty Hlll) ln the town of Helnljrvl,
where hls parents had moved. Jhere he devoted hlm
self to wrltlng. Hls father and mother were poorer than
ever, and he llved ln thelr hut, shared thelr meals, and
felt deep humlllatlon ln the small vlllage. Ior a tlme he
consldered becomlng a journallst; ln l9l1 he traveled ln
Sweden and Denmark and wrote artlcles for the news
paper r p~K He also wrote some short storles
and got them publlshed under the pen name E. Syvrl
ln the same paper. Jhe llterary world of Helslnkl soon
dlscovered the ldentlty of thls author, and he was
approached by the wellknown publlsher Werner Sder
strm from Porvoo, who asked hlm to wrlte a whole
book. Slllanp`s flrst novel, b ~ ~ (l9l6, Llfe
and Sun), deplcts a summer love trlangle between a
young man, Ellas, and two dlfferent glrls, Olga and
Lyyll. But the maln theme was a new look at the rela
tlonshlp between man and nature. Crltlcs have noted
that wrlters before Slllanp deplcted nature through
man, whlle Slllanp deplcted man through nature. Jhe
narratlon ls full of ecstasy and passlon for llfe as the
young people enjoy thelr sweet, essentlal northern sum
mer desplte the ravages of World War I on the Contl
nent.
Contemporary readers were fasclnated by the
new style and new way of descrlblng the feellngs of the
young characters ln the lap of nature, and the novel was
a huge success. Jhe leadlng crltlcs declared Slllanp a
new hope for Ilnnlsh llterature. However, one crltlc, the
Soclallst and later parllament member Mlkko W. Erlch,
declared that the book was pornographlc. Nevertheless,
a new sensatlonal star was born wlthln the young cul
tural llfe of Ilnland. b ~ ~ was followed the
next year by f~~ ~~~ (l9l7, Chlldren of
253
ai_ PPO c~ b p~
Manklnd ln the Processlon of Llfe), a collectlon of short
storles ln whlch the maln flgure ls a student caught
between two soclal classes. Jhere was some lnfluence
from Strlndberg, and some from Russlan wrlters such
as Ivan Jurgenev and Mlkhall Lermontov as well. Jhe
most lmportant Ilnnlsh wrlter for Slllanp was Aho, a
softstyle lmpresslonlst and natlonal patrlot. Jhe perlod
of short storles ended ln l9l6 when Slllanp marrled
Slgrld Salomkl, an elghteenyearold domestlc servant;
the couple eventually had elght chlldren. Salomkl was
a fullblooded bohemlan artlst, and the famlly had con
stant economlc dlfflcultles, but the marrlage was a
happy one.
Jhe novel e~ (l9l9; translated as
j e~I l938), whlch ls perhaps Slllanp`s most
lmportant work, was lnsplred by the outbreak of Iln
land`s Clvll War ln l9l8 and reflected the wrlter`s
amblvalent vlews of these recent events. Slllanp hated
war ln all lts forms, but he was even more afrald of the
Red Army flghters who took power ln hls home parlsh,
Hmeenkyr. He remalned at home and translated
Maeterllnck`s l896 essay collectlon i q
(Jhe Jreasure of the Humble) from Irench to Ilnnlsh
to calm hls nerves. He supported General Carl Gustaf
Mannerhelm`s Whlte Army at flrst, but the revenge
and the summary executlons by the vlctorlous Whltes
aroused hls anger.
e~ starts from the great famlne ln the
l860s and follows the blography of the poor crofter
|uha (sometlmes called |ussl) Jolvola untll the Clvll
War ln l9l8. Slllanp wanted to show hls readers why
hls qulet and humble agrarlan people took arms and
rose to rebelllon. |uha becomes embrolled ln a Red
Army plot and eventually ls executed for a murder he
dld not commlt. Jhe revolutlonary peasant movement,
mlxed wlth rellglous hope, was ln hls dlm mlnd the
only way to get any better llfe. Slllanp deplcts hls des
tlny ln a calm style but wlth a great human sympathy.
Jhe reader ls lnvlted to ldentlfy and empathlze wlth the
very essence of humanlty that ls hldden under the ugll
ness of events.
Among the few Ilnnlsh crltlcs who pralsed the
book was Aho, who shared slmllar vlews of the war
events wlth Slllanp. 'Jhey wlll get the scent of red
ness ln thls book," Aho wrote to hls younger colleague,
'but thls klnd of redness we need." He felt that Slllan
p showed the way lnto the future and made the suf
ferlng of the natlon easler to bear. e~ got a
contradlctory receptlon ln Ilnland, because the rebel
llon was stlll so near and the moods among the people
stlll lnflamed. Jhe novel was soon translated lnto Swed
lsh by Hagar Olsson (l920), and ln Sweden lt found
much more receptlve crltlcs. By thls tlme Slllanp, at
the age of thlrtytwo, was already belng mentloned as a
Nobel candldate. Jhe Engllsh translatlon of the novel,
j e~I appeared ln l938. |ohn Cournos wrote ln
q k v q _ o (l8 September l938).
Jhe theme ltself ls of the soll, and the whole mood ls
Northern, very stark and monotonous, llke the land
scape ltself. . . . Jhe story ltself ls a marvel of conclslon,
reduced to essentlals, puttlng one ln mlnd of a gaunt
body whose rlbs are vlslble. Jhe llfe of a manslxty
years ln thls casels encompassed wlthln 273 modest
pages; yet all that matters ls here. . . . Jhe novellst
makes lt clear that |uha, now 60, ls a foollsh, harmless
old man and that hls senlle depredatlons, hls brlef trl
umphs, are a natural result of soclal evlls of whlch he
has been an lnnocent vlctlm. Jhere are pathos here,
and plty, and tenderness, whlch come from comprehen
slon. Now and agaln the prose rlses to a quallty whlch
may be called poetry.
Maxwell Gelsmar, revlewlng the book for the k v
e~ q (25 September l938), found some West
ern lnfluences ln Slllanp`s wrltlng.
Mr. Slllanp`s work ls a blunt and powerful treatment
of the farmer and the earth. But Mr. Slllanp ls, so to
speak, a Marxlan Knut Hamsun. From Rousseau to
|ean Glono the modern treatment of nature and the
natural man has been prlmarlly a romantlc movement,
preachlng lndependence and lndlvlduallsm and crylng
for an escape from the complexlty, the turmoll, the
'decadence" of soclety. Few novellsts have vlewed llfe
on the soll as Mr. Slllanp here does, wlthout nostalglc
yearnlngs, honestly, mercllessly. . . . Mr. Slllanp,
moreover, treats the peasant soclal order not as a back
eddy of lndustrlal clvlllzatlon but as an lntegral part of
those great currents of modern tlmes whlch are sweep
lng all of us onward, but to what uncharted gulfs none
can yet foresee.
In the l920s Slllanp publlshed several short
story collectlons about poor rural people after the Iln
nlsh Clvll War, partlcularly about orphaned chlldren.
Slnce soclety often took scant care of such chlldren, Slllan
p wanted to call attentlon to thelr pllght; he also
founded the local chapter of the Mannerhelm League for
Chlld Welfare. Jhe short story was perhaps Slllanp`s
best genre. He had a speclal talent for wrltlng sensltlve and
poetlc lmpresslons about the llves of poor and slmple peo
ple ln the countryslde. Per Hallstrm of the Swedlsh Acad
emy commented ln hls Nobel Prlze presentatlon that
Slllanp`s 'styllstlc qualltles are most fasclnatlng ln hls
descrlptlons of nature." Slllanp also wrote lronlc confes
slons of hls own llfe as a selflsh and powerful publlc flgure,
showlng a sharp and burlesque humor.
Among hls storles was one longer tale, e ~
o~~ (l923, Hlltu and Ragnar), a love story between
a servant glrl and a wealthy young man; thls book
251
c~ b p~ ai_ PPO
stlrred moral lndlgnatlon because of lts sexual subject
matter. Hlltu ls the eldest daughter of |uha Jolvola from
e~ I so the story completes the destlny of the
poor Jolvola famlly. When Hlltu becomes pregnant
after belng seduced by Ragnar, her panlc and lgnorance
drlve her to sulclde. Jhe sad love story ls wrltten wlth a
deep psychoanalytlc lnstlnct. Slllanp thought later
that thls small masterplece was hls best work. Hls vllla,
Saavutus (Achlevement), whlch he bullt ln Hmeen
kyr, caused hlm much flnanclal trouble, so he moved
to Porvoo and Jampere and flnally to Helslnkl ln l929
wlth hls growlng famlly. Jhen he started to wrlte hls
next novel, hls flrst ln ten years.
Jhls novel, k~ (l93l; translated
as c~ ^ t vI l933; translatlon repub
llshed as q j~ p~I l933), was translated lnto
twelve languages and brought Slllanp lnternatlonal
fame. Sllja Salmelus, llke Hlltu, comes from an
lmpoverlshed and doomed famlly; but she ln fact
llves a beautlful llfe desplte belng orphaned at a
young age. She preserves her shy and sensltlve per
sonallty through all dlfflcultles and humlllatlons as
she works as a servant on dlfferent farms. One of her
landlords, the professor of Rantoo, ls a klnd old
scholar who helps Sllja. In hls house Sllja meets
Armas, a student, and falls ln love. But Armas leaves
suddenly, and then the Clvll War breaks out. Sllja ls
lnvolved ln the bloody events but remalns totally
lnnocent; she does not know what lt ls all about, only
that she trles to help people. Ilnally, she develops
tuberculosls and dles on a brlght summer mornlng
just after the war. Jhere ls a lot of pure romantlclsm
ln Slllanp`s outlook, but he ls a reallst at the same
tlme; thls paradox has astonlshed many readers.
Scholars agree that Slllanp`s artlstlc mastery ls at
lts peak ln thls work.
Iollowlng the appearance of k~ I
Slllanp was one of the strongest Nobel candldates.
Although readers ln Ilnland and Sweden greeted the
novel wlth great enthuslasm, the crltlcs ln Great Brlt
aln and Amerlca were more reserved. Harold Nlchol
son descrlbed the novel ln a revlew for the a~
q~ (22 September l933).
It ls a story of peasant llfe among the lakes and forests
of Flnland. Hls characters are very slmple people
through whom flows 'the fundamental current of llfe."
Sllja, the herolne, ls 'not much more than a human
belng who smlllngly fulfllled her fate." Her father,
Kustaa, and her mother, Hllma, are both dryad types.
Jhe years and seasons revolve around the story wlth a
certaln somnolence, and one has the sense of whlte hot
nlghts ln summer followlng upon dark February after
noons. Jhe peasants dance together and slt on the
rocks at 2 a.m. ln the sunshlne. It ls remote and rather
dlgnlfled. Yet there ls always a feellng of lmmlnence ln
the book. Nothlng really happens, yet one ls certaln
that somethlng has happened.
Nlcholson concluded, 'I do not thlnk that Mr. Slllan
p ls a new European genlus. But I do thlnk that he
wrltes ln a way whlch ls very honourable, and mlght
well be of value to many Engllsh wrlters and read
ers." Edward Garnett offered a hlgher oplnlon on the
novel ln the j~ d~~ (l0 November l933).
'Jhe mutablllty and pathos of llfe are enforced by
the Ilnnlsh author wlthout any sentlmentallslng. Jhe
last hundred pages of the book carry us further along
the road of sufferlng and reopen for us the chapter of
natlonal confllct between Ilnnlsh Reds and Whltes.
We can only say that Slllanp holds the balance
between the Communlsts and the vlctorlous Whltes
wlth marvellous sureness, and that the closlng pages
on Sllja`s death show the hand of a master."
Slllanp`s next book, j (l932, Jhe
Way of a Man), deplcts the maturatlon of a farmer,
Paavo Ahrola. Paavo ls not an ldeal hero, and he has
dlfflcultles ln flndlng hls way. Iollowlng an lllfated
marrlage to an older woman, Paavo ls eventually
reunlted wlth the woman he has loved slnce chlld
hood. Jhe story descrlbes a strong blologlcal deter
mlnatlon ln the relatlonshlp between a man and a
woman, but the maln theme ln the book ls the llfe of
an ordlnary Ilnnlsh southwestern farm through the
course of one year. Slllanp wanted to wrlte a strong
and happy love story to follow k~ I and
he succeeded. But some crltlcal readers, such as Hall
strm, felt that the maln characters are seen from a
dlstance; they are too speechless and stlff to be lntel
lectually lnterestlng human belngs.
In l931 Slllanp publlshed one of hls most
artlstlc works, f (translated as m
p kW ^ b pI l966), whlch deplcts
varlous events of one summer weekend, lncludlng a
murder and a blrth. Jhe beglnnlng of the book ls
famous.
Mltn suvlyt pohjolassa tuskln onkaan; on valn
vllpyv, vllpyessn hlukan hlmmenev ehtoo, mutta
slln hlmmeydesskln on tuo sanalla sanomaton klrkas
tuksensa. Se on suvlaamun aavlstus, joka lhenee. Kun
ehtoopuolen musllkkl on palnunut orvoklntummaksl
planlsslmoksl, nlln hlenoksl, ett se jatkuu vlel lyhy
en taukonakln; nlln sllloln her jo enslvlulu vlenoon
korkeaan sveleeseen, johon sello plan yhtyy, ja tuo
slslsestl tajuttu svelkkuva saa jo ulkonalsenkln
tukensa. tuhansllta oksllta ja llman korkeukslsta llv
ert tuhatklellnen sestys. aamu on jo, valkka sken
vlel oll ehtoo.
255
ai_ PPO c~ b p~
(Jhere ls almost no summer nlght ln the north; only a
llngerlng evenlng, darkenlng sllghtly as lt llngers, but
even thls darkenlng has lts lneffable clarlty. It ls the
approachlng presentlment of the summer mornlng.
When the muslc of late evenlng has sunk to a vlolet,
dusky planlsslmo, so dellcate that lt lengthens lnto a
brlef rest, then the flrst vlolln awakens wlth a soft, hlgh
cadence ln whlch the cello soon jolns, and thls lnwardly
percelved tone plcture ls supported outwardly by a
thousandtongued accompanlment twltterlng from a
myrlad of branches and from the helghts of the alr. It ls
already mornlng, yet a moment ago lt was stlll
evenlng.)
Jhe structure of thls small book ls a modern puzzle, as
the chronology of the events ls caprlclous and lrregular.
Slllanp had an lnstlnct of the comlng new world war;
there ls a speclal shadow above the ldylllc summer
weekend on the Ilnnlsh countryslde, a sense that llfe ls
no longer as lt was. Ilnnlsh wrlter and translator Jho
mas Warburton wrote ln hls lntroductlon to Alan
Blalr`s translatlon of thls work.
m p k ls a klnd of summernlght sym
phony where volces and themes appear and dlsappear,
wavlng a tapestry whlch mlght be sald to reveal hls |Sll
lanp`s| whole outlook on llfe and hls lnslghts lnto the
remarkably varled human belngs dlrected by the laws
of llfeblrth, love, deathand the tangentlal petty frus
tratlons and small joys. Here he examlnes the lnner
most thoughts of the neurotlc, the stable, the weary
aged, the young, the slmple, the complex, the uncouth,
and the cultured. Hls dlversely contrastlng flgures lnter
act and lntertwlne lnto a coherent and unlfled portrayal
of reallty, under the lllumlnatlng canopy of a personl
fled summer nlght. And carefully emphaslzlng the ecol
ogy and the human belngsthe way each fulfllls a
fundamental natural rolels a parallel ecologlcal study
of nature`s other forms.
Jhe Nobel Prlze contlnued to elude Slllanp
durlng the l930s. At thls tlme ln Ilnland there was a
struggle agalnst the other offlclal language, Swedlsh,
especlally wlthln Helslnkl Lnlverslty, and thls debate
was one obstacle ln Slllanp`s way, although he hlmself
was popular ln Sweden and had warm relatlonshlps
wlth many Swedlsh wrlters. A translatlon of several of
hls short storles lnto Swedlsh by Ragnar Ekelund under
the tltle c h~ (A Jrlp to Kvarnbcken)
ln l936 agaln brought hlm to the attentlon of the Nobel
commlttee, but that year the prlze went to Amerlcan
playwrlght Eugene O`Nelll.
World polltlcs depressed Slllanp, and the out
break of World War II deepened hls troubles. On 21
December l938 he publlshed ln p p~~~
the hlghly crltlcal '|ouluklrje dlktaattorellle" (Chrlstmas
Letter to the Dlctators), dlrected at Adolf Hltler, |oseph
Stalln, and Benlto Mussollnl, causlng hls German trans
latlons to be pulled from the market. A few months
after hls beloved wlfe dled ln l939, Slllanp entered a
short and unhappy marrlage wlth hls secretary, Anna
Armla von Hertzen, and the alcohollsm that had begun
to trouble hlm grew worse.
In the l939 Nobel Prlze votlng Slllanp bested
Hermann Hesse and |ohan Hulzlnga. By thls tlme
Ilnland was struggllng agalnst Sovlet aggresslon, and
the dlstress of the country durlng the autumn of
l939 was, of course, ln the mlnd of Swedlsh academ
lcs. Jhe prlze was lnterpreted as an opportunlty to
show Nordlc sympathy for Ilnland. Jhe publlc for
got that Slllanp had already been a candldate for at
least a decade. Slllanp went to Sweden to recelve
the prlze at a regular meetlng of the Swedlsh Acad
emy (rather than a full ceremony) on l1 December
l939. Although he dld not glve an offlclal Nobel lec
ture, he gave speeches ln several churches to collect
money for hls country, and he sent hls golden Nobel
medal to Ilnland to buy more mllltary equlpment.
He also wrote words for the 'March Song," whlch
became a theme song for Ilnnlsh soldlers ln the suc
cessful struggle agalnst the overwhelmlng Sovlet
troops. Olof Enckell quotes a note that Slllanp
wrote ln the sprlng of l912, lndlcatlng the extent of
hls mental exhaustlon at the tlme of the award.
'Darkness closes ln. On the table ln front of me ls an
old magazlne, a whole page ls covered wlth lllustra
tlons relatlng to me, and the text on the opposlte
page tells about me. Irom all thls I gather I was
awarded the Nobel Prlze. I even learn that I was
present and recelved lt."
Jhe Nobel Prlze ultlmately came at a bad tlme
for Slllanp. All llterary debate was crushed under
foot by World War II, and no one had tlme to trans
late hls works as they would have done ln tlmes of
peace. At the same tlme the name of Slllanp
became a tool for natlonal propaganda. Jhe war was
a heavy trlal for the whole natlon and for Slllanp.
In l910 he was conflned to the mental hospltal Kam
mlo, malnly because of hls heavy drlnklng, and he
remalned there untll l913. In the l910s Slllanp
publlshed two more novels. b (l91l, August)
and f ~ ~ (l915, Jhe Beauty and
Mlsery of Human Llfe). Jhe maln character ln both
novels ls an artlst, an alter ego of the wrlter, who
knew hls tlme was over. After World War II Slllan
p publlshed no more flctlon. Hls flnal works were
the memolrs, late storles, and artlcles that comprlse
m~ (l953, Jhe Boy Llved hls Llfe),
h ~ ~ (l951, I Jell and Descrlbe), and
m ~~ (l956, Hlgh Noon). Wlth hls
memolrs and many speeches and Chrlstmas sermons
256
c~ b p~ ai_ PPO
he dellvered on the radlo, Slllanp became a hlghly
popular flgure ln Ilnland. Hls full whlte beard some
tlmes caused chlldren to confuse hlm wlth Santa
Claus. When Slllanp dled on 3 |une l961, he was
glven a solemn funeral ln Helslnkl and Hmeenkyr
llke that glven to an old statesman.
Slllanp`s works have been translated lnto
about thlrty languages, and there have been several
movle adaptatlons. Jhe flrst was a l937 verslon of
ùorcvo vulluvut, dlrected by Jeuvo Jullo and star
rlng Reglna Llnnanhelmo as the young Sllja; ln thls
verslon, a controverslal scene showlng Sllja bathlng
ln a sauna had to be cut. Jhe l955 motlon plcture
Ioilo cli lcsoovso (He Llved Hls Summer) was based
on Ilomo jo ourivlo, and thls tlme a nude swlmmlng
scene wlth actress Jea Ista helped to sell the movle.
Other adaptatlons lnclude Miclcv tic (ln whlch Slllan
p even makes an uncredlted appearance as a 'man
at the dances") ln l910, Ilmisct suviysso ln l918,
Iloluu ln l956, and Hiltu jo Iogvor for televlslon ln
l988. Also ln l988, dlrector Mattl Kasslla`s adapta
tlon of Ilmisclov ilovuus jo lurjuus won an Audlence
Award and a Grand |ury Prlze at the Rouen Nordlc
Illm Iestlval ln Irance.
In Slllanp`s home parlsh, Hmeenkyr, the
famous summer theater of Myllykolu has been the
slte of several amateur and professlonal plays about
hls llfe and dramatlzatlons of hls novels and short
storles. Durlng the 2002-2003 season, the theater
presented the flrst adaptatlon of Hurslos lurjuus,
never seen before on stage or screen. Stage adapta
tlons of Miclcv tic and Ilmisct suviysso have also been
performed ln Ilnland`s blggest summer theater,
Pyynlkkl, ln Jampere.
In l990, Amerlcan wrlter Jlmothy Crouse dls
covered the three exlstlng Engllsh translatlons of Sll
lanp`s books and wrote an assessment for Tlc
òtiov about thls proportlonally unknown Nobel wln
ner. He was struck by how objectlvely Slllanp
could wrlte about the Clvll War ln Ilnland, as
though from a dlstance of a thousand years, even
though he hlmself llved ln the mlddle of the bloody
events. Jhe storles of |uha Jolvola and Sllja
remlnded Crouse of Leo Jolstoy`s work, though he
admltted that the mystery of Sllja remalned closed
for hlm. Icoplc iv tlc Summcr ìglt surprlsed Crouse as
the events, llke headllnes ln a newspaper, grew to a
wonderful lyrlc beauty. Other scholarshlp on Slllan
p ln Engllsh has been scant.
Crltlcal attentlon to Irans Eemll Slllanp`s
work has decllned ln Ilnland, but he remalns a cen
tral flgure among Northern classlc wrlters. Hls popu
larlty when allve was so hlgh that the
counterreactlon was lnevltable. Perhaps hls most
lmportant lnfluence stlll ls ln hls styllstlc mastery, hls
modern outlook on nature, and hls deep psychologl
cal sklll at deplctlng hls characters` lnner, secret llves.
_~W
J. Vaasklvl, I. I. Sillovpoo: Ilomo jo tcolsct (Helslnkl.
Otava, l937);
Rafael Kosklmles, I. I. Sillovpoo: Muotoluvo (Hel
Edwln Llnkomles, I. I. Sillovpoo: Iroito pcruspiirtcito
(Helslnkl. Otava, l918);
Aarne Laurlla, I. I. Sillovpoo, vuosivo 1SSS-19S
(Helslnkl. Otava, l958);
Panu Rajala, I. I. Sillovpoo vuosivo 1SSS-192J (Hel
slnkl. Suomalalsen Klrjalllsuuden Seura, l983);
Rajala, Siljov syvty: I. I. Sillovpoo vuosivo 192J-19J1
(Helslnkl. Suomalalsen Klrjalllsuuden Seura,
l988);
Rajala, Iorlco poivo jo cltoo: I. I. Sillovpoo vuosivo
19J1-1964 (Helslnkl. Suomalalsen Klrjalllsuu
den Seura, l993).
oW
Jlmothy Crouse, 'Past Present," òtiov (l October
l990);
Olof Enckell, 'Jhe Llfe and Works of Irans Eemll
Slllanp," ln `clly Socls, cov-Ioul Sortrc, Ccorgc
crvord Slow, Irovs Icmil Sillovpoo, Icvc Sully-
Irudlommc, Nobel Prlze Llbrary (New York. A.
Gregory, l97l), pp. 287-295;
Harry |rv, Iovst or lvolitct: Iulturpolitislo ivlogg ocl
utbliclor (Lund, Sweden. Cavefors, l979);
Alno Karvonen, Iirjoilijo I. I. Sillovpoov orlistov
lucttclo (Jampere, Ilnland. Jampereen ylloplsto,
l987);
Lasse Koskela, Iotlotut sormct jo cvlcltcv suru:
òllulmo I. I. Sillovpoov tuotovtoov (Helslnkl.
Otava, l988);
Aarne Laurlla, I. I. Sillovpoov romoovitoidc lirjoilijov
oscvtcidcv jo lcrtojov oscmov lovvolto (Helslnkl.
Otava, l979);
Laurlla and Panu Rajala, eds., Sillovpoo Suomcv lirjol-
lisuudcsso: I. I. Sillovpoov jullolirjo (Helslnkl.
Slllanpseura, l989);
Zenta Maurlna, Dcvv dos !ogvis ist sclv: Ccsclicltc
civcs Icbcvs (Memmlngen, Germany. Maxlmll
lan Dletrlch, l953);
Gunnar Mrtenson, Iv sjol ott dovso mcd: Issocr om
svcvslt ocl fivslt (Porvoo, Ilnland. Sderstrm,
l973);
Kaulo Aatos Ojala, Ioltolov totcuttomivcv: Isscc I. I.
Sillovpoosto (Hmeenllnna, Germany. Karlsto,
l959).
257
ai_ PPO c~ b p~
m~W
Jhe maln archlve of Irans Eemll Slllanp`s papers ls
at the Llbrary of Jampere Lnlverslty.
NVPV k m i~
m~ p
Tlcrc wos vo full òbcl ccrcmovy iv 19J9; Sillovpoo
rcccivcd lis pric ot o rcgulor mcctivg of tlc Swcdisl Zcodcmy ov
14 Dcccmbcr. Icr Hollstrm, Icrmovcvt Sccrctory of tlc Swcdisl
Zcodcmy, prcporcd for tlc mcdio ov osscssmcvt of Sillovpoo`s
worls:
Irans Eemll Slllanp took the motlfs for hls nov
els and novellas, whlch are almost excluslvely about hls
natlve land (a small reglon of Ilnnlsh peasants), from
the scanty, llmlted clrcumstances ln whlch he grew up.
Irom the very beglnnlng of hls work, he asplred to rep
resent the reallty of what he had seen around hlm, ln
the most truthful and complete fashlon, ln the most
mlnute detall, wlthout avoldlng the common or even
the ugly that mlght strlke hls eyes. Hls work conslsts of
purely naturallstlc descrlptlon, wlth a large amount of
psychoanalytlcal lnterpretatlon, of the actlons and feel
lngs of hls flgures.
He satlsfled aesthetlc demands by hls slngular
styllstlc qualltles. Hls style ls artlstlcally formed, terse
and slmple, faclle and lucld, personal and hlghly
expresslve. Even ln translatlon one can gllmpse the
mastery whlch hls compatrlots have recognlzed ln
hlm, mastery ln a language of rather llmlted llterary
background. Hls styllstlc qualltles are most fasclnat
lng ln hls descrlptlons of nature, for there the artlst`s
joy truly flnds lts broadest domaln. In the human des
tlnles he descrlbed, there was no great room for joy.
Jhe plctures are most often ln very sombre colours,
but hls artlstlc power never falls.
Jhe novel whlch gave rlse to hls reputatlon was
perhaps hls tour dc forcc as an lntrepld and bltter palnter
of llfe. It dates from the dlsastrous year l9l8 and was
wrltten under the pressure of the events whlch the
author had wltnessed ln the clvll war between the
Natlonallsts and the Communlsts. Slllanp left lt to
others to descrlbe the herolc corollary of the clvll war,
the llberatlon from Russlan domlnatlon, for he mls
trusted grand postures. Devotlng hlmself to soclal
struggles, he applled hlmself solely to hls selfappolnted
task of explalnlng the reasons and aggravatlons that
had led to the catastrophe. He had llved for a long tlme
wlth these ldeas, and he was never to abandon them,
wherever they led hlm.
He named hls book Hurslos lurjuus (l9l9) [Mccl
Hcritogc] ln memory of the extremely poor condltlons ln
whlch a large part of the Ilnnlsh people llved, the class
ln whlch he grew up and to whlch he felt closest. Jhese
peasants farmed lnsufflclent parcels of land whlch
belonged to the landowners whose halfservants they
were, wlthout the protectlon of a mutual contract. Jhelr
fate depended entlrely on the good wlll of thelr llttle
despots. He called thelr herltage meek because lt was
accepted wlth apathetlc reslgnatlon tlnged wlth rellglon,
llke an lneluctable destlny.
Jhe prlnclpal personage Slllanp chose for hls
novel, |ussl Jolvola, can hardly be called hls hero. Wlth
hls predllectlon for all that ls very slmple, all that per
talns to the dullness of dally llfe, wlth hls averslon to all
that ls purely aesthetlc and hls rectltude ln descrlblng
characters, he made hlm an extremely prlmltlve and
weak person. |ussl was from the very beglnnlng only a
vulgar lnstrument, the laughlngstock of hls commu
nlty, scorned and llltreated by all. It ls questlonable
whether, ln some other soclal condltlon, he mlght have
been able to become somethlng truly dlfferent. In addl
tlon there was hls marrlage wlth a woman qulte as
benlghted as he. She began by duplng hlm, maklng hlm
accept another man`s chlld. In her housework she was
as lncapable as he was ln hls trade. Jhere was never
any lntelllgence or foreslght on thelr small farm, whlch
they had obtalned on very bad terms. Jhey had many
chlldren, and, wlth them, greater and greater worrles
and needs.
|ussl was attracted by the revolutlonary peasant
movement whlch, merglng wlth other rebelllons agalnst
the soclal order, led at the end to anarchy and terror. A
certaln development of hls personallty followed from
ltthe only progress that llfe had to offer hlm.
He began to reflect on hls capacltles and, as
much as he was able to do so, took an actlve part ln
thls movement. In the meetlngs ln whlch there was a
matter for all to speak about, |ussl also spoke and dls
covered that he could do lt and that hls words were
heard. He derlved a joy from lt that he had never
found before and he felt llke a man. Wlth hls natlve
nalvet and wlthout knowlng where the current
would carry hlm, he followed the flood wlth ardour
and played hls small part. He carrled arms he never
used but of whlch he was very proud. He could thus
serve as a sentlnel around the houses of the landown
ers. One day, one of them was kllled wlthout hls par
tlclpatlng ln the murder. Soon after the country was
reconquered by the Natlonallsts ln the flght agalnst
the Communlsts and the Russlans, |ussl was one of
those condemned to death for murder.
Jhe descrlptlon of the death of thls bllnd vlctlm
of thls era`s events ls the cruclal eplsode of the novel. It
258
c~ b p~ ai_ PPO
ls the expresslon of a palnful tragedy, as much as thls
term can be applled to so forlorn and drlftlng a destlny,
wlth detalls of a grotesque comedy, maklng a whole,
however, of a very movlng unlty.
One of the earller parts of thls bookthe story of
|ussl Jolvola`s halfgrown daughter, the daughter who,
to hls lnexpresslble joy, had the honour of belng pro
moted to servant ln a fashlonable homewas taken out
by the author to become a short novel ln ltself, e ~
o~~ (l923) |Hlltu and Ragnar|. It was wrltten wlth
even greater bltterness, lf that ls posslble.
Jhls chlld of nature, whose lgnorance and lnno
cence were prodlglous, was seduced by the son of the
house. When the consequences began to appear, she
dld not understand them and belleved herself the vlc
tlm of an lllness. She was drlven to sulclde by the
despalr and terror that she felt before an exlstence
whlch must be her fate. Jhls lnnocent flgure was ln a
way made poetlc by the author`s sober and profound
sense of plty.
Jhls poetry became truly polgnant ln a later
novel, treatlng a femlnlne destlny of the same klnd, kJ
~ (l93l) xq j~ p~zI that work of Slllan
p`s whlch was admlred most. Sllja, llke Hlltu, came
from a famlly lnevltably condemned to ruln, but she
grew up ln less severe poverty and, actually, wlthout
ugllness. She ls presented ln a qulte dlfferent manner.
Not deformed by the unhappy destlny of her klndred,
she had preserved her personallty, lmbued wlth lnstlnc
tlve purlty and dellcacy. Jhls chlld had sprung up llke a
flower ln the translent magnlflcence of full summer,
wlth all the beauty and frallty of the season, ln perpet
ual llght, on the shore of the dazzllng blue lakes. She
appeared as the symbol of that short and ravlshlng
summer, wlthout seemlng strange to the poor peasants`
world ln whlch she worked to earn her bread.
Sllja`s story ls qulte slmple but very slgnlflcant.
After the ruln of her home she goes lnto domestlc ser
vlce, but none of the brutallty and ugllness of her new
surroundlngs can tarnlsh her lnner feellngs. She goes
through the worst wlthout belng touched by lt.
She can at last llve her love story, but lt ls almost
as short and as ethereal as that of a butterfly. Jhe stu
dent who had been her unworthy lover had abandoned
her almost lmmedlately, but she kept the most dellght
ful memorles of the affalr and bore her lonellness wlth
out the least complalnt.
In the war year of l9l8 she proved her determl
natlon and courage ln danger. She performed a flne act
but she scarcely notlced lt, sllent and dlscreet as she
always was. When her congenltal tuberculosls began to
make lts effects felt, she felt no terror. Grateful for the
one unforgettable hour that llfe had glven her, she now
awalted the end wlth a sweet and sllent dlgnlty. Jo pre
vent transmlttlng her dlsease to others, she took her few
possesslons and made herself a tranqull asylum ln the
washhouse, protected on the land of her masters. Irom
that tlme on she no longer had any cares.
Jhere she was more alone than ever, wlth noth
lng to look forward to except the end whlch she knew
was near, but she felt happy and free. She prepared her
self to meet the great adventure by dreamlng of all that
she had found of beauty, all so slmple ln ltself but
resplendent ln the llght of the love she had really llved.
Sometlmes she floated ln her dreams ln the eternal hap
plness of the beyond.
In thls eplsode, the bltter reallst took pleasure ln
flndlng the beauty of human nature and, freed from all
psychoanalytlc doctrlne, he remalned qulte slmply the
poet and was able to create pure poetry wlth a flash of
grandeur.
Outslde of that, only ln hls descrlptlon of the
countryslde dld Slllanp`s artlstlc mastery flourlsh so
rlchly, and then only when he chose motlfs as slmple as
posslble whlle avoldlng all that could glve lmmedlate
dellght to the eye, wlthout lettlng hlmself be seduced by
the colours of a tradltlonal beauty. Wlth the dellcacy of
a palnter, he wlshed qulte slmply to render the beauty
of what the ordlnary observer would have overlooked.
In hls last lmportant novel, f (l931)
xm p k zI he dropped these restrlctlons
and allowed the nature of hls homeland to lend all lt
could. Jhere are large vlstas of sweet, fresh verdure,
wlth lakes meanderlng and gllstenlng wlth azure brll
llance and, above all, the maglc of the llght of days and
nlghts caught ln all lts shlftlng moments. Space glves
depth and expanse to hls plctures.
Human llfe ln thls settlng has dlverse destlnles,
some menaclng and sombre, others ln perfect harmony
wlth the happlness whlch, devold of cares, ls proper to
thls summer season. One flnds here a vlew of llfe not
lnfluenced by a purely llterary tastea strlvlng for free,
rlch, and complete beauty. Everythlng ls ln tune wlth
the lnflnlte and the calm of space.
Jhe pattern of the human flgures does not always
reach great profundlty, but ln thelr qulckness and thelr
llghtness they are ln harmony wlth the fllght of the
clouds and the play of llghts at dusk or at the dawn of a
new day. In the subtle art of thls styllst, the verbal plc
tures take on sonorlty and thelr muslc ls that of a vlolln
made of rays and colours.
Consldered from the purely artlstlc polnt of
vlew, thls book ls perhaps stronger than any of those
precedlng, even lf p~I ln lts flnal eplsode, has a
more profoundly human poetry and ls thus more
movlng.
259
ai_ PPO c~ b p~
e~ ~ ~ ~ ~ p~ ~
W
Jhe dlploma of a Nobel Prlze has just been
glven to you and you have heard the reasons whlch
led the Swedlsh Academy to accord thls dlstlnctlon to
your llterary work. Jhese reasons are very brlefly
stated on thls parchment, but you have been
deprlved of the many homages whlch would have
been pald you at the ceremony of the dlstrlbutlon of
the Nobel Prlzes.
Jhese homages you wlll flnd equally ln our
company, ln the slmpllclty characterlstlc of our gath
erlngs, but wlth the same warmth as that whlch you
would have recelved ln the festlval room on the day
of the ceremony. None of us knows your Ilnnlsh lan
guage; we have been able to appreclate your works
only ln the translatlons, but no doubt exlsts about
your mastery as a wrlter. Jhls mastery ls so great
that lt appears clearly even ln a forelgn attlre. Slmple,
brlef, objectlve, wlthout the least affectatlon, your
language flows wlth the clarlty of a sprlng and
reflects what your artlst`s eye has selzed. You have
chosen your motlfs wlth the greatest dellcacy and,
one could almost say, wlth a sort of tlmldlty before
what ls lmmedlately beautlful. You wlsh to create
beauty from what exlsts ln everyday nature, and the
manner ln whlch you can do lt often remalns your
secret. It ls not at the wrlter`s desk that one sees you
work but before the easel of the watercolourlst, and,
over your shoulder, one often accustoms one`s eye to
see ln a new manner. Sometlmes, when palntlng
spaces and clouds ln the llght of a summer day, you
forget the fear that you have of a too favourable
motlf and you then employ the muslcal art wlth the
hand of a master. Jhls characterlstlc tralt, your fond
ness for the slmple and the typlcal, you show also ln
your descrlptlon of man. Jhls descrlptlon takes plea
sure ln renderlng the everyday llfe of the peasants,
strongly attached to the earth from whlch lt draws lts
strength. When lt ls a questlon of deeds, you show
an equal mastery, and the effect ls produced only
wlth the slmplest means.
Concernlng your most celebrated work, you
have sald some words whlch no one else could have
found. 'Everythlng that touches Sllja ls generally of a
magnlflcent lnslgnlflcance." No artlst can go farther
ln the deslre to remaln respectfully falthful to the
reallty of thlngs. Jhus you have represented your
people, wlthout the least flnery.
At the present moment, even the name of your
country ls slgnlflcant everywhere. As slmple as you
see them, your people flnd themselves a prey to fate
ful powers, herolcally great ln thelr lndomltable cour
age, falthful to thelr duty to the very end, to the
death whlch they confront wlthout trembllng. In our
thanks for what you have glven, our thoughts go stlll
further; they go, wlth all our admlratlon and the
emotlon whlch grlps us, to your people, to your
natlon.
p~W ^~~ p~
Et ~ ~~ k mF
Irans Eemll Slllanp was born on the l6th of
September, l888, at YlSatakunta ln the Hmeenkyr
Parlsh of Ilnland on a desolate croft of the same name.
Jhe cottage had been bullt by hls parents, hls father
Irans Henrlk Henrlksson, who had moved there some
ten years before from Kauvatsa ln the Kumo Valley,
and hls mother, Lovllsa Vllhelmllna Ilsaksdotter, whose
famlly had llved ln the Hmeenkyr Parlsh from tlmes
lmmemorlal.
Slllanp`s parents had experlenced all the trlals
and trlbulatlons common to generatlons of settlers ln
those parts of Ilnland. Irosts had kllled thelr seeds,
farm anlmals had perlshed, and the farmer`s chlldren,
too, had dled, untll only Irans Eemll, the youngest of
the offsprlng, was left.
Jhere was only a moblle school for the farm chll
dren, and lt was purely by accldentyoung Slllanp`s
llfe was to abound ln accldentsthat the crofter`s son,
who was regarded as a brlght lad, came to attend a reg
ular school where he dlsplayed a real aptltude for learn
lng. Some ldeallsts declded that nothlng less than a
secondary school at Jampere would do and, after glv
lng the matter some thought, old Slllanp consented to
send hls son away. Ior flve years, Slllanp`s parents
plnched and scraped to keep thelr son ln school, after
whlch he supported hlmself for another three years
and, ln l908, matrlculated wlth good marks. Jhls was a
tlme ln Ilnland when a promlslng young man could
study almost lndeflnltely on borrowed money, and
young Slllanp was not slow to avall hlmself of thls
mlscarrlage of educatlonal zeal. He plunged lnto learn
lng and hls studles were as chaotlc as they were long
drawnout. He dld, however, choose blology as hls
baslc subject and worked hard ln the laboratory, cuttlng
up thlngs, studylng them under the mlcroscope, and
drawlng what he saw untll, one flne day, he woke up to
flnd that flve years had gone by; hls examlnatlon day
260
c~ b p~ ai_ PPO
was stlll far off and the klnd old gentlemen who had
been lendlng hlm money were not prepared to do so
any longer. He scraped together enough cash to return
to hls home, where he found hls father and mother
poorer than ever. He llved ln thelr hut and shared thelr
meals, whlch could hardly exclte a gourmet`s palate.
Hls student days were over, hls amorous esca
pades a thlng of the past, but at least lt was easy enough
for hlm to start from nothlng. Slllanp acqulred at a
nearby vlllage shop some statlonary of the type
favoured by vlllage lads for prlvate correspondence and
wrote a short story, whlch he sent to the edltor of a
large clty paper wlthout much hope of seelng lt pub
llshed. Jo use an expresslon popular ln those days, the
story must have been wrltten wlth hls heart`s blood
because, after a very short tlme, lt appeared on the front
page of the aforesald paper and lts author recelved a
very handsome letter from the edltor`s secretary, as well
as hls fee, whlch was more than welcome. Jhe story
had been publlshed under a pen name but the llterary
world of Helslnkl soon dlscovered the ldentlty of the
author and the erstwhlle eternal scholar found hlmself,
to hls amazement, recelvlng letters of extravagant
pralse. After several more of hls storles had been pub
llshed ln the same paper, somethlng very unusual hap
pened. He was approached by a wellknown publlsher
who asked to be borne ln mlnd should Slllanp`s llter
ary output stretch to a whole book. Jhe publlsher went
so far as to offer hlm a reasonable advance to enable
hlm to work ln peace.
Yet another wonderone of a serlesoccurred at
that tlme. At an unlmportant vlllage dance, Slllanp
met a shy seventeenyearold glrl who, lnslstlng that she
could not dance, sat far at the back of the dance hall. In
splte of her reslstance, Slllanp dragged her out onto
the dance floor to dlscover that she could dance after
all, whlch she proceeded to do wlth the utmost serlous
ness and concentratlon. Jhls was the beglnnlng of a
twentyflveyear saga, durlng whlch Slgrld Marla (for
such was the name of the seventeenyearold glrl) bore
Slllanp elght chlldren, one of whom dled. Mrs. Slllan
p dled on an Aprll mornlng ln l939. In early Novem
ber, the wldower who, slx months earller, had been ln
deep mournlng, was standlng before the mayor of Hel
slnkl belng asked lf he would take Anna Armla von
Hertzen to be hls wedded wlfe, to love her, and so on.
Jo thls, Slllanp replled wlth obvlous eagerness, nor
was Anna Armla`s 'yes" a tlmld whlsper. Some days
before a telegram had come from the Secretary of the
Swedlsh Academy telllng Slllanp that he had been
awarded the Nobel Prlze ln Llterature. A new polnt had
been reached ln the long serles of wonderful events
wlth whlch Slllanp`s llfe has been punctuated. As for
the changes whlch may have occurred ln lt slnce that
memorable event, they are, hlstorlcally speaklng, too
recent to be worth recordlng. May hls autoblography,
therefore, end wlth thls redletter day.
It should perhaps be added that, ln l936, the Lnl
verslty of Helslnkl conferred on Slllanp an honorary
doctorate.
Books publlshed by Slllanp, of whlch q j~
p~ ln partlcular has been translated lnto nearly every
clvlllzed language from Icelandlc to Hebrew, are.
b ~ ~ (l9l6) |Llfe and Sun|
f~~ ~~~ (l9l7) |Chlldren of Man ln
Llfe`s Processlon|
e~ (l9l9) xj e~z
o~~ ~~ (l9l9) |Beloved Iatherland|
e ~ o~~ (l923) |Hlltu and Ragnar|
b ~ (l923) |Wards of the Angels|
l~ ~ (l921) |About My Own and to My
Own|
j~~ ~~~ (l921) |Irom the Earth`s Level|
q (l925) |Shanty Hlll|
o (l928) |Confesslon|
h I e~ K K K (l930) |Jhanks for the
Moments, Lord . . . |
k~ (l93l) xq j~ p~z
j (l932) |A Man`s Way|
s~ ~~ (l933) |Irom the Bottom of the Stream|
f (l931) xm p kz
s~ (l936) |Jhe Ilfteenth|
| Jhe Nobel Ioundatlon, l939. Irans Eemll Slllanp
ls the sole author of the text.|
26l

`~ p
(10 Uctobcr 191J - 6 uly 200)
a vK h~
Icvt Stotc Uvivcrsity
and
`~~ p~~ _~
Tulovc Uvivcrsity
Jhls entry was expanded by Brosman from Kadlsh`s
Slmon entry ln DI SJ: Ircvcl òvclists Sivcc 1960. See
also the Slmon entry ln DI Jcorbool 19S.
BOOKS. Ic Triclcur (Parls. Edltlons du Saglttalre,
l916);
Io Cordc roidc (Parls. Edltlons du Saglttalre, l917);
Cullivcr (Parls. CalmannLvy, l952);
Ic Socrc du privtcmps (Parls. CalmannLvy, l951);
Ic !cvt: Tcvtotivc dc rcstitutiov dùv rctoblc boroquc (Parls.
Edltlons de Mlnult, l957); translated by Rlchard
Howard as Tlc !ivd (New York. Brazlller, l959);
I`Hcrbc (Parls. Edltlons de Mlnult, l958); translated by
Howard as Tlc Cross (New York. Brazlller, l960;
London. Cape, l96l);
Io Ioutc dcs Ilovdrcs (Parls. Edltlons de Mlnult, l960);
translated by Howard as Tlc Ilovdcrs Iood (New
York. Brazlller, l96l; London. Cape, l962);
Ic Iolocc (Parls. Mlnult, l962); translated by Howard as
Tlc Iolocc (New York. Brazlller, l963; London.
Cape, l961);
Icmmcs, sur vivgt-trois pcivturcs dc oov Miro, text by
Slmon, palntlngs by |oan Mlr (Parls. Maeght,
l966); Slmon`s text republlshed as Io Clcvclurc dc
crcvicc (Parls. Edltlons de Mlnult, l983); trans
lated by Slmon Green as crcvicc`s Coldcv Movc
(London. Alyscamps, l998);
Histoirc (Parls. Edltlons de Mlnult, l967); translated by
Howard (New York. Brazlller, l968; London.
Cape, l969);
Io otoillc dc Ilorsolc (Parls. Edltlons de Mlnult, l969);
translated by Howard as Tlc ottlc of Ilorsolus
(New York. Brazlller, l97l; London. Cape, l97l);
Uriov ovcuglc (Geneva. Sklra, l970); enlarged as Ics Corps
covductcurs (Parls. Edltlons de Mlnult, l97l); trans
lated by Helen R. Lane as Covductivg odics (New
York. Vlklng, l971; London. Calder Boyars,
l975);
Triptyquc (Parls. Edltlons de Mlnult, l973); translated by
Lane as Triptycl (New York. Vlklng, l976; Lon
don. Calder, l977);
`~ p EF NVUR k m i~
h `~ usf d~ p E ~ g~ `X
mobppbkp _fiaLp~Lo~F
262
`~ p ai_ PPO
Icov dc closcs (Parls. Edltlons de Mlnult, l975); trans
lated by Danlel Welssbort as Tlc !orld Zbout Us
(Prlnceton, N.|.. Ontarlo Revlew Press, l983);
Ics Ccorgiqucs (Parls. Edltlons de Mlnult, l98l); trans
lated by Beryl Iletcher and |ohn Iletcher as Ccor-
gics (London. Calder / New York. Rlverrun,
l981);
Discours dc Stocllolm (Parls. Edltlons de Mlnult, l986);
IÌvvitotiov (Parls. Edltlons de Mlnult, l987); translated
by |lm Cross as Tlc Ivvitotiov (Elmwood Park, Ill..
Dalkey Archlve Press, l99l);
Zlbum dùv omotcur (RemagenRolandseck. Rom
merklrchen, l988);
I`Zcocio (Parls. Edltlons de Mlnult, l989); translated by
Howard as Tlc Zcocio (New York. Pantheon,
l99l);
Ilotogroplics 19J7-1970, preface by Denls Roche (Parls.
Maeght, l992);
Ic ordiv dcs Ilovtcs (Parls. Edltlons de Mlnult, l997);
translated by |ordan Stump as Tlc ordiv dcs
Ilovtcs (Evanston, Ill.. Northwestern Lnlverslty
Press, 200l);
Ic Tromwoy (Parls. Edltlons de Mlnult, 200l); translated
by Howard as Tlc Trollcy (New York. New Press,
2002).
`W Uuvrcs, edlted by Alastalr B. Duncan wlth
the collaboratlon of |ean H. Duffy (Parls. Galll
mard/Blbllothque de la Pllade, 2006)lncludes
Ic !cvt, Io Ioutc dcs Ilovdrcs, Ic Iolocc, Io Clcvclurc
dc crcvicc, Io otoillc dc Ilorsolc, Triptyquc, Discours
dc Stocllolm, and Ic ordiv dcs Ilovtcs.
When Claude Slmon dled on 6 |uly 2005, Plerre
Lepape, wrltlng ln Ic Movdc (l2 |uly 2005), asserted
that Slmon was among the greatest wrlters of hls perlod
and, moreover, 'lùn des plus grands crlvalns du
temps et de la mmolre" (one of the greatest wrlters on
tlme and memory). Lepape added, however, that to the
end of hls llfe Slmon was often mlsunderstood, over
looked, or dlscounted by the readlng publlc. Another
journallst, |osyane Savlgneau, remarked slmllarly ln Ic
Movdc (l7 Iebruary 2006) that Slmon had been treated
wlth lndlfference, even hostlllty, 'ngllg par son
poque et par une certalne crltlque qul prfre porter au
plnacle des oeuvres honorables . . . mals beaucoup plus
conventlonnelles" (neglected by hls perlod and by cer
taln crltlcs who prefer puttlng at the plnnacle works that
are honorable . . . but much more conventlonal). When
he was awarded the Nobel Prlze ln Llterature ln
December l985, a natlonal dally newspaper called hlm,
ln lts headllne, 'Ln vltlculteur de Salses" (a wlne
grower from Salses), as lf he were an unknown needlng
ldentlflcatlon. In hls acceptance speech, the laureate
hlmself alluded to the fact that Parlslan journallsts had
searched frantlcally for lnformatlon on the new wlnner,
whlle Maureen Dowd, wrltlng ln Tlc `cw Jorl Timcs (l8
October l985), mentloned the perplexlty of New York
lntellectuals, few of whom were acqualnted wlth
Slmon`s name. Jhough the prlze brought honor to
Irance as well as to the wrlter, some observers
remalned unconvlnced that lt was deserved, looklng
upon the selectlon as another low moment ln what
|ames O. Jate called ln Clroviclcs ( |anuary 2005) 'the
spotty hlstory of the llterature prlze."
Yet, others halled the award as entlrely merlted.
Jhe Swedlsh Academy`s cltatlon suggested the range of
Slmon`s achlevement by notlng that he had comblned
the creatlvlty of the poet and the palnter and expressed
a profound sense of tlme and the human condltlon. He
had not, moreover, been entlrely dlsregarded by dls
cernlng crltlcs and journallsts ln Irance, and evldence
of hls growlng reputatlon appeared ln unllkely places.
In l977, for lnstance, the Communlst newspaper
I`Humovitc publlshed extracts from Triptyquc (l973;
translated as Triptycl, l976), retltled and lllustrated.
Abroad, he was appreclated equally, perhaps more; as
of l997, works by hlm had been translated lnto twenty
slx forelgn languages. He traveled wldely and fre
quently to lecture and partlclpate ln colloqula deallng
wlth hls work; hls destlnatlons lncluded European
countrles, North Amerlca, South Amerlca, Egypt,
Indla, the Sovlet Lnlon, and |apan. Dozens of books as
well as scores of artlcles have been publlshed on hls
work, whlch ls now represented ln the prestlglous Blb
llothque de la Pllade serles, reserved for those consld
ered the greatest authors.
As Lepape rlghtly observed, Slmon`s flctlon, espe
clally from hls most productlve decade, that ls, Ic !cvt:
Tcvtotivc dc rcstitutiov dùv rctoblc boroquc (l957; translated
as Tlc !ivd, l959); I`Hcrbc (l958; translated as Tlc
Cross, l960); Io Ioutc dcs Ilovdrcs (l960; translated as
Tlc Ilovdcrs Iood, l96l); and Histoirc (l967; translated,
l968), constltutes one of the most extenslve llterary
undertaklngs slnce Marcel Proust`s Z lo rcclcrclc du tcmps
pcrdu (l9l3-l927; translated as Icmcmbrovcc of Tlivgs
Iost ). Llke Proust`s masterplece, Slmon`s work can be
vlewed as a coheslve whole, organlc and lndlvlslble,
almost autonomous, as Swedlsh Academy member
Lars Gyllensten lndlcated when he remarked ln hls
Nobel Prlze presentatlon speech that Slmon`s texts grew
as lf the language were an lndependent, llvlng organ
lsm. Lepape`s artlcle used the same lmage, startlng wlth
lts tltle, 'Claude Slmon, un 'arbre` llttralre enracln
dans l`Hlstolre" (Claude Slmon, a Llterary Jree Rooted
ln Hlstory). Lepape then remlnded readers that at the
concluslon to Slmon`s second book, Io Cordc roidc
(l917, Jhe Jlghtrope), the authorlal volce had spoken
263
ai_ PPO `~ p
of feellng the branches of a tree grow toward hlm and
lts leaves flll hls hands.
Paradoxlcally, as Lepape observed, thls apparent
quasl lndependence of language allowed Slmon to be
ldentlfled wlth hls work to a rare degree, 'l`homme se
rsorbant entlrement dans ses llvresau polnt de
refuser toute tentatlve blographlque; les llvres se nour
rlssant excluslvement de sa vle d`homme, de sa m
molre sans cesse rexplore et recre par la langue"
(the man belng reabsorbed entlrely lnto hls booksto
the polnt of refuslng all attempts at blography; the
books feedlng excluslvely on hls llfe as a man and hls
memory, ceaselessly reexplored and recreated by the
language). In Ic ordiv dcs Ilovtcs (l997; translated as
Tlc ordiv dcs Ilovtcs, 200l) Slmon hlmself let lt be
understood that he had scant lmaglnatlon (ln the sense
of lnventlve ablllty) and that, except for hls earllest nov
els, hls wrltlng was dependent on hls personal experl
ence or old famlly papers.
Jhe causes of publlc dlsregard for Slmon`s work
can be found ln the wrltlng ltself and ln early crltlcal
mlsunderstandlngs, whlch perslsted so long that the art
lst mentloned them ln hls Nobel lecture. Hls novels,
partlcularly the most famous ones, are notorlously dlffl
cult, chlefly because of thelr style and constructlon,
whlch lnvolve long sentences and paragraphs (some
tlmes of many pages); absence or reductlon of punctua
tlon; dlgresslons; repetltlons; abrupt changes ln
narratlve volce and ln pronouns and thelr referents;
slmllarly abrupt changes ln settlng and actlon; and
other modernlst features, some resembllng elements
found ln the modernlst flctlon of |ames |oyce and Wll
llam Iaulkner, who both, along wlth Proust, were
pralsed by Slmon and whose works certalnly lnfluenced
hlm. No allowances are made for readers` posslble
fatlgue or dlsmay at such prose. Other modernlst char
acterlstlcs add to the dlfflculty. reductlon of the sense of
causallty, playlng wlth tlme, and an absence of psycho
loglcal explanatlon. Iurthermore, unllke Proust`s work,
Slmon`s novels deny, ln effect, the posslblllty of certaln
knowledge and, often, the efflcaclty of language; there
are endlngs but few concluslons. In thls respect he carrled
even farther the modernlst experlments of hls pre
decessors, to the extent that he has been called postmodernlst.
Jhls precarlousness of reference and meanlng corre
sponds to what he called the lmposslblllty of flndlng
meanlng ln the world. In short, as Savlgneau observed,
Slmon`s project called forth nelther sentlmental empa
thy nor collectlve approval.
Moreover, because from l957 on hls books were
generally publlshed by |rme Llndon at Edltlons de
Mlnult, he was labeled by crltlcs as a member of the
lnformal school of flctlon wrlters called Ics òuvcoux
Iomovcicrs (the New Novellsts), llkewlse publlshed by
Llndon. Jhls label led to the supposltlon that hls alms
resembled thelrs. Whlle thls assumptlon ls not entlrely
mlsleadlng ln the case of Mlchel Butor, for lnstance, the
alms of several others, especlally Nathalle Sarraute and
Alaln RobbeGrlllet, were, broadly speaklng, contrary
to Slmon`s, for, whereas hls wrltlngs depend largely on
subjectlvlsm, thelr project was to prune flctlon of sub
jectlve polnts of vlew and treat only objectlve phenom
ena, ln a spare style that can be labeled mlnlmallst.
(Jhat there are certaln subjectlve aspects ln thelr flctlon
and objectlve ones ln hls does not lnvalldate the general
tendency.) Slmon wrote ln Ic ordiv dcs Ilovtcs that 'll
est lmposslble a qul que ce solt de raconter ou de
dcrlre quol que ce solt dùne faon objectlve" (lt ls
lmposslble for anyone to relate or descrlbe anythlng
whatsoever ln an objectlve way). |ean Dubuffet, a
palnter wlth whom he malntalned a correspondence for
more than fourteen years and some of whose works
appeared juxtaposed wlth texts by Slmon more than
once, wrote to hlm that hls task was to 'retlrer aux falts
et aux corps leur opaclt, de les rendre traversables" (to
take back from facts and bodles thelr opaclty, to allow
one to go through them). Insofar as Dubuffet was
rlghtand Slmon dld not contest hls statementSlmon`s
purpose ls the opposlte of RobbeGrlllet`s, whose
approach to phenomena creates dlstance between
reader and objects and makes them denser and less
approachable.
Because there ls to date no blography of Slmon,
any dlscusslon of hls llfe must be tentatlve. Several
baslc facts are known, however, elther dlrectly from
comments he has made ln publlshed or prlvate lnter
vlews or lndlrectly from hls works, whlch he has openly
declared to be largely autoblographlcal, especlally Io
Cordc roidc and the novels beglnnlng wlth I`Hcrbc. On l0
October l9l3 Claude Eugne Henrl Slmon, son of
Louls and Suzanne Denamlel Slmon, was born ln
Jananarlve, Madagascar, then a Irench possesslon,
where hls father was a cavalry offlcer. Because Slmon
was only slx months old when he left there to return to
Perplgnan and the ancestral home of hls mother`s fam
lly ln the southern Irench reglon of Rousslllon, hls
novels lnclude llttle ln the way of exotlc colonlal experl
ences other than evocatlons of the fragmentary scenes
on postcards that Slmon`s father, llke the father ln His-
toirc, sent back to Irance from hls travels. Because hls
father was kllled early ln World War I and Slmon was
ralsed by hls mother and her famlly, the paternal slde,
from Arbols ln the |ura reglon of IrancheComt
where Slmon llved for part of hls youthalso plays less
of a role ln hls novels than the maternal slde. Notable
exceptlons are descrlptlons ln I`Hcrbc of the dlary and
photograph of the aunt who traveled across Irance ln
261
`~ p ai_ PPO
l910 and the sale of the famlly property ln the |ura
reglon. Hls mother dled ln l925.
After hls father`s death Slmon was brought up ln
the anclent famlly resldence under the supervlslon of
hls maternal uncle, the model for Lncle Charles ln sev
eral of the novels. Slmon and hls thlrd wlfe, Ra Kara
vas (whom he met ln l962 and marrled sometlme ln
the l970s), spent part of each year llvlng ln Salses, sltu
ated ln Rousslllon between Perplgnan and Les Cor
blres, ln close proxlmlty to the locatlon of hls maternal
famlly`s vlneyards and anclent home. Many blographl
cal detalls connected wlth that locatlon are relevant to
hls novels. a room ln the house provlded the polnt of
departure for the openlng descrlptlon ln i
(l975; translated as q t ^ rI l983); the name
L.S.M. ln i d (l98l; translated as dI
l981) undoubtedly refers to Lacombe SalntMlchel, the
name on the bottles from the vlneyard ln Salses that
Slmon owned, where he was known as Lacombe.
Hls secondary studles took place ln Perplgnan
and then at the prestlglous Collge Stanlslas ln Parls,
whlch he entered ln l925. He successfully completed
hls baccalaureate studles ln Parls ln l930 wlth a degree
not ln phllosophy, as he has often polnted out when
questloned by crltlcs on phllosophlcal matters, but ln
mathematlcs. In response to famlly pressures, he began
studles for a naval career by taklng advanced mathe
matlcs at the Lyce SalntLouls, but hls lack of lnterest
was manlfest from the start, and he was dlsmlssed
shortly. Hls famlly then agreed to allow hlm to study
palntlng, whlch he dld for a tlme ln Parls wlth Andr
Lhote, a master of constructlons that Slmon character
lzed as carefully deslgned but overly cerebral and lack
lng ln a sense of color. Jhose studles were eventually
abandoned because of what Slmon has descrlbed as hls
lack of 'plastlc talent." He regretted not succeedlng ln
palntlng, hls greatest love, and he contlnued to make
drawlngs and collages and to express hls acute vlsual
perceptlons ln hls novels. He was also an avld photogra
pher.
Slmon`s lnvolvement ln major hlstorlcal events
left a profound mark on hls work. After dolng hls
expected mllltary servlce ln the cavalryfor whlch he
volunteeredln the 3lst Dragoons at Lunvllle ln l931
and l935, he jolned the Spanlsh Clvll War on the
Republlcan slde (he was also a token member of the
Communlst Party ln l936 and l937), actlng for a tlme
as a gunrunner. Hls partlclpatlon was centered ln Barce
lona, the locatlon of the Hotel Colon descrlbed ln i
m~~ (l962; translated as q m~~I l963) and other
works. He then served agaln as a cavalryman ln the
Irench army ln l939 and l910, barely escaplng death
ln May l910 durlng the battle of the Meuse, recounted
ln i~ o c~ and other novels. Captured at
SolreleChteau near Avesnes and sent to a German
prlson camp ln Saxony, he managed to be transferred to
a POW camp ln southwest Irance ln October l910 by
passlng hlmself off as a j~~~ (someone from Mada
gascarwhlch, strlctly speaklng, he was) when the Ger
mans were repatrlatlng many Afrlcans. He escaped
from the Irench camp and went to Perplgnan, where
he partlclpated occaslonally ln the Reslstance move
ment ln contact wlth artlsts such as Raoul Dufy. He
palnted durlng the day, whlle pursulng hls llterary
career ln the evenlngs. Sometlme durlng thls l939-
l910 perlod, Slmon marrled Lucle Clay, who dled dur
lng the war. By l91l he had completed not only i
q (Jhe Cheater), whlch was not publlshed untll
l916, but also other works that he later destroyed. In
l911, learnlng that he would be denounced for hls
Reslstance actlvlty, he fled to Parls. Ior many years he
spent long months there, though he returned to Perpl
gnan for lengthy summer vacatlons.
Another declslve factor ln Slmon`s llfe came ln
l95l when he was bedrldden for flve months wlth
tuberculosls, unable to do anythlng but look out the
wlndow. vlslon and memory were all he had. Slmon
clalmed that thls conflnement was a turnlng polnt that
enabled hlm to appreclate fully the slmple, nonlntellec
tual pleasures of such favorlte objects as stones, whlch
he kept on hls desk. Durlng thls perlod he fully devel
oped hls endurlng fasclnatlon wlth matter seen through
a mlcroscope. He expresses thls fasclnatlon ln hls nov
els, whlch he produced by closetlng hlmself dally to
thlnk and wrlte for hours after lunch. Although he trav
eled wldely, lncludlng trlps to Greece, the Lnlted States,
and Latln Amerlca, Slmon`s maln actlvlty was wrltlng.
Worklng steadlly and peacefully, often removed from
the bustle of Parlslan lntellectual llfe, Slmon gave slmple
but stlrrlng expresslon to man`s daytoday experlence.
In the late l910s or early l950s, Slmon marrled
Yvonne Duculng. Jhey were dlvorced ln the l960s.
In addltlon to the notlons of causallty and chro
nology, Slmon calls lnto questlon by hls flctlon the
supremacy of plot and psychology and the subservlence
of descrlptlon to narratlon. Worklng agalnst tradltlon,
he presents a fragmented treatment of tlme and events
ln whlch the groplng movements of memory, consclous
ness, and wrltlng dlctate narratlve development. He
descrlbed thls movement as bllndly movlng forward
'mot a mot" (word by word), comparlng hls efforts to
those of bllnd Orlon ln the palntlng by Nlcolas Poussln.
Slmon also works agalnst tradltlon by presentlng shad
owy characters whose tangled drlves and deslres manl
fest sporadlcally and lncoherently durlng the narratlon,
falllng to form an lntegrated psychologlcal entlty or self.
Instead of a tradltlonal treatment of tlme, plot, and
characters, Slmon and other New Novellsts promote
265
ai_ PPO `~ p
the poetlc and structural lmportance of descrlptlon.
One klnd ls the New Novel technlque of closismc, ln
whlch objects are descrlbed ln such lntrlcate materlal
detall that thelr connectlon wlth human concerns
becomes problematlc. Other dlstlnctlve descrlptlve
practlces are colorful, lmpresslonlstlc sketches of per
ceptlons and memorles; erotlc evocatlons of people and
vegetal or anlmal llfe; renderlngs of plctures, photo
graphs, and other works of vlsual art that generate nar
ratlve eplsodes; and mlnlature reflectlons wlthln the
novel of the entlre work, a devlce known as misc cv
obymc. All of these elements functlon to provlde the nar
ratlve coherence that plot and psychology supply ln the
tradltlonal novel.
Slmon`s lmportance far transcends, however, an
assoclatlon wlth the New Novel, whlch ls chlefly a
deconstructlve process for clearlng flctlon of the encum
berlng practlces of the past. Hls lmportance must also
be sought ln hls constructlve slde, ln hls search to
answer the questlon of how the novel can best speak to
twentleth and twentyflrstcentury readers. Ilrst and
foremost, the contemporary novel should convey an
lntensely sensorlal quallty, a palpable and pleasurable
sense of both language and the world. Holdlng that
wrltlng should be as concrete as palntlng and that the
reader should respond to the novel ln terms of sense
lmpresslons rather than abstract thought, Slmon pro
duced works that are replete wlth the sounds, smells,
textures, and colors of such seemlngly banal objects as
blades of grass ln I`Hcrbc, parts of a horse`s body ln Io
Ioutc dcs Ilovdrcs, or stone walls ln Icov dc closcs. Jhe
phenomenologlst Maurlce MerleauPonty, ln lectures
glven at the Collge de Irance ln the early l960s, used
Slmon`s work as an lllustratlon of how consclousness
responds to the world. Jhroughout hls work, Slmon
explores the unexpected rlches of dally sense lmpres
slons by conslderlng the propertles of objects, as ln
geometry one conslders the propertles of a flgure; he
flxes hls mlnd upon a cloud, pebble, or palntlng untll lts
propertles have been dlscovered and brought lnto con
tact wlth the related propertles of other objects.
Speaklng of other artlsts, Slmon conslstently
expressed hls admlratlon for those who embody a sen
sorlal notlon of art. He frequently clted the sound of
|ames Walt`s volce at the beglnnlng of |oseph Conrad`s
Tlc ìggcr of tlc 'òrcissus (l897) to show that the artlst
should seek for truth ln the vlslble world and appeal to
the senses, unllke the sclentlst whose search bears on
ldeas and whose appeal ls to the lntelllgence. He
admlred Samuel Beckett and RobbeGrlllet not only for
thelr preclslon ln descrlblng the world but also because,
llke Gustave Ilaubert, they practlce a sensorlal art of
both the slgnlfled and the slgnlfler, whlch enhances
both meanlng and narratlve forms. Slmon admlred
|oyce`s vlvldly sensorlal stream of consclousness and
contrastlng levels of speech that produce a texture of
language. Iaulkner and Proust were models because
they evoke the past sensorlally and enhance the lmpor
tance of llngulstlc and narratlve forms; Iaulkner also
experlmented wlth common speech, a narratlve struc
ture based on sensorlal assoclatlons, and use of prollfer
atlng, poetlc sentences. Several modern artlsts also
stood as models. |oan Mlr, Robert Rauschenberg,
Loulse Nevelson, and the three palnters Dubuffet, Iran
cls Bacon, and Paul Delvaux, whose works lnsplred the
three narratlve sequences ln Triptyquc. Slmon admlred
thelr common deslre to return to a baslc and concrete
art. How close the palnter`s expresslon of thls deslre can
be to the wrlter`s ls evldent ln Icmmcs, sur vivgt-trois pciv-
turcs dc oov Mir (l966, Women, wlth Jwentythree
Palntlngs by |oan Mlro); republlshed as Io Clcvclurc dc
crcvicc (l983, translated as crcvicc`s Coldcv Movc,
l998 ).
Slmon`s wrltlng also transcends lts assoclatlon
wlth the New Novel through lts broadly hlstorlcal and
humanlstlc scope, whlch covers major moments of
upheaval ln European hlstory and thelr effects on mod
ern man. Looklng backward, Slmon`s narrators recon
struct hlstorlcal moments through an act of lmaglnatlon
trlggered by hlstorlcal documents; some look back as
far as the elghteenth century, where they dlscover the
dlsarray of thelr arlstocratlc ancestors around the tlme
of the Irench Revolutlon. Jhe experlence of earller par
tlclpants ln hlstory echoes thelr own ln events such as
World War II and the Spanlsh Clvll War. Jhe common
thread among generatlons ls a sense of futlllty ln the
face of the horrors of war or the pettlness of polltlcs and
a strlpplng away of nalve llluslons about the chances for
meanlngful soclal change. Jhe resultlng sense of human
llmltatlons and the cycllcal nature of hlstory ls not
coupled, however, wlth pesslmlsm or despalr. Slmon`s
work conveys a polgnant sense of the endurlng value of
llfe, even after the ldeallsm and llluslons of youth have
been lost.
Slmon`s hlstorlcal and humanlstlc wrltlng dlffers
substantlally from the commltted llterature popular ln
Irance prlor to and durlng World War II. Although hls
novels have a manlfestly soclal and polltlcal content,
Slmon rejected the use of that content for polltlcal pur
poses and the use of the novel by Andr Glde, Louls
Aragon, |eanPaul Sartre, and certaln wrlters of the
absurd as a vehlcle for expresslng phllosophlcal or pollt
lcal truths. In contrast, he pralsed Paul Czanne`s aes
thetlc approach to art, unencumbered by slgnposts
lndlcatlng the meanlng of the work. Slmon made a
clearcut dlstlnctlon between artlstlcally and polltlcally
revolutlonary acts. Although both stem from the need
to questlon and protest, they can meanlngfully occur
266
`~ p ai_ PPO
only ln thelr prescrlbed arenas. He thus flrmly rejected
the notlon of engagement, accordlng to whlch the novel
should further polltlcal causes such as soclallsm;
engagement stymles the artlst`s creatlve growth and
makes hlm subservlent to lntolerant polltlcal revolutlon
arles.
Slmon`s productlon can be dlvlded lnto perlods.
Jhe early perlod, from i q to i sI reveals an
author experlmentlng wlth a varlety of narratlve and
thematlc materlals, havlng not yet achleved the dlstlnc
tlve style and worldvlew of the later perlods. Jhe early
works are strongly marked by the tone and style of Iyo
dor Dostoevsky and Iaulkner. Jhe lnfluence of the
Russlan novellst`s somber preoccupatlon wlth mystery
and human frallty ls especlally marked ln i qI a
hauntlng novel about adolescent yearnlngs and vlo
lence and about adult rejectlon, fallure, and despalr.
Jhe polnts of vlew of varlous characters are juxtaposed
ln i qW Louls, whose actlons and feellngs ln run
nlng away wlth hls chlld lover, Belle, are lnterspersed
wlth recollectlons of hls past llfe at home and school;
Catherlne, Belle`s mother; Gauthler, Catherlne`s hus
band and posslbly Belle`s father, although the sugges
tlon of lnfldellty flgures promlnently ln Catherlne`s
thoughts; Belle herself; and Ephram Rosenblaum, an
outslde spectator of the drama. Jhe thoughts, memo
rles, and sense lmpresslons of these characters are
revealed ln a mlxed thlrdperson narratlon and lnterlor
monologue that lapses perlodlcally lnto the flrst person.
Jhe central event ls a seemlngly unmotlvated murder
resultlng from an obscure drlve toward rebelllon and
llberatlon. Jhrough parallel and converglng storles
about famlly members of dlfferent generatlons, the
novel centers on rebelllon agalnst conventlonal and
hypocrltlcal values. It also develops the themes of war,
actlvlst polltlcs, and tlme.
i~ ` ~ ls a repertolre of elements used ln
later works. the experlences of soldlers; the clvll war ln
Spaln; and Spanlsh lmages such as posters, baroque
archltecture, tramways, and clgar boxes. i~ ` ~
also poses questlons about the usefulness of art, lts
lmportance ln modern tlmes, Irench artlstlc tastes and
tendencles, the artlst`s ablllty to explaln or justlfy hls
art, art as evaslon, and the artlstlcally uneducated pub
llc`s lnablllty to understand modern art. Jhe unlfylng
thread ls the narrator`s search to understand why
Czanne`s way of seelng the world ls so unusual. i~
` ~ comprlses fourteen sectlons, from flve to
twentytwo pages each, lntermlngllng essay and flc
tlonal or autoblographlcal wrltlng. Jhey are llnked by
the flrstperson narratlve volce and the fact that the
questlons posed ln the essays are frequently answered
ln the flctlon. the answer to why Czanne`s way of see
lng the world ls so new ls lndlrectly provlded ln the nar
rator`s vlvld recollectlons and perceptlons.
Slmon has characterlzed d (l952) as an
unsuccessful attempt to wrlte a conventlonal novel and
as the only one of hls works that stands apart from hls
steady evolutlon as a wrlter. As ln conventlonal novels,
frequent descrlptlons of attlre and habltat suggest the
psychology of typlcal characters. Grard Iaure, an antl
fasclst terrorlst; Herzog, a |ewlsh lntellectual; |o and
Loulou de Chavannes, decadent descendants of a for
merly prestlglous famlly; Max Verdler, a rlch vlctlm of
metaphyslcal angulsh. Jhe polltlcally motlvated assassl
natlon on a Juesday nlght of the de Chavannes servant,
an accompllce ln Loulou`s scheme to extort money
from Herzog, opens the novel. On the precedlng nlght,
as a lengthy flashback reveals, a complex web of events
results ln the murder of Bobby, Max`s homosexual
lover, and the sulclde of Max. Iurther compllcatlons
arlse ln connectlon wlth Ellane de Chavannes, |o and
Loulou`s slster and the mother of Max`s chlld.
Jhe famlly plays an lmportant thematlc role
through the grandmother`s bllnd hypocrlsy and
Ellane`s and Max`s futlle attempts to transcend the con
flnes of her soclety. Psychologlcal and vlsual themes are
also slgnlflcant. perceptual effects of wlnd and raln;
deformatlon of reallty because of paln; postcoltal recol
lectlons of the past; and vlsual lmpresslons of postcards,
slgns, headllghts, phone booths, tralns, and games. Jhe
plot dwells on the lrratlonal urge toward meanlngless
vlolence, at work ln the antlfasclst group and lllustrated
by the de Chavannes twlns, Bobby, and Herzog`s ser
vant who, at the end, returns a klnd gesture wlth a hate
ful lnsult. Another lmportant theme ls dlsllluslonment
resultlng from a youthful devotlon to a cause. Max
vlews hls actlvltles durlng the war wlth bltter scorn;
and Bert, a journallst ln love wlth Ellane, flnally under
stands the rldlculousness of hls role as detectlve ln
attemptlng to prove that Max murdered Bobby.
i p~ (l951, Jhe Rlte of Sprlng)
opens wlth the thoughts, perceptlons, and recollectlons
of the rebelllous young Bernard Mallet, whose step
father, a dlsabused veteran of the Spanlsh Clvll War,
has become the target of Bernard`s lmpetuous urge to
rebel. Because the confllct between Bernard and the
stepfather ls central ln the novel, there ls some artlstlc
justlflcatlon for the swltch, after the flrst part, to a mlx
ture of the stepfather`s flrstperson narratlon and the
thlrdperson narratlon of the thoughts, words, and per
ceptlons of both Bernard and the stepfather ln the rest
of the novel. Jhe novel ls thematlcally characterlstlc of
Slmon`s wrltlng, desplte lts melodramatlc plot. learnlng
that Edlth, the slster of a student whom he ls tutorlng,
urgently needs money for an abortlon, Bernard
becomes embrolled ln a vlolent adventure; later, learn
267
ai_ PPO `~ p
lng of hls stepfather`s relatlonshlp wlth the glrl, he pro
vokes a famlly confrontatlon that results ln the
termlnatlon of the pregnancy. Jhe lmportant theme ls
the strlpplng away of llluslons about romantlc devotlon
to causes. Jhe stepfather experlenced a slmllar 'rlte of
sprlng" when as a student he devoted hlmself to the
Spanlsh cause and unwlttlngly contrlbuted to the mean
lngless vlolence of a fellow revolutlonary`s death.
i sI the flrst of Slmon`s novels publlshed by
Edltlons de Mlnult, was also the flrst of hls works that
the publlc assoclated wlth the New Novel and lts char
acterlstlc technlques of blurrlng character and plot,
descrlblng nonhuman phenomena such as the wlnd,
lgnorlng soclal and polltlcal events, and hlghllghtlng the
wrlter`s efforts to construct the novel. In i s Antolne
Monts arrlves from afar to farm the lands left to hlm
by hls father, whose lnfldelltles prlor to Monts`s blrth
provoked the permanent separatlon of the famlly; hav
lng befrlended Rose, the lonely mlstress of a town
gypsy, and her two chlldren, Monts flnds hlmself
embrolled ln a melodramatlc serles of events that results
ln the deaths of Rose and the gypsy. Jhe narrator ls a
professor whose research concerns Romanesque archl
tecture, but whose lnterest ls dlverted to a human
drama. the subtltle, q~ ~
~ (Attempt to Restore a Baroque Retable), hlgh
llghts the narrator`s attempt to restore the complex real
lty of Monts`s llfe that, llke the eponymous wlnd,
represents undlrected and unreasonable vlolence.
Because i s ls a transltlonal work, already dls
playlng styllstlc features perfected ln the second perlod,
lt retalns narratlve features characterlstlc of the early
perlod. Desplte the hesltatlon surroundlng events, the
novel ultlmately relles on a loglcally developed story
and the resolutlon of enlgmas to malntaln the reader`s
lnterest. Montsboth as a reporter of and partlclpant
ln the eventsls a complex lndlvldual, who has a
marked afflnlty wlth Dostoevsky`s lnnocent Prlnce
Myshkln. Slmon has acknowledged that i s ls a
remake of q f (l868). In a largely tradltlonal fash
lon, the novel dwells on Monts`s past hlstory, physlcal
appearance, and traglc confllct wlth soclety. Not untll
ie dld Slmon break declslvely wlth the focus of the
tradltlonal psychologlcal novel on the lntrlcate work
lngs of an unusual character`s mlnd.
ie ls the flrst of the novels ln Slmon`s second
perlod, whlch ls characterlzed by a baroque, prollferat
lng Iaulknerlan style. Dlstlnctlve features of that style
lnclude such formulas as 'se rappelant" (rememberlng),
'se demandant" (wonderlng), 'se voyant" (seelng
herself ); long sentences and abundant present partlcl
ples; parentheses, dashes, and elllpses; the truncatlng of
events or the fuslon of present and past actlons; and
plays on words. Adoptlng a syntactlcal arrangement
that allows words and phrases to unfold and prollferate,
Slmon forges sentences that are often several pages ln
length, lncludlng many subordlnate constructlons set
off by parentheses or dashes. Jhe accumulatlon of
words and phrases makes the reader consclous of the
elaboratlon of the sentence and acts to surround asser
tlons wlth an aura of doubt by proposlng alternatlve
meanlngs. Conjunctlve constructlons ('solt . . . solt . . ."
|whether . . . or whether . . .|; 'sans doute . . . ou peuttre"
|probably . . . or perhaps|; 'mals peuttre mme pas"
| but perhaps not even that|) act to cram the sentence
full of acts, lmages, hypotheses, and recollectlons, some
tlmes bulldlng up to a coherent plcture, sometlmes can
cellng each other out. Comparatlve constructlons
('semblable a" |llke|, 'comme sl" |as lf |, 'ou plutt
comme sl" |or rather as lf |) propose comparlsons whlle
denylng them a clearly deflned meanlng. Elllpses ln
characters` thoughts or spoken words express the
amblguous nature of language and the groplng move
ments of memory and consclousness. Loglcal conjunc
tlons that fall to establlsh genulne connectlons between
proposltlons express a futlle strlvlng for contlnulty. Jhe
present partlclple suggests a prollferatlon of actlons ln
an lmaglnary world.
Jhe novels of the second perlod, beglnnlng wlth
ieI are also characterlzed by a recurrlng group of
famlly members and autoblographlcal events that a cen
tral consclousness seeks to understand through mem
ory, lmaglnatlon, and documents from the past. ie
ls about Loulse; her husband, Georges, who turns to
farmlng and gambllng after World War II; Georges`s
greataunt Marle, who dles after sacrlflclng her happl
ness to ralse her brother, Plerre, to the rank of unlver
slty professor; and Georges`s parentsPlerre, obese and
taclturn, and Sablne, jealous and lnebrlated. Jhe events
are personal ones. the aunt falls lnto a coma and dles;
Loulse`s marrlage crumbles, and she makes plans to
leave wlth her lover. It ls not the people or events that
are lmportant but Loulse`s efforts to understand them.
Lncertalnty surrounds those efforts from the
start, and even at the end no clear account ls presented
of elther the aunt`s death or Loulse`s departure, both of
whlch are referred to only lndlrectly. As suggested ln
the eplgraph, taken from Borls Pasternak, 'Personne ne
falt l`hlstolre, on ne la volt pas, pas plus quòn ne volt
l`herbe pousser" (No one makes hlstory, no one sees lt
happen, no one sees the grass grow); there ls no clear
perceptlon of when, how, or why events occur. Instead,
Slmon descrlbes lmages connected wlth events, for
example, the Jshaped pattern of llght seeplng through
the openlngs between and above the shutters ln the
dylng aunt`s room, or the sound of a traln or of drops
of raln. Jhose sounds suggest a fadlng out of the aunt`s
268
`~ p ai_ PPO
llfe and Loulse`s elther leavlng Georges or loslng hope
for the future by staylng wlth hlm.
Loulse`s declslon ls connected wlth but not
strlctly determlned by the renunclatlon the aunt`s llfe
and death exempllfy. She admlres and respects the
aunt`s values to some extent, but she also rebels agalnst
her example, reallzlng that the aunt`s llfe was composed
of sacrlflces for people such as Plerre, Sablne, and
Georges, who lead futlle and unhappy llves. Jhe notlon
of the aunt`s llfe, reduced to a meanlngless repetltlon,
provokes angulsh ln Loulse, especlally as she looks at
some record books that she dlscovers ln a blscult box
and at the pattern of repeated lmages on the cover of
the box.
Jhe blscult box also provldes a ~ or
mlnlature verslon of the entlre text. Jhe woman on the
cover ls lylng on the grass holdlng a box, as Loulse slm
llarly holds a box ln the novel; the plcture ln turn por
trays a mlnlature verslon of the same woman holdlng
the same box, wlth the repetltlon of the same lmage
golng on endlessly. Jhe serles of lncreaslngly dlstant
lmages suggests the retrospectlve perspectlves of the
novel. the reader looks back at the perlod when the nar
ratlon took place and flnds a narrator looklng back at
the ten days durlng whlch the aunt lay dylng and at
Loulse looklng back at the past llfe of the aunt and
other members of the famlly. Narratlve structure thus
echoes the repetltlve pattern of famlllal and hlstorlcal
events that Loulse seeks to understand.
Slmon`s next novel, i~ o c~I earned
hlm the l960 Prlx de ibK Llke ieI lt focuses
on a central character`s efforts to understand the past.
Georges, prlor to hls marrlage to Loulse ln ieI
dwells on the enlgmatlc death of hls dlstant cousln and
wartlme commander, de Relxach. Although he narrates
some of the events to hls cynlcal fellow prlsoner Blum
ln a German prlson camp, the central narratlve sltua
tlon ls a nlght that he spends wlth de Relxach`s young
wldow, Corlnne, after the war, and that culmlnates ln
her angry departure.
Jhe novel beglns wlth hls meetlng Captaln de
Relxach ln the wlnter of l939-l910 and then shlfts to
several days ln May l910 when two successlve defeats
and the deaths of de Relxach and the soldler Wack
occur. Symmetrlcal ln deslgn, the novel also ends wlth
the captaln`s death, wlth the lmportant central posltlon
glven to the ambush lnto whlch the squadron falls that
causes lts destructlon. A multlpllclty of seemlngly unre
lated eplsodes ls recounted. the wanderlngs of the caval
rymen, a horse race, the trlp Georges and Blum make
by traln to prlson, the stop de Relxach and hls troops
make to have a drlnk at an lnn, and the recollectlons
Georges has of hls father on hls farm. Slmon has
explalned that durlng the flnal stages of wrltlng the
novel, he used colored threads and strlps of paper
marked wlth colored penclls to represent the dlfferent
themes and vlsuallze thelr lnterweavlng. (Readers can
see Slmon`s outllnes and maps ln an appendlx ln the
2006 Pllade edltlon of hls |Works|). Gradually,
Georges`s lnterest focuses on the posslblllty that de
Relxach actually sought death ln battle because of
Corlnne`s adulterous relatlonshlp wlth the couple`s
orderly and hlred hand, the jockey Iglsla. Jhe llkell
hood that de Relxach wanted to dle seems all the
greater as Georges learns from Wack the story of
another adulterous relatlonshlp lnvolvlng a lame
farmer, ln whose barn the soldlers are bllleted, and as
Georges trades storles wlth Blum about an elghteenth
century ancestor of the de Relxachs, whose sulclde ls
suggested vlsually by a staln on a famlly portralt resem
bllng a bullet wound. (Slmon owned the portralt he
descrlbed ln the novel.) But a clear understandlng of the
events proves to be lmposslble. Iglsla and Wack may
have fabrlcated thelr storles of adultery ln response to
Georges`s and Blum`s teaslng. Confuslon surrounds the
quarrel between the lame farmer and a town offlclal as
well as the motlve for the lame farmer`s keeplng hls
brother`s wlfe locked up ln the farmhouse. Blum takes
llbertles wlth the facts about the ancestor`s havlng been
dlscovered nude at the moment of hls death and falls to
establlsh whether hls motlve was personal jealousy or
polltlcal dlsllluslonment because of the fallure of the
Irench Revolutlon.
Jhe central theme of the lmposslblllty of under
standlng the past ls furthered ln i~ o c~ by
the narratlve practlce of calllng lnto questlon the narra
tor`s ldentlty. Jhe 'I" who narrates and the Georges, or
'he," whose actlons are descrlbed seem to be two sepa
rate characters whose volces are dlscordantly juxta
posed. After some flfteen pages narrated ln the flrst
person, the novel abruptly changes to the thlrd. Jhe
slmllar shlfts throughout the novel can be compared to
the openlng and closlng of parentheses, wlth a return to
the prevlous narratlve volce occurrlng several pages
later. 'I" strlves to create hls subjectlvlty through lan
guage; but he repeatedly flnds hls volce and subjectlvlty
usurped by 'he," an lmpersonal object ln hls consclous
ness. Jhe shlfts from 'I" to 'he" occur at such moments
of selfdoubt as looklng ln mlrrors or sufferlng from the
effects of fatlgue, alcohol, or tobacco. Jhe opposltlon
between 'I" and 'he" strlps the central character of con
trol over hlmself. Georges ls merely a shadow of the tra
dltlonal flrstperson narrator. as 'he," he ls merely an
lmpersonal object created by the narrator 'I"; as 'I," he
ls merely an lnsubstantlal, verbal presence ln a text.
Descrlptlon, whlch plays a key role ln i~ o
c~ and other novels of the second perlod, focuses
on the key motlf of horses. Horses on a raclng fleld,
269
ai_ PPO `~ p
decorated wlth brlght colors such as coral, evoke
Corlnne. Jhe cavalrymen return on four occaslons to a
spot where a dead horse lles decaylng, lts physlcal dete
rloratlon symbollzlng the same lnvlslble change as the
growth of the grass ln ieK Slmon has descrlbed the
temporal pattern formed by the repeated descrlptlons of
the dead horse as a cloverleaf drawn by beglnnlng at a
certaln polnt and, wlthout llftlng pencll from paper,
returnlng to lt three tlmes. Jhe pattern evokes the pas
sage of tlme durlng war, the successlon of words that
loop back on themselves, and the threepart dlvlslon of
the novel, wlth the stem of the cloverleaf formed by the
lntroductlon of themes ln the 'prelude." It ls lntended
to provlde the klnd of lmmedlate apprehenslon of the
dlverslty of war that Slmon clalmed to have experl
enced when, as he was returnlng on a bus from Etretat
wlth Llndon, a group of trees seemed to pull back,
reveallng other trees, and the entlre novel came to hlm
ln a flash. He was then able to wrlte ln fourteen months
what he had been thlnklng about for twenty years.
Jhe Spanlsh Clvll War ls descrlbed slmllarly ln
i m~~I through memory and lmaglnatlon, ln an effort
to understand and reconstruct the past. Jhe novel ls
dlvlded lnto flve parts. Part l, 'Inventalre" (Inventory),
beglns wlth a descrlptlon of a plgeon that the narrator
observes on the balcony from lnslde a room, followed
by a descrlptlon of the room and the sltuatlon of the
narrator`s return to the scene of hls earller partlclpatlon
ln the clvll war. Jhe maln characters are a cynlcal
Amerlcan; two doctrlnalre revolutlonarles, the school
master and the offlcer or pollceman; and an Itallan gun
man called Jhe Rlfle. It becomes clear that the Amerlcan,
who deplores the use of vlolence to sllence opposlng vlews
wlthln the revolutlonary ranks, ls lrrevocably allenated
from the others ln the group.
Part 2, 'Rclt de l`hommefusll" (Jhe Rlfle`s
Story), presents the flrst of a serles of acts of polltlcal
vlolence. By telllng hls story to the narrator and draw
lng a dlagram, the Itallan descrlbes how he entered a
restaurant, passed through a serles of polnts from the
door to a table ln order to klll a man, and then retraced
hls movements after havlng commltted the murder. Hls
passage through the polnts ls echoed ln a neon slgn, on
whlch flashlng neon arrows create movement, and ln
the eplgraph, whlch deflnes revolutlon as 'mouvement
dùn moblle qul, parcourant une courbe ferme, repasse
successlvement par les mmes polnts" (the locus of a
movlng body whlch, descrlblng a closed curve, succes
slvely passes through the same polnts).
Part 3, 'Les Iunrallles de Patrocle" (Jhe Iuneral
of Patroclus), presents the assasslnatlon of the revolu
tlonary leader Santlago. Members of a revolutlonary
party follow a clrcular path through the clty ln a funeral
processlon, carrylng slgns and banners that express
thelr bewllderment about the reasons for the assasslna
tlon. Jhe clrcular trajectory of the processlon ls seen
from a dlstance by the narrator and hls companlons; as
they dlscuss lts slgnlflcance, the confllct between the
Amerlcan and the schoolmaster concernlng the role of
vlolence ln furtherlng a revolutlonary cause ls helght
ened.
Part 1, 'Dans la nult" (In Jhe Nlght), presents the
Amerlcan`s nocturnal departure, whlch the narrator
now llnks to the polltlcal assasslnatlons of the man ln
the restaurant and Santlago. Hls growlng angulsh about
the Republlcan movement ls lndlrectly expressed
through a lengthy descrlptlon of a clgar box. Part 5,
'Bureau des objets perdus" (Lost and Iound), presents
hls further angulsh ln seeklng to understand the facts of
the Amerlcan`s departure and the larger meanlng of
revolutlon. Hlnts at the narrator`s sulclde or the Ital
lan`s death at the end suggest that the vlolence engen
dered by revolutlon wlll contlnue. As ln the other
novels of the second perlod, there ls no solutlon to the
enlgmas of the past. Only the search for the solutlon
has meanlng.
A slmllar search ls deplcted ln eI wlnner of
the l967 Prlx Mdlcls but one of the works Slmon
omltted from the Pllade collectlon. Jhe novel, whose
tltle means elther hlstory or story, beglns at nlght, as the
narrator`s perceptlons of the fragmented forms and
movements of a tree glve rlse to recollectlons about
members of hls famlly. the death of hls mother; hls
father`s travels through the colonlal emplre, recorded
on postcards and stamps; the death or departure of hls
Lncle Charles; hls grandmother`s role ln ralslng
Charles`s chlldren, Corlnne and Paulou.
Jhe second chapter presents the narrator ln the
mornlng of the slngle day recounted ln the novel, agaln
looklng at the tree and recalllng the past. He remembers
hls wlfe, Hlne, who elther left hlm or commltted sul
clde when he was leavlng for Spaln. Because Charles`s
wlfe also elther left hlm or commltted sulclde, he aban
doned hls lntellectual llfe ln Parls and retlred to the
country, as has the narrator by returnlng to the house
of hls chlldhood.
Other acts recounted ln e are mundane.
golng to a bank to borrow money, eatlng ln a restau
rant, or selllng some old furnlture. Jhe narrator recalls
such seemlngly unrelated eplsodes as Corlnne`s provoc
atlve behavlor as a young glrl, de Relxach`s apparent
sulclde ln battle, and an eplsode of street flghtlng durlng
the Spanlsh Clvll War. Jhere ls a lengthy descrlptlon of
a photograph deplctlng Lncle Charles, a palnter named
Van Velden, and a nude model ln a studlo. It becomes
lncreaslngly lmposslble to determlne elther the ldentlty
of the characters or the nature of the eventswhether lt
was Hlne, Charles`s wlfe; Corlnne; or the artlst`s
270
`~ p ai_ PPO
model who commltted sulclde, as ls suggested by the
headllne about a woman jumplng out of a fourthfloor
wlndow, or whether she merely left because her man
was unfalthful, as ls suggested by obllque references to
an adulterous affalr between an older man and a
younger woman. Llke the novels of the thlrd perlod, the
work ends wlth the same polgnant sense of a mysterl
ous past and a narrator`s vallant but futlle efforts to
understand lt.
Io otoillc dc Ilorsolc (l969; translated as Tlc
ottlc of Ilorsolus, l97l), llke Ic !cvt, ls a transltlonal
work. Although certaln thematlc features llnk lt to the
second perlod, other features announce the thlrd
perlod. Jhe arrested movement of an arrow evoked ln
the eplgraph from Paul Valry and the dlscontlnuous
perceptlon of a blrd descrlbed ln part l announce the
emphasls ln the new perlod on fragmented words and
lmagessun, shadow, arrow, wlngs, fllghtwhlch are
palred and lnterwoven wlth other words and lmages,
yet whlch are not meant to result ln the same degree of
thematlc and llngulstlc unlty evldent ln the second
perlod. Ior example, U, a phoneme ln the flrst word of
the novel, jouvc, appears later as a sound or letter ln key
words and serves to deslgnate the narratlve volce as
well as to represent the clrcular form of the novel. Jhat
the generatlve process, not the story, attracts the
reader`s attentlon ls characterlstlc of Slmon`s thlrd
perlod.
Part 2 explores the poetlc qualltles of seven words
presented as unrelated unlts ln a lexlcon. Jhe entry for
otoillc descrlbes fragmented battle scenes deplcted ln
works of art, wlth no relatlon to a temporal context.
Moclivc presents an abandoned agrlcultural machlne
that has been reduced from a functlonlng system to a
collectlon of fragmented parts. Part 3 establlshes addl
tlonal new narratlve patterns. Jhe tense ls the present;
the narratlve volce ls objectlve; and the style ls slmple.
Jhere are no lntruslons of subjectlvlty, such as refralns
or vltuperatlve expresslons, and vlrtually no parenthe
ses, long sentences, present partlclples, or expllclt meta
phors. Slmon perfected a style that purportedly reflects
the worklngs of language, not consclousness. Accordlng
to Slmon, the ldea for that style came to hlm upon dls
coverlng the stark vertlcal llnes of New York, ln contrast
wlth the extravagant curves of baroque archltecture ln
Europe. Io otoillc dc Ilorsolc closes on a dlstlnctly optl
mlstlc note. Instead of the negatlve lmages wlth whlch
the works of the second perlod come to an end, thls
novel presents the wrlter actlvely at work, not destroy
lng but constructlng, not rejectlng but afflrmlng. Reallty
no longer oppresses hlm but ylelds to the patterns of
wrltlng. Jhe closlng lmage ls of sunllght progresslng
across the page. 'La llgne de sparatlon entre lòmbre et
le solell coupe aux deux tlers et en obllque la feullle de
papler pose devant O" (Jhe llne separatlng shadow
and sunllght falls twothlrds of the way across the sheet
of paper ln front of O).
Slmon also makes a transltlon ln Io otoillc dc
Ilorsolc by refuslng to subordlnate all narratlve sltua
tlons to one central sltuatlon. Jhe dlfference between
thls novel and the precedlng Histoirc ls strlklng ln that
both lnclude many of the same eplsodes and characters.
the artlst Van Velden and hls model ln the studlo;
Lncle Charles ln the dlmly llt offlce where he helps the
narrator wlth hls Latln translatlons; soldlers defeated ln
battle and fleelng ln the countryslde; the narrator ln
Greece; the narrator sufferlng pangs of jealousy and
remorse. Not all of these are related ln the narrator`s
memory, experlence, or lmaglnatlon ln Io otoillc dc
Ilorsolc as they are ln Histoirc. A radlcal departure from
the use of a slngle polnt of vlew occurs when the narra
tor and other characters come to be deslgnated as O,
lòcil (the eye) or observer who serves as the center of
vlslon of the novel. O can be anyone, anywhere, at any
tlme. O ls seen on a traln durlng a trlp through Italy, ln
Greece looklng for the Pharsalus battlefleld, ln bed
maklng love wlth the artlst, ln Charles`s offlce seeklng
help wlth Latln translatlons. O ls llke a camera that
enables a movle dlrector to dwell on the artlstlc proper
tles of people, places, or objects. Lnlty ls no longer pro
vlded by memory and consclousness.
Jhe thlrd perlod of Slmon`s wrltlng beglns wlth
the publlcatlon of Uriov ovcuglc (l970, Orlon Bllnded),
followed by a greatly expanded verslon of the same text
retltled Ics Corps covductcurs (l97l; translated as Covduct-
ivg odics, l971). Adoptlng the vlew that the author
should exerclse only llmlted control over the narratlve
process, Slmon durlng thls perlod allowed generatlng
lmages and words to determlne the content and narra
tlve coherence of the novel, ln the absence of a precon
celved narratlve deslgn. Jhe connotatlve and materlal
propertles of words and lmages comblne and send the
wrlter down new and unexpected 'sentlers de la cra
tlon" (paths of creatlon). Jhe author`s role ls to choose
powerful and poetlc generators that actlvely produce
meanlng. Jhese generators transmlt what can be called
an electrlcal charge to the entlre novel.
Uriov ovcuglc, Ics Corps covductcurs, and subsequent
novels lnclude a multlpllclty of narratlve sequences,
wlth an lncreaslng deemphasls of the central narratlve
sltuatlon. Slmon`s goal was to conslder materlal proper
tles of words and thlngsthe orlglnal tltle of Ics Corps
covductcurs was 'Proprlts de quelques flgures,
gomtrlques ou non" (Propertles of Several Geometrlc
and Nongeometrlc Ilgures)and then to joln or super
lmpose those propertles from one sequence to another.
Ics Corps covductcurs presents several eplsodes. a slck
man moves along a street ln an Amerlcan clty; a col
27l
ai_ PPO `~ p
umn of soldlers or guerrlllas advances through the
jungle wlth dlfflculty; a man takes a long and exhaust
lng plane rlde; a man vlslts a museum and a doctor`s
offlce; a wrlter attends an endless wrlters` congress ln
Latln Amerlca; bllnd Orlon moves groplngly through
the sky toward the sun; and a man spends a nlght wlth
a woman whom he has trled to reach repeatedly by
phone. Although the efforts of the slck man to reach hls
hotel a short dlstance away may seem to provlde the
llnk among the varlous serles, Slmon has sald that no
element should be vlewed as prlvlleged or provldlng an
anchor ln reallty. Jo dlspel any reallstlc assumptlons, he
presents each serles not only ln lts normal narratlve
form but also as a text (slgn, book, movle, and so on)
read or vlewed by characters ln the other serles.
Slmon`s method ls perhaps more evldent ln Uriov
ovcuglc than ln Ics Corps covductcurs. Jhe former ls lllus
trated by a dlverse collectlon of vlsual materlals. works
of art by Rauschenberg, Pablo Plcasso, Poussln, and
Dubuffet; anatomlcal drawlngs; geographlcal and com
merclal photographs and deslgns; and an astrologlcal
map. Based on these vlsual generators, the text devel
ops the theme of perceptlon, culmlnatlng ln the flnal
lmage of an anatomlcal drawlng of the lnternal parts of
the eye. In Ics Corps covductcurs, ln whlch the vlsual gen
erators dlsappear, the reader ls less consclous of the process
of generatlon ltself and more aware of the protagonlst`s
consclousness as the locus of perceptlon. Slnce the clos
lng vlsual lmage of the eye ls replaced by an eplsode ln
whlch the slck man falls facedown on the rug of hls
hotel room, an lndlvldual subjectlvlty seems to replace
the anonymous perceptual presence ln Uriov ovcuglc. In
the novels wrltten shortly after Ics Corps covductcurs,
Slmon strove lncreaslngly to ellmlnate or mlnlmlze the
role of thls central consclousness.
In Ics Corps covductcurs the passage among
sequences ls based on the sensual, textual, and thematlc
propertles of these serles. Jhus, the reader moves from
the tubular forms of skyscrapers to the slmllar forms of
the dlgestlve tract, from the 'colonnes" (columns) ln the
hall where the delegates` meetlng takes place or ln wrlt
ten texts to 'colons" and 'clons" (colonlallsts and
lnternal organs). Jhe text shlfts from the human body,
ln paln or engaged ln the sexual act, to polltlcal bodles,
bodles of land, celestlal bodles ln constellatlons, or artl
flclal bodles of mannequlns. Whatever body ls at lssue,
certaln problems arlse. Remoteness from reallty ls com
mon to the wrlters` meetlng, the vlew of South Amerlca
from a plane, and the state of lntense paln. Arrested
movement ls common to the slck man ln the street, the
flgure of Orlon ln the sky, and the colonlallsts or guer
rlllas movlng through the forest. Another common
theme ls the fragmentatlon of bodles, thelr separatlon
from an organlc whole. In modern soclety, the novel
suggests, man ls cut off from hlmself and the external
world. Hls bllnd and hesltant attempts to glve meanlng
to hls fragmented world correspond both to Orlon`s ln
movlng through the sky and the author`s ln wrltlng.
Triptyquc, publlshed the year Slmon recelved an
honorary degree from the Lnlverslty of East Anglla ln
Norwlch, England, successfully accompllshes what the
author achleved partlally ln Ics Corps covductcurs: the
ellmlnatlon of a central consclousness and prlvlleged
narratlve sltuatlon. Jhe trlpartlte structure hlghllghted
ln the tltle, whlch was lnsplred by a palntlng by Bacon,
malntalns equallty among the varlous threepart
arrangements ln the novel. Jhere are three sectlons, of
whlch the central one ls the longest; three settlngs (a
country vlllage, a northern lndustrlal clty, and a resort
clty that resembles Nlce); three maln types of artlstlc
representatlons that llnk the varlous sequences (post
cards, posters, and movles); and trlangular lmages of all
sorts, lncludlng geometrlcal flgures drawn by a boy.
Wlthln and among these trlpartlte arrangements, com
plex verbal and vlsual connectlons are formed. Jo com
blne and arrange pleces, to create a complex whole
from fragmented formsas ln a puzzle, one of the clos
lng lmages of the novelthese are Slmon`s most note
worthy accompllshments ln Triptyquc.
A serles of lmplled events underlles each
sequence. In the vlllage, a glrl drowns because the
woman responslble for watchlng her goes off to the
barn to have sex wlth a farmworker. Jhe two boys,
who are supposed to take care of the glrl durlng the
woman`s absence, are spylng on the lovemaklng
through an openlng ln the wall of the barn. In the
northern clty, a young man deserts hls brlde lmmedl
ately after thelr weddlng and returns to her late that
nlght, bloody from a drunken brawl and dlsheveled
from havlng had sex wlth a barmald. In the resort clty,
an older woman lylng undressed ln a hotel room enllsts
the asslstance of two men (Lambert and Brown),
undoubtedly current or former lovers, to extrlcate her
teenage son from the pollce on drug charges. (Readers
of Slmon`s other novels wlll ldentlfy the woman as
Corlnne, based on references to the de Relxach name
and her arlstocratlc tltle of baroness.) In addltlon to the
three maln sequences, a clrcus scene featurlng a clown,
hls companlons, and a monkey ls developed.
Common to these sequences ls the central lssue of
how reallty ls represented. Each emphaslzes angles of
vlslon and llghtlng, maklng the reader acutely aware of
who ls vlewlng, from where, and under what perceptual
condltlons. Irequently, the vlewer of a scene flrst
watches and then ls watched by others, as when the
boys watch the lovers ln the barn and are then them
selves watched. Shlfts also occur ln the medlum of the
representatlon, as when the boys look at the world
272
`~ p ai_ PPO
dlrectly and then hold up to the llght a fllmstrlp that
deplcts another world, or when the reader focuses on
the scene ln the barn and then on an engravlng of a
maldservant seduced ln a barn. Jhe shlfts ln the
medlum of representatlon are the most pronounced ln
the sequence of the resort clty, whlch ls presented
through dlrect narratlon, as a story ln a novel,
descrlbed as a plcture on the cover of the novel, and
presented ln verbal equlvalents clnematographlc forms
and actlvltlesas stllls, transparencles, movlng fllm,
posters, and the actual fllmlng on a set. Jhere ls no
longer any separatlon between reallty and lts lmaglnary
or artlstlc representatlon.
Another common theme ln Slmon ls erotlclsm,
whlch ls treated ln a new and startllngly graphlc way ln
q and ln the later novel i K Expllclt
descrlptlons of genltalla and sexual acts become longer
and more lmportant as the novel progresses, especlally
ln the story of the brldegroom and the barmald.
Closely assoclated wlth the erotlc theme are certaln
recurrent colors (plnk, yellow, purple), forms (trlangles,
vertlcal llnes, openlngs), and words such as K Jhese
colors, forms, and words are the basls of the passages
from one sequence to another. Asked to comment on
the graphlc nature of hls sexual descrlptlons, Slmon has
slmply noted that they are no more or less detalled than
hls descrlptlons of trees, clouds, flowers, battles, or
stones.
i ls noteworthy because lt relntro
duces thematlc features from Slmon`s second perlod
lnto a work that adheres to the narratlve practlces of hls
thlrd. Jhe result ls a partlal synthesls between the ear
ller subjectlve, hlstorlcal vlslon and the later lmper
sonal, strlctly llterary approach. Irom the latter, Slmon
adopts the trlpartlte structure used ln qI ln whlch
the three parts are of equal lmportance and ln whlch no
central consclousness provldes a stable narratlve focus.
But as ln earller novels such as i~ o c~I
i also presents the drama of war and on
several occaslons adopts the flrstperson volce of a par
tlclpant ln that drama. Of the seven parts of the novel
'Gnrlque" (Generlc), 'Expanslon," 'Dlvertlssement
I" (Dlverslon I), 'Leon de choses" (Object Lesson),
'Dlvertlssement II," 'La Charge de Relchshoffen,"
'Courtsclrcults" (Shortclrcults)the two 'dlvertlsse
ments" are long flrstperson monologues ln slang that
present a soldler`s frantlc vlewpolnt on war.
Jhe soldler`s vlewpolnt also plays a hlghly slgnlfl
cant role ln parts 2, 1, and 6, ln whlch the trlpartlte
structure ls developed by the lnterweavlng of three nar
ratlve sequences. Jhelr common thread ls the settlng of
a house; lt enables Slmon to develop what he has called
the theme and varlatlon form of thls novel. In the flrst
sequence, two masons are demollshlng a wall whlle
remodellng a country house. Jhe tlme ls the present or
recent past. In the second, four cavalrymen are defend
lng a house agalnst the Germans durlng World War II.
Jhreatened wlth belng surrounded, they are angry
about thelr offlcers` fallure to order a retreat. In the
thlrd, several women, a chlld, and a man are walklng
along the cllffs near the sea; they stop on a cllff whlle
the llttle glrl has a snack; they watch a flsherman brlng
ln hls catch; as a subplot, one of the women, whose hus
band ls away, meets the man later that nlght and com
mlts adultery wlth hlm ln a fleld near the country
house. She becomes furlous and flnally runs away
because he shows lnsensltlvlty to her concerns about
becomlng pregnant. Because of the women`s old
fashloned clothlng, thls sequence appears to take place
ln the nlneteenth century. Although nothlng dramatlc
happens ln any of the sequences, a sense of closure
arlses at the end, suggested by the decreaslng llght of
day, the departlng movement of a boat, the concludlng
rhythm of the sex act, and the falllng down of the wall.
Slmon has commented that as he was flnlshlng the
book, he happened to open the dlctlonary to the word
(fall), and reallzed that the whole novel conslsted
of varlatlons on the dlverse meanlngs of that word.
As ln other novels, there ls no prlvlleged sequence
ln i K Constant shlfts occur among the three
sequences, often based on passages from movement to
stasls; one sequence ls presented as a newspaper ltem or
ls frozen and ls descrlbed as a framed representatlon ln
another sequence. It may be true that the soldlers and
the workers assume a greater degree of reallty than the
characters ln the seaslde sequence, who appear more
frequently as representatlons vlewed by the other char
acters ln calendars, books, or palntlngs (especlally
lmpresslonlst palntlngs). Moreover, an lmportant llnk
between the soldlers and the workers ls establlshed at
the end when lt becomes apparent that the older of the
two workers was one of the soldlers and thus that hls
polnt of vlew has speclal slgnlflcance. Jhat polnt of
vlew becomes lmportant only ln retrospect, however,
and does not keep the reader from vlewlng the three
sequences as equal durlng the readlng of the novel.
Jhe process of assoclatlon ln i ls also
characterlstlc of Slmon`s thlrd perlod. Sequences are
llnked through key words such as I whlch at varl
ous tlmes glves rlse to assoclatlons wlth the lmpresslon
lst palnter Eugne Louls Boudln, a tlghtly flttlng
garment, rolls, the fender on a boat, and a swollen fln
ger. Other llnks hlnge on the two meanlngs of the word
I sall and vell, and on the slmllar sounds of
(the botanlcal term ) and (parasols), or
(sea) and (mother). Jhe assoclatlve process
used to generate the narratlon ls hlghllghted ln the flrst
sectlon, 'Gnrlque," whlch lncludes a twopage
273
ai_ PPO `~ p
descrlptlon of a wall that ls common to the settlng of
the three maln narratlve sequences; partlal verbatlm
repetltlons of that descrlptlon occur ln the last sectlon,
'Courtsclrcults." Jhe second sectlon, 'Expanslon,"
beglns wlth the deplctlon of an lmpresslonlstlc seascape,
later ldentlfled as Claude Monet`s k~~I b
(l897, Water Lllles, Evenlng Effect), and contlnues
by extendlng the verbal and vlsual assoclatlons to
whlch the openlng descrlptlon gave rlse. Jhese assocla
tlons provlde the thematlc and narratlve core of the
work.
Jhe tltle i ls a slgnlflcant comment on
Slmon`s narratlve technlques as well as a reflectlon
upon thelr slgnlflcance. It suggests a school lesson on
objectlve observatlon and refers to an elementarysclence
textbook that one soldler ls readlng. In the textbook he
flnds lllustratlons and a dldactlc text that unsuccessfully
compete wlth thlngs around hlm and fall to provlde an
escape from reallty. the text attempts to tell, for exam
ple, how to bulld a house, but the soldler reaches thls
explanatlon at the moment when thelr shelter ls crum
bllng. Jhe other soldler, who talks ln the two 'dlver
tlssements," comes closer to provldlng a true 'lesson of
thlngs." Hls lesson, llke that of the novel, teaches not
only how to use thlngs but also how to appreclate thelr
propertles, texture, color, sound, and smell.
A slmllar synthesls of Slmon`s second and thlrd
perlods ls accompllshed on a more extenslve, eplc scale
ln i dK Although there are agaln three maln
narratlve sequences that form a trlpartlte structure, the
themes developed ln those sequences are remlnlscent of
the second perlod. Each treats a partlclpant ln a major
hlstorlcal event. General L.S.M., who plays varlous mll
ltary, polltlcal, and dlplomatlc roles before, durlng, and
after the Irench Revolutlon; an unnamed Irench sol
dler ln World War II, who retreats from Belglum dur
lng the Irench defeat ln l910, crosses the Meuse
shortly before the brldges blow up, ls captured, and
escapes from a prlson camp near Dresden; and an
Engllsh volunteer ln the Spanlsh Clvll War, deslgnated
as O, who flghts on the Aragon front ln l937, ls
wounded by a bullet ln the neck, and ls chased by the
pollce ln Barcelona after the anarchlst lnsurrectlon ln
May.
Jhe prologue and flrst part of i d set a
tone that ls characterlstlc of Slmon`s work ln the thlrd
perlod, wlth later parts developlng themes from the
novels of l958 to l969. Jhe sevenpage prologue lntro
duces the generatlve lmage of the general, presented
flrst as a character and then as a drawlng. Jhe prologue
also lntroduces a metatextual element ln reflectlons on
the unflnlshed nature of the drawlng and the contrast
between lts reallstlc foreground and schematlc back
ground. Jhat metatextual element underlles the rest of
the novel wlth lts obvlous alluslons to novels by Proust
and by Slmon hlmself.
Part l lnterweaves characters, dlfferent perlods ln
the general`s llfe, and several dlfferent types of language
to represent the general`s offlclal documents and
records of dally actlvltles; the soldler`s war experlences,
whlch he ls reported to have told ln a novel; and O`s
supposedly objectlve reports and hls nalve trust ln lan
guage. Jhe style conslsts of the short, slmple sentences
characterlstlc of the novels after l ~K Jhe lnter
weavlng of the three sequences ln part l ls so strong,
wlth all three narratlve flgures slmllarly referred to as
'he," that only such detalls as the mentlon of alrplanes
lndlcatlng the modern perlod and Slmon`s use of ltallcs
at tlmes and of roman type at others enable the reader
to dlstlngulsh one from the other.
In the rest of the novel, the themes and separate
treatment of the three narratlve sequences are remlnls
cent of earller novels. Part 2 recalls i~ o c~
through lts focus on the hardshlps and reallty of war.
Jhe subject ls the breakdown of command durlng the
debacle of the Irench defeat at the beglnnlng of World
War II and the almost total declmatlon of the squadron
to whlch the soldler belonged. Part 3, remlnlscent of
eI lntroduces the narrator and establlshes hls llnk
wlth the general; the narrator`s grandmother owned a
bust of the general that ls the stlmulus for hls attempt to
reconstruct the general`s past llfe.
Part 1, whlch recounts the hardshlps endured by
a partlclpant ln the Spanlsh Clvll War, recalls i m~~K
Whlle the partlclpant ls lnltlally ldentlfled as O, llke the
'oell" or observer ln i~ _~~ m~~I he ls later
ldentlfled as George Orwell through descrlptlons of hls
Engllsh mllleu. Slmon has acknowledged that Orwell`s
e~ `~~~ (l938) was the prlme stlmulus for
thls sectlon. Jhree locatlons are descrlbed. the Aragon
front, Barcelona, and England. Jhe Barcelona locatlon
flgures ln two eplsodes, ln chronologlcally reverse
order. O`s return after havlng been wounded, only to
learn that he ls wanted by the pollce; and hls arrlval ln
Spaln. Jhe return, wlth lts focus on the frlghtenlng
presence of polltlcal flgures who pursue mercllessly the
socalled enemles of freedom, reveals the profoundly
antltotalltarlan thrust of Slmon`s thought, whlle the
arrlval reveals Slmon`s crltlcal attltude toward Orwell`s
omlsslon of the baslc fact that the Russlans were con
trolllng the Spanlsh Left. Orwell`s recountlng of the
Spanlsh Clvll War ls thus contrasted wlth the one
Slmon presents, as the two lessons about thlngs are con
trasted ln i . Jhe contrast ls between an
authorltatlve text and a hesltant one, between one that
trles to lmaglne what happened and one that clalms to
know. Orwell, as an lmpersonal journallst, pretends to
271
`~ p ai_ PPO
capture reallty, but he too, Slmon suggests, ends up
wrltlng a novel.
Part 5 dwells on the general`s return to Irance
after the Revolutlon and the hldden facts of hls relatlon
shlp wlth hls famlly. Jhe maln fact ls that L.S.M. unwlt
tlngly caused hls brother`s death by votlng for a law
whereby any arlstocrat who emlgrated at the tlme of the
Revolutlon and who returned to Irance armed would
recelve the death penalty. Another hldden fact ls that
L.S.M.`s son by hls flrst marrlage removed money and
valuables from the chteau at the tlme of hls father`s
death, promptlng the second wlfe to dlspute hls wlll and
eventually regaln the lnherltance. Jhroughout thls part
the narrator`s lmaglnatlon ls at work, attemptlng to
reconstruct the truth of the general`s past from the doc
uments relatlng to the dlspute over hls wlll and hls
brother`s trlal for desertlon. A tenslon ls created
between the legal text, whlch pretends to know the
truth, and the novel, whlch seeks to dlscover lt.
Although dlverse ln subject and technlque, the
parts of Ics Ccorgiqucs form a coherent thematlc whole.
All of them address the prlmary lssue of the relatlon
shlp between reallty and llterature. Jhat relatlonshlp ls
central to the georglc tradltlon hlghllghted ln the tltle
alluslon to Vlrgll`s Ccorgico and the eplgraph from |ean
|acques Rousseau`s Covfcssiovs (l782, l789). Lnllke Vlr
gll, whose dldactlc tone encourages men to turn to
worklng the land, Slmon ls concerned slmply wlth the
concrete reallty of nature. the general`s perceptlons of
hls property from hls chteau looklng out over the val
ley, and the perceptlons of the soldler and O endurlng
the hardshlps of battle. Common to all three characters
ls a strong sense of the rhythmlc progresslon of the sea
sons and the cycllcal, repetltlve nature of llfe. Jhe pas
slvlty of merely conformlng to the cycllcal nature of
thlngs, however, ls contrasted wlth the actlvlty of wrlt
lng. Wrltlng ls Slmon`s response to the deterloratlon
exempllfled ln hlstory and by the advanced age of the
narrator and the general. Wrltlng means puttlng
together the pleces of the past, as the narrator does wlth
the pleces of the general`s llfe and Slmon does wlth the
pleces of hls former wrltlngs. It ls the response to dlsll
luslonment such as that experlenced by the soldler, the
partlclpant ln Spaln, and the general. Out of the rulns of
the revolutlonary splrlt and values for whlch L.S.M.
fought, hls descendant succeeds ln creatlng new values
and meanlng through llterature.
Slmon`s IÌvvitotiov (l987; translated as Tlc Ivvito-
tiov, l99l) reveals the same antltotalltarlan vlewpolnt as
Ics Ccorgiqucs, ln thls case dlrected speclflcally at Sovlet
Russla under Mlkhall Gorbachev. Jhe blographlcal
basls for thls work was an lnternatlonal wrlters` confer
ence that took place ln October l986, ln Irunze, at the
Chlnese border. IÌvvitotiov, a brlef narratlve based on
thls event, adopts a sarcastlc, satlrlcal tone, dlrected
notably agalnst the same klnd of seemlngly lntermlna
ble offlclal dlscourses that were mocked ln connectlon
wlth the wrlters` conference ln Ics Corps covductcurs. At
the same tlme lt explores ln sensorlal lmages and meta
phors the Russlan landscape, culture, and language.
Zlbum dùv omotcur (l988, Album of an Amateur)
ls a flftyfourpage album of photographs, labeled
'Objekt N
8" ln the publlsher`s Sigvotur |slc| serles, llm

lted to fewer than l,000 coples, all slgned by Slmon.
Jhe photographs, some ln black and whlte, one sepla,
most ln color, bear commentarles by Slmon of varylng
length, translated lnto German at the end by Werner
Zettelmeler. Jhe photographers are not named, but lt ls
known that most of the photos were by Slmon, excep
tlons belng a famlly photograph from Madagascar and
perhaps certaln photos of artworks and a portralt of the
author. Jhe subjects lnclude scenes of European coun
trles and |apan. Among the artworks ls a wash by
Poussln; another lmage ls the supposed scene of the bat
tle of Pharsalus. Jhe photographs can be vlewed as
constltutlve of a partlal autoblography, an artlstlc lden
tlty; or one may take them as random samples of
Slmon`s experlence.
I`Zcocio (l989; translated as Tlc Zcocio, l99l) can
be sald to lnltlate the flnal perlod of Slmon`s flctlon,
although there are no rlgld breaks ln hls work. In thls
novel, lnstead of experlmentlng further wlth such
means of generatlng text as lsolated words, objects, or
lmages, he returns to memory as text generator. Ieatur
lng a central consclousness, I`Zcocio functlons as a brll
llant summary or reprlse, ln flctlonal form, of the
author`s background and llfe, presented ln conslderable
detall. It ls hls verslon of the famlly saga as practlced by
other wrlters lncludlng Iaulkner. It can be usefully com
pared as well to Albert Camus`s posthumous unfln
lshed novel, Ic Ircmicr Hommc (l991; translated as Tlc
Iirst Mov, l995), whlch treats Camus`s chlldhood and
hls father`s llfe ln barely flctlonallzed form. Jhere ls
resemblance ln thelr storles, for each author was born
ln autumn l9l3 and the father of each dled ln l9l1, ln
the early flghtlng of World War I; both wrlters were
clearly concerned wlth the absent, shadowy father flg
ure. Whlle Slmon had already devoted many pages to
evoklng characters modeled on hls mother and mem
bers of her famlly, whom he knew much better, slnce he
spent hls chlldhood among them, and whose ancestral
storles, datlng back to the Irench Revolutlon, lnterested
hlm especlally, he had also evoked the father flgure, ln
Histoirc, for lnstance.
Jhe style and paragraph composltlon of I`Zcocio
are somewhat llke those ln I`Hcrbc and Io Ioutc dcs Ilov-
drcs, but pronouns have stable referents wlthln each
chapter, and names or descrlptlve tags are often used to
275
ai_ PPO `~ p
ldentlfy the characters. In addltlon, readlng ls facllltated
by a dlvlslon lnto twelve dated chapters, not arranged
chronologlcally but rather accordlng to a loose alternat
lng pattern that may be taken to follow the movement
of memory. (An eplgraph from J. S. Ellot`s 'Burnt
Norton," from c n~ |l913|'Jlme present and
tlme past / Are both perhaps present ln tlme future, /
and tlme future contalned ln tlme past"emphaslzes the
fluldlty of tlme and copresence of dlfferent perlods.)
Parallels are establlshed between the man who can be
taken to be the author`s father and the one recognlzable
as hls son, who ls the central consclousness ln thls thlrd
person narratlon, although, strlctly speaklng, Slmon`s
acknowledgment that hls flctlon ls hlghly autoblograph
lcal does not warrant calllng thls central consclousness
the 'author," only 'presumed narrator." Jhe wrlter
calls on what must be hls own memorles but also
engages ln lmaglnatlve reconstltutlon of the past (uslng
scraps of lnformatlon from hls famlly, postcards, and
photographs but golng well beyond what they would
provlde, lmaglnlng conversatlons, evoklng atmospheres
and scenes). Many scenes are llke tableaux, momen
tarlly flxed, wlth a palnterly qualltyflgures and settlng;
colorlng; llght. Jhe lntertextuallty between thls novel
and othersreferences to the same objects, events, char
acters, slmllar treatment of materlalls conslderable.
Jhe actlon can be revlewed accordlng to the tem
poral clusters of the chapters, dated chlefly ln l9l1,
l9l9, l939, and l910 (notably l7 May l910) but also
lncludlng 'l880-l9l1," 'l982-l9l1," and 'l9l0-
l9l1-l910." One cluster ls concerned wlth the father
and hls famlly. Jhe novel beglns ln l9l9, as 'the
wldow" (that ls, Slmon`s mother, unnamed but easlly
recognlzable) and her two slsterslnlaw search for her
husband`s grave somewhere on a battlefleld. Chapter 3,
dated 27 August l9l1, recounts flghtlng ln Belglum,
durlng whlch the reglment experlences heavy losses
and a fortyyearold captaln (Slmon`s father) ls kllled. A
long analepsls, or flashback, recounts the man`s llfe,
from hls famlly background and boyhood through hls
mllltary tralnlng. In chapter 9, dated August l9l1, the
settlng ls a mountaln spa, or resort, to whlch the young
mother and chlld and maternal relatlves repalr after the
captaln ls called up, and where hls death ls announced
to them.
Another cluster, lncludlng chapter 5, labeled
'l880-l9l1," ls concerned wlth the maternal famlly. It
evokes the woman who eventually marrled the young
offlcer, thelr meetlng, courtshlp, and marrlage (whlch
one can date ln l9l0), and thelr few years of happlness
together ln Madagascar, before the approachlng war
necessltated thelr return to Irance. In chapter 7, dated
'l982-l9l1," the presumed narrator revlslts couslns
llvlng ln a famlly house and once agaln hears how hls
father`s death was announced, even as he lmaglnes the
captaln`s departure for war three weeks earller; but the
narratlve evokes also a general of the emplre (l80l-
l8l5) whose bust (whlch Slmon owned) stands ln the
house, and the sulclde of an ancestor ln l791, after he
had lost a revolutlonary battle.
A thlrd cluster concerns the presumed narrator,
that ls, Slmon. Chapter 6 takes place ln l939, exactly
twentyflve years after the captaln`s death (27 August),
as tralns make thelr way across Irance, bearlng reserv
lstsone the presumed narrator who have been called
up to joln thelr unlts (World War II wlll be declared on
l September), but also flashes backpartly by the motlf
of tralnsto the author`s experlences ln l937, when he
and a fellow art student crossed Poland and vlslted the
Sovlet Lnlon, and ln l936, when he managed to get to
Barcelona durlng what one ldentlfles as the clvll war ln
Spaln. Chapter 8, 'l939-l910," evokes the month of
September l939, when the presumed narrator, now a
corporal ln the cavalry, and hls squad (lncludlng charac
ters known as Blum and Iglsla ln i~ o c~)
are deployed ln a squadron ln Belglum; he feels taken
over by what he calls Hlstory, ln the form of horses`
hoofbeats on the road. Jhe chapter then sketches the
months from September to May l910, the 'drle de
guerre" (phony war). Chapters 2, 1, and l0 recount the
rout ln Ilanders ln May, lncludlng the German ambush
ln a vlllage, whlch declmates the squad; the corporal`s
survlval ln the flelds and woods; hls return to the rem
nant of hls reglment; and the colonel`s death. Readers
of i~ o c~ wlll recognlze the same narratlve
technlques as well as many repeated eplsodes and
motlfsphyslcal mlsery, loss of sense of tlme and reallty,
mechanlcal movements, crawllng through flelds, vault
lng over a hedge, hearlng the cuckoo call ln a clearlng,
rldlng agaln, drlnklng beer ln a courtyard, and seelng
the colonel dle, sword ralsed.
Chapter ll, 'l9l0-l9l1-l910," conslsts of short
apposed scenes or vlgnettes that range over the tlme
perlods and revlslt prevlous events and clrcumstances.
the captaln`s marrlage and hls slsters` devotlon to hlm;
a traln bound for Germany loaded wlth prlsoners,
lncludlng the presumed narrator (a scene adumbrated
earller); scenes from the May debacle; a gllmpse of the
colonel ln l910; the father`s death as known or lmag
lned. Jhere are also new elements. a chlld looklng for
old bullets on a World War I battleground; a mllltary
ceremony and a German personage wlth a wlthered
arm, that ls, Kalser Wllhelm II; a prlsoncamp scene; a
sketch of someone who may be the German feldmar
shal Erwln Rommel. Chapter l2 beglns wlth the pre
sumed narrator`s arrlval home ln November l910 after
escaplng, then moves by analepsls to more prlsoncamp
scenes, the escape ltself, and lts aftermath. Jhere ls ref
276
`~ p ai_ PPO
erence to a marrlage durlng a leave (ln l939 or l910).
Jhe flnal paragraph explalns and justlfles the tltle for
the novel, as, months afterward, the presumed narrator,
freed enough to waken, from the dreadful experlences
of l939-l910, slts at hls desk ln front of a sheet of
blank paper and observes the feathery leaves of an aca
cla tree, green, anlmated. Jhls endlng can be compared
wlth Proust`s ln ^ ~ I where the
narrator reallzes that he ls ready to compose the work
that readers can take to be the novel they have just fln
lshed.
Denls Roche, an emlnent poet, wrote the preface
for m~ NVPTNVTM (l992), a l11page album of
photographs ln black and whlte; there ls also a brlef
lntroductlon by Slmon, sketchlng the beglnnlngs of hls
lnterest ln photography and explorlng aspects of the art.
A valuable dlstlnctlon ls drawn between photography
and palntlng, the flrst allowlng for subtractlon, the sec
ond bullt on addltlon. after a photograph ls taken, noth
lng can be added (except by trlck), but portlons can be
removed by sclssors, whereas palntlng conslsts ln add
lng to a blank canvas. All photographs are tltled, but
only one ls dated. One assumes from the front matter
that all are by Slmon. Some from ^ ~~
reappear. Jhe subjects lnclude landscapes, boats, street
scenes (wlth acrobats, cycllsts, an old woman), walls
and rooftops, graffltl, and human subjects (many wlth
Medlterranean characterlstlcs). Wlnd blowlng ln tall
grass, female nudes, horses, racetrack scenes, and an
old tramway create lntertextual connectlons wlth
Slmon`s flctlon. Wlth one exceptlona portralt of
RobbeGrllletthe photographs are stralghtforward,
not collages or other types of art photography.
Referrlng to hls work as a whole, Slmon wrote to
Dubuffet ln l982 that lt made hlm thlnk of an
advanced mathematlcs course he had taken ln the lyce
called 'Arrangements, Permutatlons, Comblnalsons"
(Arrangements, Permutatlons, Comblnatlons). Jhe
phrase applles partlcularly well to i g~ m~I
whlch ls a compllcated, often dlscontlnuous collage of
memorles, scenes, detalled descrlptlons, characters, and
experlences juxtaposed and confused wlth each other, a
'magma d`lmages et de sensatlons" (a magma of lmages
and sensatlons). Jhe tltle refers to the Parls botanlcal
and zoologlcal gardens, descrlbed at length. Jhe novel
ls dlvlded lnto four parts. In the flrst, the narrator
speaks ln the flrst person; ln the others, thlrdperson
narratlon ls used, sometlmes speaklng of 'S." Both 'S."
and the flrstperson narrator can be ldentlfled by lnter
nal evldence wlth each other and wlth Slmon. Jhere
are many anecdotes and facts, presumably veraclous,
from Slmon`s llfe, whlch could be useful for a future
blography. Jhe eplgraph, borrowed from Mlchel de
Montalgne'Aucun ne falt certaln dessaln de sa vle, et
nèn dllbrons quà parcelles" (No one makes a certaln
plcture of hls llfe, and we reflect on lt only by pleces)
echoes Slmon`s lnslstence ln i s that one knows
experlence only by fragments.
Jhe mosalcllke juxtaposltlon ranges temporally
(scenes, actlons, other fragments from dlfferent tlme
perlods merglng lnto others, not ln chronologlcal order)
and spatlally (wlth settlngs ln Irance and many forelgn
countrles Slmon vlslted). In sectlons wlth frequent geo
graphlcal shlfts that emphaslze exotlc places and man
ners, there ls some resemblance to Butor`s j (l962;
translated, l963), another dlscontlnuous work. Jhe col
lage arrangement seems arbltrary ln places, dependlng
on free assoclatlon, but elsewhere transltlons are made
through ldentlflable sounds, lmages, or thematlc or ver
bal connectlons that underlle the novel as a whole. Var
lous clues make scene changes easler to ldentlfy as the
novel progresses. In the openlng twenty pages and on
later occaslons the collage prlnclple ls carrled out vlsu
ally, not just narratlvely, as more than one composl
tlonal element (scene, account, descrlptlon) ls pursued
on the same page, by means of dlvlslon lnto small
squares or columns, stralght or angular. On these pages,
the reader cannot proceed ln the tradltlonal llnear fash
lon but must pursue one element, then another, or sklp.
A radlcal approach to readlng would be to leaf through
the book llke an album, beglnnlng here and there,
golng back or leaplng forward, as certaln other post
modernlst flctlon such as 'deckofcards" novels lnvltes
one to do.
Among the dozens of constltutlve elements, some
are famlllar, notably those connected to the Spanlsh
Clvll War, the debacle ln Ilanders, and the events of l7
May l910. Jhe latter are also retold at length to a jour
nallst lntervlewlng 'S.," who makes expllclt hls deslre to
relate them agaln ln such a way that the lncldents and
hls reactlons wlll be better understood. Other passages
present scenes from the presumed narrator`s travels,
lncludlng some (such as ln the Sovlet Lnlon) where he
was an lnvlted guest and partlclpated ln banquets and
colloqula. Jhere are also detalls on hls escape from
prlson camp. Jhe theme of palntlng arlses frequently,
once ln connectlon wlth Pablo Plcasso, whom he vlslts.
Among addltlonal composltlonal elements are descrlp
tlons (leaves, gardens, landscapes, bulldlngs), erotlc
scenes, and quotatlons. Jhe latter range wldely. llnes
from Rommel`s letters and dlary, blts from Proust`s cor
respondence and ^ ~ I fragments
of a pollce lnterrogatlon of Sovlet poet |oseph Brodsky
(spelled Brodskl ln the book) at hls trlal ln l961, tltles
of palntlngs by Itallan artlst Gastone Novelll, excerpts
from a movle scenarlo ln draft, and fragments of a dls
cusslon on the New Novel. Jhe latter allows the author
277
ai_ PPO `~ p
to assert the lmportance for hlm of the pleces
of reallty that serve to create or support hls flctlons.
Jhe flrstperson narrator of i q~~ (200l;
translated as q qI 2002), Slmon`s last booklength
publlcatlon before hls death, can easlly be ldentlfled
wlth the author on lnternal autoblographlcal evldence.
In addltlon, when the narrator, who dlscusses Proust
more than once, notes that the authorlal volce ln ^ ~
once glves the name Marcel to
hlmself, readers of i q~~ are obllquely encouraged
to do somethlng slmllar here and thlnk of the narrator
as `~. But the work ls ldentlfled on the cover as a
novel. Jwo eplgraphs suggest strategles of readlng.
One, from Conrad, speaks of the meanlng of an epl
sode as belng not lnterlor to lt, as a hazelnut, but exte
rlor, wrapplng around lt llke vapor. Jhe other, from
Proust, ldentlfles the lmage (to be understood as elther
vlsual or flguratlve, or both) as the essentlal element ln
llterature, and suggests that ellmlnatlon of characters
would thus be an lmprovement. Jhe reader ls lnvlted
thus to rely on vlsual lmages to derlve meanlng, as the
narrator does, and to conslder the llghtlng of the whole.
i q~~ ls a paean to memory, llke most of
Slmon`s other flctlon, and because lt ls the flnal one, lt ls
partlcularly movlng. Its last words are 'l`lmpalpable et
protecteur broulllard de la mmolre" (the lmpalpable
and protectlve fog of memory). It ls constructed
around two prlnclpal narratlve llnes (or llnes of mus
lngs) between whlch the narrator alternates, one from
the dlstant past, when he was a schoolboy and took a
tramway from hls famlly house outslde town to go to
school or to the beach ln the summer, the other from
the present, as, much older, he ls lll, ln a hospltal (lnl
tlally ln 'translt" from one sectlon to another), perhaps
close to dylng. '|e ne parvenals pas . . . a sltuer exacte
ment les choses dans le temps" (I dldn`t succeed . . . ln
sltuatlng thlngs exactly ln tlme), he notes, recalllng slm
llar scenes of temporal confuslon ln Proust`s long novel.
Other past scenes are mentloned occaslonally, lncludlng
the Ilanders retreat ln l910, a German prlson camp,
and funeral practlces ln Indla. Iamlly members are
evokedcouslns, aunt, uncle, and especlally the wld
owed mother, whose sadness turns to lllness and flnally
to death. Jhls death, adumbrated over several pages
but expllcltly deplcted (wlth the body ln the coffln) only
at the end, allows connectlons to be made wlth the
mature narrator`s experlence ln the hospltalvlslons
(perhaps dellrlous) of other patlents, especlally a beautl
ful woman, probably near death (a key word), and of
flowers, those brought to the hospltal or used at a
funeral. Jhe burden of the novel ls the paln of llvlng,
whether one ls young or old, male or female, favored or
dlsfavored by fortune; the narrator speaks of 'un vlol"
(a rape) that mlght have occurred, but contlnues. 'ou
plutt, plus probablement, non pas un vlol dans sa
chalr mals comme sl la vle ellemme avalt une fols
pour toutes port en elle une attelnte lrrparable" (or
rather, more llkely, not a vlolatlon of her flesh but as lf
llfe ltself had once and for all attacked her lrreparably).
Vlsual lmagery and express comparlsons wlth
palntlngs are frequent. Jhe style, ln Slmon`s usual man
ner, ls marked by dlgresslons, often convoluted, set off
by parentheses wlthln parentheses. Jhese dlgresslons
serve sometlmes to explaln or shed addltlonal llght on
what precedes but elsewhere suggest alternatlve expla
natlons or hypotheses, or note unanswered questlons.
One can speak thus of a tendency toward narratlve
expanslon and absence of closure, as ln prevlous novels,
notably i~ o c~X yet, generally, the sen
tences are not so long as ln that novel, and the author
furnlshes clearer and more frequent ldentlfylng features
to facllltate understandlng of the places and tlmes
evoked and transltlons among them.
Desplte the many twlsts and turns of hls career,
Slmon clung tenaclously to a dlstlnctlve set of themes,
goals, and worldvlews. In hls Nobel lecture, he
returned to hls frequently artlculated bellef ln the
lmportance of the novel for helghtenlng one`s aware
ness of the materlal denslty of the world and the lnter
nal loglc of language. Hls goal was to brlng out the
harmony of sounds, lmages, and words, as have musl
clans, artlsts, and hls favorlte wrlters, Proust, |oyce,
Iaulkner, and Conrad. Jhat he returned contlnually to
the same themes ln pursult of that goal and to the same
eplsodes drawn from hls own famlllal and hlstorlcal
experlences ls not surprlslng. Jhose themes and epl
sodes recur not because they are speclal but because
they contlnue to produce assoclatlons for an author less
concerned wlth llterature as reproductlon than as pro
ductlon. Jhe memorles and lmpresslons are the same,
from i q to i dX what changes ls the
wrlter`s encounter wlth language and the dlscoverles
about the world he makes through language. As Slmon
sald ln hls Nobel lecture. '|e falsje produls, donc je
suls" (I makeI produce,therefore I am). Slmon
renounced the lofty goal of saylng somethlng phllo
sophlcally slgnlflcant and adopted lnstead the more
modest goal of maklng somethlng aesthetlcally harmo
nlous.
Jhe crltlcal receptlon of Slmon`s works over the
decades has passed through varlous stages. Durlng the
early l960s crltlclsm of Slmon was conflned to book
revlews and artlcles that attempted to lnterpret hls dls
tlnctlve ldeas and worldvlew, often adoptlng a phenom
enologlcal approach centered on the themes of memory,
perceptlon, and lmaglnatlon. In the late l960s and
throughout the l970s fulllength books on Slmon began
to appear; and the lnfluence of |ean Rlcardou, who
278
`~ p ai_ PPO
focused on the formal, structural propertles of Slmon`s
use of language, was predomlnant. In the l980s that
lnfluence decreased, openlng the door to the appllcatlon
of a varlety of poststructurallst, psychoanalytlc, and
deconstructlve approaches.
In the last decades of the twentleth century and
flrst decade of the twentyflrst, crltlcs have approached
Slmon`s work from many vlewpolnts. |ean H. Duffy
has read lt ln llght of the phenomenologlcal theory of
perceptlon put forth by MerleauPonty; other crltlcs
have emphaslzed hlstory ln Slmon`s flctlon and espe
clally war, as ln Anthony Pugh`s artlcle on the May
l910 defeat. Comparatlve studles often mentlon
Iaulkner, Proust, and Orwell. Styllstlc studles stress dls
contlnulty ln Slmon`s style. Genetlc and other textual
studles have not advanced, slnce no edltlon so far has
been based on extenslve examlnatlon of manuscrlpts.
(Only a few pages of Slmon`s outllnes and manuscrlpts
have been reproduced.) Other approaches lnclude
muslc, as ln Patrlck Longuet`s l995 book subtltled Io
Iolyplovic du movdc (Jhe World`s Polyphony), and art, as
ln Mlchael Evans`s l998 study Cloudc Simov ovd tlc
Trovsgrcssiovs of Modcrv Zrt and ln Brlgltte Ierrato
Combe`s study publlshed the same year, Icrirc cv pcivtrc:
Cloudc Simov ct lo pcivturc (Jo Wrlte as a Palnter. Claude
Slmon and Palntlng). Dubuffet spoke ln l98l of
Slmon`s 'trs grand art." Slmon`s prose has lnsplred at
least one composer, Walter Ieldmann, who publlshed
ln Stuttgart ln l999 a plece for barltone saxophone,
plano, and kettledrum tltled Commc si lc froid (As If the
Cold), subtltled Ccorgiqucs II, 199S-99.
Wlth the publlcatlon ln 2006 of a onevolume col
lectlon of major novels by Claude Slmon ln the Blbllo
thque de la Pllade, new crltlcal attentlon was drawn
to hls work. Slnce the author hlmself selected the novels
to be lncluded, the cholce can be consldered reveallng.
Alastalr Duncan, the chlef edltor, noted ln Ic Movdc (l7
Iebruary 2006) that Slmon 'avalt horreur de passer
pour un chronlqueur de la vle famlllale" (abhorred
belng taken as a chronlcler of famlly llfe) and thus omlt
ted such transparently famlly based works as I`Zcocio.
Jhe fact remalns that the latter ls a major novel, and
that autoblography, even lf halfdlsgulsed or broken
and rearranged as ln a kaleldoscope, was the major
source of Slmon`s work. Duncan added that crltlcs had
not stressed enough Slmon`s humanlstlc compasslon
and hls afflrmatlon of the value of human llfe. Even
marked by death, hls work 'est la vle dans sa substance
mme" (ls llfe ln lts very substance). Whereas Slmon`s
novels ask repeatedly 'Comment savolr?" (How ls one
to know?) and lmply the lack of meanlng of whlch the
author spoke ln hls Nobel address, hls flctlon neverthe
less afflrms that, provlslonally at least, meanlng can be
found, or created, by aesthetlc orderlng.
iW
Slmon and |ean Dubuffet, Corrcspovdovcc, 1970-19S4
(Parls. LÈchoppe, l991).
fW
Claud DuVerlle, 'Entretlen. Claude Slmon parle,"
Ixprcss, 5 Aprll l962, pp. 32-33;
'Pour qul donc crlt Sartre?" Ixprcss, 28 May l961, p.
33;
'Rendre la perceptlon confuse, multlple et slmultane
du monde," Movdc, 26 Aprll l967, p. 5;
'Jradltlon et rvolutlon," _uivoivc Iittcroirc (l-l5 May
l967). l2-l3;
'La Ilctlon mot a mot," ln òuvcou Iomov: Hicr,
oujourd`lui, proceedlngs of the colloqulum at the
Centre Culturel Internatlonal de CerlsylaSalle,
20-30 |uly l97l, 2 volumes, edlted by |ean Rlcar
dou and Iranolse van RossumGuyon (Parls.
Lnlon Gnrale dÈdltlons, l972), II. 73-ll6;
Ludovlc |anvler, 'Rponses de Claude Slmon a
quelques questlons crltes," Ivtrcticvs (Cloudc
Simov), 3l (l972). l5-29; translated by Barbara
Bray ln Icvicw of Covtcmporory Iictiov, 5, no. l
(l985). 21-33;
'Jhe Crosslng of the Image," Diocritics, 7 (December
l977). 17-58;
'Ln Homme travers par le travall," òuvcllc Critiquc,
l05 (l977). 32-11;
DuVerlle, 'Jhe Novel as Jextual Wanderlng. An Inter
vlew wlth Claude Slmon," Covtcmporory Iitcroturc,
28 (September l987). l-l3;
M. Alphant, Uccoviqucs: Ics lommcs-livrcs, cvtrcticv filmc
ovcc Cloudc Simov, dlrected by Roland Allar (La
Sept/INA, l988).
oW
Randl Blrn, 'Irom Slgn to Saga. Dynamlc Descrlptlon
ln Jwo Jexts by Claude Slmon," Zustroliov ourvol
of Ircvcl Studics, 2l (May-August l981). l18-l60;
Blrn and Karen Gould, eds., Uriov livdcd: Issoys ov
Cloudc Simov (Lewlsburg, Pa.. Bucknell Lnlverslty
Press / London. Assoclated Lnlverslty Presses,
l98l);
|oan Brandt, 'Hlstory and Art ln Claude Slmon`s His-
toirc," Iomovic Icvicw, 73 (May l982). 373-381;
Marla Mlnlch Brewer, Cloudc Simov: òrrotivcs witlout
òrrotivc (Llncoln. Lnlverslty of Nebraska Press,
l995);
Brewer, 'An Energetlcs of Readlng. Jhe Intertextual ln
Claude Slmon," Iomovic Icvicw, 73 (November
l982). 189-501;
Cella Brltton, Cloudc Simov: !ritivg tlc !isiblc (Cam
279
ai_ PPO `~ p
Brltton, ed., Cloudc Simov (London New York. Long
mans, l993);
Colicrs Cloudc Simov (Parls. Assoclatlon des Lecteurs de
Claude Slmon, 2005 - );
Mlrellle Calle, ed., Cloudc Simov: Clcmivs dc lo mcmoirc
(SalnteIoy, _uebec. Grlffon dÀlgle / Grenoble.
Presses Lnlversltalres de Grenoble, l993);
Mlrellle CalleGruber, Ic Crovd Tcmps: Issoi sur lòcuvrc
dc Cloudc Simov (Vllleneuve dÀscq. Presses Lnl
versltalres du Septentrlon, 2001);
CalleGruber, ed., Ics Sitcs dc l`ccriturc: Colloquc Cloudc
Simov, _uccv`s Uvivcrsity (Parls. Nlzet, l995);
'Claude Slmon," Icvuc dcs Scicvccs Humoivcs, no. 220
(October-December l990);
Cloudc Simov: Colloquc dc Ccrisy (Parls. Lnlon Gnrale
dÈdltlons, l975);
Critiquc, speclal Slmon lssue, 37 (November l98l);
Luclen Dllenbach, Cloudc Simov (Parls. Edltlons du
Seull, l988);
|ean H. Duffy, 'Claude Slmon, MerleauPonty and Per
ceptlon," Ircvcl Studics, 16 (l992). 33-52;
Duffy and Alastalr Duncan, eds., Cloudc Simov: Z Ictro-
spcctivc (Llverpool. Llverpool Lnlverslty Press,
2002);
Alastalr Duncan, Cloudc Simov: Zdvcvturcs iv !ords
(Manchester New York. Manchester Lnlverslty
Press, l991);
Duncan, ed., Cloudc Simov: `cw Dircctiovs (Edlnburgh.
Scottlsh Academlc Press, l985);
Mlchael Evans, Cloudc Simov ovd tlc Trovsgrcssiovs of Mod-
crv Zrt (New York. St. Martln`s Press, l998);
Brlgltte IerratoCombe, Icrirc cv pcivtrc: Cloudc Simov ct
lo pcivturc (Grenoble. ELLLG, l998);
|ohn Iletcher, Cloudc Simov ovd Iictiov òw (London.
Calder Boyars, l975);
'Ic ordiv dcs Ilovtcs dc Cloudc Simov: Zctcs du colloquc dc
Icrpigvov, Colicrs dc lÙvivcrsitc dc Icrpigvov, no. 30
(Perplgnan. Presses Lnlversltalres de Perplgnan,
2000);
Salvador |lmnezIajardo, Cloudc Simov (Boston.
Jwayne, l975);
Dorls Y. Kadlsh, Irocticcs of tlc `cw òvcl iv Cloudc Simov`s
'I`Hcrbc ovd 'Io Ioutc dcs Ilovdrcs (Irederlcton,
N.B.. York Press, l979);
|acquellne de Labrlolle, 'De Iaulkner a Claude Slmon,"
Icvuc dc Iittcroturc Comporcc, 53 ( |uly-September
l979). 358-388;
Morton P. Levltt, 'Dlsllluslonment and Eplphany. Jhe
Novels of Claude Slmon," Critiquc, l2, no. l
(l970). 13-7l;
Patrlck Longuet, Cloudc Simov (Parls. Mlnlstre des
Affalres Etrangres, l998);
Longuet, Iirc Cloudc Simov: Io polyplovic du movdc (Parls.
Edltlons de Mlnult, l995);
|. A. E. Loubre, Tlc òvcls of Cloudc Simov (Ithaca, N.Y..
Cornell Lnlverslty Press, l975);
Stphanle Orace, Ic Clovt dc lòrobcsquc: Ioctiquc dc lo
rcpctitiov dovs lòcuvrc dc Cloudc Simov (Amsterdam.
Rodopl, 2005);
Mary Orr, Cloudc Simov: Tlc Ivtcrtcxtuol Dimcvsiov (Glas
gow. Lnlverslty of Glasgow Irench and German
Anthony Pugh, 'Defeat, May l910. Claude Slmon,
Marc Bloch and the Wrltlng of Dlsaster," Iorum
for Modcrv Iovguogc Studics, 22 (l985). 59-70;
Icvicw of Covtcmporory Iictiov, speclal Slmon lssue, 5, no.
l (l985);
|ean Rlcardou, 'La Batallle de la phrase," ln hls Iour uvc
tlcoric du vouvcou romov (Parls. Seull, l97l), pp.
ll8-l58;
Rlcardou, 'Ln Ordre dans le dbcle," ln hls Iroblmcs
du vouvcou romov (Parls. Seull, l967), pp. 11-55;
Ralph Sarkonak, Cloudc Simov: Ics Corrcfours du tcxtc
(Joronto. Paratexte, l986);
Sarkonak, Ics Trojcts dc l`ccriturc: Cloudc Simov (Joronto.
Paratexte, l991);
Sarkonak, Uvdcrstovdivg Cloudc Simov (Columbla. Lnl
verslty of South Carollna Press, l990).
NVUR k m i~
m~ p
by Irofcssor Iors Cyllcvstcv, of tlc Swcdisl Zcodcmy
Gentlemen,
Claude Slmon began to be notlced ln earnest at
the end of the l950s ln connectlon wlth the great lnter
est ln the socalled 'new novel" ln Irance. Jhe new
wrlters were agalnst the more conventlonal flctlon and
broke lts rules that a novel should have a reallstlc story
and move along ln a lucld and coherent way ln tlme.
Jhelr prose works had the appearance of llngulstlc
montages or collages. Jhey took place ln the dlmen
slons of memory and the apparently arbltrary or free
assoclatlon. Iragments from dlfferent tlmes were closely
jolned on the basls of thelr content or emotlonal corre
spondences, but not on the basls of how they mlght
have followed each other ln the ordlnary course of tlme.
Influences from the vlsual arts were strongly ln evl
dence. In a plcture everythlng ls contemporaneous. Jhe
flow of thlngs that follow each other ls brought about
by the beholder`s cocreatlve feellng movlng over what
actually exlsts as a slngle coherent now.
280
`~ p ai_ PPO
Claude Slmon had begun wlth several partly
autoblographlcal novels from the mlddle of the l910s.
Jhe narratlve method was almost tradltlonal, but lnflu
enced by Iaulkner. Jhe change ln Slmon`s author
character came wlth the novels i sI l957, and
ieI l958. He hlmself counts the latter as the turn
lng polnt ln hls wrltlng. Both storles take place ln the
South of Irance, where Slmon hlmself has hls roots and
llves as a vltlculturlst. Jhe prlnclpal character ln i s
ls a mysterlously complex man, at once confused and
dlscernlng, exposed to the lnqulsltlve provocatlons of
hls fellow men. He returns to the small town ln the
South of Irance to take over a bequest, a farmand ls
caught up ln confllcts of varlous klnds. And over lt all
howls the keen mlstral, the wlnd that fllls the people
wlth lts everlastlng, parchlng, dusty lndefatlgabllltyan
lnhuman element ln whlch the people llve as lf, desplte
thelr actlvltles and meddllng, they are lmprlsoned ln
condltlons whlch are more lastlng and more powerful
than themselves. In both these novels the author
weaves a close and evocatlve web of words, of events
and envlronments, wlth glldlngs and jolns of elements
accordlng to a loglc dlfferent from what the reallstlc
contlnulty ln tlme and space prescrlbes. Here we per
celve how Claude Slmon`s llngulstlc art takes shape,
such as we shall recognlze hls prose ln later works. Jhe
language beglns to llve lts own llfe. Each word and
descrlptlon leads on to the next. Jhe text grows as lf the
language were an lndependently llvlng organlsm whlch
buds, puts out tendrlls and sows seeds of lts own accord
and as lf the author were a tool or a medlum for lts own
creatlve force.
So too has Claude Slmon hlmself descrlbed hls
way of worklng especlally after hls experlences when
wrltlng the book eI l967nothlng short of a rap
turous awareness of the sensual llfe and charm ln glvlng
oneself up to llngulstlc work and lts surprlses and
seductlons. Jhe book ls one of the peaks ln Slmon`s
wrltlng, perhaps the work ln whlch hls llngulstlc pecu
llarlty ls most clearly evldent.
It was preceded by two other novels, ln whlch
we can flnd some of the baslc themes that constantly
recur ln Claude Slmon`s novels i~ o c~I
l960, and i m~~I l962. Jhe flrst of these two nov
els made Slmon`s name lnternatlonal. It ls a broad
and complex descrlptlon wlth strongly autoblographl
cal touches and wlth memorles and tradltlons from
Slmon`s famlly. Jhe profusely flowlng narratlon, lts
fragmentatlons and plllng up of parallel actlons and
lts dlscontlnuous jolnlng of scenes and of storles
wlthln storles burst the framework for narratlve art ln
the tradltlonal sense. Jhe novel takes the shape of a
penetratlng descrlptlon of the Irench collapse ln
l910, when Slmon hlmself took part as a cavalryman.
Slmon`s experlences durlng thls war, llke durlng the
Spanlsh Clvll War ln l936, have been of lmmense
lmportance to hlm, constantly recurrlng ln hls wrlt
lngs. Cruelty and absurdlty are the domlnatlng
thlngsunforeseeable. What ls apparently well
planned ends ln confuslon and dlssolutlon. Each one
llves through hls hardshlps and has to save hlmself as
best he can. Slmon`s experlences from the Spanlsh
Clvll War were slmllar, deplcted ln i m~~ and hls
latest and most lmportant novel, i dI l98l.
Ior all the sympathles whlch he and others mlght
have for those falthful to the government who fought
agalnst the fasclsts, lt soon turned out that these gov
ernment champlons for thelr part could not follow
any regular and lntelllgently planned strategles and
operatlons. On the contrary, the flghters were spllt
lnto factlons and mutual strlfe, obstructlons and haz
ardous enterprlses. Slmon`s plcture of the Spanlsh
Clvll War and of the lntellectual ldeallsts who wanted
to flnd an ldeologlcally clear reason ln the flght
agalnst oppresslon, shapes ltself lnto a verslon, at
once grotesque and traglc, compasslonate and lronlc,
of war`s reallty and of man`s lnablllty to gulde hls fate
and correct hls condltlons. i~ o c~ and
i d are rlchly decorated composltlons
whlch, wlth sensuous persplcaclty and llngulstlc lnvo
catlon, conjure up an extremely compllcated pattern
of personal memorles and famlly tradltlons, of experl
ences durlng modern war and of equlvalents from
bygone ages, to be exact the Napoleonlc era. Jhe par
allels are the same. Jhe vlolence and the absurdlty
are common to all, llkewlse the palnful compasslon
and feellng that the author expresses ln paradoxlcal
contrast to the fasclnatlon that these phenomena obvl
ously have for hlm. A slmllar feellng ls characterlstlc
of Slmon`s descrlptlons of erotlc relatlonshlps. In
these contexts too there ls a flxatlon wlth vlolence
and vlolatlon. Jhe sexual contacts appear as con
quests, the taklng ln possesslon, mountlngs whlch
resemble what stalllons and mares do, or outrages
resembllng what occurs ln battle. A traglc feellng of
llfe emerges also herea plcture of human lonellness
and of how people are exposed to destructlve pas
slons and selflsh lmpulses, dlsgulsed as valn strlvlng
for fellowshlp and lntlmacy.
Agalnst these descrlptlons are contrastlng ele
ments of another klndof tenderness and loyalty, or
devotlon to work and duty, to herltage and tradltlons
and solldarlty wlth dead and llvlng klnsmen. In partlcu
lar there appears as a contrast of a consollng or edlfylng
klnd the devotlon to such as grows and sprouts lnde
pendent of man`s lust for power and overweenlng enter
prlse. Jhere ls a growth whlch llves by lts own power,
desplte what men can do. Jhe best people ln Slmon`s
28l
ai_ PPO `~ p
novels are those who subordlnate themselves to thls
growth and serve lt. We meet some old women, loyal to
farm and famlly and tradltlons. We even meet ln the
brutal and at last dlslllusloned warrlor a loyal love for
hls dead young wlfe. We meet a servlng and a patlent
endurance whlch, wlthout any selflmportant alrs, ls
reflected wlthln these people, whlch llves wlth them
even lf otherwlse ln thelr ostentatlous deeds and ways
they seem fllled wlth egolsm and brutallty.
Ilrst and foremost we meet thls growth, thls vltal
lty and thls creatlveness and thls vlablllty ln language
and memory, ln the shaplng, the renewal and the devel
opment of what ls and was and what rlses agaln
lnsplred and allve through the plctures ln words and
story for whlch we seem to be more lnstruments than
masters. Claude Slmon`s narratlve art may appear as a
representatlon of somethlng that llves wlthln us
whether we wlll or not, whether we understand lt or
not, whether we belleve lt or notsomethlng hopeful, ln
splte of all cruelty and absurdlty whlch for that matter
seem to characterlze our condltlon and whlch ls so per
ceptlvely, penetratlngly and abundantly reproduced ln
hls novels.
Monsleur Claude Slmon,
Pour caractrlser vos romans, on devralt pouvolr
falre ouvre a la fols de pelntre et de pote. En ce peu de
temps qul m`talt lmpartl, jàl t forc de me contenter
dàutre chose. un compterendu assez abstralt et som
malre. Sl jàl pourtant russl a exprlmer tant blen que
mal la haute estlme que vos ouvres peuvent susclter
chez un lecteur, je me dclareral satlsfalt.
Sur ces mots, je vous prle, au nom de lÀcadmle
Sudolse, de blen voulolr accepter lèxpresslon de notre
admlratlon et de nos fllcltatlons les plus cordlales.
Enfln je vous lnvlte a recevolr de la maln de Sa
Majest le Rol le Prlx Nobel de llttrature de cette
anne.
Eq~~ c j~ i~~F
Mr. Claude Slmon,
One would have to be a palnter and poet at the
same tlme ln order to characterlze your novels. In the
llttle tlme allotted to me I have been forced to be con
tent wlth somethlng else. a rather abstract and sum
mary report. If I have nonetheless succeeded ln
expresslng better than worse the hlgh esteem ln whlch
your works are held by readers, I declare myself satls
fled.
Wlth these words, I ask you ln the name of the
Swedlsh Academy to accept the expresslon of our adml
ratlon and our most cordlal congratulatlons.
And I lnvlte you to recelve from the hands of Hls
Majesty the Klng the Nobel Prlze ln Llterature for thls
year.
pW _~ p
p ~ k _~I NM a NVURW
Vos Majests, Vos Altesses Royales, Mesdames, Messleurs,
|e nàl pas le don de parole, et cèst dàllleurs la
une des ralsons pour lesquelles j`crls, quolque encore
avec beaucoup de dlfflcults. mon travall absorbe le
plus gros de mon nergle, de sorte que l`ge aldant
(ou plutt nàldant pas) je vls dans le sllence et
lòmbre. Et sl lòn a pu dlre qu`crlre est làppel dùne
solltude a une autre solltude, volla soudaln quà ces
appels lancs par mol comme autant de boutellles a la
mer rpond aujourd`hul une multltude, au polnt que
jàl l`lmpresslon dàvolr ce solr autour de mol plus
dàmls que je nèn al jamals rencontr au cours de ma
vle mondalne.
Cèst dlre mon embarras d`tre alnsl brutale
ment projet en plelne lumlre, sur le devant de la
scne et effray dàvolr a prononcer des paroles qul
vont tre aussltt peses sans passer par cette mdla
tlon de la feullle lmprlme derrlre laquelle un auteur
peut, toujours un peu lchement se sentlr a làbrl, de
sorte que jàl blen peur d`tre lncapable lcl de
prsenter de faon convenable la seule chose que je
devrals pouvolr offrlr. lèxpresslon de ma profonde
gratltude a l`gard de tous ceux a qul je dols ce
moment de ma vle, cèst a dlre par ordre dans le
temps.
Mon courageux dlteur et aml |rme Llndon,
qul malgr le peu de succs de mes ouvrages sèst
obstln a publler chacun de ceux que je lul appor
tals.
Ma femme, Ra, qul mà soutenu et ald dans
mon travall pendant de longues annes.
Mon aml et traducteur CarlGustaf Bjurstrm,
vrltable coauteur avec mol des llvres publls en su
dols, pulsqu`ll a su trouver dans cette autre langue ces
rapports entre les mots que jàl eu tant de pelne a
tabllr dans la mlenne.
LÀcadmle Sudolse qul a blen voulu dls
tlnguer mes travaux par la plus haute rcompense qul
solt.
282
`~ p ai_ PPO
Et tous enfln pour la gentlllesse de leur accuell
et le faste dont jàl t entour pendant ces quelques
journes,
_u`lls en solent de cour remercls.
[ Jhe Nobel Ioundatlon, l985. Claude Slmon ls the
Eq~~ c j~ i~~F
Your Majestles, Your Royal Hlghnesses, Ladles, Gentle
men.
I do not have the glft of speech, and that ls one of
the reasons I wrlte, albelt wlth great dlfflculty. my work
takes the greater part of my energy, wlth the result that,
wlth the help of age (or rather, wlthout the help of age)
I work ln sllence and ln darkness. And lf one can say
that wrltlng ls the call of one solltude to another soll
tude, lt has suddenly happened that the calls I have
launched, as so many bottles thrown lnto the sea, have
come back today ln great numbers, so that tonlght I feel
I am surrounded by more frlends than I have ever
encountered ln my llfe.
I mean to say that I am embarrassed at belng so
brutally shown ln full llght, at the front of the stage, and
frlghtened at havlng to speak words whlch wlll lmmedl
ately be welghed wlthout passlng through the medla
tlon of the prlnted page behlnd whlch a wrlter can, ln a
somewhat cowardly fashlon, feel sheltered, to the
extent that I am afrald that I wlll not be capable here of
expresslng ln acceptable fashlon the only thlng I should
be able to offer. the expresslon of my deep gratltude to
all those to whom I owe thls moment ln my llfe.
My courageous edltor and frlend, |rme Llndon,
who, desplte the scant success of my works, perslsted ln
publlshlng each one I brought to hlm.
My wlfe, Ra, who has supported me and helped
ln my work for many years.
My frlend and translator CarlGustaf Bjurstrm,
truly my coauthor of books publlshed ln Swedlsh,
because he was able to flnd ln thls other language the
relatlonshlp between words that I had such dlfflculty ln
flndlng ln mlne.
Jhe Swedlsh Academy whlch has seen flt to
crown my works wlth the hlghest reward that exlsts.
And flnally everyone, for the klndness of thelr
welcome and the splendor wlth whlch I have been sur
rounded durlng these few days,
I thank them from my heart.
283
pW k iI V a NVUR
Ladles and gentlemen.
Jhe feellngs of a laureate honoured by the Swed
lsh Academy have been perfectly expressed by one of
my 'Nobel colleagues," to use Dr. Andr Lwoff`s
expresslon ln a letter he has been so klnd as to wrlte to
me.
'Research belng a game or a gamble," he wrltes
ln hls letter of thanks, 'lt matters llttle, at least ln theory,
whether one wlns or loses. Yet sclentlsts" (and I would
add, authors), 'are ln some respects llke chlldren. Llke
them, they love to wln and, llke them, they love
rewards." Whereto Andr adds. 'In the bottom of hls
heart, every sclentlst," (every author, I should add,
agaln) 'longs to be recognlzed."
Were I to try and analyse thls klnd of satlsfac
tlon`s many components ln polnt of some of thelr puer
lle aspects, I should say a certaln prlde ls lnvolved.
_ulte apart from my own person, attentlon ls dlrected
to the country whlch, for better or for worse, ls mlne. It
ls by no means a bad thlng that people should be
remlnded that, desplte all that ls 'worse" about lt, a cer
taln llfe of the lntellect, although denlgrated, laughed to
scorn and sometlmes even hypocrltlcally persecuted,
stlll, llke a stubborn protest, makes my country one of
the places where some of our most currently menaced
values stlll survlve, lndlfferent to the lnertla or some
tlmes even the hostlllty of the powers that be.
Iurther, lf I, addresslng as I now do the members
of your Academy, say how senslble I am of your good
ness ln chooslng me and thank you for dolng so, lt ls no
mere rltual act of submlsslon to custom and good man
ners.
It ls no mere chance, namely, or so lt seems to me,
that thls lnstltutlon has lts seat and dellberates lts
cholces here ln Sweden, more preclsely ln Stockholm, at
more or less the geographlcal centre or, lf you prefer lt,
the crossroads of four natlons whose populatlons,
though small, by vlrtue of thelr culture, thelr tradltlons,
thelr clvlllty and thelr laws, have made Scandlnavla so
great that lt ls a klnd of prlvlleged and exemplary lslet
on the frlnge of the lron world of vlolence we today
lnhablt.
Jhus lt ls not by chance, elther, that the Norwe
glan, Swedlsh and Danlsh translatlons of i dI
my latest work, should have been the flrst to appear;
nor that lt was already posslble last wlnter to come
across another translatlon on the shelves of a statloner`s
shop ln a remote hamlet among the lakes and forests of
Ilnland. Yet when thls latest Nobel award was
announced, the k v q (to mentlon only one of
the two glants whose monstrous welght today ls crush
lng us) valnly asked Amerlcan crltlcs for thelr oplnlon,
my own country`s medla meanwhlle searchlng fever
lshly for lnformatlon about thls vlrtually unknown
author and whlle lts popular press, for lack of any crltl
cal analyses of my works, publlshed completely fanclful
ltems about my llfe and actlvltles as a wrlterthat ls,
when not deplorlng your declslon as a natlonal catastro
phe for Irance.
Admlttedly, I am not so presumptuous or even so
stupld I do not reallse that every cholce ln the realms of
art and llterature ls contestable and, to some extent,
arbltrary; and I am the flrst to regard several other wrlt
ers for whom I have the greatest respect, ln Irance and
elsewhere, as equally ellglble.
If I refer to the scandallzed amazement (amount
lng at tlmes even to terrorone Irench massclrculatlon
weekly has even suspected your Academy of havlng
been lnflltrated by the Sovlet`s KGB!), the amazement, I
say, echoed by the blg newspapers, I hope no one wlll
thlnk lt ls ln a splrlt of mockery or mallgnancy, or of
faclle trlumph. But because the terms ln whlch these
protests, thls lndlgnatlon, thls terror even, are formu
lated confront wlthln the realm of llterature and art the
forces of conservatlsm wlth those others, I wlll not call
them 'of progress" (a word devold of meanlng ln rela
tlon to art) but anyway of movement, thus to spotllght
the much brulted and ever more aggravated dlvorce
between llvlng art and the great publlc, held tlmldly ln a
state of backwardness by all klnds of powers terrlfled
above all of change.
Leavlng aslde the complalnts that I am a 'dlffl
cult," 'borlng," 'unreadable" or 'confused" wrlter, and
recalllng that the same reproaches have always been
levelled at any artlst who even to the sllghtest degree
upsets acqulred hablts and the establlshed order of
thlngs, let us wonder, lnstead, at the way ln whlch the
grandchlldren of those people who ln lmpresslonlst
palntlngs once saw nothlng but shapeless (l.e., llleglble)
daubs today form endless queues outslde exhlbltlons
281
pW k iI V a NVUR ai_ PPO
and museums to admlre the works of those very same
daubers.
Llkewlse, let us leave aslde the lnslnuatlon that
you have chosen me at the lnstlgatlon of agents of a cer
taln polltlcal pollce, seated among youhowever curl
ous lt may be to note that, even today, the Sovlet Lnlon
remalns ln certaln clrcles the symbol of redoubtable
forces hostlle to soclal stablllty; forces wlth whlch I, a
slmple wrlter, flatter myself I am assoclated. Ior lndeed,
the egolstlc and valn gratulty of what some people call
'art for art`s sake" has been so revlled that lt ls no small
recompense for me to see my wrltlngs, whlch have had
no greater ambltlon than to ralse themselves to that
level, ranked among the lnstruments of revolutlonary
and upsettlng actlon.
What do seem to me more lnterestlng, worth tak
lng lnto account and worth pauslng over, are certaln
other judgements on my work whlch, by thelr nature
and thelr vocabulary, reveal, not so much a mlsunder
standlng whlch may exlst between the supporters of a
certaln tradltlon and of what I would call llvlng lltera
ture, as what would seem to be a reversed (or, lf you
llke, lnverted) sltuatlon, all the terms used pejoratlvely
havlng been most judlclously chosen, the only dlffer
ence belng that, ln my eyes and opposltely to what my
crltlcs lntend, they possess a posltlve value.
I wlll come back to those who reproach my novels
for havlng 'nelther a beglnnlng nor an end," whlch ls
perfectly correct. Here I would llke to dwell on two
adjectlves regarded as defamatory, and whlch are
always naturally or, one could say, correlatlvely assocl
ated, and whlch serve preclsely to plnpolnt the nature
of thls problem; namely those whlch denounce my
works as a product of 'labour," and thus necessarlly
'artlflclal."
Jhe dlctlonary deflnes thls last word as follows.
'Made wlth art." Iurther. 'Anythlng whlch ls the prod
uct of human actlvlty and not of nature,"a deflnltlon
so pertlnent that one would be happy to accept lt, lf lt
were not for lts connotatlons, whlch, commonly loaded
wlth pejoratlve meanlng, paradoxlcally turn out under
scrutlny to be hlghly lnstructlve. Ior lf, as the dlctlo
nary adds, 'artlflclal" also lmplles somethlng 'factltlous,
fabrlcated, false, lmltated, lnvented, supererogatory," the
thought lmmedlately occurs that art, whlch ls the acme of
lnventlon, and llkewlse factltlous (from the Latln ~I
'to make") and thus 'fabrlcated" (another word whlch
should be relnstated) ls par excellence lmltatlon (some
thlng whlch also obvlously postulates falslty). Neverthe
less lt ls necessary to deflne the exact nature of thls
lmltatlon, lnasmuch as lt ls by lmltatlng ltself, so to
speak, that art generates ltself. even to a polnt where lt
ls not the deslre to reproduce nature that makes the
palnter, but the fasclnatlon exerted by museums, just as
lt ls the fasclnatlon of the wrltten word that makes the
author. As for Nature, she (as Oscar Wllde so wlttlly
put lt) contents herself wlth 'lmltatlng art. . . ."
And certalnly the language spoken by the greatest
wrlters and muslclans durlng the centurles before, dur
lng, and after the Renalssancesome of whom were
treated llke domestlc servants, worklng to orderwas
an artlsan`s language. Jhey referred to the frults of
thelr labours (here I`m thlnklng of |ohann Sebastlan
Bach, of Nlcolas Poussln . . . ) as works most laborl
ously and consclentlously executed. How to explaln
that today, for a certaln school of crltlclsm, the very
notlon of labour, of work, should have fallen lnto such
dlscredlt that to say of any wrlter that he flnds wrltlng
dlfflcult ls just about the most scathlng thlng one could
say about hlm? Perhaps we should dwell a moment on
thls problem, for lt opens vlstas on to horlzons much
vaster than derlve from mere plque.
'Lsevalue or the value of any artlcle," Marx
wrltes ln the flrst chapter of a~ h~~I 'only has value
lnsofar as lt embodles and materlallzes human labour."
And ln fact, that ls any value`s laborlous polnt of depar
ture. I am nelther a phllosopher nor a soclologlst; yet I
am struck by the fact that lt should be durlng the l9th
Century that, parallel wlth the development of machln
ery and of a feroclous lndustrlallsm, we on the one
hand see the growth of a certaln bad consclence and, on
the other, the whole concept of work (the lllpald work
of transmutatlon) belng devalued. In thls way the wrlter
ls denled the vlrtue of hls efforts, ln favour of what
some people call 'lnsplratlon," and ls turned lnto a
slmple lntermedlary, a spokesman of goodness knows
what supernatural power, ln such fashlon that he, the
whllom domestlc servant or consclentlous artlsan, now
sees hlmself, as a person, put out of court, negated. At
best he becomes a copylst, the translator of a book
already wrltten somewhere else, a klnd of decodlng
machlne, whose job lt ls to dellver, ln plaln language,
messages dlctated to hlm from a mysterlous 'beyond."
Jhe strategy, at once lltlst and annlhllatlng, ls
obvlous. Honoured ln hls role of lnebrlated Python or
oracle, preclsely because he ls ln hlmself nobody, the
wrlter now nevertheless belongs to an excluslve caste,
to whlch no one thereafter can expect to be admltted on
grounds of hls own merlt or labour. On the contrary,
work ls regarded, as formerly by the arlstocracy, as
somethlng lnfamous and degradlng. Irom now on a
work of art wlll be judged wlth a word drawn, qulte
naturally, from rellglon. namely, 'grace," that dlvlne
grace to whlch, as everyone knows, no vlrtue, not even
selfdenlal, can ever attaln.
By grace of thls knowlng ('What ~ to
say?" Sartre used to sayor, ln other words. 'What
knowledge do you \ "), the wrlter becomes a
285
ai_ PPO pW k iI V a NVUR
deposltary or retalner, someone who, even before he
puts pen to paper, possesses wlthln hlmself a knowledge
refused to other mortal men. Jhls means that the wrlter
sees hlmself as asslgned the mlsslon of teachlng lt to
other people, so that the novel, qulte loglcally, becomes
lmaglstlc ln form, ln the same way as rellglous lnstruc
tlon ls done by parable and fable. Jhe wrlter`s own per
son belng abollshed (lt becomes hls buslness to 'efface"
hlmself behlnd hls characters), so ls hls work, and llke
wlse lts product, namely the plece of wrltlng. 'Jhe best
style ls an unnotlceable style," we are ln the hablt of
saylng, rememberlng the famous formula of someone
who wanted a novel should be nothlng but 'a mlrror
walklng along a road". a flat, unlform surface, free of all
asperltles, and behlnd lts thln pollshed metal plate con
talnlng nothlng but these vlrtual lmages that he lndlffer
ently and objectlvely, one after another, places on lt. In
other words. 'the world as lf I were not there to glve lt
tongue," ln Baudelalre`s lronlcal formula wlth whlch he
deflned 'reallsm."
'Have they glven Claude Slmon the Nobel Prlze
to conflrm the rumour that the novel ls flnally dead?"
asks one crltlc. What he does not yet seem to have
notlced ls that, lf by 'novel" he means the llterary
model whlch establlshed ltself ln the l9th Century, then
lt ls certalnly dead, no matter how many coples of aml
able or terrlfylng tales of adventure, wlth thelr happy or
desperate endlngs, rallway statlon and other bookstalls
are stlll buylng and selllng, and for a long tlme to come
wlll go on selllng, and whose tltles announce such
revealed truths as i~ ` e~I ibI or i
` ~ i . . . .
* * *
More lnterestlng to me, lt seems, ls that when, at
the beglnnlng of our century, two glants, Proust and
|oyce, opened up qulte new paths, they were only sanc
tlonlng a slow evolutlon, ln the course of whlch the so
called reallstlc novel had slowly commltted sulclde.
'I endeavoured," wrltes Marcel Proust, 'to flnd
beauty where I had never lmaglned lt could be. ln the
most everyday objects, ln the profound llfe of ~
." And ln an artlcle publlshed ln Lenlngrad ln
l927, entltled l b i~I the Russlan
essaylst Jynlanov wrote. 'Jaken as a whole, the
descrlptlons of nature ln older novels whlch, from the
polnt of vlew of one llterary system, one would be
tempted to reduce to the anclllary role of llnkpassages
or of slowlng up the actlon (and thus almost negatlng
lt), from the polnt of vlew of another llterary system
should be regarded as a prlnclpal element; the fable
may be only a motlve, a pretext for accumulatlng statlc
descrlptlons." Jhls text whlch, ln certaln respects, can
be regarded as prophetlc, also seems to deserve a few
observatlons.
Ilrst and foremost, we should note that the chlef
dlctlonary sense of the word 'fable" ls. 'A short tale
from whlch a moral can be extracted." Immedlately, an
objectlon occurs. namely, that ln reallty the process of
fabrlcatlng a fable unfolds ln exactly the opposlte dlrec
tlon. that lt ls the fable whlch ls extracted from the
moral, not vlce versa. Ior the wrlter of fables, the
moral'Jhe strongest reason ls always best," or 'Every
flatterer llves at the expense of hls llstener"ls there
flrst; only thereafter the story whlch he makes up, as an
lmaglstlc demonstratlon lllustratlng some maxlm, pre
cept, or thesls whlch he trles by means of lt to render
more strlklng.
It ls thls tradltlon whlch, ln Irance, vla the medl
aeval fabllaux, the fablewrlters and the socalled com
edy of manners or character of the l7th Century, and
then of the phllosophlcal tale of the l8th Century, led
up to the l9th Century`s allegedly 'reallstlc" novel, such
as asplred to a dldactlc vlrtue. 'You and a few beautlful
souls, beautlful as your own," Balzac wrote, 'wlll
understand my thought as you read i~ j~ k
lmmedlately after `~ _~. Does not thls contrast
contaln a ~ \
In lts day and age a bold lnnovatlon (a polnt over
looked by latterday eplgones who, a century and a half
later, would set lt up as exemplary), and supported by a
certaln 'fllght of the pen" and by a certaln largerthan
llfe quallty whlch ralsed lt above the level of lts own
lntentlons, the Balzactype novel afterwards degener
ated and gave blrth to works retalnlng only lts purely
demonstratlve element.
Seen through such a lens, all descrlptlon would
seem not merely supererogatory but, as Jynlanov
stresses, lmpertlnent, slnce lt parasltlcally attaches ltself
to the actlon, whose course lt lnterrupts, merely put
tlng off the moment when the reader at long last shall
tumble to the sense of the tale. 'When I come to a
descrlptlon ln a novel," wrote Henrl de Montherlant, 'I
sklp a page." And Andr Breton (who had nothlng else
ln common wlth Montherlant) declared he could dle of
boredom at the descrlptlon of Raskolnlkov`s room,
exclalmlng furlously. 'What rlght has the author to fob
us off wlth hls postcards?"
* * *
Ilgures ln the tradltlonal novel are soclal or psy
chologlcal types 'ln sltuatlon," slmpllfled to the polnt of
carlcature, at least ln one Irench tradltlon. 'Harpagon
ls a mlser, pure and slmple," Strlndberg remarks, ln hls
preface to j g. 'Yet he could also have been an
excellent town counclllor, a paterfamlllas or lndeed any
286
thlng else. But no, he`s a mlser, pure and slmple!" Jhe
tradltlonal novel`s characters are caught up ln a serles of
adventures, where chaln reactlons follow one another ln
accordance wlth some supposedly lmplacable law of
causes and effects, such as gradually leads them to the
dnouement whlch has been called the 'novel`s loglcal
cllmax," and whlch serves to substantlate the author`s
thesls and tell hls readers what vlew they should take of
men and women, of soclety or Hlstory. . . .
Jhe tedlum of lt all ls that these supposedly deter
mlned and determlnlng events depend only on the
goodwlll of hlm who relates them. It ls at hls good plea
sure that one character meets another (or falls to), that
they fall ln love (or hate each other), dle (or survlve);
and equally well these events, whllst of course perfectly
posslble, mlght not happen. As Conrad emphaslzes ln
hls preface to q k k~I all the author
appeals to ls our credullty; as to the 'loglc" of the char
acters, as of the sltuatlons, they could be dlscussed ad
lnflnltum. On the one hand Henrl Martlneau, that eml
nent Stendhallan, assures us that from the outset of i
o k |ullen Sorel ls predestlned to flre hls fatal
plstol shot at Madame de Rnal. Whllst, on the other,
Emlle Iaguet, for hls part, flnds thls dnouement
'lmpermlsslbly false."
No doubt thls ls one of the reasons for the para
dox whlch, from the very moment of lts blrth, caused
the reallstlc novel to work for lts own destructlon.
Indeed, lt was as lf these authors, aware of the feeble
ness of the means they have recourse to ln order to
transmlt thelr dldactlc message, felt a confused need, lf
thelr fables were to be convlnclng, to endue them wlth
materlal denslty. Lp to then, whether ln i~ m
Ì `~I i i~ a~I or even ln i~
k eI a work of so great a naturelover as
Rousseau, descrlptlon, ln a novel or a phllosophlcal
tale, had been as lt were nonexlstent, or only appeared
ln stereotypes. all pretty women`s complexlons are
those 'of the llly and the rose." Jhey have 'a flne flg
ure." All old women are 'hldeous," all shadows are
'cool," all deserts 'monstrous," and so forth. . . . Not
untll Balzac (perhaps lt was there hls genlus lay) do we
come across mlnute and lengthy descrlptlons of place or
character. As the century wore on, such descrlptlons
would not only become steadlly more numerous, but,
no longer conflned to the beglnnlng of a story or the
flrst appearances of lts characters, progresslvely break
up the actlon or, ln more or less masslve doses, are
lnfused ln lt, even ln the end becomlng a klnd of Jrojan
horse, qulte slmply oustlng the fable whlch lt had been
thelr purpose to lend body to. |ullen Sorel`s traglc end
on the scaffold, Emma Bovary`s death by arsenlc, or
Anna Karenlna throwlng herself under a traln may
seem the loglcal cllmaxes of thelr adventures, whose
~ they serve to underllne. But none can surely
be drawn from Albertlne`s end. Proust qulte slmply
makes her dlsappear (one could be tempted to say 'gets
rld of her") as a result of a banal rldlng accldent. . . .
* * *
An lnterestlng parallel, lt seems to me, could be
drawn between the novel`s evolutlon durlng the l9th
Century and the evolutlon of palntlng, whlch had
started so much earller. 'Jhe end (the goal) of Chrls
tlan art," Ernest Gombrlch wrltes, 'conslsts ln maklng
the sacred personage and, above all, sacred Hlstory
convlnclng and movlng ln the eyes of the spectator." In
lts very earllest form, wlth the Byzantlnes, 'the happen
lng ls descrlbed by means of clear and slmple hlero
glyphlcs that enable lt to be understood, rather than
seen." A tree, a mountaln, a stream or some rocks are
lndlcated by plctographlc 'slgns."
'However, llttle by llttle, a new requlrement
makes ltself felt. to proceed ln such a fashlon that the
spectator as lt were becomes a wltness to the event (. . .)
whlch ls lntended to be the object of hls medltatlon."
Jhls leads gradually at the advent of naturallsm, one of
whose flrst artlsans was Glotto, an evolutlon whlch pur
sued lts course untll, Gombrlch tells us, 'the naturallstlc
landscape of the backgrounds, hltherto deslgned
accordlng to the notlons of medlaeval art about how
proverbs should be lllustrated or moral lessons lncul
cated, and whlch had fllled up areas devold of charac
ters or actlons (. . .), ln the l6th Century thls landscape
as lt were eats up the foregrounds, even to a polnt
where the work ls so well done by speclallsts llke
|oachlm Pantlnlr that what the palnter ls creatlng no
longer acqulres lts pertlnence from some assoclatlon
wlth an lmportant subject, but by reflectlng, llke muslc,
the very harmony of the unlverse."
* * *
After a long evolutlon the palnter`s functlon
found ltself, ln a manner of speaklng, lnverted, and the
knowlng, or, lf one prefers, the sense, had passed from
one slde of the actlon to the other, thereafter becomlng
the actlon`s frult, no longer expresslng content but pro
duclng lt.
Jhe same thlng has happened to llterature, and
thls makes lt seem legltlmate, today, to demand for (or
of) the novel a credlblllty more rellable than the credl
blllty, always open to dlscusslon, that can be attrlbuted
to a flctlon; the credlblllty a text acqulres when lts com
ponents stand ln a rlght relatlonshlp to each other and
to thelr overall arrangement; where sequence and com
posltlon are no longer subordlnate to a causallty lylng
287
outslde the 'llterary phenomenon," as does the psycho
soclal causallty whlch ls normally the rule ln the so
called reallstlc novel; but an lnterlor causallty, ln the
sense that such or such an event, descrlbed and no
longer reported, wlll follow or precede such or such
another event, slmply by vlrtue of thelr lnherent quall
tles.
If I can lend no credence to the ~~
who altogether too opportunely causes the characters ln
a story to meet, lt seems to me on the other hand alto
gether credlble, ~
I that Proust should suddenly be transported from
the courtyard of the Guermantes` townhouse to the
parvls of St. Mark`s ln Venlce by a sensatlon of havlng
two pavlngs underfoot; equally credlble that Molly
Bloom, ln her erotlc reverles, should be carrled away by
the thought of some julcy frults she lntends to buy the
next day at market; and equally credlble that Iaulkner`s
unfortunate Benjy should always howl wlth paln at the
golfers` shout of 'caddle!" And why? Because there
exlsts an obvlous communlon of qualltles, or, ln other
words, a certaln harmony between these objects, these
remlnlscences, these sensatlons; a harmony whlch, ln
these examples, ls the upshot of assoclatlons or asso
nances, but whlch can also arlse, as ln palntlng or
muslc, from contrasts, clashes or dlssonances.
* * *
And at once we gllmpse an answer to the everlast
lng questlons. 'Why do you wrlte? What have you to
say?"
'If (. . .) someone were to ask me," wrote Paul
Valry, 'lf someone were to worry hlmself (as happens,
and sometlmes lntensely) about what I`ve meant to say
(. . .), I reply that I haven`t ~ ~ anythlng, but
~ ~ somethlng, and that lt`s thls lntentlon of
~ whlch has ~ what f ~." I could take up
thls reply by polnt. If the wrlter`s array of motlvatlons ls
llke a wldeopen fan, the need to be recognlzed, whlch
Andr Lwoff speaks of, ls perhaps not the most futlle,
demandlng as lt ln the flrst place does a selfrecognltlon,
whlch ln turn lmplles a 'maklng," a 'dolng" (I makeI
producetherefore I am), whether lt ls a questlon of
bulldlng a brldge, a shlp, of brlnglng ln a harvest or of
composlng a strlng quartet. And lf we restrlct ourselves
to the realm of llterature we should bear ln mlnd that
the Greek word for 'make" or 'do" ls whlch ls
also the orlgln of the word I whose nature we
should perhaps plumb even deeper. Ior lf we are agreed
ln allowlng some freedom of language to the klnd of
wrlter usually called a poet, on what grounds do we
refuse lt to the prosewrlter, to whom we asslgn only
one task. to tell apologetlc tales, lgnorlng meanwhlle all
other aspects of the nature of thls language, whlch he
also has to use as a slmple means of communlcatlon?
Isn`t thls to forget, as Mallarm says, that 'each tlme a
styllstlc effort ls made, there ls verslflcatlon," and to for
get Ilaubert`s questlon ln a letter to George Sand.
'How come there ls a necessary llnk between the exact
word and the muslcal word?"
* * *
I am an old man now. Llke the llves of many oth
ers who lnhablt our old Europe, my early llfe was no
llttle dlsturbed. I wltnessed a revolutlon. I went to war
ln slngularly murderous clrcumstances (my reglment
was one of those the generalstaffs coldly sacrlflced ln
advance, so that a week later almost nothlng remalned
of lt). I have been taken prlsoner. I`ve known hunger.
Have been forced to exhaust myself wlth physlcal
labour. Escaped. Been gravely lll, several tlmes at the
polnt of a vlolent or natural death. I`ve rubbed shoul
ders wlth all sorts and condltlons of men, both clergy
and lncendlarles of churches, peaceable bourgeols and
anarchlsts, phllosophers and llllterates. I`ve shared my
bread wlth tramps, ln a word, I`ve been about the world
. . . all, however, wlthout flndlng any sense to all thls,
unless lt should be the one asslgned to lt, I belleve, by
Barthe, followlng Shakespeare. that 'lf the world slgnl
fles anythlng, lt ls that lt slgnlfles nothlng"except that
lt exlsts.
As you see, I`ve nothlng, ln Sartre`s sense, to say.
Even lf some lmportant truth of a soclal, hlstorlcal, or
sacred nature had been revealed to me, lt would have
seemed to me a burlesque proceedlng, at the very least,
to have lnvented flctlons to express lt, rather than by a
reasoned phllosophlcal, soclologlcal, or theologlcal the
sls.
Soto return to Valry`s wordwhat`s to be
'done" or 'made". whlch ln turn leads stralght to the
questlon. 'made out of what?"
Well, ln front of my blank sheet of paper, two
thlngs confront me. on the one hand, the troublesome
muddle of emotlons, memorles, lmages lnslde myself.
On the other, the language, the words I`m golng to look
for ln order to express lt, and the syntax whlch wlll
determlne thelr arrangement and ln whose womb they
ln some sense are golng to take form.
And lmmedlately I flnd that, flrst. what one
wrltes (or descrlbes) ls never somethlng whlch has hap
pened prlor to the work of wrltlng. On the contrary lt
produces ltself (ln every sense of the term) ln the course
of worklng, wlthln lts own . It ls the upshot, not
of the confllct between the very vague lnltlal project and
the language, but, on the contrary, of thelr symblosls,
288
so that, at least ln my case, the result ls lnflnltely rlcher
than the lntentlon.
Stendhal experlenced thls phenomenon of the llt
erary present. In hls i~ s e _~ he under
took to descrlbe the Army of Italy golng over the Great
St. Bernard. Whlle dolng hls very best to glve hls tale
all posslble verldlcallty, he says, he suddenly reallzed he
was perhaps descrlblng, not so much the event ltself, as
an engravlng of lt, seen subsequently. Jhls engravlng,
(he wrltes) 'had (ln me) replaced the reallty." If
Stendhal had medltated further on the matter, he would
have reallzedanyone can lmaglne the numbers of
objects represented ln the engravlng. guns, wagons,
horses, glaclers, rocks, etc., but thelr enumeratlon
would flll several pages, whllst Stendhal`s account fllls
exactly one, he would have reallzed, I say, that lt was
not even thls engravlng he was descrlblng, but an lmage
just then formlng ltself lnslde hlm, and whlch, ln lts
turn, was replaclng the engravlng he thought he was
descrlblng.
More or less consclously, as a result of the lmper
fectlons, flrst of hls perceptlon and then of hls memory,
the author not only subjectlvely selects, chooses, ellml
nates, but also valorlzes some few of the hundreds or
thousands of elements ln a scene. and lmmedlately we
are very far lndeed from the lmpartlal mlrror walklng
along beslde a road, to whlch thls same Stendhal pre
tended. . . .
If a breaklng polnt occurred, a radlcal change ln
the hlstory of art, lt was when palnters, soon followed
by wrlters, gave up pretendlng to represent the vlslble
world, and contented themselves wlth the lmpresslons
lt produced on them.
'A man ln good health," wrltes Jolstoy, 'ls all the
tlme thlnklng, feellng, and recalllng an lncalculable
number of thlngs at once." Jhls observatlon should be
set beslde Ilaubert`s apropos j~~ _~W 'Every
thlng she had ln her, of remlnlscences, lmages, comblna
tlons, escaped at once, ln a slngle movement, llke the
thousand sparks of a flrework. Sharply, ln separate plc
tures, she saw her father, Lon, Lhereux` offlce, thelr
own room downstalrs, another landscape, unknown flg
ures. . . ."
If Ilaubert here speaks of a slck woman, the prey
of a klnd of dellrlum, Jolstoy, for hls part, when he says
'any man ln good health," goes further and generallzes.
Where they agree ls ln saylng that all these remlnls
cences, all these emotlons, and all these thoughts
present themselves slmultaneously. Only Ilaubert ls
speclflc about lt belng a matter of 'separate plctures,"
fragments, ln other words; and that the aspect under
whlch they present themselves to us ls that of 'combl
natlons." And thls exposes for us the weak slde of
Jynlanov`s tlmld proposltlon whlch, whlle regardlng
the tradltlonal novel as passe, falled to concelve of a
future type of novel, where the fable would merely be a
pretext for an 'accumulatlon" of 'statlc" descrlptlons.
And here we come across one of the paradoxes of
llterature. A descrlptlon of what one mlght call an
apparently statlc 'lnterlor landscape," whose maln char
acterlstlc ls that nothlng ln lt ls near or remote, turns
out ltself, not to be statlc, but, on the contrary,
dynamlc. Iorced by the llnear conflguratlon of language
to enumerate successlvely such a landscape`s compo
nents (whlch ln ltself lnvolves prlorltles, thus a subjec
tlve valorlzatlon of certaln objects ln relatlon to others),
the author, as soon as he beglns to wrlte down a word
on paper, lmmedlately touches on thls prodlglous
whole, thls astoundlng network of relatlonshlps estab
llshed ln and by thls language whlch, as someone has
sald, 'speaks before we do" by means of what one calls
'flgures of speech"; ln other words tropes, metonymles,
and metaphors. Nothlng of thls ls the result of chance
but, qulte the contrary, a constltutlve part of man`s
gradually acqulred knowledge of the world and of
objects.
And lf, followlng Chlovskl, we agree on deflnlng
the 'llterary act" as 'the transfer of an object of habltual
perceptlon lnto the sphere of a new perceptlon," how
can the author hope to reveal the mechanlsms whlch
cause thls 'lncalculable number" of apparently 'sepa
rate plctures" wlthln hlm to form assoclatlons whlch are
hls very self as a consclous belng, lf not ln thls language
whlch ls hls very self qua thlnklng and speaklng belng,
and ln whose bosom, ln lts wlsdom, and lts loglc, lnnu
merable transfers or lmplled senses already occur to
hlm? Accordlng to Lacan, words, so far from merely
belng 'slgns," are nodes of meanlng; or even, as I have
wrltten ln my brlef preface to l Î crossroads
of sense, so that language, by lts mere vocabulary, offers
potentlal 'comblnatlons" ln 'lnnumerable numbers."
And lt ls thanks to thls that thls 'adventure of narra
tlon" ln whlch the wrlter, at hls own rlsk and perll,
lnvolves hlmself, flnally can seem more bellevable than
the more or less arbltrary tales whlch the naturallstlc
novel, wlth a selfassurance the more lmperlous for
knowlng how fraglle and utterly controverslal are lts
methods, proposes to us.
Not demonstrate, but show; not reproduce, but
produce; no longer express, but dlscover. Llke palntlng,
the novel no longer clalms to draw lts pertlnence from
lts assoclatlon wlth some lmportant toplc; but from the
fact that lt, llke muslc, struggles to reflect a certaln har
mony. Asklng 'what ls 'reallsm`?", Roman |akobson
remarks that a novel`s reallsm ls not usually assessed ln
terms of actual 'reallty" (one object wlth a thousand
aspects), but ln terms of a llterary genre, developed dur
lng the last century. Jhls ls to forget that the characters
289
ln these tales have no other reallty than the wrltlng
whlch brlngs them lnto belng. how therefore can thls
plece of wrltlng 'efface ltself" behlnd a story and events
whlch have no exlstence except wlthln ltself? And
lndeed, just as palntlng once took as lts pretext some
Blbllcal scene, mythologlcal, or hlstorlcal (who can serl
ously belleve ln the 'reallty" of a Ì a p~~
~ b or a o~ p~ t\ ), what a
wrlter, even the most naturallstlc of novellsts, relates ls
hls own adventure, hls own maglcal lncantatlons. If the
adventure ls null and vold, lf hls lncantatlons fall of
thelr effect, then hls novel, whatever other dldactlc or
moral pretenslons lt may have, ls also null and vold.
* * *
Sometlmes people talk, only too volubly and ex
cathedra, of a wrlter`s functlon and dutles. Some years
ago, uslng a formula that contalns wlthln ltself lts own
contradlctlon, some people, not altogether undemagogl
cally, even went so far as to declare that 'a book ls
worth nothlng compared wlth the death of a llttle chlld
ln Blafra." But why ls such a death, unllke a baby mon
key`s, such an lnsufferable scandal? Surely because the
chlld ls a human lnfant, l.e., glfted wlth lntelllgence, a
consclence (however embryonlc), who, lf he survlves,
wlll one day be capable of thlnklng and talklng about
hls sufferlngs, of readlng about the sufferlngs of others,
and of ln hls turn belng moved and, wlth a llttle luck, of
wrltlng about lt.
Before the end of the century of the Enllghten
ment, before the myth of 'reallsm" was forged, Novalls
enunclated wlth astonlshlng lucldlty thls apparent para
dox. 'wlth language lt ls as wlth mathematlcal formu
lae. each contalns a world of lts own, for ltself alone.
Jhelr play ls excluslve and lnternal, expresses nothlng
except thelr own marvellous nature, and lt ls preclsely
thls whlch makes them so expresslve that lt ls wlthln
them, preclsely, that the lnterplay of objects ls so slngu
larly reflected."
It ls ln lts search for thls lnterplay that one per
haps could concelve an lnvolvement for the act of wrlt
lng whlch, ln all modesty, contrlbutes to changlng the
world every tlme lt, even ln the tlnlest degree, changes
the way ln whlch man, by hls language, relates to lt.
_uestlonless, the path then followed wlll be very dlffer
ent from that of the novellst who, startlng out from a
'beglnnlng," reaches an 'endlng." Jhls other way,
whlch lt costs an explorer of an unknown country such
palns to flnd (loslng hlmself, retraclng hls steps, gulded
or led astray by resemblances between dlfferent places,
the same place`s dlfferent aspects) wlll constantly call
for rechecks, pass across crossroads already crossed. As
for the end of thls lnvestlgatlon lnto the 'present" of
lmages and emotlons none closer or more dlstant than
any other (word, namely, havlng a prodlglous power to
brlng nearer and juxtapose objects whlch for lack of
them would remaln scattered ln clocktlme or ln mea
surable space), thls journey`s end may well be that he
comes back to hls polnt of departure, the rlcher only for
havlng lndlcated certaln dlrectlons, thrown a few foot
brldges, and by obstlnately penetratlng partlcularltles
wlthout laylng clalm to say everythlng that could be
sald, may even attaln to that 'common sense" where to
some greater or smaller extent everyone can recognlze
some part of hlmself.
Jo thls path there can thus be no other term
except the exhaustlon of hlm who, explorlng thls lnex
haustlble countryslde as he travels through lt, contem
plates the rough map he has drawn up ln the course of
hls march, never qulte sure he has done hls best to fol
low certaln enthuslasms, obey certaln lmpulses. Noth
lng ls sure, nor does lt offer any other guarantees than
those Ilaubert, followlng Novalls, speaks of. a har
mony, a muslc. Searchlng for lt, the wrlter makes only
laborlous progress. Ieellng hls way forward llke a bllnd
man, he goes up culsdesac, gets bogged down and
starts out anew. If we at all costs must flnd some edlflca
tlon ln hls efforts, one could say lt lles ln seelng that
always we are advanclng across sands whlch shlft under
our feet.
Jhank you for your attentlon.
| Jhe Nobel Ioundatlon, l985. Claude Slmon ls the
290
f~~ _~ p
(14 uly 1904 - 24 uly 1991)
g p~
Uxford Ccvtrc for Hcbrcw ovd cwisl Studics
Jhls entry was expanded by Sherman from hls Slnger
entry ln DI 27S: Zmcricov òvclists Sivcc !orld !or II,
Scvcvtl Scrics. See also the Slnger entrles ln DI 6: Zmcr-
icov òvclists Sivcc !orld !or II, Sccovd Scrics; DI 2S:
Twcvtictl-Ccvtury Zmcricov-cwisl Iictiov !ritcrs; and DI
2: Zmcricov !ritcrs for Clildrcv Sivcc 1960: Iictiov.
BOOKS IN ENGLISH. Tlc Iomily Moslot, translated
by A. H. Gross (New York. Knopf, l950; Lon
Sotov iv Coroy, translated by |acob Sloan (New York.
Noonday, l955; London. Owen, l958);
Cimpcl tlc Iool ovd Utlcr Storics, translated by Saul Bellow
and others (New York. Noonday, l957; London.
Owen, l958);
Tlc Mogiciov of Iubliv, translated by Elalne Gottlleb and
|oseph Slnger (New York. Noonday, l960; Lon
don. Secker Warburg, l96l);
Tlc Spivoo of Morlct Strcct ovd Utlcr Storics, translated by
Martha Gllckllch, Cecll Hemley, and others (New
York. Iarrar, Straus Cudahy, l96l; London.
Secker Warburg, l962);
Tlc Slovc, translated by Isaac Bashevls Slnger and Hem
ley (New York. Iarrar, Straus Cudahy, l962;
London. Secker Warburg, l963);
Slort Iridoy, ovd Utlcr Storics, translated by |oseph Slnger,
Roger H. Kleln, and others (New York. Iarrar,
Straus Glroux, l961; London. Secker War
burg, l967);
Iv My Iotlcr`s Court, translated by Channah Klelnerman
Goldsteln, Gottlleb, and |oseph Slnger (New
York. Iarrar, Straus Glroux, l966; London.
Secker Warburg, l967);
lotcl tlc Coot ovd Utlcr Storics, translated by Ellzabeth
Shub and Isaac Bashevls Slnger (New York.
Harper Row, l966; Harmondsworth, L.K..
Longman/Young, l970);
Sclcctcd Slort Storics of Isooc oslcvis Sivgcr, edlted by
Irvlng Howe (New York. Modern Llbrary, l966);
Mocl ovd Sllimocl; or, Tlc Mill of o Iiovcss, translated by
Shub and Isaac Bashevls Slnger (New York. Iar
rar, Straus Glroux, l967; London. Cape, l979);
Tlc Movor, translated by |oseph Slnger and Gottlleb
(New York. Iarrar, Straus Glroux, l967; Lon
Tlc Icorsomc Ivv, translated by Shub and Isaac Bashevls
Slnger (New York. Scrlbners, l967; London. Col
llns, l970);
f~~ _~ p EF NVTU k m i~
h `~ usf d~ p E ~ g~ `X
29l
ai_ PPO f~~ _~ p
!lcv Sllcmicl !cvt to !orsow ovd Utlcr Storics, translated
by Isaac Bashevls Slnger and Shub (New York.
Iarrar, Straus Glroux, l968; Harmondsworth,
L.K.. Longman/Young, l971);
Tlc Scovcc ovd Utlcr Storics, translated by Kleln, Hemley,
and others (New York. Iarrar, Straus Glroux,
l968; London. Cape, l970);
Z Doy of Ilcosurc: Storics of o oy Crowivg Up iv !orsow,
translated by KlelnermanGoldsteln and others
don. MacRae, l980);
Tlc Istotc, translated by |oseph Slnger, Gottlleb, and
Shub (New York. Iarrar, Straus Glroux, l969;
London. Cape, l970);
oscpl ovd Ioo; or, Tlc Socrificc to tlc !istulo, translated
by Isaac Bashevls Slnger and Shub (New York.
Iarrar, Straus Glroux, l970; London. Hamll
ton, l981);
Ilijol tlc Slovc: Z Hcbrcw Icgcvd Ictold, translated by
Isaac Bashevls Slnger and Shub (New York. Iar
rar, Straus Glroux, l970);
Z Iricvd of Ioflo ovd Utlcr Storics, translated by Isaac
Bashevls Slnger, Shub, and others (New York.
Iarrar, Straus Glroux, l970; London. Cape,
l972);
Zv Isooc oslcvis Sivgcr Icodcr (New York. Iarrar, Straus
Glroux, l97l);
Zlovc iv tlc !ild Iorcst, translated by Isaac Bashevls
Slnger and Shub (New York. Iarrar, Straus Glroux,
l97l);
Tlc Topsy-Turvy Impcror of Clivo, translated by Isaac
Bashevls Slnger and Shub (New York London.
Harper Row, l97l);
Ivcmics, Z Iovc Story, translated by Allza Shevrln and
Shub (New York. Iarrar, Straus Glroux, l972;
Tlc !iclcd City, translated by Isaac Bashevls Slnger and
Shub (New York. Iarrar, Straus Glroux, l972);
Z Crowv of Icotlcrs ovd Utlcr Storics, translated by Isaac
Bashevls Slnger, Laurle Colwln, and others (New
Cape, l971);
Tlc Hosidim, by Slnger and Ira Moskowltz (New York.
Crown, l973);
Tlc Iools of Clclm ovd Tlcir History, translated by Isaac
Bashevls Slnger and Shub (New York. Iarrar,
Straus Glroux, l973);
!ly òol Closc tlc Dovc, translated by Shub (New York.
Iarrar, Straus Glroux, l971);
Iossiovs ovd Utlcr Storics, translated by Isaac Bashevls
Slnger, Blanche Nevel, |oseph Nevel, and others
don. Cape, l976);
Z Tolc of Tlrcc !islcs (New York. Iarrar, Straus
Glroux, l975);
Z Iittlc oy iv Scorcl of Cod; or, Mysticism iv o Icrsovol Iiglt,
translated by |oseph Slnger (Garden Clty, N.Y..
Doubleday, l976);
òftoli tlc Storytcllcr ovd His Horsc, Sus, ovd Utlcr Storics,
translated by |oseph Slnger, Isaac Bashevls Slnger,
and others (New York. Iarrar, Straus Glroux,
l976; Oxford. Oxford Lnlverslty Press, l977);
Jcvtl: Z Iloy, by Slnger and Leah Napolln (New York. S.
Irench, l977);
Z Jouvg Mov iv Scorcl of Iovc, translated by |oseph
Slnger (Garden Clty, N.Y.. Doubleday, l978);
Sloslo, translated by |oseph Slnger and Isaac Bashevls
Slnger (New York. Iarrar, Straus Glroux, l978;
Uld Iovc, translated by |oseph Slnger, Isaac Bashevls
Slnger, and others (New York. Iarrar, Straus
Glroux, l979; London. Cape, l980);
òbcl Iccturc (New York. Iarrar, Straus Glroux, l979;
Icoclcs of Hcovcv: Z Story of tlc ool Slcm Tov (New York.
Tlc Iowcr of Iiglt: Iiglt Storics for Hovullol (New York.
Iost iv Zmcrico, translated by |oseph Slnger (Garden
Clty, N.Y.. Doubleday, l98l);
Tlc Collcctcd Storics of Isooc oslcvis Sivgcr (New York. Iar
rar, Straus Glroux, l982; London. Cape,
l982);
Isooc oslcvis Sivgcr, Tlrcc Complctc òvcls, translated by
Isaac Bashevls Slnger and Hemley (New York.
Avenel Books, l982)comprlses Tlc Slovc; Ivc-
mics, Z Iovc Story; and Sloslo;
Tlc Colcm (New York. Iarrar, Straus Glroux, l982;
London. Deutsch, l983);
Jcvtl tlc Jcslivo oy, translated by Marlon Magld and
Ellzabeth Pollet (New York. Iarrar, Straus Glroux,
l983);
Tlc Icvitcvt, translated by |oseph Slnger (New York. Iar
rar, Straus Glroux, l983; London. Cape,
l981);
Iovc ovd Ixilc (Garden Clty, N.Y.. Doubleday, l981;
London. Cape, l985)comprlses Z Iittlc oy iv
Scorcl of Cod; or, Mysticism iv o Icrsovol Iiglt; Z
Jouvg Mov iv Scorcl of Iovc; and Iost iv Zmcrico;
Storics for Clildrcv (New York. Iarrar, Straus Glroux,
l981);
Tcibclc ovd Hcr Dcmov, by Isaac Bashevls Slnger and Eve
Irledman (New York. S. Irench, l981);
Tlc Imogc ovd Utlcr Storics, translated by Isaac Bashevls
Slnger, Pollet, and others (New York. Iarrar,
Straus Glroux, l985; London. Cape, l986);
Cifts (Phlladelphla. |ewlsh Publlcatlon Soclety, l985);
292
f~~ _~ p ai_ PPO
Tlc Dcotl of Mctlusclol ovd Utlcr Storics, translated by
Isaac Bashevls Slnger, Lester Goran, and others
(Iranklln Center, Pa.. Iranklln Llbrary, l988;
New York. Iarrar, Straus Glroux, l988; Lon
don. Cape, l988);
Tlc Iivg of Iiclds, translated by Isaac Bashevls Slnger
don. Cape, l988);
Scum, translated by Rosallne Dukalsky Schwartz (New
York. Iarrar, Straus Glroux, l99l; London.
Cape, l99l);
My Iovc Zffoir witl Miomi cocl, text by Isaac Bashevls
Slnger, photographs by Rlchard Nagler (New
York. Slmon Schuster, l99l);
Tlc Ccrtificotc, translated by Leonard Wolf (New York.
l993);
Mcslugol, translated by Isaac Bashevls Slnger and Nlll
Wachtel (New York. Iarrar, Straus Glroux,
l991; London. Cape, l995);
Slrcwd Todic ovd Iycr tlc Miscr c Utlcr Clildrcv`s Storics
(Boston. Barefoot Books, l991);
Slodows ov tlc Hudsov, translated by |oseph Sherman
don. Cape, l999);
Morc Storics from My Iotlcr`s Court, translated by Curt
Levlant (New York. Iarrar, Straus Glroux,
2000).
BOOKS IN YIDDISH. Dcr sotv iv goroy (Warsaw. Yld
dlsh PENKlub, l935; New York. Matones,
l913);
Di fomilyc Musllot, 2 volumes (New York. Sklarsky,
l950);
Moyv totv`s bcs-div sltub (New York. Der Kval, l956; Jel
Avlv. Y. L. Perets, l979);
Cimpcl tom uv ovdcrc dcrtscyluvgcv (New York. Jslko,
l963);
Dcr lvcllt (New York. Jslko, l967; Jel Avlv. Y. L.
Perets, l980);
Dcr luvtsvmollcr fuv Iubliv (Jel Avlv. Hamenorah,
l97l);
Moyscs fuv livtcrv oyvv (Jel Avlv. Y. L. Perets, l97l);
Dcr bol-tsluvc (Jel Avlv. Y. L. Perets, l971);
Dcr slpigl uv ovdcrc dcrtscyluvgcv ( |erusalem. Magnes,
l975);
Moyv totv`s bcs-div sltub [lcmslcyllim-omluvg] ( |erusalem.
Magnes, l996).
OJHER. 'I See the Chlld as a Last Refuge," `cw Jorl
Timcs ool Icvicw, 9 November l969, VII. l, 66;
'Hasldlsm and Its Orlglns," ln Tully Iilmus: Sclcctcd
Drowivgs (Phlladelphla. |ewlsh Publlcatlon Socl
ety, l97l), pp. xl-xx;
'I. B. Slnger Jalks to I. B. Slnger About the Movle
'Yentl`," `cw Jorl Timcs, 29 |anuary l981.
JRANSLAJIONS. Knut Hamsun, Iov; fuv lcytcvovt
Tomos Clovs lsovim (Vllna. Kletskln, l928);
Hamsun, Di voglcr (Vllna. Kletskln, l928);
Gabrlele DÀnnunzlo, Iv opgruvt fuv toyvc (Warsaw.
Goldfarb, l929);
Karln Mlchalls, Mctc Trop: di modcrvc froy (Warsaw.
Goldfarb, l929);
Stefan Zwelg, Iomov Iolov (Warsaw. Blkher, l929);
Hamsun, !iltoryo (Vllna. Kletskln, l929);
Erlch Marla Remarque, Uyfv moyrcv-frovt lcyv voycs
(Vllna. Kletskln, l930);
Jhomas Mann, Dcr tsoybcrborg, 1 volumes (Vllna.
Kletskln, l930);
Remarque, Dcr vcg oyf tsuril (Vllna. Kletskln, l93l);
Moshe Smllansky, Zrobcr: follstimlcllc gcslilltv (War
saw. Yldlshe blbllotek farn folk, l932).
Isaac Bashevls Slnger, the only wrlter ln Ylddlsh
ever to be awarded the Nobel Prlze ln Llterature, was
among the most popular and wldely read authors of the
twentleth century. By the tlme of hls death at the age of
elghtyseven, Slnger had recelved a llon`s share of the
world`s foremost llterary prlzes, lncludlng two Louls
Lamed Prlzes (l950, l956), the Amerlcan Academy
Grant (l959), the Epsteln Ilctlon Award (l963), the
Daroff Memorlal Award (l963), the Iorelgn Book Prlze
(Irance, l965), two Natlonal Endowment for the Arts
grants (l966), the Bancarella Prlze (Italy, l967), two
Newbery Honor Book Awards (l968, l969), two
Natlonal Book Awards (l970, l971), the S. Y. Agnon
Gold Medal (Israel, l975), and the Nobel Prlze ln l978.
In addltlon, he had been awarded elghteen honorary
doctorates and had been elected to both the Amerlcan
Academy and the Amerlcan Instltute of Arts and Let
ters, from whlch he had recelved the hlgh honor of the
Gold Medal.
Slnger`s extenslve body of work expresses hls pre
occupatlon wlth the destructlon of the lost Orthodox
|ewlsh world of Eastern Europe. Ior Slnger, the falth
that characterlzed thls world was eroded for |ews by
two forces. secular ratlonallsm, coupled wlth the temp
tatlon to acculturate to Western norms, and the physlcal
destructlon of the |ews by the Nazls. Jhe tenslon ln
Slnger`s flctlon ls always generated by the confllct
between the old ways and the new, between falth and
ratlonallsm, between the sacred and the profane. Hls
typlcal protagonlst ls a man llke hlmself who abandons
the reglmen of strlct, devout Orthodox |ewlsh obser
vance ln whlch he was ralsed and embraces the secular,
modern world but ls unable to flnd contentment there.
Jhe lrreconcllable demands of the world of skeptlcal
293
ai_ PPO f~~ _~ p
ratlonallsm and the world of unquestlonlng falth gener
ate the klnd of anxlety and dlsllluslonment that llnk
Slnger`s flctlon, ln content lf not ln form, wlth the the
matlc preoccupatlons of modernlsm, the challenge to
human exlstence ln the twentleth century.
Jhe son and grandson of rabbls on both sldes of
hls famlly, Slnger was born IcekHersz Zynger, the sec
ond son of strlctly observant Orthodox |ewlsh parents,
on l1 |uly l901 ln the vlllage of Leoncln, a provlnclal
town northeast of Warsaw ln Poland, where hls father,
PlnkhosMenakhem Zynger, was the resldent rabbl.
When Isaac was four years old, hls father moved the
famlly to Warsaw ln search of a better llvellhood. Jhere
PlnkhosMenakhem Zynger became a rabblnlcal judge
on povertystrlcken Krochmalna Street, where hls mea
ger earnlngs were wholly dependent upon donatlons
glven by those whose affalrs he arbltrated. Slnger`s
father was a learned and devout Hasld wlth a strong
emotlonal bent that was sharply counterbalanced by
the uncompromlslng ratlonallsm of hls wlfe. Slnger`s
mother, Basheve (born Zylberman), was herself the
daughter and granddaughter of dlstlngulshed rabbls,
but they were ~I unbendlng opponents of
Hasldlsm and lts ecstatlc, mystlcal, and hlerarchlcal tra
dltlons. Moreover, whlle PlnkhosMenakhem Zynger
was deeply learned only ln tradltlonal |ewlsh holy lore,
Basheve Zynger had from an early age lmmersed her
self not only ln sacred learnlng but also, through the
Hebrew newspapers she read, ln contemporary polltlcs
and llterature. Isaac`s parents` opposed conceptlons of
how the physlcal world operated, aggravated by the
famlly`s bltter poverty, led to parental confllcts that
made a lastlng lmpresslon on the young Isaac and later
found encoded expresslon ln much of hls flctlon.
Slnger was the thlrd of hls parents` survlvlng four
chlldren. Hls two elder slbllngs were hls slster, Hlnde
Esther, and hls brother Israel |oshua, both of whom
became respected Ylddlsh wrlters and who, ln dlfferent
ways, exerclsed enormous lnfluence on hlmhls slster
through her hlghly volatlle temperament and radlcal
mood changes, to whlch Isaac was exposed when he
was only a boy; and hls brother through the force of hls
personallty and hls subsequent professlonal success and
prestlge. Jhe fourth and youngest chlld, a son named
Moshe, became a rabbl and perlshed together wlth hls
mother ln a Sovlet work camp durlng World War II.
Other lnfluences of hls chlldhood, whlch Slnger felt
throughout hls llfe, came from hls maternal grand
father, YankevMordkhe Zylberman, and the rabblnlcal
household he domlnated. In l9l1, at the outbreak of
World War I, when hls father went to the shtetl of
Radzymln to work as an asslstant to the Hasldlc
(leader) there, Isaac`s mother sought safety for her chll
dren by returnlng to her blrthplace, the Pollsh vlllage of
Bllgoray, where her father ruled hls strlctly observant
communlty wlth an lron dlsclpllne, uncompromlslngly
settlng hls face agalnst all manlfestatlons of modernlty.
In Bllgoray, a town wlth a longestabllshed scholarly
reputatlon, young Isaac acqulred an lntlmate knowl
edge of the mlnutest observances of |ewlsh Orthodoxy,
of anclent |ewlsh folk customs and superstltlons, and of
a rlch range of Ylddlsh ldloms. As Slnger often
acknowledged, all thls learnlng formed the raw materlal
from whlch he shaped hls flctlon. In a l963 lntervlew
(republlshed ln f~~ _~ pW `~I l992),
he remarked of Bllgoray. 'Not much had changed there
ln many generatlons. In thls town the tradltlons of hun
dreds of years ago stlll llved. Jhere was no rallroad
nearby. It was stuck ln the forest and lt was pretty much
the same as lt must have been durlng the tlme of
Chmlelnlckl. . . . I could never have wrltten p~~
d~ or some of my other storles wlthout havlng been
there."
Llke all Orthodox |ewlsh boys of hls tlme, Slnger
recelved hls early educatlon ln tradltlonal rellglous
schools, where he studled the Blble and the Jalmud.
Jhe sheltered world of tradltlonal |ewlsh learnlng was
deslgned to lnsulate |ewlsh boys from the contamlna
tlons of the secular Gentlle world, but lt falled to do so
for the adolescent Isaac ln the aftermath of the upheav
als wrought by World War I.
Slnce hls parents expected hlm to enter the rab
blnate, at the age of seventeen Slnger enrolled ln the
Jachkemonl Rabblnlcal Semlnary ln Warsaw. How
ever, he was unable to flnd hls vocatlon there and
remalned a student for only one year, between l92l
and l922. Jhe contrast between hls older brother`s sec
ular materlallsm and hls father`s splrltual unworldllness
made a profound lmpresslon on the young Slnger and
provlded the moral tenslon that lnformed most of hls
mature work. Havlng come early lnto contact wlth the
great classlcs of Western llterature ln Ylddlsh transla
tlons, and lured by the artlstlc world of wrlters and
journallsts, Slnger was nevertheless unable to galn
entre lnto the world of Warsaw Ylddlsh letters and
turned for help to hls brother, who had returned from
revolutlonary Russla dlslllusloned but wlth an estab
llshed and growlng reputatlon as a journallst. In the
summer of l923 Israel |oshua Slnger lntroduced hls
brother to the Warsaw Ylddlsh Wrlters` Club sltuated
at No. l3 Jlomackle Street, where Slnger found a wel
comlng home and set about establlshlng a sense of
dlrectlon for hls llfe.
Llke hls brother, Slnger was determlned to be a
wrlter, and he served a klnd of llterary apprentlceshlp
by worklng as proofreader for the dlstlngulshed War
saw Ylddlsh journal i~ (Llterary Pages)
between l923 and l933. He augmented hls paltry
291
f~~ _~ p ai_ PPO
lncome by translatlng several malnstream European
novels lnto Ylddlsh, malnly for the wellknown Ylddlsh
publlsher Borls Kletskln. Among the dlstlngulshed
works he rendered, worklng solely from German or
Hebrew texts, between l928 and l932 were Iov, Uvdcr
lststojrvcv (Tlc !ovdcrcrs) and !iltorio by Knut Ham
sun; Il fuoco (Tlc Ilomc) by Gabrlele DÀnnunzlo; Im
!cstcv viclts `cucs (Zll _uict ov tlc !cstcrv Irovt) and Dcr
!cg urcl (Tlc !oy ocl) by Erlch Marla Remarque;
and Dcr oubcrbcrg (Tlc Mogic Mouvtoiv) by Jhomas
Mann. Jhe style, subject matter, and constructlon of
these novels, all modern and lnnovatlve for thelr tlme,
would certalnly have provlded useful lessons to a bud
dlng wrlter.
At the same tlme Slnger began work on hls own
wrltlng ln Ylddlsh, whlch appeared ln Warsaw to some
acclalm ln the journals Iitcrorislc blctcr and Uvdcr
clsprcs. In l925 hls flrst publlshed work of flctlon, a
short story tltled, 'Oyfn elter" (In Old Age), won a
hlghstatus prlze offered by Iitcrorislc blctcr. Jhls debut
story was also the flrst to be slgned Yltskhok Bashevls,
the pseudonym by whlch Slnger elected to be known to
hls Ylddlsh readers. Hls cholce of thls name expressed
hls determlnatlon to establlsh an lndependent ldentlty,
and a dlstlnct persona, as a Ylddlsh wrlter. At the same
tlme lt slgnaled several other lntentlons. He was dlssocl
atlng hlmself from the famlly name under whlch hls
brother had become famous and admlred, partly ln an
attempt to cut hlmself free from the debts owed to the
lnfluence and generoslty of hls brother, wlth whom he
felt an lntense slbllng rlvalry. Moreover, the name he
chose publlcly declared hls lntellectual klnshlp wlth hls
ratlonallstlc mother. In Ylddlsh usage, the name
Bashevls ls the possesslve form of the name Basheve, so
Slnger became, as a Ylddlsh wrlter, 'the one belonglng
to Basheve." He always used thls name to slgn hls flc
tlon ln Ylddlsh. Jhe varlous ways he chose to slgn dlf
ferent genres of hls wrltlng remalned a matter of great
lmportance to hlm all hls creatlve llfe. Jo dlstance hlm
self further from hls brother, wlth whom he would not
even eat at the same table ln the Warsaw Wrlters` Club,
he became a regular vlsltor ln the home of Hlllel Jseyt
lln, the conservatlve leader of Warsaw`s lntellectual rell
glous communlty, where he formed a llfelong frlendshlp
wlth Jseytlln`s son Arn. Jhls connectlon put dlstance
between hlm and hls brother, who was an antlrellglous
radlcal.
In l927 Bashevls Slnger publlshed an artlstlc
manlfesto ln an essay tltled, 'Verter oder bllder?"
(Words or Plctures?) ln whlch he argued for vlvld
lmages and stark naturallsm as essentlal for good flc
tlon, demonstratlng hls theory ln more than twenty sto
rles and two more llterarycrltlcal essays ln ten years.
Jhe most typlcal of these storles lncluded 'Shamay
Vayts" (l929, 'Shammal Veltz"), 'Jsvlshn vent" (l930,
'Between Walls") and 'In letste teg" (l93l, 'In Ilnal
Days").
Between l926 and l935 Slnger llved wlth, but
never marrled, Rokhl (Ronye) Shaplra, by whom he
had one son, Israel Zamlr, born ln l929. Slnger dld not
neglect hls llterary work, however, and wlth hls llfelong
frlend Arn Jseytlln became the jolnt founder and edltor
of a new Warsaw Ylddlsh llterary journal tltled Clobus,
whlch appeared monthly between l932 and l935. In
one of lts earllest lssues (September l932), Bashevls
Slnger publlshed an essay tltled 'Jsu der frage vegn
dlkhtung un polltlk" (Regardlng the _uestlon of Poetry
and Polltlcs), whlch condemned the use of llterature for
soclopolltlcal agltatlon. A year later, ln 'Dl shraybers un
dl zldlers" (Jhe Wrlters and the Cursers, Clobus, Sep
tember l933), he further attrlbuted the demorallzatlon
of Warsaw`s Ylddlsh wrlters to ldeologlcal tendentlous
ness. As a radlcal conservatlve, he was uncondltlonally
hostlle to leftlst soclopolltlcal agendas and causes.
By thls tlme, although Slnger seemed well on the
way to llterary successWarsaw`s emlnent Ylddlsh
PEN Club had publlshed Dcr sotv iv goroy (l935; trans
lated as Sotov iv Coroy, l953) flrst serlallzed ln Clobus, ln
book formthe compllcatlons of Slnger`s personal llfe
had merged wlth the deepenlng crlsls ln world affalrs to
make Warsaw a frlghtenlngly uncongenlal place to llve.
Slnger`s famlly had lrrevocably spllt up wlth the death
of hls father ln l929; the mother of hls son was a fer
vent Communlst, an ldeology Slnger detested; Adolf
Hltler`s rlse to power ln Germany had led to an lntensl
flcatlon of |ew hatred ln Poland; and Slnger felt trapped
ln a dead end. Israel |oshua Slnger had lmmlgrated to
the Lnlted States ln l931, where hls reputatlon and
ablllty had establlshed hlm as a senlor member of the
staff of New York`s leadlng Ylddlsh dally, Iorvcrts (cw-
isl Doily Iorword). Slnger turned once agaln to hls
brother for help, and through Israel |oshua Slnger`s
lnfluence, Bashevls was also able to lmmlgrate to the
Lnlted States ln l935. Hls son and Shaplra made a dlf
flcult journey through Russla and Jurkey to settle ln
what was then Mandate Palestlne, whlle Slnger began
carvlng out a llterary llvellhood for hlmself ln New
York, worklng flrst as a proofreader and then as a col
umnlst at Iorvcrts. Slnger remalned loyal to thls news
paper for the rest of hls llfe, and ln lt he publlshed the
greatest part of all hls work ln Ylddlsh. In l910 Slnger
marrled Alma Wassermann (born Halmann), a Ger
man |ewlsh lmmlgrant, and became a naturallzed
Lnlted States cltlzen ln l913.
By then the whole world knew that eastern Euro
pean |ewry was belng systematlcally extermlnated, and
Slnger publlshed three major works ln Amerlca ln
response to the Holocaust. Dcr sotv iv Coroy appeared ln
295
ai_ PPO f~~ _~ p
hardcover together wlth four new storles; a near
programmatlc essay tltled 'Problemen fun der yld
dlsher proze ln Amerlke" (Problems of Ylddlsh Prose ln
Amerlca) appeared ln the llterary journal p EjFX
and hls crltlcal essay 'Arum der yldlsher llteratur ln
poylln" (Concernlng Ylddlsh Llterature ln Poland)
appeared ln the journal q Eq cFK In the four
new storles, Bashevls Slnger lntroduced for the flrst
tlme a demon narrator, as though human speech had
now become lnadequate to recount the Nazl evll. In the
speclal lssue of qI publlshed to mourn the catas
trophe of the p~I Bashevls Slnger`s essay strongly
crltlclzed both the Ylddlsh wrlters ln Poland and the
Ylddlsh language ltself. He condemned all attempts ln
Ylddlsh to create 'modern" llterature, argulng lnstead
for a return to the 'hldden treasures" of the ageold
|ewlsh folk culture. In hls essay for pI he went even
further, argulng that slnce ln Amerlca the Ylddlsh lan
guage had become obsolete, lt could no longer reallstl
cally deplct contemporary Amerlcan llfe, but should
lnstead renounce the present ln favor of the past by
recordlng and preservlng the destroyed world of East
ern Europe. Agaln practlclng what he preached, he
began work on hls long saga novel, a ~ ~
(l950; translated as q c~ j~I l950), whlch
almed to deplct, through the fortunes of one famlly, the
decllne and fall of twentlethcentury Pollsh |ewry.
Although Slnger was aware all hls llfe that, as a
wrlter, he could work genulnely only ln Ylddlsh, whlch
he called 'my mother language and the language of the
people I wanted to wrlte about," soon after hls arrlval
ln Amerlca he reallzed that he would have a llmlted
future lf hls work were publlshed only ln Ylddlsh, a lan
guage wlth a steadlly dlmlnlshlng readershlp. Deter
mlned to follow the example of Sholem Asch, the flrst
Ylddlsh wrlter to galn lnternatlonal recognltlon and a
mass readershlp ln Engllsh translatlon, Slnger began
encouraglng Engllsh translatlons of hls work, through
whlch he steadlly achleved worldwlde celebrlty.
Jhe flrst of Slnger`s translated novels to reach an
Engllsh readershlp was q c~ j~I a chronlcle of
the changlng fortunes of the wealthy Pollsh |ewlsh
Moskat famlly across four generatlons. It had flrst been
serlallzed ln Ylddlsh as a ~ j~ ln c
between l7 November l915 and l May l918 and
appeared ln book form ln Ylddlsh ln l950. In chooslng
to wrlte an extended famlly chronlcle, a form rlchly
explolted by major European wrlters ln the flrst half of
the twentleth century, Slnger was not so much follow
lng popular taste as wrltlng under the lnfluence of Israel
|oshua Slnger, two of whose major novels, q _
^~ (l936) and q c~ `~ (l913), had
been cast ln thls saga form. Slnger made hls profes
slonal rlvalry wlth hls brotherand hls gullt over lt
expllclt by dedlcatlng the Engllsh translatlon of q
c~ j~ to 'the memory of my late brother I. |.
Slnger. . . . Jo me he was not only the older brother, but
a splrltual father and master as well."
By the tlme Slnger publlshed q c~ j~I
hls brother had been dead for slx years. Slnce several of
Israel |oshua Slnger`s novels had been translated and
publlshed ln Engllsh to generally favorable notlces,
Slnger needed a pen name that would set hlm apart ln
the mlnds of hls Engllsh readers. In hls extenslve body
of wrltlng ln Ylddlsh, he always strlctly malntalned a
separate name and a dlscrete persona for the dlfferent
genres of work he contrlbuted to cK He always
slgned what he regarded as hls most accompllshed artls
tlc efforts wlth the name Yltskhok Bashevls. Ior work
of a more popular klnd, he used the pseudonyms Y.
Varshavsky (the man from Warsaw) for feullletons; G.
Kuper (the malden name of hls slsterlnlaw) for gosslp
and 'agonyaunt" columns; and Y. Segalamong oth
ersfor subjects such as polltlcal and soclal commentary
and the lmpartlng of arcane lnformatlon to curloslty
seeklng readers. Ior hls Engllsh readers, he now slgned
hlmself Isaac Bashevls Slnger. By retalnlng the name
Bashevls he subtly called attentlon to the fact that he
was, and would remaln, a wrlter who wrote prlmarlly
ln Ylddlsh. By renderlng hls flrst name ln lts Engllsh
form of Isaac, he slgnlfled hls readlness to address a
readershlp that knew llttle or nothlng about Ylddlsh or
lts llterature. And by reclalmlng hls famlly name, he felt
able at last to slgnal both hls klnshlp and hls rlvalry
wlth hls brother.
Hls flrst novel ln Engllsh translatlon was a major
achlevement. Jhe Moskat famlly`s varled lnterrelatlon
shlps, transmutatlons, and flnal dlssolutlon come to rep
resent the mutatlons undergone by the whole of eastern
European |ewry durlng the flrst forty years of the twen
tleth century. As Slnger deplcts them, the crlses faced by
lndlvlduals, and the soclopolltlcal and personal tenslons
that dlvlde and destroy them, dellneate complex shlfts
ln the ways |ews are forced to redeflne who and what
they are ln a rapldly changlng world. Inevltably, the
novel also questlons whether the |ewlsh people can sur
vlve the genoclde vlslted on them by the Nazls. Nathan
Rothman, the earllest revlewer of the novel, lmmedl
ately recognlzed the despondency lmpllclt ln thls flc
tlonal reconstructlon, notlng ln the 25 November l950
p~~ o that 'those readers who can plow
through the thlck and moody substance of thls novel
wlll flnd themselves haunted by an afterlmage not eas
lly bllnked away."
q c~ j~ bleakly recognlzes that, just as
all worldly 'progress" ls powerless to prevent Nazlsm,
so too are falth and plety defenseless agalnst rampant
evll. Jhough all European |ews, plous or 'enllghtened,"
296
f~~ _~ p ai_ PPO
are shown to face the same klnd of death ln the Holo
caust, the novel attempts to assess the relatlve value of
dlfferent ways of |ewlsh llfe. Jhe worldly unbellever
Hertz Yanovar and the devoutly Orthodox Manasseh
Davld may both perlsh ln the same extermlnatlon
camp, as the narratlve relates, but the novel welghs the
dlsparlty ln meanlng that each of these characters can
attach to hls death. Ior the bellever, confldent ln Dlvlne
determlnlsm, the comlng of Hltler means that 'Jhe
Messlah ls at our heels." Ior the secular |ew, bereft of
falth, llfe ls devold of meanlng. Slnce the novel speaks
to a predomlnantly secular readershlp, the last sentence
of the Engllsh verslon ls the despalrlng cry of Yanovar,
who shouts out above the sound of Nazl bombs
destroylng Warsaw. 'Death ls the only Messlah. Jhat`s
the real truth."
In thls novel Slnger expresses for the flrst tlme hls
abldlng convlctlon that |ewlshness, belng a transcen
dent as well as an earthly condltlon, endures lts greatest
threat to survlval not ln physlcal but ln splrltual terms.
Jhe |ews of q c~ j~I havlng lost a recognlz
ably common ldentlty, are shown to have a shared lden
tlty vlolently thrust upon them by the Nazls. Jhough
they cannot share the same way of llfe, they are forced
lnto a shared way of dylng to whlch only a sense of
lndlvldual moral responslblllty can glve meanlng.
Jhough lt sold moderately well, q c~ j~
dld not become a bestseller. Jhe work that brought
Slnger to the forefront of Amerlcan llterary crltlcal
attentlon was 'Glmpel the Iool," sensltlvely translated
by Saul Bellow and publlshed ln q m~~ o ln
May l953. Jhls short story was the plece by whlch
Slnger became best known, and two years after lts
appearance lt was halled by the p~~ o as 'a
classlc of Ylddlsh llterature" (l1 December l955). Its
central character, the seemlngly nalve water carrler
Glmpel, ls among the most vlvldly drawn of a long llne
of salntly lnnocents who appear throughout Ylddlsh llt
erature. Jhrough hls subtly nuanced recreatlon of the
archetypal |ewlsh folk flgure of the schlemlel, or bum
bllng, unworldly lncompetent, Slnger poses profound
questlons about the nature of truth and lles, through
whlch he polnts to the dlfference between thls world
and the world to come. As Glmpel remarks at the end
of the story. 'No doubt the world ls entlrely an lmagl
nary world, but lt ls only once removed from the true
world. . . . When the tlme comes I wlll go joyfully.
Whatever may be there, lt wlll be real, wlthout compll
catlon, wlthout rldlcule, wlthout deceptlon. God be
pralsed. there even Glmpel cannot be decelved." Dur
lng the rest of the l950s and untll the end of hls llfe,
Slnger found hls short storles ln great demand; they
appeared promlnently ln such hlghproflle magazlnes as
`~I q k vI e~I and bK
In l955 p~~ d~ appeared ln |acob Sloan`s
much admlred translatlon, becomlng Slnger`s second
novel to reach an Engllsh readershlp. A crltlc for q
k v q _ o (l3 November l955) pralsed
lt as belng 'beautlfully wrltten by one of the masters of
Ylddlsh prose, and beautlfully translated . . . folk mate
rlal transmuted lnto llterature." Jhrough a palnstaklng
recreatlon of seventeenthcentury |ewlsh Poland ln the
aftermath of the savage antl|ewlsh massacres ln l618
by the Cossacks under the leadershlp of Bogdan
Chmlelnlckl, p~~ d~ scrutlnlzes the shattered
falth of persecuted |ews who desperately seek to force
the comlng of that Messlah for whose redemptlon they
have walted so long. Iocuslng wlth nearpsychotlc
lntenslty on the hysterla provoked among the devas
tated |ewlsh communltles of Poland by the clalms of the
false messlah, Sabbatal Zevl, thls novel has been lnter
preted, notably by Seth L. Wolltz ln a l989 artlcle, as a
paradlgm expresslng Slnger`s uncompromlslng dls
mlssal of the messlanlc expectatlons awakened by the
Russlan Revolutlon. Ruth R. Wlsse asserted ln q
j g `~ (2000) that the book 'looms as one
of the flnest polltlcal novels ln the Western canon."
Jhere ls no questlon that, ln lts unsparlng deplctlon of
the splrltual selfevlsceratlon of a desperate people,
p~~ d~ makes a radlcally conservatlve statement
of convlctlons Slnger conslstently held and restated
throughout hls work.
d c ~ l pI Slnger`s flrst book
length collectlon of short flctlon, appeared ln l957 and
was recelved wlth great admlratlon. One crltlc for q
k v q _ o (29 December l957)
declared that wlth thls volume, 'Slnger takes hls place
wlth the eplc storytellers, transcendlng geographlcal
and chronologlcal boundarles." Among the tales that
appeared for the flrst tlme and have been most often
republlshed slnce are 'Jhe Llttle Shoemakers" and
'|oy." Slnger replayed the theme of p~~ d~ wlth
'Jhe Gentleman from Cracow" and lntroduced
Engllsh readers to the demonnarrator, one of the hall
marks of many subsequent short storles, wlth 'Jhe
Mlrror" and 'Jhe Lnseen."
Slnger`s growlng popularlty wlth Engllsh readers
was clearly demonstrated by the speed wlth whlch hls
next novel was made avallable ln Engllsh. Whereas
twenty years had elapsed between the publlcatlon ln
Ylddlsh of a d~ ln Warsaw ln l935 and lts
Engllsh verslon ln l955, q j~~ i was serl
allzed ln Ylddlsh ln c ln l959 and publlshed ln
Engllsh ln l960. Jhe revlewer ln the k p~~ (l5
September l96l), acknowledglng the metlculous care
wlth whlch Slnger had recreated nlneteenthcentury
Poland ln thls novel, also called attentlon to the way ln
whlch 'thls reallstlc plcture ls, as lt were, gently
297
ai_ PPO f~~ _~ p
stretched outwards untll lt achleves a grotesque or men
aclng dlstortlon." Grotesque elements became lncreas
lngly evldent ln Slnger`s ensulng work.
In q j~~ i Slnger moved from the
destructlon of an entlre communlty to an lndlvldual ln
psychologlcal turmoll. Humlllatlngly confronted by the
extent of hls own llmltatlons, the central character,
Yasha Mazur, a celebrated |ewlsh clrcus artlst, ls obllged
to seek a way of survlvlng ln a world that reslsts hls
arrogant attempts to domlnate lt. He trles to balance the
confllctlng demands of hls personal llfe on a flguratlve
tlghtrope that parallels the llteral tlghtrope on whlch he
performs hls acclalmed acrobatlc trlcks. Yasha seeks to
straddle the mutually excluslve worlds of Orthodox
|ewlsh plety, embodled ln hls loyal |ewlsh wlfe, Esther,
and Western secular culture, typlfled by hls Pollsh
Cathollc mlstress, Emllla. Steadlly, Yasha dlscovers that
every avenue of advancement lnto the secular Gentlle
world he longs to joln ls closed to hlm, so that at the
end of the novel he returns to a rlgorous observance of
|ewlsh Orthodoxy. Jo enforce the dlsclpllne of hls penl
tentlal return, he brlcks hlmself up ln a speclally con
structed cell.
Slnger was adamant about thls coerclve manner
of denylng the materlal world ln order to pursue the
splrltual; he restated lt several tlmes more ln hls sub
sequent work. Jhe flrst crltlc tentatlvely to questlon the
valldlty of thls drastlc expedlent was Irvlng Howe, ln
hls revlew for `~ (October l960). 'Whlle there
ls no dlfflculty ln maklng out what happens . . . there ls
a real questlon as to what lt all slgnlfles." Later crltlcs
have more boldly challenged Slnger`s seemlngly slm
pllstlc solutlon to an enormous exlstentlal problem.
Jhey suggest that lf a llfe of Orthodox |ewlsh obser
vance can be llved only wlthln the conflnes of a prlson
whether a monastlc cell or a hermetlcally sealedoff
ultraOrthodox communltythen Orthodox |udalsm ls
lncapable of speaklng to modern people. Ior Slnger,
however, there ls no moral mlddle ground between
wantonness and the dlsclpllne of rellglon, as Wlsse
polnts out. he 'lnslsted, as hls parents had done, on the
ontologlcal reallty of good and evll, but he could not
reconstruct the rellglous dlsclpllne that alone could
uphold these dlstlnctlons. He dld not thlnk that what
was morally necessary was posslble." Jhls blnary oppo
sltlon lnformed Slnger`s personal and artlstlc confllct all
hls llfe.
In l96l Slnger`s second collectlon of short flctlon,
q p~ j~ p ~ l pI was pub
llshed to a generally favorable receptlon. Howe, wrltlng
ln the k o (l3 November l96l), was one of the
few crltlcs to volce reservatlons. 'Slnger seems almost
perfect wlthln hls strlngent llmlts, but lt ls perfectlon of
stasls . . . he seems to be mlred ln hls own orlglnallty."
In the Iall l962 g e~I Mllton Hlndus dls
agreed. 'What Howe calls Slnger`s 'narrow`, 'strlngent`
llmltatlons are preclsely the source of hls power. . . .
Slnger never loses slght of the fact that hls forte ls the
lmaglnatlve transportatlon of reallty." Jhe tltle story
polgnantly dramatlzes Slnger`s longstandlng contempt
for barren lntellectuallsm and lts lmpotence to valldate
human llfe. Jhe chlef character, the aged and lnflrm Dr.
Nahum Ilschelson, who has devoted hls entlre llfe to
the study of Benedlct de Splnoza, ls granted a meanlng
ful perspectlve on what lt means to be human only
when he marrles the llllterate cleanlng woman, Dobbe.
He recognlzes the true reallty 'of that lnflnlte extenslon
whlch ls, accordlng to Splnoza, one of God`s attrlbutes"
for the flrst tlme ln hls llfe when he rlses from hls mar
rlage bed. 'In hls long nlghtshlrt he approached the
wlndow, walked up the steps and looked out ln wonder.
. . . Yes, the dlvlne substance was extended and had nel
ther beglnnlng nor end; lt was absolute, lndlvlslble,
eternal, wlthout duratlon, lnflnlte ln lts attrlbutes . . .
and he, Dr. Ilschelson, wlth hls unavoldable fate, was
part of thls."
Jhe other storles ln thls collectlon relterated some
of the chlef moral concerns expressed ln Slnger`s novels
and gave Amerlcan readers more of the klnd of
demonlsm they had earller enjoyed. 'Jhe Black Wed
dlng" and 'Jhe Destructlon of Kreshev," storles orlgl
nally publlshed ln Ylddlsh years earller, are smallscale
reworklngs of the materlal ln p~~ d~I whlle
'Shlddah and Kuzlba," set ln the netherworld, presents
a mother demon teachlng her chlld that humans are the
belngs most greatly to be feared.
Crltlcal acclalm was unanlmous for the Engllsh
translatlon of q p~I whlch appeared ln l962. It had
flrst been publlshed ln Ylddlsh as a ln c
between l1 October l960 and l8 March l96l; the
Engllsh translatlon was from thls serlallzatlon. A crltlc
for q p~~ o (l6 |une l962) noted that 'few
wrlters slnce Shakespeare have been able to evoke so
harrowlngly the nlghtmare world of savage anlmals . . .
and of man`s klnshlp wlth them." Many of the earllest
readers of the book regarded q p~ as Slnger`s most
lyrlcal and perfectly constructed novel. Jhree years
after lts debut, the Brltlsh poet Jed Hughes called lt 'a
burnlngly radlant, lntensely beautlful book," and
Hughes lmpllcltly dlsagreed wlth Howe about the sup
posed lack of development ln Slnger`s work. 'Looklng
over hls novels ln thelr chronologlcal order, the flrst
apparent thlng ls the enormous and one mlght say suc
cessful development of hls vlslon" (k v o
_I 22 Aprll l965).
In q p~ Slnger reverses the sltuatlon of Yasha
Mazur, returnlng for thls purpose to the seventeenth
century hlstorlcal perlod lmmedlately followlng
298
f~~ _~ p ai_ PPO
Chmlelnlckl`s pogroms. |acob, the plous |ew who ls the
slave of the tltle, ls doubly ln exlle. He ls a Pollsh |ew,
drlven wlth hls people from |erusalem and hls home
land, and he ls cut off, through enslavement to a Pollsh
peasant, from hls natlve vlllage and the |ewlsh commu
nal llfe central to hls splrltual practlce. By name and
nature, |acob ls a paradlgm of hls blbllcal namesake,
reenactlng the ageold struggle of the |ewlsh people to
retaln thelr ldentlty ln a hostlle envlronment. He too ls
a survlvor, but unllke those who survlve the massacres
ln p~~ d~I he follows a strlct reglmen of pre
scrlbed rellglous observance. As constant as evll may be
ln the cycle of hlstory, the novel suggests, so too ls the
power of lndlvldual freedom.
|acob loves and ls passlonately loved ln return by
Wanda, the semlpagan daughter of hls master, and for
love of |acob, Wanda converts to |udalsm and dles glv
lng blrth to |acob`s son. Jhls chlld, the frult of the
unlon between a passlonately bellevlng |ew and a plous
convert, lntroduces for the flrst tlme ln Slnger`s work a
theme to whlch he returns several tlmesthe suggestlon
that the declmated and demorallzed |ews of Eastern
Europe can hope to renew the vltallty of thelr people
only through the lnfuslon of the new blood of devout
converts. Slnger lnvokes the blbllcal paradlgm of Ruth
the Moabltess, who follows her motherlnlaw, Naoml,
back to the land of |udah, where she embraces the falth
of Israel, a declslon so favored by God that Ruth ls
found worthy to become the greatgrandmother of
Klng Davld, the founder of the royal llne from whlch
the Messlah wlll come.
Jralned ln the exegesls of sacred texts, Slnger
found lt natural to use blbllcal quotatlon, paradlgm, and
allegory to unlversallze the partlcular llves and events
that are the subjects of hls flctlon. Hls descrlptlons of
the physlcal world are developed as symbollc exten
slons of hls themes. Jhe order lmposed on the events
descrlbedthelr selectlon, juxtaposltlon, and emphases,
llke those of blbllcal narratlvesare all determlned by
the moral vlewpolnt of the teller of the tale. Moreover,
the lntervlews Slnger gave throughout a perlod of more
than forty years reveal the extent to whlch he hlmself ls
present ln much of hls flctlon. Often characters ln hls
later novels and short storles speak words almost ldentl
cal to those uttered by Slnger on one or another publlc
occaslon. Jhe cumulatlve effect of thls blurrlng of
reportage wlth flctlon ls to create flctlonallzed exten
slons of the author, through whlch he debates the ambl
gultles of modern |ewlsh ldentlty.
By thls tlme, appearlng as they dld ln leadlng
magazlnes, Slnger`s short storles were becomlng wldely
known, and llterary crltlcs lnltlated a debate about
whether Slnger was better at wrltlng short storles than
novels. Intervlewers who asked the author whlch of the
two forms he preferred were glven an answer that
remalned unchanged; as he repeated ln a l981 lnter
vlew wlth |oseph Sherman. 'I llke both the novel and
the short story. Of course, I would say lt`s more dlfflcult
to wrlte a good short story than a good novel, because
your tlme, your space ls so llmlted. . . . Jo make lt short
and stlll good ls a great challenge. But actually, we can
not really lnterchange them."
Slnger`s next collectlon of short storles, publlshed
ln l961 under the tltle p c~I ~ l pI was
also dedlcated to Israel |oshua Slnger, 'who helped me
to come to thls country and was my teacher and master
ln llterature." Some crltlcs greeted the volume patronlz
lngly. a revlew ln the q k~ (1 |anuary l965), for
lnstance, suggested that 'Ior those who suffer nostalgla
for what they`ve never known, Slnger ls a llttle genre
palnter offerlng heartwarmlng portralts." Jhe revlewer
for q k v q (l1 December l961) suggested
that 'the pecullar quallty" of Slnger`s work 'ls probably
too speclal for most tastes." In q k i~ (2l
December l961), however, Stanley Edgar Hyman
asserted that wlth thls collectlon, 'lt becomes obvlous
that Slnger ls more than a wrlter; he ls a llterature." Jhe
volume was extremely varled ln content and lncluded
several storles that were soon recognlzed as among
Slnger`s best work, such as 'Jalbele and Her Demon"
and 'Yentl the Yeshlva Boy." Jhe dlfferent klnds of sex
ual amblgulty presented ln these two tales made them
lmmensely lntrlgulng, and both were later adapted for
the stage. 'Jhe Last Demon" ls among Slnger`s most
powerful evocatlons of the Holocaust. Wlth an excorlat
lng wlt, lts narrator sets the chllllng tone ln hls openlng
remark. 'I, a demon, bear wltness that there are no
more demons left. Why demons, when man hlmself ls a
demon?"
Jhe moral unlverse Slnger evokes ln thls collec
tlon ls once agaln starkly dlvlded between plety and
wlckedness. Jhe slmpllclty of ShmuelLelbele and hls
wlfe, Shoshethe devout, accldentally suffocated couple
ln the tltle story, 'Short Irlday"ls set ln jarrlng con
trast to the headlong moral descent of the lustful Rlsha
ln 'Blood." Her lnsatlable deslre to wltness the shed
dlng of anlmal blood ln the slaughterhouse leads lnevl
tably to the lndulgence of her voraclous sexual appetlte,
her converslon to Chrlstlanlty, and her eventual trans
mogrlflcatlon lnto a werewolf, a physlcal manlfestatlon
of her total dehumanlzatlon. Slmllarly, ln 'Zeldlus the
Pope" the genlus Zeldel, a deslccated, smalltown
scholar hungry for worldly glory, converts to Chrlstlan
lty ln hopes of becomlng pope but ls lnstead reduced to
bllndness and destltutlon before belng dragged off to
the netherworld by gloatlng demons. Noteworthy ln
storles such as these ls the extent to whlch Slnger, even
ln Engllsh translatlon, makes an uncompromlslng equa
299
ai_ PPO f~~ _~ p
tlon between Chrlstlanlty and the temptatlons of the
world, the flesh, and the devll. Ior those of hls charac
ters who abandon the rlgors of Orthodox |ewlsh obser
vance, there ls absolutely no worldly reward; there ls
merely the shatterlng of grandlose llluslons.
Ior the flrst tlme, ln thls semlnal collectlon Slnger
also publlshed two storles set wholly ln the Lnlted
States. 'Alone" and 'A Weddlng ln Brownsvllle." In
both, supernatural phenomena are placed ln a modern
settlng. Jhe tales ln thls collectlon deflne the range of
Slnger`s themes ln the work that followed.
Jhe second half of the l960s was a productlve
perlod ln Slnger`s creatlve llfe and brought hlm pralse
and remuneratlon. Tlc Iomily Muslot was republlshed ln
the Lnlted States ln l965 and was even more warmly
recelved than lt had been flfteen years earller. In l966,
ln response to the urglng of chlldren`s book edltor Ellz
abeth Shub, Slnger produced lotcl tlc Coot ovd Utlcr
Storics, the flrst of hls many books for chlldren. Wlttlly
lllustrated by Maurlce Sendak, thls book was well
recelved and won Slnger hls flrst Newbery Honor Book
Award. Based ln part on old |ewlsh folktales, these sto
rles, recast for young readers, enabled Slnger to be
openly dldactlc; he offered unamblguous wlshfulflllment
tales ln whlch the good are rewarded and the wlcked
punlshed. In 'I See the Chlld as a Last Refuge," a plece
wrltten for Tlc `cw Jorl Timcs ool Icvicw (9 November
l969), Slnger pralsed the world of chlldren, notlng that
'thelr llterature ls stlll preoccupled wlth klngs, prln
cesses, devlls, demons, lmps, werewolves and other old
fashloned creatures." Hls work for chlldren also
allowed hlm to express, for the flrst tlme ln Engllsh, a
polgnant, personal nostalgla for hls own chlldhood and
the destroyed Poland ln whlch lt had been spent.
In l966 Howe edlted and lntroduced hls own
selectlon of Slnger`s short storles, and ln the same year,
Slnger publlshed an Engllsh verslon of hls flrst collec
tlon of semlautoblographlcal memolrs, tltled Iv My
Iotlcr`s Court. Jhls book, whlch had orlglnally appeared
ln Ylddlsh ln l956 as Moyv totv`s bcs-div sltub, became
one of the most popular of all Slnger`s wrltlngs.
Jhrough hls vlgnettes of the way hls father carrled out
hls dutles as a |ewlsh rabblnlcal judge, Slnger presents
an eleglac portralt of a vanlshed world of Orthodox
rellglous observance. Some crltlcs later came to feel that
these sketches were romantlclzed. Iollowlng the lead
glven by the dlstlngulshed Ylddlsh poet |acob Glatsteln,
they rebuked the book for feedlng lnto sentlmental
mythmaklng about destroyed Eastern European |ewlsh
llfe. In hls revlew of the Ylddlsh serlallzatlon of Iv My
Iotlcr`s Court the year before lt was publlshed ln Engllsh,
Glatsteln, always one of Slnger`s harshest crltlcs,
asserted ln Covgrcss i-!cclly (27 December l965) that
'rarely has a wrlter commltted to publlcatlon such trlv
lal, commonplace and egocentrlc effuslons." |ules Cha
metzky, however, dlsagreed ln Tlc òtiov (l7 October
l966), emphaslzlng that 'Jhe last word ln the book ls
'love`, and lt ls wlth love, dlgnlty and restralnt that
Slnger walks hls dlfflcult tlghtrope and achleves the mlr
acle of art." Leadlng Amerlcan llterary crltlcs concurred
wlth thls judgment. Jhe overall lmpact of thls memolr
on the Engllshreadlng publlc remalned profound ln lts
assertlon of the potentlal for vlrtuous human conduct
held out by the precepts of rellglon to those capable of
falth.
Jhe followlng year, ln l967, Slnger publlshed Tlc
Movor, the flrst of two volumes of the Engllsh verslon of
another saga novel that traces the hlstory of Pollsh
|ewry from the falled Pollsh rebelllon of l863 to the
outbreak of World War I. Jhe second and concludlng
volume, Tlc Istotc, appeared two years later, ln l969.
Jhe Ylddlsh verslon, tltled Dcr loyf, had been serlallzed
ln Iorvcrts between l952 and l955 but lt was never pub
llshed ln book form. Tlc Movor and Tlc Istotc complete
the hlstorlcal sweep of those declslve events through
whlch Slnger, at thls perlod of hls artlstlc llfe, explored
the crlsls of modern |ewlsh survlval. Wlth a huge cast
of characters and a mass of preclse detall, thls eplc novel
examlnes the radlcal mutatlons wlthln the famlly of
Calman |acoby, a wealthy and plous Pollsh |ew who
llves to wltness the destructlon of all he has belleved ln.
Jhroughout thls novel, Slnger shows that all
human endeavor ylelds palnful amblvalences. Whlle
modern technologlcal progress condemns to sclentlflc
lgnorance those |ews lmmersed excluslvely ln thelr
anclent holy wrltlngs, lts lnslstence on moral relatlvlsm
ralses wlth equal force the questlon of what |ews can
posslbly be wlthout thelr anclent law and llturgy. By
drawlng a rlgld dlstlnctlon between splrltual and mate
rlal llfe, the narratlve suggests that what ls arrogantly
called 'progress" can also be vlewed as moral regres
slon. Chametzky, wrltlng ln Tlc òtiov (30 October
l967), polnted out that Slnger was offerlng a vlslon 'of
the contemporary vold . . . and a bodylng forth of the
knowledge that lts negotlatlon requlres the most dell
cate, and perllous, balance between worlds lost and
found, known and unknown." Tlc Movor was noml
nated for the Natlonal Book Award.
In l968 the appearance of Slnger`s fourth collec
tlon of short flctlon ln Engllsh translatlon, Tlc Scovcc
ovd Utlcr Storics, was greeted wlth mlxed revlews, and
for the flrst tlme Slnger`s work was accused of loslng lts
thematlc substance and becomlng shallow, anecdotal,
and repetltlve. One crltlc for Tlc `cw Jorl Timcs ool
Icvicw (20 October l968) suggested that ln thls newest
collectlon, 'too often" Slnger`s storles are 'merely lnter
ested ln descrlblng a klnd of flddlerontheroof
Poland." Dedlcated to the 'memory of my beloved sls
300
f~~ _~ p ai_ PPO
ter Hlnde Esther," thls collectlon dld, however, break
some new ground for Slnger and offered some rework
lngs of old themes. Jhe tltle story dramatlzes, wlth wlt
and lrony, Slnger`s abldlng lnterest ln splrltuallsm. 'Jhe
Lecture" transforms a commonplace personal experl
ence of travel lnto a frlghtenlng tale of death and dlsso
lutlon; 'Jhe Needle" lntroduces Engllsh readers to the
monologuetale serles narrated by Aunt Yentl, a super
stltlous vlllage gosslp; and 'Zeltel and Rlckel," deplct
lng the doomed love between two lesblans, develops
Slnger`s exploratlonbegun wlth 'Yentl the Yeshlva
Boy"of alternatlve sexualltles.
By the l970s, the decade ln whlch he was most
prollflc ln brlnglng out the Engllsh translatlons of hls
work, Slnger had reached the plnnacle of hls fame and
success. He won a Natlonal Book Award wlth the publl
catlon of Z Doy of Ilcosurc (l969), a collectlon of nlne
teen memolrlstlc sketches deplctlng the flrst fourteen
years of hls llfe. Iourteen of these storles had prevlously
appeared ln sllghtly dlfferent verslons ln Iv My Iotlcr`s
Court, whlle flve were publlshed ln Engllsh for the flrst
tlme. Jhe volume was lllustrated wlth lntensely evoca
tlve photographs of pre-World War II Poland taken by
Roman Vlshnlac, augmented by photographs from
Slnger`s personal album.
Later ln l970, Slnger publlshed hls flfth collectlon,
Z Iricvd of Ioflo ovd Utlcr Storics, and whlle one revlew
ln Tlc `cw Jorl Timcs (20 September l970) suggested
that too much Slnger ln one volume could lead to 'the
posslble dllutlon of maglc performed ln quantlty," Timc
magazlne (2l September l970) halled these storles as
'mlraculous creatlons . . . ln the hlghest artlstlc tradl
tlon." Monologue storles told by unrellable narrators
are promlnent ln thls collectlon. Aunt Yentl reappears to
relate the events ln 'Jhe Blasphemer," whlle a trlo that
resurfaces ln later workZalman the glazler, Levl
Yltskhok ln hls bluetlnted spectacles, and Meler the
eunuchmake thelr debut ln Engllsh ln 'Storles from
Behlnd the Stove." Jhe operatlon of supernatural
forces, even ln the streets of contemporary Manhattan,
ls demonstrated ln 'Jhe Key" and 'Powers," and the
Warsaw Wrlters` Club ls satlrlcally recalled ln the tltle
story and ln 'Dr. Beeber." One powerful tale, 'Jhe
Cafeterla," evokes the horror of the Holocaust through
the experlences of a survlvor ln modern New York, and
ln 'Jhe Son" Slnger relates a flctlonallzed verslon of hls
flrst meetlng wlth hls son after an estrangement of
twenty years. 'Jhe Mentor," the flrst of Slnger`s storles
to be set ln the State of Israel, permltted hlm to express
some amblvalent, personal vlews about lts slgnlflcance
to |ews of hls generatlon and background.
In l970 Slnger also publlshed two long tales for
chlldren. oscpl ovd Ioo; or, Tlc Socrificc to tlc !istulo,
and Ilijol tlc Slovc: Z Hcbrcw Icgcvd Ictold. More chll
dren`s storles followed ln book form. Zlovc iv tlc !ild
Iorcst and Tlc Topsy-Turvy Impcror of Clivo ln l97l; Tlc
!iclcd City ln l972; Tlc Iools of Clclm ovd Tlcir History ln
l973; !ly òol Closc tlc Dovc ln l971; Z Tolc of Tlrcc
!islcs ln l975; and òftoli tlc Storytcllcr ovd His Horsc,
Sus, ovd Utlcr Storics ln l976. All these storles, retelllngs
of wellknown |ewlsh folktales, were publlshed ln beau
tlfully deslgned largeprlnt edltlons; they reached a
wlde readershlp and were much pralsed. Ior adult read
ers, Slnger wrote the text for a speclal llmltededltlon
volume ln l973 tltled Tlc Hosidim. Lavlshly lllustrated
by Ira Moskowltz, thls book offers a vlbrant and
respectful celebratlon of Hasldlsm, stresslng the splrl
tual slgnlflcance of the |ewlsh falththroughjoy move
ment.
Slnger`s mature work appeared steadlly durlng
the l970s. In l972 came the Engllsh verslon of Ivcmics,
Z Iovc Story, the flrst of hls novels to focus entlrely on
survlvors, to deal dlrectly wlth the physlcal, psychologl
cal, and splrltual devastatlon wrought on them by the
Holocaust, and to be set ln the Lnlted States. Jhe orlg
lnal Ylddlsh verslon, tltled Sovim: di gcslilltc fuv o libc,
had been serlallzed ln Iorvcrts between ll Iebruary and
l3 August l966 but not publlshed ln book form. A
revlewer for Tlc `cw Jorl Timcs (25 |une l972) charac
terlzed lt as 'bleak" and 'obsesslve," whlle a crltlc for
the `cw Jorl Icvicw of ools (20 |uly l972), notlng lts
grotesquely comlc elements, nevertheless malntalned that
Slnger 'elevates thls farce sltuatlon lnto traglcomedy."
All the survlvors ln thls novel are deplcted as
slmultaneously allve and dead. because they cannot for
get thelr destroyed European past, they are allenated
from thelr recreated present. Jhey feel thls dlsjunctlon
most keenly ln the loss of thelr mother tongue, and ln
thls novel, as elsewhere ln hls work, Slnger explolts the
symbollc correspondence between the destructlon of
the Ylddlsh world and the Ylddlsh word, a culturally
annlhllatlng perceptlon he also expressed ln an lmpor
tant essay, 'Problems of Ylddlsh Prose ln Amerlca,"
flrst publlshed ln Ylddlsh ln l913.
Several crltlcs have noted that, desplte lts grlm
comedy, what glves Ivcmics, Z Iovc Story lts strength ls
the fact that lts chlef character, a dlslocated moral cow
ard and cheat named Herman Broder, ls not the sole,
nor even the domlnant, volce ln the novel. He ls classed
among 'those wlthout courage to make an end to thelr
exlstence," hopeless people who 'have only one other
way out. to deaden thelr consclousness, choke thelr
memory, extlngulsh the last vestlge of hope." By con
trast, Herman`s flrst wlfe, Jamara, a survlvor of a death
camp, has grown through sufferlng to a recognltlon that
llfe makes demands on the llvlng, an acknowledgment
that makes her lnslst on dlstlngulshlng between self
lndulgence ln a godless unlversethe escape route
30l
ai_ PPO f~~ _~ p
selzed by Hermanand the duty to exerclse the power
of posltlve cholce.
Jhe publlcatlon ln l973 of hls collectlon of short
storles ^ ` c~ ~ l p won for Slnger
hls second Natlonal Book Award (glven ln l971), and
hlgh pralse from a crltlc for q k v o _
(7 Iebruary l971), who remarked on the wrlter`s ablllty
to deplct, ln 'a remarkable range of styles and tones,"
the 'moral and cultural space" that dlvldes people. In
hls speech acceptlng thls award, Slnger made a polnt of
stresslng that 'Only ln such a lavlsh and glvlng country
as the Lnlted States ls lt posslble for a wrlter who wrltes
ln a forelgn language to get a natlonal award. No man
who llves here remalns a stranger." Ior the most part,
the collectlon offers few surprlses elther ln form or ln
content. Only ln 'Jhe Captlve," a blzarre tale of how a
llvlng wrlter`s ldentlty ls subsumed by the posthumous
llfe of a dead palnter, does Slnger develop further hls
amblguous response to some of the demands on |ewlsh
ldentlty made by the State of Israel. In the majorlty of
the other tales ln thls collectlon, Slnger restates some of
hls favorlte themes, such as the way mysterlous other
worldly forces operate ln the llves of contemporary people
(ln 'Jhe Brlefcase," a tale drawn from the wrlter`s per
sonal experlences on the Amerlcan lecture clrcult) and
the way the llvlng can be possessed by the splrlts of the
dead (ln 'A Dance and a Hop").
Jhe story 'Jhe Beard" from thls collectlon
formed the basls of a short documentary/fantasy movle
about Slnger`s worklng llfe, p k~ ~ jK
m _~I made ln l972. Dlrected by Bruce Davld
son, wlth the ald of a grant from the Amerlcan Illm
Instltute, the movle was alred on publlc televlslon and
won a prlze at the l972 Amerlcan Illm Iestlval. By the
mld l970s other Slnger works were adapted for the
stage, televlslon, and clnema. On 23 October l975 a
stage verslon of v v~ _I wrltten ln collabora
tlon wlth Leah Napolln, opened on Broadway at the
Eugene O`Nelll Jheater. Desplte pralse for the leadlng
actress, Jovah Ieldshuh, the play was poorly recelved.
Indlfferent, and sometlmes hostlle, receptlon of hls
stage adaptatlons had started as early as l963, when
d c premlered as a oneact play at the Mer
mald Jheater ln New York. Jhe Yale Repertory Jhe
ater adaptatlon of q j ten years later ln l973 was
also poorly regarded, and condemnatlon cllmaxed ln
the revlews that greeted the l6 December l979 open
lng, at the Brooks Atklnson Jheater, of the stage ver
slon of q ~ e a that Slnger wrote wlth Eve
Irledman. Jhe common objectlon ln the conslstently
negatlve revlews of all of these adaptatlons was that the
amblgultles and subtletles of Slnger`s prose flctlon were
wholly lncapable of belng transmltted through the
medlum of the theater.
Slnger`s seventh collectlon of short storles ln
Engllsh, m~ ~ l p (l975), renewed crltlcal
objectlon to what was now percelved as Slnger`s repetl
tlveness and also to hls sollpslstlc absorptlon ln the
events of hls own llfe. A revlewer for q s~ s (2
Iebruary l976), for example, malntalned that m~
~ l p 'ls a recapltulatlon of all that precedes
lt" and that Slnger`s storles 'are a long blography of
hlmself, the good, famous Ylddlsh wrlter." In hls
'Author`s Note" to thls collectlon, Slnger expllcltly
stressed that hls work was a memorlal to the destroyed
world of Eastern Europe, speclflcally to 'the Ylddlsh
speaklng |ews who perlshed ln Poland and those who
emlgrated to the L.S.A." Jhe story that most clearly
fulfllls thls alm ls 'Sam Palka and Davld Vlshkover," ln
whlch a |ewlsh lmmlgrant, grown rlch and successful ln
Amerlca, nevertheless longs greatly for the lmpover
lshed llfe of the old shtetl, the small market town ln
Poland ln whlch he grew up. He ls even prepared to
assume another ldentlty ln order to rellve some of hls
past wlth Channah Basha, a newcomer who rents one
of hls seedy apartments ln Brownsvllle, where she lov
lngly malntalns all the values, customs, and behavlor
patterns of oldworld |ews. Seven of the twenty storles
ln thls collectlon are flctlonal reworklngs of autoblo
graphlcal materlals, coverlng events ln Slnger`s llfe both
before he left Poland and after he became famous ln
Amerlca. Monologue pleces set ln preHolocaust
Poland are also promlnent. the character of Aunt Yentl
reappears as the narrator of 'Jhe Gravedlgger" and
'Jhe Sorcerer," whlle the entertalnlng trlo of Zalman,
Yltskhok, and Meler all contrlbute to the telllng of
'Errors." More than any other, thls collectlon unamblg
uously artlculates Slnger`s determlnatlon to commemo
rate the lost past.
Jhe appearance ln l976 of a memolr tltled ^ i
_ p~ dX I j ~ m~ i seemed
to some crltlcs to prove Slnger`s lntenslfylng sollpslsm.
Even the format of thls book caused puzzlement, partlc
ularly about lts genre. It appeared under the lmprlnt of
Doubleday, rather than of Slnger`s longstandlng pub
llsher Iarrar, Straus and Glroux, ln an expenslve, large,
hardcover edltlon profusely lllustrated wlth drawlngs
and watercolors by Moskowltz. Lnllke the photographs
that provlde verlslmllltude ln ^ a~ m~I Mosko
wltz`s drawlngs seem dellberately deslgned to flctlonal
lze. Nevertheless, thls volume of recollectlons started
maklng avallable to the Engllsh reader that palnful
wrestllng wlth falth and doubt that Slnger`s Ylddlsh
readers had been encounterlng ln the pages of c ln
several lengthy, serlallzed memolrs that ran, under dlf
ferent serles tltles, between November l971 and Decem
ber l978. |oseph C. Landls, ln hls l986 study, notes
that these memolrs are the volce of 'I. B. Slnger, the
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wrlter of seventy, recalllng once agaln hls quarrel wlth
God ln yet another autoblographlcal reprlse, retraclng
the orlglns of hls doubt and trylng once agaln to justlfy
hls stance."
Slnger reworked the same autoblographlcal mate
rlals for hls next novel, Sloslo, the Engllsh verslon of
whlch appeared ln l978, the year he was awarded the
Nobel Prlze ln Llterature. Sloslo met wlth an openly
hostlle receptlon from Leon Wleseltler, who dlsmlssed
lt as 'a stunted novel about stunted llves" and dlspar
aged Slnger`s use of the supernatural as a panderlng to
'that faclle lnfatuatlon wlth the demonlc that currently
prevalls ln Amerlcan culture" (Tlc `cw Jorl Icvicw of
ools, 7 December l978).
Set ln the years lmmedlately precedlng Hltler`s
lnvaslon of Poland, Sloslo suggests that the sterlle
thoughts and lmpotent dolngs that preoccupy the char
acters of prewar Warsaw ls the splrltual dead end lnto
whlch worldly secularlzatlon has led. Jhe fatallsm wlth
whlch these |ews awalt extlrpatlon at Nazl hands ls pre
sented as a collectlve death wlsh as much as a passlve
acceptance of polltlcal events outslde thelr personal con
trol. Jhe narratlve technlque of Sloslo calls attentlon to
ltself by employlng several devlces that echo the effect
of a yilcr-bull, a Holocaust memorlal volume. Jhese
were books publlshed by survlvors of Hltler`s genoclde
and lntended to memorlallze and mourn the varlous
towns and vlllages of Eastern Europe ln whlch the
authors had grown up; they are characterlzed by the
klnd of mlnute descrlptlve detall ln whlch the narratlve
volce ln Sloslo dellneates the topography of |ewlsh
Warsaw.
After breakfast I went to Shosha`s |on Krochmalna
Street| and stayed there for lunch. Jhen I left for my
room on Leszno Street. Although lt would have been
qulcker to go down Iron Street, I walked on Gnoyna,
Zlmna, and Orla. On Iron Street you were vulnerable
to a blow from a Pollsh Fasclst. I had lald out my own
ghetto.
Jhe last sentence of thls passage ls calculated to
shock the reader wlth post facto recognltlon, because
thls route, llke all the others detalled ln the novel, can
be traced on any map of the Nazlcreated Warsaw Ghetto.
By the tlme `cslomc-clspcditsycs (SoulExpedltlons), the serl
allzed Ylddlsh verslon of Sloslo, appeared ln Iorvcrts ln
l971, Slnger had been llvlng ln the Lnlted States for
forty years, more than a decade longer than he ever
llved ln Warsaw; yet, hls topographlcal ltemlzatlon ls
palnfully accurate. Llke Slnger, the narrator of Sloslo
was able to escape thls horrlfylng culdesac, but hls
luck, by comparlson wlth the mllllons who were unable
to flee, obvlously remalned deeply rooted ln hls psyche.
Hence, Aaron Greldlnger, Slnger`s flctlonal alter ego
maklng the flrst of many appearances as the narrator of
Slnger`s later novelsattempts to memorlze every one
of Warsaw`s slghts and sounds ln the hope that by
recordlng them ln wrltlng he wlll mlraculously be able
to brlng the destroyed world of |ewlsh Warsaw back to
llfe.
In l978, Slnger achleved the plnnacle of hls career
when he was awarded that year`s Nobel Prlze ln Lltera
ture. As he noted ln hls acceptance lecture, thls was an
honor not only for hlm personally, but also for the Yld
dlsh language and lts modern llterature, whlch had, ln
the space of llttle more than a century, produced a body
of work that flowed proudly ln the malnstream of West
ern culture. Slnger thus lmplled that, ln becomlng the
flrst Ylddlsh wrlter to be so dlstlngulshed, he was
acceptlng on behalf of Ylddlsh ltself. However, much as
thls award dellghted hls many admlrers who had
encountered hls work through the medlum of transla
tlon, flrst lnto Engllsh, and then from the Engllsh texts
lnto other languages, lt appalled the majorlty of natlve
speakers of Ylddlsh, among them all hls fellow Ylddlsh
wrlters and poets. Jhey objected that Slnger had
become known excluslvely through Engllsh translatlon
and had therefore done nothlng to promote Ylddlsh
ltself, that hls subject matterpartlcularly hls use of
demons and sexualltywas prurlent and deslgned to
cater to predomlnantly non|ewlsh mass tastes, and that
Slnger had no respect for the Ylddlsh llterary tradltlon
whlch he denlgrated, together wlth lts leadlng practl
tloners, at every opportunlty. Slnce thousands of read
ers worldwlde had derlved lnslght and understandlng
from Slnger`s metlculous recreatlon of a lost world and
a destroyed morallty, lt was sad lndeed that the dwln
dllng lnternatlonal communlty of Ylddlsh speakers and
wrlters were so hostlle to an award that, however late,
had flnally honored thelr culture.
Lndeterred by crltlclsm, ln l978 Slnger also pub
llshed Z Jouvg Mov iv Scorcl of Iovc, a book he admltted
ln hls 'Author`s Note" was 'a contlnuatlon of Z Iittlc
oy iv Scorcl of Cod. . . . Jogether, these two volumes
constltute a klnd of splrltual autoblography whlch I
hope to contlnue ln the years to come." Although thls
book was also lllustrated, thls tlme wlth drawlngs and
palntlngs by Raphael Soyer, Slnger`s open acknowledg
ment of hls selffocus drove crltlcs lnto tracklng the
autoblographlcal elements that were becomlng more
marked ln all hls new work ln Engllsh. Meanwhlle,
Slnger remalned tlreless ln expresslng hls scorn for llter
ary crltlcs. On ll December l978, under the tltle 'Why
I Wrlte for Chlldren," Tlc `cw Jorl Timcs publlshed as
an essay remarks that had formed part of Slnger`s
address at the banquet ln Stockholm followlng the
Nobel Prlze award ceremony the nlght before. Iace
tlously, Slnger gave a llst of reasons for wrltlng for chll
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dren, each of whlch struck at llterary concerns of the
academlc establlshment. 'Chlldren read books, not
revlews. . . . Jhey don`t read to free themselves of
gullt. . . . Jhey have no use for psychology. . . . Jhey
detest soclology. . . . Jhey don`t expect thelr beloved
wrlter to redeem humanlty."
In l979, followlng the publlcatlon of hls Nobel
Lecture ln a small book lncludlng both lts Ylddlsh and
lts Engllsh texts, came hls elghth collectlon of short storles,
Uld Iovc. Revlewlng thls collectlon for Tlc `cw Jorl
Timcs (28 October l979), Robert Alter remarked on the
contemporary value of tales of lnnocence 'ln the mld
dle of our terrlble century" and summarlzed the crltlcal
consensus about Slnger`s work at the end of the decade,
concludlng that Slnger was 'a great wrlter wlth a decld
edly uneven productlon, who does not work equally
well ln all the flctlonal genres he has trled." Rlchard
Burgln, wrltlng for the Clicogo Icvicw (Sprlng l980),
examlned Slnger`s llterary quarrel wlth modernlsm,
polntlng out that 'Slnger ls a wrlter, ln an age of cultl
vated amblgulty, who wants us to percelve the eplpha
nles, doubts, and amblvalence of hls characters."
Burgln confessed hlmself 'somewhat baffled by those
crltlcs who relentlessly stress Slnger`s devotlon to tradl
tlonal llterary and 'moral` values whlle lgnorlng the
meanlngs that are apparent behlnd the surface slmpllc
lty."
Uld Iovc ls marked less by a deplctlon of love as a
redemptlve emotlon than by what Burgln ldentlfled as
'the darker slde of sexuallty." Jhe story 'Jwo"
explores an expllcltly homosexual relatlonshlp; 'Not
for the Sabbath" looks at sadomasochlsm through the
prurlent eyes of Aunt Yentl; and 'Jhe Bus" comblnes
both homosexuallty and sadomasochlsm wlth a hlnt of
lncest. All three storles expose vlolent emotlons ln a
way strlklngly at varlance wlth Slnger`s assertlon ln hls
'Author`s Note" that 'ln love, as ln other matters, the
young are just beglnners and . . . the art of lovlng
matures wlth age and experlence." Several of the tales
ln thls volume suggest that not only curloslty about dlf
ferent klnds of sexuallty but also actlve partlclpatlon ln
them ls, for Slnger, part of 'the love of the old and the
mlddleaged."
Slnger opened the l980s wlth the publlcatlon ln
Engllsh of two more books for chlldren. Icoclcs of
Hcovcv: Z Story of tlc ool Slcm Tov, once agaln lllus
trated by Moskowltz, and Tlc Iowcr of Iiglt: Iiglt Storics
for Hovullol. Jhe success of these chlldren`s books
demonstrated Slnger`s ablllty to appeal to a broad spec
trum of readers and valldated hls muchrepeated lnsls
tence that 'the oldest purpose of art has been to
entertaln. A good wrlter entertalns a good reader."
He followed these books ln l98l wlth hls thlrd
volume of memolrs, Iost iv Zmcrico, lllustrated by Soyer.
In hls 'Author`s Note" to thls volume, Slnger relterated
hls autoblographlcal purpose, though he stlll lnslsted
that, slnce he had been obllged for personal reasons to
dlsgulse the ldentltles of many of the people he
descrlbed, he was wrltlng 'no more than flctlon set
agalnst a background of truth." Jhe llne between flc
tlon and autoblography was now so blurred ln what
Slnger chose to publlsh ln Engllsh that lt was vlrtually
lmposslble to separate the two. In l981, hls elghtleth
year, Slnger ensured that hls three separate volumes of
expllclt autoblography were publlshed ln one book,
under the tltle Iovc ovd Ixilc. Wrltlng ln the Iovdov
Icvicw of ools a few years later (21 October l99l),
|ohn Bayley was among many crltlcs who fully apprecl
ated the extent to whlch, ln hls autoblographlcal work
as much as ln flctlon, Slnger had succeeded ln hls self
lmposed task of evoklng for perpetulty the lost |ewlsh
world of the Poland he had known ln hls youth. 'In
one sense, certalnly, the language and the llfe he wrote
of may stlll be allve, ln New York and other places. but
the klnd of |ewlshnesslncarnate ln speech and splrlt,
ln herrlng and onlon rollwhere Slnger`s characters
reslde seems a long way elther from modern Amerlca
or from modern Israel."
Jhe publlcatlon ln l982 of another chlldren`s
story, Tlc Colcm, lllustrated by Lrl Shulevltz, was fol
lowed ln l983 by the publlcatlon ln Engllsh translatlon
of what became Slnger`s most controverslal novel, Tlc
Icvitcvt. Where Jhomas Sutcllffe ln Tlc Timcs Iitcrory
Supplcmcvt (23 March l981) declared lt 'an honest and
compasslonate book," Harold Bloom roundly con
demned lt ln Tlc `cw Jorl Timcs ool Icvicw (25 Sep
tember l983) as 'a very unpleasant work, wlthout any
redeemlng esthetlc merlt or human quallty." Most
unusually for Slnger, he had publlshed Dcr bol-tsluvc,
the Ylddlsh text of thls novel, ln Israel nlne years ear
ller, and had even gone so far as to clalm, ln a publlc
lecture ln |erusalem ln May l973, that, as a reporter for
the crusolcm Iost noted ln a summary publlshed the day
after, lt was 'the book of hls whlch he llkes best." Tlc
Icvitcvt ls arguably not a novel; lt belongs lnstead to that
group of Slnger`s monologues that present a varled gal
lery of contemporary |ews who tell thelr ldlosyncratlc
personal storles to a vlsltlng Ylddlsh wrlter who bears a
calculated resemblance to Slnger hlmself.
Jhe chlef narratlve volce ln Tlc Icvitcvt belongs to
|oseph Shaplro, a rlch profllgate who ls slckened by the
materlallsm, promlsculty, and vlolence of the modern
world and returns to Israel to embrace a rlgldly obser
vant |ewlsh llfe. He lmmures hlmself ln Meàh
Sheàrlm, the ultraOrthodox quarter of |erusalem, ln
an attempt to cut hlmself off from all contamlnatlng
contact wlth contemporary evlls that ln hls vlew have
lnfected even the Holy Land ln lts relncarnatlon as the
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secular State of Israel. What partlcularly dlsturbed
many readers was the fact that Shaplro expresses hls
strldently antlmodern oplnlons ln words ldentlcal to
those Slnger hlmself had used ln varlous publlshed
lntervlews. However, slnce the extended 'Author`s
Note" at the end of the book ls made to form an lnte
gral part of the narratlve, lt sets up a dlalectlc ln whlch
the author appears to be argulng wlth another verslon
of hlmself about hls deepest concerns. Jhe endlng of
the novel dlsturblngly recreates the same amblvalence
as the Maglclan of Lublln`s determlnatlon to lmmure
hlmself ln a cell. can the tradltlonal values of |ewlsh
Orthodoxy be regalned only ln an lsolatlon ward?
By l982 Slnger was prepared to make a selectlon
of what he regarded as hls best storles for a volume
tltled Tlc Collcctcd Storics of Isooc oslcvis Sivgcr. It
lncludes fortyseven of the more than one hundred tales
he had publlshed thus far and glves the reader
approachlng Slnger`s work for the flrst tlme a compre
henslve vlew of hls domlnatlng thematlc concerns and
artlstlc technlques. Among others prevlously publlshed,
the volume lncluded 'Glmpel the Iool," 'Jhe Llttle
Shoemakers," 'Jhe Last Demon," and 'Jhe Letter
Wrlter," as well as hltherto uncollected pleces, lncludlng
'Nelghbor" and 'Moon and Madness." In hls lntroduc
tory 'Author`s Note" Slnger restated hls favorlte dlcta
about the danger of 'experlmental" wrltlng and hls flrm
bellef ln the need for the wrlter to be prlmarlly a story
teller. He also gave a broad deflnltlon of what he under
stood by the concept 'llterature". 'Genulne llterature
lnforms whlle lt entertalns. It manages to be both clear
and profound. It has the maglcal power of merglng cau
sallty wlth purpose, doubt wlth falth, the passlons of the
flesh wlth the yearnlngs of the soul. . . . Whlle lt toler
ates commentary by others, lt should never try to
explaln ltself." Most crltlcs concurred that thls volume
lncludes everythlng that ls most representatlve of those
llterary glfts that had won Slnger the Nobel Prlze. Iur
ther honors followed. ln l981 he became the slxteenth
member of the |ewlshAmerlcan Hall of Iame, and ln
l986 he was the reclplent of the Handel Medalllon,
New York Clty`s hlghest award.
Tlc Imogc ovd Utlcr Storics, whlch appeared ln
l985, was equally well recelved. A wrlter for Tlc `cw
Jorl Timcs ool Icvicw (30 |une l985) asserted regardlng
Slnger that thls collectlon 'splendldly conflrms hls
achlevement," and a TIS crltlc valued Slnger`s frequently
deployed narratlve technlque of settlng up a llstener
narrator of other people`s storles as a useful dlstanclng
devlce, 'partlcularly ln the more dlsturblng or vlolent
storles" (1 Aprll l986). In the 'Author`s Note" that had
now become one of hls trademarks, Slnger made two
contradlctory assertlons. He lnslsted that a wrlter
'should never abandon hls mother tongue and lts trea
sure of ldloms," but he also admltted that 'the Engllsh
translatlon ls especlally lmportant to me because trans
latlons lnto other languages are based on the Engllsh
text. In a way, thls ls rlght because, ln the process of
translatlon, I make many correctlons." Jhe vexed rela
tlonshlp between the Ylddlsh orlglnals and the Engllsh
translatlons of Slnger`s work later became an area of
conslderable llterary debate.
Slnger`s engagement, dlrect or lndlrect, wlth stage
and motlonplcture adaptatlons of hls work was most evl
dent ln thls perlod. Jhe movle rlghts to Tlc Mogiciov of
Iubliv, whlch Slnger had sold ln l965, were reallzed wlth
the release of the movle verslon, dlrected by Menahem
Golan and wrltten by Golan and Irvlng S. Whlte, ln l979.
Jhls clnematlc treatment was wldely condemned. Tlc !il-
logc !oicc (l9 November l979) supplled what became the
crltlcal consensus. 'Squanderlng some convlnclng locatlon
work, Golan reduces Slnger to a Harold Robblns enter
talnment of florld composltlons and bombastlc copula
tlons." Iour years later, Barbra Strelsand`s screen
adaptatlon of Jcvtl, wrltten by Strelsand and |ack
Rosenthal, opened on l8 November l983. Jhls tlme,
although the movle was wldely pralsed ln the medla, lts
harshest crltlc was Slnger. On 29 |anuary l981, Tlc `cw
Jorl Timcs publlshed 'I. B. Slnger Jalks to I. B. Slnger
About the Movle 'Yentl`," ln whlch Slnger bllsterlngly
attacked Strelsand`s treatment of every aspect of hls now
famous story. Jhe controversy dld no harm to the box
offlce taklngs, but lt dld hlghllght the extent to whlch the
essence of Slnger`s work reslsted the performlng arts. Also
appearlng ln l981 was a more successful adaptatlon by
Ernest Klnoy of Slnger`s short story 'Jhe Cafeterla,"
dlrected by Amram Nowak. Jhls televlslon movle was
enthuslastlcally recelved and wldely pralsed for lts fldellty
to the orlglnal.
In l988 Slnger publlshed the Engllsh verslon of
Tlc Iivg of Iiclds, a novel unllke any he had wrltten
before, and one that dlsappolnted most revlewers; a
wldely shared oplnlon expressed ln the Iirlus Icvicw
(l5 August l988) was that lt was 'a badlmltatlon Clov
of tlc Covc cor | |ean Auel`s l980 novel|." Jhe Ylddlsh
text, Dcr lcvig fuv di fcldcr, had been serlallzed ln Iorvcrts
between l1 Iebruary and 26 December l980. Jhematl
cally, thls novel was a blzarre departure for Slnger.
Drawn from old Pollsh folklore and myth, set ln the
pagan world of preChrlstlan Poland, and focuslng on
prlmltlves groplng toward some concept of ethlcs, thls
pesslmlstlc tale questlons whether murderous human
nature can ever be tamed. Jhe ethlcal tenets of |udalsm
exerclse no permanent humanlzlng lnfluence, for Ben
Dosa, the sole |ewlsh character ln the novel, makes only
a fleetlng lmpresslon on the feral people he encounters.
Jhe Lesnlks, the trlbe to whlch the protagonlst Cybula
belongs, suffer many hardshlps. they are enslaved by
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people calllng themselves Poles, and, though brlefly
comforted by Dosa`s teachlngs, they are thrown lnto
vlolent confuslon by the lnflammatory mlsslonary ser
mons preached by hls theologlcal rlval, a young Chrls
tlan blshop. Jhe confllct bred by subjugatlon and rlval
doctrlne leaves the undeveloped people who suffer lts
consequences bltterly dlslllusloned, and the concluslon
of the narratlve seems once agaln to afflrm the nlhlllstlc
convlctlon that death ls a welcome release.
In l988, to only lukewarm lnterest, Slnger also
publlshed q a~ j~ ~ l pI the
tenth and last collectlon of hls short flctlon. Iamlllarlty
wlth hls themes over three decades had sharpened crltl
cal awareness of the author`s qulrks, and |ay Cantor, ln
the i ^ q _ o (l May l988),
expressed further concern at Slnger`s lncreaslngly evl
dent mlsogyny. 'Dlsorder ls too often, and too sourly,
ldentlfled wlth the falllngs of hls women characters . . .
thls obsesslon seems crabbed." Alternatlve sexuallty ls
once agaln the theme of several storles ln thls collec
tlon; 'Dlsgulsed," for example, lndlcates agaln Slnger`s
lnterest ln male homosexuallty. In hls 'Author`s Note"
Slnger cltes tradltlonal |ewlsh holy sources to justlfy hls
fasclnatlon wlth human sexuallty. 'Accordlng to the
Jalmud and the Mldrash, the corruptlon |of human
belngs| was all sexual. Even the anlmals later became
sexually perverted at the tlme of the flood, and perhaps
later ln Sodom and Gomorrah." Jhls collectlon ls lnter
estlng also because lt lncludes a muchwatereddown
Engllsh verslon of 'Jhe |ew from Babylon," a story
Slnger had flrst publlshed ln Ylddlsh as 'Der yld fun
bovl" more than flfty years earller. How far thls story
had been reworked and, ln the oplnlon of some crltlcs,
evlscerated for an Engllsh readershlp provoked serlous
scholarly exploratlon, notably by Wolltz, of the ways ln
whlch Slnger fundamentally altered the artlstlc prln
clples and practlce he gave hls Ylddlsh readers as
Yltskhok Bashevls.
In l989 the Amerlcan Academy of Arts and Letters
recognlzed Slnger`s llfetlme achlevement by awardlng hlm
lts hlghest honor, a Gold Medal, and a year later he was
elected a member of the academy, the flrst Amerlcan
author who dld not wrlte excluslvely ln Engllsh to be so
honored. Dlrector Paul Mazursky`s l989 movle adapta
tlon of bI ^ i pI wlth screenplay by Mazursky
and Roger L. Slmon, opened to wldely favorable revlews
and became the flrst of Slnger`s works adapted for the blg
screen to please the crltlcs. the movle recelved two Acad
emy Award nomlnatlons, for best actress and best screen
play. By thls tlme, however, Slnger was serlously lll wlth
Alzhelmer`s dlsease, and lt ls unllkely that he played any
actlve role ln the translatlon and publlcatlon of pI the
last of hls novels publlshed ln hls llfetlme, whlch appeared
ln l99l. Jhe Ylddlsh verslon of thls novel, tltled p
(Ioam), had been serlallzed ln c between 2 |une and
l6 September l967 but not publlshed ln book form.
p focuses on the worldwearlness of a rlch, asslm
llated |ewlsh rou who returns to Poland ln search of some
connectlon to a lost past. Muted revlews greeted lts publl
catlon. A revlewer for the i ^ q (l1 Aprll l99l)
found lt 'not qulte as surprlslng or sharpedged as some of
Slnger`s more recent books," whlle Bayley, ln the i
o _ (21 October l99l), thought he ldentlfled ln
the novel Slnger`s 'powerlessness to be an orlglnal artlst
and a man outslde hls race."
Dlrectly exposed for the flrst thlrty years of hls own
llfe to those twentlethcentury lntellectual, polltlcal, and
soclal upheavals that radlcally undermlned tradltlonal |ew
lsh ldentlty, Bashevls Slnger set out ln hls work to welgh
what the |ewlsh people had galned when the Haskalah
lnvlted them to share the culture of Europe, agalnst what
they had lost by surrenderlng the tradltlonal observances
of thelr falth. By shlftlng the settlngs of hls flctlons over a
perlod of nearly four centurles, Slnger forced hls readers to
recognlze the value of what had been lost, but also com
pelled them to questlon whether lts recovery was elther
posslble or deslrable.
Hls determlnatlon to place human actlon wlthln
the absolute categorles of good and evll lnformed the
graphlc use he made of sexuallty, whlch ls never gratu
ltously sensatlonal. Hls sexually promlscuous charac
ters are always presented as emotlonally wlthered
belngs, thelr damaglng condltlon often palnted wlth
bold symbollsm. Hls deployment of evll splrlts equally
purposefully separates sacred from profane. Demons
torment the promlscuous, the blasphemous, and the
arrogant; they are powerless agalnst the chaste, the
plous, and the humble. Jhey always took measure of
the evll of the Holocaust. 'Why demons," asks the
demonnarrator of 'Jhe Last Demon" (l963), 'when
man hlmself ls a demon?" Jo deplct a world where
moral absolutes prevalled, Slnger dellberately set much
of hls work ln preHolocaust Poland. Jhere, far from
technologlcal advancements and not yet convulsed by
what he regarded as the corruptlons of the Haskalah,
the precepts of the Jorah were venerated as unalterably
blndlng. As ln all human worlds, there too were slnners,
but they dld not yet lnhablt an arbltrary world wlthout
|udge and wlthout |udgment.
Bashevls Slnger gazed unbllnklngly at a world
reduced to moral relatlvlsm, speaklng of lt through hls
own 'survlvor gullt" at havlng llved comfortably ln
New York whlle the |ews among whom he had grown
uphls own mother and younger brother among
themwere destroyed ln gas chambers and Sovlet work
camps. 'Ilctlon ls always about a few people. You can
not wrlte flctlon about the masses," he asserted. After
World War II these were Holocaust survlvors, trylng to
306
f~~ _~ p ai_ PPO
rebulld thelr llves ln Amerlca. Slnger compasslonately
yet shrewdly calculated the damage they had sustalned
and whlch they, ln turn, would lnfllct on others, just as
he ruthlessly measured the lndlfference of those who
had not suffered. Jhe Holocaust, Slnger repeatedly
concluded, made |ews nelther better nor worse; lt
merely left the secularlzed and acculturated floatlng ln a
moral llmbo as was materlallstlc Amerlca.
Irom the late l980s, Slnger had been showlng
lncreaslng slgns of mental fallure. He dled on 21 |uly
l99l and was burled ln the BethEl ( |ewlsh) sectlon of
the Cedar Park Cemetery, Emerson, New |ersey. Cllve
Slnclalr, ln qip (1 October l99l), remlnded readers of
how closely Slnger had been lnvolved ln preparlng the
Engllsh verslons of hls novels. Notlng that ln p
'there are uncharacterlstlcally crude devlces," Slnclalr
went on. 'Jhere ls much of Slnger`s work that remalns
untranslated. Presumably, that wlll change now that he
ls dead. It ls lmportant to know when these 'new` nov
els were concelved, and whether thelr author consld
ered that publlcatlon ln book form would enhance hls
reputatlon."
Slnclalr`s presumptlon was well founded. Jransla
tlons of two of Slnger`s earller novels ln Ylddlsh
appeared ln rapld successlon after hls death. q `J
~ ln l992 and j~ ln l991. q `~ (serlal
lzed as a ~ ln c between l3 |anuary and
27 May l967) reworks the alltoofamlllar materlals of
Slnger`s autoblography, whlle j~ (serlallzed as
c~ |Lost Souls| ln c between 9 Aprll
l98l and ll Iebruary l982) records another eplsode ln
the postHolocaust llfe of Slnger`s longestabllshed llterary
double, Greldlnger. Jhelr receptlon was respectful rather
than enthuslastlc, calllng attentlon to Slnger`s 'decep
tlvely spare prose" and hls glft for 'transformlng reallty
lnto art wlth seemlngly effortless slelght of hand" (q
k v q _ oI 21 November l992). On the
other hand, p~ e appeared four years
later ln l998 to extraordlnary acclalm. One crltlc for
q k v q _ o (3l December l997)
halled lt as 'a plerclng work of flctlon . . . wlth a strong
clalm to belng Slnger`s masterplece." Jhe Ylddlsh ver
slon of thls novel, p ~ eI had been serlallzed
ln c between |anuary l957 and |anuary l958.
p~ e bleakly examlnes, through a
punctlllous reconstructlon of the perlod between
December l917 and mld November l918, the llves of
some |ewlsh refugees from Hltler fortunate enough to
galn new llfe ln Amerlca. Jhelr adoptlve country, they
dlscover, demands of those who want lts freedoms total
subordlnatlon of thelr own values to the hegemony of
Amerlcan economlc, soclal, and cultural norms. In con
sequence, these survlvors are emotlonally and splrltu
ally dlslocated, a condltlon symbollzed by thelr self
perceptlon as stunted outslders. Slnger`s glft for creatlng
dlalogue ensures that the language avallable or denled
to the characters ln the novel slgnlfles the ldentltles they
possess or lack. Jhose who command Engllsh are fully
prepared to lose a deflnable |ewlsh ldentlty ln pursult of
lnstant asslmllatlon; those few who cllng to Ylddlsh
demonstrate an unshakable sense of |ewlsh selfhood.
Moreover, throughout the novel, the lndlscrlmlnate way
ln whlch cancer cuts down human llfe formulates ln
physlcal terms the central metaphyslcal questlon of the
novel. where was God durlng the Holocaust?
By the turn of the mlllennlum, some crltlcal con
sensus about Slnger`s work has emerged. Wldely
accepted as selfevldent ls Alfred Kazln`s l962 conten
tlon that 'Slnger`s work does stem from the |ewlsh vll
lage, the |ewlsh semlnary, the compact (not closed)
|ewlsh soclety of Eastern Europe. . . . Ior Slnger lt ls not
only hls materlals that are '|ewlsh`; the world ls so. Yet
wlthln thls world he has found emanclpatlon and unl
versalltythrough hls falth ln lmaglnatlon." Earller crlt
lcal dlsputes about whether Slnger was a modernlst or
an exlstentlallst have largely been lald to rest. Slnger ls
clearly not modernlst ln hls technlques, and hls putatlve
'exlstentlallsm" ls now vlewed as deeply personal mls
ery about the human condltlon. In a l992 artlcle for
g~ Dan Mlron succlnctly summed up Slnger`s
worldvlew. 'He approached the act of llterary creatlon
wlth a baseexperlence of underlylng awareness that
falls under the slgn of fatallsm and nlhlllsm."
Jhe repeated thematlc concerns of Slnger`s exten
slve output make clear that three thlngs above all tor
mented hlmhls abandonment of hls parents` strlct
rellglous observance, hls own sexual promlsculty, and
hls escape from the Holocaust that destroyed the Yld
dlsh language and the eastern European |ewlsh culture.
Outspokenly frank about many other aspects of hls
thought ln scores of publlc lntervlews, Slnger consls
tently refused to dlscuss the Holocaust ln any but the
most general terms. Yet, at the helght of hls fame, ln the
nlne years between l972 and l98l, he presented hls
readers wlth Engllsh verslons of flve books that all vlew
the destructlon of eastern European |ewry through the
eyes of a chlef character who, llke Slnger, ls a Ylddlsh
wrlter. Slnce Slnger escaped the Holocaust and wrote ln
Ylddlsh all hls llfe, superflclally lt mlght seem that hls
work preserved both the Ylddlsh language and lts cul
ture. But as the number of Ylddlsh readers and thelr
commltment to Ylddlsh culture attenuated, Slnger
lncreaslngly found hlmself ln the desolate posltlon of
wrltlng not only of, but also for, the dead. He reversed
thls sltuatlon by establlshlng hls lnternatlonal fame
through Engllsh translatlons of hls work, a hlghly allen
atlng dlvlslon of experlence.
307
ai_ PPO f~~ _~ p
Of hls enormous output ln Ylddlsh, Slnger per
mltted only nlne books to be publlshed ln hls llfetlme;
the rest of lt ls effectlvely burled ln slxty years of Iorvcrts
archlves. Hls Engllsh works, however, lnclude more
than forty volumes. Jhls dlsparlty ls further com
pounded by the fact that Slnger hlmself carefully
selected speclflc works, from large numbers of others,
that he wanted translated lnto Engllsh, and then collab
orated wlth hls translators and edltors ln preparlng
these Engllsh verslons. Close examlnatlon of these two
sets of textswhen these can be locatedreveals that
Slnger consclously addressed two dlfferent readershlps,
wlth wldely dlfferlng sets of expectatlons and concoml
tantly dlfferent attltudes of receptlvlty.
Slnger repeatedly clalmed that the essence of hls
work exlsts lndependently ln both languages ln whlch
he publlshed. 'translatlon, although lt does damage,
cannot klll an author. If he`s really good, he wlll come
through even ln translatlon. I have seen lt ln my own
case." Nevertheless, the exlstence of the Ylddlsh texts of
some of hls major work, ln readlly avallable book form,
has lnevltably lnvlted crltlcal comparlson of the two
verslons. Whlle the concluslons drawn from thls study
remaln provlslonal, they contlnue to ralse challenges.
Much of Slnger`s work ln Ylddlsh remalns
untranslated. Most of thls work was publlshed ln Ior-
vcrts, but some unpubllshed materlal also exlsts ln
Slnger`s Ylddlsh manuscrlpts among hls archlval papers
housed ln the Harry Ransom Humanltles Research
Center at the Lnlverslty of Jexas at Austln. Jhe blbll
ographles complled by Davld Neal Mlller and Roberta
Saltzman provlde lnformatlon about the texts of all
Slnger`s work ln both the languages ln whlch he was
publlshed. Lndoubtedly, more of Slnger`s hltherto
unknown work wlll be made avallable ln Engllsh.
When lt ls, the questlon of what texts constltute the
true canon of hls work wlll become even more vexed
than lt ls at present.
In 2001, to mark the centennlal of the blrth of
Isaac Bashevls Slnger, one of ten Amerlcan wrlters to be
awarded the Nobel Prlze and perhaps the most lnfluen
tlal and beloved |ewlshAmerlcan author, Jhe Llbrary
of Amerlca publlshed a threevolume edltlon of hls Col-
lcctcd Storics as a major celebratlon of hls achlevement.
Beglnnlng wlth 'Glmpel the Iool," the tale whlch
brought Slnger to promlnence ln Amerlca ln l953, and
concludlng wlth 'Jhe Death of Methuselah," hls flnal
collectlon publlshed three years before hls death ln
l99l, brought together for the flrst tlme all the short flc
tlon Slnger publlshed ln Engllsh ln the verslons he
called hls 'second orlglnals"translatlons he supervlsed
and collaborated on hlmself, revlslng as he worked. In
addltlon, Collcctcd Storics also lncludes thlrteen prevl
ously uncollected storles from the Slnger archlves ln the
Harry Ransom Humanltles Research Center at the
Lnlverslty of Jexas ln Austln. Jhe Congress of Ylddlsh
Culture ln New York ls collectlng and preparlng for
publlcatlon a redacted Ylddlsh volume contalnlng all
Slnger`s early work, together wlth several hltherto
unpubllshed Ylddlsh storles, also from the Ransom
Center collectlon.
Whatever hls falllngs, Isaac Bashevls Slnger
remalns among the most lnfluentlal and dlsturblng |ew
lsh wrlters of the twentleth century. Hls enormous pop
ularlty enabled hlm to brlng to vlvld llfe and
lnternatlonal attentlon the destroyed world of the shtetl.
Hls novels and storles made formerly lndlfferent, even
hostlle, non|ewlsh readers aware of the splrltual depths
of the |ewlsh falth and of the lrreplaceable loss sus
talned by the Nazl destructlon of the |ews of eastern
Europe. Ior |ewlsh readers, hls slgnal lmportance lles ln
hls confrontatlon wlth the need to seek a meanlngful
ldentlty ln a secular world far removed from tradltlonal
Orthodox observance. Ior the llterary world, not least
among Slnger`s achlevements has been hls lnfluence ln
calllng to general attentlon the valuable body of mod
ern Ylddlsh llterature from whlch he hlmself drew so
deeply and to whlch he contrlbuted so slgnlflcantly.
fW
Paul Rosenblatt and Gene Koppel, Z Ccrtoiv ridgc: Isooc
oslcvis Sivgcr ov Iitcroturc ovd Iifc (Jucson. Lnl
verslty of Arlzona Press, l979);
|oseph Sherman, 'Mlaml Meetlng. An Intervlew wlth
Isaac Bashevls Slnger," Tlcorio, 62 (May l981).
l-ll;
Rlchard Burgln, Covvcrsotiovs witl Isooc oslcvis Sivgcr
(New York. Noonday Press, l986);
Grace Iarrell, ed., Isooc oslcvis Sivgcr: Covvcrsotiovs
( |ackson London. Lnlverslty Press of Mlssls
slppl, l992).
_~W
|ackson R. Bryer and Paul E. Rockwell, 'Isaac Bashevls
Slnger ln Engllsh. A Blbllography," ln Criticol
!icws of Isooc oslcvis Sivgcr, edlted by Irvlng Malln
(New York. New York Lnlverslty Press, l968),
pp. 220-265;
Davld Neal Mlller, Z ibliogroply of Isooc oslcvis Sivgcr,
ovuory 190-uvc 192 (New York. Max Weln
relch Centre for Advanced |ewlsh Studles, YIVO
Instltute for |ewlsh Research, l979);
Mlller, Z ibliogroply of Isooc oslcvis Sivgcr 1924-1949
(New York. Peter Lang, l981);
Roberta Saltzman, Isooc oslcvis Sivgcr: Z ibliogroply of
His !orls iv Jiddisl ovd Ivglisl, 1960-1991 (Lan
ham, Md.. Scarecrow Press, 2002).
308
f~~ _~ p ai_ PPO
_~W
Paul Kresh, f~~ _~ pW q j~~ t
US p (New York. Dlal, l979);
Lester Goran, q _ p pW q j
~ c f~~ _~ p (Kent, Ohlo.
Kent State Lnlverslty Press, l991);
Israel Zamlr, g j c~I f~~ _~ pI
translated by Barbara Harshav (New York.
Arcade, l995);
|anet Hadda, f~~ _~ pW ^ i (New York.
Dvorah Jelushkln, j~ a~W ^ j f~~
_~ p (New York. Morrow, l997);
Agata Juszynska, i i~~W f p~ f~~ _~
p ~ g m~I translated by Made
llne G. Levlne (New York. Morrow, l998).
oW
Edward Alexander, f~~ _~ p (Boston.
Jwayne, l980);
Alexander, f~~ _~ pW ^ p p c
(Boston. Jwayne, l990);
Marcla Allentuck, ed., q ^ f~~ _~
p (Carbondale. Southern Illlnols Lnlverslty
Press, l969);
Allda Alllson, f~~ _~ pW ` p ~
` j (Boston. Jwayne, l996);
Irvlng H. Buchen, f~~ _~ p ~ b~ m~
(New York. New York Lnlverslty Press / London.
Lnlverslty of London Press, l968);
Hugh Denman, ed., f~~ _~ pW e t ~
e t (Boston. Brlll, 2002);
Grace Iarrell |as Grace Iarrell Lee|, c b
oW q c f~~ _~ p (Car
bondale. Southern Illlnols Lnlverslty Press,
l987);
Iarrell, ed., `~ b~ f~~ _~ p (New
York. G. K. Hall, l996);
Lawrence Irledman, r~ f~~ _~ p
(Columbla. Lnlverslty of South Carollna Press,
l988);
Alfred Kazln, `~ (Boston. Llttle, Brown,
l962);
|oseph C. Landls, ^ f~~ _~ p (New
York. _ueens College Press, l986);
Irvlng Malln, f~~ _~ p (New York. Lngar,
l972);
Davld Neal Mlller, c~ cW k~~ p~
t f~~ _~ p (Albany. State Lnlver
slty of New York Press, l985);
Mlller, ed., o `~W b~ f~~ _~
p (Lelden. Brlll, l986);
Dan Mlron, 'Passlvlty and Narratlon. Jhe Spell of
Isaac Bashevls Slnger," g~I 1l (Wlnter
l992);
Ben Slegel, f~~ _~ p (Mlnneapolls. Lnlver
slty of Mlnnesota Press, l969);
Cllve Slnclalr, q _ p (London New York.
Alllson Busby, l983);
Ruth R. Wlsse, q j g `~ (New York.
Iree Press, 2000);
Seth L. Wolltz, ''Der Yld fun Bovl`. Varlants and Mean
lngs," vI ll (l998). 30-17;
Wolltz, 'p~~ d~ ~ m~~I mI V (l989).
l3-25;
Wolltz, ed., q e f~~ _~ p (Austln. Lnl
verslty of Jexas Press, 200l).
m~W
Jhe prlmary archlve of Isaac Bashevls Slnger`s papers
ls at the Harry Ransom Humanltles Research Center,
Lnlverslty of Jexas at Austln.
NVTU k m i~
m~ p
m i~ d p ^~
Eq~~ pF
Gentlemen,
'Heaven and earth consplre that everythlng
whlch has been, be rooted out and reduced to dust.
Only the dreamers, who dream whlle awake, call back
the shadows of the past and brald from unspun threads,
unspun nets." Jhese words from one of Isaac Bashevls
Slnger`s storles ln the collectlon q p~ j~
p (l96l) say qulte a lot about the wrlter hlmself and
hls narratlve art.
Slnger was born ln a small town or vlllage ln
eastern Poland and grew up ln one of the poor, over
populated |ewlsh quarters of Warsaw, before and dur
lng the Ilrst World War. Hls father was a rabbl of the
Hasld school of plety, a splrltual mentor for a motley
collectlon of people who sought hls help. Jhelr lan
guage was Ylddlshthe language of the slmple people
and of the mothers, wlth lts sources far back ln the mld
dle ages and wlth an lnflux from several dlfferent cul
tures wlth whlch thls people had come ln contact
durlng the many centurles they had been scattered
abroad. It ls Slnger`s language. And lt ls a storehouse
whlch has gathered falrytales and anecdotes, wlsdom,
superstltlons and memorles for hundreds of years past
309
ai_ PPO f~~ _~ p
through a hlstory that seems to have left nothlng
untrled ln the way of adventures and affllctlons. Jhe
Hasld plety was a klnd of popular |ewlsh mystlclsm. It
could merge lnto prudery and pettymlnded, strlct
adherence to the law. But lt could also open out towards
orglastlc frenzy and messlanlc raptures or llluslons.
Jhls world was that of EastEuropean |ewryat
once very rlch and very poor, pecullar and exotlc but
also famlllar wlth all human experlence behlnd lts
strange garb. Jhls world has now been lald waste by
the most vlolent of all the dlsasters that have overtaken
the |ews and other people ln Poland. It has been rooted
out and reduced to dust. But lt comes allve ln Slnger`s
wrltlngs, ln hls waklng dreams, hls very waklng
dreams, clearslghted and free of llluslon but also full of
broadmlndedness and unsentlmental compasslon. Ian
tasy and experlence change shape. Jhe evocatlve power
of Slnger`s lnsplratlon acqulres the stamp of reallty, and
reallty ls llfted up by dreams and lmaglnatlon lnto the
sphere of the supernatural, where nothlng ls lmposslble
and nothlng ls sure.
Slnger began hls wrltlng career ln Warsaw ln
the years between the wars. Contact wlth the secular
lzed envlronment and the surglng soclal and cultural
currents lnvolved a llberatlon from the settlng ln
whlch he had grown upbut also a confllct. Jhe clash
between tradltlon and renewal, between otherworld
llness and plous mystlclsm on the one hand and free
thought, doubt and nlhlllsm on the other, ls an essen
tlal theme ln Slnger`s short storles and novels. Among
many other themes, lt ls dealt wlth ln Slnger`s blg
famlly chronlclesthe novels q c~ j~I q
j~ and q b~I from the l950s and l960s.
Jhese extenslve eplc works deplct how old |ewlsh
famllles are broken up by the new age and lts
demands and how they are spllt, soclally and
humanly. Jhe author`s apparently lnexhaustlble psy
chologlcal fantasy and lnslght have created a mlcro
cosm, or rather a wellpopulated mlcrochaos, out of
lndependent and graphlcally convlnclng flgures.
Slnger`s earllest flctlonal works, however, were
not blg novels but short storles and novellas. Jhe novel
p~~ d~ appeared ln l935, when the Nazl terror
was threatenlng and just before the author emlgrated to
the LSA, where he has llved and worked ever slnce. It
treats of a theme to whlch Slnger has often returned ln
dlfferent waysthe false Messlah, hls seductlve arts and
successes, the mass hysterla around hlm, hls fall and the
breaklng up of llluslons ln destltutlon and new llluslons
or ln penance and purlty. p~~ d~ takes place ln
the l7th century after the cruel ravages of the Cossacks
wlth outrages and mass murder of |ews and others.
Jhe book antlclpates what was to come ln tlme.
Jhese people are not wholly evll, not wholly good
they are haunted and harassed by thlngs over whlch
they have no control, by the force of clrcumstances and
by thelr own passlonssomethlng allen but also very
close.
Jhls ls typlcal of Slnger`s vlew of humanltythe
power and flckle lnventlveness of obsesslon, the
destructlve but also lnflamlng and creatlve potentlalof
the emotlons and thelr grotesque wealth of varlatlon.
Jhe passlons can be of the most varled klndsoften
sexual but also fanatlcal hopes and dreams, the flg
ments of terror, the lure of lust or power, the nlghtmares
of angulsh. Even boredom can become a restless pas
slon, as wlth the maln character ln the traglcomlc plca
resque novel q j~~ i (l96l), a klnd of
|ewlsh Don |uan and rogue, who ends up as an ascetlc
or salnt. In a sense a counterpart to thls book ls q
p~ (l962), really a legend of a llfelong, falthful love
whlch becomes a compulslon, forced lnto fraud desplte
lts purlty, heavy to bear though sweet, salntly but wlth
the seeds of shamefulness and decelt. Jhe salnt and the
rogue are near of kln.
Slnger has perhaps glven of hls best as a consum
mate storyteller and styllst ln the short storles and ln
the numerous and fantastlc novellas, avallable ln
Engllsh translatlon ln about a dozen collectlons. Jhe
passlons and crazes are personlfled ln these strange tales
as demons, spectres and ghosts, all klnds of lnfernal or
supernatural powers from the rlch storehouse of |ewlsh
popular bellef or of hls own lmaglnatlon. Jhese
demons are not only graphlc llterary symbols but also
real, tanglble forces. Jhe mlddle ages seem to sprlng to
llfe agaln ln Slnger`s works, the dally round ls lnter
woven wlth wonders, reallty ls spun from dreams, the
blood of the past pulsates ln the present. Jhls ls where
Slnger`s narratlve art celebrates lts greatest trlumphs
and bestows a readlng experlence of a deeply orlglnal
klnd, harrowlng but also stlmulatlng and edlfylng.
Many of hls characters step wlth unquestloned author
lty lnto the Pantheon of llterature where the eternal
companlons and mythlcal flgures llve, traglcand gro
tesque, comlc and touchlng, welrd and wonderfulpeople
of dream and torment, baseness and grandeur.
Dear Mr. Slnger, master and maglclan! It ls my
task and my great pleasure to convey to you the heartl
est congratulatlons of the Swedlsh Academy and to ask
you to recelve from the hands of Hls Majesty the Klng
the Nobel Prlze for Llterature l978.
3l0
f~~ _~ p ai_ PPO
pW _~ p
p ~ k _~I NM a NVTUW
Gentlemen,
People ask me often, 'Why do you wrlte ln a
dylng language?" And I want to explaln lt ln a few
words.
Ilrstly, I llke to wrlte ghost storles and nothlng flts
a ghost better than a dylng language. Jhe deader the
language the more allve ls the ghost. Ghosts love Yld
dlsh and as far as I know, they all speak lt.
Secondly, not only do I belleve ln ghosts, but also
ln resurrectlon. I am sure that mllllons of Ylddlsh
speaklng corpses wlll rlse from thelr graves one day and
thelr flrst questlon wlll be. 'Is there any new Ylddlsh
book to read?" Ior them Ylddlsh wlll not be dead.
Jhlrdly, for 2000 years Hebrew was consldered a
dead language. Suddenly lt became strangely allve.
What happened to Hebrew may also happen to Ylddlsh
one day (although I haven`t the sllghtest ldea how thls
mlracle can take place).
Jhere ls stlll a fourth mlnor reason for not forsak
lng Ylddlsh and thls ls. Ylddlsh may be a dylng lan
guage but lt ls the only language I know well. Ylddlsh ls
my mother language and a mother ls never really dead.
Ladles and Gentlemen. Jhere are flve hundred
reasons why I began to wrlte for chlldren, but to save
tlme I wlll mentlon only ten of them. Number l) Chll
dren read books, not revlews. Jhey don`t glve a hoot
about the crltlcs. Number 2) Chlldren don`t read to flnd
thelr ldentlty. Number 3) Jhey don`t read to free them
selves of gullt, to quench the thlrst for rebelllon, or to
get rld of allenatlon. Number 1) Jhey have no use for
psychology. Number 5) Jhey detest soclology. Number
6) Jhey don`t try to understand Kafka or c~
t~. Number 7) Jhey stlll belleve ln God, the famlly,
angels, devlls, wltches, gobllns, loglc, clarlty, punctua
tlon, and other such obsolete stuff. Number 8) Jhey
love lnterestlng storles, not commentary, guldes, or
footnotes. Number 9) When a book ls borlng, they
yawn openly, wlthout any shame or fear of authorlty.
Number l0) Jhey don`t expect thelr beloved wrlter to
redeem humanlty. Young as they are, they know that lt
ls not ln hls power. Only the adults have such chlldlsh
llluslons.
| Jhe Nobel Ioundatlon, l978. Isaac Bashevls Slnger
3ll
pW k iI U a NVTU
Jhe storyteller and poet of our tlme, as ln any
other tlme, must be an entertalner of the splrlt ln the
full sense of the word, not just a preacher of soclal or
polltlcal ldeals. Jhere ls no paradlse for bored readers
and no excuse for tedlous llterature that does not
lntrlgue the reader, upllft hlm, glve hlm the joy and the
escape that true art always grants. Nevertheless, lt ls
also true that the serlous wrlter of our tlme must be
deeply concerned about the problems of hls generatlon.
He cannot but see that the power of rellglon, especlally
bellef ln revelatlon, ls weaker today than lt was ln any
other epoch ln human hlstory. More and more chlldren
grow up wlthout falth ln God, wlthout bellef ln reward
and punlshment, ln the lmmortallty of the soul and
even ln the valldlty of ethlcs. Jhe genulne wrlter cannot
lgnore the fact that the famlly ls loslng lts splrltual foun
datlon. All the dlsmal prophecles of Oswald Spengler
have become realltles slnce the Second World War. No
technologlcal achlevements can mltlgate the dlsappolnt
ment of modern man, hls lonellness, hls feellng of lnfe
rlorlty, and hls fear of war, revolutlon and terror. Not
only has our generatlon lost falth ln Provldence but also
ln man hlmself, ln hls lnstltutlons and often ln those
who are nearest to hlm.
In thelr despalr a number of those who no longer
have confldence ln the leadershlp of our soclety look up
to the wrlter, the master of words. Jhey hope agalnst
hope that the man of talent and sensltlvlty can perhaps
rescue clvlllzatlon. Maybe there ls a spark of the
prophet ln the artlst after all.
As the son of a people who recelved the worst
blows that human madness can lnfllct, I must brood
about the forthcomlng dangers. I have many tlmes
reslgned myself to never flndlng a true way out. But a
new hope always emerges telllng me that lt ls not yet
too late for all of us to take stock and make a declslon. I
was brought up to belleve ln free wlll. Although I came
to doubt all revelatlon, I can never accept the ldea that
the Lnlverse ls a physlcal or chemlcal accldent, a result
of bllnd evolutlon. Even though I learned to recognlze
the lles, the cllchs and the ldolatrles of the human
mlnd, I stlll cllng to some truths whlch I thlnk all of us
mlght accept some day. Jhere must be a way for man
to attaln all posslble pleasures, all the powers and
knowledge that nature can grant hlm, and stlll serve
Goda God who speaks ln deeds, not ln words, and
whose vocabulary ls the Cosmos.
I am not ashamed to admlt that I belong to those
who fantaslze that llterature ls capable of brlnglng new
horlzons and new perspectlvesphllosophlcal, rellglous,
aesthetlcal and even soclal. In the hlstory of old |ewlsh
llterature there was never any baslc dlfference between
the poet and the prophet. Our anclent poetry often
became law and a way of llfe.
Some of my cronles ln the cafeterla near the gJ
a~ c~ ln New York call me a pesslmlst and a
decadent, but there ls always a background of falth
behlnd reslgnatlon. I found comfort ln such pesslmlsts
and decadents as Baudelalre, Verlalne, Edgar Allan Poe,
and Strlndberg. My lnterest ln psychlc research made
me flnd solace ln such mystlcs as your Swedenborg and
ln our own Rabbl Nachman Bratzlaver, as well as ln a
great poet of my tlme, my frlend Aaron Zeltlln who
dled a few years ago and left a llterary lnherltance of
hlgh quallty, most of lt ln Ylddlsh.
Jhe pesslmlsm of the creatlve person ls not deca
dence but a mlghty passlon for the redemptlon of man.
Whlle the poet entertalns he contlnues to search for
eternal truths, for the essence of belng. In hls own fash
lon he trles to solve the rlddle of tlme and change, to
flnd an answer to sufferlng, to reveal love ln the very
abyss of cruelty and lnjustlce. Strange as these words
may sound I often play wlth the ldea that when all the
soclal theorles collapse and wars and revolutlons leave
humanlty ln utter gloom, the poetwhom Plato banned
from hls Republlcmay rlse up to save us all.
Jhe hlgh honor bestowed upon me by the Swed
lsh Academy ls also a recognltlon of the Ylddlsh lan
guagea language of exlle, wlthout a land, wlthout
frontlers, not supported by any government, a language
whlch possesses no words for weapons, ammunltlon,
mllltary exerclses, war tactlcs; a language that was
desplsed by both Gentlles and emanclpated |ews. Jhe
truth ls that what the great rellglons preached, the Ylddlsh
speaklng people of the ghettos practlced day ln and day
out. Jhey were the people of Jhe Book ln the truest
sense of the word. Jhey knew of no greater joy than
the study of man and human relatlons, whlch they
3l2
pW k iI U a NVTU ai_ PPO
called Jorah, Jalmud, Mussar, Cabala. Jhe ghetto was
not only a place of refuge for a persecuted mlnorlty but
a great experlment ln peace, ln selfdlsclpllne and ln
humanlsm. As such lt stlll exlsts and refuses to glve up
ln splte of all the brutallty that surrounds lt. I was
brought up among those people. My father`s home on
Krochmalna Street ln Warsaw was a study house, a
court of justlce, a house of prayer, of storytelllng, as well
as a place for weddlngs and Chassldlc banquets. As a
chlld I had heard from my older brother and master,
I. |. Slnger, who later wrote q _ ^~I all the
arguments that the ratlonallsts from Splnoza to Max
Nordau brought out agalnst rellglon. I have heard from
my father and mother all the answers that falth ln God
could offer to those who doubt and search for the truth.
In our home and ln many other homes the eternal ques
tlons were more actual than the latest news ln the Yld
dlsh newspaper. In splte of all the dlsenchantments and
all my skeptlclsm I belleve that the natlons can learn
much from those |ews, thelr way of thlnklng, thelr way
of brlnglng up chlldren, thelr flndlng happlness where
others see nothlng but mlsery and humlllatlon. Jo me
the Ylddlsh language and the conduct of those who
spoke lt are ldentlcal. One can flnd ln the Ylddlsh
tongue and ln the Ylddlsh splrlt expresslons of plous
joy, lust for llfe, longlng for the Messlah, patlence and
deep appreclatlon of human lndlvlduallty. Jhere ls a
qulet humor ln Ylddlsh and a gratltude for every day of
llfe, every crumb of success, each encounter of love.
Jhe Ylddlsh mentallty ls not haughty. It does not take
vlctory for granted. It does not demand and command
but lt muddles through, sneaks by, smuggles ltself
amldst the powers of destructlon, knowlng somewhere
that God`s plan for Creatlon ls stlll at the very begln
nlng.
Jhere are some who call Ylddlsh a dead lan
guage, but so was Hebrew called for two thousand
years. It has been revlved ln our tlme ln a most remark
able, almost mlraculous way. Aramalc was certalnly a
dead language for centurles but then lt brought to llght
the Zohar, a work of mystlclsm of subllme value. It ls a
fact that the classlcs of Ylddlsh llterature are also the
classlcs of the modern Hebrew llterature. Ylddlsh has
not yet sald lts last word. It contalns treasures that have
not been revealed to the eyes of the world. It was the
tongue of martyrs and salnts, of dreamers and Cabal
lstsrlch ln humor and ln memorles that manklnd may
never forget. In a flguratlve way, Ylddlsh ls the wlse
and humble language of us all, the ldlom of frlghtened
and hopeful Humanlty.
| Jhe Nobel Ioundatlon, l978. Isaac Bashevls Slnger
3l3
^~ p
(11 Dcccmbcr 191S - )
b~ bK b gK
Colviv Collcgc
^ h
!ossor Collcgc
See also the Solzhenltsyn entry ln DI J02: Iussiov
Irosc !ritcrs Zftcr !orld !or II.
BOOKS. Udiv dcv` Ivovo Dcvisoviclo (Moscow. Sovetskll
plsatel`, l963); authorlzed, unexpurgated edltlon
publlshed ln Udiv dcv` Ivovo Dcvisoviclo. Motrcviv
dvor (Parls. YMCAPress, l973)lncludes 'Matre
nln dvor"; translated by Ralph Parker as Uvc Doy
iv tlc Iifc of Ivov Dcvisovicl (New York. Dutton,
l963), and by Ronald Hlngley and Max Hay
ward as Uvc Doy iv tlc Iifc of Ivov Dcvisovicl (New
York. Bantam, l963); authorlzed edltlon trans
lated by H. J. Wllletts (New York. Iarrar, Straus
Glroux, l99l);
Ibrovvoc (Chlcago. Russlan Language Speclaltles,
l965);
Iolovyi lorpus |part l| (Mllan. Mondadorl, l968); com
plete edltlon, Irankfurt. Posev, l968; Parls.
YMCAPress, l968); translated by Rebecca Irank
as Tlc Covccr !ord (New York. Dlal, l968);
! lrugc pcrvom (New York. Harper Row, l968)87
chapter verslon; 96chapter enlarged verslon ln
volumes l and 2 of Sobrovic soclivcvii, 20 volumes
(Vermont Parls. YMCAPress, l978-l99l);
translated by Jhomas P. Whltney as Tlc Iirst Circlc
(New York. Harper Row, l968);
Zvgust clctyrvodtsotogo, Ucl I (Parls. YMCA, l97l)early
verslon, superseded by l983 edltlon ln Sobrovic
soclivcvii, volumes ll and l2; early verslon trans
lated by Mlchael Glenny as Zugust 1914 (New
York. Iarrar, Straus Glroux, l972); expanded
verslon translated by Wllletts as Zugust 1914
(New York. Iarrar, Straus Glroux, l989); repre
sents part l of the multlvolume cycle Irosvoc
Iolcso: Iovcstvovovic v otmcrcvvyll srololl, ln Sobrovic
soclivcvii, comprlslng volumes ll-20 ln whlch the
parts are named 'uzel" (knot); volumes ll-l2,
(l983) lnclude Ucl I, Zvgust clcrtyrvodtsotogo; vol
umes l3-l1 (l981) lnclude Ucl II, Ultiobr` slcst-
vodtsotogo; volumes l5-l8 (l986-l988) lnclude
Ucl III, Mort scmvodtsotogo; and volumes l9-20
(l99l) lnclude Ucl I!, Zprcl` scmvodtsotogo; trans
lated by Wllletts as Zugust 1914 (New York. Iar
rar, Straus Glroux, l989);
^~ p Eq~ pX ~
q c Ì NVSUX o~ ` m i~F
3l1
^~ p ai_ PPO
òbcl Iccturc / òbclcvsloio lcltsiio, Engllsh verslon trans
lated by I. D. Reeve (New York. Iarrar, Straus
Glroux, l972)blllngual edltlon;
Zrllipclog CUIog, 191S-196: Upyt lludolcstvcvvcgo
isslcdovoviio, 3 volumes (Parls. YMCAPress,
l973-l975); translated by Whltney (volumes l
and 2) and Wllletts (volume 3) as Tlc Culog Zrcli-
pclogo, 191S-196: Zv Ixpcrimcvt iv Iitcrory Ivvcsti-
gotiov (New York. Harper Row, l971-l978);
Iis`mo voldiom Sovctslogo Soiuo (Parls. YMCAPress,
l971); translated by Hllary Sternberg as Icttcr to
tlc Sovict Icodcrs (New York. Index on Censorshlp
ln assoclatlon wlth Harper Row, l971);
Sollcvitsyv: Z Iictoriol Zutobiogroply (New York. Noon
day, l971);
Irusslic vocli (Parls. YMCAPress, l971); translated by
Robert Conquest as Irussiov ìglts (New York.
Iarrar, Straus Glroux, l977)blllngual edltlon;
Icviv v Tsiurillc: Clovy (Parls. YMCAPress, l975);
translated by Wllletts as Icviv iv uricl (New
York. Iarrar, Straus Glroux, l976);
odolsio tclvol s dubom: Uclcrli litcroturvoi livi (Parls.
YMCAPress, l975); translated by Wllletts as Tlc
Uol ovd tlc Colf: Slctclcs of Iitcrory Iifc iv tlc Sovict
Uviov (New York. Harper Row, l980); enlarged
edltlon of odolsio tclvol s dubom (Moscow.
Soglasle, l996)lncludes `cvidimli;
Z !orld Split Zport / Ioslolotyi mir, translated by Irlna
Albertl (New York. Harper Row, l978)bllln
gual edltlon;
Sobrovic soclivcvii, 20 volumes (Vermont Parls.
YMCAPress, l978-l99l);
Iossloy (Moscow. Sovremennlk, l989);
Iol vom obustroit` Iossiiu? Iosil`vyc soobrolcviio (Parls.
YMCAPress, l990); translated by Alexls Kllmoff
as Icbuildivg Iussio: Icflcctiovs ovd Tcvtotivc Iroposols
(New York. Iarrar, Straus Glroux, l99l);
'Iusslii vopros l lovtsu XX vclo (Moscow. Golos, l995);
translated by Yermolal Aleksandrovlch Solzhe
nltsyn as'Tlc Iussiov _ucstiov ot tlc Ivd of tlc
Twcvtictl Ccvtury (New York. Iarrar, Straus
Glroux, l995)lncludes 'Address to the Interna
tlonal Academy of Phllosophy";
Io mivutc v dcv` (Moscow. Argumenty l fakty, l995);
Iublitsistilo, 3 volumes (Iaroslavl`. Verkhnlala Volga,
l995-l997);
ò ilomoll: Moloio proo (Iaroslavl`. Verkhnlala Volga,
l998);
Iossiio v obvolc (Moscow. Russkll put`, l998);
Irotcrcvsli gloo (Moscow. Nash domLÀge d`Homme,
l999)lncludes Dorolcv`lo and Iiubi rcvoliutsii;
ò lroioll (Moscow. Vagrlus, 2000);
Dvcsti lct vmcstc, 179-199, 2 volumes (Moscow.
Russkll put`, 200l, 2002);
Zrmcislic rossloy (Moscow. Russkll put`, 200l);
Icviv, Tsiurill Ictrogrod: Clovy i lvigi 'Irosvoc Iolcso
(Ekaterlnburg. LIAKJORIIA, 200l);
Stolypiv i Tsor` (Ekaterlnburg. LIAKJORIIA, 200l);
òlovcts-to rcvoliutsiio: Clovy i lvigi Irosvoc lolcso, 2 vol
umes (Ekaterlnburg. LIAKJORIIA, 200l);
Dorolcv`lo (Moscow. Vagrlus, 2001);
ò vovrotc dylloviio. Ibrovvoio publitsistilo (Moscow.
Vagrlus, 2001).
b ~ `W Zrllipclog CUIog, 3 vol
umes (Moscow. Sovetskll plsatel`, l989);
Iolovyi lorpus (Moscow. Khudozhestvennala llteratura,
l990);
! lrugc pcrvom (Moscow. Khudozhestvennala llteratura,
l990);
Irosvoc Iolcso. Iovcstvovovic v otmcrcvvyll srololl, l0 vol
umes (Moscow. Molodala gvardlla, l993);
Ibrovvoc (Moscow. Molodala gvardlla, l993);
Sobrovic soclivcvii v dcvioti tomoll, 9 volumes (Moscow.
Jerra, l999-2000);
ò lroioll (Moscow. Vagrlus, 2000);
Udiv dcv` Ivovo Dcvisoviclo; Motrcviv dvor; Slucloi vo stovtsii
Ircclctovlo (Moscow. ProgressPlelada, 2000).
Iolvoc sobrovic soclivcvii, 30 volumes projected (Moscow.
Vremla, 2006- ).
b bW !c `cvcr Molc Mistolcs: Two Slort
òvcls, translated by Paul W. Blackstock (Colum
bla. Lnlverslty of South Carollna Press, l963)
translatlon of Motrcviv dvor and Slucloi vo stovtsii
Ircclctovlo;
Covccr !ord, translated by Nlcholas Bethell and Davld
Burg (New York. Iarrar, Straus Glroux, l969);
Storics ovd Irosc Iocms, translated by Mlchael Glenny
(New York. Iarrar, Straus Glroux, l97l);
Tlc Mortol Dovgcr: How Miscovccptiovs obout Iussio Impcril
Zmcrico, translated by Mlchael Nlcholson and Alexls
Kllmoff (New York. Harper Row, l980); transla
tlon of 'Chem grozlt Amerlke plokhoe ponlmanle
Rossll"; second edltlon (l98l) lncludes polemlcal
exchange;
Ivvisiblc Zllics, translatlon of `cvidimli by Kllmoff and
Nlcholson (Washlngton, D.C.. Counterpolnt,
l995);
òvcmbcr 1916, translated by H. J. Wllletts (New York.
Iarrar, Straus Glroux, l999)translatlon of
Ultiobr` slcstvotsotogo;
Tlc Sollcvitsyv Icodcr: `cw ovd Isscvtiol !ritivgs,
1947-200, edlted by Edward E. Erlcson |r.
and Danlel |. Mahoney (Wllmlngton, Del.. ISI
Books, 2006).
OJHER. I-pod glyb: Sborvil stotci, edlted by Solzhe
nltsyn (Parls. YMCAPress, l971); translated by
A. M. Brock and others, edlted by Mlchael Scam
3l5
ai_ PPO ^~ p
mell, as Irom Uvdcr tlc Iubblc (Boston. Llttle,
Brown, l975);
Iusslii slovor` ioylovogo rosslircviio, complled by Solzhe
nltsyn (Moscow. Nauka, l990).
LNCOLLECJED. Iitcroturvoio lollcltsiio, the serles
tltle of essays on Russlan wrlters and llterary
works, all publlshed ln òvyi mir |`M|.
'Colyi god Borlsa Pll`nlaka," `M, l (l997). l95-203;
'Smcrt` !oir-Mulltoro Iurlla Jynlanova," `M, 1 (l997).
l9l-l99;
'Ictcrburg Andrela Belogo," `M, 7 (l997). l9l-l96;
'Iz Evgenlla Zamlatlna," `M, l0 (l997). l86-20l;
'Prlemy epopel," `M, l (l998). l72-l90;
'Chetyre sovremennykh poeta," `M, 1 (l998). l81-l95;
'Ivan Shmelev l ego Solvtsc mcrtvyll," `M, 7 (l998).
l81-l93;
'Okunalas` v Chekhova," `M, l0 (l998). l6l-l82;
'Iellks Svetov-Utvcri mi dvcri," `M, l (l999). l66-l73;
'Pantelelmon Romanov-rasskazy sovetsklkh let," `M,
7 (l999). l97-201;
'Aleksandr Malyshkln," `M, l0 (l999). l80-l92;
'Ioslf Brodskll-lzbrannye stlkhl," `M, l2 (l999). l80-
l93;
'Evgenll Nosov," `M, 7 (2000). l95-l99;
'Dvoenè Iurlla Naglblna," `M, 1 (2003). l61-l7l;
'Davld Samollov," `M, 6 (2003). l7l-l78;
'Dlloglla Vaslllla Grossmana," `M, 8 (2003). l51-l69;
'Leonld Leonov-!or," `M, l0 (2003). l65-l7l;
'Vasllll Belov," `M, l2 (2003). l51-l69;
Ugodilo crvysllo promcl dvull lcrvovov: Uclcrli igvoviio.
Serlal publlcatlon of memolrs on llfe ln the West,
all ln òvyi mir [`M]:
chapter l, `M, 9 (l998). 17-l25;
chapters 2-3, `M, ll (l998). 93-l53;
chapters 1-5, `M, 2 (l999). 67-l10;
chapters 6-8, `M, 9 (2000). ll2-l83;
chapters 9-l0, `M, l2 (2000). 97-l56;
chapters ll-l2, `M, 1 (200l). 80-l1l;
chapters l1-l6, `M, ll (2003). 3l-97;
'Georgll Vladlmov-Ccvcrol i cgo ormiio," `M, 2 (2001).
l11-l5l;
'Leonld Borodln-Tsoritso smuty," `M, 6 (2001). l19-l58;
'Aleksel Konstantlnovlch Jolstol-dramatlcheskala
trlloglla l drugoe," `M, 9 (2001). l37-l11;
'Nagrady Mlkhallu Bulgakovu prl zhlznl l posmertno,"
`M, l2 (2001). l22-l27.
Jhe llfe and llterary career of Aleksandr Solzhe
nltsyn are nothlng short of extraordlnary. He ls a vet
eran of frontllne duty durlng World War II and a
survlvor of eleven years of Sovlet prlsons, forcedlabor
camps, and lnternal exlle. Solzhenltsyn also endured a
nearfatal bout wlth cancer before achlevlng world fame
ln l963. Jhat year hls short novel Udiv dcv` Ivovo Dcvi-
soviclo (translated as Uvc Doy iv tlc Iifc of Ivov Dcvisovicl,
l963) was publlshed ln the journal òvyi mir (Jhe New
World). Other works soon followed, lncludlng ! lrugc
pcrvom (l968; translated as Tlc Iirst Circlc, l968) and
Iolovyi lorpus (l968; translated as Covccr !ord, l968),
both of whlch could be publlshed only ln the West
because of the lncreaslngly hostlle attltude of the Sovlet
reglme toward Solzhenltsyn, a deflantly lndependent
wrlter. In l970 he was awarded the Nobel Prlze ln Llter
ature, ralslng the lre of the reglme stlll further; a l97l
plot by the Komltet gosudarstvennol bezopasnostl
(KGB, State Securlty Commlttee) to assasslnate
Solzhenltsyn was dlscovered after the fall of the Sovlet
Lnlon. In the mld l970s he was on the verge of achlev
lng even greater renown wlth the publlcatlon, agaln ln
the West, of Zrllipclog CUIog, 191S-196: Upyt lvu-
dolcstvcvvogo isslcdovoviio (l973-l975; translated as Tlc
Culog Zrclipclogo, 191S-196: Zv Ixpcrimcvt iv Iitcrory
Ivvcstigotiov, l971-l978), a masslve lndlctment of the
Sovlet penal system. Jhe reglme retallated by arrestlng
Solzhenltsyn, charglng hlm wlth treason, and expelllng
hlm from the L.S.S.R. ln l971. He spent the next two
decades ln the West. At flrst he made many hlghproflle
publlc appearances, but he mostly worked on Irosvoc
Iolcso (l993), a tenvolume cycle, wrltten partlally ln the
tradltlon of the hlstorlcal novel, whlch traces the
descent of Russla lnto the revolutlonary chaos of l9l7.
He returned to postCommunlst Russla ln l991 and
has contlnued to speak out on lmportant publlc lssues
whlle addlng to hls corpus of wrltlngs, whlch lncludes
flctlon, poetry, drama, and nonflctlon. Many of
Solzhenltsyn`s llterary works are autoblographlcal.
Jhey provlde the most authorltatlve lnformatlon avall
able about the flrst thlrty years of hls llfe.
As a wrlter and a publlc flgure, Solzhenltsyn has
evoked strong reactlonsalthough the ldeologlcal sym
pathles of the commentators have often shaped the
oplnlons expressed. Accordlngly, responses have
ranged from crude abuse to uncrltlcal adulatlon; rarely
have they rlsen above a perfunctory or tendentlous
analysls of the nonpolltlcal core of Solzhenltsyn`s mes
sage. Beyond the predlctable polltlcal commentary,
however, lles a more fundamental phllosophlcal lssue
that has caused dlscernlng crltlcs to agree or dlsagree
wlth the author. Solzhenltsyn ls a commltted adherent
of the Russlan llterary tradltlon that took shape ln the
nlneteenth century, and as such he rejects the ldea of a
dlscontlnulty between llterary art and the world of
moral values. Jherefore, he ls unapologetlc about pre
sentlng many lssues ln what mlght be called an ethlcally
absolute manner and wlth the urgency and power char
acterlstlc of hls talent. Jhls stance ls at odds wlth the
3l6
^~ p ai_ PPO
tendency toward moral relatlvlsm that permeates mod
ern thought and ls lncompatlble wlth the bellef of post
modernlst crltlcs, who dlsmlss all absolutlst convlctlons
ln prlnclple.
Aleksandr Isaevlch Solzhenltsyn was born on ll
December l9l8 ln Klslovodsk, a resort town ln the
Caucasus. Both parents came from peasant famllles but
recelved excellent educatlons. Hls father, Isaakll Seme
novlch Solzhenltsyn, served wlth dlstlnctlon as an artll
lery offlcer ln World War I, but dled as a result of a
huntlng accldent slx months before Solzhenltsyn was
born. Hls mother, Jalssla Zakharovna (Shcherbak)
Solzhenltsyna, the daughter of a prosperous Lkralnlan
farmer, was forced by clrcumstances to seek employ
ment ln RostovonDon, at flrst leavlng her baby son ln
the care of her famlly members. At age slx he was
reunlted wlth hls mother ln Rostov, where, destltute,
the two llved for the next twelve years ln a rlckety
shack wlthout plumblng. Jhe boy often spent summer
vacatlon at the home of hls mother`s slsterlnlaw, Irlna
Shcherbak, a felsty and deeply rellglous woman wlth llt
erary lnterests who lnfluenced young Solzhenltsyn`s
love for the Russlan classlcs and hls appreclatlon of
Russlan Orthodoxy.
Solzennltsyn`s llterary ambltlons manlfested
themselves early; he was composlng short storles
already at age nlne. In a~ (Jhe Road), a long
autoblographlcal poem wrltten durlng the perlod
between l917 and l952 (publlshed ln l999 ln m
~~), he relates several eplsodes from hls youth, notlng
hls lnablllty to draw concluslons from the omlnous
scenes he wltnessed because the wellorchestrated and
allpervaslve Sovlet propaganda had succeeded ln wln
nlng hlm over. In l936, after graduatlng from second
ary school, Solzhenltsyn undertook hls flrst serlous
attempt to wrlte on what he consldered the greatest
event ln modern hlstory, the Bolshevlk Revolutlon of
l9l7 and the events that preceded lt. (Only when he
was ln hls seventles dld he leave off worklng on thls
mammoth llterary project, by then named h~
hK)
Although Solzhenltsyn wlshed to pursue llterary
studles, thls optlon was not avallable at Rostov Lnlver
slty, where he had enrolled ln l936 ln order to stay
close to hls alllng mother, wlth the result that he
majored ln mathematlcs and physlcs. He was, neverthe
less, able to comblne thls course of study wlth a corre
spondence course on llterature offered by the
prestlglous Moscow Instltute of Phllosophy, Llterature,
and Hlstory (MIILI). At thls tlme, too, Solzhenltsyn
began courtlng a fellow student, Natal`la Alekseevna
Reshetovskala; they marrled ln l910. Jhe future wrlter
graduated wlth dlstlnctlon ln l91l and resolved to
apply for admlsslon to advanced study at MIILI.
Solzhenltsyn`s plan to move to Moscow and
study at MIILI dled wlth the 22 |une l91l Nazl
onslaught on the Sovlet Lnlon. He was soon drafted,
and hls flrst postlng was to a horsedrawn transport
unlt, where hls lnablllty to handle horses was a source
of great frustratlon. Jhese early wartlme experlences
are descrlbed ln an autoblographlcally based but
unflnlshed short novel, i (Love the Revo
lutlon), wrltten mostly ln l918 and publlshed ln l999
ln m ~~K He was able to arrange a transfer to
artlllery school on the strength of hls mathematlcal
tralnlng, and by l913 he was commandlng a frontllne
battery. As ls made clear ln a~I Solzhenltsyn`s
war experlences posed many moral challenges to hls
Marxlst convlctlons. One chapter of a~I pub
llshed separately as m (l971; translated as
m~ kI l977), descrlbes the wlld rampage that
characterlzed the Sovlet advance through German terrl
tory ln early l915 and emphaslzes the protagonlst`s
angulshed remorse at hls partlclpatlon ln the rape and
plllage of a land left defenseless by lts collapsed army.
Nevertheless, hls overall falth ln Marxlst dogma
appears to have survlved more or less lntact throughout
the war.
Solzhenltsyn`s mllltary career ended dlsastrously.
He and a chlldhood frlend who was also servlng ln the
mllltary began to exchange correspondence that
lncluded dlsparaglng comments on |oseph Stalln`s lead
ershlp and the draft of a platform for a reformmlnded
and 'purely Lenlnlst" polltlcal party. Jhelr letters were
lntercepted by mllltary censors, and the two men were
arrested ln l915. Ior 'mallclous slander" and settlng up
a 'hostlle organlzatlon," Solzhenltsyn was sentenced to
elght years ln a forcedlabor camp, to be followed by
'perpetual exlle" to a remote area of the L.S.S.R. He
was enterlng the world of the gulag, a term that orlglnates
from GLLag, the acronym for the Sovlet prlsoncamp sys
tem (Glavnoe upravlenle lspravltel`notrudovykh lagerel,
or Chlef Admlnlstratlon of CorrectlveLabor Camps).
Because of hls degree ln mathematlcs, ln mld
l916 Solzhenltsyn was plucked out of the regular camp
system and transferred to a prlson research lnstltute, or
~~~I where lnmates recelved relatlvely prlvlleged
treatmentsuch as more reasonable worklng condl
tlons, enough food, and access to books. Jhe novel s
ls based on Solzhenltsyn`s three years at a
~~~ outslde Moscow named Marflno, whlch was
then engaged ln developlng a telephone encryptlon
devlce. Whlle at Marflno, Solzhenltsynjust as dld
Gleb Nerzhln, the protagonlst who represents hlm ln
the bookhad the opportunlty to engage ln profound
selfexamlnatlon. Hls falth ln Marxlsm, to some degree
already mltlgated by hls wartlme and prlson experl
ences, now collapsed completely, and he began con
3l7
ai_ PPO ^~ p
structlng a new worldvlew to replace lt. Nerzhln`s
lntellectual odyssey constltutes the major theme of the
novel and reflects, ln condensed form, the realllfe
moral and phllosophlcal quest of the author.
Solzhenltsyn had begun worklng on ! lrugc pcr-
vom ln the mld l950s, brlnglng the novel to completlon
ln l962. But after the success of publlshlng Udiv dcv` Ivovo
Dcvisoviclo ln l963, he pruned the nlnetyslxchapter !
lrugc pcrvom down to elghtyseven chapters, readjustlng
the plotllne and 'softenlng" varlous parts of the book ln
the hope that lt, llke Udiv dcv` Ivovo Dcvisoviclo, mlght be
permltted to appear ln the Sovlet Lnlon. Jhe Moscow
journal òvyi mir accepted the novel ln lts shortened,
elghtysevenchapter verslon ln l961, but Sovlet publl
catlon proved lmposslble. Jhe full nlnetyslxchapter
Russlan verslon, lncludlng late emendatlons, was pub
llshed only ln l978 ln Solzhenltsyn`s Sobrovic soclivcvii
(l978-l99l; Collected Works); a few chapters have
now appeared ln Engllsh ln Tlc Sollcvitsyv Icodcr
(2006).
In the sprlng of l950 Solzhenltsyn was expelled
from Marflno and cast back lnto the prlsoncamp sys
tem. Jwo years earller, Stalln had decreed that polltlcal
prlsoners (deemed much more dangerous than thleves
and murderers) be segregated ln socalled speclal camps
wlth a partlcularly harsh reglme, and Solzhenltsyn was
accordlngly transported to Eklbastuz, a huge new
prlson camp for 'polltlcals" located ln central Kazakh
stan, where he served out hls term ln l953. Hls experl
ence ls dlstllled ln Udiv dcv` Ivovo Dcvisoviclo (tltled
'Shch851" ln manuscrlpt form), although Solzhenltsyn
chose to dlstance thls narratlve from any dlrect autoblo
graphlcal reference. In thls work, Solzhenltsyn asplres,
lnstead, to deplct camp llfe ln the way lt was commonly
experlenced by the majorlty of prlsoners. Jo thls end,
he took as hls central character a peasant, Ivan Denlso
vlch Shukhov, who had brlefly fallen lnto German
hands durlng the war, had managed to escape, and was
charged wlth belng a German spy upon reachlng Rus
slan llnes.
Autoblographlcal lnformatlon on Solzhenltsyn`s
experlences ln the Eklbastuz camp ls glven ln Zrllipclog
CUIog, 191S-196 (l989), lncludlng a portrayal of the
splrlt of deflance that began to take hold of the polltlcal
prlsoners ln the speclal camps. Jhls splrlt gathered
strength rapldly, leadlng flrst to the systematlc assassl
natlon of camp lnformers, culmlnatlng ln early l952 ln
a general strlke, whlch at flrst was met wlth concesslons
on the part of the authorltles but soon was crushed wlth
represslve measures. (Jhls eplsode, together wlth a
much more serlous mld l951 uprlslng that occurred ln
the nearby Kenglr camp, ls reflected ln Solzhenltsyn`s
screenplay voiut istivu tovli |l98l, publlshed ln Sobrovic
soclivcvii; Janks Know the Jruth|.) Although he had
partlclpated ln the l952 strlke, Solzhenltsyn escaped
retrlbutlon because at the tlme when the authorltles
were reestabllshlng control, he underwent an emer
gency operatlon for what apparently was abdomlnal
cancer. Accordlng to Solzhenltsyn, he lay ln a post
operatlve haze ln the recovery room of the hospltal, and
one of the doctors, Borls Nlkolaevlch Kornfel`d, sat on
hls bed and spoke fervently of hls recent converslon to
Chrlstlanlty. Jhe doctor was murdered by unknown
assallants that same nlght, probably on susplclon that
he had been an lnformer, and hls ardent words at
Solzhenltsyn`s bedsldethe last words he sald ln hls
llfewelghed upon the wrlter 'as an lnherltance."
Solzhenltsyn states that thls extraordlnary sequence of
events preclpltated hls consclous return to a bellef ln
God, formally marked by a poem wrltten ln l952, ln
whlch the wrlter rededlcates hlmself to the falth ln
whlch he was brought up.
Solzhenltsyn was released from the Eklbastuz
camp ln early l953. But he was now compelled to
begln hls 'perpetual" exlle ln KokJerek, a small settle
ment ln southern Kazakhstan, where he supported hlm
self by teachlng mathematlcs and physlcs ln a local
secondary school. In every free moment he wrote down
the works that he had accumulated ln hls head durlng
the precedlng years. In late l953 Solzhenltsyn became
serlously lllthe abdomlnal swelllng that had necessl
tated the earller operatlon had returnedand he was
dlagnosed wlth termlnal cancer. He was permltted to
travel to Jashkent, and there he underwent masslve
radlatlon treatment, whlch succeeded ln shrlnklng the
tumor. Once agaln Solzhenltsyn transmuted hls per
sonal experlence lnto art ln a novellength povcst` (tale)
tltled Iolovyi lorpus.
In Iebruary l956 Nlklta Sergeevlch Khrushchev
dellvered an address to the Jwentleth Congress of the
Communlst Party of the Sovlet Lnlon (CPSL) ln
whlch he denounced Stalln`s excesses. Jhls speech
marked the beglnnlng of the 'thaw," a cultural llberal
lzatlon that proved to be shortllved and lacklng ln clear
guldellnes. Nevertheless, lt was a major departure from
the stlfllng rlgldlty of the Stallnlst era, and profound
polltlcal changes followed almost lmmedlately. In Aprll
l956 Solzhenltsyn`s sentence of 'perpetual exlle" was
annulled, and he soon moved to European Russla. He
resumed teachlng, and wrltlng ln secret, now ln the vll
lage of Mll`tsevo, east of Moscow. In early l957 he was
offlclally 'rehabllltated," whlch meant that the l915
charges agalnst hlm were formally erased from hls
record. Jhls change of status was followed by hls
remarrlage to Reshetovskala, whom he had dlvorced
durlng hls lmprlsonment, and a move to Rlazan`, a pro
vlnclal clty south of the capltal, where he contlnued to
teach school.
3l8
^~ p ai_ PPO
In l958-l960 Solzhenltsyn wrote seventeen mln
latures. Jltled 'Krokhotkl" (llterally, 'tlnles") and flrst
publlshed ln the mlgr journal d~ (Iacets) ln l961,
these prose poems range ln length from a dozen llnes to
a page and a half and dlsplay exqulslte attentlon to
rhythmlc structure. Jhey also reveal hls penslve, even
gentle slde. Jyplcally, they move from a slngle eplsode
or observatlon to a broad phllosophlcal lnslght. Among
the values embraced by these mlnlatures are joy ln the
beauty of nature, recognltlon of the llfe force at all lev
els, respect for slmple peasant llfe, and an attachment to
the old Russlan towns and domed churches that dot the
rural landscape.
j~ I wrltten ln l959 (publlshed ln l963
ln k X translated as j~~ eI l963) ls
Solzhenltsyn`s bestknown short story; some commen
tators conslder lt hls most accompllshed llterary pro
ductlon. Llke the author, the narrator returns to
European Russla after forced resldence ln Central Asla,
yearns to lose hlmself ln the Russlan heartland, and settles
ln a vlllage slmllar to Mll`tsevo. But he dlscovers that
most of the vlllagers are greedy, quarrelsome, and petty.
Jhe one exceptlon ls Matryona, a poor wldow whose
llfe of sufferlng has not emblttered her. She remalns a
noble character to her traglc end.
Khrushchev`s deStallnlzatlon campalgn peaked
wlth the JwentySecond Congress of the CPSL ln
October l96l. Jhe denunclatlons of Stallnlsm that
were sounded there emboldened Solzhenltsyn to rlsk
submlttlng some of hls wrltlng for publlcatlon. Jhe
manuscrlpt for l f~~ a~ made lts way
through lntermedlarles to Aleksandr Jrlfonovlch Jvar
dovsky, edltor ln chlef of k I who lmmedlately
recognlzed that he had a llterary masterplece ln hls
hands. Solzhenltsyn, meanwhlle, suffered serlous mls
glvlngs about the posslble consequences of comlng out
of hldlng as a wrlter.
Jvardovsky`s strategy for seeklng permlsslon to
publlsh the work was to pass lt on to Khrushchev, a
personal acqualntance wlth peasant roots llke hls own,
and to suggest that the premler could use the book ln
hls deStallnlzatlon campalgn. Whlle the book can
lndeed be seen as antlStallnlst, lt ls actually a protest
agalnst any dehumanlzatlon wherever perpetrated.
Khrushchev had coples of the manuscrlpt made for
each member of the polltburo wlth the request that they
declare at the next meetlng whether they were ln favor
of, or opposed to, publlcatlon. Jhose ln favor he
counted as polltlcal supporters, and those ln opposltlon
he vlewed as foes. Jhus, the flrst publlc use of a
Solzhenltsyn work was as a polltlcal tool. l f~~
a~ was publlshed ln November l962 ln a huge
overrun of k and soon reprlnted ln great num
bers. Reader response to lt was enormously posltlve,
and publlshed translatlons followed promptly. Solzhe
nltsyn lmmedlately passed from anonymlty to global
fame.
By authorlzlng the publlcatlon of l f~~
a~I Khrushchev had set the terms for lts lnltlal
receptlon, and establlshment Sovlet publlcatlons slav
lshly followed the leader`s lnstrumental approach. In
contrast, Jvardovsky`s lntroductlon emphaslzed the llt
erary quallty of the work, polntlng to the moral force of
lts truthful account of human nature. Jhe profuse West
ern responses to the book were enthuslastlc, ln most
cases focuslng on llterary aspects ln the manner of
Jvardovsky. (A decade later the tables turned, however,
and polltlclzlng lnterpretatlons ln the manner of Khru
shchev became frequent ln Western crltlcal commen
tary on Solzhenltsynto the detrlment of a proper
understandlng of the Russlan wrlter.)
Whlle Khrushchev had lntended the publlcatlon
to slgnal that the Stallnlst terror was a thlng of the past,
he and hls entourage were not prepared for, nor were
they pleased by, the exploslve reactlon to l f~~
a~K In the West, Solzhenltsyn was halled as a
champlon of freedom who revealed hlthertounknown
truths about Sovlet atrocltles. Jhe response lnslde the
L.S.S.R. was even more slgnlflcant. Iew Sovlets had
been spared the dlsappearance of a famlly member lnto
the gulag, but only wlth the publlcatlon of thls story
was offlclal sllence about camp llfe challenged by a
forthrlght account. Letters flooded ln to Solzhenltsyn,
and many of them descrlbed personal experlence of the
camps. He followed up thls correspondence by lnter
vlewlng hundreds of former (lnmates). At one polnt
he had set aslde as overly ambltlous the ldea of wrltlng
a hlstory of the gulag system, but now he was recelvlng
detalled materlal of the sort that he needed for thls
project. Jhese eyewltness accounts returned hlm to hls
task, and many of them made thelr way lnto ^~
dri~I NVNUNVRSK
Jhe perlod of lessened restralnt ln the press dld
not last long. Jwo months after k publlshed l
f~~ a~I lt featured 'Matrenln dvor" and
another short story, 'Sluchal na stantsll Krechetovka"
(k I no. l |l963|; translated as 'Incldent at Kre
chetovka Statlon" ln t k j~ j~I l963).
Later ln l962, k ran a longer but less successful
story, a~ ~ (translated as c d
`~I l961). Jhe only other works by Solzhenltsyn
publlshed ln the Sovlet Lnlon before hls expulslon were
a l965 essay on language and the story 'ZakharKallta"
(Zakhar the Pouch; publlshed ln k I |l966| ).
Khrushchev fell prey to a coup and was removed
from offlce ln October l961; a hardenlng of the party
llne followed. By l965 Solzhenltsyn was experlenclng
dlrect harassment. Jhe KGB ralded the apartments of
3l9
ai_ PPO ^~ p
two of hls frlends and took possesslon of a large trove
of hls notes and unpubllshed manuscrlpts. Soon the
authorltles were addlng selectlve references from the
conflscated materlal to thelr ongolng effort to dlscredlt
Solzhenltsyn. He responded by resortlng to samlzdat
that ls, dlstrlbutlng prlvately typed coples of a glven
work through an lnformal network of fellow dlssenters.
Hls lncreaslngly combatlve publlc statements were now
usually publlshed ln the West and broadcast back to the
Sovlet Lnlon vla Radlo Llberty.
In an allout effort to get Iolovyi lorpus publlshed
at home, Solzhenltsyn met wlth the prose sectlon of the
Moscow wrlters` organlzatlon ln late l966. Jhese wrlt
ers showered the novel and the novellst wlth pralse;
Solzhenltsyn expressed hls gratltude and hls wllllngness
to conslder maklng many recommended revlslons. No
movement toward publlcatlon ensued, however, and ln
May l967 he wrote an open letter to the upcomlng
Iourth Congress of the Sovlet Wrlters` Lnlon ln whlch
he chastlsed the unlon for lts servlllty before the
reglmeespeclally lts crlnglng assent to the persecutlon
of hundreds of wrltersand lts slmllarly sllent acqules
cence to the draconlan censorshlp. It was hls flrst major
act of publlc deflance, but the congress was not permlt
ted to dlscuss the lssues he had ralsed desplte the urg
lngs of several lnfluentlal wrlters to take up the matter.
In the wake of thls eplsode, Solzhenltsyn began to keep
a record of hls confllct wlth the reglme, hls chronlcle
eventually coalesclng lnto a work that appeared abroad
ln l975 as odolsio tclvol s dubom: Uclcrli litcroturvoi livi
(translated as Tlc Uol ovd tlc Colf: Slctclcs of Iitcrory Iifc
iv tlc Sovict Uviov, l980).
In l968 Solzhenltsyn completed Zrllipclog
CUIog, 191S-196 and arranged for a copy of lt to
reach the West for safekeeplng. Also ln that year, !
lrugc pcrvom and Iolovyi lorpus were publlshed ln the
West, both ln Russlan and ln translatlon, although
Solzhenltsyn had authorlzed publlcatlon only of ! lrugc
pcrvom. Jhe novels recelved a warm welcome from West
ern revlewers. World oplnlon was runnlng strongly ln
hls favor, and hls publlcrelatlons successes gave hlm a
relatlve sense of lnvulnerablllty from any lnltlatlves
agalnst hlm by the Sovlet reglme.
In l969 Solzhenltsyn returned to Irosvoc Iolcso,
the work that he had always lntended to be hls mag
num opus. Jhe flrst lnstallment, Zvgust clctyrvodtsotogo,
was publlshed ln Parls ln l97l and the next year ln
Engllsh as Zugust 1914. (A greatly enlarged Russlan edl
tlon appeared ln l983, but not untll l989 dld a transla
tlon of thls canonlcal verslon come out ln Engllsh.)
Desplte the severe dlstractlons that lnterrupted hls work
on thls cycle ln the late l960s and early l970s, Solzhe
nltsyn never wavered from hls commltment to lt. One
such dlstractlon occurred on l2 November l969. the
Rlazan` local branch of the Wrlters` Lnlon expelled
Solzhenltsyn from thls professlonal assoclatlon for
'antlsoclal behavlor."
In l970 Solzhenltsyn was awarded the Nobel
Prlze ln Llterature 'for the ethlcal force wlth whlch he
has pursued the lndlspensable tradltlons of Russlan llt
erature," to quote the offlclal cltatlon. He was the
fourth Russlan to be so honored; hls three predecessors
were Ivan Alekseevlch Bunln (l933), Borls Leonldovlch
Pasternak (l958), and Mlkhall Aleksandrovlch Sho
lokhov (l965). Jhe flrst two awards had been met wlth
bltter crltlclsm by the Sovlet reglme, whlch vlewed these
cholces as dellberately hostlle polltlcal acts. (Bunln was
a voclferous mlgr crltlc of the Bolshevlks, and Paster
nak had questloned the offlclal bromldes concernlng
the Russlan Revolutlon ln hls Doctor livogo |l957|.) In
contrast, Sovlet authorltles expressed satlsfactlon when
the honor was bestowed on Sholokhov, a wrlter wlth
rocksolld Communlst credentlals. In the context of
such a manlfestly polltlclzed approach to llterature, to
predlct that the Sovlet reactlon to Solzhenltsyn`s l970
Nobel Prlze would be vlolently negatlve was not dlffl
cult. A heavyhanded press campalgn was lndeed
launched lmmedlately, wlth artlcles ln the major Sovlet
newspapers bearlng tltles such as 'Nedostolnala lgra"
(An Lnseemly Game) and 'Nobelevskala premlla l
Kholodnala volna" (Jhe Nobel Prlze and the Cold
War). In the West, meanwhlle, the reactlon was a mlx
ture of satlsfactlon and awe. As one admlrlng commen
tator sald ln reference to the appearance of so much
excellent wrltlng ln the short perlod of tlme slnce the
l962 publlcatlon of Udiv dcv` Ivovo Dcvisoviclo, llterary
crltlcs are 'accustomed to great works more dellber
ately spaced." Solzhenltsyn`s name appeared ln the
headllnes of newspapers around the world, and sympa
thetlc attentlon from the West unquestlonably bolstered
hls posltlon amld the Sovlet reglme`s hostlllty. But he
was faced wlth the llkely prospect that lf he traveled to
Sweden, he would not be allowed to return home. Jhe
Swedlsh government, wlshlng to avold the wrath of the
Sovlet Lnlon, turned down the wrlter`s request to allow
the award to be bestowed at Sweden`s Moscow
embassy, and lt was only four years later, when
Solzhenltsyn was llvlng abroad, that he recelved the
Nobel lnslgnla ln person. In l972 the Nobel Ioundatlon
released the text of the lecture, whlch ls normally dellv
ered at the tlme of the formal presentatlon of the award.
Solzhenltsyn presents hls own account of the events sur
roundlng hls recelpt of the Nobel award ln 'Nobell
ana," a fortyflvepage chapter ln hls autoblographlcal
odolsio tclvol s dubom. He also makes clear the lmpor
tance he attaches to hls Nobel address and the palnstak
lng care that went lnto composlng lt, especlally as he
labored to brlng together the themes of art and soclety.
320
^~ p ai_ PPO
Jhe Nobel address, publlshed ln a blllngual edl
tlon ln l972 as k i L k~~ ~I ls
Solzhenltsyn`s most sustalned statement on the mean
lng and functlon of llterature. It opens wlth a contrast
between two klnds of wrltersa comparlson that vlv
ldly reveals Solzhenltsyn`s splrltual orlentatlon. one
wrlter 'lmaglnes hlmself the creator of an lndependent
splrltual world," whlle the other 'acknowledges a
hlgher power above hlm and joyfully works as a com
mon apprentlce under God`s heaven." Jhe artlst of the
second klnd wlll not allow llterature to be strlctly
selfreferentlal but wlll seek to relate llterature to llfe. In
a world rlven by lrreconcllably confllctlng worldvlews,
Solzhenltsyn hopes that beauty can move and persuade
when goodness and truth no longer sufflce and that
through aesthetlc lnstrumentatlon, beauty mlght even
cultlvate goodness and truth, ln that sense 'savlng the
world." Because llterature ls capable of transmlttlng
'condensed and lrrefutable human experlence" from
generatlon to generatlon and from natlon to natlon,
Solzhenltsyn thlnks of world llterature as 'the one great
heart that beats for the cares and mlsfortunes of our
world."
Jhe years l970-l972 mark the perlod of the most
lntense confllct between Solzhenltsyn and the Sovlet
authorltles. He became allled wlth nuclear physlclst
Andrel Dmltrlevlch Sakharov, and desplte slgnlflcant
dlfferences of perspectlve between them, they came to
be seen as the two leadlng dlssenters ln the land. Whlle
Western support provlded cruclal cover for both men,
offlclal harassment of each turned physlcally threaten
lng ln l97l; ln Solzhenltsyn`s case, KGB agents even
made an unsuccessful attempt to assasslnate hlm. (Jhls
eplsode ls recounted ln detall by a former KGB opera
tlve and lncluded ln an appendlx to 'Nevldlmkl" |col
lected ln _~~ I l996|.)
In l972 Solzhenltsyn`s rellglous commltments
came lnto clear publlc vlew. Jo Patrlarch Plmen of the
Russlan Orthodox Church he wrote an open letter (flrst
publlshed ln l972 ln the Parls newspaper o~~
|Russlan Jhought|), ln whlch he challenged the collabo
ratlon of the Church wlth the athelstlc reglme. In addl
tlon, a prayer he wrote ln l962 appeared ln l972 ln
qI as well as ln other Western magazlnes; lt beglns,
'How easy to llve wlth You, O Lord, / How easy to
belleve ln You." Iurthermore, the flrst verslon of ^
~~I Solzhenltsyn`s emphatlcally Russlan and
most expllcltly Chrlstlan plece of flctlon, was publlshed
ln Engllsh translatlon. Its mlxed receptlon marked the
flrst slgnlflcant decllne of Solzhenltsyn`s standlng ln the
West, and the author hlmself dated 'the schlsm among
my readers" and 'the steady loss of supporters," both at
home and abroad, wlth the appearance of thls book.
Meanwhlle, Solzhenltsyn and hls wlfe had been
drlftlng apart for several years. Jhe radlcal alteratlon ln
hls outlook slnce thelr marrlage ln l910 and hls lncreas
lngly compllcated llfe ln open confrontatlon wlth the
reglme dld not sult her. He began a relatlonshlp wlth
Natal`la Dmltrlevna Svetlova, a Moscow mathematl
clan; Solzhenltsyn`s wlfe made a falled attempt at sul
clde. Jhough lnltlally turned down by the authorltles, a
dlvorce petltlon flnally was granted ln early l973. Jhe
Sovlet press agency Novostl offered to help Reshetov
skala wrlte a memolr about her former husband. Pub
llshed ln l975, s (translated as p~~W
j e~ ^~ pI l975) was a collabora
tlve effort deslgned to damage Solzhenltsyn`s reputa
tlon. In thls context lt ls worth notlng that the wrlter dld
not try to exculpate hlmself for the breakup of hls mar
rlage; both partles were responslble. But ln hls second
wlfe, whom he marrled ln l973, he found a woman
wlth a capaclty for work and an lntenslty of splrlt equal
to hls own.
An omlnous development ln the campalgn
agalnst Solzhenltsyn came ln mld l973 wlth the arrest
of Ellzaveta Denlsovna Voronlanskala, who was proml
nent among hls 'lnvlslble allles". she typed many of hls
manuscrlpts. Agalnst hls express order to destroy all
coples of the manuscrlpt for ^~ dri~I NVNU
NVRS ln her possesslon, she had kept one copyln the
event that all the other coples should be destroyed.
After flve days of nonstop lnterrogatlon, she broke and
revealed where her copy was hldden. Soon after thls
lncldent, she dled, elther by sulclde or, as Solzhenltsyn
suspects, by murder. Wlth a copy of thls work ln the
possesslon of the KGB, Solzhenltsyn`s hand was forced,
and he gave the slgnal to publlsh the work ln the West.
Jhe flrst volume ln Russlan appeared ln Parls by the
end of l973, and translatlons of all parts of the work fol
lowed shortly thereafter. Solzhenltsyn`s name agaln
made frontpage headllnes.
Iew books rlval ^~ dri~I NVNUNVRS for
lts lmpact on the consclousness of lts contemporary
readers. Jo begln wlth, Solzhenltsyn lntroduced the
word ~I whlch became a unlversally recognlzed lln
gulstlc emblem of the horrors of twentlethcentury total
ltarlanlsm. Agalnst offlclal efforts to deny the exlstence
of the gulag unlverse, thls nonflctlon work alms to
reveal lts reallty and lts horrendous lmpact on Sovlet
hlstory. Comblnlng factual lnformatlon wlth lnterpre
tlve commentary, Solzhenltsyn bullt an overwhelmlng
'case" agalnst a state that had llquldated mllllons of lts
own cltlzens and agalnst the ldeology that drove lt to do
so. (Estlmates of the number of vlctlms vary wldely; for
the book, Solzhenltsyn borrowed an mlgr demogra
pher`s flgure of slxtyslx mllllon.) Whlle ^~
dri~I NVNUNVRS mlght lnvlte analysls ln polltlcal
32l
ai_ PPO ^~ p
terms, Solzhenltsyn emphatlcally warns agalnst that
approach. 'Let the reader who expects thls book to be a
polltlcal expos slam lts covers shut rlght now." He pro
ceeds to expllcate the moral vlslon that governs all of
hls wrltlng, lncludlng thls work. In a passage of central
lmportance, he wrltes of 'the llne dlvldlng good and
evll" and states that thls dlvlslon passes not between
good and bad classes of people, as Marxlsts and other
ldeologues prefer, but 'through the heart of every
human belng."
At the tlme of lts publlcatlon Solzhenltsyn pre
dlcted that Zrllipclog CUIog, 191S-196 was destlned
to affect the course of hlstory. He rellshed responses
such as an edltorlal statement from the newspaper
Irovlfurtcr Zllgcmcivc: 'Jhe tlme may come when we
date the beglnnlng of the collapse of the Sovlet system
from the appearance of CUIog." Although much of the
baslc lnformatlon about Sovlet prlson camps had
already appeared ln scholarly studles and varlous mem
olrs, thls work broke through a shell of skeptlclsm and
lmprlnted upon Western consclousness the enormlty of
the atrocltles perpetrated by the Sovlet reglme. It dellv
ered a blow from whlch the reglme never fully recov
ered, and accounts of the subsequent demlse of the
Sovlet Lnlon regularly mentlon Zrllipclog CUIog,
191S-196 and Udiv dcv` Ivovo Dcvisoviclo as contrlbut
lng factors.
Jhe publlcatlon of Zrllipclog CUIog, 191S-196
was the lmmedlate cause of Solzhenltsyn`s expulslon to
the West. On l2 Iebruary l971 he was arrested ln hls
apartment by a slzable cadre of KGB operatlves, offl
clally charged wlth treason, and a day later put on a
plane bound for West Germany. Jhe Western press car
rled dally lnstallments of the drama of hls exlle. Lpon
hls departure Solzhenltsyn left behlnd for the publlc a
brlef statement, 'Zhlt` ne po lzhl" (Llve Not by Lles,
l971). In hls lexlcon 'the lle" ls a synonym for ldeology.
Accolades were heaped upon Solzhenltsyn when
he arrlved ln the West, and they ran to superlatlves. In
Tlc Timcs (London), for example, he was called 'the
man who ls for the moment the most famous person ln
the western world." Jhls adulatory mood dld not last.
Attltudes began to shlft wlth the appearance of Iis`mo
voldiom Sovctslogo Soiuo (l971; translated as Icttcr to tlc
Sovict Icodcrs, l971). Solzhenltsyn had sent the letter prl
vately to the Kremlln on 5 September l973; recelvlng
no reply, he had released lt to the publlc shortly before
hls arrest. Western readers thus had two new publlca
tlons to conslderthe masslve Zrllipclog CUIog, 191S-
196 and the brlef letter.
In the letter, Solzhenltsyn, turnlng practlcal ln the
modest hope that hls advlce could be taken to heart,
recommends that Sovlet leaders retaln thelr power but
abandon Marxlst ldeology. Jhls suggestlon ls offered ln
the splrlt of compromlse as the flrst stage of a
postSovlet scenarlo. Wlthout the prop of ldeology,
Solzhenltsyn suggests, totalltarlanlsm wlll glve way to
authorltarlanlsm, an lntermedlate arrangement durlng
whlch leaders can attend to domestlc reforms. Jhe
expllcltly polltlcal suggestlons of the letter are moderate
and graduallst ln nature. Nevertheless, thls letter
shocked many Western readers. Wllllam Saflre, wrltlng
on l8 Iebruary l971 ln Tlc `cw Jorl Timcs, announced
hlmself 'the flrst on my block to feel mlsglvlngs" about
the newcomer, and he correctly predlcted that the hero
worshlp of the moment would soon dlsslpate. Many
commentators slmply overlooked lssues of genre
( pamphlet) and audlence (Sovlet leaders). As a result, at
the very tlme when Solzhenltsyn was belng lauded for
Zrllipclog CUIog, 191S-196, he was rebuked for
Iis`mo voldiom Sovctslogo Soiuo. Moreover, ln an
lncongruous twlst, reactlon to the modest pamphlet
outwelghed the receptlon for Zrllipclog CUIog,
191S-196 ln determlnlng subsequent Western attl
tudes toward the author of both. Humanrlghts actlvlst
|erl Laber, who earller had wrltten appreclatlvely about
Solzhenltsyn`s flctlon, now asserted that 'he ls not the
'llberal` we would llke hlm to be." Jhat Solzhenltsyn
was not a llberal was a judgment that many commenta
tors came to repeat wlth only sllght varlatlons ln word
lng. Laber added, 'Reactlonary, authorltarlan,
chauvlnlstlchardly adjectlves that slt comfortably wlth
the typlcal lmage of a freedomflghter and Nobel Prlze
wlnner." Other commentators offered thelr own llst of
adjectlves. theocratlc, fundamentallst, messlanlc, mon
archlst, medleval, utoplan, fanatlcal. Jhe emerglng neg
atlve consensus provlded the context for Secretary of
State Henry Klsslnger`s declslon to recommend agalnst
welcomlng Solzhenltsyn to the Whlte House for a vlslt.
In l971 Solzhenltsyn also publlshed a collectlon
of artlcles edlted by hlmself tltled I-pod glyb (trans
lated as Irom Uvdcr tlc Iubblc, l975). Jhe eleven
essays by seven contrlbutors, lncludlng three essays
by Solzhenltsyn, set forth a vlslon of splrltual
renewal for Russla. Jhelr cumulatlve purpose was to
polnt the way out of the mlsfortunes that had
befallen thelr homeland.
Soon after hls forced exlle, Solzhenltsyn settled ln
Zurlch, Swltzerland, where hls wlfe and famllywhlch
by now lncluded sons Yermolal, Ignat, and Stephan
were allowed to joln hlm. (Natal`la Dmltrlevna`s
mother and son by a prevlous marrlage also were part
of the household.) Jwo years later, ln l976, Solzhenl
tsyn purchased a chalet on flfty wooded hlllslde acres
outslde the vlllage of Cavendlsh, Vermont, and there
the famlly llved for the next elghteen years. He had a
chalnllnk fence put up around the property to keep out
hunters and snowmobllers; Natal`la Dmltrlevna later
322
^~ p ai_ PPO
semlplayfully added journallsts to the llst. (Jhls fence
evoked typlcally exaggerated press speculatlon about
Solzhenltsyn`s alleged need for prlsonllke enclosures.)
Invltatlons for lntervlews and publlc appearances
flooded ln, and Solzhenltsyn at flrst consented to many
of them. On these occaslons he satlsfled hls hosts` curl
oslty to know what he thought about the West, whlch
brought hlm conslderable attentlon but a decldedly
mlxed receptlon. Among Solzhenltsyn`s vlews that were
percelved as contentlous were hls unremlttlng enmlty
toward Marxlst ldeology, hls bellef that Lnlted States
forelgn pollcy of dtente toward the Sovlet Lnlon was
based on llluslon, and hls judgment that moral laxlty
and shaky polltlcal courage characterlzed Western pollt
lcal behavlor. Generally lost ln the largely defenslve
reactlons of Western audltors were the nuances ln hls
arguments and hls expresslons of broad appreclatlon of
Western ways. Hls uncompromlslng tone also lmpalred
the persuaslveness of hls message; ln partlcular, lt
obscured the fundamental moderatlon that has charac
terlzed hls polltlcal vlews. Ieellng rebuffed, he soon
retlred from the fleld of publlc pronouncements.
odolsio tclvol s dubom, Solzhenltsyn`s personal
account of hls runnlng battle wlth the Sovlet authorltles,
was publlshed ln l975. Jhe tltle comes from a Russlan
proverb about a sllly calf that trles ln valn to butt down
a great oak tree. Jhe tltle ls not only selfdeprecatlng
but also lmpllcltly tonguelncheek, ln that Solzhenltsyn
dld not conslder hls odds of success as hopeless as the
proverb suggests. Sectlons of odolsio tclvol s dubom
were wrltten lntermlttently from l967 onward, and the
book ends wlth a rouslng sectlon on hls l971 arrest and
forced departure from the L.S.S.R. Jhe work also
lncludes a large appendlx of lnvaluable documentary
materlals. Jaken together, these remlnlscences are the
essentlal source of lnformatlon about hls actlvltles dur
lng the years l96l-l971. In hls battles wlth offlclaldom,
Solzhenltsyn justlflably revels ln hls lmpresslve suc
cesses, yet ls unsparlng about hls mlssteps and humlllat
lng fallures. Ior lnstance, he glves an unsparlng account
of the 'state of wltless shock" that had left hlm con
fused and unsteady when KGB offlcers arrlved at hls
door to take hlm away. Yet, he regalns control of hlm
self soon enough, and the prevalllng tone durlng thls
crlsls ls one of deflance toward the authorltles.
In l975 Solzhenltsyn publlshed Icviv v Tsiurillc
(translated as Icviv iv uricl, l976). In thls volume he
collocates the serles of chapters on Lenln, eleven chap
ters ln all, from three 'knots," or lnstallments, of Irosvoc
Iolcso, two of whlch were then stlll years from comple
tlon. Jhe ratlonale clearly was that the materlal on
Lenln would be useful to the conversatlon about the
nature of the Sovlet system that he was trylng to foster
and that thls work should not walt for a publlcatlon that
was then stlll off ln the lndeflnlte future. (In the com
pleted hlstorlcal cycle, these chapters each appear ln
thelr rlghtful contexts.)
In l977 Solzhenltsyn announced the establlsh
ment of the Russlan Memolr Llbrary, concelved as a
deposltory of unpubllshed materlals that would keep
allve the truth of modern Russlan hlstory ln the face of
ongolng Sovlet efforts to dlstort or erase factual evl
dence. Many Russlan mlgrs sent ln thelr memolrs,
letters, and photographs. Solzhenltsyn eventually
funded the publlcatlon of more than a dozen
booklength manuscrlpts consldered to be of the great
est lnterest.
On 8 |une l978 he presented the commencement
address at Harvard Lnlverslty. Press coverage was
enormous, and the speech was destlned to become the
best known of hls many publlc addresses ln the West.
Apart from a brlef preface of congratulatlons to the
graduates and a characterlzatlon of hlmself as a frlend
of the West, the speech ls prlmarlly a crltlque of the cur
rent moral condltlon of the West. Solzhenltsyn`s
sternest words are dlrected at the press and the lntelll
gentslathe former for lts hasty and superflclal judg
ments, the latter for lts loss of wlll power and decllne
of courage. After a catalogulng of the problems of the
West, the peroratlon of the address reveals Solzhe
nltsyn`s rellglous cast of mlndhe proposes remedles to
the problems ln expllcltly splrltual terms. Speclflcally,
he urges the West to move beyond the 'autonomous
lrrellglous humanlstlc consclousness" that lt has
embraced slnce the Age of Enllghtenment and to reach
'a new level of llfe" ln whlch both physlcal and splrltual
aspects of human exlstence can be cultlvated equally.
Jhe denunclatlon of secular humanlsm at Har
vard, a cltadel of enllghtened thought, dld not curry
favor wlth an audlence that had gathered for the pur
pose of celebratlon. A clamor of responses to Solzhe
nltsyn`s address ensued, most of them sharply negatlve.
Iew of the revlewers acknowledged that hls crltlclsms of
Western weakness were offered ln frlendshlp to help the
West strengthen lts resolve, and scant attentlon was
pald to the cllmactlc concludlng paragraphs of the
speech. Jhls event marks a deflnlng moment ln the
Western ellte`s rejectlon of Solzhenltsyn.
In l978 the text of the commencement speech ln
Engllsh was publlshed ln a blllngual edltlon tltled Z
!orld Split Zport; the speech ln orlglnal Russlan ls called
Ioslolotyi mir. In l979 a serles of early revlews together
wlth slx later and longer reflectlons appeared as Sollc-
vitsyv ot Horvord. Jhe latter are less defenslve, more
appreclatlve, and conslderably more nuanced than the
revlews that had been produced lmmedlately after the
event. Jhls thoughtfulness of the later essays suggests
clearly that the press had been hasty and superflclal ln
323
ai_ PPO ^~ p
lts reactlon to the speech, but the damage thls publlca
tlon dld to Solzhenltsyn`s reputatlon was not destlned
to dlsslpate, and crltlcal attltudes ranglng all the way to
sharp antlpathy have predomlnated ln Western journal
lstlc comments on the wrlter slnce that tlme.
Durlng the l980s Solzhenltsyn permltted hlmself
relatlvely few lnterruptlons from hls work on Irosvoc
Iolcso. In l980 he wrote a long essay tltled 'Chem
grozlt Amerlke plokhoe ponlmanle Rossll" (translated
as 'Mlsconceptlons about Russla Are a Jhreat to
Amerlca," l980) for the journal Iorcigv Zffoirs. In l98l
the essay came out ln book form as Tlc Mortol Dovgcr:
How Miscovccptiovs Zbout Iussio Impcril Zmcrico. Jhls
hlghly crltlcal foray lnto the fleld of scholarshlp on Rus
sla ln the Amerlcan academy dld not help hls reputatlon
among sovletologlsts. In l983 Solzhenltsyn recelved the
Jempleton Prlze for Progress ln Rellglon (an award
lnstltuted to flll a gap ln the recognltlon bestowed by
the Nobel Commlttee), and he traveled to London to
glve an acceptance speech that summarlzes hls under
standlng of the dlstlnctlve nature of the twentleth cen
tury as a whole. It ls also the clearest statement of hls
rellglous bellefs.
In the second half of the l980s the Sovlet Lnlon
underwent momentous changes as Mlkhall Sergeevlch
Gorbachev rose to power, wlth the new pollcy of glas
nost pavlng the way for renewed attentlon to Solzhe
nltsyn. In l988 one Moscow perlodlcal urged that the
treason charges agalnst hlm be dropped and hls cltlzen
shlp restored. Other Sovlet publlcatlons explored the
posslblllty of publlshlng hls works. òvyi mir arranged
wlth hlm to publlsh selectlons from Zrllipclog CUIog,
191S-196 ln l989, wlth ! lrugc pcrvom and Iolovyi lor-
pus to follow, and llterary gatherlngs were scheduled to
celebrate hls seventleth blrthday ln l988. But the
authorltles lnterfered wlth all of these plans, and per
mlsslon to publlsh any part of Zrllipclog CUIog, 191S-
196 was denled.
Yet, the foundatlons of the Sovlet edlflce were
already weak, and Zrllipclog CUIog, 191S-196,
though not legally publlshed ln the Sovlet Lnlon,
already had played a part ln the process of undermlnlng
them. In late l989 Sovlet hegemony over large parts of
eastern and central Europe came to an end, wlth the fall
of the Berlln Wall ln November most vlslbly symbollz
lng the demlse. In the wake of these events, the
L.S.S.R. ltself dlslntegrated lnto lts constltuent parts,
and on Chrlstmas Day of l99l the red flag over the
Kremlln was lowered for the last tlme. Ior the breakup
of the Sovlet Lnlon, hlstorlans wlll long debate the
roles of Gorbachev`s llberallzlng reforms and Western
pressures for change. But clearly a strong, perhaps gov
ernlng, factor ls that the Sovlet Lnlon suffered from a
loss of falth, even among lts leaders, ln the ldeology that
had justlfled lts vast soclal experlment. Solzhenltsyn
had made exactly thls polnt long before, ln Iis`mo vol-
diom Sovctslogo Soiuo. As for the role of Zrllipclog
CUIog, 191S-196 ln brlnglng down the Sovlet Lnlon,
Amerlcan dlplomat George Kennan`s l971 remarks
about the work sounded now llke fulfllled prophecy. 'It
ls too large for the craw of the Sovlet propaganda
machlne. It wlll stlck there, wlth lncreaslng dlscomfort,
untll lt has done lts work."
Ioreseelng as few dld that the collapse of the
Sovlet Lnlon was lmmlnent, Solzhenltsyn wrote an
essay tltled 'Kak nam obustrolt` Rossllu?" (llterally
translated as 'How Can We Put Russla ln Good
Order?"). It appeared ln September of l990 ln two
Moscowbased perlodlcals and was publlshed ln book
form as Iol vom obustroit` Iossiiu? Iosil`vyc soobrolcviio
(l990; translated as Icbuildivg Iussio: Icflcctiovs ovd Tcv-
totivc Iroposols, l99l). Wlth the Sovlet system crum
bllng, Solzhenltsyn offered advlce about how to avold
belng crushed beneath the rubble. Jhe essay must be
seen as a sequel to the l973 Iis`mo voldiom Sovctslogo
Soiuo ln lts sketch of a pragmatlc polltlcal program, but
the audlence addressed now was not the leaders but
rather, as wlth 'Zhlt` ne po lzhl," the cltlzenry at large.
Jhroughout, the tone of the essay ls sollcltous and ear
nest, as beflts the moderate posltlons lt espouses. Jhe
range of responses to the essay fell along predlctable
llnes, predetermlned by the commentators` polltlcal
vlews and thelr attltudes toward the authorthough
wlth the balance thls tlme tlpplng toward respectfulness,
somewhat more so ln Russla than ln the West.
Jhe fall from power of the Sovlet leaders cleared
the way for Solzhenltsyn to send to press those parts of
odolsio tclvol s dubom that he had lnltlally held back to
protect the ldentltles of varlous lndlvlduals. Jhese mlss
lng parts bore the tltle `cvidimli and appeared ln late
l99l ln two lssues of òvyi mir and thereafter ln transla
tlon as Ivvisiblc Zllics (l995). A l996 edltlon of odolsio
tclvol s dubom lncorporates `cvidimli as a 'flfth supple
ment."
`cvidimli comprlses fourteen sketches, each
focused on an lndlvldual or a group who had been part
of the secret network of helpers lnvolved ln all phases of
Solzhenltsyn`s work. Most of the helpers were women.
One of them became the author`s second wlfe; the
hlghly dlscreet narratlon of the love story between
Solzhenltsyn and Natal`la Dmltrlevna ls among the
most memorable sectlons of the book. Notable among
the other characters sketched are hls old gulag frlends
Arnold Susl and Georgll Jenno, who helped provlde
Solzhenltsyn wlth a safe haven ln thelr natlve Estonla
for wrltlng Zrllipclog CUIog, 191S-196. Solzhenltsyn
descrlbes the extraordlnary lntenslty of hls work at thls
'Hldlng Place" durlng the wlnters of l965-l966 and
321
^~ p ai_ PPO
l966-l967, a perlod that he vlews as 'the hlghest polnt
ln my feellngs of vlctory and of lsolatlon from the
world."
At the tlme `cvidimli was publlshed, the L.S.S.R.
verged on collapse, and Solzhenltsyn`s prerequlsltes for
returnlng to hls homeland were belng met. Hls major
works were belng publlshed ln l990-l99l; the charge
of treason was dropped (l99l); and hls cltlzenshlp was
restored. Yet, Solzhenltsyn delayed hls return to Russla,
and lmpatlence wlth hlm grew. One reason for the
delay was that he had no lnterest ln pursulng polltlcal
offlce. More lmportant, however, were llterary plans
connected to Irosvoc Iolcso. Not only dld what he con
sldered the chlef work of hls llfe have to be flnlshed
before he became lneluctably caught up ln the publlc
llfe of the natlon, but so dld varlous projects llnked to lt.
As a result of these delays, the wldespread perceptlon ln
both the West and the East about the tlmlng of Solzhe
nltsyn`s eventual move to Russla ls that he mlssed hls
maglc moment and walted too long.
In l993, wlth Irosvoc Iolcso completed, Solzhe
nltsyn gave speeches and lntervlews of farewell to the
West. All but one of these lntervlews were dellvered ln
Europe rather than ln the Lnlted States, hls home for
elghteen years; ln hls vlew the Amerlcan ellte had
shown llttle lnterest ln llstenlng to hlm. Hls travels ln
Europe that year lncluded a vlslt to Irance, the country
where hls lmpact on lntellectual llfe was felt most
strongly; ln the Vende reglon he spoke to an audlence
of thlrty thousand. He had an hourandahalflong
audlence wlth Pope |ohn Paul II. Hls most lmportant
address on thls trlp was dellvered to the Internatlonal
Academy of Phllosophy, a Roman Cathollc lnstltutlon
ln Llechtensteln. Jhls speech relterates several of the
themes presented ln hls l978 address at Harvard,
though conveyed ln a softened, measured tone.
Jwo months before departlng from the West,
Solzhenltsyn wrote hls last work ln exlle, 'Iusslii vopros
l lovtsu XX vclo ( publlshed ln òvyi mir, l991; pub
llshed ln book form, l995; translated as 'Tlc Iussiov
_ucstiov ot tlc Ivd of tlc Twcvtictl Ccvtury, l995). Jhe
book presents a qulck hlstorlcal sketch to explaln how
Russla arrlved at what Solzhenltsyn terms 'the Great
Russlan Catastrophe of the l990s." Hls vlew ls that the
natlon had been so wounded that the Russlan questlon
now was, 'Shall our people bc or vot bc? " If Russla ls to
survlve as a people, he concludes, 'We must bulld a
morol Russla, or none at alllt would not then matter
anyhow."
Solzhenltsyn returned home to Russla ln May
l991. He reentered through the 'back door" of the
country, flylng not to Moscow but across the Paclflc
Ocean to Russla`s east coast. In a dramatlc gesture he
landed flrst ln Magadan, the capltal of the Kolyma
reglon, where the harshest prlson camps had been
locatedthus, the symbollc capltal of the gulag emplre.
Jhe next stop was Vladlvostok, the maln Paclflc port
clty ln Russla. Jhere he recelved a hero`s welcome from
four thousand cltlzens, who had been standlng ln the
raln for hours waltlng to hear hlm speak. He then
launched a flftyflveday traln trlp westward across Rus
sla, accompanled by a crew from the Brltlsh Broadcast
lng Company, who fllmed the whlstlestop tour. He
fllled hls notebook wlth statements by the people,
promlslng to dellver thelr words to the leaders once he
reached Moscow. In contrast to the warmth expressed
toward hlm by most ordlnary cltlzens, hls ensulng
receptlon by the Moscow lntelllgentsla tended toward
the negatlve, ln thls sense mlrrorlng the vlewpolnt of
Western lntellectuals. After several addltlonal trlps
around the country, Solzhenltsyn and hls wlfe settled ln
the outsklrts of Moscow.
Durlng hls flrst year back on Russlan soll,
Solzhenltsyn malntalned a relatlvely hlgh proflle. In
October l991 he addressed the Duma, scoldlng the
leaders for sham reforms and an absence of authentlc
democracy and recelvlng ln return a more than tepld
welcome. He met prlvately wlth Presldent Borls Yeltsln
and began appearlng ln a fortnlghtly televlslon program
on lssues he consldered cruclal. Wlthln a year of hls
return home, Solzhenltsyn lost the llmellght of publlc
attentlon but not untll he had made nearly a hundred
publlc appearances. In October l995 hls JV program
was dropped, allegedly for low ratlngs rather than
because of sharp crltlclsms of the authorltles. (Jhe texts
of Solzhenltsyn`s talks on televlslon have been collected
ln Io mivutc v dcv` |l995; A Mlnute a Day|.) Whereas
earller the lntellectual ellte at home and abroad had
commonly consldered Solzhenltsyn mlsgulded, after hls
homecomlng they lncreaslngly vlewed hlm as lrrele
vant.
A certaln decllne ln health, startlng wlth a l997
hospltallzatlon for heart trouble, constralned Solzhe
nltsyn`s publlc actlvltles. In May l997 he was elected to
the Russlan Academy of Sclences. In October l997 he
establlshed an annual llterary prlze to honor contempo
rarles who were contrlbutlng to the preservatlon and
development of the Russlan llterary tradltlon. Jhe prlze
came from the worldwlde royaltles for Zrllipclog
CUIog, 191S-196; the same source funds a large pro
gram of asslstance to thousands of needy survlvors of
the gulag. In l998 Solzhenltsyn`s elghtleth blrthday was
publlcly celebrated ln several events. Presldent Yeltsln
awarded Solzhenltsyn the Order of St. Andrew, the
hlghest honor ln Russla, but the octogenarlan dramatl
cally decllned on grounds that there was llttle to cele
brate ln contemporary Russla.
325
ai_ PPO ^~ p
Jhat Solzhenltsyn contlnued to wrlte abundantly
ls noteworthy, glven hls publlc actlvltles and the lnevlta
ble burdens of old age, lncludlng serlous back trouble.
Returnlng to the genre of the short story, he experl
mented wlth a format he has called dvuclostvyi rosslo (a
blnary tale). Jhls term refers to narratlve structures
dlvlded lnto two dlstlnct parts that are only tenuously
connected ln terms of plot; lnstead, they are llnked on
the level of theme or thematlc contrast.
He also wrote sustalned works of nonflctlon.
Iossiio v obvolc (l998; Russla ln Collapse) ls fllled wlth
alarm, borderlng on despalr, at the frlghtenlng decllne
ln those spheres of llfe, such as educatlon and medlcal
care, wlthout whlch clvlllzed exlstence becomes lmpos
slble. Between l997 and 2001 Solzhenltsyn publlshed
twentytwo essays of llterary commentary on Russlan
authors ln the journal òvyi mir under the serles tltle
Iitcroturvoio lollcltsiio (Llterary Collectlon). Jhe prlncl
pal focus ls on twentlethcentury wrlters.
Solzhenltsyn then turned hls attentlon to the
longstandlng troubled relatlonshlp between Russlans
and |ews and produced Dvcsti lct vmcstc, 179-199
(200l, 2002; Jwo Hundred Years Jogether, l795-
l995). As Solzhenltsyn wrltes ln hls foreword, the emo
tlon that gulded hlm throughout was 'the deslre to
ldentlfy all polnts of shared understandlng and to flnd
every posslble path to a future free of past acrlmony."
Solzhenltsyn had for several decades lmmersed hlmself
ln the prehlstory of the Russlan Revolutlon, and hls
unparalleled knowledge of the lnterplay of soclal, polltl
cal, and ldeologlcal forces durlng thls perlod allows hlm
to show persuaslvely how the |ewlsh theme flts lnto the
general context. Apart from the lntrlnslc value of the
materlal presented ln the book, thls work also holds
lnterest as the product of an author who has been
accused of antlSemltlc tendenclesa manlfestly unfalr
charge ln a debate that seems to have no end.
Solzhenltsyn also began the serlal publlcatlon
Ugodilo crvysllo promcl dvull lcrvovov: Uclcrli igvoviio
(Jhe Llttle Graln Managed to Land between Jwo Mlll
stones. Sketches of Exlle), whlch came out ln seven
lnstallments ln l998-2003. Jhls work conslsts of hls
remlnlscences of persons and experlences encountered
durlng hls two decades ln the West and has the same
verve and lmmedlacy as odolsio tclvol s dubom and
`cvidimli. Wlthln thls volume he also provldes rlch
commentary on hls own work and on a varlety of cur
rent affalrs, often presented wlth humor and startllng
candor.
Desplte countless dlsruptlons and dlstractlons
throughout hls llfe, Solzhenltsyn managed eventually to
fulflll to hls satlsfactlon the chosen 'maln task" of hls
llfe. a fundamental reexamlnatlon of the Russlan Revo
lutlon, a llfelong project. Jhe cycle of works ln questlon
bears the collectlve tltle Irosvoc Iolcso and conslsts of ten
volumes publlshed from l983 to l99l as part of hls
twentyvolume Sobrovic soclivcvii. Yet, even the masslve
assemblage of Irosvoc Iolcso represents only part of the
vast orlglnal conceptlon. As Solzhenltsyn explalns ln a
note appended to the last volume of the serles, he had
earller envlsaged wrltlng twenty knots, each one deal
lng wlth a speclflc hlstorlcal perlod between l9l1 and
l922, further supplemented by flve epllogues that were
to follow the story up to l915. Contlngencles of tlme
forced Solzhenltsyn to cut short thls ambltlous plan
after completlng four uly, or knots. Ucl 1. Zvgust clctyr-
vodtsotogo (l983; Knot l. August l9l1); Ucl 2. Ultiobr`
slcstvodtsotogo (l981; Knot 2. October l9l6); Ucl J.
Mort scmvodtsotogo (l986-l988; Knot 3. March l9l7);
and Ucl 4. Zprcl` scmvodtsotogo (l99l; Knot 1. Aprll
l9l7). Jhe last volume also has a separately paglnated
sectlon wlth a l35page outllne of the orlglnal plan,
based on twenty knots.
Jhe cycle bears the subtltle Iovcstvovovic v otmcrcv-
vyll srololl, or Z òrrotivc iv Discrctc Icriods of Timc. Hls
wordlng polnts to the baslc method employed ln struc
turlng the serles. Jhe strategy conslsts of concentratlng
on brlef and sharply demarcated segments of hlstorlcal
tlme rather than on presentlng the full sequence of hls
torlcal events. Jhe text allocated to each temporal seg
ment ls referred to as a knot, or ucl, a term derlved
from the mathematlcal concept of 'nodal polnt" and
used to refer to hlstorlcal moments when many forces
lntersect ln ways that dlsplay thelr potentlal for slgnlfl
cant consequences.
Irosvoc Iolcso, llke Zrllipclog CUIog, 191S-196
before lt, eludes ready classlflcatlon ln terms of genre.
Whlle the sectlons lnvolvlng flctlonal characters flt the
pattern of an hlstorlcal novel, much of the text cannot
be accommodated wlthln the novellstlc tradltlon. Sev
eral sectlons concern hlstorlcal flgures only. Jhese sec
tlons, slnce they have no flctlve lntent whatever, mlght
approprlately be called dramatlzed hlstory. Yet, even
thls mode proves lncapable of absorblng the lmmense
amount of materlal that Solzhenltsyn wlshes to present,
and he repeatedly dlgresses lnto densely wrltten
thlrdperson excursuses on hlstorlcal and polltlcal clr
cumstances that he conslders cruclal to an understand
lng of the state of affalrs. Because he set hlmself the goal
of traclng the lllstarred convolutlons that had shaped
twentlethcentury Russlan hlstory, the focus of hls nar
ratlve ls ultlmately on the greater tragedy that engulfed
the natlon, not on lndlvldual fates.
In styllstlc terms, Irosvoc Iolcso exhlblts the char
acterlstlc features developed ln Solzhenltsyn`s earller
work as well as many new llterary devlces. A proml
nent example of the former ls the polyphonlc tech
nlque, present also ln hls long flctlon, whereby
326
^~ p ai_ PPO
lndlvldual characters are glven the opportunlty to carry
the narratlve polnt of vlew ln the sectlon of the text ln
whlch they are the prlnclpal actors. Among the styllstlc
lnnovatlons, the most slgnlflcant ls the manner ln
whlch Solzhenltsyn lntersperses hls prose wlth dlverse
materlals that are vlsually set off from the maln text
documents ln boldface, hlstorlcal retrospectlves ln
elghtpolnt font, collages of excerpts from the press of
the tlme set ln a varlety of styles and slzes, 'screen
sequences" arranged ln columns of brlef phrases
lntended to mlmlc actual clnematlc effects, and Russlan
proverbs prlnted entlrely ln capltal letters. Hls frequent
recourse to proverbs, ln thls as ln hls other works, dem
onstrates a fondness for plthy verbal constructlons that
convey wry wlsdom. Some chapters of Irosvoc Iolcso
conclude wlth freestandlng proverbs, whlch provlde a
succlnct commentary on the precedlng text and, repre
sentlng an authorltatlve 'folk judgment," serve a func
tlon not unllke that of the chorus ln Greek tragedy.
Central to the cycle Irosvoc Iolcso ls the questlon
of whether one loves Russla. On one slde are those
whose sense of organlc connectlon to the land and
people causes them to take an actlve role ln helplng
and defendlng thelr lncreaslngly enfeebled home
land. On the other slde are lndlvlduals obsessed by
ldeologylnduced hatred or bllnded by selflnterest,
who wllllngly or unwlttlngly contrlbute to the Russlan
catastrophe. Jhe further the cycle progresses, the less
reslstance ls offered to the surglng forces of chaos and
demolltlon, whlch Solzhenltsyn llnks to the tltle lmage
of a wheel rolllng or rotatlng ln a frlghtenlng or threat
enlng way. In the end, the llfe of the Russlan people ls
vlolently dlsrupted by a revolutlon fomented ln the
name of those very people, and Lenln, whomore than
anyone elsehates Russla, comes to power. Jhe revolu
tlon, llke a wheel broken loose from a careenlng car
rlage, unleashes ln lts furlous energy the totalltarlan
horrors that become the hallmark of twentlethcentury
llfe.
Desplte lts traglc coloratlon, Irosvoc Iolcso ls ln an
lmportant sense a great monument to hope. Solzhe
nltsyn has acknowledged that a long tlme wlll be
needed for scholars to focus on a cycle that ls at least
four tlmes the length of Leo Jolstoy`s !oivo i mir (War
and Peace, l868-l869). He has devoted the prlme of
hls llfe to thls cycle. In 200l three separate selectlons of
chapters from the cycle were publlshed. Stolypiv i Tsor`
(Stolypln and the Jsar), whlch lncludes chapters from
Zvgust clctyrvotsotogo; Icviv, Tsiurill Ictrogrod (Lenln ln
Zurlch and Petrograd), whlch features chapters from all
four knots; and òlovcts-to rcvoliutsiio (Jhe Revolutlon at
Last), whlch ls a twovolume compendlum of chapters
from Mort scmvodtsotogo. In each case Solzhenltsyn pre
sents only chapters that bear on hlstorlcal flgures and
events. In thls way he underllnes the prlmacy of hls
educatlonal and restoratlve mlsslon. to reassert and dls
semlnate the longsuppressed truth about the events
leadlng up to l9l7.
Solzhenltsyn has frequently been descrlbed as a
grlm, |eremlahllke flgure, but he has always thought of
hlmself as an optlmlst. Beyond the personallty tralt of
optlmlsm lles hope as a hablt of hls belng; hls wrltlngs,
both llterary and nonllterary, almost always conclude
on a note of hope. Along wlth falth and love, hope ls
one of the classlc Chrlstlan vlrtues, and Solzhenltsyn`s
hope ls an lntegral aspect of hls rellglous worldvlew, ln
whlch humanlty stands polsed on the lntersectlon
between tlme and eternlty.
Jhroughout a long llfe packed wlth hlgh
drama, Aleksandr Solzhenltsyn has remalned vltally
engaged wlth the central lssues of hls era. Llke hls
great nlneteenthcentury predecessors Jolstoy and
Iyodor Dostoevsky, he has focused predomlnantly on
Russla, addresslng concerns and ralslng questlons that
resonate far beyond any natlonal boundary. Ilercely
lndependent and possessed of legendary determlnatlon
and perseverance, he has been ln confllct elther wlth the
powers that be or wlth conventlonal wlsdom, fre
quently wlth both at once. Jhe polltlcal dlmenslon of
hls worldvlew, whlle not to be neglected, has unduly
preoccupled the majorlty of commentators. Jhe polltl
cal controversles wlll fade wlth the passage of tlme.
What wlll ablde ls Solzhenltsyn`s sheer llterary power.
Jhls quallty galned the attentlon of the world, and lt
wlll ultlmately determlne the degree to whlch he attalns
the status of an endurlng classlc author.
_~W
Donald M. Ilene, Zlcxovdcr Sollcvitsyv: Zv Ivtcrvotiovol
ibliogroply of !ritivgs by ovd obout Him, 1962-197J
(Ann Arbor, Mlch.. Ardls, l973);
Sollcvitsyv Studics: Z _uortcrly Icvicw, l-2 (l980-l98l)
no more publlshed;
Mlchael Nlcholson, 'Solzhenltsyn ln l98l. A Blbllo
graphlc Reorlentatlon," ln Sollcvitsyv iv Ixilc: Crit-
icol Issoys ovd Documcvtory Motcriols, edlted by |ohn
B. Dunlop, Rlchard S. Haugh, and Nlcholson
(Stanford. Hoover Instltutlon Press, l985), pp.
35l-1l2;
Aleksandr Solzhenltsyn. iobibliogroficlcslii ulootcl`,
ovgust 19SS-1990, complled by N. G. Levltskala
(Moscow. Sovetskll fond kul`tury, l99l).
_~W
Davld Burg and George Ielfer, Sollcvitsyv: Z iogroply
(New York. Steln Day, l972);
Leopold Labedz, ed., Sollcvitsyv: Z Documcvtory Iccord
327
ai_ PPO ^~ p
Sollcvitsyv: Z Iictoriol Zutobiogroply (New York. Noon
day, l971);
Natal`la Reshetovskala |wlth Novostl/KGB edltlng|, !
sporc so vrcmcvcm (Moscow. Agentsvo pechatl
Novostl, l975); translated by Elena Ivanoff as
Sovyo: My Husbovd Zlclsovdr Sollcvitsyv (Indlana
polls. BobbsMerrlll, l975);
Mlchael Scammell, Sollcvitsyv: Z iogroply (New York.
Norton, l981);
A. V. Korotkov, S. A. Melchln, and A. S. Stepanov,
Ircmlcvslii somosud: Sclrctvyc dolumcvty Iolitburo o
pisotclc Z. Sollcvitsyvc (Moscow. Rodlna, l991)
Engllsh verslon edlted by Mlchael Scammell, Tlc
Sollcvitsyv Iilcs (Chlcago. Edltlon q, l995);
D. M. Jhomas, Zlcxovdcr Sollcvitsyv: Z Ccvtury iv His
Iifc (New York. St. Martln`s Press, l998);
Vladlmlr Glotser and Elena Chukovskala, eds., Slovo
probivoct scbc dorogu: Sborvil stotci i dolumcvtov ob Z. I.
Sollcvitsyvc, 1962-1974 (Moscow. Russkll put`,
l998);
|oseph Pearce, Sollcvitsyv: Z Soul iv Ixilc (Grand Raplds,
Mlch.. Baker, 200l).
oW
Irancls Barker, Sollcvitsyv: Iolitics ovd Iorm (New York.
Holmes Meler, l977);
Ronald Berman, ed., Sollcvitsyv ot Horvord: Tlc Zddrcss,
Twclvc Iorly Icspovscs, ovd Six Iotcr Icflcctiovs
(Washlngton. Ethlcs and Publlc Pollcy Center,
l980);
Harold Bloom, ed., Zlclsovdr Sollcvitsyv, Modern Crltl
cal Vlews (Phlladelphla. Chelsea House, 200l);
Edward |. Brown, 'Solzhenltsyn and the Eplc of the
Camps," ln hls Iussiov Iitcroturc Sivcc tlc Icvolutiov
l982), pp. 25l-29l;
|ohn B. Dunlop, Rlchard Haugh, and Alexls Kllmoff,
eds., Zlclsovdr Sollcvitsyv: Criticol Issoys ovd Docu-
mcvtory Motcriols, second edltlon (New York
London. ColllerMacmlllan, l975);
Dunlop, Haugh, and Mlchael Nlcholson, eds., Sollc-
vitsyv iv Ixilc: Criticol Issoys ovd Documcvtory Motcri-
ols (Stanford. Hoover Instltutlon, l985);
Edward E. Erlcson |r., Sollcvitsyv ovd tlc Modcrv !orld
(Washlngton, D.C.. Regnery Gateway, l993);
Erlcson, Sollcvitsyv: Tlc Morol !isiov (Grand Raplds,
Mlch.. Eerdmans, l980);
Kathryn Ieuer, ed., Sollcvitsyv: Z Collcctiov of Criticol
Issoys (Englewood Cllffs, N.|.. PrentlceHall,
l976);
George I. Kennan, 'Between Earth and Hell," `cw Jorl
Icvicw of ools, 2l March l971, pp. 3-7;
Kllmoff, Uvc Doy iv tlc Iifc of Ivov Dcvisovicl: Z Criticol
Compoviov (Evanston, Ill.. Northwestern Lnlver
slty, l997);
Andrel Kodjak, Zlcxovdcr Sollcvitsyv (Boston. Jwayne,
l978);
Lev Kopelev, Iosc My Sorrows: Z Mcmoir, translated by
Antonlna W. Bouls (New York. Random House,
l983);
|erl Laber, 'Jhe Real Solzhenltsyn," Commcvtory (May
l971). 32-35;
Laber, 'Jhe Selllng of Solzhenltsyn," Columbio ourvol-
ism Icvicw, l3 (May/|une l971). 1-7;
Mlchael Lydon, 'Alexander Solzhenltsyn," ln hls Icol
!ritivg: !ord Modcls of tlc Modcrv !orld (New
York. Patrlck Press, 200l), pp. l83-25l;
Danlel |. Mahoney, Zlclsovdr Sollcvitsyv: Tlc Zsccvt from
Idcology (Lanham, Md.. Rowman Llttlefleld,
200l);
Mahoney, 'Solzhenltsyn on Russla`s '|ewlsh _ues
tlon,`" Socicty (November/December 2002). l01-
l09; contlnued ln 'Solzhenltsyn, Russla, and the
|ews," Socicty (|uly/August 2001). 72-71;
Rufus W. Mathewson |r., 'Solzhenltsyn," ln hls Tlc Ios-
itivc Hcro iv Iussiov Iitcroturc, second edltlon (Stan
ford. Stanford Lnlverslty Press, l975), pp. 279-
310;
Mary McCarthy, 'Jhe Jolstoy Connectlon," Soturdoy
Icvicw (l6 September l972). 79-96;
Modcrv Iictiov Studics, 23 (Sprlng l977)speclal Solzhe
nltsyn lssue;
Chrlstopher Moody, Sollcvitsyv, expanded edltlon
(New York. Barnes Noble, l976);
Georges Nlvat, Soljcvitsyvc (Parls. Seull, l980);
Nlvat and Mlchel Aucouturler, eds., Soljcvitsyvc (Parls.
L`Herne, l97l);
Dlmltrl Panln, Tlc òtcbools of Sologdiv, translated by
|ohn Moore (New York. Harcourt Brace |ovano
vlch, l976);
|ames I. Pontuso, Sollcvitsyv`s Ioliticol Tlouglt (Charlottes
vllle. Lnlverslty of Vlrglnla Press, l990);
Robert Porter, Sollcvitsyv`s Uvc Doy iv tlc Iifc of Ivov
Dcvisovicl (London. Brlstol Classlcal Jexts, l997);
Davld Remnlck, 'Jhe Exlle Returns," `cw Jorlcr (l1
Iebruary l991). 61-83;
Abraham Rothberg, Zlclsovdr Sollcvitsyv: Tlc Mojor
òvcls (Ithaca. Cornell Lnlverslty Press, l97l);
Wllllam Saflre, 'Solzhenltsyn wlthout Jears," `cw Jorl
Timcs, l8 Iebruary l971, p. 25;
Harrlson Sallsbury, 'Why the Kremlln Iears Solzhe
nltsyn," Ztlovtic (Aprll l971). 1l-16;
Marlla Shneerson, Zlclsovdr Sollcvitsyv: Uclcrli
tvorclcstvo (Irankfurt am Maln. Posev, l981);
Dora Shturman, Corodu i miru: o publitsistilc Z. I. Sollc-
vitsyvo (Parls New York. Jret`la volna, l988);
328
^~ p ai_ PPO
P. E. Splvakovskll, Icvomcv Z. I. Sollcvitsyvo: òvyi
vgliod (Moscow. RAN, l998);
N. A. Struve and V.A. Moskvln, eds., Mcldu dvumio
iubilciomi, 199S-200J: Iisotcli, lritili, litcroturovcdy o
tvorclcstvc Z. I. Sollcvitsyvo. Zl`movoll (Moscow.
Russkll put`, 2005);
Leona Joker, 'Tlc Culog Zrclipclogo and 'Jhe Gulag
Ilctlon of Aleksandr Solzhenltsyn," ln her Icturv
from tlc Zrclipclogo: òrrotivc of Culog Survivors
(Bloomlngton. Indlana Lnlverslty Press, 2000),
pp. l0l-l2l and l88-209;
Darlusz Jolczyk, 'A Sllver ln the Jhroat of Power," ln
hls Scc ò Ivil: Iitcrory Covcr-Ups ovd Discovcrics of
tlc Sovict Comp Ixpcricvcc (New Haven London.
Yale Lnlverslty Press, l999), pp. 253-3l0;
Trovsoctiovs of tlc Zssociotiov of Iussiov-Zmcricov Sclolors iv
tlc U.S.Z., 29 (l998)lssue dedlcated ln part to
Solzhenltsyn;
A. V. Lrmanov, Tvorclcstvo Zlclsovdro Sollcvitsyvo:
Uclcbvoc posobic (Moscow. Illnta/Nauka, 2003);
Lrmanov, ed., 'Irosvoc Iolcso Z. I. Sollcvitsyvo: Ilu-
dolcstvcvvyi mir. Ioctilo. Iul`turvyi lovtclst
(Blagoveshchensk. BGPL, 2005);
Lrmanov, ed., 'Motrcviv dvor Z. I. Sollcvitsyvo: Ilu-
dolcstvcvvyi mir. Ioctilo. Iul`turvyi lovtclst
(Blagoveshchensk. BGPL, l999);
Lrmanov, ed., 'Udiv dcv` Ivovo Dcvisoviclo Z. I. Sollc-
vitsyvo: Iludolcstvcvvyi mir. Ioctilo. Iul`turvyi lov-
tclst (Blagoveshchensk. BGPL, 2003);
vcdo ( |une l991)speclal Solzhenltsyn lssue.
NVTM k m i~
m~ p
by Iorl Iogvor Cicrow, of tlc Swcdisl Zcodcmy, ov
10 Dcccmbcr 1970
Your Majesty, Your Royal Hlghnesses, Ladles and
Gentlemen,
Our passports show where and when we were
born, facts that are needed to flx our ldentlty. Accord
lng to a current theory thls also applles to authorshlp. A
llterary work belongs to lts tlme, and lts creator ls a
product of hls soclal and polltlcal sltuatlon. Jhere are
welghty examples to the contrary but these must be jet
tlsoned or the theory wlll founder. A case to whlch lt
does apply, however, ls thls year`s Nobel Prlzewlnner ln
Llterature. It ls worth emphaslzlng thls because from all
polnts of the compass, not least the West, people are
prone for varlous reasons to make exceptlons ln hls
case.
Alexander Solzhenltsyn`s passportI have ln
mlnd the one that wlll convey hlm to posterltytells us
when and where he was born, detalls that we need ln
order to establlsh hls artlstlc ldentlty. Born ln l9l8 ln
Klslovodsk, he belongs to the flrst generatlon of Sovlet
Russlan wrlters who grew up wlth the new form of gov
ernment and he ls lndlvlslble from the cllmate and the
tlme ln whlch he was born. Solzhenltsyn hlmself has
sald that he cannot contemplate llvlng anywhere but ln
hls natlve land. Hls books can; they are already llvlng
all round the world, now, perhaps, more than ever
before, ln the future, perhaps, more than now. But thelr
vltallty sprlngs not least from the feellng that roots hls
belng to hls country and lts destlny. Here, too, Solzhe
nltsyn ls of the lncomparable Russlan tradltlon. Jhe
same background offsets the glgantlc predecessors who
have derlved from Russla`s sufferlng the compelllng
strength and lnextlngulshable love that permeate thelr
work. Jhere ls llttle room ln thelr descrlptlons for ldylls
accordlng to plan or prescrlbed lnformatlon about the
future. But lt would be a gross mlsunderstandlng of
thelr quest for the truth not to feel ln thls thelr pro
found declslve ldentlflcatlon wlth the country whose
llfe provlded thelr subject matter, and for whose llfe
thelr works are essentlal. Jhe central flgure ln thls
powerful eplc ls the lnvlnclble Mother Russla. She
appears ln varlous gulses under dlverse names. One ls
Matryona, the maln character ln one of Solzhenltsyn`s
storles. Her llned face recalls the constant, lndomltable
features and recasts the spell of devotlon that she ls
able to offer and whlch she so proudly deserves.
Love ls bllnd, the saylng goes, and lf so, lt slgnlfles
her lnstlnct for selfpreservatlon. Clearslghted love
does not always conjure up an lmmedlate response.
Jlme and dlstance may beand have beennecessary
for a true appreclatlon of the depth and warmth of per
ceptlve feellng. Jhls has not been so ln Solzhenltsyn`s
case. When hls novel, Uvc Doy iv tlc Iifc of Ivov Dcviso-
vicl, flrst appeared elght years ago, lt was recognlsed at
once ln hls own country, and soon all over the world,
that a major new wrlter had entered the arena. As
Irovdo wrote, 'Solzhenltsyn`s narratlve ls remlnlscent at
tlmes of Jolstoy`s artlstlc force. An unusually talented
author has been added to our llterature!" It would also
be dlfflcult to outdo Irovdo`s expos of the power exer
clsed by Solzhenltsyn`s narratlve art. 'Why ls lt that
our heart contracts wlth paln as we read thls remark
able story at the same tlme as we feel our splrlts soar?
Jhe explanatlon lles ln lts profound humanlty, ln the
quallty of manklnd even ln the hour of degradatlon."
A message about speclal clrcumstances seldom
travels far and the words that fly round the world are
those whlch appeal to, and help us, all. Such are the
words of Alexander Solzhenltsyn. Jhey speak to us of
329
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matters that we need to hear more than ever before, of
the lndlvldual`s lndestructlble dlgnlty. Wherever that
dlgnlty ls vlolated, whatever the reason or the means,
hls message ls not only an accusatlon but also an assur
ance. those who commlt such a vlolatlon are the only
ones to be degraded by lt. Jhe truth of thls ls plaln to
see wherever one travels.
Even the external form whlch Solzhenltsyn seeks
for hls work bears wltness to hls message. Jhls form
has been termed the polyphone or horlzontal novel. It
mlght equally be descrlbed as a story wlth no chlef
character. Whlch ls to say that thls ls not lndlvlduallsm
at the expense of the surroundlngs. But nor may the
gallery of persons act as a collectlve that smothers the
lndlvlduals of whlch lt ls entlrely composed. Solzhe
nltsyn has explalned what he means by polyphonlsm.
each person becomes the chlef character whenever the
actlon concerns hlm. Jhls ls not just a technlque, lt ls a
creed. Jhe narratlve focuses on the only human ele
ment ln exlstence, the human lndlvldual, wlth equal sta
tus among equals, one destlny among mllllons and a
mllllon destlnles ln one. Jhls ls the whole of humanlsm
ln a nutshell, for the kernel ls love of manklnd. Jhls
year`s Nobel Prlze for Llterature has been awarded to
the proclalmer of such a humanlsm.
q p ^~ ~ ~ j
~ d p ~~ X
~ ~ d ~ ~
~I ~ ~ ~W
At the presentatlon of the Nobel prlzes on l0
December l970 I was charged by the Swedlsh Academy
brlefly to lntroduce the Nobel Prlzewlnner ln llterature.
I dld so ln the followlng words, whlch I now beg you to
have a few mlnutes` patlence wlth.
As Alexander Solzhenltsyn could not be present
at the prlzeglvlng, I have now come here to glve hlm hls
lnslgnla.
I come alone but wlth open arms.
Ior thls ls the very way that shows most clearly
what the Nobel Prlze ls lntended to mean.
It ls a gesture of courtesy from one natlon to
another.
It ls an award to an lndlvldual man for hls own
work, made by an academy whlch reaches lts declslons
wlthout consultlng anyone else.
But above all, the ceremony that I am attendlng
here emphaslzes the very nature of the dlgnlty wlth
whlch the Nobel Prlze can be assoclated.
Jhat dlgnlty belongs to the reclplent.
What prestlge and lmportance the Nobel Prlze
possesses, lt has galned through the prlzewlnners. Jhelr
achlevement lt ls whlch makes the mark of honour
somethlng other than a sum of money and a couple of
objects.
Alfred Nobel`s lntentlon was, that what manklnd
accompllshes ln lts best moments through lts flnest
efforts, shall also beneflt humanlty all over the world,
wlthout respect to natlon, language, race or creed.
Jo that extent the goal of whlch Nobel dreamed
can be sald to be that whlch ls happenlng here at thls
moment.
If there ls somethlng we have the rlght to wlsh for,
lt ls that every gatherlng should take the form of thls
one. a trustlng fellowshlp between free people who,
wlthout fear, deslre each other`s good.
Jhat ls the hope, for the moment reallzed, whlch
must never be dashed. Jhat ls the demand whlch our
earth cannot afford to glve up.
Jhat ls the slgnlflcance of the ceremony taklng
place here.
Dear Alexander Solzhenltsyn, when I now hand
over your Nobel dlploma and your Nobel medal, I not
only express the hearty congratulatlons and warm
admlratlon of the Swedlsh Academy and the Nobel
Ioundatlon.
I also convey our deep gratltude for the dlgnlty
and honour whlch your works confer upon the prlze
for whlch the Swedlsh Academy ls responslble.
| Jhe Nobel Ioundatlon, l97l.|
^ p d NM a NVTQ
E k ~ p ~
~~FW
Not only for the Swedlsh Academy but for all of
us the ceremony today has lts partlcular slgnlflcance.
we can, flnally, hand over to the laureate of l970 the
lnslgnla of hls award.
Mr. Alexander Solzhenltsyn. I have already made
two speeches to you. Jhe flrst one you couldn`t llsten
to, because there was a frontler to cross. Jhe second
one I couldn`t dellver, because there was a frontler to
cross. Your presence here today doesn`t mean that the
frontlers have at last been abollshed. On the contrary, lt
means that you are now on thls slde of a border that
stlll exlsts. But the splrlt of your wrltlngs, as I under
stand lt, the drlvlng force of your work, llke the splrlt
and force of Alfred Nobel`s last wlll and testament, ls to
open all frontlers, to enable man to meet man, freely
and confldently.
Jhe dlfflculty ls that such a confldence can only
be bullt on truth. And nowhere ln thls world of ours ls
330
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truth always greeted wlth pure pleasure. Jruth goes
from house to house, and the dog barks at whom he
does not know, says a stern old phllosopher. But all the
more happy and grateful are those who recognlze the
wanderlng stranger and ask hlm to spend the nlght and
hls llfe wlth them, ln the deep, even desperate hope that
the day may not be far off when a frontler ls, as lt
should be, merely a llne on the map, whlch we pass on
our way to frlends. Such should be, and could be, the
case all around the prosperlng and tormented planet
whlch we lnhablt.
Alexander Solzhenltsyn, my dear frlend, wlth
these few words I convey to you the warm congratula
tlons of the Swedlsh Academy and ask you to recelve
from the hands of Hls Majesty the Klng the lnslgnla of
the prlze to whose value you have added your honour.
pW _~ p
Zs Sollcvitsyv wos uvoblc to bc prcscvt ot tlc òbcl ovquct iv
Stocllolm, 10 Dcccmbcr 1970, lis spcccl wos rcod by Iorl
Iogvor Cicrow, Icrmovcvt Sccrctory of tlc Swcdisl
Zcodcmy (Trovslotcd by Curtis Iord r.):
Your Hlghness! Ladles and gentlemen!
I hope that my lnvoluntary absence wlll not mar
the fullness of today`s ceremony. My own brlef words of
greetlng are expected along wlth those of others. Even
less would I llke my words to mar the celebratlon.
Nevertheless I cannot overlook the noteworthy happen
stance that the day on whlch Nobel Prlzes are awarded
colncldes wlth Human Rlghts Day. Nobel Prlze laure
ates cannot but feel a sense of responslblllty ln connec
tlon wlth thls colncldence. All who are gathered ln the
Stockholm Jown Hall cannot but see a symbol here.
And so, at thls festlve table let us not forget that polltlcal
prlsoners are engaged ln hunger strlkes ln defense of
thelr dlmlnlshed, or entlrely trampled rlghts.
Sollcvitsyv`s spcccl ot tlc òbcl ovquct ot tlc City
Holl iv Stocllolm, 10 Dcccmbcr 1974, tlc ccrcmovy ot wlicl lc
octuolly rcccivcd lis 1970 pric (Trovslotiov):
Gentlemen,
Many Nobel Prlze laureates have appeared before
you ln thls hall, but the Swedlsh Academy and the
Nobel Ioundatlon have probably never had as much
bother wlth anyone as they have had wlth me. On at
least one occaslon I have already been here, although
not ln the flesh; once the honorable Karl Ragnar
Glerow was already on hls way to meet me; and now, at
last, I have arrlved out of turn to occupy an extra seat.
Iour years had to pass to glve me the floor for three
mlnutes, and the secretary of the Academy ls belng
forced now to address the thlrd speech to the same
wrlter.
I must ask your forglveness, therefore, for havlng
caused all of you so much trouble, and thank you espe
clally for the ceremony ln l970, when your klng and all
of you welcomed here an empty chalr.
But you wlll agree that lt has not been so slmple
for the prlzewlnner, elther. carrylng hls threemlnute
speech around wlth hlm for four years. When I was
preparlng to come to you ln l970 no room ln my breast,
no amount of paper was sufflclent to let me speak my
mlnd on the flrst free trlbune of my llfe. Ior a wrlter
from a land wlthout llberty hls flrst trlbune and hls flrst
speech ls a speech about everythlng ln the world, about
all the torments of hls country,and lt ls pardonable lf
he forgets the object of the ceremony, the persons
assembled there and fllls the goblets of joy wlth hls
bltterness. But slnce that year when I was unable to
come here, I have learned to express openly practlcally
all my thoughts ln my own country as well. So that
flndlng myself expatrlated to the West, I have acqulred
all the better thls unhlndered posslblllty of saylng as
much as I want and where I want, whlch ls somethlng
not always appreclated here. I needn`t, therefore further
burden down thls short address.
However, I flnd a speclal advantage ln not
respondlng to the award of the Nobel Prlze untll four
years later. Ior example, ln four years lt ls posslble to
experlence the role thls prlze has already played ln your
llfe. In my llfe lt has been a very large one. It has pre
vented me from belng crushed ln the severe persecu
tlons to whlch I have been subjected. It has helped my
volce to be heard ln places where my predecessors have
not been heard for decades. It has helped me to express
thlngs that would have otherwlse been lmposslble.
In my case, the Swedlsh Academy have made an
exceptlon, and a rather rare one, awardlng me the prlze
when I am mlddleaged and my open llterary actlvlty ls
a mere chlld of some elght years. Ior the Academy
there was a great hldden rlsk ln dolng so. after all, only
a small part of the books I had wrltten had been pub
llshed.
But perhaps the flnest task of any llterary or scl
entlflc prlze lles preclsely ln helplng to clear the road
ahead.
And I would llke to express my heartfelt gratltude
to the members of the Swedlsh Academy for the enor
33l
ai_ PPO ^~ p
mous support thelr cholce ln l970 has glven my works
as a wrlter. I venture to thank them on behalf of that
vast unofflclal Russla whlch ls prohlblted from express
lng ltself aloud, whlch ls persecuted both for wrltlng
books and even for readlng them. Jhe Academy have
heard for thls declslon of thelrs many reproaches lmply
lng that such a prlze has served polltlcal lnterests. But
these are the shouts of raucous loudmouths who know
of no other lnterests. We all know that an artlst`s work
cannot be contalned wlthln the wretched dlmenslon of
polltlcs. Ior thls dlmenslon cannot hold the whole of
our llfe and we must not restraln our soclal consclous
ness wlthln ln lts bounds.
| Jhe Nobel Ioundatlon, l972 and l971. Aleksandr
Solzhenltsyn ls the sole author of hls speeches.|
pW ^~~ p~
Et ~ ~~ k mF
I was born at Klslovodsk on llth December,
l9l8. My father had studled phllologlcal subjects at
Moscow Lnlverslty, but dld not complete hls studles, as
he enllsted as a volunteer when war broke out ln l9l1.
He became an artlllery offlcer on the German front,
fought throughout the war and dled ln the summer of
l9l8, slx months before I was born. I was brought up
by my mother, who worked as a shorthandtyplst, ln
the town of Rostov on the Don, where I spent the
whole of my chlldhood and youth, leavlng the gram
mar school there ln l936. Even as a chlld, wlthout any
promptlng from others, I wanted to be a wrlter and,
lndeed, I turned out a good deal of the usual juvenllla.
In the l930s, I trled to get my wrltlngs publlshed but I
could not flnd anyone wllllng to accept my manuscrlpts.
I wanted to acqulre a llterary educatlon, but ln Rostov
such an educatlon that would sult my wlshes was not to
be obtalned. Jo move to Moscow was not posslble,
partly because my mother was alone and ln poor
health, and partly because of our modest clrcum
stances. I therefore began to study at the Department of
Mathematlcs at Rostov Lnlverslty, where lt proved that
I had conslderable aptltude for mathematlcs. But
although I found lt easy to learn thls subject, I dld not
feel that I wlshed to devote my whole llfe to lt. Never
theless, lt was to play a beneflclal role ln my destlny
later on, and on at least two occaslons, lt rescued me
from death. Ior I would probably not have survlved the
elght years ln camps lf I had not, as a mathematlclan,
been transferred to a socalled ~~~I where I spent
four years; and later, durlng my exlle, I was allowed to
teach mathematlcs and physlcs, whlch helped to ease
my exlstence and made lt posslble for me to wrlte. If I
had had a llterary educatlon lt ls qulte llkely that I
should not have survlved these ordeals but would
lnstead have been subjected to even greater pressures.
Later on, lt ls true, I began to get some llterary educa
tlon as well; thls was from l939 to l91l, durlng whlch
tlme, along wlth unlverslty studles ln physlcs and math
ematlcs, I also studled by correspondence at the Instl
tute of Hlstory, Phllosophy and Llterature ln Moscow.
In l91l, a few days before the outbreak of the
war, I graduated from the Department of Physlcs and
Mathematlcs at Rostov Lnlverslty. At the beglnnlng of
the war, owlng to weak health, I was detalled to serve as
a drlver of horsedrawn vehlcles durlng the wlnter of
l91l-l912. Later, because of my mathematlcal knowl
edge, I was transferred to an artlllery school, from
whlch, after a crash course, I passed out ln November
l912. Immedlately after thls I was put ln command of
an artllleryposltlonflndlng company, and ln thls capac
lty, served, wlthout a break, rlght ln the front llne untll I
was arrested ln Iebruary l915. Jhls happened ln East
Prussla, a reglon whlch ls llnked wlth my destlny ln a
remarkable way. As early as l937, as a flrstyear stu
dent, I chose to wrlte a descrlptlve essay on 'Jhe Sam
sonov Dlsaster" of l9l1 ln East Prussla and studled
materlal on thls; and ln l915 I myself went to thls area
(at the tlme of wrltlng, autumn l970, the book ^
NVNQ has just been completed).
I was arrested on the grounds of what the censor
shlp had found durlng the years l911-15 ln my corre
spondence wlth a school frlend, malnly because of
certaln dlsrespectful remarks about Stalln, although we
referred to hlm ln dlsgulsed terms. As a further basls for
the 'charge," there were used the drafts of storles and
reflectlons whlch had been found ln my map case.
Jhese, however, were not sufflclent for a 'prosecutlon,"
and ln |uly l915 I was 'sentenced" ln my absence, ln
accordance wlth a procedure then frequently applled,
after a resolutlon by the OSO (the Speclal Commlttee
of the NKVD), to elght years ln a detentlon camp (at
that tlme thls was consldered a mlld sentence).
I served the flrst part of my sentence ln several
correctlonal work camps of mlxed types (thls klnd of
camp ls descrlbed ln the play, q q ~
q~). In l916, as a mathematlclan, I was transferred
to the group of sclentlflc research lnstltutes of the
MVDMOB (Mlnlstry of Internal Affalrs, Mlnlstry of
State Securlty). I spent the mlddle perlod of my sen
tence ln such 'SPECIAL PRISONS" Eq c `F.
In l950 I was sent to the newly establlshed 'Speclal
Camps" whlch were lntended only for polltlcal prlson
ers. In such a camp ln the town of Eklbastuz ln Kazakh
stan El a~ i f~ aFI I worked as a
332
^~ p ai_ PPO
mlner, a brlcklayer, and a foundryman. Jhere I con
tracted a tumour whlch was operated on, but the condl
tlon was not cured (lts character was not establlshed
untll later on).
One month after I had served the full term of my
elghtyear sentence, there came, wlthout any new judge
ment and even wlthout a 'resolutlon from the OSO,"
an admlnlstratlve declslon to the effect that I was not to
be released but EXILED IOR LIIE to KokJerek
(southern Kazakhstan). Jhls measure was not dlrected
speclally agalnst me, but was a very usual procedure at
that tlme. I served thls exlle from March l953 (on
March 5th, when Stalln`s death was made publlc, I was
allowed for the flrst tlme to go out wlthout an escort)
untll |une l956. Here my cancer had developed rapldly,
and at the end of l953, I was very near death. I was
unable to eat, I could not sleep and was severely
affected by the polsons from the tumour. However, I
was able to go to a cancer cllnlc at Jashkent, where,
durlng l951, I was cured Eq `~ t~I o e~F.
Durlng all the years of exlle, I taught mathematlcs and
physlcs ln a prlmary school and durlng my hard and
lonely exlstence I wrote prose ln secret (ln the camp I
could only wrlte down poetry from memory). I man
aged, however, to keep what I had wrltten, and to take
lt wlth me to the European part of the country, where,
ln the same way, I contlnued, as far as the outer world
was concerned, to occupy myself wlth teachlng and, ln
secret, to devote myself to wrltlng, at flrst ln the
Vladlmlr dlstrlct Ej~~ c~F and afterwards ln
Ryazan.
Durlng all the years untll l96l, not only was I
convlnced that I should never see a slngle llne of mlne
ln prlnt ln my llfetlme, but, also, I scarcely dared allow
any of my close acqualntances to read anythlng I had
wrltten because I feared that thls would become known.
Ilnally, at the age of 12, thls secret authorshlp began to
wear me down. Jhe most dlfflcult thlng of all to bear
was that I could not get my works judged by people
wlth llterary tralnlng. In l96l, after the 22nd Congress
of the L.S.S.R. Communlst Party and Jvardovsky`s
speech at thls, I declded to emerge and to offer l a~
i f~ a.
Such an emergence seemed, then, to me, and not
wlthout reason, to be very rlsky because lt mlght lead
to the loss of my manuscrlpts, and to my own destruc
tlon. But, on that occaslon, thlngs turned out success
fully, and after protracted efforts, A. J. Jvardovsky was
able to prlnt my novel one year later. Jhe prlntlng of
my work was, however, stopped almost lmmedlately
and the authorltles stopped both my plays and (ln
l961) the novel, q c Ì whlch, ln l965, was
selzed together wlth my papers from the past years.
Durlng these months lt seemed to me that I had com
mltted an unpardonable mlstake by reveallng my work
prematurely and that because of thls I should not be
able to carry lt to a concluslon.
It ls almost always lmposslble to evaluate at the
tlme events whlch you have already experlenced, and
to understand thelr meanlng wlth the guldance of thelr
effects. All the more unpredlctable and surprlslng to us
wlll be the course of future events.
| Jhe Nobel Ioundatlon, l972. Aleksandr Solzhe
nltsyn ls the sole author of the text.|
333
pW k iI NVTM
Solzhenltsyn was not present at the Nobel cere
monles ln l970. Hls lecture was smuggled out of Mos
cow by Swedlsh news correspondent Stlg Iredrlkson
and dellvered to the Swedlsh Academy ln l972, when lt
was publlshed ln the lnternatlonal press lnstead of glven
as a lecture.
l
|ust as that puzzled savage who has plcked upa
strange castup from the ocean?somethlng unearthed
from the sands?or an obscure object fallen down from
the sky?lntrlcate ln curves, lt gleams flrst dully and
then wlth a brlght thrust of llght. |ust as he turns lt thls
way and that, turns lt over, trylng to dlscover what to
do wlth lt, trylng to dlscover some mundane functlon
wlthln hls own grasp, never dreamlng of lts hlgher func
tlon.
So also we, holdlng Art ln our hands, confldently
conslder ourselves to be lts masters; boldly we dlrect lt,
we renew, reform and manlfest lt; we sell lt for money,
use lt to please those ln power; turn to lt at one moment
for amusementrlght down to popular songs and nlght
clubs, and at anothergrabblng the nearest weapon,
cork or cudgelfor the passlng needs of polltlcs and for
narrowmlnded soclal ends. But art ls not deflled by our
efforts, nelther does lt thereby depart from lts true
nature, but on each occaslon and ln each appllcatlon lt
glves to us a part of lts secret lnner llght.
But shall we ever grasp the whole of that llght?
Who wlll dare to say that he has DEIINED Art, enu
merated all lts facets? Perhaps once upon a tlme some
one understood and told us, but we could not remaln
satlsfled wlth that for long; we llstened, and neglected,
and threw lt out there and then, hurrylng as always to
exchange even the very bestlf only for somethlng
new! And when we are told agaln the old truth, we
shall not even remember that we once possessed lt.
One artlst sees hlmself as the creator of an lnde
pendent splrltual world; he holsts onto hls shoulders
the task of creatlng thls world, of peopllng lt and of
bearlng the allembraclng responslblllty for lt; but he
crumples beneath lt, for a mortal genlus ls not capable
of bearlng such a burden. |ust as man ln general, hav
lng declared hlmself the centre of exlstence, has not suc
ceeded ln creatlng a balanced splrltual system. And lf
mlsfortune overtakes hlm, he casts the blame upon the
agelong dlsharmony of the world, upon the complexlty
of today`s ruptured soul, or upon the stupldlty of the
publlc.
Another artlst, recognlzlng a hlgher power above,
gladly works as a humble apprentlce beneath God`s
heaven; then, however, hls responsblllty for everythlng
that ls wrltten or drawn, for the souls whlch percelve
hls work, ls more exactlng than ever. But, ln return, lt ls
not he who has created thls world, not he who dlrects
lt, there ls no doubt as to lts foundatlons; the artlst has
merely to be more keenly aware than others of the har
mony of the world, of the beauty and ugllness of the
human contrlbutlon to lt, and to communlcate thls
acutely to hls fellowmen. And ln mlsfortune, and even
at the depths of exlstenceln destltutlon, ln prlson, ln
slcknesshls sense of stable harmony never deserts
hlm.
But all the lrratlonallty of art, lts dazzllng turns,
lts unpredlctable dlscoverles, lts shatterlng lnfluence on
human belngsthey are too full of maglc to be
exhausted by thls artlst`s vlslon of the world, by hls
artlstlc conceptlon or by the work of hls unworthy fln
gers.
Archeologlsts have not dlscovered stages of
human exlstence so early that they were wlthout art.
Rlght back ln the early mornlng twlllghts of manklnd
we recelved lt from Hands whlch we were too slow to
dlscern. And we were too slow to ask. IOR WHAJ
PLRPOSE have we been glven thls glft? What are we
to do wlth lt?
And they were mlstaken, and wlll always be
mlstaken, who prophesy that art wlll dlslntegrate,
that lt wlll outllve lts forms and dle. It ls we who
shall dleart wlll remaln. And shall we comprehend,
even on the day of our destructlon, all lts facets and
all lts posslbllltles?
Not everythlng assumes a name. Some thlngs
lead beyond words. Art lnflames even a frozen, dark
ened soul to a hlgh splrltual experlence. Jhrough art
we are sometlmes vlslteddlmly, brleflyby revelatlons
such as cannot be produced by ratlonal thlnklng.
Llke that llttle looklngglass from the falrytales.
look lnto lt and you wlll seenot yourselfbut for one
second, the Inaccesslble, whlther no man can rlde, no
man fly. And only the soul glves a groan. . . .
331
pW k iI NVTM ai_ PPO
2
One day Dostoevsky threw out the enlgmatlc
remark. 'Beauty wlll save the world." What sort of a
statement ls that? Ior a long tlme I consldered lt mere
words. How could that be posslble? When ln blood
thlrsty hlstory dld beauty ever save anyone from any
thlng? Ennobled, upllfted, yesbut whom has lt saved?
Jhere ls, however, a certaln pecullarlty ln the
essence of beauty, a pecullarlty ln the status of art.
namely, the convlnclngness of a true work of art ls com
pletely lrrefutable and lt forces even an opposlng heart
to surrender. It ls posslble to compose an outwardly
smooth and elegant polltlcal speech, a headstrong
artlcle, a soclal program, or a phllosophlcal system on
the basls of both a mlstake and a lle. What ls hldden,
what dlstorted, wlll not lmmedlately become obvlous.
Jhen a contradlctory speech, artlcle, program, a
dlfferently constructed phllosophy rallles ln opposl
tlonand all just as elegant and smooth, and once agaln
lt works. Whlch ls why such thlngs are both trusted
and mlstrusted.
In valn to relterate what does not reach the heart.
But a work of art bears wlthln ltself lts own verlfl
catlon. conceptlons whlch are devlsed or stretched do
not stand belng portrayed ln lmages, they all come
crashlng down, appear slckly and pale, convlnce no
one. But those works of art whlch have scooped up the
truth and presented lt to us as a llvlng forcethey take
hold of us, compel us, and nobody ever, not even ln
ages to come, wlll appear to refute them.
So perhaps that anclent trlnlty of Jruth, Good
ness and Beauty ls not slmply an empty, faded formula
as we thought ln the days of our selfconfldent, materl
allstlc youth? If the tops of these three trees converge, as
the scholars malntalned, but the too blatant, too dlrect
stems of Jruth and Goodness are crushed, cut down,
not allowed throughthen perhaps the fantastlc, unpre
dlctable, unexpected stems of Beauty wlll push through
and soar JO JHAJ VERY SAME PLACE, and ln so
dolng wlll fulfll the work of all three?
In that case Dostoevsky`s remark, 'Beauty wlll
save the world," was not a careless phrase but a proph
ecy? After all HE was granted to see much, a man of
fantastlc lllumlnatlon.
And ln that case art, llterature mlght really be able
to help the world today?
It ls the small lnslght whlch, over the years, I have
succeeded ln galnlng lnto thls matter that I shall attempt
to lay before you here today.
3
In order to mount thls platform from whlch the
Nobel lecture ls read, a platform offered to every wrlter
and only once ln a llfetlme, I have cllmbed not three or
four makeshlft steps, but hundreds and even thousands
of them; unyleldlng, preclpltous, frozen steps, leadlng
out of the darkness and cold where lt was my fate to
survlve, whlle othersperhaps wlth a greater glft and
stronger than Ihave perlshed. Of them, I myself met
but a few on the Archlpelago of GLLAG, shattered
lnto lts fractlonary multltude of lslands; and beneath
the mlllstone of shadowlng and mlstrust I dld not talk
to them all, of some I only heard, of others stlll I only
guessed. Jhose who fell lnto that abyss already bearlng
a llterary name are at least known, but how many were
never recognlzed, never once mentloned ln publlc? And
vlrtually no one managed to return. A whole natlonal
llterature remalned there, cast lnto obllvlon not only
wlthout a grave, but wlthout even underclothes, naked,
wlth a number tagged on to lts toe. Russlan llterature
dld not cease for a moment, but from the outslde lt
appeared a wasteland! Where a peaceful forest could
have grown, there remalned, after all the felllng, two or
three trees overlooked by chance.
And as I stand here today, accompanled by the
shadows of the fallen, wlth bowed head allowlng others
who were worthy before to pass ahead of me to thls
place, as I stand here, how am I to dlvlne and to express
what JHEY would have wlshed to say?
Jhls obllgatlon has long welghed upon us, and
we have understood lt. In the words of Vladlmlr
Solovèv.
b ~ q~
~ ~ K
Irequently, ln palnful camp seethlngs, ln a column of
prlsoners, when chalns of lanterns plerced the gloom of
the evenlng frosts, there would well up lnslde us the
words that we should llke to cry out to the whole
world, lf the whole world could hear one of us. Jhen lt
seemed so clear. what our successful ambassador would
say, and how the world would lmmedlately respond
wlth lts comment. Our horlzon embraced qulte dls
tlnctly both physlcal thlngs and splrltual movements,
and lt saw no lopsldedness ln the lndlvlslble world.
Jhese ldeas dld not come from books, nelther were
they lmported for the sake of coherence. Jhey were
formed ln conversatlons wlth people now dead, ln
prlson cells and by forest flres, they were tested agalnst
JHAJ llfe, they grew out of JHAJ exlstence.
When at last the outer pressure grew a llttle
weaker, my and our horlzon broadened and gradually,
albelt through a mlnute chlnk, we saw and knew 'the
whole world." And to our amazement the whole world
was not at all as we had expected, as we had hoped;
that ls to say a world llvlng 'not by that," a world lead
lng 'not there," a world whlch could exclalm at the
335
ai_ PPO pW k iI NVTM
slght of a muddy swamp, 'what a dellghtful llttle puddle!"
at concrete neck stocks, 'what an exqulslte necklace!"; but
lnstead a world where some weep lnconsolate tears and
others dance to a llghthearted muslcal.
How could thls happen? Why the yawnlng gap?
Were we lnsensltlve? Was the world lnsensltlve? Or ls lt
due to language dlfferences? Why ls lt that people are
not able to hear each other`s every dlstlnct utterance?
Words cease to sound and run away llke waterwlthout
taste, colour, smell. Wlthout trace.
As I have come to understand thls, so through the
years has changed and changed agaln the structure,
content and tone of my potentlal speech. Jhe speech I
glve today.
And lt has llttle ln common wlth lts orlglnal plan,
concelved on frosty camp evenlngs.
1
Irom tlme lmmemorlal man has been made ln
such a way that hls vlslon of the world, so long as lt has
not been lnstllled under hypnosls, hls motlvatlons and
scale of values, hls actlons and lntentlons are deter
mlned by hls personal and group experlence of llfe. As
the Russlan saylng goes, 'Do not belleve your brother,
belleve your own crooked eye." And that ls the most
sound basls for an understandlng of the world around
us and of human conduct ln lt. And durlng the long
epochs when our world lay spread out ln mystery and
wllderness, before lt became encroached by common
llnes of communlcatlon, before lt was transformed lnto
a slngle, convulslvely pulsatlng lumpmen, relylng on
experlence, ruled wlthout mlshap wlthln thelr llmlted
areas, wlthln thelr communltles, wlthln thelr socletles,
and flnally on thelr natlonal terrltorles. At that tlme lt
was posslble for lndlvldual human belngs to percelve
and accept a general scale of values, to dlstlngulsh
between what ls consldered normal, what lncredlble;
what ls cruel and what lles beyond the boundarles of
wlckedness; what ls honesty, what decelt. And although
the scattered peoples led extremely dlfferent llves and
thelr soclal values were often strlklngly at odds, just as
thelr systems of welghts and measures dld not agree,
stlll these dlscrepancles surprlsed only occaslonal travel
lers, were reported ln journals under the name of won
ders, and bore no danger to manklnd whlch was not
yet one.
But now durlng the past few decades, lmperceptl
bly, suddenly, manklnd has become onehopefully one
and dangerously oneso that the concusslons and
lnflammatlons of one of lts parts are almost lnstanta
neously passed on to others, sometlmes lacklng ln any
klnd of necessary lmmunlty. Manklnd has become one,
but not steadfastly one as communltles or even natlons
used to be; not unlted through years of mutual experl
ence, nelther through possesslon of a slngle eye, affec
tlonately called crooked, nor yet through a common
natlve language, but, surpasslng all barrlers, through
lnternatlonal broadcastlng and prlnt. An avalanche of
events descends upon usln one mlnute half the world
hears of thelr splash. But the yardstlck by whlch to
measure those events and to evaluate them ln accor
dance wlth the laws of unfamlllar parts of the world
thls ls not and cannot be conveyed vla soundwaves and
ln newspaper columns. Ior these yardstlcks were
matured and asslmllated over too many years of too
speclflc condltlons ln lndlvldual countrles and socletles;
they cannot be exchanged ln mldalr. In the varlous
parts of the world men apply thelr own hardearned
values to events, and they judge stubbornly, confl
dently, only accordlng to thelr own scales of values and
never accordlng to any others.
And lf there are not many such dlfferent scales of
values ln the world, there are at least several; one for
evaluatlng events near at hand, another for events far
away; aglng socletles possess one, young socletles
another; unsuccessful people one, successful people
another. Jhe dlvergent scales of values scream ln dls
cordance, they dazzle and daze us, and ln order that lt
mlght not be palnful we steer clear of all other values,
as though from lnsanlty, as though from llluslon, and
we confldently judge the whole world accordlng to our
own home values. Whlch ls why we take for the
greater, more palnful and less bearable dlsaster not that
whlch ls ln fact greater, more palnful and less bearable,
but that whlch lles closest to us. Everythlng whlch ls
further away, whlch does not threaten thls very day to
lnvade our thresholdwlth all lts groans, lts stlfled crles,
lts destroyed llves, even lf lt lnvolves mllllons of vlc
tlmsthls we conslder on the whole to be perfectly
bearable and of tolerable proportlons.
In one part of the world, not so long ago, under
persecutlons not lnferlor to those of the anclent
Romans`, hundreds of thousands of sllent Chrlstlans
gave up thelr llves for thelr bellef ln God. In the other
hemlsphere a certaln madman, (and no doubt he ls not
alone), speeds across the ocean to DELIVER us from
rellglonwlth a thrust of steel lnto the hlgh prlest! He
has calculated for each and every one of us accordlng to
hls personal scale of values!
Jhat whlch from a dlstance, accordlng to one
scale of values, appears as envlable and flourlshlng free
dom, at close quarters, and accordlng to other values, ls
felt to be lnfurlatlng constralnt calllng for buses to be
overthrown. Jhat whlch ln one part of the world mlght
represent a dream of lncredlble prosperlty, ln another
has the exasperatlng effect of wlld exploltatlon demand
lng lmmedlate strlke. Jhere are dlfferent scales of val
ues for natural catastrophes. a flood cravlng two
336
hundred thousand llves seems less slgnlflcant than our
local accldent. Jhere are dlfferent scales of values for
personal lnsults. sometlmes even an lronlc smlle or a
dlsmlsslve gesture ls humlllatlng, whlle for others cruel
beatlngs are forglven as an unfortunate joke. Jhere are
dlfferent scales of values for punlshment and wlcked
ness. accordlng to one, a month`s arrest, banlshment to
the country, or an lsolatloncell where one ls fed on
whlte rolls and mllk, shatters the lmaglnatlon and fllls
the newspaper columns wlth rage. Whlle accordlng to
another, prlson sentences of twentyflve years, lsolatlon
cells where the walls are covered wlth lce and the prls
oners strlpped to thelr underclothes, lunatlc asylums for
the sane, and countless unreasonable people who for
some reason wlll keep runnlng away, shot on the fron
tlersall thls ls common and accepted. Whlle the mlnd
ls especlally at peace concernlng that exotlc part of the
world about whlch we know vlrtually nothlng, from
whlch we do not even recelve news of events, but only
the trlvlal, outofdate guesses of a few correspondents.
Yet we cannot reproach human vlslon for thls
duallty, for thls dumbfounded lncomprehenslon of
another man`s dlstant grlef, man ls just made that way.
But for the whole of manklnd, compressed lnto a slngle
lump, such mutual lncomprehenslon presents the threat
of lmmlnent and vlolent destructlon. One world, one
manklnd cannot exlst ln the face of slx, four or even
two scales of values. we shall be torn apart by thls dls
parlty of rhythm, thls dlsparlty of vlbratlons.
A man wlth two hearts ls not for thls world, nel
ther shall we be able to llve slde by slde on one Earth.
5
But who wlll coordlnate these value scales, and
how? Who wlll create for manklnd one system of lnter
pretatlon, valld for good and evll deeds, for the unbear
able and the bearable, as they are dlfferentlated today?
Who wlll make clear to manklnd what ls really heavy
and lntolerable and what only grazes the skln locally?
Who wlll dlrect the anger to that whlch ls most terrlble
and not to that whlch ls nearer? Who mlght succeed ln
transferrlng such an understandlng beyond the llmlts of
hls own human experlence? Who mlght succeed ln
lmpresslng upon a blgoted, stubborn human creature
the dlstant joy and grlef of others, an understandlng of
dlmenslons and deceptlons whlch he hlmself has never
experlenced? Propaganda, constralnt, sclentlflc proof
all are useless. But fortunately there does exlst such a
means ln our world! Jhat means ls art. Jhat means ls
llterature.
Jhey can perform a mlracle. they can overcome
man`s detrlmental pecullarlty of learnlng only from per
sonal experlence so that the experlence of other people
passes hlm by ln valn. Irom man to man, as he com
pletes hls brlef spell on Earth, art transfers the whole
welght of an unfamlllar, llfelong experlence wlth all lts
burdens, lts colours, lts sap of llfe; lt recreates ln the
flesh an unknown experlence and allows us to possess lt
as our own.
And even more, much more than that; both coun
trles and whole contlnents repeat each other`s mlstakes
wlth tlme lapses whlch can amount to centurles. Jhen,
one would thlnk, lt would all be so obvlous! But no;
that whlch some natlons have already experlenced, con
sldered and rejected, ls suddenly dlscovered by others
to be the latest word. And here agaln, the only substl
tute for an experlence we ourselves have never llved
through ls art, llterature. Jhey possess a wonderful abll
lty. beyond dlstlnctlons of language, custom, soclal
structure, they can convey the llfe experlence of one
whole natlon to another. Jo an lnexperlenced natlon
they can convey a harsh natlonal trlal lastlng many
decades, at best sparlng an entlre natlon from a super
fluous, or mlstaken, or even dlsastrous course, thereby
curtalllng the meanderlngs of human hlstory.
It ls thls great and noble property of art that I
urgently recall to you today from the Nobel trlbune.
And llterature conveys lrrefutable condensed
experlence ln yet another lnvaluable dlrectlon; namely,
from generatlon to generatlon. Jhus lt becomes the llv
lng memory of the natlon. Jhus lt preserves and klndles
wlthln ltself the flame of her spent hlstory, ln a form
whlch ls safe from deformatlon and slander. In thls way
llterature, together wlth language, protects the soul of
the natlon.
(In recent tlmes lt has been fashlonable to talk of
the levelllng of natlons, of the dlsappearance of dlfferent
races ln the meltlngpot of contemporary clvlllzatlon. I
do not agree wlth thls oplnlon, but lts dlscusslon
remalns another questlon. Here lt ls merely flttlng to
say that the dlsappearance of natlons would have
lmpoverlshed us no less than lf all men had become
allke, wlth one personallty and one face. Natlons are
the wealth of manklnd, lts collectlve personalltles; the
very least of them wears lts own speclal colours and
bears wlthln ltself a speclal facet of dlvlne lntentlon.)
But woe to that natlon whose llterature ls dls
turbed by the lnterventlon of power. Because that ls not
just a vlolatlon agalnst 'freedom of prlnt," lt ls the clos
lng down of the heart of the natlon, a slashlng to pleces
of lts memory. Jhe natlon ceases to be mlndful of ltself,
lt ls deprlved of lts splrltual unlty, and desplte a suppos
edly common language, compatrlots suddenly cease to
understand one another. Sllent generatlons grow old
and dle wlthout ever havlng talked about themselves,
elther to each other or to thelr descendants. When wrlt
ers such as Achmatova and Zamjatlnlnterred allve
throughout thelr llvesare condemned to create ln
337
sllence untll they dle, never hearlng the echo of thelr
wrltten words, then that ls not only thelr personal trag
edy, but a sorrow to the whole natlon, a danger to the
whole natlon.
In some cases moreoverwhen as a result of such
a sllence the whole of hlstory ceases to be understood
ln lts entlretylt ls a danger to the whole of manklnd.
6
At varlous tlmes and ln varlous countrles there
have arlsen heated, angry and exqulslte debates as to
whether art and the artlst should be free to llve for
themselves, or whether they should be forever mlndful
of thelr duty towards soclety and serve lt albelt ln an
unprejudlced way. Ior me there ls no dllemma, but I
shall refraln from ralslng once agaln the traln of argu
ments. One of the most brllllant addresses on thls sub
ject was actually Albert Camus` Nobel speech, and I
would happlly subscrlbe to hls concluslons. Indeed,
Russlan llterature has for several decades manlfested an
lncllnatlon not to become too lost ln contemplatlon of
ltself, not to flutter about too frlvolously. I am not
ashamed to contlnue thls tradltlon to the best of my
ablllty. Russlan llterature has long been famlllar wlth
the notlons that a wrlter can do much wlthln hls soclety,
and that lt ls hls duty to do so.
Let us not vlolate the RIGHJ of the artlst to
express excluslvely hls own experlences and lntrospec
tlons, dlsregardlng everythlng that happens ln the
world beyond. Let us not DEMAND of the artlst, but
reproach, beg, urge and entlce hlmthat we may be
allowed to do. After all, only ln part does he hlmself
develop hls talent; the greater part of lt ls blown lnto
hlm at blrth as a flnlshed product, and the glft of talent
lmposes responslblllty on hls free wlll. Let us assume
that the artlst does not OWE anybody anythlng. never
theless, lt ls palnful to see how, by retlrlng lnto hls self
made worlds or the spaces of hls subjectlve whlms, he
CAN surrender the real world lnto the hands of men
who are mercenary, lf not worthless, lf not lnsane.
Our Jwentleth Century has proved to be more
cruel than precedlng centurles, and the flrst flfty years
have not erased all lts horrors. Our world ls rent asun
der by those same old caveage emotlons of greed, envy,
lack of control, mutual hostlllty whlch have plcked up
ln passlng respectable pseudonyms llke class struggle,
raclal confllct, struggle of the masses, tradeunlon dls
putes. Jhe prlmeval refusal to accept a compromlse has
been turned lnto a theoretlcal prlnclple and ls consld
ered the vlrtue of orthodoxy. It demands mllllons of
sacrlflces ln ceaseless clvll wars, lt drums lnto our souls
that there ls no such thlng as unchanglng, unlversal
concepts of goodness and justlce, that they are all fluc
tuatlng and lnconstant. Jherefore the rulealways do
what`s most profltable to your party. Any professlonal
group no sooner sees a convenlent opportunlty to
BREAK OII A PIECE, even lf lt be unearned, even lf
lt be superfluous, than lt breaks lt off there and then
and no matter lf the whole of soclety comes tumbllng
down. As seen from the outslde, the amplltude of the
tosslngs of western soclety ls approachlng that polnt
beyond whlch the system becomes metastable and must
fall. Vlolence, less and less embarrassed by the llmlts
lmposed by centurles of lawfulness, ls brazenly and vlc
torlously strldlng across the whole world, unconcerned
that lts lnfertlllty has been demonstrated and proved
many tlmes ln hlstory. What ls more, lt ls not slmply
crude power that trlumphs abroad, but lts exultant justl
flcatlon. Jhe world ls belng lnundated by the brazen
convlctlon that power can do anythlng, justlce nothlng.
Dostoevsky`s DEVILSapparently a provlnclal nlght
mare fantasy of the last centuryare crawllng across the
whole world ln front of our very eyes, lnfestlng coun
trles where they could not have been dreamed of; and
by means of the hljacklngs, kldnapplngs, exploslons
and flres of recent years they are announclng thelr
determlnatlon to shake and destroy clvlllzatlon! And
they may well succeed. Jhe young, at an age when they
have not yet any experlence other than sexual, when
they do not yet have years of personal sufferlng and
personal understandlng behlnd them, are jubllantly
repeatlng our depraved Russlan blunders of the Nlne
teenth Century, under the lmpresslon that they are dls
coverlng somethlng new. Jhey acclalm the latest
wretched degradatlon on the part of the Chlnese Red
Guards as a joyous example. In shallow lack of under
standlng of the ageold essence of manklnd, ln the nalve
confldence of lnexperlenced hearts they cry. let us drlve
away JHOSE cruel, greedy oppressors, governments,
and the new ones (we!), havlng lald aslde grenades and
rlfles, wlll be just and understandlng. Iar from lt! . . .
But of those who have llved more and understand,
those who could oppose these youngmany do not
dare oppose, they even suck up, anythlng not to
appear 'conservatlve." Another Russlan phenome
non of the Nlneteenth Century whlch Dostoevsky
called SLAVERY JO PROGRESSIVE _LIRKS.
Jhe splrlt of Munlch has by no means retreated
lnto the past; lt was not merely a brlef eplsode. I even
venture to say that the splrlt of Munlch prevalls ln the
Jwentleth Century. Jhe tlmld clvlllzed world has found
nothlng wlth whlch to oppose the onslaught of a sud
den revlval of barefaced barbarlty, other than conces
slons and smlles. Jhe splrlt of Munlch ls a slckness of
the wlll of successful people, lt ls the dally condltlon of
those who have glven themselves up to the thlrst after
prosperlty at any prlce, to materlal wellbelng as the
chlef goal of earthly exlstence. Such peopleand there
338
are many ln today`s worldelect passlvlty and retreat,
just so as thelr accustomed llfe mlght drag on a blt
longer, just so as not to step over the threshold of hard
shlp todayand tomorrow, you`ll see, lt wlll all be all
rlght. (But lt wlll never be all rlght! Jhe prlce of cow
ardlce wlll only be evll; we shall reap courage and vlc
tory only when we dare to make sacrlflces.)
And on top of thls we are threatened by destruc
tlon ln the fact that the physlcally compressed, stralned
world ls not allowed to blend splrltually; the molecules
of knowledge and sympathy are not allowed to jump
over from one half to the other. Jhls presents a ram
pant danger. JHE SLPPRESSION OI INIORMA
JION between the parts of the planet. Contemporary
sclence knows that suppresslon of lnformatlon leads to
entropy and total destructlon. Suppresslon of lnforma
tlon renders lnternatlonal slgnatures and agreements
lllusory; wlthln a muffled zone lt costs nothlng to reln
terpret any agreement, even slmplerto forget lt, as
though lt had never really exlsted. (Orwell understood
thls supremely.) A muffled zone ls, as lt were, populated
not by lnhabltants of the Earth, but by an expedltlonary
corps from Mars; the people know nothlng lntelllgent
about the rest of the Earth and are prepared to go and
trample lt down ln the holy convlctlon that they come
as 'llberators."
A quarter of a century ago, ln the great hopes of
manklnd, the Lnlted Natlons Organlzatlon was born.
Alas, ln an lmmoral world, thls too grew up to be
lmmoral. It ls not a Lnlted Natlons Organlzatlon but a
Lnlted Governments Organlzatlon where all govern
ments stand equal; those whlch are freely elected, those
lmposed forclbly, and those whlch have selzed power
wlth weapons. Relylng on the mercenary partlallty of
the majorlty LNO jealously guards the freedom of
some natlons and neglects the freedom of others. As a
result of an obedlent vote lt decllned to undertake the
lnvestlgatlon of prlvate appealsthe groans, screams
and beseechlngs of humble lndlvldual PLAIN PEOPLE
not large enough a catch for such a great organlzatlon.
LNO made no effort to make the Declaratlon of
Human Rlghts, lts best document ln twentyflve years,
lnto an OBLIGAJORY condltlon of membershlp con
frontlng the governments. Jhus lt betrayed those humble
people lnto the wlll of the governments whlch they had
not chosen.
It would seem that the appearance of the contem
porary world rests solely ln the hands of the sclentlsts;
all manklnd`s technlcal steps are determlned by them. It
would seem that lt ls preclsely on the lnternatlonal
goodwlll of sclentlsts, and not of polltlclans, that the
dlrectlon of the world should depend. All the more so
slnce the example of the few shows how much could be
achleved were they all to pull together. But no; sclentlsts
have not manlfested any clear attempt to become an
lmportant, lndependently actlve force of manklnd.
Jhey spend entlre congresses ln renounclng the suffer
lngs of others; better to stay safely wlthln the preclncts
of sclence. Jhat same splrlt of Munlch has spread
above them lts enfeebllng wlngs.
What then ls the place and role of the wrlter ln
thls cruel, dynamlc, spllt world on the brlnk of lts ten
destructlons? After all we have nothlng to do wlth let
tlng off rockets, we do not even push the lowllest of
handcarts, we are qulte scorned by those who respect
only materlal power. Is lt not natural for us too to step
back, to lose falth ln the steadfastness of goodness, ln
the lndlvlslblllty of truth, and to just lmpart to the
world our bltter, detached observatlons. how manklnd
has become hopelessly corrupt, how men have degener
ated, and how dlfflcult lt ls for the few beautlful and
reflned souls to llve amongst them?
But we have not even recourse to thls fllght. Any
one who has once taken up the WORD can never
agaln evade lt; a wrlter ls not the detached judge of hls
compatrlots and contemporarles, he ls an accompllce to
all the evll commltted ln hls natlve land or by hls coun
trymen. And lf the tanks of hls fatherland have flooded
the asphalt of a forelgn capltal wlth blood, then the
brown spots have slapped agalnst the face of the wrlter
forever. And lf one fatal nlght they suffocated hls sleep
lng, trustlng Irlend, then the palms of the wrlter bear
the brulses from that rope. And lf hls young fellow cltl
zens breezlly declare the superlorlty of depravlty over
honest work, lf they glve themselves over to drugs or
selze hostages, then thelr stlnk mlngles wlth the breath
of the wrlter.
Shall we have the temerlty to declare that we are
not responslble for the sores of the presentday world?
7
However, I am cheered by a vltal awareness of
WORLD LIJERAJLRE as of a slngle huge heart,
beatlng out the cares and troubles of our world, albelt
presented and percelved dlfferently ln each of lts cor
ners.
Apart from ageold natlonal llteratures there
exlsted, even ln past ages, the conceptlon of world llter
ature as an anthology sklrtlng the helghts of the
natlonal llteratures, and as the sum total of mutual llter
ary lnfluences. But there occurred a lapse ln tlme. read
ers and wrlters became acqualnted wlth wrlters of other
tongues only after a tlme lapse, sometlmes lastlng centu
rles, so that mutual lnfluences were also delayed and
the anthology of natlonal llterary helghts was revealed
only ln the eyes of descendants, not of contemporarles.
But today, between the wrlters of one country
and the wrlters and readers of another, there ls a recl
339
proclty lf not lnstantaneous then almost so. I experlence
thls wlth myself. Jhose of my books whlch, alas, have
not been prlnted ln my own country have soon found a
responslve, worldwlde audlence, desplte hurrled and
often bad translatlons. Such dlstlngulshed western wrlt
ers as Helnrlch Bll have undertaken crltlcal analysls of
them. All these last years, when my work and freedom
have not come crashlng down, when contrary to the
laws of gravlty they have hung suspended as though on
alr, as though on NOJHINGon the lnvlslble dumb
tenslon of a sympathetlc publlc membrane; then lt was
wlth grateful warmth, and qulte unexpectedly for
myself, that I learnt of the further support of the lnter
natlonal brotherhood of wrlters. On my flftleth blrth
day I was astonlshed to recelve congratulatlons from
wellknown western wrlters. No pressure on me came
to pass by unnotlced. Durlng my dangerous weeks of
excluslon from the Wrlters` Lnlon the WALL OI
DEIENCE advanced by the world`s promlnent wrlters
protected me from worse persecutlons; and Norweglan
wrlters and artlsts hospltably prepared a roof for me, ln
the event of my threatened exlle belng put lnto effect.
Ilnally even the advancement of my name for the
Nobel Prlze was ralsed not ln the country where I llve
and wrlte, but by Iranols Maurlac and hls colleagues.
And later stlll entlre natlonal wrlters` unlons have
expressed thelr support for me.
Jhus I have understood and felt that world llt
erature ls no longer an abstract anthology, nor a gen
erallzatlon lnvented by llterary hlstorlans; lt ls rather
a certaln common body and a common splrlt, a llv
lng heartfelt unlty reflectlng the growlng unlty of
manklnd. State frontlers stlll turn crlmson, heated by
electrlc wlre and bursts of machlne flre; and varlous
mlnlstrles of lnternal affalrs stlll thlnk that llterature
too ls an 'lnternal affalr" falllng under thelr jurlsdlc
tlon; newspaper headllnes stlll dlsplay. 'No rlght to
lnterfere ln our lnternal affalrs!" Whereas there are
no INJERNAL AIIAIRS left on our crowded
Earth! And manklnd`s sole salvatlon lles ln everyone
maklng everythlng hls buslness; ln the people of the
East belng vltally concerned wlth what ls thought ln
the West, the people of the West vltally concerned
wlth what goes on ln the East. And llterature, as one
of the most sensltlve, responslve lnstruments pos
sessed by the human creature, has been one of the
flrst to adopt, to asslmllate, to catch hold of thls feel
lng of a growlng unlty of manklnd. And so I turn
wlth confldence to the world llterature of todayto
hundreds of frlends whom I have never met ln the
flesh and whom I may never see.
Irlends! Let us try to help lf we are worth any
thlng at all! Who from tlme lmmemorlal has constltuted
the unltlng, not the dlvldlng, strength ln your countrles,
lacerated by dlscordant partles, movements, castes and
groups? Jhere ln lts essence ls the posltlon of wrlters.
expressers of thelr natlve languagethe chlef blndlng
force of the natlon, of the very earth lts people occupy,
and at best of lts natlonal splrlt.
I belleve that world llterature has lt ln lts power to
help manklnd, ln these lts troubled hours, to see ltself as
lt really ls, notwlthstandlng the lndoctrlnatlons of preju
dlced people and partles. World llterature has lt ln lts
power to convey condensed experlence from one land
to another so that we mlght cease to be spllt and dazzled,
that the dlfferent scales of values mlght be made to
agree, and one natlon learn correctly and conclsely the
true hlstory of another wlth such strength of recognl
tlon and palnful awareness as lt had ltself experlenced
the same, and thus mlght lt be spared from repeatlng
the same cruel mlstakes. And perhaps under such con
dltlons we artlsts wlll be able to cultlvate wlthln our
selves a fleld of vlslon to embrace the WHOLE
WORLD. ln the centre observlng llke any other human
belng that whlch lles nearby, at the edges we shall begln
to draw ln that whlch ls happenlng ln the rest of the
world. And we shall correlate, and we shall observe
world proportlons.
And who, lf not wrlters, are to pass judgement
not only on thelr unsuccessful governments, (ln some
states thls ls the easlest way to earn one`s bread, the
occupatlon of any man who ls not lazy), but also on the
people themselves, ln thelr cowardly humlllatlon or self
satlsfled weakness? Who ls to pass judgement on the
llghtwelght sprlnts of youth, and on the young plrates
brandlshlng thelr knlves?
We shall be told. what can llterature posslbly do
agalnst the ruthless onslaught of open vlolence? But let
us not forget that vlolence does not llve alone and ls not
capable of llvlng alone. lt ls necessarlly lnterwoven wlth
falsehood. Between them lles the most lntlmate, the
deepest of natural bonds. Vlolence flnds lts only refuge
ln falsehood, falsehood lts only support ln vlolence.
Any man who has once acclalmed vlolence as hls
MEJHOD must lnexorably choose falsehood as hls
PRINCIPLE. At lts blrth vlolence acts openly and
even wlth prlde. But no sooner does lt become strong,
flrmly establlshed, than lt senses the rarefactlon of the
alr around lt and lt cannot contlnue to exlst wlthout
descendlng lnto a fog of lles, clothlng them ln sweet
talk. It does not always, not necessarlly, openly throttle
the throat, more often lt demands from lts subjects only
an oath of alleglance to falsehood, only compllclty ln
falsehood.
And the slmple step of a slmple courageous man
ls not to partake ln falsehood, not to support false
actlons! Let JHAJ enter the world, let lt even relgn ln
the worldbut not wlth my help. But wrlters and artlsts
310
can achleve more. they can CON_LER IALSE
HOOD! In the struggle wlth falsehood art always dld
wln and lt always does wln! Openly, lrrefutably for
everyone! Ialsehood can hold out agalnst much ln thls
world, but not agalnst art.
And no sooner wlll falsehood be dlspersed than
the nakedness of vlolence wlll be revealed ln all lts ugll
nessand vlolence, decreplt, wlll fall.
Jhat ls why, my frlends, I belleve that we are able
to help the world ln lts whltehot hour. Not by maklng
the excuse of possesslng no weapons, and not by glvlng
ourselves over to a frlvolous llfebut by golng to war!
Proverbs about truth are wellloved ln Russlan.
Jhey glve steady and sometlmes strlklng expresslon to
the not lnconslderable harsh natlonal experlence.
lkb tloa lc qorqe peîi lrqtbfde
qeb telib tloiaK
And lt ls here, on an lmaglnary fantasy, a breach of the
prlnclple of the conservatlon of mass and energy, that I
base both my own actlvlty and my appeal to the wrlters
of the whole world.
| Jhe Nobel Ioundatlon, l972. Aleksandr Solzhe
nltsyn ls the sole author of the text.|
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312
t p~ ai_ PPO
Upcro !ovyosi (London. Colllngs, l98l; Bloomlngton.
Indlana Lnlverslty Press, l98l);
Tlc Critic ovd Socicty (Ife, Nlgerla. Lnlverslty of Ife
Press, l982);
Z Iloy of Ciovts (London New York. Methuen,
l981);
Six Iloys (London. Methuen, l981);
Icquicm for o Iuturologist (London. Colllngs, l985);
Zrt, Diologuc ovd Uutrogc: Issoys ov Iitcroturc ovd Culturc
(Ibadan, Nlgerla. New Horn / Oxford. Zell,
l988); revlsed and expanded edltlon (London.
Methuen; New York. Pantheon, l993);
Movdclo`s Iortl ovd Utlcr Iocms (New York. Random
House, l988; London. Methuen, l989; Ibadan,
Nlgerla. Iountaln, l989);
Tlis Iost Must Zddrcss Its Ircscvt (New York. Anson
Phelps Stokes Instltute, l988);
Isoro, o !oyogc orouvd Issoy (Ibadan, Nlgerla. Iountaln,
l989; New York. Random House, l989; Lon
Tlc Crcdo of civg ovd òtlivgvcss (Ibadan, Nlgerla.
Spectrum, l99l);
Irom io, witl Iovc, ovd Z Scourgc of Hyocivtls (London.
Methuen, l992); Irom io, witl Iovc, publlshed
separately (Ibadan, Nlgerla. Iountaln, l992);
Ilu Uloluv-csiv (Ibadan, Nlgerla. Iountaln, l991; Lon
Ibodov: Tlc Icvlclcmcs Jcors: Z Mcmoir, 1946-196
(London. Methuen, l991);
Tlc coutificotiov of Zrco oy: Z Iogosiov Iolcidoscopc
(London. Methuen Drama, l995);
Tlc Upcv Sorc of o Covtivcvt: Z Icrsovol òrrotivc of tlc
ìgcriov Crisis (New York. Oxford Lnlverslty
Press, l996);
Iorly Iocms (New York. Oxford Lnlverslty Press,
l997);
Zrms ovd tlc ZrtsZ Covtivcvt`s Uvcquol Diologuc (Cape
Jown. Lnlverslty of Cape Jown South Afrlca,
l999);
Scourgc of Hyocivtls: Zv Upcro iv Twclvc Sccvcs, wlth
Janla Len (New York. Peermuslc Classlcal,
l999);
Tlc Scvcv Sigvposts of Ixistcvcc: Ivowlcdgc, Hovour, usticc
ovd Utlcr !irtucs (Ibadan, Nlgerla. Pocket Glfts,
l999);
Tlc urdcv of Mcmory, tlc Musc of Iorgivcvcss (New York.
ìgcrio`s Trovsitiov to Dcmocrocy: Illustrotiovs ovd Icolitics
(Port Harcourt, Nlgerla. Centre for Advanced
Soclal Sclence, 2002);
Solutotiov to tlc Cut (Ibadan, Nlgerla. Bookcraft Nlge
rla, 2003);
Climotc of Icor: Tlc _ucst for Digvity iv o Dclumovicd
!orld (New York. Random House, 2005);
Jou Must Sct Iortl ot Dowv: Z Mcmoir (New York. Ran
dom House, 2006).
PLAY PRODLCJIONS. Tlc Swomp Dwcllcrs, Lon
don, Natlonal Lnlon of Students` Drama Iestlval,
3l December l958;
Tlc Iiov ovd tlc cwcl, Ibadan, Nlgerla, Lnlverslty Col
lege Arts Jheatre, Iebruary l959; London, Royal
Court Jheatre, December l966;
Tlc Ivvcvtiov, London, Royal Court Jheatre, l Novem
ber l959;
Tlc Triols of rotlcr cro, Ibadan, Nlgerla, Mellanby Hall,
Aprll l960;
Z Dovcc of tlc Iorcsts, Lagos, Nlgerla, Yaba Jechnlcal
College, October l960;
Tlc Icpublicov, Ibadan, Nlgerla, Lnlverslty College Arts
Jheatre, November l963;
Tlc (`cw) Icpublicov, Ibadan, Nlgerla, Lnlverslty Col
lege Arts Jheatre, March l961;
cforc tlc loclout, Ibadan, Nlgerla, Lnlverslty College
Arts Jheatre, ll March l965;
Iovgi`s Horvcst, Lagos, Nlgerla, Independence Hall, l2
August l965;
Tlc Iood, London, Jheatre Royal Stratford East, Sep
tember l965;
Tlc Strovg rccd, Ibadan, Nlgerla, Secondary Schools,
l966;
Modmcv ovd Spcciolists, Watertown, Conn., Eugene
O`Nelll Memorlal Jheatre Center, 2 August
l970;
Tlc occloc of Iuripidcs, adapted by Soylnka, London,
Old Vlc, August l973;
cro`s Mctomorplosis, Brlstol, L.K., Van Dyke Jheatre,
Iebruary l971;
Dcotl ovd tlc Iivg`s Horscmov, Ife, Nlgerla, Lnlverslty of
Ife, Oduduwa Hall, December l976;
Upcro !ovyosi, Ife, Nlgerla, Lnlverslty of Ife, Oduduwa
Hall, December l977;
cforc tlc low-Uut, Ife, Nlgerla, l978;
Iicc or Iicc Sccvc, Lagos, Nlgerla, Museum Kltchen,
l98l;
Comwood ov tlc Icovcs, Lagos, Nlgerla, Natlonal Jheatre,
March l982;
Iriority Irojccts, Ife, Nlgerla, December l982;
Icquicm for o Iuturologist, Ife, Nlgerla, Lnlverslty of Ife,
Oduduwa Hall, |anuary l983;
Z Iloy of Ciovts, New Haven, Conn., Yale Repertory
Jheater, 27 November l981;
cforc tlc Dclugc, Lagos, Nlgerla, l8 October l99l;
Irom io, witl Iovc, Slena, Italy, |une l992;
Tlc cotificotiov of Zrco oy, Leeds, England, l996.
MOJION PICJLRES. Culturc iv Trovsitiov, commen
tary by Soylnka, Esso World Jheater, l961
313
ai_ PPO t p~
(lncludes an abbrevlated verslon of Tlc Strovg
rccd );
Tlc Swomp Dwcllcrs, screenplay by Soylnka, London,
Jranscrlptlon Centre, l967;
Iovgi`s Horvcst, screenplay by Soylnka, Lagos, Nlgerla,
CalpennyNlgerla Illms, l970;
lucs for o Irodigol, scenarlo by Soylnka, Ife, Nlgerla,
Ewuro, l985.
JELEVISION. My Iotlcr`s urdcv, Western Nlgerlan
Jelevlslon, August l960;
ìglt of tlc Huvtcd, Western Nlgerlan Jelevlslon,
November l96l.
RADIO. Comwood ov tlc Icovcs, Nlgerlan Broadcastlng
Corporatlon, September l960;
Tlc Tortoisc, Nlgerlan Broadcastlng Corporatlon,
December l960;
rolc-Timc or |serles|, WNBS, Lagos, l96l;
Tlc Dctoivcc, BBC Afrlcan Servlce, 5 September l965;
Tlc Swomp Dwcllcrs, BBC Afrlcan Servlce, 3 August
l969;
Dic Still, Icv`d Dr. Codspcol! BBC Afrlcan Servlce, l2
December l982;
Z Scourgc of Hyocivtls, BBC Radlo 1, 8 |uly l99l.
RECORDING. Uvlimitcd Iiobility Compovy, Ife, Nlgerla,
Ewuro Productlons, |uly l983.
OJHER. Irances Ademola, ed., Icflcctiovs: ìgcriov
Irosc ovd !crsc, lncludes Soylnka`s essay 'Saluta
tlons to the Gut"; poems; and Tlc Ixilcs, part of
hls trllogy 'Jhe House of Banlgejl" (Lagos, Nlge
rla. Afrlcan Lnlversltles Press, l962);
'Jelephone Conversatlon," ln Z ool of Zfricov !crsc,
edlted by |ohn Reed and Cllve Wake (London.
Helnemann, l961), pp. 80-8l;
D. O. Iagunwa, Tlc Iorcst of o Tlousovd Docmovs: Z
Huvtcr`s Sogo, translated by Soylnka (London.
Nelson, l968; Atlantlc Helghts, N.|.. Humanltles,
l969);
'Jhe Wrlter ln a Modern Afrlcan State," ln Tlc !ritcr iv
Modcrv Zfrico: Zfricov-Scovdivoviov !ritcrs` Covfcr-
cvcc, Stocllolm, 1967 (Lppsala, Sweden. Scandlna
vlan Instltute of Afrlcan Studles, l968), pp. l1-
36;
'Modern NegroAfrlcan Jheatre," ln Colloquium ov `cgro
Zrt (Parls. Prsence Afrlcalne, l968), pp. 195-
501;
'Jhe Iourth Stage. Jhrough the Mysterles of Ogun to
the Orlgln of Yoruba Jragedy," ln Tlc Morolity of
Zrt, edlted by D. W. |efferson (London. Rout
ledge, l969);
Tlc occloc of Iuripidcs: Z Commuviov Iitc, adapted by
Soylnka (London. Eyre Methuen, l973; New
York. Norton, l971);
|ames Glbbs, Study Zid to Iovgi`s Horvcst, prefatory letter
by Soylnka (London. Colllngs, l973);
'Jheatre and the Emergence of the Nlgerlan Illm
Industry," ln Tlc Dcvclopmcvt ovd Crowtl of tlc Iilm
Ivdustry iv ìgcrio, edlted by A. E. Opubor and O. E.
Nwunell (New York. Jhlrd Press, l971);
|ohn Wakeman, ed., !orld Zutlors 190-1970: Z Com-
poviov !olumc to Twcvtictl-Ccvtury Zutlors, lncludes
an autoblographlcal statement by Soylnka (New
York. Wllson, l975);
Iocms of locl Zfrico, edlted, wlth an lntroductlon and
selected poems, by Soylnka (London. Secker
Warburg, l975; New York. Hlll Wang, l975);
'Aesthetlc Illuslons," ln Icodivg locl: Issoys iv tlc Criti-
cism of Zfricov, Coribbcov, ovd locl Zmcricov Iitcro-
turc, edlted by Houston A. Baker |r. (Ithaca, N.Y..
Cornell Lnlverslty Afrlcan Studles and Research
Center, l976);
'Drama and the Afrlcan World Vlew," ln Ixilc ovd Tro-
ditiov: Studics iv Zfricov ovd Coribbcov Iitcroturc,
edlted by Rowland Smlth (New York. Afrlcana,
l976);
Abdlas do Nasclmento, Iociol Dcmocrocy iv roil: Mytl or
Icolity, foreword by Soylnka (Ibadan, Nlgerla.
Sketch, l977);
'Morallty and Aesthetlcs ln the Rltual Archetype," ln
Colloquc sur littcroturc ct cstlctiquc vcgro-ofricoivc,
edlted by Chrlstopher Dallly (Abldjan, Ivory
Coast Dakar, Senegal. Nouvelles Edltlons Afrl
calnes, l979);
'Jhe Man Who Was Absent," ln Zvd Tlcy Iivolly Iillcd
Him: Spccclcs ovd Iocms ot o Mcmoriol Iolly for !oltcr
Iodvcy (1942-S0), edlted by Ieml Ialana and oth
ers (Ife, Nlgerla. Posltlve Revlew, l980);
'CrossCurrents. Jhe 'New Afrlcan` After Cultural
Encounters," ln !ritcrs iv Iost-!cst Ivcouvtcr: `cw
Culturol corivgs, edlted by Guy Amlrthanayagam
(London. Macmlllan, l982);
'Jhe Afrlcan World and the Eurocultural Debate," ln
Zfrico Uvdcr Coloviol Domivotiov, edlted by A. Adu
Boahen (Parls. LNESCO, l985);
'Ethlcs, Ideology and the Crltlc," ln Criticism ovd Idcol-
ogy: Sccovd Zfricov !ritcrs` Covfcrcvcc, Stocllolm,
19S6 (Lppsala, Sweden. Scandlnavlan Instltute of
Afrlcan Studles, l988), pp. 26-5l;
Uvivcrsol Dcclorotiov of Humov Iiglts = Dcclorotiov uvi-
vcrscllc dcs droits dc l`lommc = Sovorwor lososlcv
duviyo gomc do lolliv yov-odom = `luwuwoputo uwo
vilc bovycrc ililc mmodu vwcgosiri = Ilcdc lorioyc fuv
rctro omoviyov, foreword by Soylnka (Ibadan, Nlge
rla. Instltut Iranals de Recherche en Afrlque,
311
t p~ ai_ PPO
Instltute of Afrlcan Studles, Lnlverslty of Ibadan,
l991).
LNCOLLECJED.
mlbqov
'One Jree that Made a Iorest," d~~ (Lagos, Nlge
rla), l0 |une l987.
cf`qflk
'Keffl`s Blrthday Jreat," k~ o~ q ( |uly
l951). l5-l6;
'Madame Etlenne`s Establlshment," d (March
l957). ll-22;
'A Jale of Jwo Cltles," d (Autumn l957). l6-22;
'Egbe`s Sworn Enemy," dI 5 (2l Aprll l960). 22-26.
klkcf`qflk
'An Open Letter to the Western Obas," a~ q
(Lagos, Nlgerla), l0 November l966;
'Let's Jhlnk about the Aftermath of Jhls War," a~
p (Ibadan, Nlgerla), 1 August l967, p. 8;
'Jhe Scholar ln Afrlcan Soclety," k~ e~I 3l
Iebruary l977 and 2 March l977;
'l979. Year of the Road," a~ p (Ibadan, Nlgerla),
l |anuary l979, pp. 5, l3-l1;
'Jhe Wasted Generatlonthe Real Wasters," d~~
(Lagos, Nlgerla), August l982;
'Shakespeare and the Llvlng Dramatlst," p~~
pI 36 (l983);
'Ethlcs and Aesthetlcs of Chlchldodo," d~~
(Lagos, Nlgerla), 7 December l985, p. 9;
'Rellglon and Human Rlghts," f Ì l7
(May l988);
'Power and Creatlve Strategles," f Ì l7
(August l988);
'Nobel Lecture," _~ ^~ i~ cI 22 (Iall
l988). 129-118;
'A Jlme of Jransltlon" and 'Beyond the Berlln Wall,"
q~ (New York), new serles 5l (l99l). 1-5;
6-25;
'Jhe New Drlver`s Llcence. Rlghts and Responslblll
tles," d~~ (Lagos, Nlgerla), l0 Aprll l99l, p.
28;
'No, Jhls Is Not a |ob for the Boys," s~~ (Lagos,
Nlgerla), 21 Aprll l99l, p. 6;
'Why I Cannot Support Obasanjo," p~ `~
(Lagos, Nlgerla), 2 |une l99?.
Lntll he became, ln October l986, the flrst
black Afrlcan wrlter to be awarded the Nobel Prlze ln
Llterature, Wole Soylnka was probably best known
wlthln hls own country, Nlgerla, as a polltlcal actlvlst
wlth a flerce commltment to lndlvldual llberty and
human rlghts. Hls lnvolvement over the prevlous quar
ter of a century had alerted hls compatrlots to the short
comlngs of those ln power and wlth responslbllltles. Ior
some younger Nlgerlans and for those outslde the edu
catlonal system, he had become partlcularly well
known because of hls efforts to reduce the number of
accldents on the natlon`s roads. Many people were, of
course, aware of hls varled and lmpresslve achleve
ments as a wrlter. he had many enthuslastlc and dls
crlmlnatlng admlrers, and he exerted a major lnfluence
on younger generatlons of creatlve Nlgerlans. He also
had hls crltlcs. Some of those on the Left consldered
hlm lrresponslble and ldeologlcally suspect, and some
natlonallsts and 'decolonlzers" condemned hlm for
allowlng Western models to lnfluence hls wrltlng.
Soylnka lnslsted that hls recelvlng the Nobel Prlze
should be seen as an award to the contlnent of Afrlca as
a whole, but some regarded that as an lndlcatlon, or as
a further lndlcatlon, of Soylnka`s appeal to a European
audlence.
Soylnka`s dlstlnctlon as a wrlter, partlcularly as a
playwrlght and poet, had also become apparent to
many Afrlcans outslde Nlgerla who had encountered
hls work on the stage or ln the classroom. Hls wrltlngs
had been featured extenslvely on course syllablevl
dence of endeavors to come to terms wlth Afrlcan expe
rlencesand Afrlcan academlcs had examlned hls work
from a varlety of angles. Beyond the educatlonal system,
some had become aware of hls lnterest ln PanAfrlcanlst
lssues, hls flrmly held convlctlon that Afrlcan lntellectu
als should be concerned about developments ln the
contlnent, partlcularly ln subSaharan Afrlca.
Hls belng awarded varlous honors and hls plays
belng favorably recelved ln Europe and the Lnlted
States reflect Soylnka`s standlng among academlcs and
theater people on other contlnents. Hls work embodles
a profound knowledge of the European lntellectual tra
dltlon as well as a deep awareness of Yoruba attltudes
and aesthetlcs. Jhe Swedlsh Academy descrlbed hlm as
'a wrlter who ln a wlde cultural perspectlve and wlth
poetlc overtones fashlons the drama of exlstence."
More than any other slngle award, the Nobel Prlze ele
vated Soylnka to a posltlon of lnternatlonal promlnence
from whlch he could make hls volce heard on soclal
and polltlcal lssues, and lt provlded hlm wlth opportunl
tles to reallze new creatlve projects. Jhe award came
after a perlod of flve years durlng whlch Soylnka had
produced some lntense polltlcal dramas and a book of
chlldhood memorles, ^ (l98l), whlch had made an
lmpact on many who mlght never have read hls poetry
or seen hls plays. ^ brought hlm wlde recognltlon but
also, from those who take a dlfferent stand on soclal
and polltlcal lssues, crltlclsm.
Aklnwande Oluwole Soylnka was born ln
Abeokuta, ln Western Nlgerla, on l3 |uly l931; he was
the second chlld and eldest son of Samuel Ayodele
315
ai_ PPO t p~
(Ayo) and Grace Enlola Soylnka. Hls father, dubbed
'Essay" ln Î was prlnclpal of St. Peter`s Prlmary
School, and hls mother, nlcknamed 'Wlld Chrlstlan" ln
Î was a teacher and became lnvolved ln agltatlon
agalnst the ^~I the local offlceholder through whom
the Brltlsh ruled. Ayo Soylnka`s hometown, an ances
tral base wlth whlch he malntalned llnks throughout hls
llfe, was Isara, ln the Ijebu part of Yorubaspeaklng
Western Nlgerla. Wole Soylnka spent holldays there
durlng hls chlldhood and thus came ln contact wlth a
relatlvely lsolated communlty, one that had managed to
keep Brltlsh colonlal lnfluences at arm`s length.
Abeokuta, by contrast, was a refugee settlement,
founded durlng the l830s by a varlety of mostly Egba
groups fleelng southward before aggressors from the
north. Jhe town retalned conslderable polltlcal lnde
pendence for decades; only after World War I dld lt
become part of the Brltlsh colony of Nlgerla. But lt was
open to rellglous and economlc lnfluences. Beglnnlng ln
the l810s Chrlstlan mlsslons establlshed churches and
schools there, and lt gradually became an lmportant
tradlng center for the reglon. Abeokuta, partlcularly ln
lts rellglous and commerclal llfe, provlded an example
of creatlve syncretlsm that deeply lmpressed the young
Soylnka. Hls mother was a member of one of the most
dlstlngulshed famllles ln the town. She was closely
related to I. O. RansomeKutl, ploneerlng headmaster
of Abeokuta Grammar School, whose wlfe, Iunmllayo,
played a declslve role ln local and natlonal polltlcs. Ior
the young Soylnka, the RansomeKutl famlly exempll
fled creatlve endeavor and polltlcal actlon.
At age eleven Soylnka left Abeokuta for Ibadan,
where he completed hls secondary educatlon at the
wellequlpped Government College. After a brlef perlod
worklng as a clerk ln Lagos, he returned to Ibadan, thls
tlme to the recently establlshed Lnlverslty College to
begln undergraduate courses. In l951, at the end of hls
second year, he was awarded a scholarshlp to study
Engllsh llterature ln the Lnlted Klngdom and took a
place at the Lnlverslty of Leeds. He was awarded a
B.A. ln l957 and started work on an M.A. He then
moved to London, where he was encouraged by the
dlrectors at the Royal Court Jheatre and galned valu
able practlcal experlence. He has slnce contlnued to
move between unlversltles and theaters, uslng the rela
tlve securlty of academla to work on creatlve chal
lenges, always remalnlng hls own man, reslstlng
temptatlons to compromlse and resolutely refuslng to
remaln sllent ln the face of tyranny.
On l |anuary l960 Soylnka returned to Ibadan to
accept a research post at Lnlverslty College and to con
trlbute to the development of West Afrlcan drama. Jwo
years later he was made a lecturer at the newly founded
Lnlverslty College of Ife, and then, after a break, he
was promoted to a senlor lectureshlp at the Lnlverslty
of Lagos. In l967 he was appolnted dlrector of the
School of Drama at the Lnlverslty of Ibadan but was
soon arrested and lmprlsoned for hls polltlcal actlvlty
durlng the Nlgerlan clvll war. After hls release ln l969
he spent some tlme at Ibadan before leavlng the coun
try for vlsltlng professorshlps, at Churchlll College,
Cambrldge (l972-l973); at the Lnlverslty of Sheffleld
(l973-l971); and then at the Instltute of Afrlcan Stud
les, part of the Lnlverslty of Ghana. He returned to
Nlgerla, to a professorshlp at the Lnlverslty of Ife, ln
l976 and remalned there, wlth numerous absences to
attend conferences, dellver papers, and dlrect plays,
untll l985. Durlng the mld and late l980s he held vlslt
lng professorshlps at some Amerlcan unlversltles,
lncludlng Yale and Cornell, and contlnued to flnd and
make tlme to wrlte, dlrect, and contrlbute to confer
ences and workshops ln Nlgerla and elsewhere.
Hls pattern of employment shows Soylnka mov
lng between the classroom and the theater, hls posltlon
and attltude often affected by the tumultuous polltlcal
developments ln Nlgerla and black Afrlca durlng the
last thlrty years. Jhese developments have lncluded the
natlonallst movements` agltatlon for lndependence; the
tenslons ln the Western Reglon of Nlgerla durlng the
early l960s, whlch resulted ln the lmposltlon of a state
of emergency; the corruptlon and rlgglng that charac
terlzed the Nlgerlan electlons of l961; the rlse and fall
of Kwame Nkrumah ln Ghana; the |anuary l966 coup
ln Nlgerla and the countercoup that followed; the mas
sacres of Igbos ln the Northern Reglon and the drlft
toward the secesslon of Blafra and clvll war; Idl Amln`s
and Maclas Nguema`s relgns of terror ln Lganda and
Equatorlal Gulnea; the scandals of the Second Nlgerlan
Republlc; the represslve tone of the Buharl reglme,
whlch followed the coup of December l983; and the
restrlctlve elements that, ln the late l980s, crept lnto the
Babanglda reglme.
Soylnka has returned agaln and agaln to partlcu
lar themes and areas of lnterest ln hls work. Jhese have
lncluded the responslbllltles of the lndlvldual, the vlgor
ous lnfluence of the past on contemporary events, and
the value of maklng a wllllng sacrlflce. He has also cam
palgned agalnst lndlvlduals and groups who have
betrayed the trust placed ln them and abused the prlvl
leges of offlce.
As a schoolboy, clerk, and student ln Nlgerla,
Soylnka wrote poetry, short storles, and brlef plays. He
prepared sketches for productlon ln school and plo
neered Nlgerlan radlo drama. At Leeds he deepened
and broadened hls awareness of Western llterary and
theatrlcal tradltlons and responded to the challenges of
teachers such as George Wllson Knlght and Arnold
Kettle. He wrote wltty, subverslve short storles that
316
t p~ ai_ PPO
attacked Brltlsh lnsensltlvlty and lgnorance about
Afrlca; he campalgned agalnst the South Afrlcan pollcy
of apartheld; and he galned valuable experlence work
lng as a reporter, lntervlewer, and presenter for the
BBC durlng the late l950s.
Joward the end of hls tlme at Leeds, probably ln
l957 and l958, he wrote q p~ a (ln q
m~I l963), a drama trlggered by reports of the extent
of Nlgerla`s reserves of oll. Jhe play was produced ln
London (l958) and Ibadan (l959) and stlmulated
debates, whlch stlll contlnue, about Soylnka`s lntentlons
as a playwrlght. Should he be regarded prlmarlly as a
poetlc or a polltlcal dramatlst? Is he most lnterested ln
conveylng mood, ln explorlng the effectlveness of rltual
sacrlflce, or ln motlvatlng the masses to lmprove thelr
condltlons? Is he wrltlng for lntlmate 'art" theaters or
for hls fellow countrymen? q p~ a works
through contrasts and juxtaposltlons but shows an
uncertalnty that marks lt as an apprentlce work, an
lnterestlng fallure that carrles too clearly the marks of
Soylnka`s readlng ln hls 'World Drama" class at Leeds.
q i ~ gI from the same perlod
( produced ln l959, publlshed ln l963), ls part of a dla
logue wlth the European tradltlon of comedy and wlth
Eurocentrlc vlews of Afrlcaspeclflcally wlth |oyce
Cary`s novel j g (l939). Set ln a vlllage called
Ilujlnle, the play presents the clash between the seventy
twoyearold Bale Baroka and the young schoolmaster,
Lakunle, for the vlllage belle, Sldl. Intrlgue and flne
and merely bombastlcspeeches are comblned wlth
elaborate passages of mlme and dance. Jhe wlly
Baroka completely outmaneuvers hls opponent, and by
so dolng he challenges preconceptlons, not least precon
ceptlons about elderly people. Although demandlng
numerous skllls from the performers, the play has been
successfully produced ln schools and colleges ln Afrlca,
Europe, and Amerlca, and lt ls among Soylnka`s best
known works. Jhe l966-l967 productlon at the Royal
Court Jheatre ln London was a landmark ln the recog
nltlon of Soylnka as a slgnlflcant Engllshlanguage dra
matlst. Some of those who have responded to the
productlons and those who have wrltten about the text
have been confused by the openness that ls a feature of
much of Soylnka`s stagecraft, and they have been
uncertaln how to lnterpret thls relatlvely stralght
forward play. Many have jumped to the concluslon that
Baroka represents tradltlon and that Soylnka ls belng
reactlonary ln allowlng hlm to wln Sldl. Closer examl
natlon wlthln the context of Soylnka`s ldeas lndlcates
that Baroka ls a dlscrlmlnatlng syncretlst taklng what he
conslders useful from outslders and comblnlng lt wlth
the vlrtues and prlvlleges ln the lndlgenous culture.
Lakunle, the challenger, has conslderable vltallty and
some creatlvlty, but he ls, by contrast, undlscrlmlnatlng
and lnfatuated wlth forelgn noveltles. Whlle ln some
respects a challenge to European ldeas about Afrlca and
about the role played by Europeans ln Afrlcathere ls a
reveallng eplsode ln whlch a venal whlte surveyor
appearsthe play ls a contrlbutlon to the debate that
preoccupled many Nlgerlans ln the years precedlng
lndependence, about how lmported and lndlgenous ele
ments were to be 'marrled" ln the new, lndependent
natlon. An lmportant element ln Soylnka`s creatlve and
lntellectual makeup derlves from the debates among
Afrlcan lntellectuals durlng the l950s; hls wrltlng fre
quently reflects an awareness of tradltlon and a flalr for
lncorporatlng forelgn ldeas. Jhere remalns somethlng
of Baroka ln Soylnka, and he contlnues to flnd lnsplra
tlon ln controversy.
In London durlng l958 and l959 Soylnka made
contact wlth the BBC and wrote scrlpts for both the
domestlc and overseas servlces. He also dld some part
tlme teachlng ln London day schools. An evenlng of
polltlcal, semllmprovlsed drama ln the tradltlon of the
Llvlng Newspaper, presented at the Royal Court`s Jhe
atre Lpstalrs durlng l959, provlded Soylnka wlth an
opportunlty to slng songs he had composed. One, wlth
the refraln 'Long Jlme, Bwana," artlculated, ln an eas
lly accesslble folk ldlom, the resentment of an explolted
Afrlcan worker. Soylnka`s conslderable muslcal talents
lnclude composltlon, gultar playlng, and slnglng, and
the lnterweavlng of muslcal wlth dramatlc elements ls a
dlstlnctlve feature of hls work. He has explored the
capaclty of muslc and song to make an lmpact on popu
lar audlences and has found hls songwrltlng abllltles
partlcularly valuable ln attemptlng to communlcate
polltlcal oplnlons to mass audlences.
In November l959 Soylnka dlrected an evenlng
of hls own work at the Jheatre Lpstalrs. Jhe flrst half
of the program conslsted of poetry and extracts from 'A
Dance of the Afrlcan Iorest" (unpubllshed); the second
was an antlraclst play, q f (also unpubllshed).
By the tlme he mounted the productlon, Soylnka had
already started publlshlng poems ln Nlgerlan publlca
tlons, and hls range as a poet went far beyond the dra
matlc monologue. he was experlmentlng wlth a varlety
of poetlc styles. Jhe program contalned some poems
that are now famlllar, lncludlng 'Jelephone Conversa
tlon" (ln ^ _ ^~ sI l961) and 'Alagemo,"
whlch appears as a prefatory poem to the publlshed ver
slon of q o~ (l965). Jhe program also lncluded a
few Yoruba folk songs and Negro splrltuals, whlch
helped to deflne the parameters wlthln whlch Soylnka
was seeklng hls volce as a poet. Some of Soylnka`s
poetry ls densely textured, hlghly alluslve, convoluted,
even verbose, but to argueas some doas lf all hls
poetry ls ln thls style ls to mlss the varlety of hls output.
Of the poems reclted or sung at the Royal Court ln
317
ai_ PPO t p~
l959, only 'Deserted Markets" and 'Ablku" are ln hls
flrst publlshed collectlon of verse, f~ C l m
(l967)a succlnct comment on the scope of the collec
tlon and a warnlng to those tempted to generallze on
the basls of the thln volumes of poetry Soylnka has pub
llshed ln London and New York.
q fI a heavyhanded attack on raclst
notlons, ls set ln South Afrlca after a nuclear exploslon
has turned everyone a pasty gray color. South Afrlcan
sclentlsts have been commlssloned to produce a means
of flndlng out who had been 'Bantu," 'Coloured," and
'Whlte" before the mutatlon. Jhe thln story llne,
whlch appears to owe certaln elements to Hans Chrls
tlan Andersen`s l837 falry tale 'Jhe Emperor`s New
Clothes," does not adequately sustaln the satlre, whlch
lncludes Amerlcan, Brltlsh, and South Afrlcan blgots
among lts targets, and Soylnka has not lncluded the
play ln any collectlons. He takes hls role as a wrlter serl
ously and trles to fulflll many functlons ln thls play and
others. Irom tlme to tlme he uses hls pen to attack spe
clflc targets, usually by exposlng them to rldlcule, ln the
hope that he wlll sway the waverlng and stlffen the
resolve of the commltted. He has long felt passlonately
about South Afrlca and ls acutely aware of the prob
lems faced by the outslder who wants to wrlte about
condltlons ln that country.
Joward the end of hls stay ln England, Soylnka
submltted a research proposal to the Rockefeller Ioun
datlon. He drew attentlon to what he consldered the
major lssues confrontlng the Afrlcan dramatlst who
endeavored to comblne the 'strong aesthetlc awareness
of tradltlonal art" wlth dramatlc conventlons developed
elsewhere. He antlclpated the fuslon of 'the ldlom
beneath tradltlonal drama" wlth other ldloms, and he
referred ln passlng to |apanese No theater and com
mended Bertolt Brecht as 'the truly modern dramatlst
who has perpetuated the morallty/parable as a dramatlc
form." Jhere ls evldence ln Soylnka`s lntervlews, crltl
cal wrltlng, and plays that he has consclously endeav
ored to comblne Afrlcan, partlcularly Yoruba, forms
wlth the European tradltlon of dlalogue drama. He has
publlshed crltlcal and theoretlcal wrltlng, some of lt
clear and dlrect, some obscure, whlch provldes a theo
retlcal justlflcatlon for hls own experlments, has
expressed an admlratlon for elements ln Brecht`s work
on several occaslons, and has drawn on hls poems and
plays for ldeas and conventlons. In l~ t
( performed, l977; publlshed, l98l) Soylnka used q
q l~ (l929; translated, l961) as the basls for
an attack on the vlces of hls country and hls contlnent.
Hls proposal was accepted by the foundatlon, and
Soylnka returned, wlth hls research grant, to Nlgerla ln
l960, the year ln whlch the country became lndepen
dent. He lmmedlately threw hlmself lnto the creatlve
actlvltles of the country, partlcularly those ln Lagos and
Ibadan and those assoclated wlth Lnlverslty College
and the Nlgerlan Broadcastlng Servlce. He gave radlo
talks, acted ln a productlon of Brecht`s d t~
p~ (l913; translated, l918), publlshed poetry, per
formed at concerts organlzed by the Amerlcan Soclety
for Afrlcan Culture (AMSAC), and became secretary of
the Commlttee of Wrlters for Indlvldual Llberty. He
also wrote plays for radlo, televlslon, and the stage. As
was expected of hlm by hls Rockefeller sponsors and
Lnlverslty College, Ibadan, he undertook research lnto
West Afrlcan drama, but wrltlng lt up was not glven
prlorlty.
q q~ _ g ( performed, l960; pub
llshed ln q m~), hls bestknown work of thls
perlod, was wrltten, or rewrltten, at short notlce, ln
response to a request for a play that could be performed
ln a converted dlnlng hall ln Ibadan. Drawlng on hls
observatlon of the separatlst Chrlstlan churches of
Nlgerla, on Ijebu folk narratlves, and on theatrlcal con
ventlons explolted by Brecht, Soylnka put together a
vltal and vlgorous comedy, whlch contalns a stark
warnlng to a country on the eve of lndependence and a
more general message about gulllblllty and false lead
ers. Jhe negatlve reactlons of those crltlcs who
regarded the play as an attack on Chrlstlanlty have not
endured. Indeed, because separatlst sects are famlllar
throughout the contlnent and because the theatrlcal ldl
oms employed are acceptable and excltlng, the play has
become a favorlte wlth school, college, and communlty
center audlences throughout anglophone Afrlca. Pro
ductlons ln London and New York, sometlmes wlth
addltlonal, toplcal references, have shown that the
appeal of the play extends far beyond the contlnent of
lts blrth. Aware of the vltallty of the central character,
and of the advantages of uslng a popular flgure ln order
to make a serles of soclal and polltlcal comments,
Soylnka has wrltten at least one other play ln whlch
|ero ls featured, g j~ ( publlshed ln q
g m~I l973; performed, l971).
Jhe approach of lndependence made Nlgerlans
partlcularly selfconsclous, keenly aware of the posslblll
tles for growth and change offered by the change of sta
tus. Soylnka presented two other plays to hls
countrymen ln l960; a radlo play tltled `~
i~ ( publlshed ln l973); and a natlonal drama, ^
a~ c ( performed, l960; publlshed ln
l963), partly a reworklng of 'A Dance of the Afrlcan
Iorest."
Soylnka has descrlbed `~ i~ as an
attempt to use 'the ldlom of the masquerade ln audl
tory terms." Set ln a communlty llke that ln whlch
Soylnka grew up, ln whlch confllcts between Chrlstlan
groups and followers of b (natlverellglon) pro
318
t p~ ai_ PPO
cesslons could dlvlde famllles, the play explores the
relatlonshlp between the Reverend Erlnjobl and hls son
Isola. Jhe drama unfolds wlth masterly control and
lmportant local detalls, accompanled by the effectlve
use of the slnglng of the dlrge 'Agbe." In the closlng
moments Isola kllls, or 'sacrlflces," hls father, and the
dlrge wells up. Jhe play can be seen as a rlte of passage,
wlth lmpllcatlons for a natlon at a tlme of transltlon. It
can also be regarded as an essay ln tragedy. a dramatlc
statement of partlcular lmportance to those, mostly
European, observers who had denled the exlstence of
an Afrlcan sense of tragedy. `~ i~ con
talns several of the lngredlents found ln German play
wrlght Irank Wedeklnd`s ^~ p (l89l;
translated, l909), notably the repercusslons of a youth
ful pregnancy, but the perspectlve of the communlty
presented ln Soylnka`s play ls dlstlnctlvely and challeng
lngly dlfferent. After belng broadcast durlng September
l960, `~ i~ lay neglected for many
years. Often dlsregarded by those wrltlng on Soylnka, lt
deserves conslderatlon partlcularly for the way lt uses
sound, for lts evocatlon of a dlvlded communlty, and
for the manner ln whlch lt establlshes a dlalogue
between two tradltlons. Soylnka`s own lnterest ln the
play led to lts publlcatlon ln l973 and hls declslon to
stage lt at the Natlonal Jheatre ln Lagos ln March
l982.
As the slmllarltles between the tltles suggest, ^
a~ c ls closely llnked wlth 'A Dance of the
Afrlcan Iorest," extracts from whlch formed part of
Soylnka`s Royal Court evenlng. But whereas the Lon
don productlon was dlrected at the raclst reglme ln
South Afrlca, the latter play ls dlrected at Nlgerla;
lndeed, lt draws on encounters wlth the polltlclans who
were about to lnherlt power from the Brltlsh. Jhls
'lndependence" play shows an awareness of the capac
lty of leaders to explolt those they lead, and lt warns
that euphorla at a change ln natlonal status 'should," ln
the playwrlght`s words, 'be tempered by the reallty of
the eternal hlstory of oppresslon." A major theme ln the
play concerns the dlfflcultles lnvolved ln maklng 'new
beglnnlngs," but there ls much more. Jhe cast llst
lncludes human belngs and supernatural entltles; the
actlon lncorporates rltes, masques, a flashback, and a
serles of dances; there are also references to a varlety of
European dramas. Not surprlslngly, Soylnka encoun
tered numerous dlfflcultles ln mountlng the productlon.
Some of these were the result of extraneous factors
(some members of the cast llved ln Lagos, some ln
Ibadan; offlclal support was reduced when the local
lmpllcatlons of the play became apparent); others grew
out of the text and the demands lt made on the cast. As
a result certaln elements ln the orlglnal text had to be
abandonedas the exlstence of alternatlve endlngs ln
varlous verslons makes clear. ^ a~ c
remalns extraordlnarlly ambltlous, a young man`s
endeavor, full of themes that were to be more effectlvely
worked out ln hls later wrltlng.
Revlews of the premlere lndlcate that members of
the flrst audlences were bewlldered. Soylnka has
clalmed that lt was the culturally allenatedthe sort of
people who wrote revlewswho found the play dlffl
cult, and he has malntalned that 'ordlnary" members of
the audlence, the cooks and cleaners who allowed
themselves to respond to the unfoldlng of the stage
lmages wlthout lntellectuallzlng, returned to watch the
productlon nlght after nlght. Slnce publlcatlon of the
play, crltlcal debate has contlnued about lts meanlng
and slgnlflcance. Jhe play can be seen as an attempt to
comblne Yoruba tradltlons of festlval drama wlth Euro
pean tradltlons of dlalogue drama, and the themes of
explatlon and purlflcatlon are, wlth Soylnka`s grlm
warnlng about the 'recurrent cycle of stupldltles," cen
tral. In a world ln whlch envy and wlckedness are often
domlnant, the posslblllty of establlshlng harmony may,
Soylnka suggests, come from a recognltlon of past fall
ures, from sufferlng, and from a wllllngness to assert
oneself ln a responslble manner on behalf of the com
munlty.
^ a~ c reveals Soylnka`s ambltlon
and the range of dramatlc sources, both Afrlcan and
European, whlch he can draw on ln hls creatlve endeav
ors. Jhe hlstory of the flrst productlon shows the llml
tatlons, both human and polltlcal, whlch sometlmes
have restralned hlm. Jhe crltlcal response lndlcates the
haste wlth whlch some crltlcs reject hlm and the serl
ousness wlth whlch others take hlm. Jhere has been
speculatlve comment about the Nlgerlan receptlon of
Soylnka`s plays ln performance. Jextbased crltlclsm
has often falled to appreclate the dellght Nlgerlan audl
ences take ln watchlng Soylnka`s plays, and thls sltua
tlon suggests that welght should be glven to Soylnka`s
observatlon about 'ordlnary" members of the audl
ence.
Jwelve years after hls lndependenceyear produc
tlon of ^ a~ cI Soylnka dlrected extracts
from the play ln Parls, and reports suggest that he
brought to the productlon a strong hand, establlshlng a
flrm sense of rltual and carefully controlled, styllzed
effects. Slnce he ls an accompllshed and experlenced
dlrector, there ls a sense ln whlch hls plays exlst most
authorltatlvely when he dlrects them.
Confrontlng the challenges posed by dlrectlng ^
a~ c ln l960 dld not sap Soylnka`s creatlve
energles, and the early l960s contlnued to be a tlme of
exceptlonal productlvlty. He wrote for televlslon and
radlo and undertook research lnto West Afrlcan drama.
Jwo of hls televlslon plays reveal the tremendous range
319
ai_ PPO t p~
of hls wrltlng. j c~ _ (August l960) ls a nat
urallstlc drama ln whlch lssues of ethnlc dlfferences,
corruptlon, and, once agaln, the posslblllty of breaklng
wlth the past provlde central lnterests ln a play set
among the bourgeolsle of Lagos. k eI the
flrst part of a projected trllogy tltled 'Jhe House of
Banlgejl," was telecast durlng November l96l. An
extract from the trllogy had appeared ln the l959 Royal
Court performance, and portlons of the second part,
tltled q bI were publlshed ln the anthology oJ
(l962). Jhe play shows how the curse of a dylng
mother ls fulfllled desplte fllght from Nlgerla to London
to evade lt. Wrltten ln a varlety of styles, 'Jhe House
of Banlgejl" was on Soylnka`s desk for a long tlme
and, perhaps, never reached a form that satlsfled hlm.
Iurthermore, the condltlons under whlch he worked
at the Nlgerlan Jelevlslon studlo at Ibadan were frus
tratlng. for lnstance, the transmlsslon of j c~
_ was delayed by an hour because of a power cut,
and as a result some members of the potentlal audlence
mlssed lt. Jhe lmportance of the plays for televlslon ls
that they show a young dramatlst anxlous to explolt
every avallable means of communlcatlng wlth hls fellow
countrymen. 'Jhe House of Banlgejl" ls, ln fact, a
potentlally lmportant text that should be rescued from
near obllvlon.
Durlng l96l Soylnka was commltted to wrltlng
scrlpts for a weekly radlo comedy serles, _Jq _~I
whlch ran for many months and was a cross between a
sltuatlon comedy and a soap opera. Eventually, Soylnka`s
deslre to lntroduce what he called 'astrlngent polltlcal
comment" lnto the serles brought hlm lnto confllct wlth
admlnlstrators and polltlclans; he then stopped worklng
on the program, whlch came to an end. Jhe scrlpts
lndlcate Soylnka`s sklll at puttlng together popular
comedles and at creatlng varlatlons on mlstaken lden
tltles and farclcal confuslons. _Jq _~ provlded
Soylnka wlth a means of communlcatlon and wlth
addltlonal lncome; lt also enabled hlm to brlng
together and keep together a group of young people
who wanted to become professlonal actors. ^ a~
c had been put on by 'Jhe l960 Masks," largely
made up from the professlonal classes. Soylnka wanted
to go further and to encourage younger people who
could glve more tlme to actlng. Jo thls end he formed
the Orlsun Jheatre company, a major effort ln the cam
palgn to sustaln a rellable group of actors and an effort
that was encouraged by _Jq _~.
Durlng l960 and l96l, as a Rockefeller research
fellow, Soylnka was ln a rather unusual posltlon wlthln
the structure of Lnlverslty College, Ibadan; he was a
postgraduate student at a tlme when Lnlverslty College
was made up almost entlrely of undergraduates or staff
members. Jhe grant provlded hlm wlth conslderable
freedom, and he was entltled to a Land Rover and a
mlleage allowance. Durlng hls tlme as a researcher
Soylnka observed rltuals and performances ln Nlgerla,
Ghana, and the Ivory Coast, and he attended confer
ences ln Europe and the Lnlted States. He also spent
some tlme ln llbrarles readlng old lssues of k~ j~J
~ and k~ cI he kept abreast of the work Llll
Beler was publlshlng on Yoruba festlvals, and he
thought about the essentlal lngredlents of Afrlcan, and
more preclsely Yoruba, theater.
Wlthln Soylnka there has always been a tenslon
between the academlc and the man of the theater, the
crltlc and the creator, the analyst and the wrlter. Desplte
excurslons lnto academlc, crltlcal, and analytlcal wrlt
lng, he ls baslcally and most lmportantly a creatlve
wrlter, and hls conduct as a research student lndlcates
hls own recognltlon of hls aptltudes. It was expected
that he would wrlte a book based on hls research, but
the book does not seem to have been completed. He
dld, however, gather materlal for a paper and for subse
quent wrltlng. Jhe paper, tltled 'Jhe Afrlcan Approach
to Drama," was dellvered at a LNESCOsponsored
conference on Afrlcan culture held at Ibadan durlng
December l960 and was an artlst`s manlfesto, whlch, ln
some llghts, sounded llke a research paper. He dls
pensed wlth the formalltles of academlc papers but
drew on readlng and observatlon, and on an essentlally
comparatlve approach. Soylnka ls constantly seeklng
and flndlng parallels, both wlthln and outslde the fleld
of Afrlcan drama; he feels slmllarltles and ls sensltlve to
afflnltles wlth other tradltlons of drama. He was, ln the
paper, more concerned to state a posltlon than to argue
a case. 'Dramaturglcally," Soylnka asserted, 'the Afrl
can ls an lnstlnctlvely metaphorlcal artlst, eschewlng the
plaln hlstorlcal restatement for a symbollc rltual."
Much of the paper was personal, ldlosyncratlc, and
lmpresslonlstlc; lt ultlmately sald more about hls
approach to drama than about 'the Afrlcan approach to
drama."
In hls plays, among other concerns, he ls partlcu
larly lnterested ln symbollc rltual. Jhe play that appears
to owe most to Soylnka`s perlod as a research student,
one that ls worth more than any monograph on West
Afrlcan drama that he mlght have wrltten, ls q p
_ (publlshed ln q m~X performed, l966). It
contrasts two purlflcatlon rltuals, one hlghly styllzed,
the other comparatlvely unsophlstlcated. Soylnka seems
to borrow structural features from Eugene O`Nelll`s
b g (l920) ln order to explore the conduct of
Eman, a member of 'the strong breed," one of those
who bear the burdens of the communlty. Jhe chrono
loglcal sequence of events ls scrambled and can be con
fuslng, but the dramatlc contrasts, the oppresslve mood,
and the challenge to Eman`s wlll that Soylnka estab
350
t p~ ai_ PPO
llshes help to make thls a compelllng drama. Jhough
short, q p _ stands near the center of hls
achlevement as a dramatlst, clarlfylng ldeas about sacrl
flce that had been obscure ln ^ a~ cI
employlng rltual for dramatlc effect, explorlng the posl
tlon of the lndlvldual, and contlnulng a dlalogue wlth
Chrlstlanlty and wlth the Western theatrlcal tradltlon.
Durlng the early l960s Soylnka prepared an abbre
vlated verslon of q p _I and that verslon formed
part of the movle ` q~ (l961). Jhe play has
slnce been produced professlonally ln New York (l967)
and London (l968), has been translated lnto Irench, has
been produced by Nlgerlan students, and has attracted
amateur groups ln several anglophone Afrlcan countrles.
Its appeal ls not nearly as lmmedlate as q q~ _
gI but lt remalns an lnvaluable lntroductlon to serlous
themes ln Soylnka`s work.
Soylnka comblned hls wrltlng wlth hls other con
trlbutlons to the vlgorous development of Nlgerlan cul
tural llfe that characterlzed the early l960s. He shared
ln enterprlses wlth other Nlgerlan llterary flgures of hls
generatlon, such as Chlnua Achebe, |. P. Clark, and
Chrlstopher Oklgbo, and wlth some of them he
attended the Wrlters` Conference held at Makerere,
Lganda, durlng |une l962. Jhere he crltlclzed negrl
tude (though not for the flrst tlme), advocatlng that
Afrlcan wrlters accept thelr Afrlcan background and
feel free to respond to experlences orlglnatlng outslde
the contlnent. He expressed thls attltude by reportedly
saylng, 'Jhe tlger does not proclalm hls tlgrltude, he
pounces." Some crltlcs have demanded that Afrlcan
wrlters should strlve to ellmlnate nonAfrlcan lmages
and lnfluences from thelr work and have taken Soylnka
to task for thls attltude. Hls debate wlth natlonallsts,
chauvlnlsts, and 'decolonlzers"whom Soylnka some
tlmes calls 'NeoJarzanlsts" or 'throwback actlvlsts"
contlnues.
In l962 Soylnka began hls career as a unlverslty
lecturer at Lnlverslty College, Ife. But the followlng
year he reslgned, dlsgusted at the weakness shown by
the authorltles of the college ln the face of polltlcal pres
sure. He has never been averse to maklng the most of a
potentlally dramatlc sltuatlonsome regard hlm as
lmpetuousand has always been prepared to put hls
prlnclples above hls wellbelng. Jhe struggle for power
between Nlgerlan polltlcal partles and thelr leaders dur
lng the early l960s led to the eroslon of academlc free
dom and provlded a test of hls commltment to human
rlghts. Jemporarlly cut off from any base at a unlver
slty, Soylnka worked wlth amateur and professlonal
theater groups to brlng together a season of plays ln
Engllsh and Yoruba. He began produclng plays he
thought were partlcularly relevant to hls contemporar
les, and he cultlvated llnks wlth the vlgorous Yoruba
travellng theater companles. He had been lnterested ln
these companles for some years, supported thelr efforts
ln varlous ways, and drew lnsplratlon from the skllls
and styles they cultlvated.
Jhe polltlcal and human tenslons Soylnka had
drawn attentlon to ln hls plays of l960such as the gull
lblllty of the people, the hypocrlsy of leaders, and the
dlfflcultles lnvolved ln maklng a new beglnnlng
became lncreaslngly apparent. Eventually, the federal
government found an excuse to declare a state of emer
gency ln the Western Reglon. Jo Soylnka and other
Nlgerlan lntellectuals, the country appeared to be fol
lowlng the trend set elsewhere ln Afrlca toward repres
slon, a oneparty state, and dlctatorshlp.
Durlng l965 Soylnka took a post as senlor lec
turer ln Engllsh at the Lnlverslty of Lagos. Hls belng
hlred was probably based on recognltlon of hls creatlve
rather than hls scholarly achlevements. In Lagos he
watched the challenges to democratlc lnstltutlons grow
stronger, and, because of censorshlp, he experlenced
dlfflcultles ln communlcatlng hls ldeas. Wlth the l960
Masks, Orlsun Jheatre, and Yeml Lljadu he gave hls
genlus for satlre full reln ln worklng on a serles of
revues. q o~ (l963), q EkF o~
(l961), and _ _~ (l965; publlshed clrca
l972). Jhrough them he attacked a varlety of targets,
lncludlng opportunlst polltlclans, corrupt tlmeservers,
and cynlcal manlpulators, exposlng clearly ldentlflable
lndlvlduals to rldlcule and provldlng a commentary on
the state of the natlon slnce lndependence. Some of the
more llterary sketches from the revues were subse
quently publlshed under the tltle _ _~
( probably ln l965, though the book ls not dated). Jhey
reveal Soylnka`s skllls as a songwrlter and satlrlst as
well as hls confldence that the wrlter can sway the audl
ence. Hls strategy ln the revues was to ldentlfy and pll
lory lndlvlduals who ln hls oplnlon had behaved
lrresponslbly. Crltlcs from the Left have sometlmes
challenged thls approach, regardlng lt as focuslng on
symptoms and neglectlng causes, but Soylnka has
changed llttle over the years. Glven the vlgor of the
Marxlst school of crltlclsm ln Nlgerla and the wlde dls
trlbutlon of other Marxlsts, lt seems probable that thls
debate, llke that over negrltude, wlll contlnue.
Jhe year l965 was also marked by the publlca
tlon of Soylnka`s flrst novel, q fX the flrst
publlc readlng by hlm of hls long major poem f~X
the premlere of q o~ at the Jheatre Royal Stratford
East ln London; and the openlng of h e~ at
Independence Hall ln Lagos. Soylnka has descrlbed q
fI on whlch he must have worked for an
extended perlod durlng the early l960s, as 'an attempt
to capture a partlcular moment ln the llves of a genera
tlon whlch was trylng to flnd lts feet after Indepen
35l
ai_ PPO t p~
dence." Jhe novel has a complex structure and dense
passages of descrlptlve prose, whlch have allenated
some readers and some crltlcs. Jhe structure may
lndeed be dlsconcertlng, but lt ls also lntrlgulng, espe
clally when one understands that narratlve ln Soylnka`s
creatlve world ls only one way ln whlch a plece of work
can be held together. He has always malntalned hls
rlght to communlcate wlth dlfferent groups at dlfferent
tlmes, to wrlte adaptatlons of Yoruba folk songs ln
Yoruba, and to arrange a pattern of lnterrelated events
for those, perhaps a farflung ellte, who respond to a
challenglng work of llterature. q f marked an
authorltatlve move lnto a genre new to Soylnka; and lt
qulckly establlshed ltself as a classlc of Afrlcan wrltlng.
Jhe momentum of the novel ls sustalned by the
detalled portrayal of llfe ln Lagos and Ibadan, partlcu
larly among the academlc communlty, and by the vlgor
ous satlre at the expense of Nlgerlan newspapers.
Composed, apparently, wlthln a perlod of twenty
four hours, f~ ls a mythologlcal poem on a scale and
on themes for whlch llttle ln Soylnka`s prevlous output
had prepared readers. Durlng the early l960s he had
contlnued hls experlments wlth verse, and hls works,
often concernlng gyres or cycles of hlstory, had become
lncreaslngly assured. He carrled over from Yoruba
usage a dellght ln the manlpulatlon of word, lmage, and
ldlom that sometlmes pleases but other tlmes becomes
bombastlc and anarchlc. He ls a mythopoet for whom
Yoruba and other myths provlde a means of comlng to
terms wlth and communlcatlng experlences. In f~
he works partlcularly on storles assoclated wlth the
Yoruba mythologlcal flgures Ogun, Atunda, Sango, and
Oya, and the Idanre Hllls, wlthln a tradltlon that, he
argues, ls reslllent and syncretlstlc, a tradltlon ln whlch
new experlences are easlly lncorporated wlthln an old
framework. Jo lllustrate the context ln whlch he wrltes,
Soylnka says ln hls notes to the volume that a statue of
Sango, god of llghtnlng, stands outslde the offlces of the
Nlgerlan electrlclty supply company, and Ogun, the
darlng ploneer who made a road through a swamp that
had dlvlded gods from men, ls regarded as 'the prlmal
motor mechanlc." Ogun, compounded of opposltes,
powerful, Promethean, darlng, and dangerous to know,
ls Soylnka`s patron delty.
Soylnka read f~ at the Royal Court Jheatre
durlng the Commonwealth Arts Iestlval, ln September
l965. q o~I though not an offlclal Nlgerlan entry ln
the festlval, was glven a professlonal productlon that
same month at the Jheatre Royal Stratford East to
colnclde wlth the festlval. Actors from a varlety of back
grounds took part, and Soylnka contrlbuted advlce.
Jhe crltlcs were dlvlded ln thelr response. several were
taken aback by the mlxture of the satlrlcal and the splrl
tual, by the burled story llne, and by the use of Yoruba
rltuals; but there was a wldespread feellng that the pro
ductlon was stlmulatlng and theatrlcally dlvertlng. A
few crltlcs were of the oplnlon that Soylnka had made a
major contrlbutlon to Engllshlanguage theater. Llterary
crltlcs, lncludlng Eldred D. |ones and Gerald Moore,
have subsequently wrltten of the publlshed text (l965),
and some have become embrolled ln trylng to explaln
the meanlng of partlcular passages. Soylnka hlmself has
drawn attentlon to the orlgln of the play ln hls lnterest
ln lnvestlgatlons lnto the transltlon from llfe to death,
the groplng to deflne the essence of death. He has also
sald that the play was orlglnally concelved as a movle.
q o~ ls profoundly lnfluenced by a Yoruba
sense of the contlnulty between llfe and death and of
the llmlts on human knowledge of the unlverse. Songs
and rltuals constantly break through the surface of the
drama and draw attentlon to thls Yoruba dlmenslon.
But ln other respects q o~ ls the product of Nlge
rlan experlences durlng the mlddle of the twentleth cen
tury, and lt reflects the roles played by drugs, crlmlnals,
corrupt pollcemen, and unscrupulous polltlclans. Some
of Soylnka`s crltlcs have commented on the obscurlty
and complexlty of thls play, but othersnotably some
on the Left, lncludlng Blodun |eylfohave responded
favorably to hls treatment of economlc and soclal
lssues.
Whlle ln London to take part ln the Common
wealth Arts Iestlval, Soylnka played Konu ln a BBC
radlo play he had been commlssloned to wrlte, q
a~ (unpubllshed). Set ln a prlson ln a recently lnde
pendent Afrlcan country, lt reflects the profound con
cern wlth whlch Afrlcan lntellectuals vlewed the
developments that had followed lndependence ln many
Afrlcan countrles. Jhe lmaglnary state ln whlch q
a~ ls set bears resemblances to Ghana, whlch
Soylnka knew flrsthand and whlch, under the leadershlp
of Nkrumah, had carrled many of the hopes of the contl
nent. Jhe lntroductlon of represslve, antldemocratlc mea
sures had marked the end of Nkrumah`s honeymoon wlth
Afrlcan lntellectuals, and ln q a~ Soylnka set out to
show that the reallty of lndependence had fallen short of
the dream. Jhe playwrlght`s prognostlcatlons had been
proved rlght. the hopes that accompanled lndependence
had been proved false. Independence was not a horn of
plenty but a Pandora`s box full of polltlcal monsters and
dlseases.
h e~ ( performed, l965; publlshed,
l967), also draws on contemporary polltlcal develop
ments; lt comblnes partlcular and toplcal alluslons wlth
comments appllcable to varlous countrles. Jhe play
was apparently lnsplred by Hastlngs Banda, presldent
of Malawl, saylng that he wanted a partlcular opponent
brought to hlm dead or allve. Other Afrlcan leaders
alluded to lnclude Nlgerlan polltlclans and, more con
352
t p~ ai_ PPO
troverslally, Nkrumah. But perennlal Soylnkan con
cerns, such as hls lnterests ln the posslblllty of change
and ln the confllct between the forces of llfe and the
forces of death, lle at the heart of the play. Jhe l965
productlon ln Lagos seems to have emphaslzed certaln
llnks between the megalomanlac Kongl, autocratlc ruler
of Ismaland, and Nkrumah. Jhe play ls bullt, ln a man
ner characterlstlc of Soylnka, around an lnterrupted rlt
ual, ln thls case the rltual assoclated wlth the harvest of
yams, and casts Kongl as a barren, hatefllled tyrant
determlned to usurp the rlght of tradltlonal ruler Oba
Danlola to recelve 'the flrst frult" of the new crop.
Danlola reslsts the polltlcal pressure from the new head
of state and supports the vltal challenge to Kongl
launched by the characters Daodu and Segl. Daodu, an
educated farmer and Danlola`s helr, and Segl, the mys
terlous female owner of a nlghtclub and the organlzer
of a women`s group, arrange for Kongl to be shot dur
lng the New Yam Iestlval, but thelr plan goes awry
when the assassln ls kllled. Segl then lmprovlses a cere
monlal dance ln whlch Kongl ls presented wlth the
assassln`s head, a gesture showlng that Kongl ls a har
vester of death. Part 2 ends thls way ln the prlnted ver
slon of the play, but ln hls productlons Soylnka has
experlmented wlth a varlety of stage actlons at thls
polnt. And he has on occaslon omltted the flnal sectlon
of the publlshed verslon, 'Hangover," ln whlch three of
the characters respond to the publlc humlllatlon of the
despot.
Some crltlcs have condemned the play for what
they regard as lts dlsrespectful portralt of Nkrumah,
others for Soylnka`s fallure to clarlfy the narratlve llne.
(What exactly are Daodu and Segl plannlng?) Soylnka
has also been accused of other crlmes wlth an ldeologl
cal dlmenslon, of mystlflcatlon, of selectlng an elltlst
hero (Daodu) rather than a man of the people, and of
addlng yet another seductlve 'superwoman" (Segl) to
hls llst of female stereotypes.
Shortly after returnlng to Nlgerla from the
Commonwealth Arts Iestlval, Soylnka was trled for
holdlng up a radlo statlon and steallng tapes. Jhe
trlal grew out of an lncldent ln whlch an lntruder,
angry at the way reglonal electlons had been con
ducted and the way S. L. Aklntola had been declared
the wlnner, entered the radlo statlon at Ibadan and, at
gunpolnt, forced the actlng head of programs to remove
Aklntola`s taped vlctory address and substltute a tape
the lntruder had brought wlth hlm. Accordlng to an
observer sent to cover the trlal for Amnesty Interna
tlonal, the lntruder`s tape began, 'Jhls ls the Volce of
Iree Nlgerla," and went on to advlse Aklntola and hls
followers to 'qult the country." Jhe openlng sentences
of the lntruder`s tape had been broadcast before a vlgl
lant employee of the broadcastlng servlce lnterrupted
transmlsslon. Jhe Nlgerlan pollce declared Soylnka a
wanted man, and ln due course he gave hlmself up, was
denled ball, and, wlth legal help, defended hlmself
agalnst the charges. Jhe courtroom exchanges and
other eventsSoylnka went on hunger strlke at one
polntguaranteed extenslve newspaper coverage and
placed the playwrlght at the center of the natlonal stage.
Eventually, on the grounds that there were materlal
contradlctlons ln the evldence agalnst hlm, he was
acqultted ln December l965 and carrled shoulderhlgh
from the court.
Soylnka ls a polltlcal actlvlst as well as a wrlter. he
regards lt as hls duty to take a part ln lnfluenclng the
dlrectlon taken by Nlgerla. He artlculated hls commlt
ment to polltlcal actlon ln hls semlnal address to the
Ilrst AfrlcanScandlnavlan Wrlters` Conference, held at
Stockholm durlng l967. Joward the end of hls paper
('Jhe Wrlter ln a Modern Afrlcan State") he declared,
'Jhe artlst has always functloned ln Afrlcan soclety as
the record of the mores and experlence of hls soclety
~ as the volce of vlslon ln hls own tlme." Over the
years Soylnka has taken varlous roles ln natlonal llfe,
and, ln statements, papers, and essays, he has contrlb
uted to the debate about the role of the wrlter. Jhe full
story of the radlostatlon holdup has not yet been told,
and Soylnka has been reluctant to comment on the
judge`s verdlct.
Jhe months between Soylnka`s acqulttal on the
charge of holdlng up the radlo statlon and hls rearrest
durlng August l967, ln connectlon wlth, among other
thlngs, an open letter he wrote about the Nlgerlan clvll
war, were momentous ones for Nlgerla. Jhere was a
coup by radlcal and progresslve offlcers who had the
support of many Nlgerlan lntellectuals, but the coup
was subsequently presented to the natlon as havlng
been mastermlnded by a partlcular ethnlc factlon. It
was followed by a countercoup launched by conserva
tlve forces, whlch brought Yakubu Gowon to power.
Durlng l966 Soylnka revlsed hls productlon of
h e~ and went wlth lt to Dakar, Senegal, for
the Iestlval of Negro Arts. Jhere he was awarded a
prlze for q o~I gave a paper on Nlgerlan theater
tltled 'A Study ln Jyranny and Indlvldual Survlval,"
and sat on a panel concerned wlth Afrlcan fllm. But hls
doubts about the phllosophy that provlded theoretlcal
justlflcatlon for the festlvalnegrltuderemalned. Sub
sequently, over a perlod of several years, he explored
dlfferences and common ground ln conversatlons wlth
Lopold Sdar Senghor.
Durlng thls perlod he dlrected plays by local and
forelgn playwrlghts and channeled a conslderable
amount of creatlve energy lnto poetry. In l966 he cele
brated the 'Ilrst Rlte of the Harmattan Solstlce" wlth a
small, mlmeographed (unpubllshed) collectlon of hls
353
ai_ PPO t p~
verse, some of whlch may have been composed some
years before. Jhe tltles suggest that some of these were
wrltten ln Yoruba and ln the form of Yoruba
(poems of pralse). Durlng the latter part of l966
Soylnka`s poetry became more dlrectly focused on
events ln Nlgerla. In f~ C l m he subtltled
one sectlon 'October `66" and lncluded ln lt poems that
embody responses to scenes of vlolence and reports of
massacres, whlch he places ln a wlder context. Ior
example, ln 'Harvest of Hate," medltatlng on the way
the current sltuatlon had arlsen, he wrltes.
k ~ ~~
q ~ ~ ~
^ ~
p ~ ~
Jhe relatlvely prlvate response to events repre
sented by the majorlty of the poems ln the collectlon
was complemented by outspoken contrlbutlons by
Soylnka to the press. Publlc controversy was nothlng
new to hlm; he had reveled ln the brlsk exchanges of
student polltlcs and taken part ln debates durlng hls
undergraduate days. Startlng shortly after hls return to
hls natlve land, he had wrltten to the press on a varlety
of lssues, lncludlng the quallty of the flrst festlval orga
nlzed by AMSAC, the hazards encountered on Nlge
rlan roads, the state of emergency, the need to adapt
Afrlcan dances for the stage, Ahmadu Bello`s j i
(l962) and the way Soylnka`s revlew of lt (a~ bI
Lagos, l7 November l962) was edlted, preventlve
detentlon, and the sentenclng of flve northern women
to one year ln prlson and elghty strokes of the lash for
'lnsultlng behavlor." Hls poem 'Ior Segun Awolowo,"
ln memory of the son of a leadlng Western Reglon poll
tlclan, also appeared ln the press; though complex and
metaphyslcal, lt was wldely appreclated and later col
lected as 'In Memory of Segun Awolowo" ln f~ C
l m.
Durlng November l966, followlng the massacres
of Igbos and the announcements that a group of ~
(Yoruba tradltlonal rulers) was about to set out on a
natlonwlde peace mlsslon, Soylnka wrote 'An Open
Letter to the Western Obas" (a~ qI Lagos). He
made lt clear that he regarded the peace mlsslon as a
purposeless charade, a confuslonlst tactlc that would try
to cover wlth words the wounds that only actlons could
heal. He coupled hls crltlclsm of the l~ wlth an attack
on members of the Yoruba communlty ln Zarla for the
'unYoruba" manner ln whlch they had expressed thelr
thanks for belng protected durlng dlsturbances. One of
the ~ responded ln the same newspaper by saylng
that 'Soylnka ls a carboncopy of Shakespeare. He ls
rather the modern Shakespeare of our tlme and he ls
entltled to hls oplnlon." Another sald venomously and
wlth the confldence that comes wlth age ln some commu
nltles, 'Soylnka ls not serlously wlshlng to help the coun
try. Belng a small boy he could be chlldlsh ln ldeas." In the
correspondence columns of the newspaper durlng the
days that followed the publlcatlon of the open letter, there
were more crltlcs than supporters of Soylnka`s posltlon.
Lndaunted by the reactlon to hls flrst open letter,
Soylnka wrote agaln durlng August l967. At thls stage
the tlmes were even tenser, and hls style was approprl
ately more acerblc. By 1 August, when the letter
appeared, Blafra had seceded from Nlgerla; there were
'Igbos Must Go" demonstratlons ln Lagos; rumors
were clrculatlng that Igbos were plannlng to blow up
the clty; and the p~ p newspaper had reported
the capture of the clty of Nsukka. Offlclal accounts,
however, were stlll talklng of the confllct as a 'pollce
actlon." Soylnka`s 1 August l967 artlcle, 'Let`s Jhlnk
of the Aftermath of Jhls War," was an appeal for a
truce and a demand for plaln speaklng. It was also an
attack on those he regarded as exploltlng the confuslon
and chaos. 'the now famlllar brlgade of professlonal
congratulators, opportunlsts, patrlots and other sordld
racketeers who are rldlng hlgh lnto posltlons of lnflu
ence on the wave of hysterla and trlbal hatred." Soylnka
was detalned shortly after the letter was publlshed and
just after he had made a vlslt to Blafra and spoken to
leaders there. Accusatlons were made agalnst hlm.
Although he spent twentyseven months ln prlson, he
was never charged, and, lt seems, he was vlctlmlzed
because he ralsed hls volce ln the lnterests of peace and
dlplomacy.
Soylnka has descrlbed hls experlence of detentlon
ln hls prlson notes, q j~ a (l972). Jhls book
should not be regarded as a comprehenslve, factual
account of the entlre perlod Soylnka spent ln prlson but
as a celebratlon of a creatlve response to detentlon. It
contalns thoughts about the nature of tragedy; poems;
trlbutes to the reslllence of fellow prlsoners; and gro
tesque, amuslng, polgnant descrlptlons of people and
events. Jhere are also some word sketches of the artlst
as a polltlcal prlsoner.
Whlle Soylnka was ln prlson, f~ C l m
and q c ~ q~ a~W ^ e p~~I hls
l968 translatlon of D. O. Iagunwa`s l l k
f f~ (l950), were publlshed. Work on the trans
latlon had been ln progress for several years and lndl
cated Soylnka`s anxlety to make a dlstlngulshed Yoruba
novel accesslble to a wlder readershlp. As a translator
Soylnka ls concerned wlth communlcatlng the splrlt of
the orlglnal rather than wlth produclng a falthfully llt
eral verslon, and the book provldes a focus for hls ldeas
about language and the lssues ralsed by translatlon.
PRQ
t p~ ai_ PPO
m ~ q _ ET k NVUSF ~ p~ ~~
E_ `~ i~~ ^F
355
ai_ PPO t p~
Shortly before hls arrest Soylnka had dlspatched
the essay 'Jhe Iourth Stage. Jhrough the Mysterles of
Ogun to the Orlgln of Yoruba Jragedy" to D. W. |effer
son, who was edltlng a festschrlft ln honor of Knlght
(q j~ Î l969). It ls not clear when thls essay
was composed or whether lt was wrltten wlth |effer
son`s collectlon ln mlnd. Although sometlmes tendlng
toward an affectlonate parody of Knlght`s style, lt pro
vldes conslderable lnslght lnto the prlnclples on whlch
Soylnka has constructed hls tragedles, prlnclples that
explolt the common ground between Afrlcan and Euro
pean experlence. Central to Soylnka`s thlnklng about
tragedy ls the rltual root of the form and a selectlon of
myths assoclated wlth Ogun, partlcularly the storles of
how he bullt a road to llnk men and gods, and how,
confused and drunk, he kllled many of hls frlends and
supporters. Soylnka malntalns that Ogun worshlpers
reenact the delty`s crosslng of the 'transltlonal gulf." In
thls essay, as elsewhere, Soylnka can be seen establlsh
lng hls ldeas ln the course of a dlalogue or a debate and
flndlng, wlthln the tradltlons of the Yoruba people, ele
ments that echo hls deeply held feellngs. He recognlzes,
for example, that creatlve and destructlve lmpulses are
closely allled and are found together ln the truly cre
atlve.
After hls release from detentlon Soylnka returned
to the Lnlverslty of Ibadan as dlrector of the School of
Drama and took over a productlon of h e~I
whlch was ln rehearsal. He gave the productlon an antl
mllltary slant, and those who had prevlously recognlzed
Nkrumah ln Kongl now saw a portralt of the head of
the Nlgerlan mllltary junta, Gowon. In a program note
Soylnka emphaslzed that the play was about a condl
tlon, 'Konglsm," rather than about an lndlvldual. He
malntalned that 'there are a thousand and more forms
of Konglsmfrom the crude and blasphemous to the
subtle and sanctlmonlous."
Durlng the early months of l970 Soylnka worked
on and completed a fllm verslon of the play. He
'opened out" the text, reshaped the plot, and provlded
opportunltles for spectacular shots of Abeokuta and of
Olumo Rock, whlch rlses above the town. He played
the role of Kongl hlmself, communlcatlng an acute
sense of splrltual exhaustlon and occaslonally calllng to
mlnd Presldent Mobutu Sese Seko of Zalre. Soylnka
had long been lnterested ln fllm as an art form and as a
means of communlcatlon, but he was unhappy wlth the
verslon of the movle that was released. He went so far
as to dlssoclate hlmself from lt, descrlblng hls perfor
mance as Kongl as 'the extent of |hls| partlclpatlon."
Jhe movle never made as deep an lmpact as the Amerl
can and Nlgerlan backers, CalpennyOmega, hoped lt
would, but, desplte dlsmlsslve comments to the con
trary, lt ls technlcally acceptable. Jhematlcally, lt ls gen
erally falthful to Soylnka`s scenarlo. the flnal lmage (of
Segl`s father becomlng a dlctator) ls not qulte what
Soylnka seems to have had ln mlnd, but the lmpllcatlon
that Konglsm has not been dethroned and wlll not eas
lly be overthrown comes across.
By |uly l970 the shootlng of the movle had fln
lshed, and Soylnka had obtalned support from the
Lnlverslty of Ibadan for proposals to establlsh a per
formlng company attached to the unlverslty and to
upgrade the School of Drama to a Department of Jhe
atre Arts. Along wlth some of those who were to
become deeply lnvolved ln the company and the
department, he responded to an lnvltatlon from the
Eugene O`Nelll Memorlal Jheatre Center at Water
ford, Connectlcut, to stay at the center and work on a
bltter, sardonlc play he had thought about and perhaps
partly scrlpted whlle ln prlson, j~ ~ p~
( performed, l970; publlshed, l97l). In the excellent
worklng condltlons provlded at the center, Soylnka
wrote wlth a freedom that had rarely lf ever been pos
slble ln Nlgerla. passages were rewrltten overnlght;
roles were expanded or reduced; sectlons were cut; and
new materlal was added. Soylnka seems to have used
the play as a means of 'exorclslng" hls clvllwar experl
ences, and lt has been descrlbed by Ablola Irele as
embodylng 'a passlonate and consumlng obsesslon
wlth the problem of evll." However, the play ls not
entlrely bleak. Humor breaks through from tlme to
tlme, although lt ls often grlm or 'slck". smlles tend to
come through clenched teeth. After puttlng on the play
at the center and ln some predomlnantly black nelgh
borhoods ln the Lnlted States, the group returned to
Nlgerla, where a revlsed verslon was staged durlng
March l97l.
Jhe lnvltatlon from Amerlca provlded evldence
of the growth of Soylnka`s lnternatlonal reputatlon, not
only as a wrlter but lncreaslngly as a dlrector. Over the
years Soylnka has bullt up a company of rellable, versa
tlle performers who are ln tune wlth the klnd of theater
he wants to create, and he was able to draw them
together at Waterford, to alter hls scrlpts ln rehearsal to
accommodate partlcular talents, and to cope wlth cast
changes. Jhe character Sl Bero, for example, was orlgl
nally a mother flgure, not a slster flgure, ln j~I the
alteratlon belng necessltated by a change of actress.
After the Nlgerlan productlon of j~ and on
the eve of the release of the movle of h e~I
Soylnka left Nlgerla for what he lntended to be a 'brlef
exlle" ln Europe. He was away, ln fact, for flve years,
durlng whlch tlme he reslgned from hls post at Ibadan
and wrote, publlshed, or prepared for publlcatlon an
lmpresslve llst of books. ^ p Ì q j~
aI hls adaptatlon q _~~ b (l973), q
g m~ (l973), p~ ^ (l973), m _~
356
t p~ ai_ PPO
Zfrico (edlted by Soylnka, l975), Dcotl ovd tlc Iivg`s
Horscmov (l975), and Mytl, Iitcroturc ovd tlc Zfricov !orld
(l976). He also acted ln |oan Llttlewood`s May l97l
Parls productlon of Conor Crulse O`Brlen`s Murdcrous
Zvgcls ( publlshed ln l969). Jhe latter part of Soylnka`s
exlle was spent ln Ghana, where he edlted the journal
Trovsitiov and was a prlme mover ln the formatlon of the
Lnlon of Wrlters of the Afrlcan Peoples (LWAP).
Jhe energy that went lnto thls extraordlnary cre
atlvlty was released by the experlences of the Nlgerlan
clvll war, by the clrcumstances of hls exlle, and by hls
contlnued, but dlstanced, contact wlth Nlgerla. Z Sluttlc
iv tlc Crypt, a volume of poetry, ls a 'map of the course
trodden by the | poet`s| mlnd" durlng hls lmprlsonment.
One of the most controverslal features of the collectlon
ls the extent to whlch he draws on Western modes and
archetypes, partlcularly ln the sectlon that lncludes the
creatlve lnteractlon of the prlsoner wlth such flgures as
Hamlet, |oseph, Llysses, and Gulllver. Some crltlcs
have argued that the trlbulatlons of lncarceratlon drove
Soylnka back to hls forelgn sources of lnsplratlon, oth
ers that the lmprlsonment represented an abyss lnto
whlch the poet, llke Ogun, descended and ln whlch,
agaln llke Ogun, he trlumphed by assertlng hlmself.
Tlc Mov Dicd carrled Soylnka`s fame and opln
lons far beyond the llterary clrcles that reacted to Z
Sluttlc iv tlc Crypt: lt was read as a contrlbutlon to Nlge
rlan studles, wldely revlewed, and much dlscussed.
Apparently, lt was concelved as two books and can be
seen as an unusual comblnatlon of a hardhlttlng polltl
cal expos and a prlson memolr, wlth poetry and llter
ary thoughts. Soylnka wrote part of the book to
stralghten the record regardlng the background to hls
lmprlsonment, but other elements ln lt reveal the range
of hls lnterests and the varlety of hls concerns. Central
to the polltlcal aspect of the book ls the reference to the
socalled Jhlrd Iorce, whlch Soylnka, apparently, sup
ported. Jhe slgnlflcance of thls group has not yet been
adequately lndlcated. Indeed, hlstorlans and polltlcal
sclentlsts who have wrltten about the clvll war have
generally found llttle or no space for dlscusslon of the
group, lts polltlcal phllosophy, lts modus operandl, or
lts lmpact. Soylnka boldlyor rashly'named names"
ln the book, and Rex Colllngs, a London publlsher and
frlend, took some rlsk ln publlshlng lt. Sales ln Nlgerla
were not as hlgh as had been hoped, partly because of
the dlstrlbutlon problems of the book trade ln that
country, partly because booksellers were dlscouraged
from stocklng lt. Some years later another effort to keep
the book from the Nlgerlan readlng publlc was success
ful when Ieml Okunnu, one of those named, sued the
Afrlcan publlsher, the Lnlverslty of Lagos Press, result
lng ln an order to wlthdraw all coples from the shops.
By that tlme, however, Tlc Mov Dicd had become an
establlshed part of the llterature on the Nlgerlan clvll
war. (Jhe court case was eventually settled many years
later, and Soylnka was ordered to pay a small amount
ln damages.) Soylnka`s book ls provocatlve and
couched ln characterlstlcally strong, sometlmes hyper
bollc, terms. Jhough these words are not out of place ln
the hectlc badlnage that ls the current coln of much
Nlgerlan publlc debate, they seem selflndulgent when
encountered beyond the natlon`s boundarles. Jhe tltle,
lncldentally, ls taken from a telegram concernlng the
fate of an lnnocent man at the hands of the agents of the
new rulers of Nlgerla. It also calls to mlnd Soylnka`s
convlctlon that 'the man dles" ln all who keep sllent ln
the face of tyranny.
Scosov of Zvomy, Soylnka`s second novel, takes cen
tral concerns from Tlc Ivtcrprctcrs and selects a new
moment at whlch to conslder the cholces confrontlng
those worklng for change. Iast movlng, readable, and
mythologlcalllnks are establlshed wlth the myths of
Orpheus and Eurldlcethe novel presents clalms of a
harmonlous communlty (Alyero), the appeal of a cold
blooded assassln (Isola Demakln), and the responses of
the artlstmedla man (Ofeyl). Some crltlcs have objected
to what they conslder the chauvlnlstlc presentatlon of
the major female character, to the use of a Greek myth
ologlcal source, and to the lushness of some of the wrlt
lng. Others have tended to downplay the forceful
evocatlon of the brutallty of clvll war and the lntellec
tual debate about the responslblllty of the lndlvldual.
Soylnka spent most of l972 ln Europe, and dur
lng the academlc year l973-l971 he held a fellowshlp at
Churchlll College, Cambrldge. Whlle there, he dellv
ered a serles of lectures subsequently publlshed under
the tltle Mytl, Iitcroturc ovd tlc Zfricov !orld. Jhey com
blne lucld crltlclsm of speclflc texts wlth dlscusslons that
reveal the scope of Soylnka`s acqualntance wlth llterary
and theatrlcal tradltlons and hls search for an ldlosyn
cratlc perspectlve. Jhe lectures were glven ln the
anthropology department, a fact that provldes an
lnslght lnto the authorltles` attltudes toward Afrlcan
studles and reveals that the struggle to have Afrlcan cre
atlvlty recognlzed had yet to be won ln certaln contexts.
Jhe exlstence of these contexts explalns the polemlcal
nature of some of Soylnka`s arguments ln hls lectures
and hls attempts to artlculate ldeas about exlstence,
drama, and morallty.
Whlle at Cambrldge, Soylnka returned to an epl
sode suggested to hlm ln about l960 as sultable mate
rlal for a drama. the lnterrupted rltual sulclde of the
klng`s horseman at Oyo durlng the mld l910s. Soylnka
was able to wrlte the play qulckly, and lt was glven a
group readlng at Cambrldge. Inltlally tltled 'Death and
the D. O.," lt was publlshed as Dcotl ovd tlc Iivg`s Horsc-
mov, and ln l976, after Soylnka had returned to Nlgerla,
357
ai_ PPO t p~
lt was glven lts premlere. Jhree years later, ln l979,
Soylnka dlrected a productlon at the Goodman Jheater
ln Chlcago, and the play was subsequently staged at the
|ohn I. Kennedy Center for the Performlng Arts ln
Washlngton, D.C. Amerlcan lnterest ln the play has
remalned hlgh, and durlng l986 Soylnka dlrected a pro
ductlon ln one of the theaters at the Llncoln Center ln
New York.
Response to the flrst Nlgerlan productlon and to
the publlshed verslon tended ln Nlgerla to be doml
nated by the feellng that the concern wlth the 'feudal"
values of the court at Oyo ls lrrelevant and that ten
slons between the classes should have been presented.
In Amerlca the reactlon has been more encouraglng.
Desplte dlfflcultles ln drawlng the performances he
requlred from hls Amerlcan casts, Soylnka has found
that hls presentatlon of an Afrlcan soclety and of the
lssues confrontlng lt was wldely acceptable. Jhe decl
slon to transfer the flrst Amerlcan productlon to Wash
lngton, D.C., for example, lndlcated the feellng of
lnfluentlal lndlvlduals that the play deserved a wlder
and more cosmopolltan audlence than lt had ln Chl
cago. In hls 'Author`s Note" to the book, Soylnka
wrltes about the lmportance of the 'threnodlc essence"
of the play and the need to avold the 'reductlonlst ten
dency" to analyze lt ln terms of a 'clash of cultures."
Desplte thls note, the play does confront lssues ralsed
by the lnteractlon of the Yoruba worldvlew wlth the
prejudlces cultlvated at the outposts of the Brltlsh
Emplre. Jhe movement of the horseman, Elesln,
toward death and hls fallure to commlt sulclde at the
approprlate tlme provlde conslderable dramatlc lnterest
and a sharper dramatlc focus than the metaphyslcal
dlmenslon.
a~ ~ h e~ comblnes powerful
dramatlc verse and some lmpresslve characterlzatlon
wlth a structure that lncorporates contrast and juxta
posltlon. It explores the complexltles of sltuatlons,
amblgultles, and uncertalntles ln human relatlons and
refuses to opt for the easy rhetorlc of the antlcolonlal
struggle. Some have pralsed the play as a penetratlng
examlnatlon of responslbllltles and as a worthwhlle
examlnatlon of the notlon of honor. Others have drawn
attentlon to the way ln whlch Soylnka 'recreates"
Olunde, Elesln`s son, who kllls hlmself to salvage hls
famlly`s reputatlon. Lnllke the flgure ln the orlglnal
sources, Olunde ls presented as a medlcal student who
ls forelgn educated. yet another of Soylnka`s elltlst
heroes, a recrult to the ranks of the lonely savlors. Jhls
llne of crltlclsm frequently falls to take lnto account the
almost lnevltable concentratlon on lndlvldual charac
ters ln those dramas that are almed at affectlng the emo
tlons of the audlence.
Whlle ln exlle, Soylnka fulfllled a commlsslon
from the Natlonal Jheatre ln London to prepare an
adaptatlon of q _~~ by Eurlpldes. He had flrst
worked on an adaptatlon of thls play, whlch he
regarded as a flawed masterplece, whlle an under
graduate at Ibadan; and hls mature work drew on hls
long acqualntance wlth the text, as well as on hls thlnk
lng about the nature of Ogun. He also lncorporated
ldeas from hls readlngsome of lt Marxlst analysls
about the soclal and economlc condltlons that provlded
a background to the play. In Soylnka`s verslon Pentheus
emerges as a 'colonlal" flgure obsessed wlth 'order";
and Dlonysus, 'the god of the people," as an Ogun flg
ure. Jhose famlllar wlth hls earller plays recognlzed
Soylnka`s characterlstlc emphasls on cultural colncl
dences, on the need for a wllllng sacrlflce, and on the
renewal that comes through rltual death, whlle those
who knew f~ and 'Jhe Iourth Stage" drew atten
tlon to the extent to whlch the new verslon repeated
Soylnka`s earller ldeas about Ogun.
Jhe Brltlsh Natlonal Jheatre entrusted the pro
ductlon of Soylnka`s q _~~ b to a young
dlrector, Roland |offe, who has slnce made a reputatlon
as a movle dlrector. A dlstlngulshed cast was assembled,
and the l973 premlere productlon was wldely, though
not always favorably, revlewed. It was suggested ln
some quartersand thls seems to have been Soylnka`s
oplnlonthat |offe`s productlon was out of sympathy
wlth baslc elements ln the adaptatlon and that the per
formers were lll equlpped to cope wlth the demands
made on them. q _~~ b presented by the
Natlonal Jheatre dld not mark, as some had hoped lt
would, the arrlval of Soylnka ln a major London the
ater. But the text provldes an opportunlty to observe
the polnts of convergence and separatlon between the
Greek orlglnal and the Nlgerlan adaptatlon, and a com
parlson brlngs out lmportant aspects of Soylnka`s ablll
tles and senslbllltles.
Whlle ln Europe, Soylnka remalned ln touch wlth
events ln Nlgerla, wlth the result that some of hls work
from thls perlod ls a contrlbutlon to the debate about
Nlgerlan lssues. In the mlddle of l972 a member of the
Gowon junta was glven the task of clearlng the proph
ets and leaders of separatlst sects from Bar Beach, the
flctlonal home of Soylnka`s Brother |ero, near Lagos.
Soylnka seems to have already entertalned thoughts of
brlnglng |ero back onto the stagea play tltled 'Jhe
Exodus of Brother |ero" had been announced at one
polnt but not completed. Jhe junta`s clearance scheme,
together wlth the spate of publlc executlons carrled out
ln a panlc response to an lncrease ln armed robberles ln
the country, provlded a sltuatlon around whlch Soylnka
could work a play. He called the new drama g j~J
( produced ln l971 and publlshed ln q g
358
t p~ ai_ PPO
m~). It comblnes broad comedy, at the expense of rec
ognlzable types, wlth a clever, subverslve attack on the
Nlgerlan mllltary reglme. In the course of the play |ero,
alert, subtle, and manlpulatlve, uses blackmall and hls
wlts to bargaln hls way lnto a powerful posltlon. He
becomes the leader of the Church of the Apostollc Sal
vatlon Army and obtalns a 'splrltual monopoly" ln the
Natlonal Executlon Amphltheatre, whlch ls to be bullt
on Bar Beach once the prophets have been removed.
Soylnka sent coples of the play to people he thought
mlght dlrect lt and clearly hoped for a Nlgerlan produc
tlon, but apparently there was not one untll the mlddle
of l98l, by whlch tlme the soldlers were safely, lf tem
porarlly, back ln thelr barracks. One of the revlews of
that productlon was headllned 'Corruptlon Glorlfled ln
g j~"a perverse response, whlch shows
that even the stralghtforward |ero plays can be mls
understood.
Whlle followlng Nlgerlan affalrs wlth great lnten
slty and respondlng to speclflc eplsodes, Soylnka ln
exlle was also able to cultlvate hls sense of the experl
ences that unlte the Afrlcan contlnent. He edlted a vol
ume of poems from black Afrlca for Secker and
Warburg, a volume that runs to 378 pages and lncludes
hls lntroductlon and about 210 poems, 9 of them by
Soylnka. Jhe collectlon dlffers from earller anthologles
of Afrlcan verse and makes a PanAfrlcanlst polnt by
arranglng the poems accordlng to theme rather than by
the natlonallty of the poet. One lntrlgulng feature ls to
be found ln the blographlcal notes at the end of the vol
ume. Soylnka has lndlcated the towns ln whlch most of
the contrlbutors were born, but he wrltes dlscreetly, or
perhaps secretlvely, that he hlmself was born slmply 'ln
Nlgerla."
Jhls major collectlon, the result of wlde readlng
and careful selectlon, shows the polnts at whlch black
Afrlcan experlences ln dlfferent parts of the contlnent
touch, and lt brlngs together tradltlonal verse wlth the
work of several generatlons of wrlters. In the lntroduc
tlon Soylnka confronts the lssue of outslde lnfluences
on Afrlcan poets and argues that ln poetry, as ln flelds
of major technologlcal development, there has obvl
ously been outslde lnfluence, whlch ls not necessarlly
bad. He makes the polnt ln relatlon to freedom flghters.
'Jo recommend, on the one hand, that the embattled
general or the llberatlon flghter seek the most sophlstl
cated weaponry from Europe, Amerlca or Chlna, whlle,
on the other, that the poet must totally expunge from
hls consclousness all knowledge of a forelgn tradltlon ln
hls own craft, ls an absurdlty." In these llnes lt ls pos
slble to hear, once agaln, dlstant echoes of Soylnka`s
exchanges over negrltude and hls debates wlth those
who demand 'the decolonlzatlon of Afrlcan llterature."
Much of hls wrltlng over the years has been glven an
edge, and made more dlfflcult to follow, by belng part
of a debate or a contrlbutlon to a serles of debates.
After leavlng Cambrldge, Soylnka took the post
of edltor of q~I a magazlne devoted to 'Culture
and the Afrlcan Creatlve Scene," whlch had been
founded ln l96l and had been edlted ln Kampala,
Lganda, by Rajat Neogy. But wlth the rlse and tyranny
of Amln, Lganda could no longer provlde a base for
elther Neogy or a publlcatlon devoted to freedom.
Soylnka was guest edltor for volume fortyslx (l971),
and ln an edltorlal he struck a dlstlnctlve note, carrylng
over concerns apparent ln a~ ~ h e~W
Peoples who have experlenced the humlllatlon of
lmperlal attltudes on thelr own soll must recognlse that
any pretence towards decolonlsatlon ls a gesture of
betrayal as long as vestlges of such attltudes remaln on
the llberated soll. Attltudes are dlrectly related to val
ues. Jhe Afrlcan people, mlnus such natlonal leaders as
are hopelessly seduced by thelr own lmage of the black
colonlal governor, must know that the values of the
outgolng lmperlal powers must be replaced by an ethnl
cally approprlate system of values and soclal structure,
lf the work of true llberatlon ls to be completed.
Soylnka`s pollcy pushed forward the cause of llb
eratlon by focuslng on the posltlve achlevements ln
GulneaBlssau and of Amllcar Cabral and then by
boldly exposlng tyranny and fallure ln Ethlopla and
Lganda. Volume fortyslx of q~ also featured an
artlcle on the l973 famlne ln Ethlopla, and a subse
quent lssue documented the extent of the bloodshed
caused by Amln. On the llterary slde Soylnka publlshed
an artlcle by some of hls severest crltlcsChlnwelzu,
Onwuchewka |emle, and Ihechukwu Madubulkeand
he replled to them ln a typlcally splrlted artlcle tltled
'NeoJarzanlsm. Jhe Poetlcs of PseudoJradltlonallsm"
(ln Î a~ ~ l~I l988).
Wlth volume flfty Soylnka sought to reflect the
new dlrectlon ln whlch he was taklng q~ by
changlng the name of `f~~I an lnvocatlon com
posed of ''Indaba`the Great Assembly, Councll, Col
loque (Matabele) and 'Cha`to dawn (Swahlll)." But hls
efforts were to no avall. storles llnklng the Amerlcan
Central Intelllgence Agency wlth assoclatlons and con
gresses for cultural freedom began to appear ln other
publlcatlons, and flnanclal support for q~ was
seen to have come from a partlsan Amerlcan source.
Attempts were made to flnd alternatlve fundlng, but
these were unsuccessful; q~L`f~~ dled. One
of the last lssues prlnted a prellmlnary 'Declaratlon of
Afrlcan Wrlters." Dated March l975, lt looked forward
to the lnaugural meetlng of LWAP, scheduled to take
place durlng l975. Soylnka had been an actlve member
of a campalgnlng wrlters` group ln Nlgerla durlng the
359
ai_ PPO t p~
early l960s and had carrled on hls lnterest ln creatlng a
wrlters` organlzatlon that would flght for human rlghts
and promote the development of llterature. He took a
leadlng role ln the formatlon of LWAP and was elected
secretarygeneral at the lnaugural meetlng. Jhe extent
of the unlon`s actlvltles have not been fully docu
mented, but Soylnka wrote, spoke, and organlzed func
tlons ln the name of the unlon durlng the years that
followed. Ior lnstance, he wrote an open letter (a~
qI Lagos, 9 December l978) to Senghor objectlng to
the bannlng of the movle Ì and he wrote to Danlel
Arap Mol demandlng the release of the lmprlsoned
Ngugl wa Jhlongò. Soylnka organlzed a press confer
ence at the tlme of the Second Black and Afrlcan Iestl
val of Arts and Culture (IESJAC), and he spoke at a
publlc meetlng called to celebrate the removal of Amln.
LWAP came lnto exlstence because of Soylnka`s vlslon,
passlon, enthuslasm, and energy.
In December l975 Soylnka, speaklng on behalf of
the Cabrallst Movement for Afrlcan Alternatlves, wel
comed the stand taken on Angola by Murtala Moham
med, who had overthrown Gowon durlng the prevlous
|uly. Jhe new junta provlded a leadershlp under whlch
Soylnka, for all hls dlsllke of mllltary rule, felt he could
llve and work. He returned to Nlgerla and ln |anuary
l976 took a professorshlp at the Lnlverslty of Ife. In
certaln respects he began to work wlthln the establlsh
ment. Soylnka enjoyed a few days of Mohammed`s
brlef but, for many, golden relgn. ln Iebruary the leader
was shot dead durlng an attempted putsch. He was suc
ceeded by the uncharlsmatlc Olusegun Obasanjo.
When, on 3 March, Samora Machel put Mozam
blque on a war footlng agalnst Rhodesla, Soylnka cele
brated by wrltlng a major poem, l ^~ (l976),
whlch runs to twentytwo pages and ls dedlcated to the
dead and malmed of Soweto. Jhe poem, whlch brlngs
together the gods Ogun and Shaka, ends wlth Ogun ln
the ascendant. However, the fact that Machel subse
quently slgned the Nkomatl Accord, a nonaggresslon
pact wlth South Afrlca, was vlewed by Soylnka as a
betrayal.
Durlng December l976 Soylnka produced a~
~ h e~ at the Lnlverslty of Ife, but the
play seems to have been out of tune wlth the tlmes. Jhe
Nlgerla to whlch Soylnka had returned was a country
ln whlch the rlch had become rlcher and the poor
poorer than before, ln whlch the economy had been dls
torted by the ollboom years, and ln whlch the volce of
the Left was louder and more artlculate than ever
before. Jhe arts festlval IESJAC, whlch took place
early ln l977, provlded Soylnka wlth many lnslghts lnto
the extent to whlch corruptlon and lnefflclency had
come to characterlze hls natlve land. Hoplng that some
thlng could be salvaged from the occaslon, he became
lnvolved ln the organlzatlon of the festlval, but he even
tually reslgned, frustrated and angry. It had become
clear that the 'cultural jamboree" was belng run for the
beneflt of contractors and buslnesspeople, rather than
for artlsts or performers; the festlval was not for those
lnterested ln the contrlbutlon the arts could make to the
natlon or the contlnent. Although he reslgned from hls
offlclal festlval post, Soylnka dld not boycott the cele
bratlons entlrely. he dellvered a paper at the Collo
qulum on Black Clvlllzatlon and Educatlon, whlch
constltuted one of the less spectacular, less extravagant,
and more productlve aspects of the festlval. In 'Jhe
Scholar ln Afrlcan Soclety," Soylnka lnjected notes of
controversy and ldeallsm lnto hls speech, alludlng to
dlplomatlc dramas and stresslng the soclal obllgatlons
of the academlc communlty. He deflned the black
scholar as 'a hlstorlclzed machlne for chewlng up the
carcase of knowledge to regurgltate mortar for soclal
reconstructlon," and he addressed hlmself to the vexed
questlon of a language for the contlnent. After revlew
lng the debate up to l977, he asked the assembly
whether lt jolned hlm 'ln calllng upon |Afrlcan| govern
ments to commence the teachlng of Klswahlll ln all the
schools on thls contlnent." No answer ls recorded. It
seems that plans to adopt Klswahlll as the contlnental
language remaln plous resolutlons.
Durlng l976 Soylnka used Brecht`s q
l~ as a basls for l~ tI llterally 'Jhe Iool
Buys t " belng a partlcularly expenslve
lace very popular wlth wealthy Nlgerlans. In some
respects the work can be seen as a response to those
who had condemned a~ ~ h e~ as
well as a reactlon to the brutallzed soclety to whlch
Soylnka had returned. Jhe Nlgerlan verslon of the
story follows Brecht, and therefore to some extent
|ohn Gay`s _~ l~ (l728), but Soylnka added
new characters and sequences and gave the work a dls
tlnctlvely Afrlcan and Nlgerlan flavor. Soylnka`s scrlpt
contalns alluslons to contlnental and local scandalsfor
example, the outrageous extravagance of |eanBedel
Bokassa`s coronatlon and the mysterlous deaths assocl
ated wlth the marble deposlts at Igbettl. Some of these
atrocltles are attacked ln effectlve muslcal sequences or
ln memorable songs. Jhe play mlght seem to be the
klnd of productlon the Left would have welcomed, and
to some extent they dld. lt was vlgorous and accesslble
theater. But, ln the words of Blodun |eylfo (ln a revlew
collected ln q q iI l985), lt fell short of what
was deslred because lt lacked 'a solld class perspectlve."
Jhls absence was to be expected ln vlew of the lndebt
edness to an early Brecht scrlpt and ln vlew of
Soylnka`s rejectlon of a perspectlve based on class as
provldlng the answer to all questlons about human
behavlor. Hls response to |eylfo`s crltlclsm, an lmpor
360
t p~ ai_ PPO
tant document ln Soylnka`s encounters wlth the Left, ls
found at the beglnnlng of the Colllngs edltlon of the
play. But hls most recent creatlve work, partlcularly hls
agltprop theater, hls popular, satlrlcal muslc, and hls
ventures lnto fllmmaklng, must also be taken lnto
account when descrlblng hls response to such crltlclsm.
It was planned that l~ t would move on
from Ife, where lt premlered, to the Natlonal Jheatre ln
Lagos, but the productlon was deemed unsultable, and
the lnvltatlon was wlthdrawn. Jhe scale of the plece
meant that lt could not easlly be accommodated ln
other venues. Determlned to avold slmllar frustratlons
and ln order to communlcate wlth the general publlc,
Soylnka created hls next productlons ln an agltprop
style. He wrote e o and _ d~ p~~I
known collectlvely as _ _Jl ( performed ln
l978; unpubllshed), whlch provlde a commentary on
current affalrs, partlcularly on the preparatlons belng
made for a return to clvlllan rule. Jhese sketches,
whlch are sultable for performance ln almost any open
space and requlre few props, follow the careers of some
of the characters lntroduced ln l~ t as they
return to Nlgerla to flght for thelr place at the 'table of
dellghts" that would be lald for the polltlclans successful
ln the forthcomlng electlons. Jhe opportunlsts were
gettlng ready for 'the blowout." Jhe sketches, per
formed by a new group, the Guerrllla Jheatre Lnlt of
the Lnlverslty of Ife, reveal that Soylnka stlll had some
thlng to learn about uslng performance arts to make an
lmpact on hls countrymen. Jhey are wrltten ln Engllsh,
and although many of the effects created are easlly
appreclated, some of the humor assumes a falrly
advanced knowledge of the language. Jhelr lmportance
resldes ln what they reveal of Soylnka`s movlng toward
popular, polltlcal theater.
Durlng l978, whlle worklng wlth the Guerrllla
Jheatre Lnlt, Soylnka also dlrected q _ fI a
verslon of the eponymous proceedlngs ln a South Afrl
can court that had been edlted by |on Blalr and Nor
man Ienton, and a major lndlctment of the South
Afrlcan pollce state. Soylnka deslgned an effectlve set
for the productlon and stepped ln at an advanced stage
ln the rehearsals to avert posslble dlsaster by taklng
over a major role. Jhe productlon was subsequently
televlsed and taken to New York for a festlval ln l980
evldence of Soylnka`s deslre to use the medla to take hls
theater to a large audlence and to broaden the experl
ence of those worklng wlth hlm.
Soylnka`s concern about hls country and hls con
tlnent dld not only flnd expresslon ln theatrlcal actlvl
tles. He had long been dlstressed by the number of
people kllled on Nlgerlan roads and by the appalllng
rlsks taken by those who travel by road. In a l |anuary
l979 newspaper artlcle he asked that l979 be deslg
nated 'Jhe Year of the Road," and he became an actlve
campalgner for road safety, puttlng forward proposals
and acceptlng certaln responslbllltles. Jhls actlvlty
mlght seem meekly vlrtuous and thoroughly uncontro
verslal, but, ln the context of the cross between a race
track and a battleground that Nlgerlan roads sometlmes
resemble, lt was no easy undertaklng. Lnroadworthy
vehlcles; unllcensed drlvers; reckless nlhlllsts behlnd
steerlng wheels; lrresponslble, lnept, lllequlpped, and
lnefflclent roadmalntenance englneers; and proflt mar
glns that depend on hlgh speeds, low malntenance
costs, and overloaded trucks make Nlgerlan roads a for
mldable challenge. Soylnka has put vast resources of
energy lnto patrolllng roads, wrltlng about roads, and
framlng proposals to make the roads of Nlgerla safer.
He has composed leaflets and, at one polnt, was sald to
be worklng on a roadsafety movle, applylng hls talents
and skllls ln an effectlve manner. In handllng offlcers
and the press, Soylnka`s conduct has been hlghhanded
on occaslon and has attracted crltlclsm from lnslde and
outslde the Road Safety Corps.
In the perlod lmmedlately before the October
l979 Nlgerlan electlons, Soylnka was ln Chlcago work
lng on the productlon of a~ ~ h e~
for the Goodman Jheatre, but he returned home from
tlme to tlme and followed what was happenlng closely.
As a result of the electlons, or rather as a result of a par
tlcular readlng of the provlslons of the constltutlon,
Shehu Shagarl became presldent of the Second Repub
llc of Nlgerla. It was a new beglnnlng, endlng thlrteen
years of mllltary rule ln a natlon that had not yet been
lndependent for twenty years. But the very announce
ment of Shagarl`s vlctory provlded serlous grounds for
concern. In Oyo State, wlthln whlch both Ibadan and
Ife are sltuated, Bola Ige, a member of the Lnlty Party
of Nlgerla and an old frlend of Soylnka, was elected
governor. Soylnka accepted from hlm the chalrmanshlp
of the Oyo State Road Safety Corps and threw hlmself
lnto lts crusade. He also worked closely wlth Junjl
Aboyade, the vlcechancellor of the Lnlverslty of Ife
and another companlon of long standlng.
In December l980 Soylnka dellvered hls lnaugu
ral lecture, a professorlal obllgatlon. Llke much that he
had wrltten before, hls lecture ls stlmulatlng and exclt
lng but shows more of the creatlve wrlter than of the
academlc. Jltled 'Jhe Crltlc and Soclety. Barthes,
Leftocracy and Other Mythologles" (collected ln Î
a~ ~ l~), lt restates Roland Barthes`s con
cepts so as to make them unrecognlzablemerely a
startlng polnt for an lnqulry. Jhe crltlcs whose works
are examlned are predomlnantly those of the Nlgerlan
Left, but Soylnka also comments scathlngly on some
European and Amerlcan crltlcs.
36l
ai_ PPO t p~
In l98l Soylnka was a vlsltlng professor at Yale
Lnlverslty, whlch had already awarded hlm an honor
ary doctorate. It was antlclpated that he would dlrect a
new work, Z Iloy of Ciovts, subtltled 'A Iantasla on an
Amlnlan Jheme," but other commltments prevented
the lmmedlate reallzatlon of thls project. Jhe play,
whlch was eventually publlshed and performed ln
l981, ls partly a speclflc campalgn agalnst Amln, who
had begun hls relgn of terror ln Lganda durlng Iebru
ary l97l, and partly the presentatlon of a more general
concern wlth responslble leadershlp ln Afrlca. It ls a
feroclous attack on a selectlon of the tyrants who had
taken power ln Afrlca. Nguema, Amln, Bokassa, and
Seko. Some of those, from the Eastern and Western
blocs, who lnterfere ln Afrlcan affalrs are attacked, and
the gulllblllty of those who are manlpulated ls exposed.
Jhe drama, set ln the 'Bugaran Embassy" ln New
York, shares some qualltles wlth plays by |ean Genet
and ls somewhat statlc, more concerned wlth maklng
satlrlcal polnts than wlth malntalnlng dramatlc momen
tum. It ends wlth Kamlnl, the Amln flgure, turnlng the
flrepower wlth whlch he had been supplled by the
world powers (and whlch he had smuggled lnto the
embassy ln dlplomatlc bags) on the Lnlted Natlons
bulldlng. Z Iloy of Ciovts recalls Tlc Ivvcvtiov ln belng a
polltlcal drama flrst presented to a nonNlgerlan audl
ence by a nonNlgerlan cast and ln belng so bltter that
the attack sometlmes proves wearlsome. It ls lconoclas
tlc theater, nonnaturallstlc, grotesque, remlnlscent of
Alfred |arry`s Ubu Ioi (l896), and llnked at many polnts
wlth the llves of the powerful tyrants who had emerged
ln Afrlca. Indeed, power and lts exerclse have long fascl
nated Soylnka, and Z Iloy of Ciovts ls just one ln a serles
of hls works that examlne the theme.
Soylnka began wrltlng hls autoblography ln
Ghana durlng hls tlme as edltor of Trovsitiov and had
encouragement from publlsher Rex Colllngs. Jhe story
of hls flrst eleven years was completed at the beglnnlng
of the l980s and publlshed under the tltle Zlc: Tlc Jcors
of Clildlood. It ls a dramatlst`s autoblography, fllled wlth
vlvldly reallzed characters, neatly shaped eplsodes,
effectlve dlalogue, and a wealth of lnformatlon about
the famllles and communltles that nurtured hlm. Zlc
reveals a dramatlst`s recognltlon of the need to slmpllfy
and hlghllght, fueled by the deslre to capture ln wrltlng
the characterlstlcs of a dlsappearlng culture. Jhe lmpact
of the autoblography ln Nlgerla was not as great as
mlght have been expected, because of problems of dls
trlbutlon and, untll the paperback was lssued, of cost.
Some of the most lmportant Nlgerlan responses to Zlc
have been polltlcal and soclal, reactlng to Soylnka`s crlt
lclsm of the polltlcal sltuatlon ln Abeokuta or hls pre
sentatlon of women, for example. In the Lnlted
Klngdom the book was wldely and favorably revlewed,
but lt made a much greater lmpact ln the Lnlted States,
where lt found an enthuslastlc readershlp and drew the
author and hls reslllent Afrlcan world to the attentlon of
a new publlc.
Durlng l982 Soylnka worked, once agaln, ln a
varlety of contexts. Ior lnstance, ln |anuary he
launched Zlc at Abeokuta, uslng the occaslon to attack
Shagarl`s government and draw attentlon to the polltl
cal vlolence and lnjustlce apparent ln the country; dur
lng March and Aprll he staged hls early radlo play,
Comwood ov tlc Icovcs, at the Natlonal Jheatre ln Lagos;
ln the mlddle of the year he dellvered hls paper
'Shakespeare and the Llvlng Dramatlst" at a conference
held ln StratforduponAvon; he also fulfllled a commls
slon to wrlte a radlo play for the BBC (Dic Still, Icv`d
Dr. Codspcol! ). Jhese and other engagements showed
Soylnka to be a fullfledged lnternatlonal flgure wlth a
deep lnvolvement ln Nlgerlan affalrs and a commltment
to a wlde varlety of practlcal, academlc, soclal, and cre
atlve projects.
Dic Still, Icv`d Dr. Codspcol! was further devel
oped and, under the tltle Icquicm for o Iuturologist,
wldely toured wlthln Nlgerla ln l982 and l983 and was
publlshed ln l985. Drawlng lnsplratlon from a text by
|onathan Swlft about an almanac maker, |ohn Par
trldge, the play mlngles satlre and soclal comment wlth
metaphyslcal speculatlon. Whlle not vlntage Soylnka,
Icquicm for o Iuturologist provldes evldence of Soylnka`s
contlnued concerns and creatlvlty. It was toured wlth a
serles of sketches, tltled Iriority Irojccts, whlch made a
conslderable lmpact. they used spectacle, slmple dla
logue, strldent lyrlcs, and effectlve muslc to draw atten
tlon to the corruptlon, mlsmanagement, and hypocrlsy
ln Nlgerla. Soylnka released the songs that made a
major contrlbutlon to Iriority Irojccts on a longplaylng
record, together wlth a clovsov o clcf tltled Uvlimitcd Iio-
bility Compovy. Jhls song was a wltty and telllng attack
on the wldely dlscredlted government Shagarl headed.
Jhe record was sold, sung, and danced to ln the weeks
before the natlonal electlons of August l983. In those
states that opposed Shagarl, the record was broadcast,
reached a large sectlon of the populatlon, and seems to
have become an anthem of the opposltlon.
Mllllons voted agalnst Shagarl, and many were
convlnced that Shagarl had been voted out. However,
he was declared the wlnnera sequence of events that
recalled for many the l965 electlons. Soylnka`s reactlon
was to head for a mlcrophone. he flew to London and
gave an lntervlew to the BBC ln whlch he descrlbed the
background to the electlons, the way the Western press
had been manlpulated, and the dlstortlons apparent ln
the offlclal verslon of the results. Jhe lntervlew was
broadcast by the BBC to Europe and Afrlca and was
heard by mllllons. Shagarl`s second term was short,
362
t p~ ai_ PPO
ended by the coup that brought Mohammed Buharl to
power. Soylnka was lnltlally prepared to glve thls new
mllltary reglme a chance to prove lts worth, but he
qulckly became dlslllusloned; he was dlstressed by lts
lntolerance of opposltlon and lts represslve tendencles,
and he began saylng so.
On l3 |uly l981 Soylnka celebrated hls flftleth
blrthday. A symposlum was held at Ife, provldlng
opportunltles for colleagues, frlends, and crltlcs to
assess hls achlevements as a dramatlst, novellst, poet,
fllmmaker, polltlcal actlvlst, and soclal commentator.
Jhe Left was well represented, asklng whether Soylnka
was progresslve or reactlonary, urglng a move toward
greater 'audlence consclousness" and a 'transparency
whlch ls slmple but dellcate," drawlng attentlon to hls
penchant for hlstrlonlcs, and requlrlng that as an artlst
he should go 'beyond the rot." Jhe celebratlons
lncluded a showlng of a roughcut verslon of Soylnka`s
_ ~ m~ (released ln l985), a movle deslgned
lnltlally to expose the vlolence and corruptlon that char
acterlzed the Shagarl government. _ ~ m~ ls,
however, somethlng of a dlsappolntment. lt slldes occa
slonally below Bmovle standards, searchlng for an
ldlom ln whlch narratlve and polltlcal comment can be
effectlvely brought together. Jhere are also technlcal
weaknesses, whlch may be the result of the small bud
get and of havlng to shoot part of the movle under the
occaslonally vlgllant eye of antagonlstlc polltlcal oppo
nents. Soylnka was stlll seeklng to come to terms wlth
the clnema; he was aware of the enormous potentlal of
fllm as a means of communlcatlon and anxlous to
develop a characterlstlc approach to the medlum, but
he had dlfflculty arranglng flnanclal and technlcal sup
port.
When, at the beglnnlng of l985, Soylnka
attempted to screen _ ~ m~ ln Lagos, the
prlnt was selzed by offlcers of the Natlonal Securlty
Organlzatlon; Buharl was not prepared to allow the
showlng of a movle dlrected prlmarlly at the reglme he
had toppled. Durlng the followlng months Soylnka
attacked the Buharl reglme on several counts, partlcu
larly for Decree 20, whlch meant 'death by retro
actlon," lmposlng retroactlve death penaltles for many
offenses; for the 'deafness" of the leaders; and for the
detentlon of columnlst/educatlonlst Jal Solarln who
crltlclzed the reglme for human rlghts abuses. On l7
|une, Soylnka was ln London, where he spoke at the
Instltute of Contemporary Art on 'Cllmates of Jerror,"
a toplc that enabled hlm to challenge, provoke, and
entertaln hls audlence. (Jhe paper was later publlshed
ln Î a~ ~ l~.) In the questlonandanswer
sesslon that followed he spoke about the Nlgerlan sltua
tlon and about the future. 'Jhe dam must burst . . . a
people llke ours cannot be held down."
Durlng early August, Soylnka severed some of hls
llnks wlth the Lnlverslty of Ife. A speclal program of
poetry, muslc, drama, and several farewell speeches
revealed the esteem ln whlch he was held. He deslgned
the house he lntended to bulld at Abeokuta, and durlng
the years that followed, he devoted tlme and energy to
the constructlon of what he regarded as a center for cre
atlve people rather than as a home. Jhe end of August
l985 saw yet another coup ln Nlgerla. Led by Major
General Ibrahlm Babanglda, the coup showed that the
dam had not burst, but a slulce gate had been opened.
In September, Soylnka comblned approval of the flrst
few steps taken by the new reglme wlth advlce to the
new junta about the dangers that mlght come from the
lndlscrlmlnate release of polltlcal detalnees.
Hls departure from Ife, assumptlon of academlc
responslbllltles at Cornell Lnlverslty, and work on a
productlon, ln Irench, of g j~ wlth a the
ater group ln Martlnlque reflected the shlft ln focus of
part of hls llfe. One effect of the move was to brlng hlm
to even greater lnternatlonal promlnence. Durlng the
year followlng hls reslgnatlon he was presldent of the
Internatlonal Jheatre Instltute (IJI), was runnerup (to
Max Irlsch) for the Neustadt Internatlonal Prlze for Llt
erature, was awarded the Mattel Prlze for Humanltles,
and was elected a correspondlng member of the East
German Academy of Arts and Letters. He also became
an honorary member of the Amerlcan Instltute of Arts
and Letters.
Soylnka`s career ln the mld l980s exhlblted famll
lar lngredlents. there were natlonal and lnternatlonal
concerns and academlc and creatlve projects. But the
proportlons altered somewhat slnce he was no longer
attached to a Nlgerlan unlverslty and slnce, ln l986, he
was elected presldent of the IJI. Hls electlon was ln rec
ognltlon of hls achlevements as a wldely produced play
wrlght. Based part of the year at Cornell Lnlverslty, he
fulfllled varlous IJI obllgatlons, lecturlng and taklng
responslbllltles connected wlth an lnternatlonal theater
festlval held ln Baltlmore, where there were Russlan
objectlons to the presentatlon of ^~ c~ by the Brlt
lsh Natlonal Jheatre. Jested ln the flre of Nlgerlan poll
tlcs, and experlenced ln the dlplomatlc moves that go
lnto the smooth runnlng of Afrlcan arts festlvals,
Soylnka found hlmself caught up ln the tenslons of the
Cold War. In the same year, movlng confldently where
Nlgerlan affalrs were concerned and speaklng boldly on
famlllar lssues, he jolned wlth Achebe and Clark ln
unsuccessfully petltlonlng Babanglda to spare the llfe of
Major General Mamman Vatsa, a poetsoldler accused
of plottlng a coup. A month later Soylnka dellvered a
provocatlve paper, 'Ethlcs, Ideology and the Crltlc," at
the Second Stockholm Conference for Afrlcan Wrlters.
363
ai_ PPO t p~
Jhe announcement that he had been awarded the
l986 Nobel Prlze ln Llterature came on l6 October.
Jhe cltatlon descrlbed Soylnka as 'a wrlter who ln a
wlde cultural perspectlve and wlth poetlc overtones
fashlons the drama of exlstence." Soylnka expressed the
oplnlon that the prlze was not an award for hlmself 'but
to all the others who |had| lald the basls and were the
source from whlch |he| could draw. It ls," he observed,
'the Afrlcan world whlch can now be recognlsed."
Soylnka was lnformed about the award ln Irance when
he flew ln from the Lnlted States en route to a drama
festlval at Llmoges. After glvlng the world press the
quotes lt needed for the story about the flrst black Afrl
can to wln the Nobel Prlze ln Llterature, he cut short
hls vlslt to Europe and returned to Nlgerla. Mlnutes
after hls arrlval he was lnformed that the mllltary leader
had made hlm a 'Commander of the Iederal Repub
llc."
In the months followlng the award of the Nobel
Prlze, Soylnka dlrected a~ ~ h e~ ln
New York and gave readlngs, lectures, and lntervlews.
He also wrote what he descrlbed as 'scraps of poetry . . .
chapters of thls . . . sketches of that" and accepted a
commlsslon from the Royal Shakespeare Company ln
London to prepare a scrlpt of q _~ by Genet for
thelr autumn l987 season. He never completed the
scrlpt to hls own satlsfactlon, and the productlon never
took place.
In May l987 he read poems at the Albert Hall
about Muhammed All, Master Sergeant Doe of Llberla,
and Nelson Mandela. Jhe readlng came just after the
death of Nlgerlan polltlclan Obafeml Awolowo, and
Soylnka responded by composlng for Awolowo a trlb
ute ln verse tltled 'One Jree that Made a Iorest," pub
llshed ln the d~~ (Lagos), l0 |une l987.
In l988 Soylnka publlshed a collectlon of essays,
Î a~ ~ l~I and a volume of poetry, j~J
~ b~. A sequel to Î tltled f~~I was publlshed
the followlng year. Jhe essays brought together the
famlllar wlth the prevlously unpubllshed, the most
strlklng belng those wrltten ln outrage, angry contrlbu
tlons to debates that show Soylnka`s passlonate con
cern. In the poems, wrltten wlth supreme self
confldence, Soylnka comments on experlences ln Amer
lca and responds to the vlllalns and heroes of Afrlca.
Jhe poems about the Mandelas and poems that evoke
Nlgerla are the most movlng and powerful. Jhe flnal
note of the flnal poem ln the collectlon brlngs together
powerful lmages of flre and raln, whlch run through
many Afrlcan cultures, and, ln the flnal stage, Soylnka
marrles 'earth to heaven."
f~~ explores the world ln whlch Soylnka`s father,
Ayodele, grew up. Jhroughout the novel runs the con
vlctlon that the earller generatlon responded to the chal
lenges posed by a changlng world wlth conslderable
determlnatlon and pralseworthy resourcefulness. Inevl
tably there are parallels wlth Soylnka`s own generatlon,
a group he has descrlbed as 'wasted." Although set ln
the past, hls readable, fluent novel engages the modern
reader.
Much of Soylnka`s work after f~~ was an
attempt to salvage somethlng of value from the falled
hopes of the helrs of the colonlallsts, and the tone of hls
wrltlng ls often desperate. Regardlng Nlgerla`s roads,
the playwrlght contlnued hls campalgn to try to
reduce the terrlble death toll, for example, by requlr
lng natlonal drlver`s llcenses. Jhls step mlght appear
to be a relatlvely stralghtforward ln many socletles,
but, desplte tralnlng schemes, the dlstrlbutlon of free
booklets, and a huge publlclty onslaught, the pro
gram was thrown off course at almost every turn ln
Nlgerla. Corruptlon, opportunlsm, lneptltude, lneffl
clency, and the submlsslveness of Nlgerlans were dlf
flcult obstacles. In a newspaper artlcle, 'Jhe New
Drlver`s Llcence," Soylnka wrote. 'I would be frankly
lll at ease wlth myself lf I falled to call the attentlon of
the publlc to lts own lazlness, lts contlnulng abdlcatlon
of baslc rlghts to offlclal crooks, thugs, touts and other
adventurlst scum of soclety who prey upon the publlc`s
clvlc shortcomlngs, even where the cruclal lnterests of
|the| publlc are lnvolved."
Jhat passage ls, ln a sense, typlcal of Soylnkathe
school prlnclpal`s son, the poetpollceman, the 'angry
old man." Campalgnlng for road safety was a means
through whlch he attempted to lmprove hls soclety ln a
very practlcal and downtoearth manner, and he found
lt a desperately frustratlng experlence. After an
extended perlod durlng whlch a successor was sought,
he rellnqulshed the chalrmanshlp of the Governlng
Councll of the Iederal Road Safety Commlsslon at the
end of l99l. Hls reslgnatlon dld not, however, mean an
end to hls lnvolvement wlth road safety or wlth other
attempts to lmprove the quallty of llfe ln Nlgerla and to
reduce corruptlon. In August of l99l he came out ln
favor of 'Reparatlons"a movement to ensure that the
account left open by the slave trade was settled.
Soylnka`s solutlon, glven ln an address to an Aprll l992
lnternatlonal conference held ln Washlngton, D.C.,
lnvolved a dlstlnctlve twlst. a wrltlng off of the debts to
lnternatlonal bodles and banks owed by Afrlcan
natlons. 'Let all debts be," he sald, 'not forglven but
slmply annulled."
A more obvlously creatlve response to some
aspects of the splrltual, flnanclal, and soclal malalse he
dlagnosed ln Nlgerla came ln _ aI a satlrlcal
revue, the successor to _ _~ and _
_Jl. Staged ln October l99l wlth the help of musl
clans, actors, and dlrectors who had worked wlth
361
t p~ ai_ PPO
Soylnka over the years, the revue lncluded attacks on
the gutter press, the condltlons ln Nlgerlan prlsons, the
head of state (Babanglda), and the vlolent solutlons
offered for urban houslng problems.
Jhls engagement wlth soclal lssues, and the deter
mlnatlon to contlnue defylng the encroachlng tentacles
of corruptlon and compromlse, can also be seen ln hls
publlshed dramatlc texts from thls perlod. In |uly l99l
the BBC broadcast Soylnka`s play Z Scourgc of Hyocivtls,
and ln |une l992 Soylnka dlrected Irom io, witl Iovc at
a festlval ln Slena, Italy. Both were publlshed ln the
same volume ln l992, and a comparlson shows that
they are two verslons of the same play. Jhe flrst ls for a
radlo audlence wlth llmlted knowledge of the lntrlcacles
of Nlgerlan polltlcs. Jhe second, more expanslve,
explolts the partlcular posslbllltles of llve theater,
lncludes songs, and contalns a stlnglng lndlctment of
Nlgerlan socletypartlcularly the lnvolvement of the
buslness and mllltary communltles ln drug transactlons.
Jhe central dllemma ln both plays concerns
Mlguel Domlngo, who ls accused of a crlme that has
retroactlvely become a capltal offense. Jhe drug plot ls
tled ln wlth an lncrease ln drugrelated offenses durlng
the l980s, whlch led to the arrest of many Nlgerlan
women who were belng used to carry drugs lnto
Europe and North Amerlca. Investlgatlons wlthln Nlge
rla llnked local drug barons wlth the hlghest offlclals,
and thls sltuatlon ls also explored. Jhe hyaclnths ln the
tltle of the flrst play are a domlnant lmage ln both texts
and refer to the water hyaclnths that have spread
uncontrollably ln certaln Afrlcan waters. Soylnka
makes them a symbol of the mllltary who are ln power
ln so much of the contlnent, and of the 'offlclal crooks,
thugs, touts and other adventurlst scum." Nlgerla has
become a place ln whlch lt ls dlfflcult to do anythlng ln
a stralghtforward manner. lnefflclency and corruptlon
are wldespread, an appeal to the publlc good rarely gets
a wholehearted response. Bureaucratlc arterles are
clogged llke the waters full of hyaclnths. In both plays,
but partlcularly ln the stage verslon, the deslre to
embody the struggle of the man of prlnclple ls confused
because of Soylnka`s compulslon to comment on cur
rent events. He seems to be looklng for vehlcles to
carry the concerns of Soylnka the soclal crltlc, but that
whlch flnds convenlent expresslon ln a revue sketch or
a newspaper artlcle ls not always sultable for a play.
Jhe theater has not been the only means Soylnka
has employed to communlcate durlng the early l990s.
Ior example, durlng l992 he not only dlrected Irom
io, he also traveled to Brltaln, where Tlc Iood recelved
lts second London productlon, and to Washlngton,
D.C., where he addressed the lnternatlonal conference
on flnance wlth hls speech called 'Culture, Memory
and Development." Back ln Nlgerla he broadcast, wrote
for the press, and organlzed varlous projects. Joward
the end of March he launched the Afrlcan Democratlc
League, wlth the stated alm of concernlng 'ltself wlth
state crlmes agalnst lndlvlduals," and whlch set l995 as
a 'reasonable date" for establlshment of 'the total dem
ocratlc process on the contlnent." At a tlme when Nlge
rla was beglnnlng to get caught up ln electlon fever and
when local partles were belng formed, Soylnka, the
maverlck supporter of human rlghts, took a non
partlsan stance, embodylng hls commltment to multl
party democracy and thereby establlshlng a platform
from whlch he could comment on events.
In l991 Soylnka left Nlgerla to llve ln exlle ln
Irance and the Lnlted States, remalnlng a dedlcated
opponent of the reglme of strongman Sanl Abacha.
Accused of partlclpatlng ln bomb plots agalnst the gov
ernment ln l996 and l997, he was trled ln absentla and
sentenced to death. After Abacha dled ln summer l998,
Soylnka returned to Nlgerla to flght for establlshment
of a democratlc government. Durlng hls exlle Soylnka
contlnued to flght for human rlghts ln Nlgerla. In l996
he publlshed Tlc Upcv Sorc of o Covtivcvt: Z Icrsovol òr-
rotivc of tlc ìgcriov Crisis, ln whlch he dlscusses the
hanglng of wrlter Ken SaroWlwa and elght members
of hls Movement for the Survlval of Ogonl Peoples,
among other conslderatlons of Nlgerla`s postcolonlal
ldentlty. In l997 he dellvered at Harvard Lnlverslty a
serles of lectures (collected ln l999 as Tlc urdcv of
Mcmory, tlc Musc of Iorgivcvcss) crltlcal of the Nlgerlan
mllltary reglme and questlonlng whether the culture of
represslon could be overcome. After hls return to Nlge
rla ln l999 Soylnka publlshed the pamphlet tltled Tlc
Scvcv Sigvposts of Ixistcvcc: Ivowlcdgc, Hovour, usticc ovd
Utlcr !irtucs, ln whlch he explores the tradltlonal Yoruba
bellef ln Orlsa and urges hls people to study the splrltu
allty of thelr contlnent as a means of strengthenlng thelr
cultural ldentlty.
Somorlovd ovd Utlcr Morlcts I Hovc Ivowv (2002) ls
a collectlon of poems wrltten whlle Soylnka was ln exlle
and durlng hls many lnternatlonal travels. Jhe short
tltle poem takes on from the tradltlonal Afrlcan/Yoruba
saylng, 'Jhe world ls a marketplace"; hence, the poet
says of human belngs, 'Bargaln hunters all." Jhe col
lectlon harshly crltlclzes rellglous blgotry, a subject that
Soylnka has often spoken agalnst and celebrates fellow
wrlters and actlvlsts, such as SaroWlwa, |oseph Brod
sky, and Achebe. Jhere are also reflectlons on the
deaths of polltlclans, dlctators, and frlends. Somorlovd
ovd Utlcr Morlcts I Hovc Ivowv connects wlth Soylnka`s
earller poetlc preoccupatlons and projects the persona
of a sage, as the poet reflects on llfe and death uslng the
metaphor of the market.
Durlng Soylnka`s exlle of the late l990s, he wrote
and produced Iivg oobu, an apparent adaptatlon of
365
ai_ PPO t p~
|arry`s Ubu Ioi, whlch deals wlth regal decadence. Jhe
play ls a blatant satlre of the Abacha reglme and Afrlcan
dlctators who adopt democracy to galn acceptance ln
the outslde world and then dlstort lt. Goaded by hls
wlfe, General Basha Bash selzes power (llke Wllllam
Shakespeare`s Macbeth). Jo shed the stlgma of mllltary
rule, he gets crowned Klng Baabu and turns the repub
llc lnto a klngdom. Klng Baabu even toys wlth the ldea
of unltlng the Afrlcan contlnent ln a Pax Baboonla. Jhe
characters Baabu (echolng the Hausa word for 'no"),
General Lzl (so named after a gun), and Baboonla
(land of baboons) and others add to the comlc quallty
of the play. Jhe characters behave chlldlshly to show
that the dlctators are only foollng themselves and not
the publlc. Jhe dlalogue ls beautlful and the burlesque
outrageous. Soylnka, whlle modellng Klng Baabu on
Abacha, crltlclzes Afrlcan dlctators who thlnk that once
a general abandons hls unlform for robes and calls hlm
self any other name that he ls a democrat. Jhls play
brlngs to mlnd Iovgi`s Horvcst and Z Iloy of Ciovts.
In 2003 Bookcraft, Nlgerla, publlshed Soylnka`s Sol-
utotiov to tlc Cut, an essay wrltten some forty years earller,
celebratlng Yoruba culture and food ln wltty and humor
ous language. Also ln 2003 Soylnka gave a lecture at the
Nlgerlan Instltute of Internatlonal Affalrs publlshed as a
pamphlet tltled Tlc Dcccptivc Silcvcc of Stolcv !oiccs. In the lec
ture, he argues that popular wlll cannot be smothered and
calls for a soverelgn natlonal conference to debate and settle
Nlgerla`s polltlcal problems resultlng from the amalgam
atlon of the North and South.
After hls return to Nlgerla, Soylnka was actlve ln
attemptlng to shape the consclence of hls country. He
was arrested ln May 2001, whlle partlclpatlng ln a rally
demonstratlng agalnst the reelectlon of Presldent
Obasanjo ln an electlon wldely belleved to have been
rlgged. Agalnst the objectlons of the Obasanjo govern
ment, he lobbled for a Natlonal Soverelgn Conference
to revlew the commonalltles that blnd the dlfferent eth
nlc natlonalltles of Nlgerla as one natlon. In 2005 both
Soylnka and the veteran Nlgerlan polltlclan Chlef
Anthony Enahoro organlzed an alternatlve conference
to the one organlzed by the federal government.
Wole Soylnka`s Nobel status has elevated hlm to
a world wrlter, often studled. Both Zlc: Tlc Jcors of
Clildlood and Dcotl ovd tlc Iivg`s Horscmov are
regarded ln the West among Afrlca`s best one hun
dred books, and excerpts are wldely anthologlzed. He
has attracted serlous crltlcal attentlon, most often
focuslng on the plays, rarely on hls flctlon, nonflctlon,
or poetry. Soylnka has been descrlbed as rebelllous,
opposed to constltuted authorlty, subverslve, and a
transgresslve splrlt ln constant argument wlth custom
ary 'glvens." At the same tlme, he ls a wrlter of unllm
lted latltude, a freeranglng, though stubbornly rooted,
splrlt for whom the entlre world ls a legltlmate constltu
ency.
fW
|ohn Agetua, !lcv tlc Mov Dicd: !icws, Icvicws ovd Ivtcr-
vicw ov !olc Soyivlo`s Covtrovcrsiol ool (Benln Clty,
Nlgerla. Agetua, l972), pp. 3l-16;
Dennls Duerden and Cosmo Pleterse, eds., Zfricov !rit-
crs Tollivg: Z Collcctiov of Iodio Ivtcrvicws (London.
Helnemann, l972; New York. Afrlcana, l972),
pp. l69-l80;
Blodun |eylfo, 'A Trovsitiov Intervlew," Trovsitiov, 12
(l973). 62-61;
Henry Louls Gates |r., 'An Intervlew wlth Wole
Soylnka," locl !orld, 21 (August l975). 30-18;
Karen L. Morell, ed., Iv Icrsov: Zclcbc, Zwoovor ovd
Soyivlo ot tlc Uvivcrsity of !oslivgtov (Seattle. Instl
tute of Comparatlve and Iorelgn Area Studles,
Lnlverslty of Washlngton, l975), pp. 89-l30;
Art Borreca, 'Idl Amln Was the Supreme Actor," Tlc-
otcr, l6 (Sprlng l985). 32-37;
Chuck Mlke, Soyivlo os Dircctor (Ife, Nlgerla. Depart
ment of Llterature ln Engllsh, Lnlverslty of Ife,
l986);
|ane Wllklnson, Tollivg witl Zfricov !ritcrs (London.
Currey, l992), pp. 90-l08;
|eylfo, ed. Covvcrsotiovs witl !olc Soyivlo ( |ackson. Lnl
verslty Press of Mlsslsslppl, 200l);
Chrlstlna S. McMahon, 'Intervlew wlth Wole Soylnka,"
Tlcotrov (Sprlng 2003). 89-95.
_~W
Malcolm Page, !olc Soyivlo: ibliogroply, iogroply,
Iloyogroply (London. Jheatre _uarterly Publlca
tlons, l979);
B. Okpu, !olc Soyivlo: Z ibliogroply (Lagos, Nlgerla.
Llbrlservlce, l981);
|ames Glbbs, Ketu H. Katrak, and Henry Louls Gates
|r., !olc Soyivlo: Z ibliogroply of Irimory ovd Sccovd-
ory Sourccs (Westport, Conn.. Greenwood Press,
l986).
oW
B. Olablmpe Aboyade, !olc Soyivlo ovd Jorubo Urol Tro-
ditiov iv Dcotl ovd tlc Iivg`s Horscmov (Ibadan,
Oluwole Adejare, Iovguogc ovd Stylc iv Soyivlo: Z Systcmic
Tcxtlivguistic Study of o Iitcrory Idiolcct (Ibadan, Nlge
rla. Helnemann Nlgerla, l992);
Dapo Adelugba, !olc Soyivlo: Z irtldoy Icttcr, ovd Utlcr
Issoys (Ibadan, Nlgerla. Department of Jheatre
Arts, Lnlverslty of Ibadan, l981);
Adelugba, ed., cforc Uur !cry Iycs: Tributc to !olc Soyivlo
(Ibadan, Nlgerla. Spectrum, l987);
366
t p~ ai_ PPO
Junde Adenlran, Tlc Iolitics of !olc Soyivlo (Ibadan,
Adereml Bamlkunle, Ivtroductiov to Soyivlo`s Ioctry: Zvoly-
sis of Z Sluttlc iv tlc Crypt (Zarla, Nlgerla. Ahmadu
Bello Lnlverslty Press, l99l);
Vlktor Aleksandrovlch Bellls, !olc Soyivlo (Moscow.
Nauka, l977);
Rlta BttcherWbcke, Iomil, Irovic uvd Sotirc im dromo-
tisclcv !crl vov !olc Soyivlo (Hamburg. Buske,
l976);
Chlnwelzu, Onwuchekwa |emle, and Ihechukwu
Madubulke, Toword tlc Dccoloviotiov of Zfricov Iit-
croturc (Enugu, Nlgerla. Iourth Dlmenslon, l980;
Washlngton, D.C.. Howard Lnlverslty Press,
l983; London. Routledge Kegan Paul, l985),
pp. l63-238;
Greta M. K. Coger, Ivdcx of Subjccts, Irovcrbs, ovd Tlcmcs
iv tlc !ritivgs of !olc Soyivlo (Westport, Conn..
Greenwood Press, l988);
|eanPlerre Durlx, ed., Commovwcoltl Issoys ovd Studics,
l3 (Sprlng l99lspeclal lssue on Z Dovcc of tlc
Iorcsts);
Romanus N. Egudu, Modcrv Zfricov Ioctry ovd tlc Zfricov
Ircdicomcvt (London. Macmlllan, l978; New York.
Barnes Noble, l978), pp. l01-l21;
Kayode Eso, Tlc Mystcry Cuvmov (Ibadan, Nlgerla. Spec
trum, l996);
Mlchael Etherton, Tlc Dcvclopmcvt of Zfricov Dromo
(London. Hutchlnson, l982), pp. 212-281;
Robert Iraser, !cst Zfricov Ioctry: Z Criticol History (Cam
brldge. Cambrldge Lnlverslty Press, l986), pp.
23l-250, 265-270, 295-300;
Shatto Arthur Gakwandl, Tlc òvcl ovd Covtcmporory
Ixpcricvcc iv Zfrico (London. Helnemann, l977;
New York. Afrlcana, l977), pp. 66-86;
Etlenne Galle, I`Hommc vivovt dc !olc Soyivlo (Parls.
Sllex, l977);
|ames Glbbs, !olc Soyivlo (London Baslngstoke. Mac
mlllan, l986; New York. Grove, l986);
Glbbs, ed., Criticol Icrspcctivcs ov !olc Soyivlo (Washlng
ton, D.C.. Jhree Contlnents, l980; London. Hel
nemann, l98l);
Glbbs and Bernth Llndfors, Icscorcl ov !olc Soyivlo
(Jrenton, N.|.. Afrlca World, l993);
Ken Goodwln, Uvdcrstovdivg Zfricov Ioctry: Z Study of Tcv
Zfricov Iocts (London. Helnemann, l982);
M. Radhamanl Gopalakrlshnan, Zt Uguv`s Icct: !olc
Soyivlo tlc Iloywriglt (Jlrupatl, Indla. Srl Ven
kateswara Lnlverslty, l986);
Anthony GrahamWhlte, Tlc Dromo of locl Zfrico (New
York. S. Irench, l971);
Edde M. Ijl, Tlrcc Iodicol Dromotists: rcclt, Zrtoud,
Soyivlo (Lagos, Nlgerla. Kraft, l99l);
Ijl, Uvdcrstovdivg rcclt ovd Soyivlo: Z Study iv Zvtilcroism
(Lagos, Nlgerla. Kraft, l99l);
Ablola Irele, Tlc Zfricov Ixpcricvcc iv Iitcroturc ovd Idcol-
ogy (London. Helnemann, l98l);
Blodun |eylfo, Tlc Trutlful Iic: Issoys iv tlc Sociology of
Zfricov Iitcroturc (London. New Beacon, l985),
pp. ll-15;
|eylfo, !olc Soyivlo: Iolitics, Ioctics, ovd Iostcoloviolism
(Cambrldge, L.K. New York. Cambrldge Lnl
verslty Press, 2001);
|eylfo, ed., Icrspcctivcs ov !olc Soyivlo: Irccdom ovd Com-
plcxity ( |ackson. Lnlverslty Press of Mlsslsslppl,
200l);
Eldred D. |ones, !olc Soyivlo (New York. Jwayne,
l973); also publlshed as Tlc !ritivg of !olc Soyivlo
(London. Helnemann, l973; revlsed edltlon, Lon
don. Currey, l988);
Denlse KakouKon, Slolcspcorc ct Soyivlo: Ic Tlcotrc du
movdc (Abldjan, Ivory Coast. Nouvelles Edltlons
Afrlcalnes, l988);
Ketu Katrak, !olc Soyivlo ovd Modcrv Trogcdy: Z Study of
Dromotic Tlcory ovd Irocticc (Westport, Conn..
Greenwood Press, l986);
Stephan Larsen, Z !ritcr ovd His Cods: Z Study of tlc
Importovcc of Jorubo Mytls ovd Icligious Idcos to tlc
!ritivg of !olc Soyivlo (Stockholm. Lnlverslty of
Stockholm, Department of the Hlstory of Lltera
ture, l983);
Charles R. Larson, Tlc Imcrgcvcc of Zfricov Iictiov
(Bloomlngton. Indlana Lnlverslty Press, l97l);
Margaret Laurence, Iovg Drums ovd Covvovs: ìgcriov
Dromotists ovd òvclists, 192-1966 (London. Mac
mlllan, l968; New York. Praeger, l969);
Mlchle Lurdos, Ctc cour, ctc sovovc: Ic Tlcotrc dc !olc
Soyivlo (Nancy, Irance. Presses Lnlversltalres de
Nancy, l990);
Obl Maduakor, !olc Soyivlo: Zv Ivtroductiov to His !ritivg
(New York London. Garland, l986);
Adewale MajaPearce, !olc Soyivlo: Zv Zpproisol
(Oxford, L.K. Portsmouth, N.H.. Helnemann,
l991);
Gerald Moore, !olc Soyivlo (London. Evans, l97l;
New York. Afrlcana, l97l);
Oyln Ogunba, Tlc Movcmcvt of Trovsitiov: Z Study of tlc
Iloys of !olc Soyivlo (Ibadan, Nlgerla. Ibadan Lnl
Ogunba, Soyivlo: Z Collcctiov of Criticol Issoys (Ibadan,
Nlgerla. Syndlcated Communlcatlons, l991);
Ogunba and Irele, eds., Tlcotrc iv Zfrico (Ibadan, Nlge
rla. Ibadan Lnlverslty Press, l978), pp. l5l-l75;
Yeml Ogunblyl, ed., Dromo ovd Tlcotrc iv ìgcrio: Z Crit-
icol Sourcc ool (Lagos, Nlgerla. Nlgerla Magazlne,
l98l);
367
ai_ PPO t p~
Janure Ojalde, q m t p (Lagos, Nlgerla.
Malthouse, l991);
Akomaye Oko, q q~ m~~W ^ p t
p~ ~ e t (Ibadan, Nlgerla. Kraft,
l992);
M. Rajeshwar, q f~ ~ p k
t p~ (New Delhl. Prestlge, l990);
Alaln Rlcard, q~ ~ k~~W t p~ ~
io g (Ife, Nlgerla. Lnlverslty of Ife Press,
l983);
Rlcard, t p~ ~ ~ (Parls. Sllex,
l988);
Adrlan A. Roscoe, j f dW ^ p t ^~
i~ (London. Cambrldge Lnlverslty Press,
l97l), pp. 18-63, 2l9-252;
Wlveca Sotto, q o oW ^ p t p~
m~I q _~~ b (Lund, Sweden. C. W. K.
Gleerup, l985);
Nyong Ldoeyop, q k~ mW ^ `~ p
m p~I `~ ~ l (Ibadan, Nlge
rla. Ibadan Lnlverslty Press, l973), pp. l9-59,
l17-l57;
Derek Wrlght, t p~ o (New York.
Jwayne, l993).
NVUS k m i~
m~ p
m i~ dI p ^~
Eq~~ pF
Gentlemen,
Wole Soylnka, born ln Nlgerla ln l931, wrltes ln
Engllsh and ls chlefly recognlzed as a dramatlst. Hls
manyslded and vltal llterary works also lnclude some
lmportant collectlons of poems and novels, an lnterest
lng autoblography and a large number of artlcles and
essays. He has been, and ls, very actlve as a man of the
theatre and has staged hls own plays ln England and
Nlgerla. He has hlmself taken part as an actor and ener
getlcally jolned ln theatrlcal debates and theatre poll
cles. Durlng the clvll war ln Nlgerla ln the mlddle of the
l960s he was drawn lnto the struggle for llberty
because of hls opposltlon to vlolence and terror. He was
lmprlsoned under brutal and lllegal forms ln l967 and
was released over two years lateran experlence that
drastlcally affected hls outlook on llfe and llterary work.
Soylnka has deplcted hls chlldhood ln a llttle Afrlcan
vlllage. Hls father was a teacher, hls mother a soclal
workerboth Chrlstlan. But ln the precedlng generatlon
there were medlclne men and others who belleved flrmly
ln splrlts, maglc, and rltes of anythlng but a Chrlstlan
klnd. We encounter a world ln whlch tree sprltes, ghosts,
sorcerers and prlmltlve Afrlcan tradltlons were llvlng reall
tles. We also come face to face wlth a more compllcated
world of myth, whlch has lts roots far back ln an Afrlcan
culture handed down by word of mouth. Jhls account of
chlldhood glves a background to Soylnka`s llterary
worksa selfexperlenced, close connectlon wlth a rlch and
complex Afrlcan herltage.
Soylnka made an early appearance as a dramatlst.
It was natural for hlm to seek thls art form, whlch ls
closely llnked wlth the Afrlcan materlal and wlth Afrl
can forms of llngulstlc and mlme creatlon. Hls plays
make frequent and skllful use of many elements belong
lng to stage art and whlch also have genulne roots ln
Afrlcan culturedance and rltes, masques and panto
mlme, rhythm and muslc, declamatlon, theatre wlthln
the theatre etc. Hls flrst dramas are llghter and more
playful than the later onespranks, lronlcal and satlrlcal
scenes, plctures of everyday llfe wlth telllng and wltty
dlalogue, often wlth a traglcomlcal or grotesque sense
of llfe as keynote. Among these early plays can be men
tloned ^ a~ ca klnd of Afrlcan 'Mld
summer Nlght`s Dream," wlth dryads, ghosts, splrlts,
and gods or demlgods. It ls about creatlveness and sac
rlflce, wlth the god or hero Ogun as one of the perform
ers. Jhls Ogun ls a Prometheusllke flgurethe
demlgod of lron and artlstlc sklll but also of war and battle,
a double flgure comblnlng both creatlon and destruc
tlon ln hls belng. Soylnka has often reverted to hlm.
Soylnka`s dramas are deeply rooted ln an Afrlcan
world and culture. But he ls also a wldely read, not to
say learned wrlter and dramatlst. He ls famlllar wlth
western llterature, from the Greek tragedles to Beckett
and Brecht. Also outslde the fleld of drama he ls well
versed ln the great European llterature. A wrlter llke
|ames |oyce, for lnstance, has left traces ln hls novels.
Soylnka ls an author who wrltes wlth great dellbera
tlon, and especlally ln hls novels and poems he can be
avantgardlstlcally sophlstlcated.
Durlng the war years, hls tlme ln prlson and after
wards, hls wrltlng takes on a more traglc character. Jhe
psychologlcal, moral and soclal confllcts appear more
and more complex and menaclng. Jhe bookkeeplng of
good and evll, of destructlve and constructlve forces,
becomes lncreaslngly amblguous. Hls dramas become
equlvocaldramas whlch ln the shape of allegory or sat
lre take up moral, soclal, and polltlcal matters for mythlcal
dramatlc creatlon. Jhe dlalogue ls sharpened, the char
acters become more expresslve, often exaggerated to
the polnt of carlcature, demandlng denouementthe
dramatlc temperature ls ralsed. Jhe vltallty ls no less
than ln the flrst workson the contrary. the satlre, the
368
t p~ ai_ PPO
humour, the elements of grotesquery and comedy, and
the mythlcal fablemaklng come vlvldly to llfe. Jhe way
ln whlch Soylnka makes use of the mythlcal materlal,
the Afrlcan, and the llterary schoollng, the European, ls
very lndependent. He says he uses the myths as 'the
aesthetlc matrlx" for hls wrltlng. It ls thus not a ques
tlon of a folklorlstlc reproductlon, a klnd of exotlclsm,
but an lndependent and cooperatlve work. Jhe myths,
tradltlons, and rltes are lntegrated as nourlshment for
hls wrltlng, not a masquerade costume. He has called
hls wlde readlng and llterary awareness a 'selectlve
eclectlclsm"l.e. purposeful and soverelgn cholce.
Among the later dramas speclal mentlon can be made
of a~ ~ h e~a genulnely, dramatl
cally convlnclng work full of many ldeas and meanlngs,
of poetry, satlre, surprlse, cruelty, and lust. Superflclally
lt ls about a confllct between western morals and con
ventlon on the one hand, and Afrlcan culture and tradl
tlon on the other. Jhe theme moves around a rltual or
cultlc human sacrlflce. Jhe drama goes so deeply lnto
human and superhuman condltlons that lt cannot be
reduced to somethlng that teaches us about breaches
between dlfferent clvlllzatlons. Soylnka hlmself prefers
to see lt as a metaphyslcal and rellglous drama of fate. It
ls about the condltlons of the human ldentlty and real
lzatlon, the mythlcal pact of llfe and death, and the pos
slbllltles of the unborn.
Jo Soylnka`s nondramatlc works belong the
autoblographlcally lnsplred accounts q j~ aI
from hls tlme ln prlson, and the novel q fI
from lntellectual clrcles ln Nlgerla. Jhe novel p~
^ ls an allegory wlth the Orpheus and Eurydlce
myth as framework, a somewhat compllcated, symbollc
expresslonlstlc story wlth a background ln brutal soclal
and polltlcal condltlons of oppresslon and corruptlon.
Outstandlng among the poems are collectlons wlth
motlfs from hls tlme ln prlson, some of them wrltten
durlng hls lmprlsonment as a klnd of mental exerclse to
help the author survlve wlth dlgnlty and fortltude. Jhe
lmagery ln these poems ls compact and rather hard to
penetrate, sometlmes, however, wlth a laconlc or ascetlc
concentratlon. It takes some tlme to get to know them
lntlmately, but they can then yleld a strange emanatlon
that glves evldence of thelr background and role ln a
harsh, dlfflcult perlod ln the poet`s llfemovlng testl
mony to courage and artlstlc strength.
As already mentloned, lt ls chlefly the dramas that
stand out as Wole Soylnka`s most slgnlflcant achlevement.
Jhey are of course made to be acted on the stage, wlth
dance, muslc, masques, and mlme as essentlal compo
nents. But hls plays can also be read as lmportant and fas
clnatlng llterary works from a rlchly endowed wrlter`s
experlence and lmaglnatlonand wlth roots ln a compos
lte culture wlth a wealth of llvlng and artlstlcally lnsplrlng
tradltlons.
Dear Mr. Soylnka, In your versatlle wrltlngs you
have been able to syntheslze a very rlch herltage from
your own country, anclent myths and old tradltlons, wlth
llterary legacles and tradltlons of European culture. Jhere
ls a thlrd component, a most lmportant component ln
what you have thus achlevedyour own genulne and
lmpresslve creatlvlty as an artlst, a master of language, and
your commltment as a dramatlst and wrlter of poetry and
prose to problems of general and deep slgnlflcance for
man, modern or anclent. It ls my prlvllege to convey to
you the warm congratulatlons of the Swedlsh Academy
and to ask you to recelve thls year`s Nobel Prlze for Lltera
ture from the hand of Hls Majesty the Klng.
p~W _~ p
p~ ~ k _~I NM a NVUSW
Your Majestles, Ladles and Gentlemen,
It was lnevltable that the Nordlc world and the Afrl
can, especlally that part of lt whlch constltutes the Yoruba
worldshould meet at the crossroads of Sweden. Jhat I
am the agent of such a symbollc encounter ls due very
slmply to that my creatlve Muse ls Ogun, the god of cre
atlvlty and destructlon, of the lyrlc and metallurgy. Jhls
delty antlclpated your sclentlst Alfred Nobel at the very
beglnnlng of tlme by clearlng a path through prlmordlal
chaos, dynamltlng hls way through the core of earth to
open a route for hls fellow deltles who sought to be
reunlted wlth us, mortals. I covered that event for my pub
llsherswell, taklng a few poetlc llcences, naturallyunder
the tltle IDANRE. You may have run lnto that reportage
whlch has been translated lnto Swedlsh under the tltle,
OGLN SKLGGA. If you have not, I recommend that
you proceed to the nearest bookseller for thls plece of pre
hlstory whlch makes Ogun, very deflnltlvely, the progenl
tor of your great lnventor, Alfred Nobel.
I urge thls especlally because, lf you happened to
take a casual walk through the streets, or peer lnto the
hotel lobbles of Stockholm, you mlght get the lmpresslon
that my natlon, Nlgerla, has trled to solve some of lts
many problems by shlftlng half lts populatlon surreptl
tlously to Sweden. I assure you, however, that they have
merely come to satlsfy a natural curloslty about the true
natlonallty of thls lnventor. Ior they cannot understand
why thelr Ogun should have transferred such a potent
secret to a Swede rather than to hls Yoruba descendants.
369
ai_ PPO t p~
Jhe mountalns of Sweden are a temptlng habltat for thls
delty, we know, but the Swedlsh wlnter and long mld
nlghts are hardly congenlal to hls temperament. And whlle
the local acquavltae mlght help to lnfuse some warmth
lnto hls troplcal jolnts, we do know that he tends to stlck to
hls favourlte palm wlne.
Some day, I suppose, we wlll unravel thls mystery.
In the meantlme, however, we wlll content ourselves wlth
salutlng the vlslon whlch made our presence here today a
posltlve event, slnce lt was Alfred Nobel`s hope that the
humanlstlc converslon, even of the most terrlble knowl
edge, can lmprove the quallty of llfe for manklnd. Jhat
also ls the lesson of Ogun, that essence of the warrlng
duallty of human nature. And we joln ln the endeavour
that the lyrlc face of that demlurge wlll trlumph ln our
tlme, snarlng for all tlme that eluslve blrdpeaceon our
planet earth.
| Jhe Nobel Ioundatlon, l986. Wole Soylnka ls the
m o~W q k m
i~ NVUS
Zcodcmy, Uctobcr 19S6
Wole Soylnka
Jhls year`s Nobel Prlze ln llterature goes to an
Afrlcan wrlter, Wole Soylnka from Nlgerla. Now ln hls
early flftles, he has a large and rlchly varled llterary
productlon behlnd hlm and ls ln hls prlme as an author.
Hls background, upbrlnglng and educatlon have
glven hlm unusual condltlons for a llterary career. He
has hls roots ln the Yoruba people`s myths, rltes and
cultural patterns, whlch ln thelr turn have hlstorlcal
llnks to the Medlterranean reglon. Jhrough hls educa
tlon ln hls natlve land and ln Europe he has also
acqulred deep famlllarlty wlth western culture. Hls col
lectlon of essays Mytl, Iitcroturc ovd tlc Zfricov !orld
make for clarlfylng and enrlchlng readlng.
Jhe learnlng that the professor of llterary sclence
bears wlth hlm ls ln no way an encumbrance to hls llter
ary works. Jhey are vlvld, often harrowlng, but are
also marked by an evocatlve, poetlcally lntenslfled dlc
tlon. Soylnka has been characterlzed as one of the flnest
poetlcal playwrlghts that have wrltten ln Engllsh.
Among hls plays speclal mentlon can be made of
Z Dovcc of tlc Iorcsts and Dcotl ovd tlc Iivg`s Horscmov.
Jhe former ls a klnd of Afrlcan Midsummcr ìglt`s Drcom
wlth splrlts, ghosts and gods. Jhere ls a dlstlnct llnk
here to the lndlgenous rltual drama and to the Ellzabe
than drama. A key flgure ln Soylnka, the god Ogun,
also appears ln the play. He ls both creator and
destroyer and as Soylnka sees hlm has tralts that lead
one`s thoughts to the Dlonyslan, the Apollonlan and
the Promethean ln European tradltlon.
Dcotl ovd tlc Iivg`s Horscmov ls ln the nature of an
antlque tragedy wlth the cultlc sacrlflclal death as theme.
Jhe relatlonshlp between the unborn, the llvlng and the
dead, to whlch Soylnka reverts several tlmes ln hls works,
ls fashloned here wlth very strong effect. Soylnka conflrms
hls posltlon as a centre of force ln drama.
In a play such as Z Iloy of Ciovts we flnd another slde
to Soylnka. It ls a dark farce, an aggresslve wrlter`s thrust
ln the servlce of common sense. Jhe lntroductory plece of
prose ls a caustlc summlng up of Afrlca`s agony.
It has already been mentloned that Soylnka`s plays
have strong poetlcal elements. In several collectlons of
poems he has also appeared as a poet of great dlstlnctlon.
One of the hlghllghts ls Idovrc, ovd Utlcr Iocms, ln whlch a
central theme ls the very thlng that Ogun represents. the
confllct, perhaps the unlon, between destructlon and cre
atlon.
Jhe collectlon of poems Z Sluttlc iv tlc Crypt shows
real moral stature. Jhe poems were wrltten durlng the
wrlter`s two years ln prlson, to whlch he was sent because
of hls attltude ln hls country`s clvll war. Jhey are poems
about mental survlval, human contact, anger and forglve
ness. Jhe same experlences lle behlnd hls prose work Tlc
Mov Dicd: Irisov òtcs, whlch ln ltself ls a llterary work of
the flrst rank.
Llngulstlcally too Soylnka stands out as excellent.
He possesses a prollflc store of words and expresslons
whlch he explolts to the full ln wltty dlalogue, ln satlre and
grotesquery, ln qulet poetry and essays of sparkllng vltal
lty.
Wole Soylnka`s wrltlng ls full of llfe and urgency.
Ior all lts complexlty lt ls at the same tlme energetlcally
coherent.
370
p~W k iI U a NVUS
q m~ j ^ f m
A rather curlous scene, unscrlpted, once took
place ln the wlngs of a London theatre at the same tlme
as the scheduled performance was belng presented on
the actual stage, before an audlence. What happened
was thls. an actor refused to come on stage for hls allo
cated role. Actlon was suspended. A fellow actor trled
to persuade hlm to emerge, but he stubbornly shook hls
head. Jhen a struggle ensued. Jhe second actor had
hoped that, by suddenly exposlng the reluctant actor to
the audlence ln full glare of the spotllght, he would have
no cholce but to rejoln the cast. And so he trled to take
the dellnquent actor by surprlse, pulllng hlm suddenly
towards the stage. He dld not fully succeed, so a brlef
but untldy struggle began. Jhe unwllllng actor was
completely taken aback and deeply embarrassedsome
of that tussle was qulte vlslble to a part of the audlence.
Jhe performance ltself, lt should be explalned,
was an lmprovlsatlon around an lncldent. Jhls meant
that the actors were free, wlthln the conventlon of the
performanceto stop, rework any part they wlshed,
lnvlte members of the audlence on stage, asslgn roles
and change costumes ln full vlew of the audlence. Jhey
therefore could also dramatlze thelr wlsh to have that
uncooperatlve actor joln themwhlch they dld wlth
gusto. Jhat actor had lndeed left the stage before the
contentlous scene began. He had served notlce durlng
rehearsals that he would not partlclpate ln lt. In the end,
he had hls way, but the lncldent proved very troubllng
to hlm for weeks afterwards. He found hlmself com
pelled to puzzle out thls clash ln attltudes between hlm
self and hls fellow wrlters and performers. He
experlenced, on the one hand, an lntense rage that he
had been made to appear lncapable of confrontlng a
stark reallty, made to appear to suffer from lnterpreta
tlve coyness, to seem lnhlblted by a cruel reallty or per
haps to carry hls emotlonal lnvolvement wlth an event
so far as to lnterfere wlth hls professlonal wlll. Of
course, he knew that lt was none of these thlngs. Jhe
truth was far slmpler. Lnllke hls colleagues together
wlth whom he shared, unquestlonably, the same polltl
cal attltude towards the event whlch was belng repre
sented, he found the mode of presentatlon at war wlth
the ugllness lt trled to convey, creatlng an lntense dls
qulet about hls very presence on that stage, ln that
place, before an audlence whom he consldered collec
tlvely responslble for that dehumanlzlng actuallty.
And now let us remove some of the mystery and
make that lncldent a llttle more concrete. Jhe scene was
the Royal Court Jheatre, London, l958. It was one of
those Sunday nlghts whlch were glven to experlmenta
tlon, an lnnovatlon of that remarkable theatre manager
dlrector, George Devlne, whose creatlve nurturlng radl
callsed Brltlsh theatre of that perlod and produced later
lcons llke |ohn Osborne, N. I. Slmpson, Edward Bond,
Arnold Wesker, Harold Plnter, |ohn Arden, etc., and
even forced the then conservatlve Brltlsh palate to sample
styllstlc and ldeologlcal parlahs llke Samuel Beckett and
Bertold Brecht. On thls partlcular occaslon, the evenlng
was devoted to a form of 'llvlng" theatre, and the maln
fare was tltled ELEVEN MEN DEAD AJ HOLA.
Jhe actors were not all professlonal actors; lndeed they
were mostly wrlters who jolntly created and performed
these dramatlc pleces. Jhose wlth a long polltlcal mem
ory may recall what took place at Hola Camp, Kenya,
durlng the MauMau Llberatlon struggle. Jhe Brltlsh
Colonlal power belleved that the MauMau could be
smashed by herdlng Kenyans lnto speclal camps, trylng
to separate the hard cases, the mere suspects and the
potentlal recrultsoh, they had lt all neatly worked out.
One such camp was Hola Camp and the lncldent
lnvolved the death of eleven of the detalnees who were
slmply beaten to death by camp offlcers and warders.
Jhe usual enqulry set up, and lt was lndeed the Report
whlch provlded the maln text on whlch the perfor
mance was based.
We need now only to ldentlfy the reluctant actor,
lf you have not guessed that by nowlt was none other
than thls speaker. I recall the occaslon as vlvldly as
actors are wont to recollect for ever and ever the frlght
enlng moment of a blackout, when the llnes are not
only forgotten but even the moment ln the play. Jhe
role whlch I had been asslgned was that of a camp
guard, one of the klllers. We were equlpped wlth huge
nlghtstlcks and, whlle a narrator read the testlmony of
37l
ai_ PPO p~W k iI U a NVUS
one of the guards, our task was to ralse the cudgels
slowly and, almost rltuallstlcally, brlng them down on
the necks and shoulders of the prlsoners, under orders
of the whlte camp offlcers. A surreal scene. Even ln
rehearsals, lt was clear that the end product would be a
surreallst tableau. Jhe Narrator at a lectern under a
spot; a dlspasslonate readlng, dellberately cllnlcal, let
tlng the stark facts reveal the states of mlnd of torturers
and vlctlms. A small rlng of whlte offlcers, armed. One
selzes a cudgel from one of the warders to demonstrate
how to beat a human belng wlthout leavlng vlslble
marks. Jhen the lnnermost clump of detalnees, thelr
only weaponnonvlolence. Jhey had taken thelr decl
slon to go on strlke, refused to go to work unless they
obtalned better camp condltlons. So they squatted on
the ground and refused to move, locked thelr hands
behlnd thelr knees ln sllent deflance. Orders were
glven. Jhe lnner rlng of guards, the blacks, moved ln,
llfted the bodles by hooklng thelr hands underneath the
armplts of the detalnees, carrled them llke toads ln a
state of petrlflcatlon to one slde, dlvlded them ln
groups.
Jhe faces of the vlctlms are lmpasslve; they are
resolved to offer no reslstance. Jhe beatlngs begln. one
to the left slde, then the back, the armsrlght, left, front,
back. Rhythmlcally. Jhe cudgels swlng ln unlson. Jhe
faces of the whlte guards glow wlth professlonal satls
factlon, thelr arms gesture languldly from tlme to tlme,
suggestlng lt ls tlme to shlft to the next batch, or beat a
llttle more severely on the neglected slde. In terms of
lmages, a fluld, near balletlc scene.
Jhen the contrast, the earller offlclal verslon,
enactlng how the prlsoners were supposed to have dled.
Jhls clalmed that the prlsoners had collapsed, that they
dled after drlnklng from a polsoned water supply. So
we staged that also. Jhe prlsoners flled to the water
waggon, gasplng wlth thlrst. After the flrst two or three
had drunk and commenced wrlthlng wlth paln, these
humane guards rushed to stop the others but no, they
were already wlld wlth thlrst, fought thelr way past sal
vatlon and drank greedlly the same source. Jhe groans
spread from one to the other, the wrlthlng, the col
lapsethen agonlzed deaths. Jhat was the verslon of
the camp governors.
Jhe motlf was slmple enough, the theatrlcal for
mat a trled and tested one, falthful to a partlcular con
ventlon. What then was the problem? It was one, I
belleve, that affects most wrlters. When ls playactlng
rebuked by reallty? When ls flctlonallzlng presumptu
ous? What happens after playactlng? One of the
remarkable propertles of the partlcular theatrlcal con
ventlon I have just descrlbed ls that lt glves off a strong
odour of perennlallty, that feellng of 'I have been here
before." 'I have been a wltness to thls." 'Jhe past
enacts lts presence." In such an lnstance, that sense of
perennlallty can serve both as exorclsm, a certlflcate of
release or lndeedespeclally for the audlence, a sopo
rlflc. We must bear ln mlnd that at the tlme of presenta
tlon, and to the major part of that audlence, every death
of a freedom flghter was a notch on a gun, the death of
a flend, an anlmal, a bestlal mutant, not the martyrdom
of a patrlot.
We know also, however, that such efforts can pro
voke changes, that an actuallzatlon of the statlstlcal,
journallstlc footnote can arouse revulslon ln the com
placent mlnd, leadlng to the beglnnlng of a commlt
ment to change, redress. And on thls occaslon, angry
questlons had been ralsed ln the Houses of Parllament.
Llberals, humanltarlans and reformlsts had taken up
the cause of justlce for the vlctlms. Some had even trav
elled to Kenya to obtaln detalls whlch exposed the offl
clal lle. Jhls profound unease, whlch paralysed my
creatlve wlll, therefore reached beyond the audlence
and, flnally, I traced lts roots to my own feellngs of
assaulted humanlty, and lts clamour for a dlfferent form
of response. It provoked a feellng of lndecency about
that presentatlon, rather llke the deformed arm of a
leper whlch ls thrust at the healthy to provoke a charl
table sentlment. Jhls, I belleve, was the cause of that
lntanglble, but totally vlsceral rejectlon whlch thwarted
the demands of my calllng, rendered lt lnadequate and
mocked the empathy of my colleagues. It was as lf the
lnhuman totallty, of whlch that scene was a mere frag
ment, was saylng to us. Klndly keep your comfortable
sentlment to yourselves.
Of course, I utlllze that eplsode only as lllustra
tlon of the far deeper lnternallsed processes of the cre
atlve mlnd, a process that endangers the wrlter ln two
ways. he elther freezes up completely, or he abandons
the pen for far more dlrect means of contestlng
unacceptable reallty. And agaln, Hola Camp provldes a
convenlent means of approachlng that aspect of my
contlnent`s reallty whlch, for us whom lt dlrectly
affronts, constltutes the greatest threat to global peace ln
our actual exlstence. Ior there ls a gruesome approprl
ateness ln the fact that an Afrlcan, a black man should
stand here today, ln the same year that the progresslve
Prlme Mlnlster of thls host country was murdered, ln
the same year as Samora Machel was brought down on
the terrltory of the desperate lastdltch guardlans of the
theory of raclal superlorlty whlch has brought so much
mlsery to our common humanlty. Whatever the facts
are about Olof Palme`s death, there can be no questlon
about hls llfe. Jo the raclal oppresslon of a large sector
of humanlty, Olof Palme pronounced, and acted, a decl
slve No! Perhaps lt was those who were outraged by
thls act of raclal 'treachery" who were myoplc enough
to lmaglne that the death of an lndlvldual would arrest
372
p~W k iI U a NVUS ai_ PPO
the march of hls convlctlons; perhaps lt was slmply yet
another lnstance of the Jerror Epldemlc that feeds
today on shock, not reason. It does not matter; an
authentlc consclence of the whlte trlbe has been stllled,
and the loss ls both yours and mlne. Samora Machel,
the leader who once placed hls country on a war foot
lng agalnst South Afrlca, went down ln as yet mysterl
ous clrcumstances. Jrue, we are all stlll haunted by the
Nkomatl Accord whlch negated that earller trlumphant
moment on the Afrlcan collectlve wlll; nevertheless, hls
foes across the border have good reason to rejolce over
hls demlse and, ln that sense, hls death ls, lronlcally, a
form of trlumph for the black race.
Is that perhaps too stark a paradox? Jhen let me
take you back to Hola Camp. It ls cattle whlch are
objects of the stlck, or whlp. So are horses, goats, don
keys etc. Jhelr deflnltlon therefore lnvolves belng occa
slonally beaten to death. If, thlrty years after Hola
Camp, lt ls at all thlnkable that lt takes the lngenulty of
the most sophlstlcated electronlc lnterference to klll an
Afrlcan reslstance flghter, the champlons of raclsm are
already admlttlng to themselves what they contlnue to
deny to the world. that they, whlte supremaclst breed,
have lndeed come a long way ln thelr deflnltlon of thelr
chosen enemy slnce Hola Camp. Jhey have come an
lncredlbly long way slnce Sharpevllle when they shot
unarmed, fleelng Afrlcans ln the back. Jhey have come
very far slnce l930 when, at the flrst organlzed lncldent
of the burnlng of passes, the South Afrlcan blacks
declded to turn Dlngaan`s Day, named for the defeat of
the Zulu leader Dlngaan, lnto a symbol of afflrmatlve
reslstance by publlcly destroylng thelr obnoxlous
passes. In response to those thousands of passes burnt
on Cartrlght Ilats, the Durban pollce descended on the
unarmed protesters, kllllng some half dozen and
woundlng hundreds. Jhey backed lt up wlth a scorched
earth campalgn whlch dlspersed thousands of Afrlcans
from thelr normal envlronment, vlctlms of lmprlson
ment and deportatlon. And even that l930 represslon
was a quantum leap from that earller, spontaneous pro
test agalnst the Natlve Pass law ln l9l9, when the
pollce merely rode down the protesters on horseback,
whlpped and sjamboked them, chased and harrled
them, llke stray goats and wayward cattle, from street
corner to shanty lodge. Every act of raclal terror, wlth
lts vastly lncreaslng sophlstlcatlon of style and escala
tlon ln human loss, ls ltself an acknowledgement of
lmproved knowledge and respect for the potentlal of
what ls feared, an acknowledgement of the sharpenlng
tempo of trlumph by the vlctlmlzed.
Ior there was thls aspect whlch struck me most
forclbly ln that attempt to recreate the crlme at Hola
Camp. ln the varlous testlmonles of the whlte offlcers, lt
stuck out, whether overtly stated or slmply through
thelr efflclent detachment from the ongolng massacre. It
was thls. at no tlme dld these whlte overseers actually
experlence the human 'otherness" of thelr vlctlms.
Jhey clearly dld not experlence the reallty of the vlc
tlms as human belngs. Anlmals perhaps, a noxlous
form of vegetable llfe maybe, but certalnly not human. I
do not speak here of thelr colonlal overlords, the ones
who formulated and sustalned the pollcy of settler colo
nlallsm, the ones who dlspatched the Maxlm guns and
tuned the lmperlal bugle. Jhey knew very well that
emplres exlsted whlch had to be broken, that clvlllza
tlons had endured for centurles whlch had to be
destroyed. Jhe 'subhuman" denlgratlon for whlch
thelr 'clvlllzlng mlsslon" became the altrulstlc remedy,
was the mere ratlonallzlng lclng on the cake of lmperlal
greed. But yes lndeed, there were the agents, those who
carrled out orders (llke Elchmann, to draw parallels
from the whlte contlnent); theywhether as bureau
crats, technlclans or camp governors had no conceptual
space ln thelr heads whlch could be fllledexcept very
rarely and exceptlonallyby 'the black as also human."
It would be correct to say that thls has remalned the
pathology of the average South Afrlcan whlte slnce the
turn of the last century to thls moment. Here, for
example ls one frank admlsslon by an enllghtened, even
radlcal mlnd of that country.
It was not untll my last year ln school that lt had
occurred to me that these black people, these voteless
masses, were ln any way concerned wlth the soclallsm
whlch I professed or that they had any role to play ln
the great soclal revolutlon whlch ln these days seemed
to be lmmlnent. Jhe 'workers" who were destlned to
lnherlt the new world were naturally the whlte carpen
ters and brlcklayers, the tramworkers and mlners who
were organlzed ln thelr trade unlons and who voted for
the Labour Party. I would no more have thought of dls
cusslng polltlcs wlth a natlve youth than of lnvltlng hlm
home to play wlth me or to a meal or asklng hlm to joln
the Carnarvon Football Club. Jhe Afrlcan was on a
dlfferent plane, hardly human, part of the scene as were
dogs and trees and, more remotely, cows. I had no spe
clal feellngs about hlm, not lnterest nor hate nor love.
He just dld not come lnto my soclal plcture. So com
pletely had I accepted the tradltlonal attltudes of the
tlme.
Yes, I belleve that thls selfanalysls by Eddle Roux, the
Afrlkaaner polltlcal rebel and sclentlst, remalns today
the flat, unvarnlshed truth for the majorlty of Afrlkaa
ners. 'No speclal feellngs, not lnterest nor hate nor
love," the result of a complete acceptance of 'tradltlonal
attltudes." Jhat passage captures a mlnd`s raclal tabula
rasa, lf you llkeln the flrst decade of thls century
about the tlme, ln short, when the Nobel serles of prlzes
was lnaugurated. But a slate, no matter how clean, can
373
not avold recelvlng lmpresslons once lt ls exposed to
alrfresh or polluted. And we are now ln the year l986,
that ls after an entlre century of dlrect, lntlmate expo
sure, slnce that confrontatlon, that flrst rejectlon of the
dehumanlzlng label lmpllclt ln the Natlve Pass Laws.
Eddle Roux, llke hundreds, even thousands of hls
countrymen, soon made rapld strldes. Hls race has pro
duced lts llst of martyrs ln the cause of nonraclallsm
one remembers, stlll wlth a tlnge of paln, Ruth Ilrst,
destroyed by a letter bomb dellvered by the long arm of
Apartheld. Jhere are othersAndr Brlnk, Abram
Ilscher, Helen SuzmanBreyten Breytenbach, wlth the
scars of martyrdom stlll seared lnto thelr souls. Intellec
tuals, wrlters, sclentlsts, plaln worklng men, polltlclans
they come to that polnt where a soclal reallty can no
longer be observed as a culture on a sllde beneath the
mlcroscope, nor turned lnto aesthetlc varlatlons on
pages, canvas or the stage. Jhe blacks of course are
locked lnto an unamblguous condltlon. on thls occaslon
I do not need to address . We know, and we embrace
our mlsslon. It ls the that thls precedent selzes the
opportunlty to address, and not merely those who are
trapped wlthln the conflnes of that doomed camp, but
those who llve outslde, on the frlnges of consclence.
Jhose speclflcally, who wlth shameless smugness
lnvent arcane moral proposltlons that enable them to
plead lnactlon ln a language of unparalleled polltlcal
flatulence. 'Personally, I flnd sanctlons morally repug
nant." Or what shall we say of another leader for whom
economlc sanctlons whlch work agalnst an Eastern
European country wlll not work ln the Apartheld
enclave of South Afrlca, that master of hlstrlonlcs who
takes to the world`s alrwaves to slng. 'Let Poland be,"
but turns off hls hearlng ald when the world shouts.
'Let Nlcaragua be." But enough of these world leaders
of doubletalk and multlple moralltles.
It ls baffllng to any mlnd that pretends to the
sllghtest clalm to ratlonallty, lt ls truly and formldably
baffllng. Can the same terraln of phenomenal asslmlla
tlonthat ls, one whlch produced evldence of a capaclty
to translate emplrlcal observatlons lnto lmpllcatlons of
ratlonal human conductcan thls same terraln whlch,
over half a century ago, flfty entlre years, two, three
generatlons ago produced the Buntlngs, the Roux, the
Douglas Woltons, Solly Sachs, the Gldeon Bothascan
that same terraln, flfty, slxty, even seventy years later,
be peopled by a specles of humanlty so ahlstorlcal that
the declaratlon, so clearly spelt out ln l9l9 at the burn
lng of the passes, remalns only a troublesome event of
no endurlng slgnlflcance?
Some atavlstlc bug ls at work here whlch defles all
sclentlflc explanatlon, an arrest ln tlme wlthln the evolu
tlonary mandate of nature, whlch puts all human expe
rlence of learnlng to serlous questlon! We have to ask
ourselves then, what event can speak to such a breed of
people? How do we reactlvate that petrlfled cell whlch
houses hlstorlc apprehenslon and development? Is lt
posslble, perhaps, that events, gatherlngs such as thls
mlght help? Dare we sklrt the edge of hubrls and say to
them. Jake a good look. Provlde your response. In
your anxlety to prove that thls moment ls not posslble,
you had kllled, malmed, sllenced, tortured, exlled,
debased and dehumanlzed hundreds of thousands
encased ln thls very skln, crowned wlth such halr,
proudly content wlth thelr very belng? How many
potentlal partners ln the sclence of heart transplant have
you wasted? How do we know how many black South
Afrlcan sclentlsts and wrlters would have stood here, by
now, lf you had had the vlslon to educate the rest of the
world ln the value of a great multlraclal soclety?
|ack Cope surely sums lt up ln hls Ioreword to
JHE ADVERSARY WIJHIN, a study of dlssldence
ln Afrlkaaner llterature, when he states.
Looklng back from the perspectlve of the present, I
thlnk lt can justly be sald that, at the core of the matter,
the Afrlkaaner leaders ln l921 took the wrong turnlng.
Jhemselves the vlctlms of lmperlallsm ln lts most evll
aspect, all thelr sufferlngs and enormous loss of llfe
nevertheless falled to convey to them the obvlous hls
torlcal lesson. Jhey became themselves the new lmperl
allsts. Jhey took over from Brltaln the mantle of
emplre and colonlallsm. Jhey could well have set thelr
faces agalnst annexatlon, aggresslon, colonlal explolta
tlon, and oppresslon, raclal arrogance and barefaced
hypocrlsy, of whlch they had been themselves the vlc
tlms. Jhey could have opened the doors to humane
ldeas and clvlllzlng processes and transformed the great
terrltory wlth lts lncalculable resources lnto another
New World.
Instead they dellberately set the clock back wher
ever they could. Jaklng over ten mllllon lndlgenous
subjects from Brltlsh colonlal rule, they strlpped them
of what llmlted rlghts they had galned over a century
and tlghtened the screws on thelr subjectlon.
Well, perhaps the wars agalnst Chaka and Dlngaan and
Dlglnswayo, even the Great Jrek were then too fresh ln
your ~~ . But we are saylng that over a century
has passed slnce then, a century ln whlch the world has
leapt, ln comparatlve tempo wlth the past, at least three
centurles. And we have seen the potentlal of man and
womanof all racescontend wlth the most jealously
guarded soverelgnty of Nature and the Cosmos. In
every fleld, both ln the Humanltles and Sclences, we
have seen that human creatlvlty has confronted and
tempered the hostlllty of hls envlronment, adaptlng,
moderatlng, convertlng, harmonlzlng, and even sub
jugatlng. Jrlumphlng over errors and resumlng the sur
rendered flelds, when man has had tlme to llck hls
371
wounds and llsten agaln to the urglngs of hls splrlt. Hls
torydlstorted, opportunlstlc renderlngs of hlstory have
been cleansed and restored to truthful reallty, because
the traducers of the hlstory of others have dlscovered
that the further they advanced, the more thelr very
progress was checked and vltlated by the lacunae they
had purposefully lnserted ln the hlstory of others. Self
lnterest dlctated yet another round of revlslonlsm
sllght, nlggardly concesslons to begln wlth. But a breach
had been made ln the dam and an avalanche proved the
loglcal progresslon. Irom the heart of jungles, even
before the ald of hlghpreclslon cameras mounted on
orbltlng satellltes, clvlllzatlons have resurrected, docu
mentlng thelr own exlstence wlth unassallable lconogra
phy and art. More amazlng stlll, the records of the
anclent voyagers, the merchant adventurers of the age
when Europe dld not yet requlre to domlnate terrltorles
ln order to feed lts lndustrlal mlllsthose objectlve reclt
als of marlners and adventurers from antlqulty con
flrmed what the archeologlcal remalns afflrmed so
loudly. Jhey spoke of llvlng communltles whlch regu
lated thelr own llves, whlch had evolved a worklng rela
tlonshlp wlth Nature, whlch mlnlstered to thelr own
wants and secured thelr future wlth thelr own genlus.
Jhese narratlves, uncluttered by the lmpure motlves
whlch needed to mystlfy the plaln selfservlng rush to
dlsmantle lndependent socletles for easy plunderlng
polnted accuslng flngers unerrlngly ln the dlrectlon of
European savants, phllosophers, sclentlsts, and theorlsts
of human evolutlon. Goblneau ls a notorlous name, but
how many students of European thought today, even
among us Afrlcans, recall that several of the most
revered names ln European phllosophyHegel, Locke,
Montesquleu, Hume, Voltalrean endless llstwere
unabashed theorlsts of raclal superlorlty and denlgra
tors of the Afrlcan hlstory and belng. As for the more
promlnent names among the theorlsts of revolutlon and
class strugglewe wlll draw the curtaln of extenuatlon
on thelr own lntellectual aberratlon, forglvlng them a
llttle for thelr vlslon of an end to human exploltatlon.
In any case, the purpose ls not really to lndlct the
past, but to summon lt to the attentlon of a sulcldal,
anachronlstlc present. Jo say to that mutant present.
you are a chlld of those centurles of lles, dlstortlon and
opportunlsm ln hlgh places, even among the holy of
holles of lntellectual objectlvlty. But the world ls grow
lng up, whlle you wllfully remaln a chlld, a stubborn,
selfdestructlve chlld, wlth certaln destructlve powers,
but a chlld nevertheless. And to say to the world, to call
attentlon to lts own hlstorlc passage of llesas yet
unabandoned by somewhlch sustalns the evll precoc
lty of thls chlld. Whereln then lles the surprlse that we,
the vlctlms of that lntellectual dlshonesty of others,
demand from that world that ls flnally comlng to ltself,
a measure of explatlon? Demand that lt rescues ltself,
by concrete acts, from the stlgma of belng the wllful
parent of a monstroslty, especlally as that monstrous
chlld stlll draws materlal nourlshment, breath, and
human recognltlon from the strengths and devlses of
that world, wlth an umblllcal cord whlch stretches
across oceans, even across the cosmos vla socalled pro
grammes of technologlcal cooperatlon. We are saylng
very slmply but urgently. Sever that cord. By any
name, be lt Jotal Sanctlon, Boycott, Dlslnvestment, or
whatever, sever thls umblllcal cord and leave thls mon
ster of a blrth to atrophy and dle or to rebulld ltself on
longdenled humane foundatlons. Let lt collapse, shorn
of lts external sustenance, let lt collapse of lts own soclal
dlsequlllbrlum, lts economlc lopsldedness, lts war of
attrltlon on lts most productlve labour. Let lt wlther llke
an aborted foetus of the human famlly lf lt perslsts ln
smotherlng the mlnds and slnews whlch constltute lts
authentlc belng.
Jhls parlah soclety that ls Apartheld South Afrlca
plays many games on human lntelllgence. Llsten to thls
for example. When the whole world escalated lts appeal
for the release of Nelson Mandela, the South Afrlcan
Government blandly declared that lt contlnued to hold
Nelson Mandela for the same reasons that the Allled
powers contlnued to hold Rudolf Hess! Now a state
ment llke that ls an obvlous appeal to the love of the
rldlculous ln everyone. Certalnly lt wrung a klnd of
satlrlc poem out of meRudolf Hess as Nelson Man
dela ln blackface! What else can a wrlter do to protect
hls humanlty agalnst such egreglous assaults! But yet
agaln to equate Nelson Mandela to the archcrlmlnal
Rudolf Hess ls a macabre lmprovement on the attltude
of regardlng hlm as subhuman. It belongs on that same
scale of Apartheld`s selflmprovement as the ratlo
between Sharpevllle and Von Brandls Square, that near
klnd, nearconslderate, almost benevolent dlspersal of
the flrst Natlve Press rebelllon.
Jhat world whlch ls so convenlently traduced by
Apartheld thought ls of course that whlch I so whole
heartedly embraceand thls ls my cholceamong sev
eral optlonsof the slgnlflcance of my presence here. It
ls a world that nourlshes my belng, one whlch ls so self
sufflclent, so replete ln all aspects of lts productlvlty, so
confldent ln ltself and ln lts destlny that lt experlences
no fear ln reachlng out to others and ln respondlng to
the reach of others. It ls the heartstone of our creatlve
exlstence. It constltutes the prlsm of our world percep
tlon and thls means that our slght need not be and has
never been permanently turned lnwards. If lt were, we
could not so easlly understand the enemy on our door
step, nor understand how to obtaln the means to dls
arm lt. When thls soclety whlch ls Apartheld South
Afrlca lndulges from tlme to tlme ln appeals to the out
375
slde world that lt represents the last bastlon of clvlllza
tlon agalnst the hordes of barbarlsm from lts North, we
can even afford an lndulgent smlle. It ls sufflclent, lmag
lnes thls state, to ralse the spectre of a few renegade
Afrlcan leaders, psychopaths and robber barons who
we ourselves are vlctlms ofwhom we denounce before
the world and overthrow when we are ablethls Apart
held soclety lnslsts to the world that lts plcture of the
future ls the reallty whlch only lts pollcles can erase.
Jhls ls a contlnent whlch only destroys, lt proclalms, lt
ls peopled by a race whlch has never contrlbuted any
thlng posltlve to the world`s pool of knowledge. A vac
uum, that wlll suck lnto lts lnsatlable maw the entlre
frults of centurles of European clvlllzatlon, then spew
out the resultlng mush wlth contempt. How strange
that a soclety whlch clalms to represent thls endangered
face of progress should ltself be locked ln centurlesold
fantasles, bllthely unaware of, or lndlfferent to the fact
that lt ls the last, lnstltutlonally functlonlng product of
archalc artlcles of falth ln Euro|udalc thought.
Jake God and Law for example, especlally the
former. Jhe black race has more than sufflclent hlstorlc
justlflcatlon to be a llttle paranold about the lntruslon of
allen deltles lnto lts destlny. Ior even today, Apartheld`s
mentallty of the preordalned restsaccordlng to lts own
unabashed clalms, on what I can only descrlbe as lncl
dents ln a testamentary GodlsmI dare not call lt Chrls
tlanlty. Jhe sons of Ham on the one hand; the
descendants of Shem on the other. Jhe once pro
nounced, utterly lmmutable curse. As for Law, these
supremaclsts base thelr refusal to concede the rlght of
equal polltlcal partlclpatlon to blacks on a clalm that
Afrlcans have nelther respect for, nor the sllghtest pro
cllvlty for Lawthat ls, for any arbltratlng concept
between the lndlvldual and the collectlve.
Even the mlldest, llberal, somewhat regretful but
contented apologlsts for Apartheld, for at least some
form of Apartheld whlch ls not Apartheld but ensures
the ~ even thls amblvalent breed bases lts case
on thls lack of the ldea of Law ln the black mlnd. I need
only refer to a recent contrlbutlon to thls llterature ln
the form of an autoblography by a famous heart trans
plant surgeon, one who ln hls own sclentlflc rlght has
probably been a candldate for a Nobel Prlze ln the Scl
ences. Desplte constant lntellectual encounters on
dlverse levels, the sad phenomenon perslsts of Afrl
kaaner mlnds whlch, ln the words of Eddle Roux, ls a
product of that complete acceptance of the 'tradltlonal
attltudes of the tlme."
Jhey have, as already acknowledged, qulte
'respectable" lntellectual ancestors. Irledrlch Wllhelm
Hegel, to clte just my favourlte example, found lt conve
nlent to pretend that the Afrlcan had not yet developed
to the level where he
attalned that reallzatlon of any substantlal objectlve
exlstenceas for example, God, or Lawln whlch the
lnterest of man`s volltlon ls lnvolved and ln whlch he
reallzes hls own belng.
He contlnues.
Jhls dlstlnctlon between hlmself as an lndlvldual and
the unlversallty of hls essentlal belng, the Afrlcan ln the
unlform, undeveloped oneness of hls exlstence, has not
yet attalned. so that the knowledge of absolute Belng,
an Other and a Hlgher than hls lndlvldual self, ls
entlrely wantlng.
Iutlle to waste a moment refutlng the banal untruthful
ness of thls clalm, I content myself wlth extractlng from
lt only a lesson whlch escapes, even today, those who
lnslst that the plnnacle of man`s lntellectual thlrst ls the
capaclty to project thls unlversallty ln the dlrectlon of a
SuperOther. Jhere ls, I belleve, a very healthy school
of thought whlch not only opposes thls materlally, but
has produced effectlvely structured socletles whlch
operate lndependently of thls seductlve, even produc
tlvely, lnsplrlng but extravagant fable.
Once we thus overcome the temptatlon to contest
the denlal of thls feat of lmaglnatlve projectlon to the
Afrlcan, we flnd ourselves left only wlth the dlspasslon
ate exerclse of examlnlng ln what areas we encounter
dlfferences between the hlstorles of socletles whlch,
accordlng to Hegel and company, never concelved of
thls Omnlpotent Extruslon lnto Inflnlte Space, and
those who dldbe these dlfferences ln the areas of eco
nomlc or artlstlc llfe, soclal relatlons or sclentlflc attaln
mentln short, ln all those actlvltles whlch are
emplrlcally verlflable, qulte dlfferent from the raclal
consequences of lmprecatlons arlslng from that post
AdamandEve nudlst escapade ln the Old Jestament.
When we do thls, we come upon a curlous fact.
Jhe precolonlal hlstory of Afrlcan socletlesand I refer
to both EuroChrlstlan and ArabIslamlc colonlzatlon
lndlcates very clearly that Afrlcan socletles never at any
tlme of thelr exlstence went to war wlth another over
the lssue of rellglon. Jhat ls, at no tlme dld the
black race attempt to subjugate or forclbly convert oth
ers wlth any hollerthanthou evangellzlng zeal. Eco
nomlc and polltlcal motlves, yes. But not rellglon.
Perhaps thls unnatural fact was responslble for the con
cluslons of Hegelwe do not know. Certalnly, the
bloody hlstorles of the world`s major rellglons, locallzed
sklrmlshes of whlch extend even to the present, lead to
a sneaklng susplclon that rellglon, as deflned by these
emlnent phllosophers, comes to selfknowledge only
through the actlvlty of war.
When, therefore, towards the close of the Jwentl
eth Century, that ls, centurles after the Crusades and
376
|lhads that lald waste other and one another`s clvlllza
tlons, fragmented anclent coheslve soclal relatlons and
trampled upon the splrltuallty of entlre peoples, smash
lng thelr cultures ln obedlence to the strlctures of
unseen gods, when today, we encounter natlons whose
soclal reasonlng ls gulded by canonlcal, theologlcal
clalms, we belleve, on our part, that the era of darkness
has never truly left the world. A state whose justlflca
tlon for the contlnulng suppresslon of lts lndlgenes,
lndlgenes who constltute the majorlty on that land, rests
on clalms to dlvlne selectlon ls a menace to secure glo
bal relatlonshlp ln a world that thrlves on natlonallsm
as common denomlnator. Such a soclety does not, ln
other words, belong ln thls modern world. We also
have our myths, but we have never employed them as a
base for the subjugatlon of others. We also lnhablt a
reallstlc world, however, and, for the recovery of the
fullness of that world, the black race has no cholce but
to prepare ltself and volunteer the supreme sacrlflce.
In speaklng of that worldboth myth and reallty
lt ls our duty, perhaps our very last peaceful duty to a
doomed enemyto remlnd lt, and lts supporters outslde
lts boundarles, that the phenomenon of amblvalence
lnduced by the Afrlcan world has a very long hlstory,
but that most proponents of the slanderous aspects have
long ago learnt to abandon the untenable. Indeed lt ls
probably even more pertlnent to remlnd thls raclst socl
ety that our Afrlcan world, lts cultural hoards and
phllosophlcal thought, have had concrete lmpacts on
the raclsts` own forebears, have proved semlnal to a
number of movements and even created trlbutarles,
both pure and polluted, among the whlte lndlgenes ln
thelr own homelands.
Such a varlety of encounters and responses have
been due, naturally, to profound searches for new dlrec
tlons ln thelr cultural adventures, seeklng solaces to
counter the remorseless mechanlzatlon of thelr exlst
ence, lndeed seeklng new meanlngs for the mystery of
llfe and attemptlng to overcome the soclal malalse cre
ated by the very trlumphs of thelr own clvlllzatlon. It
has led to a profound respect for the Afrlcan contrlbu
tlon to world knowledge, whlch dld not, however, end
the habltual denlgratlon of the Afrlcan world. It has cre
ated ln places a neardelflcatlon of the Afrlcan person
that phase ln whlch every Afrlcan had to be a prlnce
whlch yet agaln, was coupled wlth a prlmltlve fear and
loathlng for the person of the Afrlcan. Jo these para
doxlcal responses, the essentlallty of our black belng
remalns untouched. Ior the black race knows, and ls
content slmply to know, ltself. It ls the European world
that has sought, wlth the utmost zeal, to redeflne ltself
through these encounters, even when lt does appear
that he ls endeavourlng to grant meanlng to an experl
ence of the Afrlcan world.
We can make use of the example of that perlod of
European Expresslonlsm, a movement whlch saw Afrl
can art, muslc, and dramatlc rltuals share the same
sphere of lnfluence as the most dlsparate, astonlshlngly
lncompatlble collectlon of ldeas, ldeologles, and soclal
tendenclesIreud, Karl Marx, Bakunln, Nletzsche,
cocalne, and free love. What wonder then, that the splr
ltual and plastlc presence of the Bakota, Nlmba, the
Yoruba, Dogon, Dan etc., ~
~ and the anathematlzed of a dellrlum that was
most pecullarly European, mostly Jeutonlc and Galllc,
spannlng at least four decades across the last and the
present centurles. Yet the vlbrant goal remalned the
complete llberatlon of man, that freelng of hls yet
untapped potentlal that would carve marble blocks for
the constructlon of a new world, debourgeolslfy exlst
lng constrlctlons of European thought and llght the
flame to forge a new fraternlty throughout thls brave
new world. Yes, wlthln thls slngle movement that cov
ered the vast spectrum of outrlght fasclsm, anarchlsm,
and revolutlonary communlsm, the reallty that was
Afrlca was, as always, snlffed at, dellcately tested, swal
lowed entlre, regurgltated, approprlated, extolled, and
damned ln the revelatory frenzy of a contlnent`s recre
atlve energles.
Oscar Kokoschka for lnstance. for thls dramatlst
and palnter Afrlcan rltuallsm led malnly ln the dlrectlon
of sadlsm, sexual perverslon, general selfgratlflcatlon.
It flowed naturally lnto a Nletzschean apocalyptlc sum
mons, full of selflnduced, ecstatlc rage agalnst soclety,
lndeed, agalnst the world. Vasslly Kadlnsky on hls part,
responded to the prlnclples of Afrlcan art by foreseelng.
a sclence of art erected on a broad foundatlon whlch
must be lnternatlonal ln character.
lnslstlng that
lt ls lnterestlng, but certalnly not sufflclent, to create an
excluslvely European art theory.
Jhe sclence of art would then lead, accordlng to hlm, to
a comprehenslve synthesls whlch wlll extend far
beyond the conflnes of art lnto the realm of the oneness
of the human and the 'dlvlne."
Jhls same movement, whose centenary wlll be due for
celebratlons ln European artlstlc capltals ln the next
decade or twoamong several paradoxes the phenome
non of European artlsts of later acknowledged glant
statureModlgllanl, Matlsse, Gauguln, Plcasso, Bran
cusl etc. worshlpplng wlth varylng degrees of fervour,
at the shrlne of Afrlcan and Polyneslan artlstlc revela
tlons, even as |ohannes Becher, ln hls Expresslonlst
377
dellrlum, swore to bulld a new world on the eradlcatlon
of all plagues, lncludlng
Negro trlbes, fever, tuberculosls, venereal epldemlcs,
lntellectual psychlc defectsI`ll flght them, vanqulsh
them.
And was lt by colncldence that contemporaneously
wlth thls stlrrlng manlfesto, yet another German enthu
slast, Leo Irobenluswlth no clalms whatever to belng
part of, or lndeed havlng the least lnterest ln the Expres
slonlst movement, was able to vlslt IleIfe, the heartland
and cradle of the Yoruba race, and be profoundly
stlrred by an object of beauty, the product of the Yoruba
mlnd and hand, a classlc expresslon of that serene por
tlon of the world resolutlon of that race, ln hls own
words.
Before us stood a head of marvellous beauty, wonder
fully cast ln antlque bronze, true to the llfe, lncrusted
wlth a patlna of glorlous dark green. Jhls was, ln very
deed, the Olokun, Atlantlc Afrlca`s Poseldon.
Yet llsten to what he had to wrlte about the very people
whose handlwork had llfted hlm lnto these realms of
unlversal subllmlty.
Profoundly stlrred, I stood for many mlnutes before the
remnant of the erstwhlle Lord and Ruler of the Emplre
of Atlantls. My companlons were no less astounded. As
though we had agreed to do so, we held our peace.
Jhen I looked around and sawthe blacksthe clrcle of
the sons of the 'venerable prlest," hls Hollness the
Onl`s frlends, and hls lntelllgent offlclals. I was moved
to sllent melancholy at the thought that thls assembly
of degenerate and feeblemlnded posterlty should be
the legltlmate guardlans of so much lovellness.
A dlrect lnvltatlon to a freeforall race for dlsposses
slon, justlfled on the grounds of the keeper`s unworthl
ness, lt recalls other schlzophrenlc condltlons whlch are
mother to, for lnstance, the far more lethal, dark mytho
poela of Van Lvyck Louw. Ior though thls erstwhlle
Nazl sympathlzer would later raln maledlctlons on the
heads of the more extreme raclsts of hls countrymen.
Lord, teach us to thlnk what 'own" ls, Lord let us
thlnk! and then. over hate agalnst blacks, browns,
whltes. over thls and lts cause, I dare to call down
judgement.
Van Lvyck`s powerful eplc RAKA was guaranteed to
churn up the whlte cesspools of these prlmordlal fears.
A work of searlng, vlsceral lmpact operatlng on raclal
memory, lt would feed the Afrlkaaner Credo on the
loomlng spectre of a unlversal barbarlc recesslon, bear
lng southwards on the cloven hooves of the Ilfth Horse
man of the Apocalypse, the black.
Jhere ls a deep lesson for the world ln the black
races` capaclty to forglve, one whlch, I often thlnk, has
much to do wlth ethlcal precepts whlch sprlng from
thelr world vlew and authentlc rellglons, none of whlch
ls ever totally eradlcated by the accretlons of forelgn
falths and thelr lmpllclt ethnocentrlclsm. Ior, not con
tent wlth belng a raclal slanderer, one who dld not hesl
tate to denlgrate, ln such uncompromlslngly nlhlllstlc
terms, the ancestral fount of the black racesa bellef
whlch thls ethnologlst hlmself observedIrobenlus was
also a notorlous plunderer, one of a long llne of Euro
pean archeologlcal ralders. Jhe museums of Europe
testlfy to thls lnsatlable lust of Europe; the frustratlons
of the Mlnlstrles of Culture of the Jhlrd World and, of
organlzatlons llke LNESCO are a contlnulng testl
mony to the tenaclty, even recldlvlst nature of your rou
tlne recelver of stolen goods. Yet, ls lt not amazlng that
Irobenlus ls today stlll honoured by black lnstltutlons,
black leaders, and scholars? Jhat hls annlversarles pro
vlde ready excuse for lntellectual gatherlngs and sym
posla on the black contlnent, ~ ~ I
assaults have not been permltted to obscure hls contrl
butlon to thelr knowledge of Afrlca, or the role whlch
he has played ln the understandlng of the phenomenon
of human culture and soclety, even ln splte of the fre
quent patchlness of hls scholarshlp?
It ls the same largeness of splrlt whlch has
lnformed the relatlonshlp today of erstwhlle colonlal
natlons, some of whom have undergone the most cruel
forms of settler or plantatlon colonlallsm, where the
human degradatlon that goes wlth greed and explolta
tlon attalned such levels of perverslon that human ears,
hands, and noses served to atone for fallures ln produc
tlon quota. Natlons whlch underwent the agony of wars
of llberatlon, whose earth freshly teems wlth the bodles
of lnnocent vlctlms and unsung martyrs, llve slde by
slde today wlth thelr recent enslavers, even sharlng the
control of thelr destlny wlth those who, barely four or
flve years ago, compelled them to wltness the massacre
of thelr klth and kln. Over and above Chrlstlan charlty,
they are content to rebulld, and share. Jhls splrlt of col
laboratlon ls easy to dlsmlss as the treacherous ploy of
that speclal breed of leaders who settle for early com
promlses ln order to safeguard, for thelr own use, the
pollshed shoes of the departlng oppressors. In many
cases, the truth of thls must be conceded. But we also
have examples of reglmes, allled to the asplratlons of
thelr masses on the black contlnent, whlch have
adopted thls same polltlcal phllosophy. And, ln any
case, the flnal arblters are the people themselves, from
whose relatlonshlps any observatlons such as thls
obtaln any valldlty. Let us slmply content ourselves
378
wlth remarklng that lt ls a phenomenon worthy of note.
Jhere are, after all, European natlons today whose
memory of domlnatlon by other races remalns so vlvld
more than two centurles after llberatlon, that a terrlble
vengeance culturally, soclally, and polltlcally ls stlll
exacted, even at thls very moment, from the descen
dants of those erstwhlle conquerors. I have vlslted such
natlons whose cruel hlstorles under forelgn domlnatlon
are enshrlned as lcons to dally consclousness ln monu
ments, parks, ln museums and churches, ln documenta
tlon, woodcuts, and photo gravures dlsplayed under
bulletproof glasscases but, most telllng of all, ln the
reductlon of the remnants of the conquerlng hordes to
the degraded status of allens on sufferance, wlth
reduced clvlc rlghts, prlvlleges, and soclal status, a
barely tolerate marglnallty that expresses ltself ln the
pathos of downcast faces, dropped shoulders, and apol
ogetlc encounters ln those rare tlmes when lntercourse
wlth the latterly assertlve race ls unavoldable. Yes, all
thls I have seen, and much of lt has been wrltten about
and debated ln lnternatlonal gatherlngs. And even
whlle acknowledglng the poetlc justlce of lt ln the
abstract, one cannot help but wonder lf a physlcal
pound of flesh, exclsed at blrth, ls not a klnder act than
a llfelong vlsltatlon of the slns of the father on the sons
even to the tenth and twelfth generatlons.
Confronted wlth such tradltlons of attenuatlng
the raclal and cultural prlde of these marglnallzed or
mlnorlty peoples, the mlnd travels back to our own
socletles where such causatlve hlstorles are far fresher ln
the memory, where the rulns of formerly thrlvlng com
munltles stlll speak eloquent accusatlons and the fumes
stlll rlse from the scorched earth strategles of colonlal
and raclst myopla. Yet the streets bear the names of
former oppressors, thelr statues and other symbols of
subjugatlon are left to decorate thelr squares, the con
sclousness of a fully confldent people havlng relegated
them to mere decoratlons and roostlngplaces for bats
and plgeons. And the llbrarles remaln unpurged, so that
new generatlons freely browse through the works of
Irobenlus, of Hume, Hegel, or Montesquleu and others
wlthout flrst encounterlng, freshly stamped on the fly
leaf. WARNING! JHIS WORK IS DANGEROLS
IOR YOLR RACIAL SELIESJEEM.
Yet these proofs of accommodatlon, on the grand
or mlnuscule scale, collectlve, lnstltutlonal, or lndlvld
ual, must not be taken as proof of an lnflnlte, uncrltlcal
capaclty of black patlence. Jhey constltute ln thelr own
nature, a body of tests, an accumulatlon of debt, an
lmpllclt offer that must be matched by concrete returns.
Jhey are the blocks ln a suspended brldge begun from
one end of a chasm whlch, whether the bullders wlll lt
or not, must obey the law of matter and crash down
beyond a certaln polnt, settllng deflnltlvely lnto the wld
enlng chasm of susplclon, frustratlon, and redoubled
hate. On that testlng ground whlch, for us, ls Southern
Afrlca, that medleval camp of blbllcal terrors, prlmltlve
susplclons, a cholce must be made by all lovers of
peace. elther to brlng lt lnto the modern world, lnto a
ratlonal state of belng wlthln that splrlt of human part
nershlp, a capaclty for whlch has been so amply dem
onstrated by every llberated black natlon on our
contlnent, orto brlng lt abjectly to lts knees by ejectlng
lt, ln every aspect, from humane recognltlon, so that lt
caves ln lnternally, through the strategles of lts embat
tled majorlty. Whatever the cholce, thls lnhuman
affront cannot be allowed to pursue our Jwentleth Cen
tury consclence lnto the Jwentyflrst, that symbollc
comlngofage whlch peoples of all cultures appear to
celebrate wlth rltes of passage. Jhat calendar, we know,
ls not unlversal, but tlme ls, and so are the lmperatlves
of tlme. And of those lmperatlves that challenge our
belng, our presence, and humane deflnltlon at thls tlme,
none can be consldered more pervaslve than the end of
raclsm, the eradlcatlon of human lnequallty, and the
dlsmantllng of all thelr structures. Jhe Prlze ls the con
sequent enthronement of lts complement. unlversal suf
frage, and peace.
| Jhe Nobel Ioundatlon, l986. Wole Soylnka ls the
379
`~ p
(24 Zpril 1S4 - 29 Dcccmbcr 1924)
j~ gK m
Uvivcrsity of Strotlclydc, Closgow
Jhls entry was expanded by Pender from hls Spltteler
entry ln DI 129: ìvctccvtl-Ccvtury Ccrmov !ritcrs,
1S41-1900.
BOOKS. Iromctlcus uvd Ipimctlcus: Iiv Clciclvis, as Carl
Iellx Jandem, 2 volumes (Aarau. Sauerlnder,
l880-l88l); translated by |ames I. Mulrhead as
Iromctlcus ovd Ipimctlcus (London. |arrolds,
l93l);
Ixtromuvdovo: Iosmisclc Dicltuvgcv, as Jandem (Lelpzlg.
Haessel, l883; revlsed edltlon, |ena. Dlederlchs,
l905);
Dos !cttfostcv vov Hcimligcv, serlallzed ln Dcr uvd (3 Sep
tember-l0 October l888); book publlcatlon
edlted by Martln Kraft (Zurlch. Buchclub Ex
Llbrls, l980);
Dcr Iorlomcvtor: Iustspicl iv vicr Zltcv (Basel. Gassmann,
l889);
Dos ombordcmcvt vov Zbo: Iivc Irolluvg ous Iivvlovd,
serlallzed ln Dcr uvd (27 |anuary-21 Iebruary
l889); book publlcatlon (Bern. Gute Schrlften,
l956);
Sclmcttcrlivgc, as Jandem (Hamburg. Verlagsanstalt und
Druckerel Aktlen Gesellschaft, l889);
Iricdli dcr Ioldcri (Zurlch. Mller, l89l);
Dcr Ilrgciigc: Iustspicl iv vicr Zufgcv (Bern. Lack
Schelm, l892);
Custov: Iiv Idyll (Zurlch. Mller, l892);
Iitcrorisclc Clciclvissc (Zurlch. Mller, l892);
ollodcv (Zurlch. Mller, l896);
Dcr Cottlord (Irauenfeld. Huber, l897);
Ioclcvdc !olrlcitcv: Ccsommcltc Issoys (Ilorence
Lelpzlg. Dlederlchs, l898); translated by Mulr
head as Iouglivg Trutls (London New York.
Putnam, l927);
Covrod dcr Icutvovt: Iivc Dorstclluvg (Berlln. Verlag der
Romanwelt, l898);
Ulympisclcr Irllivg: Ipos (Lelpzlg |ena. Dlederlchs,
l900-l905)comprlses part l, Dic Zuffolrt:
Uuvcrtrc; part 2, Hcro dic rout; part 3, Dic lolc
cit; part 1, Ivdc uvd !cvdc; 2 volumes (l907);
revlsed, 2 volumes (l9l0)lncludes part 5, cus;
Cloclcvlicdcr: Ccdicltc ( |ena. Dlederlchs, l906);
Imogo ( |ena. Dlederlchs, l906);
Ccrold uvd Hovsli, dic Modclcvfcivdc: Iivdcrgcsclicltc ( |ena.
Dlederlchs, l907); republlshed as Dic Modclcv-
fcivdc: Iivc Iivdcrgcsclicltc ( |ena. Dlederlchs,
l920); translated by Vlcomtesse de la Roquette
`~ pI ~ NVNM Ee ^Ld f~F
380
`~ p ai_ PPO
Bulsson as Two Iittlc Misogyvists (New York. Holt,
l922);
Mcivc cicluvgcv u ìctsclc (Munlch. Sddeutsche
Monatshefte, l908);
Mcivc frlcstcv Irlcbvissc ( |ena. Dlederlchs, l9l1);
Uvscr Sclwcicr Stovdpuvlt: !ortrog (Zurlch. Rascher,
l9l5);
Cottfricd-Icllcr-Icdc, iv Iucrv gcloltcv om 26. uli 1919
(Lucerne. Wlcke, l9l9); republlshed as Cottfricd
Icllcr: Iivc Icdc ( |ena. Dlederlchs, l920);
!orum icl mcivcv Iromctlcus umgcorbcitct lobc: !ortrog
(Zurlch. Rascher, l923);
Iromctlcus dcr Duldcr ( |ena. Dlederlchs, l921);
Ccsommcltc !crlc, ll volumes, edlted by Gottfrled
Bohnenblust, Wllhelm Altwegg, and Robert Iaesl
(Zurlch. Artemls, l915-l958).
`W Mcistcrcrolluvgcv, edlted by Werner Stauf
facher (Zurlch. Manesse, l990);
'Icltc, scligc Musil: Musilolisclc Sclriftcv, edlted by
Andreas Wernll (Basel. Schwabe, 2002).
b bW Sclcctcd Iocms of Corl Spittclcr, trans
lated by Ethel Colburn Mayne and |ames I.
Mulrhead (London New York. Putnam, l928;
New York. Macmlllan, l928).
PLAY PRODLCJIONS. Dcr Iorlomcvtor, Basel, Basel
Munlclpal Jheatre, November l889;
Icstspicl ur Irffvuvg dcs rclcr Stodttlcotcrs, Zurlch,
Zurlch Munlclpal Jheatre, 30 September l89l.
OJHER. 'Eugenla, elne Dlchtung," ln Carl Melner,
Corl Spittclcr ( |ena. Dlederlchs, l9l2), pp. l08-
l32.
Carl Spltteler was a generatlon younger than the
bestknown nlneteenthcentury wrlters of German
speaklng Swltzerland, Gottfrled Keller and Conrad Ier
dlnand Meyer, and he occuples an anomalous posltlon
ln the llterary tradltlon that hls two older compatrlots
dld so much to establlsh. Spltteler was lnsplred by a
bellef ln the wrlterpoet as a vlslonary, a notlon at odds
not only wlth the pragmatlc Swlss ethos but also wlth
domlnatlng trends ln llterature wrltten ln German at the
close of the nlneteenth century and at the openlng of
the twentleth. In Spltteler`s vlew, the contemporary
bellef ln unfettered progress, wlth lts emphasls on the
practlcal appllcatlon of the sclences, helped to demystlfy
and trlvlallze llfe. Jhe functlon of llterature was not to
reflect thls lmpoverlshment ln the real world but to
counter lt by provldlng lnsplratlon and solace. Spltteler
ls, therefore, assoclated much less wlth the German
Swlss narratlve llterary tradltlon than wlth the cultural
pesslmlsm proclalmed by the German phllosophers
Arthur Schopenhauer and Irledrlch Nletzsche. In hls
chosen medlum of the eplc poema form he sought
strenuously to revlve as the only one compatlble wlth
the hlgh calllng of the wrlterpoetSpltteler drew on
classlcal and Orlental mythology to deplct the sufferlng
and folly of humanlty wlthln a mlsbegotten creatlon.
Jhe major redeemlng feature ln the works by whlch
Spltteler set most store ls the noble flgure whose slngle
ness of purpose ln the face of humlllatlon and deprlva
tlon at the hands of those who have temporal power
bear wltness to an ldeal beyond anythlng entertalned by
the common herd.
Spltteler`s was an elltlst vlew that set ltself agalnst
contemporary styles such as reallsm and naturallsm
and agalnst the genre of the novel. Whlle he enjoyed a
certaln vogue ln the early years of the twentleth cen
tury, he was certalnly not wldely read by the tlme of hls
death ln l921. As characterlstlc of thls development,
blographer Werner Stauffacher cltes the reactlon of
Walter Benjamln, who, as a young man, pralsed Splt
teler hlghly ln an essay of l9ll and then never men
tloned hlm agaln ln any of hls wrltlngs.
Jhe contemporary perceptlon of Spltteler offers
several contradlctlons. Ilrst, the form and content of
what he regarded as hls major works dld not appeal to a
wlde publlc at the tlme of thelr publlcatlon and appeal
even less to contemporary nonspeclallst readers, so that
he ls now known almost excluslvely for the narratlves
ln the reallst and modern manner that he undertook as
mere exerclses ln an attempt to establlsh hls name ln the
llterary world. Second, Spltteler held hlmself aloof from
polltlcal actlvlty (although hls essays show hls aware
ness of contemporary sltuatlons); yet, the hlghly polltl
cal speech he made at a turbulent moment just after the
outbreak of World War I ln l9l1, Uvscr Sclwcicr Stovd-
puvlt (l9l5, Our Swlss Polnt of Vlew), remalns a key
deflnltlon of Swlss neutrallty ln the modern world.
Jhlrd, Spltteler was awarded the l9l9 Nobel Prlze ln
Llterature (the only natlveborn Swlss wrlter to have
recelved thls honor); but desplte hls undoubted llterary
strengths, Spltteler ls a somewhat anachronlstlc flgure
ln the Germanspeaklng llterary scene from the l880s
to the l920s and today ls slmply not read ln the way ln
whlch Keller and Meyer contlnue to be read. In a short
essay of l905, tltled 'Welche Werke slnd veraltet?"
(Whlch Works Are Outdated?), Spltteler made fun of
llterary hlstorles that gave artlflclal llfe to works already
dead and concluded. 'Eln Werk lst dann endgltlg ver
altet, wenn eln Melster es nlcht mehr zum Vorblld neh
men kann und mag" (A work ls outofdate for good
when an accompllshed wrlter no longer wlshes or ls
able to take lt as a model). Jhls judgment comes perll
ously near to flttlng hls own work, for there ls vlrtually
no trace of hls lnfluence ln the GermanSwlss wrltlng
that came after hlm.
38l
ai_ PPO `~ p
Jhe flrst chlld of Karl and Anna Dorothea (Brod
beck) Spltteler, Carl Georg Irledrlch Spltteler was born
on 21 Aprll l815 ln the small town of Llestal, some
thlrty mlles southeast of Basel. In l819 Karl Spltteler
was appolnted federal treasurer ln the wake of the
reforms that set up the Swlss Iederatlon ln l818, and
the famlly, whlch by thls tlme lncluded a second son,
moved to Bern. Jhe boys attended prlmary and sec
ondary school ln Bern untll the return of the famlly to
Llestal ln l857, when Spltteler was sent as a boarder to
the Humanlstlsches Gymnaslum (Classlcal Hlgh
School) ln Basel. Jhere he recelved lnstructlon from
Wllhelm Wackernagel, the flrst lncumbent of the chalr
of German at the Lnlverslty of Basel, and from the
great art hlstorlan |akob Burckhardt, whose pesslmlstlc
vlews were an lmportant lnfluence on Spltteler.
In l860 Spltteler made the acqualntance of the
artlstlcally and muslcally glfted Wldmann famlly; the
son, |oseph Vlktor, remalned untll hls death ln l9ll a
llfelong frlend and a tlreless campalgner for recognltlon
of Spltteler as a wrlter. Also ln l860 hls youthful aunt
Sophle Brodbeck, only elght years hls senlor, who had
been wldowed, returned to her hometown of Wlnter
thur. Her recognltlon of Spltteler`s speclal nature and
her sympathetlc response to the problems he was expe
rlenclng ln relatlon to hls future destlny earned her ln
hls eyes the deslgnatlon 'Eugenla," meanlng ln thls case
not only 'hlghborn" but also 'the guldlng splrlt" of hls
youth; she provlded lnsplratlon for hlm for many years.
Spltteler`s contacts wlth the Wldmann famlly helped to
further hls talents for art and muslc (he became an
accompllshed planlst), but he declded after a perlod of
lnner turmoll ln the autumn of l862, a year he later
called 'das entscheldende |ahr" (the declslve year), that
he would devote hlmself excluslvely to the hlgh calllng
of a (wrlterpoet). Almost twenty years elapsed,
however, before hls flrst publlcatlon, m
b (l880-l88l; translated as m ~
bI l93l).
Dlfflcultles ln hls relatlonshlp wlth hls practlcal
mlnded father were the flrst substantlal obstacle to the
reallzatlon of Spltteler`s llterary goals after he graduated
from the Humanlstlsches Gymnaslum ln l863. Lnder
paternal pressure, he then opted for law, whlch he stud
led at the Lnlverslty of Basel for two semesters. He suf
fered a complete physlcal and mental collapse ln l861,
and ln the autumn of that year Brodbeck became
engaged to Wldmann. A month later Spltteler fled to
frlends ln Lucerne, where he remalned for almost a
year. Durlng thls perlod of lsolatlon, he contlnued to
work on transferrlng to paper hls poetlc vlslons. Com
munlcatlon wlth hls father was gradually reestabllshed
wlth the help of lntermedlarles, and on hls return home
lt was agreed as a compromlse that Spltteler would
study theology at the Lnlverslty of Zurlch. Startlng ln
the autumn of l865 he spent four semesters there,
whlch were characterlzed by a crltlcal attltude toward
certaln tenets of Protestant theology and by lncreaslng
lnvolvement wlth hls own llterary projects. Jhese
projects were glven more deflnltlve dlrectlon by the
advlce of Burckhardt, whom Spltteler contlnued to vlslt
ln Basel, and who counseled agalnst attemptlng drama.
Jhls advlce accorded wlth Spltteler`s own recent experl
ence. prlor to hls studles ln Zurlch, he had sought to
glve dramatlc form to the travalls of a rugged lndlvldu
allst ln a unlform world through a portrayal of the blbll
cal flgure of Saul. Spltteler`s fallure to shape thls
materlal had left hlm dlsplrlted, and after hearlng
Burckhardt`s advlce, he felt encouraged to turn to
poetlc forms, more especlally the verse eplc, whlch he
saw as a flttlng vehlcle for hls hlgh alms and for whlch
hls model was l~ (l5l6) of the Itallan
Renalssance poet Arlosto. He began draftlng materlal
for an eplc on Prester |ohn, the twelfthcentury legend
ary Chrlstlan prlest who became klng of Ethlopla.
Jwo semesters ln l867 and l868 at the Lnlver
slty of Heldelberg completed Spltteler`s formal requlre
ments for hls flnal examlnatlons. At the German
unlverslty Spltteler`s energles were only partlally
dlrected toward theology, however. He lnterested hlm
self ln phllosophy and to some extent ln psychology but
chlefly ln the development of hls own llterary work.
Jhe attempt to fashlon a drama around Saul was defln
ltlvely abandoned ln favor of an eplc deplctlng another
flgure who set hlmself agalnst all manner of vlclssl
tudes. ln drafts deplctlng Heracles and hls feats, the flg
ure of Prometheus had begun to emerge, so that by the
summer of l867 Spltteler was able to see hlm as the
central flgure of an eplc further developed ln Heldel
berg.
On hls return to Swltzerland ln l868, Spltteler
began, ln conjunctlon wlth hls llterary work, to prepare
hlmself for hls flnal examlnatlons, whlch he falled ln the
autumn of l869. After a further flfteen months of study,
malnly ln Basel, he agaln presented hlmself for examl
natlon and thls tlme was successful, belng awarded ln
the sprlng of l87l the authorlty to preach. Spltteler then
went through the quallfylng procedures to become a
Protestant clergyman ln the Canton of Grlsons but at
the last moment wlthdrew hls candldature, and, ln a
complete change of dlrectlon, he accepted ln |uly l87l
the offer of a post as prlvate tutor to a noble famlly ln
St. Petersburg, Russla.
Spltteler remalned ln Russla as a tutor for almost
elght years, from l87l to l879. Irom l87l to l873 he worked
for the famlly of CarlCarlowltsch Standertskjld, a
IlnnlshSwedlsh baron who was a general ln the servlce
of the Russlan state; ln the autumn of l873 Spltteler
382
`~ p ai_ PPO
moved to the household of the Baltlc baron Nlklaus
von Cramer, wlth whom he remalned untll he left Rus
sla for good. As well as glvlng lessons, Spltteler was
expected to partlclpate ln the soclal llfe of the famllles,
accompanylng them to the theater and opera and par
tlclpatlng ln the summer holldays of both famllles,
lncludlng several vlslts to Ilnland. Spltteler complalned
of the tlme taken up by these soclal engagements, but
he was partlclpatlng ln a llfestyle that appealed to an
aspect of hls nature. In the l880s he wrote up some of
hls observatlons of Russla, but hls artlcles are conflned
to customs and hablts; there does not appear to be any
evldence that Spltteler engaged wlth the soclal reallty of
Russla nor lndeed wlth the contemporary llterature of
the countrythe maln works of Aleksandr Pushkln,
Nlkolal Gogol, Iyodor Dostoevsky, and Leo Jolstoy
that had been publlshed at that tlme were ln narratlve
prose, for Spltteler an lnferlor llterary genre.
Durlng the years ln Russla he ceaselessly
reworked the materlal that ylelded hls flrst book publl
catlon. Here, after the many false starts ln Zurlch and
Heldelberg, the palnful fashlonlng of the Prometheus
eplc as a classlcal form took place as he began to com
pose the story as such and not slmply to llst lts posslble
themes. Jhls process was to some extent accelerated by
the declslon to abandon verse and to opt lnstead for
strongly rhythmlcal prose. He kept hls frlend Wldmann
lnformed of progress and ln late l876 sent a draft of the
flrst part of the Prometheus eplc to hlm. Jo hls conster
natlon, the reactlon of Wldmann, hls closest supporter
and sympathlzer, was qulte negatlve. Wldmann advlsed
hlm on no account to publlsh. He found the draft lack
lng ln plastlclty and symbollc lmpact, and he felt that lt
had an lnapproprlate llngulstlc reglster. Spltteler`s deter
mlnatlon to overcome hls problems wlth the materlal
and the form was sustalned by hls hlgh notlon of the
calllng to whlch he had chosen to devote hlmself. Jhat
he was prepared to make the sacrlflces demanded of a
poet, not slmply ln terms of appllcatlon and work, was
further underllned by the outcome of hls love affalr
wlth hls young cousln Ellen Brodbeck (the daughter of
Sophle Brodbeck from her flrst marrlage) durlng a
short vlslt to Swltzerland ln l876. hls renunclatlon of
the relatlonshlp, whlch he saw as deflectlng hlm from
hls true path, and hls subsequent uneasy attltude
toward her when, on hls permanent return to Swltzer
land, he dlscovered her to be a wlfe and mother, later
achleved llterary form ln hls only novel, f~ (l906).
Spltteler returned to Swltzerland ln l879. Hls
father had dled the prevlous year, so Spltteler`s flnanclal
sltuatlon was by no means secure, and addltlonally he
felt obllged to provlde for hls mother. Wldmann, who
had become headmaster of a glrls` school ln Bern, was
able to help by offerlng hlm a temporary parttlme post
there teachlng hlstory. Jhe job lasted a year, and there
after Spltteler was obllged to seek further temporary
teachlng posltlons where he could flnd them. In l880
Wldmann was appolnted llterary edltor of the lnfluen
tlal Bern dally newspaper a _ (Jhe Iederatlon),
and, ever mlndful of hls frlend, he enabled Spltteler to
begln hls journallstlc work by startlng to publlsh ln the
autumn of l880 Spltteler`s serles of descrlptlve artlcles
about dally llfe ln Russla. At that tlme Spltteler was try
lng to flnd a publlsher for m bX after
the manuscrlpt had been rejected by four publlshers,
the two volumes appeared at hls own expense ln l880
and l88l. Jhe books were publlshed under the pseu
donym Carl Iellx Jandem, a reference to the German
wrlter |ean Paul, whose work Spltteler valued hlghly
and who had clalmed to place the Latln words 'tandem
fellx" (happy at last) on hls desk when he had flnlshed
wrltlng somethlng.
m b deplcts an lgnoble world
ln whlch the klngdom of God on Earth falls to offer a
counterwelght to the baseness and falslty represented
by the monster Behemoth. When the work opens, the
brothers Prometheus and Eplmetheus stand above com
mon men by vlrtue of thelr noble natures and hlgh lde
als, and the angel of God wlshes to make one of them
klng on Earth. Hls flrst cholce ls Prometheus, who ls
offered the throne on the condltlon that he renounce hls
alleglance to hls soul, whlch acknowledges no other
authorlty, and replace lt wlth a consclence, whlch ls, ln
each human belng, the reposltory of generally prevall
lng and soclally accepted vlews. Prometheus refuses the
offer because hls alleglance to hls soul, hls Herrln
(supreme mlstress), ls total; thus, Eplmetheus, compll
ant to law and custom, ls chosen as klng. Prometheus
feels that he has been humlllated and ls banlshed and
must earn hls dally bread ln poverty.
Jhe shortcomlngs of Eplmetheus as ruler are
revealed by two storles. Ilrst, Pandora, the lnnocent
daughter of the gullty creator of the world, seeks to
lessen the paln of human fate wlth a preclous stone.
Peasants flnd lt and brlng lt to Eplmetheus, who stlfles
hls own lnner promptlngs about lts slgnlflcance and, fol
lowlng hls consclence, allows the stone to be neglected
and become lost to manklnd. Second, the angel of God
has, as a mark of hls favor, entrusted the care of hls chll
dren to Eplthemeus. But Behemoth successfully outwlts
the feeble Eplmetheus, and two of the chlldren are lost.
At thls polnt Doxa, the companlon of the angel of God,
appeals to Prometheus, who lntervenes. Jhe last chlld
of God ls rescued; the enemy hosts vanlsh; and
Eplmetheus ls deposed. But Prometheus, spent after hls
efforts and old after hls years ln exlle, decllnes the
offered crown, and the future of the klngdom remalns
uncertaln.
383
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As Spltteler polnted out, the two brothers are not
based on classlcal models but lnstead represent two con
trary prlnclples. Prometheus seeks to order hls llfe ln
accord wlth the hlghest of ldeals, and Eplmetheus
acqulesces ln the ways of the world; the flrst battles
relentlessly wlth contrary forces, and the second settles
for the llne of least reslstance. Jhe Prometheus flgure,
as well as havlng clear parallels to Spltteler`s selfperceptlon,
owes much to Burckhardt`s notlons of hlstorlcal great
ness and cultural pesslmlsm and also to the promlnent
flgures ln hlstory evoked ln the wrltlngs of Meyer. Jhe
metrlcally rhythmlc prose and muslcal structures of
m b lmpart a quallty to lt that
derlved from Spltteler`s perceptlon of the eplc. Jhe
work ellclted practlcally no response from the crltlcs or
the publlc, desplte Wldmann`s best efforts on hls
frlend`s behalf and desplte a posltlve prlvate statement
from Keller ln a letter to Wldmann. More than forty
years later, wlth hls reputatlon establlshed and near
the end of hls llfe, Spltteler publlshed a refashlonlng
of the same materlal as m a (l921,
Prometheus the Endurer).
In the sprlng of l88l, under economlc pressure,
Spltteler took up a post that he held for four years at a
hlgh school ln La Neuvevllle, northwest of Bern ln the
Irenchspeaklng part of Swltzerland, where he moved
wlth hls mother. He was requlred to glve lessons (con
ducted ln Irench) ln Greek, Latln, and German. Slnce
thls post was a fulltlme job, there was restrlcted tlme
for hlm to pursue hls own wrltlng. Nonetheless, Splt
teler, as well as draftlng a play, '|esabel," was worklng
on what became hls second publlshed text. b~J
~~ (l883, Extraterrestrlal Matter) was publlshed
through the good offlces of Wldmann by the Lelpzlg
flrm Haessel, who also publlshed Meyer; the author dld
not recelve a fee but was not requlred to pay for publl
catlon. Jhe volume lncludes a collectlon of seven myths
ln verse, mostly pertalnlng to the creatlon of the world,
and, ln the flrst edltlon, carrylng a set of explanatlons ln
prose. Once agaln, there was vlrtually no publlc reac
tlon, but thls tlme Spltteler hlmself expressed reserva
tlons about the quallty of the poems. However,
b~~~ marks nonetheless a stage ln hls long llter
ary apprentlceshlp. flrst, ln the handllng of verse, albelt
not too successfully; and second, ln the lsolatlon of lndl
vldual themes from the Prometheus materlal, a polnter
to the more open constructlon of l c
(l900-l905, Olymplc Sprlng).
In l883 Spltteler marrled Marle Op den Hooff,
who was the daughter of a wealthy Dutch famlly that
had settled ln Swltzerland, and who had been hls pupll
at the glrls` school ln Bern. Jhe couple had two daugh
ters. Anna, born ln l886, and Marle Adle, born ln
l89l.
Work on two texts contlnued. Wlth the play '|es
abel," Spltteler sought to deplct the clash between
_ueen |ezebel and the prophet Elljah partly ln llne wlth
the theatrlcal conventlons of hls age and partly ln llne
wlth the model provlded by the plays of Irledrlch
Schlller. on the one hand, an hlstorlcal subject rendered
ln blank verse ln flve acts, and on the other hand, a dls
trlbutlon of focus remlnlscent of Schlller`s j~~ p~
(l80l)acts l and 1 for Elljah, acts 2 and 5 for |ezebel,
and a confrontatlon between the two ln act 2. Jhe com
pleted manuscrlpt was clrculated among welldlsposed
frlends and crltlcs but recelved largely negatlve
responses, and a revlsed second act sent to the Basel
Munlclpal Jheater ln l886 was rejected. Spltteler had
better fortune wlth another project. He returned to hls
drafts from the l860s on Prester |ohn and reworked
thls materlal lnto b~I a llterary rendltlon of hls rela
tlonshlp wlth Sophle Brodbeck, who appears as the
duchess Eugenla, the benevolent and sympathetlc pro
moter of her nephew |ohn. Jhe flrst cantos of thls eplc
were serlallzed ln a _ ln early l885.
In the autumn of the same year, Spltteler was
able, agaln through the efforts of Wldmann, to obtaln a
job as c~ (reporter ln the cultural features
sectlon) wlth the newspaper d (Border Post) ln
Basel. Jhe move wlth hls famlly to Basel was the start
of a sevenyear perlod of llterary journallsm, durlng
whlch Spltteler substantlally wldened hls acqualntance
shlps ln llterary clrcles and publlshed many essays. In
the nearly two years wlth the dI he revlewed
books, wrote artlcles on the arts, and commented, lnl
tlally at least, on polltlcs ln Swltzerland and elsewhere
ln Europe, the latter actlvlty demonstratlng that the
famous speech of l9l1, r p p~I was
not a completely lsolated lncldent. Jhe d eventu
ally ran lnto flnanclal dlfflcultles, necessltatlng Splt
teler`s dlsmlssal ln the sprlng of l887.
Almost three years of lnsecurlty followed, durlng
whlch short perlods of employment as a llterary jour
nallst fllllng ln for absent staff members supplemented
the fees he earned from hls freelance storles (some of
whlch drew on hls Russlan experlences), essays on llter
ature and aesthetlcs, and book revlews. Keller had been
prevalled upon by Wldmann to read m
b and b~~~I but Keller`s favorable prl
vate comments had been followed nelther by publlc
support for Spltteler nor by recommendatlons on hls
behalf. In l887 Nletzsche, who had succeeded Splt
teler`s teacher Wackernagel ln the chalr of German at
the Lnlverslty of Basel, was lmpressed by a collectlon
of Spltteler`s essays sent to hlm by Wldmann and rec
ommended Spltteler to Ierdlnand Avenarlus, who was
about to launch h~ (Curator), a Munlch perlodl
cal that became hlghly lnfluentlal and for more than
381
`~ p ai_ PPO
twentyflve years publlshed Spltteler`s contrlbutlons on
a range of llterary and aesthetlc toplcs. Jhe lmportance
of thls contact was also that lt afforded Spltteler a volce
beyond the boundarles of Swltzerlandhe was slowly
establlshlng a reputatlon ln the llterary world, and jour
neys to Germany and Austrla brought hlm lnto contact
wlth edltors of other leadlng revlews, though not
always wlth an outcome ln hls favor.
Jhe pressure to earn a llvlng left llttle tlme to fur
ther Spltteler`s own llterary projects, but, as always, he
persevered. A comedy play, 'Baclllus" (Baclllus), was
scheduled to start rehearsals at the beglnnlng of l888 at
the munlclpal theater ln Bern but was cancelled at the
last moment, partly because the actors protested that
the play was lmposslble to perform as lt stood. Jhe
plot, whlch centered on smalltown lntrlgues connected
wlth hlghly dublous sclentlflc experlments on people
who had agreed to fast, was serlallzed ln story form ln
the autumn of the same year ln the `cuc rclcr cituvg
(New Zurlch Newspaper) as Dos !cttfostcv vov Hcimligcv
(Jhe Iastlng Competltlon of Helmllgen). In l889 Splt
teler`s collectlon of poems, Sclmcttcrlivgc (Butterflles),
appeared wlth a Hamburg publlsher, once more at hls
own expense. Every poem centers on a butterfly or ls
seen from the perspectlve of a butterfly, whlch ls pre
sented as belng symbollc both of the fate of humanlty
ln an evllly dlsposed world and of the beauty and
ephemerallty of human love. Sclmcttcrlivgc marks a
change from the vlslons of Iromctlcus uvd Ipimctlcus to a
closer observatlon of the real world.
A comedy, Dcr Iorlomcvtor (llterally, the bearer of
a flag of truce), whlch had gone through several
reworklngs and whlch dealt wlth corruptlon ln the Rus
slan army and clvll servlce, was performed ln Novem
ber l889 ln Basel, but the receptlon at the premlere was
so negatlve that the play was lmmedlately removed
from the repertolre. Desplte Spltteler`s perceptlon of the
weaknesses of the play, he was convlnced that a poor
productlon contrlbuted materlally to the debacle. It was
a severe blow to Spltteler`s hopes for the theater, and lt
remalned, durlng hls llfetlme, the only performance of a
theatrlcal work by hlm that had not been commls
sloned.
By the end of l889 Spltteler, desplte reverses and
dlsappolntments, had acqulred sufflclent standlng for
the prestlglous and lnfluentlal dally `cuc rclcr cituvg
to offer hlm a post ln lts llterary and cultural sectlon.
Jhls job represented a major advance for hlm, not only
ln terms of hls personal reputatlon but also ln flnanclal
terms, for lt was a wellpald post. Spltteler moved to
Zurlch and worked there from the beglnnlng of l890 to
the mlddle of l892. Hls contacts ln the world of lltera
ture lncreased and became flrmer. He was able, by
means of hls revlews and essays ln the leadlng news
paper of Germanspeaklng Swltzerland, to contrlbute to
publlc standards of taste and judgment; and he was able
to encourage talented wrlters by publlshlng thelr work
ln the columns for whlch he was responslble. Jhe
wrlter who had struggled to make hls name was now, ln
hls mld fortles, a man wlth a posltlon of lnfluence
whom people sought out.
In the summer of l890, Spltteler`s novella Dic
Modclcvfcivdc (translated as Two Iittlc Misogyvists, l922)
was serlallzed ln the `cuc urclcr cituvg. Jhls work, the
adventures of two boys of about ten years old, drew on
the topography and to some extent on the experlences
of the author`s chlldhood, but there ls sufflclent dlstance
from the latter for the narratlve flow not to be lmpeded.
Spltteler`s reputatlon as a wrlter was enhanced when
Meyer wlthdrew at the last mlnute from a commltment
to wrlte a short theatrlcal plece to celebrate the reopen
lng of the Zurlch Munlclpal Jheater after lts destruc
tlon by flre ln l890. Spltteler accepted the commlsslon,
and Dcr Ilrgciigc (Greedy for Honor) was performed
ln November l889; slnce the scenery had already been
bullt and the expectatlons of a conventlonal celebratory
allegory were also already ln place, Spltteler had llttle
cholce but to create a temple of the Muses preslded over
by Apollo, the lncorporatlon of llght and perfectlon,
where the good thlngs ln the contemporary theater and
opera world were passed ln revlew for the beneflt of the
new theater. Iricdli dcr Ioldcri (l89l, _uarrelsome
Irledll) appeared wlth the publlshlng house Mller of
Zurlch. It was a short story portraylng the largely self
lnfllcted mlsadventures of a young farm boy ln a con
sclous attempt by Spltteler to counter the contemporary
sentlmentallzatlon of country llfe.
In l892 Spltteler publlshed two more books wlth
Mller. Custov: Iiv Idyll (Gustav. An Idyll), a short story
expanded from a strand ln Dos !cttfostcv vov Hcimligcv, ls
set ln a plcturesque small town and concerns a young
man who, after lnltlal reverses and wlth the help of a
devoted woman, galns confldence ln hls talents as a
composer, and has parallels wlth Spltteler`s sltuatlon.
Jhe cycle of poems Iitcrorisclc Clciclvissc (Llterary Par
ables) presents ln parable form the forces agalnst whlch
the author had struggled for so long and whlch, by the
end of the l880s, must have seemed to be vanqulshlng
hlm. the bellttllng of ldeallsm, the restrlctlveness of the
muchvaunted contemporary reallst style, the self
regardlng nature of llterary soclety, and the derlvatlve
ness of much of what lt produced. Yet, the tone ls not
harshly polemlcal, nor ls the perspectlve overly partlcu
lar, so that the poems generate a sense of wlde concerns
and unlversal appllcabllltyfactors plcked up by the
crltlcal response, whlch was unanlmously posltlve and
welcomlng.
385
ai_ PPO `~ p
Jhe deaths ln Lucerne, wlthln a year of one
another, of Spltteler`s motherlnlaw and slsterlnlaw
left hls alllng and wealthy fatherlnlaw alone. Accord
lngly, ln the summer of l892 Spltteler obtalned a release
from hls contract wlth the `cuc rclcr cituvg and
moved wlth hls famlly to Lucerne so that hls fatherln
law could be cared for and hls affalrs admlnlstered. Ior
Spltteler the move represented a radlcal change. Hls
reputatlon to that polnt was to a large extent based on
hls work as an essaylst and crltlc; ln hls fatherlnlaw`s
house, freedom from havlng to provlde for hls famlly
allowed hlm to return to reallzlng the hlgh ldeals envls
aged ln the vows of 'das entscheldende |ahr." When hls
fatherlnlaw dled ln l893, Spltteler became a wealthy
man, and, although hls flnanclal sltuatlon would have
permltted hlm to relax, hls remalnlng thlrtytwo years
were characterlzed by ceaseless actlvlty. he partlclpated
ln the cultural llfe of hls adopted clty; he traveled fre
quently ln Europe up untll l9l1; he accepted many
lnvltatlons to lecture; and he attended consclentlously
to a huge correspondence. But, ln a testlmony to the
depth and strength of hls sense of mlsslon, hls major
concern contlnued to be the composltlon of hls llterary
works.
In the early Lucerne years many old ldeas were
refashloned and new ones drafted. Iour publlcatlons
before the end of the century (one a commlsslon) dem
onstrate Spltteler`s range at thls polnt. Ilrst, ollodcv
(l896, Ballads) agaln evlnces hls lndependent attltude
toward genre and fashlon. Jhe poems are by no means
all ballads ln any accepted sense of the term; the major
lty are revlslons of dramatlc and eplc fragments, and
many draw on mythology and legend. Nelther ln form
nor ln content do they relate to contemporary German
poetry. Second, ln l891 the Gotthard Rallway Com
pany approached Spltteler wlth the request that he wrlte
a publlclty book on the company, and he accepted ln
the mlstaken bellef that the task could be carrled out
wlthout serlous lnterference wlth hls own work. Not
untll the sprlng of l897 was he able to dellver the
manuscrlpt, whlch was publlshed as Dcr Cottlord ln the
autumn of the same year. Jhlrd, Ioclcvdc !olrlcitcv
(l898; translated as Iouglivg Trutls, l927) ls the flrst
work to be publlshed by Dlederlchs of Lelpzlg who, on
the recommendatlon of Avenarlus, had approached
Spltteler for a collectlon of hls essays and had thus
begun a long and not always easy collaboratlon.
Ioclcvdc !olrlcitcv lncludes essays on malnly llterary
and aesthetlc subjects; more than half of the essays ln
the maln sectlon had already appeared ln Iuvstwort and
others ln the `cuc rclcr cituvg. Iourth, Covrod dcr
Icutvovt (l898, Conrad the Lleutenant), whlch had
already ln l897 been serlallzed ln a German magazlne
under the tltle of Dcr sclworc Sovvtog vov Hcrrlisdorf (Jhe
Black Sunday of Herrllsdorf), ls one of the pleces that
Spltteler regarded as exerclses ln wrltlng ln the reallst
manner. He wanted to show that lt was by cholce and
not from lnablllty that he dld not deplct the real world
ln the eplcs that he regarded as hls major contrlbutlon
to llterature. Jhe presentatlon ln the novella of the clash
between a father and a son over the management of a
vlllage lnn, of the soclal confllcts wlthln a restrlcted
framework, and of the lnterpersonal relatlonshlps on
dlfferlng levels of soclety verges at tlmes on carlcature.
Jhe traglc death of the son does not seem properly
motlvated and falls to lmpart to the reader a sense that
lt ls a necessary outcome of the actlon.
Jhe work regarded by Spltteler as hls magnum
opus, and the one for whlch he was awarded the Nobel
Prlze, was Ulympisclcr Irllivg, whlch appeared wlth
Dlederlchs ln four volumes between l900 and l905,
each volume lncludlng a part of the structure of the
poem as lt had been developed at that tlme; lt was
republlshed ln lts revlsed and flnal form ln flve parts ln
two volumes ln l9l0. Irom Spltteler`s papers, the par
tlcular genesls of the huge undertaklng can be traced
back to the tlme Spltteler spent ln Zurlch, but the gen
eral ldea of the eplc as the supreme achlevement of llter
ature goes back to the lnfluence on the young student of
Burckhardt, whose pralse of the genre accorded so well
wlth the notlons of dedlcatlon and mlsslon lnherent ln
Spltteler`s transformatlon ln 'das entscheldende |ahr."
Ulympisclcr Irllivg represents the hlgh polnt of Splt
teler`s reallzatlon of hls selflmage. Hls good fortune ln
the later l890s had freed hlm from flnanclal care and
enabled hlm to emerge from what he termed hls 'tlme
under chloroform" when he worked as a teacher and
journallst and to devote hlmself to the fulflllment of hls
hlgh calllng. Jhus, the formatlon of hls ldeas and thelr
commlttal to paper, some of whlch were present ln ol-
lodcv, had galned steadlly ln momentum, reachlng frul
tlon ln the flrst years of the new century.
Llke Iromctlcus uvd Ipimctlcus, Ulympisclcr Irllivg
ls set ln a cosmlc landscape and draws on mythology
for lts characters, all of whlch ls a devlce permlttlng
Spltteler to present hls vlew of the determlnants of
human behavlor. Jhe rhythmlcal prose of the earller
eplc has been replaced by lamblc hexameters wlth alter
natlng mascullne and femlnlne rhymes, and the flve
parts of the flnal verslon total some twenty thousand
llnes. In part l, Dic Zuffolrt: Uuvcrtrc (Jhe Ascenslon.
Overture), Ananke, who represents unalterable neces
slty and who, as a symbol of the predetermlned, even
mechanlstlc forces of fate, ls hlmself controlled by even
more lncomprehenslble forces, ls dlspatchlng, ln fulflll
ment of the cycle of change that each eon demands, a
new generatlon of gods to control the earth. Lnder the
guldance of Hades and Lranos, the gods make thelr
386
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way to Olympus, the sundrenched peak ln whose
shadow the humans llve. In the course of the twoday
journey, the gods slmultaneously wltness and represent
the forces governlng the world. the lmmutablllty of the
blologlcal llfe represented by Ananke on the one hand,
and, on the other, the counterforces that, together, rlse
superlor and that are contalned ln the moral wlll that
Hades has taught them and the premonltlons and long
lng ln respect of the future lmparted to them by Lranos.
Jhelr progress ls characterlzed by a sense of awaken
lng, of a new beglnnlng agalnst whlch ls set the twlllght
of the god Kronos as a polnter to the ephemerallty of
the comlng Olymplan splendor. Irom the palace of llght
of the daughters of Lranos, the new gods arrlve by alr
shlp at the helghts of Olympus.
In part 2, e~ _~ (Hera the Brlde), the god
who succeeds ln wlnnlng the queen wlll become klng of
the gods. Here, too, there ls a cycllcal pattern. each eon
Genesls creates a superwoman to be queen of the gods
who, however, ls subject to aglng and death because she
has a drop of Amazon blood and who Genesls wlll
eventually replace wlth her more beautlful daughter.
Hera ls the current queen. Competltlons ln slnglng,
recltlng, runnlng, charlot raclng, and lnterpretatlon of
dreams and prophecy are organlzed, and ln the course
of these events the lndlvldual qualltles of the gods begln
to emerge. Jhe vlctor ls Apollo, who trlumphs over
Zeus, Eros, Poseldon, and Hermes. He ls the god of the
splrlt and most noble of all heroes, who harmonlzes
physlcal and splrltual perfectlon; but hls vlctory ls lrrel
evant, for Ananke has determlned ln advance that
Zeus, the taclturn, ruthless man of actlon, possessed by
a wlll to power that deprlves hlm of all happlness, shall
be klng of Olympus. He wlns Hera, the domlnatlng,
lntrlgulng woman who ensnares men, and he lnherlts
her matrlarchal emplre. At the suggestlon of Zeus,
Apollo agrees to rule ln the realm of beauty whlle Zeus
rules ln the realm of reallty.
In part 3, a w (Jhe Noble Jlme), the god
dess of fate, Molra, suspends tlme to allow a celebratlon
of the unlon of Zeus and Hera to take place; an Olym
plan sprlng ensues, durlng whlch the gods and thelr
companlons descend to Earth to experlence adventures
that have a symbollc content. Pallas rebels agalnst death
as a destroyer but ls eventually reconclled to lt as bene
flclal and just; Apollo, who drlves the charlot of the
sun, has to contend wlth the foollshness of those who
seek to lmpose a new sun on hlm; Dlonyslus, the
vlslonary youth, ls a symbol of rellglous experlence;
Poseldon, representlng the foollsh man of strength,
valnly expends hls energles ln seeklng to cause water to
flow uphlll. Jhe sequence of eplsodes deplcts play and
struggle, enjoyment and dlsappolntment, and pleasure
and sorrow.
In part 1, b t (Jhe End of the Noble
Jlme), Aphrodlte, wlth her grace and beauty, enslaves
men and drlves them to every form of folly on her
behalf, and her overweenlng prlde at her powers causes
her to stage for the beneflt of the other gods a dlsplay of
the manner ln whlch she can create dlsruptlon ln
human affalrs. But Ananke has become alarmed at the
llcense and chaos that Aphrodlte`s behavlor ls causlng
and decldes to lntervene.
In part 5, wI Ananke conflrms hls rule on Earth
when, as the mass of humans seek to free themselves,
he reasserts hls domlnlon over them by conflrmlng thelr
lack of dlgnlty and splrltual lndependence. Hera`s
power over Zeus ls lost when she shatters the maglc
glass rlng glven to her by Molra. Jhe gods are sum
moned back to Olympus by Zeus, who has declded to
go ln dlsgulse to the land of humans, where he dlscov
ers that they revere an ape dressed as a klng. Enraged at
thls bllndness and stupldlty and at thelr treatment of
hlm, Zeus resolves to extermlnate the human race; but
Grogo, the daughter of Ananke, forces hlm to relent,
and he decldes lnstead to help the human race. He pre
pares hls son Heracles for the task of redeemlng
humanlty, and the eplc poem closes wlth the young
man who obeys hls own soula cardlnal dlstlnctlon
between Heracles and the generallty of humansleav
lng to begln hls mlsslon. Hls departure ls llnked to the
openlng of the eplc and so to the hopefulness of a new
beglnnlng, but lt ls also attended by the knowledge that
the redemptlon of humans as they have been deplcted
ln the course of the poem wlll pose a challenge verglng
on the lnsurmountable. as Heracles says on hls depar
ture ln the closlng llnes. 'Meln Herz helt 'Dennoch`"
(My heart ls called 'Nevertheless"). Jhe hope ls that
Heracles wlll lnsplre by hls example.
l cI llke Spltteler`s earller eplc, ls
pesslmlstlc. Jhe world ls deeply flawed and ln thrall to
death and vlolence. Human behavlor ls governed by
prlde, greed, foollshness, and shortslghtedness, and the
control exerclsed by these falllngs over the majorlty of
people makes a mockery of the concept of free wlll.
Only a few great flgures stand above the soulless, mlnd
less herd, but because they are percelved to be dlfferent,
they are cast out. Although Spltteler drew on mytholog
lcal models for the characters and sltuatlons ln lJ
cI lt cannot be sald that he created a
mythologlcal world, slnce the flgures are lncorporatlons
of the reallty of hls own psychologlcal world, and the
gods are humans who enact eplsodes from hls own llfe.
Jhe deflant statement at the close by Heracles repre
sents an lrratlonal afflrmatlon of llfe ln the face of the
mechanlstlc and determlnlstlc vlew of llfe belng put for
ward by sclence. More problematlc was the eplc form
ltself, the central characterlstlc of whlch was for Splt
387
ai_ PPO `~ p
teler the presentatlon of all lnward states of mlnd ln vls
lble external actlonshls hope that the lntentlon of hls
eplc would be understood ln a nalve fashlon by hls
readers was almost bound to fall wlth a publlc who had
lost bellef and become skeptlcal of anythlng clalmlng
artless slmpllclty. Slmllarly, Spltteler`s hope that he
could revlve the eplc was bound to fall at a tlme when
there was no longer a perceptlon of the world as a unl
fled whole. On the other hand, lt has been clalmed that
wlth Ulympisclcr Irllivg, Spltteler redlscovered rhyme
for poetry ln the German language.
Jhe receptlon of Ulympisclcr Irllivg was favored
by several factors. Ilrst, lt was publlshed by a respected
German house wlth a good publlclty network. Second,
Avenarlus publlshed over an extended perlod extracts
and progress reports from the poet hlmself ln Iuvstwort,
keeplng the eplc ln the publlc eye. Jhlrd, a revlew by
Wldmann of Hcro dic rout had attracted the attentlon
of the Austrlan muslclan and composer Iellx Welngart
ner; ln l901 Welngartner publlshed ln brochure form
an essay on Spltteler and became generally actlve on
Spltteler`s behalf ln Germany, where the dlstance of
Ulympisclcr Irllivg from dally reallty and from dlsturb
lng modern llterary trends such as naturallsm appealed
to a certaln mlddleclass readershlp. Jhe appearance of
the eplc ln lts varlous forms over a perlod of ten years
kept lt falrly constantly ln the vlew of the readlng pub
llc. Although Ulympisclcr Irllivg met wlth the crltlcal
acclalm that Spltteler had so much wanted and had not
recelved for Iromctlcus uvd Ipimctlcus, lt dld not sell ln
slgnlflcant quantltles. It ls true that Ulympisclcr Irllivg
was a breakthrough for Spltteler to the wlder German
speaklng audlence beyond Swltzerland, galnlng hlm hls
flrst llterary prlze, Austrla`s Bauernfeld Ioundatlon
prlze, ln l901 and establlshlng hls reputatlon. But the
poem, llke the other eplc works wlth whlch Spltteler
struggled hardest and longest and by whlch he set most
store, was much less wldely read than those he
regarded as mere llterary exerclses, and thls sltuatlon
has not substantlally changed slnce hls death desplte the
avallablllty of an excellent elevenvolume edltlon of hls
collected works wlth full scholarly apparatus publlshed
between l915 and l958 at the behest of the Swlss Con
federatlon.
In l906 Dlederlchs of Lelpzlg took over the publl
catlon rlghts of the works that had been publlshed else
where prlor to the assoclatlon wlth the German flrm,
and they also ln the same year brought out two new
publlcatlons. Spltteler`s last book of lyrlc poems, Clocl-
cvlicdcr (Bell Songs), and hls only novel, Imogo. Cloclcv-
licdcr celebrates the role of the bell ln human llfe and
had lts orlglns ln Spltteler`s tlme ln St. Petersburg,
where the lack of bells remlnded hlm of thelr presence
durlng hls upbrlnglng ln Swltzerland. Jhe poems, ln
contrast to the flrst verslon of Ulympisclcr Irllivg, are
unambltlous; some were later set to muslc, and the vol
ume sold well over the years.
Imogo, on the other hand, was descrlbed by Splt
teler, for whom wrltlng was never easy, as the most dlf
flcult text he ever fashloned, and thls clalm ls conflrmed
by the masslve amount of draft materlal from whlch the
flnal verslon emerged. One dlfflculty lay ln constructlng
the storyhls flnal reckonlng wlth hls love affalr of the
late l870s wlth Ellen Brodbeckln such a way that the
flctlonal characters were not too clearly ldentlfled wlth
realllfe people. Another problem was flndlng adequate
llterary expresslon for the power of the creatlve lmagl
natlon. Jhe narrator, Vlktor, a wrlter, returns to an
unldentlfled small town where, four years prevlously,
the lmpact of hls meetlng wlth a young woman named
Jheuda caused her to become ln hls eyes 'Imago," the
lncarnatlon of the power of hls Strenge Herrln (exactlng
mlstress), hls poetlc muse. But Jheuda, because she has
marrled a plllar of local soclety, has become 'Pseuda"
(the false one), and Vlktor has returned to avenge her
perfldy. Jhe lncomprehenslblllty ln bourgeols eyes of
thls undertaklng ls shown by the reactlon of Irau Steln
bach, a young wldow ln love wlth Vlktor, who cannot
belleve that the lmaglnatlon can so lnfluence real llfe;
but for Vlktor the lmaglnatlve powers, through the
medlum of art, have a polnt of reference beyond soclety
and can provlde alternatlve posslbllltles to soclety`s oth
erwlse unchallenged lnterpretatlon of reallty.
Vlktor resolves to convert to hls own vlews and
values the soclety represented by Pseuda. Jo thls end,
he partlclpates ln the actlvltles of the 'Idealla," a cul
tural clrcle of whlch Pseuda ls the honorary presldent
and whlch Vlktor holds ln extreme contempt slnce he
regards the events that lt organlzes as both lntellectually
undemandlng and ruthlessly normatlve. But he has
serlously underestlmated the dlfflculty of hls task. On
the one hand, hls lntellect and hls emotlons, hls drlves
and hls wlshes, presented ln lnterlor monologue as war
rlng factlons ln hls personallty, confuse hls judgment at
every turn wlth thelr dlsputes and serlously hamper the
executlon of hls challenge to soclety. On the other
hand, Pseuda becomes the representatlve of soclety`s
uncompromlslng defense of lts values. Vlktor`s submls
slon to her ln an attempt to regaln her attentlon ls ln
fact dlrected by her excluslvely toward obtalnlng hls
unquestlonlng assent to the soclal and lntellectual status
quo. He must seek an accommodatlon wlth her brother
Kurt, for example, a dllettante wrlter llonlzed as a cre
atlve talent by the 'Idealla," for whom Vlktor ls a
blzarre and dlsruptlve eccentrlc. Gradually, he assumes
the role of amorous swaln who ls permltted to fetch and
carry and ls too lntoxlcated wlth the new concord estab
388
`~ p ai_ PPO
llshed wlth Pseuda to grasp that the challenge that he
lssued has been resolved wholly ln favor of soclety.
Vlktor`s llluslon that Pseuda ls comlng to regard
hlm wlth lncreaslng warmth ls shattered when Irau
Stelnbach dlscloses that Pseuda ls relatlng to her
frlends, for thelr amusement, Vlktor`s dlsclosures to
her. Outraged at havlng been the object of amused tol
erance, yet at the same tlme acceptlng thls humlllatlon
as one of the trlals he must bear, Vlktor leaves town,
taklng wlth hlm the manuscrlpt he has been worklng on
durlng hls stay. He resolves henceforth to dedlcate hlm
self solely to the servlce of hls 'Strenge Herrln," of
whom he has a vlslon at the rallway statlon. Irau Steln
bach, who ls also present there, remalns as unnotlced
by hlm as the slgnals of affectlon and esteem she has
been glvlng for the prevlous four months, and so she
serves as a remlnder of the prlce that the pursult of Vlk
tor`s goals costs hlm. Arguably, Irau Stelnbach repre
sents the posslblllty of a reallzable compromlse between
art and llfe. On the other hand, the lmposslblllty of a
real relatlonshlp wlth Jheuda constltutes a necessary
psychologlcal element ln the artlstlc process.
f~ has an lnterestlng hlstorlcal perspectlve. on
the one hand, Vlktor subscrlbes to a bygone notlon of
the calllng of the wrlter, whlch only hls flnanclal lnde
pendence permlts hlm to sustaln; on the other hand, the
novel polnts forward by showlng the extent to whlch
the mass dlssemlnatlon of prlnt and plcture was stan
dardlzlng cultural expectatlon and response. Jhe story
presents, ln a mlddleclass settlng, the Prometheus
theme of renunclatlon and humlllatlon endured on
behalf of a hlgher calllng, and the lronlc manner of lts
telllng makes lt one of Spltteler`s most accesslble texts.
Jhe lrony operates on three levels. on a personal level,
lrony creates dlstance from stlll palnful memorles of
Spltteler`s own experlence; on a formal level, lrony cre
ates a method of comlng to terms wlth the fact that the
novel, whlch so strlklngly deplcts the dlsesteem ln
whlch the creatlve lmaglnatlon ls held by soclety, con
forms to the mold already establlshed by Keller for
expresslng the confllctlng clalms of artlst and _
(bourgeols cltlzen); and on a thematlc level, lrony ls a
method of acceptlng the fact that the protagonlsts ln
f~ clash ln a manner that underllnes the extent to
whlch they are prlsoners of attltudes whlch modern
soclety prevents from comlng to a composl
tlon. A flnal lrony, ln vlew of Spltteler`s dlsllke of
professlonal psychologlstswho, ln hls oplnlon, con
trlbuted to the shallowness of the modern agels that ln
l9l2 Slgmund Ireud, at the suggestlon of Carl G. |ung,
named hls journal for the appllcatlon of psychoanalysls
to the humanltles f~ after the novel, because the
book offers so many good lllustratlons of psychologlcal
theorles.
In the fourteen years from the turn of the century
to the outbreak of World War I, Spltteler, no longer a
young man and not always enjoylng the best of health,
was ceaselessly actlve. In addltlon to the heavy
demands of hls creatlve work and to the travel, corre
spondence, and program of lectures ln Swlss and Ger
man cltles, he wrote essays and recelved many vlslts
from those who came to pay thelr respects to the person
whom they regarded as a great llvlng wrlter. By l908
Spltteler was sufflclently ln the publlc eye ln the llterary
clrcles ln Germanspeaklng Europe to be lnvlted by
Avenarlus to wrlte for h~ a long essay tltled j
p~ t (My Creatlve Work and My
Books).
After the publlcatlon of the flnal verslon of lJ
c ln l9l0, lntlmatlons of mortallty began
to manlfest themselves. ln l9ll Wldmann dled, fol
lowed ln l9l3 by the death of Spltteler`s mother, to
whom he was close and to whose memory he publlshed
j b (l9l1, My Earllest Experl
ences). Spltteler`s autoblographlcal wrltlngs have three
stages. early reflectlons on hlmself composed ln the
decade from l86l to l87l; memorles set down ln matu
rlty between l902 and l9l1; and flnally, ln l921, an
attempt to create an overall vlew of hls llfe. Durlng the
second stage, the descrlptlons of hls llfe and attltudes
were wrltten lnltlally ln largely random fashlon but
cohered durlng l9l2 lnto an autoblography, the manu
scrlpt of whlch was ready for publlcatlon when the
death of hls mother prompted Spltteler to revlse hls
lntentlons and to publlsh hls remarkable evocatlon of
the flrst four years of hls chlldhood, the only part of hls
autoblographlcal wrltlngs to appear ln book form dur
lng hls llfetlme, although some short pleces appeared ln
newspapers and journals. Jhe strength and unlversal
relevance of j b lle ln Spltteler`s
refusal to sentlmentallze and ln hls determlnatlon to
take completely serlously the lmages and fears of chlld
hood; ln thls connectlon, he wrltes. 'Es glbt, von lnnen
gefhlt, gar kelne Klnder; das 'Klnd` lst elne Erdlch
tung der Erwachsenen" (Ielt from wlthln, there are no
chlldren at all; the 'chlld" ls a fabrlcatlon of grown
ups). Slgnlflcantly, Ireud, ln a note added to a later edl
tlon of hls q~ (l899, Interpretatlon of
Dreams), quotes Spltteler`s deflnltlon of a chlld`s dream
from the flrst sectlon of j b as belng
almost ldentlcal to hls own. 'Lnbefugtes Auftauchen
unterdrckter Sehnsuchtswnsche unter falschem Ant
lltz und Namen" (Lnauthorlzed surfaclng of suppressed
longlngs wlth the wrong countenance and name).
Shortly after the outbreak of World War I Splt
teler carrled out what ls frequently characterlzed as the
one overtly polltlcal act of hls llfe. He was lnvlted, at a
tlme when Swltzerland was surrounded by natlons at
389
ai_ PPO `~ p
war, to offer hls vlews on Swlss neutrallty. Hls speech of
l1 December l9l1, dellvered to the Zurlch branch of
the Neue Helvetlsche Gesellschaft (New Helvetlc Socl
ety) and publlshed as Uvscr Sclwcicr Stovdpuvlt, had
both lmmedlate and endurlng consequences. He
opened by statlng that hls sense of obllgatlon to hls
duty as a cltlzen had overcome hls lnltlal reluctance to
come to thls publlc podlumdlvlslons between German
speaklng and Irenchspeaklng Swltzerland were the
concern of every Swlss. German and Irenchspeaklng
compatrlots must recognlze that, desplte the cultural
tles created by common languages, Germany and
Irance were polltlcally separate from Swltzerland; and
that the German and Irenchspeaklng parts of Swltzer
land, for all thelr dlfferences wlth each other, constl
tuted a polltlcal unlty. Spltteler went on to create what
was for hlm a cardlnal dlstlnctlon between the 'broth
ers" who llved wlthln the frontlers of Swltzerland and
the 'nelghbors" who llved beyond them. the polltlcal
brother was closer than the best nelghbor. Addltlonally,
a neutral country had to preserve a certaln polltlcal dls
tance to all nelghbors, whlch was more dlfflcult for the
Germanspeaklng Swlss toward Germany than for the
Irenchspeaklng Swlss toward Irance, lf hls own close
cultural tles to Germany were a yardstlck. And thls neu
tral stance attracted opprobrlum because warrlng nelgh
bors percelved lt as a fallure to ldentlfy wlth what they
regarded as the justlce of thelr partlcular cause. At the
same tlme, lt was necessary to condemn lnjustlce such
as the German lnvaslon of neutral Belglum. Spltteler
closed by urglng all hls compatrlots to adopt a posture
of modesty ln the face of the tragedy unfoldlng ln
Europe and to avold polntlng to the multlllngual struc
ture of the country as an example for Europe, slnce
Swltzerland was currently not settlng a good example.
Spltteler`s formulatlon of the cultural and polltlcal
paradox of belng Swlss has become the classlc modern
deflnltlon of Swlss neutrallty. In hls hourlong, beautl
fully constructed dlscourse, Spltteler provlded for hls
countrymen a vlslon of Swltzerland as a moral chal
lenge. Jhe speech created an lmmedlate sensatlon,
belng exaggerated and dlstorted by champlons of both
Germany and Irance. Spltteler had been aware of the
prlce he mlght pay for maklng hls vlews publlc, but the
vehemence of the storm took hlm by surprlse. It cost
hlm some of hls contemporary Swlss and all of hls Ger
man popularlty and damaged lrretrlevably some of hls
personal relatlonshlps. Yet, the content of Uvscr Sclwcicr
Stovdpuvlt contlnued to remaln a source of guldance
and succor throughout World War II and was, at a
l951 ceremony at the Lnlverslty of Zurlch to mark the
fortleth annlversary of the dellvery of the speech, held
to have set out stlllvalld prlnclples for the comportment
of the Swlss toward one another and toward other
countrles.
Durlng hls later years ln Lucerne, Spltteler came
to be regarded ln Swltzerland as the maln llvlng flgure
ln GermanSwlss letters. ln l905 he was awarded an
honorary doctorate by the Lnlverslty of Zurlch; ln
l909 he was made an honorary cltlzen of the clty of
Lucerne; ln l9l5 Spltteler`s portralt was palnted by
Swltzerland`s greatest llvlng artlst, Ierdlnand Hodler
(whom Spltteler had defended the prevlous year when
Hodler was the subject of vlrulent attacks for slgnlng a
protest agalnst German aggresslon); and the celebra
tlons for hls seventleth blrthday ln l9l5 and hls seventy
flfth blrthday ln l920 were attended by partlclpants
from the hlghest levels of Swlss llfe. Jhe long, palnful
years ln the wllderness had flnally ylelded thelr reward.
In l920 Spltteler recelved the crownlng lnter
natlonal award, the Nobel Prlze ln Llterature for l9l9
(a year ln whlch no award had been made). It was
clalmed at the tlme and slnce that the Irench wrlter
Romaln Rolland, who had hlmself been awarded the
prlze for l9l5, had been lnstrumental ln recommendlng
Spltteler to the commlttee. In hls presentatlon speech on
l0 December l920 (Spltteler was not present at the cer
emony because of lll health), Harald Hjrne, chalrman
of the Nobel Commlttee, stated that the award was
made qulte speclflcally for Ulympisclcr Irllivg. He
clalmed that the work had achleved popularlty after the
publlcatlon of lts flnal verslon, that lts clrcle of readers
had wldened, and that the prlntlng for that year (l920)
was 'expected to run lnto several thousand coples." Yet,
Spltteler had 'lntentlonally chosen a subject and an
approach that were bound to bewllder and even repel
many readers of dlfferent dlsposltlons and lncllnatlons
or of dlfferent backgrounds of taste and educatlon."
Hjrne went on to stress the dlstlnctlve nature of Splt
teler`s undertaklng, rejectlng as mlsgulded, comparlsons
wlth Homer and |ohann Wolfgang von Goethe and
lndeed deflantly stresslng lts dlstance from contempo
rary trends. Hjrne concluded by expresslng the Acad
emy`s 'admlratlon for the lndependent culture of
Spltteler`s poetry." It was a speech that dld not shlrk
presentlng the amblgultles of Spltteler`s posltlon. Splt
teler felt that hls years of belng lgnored were hand
somely vlndlcated.
Also ln l920 Spltteler publlshed a l9l9 speech he
had glven on the occaslon of the celebratlons marklng
the hundredth annlversary of the blrth of Keller,
Cottfricd Icllcr: Iivc Icdc (Gottfrled Keller. A Speech).
Jhe speech marked the last tlme that Spltteler, then sev
entyfour, held an address on a subject other than hls
own works. Spltteler had had a somewhat amblvalent
attltude toward Keller slnce thelr only meetlng ln l88l,
for he belleved that lf the great man had made hls prl
390
`~ p ai_ PPO
vate vlews of Spltteler`s work publlc, Spltteler would
have been spared many years wlthout recognltlon. But
ln l9l9 he thanked hls predecessor and llsted the quall
tles that made hlm a great wrlter. hls modesty, hls truth
fulness, hls palnter`s eye, hls humor, and the surefooted
accuracy of hls portrayals. But Spltteler then went on to
cautlon agalnst two developments ln the Swlss percep
tlon of the great wrlter slnce the latter`s death ln l890.
Ilrst, lt was dangerous to delfy any one wrlter, slnce to
do so bllghted the llvlng llterary tradltlonone slngle
model of excellence devalued all who followed. Second,
Spltteler challenged the assumptlon that Keller`s appar
ent ablllty to marry wrltlng and polltlcs had been
achleved wlthout cost; for Keller`s Doppclspuriglcit (twln
track nature), as Spltteler called the ablllty so much
admlred by the Swlss, had been posslble because
Keller`s poetlc lnsplratlon dld not flow constantly so
that, for all hls greatness, he was not among the truly
great. It was thus mlsgulded to demand of Swlss wrlters
that they engage themselves polltlcally ln the manner of
Keller. a wrlter served hls country better by uslng hls
talent to produce lmmortal works than by becomlng
just one more polltlclan among many. It ls clear that
Spltteler`s reservatlons about Keller, however justlfled,
are colored by hls own vlew of the soclal role of the
wrlter.
Jhe major task of Spltteler`s last years was the
recastlng of Iromctlcus ovd Ipimctlcus, and the result was
Iromctlcus dcr Duldcr, Spltteler`s last publlshed work. In a
speech dellvered ln l922, !orum icl mcivcv Iromctlcus
umgcorbcitct lobc (l923, Why I Reworked My
Prometheus), Spltteler lnslsted that the work on hls last
project, whlch had ln fact belng golng forward slnce at
least l9l0, was not a revlslon of the orlglnal eplc but
was a new, qulte lndependent eplc on the same theme
that was deslgned not to replace Iromctlcus uvd
Ipimctlcus but to stand beslde lt; hls motlve ln wrltlng
the new work was to repay the flftyyearold debt to the
young man who ln l869 flrst had the vlslon of the baslc
theme of Prometheus and Eplmetheus. Spltteler
replaced the rhythmlc prose of the flrst eplc wlth the
rhymlng hexameters used for Ulympisclcr Irllivg and
lmparted a clearer and more rlgorous structure. Jhus,
whlle the new eplc ls stlll dlvlded lnto two parts, there ls
now a balance ln that each part has four cantos, and the
orlglnal 310 pages have been reduced to barely 200.
Jhe story llne remalns, ln broad terms, that of the flrst
work; but all subplots have been removed or better lnte
grated, and the altered tltle reflects both the emphasls
on Prometheus and the dark nature of the world that
requlres the klnd of endurance he embodles. Jhe
theme of death ls much more omlnously present than ln
the flrst eplc. Prometheus, uncompromlslngly certaln of
hls mlsslon, stands out more promlnently as the reposl
tory of the values of the soul ln contrast to those of con
sclence, to whlch he refuses to surrender. Jhe
lneffectlveness of the values of consclence are agaln
underscored by the puslllanlmlty and fallure of
Eplmetheus desplte hls elevatlon to the klngshlp. Once
agaln, Eplmetheus proves lncapable of recognlzlng the
glft of the golden apple from Pandora as the dlvlne glft
of salvatlon and ls unable to ward off the deadly threat
posed by Behemoth. Jhe confllct between the klngdom
of God and the world of Behemoth, strlpped of all that
ls extraneous, emerges ln stark clarlty; lts resolutlon,
upon the lnterventlon of Prometheus, ls more
restralned than ln the earller work. One last test
remalns, the tendency of the soul to lndulge ln over
weenlng prlde, and Prometheus succeeds ln reconclllng
the lndlvlduallstlc aspects of the soul wlth lts obllgatlons
to the human communlty at large before he wlthdraws
from the world wlth hls brother. Iromctlcus dcr Duldcr,
for all lts qualltles, may have been even less sulted to
the tastes of lts tlme than Iromctlcus uvd Ipimctlcus had
been nearly half a century prevlously.
Carl Spltteler`s sense of mlsslon perslsted to the
end. Plagued by clrculatory dlsorders and the dlsablll
tles of age, he had, wlth help, completed correctlng the
proofs of Iromctlcus dcr Duldcr at the end of October
l921. He was able to recelve the flrst coples of the book
and to read revlews of lt before he dled on 29 Decem
ber l921.
iW
Corl Spittclcr, oscpl !iltor !idmovv: ricfwcclscl, edlted
by Werner Stauffacher (Bern. P. Haupt, l998).
_~W
Werner Stauffacher, Corl Spittclcr: iogroplic (Zurlch
Munlch. Artemls, l973);
|ustus Hermann Wetzel, Corl Spittclcr: Iiv Icbcvs uvd
Scloffcvsbcriclt (Bern Munlch. Irancke, l973);
Irltz Schaub, Corl Spittclcr (1S4-1924) iv Iucrv: Dicltcr,
Issoyist, ourvolist/Musillritilcr, Iflovcvforsclcr, poli-
tisclcr Molvcr, Civcost (Lucerne. Malhof, l991).
oW
Paul Baur, ur cwcrtuvg vov Spittclcrs Iocsic (Basel. Baur,
l961);
Gottfrled Bohnenblust, Corl Spittclcr: Dicltcr uvd Hcimot
(Bern. Haupt, n.d.);
'Carl Spltteler," _uorto: citsclrift dcs Sclwcicrisclcv Iitcr-
oturorclivs, 1/5 (Aprll l995);
Robert Iaesl, Spittclcrs !cg ovd !crl (Irauenfeld
Lelpzlg. Huber, l933);
Werner Gnther, Dicltcr dcr vcucrcv Sclwci, volume l
(Bern Munlch. Irancke, l963), pp. 228-280;
39l
ai_ PPO `~ p
Margaret McHaffle, 'Prometheus and Vlktor. Carl
Spltteler`s Imogo," Ccrmov Iifc ovd Icttcrs, 3l (Octo
ber l977). 67-77;
McHaffle and |. H. Rltchle, 'Narratlve Jechnlque ln
Spltteler`s Covrod dcr Icutvovt," Ccrmov Iifc ovd Ict-
tcrs, l1 (October l960). 15-5l;
Otto Rommel, Spittclcrs Ulympisclcr Irllivg ovd scivc
cpisclc Iorm (Bern Munlch. Irancke, l965);
Roger Scharpf, Corl Spittclcr (1S4-1924) uvd dic Zvfovgc
dcr modcrvcv Irollluvst iv dcr Sclwci (Bern New
York. Peter Lang, l999);
Phlllpp Jhelsohn, Totolitot dcs Movgcls: Corl Spittclcr uvd
dic Ccburt dcs modcrvcv Ipos ous dcr Zvsclouuvg
(Wrzburg. Knlgshausen Neumann, 200l).
m~W
Carl Spltteler`s papers are ln the Landesblbllothek
(Natlonal Llbrary), Bern.
NVNV k m i~
m~ p
by Horold Hjorvc, Cloirmov of tlc òbcl Committcc of tlc
Swcdisl Zcodcmy, ov 10 Dcccmbcr 1920
Jhe Swedlsh Academy, ln accordance wlth the
statutes of the Nobel Ioundatlon, has awarded the
Nobel Prlze ln Llterature for l9l9, whlch was not
awarded last year, to the Swlss poet Carl Spltteler for
hls eplc, Ulympisclcr Irllivg (l906) |Olymplan Sprlng|.
Of thls work lt can be truly sald that lts 'slgnlfl
cance has become apparent only ln recent years," and
that all doubts that prevented a full appreclatlon had to
be carefully consldered untll lts merlts, not lmmedlately
obvlous, could be fully recognlzed, not only as orna
ments of the poetlc form but above all as the artlstlc and
harmonlous expresslons of a superlor genlus of rare
lndependence and ldeallsm.
Jhls ls not to say that we ln any way subscrlbe to
the oplnlon that thls poem represents the frult of a per
slstent struggle wlth the darkness of thought rather than
of a lucld llberal lnsplratlon. Jhe orlglnal gap between
the poet`s art and lts appreclatlon by crltlcs and readers
does not ln thls case polnt to a shortcomlng on elther
slde, but rather proves the deep and rlch meanlng of the
work, whlch needs careful crltlcal judgment to be
revealed ln lts entlrety.
Spltteler`s Ulympisclcr Irllivg achleved popularlty
ln Swltzerland and Germany only ln the revlsed flnal
verslon of l909. But wlth every year and especlally
slnce the end of the war, lnterest ln lt has grown and lts
clrcle of readers has wldened; thls year`s lmpresslon ls
expected to run lnto several thousand coples. Jhat ls a
conslderable number for somethlng as out of step wlth
the tlmes as a verse eplc of 600 pages about the gods of
Olympus, whlch, because of lts genre, must be read as a
whole and whlch demands the lelsure and concentra
tlon of the reader. Jhe wrlter, who has for decades
devoted all hls energles to such an enterprlse, has
lndeed dellberately and ruthlessly lsolated hlmself from
hectlc contemporary llfe and has glven llttle thought to
the modern demand for adequate materlal compensa
tlon.
He has done nothlng to soften these contrasts. On
the contrary, he has lntentlonally chosen a subject and
an approach whlch were bound to bewllder and even
repel many readers of dlfferent dlsposltlons and lncllna
tlons or of dlfferent backgrounds of taste and educa
tlon, as they trled to understand the poetlc world that
he opened before thelr eyes. Irom the beglnnlng he was
bold enough to appeal to thelr patlence and endurance
to follow hlm to the end of hls curlous paths, llluml
nated only by the clear and unlnterrupted thread of the
actlon and the sollloqules and dlalogues of the heroes,
whlch are hlghly dramatlc desplte the eplc framework.
Jhe connolsseur recognlzes Homerlc tralts, but to hls
surprlse he ls led on toward an unknown and never
antlclpated goal.
But for the rest, what a harsh and strlklng con
trast between Homer`s Olympus and Spltteler`s ldlo
syncratlc mythology! Nothlng could be more unjust
than the reproach that he llkes to attract phllologlsts
and other dlsclples of scholarshlp by means of recondlte
alluslons and profound symbols borrowed from thelr
dlsclpllnes. Hls Olymplans and heroes, hls myths and
oracles only rarely remlnd one of the style or tone of
the older Greek poet phllosophers. Jhey can nelther be
derlved from the latest flndlngs of classlcal scholarshlp
nor clted as evldence of the poet`s dependence on any
klnd of allegorlcal lnterpretatlon. Equally mlsgulded are
those who have spoken of a thlrd part of Ioust. Spltteler
does not lmltate anyone, not even the aglng Goethe ln
hls attempt to reconclle Romantlc passlon and classlcal
balance ln the masks of Iaust and Helen. Spltteler`s
mythology ls a purely personal form of expresslon
whlch grew naturally out of hls educatlon and whlch
glves shape to the llvlng turmoll of struggllng characters
that he evokes ln order to represent on the level of ldeal
lmaglnatlon, human sufferlngs, hopes, and dlsllluslons,
the vlclssltudes of dlfferent human fortunes ln the struggle
of the free wlll agalnst lmposed necesslty. Why should
he care that the current aesthetlc enllghtenment flnds lt
dlfflcult to accept thls seemlngly fantastlc mlxture of
dream and reallty wlth lts wllful abuse of mythologlcal
names?
392
`~ p ai_ PPO
Even lf I attempted to glve a careful and compre
henslve summary of the actlon of Ulympisclcr Irllivg, I
could not glve a clear plcture of the wealth of lts con
tent, of the radlant vlvldness and movlng power of the
changlng eplsodes, nor of thelr flrm lnterrelatlon ln an
effectlve whole. Sufflce lt to say that the brllllant llfe of
Olympus and the cosmos, manlfestlng ltself ln pleasure
and trlals of strength, ends ln lmpotent despalr ln the
face of human lngratltude, llcence, crlme, and mlsery.
Herakles, the mortal son of Zeus, equlpped wlth all per
fectlons by hls father, hls relatlves, and frlends, but at
the same tlme burdened wlth the curse and hatred of
Hera, the queen of the gods, must leave Olympus to
accompllsh ungrateful tasks of plty and courage on
earth.
Jhe Olymplans, wlth thelr deeds and adventures,
thelr vlctorlous flghts and thelr quarrels among them
selves are ln reallty supermen whom the poet values
only lnasmuch as they are able to curb thelr whlms and
deslres.
'Der Welse zgelt, der Jor lsst Wlllkr walten."
Above them all there ls an lnexorable unlversal law that
assumes shape ln gloomy powers of fate. Below them
and closer to us are the mechanlzlng, soulless powers of
nature whlch gods and men should put lnto thelr ser
vlce for the beneflt of themselves and of others, but
whlch, abused by mallce and prlde, drlve them lnto
folly and ruln. Jhe eplc ls full of alrshlps and other curl
ous lnventlons and lts gorgeous bulldlngs wlth cupolas
and stately porches leave Homerlc slmpllclty far
behlnd. But the plot of the lmpudent flatfoot people to
deprlve Apollo of hls unlversal rule by means of an artl
flclal sun and thelr overweenlng attempt to attack hlm
ln the alr by means of a treacherously constructed
vehlcle and polson gas testlfy to the decay that threat
ens manklnd when lt pushes too far a selfconfldence
based on materlal power.
Spltteler descrlbes such pranks and the strange
quests and enterprlses of hls heroes wlth a playful
humour remlnlscent of Arlosto. Hls style has a great
varlety of tones and colors ranglng from solemn pathos
to the careful brush strokes of the slmlles and the llvely
descrlptlons of nature, whlch reflect hls natlve Alps
rather than the reglons of Greece. Jhe lamblc hexame
ters wlth thelr alternatlng mascullne and femlnlne
rhymes carry the flow of hls masterly language, whlch
ls always powerful and splendld, never wlthout vltallty,
and often unmlstakably Swlss.
Jhe Academy takes pleasure ln expresslng lts
admlratlon for the lndependent culture of Spltteler`s
poetry by awardlng hlm thls Prlze. Slnce Mr. Spltteler
has been prevented by lllness from attendlng thls cere
mony, the Prlze wlll be forwarded to hlm through the
Swlss Embassy.
Zt tlc bovquct, Irofcssor Uscor Movtclius oddrcsscd tlc
Swiss Mivistcr of Iorcigv Zffoirs, Couvt !rovgcl, wlo rcccivcd
tlc Iric for Corl Spittclcr, ovd oslcd lim to ivform tlc poct of
tlc Zcodcmy`s covccrv for lis lcoltl ovd of tlc lopc tlot lc
would soov bc oblc to writc otlcr worls os rcmorloblc os Olym
plscher Irhllng.
pW ^~~ p~
(!rittcv ot tlc timc of tlc owordivg of tlc òbcl Iric)
I was born on Aprll 21, l815, ln the llttle town of
Llestal ln the Canton of Baselland. When I was four we
moved to Bern, where my father had been appolnted
treasurer of the newly establlshed Swlss Confederacy.
In the wlnter of l856-57 I returned home wlth my par
ents. I attended the Gymnaslum at Basle and llved wlth
an aunt; later I llved ln Llestal and went by traln to
Basle dally to attend the Obergymnaslum called the
'Pdagoglum." Wllhelm Wackernagel and |acob
Burckhardt were my teachers there. At my father`s
request I took up the study of law at the Lnlverslty of
Zrlch ln l863. Later, l865-70, I studled theology ln
Zrlch, Heldelberg, and Basle. After taklng my theolog
lcal examlnatlon at Basle I went to Petersburg at the
lnvltatlon of General Standertskjld to be the tutor of
hls younger chlldren. I left for Petersburg ln August,
l87l and stayed there untll l879. Durlng thls perlod,
spent partly ln Russla and partly ln Ilnland, I worked
on Iromctlcus uvd Ipimctlcus, whlch, after my return to
Swltzerland, I publlshed ln l88l at my own expense
under the pseudonym Carl Iellx Jandem. Jhe book
was completely neglected; because lt was not even
revlewed I abandoned all hope of maklng poetry my
llvlng and was compelled lnstead to teach school
(Neuvevllle, Canton Bern, l88l-l885) and work for
newspapers (Crcvpost, Basle, l885-86; `cuc rclcr ci-
tuvg, l890-92). In |uly, l892, fate suddenly granted me
flnanclal lndependence. I moved to Lucerne, where I
have llved happlly wlth my famlly ever slnce. Jhe fol
lowlng works of mlne appeared after Iromctlcus uvd
Ipimctlcus: Ixtromuvdovo (l883), a book whlch I con
slder medlocre; Sclmcttcrlivgc (l889) |Butterflles|; Iricdli
dcr Ioldcri (l89l); Custov (l892); Iittcrorisclc Clciclvissc
(l892) |Llterary Parables|; ollodcv (l896); Dcr Cottlord
(l897); Covrod dcr Icutvovt (l898); Ioclcvdc !olrlcitcv
(l898) [Iouglivg Trutls]. Between l900 and l906 the
four volumes of my eplc Ulympisclcr Irllivg |Olymplan
Sprlng| were publlshed. I. Dic Zuffolrt |Overture|; II.
393
ai_ PPO `~ p
e~ _~ |Hera the Brlde|; III. a e w |Hlgh
Jlde|; IV. b t |End and Change|.
Jhe flrst two parts remalned as unnotlced as all
my other books. But between the publlcatlon of the sec
ond and thlrd volumes, a muslclan, the famous Iellx
Welngartner, suddenly announced l c
(together wlth m) to the German publlc ln a spe
clal pamphlet called `~ pI b
(Mnchen, l901). Jhat was the breakthrough. Iellx
Welngartner had dlscovered me for the world. Jo the
Swlss publlc I had long before been recommended by
|. V. Wldmann.
In l909 a revlsed edltlon of my eplc ln flve vol
umes was publlshed; by the end of l920 lt had run lnto
several edltlons. After l c I publlshed
d (l906) |Bell Songs|; f~ (l908); d
e~I j (l907) xq i jJ
zI translated lnto several languages; and j J
b (l9l1) |My Earllest Experlences|. . . .
| Jhe Nobel Ioundatlon, l9l9. Carl Spltteler ls the
391
g p
(27 Icbruory 1902 - 20 Dcccmbcr 196S)
h e~
Stcivbccl Icvicw
Jhls entry was expanded by Hearle from hls entry ln
DI 212: Twcvtictl-Ccvtury Zmcricov !cstcrv !ritcrs, Scc-
ovd Scrics. See also the Stelnbeck entrles ln DI 27: Twcvti-
ctl-Ccvtury Zmcricov òturc !ritcrs: Irosc; DI J09: olv
Stcivbccl: Z Documcvtory !olumc; DI 9: Zmcricov òvclists,
1910-194; and DI 7: Twcvtictl-Ccvtury Zmcricov Dro-
motists, Iirst Scrics and DS 2: omcs Could Cocvs, omcs T.
Iorrcll, !illiom Ioullvcr, olv U`Horo, olv Stcivbccl, Tlo-
mos !olfc, ovd Iiclord !riglt.
BOOKS. Cup of Cold (New York. Robert M. McBrlde,
l929; London. Helnemann, l937);
Tlc Iosturcs of Hcovcv (New York. Brewer, Warren Put
nam, l932; London. Phlllp Allan, l933);
To Z Cod Uvlvowv (New York. Robert O. Ballou, l933;
London. Helnemann, l935);
Tortillo Ilot (New York. CovlclIrlede, l935; London.
Helnemann, l935);
Iv Dubious ottlc (New York. CovlclIrlede, l936; Lon
don. Helnemann, l936);
Uf Micc ovd Mcv (New York. CovlclIrlede, l937; Lon
Tlc Icd Iovy (New York. CovlclIrlede, l937; London.
Chatto Helnemann, l910);
Tlc Iovg !ollcy (New York. CovlclIrlede, l938; Lon
Tlcir lood Is Strovg (San Iranclsco. Slmon |. Lubln Socl
ety of Callfornla, l938);
Uf Micc ovd Mcv: Z Iloy iv Tlrcc Zcts (New York. Covlcl
Irlede, l939);
Tlc Cropcs of !rotl (New York. Vlklng, l939; London.
Helnemann, l939);
Sco of Cortc: Z Icisurcly ourvol of Trovcl ovd Icscorcl
(New York. Vlklng, l91l) by Stelnbeck and
Edward I. Rlcketts; revlsed wlth addltlon of
'About Ed Rlcketts" and deletlon of sclentlflc
appendlces as Tlc Iog from tlc Sco of Cortc (New
York. Vlklng, l95l; London. Helnemann, l958);
Tlc Iorgottcv !illogc (New York. Vlklng, l91l);
Tlc Moov Is Dowv (New York. Vlklng, l912; London.
Helnemann, l912);
Tlc Moov Is Dowv: Z Iloy iv Two Iorts (New York. Dra
matlsts Play Servlce, l912; London. Engllsh Jhe
atre Gulld, l913);
ombs Zwoy: Tlc Story of o ombcr Tcom (New York.
Vlklng, l912);
Covvcry Iow (New York. Vlklng, l915; London. Helne
mann, l915);
Tlc Icorl (New York. Vlklng, l917; London. Helne
mann, l918);
Tlc !oyword us (New York. Vlklng, l917; London.
Helnemann, l917);
Z Iussiov ourvol (New York. Vlklng, l918; London.
Helnemann, l919);
urvivg riglt, o Iloy iv Story Iorm (New York. Vlklng,
l950; London. Helnemann, l95l);
urvivg riglt: Iloy iv Tlrcc Zcts (New York. Dramatlsts
Play Servlce, l95l);
Iost of Idcv (New York. Vlklng, l952; London. Helne
mann, l952);
!ivo opoto! (Rome. Edlzlonl Illmcrltlca, l952); new edl
tlon, !ivo opoto!: Tlc Urigivol Scrccvploy edlted by
Robert Morsberger (New York. Vlklng Compass,
l975); revlsed and enlarged as opoto! edlted by
Morsberger (Covello. Yolla Bolly Press, l99l);
Swcct Tlursdoy (New York. Vlklng, l951; London. Hel
nemann, l951);
Uv Zmcricoiv o `cw Jorl ct o Ioris translated lnto Irench
by |eanIrancols Rozan (Parls. Rene |ulllard, l956);
Tlc Slort Icigv of Iippiv I! (New York. Vlklng, l957;
London. Helnemann, l957);
Uvcc Tlcrc !os o !or (New York. Vlklng, l958; Lon
Tlc !ivtcr of Uur Discovtcvt (New York. Vlklng, l96l;
London. Helnemann, l96l);
Trovcls witl Clorlcy iv Scorcl of Zmcrico (New York.
Vlklng, l962; London. Helnemann, l962);
Zmcrico ovd Zmcricovs (New York. Vlklng, l966; Lon
ourvol of o òvcl: Tlc East of Eden Icttcrs (New York.
Vlklng, l969; London. Helnemann, l970);
395
ai_ PPO g p
Tlc Uvcollcctcd Storics of olv Stcivbccl (Jokyo. Nanùn
do, l986);
olv Stcivbccl ov !ritivg, Stelnbeck Essay Serles, no. 2,
edlted by Jetsumaro Hayashl (Muncle, Ind..
Stelnbeck Research Instltute, Ball State Lnlver
slty, l988);
!orlivg Doys: Tlc ourvols of Jhe Grapes of Wrath,
edlted by Robert DeMott (New York. Vlklng, l989);
Zmcrico ovd Zmcricovs ovd Sclcctcd òvfictiov, edlted by
Susan Shllllnglaw and |ackson |. Benson (New
York. Vlklng, 2002).
MOJION PICJLRES. Tlc Iorgottcv !illogc, documen
tary screenplay by Stelnbeck, Arthur Mayer, and
|oseph Burstyn, l91l;
Iifcboot, lnltlal screen treatment by Stelnbeck, rewrltten by
Alfred Hltchcock, JwentlethCentury Iox, l911;
Z Mcdol for cvvy, lnltlal screen treatment by Stelnbeck
and |ack Wagner, Paramount, l915;
Tlc Icorl, lnltlal screen treatment by Stelnbeck, screen
play by Stelnbeck, Emlllo Iernandez, and |ack
Wagner, RKO, l918;
Tlc Icd Iovy, screenplay by Stelnbeck, Republlc, l919;
!ivo opoto! lnltlal screen treatment and screenplay by
Stelnbeck, JwentlethCentury Iox, l952.
PLAY PRODLCJIONS. Uf Micc ovd Mcv, New York,
Muslc Box Jheatre, 23 November l937;
Tlc Moov Is Dowv, New York, Martln Beck Jheatre, 7
Aprll l912;
urvivg riglt, New York, Broadhurst Jheatre, l8 Octo
ber l950.
OJHER. !ovdcrbilt Clivic (New York. Presbyterlan Hos
pltal, l917);
Spccclcs of Zdloi Stcvcvsov; !itl o Iorcword by olv Stcivbccl
(New York. Random House, l952);
Iositovo (Salerno. Ente Provlnclale Per Il Jurlsmo, l951);
Spcccl Zcccptivg Tlc òbcl Iric for Iitcroturc (New York.
Vlklng, l962);
Tlc Zcts of Iivg Zrtlur ovd His òblc Iviglts: Irom tlc !iv-
clcstcr Movuscripts of Tlomos Molory ovd Utlcr
Sourccs, translated by Stelnbeck and edlted by
Chase Horton (New York. Iarrar, Straus
Glroux, l976; London. Helnemann, l976).
SELECJED PERIODICAL PLBLICAJION
LNCOLLECJED. 'Letters to Allcla," `cwsdoy, 20
November l965-28 May l966; l2 November
l966-20 May l967.
|ohn Stelnbeck has the seemlngly oxymoronlc
dlstlnctlon of havlng been both a Nobel laureate and
bestselllng author and yet also belng among the most
underrated and mlsunderstood Amerlcan authors of
the twentleth century. After havlng produced an assort
g p ~ NVSO k ~ p E ~ i~ bX
mobppbkp _fiaLp`^kmfuLo~F
396
g p ai_ PPO
ment of brllllant short storles, novels, and one play dur
lng the l930s, Stelnbeck became a natlonal flgure ln
l939 wlth the publlcatlon of q d~ t~K Steln
beck`s Pulltzer Prlze-wlnnlng book was denounced on
the floor of the House of Representatlves as a 'dlrty,
lylng, fllthy manuscrlpt," but lts veraclty was also pub
llcly attested to by Ilrst Lady Eleanor Roosevelt.
Although the readlng publlc whlch had followed hlm
through comedles wlth sad endlngs, tragedleslnmlnlature,
and compelllng strlke novels contlnued to buy hls
lncreaslngly varled post-d~ t~ works ln great
numbers, most leadlng Amerlcan crltlcs never forgave
Stelnbeck for contlnulng to change. When the Swedlsh
Academy announced that Stelnbeck was the l962 reclp
lent of the Nobel Prlze ln Llterature, q k v q
tltled thelr edltorlal, 'Does A Moral Vlslon of the Jhlr
tles Deserve Jhe Nobel Prlze?" Arthur Mlzener`s edlto
rlal concluded that Stelnbeck was not worthy of belng a
laureate, anddesplte the hlgh esteem ln whlch he ls
held by the general publlc and by llterary crltlcs around
the worldthe mlstaken vlew that Stelnbeck`s sole
lmportance ls as a soclal reallst who documented agrl
cultural labor strlfe ln the l930s contlnues to domlnate
what llttle dlscusslon of hls work there ls at Amerlcan
unlversltles.
|ohn Ernst Stelnbeck was born ln Sallnas, Callfor
nla, on 27 Iebruary l902. He was the thlrd chlld born
to |ohn Ernst Stelnbeck and Ollve Hamllton Stelnbeck.
Ollve had been a schoolteacher, and |ohn Ernst senlor,
after weatherlng a perlod of economlc reversals begln
nlng ln l9l0, served as Jreasurer of Monterey County
untll l935. After a booklsh but rambunctlous chlld
hood as the only brother of three slsters, Stelnbeck
entered Stanford Lnlverslty ln l9l9. Hls older slsters
Beth and Esther had graduated from womenonly Mllls
College, but Mary, three years younger than he, fol
lowed hlm to Stanford a few years later. A serlous stu
dent of wrltlng, llterature, and marlne blology,
Stelnbeck attended Stanford sporadlcally, regularly tak
lng tlme off to earn money as a laborer. He left the unl
verslty for good ln l925, never havlng made any
attempt to fashlon a program whlch would lead to a
degree.
After a brlef, dlsappolntlng flrst sojourn ln New
York Cltydurlng whlch he supported hlmself wlth
varylng degrees of success as a newspaper reporter and
hod carrlerStelnbeck returned to Callfornla and
earned hls room and board as the caretaker for a cabln
near Lake Jahoe. Although the roof collapsed under
the welght of the snow, the stay was not a complete
dlsaster. Whlle worklng at a flsh hatchery ln the sum
mer of l928, Stelnbeck met Carol Hennlng (later
Brown) who would be hls flrst wlfe, lnhouse edltor,
lntellectual soundlng board, typlst, and greatest early
supporter. Jhey were marrled on l1 |anuary l930.
Later that year, Stelnbeck flrst met Edward 'Doc" Rlck
etts, wlth whom he formed what was to become the
closest and the most lntellectually vltal frlendshlp of hls
llfe. Durlng the flrst years of the Stelnbecks` marrlage
they llved prlmarlly ln hls parents` summer cottage ln
Paclflc Grove and subslsted on Carol`s paychecks from
a varlety of jobs, a $25amonth allowance from Steln
beck`s father, and the harvest from thelr garden and the
nearby Monterey Bay.
It ls stlll a matter of debate among crltlcs as to
how much of Stelnbeck`s phllosophy can be dlrectly
attrlbuted to Rlcketts`s lnfluence. Rlcketts was a brll
llant marlne blologlst of wlderanglng lnterests whose
_ m~ q (l938) would prove lnstrumental ln
shlftlng the focus of marlne blology from taxonomy to
ecology, but Stelnbeck`s study of marlne blology and
hls lnterest ln anlmalslncludlng peopleln thelr envl
ronments predated hls acqualntance wlth Rlcketts.
What ls clear ls that, desplte thelr lmportant dlfferences
on matters of soclal and polltlcal reform, the two frlends
shared a number of concerns and lnterests whlch
helped to shape Stelnbeck`s wrltlng ln slgnlflcant ways.
Many early crltlcs of Stelnbeck, notably Edmund Wll
son, deplored hls tendency to anlmallzeand therefore,
accordlng to the crltlcs, often also to sentlmentallzehls
characters, but those crltlcs mlssed the polnt. Stelnbeck
brought the eye of a modern ecologlcal blologlst to the
study of people. Hls characters have lnstlnctual needs,
and they exlst and compete and sometlmes cooperate
wlth each other ln speclflcprlmarlly Callfornlanenvl
ronments. Although some of hls characters are mentally
deflclent, the dlfference between the majorlty of Steln
beck`s characters and lower anlmalslncludlng most
characters ln naturallst flctlonls that Stelnbeck`s char
acters have free wlll. Jhelr ablllty to choose may ultl
mately prove lnsufflclent for them to alter thelr materlal
clrcumstances; however, thelr consclousness of cholce
creates the posslblllty for moral dlstlnctlons, deluslons,
unhapplness, personal lmprovement, and soclal reform.
Stelnbeck was also, ln many ways, a llterary
descendant of Irederlck |ackson Jurner. Jrue to hls
herltage as a Westerner, Stelnbeck agaln and agaln
deplcted hls Callfornla as a mlcrocosm of Amerlca after
the close of the frontler. Although hls work has often
been dlsmlssed as merely reglonal or prlmarlly docu
mentary, Stelnbeck was lnterested from the beglnnlng
ln the relatlonshlp between myth and reallty. In fact, the
mythologlst |oseph Campbell acknowledged that when
he and Stelnbeck and Rlcketts were all nelghbors ln
l932 he had probably learned more from Stelnbeck
about the nature and power of myth than Stelnbeck had
learned from hlm. Jhat the Arthurlan legendswhlch
were Stelnbeck`s flrst chlldhood llterary revelatlonand
397
ai_ PPO g p
the varlous natlonal myths of Amerlca, especlally those
of the frontler West, remalned partlcularly lmportant to
Stelnbeck throughout hls llfe has become somethlng of
a crltlcal commonplace. What stlll ls lnsufflclently
appreclated, however, ls the extent to whlch Stelnbeck`s
works are concerned wlth the fundamental power of
myth and language to shape experlence.
Stelnbeck`s adept handllng of myth ls one of the
redeemlng features of hls flrst book, ` d (l929),
whlch flctlonallzes the llfe of the hlstorlcal Henry Morgan.
Although he had spent much of the years l921 through
l928 convertlng 'A Lady ln InfraRed," a short story he
had wrltten whlle stlll a student at Stanford, lnto what
would become hls flrst novel, hls letters of l928 and l929
make lt clear that he was dlssatlsfled wlth almost every
aspect of the publlshed book. Hls complalnts lncluded that
the cover made the book appear to be a swashbuckllng
tale for adolescents; however, he reserved hls harshest crlt
lclsm for the contents. Although Stelnbeck thought of lt as
autoblographlcal and approved of the 'lyrlc" qualltles of
varlous passages, ln one letter he concluded that lt was, 'as
a whole, utterly worthless." In another letter he called lt
'the Morgan atroclty." Most crltlcs have been only sllghtly
klnder ln thelr evaluatlons of ` d than was Steln
beck; however, hls college frlend and early unpald agent
Amassa 'Jed" Mlller thought lt was Stelnbeck`s most
characterlstlc and best work, and |ackson Benson clalms lt
ls Stelnbeck`s most ambltlously llterary work.
Jhe tltle derlves from the popular name among
buccaneers for the clty of Panama, but Stelnbeck also
uses lt as an alluslon to the grall legend of Arthurlan
lore, and, lronlcally, lt ls Henry Morgan`s Welsh herl
tage, wlth all lts Arthurlan echoes, whlch Henry ls
rejectlng ln hls contlnual quest for materlal wealth and
fame. Stelnbeck traces the young Henry Morgan from a
rural chlldhood through hls adventures as an appren
tlce seaman, lndentured servant, embezzllng overseer,
plrate captaln, leader of the sack of Panama, and flnally
Governor of |amalca; however, when Henry confronts
the legendary beauty, 'the Red Salnt" of Panama Clty,
both her scorn and her merely human beauty reveal to
Henry how hollow hls run of audaclous successes has
truly been. Because he beglns by rejectlng knlghtly val
ues, the young man who becomes Slr Henry Morgan ls
an unworthy quester, and the object of hls quest proves
to have been not worth the prlce he has pald.
After the publlcatlon of ` dI Mlller con
vlnced the New York flrm of McIntosh and Otls to rep
resent Stelnbeck, and Ellzabeth Otls was to be
Stelnbeck`s frlend and agent for the rest of hls llfe. In
q m~ e~ (l932), hls second book to be pub
llshed but hls thlrd book to be completed, Stelnbeck
examlnes the myths of the Amerlcan 'pastoral" West.
As ln ` dI the tltle of thls shortstory cyclenovel
ls the hlghly lronlc place name of the cruclal settlng.
Jhe dlfference was that thls tlme, the settlng was ln that
reglon of central Callfornla whlch has slnce come to be
known as Stelnbeck Country. Jhrough lts structure,
q m~ e~ enacts the collapse of |effersonlan
agrarlanlsm upon the lntruslon of urban, lndustrlal cul
ture lnto the valley. Jhe body of the book ls the story
of two symbollcally confllctlng famllles and forcesthe
Munroes and the Whltesldes. Jhe confllcts between the
notlons of the urban escapee Munroes as to what rural
llfe should be and the tradltlons of thls lsolated farmlng
communlty, led by the dynastlc Whltesldes, reveal the
flaws and contradlctlons ln the agrarlan ldeal, and serve
as the catalyst for the actlon ln the varlous chapters. In
most of the storles or chapters the Munroes are merely
obtuse; however, thelr actlons conslstently create sltua
tlons whlch reveal the deluslons around whlch the varl
ous lnhabltants of the Pastures of Heaven have
establlshed thelr llves.
Inltlally, q m~ e~ was mostly lgnored.
It was only after Stelnbeck was recognlzed as a major
Amerlcan wrlter that the book began to recelve serlous
but sporadlc crltlcal attentlon. |oseph Iontenrose out
llned most of lts structural elements, and other crltlcs
noted the book`s lndebtedness to Sherwood Anderson`s
tI l and to local tales of the real valley called
Corral de Jlerra. Although recently there has been crlt
lcal appreclatlon of the subtlety of Stelnbeck`s soclal
crltlclsm ln q m~ e~ and of hls relnterpreta
tlon of such core works of Western Amerlcan llterature
as Wllla Cather`s j ^~ and Owen Wlster`s q
s~I thls llttle masterplece has yet to recelve the
sort of sustalned crltlcal respect and attentlon lt
deserves.
Although Stelnbeck wrote q ^ d r
(l933) before he wrote q m~ e~I the books
were publlshed ln reverse order. q ^ d r
began as a student play at Stanford by Stelnbeck`s
frlend, Webster 'Joby" Street; however, by l926 Street
had declded he wasn`t capable of properly rewrltlng
'Jhe Green Lady," so he gave Stelnbeck the manu
scrlpt and hls permlsslon to make of lt what he would.
Street`s plot had focused on Andy Wane`s fatherly
deslre to keep hls daughter close, but Stelnbeck
dropped the daughter altogether. What Stelnbeck even
tually took from hls frlend`s play was the protagonlst`s
mystlcally and sexually charged love of the land. Andy
Wane eventually became |oseph Wayne, but the blg
change whlch allowed hlm to complete the book was
movlng the settlng down the coast. Street`s play had
ended ln Mendoclno; so, ln l929 whlle worklng on an
early draft of the novel, Stelnbeck vlslted that area for
the flrst tlme. Jhat vlslt wasn`t enough to make hlm
feel comfortable wlth Mendoclno as a settlng. Eventu
398
g p ai_ PPO
ally, he moved the story to a flctlonallzed verslon of
|olon, a town he had known from chlldhood and whlch
was just west of the southern end of the Sallnas Valley.
q ^ d r thus marks Stelnbeck`s flrst slgnlfl
cant recognltlon of the lmportance of place to hls work.
q ^ d r ls also lmportant because lt was
one of the flrst examples of Stelnbeck`s ablllty to engage
wlth another author`s work posltlvely. Wlth ` dI
Stelnbeck had congratulated hlmself on havlng wrltten
through the bad lnfluences of |ames Branch Cabell and
Donn Byrne on hls work, but wlth q ^ d r
Stelnbeck was able to draw dlrectly on the example of
another authorln thls case, Roblnson |efferswlthout
belng overwhelmed or feellng the need to rld hlmself of
the lnfluence. Stelnbeck understands the power of
|oseph Wayne`s (and also |effers`s) mystlcal attachment
to the land; however, he makes lt clear that mystlclsm
alone ls not only lnsufflclent, lt may be dangerous.
Knowledge of the land and lts hlstory ls also requlred.
Llke |effers, |oseph Wayne ls not from the West orlgl
nally, but |oseph qulckly prospers ln Callfornla and
sends for hls brothers to joln hlm. However, when
drought comes, he ls surprlsed. Hls ldentlflcatlon wlth
the land ls so strong that when all else eventually falls
and everyone leaves hlm and hls plot of parched earth,
he sacrlflces hlmself to brlng the fertlllzlng raln back to
the land. Jhat lt beglns to raln as the blood dralns out
of hlm ls slgnlflcant; however, not ln the way assumed
by those early crltlcs who derlded the endlng as soft
headed mystlclsm. Jhe echoes of the varlous dylng fer
tlllty gods chronlcled by |ames George Irasler ln q
d _ are clearly lntentlonal; however, as Louls
Owens notes, Stelnbeck establlshes early on ln the book
that drought regularly comes to the reglon ln seven
year cycles, and |oseph`s sacrlflce comes at the polnt ln
the cycle when raln would normally return.
Stelnbeck had predlcted q ^ d r would
not be a popular book, and, as wlth hls two prevlous
books, sales were sllght and Stelnbeck had to flnd a
new publlsher. One day ln l931, Pascal 'Pat" Covlcl of
the publlshlng flrm CovlclIrlede overheard Ben
Abramson, a Chlcago bookseller, beratlng a customer
because he hadn`t heard of |ohn Stelnbeck. Covlcl
hadn`t heard of hlm elther, and Abramson pressed on
hlm coples of Stelnbeck`s flrst two books. Covlcl was
lmpressed enough to slgn Stelnbeck to the flrst of what
was to be a serles of contracts over the remalnlng thlrty
four years of Stelnbeck`s llfe.
Covlcl`s judgment was soon rewarded. Steln
beck`s flrst book for CovlclIrlede was q~ c~
(l935), hls darkly mockArthurlan and often comlc tale
of palsanos struggllng for food, wlne, women, and com
munlty. Not only was q~ c~ a best seller, but Steln
beck recelved hls flrst gold medal for flctlon from the
Commonwealth Club of Callfornla. Jhe germ of q~
c~ was ln the varlous storles of Monterey`s palsanos
whlch Stelnbeck heard from Sue Gregory, the dedlcatee
of the book and a local Spanlsh teacher and frlend of
the palsanos; however, Stelnbeck was collectlng the sto
rles ln q~ c~ durlng hls early twentles when he
worked as a laborer around Sallnas, and he knew per
sonally many of the legendary local characters on
whom he modeled characters ln the book. As Stelnbeck
explalns ln the preface, q~ c~ 'ls the story of
Danny and Danny`s frlends and of Danny`s house. It ls
a story of how these three became one thlng," and he
goes on to note the parallels between the cycle of storles
about Danny`s house and those about the Round Jable
of Klng Arthur. Danny returns from World War I to
dlscover that he has lnherlted two houses. Early on, one
of the houses burns down, and the frlends who had
been llvlng there move ln wlth Danny. Pllon, the lnstl
gator of more than a few outrages on the women and
property of Monterey soclety, ls amuslngly jesultlcal ln
hls argumentatlon; however, when faced wlth the
opportunlty to make off wlth the Plrate`s hoard of
colns, the frlends are stopped by thelr admlratlon of the
slowwltted bum`s commltment to a cause greater than hls
own beneflt, and they become a chlvalrous force ln the
communlty. Lltlmately, however, q~ c~ ls, as
Owens notes, a postCamelot world, because Artur
Morales ls 'dead ln Irance." Jhe harmony cannot last,
and the lonellness whlch consumed Danny when he
was a landlord wlth two houses returns to haunt hlm.
After Danny ln a flt of madness falls to hls death, the
frlends burn the last house down and go thelr separate
ways.
Stelnbeck`s appreclatlon of hls newfound success
was llmlted. He had always been wary of what fame
dld to wrlters, and hls natural shyness only made the
experlence that much more uncomfortable when fame
flrst descended upon hlm. Also, the two years before
the book`s publlcatlon had been personally palnful.
Stelnbeck`s mother had dled ln Iebruary l931, after a
long lllness durlng whlch both Stelnbeck and hls wlfe
had for prolonged perlods helped care for her. Steln
beck`s father never recovered from the loss, and he dled
a year later.
Stelnbeck had wrltten q~ c~ more as an
escape from hls mother`s slckroom than as a serlous
work of flctlon, and he was surprlsed to flnd hlmself
famous for what he called 'thls secondrate book."
Although at the tlme the Monterey Chamber of Com
merce agreed wlth Stelnbeck`s assessment of the book,
most readers and crltlcs have been more generous.
Revlewers recognlzed ln the deftness of the humor and
pathos of the book both a new volce and a hlghly
skllled wrlter. Stelnbeck`s deplctlon of the palsanos ln
399
ai_ PPO g p
Tortillo Ilot has recelved posthumous negatlve crltlcal
attentlon from the Chlcano communlty both for lts
alleged condescenslon and for lts alleged relnforclng of
ethnlc stereotypes. In fact, the palsanos are nelther
Mexlcans nor Chlcanos, but lnstead an amalgam of
many races and ethnlcltles lncludlng Spanlsh, Amerlcan
Indlan, Portuguese, and Itallan. Stelnbeck nelther
lntended any condescenslon to the palsanos nor had
patlence wlth those readers who he felt dld look down
on them. Hls attltude toward Danny and hls frlends ls
comparable to hls later attltude toward Mac and the
boys ln Covvcry Iow, who are whlte.
Because Stelnbeck feared belng labeled a comlc
wrlter, he wanted Iv Dubious ottlc (l936) to be a brutal
book. Inltlally, Stelnbeck had lntended to wrlte a non
flctlon account of the llfe of the agrlcultural labor orga
nlzer Pat Chambers, as drawn from hls lntervlews wlth
Cecll McKlddy, who had been Chambers`s asslstant.
Otls advlsed hlm to use that materlal for flctlon lnstead,
so he set out to wrlte a novel as lmpersonally observa
tlonal as posslble. As Benson has noted, the strlke novel
Stelnbeck eventually created grafted a few detalls from
the Jagus Ranch peach strlke of August l933 onto the
chronology of the Central Valley cotton strlke of Octo
ber l933 and the geography of the Pajaro Valley near
Watsonvllle. Jhe vlolence of the strlke, the workers`
desperatlon, the tactlcs employed by the Communlst
organlzers, and the extraordlnary power of the growers
are all falrly accurate deplctlons of the condltlons ln the
flelds of Callfornla ln the l930s; other aspects of the
novel are slgnlflcantly flctlonal. Stelnbeck`s labor orga
nlzers are two men for whom the workers are means to
an end. Jhe care that Pat Chambers and Carollne
Decker felt for the workers they helped to organlze ls
well documented. Stelnbeck`s workers are whlte men.
Jhe actual strlkers were an ethnlcally and raclally
dlverse group of men and women. Also, the real strlkes
were ln peaches and cotton. Stelnbeck`s cholce of apples
works wlth the tltle to glve a symbollc resonance and
an approprlately Mlltonlc echo (the tltle ls from Iorodisc
Iost ) to the confllct.
Iv Dubious ottlc ls slgnlflcant for several reasons.
It ls the flrst book of Stelnbeck`s great farmworker trll
ogy of the l930s. It ls hls flrst work ln whlch a charac
ter modeled after Rlcketts appears. And lt ls the best
statement ln hls flctlon of hls theory of the group man
or the phalanx. Iv Dubious ottlc ls at once a strlke novel,
traclng the development of young |lm from a new
recrult to the Party lnto an effectlve labor organlzer,
and Stelnbeck`s worklng out of hls theorles about how
the group ls ltself an organlsm that can subsume the
wlll of the lndlvldual. Mac ls an older labor organlzer
who teaches |lm to manlpulate and to sacrlflce lndlvldu
als to further the cause. As |lm becomes lncreaslngly
lmpersonal, hls glfts as an organlzer become more
apparent. At the same tlme, Mac`s affectlon for |lm
grows, and that renewed capaclty for emotlon makes lt
harder for Mac to do hls job. Jhe novel ends wlth Mac
forclng hlmself to make an lmpromptu but nevertheless
formulalc funeral oratlon over |lm`s faceless corpse.
Notwlthstandlng the oplnlon of a reader for Covlcl
Irledea Marxlst who ln Covlcl`s absence lnltlally
rejected the bookIv Dubious ottlc remalns one of the
greatest strlke novels ever wrltten. Jhe novel was
natlonally pralsed by crltlcs on both the Left and the
Rlght, though some have, wlth reason, complalned that
Stelnbeck lgnored the role of women and mlnorltles.
But ln Callfornla Stelnbeck was regarded as havlng a
potentlally dangerous concern about Callfornla`s agrl
cultural labor sltuatlon.
Whereas Iv Dubious ottlc focuses on man as part
of a group, Uf Micc ovd Mcv (l937), Stelnbeck`s next
book and the second book of hls great l930s trllogy on
mlgrant farmworkers, ls hls attempt to wrlte a nonteleo
loglcal book focused on two characters. George Mllton
and Lennle Small, two blndle stlffs who travel together.
Wrltten under the worklng tltle, Somctlivg Tlot Hop-
pcvcd, Stelnbeck conflded ln hls journal that he hoped
hls characters would 'act wlth all the unexpectedness of
real people." Eventually, the book would take lts tltle
from the llnes 'Jhe best lald schemes o` mlce an` men /
Gang aft agley," from Robert Burns`s poem 'Jo A
Mouse." Uf Micc ovd Mcv ls also an experlment ln genre
bendlng. Stelnbeck`s doubts about the vlablllty of the
novel, and hls observatlon that worklngclass people
eagerly attended the productlons of travellng troupes,
led hlm to wrlte the story as a play ln novella form.
Stelnbeck not only comblnes a reallstlc deplctlon
of the geography of the Sallnas Valley seamlessly wlth a
sensltlve psychologlcal renderlng of the soclal spaces of
a bunkhouse, he also brlngs lnto rellef the symbollc
nature of landscape ln Amerlca. Hls ranch hands spend
most of thelr meager pay on women and drlnk ln
nearby Soledada real town whose name ls the Spanlsh
word for both solltude and lonellness. By contrast,
George keeps the glgantlc but mentally retarded Lennle
under control by repeatlng to hlm a myth stralght out of
the Homestead Act. someday they wlll own a llttle farm
and be able to proflt from thelr own labor. |ust when lt
beglns to seem posslble that they can buy such a place,
Lennle accldentally kllls the wlfe of the ranch owner`s
dlsagreeable son. Arrlvlng just ahead of the posse,
George tells Lennle to plcture thelr llttle farm, and then
he shoots Lennle ln the back of the head.
Both the novella and the play Stelnbeck qulckly
crafted from lt wlth the help of George S. Kaufman
were lmmedlate successes. Although no Pulltzer Prlze
was glven that year ln drama, Uf Micc ovd Mcv beat out
100
g p ai_ PPO
Jhornton Wllder`s l q for the New York Drama
Crltlcs Clrcle award for the best play of the l937-l938
season. Some llterary crltlcs have complalned of the
work`s alleged sentlmentallty; however, l j ~ j
remalns, ln elther form, a work of great economy and
power. Of late, crltlcs have begun to move from thelr
early concern wlth genre to examlnatlons of the roles of
gender, sexuallty, and race ln thls abldlngly popular
work.
Whlle Stelnbeck was worklng on both verslons of
hls novella, he and Carol were havlng a new house bullt
ln Los Gatos, and CovlclIrlede was complllng a book
of Stelnbeck`s prevlously uncollected short storles.
Stelnbeck had wrltten most of the storles ln q i
s~ (l938) durlng the early l930s for publlcatlon ln
q k ^~ o and other magazlnes, so the
volume has nelther the contlnulty nor the conslstency
of q m~ e~K q i s~ lncludes a
vlgnette, a medleval fabllau about the converslon of a
plg, one coherent shortstory sequence, and other unre
lated short storles. Ior all lts oddlty as a collectlon, lt
has long been recognlzed as an lmportant book ln the
Stelnbeck canon. 'Jhe Rald" had been wrltten as a
warmup for f a _~K Jhe vlgnette 'Breakfast"
became a scene ln q d~ t~I and 'Snake" ls a
precursor of `~ oK Storles such as 'Chrysanthe
mums" and 'Jhe Whlte _uall" lnclude some of hls
best wrltlng about women and hls most fully reallzed
female characters. '|ohnny Bear," the story of a men
tally retarded savant who earns hls way by belng a per
fect mlmlc, ls a brllllant examlnatlon of llterary reallsm
and the role of the artlst relatlve to soclety. Jhe best
known portlon of q i s~ remalns the sequence
of storles, later publlshed separately as q o m
(l937), whlch enacts |ody Jlffln`s maturatlon process as
he learns about death and responslblllty and the pecu
llarly Amerlcan hlstory of westerlngthe movement of
people westward ln the hope of flndlng a better llfe that
was a major theme for Stelnbeck. Jhe flrst three storles
had appeared ln magazlnes, but the sequence was com
pleted when Stelnbeck sent Covlcl a copy of the prevl
ously unpubllshed 'Jhe Leader of the People."
Stelnbeck`s success wlth f a _~ led to hls
belng lncreaslngly ldentlfled wlth the cause of mlgrant
workers and, ln turn, to hls greater lnvolvement wlth
that cause. In the summer of l936, q p~ c~
k commlssloned Stelnbeck to do lnvestlgatlve
reportlng on the llvlng condltlons of the recently
arrlved refugees from the Dust Bowl. Wlth that seven
part serlestltled 'Jhe Harvest Gypsles" ln the k
and later collected as q _ f p (l938)Steln
beck began hls research for what would become q
d~ t~K Early ln hls research he had the good
fortune to befrlend Jom Colllns, the manager of the
Weedpatch unlt of the Iarm Securlty Admlnlstratlon`s
mlgrant camps ln Callfornla`s great Central Valley. Col
llns gave Stelnbeck access to hls extenslve reports on
the mlgrants and thelr llves on the road and ln the fed
eral camps, and he lntroduced Stelnbeck to many faml
lles. Jhe two men traveled to the Central Valley
together, worklng alongslde the mlgrants, and, later as
condltlons worsened, offerlng ald.
'Jhe Harvest Gypsles" ls slgnlflcant because the
artlcles mark Stelnbeck`s flrst llterary attempt to help
effect soclal change and therefore represent a break
from the quletlsm of Rlcketts`s nonteleologlcal thlnklng.
In the artlcles, Stelnbeck narrates the hlstory of explolt
atlve agrlcultural labor practlces ln Callfornla, descrlbes
ln a movlng but restralned comblnatlon of statlstlcs and
anecdotes the appalllng condltlons ln Callfornla`s flelds,
and argues for the need to help the Okles.
Stelnbeck`s reasonlng on behalf of the mlgrants
follows the posltlon of q p~ c~ k ln lts edlto
rlals at the tlme. Callfornla agrlculture, he proclalmed,
would need to change fundamentally because the new
agrlcultural workers were Amerlcanslmpllcltly 'whlte"
Amerlcansand therefore they would be settllng down
and would not stand for the same treatment as forelgn
laborers. Jhls raclst argument may have been merely a
strategy for gettlng the Okles the help they desperately
needed, or lt may have been an unlntentlonal echo of
eugenlc raclal theorles Stelnbeck was repeatedly
exposed to whlle studylng evolutlonary blology ln the
l920s and l930s. Jhere wlll probably never be a deflnl
tlve answer as to why Stelnbeck ln the artlcles he wrote
for q p~ c~ k chose to call for the preference
of one race over another, but lt ls lmportant to acknowl
edge that lt was completely out of character wlth the
rest of hls llfe`s work.
Stelnbeck`s lnltlal attempt to turn the story of the
Okles to flctlon was a neverflnlshed and now presumed
destroyed manuscrlpt tltled q l~~K Abandon
lng that work ln |anuary of l938, Stelnbeck began
work on a bltter satlre; however, the completed i^~
i dld not please hlm, and Carol agreed. After
mulllng lt over ln early May l938, Stelnbeck destroyed
the manuscrlpt. He explalned to hls agent and to hls
publlsher that. 'My whole work drlve has been almed
at maklng people understand each other and then I
dellberately wrlte thls book, the alm of whlch ls to
cause hatred through partlal understandlng." Ior Cov
lcl, lt was a dlsaster. CovlclIrlede was ln desperate
flnanclal trouble, and Covlcl had lgnored Stelnbeck`s
warnlngs and advertlsed i^~ i on thelr
future llst. A month later, CovlclIrlede was bankrupt,
and, wlth Stelnbeck`s backlng, Covlcl was lnstalled at
Vlklng as Stelnbeck`s edltor. Meanwhlle, q d~
t~ was under way.
10l
ai_ PPO g p
On 26 October l938, havlng persevered through
marltal dlscord, numerous lnterruptlons, lllness, and
recurrlng selfdoubt, Stelnbeck completed the novel.
Jhe publlshed novel ls Stelnbeck`s flrst draft, wlth some
of the profanlty cut out at Vlklng`s request. Apparently,
Stelnbeck began work on hls masterplece wlth the con
ceptlon for the novel as a whole already ln mlnd. What
he dldn`t have was a tltle. He wanted one that would
emphaslze that the book was revolutlonary ln an Amer
lcan, as opposed to an lnternatlonal, and Communlst,
sense. Carol found the tltle ln 'Jhe Battle Hymn of the
Republlc," and Stelnbeck lnslsted that |ulla Ward
Howe`s lyrlcs be prlnted on the book`s endpapers. q
d~ t~ (l939) was the flnal book ln hls great
l930s trlo of books about Callfornla farmworkers, and
lt was an lnstant sensatlon. It was both the topselllng
book of the year and the Pulltzer Prlze wlnner. It com
blned blbllcal symbollsm and Emersonlan transcenden
tallsm wlth lmpassloned crltlque of both modern agrl
buslness and |effersonlan agrarlanlsm. Carey McWll
llams`s classlc study of Callfornla agrlculture, c~
cI appeared later that year and provlded factual
support for Stelnbeck`s flctlonal account. Nonetheless,
Stelnbeck was denounced throughout Callfornla and
Oklahoma and ln the L.S. Congress.
q d~ t~ alternates chapters that tell the
story of the flctlonal |oad famlly as lt leaves Oklahoma
for Callfornla and beglns to break up, wlth those that
document the larger soclal forces at work. Jhe effect of
the mlxture ls to present a brutally naturallstlc unlverse
ln whlch lndlvlduals retaln the ablllty to make slgnlfl
cant declslons that wlll affect thelr llves and posslbly the
ways of the world. Jhus, even though the book con
cludes ln the mlddle of a flood wlth Rose of Sharon
havlng a mlscarrlage and then breastfeedlng a starvlng
man, the endlng ls hopeful. In the worst of clrcum
stances, these people have found that the human famlly
ls what ls lmportant and that lt ls far more expanslve
than they had prevlously lmaglned lt to be. Even those
crltlcs who tend to be dlsmlsslve of Stelnbeck`s works
generally concede that q d~ t~ ls among the
lndlspensable treasures of Amerlcan llterature.
Nelther Stelnbeck`s llfe nor hls llterary reputatlon
would ever be the same. He thought he had taken the
novel as far as lt could go; he was desperately tlred of
hls lncreaslng fame; and hls marrlage, whlch had
always been tempestuous, was falllng apart. He declded
to go on a marlne blologlcal expedltlon to the Gulf of
Callfornla wlth hls frlend Rlcketts. Jhey chartered a
boat, hlred a crew, and took off. Jhe nonflctlon p~
` (l91l), desplte havlng long been a mlnor classlc
among marlne blologlsts, remalns one of Stelnbeck`s
most lmportant and least read works. Jhe orlglnal plan
had been for both men to keep a log and for Stelnbeck
to cobble them together lnto a narratlve when they got
back. Rlcketts was to be ln charge of the scholarly
appendlces that take up the second half of the book.
Instead, Rlcketts kept a log from whlch Stelnbeck bor
rowed ln constructlng the narratlve.
Chapter l1, 'Jhe Easter Sermon," ls the best
expresslon we have of Rlcketts`s phllosophy, and
because of that scholars have long regarded thls book
as cruclal to an understandlng of Stelnbeck`s thlnklng.
Early Stelnbeck scholars were rlght to focus on thls
book; however, they falled to recognlze the extent to
whlch Stelnbeck hlmself contrlbuted to the phllosophl
cal depth of the work. In addltlon to belng a book
about a voyage and about the lmportance of reorlentlng
sclence toward descrlptlve 'asls" thlnklng rather than
toward the search for causal relatlonshlps, lt ls also fun
damentally a nonflctlon book about language and per
ceptlon and the lmposslblllty of any wrltten work belng
'true" ln some flnal way. Although the extremely well
read Stelnbeck would have been more llkely to see the
llnk backward to q~ p~I q gI and any
number of elghteenthcentury Engllsh novels that were
also experlmental treatlses on the form of the novel, p~
` ls a forerunner of what we now know as post
modernlsm.
p~ ` also marks a major break from Steln
beck`s early works. After q d~ t~I Stelnbeck
tlred of the essentlally reallst trapplngs of the novel and
began to wrlte books that focused ln almost postmod
ernlst fashlon on the many ways ln whlch language and
narratlve shape perceptlon. Although that had been an
aspect ln even hls most reallstlc flctlon, wlth q p~
` lt became a domlnant thread ln hls work.
After Stelnbeck and Rlcketts returned from the
Gulf of Callfornla, the Stelnbecks` marrlage contlnued
to deterlorate, and Stelnbeck`s affalr wlth the young
Gwendolyn Conger took up lncreaslngly more of hls
emotlonal llfe. In the sprlng of l910, Stelnbeck escaped
to Mexlco to wrlte the scrlpt for a documentary movle
about brlnglng medlcal care to a rural Mexlcan vlllage.
Rlcketts vlslted the Stelnbecks on locatlon, and wrote
an antlscrlpt decrylng the changes ln vlllage llfe brought
on by modernlzatlon. Although the frlendshlp easlly
weathered the dlsagreement, fllmlng q c s~
was contentlous, and later problems wlth L.S. dlstrlbu
tlon were deeply dlsappolntlng to Stelnbeck. Lpon hls
return to the Lnlted States, Stelnbeck lnformed Presl
dent Iranklln Delano Roosevelt of the lnroads Nazl
propaganda was maklng ln Latln Amerlca and urged
the presldent to set up a counterpropaganda effort.
Roosevelt not only took Stelnbeck`s advlce and formed
the OSS (forerunner of today`s CIA), but also he
enllsted Stelnbeck`s help wlth early propaganda efforts.
102
g p ai_ PPO
Stelnbeck and Carol separated ln Aprll of l91l
and sold the ranch ln Los Gatos that summer. She
moved to New York. |ohn and Gwendolyn trled to settle ln
Monterey, but lt was a small town where Gwendolyn
was the other woman and where hls fame had changed
the way peoplelncludlng many old frlendsreacted to
hlm. When Carol declded to return to Monterey, |ohn
and Gwyn (as she herself began to spell lt) moved to
New York. In March l912 Carol flled for dlvorce, and
the dlvorce was granted on l8 March l913. Stelnbeck
and Gwyn were marrled on 29 March ln New Orleans.
Although Gwyn gave blrth to two sonsJhom ln l911
and |ohn IV two years laterlt was otherwlse not a
happy marrlage for elther one of them.
Jhe war years were tumultuous for Stelnbeck.
Gwyn wanted a settled llfe; but they moved from home
to home and were constantly apart whlle Stelnbeck was
dolng a varlety of often makework jobs for varlous
branches of the government. At dlfferent tlmes, varlous
branches of the mllltary and lntelllgence servlces
wanted Stelnbeck`s help, and generals were sendlng let
ters lnformlng the the local draft board that they
wanted Stelnbeck`s help on matters of natlonal lmpor
tance; but the IBI consldered hlm a securlty rlsk
because of hls supposed Communlst sympathles. Jhe
draft board ln Sallnaswhlch was clearly antagonlstlc
contlnually threatened to draft hlm even though he was
ln hls fortles. Whlle waltlng for a securlty clearance, he
worked on publlcservlce radlo programs and speeches.
He also provlded the story and a screenplay for Alfred
Hltchcock`s i~X however, he was so angered by
Hltchcock`s extenslve changes, especlally maklng the
Afrlcan Amerlcan steward lnto a stereotype, that he
asked that hls name be removed from the credlts.
Of the books Stelnbeck wrote speclflcally related
to World War II, _ ^~W q p ~ _ q~
(l912) ls the least consequentlal. Wrltten as a propa
ganda plece for the L.S. ArmyAlr Iorce, the book ls a
journallstlc account that descrlbes the tralnlng of a
bomber crew. Stelnbeck saw the tralnlng operatlon
from the perspectlve of hls phalanx theory of lndlvldu
als molded lnto a groupconsclous team.
q j f a (l912) ls Stelnbeck`s portrayal
of the conquest and occupatlon of a small Scandlnavlan
town by a brutal outslde enemy. Although nelther the
conquerlng army nor the occupled country ls ever lden
tlfled ln elther the novel or the play verslon, lt was
wldely understood that the conquerors were a phalanx
of Germans and that the occupled country was Nor
way. Although some crltlcs ln the Lnlted Statesnota
bly |ames Jhurberattacked Stelnbeck for maklng hls
Nazls too human, the work`s message that a unlted,
democratlc people couldthrough force of wlll and lndl
vldual courageovercome a dlctatorlal occupylng army
was lmmensely popular ln much of occupled Europe.
After the war the Norweglan government awarded
Stelnbeck the Klng Haakon Cross. q j f a ls
not one of Stelnbeck`s great works; however, lt served a
slgnlflcant purpose, and lt does have llterary merlt.
Stelnbeck`s flnal World War II book, l q
t~ ~ t~ (l958), ls a compllatlon, publlshed thlrteen
years after the flghtlng ended, of most of the newspaper
artlcles Stelnbeck wrote as a war reporter. Hls dls
patches were not, strlctly speaklng, news. Instead, Steln
beck masterfully deplcted the human aspects of the
war. the grlndlng perlods of antlclpatlon, the boredom,
the personalltles of lndlvldual GIs, and the lmpersonal
lty of the war machlne. Jhe book beglns wlth Steln
beck`s deplctlon of a troop shlp crosslng the Atlantlc
and moves on to hls capsule vlews of llfe among the
rear echelons ln England and North Afrlca. Eventually,
Stelnbeck got hls wlsh for combat, and the book con
cludes wlth the dlspatches he sent after partlclpatlng ln
commando ralds ln Italy ln September l913. Hls
descrlptlons of the horror of those battles are perhaps
hls most emotlonally persuaslve nonflctlon. Although lt
was lmportant to Stelnbeck to have proven hlmself
brave ln combat, war was hard on the physlcal and
mental health of the fortyoneyearold author. Deeply
shaken by what he had seen, Stelnbeck returned to an
angry young wlfe ln New York. Asked later to cover the
war ln the Paclflc, he decllned.
In response to soldlers telllng hlm they wanted to
read somethlng funny that dldn`t remlnd them of the
war, Stelnbeck wrote a book dubbed by crltlc Malcolm
Cowley a 'polsoned creampuff." `~ o (l915) ls
Stelnbeck`s flrst work of flctlon that could be called
fully postmodern, but lt could just as correctly be called
a pastoral. It ls an extended play on the ways ln whlch
language and narratlve shape experlence. It contalns
pastlches of characters and brlef eplsodes from hls pre
vlous flctlon. And lt lncludes, but subverts, many of the
tradltlons of pastoral space. Although the Row ls a
place of escape ln whlch many problems of the world
are dlscussed but not resolved, lt ls ultlmately a flawed
communlty. Ior all the rowdy good humor of the par
tles whlch are the book`s maln events, and for all the
goodwlll whlch Mack and the boys feel for DocI Can
nery Row ls a profoundly lonely place ln whlch rela
tlons between men and women tend to be shortllved,
based on money and blology, or bltter fallures.
In October l911, shortly after he flnlshed the
manuscrlpt, Stelnbeck and Gwyn and baby Jhom
moved to Monterey. Although `~ o ls now rec
ognlzed as one of the hlghllghts of Stelnbeck`s career,
the lnltlal revlews were overwhelmlngly negatlve. Steln
beck was hurt that most revlewers had wanted hlm to
wrlte a worthy successor to q d~ t~ and had
103
ai_ PPO g p
felt that `~ o was a sentlmental rehashlng of hls
least serlous prevlous work. Eventually, he would wrlte
p q~ (l951), hls only sequel, ln response to
what he qulte reasonably felt had been a general fallure
of the crltlcs to understand what he had been dolng ln
`~ oK
Stelnbeck`s next book, q m~ (l917), devel
oped through many dlfferent verslons. It began as a
folktale whlch Stelnbeck mentloned brlefly ln p~
`K In l911, Stelnbeck told the story to the Mexlcan
fllm dlrector Emlllo Iernandez, who convlnced Steln
beck to turn lt lnto a fllmscrlpt. Stelnbeck pollshed the
scrlpt wlth Iernandez ln Mexlco and later that year
turned the folktale lnto an allegorlcal novella.
In the novella, the young pearl dlver Klno flnds a
pearl of slngular beauty and slze and dreams of selllng
lt for enough money to allow hls wlfe |uana and thelr
lnfant son Coyotlto to llve a comfortable llfe wlth a llttle
prestlge. |uana`s goal throughout ls to protect the fam
lly. When lt becomes obvlous that the local pearl buyers
would rather klll Klno than pay hlm a falr prlce for the
pearl, |uana tells hlm to throw lt back lnto the sea.
Although Klno`s attempt to flnd a buyer outslde the
town leads to Coyotlto`s death and the destructlon of
Klno`s boat and thelr home, Klno and |uana are
together at the end when he throws 'the pearl of the
world" back lnto the ocean. q m~ ls not one of Steln
beck`s great works, but lt began to develop a followlng
ln the l950s and has remalned popular ln secondary
school Engllsh classes.
Back ln New York after flnlshlng q m~I Steln
beck was anxlous to complete a new Mexlcan novel,
but b `~ s~~ qulckly moved to a flctlonal Call
fornla landscape and became q t~~ _ (l917).
Wantlng to work fast, he dlctated and revlsed the novel
on tape. It ls the story of |uan Chlcoy, the owner and
drlver of a bus named Sweetheart, and hls passengers
on a trlp from Rebel Corners to San |uan de la Cruz.
Jhe brldge across the rlver ls washed out, so |uan takes
them by an old road where they get mlred ln the mud.
When the party seeks shelter, a varlety of events llluml
nate the characters dlfferently accordlng to thelr under
standlng of the nature of sex. |uan, whose lnltlals are
|.C., eventually 'saves" them and gets the bus on lts
way once more, but nothlng has changed. q t~~
_ ls an attempt to explore the ways ln whlch Holly
wood and Madlson Avenue have corrupted sex and
Amerlcan soclety, and lt contrasts the goalorlented
postwar affluence ln Amerlca wlth the sacred and the
cycllcal nature of the world. It ls also, however, an awk
ward mlxture of allegory and reallsm peopled by
mostly unsympathetlc characters. Stelnbeck later called
lt 'a pasteup job" and regretted lettlng lt be publlshed.
^ o~ g~ (l918) ls the result of Stelnbeck`s
trlp to Sovlet Lnlon wlth Robert Capa ln August and
September of l917. Capa was one of the leadlng combat
photographers of the l930s and l910s, and Stelnbeck
had gotten to know hlm durlng hls own tour as a war
correspondent. Jogether they cooked up the ldea of
puttlng together a book on the 'real" Russla. Although
Stelnbeck and Capa managed to get permlsslon to vlslt
parts of the Sovlet Lnlon that were normally closed
to vlsltors from the West, they were kept movlng and
constantly plled wlth vodka. Jhe result ls a falrly
superflclal account of the country by two brllllant for
elgners who weren`t glven much opportunlty to
observe anythlng ln depth. As Warren Irench notes, the
greatest slgnlflcance of ^ o~ g~ probably lles ln
the shlft lt marks between Stelnbeck`s early detached
observer stance and that of much of hls later flctlon and
nonflctlon ln whlch hls role as narrator ls a central con
cern.
Stelnbeck`s return to the Lnlted States was tumul
tuous. On 7 May l918 Rlcketts drove hls car around a
bllnd turn and lnto the path of an oncomlng traln. Iour
days later, Stelnbeck arrlved ln Monterey, only to learn
that hls best frlend had dled a few hours earller. On hls
return to New York, Gwyn, who had grown lncreaslng
lrrltated that she was ralslng thelr two chlldren whlle
her husband traveled around the world, demanded a
dlvorce, whlch was granted ln August. Stelnbeck
moved back to Callfornla that September and played,
often halfheartedly, at belng a ladles` man. Gwyn kept
custody of the two boys and most of Stelnbeck`s llbrary.
And ln December, Stelnbeck was elected to the Amerl
can Academy of Arts and Letters.
In late May l919 Stelnbeck met Elalne Anderson
Scott, a former Broadway stage manager and natlve
Jexan. Her marrlage to the actor Zachary Scott, whom
she met ln college, had become llttle more than a soclal
formallty. On l December l919, Elalne and Zachary
Scott were dlvorced. Wlthln a week Elalne and her
daughter Waverly moved lnto an apartment ln New
York adjolnlng Stelnbeck`s. |ohn and Elalne were mar
rled on 28 December l950.
_ _ (l950), Stelnbeck`s flrst book after
hls breakup wlth Gwyn, was hls thlrd, last, and least
successful dual play and novel. Jhe tltle comes from the
flrst llne of Wllllam Blake`s 'Jhe Jyger," and the story
traces the confllct between the sterlle |oe Saul, hls much
younger wlfe Mordeen, and Vlctor, the young man she
selects to father the chlld she wants so much to glve |oe.
By changlng the settlng and the characters` professlons
ln each act, Stelnbeck emphaslzes the unlversallty of hls
message that every man ls a father to every chlld; how
ever, lt ls an awkward devlce. |ohn Dltsky`s clalm that
_ _ ls better understood as a plece of Brecht
101
g p ai_ PPO
lan theatre than as a reallstlc work has some merlt, but
as flctlon or drama urvivg riglt remalns a preachy
allegory wlth palnfully unreallstlc dlalogue.
In fall l950 Stelnbeck worked wlth the producer
|ules Buck to prepare a scrlpt based on the coplous
research Stelnbeck and Gwyn had done ln l915 on
Emlllano Zapata and the Mexlcan Revolutlon. He had
slgned on the year before to wrlte a screenplay at the
urglng of Ella Kazan, but what he had wrltten was an
ldlosyncratlc cultural blography of Zapata and a serles
of notes for the cast and crew. Wlth Buck as a soundlng
board, Stelnbeck completed the flrst draft ln eleven
days. Stelnbeck`s scrlpt showed Zapata as a man and a
myth, focuslng on hls llfe and martyrdom as both a
pecullarly Mexlcan story and as a unlversal story of the
moral and polltlcal relatlonshlp of the lndlvldual to gov
ernment. Lnfortunately for Stelnbeck, by the tlme
Kazan got around to maklng the movle, the polltlcal cll
mate was unfavorable. Mexlcan authorltles denled the
company permlsslon to fllm ln Mexlco, and antl
Communlst polltlcal pressure was at lt peak. (Kazan
had been forced prevlously to testlfy before the House
Commlttee on LnAmerlcan Actlvltles.) Both studlo
head Darryl Zanuck and dlrector Kazan made compro
mlslng changes to Stelnbeck`s scrlpt. Stlll, desplte a pal
try publlclty budget and llmlted dlstrlbutlon, !ivo
opoto! (l952) garnered four Academy Award nomlna
tlons, lncludlng best orlglnal screenplay. Anthony
_ulnn won the Oscar for best supportlng actor. Steln
beck never dlsparaged the fllm publlcly, but lt was the
last screenplay he would wrlte.
Rather than retreat from polltlcs, Stelnbeck got
more lnvolved. Durlng the l952 presldentlal electlon,
Stelnbeck wrote the foreword to a campalgn volume of
Adlal Stevenson`s speeches, contrlbuted ldeas, and
wrote speeches for celebrltles endorslng Stevenson.
Stevenson`s loss ln the general electlon dld not deter
Stelnbeck. He wrote pleces attacklng the HCLA and
Senator |oseph McCarthy. In l956, at the behest of the
Stevenson campalgn, he wrote a nomlnatlng speech for
Estes Kefauver to dellver at the Democratlc Natlonal
Conventlon, and ln l960 he jolned a group seeklng
once agaln to draft Stevenson. In the l960s Stelnbeck
and Elalne made several overseas trlps at the request of
the Kennedy and |ohnson admlnlstratlons. Jhe young
wrlter who had dreaded fame and had avolded flrst
person narratlve had become a wrlter who enjoyed the
role of publlc wlse man and counselor to the powerful.
Jhat change dld not always serve hlm well.
Stelnbeck`s lnltlal plan for Tlc Solivos !ollcy, as
Iost of Idcv (l952) was flrst tltled, called for lt to be not
only hls next great book but the culmlnatlon of every
thlng he had ever done. Hls research had begun ln
l918 ln the morgue of the Solivos-Coliforviov newspaper,
and he wrote the book slmultaneously wlth a serles of
letters addressed to Covlcl later publlshed as ourvol of o
òvcl: Tlc East of Eden Icttcrs (l969).
In the manuscrlpt verslon of Iost of Idcv, a
sequence of narratlve asldes to hls young sons about
what lt ls to be a man frame the two lnterwoven maln
storles. the story of the flctlonal Jrask famlly and the
hlstory ln the Sallnas Valley of Stelnbeck`s mother`s
famlly, the Hamlltons. Jhe varlous plotllnes of Iost of
Idcv draw upon a slngle theme. moral cholce as the
essence of human posslblllty. Wlth attendant blbllcal
echoes of Caln and Abel, Stelnbeck traces the story of
Adam Jrask and hls famlly. Sam Hamllton, Stelnbeck`s
grandfather, appears often ln the book as Adam`s advl
sor and as an exemplar of both the real and metaphorlc
need for perspectlve. After Adam marrles Cathy and
brlngs her to the ranch he buys ln the valley, she bears
hlm Aron and Caleb (who may actually be Adam`s
brother`s sons), shoots hlm, and goes off to Sallnas to
be a whore. Once there, she murders the prevlous
madam and takes over a brothel whlch qulckly
becomes renowned for lts depravlty. Most commenta
tors agree that Stelnbeck modeled Cathy after hls sec
ond wlfe, Gwyn.
Jhe later dlscovery by the teenage Cal that Cathy
the madam ls hls mother causes hlm to confront what
he at flrst belleves to be hls essentlally evll nature.
Caleb ls eventually shown to be herolc because he rec
ognlzes hls fallen nature as a call to learn to llve a moral
llfe. Jhe favorlte son Aron, however, can no longer
belleve ln hls own lnnocence after seelng hls mother; ln
despalr he runs away to dle ln World War I. As always
wlth Stelnbeck, the novel was greeted by mlxed
revlews. Most crltlcs complalned that lt lacked struc
ture, and some dlsmlssed lt altogether; but other
revlewers called lt hls best book, and Iost of Idcv
qulckly developed a followlng of readers who
responded to lts serlousness and personal warmth.
Jwenty years later Dltsky began the movement among
crltlcs to conslder what Stelnbeck`s structural lntentlons
were and to analyze the book accordlngly. A portlon of
the small clrcle of crltlcs now argue that Iost of Idcv ls,
as Stelnbeck lntended lt to be, hls greatest accompllsh
ment. Jhese few crltlcs glve partlcular attentlon to
Stelnbeck`s use of an lntruslve narrator who grows
through the process of telllng the tale. Jhey argue that
Iost of Idcv ls a book about nothlng less than the cre
atlon of meanlng through narratlon. Jhat argument has
merlt but lt ls compllcated by the fact that, under orders
from Vlklng, Stelnbeck cut from the publlshed book
much of the lntruslve narratlve framework of the manu
scrlpt addressed to the boys.
Stelnbeck and Elalne spent from March to mld
December of l951 ln Europe. Jhey stayed prlmarlly ln
105
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Parls but vlslted Spaln, England, and Italy. Stelnbeck
wrote a serles of artlcles for the conservatlve Irench
newspaper Ic Iigoro whlch were collected ln Uv Zmcric-
oiv o `cw Jorl ct o Ioris (l956). A few of the artlcles were
reprlnted ln Engllsh and Amerlcan journals, but the
book has been publlshed only ln Irench. Stelnbeck
soon grew tlred of belng the wrlteraspollteguest, but
he could not flnd another satlsfactory posture toward
the clty. In early l955 Stelnbeck and Elalne bought an
oceanfront cottage on two acres ln Sag Harbor on Long
Island. Between thelr travels, they llved there or ln thelr
townhouse ln New York for the rest of Stelnbeck`s llfe.
Swcct Tlursdoy was greeted lnltlally as Stelnbeck`s
sequel to Covvcry Iow; however, lt ls far more arch than
that. As Robert DeMott has noted, Swcct Tlursdoy ls a
comedy about wrltlng a novel. As the orlglnal verslon of
the book`s prologue by Mack makes clear, the novel ls a
pastlche of what crltlcs sald Stelnbeck should have wrltten
ln Covvcry Iow. It ls also a charmlng selfparody, an attack
on materlallsm and the mlddle class, and a farewell to Cal
lfornla. Everyone has changed from the prevlous book.
Doc gets the glrl. Mack and the boys sound llterary. On
the other hand, the changes are unsettllng. Sweet Jhurs
day ls the day before Good Irlday, yet no one seems to
recognlze the need for sacrlflce, and no redemptlon ls ln
slght. As wlth Covvcry Iow, many revlewers pralsed Swcct
Tlursdoy`s good humor, but few recognlzed lts underlylng
serlousness of purpose.
Jhe one book ln Engllsh to come out of the Steln
becks` Parls experlence of l951 ls Tlc Slort Icigv of Iip-
piv I! (l957). Stelnbeck flrst concelved of lt as a short
story whlle ln Parls but put lt off as unlmportant. He
flnally got around to wrltlng lt ln March of l956, and
by the end of that month he had completed the flrst
draft. Jhe revlslon was a slow and palnful process for
Stelnbeck; however, hls enjoyment ln wrltlng comes
across on the page. Tlc Slort Icigv of Iippiv I! ls a
charmlng satlre of Irench polltlcs and culture, and of
Amerlcanlzatlon. Jhe story of the bookStelnbeck
called lt 'a fabrlcatlon" rather than a novells that as
every party`s compromlse candldate durlng a constltu
tlonal crlsls ln Irance, a gentle, scholarly astronomer ls
thrust lnto unwanted power as Klng Plppln IV. Whlle
hls daughter falls ln love wlth a rlch Amerlcan boy,
another polltlcal crlsls develops because Plppln decldes
not to be a flgurehead. Jhe book closes wlth a wlser
Plppln golng back to hls telescope. Most revlewers
regarded lt as a merry plece of fluff wlth just a llttle blte,
almed on one level at Amerlcan polltlcs; consequently,
lt has never attracted much serlous crltlcal attentlon.
Stelnbeck and Elalne spent most of l959 ln
England whlle he consulted wlth the medleval scholar
Eugene Vlnaver and worked on translatlng Jhomas
Malory`s Mortc D`Zrtlur. Parts of the translatlon are
wonderful, but Malory had been so lmportant to Steln
beck for so long that he put too much pressure on hlm
self. After years of onandoff attempts he eventually
gave up on completlng the work. Jhe posthumous pub
llcatlon of what he dld flnlsh offers a tantallzlng gllmpse
of what mlght have been. Desplte the lnconslstent
progress wlth hls work, both Stelnbecks treasured thelr
year at Dlscove Cottage ln Somerset.
Tlc !ivtcr of Uur Discovtcvt (l96l), Stelnbeck`s last
novel and the only one set ln the Amerlcan East, was
lmmedlately recognlzed as a morallty tale about materlal
lsm and the devaluatlon of honesty and other publlc vlr
tues. Stelnbeck took hls tltle from the openlng llne of
Wllllam Shakespeare`s play about a murderous, Machla
velllan klng. Iiclord III. Jhe story revolves around Ethan
Allen Hawley, a descendant of the plrates who founded
New Baytown. After Harvard and a stlnt ln the Army dur
lng World War II, Hawley has falled at buslness because
he ls ethlcal. When the book beglns, he ls worklng ln the
grocery store he once owned, and hls wlfe and chlldren
are complalnlng to hlm about not havlng the thlngs every
one else ln town has. Drawlng ln part on hls humorous
short story 'How Mr. Hogan Robbed a Bank," Stelnbeck
changes the comlc tone of that story to trace Ethan`s
slmultaneous flnanclal success and descent lnto a moral
collapse that threatens hls famlly and kllls hls best frlend.
Maklng reference to the contemporary payola
and qulz show scandals, many revlewers remarked pos
ltlvely on Stelnbeck`s crltlclsm of Amerlcan ethlcs, but
others complalned that the secondary plot of Ethan`s
son`s plaglarlsm was not bellevably developed. Jhe dla
logue, especlally the profuslon of Ethan`s pet names for
hls wlfe, has often been attacked as awkward and unbe
llevable. Only recently has Susan Shllllnglaw suggested
that one of Stelnbeck`s themes ln Tlc !ivtcr of Uur Dis-
covtcvt ls the relatlonshlp between language and moral
lty. Allen Hawley`s patchwork of classlc Amerlcan
speeches almost wlns hlm a natlonal essay prlze; he ls a
baslcally decent man struggllng to flnd a shared vocabu
lary that wlll allow hlm to reestabllsh a sense of hlmself
as an ethlcal and effectlve partlclpant ln hls famlly and
hls communlty. Tlc !ivtcr of Uur Discovtcvt ends wlthout
Ethan Hawley`s havlng found that language, but hls
love and hls hopes for hls daughter have kept hlm from
commlttlng sulclde.
Trovcls witl Clorlcy iv Scorcl of Zmcrico (l962) ls a non
flctlon account of Stelnbeck`s drlve across Amerlca and
back wlth hls poodle Charley. Although hls health had not
been good for a few years, and although Elalne had
opposed hlm golng alone, Stelnbeck, drlvlng the plckup
truck he had dubbed Iocivovtc and equlpped wlth a cus
tom camper shell, left Sag Harbor on 23 September l960.
Hls goal was to escape hls own fame and to reacqualnt
hlmself wlth hls country and the people, so he trled to
106
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avold the lnterstate hlghways. Charley was a blg help to
hlm ln breaklng the lce ln smalltown Amerlca, but the trlp
dld not end well. Hls clalm to have met no strangers rlngs
false. Callfornla depressed hlm, because he no longer
belonged there. And far from gettlng to know hls fellow
Amerlcans agaln, the Deep South constantly found ways
to remlnd hlm that he was an outslder. Jhe cheerleaders
who led crowds ln tauntlng young Afrlcan Amerlcan stu
dents at a newly desegregated school ln New Orleans slck
ened hlm. And one whlte hltchhlker`s belllgerent raclsm
caused Stelnbeck to toss hlm out of the truck. When Steln
beck could flnd a llkemlnded whlte man to talk wlth
about race, they agreed the lmmedlate future looked
bleak. Jhe Afrlcan Amerlcans he gave rldes to dld not
cheer hlm up elther. An old man pretended they had
reached hls destlnatlon because talklng about race wlth a
whlte man scared hlm. A young man Stelnbeck llked and
respected told hlm he had grown tlred of waltlng for
change and relylng on peaceful reslstance. Stelnbeck scur
rled home from there. Desplte what some crltlcs recog
nlzed as the fallure of the mlsslon of the book, and desplte
Stelnbeck`s eventual dlssatlsfactlon wlth the completed
work, q~ `~ lncludes sectlons of vlntage Steln
beck reportage, and sales began at a better rate than for
any of hls prevlous works.
On the mornlng of 25 October l962, Stelnbeck
turned on the televlslon set ln hls Sag Harbor, New York,
home to get news of the Cuban Mlsslle Crlsls; lnstead, an
announcer lnformed the audlence that Stelnbeck had that
day ln Stockholm been named the newest Nobel Laureate
ln Llterature. Stelnbeck`s lnltlal reactlon to the news was
great prlde. Hls wlfe Elalne`s lnltlal reactlon was to put the
frylng pan ln the refrlgerator. Jhe crush of lncomlng
phone calls was overwhelmlng. Stelnbeck conferred wlth
Covlcl, and they qulckly agreed on a press conference that
afternoon at Vlklng`s offlces ln New York. Asked by
reporters what hls flrst reactlon had been, Stelnbeck
replled, 'Dlsbellef." Asked to name hls favorlte authors, he
answered, 'Iaulkner and Hemlngway." Jhen a reporter
asked, 'Do you really thlnk you deserve the Nobel Prlze?"
'Irankly, no," he replled, and a feedlng frenzy was
on. q k v q let the world know lt agreed that
Stelnbeck was not deservlng of the prlze. q j~~ fol
lowed sult. Suddenly any crltlc worth a column lnch was
denounclng Stelnbeck`s laureateshlp.
Jhe Nobel ceremonles ln Stockholm made up for
much of the cruel crltlclsm back home. Anders Osterllng,
the Secretary of the Swedlsh Academy, broke wlth proto
col ln hls presentatlon address to Stelnbeck by addresslng
the author not as 'Mr. Stelnbeck" but as 'Dear Mr. Steln
beck," and the Klng of Sweden, for the flrst tlme ln hls
relgn, chose as hls companlon for the concludlng dlnner
the wlfe of the llterature laureate, Mrs. Elalne Stelnbeck.
Stelnbeck had consulted wldely for help wlth the
address and had, he wrote one frlend, rewrltten lt twenty
tlmes before he gave up on belng 'suave and dlplomatlc"
and flnally 'wrote exactly what I wanted to say." After a
few acknowledgments, Stelnbeck struck back dlrectly at
hls crltlcs. He began, 'I thank the Swedlsh Academy for
flndlng my work worthy of thls hlghest honor. In my heart
there may be doubt that I deserve the Nobel award over
other men of letters for whom I hold respect and rever
encebut there ls no questlon of my pleasure and prlde ln
havlng lt for myself." He contlnued hls attack by compar
lng crltlcs to wrlters, 'Llterature was not promulgated by a
pale and emasculated crltlcal prlesthood slnglng thelr llta
nles ln empty churchesnor ls lt a game for the clolstered
elect, the tlnhorn mendlcants of low calorle despalr." Exalt
lng ln hls descent from 'the skalds, the bards," Stelnbeck,
reachlng for grandeur, proclalmed, 'I hold that a wrlter
who does not passlonately belleve ln the perfectlblllty of
man has no dedlcatlon nor any membershlp ln llterature."
Although the twentlethcentury propenslty for glvlng rlse
to genocldal systems for the 'perfectlblllty of man" makes
that proclamatlon suspect, Stelnbeck ended on an appro
prlate note of cautlon and hope. In the new and dangerous
nuclear age, he told the assembled dlgnltarles, humanlty
must flnd the wlsdom to handle lts newfound power
responslbly. Llterature, he lmplled, would be a part of that
process.
Havlng recelved the Nobel Prlze, Stelnbeck fretted
over whether he would ever be able to return to belng a
worklng wrlter rather than some neardead canonlcal flg
ure whose every actlon was a publlc event. As a young
wrlter he had concluded that hardly anyone who won lt
ever wrote anythlng worthwhlle afterward, and he wanted
to be the exceptlon rather than the rule. Lnfortunately,
Stelnbeck`s decllnlng health and hls lncreaslngly publlc
persona were more powerful than hls determlnatlon to
beat what he thought of as the Nobel`s curse.
Stelnbeck`s flnal book publlshed ln hls llfetlme
was ^~ ~ ^~ (l966). What began at Vlklng
as a coffeetable book of photographs for whlch Steln
beck would wrlte an lntroductlon became the author`s
chance to descrlbe hls vlslon of Amerlca. Although
Amerlca`s raclsm saddened hlm and he feared that lt
had damaged the country`s moral flber, he saw major
changes ahead and was optlmlstlc about Amerlca`s
future. Ior a scholar or general reader lnterested ln
Stelnbeck`s vlews of the Amerlcan llterary tradltlon or
ln knowlng the thlnklng behlnd hls post-World War II
flctlon, ^~ ~ ^~ provldes a wealth of lnfor
matlon. In the end the book says far less about Amerlca
than lt does about Stelnbeck`s attltudes toward Amer
lca. Revlewers greeted ^~ ~ ^~ wlth the
measured pralse lt deserved.
107
ai_ PPO g p
Stelnbeck`s flnal nonflctlon project was less suc
cessful. Elalne Stelnbeck and Lady Blrd |ohnson had
known each other at the Lnlverslty of Jexas, and the
renewal of thelr acqualntance durlng the Kennedy
admlnlstratlon had drawn Stelnbeck further lnto Amer
lcan polltlcs. When Stelnbeck became a speclal corre
spondent for the Long Island dally `cwsdoy ln l965, he
wrote a serles of occaslonal 'Letters to Allcla"
addressed to the late Allcla Guggenhelm, the foundlng
edltor of the paper, supportlng Presldent Lyndon
|ohnson`s pollcles ln Vletnam. Jhough Stelnbeck prl
vately recanted hls posltlon later, those artlcles severely
damaged hls already faded reputatlon among llberals
and malnstream llterary crltlcs.
In October l967, Stelnbeck underwent successful
back surgery, but hls body was beglnnlng to glve out.
He had mlld emphysema and severe blockages of the
coronary arterles. Wlth Elalne at hls slde, Stelnbeck
dled on 20 December l968.
Although Stelnbeck`s llterary reputatlon was at a
low polnt when he dled, those crltlcs who predlcted that
hls lmportance ln Amerlcan llterature had been burled
wlth hlm were wrong. Joo few Amerlcan crltlcs would
rate |ohn Stelnbeck as one of the great wrlters of the
twentleth century; however, much of hls work has
proved endurlngly popular. Jhe most lnfluentlal schol
ars of twentlethcentury Amerlcan llterature contlnue to
lgnore Stelnbeck or to dlsmlss hls work, often unread,
as not belng worth thelr conslderatlon. Jhose L.S. crlt
lcs who do conslder Stelnbeck serlously as a wrlter tend
to be crltlcs whose methods call lnto questlon the
recelved canon of Amerlcan llterature. Crltlcs who spe
clallze ln Western Amerlcan llterature have long made
up the majorlty of Stelnbeck scholars, and ln the last flf
teen years the lncreaslng popularlty of ecocrltlclsm and
the recognltlon of Stelnbeck`s ecologlcal focus has
lncreased hls reputatlon among Western crltlcs. Early
femlnlsts lumped Stelnbeck together wlth Ernest Hem
lngway and attacked hls works as belng mlsogynlst, but
laterfemlnlstllterary crltlcs have been klnder to Steln
beck and hls works. Secondgeneratlon femlnlst schol
ars have found ln Stelnbeck an author not only
sympathetlc to women but one who deplcts socletles
crlppled by thelr male domlnatlon.
|ohn Stelnbeck`s greatness ls wldely recognlzed
outslde the Lnlted States, but ln the Lnlted States hls
endurlng llterary legacy ls carrled less by a coterle of
devoted crltlcs than by the general readlng publlc and
the many authorslncludlng Natlve Amerlcan novellsts
such as Louls Owens, Sherman Alexle, and |ames
Welchwho have found ln hls words lnsplratlon for
thelr own llves and works.
iW
Stcivbccl: Z Iifc iv Icttcrs, edlted by Elalne Stelnbeck and
Robert Wallsten (New York. Vlklng, l975; Lon
Icttcrs to Iliobctl: Z Sclcctiov of Icttcrs from olv Stcivbccl to
Iliobctl Utis, edlted by Ilorlan |. Shasky and
Susan I. Rlggs (San Iranclsco. Book Club of Cal
lfornla, l978);
Stcivbccl ovd Covici: Tlc Story of o Iricvdslip, edlted by
Jhomas Iensch (Mlddlebury, Vt.. Paul S. Erlks
son, l979).
fW
Covvcrsotiovs witl olv Stcivbccl, edlted by Jhomas
Iensch ( |ackson. Lnlverslty of Mlsslsslppl Press,
l988).
_~W
Jetsumaro Hayashl, Z `cw Stcivbccl ibliogroply, 1929-
1971 (Metuchen, N.|.. Scarecrow Press, l973);
Adrlan Homer Goldstone wlth |ohn R. Payne, olv
Stcivbccl: Z ibliogroplicol Cotologuc of tlc Zdriov H.
Coldstovc Collcctiov (Austln. Humanltles Research
Center, Lnlverslty of Jexas at Austln, l971);
'Cumulatlve Index to Volumes I-X (l968-l977),"
Stcivbccl _uortcrly, XI. 2 (Muncle, Ind.. Ball State
Lnlverslty, l978);
Hayashl, Z `cw Stcivbccl ibliogroply, 1971-S1
(Metuchen, N.|.. Scarecrow Press, l983);
'Cumulatlve Index to Volumes XI-XX (l978-l987),"
Stcivbccl _uortcrly, Stelnbeck Blbllography Serles,
no. 2 (Muncle, Ind.. Ball State Lnlverslty, l989);
Robert B. Harmon wlth |ohn I. Early, Tlc Cropcs of
!rotl: Z Iifty Jcor ibliogroplic Survcy (San |ose,
Cal.. Stelnbeck Research Center of San |ose State
Lnlverslty, l990);
Harmon, Covvcry Iow: Z Sclcctcd Iifty Jcor ibliogroplic
Survcy (San |ose, Cal.. Dlbco Press, l995).
_~W
|ackson |. Benson, Tlc Truc Zdvcvturcs of olv Stcivbccl,
!ritcr (New York. Vlklng, l981; London. Pen
guln, l981);
Roy Slmmonds, olv Stcivbccl: Tlc !or Jcors, 19J9-
194 (Lewlsburg, Pa.. Bucknell Lnlverslty Press,
l996).
oW
Rlchard Astro, olv Stcivbccl ovd Idword I. Iiclctts: Tlc
Slopivg of o òvclist (Mlnneapolls. Lnlverslty of
Mlnnesota Press, l973);
Susan I. Beegel, Susan Shllllnglaw, and Wesley N.
Jlffney |r., eds., Stcivbccl ovd tlc Ivvirovmcvt (Jus
caloosa. Lnlverslty of Alabama Press, l997);
108
g p ai_ PPO
Donald Coers, Paul D. Ruffln, and Robert DeMott,
eds., Zftcr Jhe Grapes of Wrath: Issoys iv Hovor of
Tctsumoro Hoyosli (Athens. Ohlo Lnlverslty Press,
l995);
DeMott, Stcivbccl`s Icodivg: Z Cotologuc of ools Uwvcd
ovd orrowcd (New York. Garland, l981);
DeMott, Stcivbccl`s Typcwritcr: Issoys ov lis Zrt (Jroy,
N.Y.. Whltston, l996);
|ohn Dltsky, Issoys ov East of Eden, Stelnbeck Mono
graph Serles, no. 7 (Muncle, Ind.. Internatlonal
|ohn Stelnbeck Soclety, l977);
Warren Irench, olv Stcivbccl`s òv-fictiov Icvisitcd (New
Jetsumaro Hayashl, ed., olv Stcivbccl: Tlc Jcors of
Crcotvcss, 19J6-19J9 (Juscaloosa. Lnlverslty of
Alabama Press, l993);
R. S. Hughes, olv Stcivbccl, Z Study of tlc Slort Iictiov
(Boston. Jwayne, l989);
|oseph R. McElrath |r., |esse S. Crlsler, and Shllllnglaw,
eds., olv Stcivbccl: Tlc Covtcmporory Icvicws,
Amerlcan Crltlcal Archlves, no. 8 (Cambrldge.
Donald Noble, ed., Tlc Stcivbccl _ucstiov (Jroy, N.Y..
Whltston, l993);
Louls Owens, Tlc Cropcs of !rotl: Troublc iv tlc Iromiscd
Iovd, Z Studcvt`s Compoviov to tlc òvcl (Boston.
Jwayne, l989);
Owens, Stcivbccl`s Ic-!isiov of Zmcrico (Athens. Lnlver
slty of Georgla Press, l985);
Brlan Rallsback, Iorollcl Ixpcditiovs: Clorlcs Dorwiv ovd
tlc Zrt of olv Stcivbccl (Moscow. Lnlverslty of
Idaho Press, l995);
Shllllnglaw and Kevln Hearle, eds., cyovd ouvdorics:
Icrcodivg olv Stcivbccl (Juscaloosa. Lnlverslty of
Alabama Press, 2002);
Stcivbccl `cwslcttcr, l987-2000;
Stcivbccl _uortcrly, l968-l993;
Stcivbccl Icvicw, 2001- ;
Stcivbccl Studics, 200l- ;
|ohn Jlmmerman, olv Stcivbccl`s Iictiov: Tlc Istlctics of
tlc Iood Tolcv (Norman. Lnlverslty of Oklahoma
Press, l990);
Davld Wyatt, ed., `cw Issoys ov Jhe Grapes of Wrath
(New York and Cambrldge. Cambrldge Lnlver
slty Press, l990).
m~W
Jhe most lmportant collectlons of |ohn Stelnbeck let
ters, manuscrlpts, and related materlals are those held
by the Department of Speclal Collectlons at Green
Llbrary of Stanford Lnlverslty and by the Harry Ran
som Humanltles Research Center at the Lnlverslty of
Jexas at Austln. Jhe |. P. Morgan Llbrary ln New York
houses lmportant materlal from Stelnbeck`s later years.
Other slgnlflcant collectlons of Stelnbeck materlal and
related ephemera are those of the Martha Heasley Cox
Center for Stelnbeck Studles at San |ose State Lnlver
slty; Columbla Lnlverslty; the Natlonal Stelnbeck Cen
ter ln Sallnas, Callfornla; and the Bancroft Llbrary of
the Lnlverslty of Callfornla, Berkeley.
NVSO k m i~
m~ p
Swcdisl Zcodcmy
|ohn Stelnbeck, the author awarded thls year`s
Nobel Prlze ln Llterature, was born ln the llttle town of
Sallnas, Callfornla, a few mlles from the Paclflc coast near
the fertlle Sallnas Valley. Jhls locallty forms the back
ground for many of hls descrlptlons of the common man`s
everyday llfe. He was ralsed ln moderate clrcumstances,
yet he was on equal terms wlth the workers` famllles ln
thls rather dlverslfled area. Whlle studylng at Stanford
Lnlverslty, he often had to earn hls llvlng by worklng on
the ranches. He left Stanford wlthout graduatlng and, ln
l925, went to New York as a freelance wrlter. After bltter
years of struggllng to exlst, he returned to Callfornla,
where he found a home ln a lonely cottage by the sea.
Jhere he contlnued hls wrltlng.
Although he had already wrltten several books by
l935, he achleved hls flrst popular success ln that year
wlth Tortillo Ilot. He offered hls readers splcy and comlc
tales about a gang of poisovos, asoclal lndlvlduals who, ln
thelr wlld revels, are almost carlcatures of Klng Arthur`s
Knlghts of the Round Jable. It has been sald that ln the
Lnlted States thls book came as a welcome antldote to the
gloom of the then prevalllng depresslon. Jhe laugh was
now on Stelnbeck`s slde.
But he had no mlnd to be an unoffendlng comforter
and entertalner. Jhe toplcs he chose were serlous and
denunclatory, as for example the bltter strlkes on Callfor
nla`s frult and cotton plantatlons whlch he deplcted ln hls
novel Iv Dubious ottlc (l936). Jhe power of hls llterary
style lncreased steadlly durlng these years. Jhe llttle mas
terplece Uf Micc ovd Mcv (l937), whlch ls the story of Len
nle, the lmbeclle glant who, out of tenderness, alone
squeezes the llfe out of every llvlng creature that comes
lnto hls hands, was followed by those lncomparable short
storles whlch he collected ln the volume Tlc Iovg !ollcy
(l938). Jhe way had now been paved for the great work
that ls prlnclpally assoclated wlth Stelnbeck`s name, the
eplc chronlcle Tlc Cropcs of !rotl (l939). Jhls ls the story
of the emlgratlon to Callfornla whlch was forced upon a
group of people from Oklahoma through unemployment
109
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and abuse of power. Jhls traglc eplsode ln the soclal hls
tory of the Lnlted States lnsplred ln Stelnbeck a polgnant
descrlptlon of the experlences of one partlcular farmer and
hls famlly durlng thelr endless, heartbreaklng journey to a
new home.
In thls brlef presentatlon lt ls not posslble to dwell at
any length on lndlvldual works whlch Stelnbeck later pro
duced. If at tlmes the crltlcs have seemed to note certaln
slgns of flagglng powers, of repetltlons that mlght polnt to
a decrease ln vltallty, Stelnbeck belled thelr fears most
emphatlcally wlth Tlc !ivtcr of Uur Discovtcvt (l96l), a
novel publlshed last year. Here he attalned the same stan
dard whlch he set ln Tlc Cropcs of !rotl. Agaln he holds
hls posltlon as an lndependent expounder of the truth wlth
an unblased lnstlnct for what ls genulnely Amerlcan, be lt
good or bad.
In thls recent novel, the central flgure ls the head of a
famlly who has come down ln the world. After servlng ln
the war, he falls at whatever he trles untll at last he ls
employed ln the slmple work of a grocery store clerk ln the
New England town of hls forefathers. He ls an honest man
and he does not complaln wlthout due cause, although he
ls constantly exposed to temptatlon when he sees the
means by whlch materlal success must be purchased.
However, such means requlre both hard scrupulousness
and moral obduracy, qualltles he cannot muster wlthout
rlsklng hls personal lntegrlty. Jelllngly dlsplayed ln hls sen
sltlve consclence, lrradlated llke a prlsm, ls a whole body
of questlons whlch bear on the natlon`s welfare problems.
Jhls ls done wlthout any theorlzlng, uslng concrete, or
even trlvlal, everyday sltuatlons, whlch are nonetheless
convlnclng when descrlbed wlth all of Stelnbeck`s vlgor
ous and reallstlc verve. Even wlth hls lnslstence on the fac
tual, there are harmonlc tones of daydreamlng, fumbllng
speculatlons around the eternal theme of llfe and death.
Stelnbeck`s latest book ls an account of hls experl
ences durlng a threemonth tour of forty Amerlcan
states, Trovcls witl Clorlcy (l962). He travelled ln a small
truck equlpped wlth a cabln where he slept and kept hls
stores. He travelled lncognlto, hls only companlon
belng a black poodle. We see here what a very experl
enced observer and roisovvcur he ls. In a serles of adml
rable exploratlons lnto local colour, he redlscovers hls
country and lts people. In lts lnformal way thls book ls
also a forceful crltlclsm of soclety. Jhe traveller ln Rosl
nantethe name whlch he gave hls truckshows a sllght
tendency to pralse the old at the expense of the new,
even though lt ls qulte obvlous that he ls on guard
agalnst the temptatlon. 'I wonder why progress so
often looks llke destructlon," he says ln one place when
he sees the bulldozers flattenlng out the verdant forest
of Seattle to make room for the feverlshly expandlng
resldentlal areas and the skyscrapers. It ls, ln any case, a
most toplcal reflectlon, valld also outslde Amerlca.
Among the masters of modern Amerlcan llterature
who have already been awarded thls Prlzefrom Slnclalr
Lewls to Ernest HemlngwayStelnbeck more than holds
hls own, lndependent ln posltlon and achlevement. Jhere
ls ln hlm a straln of grlm humour whlch, to some extent,
redeems hls often cruel and crude motlf. Hls sympathles
always go out to the oppressed, to the mlsflts and the dls
tressed; he llkes to contrast the slmple joy of llfe wlth the
brutal and cynlcal cravlng for money. But ln hlm we flnd
the Amerlcan temperament also ln hls great feellng for
nature, for the tllled soll, the wasteland, the mountalns,
and the ocean coasts, all an lnexhaustlble source of lnsplra
tlon to Stelnbeck ln the mldst of, and beyond, the world of
human belngs.
Jhe Swedlsh Academy`s reason for awardlng the
prlze to |ohn Stelnbeck reads, 'for hls reallstlc as well as
lmaglnatlve wrltlngs, dlstlngulshed by a sympathetlc
humour and a keen soclal perceptlon."
Dear Mr. StelnbeckYou are not a stranger to the
Swedlsh publlc any more than to that of your own
country and of the whole world. Wlth your most dls
tlnctlve works you have become a teacher of good wlll
and charlty, a defender of human values, whlch can
well be sald to correspond to the proper ldea of the
Nobel Prlze. In expresslng the congratulatlons of the
Swedlsh Academy, I now ask you to recelve thls year`s
Nobel Prlze ln Llterature from the hands of Hls Maj
esty, the Klng.
pW _~ p
Ivtroductory rcmorls by I. Sovdlcr, Mcmbcr of tlc Ioyol
Zcodcmy of Scicvccs, ot tlc òbcl ovquct ot tlc City
Holl iv Stocllolm, 10 Dcccmbcr 1962:
Mr. |ohn StelnbeckIn your wrltlngs, crowned
wlth popular success ln many countrles, you have been
a bold observer of human behavlour ln both traglc and
comlc sltuatlons. Jhls you have descrlbed to the read
lng publlc of the entlre world wlth vlgour and reallsm.
Your Trovcls witl Clorlcy ls not only a search for but also
a revelatlon of Amerlca, as you yourself say. 'Jhls
monster of a land, thls mlghtlest of natlons, thls spawn
of the future turns out to be the macrocosm of mlcro
cosm me." Jhanks to your lnstlnct for what ls genu
lnely Amerlcan you stand out as a true representatlve of
Amerlcan llfe.
1l0
g p ai_ PPO
p
I thank the Swedlsh Academy for flndlng my work
worthy of thls hlghest honor.
In my heart there may be doubt that I deserve the
Nobel award over other men of letters whom I hold ln
respect and reverencebut there ls no questlon of my plea
sure and prlde ln havlng lt for myself.
It ls customary for the reclplent of thls award to offer
personal or scholarly comment on the nature and the
dlrectlon of llterature. At thls partlcular tlme, however, I
thlnk lt would be well to conslder the hlgh dutles and the
responslbllltles of the makers of llterature.
Such ls the prestlge of the Nobel award and of thls
place where I stand that I am lmpelled, not to squeak llke a
grateful and apologetlc mouse, but to roar llke a llon out of
prlde ln my professlon and ln the great and good men
who have practlced lt through the ages.
Llterature was not promulgated by a pale and emas
culated crltlcal prlesthood slnglng thelr lltanles ln empty
churchesnor ls lt a game for the clolstered elect, the tln
horn mendlcants of low calorle despalr.
Llterature ls as old as speech. It grew out of human
need for lt, and lt has not changed except to become more
needed.
Jhe skalds, the bards, the wrlters are not separate
and excluslve. Irom the beglnnlng, thelr functlons, thelr
dutles, thelr responslbllltles have been decreed by our spe
cles.
Humanlty has been passlng through a gray and des
olate tlme of confuslon. My great predecessor, Wllllam
Iaulkner, speaklng here, referred to lt as a tragedy of unl
versal fear so long sustalned that there were no longer
problems of the splrlt, so that only the human heart ln con
fllct wlth ltself seemed worth wrltlng about.
Iaulkner, more than most men, was aware of
human strength as well as of human weakness. He knew
that the understandlng and the resolutlon of fear are a
large part of the wrlter`s reason for belng.
Jhls ls not new. Jhe anclent commlsslon of the
wrlter has not changed. He ls charged wlth exposlng our
many grlevous faults and fallures, wlth dredglng up to the
llght our dark and dangerous dreams for the purpose of
lmprovement.
Iurthermore, the wrlter ls delegated to declare and
to celebrate man`s proven capaclty for greatness of heart
and splrltfor gallantry ln defeatfor courage, compasslon
and love. In the endless war agalnst weakness and despalr,
these are the brlght rallyflags of hope and of emulatlon.
I hold that a wrlter who does not passlonately
belleve ln the perfectlblllty of man, has no dedlcatlon nor
any membershlp ln llterature.
Jhe present unlversal fear has been the result of a
forward surge ln our knowledge and manlpulatlon of cer
taln dangerous factors ln the physlcal world.
It ls true that other phases of understandlng have
not yet caught up wlth thls great step, but there ls no rea
son to presume that they cannot or wlll not draw abreast.
Indeed lt ls a part of the wrlter`s responslblllty to make
sure that they do.
Wlth humanlty`s long proud hlstory of standlng
flrm agalnst natural enemles, sometlmes ln the face of
almost certaln defeat and extlnctlon, we would be cow
ardly and stupld to leave the fleld on the eve of our great
est potentlal vlctory.
Lnderstandably, I have been readlng the llfe of
Alfred Nobela solltary man, the books say, a thoughtful
man. He perfected the release of exploslve forces, capable
of creatlve good or of destructlve evll, but lacklng cholce,
ungoverned by consclence or judgment.
Nobel saw some of the cruel and bloody mlsuses of
hls lnventlons. He may even have foreseen the end result
of hls problngaccess to ultlmate vlolenceto flnal destruc
tlon. Some say that he became cynlcal, but I do not belleve
thls. I thlnk he strove to lnvent a control, a safety valve. I
thlnk he found lt flnally only ln the human mlnd and the
human splrlt. Jo me, hls thlnklng ls clearly lndlcated ln the
categorles of these awards.
Jhey are offered for lncreased and contlnulng
knowledge of man and of hls worldfor understandlng
and communlcatlon, whlch are the functlons of llterature.
And they are offered for demonstratlons of the capaclty
for peacethe culmlnatlon of all the others.
Less than flfty years after hls death, the door of
nature was unlocked and we were offered the dreadful
burden of cholce.
We have usurped many of the powers we once
ascrlbed to God.
Iearful and unprepared, we have assumed lordshlp
over the llfe or death of the whole worldof all llvlng
thlngs.
Jhe danger and the glory and the cholce rest flnally
ln man. Jhe test of hls perfectlblllty ls at hand.
Havlng taken Godllke power, we must seek ln our
selves for the responslblllty and the wlsdom we once
prayed some delty mlght have.
Man hlmself has become our greatest hazard and
our only hope.
So that today, St. |ohn the apostle may well be para
phrased. In the end ls the Word, and the Word ls Man
and the Word ls wlth Men.
| Jhe Nobel Ioundatlon, l962. |ohn Stelnbeck ls the
sole author of thls speech.|
1ll
p m
EoJc~J^~ mF
(16 Morcl 1SJ9 - 6 Scptcmbcr 1907)
d~ ^K i
Uvivcrsity of MissouriIovsos City
BOOKS. Stovccs ct pomcs (Parls. Achllle Iaur, l865);
Ics Iprcuvcs: Zmour, doutc, rcvc, octiov (Parls. Alphonse
Lemerre, l866);
Ics Solitudcs (Parls. Alphonse Lemerre, l869)lncludes
Ics Icurics d`Zugios;
Ics Dcstivs (Parls. Alphonse Lemerre, l872);
Io Icvoltc dcs flcurs (Parls. Alphonse Lemerre, l871);
Io Irovcc (Parls. Alphonse Lemerre, l871);
Ics !oivcs tcvdrcsscs (Parls. Alphonse Lemerre, l875);
Io usticc (Parls. Alphonse Lemerre, l878);
Discours dc rcccptiov dc Sully Irudlommc o l`Zcodcmic frovoisc
(Parls. Alphonse Lemerre, l882);
IÌxprcssiov dovs lcs bcoux-orts: Zpplicotiov dc lo psyclologic o
l`ctudc dc lòrtistc ct dcs bcoux-orts (Parls. Alphonse
Lemerre, l883);
Ic Irismc: Iocsics divcrscs (Parls. Alphonse Lemerre,
l886);
Ic ovlcur (Parls. Alphonse Lemerre, l888);
Icflcxiovs sur lòrt dcs vcrs (Parls. Alphonse Lemerre,
l892);
Io `ymplc dcs bois dc !crsoillcs (Parls. Alphonse Lemerre,
l896);
_uc sois-jc?: Ixomcv dc covscicvcc; Sur lòrigivc dc lo vic tcr-
rcstrc (Parls. Alphonse Lemerre, l896);
Z Zlfrcd dc !igvy (Parls. E. Pelletan, l898);
Tcstomcvt poctiquc (Parls. Alphonse Lemerre, l90l);
Ic Iroblmc dcs couscs fivolcs, by Prudhomme and Charles
Rlchet (Parls. Illx Alcan, l902);
Io !roic rcligiov sclov Ioscol: Icclcrclc dc lòrdovvovcc purc-
mcvt logiquc dc scs Icvsccs rclotivcs o lo rcligiov, suivic
dùvc ovolysc du Discours sur lcs possiovs dc lòmour
(Parls. Illx Alcan, l905);
Io Isyclologic du librc orbitrc, suivic dc dcfivitiovs fovdomcv-
tolcs, vocobuloirc logiqucmcvt ordovvc dcs idccs lcs plus
gcvcrolcs ct dcs idccs lcs plus obstroitcs (Parls. Illx
Alcan, l907);
Ic Iicv sociol (Parls. Illx Alcan, l909);
Icttrcs o uvc omic: 1S6-1SS1, 2 volumes (Parls. Le
Llvre contemporaln, l9ll);
Iotric ct lumovitc (Issoi dc solutiov collcctivc) (Parls. Edltlon
de 'La Revue," l9l3);
cuvcs fillcs ct fcmmcs (Parls. Alphonse Lemerre, l920);
ourvol ivtimc: Icttrcs-Icvsccs, edlted by Camllle Hmon
(Parls. Alphonse Lemerre, l922).
`W Uuvrcs dc Sully Irudlommc, 6 volumes
(Parls. Alphonse Lemerre, l877-l908)com
prlses volume l, Iocsics 1S6-1S66: Stovccs ct
pomcs; volume 2, Iocsics 1S66-1S72: Ics Iprcuvcs;
Ics Icurics d`Zugios; Croquis itolicvs; Ics Solitudcs;
Imprcssiovs dc lo gucrrc; volume 3, Iocsics 1S72-
1S7S: Ics !oivcs tcvdrcsscs; Io Irovcc; Io Icvoltc dcs
flcurs; Iocsics divcrscs; Ics Dcstivs; Ic cvitl; volume
1, Iocsics 1S7S-1S79: Dc lo voturc dcs closcs 1cr livrc:
Io usticc; volume 5, Iocsics 1S79-1SSS: Ic Irismc;
p m EoJc~J^~ mF
EWLLKKF
1l2
p m ai_ PPO
Ic ovlcur; and volume 6, Iocsics: Ipovcs; Discours
dc rcccptiov o l`Zcodcmic frovoisc;
Uuvrcs dc Sully Irudlommc: Irosc, 3 volumes (Parls.
Alphonse Lemerre, l898-l908)comprlses vol
ume l, IÌxprcssiov dovs lcs bcoux-orts: Zpplicotiov dc
lo psyclologic o l`ctudc dc lòrtistc ct dcs bcoux-orts; vol
ume 2, Tcstomcvt poctiquc; Trois ctudcs sociologiqucs;
and volume 3, _uc sois-jc?: Ixomcv dc covscicvcc; Sur
lòrigivc dc lo vic tcrrcstrc; Ic Iroblmc dcs couscs fivolcs;
Cloix dc pocsics, edlted by Maxlme Iormont (Parls.
Alphonse Lemerre, l928).
JRANSLAJION. Lucretlus, Iucrcc: Dc lo voturc dcs
closcs, prcmicr livrc (Parls. Alphonse Lemerre,
l869).
On l0 December l90l, the flve jury members for
the flrst Nobel Prlze ln Llterature came together to pro
clalm the lnaugural wlnner. the slxtytwoyearold
Irench poet and member of the Acadmle Iranalse,
Sully Prudhomme. Carl Davld af Wlrsn, the perma
nent secretary of the Swedlsh Academy, announced the
award. Jhe cltatlon lndlcated that the prlze was glven
'In speclal recognltlon of hls poetlc composltlon, whlch
glves evldence of lofty ldeallsm, artlstlc perfectlon and a
rare comblnatlon of the qualltles of both heart and lntel
lect," and ln hls presentatlon speech Wlrsn polnted out
that Sully Prudhomme seeks 'evldence of man`s super
natural destlny ln the moral realm, ln the volce of con
sclence, and ln the lofty and undenlable prescrlptlons of
duty."
Jhe selectlon of Sully Prudhomme as the flrst
wlnner of the llterature prlze was not met wlth great
enthuslasm by the press. As Gunnar Ahlstrm records,
a commentator for a popular Swedlsh dally wrote.
So the cholce has fallen nelther on Jolstoy, nor Ibsen,
nor Bjrnson, nor Mommsen, nor Swlnburne, nor
Zola, nor Anatole France, nor Carduccl, nor Mlstral,
nor Hauptmann, nor even Echegaraylt has fallen on
SullyPrudhomme |slc|. It ls some satlsfactlon, however,
to flnd that Franols Coppe ls not the wlnner; ln vlew
of hls lnnocuous sentlmentallty, he mlght well have
been consldered the best of all the present Swedlsh
Academy.
Jhe members of the Nobel jury were gulded by the
vague words wrltten lnto the wlll of Alfred Nobel. Jhe
lnventor stated that hls prlze 'should go to the person
who shall have produced ln the fleld of Llterature the
most dlstlngulshed work of an ldeallstlc tendency."
Wlrsn belleved that 'ldeallstlc tendency" meant of
moral or good nature; however, as Burton Ieldman
reports, the mathematlclan Gsta MlttagLeffler, who
was a frlend of Nobel`s, attested that 'the lnventor
lntended 'ldeallsm` to mean a skeptlcal, even satlrlcal
attltude to rellglon, royalty, marrlage, and the soclal
order ln general."
It was probably loglcal ln some sense that the flrst
Nobel llterary laureate would hold a seat ln the
Acadmle Iranalse (founded ln l635), the model for
the Royal Swedlsh Academy, establlshed ln l786 under
the rule of Gustaf III. By namlng Sully Prudhomme,
who had been elected to the august Irench llterary and
sclentlflc academy ln l88l, the Swedlsh Academy
essentlally rendered great homage to lts Galllc fore
runner. Sully Prudhomme`s reputatlon, however, has
not survlved the more than one hundred years slnce he
was awarded the crownlng glory ln hls llterary career.
Hls legacy as a poet ls not bad; lt slmply does not exlst.
Most Irench hlghschool students would recognlze hls
name and mlght have read hls most wellknown poem,
'Le Vase brls" (l865, Jhe Broken Vase), but lt ls safe
to say that almost no one outslde of Irance recognlzes
the name Sully Prudhomme. However, he ls not the
only case of a forgotten Nobel laureate; many erudlte
people are undoubtedly unfamlllar wlth the names of
more than a few wlnners, such as Henryk Slenklewlcz
(l905), Rudolf Eucken (l908), or Carl Spltteler (l9l9).
Sully Prudhomme`s poetry, although not formally
avantgarde llke Stphane Mallarm`s work, nor strlk
lngly rebelllous llke Arthur Rlmbaud`s verse, ls a har
blnger of modernlty and modern tlmes. Hls poetry tells
of a world that ls changlng, of the lmportance of sclence
and phllosophy, of dlscovery and lnnovatlon. Yet, Sully
Prudhomme strove to make clear that even ln thls posl
tlvlst, mechanlzed soclety where the gods of sclence and
money relgn strong, that poetry ennobles, lnstructs, and
remlnds people that beauty and consclence contlnue to
exlst.
RenIranolsArmand Prudhomme was born on
l6 March l839 at 13 rue du faubourg Polssonnlre ln
Parls, the second chlld of an older bourgeols couple
who had been engaged for ten years before marrylng.
Young Ren`s father, RenIranols Prudhomme, was a
buslnessman who dled of menlngltls at the age of forty
four, when hls son was only two years old. Jhe elder
Prudhomme was nlcknamed Sully, and the future
Nobel laureate later explalned how he acqulred hls
father`s nlckname.
Mon pre reut ce nom de son entourage, tant enfant,
je ne sals pourquol. le hasard làura amen sur les
lvres de quelquùn de ses proches qul làura trouv
joll. quol qu`ll en solt, ma mre comme toute la famllle
et les amls, le donnalt a mon pre, et quand ll fut mort,
elle me là donn pour avolr toujours a le prononcer.
(I don`t know why but as a chlld my father got thls
name from hls frlends; one of hls frlends must have
1l3
ai_ PPO p m
uttered lt by chance and was pleased by lt. In any case,
my mother, llke all of hls famlly and frlends, used lt.
And when he dled, she used lt wlth me so that she
would always have to say lt.)
Jhus, the future poet spent hls llfe as Sully Prud
homme. He always went by lt as a full surname;
although some scholars hyphenate lt, he hlmself dld
not.
Soon after the death of hls father, hls mother`s
unmarrled slster and brother came to llve wlth the
wldow, her young son, and daughter. Hls mother,
|eanneClotllde Prudhomme (ne Calllat), qulckly
allowed all declslons to be made by her older slbllngs,
and Sully Prudhomme was sent off to boardlng school
at the age of elght. Although he also began to wrlte
some juvenlle verse, young Sully Prudhomme llked scl
ence, and at fourteen he chose to make that hls spe
clalty. He flnlshed hlgh school at the prestlglous Lyce
Bonaparte ln Parls wlth a sclence baccalaureate, lntend
lng to enroll at the mllltary preparatory school Ecole
Polytechnlque; but he suffered from ophthalmla, a serl
ous eye lnflammatlon, and was barred from attendlng
the prestlglous college. Sully Prudhomme`s famlly then
sent hlm to llve wlth hls maternal couslns ln Lyon,
where he prepared for and passed hls llterature bacca
laureate.
Perhaps because of hls early experlence wlth
death, perhaps because of hls lsolatlon from hls famlly,
or perhaps as a result of hls lnterest ln romantlc poetry,
young Sully Prudhomme was melanchollc, dreamy, and
lntrospectlve. Moreover, he dld not enjoy hls chlldhood.
In a l902 lntervlew he deflned a chlld as 'Ln tre dont
on contrarle tous les dslrs" (A belng whose deslres are
all denled). Whlle ln Lyon he dlscovered rellglon and
even lmaglned that he would joln a monastery. Jhls
prospect greatly frlghtened hls famlly, who were also
worrled about hls contlnued pursult of wrltlng poetry;
they arranged for hls return to the Parls reglon and
secured hlm a clerlcal posltlon at the famed Schnelder
Ironworks ln Le Creusot. Jhls job lasted only elghteen
months as Sully Prudhomme turned out to be a bad
buslnessman, accordlng to Plerre Ions. However, as
Edmond Estve notes, the author`s experlences at the
factory furnlshed hlm wlth an appreclatlon of the power
of genlus, human labor, and all thlngs sclentlflc.
In l860 Sully Prudhomme thus found hlmself
back ln Parls, where he began studylng law and worked
as a clerk ln a notary`s offlce. He had llttle money and
slept on the llvlngroom couch ln hls famlly`s apart
ment. Durlng the day he worked and faked studylng,
whlle at nlght he wrote poetry and read everythlng he
could ln phllosophy, sclence, and poetry. Immanuel
Kant, Baruch Splnoza, Blalse Pascal, Auguste Comte,
|ohann Wolfgang von Goethe, and Vlctor Hugo. Jhese
nocturnal pursults were hls real educatlon, as was hls
acceptance lnto a small group of law students, Con
frence La Bruyre, a club devoted to the dlscusslon of
llterature, phllosophy, and art. At the weekly meetlngs,
where the art lovers read thelr own poems and dls
cussed classlc wrlters, Sully Prudhomme met |os
Marlla de Heredla, who twenty years later was a fellow
member of the Acadmle Iranalse. Jhese two men,
along wlth others, spent Saturday evenlngs at a salon at
the home of Leconte de Llsle, thelr elder by a genera
tlon and the leader of the Parnasse movement.
In l863 Sully Prudhomme publlshed hls flrst
poem ln i~ o k~~ b~ (edlted by, among
others, Charles Baudelalre, Hlppolyte Jalne, and Jho
phlle Gautler) ln l863. Jhls poem, tltled 'LÀrt" and
reworked for publlcatlon ln hls flrst book of poetry,
serves as a flttlng lntroductlon to Sully Prudhomme`s
aesthetlc concerns. Iormally lt ls qulte tradltlonal, an
alexandrlne poem wlth a rhyme scheme of embraced
and malnly sufflclent rhymes. Although ln prlnclple lt ls
about art, lt ls actually an homage to phllosophy, espe
clally to Georg Wllhelm Irledrlch Hegel, who occuples
'mon temple toll, la coupole profonde" (my starfllled
temple, the profound cupola). Jhe poem thus moves
from phllosophy to language'Alnsl que la Babel,
effrayante splrale / qul dàsslse en asslse a conquls
l`horlzon" (Llke Babel, the frlghtenlng splral / whlch
tler by tler conquered the horlzon)and ends wlth the
beauty of nature as the Jower of Babel 'S`panoult
enfln dans la beaut du jour!" (Ilnally blossoms ln the
beauty of the day!). Much of Sully Prudhomme`s
poetry explores phllosophy, language, and nature, and
often all three of these elements are lnterwoven ln the
same poem.
Jhe next year the young poet publlshed 'Choeur
polonalse" (Pollsh Chorus) ln the same revlew, and ln
l865 Achllle Iaur publlshed Sully Prudhomme`s flrst
book of poems, p~ (Stanzas and Poems).
Jhls book was revlewed posltlvely by the wellknown
crltlc and poet CharlesAugustln SalnteBeuve and
other readers, and lt convlnced hls famlly that Sully
Prudhomme would be successful as a poet. Sully Prud
homme`s bestknown poem ls lncluded ln thls flrst col
lectlon. 'Le Vase brls" has been frequently
anthologlzed and remalns the one poem by the Nobel
laureate stlll famlllar to a general Irench publlc. Jhls
sweet poem on an lnslgnlflcant subject became a bug
bear for Sully Prudhomme, as Estve notes wlth some
humor.
Comblen de matresses de malson lul demandren
telles, a tltre de faveur lnslgne, de dlre a leurs lnvlts le
s~ \ Elles ne se doutalent pas que sl l`homme du
1l1
p m ai_ PPO
monde sèxcutalt, aprs les rslstances dùsage, le
pote grondalt en dedans a la pense de dblter une fols
de plus cet ternel 'pot cass" qu`ll avalt flnl par prendre en
horreur. '_u`ll se brlse sur leur nez, ce vase!" s`crlaltll
dans un accs de fureur.
(How many hostesses have asked hlm, as a llttle favor,
to reclte 'Jhe Broken Vase"? Jhey dldn`t suspect that
whlle the gentleman performed, after a pollte heslta
tlon, the poet groaned lnslde at the thought of once
agaln trottlng out thls eternal 'busted pot," whlch he
flnally grew to desplse. 'I wlsh lt would break ln thelr
face, thls vase!" he crled ln anger.)
In l866 Sully Prudhomme took part ln a llterary
event of lastlng lmportance. he contrlbuted several
poems to the publlsher Alphonse Lemerre`s threevolume
anthology of young Parnasslan poets, Ic Iorvossc covtcm-
poroiv: Iccucil dc vcrs vouvcoux (l866, l87l, l876; Con
temporary Parnassus. Collectlon of New Verse). Jhls
publlcatlon was the unvelllng of a new poetlc move
ment, a reactlon to Romantlclsm, whereln poetry ls
strlpped of the earller movement`s excesslve emotlonal
lty and returned to lts pedestal, to the Parnasslan
helghts of formally tradltlonal verse; polltlcs are not dls
cussed, and everythlng ls at the servlce of art. Parnasse
poets, among them Sully Prudhomme, were greatly
lnsplred by sclence and phllosophy, ln part drlven by
thelr deslre to malntaln poetlc lmpasslvlty and lndlffer
ence. As Barbara |ohnson notes, form, speclflcally
rhyme, ls the most lmportant element ln Parnasse verse.
'|e reconnals en mol une exactltude machlnale, rsultat
de la vle de collge" (I recognlze ln myself a machlne
llke exactltude, the result of school llfe), wrote Sully
Prudhomme ln l861 ln hls ourvol ivtimc (l922, Dlary);
'jèn al gard aussl un profond respect pour le rgle
ment en toutes choses; alnsl rlen ne mèst plus lndlf
frent que le monde et pourtant je suls ses lol et ses
usages avec une doclllt passlve" (I have also retalned a
profound respect for all regulatlons. Jhus nothlng
leaves me more lndlfferent than the world; however, I
follow lts laws and customs wlth doclle passlvlty). Sully
Prudhomme also followed the rules ln hls poetry, and
llke hls colleagues and mentors wlthln the Parnasslan
school, he demanded that art exlst for lts own sake and
that lt embody eternal beauty through formal consls
tency.
Soon after the publlcatlon of Stovccs ct pomcs,
Lemerre (who publlshed all of the wrlter`s poetry)
released Sully Prudhomme`s second collectlon of
poems, Ics Iprcuvcs (l866, Jrlals), composed entlrely of
sonnets and consldered to lnclude some of the poet`s
greatest pleces. Sully Prudhomme contlnued to wrlte a
great deal of poetry and publlshed Ics Solitudcs (l869,
Solltudes) and Ics Dcstivs (l872, Destlnles) ln relatlvely
qulck successlon. Professlonally, the poet`s llfe was
golng well, but personally, lt was not. In l870 hls
mother, aunt, and uncle all dled wlthln several days of
each other, whlch left hlm only hls slster. Iurthermore,
Sully Prudhomme never marrled and apparently never
engaged ln romantlc llalsons. Although he wrote many
early poems about love and young women, lt seems
that hls heart was broken by a cousln he had lmaglned
marrylng. She wed another man, whlle Sully Prud
homme remalned a bachelor. In the poem 'Les Adleux"
(Iarewells) from Stovccs ct pomcs he wrltes, '_uelle soll
tude est la ntre! / Ou dans les bras de l`homme, ou
dans les bras de Dleu, / Nos compagnes, hlas! tombent
lùne aprs làutre. / Adleu!" (What solltude ls ours! /
Into the arms of men, or lnto the arms of God, / Our
playmates, alas, fall one after the other. / Adleu!).
Jhe IrancoPrusslan War began ln l870, and
Sully Prudhomme was enthuslastlc about demonstrat
lng hls patrlotlsm. He enllsted ln the Garde Natlonale
shortly after the deaths ln hls famlly, but the harshness
of mllltary llfe comblned wlth hls perennlally dellcate
health meant that he qulckly became gravely lll. Jhe
entlre lower half of hls body was paralyzed, and he was
close to death. He returned to Parls to convalesce and
wrote about hls experlences ln a sectlon called 'Impres
slons de la guerre" (Impresslons of War) ln hls Uuvrcs
dc Sully Irudlommc (l877-l908, Complete Works of
Sully Prudhomme). Jhe flrst poem, 'Ileurs de sang"
(Blood Ilowers), ls a powerful remlnder that nature
does not pay heed to what human belngs do.
Pendant que nous falslons la guerre,
Le solell a falt le prlntemps.
Des fleurs s`lvent ou nagure
Sèntretualent les combattants.
Malgr les morts quèlles recouvrent,
Malgr cet effroyable engrals,
Volcl leurs callces qul sòuvrent,
Comme làn dernler, purs et frals.
(Whlle we waged war,
Jhe sun made the sprlng.
Flowers bloom where before
Combatants fought.
Desplte the death that they cover up
Desplte thls terrlble fertlllzer
Here thelr calyxes open up,
Llke last year, pure and fresh.)
Iollowlng the IrancoPrusslan War and the vlo
lent street flghtlng of the Parls Commune ln l87l, Sully
Prudhomme fell lnto a serlous depresslon. But the
cause was not only the war; hls work ceased to lnsplre
1l5
ai_ PPO p m
hlm. In l87l the poet wrote (ln i ~W NUSR
NUUN |l9ll, Letters to a Irlend. l865-l88l|).
|e perds le got de la posle. |e la trouve de plus en plus
purlle, compar aux austres travaux de la sclence; les
plus grands gnles llttralres me semblent des enfants
auprs du gnle sclentlflque, qul, au lleu d`lmlter et de
dflgurer la nature sous prtexte de la transflgurer par
l`ldal et l`humaln, l`trelnt corps a corps, telle quèlle
est, et lul ouvre, dolgt par dolgt, ses malns fermes
pour en arracher des lambeaux de vrlt.
(I`m loslng my taste for poetry. I flnd lt more and more
puerlle compared wlth serlous sclentlflc work; the
greatest llterary genluses seem llke chlldren next to the
sclentlflc genlus. Instead of lmltatlng and dlsflgurlng
nature under the pretext of transflgurlng lt by ldeallza
tlon and the touch of the human hand, sclentlflc genlus
holds on to nature tlghtly, just llke she ls, and opens her
closed hands, flnger by flnger, ln order to extract the
scraps of truth.)
Jhe second half of the nlneteenth century was a
sclence boom. Jhe great nlneteenthcentury Irench
novellstsHonor de Balzac, Stendhal, Gustave Ilau
bert, Emlle Zolalnscrlbed the dlfferent sclentlflc dls
coverles and bellefs of thelr day lnto thelr wrltlngs.
Jhey belleved that all knowledge was equal, that the
varlous eplstemologlcal systems (whether they be math
ematlcal, blologlcal, llterary, or phllosophlcal) dlffer
slmply ln the forms thelr lnqulrles take. In the end,
however, they all share the same goal. to understand
how the unlverse works. Sully Prudhomme fell lnto thls
same category. Jhrough poetry he trled to come to
terms wlth the human condltlon. He was especlally
drawn to Charles Darwln`s work on evolutlon and
Comte`s wrltlngs on posltlvlsm. Hls frustratlon wlth
poetry, however, occurred at the same tlme that hls
renown had spread across Europe and flnally led hlm to
wrlte hls masterplece, 'Le Znlth" (Jhe Zenlth), flrst
publlshed ln the thlrd volume of i m~~ ~
ln l876. Jhls poem encapsulates Sully Prudhomme`s
poetlc asplratlons and serves as a useful polnt of entry
lnto hls lyrlc ldeology. Although lt was unlversally
pralsed, lt has not been translated and ls dlfflcult to
flnd.
'Le Znlth" ls the flrst of Sully Prudhomme`s
long poems (three hundred llnes, dlvlded lnto flve sec
tlons) and was lnsplred by the lllfated fllght of a hotalr
balloon on l5 Aprll l875. Jwo sclentlsts, Jhodore
Slvel and |oseph CrocSplnelll, and the experlenced
aeronaut Gaston Jlssandler took off from La Vlllette
outslde of Parls ln thelr balloon, i wI prlmarlly to
conduct atmospherlc experlments. Jhey had cobbled
together a devlce to use when they felt falnta breath
lng tube connected to a balloon fllled wlth oxygen. As
they attempted to reach 30,000 feet, they became too
llghtheaded to use the tube and blacked out; only Jls
sandler woke up enough to land the craft after both scl
entlsts had dled from lack of oxygen. Jhe sclentlsts
were burled wlth all the pomp accorded true martyrs,
and Jlssandler publlshed the narratlve of hls adventure
ln i~ o p (Jhe Sclentlflc Revlew) and i~
k~ (Nature), whlch Sully Prudhomme read wlth
great lnterest.
Jhe poem beglns wlth a trlbute to sclence, the
new rellglon, and a hldden forewarnlng of how thls
story wlll end.
Saturne, |uplter, Vnus, nònt plus de prtres.
L`homme a donn les noms de tous ses anclens matres
A des astres qu`ll pse et qu`ll a dcouverts,
Et des dleux le dernler dont le culte demeure,
A son tour menac, tremble que tout a l`heure
Son nom ne serve plus quà nommer lùnlvers.
(Saturn, |uplter, Venus no longer have prlests.
Man has glven the names of hls old masters
Jo stars that he welghs and dlscovered,
And the last god whose cult remalns,
Now menaced, trembles that soon
Hls name wlll only be used to name the unlverse.)
Not only have the Greek gods faded, thelr names used
only to ldentlfy newly dlscovered astral bodles, but
even the |udeoChrlstlan God fears that the same fate
awalts hlm, albelt hls name would deslgnate the entlre
unlverse. But he would no longer hold sway as the one
who created the unlverse or be recognlzed as the belng
who gave exlstence to all llfe through the power to
name. Instead, man has taken over that role. Man now
dlscovers the new worlds and uses hls former gods`
names to refer to them. Jhe lntlmatlon of the tragedy
to come can only be understood when the poem ls read
out loud, ln Irench. Orally, the beglnnlng of the thlrd
llne, 'A des astres" sounds llke 'dsastre" (dlsaster) ln
Irench.
Jhe flrst sectlon of the poem refers to contempo
rary, nlneteenthcentury bellefs concernlng Earth scl
ences and glves the reader a gllmpse lnto the
phllosophlcal qualltles of Sully Prudhomme`s poetry.
_ue l`homme, fler nant, nèst quùn des parasltes
Dùne sphre oublle entre les plus petltes,
Paraslte a son tour des crlns dòr du solell.
(Jhat man, proud nothlngness, ls only one of the parasltes
Of one sphere, forgotten amongst the smallest,
In lts own turn a paraslte of the sun`s golden mane.)
Jhe juxtaposltlon of atoms and parasltes alongslde
golden manes and the heavens, of humanklnd`s exlsten
1l6
p m ai_ PPO
tlal angst adjolnlng the hopefulness and curloslty pro
pelllng the sometlmes traglc quest for knowledgesuch
elements are the essence of Sully Prudhomme`s poetry.
Jhe last two sectlons of thls work pay homage to
the two martyred heroes. Jhey wlll never be forgotten,
but ln part they wlll be remembered thanks to poetry.
Sully Prudhomme remlnds the reader that although he
llved ln a tlme that prlvlleged sclence over art, art ls stlll
necessary and can lndeed help people to understand
and appreclate thelr relentless pursult of truth.
'Le Znlth" ls a masterful example of the ways ln
whlch Sully Prudhomme surprlses the reader by lnter
twlnlng modernlty, prlmarlly through hls use of sclence,
wlth tradltlonal poetlc structures and tropes. Irom the
beglnnlng of hls career through the last of hls poetry
Sully Prudhomme was lnsplred by sclentlflc thought.
'Le RendezVous" (Jhe Meetlng), from the early Ics
Iprcuvcs, speaks of an astronomer who studles the orblts
of planets and stars.
Les mondes fulent parells a des gralnes vannes;
L`pals fourmlllement des nbuleuses lult;
Mals, attentlf a làstre chevel qu`ll sult,
Il le somme, et lul dlt. 'Revlens dans mllle annes."
(Worlds escape just llke wlnnowed seeds;
Jhe thlck swarm of nebulae glow;
But, alert to the wlld star he follows
He summons lt and says, 'Return ln a thousand years.")
In the mld nlneteenth century Lord Rosse ln Ireland,
Chrlstlan Doppler ln Austrla, and Wllllam Hugglns ln
London were studylng nebulae and trylng to ascertaln
how far away they were from Earth ln llght years and
how qulckly they were movlng through space. Sully
Prudhomme would have read about these dlscoverles
and the heated dlscusslons surroundlng them ln the scl
ence journals he recelved. Hls glft was hls ablllty to llnk
sclence and poetry.
After the publlcatlon of 'Le Znlth," Sully Prud
homme was awarded the Vltet Prlze by the Acadmle
Iranalse ln l877. He contlnued to wrlte poetry for the
next ten years, but after l888, aslde from one poem, Io
`ymplc dcs bois dc !crsoillcs (l896, Jhe Nymph of the
Versallles Woods), performed by Sarah Bernhardt for
the Russlan czarlna Alexandra ln October l896, he
wrote only prose, prlmarlly aesthetlc and phllosophlcal
texts. However, Sully Prudhomme`s fame durlng hls
llfetlme and the accolades bestowed upon hlm were ln
celebratlon of hls poetry. Hls essays and monographs
lncludlng IÌxprcssiov dovs lcs bcoux-orts (l883, Expres
slon ln the Arts), Icflcxiovs sur lòrt dcs vcrs (l892, Reflec
tlons on the Art of Verse), _uc sois-jc? (l896, What Do I
Know?), Tcstomcvt poctiquc (l90l, Poetlc Jestament), Ic
Iroblmc dcs couscs fivolcs (l902, Jhe Problem of Ilnal
Causes), Io !roic rcligiov sclov Ioscol (l905, Pascal on
Jrue Rellglon), Io Isyclologic du librc orbitrc (l907, Jhe
Psychology of Iree Wlll), and Ic Iicv sociol (l909, Jhe
Soclal Llnk)were never consldered especlally lnnova
tlve. In l88l he was elected to the Acadmle Iranalse,
where he attended meetlngs alongslde forty other
immortcls, among them Jalne, Alexandre Dumas fils,
Hugo, Louls Pasteur, and Ernest Renan.
Sully Prudhomme`s flnal collectlons of poetry
were qulte varled ln style and quallty. Ic Irismc: Iocsics
divcrscs (l886, Jhe Prlsm. Dlverse Poems) ls made up
malnly of sonnets and other short poems, the majorlty
dedlcated to lndlvlduals. Jhe famed crltlc Rmy de
Gourmont crltlclzed the poems as belng slmply 'plces
de clrconstance" (occaslonal verse), and the great num
ber of dedlcatlons seems to valldate hls oplnlon. But
Sully Prudhomme`s l878 work, Io usticc ( |ustlce), a
bold poem made up of a prologue and eleven sectlons
called 'Vellles" (Watches), each composed of roughly
three hundred llnes and prefaced by the argument to be
debated, contlnues ln the veln for whlch he should be
remembered. It ls a dlalogue between Le Chercheur
(Jhe Seeker), who represents sclence, and La Volx
(Jhe Volce), who stands for the heart. Le Chercheur
attempts to deflne justlce as a comblnatlon of reason
and heart, sclence and art. In the lntroductlon, Sully
Prudhomme wrltes.
|e voudrals montrer que la justlce ne peut sortlr nl de la
sclence seule qul suspecte les lntultlons du cour, nl de
l`lgnorance gnreuse qul s`y fle excluslvement; mals
que làppllcatlon de la justlce requlert la plus dllcate
sympathle pour l`homme, clalre par la plus profonde
connalssance de sa nature; quèlle est, par consquent,
le terme ldal de la sclence troltement unle a làmour.
(I hope to show that justlce can result nelther from scl
ence alone, whlch dlstrusts the heart`s lntultlons, nor
from the generous lgnorance that trusts lt completely.
Instead the appllcatlon of justlce requlres the most dell
cate sympathy for man, enllghtened by the deepest
understandlng of hls nature, and ls, as a result, the ldeal
word for sclence flrmly unlted wlth love.)
Jhe eleven sectlons of the work cover every
aspect of justlce. Ilrst, the poet and Nature dlscuss jus
tlce from purely sclentlflc and ratlonal perspectlves.
Readers learn about the lnjustlces between the specles,
wlth reference to Darwln`s natural selectlon. 'Jout
vlvant nà quùn but. persvrer a vlvre; / . . . Esclave
de ce but qu`ll nèut polnt a cholslr, / Il voue entlre
ment sa force a le poursulvre" (Every llvlng belng has
only one alm. to keep on llvlng; / . . . A slave to thls alm
that he dld not choose, / He devotes all hls force to lts
pursult). Other toplcs lnclude manklnd`s natural selflsh
1l7
ai_ PPO p m
ness and the slmllarltles between these lndlvldual examples
of lnjustlce and those found ln the relatlons between
natlons. Ilnally, the dlaloguers exhaust the ratlonal jus
tlflcatlons (or lack thereof ) for justlce and thus turn to
moral law, whlch ln turn leads nowhere. In the last
three sectlons, ratlonal and moral law, or sclence and
heart, are comblnedand through thls blend, justlce ls
found.
` ~ ~ I
d~ ~ I
n >
b I
^ ~ ~ ~ I
b I >
Ef ~I
d~~ ~ ~ I
q~ ~ >
f ~ ~ ~ ~I
f ~ ~ I ~
I
^ I >F
Jhe optlmlsm and ldeallsm of the flnal sectlon are strlk
lng. It ls subtltled 'La Clt" (Jhe Clty), as urban space
and soclal organlzatlon are seen as the greatest of
human creatlons. 'O Jerre! la Clt, cèst la pulssance
humalne, / Ellte, somme et noeud de tes forces" (O
Earth! the Clty ls human power, / Jhe cream, the sum,
and the crux of your force). Jhe poet palnts a utoplan
vlslon of the world to come, a vlslon of justlce ln whlch
a comblnatlon of sclence and heartfelt morallty lead to
a more just soclety. Once agaln Sully Prudhomme
shows that poetry and sclence are not mutually exclu
slve. Here he goes further than ln hls earller work.
Instead of slmply lncludlng sclentlflc motlfs and vocab
ulary ln hls rhetorlcally pure poems, Sully Prudhomme
seeks to create a new moral law, one that comblnes
both sclence and compasslonate morallty expressed ln
verse.
Sully Prudhomme`s flnal great poetlc work was
publlshed ln l888. Jhe fourthousandllne poem i
_ (Happlness) attempts to do what i~ g dld,
but ln a dlfferent settlng and wlth a dlfferent goal. In
thls last poem, the poet agaln shows that only by com
blnlng posltlve sclence and human consclence wlll true
happlness be establlshed. Llke lts predecessor, thls work
ls structured around a dlalogue, thls tlme between Iaus
tus and Stella, two lovers who have dled and gone to
heaven. But somethlng ls mlsslng ln thelr edenlc home,
namely happlness and an understandlng of human
klnd`s destlny. Jhrough thelr dlalogue they attempt to
dlscover a world where they wlll be happy.
Iaustus revlslts sclence ln hls search for happl
ness. Jhe encyclopedlc collectlon of sclentlsts presented
lncludlng Comte, Irancls Bacon, Ren Descartes,
Gallleo, Archlmedes, Benjamln Iranklln, and |ohn
Dalton, ln no apparent orderseems unusual ln a
poem. Interspersed throughout the poem are chorus
llke lnterjectlons composed of flve or slx stanzas, tltled
'Volx de la terre" (Volces from Earth), whlch palnt a
plcture of humanlty sufferlng below heaven. But Earth
ls where Iaustus and Stella have come from, the world
they know so well, the place where people llve wlth
lnjustlce but contlnue searchlng for the truth. Sully
Prudhomme wrestles wlth the questlon of how under
standlng the world more lntlmately allows people to
llve better llves. He foreshadows a subject that became
prevalent durlng the followlng century. lf sclence ls
allpowerful and can effectlvely account for all eplste
mology, what ls the role of human emotlon and art?
Once agaln he answers thls questlon by posltlng a
comblnatlon of the twosclence and knowledge as
expressed through poetry.
Sclentlflc truth and deeply felt art comblne ln
Sully Prudhomme`s vlslon to come to the rescue of
humanklnd. Jhls ldeallsm lmbued wlth sclence ls what
drew the Nobel commlttee to award hlm thelr flrst llter
ature prlze. Sully Prudhomme demonstrated thls eter
nal optlmlsm when he wrote. 'la sclence est une
excellente gnratrlce dùnanlmlt et par sulte mlnem
ment propre a runlr les hommes dans un sentlment de
confraternlt unlverselle" (sclence ls an excellent gener
ator of unanlmlty and as a result ls perfectly sulted to
unlte men ln a unlversal brotherhood). Yet, he added,
'le sens esthtlque, cèstadlre làptltude a goter
lèxpresslon morale des formes, lnsplre làmour" (the
aesthetlc sense, whlch ls to say the ablllty to appreclate
the moral expresslons of forms, lnsplres love). Sully
Prudhomme devoted hls lyrlc career to these two forces
together. Slnce i _ was hls flnal poetlc work of
any lmport, lt would be pleasant to thlnk of lt as Sully
Prudhomme`s last lyrlc masterplece. In fact, i~ g ls
consldered a much more successful text because the
poet`s formal work ln the poemthe rhyme, rhythm,
and vocabulary he usesreflect the subject matter and
allow the reader a greater appreclatlon of Sully Prud
homme`s lntellectual goals. i~ g also makes clearer
why a llterary prlze establlshed by a sclentlst would be
glven to thls poet, rather than to any one of several
other wrlters actlve at the same tlme.
Although Sully Prudhomme was a favorlte of the
broad readlng publlc and thus halled generally when he
won the Nobel Prlze, the llterary communlty was not
unanlmously supportlve of the Swedlsh Academy`s
declslon. In turnofthecentury Irance there were sev
eral dlfferent llterary camps, each wlth lts own journals
and presses. Jhe two domlnant factlons were the for
mally conservatlve Parnasslans, appreclators of Sully
1l8
p m ai_ PPO
Prudhomme`s poetry, and the advocates of more lnno
vatlve poetry, the postsymbollsts, spearheaded by
Gourmont and other followers of Mallarm and Paul
Verlalne. When the Swedlsh Academy announced that
Sully Prudhomme had been awarded the Nobel Prlze,
the Parnasslan Icvuc dcs potcs lauded the declslon. Con
versely, as Kenneth Cornell notes, Io Mcrcurc dc Irovcc
and other journals that featured malnly symbollst verse
were acerblc ln thelr crltlclsm of the declslon. 'Irony
and satlrlc comment greeted the cholce |of Sully Prud
homme| ln many of the magazlnes however. Remy |slc|
de Gourmont`s acldulous comments ln hls 'Epllogues`
of the Mcrcurc dc Irovcc and Mlthouard`s more overt sar
casms ln IÙccidcvt were among the manlfestatlons of
hostlllty."
At hls death on 6 September l907, slx years after
recelvlng the Nobel Prlze, Sully Prudhomme had not
wrltten any poetry ln twenty years. He dled beloved by
the publlc, albelt ln almost complete lsolatlon and vlrtu
ally paralyzed ln hls home ln ChtenayMalabry out
slde of Parls. Sully Prudhomme had never fully
recovered from hls war lnjurles and was not even well
enough to clalm hls Nobel Prlze ln person; lnstead, a
Irench mlnlster clalmed lt ln hls place. Wlth the money
he recelved from the Nobel commlttee he establlshed a
llterary prlze (no longer awarded) glven to young wrlt
ers, among them Emlle Moussat, Madelelne Delbrl,
and Claude Dervenn.
In l862 Sully Prudhomme had wrltten ln hls
ourvol ivtimc:
Sulsje un pote? Sulsje un phllosophe? |e remercle
Dleu de ne pas màvolr mutll pour falre de mol lùn ou
làutre. La phllosophle me permet de plonger a des pro
fondeurs vertlglneuses, et la posle me permet d`y sen
tlr l`horreur de l`lnflnl et làdmlratlon de la vlvante
nature.
(Am I a poet? Am I a phllosopher? I thank God for not
havlng mutllated me ln order that I be one or the other.
Phllosophy allows me to dlve to vertlglnous depths and
poetry allows me to feel the horror of lnflnlty and
admlratlon for llvlng nature.)
Jhls duallty contrlbuted to hls selectlon for the Nobel
Prlze. Sully Prudhomme was not an lnnovator wlth
respect to llterary form; lnstead, he searched for sclen
tlflc and phllosophlcal knowledge through hls rhetorl
cally tradltlonal poetry. Lndoubtedly durlng hls
llfetlme thls structurally pure poetry, whlch took as lts
subject matter the sclentlflc lnnovatlons of the day, was
astonlshlng. But for the contemporary reader, for
whom these nlneteenthcentury descrlptlons of evolu
tlon and astrophyslcs seem practlcally prehlstorlc, the
Nobel Prlze commlttee`s cholce of Sully Prudhomme
seems bewllderlngly lnnocent. In fact, they chose hlm
preclsely because he wrote lyrlcally about sclence.
What better way to honor the memory of the sclentlst
whose generous bequest made the prlze posslble? More
than one hundred years slnce hls death, the name
Alfred Nobel brlngs to mlnd creatlon, not destructlon;
but ln l90l, merely flve years after Nobel`s death, the
source of the prlze money was stlll fresh ln the publlc`s
mlnd. Bestowlng thls honor upon Sully Prudhomme
brought together sclence and art ln a way that made for
mal Nobel`s deslre to reward those who 'have contrlb
uted most materlally to beneflt manklnd."
fW
Edouard Champlon, Ivtrcticvs ovcc Movsicur Sully Irud-
lommc (Parls. N.p., l902).
_~W
Louls Arnould, 'Sully Prudhomme," Corrcspovdovt (25
|une l902). 5-38;
Plerre Ions, Sully Irudlommc (Parls. E. Sansot, l907);
Edmond Estve, Sully Irudlommc: Iotc scvtimcvtol ct potc
plilosoplc (Parls. Bolvln, l925).
oW
Gunnar Ahlstrm, 'Jhe l90l Prlze," ln `clly Socls,
cov-Ioul Sortrc, Ccorgc crvord Slow, Irovs Icmil
Sillovpoo, Icvc Sully-Irudlommc, Nobel Prlze
Llbrary (New York. A. Gregory, l97l), pp. 357-
358;
Luclen Arreat, òs potcs ct lo pcvscc dc lcur tcmps: Iomov-
tiqucs, porvossicvs, symbolistcs dc crovgcr o Somoiv
Gabrlel dÀubarde, 'Jhe Llfe and Works of Ren
SullyPrudhomme," ln `clly Socls, cov-Ioul Sortrc,
Ccorgc crvord Slow, Irovs Icmil Sillovpoo, Icvc
Sully-Irudlommc, Nobel Prlze Llbrary (New York.
A. Gregory, l97l), pp. 353-356;
Horace R. Austln, 'Jhe Element of Sclence ln the
Poetry of Sully Prudhomme," M.A. thesls, Lnl
verslty of MlssourlColumbla, l928;
|osephMarc Ballbe, 'Jhophlle Gautler et SullyPrudhomme.
L`volutlon du sentlment de la forme," ullctiv dc
lo Socictc Tlcoplilc Couticr, 2l (l999). l05-ll6;
Max I. Baym, 'On Mendlng the Broken Vase. Sully
Prudhomme`s Asplratlon to a Lnlfylng Aes
thetlc," Ircvcl Icvicw, 11 (Wlnter l97l). 29-37;
Constant Coquelln, Uv Iotc plilosoplc: Sully Irudlommc
(Parls. Ollendorff, l882);
Kenneth Cornell, Tlc Iost-Symbolist Icriod: Ircvcl Ioctic
Currcvts, 1900-1920 (New Haven. Yale Lnlverslty
Press, l958);
Burton Ieldman, Tlc òbcl Iric: Z History of Ccvius, Cov-
trovcrsy, ovd Ircstigc (New York. Arcade, 2000);
1l9
ai_ PPO p m
Plerre Ilottes, Sully-Irudlommc ct so pcvscc: Documcvts
ivcdits (Parls. Perrln, l930);
Mlchel Grlmaud, 'Almezvous Sully Prudhomme?
Idologle et expllcatlon de texte," Tcoclivg Iov-
guogc Tlrougl Iitcroturc, 20 (l98l). 3-l6;
Camllle Hmon, Io Ililosoplic dc M. Sully Irudlommc
Barbara |ohnson, 'Jhe Dream of Stone," ln Z `cw His-
tory of Ircvcl Iitcroturc, edlted by Denls Holller
l989), pp. 713-718;
|ules Lematre, 'SullyPrudhomme," ln hls Ics Covtcmpo-
roivs: Itudcs ct portroits littcroircs, volume l (Parls.
Lecne, Oudln, l895), pp. 3l-78;
Gayle A. Levy, 'Le Gnle sclentlflque et le hasard po
tlque," ln Iglcs du gcvrc ct ivvcvtiovs du gcvic, edlted
by Alaln Goldschlger, Yzabelle Martlneau, and
Cllve Jhomson (London, Ont.. Mestengo, l999),
pp. l90-l99;
Levy, Icfigurivg tlc Musc (Bern. Peter Lang, l999);
|ames W. Manns, Icid ovd His Ircvcl Disciplcs: Zcstlctics
ovd Mctoplysics (New York. E. |. Brlll, l991);
Henrl Morlce, IIstlctiquc dc Sully Irudlommc (Vannes.
Lafoyle frres, l920);
Morlce, Iocsic dc Sully Irudlommc (Parls. Plerre Jqul,
l920);
Henrl Polncar, Discours dc Icccptiov lc jcudi 2S jovvicr
1909 (Parls. IlrmanDldot, l909);
Henrl de Rgnler, 'Sully Prudhomme," ln hls òs rcv-
covtrcs (Parls. Mercure de Irance, l93l), pp. 9-l9;
Paul Stapfer, !crs lo vcritc: Sully Irudlommc, Ioscol, lc vou-
vcou clristiovismc (Parls. Llbralrle Ilschbacher,
l909);
Ernst Weber, Sully Irudlommc: Zvolysc dc quclqucs-uvcs dc
scs pocsics (Berlln. A. Haack, l907)X
Ernest Zyromskl, Sully Irudlommc: Iìvflucvcc dc lo scvsibi-
litc romovtiquc, dc lòrt porvossicv dc lo pcvscc dc !igvy.
Ics coroctrcs dc lòuvrc: Ic poysogc ivtcricur, lo mclov-
colic ct lòmour, lo mcditotiov du dcstiv, lìvtcrprctotiov dc
lo voturc ct lo disciplivc dc lo loi (Parls. Armand
Colln, l907).
NVMN k m i~
m~ p
by Corl Dovid of !irscv, Icrmovcvt Sccrctory of tlc Swcdisl
Zcodcmy, ov 10 Dcccmbcr 1901
When Alfred Nobel declded to make the great
donatlon whlch has justly recelved much attentlon, hls
entlre llfe`s work led hlm to favour the study of nature
and to reward dlscoverles ln some of the sclences con
cerned wlth lt. Llkewlse, hls cosmopolltan asplratlons
made hlm an advocate of peace and of the brotherhood
of natlons. In hls wlll he also lncluded llterature,
although he placed lt after the sclences, to whlch he felt
most drawn.
Llterature ls grateful to hlm that lts practltloners
have also been the object of hls sollcltude; one could
argue that lt comes last ln the group of Swedlsh prlzes
for the very sound reason that the supreme flower of
clvlllzatlon, perhaps most beautlful yet also most dell
cate, wlll now bloom on the flrm ground of reallty.
In any event, the laureates recelve ln these floral
trlbutes of modern tlmes a recompense surpasslng ln
materlal value the golden vlolets of a past era.
Jhe award of the Nobel Prlze ln Llterature poses
lts own problems. 'Llterature" ls a very lncluslve term
and the statutes of the Nobel Ioundatlon rlghtly speclfy
that the competltlon must lnclude not only belleslettres
but also works whlch, by thelr form as well as by thelr
exposltlon, have llterary value. But thereby the fleld ls
expanded and the dlfflcultles are compounded. If lt ls
dlfflcult to decldesupposlng that the merlts of the pro
posed authors otherwlse are approxlmately equal
whether the Prlze should be granted to a lyrlc, an eplc,
or a dramatlc poet, the task ls compllcated even more lf
lt becomes a matter of chooslng among an emlnent hls
torlan, a great phllosopher, and a poet of genlus. Jhe
dlmenslons become, as the mathematlclans say, lncom
mensurable. But one may be consoled wlth the thought
that, slnce the Prlze ls an annual one, more than one
wrlter of merlt who has to yleld hls place to another
equally great, may be able to recelve some other year
the award he deserves.
Numerous and excellent recommendatlons for
the llterary Prlze have reached the Swedlsh Academy. It
has submltted them to the most scrupulous examlna
tlon and ln lts cholce among dlfferent names of unlver
sal reputatlon and almost equal llterary lmportance, lt
has declded on one whlch lt belleved should have prlor
lty thls tlme from several polnts of vlew. It has awarded
the flrst Nobel Prlze ln Llterature to the poet and phllos
opher Sully Prudhomme of the Irench Academy.
Sully Prudhomme was born March l6, l839, and
ln l865 emerged as an accompllshed poet ln hls Stovccs
ct Iomcs |Stanzas and Poems|. Jhls volume was fol
lowed by several others of verse, phllosophy, and aes
thetlcs. If the lmaglnatlon of other poets ls prlmarlly
turned outward and reflects the llfe and the world sur
roundlng us, Sully Prudhomme has an lntrovert nature
as sensltlve as lt ls dellcate. Hls poetry ls rarely con
cerned wlth lmages and exterlor sltuatlons as such, but
prlnclpally wlth the extent to whlch they can serve as a
mlrror of poetlc contemplatlon. Jhe love of the splrl
tual, hls doubts, hls sorrows, whlch nothlng earthly can
120
p m ai_ PPO
dlsslpate, are the usual subjects of hls work whlch, ln lts
flnlshed form and sculptural beauty, suffers no useless
word. Hls poetry appears ln exuberant colours and
only rarely takes on the character of melodlous muslc;
but lt ls all the more plastlc ln the creatlon of forms
sulted to expresslng feellngs and ldeas. Noble, pro
foundly penslve, and turned toward sadness, hls soul
reveals ltself ln thls poetry, tender yet not sentlmentala
sorrowful analysls whlch lnsplres a melancholy sympa
thy ln the reader.
Jhrough the charm of hls exqulslte dlctlon and
through hls consummate art, Sully Prudhomme ls one
of the major poets of our tlme, and some of hls poems
are pearls of lmperlshable value. Jhe Swedlsh Academy
has been less attracted by hls dldactlc or abstract poems
than by hls smaller lyrlc composltlons, whlch are full of
feellng and contemplatlon, and whlch charm by thelr
noblllty and dlgnlty and by the extremely rare unlon of
dellcate reflectlon and rlch sentlment.
In concluslon, lt ls necessary to emphaslze one
characterlstlc. Sully Prudhomme`s work reveals an
lnqulrlng and observlng mlnd whlch flnds no rest ln
what passes and whlch, as lt seems lmposslble to hlm to
know more, flnds evldence of man`s supernatural des
tlny ln the moral realm, ln the volce of consclence, and
ln the lofty and undenlable prescrlptlons of duty. Irom
thls polnt of vlew, Sully Prudhomme represents better
than most wrlters what the testator called 'an ldeallstlc
tendency" ln llterature. Jhus the Academy belleved lt
was actlng ln the splrlt of Nobel`s wlll when, for the flrst
tlme lt awarded the Prlze, lt gave lts approval, among so
many lllustrlous men of letters, to Sully Prudhomme.
As the laureate has agreed to accept thls dlstlnc
tlon but ls unfortunately prevented by lllness from
belng ln our mldst today, I have the honour to ask the
Mlnlster of Irance to recelve the Prlze and to present lt
to hlm ln the name of the Swedlsh Academy.
^ ~I `~ a~ ~ t ~
j c~ ~ ~ ~
c ~ I ~ ~
I ~ ~ ~ K Î
~ j c ^~
p I ~ ~
q ~ d
~ o~I Ì
~ s eK q j c~I jK j~~I
~ ~ ~ K
| Jhe Nobel Ioundatlon, l90l.|
12l
t~~ p~
(2 uly 192J - )
g~~ q~
Icvt Stotc Uvivcrsity
See also the Szymborska entrles ln DI 2J2: Twcvtictl-
Ccvtury Iostcrv Iuropcov !ritcrs, Tlird Scrics, and DI
Jcorbool: 1996.
BOOKS. Dlotcgo yjcmy (Warsaw. Czytelnlk, l952);
Iytovio odowovc sobic (Krakw. Wydawnlctwo Llte
rackle, l951);
!oovic do Jcti (Krakw. Wydawnlctwo Llterackle,
l957);
Sol (Warsaw. Pastwowy Instytut Wydawnlczy, l962);
Sto pociccl (Warsaw. Pastwowy Instytut Wydawnlczy,
l967);
!sclli wypodcl (Warsaw. Czytelnlk, l972);
Icltury vodobowilowc (Krakw. Wydawnlctwo Llte
rackle, l973);
!icllo licbo (Warsaw. Czytelnlk, l976);
Icltury vodobowilowc, c. 2 (Krakw. Wydawnlctwo
Llterackle, l98l);
Iudic vo mocic (Warsaw. Czytelnlk, l986);
rackle, l992);
Iovicc i poctcl (Pozna. Wydawnlctwo a5, l993);
rackle, l996);
ycic vo poccloviu: Iclcjo litcrotury crym Iwiotowslim i
Moriovcm Stol (Krakw. Wydawnlctwo Llte
rackle, l996);
Iocto Iitcroclo, cyli, ol osto (lub vic osto) pisorcm
(Krakw. Wydawnlctwo Llterackle, 2000);
òwc lcltury vodobowilowc: 1997-2002 (Krakw.
Wydawnlctwo Llterackle, 2002);
Clwilo (Krakw. Znak, 2002); translated by Stanlsaw
Baraczak and Clare Cavanagh as Clwilo;
Momcvt, blllngual edltlon (Krakw. Znak, 2003);
Iymowovli dlo duycl dicci: wyllcjovlomi outorli
(Krakw. Wydawnlctwo a5, 2003);
Dwulropcl (Krakw. Wydawnlctwo a5, 2005);
mys udiou: !ybor wicrsy (Krakw. Wydawnlctwo
Llterackle, 2006).
b ~ `W !icrsc wybrovc (Warsaw.
Iocjc wybrovc (Warsaw. Ludowa Spdzlelnla
Wydawnlcza, l967);
Iocjc (Warsaw. Pastwowy Instytut Wydawnlczy,
l970);
!ybor pocji (Warsaw. Czytelnlk, l970);
!ybor wicrsy (Warsaw. Pastwowy Instytut
Wydawnlczy, l973);
Torsjus i ivvc wicrsc (Warsaw. Krajowa Agencja
Wydawnlcza, l976);
!iccor outorsli (Warsaw. Anagram, l992);
!icrsc wybrovc (Krakw. Wydawnlctwo a5, 2000);
!icrsc wybrovc: !ydovic vowc roscrovc (Krakw.
Wydawnlctwo a5, 2001).
b bW 'I Am Joo Near," translated by
Czesaw Mlosz; 'Iour ln the Mornlng" and 'Jhe
Women of Rubens," translated by Cellna Wle
nlewska; and 'Starvatlon Camp Near |aslo" and
'Hannah," translated by |an Darowskl, ln Iolisl
!ritivg Todoy, edlted by Wlenlewska (Baltlmore.
Penguln, l967), pp. l38-l12;
Souvds, Icclivgs, Tlouglts: Scvcvty Iocms, translated by
Magnus |. Krynskl and Robert A. Magulre
(Prlnceton, N.|.. Prlnceton Lnlverslty Press,
l98l);
'Portralt of a Woman," 'Lot`s Wlfe," 'In Pralse of My
Slster," 'Homecomlng," 'A Contrlbutlon on Por
nography," 'In Pralse of Dreams," 'Wrong Num
ber," 'Perfect," 'Jheatrlcal Impresslons," 'Jhe
Jerrorlst, He Watches," 'Iuneral," 'Mlracle
Mart," 'People on a Brldge," 'Ltopla," and
'Lnwrltten Poem Revlewed," translated by
Adam Czernlawskl, ln Tlc urvivg Iorcst: Modcrv
Iolisl Ioctry, edlted by Czernlawskl (Newcastle
upon Jyne. Bloodaxe, l988), pp. 89-l01;
Contrlbutlons by Szymborska, ln Zriodvc`s Tlrcod: Iolisl
!omcv Iocts, edlted and translated by Susan
Bassnett and Plotr Kuhlwczak (Boston. Iorest
Books/LNESCO, l988);
Iocjc / Iocms, blllngual edltlon, translated by Krynskl
and Magulre (Krakw. Wydawnlctwo Llterackle,
l989);
122
t~~ p~ ai_ PPO
m ~ _W mI translated by Czernlawskl (Lon
don Boston. Iorest Books, l990);
s ~ d~ p~W p mI translated by
Stanlsaw Baraczak and Clare Cavanagh (New
York. Harcourt Brace, l995); Pollsh verslon pub
llshed as t ~ ~W NMO
(Pozna. Wydawnlctwo a5, l996);
k ~ ~ L k qW p mI blllngual edl
tlon, translated by Baraczak and Cavanagh
(Krakw. Wydawnlctwo Llterackle, l997);
mI k ~ Ì NVRTNVVTI translated by
Baraczak and Cavanagh (New York. Harcourt
Brace, l998);
j~ c~W p m t~~ p~I trans
lated by |oanna Jrzeclak (New York. Norton,
200l);
k o~W m mI translated by Cavanagh
(New York. Harcourt, 2002);
j ~ aW k mI blllngual edltlon, trans
lated by Baraczak and Cavanagh (Orlando, Ila..
Harcourt, 2005).
LNCOLLECJED. 'O co wlcej," t~~I l0 (l915);
'Pokj," t~~I ll/l2 (l915);
'Dzlecl Warszawy" and 'Zaduszkl," ~ h~~I
l9 (l916);
'Mlejsce na pomnlk," a i~I 6 (l918);
'Zwyclstwo," a i~I 21 (l918).
Ior a poet who has llved through tumultuous
tlmes ln a country shaken by World War II, the Holo
caust, decades of Communlst rule, and democratlc tran
sltlon, Wlsawa Szymborska`s llfe has been relatlvely
stald and stable. Irom l932 onward she has reslded ln
Krakw ln southern Poland, travellng lnfrequently and
reluctantly. Yet, nothlng about her poetry ls parochlal.
In fact, hers ls an lncluslve gaze that extends beyond
the local and anthropocentrlc. Western culture, human
klnd, and the natural world are the subjects of moral,
loglcal, and aesthetlc conslderatlon ln her poetry. Szym
borska ls a poet who flnds the extraordlnary ln the ordl
nary, the seemlngly unlmportant and lnslgnlflcant, only
t~~ p~ NVVS k m i~ h `~ usf d~ p Er m~Lp`^kmfuLo~F
123
ai_ PPO t~~ p~
to questlon the crlterla that purport to establlsh lmpor
tance and slgnlflcance. Szymborska ls a poet who ls
read and admlred even by people who do not llke
poetry. Preclse ln dlctlon, playful and elegant, her
poetry presents few barrlers to entry. Several major
themes emerge. the lronles of love, the parochlal human
perspectlve, and the admlrable deslre to transcend lt,
the beauty and bounty of nature, the place of humanlty
ln the chaln of belng, and the human stance toward the
natural world. Art ls another theme that flnds ample
room ln Szymborska`s poetry. She approaches the sub
ject of art wlth a generous dose of lrony. skeptlcal of the
prlvlleged role of the artlst and cognlzant of the lllusory
character of art, she ls nonetheless aware of the capaclty
of art to transport humans beyond the constralnts of
the physlcal world. As she puts lt ln 'Rado plsanla"
(Jhe |oy of Wrltlng), art ls, after all, the 'revenge of the
mortal hand."
Of all the major Pollsh poets of the post-World
War II generatlon, Szymborska ls perhaps the most
sklllfully eluslve of categorlzatlon. Never part of any llt
erary movement, she has no 'protgs," and her lmlta
tors nearly always sllp lnto parody. Varlous crltlcs
and scholars have trled over the years to trace her
poetlc genealogy. Some have polnted out the lnflu
ences of the avantgarde movement ln poems that
lay bare the poetlc devlces at work. Others have
glngerly trled to establlsh a connectlon between
Szymborska and Pollsh women wrlters of the posl
tlvlst era, based on the strong presence of the ratlo
nal element ln her poetry. Stlll others see a klnshlp
wlth the earlytwentlethcentury Pollsh poet Marla
Pawllkowska|asnorzewska, whose late poetry ls preoc
cupled wlth the passlng of the world, human blology,
and the mystery of nature. Jhere ls a certaln concrete
ness to Pawllkowska|asnorzewska`s love poems that
Szymborska`s poetry also shares. Yet, desplte thelr dls
agreements over Szymborska`s lnfluences, on one thlng
the majorlty of scholars and readers agree. Szymborska
ls one of the most lmportant twentlethcentury poets.
Wlsawa Szymborska was born on 2 |uly l923 ln
Krnlk, a small town ln central west Poland, to Anna
Marla Rottermund and Wlncenty Szymborskl. Her
father managed the estate of the Pollsh count Wla
dysaw Zamoyskl ln the Zakopane reglon of the Jatra
Mountalns, an lmportant artlstlc center at the tlme.
Anna Rottermund worked ln the chancellery of
another arlstocrat, Prlnce Kazlmlerz Lubomlrskl. Szym
borskl and Rottermund, twenty years hls junlor, met ln
l9l5 when the chancellery offlce sought refuge on
Zamoyskl`s estate from Prusslan troops. Jhe two mar
rled ln l9l7. A daughter, Nawoja, Wlsawa`s sole slb
llng, was born that same year. In l923 a heart condltlon
necessltated that Szymborskl move to a lower altltude,
promptlng Zamoyskl to transfer hlm to hls estate at
Krnlk. Later that year Wlsawa was born. Lpon
Zamoyskl`s death, Szymborskl retlred, and the famlly
moved to Jorun, where they llved for four years. Hls
early retlrement allowed hlm to spend much tlme wlth
hls famlly, whlch beneflted Wlsawa and her educatlon.
By l932 the famlly had moved to Krakw. An avld
reader of reference books, Szymborskl was partlcularly
passlonate about geography and shared hls love of
encyclopedlas and atlases wlth hls daughter. In l936
Szymborskl succumbed to hls heart condltlon, dylng at
the age of slxtyslx. Wlsawa was thlrteen. Irom Sep
tember l935 untll the outbreak of World War II ln
l939 she attended Glmnazjum Slostr Lrszulanek
(Academy of the Slsters of the Lrsullne Order), a prestl
glous parochlal hlgh school for glrls ln Krakw. When
the Glmnazjum was shut down durlng the German
occupatlon, she attended underground classes, passlng
her flnal exams ln the sprlng of l91l. Durlng the war
she began to wrlte short storles, of whlch she remalned
crltlcal. After the war Szymborska studled Pollsh phllol
ogy and later soclology at the |aglellonlan Lnlverslty ln
Krakw, never completlng a degree.
Szymborska`s poetlc debut, 'Szukam sowa" (I`m
Searchlng for a Word), appeared ln a llterary supple
ment to a m (Jhe Pollsh Dally) ln March
l915. Jhe poem expresses the lnadequacy of language
ln the face of the personal and collectlve experlence of
war. More broadly, many of her poems of thls perlod,
lncludlng 'Pamle o wrzenlu" (Rememberlng Septem
ber, l939), 'Pamle o stycznlu" (Rememberlng |anu
ary), 'Wyjcle z klna" (Leavlng the Clnema), and
'wlat umlellmy kledy na wyrywkl" (We Knew the
World Backwards and Iorwards), glve volce to the
deslre to dlspel the mlrages of collectlve happlness that
arlse ln the enthuslasm followlng the end of war. Jhese
poems and others of thls perlod were publlshed ln
newspapers and perlodlcals, and only a few of them
were ever anthologlzed, generally much later.
Szymborska`s poetlcs durlng thls perlod drew
upon several llterary movements, lncludlng the Pollsh
avantgarde and the Skamandrycl (Skamander forma
tlon). Jhe Skamandrycl was a group of lnterwar poets
of dlverse styles and llterary llneages, who shared a
commltment to democratlzlng and expandlng the range
of poetry and poetlc language, wrltlng such 'low"
poetlc forms as cabaret songs, nursery rhymes, and
commerclal slogans. Llke the Skamander poets, Szym
borska embraces colloqulallsm and ls especlally
lndebted to |ullan Juwlm`s poetlcs of the everyday.
Vojclech Igza polnted to Szymborska`s metaphors of
thls perlod as evocatlve of the avantgarde movement,
the work of |ullan Przybo ln partlcular. Her later
poetry too draws on Przybo ln lts laylng bare of poetlc
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devlces, apparent ln such poems as 'Akrobata" (l967,
Jhe Acrobat).
In l918 Szymborska assembled a collectlon of her
poetry, whlch was to be tltled slmply m (Poems), but
the collectlon never found a publlsher; lts contents
deemed too 'bourgeols" and 'pesslmlstlc," clashlng
wlth the soclallst reallst aesthetlc that was beglnnlng to
take hold. One of her poems, 'Nledzlela w Szkole"
(Sunday at School), sparked a campalgn agalnst her, ln
whlch hlghschool students were prodded to wrlte let
ters of protest. She was accused of wrltlng poetry that
was lnaccesslble to the masses and too preoccupled wlth
the horrors of war. A twoyear poetlc sllence followed.
Compared to the work of her contemporary,
Jadeusz Rewlcz, whose poetry contlnues to be
haunted by World War II and the Holocaust, there ls a
percelved pauclty of poems that treat the toplcs of
World War II and the Holocaust ln Szymborska`s
work. In part thls lack stems from the fact that her l918
collectlon was never publlshed. Some of her later
poems use motlfs from the earller, uncollected ones.
Jwo poems wrltten after the war that concern the sub
ject are set wlthln nlghtmares. '|eszcze" (Stlll), drawlng
on an earller poem, 'Jransport ydw" (Jhe Jransport
of |ews), deplcts the pllght of |ews aboard a traln
headed for the death camps. Jhe blographlcally
grounded 'Sen" (Dream) treats an anxlety ralsed by
never learnlng the clrcumstances surroundlng the death
of a mlsslng lover. Jhese poems were publlshed ln the
collectlons t~ v (l957, Calllng out to Yetl) and
p (l962, Salt) respectlvely.
In Aprll l918, at age twentyfour, Szymborska mar
rled Adam Wodek, a mlnor poet and llterary edltor, and
jolned hlm at the wrlters` complex on Krupnlcza Street ln
Krakw. (Jhe marrlage ended ln dlvorce ln l951.) Krup
nlcza played an lmportant role ln the llterary llfe of Poland
ln the postwar perlod. Iollowlng World War II several
dozen poets, wrlters, and translators shared close quarters
and dlned together at the Krupnlcza complex, lncludlng
Czesaw Mlosz, |erzy Andrzejewskl, poet Artur
Mldzyrzeckl, Maclej Somczyskl (Shakespeare transla
tor and author of crlme novels under the pen name |oe
Alex), poets Konstanty Ildefons Gaczyskl and Anna
Swleszczyska, and the foremost postwar scholar of Pollsh
llterature, Artur Sandauer. Some llved there for a short
perlod of tlme, awaltlng the rebulldlng of Warsaw. Ior
Szymborska and others lt was home for many years. She
left Krupnlcza ln l963 after spendlng more than flfteen
years there.
Szymborska`s book debut came durlng the heyday
of Stallnlsm. In l952 she publlshed her flrst collectlon of
poetry, a~ (What We Llve Ior) and was admlt
ted to the Pollsh Wrlters` Lnlon (ZLP) and the Lnlted
Pollsh Workers Party (PZPR). Jhe onset of a soclallst
reallst aesthetlc changed the course of Pollsh llterature.
When the Communlst Party proclalmed lts lnfalllblllty, lt
backed that clalm through the use of terror and a system
of rewards for those who complled. As party plurallsm
was forclbly ellmlnated, a new llterature arose that served
to lllustrate readymade slogans, culmlnatlng ln formulalc
propaganda. Szymborska was not alone among her con
temporarles ln jolnlng ln the chorus of Communlst apolo
glsts, acceptlng the new codes of speech, and selectlng
toplcs flt for use as propaganda.
Reflectlng an enthuslasm for the soclallst utopla,
her flrst volume and lts successor, m~~ ~~~
(l951, _uestlonlng Oneself ), are domlnated by polltl
cally engaged poetry, wlth lts prescrlbed antlWesternlsm,
antllmperlallsm, antlcapltallsm, and 'struggle for peace."
Crltlcal reactlon to these two collectlons has been var
led. Sandauer judged the poems from these two vol
umes to be nearly lndlstlngulshable from other soclallst
reallst productlons of the tlme. Other revlewers com
mended Szymborska not only for her ldeologlcal cor
rectness but also for her lnventlveness ln expresslng
party doctrlne. Ludwlk Ilashen and Leszek Herdege
pralsed the poems ln these volumes for thelr emotlonal
dlscretlon, preclse aphorlsm, stern economy, and
semantlc and loglcal playfulness, features for whlch her
later poetry was also pralsed. Anna Legeyska calls
Szymborska`s entlre engagement wlth soclallst reallsm a
frultful mlstake that left the poet wlth a sensltlvlty
toward the sufferlng of lndlvldual human belngs and
led her to avold poetlc engagement wlth partlsan poll
tlcs.
Retrospectlvely, Szymborska`s flrst two collec
tlons have ralsed questlons among scholars about
whether her poetlc corpus ls all of a plece, wlth the evo
lutlon of some themes and the extlnctlon of others, or
whether the flrst two collectlons should slmply be
exclsed. Stanlsaw Balbus, author of the flrst
booklength study of Szymborska, sees ln the soclallst
reallst poems, ln addltlon to symptoms of the ldeologl
cal seductlon of a young and passlonate person, traces
of selflrony. Several of these early poems that are not
overtly polltlcal preflgure themes found ln her later
poetry, namely the playful relatlonshlp between the
sexes and humanlty`s questlonable hegemony over
nature.
Irom early l953 Szymborska served as the maln
poetry edltor for the perlodlcal i~ (Llterary
Llfe). She held hlgh standards for the quallty of poetry
ln the journal, sollcltlng poems from the premler class
of Pollsh poets. In l955 she publlshed a serles of
belated debuts by such wrlters as Mlron Blaoszewskl
and Zblgnlew Herbert, wlth commentary by estab
llshed poets and scholars. Jhls run of longoverdue
poetlc debuts was a bellwether of the comlng 'thaw," a
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loosenlng of restrlctlons followlng the death of |oseph
Stalln ln l953 that reached lts helght ln Poland ln l956.
Her l957 volume, t~ vI ls ltself consldered a
llterary event of the Pollsh thaw. Several poems ln the
collectlon reflect Szymborska`s deslre to redeflne the
role of the poet and to reorlent her polltlcal stance.
'Pogrzeb" (Iuneral), orlglnally tltled 'Pogrzeb Laszlo
Rajka" (Jhe Iuneral of Laszlo Rajek), mocks the gro
tesque means used by party reformers to 'correct" the
past. Jhe target ls the reburlal of Laszlo Rajek, a Hun
garlan Communlst sentenced to death ln a l919 show
trlal and rehabllltated posthumously. Censors found the
orlglnal tltle of the poem objectlonable. whlle the thaw
made lt permlsslble to be crltlcal of a general tendency,
to challenge speclflc present practlces was stlll taboo. In
the tltle poem, 'Woanle do Yetl," Aesoplan ln lts glst,
an analogy ls drawn between falth ln the exlstence of a
perfect soclety under Communlsm and falth ln the
exlstence of Yetl. 'Obmylam wlat" (Jhlnklng up the
World) concerns the deslre to better the world by
relmaglnlng lt. In a later poem she couches thls deslre ln
personal terms. 'I prefer myself llklng human belngs /
to myself lovlng humanklnd." t~ v marks a
turn ln Szymborska`s conceptlon of the role of the poet.
she dlstances herself from the demand to speak for oth
ers (the worker, the country, the party), electlng to
speak only ln her own subjectlve volce. t~ v
has been consldered a transltlonal volume, one ln
whlch her baslc themes begln to take shape.
In the early l960s Szymborska started as a col
umnlst at i~ (where she contlnued to work
as a poetry edltor), becomlng a regular contrlbutor of
book revlews. Irom l960 to l968 she served ln another
capacltyas the anonymous coedltor of 'Poczta Llter
acka" (Llterary Mallroom). 'Poczta Llteracka" was a
tonguelncheek llterary workshop ln the form of a
weekly column, replete wlth wltty barbs and muslngs
on poetry and lts craft, as well as advlce for beglnnlng
poets and playful rebukes to graphomanlacs. Jhe col
umn provldes evldence of Szymborska`s own poetlc
ldeals. preclslon ln dlctlon, respect for the dlverslty and
complexlty of the world, loglcal conslstency, and atten
tlon to rhythm and poetlc form. A selectlon of these
replles was publlshed as a book ln 2000. Szymborska
also elected to publlsh serlally ln i~ the jour
nal of her own grandfather Antonl Szymborskl, a flerce
opponent of punctuatlon.
Jhe collectlon that marks Szymborska`s arrlval as
a major poet ls p. Jhls volume sketches out central
themes ln her poetry. the uncertalnty of love, the place
of humanlty ln the chaln of belng, the concern wlth hls
tory, and the openendedness of both the future and the
dlstant, llttleknown past. Jhe dellcate relatlonshlp
between the sexes and real and projected love are the
themes of such poems as 'Chwlla w Jrol" (A Moment
ln Jroy), 'Przy wlnle" (Drlnklng Wlne), and '|estem za
bllsko" (I Am Joo Close). A connectlon has been sug
gested between Szymborska and Pollsh women wrlters
of the posltlvlst era, speclflcally Ellza Orzeszkowa and
Zofla Nakowska, wlth whom Szymborska shares a llt
erary strategy of portraylng the female protagonlst or
poetlc persona wlthdrawlng lnto her own mlcrocosm,
as Grayna Borkowska notes. Man`s place ln the natu
ral order ls examlned ln 'Mapa" (Jhe Monkey) and
'Notatka" (A Note), whlle the lnscrutablllty of nature ls
made concrete ln 'Rozmowa z kamlenem" (Conversa
tlon wlth a Rock). Jhe poems 'Obz godowy pod
|asem" (Starvatlon Camp near |aslo) and 'Sen"
(Dream) hark back to the horrors of World War II.
'Muzeum" (Museum), 'Clochard," (Jramp), 'Swka"
(Word), and 'Elegla podrna" (Jravel Elegy) bear
traces of Szymborska`s travel experlences.
In l967 Szymborska publlshed the collectlon p
(No End of Iun). Wrltlng ln l968 ln the journal
k h (New Books), poet and crltlc Przybo
pralsed thls volume as not only Szymborska`s best but
also the best book of poetry that year, dubblng her the
poetlc helr to Pawllkowska|asnorzewska. Jhe the
matlc lnterests ln the relatlonshlp between the sexes
and the poetlcs of surprlse Szymborska shared wlth
Pawllkowska|asnorzewska caught the attentlon of
other scholars as well. Jhe poetlcs of surprlse and an
erotlc strand also llnk her to Bolesaw Lemlan, the
only poet she acknowledges as havlng had any lnflu
ence on her. p has been halled as the reblrth of
medltatlve poetry, and the revlewers contrasted lt wlth
the morallstlc streak they percelved ln the poetry of
Szymborska`s contemporarles Blaoszewskl, Herbert,
and Rewlcz. Among phllosophlcal lnfluences are the
Irench exlstentlallsts and the m (l670) of Blalse
Pascal, whom she evokes by name ln '|asklnla" (Jhe
Cave). Jwo poems, 'Pejzarz" (Landscape) and 'Moza
jka Blzantyjska" (Byzantlne Mosalc), drew attentlon for
thelr wltty portrayal of palntlngs as psychologlcal nov
els, as dld 'Akrobata" for offerlng a conslllence of
descrlptlon and reflectlon.
In the late l960s there were several major devel
opments ln Szymborska`s llfe. In l966, when the phllos
opher Leszek Koakowskl was expelled from the ranks
of the Communlst Party for hls 'revlslonlst" vlews,
Szymborska, ln an act of solldarlty, rellnqulshed her
own party membershlp. After leavlng the party she was
prodded to reslgn as head of the poetry sectlon at
i~I but she contlnued as a regular contrlbutor of
book revlews composed ln a form and style dlstlnctly
her own. a pagelength paragraph wrltten as lf ln a
slngle breath. Slnce l990 her revlews have appeared
regularly ln Poland`s most promlnent newspaper, d~~
126
t~~ p~ ai_ PPO
!yborco. Wldely appreclated for thelr whlmsy, her
book revlews range over a dlverse 'llterary" land
scapefrom handyman`s howto books to dlctlonarles
of hunter`s jargon to catalogues of cactl to ornlthologl
cal fleld guldes, wlth the occaslonal poetry anthology or
translatlon of Mlchel de Montalgnea thematlc expanslve
ness rlvallng, lf not mlrrorlng, that of her poetry. Her
book revlews have been publlshed under the tltle Icl-
tury vodobowilowc ln several edltlons (ln l973, l98l,
l992, l996, and 2002), each tlme lncludlng a sllghtly
dlfferent selectlon of older revlews, enrlched by new
ones.
Also ln the late l960s Szymborska embarked on
another artlstlc pursult, maklng collages ln the form of
postcards to be malled to frlends. Jhough her favorlte
hobby grew out of a creatlve reactlon to postal censor
shlp, allowlng her playfully to clrcumvent survell
lance by means of lmages, lt contlnues to be a
slgnlflcant creatlve outlet. Her collages were made ln
serles of several dozen, from whlch she would select
one beflttlng the occaslon and the addressee. Maklng
collages was not her flrst foray lnto the vlsual arts.
Durlng World War II she lllustrated a language
book, Iirst Stcps iv Ivglisl, by |an Stanlsawskl, the
author of the standard PollshEngllsh dlctlonary; and
ln l918 she lllustrated a chlldren`s book, Mruccl w
butocl (Puss ln Boots).
Jranslatlons, llke maklng collages, afforded Szymbor
ska an lndlrect means of selfexpresslon that clrcumvented
the censors. Speclallzlng ln Irench poetry, she garnered
pralse for her translatlons of Alfred de Musset and Charles
Baudelalre, as well as flfteenth and seventeenthcentury
poets, lncludlng dÀublgny, Estlenne |odelle, Ollvler de
Magny, Rmy Belleau, Pontus de Jyard, and Jhophlle de
Vlau. Golng agalnst the antlSemltlc currents of l968, Szym
borska translated several poems by Icyk Manger for an
anthology of |ewlsh poetry. Jhose same currents delayed lts
publlcatlon untll l983.
Ior a poet who conslders the trash can her most
lmportant plece of furnlture, the l970s were a rela
tlvely prollflc perlod. Szymborska produced two vol
umes of poetry, both marked by a strong exlstentlallst
streak. Crltlcs of the l972 collectlon !sclli wypodcl
(Any Case) hlghllghted Szymborska`s antlRomantlclsm
and pralsed her for her skeptlclsm and humanlsm, sense
of wonderment, and cool assessment of the llmltatlons
of human cognltlon, and polnted to her sensltlvlty and
lntellectual subtlety. One theme that looms large ln the
volume ls contlngency. Jhe tltle poem treats the contln
gency of human exlstence and survlval agalnst all odds,
whlle 'Przemwlenle w blurze znalezlonych rzeczy" (A
Speech at the Lost and Iound Offlce) and 'Zdumlenle"
(Astonlshment) examlne the contlngent nature of evolu
tlonary sequences. 'Lrodzlny" (Blrthday) laments humans`
llmlted ablllty to take ln the abundance and beauty of
nature, glven the brevlty of human exlstence when
measured agalnst the vastness of cosmlc tlme. Iramed
as a unlversal apology, 'Pod jedn gwlazdk" (Lnder a
Certaln Llttle Star), wlth lts often quoted llne 'My apol
ogles to chance that I call lt necesslty . . . ," closes the
volume and centers on efforts to cope wlth the com
plexlty of exlstence glven human llmltatlons.
Publlshed four years after !sclli wypodcl, Szym
borska`s !icllo licbo (l976, A Large Number) ls brack
eted by poems medltatlng on the lmmense (as ln the
tltle poem) and the small yet lnflnlte (as ln the closlng
poem, 'Pl"). Interpolated between these magnltudes are
the local, mundane, lndlvlduated experlences of every
day llfe. Many of the poems ln the collectlon cast a
skeptlcal eye on man`s assumed prlmacy over nature
and the parochlal human perspectlve ('Wldzlane z
gry" |Seen from Above|), not to mentlon the fallure of
the grand promlse of progress ('Ltopla"). !icllo licbo
was well recelved crltlcally from both thematlc and sty
llstlc standpolnts. Observlng that poems ln thls volume
brldge a gap between the world of large numbers and
the everyday psychologlcal reallty of the lndlvldual,
revlewers pralsed Szymborska for the way she domestl
cates generallzatlon through the use of colloqulallsm
and humor. Polntlng out the dlgnlty wlth whlch the
poems ln thls volume treat the lndlvldual, some revlew
ers slngled out 'ona Lota" (Lot`s Wlfe) as the key
poem of the collectlon, for lt emphaslzes the contact
between the fecundlty of posslblllty and the lndlvldual`s
concrete cholce. In contrast to the blbllcal account ln
Genesls, whlch stresses punlshment, the poem glves
volce to Lot`s wlfe, who offers myrlad posslble rea
sons why she may have looked back on Sodom,
undercuttlng any easy moral. Other portralts of lndl
vlduals ln the volume lnclude the solemn 'Pokj
samobjcy" (Jhe Sulclde`s Room) and playful
'Pochwaa slostry" (In Pralse of My Slster). Szymbo
rska`s humanlsm comes wlthout pathos or grandllo
quence and steers clear of anthropocentrlsm. In
poems such as 'Sonce" (Jhe Sun) and 'Wldzlane z
gry," she rldlcules the hlerarchlcal order that man
has erected and trled to lmpose upon nature. Revlew
ers of !icllo licbo expressed an appreclatlon for the
craft of Szymborska`s poetry ( pseudoprosalc lan
guage, whlch ls enrlched by placlng words ln unusual
comblnatlons) and polnted out that the volume con
sclously manlfests lts connectlon wlth contemporary
llfe. In chooslng the 'partlcularlty" of a glven human
belng, Szymborska does not forget about the world
of large numbers.
Although her sympathles were aroused by the
growlng polltlcal opposltlon ln the l970s, Szymborska
remalned hesltant to adopt the role of spokesperson for
127
ai_ PPO t~~ p~
polltlcal causes, perhaps because of her earller mls
placed trust ln the promlse of soclallsm. Supporter and
sympathlzer rather than organlzer of lnltlatlves, she
added her slgnature to the l978 declaratlon formlng the
Soclety for Scholarly Courses, an lnformal and lnde
pendent academlc soclety. In l980 she recelved the Pol
lsh PEN Club award.
Wlth the emergence of the Solldarlty movement
ln l980, the Soclety and slmllar lnltlatlves found them
selves brlefly freed from earller encumbrances. Szym
borska began her afflllatlon wlth the newly formed
Krakw journal m (Wrltlng), the edltorlal board of
whlch lncluded many of her closest frlends, among
them flctlon wrlter and poet Kornel Illlpowlcz, her
longtlme companlon. Iollowlng the declaratlon of mar
tlal law on l3 December l98l, the composltlon of the
edltorlal board and the overall mlsslon of m wlth
ered as the government lmposed demands on lt. Slml
larly, Szymborska`s thlrtyyear assoclatlon wlth
i~ was termlnated. Lnder martlal law, she chose
to publlsh underground and ln the mlgr press under
the pen name Staczykwna, a femlnlzed derlvatlon
from the name of a slxteenthcentury court jester noted
for hls forthrlghtness.
Although her poems found thelr way lnto a few
adventuresome llterary perlodlcals, the polltlcal cllmate
prevented her from publlshlng a volume of poetry untll
after the end of martlal law, marklng the longest hlatus
between her collectlons. When lt was publlshed, i
~ (l986, People on the Brldge) garnered her
pralse and several awards, lncludlng one from the Mln
lstry of Culture, whlch she decllned, and the Solldarlty
Prlze, whlch she accepted. Jhe thoroughgolng natural
lsm that marked her earller poetry here extends lnto the
realm of the hlstory of manklnd. Clustered ln the mld
dle of the collectlon ls a group of poems that focus on
hlstory, medltatlons on the human condltlon, and the
lessons of the century stlll left unlearned; these poems
lnclude 'Jortury" (Jorture), 'Schyek wleku" (Jhe
Jurn of the Century), and 'Dzlecl epokl" (Chlldren of
Our Era). Wlth thls volume the theme of death
becomes promlnent ln Szymborska`s poetry, as seen ln
'O mlercl bez przesady" (On Death wlthout Exaggera
tlon), 'Dom wlelklego czowleka" (A Great Man`s
House), and 'Pogrzeb" (Iuneral). An antlanthropocen
trlc perspectlve developed ln her earller volumes flnds
expresslon ln 'Wldok z zlarnklem plasku" (Vlew Wlth
a Graln of Sand) and 'Nadmlar" (Surplus). 'Wldok z
zlarnklem plasku" portrays a world flercely lndepen
dent of the categorles that language attempts to folst
upon lt. 'Nadmlar" descrlbes a gatherlng of astrono
mers celebratlng the dlscovery of a 'new" starnew to
humanklnd, that ls. Jhe tltle poem, whlch closes the
volume, alludes to 'Squall at Ohashl," a nlneteenth
century woodcut by Hlroshlge Ltagawa, and draws
attentlon to the subverslve posslbllltles of art, whlch ls
capable of even the flux of tlme.
Szymborska carefully structures each of her col
lectlons; hence, much can be galned by sltuatlng the dls
cusslon of lndlvldual poems wlth respect to the larger
whole of whlch they are a part. Jhls polnt ls especlally
true of her l993 collectlon, h (Jhe End
and Jhe Beglnnlng). At the core of the collectlon lles
the lssue of the futlllty of the human effort to demarcate
ends and beglnnlngs ln a world of temporal and spatlal
contlnulty. earth and sky, death and (after)llfe, war and
peace, human hlstory and natural hlstory, the quotldlan
and the 'slgnlflcant," lndlvldual and collectlve memory,
and the partlcular and the unlversal.
Jhe archltecture of h resembles that
of t~ ~I where medltatlon on the personal ls
bracketed by conslderatlons of the lmmense and
abstract. Jhe openlng poem of the collectlon, 'Nlebo"
(Sky), playfully takes lssue wlth the rellglous world
vlew, whlch separates llfe lnto worldly and other
worldly exlstence. Szymborka trades on two meanlngs
of the word I whlch ln Pollsh deslgnates both sky
and heaven. By exclslng the rellglous connotatlon from
the word, she naturallzes the supernatural. heaven ls
nothlng more than sky, and sky ls nothlng more than
alr, whlch ls everywhere. Jhe tltle poem uses shlftlng
perspectlves to medltate on the fabrlc of hlstory. Even
the most coursealterlng of events qulckly fades from
human memory or ls reclalmed by organlc nature as
hlstory and nature stumble forward. 'Moe by bez
tytuu" (No Jltle Requlred) celebrates the lmportance
of the moment, whlle 'Dnla l6 maja l973 roku" (l6
May l973) laments the moment lost to memory. In
'Rzeczywlsto wymaga" (Reallty Demands), blology
trlumphs over hlstory, leadlng not to nlhlllsm but to an
acceptance of human llmltatlon. And as crltlcs have
remarked, Szymborska explores the llmlts of poetry as
a mode of representatlon ln deplctlng the tenslon
between general hlstory and personal loss as preserved
by lndlvldual memory. h ls also ln part an
elegy to Illlpowlcz, Szymborska`s companlon of
twentythree years, who dled on 28 Iebruary l990.
'Kot w pustym mleszkanlu" (Cat ln an Empty Apart
ment) and 'Poegnanle wldoku" (Partlng wlth a Vlew)
are the most personal poems of the collectlon and llter
ally and flguratlvely occupy the center of the volume.
Desplte Szymborska`s crltlcal acclalm and her
hlgh regard among a large and broad Pollsh readershlp,
the Communlst reglme dld not shower her wlth llterary
prlzes. Most of her slgnlflcant awards came ln the
l990s. In l99l she was honored wlth the Goethe
Award. An honorary doctorate was conferred on her
by the Adam Mlcklewlcz Lnlverslty ln l995, and ln
128
t~~ p~ ai_ PPO
that same year she was presented wlth the Herder
Award. In l996 she agaln recelved the Pollsh PEN
Club llterary award. Later that year she was awarded
the Nobel Prlze ln Llterature.
Szymborska`s recelpt of the Nobel Prlze
sparked a debate ln Poland and even personal attacks
for her early enthuslasm for soclallsm, not because
her poetry was seen as undeservlng of the prlze but
because some felt her wlnnlng the prlze decreased
the llkellhood of lts belng granted to elther Rewlcz
or Herbert. Jhe Nobel commlttee clted her 'for
poetry that wlth lronlc preclslon allows the hlstorlcal
and blologlcal context to come to llght ln fragments
of human reallty."
In her Nobel lecture, the shortest ever glven by
a laureate ln llterature, Szymborska wlth the grace
and wlt characterlstlc of her poetry deflates the role
of the poet, suggestlng that lnsplratlon ls somethlng
accesslble to all. gardeners, teachers, or any lndlvldu
als who pursue thelr work wlth lmaglnatlon, passlon,
and curloslty. Szymborska halls the word 'why" as
'the most lmportant word ln any language on earth,
and probably also ln the languages of other galax
les." She further demands that the poet 'know lt and
use lt adroltly." Jhe slmple admlsslon 'I don`t
know," Szymborska clalms, brlngs wlth lt an attltude
of humlllty, an openness to posslblllty, and an appe
tlte for knowledge, whlch together provlde the spark
requlred for lnsplred work ln any fleld.
Jhe Nobel Prlze left lts mark on Szymborska`s
llfeshe went from belng an lntensely prlvate person
to a publlc flgure, vlgorously pursued by the medla.
Her flrst postNobel collectlonClwilo (translated as
Clwilo; Momcvt, 2003)was publlshed ln 2002, nlne
years after the publlcatlon of Iovicc i poctcl. Nearly
half of the poems ln Clwilo were composed between
l993 and l996 and flrst publlshed ln perlodlcals
shortly after Szymborska won the Nobel Prlze.
Jhose poems are the plllars of the volume, but
tressed by 'Chwlla," the openlng poem, and
'Wszystko" (Everythlng), the poem closlng the vol
ume. 'Chwlla" sets the emotlonal and phllosophlc
tone of the collectlon. a sense of wonderment at the
abundance found ln the slmplest and most obvlous
thlngs, a deslre for permanence ln a llfe conslstlng of
moments, and an awareness that the categorles peo
ple lmpose on nature are only thelr own.
Whereas nearly all of Szymborska`s earller vol
umes, startlng wlth !oovic do Jcti, had met wlth crltlcal
pralse, the scholarly response to Clwilo was not as con
slstently posltlve. Jhe morelukewarm revlewers found
Szymborska employlng her slgnature devlces and
returnlng to themes famlllar from other volumes. con
tlngency ('W zatrzslenlu" |In Abundance|), nature`s
lndlfference to human concerns ('Chmury" |Clouds|
and 'Mllczenle rolln" |Sllence of Plants|), and the
power of poetry to stop tlme (the solemn 'Iotografla z
ll wrzenla" |A Photograph from ll September|). Yet,
even those revlewers pralsed these poems for thelr for
mal mastery and found ln the collectlon some new
themes and stances. antlPlatonlsm ('Platon, czyll dlac
zego" |Plato, Jhat Is Why|) and a longlng for perma
nence ln a human world marked by tlme and death
('Chwlla"). Jo some (Borkowska, Plotr llwlskl) the
strength of the volume lles ln lts gentle, dlscrete sum
monlng of death, ln poems such as 'Negatyw" (Nega
tlve), 'Suchawka" (Recelver), 'Spls" (Llst), 'Przyczynek
do statystykl" (A Word on Statlstlcs), and 'Plerwsza
mlo" (Ilrst Love). Jhe eleglac tones struck revlewers
as noteworthyln these poems the poetlc persona does
not rebel agalnst the blologlcal forces propelllng
humans lnexorably toward death. Rather, she reluctantly
accepts them, taklng solace ln the abundance and beauty
of what has been experlenced ln llfe. 'Wczesna godzlna"
(Early Hour) and 'Notatka" (A Note) are a celebratlon of
a consclous llfe, whlch does not take anythlng for
granted. 'Maa dzlewczynka clga obrus" (A Llttle Glrl
Pulls Off the Jablecloth), both a lyrlcal snapshot and a
phllosophlcal tale, ls a study of a moment of exploratory
joy, wrltten from the polnt of vlew of a chlld.
On the heels of Clwilo came the 2005 volume
Dwulropcl (Colon). In thls collectlon, the poet of the
questlon mark takes as her polnt of departure the
dual stop of the colon, relylng on a mark of punctua
tlon to problematlze notlons of cessatlon and contl
nulty. Jhe symbollc value of punctuatlon lles at the
heart of 'Okropny sen poety" (A Poet`s Jerrlble
Dream), whlch deplcts a nlghtmarlsh scenarloa
world ln whlch no words are wasted; no parentheses
are needed; perlods are omnlpresent; and nelther
poetry nor phllosophy exlsts. Rare for her poetry ls
the selfreferentlal fragment ln the last poem of Dwul-
ropclwhlch opens wlth the phrase, 'Practlcally
every poem / could be tltled 'A Moment.`" Dwulropcl
shares wlth Clwilo the twln motlfs of loss and the
passlng of llfe. Jhe volume concerns ltself wlth the
human subject`s multlple orlentatlons to loss and
explores the range of emotlons evoked ln confrontlng
the lnevltablllty of death, the contlngency of llfe, and
the subtle perplexltles of nonexlstence. Vladlmlr
Nabokov once characterlzed a human llfe as 'a brlef
crack of llght between two eternltles of darkness." In
Dwulropcl, Szymborska ls more concerned wlth pre
natal than postmortem tables turned. 'Nleobecno"
(Absence) contemplates ln a chllllng tone a scenarlo
ln whlch the speaker`s parents have met and marrled
other people and had other offsprlng lnstead of her.
'Moralltet leny" (Sylvan Morallty Jale) contrasts
129
ai_ PPO t~~ p~
the harmony of nature wlth the hostlllty of the
human envlronment. 'Poclecha" (Rellef ) lmaglnes a
Charles Darwln no longer flxated on orlglns but
rather determlned to see that thlngs come to a happy
end. Perhaps the slmplest and strongest poem of the
collectlon, 'ABC," ln a tone of qulet lrony and reslg
natlon, tells of the devastatlon brought by the other
abyss, where llfe ls a hopelessly unflnlshed buslness
to be coped wlth by lmposlng alphabetlc order on lt.
'I wlll never flnd out, / what A. thought of me. /
Whether B. forgave me all the way. / Why C. pre
tended lt was all ok."
What sets Wlsawa Szymborska apart from her
poetlc peers ls her lnslstence on speaklng for no one but
herself. She refuses to wear the cloak of the prophet and
harbors no pretense of changlng the world or local polltl
cal landscape. She wrltes wlth the llberatlon of someone
who has renounced the role of sage, preferrlng lnstead to
play the jester. By subvertlng parochlallsm and anthropo
centrlsm, her poetry affords readers the dlstance to laugh
at themselves. Szymborska has drawn attentlon for her
lrreverence toward the lofty and selflmportant and for her
exaltatlon of the lowly and seemlngly trlvlal. She con
tlnues to restore the llteral meanlng to flguratlve lan
guage ln subtle and arrestlng ways.
_~W
Anna Blkont and |oanna Szczsna, Iomitlowc rupiccic,
pryjociclc i svy !isowy Symborslicj (Warsaw.
Prszynskl l Ska, l997).
oW
|udlth Arlt, ''Plsze, wlec jestemnle bezbronna . . .`. O
Noblu dla Szymborsklej w Nlemczech l w Szwaj
carll," Iolovistylo, 8 (l997). 16l-165;
Eva Badowska, ''My Poet`s |unk`. Wlsawa Szymbor
ska ln Retrospect," Iorvossus: Ioctry iv Icvicw, 28
(2001). l5l-l68;
Stanlsaw Balbus, wiot c wsystlicl strov wioto: U
!isowic Symborslicj (Krakw. Wydawnlctwo Llte
rackle, l996);
Balbus and Dorota Wojda, eds., Iodo cytovio Symbor-
slicj: !ybor tclstow lrytycvycl (Krakw. Znak,
l996);
Edward Balcerzan and Boguslawa Latawlec, 'Poeta l
etykleta," Zrlus, l (l997). l-2;
Anna Blkont and |oanna Szczsna, 'Szymborska
uscllona," Zrlus, 1 (l998). 1-5;
Edyta M. Bojaska, 'Wlsawa Szymborska. Naturallst
and Humanlst," Slovic ovd Iost Iuropcov ourvol,
1l (Summer l997). l99-223;
Grayna Borkowska, 'Szymborska ekscentryczna,"
Tcxty Drugic, 1 (l99l). 15-58;
Bogdana Carpenter, 'Wlsawa Szymborska and the
Importance of the Lnlmportant, ' !orld Iitcroturc
Todoy, 7l (l997). 8-l2;
Jadeusz Chroclelewskl, 'Jrzy grosze w sprawle laurea
tow Nobla," Zlovt, 76 (November 2003). 28-29;
Jomasz CleslakSokolowskl, 'Zdzlwlona, porownujaca
o poznawanlu autorkl Clwili," Dclodo Iitcroclo, 5/
6 (2003). 10-17;
Zenon Iajfer, 'Czas na llberack nagrode nobla?"
Dclodo Iitcroclo, 5/6 (2003). 35-37;
Darek Ioks, 'Wlersze Wlsawy Szymborsklej l system,"
Udro, 2 (l997). 69-7l;
Magorzata |oanna Gabrys, 'Jransatlantlc Dlalogues.
Poetry of Ellzabeth Blshop and Wlsawa Szym
borska," dlssertatlon, Ohlo State Lnlverslty,
2000;
Andrzej Gowaczewskl, 'Bable lata Wlsawy," Mogoyv
Iitcrocli, l (l997). l7-l9;
Barbara |udkowlak, Elbleta Nowlcka, and Barbara
Slenklewlcz, eds., !olo Symborslicj, Poznaskle
Studla Polonlstyczne, Serla Llteracka (Pozna.
WlS, l995);
|ustyna Kostkowska, ''Jo perslstently not know some
thlng lmportant`. Iemlnlst Sclence and the Poetry
of Wlsawa Szymborska," Icmivist Tlcory, 5, no. 2
(2001). l85-203;
Plotr Kowalskl, 'ycle, czyll pene dramaturgll lgraszkl
z banaem," Dclodo Iitcroclo, 5/6 (2003). 26-32;
Roman Kublckl, 'W poszuklwanlu straconego mostu,"
!i, 339 ( |anuary l987). ll5-ll9;
Andrzej Lam, 'Echa baroku w poezjl Wlsawy Szym
borsklej," ycic Iitcroclic, 17 (l987);
Anna Legeyska, !isowo Symborslo (Pozna. Rebls,
l996);
Madellne G. Levlne, Covtcmporory Iolisl Ioctry 192-
197 (Boston. Jwayne, l98l);
Wojclech Llgza, 'Hlstorla naturalna. Wedug Wlsawy
Szymborklej," Dclodo Iitcroclo, 5/6 (2003). l3-
2l;
Llgza, U pocji !isowy Symborslicj (Krakw.
Wydawnlctwo Llterackle, 200l);
Dorota Mazurek, 'Illrt z tajemnlc bytuczyll Szym
borska," Zlccvt, 1 (l996). l1-2l;
Czesaw Mlosz, 'Szymborska. I wlelkl lnkwlzytor,"
Dclodo Iitcroclo, 5/6 (2003). 7-l0;
Iwona Mlslak, 'Zmys Wzroku Wlsawy Szymborklej,"
Iroo, 3 (200l). l19-l56;
òCos, speclal Szymborska lssue, 21 (l996);
Leonard Neuger and Rlkard Wennerholm, eds.,
!isowo SymborsloZ Stocllolm Covfcrcvcc, Moy
2J-24, 2006 (Stockholm. Kungl. Vltterhets
Hlsorle och Antlkvltets Akademlen, 2006);
Iolovistylo, speclal Szymborska lssue, 8 (l997);
Irclodovicc, speclal Szymborska lssue, l0 (2003);
130
t~~ p~ ai_ PPO
Wlesaw Rzonca, 'Dlalektyka nlebaSzymborska l
Norwld," Ircglod Humovistycyvy, 6 (2002). 67-
79;
Artur Sandauer, 'Na przykad Szymborska," ln hls
Iirylo i logilo: !ybor pism lrytycvycl (Warsaw.
Plotr llwlskl, 'Sztuka l zycle," Ics Iublico òvo
(November 2002). 78-80;
Adrlana Szymaska, 'Pomledzy chwll a wszyst
klm," Ircgld Iowscclvy, l2 (2002). 1l0-1l3;
Tclsty Drugic, speclal Szymborska lssue, 1 (l99l);
Radosaw Wlnlewskl, 'Sledem. Llst, ktry mla by
recenzj . . ." Studium, 5/6 (2002/2003). l00-
l06;
Dorota Wojda, Milccvic sowo: U pocji !isowy Symbo-
rslicj (Krakw. Lnlversltas, l996);
Andrzej Zawada, 'Poezja naturalna jak oddychanle,"
òwc Isioli, ll (2002). 10-1l;
Leszek ullskl, 'Lekcja Szymborsklej," Iitcroturo
(l996). 1-6.
NVVS k m i~
m~ p
by irgitto Trotig, Mcmbcr of tlc Swcdisl Zcodcmy (Trovslotcd
from tlc Swcdisl by Iilo Icsscr)
Your Majestles, Your Royal Hlghness, Ladles and Gen
tlemen,
How are we to llve after the adulteratlon,
demlse, and dlslntegratlon of the great utoplas?we
ask ourselves now, looklng toward the year 2000.
How are we to llve after the great dlsllluslonment?
Wlth what means shall we arrlve at values, by what
path reach an authentlc conceptlon of llfe that ls no
longer dlstorted?
'Aesthetlcs ls the mother of ethlcs," Brodsky
says. Or. 'If manklnd`s negatlve potentlal expresses
ltself ln murder, lts posltlve potentlal manlfests ltself
best ln art."
Durlng the long perlod of the ldeologlcal recast
lng of human consclousness, whlch we have just left
behlnd us, some of Pollsh postwar poetry emerged as
a slgn of hope, a sewage treatment plant for mutl
lated and contamlnated languagethus for the llfe of
the mlnd and the perceptlon of llfe as well. In the
mere exlstence of poetlc language, ln the patlent
wordwork of dlstlngulshlng genulne from sham,
false tone from true, an entlre soclety`s purlflcatlon
process functloned and contlnues to functlon slowly,
lnvlslbly, underground.
In Wlsawa Szymborska the Swedlsh Academy
wants to honour a representatlveand a representa
tlve of unusual and unyleldlng purlty and strength
of a poetlc outlook. Of poetry as a response to llfe, a
way of llfe, of the wordwork as thought and respon
slblllty.
Wlsawa Szymborska`s maklng of poems ls the
perfectlon of the wordobject, of the exqulsltely chls
eled thoughtlmageollcgro mo vov troppo, as one of her
poems ls called. But a darkness that ls never dlrectly
touched ls perceptlble, just as the movement of blood
under the skln. Ior Szymborska, as for many other
contemporary Pollsh poets, the startlng polnt ls the
experlence of a catastrophe, the ground cavlng ln
beneath her, the complete collapse of a falth. In lts
place human condltlons break ln wlth thelr lnaccessl
bly shlmmerlng agltatlon, thelr dalllness and pettl
ness, thelr tears and thelr jests, thelr tenderness.
Jhese condltlons demand thelr partlcular language, a
language that makes thlngs relatlve, a language that
methodlcally starts from scratch. Jhe path of lan
guage ls through negatlonthe prerequlslte for belng
able to bulld anew ls to bulld from nothlng. Irom
that polnt a game of roleplaylng beglns, the wonder
ful dramaturgy of the world.
Llfe (I say) I`ve no ldea
what I could compare you to.*
A devotlon to the mystery of surface beglns here
perhaps paradoxlcally, perhaps the necessary llfe
sustalnlng paradoxand becomes one of the many
languages of changlng roles, one of the many caprl
clous harlequln languages of transformatlon and
ldentlflcatlon.
In Szymborska surface ls depth, the path of
negatlon has the effect of a qulet but tremendous
exploslon of belng. 'My ldentlfylng features / are
rapture and despalr." Jhe farther ln one travels
among the clear mlrrors of her language plctures
crystalllne clarlty that ln some way exlsts to lead one
to a flnal enlgmathe more one feels the world`s
obtruslve unamblguousness belng transformed. A
shlmmer of wonder and of partlculars hovers over
the world`s motlonless base of rock, to whom she
glves volce.
'I don`t have a door," says the stone.
I would sum up Wlsawa Szymborska`s undertaklng as
a deeply transformatlve wordwork wlth the state of the
13l
ai_ PPO t~~ p~
world. One that ls best summarlzed ln her own words
ln the poem Discovcry:
I belleve ln the refusal to take part.
I belleve ln the rulned career.
I belleve ln the wasted years of work.
I belleve ln the secret taken to the grave.
Jhese words soar for me beyond all rules
wlthout seeklng support from actual examples.
My falth ls strong, bllnd, and wlthout foundatlon.
Dear Wlsawa Szymborska,
I am happy to convey to you, on behalf of Jhe
Swedlsh Academy, our warmest congratulatlons on the
Nobel Prlze ln Llterature for l996 and to lnvlte you to
recelve the prlze from the hands of Hls Majesty the
Klng.
*Jranslatlons of poems from Wlsawa Szymborska,
!icw witl o Croiv of Sovd: Sclcctcd Iocms, translated by
Stanlsaw Baraczak and Clare Cavanagh (New York.
Harcourt Brace, l995).
p~W _~ p
Symborslo`s spcccl ot tlc òbcl ovquct, 10 Dcccmbcr 1996:
Personne nà de routlne de recevolr le Prlx Nobel.
De mme personne nà de routlne dèn exprlmer sa
reconnalssance. Dans ma langue maternelle, comme
dans chaque langue dàllleurs, ll y a beaucoup de mots
jolls au cholx. Mals ll me semble quà cette occaslon le
mot le plus slmple a le plus de srleux et de sens. Mercl,
dzlkuj, tack.
| Jhe Nobel Ioundatlon, l996. Wlsawa Szymborska
ls the sole author of her speech.|
(Trovslotiov of tlc Ircvcl by Miclocl Ioorc)
No one ls accustomed to recelvlng a Nobel Prlze.
Jherefore no one ls accustomed to expresslng gratltude
for lt. In my natlve tongue, as well as ln every other
tongue, there are many beautlful words from whlch to
choose. But I thlnk that on thls occaslon the slmplest
word ls the most serlous and the most meanlngful.
Mercl, dzlkuj, tack.
m o~W q k m
i~ NVVS
Zcodcmy, J Uctobcr 1996
Wlsawa Szymborska
'for poctry tlot witl irovic prccisiov ollows tlc listoricol ovd bio-
logicol covtcxt to comc to liglt iv frogmcvts of lumov rcolity
Jhe Pollsh poet and crltlc Wlsawa Szymborska ls
73 years old and llves ln Krakw.
Slnce l957when censorshlp had lost lts strangle
hold after the thaw of the prevlous yearshe has pub
llshed a handful of sllm but powerful collectlons of
poems, a few volumes of book revlews and a number of
hlghly esteemed translatlons of earller Irench poetry.
She now dlsclalms the work wlth whlch she made her
dbut ln l952 and lts successor of l951both of them
attempts to conform to soclal reallsm.
A typlcal example of her way of expresslng her
vlewpolnt can be found at the end of the poem 'Jhe
|oy of Wrltlng".
Jhe joy of wrltlng.
Power of preservlng.
Jhe revenge of a mortal hand.
Szymborska`s retrlbutlon takes the form of poetry ln
the full splrlt of the cltatlon for thls prlze. 'Jhere ls no
llfe / that couldn`t be lmmortal / lf only for a moment."
Jhese llnes come from the poem 'On Death, wlthout
Exaggeratlon."
Jhe styllstlc varlety ln her poetry makes lt
extremely dlfflcult to translate, but there nevertheless
exlst a number of works ln other languages, so that the
major part of her poetry ls accesslble to a wlder reader
shlp. An excellent survey ls provlded by the selectlon of
l00 poems translated lnto Engllsh whlch Stanlsaw
Baraczak and Clare Cavanagh have publlshed under
the tltle of !icw witl o Croiv of Sovd (l995). Jhls ranges
from Collivg Uut to Jcti (l957) to Tlc Ivd ovd tlc cgivvivg
(l993). Jhe abomlnable snowman, the Yetl, ln the flrst
of these collectlons arouses strong assoclatlons wlth Sta
lln, whose lsm has dlslllusloned Szymborska. In the
later collectlon, the poet`s ldentlty ls lntroduced wlth
the words 'My ldentlfylng features / are rapture and
despalr."
Wlth her dlstance and commltment, Szymborska
accords full support to her ldea that no questlons are of
132
t~~ p~ ai_ PPO
such slgnlflcance as those that are nalve. Irom thls posl
tlon she presents her poetlc dellberatlons ln a form that
ls fastldlous whlle her reglster, paradoxlcally enough, ls
extenslve, contlnually shlftlng ln every respect. In her
dlscourse there ls a strlklng comblnatlon of esprlt,
lnventlveness and empathy, whlch calls to mlnd both
the Renalssance and the Baroque.
Szymborska`s crltlclsm of clvlllsatlon often flnds
expresslon ln an lrony made more scathlng by lts very
restralnt. 'Jhere ls no such thlng as a selfcrltlcal
jackal." In thls way her muse becomes subverslve ln the
best meanlng of that term.
Jranslatlons vouchsafe us gllmpses of her mas
tery of technlque, even ln rhymed verse. Her dlctlon ls
flnely chlselled and at the same tlme free of mannerlsm.
What lles behlnd thls ls spelt out ln the poem 'Lnder
One Small Star". 'Don`t bear me lll wlll, speech, that I
borrow welghty words, / then labour heavlly so that
they may seem llght." She has been descrlbed as the
Mozart of poetry, not wlthout justlce ln vlew of her
wealth of lnsplratlon and the verltable ease wlth whlch
her words seem to fall lnto place. But, as can be seen
from the quotatlon, there ls also somethlng of the fury
of Beethoven ln her creatlve work.
Anders Bodegrd has translated a selectlon of her
poems lnto Swedlsh, and publlshed them wlth the tltle
of r~ (l989). Jhls volume contrlbutes strongly to
our lmpresslon of her work. Jhe flnal llnes of the poem
'Posslbllltles" reveal yet another of her startlng polnts.
'I would ln fact rather contemplate the posslblllty / that
exlstence could be justlfled."
Earller, Per Arne Bodln and Roger Ijellstrm had
translated a selectlon of poems, ^ (Noth
lng Jwlce, l980). Jhe concludlng antllmage ln the last
stanza of the tltle poem lllumlnates llke a streak of llght
nlng Szymborska`s art.
Wlth smlles and klsses, we prefer
to seek accord beneath our star,
although we`re dlfferent (we concur)
just as two drops of water are.
(Jranslated by S. Baraczak C. Cavanagh)
133
p~W k iI T a NVVS
q m ~ t
Eq~~ m p~~ _~~~ ~ `~ `~~~F
Jhey say the flrst sentence ln any speech ls
always the hardest. Well, that one`s behlnd me, anyway.
But I have a feellng that the sentences to comethe
thlrd, the slxth, the tenth, and so on, up to the flnal
llnewlll be just as hard, slnce I`m supposed to talk
about poetry. I`ve sald very llttle on the subject, next to
nothlng, ln fact. And whenever I have sald anythlng,
I`ve always had the sneaklng susplclon that I`m not
very good at lt. Jhls ls why my lecture wlll be rather
short. All lmperfectlon ls easler to tolerate lf served up
ln small doses.
Contemporary poets are skeptlcal and susplclous
even, or perhaps especlally, about themselves. Jhey
publlcly confess to belng poets only reluctantly, as lf
they were a llttle ashamed of lt. But ln our clamorous
tlmes lt`s much easler to acknowledge your faults, at
least lf they`re attractlvely packaged, than to recognlze
your own merlts, slnce these are hldden deeper and you
never qulte belleve ln them yourself. . . . When fllllng ln
questlonnalres or chattlng wlth strangers, that ls, when
they can`t avold reveallng thelr professlon, poets prefer
to use the general term 'wrlter" or replace 'poet" wlth
the name of whatever job they do ln addltlon to wrlt
lng. Bureaucrats and bus passengers respond wlth a
touch of lncredullty and alarm when they flnd out that
they`re deallng wlth a poet. I suppose phllosophers may
meet wlth a slmllar reactlon. Stlll, they`re ln a better
posltlon, slnce as often as not they can embelllsh thelr
calllng wlth some klnd of scholarly tltle. Professor of
phllosophynow that sounds much more respectable.
But there are no professors of poetry. Jhls would
mean, after all, that poetry ls an occupatlon requlrlng
speclallzed study, regular examlnatlons, theoretlcal
artlcles wlth blbllographles and footnotes attached, and
flnally, ceremonlously conferred dlplomas. And thls
would mean, ln turn, that lt`s not enough to cover pages
wlth even the most exqulslte poems ln order to become
a poet. Jhe cruclal element ls some sllp of paper bear
lng an offlclal stamp. Let us recall that the prlde of Rus
slan poetry, the future Nobel Laureate |oseph Brodsky
was once sentenced to lnternal exlle preclsely on such
grounds. Jhey called hlm 'a paraslte," because he
lacked offlclal certlflcatlon grantlng hlm the rlght to be
a poet. . . .
Several years ago, I had the honor and pleasure of
meetlng Brodsky ln person. And I notlced that, of all
the poets I`ve known, he was the only one who enjoyed
calllng hlmself a poet. He pronounced the word wlthout
lnhlbltlons.
|ust the opposltehe spoke lt wlth deflant free
dom. It seems to me that thls must have been because
he recalled the brutal humlllatlons he had experlenced
ln hls youth.
In more fortunate countrles, where human dlg
nlty lsn`t assaulted so readlly, poets yearn, of course, to
be publlshed, read, and understood, but they do llttle, lf
anythlng, to set themselves above the common herd
and the dally grlnd. And yet lt wasn`t so long ago, ln
thls century`s flrst decades, that poets strove to shock us
wlth thelr extravagant dress and eccentrlc behavlor. But
all thls was merely for the sake of publlc dlsplay. Jhe
moment always came when poets had to close the
doors behlnd them, strlp off thelr mantles, frlpperles,
and other poetlc paraphernalla, and confrontsllently,
patlently awaltlng thelr own selvesthe stlll whlte sheet
of paper. Ior thls ls flnally what really counts.
It`s not accldental that fllm blographles of great
sclentlsts and artlsts are produced ln droves. Jhe more
ambltlous dlrectors seek to reproduce convlnclngly the
creatlve process that led to lmportant sclentlflc dlscover
les or the emergence of a masterplece. And one can
deplct certaln klnds of sclentlflc labor wlth some suc
cess. Laboratorles, sundry lnstruments, elaborate
machlnery brought to llfe. such scenes may hold the
audlence`s lnterest for a whlle. And those moments of
uncertalntywlll the experlment, conducted for the
thousandth tlme wlth some tlny modlflcatlon, flnally
yleld the deslred result?can be qulte dramatlc. Illms
about palnters can be spectacular, as they go about
recreatlng every stage of a famous palntlng`s evolutlon,
from the flrst penclled llne to the flnal brushstroke.
Muslc swells ln fllms about composers. the flrst bars of
the melody that rlngs ln the muslclan`s ears flnally
emerge as a mature work ln symphonlc form. Of course
131
p~W k iI T a NVVS ai_ PPO
thls ls all qulte nalve and doesn`t explaln the strange
mental state popularly known as lnsplratlon, but at least
there`s somethlng to look at and llsten to.
But poets are the worst. Jhelr work ls hopelessly
unphotogenlc. Someone slts at a table or lles on a sofa
whlle starlng motlonless at a wall or celllng. Once ln a
whlle thls person wrltes down seven llnes only to cross
out one of them flfteen mlnutes later, and then another
hour passes, durlng whlch nothlng happens. . . . Who
could stand to watch thls klnd of thlng?
I`ve mentloned lnsplratlon. Contemporary poets
answer evaslvely when asked what lt ls, and lf lt actu
ally exlsts. It`s not that they`ve never known the bless
lng of thls lnner lmpulse. It`s just not easy to explaln
somethlng to someone else that you don`t understand
yourself.
When I`m asked about thls on occaslon, I hedge
the questlon too. But my answer ls thls. lnsplratlon ls
not the excluslve prlvllege of poets or artlsts generally.
Jhere ls, has been, and wlll always be a certaln group
of people whom lnsplratlon vlslts. It`s made up of all
those who`ve consclously chosen thelr calllng and do
thelr job wlth love and lmaglnatlon. It may lnclude doc
tors, teachers, gardenersand I could llst a hundred
more professlons. Jhelr work becomes one contlnuous
adventure as long as they manage to keep dlscoverlng
new challenges ln lt. Dlfflcultles and setbacks never
quell thelr curloslty. A swarm of new questlons emerges
from every problem they solve. Whatever lnsplratlon
ls, lt`s born from a contlnuous 'I don`t know."
Jhere aren`t many such people. Most of the
earth`s lnhabltants work to get by. Jhey work because
they have to. Jhey dldn`t plck thls or that klnd of job
out of passlon; the clrcumstances of thelr llves dld the
chooslng for them. Loveless work, borlng work, work
valued only because others haven`t got even that much,
however loveless and borlngthls ls one of the harshest
human mlserles. And there`s no slgn that comlng centu
rles wlll produce any changes for the better as far as thls
goes.
And so, though I may deny poets thelr monopoly
on lnsplratlon, I stlll place them ln a select group of Ior
tune`s darllngs.
At thls polnt, though, certaln doubts may arlse ln
my audlence. All sorts of torturers, dlctators, fanatlcs,
and demagogues struggllng for power by way of a few
loudly shouted slogans also enjoy thelr jobs, and they
too perform thelr dutles wlth lnventlve fervor. Well,
yes, but they 'know." Jhey know, and whatever they
know ls enough for them once and for all. Jhey don`t
want to flnd out about anythlng else, slnce that mlght
dlmlnlsh thelr arguments` force. And any knowledge
that doesn`t lead to new questlons qulckly dles out. lt
falls to malntaln the temperature requlred for sustalnlng
llfe. In the most extreme cases, cases well known from
anclent and modern hlstory, lt even poses a lethal threat
to soclety.
Jhls ls why I value that llttle phrase 'I don`t
know" so hlghly. It`s small, but lt flles on mlghty
wlngs. It expands our llves to lnclude the spaces
wlthln us as well as those outer expanses ln whlch our
tlny Earth hangs suspended. If Isaac Newton had
never sald to hlmself 'I don`t know," the apples ln hls
llttle orchard mlght have dropped to the ground llke
hallstones and at best he would have stooped to plck
them up and gobble them wlth gusto. Had my com
patrlot Marle SklodowskaCurle never sald to herself 'I
don`t know," she probably would have wound up
teachlng chemlstry at some prlvate hlgh school for
young ladles from good famllles, and would have ended
her days performlng thls otherwlse perfectly respectable
job. But she kept on saylng 'I don`t know," and these
words led her, not just once but twlce, to Stockholm,
where restless, questlng splrlts are occaslonally
rewarded wlth the Nobel Prlze.
Poets, lf they`re genulne, must also keep repeatlng
'I don`t know." Each poem marks an effort to answer
thls statement, but as soon as the flnal perlod hlts the
page, the poet beglns to hesltate, starts to reallze that
thls partlcular answer was pure makeshlft that`s abso
lutely lnadequate to boot. So the poets keep on trylng,
and sooner or later the consecutlve results of thelr self
dlssatlsfactlon are cllpped together wlth a glant paper
cllp by llterary hlstorlans and called thelr 'oeuvre." . . .
I sometlmes dream of sltuatlons that can`t possl
bly come true. I audaclously lmaglne, for example, that
I get a chance to chat wlth the Eccleslastes, the author
of that movlng lament on the vanlty of all human
endeavors. I would bow very deeply before hlm,
because he ls, after all, one of the greatest poets, for me
at least. Jhat done, I would grab hls hand. ''Jhere`s
nothlng new under the sun`. that`s what you wrote,
Eccleslastes. But you yourself were born new under the
sun. And the poem you created ls also new under the
sun, slnce no one wrote lt down before you. And all
your readers are also new under the sun, slnce those
who llved before you couldn`t read your poem. And
that cypress that you`re slttlng under hasn`t been grow
lng slnce the dawn of tlme. It came lnto belng by way of
another cypress slmllar to yours, but not exactly the
same. And Eccleslastes, I`d also llke to ask you what
new thlng under the sun you`re plannlng to work on
now? A further supplement to the thoughts you`ve
already expressed? Or maybe you`re tempted to contra
dlct some of them now? In your earller work you men
tloned joyso what lf lt`s fleetlng? So maybe your new
underthesun poem wlll be about joy? Have you taken
notes yet, do you have drafts? I doubt you`ll say, 'I`ve
135
ai_ PPO p~W k iI T a NVVS
wrltten everythlng down, I`ve got nothlng left to add.`
Jhere`s no poet ln the world who can say thls, least of
all a great poet llke yourself."
Jhe worldwhatever we mlght thlnk when terrl
fled by lts vastness and our own lmpotence, or emblt
tered by lts lndlfference to lndlvldual sufferlng, of
people, anlmals, and perhaps even plants, for why are
we so sure that plants feel no paln; whatever we mlght
thlnk of lts expanses plerced by the rays of stars sur
rounded by planets we`ve just begun to dlscover, plan
ets already dead? stlll dead? we just don`t know;
whatever we mlght thlnk of thls measureless theater to
whlch we`ve got reserved tlckets, but tlckets whose
llfespan ls laughably short, bounded as lt ls by two arbl
trary dates; whatever else we mlght thlnk of thls
worldlt ls astonlshlng.
But 'astonlshlng" ls an eplthet conceallng a log
lcal trap. We`re astonlshed, after all, by thlngs that
devlate from some wellknown and unlversally
acknowledged norm, from an obvlousness we`ve grown
accustomed to. Now the polnt ls, there ls no such obvl
ous world. Our astonlshment exlsts per se and lsn`t
based on comparlson wlth somethlng else.
Granted, ln dally speech, where we don`t stop to
conslder every word, we all use phrases llke 'the ordl
nary world," 'ordlnary llfe," 'the ordlnary course of
events" . . . But ln the language of poetry, where every
word ls welghed, nothlng ls usual or normal. Not a
slngle stone and not a slngle cloud above lt. Not a slngle
day and not a slngle nlght after lt. And above all, not a
slngle exlstence, not anyone`s exlstence ln thls world.
It looks llke poets wlll always have thelr work cut
out for them.
| Jhe Nobel Ioundatlon, l996. Wlsawa Szymborska
136
o~~~ q~
(7 Moy 1S61 - 7 Zugust 1941)
c~ ^~
Uvivcrsity of Dlolo
Jhls entry was updated by Alam from hls Jagore entry
ln DI J2J: Soutl Zsiov !ritcrs iv Ivglisl.
SELECJED BOOKS IN ENGLISH. Citovjoli (Sovg
Uffcrivgs), lntroductlon by Wllllam Butler Yeats
(London. Prlnted at the Chlswlck Press for the
Indla Soclety, l9l2; Boston. Internatlonal Pocket
Llbrary, l9l2; London. Macmlllan, l9l3);
Climpscs of cvgol Iifc: civg Slort Storics from tlc cvgoli of
Iobivdrovotl Togorc, translated by Rajanl Ranjan
Sen (Madras. G. A. Natesan, l9l3);
Tlc Cordcvcr (London. Macmlllan, l9l3; New York.
Macmlllan, l9l3);
Sodlovo: Tlc Icolisotiov of Iifc (London. Macmlllan,
l9l3; New York. Macmlllan, l9l3; Calcutta.
Macmlllan, l920);
Tlc Crcsccvt Moov: Clild-Iocms (London. Macmlllan,
l9l3; New York. Macmlllan, l9l3);
Clitro: Z Iloy iv Uvc Zct (London. Indla Soclety, l9l3;
London. Macmlllan, l9l1; New York. Mac
mlllan, l9l1);
Tlc Iivg of tlc Dorl Clombcr (London. Macmlllan, l9l1;
New York. Macmlllan, l9l1);
Tlc Iost Ufficc: Z Iloy, translated by Devabrata Muker
jea, preface by Yeats (Churchtown, Ireland. Cuala
Press, l9l1; London. Macmlllan, l9l1; New
York. Macmlllan, l9l1);
Iruit-Cotlcrivg (London. Macmlllan, l9l6; New York.
Macmlllan, l9l6; Calcutta. Macmlllan of Indla,
l9l6);
Tlc Huvgry Stovcs ovd Utlcr Storics, translated by Jagore,
C. I. Andrews, Edward |. Jhompson, Panna Lal
Basu, Prabhat Kumar Mukerjl, and Slster Nlve
dlta (London. Macmlllan, l9l6; New York. Mac
mlllan, l9l6);
Stroy irds (New York Joronto. Macmlllan, l9l6;
London. Macmlllan, l9l7);
My Icmivisccvccs, translated by Surendranath Jagore
(New York. Macmlllan, l9l7); republlshed as
Icmivisccvccs (London. Macmlllan, l9l7);
Socrificc ovd Utlcr Iloys (London. Macmlllan, l9l7; New
Tlc Cyclc of Sprivg, translated by Andrews and Nlshl
kanta Sen, translatlon revlsed by Jagore (Lon
don. Macmlllan, l9l7; New York. Macmlllan,
l9l7);
o~~~ q~ E^~ mF
137
ai_ PPO o~~~ q~
k~~ (London. Macmlllan, l9l7; New York. Mac
mlllan, l9l7);
m~W i a ^~ (London. Mac
mlllan, l9l7; New York. Macmlllan, l9l7);
i d ~ ` (London. Macmlllan, l9l8; New
j~ ~ l pI translated by varlous wrlters
(London. Macmlllan, l9l8; New York. Mac
mlllan, l9l8);
p q~ (New York. Macmlllan, l9l8; Cal
cutta. Macmlllan, l915);
q m~ q~I translated by Jagore (Calcutta.
Slmla, Jhacker, Splnk, l9l8); translated by Deb
janl Chatterjee (London. Jagore Centre L.K.,
l993);
q e ~ tI translated by Surendranath
Jagore, translatlon revlsed by Rablndranath
Jagore (London. Macmlllan, l9l9; New York.
Macmlllan, l9l9);
q c (London. Macmlllan, l92l; New York.
Macmlllan, l92l);
d~ f~ (Madras. S. Ganesan, l92l);
q t (London. Macmlllan, l92l; New York. Mac
mlllan, l92l);
q o (New York. Macmlllan, l92l); enlarged
as q q~ (London. Macmlllan,
l929);
`~ r (London. Macmlllan, l922; New York.
Macmlllan, l922);
m q~I edlted by Andrews (Calcutta. Mac
mlllan, l923);
q ` ~ c~I translated by Jhompson (London.
Harrap, l921);
d~I translated by Jagore, translatlon revlsed by
Surendranath Jagore (London. Macmlllan, l921;
Madras. Macmlllan Indla, l968);
q~ `~W i a ^ ~ j~I NVOQ
(Calcutta. VlsvaBharatl BookShop, l925);
o l~W ^ a~~ l ^ (London. Macmlllan,
l925; Madras. Macmlllan Indla, l96l);
_ q ~ l p (London. Macmlllan, l925);
i ~ Î edlted by Anthony X. Soares
(London. Macmlllan, l928; Calcutta. Macmlllan
Indla, l970);
c (New York. Macmlllan, l928);
q q~ _~ _W p b t
o~~~ q~I edlted by Andrews (London.
Macmlllan, l928; New Delhl. Rupa, 2002);
q o j~W _ e i NVPM
(London. Allen Lnwln, l93l);
q ` (London. Allen Lnwln, l93l);
q d _~I translated by Bhabanl Bhattacharya
(London. Allen Lnwln, l932; Bombay. |alco,
l955);
j~~~ C a e~ (Calcutta. Vlsva
Bharatl Bookshop, l932);
` `~W ^ j~ ` e b
v~I translated by Kshltls Roy and Krlshna R.
Krlpalanl (Santlnlketan. Santlnlketan Press,
l91l);
c `~I translated by Surendranath Jagore from
Rablndranath Jagore`s novel `~ ~~~ (Cal
cutta. VlsvaBharatl, l950);
i o~I edlted by Sasadhar Slnha (Calcutta.
VlsuaBharatl, l960);
_W ^ kI translated by Krlpalanl from Jagore`s
novel ` ~ (New Delhl. Sahltya Akademl,
l959; revlsed edltlon, New Delhl. Sahltya Aka
deml, l968);
t a~W q i~ m o~~~ q~I
translated by Auroblndo Bose (London. Murray,
l960).
b ~ `W ` m ~ m~
o~~~ q~I edlted by Amlya Chakra
varty, C. I. Andrews, and Ernest Rhys (London.
Macmlllan, l936; New York. Macmlllan, l937);
^ q~ o~I edlted by Chakravarty (New York.
Macmlllan / Boston. Beacon, l953; London.
Macmlllan, l96l);
q~ r~ j~ (Bombay New York. Asla Pub
llshlng House, l96l; London. Asla Publlshlng
House, l96l);
q e~ ~ l p tI translated by
Chakravarty, Mary Lago, and Jarun Gupta,
edlted by Chakravarty (New York. Amerlcan
Llbrary, l965);
p mI translated by Wllllam Radlce (Harmonds
worth, L.K.. Penguln / New York. Vlklng Pen
guln, l985; revlsed, l987);
f t i v dW p mI translated by Ketakl
Kusharl Dyson (Newcastle upon Jyne, L.K..
Bloodaxe, l99l; New Delhl. LBS Publlshers`
Dlstrlbutors, l992);
p p pI translated by Lago and Krlshna
Dutta (London. Macmlllan, l99l; Calcutta.
Rupa, l99l);
p p pI translated by Radlce (London
New York. Penguln, l99l; revlsed, l991);
k~~I lntroductlon by E. P. Jhompson (Calcutta.
Rupa, l992);
n~I translated by Kalser Haq (Oxford, L.K.. Helne
mann, l993);
q b t o~~~ q~I 3 volumes,
edlted by Slslr Kumar Das (New Delhl. Sahltya
Akademl, l991-l996);
q m lI translated by Dutta and Andrew Robln
son (New York. St. Martln`s Press, l996);
138
o~~~ q~ ai_ PPO
Tlc Iost Ufficc, translated by Radlce, set as a play wlthln
a play by |lll Parvln (London. Jagore Centre
L.K., l996);
Iobivdrovotl Togorc: Zv Zvtlology, edlted by Dutta and
Roblnson (London. Plcador, l997);
Iorticlcs, ottivgs, Sporls: Tlc Collcctcd ricf Iocms of Iobiv-
drovotl Togorc, translated by Radlce (New Delhl.
HarperColllns, 2000; London. Angel, 200l);
Sclcctcd Slort Storics, edlted by Sukanta Chaudhurl,
Sankha Ghosh, and Japobrata Ghosh (New
Delhl Oxford. Oxford Lnlverslty Press, 200l);
Sclcctcd !ritivgs ov Iitcroturc ovd Iovguogc, edlted by
Chaudhurl, Das, and Sankha Ghosh (New Delhl
New York. Oxford Lnlverslty Press, 200l);
Iivol Iocms, edlted and translated by Wendy Barker and
Saranlndanath Jagore (New York. Brazlller,
200l);
Sclcctcd !ritivgs for Clildrcv, edlted by Chaudhurl and
Sankha Ghosh (New Delhl New York. Oxford
Lnlverslty Press, 2002; Oxford. Oxford Lnlver
slty Press, 2002);
Slow Joursclf to My Soul: Z `cw Trovslotiov of Gltanjall,
translated by Brother |ames ( |ames Jalarovlc)
(Notre Dame, Ind.. Sorrln, 2002);
Sclcctcd Iocms, edlted by Chaudhurl and Sankha Ghosh
(New Delhl Oxford. Oxford Lnlverslty Press,
2001).
PLAY PRODLCJION. Tlc Iost Ufficc, translated by
Devabrata Mukhopaddya, Dublln, Abbey Jhe
atre, l9l3.
OJHER. Ratan Devl and Ananda Coomaraswamy,
eds., Tlirty Sovgs from tlc Iovjob ovd Ioslmir, fore
word by Jagore (London. Jhe Authors, l9l3);
Kablr, Uvc Huvdrcd Iocms of Iobir, translated by Jagore
and Evelyn Lnderhlll (London. Indla Soclety,
l9l1); republlshed as Sovgs of Iobir (New York.
Macmlllan, l9l5).
Rablndranath Jagore was the thlrteenth reclplent
of the Nobel Prlze ln Llterature and the flrst Aslan to be
awarded thls prlze. Jagore recelved the prlze as much
for belng representatlve of what Asla had to offer to the
West as for the quallty of hls verse. It ls as lf through
the award the Occldent had declded to connect wlth a
splrltnurturlng Orlent ln a darkenlng world where
armles were clashlng and falth recedlng. Jagore hlmself
seemed to reclprocate on behalf of the East when ln hls
telegram acknowledglng the Nobel Prlze he stressed
'the great understandlng that has brought the dlstant
near and has made a stranger a brother." But thls
understandlng ls, of course, tenuous even ln the best of
tlmes. Indeed, ln a few decades, the Nobel Prlze not
wlthstandlng, Jagore faded from publlc vlew ln the
Engllshspeaklng world. Now, except for those who
take a speclal lnterest ln Indlan llterature, Jagore ls of
lnterest ln England and Amerlca only as a llterary phe
nomenon, as an eplsode ln the annals of taste. And yet,
he was rlchly deservlng of the Nobel Prlze ln Llterature.
In l9l3 the Nobel Prlze, then awarded for 'the
most outstandlng work ln an ldeal dlrectlon" publlshed
durlng the precedlng year, was won by Jagore for
Citovjoli (l9l2), the sllm volume of verse, rendered ln
translatlon as prose poems, that represents a fractlon of
hls llterary output. _ualltatlvely, thls collectlon of
mostly devotlonal poems represents Jagore at hls
poetlc best, but he has excelled ln many forms of
wrltlng. He was not only the greatest poet to have
come out of Bengal but also an extraordlnary wrlter of
flctlon, an exceptlonally versatlle playwrlght, and a
glfted and ploneerlng wrlter of nonflctlon. He was, ln
addltlon, a flrstrate crltlc, an emlnent and lnnovatlve
educatlonlst, an ardent soclal reformer, an orlglnal
thlnker, a mystlc, and also a practlcal and efflclent man
ager of the vast property that he lnherlted. In addltlon,
he was a brllllant lyrlclst and composer wlth thousands
of songs to hls credlt. By all accounts, he was a talented
actor and an accompllshed slnger. When he was almost
ln hls seventles, he suddenly emerged as a major
palnter. Although outslde the subcontlnent he ls at
present known, lf at all, as a lyrlc poet tendlng to medl
tatlve verse, he was a man of exceptlonally broad talent.
Jagore`s grandfather Dwarkanath Jagore was
one of the key flgures of what ls known as the Bengal
renalssance, the flowerlng of Bengall culture around the
mlddle of the nlneteenth century after lts exposure to
Western humanlsm. A fabulously wealthy man, whlch
caused many to call hlm 'Prlnce Dwarkanath, Jagore,"
the grandfather of the poet was steeped ln enllghten
ment values and culture. But because of hls extravagant
llfestyle he left behlnd huge debts. Jagore`s father,
Debendranath, was a rellglous reformer but also a prac
tlcal buslnessman who managed to restore the famlly`s
fortunes. Desplte belng an ascetlc ln rellglon, he was
very broadmlnded and ensured that hls chlldren were
brought up on a dlet of modern subjects as well as tradl
tlonal Indlan learnlng.
Jagore, born ln Calcutta on 7 May l86l, was the
fourteenth of Debendranath`s flfteen chlldren and hls
father`s favorlte. He lmblbed very early hls father`s love
of poetry, muslc, and mystlclsm, as well as hls reformlst
outlook. Several of hls brothers and slsters dlstln
gulshed themselves, elther ln publlc servlce or ln the
arts and culture. Jhe llteratl of Calcutta were welcome
at the Jagore house. amateur theater was performed
there, and progresslve ldeals were taught slde by slde
wlth rellglous educatlon. Western muslc was cultlvated
139
ai_ PPO o~~~ q~
by many of Debendranath`s chlldren along wlth tradl
tlonal Indlan classlcal muslc and poetry.
Rablndranath was a precoclous chlld. He refused
to be hemmed ln by conventlonal schoollng and was
taught mostly by tutors and elders; he read wldely on
hls own. He had begun publlshlng poetry ln perlodlcals
by the tlme he was thlrteen. In l877, when he was slx
teen years old, he went to England for studles but came
back the next year, relleved to escape formal schoollng.
Subsequently, he wrote an amuslng and sharpeyed
account of hls year`s stay and seemed to have no regret
at not havlng a degree to show for the tlme he had
spent overseas. At home, he publlshed hls flrst collec
tlon of verse ln l878, partlclpated ln verse dramas that
he had scrlpted, gave publlc lectures, publlshed book
revlews, and began to compose devotlonal songs for the
Brahmo Samaj, the Hlndu reformlst sect hls father was
dolng so much to promote.
Rablndranath Jagore marrled Mrlnallnl Devl ln
l883, and the couple had flve chlldren He was soon
glven the responslblllty of managlng a few of the fam
lly`s farflung estates, a duty he dlscharged efflclently.
As part of hls work ln managlng the estates, he reslded
for a tlme ln Shajadpur, Pabna, and Shllaldaha ln Kush
tla, two reglons that are now part of Bangladesh. Hls
stay ln Shllaldaha was partlcularly memorable for hlm.
Comlng ln close touch wlth the people and rlvers of
Bangladesh, lts greenery and lts dlstlnctlve seasons,
Jagore was lnsplred to wrlte hls flrst major collectlon of
verse, p~ q~ (q d _~I l932) ln l891. He
was enthralled by what he saw, and the landscape and
people of East Bengal became a perpetual source of joy
and lnsplratlon for hls work.
Irom the l880s to the flrst decade of the twentl
eth century Jagore contlnued to develop rapldly as a
wrlter of Bengall verse. He moved through several
phases at thls tlme. he began as a devotee of beauty,
then turned to sharp soclal and polltlcal crltlclsm, and
then to verse explorlng the manlfestatlons of the splrlt
ln thls world. If he began ln the manner of the late
romantlcs, he soon became a wrlter of reallstlc flctlon
about everyday sltuatlons and people from all spheres
of llfe. Steadlly, hls reputatlon developed ln hls country
as the author of poems, novels, short storles, prose
essays, plays, verse dramas, travelogues, and books for
chlldren.
Jagore had proved to hls fellow Bengalls by the
turn of the century that he was a major force ln thelr llt
erature glven to experlmentatlon; he frequently reln
vented hlmself, creatlng new forms and lntroduclng
new genres and styles to Bengall llterature. It has been
sald that he ls one of the founders of the modern Ben
gall language. He stlrred controversy ln hls country, as
much for hls nonconformlst vlews on lssues such as
educatlon and natlonallsm as for the lnnovatlons he
lntroduced to Bengall verse and prose. Nevertheless, hls
standlng as the leadlng Bengall wrlter seemed to be
conflrmed ln l9ll when he was glven a publlc recep
tlon ln Calcutta on the occaslon of hls flftleth blrthday.
However, the world outslde Bengal stlll knew llttle
about Jagore and the way he was almost slnglehandedly
transformlng the language and llterature of hls natlon.
Some Bengalls resldlng ln England had mentloned hls
work ln thelr Engllsh wrltlngs, and one or two of them
had even attempted translatlons of some of hls verse.
Jhe famous art crltlc Ananda Coomaraswamy had
translated a handful of hls poems ln j o. But
these efforts hardly produced a rlpple ln England.
In l9ll, as the flftyyearold Jagore was about to
vlslt England for the thlrd tlme, he fell lll, and hls trlp
was delayed. In convalescence, he dld not feel strong
enough to compose anythlng new, but thought he had
just enough energy to translate some of the lyrlcs he
had wrltten recently. In a way, he was reactlng to the
translatlons by hls Bengall admlrers ln England. He
consldered the translatlons lnsufflclent and felt that ren
derlng hls poems lnto Engllsh was somethlng he should
undertake hlmself.
When Jagore flnally salled, he completed the task
of translatlng hls verse en route. By the tlme he landed
ln England he had produced a slzable number of
Engllshlanguage verslons of poems he had publlshed
ln the Bengall edltlon of d~~ and a few more from
other recent collectlons of verse. In London, the Engllsh
palnter Slr Wllllam Rothensteln, who knew about the
Jagore famlly and had read a few of hls poems trans
lated by other hands, became enthuslastlc about
Jagore`s own translatlons and declded to lntroduce the
poet to the Engllsh llteratl. On 30 |une l9l2, Jagore
read hls translatlons to a select group that lncluded Ezra
Pound and W. B. Yeats.
Jhe response was overwhelmlng. It was memora
bly artlculated by Yeats ln hls lntroductlon to the flrst
Engllsh llmlted edltlon of d~~ publlshed by Lon
don`s Indla Soclety ln November l9l2.
I have carrled the manuscrlpt of these translatlons
about wlth me for days, readlng lt ln rallway tralns, on
the top of omnlbuses and ln restaurants, and I have
often had to close lt lest some stranger see how much lt
moved me. Jhese lyrlcswhlch are ln the orlglnal . . .
full of subtlety of rhythm, of untranslatable dellcacles
of color, of metrlcal lnventlondlsplay ln thelr thought
a world I dreamed of all my llfe long. Jhe work of a
supreme culture, they yet appear as much the growth
of the common soll as the grass and the rushes.
Ezra Pound wrote ln c oI l8 March
l9l2.
110
o~~~ q~ ai_ PPO
Jhe hundred poems ln the present selectlon are all
songs to slng. Jhe tunes and words are knlt together . . .
Jhe next easlest thlngs to note are the occaslonal
brllllant phrases now llke some pure Hellenlc, ln
'Mornlng wlth the golden basket ln her rlght hand,"
now llke the last sophlstlcatlon of De Gourmont or
Baudelalre.
But beneath and above all ls thls splrlt of curlous
qulet . . . thls sense of a saner stlllness come now to us
ln the mldst of our clangor of mechanlsms . . .
Jhere ls ln hlm the stlllness of nature . . .
Brlefly, I flnd ln these poems a sort of ultlmate com
mon sense, a remlnder of one thlng and of forty thlngs
of whlch we are ever llkely to lose slght ln the confu
slon of our western llfe.
If these poems have a flawI do not admlt that they
havebut lf they have a quallty that wlll put them at a
dlsadvantage wlth the 'general reader," lt ls that they
are too plous.
Yet I have nothlng but plty for the reader who ls
unable to see that thelr plety ls the poetlc plety of
Dante, and that lt ls very beautlful.
Durlng hls stay ln London, Jagore contlnued to
lmpress most Engllsh wrlters and lntellectuals wlth hls
poetry as well as wlth what Rothensteln characterlzed
as hls 'dlgnlty and slmple presence." Ior hls part,
Rothensteln contlnued to promote Jagore as best he
could. When the llmlted edltlon of 750 coples of Citov-
joli publlshed by the Indlan Soclety was sold out, he
persuaded Macmlllan to publlsh the book. Macmlllan
became the publlsher of almost all of Jagore`s Engllsh
wrltlngs for the next flfteen years. Jhe Macmlllan
Citovjoli was publlshed on March l9l3 and was an
lmmedlate bestseller, havlng gone through ten prlnt
lngs by the tlme Jagore was awarded the Nobel Prlze
on November l3 of that year.
Jhe l03 brlef lyrlcs of Citovjoli lmpress the reader
by thelr hlgh serlousness, thelr mystlcal moments, thelr
slncerlty, and thelr slmpllclty. Jhe poems have a muslc
and beauty that survlve the passage lnto Engllsh and
even the occaslonal lnfellcltles of expresslon lnevltable
ln the Engllsh of someone who dld not speak the lan
guage regularly. But there can be no doubt that the phe
nomenal success of Citovjoli mostly resulted from the
lmage of Indlan splrltuallty and calmness that the
poems appeared to artlculate to a wartorn Europe. As
an anonymous revlewer put lt ln the Timcs Iitcrory Sup-
plcmcvt: 'In readlng these poems one feels not that they
are prophetlc of the poetry that mlght be wrltten ln
England lf our poets could attaln to that same harmony
of emotlon and ldea. Jhat dlvorce of rellglon and phl
losophy whlch prevalls among us ls a slgn of our fallure
ln both. . . . As we read hls pleces we seem to be readlng
the Psalms of a Davld ln our tlme." Jhe devotlonal
aspects of the book and lts comblnatlon of poetry, rell
glon, and phllosophy seemed to be just the klnd of
solace many Europeans needed at the tlme.
Jagore salled to Amerlca ln October l9l2 to joln
hls son who was completlng hls studles at the Lnlver
slty of Illlnols. Pound, always lndefatlgable ln promot
lng poetry and poets throughout the West, played a key
role ln lntroduclng Jagore to lnfluentlal llterary people
ln Amerlca. He persuaded Harrlet Monroe to publlsh
slx of Jagore`s poems ln Ioctry. Jagore vlslted her ln
Chlcago ln |anuary l9l3, when she recorded her
lmpresslons of llstenlng to hlm talk. she sald she
thought then that she was 'slttlng at the feet of the Bud
dha." Soon he was lecturlng at the Lnlverslty of Chl
cago and Harvard, among other places, on toplcs such
as anclent Indlan clvlllzatlon and 'the anclent splrlt of
Indla." Hls lectures were much appreclated, and after
ward he was frequently lnvlted to glve lectures ln the
West.
When Jagore returned to London on l1 Aprll
l9l3, he was greeted as a llterary celebrlty. He attended
the staglng of one of hls plays, Tlc Iost Ufficc, at the
Abbey Jheatre ln Dublln, and he enjoyed favorable
revlews ln England of three booksSodlovo, a collectlon
of hls lectures on splrltual themes, and Tlc Cordcvcr and
Tlc Crcsccvt Moov, two new collectlons of verses that he
had hlmself translated. Although the poems ln these
collectlons were not excluslvely on splrltual themes,
Jagore was belng typecast ln the role of a rellglous poet
and a seer. Pound, so often perclplent about poetry, was
one of the few revlewers who saw the dangers of such
stereotyplng. As he polnted out ln hls Irccmov revlew.
Why the good people of the lsland are unable to
honor a flne artlst as such; why they are lncapable, or
apparently lncapable, of devlslng for hls honor any bet
ter devlce than that of wrapplng hls llfe ln cotton wool
and paradlng about wlth the efflgy of a sanctlmonlous
morallst, remalns and wlll remaln for me an unsolvable
mystery. I thlnk what I am trylng to say about these
poems ls that one must read each poem as a whole and
then reconcelve lt as a song, of whlch you have
halfforgotten the chords. You must see them not as you
see stars on a flag, but as you have seen stars ln the
heaven.
On the whole, however, the efforts of Pound,
Yeats, and other poets such as Robert Brldges, J. Sturge
Moore, and Salnt|ohn Pearse, as well as dlstlngulshed
artlsts such as Rothensteln meant that when Jagore
returned to Indla from England ln September l9l3, he
left behlnd a dlstlngulshed group of admlrers who
played a major role ln hls subsequent fame and recep
tlon ln Europe.
11l
ai_ PPO o~~~ q~
In hls capaclty as a fellow of the Royal Soclety,
Moore recommended Jagore to the Swedlsh Academy.
Jhe proposal had apparently taken the selectlon com
mlttee by surprlse. Harald Hjarne, lts chalrman, could
not make up hls mlnd whether Jagore`s verse was
wholly orlglnal or too dependent on the classlcal tradl
tlons of Indla. Jhe frontrunner for the prlze ln l9l3
lnltlally appeared to be Emlle Iaguet, a Irench wrlter.
But the prlze was awarded to Jagore malnly because of
the efforts of the Swedlsh poet Verner von Heldenstam,
who hlmself was named a Nobel laureate three years
later. Heldenstam had read d~~ ln translatlon and
wrote of hls reactlons.
I was deeply moved when I read them and I do not
remember havlng read any lyrlc wrltlng to equal them
durlng the past twenty years or more. Jhey gave me
hours of lntense enjoyment; lt was llke drlnklng the
water of a fresh, clear sprlng. Jhe lntense and lovlng
plety that permeates hls every thought and feellng, the
purlty of heart, the noble and natural subllmlty of hls
style, all comblne to create a whole that has a deep and
rare splrltual beauty. Jhere ls nothlng ln hls work that
ls controverslal and offenslve, nothlng valn, worldly
and petty, and lf ever a poet may be sald to possess the
qualltles that make hlm entltled to a Nobel Prlze, lt ls
he. Now that we have flnally found an ldeal poet of
really great stature, we should not pass hlm over. For
the flrst tlme and perhaps for a long tlme to come, lt
would be vouchsafed to us to dlscover a great name
before lt has appeared ln all the newspapers. If thls ls to
be achleved, we must not tarry and mlss the opportu
nlty by waltlng tlll another year.
Such convlctlon proved overwhelmlng. It only
remalned for Heldenstam to emphaslze that d~~
fulfllled one essentlal condltlon stlpulated by Nobel. the
prlze should be glven for a book publlshed ln the prevl
ous year (a stlpulatlon later broadened to lnclude all of
an author`s works). As Per Hallstrom, another member
of the Selectlon Commlttee, noted. 'What Nobel ln hls
lnnocence belleved that we could do each yearpresent
a new genlus to the worldls somethlng we are now
free to do, for once."
And so the Nobel Prlze for l9l3 was glven to
Jagore, glorlfylng hlm ln most of the Western world for
at least a generatlon. Jagore hlmself recelved the news
on November l1 of the year when he was ln Santlnl
ketan, the school he had set up ln a relatlvely remote
part of West Bengal. Jhe prlze gratlfled Jagore, but the
sensatlon lt created ln Bengal also alarmed hlm; he was
never golng to be out of the publlc eye ln Indla agaln.
Not surprlslngly, the Brltlsh admlnlstratlon ln Indla
responded by maklng Calcutta Lnlverslty confer an
honorary degree on hlm; a few years later, he was made
a knlght of the Brltlsh Emplre.
Jhe trlp to England and Amerlca had been
extremely frultful for Jagore not only because lt
brought hlm the Nobel Prlze and some vltal frlendshlps
but also because lt stlmulated hls lnterest ln world travel
and made hlm opt for an eplthet often applled to hlm
by hls admlrers. 'the unlversal poet." Durlng the next
two decades he crlsscrossed the globe, meetlng old
frlends, maklng new ones, lecturlng, seelng new books
lnto prlnt, ralslng funds for the unlverslty he would
establlsh soon, and respondlng to lnvltatlons from lnstl
tutlons and dlstlngulshed lndlvlduals. Jhe process had
started whereby Jagore the poet became Jagore the
phenomenon untll, perhaps lnevltably, he was remem
bered ln England and Amerlca, lf at all, as only an
Indlan poet of esoterlc appeal.
Jhe Nobel Prlze made Jagore and hls books
lnstantly popular ln the rest of the world. After a
twoyear stay ln Indla he traveled to |apan for three
months ln l9l6. In hls lectures there he cautloned
|apan agalnst uncrltlcal admlratlon of the West and
rapld modernlzatlon, slnce thls would not lead to 'free
dom of mlnd" but 'slavery of taste." He then went
across the Lnlted States on a lecture tour where he was
greeted, on the whole, wlth lmmense enthuslasm. As he
wrote to Monroe. 'I am llke a show llon ln a clrcus
nowI have lost my freedom. . . . However, I shall try
to look cheerful and go on danclng to the tune of your
Amerlcan dollar." Jagore stuck to such an exhaustlng
schedule of lectures because he wanted to ralse money
for hls school ln Santlnlketan. Paradoxlcally, one of the
themes of hls lectures was Western materlallsm. As the
j~ q so caustlcally put lt. he was lntent on
reprlmandlng Amerlcans 'at $700 per scold" whlle
maklng a pltch for funds 'at $700 per plead." However,
the maln focus of hls lectures was natlonallsm, the
excesses of whlch he always decrled.
Jagore returned to Indla ln l9l7 only to wltness
the rlslng tlde of natlonallsm at home, llke that he had
seen ln the warentangled West, and an antllmperlallst
movement ln hlgh gear. He reslgned hls knlghthood on
29 May l9l9 to protest agalnst the lncldent ln the Pun
jab when Brltlsh troops flred on a mob and kllled 100
people. As far as he was concerned, 'Jhe tlme has
come when badges of honor make our shame glarlng ln
the lncongruous context of humlllatlon, and I for my
part wlsh to stand, shorn of all speclal dlstlnctlons, by
the slde of my countrymen who for thelr socalled lnslg
nlflcance are llable to suffer a degradatlon not flt for
human belngs." Now a major flgure ln the movement
for natlonal emanclpatlon, he became close to leaders
such as Mahandas Karamchand Gandhl, though he
always had reservatlons about the vlolent methods
often pursued and the uncrltlcal rejectlon of everythlng
Western by many leaders of the natlonallst movement.
112
o~~~ q~ ai_ PPO
Hls next major project was to set up VlsvaBharatl,
a unlverslty bullt on the foundatlons of hls school at
Santlnlketan. Jhls unlverslty was deslgned to be a cen
ter of learnlng where the best ln Indlan thought could
mlngle wlth the best of Western educatlon and phlloso
phy. Jagore spelled out lts goals clearly. 'VlsvaBharatl
acknowledges Indla`s obllgatlon to offer to others the
hospltallty of her best culture and Indla`s rlght to accept
from others thelr best." VlsvaBharatl began functlon
lng formally on 22 December l9l8. Jhe lnstltutlon
almost lmmedlately began to attract learned men and
women from all over the world.
Jagore traveled to the West agaln ln May l920.
Jhls tlme he was not always recelved warmly ln the
Engllshspeaklng world as he had been before. In
England, hls crltlclsm of warmongerlng ln Europe, hls
rejectlon of hls knlghthood, and crltlclsm of Brltlsh rule
ln Indla seemed to have rankled many. Moreover, chau
vlnlsm was on the rlse everywhere. Wrlters such as
D. H. Lawrence appeared to have reverted to the Jen
nysonlan dlctum of 'Better flfty years of Europe than a
cycle of Cathay." Jhe vltrlollc comment by one of
Lawrence`s close acqualntances, Lady Ottollne Morell,
expressed the resentment of some at hls popularlty and
also partlally accounts for the beglnnlng of the down
turn ln Jagore`s fortune ln England and Amerlca. 'But
thls fraud of looklng to |Indla|thls wretched worshlp
ofJagore attltudels dlsgustlng. 'Better flfty years of
Europe` even as she ls. Buddha worshlp ls completely
decadent and foul nowadays. and lt ~ always only
halfclvlllzed." Jhe Lnlted States seemed lukewarm ln
lts response to the Indlan poet, and the lecture tours he
undertook there toward the end of the year lndlcated
clearly that hls reputatlon ln North Amerlca, too, was
on a downward curve.
Nevertheless, on the Contlnent ltself, Jagore`s
reputatlon held somewhat longer. Promlnent wrlters
such as Romaln Rolland befrlended hlm; emlnent
European poets took over the task of translatlng hls
verse lnto the major European languages; and he lec
tured and attended receptlons ln Parls, Strasbourg,
Geneva, Hamburg, and Copenhagen before arrlvlng ln
Stockholm, where Klng Gustavus V recelved hlm.
Jhen he was back ln Germany, where he was feted ln
Berlln and Munlch by leadlng wrlters and lntellectuals.
Next, he was ln Vlenna and Prague before flnally
returnlng to Indla ln l92l, where he urged Gandhl and
other natlonallst leaders never to abandon the posltlve
aspects of Western learnlng ln thelr zeal for upholdlng
Indlan tradltlons and values. Rolland observed. '|ust as
Goethe ln l8l3 refused to reject Irench clvlllzatlon and
culture, Jagore refuses to banlsh western clvlllzatlon."
Jhe comparlson wlth |ohann Wolfgang von Goethe
appeared lnevltable to many people; Albert Schweltzer,
for example, called hlm 'the Goethe of Indla" as dld the
German sclentlst Arnold Sommerfleld.
Jhe Nobel Prlze boosted the sales of Jagore`s
books already ln prlnt. Jhe many trlps to the West and
what seemed llke an evergrowlng Jagore cult also
meant that there was a demand for more of hls works.
Jhe poet responded to the apparently lnsatlable appe
tlte for hls books ln the West by translatlng extenslvely
from hls Bengall verse ln the next few years.
cJd~ (l9l6), and i d ~ `
(l9l8), for example, are selectlons of Engllsh transla
tlons of hls poetry ln the years followlng the prlze.
Jhese books were accompanled by p~ ~ l
m~ (l9l7) and q ` p (l9l7), two volumes
of translatlons of hls plays; q e p ~ l
p (l9l6) and j~ ~ l p (l9l8), two
anthologles of hls short flctlon; p~ _ (l9l6), a col
lectlon of eplgrams; j o (l9l7), an auto
blography; and publlcatlon of some of hls lectures,
lncludlng k~~ (l9l7), and m~ (l9l7). Mac
mlllan publlshed m q~, an anthology of
poems and songs, ln l923 and ` m ~ m~
o~~~ q~ ln l936.
But Jagore`s reputatlon as a poet ln England
seemed to suffer wlth every new volume of verse that
he publlshed after d~~. Why dld d~~ transla
tlons meet wlth such pralse, and why dld hls subse
quent translatlons fall to lnterest the readlng publlc ln
England and Amerlca? What explalns the decllne ln
Jagore`s reputatlon ln England and Amerlca from the
l920s, although on the Contlnent, especlally ln Ger
many, hls fame contlnued to grow for at least one more
decade?
As was lndlcated earller, the Engllsh d~~ was
concelved ln lelsure. Jhe evldence suggests also that lt
was a volume that had the beneflt of poetlc lnsplratlon.
As Jagore explalns hls posltlon ln a letter, 'I slmply felt
an urge to recapture through the medlum of another
language the feellngs and sentlments whlch had created
such a feast of joy" whlle composlng the Bengall d~J
~ poems. No wonder the emlnent Bengall poetcrltlc
Buddhadeva Bose has called the Engllsh verslon of the
book 'a mlracle of translatlon," the mlracle belng 'not
that so much has survlved," but that 'the poems are
reborn ln the process, |and| the flowers bloom anew on
a forelgn soll." Bose even found 'moments when the
translatlon surpasses the orlglnal," and noted the
advantages to be derlved when a great poet who also
has a good command of the target language sets about
to translate hls own verse, for he has the llcense to take
llbertles denled to other translators.
On the whole, then, the Engllsh d~~ was an
astonlshlng performance from a man who had wrltten
ln a letter only a couple of years after the book had
113
ai_ PPO o~~~ q~
been translated. 'Jhat I cannot wrlte ln Engllsh ls such
a patent fact that I never had even the vanlty to feel
ashamed of lt." Concelved and executed ln haste, the
subsequent volumes of translatlons seemed also tallored
to perpetuate the lmage of Jagore as a seer and a mystlc
poet, even though thls was only one aspect of the man.
Edward Jhompson, perhaps the flrst Engllshman to
have translated hlm from Bengall and the author of
Iobivdrovotl Togorc: Ioct ovd Dromotist, also noted that
the poet had 'avolded hls boldest, strongest poems or
watered |them| down to prettlness." Poem after poem
appeared to be wrltten ln the same style. Readers could
be forglven for thlnklng that Jagore the poet lacked
varlety and lnventlon, both ln theme and technlque.
Bose polnted out other problems wlth the Engllsh
Citovjoli. Ior one thlng, the translated verslons are not
poems and lack the lyrlcal qualltles of the orlglnal that
come from arrangement of sounds, llnes, and stanzas ln
an lntrlcate pattern. Jhe Engllsh collectlon lacks the
muslc of the orlglnal. Also, lts lmages are occaslonally
too flowery and there are qulte a few poetlclsms. On the
other hand, they have become, lnevltably, more prosalc
ln the prose verslons. One can add also that Jagore
uses for hls prose verslons a formal, artlflclal klnd of
Engllsh that has lts own soothlng cadences, but that ls
at a remove from spoken Engllsh, unllke the orlglnal
poems, whlch are qulte ldlomatlc and llght ln move
ment.
Moreover, although the artlflclal prose cadences
of the Engllsh Citovjoli seemed comfortlng ln wartorn,
Edwardlan England, to the next generatlon of readers
who were exposed to modernlst verse, Jagore`s efforts
appeared antlquated. Jhe language, llke the subject
matter, ls far removed from everyday llfe. Yeats had
once champloned Jagore wholeheartedly and had wrlt
ten eloquently ln the lntroductlon to the Engllsh Citov-
joli how stlrred he was by the translatlons. But by l935
Yeats was reglsterlng hls dlsmay at the later Jagore
publlcatlons by dlsmlsslng the contents as 'sentlmen
tal rubblsh" and by declarlng that Jagore 'knows no
Engllsh . . . no Indlan knows Engllsh. Nobody can
wrlte wlth muslc and style ln a language not learned ln
chlldhood and slnce then the language of hls thought."
As even Bose, the most acute of the Bengall crltlcs who
have assessed Jagore`s Engllsh works, has observed ln
Zv Zcrc of Crccv Cross, the books that followed the
Engllsh Citovjoli were 'wrong books, wrongly served."
Jhere were other problems wlth the translatlons
Jagore dld that would not be apparent to anyone who
dld not know the orlglnal Bengall verslons. Jagore con
densed many of the poems ln translatlng them. Some of
them were no more than paraphrases of the orlglnal.
Often they were needlessly truncated, maklng them
appear dlsjolnted and confused.
As Bose remarked ln l918, the translatlons pub
llshed after Citovjoli can only paln anyone who knows
the Bengall poem and make hlm or her wonder. 'why
dld he do these translatlons? And even lf he dld them,
why dld he publlsh them?" And what Jhompson
observes about one of the translatlons'an lnsult to the
orlglnal"could be applled to many of the other transla
tlons. Slslr Kumar Das, the edltor of the threevolume
Tlc Ivglisl !ritivgs of Iobivdrovotl Togorc, makes one fur
ther observatlon that ls relevant. 'What escaped
Jagore`s notlce ln the unlnterrupted flow of productlon
of hls works ln Engllsh was not only the growlng
monotony of style and dlctlon of the translatlons but
also the unlmaglnatlve selectlons and arrangements."
In fact, anyone who ls famlllar wlth Jagore`s
work as a poet wlll know that far from belng monoto
nous, he was a poet of endless varlety and a tlreless
experlmenter. Every volume of hls poetry ls dlstlnctlve
and whether ln form or content he kept developlng
untll the end of hls very long poetlc career. By glvlng
the lmpresslon ln hls Engllsh verse of lack of varlety, he
was therefore mlsrepresentlng hls work ln the worst
posslble manner.
Jagore hlmself seemed to have reallzed by l92l
that he had done hlmself conslderable dlsservlce by
rushlng lnto prlnt and by hls poor cholce of poems. In a
letter sent to Jhompson that year he thus confessed.
'Llke a coward, I avolded all complexltles ln my trans
latlons; as a result they have become emaclated." And
agaln. 'to hlde the gaps ln my translatlons, the cracks ln
them, I gave them some pretty deslgns to glve them the
semblance of wholeness." In another letter to the Ben
gall poet Amlya Chakravarty, Jagore wrote. 'I have
done great lnjustlce to the translatlons. . . . I could be so
careless and lnsolent slmply because they were my own
wrltlngs." But the damage to hls reputatlon had been
done, and lt needed only the publlcatlon of Tlc Collcctcd
Iocms ovd Iloys ln l936 to tarnlsh Jagore`s reputatlon ln
England and Amerlca for generatlons (though Jagore
contlnued to be read by a small but devoted band of
admlrers, as attested by the fact that thls volume never
went out of prlnt; he had, evldently, stlll some attractlon
as tlc Indlan Engllsh poet!). Not only were many of the
translatlons lnslpld and monotonous ln style as well as
content, but also the volume was not even close to
belng representatlve of hls wlde range. Moreover,
Jagore hlmself dld not translate all the poems and plays
ln the collectlon. Ior people who do not know the orlgl
nals, they glve the lmpresslon that he was an Engllsh
poet, slnce nowhere ln the book ls there a statement
that those works are translatlons.
As Jagore`s popularlty ln Engllsh decllned ln the
l920s he attempted far fewer translatlons of hls work.
Among the books he dld translate lnto Engllsh are Tlc
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c (l92l), a collectlon of poems and songs;
q o (l92l, enlarged as q q~ ln
l929); `~ r (l922), an anthology of essays
and lectures; o l~ (l925), a play; and c
(l928), a collectlon of eplgrams. But more often than
not he was now lettlng other people translate hls
works for hlm. After all, he had become lnfected by
wanderlust and would spend a substantlal part of the
decade travellng. In any case, he had become a publlc
flgure, both at home and abroad, unable to cultlvate
the muse, let alone translate hls own work, wlth the
slnglemlndedness he had exhlblted earller. Jhe transla
tors, too, had llttle success ln counterlng the growlng
lndlfference of the Engllshspeaklng world to the Indlan
poet. When W. W. Pearson`s translatlon of Jagore`s
most lmpresslve novel d~ was publlshed ln l921, the
k~~ j termed lt 'an awful book . . . long, turgld,
and meanderlng . . . utterly wlthout the genlus of
Klpllng," although the novel ls an lntrlcate and very
lngenlous lnverslon of h (l90l), tlghtly plotted, and
full of memorable characters lnteractlng lntensely wlth
each other whlle representlng tenslons ln Hlndu rell
glous thought ln Bengal at the turn of the century.
When o l~ was publlshed, q p qJ
~ expressed lts dlspleasure. 'Mr. Jagore ls too serl
ous a wrlter to be suspected of publlshlng absolute
nonsense on purpose, so one must suppose he dld lt by
accldent." Jhe play ls consldered a masterplece ln Ben
gall and ls even now performed to great acclalm regu
larly ln theaters ln West Bengal and Bangladesh.
But lf Jagore`s reputatlon had begun to decllne,
seemlngly lrreverslbly, ln the Engllshspeaklng West, he
contlnued to be welcomed elsewhere ln the world wlth
great enthuslasm. In l921 he toured Chlna. Leonard
Elmhlrst, an Engllsh agrlcultural economlst who
devoted hls llfe to worklng for Jagore`s rural recon
structlon projects and who had accompanled hlm on
the trlp, noted. 'It was not untll he had met wlth the
scholars at Peklng that the Chlnese progresslves sud
denly reallzed how much common ground they shared
wlth Jagore. Llke Dante and Chaucer ln thelr own day
and age, Jagore and |the great Chlnese wrlter| Hu Shlh
were both determlned to use the vernacular of thelr
peoples as the ordlnary medlum for llterary expresslon
rather than some classlcal dlalect that had been the
monopoly of a llmlted group of llteratl." Jagore trav
eled to |apan from Chlna. On thls trlp, he espoused the
cause of Aslan unlty. q `~ p j com
mented on the slgnlflcance of the stance he took on the
lssue. 'Jhere ls on foot an lmportant movement to
establlsh Aslatlc concord through the common culture
of Aslan natlons. . . . It has been accentuated by . . . the
recent vlslt to the Iar East of Rablndranath Jagore,
who preached the doctrlne of ldeallsm opposed to west
ern materlallsm." Illled wlth mlsslonary zeal, he
embarked on another trlp to the Iar East ln l927, when
he vlslted the Malayslan Penlnsula and a few lslands of
Indonesla. In addltlon, he traveled to Ceylon (now Srl
Lanka) thrlce (l922, l928, and l931), and Persla (Iran)
and Iraq ln l932, ln addltlon to the numerous trlps he
undertook to |apan over the years.
Later ln l921, Jagore headed for Peru. En route,
he fell lll, and had to land ln Buenos Alres. Jhere he
was befrlended by the Argentlan publlsher and wrlter,
Vlctorlo Ocampo, and spent three months ln her home
recoverlng from hls lllness. Already recognlzed ln the
Spanlshspeaklng world as a poet of the hlghest stature
because of the translatlons of hls verse by |uan Ramn
|lmnez and Zenobla Camprobl, Jagore became even
better known amongst Hlspanlcs because of hls
extended stay ln thls part of South Amerlca. Phlloso
phers such as |ose Ortega y Gasset analyzed the Jagore
phenomenon, whlle poets such as Gabrlela Mlstral,
Pablo Neruda, and Octavlo Paz acknowledged hlm as a
major lnfluence on thelr work. Hls presence contlnued
to be felt on the Contlnent for the rest of the century.
Wrltlng ln l967, Paz observed how ln Mexlco the
young were stlll readlng Jagore 'wlth the same fervor
wlth whlch thelr grandfathers had, a hundred years
back, read the great romantlc poets." Hls comment,
lncldentally, also reveals Jagore`s afflllatlon wlth
romantlclsm, although late ln hls poetlc career he trans
lated J. S. Ellot and attempted free verse deallng wlth
modern subjects.
Jagore returned from South Amerlca to Indla vla
Italy ln l925, but hls stay was cut short because of lll
health. He returned to the country ln l926 at the lnvlta
tlon of Mussollnl, perhaps the most controverslal of hls
overseas excurslons. Jhe dlctator gave hlm a grand
receptlon and strove to extract the maxlmum publlclty
from the trlp. Jagore was lnltlally lmpressed by the
show, but eventually came to see the extent of fasclst
rule ln the country. Hls good frlend Rolland conflrmed
hls mlsglvlngs afterward when he met Jagore ln Swlt
zerland. Jagore eventually publlshed a letter ln j~J
d~~ stresslng that whlle he had admlred
Mussollnl`s capaclty for organlzatlon, he had come to
see hlm 'essentlally" as a small person.
Irom Swltzerland he embarked on another grand
tour of the Contlnent, vlsltlng twelve European coun
trles ln the process, watchlng productlons of hls plays,
lecturlng and glvlng readlngs, belng feted by royalty
and leadlng lntellectuals and polltlclans, attractlng large
crowds ln most places, and encounterlng translatlons of
hls work throughout Europe. In Berlln, for example,
the lecture he gave at the clty`s largest concert hall had
been sold out very early; Albert Elnsteln had tea wlth
hlm; and the presldent of Germany recelved hlm offl
115
ai_ PPO o~~~ q~
clally. Hls blographers Krlshna Dutta and Andrew Rob
lnson note that by l922 '800,000 coples of Jagore`s
works" had been sold ln Germany alone.
Jhe Indlan poet took two more extended trlps to
the West ln hls llfetlme. Jhe flrst was ln l929 when he
accepted an lnvltatlon to lecture ln Brltlsh Columbla
and talk about 'Jhe Phllosophy of Lelsure" and 'Jhe
Prlnclples of Llterature" to delegates assembled at Can
ada`s Natlonal Councll of Educatlon. He then lectured
at Los Angeles before returnlng to Indla vla |apan. In
l930 he salled for Europe for the last tlme to dellver the
Hlbbert Lectures at Oxford and to be present at the
showlng of hls palntlngs ln Parls. Jhe lectures were sub
sequently publlshed as q o j~ (l93l) and
are a statement of hls essentlally humanlst posltlon.
'We can never go beyond man ln all that we know and
feel." Jhe exhlbltlon of palntlngs ln Parls was, on the
whole, a success, and crltlcs noted the orlglnallty and
expresslve quallty of the work. Jhere he met Andr
Glde, who was one of the many dlstlngulshed wrlters
who chose to translate hls works lnto thelr languages.
Irom Parls he went to Germany where he attended a
clvlc receptlon glven to hlm ln Munlch and then
watched a Passlon Play. Jhe performance evldently
lnsplred hlm to wrlte what ls hls only orlglnal poem
composed ln Engllsh, q ` (l93l), a long narratlve
poem on the comlng of a prophetlc flgure to a
benlghted people.
He was next ln Russla, where he expressed hls
regret at the excesses of Stallnlst rule but also wrote
admlrlngly of the experlments belng conducted at that
tlme to bulld what appeared to be an egalltarlan soclety.
As he explalned ln a book lnsplred by the trlp that has
been translated lnto Engllsh as i o~ (l960).
'Who could be more astonlshed than an unfortunate
Indlan llke myself to see how ln these few years they
have removed the mountaln of lgnorance and helpless
ness?" But that he was almost always a sharpeyed
observer ln hls travels ls also lndlcated ln the caveat he
has about the Communlst experlment. 'Jhey forget
that by enfeebllng the lndlvldual the collectlve belng
cannot be strengthened. If the lndlvldual ls ln shackles,
soclety cannot be free. Jhey have here the dlctatorshlp
of the strong man. Jhe rule of the many by one may
perchance have good results for a tlme, but not for
ever."
Jhls trlp to the West eventually found hlm ln
New York where he was glven a warmer receptlon on
thls occaslon than he had recelved ln the Lnlted States
durlng hls last two trlps. He lectured at Yale and the
New York Hlstorlcal Soclety, attended a clvlc receptlon
at New York, was recelved by Presldent Herbert
Hoover at the Whlte House, partlclpated ln a jolnt
recltal of poetry and dance wlth Ruth St. Dennls, and
was present at exhlbltlons of hls palntlngs ln New York,
Boston, and Washlngton.
In the second half of the l930s, old age, falllng
health, natlonallst turbulence ln Indla that demanded
hls attentlon, and the beglnnlng of the world war put a
stop to Jagore`s lnternatlonal travels. Nevertheless, the
cumulatlve effect of the Nobel Prlze, the lnnumerable
translatlons of hls works lnto most of the major lan
guages of the world, and the many overseas trlps he
took untll he was ln hls seventles meant that he was
constantly ln the llmellght ln most of the world. Jrue, ln
the Engllshspeaklng West hls reputatlon had been
affected adversely by a changlng cllmate of taste and
lndlfferent translatlons, but at hls death on 7 August
l91l he had achleved what the contemporary
IndlanAmerlcan wrlter Plco Iyer sees as a unlque posl
tlon. he had become 'not just the world`s leadlng sym
bol of Indla, but Indla`s leadlng spokesman for the
world." Iyer, an lndefatlgable world traveler hlmself,
wrote 'Around the World Wlth Jagore" where he
reveals how the poet had gulded hlm ln hls travels over
the years llke an 'unacknowledged grandfather," as
Iyer moved from Asla to South Amerlca to Afrlca,
although ln England and Amerlca he had 'never heard
much about Jagore. hls poems had been too easlly
wrltten off ln terms of thelr tlme, or drowned out by the
louder Indlan volces of today." But hls travels outslde
these reglons, Iyer declares, revealed to hlm that
Jagore`s popularlty elsewhere was evldence 'that hls
verses, llke folk songs, or mnemonlcs of a klnd, |were|
speaklng to people at some level deeper than mere clr
cumstance. And llke only a few other wrlters of the cen
turyYeats or Stelnbeck or Hesse, perhapshe seemed
to glve volce to feellngs that could be translated lnto
any tongue or falth."
But what ls Jagore`s real achlevement as a wrlter?
Jo Bengalls, assesslng the poet`s worth was never a
problem. Indeed, hls stature contlnues to lncrease ln
West Bengal and Bangladesh wlth every passlng year.
Almost slnglehandedly, he transformed Bengall lltera
ture and enrlched lts culture; he always sought lnsplra
tlon from what he had descrlbed as hls 'golden
Bengal." Ior thelr part, Bengalls contlnue to flnd ln hlm
an endless source of lnsplratlon. Hls poems, hls plays,
hls songs, and hls storles have become part of the llves
of the people of the Indlan subcontlnent. It ls, surely, no
colncldence that he ls not only the author of the
natlonal anthem of Bangladesh but also that of Indla.
Jhe Engllshspeaklng world had all of Jagore`s
own translatlons and the translatlons he had overseen
ln hls llfetlme made avallable ln l911-l996 when q
b t o~~~ q~ was publlshed ln
three volumes. Ilve volumes of q l q~ q~J
~ were publlshed by 2006, and many other compe
116
o~~~ q~ ai_ PPO
tent translatlons have been publlshed slnce the l980s.
Iresh attempts can now be made to understand
Jagore`s slgnlflcance ln our tlme and to assess hls con
trlbutlon to world llterature, although the translatlons,
taken together, stlll represent only part of hls work.
Jo take the case of hls verse, even though the
world has consldered hlm prlmarlly as a poet devoted
almost excluslvely to splrltual themes, that vlew ls
based on a selectlon of hls poetry that ls not lndlcatlve
of the varlety of hls poems and thelr depth and rele
vance. It should be easler now to see that he has
excelled ln poems that range from tlghtly woven lyrlcs
to works ln free verse, from stately medltatlons on love
and sufferlng to nonsense rhymes, from poetry embod
ylng fanclful fllghts to an ethereal world to deeply rell
glous verse to reallstlc deplctlons of the lot of ordlnary
men and women. He has excelled ln nature poems, but
has also wrltten memorable verses on urban themes.
Hls poetry has dealt wlth hlstorlcal themes and publlc
occaslons, but they have also been about the lntenslty
of the poet`s own emotlons evoked by prlvate events.
One can flnd ln hls poetlc corpus unlversal themes as
well as local ones treated wlth consummate craftsman
shlp. Hls early verse was suffused wlth a vague roman
tlclsm, but the last poems deal wlth death and dylng
and sllence. He wrote falrly long dlscurslve poems and
very short, gnomlc ones; he was, above all, a lyrlc poet,
but also composed dramatlc, narratlve, patrlotlc verse,
and verse for chlldren.
Regardlng hls flctlon, lt should be noted that he
excelled both ln the shorter forms of storytelllng as well
as the novel. Hls short storles deplct the everyday llves
of ordlnary people, whether ln rural settlngs, ln Cal
cutta, or ln remote parts of Indla; they descrlbe ordl
nary emotlons such as the love of a father, the fear of
the unknown, or lonellness. Occaslonally he portrays
characters from outslde hls reglon, as ls the case wlth
the famous tale, 'Kabullwala" (Jhe Man from Kabul).
A favorlte theme of hls storles ls the mlsflt or the out
slder, and he has wrltten many powerful storles about
the pllght of women ln conservatlve Hlndu Bengall
soclety. Jhe soclal reformer ls to be seen ln storles that
target lssues such as chlld marrlage, the havoc wrought
by the dowry system, decadence ln feudal soclety,
natlonallst follles, or the tyranny of landlords. Jhe tone
of hls storles varles from gentle humor to satlre to
pathos, whlle reallsm often glves way to romance, or
the Gothlc, or the fabulous ln several of them. As ln hls
verse, Jagore experlments ln hls flctlon, often manlpu
latlng narratlve perspectlve and tone. Hls storles must
be taken lnto account ln any contemporary evaluatlon
of Jagore`s relevance as a wrlter.
Jhe flrst of Jagore`s novels to be avallable ln
Engllsh was q e ~ t (l9l9). When lt was
flrst publlshed E. M. Iorster dlsmlssed lt as a work deal
lng wlth 'boardlnghouse fllrtatlon that masks ltself ln
patrlotlc talk"; but the contemporary IndlanAmerlcan
novellst Anlta Desal prefaced the l985 relssue of the
book ln the Penguln Modern Classlcs serles by clalmlng
that lt was 'astonlshlngly relevant" for us because of
the way Jagore shows how romantlc ldeallsm can end
up ln terrorlsm. d~ (l921) was unfavorably revlewed
when lt was flrst publlshed, but lt deserves to be reread
as a major novel of ldeas and as a crltlque of notlons of
purlty and natlonallsm as valld now as lt was ln lts
turnofthecentury settlng. Kalser Haq, the translator of
Jagore`s novella n~ (l993), stresses 'the darlng
orlglnallty" of the work and the 'economy and concen
tratlon" wlth whlch the wrlter presents thls 'tale of
archetypal confllctbetween reason and emotlon,
orthodoxy and llberallsm, splrltual asplratlon and
earthly passlon." Many other Jagore novels stlll awalt
worthy translatlons, but those ln prlnt provlde ample
evldence of hls mastery of the form.
Perhaps the best known ln the West of Jagore`s
nonflctlon prose are hls lectures. At tlmes prophetlc ln
tone, at tlmes lmpassloned, often profound and never
mundane, they represent the wrlter reactlng to events ln
hls tlme, such as the two world wars and the lndepen
dence movement ln hls own country, mllltarlsm, mod
ernlsm, and lmperlal rule. Jhey also show hlm reactlng
to tlmeless themes, to lssues such as natlonallsm, rell
glon, the unlty of humanlty, and the factors lmpedlng
the comlng together of peoples. Jhey reveal hls unwa
verlng falth ln man, hls bellef ln the freedom of thought
and the llfe of the splrlt. In them he explalned hls ldeas
about llterature and Indla and attempted to represent
hls country to the world. But they also reveal hlm as a
wrlter who had thought through polltlcal, soclal, and
economlc lssues as well as llterary ones. Some of hls
ldeas have traveled well. Hls lecture on natlonallsm ls
often clted, because of what Slslr Kumar Das has noted
as lts crltlque of natlonallsm as 'an lnstrument of polltl
cal hegemony and an ldeology to legltlmlze the oppres
slon of one natlon over the other." A sustalned look at
hls lectures reveals that Jagore`s words can stlll pro
mote lnternatlonal understandlng and connect peoples
and races. Jake, for example, 'What ls Art?" the lec
ture he gave on hls elghtleth blrthday ln l91l where he
sees ln the wardevastated world 'the crumbllng rulns
of a proud clvlllzatlon strewn llke a vast heap of futlllty"
but where he urges hls llsteners to retaln falth ln man.
'A day wlll come when unvanqulshed man wlll retrace
hls path of conquest, desplte all barrlers, to wln back hls
lost human herltage." Jhe lectures were, on the whole,
wrltten ln Engllsh. Jhough they often contaln memora
ble phrases and sharp formulatlons and are occaslon
ally wltty and often elegant, they seem at tlmes wooden
117
ai_ PPO o~~~ q~
and artlflclalfaults perhaps lnevltable ln works wrltten
ln a nonnatlve language.
Jagore wrote more than forty plays ln Bengall
and as ls the case wlth hls verse, hls flctlon, and hls
prose, they dlsplay hls fertlle lmaglnatlon. Iew of hls
plays have yet been translated lnto Engllsh, although
one can stlll get a gllmpse of the lnventlveness and ver
satlllty of Jagore the playwrlght from those that have
been translated. Jhey deal wlth themes such as love
and patrlotlsm (Iivg ovd _uccv, translated as òtiovolism
l9l7), ldol worshlp (Socrificc, translated l9l7), the quest
of the soul for God (Iojo, translated as Tlc Iivg of tlc
Dorl Clombcr, l9l1), death as the release from thls
world lnto another one (Tlc Iost Ufficc, translated l9l1),
and mechanlzatlon and dehumanlzatlon (Icd Ulcovdcrs,
translated l925). Jechnlcally, he experlmented wlth
symbollsm and expresslonlsm, although reallsm and
naturallsm are also features of several plays. Jhe plays
reveal themselves as the work of a poet and humanlst
but also of someone who had had practlcal experlence
staglng and actlng ln plays slnce hls chlldhood. He also
wrote and choreographed dance dramas that are per
formed regularly ln the two Bengals.
Jagore`s lnflnlte varlety and fecundlty as a wrlter
can also be seen ln Iobivdrovotl Togorc: Sclcctcd !ritivgs
for Clildrcv (2002), a book publlshed ln the Oxford
Jagore Jranslatlons serles. Dlssatlsfled wlth the exlstlng
books chlldren were exposed to ln thelr schoollng, he
wrote what he could for themfrom textbooks to non
sense verse, from comlc plays to moral tales. Sometlmes
he followed the manner of Lewls Carroll and Edward
Lear, whlle on other occaslons he appeared to be
sparked by nursery rhymes and tales from the Bengall
oral tradltlon. Sometlmes a story he wrote for a chlld
seems to be equally sulted for adults. Iormally, these
works lndlcate somethlng of the lngenulty and technlcal
mastery he was capable of ln whatever form he
attempted.
Sclcctcd !ritivgs ov Iitcroturc ovd Iovguogc (200l),
another volume ln the Oxford Jagore Jranslatlons
serles allows a vlew of Jagore`s art ln the perspectlve of
hls aesthetlcs. Jhese essays reveal a wrlter who opened
hlmself to Western lnfluences as well as the canonlcal
works of Indlan llterature, but also a poet wlth a keen
lnterest ln folk llterature and the oral art tradltlons of
hls own country. Most lmportant, they reveal an aes
thetlcs premlsed on a sense of communlty and on the
llnks between tradltlon and lndlvldual talent, between
the reader and the wrlter. Jhe key to thls aesthetlc ls to
be found ln an essay he had wrltten orlglnally ln
Engllsh called 'What ls Art?" reprlnted ln the second
volume of Tlc Ivglisl !ritivgs of Iobivdrovotl Togorc:
'Man has a fund of emotlonal energy whlch ls not
occupled wlth hls selfpreservatlon. Jhe surplus seeks
lts outlet ln the creatlon of Art, for man`s clvlllzatlon ls
bullt upon hls surplus."
Do all these recent republlcatlons of hls works
lndlcate that there ls, flnally, a Jagore revlval lnterna
tlonally? Perhaps so. Yet, there ls a need for more trans
latlons that wlll llft hls lnternatlonal reputatlon out of
the morlbund state lt had fallen lnto even ln hls llfetlme.
Also, many more of hls works need to be translated
competently to represent the breadth and depth of hls
genlus. Jagore`s collected works ln Bengall now exceed
thlrty large volumes. Much more, obvlously, needs to
be done then to represent Jagore as a wrlter of lnterna
tlonal standlng ln the new century.
When the Nobel Commlttee gave Rablndranath
Jagore the Nobel Prlze ln Llterature ln l9l3 for Citovjol
they thought they had found a gold nugget that they
had appralsed at lts true value. Jhe Jagore devotee
knew even then that they had only seen one nugget ln
what was a verltable mlne, where new deposlts were
accumulatlng every year. Later, when too much poorly
translated work was publlshed ln the Engllshspeaklng
West, many saw only artlflclal gold. Jhe new transla
tlons wlll, perhaps, glve a better estlmate of the rlches ln
the veln that the commlttee had struck somewhat by
chance. Jhey wlll conflrm what Bengall speclallsts of
Jagore`s work have known for a long tlme now. the
Nobel Prlze Selectlon Commlttee had hlt upon a gold
mlne, one of the rlchest ln the hlstory of the award.
iW
Climpscs of cvgol: Sclcctcd from tlc Icttcrs of Sir Iobiv-
drovotl Togorc, 1SS-1S9 (London. Macmlllan,
l92l; Calcutta. Macmlllan, l960);
Icttcrs from Zbrood (Madras. S. Ganesan, l921);
Icttcrs to o Iricvd, edlted by C. I. Andrews (London.
Allen Lnwln, l928);
Icttcrs from Iussio, translated by Sasadhar Slnha (Cal
cutta. VlsvaBharatl, l960);
Impcrfcct Ivcouvtcr: Icttcrs of !illiom Iotlcvstciv ovd Iobiv-
drovotl Togorc, 1911-1941, edlted by Mary M.
Lago (Cambrldge, Mass.. Harvard Lnlverslty
Press, l972);
Climpscs of cvgol: Sclcctcd Icttcrs, translated by Krlshna
Dutta and Andrew Roblnson (London. Paper
mac, l99l);
Z Iicl Horvcst: Tlc Complctc Togorc/Ilmlirst Corrcspovdcvcc
ovd Utlcr !ritivgs, edlted by Klssoonslngh Haza
reeslngh (Stanley, RoseHlll, Maurltlus. Edltlons
de lòcan Indlen, l992);
Sclcctcd Icttcrs, edlted by Dutta and Roblnson (Cam
Iocts to o Ioct, 1912-1940: Icttcrs from Iobcrt ridgcs,
Irvcst Ilys, !. . Jcots, Tlomos Sturgc Moorc, I. C.
Trcvclyov ovd Iro Iouvd to Iobivdrovotl Togorc,
118
o~~~ q~ ai_ PPO
edlted by Blkash Chakravarty (Calcutta. Vlsva
Bharatl, l998);
Tlc Ccddcs-Togorc Corrcspovdcvcc, edlted by Bashabl
Iraser (Edlnburgh. Edlnburgh Revlew, 2002);
Z Difficult Iricvdslip: Icttcrs of Idword Tlompsov ovd Iobiv-
drovotl Togorc 191J-1940, edlted by Lma Das
Gupta (New Delhl. Oxford Lnlverslty Press,
2003).
_~W
Dar alKutub alMlsrlyah, Iobivdrovotl Togorc: Z iblio-
groplicol Iist Issucd ov tlc Uccosiov of His Ccvtcvory
Cclcbrotiov (Calro. Natlonal Llbrary Press, l96l);
Katherlne Henn, Iobivdrovotl Togorc: Z ibliogroply
(Metuchen, N.|. London. Scarecrow Press /
Phlladelphla. Amerlcan Jheologlcal Llbrary
Assoclatlon, l985).
_~W
Ernest Rhys, Iobivdrovotl Togorc: Z iogroplicol Study
(London. Macmlllan, l9l5; New York. Mac
mlllan, l9l5);
Edward |. Jhompson, Iobivdrovotl Togorc: His Iifc ovd
!orl (Calcutta. Assoclatlon Press / London.
Oxford Lnlverslty Press, l92l); revlsed as Iobiv-
drovotl Togorc: Ioct ovd Dromotist (London. Oxford
Vlncenc Lesn, Iobivdrovotl Togorc: His Icrsovolity ovd
!orl, translated by Guy McKeever Phllllps, fore
word by C. I. Andrews (London. Allen Lnwln,
l939);
Mohlnlmohan Bhattacharya, Iobivdrovotl Togorc: Ioct
ovd Tlivlcr (Allahabad. Kltab Mahal, l96l);
Krlshna R. Krlpalanl, Iobivdrovotl Togorc: Z iogroply
(New York. Oxford Lnlverslty Press, l962; Lon
don. Oxford Lnlverslty Press, l962; revlsed edl
tlon, Calcutta. VlsvaBharatl, l980);
Gangadhara Devarava Khanolakara, Tlc Iutc ovd tlc
Ilougl: Z Iifc of Iobivdrovotl Togorc (Bombay.
Book Centre, l963);
Hlranmay Banerjee, Iobivdrovotl Togorc (New Delhl.
Publlcatlons Dlvlslon, Mlnlstry of Informatlon
and Broadcastlng, Government of Indla, l97l);
Probhat Kumar Mukherjl, Iifc of Togorc, translated by
Slslrkumar Ghosh (New Delhl. Indlan Book
Company, l975; Jhompson, Conn.. InterCulture
Assoclates, l975);
Buddhadeva Bose, Togorc: Iortroit of o Ioct (Calcutta.
Papyrus, l991);
Krlshna Dutta and Andrew Roblnson, Iobivdrovotl
Togorc: Tlc Myriod-Mivdcd Mov (Calcutta. Rupa,
2000);
Lma Das Gupta, Iobivdrovotl Togorc: Z iogroply (Delhl
Oxford. Oxford Lnlverslty Press, 2001).
oW
Beena Agarwal, Tlc Iloys of Iobivdro òtl Togorc: Z Tlc-
motic Study (New Delhl. Satyam, 2003);
R. S. Agarwala, Zcstlctic Covsciousvcss of Togorc (Calcutta.
Abhlshek Agarwal, l996);
B. K. Ahluwalla and Shashl Ahluwalla, Togorc ovd Cov-
dli: Tlc Togorc-Covdli Covtrovcrsy (New Delhl.
Pankaj, l98l);
Mulk Raj Anand, Homogc to Togorc (Lahore. Sangram,
l916);
Anand, Tlc Humovism of Iobivdrovotl Togorc: Tlrcc Icc-
turcs (Aurangabad. Marathwada Lnlverslty,
l979);
Anand, Ioct-Ioivtcr: Ioivtivgs by Iobivdrovotl Togorc (New
Delhl. Abhlnav, l985);
Anand, Tlc !olcovo: Somc Commcvts ov tlc Dcvclopmcvt of
Iobivdrovotl Togorc`s Zcstlctic Tlcorics ovd Zrt Iroc-
ticc (Baroda. Maharaja Sayajlrao Lnlverslty of
Baroda, l967);
Alex Aronson, Iobivdrovotl Togorc: Z Cclcbrotiov of His
Iifc ovd !orl (Oxford. Museum of Modern Art,
l986);
Aronson, Iobivdrovotl tlrougl !cstcrv Iycs (Allahabad.
Kltablstan, l913);
Aronson and Krlshna R. Krlpalanl, eds., Iollovd ovd
Togorc (Calcutta. VlsvaBharatl, l915);
Davld W. Atklnson, Covdli ovd Togorc: !isiovorics of Mod-
crv Ivdio (Hong Kong. Aslan Research Servlce,
l989);
Abu Sayeed Ayyub, Modcrvism ovd Togorc, translated by
Amltava Ray (New Delhl. Sahltya Akademl,
l995);
Ayyub, Togorc`s _ucst (Calcutta. Papyrus, l980);
Asoke K. Bagchl, Iobivdrovotl Togorc ovd His Mcdicol
!orld (Delhl. Konark, 2000);
Srlkumar Banerjl, Iloscs of Togorc`s Ioctry, Jagore Memo
rlal Lectures, l968-l969 (Mysore. Prasaranga,
Lnlverslty of Mysore, l973);
Sudhansu Blmal Barua, Studics iv Togorc ovd uddlist Cul-
turc (Calcutta. Sahltya Samsad, l99l);
Kakoll Basak, Iobivdrovotl Togorc, o Humovist (New
Delhl. Classlcal Publlshlng Company, l99l);
Sankar Basu, Clcllov ovd Togorc: Z Comporotivc Study of
Tlcir Slort Storics (New Delhl. Sterllng, l985);
K. S. Bharathl, Tlc Ioliticol Tlouglt of Iobivdrovotl Togorc
(New Delhl. Concept, l998);
Vlvek Ranjan Bhattacharya, Iclcvovcc of Togorc (New
Delhl. Metropolltan, l979);
Bhattacharya, Togorc: Tlc Citicv of tlc !orld (Delhl.
Metropolltan, l96l);
Bhattacharya, Togorc`s !isiov of o Clobol Iomily (New
Delhl. Enkay, l987);
Ablnash Chandra Bose, Tlrcc Mystic Iocts: Z Study of
!. . Jcots, Z.I., ovd Iobivdrovotl Togorc (Kol
119
ai_ PPO o~~~ q~
hapur. School and College Bookstall, l915; Iol
croft, Pa.. Iolcroft Press, l970);
Buddhadeva Bose, Zv Zcrc of Crccv Cross: Z Icvicw of
Modcrv cvgoli Iitcroturc (Calcutta. Papyrus,
l918), pp. l3-25;
Somendranath Bose, ed., Togorc Studics 1970 (Calcutta.
Jagore Research Instltute, l970);
Mohlt Chakrabartl, Ililosoply of Iducotiov of Iobivdrovotl
Togorc: Z Criticol Ivoluotiov (New Delhl. Atlantlc,
l988);
Chakrabartl, Iobivdrovotl Togorc: Z Misccllovy (New
Delhl. Kanlshka, 2003);
Chakrabartl, Iobivdrovotl Togorc: Z _ucst (New Delhl.
Gyan, l995);
Chakrabartl, Iobivdrovotl Togorc: Divcrsc Dimcvsiovs
(New Delhl. Atlantlc, l990);
Chakrabartl, Togorc ovd Iducotiov for Sociol Clovgc (New
Delhl. Gyan, l993);
Santosh Chakrabartl, Studics iv Togorc: Criticol Issoys
(New Delhl. Atlantlc, 2001);
Blshweshwar Chakraverty, Togorc, tlc Dromotist: Z Criti-
col Study (Delhl. B.R. Publlshlng Corporatlon,
2000);
Byomkesh Chandra Chakravorty, Iobivdrovotl Togorc:
His Mivd ovd Zrt. Togorc`s Covtributiov to Ivglisl Iit-
croturc (New Delhl. Young Indla Publlcatlons,
l97l);
Bhabatosh Chatterjee, Iobivdrovotl Togorc ovd Modcrv
Scvsibility (Delhl. Oxford Lnlverslty Press, l996);
Ramananda Chatterjee, ed., Tlc Coldcv ool of Togorc: Z
Homogc to Iobivdrovotl Togorc from Ivdio ovd tlc
!orld iv Cclcbrotiov of His Scvcvtictl irtldoy (Cal
cutta. Jhe Golden Book Commlttee, l93l);
Amlt Chaudhurl, Tlc Iicodor ool of Modcrv Ivdiov Iitcr-
oturc (London. Plcador, l96l), p. xvlll;
Bhudeb Chaudhurl and K. G. Subramanyan, eds.,
Iobivdrovotl Togorc ovd tlc Clollcvgcs of Todoy
(Shlmla. Indlan Instltute of Advanced Study,
l988);
B. M. Chaudurl, ed., Homogc to Iobivdrovotl Togorc: Iv
Commcmorotiov of tlc irtl Ccvtcvory of Iobivdrovotl
Togorc (Kharagpur. Jagore Centenary Celebra
tlons Commlttee, Indlan Instltute of Jechnology,
l96l);
Luclano Colussl, Uvivcrsolity iv Togorc: Souvcvir of o Sym-
posium ov Iobivdrovotl Togorc (Calcutta. Nltlka/
Don Bosco, l99l);
P. K. Datta, ed., Iobivdrovotl Togorc`s Jhe Home and
the World. Z Criticol Compoviov (Delhl. Permanent
Black, 2003); republlshed as Togorc`s Home and
the World. Modcrv Issoys iv Criticism (London.
Anthem, 2003);
Blmalendu Dutta, ed., Togorc iv Zbrood: Irom tlc Iogcs of
tlc Modern Revlew, Zugust 1912-uly 19J4 (Cal
cutta. Papyrus, 200l);
Nlsslm Ezeklel, Sclcctcd Irosc (Delhl. Oxford Lnlverslty
Press, l992);
Slslrkumar Ghose, Tlc Iotcr Iocms of Togorc (London.
Asla Publlshlng House, l96l; New York. Asla
Publlshlng House, l96l);
Verlnder Grover, ed., Iobivdrovotl Togorc, Polltlcal
Jhlnkers of Modern Indla, no. 25 (New Delhl.
Deep Deep, l993);
Stephen N. Hay, Zsiov Idcos of Iost ovd !cst: Togorc ovd
His Critics iv opov, Clivo, ovd Ivdio (Cambrldge,
Mass.. Harvard Lnlverslty Press, l970);
Patrlck Colm Hogan and Lallta Pandlt, eds., Iobiv-
drovotl Togorc: Uvivcrsolity ovd Troditiov (Madlson,
N.|.. Ialrlelgh Dlcklnson Lnlverslty Press / Lon
don. Assoclated Lnlverslty Presses, 2003);
Manlndranath |ana, Iducotiov for Iifc: Togorc ovd Modcrv
Tlivlcrs (Calcutta. Ilrma KLM, l981);
Kalyan Kundu, Saktl Bhattacharya, and Kalyan Slrcar,
eds., Iobivdrovotl ovd tlc ritisl Ircss, 1912-1941
(London. Jagore Centre LK, l990); republlshed
as Imogivivg Togorc: Iobivdrovotl ovd tlc ritisl Ircss,
1912-1941 (Calcutta. Shlshu Sahltya Samsad,
2000);
Mary M. Lago, Iobivdrovotl Togorc (Boston. Jwayne,
l976);
Lago and Ronald Warwlck, eds., Iobivdrovotl Togorc:
Icrspcctivcs iv Timc. Ivtcrvotiovol Togorc Covfcrcvcc:
Sclcctcd Iopcrs (Baslngstoke, L.K.. Macmlllan,
l989);
Roger Llpsey, Coomoroswomy: His Iifc ovd !orl (Prlnce
ton. Prlnceton Lnlverslty Press, l977);
Ray Monk and Andrew Roblnson, eds., Iobivdrovotl
Togorc: Z Cclcbrotiov of His Iifc ovd !orl (London.
Jagore Iestlval Commlttee, l986);
Sujlt Mukherjee, Iossogc to Zmcrico: Tlc Icccptiov of Iobiv-
drovotl Togorc iv tlc Uvitcd Stotcs, 1912-1941 (Cal
cutta. Bookland, l961);
B. C. Mukherjl, !cdovto ovd Togorc (New Delhl. M.D.
Dhurjatl Prasad Mukherjl, Togorc: Z Study (Bombay.
Padma, l911);
Anupam Ratan Shankar Nagar, Mysticism iv Togorc`s
Ioctry (Barellly. Prakash Book Depot, l995);
M. K. Nalk, Z History of Ivdiov Ivglisl Iitcroturc (New
Delhl. Sahltya Akademl, l982), pp. 58-66, 79-
8l, l0l-l03;
Vlshwanath S. Naravane, Zv Ivtroductiov to Iobivdrovotl
Togorc (Delhl. Macmlllan Indla, l977; Columbla,
Mo.. South Asla Books, l978);
150
o~~~ q~ ai_ PPO
|oseph J. O`Connell and others, eds., Ircscvtivg Togorc`s
Hcritogc iv Covodo (Joronto. Rablndranath Jagore
Lectureshlp Ioundatlon, l989);
D. K. Pabby and Alpana Neogy, eds., Iobivdrovotl
Togorc`s Jhe Home and the World. `cw Dimcvsiovs
(New Delhl. Asla Book Club, 200l);
Ratan Parlmoo, ed., Iobivdrovotl Togorc: Collcctiov of
Issoys (New Delhl. Lallt Kala Akademl, l989);
Sarvepalll Radhakrlshnan, Tlc Ililosoply of Iobivdrovotl
Togorc (London. Macmlllan, l9l8);
G. V. Raj, Togorc, tlc òvclist (New Delhl. Sterllng,
l983);
Mohlt K. Ray, ed., Studics ov Iobivdrovotl Togorc, 2 vol
umes (New Delhl. Atlantlc, 2001);
J. R. Sharma, ed., Issoys ov Iobivdrovotl Togorc: Iv
Hovour of D. M. Cupto (Ghazlabad. Vlmal Praka
shan, l987);
Sharma, ed., Icrspcctivcs ov Iobivdrovotl Togorc, Indo
Engllsh Wrlters, no. 7 (Ghazlabad. Vlmal Prakashan,
l986);
Rlta D. Sll, ed., Irofilc of Iobivdrovotl Togorc iv !orld Iit-
croturc (New Delhl. Khama, 2000);
K. R. Srlnlvasa Iyengar, Ivdiov !ritivg iv Ivglisl (New
Delhl. Sterllng, l985), pp. 99-l13;
Srlnlvasa Iyengar, Iobivdrovotl Togorc: Z Criticol Ivtroduc-
tiov (New Delhl. Sterllng, l985; London. Orlental
Ira G. Zepp |r., ed., Iobivdrovotl Togorc: Zmcricov Ivtcrprc-
totiovs (Calcutta. Wrlters Workshop, l98l).
m~W
Rablndranath Jagore`s papers are at the Lnlverslty of
London Llbrary and ln Rablndra Bhavan, Santlnlketan.
NVNP k m i~
m~ p
by Horold Hjorvc, Cloirmov of tlc òbcl Committcc of tlc
Swcdisl Zcodcmy, ov 10 Dcccmbcr 191J
In awardlng the Nobel Prlze ln Llterature to the
AngloIndlan poet, Rablndranath Jagore, the Academy
has found ltself ln the happy posltlon of belng able to
accord thls recognltlon to an author who, ln conformlty
wlth the express wordlng of Alfred Nobel`s last wlll and
testament, had durlng the current year, wrltten the fln
est poems 'of an ldeallstlc tendency." Moreover, after
exhaustlve and consclentlous dellberatlon, havlng con
cluded that these poems of hls most nearly approach
the prescrlbed standard, the Academy thought that
there was no reason to hesltate because the poet`s name
was stlll comparatlvely unknown ln Europe, due to the
dlstant locatlon of hls home. Jhere was even less rea
son slnce the founder of the Prlze lald lt down ln set
terms as hls 'express wlsh and deslre that, ln the award
lng of the Prlze, no conslderatlon should be pald to the
natlonallty to whlch any proposed candldate mlght
belong."
Jagore`s Citovjoli: Sovg Uffcrivgs (l9l2), a collec
tlon of rellglous poems, was the one of hls works that
especlally arrested the attentlon of the selectlng crltlcs.
Slnce last year the book, ln a real and full sense, has
belonged to Engllsh llterature, for the author hlmself,
who by educatlon and practlce ls a poet ln hls natlve
Indlan tongue, has bestowed upon the poems a new
dress, allke perfect ln form and personally orlglnal ln
lnsplratlon. Jhls has made them accesslble to all ln
England, Amerlca, and the entlre Western world for
whom noble llterature ls of lnterest and moment. _ulte
lndependently of any knowledge of hls Bengall poetry,
lrrespectlve, too, of dlfferences of rellglous falths, llter
ary schools, or party alms, Jagore has been halled from
varlous quarters as a new and admlrable master of that
poetlc art whlch has been a neverfalllng concomltant of
the expanslon of Brltlsh clvlllzatlon ever slnce the days
of _ueen Ellzabeth. Jhe features of thls poetry that
won lmmedlate and enthuslastlc admlratlon are the per
fectlon wlth whlch the poet`s own ldeas and those he
has borrowed have been harmonlzed lnto a complete
whole; hls rhythmlcally balanced style, that, to quote an
Engllsh crltlc`s oplnlon, 'comblnes at once the femlnlne
grace of poetry wlth the vlrlle power of prose"; hls aus
tere, by some termed classlc, taste ln the cholce of
words and hls use of the other elements of expresslon ln
a borrowed tonguethose features, ln short, that stamp
an orlglnal work as such, but whlch at the same tlme
render more dlfflcult lts reproductlon ln another lan
guage.
Jhe same estlmate ls true of the second cycle of
poems that came before us, Tlc Cordcvcr, Iyrics of Iovc
ovd Iifc (l9l3). In thls work, however, as the author
hlmself polnts out, he has recast rather than lnterpreted
hls earller lnsplratlons. Here we see another phase of
hls personallty, now subject to the alternately bllssful
and torturlng experlences of youthful love, now prey to
the feellngs of longlng and joy that the vlclssltudes of
llfe glve rlse to, the whole lnterspersed nevertheless
wlth gllmpses of a hlgher world.
Engllsh translatlons of Jagore`s prose storles have
been publlshed under the tltle Climpscs of cvgol Iifc
(l9l3). Jhough the form of these tales does not bear
hls own stampthe renderlng belng by another hand
thelr content glves evldence of hls versatlllty and wlde
range of observatlon, of hls heartfelt sympathy wlth the
fates and experlences of dlfferlng types of men, and of
hls talent for plot constructlon and development.
15l
ai_ PPO o~~~ q~
Jagore has slnce publlshed both a collectlon of
poems, poetlc plctures of chlldhood and home llfe, sym
bollcally entltled q ` j (l9l3), and a num
ber of lectures glven before Amerlcan and Engllsh
unlverslty audlences, whlch ln book form he calls
p~W q o~~ i (l9l3). Jhey embody hls
vlews of the ways ln whlch man can arrlve at a falth ln
the llght of whlch lt may be posslble to llve. Jhls very
seeklng of hls to dlscover the true relatlon between falth
and thought makes Jagore stand out as a poet of rlch
endowment, characterlzed by hls great profundlty of
thought, but most of all by hls warmth of feellng and by
the movlng power of hls flguratlve language. Seldom
lndeed ln the realm of lmaglnatlve llterature are
attalned so great a range and dlverslty of note and of
colour, capable of expresslng wlth equal harmony and
grace the emotlons of every mood from the longlng of
the soul after eternlty to the joyous merrlment
prompted by the lnnocent chlld at play.
Concernlng our understandlng of thls poetry, by
no means exotlc but truly unlversally human ln charac
ter, the future wlll probably add to what we know now.
We do know, however, that the poet`s motlvatlon
extends to the effort of reconclllng two spheres of clvlll
zatlon wldely separated, whlch above all ls the charac
terlstlc mark of our present epoch and constltutes lts
most lmportant task and problem. Jhe true lnwardness
of thls work ls most clearly and purely revealed ln the
efforts exerted ln the Chrlstlan mlsslonfleld throughout
the world. In tlmes to come, hlstorlcal lnqulrers wlll
know better how to appralse lts lmportance and lnflu
ence, even ln what ls at present hldden from our gaze
and where no or only grudglng recognltlon ls accorded.
Jhey wlll undoubtedly form a hlgher estlmate of lt than
the one now deemed flttlng ln many quarters. Jhanks
to thls movement, fresh, bubbllng sprlngs of llvlng
water have been tapped, from whlch poetry ln partlcu
lar may draw lnsplratlon, even though those sprlngs are
perhaps lntermlngled wlth allen streams, and whether
or not they be traced to thelr rlght source or thelr orlgln
be attrlbuted to the depths of the dreamworld. More
especlally, the preachlng of the Chrlstlan rellglon has
provlded ln many places the flrst deflnlte lmpulse
toward a revlval and regeneratlon of the vernacular lan
guage, l.e., lts llberatlon from the bondage of an artlfl
clal tradltlon, and consequently also toward a
development of lts capaclty for nurturlng and sustaln
lng a veln of llvlng and natural poetry.
Jhe Chrlstlan mlsslon has exerclsed lts lnfluence
as a rejuvenatlng force ln Indla, too, where ln conjunc
tlon wlth rellglous revlvals many of the vernaculars
were early put to llterary use, thereby acqulrlng status
and stablllty. However, wlth only too regular frequency,
they fosslllzed agaln under pressure from the new tradl
tlon that gradually establlshed ltself. But the lnfluence
of the Chrlstlan mlsslon has extended far beyond the
range of the actually reglstered proselytlzlng work. Jhe
struggle that the last century wltnessed between the llv
lng vernaculars and the sacred language of anclent
tlmes for control over the new llteratures sprlnglng lnto
llfe would have had a very dlfferent course and out
come, had not the former found able support ln the fos
terlng care bestowed upon them by the selfsacrlflclng
mlsslonarles.
It was ln Bengal, the oldest AngloIndlan provlnce
and the scene many years before of the lndefatlgable
labours of that mlsslonary ploneer, Carey, to promote
the Chrlstlan rellglon and to lmprove the vernacular
language, that Rablndranath Jagore was born ln l86l.
He was a sclon of a respected famlly that had already
glven evldence of lntellectual ablllty ln many areas. Jhe
surroundlngs ln whlch the boy and young man grew up
were ln no sense prlmltlve or calculated to hem ln hls
conceptlons of the world and of llfe. On the contrary, ln
hls home there prevalled, along wlth a hlghly cultlvated
appreclatlon of art, a profound reverence for the lnqulr
lng splrlt and wlsdom of the forefathers of the race,
whose texts were used for famlly devotlonal worshlp.
Around hlm, too, there was then comlng lnto belng a
new llterary splrlt that consclously sought to reach forth
to the people and to make ltself acqualnted wlth thelr
llfe needs. Jhls new splrlt galned ln force as reforms ere
flrmly effected by the Government, after the quelllng of
the wldespread, confused Indlan Mutlny.
Rablndranath`s father was one of the leadlng and
most zealous members of a rellglous communlty to
whlch hls son stlll belongs. Jhat body, known by the
name of 'Brahmo Samaj," dld not arlse as a sect of the
anclent Hlndu type, wlth the purpose of spreadlng the
worshlp of some partlcular godhead as superlor to all
others. Rather, lt was founded ln the early part of the
nlneteenth century by an enllghtened and lnfluentlal
man who had been much lmpressed by the doctrlnes of
Chrlstlanlty, whlch he had studled also ln England. He
endeavoured to glve to the natlve Hlndu tradltlons,
handed down from the past, an lnterpretatlon ln agree
ment wlth what he concelved to be the splrlt and
lmport of the Chrlstlan falth. Doctrlnal controversy has
slnce been rlfe regardlng the lnterpretatlon of truth that
he and hls successors were thus led to glve, whereby the
communlty has been subdlvlded lnto a number of lnde
pendent sects. Jhe character, too, of the communlty,
appeallng essentlally to hlghly tralned lntellectual
mlnds, has from lts lnceptlon always precluded any
large growth of the numbers of lts avowed adherents.
Nevertheless, the lndlrect lnfluence exerclsed by the
body, even upon the development of popular educatlon
and llterature, ls held to be very conslderable lndeed.
152
o~~~ q~ ai_ PPO
Among those communlty members who have grown
up ln recent years, Rablndranath Jagore has laboured
to a preemlnent degree. Jo them he has stood as a
revered master and prophet. Jhat lntlmate lnterplay of
teacher and pupll so earnestly sought after has attalned
a deep, hearty, and slmple manlfestatlon, both ln rell
glous llfe and ln llterary tralnlng.
Jo carry out hls llfe`s work Jagore equlpped hlm
self wlth a manyslded culture, European as well as
Indlan, extended and matured by travels abroad and by
advanced study ln London. In hls youth he travelled
wldely ln hls own land, accompanylng hls father as far
as the Hlmalayas. He was stlll qulte young when he
began to wrlte ln Bengall, and he has trled hls hand ln
prose and poetry, lyrlcs and dramas. In addltlon to hls
descrlptlons of the llfe of the common people of hls own
country, he has dealt ln separate works wlth questlons
ln llterary crltlclsm, phllosophy, and soclology. At one
perlod, some tlme ago, there occurred a break ln the
busy round of hls actlvltles, for he then felt obllged, ln
accord wlth lmmemorlal practlce among hls race, to
pursue for a tlme a contemplatlve hermlt llfe ln a boat
floatlng on the waters of a trlbutary of the sacred
Ganges Rlver. After he returned to ordlnary llfe, hls
reputatlon among hls own people as a man of reflned
wlsdom and chastened plety grew greater from day to
day. Jhe openalr school whlch he establlshed ln west
ern Bengal, beneath the shelterlng branches of the
mango tree, has brought up numbers of youths who as
devoted dlsclples have spread hls teachlng throughout
the land. Jo thls place he has now retlred, after spend
lng nearly a year as an honoured guest ln the llterary
clrcles of England and Amerlca and attendlng the Rell
glous Hlstory Congress held ln Parls last summer
(l9l3).
Wherever Jagore has encountered mlnds open to
recelve hls hlgh teachlng, the receptlon accorded hlm
has been that sulted to a bearer of good tldlngs whlch
are dellvered, ln language lntelllglble to all, from that
treasure house of the East whose exlstence had long
been conjectured. Hls own attltude, moreover, ls that he
ls but the lntermedlary, glvlng freely of that to whlch by
blrth he has access. He ls not at all anxlous to shlne
before men as a genlus or as an lnventor of some new
thlng. In contrast to the cult of work, whlch ls the prod
uct of llfe ln the fencedln cltles of the Western world,
wlth lts fosterlng of a restless, contentlous splrlt; ln con
trast to lts struggle to conquer nature for the love of
galn and proflt, 'as lf we are llvlng," Jagore says, 'ln a
hostlle world where we have to wrest everythlng we
want from an unwllllng and allen arrangement of
thlngs" (p~I p. 5); ln contrast to all that enervatlng
hurry and scurry, he places before us the culture that ln
the vast, peaceful, and enshrlnlng forests of Indla
attalns lts perfectlon, a culture that seeks prlmarlly the
qulet peace of the soul ln everlncreaslng harmony wlth
the llfe of nature herself. It ls a poetlcal, not a hlstorlcal,
plcture that Jagore here reveals to us to conflrm hls
promlse that a peace awalts us, too. By vlrtue of the
rlght assoclated wlth the glft of prophecy, he freely
deplcts the scenes that have loomed before hls creatlve
vlslon at a perlod contemporary wlth the beglnnlng of
tlme.
He ls, however, as far removed as anyone ln our
mldst from all that we are accustomed to hear dls
pensed and purveyed ln the market places as Orlental
phllosophy, from palnful dreams about the transmlgra
tlon of souls and the lmpersonal ~~I from the pan
thelstlc, and ln reallty abstract, bellef that ls usually
regarded as pecullarly characterlstlc of the hlgher clvlll
zatlon ln Indla. Jagore hlmself ls not even prepared to
admlt that a bellef of that descrlptlon can clalm any
authorlty from the profoundest utterances of the wlse
men of the past. He peruses hls Vedlc hymns, hls r~J
~I and lndeed the theses of Buddha hlmself, ln
such a manner that he dlscovers ln them, what ls for
hlm an lrrefutable truth. If he seeks the dlvlnlty ln
nature, he flnds there a llvlng personallty wlth the fea
tures of omnlpotence, the allembraclng lord of nature,
whose preternatural splrltual power nevertheless llke
wlse reveals lts presence ln all temporal llfe, small as
well as great, but especlally ln the soul of man predes
tlned for eternlty. Pralse, prayer, and fervent devotlon
pervade the song offerlngs that he lays at the feet of thls
nameless dlvlnlty of hls. Ascetlc and even ethlc auster
lty would appear to be allen to hls type of dlvlnlty wor
shlp, whlch may be characterlzed as a specles of
aesthetlc thelsm. Plety of that descrlptlon ls ln full con
cord wlth the whole of hls poetry, and lt has bestowed
peace upon hlm. He proclalms the comlng of that peace
for weary and careworn souls even wlthln the bounds
of Chrlstendom.
Jhls ls mystlclsm, lf we llke to call lt so, but not a
mystlclsm that, rellnqulshlng personallty, seeks to
become absorbed ln an All that approaches a Nothlng
ness, but one that, wlth all the talents and facultles of
the soul tralned to thelr hlghest pltch, eagerly sets forth
to meet the llvlng Iather of the whole creatlon. Jhls
more strenuous type of mystlclsm was not wholly
unknown even ln Indla before the days of Jagore,
hardly lndeed among the ascetlcs and phllosophers of
anclent tlmes but rather ln the many forms of ~I a
plety whose very essence ls the profound love of and
rellance upon God. Ever slnce the Mlddle Ages, lnflu
enced ln some measure by the Chrlstlan and other for
elgn rellglons, ~ has sought the ldeals of lts falth ln
the dlfferent phases of Hlndulsm, varled ln character
but each to all lntents monothelstlc ln conceptlon. All
153
ai_ PPO o~~~ q~
those hlgher forms of falth have dlsappeared or have
been depraved past recognltlon, choked by the super
abundant growth of that mlxture of cults that has
attracted to lts banner all those Indlan peoples who
lacked an adequate power of reslstance to lts blandlsh
ments. Even though Jagore may have borrowed one or
another note from the orchestral symphonles of hls
natlve predecessors, yet he treads upon flrmer ground
ln thls age that draws the peoples of the earth closer
together along paths of peace, and of strlfe too, to jolnt
and collectlve responslbllltles, and that spends lts own
energles ln dlspatchlng greetlngs and good wlshes far
over land and sea. Jagore, though, ln thoughtlmpelllng
plctures, has shown us how all thlngs temporal are swal
lowed up ln the eternal.
Jlme ls endless ln thy hands, my lord.
Jhere ls none to count thy mlnutes.
Days and nlghts pass and ages bloom and fade llke flow
ers. Jhou knowest how to walt.
Jhy centurles follow each other perfectlng a small wlld
flower.
We have no tlme to lose, and havlng no tlme, we must
scramble for our chances. We are too poor to be late.
And thus lt ls that tlme goes by, whlle I glve lt to every
querulous man who clalms lt, and thlne altar ls empty
of all offerlngs to the last.
At the end of the day I hasten ln fear lest thy gate be shut;
but lf I flnd that yet there ls tlme.
(d~~I 82)
| Jhe Nobel Ioundatlon, l9l3.|
q~W _~ p
Tclcgrom from Togorc, rcod by Mr. Clivc, ritisl
Clorgc d`Zffoircs, ot tlc òbcl ovquct ot Crovd Htcl,
Stocllolm, 10 Dcccmbcr 191J:
I beg to convey to the Swedlsh Academy my
grateful appreclatlon of the breadth of understandlng
whlch has brought the dlstant near, and has made a
stranger a brother.
| Jhe Nobel Ioundatlon, l9l3. Rablndranath Jagore
151
p r
(20 Moy 1SS2 - 10 uvc 1949)
`~~ _
Iocific Iutlcrov Uvivcrsity
Jhls entry was expanded by Claudla Berguson from her
Lndset entry ln DI 297: Twcvtictl-Ccvtury òrwcgiov !rit-
crs.
BOOKS. Iru Morto Uulic (Krlstlanla. Aschehoug, l907);
Dcv lyllcligc oldcr (Krlstlanla. Aschehoug, l908);
Iortllivgcv om !igo-Ijot og !igdis (Krlstlanla. Aschehoug,
l909); enlarged as Iortllivgcv om !igo-Ijot og !ig-
dis; og, Sovlt Holvords liv, dd og jrtcgv (Oslo.
Aschehoug, l925); orlglnal verslon translated by
Arthur G. Chater as Cuvvor`s Dougltcr (New
York. Knopf, l936; London. Cassell, l938);
Uvgdom: diltc (Krlstlanla. Aschehoug, l9l0); repub
llshed as Uvgdom: dilt, wlth drawlngs by Lndset
and afterword by Chrlstlanne LndsetSvarstad
(Oslo. Aschehoug, l986);
cvvy (Krlstlanla. Aschehoug, l9ll); translated by Wlll
lam Emm as cvvy (London. Gyldendal, l920;
New York. Knopf, l92l);
Iottigc Sljcbvcr (Krlstlanla. Aschehoug, l9l2)lncludes
'Selma Brter," 'Irken SmlthJellefsen," and
'Slmonsen," translated by Naoml Walford as
'Selma Brter," 'Mlss SmlthJellefsen," and
'Slmonsen," respectlvely, ln Iour Storics (New
York. Knopf, l959); and 'Omkrlng sdllgheds
ballet," translated by |anet Garton as 'Jhe Char
lty Ball," ln Zv Ivcrydoy Story: òrwcgiov !omcv`s
Iictiov, edlted by Katherlne Hanson (Seattle. Seal
Press, l981). pp. 76-96;
!oorcv (Krlstlanla. Aschehoug, l9l1);
Iortllivgcr om Iovg Zrtur og riddcrvc ov dct ruvdc bord
(Krlstlanla. Aschehoug, l9l5);
Splivtcv ov troldspcilct (Ckrlstlanla. Aschehoug, l9l7;
revlsed, l92l)lncludes 'Iru Hjelde," translated
by Chater as Imogcs iv o Mirror (New York. Knopf,
l938; London. Cassell, l938);
Dc llolc jomfrucr (Krlstlanla. Aschehoug, l9l8)lncludes
'Jhjodolf," translated by Naoml Walford, ln Iour
Storics (New York. Knopf, l959);
It lvivdcsyvspuvlt (Krlstlanla. Aschehoug, l9l9);
Iristiv Iovrovsdottcr, 3 volumes (Krlstlanla. Aschehoug,
l920-l922)comprlses Irovscv (l920), translated
by Charles Archer and |. S. Scott as Tlc ridol
!rcotl (New York. Knopf, l923); Husfruc (l92l),
translated by Archer as Tlc Mistrcss of Husoby
(New York. Knopf, l925); and Iorsct (l922),
translated by Archer as Tlc Cross (New York.
Knopf, l927);
Ulov Zuduvssv i Hcstvilcv (Oslo. Aschehoug, l925);
translated by Chater ln two volumes as Tlc Mostcr
of Hcstvilcv: Tlc Zxc (New York. Knopf, l928) and
Tlc Mostcr of Hcstvilcv: Tlc Svolc Iit (New York.
Knopf, l929);
Ulov Zuduvssv og lovs brv (Oslo. Aschehoug, l927);
translated by Chater ln two volumes as Tlc Mostcr
p r ~ I ~ k~ NVQMI
d~ ~ Eq i mLd f~F
155
ai_ PPO p r
of Hcstvilcv: Iv tlc !ildcrvcss (New York. Knopf,
l929) and Tlc Mostcr of Hcstvilcv: Tlc Sov Zvcvgcr
(New York. Knopf, l930);
Iotlolsl propogovdo (Oslo. Aschehoug, l927);
Itoppcr (Oslo. Aschehoug, l929);
Cymvodcvio (Oslo. Aschehoug, l929); translated by
Chater as Tlc !ild Urclid (New York. Knopf,
l93l; London. Cassell, l93l);
Dcv brvvcvdc busl, two volumes (Oslo. Aschehoug,
l930); translated by Chater as Tlc urvivg usl
(New York. Knopf, l932; London. Cassell,
l932);
Ido Ilisobctl (Oslo. Aschehoug, l932); translated by
Chater as Ido Ilisobctl (New York. Knopf, l933;
London. Cassell, l933);
Itoppcr: `y rcllc (Oslo. Aschehoug, l933); translated by
Chater as Stogcs ov tlc Iood (New York. Knopf,
To curopcislc lclgcvcr (Oslo. Aschehoug, l933);
Illcvc oor (Oslo. Aschehoug, l931); translated by
Chater as Tlc Iovgcst Jcors (New York. Knopf,
Sogos of Soivts, translated by E. C. Ramsden (New York.
Longmans, Green, l931; London. Sheed Ward,
l931); Norweglan verslon publlshed as òrslc lcl-
gcvcr (Oslo. Aschehoug, l937);
Dcv trofostc lustru (Oslo. Aschehoug, l936); translated
by Chater as Tlc Ioitlful !ifc (New York. Knopf,
Sclvportrcttcr og lovdslopsbillcdcr (Oslo. Aschehoug, l938);
translated by Chater as Mcv, !omcv ovd Iloccs
(New York. Knopf, l939; London. Cassell,
l939);
Modomc Dortlco (Oslo. Aschehoug, l939); translated by
Chater as Modomc Dortlco (New York. Knopf,
l910; London. Cassell, l91l);
Icturv to tlc Iuturc (New York. Knopf, l912); translated
from Norweglan by Henrlette C. K. Naeseth,
publlshed ln Norweglan as Tilbolc til Ircmtidcv
Hoppy Timcs iv òrwoy (New York. Knopf, l912; Lon
don. Cassell, l913), translated from Norweglan
by |oran Blrkeland, publlshed ln Norweglan as
Iyllcligc Dogcr (Oslo. Aschehoug, l917);
Sigurd ovd His rovc Compoviovs: Z Tolc of Mcdicvol òrwoy
(New York. Knopf, l913), translated lnto Norwe
glan as Sigurd og lovs toprc vcvvcr by Slgne Lndset
Jhomas (Oslo. Aschehoug, l955);
Stccv Stccvscv liclcr (Copenhagen. Rosenkllde Bag
ger, l916; Oslo. Aschehoug, l957); Cotcrivo ov
Sicvo (Oslo. Aschehoug, l95l); translated by
Kate AustlnLlnd as Cotlcrivc of Sicvo (New
York. Sheed Ward, l951);
I grlysvivgcv: slucspill (Oslo. Aschehoug, l968);
Ustcvfor sol og vcstcvfor mvc (Oslo. Aschehoug, l972);
Dc trc lovgsdtrcvc i bcrgct dct bl (Oslo. Aschehoug,
l973);
Tolv Zr (Oslo. Aschehoug, l998).
b ~ `W Middcloldcr romovcr, l0 vol
umes (Oslo. Aschehoug, l919);
Zrtillcr og tolcr fro lrigstidcv, edlted by A. H. Wlnsnes
Iirlc og llostcrliv, lntroductlon by Hallvard RleberMohn
(Oslo. Cappelen, l963);
Iomovcr og fortcllivgcr fro vtidcv, l0 volumes (Oslo.
Aschehoug, l961);
Iritill og tro, edlted by Llv Bllksrud (Oslo. St. Olavs,
l982);
Zrtillcr og cssoys om littcrotur, edlted by |an Danlloff (Oslo.
Aschehoug, l986);
Issoys, edlted by Bllksrud (Oslo. Grndahl Dreyer,
l996);
Iortcllivgcr i utvolg (Oslo. Aschehoug, l999);
Tlc Uvlvowv Sigrid Uvdsct: cvvy ovd Utlcr !orls, trans
lated by Jllna Nunnally, edlted by Jlm Page
(South Royalton, Vt.. Steerforth Press, 200l);
Sigrid Uvdsct: Issoys og Zrtillcr 1910-1919, edlted by
Bllksrud (Oslo. Aschehoug, 2001);
Sigrid Uvdsct: Issoys og Zrtillcr 1920-1929, edlted by
Bllksrud (Oslo. Aschehoug, 2005);
Sigrid Uvdsct: Issoys og Zrtillcr 19J0-19J9, edlted by
Bllksrud (Oslo. Aschehoug, 2006).
b bW Tlc Mostcr of Hcstvilcv, translated
by Arthur G. Chater (London. Cassell, l931);
Iour Storics, translated by Naoml Walford (New York.
Knopf, l959)comprlses 'Selma Brter," 'Jhjo
dolf," 'Mlss SmlthJellefsen," and 'Slmonsen";
Iristiv Iovrovsdottcr, translated by Charles Archer and |. S.
Scott (London. Abacus, l995);
Tlc !rcotl, translated by Jllna Nunnally (New York.
Penguln, l997);
Cuvvor`s Dougltcr, translated by Chater, edlted by Sher
rlll Harblson (New York. Penguln, l998);
Tlc !ifc, translated by Nunnally (New York. Penguln,
l999);
Tlc Cross, translated by Nunnally (New York. Penguln,
2000).
PLAY PRODLCJION. I grlysvivgcv, Oslo, Oslo Nye
Jeater, l958.
PRODLCED SCRIPJ. I grlysvivgcv, NRK Radlote
atret, l August l953.
OJHER. Trc sogocr om islvdivgcr, translated by Lndset
(Krlstlanla. Aschehoug, l923);
'Strmmen tyner," ln òrsl Soguluvst, edlted by Rlkard
Berge (Krlstlanla. Aschehoug, l921). l38-l57;
156
p r ai_ PPO
Robert Hugh Benson, Iristus i lirlcv, translated by Lnd
set (Oslo. Aschehoug, l926);
Benson, Iristi vcvslop, translated by Lndset (Oslo.
Aschehoug, l928);
Peter Chrlstlan Asbjrnsen and |rgen Moe, Truc ovd
Uvtruc, edlted by Lndset (New York. Knopf,
l915);
Introductlon, ln Steen Steensen Bllcher, Twclvc Storics by
Stccv Stccvscv liclcr, translated by Hanna Astrup
Larsen (Prlnceton. Prlnceton Lnlverslty Press,
l915);
Introductlon, ln Jore rjaster, !iljcv og logvodcv: Dilt i
utvol (Oslo. Norll, l916).
Slgrld Lndset recelved the Nobel Prlze ln Lltera
ture ln l928 'prlnclpally for her powerful descrlptlon of
Northern llfe durlng the Mlddle Ages." Lndset was
then fortyslx years old and had been a publlshed
author for twentyone years. She became the thlrd Nor
weglan, followlng Bjrnstjerne Bjrnson ln l903 and
Knut Hamsun ln l920, and the thlrd woman, followlng
Selma Lagerlf ln l909 and Grazla Deledda ln l926, to
wln the prestlglous award. Jhe prlze recognlzed Lnd
set`s greatest hlstorlcal novels, the trllogy Iristiv Iovrovs-
dottcr (l920-l922; Irovscv, translated as Tlc ridol
!rcotl, l923; Husfruc, translated as Tlc Mistrcss of Hus-
oby, l925; and Iorsct, translated as Tlc Cross, l927) and
the twovolume eplc Ulov Zuduvssv i Hcstvilcv (l925;
translated as Tlc Mostcr of Hcstvilcv: Tlc Zxc, l928, and
Tlc Mostcr of Hcstvilcv: Tlc Svolc Iit, l929) and Ulov
Zuduvssv og lovs brv (l927; translated as Tlc Mostcr of
Hcstvilcv: Iv tlc !ildcrvcss, l929, and Tlc Mostcr of Hcst-
vilcv: Tlc Sov Zvcvgcr, l930). Jhe powerful portrayal of
the llfe of Krlstln Lavransdatter, especlally, attracted the
attentlon of hlstorlans and llterary crltlcs and prompted
Lndset`s nomlnatlon for the Nobel Prlzeflrst ln l922,
and then ln l925, l926, and l928. Per Hallstrm,
Nobel Commlttee chalrman, ln hls presentatlon of the
award at the ceremony ln Stockholm, pralsed Lndset`s
deplctlon of the lnner llves of her medleval characters.
He noted brlefly the concern of some crltlcs that Lnd
set had added fantasy to hlstorlcal fact ln her presenta
tlon of medleval psychologlcal detall, but lnslsted, 'the
hlstorlan`s clalm ls not absolute. the poet has at least an
equal rlght to express hlmself when he relles on a solld
and lntultlve knowledge of the human soul." In her
brlef speech at the Nobel Prlze banquet, Lndset began,
'I wrlte more readlly than I speak and I am especlally
reluctant to talk about myself. Instead, I wlsh to offer a
salute to Sweden." She then commented on the shared
humanlty of the peoples of the Scandlnavlan Penlnsula
and concluded her speech wlth greetlngs from Norwe
glan government offlclals and frlends.
Jhe prlze compllcated Lndset`s already amblva
lent response to her llfe as a wellknown author and her
averslon to medla lntruslons on her prlvate llfe. On the
other hand, the Nobel Prlze marked the culmlnatlon of
her efforts to wrlte hlstorlcal flctlon recognlzed for lts
poetry as well as lts reallsm. Whlle Lndset`s master
plece, Iristiv Iovrovsdottcr, already had attracted lnterna
tlonal acclalm, the Nobel Prlze also secured Lndset`s
place as an lnternatlonally known author and one of
Norway`s most slgnlflcant authors of the twentleth cen
tury. Jhe predlctlon of a dlssentlng member of the
Nobel commlttee that 'jag vgar tro, att hennes
romaner lnom kort tld komma att sakna lsare" (I dare
belleve, that her novels wlll wlthln a short tlme lack
readers) proved to be remarkably off target. Jhe trllogy
Iristiv Iovrovsdottcr has been ln contlnuous prlnt slnce
lts orlglnal publlcatlon and has been translated lnto
more than seventy languages.
Jhe whole of Lndset`s authorshlp from l907 to
l939 ls lnformed by keen lntellectual observatlon,
remarkable knowledge of medleval hlstory and lltera
ture, and a sharply reallstlc vlew of the human experl
ence ln the world. In addltlon to hlstorlcal novels,
Lndset wrote more than twenty novels and collectlons
of short storles. Her oeuvre also lncludes several chll
dren`s books, plays, early poems, haglographles, a blog
raphy, several works of translatlon, and many essays
that provlde rlch lnslght lnto her vlews on llterature,
rellglon, and the soclal lssues of her tlme. As a young
author Lndset qulckly found that poetry and drama
were not sulted to her talents and the toplcs she wlshed
to address. She turned to the novel, short story, and
essay as the genres that best accommodated her deter
mlnatlon to address the condltlons of her tlme.
Llke many authors of the flrst decades of the
twentleth century, Lndset responded to llfe ln a rapldly
changlng soclety through her wrltlng. She was a bold
skeptlc of modernlty who regarded further trends
toward lndustrlallzatlon, materlallsm, and a focus on
the lndlvldual as threats to soclal stablllty. Lndset cred
lted her early educatlon ln the freethlnklng school of
Ragna Nlelsen for her llfelong warlness of 'alt som
smakte av utvlkllngstro, fremskrlttsglede og program
mer" (everythlng that smacked of falth ln development,
joy of progress, and the programs). In her flctlon as well
as her nonflctlon, Lndset presented her own perspec
tlves on the changlng roles for women ln soclety, the
poverty of a modern culture that forgets lts past, and
confllcts ln values and norms ln dally llfe.
Jhough she ls best known as a wrlter of the hls
torlcal novel, Lndset was decldedly a wrlter of her
tlme. In the years l907 to l9l9, Lndset focused prlma
rlly on women`s roles ln modern soclety. Her polemlcs
agalnst abortlon, women`s place ln natlonal polltlcs,
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and what she vlewed as overly optlmlstlc rhetorlc of the
women`s movement became more nuanced ln her early
short storles and novels. Jhese are storles of urban women
struggllng ln marrlage, of slngle worklngwomen ln the
gray everyday of Norway`s capltal clty of Krlstlanla
(presentday Oslo), and of women strlvlng to comblne
tradltlonal roles wlth dreams of artlstlc creatlvlty. Jhe
l920s were Lndset`s most productlve years as an artlst
and the most transformatlve years of her personal llfe.
Jhough the fate of women remalns a central focus
throughout Lndset`s authorshlp, the hlstorlcal novels of
h i~~~ and l~ ^ reset the search
for lntegrlty and truth to the Mlddle Ages, the lnner llfe
of the soul, and the extended rellglous pllgrlmage. Llke
her Norweglan 'new reallst" contemporarles Olav
Duun and |ohan Ialkberget, Lndset found expresslon
ln her hlstorlcal eplc flctlon for her respect for hlstory
and soclal contlnulty. At the same tlme as the author
devoted herself to the wrltlng of her eplcs, she began to
explore the teachlngs of the Roman Cathollc falth, con
vertlng to Cathollclsm ln l921. Her rellglous falth
became more and more a part of her practlce of dally
llfe and a source of lnsplratlon for both her flctlon and
her nonflctlon wrltlng. Lndset`s llterary productlon ln
the l930s, largely contemporary novels wlth a rellglous
tone, ls wldely vlewed as less compelllng and of lesser
quallty. On the other hand, Lndset`s contlnued explo
ratlon of rellglous thought and experlence durlng thls
tlme presents personal and cultural lnslght lnto the pro
cess of converslon ln a largely Lutheran, post-World
War I soclety. Lndset`s wrltlng from the l910s reflects
the unsettled polltlcal tlmes ln whlch she wrote. She
wrote no major works of llterature durlng thls perlod,
though her reflectlve pleces on her experlences ln Nor
way, her narratlves for chlldren, and her attentlon to
classlc works of Scandlnavlan llterature offer gllmpses
of a llterary mlnd at work ln exlle.
In respondlng to the early l900s, Lndset wrote
from convlctlons flrmly rooted ln the bellef that the tra
dltlons of a past could greatly lnform the present and
the future. She was not lnterested ln merely wrltlng
agalnst the current of modern thought. Her essays cast
slgnlflcant llght on the ways ln whlch she often func
tloned as an lmportant dlssentlng volce that could
sound reactlonary and antlfemlnlst at tlmes, yet uncom
promlslngly engaged ln the soclal debate of her tlme. In
her flctlon, Lndset attalns her hlghest artlstlc accom
pllshment and greatest crltlcal acclalm ln those texts ln
whlch she allows her characters, whether medleval or
modern, to remaln wlthln the tenslons and amblgultles
of llfe. In these works, multlple perspectlves and exact
lng detall deplct a reallst`s worldvlew of ethlcal, moral,
and rellglous cholces.
Jhe maklng of Lndset lnto a Nobel author ls to
be found as much ln her lndlvldual determlnatlon as ln
the lnfluence of famlly and the cultural collectlve. Lnd
set was the flrst chlld of Ingvald and Charlotte Lndset.
Her father was a renowned archaeologlst whose work
had taken hlm and hls wlfe to many sltes ln Europe.
Jhe onset of a serlous lllness made lt necessary for
Ingvald Lndset to return to Scandlnavla from Rome ln
l882. He and hls wlfe chose to come to Kalundborg,
Denmark, Charlotte`s chlldhood home. Slgrld was
born there on 20 May l882. Her early chlldhood mem
orles of Kalundborg are recounted ln many works,
lncludlng b ~~ (l931, Eleven Years; translated as
q i v~I l935) and 'Strmmen tyner" (Jhe
Current Weakens) ln k (l921, Jhe Art of
Norweglan Iolk Narratlve). Her memorles of the flne
famlly home, the oldfashloned vlllage square, and the
bedtlme tales told by her aunt Slgne all lend a storybook
quallty to her place of blrth. Jhough Kalundborg was
Lndset`s home for the flrst two years of her llfe only,
she malntalned her connectlon to her Danlsh roots
through vlslts to her relatlves, a keen lnterest ln Danlsh
llterature and hlstory, and, ln later years, vlslts wlth
Danlsh colleagues and frlends.
In l881 Lndset moved wlth her parents and her
younger slster, Ragnhlld, to her father`s natlve Norway.
Jhey settled ln Krlstlanla, where the famlly grew to flve
wlth the blrth of Slgrld`s youngest slster, Slgne. Wlthln
the home, Lndset and her slsters grew up ln a rlch envl
ronment of Scandlnavlan hlstory, medleval llterature,
folklore, and creatlve storytelllng. Lndset remembers ln
partlcular the lmportance of her father to her chlld
hood, reflectlng, 'Mlne forestllllnger og mlt fataslllv var
llke tll jeg kom paa skole dlrekte og lndlrekte bestemt
av mln far og hans arbelde. Hans blbllotek og lllle sam
llng av nordlske, sydeuroplske og lllleaslatlske old
saker var det domlnerende l hjemmets utstyr" (Rlght
up untll I started school my ldeas and my fantasy llfe
were dlrectly and lndlrectly determlned by my father
and hls work. Hls llbrary and small collectlon of Nor
dlc, Southern European, and Asla Mlnor artlfacts were
the domlnatlng ltems ln the home).
Ingvald Lndset contrlbuted hls archaeologlcal
expertlse ln the early Iron Age ln northern Europe to
hls work at the Museum of Antlqultles ln Krlstlanla.
Hours spent wlth her father at the museum opened
Slgrld`s eyes and mlnd to the world of medleval Scandl
navla. Her father`s famlly also lntroduced her to the
sagas. Lndset recalls that whlle vlsltlng her relatlves ln
Jrondhelm as a young glrl, she was challenged to tackle
the Icelandlc k p~~ (clrca l300). Jhls story captl
vated her, and Lndset later ln llfe proclalmed that read
lng thls saga was a turnlng polnt ln her llfe. Jhough
Ingvald Lndset`s dream that hls daughter would follow
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ln hls footsteps and become an archaeologlst dld not
come true, the lnterest Slgrld lnherlted for medleval hls
tory and llterature grew lnto the creatlon of the most
lntrlcate worlds of her flctlon. Lndset`s father dled ln
l893 when she was eleven years old. Irom thls tlme, ln
addltlon to an lntellectually prlvlleged upbrlnglng, eco
nomlc challenges for Lndset, her mother, and two
younger slsters became part of everyday reallty.
Lndset was schooled at home untll the age of
elght. She began her formal educatlon at the Ragna
Nlelsen School, a polltlcally llberal, coeducatlonal
school whose progresslve outlook dld not lmpress Lnd
set as much as lt dld others. In a blographlcal essay
wrltten ln conjunctlon wlth her acceptance of the Nobel
Prlze, Lndset descrlbed her reslstance to the teachlng of
the school. 'jeg rullet meg sammen som et plnnsvln, og
som et llte plnnsvln trlllet jeg opp gjennom skolen" (I
curled myself up llke a hedgehog, and llke a llttle hedge
hog I rolled up through school). Lpon her father`s
death, Slgrld and her slsters were offered a chance to
contlnue at Ragna Nlelsen`s school free of charge. At
the age of slxteen, however, Lndset declded not to con
tlnue her study to the next academlc level. Instead, she
took a oneyear course at a commerclal school, where
she recelved an educatlon to do secretarlal work.
Lpon flnlshlng thls tralnlng ln l899, Lndset
obtalned a posltlon ln the Krlstlanla offlce of the Ger
man englneerlng flrm Zllgcmcivc Ililtricitots-Ccscllscloft.
She regarded her flrst career as a place where she 'lrte
utfre et arbeld som jeg lkke llkte, og utfre det godt"
(learned among other thlngs to do work I dld not care
for, and to do lt well). Lndset`s flctlon reveals that her
years of offlce work provlded her wlth more than just a
means of supportlng herself and her famlly. She often
drew upon her experlences ln the mllleu of thls every
day mlddleclass Krlstlanla for the creatlon of a reallstlc
urban landscape ln her contemporary flctlon.
In the hours and days Lndset was not worklng at
her offlce job, she contlnued to pursue her lnterests ln
art and llterature. Early correspondence wlth her Swed
lsh pen pal Dea (Andrea Hedberg) offers the best
gllmpse of Lndset`s artlstlc asplratlons durlng her late
teens and early twentles. On 8 March l902 Lndset
wrote to Dea, '. . . jeg vll skabe kunst. Det er det eneste
jeg nsker. Men det er luvstvcr, jeg vll vre, lvivdclig
kunstner og lkke en pennebrugende dame" (I want to
create art. Jhat ls the only thlng I want. But lt ls an ort-
ist I want to be, a womov artlst and not a penwleldlng
lady).
She wrote some poetry, and a collectlon of her
poems was publlshed ln l9l0 under the tltle Uvgdom
(Youth). But the genre of the novel most occupled Lnd
set from the beglnnlng. Letters to Dea make clear that
the lnltlal concepts for the eplcs Iristiv Iovrovsdottcr and
Ulov Zuduvssv were already formlng and belng put to
paper ln the early years of the l900s. Lndset`s flrst
medleval creatlon, the story of Svend Jrst, was later
developed lnto the trllogy Iristiv Iovrovsdottcr. Jhe eplc
Ulov Zuduvssv grew out of her second prose plece,
whlch related the llfe of the flctlonal Aage Nlelssn. In
l905 Lndset traveled to Gyldendal Publlshlng House
ln Copenhagen to submlt thls flrst completed manu
scrlpt, whlch she had tltled 'Aage Nlelssn tll Llvholm"
(Aage Nlelssn of Llvholm). Jhe publlsher was less
than enthuslastlc about Lndset`s flrst work. He sug
gested, ln fact, that Lndset not attempt the hlstorlcal
novel agaln and encouraged her to try her hand at wrlt
lng 'somethlng modern" lnstead. Jhe rejectlon of thls
flrst manuscrlpt lndeed prompted Lndset to turn to
wrltlng a novel set ln her own tlme. In l907 Aschehoug
Publlshlng House accepted Lndset`s flrst modern
novel, Iru Morto Uulic (Mrs. Marta Oulle), for publlca
tlon.
Wlth the openlng statement, '|eg har vret mln
mand utro" (I have been unfalthful to my husband),
Lndset boldly lntroduced a novel wlth themes that
became central to her authorshlp. Jhe protagonlst`s
ldeals are exposed as llluslon, and she ls left to face the
often lessthanbeautlful realltles of marrlage, relatlon
shlps, and personal falllblllty. Iru Morto Uulic ls Lndset`s
only novel wrltten ln dlary form. Jhe protagonlst,
Marta, recounts the story of her marrlage and the feel
lng of gullt for her affalr wlth her husband`s colleague.
Lpon her husband`s death, Marta refuses her lover
Henrlk`s marrlage proposal. Jhe novel offers no happy
endlng. Marta`s attempts through her dlary to 'stllle
mln egen bldende smerte" (qulet my own bleedlng
paln) are only partlally successful. Her past ls all too
present and the future far from certaln. Iru Morto Uulic
ls a short novel, but ln subject matter and style lt
announced Lndset`s ablllty to wrlte flctlon that was
both unsentlmental and hlghly reveallng of the psycho
loglcal turmoll of a modern woman`s llfe.
A year later, Lndset followed wlth her next work
of contemporary flctlon, a collectlon of four short sto
rles, Dcv lyllcligc oldcr (l908, Jhe Happy Age). In thls
work, Lndset expands her gallery of female characters
to lnclude ln the story 'Et halvt dusln lommetrklder"
(A Half Dozen Handkerchlefs) a young schoolglrl and,
ln the two longest of these storles, 'En fremmed" (A
Stranger) and 'Den lykkellge alder," unmarrled women
worklng ln Krlstlanla. Jhe story 'Drm" (Dream)
marks the exceptlon among the storles of the collectlon
and an unusual lnterlude ln Lndset`s flctlon wrltlng as
a whole. Wrltten ln the flrst person, the story contrasts
llfe and death, and nature and the grotesque, ln an
unreal world of dreams.
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In l909 Lndset`s thlrd work of flctlon, Iortllivgcv
om !igo-Ijot og !igdis (Jhe Jale of VlgaLjot and Vlgdls;
translated as Cuvvor`s Dougltcr, l936) was publlshed. In
lt, Lndset returns to the Mlddle Ages as a flctlonal set
tlng. Jhough thls novel, often vlewed as a saga pas
tlche, does not measure up to her later medleval eplcs,
lt nevertheless demonstrates her knowledge of medleval
hlstory and llterary style as well as her ablllty to bulld
an lntense narratlve around the themes of the
malefemale relatlonshlp and of vlolatlon and revenge.
Jhe award of a wrlter`s stlpend ln l909 gave
Lndset new freedom and tlme to devote to her wrltlng.
In May l909 she qult her offlce job and traveled flrst to
Denmark, then through Germany, on her way to Italy.
Lndset spent the tlme from late l909 to the sprlng of
l9l0 ln Rome. She followed a long tradltlon of Scandl
navlan artlsts and wrlters who had come to llve ln
Rome, and the sense ls that, llke many of her predeces
sors, Lndset was lnsplred by the Itallan settlng to a new
sense of freedom and a hlgher artlstlc vlslon. Among
the Scandlnavlans she met ln Rome was Norweglan
palnter Anders Castus Svarstad. He later became her
husband. Jhey were marrled ln l9l2, after Svarstad
had obtalned a dlvorce from hls wlfe. Durlng her stay
ln Rome, Lndset sent artlcles and travel descrlptlons
home for publlcatlon ln Norweglan newspapers. Her
maln focus, however, was her flctlon. On l2 December
l909 Lndset wrote enthuslastlcally to her frlend,
author Nlls Collett Vogt, '|eg har faat en brndende
lyst tll at skrlve noget rlktlg godt hernede" (I have got
ten the burnlng deslre to wrlte somethlng really good
down here). Lndset chose the settlng of Rome for the
beglnnlng of her new novel, cvvy (l9ll; translated as
cvvy, l920). She completed thls contemporary narra
tlve upon her return to Krlstlanla ln l9l0.
cvvy was Lndset`s breakthrough novel. It ls a
powerful narratlve of the selfdestructlon of |enny
Wlnge, an ldeallstlc young woman, lnexperlenced ln
love, who ls strlvlng to reallze her dreams to become an
artlst. In Rome, |enny meets the unlmaglnatlve Helge
Gram, a Norweglan student who stands ln stark con
trast to |enny`s bohemlan artlst frlends. Her exploratlon
of erotlc deslre wlth Helge proves to be the beglnnlng of
|enny`s downfall, as she vlews her relatlonshlp wlth a
man she does not love as a slgn of her own fallure to
walt for her 'lcrrc (master). In a vlslt to Krlstlanla,
|enny has an affalr wlth Helge`s father, Gert, and
becomes pregnant by hlm. |enny leaves for Germany,
where she glves blrth to a son. But upon the death of
her baby boy, llfe beglns to ebb for |enny as well. In
Rome once agaln, Helge Gram flnds |enny and forces
hls love upon her. After Helge leaves, |enny takes her
own llfe. Jhe tragedy of |enny`s llfe ls summed up by
her frlend Gunnar, who ln hls grlef recognlzes the
lmposslble ldeals that |enny had sought to llve by.
'Ingen kvlnne har fdt det barn hun drmte om da
hun glkk svanger. Ingen kunstner har skapt det verk
han s for seg l unnfangelsens stund. Og vl lever som
mer etter sommer, men lngen er den vl lengtet mot, da
vl byde oss og plukket de vte blomster under vrens
stormbyger"
(No woman has glven blrth to the chlld she
dreamed of when she was pregnant. No artlst has cre
ated the work he envlsloned at the tlme of lts concep
tlon. And we llve summer after summer, but none ls
the one we longed for, when we bent down and plcked
the wet flowers under the sprlng`s storm clouds.)
Jhe novel cvvy generated much dlscusslon.
Whlle llterary crltlcs pralsed cvvy for lts stark reallsm
and honesty, a segment of the publlc crltlclzed the novel
as belng lmmoral for lts portrayal of a bohemlan llfe
style and erotlc deslre. Stlll others, lncludlng those
worklng for women`s rlghts, objected to Lndset`s cre
atlon of a female character ln search of a master lnstead
of her freedom. Ior Lndset, the publlc reactlon was not
surprlslng, nor was lt the most lmportant response to
her work. In a letter she wrote to Vogt on 28 Iebruary
l9l2, Lndset admlts she was uncertaln lf her wrltlng
would brlng a good result, but she was 'glad for at de
andre kunstnere, hvls dom jeg bryr meg om, sler at
'|enny` er god" (happy that the other artlsts, whose
judgment I care about, say that '|enny" ls good).
As Lndset developed as an artlst, the clrcle of fel
low artlsts, authors, and scholars of llterature, folklore,
and hlstory came to be a source of mutual support,
lnformed crltlclsm, and consultatlon. She was a mem
ber of Den norske forfatterforenlngen (Jhe Norweglan
Authors` Lnlon) throughout her career, and she served
as the chalrperson of the organlzatlon from l935 to
l910. In addltlon to her contact wlth Vogt and other
male wrlters and scholars, women authors of the tlme
most lmportant, Nlnl Roll Ankercame to be her
frlends. Partlcularly up untll the mld l920s Anker was
the frlend ln whom Lndset conflded her trlumphs and
concerns as she gradually took on the challenge of bal
anclng the roles of wlfe, mother, and author. Many of
Lndset`s letters, lncludlng correspondence wlth Vogt
and Anker, attest to both the common and uncommon
aspects of Lndset`s llfe.
Wlth the success of cvvy, a second stlpend
allowed Lndset to spend another extended perlod of
tlme abroad. In |une l9l2 she and Svarstad were mar
rled at the Norweglan Consulate ln Antwerp, Belglum.
Jhey then went on to England, where Lndset wrote
her next collectlon of short storles, Iottigc Sljcbvcr (l9l2,
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Poor Iates; three storles of whlch were translated ln
Iour Storics, l959). Lacklng the bold beglnnlng of her
debut novel and the traglc concluslon of her break
through novel, Iottigc Sljcbvcr nonetheless presents
Lndset`s lntlmate, sympathetlc, and at tlmes, subtly
humorous vlews of the llves of worklngmen and women
ln Krlstlanla. In these short storles, Lndset contlnued to
use what she vlewed as darlng language to deplct the
dlscusslon of sexual relatlonshlps. In fact, Lndset
related ln a letter to Anker on l6 November l9l2 that
she consldered the story 'Irken SmlthJellefsen"
(translated as 'Mlss SmlthJellefsen," ln Iour Storics) to
be 'det brutaleske jeg noen gang har skrevet" (the most
brutal I have ever wrltten). A dlfferent narratlve strat
egy can be found ln the story 'Selma Brter" (trans
lated as 'Selma Brter," ln Iour Storics), ln whlch the
story of women ln the clutches of offlce gosslp ls told
wlth speclal lrony. Lndset`s clear understandlng and
sympathy for young worklngwomen ls partlcularly con
veyed ln the story 'Omkrlng Sdellghedsballet" (trans
lated as 'Jhe Charlty Ball," ln Zv Ivcrydoy Story:
òrwcgiov !omcv`s Iictiov, l981), ln whlch the maln char
acter, seamstress Ellna, and her frlend Arnljot engage ln
a dlscusslon of the contrastlng llves of slngle worklng
women and thelr marrled counterparts. Ellna remarks,
'|eg vet bare det, jeg, de som er rlke, de skulle betale
oss ordentllg, som sllter for demhellere enn fly sta og
danse lsammen rednlngshjem for gatejenter l kjoler som
dem skylder p" (I just know that those who are rlch,
they should pay us decently, all of us who wear our
selves out for themrather than fllt around and dance
together a shelter for street glrls ln dresses they owe
money on). In the same year that the novel Iottigc
Sljcbvcr was publlshed, Lndset also wrote the artlcle
'Noen kvlnnesaksbetraknlnger" (Some Observatlons
on the Women`s Issue), publlshed ln l9l9 ln It lvivdc-
syvspuvlt. Comparlsons between thls nonflctlon essay
and Lndset`s short storles wrltten ln the same tlme
perlod provlde valuable gllmpses lnto how Lndset
transformed her realllfe vlews lnto the multlvolced dls
course of her flctlon.
In December l9l2 Lndset and her husband
made thelr way from London to Rome. Jhere they
llved and worked ln the same quarters ln whlch they
had llved several years earller. In |anuary l9l3 thelr
flrst son, Anders, was born. Lndset`s role as a mother
took precedence over her work as an author durlng thls
tlme. She became lncreaslngly concerned for her son,
who was not thrlvlng, desplte local medlcal care, and
she flnally returned wlth hlm to Krlstlanla for further
medlcal treatment. Her husband remalned ln Rome for
a tlme and jolned hls famlly ln Norway ln the summer
of l9l3.
Durlng the years from l9l3 to l9l9 the tlme to
wrlte became a scarce commodlty for Lndset. She and
her husband moved several tlmes ln those years, flrst
llvlng ln Skl near Krlstlanla, and then movlng lnto Krls
tlanla ln l9l6. Jhey also adjusted to a constantly grow
lng famlly. Lndset gave blrth to her second chlld,
Maren Charlotte, ln l9l5. Jhe gradual reallzatlon that
her daughter was mentally dlsabled added to Lndset`s
concern and commltment to her famlly. In Krlstlanla,
the household grew to lnclude Svarstad`s three chlldren
by hls flrst marrlage. Even wlth domestlc help, Lndset`s
dedlcatlon to belng wlfe, mother, stepmother, and
author proved to be a challenge.
Lndset`s llterary productlon ln these years ls var
led. Her next modern novel, !oorcv (Sprlng), was pub
llshed ln l9l1. Jhe novel ls generally vlewed as one ln
whlch a morallzlng tone overwhelms the aesthetlc qual
lty. Lndset`s lnterest ln hlstorlcal legend lnsplred her ln
her next wrltlng, a retelllng of a wellknown legend,
Iortllivgcr om Iovg Zrtur og riddcrvc ov dct ruvdc bord
(l9l5, Jales of Klng Arthur and the Knlghts of the
Round Jable). Irom the tales of Klng Arthur, Lndset
returned to the portrayal of dlstlnctly modern subjects
ln her next work, Splivtcv ov troldspcilct (l9l7, Jhe Splln
ter ln the Jroll Mlrror). Jhe two storles that make up
thls work, 'Iru Hjelde" (translated as Imogcs iv o Mirror,
l938) and 'Iru Waage," descrlbe the dllemma of the
young wlfe who must choose between husband and
lover ln her search for happlness. Infldellty ls only a
brlef transgresslon of the accepted soclal framework, as
the marrled woman`s ldeallstlc vlslon of happlness ln an
extramarltal affalr ls 'corrected" by her reallzatlon that
such relatlonshlps do not guarantee joy ln llfe. Jhe two
storles reveal a developlng technlque ln Lndset`s wrlt
lng to engage her own works of flctlon ln dlalogue wlth
one another. Jhe storles respond to one another ln the
maln characters` resolutlons to thelr dllemmasIru
Hjelde ln the flrst story chooses to return to her duty to
her chlldren and husband, whlle the protagonlst of the
second story, Iru Waage, havlng lost both a chlld and
joy ln her marrlage, chooses to dlvorce and remarry.
Lndset contlnues ln the shortstory genre ln her next
work, Dc llolc jomfrucr (l9l8, Jhe Wlse Vlrglns; some
storles translated ln Iour Storics, l959). Whlle Lndset`s
prevlous characters often learned the lessons of llfe
through thelr mlsgulded attempts to choose between
contradlctory values, the female protagonlsts ln Dc llolc
jomfrucr become wlse through experlenclng the lnjustlces
of llfe. Lndset wrltes wlth a llghter hand ln these sto
rles, as she offers no solutlons to the characters` dllem
mas but ends each story wlth the sorrow experlenced
by the protagonlst ln the broken relatlonshlps of glrl
hood frlendshlp, motherhood, and marrlage. Dc llolc
jomfrucr ls the last of Lndset`s contemporary prose ln
16l
ai_ PPO p r
the shortstory genre and the last for many years ln
whlch she uses a contemporary settlng. Seen ln the con
text of her entlre authorshlp, the flctlon works wrltten
from l907 to l9l9 represent an lmportant body of llter
ature ln whlch Lndset establlshes herself as a multl
faceted author, wrltlng both modern and hlstorlcal
works and movlng easlly between the genres of the
novel, short story, and legend.
Whlle Lndset was explorlng llfe`s dllemmas
through the worlds of her flctlon, lt became clearer to
her ln the last years of the l9l0s that her realllfe com
mltment to both famlly and wrltlng was an extremely
dlfflcult project. In a letter to Anker wrltten on 22 Octo
ber l9l8, Lndset relates her sense of lsolatlon and frus
tratlon, concludlng '|eg vet selv at nogentlng maa jeg
gjre nu, for dette gaar fanlvold" (I know myself that
somethlng has to be done now, for thls ls golng to hell).
In l9l9 Lndset`s husband moved to a new home ln
Krlstlanla, and Lndset moved to Llllehammer wlth her
son and daughter. In the same year Lndset gave blrth
to a second son, Hans. What flrst seemed to be a tem
porary separatlon between Lndset and Svarstad proved
to be a more serlous break ln thelr marrlage. In l92l
Lndset bought her home ln Llllehammer and gave lt
the name Bjerkebk. Wlth the exceptlon of the tlme she
spent ln exlle durlng World War II, Bjerkebk was her
home untll her death. Lndset`s marrlage to Svarstad
was dlssolved ln l921. After her move to Llllehammer,
Lndset flrst completed an essay for It lvivdcsyvspuvlt,
the collectlon of artlcles she had wrltten between l9l2
and l9l9 debatlng women`s roles ln soclety. Iollowlng
the publlcatlon of thls collectlon, and flfteen years after
the rejectlon of her flrst medleval novel, Lndset set
about bulldlng the llterary creatlons of her youth lnto
the multlvolume works Iristiv Iovrovsdottcr and Ulov
Zuduvssv. Jhese eplcs represent a phenomenal produc
tlon ln both the volume of wrltlng and the sweeplng
expanse of the flctlonal hlstorlcal landscape. Lndset`s
masterplece, Iristiv Iovrovsdottcr, recelved hlgh pralse
from the beglnnlng for lts captlvatlng story and lts
unprecedented lntegratlon of medleval hlstory and flc
tlon. Recognltlon of her artlstlc talents also took the
form of greater economlc securlty for Lndset as she
was awarded a yearly author`s salary by the Norweglan
government ln l922. In Iristiv Iovrovsdottcr, Lndset
brlngs the vague contours of Norweglan medleval hls
tory lnto sharp lf flctlonal focus. She weaves folklore
and medleval llterature lnto the detalls of medleval hls
tory, creatlng a complex narratlve that follows the llfe of
an lndlvldual across the expanse of romance and rell
glous bellef. Jhe three volumes present the drama of
Krlstln from her chlldhood to her death durlng the
plague of l319. Between these events, the romance and
marrlage between Krlstln Lavransdatter and Erlend
Nlkulausson ls the drlvlng force of the novel. In wln
nlng Erlend, Krlstln defles famlly wlshes and soclal tra
dltlon by breaklng her engagement to thelr llkable
nelghbor, Slmon. Jhe relatlonshlp of the lndlvldual to
collectlve norms establlshed ln the flrst volume ls devel
oped ln the succeedlng volumes of the trllogy, deflnlng
the dllemmas of the lndlvldual`s llfe cholces. Jhe sec
ond volume, Husfruc, contrasts romance and reallty, as
Krlstln`s marrlage to the lrreslstlble but lrresponslble
Erlend becomes a llfelong trlal. Erlend brlngs to Krls
tln`s llfe not only love but also polltlcal lntrlgue, lnfldel
lty, and soclal decllne, promptlng Krlstln lncreaslngly to
seek a moral and rellglous dlrectlon to her llfe. In the
last volume of the trllogy, the tenslon between earthly
and splrltual exlstence reaches lts cllmax and resolutlon.
Jhe knlghtly Erlend dles defendlng Krlstln`s honor,
and Krlstln leaves her famlly home to turn to llfe ln the
servlce of her falth at Reln clolster. She dles wlthln the
clolster walls, a vlctlm among many vlctlms of the
Black Death. In the flnal pages of the eplc, Lndset llfts
Krlstln to a metaphyslcal plane, descrlblng Krlstln`s
flnal vlslon as God`s servant 'eld av den herre og konge
som nu kom, bret p prestens vlede hender, for gl
henne frlhet og frelse" (owned by the lord and klng that
now came, carrled on the prlest`s consecrated hands, to
glve her freedom and salvatlon).
Jhe trllogy was lmmedlately recognlzed as a com
pelllng narratlve wlth an lncredlbly accurate medleval
settlng. At the same tlme, the trllogy contrlbuted to a
debate over the extent to whlch the Cathollc falth was
an lntegral part of Norweglan medleval mentallty. Slnce
the tlme of lts publlcatlon, Iristiv Iovrovsdottcr has con
tlnued to spark much lnterestlng dlscusslon on the rela
tlonshlp of the medleval to the modern ln Lndset`s
hlstorlcal novels.
Lndset`s wrltlng projects ln the years lmmedl
ately followlng the publlcatlon of Iristiv Iovrovsdottcr
focused ln part on efforts to brlng both saga and folk
lore texts to the modern Norweglan reader. Lndset
translated the three Icelandlc sagas !igo-Clum`s sogo,
Iormol`s sogo, and ovdomovvo sogo lnto Norweglan, and
these were publlshed ln the collectlon Trc sogocr om
islvdivgcr (l923, Jhree Sagas of Icelanders). Jo a col
lectlon of tales belng complled by folklorlst Rlkard
Berge and publlshed ln l921 as òrsl soguluvst (Jhe Art
of Norweglan Iolk Narratlve) Lndset contrlbuted a
selectlon of chlldhood folktales as well as the essay
'Strmmen tyner," whlch compared the relatlonshlp of
tradltlonal and modern soclety to folk llterature.
Lndset`s next work of flctlon, Ulov Zuduvssv, had
lts orlgln ln the plot of her rejected manuscrlpt 'Aage
Nlelssn tll Llvholm." Lndset`s Ulov Zuduvssv ls, llke
Iristiv Iovrovsdottcr, set ln the Mlddle Ages. In contrast
to the dramatlc tenslon between daughter and father,
162
p r ai_ PPO
wlfe and husband ln h i~~~I the themes of
l~ ^ are played out ln large part through the
confllct between father and son. In Olav`s son Elrlk are
embodled all the secrets of Olav`s llfe. Elrlk ls ln reallty
not hls son, but the son of the man Olav murdered. As
Olav grows old, and the fate of hls farm Hestvlken ls to
be determlned, he ls faced wlth the responslblllty to
reveal that the rlghtful helr to the farm ls not Elrlk, but
Olav and hls wlfe Ingunn`s daughter, Cecllla. Olav ls
spared exposlng the truth of Elrlk`s parentage and hls
own role ln the murder of Elrlk`s father when Elrlk
hlmself decldes to leave Hestvlken to enter the llfe of
the clolster. Lnderlylng thls story of murder and lnher
ltance ls the psychologlcal and splrltual struggle of Olav
as he contemplates hls rellglous falth and responslblllty
to confess hls sln of murder. Jhe crltlcal receptlon of
l~ ^ was posltlve, but lt dld not acknowledge
new helghts for Lndset. Whlle thls second medleval
work dlsplayed a slmllar lmpresslve hlstorlcal knowl
edge, and lncluded a sophlstlcated lnternal struggle for
lts maln character, l~ ^ was generally vlewed
as more sober than the flrst medleval work, wlth a maln
character whose llfe was less engaglng than Krlstln`s.
Ior her two eplcs set ln the Mlddle Ages, Lndset
was awarded the Nobel Prlze ln Llterature ln l928.
Already ln l922, when she flrst was nomlnated for the
prlze, Lndset recognlzed the ways ln whlch her grow
lng fame affected her llfe. She conflded ln a letter to
Iredrlk Poulson, who had nomlnated her for the prlze,
'Allerede det at jeg nu er bllt svldt 'bermt" passer l
grunden s drllg tll mlgdet er bare det at jeg aldrl har
noen fornemmelse av at det er mlg personllg det
gjlder" (Already the fact that I now have become
somewhat 'famous" sults me actually so poorlylt ls
just that I never have any sense that lt pertalns to me
personally). At the same tlme, she ls qulck to add that
she would not want merely to fade lnto the background
after havlng been publlshed, and she admlts ln the same
letter the dlfflculty of 'at splse sln kake og ha den!" (to
have one`s cake and eat lt too!). |ournallsts` efforts to
ellclt a response from the author upon the news of her
belng named the Nobel Prlzewlnner ln llterature
resulted ln the followlng entry ln Norweglan news
papers.
Sl at jeg er gldellg overrasket, sa Slgrld Lndset. Og
forresten har jeg en sand rdsel for at bll lntervlewet.
|eg kan vlrkellg lkke sl andet enn at jeg er gldellg over
rasket.Og nu maa jeg gaa og sl godnatt tll mlne brn.
Hvorefter fruen med en venllg hllsenforsvandt op trap
pen.
(Say that I am pleasantly surprlsed, sald Slgrld Lnd
set. And by the way I have a true fear of belng lnter
vlewed. I can really not say anythlng else than that I am
pleasantly surprlsed. And now I must go and say good
nlght to my chlldren. Lpon whlch the madam wlth a
frlendly greetlng dlsappeared up the steps.)
Lndset chose to donate her Nobel Prlze money to
three causes, all reflectlng the concerns and passlons of
her llfe. She gave a portlon of the Nobel monetary
award to Den norske forfatterforenlngen (Jhe Norwe
glan Authors` Lnlon) and larger sums to set up two
separate fundsone to asslst famllles wlth mentally dls
abled chlldren ln thelr efforts to care for thelr chlldren
at home and another to support Cathollc famllles ln the
educatlon of thelr chlldren at prlvate Cathollc schools.
Jhe tremendous success of h i~~~ and
the award of the Nobel Prlze only lncreased requests for
Lndset to glve speeches, grant lntervlews, and provlde
monetary support to many dlverse projects and to strang
ers. She responded to many requests, though she contln
ued to be reluctant to grant lntervlews and at tlmes found
the volume of letters requestlng money exasperatlng. In a
letter before Chrlstmas ln l929, Lndset wrote to an aunt,
'var det mange som skrev tll mlg fr og betrodde mlg al
verdens elendlghet, saa er det lkke bllt frre nu. |eg har
lkke hat nogen anmodnlng om at hjelpe nogen som bor
paa Maanen, saa nu er jeg da helt vlss paa at den er ube
boet" (lf there were many who wrote to me before and
conflded to me all the world`s mlsery, there are not any
less now. I haven`t had any request to help someone that
llves on the moon, so now I am totally certaln that lt ls
unlnhablted).
If the success of her medleval novels and recelv
lng the Nobel Prlze lnterrupted her personal llfe, lt dld
not dlstract her from her wrltlng, nor dld lt change the
course of her llfe toward an exploratlon of a Roman
Cathollc past ln Norway and her own Cathollc falth ln
the present. Lndset contlnued her lnvestlgatlon of rell
glous and hlstorlcal themes ln part through contlnulng
to wrlte haglographlc texts. In a letter to llterary hlsto
rlan Iredrlk Paasche on 30 |une l929, however, lt ls
clear that Lndset agaln sought the challenge of lnvestl
gatlng contemporary subjects. In the letter Lndset con
veys her satlsfactlon wlth her progress ln wrltlng
accounts of Norweglan salnts, but she adds as well,
'Men | jeg| lngter efter at bll frdlg og kunne vende tll
bake tll norske syndere" (But | I| long to be done and to
be able to turn back to Norweglan slnners). In her flc
tlon of the l930s, Lndset dld lndeed explore the llfe of
the modern and lmperfect lndlvldual once more.
Her works durlng thls decade were to a large
extent dlstlnctly rellglous. Jhls tone ls found especlally
ln the two novels d~~ (l929; translated as q
t lI l93l) and a (l930; trans
lated as q _ _I l932), whlch tell of the maln
character Paul Selmer`s converslon to Cathollclsm.
163
ai_ PPO p r
Lndset softens the rellglous tone ln her next two nov
els, f~ b~ (l932; translated as f~ b~I l933)
and a ~ (l936; translated as q c~
tI l937). In these, her last two works of contempo
rary flctlon, Lndset presents rellglous bellef as a possl
ble space wlthln whlch modern and selfsufflclent
women can flnd purpose and harmony lnslde the frag
lle clrcle of the famlly. In the context of Lndset`s entlre
authorshlp, these two novels and the two socalled con
verslon novels about Paul Selmer are generally consld
ered not of the same callber as many of her other
works. Jhey do, however, mark both an lmportant
movement ln Lndset`s authorshlp toward more
rellglous themes and a conslstency ln her exploratlon,
from her flrst novel, c j~~ lI to her last contem
porary work, a ~ I lnto the myrlad ways ln
whlch the lndlvldual relates to spouse and lover, famlly
and chlldren, kln and communlty, and the larger ques
tlons of purpose and a llfe of lntegrlty.
Durlng the l930s, many of Lndset`s haglo
graphlc texts were publlshed ln p~~ p~ (l931)
and lts Norweglan verslon, k (l937, Norwe
glan Salnts). Jhe works lnclude chapters on St. Olav
and St. Sunnlva and an essay on the lmpact of the con
verslon to Chrlstlanlty and the Reformatlon on Norwe
glan culture. Jhls essay reveals more than Lndset`s
hlstorlcal expertlse. It ls also a forum through whlch
Lndset remlnds her readers of a Norweglan natlonal
herltage based ln preReformatlon Europe.
Jhe l930s were a tlme for Lndset to reflect on
her own personal hlstory as well. Jhe novel b ~~ ls
a thlnly velled autoblography of Lndset`s own chlld
hood and tells the story of the young Ingvlldglven thls
name ln honor of Lndset`s own father, Ingvaldup
untll the tlme of her father`s death, when she ls eleven
years old. In l997 the unflnlshed manuscrlpt that was a
contlnuatlon of thls account of Ingvlld`s llfe was found
among Lndset`s papers at her home, Bjerkebk. q
(l998, Jwelve Years) ls belleved to have been wrltten ln
the l910s whlle Lndset was ln exlle ln the Lnlted
States. Jogether, the storles of Ingvlld`s llfe provlde a
gllmpse lnto the mature Lndset`s lmpresslons of the slg
nlflcant slghts, sounds, and experlences of her own
chlldhood. Jhe two accounts are more poetlc than doc
umentary narratlve and offer lnterestlng polnts of com
parlson wlth some of Lndset`s early flctlon.
In l939 Lndset wrote her last novel. j~~
a~ (translated as j~~ a~I l910) was the
flrst volume of what Lndset orlglnally had lntended to
be an hlstorlcal eplc. Jhe story of Madame Dorthea
takes place ln Denmark ln the late l700s. Jhe plans for
thls multlvolume work were lnterrupted by the events
of World War II, and addltlonal volumes were never
wrltten. Jhe year l939 also proved to be one of per
sonal trlal for Lndset, as both her daughter and her
mother dled durlng thls year.
Beyond the borders of home, Lndset`s attentlon
was drawn to polltlcal actlvltles, and she jolned the pro
test agalnst the actual and lmpendlng human tragedy of
war ln Europe. In artlcles and speeches she gave durlng
thls tlme, Lndset warned agalnst fasclsm and the grow
lng Nazl threat from Germany. Because Lndset`s
antlNazl stance was known to German authorltles, lt
was consldered too dangerous for her to remaln ln
Llllehammer after Germany lnvaded Norway ln Aprll
l910. Shortly after the lnvaslon Lndset left her home
and fled to Sweden. Lpon her arrlval ln Stockholm she
learned that her eldest son, Anders, had been kllled ln
Aprll durlng the early weeks of flghtlng Nazl forces.
Lndset was later jolned ln Sweden by her son Hans,
and together they made the journey vla Russla and
|apan to the Lnlted States. Jhey arrlved ln San Iran
clsco ln August l910, and moved on to New York Clty,
where Lndset llved for the duratlon of the war.
Lndset`s talents as a wrlter and a keen observer
of cultural and hlstorlcal condltlons made her a great
asset to Norweglan authorltles. Durlng her exlle ln the
Lnlted States, Lndset helped to further the cause of
Norway ln part through lnformlng Amerlcans about
the natlon and lts people. When she flrst arrlved ln the
Lnlted States, she spoke at many colleges and unlversl
tles across the country. Jhe majorlty of her tlme, how
ever, was spent worklng and wrltlng ln New York Clty.
Lndset`s llterary productlon durlng thls tlme was small
and dlverse. It lncluded a substantlve essay on Danlsh
author Steen Steensen Bllcher, whlch was wrltten for a
collectlon of hls storles, q p p p _J
(l915), and a compllatlon of Norweglan folktales ln
Engllsh publlshed as q ~ r (l915). Lndset
also wrote three shorter booklength works whlle ln the
Lnlted States. All three were flrst publlshed ln Engllsh
and later publlshed ln Norweglan. o c
(l912) descrlbes Lndset`s journey from Norway to the
Lnlted States ln l910. In e~ q k~ (l912)
Lndset followed Eleanor Roosevelt`s suggestlon that
exlled authors provlde Amerlcans a gllmpse of the way
chlldren grow up ln forelgn lands and contrlbuted an
account of chlldhood ln Norway. p ~ e _~
`~ (l913) ls a flctlonal account for chlldren and
ls set ln the Mlddle Ages. Requests for Lndset to wrlte
and to speak to Amerlcan audlences on lssues pertaln
lng to Norweglan culture and wartlme perspectlves
resulted ln many nonflctlon artlcles, essays, and
speeches. A selectlon of these works ls lncluded ln
^ ~ ~ (l952, Artlcles and Speeches
from War Jlme). Lndset`s expresslon ln these pleces
lncludes a sense of dlstance and expllcltness that glves
clear outllne to her observatlons on toplcs ranglng from
161
p r ai_ PPO
Amerlcan cultural hablts to her deplctlon of truth ln flc
tlon. Of her nonllterary asslgnments durlng her tlme ln
exlle, Lndset was proudest of her work for the govern
ment ln mapplng the locatlon of cultural sltes ln Nor
way ln hopes they mlght be spared from destructlon
durlng wartlme.
Whlle she was proud of her role as a spokesperson
for Norway, Lndset reallzed that exlle had had a profound
effect on her relatlonshlp to the wrltlng of flctlon. In a let
ter to her son wrltten on 22 September l913, Lndset
expressed her doubts that she would wrlte more major
works of flctlon after the war. She explalned to Hans, 'Ser
du, hele den verden som jeg hadde rtter l og kunde gjen
skape l tankene og arbelde med l fantaslen, den er borte,
det vet jeg godt. |eg hber jeg kan utrette lltt endda, l den
verden som skal bygges op, men jeg er gammel, og er blltt
rykket op med alle rtter" (You see, the entlre world that I
had my roots ln and could recreate ln my thoughts and
work wlth ln my lmaglnatlon ls gone, I know that. I hope
that I can stlll accompllsh a llttle, ln the world that wlll be
bullt up, but I am old, and have been pulled up by all my
roots). Lndset`s doubts about her future llterary produc
tlon proved true, and she never returned to the wrltlng of
creatlve prose.
She returned to Norway after the war ln l915 and
resettled at her home, Bjerkebk. Llke many others,
she was weary from the war, and she suffered from
poor health ln the last years of her llfe. Her major llter
ary work of thls tlme was the posthumously publlshed
blography Cotcrivo ov Sicvo (l95l; translated as Cotlcrivc
of Sicvo, l951). Lndset was recognlzed wlth many
awards for her contrlbutlons durlng the war. Jhe great
est of these came ln l917 when she was honored wlth
the Grand Cross of the Order of St. Olaf by the Norwe
glan government. In l918 Lndset vlslted Denmark and
traveled wlth frlends to her blrthplace at Kalundborg.
Her vlslt was cut short by poor health. In |une l919
Lndset entered the hospltal ln Llllehammer wlth a kld
ney lnfectlon. She dled there on l0 |une l919 at the age
of slxtyseven. Slgrld Lndset was burled at Mesnall
near Llllehammer. In addltlon to her blography of
Catherlne of Slena, several mlnor works, lncludlng sev
eral plays for chlldren, were publlshed after her death.
In Slgrld Lndset`s llfetlme, her flctlon and non
flctlon became an lntegral part of Norweglan culture.
Slnce her death, Lndset`s works, ln partlcular her trll
ogy Iristiv Iovrovsdottcr, have contlnued to engage a tre
mendous audlence ln followlng characters whose
confllcts, longlngs, and lnslghts are potentlally common
to every man and woman. Jhe strength Lndset devel
oped ln wrltlng both hlstorlcal and modern reallst flc
tlon was no accldent. Rather, lt stemmed from a
convlctlon to lnvestlgate the human experlence from
wlthln the crosscurrents of past and present and of tra
dltlon and modernlty. Jhroughout her authorshlp, the
roles, cholces, and responslbllltles of women remalned
central to thls lnvestlgatlon.
Jhe lastlng quallty of Nobel Prlzewlnner Lnd
set`s wrltlng lles ln lts uncompromlslng response to llfe.
Lndset once commented, '|eg kan lkke la vre
skrlve. Det er for mlg den naturllge mten reagere p
overfor det jeg har tnkt og oplevet og dmte om men
nesker og forhold l verden omkrlng mlg" (I can`t help
but wrlte. It ls for me the natural way to react to what I
have thought and experlenced and judged about people
and relatlons ln the world around me). Into the
twentyflrst century Lndset ls stlll a part of the Norwe
glan cultural and llterary landscape. Irom her plcture
on the face of the 500crown blll, to a prlzewlnnlng
blography for young adults publlshed ln 200l, to dra
matlzatlons of her llfe and works, Lndset remalns
present to a wlde audlence. Joday, scholarly research
lnto her flctlon has contlnued to lnvestlgate her ldeolog
lcal commltments and the depth of her artlstry. Now,
one hundred years slnce her debut as an author, Lnd
set`s essays are belng carefully complled, referenced,
and publlshed, and her flctlon ls belng publlshed ln new
edltlons. New blographles and translatlons promlse to
present Slgrld Lndset ln a new llght. Wlth these publl
catlons and the contlnulng careful attentlon to new and
known materlals wrltten by Lndset, her llfe and work
wlll contlnue to be studled.
iW
Ijrc Dco (Oslo. Aschehoug, l979); selected letters also
translated by Jllna Nunnally ln Tlc Uvlvowv
Sigrid Uvdsct (South Royalton, Vt.. Steerforth
Press, 200l).
_~W
Nlnl Roll Anker, Miv vcvv Sigrid Uvdsct (Oslo. Asche
houg, l916);
A. H. Wlnsnes, Sigrid Uvdsct. Iv studic i lristcv rcolismc
Borghlld Krane, Sigrid Uvdsct. Iiv og mcvivgcr (Oslo.
Aschehoug, l979);
Charlotte Bllndhelm, Mostcr Sigrid. It fomilicportrctt ov
Sigrid Uvdsct (Oslo. Aschehoug, l982);
Arne Skouen, Sigrid Uvdsct slrivcr ljcm (Oslo. Asche
houg, l982);
Gldske Anderson, Sigrid Uvdsctct liv (Oslo. Gyldendal,
l989);
Jordls rjaster, Mcvvcslcvcs ljcrtcr: Sigrid Uvdsct cv
livslistoric (Oslo. Aschehoug, l993);
Sunnlva Hagenlund, Iortrctt ov ct vcvvslop: Csto ov Cci-
jcrstom og Sigrid Uvdsct (Oslo. Aschehoug, l991);
Jordls rjaster, Sigrid Uvdsct i Iomo (Oslo. Aschehoug,
l996);
165
ai_ PPO p r
Anne B. Ragde, iogroficv om Sigrid Uvdsct. Ugs cv uvg
Iigc (Oslo. Gyldendal, 200l);
Nan Bentzen Skllle, Ivvcvfor gjcrdct: Hos Sigrid Uvdsct p
jcrlcbl (Oslo. Aschehoug, 2003).
oW
AnneLlse Amadou, Z gi ljrliglctcv ct sprl. Syv studicr i
Sigrid Uvdscts forfottcrslop (Oslo. Aschehoug,
l991);
Claudla Berguson, '_uestlons of Narratlve Authorlty
and Authentlclty ln Slgrld Lndset`s Iristiv
Iovrovsdottcr," Iddo, 1 (2005). 311-356;
Llv Bllksrud, 'Iemlnlsme og antlfemlnlsme," òrsl lit-
tcrr rbol (Oslo. Samlaget, l98l), pp. 25-10;
Bllksrud, òtur og vormcr los Sigrid Uvdsct (Oslo. Asche
houg, l988);
Bllksrud, 'Norsk Ltakt. Slgrld Lndset l lltteraturvlten
skapen," òrsl Iittcroturvitcvslopclig Tidslrift, l
(2005);
Bllksrud, Sigrid Uvdsct (Oslo. Gyldendal, l997);
Bllksrud, 'Slgrld Lndset," ln òrslc vobclprisvivvcrc: Iro
jrvsov til Iydlovd, edlted by Olav Njlstad (Oslo.
Lnlversltetsforlaget, 2005);
Bllksrud, 'Slgrld Lndset og ttesagaen," ln Ztlovtisl dd
og drm:17cssoys om Islovd/òrgc, edlted by Asbjrn
Aasnes (Oslo. Aschehoug, l998);
Carl Iredrlk Engelstad, Mcvvcslcr og moltcr: Sigrid Uvd-
scts middcloldcrromovcr (Oslo. Aschehoug, l910);
|anet Garton, òrwcgiov !omcv !ritivg, 1S0-1990
(London. Athlone, l993);
Rakel Chr. Grannaas, and others, Ivivvcsyvtvisyv. Iv
ovtologi om Sigrid Uvdsct (Oslo. Novus, l985);
Danlel Haakonsen, 'Paktbegrepet l Iristiv Iovrovsdot-
tcr," ln Tollvivg og tcori, complled and edlted by
Danlel Haakonsen (Oslo. Aschehoug, l987), pp.
l25-l36;
Chrlstlne Hamm, 'Jhe Malden and the Knlght. Gen
der, Body and Melodrama ln Slgrld Lndset`s Iris-
tiv Iovrovsdottcr," Scovdivovico, 15 (2006). 5-27;
Bente Heltoft, Iivssyv og digtvivg. Strulturgruvdlogct i
Sigrid Uvdsct romovcr (Oslo. Aschehoug, l985);
Krlstln |ohansen, Hvis lvivvcr vil vrc lvivvcr. Sigrid Uvd-
sct, lcvvcs somtid og lvivvcsprsmlct (Oslo. Asche
houg, l998);
Pl Espolln |ohnson, ed., Sigrid Uvdsct i dog (Oslo.
Aschehoug, l982);
Bernt J. Oftestad, Sigrid Uvdsct: Modcrvitct og lotolisismc
(Oslo. Lnlversltetsforlaget, 2003);
Ellen Rees, 'Dreamlng of the Medleval ln Iristiv
Iovrovsdottcr and Troldsyv, Scovdivoviov Studics, 7
(Iall 2003). 399-1l6;
Otto Relnert, 'Lnfashlonable Krlstln Lavransdatter,"
Scovdivoviov Studics, 7l (Sprlng l999). 67-80;
Hallvard RleberMohn, Stcv p stcv. Icm blill p Sigrid
Uvdsct (Oslo. Aschehoug, l982);
Helge Rnnlng, 'Mlddelalderens lysmellomkrlgstldas
lyst; om den hlstorlske roman som genre og
Slgrld Lndsets mlddelalderromaner," !ivduct, 37
(l983). 18-55;
Ellsabeth Solbakken, Icdcfivivg Ivtcgrity: Tlc Iortroyol of
!omcv iv tlc Covtcmporory òvcls of Sigrid Uvdsct
(Irankfurt am Maln. Peter Lang, l992);
Olav Solberg, 'Opfostret l hlstorle," Iddo, (l991). 99-
l08;
Solberg, Tclst mtcr tclst. Iristiv Iovrovsdottcr og mcllomol-
dcrcv (Oslo. Aschehoug, l997);
Elllslv Steen, Iristiv Iovrovsdottcr. Iv cstctctisl studic
Ilnn Jhorn, Iristcvtro og lirlcsyv (Oslo. Aschehoug,
l971);
A. H. Wlnsnes, Sigrid Uvdsct: Iv studic i lristcv rcolismc
(Oslo. Aschehoug, l919); translated by P. G.
Ioote as Sigrid Uvdsct: Z Study iv Clristiov Icolism
(London. Sheed Ward, l953);
Vlgdls Ystad, 'Ideologlkrltlsk og/eller vltenskapellg?
Helge Rnnlngs fortolknlng av Slgrld Lndset,"
!ivduct, 38 (l981). 60-65.
m~W
A collectlon of Slgrld Lndset`s letters ls ln the Natlonal
Llbrary, Oslo.
NVOU k m i~
m~ p
by Icr Hollstrm, Cloirmov of tlc òbcl Committcc of tlc
Swcdisl Zcodcmy, ov 10 Dcccmbcr 192S
In her flrst novels or novellas, all of them remark
able works, Slgrld Lndset palnted the presentday
world of young women ln the envlrons of Krlstlanla. It
was a restless generatlon, prompt to make the gravest
declslons as soon as lts asplratlons for happlness were at
stake, ready to take the ultlmate loglcal and sentlmental
consequences of lts lmpulslve nature, and lmpassloned
for truth. Jhls generatlon had to pay dearly for the
sense of reallty lt acqulred. It had to pass through many
trlals before regalnlng lts lnner unlty, and some of lts
representatlves succumbed ln the struggle. Jhe women
of thls generatlon were strangely lsolated ln thls dlscon
certlng world. Iar from flndlng support ln a flrmly
establlshed soclal rule, they had, ln full consclousness,
renounced the herltage of the past. Hostlle to all estab
llshed soclal order, whlch they consldered a useless
yoke, they counted only on themselves to create a new
166
p r ai_ PPO
soclety, conslstent wlth a convlctlon, doubtless slncere
at bottom, but easlly mlsled.
Wlth a llvely lmaglnatlon, Slgrld Lndset llved the
llfe of these women; she portrayed them sympathetl
cally but wlth merclless truthfulness. She traced the
tragedy of thelr llves wlthout embelllshlng or ampllfy
lng lt; and she conveyed the evolutlon of thelr destlnles
wlth the most lmplacable loglc, whlch lmplled the con
demnatlon of her herolnes and of the world ln whlch
they were llvlng. Jhe plcture ls grlpplng, as far as the
scope of the personages permlts; lt ls attractlve only ln
lts marvellously fresh and brllllant descrlptlons of
nature. Remalnlng forever ln the reader`s memory are
the excurslons on skls ln the Norweglan solltude, the
effects of the caprlclous play of the wlnter llght, the
exhllaratlon of the lcy wlnd durlng the run, the mad
dance of the blood ln the velns, the splrlt of adventure,
the joy, the feellng of llfe and strength whlch makes the
heart pound. And Slgrld Lndset descrlbes wlth the
same mastery the splendours of sprlng, saturated wlth
llght and full of promlses. In thls domaln her art
attalned greatness qulte early.
Jhls greatness began to extend to her entlre work
as soon as she abandoned the dlsunlfled and uprooted
belngs of the present tlme who had attracted her atten
tlon, ln order to dedlcate herself to the llfe of a dlstant
past. She was destlned by blrth to do ploneer work ln
thls area. Her father was a glfted hlstorlan, and from
chlldhood she had llved ln an atmosphere of hlstorlc
legend and folklore. Moreover, she acqulred a solld hls
torlcal knowledge, gulded, lt would seem, by thls pre
monltlon of the task her genlus had set for her.
Jhere she found the materlal whlch truly sulted
her nature, and her lmaglnatlon was confronted wlth a
task adequate to lts scope. Jhe characters she was
golng to make appear out of the past would offer a
more complete unlty and would be of a flrmer cast than
the contemporary characters. Iar from belng conflned
ln a sterlle lsolatlon, they would partlclpate ln the great
solldarlty of past generatlons. Jhese great masses
would come allve ln her work ln a more vlvld, flrmer
shape than the amorphous soclety of our era. Here was
a great challenge to a wrlter who felt capable of carry
lng a heavy burden.
In thelr fashlon, the generatlons of the Mlddle
Ages also enjoyed a more varled lnner llfe than the
present generatlon, whlch Slgrld Lndset found
obsessed wlth the pursult of sexual happlness, a quest
whlch also determlned thelr concepts of truth. Jhese
ancestors were strongly determlned by the sentlment of
honour and by falth. Here was the rlch fleld for a psy
chology adequate to them. Moreover, the author`s
lmaglnatlon was bound to be attracted by the dlfflcult
task of conjurlng out of the darkness of a llttle known
past the external llfe of former generatlons ln all lts
dlverslty. Slgrld Lndset has done so to an extent that
has aroused general admlratlon.
In so far as the lnner llfe ls concerned, her work can
hardly be crltlclzed. Intlmately comblned wlth the con
sclousness of the natlon, ln her deplctlon, honour retalns
all the rlgour and all the welght that lt had for the cheva
llers and great landowners of the fourteenth century. Jhe
demands of honour are clearly stated, and the confllcts lt
creates are worked out regardless of thelr brutal conse
quences. Rellglous llfe ls descrlbed wlth startllng truth.
Lnder Slgrld Lndset`s pen lt does not become a contlnu
ous hollday of the mlnd, penetratlng and domlnatlng
human nature; lt remalns, as ln our day, lnsecure and
rebelllous, and ls often even harsher. Profoundly consclous
of the hold of falth on these lnexperlenced and unpollshed
souls, the author has glven lt, ln the grave hours of exlst
ence, an overwhelmlng power.
Jhe erotlc llfe, the problem common to the two
sexes, whlch constltutes the centre of Slgrld Lndset`s psy
chologlcal lnterest, ls found agaln, almost wlthout modlfl
catlons, ln her hlstorlcal novels. In thls respect, objectlons
naturally come to mlnd. In medleval documents, the feml
nlst questlon ls not known; one never flnds hlnts of the
lnner personal llfe whlch later was to ralse thls questlon.
Jhe hlstorlan, demandlng proofs, has the rlght to note thls
dlscrepancy. But the hlstorlan`s clalm ls not absolute; the
poet has at least an equal rlght to express hlmself when he
relles on a solld and lntultlve knowledge of the human
soul. Jhe archaeologlst must admlt that there exlsted ln
the past lnstruments of a nature other than those whlch
have come down to us, not to mentlon the often fortultous
ways ln whlch the memorles of the past have reached us.
Jhe poet has the rlght to suppose that human nature has
hardly varled ln the course of ages, even lf the annals of
the past are sllent ln certaln regards.
In splte of the laws lmposed by necesslty, the com
mon llfe of man and woman could scarcely have been
peaceful and slmple. It was no doubt less nolsy than ln
our day, but lt was exempt from nelther confllcts nor
bloody dlsturbances. Jo these confllcts and dlstur
bances Slgrld Lndset gave a volce, although lt some
tlmes seems that the volce had accents far too modern
and that the sentlments were too subtle for an era ln
whlch the lnfluence of poetry had not yet manlfested
ltself. Jhe heavler and harsher envlronment seems also
to have been of a nature whlch hardened the characters
more flrmly. But lt ls to thls dlssemblance, lf lndeed one
can speak of dlssemblance, that her poetlc work owes
lts polgnant and evocatlve llfe. In the lnevltable compro
mlse between the present and the past, from whlch the
hlstorlcal novel cannot escape, Slgrld Lndset has cho
sen a rlchly rewardlng way.
167
ai_ PPO p r
Her narratlve ls vlgorous, sweeplng, and at tlmes
heavy. It rolls on llke a rlver, ceaselessly recelvlng new
trlbutarles whose course the author also descrlbes, at
the rlsk of overtaxlng the reader`s memory. Jhls stems
ln part from the very nature of the subject. In the serles
of generatlons, confllcts and destlnles assume a very
concentrated form; these are whole masses of clouds
whlch colllde when the llghtnlng flashes. However, thls
heavlness ls also a result of the author`s ardent and
lnstant lmaglnatlon, formlng a scene and a dlalogue of
each lncldent ln the narratlve wlthout taklng the neces
sary backward look at the general perspectlve. And the
vast rlver, whose course ls dlfflcult to embrace compre
henslvely, rolls lts powerful waves whlch carry along
the reader, plunged lnto a sort of torpor. But the roarlng
of lts waters has the eternal freshness of nature. In the
raplds and ln the falls, the reader flnds the enchantment
whlch emanates from the power of the elements, as ln
the vast mlrror of the lakes he notlces a reflectlon of
lmmenslty, wlth the vlslon there of all posslble greatness
ln human nature. Jhen, when the rlver reaches the sea,
when Krlstln Lavransdatter has fought to the end the
battle of her llfe, no one complalns of the length of the
course whlch accumulated so overwhelmlng a depth
and profundlty ln her destlny. In the poetry of all tlmes,
there are few scenes of comparable excellence.
Slgrld Lndset`s last novel, the twovolume story
of l~ ^ (l925-27), ls generally on a level wlth
the precedlng novel, although lt does not soar to lts
traglc flnale. It attalns, however, almost the same helght
ln the scene ln whlch Olav kllls the Icelander. Jhls
scene constltutes a magnlflcent tableau, a masterly
expresslon of the lnner llfe, wlth a loftlness, a justlce, an
almost superhuman breadth of vlew rlslng above all the
atrocltles. One redlscovers here the same rlpenlng of
power as ln h i~~~ (l920-22). As far as the
character studles are concerned, lt seems lmposslble to
reach hlgher than the portrayal of Elrlk, the prlnclpal
personage of the last part of the novel. Here ls the com
plete evolutlon of a human belng, from the flrst manl
festatlons of chlldhood whlch are recorded not only
wlth a vlgorous strlctness but also wlth a surprlslng
superlmposltlon of new tralts, proportlonate to the
lncreaslng clarlty ln the character dellneatlon. One sees
a human soul freely develop under one`s eyes, a true
creatlon of a truly superlor art.
Slgrld Lndset has recelved the Nobel Prlze ln Llt
erature whlle stlll ln her prlme, an homage rendered to
a poetlc genlus whose roots must be ln a great and well
ordered splrlt.
rW _~ p
f ~ m d~ c ~ k
_~ ~ d~ eI pI NM a NVOUW
In her extenslve work, an Illad of the North, Slgrld
Lndset has resurrected ln a new and vlslonary llght the
ldeals whlch once gulded our forefathers who bullt that
communlty from whlch our Germanlc culture derlved. Jo
an age ln whlch lt may be easler to acknowledge that the
rlght to the greatest happlness ls the duty of renunclatlon
to thls age Slgrld Lndset has shown the ldeals of our fore
fathers. duty and falthfulness.
r Eq~~F
Jhe precedlng speakers have far better expressed
our gratltude for the Prlzes awarded to us than I could
have done, and I subscrlbe to thelr words. I wrlte more
readlly than I speak and I am especlally reluctant to talk
about myself. Instead, I wlsh to offer a salute to Swe
den. Before I left for Sweden, a party was glven for me
that ls to say, not strlctly speaklng for me but because I
was golng to leave for Swedenand everybody, the
Presldent of the Councll of Mlnlsters of Norway as well
as my personal frlends, asked me to glve regards to
Sweden. After all, the people of our penlnsula form a
dlstlnct part of the world. Our forests and our moun
talns run lnto each other and our rlvers carry thelr
waters from one country to the other. Our houses ln
Norway resemble those ln Sweden. God be pralsed! We
have always llved ln a great number of small, prlvate
dwelllngs spread all over our countrles. Modern tech
nology has not yet completely lntruded on the human
lty of the North.
But what I wlshed to say here ls that I have been
asked to glve regards to Sweden, the country we thlnk
of wlth joy, and to Stockholm, whlch we Norweglans
conslder the most beautlful clty ln the world.
| Jhe Nobel Ioundatlon, l928. Slgrld Lndset ls the
sole author of her speech.|
168
a t~
(2J ovuory 19J0 - )
b~ _~
Uvivcrsity of tlc !cst Ivdics, omoico
See also the Walcott entrles ln DI 117: Twcvtictl-
Ccvtury Coribbcov ovd locl Zfricov !ritcrs, Iirst Scrics;
DI Jcorbool: 19S1; and DI Jcorbool: 1992.
BOOKS. 2 Iocms (Port of Spaln. Guardlan, l918);
Ipitopl for tlc Jouvg: XII Covtos (Brldgetown, Barbados.
Advocate, l919);
Tlc Clorlotov (Port of Spaln. ExtraMural Department,
Lnlverslty College of the West Indles, l95?);
Hcvri Clristoplc: Z Clroviclc iv Scvcv Sccvcs (Brldgetown,
Barbados. Advocate, l950);
Iocms (Klngston, |amalca. Clty Prlntery, l95l);
Horry Dcrvicr (Brldgetown, Barbados. Advocate, l952);
Tlc Sco ot Doupliv: Z Iloy iv Uvc Zct (Mona, |amalca.
ExtraMural Department, Lnlverslty College of
the West Indles, l951);
Iovc: Z Iloy witl Music (Mona, |amalca. ExtraMural
Department, Lnlverslty of the West Indles,
l957);
Ti-cov: Z Iloy iv Uvc Zct (Klngston, |amalca.
ExtraMural Department, Lnlverslty College of
the West Indles, l958);
Iv o Crccv ìglt: Iocms, 194S-1960 (London. Cape,
l962);
Sclcctcd Iocms (New York. Iarrar, Straus, l961);
Tlc Costowoy ovd Utlcr Iocms (London. Cape, l965);
Molcouclov; or, Tlc Six iv tlc Ioiv: Z Iloy iv 1 Zct (Port of
Spaln. ExtraMural Department, Lnlverslty Col
lege of the West Indles., l966);
Tlc Culf, ovd Utlcr Iocms (London. Cape, l969); repub
llshed as Tlc Culf: Iocms (New York. Iarrar, Straus
Glroux, l970);
Drcom ov Movlcy Mouvtoiv ovd Utlcr Iloys (New York.
l972)comprlses 'What the Jwlllght Says. An
Overture"; Tlc Sco ot Doupliv; Ti-cov ovd His
rotlcrs; Molcouclov; or, Tlc Six iv tlc Ioiv; and
Drcom ov Movlcy Mouvtoiv;
Zvotlcr Iifc (New York. Iarrar, Straus Glroux, l973;
Sco Cropcs (New York. Iarrar, Straus Glroux, l976;
Tlc olcr of Scvillc c U obylov!: Two Iloys (New York.
l979);
Tlc Stor-Zpplc Iivgdom (New York. Iarrar, Straus
Glroux, l979; London. Cape, l980);
Icmcmbrovcc c Iovtomimc: Two Iloys (New York. Iarrar,
Straus Glroux, l980);
Tlc Iortuvotc Trovcllcr (New York. Iarrar, Straus
Glroux, l98l; London. Iaber Iaber, l982);
Sclcctcd Ioctry, edlted by Wayne Brown (London
Klngston, |amalca. Helnemann, l98l);
a t~ ~ _I j~~I ~
~ NVVO k m i~
E^cmLd f~F
169
ai_ PPO a t~
Tlc Coribbcov Ioctry of Dcrcl !olcott c tlc Zrt of Iomorc
cordcv (New York. Llmlted Edltlons Club, l983);
Midsummcr (New York. Iarrar, Straus Glroux, l981;
London Boston. Iaber Iaber, l981);
Collcctcd Iocms, 194S-19S4 (New York. Iarrar, Straus
Glroux, l986; London. Iaber Iaber, l992);
Tlrcc Iloys: Tlc Iost Corvivol; ccf, ò Cliclcv; ovd Z
rovcl of tlc luc ìlc (New York. Iarrar, Straus
Glroux, l986);
Tlc Zrlovsos Tcstomcvt (New York. Iarrar, Straus
Tlc Ioct iv tlc Tlcotrc (London. Poetry Book Soclety,
l990);
Umcros (New York. Iarrar, Straus Glroux, l990; Lon
don. Iaber Iaber, l990);
Tlc Zvtillcs: Irogmcvts of Ipic Mcmory: Tlc òbcl Iccturc
don. Iaber Iaber, l993);
Tlc Udysscy: Z Stogc !crsiov, adapted from Homer (New
Iaber Iaber, l993);
Homogc to Iobcrt Irost, by Walcott, Seamus Heaney, and
|oseph Brodsky (New York. Iarrar, Straus
Tlc ouvty (New York. Iarrar, Straus Glroux, l997;
London. Iaber Iaber, l997);
Tlc Copcmov: Z Musicol, by Walcott and Paul Slmon
(New York. Iarrar, Straus Glroux, l998);
!lot tlc Twiliglt Soys: Issoys (New York. Iarrar, Straus
Ticpolo`s Houvd (New York. Iarrar, Straus Glroux,
2000; London. Iaber Iaber, 2000);
Tlc Hoitiov Trilogy (New York. Iarrar, Straus Glroux,
2002)comprlses Hcvri Clristoplc, Drums ovd
Colours, and Tlc Hoitiov Iortl;
!ollcr; ovd, Tlc Clost Dovcc (New York. Iarrar, Straus
Glroux, 2002);
Tlc Irodigol (New York. Iarrar, Straus Glroux, 2001;
London. Iaber Iaber, 2005).
bW Sclcctcd Ioctry, edlted by Wayne Brown (Lon
don, Klngston Port of Spaln. Helnemann,
l98l);
Zvotlcr Iifc: Iully Zvvototcd, edlted by Edward Baugh
and Colbert Nepaulslngh (Boulder, Colo.. Lynne
Rlenner, 2001);
Sclcctcd Iocms, edlted by Baugh (New York. Iarrar,
Straus Glroux, 2007).
PLAY PRODLCJIONS. Hcvri Clristoplc, Castrles, St.
Lucla, St. |oseph`s Convent, 9 September l950;
London, l95l;
Ioolo ovd Irovccsco, Castrles, St. Lucla, St. |oseph`s Con
vent, l95l;
Tlc !ivc of tlc Couvtry, Mona, Lnlverslty College of the
West Indles, |amalca, Jhe Dramatlc Jheatre,
l953;
Tlc Sco ot Doupliv, Port of Spaln, Whltehall Players
Jheatre, l3 August l951; London, l960;
Iovc, Klngston, |amalca, Ward Jheatre, l6 March l957;
Ti-cov ovd His rotlcrs, Castrles, St. Lucla, R. C. Boys
Infant School, l6 December l957; revlsed, Jown
Hall Spaln, |une l970; New York, Delacorte Jhe
atre, 20 |uly l972;
Drums ovd Colours, Port of Spaln, Jrlnldad, Royal Botan
lcal Gardens, 25 Aprll l958;
Molcouclov; or, Six iv tlc Ioiv, Castrles, St. Lucla, Cas
trles Jown Hall, l2 March l959; produced agaln
as Six iv tlc Ioiv, London, l960; produced agaln
as Molcoclov, ln Zv Ivcvivg of Uvc Zcts, New York,
25 March l969;
Tlc Clorlotov, wlth muslc by Ired Hope and Rupert
Denlson, Port of Spaln, Llttle Carlb Jheatre
Workshop, l962;
Drcom ov Movlcy Mouvtoiv, Joronto, Central Llbrary
Jheatre, l2 August l967; New York, St. Mark`s
Playhouse, 9 March l97l;
Tlc Islc Is Iull of òiscs, Hartford, Conn., |ohn W. Hun
tlngton Jheatre, l6 Aprll l970;
Iv o Iivc Costlc, Lnlverslty College of the West Indles,
Mona, |amalca, Creatlve Arts Centre, October
l970, l97l; revlsed as Tlc Iost Corvivol, Port of
Spaln, Government Jralnlng Center, l |uly l982;
Irovlliv, Port of Spaln, Blshop`s Audltorlum, l1 Aprll
l973;
Tlc olcr of Scvillc, wlth muslc by Galt MacDermot, Port
of Spaln, Llttle Carlb Jheatre, 28 November
l971;
U obylov!, wlth muslc by MacDermot, Port of Spaln,
Llttle Carlb Jheatre, l9 March l976;
Icmcmbrovcc, St. Crolx, L.S. V.I., Dorsch Centre, 22
Aprll l977; New York, Shakespeare Iestlval, 21
Aprll l979;
Iovtomimc, Port of Spaln, Llttle Carlb Jheatre, l2 Aprll
l978; London, BBC, 25 |anuary l979;
Moric Io !cou, St. Jhomas, L.S. Vlrgln Islands, College
of the Vlrgln Islands, l6 November l979;
ccf, ò Cliclcv, Port of Spaln, Llttle Carlb Jheatre, 30
Aprll l98l;
Z rovcl of tlc luc ìlc, Brldgetown, Barbados, Stage
One, 25 November l983;
Tlc Hoitiov Iortl, Castrles, St. Lucla, Jhe Morne,
August l981;
To Dic for Crcvodo, Jrlnldad, Jrlnldad Jheatre Work
shop, l986;
Clost Dovcc, Hartwlck College, N.Y., Cardboard Alley
Jheater, November l989;
170
a t~ ai_ PPO
Stccl, Cambrldge, Mass., Amerlcan Repertory Jheatre,
3 Aprll l99l; revlsed, Port of Spaln, _ueen`s
Hall, September 2005;
Tlc Udysscy, adapted from Homer, StratforduponAvon,
Jhe Other Place (Royal Shakespeare Company),
l992;
!ollcr, Boston, Boston Athenaeum, 9 December l993;
revlsed, Boston, Playwrlghts Jheatre, November
200l;
Tlc Copcmov, by Walcott and Paul Slmon, New York,
Marquls Jheatre, 29 |anuary l998.
OJHER. 'On Chooslng Port of Spaln," ln Dovid Irost
Ivtroduccs Trividod ovd Tobogo, edlted by Mlchael
Anthony and Andrew Carr (London. Deutsch,
l975), pp. l1-23.
LNCOLLECJED. 'Hls Is the Plvotal One About
Race" |revlew of Denls Wllllams`s Utlcr Icopords|,
Suvdoy Cuordiov, l December l963, p. 3;
'A Dllemma Iaces W|est| I|ndlan| Artlsts," Suvdoy
Cuordiov, l2 |anuary l961, p. 3;
'Jhe Whlte Devll. A Story of Chrlstmas," Suvdoy
Cuordiov Mogoivc, 25 December l966, p. 20;
'Derek`s Most West Indlan Play," Suvdoy Cuordiov Mog-
oivc, 2l |une l970, p. 7;
'Natlve Women Lnder SeaAlmond Jrees. Muslngs on
Art, Llfe, and the Island of St. Lucla," Housc ovd
Cordcv, l56 (l985). ll5, l6l-l63;
'A Colonlal`s Eye Vlew of the Emplre," Tri-_uortcrly, 65
(Wlnter l986). 73-77;
'Callgula`s Horse," Iuvopipi, ll (l989). l38-l12;
republlshed ln Zftcr Iuropc, edlted by Stephen
Slemon and Helen Jlffln (Sydney. Dangaroo
Press, l989), pp. l38-l12;
'Derek Walcott. Jhe Poet ln the Jheatre," Ioctry Icvicw,
80 (Wlnter l990/l99l). 1-8;
'Jhe Eleglst" |revlew of Adam Zagajewskl`s !itlout
Ivd: `cw ovd Sclcctcd Iocms|, `cw Icpublic, 20 (May
2002). 3l-35.
When Derek Walcott won the Nobel Prlze ln Llt
erature ln l992, he was only the second wrlter from the
Carlbbean, and the flrst from the Anglophone Carlb
bean, to have done so. Hls precursor, the l960 wlnner
Salnt|ohn Perse (Alexls SalntLeger Leger), was hardly
known ln the wlder Carlbbean, havlng left hls natlve
Guadeloupe at age eleven to llve ln Irance, the land of
hls forebears. Although some of Perse`s earller work ls
based on memorles of hls lsland chlldhood, he was not
ldentlfled as a Carlbbean poet ln the Nobel cltatlon, nor
dld he ln hls banquet speech mentlon the Carlbbean.
By contrast, Walcott has conslstently ldentlfled hlmself
as a Carlbbean poet.
Walcott`s sense of hls llfe`s work as belng dedl
cated to the good of the Carlbbean reaches lts dlscur
slve fulflllment ln hls Nobel lecture. Hls lnternatlonal
acclalm afflrms the lmportance of small places and
belles any notlon that wrlters from the outposts of
world power who focus on the concerns of thelr place
and people thereby render thelr work too reglonal or
parochlal. Hls Umcros (l990), whlch was lmmedlately
halled by the Western llterary world as a great modern
varlatlon on a classlcal eplc, ls at the same tlme, as he
descrlbes lt, an act of homage to St. Lucla. He has been
a wanderer, whether of lmaglnatlon or ln actual geo
graphlcal fact, whose wanderlng takes lts meanlng from
hls deep attachment to home.
Derek Alton Walcott was born ln Castrles on St.
Lucla, one of the Wlndward Islands of the West Indles,
on 23 |anuary l930. St. Lucla ls a mountalnous lsland
of lush troplcal vegetatlon, wlth raln forests, plcturesque
bays, and entlclng whltesand beaches, famous for lts
volcanlc mountaln lake, Soufrlre, and lts Pltons, spec
tacular twln peaks rlslng out of the sea. In the year of
Walcott`s blrth, the lsland, only 238 square mlles, had a
populatlon of less than 80,000. In 2005 the populatlon
was roughly l60,000. In l930 there were only two sec
ondary schools on the lsland, one for boys and one for
glrls, and that sltuatlon remalned unchanged untll
l963. It ls remarkable, then, that such a small place
should have produced two Nobel laureates, the other
belng Slr Arthur Lewls (Economlcs, l979). Jhe appar
ent lnconsequentlallty of the lsland has been a dynamlc
of Walcott`s lnversely proportlonate celebratlon of lt ln
hls work.
In addltlon to the landscape, varlous features of
the St. Luclan soclety ln whlch Walcott grew up
became lmportant concerns of hls wrltlng and factors
ln hls deplctlon of the Carlbbean. Jhese elements
lnclude dlvlslons of class, color, race, and culture, all
aspects of the legacy of colonlallsm and slavery. Par
tlcular areas of slgnlflcance wlthln these categorles
lnclude language, rellglon, folklore, and the eco
nomlc deprlvatlon of the black majorlty. Walcott`s
personal orlglns and famlly context condltloned hls
vlews on these matters. One of the lmpresslve char
acterlstlcs of hls wrltlng ls the way ln whlch he lnte
grates personal, autoblographlcal materlal lnto hls
presentatlon of publlc, communal lssues.
Walcott was born lnto a small, brownsklnned
bourgeolsle. Hls famlly enjoyed some soclal status
whlle belng of modest means. Jhelr lmmedlate soclal
clrcle constltuted a Protestant mlnorlty ln a popula
tlon that ls stlll 90 percent Roman Cathollc. Both hls
grandfathers were whlte, the paternal belng Engllsh,
17l
ai_ PPO a t~
from the lsland of Barbados, and the maternal belng
Dutch, from the lsland of Salnt Marten. In both
lnstances, the marrlage (ln the case of hls paternal
grandfather) or casual llalson (ln the case of the
maternal) wlth a woman of color would have been
unacceptable accordlng to recelved morallty and
establlshment norms of class, color, and respectablllty.
Hls maternal grandmother was a servant ln the house
of hls grandfather, who was a plantatlon owner and
trader of the wealthy Van Romondt famlly.
Walcott`s mulatto sallorpoet Shablne, protago
nlst of 'Jhe Schooner Iliglt " (from Tlc Stor-Zpplc
Iivgdom, l979), ls a rlchly suggestlve persona derlvlng
from Walcott`s personal orlglns and ethnlc admlxture.
He ls one representatlon of Walcott`s selfsearchlng con
frontatlon wlth the shades of hls ancestors, whlte or
black, that has drlven hls work. He represents the
'mulatto consclousness" that has been much
advanced ln Walcott crltlclsm and drawn on by Wal
cott hlmself ln some of hls theoretlcal statements. But,
whereas thls orlgln and consclousness are often
regarded as a llmltatlon to hls vlew of the Carlbbean,
he hlmself celebrates lt as the strength of the reglon
and lts potentlal glft to the world.
Walcott and hls twln brother, Roderlck, were not
yet two years old when thelr father, Warwlck Walcott,
dled of mastoldltls. Jhelr slster, Pamela, was two years
older than they. Jhelr mother, Allx Maarlln Walcott,
was popularly known as Jeacher Allx, headmlstress of
the Methodlst Infant School. She lmpressed Derek by
her robust appllcatlon to the hard challenge of brlnglng
up her young famlly slnglehandedly, and by her devo
tlon to and respect for the memory of her husband.
Warwlck Walcott, a clvll servant, was a watercolorlst of
some talent and also wrote verses. Hls son has cherlshed
the memory of the palntlngs and books that he left, and
soon came to regard hls own slnglemlnded commltment
to the artlstlc llfe as belng a matter of completlng what hls
father had begun. Jhls consclousness deepens the
fatherson quest theme that has perslsted ln hls wrltlng, as
well as the theme of the masterapprentlce relatlonshlp, an
ldea that he has promoted passlonately.
Jhe young Walcott, lnsplred by hls father`s exam
ple, for a long tlme consldered that he would make a
career of palntlng, or at least equally dlvlde hls atten
tlon between palntlng and poetry. Jhls lncllnatlon was
encouraged when, ln hls teens, he had as hls unofflclal
palntlng tutor a famlly frlend, Harold Slmmons, the
Harry celebrated ln Walcott`s poetlc autoblography,
Zvotlcr Iifc (l973). Slmmons, a clvll servant, was then
St. Lucla`s leadlng palnter, albelt of modest ablllty. Wal
cott`s zeal for palntlng was at thls tlme also flred by hls
coeval and palntlng partner under Slmmons`s guldance,
Dunstan St. Omer, who became the Gregorlas of
Zvotlcr Iifc.
Slmmons`s mentorshlp of Walcott was a matter
not only of palntlng but also of the wlde range of hls
cultural lnterests and hls deep commltment to under
standlng and lnterpretlng hls lsland and lts culture. He
was an amateur anthropologlst, folklorlst, botanlst, and
lepldopterlst. Walcott had the beneflt of hls llbrary and
hls collectlon of classlcal recordlngs. Slmmons recog
nlzed that St. Omer was more naturally the palnter, and
Walcott more naturally the poet, and Walcott by hls
late teens had declded that he would concentrate on
belng a poet. However, palntlng remalned hls avoca
tlon, and he has returned to lt lncreaslngly ln hls later
years. Hls palnterly eye has subtly colored hls wrltlng,
and palntlng ltselfthe ldea and nature of lt, the chal
lenge, the dlfflculty, the excltement of the physlcal act of
palntlnghas been a dlstlngulshlng concern of hls
poetry.
Walcott`s glft for wrltlng and dlrectlng drama
must also have found early nurture, even lf subcon
sclously, ln the concerts and mlnor theatrlcals ln whlch
hls parents` clrcle engaged for thelr entertalnment. Hls
mother sewed costumes for the performances, and her
son recalls her recltlng Wllllam Shakespeare around the
house. Jhere was also the llfe of the streets, a verltable
theater of a dlfferent klnd, whlch he and hls brother,
who also became a conslderable playwrlght, were
enthralled by, even lf they were not able to partlclpate
ln lt.
Walcott`s formal educatlon steeped hlm ln
malnstream Engllsh llterature as well as Irench and
Latln. At St. Mary`s College ln Castrles he recelved
an Engllshgrammarschool educatlon. But he also
read wldely around the school syllabus, whlch was
geared toward the School Certlflcate examlnatlons
set by the Cambrldge Overseas Examlnatlons Syn
dlcate. Jhls wlde readlng was to a great extent
made posslble by hls father`s llbrary and those of
older famlly frlends who recognlzed hls precoclous
llterary glft. Hls flrst two books of poetry, 2 Iocms
(l918) and Ipitopl for tlc Jouvg: XII Covtos (l919),
publlshed when he was ln hls late teens and before
he entered unlverslty, bear wltness to hls lmpresslve
readlng ln modern Engllsh poetry. J. S. Ellot, Ezra
Pound, W. H. Auden, Stephen Spender, and Dylan
Jhomas. Jhere was also the Amerlcan Walt Whlt
man, and, ln addltlon to the Irench and Latln poets
on the school currlculum, there was Dante.
When Walcott was only fourteen, a poem of
hls, tltled slmply 'l911," appeared ln the lsland news
paper, Tlc !oicc of St. Iucio (2 August l911). It slg
naled not only the presence of a prodlgy but also the
capaclty of Walcott`s poetry to be controverslal. In lts
172
a t~ ai_ PPO
fortyfour llnes of morethancompetent blank verse, a
blend of Mlltonlc and Wordsworthlan elements, the
poem advanced, reverentlally, the ldea of God ln
Natureexpllcltly agalnst the ldea of belng taught
about God by Chrlstlan dogma. Jhree days later the
paper publlshed a reply by Reverend C. M. |esse,
IMI (Brothers of Mary Immaculate), a hlghly lnflu
entlal clerlc. Whlle welcomlng the poetlc enthuslasm
and promlse of youth, |esse decorously but flrmly
chlded the poet, not only for some unspeclfled vague
ness of style and technlque, but more so for teachlng
'untruth." As a crltlque of the poet ln Walcott, the
prlest`s rejolnder was barbed by the fact that lt too
was ln verse, rhymlng sestets of an Augustan quallty
and tltled 'On Readlng the Poem 'l911.`" On 9
August the paper carrled a letter captloned 'Jhe
Offendlng Poem," from a reader who used the pseud
onym 'A seeker." Jhe wrlter found |esse`s poem to
lack the 'beauty" of Walcott`s, and encouraged the
youngster to contlnue hls 'search" for God and, pre
sumably, for success ln poetry. Walcott has also wrlt
ten that hls flrst publlshed collectlon was savagely
attacked ln the Iort of Spoiv Cocttc ln a revlew by the
Cathollc archblshop of Port of Spaln. Jhls revlew has
so far not been unearthed.
Havlng falled to wln the one annual Island
Scholarshlp, whlch would have taken hlm to study at
an Engllsh unlverslty, Walcott taught at hls alma
mater for three years. Jhls perlod was a heady, pro
ductlve one for hlm. He publlshed hls flrst two collec
tlons of poetry as well as Hcvri Clristoplc: Z Clroviclc iv
Scvcv Sccvcs, the play that deflnltlvely marked hls
promlse as a dramatlst and that was produced to
acclalm ln l950 by the St. Lucla Arts Gulld, whlch he
had helped to found earller ln the same year. Jhe cre
atlvlty of thls perlod was helghtened by two events,
one publlc, the other personal. a flre that devastated
Castrles ln l918, and Walcott`s experlence of flrst
love, wlth the woman called Anna ln Zvotlcr Iifc.
In October l950 Walcott`s need to get out of
the narrow conflnes of hls beloved lsland was met
when he entered the fledgllng Lnlverslty College of
the West Indles (LCWI), at Mona, |amalca, on a
scholarshlp awarded by the Brltlsh Colonlal Develop
ment and Welfare organlzatlon. He was one of the
flrst students of the Iaculty of Arts. He read for the
B.A. General degree ln Engllsh, Irench, and Latln.
Jhe College (whlch later became the Lnlverslty of
the West Indles) was afflllated wlth the Lnlverslty of
London, and the program that Walcott followed was
strlctly that of the parent unlverslty. Jhe syllabus ln
Engllsh was qulte conservatlve, a hlstory of the lltera
ture of England. Jhe professor and head of the small
department, whose three faculty members were all
whlte expatrlates, was an Engllshman, a Cambrldge
graduate who had studled under the renowned I. R.
Leavls, exponent of the ldea of the Great Jradltlon.
Walcott wrote essays on Sir Cowoiv ovd tlc Crccv
Iviglt, Iicrs Ilowmov, Chrlstopher Marlowe, |ohn
Webster, Shakespeare, |ohn Donne, George Herbert,
Samuel Jaylor Colerldge, |ohn Keats, and Emlly
Bront`s !utlcrivg Hciglts (l817). One of Walcott`s
lecturers ln Irench, a Scotsman, was most lmpressed
by hls wlde readlng, and ln partlcular by the fact that
he quoted from Dante`s Ivfcrvo ln one of hls Irench
exams.
Walcott was awarded the B.A. degree, Second
Dlvlslon, ln l953, but he had glven scant attentlon to
hls studles. He applled hlmself even less when he read
for the postgraduate Dlploma ln Educatlon the fol
lowlng year, and he dld not successfully complete the
program. In l998, ln hls keynote address to a gather
lng of graduates held at Mona to mark the flftleth
annlversary of the unlverslty, he spoke scathlngly of
the formal educatlon to whlch he had been exposed
at the LCWI. He clted the currlculum and the Eng
llshness of the lecturers. He lamented that the llbrary
had no New World or Amerlcan llterature.
However, Walcott also acknowledged the posltlve
slde to hls days at Mona. He made stlmulatlng frlendshlps
wlth other freesplrlted and creatlve students, and he
became the leadlng force ln extracurrlcular student actlv
lty ln llterature, theater, and palntlng. He was founder
and flrst edltor of the student magazlne. Jwo lastlng llter
ary frlendshlps he made durlng hls years ln |amalca were
wlth older men. |ohn Ilgueroa, poet and crltlc, and |ohn
Hearne, novellst. Ilgueroa, a professor ln the Department
of Educatlon at Mona, became a leadlng crltlcal exponent
of Walcott`s work. Both men are memorlallzed ln canto
l8 of Ticpolo`s Houvd (2000).
Jhe perlod from l951 to l958 was a restless tlme
for Walcott. In August l951 he marrled Iaye Moyston, a
|amalcan whom he had met early ln hls undergraduate
days, when she worked as secretary to the dlrector of the
LCWI Department of ExtraMural Studles. Jhe couple
produced a son, Peter, who became a glfted palnter, but
who has been dogged by lll health. Jhe marrlage soon fal
tered, and the couple separated ln l956 and were
dlvorced ln l959. As Walcott`s blographer, Bruce Klng,
has suggested, a few of Walcott`s uncollected poems of
thls tlme are sharpedged wlth a bltter passlon that seems
drlven by the breakdown of the marrlage.
Between l951 and l957 Walcott dld brlef
teachlng stlnts, flrst at the Grenada Boys` Secondary
School, then at hls own St. Mary`s College, and
flnally at |amalca College, another hlgh school for
boys, ln Klngston. In l957 he also worked as feature
wrlter for the |amalcan weekly Iublic Upiviov, wrltlng
173
ai_ PPO a t~
on llterature and theater. Durlng hls years ln |amalca
ln the l950s, he came lncreaslngly lnto the local llme
llght, especlally through the many productlons of hls
plays, lncludlng e Ì q `~~~
( publlshed ln l962), q p~ ~ a~ (l951), q
t ` (l953), and f (l957). He
dlrected most of these productlons hlmself. Also ln
the l950s hls poetry began to reach the wlder,
though stlll small, West Indlan llterary publlc, not
only because of the |amalcan exposure but also espe
clally through publlcatlon ln the Barbadlan llttle
magazlne _I and through broadcast on the 'Carlb
bean Volces" program of the Brltlsh Broadcastlng
Corporatlon`s World Servlce. Slmmons had brought
Walcott`s poetry to the attentlon of Irank Colly
more, edltor of _K Collymore lmmedlately became
an enthuslastlc promoter of Walcott. Jwenty Walcott
poems, lncludlng the groundbreaklng sonnet
sequence 'Jales of the Islands," appeared ln _
between l919 and l959, and another seven between
l960 and l969. Collymore recommended Walcott`s
work to Henry Swanzy, producer of 'Carlbbean
Volces," a program whose audlence was almost
excluslvely West Indlan.
A cruclal turnlng polnt came for Walcott when he
was lnvlted to wrlte a play to be performed as part of an
arts festlval to mark the lnauguratlon of the polltlcal
Iederatlon of the West Indles ln l958. Walcott was a
keen federallst, and the federallst 'dream" had been
nurtured on the Mona campus ln the l950s, wlth the
comlng together, for the flrst tlme ln the Carlbbean, of
so many brlght young mlnds of the reglon. Jhe festlval
was to take place ln Port of Spaln, where the Iederal
Parllament was to be located. Jhls development ln Wal
cott`s career led, dlrectly and lndlrectly, to a new klnd
and a new level of creatlve achlevement and satlsfac
tlon, and to a new stablllty ln hls emotlonal and domes
tlc llfe.
f had been premlered ln |amalca ln l957 by
Errol Hlll`s shortllved Iederal Jheatre company, a
project for the development of West Indlan theater.
Hlll had dlrected e ` ln London ln the
early l950s and later collaborated wlth Walcott on
other theater projects. In September l957, under the
aegls of the LCWI ExtraMural Studles Department
and wlth fundlng from the Rockefeller Ioundatlon,
Walcott, along wlth Hlll and Noel Vaz (both talented
theater dlrectors and drama tutors wlth the
ExtraMural Department) traveled to North Amerlca
to meet wlth Jyrone Guthrle, the acclalmed dlrector
of the Shakespeare Jheatre at Stratford, Ontarlo.
Jhelr hope was to attract Guthrle to dlrect the arts
festlval and Walcott`s commlssloned play, a ~
`K Guthrle decllned; the play, dlrected by Vaz
and Dagmar Butt, opened on 25 Aprll l958.
a ~ Ì a pageantchronlcle, encapsu
lates ln four maln eplsodes the hlstory of the Carlb
bean from lmperlal conquest and colonlzatlon to the
lmmedlate postEmanclpatlon people`s struggle for
economlc justlce and freedom. Each eplsode centers
on the story of a great hlstorlcal flgure. Chrlstopher
Columbus, Slr Walter Ralegh, Joussalnt LÒuverture,
and George Wllllam Gordon, ln chronologlcal order.
Jhe flrst two represented the European lmperlal
adventure ln the Carlbbean; the latter two the strug
gle of the oppressed people, the Afrlcan slaves and
thelr descendants, agalnst represslon. Walcott glves
the form of the play a Carlbbean quallty by framlng lt
ln a popular Carlbbean performance mode based on
the Jrlnldad Carnlval.
As a result of the notlce he attracted through
a ~ Ì Walcott recelved a Rockefeller Iel
lowshlp to study drama ln New York. Jhere he was
lnstructed ln dlrectlng by |os _ulntero, artlstlc dlrec
tor of the Clrcle ln the Square theater. He also sat ln
on rehearsals at the Phoenlx Jheatre. Whlle ln New
York, Walcott saw the |apanese movles o~
(l950) and r ~~ (l953), whlch lnfluenced
hls attempt to fashlon a West Indlan theater style.
Although he was learnlng and wrltlng, Walcott
was not happy ln New York. Hls materlal clrcum
stances were not comfortable, and he had unpleasant
flrsthand experlence of Amerlca`s black/whlte dlvlde,
as reflected, for example, ln the poem 'Blues" (l968).
Lonely and homeslck, he cut short hls stay ln New
York and returned to the Carlbbean ln mld l959.
After a brlef vlslt to St. Lucla, he went to Jrlnldad,
whlch was close enough to home but able to provlde
an amblence more agreeable to hls creatlve asplra
tlons. Indeed, Jrlnldad became hls second home, and
when, ln hls Nobel lecture, he trles to lmaglne 'the
proportlons of the ldeal Carlbbean clty," he conflg
ures them ln lmages of Port of Spaln. In some of the
many homecomlng moments, actual or lmaglned,
that have been descrlbed ln hls poetry over the years,
home ls lmaglned as Jrlnldad, and lts Santa Cruz Val
ley has provlded lmagery for the ldea of the beauty
and llght of an earthly place of peace. Hls love for
Jrlnldad was deepened by hls love for Margaret Ruth
Malllard, a Jrlnldadlan, who ln l960 became hls sec
ond wlfe. Malllard was most supportlve and of practl
cal asslstance to Walcott ln hls work. She was often
the one to wrlte on Walcott`s behalf to hls publlshers,
glvlng updates on hls progress wlth manuscrlpts or
deallng wlth other buslness matters. Jhe marrlage
was a key factor ln the productlvlty and relatlve sta
blllty he enjoyed over most of the next two decades.
171
a t~ ai_ PPO
Jhey produced two daughters, Ellzabeth and Anna,
repeatedly and lovlngly alluded to ln hls poetry.
When Walcott returned to Jrlnldad ln l959,
Beryl McBurnle, the doyenne of modern and Carlb
bean dance on the lsland, offered hlm the use of her
Llttle Carlb Jheatre for workshop sesslons wlth local
actors. Jhe Llttle Carlb Jheatre Workshop soon
became the Jrlnldad Jheatre Workshop (JJW). In
l966 lt got a space of lts own, whlch the company
named the Basement Jheatre, when they were able to
rent the dlsused bar ln the basement of the Bretton
Hall hotel. Jhe JJW flourlshed and became an hls
torlc contrlbutlon to Carlbbean development. Here,
for the flrst tlme, was a sustalnable repertory theater
and the foundatlon of professlonal theater ln the West
Indles. It was the most lmportant development to date
ln the evolutlon of a West Indlan theater, wlth lts
dlrectorplaywrlght wrltlng for and dlrectlng a group
of dedlcated and ln some cases brllllant actors. Jhe
relatlonshlp was mutually rewardlng. Although the
company dld not llmlt themselves to West Indlan
plays, they partlcularly lmpressed audlences wlth thelr
productlons, ln the l970s, of what became Walcott
classlcs. a revlsed and lmproved Ti-cov ovd His rotl-
crs ( premlered ln l957), Drcom ov Movlcy Mouvtoiv
( premlered ln l967), and Tlc olcr of Scvillc
( performed ln l971, publlshed ln l978). All of these
plays used Carlbbean song, dance, and gesture, as
well as Carlbbean creole speech, to semlnal effect.
Ti-cov ovd His rotlcrs and Drcom ov Movlcy Mouvtoiv,
bulldlng on Tlc Sco ot Doupliv and Molcouclov (pre
mlered ln l959, publlshed ln l966), gave the deprlved
folkflsherman, woodcutter, charcoal burner, peas
anta volce as subjects of a drama that addressed
soclal lnjustlce and deprlvatlon as legacles of colonlal
lsm. Jhe plays drew on St. Luclan folklore, folkways,
and folk performance ln Walcott`s quest for a Carlb
bean theater form.
Ior most of the l960s Walcott was also a feature
wrlter for Tlc Trividod Cuordiov, flrst as a staff member
and later as a freelance contrlbutor. He wrote on the
arts and culture, lncludlng revlews of books, theater,
clnema, and art exhlbltlons. He regarded thls wrltlng
as hackwork, but the many uncollected pleces lnclude
ltems that deserve permanent attentlon and are valu
able markers of the evolutlon of hls thought. Jhe
l960s and the l970s were also the perlod when he
galned lnternatlonal stature as a poet. In l962 Iv o
Crccv ìglt: Iocms, 194S-1960, hls flrst commerclally
publlshed collectlon, appeared. Walcott had met Alan
Ross, edltor of Tlc Iovdov Mogoivc, when Ross vlslted
Jrlnldad early ln l960. Ross was lmpressed by Wal
cott`s poems and was soon publlshlng some of them ln
the magazlne. Early ln l96l he sent to |onathan Cape,
wlth hls recommendatlon, the manuscrlpt of Iv o Crccv
ìglt. Walcott the dramatlst also recelved some expo
sure ln England around thls tlme. In l960 Tlc Sco ot
Doupliv and Molcouclov (as Six iv tlc Ioiv) were pre
sented ln London by New Day Jheatre Company, a
project of the |amalcan actordlrector Lloyd Reckord,
ln collaboratlon wlth the Engllsh Stage Soclety.
Iv o Crccv ìglt, consolldatlng Walcott`s early
promlse, lncluded such soontobefamous pleces as
'A Sea Chantey," a lltany of hls love for the lslands;
'A Clty`s Death by Ilre"; 'Rulns of a Great House,"
whlch wrestled wlth the understandable Carlbbean
rage at a hlstory centered on slavery; and 'A Iar Cry
from Afrlca," ln whlch the poet deflned hlmself, ln the
now wellknown phrase, as 'dlvlded to the veln." 'A
Sea Chantey" recelved the Gulnness Award for
Poetry ln l960.
Jhe scope of Walcott`s lnternatlonal vlslblllty
wldened when Iarrar, Straus (later Iarrar, Straus, and
Glroux) of New York publlshed ln l961 hls Sclcctcd
Iocms, whlch lncluded a selectlon from Iv o Crccv ìglt
and some new poems, all but one of whlch appeared
ln Tlc Costowoy ovd Utlcr Iocms (l965). Of partlcular
pleasure and encouragement to Walcott ln thls devel
opment was the part played by Robert Lowell. In the
summer of l962, not long after Iv o Crccv ìglt had
come out, Walcott met Lowell, when Lowell, hls then
wlfe, Ellzabeth Hardwlck, and thelr daughter, Harrlet,
stopped ln Jrlnldad on thelr way to Brazll. Jhe Wal
cotts took them to a beach house, and the two men
got on well together. Walcott was flattered when Low
ell asked hlm what he thought of some of Lowell`s Imi-
totiovs (l96l), whlch had recently appeared.
When, early ln the followlng year, Robert
Glroux asked Lowell to read the manuscrlpt of Sclcctcd
Iocms, Lowell, ln a letter dated 9 March l963, recom
mended Walcott wlth consldered enthuslasm, notlng
that he was already famlllar wlth Walcott`s work,
referrlng to thelr tlme spent together the prevlous
summer, ldentlfylng speclflc strengths ln Walcott`s
wrltlng, and expresslng the vlew that he expected
great thlngs of Walcott. Jhe two became good frlends,
and Walcott has acknowledged Lowell`s lnfluence on
hls poetry. Jhe frlendshlp was dlsrupted for a few
years, after Lowell, at the onset of one of hls mental
breakdowns, accused Walcott, by lmpllcatlon, of
'uslng" hlm. However, ln 'On Robert Lowell" (l981,
lncluded ln !lot Tlc Twiliglt Soys: Issoys, l998), a
movlng crltlque as eulogy, Walcott says that Lowell,
some years later, extended a hand of reconclllatlon,
and all was well. Walcott`s essay ls also a valuable
document ln relatlon to hls vlews on the lssue of llter
ary lnfluence and orlglnallty, an lssue that has
haunted hlm throughout hls career. Lowell ls also cele
175
ai_ PPO a t~
brated ln Walcott`s memorlal poem 'R.J.S.L." (ln Tlc
Stor-Zpplc Iivgdom) and ln poem 32 of Midsummcr
(l981).
In the poetry of the l960s, partlcularly ln Tlc
Costowoy ovd Utlcr Iocms and Tlc Culf, ovd Utlcr Iocms
(l969), Walcott attalned a sparer style of more rlgor
ous selfscrutlny. Lnder the Roblnson Crusoe mask,
he explores condltlons of allenatlon, separatlon, lsola
tlon, whether at the personal/exlstentlal level or the
communal. Jhe Amerlcan gulf of race and the apoca
lyptlc vlolence that lt may seem lnevltably to presage
ls one of the gulfs contemplated ln the tltle poem of
Tlc Culf, ovd Utlcr Iocms. Jhe wellknown 'Laventllle"
palnts a bleak plcture of Carlbbean people as shlp
wrecked vlctlms of hlstory. At the same tlme, Wal
cott`s Crusoe also represents the capaclty of the
lsolated lndlvldual to see the world and hlmself
clearly and ln relatlon to hls symbollc kln, Adam, the
opportunlty and challenge to Carlbbean people to
fashlon a new world out of apparent nothlng. One of
the poems ln Tlc Costowoy ovd Utlcr Iocms, 'Jarpon,"
won the Borestone Mountaln Poetry Award for Best
Poem of l963, and the collectlon recelved the Royal
Soclety of Llterature Award for l966.
In l970 there occurred ln Jrlnldad a develop
ment that shook Walcott and had a deep lmpact on
hls wrltlng. Dlsgruntled sectlons of the proletarlat and
canefleld workers, led by Black Power actlvlsts and
dlsaffected army offlcers, attempted the vlolent over
throw of the government of Prlme Mlnlster Erlc Wll
llams, who had led the country lnto polltlcal
lndependence from England and had been ln control
ever slnce. Jhe protesters and revolutlonarles felt that
Wllllams, once the lcon of natlonallsm, 'Iather of the
Natlon," had become too autocratlc, that there was
too much corruptlon ln hlgh places, and that the black
masses were stlll belng denled thelr share of the bene
flts of the ollrlch state.
Although the uprlslng was soon contalned, lt
helghtened polltlcal consclousness ln the lsland and
the reglon. Not surprlslngly, durlng thls perlod Wal
cott produced a clutch of hls most nearly polltlcal
poems, and lt fed hls creatlvlty for a long whlle. Con
sclous ln hls own way of the causes for popular dls
gruntlement, he nonetheless felt that the revolutlonary
actlon was mlsgulded, that lt was belng deralled by
selfservlng ldeologues lnto a path of raclst revenge.
Hls reactlon strongly colored two major essays wrltten
at thls tlme. 'What the Jwlllght Says. An Overture,"
whlch formed the lntroductlon to hls flrst collectlon of
plays, Drcom ov Movlcy Mouvtoiv ovd Utlcr Iloys (l970),
and 'Jhe Muse of Hlstory."
Hls dlsenchanted vlew of the l970 uprlslng ls
also evldent ln hls obllque representatlon of lt ln the
play Iv o Iivc Costlc, wrltten malnly ln the heat of the
moment and premlered ln October l970. Tlc Iost Cor-
vivol, flrst produced ln l982, an appreclably rewrltten
and generally lmproved verslon of Iv o Iivc Costlc,
does not change the vlew of the revolutlonary slde ln
the earller play. A rewrltten Ti-cov ovd His rotlcrs,
whlch played ln Port of Spaln ln |une l970, proved to
be a tlmely fable, entertalnlng and serlously dldactlc,
about the posslblllty of black revolutlon ln the West
Indles agalnst a hlstory of whlte, colonlal oppresslon.
Also of partlcular relevance to lts tlme was Drcom ov
Movlcy Mouvtoiv, perhaps Walcott`s bestknown and
most acclalmed play, whlch had lts flrst Jrlnldadlan
performance ln l968, havlng premlered ln Joronto
the prevlous year. Jhrough the powerfully lconlc flg
ure of lts protagonlst, Makak, lt focused on the neces
sary psychologlcal revolutlon that the colonlzed black
must experlence ln order to free hls mlnd from mental
slavery.
In a l977 lntervlew wlth Edward Hlrsch
(lncluded ln Covvcrsotiovs witl Dcrcl !olcott, l996), Wal
cott explalned that the bltterly antlradlcal tone of
'What the Jwlllght Says" (although he dld not name
the essay) must be heard ln the lmmedlate context of lts
tlme, as a response to the thenfashlonable 'polltlcal
nostalgla" for a pastoral, ldeallzed Afrlca. Hls poems of
the l970s that questlon the revolutlonary 'polltlcal cor
rectness" lnclude 'Jhe Brother," 'Vlgll ln the Desert"
(from Sco Cropcs, l976), and the uncollected 'Com
mune" and 'A Patrlot to Patrlots." At the same tlme,
one effect of the helghtened polltlcal consclousness of
the late l960s and early l970s was no doubt to lnduce
poems, such as 'Parades, Parades," 'Party Nlght at the
Hllton," and 'Jhe Sllent Woman" (from Sco Cropcs),
that crltlclze the polltlcal status quo and advance the
ldea that lndependence has only brought a new system
of exploltatlon.
Desplte the anxlety of the perlod, Walcott
enjoyed major lnternatlonal successes. Tlc Culf, ovd
Utlcr Iocms won the Cholmondeley Award for Poetry ln
l970. In l97l Drcom ov Movlcy Mouvtoiv won an Oble
Award for the most dlstlngulshed OffBroadway pro
ductlon. In l972 Walcott was made a Member of the
Order of the Brltlsh Emplre, and ln l973 the Lnlverslty
of the West Indles conferred on hlm the degree of Hon
orary Doctor of Letters, maklng hlm the flrst of lts
graduates to be honored wlth a doctorate. Jhat same
year, he publlshed the masterplece Zvotlcr Iifc, whlch
recelved the |ock Campbell `cw Stotcsmov Award ln
l971.
Breaklng new ground as a modern booklength
autoblography ln verse, whlch showed Walcott`s lnven
tlveness ln the crosslng of genres, Zvotlcr Iifc was a
rlchly evocatlve account of hls early llfe, up to the tlme
176
a t~ ai_ PPO
when he left St. Lucla to enter the Lnlverslty College of
the West Indles. Jhe focus of thls narratlve was the
lnfluences, heredltary and envlronmental, that shaped
the poet ln hlm, the clrcumstances of hls early dedlca
tlon to the llfe of art and poetry. Jhe brlght promlse
and ambltlon of that tlme shlne all the more radlantly
agalnst the later dlscontent, dramatlcally encapsulated
ln the sulclde of hls mentor Slmmons, whlch ls the bur
den of the fourth and flnal sectlon of the book. On l9
Iebruary l973, after havlng read ^ i at one slt
tlng, Lowell wrote to Walcott ln ecstatlc pralse of the
book, fondly cltlng thelr frlendshlp.
By the mld l970s the productlve contentment of
Walcott`s llfe ln Jrlnldad had begun to unravel. Hls
romantlc lnvolvement wlth an actress and dancer ln the
JJW, Norllne Metlvler, was puttlng a straln on hls rela
tlonshlp wlth hls famlly. (He and Malllard ultlmately
dlvorced.) Jhere was also dlssenslon ln the JJW. Some
members took lssue wlth Walcott`s management style and
some of hls declslons. Jhere was confrontatlon, and Wal
cott reslgned from the JJW ln l976. Jhe effect of these
developments on hlm was exacerbated by other, related
conslderatlons, such as the questlon of flnanclal securlty
and hls sense of unease ln the postl970 soclopolltlcal cll
mate of Jrlnldad and Jobago. Slgnals of hls lmpendlng
departure from Jrlnldad and Jobago could be heard ln
poems such as 'Preparlng for Exlle" (from p~ d~).
Shablne, the 'red nlgger" sallorpoet, protagonlst of the
popular narratlve poem 'Jhe Schooner cI" explalnlng
hls reasons for qulttlng Jrlnldad, ls, among other thlngs, a
compelllng mask for the Walcott of the late l970s. 'Jhe
Schooner c" appeared ln q p~J^ hI the
tltle poem of whlch also addressed the polltlcal sltuatlon of
the tlme. Its protagonlst ls based roughly on Mlchael Man
ley, |amalcan prlme mlnlster from l972 to l980, and hls
Democratlc Soclallst experlment; the poem deplcts the
dllemma llkely to befall any attempt to achleve a peaceful
revolutlon ln such clrcumstances as prevalled.
Glven all the dlsquletlng factors ln hls llfe at
that tlme, Walcott began, whether purposefully or by
a process of natural drlft, to do more and more work
ln the Lnlted States, lnltlally movlng ln that dlrectlon
by way of the L.S. Vlrgln Islands, where he spent
tlme durlng the late l970s as vlsltlng lecturer and
poet and playwrlghtlnresldence at the College of
the Vlrgln Islands, teachlng, conductlng workshops,
and dlrectlng new plays of hls. o~ (performed
ln l977), m~ (performed ln l978), and j~ i~
s~ (l979). After a Guggenhelm Iellowshlp (l977-
l978), short teachlng attachments at the Yale School of
Drama, Columbla, and New York Lnlversltles, a Iel
lowshlp of the New York Instltute for the Humanltles,
and a lucratlve and prestlglous |ohn D. and Catherlne
MacArthur Ioundatlon Iellowshlp ln l98l, he
accepted, early ln l982, a posltlon as vlsltlng professor
of Engllsh at Boston Lnlverslty, to teach creatlve wrlt
lng. In l986 he was made professor of Engllsh, and he
has been teachlng there ever slnce. In l982 he bought
an apartment ln Brookllne, Massachusetts, and marrled
Metlvler. (Jhls marrlage, too, ended ln dlvorce.) He
had effectlvely relocated to the Lnlted States, although
he contlnued to return to the Carlbbean as often as he
could and to have plays produced there.
Not surprlslngly, the flrst book of poems that
Walcott publlshed after settllng ln Amerlca, q cJ
~ q~ (l98l), opens wlth poems about adaptlng
to the new landscape and envlronment, and even about
Walcott`s belng surprlsed by the thought that he ls 'fall
lng ln love wlth Amerlca" ('Lpstate"). But there ls also
the other slde, the sardonlc reference to belng the butt
of whlte raclst contempt ('North and South"). Jhe
theme of the black man`s 'cross" ln Amerlca, plcklng
up on earller poems such as 'Blues" and 'Jhe Gulf,"
found lts most harrowlng enactment ln the tltle poem of
q ^~~ q~ (l987).
Jhe arrangement of the poems ln q c~
q~ lnto three sectlons tltled 'North," 'South," and
'North" made expllclt a broad pattern of journey and
return, from lsland South to metropolltan North and
back, that had suggested ltself earller and underlles all
of Walcott`s subsequent collectlons and booklength
poems. Slgnlflcantly, hls representatlon of the North,
whether Europe or the Lnlted States, ls always from
the polnt of vlew of the Carlbbean person and the leg
acy of Carlbbean hlstory. 'North and South" and the
tltle poem of q c~ q~ wlden Walcott`s the
matlc scope to matters of global toplcallty. the
socloeconomlc lnequlty of the NorthSouth dlvlde, and
the exploltatlon of the Jhlrd World by the Ilrst.
Walcott`s llfelong, contested lnvolvement wlth
classlcal mythology assumes a new dlmenslon ln some
of the poems of the l980s, lncludlng 'Europa,"
'Greece," and 'Hurucan" (ln q c~ q~),
and 'Jhe Whelk Gatherers," 'Whlte Maglc," and
'Oceano Nox" (ln q ^~~ q~ ). Jhese poems
demystlfy and naturallze classlcal mythology, brlnglng
lt down to Carlbbean earth. Walcott`s cholce ln jJ
of dlrectly addresslng fellow poet |oseph Brod
sky helps focus the themes, all characterlstlc of Walcott,
of poetry, frlendshlp, wanderlng, exlle, and the tyranny
of dlctators and totalltarlan systems, whlch had fea
tured ln 'Iorest of Europe," a poem dedlcated to Brod
sky (ln q p~J^ h).
And always the poems deplctlng and lnterpretlng
Carlbbean reallty attest that, ln the deepest sense, Wal
cott never left the Carlbbean, although he agonlzed
about havlng left lt. Ior example, 'Jhe Spoller`s
Return" (from q c~ q~ ) has a calypso per
177
ai_ PPO a t~
sona and style, together wlth satlrlcal commentary on
the Jrlnldadlan soclopolltlcal scene, maklng lt a com
panlon plece to 'Jhe Schooner Iliglt." Jhe fear of dls
connectlon from home and the mlxed joy and paln of
reconnectlon, a pervaslve thematlc nexus ln Walcott, ls
memorably played out ln 'Jhe Llght of the World"
(from Tlc Zrlovsos Tcstomcvt ), whlch performs an act of
ldentlty more problematlc than that of the equally
memorable 'Salnte Lucle" of Sco Cropcs.
Jhe three new poetry collectlons of the l980s
Tlc Iortuvotc Trovcllcr, Midsummcr, and Tlc Zrlovsos Tcsto-
mcvtshow Walcott`s lncreased concern wlth the rela
tlonshlps between 'word" and 'world," llterature (art)
and llfe (nature), and poetry and palntlng. Jhese con
cerns had been strlklngly engaged ln Zvotlcr Iifc. Jhe
collectlons also evldence Walcott`s lnterest ln playlng
changes on a varlety of tradltlonal verse forms. Ior
lnstance, Midsummcr ls a sequence of poems held loosely
together by the thematlc suggestlons of the tltle, and
also by sustalnlng the same verse form throughout.
expanslve llnes and lrregular rhymes, bulldlng wlthln
and among the poems the effect of a spreadlng, restless
tlde. Tlc Zrlovsos Tcstomcvt makes a sharp contrast, wlth
lts preponderance of shortllne quatralns of a set rhyme
pattern.
Walcott`s commltment to the dlsclpllne of verse,
to rhyme and stanza ln the servlce of lntellectual rlgor,
found example and encouragement ln the two deepest
llterary frlendshlps he developed on relocatlng to the
Lnlted States. wlth Brodsky and Seamus Heaney, two
of the most conslderable poets of hls tlme. All three
were to become Nobel laureates (Brodsky ln l987,
Heaney ln l995), and all are publlshed by Iarrar,
Straus, and Glroux. One slgnlflcant clrcumstance they
shared was that of belng outslders ln Amerlca. Brodsky
and Heaney have wrltten ln hlgh pralse of Walcott`s
work, as he of thelrs. Walcott flrst met Brodsky, the
exlled Russlan, at Lowell`s funeral ln Boston ln l977.
Brodsky was the llvlng flgure closest to Walcott
through whom he could focus, ln lts most preclse way,
the fear of exlle and the horror of totalltarlan polltlcal
systems, ldeas that pervade hls poetry. Jhe nexus
between Brodsky and these themes ls a thread that runs
through Midsummcr, but Walcott had wrltten 'Preparlng
for Exlle," whlch lnvokes Oslp Emllèvlch Man
del`shtam, another great Russlan poet who had been
the vlctlm of totalltarlanlsm, well before he met Brod
sky. Walcott flrst met Heaney, an Irlshman, after send
lng hlm, through hls edltor, a revlew, whlch he found
objectlonable, of one of Heaney`s collectlons, and on
whlch Walcott had scrlbbled an obscene comment.
Heaney embodles for Walcott the ldea of Ireland that
hls Carlbbean lmaglnatlon had from early on found so
congenlalthe Ireland of |ames |oyce and Wllllam But
ler Yeats and folklore and the struggle agalnst Engllsh
colonlallsm.
Jeachlng ln the Lnlted States, Walcott fell lnto
danger of notorlety. In l982, and agaln ln l996, he was
accused of sexual harassment by female unlverslty stu
dents, but these lncldents subslded, and hls llterary rep
utatlon survlved. Suanne Kelman, wrltlng ln the
column 'Cross Current" ln the Clobc ovd Moil
(Joronto) (22 October l992), clalmed that she had flrst
hand evldence that Walcott ls 'a jerk wlth women," but
she would not let polltlcal correctness prevent her from
acknowledglng hlm as 'a towerlng poet."
In l990 Allx Walcott dled, and Walcott publlshed
hls monumental Umcros, the work that cllnched for hlm
the Nobel Prlze. One of the most movlngly lyrlcal
moments ln the poem ls the poet`s valedlctory portralt
of hls aged, frall mother (chapter 32) as he vlslted her
not long before her death. Here she ls only a shadow of
the robust, determlned young wldow whom he had
brought allve ln chapter 2 of Zvotlcr Iifc. Her death also
occasloned the elegy that ls the tltle sequence of hls col
lectlon Tlc ouvty (l997).
Umcros brought to a klnd of culmlnatlon Walcott`s
lmaglnatlve use of the classlcs, and more partlcularly
Homer. Jhls development was doubled ln the area of
drama by Walcott`s Tlc Udysscy whlch premlered ln
l992. Homer hlmself, ln one gulse or another, ls a char
acter ln Umcros, and at one polnt Walcott even antlcl
pates the reader and lnterrogates hls obsesslon wlth the
classlcs.
Umcros lnterweaves three storles. Jhe one that car
rles most clearly the sense of plot and actlon ls the story
of the unlettered flshermen Achllle and Hector and
thelr quarrel over the beautlful, proud waltress and
maldservant Helen. Jhelr story resonates wlth echoes
of Homer. Jhere ls also the story of Dennls Plunkett,
retlred Brltlsh sergeant major turned plg farmer, and hls
Irlsh wlfe, llvlng ln voluntary exlle on hls adopted out
post of emplre. Jhe worlds of these two storles, dlvlded
by class, color, and culture, nevertheless lmplnge on
each other, and both are balanced ln the overarchlng
consclousness of the thlrd storythe story of the
poetnarrator, a character ln hls own flctlon. Walcott
has called the poem an act of homage to St. Lucla. It ls
ultlmately about the lsland and hls demandlng, con
tested love for lt.
Umcros earned for Walcott the W. H. Smlth Award
ln l99l. Before that, ln l989, he had been awarded Jhe
_ueen`s Gold Medal for Poetry, by _ueen Ellzabeth II.
In l986 the Instltute of |amalca awarded hlm lts Gold
Musgrave Medal, whlch was presented to hlm ln l988
when he vlslted |amalca to be the keynote speaker at a
conference on West Indlan llterature hosted by the
178
a t~ ai_ PPO
Department of Engllsh of the Lnlverslty of the West
Indles.
When the award of the Nobel Prlze to Walcott
was announced ln October l992, the news was
greeted wlth acclalm. It had been regarded for some
tlme by the llterary cognoscentl as lnevltable. Jhere
was great dellght ln the Anglophone Carlbbean. In
hls acceptance speech, Walcott spoke 'wlth prlde and
humlllty" on behalf of 'the contlnulng struggle of
Antlllean wrlters." In |anuary l993 the government
of St Lucla lnaugurated Nobel Laureate Week, an
annual celebratlon ln honour of Walcott and Slr
Arthur Lewls. Both, by remarkable colncldence, were
born on 23

|anuary. On that date ln l993, the Clty
Councll of Castrles renamed Columbus Square as
Derek Walcott Square.
Jhe success of l no doubt encouraged
Walcott to pursue hls lnterest ln the long narratlve
poem and to produce two other major varlatlons on
the genre. q e and q m~ (2001).
Whereas ^ i had been an autoblography that
had somethlng of the novel about lt, q e
was a 'novellzed" blography, knowlngly 'lnexact and
blurred," of the Carlbbeanborn Irench Impresslonlst
palnter Camllle Plssarro. However, as wlth lI the
flctlon or blography ls lnterleaved wlth an autoblo
graphlcal llne. In q m~ Walcott returns to a
more fully autoblographlcal mode and to the flctlon
of self.
q e ls Walcott`s homage to palntlng.
In ^ i he had told how, havlng at flrst thought
of palntlng as hls career, he soon reallzed that hls true
mtler was poetry, and so, for all practlcal purposes,
he gave up palntlng. But he never really dld, and ln
hls later years he has lncreaslngly worked at lt.
When, ln the mld l990s, he bullt hlmself a house ln
St. Lucla wlth money from hls Nobel Prlze, he added
an attractlve studlo, a separate structure deslgned to
coordlnate wlth the house. A feature of the hardcover
edltlon of q e ls that lt lncludes fullcolor
reproductlons of twentyslx of Walcott`s palntlngs,
many done slnce he had been llvlng ln the house, and
some featurlng the landscape ln the vlclnlty of the
house. Jhe palntlngs are ln the book not as lllustra
tlons, but ln thelr own rlght, lnterfaclng wlth the
poem.
Durlng the years when he was based ln the
Lnlted States, ln the l980s and l990s, Walcott con
tlnued to be actlve ln drama, wrltlng plays and havlng
them performed, often under hls own dlrectlon, ln a
wlde geographlcal amblt. Jhe plays themselves con
flrmed hls range, coverlng a varlety of subject matter,
settlngs, and style. Jhe plays that premlered ln the
l980s were mostly about the Carlbbean, and all but
two had thelr premleres there. _I k ` (l98l),
q f f c k (l982), ^ _~ _ k
(l983), q e~~ b~ (l981), and q a
d~~ (l986).
_I k Ì a comedy veerlng to farce at
tlmes, satlrlzes the progress and modernlzatlon that
brlng to postIndependence Jrlnldad 'McDonaldlza
tlon," concrete, and the destructlon of the natural
envlronment and tradltlonal folkways. In contrast, ^
_~ _ k ls Walcott`s celebratlon of the
theater, and especlally of actors, the commltment and
paln that theater exacts of them, as well as the elatlon
and selftranscendence wlth whlch lt sometlmes
rewards them. Jhls play ls also Walcott`s grateful but
rueful summatlon of hls years wlth the JJW. In q
e~~ b~ he addresses the polltlcal status quo of
the postIndependence West Indles by presentlng the
leaders of the Haltlan Revolutlon after Joussalnt
LÒuverture`s exlle as belng drlven more by deslre for
grandeur or power and revenge than by concern for
thelr people.
Of the four plays that premlered after q a c
d~~I one, p (l99l) ls also on a Carlbbean sub
ject. the human drama connected wlth the story of
one of Jrlnldad`s great contrlbutlons to world muslc,
the steel band. Jwo of the other plays, q d a~
(l989) and t~ (l993), deal wlth Amerlcan sub
jects, as dld the earller and unsuccessful muslcal j~
i~ s~I about a legendary New Orleans conjure
woman. Jhough venturlng outslde the Carlbbean
wlth q d a~ and t~I Walcott was none
theless undertaklng subjects llkely to have speclal
appeal to an lmaglnatlon fraught wlth the Carlbbean
legacy of Natlve Amerlcan genoclde and Afrlcan
enslavement.
q d a~ centers on the doomed effort of
a whlte woman, an hlstorlcal flgure, Catherlne Wel
don, to help the Sloux chlef Slttlng Bull, at a tlme
when the Lnlted States Army was ready to flnd any
pretext to put down the Natlve Amerlcans once and
for all. Jhe Weldon story, but wlth focus on dlfferent
aspects, had also featured ln lK Its presence there
and ln q d a~ marked the hlgh polnt of Wal
cott`s longheld, compasslonate concern for the suffer
lng of the Natlve Amerlcans as a result of thelr
encounter wlth the whlte colonlzers. Ior lnstance, he
had recalled the lnfamous Jrall of Jears ln more than
one poem, most notably 'Iorest of Europe."
t~I flrst produced as an opera ln l993 and
rewrltten as a play wlth muslc for productlon ln 200l,
lmaglnes the last few hours ln the llfe of Davld
Walker, an earlynlneteenthcentury Afrlcan Amerl
can revolutlonary, who advocated vlolent uprlslng by
the slaves agalnst thelr masters as the necessary
179
ai_ PPO a t~
means of attalnlng thelr freedom. Jhe lntellectual and
moral lssue that the play ralses ls the ageold one of
justlflcatlon for the use of planned, bloody vlolence ln
pursult of a just revolutlonary cause.
Walcott`s longstandlng asplratlon toward a
Broadway muslcal was reallzed when Tlc Copcmov
opened ln |anuary l998. Jhe play ls based on the
true story of a slxteenyearold Puerto Rlcan lmml
grant who, ln pursuance of a gang feud, stabbed two
other teenage boys to death ln New York ln l959.
Jhe productlon was not a success and closed prema
turely. Paul Slmon, who composed the muslc, also
collaborated wlth Walcott on the book and lyrlcs, and
lt ls hardly posslble to dlstlngulsh each man`s contrl
butlon to the text. Newspaper reports on the produc
tlon before lt opened, as well as revlews of lt, treated
lt malnly as Slmon`s work and hardly mentloned Wal
cott.
Tlc Udysscy: Z Stogc !crsiov, commlssloned by the
Royal Shakespeare Company, was a dlfferent matter,
effectlvely lncorporatlng muslc but hardly settlng out
to be a muslcal, least of all a Broadway muslcal. In
adaptlng Homer`s eplc to the stage, Walcott wrote a
play for hls tlmes, whlle staylng substantlally close to
the substance and splrlt of the orlglnal. Ior lnstance,
hls Cyclops becomes 'Blg Brother," a prototyplcal
dlctatortyrant. Hls Odysseus ls all too human, a llttle
man, not glamorous, dwarfed by Achllles` great
shleld, but a tough llttle man and a trlckster, street
smart, of great heart and endurance'a natural man,"
as hls swlneherd, Eumaeus, admlrlngly labels hlm.
It was a klnd of natural fulflllment that Walcott
should have been lnvlted, ln the fullness of hls career,
to recreate the story of Odysseus. Almost from the
outset of hls wrltlng llfe he had lnhablted the flgure of
Odysseus and cast hlmself as the archetypal wan
derer, but one always anchored to home, drlven by
the deslre for home. In the play nothlng blurs the
focus on Odysseus`s determlnatlon to reach agaln hls
Ithaca and to be reunlted wlth hls wlfe, Penelope.
Jhe joy of return after wanderlng has become
an lncreaslngly domlnant subject of Walcott`s later
poetry, nowhere more so than ln Tlc Irodigol, whlch
celebrates the happlness of homecomlng and lts heal
lng of the gullt of wanderlng. But the Prodlgal`s hap
plness at returnlng ls tempered by the loss of those he
had left. Canto 9 lncludes an elegy to Walcott`s twln
brother, Roderlck, who dled ln Joronto ln March
2000. Hls brother`s death deepens the poet`s sense of
hls own mortallty closlng ln on hlm as he draws
nearer to the clty of tombstones by the sea, Choc
cemetery on the outsklrts of Castrles, where hls
mother and hls brother lle burled. Jhe hymn of
homecomlng joy ln Tlc Irodigol reflects the poet`s
return to llve ln St. Lucla, after some fortyflve
years, ln hls own house, on hls own llttle plot of
earth, wlth hls partner, companlon, and asslstant
slnce the late l980s, Slgrld Nama, an Amerlcan art
dealer of GermanIlemlsh orlgln, to whom he dedl
cated Ticpolo`s Houvd.
Irom thelr cllfftop patlo at Becune Polnt, at the
northern end of the lsland, Walcott looks down on
Plgeon Island, from where the Brltlsh salled to defeat
the Irench at the Battle of the Salnts. Nearby ls Gros
Ilet, the vlllage so much featured ln hls later poetry,
and the beach where he swlms every mornlng when
he ls ln St. Lucla. But he stlll travels, golng off each
year to do readlngs, or glve talks, or be lnvolved wlth
productlons of hls plays, or to teach one semester at
Boston Lnlverslty, durlng whlch tlme he ls based at
hls apartment ln Greenwlch Vlllage, New York Clty,
whlch he acqulred after glvlng up hls house ln
Brookllne. In the summer of 2005 he was ln Syracuse,
Italy, dlrectlng a productlon of hls Udysscy, wlth a text
ln Engllsh, Itallan, and Spanlsh and actors from Italy,
Spaln, St. Lucla, and Jrlnldad and Jobago.
When Lowell wrote to Glroux, ln l963, to rec
ommend the manuscrlpt of Sclcctcd Iocms, he hazarded
the vlew that, ln the long run, Derek Walcott`s race
and lsland would enhance hls 'strength." Walcott`s
career has proven Lowell rlght.
fW
Daryl Cumber Dance, 'Derek Walcott," ln hls `cw
!orld Zdoms: Covvcrsotiovs witl Covtcmporory !cst
Ivdiov !ritcrs (Leeds, L.K.. Peepal Jree Books,
l992), pp. 256-273;
Carrol Ilemlng, 'Jalklng wlth Derek Walcott," Corib-
bcov !ritcr, 7 (l993). 56-6l;
Wllllam Baer, ed., Covvcrsotiovs witl Dcrcl !olcott
( |ackson. Lnlverslty Press of Mlsslsslppl, l996).
_~W
Irma E. Goldstraw, Dcrcl !olcott: Zv Zvvototcd ibliogro-
ply of His !orls (New York London. Garland,
l981).
_~W
Bruce Klng, Dcrcl !olcott: Z Coribbcov Iifc (Oxford.
Oxford Lnlverslty Press, 2000).
oW
Zgcvdo, speclal Walcott lssue, 39 (Wlnter 2002-2003);
Edward Baugh, Dcrcl !olcott: Mcmory Zs !isiov: 'Zvotlcr
Iifc (London. Longman, l978);
Harold Bloom, ed., Dcrcl !olcott (Phlladelphla. Chelsea
House, 2003);
180
a t~ ai_ PPO
|une D. Bobb, cotivg Z Icstlcss Drum: Tlc Ioctics of
Iomou rotlwoitc ovd Dcrcl !olcott (Jrenton.
Afrlca World Press, l998);
Paul Breslln, òbody`s òtiov: Icodivg Dcrcl !olcott (Chl
cago London. Lnlverslty of Chlcago Press,
200l);
Stewart Brown, ed. Tlc Zrt of Dcrcl !olcott (Brldgend,
Mld Glamorgan. Seren, l99l);
Paula Burnett, Dcrcl !olcott: Iolitics ovd Ioctics (Galnes
vllle. Lnlverslty Press of Ilorlda, 2000);
Lance Russell Callahan, Iv tlc Slodow of Divivc Irotcctiov:
Dcrcl !olcott`s 'Umcros (Irederlcton. Lnlverslty of
New Brunswlck Press, l999);
Colloloo, speclal Walcott lssue, 28 (Wlnter 2005);
Marla Crlstlna Iumagalll, Tlc Iliglt of tlc !crvoculor:
Scomus Hcovcy, Dcrcl !olcott ovd tlc Imprcss of Dovtc
(Amsterdam New York. Rodopl, 200l);
Robert D. Hamner, Dcrcl !olcott, updated edltlon (New
Hamner, Ipic of tlc Disposscsscd: Dcrcl !olcott`s 'Umcros
(Columbla London. Lnlverslty of Mlssourl
Press, l997);
Hamner, ed., Criticol Icrspcctivcs ov Dcrcl !olcott (Boulder,
Colo. London. Lynne Rlenner, l997);
Edward Hlrsch, 'Derek Walcott. Elther Nobodyor a
Natlon," Ccorgio Icvicw, 19 (Sprlng l995). 307-
3l3;
Patrlcla Ismond, Zbovdovivg Dcod Mctoplors: Tlc Corib-
bcov Ilosc of Dcrcl !olcott`s Ioctry (Barbados,
|amalca, Jrlnldad Jobago. Lnlverslty of the
West Indles Press, 200l);
Bruce Klng, Dcrcl !olcott ovd !cst Ivdiov Dromo
(Oxford. Clarendon Press, l995);
Jejumola Olanlyan, 'Derek Walcott. Islands of Hlstory
at a Rendezvous wlth the Muse," ln hls Scors of
Covqucst / Mosls of Icsistovcc: Tlc Ivvcvtiov of Cul-
turol Idcvtitics iv Zfricov, Zfricov-Zmcricov ovd Corib-
bcov Dromo (New York Oxford. Oxford
Lnlverslty Press, l995), pp. 93-ll5;
'Jhe Poetlcs of Derek Walcott. Intertextual Perspec
tlves," Soutl Ztlovtic _uortcrly, 96 (Sprlng l997);
Charles W. Pollard, `cw !orld Modcrvisms: T. S. Iliot,
Dcrcl !olcott ovd Iomou rotlwoitc (Charlottesvllle.
Lnlverslty of Vlrglnla Press, 2001);
Rel Jerada, Dcrcl !olcott`s Ioctry: Zmcricov Mimicry (Bos
ton. Northeastern Lnlverslty Press, l992);
|ohn Jhleme, Dcrcl !olcott (Manchester New York.
Manchester Lnlverslty Press, l999);
Ned Jhomas, Ioct of tlc Islovds (Welsh Arts Councll,
l980);
!crsc, speclal Walcott lssue | partlal|, ll (Summer l991).
93-l70.
m~W
Jhere ls a small deposltory of Derek Walcott`s personal
papers at the Lnlverslty of the West Indles ln St.
Augustlne, Jrlnldad. A larger collectlon of manuscrlpts
and papers ls located ln the Jhomas Ilsher Rare Book
Llbrary, Lnlverslty of Joronto. Jhe unpubllshed mem
olr 'Another Llfe" ls ln the Llbrary, Lnlverslty of the
West Indles, Mona, |amalca.
NVVO k m i~
m~ p
by Irofcssor Ijcll Ispmorl, Mcmbcr of tlc Swcdisl Zcodcmy
Gentlemen,
Jrylng to capture Derek Walcott`s oceanlc work
ln a formula would be an absurd enterprlsehad he not
hlmself come to our asslstance, shrewdly hldlng a few
key formulatlons ln hls texts. Hls frlend |oseph Brod
sky llfts out one of them ln hls analysls of the work.
I`m just a red nlgger who love the sea,
I had a sound colonlal educatlon,
I have Dutch, nlgger, and Engllsh ln me,
and elther I`m nobody, or I`m a natlon.
Jhese llnes ln Tlc Stor-Zpplc Iivgdom call to mlnd, ln
the flrst place, how Walcott unltes whlte and black
on hls father`s as well as on hls mother`s slde but
they also remlnd us of the fact that ln hls poetry he
amalgamates materlal from dlfferent cultures, West
Indlan, Afrlcan, and European.
It does not, however, stop at the mlngled volces
of herltage or the unlon of themes from dlfferent
parts of the world. In hls lntroductlon to the flrst vol
ume of plays, we flnd another Walcott word of great
valldlty'the mulatto of style." Walcott`s art arlses
from the crosslng of two greatly dlfferlng tradltlons,
the flrst a tradltlon he allowed hlmself to be adopted
by, the European llneage from Homer vla Dante, the
Ellzabethans, and Mllton to Auden and Dylan
Jhomas, an elaborate tradltlon dlscernlble ln lavlsh
metaphor and luxurlous sound and rhythm, the sec
ond a domestlc ageless tradltlon, an elementary lan
guage where, llke a new Adam, the poet glves thlngs
thelr names, percelvlng how the speech sounds take
shapeas ln a passage ln the autoblographlcal Zvotlcr
Iifc: 'I watched the vowels curl from the tongue of
the carpenter`s plane, / reslnous, fragrant. . . ." Derek
Walcott`s extraordlnary ldlom ls born ln the meetlng
18l
ai_ PPO a t~
between European vlrtuoslty and the sensuallty of
the Carlbbean Adam.
But thls very personal comblnatlon lncludes
not only themes and language. It ls also a questlon of
hlstorlcal outlook. And here we are helped by yet
another formula'the New Aegean." Jhe archlpel
ago ln focus ls a relncarnatlon of the Aegean one.
Greek antlqulty flnds a natural home ln the Carlb
bean present. Jhls can of course be most dlstlnctly
seen ln Walcott`s latest work, lI hls mosalc eplc
about the flsherman Achllle and hls excolleague the
taxl drlver Hector flghtlng for the favour of the falr
housemald Helen. But the Homerlc pattern ln thls
poem ls not unlque. In fact, l has been emerg
lng all through Walcott`s productlon, appearlng
agaln and agaln ln names and themes and contlnu
ously present ln the Odyssean surglng of the waves.
What carrles the anclent murmur lnto today`s
Carlbbean, what makes hlstory present ls the sea.
'Jhe Sea ls Hlstory"ln a magnlflcent poem wlth
that name, the sea can allow 'the plangent harps of
the Babylonlan bondage" to sound ln the West
Indles, where slavery ls stlll manlfest ln the memorles
of the skln.
Walcott`s latest major poem abundantly exem
pllfles the comblnatlon of a vertlglnous hlstorlcal
panorama and mornlngfresh Carlbbean now. But I
should llke to lllustrate hls art of capturlng an enor
mous perspectlve of tlme ln the tanglble moment by
means of a few llnes ln the prevlous volume, q
^~~ q~. Jhe assoclatlons of the poem`s
selfcontemptuous ego at hls shabby motel run to
Saul on hls way to Damascus.
On the far slde of the hlghway,
a breeze turned the leaves of an aspen
to the Flrst Eplstle of Paul`s
to the Corlnthlans.
Jhls wlnd, whlch mlraculously transforms the leaves of
the tree lnto the pages wlth St. Paul`s commandment of
love, ls more than an lngenlous alluslon to a moment
where revelatlon changed hlstory. Jhe breeze pulllng
an age long slnce past lnto the now of the senses, cap
tures, at the same tlme, a theme that has been soundlng
for a few decades ln Derek Walcott`s productlona
Paullne empathy vlgorous enough to cross centurles
and contlnents.
Dear Derek Walcott,
In your last book, God allows one of your protag
onlsts to be gulded by a seaswlft across the ocean, back
to hls Afrlcan orlgln. Jhe qulck dlvlne movement of
thls pllot blrd through space and tlme embodles the
thrlll glven by your poetlc art. As a great admlrer of
that art, I am happy to convey to you, on behalf of the
Swedlsh Academy, the warmest congratulatlon on the
Nobel Prlze ln Llterature l992 and to lnvlte you to
recelve the Prlze from the hands of Hls Majesty the
Klng.
t~W _~ p
t~ ~ k _~I NM a NVVOW
Your Majestles, Your Royal Hlghnesses, Dlstlngulshed
Representatlves of the Nobel Ioundatlon, Honourable
Members of the Academles, the Karollnska Instltute
and Electlon Commlttees, Students, Ladles and Gentle
men,
Jhe honour that you pay me ls accepted ln the
one name that comprlses all of the supposedly broken
languages of the Carlbbean. Jhey cohere ln thls
moment, a moment that recognlses thelr endeavour and
one whlch I recelve wlth prlde and humlllty on thelr
behalf. Prlde ln the contlnulng struggle of Antlllean
wrlters, humlllty ln the glare of representlng them by
my own evanescent lmage.
| Jhe Nobel Ioundatlon, l992. Derek Walcott ls the
m o~W q k m
i~ NVVO
l m~ p~ p
^~I U l NVVO
Derek Walcott
Jhls year the Swedlsh Academy has declded to
award the Nobel Prlze for Llterature to Derek Walcott.
Walcott, who ls 62, was born ln Salnt Lucla but now
llves ln Jrlnldad. He has both Afrlcan and European
blood ln hls velns. In hlm West Indlan culture has
found lts great poet. He also has a chalr ln Engllsh at
Boston Lnlverslty.
Walcott showed hls mettle early on. As the tltle of
hls substantlal volume of ` mI NVQUNVUQ
shows, he was already wrltlng poetry of lastlng value at
the end of hls teens. Llke Brodsky and Paz he has an
182
a t~ ai_ PPO
lntense bellef ln poetry and poets and he has made thls
one of hls themes.
Otherwlse lt ls the complexlty of hls own sltua
tlon that has provlded one of the most frultful sources
of lnsplratlon. Jhree loyaltles are central for hlmthe
Carlbbean where he llves, the Engllsh language, and hls
Afrlcan orlgln. In the poem 'A Iar Cry from Afrlca," he
says 'How choose / Between thls Afrlca and the Engllsh
tongue I love?" One of hls major works, the long poem
^ i (l973), ls devoted to hls development and
the course of hls educatlon ln thls envlronment.
In hls collectlon of poems q ^~~ q~
(l987) he contlnues the broadenlng of perspectlve
whlch ls also a characterlstlc of hls oeuvre. Among
these poems can be found works dedlcated to Marlna
Jsvetaeva and W. H. Auden ('Strlct as Psalm or Les
son, / I learnt your poetry").
Walcott`s latest poetlc work ls l (l990), a
majestlc Carlbbean epos ln 61 chapters'I sang our
wlde country, the Carlbbean Sea." Jhls ls a work of
lncomparable ambltlousness, ln whlch Walcott weaves
hls many strands lnto a whole. Its weft ls a rlch one,
derlvlng from the poet`s wlderanglng contacts wlth llt
erature, hlstory and reallty. We flnd Homer, Poe, Maya
kovsky and Melvllle, alluslons are made to Brodsky
('the parentheses of palms / shleldlng a candle`s
tongue"), and he quotes the Beatles` 'Yesterday." Wal
cott`s metaphors and lmages are numerous, and often
strlklng'And beyond them, llke domlnoes / wlth llghts
for holes, the black skyscrapers of Boston." He captures
whlte seagulls agalnst a blue sky ln the lmage 'Gulls
chalk the blue enamel." Hls poetry acqulres at one and
the same tlme slngular lustre and great force.
Walcott ls ln the flrst place a poet but he has also
produced lnterestlng work for the theatre. Hls master
stroke was a~ j j~ (l970), a strlklng
but scenographlcally demandlng Carlbbean fresco. Jhe
same dreamllke atmosphere can be found ln several of
hls plays, such as qJg~ ~ e _ (l957) and, to
a certaln extent, ln q i~ `~~ (ln q m~I
l986), whlch deals wlth two lmportant decades ln the
recent hlstory of Jrlnldad. A slgnlflcant feature of hls
plays ls the sklll wlth whlch the author plays on hls own
complex range of volces. It ls lmposslble, however, to
reproduce thls ln the totally dlfferent language sltuatlon
of Sweden.
Walcott`s style ls melodlous and sensltlve. It
seems to lssue prlnclpally from a prollflc lnsplratlon. In
hls llterary works Walcott has lald a course for hls own
cultural envlronment, but through them he speaks to
each and every one of us.
183
t~W k iI T a NVVO
q ^W c~ b j
Iellclty ls a vlllage ln Jrlnldad on the edge of the
Caronl plaln, the wlde central plaln that stlll grows
sugar and to whlch lndentured cane cutters were
brought after emanclpatlon, so the small populatlon of
Iellclty ls East Indlan, and on the afternoon that I vls
lted lt wlth frlends from Amerlca, all the faces along lts
road were Indlan, whlch, as I hope to show, was a mov
lng, beautlful thlng, because thls Saturday afternoon
o~~I the eplc dramatlzatlon of the Hlndu eplc the
o~~~~I was golng to be performed, and the cos
tumed actors from the vlllage were assembllng on a
fleld strung wlth dlfferentcoloured flags, llke a new gas
statlon, and beautlful Indlan boys ln red and black were
almlng arrows haphazardly lnto the afternoon llght.
Low blue mountalns on the horlzon, brlght grass,
clouds that would gather colour before the llght went.
Iellclty! What a gentle AngloSaxon name for an eplcal
memory.
Lnder an open shed on the edge of the fleld,
there were two huge armatures of bamboo that looked
llke lmmense cages. Jhey were parts of the body of a
god, hls calves or thlghs, whlch, fltted and reared,
would make a glgantlc efflgy. Jhls efflgy would be
burnt as a concluslon to the eplc. Jhe cane structures
flashed a predlctable parallel. Shelley`s sonnet on the
fallen statue of Ozymandlas and hls emplre, that 'colos
sal wreck" ln lts empty desert.
Drummers had llt a flre ln the shed and they
eased the sklns of thelr tables nearer the flames to
tlghten them. Jhe saffron flames, the brlght grass, and
the handwoven armatures of the fragmented god who
would be burnt were not ln any desert where lmperlal
power had flnally toppled but were part of a rltual, ever
green season that, llke the caneburnlng harvest, ls
annually repeated, the polnt of such sacrlflce belng lts
repetltlon, the polnt of the destructlon belng renewal
through flre.
Deltles were enterlng the fleld. What we generally
call 'Indlan muslc" was blarlng from the open plat
formed shed from whlch the eplc would be narrated.
Costumed actors were arrlvlng. Prlnces and gods, I sup
posed. What an unfortunate confesslon! 'Gods, I sup
pose" ls the shrug that embodles our Afrlcan and Aslan
dlasporas. I had often thought of but never seen o~J
~I and had never seen thls theatre, an open fleld, wlth
vlllage chlldren as warrlors, prlnces, and gods. I had no
ldea what the eplc story was, who lts hero was, what
enemles he fought, yet I had recently adapted the lJ
for a theatre ln England, presumlng that the audl
ence knew the trlals of Odysseus, hero of another Asla
Mlnor eplc, whlle nobody ln Jrlnldad knew any more
than I dld about Rama, Kall, Shlva, Vlshnu, apart from
the Indlans, a phrase I use pervertedly because that ls
the klnd of remark you can stlll hear ln Jrlnldad. 'apart
from the Indlans."
It was as lf, on the edge of the Central Plaln, there
was another plateau, a raft on whlch the o~~~~
would be poorly performed ln thls ocean of cane, but
that was my wrlter`s vlew of thlngs, and lt ls wrong. I
was seelng the o~~ at Iellclty as theatre when lt was
falth.
Multlply that moment of selfconvlctlon when an
actor, madeup and costumed, nods to hls mlrror before
stepplng on stage ln the bellef that he ls a reallty enter
lng an llluslon and you would have what I presumed
was happenlng to the actors of thls eplc. But they were
not actors. Jhey had been chosen; or they themselves
had chosen thelr roles ln thls sacred story that would go
on for nlne afternoons over a twohour perlod tlll the
sun set. Jhey were not amateurs but bellevers. Jhere
was no theatrlcal term to deflne them. Jhey dld not
have to psych themselves up to play thelr roles. Jhelr
actlng would probably be as buoyant and as natural as
those bamboo arrows crlsscrosslng the afternoon pas
ture. Jhey belleved ln what they were playlng, ln the
sacredness of the text, the valldlty of Indla, whlle I, out
of the wrlter`s hablt, searched for some sense of elegy,
of loss, even of degeneratlve mlmlcry ln the happy faces
of the boywarrlors or the heraldlc proflles of the vlllage
prlnces. I was pollutlng the afternoon wlth doubt and
wlth the patronage of admlratlon. I mlsread the event
through a vlsual echo of Hlstorythe cane flelds, lnden
ture, the evocatlon of vanlshed armles, temples, and
trumpetlng elephantswhen all around me there was
181
t~W k iI T a NVVO ai_ PPO
qulte the opposlte. elatlon, dellght ln the boys` screams,
ln the sweetsstalls, ln more and more costumed charac
ters appearlng; a dellght of convlctlon, not loss. Jhe
name Iellclty made sense.
Conslder the scale of Asla reduced to these frag
ments. the small whlte exclamatlons of mlnarets or the
stone balls of temples ln the cane flelds, and one can
understand the selfmockery and embarrassment of
those who see these rltes as parodlc, even degenerate.
Jhese purlsts look on such ceremonles as grammarlans
look at a dlalect, as cltles look on provlnces and emplres
on thelr colonles. Memory that yearns to joln the cen
tre, a llmb rememberlng the body from whlch lt has
been severed, llke those bamboo thlghs of the god. In
other words, the way that the Carlbbean ls stlll looked
at, lllegltlmate, rootless, mongrellzed. 'No people
there," to quote Iroude, 'ln the true sense of the word."
No people. Iragments and echoes of real people,
unorlglnal and broken.
Jhe performance was llke a dlalect, a branch of
lts orlglnal language, an abrldgement of lt, but not a dls
tortlon or even a reductlon of lts eplc scale. Here ln
Jrlnldad I had dlscovered that one of the greatest eplcs
of the world was seasonally performed, not wlth that
desperate reslgnatlon of preservlng a culture, but wlth
an openness of bellef that was as steady as the wlnd
bendlng the cane lances of the Caronl plaln. We had to
leave before the play began to go through the creeks of
the Caronl Swamp, to catch the scarlet lblses comlng
home at dusk. In a performance as natural as those of
the actors of the o~~I we watched the flocks come
ln as brlght as the scarlet of the boy archers, as the red
flags, and cover an lslet untll lt turned lnto a flowerlng
tree, an anchored lmmortelle. Jhe slgh of Hlstory
meant nothlng here. Jhese two vlslons, the o~~
and the arrowlng flocks of scarlet lblses, blent lnto a sln
gle gasp of gratltude. Vlsual surprlse ls natural ln the
Carlbbean; lt comes wlth the landscape, and faced wlth
lts beauty, the slgh of Hlstory dlssolves.
We make too much of that long groan whlch
underllnes the past. I felt prlvlleged to dlscover the
lblses as well as the scarlet archers of Iellclty.
Jhe slgh of Hlstory rlses over rulns, not over
landscapes, and ln the Antllles there are few rulns to
slgh over, apart from the rulns of sugar estates and
abandoned forts. Looklng around slowly, as a camera
would, taklng ln the low blue hllls over Port of Spaln,
the vlllage road and houses, the warrlorarchers, the
godactors and thelr handlers, and muslc already on the
sound track, I wanted to make a fllm that would be a
longdrawn slgh over Iellclty. I was fllterlng the after
noon wlth evocatlons of a lost Indla, but why 'evoca
tlons"? Why not 'celebratlons of a real presence"?
Why should Indla be 'lost" when none of these vlllag
ers ever really knew lt, and why not 'contlnulng," why
not the perpetuatlon of joy ln Iellclty and ln all the
other nouns of the Central Plaln. Couva, Chaguanas,
Charley Vlllage? Why was I not lettlng my pleasure
open lts wlndows wlde? I was entlced llke any Jrlnlda
dlan to the ecstasles of thelr clalm, because ecstasy was
the pltch of the slnuous drummlng ln the loudspeakers.
I was entltled to the feast of Huseln, to the mlrrors and
crepepaper temples of the Musllm eplc, to the Chlnese
Dragon Dance, to the rltes of that Sephardlc |ewlsh syn
agogue that was once on Somethlng Street. I am only
oneelghth the wrlter I mlght have been had I contalned
all the fragmented languages of Jrlnldad.
Break a vase, and the love that reassembles the
fragments ls stronger than that love whlch took lts sym
metry for granted when lt was whole. Jhe glue that flts
the pleces ls the seallng of lts orlglnal shape. It ls such a
love that reassembles our Afrlcan and Aslatlc frag
ments, the cracked helrlooms whose restoratlon shows
lts whlte scars. Jhls gatherlng of broken pleces ls the
care and paln of the Antllles, and lf the pleces are dls
parate, lllflttlng, they contaln more paln than thelr orlg
lnal sculpture, those lcons and sacred vessels taken for
granted ln thelr ancestral places. Antlllean art ls thls res
toratlon of our shattered hlstorles, our shards of vocab
ulary, our archlpelago becomlng a synonym for pleces
broken off from the orlglnal contlnent.
And thls ls the exact process of the maklng of
poetry, or what should be called not lts 'maklng" but lts
remaklng, the fragmented memory, the armature that
frames the god, even the rlte that surrenders lt to a flnal
pyre; the god assembled cane by cane, reed by weavlng
reed, llne by plalted llne, as the artlsans of Iellclty
would erect hls holy echo.
Poetry, whlch ls perfectlon`s sweat but whlch
must seem as fresh as the ralndrops on a statue`s brow,
comblnes the natural and the marmoreal; lt conjugates
both tenses slmultaneously. the past and the present, lf
the past ls the sculpture and the present the beads of
dew or raln on the forehead of the past. Jhere ls the
burled language and there ls the lndlvldual vocabulary,
and the process of poetry ls one of excavatlon and of
selfdlscovery. Jonally the lndlvldual volce ls a dlalect;
lt shapes lts own accent, lts own vocabulary and mel
ody ln deflance of an lmperlal concept of language, the
language of Ozymandlas, llbrarles and dlctlonarles, law
courts and crltlcs, and churches, unlversltles, polltlcal
dogma, the dlctlon of lnstltutlons. Poetry ls an lsland
that breaks away from the maln. Jhe dlalects of my
archlpelago seem as fresh to me as those ralndrops on
the statue`s forehead, not the sweat made from the clas
slc exertlon of frownlng marble, but the condensatlons
of a refreshlng element, raln and salt.
185
ai_ PPO t~W k iI T a NVVO
Deprlved of thelr orlglnal language, the captured
and lndentured trlbes create thelr own, accretlng and
secretlng fragments of an old, an eplc vocabulary, from
Asla and from Afrlca, but to an ancestral, an ecstatlc
rhythm ln the blood that cannot be subdued by slavery
or lndenture, whlle nouns are renamed and the glven
names of places accepted llke Iellclty vlllage or Chol
seul. Jhe orlglnal language dlssolves from the exhaus
tlon of dlstance llke fog trylng to cross an ocean, but
thls process of renamlng, of flndlng new metaphors, ls
the same process that the poet faces every mornlng of
hls worklng day, maklng hls own tools llke Crusoe,
assembllng nouns from necesslty, from Iellclty, even
renamlng hlmself. Jhe strlpped man ls drlven back to
that selfastonlshlng, elemental force, hls mlnd. Jhat ls
the basls of the Antlllean experlence, thls shlpwreck of
fragments, these echoes, these shards of a huge trlbal
vocabulary, these partlally remembered customs, and
they are not decayed but strong. Jhey survlved the
Mlddle Passage and the c~ o~I the shlp that car
rled the flrst lndentured Indlans from the port of
Madras to the cane flelds of Iellclty, that carrled the
chalned Cromwelllan convlct and the Sephardlc |ew,
the Chlnese grocer and the Lebanese merchant selllng
cloth samples on hls blcycle.
And here they are, all ln a slngle Carlbbean
clty, Port of Spaln, the sum of hlstory, Jrollope`s
'nonpeople." A downtown babel of shop slgns and
streets, mongrellzed, polyglot, a ferment wlthout a
hlstory, llke heaven. Because that ls what such a clty
ls, ln the New World, a wrlter`s heaven.
A culture, we all know, ls made by lts cltles.
Another flrst mornlng home, lmpatlent for the
sunrlsea broken sleep. Darkness at flve, and the
drapes not worth openlng; then, ln the sudden llght,
a creamwalled, brownroofed pollce statlon bordered
wlth short royal palms, ln the colonlal style, back of
lt frothlng trees and taller palms, a plgeon flutterlng
lnto the cover of an cave, a ralnstalned block of
oncemodern apartments, the mornlng slde road lnto
the statlon wlthout trafflc. All part of a surprlslng
peace. Jhls qulet happens wlth every vlslt to a clty
that has deepened ltself ln me. Jhe flowers and the
hllls are easy, affectlon for them predlctable; lt ls the
archltecture that, for the flrst mornlng, dlsorlents. A
return from Amerlcan seductlons used to make the
traveller feel that somethlng was mlsslng, somethlng
was trylng to complete ltself, llke the stalned concrete
apartments. Pan left along the wlndow and the
excrescences reara clty trylng to soar, trylng to be
brutal, llke an Amerlcan clty ln sllhouette, stamped
from the same mould as Columbus or Des Molnes.
An assertlon of power, lts decor bland, lts alr condl
tlonlng pltched to the polnt where lts secretarlal and
executlve staff sport competlng cardlgans; the colder
the offlces the more lmportant, an lmltatlon of another
cllmate. A longlng, even an envy of feellng cold.
In serlous cltles, ln grey, mllltant wlnter wlth lts
short afternoons, the days seem to pass by ln buttoned
overcoats, every bulldlng appears as a barracks wlth
llghts on ln lts wlndows, and when snow comes, one
has the llluslon of llvlng ln a Russlan novel, ln the nlne
teenth century, because of the llterature of wlnter. So
vlsltors to the Carlbbean must feel that they are lnhablt
lng a successlon of postcards. Both cllmates are shaped
by what we have read of them. Ior tourlsts, the sun
shlne cannot be serlous. Wlnter adds depth and dark
ness to llfe as well as to llterature, and ln the unendlng
summer of the troplcs not even poverty or poetry (ln
the Antllles poverty ls poetry wlth a V, I a condl
tlon of llfe as well as of lmaglnatlon) seems capable of
belng profound because the nature around lt ls so exult
ant, so resolutely ecstatlc, llke lts muslc. A culture based
on joy ls bound to be shallow. Sadly, to sell ltself, the
Carlbbean encourages the dellghts of mlndlessness, of
brllllant vaculty, as a place to flee not only wlnter but
that serlousness that comes only out of culture wlth
four seasons. So how can there be a people there, ln the
true sense of the word?
Jhey know nothlng about seasons ln whlch
leaves let go of the year, ln whlch splres fade ln bllzzards
and streets whlten, of the erasures of whole cltles by
fog, of reflectlon ln flreplaces; lnstead, they lnhablt a
geography whose rhythm, llke thelr muslc, ls llmlted to
two stresses. hot and wet, sun and raln, llght and
shadow, day and nlght, the llmltatlons of an lncomplete
metre, and are therefore a people lncapable of the sub
tletles of contradlctlon, of lmaglnatlve complexlty. So be
lt. We cannot change contempt.
Ours are not cltles ln the accepted sense, but no
one wants them to be. Jhey dlctate thelr own propor
tlons, thelr own deflnltlons ln partlcular places and ln a
prose equal to that of thelr detractors, so that now lt ls
not just St. |ames but the streets and yards that Nalpaul
commemorates, lts lanes as short and brllllant as hls
sentences; not just the nolse and jostle of Junapuna but
the orlglns of C. L. R. |ames`s _ ~ _~I not
just Iellclty vlllage on the Caronl plaln, but Selvon
Country, and that ls the way lt goes up the lslands now.
the old Domlnlca of |ean Rhys stlll very much the way
she wrote of lt; and the Martlnlque of the early Cesalre;
Perse`s Guadeloupe, even wlthout the plth helmets and
the mules; and what dellght and prlvllege there was ln
watchlng a llteratureone llterature ln several lmperlal
languages, Irench, Engllsh, Spanlshbud and open
lsland after lsland ln the early mornlng of a culture, not
tlmld, not derlvatlve, any more than the hard whlte pet
als of the franglpanl are derlvatlve and tlmld. Jhls ls
186
not a belllgerent boast but a slmple celebratlon of lnevl
tablllty. that thls flowerlng had to come.
On a heatstoned afternoon ln Port of Spaln, some
alley whlte wlth glare, wlth love vlne spllllng over a
fence, palms and a hazed mountaln appear around a
corner to the evocatlon of Vaughn or Herbert`s 'that
shady clty of palmtrees," or to the memory of a Ham
mond organ from a wooden chapel ln Castrles, where
the congregatlon sang '|erusalem, the Golden." It ls
hard for me to see such emptlness as desolatlon. It ls
that patlence that ls the wldth of Antlllean llfe, and the
secret ls not to ask the wrong thlng of lt, not to demand
of lt an ambltlon lt has no lnterest ln. Jhe traveller
reads thls as lethargy, as torpor.
Here there are not enough books, one says, no
theatres, no museums, slmply not enough to do. Yet,
deprlved of books, a man must fall back on thought,
and out of thought, lf he can learn to order lt, wlll come
the urge to record, and ln extremlty, lf he has no means
of recordlng, recltatlon, the orderlng of memory whlch
leads to metre, to commemoratlon. Jhere can be vlr
tues ln deprlvatlon, and certalnly one vlrtue ls salvatlon
from a cascade of hlgh medlocrlty, slnce books are now
not so much created as remade. Cltles create a culture,
and all we have are these magnlfled market towns, so
what are the proportlons of the ldeal Carlbbean clty? A
surroundlng, accesslble countryslde wlth leafy suburbs,
and lf the clty ls lucky, behlnd lt, spaclous plalns.
Behlnd lt, flne mountalns; before lt, an lndlgo sea.
Splres would pln lts centre and around them would be
leafy, shadowy parks. Plgeons would cross lts sky ln
alphabetlc patterns, carrylng wlth them memorles of a
bellef ln augury, and at the heart of the clty there would
be horses, yes, horses, those anlmals last seen at the end
of the nlneteenth century drawlng broughams and car
rlages wlth tophatted cltlzens, horses that llve ln the
present tense wlthout eleglac echoes from thelr hooves,
emerglng from paddocks at the _ueen`s Park Savannah
at sunrlse, when mlst ls unthreadlng from the cool
mountalns above the roofs, and at the centre of the clty
seasonally there would be races, so that cltlzens could
roar at the speed and grace of these nlneteenthcentury
anlmals. Its docks, not obscured by smoke or deafened
by too much machlnery, and above all, lt would be so
raclally varlous that the cultures of the worldthe Asl
atlc, the Medlterranean, the European, the Afrlcan
would be represented ln lt, lts humane varlety more
excltlng than |oyce`s Dublln. Its cltlzens would lnter
marry as they chose, from lnstlnct, not tradltlon, untll
thelr chlldren flnd lt lncreaslngly futlle to trace thelr
genealogy. It would not have too many avenues dlfflcult
or dangerous for pedestrlans, lts mercantlle area would
be a cacophony of accents, fragments of the old lan
guage that would be sllenced lmmedlately at flve
o`clock, lts docks resolutely vacant on Sundays.
Jhls ls Port of Spaln to me, a clty ldeal ln lts com
merclal and human proportlons, where a cltlzen ls a
walker and not a pedestrlan, and thls ls how Athens
may have been before lt became a cultural echo.
Jhe flnest sllhouettes of Port of Spaln are ldeallza
tlons of the craftsman`s handlwork, not of concrete and
glass, but of baroque woodwork, each fantasy looklng
more llke an lnvolved drawlng of ltself than the actual
bulldlng. Behlnd the clty ls the Caronl plaln, wlth lts vll
lages, Indlan prayer flags, and frult vendors` stalls along
the hlghway over whlch lblses come llke floatlng flags.
Photogenlc poverty! Postcard sadnesses! I am not re
creatlng Eden; I mean, by 'the Antllles," the reallty of
llght, of work, of survlval. I mean a house on the slde of
a country road, I mean the Carlbbean Sea, whose smell
ls the smell of refreshlng posslblllty as well as survlval.
Survlval ls the trlumph of stubbornness, and splrltual
stubbornness, a subllme stupldlty, ls what makes the
occupatlon of poetry endure, when there are so many
thlngs that should make lt futlle. Jhose thlngs added
together can go under one collectlve noun. 'the world."
Jhls ls the vlslble poetry of the Antllles, then.
Survlval.
If you wlsh to understand that consollng plty wlth
whlch the lslands were regarded, look at the tlnted
engravlngs of Antlllean forests, wlth thelr proper palm
trees, ferns, and waterfalls. Jhey have a clvlllzlng
decency, llke Botanlcal Gardens, as lf the sky were a
glass celllng under whlch a colonlzed vegetatlon ls
arranged for qulet walks and carrlage rldes. Jhose
vlews are lnclsed wlth a pathos that guldes the
engraver`s tool and the topographer`s pencll, and lt ls
thls pathos whlch, tenderly lronlc, gave vlllages names
llke Iellclty. A century looked at a landscape furlous
wlth vegetatlon ln the wrong llght and wlth the wrong
eye. It ls such plctures that are saddenlng rather than
the troplcs ltself. Jhese dellcate engravlngs of sugar
mllls and harbours, of natlve women ln costume, are
seen as a part of Hlstory, that Hlstory whlch looked
over the shoulder of the engraver and, later, the photog
rapher. Hlstory can alter the eye and the movlng hand
to conform a vlew of ltself; lt can rename places for the
nostalgla ln an echo; lt can temper the glare of troplcal
llght to eleglac monotony ln prose, the tone of judge
ment ln Conrad, ln the travel journals of Jrollope.
Jhese travellers carrled wlth them the lnfectlon of
thelr own malalse, and thelr prose reduced even the
landscape to melancholla and selfcontempt. Every
endeavor ls bellttled as lmltatlon, from archltecture to
muslc. Jhere was thls convlctlon ln Iroude that slnce
Hlstory ls based on achlevement, and slnce the hlstory
of the Antllles was so genetlcally corrupt, so depresslng
187
ln lts cycles of massacres, slavery, and lndenture, a cul
ture was lnconcelvable and nothlng could ever be cre
ated ln those ramshackle ports, those monotonously
feudal sugar estates. Not only the llght and salt of
Antlllean mountalns defled thls, but the demotlc vlgour
and varlety of thelr lnhabltants. Stand close to a water
fall and you wlll stop hearlng lts roar. Jo be stlll ln the
nlneteenth century, llke horses, as Brodsky has wrltten,
may not be such a bad deal, and much of our llfe ln the
Antllles stlll seems to be ln the rhythm of the last cen
tury, llke the West Indlan novel.
By wrlters even as refreshlng as Graham Greene,
the Carlbbean ls looked at wlth eleglac pathos, a pro
longed sadness to whlch LevlStrauss has supplled an
eplgraph. q qK Jhelr derlves from an
attltude to the Carlbbean dusk, to raln, to uncontrol
lable vegetatlon, to the provlnclal ambltlon of Carlb
bean cltles where brutal repllcas of modern archltecture
dwarf the small houses and streets. Jhe mood ls under
standable, the melancholy as contaglous as the fever of
a sunset, llke the gold fronds of dlseased coconut palms,
but there ls somethlng allen and ultlmately wrong ln the
way such a sadness, even a morbldlty, ls descrlbed by
Engllsh, Irench, or some of our exlled wrlters. It relates
to a mlsunderstandlng of the llght and the people on
whom the llght falls.
Jhese wrlters descrlbe the ambltlons of our unfln
lshed cltles, thelr unreallzed, homlletlc concluslon, but
the Carlbbean clty may conclude just at that polnt
where lt ls satlsfled wlth lts own scale, just as Carlbbean
culture ls not evolvlng but already shaped. Its propor
tlons are not to be measured by the traveller or the
exlle, but by lts own cltlzenry and archltecture. Jo be
told you are not yet a clty or a culture requlres thls
response. I am not your clty or your culture. Jhere
mlght be less of q q after that.
Here, on the raft of thls dals, there ls the sound of
the applaudlng surf. our landscape, our hlstory recog
nlzed, 'at last." ^ i~ ls one of the flrst Carlbbean
books. It was wrltten by the Vlctorlan traveller Charles
Klngsley. It ls one of the early books to admlt the
Antlllean landscape and lts flgures lnto Engllsh lltera
ture. I have never read lt but gather that lts tone ls
benlgn. Jhe Antlllean archlpelago was there to be wrlt
ten about, not to wrlte ltself, by Jrollope, by Patrlck
LelghIermor, ln the very tone ln whlch I almost wrote
about the vlllage spectacle at Iellclty, as a compasslon
ate and begulled outslder, dlstanclng myself from Iellc
lty vlllage even whlle I was enjoylng lt. What ls hldden
cannot be loved. Jhe traveller cannot love, slnce love ls
stasls and travel ls motlon. If he returns to what he
loved ln a landscape and stays there, he ls no longer a
traveller but ln stasls and concentratlon, the lover of
that partlcular part of earth, a natlve. So many people
say they 'love the Carlbbean," meanlng that someday
they plan to return for a vlslt but could never llve there,
the usual benlgn lnsult of the traveller, the tourlst.
Jhese travellers, at thelr klndest, were devoted to the
same patronage, the lslands passlng ln proflle, thelr veg
etal luxury, thelr backwardness and poverty. Vlctorlan
prose dlgnlfled them. Jhey passed by ln beautlful pro
flles and were forgotten, llke a vacatlon.
Alexls SalntLeger Leger, whose wrlter`s name
ls Salnt|ohn Perse, was the flrst Antlllean to wln thls
prlze for poetry. He was born ln Guadeloupe and
wrote ln Irench, but before hlm, there was nothlng
as fresh and clear ln feellng as those poems of hls
chlldhood, that of a prlvlleged whlte chlld on an
Antlllean plantatlon, m ~I bI and
later f~ `K At last, the flrst breeze on the
page, saltedged and selfrenewlng as the trade wlnds,
the sound of pages and palm trees turnlng as 'the
odour of coffee ascents the stalrs."
Carlbbean genlus ls condemned to contradlct
ltself. Jo celebrate Perse, we mlght be told, ls to cele
brate the old plantatlon system, to celebrate the beque
or plantatlon rlder, verandahs and mulatto servants, a
whlte Irench language ln a whlte plth helmet, to cele
brate a rhetorlc of patronage and hauteur; and even lf
Perse denled hls orlglns, great wrlters often have thls
folly of trylng to smother thelr source, we cannot deny
hlm any more than we can the Afrlcan Alme Cesalre.
Jhls ls not accommodatlon, thls ls the lronlc republlc
that ls poetry, slnce, when I see cabbage palms movlng
thelr fronds at sunrlse, I thlnk they are recltlng Perse.
Jhe fragrant and prlvlleged poetry that Perse
composed to celebrate hls whlte chlldhood and the
recorded Indlan muslc behlnd the brown young archers
of Iellclty, wlth the same cabbage palms agalnst the
same Antlllean sky, plerce me equally. I feel the same
polgnancy of prlde ln the poems as ln the faces. Why,
glven the hlstory of the Antllles, should thls be remark
able? Jhe hlstory of the world, by whlch of course we
mean Europe, ls a record of lntertrlbal laceratlons, of
ethnlc cleanslngs. At last, lslands not wrltten about but
wrltlng themselves! Jhe palms and the Musllm mlna
rets are Antlllean exclamatlons. At last! the royal palms
of Guadeloupe reclte b by heart.
Later, ln ^~~I Perse assembled fragments of an
lmaglnary eplc, wlth the cllcklng teeth of frontler gates,
barren wadls wlth the froth of polsonous lakes, horse
men burnoosed ln sandstorms, the opposlte of cool
Carlbbean mornlngs, yet not necessarlly a contrast any
more than some young brown archer at Iellclty, hearlng
the sacred text blared across the flagged fleld, wlth lts
battles and elephants and monkeygods, ln a contrast to
the whlte chlld ln Guadeloupe assembllng fragments of
hls own eplc from the lances of the cane flelds, the
188
estate carts and oxens, and the calllgraphy of bamboo
leaves from the anclent languages, Hlndl, Chlnese, and
Arablc, on the Antlllean sky. Irom the Iomoyovo to Zvo-
bosis, from Guadeloupe to Jrlnldad, all that archaeology
of fragments lylng around, from the broken Afrlcan
klngdoms, from the crevasses of Canton, from Syrla
and Lebanon, vlbratlng not under the earth but ln our
raucous, demotlc streets.
A boy wlth weak eyes sklms a flat stone across the
flat water of an Aegean lnlet, and that ordlnary actlon
wlth the scythlng elbow contalns the sklpplng llnes of
the Iliod and the Udysscy, and another chlld alms a bam
boo arrow at a vlllage festlval, another hears the rus
tllng march of cabbage palms ln a Carlbbean sunrlse,
and from that sound, wlth lts fragments of trlbal myth,
the compact expedltlon of Perse`s eplc ls launched, cen
turles and archlpelagoes apart. Ior every poet lt ls
always mornlng ln the world. Hlstory a forgotten,
lnsomnlac nlght; Hlstory and elemental awe are always
our early beglnnlng, because the fate of poetry ls to fall
ln love wlth the world, ln splte of Hlstory.
Jhere ls a force of exultatlon, a celebratlon of
luck, when a wrlter flnds hlmself a wltness to the early
mornlng of a culture that ls deflnlng ltself, branch by
branch, leaf by leaf, ln that selfdeflnlng dawn, whlch ls
why, especlally at the edge of the sea, lt ls good to make
a rltual of the sunrlse. Jhen the noun, the 'Antllles" rlp
ples llke brlghtenlng water, and the sounds of leaves,
palm fronds, and blrds are the sounds of a fresh dlalect,
the natlve tongue. Jhe personal vocabulary, the lndl
vldual melody whose metre ls one`s blography, jolns ln
that sound, wlth any luck, and the body moves llke a
walklng, a waklng lsland.
Jhls ls the benedlctlon that ls celebrated, a fresh
language and a fresh people, and thls ls the frlghtenlng
duty owed.
I stand here ln thelr name, lf not thelr lmagebut
also ln the name of the dlalect they exchange llke the
leaves of the trees whose names are suppler, greener, more
mornlngstlrred than Engllshlouricr covcllcs, bois-flot, bois-
covotor the valleys the trees mentlonIovd St. ocqucs,
Motoovyo, Iorcsticr, Ioscou, Moloutor the empty beaches
I`Zvsc Ivrogvc, Cosc cv os, Iorodisall songs and hlstorles ln
themselves, pronounced not ln Irenchbut ln patols.
One rose hearlng two languages, one of the trees,
one of school chlldren recltlng ln Engllsh.
I am monarch of all I survey,
My rlght there ls none to dlspute;
From the centre all round to the sea
I am lord of the fowl and the brute.
Oh, solltude! where are the charms
Jhat sages have seen ln thy face?
Better dwell ln the mldst of alarms,
Jhan relgn ln thls horrlble place. . . .
Whlle ln the country to the same metre, but to organlc
lnstruments, handmade vlolln, chacchac, and goatskln
drum, a glrl named Sensenne slnglng.
Sl mwen dl 'ous a falt mwen la pelne
'Ous kal dlre a vral.
(If I told you that caused me paln
You`ll say, 'It`s true.")
Sl mwen dl 'ous a pentetralt mwen
'Ous peut dlre a vral
(If I told you you plerced my heart
You`d say, 'It`s true.")
Ces mamallles actuellement
Pas ka falre l 'amour zàutres pour un rlen.
(Chlldren nowadays
Don`t make love for nothlng.)
It ls not that Hlstory ls obllterated by thls sunrlse. It ls
there ln Antlllean geography, ln the vegetatlon ltself.
Jhe sea slghs wlth the drowned from the Mlddle Pas
sage, the butchery of lts aborlglnes, Carlb and Aruac
and Jalno, bleeds ln the scarlet of the lmmortelle, and
even the actlons of surf on sand cannot erase the Afrl
can memory, or the lances of cane as a green prlson
where lndentured Aslans, the ancestors of Iellclty, are
stlll servlng tlme.
Jhat ls what I have read around me from boy
hood, from the beglnnlngs of poetry, the grace of effort.
In the hard mahogany of woodcutters. faces, reslnous
men, charcoal burners; ln a man wlth a cutlass cradled
across hls forearm, who stands on the verge wlth the
usual anonymous khakl dog; ln the extra clothes he put
on thls mornlng, when lt was cold when he rose ln the
thlnnlng dark to go and make hls garden ln the
helghtsthe helghts, the garden, belng mlles away from
hls house, but that ls where he has hls landnot to men
tlon the flshermen, the footmen on trucks, groanlng up
mornes, all fragments of Afrlca orlglnally but shaped
and hardened and rooted now ln the lsland`s llfe, llllter
ate ln the way leaves are llllterate; they do not read,
they are there to be read, and lf they are properly read,
they create thelr own llterature.
But ln our tourlst brochures the Carlbbean ls a
blue pool lnto whlch the republlc dangles the extended
foot of Ilorlda as lnflated rubber lslands bob and drlnks
wlth umbrellas float towards her on a raft. Jhls ls how
the lslands from the shame of necesslty sell themselves;
thls ls the seasonal eroslon of thelr ldentlty, that hlgh
pltched repetltlon of the same lmages of servlce that
cannot dlstlngulsh one lsland from the other, wlth a
future of polluted marlnas, land deals negotlated by
mlnlsters, and all of thls conducted to the muslc of
Happy Hour and the rlctus of a smlle. What ls the
earthly paradlse for our vlsltors? Jwo weeks wlthout
189
raln and a mahogany tan, and, at sunset, local trouba
dours ln straw hats and floral shlrts beatlng 'Yellow
Blrd" and 'Banana Boat Song" to death. Jhere ls a ter
rltory wlder than thlswlder than the llmlts made by
the map of an lslandwhlch ls the llllmltable sea and
what lt remembers.
All of the Antllles, every lsland, ls an effort of
memory; every mlnd, every raclal blography culmlnat
lng ln amnesla and fog. Pleces of sunllght through the
fog and sudden ralnbows, ~JJK Jhat ls the effort,
the labour of the Antlllean lmaglnatlon, rebulldlng lts
gods from bamboo frames, phrase by phrase.
Declmatlon from the Aruac downwards ls the
blasted root of Antlllean hlstory, and the benlgn bllght
that ls tourlsm can lnfect all of those lsland natlons, not
gradually, but wlth lmperceptlble speed, untll each rock
ls whltened by the guano of whltewlnged hotels, the
arc and descent of progress.
Before lt ls all gone, before only a few valleys are
left, pockets of an older llfe, before development turns
every artlst lnto an anthropologlst or folklorlst, there
are stlll cherlshable places, llttle valleys that do not echo
wlth ldeas, a slmpllclty of rebeglnnlngs, not yet cor
rupted by the dangers of change. Not nostalglc sltes but
occluded sanctltles as common and slmple as thelr sun
llght. Places as threatened by thls prose as a headland ls
by the bulldozer or a sea almond grove by the sur
veyor`s strlng, or from bllght, the mountaln laurel.
One last eplphany. A baslc stone church ln a thlck
valley outslde Soufrlre, the hllls almost shovlng the
houses around lnto a brown rlver, a sunllght that looks
olly on the leaves, a backward place, unlmportant, and
one now belng corrupted lnto slgnlflcance by thls prose.
Jhe ldea ls not to hallow or lnvest the place wlth any
thlng, not even memory. Afrlcan chlldren ln Sunday
frocks come down the ordlnary concrete steps lnto the
church, banana leaves hang and gllsten, a truck ls
parked ln a yard, and old women totter towards the
entrance. Here ls where a real fresco should be palnted,
one wlthout lmportance, but one wlth real falth, map
less, hlstoryless.
How qulckly lt could all dlsappear! And how lt ls
beglnnlng to drlve us further lnto where we hope are
lmpenetrable places, green secrets at the end of bad
roads, headlands where the next vlew ls not of a hotel
but of some long beach wlthout a flgure and the hang
lng questlon of some flsherman`s smoke at lts far end.
Jhe Carlbbean ls not an ldyll, not to lts natlves. Jhey
draw thelr worklng strength from lt organlcally, llke
trees, llke the sea almond or the splce laurel of the
helghts. Its peasantry and lts flshermen are not there to
be loved or even photographed; they are trees who
sweat, and whose bark ls fllmed wlth salt, but every day
on some lsland, rootless trees ln sults are slgnlng favour
able tax breaks wlth entrepreneurs, polsonlng the sea
almond and the splce laurel of the mountalns to thelr
roots. A mornlng could come ln whlch governments
mlght ask what happened not merely to the forests and
the bays but to a whole people.
Jhey are here agaln, they recur, the faces, cor
ruptlble angels, smooth black sklns and whlte eyes huge
wlth an alarmlng joy, llke those of the Aslan chlldren of
Iellclty at o~~X two dlfferent rellglons, two dlfferent
contlnents, both fllllng the heart wlth the paln that ls
joy.
But what ls joy wlthout fear? Jhe fear of selflsh
ness that, here on thls podlum wlth the world paylng
attentlon not to them but to me, I should llke to keep
these slmple joys lnvlolate, not because they are lnno
cent, but because they are true. Jhey are as true as
when, ln the grace of thls glft, Perse heard the frag
ments of hls own eplc of Asla Mlnor ln the rustllng of
cabbage palms, that lnner Asla of the soul through
whlch lmaglnatlon wanders, lf there ls such a thlng as
lmaglnatlon as opposed to the collectlve memory of our
entlre race, as true as the dellght of that warrlorchlld
who flew a bamboo arrow over the flags ln the fleld at
Iellclty; and now as grateful a joy and a blessed fear as
when a boy opened an exerclse book and, wlthln the
dlsclpllne of lts marglns, framed stanzas that mlght con
taln the llght of the hllls on an lsland blest by obscurlty,
cherlshlng our lnslgnlflcance.
| Jhe Nobel Ioundatlon, l992. Derek Walcott ls the
190
m~ t
(2S Moy 1912 - J0 Scptcmbcr 1990)
j~ ^~
Movosl Uvivcrsity
and
m t
Uvivcrsity of MissouriSt. Iouis
Jhls entry was expanded by Wolfe from Ackland`s
Whlte entry ln DI 260: Zustroliov !ritcrs, 191-190.
BOOKS. Tlirtccv Iocms, as P. V. M. Whlte (Sydney. Prl
vately prlnted, ca. l929);
Tlc Ilouglmov ovd Utlcr Iocms (Sydney. Beacon, l935);
Hoppy !ollcy (London. Harrap, l939; New York.
Vlklng, l910);
Tlc Iivivg ovd tlc Dcod (London. Routledge, l91l; New
York. Vlklng, l91l);
Tlc Zuvt`s Story (London. Routledge Kegan Paul,
l918; New York. Vlklng, l918);
Tlc Trcc of Mov (New York. Vlklng, l955; London. Eyre
Spottlswoode, l956);
!oss (London. Eyre Spottlswoode, l957; New York.
Vlklng, l957);
Iidcrs iv tlc Cloriot (London. Eyre Spottlswoode,
l96l; New York. Vlklng, l96l);
Tlc urvt Uvcs (London. Eyre Spottlswoode, l961;
New York. Vlklng, l961);
Iour Iloys (London. Eyre Spottlswoode, l965; Mel
bourne. Sun, l965; New York. Vlklng, l966);
republlshed as Collcctcd Iloys, volume l (Sydney.
Currency, l985)comprlses Tlc Hom Iuvcrol, Tlc
Scosov ot Sorsoporillo, Z Clccry Soul, and ìglt ov
old Mouvtoiv;
Tlc Solid Movdolo (London. Eyre Spottlswoode, l966;
Tlc !iviscctor (London. Cape, l970; New York. Vlklng,
l970);
Tlc Iyc of tlc Storm (London. Cape, l973; New York.
Vlklng, l971);
Tlc Coclotoos: Slortcr òvcls ovd Storics (London. Cape,
l971; New York. Vlklng, l975);
Z Irivgc of Icovcs (London. Cape, l976; New York.
Vlklng, l977);
Tlc ìglt tlc Irowlcr: Slort Story ovd Scrccvploy (Rlng
wood, Vlc.. Penguln, l977; London. Cape, l978);
ig Toys (Sydney. Currency, l978);
Tlc Twyborv Zffoir (London. Cape, l979; New York.
Vlklng, l980);
m~ t Ee ^Ld f~F
19l
ai_ PPO m~ t
Ilows iv tlc Closs: Z Sclf-Iortroit (London. Cape, l98l;
`ctlcrwood (Sydney. Currency, l983);
Sigvol Drivcr: Z Morolity Iloy for tlc Timcs (Sydney. Cur
rency Press, l983);
Collcctcd Iloys, 2 volumes (Sydney. Currency, l985,
l991);
Mcmoirs of Movy iv Uvc, as Alex Xenophon Demlrjlan
Gray, edlted by Whlte (London. Cape, l986;
Tlrcc Uvcosy Iicccs (Melbourne. Pascoe, l987);
Iotricl !litc Spcols, edlted by Paul Brennan and Chrls
tlne Ilynn (Sydney. Prlmavera, l989; London.
Cape, l990).
`W Sclcctcd !ritivgs, edlted by Alan Lawson
(St. Lucla. Lnlverslty of _ueensland Press, l991;
Portland, Ore.. Internatlonal Speclallzed Book
Servlces, l991);
Collcctcd Slort Storics (Knoxfleld, Vlc.. Random House,
2001; London. Vlntage, 2001)comprlses Tlc
urvt Uvcs, Tlc Coclotoos, and Tlrcc Uvcosy Iicccs.
PLAY PRODLCJIONS. Icturv to Zbyssivio, London,
Boltons Jheatre, l917;
Tlc Hom Iuvcrol, Adelalde, Lnlon Jheatre, l5 Novem
ber l96l;
Tlc Scosov ot Sorsoporillo, Adelalde, Lnlon Jheatre, l1
September l962;
Z Clccry Soul, Melbourne, Lnlon Jheatre, l9 Novem
ber l963;
ìglt ov old Mouvtoiv, Adelalde, Lnlon Jheatre, 9
March l961;
ig Toys, Sydney, Parade Jheatre, Old Jote, l977;
Sigvol Drivcr, Adelalde, Playhouse, State Jheatre Com
pany of South Australla, 5 March l982;
`ctlcrwood, Adelalde, Playhouse, State Jheatre Com
pany of South Australla, ll |une l983;
Slcplcrd ov tlc Iocls, Adelalde, Playhouse, State Jheatre
Company of South Australla, 9 May l987.
Long recognlzed lnternatlonally, Australlan wrlter
Patrlck Whlte was the flrst of hls countrymen to wln
the Nobel Prlze ln Llterature, whlch he recelved ln l973
'for an eplc and psychologlcal narratlve art whlch has
lntroduced a new contlnent lnto llterature," as the clta
tlon read. In addltlon, he won prestlglous local awards,
such as the Mlles Iranklln Prlze and the Gold Medal of
the Australlan Soclety. Hls novels have lnsplred many
translatlons and an opera; hls plays have aroused
heated controversy; and hls short storles are featured ln
standard Australlan anthologles. Yet, nelther artlstlc
fame nor hls rlght by blrth to a place ln the pastoral ellte
of Australla could qulet a llfelong pesslmlsm that constl
tuted, as he acknowledged, a deep straln of 'black ln
Whlte." A caustlc satlrlst as well as a bold vlslonary, he
dlsclosed splrltual rlches ln the sunscorched expanses of
Australla but found wastelands ln lts opulent dlnlng
rooms, cluttered wlth festlve roasts and selfcongratulatory
platltudes. Jhese places he saw as 'the Great Australlan
Emptlness," deflned ln 'Jhe Prodlgal Son" (Zustroliov
Icttcrs, Aprll l958) as a land where 'the mlnd ls the
least of possesslons . . . muscles prevall, and the march
of materlal ugllness does not ralse a qulver from the
average nerves." Wary of accusatlons of elltlsm, he
nonetheless chose to llve outslde the malnstream and
used alleged crltlcal neglect to spur hls creatlvlty. Jhe
resultlng flctlon helped frame the Australlan response to
both modernlsm and recent hlstory. It both renews and
extends the reallst tradltlon of Australlan letters; taboo
subjects are broached; mlnorltles are accorded unusual
promlnence; and the fetld shafts of natlonal memory
are probed through narratlons that, as he remarked ln
Z Irivgc of Icovcs (l976), remlnd hls Australlan readers
of 'the reasons why we have become what we are
today."
Llke many of hls llterary forebears, Whlte shaped
hls work by a dual alleglance to the colony, Australla,
and to the motherland, England. By World War I the
Whlte famlly formed an lmportant pastoral dynasty
located on the rlch upper reaches of the Hunter Rlver,
north of Sydney. Belltrees, the famlly seat, was one pole
of hls youthful experlence ln Australla; the other was
Lulworth, a manslon ln eastern Sydney, overlooklng
Rushcutters Bay, where hls father, Vlctor Martlndale
Whlte, moved to satlsfy hls wlfe, Ruth Wlthycombe
Whlte, ln l9l6. At thelr marrlage ln l9l0, the predoml
nantly AngloSaxon populatlon of Australla stlll
referred to the Lnlted Klngdom as 'home." Jhelr son,
Patrlck Vlctor Martlndale Whlte, born ln Knlghts
brldge, England, on 28 May l9l2, later called hlmself
'an anachronlsm, somethlng left over from that perlod
when people were no longer Engllsh and not yet lndlge
nous." Hls slster, Suzanne, born ln l9l7 completed the
famlly. Ruth Whlte early had llterary ambltlons for her
son, and, because of her deference to Brltlsh culture,
Patrlck was sent to England as a boarder for four years
at Cheltenham College, a publlc (that ls, prlvate) sec
ondary school; the experlence both drove the sensltlve,
slckly chlld ln upon hlmself and helped shape hls grlm
vlew of human nature. Whlte`s educatlon was com
pleted ln the early l930s by a prolonged perlod as a
jackeroo, or tralnee stockmangrazler, ln outback New
South Wales, followed by the study of modern lan
guages at Cambrldge Lnlverslty. Jhls stage of hls edu
catlon was complemented by extended vacatlons ln
both Germany and Irance between l932 and l935,
whlch lmproved hls grasp of German, Irench, and the
Romantlc tradltlon. Whlte, ln later llfe, was categorlc
192
m~ t ai_ PPO
about the cruclal lmpact of hls early years. 'I feel |that|
more and more, as far as creatlve wrltlng ls concerned,
everythlng lmportant happens to one before one ls
born," he remarked dlslngenuously. Jo chlldhood he
attrlbuted an unequaled clarlty of vlslon and added ln
hls autoblography, Ilows iv tlc Closs: Z Sclf-Iortroit
(l98l). 'One thlnks to escape, but doesn`t, or not
wholly. the flngerprlnts are taken early."
One means of escape was hls early attractlon to
homosexuallty. But even before thls dlscovery, Whlte
felt hlmself a mlsflt as well as set apart by an unusually
hlgh ratlon of sufferlng. Severe asthma dogged hlm for
forty years, unsettllng hls comfortable chlldhood wlth
unpredlctable attacks. A precoclous chlld among happy,
welltodo sensuallsts, he lmaglned hlmself a changellng or
cuckoo ln the home nest, whlle hls prlvlleged upbrlnglng
left hlm feellng a colonlal ln England. But the effect of hls
sexual preference was more farreachlng. It made hls
exlstence seem deformed and a sham, though lt later
energlzed hls art. He wrote all hls llfe about mlsflts,
eccentrlcs, and outcasts, and, llke some of them, he felt
hlmself a forelgner ln hls home country.
By the early l930s he had wrltten several unpub
llshed, naturallstlc novels as well as desultory verse,
selectlons of whlch were publlshed prlvately by hls
mother ln Tlirtccv Iocms (clrca l929) and Tlc Ilouglmov
ovd Utlcr Iocms (l935). Jhen ln l936 he fell under the
spell of |ames |oyce`s Ulysscs (l922), and hls converslon
to artlstlc modernlsm was cllnched shortly afterward
when he encountered Australlan palnter Roy de
Malstre ln London. De Malstre`s abstract canvases
taught Whlte 'to wrlte from the lnslde out," or to make
hls central concern the changlng theater of the lndlvld
ual mlnd. Jhe expatrlate de Malstre became Whlte`s
lover, surrogate father, and artlstlc mentor, encouraglng
the young man`s strong vlsual lmaglnatlon and llftlng
hlm forever above the Vlctorlan provlnclallsm that
domlnated Australlan art.
Whlte belleved, too, that homosexuallty gave hlm
speclal lnslght lnto the psyches and emotlons of both
sexes. An lnestlmable boon for a novellst, lt enabled
hlm to sllp ln and out of hls male and female characters
at wlll, recalllng the Greek Jlreslas who, accordlng to
legend, llved part of hls exlstence as a woman, part as a
man. He dlsplaced the Western ldeal of the unltary per
sonallty by the vlew of self as an amalgam of separate
selves, as ls evoked by the tltle of hls autoblography,
Ilows iv tlc Closs, where hls wrltlng he calls predoml
nantly lntultlve, concelved and executed under hls fem
lnlne aspect. But transgresslng sexual norms also added
to hls sense of hlmself as deeply flawed. Identlfylng
readlly wlth havenots, he recognlzed that there was
much ln common between casual, predatory homosex
ual coupllng and prostltutlona polnt drlven home dur
lng the London Blltz, when he 'learned a lot about the
whore`s mentallty, and . . . the whole traglcomedy of
sex."
World War II created a great caesura ln hls llfe
and work. Before jolnlng the Royal Alr Iorce as an
lntelllgence offlcer, Whlte had led the llfe of a trans
atlantlc lntellectual. He was equally at home ln London
and New York, pursued hls sexual predllectlon wlth
Amerlcans ln brlef affalrs, and was encouraged ln hls
vocatlon by excellent revlews of hls lnltlal work. Never
theless, he fell prey to a sudden 'flt of wretched patrlot
lcs." In l91l a regulatlon unlform, a common enemy,
and prescrlbed work ln Egypt gave hlm a fleetlng sense
of belonglng ln hls unlt but wlthout effaclng hls terrlble
sense of otherness. 'I am fond of these people. . . . But
am I entltled to lt? It ls llke reachlng over lnto a world
to whlch you don`t belong, from oll to water, or more
opposed substances." Jhe loss of comrades completed
hls shlft from polltlcal apathy ln the l930s to a hatred of
Adolf Hltler`s war. He experlenced lts ravages through
alr attacks or as an offlclal censor of servlce correspon
dence or, more cruelly, when requlred to search Ger
man corpses for mllltary lnformatlon. Egypt also
afforded unexpected compensatlons. Although
bemused by the 'labelled dust" of Calro`s great archae
ologlcal museum, hls heart went out to the 'flerce land
scape" nearby that cleansed the soul and could make
hlm feel llke 'Adam walklng through the Garden." Jhe
mate he chose was Greek ln orlgln, Manoly Lascarls,
whom he met ln Alexandrla. By l916 the emotlon he
felt for Lascarls had extended to Greece. Whlte, havlng
learned Greek and spent a year ln Athens, serlously
consldered settllng there. Shrewdly, however, he
declded ln favor of Australla, memorles of whlch had
been stlrred ln hlm by barren, wartorn landscapes.
Jhese memorles poured lnto the pages of hls flrst post
war novel, Tlc Zuvt`s Story (l918), the flnal sectlon of
whlch he completed onboard shlp before he dlsem
barked ln Sydney ln October l916.
Whlte`s publlshed flctlon dlvldes lnto four major
phases. Jhe apprentlceshlp perlod, durlng whlch he
was avowedly 'drunk on the technlques of wrltlng" and
sought a dlstlnctlve theme, ended wlth Tlc Zuvt`s Story.
Jhls book summarlzed hls experlence of three contl
nents and demonstrated hls mastery of the modern psy
chologlcal novel. But, llke lts predecessors Hoppy !ollcy
(l939) and Tlc Iivivg ovd tlc Dcod (l91l), lt lacks an
overarchlng, sustalnlng vlslon. Jhls vlslon emerged
elght years later ln Tlc Trcc of Mov (l955), a novel that
slgnaled the beglnnlng of Whlte`s reexamlnatlon of
Australlan themes. Jhe ploneerlngfarmlng tradltlon as
subject matter ylelded to exploratlon ln !oss (l957), then
to dlverse forms of urban and suburban experlence ln
Iidcrs iv tlc Cloriot (l96l) and Tlc urvt Uvcs (l961).
193
ai_ PPO m~ t
Immensely ambltlous, these books, accordlng to 'Jhe
Prodlgal Son," were part of hls program to reveal the
llmltatlons of the domlnant reallst tradltlon ln Austra
llan llterature by dlscoverlng 'the extraordlnary behlnd
the ordlnary," as well as by creatlng 'completely fresh
forms out of the rocks and stlcks of words."
Jhls ambltlon resulted, however, ln occaslonal
overwrltlng or labored symbollsm that called forth
mlxed revlews, most notably A. D. Hope`s notorlous
verdlct ln l956 on q q j~W 'When so few Aus
trallan novellsts can wrlte prose at all, lt ls a great plty to
see Mr. Whlte, who shows on every page some touch
of the born wrlter, dellberately chose as hls medlum
thls pretentlous and llllterate verbal sludge." Whlte
never forgot thls lnsult. Jhe great character portralts ln
q p j~~~ (l966), q s (l970) and q
b p (l973) followed. Durlng hls flnal phase
he set hls llterary house ln order, publlshlng a second
collectlon of short storles ln q `~W p k
~ p (l971); hls greatest novel, ^ c i~X
and three extremely dlfferent flctlonal selfportraltsq
q ^~ (l979), c~ d~I and j
j~ l (l986). Never content wlth success and
determlned not to become 'the waxwork so many suc
cessful Australlans become," Whlte strove for change as
he tlrelessly looked 'for an unopened door, through
whlch I can step and flnd myself rejuvenated."
Hls earllest publlshed novels, e~ s~ and q
i ~ a~I were hlghly selfreferentlal. Jhe flrst
ls set ln the hlgh country near Cooma, where he had
worked as a jackeroo; the second unfolds ln London
durlng the Spanlsh Clvll War. Happy Valley ls a generlc
country townthe more enllghtened members of whlch
long to escapeand the antlpodal counterpolnt to Lon
don ln hls next book. Whlte`s townshlp ls descrlbed as
'unreal," and llfe there ls llkened to a hollow toy to be
rattled; the sufferlng lt lnfllcts on lts lnhabltants ls
caught ln an eplgraph from Mohandas Gandhl as 'the
lndlspensable condltlon of our belng." Deprlved of an
lnformlng metaphyslcal context, Gandhl`s words teeter
between nlhlllsm and exlstentlallsm, as Whlte`s novel
does. Jhe bllndness, barrenness, and futlllty of human
exlstence are recurrlng motlfs. Jhe town ls descrlbed ln
the novel as llttle more than 'a pecullarly tenaclous scab
on the body of the brown earth," whlch ltself ls steeped
ln 'an underlylng bltterness that had been scored deep
and deep by tlme." In thls town a human belng con
fronted by lndlfferent prlmordlal forces has no optlon
but 'to beat" hls 'head agalnst the wall, substltutlng
wall for the lntanglble." Jhls pllght takes varlous forms.
Mrs. Vlc Morlarty chooses adultery wlth a hopeless
cynlc. 'Kllllng a sheep, or tlme wlth Vlc, was the same,
a bleat." Jhe young lovers, Ollver and Alys, declde to
flee, only to have thelr escape cut short when they run
over Ernest Morlarty, who has just slaughtered hls
falthless wlfe. Yet, ln comparlson to the reslgned, coma
tose llves of hls nelghbors, Morlarty`s angry lf polntless
end has a certaln worth'He has achleved somethlng
where we have falled"or as the schoolteacher remarks,
'Man hasn`t much to say ln the matter. I know. He`s a
feeble creature dlctated to by whatever you llke, we`ll
call lt an lrratlonal force. But he must offer some oppo
sltlon to thls lf he`s to keep hls own respect."
Jhese concerns recur ln q i ~ a~I
together wlth Whlte`s bltter verdlct on Brltaln. He
found llfe ln England thln and heartless, a 'blatherlng
through cardboard," wlth Londoners dlvlded lnto the
mentally aware mlnorlty and the termlnally apathetlc.
Already, e~ s~ slgnaled the Australlan`s obsesslon
wlth 'so much tlme squandered ln the face of the flnal
lssue" by characters such as the wlllfully bllnd Hllda,
who 'bullt herself a raft of superflclalltles and floated
|lt| down the stream." q i ~ a~I whlch
focuses on two generatlons of the Standlsh famlly, ls
peopled wlth Hllda`s metropolltan counterparts. In
response to the apparent lack of meanlng of llfe they
hlde behlnd routlnes, exchanglng one for the next.
Catherlne Standlsh, wlth her marrlage shattered, bullds
a 'protectlve cocoon lnslde the reduced body" of her
marltal home. Jhe stockade of her son, Elyot, ls made
of llterary studlesa sterlle, shallow exlstence. 'He had
begun to arrange hls llfe ln numbered pages. He had
rejected the lrratlonal aspect of the cramped houses, the
posslblllty of looklng lnward and flndlng a dark room."
Nor does orthodox bellef afford speclal lnslghts,
whether represented by ldeallstlc |oe Barnett, who 'was
born wlth a falth ln falth," or the more selfservlng
Catherlne Standlsh. 'Splrltually, she llked to belleve,
she managed to keep to the helghts. A preclous country,
lt was cheaply reached." Behlnd the trlvlal clutter of
thelr dally llves, Whlte suggests, there must be some
thlng morethough hls characters, when faced wlth 'a
personal Spaln . . . somethlng destructlve of the super
fluous," retreat lnto stlll narrower orblts. Jhe exceptlon
ls Elyot`s aptly named slster, Eden, whose departure for
Spaln from Vlctorla Statlon frames the maln narratlve,
offerlng hope beyond stlfllng conformlty.
Jhe notlon of opened and closed worlds ls central
also to q ^ pI although ln lt Whlte`s emphasls
falls on perceptlon rather than actlon, or on the dlffer
ence between lntrospectlon and a dlstracted llfe of
mlndless dolng. Its subject ls Jheodora Goodman`s
journey to freedom. A splnster who has spent her prlme
carlng for her mother, Jheodora has always been awk
ward, set apart as much by her strange lntultlons as by
her unfemlnlne moustache. At the outset the reader ls
told not only that 'old Mrs Goodman dld dle at last,"
but also that 'Jheodora had not yet learnt to dlspute
191
m~ t ai_ PPO
the apparently lndlsputable." Gradually, she learns that
she must destroy what Whlte terms 'the great monster
Self" to usher ln a deslrable state 'whlch resembles . . .
nothlng more than alr or water"an absolute openness
that soclety dlsclalms as madness. Remarkable empathy
allows her access to the secret llves of people, objects,
and anlmals, ln whlch she percelves lessons relevant to
her own condltlon. Jravel as well as domestlclty take
on the force of selfencounters, a condltlon foreshad
owed by the scrambllng and overlapplng of dream and
wakefulness ln her chlldhood. 'She was walklng ln the
passages of Mero, a reflectlon walklng through mlr
rors, toward the door whlch had always been more mlr
ror than door, and at whlch she was now afrald to
look."
She overcomes thls fear ln part 2, '|ardln Exo
tlque." Jhe tltle refers to small, sundrenched collec
tlons of succulents grown ln the south of Irance. It ls a
correlatlve for prlckly Jheodora and for exlstence ln lts
opaque, forblddlng aspect, whereas the promlse of
escape from thls trap lles ln a nautllus shell. As the
sectlon unfolds, characters become fluld and reallty
spllnters, underllnlng how thln and permeable the
membrane ls that 'separates experlence from lntultlon."
At cruclal moments the membrane dlssolves. 'Jhe nau
tllus flowered and flowed, as pervaslve but evaslve as
experlence. Jhe walls of the Hotel du Mldl almost
opened out." Dlssolutlon flnally comes ln flre, foreshad
owlng both catastrophlc war ln Europe and Jheodora`s
attalnment ln part 3 of an emptlness that ls also a full
ness, a selflessness that also perfects and completes. Jhe
flnal sectlon slgnals thls shlft wlth lts lnltlal portralt of
her open hands and the trumpetlng corn of the Amerl
can Mldwest destroylng 'the fraller human reed." In
thls sectlon 'the reasonable llfe," descrlbed as 'admlra
ble . . . though llmlted," ls ecllpsed by dlslntegratlon or
a golng out from the self to merge wlth, and hence pos
sess, the world at large. Beneath her physlcal shell, Jhe
odora has become endless and lmmense, so that even
when her dlsorlentatlon puts her ln the hands of a
klndly doctor, Whlte`s concluslon afflrms obllquely her
endurlng enllghtenment. 'Jhe hat sat stralght, but the
doubtful rose trembled and gllttered, leadlng a llfe of lts
own."
Lnderlylng her attalnment of vlslon was a recoll
from the reallty known by most men and women. It
was as lf Whlte, durlng the long hlatus that separated
hls second and thlrd novels, had, llke hls character Mrs.
Rapallo ln q ^ pI 'stood so close to the mak
lng of hlstory that I have been suffocated by the stlnk."
Jhe European lodgers at the Hotel du Mldl are splrltu
ally dysfunctlonal, rootless, and threatened by lmml
nent conflagratlon. Jhe Australlans of part l fare no
better. Jheodora`s brotherlnlaw, the pastorallst Irank
Parrott, 'was what they call a practlcal man, a success,
but he had not survlved"; her slster, Ianny, lapses lnto
'the comfortable narratlves of wlves and mothers." But
the powerful emotlons aroused by actual war, as well as
the exemplary affectlon of Whlte`s companlon Lascarls,
had already polnted the author ln a dlfferent dlrectlon
from them, whlch ls lndlcated near the concluslon of
q ^ pI when Jheodora becomes 'a world of
love and compasslon that she had only vaguely appre
hended."
Elght years separated the appearance of Whlte`s
thlrd and fourth novels, durlng whlch tlme he became
reacqualnted wlth the baslc realltles of Dogwoods, a slx
acre property north of Sydney at Castle Hlll, where he
and Lascarls grew frult and flowers, gathered farm pro
duce, and bred goats as well as schnauzers. Whlte also
observed local characters whom he stored away for llt
erary resurrectlon as lnhabltants of Sarsaparllla. What
he saw ln contemporary Australla both drew and
repelled hlm. Brought face to face agaln wlth hls cocky
countrymen, he longed, llke the hero of q q
^~I for 'the courage to stlck a flnger ln the outraged
navel and awalt reactlons." Yet, ln l917 he also
acknowledged a broadenlng cultural horlzon to hls pub
llsher at Vlklng, Ben Huebsch. 'Jhe people are begln
nlng to develop, and take an lnterest ln books, and
palntlng, and muslc, to an extent that surprlses me. . . .
One gets the lmpresslon that a great deal ls about to
happen." Incomprehenslon, however, could set hlm ful
mlnatlng. 'How slck I am of the bloody word ALS
JRALIAN. What a plty I am part of lt; lf I were not, I
would get out tomorrow." Nevertheless, he recognlzed
that the country, unllke postwar Europe, offered people
the baslc necessltles as well as 'a reasonable expectatlon
of justlce," whlle the wrlter ln hlm had to learn that
'even the boredom and frustratlon presented avenues
for endless exploratlon; even the ugllness, the bags and
lron of Australlan llfe, acqulred a meanlng."
Equally slgnlflcant was Whlte`s return to falth ln
l95l. In c~ d~ he descrlbed hlmself splrltu
ally as 'a lapsed Angllcan egotlst agnostlc panthelst
occultlst exlstentlallst wouldbe though falled Chrlstlan
Australlan." Noted here are statlons of hls progress, but
not lts culmlnatlon. Jhe author of q i ~
a~ could attrlbute to Elyot Standlsh an utterly deso
late vlew of exlstence. 'Jhen lt snapped. You heard the
plng, plng, the glurg. You could pltch your volce, your
whole soul, lnto the cone of darkness, to be bandled
about, a ball of lneffectual down." Slmllarly, the war left
Whlte unable to 'flnd any polnt, see any future, love
my fellow men," and he confessed at the beglnnlng of
the l950s to havlng gone 'qulte sour," as he began a
novel provlslonally tltled 'A Llfe Sentence on Earth."
He had had, however, occaslonal lnkllngs of upllft ln
195
ai_ PPO m~ t
barren countryslde or lsolated Greek monasterles.
Jhese places had fed hls splrltual hunger, though flt
tlngly hls search termlnated mundanely at Dogwoods.
Jhere, at the helght of a storm, he fell heavlly ln the
mud, spllllng the slops he carrled for the schnauzers as
well as the curses stored up for decades agalnst the per
celved lnjustlce of exlstence. Eventually, hls blasphemy
was staunched by an acute sense of hls own rldlculous
ness, whlch, coupled wlth further lnexpllcable lntlma
tlons, reklndled hls falth. When Angllcanlsm proved
lrrelevant, he resolved 'to evolve symbols of my own
through whlch to worshlp," and these played an
lncreaslngly central role ln hls next creatlve phase.
Hls new novel, now tltled q q j~I
proved a great labor to wrlte after years of sllence. In
thls work the styllstlc sophlstlcatlon and helghtened
aesthetlc awareness of q ^ p are radlcally
reduced. In Jheodora`s realm, reallty constantly
threatens to yleld up another dlmenslon ('Jhe gar
den was full of muslc. . . . Jhe fuchslas trembled llke
detached notes waltlng to brldge the gap between
bars"). Stan and Amy Parker, Whlte`s ploneer couple,
encounter an lntensely stubborn landscape. Neverthe
less, thelr struggle to establlsh a farm ls lmbued wlth
archetypal resonance, so that lt assumes aspects of a cre
atlon myth that Whlte`s publlsher Huebsch lmmedl
ately recognlzed. 'your people mlght be out of the
Scrlpture. All of llfe and all of nature are lmpllclt ln the
tale." Jhe tale reworks such standard scenes of frontler
saga as flood and bushflre, and traces wlth lmmense
sympathy the long marrlage of the Parkers, chartlng lts
vlclssltudes as well as the lrreduclble solltarlness and
mystery of each soul. Jhe Parkers` son, Ray, dles a
mlnor hoodlum; thelr soclally ambltlous daughter,
Jhelma, develops lnto a prototype of shallow suburban
womanklnd, dlsplaylng the 'nastlness" lnherent 'ln the
evolutlon of a synthetlc soul." Her restlessness appar
ently derlves from her mother`s, whlch drlves Amy lnto
an arld affalr wlth a travellng salesman. What elevates
ordlnary as well as stock events ls the novellst`s ablllty
to make them portals to an enlarged awareness. Both
flood and flre dlslocate dally hablts and perceptlons,
allowlng lndlvlduals who are possessed of sufflclent
humlllty and courage to confront ultlmate questlons.
Ior Stan thls revelatlon flrst occurs at the helght of a
storm. 'Jhe llghtnlng, whlch could have opened basalt,
had, lt seemed, the power to open souls . . . somethlng
llke thls had happened, the flesh had sllpped from hls
bones, and a llght was shlnlng ln hls cavernous skull."
Subsequent events conflrm the power of apparent evll
and the paln endemlc to exlstenceeach human face ln
Whlte`s world eventually havlng 'recelved the flst." Yet,
thls negatlve ledger ls counterwelghted by the llves of
ordlnary people such as the Parkers and _ulgleys, ln
whom lovlng warmth prevalls desplte human falllngs,
and by Whlte`s newfound convlctlon that even the
most trlvlal paths chosen are part of a greater plan.
Eventually, Stan`s death occurs ln the 'boundless gar
den" adjolnlng hls property, and hls regeneratlon ls con
flrmed by the appearance of hls young grandson, an
asplrlng poet, who ls 'puttlng out shoots of green
thought. So that, ln the end, there was no end."
Jhls endorsement of a selfeffaclng slmpllclty was
followed by a contrastlng portralt of 'the great monster
Self" ln sK Loosely based on the expedltlons of Lud
wlg Lelchhardt, s moved the explorer narratlve lnto
untrodden psychologlcal and metaphyslcal reglons. Its
characters, llke those ln many of Whlte`s subsequent
works, dlvlde lnto those who are content wlth accumu
latlng materlal objects and those who long for some
thlng splrltually satlsfylng. Jhe latter embrace flgures as
dlverse as the salntly Palfreyman; the pragmatlc |udd,
seared ln the furnaces of penal affllctlon; and Sander
son, who has transmuted selfmortlflcatlon lnto pastoral
success. Jhe extremes are represented by the smug
materlallsm of the Bonners and by Voss`s lntentlon to
achleve the stature of delty; as he puts lt ln terms dls
mlsslve of the Bonners` passlon for materlal possesslon,
'ln thls dlsturblng country . . . lt ls posslble more easlly
to dlscard the lnessentlal and to attempt the lnflnlte."
Jhe key to Voss`s splrltual growth ls Laura Jrevelyan,
hls peer ln prlde and lmaglnatlon. Laura decldes to save
hlm through her example and her love, and thelr subse
quent ablllty to communlcate telepathlcally over vast
dlstances afflrms the trlumph of both the superratlonal
and the German`s emotlonal sensltlvlty over hls all
devourlng wlll.
Jhat the author had never experlenced the harsh
landscape through whlch the expedltlon treks, except ln
wrltten accounts or palntlngs, matters llttle. Hls hostlle
terraln has the propertles of all arld places; they are
where mortlflcatlon and splrltual reward may be reck
oned wlth and where lndlvlduals can measure thelr
own presumptlon agalnst forces that surpass human
energy and technology. Jhe wllderness can also serve
as a mlrror of the lndlvldual soul. Laura calls Voss her
desert, a metaphor for hls allenatlon among 'rocks of
prejudlce . . . even hatred," where 'you wlll flnd your
sltuatlon . . . exalted." Wlth the dlstortlng prlsm of self
hood removed, however, the desert becomes a place
where 'the world of semblance communlcated wlth the
world of dream." Ilnally, Voss, 'truly humbled," real
lzes that he was never more than 'a frall god upon a
rlckety throne" and dles ln accordance wlth Aborlglnal
lore. Possesslon, llke understandlng, Whlte suggests,
comes through the toll and sufferlng of generatlons ('ln
fallure, ln perpetual struggle, ln becomlng"), as well as
through expanded perceptlon. 'Jhe blowfly on lts bed
196
m~ t ai_ PPO
of offal ls but a varlatlon of the ralnbow. Common
forms are contlnually breaklng lnto brllllant shapes. If
we wlll explore them."
Whlte`s vlslonary potentlal was celebrated four
years later ln hls most ambltlous novel, o
`~K Descrlbed by hlm as 'a cantata for four volces,"
lt plts four soclal outcasts agalnst Australlan lncompre
henslon and lts hldeous byproducts. Jhe reader ls
qulckly warned about the flrst unllkely vlslonary, Mlss
Hare. 'Ior a varlety of reasons, very llttle of her secret,
actual nature had been dlsclosed to other human
belngs." Irom the outset she has already achleved
Voss`s goal. the land 'belonged to her, over and above
actual rlghts." But whereas Voss strode forth proudly to
possess lt, she approaches her domaln llke a subhuman
creature, tunnellng her way through undergrowth on
hands and knees, lnstlnctlvely worshlplng her sur
roundlngs and meekly acceptlng laceratlons as the prlce
of exlstence. Her fellow outcastmystlcs are the fertlle
but slatternly Mrs. Godbold, who llves wlth her chll
dren ln a shed; Mordecal Hlmmelfarb, a |ew who
escaped the Nazl death camps; and Alf Dubbo, a syphl
lltlc Aborlglne wlth the spark of artlstlc greatness.
Humlllty and an ablllty to wltness Ezeklel`s charlot ln
the hereandnow draw these four together ln a calcu
lated affront to Australlan norms. Hlmmelfarb`s llfe
story provldes one of the earllest dramatlzatlons of antl
Semltlc madness ln Germany. A former professor of
Engllsh llterature and a parttlme caballst, he flrst loses
hls professlon, then hls wlfe and home, only to suffer
hls supreme lndlgnlty ln Australla, 'worse because lt
was lmposed by manor could lt have been sent by
God?"
Whlte wrote o as lf he wanted to explode
local complacency once and for all. 'I have never been
one to slt and smlle sweetly when there was an offend
lng eye to splt ln," he confessed, addlng elsewhere,
'Jhere ls so much that has offended over the years,
and now I must glve expresslon to my feellngs."
Whereas he descrlbed the Parkers as 'llke characters
out of my chlldhood" seen through 'a glow of morn
lng," he scorned thelr modern descendants as smug and
superflclal. Jhey have elevated ordlnarlness lnto a secu
lar rellglon and custom lnto a dlctatorlal mlnd set.
Opposlng Mlss Hare`s glfts for love and revelatlon are
the 'lethal performance" of Mrs. |olley and Mrs. Ilack,
who, lntolerant of dlfference, are bent on preservlng
thelr verslon of normallty. Echolng thelr hatefllled
volces ls Shlrl Rosetree, an overcompensatlng mlgrant
and apostate |ewess proud of the solld respectablllty she
and her factoryowner husband have achleved ln Para
dlse East. Jhe fourth grotesque ln thls earthbound
group ls Blue. He epltomlzes bluecollar Aussle matey
ness, reduced by Whlte to a bralnless physlque wlth
eyes that 'flltered gllmpses of an lnflnlte squalor."
Knowlng lnstlnctlvely that 'all manner of crueltles" can
be passed off as practlcal jokes, Blue focuses hls fellow
workers` dlstrust of the odd |ew and oversees Hlmmel
farb`s gruesome cruclflxlon on a mutllated jacaranda
outslde thelr factory. 'the majorlty were paclfled by the
prospect of becomlng lnvolved ln some eplsode that
would degrade them lower than they had known yet;
the helghts were not for them." Whlte underscores the
truth that Nazl Germany had no monopoly on barbar
lty. 'Jhere ls always the beast lurklng, who wlll come
up, booted, brlstllng, hls genltals burstlng from the
cloth whlch barely contalns them"unless the volce of
the angry prophet ls heard, together wlth hls redemp
tlve message.
Whlte`s concern wlth expandlng the natlonallst
canon and reveallng the hldden depths mlssed by local
reallst wrlters assumed dlverse forms ln q _ lK
It slgnaled the lmportance of Greece ln hls llfe wlth four
storles drawn from hls own or Lascarls`s experlence
there, whlle the tltle, as Whlte explalned to Huebsch,
translated a common Greek 'expresslon of formal plty.
One reallzes they aren`t prepared to do anythlng about
the objects of thelr plty because nothlng can be done."
Jhese tales are slgnlflcant precursors of later mlgrant
llterature, and Greek characters or settlngs appear ln
most of hls novels. In general, the storles collected ln
thls work and ln q `~ suffer from comparlson
wlth Whlte`s longer flctlon. Characterlzatlon ls more
shallow, and the author`s customary satlre ls often
unleavened by a compensatlng perspectlve, though
some storles dramatlze the clash of antlthetlcal
approaches to llfe. Ior example, 'Mlss Slattery and her
Demon Lover" juxtaposes European experlence and
sexual honesty. Slmllarly, 'Down at the Dump" defles
accepted standards by valorlzlng what conventlonal
people scorn as trash. At the cemetery, whlch abuts the
rubblsh dump, the bottlecollectlng Whalleys, exudlng
natural lnstlnct, meet the stlff, conformlst Hogbens.
Also lgnored locally ls the splrltual dlmenslon of llfe,
whlch Whlte lnslsts on by conjurlng up the deceased
Dalse Morrow beslde her grave as the servlce lntones
cllchs about 'the rlsen dead." Jhe love offered prevl
ously by thls fallen woman makes her, as her name sug
gests, a focus of regeneratlon, whlle ln the dump ltself
nature`s 'superlor reslllence" gradually subverts man
made waste.
Jhe beglnnlng of hls next major creatlve perlod
colnclded wlth both Whlte`s last change of resldence
and a turn toward the theater. Jhe death of hls mother
ln l963 released hlm from a problematlc relatlonshlp
and brought hlm the cash that eased a move to a large
house ln the eastern suburbs of hls youth, opposlte
Centennlal Park. Hls new home revlved hls youthful
197
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passlon for the stage. Before the war he had wrltten for
the theater, and hls play Icturv to Zbyssivio enjoyed a
brlef season ln London ln l917. Shortly afterward he
wrote Tlc Hom Iuvcrol, whlch was resurrected ln l96l
for the Adelalde Iestlval, only to be rejected at the last
mlnute by the governors of the festlval. Jhls rejectlon
launched Whlte`s career as a local dramatlst, and ln
anger he began to wrlte Tlc Scosov ot Sorsoporillo
(performed, l962; publlshed, l965). Slx further plays
by Whlte were performed over the next decade and a
half. Z Clccry Soul (l963; publlshed, l965), ìglt ov old
Mouvtoiv (l961; publlshed, l965), ig Toys (l977; pub
llshed l978), Sigvol Drivcr (l982; publlshed, l983), `ctl-
crwood (l983), and Slcplcrd ov tlc Iocls (l987).
Llke hls novels, hls plays repudlate naturallstlc
conventlons. Jhelr characterlstlc themes and tech
nlques emerge ln Tlc Hom Iuvcrol. A selfconsclously
unsettllng play, lt opens wlth a warnlng to the audl
ence from the Young Man. 'I`m sorry to have to
announce the management won`t refund any money.
You must slmply slt lt out, and see whether you can`t
recognlze some of the forms that wlll squlrm before
you ln thls mad, muddy mass of eels." Jhe ensulng
actlon and set waver uneaslly between naturallsm
and symbollsm. Jhe house and lts lnhabltants, lt ls
occaslonally suggested, are also aspects of the
Young Man`s psyche. Jhus, the powerful stage pres
ences of Wlll and Alma Lusty are later ldentlfled
wlth compasslon and passlon, and the sequestered
Glrl ls ldentlfled wlth hls anlma, as the landlord`s
death and funeral assume the dlmenslons of psycho
drama. Whlte`s later plays are slmllarly adventurous,
mlxlng temporal as well as mental states and drawlng
llberally on speclflcally theatrlcal resources. A recur
rlng concern ls the capaclty of lndlvlduals to break
out of ruts or through conventlons for the sake of
selffulflllment. Jhe cumulatlve verdlct ls pesslmlstlc.
Already Wlll Lusty remarks, 'A man only às to
bounce llke a ball to know òw much of `ls wlll ls
free." Slmllarly, Tlc Scosov ot Sorsoporillo, whlch vlv
ldly portrays a cross sectlon of contemporary subur
bla, demonstrates that 'there`s practlcally no end to
the varlatlons on monotony," or on people`s ablllty
to procrastlnate and compromlse. Subsequent plays
debunk dogooders and ldeallsts allke, showlng
humanklnd to be lrrevocably flawed and the world to
be equally destructlve of love and hlgh lntentlons.
Whlte`s canvas of characters ls predlctably broad,
encompasslng all classes and lncludlng strlklng male
and female leads. In no sense closet dramas, hls plays
were wrltten for performance and were often
rehearsed wlth hls lnput. Yet, desplte explodlng the
conflnes of reallsm and targetlng current soclal
abuses or deflclencles, they lacked the masslve
lmpact of the novels and left some people regrettlng
thls dlsslpatlon of hls creatlve energles.
Jhe flrst novel to beneflt, arguably, from
Whlte`s sortle lnto the theater was Tlc Solid Movdolo,
whlch ls domlnated by the complementary narratlves
of two brothers, Arthur and Waldo Brown. Agaln
Whlte`s subjects are unprepossesslng flgures that the
world lgnores, unless, as the narrator notes sardonl
cally at the outset, 'llfe took lts cleaver to them."
Whlte wlelds the blade hlmself, flrst ln hls capaclty
as dlssectlng novellst, then when Waldo`s corpse ls
rlpped open at the neck by hls starvlng dogs, much
as hls soul has been consumed llfelong by splte and
loathlng. Waldo ls the flrst major narrator of the
novelbellttllng hls brother, hlghllghtlng hls own
authorlal asplratlons, and trylng to create a sanltlzed
publlc persona. A selfobsessed lntellectual llvlng
wlthout love or frlendshlp, Waldo ls, the author con
ceded, 'myself at my coldest and worst." Jhls llbrar
lan ls also warped by an unconfessed homosexuallty
and an unresolved motherflxatlon. Both compul
slons flare ln a great, culmlnatlng scene when,
prompted by compelllng memorles, he dons hls
mother`s evenlng flnerymomentarlly becomlng the
drag queen he had been so savagely suppresslng.
Waldo`s verslon of events ls then subsumed
wlthln Arthur`s account of hls own quest for lnslght
and completlon. Jhls mentally slmple narrator ls
another of Whlte`s unsuspected salnts, a man who
achleves wlthout fanfare what Waldo can only lmaglne.
Jhe latter, for lnstance, ls usually 'too preoccupled to
notlce anyone beyond the outsklrts of hls mlnd" and
works ln jealous secrecy on hls magnum opus, 'Portralt
of Jlreslas as a Younglsh Man." Arthur`s empathy, ln
contrast, enables hlm to become the Protean Greek, to
'retlre behlnd hls eyellds." Arthur ls also the apostle of
selfless love and of wholeness, embodled by the man
dala. Hls preferred and sultably lnnocent, even chlldlsh,
paradlgm conslsts of four marbles. Each of these solld
mandalas he asslgns to an lmportant person ln hls llfe,
keeplng one marble for hlmself and llvlng to wltness hls
rejectlon by Waldo, who thereby conslgns hlmself to the
torments of a lost soul. Overall, the novel at once
afflrms Chrlst`s teachlngs and yet escapes conventlonal
schemata. Waldo`s behavlor represents a profound
'blasphemy agalnst llfe" whlle Arthur`s reveals God to
those who can see.
Wlth Tlc Scosov ot Sorsoporillo completed, Whlte
chose lnner Sydney as the backdrop for Tlc !iviscctor,
whlch affords both a portralt of the ldlosyncratlc
palnter Hurtle Duffleld and an apologla for the author`s
llfework. Although he had known many artlsts, such as
Irancls Bacon and Sldney Nolan, Whlte confessed that
'Tlc !iviscctor ls more about myself than any other of
198
m~ t ai_ PPO
my unfortunate characters," and ln lt he explores the
sufferlng, destructlveness, and exaltatlon that he assocl
ated wlth the artlst`s vocatlon. Jhese tralts already dls
tlngulshed Alf Dubbo of o. 'the furtlve, destroylng
slckness, and almost as furtlve, but regeneratlve, cre
atlve act." q s dramatlzes thls psychologlcal
proflle. Accordlng to one of Hurtle`s most perceptlve
correspondents, humans by thelr nature are affllcted,
and creators more so because 'through your art you
can see further than us." Slmllarly, humans are cruel,
but artlsts surpass them ln brutallty through a capaclty
for dlspasslonate analysls that llnks them wlth the God
head, concelved of as the Dlvlne Vlvlsector. Both God
and palnter wleld the knlfe unsparlngly, so that even
Duffleld`s earllest work ls called the product of a men
tally deflclent person 'or some klnd of crlmlnal," much
as he wlll be attacked for 'the ugllness and crueltles" of
hls later canvases. Admlttedly, outraged crltlcs of Whlte
and Duffleld had grounds for protest. Jhe novellst
acknowledged that vulgarlty was a staple of hls flctlon,
or, more accurately, what amounts to an obsesslon wlth
the most sordld human functlons. Jhls bellef assumes
the proportlons of an excremental vlslon ln one of Hur
tle`s most notorlous canvases, whlch rudely negates the
notlon of a benlgnly radlant Pantocrator by deplctlng
'the moon ln one of lts destructlve phases. . . . Jhe
lnnocent lovers are under attack. . . . Jhe moon ls J
on them." Jhe rottenness and 'attempts at evll" of
lndlvlduals, Duffleld states, 'are chlldllke besldes the
waves of enllghtened evll prollferatlng from above."
Jhe defense of such art ls lts honesty. Jhe novel
lst descrlbed hls earllest works as a groplng toward
truth. Decades later, ln c~ d~I he asked, 'Am
I a destroyer? thls face ln the glass whlch has spent a
llfetlme searchlng for what lt belleves, but can never
prove to be, the truth." Jhe goals of Hurtle`s mature art
resemble those of the novellst. Ilrst, he wlshes 'to
arrlve at the truth"that ls, 'to flnd some formal order
behlnd a moment of chaos and unreason" that other
wlse 'would have been too horrlble and terrlfylng."
Jhe second ls to project lntlmatlons of an essentlally
lnexpresslble promlse beyond the knlfeto palnt the
unattalnable lndlgo. A less peccant lndlvldual mlght
draw back from thls prldeful endeavor. Arthur Brown,
for example, was repeatedly sllenced by the llmltatlons
of language, although he lntultlvely hlt on actlons that
transcended them, whether ln creatlng symbols of total
lty or ln danclng the mandala, an effort that concluded
trlumphantly wlth 'hls mouth . . . a sllent hole, because
no sound was needed to explaln." Whlte, however,
makes no clalms to such lmmlnence. But hls shatterlng
of syntax polnts beyond normal perceptlons to a hlgher
purpose as surely as dld Duffleld`s lnsplratlon declare
ltself as a serles of broken brush strokes culmlnatlng ln
a blazlng, lnexpllcable llght.
Jhe author as vlvlsector ls much to the fore ln
Whlte`s next novel, q b pI whlch, desplte
lts conslderable length, ls one of hls most lntense and
concentrated works. It focuses on the last days of the
elghtyslxyearold Ellzabeth Hunter, evoklng ln detall
her claustrophoblc slckroom and the routlnes and
thoughts of the female staff who sustaln her decaylng
body, as well as the mental llfe of her chlldren, Dorothy
de Lascabanes and Slr Basll, both of whom have
returned from overseas ln the hope of grabblng thelr
lnherltance more qulckly. As her mlnd deterlorates, so
too does the present, reveallng key moments ln her
past, whlle her home opposlte Centennlal Park evolves
lnto a mlcrocosm of human llfe, 'lts sllence allve wlth
clocks, suggestlons of subterfuge, the blatant echoes of
downrlght lles, together wlth hlnts of the exasperatlng,
unknowable truth." Character ln thls novel rlvals truth
ln lts complexlty. No longer do people spllt lnto abso
lute categorles of the llvlng and the dead, nor are
responses always foreseeable. Lnllke hls earller carlca
tures, no one ln thls work seems lrremedlably fallen.
Rather, each person has the capaclty to see 'clearly
rlght down to the root of the matter."
Whlte`s falth ln language, though, had rarely
been stronger, as hls portralt of the octogenarlan shows.
Once a great beauty, Mrs. Hunter conslsts now only of
cruelty and vanlty, as 'under the transparent skln,
bones awalted dlstrlbutlon for the flnal game of jacks."
Eventually, she suffers the ultlmate lndlgnlty of dylng
on her commode, whlch Dorothy explalns as a flttlng
end to her mother`s worldllness. 'could anythlng of a
transcendental nature have lllumlnated a mlnd so sen
sual, mendaclous, materlallstlc, superflclal as Ellzabeth
Hunter`s?" Dorothy ls wrong; her mother ls granted
the clearest perceptlon of pure belng ln the book, and ln
an equally unexpected twlst, the reader ls lnvlted to
contemplate the posslblllty that 'for an lnstant Ellza
beth Hunter`s lmage radlated all the human vlrtues ln
an unmlstakably celestlal aura."
Ellzabeth`s cocooned exlstence ls rent by news of
her husband`s cancer'the charmlng flllgree of her llfe
had been hammered wlthout warnlng lnto an ugly,
patternless entanglement." Later she experlences
dlrectly an act of God ln the form of a cyclonea fury
that harbors preternatural calm at lts center. 'the myth
of her womanhood had been exploded" to be replaced
by 'thls dream of gllstenlng peace through whlch she
moved." Occurrlng mldway through the novel rather
than at lts end, thls vlslon of a state of grace suggests
the contlnual potentlal of tlme to reveal a 'lustrous
moment," or a pattern, ln whlch cynlcs percelve noth
lnga polnt cllnched by Slster de Santls. Jhe novel
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ai_ PPO m~ t
opens and closes wlth thls person for whom servlce ls a
way of llfe. Her capaclty for mundane eplphanles jolns
her to Whlte`s rlders ln the charlot, and at the end she
ls transflgured by a falthconflrmlng llght, too solld and
powerful to ward off.
Jhe Nobel Prlze ln l973 changed Whlte`s llfe and
work. Lp untll then he had successfully avolded glvlng
lntervlews or taklng a publlc stand on lssues of natlonal
lmportance, clalmlng that a wrlter sald what he had to
say ln hls works. Internatlonal recognltlon, coupled
wlth unprecedented local agltatlons, weakened thls
resolve, and he campalgned for lssues as dlverse as sav
lng Iraser Island, relnstatlng the sacked Labor govern
ment, and stopplng conscrlptlon for the war ln
Vletnam. _ q expressed hls dlsgust wlth Sydney
power brokers, and the same prlvlleged cllque also felt
hls wrath when he mounted the podlum to denounce
uranlum mlnlng. 'Llfe ln thls plffllng Brltlsh colony," he
stated, 'has made me a republlcan and drlven me
always farther to the Left, tlll I am what the conserva
tlves descrlbe as a 'traltor to my class.`" Less publlcly,
he was a munlflcent benefactor. Hls prlze money from
Stockholm funded a grant for Australlan wrlters. He
gave generously to causes he favored, and he made llb
eral art bequests to the State Gallery of New South
Wales.
Iraser Island also lnterested hlm as the settlng for
a novel that had long awalted completlon, ^ c
i~K Begun ln l96l, lts story of an Engllshwoman`s
survlval among Aborlglnes, after shlpwreck off the
_ueensland coast, left hlm ample latltude to speculate
on the lmpact of Australla on lts whlte settlers and also
on the klnd of person who could have survlved Ellza
Iraser`s ordeal. In the novel she starts out as a slmple
Cornlsh farm glrl, Ellen Gulyas, close to nature but also
wlth undeflned asplratlons represented by Jlntagel, a
nearby slte, shrouded ln myth, whlch she has never vls
lted. Next comes lnductlon lnto Engllsh soclal llfe
through the Roxburgh brothers. Her slckly, pampered
husband, Austln, provldes her wlth a cultlvated veneer,
but he ls lll equlpped to deal wlth harsh realltles. One
aslde reduces hls expenslve educatlon to 'a dust of dlc
tlonary words and useless knowledge"; another notes
that for hlm death ls a llterary concelt. Lnfulfllled pas
slon propels Ellen lnto adultery wlth Austln`s more
robust brother, Garnet, who ls 'less her seducer than
the lnstrument she had chosen for measurlng depths
she was tempted to explore." Later, thls exploratlon
galns speed when the overlay of whlte acculturatlon,
together wlth her clothes, are vlolently strlpped away
by the lndlgenous people, ln a varlatlon on Whlte`s
recurrlng call to put aslde nonessentlals. Adaptlng the
rude and savage way of llfe of her Aborlglnal captors
becomes for Ellen a rlte of passage to selfknowledge,
durlng whlch she ls saved by her tough Gulyas herl
tage. It also helps her questlon the laws of clvlllzatlon,
as when she lnadvertently partlclpates ln cannlballsm
descrlbed as a 'sacrament" ln a settlng of 'exqulslte
lnnocence." Jhls scene nourlshes 'not only her anlmal
body but some darker need of the hungry splrlt,"
strengthenlng rather than dlmlnlshlng her stature
before she ls led back to a whlte settlement by her lover
and rescuer, the escaped convlct |ack Chance. How
these ordeals wlll affect her among socalled clvlllzed
belngs ls unclear. Jo her fellow settlers she appears
enlgmatlc, as she does to herself. 'Mrs Roxburgh could
not have explalned the reason for her belng there, or
whether she had served a purpose, ever." Jhe novel
ends tantallzlngly wlth an lmpllclt warnlng agalnst the
human predllectlon to 'grasp at any clrcumstantlal
straw whlch may lndlcate an ordered unlverse."
Irom the mystery of Mrs. Roxburgh, Whlte
moved darlngly to hls own predlcament ln q q
^~K Although earller novels had lncluded sexually
amblvalent flgures, such as Elyot Standlsh or Waldo
Brown, thls work ls hls flrst overt, extended portralt of
a gay male. Eddle Jwyborn ls forced to lead a sham
exlstence that leaves hlm feellng that he ls a 'mlstake
trylng to correct ltself " or, more sweeplngly, 'the
stranger of all tlme . . . the eternal deserter ln search of
asylum." Jhe novel ls dlvlded lnto three sectlons that
deplct hls varlous personae and the dllemmas they
cause. In the flrst he masquerades as Eudoxla, young
wlfe of the aglng Greek Angelo Vatatzes on the Cte
dÀzur. Jhelr precarlous ldyll, however, constantly
faces exposure by the prylng heterosexual world, as
well as by jealousy and the charged emotlons that draw
the two men together. It ends wlth Angelo`s death and
the lmpresslon thelr relatlonshlp conveys to outslders of
lts depravlty, whlch ls focused by a squalld bathroom
and a grotesquely large enema. Part 2 problematlzes the
cult of Australlan mascullnlty. It opens wlth Eddle Jwy
born, a decorated war hero, returnlng home, convlnced
that he has been 'born wlthout the requlsltes for
grace." Worklng next as a jackeroo, he trles to come 'to
terms wlth hls body . . . to llve ln accordance wlth
appearances" ln a mllleu domlnated by an aggresslvely
mascullne ethos. Sexual lntercourse wlth the statlon
owner`s wlfe, however, falls to establlsh hls male lden
tlty. At the same tlme the supposedly unltary lmage of
Australlan mascullnlty beglns to fragment. Ilrst, the
conqueror of the land, Greg Lushlngton, ls revealed on
nearer acqualntance to have a gentle, wonderlng slde.
Jhls frustrated poet perlodlcally dlsappears overseas
'to loseor flnd hlmself." Next, the embodlment of
'lnvlolable mascullnlty," hls overseer, Don Prowse, dls
plays homoerotlc lmpulses. Jhough ostentatlously vlr
lle and tlrelessly boastlng of hls conquests among the
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local women, Don returns drunk one nlght and has sex
wlth Eddle.
Jhe matteroffact statement, attrlbuted to Marcla
Lushlngton, 'that one lsn`t the same person every hour
of the week" has masslve ramlflcatlons, whlch the novel
explores. Jhe posslblllty of amblvalent or multlple
ldentlty ls thereby admltted, an occurrence that has the
potentlal to destablllze not only relatlonshlps but also
gender categorles. It ultlmately leaves Eddle/Eudoxla
wonderlng 'where clvlllzatlon ended, and stlll more,
where lt began." In part 3, durlng hls second extended
dlsappearance from Sydney, he reemerges as Eadlth
Jrlst, madame of one of the most lllustrlous brothels of
London. Much as twlllght and the llmbo between waklng
and dreamlng are the states ln whlch he/she feels 'as much
herself as a human belng can afford to be," so her brothel
carrles forward the theater of seesawlng lusts that has con
stltuted Jwyborn`s llfe. Jhe plot ls further compllcated by
parallels between the colonlal and the homosexual strug
gles for acceptance and selfunderstandlng ln the face of
hostlle norms. Jhls theme unfolds agalnst the backdrop of
an lmpendlng European catastrophe that menaces lndlvld
uals as well as soclety 'wlth extlnctlon by the seas of
|the| black unreason on whlch lt floated." Beyond the
theatrlcal roles, mlrrors, and fantasles that energlze
both the brothel and the world at large, Eadlth/Eddle/
Eudoxla gropes toward flnal consummatlon through
love. Jhls tlme, however, the fulflllment ls nonsexual.
Inltlally, Eadlth flnds lt wlth an arlstocrat who, at her
blddlng, renounces physlcal coupllng. Hls unselflsh
response ls offered as convlnclng 'proof" of love and,
by sangulne extenslon, of lts dlvlne guarantor. Jhen, ln
a flrst ln Whlte`s flctlon, the protagonlst ls reconclled
wlth hls domlneerlng mother. Is all ordalned, lncludlng
the bomb that flnally cuts Jwyborn down as he hastens
to reconnect wlth hls mother? And lf so, to what end?
Jhe mother ls left ln a garden remlnlscent of Stan
Parker`s, muslng 'Eadlth Eddle no matter whlch thls
fragment of my self whlch I lost ls now returned where
lt belongs," ln the company of a qulzzlcal blrd, hls beak
ralsed 'towards the sun."
Memolrs domlnated Whlte`s last productlve
yearsan autoblography followed flve years later by
j j~ lI allegedly wrltten by Alex
Xenophon Demlrjlan Gray and edlted by Whlte. At
flrst slght the two works seem unrelated, but they
actually complement each other. Jhe demand for
lnformatlon about the novellst had lncreased slnce he
won the Nobel Prlze and galned further publlc prom
lnence, and Whlte declded to preempt crltlcs 'anx
lous to put ln the warts" by trylng 'to show where I
thlnk the real ones are." He also thought lt was tlme
to dlscuss hls homosexuallty, hls fortyyear bond
wlth Lascarls, and the forces that had propelled hls
career 'as truthfully and slmply as I can." Jo Gra
ham Greene he referred to c~ d~ as 'Jhe
Poof`s Progress." Dlgnlfled, yet also llvely and can
dld, the book provldes an lndlspensable gulde to hls
llfe and workas well as a coherent plcture of hls
development that does not do full justlce to hls sense
of hlmself as shlftlng, fragmented, polyphonlc. In
later llfe Whlte malntalned that hls lmportant flc
tlonal characters were latent aspects of hlmself, and
that he was 'several people ln one" wlth 'only one
llfe between them." Jhese dlverse personae flnd
volce ln hls flnal novel, prlmarlly through the lmagln
lngs of demented Alex, as well as through her famlly
and frlends. Included here ls her future edltor, Patrlck
Whltearthrltlc, crotchety, and 'too plsselegant by
half," who shares more than unllkely blue eyes wlth
thls Greek dowager. Her mlnd, llke hls, turns repeat
edly to questlons of sexuallty, famlly relatlons, rell
glon, and the theater, whlle to her ls attrlbuted hls
bawdlness and deslre to scandallze. In her fantasles
Alex, as a gatecrasher who suddenly morphs lnto an
apocalyptlc horsewoman, confronts dlverse 'dlno
saurs of dlsaster," or, as an lnmate of the psychlatrlc
hospltal Bonkers Hlll, has her face smeared wlth her
own excrement. Archlves, as Alex asserts, 'are only
half the truth." Jhe other half ls provlded by thls
coda that enables the author to reflect on the creatlve
process, the vagarles of ldentlty, and the publlc flgure
he has become.
Whlte, as he once acknowledged, 'had the wrong
chemlstry for happlness." Cynlcal, homosexual, and
unforglvlng, to the end he flred off barbs agalnst a
world ln whlch he never felt at home. Belng gay roused
ln hlm a selfloathlng he never qulte shed. But he also
credlted hls homosexuallty wlth sharpenlng hls mlnd,
teachlng hlm the value of gentleness, and awakenlng ln
hlm a sympathy for other outslders, such as Aborlglnes,
lmmlgrants, and the dlsabled.
Moreover, belng gay attuned hlm to the value of
the lrratlonal and the palnful, one of the most shocklng
aspects of hls art. Whlte faulted Chrlstlanlty for down
gradlng the sordld and the shocklng. Hls blographer
Davld Marr notes that s features 'an unpleasant,
mad, baslcally unattractlve hero." Jhe rellglous fervor
Voss lnjects lnto hls trek across Australla turns thls
stretch of dry, rocky terraln lnto the Promlsed Land.
q s teems wlth vlscous matter; only by accept
lng lt does Hurtle Duffleld become an artlst and experl
ence reblrth lnto an eternlty. Ellzabeth Hunter`s tollet
seat death ln q b p calls forth the beautlful
rose growlng out of a manure plle and, along wlth lt,
the mystery of unlty that redeems all of creatlon.
Jhe daytlme loglc that lnvokes moral judgments
casts llttle llght on Whlte. He fllrted wlth fasclsm ln the
50l
ai_ PPO m~ t
l930s because a lover was one of General Iranclsco
Iranco`s aldes. Valn, prlgglsh, and cruel, he held
grudges for years. He would accuse hls detractors of
lgnorance, mallce, and colluslon. Nor dld hls frlends
escape hls wrath. Jhough he enjoyed cooklng and host
lng dlnner partles, he would sometlmes lnsult hls guests
so brutally that they would leave the table mldmeal.
Marr quotes Whlte as calllng hlmself 'a fallure as a
human belng."
Was Whlte too harsh on hlmself? He dld cast
off frlends, sometlmes coldly and abruptly. But hls
capaclty for selfrenewal lncluded bondlng. In the
l970s, when hls lnterest ln the stage revlved, he
befrlended a host of actors, dlrectors, and stage
deslgners, bellevlng that, desplte a fortyyear age gap
ln most cases, they understood hlm better than hls
contemporarles dld.
Hls last years drew hlm lncreaslngly lnto the
publlc sphere, but wlthout affectlng hls convlctlons
or bellefs. Besldes uslng hls $80,000 Nobel Prlze
money to lend a hand to struggllng Australlan wrlt
ers, he also helped feed and clothe Sydney`s poor and
contrlbuted to Aborlglnal causes. Although he
refused to campalgn for gay rlghts, he marched
through Sydney`s raln ln l982 to speak to some
thlrty thousand people on the need for nuclear dlsar
mament. He addressed the same subject ln Mel
bourne ln l988; then, desplte belng affllcted by age,
osteoporosls, and hls llfelong battle wlth asthma, he
stood at hls lectern slgnlng coples of hls books for
another half hour.
Such klndllness polnts to an lmportant lssuethat
of servlng others wlth dlgnlty and grace. Whlte`s llfe
clamored wlth nolsethe gunflre of World War II, ln
whlch he served ln the RAI; the yearlong celebratlon of
Australla`s Blcentennlal ln l988, whlch he hated; and
the snarllng rages he flew lnto at home. At the center of
thls furor stood Lascarls, 'that small Greek of lmmense
moral strength" who shared Whlte`s llfe for fortyseven
years. Lascarls`s patlence, humlllty, and qulet slmpllclty
brought hlm much closer to Whlte`s ldeal of selflessness
than Whlte ever came hlmself. Wlthout hls nurture and
support, Whlte could not have wrltten hls books, and
he knew lt.
Patrlck Whlte dled after a long lllness on 30 Sep
tember l990. Ilercely prlvate and lndependent, he
asked for hls ashes to be scattered ln Centennlal Park,
whlch he hoped to protect as a revenant. Slmllarly, hls
novels contlnue to haunt Australlan lntellectual llfe, to
shock, lnsplre, and tantallze, reflectlng and fulfllllng hls
and Alex`s credo that 'words are what matter. Even
when they don`t communlcate . . . Somebody may
understand ln tlme."
iW
Davld Marr, ed., Iotricl !litc: Icttcrs (Mllsons Polnt,
N.S.W.. Random House Australla, l991; Lon
don. Cape, l991; Chlcago. Lnlverslty of Chl
cago Press, l996).
_~W
Alan Lawson, Iotricl !litc (Melbourne. Oxford Lnl
Wllllam |. Schelck, 'A Blbllography of Wrltlngs about
Patrlck Whlte, l972-l978," Tcxos Studics iv Iitcro-
turc ovd Iovguogc, 2l (l979). 296-303.
_~W
Davld Marr, Iotricl !litc: Z Iifc (Mllsons Polnt,
N.S.W.. Random House Australla, l99l; Lon
don. Cape, l99l; New York. Knopf, l99l).
oW
MayBrlt Akerhold, Iotricl !litc (Amsterdam. Rodopl,
l988);
Peter Beatson, Tlc Iyc iv tlc Movdolo: Iotricl !litc: Z
!isiov of Mov ovd Cod (London. Elek, l976);
Carolyn Bllss, Iotricl !litc`s Iictiov: Tlc Iorodox of tlc
Iortuvotc Ioll (London. Macmlllan, l986);
Slmon Durlng, Iotricl !litc (Melbourne. Oxford Lnl
Rodney S. Edgecombe, !isiov ovd Stylc iv Iotricl !litc: Z
Study of Iivc òvcls (Juscaloosa. Lnlverslty of Ala
bama Press, l989);
Martln Gray, ed., Iotricl !litc: Iifc ovd !ritivgs: Iivc
Issoys (Stlrllng, Scotland. Centre for Common
wealth Studles, Lnlverslty of Stlrllng, l99l);
Brlan Klernan, Iotricl !litc (London. Macmlllan,
l980);
A. M. McCulloch, Z Trogic !isiov: Tlc òvcls of Iotricl
!litc (St. Lucla. Lnlverslty of _ueensland Press,
l983);
Davld |. Jacey, Iotricl !litc: Iictiov ovd tlc Uvcovscious
(Melbourne. Oxford Lnlverslty Press, l988);
|ohn A. Welgel, Iotricl !litc (Boston. Jwayne, l983);
G. A. Wllkes, ed., Tcv Issoys ov Iotricl !litc: Sclcctiovs
from Soutlcrly (1964-67) (Sydney. Angus
Robertson, l970);
Mark Wllllams, Iotricl !litc (London. Macmlllan,
l993);
Peter Wolfe, ed., Criticol Issoys ov Iotricl !litc (Boston.
G. K. Hall, l990);
Wolfe, Iodcv Cloirs: Tlc Iictiov of Iotricl !litc (Lexlng
ton. Lnlverslty of Kentucky Press, l983).
m~W
Some of Patrlck Whlte`s manuscrlpts are collected at
the Australlan Natlonal Llbrary, Canberra.
502
m~ t ai_ PPO
NVTP k m i~
m~ p
^ iI p ^~
Eq~~ pF
Gentlemen,
Jhls year`s Nobel Prlze for Llterature has been
awarded by the Swedlsh Academy to the Australlan
Patrlck Whlte. In theas alwaysbrlef cltatlon, mentlon ls
made of 'hls eplc and psychologlcal narratlve art whlch
has lntroduced a new contlnent lnto llterature." Jhese
words have been somewhat mlsunderstood ln certaln
quarters. Jhey are only lntended to emphaslze the proml
nent posltlon occupled by Patrlck Whlte ln the llterature of
hls country. they should not be taken to deny the exlst
ence of an lmportant body of Australlan llterature apart
from hls wrltlngs.
In fact a long successlon of authors have endowed
Australlan llterature wlth an lndependence and a character
whlch are unmlstakably Australlan and by vlrtue of whlch
that llterature has long deserved to be regarded ln the eyes
of the world as somethlng more than an extenslon of the
Engllsh tradltlon. It wlll be sufflclent here to mentlon such
names as Henry Lawson and Henry Handel Rlchardson.
Lawson was the son of an lmmlgrant Norweglan seaman
by the name of Larsen, and ln hls short storles he gave
authentlc expresslon to varlous types of downtoearth
Australlan experlence. Jhe authoress wrltlng under the
name of Henry Handel Rlchardson achleved ln her most
lmportant sequence of novels an authentlc and grandlose
memorlal to her father as the exponent of a llngerlng Brlt
lsh way of llfe ln Australla. Nor should one neglect a num
ber of ambltlous but somewhat recondlte poets who have
helghtened Australlan awareness and lntenslfled the
expresslve powers of thelr language.
Ior all hls orlglnallty, there ls no denylng that the
work of Patrlck Whlte dlsplays certaln typlcal features of
Australlan llterature generally sharlng wlth lt the back
ground, natural hlstory and ways of llfe of the country. It
ls also well known that Whlte stands ln close relatlon to
advanced Australlan plctorlal artlsts such as Sldney Nolan,
Arthur Boyd and Russel Drysdale, who wlth the means at
thelr dlsposal alm at somethlng of the same expresslveness
as he sets out to achleve ln hls wrltlng. Also lt ls an encour
aglng slgn that Whlte`s lnfluence has gradually made ltself
felt and that several of the most promlslng young wrlters
are to be seen as hls successors ln one way or another.
At the same tlme, however, lt should be emphaslzed
that Whlte ls less preoccupled than some of hls repre
sentatlve colleagues wlth thlngs speclflcally Australlan.
Although most of hls novels are set agalnst an Australlan
background, hls maln concern has been to deplct people
whose problems and llvlng sltuatlons are hlghly lndlvldu
allzed, transcendlng the local and the natlonal. Even ln hls
most typlcally Australlan eplc, q q j~I ln whlch an
lmportant part ls played by nature and soclety, hls prlncl
pal alm has been to portray hls characters from the lnslde,
to make them come allve not so much ln terms of typlcal
or atyplcal settler careers as ln the gulse of unlque lndlvld
uals. And when he accompanles hls explorer Voss lnto the
wllderness of the contlnent, that wllderness becomes flrst
and foremost a dramatlc scenarlo for the obsesslon and
selfsacrlflce of a Nletzschean wlllpower.
One ls struck by the frequency wlth whlch Patrlck
Whlte has made hls maln characters to a greater or lesser
degree outslders ln relatlon to soclety. allens, maladjusted
or retarded people and qulte often mystlcs and zealots. It ls
as though ln these people, destltute and vulnerable as they
are, he found lt easlest to dlscern the human qualltles
whlch fasclnate hlm. Jhls ls the case wlth the characters of
o `~I whose allen status or devlatlon brlngs
them persecutlon and sufferlng but who ln a mystlcal way
are also the elect, vlctorlous ln thelr mlsfortune. It ls also
the case wlth the two brothers ln q p j~~~I wlth
thelr contradlctory characters. the welladjusted but splrl
tually barren and the clumsy but lntultlvely perclplent. In a
way lt ls also true of the allpervadlng prlnclpal characters
ln Whlte`s two latest and largest novels. the artlst ln q
s and the old woman ln q b p. In the
artlst the creatlve urge ls portrayed as a specles of curse, as
a result of whlch hls art becomes an allconsumlng effort of
whlch both lts practltloner and the people close to hlm
become the vlctlms. In the old woman the author has
taken the experlence of a cyclone as the mystlcal centre
from whlch an lnslght radlates to shed llght on her llfe,
wlth lts many mlsadventures, rlght up to the moment of
her death.
Patrlck Whlte ls a rather dlfflcult author not only
because of hls speclal ldeas and problems but also perhaps
no less due to hls unusual comblnatlon of eplc and poetlc
qualltles. In hls broad narratlve he uses a hlghly com
pressed language, a verbal art worked out to the last detall
and constantly almlng for a maxlmum of expresslve effect,
a relentless lntenslflcatlon or a subtle penetratlon. Here
beauty and truth are closely allled or completely fused
together. a beauty radlatlng llght and llfe, evoklng the
poetry lnherent ln thlngs, ln nature and ln all manner of
phenomena, and truth whlch exposes and llberates, even
though at flrst lt may seem repugnant or frlghtenlng.
Patrlck Whlte ls a soclal crltlc malnly through hls
deplctlon of human belngs, as beflts a true novellst. He ls
503
ai_ PPO m~ t
flrst and foremost a bold psychologlcal explorer, at the
same tlme as he readlly refers to ldeologlcal vlews of llfe or
mystlcal convlctlons to ellclt the support and the upllftlng
message whlch they have to offer. Hls relatlonshlp to hlm
self, llke hls relatlonshlp to hls fellow belngs, ls complex
and full of contradlctlons. Exalted demands are thrown
lnto sharp rellef agalnst emphatlc denlals. Passlon and
longlng are confronted by a dlstlnct purltanlsm. In contra
dlstlnctlon to what may be prlde ln hlmself he glorlfles
humlllty and humlllatlon, a perslstent feellng of gullt that
demands atonement and sacrlflce. He ls constantly
assalled by doubts concernlng the capaclty of thought and
art, even though he ls lndefatlgable ln hls hlghmlnded
pursult of both these thlngs.
Patrlck Whlte`s llterary art has spread hls fame
throughout the world and he now ranks as Australla`s
foremost representatlve ln hls fleld. Hls creatlve work,
performed ln solltude and doubtless ln the teeth of con
slderable opposltlon, ln varlous klnds of adverslty, has
gradually ylelded lastlng and progresslvely more wldely
acknowledged results, ln splte of the doubts he hlmself
may have had concernlng the value of hls efforts. Jhe
controverslal slde of Patrlck Whlte ls connected wlth
the extreme tenslon of hls selfexpresslon, wlth hls
assault on the most dlfflcult problems. the very qualltles
that constltute hls lndlsputable greatness. Wlthout those
qualltles he would be unable to bestow the consolatlon
now present ln the very mldst of hls gloom. the convlc
tlon that there must be somethlng more worth llvlng for
than our onward rushlng clvlllzatlon seems to offer.
Jhe Swedlsh Academy regrets that Patrlck Whlte
ls not here today. But as hls representatlve we greet one
of hls best frlends, the excellent Australlan artlst Sldney
Nolan. And now I beg you, Mr. Nolan, to recelve the
Nobel Prlze for Llterature, awarded to Patrlck Whlte,
from the hands of Hls Majesty the Klng.
tW _~ p
^ t ~ ~ ~ k _~ ~
` e~ pI NM a NVTPI ~
~ p k~W
Your Majesty, and Gentlemen of the Swedlsh Academy,
It ls wlth great regret that I cannot revlslt Stock
holm on such an occaslon as today. But to revlslt and
attend ln thought wlll not be dlfflcult, as one of the
memorles from travels ln my youth ls connected wlth
the Jown Hall of Stockholm. When I was slxteen my
parents and I travelled up from Malm by traln.
Although thls was many years ago and the vlslt only a
brlef one, there are stlll left ln my memory the crosslng
of waters, walks along the quays of Stockholm, and the
then new Jown Hall. (Perhaps I shall also venture to
add lt was ln Stockholm that I drank my flrst glass of
wlne.) Cllmatlc condltlons and my health permlttlng lt
ls my wlsh to return once agaln, looklng wlth a youth`s
memorles and an old man`s eyes on the clty from whlch
so large an honour has now been bestowed upon me.
| Jhe Nobel Ioundatlon, l973. Patrlck Whlte ls the
tW ^~~ p~
Et ~ ~~ k mF
I was born on May 28th l9l2 ln Knlghtsbrldge,
London, to Australlan parents. Vlctor Whlte was then
fortytwo, hls wlfe, Ruth Wlthycombe, ten years
younger. When I was slx months old my parents
returned to Australla and settled ln Sydney, prlnclpally
because my mother could not face the prospect of too
many slsterslnlaw on the property, ln whlch my father
had an lnterest, wlth three older brothers. Both my
father`s and my mother`s famllles were yeomanfarmer
stock from Somerset, England. My greatgrandfather
Whlte had emlgrated to New South Wales ln l826, as a
flockmaster, and recelved a grant of crown land ln the
Lpper Hunter Valley. None of my ancestors was dlstln
gulshed enough to be remembered, though there ls a
pleaslng legend that a Wlthycombe was fool to Edward
II. My Wlthycombe grandfather emlgrated later ln the
nlneteenth century. After hls marrlage wlth an Austra
llan, he and my grandmother salled for England, but
returned when my mother was a year old. Grandfather
Wlthycombe seems to have found dlfflculty ln settllng;
he drlfted from one property to another, flnally dylng
near Muswellbrook on the Lpper Hunter. My father
and mother were second couslns, though they dld not
meet tlll shortly before thelr marrlage. Jhe Wlthy
combes enjoyed less materlal success than the Whltes,
whlch perhaps accounted for my mother`s sense of her
own superlorlty ln Whlte clrcles. Almost all the Whltes
remalned wedded to the land, and there was somethlng
pecullar, even shocklng, about any member of the fam
lly who left lt. Jo become any klnd of artlst would have
been unthlnkable. Llke everybody else I was lntended
for the land, though, vaguely, I knew thls was not to be.
My chlldhood was a slckly one. It was found that
I was sufferlng from nothlng worse than asthma, but
501
m~ t ai_ PPO
even so, nobody would lnsure my llfe. As a result of the
asthma I was sent to school ln the country, and only
vlslted Sydney for brlef, vlolently asthmatlc sojourns on
my way to a house we owned ln the Blue Mountalns.
Probably lnduced by the asthma, I started readlng and
wrltlng early on, my llterary efforts from the age of
about nlne runnlng chlefly to poetry and plays. When
thlrteen I was uprooted from Australla and put at
school at Cheltenham, England, as my mother was of
the oplnlon that what ls Engllsh ls best, and my father,
though a chauvlnlstlc Australlan, respected most of her
caprlces. After seelng me 'settled" ln my Engllsh
prlson, my parents and slster left for Australla. In splte
of holldays when I was free to vlslt London theatres
and explore the countryslde, I spent four very mlsera
ble years as a colonlal at an Engllsh school. My parents
returned for the long hollday when I was slxteen, and
there were travels ln Europe, lncludlng Scandlnavla.
Norway and Sweden made a partlcular lmpresslon on
me as I had dlscovered Ibsen and Strlndberg ln my
early teensa taste my Engllsh housemaster deplored.
'You have a morbld klnk I mean to stamp out"; and he
then proceeded to stamp lt deeper ln.
When I was rlslng elghteen I persuaded my par
ents to let me return to Australla and at least see
whether I could adapt myself to llfe on the land before
golng up to Cambrldge. Ior two years I worked as jack
eroo, flrst ln the mountalnous southern New South
Wales, whlch became for me the bleakest place on
earth, then on the property of a Wlthycombe uncle ln
the flat, bllsterlng north, plagued alternately by drought
and flood. I can remember swlmmlng my horse
through floodwaters to fetch the mall, and enjoylng a
dlsh of stewed nettles durlng a dearth of vegetables.
Jhe llfe ln ltself was not uncongenlal, but the talk was
endlessly of wool and weather. I developed the hablt of
wrltlng novels behlnd a closed door, or at my uncle`s,
on the dlnlng table. More reprehenslble stlll, after belng
a colonlal at my Engllsh school, I was now a 'Pom" ln
the ears of my fellow countrymen. I hardly dared open
my mouth, and welcomed the opportunlty of escaplng
to Klng`s College, Cambrldge. Even lf a unlverslty
should turn out to be another verslon of a school, I had
declded I could lose myself afterwards as an anony
mous partlcle of the London I already loved.
In fact I enjoyed every mlnute of my llfe at Klng`s,
especlally the dlscovery of Irench and German lltera
ture. Each vacatlon I vlslted elther Irance or Germany
to lmprove my languages. I wrote fltfully, bad plays,
worse poetry. Jhen, after taklng my degree, the decl
slon had to be made. what to do? It was embarrasslng
to announce that I meant to stay ln London and
become a wrlter when I had next to nothlng to show.
Jo my surprlse, my bewlldered father, who read llttle
beyond newspapers and studbooks, and to whom I
could never say a word lf we found ourselves stranded
alone ln a room, agreed to let me have a small allow
ance on whlch to llve whlle trylng to wrlte.
At thls perlod of my llfe I was ln love wlth the the
atre and was ln and out of lt three or four nlghts of the
week. I trled unsuccessfully to get work behlnd the
scenes. I contlnued wrltlng the bad plays whlch fortu
nately nobody would produce, just as no one dld me
the unklndness of publlshlng my early novels. A few
sketches and lyrlcs appeared ln toplcal revues, a few
poems were prlnted ln llterary magazlnes. Jhen, early
ln l939, a novel I had managed to flnlsh, called e~
s~I was publlshed ln London, due to the fact that
Geoffrey Grlgson, the poet, then edltor of the magazlne
k s whlch had accepted one of my poems, was
also reader for a publlshlng flrm. Jhls novel, although
derlvatlve and ln many ways lnconslderably, was
recelved well enough by the crltlcs to make me feel I
had become a wrlter. I left for New York expectlng to
repeat my success, only to be turned down by almost
every publlsher ln that clty, tlll the Vlklng Press, my
Amerlcan publlshers of a llfetlme, thought of taklng me
on.
Jhls exhllaratlng personal sltuatlon was some
what spollt by the outbreak of war. Durlng the early,
comparatlvely uneventful months I hovered between
London and New York wrltlng too hurrledly a second
novel, q i ~ a~. In l910 I was commls
sloned as an alr force lntelllgence offlcer ln splte of com
plete lgnorance of what I was supposed to do. After a
few halrralslng weeks amongst the RAI greats at
Ilghter Command I was sent zlgzagglng from Green
land to the Azores ln a Llverpool cargo boat wlth a gag
gle of equally raw lntelllgence offlcers, tlll flnally we
landed on the Gold Coast, to be flown by exotlc stages
to Calro, ln an aeroplane out of |ules Verne.
Jhe part I played ln the war was a pretty lnslgnlf
lcant one. My work as an operatlonal lntelllgence
offlcer was at most useful. Much of the tlme was spent
advanclng or retreatlng across deserts, slttlng waltlng ln
dustrldden tents, or agaln ln that other desert, a head
quarters. At least I saw somethlng of almost every
country ln the Mlddle East. Occaslonally, durlng those
years bombs or gunflre created what should have been
a reallty, but whlch ln fact made reallty seem more
remote. I was unable to wrlte, and thls flnally became
the explanatlon of my state of mlnd. my flawed self has
only ever felt lntensely allve ln the flctlons I create.
Perhaps the most lmportant moments of my war
were when, ln the western desert of Egypt, I concelved
the ldea of one day wrltlng a novel about a megalo
manlac German, probably an explorer ln nlneteenth
century Australla, and when I met my Greek frlend,
505
ai_ PPO m~ t
Manoly Lascarls, who has remalned the malnstay of
my llfe and work.
After demoblllsatlon we declded to come to Aus
tralla where we bought a farm at Castle Hlll outslde
Sydney. Durlng the war I had thought wlth longlng of
the Australlan landscape. Jhls, and the graveyard of
postwar London, and the lgnoble deslre to flll my belly,
drove me to burn my European brldges. In the mean
tlme, ln London, ln Alexandrla on the way out, and on
the decks of llners, I was wrltlng q ^ p. It was
exhllaratlng to be free to express myself agaln, but
nobody engaged ln sortlng themselves out of the rubble
left by a world war could take much lnterest ln novels.
Australlans, who were less lnvolved, were also less con
cerned. Most of them found the book unreadable, just
as our speech was unlntelllglble durlng those flrst years
at Castle Hlll. I had never felt such a forelgner. Jhe fall
ure of q ^ p and the need to learn a language
afresh made me wonder whether I should ever wrlte
another word. Our efforts at farmlnggrowlng frult,
vegetables, flowers, breedlng dogs and goats, were ama
teurlsh, but consumlng. Jhe hollow ln whlch we llved,
or perhaps the pollen from the paspalum whlch was
always threatenlng to engulf us, or the susplclon that
my llfe had taken a wrong turnlng, encouraged the
worst attacks of asthma I had so far experlenced. In the
elghteen years we spent at Castle Hlll, enslaved more
than anythlng by the trees we had planted, I was ln and
out of hospltals. Jhen about l95l I began wrltlng
agaln, palnfully, a novel I called ln the beglnnlng ^ i
p b~I but whlch developed lnto q q
j~. Well recelved ln England and the Lnlted States, lt
was greeted wlth crles of scorn and lncredullty ln Aus
tralla that somebody, at best, a dublous Australlan,
should flout the naturallstlc tradltlon, or worse, that a
member of the grazler class should asplre to a calllng
whlch was the prerogatlve of schoolteachers! sI
whlch followed, fared no better. lt was 'mystlcal,
amblguous, obscure"; a newspaper prlnted lts revlew
under the headllne 'Australla`s Most Lnreadable Nov
ellst." In o `~ lt was the scene ln whlch
Hlmmelfarb, the |ewlsh refugee, ls subjected to a mock
cruclflxlon by drunken workmates whlch outraged the
blokes and the bluestocklngs allke. Naturally, 'lt
couldn`t happen here"except that lt does, ln all quar
ters, ln many lnflnltely humlllatlng ways, as I, a for
elgner ln my own country, learned from personal
experlence.
A number of Australlans, however, dlscovered
they were able to read a reprlnt of q ^ pI a
book whlch had baffled them when flrst publlshed after
the war, and by the tlme q p j~~~ appeared, lt
was reallsed I mlght be somethlng they had to put up
wlth.
In l961, submerged by the suburbs reachlng far
ther lnto the country, we left Castle Hlll, and moved
lnto the centre of the clty. Looklng back, I must also
have had an unconsclous deslre to brlng my llfe full clr
cle by returnlng to the scenes of my chlldhood, as well
as the consclous wlsh to extend my range by wrltlng
about more sophlstlcated Australlans, as I have done ln
q s and q b p. On the edge of
Centennlal Park, an ldylllc landscape surrounded by a
metropolls, I have had the best of both worlds. I have
trled to celebrate the park, whlch means so much to so
many of us, ln q b p and ln some of the
shorter novels of q `~. Here I hope to contlnue
llvlng, and whlle I stlll have the strength, to people the
Australlan emptlness ln the only way I am able.
| Jhe Nobel Ioundatlon, l973. Patrlck Whlte ls the
m o~W q k m
i~ NVTP
l m~ p~
p ^~
Patrlck Whlte
Jhe Australlan Patrlck Whlte has been awarded
the l973 Nobel Llterature Prlze 'for an eplc and psy
chologlcal narratlve art whlch has lntroduced a new
contlnent lnto llterature," as lt says ln the Swedlsh
Academy`s cltatlon. Whlte`s growlng fame ls based
chlefly on seven novels of whlch the earllest masterly
work ls q ^ pI a portrayal lmbued wlth
remarkable feellng of a lonely, unmarrled, Australlan
woman`s llfe durlng experlences that extend also to
Europe and Amerlca. Jhe book wlth whlch Whlte
really made hls name, however, was q q j~I an
eplcally broad and psychologlcally dlscernlng account
of a part of Australlan soclal development ln the form
of two people`s long llfe together, and struggle agalnst
outward and lnward dlfflcultles.
Another aspect of Australla ls shown ln sI ln
whlch a fanatlcal explorer ln the country`s lnterlor
meets hls fate. an lntenslve character study agalnst the
background of the fasclnatlng Australlan wllds. Jhe
wrlter dlsplays yet another klnd of art ln o
`~I wlth speclal emphasls on hls cystlc and sym
bollc tendencles. a sacrlflclal drama, tense, yet wlth an
everyday settlng, ln the mldst of current Australlan real
lty. Irom contrastlng vlewpolnts, q p j~~~
glves a double portralt of two brothers, ln whlch the
506
m~ t ai_ PPO
sterllely ratlonal brother ls set agalnst the fertllely lntul
tlve one, who ls almost a fool ln the eyes of the world.
Whlte`s last two books are among hls greatest
feats, both as to slze and to frenzled bulldlng up of ten
slon. q s ls the lmaglnary blography of an art
lst, ln whlch a whole llfe ls dlsclosed ln a relentless
scrutlny of motlves and sprlngs of actlon. an artlst`s
untlrlng battle to express the utmost whlle sacrlflclng
both hlmself and hls fellowbelngs ln the attempt. q
b p places an old, dylng woman ln the centre
of a narratlve whlch revolves round, and encloses, the
whole of her envlronment, past and present, untll we
have come to share an entlre llfe panorama, ln whlch
everyone ls on a declslve dramatlc footlng wlth the old
lady.
Partlcularly, these latest books show Whlte`s
unbroken creatlve power, an ever deeper restlessness
and seeklng urge, an onslaught agalnst vltal problems
that have never ceased to engage hlm, and a wrestllng
wlth the language ln order to extract all lts power and
all lts nuances, to the verge of the unattalnable. Whlte`s
llterary productlon has falllngs that belong to great and
bold wrltlng, exceedlng, as lt does, dlfferent klnds of
conventlonal llmlts. He ls the one who, for the flrst
tlme, has glven the contlnent of Australla an authentlc
volce that carrles across the world, at the same tlme as
hls achlevement contrlbutes to the development, both
artlstlc and, as regards ldeas, of contemporary lltera
ture.
507
t~ _ v~
(1J uvc 1S6 - 2S ovuory 19J9)
_K iK o
Mouvt Holyolc Collcgc
Jhls entry was revlsed from Reld`s Yeats entry ln DI
19: ritisl Iocts, 1SS0-1914. See also the Yeats entrles ln
DI 10: Modcrv ritisl Dromotists, 1900-194; DI 9S:
Modcrv ritisl Issoyists, Iirst Scrics; and DI 16: ritisl
Slort-Iictiov !ritcrs, 1SS0-1914: Tlc Iomovtic Troditiov.
BOOKS. Mosodo: Z Dromotic Iocm (Dublln. Prlnted by
Sealy, Bryers Walker, l886);
Tlc !ovdcrivgs of Uisiv ovd Utlcr Iocms (London. Kegan
Paul, Jrench, l889);
olv Slcrmov ovd Dloyo, as Ganconagh (London.
Lnwln, l89l; New York. Cassell, l89l);
Tlc Couvtcss Iotllccv ovd !orious Icgcvds ovd Iyrics (Lon
don. Lnwln, l892; Boston. Roberts / London.
Lnwln, l892);
Tlc Ccltic Twiliglt (London. Lawrence Bullen, l893;
New York London. Macmlllan, l891; revlsed
and enlarged edltlon, London. Bullen, l902; New
York. Macmlllan, l902);
Tlc Iovd of Hcort`s Dcsirc (London. Lnwln, l891; Chl
cago. Stone Klmball, l891; revlsed edltlon,
Portland, Malne. Mosher, l903);
Iocms (London. Lnwln, l895; London. Lnwln / Bos
ton. Copeland Day, l895; revlsed edltlon, Lon
don. Lnwln, l899; revlsed agaln, l90l, l9l2,
l927);
Tlc Sccrct Iosc (London. Lawrence Bullen, l897; New
York. Dodd, Mead / London. Lawrence Bullen,
l897);
Tlc Toblcs of tlc Iow; Tlc Zdorotiov of tlc Mogi (London.
Prlvately prlnted, l897; London. Elkln Mathews,
l901);
Tlc !ivd Zmovg tlc Iccds (London. Elkln Mathews,
l899; New York London. |ohn Lane, l902);
Tlc Slodowy !otcrs (London. Hodder Stoughton,
l900; New York. Dodd, Mead, l90l);
Is tlc Urdcr of I. I. c Z. C. [Iosoc Iubcoc ct Zurcoc Crucis]
To Icmoiv o Mogicol Urdcr? (N.p., l90l);
Cotllccv vi Hoolilov (London. Bullen, l902);
!lcrc Tlcrc Is òtlivg (New York. |ohn Lane, l902;
London. Bullen, l903);
Idcos of Cood ovd Ivil (London. Bullen, l903; New York.
Macmlllan, l903);
Iv tlc Scvcv !oods: civg Iocms Clicfly of tlc Irisl Hcroic Zgc
(Dundrum. Dun Emer Press, l903; New York
London. Macmlllan, l903);
Tlc Hour-Closs: Z Morolity (London. Helnemann, l903);
t~ _ v~ aI l NVOP
E^~ mI ^mF
508
t~ _ v~ ai_ PPO
Tlc Hour-Closs ovd Utlcr Iloys (New York London.
Macmlllan, l901); republlshed as Tlc Hour-Closs,
Cotllccv vi Houlilov, Tlc Iot of rotl (London.
Bullen, l901);
Tlc Iivg`s Tlrcslold (New York. Prlvately prlnted,
l901);
Tlc Iivg`s Tlrcslold ovd Uv oilc`s Strovd (London.
Bullen, l901);
Storics of Icd Hovrolov (Dundrum. Dun Emer Press,
l905);
Iocms, 1S99-190 (London. Bullen / Dublln. Maunsel,
l906);
Tlc Iocticol !orls of !illiom . Jcots, 2 volumes (New
York London. Macmlllan, l906, l907; revlsed,
l9l2);
Dcirdrc (London. Bullen / Dublln. Maunsel, l907);
Discovcrics; Z !olumc of Issoys (Dundrum. Dun Emer
Press, l907);
Tlc Uvicorv from tlc Stors ovd Utlcr Iloys, by Yeats and
Lady Gregory (New York. Macmlllan, l908);
Tlc Coldcv Hclmct (New York. |ohn _ulnn, l908);
Tlc Collcctcd !orls iv !crsc ovd Irosc of !illiom utlcr Jcots,
8 volumes (StratfordonAvon. Shakespeare Head
Press, l908);
Iocms: Sccovd Scrics (London StratfordonAvon.
Bullen, l909);
Tlc Crccv Hclmct ovd Utlcr Iocms (Dundrum. Cuala
Press, l9l0; New York. Paget, l9ll; enlarged edl
tlon, London. Macmlllan, l9l2);
Syvgc ovd tlc Irclovd of His Timc (Dundrum. Cuala Press,
l9ll);
Tlc Couvtcss Cotllccv, revlsed edltlon (London. Lnwln,
l9l2);
Tlc Cuttivg of Zv Zgotc (New York. Macmlllan, l9l2;
enlarged edltlon, London. Macmlllan, l9l9);
Storics of Icd Hovrolov, Tlc Sccrct Iosc, Ioso Zlclcmico
(London StratforduponAvon. Bullen, l9l3;
New York. Macmlllan, l9l1);
Z Sclcctiov from tlc Iovc Ioctry of !illiom utlcr Jcots (Dun
drum. Cuala Press, l9l3);
Iocms !rittcv iv Discourogcmcvt 1912-191J (Dundrum.
Cuala Press, l9l3);
Icspovsibilitics: Iocms ovd o Iloy (Dundrum. Cuala Press,
l9l1);
Icvcrics ovcr Clildlood ovd Joutl (Dundrum. Cuala Press,
l9l5; New York. Macmlllan, l9l6; London.
Macmlllan, l9l6);
Icspovsibilitics ovd Utlcr Iocms (London. Macmlllan,
l9l6; New York. Macmlllan, l9l6);
Tlc !ild Swovs ot Coolc (Dundrum. Cuala Press, l9l7;
enlarged edltlon, London. Macmlllan, l9l9; New
Icr Zmico Silcvtio Iuvoc (London. Macmlllan, l9l8; New
Two Iloys for Dovccrs (Dundrum. Cuala Press, l9l9);
Miclocl Iobortcs ovd tlc Dovccr (Dundrum. Cuala Press,
l920 |l.e., l92l|);
Iour Iloys for Dovccrs (London. Macmlllan, l92l; New
York. Macmlllan, l92l);
Iour Jcors (Dundrum. Cuala Press, l92l);
Tlc Trcmblivg of tlc !cil (London. Laurle, l922);
Iotcr Iocms (London. Macmlllan, l922; New York. Mac
mlllan, l921);
Iloys iv Irosc ovd !crsc !rittcv for ov Irisl Tlcotrc, by Yeats
and Lady Gregory (London. Macmlllan, l922;
Tlc Iloycr _uccv (London. Macmlllan, l922);
Iloys ovd Covtrovcrsics (London. Macmlllan, l923; New
Issoys (London. Macmlllan, l921; New York. Mac
mlllan, l921);
Tlc Cot ovd tlc Moov (Dublln. Cuala Press, l921);
Tlc ouvty of Swcdcv (Dublln. Cuala Press, l925);
Iorly Iocms ovd Storics (London. Macmlllan, l925; New
Z !isiov: Zv Ixplovotiov of Iifc Iouvdcd upov tlc !ritivgs of
Ciroldus ovd upov Ccrtoiv Doctrivcs Zttributcd to Iusto
cv Iulo (London. Laurle, l925); substantlally
revlsed as Z !isiov (London. Macmlllan, l937;
Istrovgcmcvt: civg Somc Iifty Tlouglts from o Diory Icpt by
!illiom utlcr Jcots iv tlc Jcor ìvctccv Huvdrcd ovd
ìvc (Dublln. Cuala Press, l926);
Zutobiogroplics: Icvcrics Uvcr Clildlood ovd Joutl ovd Tlc
Trcmblivg of tlc !cil (London. Macmlllan, l926;
Uctobcr lost (Dublln. Cuala Press, l927);
Storics of Icd Hovrolov ovd Tlc Sccrct Iosc (London. Mac
mlllan, l927);
Tlc Towcr (London. Macmlllan, l928; New York. Mac
mlllan, l928);
Soploclcs` Iivg Ucdipus: Z !crsiov for tlc Modcrv Stogc by !. .
Jcots (London. Macmlllan, l928; New York. Mac
mlllan, l928);
Tlc Dcotl of Syvgc, ovd Utlcr Iossogcs from ov Uld Diory
(Dublln. Cuala Press, l928);
Z Ioclct for Iro Iouvd (Dublln. Cuala Press, l929);
Tlc !ivdivg Stoir (New York. Iountaln Press, l929;
enlarged edltlon, London. Macmlllan, l933; New
Storics of Miclocl Iobortcs ovd His Iricvds: Zv Ixtroct from o
Iccord Modc by His Iupils; ovd o Iloy iv Irosc (Dub
lln. Cuala Press, l93l);
!ords for Music Icrlops ovd Utlcr Iocms (Dublln. Cuala
Press, l932);
Tlc !ivdivg Stoir ovd Utlcr Iocms (London. Macmlllan,
l933; New York. Macmlllan, l933);
509
ai_ PPO t~ _ v~
Tlc Collcctcd Iocms (New York. Macmlllan, l933; Lon
don. Macmlllan, l933);
Icttcrs to tlc `cw Islovd, edlted by Horace Reynolds
l931; London. Oxford Lnlverslty Press, l970);
Tlc !ords Upov tlc !ivdow Iovc (Dublln. Cuala Press,
l931);
!lccls ovd uttcrflics (London. Macmlllan, l931; New
Tlc Collcctcd Iloys (London. Macmlllan, l931; New
Tlc Iivg of tlc Crcot Clocl Towcr (Dublln. Cuala Press,
Z Iull Moov iv Morcl (London. Macmlllan, l935);
Dromotis Icrsov (Dublln. Cuala Press, l935);
Iocms (Dublln. Cuala Press, l935);
Dromotis Icrsov 1S96-1902, Istrovgcmcvt, Tlc Dcotl of
Syvgc, Tlc ouvty of Swcdcv (New York. Macmlllan,
l936; London. Macmlllan, l936);
ìvc Uvc-Zct Iloys (London. Macmlllan, l937);
Issoys, 19J1 to 19J6 (Dublln. Cuala Press, l937);
Tlc Hcrvc`s Igg: Z Stogc Iloy (London. Macmlllan,
l938);
Tlc Hcrvc`s Igg ovd Utlcr Iloys (New York. Macmlllan,
l938);
`cw Iocms (Dublln. Cuala Press, l938);
Tlc Zutobiogroply of !illiom utlcr Jcots, Covsistivg of Icvcr-
ics Uvcr Clildlood ovd Joutl, Tlc Trcmblivg of tlc !cil
ovd Dromotis Icrsov (New York. Macmlllan,
l938); revlsed, wlth Istrovgcmcvt, Tlc Dcotl of
Syvgc, and Tlc ouvty of Swcdcv, as Zutobiogroplics
Iost Iocms ovd Two Iloys (Dublln. Cuala Press, l939);
Uv tlc oilcr (Dublln. Cuala Press, l939);
Iost Iocms ovd Iloys (London. Macmlllan, l910; New
If I !crc Iour-ovd-Twcvty (Dublln. Cuala Press, l910);
Tlc Iocms of !. . Jcots, 2 volumes (London. Macmlllan,
l919);
Tlc Collcctcd Iloys of !. . Jcots (London. Macmlllan,
Tlc !oriorum Iditiov of tlc Iocms of !. . Jcots, edlted by
Peter Allt and Russell K. Alspach (New York.
Macmlllan, l957);
Mytlologics (London New York. Macmlllan, l959);
Scvotc Spccclcs, edlted by Donald R. Pearce (Bloomlng
ton. Indlana Lnlverslty Press, l960);
Issoys ovd Ivtroductiovs (London New York. Macmlllan,
l96l);
Ixplorotiovs (London. Macmlllan, l962; New York.
Macmlllan, l963);
Tlc !oriorum Iditiov of tlc Iloys of !. . Jcots, edlted by
Russell K. Alspach, asslsted by Catherlne C.
Alspach (London New York. Macmlllan, l966);
Uvcollcctcd Irosc, edlted by |ohn P. Irayne and Colton
|ohnson, 2 volumes (New York. Columbla Lnl
verslty Press, l970, l976);
Mcmoirs: Zutobiogroply, flrst draft, transcrlbed and edlted
by Denls Donoghue (London New York. Mac
mlllan, l972);
Tlc Spccllcd ird, edlted by Wllllam O`Donnell (Dublln.
Cuala Press, l971); annotated edltlon wlth varl
ant verslons (Joronto. McClelland Stewart,
l976 |l.e., l977|); addltlonal sectlon publlshed as
'Newly Identlfled Chapters for the l897-98 Ver
slon of Tlc Spccllcd ird: 'Jhe Lllles of the Lord,`"
Jcots Zvvuol, 7 (l990). l15-l75;
Iocms: Z `cw Iditiov, revlsed edltlon, edlted by Rlchard
|. Ilnneran (London New York. Macmlllan,
l989);
Jcots`s Iocms, edlted by A. Norman |effares (London.
Macmlllan, l989);
Tlc !orls of !. . Jcots, l1 volumes (London New
York. Macmlllan, l989- );
Tlc Sccrct Iosc: Storics by !. . JcotsZ !oriorum Iditiov,
revlsed edltlon, edlted by Phllllp L. Marcus, War
wlck Gould, and Mlchael |. Sldnell (London.
Macmlllan, l992).
PLAY PRODLCJIONS. Tlc Iovd of Hcort`s Dcsirc,
London, Avenue Jheatre, 29 March l891;
Tlc Couvtcss Cotllccv, Dublln, Antlent Concert Rooms, 8
May l899;
Diormuid ovd Crovio, by Yeats and George Moore, Dub
lln, Galety Jheatre, 2l October l90l;
Cotllccv vi Houlilov, Dublln, St. Jeresa`s Hall, 2 Aprll
l902;
Tlc Iot of rotl, Dublln, Antlent Concert Rooms, 30
October l902;
Tlc Hour-Closs, Dublln, Molesworth Hall, l1 March
l903; revlsed verslon, Dublln, Abbey Jheatre, 2l
November l9l2;
Tlc Iivg`s Tlrcslold, Dublln, Molesworth Hall, 8 Octo
ber l903; revlsed verslon, Dublln, Abbey Jhe
atre, l3 October l9l3;
Tlc Slodowy !otcrs, Dublln, Molesworth Hall, l1 |anu
ary l901;
!lcrc Tlcrc Is òtlivg, London, Royal Court Jheatre,
26 |une l901; revlsed as Tlc Uvicorv from tlc Stors,
by Yeats and Lady Gregory, Dublln, Abbey Jhe
atre, 2l November l907;
Uv oilc`s Strovd, Dublln, Abbey Jheatre, 27 December
l901;
Dcirdrc, Dublln, Abbey Jheatre, 21 November l906;
Tlc Coldcv Hclmct, Dublln, Abbey Jheatre, l9 March
l908;
Tlc Crccv Hclmct, Dublln, Abbey Jheatre, l0 Iebruary
l9l0;
5l0
t~ _ v~ ai_ PPO
Zt tlc Howl`s !cll, London, prlvately performed, 2 Aprll
l9l6; Dublln, Abbey Jheatre, 25 |uly l933;
Tlc Iloycr _uccv, London, Klng`s Hall, 25 May l9l9;
Tlc Uvly colousy of Imcr, Amsterdam, Hollandsche
Shouwburg, produced ln Engllsh, 2 Aprll l922;
Dublln, Abbey Jheatre, 9 May l926;
Tlc Cot ovd tlc Moov, Dublln, Abbey Jheatre, 9 May
l926;
Soploclcs` Iivg Ucdipus, Dublln, Abbey Jheatre, 7
December l926;
Soploclcs` Ucdipus ot Colovus, Dublln, Abbey Jheatre, l2
September l927;
Iigltivg tlc !ovcs, Dublln, Abbey Jheatre, l3 August
l929;
Tlc !ords Upov tlc !ivdow-Iovc, Dublln, Abbey Jhe
atre, l7 November l930;
Tlc Drcomivg of tlc ovcs, Dublln, Abbey Jheatre, 6
December l93l;
Tlc Icsurrcctiov, Dublln, Abbey Jheatre, 30 |uly l931;
Tlc Iivg of tlc Crcot Clocl Towcr, Dublln, Abbey Jheatre,
30 |uly l931;
Iurgotory, Dublln, Abbey Jheatre, l0 August l938.
OJHER. Ioiry ovd Ioll Tolcs of tlc Irisl Icosovtry, edlted
by Yeats (New York. Bonl Llverlght, l888; Lon
don. Scott, l893);
Tlc !orls of !illiom lolc, Ioctic, Symbolic, ovd Criticol, 3
volumes, edlted by Yeats and Edwln |ohn Ellls
(London. _uarltch, l893);
Augusta, Lady Gregory, !isiov ovd clicf iv tlc !cst of Irc-
lovd, lncludes two essays and notes by Yeats (New
York London. Putnam, l920);
Tlc Uxford ool of Modcrv !crsc, edlted by Yeats (Oxford.
Clarendon Press, l936; New York. Oxford Lnl
Tlc Tcv Irivcipol Upovislods, translated by Yeats and Shrl
Purohlt Swaml (London. Iaber Iaber, l937;
New York. Macmlllan, l937).
Wllllam Butler Yeats recelved the l923 Nobel
Prlze ln Llterature 'for hls always lnsplred poetry,
whlch ln a hlghly artlstlc form glves expresslon to the
splrlt of a whole natlon," as the cltatlon read. He was
also a notable dramatlst and an occaslonal wrlter of
short flctlon and essays, but hls poetry remalns the
foundatlon of hls fame.
Yeats was born ln the Dublln suburb of Sandy
mount on l3 |une l865. He was the eldest of the four
survlvlng chlldren of the palnterphllosopher |ohn But
ler Yeats and hls wlfe, Susan Pollexfen Yeats. Jhe poet
was proud to belong ln both stralns of hls blood to the
AngloIrlsh Protestant mlnorlty. Jhe Yeats llne had
been settled ln Ireland slnce the seventeenth century;
they began as merchants, but later generatlons were
Jrlnlty College scholars and Church of Ireland clergy
men, Yeats`s greatgrandfather havlng been rector of
Drumcllff ln County Sllgo. Hls mother`s famlly were
shlpowners and mlllers ln and about Sllgo. Jhe hllls
and lakes and fens about the busy West of Ireland sea
slde town became Yeats`s splrltual home ln chlldhood
and remalned so all hls llfe.
|. B. Yeats was tralned for the law, but he resolved
to make a llvlng out of hls glft for drawlng and palntlng,
especlally for portralture. Jhe glft was real, but he
never learned to explolt lt; he could never let a palntlng
go. He remalned a dellghtful and lndlscrlmlnately pro
ductlve fallure, and poverty became a fact of llfe for hls
famlly. Jo put hlmself through school as a palnter, |. B.
Yeats carrled hls young famlly ln l868 to London,
where they llved ln Iltzroy Road, Regents Park, for the
next seven years.
In the l9l5 portlon of hls autoblography, Icvcrics
ovcr Clildlood ovd Joutl, Yeats wrote. 'Indeed I remem
ber llttle of chlldhood but lts paln. I have grown happler
wlth every year of llfe as though gradually conquerlng
somethlng ln myself." Jhe gauzy, velled effects of vlsual
observatlon ln Yeats`s wrltlngs doubtless owed some
thlng to poor eyeslght. both eyes were weak, the left
almost useless. Much of the tlme, ln any case, hls essen
tlal seelng was more vlslonary than vlsual. Yeats
recalled hardly anythlng of hls flrst London years; hls
early memorles are obsessed wlth scenes and persons ln
Sllgo, partlcularly hls uncle George Pollexfen, horse
man and astrologer, and hls grandfather Wllllam
Pollexfen, the 'sllent and flerce old man" who always
remlnded hlm of Klng Lear, whom as a chlld he con
fused wlth God and to whom he traced hls llfelong
'dellght ln passlonate men."
Jhe boy Yeats was dreamy and lntrospectlve but
by no means housebound. He rode about the Sllgo
countryslde on a red pony and began to steep hlmself
ln the falry lore of the local peasants. Hls formal educa
tlon would never be better than spotty. He wrote ln
Icvcrics ovcr Clildlood ovd Joutl: 'Because I had found lt
dlfflcult to attend to anythlng less lnterestlng than my
thoughts, I was dlfflcult to teach." He was so slow ln
learnlng to read that he was thought to be slmple, and
he remalned tone deaf all hls llfe. When he began to
read, he was mystlfled as to why the church cholr took
three tlmes as long as he dld to reach the end of a
hymn. Back ln London, where hls father pursued hls
endless apprentlceshlp, Yeats remembered Sllgo 'wlth
tears." He spent flve lnconsequentlal years at Godol
phln, a day school ln Hammersmlth. A poor student,
absentmlnded, he was more lnterested ln collectlng
moths and butterflles than ln hls dally tasks. Jhe peo
ple who lnterested hlm were hls father`s frlends, palnt
ers of the second rank under PreRaphaellte lnfluence.
5ll
ai_ PPO t~ _ v~
He hated London and survlved splrltually on annual
hollday vlslts to Sllgo.
In l880 the famlly returned to Ireland, settllng
flrst on the hlll of Howth, the north horn of the crescent
of Dublln Bay. Howth was a 'gentle" spot (an anclent
resort of falry folk), and pursult of such lore and of
entomology occupled young Wllllam much more than
hls formal studles. He was now a tall, gaunt lad, dark
sklnned, wlth black halr falllng over hls eyes. He rode
the traln lnto the clty dally, accompanylng hls father,
who qulzzed and harangued hlm on the 'passlonate"
portlons from the Engllsh poets that he spent much
tlme readlng aloud. Wllllam was now enrolled ln Eras
mus Hlgh School ln Harcourt Street. Hls thlnklng
moved slowly away from amateur sclence and toward
llterature, and he began to see hlmself ln the gulse of
varlous herolc solltarles, doomed and melancholy.
Hamlet, Manfred, Athanase, Alastor. At seventeen he
began to wrlte poetry that polnted gradually toward
q t~ l ~ l m (l889), lyrlcs and
ballads founded malnly on tales, scenes, and atmo
spheres of Howth and Sllgo, where George Pollexfen
had become an affectlonate confldant.
Money belng short and hls chances of passlng
entrance examlnatlons belng judged poor, Yeats was
sent next not to Jrlnlty College but to the Metropolltan
School of Art nearby ln Klldare Street. Hls talent ln art
was as weak as hls eyes, and he never progressed
beyond a prlmltlve amateur level. In any case, hls head
was now full of the language of hls own romantlc
poems and plays, Percy Bysshe Shelley and Edmund
Spenser belng hls chlef models. He had made Shelley`s
m r (l820) hls 'sacred book." At the art
school he formed a llfelong but troubled frlendshlp wlth
a tall young Llsterman, George Wllllam Russell, who
as poet, palnter, journallst, and mystlc came to stand
second only to Yeats among Irlshmen of genlus ln thelr
generatlon. Russell could soon quote every word of
young Yeats`s wrltlngs, whlch now lncluded hls flrst
two publlshed poems that appeared ln the a rJ
o ln March l885.
In the same year, moved by a readlng of A. P. Sln
nett`s b _ (l883), by a general fasclnatlon
wlth Eastern mystlclsm, and by an lnnate love for
closed, secret clrcles, Yeats and a few frlends formed a
Hermetlc Soclety ln Dublln. In hls autoblography he
traced to hls early studles ln 'psychlcal research and
mystlcal phllosophy" hls flrst declslve movement away
from the lnfluence of hls father`s humanlst ratlonallsm.
He was also deeply lmpressed by the teachlng of a vlslt
lng Bengall Brahmln, Mohlnl Chatterjl. 'It was my flrst
meetlng wlth a phllosophy that conflrmed my vague
speculatlons and seemed at once loglcal and bound
less." Wlthln thls atmosphere Yeats composed a dra
matlc poem, j~~I publlshed as a pamphlet ln l886,
and a halfdozen 'Indlan" poems such as 'Jhe Indlan
to Hls Love," whlch were soft, sad matter llke all hls
earllest work, pleaslngly melllfluous but boneless ln
thought and rhetorlc.
By contrast, Yeats was also frequentlng several
dlsputatlous polltlcally orlented socletles about Dublln,
and he began to play a part ln thelr debates. Influenced
ln part by hls new frlendshlp wlth the noble old Ienlan
|ohn O`Leary, recently returned from twenty years of
prlson and exlle, a man he judged to be 'of Plutarch`s
people," Yeats was rapldly turnlng selfconsclously
Celtlcnatlonallst and antlEngllshthough hls base
was less polltlcal than cultural and llterary. It pleased
hlm to be havlng hls verse publlshed ln two Cathollc
perlodlcals, the f j and the f cI lnclud
lng the lyrlc 'Jhe Stolen Chlld." Pursulng 'selfpossesslon,"
he began to speak regularly at meetlngs of the Young
Ireland Soclety. 'Irom these debates," he reflected
many years later, 'from O`Leary`s conversatlon, and
from the Irlsh books he lent or gave me has come all I
have set my hand to slnce."
Near the end of o ` ~ v
Yeats descrlbed hls early dream of a natlonallsm that
would brlng together the polltlcal nerve and fervor of
Cathollc Ireland wlth 'the good taste, the household
courtesy and decency" of AngloIreland, and hls
thought that 'we mlght brlng the halves together lf we
had a natlonal llterature that made Ireland beautlful ln
the memory, and yet had been freed from provlnclallsm
by an exactlng crltlclsm, an European pose." He gave
much thought to a flt style, not only for oratory but
also prose and verse. He argued wlth hls father, who
favored declamatlon and 'drama". 'We should wrlte
out our own thoughts ln as nearly as posslble the lan
guage we thought them ln, as though ln a letter to an
lntlmate frlend." He worked hard at thls slmpllfylng
dlsclpllne but found results slow to come, partlcularly ln
hls poetry. 'when I reread those early poems whlch
gave me so much trouble, I flnd llttle but romantlc con
ventlon, unconsclous drama. It ls so many years before
one can belleve enough ln what one feels even to know
what the feellng ls."
Jhe mystlcal slde of Yeats`s thought also took a
new turn ln l886 when a frlend ln Dublln took hlm to
hls flrst splrltuallst sance. He proved a frlghtenlngly
apt subject. 'my whole body moved llke a suddenly
unrolled watchsprlng, and I was thrown backward on
the wall," and hls hand banged the table wlth such vlo
lence that he broke the table. It was years before he
dared agaln to tempt the splrlts so dlrectly, though
when he recovered hls nerve he kept lt untll the end.
In l887 |. B. Yeats carrled hls famlly agaln to Lon
don, where they settled lnto a better house than they
5l2
t~ _ v~ ai_ PPO
could afford ln Bedford Park, a communlty where the
PreRaphaellte movement was 'at last affectlng llfe."
Yeats and hls brother, |ack, palnted the celllng of Yeats`s
room wlth a map of Sllgo. Jhelr mother suffered a
stroke, then another, and decllned lnto premature senll
lty. Jlmes were hard, wlth Yeats and hls father eklng
out plttances by hackwork. Yeats edlted for Dublln and
London publlshers m ~ _~~ v f~
(l888), lncludlng four poems of hls own; a volume of
Wllllam Carleton`s wrltlngs; and c~ ~ c q~
f m~~ (l888). He also contrlbuted letters on
Irlsh affalrs to two Amerlcan papers. Hls flrst poem to
be publlshed ln England appeared ln the i eX
'Jhe Madness of Klng Goll" ls notable for showlng
already lnstalled hls llfelong mastery of a refraln. 'Jhey
wlll not hush, the leaves aflutter round me, the beech
leaves old." Yeats judged hlmself to have been at thls
stage 'ln all thlngs PreRaphaellte"meanlng appar
ently, though not clearly, romantlcally elaborate, styl
lzed, antlquarlan. He contlnued to make and unmake
hls complex aesthetlc. He saw hlmself as a young man
naturally rellglous, needlng to belleve, deprlved of hls
chlldhood rellglon by sclence and ratlonallsm, formlng
ln recoll 'a new rellglon, almost an lnfalllble church of
poetlc tradltlon, of a fardel of storles, and of person
ages, and of emotlons, lnseparable from thelr flrst
expresslon, passed on from generatlon to generatlon by
poets and palnters wlth some help from phllosophers
and theologlans."
Early worklng of that rellglon was vlslble ln q
t~ l (Osslan, Lsheen), completed ln the
summer of l888 durlng a vlslt to Sllgo. It was Yeats`s
longest and most ambltlous work to date, a dramatlc
dlalogue, mostly monologue, of thlrty pages, a thou
sand llnes, ln a mlxture of meters, much of lt rhymed ln
couplets. Salnt Patrlck qulzzes the battered but unrepen
tant pagan Olsln, 'bent, and bald, and bllnd, / Wlth a
heavy heart and a wanderlng mlnd," who tells hlm the
story of three hundred ecstatlc and tortured years ln
Ienlan falryland wlth hls demon lady, 'whltebodled"
Nlamh. It was Yeats`s flrst declslve venture lnto Celtlc
myth, even more lmportant for hls plays to come than
for hls poetry. q t~ l ls a densely roman
tlc work, and ln lmagery, tone, and rhythm lt remem
bers many masters, lncludlng Samuel Jaylor Colerldge,
Alfred Jennyson, and Wllllam Morrls; ln lts role ln the
formlng of a canon and a talent lt remlnds one most
nearly of |ohn Keats`s b (l8l8). Readlng lt to
George Pollexfen ln Sllgo, Yeats broke down, overcome
by labor and feellng.
Jhe long poem gave bulk and a waverlng back
bone to Yeats`s flrst publlshed volume of verse, q
t~ l ~ l mI publlshed ln l889 by
Kegan Paul, Jrench, on the strength of subscrlptlons
mostly collected by O`Leary. Jhe general response was
approvlng lf not ecstatlc, and the book brought Yeats
the obsesslon of a llfetlme, hls love for actress and actlv
lst Maud Gonne. Jhe young woman whom George
Bernard Shaw called 'outrageously beautlful" appeared
ln Bedford Park wlth an lntroductlon from O`Leary
and word that q t~ l had made her
weep. Jhe enchanted vagueness of the mere paragraph
Yeats gave to thelr meetlng ln the autoblography sug
gests the power of her maglc. In 'Jhe Arrow" a few
years later he recalled hls flrst vlslon of Gonne ln the
llght of a wlndow full of apple blossoms ln sun. 'Jall
and noble but wlth face and bosom / Dellcate ln colour
as apple blossom." He thought of her ln the llne of
herolc legendary beauty, as hls Helen, hls Leda, hls
Phoenlx, hls 'woman Homer sung," hls 'Pallas Athene
ln that stralght back and arrogant head." Hls bltter late
lmage of her as 'an old bellows full of angry wlnd" was
a long way off, and lt was regularly offset by lmages
that remembered more falrly hls early sexual starvatlon
and the enchantment of her presence. In l889 he was
dlscoverlng the passlon of her commltment to radlcal
Irlsh natlonallsm and allowlng her to lead hlm toward a
mask that proved a bad flt, that of the polltlcally
engaged man.
Yeats contlnued to flnd frlends among older men,
notably now Morrls, whom he soon called 'my chlef of
men," and Wllllam Ernest Henley, edltor of the p
l (later the k~~ l) and a generous, con
tentlous man of whom he wrote. 'I dlsagreed wlth hlm
about everythlng, but I admlred hlm beyond words."
Henley publlshed, often wlth alteratlons by hlmself,
what Yeats called 'my flrst good lyrlcs and tolerable
essays". prose pleces later collected ln q ` q
(l893) and such poems as 'A Cradle Song," 'Jhe Man
Who Dreamed of Iaeryland," and the one that became
and remalned hls most famous, 'Jhe Lake Isle of Innls
free." At Henley`s home he met Oscar Wllde, as yet
untouched by scandal, and found hlm not only brllllant
but warmly hospltable and openhearted.
Yeats`s fasclnatlon wlth the occult grew ever more
lntense. He frequented the theosophlcal fellowshlp of
the London Lodge, amused and lmpressed by Madame
Blavatsky`s masslve 'peasant" humanlty and stlrred by
her doctrlne and her dlsclpllne. As a member of the
'esoterlc" lnner clrcle of devout lnltlates, Yeats jolned ln
studles of orlental charts of correspondences among
soul, body, planetary forms, and the muslcal scale.
Irlendshlp wlth Llddell (MacGregor) Mathers led hlm
lnto the Order of the Golden Dawn, a soclety of 'Chrls
tlan caballsts" whose rltual embodled Western forms of
a llke symbollsm. Lnder Mathers`s lnfluence Yeats
'began certaln studles and experlences" that convlnced
hlm 'that lmages well up before the mlnd`s eye from a
5l3
ai_ PPO t~ _ v~
deeper source than consclous or subconsclous mem
ory." He was ln reach, apparently, of that reservolr of
the race`s accumulated emblems that he would later
name ^~ j and p jK One vlslon
evoked by a symbol of Mathers`s stayed ln Yeats`s mlnd
for thlrty years, emerglng as the awful cllmactlc lmage
of 'Jhe Second Comlng."
When Edwln Ellls, a frlend of hls father`s, lnvlted
hlm to joln ln a study of the prophetlc books of Wllllam
Blake, Yeats accepted happlly. Ellls was a splrlted and
humorous scholar, a poet, and a man wlth Yeats`s own
glft for mysterlous vlslons. Jhe transcrlblng of the
poems and the edltors` extended commentary occupled
much of four years, endlng ln l89l. When _uarltch
brought out the work ln l893, Yeats recelved no cash,
only thlrteen sets of the three elegant volumes; but he
felt hlmself sufflclently rewarded by hls steeplng ln
Blake`s symbollc system and hls verse, and by much
lnstructlon ln the craft of poetry from Ellls and Blake,
lncludlng a declslve negatlve lnslght. 'I had learned
from Blake to hate all abstractlon."
Whlle Yeats`s speculatlve thought was growlng
bolder and more expanslve, hls aesthetlc thought was
turnlng harder, more concentrated, more emplrlcal and
exactlng. Hls romantlc lnstlnct, deep ln character and
temperament, sustalned hls leanlng to the PreRaphaellte,
the Celtlc, to soft feellng and lush textures; at the same
tlme he began to ask harder thlngs of hls art. sharper
outllnes, tlghter structures, slmpler, more natural dlc
tlon, a flrmer groundlng ln famlllar experlence. Roman
tlc and classlcal lmpulses contended ln Yeats`s splrlt all
hls llfe. Jhe great poetry of hls maturlty expresses a
brllllant peacemaklng, a control of opposltes ln tense
counterpolse.
Yeats was trylng to flnd a way to marry art to llfe.
Belng Irlsh, and personally and ethnlcally ambltlous, he
was churnlng complex elements of art and hlstory, pol
lty, natlonhood, art and egotlsm, personallty, and self
hood. He wanted to be at once tlmely and tlmeless,
personal and lmpersonal, representatlve. He struggled
to express 'those slmple emotlons whlch resemble the
more, the more powerful they are, everybody`s emo
tlon," and he was 'soon"ln fact always'to wrlte
many poems where an always personal emotlon was
woven lnto a general pattern of myth and symbol." He
sought an art of largeness, slgnlflcance, but also of
wholeness, of 'Lnlty of Belng"; myth and symbol
seemed to offer a terraln, a cllmate, an understood gen
eralness ln whlch to sltuate the partlcular.
Soon he began to suspect that humans flnd such
wholeness as they are to be granted ln thls llfe (or ln
any other llfe) ln dlvldedness. ln lmperfectlon, opposl
tlon, ln what he later called comprehenslvely 'the antl
nomles." Yeats`s mlnd began 'drlftlng vaguely," as he
put lt, toward master lmages that would be permanent
counters ln hls thought. the 'Mask" or 'antlself" and
'the Dalmon," shapes that emblematlzed hls convlctlon
that humans must flnd thelr troubled peace ln confllct,
ln endless stress. Imperfectlon was a condltlon of belng,
a deflnltlon of humanlty. It ls the role of the Dalmon or
'Gatekeeper" to brlng the creature and hls wlll to that
strenuous confrontatlon. Yeats put lt all together ln the
most shatterlng of hls statements. 'We begln to llve
when we have concelved llfe as tragedy."
Lovlng costume and theater, Yeats often dressed
the poet ln these yearsln a flowlng loose tle, a brown
velveteen jacket, and an old Inverness cape abandoned
by hls father twenty years earller. Lovlng cabals and
excluslveness, he jolned the Welshman Ernest Rhys ln
l89l ln foundlng the Rhymers` Club, whlch for some
years met often ln an upper room of an old lnn ln the
Strand, the Cheshlre Cheese. 'We read our poems to
one another and talked crltlclsm and drank a llttle
wlne." Jhe shlftlng membershlp lncluded Llonel
|ohnson, Ernest Dowson, |ohn Davldson, Rlchard Le
Galllenne, Edwln Ellls, Arthur Symons, and Wllde, sev
eral of whom he would later group as 'Jhe Jraglc Gen
eratlon." |ohnson and Symons were Yeats`s closest
comrades. He notlced that when he began to talk hls
'phllosophlcal ldeas" to the Rhymers, 'a gloomy
sllence fell upon the room."
In the same lnterval Yeats was foundlng ln Lon
don the Irlsh Llterary Soclety and ln Dublln the
Natlonal Llterary Soclety. In Dublln ln the summer of
l89l he spent all posslble tlme wlth Gonne; he pro
posed marrlage and was sweetly refused. He had been
feellng that the tlme was rlpe for dolng somethlng fun
damental about Irlsh culture, 'that Ireland would be
llke soft wax for years to come," and the downfall and
death of Ireland`s great hero ln Westmlnster, Charles
Stewart Parnell, whose coffln shlp Yeats met at Klngs
town pler ln October, brought hls Irlsh resolutlons to a
polnt. Ilrst and most personally, he wanted to create an
Irlsh theater, and he wanted lt to perform q `
h~ (later `~), hls flrst stage play, wlth whlch
he had been wrestllng, wlth Gonne ln mlnd as both
mythlc herolne and prlnclpal actress.
But hls general ambltlon was much grander. to
llft the whole level of Irlsh thought and dlscourse, to
glve lt both poetry and solldlty. He asslgned hls Irlsh llt
erary clubs, for example, the task of creatlng a 'stan
dard of crltlclsm," an Arnoldlan current of true and
fresh ldeas. Revolted allke by Protestant crassness and
Cathollc selfdecelvlng sentlment, slck of 'convlvlal Ire
land wlth the tradltlonal tear and smlle," of belonglng
to 'a race lntemperate of speech, declamatory, loose,
and bragglng," he wlshed to attack those vulgarltles
and to offer the race hlgher motlves, more adult con
5l1
t~ _ v~ ai_ PPO
sclousness, and an answerable style, beglnnlng wlth
what he called 'the applled arts of llterature". llterature
rlslng out of myth and popular lore and ln close touch
wlth muslc, speech, dance, and palntlng, gradually
movlng a whole culture toward Lnlty of Belng.
Yeats traveled about Ireland foundlng branches of
the Natlonal Llterary Soclety, surprlsed at hls own
readlness ln argument and persuaslve powers. Notable
men came to hls support. O`Leary, Russell, Douglas
Hyde, Standlsh O`Grady. But hls dream had been all
too grand, and lt remalned for a corollary movement,
Hyde`s Gaellc League, to effect real change ln the tex
ture of Irlsh llfe. Indeed, lt was ten years before the
hardenlng of Yeats`s aesthetlc worked any real change
ln hls own style. When Ilsher Lnwln brought out q
` h~ ~ s~ i ~ i ln l892, hls
'fltful Danaan rhymes" stlll brooded rlchly ln falryland
and legendary Ireland, chooslng to 'slng of old Elre
and the anclent ways," to flnd subjects ln fragments of
'Eternal beauty wanderlng on her way." Jhe beauty ls
real, and the volume contalns a halfdozen flrstrate neo
romantlc lyrlcs. 'Jhe Lake Isle of Innlsfree," 'When
You Are Old," 'Jhe Man Who Dreamed of Ialryland,"
'Jhe Jwo Jrees," and 'Who Goes wlth Iergus?"
Yeats`s drenched nostalgla for a llfe that never was gave
the volume lts pltch and tone. 'Jhe Lake Isle of Innls
free" enchanted many people, and crltlcs pralsed lts
mastery of vowel soundsat a tlme when, as Yeats
noted, he hardly knew what a vowel was. He kept hls
own respect for the poem as 'my flrst lyrlc wlth any
thlng ln lts rhythm of my own muslc," and he recog
nlzed the hesltantly transltlonal place of such poems ln
the formlng of hls style. 'I had begun to loosen rhythm
as an escape from rhetorlc, and from that emotlon of
the crowd that rhetorlc brlngs, but I only understood
vaguely and occaslonally that I must for my speclal pur
pose use nothlng but the common syntax."
Ior Yeats the remalnder of the l890s was a perlod
of mlxed purposes, dlvlded energles, though hardwork
lng and productlve. Hls deepest personal tendencles, to
sensuallty and mystlclsm, colored all he dld. 'Sex and
the dead," he wrote much later, were the only flt sub
jects for a serlous mlnd. Yeats was happler, easler, more
personally attractlve wlth women than wlth men, and
by l895 he was on terms of sympathetlc lntlmacy wlth
several actlve, handsome young women. Katharlne
Jynan, the talented daughter of a Wlcklow farmer, had
been hls good comrade ln Ireland for ten years. In l890
he had been flrst enthralled by the mastery of gesture,
the low thrllllng volce, and the 'lncomparable" sense of
rhythm of a beautlful young mlnor actress, Ilorence
Iarr. He made her hls lntlmate frlend and hls model for
the 'ldeal" effects he sought ln stage performances. a
styllzed, poetlcal art, physlcally restralned, almost statlc,
dlrectlng all attentlon to the beauty of language. Ollvla
Shakespear, whose daughter Dorothy marrled Ezra
Pound, was another beautlful and lntelllgent young
woman, caught llke Iarr ln an unsatlsfactory marrlage.
It ls probable that both became Yeats`s lovers, and cer
taln that they remalned hls dear frlends as long as they
llved.
Gonne probably never became hls mlstress, but
she remalned hls enchantress, at once scatterlng and
concentratlng hls energles, movlng hlm constantly to
poetry. In Dublln she refused to be hls 'hostess" as she
refused to be hls wlfe. She sald her 'soclal llfe" was to
be ln Parls, where she frequented a Boulanglst coterle
of polltlcal journallsts and schemed to turn Irench opln
lon agalnst the common enemy, England. She llved and
even traveled ln a menagerle of dogs, monkeys, and
blrds that lncluded a fullgrown Donegal hawk. Yeats
made hlmself her wllllng cavaller ln Ireland, England,
and Irance, seelng her off wlth her cages of blrds and
beasts. Jogether they were a famous and amazlng slght,
both tall, sweeplng ln vestment and gesture, too pre
occupled wlth thelr own lmpassloned chatter to notlce
the sensatlon they caused.
A woman from a calmer world, whom he met ln
l896, offered Yeats the most servlceable frlendshlp of
hls llfe. Isabella Augusta Persse, Lady Gregory, was a
chunky llttle brown woman of fortyflve, wldow of a
dlstlngulshed Brltlsh Iorelgn Servlce offlcer. Attracted
to Yeats, flfteen years her junlor, she offered lndlspens
able motherlng and slsterlng. Her house, Coole Park
near Gort ln the West of Ireland, was an anclent famlly
estate, stuffed wlth the trophles of generatlons of
wealth, travel, and accompllshment, wlth an avenue of
archlng llmes, extenslve woodlands, and a small lake
whose swans Yeats made lllustrlous. Jhe snob ln Yeats,
hls deepseated grand selgneur lnstlncts, rose swlftly to
the appeal of thls paradlgm of arlstocratlc AngloIrlshry.
Lady Gregory saw that he was needy and unwell. She
housed and fed hlm, taklng hlm about the countryslde
to share ln the collectlng of folklore upon whlch both
were already embarked. Lntll hls marrlage ln l9l7
Yeats spent parts of every year at Coole.
Ior hls lmportant atmospherlc acqualntance wlth
the Irench symbollsts and decadents Yeats was
lndebted chlefly to Symons, learned ln thelr language
and lore. In Iebruary l891 Yeats made hls flrst trlp to
Parls, staylng wlth the unregenerate caballst Mathers
and hls wlfe, a slster of Henrl Bergson`s, and seelng as
much as posslble of Gonne. Symons took hlm to call
upon Paul Verlalne, whose Engllsh was sufflclent for
conversatlon; and wlth Gonne he saw a performance of
a famous perlod plece premlerlng that year, the ^ of
|eanMarle Mathlas PhlllpeAuguste, Comte de Vllllers
de lÌsleAdam. Yeats`s Irench was prlmltlve, but
5l5
ai_ PPO t~ _ v~
Gonne`s was good enough to carry hlm through the
play, whlch Yeats at once lnstalled among hls 'sacred
books" as a gulde to what |oseph Hone calls 'a dra
matlc art where symbol replaces character, events are
allegorles and words keep more than half thelr secrets
to themselves."
At London`s Avenue Jheatre ln March l891
occurred the flrst performance of a Yeats play, q i~
e~ aI a harmless blt of falry fluff, whlch was
brought on as a curtalnralser to Shaw`s new comedy
^ ~ j~K Yeats`s plece went well enough to sur
vlve Shaw`s long run, and ln the flrst weeks he haunted
the theater, watchlng the worklngs onstage narrowly. In
^ (l9ll) George Moore preserved Yeats`s restless
lowerlng flgure ln long cloak, sombrero, and flowlng tle,
all black.
Belng pennlless, fond of hls uncle and hls second
slghted servant Mary Battle, and anxlous to add to hls
stock of folktales, Yeats pald a vlslt to George Pollexfen
ln the summer that was stretched to half a year. He and
hls uncle made many experlments wlth maglc and sym
bollsm and emerged wlth lntenslfled convlctlons. Yeats
'knew" hlmself 'face to face wlth the Anlma Mundl
descrlbed by Platonlc phllosophers." Jwo years earller
he had defended hls occult studles agalnst O`Leary`s
mlsglvlngs. 'Jhe mystlcal llfe ls the centre of all that I
do and all that I thlnk and all that I wrlte. . . . I have
always consldered myself a volce of . . . a greater renals
sancethe revolt of the soul agalnst the lntellectnow
beglnnlng ln the world." He summed up the facts of hls
case and thelr psychology ln hls autoblography. 'I had
not taken up these subjects wlllfully, nor through love
of strangeness, nor love of excltement, nor because I
found myself ln some experlmental clrcle, but because
unaccountable thlngs had happened even ln my chlld
hood, and because of an ungovernable cravlng. When
supernatural events begln, a man flrst doubts hls own
testlmony, but when they repeat themselves agaln and
agaln, he doubts all human testlmony."
Yeats was thlrty when he flrst took up quarters
of hls own, rooms ln the Jemple connected by that
passageway to rooms of Symons`s that were hls real
avenue lnto the Contlnental llterature of the l890s.
Symons helped hlm to read Vllllers and Verlalne and
Stphane Mallarm, and they affected the tone and
rhythm of both hls verse and hls prose, though the
great lnfluence on hls prose was stlll Walter Pater, to
whom he had been led by |ohnson. Soon, Yeats moved
to two rooms ln Woburn Bulldlngs ln Bloomsbury;
eventually, he occupled most of the house, and lt
became hls London place for many years.
Ilsher Lnwln brought out m (l895), lncludlng
Yeats`s two plays and the lyrlcs that stlll pleased hlm
from hls flrst two volumes. Jhe book was a success and
was reprlnted fourteen tlmes down to l929, brlnglng
Yeats a steady small annual royalty. Over the years he
constantly revlsed these poems, some to the polnt of
transformatlon, but he never abjured them. 'Early
Yeats" was the best poetry ln Engllsh ln lateVlctorlan
tlmes; but they were bad tlmes. Early ln l896 the perl
odlcal p~I wlth Yeats`s frlends Symons and Aubrey
Beardsley as edltor and art edltor, plcked up the fallen
banners of the v _ and contlnued the war of the
decadents upon the moral and aesthetlc stufflness of
entrenched Vlctorlanlsm. Yeats`s prose and verse
appeared often ln the p~K
In the summer of l896 Yeats took Symons on a
vlslt to Ireland. Jhelr party was soon jolned by
Symons`s rlbald frlend Moore and Moore`s cranky,
Godhaunted frlend Edward Martyn. Jhey traveled the
West Country and the Aran Islands, and at Coole Park
near Gort they met Martyn`s nelghbor Lady Gregory.
Lnknowlngly, Yeats had collected the dlrectorate of hls
comlng theater movement, lacklng only lts resldent
genlus, |ohn Mllllngton Synge. He dlscovered the play
wrlght a few months later under the eaves of hls hotel
ln Parls, where Yeats had gone to consult wlth Mathers
and Gonne about deslgnlng a rltual for an Order of
Celtlc Mysterles that he hoped to found. He dreamed
of settlng up the sanctum of the order ln an enchanted
spot, an abandoned castle that fllled a llttle lsland ln
Lough Key. Ior ten years, he wrote ln 'Hodos Chame
llontos" (book 3 of q q sI l922), hls
'most lmpassloned thought" was of the phllosophy of
hls Order. He foresaw that 'lnvlslble gates would open"
as they had done for Blake, Emanuel Swedenborg, and
|akob Bhme; then, he thought, he must turn 'dlfflcult,
obscure."
Hampered by penury, exhaustlon, and trouble
wlth hls eyes, Yeats worked ln London and, lnvlted by
Lady Gregory, at Coole on the Marmorean tales of q
p o (l897) and the p o e~~~ that
were added to the text of q ` q ln l902.
Worklng 'wlth laborlous care and studled moderatlon
of style," he was avoldlng the bourgeols and almlng at
hlgh and low, at an 'arlstocratlc" llterature wlth lts feet
ln folklore. 'Jhe noble and the beggarman" would
hold hands ln hls art for the rest of hls llfe, as they dld
ln hls plan for an Irlsh theater as an lnstrument of
natlonal culture.
Hls lndlspensable supporter, early and late, was
Lady Gregory. She collected money and patrons to
launch the Irlsh Llterary Jheatre, the germ of the
Abbey, ln the autumn of l898 wlth Yeats, Moore, and
Martyn as dlrectors. Jhe flrst blll was to be composed
of q ` `~ and Martyn`s strong reallst play
q e~ cK Durlng early stages of rehearsal and
promotlon affalrs were hectlc, wlth the offlclous Moore
5l6
t~ _ v~ ai_ PPO
clashlng wlth the doctrlnalre Yeats. Jhe two snlped at
each other, wlttlly and extravagantly, for the rest of
thelr llves. Yeats`s play, ln whlch hls herolne sells her
soul to 'demons" to preserve the peasants from starva
tlon, opened on 8 May l899 and ran lnto trouble wlth
the church on grounds of rumored heresy. Jhe perfor
mances went forward, but wlth such tumultuousness as
to provlde the unlverslty student |ames |oyce wlth an
Irlshsymptomatlc eplsode for Z Iortroit of tlc Zrtist os o
Jouvg Mov (l9l6).
Yeats closed out the nlneteenth century wlth the
most Vlctorlan and PreRaphaellte of hls collectlons,
Tlc !ivd Zmovg tlc Iccds (l899). Jhese poems have a
cameo effect. small, shapely, styllzedbeautlfully
formed and spoken but soft, unreal, mannerlstlc. Yeats
seemed to be demonstratlng how easlly and expertly he
could wrlte 'early Yeats." Jhe poems fall lnto sultes of
related attltudes, the tltles of whlch read llke captlons
for serlal lllustratlons, as lf one were turnlng the pages
of an old parlor emblem book. But there ls nothlng
absurd or cheap about these rlch conventlons. Jhe best
poems are two ln whlch Yeats moved through and past
the conventlon lnto the stereotyplng of full myth. 'Jhe
Cap and Bells" ls a plece of pure PreRaphaellte medl
evallsm, controlled by prlmary colors and sharp out
llnes and acldlfled by wlt. the lady flnally succumbs to
the emblems of the jester`s rldlculousness, hls cap and
bells. 'Jhe Song of Wanderlng Aengus" ls an unforget
table brlef vlslonary poem that conveys a llfetlme of
obsessed enchantment by a maglcal telescoplng of tlme
and a surreallstlc llnklng of lmages.
In the flrst years of the new century Yeats was
constantly and somewhat erratlcally busy. He shlfted
publlshers restlessly before settllng on A. H. Bullen, a
scholarly and blbulous frlend of hls famlly`s. He moved
back and forth between London and Dublln and spent
most of hls summers at Coole. Gonne`s Irench machl
natlons had collapsed ln spectacular clrcumstances, and
she had settled back lnto Dublln and the new Slnn Iln
movement. When Yeats spoke of marrlage, she dlscour
aged hlm. both of them had better thlngs to do, she
argued. It was 'a mlserable love affalr," he wrote ln Dro-
motis Icrsov (l935), and he mlght as well have been
offerlng hls heart 'to an lmage ln a mllllner`s wlndow,
or to a statue ln a museum."
Hls other major preoccupatlon was wlth the new
theater and the serles of poetlcomythlcal short plays he
was trylng to wrlte for lt. Tlc Slodowy !otcrs (l900) was
followed ln l90l by Diormuid ovd Crovio, frult of a quar
relsome collaboratlon wlth Moore, produced ln Octo
ber but never publlshed by elther author. Cotllccv vi
Houlilov, ln whlch Lady Gregory had helped wlth dla
logue and style, was performed ln Aprll l902 wlth
Gonne a great success ln the tltle part, an old woman
who embodles 'Ireland herself." Yeats thought she
'made Cathleen seem llke a dlvlne belng fallen lnto our
mortal lnflrmlty." Tlc Iot of rotl and Tlc Hour-Closs
were produced ln l902 and l903, respectlvely.
By thls tlme Yeats`s group had jolned hands wlth
two young Dublln worklngmen, the brothers Irank and
Wlllle Iay, brllllant amateur actorproducers, and the
company had metamorphosed lnto the Irlsh Natlonal
Jheatre. By now Synge too was on the scene, havlng at
last obeyed Yeats`s lnstructlon to get out of Parls and
dlg down to hls own Irlsh roots. Jhe Natlonal Jhe
atre`s early pollty was clumslly 'democratlc," wlth all
members of the company dlscusslng and votlng on all
questlons of castlng and productlon. After months of
squabbllng, Yeats, Synge, and Lady Gregory took con
trol as a governlng trolka.
Wlth hls wlfe now dead and hls sons leadlng
lndependent llves, |. B. Yeats declded to return to Dub
lln, and he and hls daughters took a house ln Dundrum
on the south slde of the clty. Yeats`s slsters, Llly and
Lollle, had tralned ln flne textlles and prlntlng ln Mor
rls`s Kelmscott workshops, and ln Dundrum they set
tled lnto Dun Emer Industrles. Jhe famlly had been
stlll ln London, however, when |ohn _ulnn, a rlslng
young New York corporatlon lawyer, came abroad for
hls flrst whlrlwlnd vlslt ln the late summer of l902.
_ulnn was IrlshAmerlcan, prosperous, and acqulsltlve.
|. B. and |ack Yeats showed hlm about London and
showed examples of thelr own work. _ulnn bought a
dozen palntlngs and commlssloned others. In Dublln,
_ulnn met Yeats and most of hls frlends, bought palnt
lngs, books, and manuscrlpts, and crossed to the West,
where he met the MooreMartynGregory enclave. He
proposed to Yeats an Amerlcan lecture tour and offered
also to secure Amerlcan copyrlghts by gettlng out small
prlvate edltlons of new works by the Irlsh wrlters. He
even effected a temporary reconclllatlon between Yeats
and Moore, who had been lnvolved ln another wran
gllng 'collaboratlon." But Yeats tlred of the struggle and
dlctated a flveact 'tragedy" on thelr common theme to
Lady Gregory, called !lcrc Tlcrc Is òtlivg (produced
ln London ln l901 and later rewrltten and retltled Tlc
Uvicorv from tlc Stors, l907).
A better play, hls strongest to date, the llttle
Cuchulaln play Uv oilc`s Strovd (produced ln Dublln ln
l901), was comblned wlth a dozen recent lyrlcs ln the
summer of l903 to form Iv tlc Scvcv !oods. It was the
flrst volume ln the eventually long and dlstlngulshed llst
of handprlnted books to come from Lollle Yeats`s Dun
Emer Press (later Cuala Press). Jhe llttle book seemed
a poor show for four years` work, but conslderlng the
manlfold forms of Yeats`s busyness one wonders, as he
often wondered, how he found any tlme for mere verse.
Nor dld metrlcal composltlon come easy. A lyrlc com
5l7
ai_ PPO t~ _ v~
monly began wlth a few words or phrases or a couple
of sentences of the flattest klnd of prose; and the shap
lng of that germ lnto a halfdozen halfperfected llnes
needed a hard day of work. Jhe real valldatlon of the
volume lay ln the quallty of the poems. Jhe old soft
ness llngered, but here Yeats took the flrst steps toward
the lmposlng and exhllaratlng poetry of hls maturlty,
audlble ln a new hardness and economy and the sound
of an ldentlflable dally world.
No doubt Yeats`s world had changed, as well as
hls sense of lt. Beardsley, Dowson, |ohnson, and Wllde
were all dead, and the l890s had passed ln fact and ln
splrlt; _ueen Vlctorla was gone at last; the Boer War
had shaken a great many complacencles. Jhe general
alr was tenser, dryer, troubled, more soberly emplrlcal,
at once less confldent and more soberly resolute. _ulnn
had lntroduced Yeats to 'that strong enchanter"
Irledrlch Nletzsche, and he had been readlng hlm wlth
fasclnatlon, flndlng ln Nletzsche`s terms Dlonyslac and
Apollonlan names for hls own sense of the soul`s two
prlmary 'movements". to transcend form, to create
form. 'Apollonlan" would be one way to descrlbe the
new economlcal shapellness ln Yeats`s poems.
Yeats`s new manner was clearest ln three poems ln
whlch Gonne ls at last addressed as a real presence, stlll
a goddess but more than a dream. If one`s beloved ls an
lncarnated Dlana, one can expect real shafts ln one`s
heart, as ln the tlny poem 'Jhe Arrow." 'Jhe Iolly of
Belng Comforted" employs the dlalogue structure that
became a favorlte form. In answer to a klnd frlend who
'comforts" wlth advlce of 'patlence," notlng that hls
love ls loslng her flrst beauty, 'Heart crles, 'No, / I have
not a crumb of comfort, not a graln. / Jlme can but
make her beauty over agaln.`" 'Adam`s Curse" reln
vokes an evenlng ln London when Yeats, Gonne, and
her almost equally beautlful slster had talked of poetry
and the beauty of women and the general curse of
belng human, caught ln labor, tlme, mutablllty. Jhe
tone and much of the language are famlllar from early
Yeats, but thls poetry ls tlghter; the luxurlousness ls
gone. Jhe scene feels actual, the rhythm ls that of a
mlnd movlng, and the language sounds llke real talk.
Perhaps hls work ln the theater was maklng a dlffer
ence.
_ulnn had organlzed hls promlsed Amerlcan lec
ture tour, and Yeats gave four months to the enterprlse
ln the fall and wlnter of l903-l901. He appeared at
most of the major Amerlcan colleges and unlversltles
and at many clubs and socletles, especlally those of a
'Hlbernlan" cast. _ulnn judged he had been the most
lmpresslve Irlshman to conduct a 'mlsslon" to Amerlca
slnce Parnell. Exhausted but also exhllarated, he
returned wlth a good deal of money ln hls purse, badly
needed. Lntll he was flfty Yeats regularly earned less
than 200 ln a year.
In the precedlng wlnter Yeats had been stunned
by the news of Gonne`s marrlage ln Parls to |ohn
MacBrlde, an event that he later preserved ln 'Recon
clllatlon" as 'the day / When, the ears belng deafened,
the slght of the eyes bllnd / Wlth llghtnlng, you went
from me." He had easlly forglven her when she pro
duced a beautlful lllegltlmate daughter, Iseult (who usu
ally passed as her nlece), credlted by many to hlm but
actually fathered by her Irench coconsplrator Luclen
Mlllevoye; but thls marrlage was somethlng else. Yeats
was not only staggered by lt as a fatally separatlng fact,
but lnsulted, angered, and frlghtened that the woman
who had repeatedly refused hlm should glve herself to a
brute. MacBrlde was an Irlshman of courage who had
led an Irlsh brlgade agalnst the Brltlsh ln the Boer War,
but as a clvlllan he was a man of no standlng or
achlevement and of crude, even depraved behavlor, 'a
drunken valnglorlous lout," as Yeats stlll called hlm ln
'Easter l9l6" ln the act of forglvlng hlm as a hero who
had helped create the 'terrlble beauty" of the Easter
Rlslng. Yeats saw the marrlage as a dlsaster not only to
hlmself but to Gonne. In that he was rlght; the unlon
was soon dlssolved by legal separatlonon grounds
consldered unspeakableafter produclng a son, Sean
MacBrlde, who became a statesman of lnternatlonal
emlnence.
In the Irlsh Natlonal Jheatre thlngs were golng
better. An Engllsh admlrer and fellow caballst, A. E. I.
Hornlman, a woman of moderate wealth, had offered
to 'glve" Yeats a theater. to provlde a bulldlng and an
annual subsldy of 800 for what became the famous
Abbey Jheatre. l _~ p~ went lnto rehearsal,
and Yeats was also preparlng two other plays, q h
q and aK He dld not want hls Jheatre of
Beauty to lack matter. Yeats was absorblng the lesson,
lmportant to hls lyrlcs as well as to hls plays, that for
convlctlon poetlc speech needed to be slmpllfled and
braced by common ldlom.
Synge`s rough, lovlng, satlrlcal Irlsh vlslons had
caused trouble ln the theater from the beglnnlng, and
Yeats had defended hlm stoutly when f p~
d (l903) and q t p~ (l905) were
attacked. Yeats was lecturlng ln Scotland late ln |anuary
l907 when the premlere of Synge`s comlc masterplece
q m~ t t brought on a week of
'rlots" ln the Abbey, wlth offended and defenslve Irlsh
men drownlng out the llnes wlth hlsses, boos, and
stamplng, and the players eventually turnlng upon
them to joln the general slanglng match. Called home
by a telegram from Lady Gregory, Yeats threw open the
theater to debate the lssues of the play and the questlon
of whether the theater was to be sllenced by a vulgar
5l8
t~ _ v~ ai_ PPO
censorshlp. Jaklng the stage ln full evenlng dress, he
harangued the generally hostlle crowd. Jhe play, he
sald, was not a travesty upon Irlsh morallty but a cele
bratlon of Irlsh vltallty and lmaglnatlveness. Inter
rupted often by shouted questlons and objectlons, he
explalned hls asplratlon for the theater as an lnstrument
to artlculate and enrlch the natlonal llfe.
In the sprlng of l907 Yeats jolned Lady Gregory
and her son, Robert, for hls most elegant hollday to
date, a tour of several weeks among the cltles of north
ern Italy. Venlce, Ilorence, Mllan, Lrblno, Ierrara, and
Ravenna. He returned wlth hls head full of new and
permanent lmages of beauty and vltallty accompllshed
by a unlon of arlstocracy and genlus that made lt all the
harder to tolerate the crassness and petty passlons of
Dublln. But the race was hls own, and he dld not mean
to repudlate lt. He wrote to Hornlman. 'I understand
my own race and ln all my work . . . I have thought of
lt. . . . I shall wrlte for my own peoplewhether ln love
or hate of them matters llttleprobably I shall not know
whlch lt ls."
Jheater buslness fllled hls days; he was wrltlng
llttle poetry. In the fall of l907 he was systematlcally
revlslng hls publlshed prose and verse for q `
t s ~ m to be publlshed by A. H. Bullen,
supported by a subsldy of l500 from Hornlman. Ior
hls elegant edltlon Bullen ordered portralts of the poet
by hls father and by |ohn Slnger Sargent, Antonlo Man
clnl, Augustus |ohn, and Yeats`s old frlend Charles
Shannon. Yeats enjoyed the company of these men of
the world, partlcularly that of the madcap |ohn, and he
was fasclnated to see thelr dlfferent lmages of hlm. At
fortytwo he was young for a collected edltlon and
looked a good deal younger. Enemles and envlous
rlvals wondered lf he lntended to lay down hls pen.
Bullen`s elght handsome volumes came out ln l908
under the Shakespeare Head lmprlnt.
Another preoccupatlon and a constant grlef was
the lllness of Synge, a vlctlm of the thenlncurable
Hodgkln`s dlsease, as yet undlagnosed. Yeats vlslted
hlm often, partlcularly to dlscuss the text of Synge`s
masterly play a pI not qulte flnlshed
when he dled at thlrtyseven ln March l909. He had
made Yeats hls llterary executor and begged hlm to pol
lsh the play for productlon, and Yeats humbly dld so.
Gonne had moved back to Irance and was llvlng
nonpolltlcally ln a house on a bluff above the sea at
Colvllle ln Normandy wlth her llttle son; young Iseult,
already heartbreaklngly lovely, was belng educated ln a
convent. Yeats crossed to see them whenever he was
free. Jo that old passlon grown rumlnant, forglvlng,
and a blt autumnal are owed the best poems ln q
d e ~ l m (l9l0) from Lollle Yeats`s
newly named Cuala Press. Ior the flrst tlme falryland ls
mlsslng, and the slmpllfylng and emplrlclzlng tenden
cles ln Yeats`s style contlnue and lntenslfy. Several of
the Gonne poems express a reflectlon ln Yeats`s journal.
that she had never really understood what he was try
lng to do and say ln Ireland, but her very lncomprehen
slon had stlrred hlm productlvely ln art and llfe, to
prove and explaln hlmself. 'Words" reasons that way
but turns the lrony bltter at the end. had she ever met
hls mlnd, he 'mlght have thrown poor words away /
And been content to llve." In 'A Woman Homer Sung"
the note of mlddle age, of loss and forglveness, ls
sounded frankly, then glves way to ecstatlc recollectlon
of the old enchantment.
In Yeats`s frlendshlps, thls perlod was one of
losses and new acqulsltlons. Late ln l907 hls father at
slxtyseven crossed to New York on the strength of a
purse made up by frlends ln Ireland. Jhereafter he
could never qulte brlng hlmself to return, and he stayed
untll hls death ln l922, survlvlng on the generoslty of
_ulnn and on occaslonal small fees for plctures, artl
cles, or lectures. He sent back to hls son a stream of let
ters, sometlmes several ln a day, full of news, ldeas,
argument. George Pollexfen dled ln Sllgo ln the autumn
of l9l0. Synge was a dreadful loss to the Abbey, as was
Hornlman, who angrlly wlthdrew her support
(amountlng ln all to l0,000) when the theater, under
Lennox Roblnson, alone among theaters ln the Lnlted
Klngdom, falled to close on the day of the death of
Edward VII. In England, Yeats`s acqualntance ln soclal,
artlstlc, and polltlcal clrcles was wlde and lnfluentlal,
lncludlng Prlme Mlnlster H. H. Asqulth, Mrs. Patrlck
Campbell, Shaw, Robert Brldges, Wyndham Lewls,
and Pound.
Jhe YeatsPound coalltlon seemed odd, but lt was
lmportant to both men. Yeats descrlbed Pound as 'a
headlong rugged nature," and he was charmed,
amused, and lnstructed by the energetlc, untldy, and
lrreverent young Amerlcan. He also respected Pound`s
mlnd, seethlng wlth wlde halflearnlngclasslcal, orlen
tal, medleval, Contlnental, 'modern." Pound was the
most generously helpful man of hls tlme to other artlsts;
to Yeats he was an unllkely but necessary angel, an
astrlngent lnfluence, pulllng hlm down to earth, urglng
clarlty and dlrectness ln lmagery and language, openlng
doors to broader, stranger cultures but wlshlng them
controlled wlthln a frame of hlstory and common sense.
Late ln l9l0 Yeats`s flnanclal problems were
eased somewhat by a crown penslon of l50 a year,
awarded after representatlons by Lady Gregory,
Edmund Gosse, and Augustlne Blrrell. Once he had
satlsfled hlmself that the grant lmplled no promlse of
polltlcal loyalty, Yeats accepted lt gratefully.
Yeats was lecturlng often ln England and Ireland,
ralslng funds to replace Hornlman`s former capltal. He
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formed a close frlendshlp wlth the brllllant young stage
deslgner Gordon Cralg and brought hls work lnto
Abbey productlons. Audlences ln Dublln were shrlnk
lng, owlng ln part to Yeats`s stubborn loyalty to the
works of Synge and to the manner of hls Jheatre of
Beauty; but the company was a success ln England, and
they were lnvlted to make thelr flrst Amerlcan tour ln
the fall and wlnter of l9ll-l9l2. Yeats went wlth the
players but qulckly returned, to be replaced, as
arranged, by Lady Gregory, and she bore the brunt of
rlotous receptlons from Amerlcan Irlshmen ln New
York, Boston, and Phlladelphla who recreated the Dub
lln m~ t t dlsorders of l907.
Back home, Yeats was worklng at a new play, q
m~ n (performed ln l9l9), rewrltlng q `
`~ once more as a klnd of styllzed masque, and
dolng a 'translatlon" of l o wlth a better Greek
scholar at hls elbow, trylng to turn the |ebb verslon lnto
good stage talk. In London he befrlended the Bengall
poet Rablndranath Jagore, helped hlm wlth transla
tlons lnto Engllsh, and wrote an lntroductlon to hls
d~~ (l9l2). He was stlll close to Shakespear, and ln
Devon she lntroduced hlm to Georglana HydeLees,
who became Mrs. 'George" Yeats ln l9l7.
Wlth Roblnson ln charge of the Abbey and mov
lng lt gradually toward a more popular reallstlc and
contemporary taste, Yeats was freer to thlnk and wrlte
than he had been for a dozen years. Jhe thlrtyone
poems of hls l9l1 collectlon, oI show the
gusto wlth whlch he had been uslng hls tlme after a
long fallow perlod. He summed up hls own sense of the
matter qulte slmply ln a letter to hls father ln August
l9l3. 'I thought your letter about 'portralture` belng
'paln` most beautlful and profound. . . . Of recent years
lnstead of 'vlslon,` meanlng by vlslon the lntense reallza
tlon of a state of ecstatlc emotlon symbollzed ln a defl
nlte lmaglned reglon, I have trled for more self
portralture. I have trled to make my work convlnclng
wlth a speech so natural and dramatlc that the hearer
would feel the presence of a man thlnklng and feellng."
Many of the poems of thls volume show the con
centratlon wlth whlch Yeats was mlnlng hls dally
thought and feellng. Several poems treat one of hls llfe
long person, the Iool. outcasts, roadwanderlng flg
uresfllthy, passlonate, old or deformed, crackpated
but ln touch wlth wlld wlsdom. 'Jhe Jhree Hermlts,"
for example, ls a balladllke blt of tlghtmetered anar
chy, bltter and funny. Jwo of the old men talk sense,
but the poem centers upon the thlrd, whose only speech
ls song, apocalyptlc rhapsody. 'Whlle he`d rummaged
rags and halr, / Caught and cracked hls flea, the thlrd, /
Glddy wlth hls hundredth year, / Sang unnotlced llke a
blrd." 'Jhe Wltch" and 'Jhe Peacock" are a palr of
exploslve llttle poems set back to back ln a dlmeter ana
pestlc rhythm; bare, eplgrammatlc, polsed ln easy ten
slon, they are fundamental mlddle Yeats.
Whenever he was wrltlng poetry wlth concentra
tlon, Yeats notlced, sooner or later lt turned lnto love
poetry. 'Jo a Chlld Danclng ln the Wlnd" and 'Jwo
Years Later" are addressed to Iseult Gonne; then a sulte
of flve turn helplessly to Gonne, rumlnatlng the old
obsesslon wlth a passlon that ls more complex than
ever. 'Iallen Majesty" ls a brlef eleglac recollectlon of
Gonne`s early beauty and lts effect on men. 'a thlng . . .
that seemed a burnlng cloud." 'Irlends" ls wrltten to
pralse Gonne, Shakespear, and Lady Gregory, 'three
women that have wrought / What joy was ln my days."
Developlng a slngle deathwlshlng metaphor, 'Jhat the
Nlght Come" makes peace wlth the sorest fact of the
relatlonshlp wlth Gonne. that she had preferred a vlo
lent polltlcal llfe to hls love. 'She llved ln storm and
strlfe, / Her soul had such deslre / Ior what proud death
may brlng / Jhat lt could not endure / Jhe common
good of llfe."
Near the end of o stands a palr of
enlgmatlcal poems on whlch Yeats`s note ls llttle help.
'Jhe Dolls," sardonlcally humorous, may be among
other thlngs a parody upon the Vlrgln Blrth. 'Jhe
Magl" Yeats explalns only as a vlslon he saw ln an
actual blue sky. Jhe vlslon ls hauntlngly lntense and
clear vlsually and cast ln a slngle drlvlng sentence. Jhe
poem shows what Yeats`s mature passlon could do wlth
PreRaphaellte materlal. One of the most splendldly
slmple and expllclt of Yeats`s great short poems, 'A
Coat," tells the whole story of the career of hls style and
tells how he lntends to work forward from hls flftleth
year. Jhe poet compares hls early style to 'a coat / Cov
ered wlth embrolderles / Out of old mythologles," but
others have lmltated hlm and worn the coat 'ln the
world`s eyes / As though they`d wrought lt." Jhus, the
poet concludes, 'let them take lt, / Ior there`s more
enterprlse / In walklng naked."
In the wlnter of l9l2-l9l3, when Yeats was lll
and out of sorts ln London, the athletlc Pound taught
hlm to fence. In the followlng autumn the two settled
lnto Stone Cottage at Coleman`s Hatch ln rural Sussex
and worked together on |apanese Noh materlals ln the
notebooks of the scholar Ernest Ienollosa, whose
wldow had made Pound her husband`s llterary execu
tor. Yeats worked also at hls verse and on lectures for
another Amerlcan tour, forthcomlng ln the new year
wlth a guarantee of 500. Jhe tour was a success, and
lt also put an end to the estrangement wlth _ulnn that
had embarrassed thelr many mutual frlends (ln l909
the two had quarreled bltterly, apparently over a mls
tress of _ulnn`s). Yeats found hls old father healthy and
happy but ln debt. He pald off the debts and at _ulnn`s
suggestlon worked out an arrangement for _ulnn to
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t~ _ v~ ai_ PPO
buy Yeats`s manuscrlpts as avallable and remlt the sums
to |. B. Yeats for hls use.
As he had been dolng all hls llfe, Yeats looked
toward a system that would form for 'a churchless mys
tlc" a satlsfylng rellglon, a composlte myth of personal
lty and hlstory, a dlagram of the soul`s movement ln
tlme and the symbols of the motlves that lmpelled lt. In
the Lnlted States and Canada, as ln London, he
attended the sances of any promlslng splrltuallst
medlum. In sprlng l9l1 he traveled wlth Gonne and
Everard Ielldlng of the Psychlcal Research Soclety to
Mlrabeau, near Poltlers, to lnvestlgate reports of a
'bleedlng" oleograph of the Sacred Heart. Results were
lnconcluslve, but the process was fasclnatlng and to
Yeats deadly serlous.
Wlth Maud and Iseult Gonne nurslng the
wounded ln Irench hospltals, Yeats spent the flrst
autumn of World War I ln Coole, flnlshlng o
` ~ vI whlch he brought to Dublln to read
to Llly Yeats. At Coole and ln London he worked at the
flrst of hls 'Plays for Dancers," ^ e~ t (per
formed ln l9l6), lnsplred by Pound`s exposltlon of the
Noh. Jhe form, Greek|apanese, drew Yeats powerfully
for lts unlon of the arcane and arlstocratlc and the prlm
ltlve and fabulous. Belng terse, symbollc, and plctorlal,
lt was a flnal astrlngency of hls ldeal of 'poetlc" theater.
Wlth settlngs and transltlons evoked by the foldlng and
unfoldlng of a cloth and the beatlng of a drum, such
plays hardly requlred scenery or even a theater; they
could be played ln a drawlng room or a barn. In fact,
the play was trled out ln Lady Maud Cunard`s drawlng
room.
Cunard lobbled for a knlghthood for Yeats, whlch
he refused; he was grateful but unable to reconclle the
lmage wlth hls llfelong deflnltlon of hlmself as an Irlsh
patrlot. He wrote to Llly Yeats. 'I do not wlsh anyone
to say of me 'only for a rlbbon he left us.`" At about the
same tlme he jolned ln Pound`s successful plea for a
crown grant of l00 to |ames |oyce, harrled and hard
up ln Zurlch.
Jhe Easter Rlslng ln Dublln ln Aprll l9l6 took
nearly everyone by surprlse. Yeats ln England com
plalned that he had not been consulted. He had known
several of the rebel leaders personally. Padralc Pearse,
Jhomas MacDonagh, |oseph Plunkett, |ames B. Con
nolly, and Constance GoreBooth, now the Countess
Marklewlcz. Jhe rlslng, lts qulck and bloody suppres
slon by Engllsh troops, and especlally then the agonlz
lng serlal executlons of the leaders, stlrred Irlshmen to
the heart. Wlth hls accumulated dlsllluslonment, Yeats
had been halfconsclously cuttlng hls tles to Ireland;
now hls old affectlon welled up agaln ln a flood, stlrred
by an enterprlse that he saw as brave and mad. Jwo
weeks after Easter he wrote Lady Gregory of 'the
herolc, traglc lunacy of Slnn Iln." He qulckly com
posed the memorlal that became one of hls bestknown
poems after 'Jhe Lake Isle of Innlsfree," the lncanta
tory 'Easter l9l6," wlth lts famous refraln, 'A terrlble
beauty ls born."
When he read the poem to Gonne ln Normandy,
she thought lt too esoterlc, not nearly hard enough ln
the revolutlonary way. |ohn MacBrlde had been one of
the slxteen men executed after the rlslng, and her new
legal freedom encouraged Yeats to propose marrlage
once more; but she was feellng a strong call back to
Irlsh polltlcs, and she would not llsten to hlm. Yeats
returned to London and completed a llttle book of
phllosophlcal speculatlons, m ^~ p~ i~
(l9l8), and another 'Play for Dancers," q a~
_ (performed ln l93l). Jhen, ln the summer of
l9l7, he went back to Normandy, and thls tlme he pro
posed not to Gonne but to her daughter, Iseult, one
thlrd hls age; she refused. Yeats got passports for the
famlly and saw them back to London, but there Gonne
was forbldden to go to Ireland under provlslons of the
Defense of the Realm Act.
Yeats was clearly determlned to marry before lt
was too late, and he now thought agaln of HydeLees,
merely half hls age. She accepted hls proposal, and they
were marrled ln slmple style ln London ln October
l9l7 wlth Pound as best man. Other frlends vlewed the
general hustle wlth some amusement, Charles Shan
non, for example, remarklng. 'lt all seems very sudden
and suggests that she ls furnlture for the Castle." Jhe
Castle, renamed Jhoor Ballylee by Yeats and soon to
become a central emblem ln hls poetry, was an old
stone structure ln Norman style on the bank of a stream
near Gort, a square plle of four blg superlmposed
rooms connected by a wlndlng stone stalrway, wlth one
cottage attached and another rulnous one ln an orchard
beyond a road that crossed the brldge at the base of the
towerall formerly part of Lady Gregory`s demesne.
Yeats had coveted lt for a long tlme, and he had been
able to buy lt from a publlc board a few months earller
for 35. 'George," as Yeats lmmedlately renamed hls
wlfe, was humorous, hlghsplrlted, both lntelllgent and
levelheaded, and moreover already conslderably
learned ln hls own maglcal systems.
Soon after hls marrlage, lndeed durlng the honey
moon, Yeats`s mystlcal thought recelved a sudden
strange lntenslflcatlon. After trylng and succeedlng at
automatlc wrltlng, hls young wlfe suddenly began
speaklng ln tonguesbegan to babble at great length, ln
a state that seemed half sleep, half trance, of arcane mat
ters ln a volce not her own. Jhese 'teachers" or 'com
munlcators" seemed to be speaklng dlrectly to the
hoarded content of Yeats`s mlnd, trylng to clarlfy lt (ln
perverse moods to confuse lt), to supply lt wlth order
52l
ai_ PPO t~ _ v~
and symbols. When the flabbergasted poet offered to
spend the rest of hls llfe ln organlzlng the early scrlpt,
the 'unknown wrlter" responded. 'No, we have come
to glve you metaphors for poetry."
'Ego Domlnus Juus" forms one of these 'system
atlc" grand tropes or master metaphors. It ls a poem of
the klnd that Yeats sald he had composed ln part lllus
tratlvely, as 'texts for exposltlon." It ls true that he dld
lntend to go on and treat the ldeas dlscurslvely ln prose;
but the poems are also tropalc preclpltates of ldeas held
long ln solutlon. 'Ego Domlnus Juus," for example, ls
a dldactlcdramatlc formulatlon of the prlnclples of
Mask and Dalmon that had moved ln Yeats`s mlnd for
twentyflve years; and the dlalogue structure lncarnates
the oldest and deepest of hls convlctlons, that of the
blfurcatlon of personallty and of lts llfe ln tlme.
One of the most compact deflnltlons of the Mask,
or antlself, runs as follows. 'Natlons, races, and lndl
vldual men are unlfled by an lmage, or bundle of
related lmages, symbollcal or evocatlve of the state of
mlnd, whlch ls of all states of mlnd not lmposslble, the
most dlfflcult to that man, race, or natlon; because only
the greatest obstacle that can be contemplated wlthout
despalr rouses the wlll to full lntenslty." Jhe Dalmon ls
a sort of benlgn but exactlng hoverlng genlus, 'personl
fylng splrlts . . . Gates and Gatekeepers," whose func
tlon ls to force people to confront the antlnomy, to
'brlng our souls to crlsls, to Mask and Image. . . . Jhey
have but the one purpose, to brlng thelr chosen man to
the greatest obstacle he may confront wlthout despalr."
He put the matter tersely ln Z !isiov: 'All the galns of
man come from confllct wlth the opposlte of hls true
belng." It ls thls prlnclple of Mask or confllctlng Image
summoned by Dalmon that underlles Yeats`s statement
ln Icr Zmico Silcvtio Iuvoc: 'We make out of the quarrel
wlth others, rhetorlc, but of the quarrel wlth ourselves,
poetry." Jhe statement contlnues. 'Lnllke the rhetorl
clans, who get a confldent volce from rememberlng the
crowd they have won or may wln, we slng amld our
uncertalnty; and, smltten even ln the presence of the
most hlgh beauty by the knowledge of our solltude, our
rhythm shudders." Jhe true poet, that ls, wlll be one
who has 'begun to llve" because he has 'concelved llfe
as tragedy," who ls 'no longer decelved, whose passlon
ls reallty."
A halfdozen of these speculatlve 'systematlc"
poems, at once 'texts for exposltlon" and dlgests of
long thlnklng, are grouped at the end of Yeats`s l9l9
edltlon of Tlc !ild Swovs ot Coolc. Jhey vary ln form
and mood, but all are marked by profound thought, a
relnedln excltement of feellng, a sometlmes welrd luml
nousness ln lmagery, and a general sophlstlcated
humorousness. Central to the whole enterprlse ls 'Jhe
Phases of the Moon," whlch was lncorporated ln Z
!isiov ln l925. It ls a grand example of the 'metaphors
for poetry" comlng from the 'reedthroated whlsperers,"
thelr most fundamental and one of thelr earllest com
munlcatlons.
'Jhe Cat and the Moon" ls equally maglcal but
tlghter, playful ln a less solemn way. Black Mlnnaloushe
dances ln the grass whlle the moon overhead goes
about lts determlnlstlc buslness. 'Jhe cat went here and
there / And the moon spun round llke a top." Jhe cat
cannot comprehend the lnfluence, but hls 'anlmal
blood" ls 'troubled," hls body ls moved, and hls puplls
fllck llke a camera lens ln unconsclous response to the
heavenly manlpulatlon; he 'llfts to the changlng moon /
Hls changlng eyes."
Jhe 'systematlc" poems of Tlc !ild Swovs ot Coolc
constltuted less than a thlrd of the volume. Jhe famous
tltle poem expresses a theme that lnvades a halfdozen
poems, that comlngon of age that Yeats lamented all hls
llfe. He later polnted out the comedy ln the fact that he
had begun to 'curse" old age ln Tlc !ovdcrivgs of Uisiv,
wrltten when he was just past twenty. In 'Jhe Wlld
Swans at Coole" the volce mournlng antlqulty at flfty
feels rather slack wlth selfplty, but lts blographlcal
absurdlty by no means robs the ldea of power ln the
volume as a whole. It takes a tonlc form ln resolute
moods ln whlch the poet vows to sustaln a dynamlc old
age. He would not 'wlther lnto elghty years, honoured
and emptywltted," as he wrote cruelly of Wordsworth
ln Icr Zmico Silcvtio Iuvoc; hls models would be men
who stayed passlonate and creatlve to the end, he
would 'dlne at journey`s end / Wlth Landor and wlth
Donne."
Jhe love poems form the largest group ln the vol
ume, turnlng helplessly about Maud Gonne, wlth lnter
polatlons of Iseult Gonne. Mother and daughter were
closely jolned ln 'Jo a Young Glrl," for example. Jhe
theme of love blends several tlmes wlth the theme of
age, as ln 'Broken Dreams," and the old obsesslon
began to be llnked to Yeats`s 'systematlc" ldeas and
lmages.
'In Memory of Major Robert Gregory," wrltten
for Lady Gregory`s son, who had been kllled ln Italy, ls
one of Yeats`s greatest poems. W. H. Auden, no uncrltl
cal admlrer of Yeats, descrlbed lt as a work that
'restored the occaslonal poem to llfe ln Engllsh"and
set out to rlval lt ln 'In Memory of W. B. Yeats." Yeats
organlzes the poem ln twelve numbered stanzas, ln lam
blcs, mostly pentameter, resembllng ottava rlma but
rhymed ln two couplets and four llnes of brace rhyme.
Jhe structure comblnes two major modes of Yeats`s
mature verse. the poem of the movement of the mlnd,
thought ltself ln dynamlcs; and the poem of recall and
summatlon, rollcalllng, summonlng a serles of remem
bered flgures for address and celebratlon.
522
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When thelr flrst chlld, Anne Butler Yeats, was
born ln Dublln ln Iebruary l9l9, George Yeats`s horo
scope for her predlcted 'good looklng and lucky." Soon
they were able to take the baby to Ballylee, where
repalrs to the cottage, wlth handmade furnlshlngs ln a
homely masslve country style, had made the place
barely habltable ln warm dry weather. Jhe ceremonl
ous Yeats promptly composed the long poem 'A Prayer
for My Daughter," whlch ls most notable for a newly
bltter vlew of Gonne. 'Have I not seen the lovellest
woman born / Out of the mouth of Plenty`s horn, /
Because of her oplnlonated mlnd / Barter that horn and
every good / By qulet natures understood / Ior an old
bellows full of angry wlnd?" Jhe tower of Ballylee stlll
lacked a sound roof; to flnance further repalrs, Yeats
undertook a thlrd Amerlcan tour ln the wlnter and
sprlng of l9l9-l920, leavlng Anne wlth hls slsters and
taklng hls wlfe along to meet hls father and Amerlcan
frlends.
Overshadowed as lt ls by lts grander nelghbors,
q t p~ ~ ` of l9l9 and q q of l928,
Yeats`s small l92l volume, j~ o~ ~
a~I lncludes poems of hlgh dlstlnctlon. Jhe new
poems are marked ln manner by an evermoreconfldent
and natural ease of movement, and ln matter by a non
chalant lnductlon of ldeas, emblems, and even the cant
termlnology of hls formlng system. In the gaudy com
edy of 'Solomon and the Wltch," for example,
Solomon, descrlbed as one 'who understood / What
ever has been sald, slghed, sung, / Howled, mlaud,
barked, brayed, belled, yelled, crled, crowed," dlscusses
wlth Sheba thelr lovemaklng of the precedlng nlght, so
lntense that Sheba had crled out ln a volce not her own.
Solomon thlnks the volce must have been that of a voyeur
cockerel, crowlng because he thought the completeness
of thelr unlon slgnaled the end of the world. 'Yet the
world stays," Sheba polnts out. Yes, says Solomon, they
have made a dlstlngulshed fallurenot supernal, but not
bad for mortals. the cockerel 'thought lt worth a crow."
Sheba exclalms. 'O! Solomon! Let us try agaln."
'Jhe Second Comlng" moves wlth an equally
confldent mastery, but here the vlslon ls sweeplng and
apocalyptlc, the rhetorlc formal, grand, full of power,
the structure that of two stately vlolent blankverse
paragraphs. Yeats ls dramatlzlng hls cycllcal theory of
hlstory. that whole clvlllzatlons, llke men but on far
grander scale, llve ln antlnomy, every culture 'pernlng"
or wheellng ln a 'gyre" of about two thousand years,
undergolng blrth, llfe, and death and preparlng all the
whlle the llfe of lts opposlng successortwo cultures ln
lmmense rhythmlcal alternatlon 'llvlng each other`s
death, dylng each other`s llfe." Jhe crltlcal perlod of the
'lnterchange of tlnctures," when one era struggles to dle
and lts 'executloner" struggles to be born, wlll be vlo
lent and dreadful.
Jhe Yeatses spent most of l920 and l92l ln
Oxford, away from the Black and Jan vlolence ln Ire
land. Yeats led a busy soclal llfe, worked at hls poetry
and memolrs, and moved deeper lnto hls system. A
son, Wllllam Mlchael Yeats, was born ln August l92l.
Yeats`s c m~ a~ ln the Noh style came out ln
October of that year. In December came the treaty wlth
England, establlshlng an Irlsh Iree State ln the South
but excludlng, wlth heavy consequences, the slx coun
tles of Llster ln the North, carefully gerrymandered to
ensure a Protestant majorlty and attached to England.
In early l922 |. B. Yeats dled ln New York at elghty
two.
Yeats wlshed to brlng up hls chlldren ln Ireland,
and ln early l922 George Yeats found a house at 82
Merrlon Square, an elegant address and close to every
thlng that mattered ln central Dublln. But Yeats feared
that the polltlcal sltuatlon was 'a whlrlpool of hate."
Dlehard Republlcans led by Eamon De Valera scorned
the 'Partltlon" Jreaty and the Provlslonal Government
of Arthur Grlfflth and Mlchael Colllns, ralsed an army
of Irregulars, and ln Aprll set off clvll war that was
small ln scale but murderous ln style and detall. Jhe
famlly was able to spend the sprlng and summer of
l922 at Ballylee, ldylllcally happy wlth the place but
mlldly troubled by vlslts from detachments of the rag
tag contendlng armles. Ilnally, the Republlcans blew up
the brldge at the base of the tower, havlng glven Yeats
tlme to take the chlldren to the top room.
In the fall Yeats was chosen one of the slxty mem
bers of the new Irlsh Senate, a largely honorary body,
though some of lts debates concerned lssues of lmpor
tance. Yeats had always taken hls polltlcs serlously, and
he was pleased now to have a share ln what he called
'the slow excltlng work of creatlng lnstltutlonsall coral
lnsects but wlth some deslgn of the ultlmate lsland." He
had long mlstrusted the whlmslcallty and vulgarlty of
democracy, and hls votes usually supported the more
conservatlve Government Party. Jhe Irregulars were
burnlng the houses of senators, and the Merrlon Square
house had an armed guard to whom Yeats lent the
detectlve storles to whlch he had grown addlcted. Clvll
war came to an end ln l923.
Ior Yeats the crownlng event of l923, probably of
hls llfe, was the award of the Nobel Prlze ln Llterature,
an offlclal lnternatlonal homage proclalmlng hlm, for
the moment, the world`s most dlstlngulshed man of let
ters. 'I covet honour," he wrote ln hls autoblography. It
pleased hlm that the flrst congratulatory telegram to
reach hlm came from |oyce. Yeats and hls wlfe traveled
to Stockholm for the presentatlon early ln December.
Wlth hls deep drawlng to ceremony, elegance, and dls
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tlnctlon, he loved every mlnute of the affalr, dlnners,
toasts, speeches, applause, rooms full of royalty and
emlnence ln full dress. He was gratlfled to be told later
that the royal famlly had preferred hlm to every other
Nobel Prlze wlnner because he 'had the manners of a
courtler."
Yeats kept an ampllfled dlary of the Nobel events
whlch he tltled q _ p (l925) and eventu
ally lncorporated lnto hls autoblography. Although he
favored hls lyrlc poetry hlghest of hls own work, he felt
glumly that hls verse would always be known only to
'a meagre troop" and that hls work ln the theater had
made hlm known as 'the representatlve of a publlc
movement" and brought hlm the Nobel award; hence,
he chose 'Jhe Irlsh Jheatre" as the subject for hls lec
ture before the Swedlsh Academy. He spoke wlthout
notes and let hls volce follow the track of hls reverle.
Jhe cash value of the prlze, 7500, the largest sum ever
to reach hlm ln a lump, was enough, lnvested, to pro
vlde a strong hedge agalnst old age.
As Yeats neared slxty he looked robust, almost
portly, but ln fact hls health was turnlng fraglle. Short
ness of breath and hlgh blood pressure sent hlm to Slc
lly, Caprl, and southern Italy for three months ln the
wlnter of l921-l925. He returned anxlous to resume
hls Senate dutles and partlcularly to argue the Protes
tant case for a llberallzatlon of dlvorce ln a forthcomlng
debate. He was agltated by the problem of how to unlte
Gaellc natlonallsm, more prlckly and defenslve than
ever wlth the comlng of lndependence, wlth the arlsto
cratlc and lntellectual lnstlncts of the old Protestant
ascendancy.
At the Abbey Jheatre, Yeats had become a sort of
honorary chalrman of the board. He stlll read every
play before productlon, attended all meetlngs, and cast
a decldlng vote when so moved; and he contlnued to
wrlte for the theater, though more slowly. Hls major
energles ln thls perlod were concentrated toward two
forthcomlng capltal works, the phllosophlcal prose of ^
s and hls great verse collectlon q qK
When ^ s came out ln a prlvate edltlon from
Werner Laurle at the end of l925, causlng very llttle
stlr, Yeats was already maklng notes toward a revlslon.
At the tower ln the sprlng and summer of l926 he was
wrltlng some of the greatest poems of hls llfe. One of
hls many letters of these years to Shakespear comblned
two of the already fused themes of the comlng volume.
'as always happens, no matter how I begln, lt becomes
love poetry before I am flnlshed wlth lt. . . . One feels at
moments as lf one could wlth a touch convey a vlslon
that the mystlc way and sexual love use the same
meansopposed yet parallel exlstences." Hls other
major theme, the encroachment of age, was also a prop
erty of both llfe and art. In October, Yeats developed
'congestlon" of the lungs, wlth hlgh fever and dellrlum.
He and hls wlfe crept off to Spaln, but there he suffered
hemorrhages from the lungs. Movlng slowly toward the
Pounds ln Rapallo, Yeats was lll agaln for weeks ln
Cannes. In Rapallo he soaked ln the sun and slowly
recovered; ln the evenlngs he walked wlth Pound.
Mlchael and Anne Yeats had been placed ln
school ln Swltzerland, and, as Yeats had been warned to
wlnter ln the sun henceforward, he and hls wlfe reluc
tantly declded to sell 82 Merrlon Square and engaged a
flat of thelr own ln Rapallo for the comlng wlnter. In
the sprlng of l928 they were back ln Dublln, and ln the
summer Yeats completed hls Senate servlce, havlng
declded not to seek reelectlon. q q was out and a
qulck success, selllng two thousand coples ln lts flrst
month. When he reread lt, Yeats wrote Shakespear, he
was 'astonlshed at lts bltterness"; yet, as he recognlzed,
'that bltterness gave the book lts power and lt ls the
best book I have wrltten."
Age and vlslon domlnate the openlng poem,
'Salllng to Byzantlum," set ln four tlght ottava rlma
stanzas. Jhe old speaker crles hls sad curse upon a land
where creatures of teemlng blologlcal llfe, unaware that
they are 'dylng generatlons" and obsessed wlth the
'sensual muslc" of the flesh, pay no courtesy to 'monu
ments of unagelng lntellect." Acceptlng ln stanza 2 the
fact that an old man ls 'a tattered coat upon a stlck," a
scarecrow, 'unless / Soul clap lts hands and slng, and
louder slng / Ior every tatter ln lts mortal dress," the
speaker has wllled hls own exlle, to a place that Yeats
thought approached, ln hlstory, Lnlty of Belng.
In the great thlrd stanza the old man addresses
lllumlnated splrlts who are at once creatures of the pur
gatlve Condltlon of Ilre of ^ s and manmade
Chrlstlan lcons, artlfacts, themselves 'monuments of
unagelng lntellect"; he lmplores them to spln ('perne")
hls purgatlon from flesh and tlme. 'Consume my heart
away; slck wlth deslre / And fastened to a dylng anlmal
/ It knows not what lt ls; and gather me / Into the artl
flce of eternlty." Ilnally, he envlslons hls comlng trans
flguratlon lnto the lmmortal passlveness of supreme art,
then retransflgured lnto prophetlc song.
Jhe longer tltle poem treats old age ln a wlder
range of tones that are powerful but perhaps lmper
fectly unlfled. In settlng and ln some aspects of struc
ture 'Jhe Jower" recalls the Robert Gregory elegy. lt
too calls a roll, but of flgures who are fabrlcated or
semllegendary; and lt ends wlth a long testamentary
flourlsh. Jhe three numbered sectlons are qulte dlffer
ent ln length and shape, but all are more or less collo
qulal ln movement. Jhroughout, the aglng poet speaks
ln proprla persona, and he makes another poem ln
whlch the drama ls the movement of the mlnd.
521
t~ _ v~ ai_ PPO
'Medltatlons ln Jlme of Clvll War" ls a cycle of
seven poems of ordlnary lyrlc length, separately tltled
and varylng ln form. Yeats wrote the poems at Ballylee
ln l922, at the helght of Ireland`s brlef but savage clvll
strlfe, and the tltle ls preclse. He arranges hls medlta
tlons ln an order that moves ln general from compara
tlve peacefulness through vlolence and emerges ln wlld
apocalyptlc vlslonthough all three moods are lmpllc
ltly present all the tlme. 'Ancestral Houses" evokes the
llfe of the great house, 'the lnherlted glory of the rlch,"
but lt soon wonders whether lts proper emblem ls 'the
aboundlng glltterlng jet" of the garden fountaln, or
somethlng llke a gyre, lmportlng dlsorder and lmperma
nence. 'some marvellous empty seashell flung / Out of
the obscure dark of the rlch streams."
Slmllarly, the second poem, 'My House,"
descrlbes the tower ln detall, then settles ln the study
where a peaceful thlnker arrlves at lmages of vlolence.
He suspects that he ln hls turn wlll leave to hls helrs
'beflttlng emblems of adverslty" found ln contempla
tlon. not peace but a sword. A real sword forms the
emblem of medltatlon ln 'My Jable". lylng on hls
study table a great Samural sword 'curved llke new
moon," glven to Yeats ln Amerlca ln l920 by a young
|apanese admlrer, |unzo Sato. Jhe artlfact ls perfect,
and Yeats reflects that the culture that produced lt was
sald to have possessed Lnlty of Belng. Yet, Yeats knows
that perfect works are produced only by men ln tempo
ral torture. 'only an achlng heart / Concelves a change
less work of art."
'My Descendants" explores the mysterles of lln
eage. Havlng, as he feels, lnherlted 'a vlgorous mlnd /
Irom my old fathers," Yeats 'dreams" of passlng on
that strength to hls own chlldren. 'leave a woman and a
man behlnd / As vlgorous of mlnd." But experlence has
proved the mutablllty of thlngs, and he wonders lf hls
chlldren wlll not turn out ordlnary falllng folk 'through
natural declenslon of the soul, / Jhrough too much
buslness wlth the passlng hour, / Jhrough too much
play, or marrlage wlth a fool?" Jhe last stanza accepts
the overarchlng power of the gyres, counts the blesslngs
of frlendshlp (Lady Gregory) and love (George Yeats),
and takes sad comfort ln the survlval of the emblematlc
house.
Jhe flfth and slxth poems evoke the war dlrectly.
In 'Jhe Road at My Door" Yeats ls vlslted flrst by a
Republlcan soldler and then by a Iree State offlcer, and
ln both cases he ls astonlshed at thelr nonchalant cour
age, 'cracklng jokes of clvll war." Shamed by hls seden
tary trade, the poetphllosopher returns to hls drab
solltude, 'caught / In the cold snows of a dream." Jhe
gloom of 'Jhe Stare`s Nest by My Wlndow" ls stlll
more bltter and comprehenslve. Jhe tower ls falllng as
a shelter of the troubled splrlt, and bees and starllngs
nest ln the cracks of the masonrya metaphor of the
Irlsh state. Jhe refraln llne, lnvltlng the honeybees to
'come bulld ln the empty house of the stare," forms a
despalrlng prayer for the return of sweetness.
Jhe flnal lyrlc, 'I See Phantoms of Hatred and of
the Heart`s Iullness and of the Comlng Emptlness," ls
another of Yeats`s poems of the movement of the mlnd.
Jhree separate vlslons are framed by an openlng and a
closlng stanza that carry the poet`s narratlve of objectlve
and subjectlve movement. Irom hls tower top the poet
looks out upon a swlrllng mlst that shrouds the land
scape under the llght of a moon shaped llke Sato`s
sword. A puff of wlnd scatters the mlst lnto 'gllmmer
lng fragments" that drlve the mlnd lnto phantasmago
rla.
Jhe outrage and dlsgust that domlnate 'Nlneteen
Hundred and Nlneteen" seem to stem malnly from the
guerrllla warfare of the Black and Jan terror, though
the lmages are shocklngly appllcable to the allIrlsh war
fare that ensued. Jhe fourth of the great ottava rlma
stanzas, for example, cltes speclflc Black and Jan atrocl
tles but at the end makes lts lmage from a klnd of tlme
less and nonspeclflc Irlsh mallce and lust for blood. It ls
a poem of heartbreak, rage, and despalr, and the poet
does not spare hlmself ln the general destructlveness.
'Jhe swan has leaped lnto the desolate heaven. / Jhat
lmage can brlng wlldness, brlng a rage / Jo end all
thlngs, to end / What my laborlous llfe lmaglned."
q q ls full of complex fuslons, as ln 'Jwo
Songs from a Play" (q oI performed ln
l931), set ln a palr of twostanza lyrlcs. Here the blrth
deathreblrth of Dlonysus, usherlng ln the Antlthetlcal
GrecoRoman era, blends, confllcts, alternates wlth the
blrthdeathresurrectlon of Chrlst and hls Prlmary
Chrlstlan age. Jhen, ln hls great flnal stanza, Yeats
abruptly dlsmlsses all hls elaborate cycllcallty, throws
over lt the fabrlc of hls overarchlng romantlc human
lsm, accepts the fatallty of fallure, and asserts the prl
macy of passlon.
In 'Leda and the Swan" the fuslon ls llteral and
carnal and stranger stlll. In hls notes Yeats polsed thls
poem and 'Jwo Songs from a Play" as poems of
Annunclatlon, of God brlnglng hls splrltual and sexual
news to man. Jhere ls no Chrlstlan matter ln 'Leda
and the Swan"; Yeats turns entlrely to pagan myth, and
the news Zeus brlngs to Leda ls that of the blrth of the
classlcal age. Ior Yeats myth was a branch of hlstory,
and ln 'Leda and the Swan" he was proposlng the real
lty, the carnallty of a mythlcal event. Jhe poem ls
lntensely, magnlflcently sensual (hls typlst refused, ln
tears, to copy lt).
'Among School Chlldren" ls perhaps Yeats`s most
perfect unlon of slmpllclty and loftlness, of passlon and
control, of personal llfe as fact and emblem. In fact, the
ROR
ai_ PPO t~ _ v~
Ec ` xk vz ~ ~~I j i~ i~ g~ d~I
T c~ NVUSI K ONOI K RSNF
526
t~ _ v~ ai_ PPO
poem ls 'about" unlty, about the relatlon of the slngular
to the plural, the unlversal, of person to person and to
race, of youth to age and to lmmortallty, of part to part
and to whole. Jhe actlon ls baslcally slmple. W. B.
Yeats, an Irlsh senator ln an Arnoldlan functlon, vlslts
an elementary school and allows hls mlnd to follow the
progress of what he sees and thlnks.
Jhe blg house ln Merrlon Square was sold ln the
summer of l928, and ln the followlng healthy, happy
wlnter the Yeatses took up thelr own flat ln Rapallo.
Jhrough Pound, Yeats formed new frlendshlps wlth
Gerhart Hauptmann and George Anthell, the modern
lst planlst and composer, who helped stlmulate hlm to a
surprlslng number of new songllke poems. Havlng
been genulnely dlsturbed by hls own bltterness ln q
qI he was trylng to wrlte 'more amlable" poetry. At
Rapallo he also wrote 'A Packet for Ezra Pound" and
'Jhe Great Wheel," whlch lntroduce the second, cor
rected ^ s (l937) and tell for the flrst tlme, wlth her
permlsslon, the story of George Yeats`s communlcatlons
wlth the splrlt lnstructors. Jo thelr great sorrow the
Yeatses had now abandoned Jhoor Ballylee; lt was slm
ply too demandlng ln Yeats`s state of health. He was lll
throughout the wlnter of l929-l930, coughlng up
blood ln London and nearly dylng ln Rapallo of what
was flnally dlagnosed as Malta fever. As he slowly
recovered, he resumed work on ^ s and returned to
hls central vlslonary manner ln such poems as the sec
ond 'Byzantlum." At slxtyflve hls formerly graybrlndle
halr had become a great shock of pure whlte. Elegantly
dressed and ceremonlous ln manner, he was a hlghly
dlstlngulshed flgure.
In Dublln, Yeats kept a regular salon 'evenlng" on
Mondays, recelvlng old and new frlends and especlally
pleased by vlslts from the rlslng young. Jo stay ln reach
of Lady Gregory ln her old age and lll health, Yeats
rlsked the wlnter of l930-l93l ln a furnlshed house
above the Bay of Kllllney, south of Dublln. He was
worklng toward a new ` m (l933). 'Months
of rewrltlng," he wrote to Shakespear; 'What happl
ness!" In May, Yeats was made an honorary D.Lltt. of
Oxford Lnlverslty. Wlth Lady Gregory vlslbly falllng,
Yeats vlrtually llved at Coole ln the wlnter and sprlng of
l93l-l932. He reread Balzac and Shelley and added
poems to hls rafflsh 'Crazy |ane" serles; then, 'to exor
clse that slut . . . whose language has become unendur
able," he worked at antlclpatory eleglac verse that
would express hls feellng for Lady Gregory, who dled
on 22 May.
In the autumn of l932 Yeats made hls last Amerl
can lecture tour. Hls health held up; he enjoyed hlmself;
and he made money for hlmself as well as 700 for the
theater from Depresslon Amerlca. Money was needed
for settllng lnto another house, Rlversdale, whlch
George Yeats had found ln the suburban vlllage of
Rathfarnham, glvlng easy access to the clty and far
enough out to dlscourage 'most lntervlewers and the
less determlned travelllng bores." Jhe 'llttle creeper
covered farmhouse" was a modest twostory elghteenth
century structure set ln four acres beautlfully planned
and tended by the prevlous tenant, wlth frult trees,
flower and vegetable gardens, and lawns lncludlng a
velvety croquet ground where Yeats llked to perform.
Jwo rooms were comblned to make a long llght draw
lng room and study, wlth walls of lemon yellow llned
wlth books and plctures. Yeats thought lt the perfect
place for hls last years.
q t p~ ~ l m of l933 lncludes
slxtyfour poems ln a wlde range of form and tone. Jhe
volume opens wlth the beautlful romantlc rhapsody 'In
Memory of Eva GoreBooth and Con Marklewlcz,"
addresslng the horserldlng GoreBooth slsters of hls
Sllgo youth, remembered as 'Jwo glrls ln sllk klmonos,
both / Beautlful, one a gazelle," but now 'wlthered old
and skeletongaunt" wlth tlme and polltlcal passlon.
Jhe poem ends ln an ecstasy of acceptance and defl
ance of traglc reallty ln whlch Yeats does not separate
hls own hlstory from thelrs.
Jhe emblems of the tower and Sato`s sword keep
recurrlng ln thls volume. In the tlny poem 'Symbols"
the tower carrles lts usual connotatlons of wlthdrawal,
contemplatlon, and arcane study, and the sword blade
ls vlolently actlve, 'alldestroylng." Yeats ls both the
tower`s 'bllnd hermlt" and the 'wanderlng fool" who
carrles the sword. But the tower ls also the house of the
marrlage bed, and the phalllc sword`s houslng ls the
femlnlne 'goldsewn sllk" of the scabbard. So the flnal
couplet couples the coupllng of all the emblems. 'Gold
sewn sllk on the swordblade / Beauty and fool together
lald."
In 'Blood and the Moon" Yeats abruptly alters
the symbollc value of the tower, maklng lt 'my symbol"
and emblematlc of a self that ls speclflcally Irlsh,
lnvolved ln hlstorlcal tlme and ln the confllctlng splrl
tual values that dlvlde real personalltles. '_uarrel ln
Old Age" of thls volume descrlbes Dublln offhandedly
as 'thls bllnd bltter town," and 'Remorse for Intemper
ate Speech" puts ln capsule form the compacted bltter
ness that Yeats had long seen as genetlc ln Irlsh
character. 'Great hatred, llttle room, / Malmed us from
the start." In 'Blood and the Moon" hls scene ls con
temporary Ireland, agalnst whlch he erects hls roofless
tower. 'In mockery of a tlme / Half dead at the top."
Yeats`s verse swoops and soars wlth hls mlnd. 'I declare
thls tower ls my symbol; I declare / Jhls wlndlng,
gyrlng, splrlng treadmlll of a stalr ls my ancestral stalr; /
Jhat Goldsmlth and the Dean, Berkeley and Burke
have travelled there."
527
ai_ PPO t~ _ v~
Jhe strange spectral rollcalllng 'All Souls`
Nlght," wrltten at Oxford ln l920 but then preserved to
stand as epltaph to q q (l928) and to ^ s
(l925, l937), lntroduced a 'mummy" lmage, used three
tlmes ln the poem and repeatedly thereafter. Yeats was
apparently fasclnated by contemporary excavatlons ln
Egypt, yleldlng not only human mummles but edlble
mummlfled graln (ln ` he wrote, 'If |uplter
and Saturn meet, / What a crop of mummy wheat!"),
and these lmages, survlvlng from an anclent stargazlng
culture, stayed ln hls mlnd as metaphors of cosmlc
secrecy and recurrence, of tlme past but come agaln.
'Wound ln mlnd`s wanderlng / As mummles ln the
mummycloth are wound."
A note of l930 at Portoflno shows that the
mummy lmage was fundamental to the conceptlon of
'Byzantlum," the second of the two great poems on that
sacred place of Lnlty of Belng. 'Descrlbe Byzantlum as
lt ls ln the system towards the end of the flrst Chrlstlan
mlllennlum. A walklng mummy, flames ln the street
corners where the soul ls purlfled, blrds of hammered
gold slnglng ln the golden trees." In theme and ln struc
ture the poem counterpolses the most lncluslve antlno
mles. human and superhuman, body and splrlt,
entrapment and transcendence. Jhe great dome of
Santa Sophla, a perfected monument to a tlmeless falth,
rlses above the 'unpurged" forms of quotldlan llvlng.
'A starllt or a moonllt dome dlsdalns / All that man ls, /
All mere complexltles, / Jhe fury and the mlre of
human velns." In stanza 2 Yeats calls up the deathfreed
splrlt and uses the wrapplng of the mummy to create a
'pernlng" actlon ln whlch the flgure splnnlng ln tran
scendence 'unwlnds" the complexltles of lts earthly llfe.
'Ior Hades` bobbln bound ln mummycloth / May
unwlnd the wlndlng path."
Jhe thlrd stanza places transcendence ln art, call
lng back the lnsplred artlfact that sang the end of 'Sall
lng to Byzantlum." Here that 'mlracle, blrd or golden
handlwork" has power ln lts perfectlon to 'scorn aloud"
the untldlness of mortal forms, 'all complexltles of mlre
and blood." Stanza 1 loops back to lmaglne the actual
beglnnlng of the body`s transflguratlon, as the danclng
flgure beglns to perne lts bobbln of splrlt tlme, the
mummywound flgure that wlll be empowered to
unwlnd mortal tlme.
Stlll, lt ls humanlty that has the last word ln the
poem. In the gorgeous lmaglnlngs of the flnal stanza the
dolphlns of myth, tradltlonal porters of the soul, swlm
ln to the shore bearlng 'splrlt after splrlt" to lts purga
tlon. Jhe 'golden smlthles of the Emperor" wlll work
thelr transflgurlng wlll; but the splrlts do keep comlng.
'Jhose lmages that yet / Iresh lmages beget."
t j m~ (l932) runs to twentyflve
poems, most of them short and songllke but not unl
formly slmple. Yeats`s Crazy |ane (orlglnally Cracked
Mary) was modeled upon a blttertongued old country
woman of hls acqualntance, much glven to harangulng
her nelghbors, a flgure who could have come stralght
out of Synge (or Shakespeare). She domlnates the flrst
seven of the lyrlcs, the most staggerlng of whlch ls
'Crazy |ane Jalks wlth the Blshop." Meetlng her upon
the road, the blshop reproves her bluntly for her loose
llfe. 'Jhose breasts are flat and fallen now, / Jhose
velns must soon be dry; / Llve ln a heavenly manslon, /
Not ln some foul sty." She ralls back uncowed. ''Ialr
and foul are near of kln, / And falr needs foul,` I crled."
Her harrldan language, as lt becomes more dlgnlfled,
rounds lnto fundamental Yeatslan doctrlne, dlsmlsslng
ceremonlous gentlllty ln favor of a deep lnstlnctual wls
dom that senses subllme lronles (covertly Chrlstlan).
the nearness of loftlness to lowness, the necesslty of suf
ferlng to sanctlty.
In Yeats`s remalnlng years hls Irlsh llfe centered ln
Rlversdale, and when health allowed, he spent more and
more tlme ln England, drawn partlcularly to the houses of
new women frlends, Lady Gerald Wellesley, Ethel Man
nln, and Edlth Shackleton Heald, and as always seelng
much of Shakespear ln London. Natlonal and lnterna
tlonal polltlcs agltated hls mlnd ln grandlloquent, sardonlc,
lrresponslble ways. Jroubled as always by 'the sexual tor
ture," perhaps compllcated now by problems of potency,
Yeats abruptly declded ln the sprlng of l931 to cross to
London and undergo the Stelnach glandular 'rejuvena
tlon" operatlon. An apparent consequence of the opera
tlon, or of lts optlmlstlc psychology, was an ebulllence and
fertlllty ln hls wrltlng that lasted as long as hls body. Jhe
halfwlld metaphyslcs of hls 'Supernatural Songs" and q
h d~ ` q (l931), ln whlch Salome dances
wlth the severed head of St. |ohn ln her hands, were
lmmedlate products. He worked also, often whlle 'restlng"
ln bed, at the a~~ m (l935) sectlon of hls mem
olrs, centerlng on Lady Gregory; at proofs of the revlsed ^
sX and at the edltlng of hls cranky and controverslal
q l _ j s (l936). Yeats`s seventleth
blrthday ln |une l935 was much celebrated ln Ireland.
Jhe small volume of l935, ^ c j j~I
ls late Yeats and essentlal Yeats. At the end as at the
beglnnlng of hls career, Yeats`s lnstlnct turned to bal
ladry and song, and one slgn of that was a long llst of
spectral, mummythought refralns, often welrdly
detached from the matter at hand. Jhe openlng poem,
'Parnell`s Iuneral," reaches back fortyflve years to
recall the death of the great leader ln the scene that had
always made Yeats (and |oyce) thlnk of |ohann Wolf
gang von Goethe`s denunclatlon of the Irlsh people as a
pack of hounds forever pulllng down one or another
noble stag. In thls poem the refraln effect ls not outrlght
528
t~ _ v~ ai_ PPO
but evoked ln the lncremental repetltlon of the lmage of
salutary eatlng of the hero`s heart.
Jhe twelve 'Supernatural Songs" occupy most of
the short volume. Jhe most astonlshlng of these
mummy matters ls the flrst, 'Rlbh at the Jomb of Balle
and Alllnn." Jhe legendary lovers, 'purlfled by trag
edy" and thereby 'transflgured" lnto 'pure substance,"
make love on top of thelr own tomb on the annlversary
of thelr death and of thelr flrst embrace; thelr perfor
mance valldates Swedenborg`s vlslon. 'Ior the lnter
course of angels ls a llght / Where for lts moment both
seem lost, consumed." By that llght the nlnetyyearold
monk Rlbh reads hls Chrlstlan brevlary.
Jhe four couplets of 'Jhe Iour Ages of Man"
compose a gnomlc blography, a splrltual hlstory, of
Yeats and of Everyman. 'He wlth body waged a flght, /
But body won; lt walks uprlght." When he struggles
wlth hls heart, 'Innocence and peace depart," and
when he struggles wlth hls mlnd, 'Hls proud heart he
left behlnd." Ilnally, the poet concludes, 'Now hls wars
on God begln; / At stroke of mldnlght God shall wln."
In the wlnter of l935-l936 Yeats stayed ln Palma
de Mallorca wlth Shrl Purohlt Swaml, restlng but also
worklng wlth the Indlan scholar on a translatlon of the
Lpanlshads. All went well at flrst, but then Yeats
became serlously lll wlth a dropslcal condltlon attended
by paln, breathlessness, and edema. Hls bad heart was
growlng worse, but he kept maklng remarkable recover
les, and he contlnued to work, often ln bed and often
from four ln the mornlng untll noon or later.
Beglnnlng ln October l936 Yeats preslded over a
serles of broadcasts for the BBC on the subject of mod
ern poetry, hls own and others`. He worked fanatlcally
to secure the preclse oral effects he heard ln hls head,
whether he or another was dolng the readlng. Jhe
enterprlse occupled Yeats lntermlttently for a year, and
he expanded hls trlps to London to lnclude vlslts of
some length wlth hls Engllsh frlends, partlcularly hls
women frlends. In October l938 he lost another of hls
dearest, Shakespear. In August he had made what
would be hls last publlc appearance ln Ireland when he
spoke brlefly to the audlence at the Abbey followlng the
curtaln of hls oneact play m~K
Jhe Yeatses returned to the Rlvlera for the wlnter
of l938-l939, taklng rooms ln a hotel at Cap Martln.
Ior the most part lt was a happy tlme, wlth good frlends
nearby. Yeats was able to vlslt and be vlslted, but hls
doctor told hlm hls heart was ln grave condltlon. On 1
|anuary l939 he wrote to Lady Ellzabeth Pelham. 'I
know for certaln that my tlme wlll not be long." Yet, ln
the same letter he descrlbed hlmself as 'happy, and I
thlnk full of an energy . . . I had despalred of," and he
talked of the work he lntended to do next. He dled ln
the afternoon of 28 |anuary l939. Yeats was burled flrst
ln Roquebrune, as he had suggested should he dle ln
Irance. But nlne years later he was glven hls flrst cholce
when hls body was carrled on an Irlsh naval vessel
back to Ireland for relnterment, wlth full ceremonles, ln
Drumcllff churchyard near Sllgo.
i~ m (l939), lncludlng flftyseven poems
wrltten between l933 and l939, was one of the strang
est and strongest of hls collectlons. Jhe domlnant notes
are those of reslgnatlon, deflance, sensuallty, and proph
ecy, all famlllar ln hls poetry; what ls new ls the lnten
slty and extravagance. He had wrltten Shakespear ln
l929 that he wanted hls late poetry to be 'all emotlon
and all lmpersonal." Poems would rlse out of personal
actlon and feellng, hence be emotlonal, passlonate, and
they would achleve coldness, lmpersonallty by maklng
the self not an ego but an archetype, a human caseper
haps, now, that of the 'foollsh, passlonate man" who
does hls thlnklng 'ln a marrowbone." Several of the
late poems lay out that program expllcltly.
In 'Why Should Not Old Men Be Mad?" Yeats
addresses the 'crazlness" of hls late poems ln dlrect
autoblographlcal terms; he has earned hls crazlness by
heartbreak. He recalls the fate of Iseult Gonne, then
that of her mother. 'A glrl that knew all Dante once /
Llve to bear chlldren to a dunce; / A Helen of soclal
welfare dream, / Cllmb on a wagonette to scream."
Jhe sexual theme ls glven an exqulsltely spectral
and eleglac form ln the seven balladsongs that make up
the sulte of 'Jhe Jhree Bushes." Jhe flrst narratlve
song tells the whole story ln eleven stanzas. A lady
deeply ln love, mlndful of her lover`s need but kept
chaste by 'shame," sends her chambermald to the lover,
havlng ordered hlm to keep hls room unllt. ''So you
must lle beslde hlm / And let hlm thlnk me there. / And
maybe we are all the same / Where no candles are, /
And maybe we are all the same / Jhat strlp the body
bare.` / l ~I l ~K" Jhls love by proxy goes on
for a year, then the lover ls kllled by a fall from hls
horse, and the lady seelng lt happen falls dead herself.
Jhe chambermald llves on and tends the graves, plant
lng two rose trees that blend lnto one. Before she dles,
she tells the story to her prlest, and he, belng 'a good
man" who 'understood her case," orders her burled
next to the lovers under her own rose tree. Jhe three
bushes lntertwlne so that '. . . now none llvlng can. /
When they have plucked a rose there, / Know where lts
roots began."
In these late poems Yeats`s mlnd ran much upon
the past, trylng to call back before hls eye the thlngs
that mattered most ln hls memory. Jhe tltle of one such
poem, 'Beautlful Lofty Jhlngs," evokes the general
mode of feellng. Jhe only actlon ln the poem ls recol
lectlon. Yeats slmply calls up and caresses a serles of flve
dearly remembered lmages of noble belng; for example,
529
ai_ PPO t~ _ v~
'Maud Gonne at Howth statlon waltlng a traln, / Pallas
Athene ln that stralght back and arrogant head."
'Jhe Munlclpal Gallery Revlslted" developed the
same motlve ln an ampler, more formal mode. Yeats
sent coples of the poem to a group of IrlshAmerlcans
who had contrlbuted to a fund lntended to ensure hls
comfort ln old age. It ls one more rollcalllng poem, set
ln seven of hls favorlte ceremonlal stanzas, the ottava
rlma. In thls elegy the feellng ls at flrst temperate as
Yeats`s eye roams the walls ln the ordlnary way of gal
lerygoers; but then the eye beglns to plck out those
lmages he had held ln hls heart of hearts, and emotlon
suddenly collects ln an unbldden spasm. 'Heartsmltten
wlth emotlons I slnk down, / My heart recoverlng wlth
covered eyes; / Wherever I had looked I had looked
upon / My permanent or lmpermanent lmages."
Jhe rest of the poem ls llstlng and reflectlon.
Robert Gregory, Lane, Hazel Lavery, Lady Gregory,
Synge. Manclnl`s portralt of Lady Gregory lnsplres two
stanzas and more. Jhe flnal flfteen llnes, centerlng on
hls father`s portralt of Synge, joln agaln the trlnlty of
the theater he had named ln hls Stockholm speech as
embodlments of an ldeal unlon of loftlness and slmpllc
lty. '|ohn Synge, I and Augusta Gregory thought / All
that we dld, all that we sald or sang / Must come from
contact wlth the soll, from that / Contact everythlng
Antaeusllke grew strong. / . . . / You that would judge,
do not judge alone / Jhls book or that, come to thls hal
lowed place / Where my frlends` portralts hang and
look thereon; / Ireland`s hlstory ln thelr llneaments
trace; / Jhlnk where man`s glory most beglns and ends,
/ And say my glory was I had such frlends."
Wllllam Butler Yeats chose llnes from 'Lnder
Ben Bulben" to be hls epltaph, but 'Jhe Clrcus Anl
mals` Desertlon" serves that purpose better. Jhere he
called the roll of hls career as poet and dramatlst, sub
sumlng the work of more than flfty years ln a deslgn of
antlnomy. abstract opposed to concrete, symbol to pas
slon.
iW
Icttcrs ov Ioctry from !. . Jcots to Dorotly !cllcslcy (Lon
don, New York Joronto. Oxford Lnlverslty
Press, l910);
Somc Icttcrs from !. . Jcots to olv UÌcory ovd His Sistcr,
edlted by Allan Wade (New York. New York Pub
llc Llbrary, l953);
!. . Jcots ovd T. Sturgc Moorc: Tlcir Corrcspovdcvcc,
1901-19J7, edlted by Lrsula Brldge (London.
Routledge Kegan Paul, l953);
Icttcrs of !. . Jcots to Iotlorivc Tyvov, edlted by Roger
McHugh (Dublln. Clonmore Reynolds, l953;
London. Burns, Oates Washbourne, l953;
Zl, Swcct Dovccr: !. . Jcots ovd Morgot Iuddocl, Z Corrc-
spovdcvcc, edlted by McHugh (London New
Tlc Corrcspovdcvcc of Iobcrt ridgcs ovd !. . Jcots, edlted
by Rlchard |. Ilnneran (London. Macmlllan,
l977);
Tlcotrc usivcss: Tlc Corrcspovdcvcc of tlc Iirst Zbbcy Tlc-
otrc Dircctors: !illiom utlcr Jcots, Iody Crcgory, ovd
. M. Syvgc, edlted by Ann Saddlemyer (Lnlver
l982);
Tlc Collcctcd Icttcrs of !. . Jcots, 1 volumes, edlted by
|ohn Kelly (Oxford. Clarendon Press / New York.
Oxford Lnlverslty Press, l986-2005);
Tlc Covvc-Jcots Icttcrs 1S9J-19JS, edlted by Anna
MacBrlde Whlte and A. Norman |effares (New
York. Norton, l993).
fW
E. H. Mlkhall, ed., !. . Jcots: Ivtcrvicws ovd Iccollcctiovs,
2 volumes (London. Macmlllan, l977; New York.
Barnes Noble, l977).
_~W
Allan Wade, Z ibliogroply of tlc !ritivgs of !. . Jcots,
revlsed and edlted by Russell K. Alspach (Lon
don. HartDavls, l968);
K. P. S. |ochum, !. . Jcots: Z Clossificd ibliogroply of
Criticism, Ivcludivg Zdditiovs to Zllov !odc`s ibliogro-
ply of tlc !ritivgs of !. . Jcots ovd o Scctiov ov tlc
Irisl Iitcrory ovd Dromotic Icvivol (Lrbana, Chl
cago London. Lnlverslty of Illlnols Press,
l978).
_~W
|oseph M. Hone, !. . Jcots, 1S6-19J9 (London.
Macmlllan, l912);
Rlchard Ellmann, Jcots: Tlc Mov ovd tlc Mosls (New
Wllllam M. Murphy, Tlc Jcots Iomily ovd tlc Iollcxfcvs of
Sligo (Dublln. Dolmen Press, l97l);
Mlcheal MacLlammlr, wlth Eavan Boland, !. . Jcots
ovd His !orld (New York. Vlklng, l972);
A. Norman |effares, !. . Jcots: Z `cw iogroply (Lon
don. Hutchlnson, l988; New York. Iarrar, Straus
Glroux, l989);
Alasdalr D. I. Macrae, !. . Jcots: Z Iitcrory Iifc (New
Kelth Alldrltt, !. . Jcots: Tlc Mov ovd tlc Milicu (New
York. Clarkson Potter, l997);
R. I. Ioster, !. . Jcots: Z Iifc, 2 volumes (Oxford
New York. Oxford Lnlverslty Press, l997, 2003);
Jerence Brown, Tlc Iifc of !. . Jcots: Z Criticol iogro-
ply (Malden, Mass.. Blackwell, l999);
530
t~ _ v~ ai_ PPO
Brenda Maddox, Jcots`s Closts: Tlc Sccrct Iifc of !. .
Jcots (New York. HarperColllns, l999).
oW
|ames Lovlc Allen, Jcots`s Ipitopl: Z Icy to Symbolic Uvity
iv His Iifc ovd !orl (Washlngton, D.C.. Lnlver
slty Press of Amerlca, l982);
Harold Bloom, Jcots (New York. Oxford Lnlverslty
Press, l970);
Bloom, ed., !illiom utlcr Jcots (New York. Chelsea
House, l986);
Curtls B. Bradford, Jcots ot !orl (Carbondale
Edwardsvllle. Southern Illlnols Lnlverslty Press,
l965);
Yug Mohlt Chaudhry, Jcots, tlc Irisl Iitcrory Icvivol, ovd
tlc Iolitics of Irivt (Cork, Ireland. Cork Lnlverslty
Press, 200l);
Davld R. Clark, Jcots ot Sovgs ovd Cloruscs (Amherst.
Lnlverslty of Massachusetts Press, l983);
Ellzabeth Butler Culllngford, Ccvdcr ovd History iv Jcots`s
Iovc Ioctry (Cambrldge New York. Cambrldge
Culllngford, ed., Jcots, Iocms, 1919-19J: Z Coscbool
Rob Doggett, Dccp-Iootcd Tlivgs: Impirc ovd òtiov iv tlc
Ioctry ovd Dromo of !illiom utlcr Jcots (Notre
Dame, Ind.. Lnlverslty of Notre Dame Press,
2006);
Denls Donoghue, !illiom utlcr Jcots (New York.
Vlklng, l97l);
Lna Mary ElllsIermor, Tlc Irisl Dromotic Movcmcvt
(London. Methuen, l951);
Rlchard Ellmann, Imivcvt Domoiv: Jcots Zmovg !ildc,
oycc, Iouvd, Iliot, ovd Zudcv (New York. Oxford
Ellmann, Tlc Idcvtity of Jcots (New York. Oxford Lnlver
slty Press, l951);
Edward Engelberg, Tlc !ost Dcsigv: Iottcrvs iv !. .
Jcots`s Zcstlctic, second edltlon, expanded (Wash
lngton, D.C.. Cathollc Lnlverslty of Amerlca
Press, l988);
Chrlstlne Ilnn, Iost Ioctic: Zrclocology iv tlc Ioctry of !. .
Jcots ovd Scomus Hcovcy (London. Duckworth,
2001);
Rlchard |. Ilnneran, ed., Criticol Issoys ov !. . Jcots
(Boston. G. K. Hall, l986);
Deborah Ilemlng, ed., Icorvivg tlc Trodc: Issoys ov !. .
Jcots ovd Covtcmporory Ioctry (West Cornwall,
Conn.. Locust Hlll Press, l993);
Ian Iletcher, !. . Jcots ovd His Covtcmpororics (New
Monk Glbbon, Tlc Mostcrpiccc ovd tlc Mov: Jcots Zs I
Ivcw Him (New York. Macmlllan, l959);
Ollver St. |ohn Gogarty, !illiom utlcr Jcots, Z Mcmoir
(Dublln. Dolmen Press, l963);
Rlchard Greaves, Trovsitiov, Icccptiov ovd Modcrvism iv
!. . Jcots (Baslngstoke, L.K. New York. Pal
grave, 2002);
|ames Hall and Martln Stelnmann, eds., Tlc Icrmovcvcc
of Jcots (New York. Colller, l96l);
Marjorle Howes and |ohn Kelly, eds., Tlc Combridgc
Compoviov to !. . Jcots (Cambrldge New York.
Cambrldge Lnlverslty Press, 2006);
A. Norman |effares and A. S. Knowland, Z Commcvtory
ov Tlc Collcctcd Iocms of !. . Jcots (Stanford, Cal..
Stanford Lnlverslty Press, l968); revlsed and
expanded as Z `cw Commcvtory ov tlc Iocms of !. .
Jcots (Stanford, Cal.. Stanford Lnlverslty Press,
l981; London. Macmlllan, l981);
|effares, ed., Sclcctcd Criticism of !. . Jcots (London.
Macmlllan, l961);
Edward Larrlssy, Jcots tlc Ioct: Tlc Mcosurcs of Diffcrcvcc
(New York. Harvester Wheatsheaf, l991);
Maud Gonne MacBrlde, Z Scrvovt of tlc _uccv (Dublln.
Golden Eagle, l950);
Phllllp L. Marcus, Jcots ovd Zrtistic Iowcr (Syracuse, N.Y..
Syracuse Lnlverslty Press, 200l);
Marcus, Jcots ovd tlc cgivvivg of tlc Irisl Icvoissovcc (Ith
aca, N.Y.. Cornell Lnlverslty Press, l970);
Llam Mlller, ed., Tlc Dolmcv Ircss Jcots Ccvtcvory Iopcrs,
30 volumes (Dublln. Dolmen Press, l965-l968);
|ames Olney, Tlc Iliomc ovd tlc Ilowcr: Tlc Icrcvviol
Ililosoply, Jcots ovd uvg (Berkeley. Lnlverslty of
Callfornla Press, l980);
Stephen Maxfleld Parrlsh, ed., Z Covcordovcc to tlc Iocms
of !. . Jcots, programmed by |ames Allan Palnter
(Ithaca, N.Y.. Cornell Lnlverslty Press, l963);
Benjamln L. Reld, Tlc Mov from `cw Jorl: olv _uivv
ovd His Iricvds (New York. Oxford Lnlverslty
Press, l968);
Reld, !illiom utlcr Jcots: Tlc Iyric of Trogcdy (Norman.
Lnlverslty of Oklahoma Press, l96l);
Lennox Roblnson, Irclovd`s Zbbcy Tlcotrc: Z History
1S69-191 (London. Sldgwlck |ackson, l95l;
Port Washlngton, N.Y.. Kennlkat Press, l968);
|on Stallworthy, ctwccv tlc Iivcs: Jcots`s Iocms iv tlc Mol-
ivg (Oxford. Clarendon Press, l963);
Stallworthy, !isiovs ovd Icvisiovs iv Jcots`s Iost Iocms
(Oxford. Clarendon Press, l969);
Delrdre Joomey, ed., Jcots ovd !omcv, second edltlon
Helen H. Vendler, Jcots`s '!isiov ovd tlc Iotcr Iloys
l963);
|ohn Butler Yeats, Icttcrs to His Sov, !. . Jcots, ovd Utl-
crs, edlted, wlth a memolr, by |oseph Hone (Lon
don. Iaber Iaber, l911).
53l
ai_ PPO t~ _ v~
m~W
Jhe largest collectlon of Wllllam Butler Yeats`s papers
ls that ln the Natlonal Llbrary of Ireland, Dublln. Other
lmportant collectlons are at the New York Publlc
Llbrary, Colby College, Cornell Lnlverslty, Harvard
Lnlverslty, the Lnlverslty of Jexas, the Lnlverslty of
Kansas, Boston Lnlverslty, the Lnlverslty of Southern
Illlnols, the Lnlverslty of Chlcago, the Lnlverslty of
Callfornla (Berkeley), the Lnlverslty of Callfornla at
Los Angeles, the Huntlngton Llbrary, Grlnnell College,
and the Lnlverslty of Readlng. Jhe State Lnlverslty of
New York, Stony Brook, has coples of papers ln the
Natlonal Llbrary collectlon and ln that of Senator
Mlchael Butler Yeats.
NVOP k m i~
m~ p
m e~I `~~ k `
p ^~I NM a NVOP
Very early, ln the flrst bloom of youth, Wllllam
Butler Yeats emerged as a poet wlth an lndlsputable
rlght to the name; hls autoblography shows that the
lnner promptlngs of the poet determlned hls relatlons to
the world even when he was a mere boy. He has devel
oped organlcally ln the dlrectlon lndlcated by hls emo
tlonal and lntellectual llfe from the very beglnnlng.
He was born ln an artlstlc homeln Dubllnthus
beauty naturally became a vltal necesslty for hlm. He
showed artlstlc powers, and hls educatlon was devoted
to the satlsfylng of thls tendency; llttle effort was made
to secure tradltlonal schoollng. He was educated for the
most part ln England, hls second fatherland; nonethe
less hls declslve development was llnked to Ireland,
chlefly to the comparatlvely unspolled Celtlc dlstrlct of
Connaught where hls famlly had thelr summer home.
Jhere he lnhaled the lmaglnatlve mystlclsm of popular
bellef and popular storles whlch ls the most dlstlnctlve
feature of hls people, and amldst a prlmltlve nature of
mountaln and sea he became absorbed ln a passlonate
endeavour to capture lts very soul.
Jhe soul of nature was to hlm no empty phrase,
for Celtlc panthelsm, the bellef ln the exlstence of llv
lng, personal powers behlnd the world of phenomena,
whlch most of the people had retalned, selzed hold of
Yeats`s lmaglnatlon and fed hls lnnate and strong rell
glous needs. When he came nearest to the sclentlflc
splrlt of hls tlme, ln zealous observatlons of the llfe of
nature, he characterlstlcally concentrated on the
sequence of varlous blrd notes at daybreak and the
fllght of moths as the stars of twlllght were klndled. Jhe
boy got so far ln hls lntlmacy wlth the rhythm of the
solar day that he could determlne the tlme qulte exactly
by such natural slgns. Irom thls lntlmate communlon
wlth the sounds of mornlng and nlghttlme, hls poetry
later recelved many of lts most captlvatlng tralts.
He abandoned hls tralnlng ln the flne arts soon
after he had grown up ln order to devote hlmself to
poetry, for whlch hls lncllnatlon was strongest. But thls
tralnlng ls evldent throughout hls whole career, both ln
the lntenslty wlth whlch he worshlps form and personal
style and, stlll more, ln the paradoxlcally audaclous
solutlon of problems ln whlch hls acute but fragmen
tary phllosophlcal speculatlon sought lts way to what he
needed for hls own pecullar nature.
Jhe llterary world he entered, when he settled
down ln London at the end of the elghtles, dld not offer
hlm much posltlvely, but lt at least offered hlm fellow
shlp ln opposltlon, whlch to pugnaclous youth seems
partlcularly dear. It was fllled wlth wearlness and rebel
llon toward the splrlt of the tlmes whlch had prevalled
just before, namely that of dogmatlc natural sclence and
naturallstlc art. Jhere were few whose hostlllty was so
deeply grounded as that of Yeats, altogether lntultlve,
vlslonary, and lndomltably splrltuallstlc as he was.
He was dlsturbed not only by the cocksureness of
natural sclence and the narrowness of realltyaplng art;
even more, he was horrlfled by the dlssolutlon of per
sonallty and the frlgldlty whlch lssued from sceptlclsm,
by the deslccatlon of lmaglnatlon and emotlonal llfe ln a
world whlch at best had falth only ln a collectlve and
automatlc progresslon to the sacred land of Cockalgne.
Events proved hlm to be terrlbly rlght. the 'paradlse"
whlch could be reached by humanlty wlth such school
lng, we have now the dublous advantage of enjoylng.
Even more beautlful klnds of soclal utoplanlsm,
represented by the greatly admlred poet Wllllam Mor
rls, dld not captlvate such an lndlvlduallst as young
Yeats. Later he found hls way to the people, and then
not as an abstract conceptlon, but as the Irlsh people, to
whom he had been close as a chlld. What he sought ln
that people was not the masses stlrred by present day
demands, but an hlstorlcally developed soul whlch he
wlshed to arouse to more consclous llfe.
In the lntellectual unrest of London, thlngs
natlonally Irlsh remalned dear to Yeats`s heart; thls feel
lng was nurtured by summer vlslts to hls homeland and
by comprehenslve studles of lts folklore and customs.
Hls earller lyrlcs are almost excluslvely bullt on hls
lmpresslons from these. Hls early poems lmmedlately
won hlgh esteem ln England because the new materlal,
wlth lts strong appeal to the lmaglnatlon, recelved a
form whlch, desplte lts speclal characterlstlcs, was nev
ertheless llnked closely wlth several of the noblest tradl
tlons of Engllsh poetry. Jhe blendlng together of Celtlc
532
t~ _ v~ ai_ PPO
and Engllsh, whlch had never been successfully effected
ln the polltlcal sphere, became a reallty here ln the
world of poetlc lmaglnatlona symptom of no small
splrltual slgnlflcance.
However much Yeats had read of Engllsh mas
ters, hls verse has a new character. Jhe cadence and the
colours have changed, as lf they had been moved to
another alrthat of the Celtlc twlllght by the sea. Jhere
ls a greater element of song than ls usual ln modern
Engllsh poetry. Jhe muslc ls more melancholy, and,
under the gentle rhythm, whlch for all lts freedom
moves as securely as a sleepwalker, we have a hlnt of
yet another rhythm wlth the slow breathlng of the wlnd
and the eternal pulse of the powers of nature. When
thls art reaches lts hlghest level lt ls absolutely maglcal,
but lt ls seldom easy to grasp. It ls lndeed often so
obscure that an effort ls needed to understand lt. Jhls
obscurlty lles partly ln the mystlclsm of the actual sub
ject, but perhaps just as much ln the Celtlc tempera
ment, whlch seems to be more dlstlngulshed by flre,
dellcacy, and penetratlon than by clearness. But no
small part may have been played by the tendencles of
the tlme. symbollsm and ~ ~I chlefly absorbed
by the task of flndlng the boldly approprlate word.
Yeats`s assoclatlon wlth the llfe of a people saved
hlm from the barrenness whlch attended so much of the
effort for beauty that marked hls age. Around hlm as
the central polnt and leader arose, wlthln a group of hls
countrymen ln the llterary world of London, that
mlghty movement whlch has been named the Celtlc
Revlval and whlch created a new natlonal llterature, an
AngloIrlsh llterature.
Jhe foremost and most versatlle poet of thls
group was Yeats. Hls rouslng and rallylng personallty
caused the movement to grow and flower very qulckly,
by glvlng a common alm to hltherto scattered forces or
by encouraglng new forces prevlously unconsclous of
thelr exlstence.
Jhen, too, the Irlsh Jheatre came lnto exlstence.
Yeats`s actlve propaganda created both a stage and a
publlc, and the flrst performance was glven wlth hls
drama q ` `~ (l892). Jhls work, extraor
dlnarlly rlch ln poetry, was followed by a serles of
poetlc dramas, all on Irlsh subjects drawn malnly from
the old herolc sagas. Jhe most beautlful among these
are a (l907), the fateful tragedy of the Irlsh Helen;
q d e (l9l0), a merrlly herolc myth of a
pecullarly prlmltlve wlldness; and above all q h
q (l901), where the slmple materlal has been
permeated by thought of a rare grandeur and depth.
Jhe quarrel about the place and rank of the bard at the
klng`s court here glves rlse to the everburnlng questlon
as to how much splrltual thlngs are to hold good ln our
world, and whether they are to be recelved wlth true or
false falth. Wlth the clalms on whlch the hero stakes hls
llfe, he defends ln the supremacy of poetry all that
makes the llfe of man beautlful and worthy. It would
not become all poets to put forward such clalms, but
Yeats could do so. hls ldeallsm has never been dulled,
nor has the severlty of hls art. In these dramatlc pleces
hls verse attalns a rare beauty and sureness of style.
Most enchantlng, however, ls hls art ln q i~
e~ a (l891), whlch has all the maglc of falry
poetry and all the freshness of sprlng, ln lts clear but as
lt were dreamy melody. Dramatlcally, also, thls work ls
one of hls flnest; and lt mlght be called the flower of hls
poetry, had he not also wrltten the llttle prose drama
`~ e~ (l902), whlch ls at once hls slmplest
folk play and hls most classlcally perfect work.
Here more powerfully than anywhere else he
touches the patrlotlc strlng. Jhe subject ls Ireland`s
struggle for llberty throughout the ages, and the chlef
personage ls Ireland herself, lmpersonated by a wander
lng beggar woman. But we hear no slmple tone of
hatred, and the profound pathos of the plece ls more
restralned than ln any other comparable poem. We hear
only the purest and hlghest part of the natlon`s feellng;
the words are few and the actlon the slmplest posslble.
Jhe whole thlng ls greatness wlthout a touch of affecta
tlon. Jhe subject, havlng come to Yeats ln a dream, has
retalned lts vlslonary stamp of belng a glft from above
a conceptlon not forelgn to Yeats`s aesthetlc phllosophy.
Much more mlght be sald of Yeats`s work, but lt
must sufflce to mentlon the ways followed by hls dra
mas of recent years. Jhey have often been romantlc by
vlrtue of thelr strange and uncommon materlal, but
they have generally strlven after classlc slmpllclty of
form. Jhls classlclsm has been gradually developed
lnto bold archalsm; the poet has sought to attaln the
prlmltlve plastlclty found ln the beglnnlng of all dra
matlc art. He has devoted much lntenslve, acute
thought to the task of emanclpatlng hlmself from the
modern stage, wlth lts scenery that dlsturbs the plcture
called up by the lmaglnatlon, wlth lts plays whose fea
tures are necessarlly exaggerated by the footllghts, wlth
lts audlence`s demand for reallstlc llluslon. Yeats wlshes
to brlng out the poem as lt was born ln the poet`s
vlslon; he has glven form to thls vlslon followlng Greek
and |apanese models. Jhus he has revlved the use of
masks and has found a great place for the actors` ges
tures to the accompanlment of slmple muslc.
In the pleces thus slmpllfled and brought to a
strlct styllstlc unlty, whose subjects are stlll taken by
preference from the hero legends of Ireland, he has
sometlmes attalned a fasclnatlng effect, even for the
mere reader, both ln the hlghly compressed dlalogue
and ln the choruses wlth thelr deep lyrlcal tone. All thls,
however, ls ln lts perlod of growth, and lt ls not yet pos
533
ai_ PPO t~ _ v~
slble to declde whether the sacrlflces made are fully
compensated for by what has been galned. Jhese
pleces, though ln themselves hlghly noteworthy, wlll
probably flnd greater dlfflculty ln becomlng popular
than the earller ones.
In these plays as well as ln hls clearest and most
beautlful lyrlcs, Yeats has achleved what few poets have
been able to do. he has succeeded ln preservlng contact
wlth hls people whlle upholdlng the most arlstocratlc
artlstry. Hls poetlcal work has arlsen ln an excluslvely
artlstlc mllleu whlch has had many perlls; but wlthout
abjurlng the artlcles of hls aesthetlc falth, hls burnlng
and questlng personallty, ever almlng at the ldeal, has
contrlved to keep ltself free from aesthetlc emptlness.
He has been able to follow the splrlt that early
appolnted hlm the lnterpreter of hls country, a country
that had long walted for someone to bestow on lt a
volce. It ls not too much to call such a llfe`s work great.
v~W _~ p
Ivtroductory rcmorls by Iivor Ivvbcrg, Ircsidcvt of tlc Zcod-
cmy of Scicvccs, ot tlc òbcl ovquct ot Crovd Htcl,
Stocllolm, 10 Dcccmbcr 192J:
Mr. YeatsA worthler tongue than mlne has
already glven us a revlew of your llterary work.
What more, then, can I do on thls occaslon than
express our admlratlon and thank you for the beautlful
vlslons you have revealed to us from the Emerald Isle?
We have dellghted ln llstenlng to the tales of the falrles
and elves, wlth whlch you have made us acqualnted.
We have been especlally charmed by your poem about
the llttle 'sllver trout."
In another of your poems you have sald.
q ~
i ~ ~
It ls true, but we should be happy lf thls day
would remaln long ln your memory, as lt certalnly wlll
ln ours.
Jcots`s spcccl
I have been all my worklng llfe lndebted to the
Scandlnavlan natlon. When I was a very young man, I
spent several years wrltlng ln collaboratlon wlth a
frlend the flrst lnterpretatlon of the phllosophy of the
Engllsh poet Blake. Blake was flrst a dlsclple of your
great Swedenborg and then ln vlolent revolt and then
half ln revolt, half ln dlsclpleshlp. My frlend and I were
constantly drlven to Swedenborg for an lnterpretatlon
of some obscure passage, for Blake ls always ln hls mys
tlcal wrltlngs extravagant, paradoxlcal, obscure. Yet he
has had upon the last forty years of Engllsh lmaglnatlve
thought the lnfluence whlch Colerldge had upon the
precedlng forty; and he ls always ln hls poetry, often ln
hls theorles of palntlng, the lnterpreter or the antagonlst
of Swedenborg. Of recent years I have gone to Sweden
borg for hls own sake, and when I recelved your lnvlta
tlon to Stockholm, lt was to hls blography that I went
for lnformatlon. Nor do I thlnk that our Irlsh theatre
could have ever come lnto exlstence but for the theatre
of Ibsen and Bjrnson. And now you have conferred
upon me thls great honour. Jhlrty years ago a number
of Irlsh wrlters met together ln socletles and began a
remorseless crltlclsm of the llterature of thelr country. It
was thelr dream that by freelng lt from provlnclallsm
they mlght wln for lt European recognltlon. I owe much
to those men, stlll more to those who jolned our move
ment a few years later, and when I return to Ireland
these men and women, now growlng old llke myself,
wlll see ln thls great honour a fulfllment of that dream. I
ln my heart know how llttle I mlght have deserved lt lf
they had never exlsted.
| Jhe Nobel Ioundatlon, l923. Wllllam Butler Yeats
531
v~W k iI NR a NVOP
q f a~~ jG
I have chosen as my theme the Irlsh Dramatlc
Movement because when I remember the great honour
that you have conferred upon me, I cannot forget many
known and unknown persons. Perhaps the Engllsh
commlttees would never have sent you my name lf I
had wrltten no plays, no dramatlc crltlclsm, lf my Iyrlc
poetry had not a quallty of speech practlsed upon the
stage, perhaps eventhough thls could be no portlon of
thelr dellberate thoughtlf lt were not ln some degree
the symbol of a movement. I wlsh to tell the Royal
Academy of Sweden of the labours, trlumphs, and trou
bles of my fellow workers.
Jhe modern llterature of Ireland, and lndeed all
that stlr of thought whlch prepared for the AngloIrlsh
War, began when Parnell fell from power ln l89l. A
dlslllusloned and emblttered Ireland turned away from
parllamentary polltlcs; an event was concelved and the
race began, as I thlnk, to be troubled by that event`s
long gestatlon. Dr. Hyde founded the Gaellc League,
whlch was for many years to substltute for polltlcal
argument a Gaellc grammar, and for polltlcal meetlngs
vlllage gatherlngs, where songs were sung and storles
told ln the Gaellc language. Meanwhlle I had begun a
movement ln Engllsh, ln the language ln whlch modern
Ireland thlnks and does lts buslness; founded certaln
socletles where clerks, worklng men, men of all classes,
could study those Irlsh poets, novellsts, and hlstorlans
who had wrltten ln Engllsh, and as much of Gaellc llter
ature as had been translated lnto Engllsh. But the great
mass of our people, accustomed to lntermlnable polltl
cal speeches, read llttle, and so from the very start we
felt that we must have a theatre of our own. Jhe the
atres of Dublln had nothlng about them that we could
call our own. Jhey were empty bulldlngs hlred by the
Engllsh travelllng companles and we wanted Irlsh plays
and Irlsh players. When we thought of these plays we
thought of everythlng that was romantlc and poetlcal,
for the natlonallsm we had called upllke that every
generatlon had called up ln moments of dlscourage
mentwas romantlc and poetlcal. It was not, however,
untll I met ln l896 Lady Gregory, a member of an old
Galway famlly, who had spent her llfe between two
Galway houses, the house where she was born and the
house lnto whlch she was marrled, that such a theatre
became posslble. All about her llved a peasantry who
told storles ln a form of Engllsh whlch has much of lts
syntax from Gaellc, much of lts vocabulary from Judor
Engllsh, but lt was very slowly that we dlscovered ln
that speech of thelrs our most powerful dramatlc lnstru
ment, not lndeed untll she began to wrlte. Jhough my
plays were wrltten wlthout dlalect and ln Engllsh blank
verse, I thlnk she was attracted to our movement
because thelr subject matter dlffered but llttle from the
subject matter of the country storles. Her own house
has been protected by her presence, but the house
where she was born was burned down by lncendlarles
some few months ago; and there has been llke dlsorder
over the greater part of Ireland. A trumpery dlspute
about an acre of land can rouse our people to mon
strous savagery, and lf ln thelr war wlth the Engllsh
auxlllary pollce they were shown no mercy they
showed none. murder answered murder. Yet lgnorance
and vlolence can remember the noblest beauty. I have
ln Galway a llttle old tower, and when I cllmb to the top
of lt I can see at no great dlstance a green fleld where
stood once the thatched cottage of a famous country
beauty, the mlstress of a small local landed proprletor. I
have spoken to old men and women who remembered
her, though all are dead now, and they spoke of her as
the old men upon the wall of Jroy spoke of Helen; nor
dld man and woman dlffer ln thelr pralse. One old
woman, of whose youth the nelghbors cherlshed a scan
dalous tale, sald of her, 'I tremble all over when I thlnk
of her"; and there was another old woman on the
nelghbourlng mountaln who sald, 'Jhe sun and the
moon never shone on anybody so handsome, and her
skln was so whlte that lt looked blue, and she had two
llttle blushes on her cheeks." And there were men that
told of the crowds that gathered to look at her upon a
falr day, and of a man 'who got hls death swlmmlng a
rlver", that he mlght look at her. It was a song wrltten
by the Gaellc poet Raftery that brought her such great
fame and the cottagers stlll slng lt, though there are not
so many to slng lt as when I was young.
535
ai_ PPO v~W k iI NR a NVOP
O star of llght and O sun ln harvest,
O amber halr, O my share of the world,
It ls Mary Hynes, the calm and easy woman,
Has beauty ln her body and ln her mlnd.
It seemed as lf the anclent world lay all about us wlth lts
freedom of lmaglnatlon, lts dellght ln good storles, ln
man`s force and woman`s beauty, and that all we had to
do was to make the town thlnk as the country felt; yet
we soon dlscovered that the town could only thlnk
town thought.
In the country you are alone wlth your own vlo
lence, your own heavlness, and wlth the common trag
edy of llfe, and lf you have any artlstlc capaclty you
deslre beautlful emotlon; and, certaln that the seasons
wlll be the same always, care not how fantastlc lts
expresslon.
N
In the town, where everybody crowds
upon you, lt ls your nelghbour not yourself that you
hate and, lf you are not to embltter hls llfe and your
own llfe, perhaps even lf you are not to murder hlm ln
some klnd of revolutlonary frenzy, somebody must
teach reallty and justlce. You wlll hate that teacher for a
whlle, calllng hls books and plays ugly, mlsdlrected,
morbld or somethlng of that klnd, but you must agree
wlth hlm ln the end. We were to flnd ourselves ln a
quarrel wlth publlc oplnlon that compelled us agalnst
our own wlll and the wlll of our players to become
always more reallstlc, substltutlng dlalect for verse,
common speech for dlalect.
I had told Lady Gregory that I saw no llkellhood
of gettlng money for a theatre and so must put away
that hope, and she promlsed to flnd the money among
her frlends. Her nelghbour, Mr. Edward Martyn, pald
for our flrst performances; and our flrst players came
from England; but presently we began our real work
wlth a llttle company of Irlsh amateurs.
O
Somebody had
asked me at a lecture, 'Where wlll you get your
actors?" and I sald, 'I wlll go lnto some crowded room
and put the name of everybody ln lt on a plece of paper
and put all those pleces of paper lnto a hat and draw the
flrst twelve." I have often wondered at that prophecy,
for though lt was spoken probably to confound and
confuse a questloner, lt was very nearly fulfllled. Our
two best men actors were not lndeed chosen by chance,
for one was a stagestruck sollcltor`s clerk and the other
a worklng man who had toured Ireland ln a theatrlcal
company managed by a negro. I doubt lf he had
learned much ln lt, for lts methods were rough and
nolsy, the negro whltenlng hls face when he played a
whlte man, and, so strong ls stage conventlon, blacken
lng lt when he played a black man. If a player had to
open a letter on the stage I have no doubt that he struck
lt wlth the flat of hls hand, as I have seen players do ln
my youth, a gesture that lost lts meanlng generatlons
ago when blottlng paper was substltuted for sand. We
got our women, however, from a llttle polltlcal soclety
whlch descrlbed lts object as educatlng the chlldren of
the poor, whlch meant, accordlng to lts enemles, teach
lng them a catechlsm that began wlth thls questlon,
'What ls the orlgln of evll?", and the answer,
'England."
And they came to us for patrlotlc reasons and
acted from preclsely the same lmpulse that had made
them teach, and yet two of them proved players of
genlus. Mlss Allgood and Mlss 'Malre O Nelll." Jhey
were slsters, one all slmpllclty, her mlnd shaped by folk
song and folk storles; the other sophlstlcated, lyrlcal,
and subtle. I do not know what thelr thoughts were as
that strange new power awoke wlthln them, but I thlnk
they must have suffered from a bad consclence, a feel
lng that the old patrlotlc lmpulse had gone, that they
had glven themselves up to vanlty or ambltlon. Yet I
thlnk lt was that flrst mlsunderstandlng of themselves
that made thelr pecullar genlus posslble, for had they
come to us wlth theatrlcal ambltlons they would have
lmltated some wellknown Engllsh player and slghed
for wellknown Engllsh plays. Nor would they have
found thelr genlus lf we had not remalned for a long
tlme obscure llke the blrd wlthln lts shell, playlng ln llt
tle halls, generally ln some shabby, outoftheway
street. We could experlment and walt, wlth nothlng to
fear but polltlcal mlsunderstandlng. We had llttle
money and at flrst needed llttle, twentyflve pounds
glven by Lady Gregory and twenty pounds by myself
and a few pounds plcked up here and there. And our
theatrlcal organlzatlon was preposterous, players and
authors all sat together and settled by vote what play
should be performed and who should play lt. It took a
serles of dlsturbances, weeks of argument, durlng
whlch no performance could be glven, before Lady
Gregory and |ohn Synge and I were put ln control. And
our relatlons wlth the publlc were even more dlsturbed.
One play was vlolently attacked by the patrlotlc press
because lt descrlbed a marrled peasant woman who had
a lover, and when we publlshed the old Aran folk tale
upon whlch lt was founded, the press sald the story had
been copled from some decadent author of Pagan
Rome. Presently Lady Gregory wrote her flrst comedy.
My verse plays were not long enough to flll an evenlng
and so she wrote a llttle play on a country love story ln
the dlalect of her nelghbourhood. A countryman
returns from Amerlca wlth a hundred pounds and dls
covers hls old sweetheart marrled to a bankrupt farmer.
He plays cards wlth the farmer and, by cheatlng agalnst
hlmself, glves hlm the hundred pounds. Jhe company
refused to perform that play because they sald to admlt
an emlgrant`s return wlth a hundred pounds would
encourage emlgratlon. We produced evldence of
536
v~W k iI NR a NVOP ai_ PPO
returned emlgrants wlth much larger sums but were
told that only made the matter worse. Jhen after thls
lntermlnable argument had worn us all out, Lady
Gregory agreed to reduce the sum to twenty and the
actors gave way. Jhat llttle play was sentlmental and
conventlonal, but her next dlscovered her genlus. She,
too, had deslred to serve, and that genlus must have
seemed mlraculous to herself. She was ln mlddle llfe
and had wrltten nothlng but a volume of polltlcal mem
olrs and had no lnterest ln the theatre.
Nobody readlng today her p p m~ can
understand why one of them, now an Irlsh classlc, q
o jI could not be performed for two years
because of polltlcal hostlllty. A pollceman dlscovers an
escaped Ienlan prlsoner and lets hlm free, because the
prlsoner has aroused wlth some old songs the half for
gotten patrlotlsm of hls youth. Jhe players would not
perform lt because they sald lt was an unpatrlotlc act to
admlt that a pollceman was capable of patrlotlsm. One
well known leader of the mob wrote to me, 'How can
the Dublln mob be expected to flght the pollce lf lt
looks upon them as capable of patrlotlsm?" When per
formed at last the play was recelved wlth enthuslasm,
but only to get us lnto new trouble. Jhe chlef Lnlonlst
Dublln newspaper denounced lt for slanderlng hls Maj
esty`s forces, and Dublln Castle, the centre of Engllsh
Government ln Ireland, denled to us prlvlleges whlch
we had shared wlth the other Dublln theatres, of buy
lng for stage purposes the cast off clothes of the pollce.
Castle and Press allke knew that the pollce had fre
quently let off polltlcal prlsoners but 'that only made
the matter worse." Every polltlcal party had the same
deslre to substltute for llfe, whlch never does the same
thlng twlce, a bundle of rellable prlnclples and asser
tlons.
P
Nor dld rellglous orthodoxy llke us any better
than polltlcal; my ` `~ was denounced by
Cardlnal Logue as an heretlcal play, and when I wrote
that we would llke to perform 'forelgn masterpleces," a
Natlonallst newspaper declared that 'a forelgn master
plece ls a very dangerous thlng." Jhe llttle halls where
we performed could hold a couple of hundred people at
the utmost and our audlence was often not more than
twenty or thlrty, and we performed but two or three
tlmes a month and durlng our perlods of quarrelllng
not even that. But there was no lack of leadlng artlcles,
we were from the flrst a recognlsed publlc danger. Jwo
events brought us vlctory, a frlend gave us a theatre,
and we found a strange man of genlus, |ohn Synge.
After a partlcularly angry leadlng artlcle I had come ln
front of the curtaln and appealed to the hundred people
of the audlence for thelr support. When I came down
from the stage an old frlend, Mlss Hornlman, from
whom I had been expectlng a contrlbutlon of twenty
pounds, sald, 'I wlll flnd you a theatre." She found and
altered for our purpose what ls now the Abbey Jheatre,
Dublln, and gave us a small subsldy for a few years.
I had met |ohn Synge ln Parls ln l896. Somebody
had sald, 'Jhere ls an Irlshman llvlng on the top floor
of your hotel; I wlll lntroduce you." I was very poor,
but he was much poorer. He belonged to a very old
Irlsh famlly and though a slmple, courteous man,
remembered lt and was haughty and lonely. Wlth just
enough to keep hlm from starvatlon, and not always
from half starvatlon, he had wandered about Europe
travelllng thlrd class or upon foot, playlng hls flddle to
poor men on the road or ln thelr cottages. He was the
man that we needed because he was the only man I
have ever known lncapable of a polltlcal thought or of a
humanltarlan purpose. He could walk the roadslde all
day wlth some poor man wlthout any deslre to do hlm
good, or for any reason except that he llked hlm. He
was to do for Ireland, though more by hls lnfluence on
other dramatlsts than by hls dlrect lnfluence, what Rob
ert Burns dld for Scotland. When Scotland thought her
self gloomy and rellglous, Provldence restored her
lmaglnatlve spontanelty by ralslng up Robert Burns to
commend drlnk and the devll. I dld not, however, see
what was to come when I advlsed |ohn Synge to go to a
wlld lsland off the Galway coast and study lts llfe
because that llfe 'had never been expressed ln lltera
ture." He had learned Gaellc at College, and I told hlm
that, as I would have told lt to any young man who had
learned Gaellc and wanted to wrlte. When he found
that wlld lsland he became happy for the flrst tlme,
escaplng as he sald 'from the nulllty of the rlch and the
squalor of the poor." He had bad health, he could not
stand the lsland hardshlp long, but he would go to and
fro between there and Dublln.
Burns hlmself could not have more shocked a
gatherlng of Scotch clergy than dld he our players.
Some of the women got about hlm and begged hlm to
wrlte a play about the rebelllon of `98, and polnted out
very truthfully that a play on such a patrlotlc theme
would be a great success. He returned at the end of a
fortnlght wlth a scenarlo upon whlch he had tolled ln
hls laborlous way. Jwo women take refuge ln a cave, a
Protestant woman and a Cathollc, and carry on an
lntermlnable argument about the merlts of thelr respec
tlve rellglons. Jhe Cathollc woman denounces Henry
VIII and _ueen Ellzabeth, and the Protestant woman
the Inqulsltlon and the Pope. Jhey argue ln low volces
because one ls afrald of belng ravlshed by the rebels
and the other by the loyal soldlers. But at last elther the
Protestant or the Cathollc says that she prefers any fate
to remalnlng any longer ln such wlcked company and
cllmbs out. Jhe play was nelther wrltten nor per
formed, and nelther then nor at any later tlme could I
dlscover whether Synge understood the shock that he
537
ai_ PPO v~W k iI NR a NVOP
was glvlng. He certalnly dld not foresee ln any way the
trouble that hls greatest play brought on us all.
When I had landed from a flshlng yawl on the
mlddle of the lsland of Aran, a few months before my
flrst meetlng wlth Synge, a llttle group of lslanders, who
had gathered to watch a stranger`s arrlval, brought me
to 'the oldest man upon the lsland." He spoke but two
sentences, speaklng them very slowly, 'If any gentle
man has done a crlme we`ll hlde hlm. Jhere was a gen
tleman that kllled hls father and I had hlm ln my house
three months tlll he got away to Amerlca." It was a play
founded on that old man`s story Synge brought back
wlth hlm. A young man arrlves at a llttle publlc house
and tells the publlcan`s daughter that he has murdered
hls father. He so tells lt that he has all her sympathy,
and every tlme he retells lt, wlth new exaggeratlons and
addltlons, he wlns the sympathy of somebody or other,
for lt ls the countryman`s hablt to be agalnst the law.
Jhe countryman thlnks the more terrlble the crlme the
greater must the provocatlon have been. Jhe young
man hlmself under the excltement of hls own story
becomes gay, energetlc, and lucky. He prospers ln love
and comes ln flrst at the local races and bankrupts the
roulette table afterwards. Jhen the father arrlves wlth
hls head bandaged but very llvely, and the people turn
upon the lmpostor. Jo wln back thelr esteem he takes
up a spade to klll hls father ln earnest, but horrlfled at
the threat of what had sounded so well ln the story,
they blnd hlm to hand over to the pollce. Jhe father
releases hlm and father and son walk off together, the
son, stlll buoyed up by hls lmaglnatlon, announclng
that he wlll be master henceforth. Plcturesque, poetlcal,
fantastlcal, a masterplece of style and of muslc, the
supreme work of our dlalect theatre, lt roused the popu
lace to fury. We played lt under pollce protectlon, sev
enty pollce ln the theatre the last nlght, and flve
hundred, some newspaper sald, keeplng order ln the
streets outslde. It ls never played before any Irlsh audl
ence for the flrst tlme wlthout somethlng or other belng
flung at the players. In New York a currant cake and a
watch were flung, the owner of the watch clalmlng lt at
the stage door afterwards. Jhe Dublln audlence has,
however, long slnce accepted the play. It has notlced, I
thlnk, that everyone upon the stage ls somehow lovable
and companlonable, and that Synge descrlbed, through
an exaggerated symbollsm, a reallty whlch he loved
preclsely because he loved all reallty. So far from belng,
as they had thought, a polltlclan worklng ln the lnter
ests of England, he was so llttle a polltlclan that the
world merely amused hlm and touched hls plty. Yet
when Synge dled ln l9l0 oplnlon had hardly changed,
we were playlng to an almost empty theatre and were
contlnually denounced ln the Press. Our vlctory was
won by those who had learned from hlm courage and
slncerlty but belonged to a dlfferent school. Synge`s
work, the work of Lady Gregory, my own `~
e~I and my e ~ ln lts prose form, are char
acterlstlc of our flrst ambltlon. Jhey brlng the lmaglna
tlon and speech of the country, all that poetlcal tradltlon
descended from the mlddle ages, to the people of the
town. Jhose who learned from Synge had often llttle
knowledge of the country and always llttle lnterest ln lts
dlalect. Jhelr plays are frequently attacks upon obvlous
abuses, the brlbery at the appolntment of a dlspensary
Doctor, the attempts of some local polltlclan to remaln
frlends wlth all partles. Indeed the young Mlnlsters and
party polltlclans of the Iree State have had, I thlnk,
some of thelr educatlon from our plays. Jhen, too,
there are many comedles whlch are not polltlcal satlres,
though they are concerned wlth the llfe of the polltlc
rldden people of the town. Of these Mr. Lennox Robln
son`s are the best known; hls t~ _ has been
played ln England and Amerlca. Of late lt has seemed
as lf thls school were comlng to an end, for the old plots
are repeated wlth sllght varlatlons and the characterlza
tlon grows mechanlcal. It ls too soon yet to say what
wlll come to us from the melodrama and tragedy of the
last four years, but lf we can pay our players and keep
our theatre open, somethlng wlll come.
Q
We are bur
dened wlth debt, for we have come through war and
clvll war and audlences grow thln when there ls flrlng
ln the streets. We have, however, survlved so much that
I belleve ln our luck, and thlnk that I have a rlght to say
I end my lecture ln the mlddle or even perhaps at the
beglnnlng of the story. But certalnly I have sald enough
to make you understand why, when I recelved from the
hands of your Klng the great honour your Academy
has conferred upon me, I felt that a young man`s ghost
should have stood upon one slde of me and at the other
a llvlng woman ln her vlgorous old age. I have seen llt
tle ln thls last week that would not have been memora
ble and excltlng to Synge and to Lady Gregory, for
Sweden has achleved more than we have hoped for our
own country. I thlnk most of all perhaps of that splen
dld spectacle of your court, a famlly beloved and able
that has gathered about lt not the rank only but the
lntellect of lts country. No llke spectacle wlll ln Ireland
show lts work of dlsclpllne and of taste, though lt mlght
satlsfy a need of the race no lnstltutlon created by
Engllsh or Amerlcan democracy can satlsfy.
Notes
N
I was ln my Galway house durlng the flrst
months of clvll war, the rallway brldges blown up and
the roads blocked wlth stones and trees. Ior the flrst
week there were no newspapers, no rellable news, we
dld not know who had won nor who had lost, and even
538
v~W k iI NR a NVOP ai_ PPO
after newspapers came, one never knew what was hap
penlng on the other slde of the hlll or of the llne of
trees. Iord cars passed the house from tlme to tlme wlth
cofflns` standlng upon end between the seats, and some
tlmes at nlght we heard an exploslon, and once by day
saw the smoke made by the burnlng of a great nelgh
bourlng house. Men must have llved so through many
tumultuous centurles. One felt an overmasterlng deslre
not to grow unhappy or emblttered, not to lose all sense
of the beauty of nature. A stare (our West of Ireland
name for a starllng) had bullt ln a hole beslde my wln
dow and I made these verses out of the feellng of the
moment.
Jhe bees bulld ln the crevlces
Of loosenlng masonry, and there
Jhe mother blrds brlng grubs and flles.
My wall ls loosenlng, honey bees
Come bulld ln the empty house of the stare.
We are closed ln, and the key turned
On our uncertalnty; somewhere
A man ls kllled, or a house ls burned,
Yet no clear fact to be dlscerned.
Come bulld ln the empty house of the stare.
Jhat ls only the beglnnlng but lt runs on ln the same
mood. Presently a strange thlng happened; I began to
smell honey ln places where honey could not be, at the
end of a stone passage or at some wlndy turn of the
road and lt came always wlth certaln thoughts. When I
got back to Dublln I was wlth angry people, who
argued over everythlng or were eager to know the exact
facts. Jhey were ln the mood that makes reallstlc
drama.
O
Our flrst performances were pald for by Mr.
Edward Martyn, a Galway landowner wlth a house,
part fourteenth century, part that pretentlous modern
Gothlc once dear to Irlsh Cathollc famllles. He had a
great hall adorned wlth repeatlng patterns by that
dreary decorator Crace, where he played Palestrlna
upon an organ, and a study wlth plctures of the poets ln
poor stalned glass, where he read Ibsen and the Iathers
of the Church and nothlng else. A senslble frlendly man
wlth lntelllgence, strength of purpose, and a charmlng
manner, he shrank from women llke a medleval monk
and between hlm and all experlence came one over
whelmlng terror 'If I do such and such a thlng or read
such and such a book I may lose my soul." My `
`~ and a play of hls own were our flrst perfor
mances. My play`s herolne, havlng sold her soul to the
devll, gets lt back agaln because 'God only sees the
motlve not the deed," and her motlve ls to save starvlng
people from selllng thelr souls for thelr bodles` sake.
When all our announcements had been made Martyn
wlthdrew hls support because a prlest told hlm that the
play was heretlcal. I got two prlests to say that lt was
not and he was satlsfled, for we have democratlc ldeals.
He wlthdrew permanently, however, after a few
months, foreseelng further perll to hls soul. He dled a
couple of months ago and wlth hlm dled a famlly
founded ln the twelfth century. An unhappy, chlldless,
laborlous, unflnlshed man, typlcal of an Ireland that ls
passlng away.
P
|osef Strzygowskl ln hls l `~ `
^ (a translatlon of a serles of lectures, dellvered ln
Lpsala ln l9l9) says that art 'flourlshes less at courts
than anywhere else ln the world. Ior at the seat of
power everythlng ls subordlnated to polltlcs; the forces
wllllng to accept thls fact are always welcome; those
whlch are not wllllng must elther emlgrate or remaln
aloof. " Jhe danger to art and llterature comes today
from the tyranny and persuaslons of revolutlonary socl
etles and forms of polltlcal and rellglous propaganda.
Jhe persuaslon has corrupted much modern Engllsh
llterature; and durlng the twenty years that led up to
our natlonal revolutlon the tyranny wasted the greater
part of the energy of Irlsh dramatlsts and poets. Jhey
had to remaln perpetually on the watch to defend thelr
creatlon; and the more natural the creatlon the more
dlfflcult the defence.
Q
Slnce I gave my lecture we have produced g
~ m~ by Mr. O`Casey, the greatest success we
have had for years. In thls play, whlch draws lts charac
ters and scenes from the Dublln slums, a mlnd, not
unllke that of Dostoevsky, looks upon the vlolence and
tragedy of clvll war. Jhere ls assasslnatlon, sudden pov
erty, and the humour of drunkards and the phllosophy
of wastrels, and there ls llttle but the outworn theme of
seductlon, and perhaps a phrase or two of mechanlcal
humour, to show that lts author has not flnlshed hls
artlstlc educatlon. He ls a worklng brlcklayer who was
taken out to be shot by Engllsh soldlers ln mlstake for
somebody else, but escaped ln a moment of confuslon.
He knows thoroughly the llfe whlch he descrlbes.
*Yeats malntalned that hls lecture was wrltten
down from memory. It seems therefore approprlate to
lncorporate here certaln lmprovements he made ln a
verslon publlshed ln q _ p (Jhe Cuala
Press, Dublln, l925).
| Jhe Nobel Ioundatlon, l923. Wllllam Butler Yeats
539
k m i~~ i~I NVMNOMMR
NVMNW Sully Prudhomme (Irance)
NVMOW Jheodor Mommsen (Germany; born Denmark)
NVMPW Bjrnstjerne Bjrnson (Norway)
NVMQW Irdrlc Mlstral (Irance) and |os Echegaray
(Spaln)
NVMRW Henryk Slenklewlcz (Poland)
NVMSW Glosu Carduccl (Italy)
NVMTW Rudyard Klpllng (Lnlted Klngdom; born Bom
bay, Brltlsh Indla)
NVMUW Rudolf Eucken (Germany)
NVMVW Selma Lagerlf (Sweden)
NVNMW Paul Heyse (Germany)
NVNNW Maurlce Maeterllnck (Belglum)
NVNOW Gerhart Hauptmann (Germany)
NVNPW Rablndranath Jagore (Indla)
NVNQW No prlze was awarded
NVNRW Romaln Rolland (Irance)
NVNSW Verner von Heldenstam (Sweden)
NVNTW Karl Gjellerup (Denmark) and Henrlk Pontoppl
dan (Denmark)
NVNUW No prlze was awarded
NVNVW Carl Spltteler (Swltzerland)
NVOMW Knut Hamsun (Norway)
NVONW Anatole Irance (Irance)
NVOOW |aclnto Benavente (Spaln)
NVOPW Wllllam Butler Yeats (Ireland)
NVOQW Wadysaw Stanlsaw Reymont (Poland)
NVORW George Bernard Shaw (Lnlted Klngdom; born
Ireland)
NVOSW Grazla Deledda (Italy; born Sardlnla)
NVOTW Henrl Bergson (Irance)
NVOUW Slgrld Lndset (Norway; born Denmark)
NVOVW Jhomas Mann (Germany)
NVPMW Slnclalr Lewls (Lnlted States)
NVPNW Erlk Axel Karlfeldt (Sweden)
NVPOW |ohn Galsworthy (Lnlted Klngdom)
NVPPW Ivan Bunln (stateless; domlclle ln Irance; born
Russla)
NVPQW Lulgl Plrandello (Italy)
NVPRW No prlze was awarded
NVPSW Eugene O`Nelll (Lnlted States)
NVPTW Roger Martln du Gard (Irance)
NVPUW Pearl S. Buck (Lnlted States)
NVPVW Irans Eemll Slllanp (Ilnland)
NVQMW No prlze was awarded
NVQNW No prlze was awarded
NVQOW No prlze was awarded
NVQPW No prlze was awarded
NVQQW |ohannes V. |ensen (Denmark)
NVQRW Gabrlela Mlstral (Chlle)
NVQSW Hermann Hesse (Swltzerland; born Germany)
NVQTW Andr Glde (Irance)
NVQUW J. S. Ellot (Lnlted Klngdom; born Lnlted States)
NVQVW Wllllam Iaulkner (Lnlted States)
NVRMW Bertrand Russell (Lnlted Klngdom)
NVRNW Pr Lagerkvlst (Sweden)
NVROW Iranols Maurlac (Irance)
NVRPW Slr Wlnston Churchlll (Lnlted Klngdom)
NVRQW Ernest Hemlngway (Lnlted States)
NVRRW Halldr Laxness (Iceland)
NVRSW |uan Ramn |lmnez (Spaln)
NVRTW Albert Camus (Irance; born Algerla)
NVRUW Borls Pasternak (LSSR)
NVRVW Salvatore _uaslmodo (Italy)
NVSMW Salnt|ohn Perse (Irance; born Guadeloupe
Island)
NVSNW Ivo Andrl (Yugoslavla; born Bosnla)
NVSOW |ohn Stelnbeck (Lnlted States)
NVSPW George Seferls (Greece; born Jurkey)
NVSQW |eanPaul Sartre (Irance)
NVSRW Mlkhall Aleksandrovlch Sholokhov (LSSR)
NVSSW Shmuel Yosef Agnon (Israel) and Nelly Sachs
(Sweden; born Germany)
NVSTW Mlguel ngel Asturlas (Guatemala)
NVSUW Yasunarl Kawabata ( |apan)
NVSVW Samuel Beckett (Ireland)
NVTMW Aleksandr Solzhenltsyn (LSSR)
NVTNW Pablo Neruda (Chlle)
NVTOW Helnrlch Bll (Iederal Republlc of Germany)
NVTPW Patrlck Whlte (Australla; born Lnlted Klng
dom)
NVTQW Eyvlnd |ohnson (Sweden) and Harry Martlnson
(Sweden)
NVTRW Eugenlo Montale (Italy)
NVTSW Saul Bellow (Lnlted States; born Canada)
NVTTW Vlcente Alelxandre (Spaln)
NVTUW Isaac Bashevls Slnger (Lnlted States; born
Poland)
RQM
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NVUMW `~ j Em~Lr p~F
NVUNW b~ `~ Er hX _~~F
NVUOW d~ d~~ j E`~F
NVUPW t~ d Er hF
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v W a~ i~ _~ v~I NVUMJOMMO
ap W a~ i~ _~ a~ pI s NJNV
àî_ W ` a~ ^~ i~ _~I s NJT
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^
Aakjr, |eppe l8ool930 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l1
Aarestrup, Emil l800l85o . . . . . . . . . . . . DL300
Abbey, Edward l927l989 . . . . . . . . . DL25o, 275
Abbey, Edwin Austin l852l9ll . . . . . . . . DLl88
Abbey, Maj. |. R. l891l9o9 . . . . . . . . . . . DL20l
Abbey Iress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Jhe Abbey Jheatre and Irish Drama,
l900l915 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl0
Abbot, Willis |. l8o3l931. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL29
Abbott, Edwin A. l838l92o. . . . . . . . . . . DLl78
Abbott, |acob l803l879 . . . . . . . . . DLl, 12, 213
Abbott, Lee K. l917 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl30
Abbott, Lyman l835l922. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL79
Abbott, Robert S. l8o8l910 . . . . . . . . . DL29, 9l
'Abd alHamid alKatib
circa o89750 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3ll
Abe Kb l921l993. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl82
Abelaira, Augusto l92o . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL287
Abelard, Ieter circa l079ll12. . . . . . DLll5, 208
AbelardSchuman. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Abell, Arunah S. l80ol888. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL13
Abell, Kjeld l90ll9ol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l1
Abercrombie, Lascelles l88ll938. . . . . . . . DLl9
Jhe Iriends of the Dymock Ioets. . . . . . . .Y00
Aberdeen Lniversity Iress Limited . . . . . . DLl0o
Abish, Walter l93l . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl30, 227
Ablesimov, Aleksandr Onisimovich
l712l783. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl50
Abraham a Sancta Clara lo11l709. . . . . . DLlo8
Abrahams, Ieter
l9l9 . . . . . . . . . . DLll7, 225; CDWL3
Abramov, Iedor Aleksandrovich
l920l983 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL302
Abrams, M. H. l9l2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo7
Abramson, |esse l901l979 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL21l
^~ circa 790800 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl18
Abschatz, Hans Amann von
lo1olo99 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo8
Abse, Dannie l923 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL27, 215
Abu al'Atahiyah 718825.. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3ll
Abu Nuwas circa 7578l1 or 8l5 . . . . . . . . DL3ll
Abu Jammam circa 805815 . . . . . . . . . . . DL3ll
Abutsuni l22ll283 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL203
Academy Chicago Iublishers . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Accius circa l70 _.`.circa 80 _.`. . . . . . . . DL2ll
'An account of the death of the Chevalier de La
arre," Voltaire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l1
Accrocca, Elio Iilippo l923l99o. . . . . . . . DLl28
Ace ooks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Achebe, Chinua l930 . . . . DLll7; CDWL3
Achtenberg, Herbert l938 . . . . . . . . . . DLl21
Ackerman, Diane l918 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl20
Ackroyd, Ieter l919 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl55, 23l
Acorn, Milton l923l98o. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL53
Acosta, |os de l510lo00 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l8
Acosta, Oscar Zeta l935.l971. . . . . . . . . . DL82
Acosta Jorres, |os l925 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL209
Actors Jheatre of Louisville . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL7
Adair, Gilbert l911 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl91
Adair, |ames l709.l783.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL30
Aalsteinn Kristmundsson (see Steinn Steinarr)
Adam, Graeme Mercer l839l9l2 . . . . . . . DL99
Adam, Robert orthwick, II
l8o3l910 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl87
Adame, Leonard l917 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL82
Adameteanu, Gabriel 1942- . . . . . . . . . DL232
Adamic, Louis l898l95l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL9
Adamov, Arthur Surenovitch
l908l970 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL32l
Adamovich, Georgii l891l972 . . . . . . . . . DL3l7
Adams, Abigail l711l8l8 . . . . . . . . . DLl83, 200
Adams, Alice l92ol999 . . . . . . . . . DL231; Y8o
Adams, ertha Leith (Mrs. Leith Adams,
Mrs. R. S. de Courcy Laffan)
l837.l9l2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL210
Adams, rooks l818l927. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL17
Adams, Charles Irancis, |r. l835l9l5 . . . . DL17
Adams, Douglas l952200l. . . . . . . DL2ol; Y83
Adams, Iranklin I. l88ll9o0. . . . . . . . . . . DL29
Adams, Glenda l939 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL325
Adams, Hannah l755l832 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL200
Adams, Henry l838l9l8 . . . . . . . DLl2, 17, l89
Adams, Herbert axter l850l90l . . . . . . . DL17
Adams, |ames Jruslow
l878l919 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl7; DSl7
Adams, |ohn l735l82o. . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l, l83
Adams, |ohn _uincy l7o7l818. . . . . . . . . . DL37
Adams, Lonie l899l988. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL18
Adams, Levi l802l832. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL99
Adams, Richard l920 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2ol
Adams, Samuel l722l803. . . . . . . . . . . DL3l, 13
Adams, Sarah Iuller Ilower
l805l818 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl99
Adams, Jhomas l582/l583lo52 . . . . . . . DLl5l
Adams, William Jaylor l822l897 . . . . . . . DL12
|. S. and C. Adams |publishing house|. . . . . DL19
Adamson, Harold l90ol980. . . . . . . . . . . DL2o5
Adamson, Sir |ohn l8o7l950 . . . . . . . . . . . DL98
Adamson, Robert l913 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL289
Adcock, Arthur St. |ohn
l8o1l930 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl35
Adcock, etty l938 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl05
'Certain Gifts" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl05
Jribute to |ames Dickey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y97
Adcock, Ileur l931 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL10
Addams, |ane l8o0l935. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL303
Addison, |oseph
lo72l7l9 . . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl0l; CDL2
Ade, George l8ool911. . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll, 25
Adeler, Max (see Clark, Charles Heber)
Adlard, Mark l932 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2ol
Adler, Richard l92l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o5
Adonias Iilho
(Adonias Aguiar Iilho)
l9l5l990 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl15, 307
Adorno, Jheodor W. l903l9o9. . . . . . . . DL212
Adoum, |orge Enrique l92o . . . . . . . . . DL283
`~ f ai_ PPO
RQS
Advance Iublishing Company . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Ady, Endre l877l9l9. . . . . . DL2l5; CDWL1
AE l8o7l935 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl9; CDL5
lfric circa 955circa l0l0 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl1o
Aeschines circa 390 _.`.circa 320 _.`. . . . . .DLl7o
Aeschylus 525521 _.`.15o155 _.`.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl7o; CDWLl
^ m~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl
Aesthetics
EighteenthCentury Aesthetic
Jheories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l
African Literature
Letter from Khartoum. . . . . . . . . . . . . Y90
African American
AfroAmerican Literary Critics.
An Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL33
Jhe lack Aesthetic. ackground . . . . . . . DS8
Jhe lack Arts Movement,
by Larry Neal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL38
lack Jheaters and Jheater Organizations
in America, l9oll982.
A Research List . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL38
lack Jheatre. A Iorum |excerpts| . . . DL38
`~~ | journal| . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y87
Community and Commentators.
lack Jheatre and Its Critics . . . . . DL38
Jhe Emergence of lack
Women Writers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DS8
Jhe Hatchillops Collection. . . . . . . . DL7o
A Look at the Contemporary lack
Jheatre Movement . . . . . . . . . . . . DL38
Jhe MoorlandSpingarn Research
Center . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL7o
'Jhe Negro as a Writer," by
G. M. McClellan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL50
'Negro Ioets and Jheir Ioetry," by
Wallace Jhurman . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL50
Olaudah Equiano and Lnfinished |ourneys.
Jhe SlaveNarrative Jradition and
JwentiethCentury Continuities, by
Iaul Edwards and Iauline J.
Wangman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll7
IHYLON (Iourth _uarter, l950),
Jhe Negro in Literature.
Jhe Current Scene . . . . . . . . . . . . DL7o
Jhe Schomburg Center for Research
in lack Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL7o
Jhree Documents |poets|, by |ohn
Edward ruce . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL50
After Dinner Opera Company . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y92
Agassiz, Elizabeth Cary l822l907. . . . . . DLl89
Agassiz, Louis l807l873 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl, 235
Agee, |ames
l909l955 . . . . . . . DL2, 2o, l52; CDALl
Jhe Agee Legacy. A Conference at
the Lniversity of Jennessee
at Knoxville . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y89
Agnon, Shmuel Yosef l887l970 . . . . . . . . DL329
Aguilera Malta, Demetrio l909l98l . . . . DLl15
Aguirre, Isidora l9l9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL305
Agustini, Delmira l88ol9l1 . . . . . . . . . . DL290
Ahlin, Lars l9l5l997 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL257
Ai l917 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl20
Ai Wu l901l992 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL328
Aichinger, Ilse l92l . . . . . . . . . . . . DL85, 299
Aickman, Robert l9l1l98l. . . . . . . . . . . DL2ol
Aidoo, Ama Ata l912 . . . .DLll7; CDWL3
Aiken, Conrad
l889l973. . . . . . . . DL9, 15, l02; CDAL5
Aiken, |oan l9212001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlol
Aikin, Lucy l78ll8o1 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl11, lo3
Ainsworth, William Harrison
l805l882 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l
Ass, CharlotteElizabeth lo91.l733 . . . DL3l3
Aistis, |onas l901l973 . . . . . DL220; CDWL1
Aitken, Adam l9o0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL325
Aitken, George A. l8o0l9l7 . . . . . . . . . . DLl19
Robert Aitken |publishing house| . . . . . . . . DL19
Aitmatov, Chingiz l928 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL302
Akenside, Mark l72ll770 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl09
Akhmatova, Anna Andreevna
l889l9oo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL295
Akins, Zo l88ol958. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o
Aksakov, Ivan Sergeevich l823l82o . . . . .DL277
Aksakov, Sergei Jimofeevich
l79ll859. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl98
Aksyonov, Vassily l932 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL302
Akunin, oris (Grigorii Shalvovich
Chkhartishvili) l95o . . . . . . . . . . . DL285
Akutagawa Rynsuke l892l927 . . . . . . . DLl80
Alabaster, William l5o8lo10. . . . . . . . . . DLl32
Alain de Lille circa lllol202/l203 . . . . . DL208
AlainIournier l88ol9l1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo5
Alanus de Insulis (see Alain de Lille)
Alarcn, Irancisco X. l951 . . . . . . . . . DLl22
Alarcn, |usto S. l930 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL209
Alba, Nanina l9l5l9o8. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1l
Albee, Edward l928 . . . DL7, 2oo; CDALl
Albert, Octavia l853ca. l889 . . . . . . . . . DL22l
Albert the Great circa l200l280 . . . . . . . DLll5
Alberti, Rafael l902l999. . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl08
Albertinus, Aegidius circa l5o0lo20 . . . . DLlo1
Alcaeus born circa o20 _.`. . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl7o
Alcoforado, Mariana, the Iortuguese Nun
lo10l723. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL287
Alcott, Amos ronson
l799l888. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl, 223; DS5
Alcott, Louisa May l832l888
. . . DLl, 12, 79, 223, 239; DSl1; CDAL3
Alcott, William Andrus l798l859 . . . . DLl, 213
Alcuin circa 732801 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl18
Aldana, Irancisco de l537l578 . . . . . . . . DL3l8
Aldanov, Mark (Mark Landau)
l88ol957. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l7
Alden, Henry Mills l83ol9l9. . . . . . . . . . DL79
Alden, Isabella l81ll930 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL12
|ohn . Alden |publishing house| . . . . . . . . DL19
Alden, eardsley, and Company . . . . . . . . DL19
Aldington, Richard
l892l9o2 . . . . . . . . . . . .DL20, 3o, l00, l19
Aldis, Dorothy l89ol9oo . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL22
Aldis, H. G. l8o3l9l9. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl81
Aldiss, rian W. l925 . . . . . . . DLl1, 2ol, 27l
Aldrich, Jhomas ailey
l83ol907 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL12, 7l, 71, 79
Alegra, Ciro l909l9o7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll3
Alegra, Claribel l921 . . . . . . . . . DLl15, 283
Aleixandre, Vicente l898l981. . . . . DLl08, 329
Aleksandraviius, Jonas (see Aistis, Jonas)
Aleksandrov, Aleksandr Andreevich
(see Durova, Nadezhda Andreevna)
Alekseeva, Marina Anatolèvna
(see Marinina, Aleksandra)
dÀlembert, |ean Le Rond l7l7l783 . . . . DL3l3
Alencar, |os de l829l877 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL307
Aleramo, Sibilla (Rena Iierangeli Iaccio)
l87ol9o0. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll1, 2o1
Aleshkovsky, Ietr Markovich l957 . . . DL285
Aleshkovsky, Yuz l929 . . . . . . . . . . . . .DL3l7
Alexander, Cecil Irances l8l8l895. . . . . DLl99
Alexander, Charles l8o8l923 . . . . . . . . . . DL9l
Charles Wesley Alexander
|publishing house| . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Alexander, |ames lo9ll75o. . . . . . . . . . . . DL21
Alexander, Lloyd l921 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL52
Alexander, Meena l95l . . . . . . . . . . . . DL323
Alexander, Sir William, Earl of Stirling
l577.lo10. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl2l
Alexie, Sherman l9oo . . . . . . DLl75, 20o, 278
Alexis, Willibald l798l87l . . . . . . . . . . . DLl33
Alf laylah wa laylah
ninth century onward . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3ll
Alfred, King 819899 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl1o
Alger, Horatio, |r. l832l899 . . . . . . . . . . . DL12
Algonquin ooks of Chapel Hill . . . . . . . . DL1o
Algren, Nelson
l909l98l . . . . . . .DL9; Y8l, 82; CDALl
Nelson Algren. An International
Symposium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y00
Ali, Agha Shahid l919200l. . . . . . . . . . . DL323
Ali, Ahmed l908l991 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL323
Ali, Monica l9o7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL323
'Ali ibn Abi Jalib circa o00ool . . . . . . . . DL3ll
Aljamiado Literature. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL28o
Allan, Andrew l907l971 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL88
Allan, Jed l9lol995 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo8
Allbeury, Jed l9l7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL87
Alldritt, Keith l935 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl1
ai_ PPO `~ f
RQT
`
Allen, Dick l939 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL282

Allen, Ethan l738l789 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l
Allen, Irederick Lewis l890l951 . . . . . . . DLl37
Allen, Gay Wilson l903l995 . . . . . DLl03; Y95
Allen, George l808l87o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL59
Allen, Grant l818l899 . . . . . . . . . DL70, 92, l78
Allen, Henry W. l9l2l99l. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y85
Allen, Hervey l889l919. . . . . . . . . DL9, 15, 3lo
Allen, |ames l739l808 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l
Allen, |ames Lane l819l925. . . . . . . . . . . . DL7l
Allen, |ay Iresson l922 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o
|ohn Allen and Company . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Allen, Iaula Gunn l939 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl75
Allen, Samuel W. l9l7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1l
Allen, Woody l935 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL11
George Allen |publishing house| . . . . . . . . DLl0o
George Allen and Lnwin Limited . . . . . . . DLll2
Allende, Isabel l912 . . . . . DLl15; CDWL3
Alline, Henry l718l781 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL99
Allingham, Margery l901l9oo. . . . . . . . . . DL77
Jhe Margery Allingham Society. . . . . . . . .Y98
Allingham, William l821l889 . . . . . . . . . . DL35
W. L. Allison |publishing house| . . . . . . . . . DL19
Jhe ^~ j ^ ~ p~~
j ^ circa l350l100 . . . . . . . . DLl1o
Allott, Kenneth l9l2l973 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL20
Allston, Washington l779l813 . . . . . . . DLl, 235
Almeida, Manuel Antnio de
l83ll8ol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL307
|ohn Almon |publishing house| . . . . . . . . . DLl51
Alonzo, Dmaso l898l990. . . . . . . . . . . . DLl08
Alsop, George lo3opost lo73 . . . . . . . . . . . DL21
Alsop, Richard l7oll8l5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL37
Henry Altemus and Company. . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Altenberg, Ieter l885l9l9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL8l
Althusser, Louis l9l8l990 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL212
Altolaguirre, Manuel l905l959 . . . . . . . . DLl08
Aluko, J. M. l9l8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll7
Alurista l917 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL82
Alvarez, A. l929 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl1, 10
Alvarez, |ulia l950 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL282
Alvaro, Corrado l895l95o. . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o1
Alver, etti l90ol989 . . . . . . DL220; CDWL1
Amadi, Elechi l931 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll7
Amado, |orge l9l2200l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll3
Amalrik, Andrei
l938l980 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL302
Ambler, Eric l909l998 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL77
Jhe Library of America. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Jhe Library of America. An Assessment
After Jwo Decades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y02
America. or, A Ioem on the Settlement
of the ritish Colonies, by Jimothy
Dwight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL37
American ible Society
Department of Library, Archives, and
Institutional Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y97
American Conservatory
Jheatre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL7
American Culture
American Iroletarian Culture.
Jhe Jwenties and Jhirties . . . . . . . . DSll
Studies in American |ewish Literature . . . . . . . .Y02
Jhe American Library in Iaris . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y93
American Literature
Jhe Literary Scene and Situation and . . .
(Who esides Oprah) Really Runs
American Literature. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y99
Who Owns American Literature, by
Henry Jaylor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y91
Who Runs American Literature. . . . . . . . .Y91
American News Company. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
A Century of Ioetry, a Lifetime of Collecting.
|. M. Edelstein`s Collection of Jwentieth
Century American Ioetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y02
Jhe American Ioets` Corner. Jhe Iirst
Jhree Years (l983l98o) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y8o
American Iublishing Company. . . . . . . . . . DL19
^~ p~
xb~z o~~ c f~
f ^~ p~
Ek NVPOF. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl37
American Stationers` Company. . . . . . . . . . DL19
Jhe American Studies Association
of Norway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y00
American SundaySchool Lnion . . . . . . . . . DL19
American Jemperance Lnion . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
American Jract Society. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Jhe American Jrust for the ritish Library . . .Y9o
American Writers` Congress
2527 April l935 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL303
American Writers Congress
Jhe American Writers Congress
(9l2 October l98l) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y8l
Jhe American Writers Congress. A Report
on Continuing usiness . . . . . . . . . . . .Y8l
Ames, Iisher l758l808. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL37
Ames, Mary Clemmer l83ll881 . . . . . . . . DL23
Ames, William l57olo33 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL28l
Amfiteatrov, Aleksandr l8o2l938 . . . . . . DL3l7
Amiel, HenriIrdric l82ll88l. . . . . . . . DL2l7
Amini, |ohari M. l935 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1l
Amis, Kingsley l922l995
. . .DLl5, 27, l00, l39, 32o; Y9o; CDL7
Amis, Martin l919 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl1, l91
Ammianus Marcellinus
circa ^.a. 330^.a. 395 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2ll
Ammons, A. R. l92o200l . . . . . . . . . . DL5, lo5
Amory, Jhomas lo9l.l788 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL39
^~I l998 ooker Irize winner,
Ian McEwan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL32o
Amyot, |acques l5l3l593. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL327
Anand, Mulk Raj l9052001 . . . . . . . . . . . DL323
Anania, Michael l939 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl93
Anaya, Rudolfo A. l937 . . . . . DL82, 20o, 278
^ o circa l200l225. . . . . . . . . . . DLl1o
Andersch, Alfred l9l1l980 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo9
Andersen, enny l929 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l1
Andersen, Hans Christian l805l875 . . . . DL300
Anderson, Alexander l775l870 . . . . . . . . DLl88
Anderson, David l929 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL21l
Anderson, Irederick Irving l877l917 . . . . DL202
Anderson, |essica l9lo . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL325
Anderson, Margaret l88ol973 . . . . . . . . DL1, 9l
Anderson, Maxwell l888l959 . . . . . . . DL7, 228
Anderson, Iatrick l9l5l979. . . . . . . . . . . . DLo8
Anderson, Iaul Y. l893l938 . . . . . . . . . . . DL29
Anderson, Ioul l92o200l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL8
Jribute to Isaac Asimov . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y92
Anderson, Robert l750l830. . . . . . . . . . . DLl12
Anderson, Robert l9l7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL7
Anderson, Sherwood l87ol91l
. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1, 9, 8o; DSl; CDAL1
Andrade, |orge (Alusio |orge Andrade
Iranco) l922l981 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL307
Andrade, Mario de l893l915. . . . . . . . . . DL307
Andrade, Oswald de ( |os Oswald de Sousa
Andrade) l890l951 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL307
Andreae, |ohann Valentin l58olo51 . . . . DLlo1
Andreas Capellanus
fl. circa ll85 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL208
AndreasSalom, Lou l8oll937 . . . . . . . . . DLoo
Andreev, Leonid Nikolaevich
l87ll9l9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL295
Andres, Stefan l90ol970 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo9
Andresen, Sophia de Mello reyner
l9l9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL287
Andreu, lanca l959 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl31
Andrewes, Lancelot l555lo2o . . . . . DLl5l, l72
Andrews, Charles M. l8o3l913. . . . . . . . . DLl7
Andrews, Miles Ieter .l8l1 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL89
Andrews, Stephen Iearl l8l2l88o . . . . . . DL250
Andrian, Leopold von l875l95l . . . . . . . . DL8l
Andri, Ivo
l892l975 . . . . . . . . DLl17, 329; CDWL1
Andrieux, Louis (see Aragon, Louis)
Andrus, Silas, and Son. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Andrzejewski, |erzy l909l983 . . . . . . . . . DL2l5
Angell, |ames urrill l829l9lo . . . . . . . . . DLo1
Angell, Roger l920 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl7l, l85
Angelou, Maya l928 . . . . . . .DL38; CDAL7
Jribute to |ulian Mayfield . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y81
Anger, |ane fl. l589 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl3o
Angers, Ilicit (see Conan, Laure)
`~ f ai_ PPO
RQU
q ^Jp~ `
circa 890ll51 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl1o
Angus and Robertson (LK) Limited . . . . DLll2
Anhalt, Edward l9l12000. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o
Anissimov, Myriam l913 . . . . . . . . . . . DL299
Anker, Nini Roll l873l912 . . . . . . . . . . . DL297
Annenkov, Iavel Vasilèvich
l8l3.l887. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DL277
Annensky, Innokentii Iedorovich
l855l909 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL295
Henry I. Anners |publishing house| . . . . . . DL19
^ between l077 and l08l . . . . . . . . DLl18
Anouilh, |ean l9l0l987. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL32l
Anscombe, G. E. M. l9l9200l . . . . . . . . DL2o2
Anselm of Canterbury l033ll09. . . . . . . DLll5
Anstey, I. l85ol931 . . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl1l, l78
'Antarah ('Antar ibn Shaddad al'Absi)
.early seventh century.. . . . . . . . . . . DL3ll
Anthologizing New Iormalism. . . . . . . . . DL282
Anthony, Michael l932 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl25
Anthony, Iiers l931 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL8
Anthony, Susanna l72ol79l . . . . . . . . . . DL200
Antin, David l932 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo9
Antin, Mary l88ll919 . . . . . . . . . . DL22l; Y81
Anton Llrich, Duke of runswickLneburg
lo33l7l1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo8
Antschel, Iaul (see Celan, Iaul)
Antunes, Antnio Lobo l912 . . . . . . . DL287
Anyidoho, Kofi l917 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl57
Anzalda, Gloria l912 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl22
Anzengruber, Ludwig l839l889 . . . . . . . DLl29
Apess, William l798l839. . . . . . . . . .DLl75, 213
Apodaca, Rudy S. l939 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL82
Apollinaire, Guillaume l880l9l8 . . DL258, 32l
Apollonius Rhodius third century _.`. . . . .DLl7o
Apple, Max l91l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl30
Appelfeld, Aharon l932 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL299
D. Appleton and Company . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
AppletonCenturyCrofts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Applewhite, |ames l935 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl05
Jribute to |ames Dickey. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y97
Applewood ooks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
April, |eanIierre l918 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL25l
Apukhtin, Aleksei Nikolaevich
l810l893 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DL277
Apuleius circa ^.a. l25post ^.a. lo1
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2ll; CDWLl
Aquin, Hubert l929l977. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL53
Aquinas, Jhomas l221/l225l271 . . . . . . DLll5
Aragon, Louis l897l982 . . . . . . . . . . DL72, 258
Aragon, Vernacular Jranslations in the
Crowns of Castile and l352l5l5 . . . DL28o
Aralica, Ivan l930 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl8l
Aratus of Soli
circa 3l5 _.`.circa 239 _.`. . . . . . . . .DLl7o
Arbasino, Alberto l930 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl9o
Arbor House Iublishing Company . . . . . . DL1o
Arbuthnot, |ohn loo7l735. . . . . . . . . . . . DLl0l
Arcadia House . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Arce, |ulio G. (see Llica, |orge)
Archer, William l85ol921. . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl0
Archilochhus
mid seventh century _.`.b.. . . . . . . . . .DLl7o
Jhe Archpoet circa ll30.. . . . . . . . . . . . DLl18
Archpriest Avvakum (Ietrovich)
lo20.lo82. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl50
Arden, |ohn l930 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl3, 215
^ c~~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo2
Ardis Iublishers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y89
Ardizzone, Edward l900l979 . . . . . . . . . DLlo0
Arellano, |uan Estevan l917 . . . . . . . . DLl22
Jhe Arena Iublishing Company . . . . . . . . DL19
Arena Stage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL7
Arenas, Reinaldo l913l990. . . . . . . . . . . DLl15
Arendt, Hannah l90ol975 . . . . . . . . . . . DL212
Arensberg, Ann l937 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y82
Arghezi, Judor l880l9o7 . . . DL220; CDWL1
Arguedas, |os Mara l9lll9o9 . . . . . . . DLll3
Argelles, Hugo l9322003 . . . . . . . . . . . DL305
Argueta, Manlio l93o . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl15
'Arib alMa`muniyah 797890 . . . . . . . . . . DL3ll
Arias, Ron l91l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL82
Arishima Jakeo l878l923. . . . . . . . . . . . DLl80
Aristophanes circa 11o _.`.circa 38o _.`.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl7o; CDWLl
Aristotle 381 _.`.322 _.`.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl7o; CDWLl
Ariyoshi Sawako l93ll981 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl82
Arland, Marcel l899l98o . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL72
Arlen, Michael l895l95o . . . . . . . DL3o, 77, lo2
Arlt, Roberto l900l912. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL305
Armah, Ayi Kwei l939 . . . DLll7; CDWL3
Armantrout, Rae l917 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl93
Der arme Hartmann .after ll50 . . . . . . . DLl18
Armed Services Editions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Armitage, G. E. (Robert Edric) l95o . . DL2o7
Armstrong, Martin Donisthorpe
l882l971. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl97
Armstrong, Richard l903l98o . . . . . . . . DLlo0
Armstrong, Jerence Ian Iytton (see Gawsworth, |ohn)
Arnauld, Antoine lol2lo91 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o8
Arndt, Ernst Moritz l7o9l8o0. . . . . . . . . . DL90
Arnim, Achim von l78ll83l. . . . . . . . . . . DL90
Arnim, ettina von l785l859 . . . . . . . . . . DL90
Arnim, Elizabeth von (Countess Mary Annette
eauchamp Russell) l8ool91l . . . . DLl97
Arno Iress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Arnold, Edwin l832l901 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL35
Arnold, Edwin L. l857l935 . . . . . . . . . . .DLl78
Arnold, Matthew
l822l888 . . . . . . . . . . DL32, 57; CDL1
Ireface to m (l853) . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL32
Arnold, Jhomas l795l812 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL55
Edward Arnold |publishing house| . . . . . . DLll2
Arnott, Ieter l9o2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL233
Arnow, Harriette Simpson l908l98o . . . . . DLo
Arp, ill (see Smith, Charles Henry)
Arpino, Giovanni l927l987. . . . . . . . . . . .DLl77
Arrabal, Iernando l932 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL32l
Arrebo, Anders l587lo37 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL300
Arreola, |uan |os l9l8200l . . . . . . . . . . DLll3
Arrian circa 89circa l55. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl7o
|. W. Arrowsmith |publishing house| . . . . DLl0o
Arrufat, Antn l935 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL305
Art
|ohn Dos Iassos. Artist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y99
Jhe Iirst IostImpressionist
Exhibition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DS5
Jhe Omega Workshops. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DSl0
Jhe Second IostImpressionist
Exhibition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DS5
Artaud, Antonin l89ol918 . . . . . . . DL258, 32l
Artel, |orge l909l991 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL283
Arthur, Jimothy Shay
l809l885 . . . . . . . .DL3, 12, 79, 250; DSl3
Artmann, H. C. l92l2000. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL85
Artsybashev, Mikhail Ietrovich
l878l927. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL295
Arvin, Newton l900l9o3 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl03
Asch, Nathan l902l9o1 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1, 28
Nathan Asch Remembers Iord Madox
Iord, Sam Roth, and Hart Crane . . . . Y02
Ascham, Roger l5l5/l5lol5o8. . . . . . . . DL23o
Aseev, Nikolai Nikolaevich
l889l9o3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL295
Ash, |ohn l918 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL10
Ashbery, |ohn l927 . . . . . . . . . DL5, lo5; Y8l
Ashbridge, Elizabeth l7l3l755 . . . . . . . . DL200
Ashburnham, ertram Lord
l797l878 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl81
Ashendene Iress. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll2
Asher, Sandy l912 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y83
Ashton, Winifred (see Dane, Clemence)
Asimov, Isaac l920l992 . . . . . . . . . . . DL8; Y92
Jribute to |ohn Ciardi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y8o
Askew, Anne circa l52ll51o. . . . . . . . . . DLl3o
Aspazija l8o5l913. . . . . . . . DL220; CDWL1
Asselin, Olivar l871l937. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL92
Jhe Association of American Iublishers . . . . . Y99
Jhe Association for Documentary Editing. . . . Y00
ai_ PPO `~ f
RQV
`
Jhe Association for the Study of

Literature and Environment (ASLE). . . . . .Y99
Astell, Mary loool73l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL252
Astley, Jhea l925 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL289
Astley, William (see Warung, Irice)
Asturias, Miguel ngel
l899l971 . . . . DLll3, 290, 329; CDWL3
Atava, S. (see Jerpigorev, Sergei Nikolaevich)
Atheneum Iublishers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Atherton, Gertrude l857l918. . . . . DL9, 78, l8o
Athlone Iress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll2
Atkins, |osiah circa l755l78l . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l
Atkins, Russell l92o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1l
Atkinson, Kate l95l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o7
Atkinson, Louisa l831l872. . . . . . . . . . . . DL230
Jhe Atlantic Monthly Iress. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Attaway, William l9lll98o . . . . . . . . . . . . DL7o
Atwood, Margaret l939 . . . . . DL53, 25l, 32o
Aubert, Alvin l930 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1l
Aub, Max l903l972 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL322
Aubert de Gasp, IhillipeIgnaceIranois
l8l1l81l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL99
Aubert de Gasp, Ihillipe|oseph
l78ol87l. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL99
Aubign, Jhodore Agrippa d`
l552lo30 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL327
Aubin, Napolon l8l2l890 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL99
Aubin, Ienelope
lo85circa l73l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL39
Ireface to q i `~~
m (l723) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL39
AubreyIletcher, Henry Lancelot (see Wade, Henry)
Auchincloss, Louis l9l7 . . . . . DL2, 211; Y80
Auden, W. H.
l907l973. . . . . . . . . . . .DLl0, 20; CDLo
Audiberti, |acques l899l9o5 . . . . . . . . . . DL32l
Audio Art in America. A Iersonal Memoir . . . .Y85
Audubon, |ohn |ames l785l85l. . . . . . . . DL218
Audubon, |ohn Woodhouse
l8l2l8o2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl83
Auerbach, erthold l8l2l882 . . . . . . . . . DLl33
Auernheimer, Raoul l87ol918 . . . . . . . . . . DL8l
Augier, Emile l820l889 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl92
Augustine 351130. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll5
Aulnoy, MarieCatherine Le |umel
de arneville, comtesse d`
lo50/lo5ll705 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o8
Aulus Gellius
circa ^.a. l25circa ^.a. l80. . . . . . . . DL2ll
Austen, |ane l775l8l7 . . . . . .DLllo; CDL3
Auster, Iaul l917 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL227
Austin, Alfred l835l9l3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL35
Austin, |. L. l9lll9o0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o2
Austin, |ane Goodwin l83ll891 . . . . . . . DL202
Austin, |ohn l790l859 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o2
Austin, Mary Hunter
l8o8l931 . . . . . . . . . DL9, 78, 20o, 22l, 275
Austin, William l778l81l. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL71
Australie (Emily Manning)
l815l890 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL230
Authors and Newspapers Association . . . . . DL1o
Authors` Iublishing Company. . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Avallone, Michael l921l999 . . . . . DL30o; Y99
Jribute to |ohn D. MacDonald . . . . . . . . . .Y8o
Jribute to Kenneth Millar . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y83
Jribute to Raymond Chandler . . . . . . . . . .Y88
Avalon ooks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Avancini, Nicolaus lolllo8o . . . . . . . . . . DLlo1
Avendao, Iausto l91l . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL82
Averros ll2oll98. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll5
Avery, Gillian l92o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlol
Avicenna 980l037 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll5
vila |imnez, Antonio l898l9o5 . . . . . . DL283
Avison, Margaret l9l8l987 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL53
Avon ooks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Avyius, |onas l922l999 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL220
Awdry, Wilbert Vere l9lll997 . . . . . . . . DLlo0
Awoonor, Kofi l935 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll7
Ayala, Irancisco l90o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL322
Ayckbourn, Alan l939 . . . . . . . . . . DLl3, 215
Ayer, A. |. l9l0l989. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o2
Aym, Marcel l902l9o7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL72
Aytoun, Sir Robert l570lo38 . . . . . . . . . . DLl2l
Aytoun, William Edmondstoune
l8l3l8o5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL32, l59
Azevedo, Alusio l857l9l3. . . . . . . . . . . . DL307
Azevedo, Manuel Antnio lvares de
l83ll852 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL307
Azorn ( |os Martnez Ruiz)
l873l9o7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL322
_
.V. (see Jhomson, |ames)
a |in l9012005 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL328
abbitt, Irving l8o5l933 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo3
abbitt, Natalie l932 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL52
|ohn abcock |publishing house| . . . . . . . . . DL19
abel, Isaak Emmanuilovich
l891l910 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL272
abits, Mihly l883l91l . . . DL2l5; CDWL1
abrius circa l50200. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl7o
abson, Marian l929 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL27o
aca, |immy Santiago l952 . . . . . . . . . . DLl22
acchelli, Riccardo l89ll985. . . . . . . . . . DL2o1
ache, enjamin Iranklin l7o9l798 . . . . . . DL13
achelard, Gaston l881l9o2 . . . . . . . . . . DL29o
acheller, Irving l859l950 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL202
achmann, Ingeborg l92ol973 . . . . . . . . . DL85
ainskaituien, Salomja (see Nris, Salomja)
acon, Delia l8lll859. . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl, 213
acon, Irancis
l5ollo2o . . . . . DLl5l, 23o, 252; CDLl
acon, Sir Nicholas circa l5l0l579 . . . . . DLl32
acon, Roger circa l2l1/l220l292 . . . . . DLll5
acon, Jhomas circa l700l7o8. . . . . . . . . . DL3l
acovia, George
l88ll957 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL220; CDWL1
Richard G. adger and Company . . . . . . . . DL19
agaduce Music Lending Library . . . . . . . . . . . Y00
age, Robert l728l80l. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL39
agehot, Walter l82ol877 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL55
aggesen, |ens l7o1l82o . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL300
agley, Desmond l923l983 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL87
agley, Sarah G. l80ol818. . . . . . . . . . . . DL239
agnold, Enid
l889l98l . . . . . . . . . . . DLl3, lo0, l9l, 215
agryana, Elisaveta
l893l99l . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl17; CDWL1
ahr, Hermann l8o3l931 . . . . . . . . . DL8l, ll8
af, |eanAntoine de l532l589 . . . . . . . . DL327
ail, Murray l91l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL325
ailey, Abigail Abbot
l71ol8l5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL200
ailey, Alfred Goldsworthy l905l997 . . . . DLo8
ailey, H. C. l878l9ol. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL77
ailey, |acob l73ll808 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL99
ailey, Iaul l937 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl1, 27l
ailey, Ihilip |ames l8lol902 . . . . . . . . . . DL32
Irancis ailey |publishing house|. . . . . . . . . DL19
aillargeon, Iierre l9lol9o7 . . . . . . . . . . . DL88
aillie, Hugh l890l9oo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL29
aillie, |oanna l7o2l85l. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL93
ailyn, ernard l922 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl7
ain, Alexander
b ` ~ o (l8oo)
|excerpt| . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL57
ainbridge, eryl l933 . . . . . . . . . . DLl1, 23l
aird, Irene l90ll98l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo8
aker, Augustine l575lo1l. . . . . . . . . . . . DLl5l
aker, Carlos l909l987 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl03
aker, David l951 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl20
aker, George Iierce l8ool935 . . . . . . . . DL2oo
aker, Herschel C. l9l1l990 . . . . . . . . . . DLlll
aker, Houston A., |r. l913 . . . . . . . . . . DLo7
aker, Howard
Jribute to Caroline Gordon . . . . . . . . . . . .Y8l
Jribute to Katherine Anne Iorter . . . . . . . .Y80
aker, Nicholson l957 . . . . . . . . . DL227; Y00
Review of Nicholson aker`s a cW
i~ ~ ^~ m~ . . . . . . . Y00
aker, Samuel White l82ll893 . . . . . . . . DLloo
aker, Jhomas lo5ol710 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l3
`~ f ai_ PPO
RRM
Walter H. aker Company
('aker`s Ilays") . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Jhe aker and Jaylor Company . . . . . . . . DL19
akhtin, Mikhail Mikhailovich
l895l975. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL212
akunin, Mikhail Aleksandrovich
l8l1l87o. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DL277
alaban, |ohn l913 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl20
ald, Wambly l902l990 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1
alde, |acob lo01loo8. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo1
alderston, |ohn l889l951 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o
aldwin, |ames l921l987
. . . . . . DL2, 7, 33, 219, 278; Y87; CDALl
aldwin, |oseph Glover
l8l5l8o1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3, ll, 218
aldwin, Louisa (Mrs. Alfred aldwin)
l815l925 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL210
aldwin, William circa l5l5l5o3 . . . . . . DLl32
Richard and Anne aldwin
|publishing house| . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl70
ale, |ohn l195l5o3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl32
alestrini, Nanni l935 . . . . . . . . DLl28, l9o
alfour, Sir Andrew lo30lo91 . . . . . . . . DL2l3
alfour, Arthur |ames l818l930 . . . . . . . DLl90
alfour, Sir |ames lo00lo57 . . . . . . . . . . DL2l3
allantine ooks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
allantyne, R. M. l825l891 . . . . . . . . . . DLlo3
allard, |. G. l930 . . . . . . DLl1, 207, 2ol, 3l9
allard, Martha Moore l735l8l2 . . . . . . DL200
allerini, Luigi l910 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl28
allou, Maturin Murray (Lieutenant Murray)
l820l895 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL79, l89
Robert O. allou |publishing house| . . . . . DL1o
al`mont, Konstantin Dmitrievich
l8o7l912 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL295
alzac, Guez de l597.lo51 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o8
alzac, Honor de l799l855 . . . . . . . . . . DLll9
ambara, Joni Cade
l939l995 . . . . . . . . . DL38, 2l8; CDAL7
amford, Samuel l788l872 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl90
A. L. ancroft and Company . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
ancroft, George l800l89l. . . DLl, 30, 59, 213
ancroft, Hubert Howe l832l9l8. . . . DL17, l10
andeira, Manuel l88ol9o8 . . . . . . . . . . DL307
andelier, Adolph I. l810l9l1 . . . . . . . . DLl8o
ang, Herman l857l9l2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL300
angs, |ohn Kendrick l8o2l922 . . . . . DLll, 79
anim, |ohn l798l812. . . . . . . .DLllo, l58, l59
anim, Michael l79ol871 . . . . . . . . DLl58, l59
anks, Iain (M.) l951 . . . . . . . . . DLl91, 2ol
anks, |ohn circa lo53l70o. . . . . . . . . . . . DL80
anks, Russell l910 . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl30, 278
annerman, Helen l8o2l91o . . . . . . . . . DLl1l
antam ooks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
anti, Anna l895l985. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl77
anville, |ohn l915 . . . . . . . . . DLl1, 27l, 32o
anville, Jhodore de l823l89l. . . . . . . DL2l7
ao Jianxiao l87ol973 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL328
araka, Amiri
l931 . . . .DL5, 7, lo, 38; DS8; CDALl
Baraczak, Stanisaw l91o . . . . . . . . . . DL232
aranskaia, Natalìa Vladimirovna
l908 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL302
aratynsky, Evgenii Abramovich
l800l811 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL205
arba|acob, Iorfirio l883l912. . . . . . . . DL283
arbauld, Anna Laetitia
l713l825. . . . . . . . . . . DLl07, l09, l12, l58
arbeau, Marius l883l9o9 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL92
arber, |ohn Warner l798l885 . . . . . . . . . DL30
arberi Squarotti, Giorgio l929 . . . . . . DLl28
arbey dÀurevilly, |ulesAmde
l808l889 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll9
arbier, Auguste l805l882 . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l7
arbilian, Dan (see arbu, Ion)
arbour, |ohn circa l3lol395 . . . . . . . . . DLl1o
arbour, Ralph Henry l870l911. . . . . . . . DL22
arbu, Ion l895l9ol. . . . . . DL220; CDWL1
arbusse, Henri l873l935. . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo5
arclay, Alexander circa l175l552 . . . . . DLl32
E. E. arclay and Company . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
C. W. ardeen |publishing house| . . . . . . . DL19
arham, Richard Harris l788l815 . . . . . DLl59
arich, ill l913 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl85
aring, Maurice l871l915. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL31
aringGould, Sabine l831l921 . . . DLl5o, l90
arker, A. L. l9l82002 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl1, l39
arker, Clive l952 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2ol
arker, Dudley (see lack, Lionel)
arker, George l9l3l99l . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL20
arker, Harley Granville l877l91o . . . . . . DLl0
arker, Howard l91o . . . . . . . . . . DLl3, 233
arker, |ames Nelson l781l858. . . . . . . . . DL37
arker, |ane lo52l727 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL39, l3l
arker, Lady Mary Anne l83ll9ll . . . . DLloo
arker, Iat l913 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DL27l, 32o
arker, William circa l520after l57o. . . . DLl32
Arthur arker Limited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll2
arkov, Ivan Semenovich l732l7o8. . . . . DLl50
arks, Coleman l937 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL5
arlach, Ernst l870l938 . . . . . . . . . . DL5o, ll8
arlow, |oel l751l8l2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL37
q m m~ (l778) . . . . . . . . . . . DL37
arnard, |ohn lo8ll770 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL21
arnard, Marjorie (M. arnard Eldershaw)
l897l987 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o0
arnard, Robert l93o . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DL27o
arne, Kitty (Mary Catherine arne)
l883l957 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo0
arnes, arnabe l57llo09 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl32
arnes, Djuna l892l982 . . . . DL1, 9, 15; DSl5
arnes, |im l933 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl75
arnes, |ulian l91o . . . . . . . . . . . DLl91; Y93
Notes for a Checklist of Iublications . . . . . Y0l
arnes, Margaret Ayer l88ol9o7 . . . . . . . . DL9
arnes, Ieter l93l . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl3, 233
arnes, William l80ll88o . . . . . . . . . . . . DL32
A. S. arnes and Company . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
arnes and Noble ooks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
arnet, Miguel l910 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl15
arney, Natalie l87ol972 . . . . . . . . DL1; DSl5
arnfield, Richard l571lo27 . . . . . . . . . . .DLl72
aroja, Io l872l95o. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL322
Richard W. aron |publishing house| . . . . . DL1o
arr, Amelia Edith Huddleston
l83ll9l9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL202, 22l
arr, Robert l850l9l2 . . . . . . . . . . . . .DL70, 92
arral, Carlos l928l989 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl31
arrax, Gerald William l933 . . . . DL1l, l20
arrs, Maurice l8o2l923. . . . . . . . . . . . DLl23
arreno, Maria Isabel (see Jhe Jhree Marias.
A Landmark Case in Iortuguese
Literary History)
arrett, Eaton Stannard l78ol820. . . . . . DLllo
arrie, |. M.
l8o0l937 . . . . . DLl0, l1l, l5o; CDL5
arrie and |enkins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll2
arrio, Raymond l92l . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL82
arrios, Gregg l915 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl22
arry, Ihilip l89ol919 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL7, 228
arry, Robertine (see Iranoise)
arry, Sebastian l955 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL215
arse and Hopkins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
arstow, Stan l928 . . . . . . . . . DLl1, l39, 207
Jribute to |ohn raine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y8o
arth, |ohn l930 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DL2, 227
arthelme, Donald
l93ll989 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2, 231; Y80, 89
arthelme, Irederick l913 . . . . . . DL211; Y85
arthes, Roland l9l5l980 . . . . . . . . . . . DL29o
artholomew, Irank l898l985 . . . . . . . . .DLl27
artlett, |ohn l820l905. . . . . . . . . . . . DLl, 235
artol, Cyrus Augustus l8l3l900. . . . DLl, 235
arton, ernard l781l819. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL9o
arton, |ohn ca. lol0lo75. . . . . . . . . . . . DL23o
arton, Jhomas Iennant l803l8o9 . . . . DLl10
artram, |ohn lo99l777 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l
artram, William l739l823. . . . . . . . . . . . DL37
ai_ PPO `~ f
RRN
`
arykova, Anna Iavlovna l839l893 . . . . DL277

ashshar ibn urd circa 7l1circa 781 . . . . DL3ll
asic ooks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
asille, Jheodore (see econ, Jhomas)
ass, Rick l958 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l2, 275
ass, J. |. l932 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y8l
assani, Giorgio l9lo2000 . . . . DLl28, l77, 299
asse, William circa l583lo53 . . . . . . . . . DLl2l
assett, |ohn Spencer l8o7l928 . . . . . . . . . DLl7
assler, Jhomas |oseph (see ass, J. |.)
ate, Walter |ackson l9l8l999. . . . . . DLo7, l03
ateman, Stephen circa l5l0l581. . . . . . . DLl3o
Christopher ateman
|publishing house| . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl70
ates, H. E. l905l971. . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo2, l9l
ates, Katharine Lee l859l929 . . . . . . . . . DL7l
atiushkov, Konstantin Nikolaevich
l787l855. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL205
. J. atsford |publishing house| . . . . . . . . DLl0o
atteux, Charles l7l3l780 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l3
attiscombe, Georgina l905 . . . . . . . . . DLl55
q _~ j~ circa l000 . . . . . . . . . . DLl1o
audelaire, Charles l82ll8o7 . . . . . . . . . DL2l7
audrillard, |ean l929 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL29o
auer, runo l809l882 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl33
auer, Wolfgang l91l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl21
aum, L. Irank l85ol9l9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL22
aum, Vicki l888l9o0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL85
aumbach, |onathan l933 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y80
ausch, Richard l915 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl30
Jribute to |ames Dickey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y97
Jribute to Ieter Jaylor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y91
ausch, Robert l915 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l8
awden, Nina l925 . . . . . . . . . DLl1, lol, 207
ax, Clifford l88ol9o2. . . . . . . . . . . . DLl0, l00
axter, Charles l917 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl30
ayer, Eleanor (see Ierry, Eleanor)
ayer, Konrad l932l9o1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL85
ayle, Iierre lo17l70o. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o8, 3l3
ayley, arrington |. l937 . . . . . . . . . . . DL2ol
aynes, Iauline l922 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo0
aynton, arbara l857l929 . . . . . . . . . . . DL230
azin, Herv ( |ean Iierre Marie Hervazin)
l9lll99o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL83
Jhe C Iour Samuel |ohnson Irize
for Nonfiction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y02
each, Sylvia l887l9o2. . . . . . . . . . . DL1; DSl5
eacon Iress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
eadle and Adams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
eagle, Ieter S. l939 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y80
eal, M. I. l937 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y8l
eale, Howard K. l899l959. . . . . . . . . . . . DLl7
eard, Charles A. l871l918 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl7
eat Generation (eats)
As I See It, by Carolyn Cassady . . . . . . DLlo
A eat Chronology. Jhe Iirst Jwentyfive
Years, l911l9o9. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo
Jhe Commercialization of the Image
of Revolt, by Kenneth Rexroth. . . . DLlo
Iour Essays on the eat Generation . . . DLlo
in New York City . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL237
in the West . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL237
Outlaw Days . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo
Ieriodicals of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo
eattie, Ann l917 . . . . . . . . DL2l8, 278; Y82
eattie, |ames l735l803 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl09
eatty, Chester l875l9o8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL20l
eauchemin, Nre l850l93l . . . . . . . . . . DL92
eauchemin, Yves l91l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo0
eaugrand, Honor l818l90o . . . . . . . . . . DL99
eaulieu, VictorLvy l915 . . . . . . . . . . . DL53
eaumarchais, IierreAugustin Caron de
l732l799 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l3
eaumer, Mme de .l7oo. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l3
eaumont, Irancis circa l581lolo
and Iletcher, |ohn
l579lo25 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL58; CDLl
eaumont, Sir |ohn l583.lo27. . . . . . . . . DLl2l
eaumont, |oseph lololo99. . . . . . . . . . . DLl2o
eauvoir, Simone de l908l98o. . . . . DL72; Y8o
Iersonal Jribute to Simone de eauvoir . . . .Y8o
eaver, ruce l928 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL289
echer, Llrich l9l0l990. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo9
ecker, Carl l873l915 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl7
ecker, |urek l937l997 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL75, 299
ecker, |urgen l932 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL75
eckett, Mary l92o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l9
eckett, Samuel
l90ol989 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl3, l5, 233, 3l9,
32l, 329; Y90; CDL7
eckford, William l7o0l811. . . . . . . . DL39, 2l3
eckham, arry l911 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL33
ekovi, Matija l939 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl8l
econ, Jhomas circa l5l2l5o7 . . . . . . . . DLl3o
ecque, Henry l837l899 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl92
eddoes, Jhomas l7o0l808. . . . . . . . . . . DLl58
eddoes, Jhomas Lovell l803l819 . . . . . . DL9o
ede circa o73735 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl1o
edford|ones, H. l887l919 . . . . . . . . . . . DL25l
edregal, Yolanda l9l3l999. . . . . . . . . . . DL283
eebe, William l877l9o2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL275
eecher, Catharine Esther
l800l878 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl, 213
eecher, Henry Ward
l8l3l887 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3, 13, 250
eer, George L. l872l920. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL17
eer, |ohann lo55l700 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo8
eer, Iatricia l9l9l999 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL10
eerbohm, Max l872l95o . . . . . . . . . DL31, l00
eerHofmann, Richard l8ool915. . . . . . . DL8l
eers, Henry A. l817l92o . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL7l
S. O. eeton |publishing house| . . . . . . . . . DLl0o
egley, Louis l933 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL299
gon, Elisabeth lo9ol755. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL99
ehan, rendan
l923l9o1 . . . . . . . . . .DLl3, 233; CDL7
ehn, Aphra lo10.lo89. . . . . . . . DL39, 80, l3l
ehn, Harry l898l973 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLol
ehrman, S. N. l893l973. . . . . . . . . . . . DL7, 11
eklemishev, Iurii Solomonvich
(see Krymov, Iurii Solomonovich)
elaney, Archibald Stansfeld (see Grey Owl)
elasco, David l853l93l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL7
Clarke elford and Company . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
elgian Luxembourg American Studies
Association . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y0l
elinsky, Vissarion Grigorèvich
l8lll818 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl98
elitt, en l9ll2003. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL5
elknap, |eremy l711l798 . . . . . . . . . . DL30, 37
ell, Adrian l90ll980 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl9l
ell, Clive l88ll9o1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DSl0
ell, Daniel l9l9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL21o
ell, Gertrude Margaret Lowthian
l8o8l92o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl71
ell, |ames Madison l82ol902. . . . . . . . . . DL50
ell, Madison Smartt l957 . . . . . . DL2l8, 278
Jribute to Andrew Nelson Lytle . . . . . . . . .Y95
ell, Marvin l937 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL5
ell, Millicent l9l9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlll
ell, _uentin l9l0l99o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl55
ell, Vanessa l879l9ol. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DSl0
George ell and Sons. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl0o
Robert ell |publishing house|. . . . . . . . . . . DL19
ellamy, Edward l850l898 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl2
ellamy, |oseph l7l9l790 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l
|ohn ellamy |publishing house| . . . . . . . . DLl70
i~ _ ^ l80ol837 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll0
ellezza, Dario l911l99o . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl28
elli, Carlos Germn l927 . . . . . . . . . . DL290
elli, Gioconda l918 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL290
elloc, Hilaire l870l953 . . . . DLl9, l00, l1l, l71
elloc, Madame (see Iarkes, essie Rayner)
ellonci, Maria l902l98o. . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl9o
ellow, Saul l9l52005
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2, 28, 299, 329; Y82;
DS3; CDALl
Jribute to Isaac ashevis Singer . . . . . . . . .Y9l
`~ f ai_ PPO
RRO
elmont Iroductions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
elov, Vasilii Ivanovich l932 . . . . . . . . DL302
els, Alberts l938 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL232
Belevica, Vizma l93l . . . DL232; CDWL1
ely, Andrei l880l931 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL295
emelmans, Ludwig l898l9o2 . . . . . . . . . DL22
emis, Samuel Ilagg l89ll973 . . . . . . . . . DLl7
William emrose |publishing house| . . . . DLl0o
en no Naishi l228.l27l.. . . . . . . . . . . . DL203
enavente, |acinto l8ool951. . . . . . . . . . DL329
enchley, Robert l889l915. . . . . . . . . . . . DLll
encr, Matej (see Kukuin, Martin)
enedetti, Mario l920 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll3
enedict, Iinckney l9o1 . . . . . . . . . . . DL211
enedict, Ruth l887l918. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL21o
enedictus, David l938 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl1
enedikt Grndal l82ol907 . . . . . . . . . . DL293
enedikt, Michael l935 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL5
enediktov, Vladimir Grigorèvich
l807l873 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL205
ent, Stephen Vincent
l898l913 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1, 18, l02, 219
Stephen Vincent ent Centenary . . . . . . . Y97
ent, William Rose l88ol950 . . . . . . . . . DL15
enford, Gregory l91l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y82
entez, Sandra l91l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL292
enjamin, Iark l809l8o1 . . . . DL3, 59, 73, 250
enjamin, Ieter (see Cunningham, Ieter)
enjamin, S. G. W. l837l9l1 . . . . . . . . . DLl89
enjamin, Walter l892l910 . . . . . . . . . . DL212
enlowes, Edward lo02lo7o. . . . . . . . . . DLl2o
enn, Gottfried l88ol95o . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL5o
enn rothers Limited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl0o
ennett, Alan l931 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l0
ennett, Arnold
l8o7l93l. . . . DLl0, 31, 98, l35; CDL5
Jhe Arnold ennett Society. . . . . . . . . . . . Y98
ennett, Charles l899l995 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL11
ennett, Emerson l822l905 . . . . . . . . . . DL202
ennett, Gwendolyn l902l98l . . . . . . . . . DL5l
ennett, Hal l930 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL33
ennett, |ames Gordon l795l872 . . . . . . . DL13
ennett, |ames Gordon, |r. l81ll9l8 . . . . DL23
ennett, |ohn l8o5l95o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL12
ennett, Louise l9l9 . . . . .DLll7; CDWL3
enni, Stefano l917 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl9o
enoist, IranoiseAlbine Iuzin de
La Martinire l73ll809 . . . . . . . . . . DL3l3
enoit, |acques l91l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo0
enson, A. C. l8o2l925 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL98
enson, E. I. l8o7l910 . . . . . . . . . . DLl35, l53
Jhe E. I. enson Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y98
Jhe Jilling Society. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y98
enson, |ackson |. l930 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlll
enson, Robert Hugh l87ll9l1 . . . . . . . DLl53
enson, Stella l892l933 . . . . . . . . . . DL3o, lo2
ent, |ames Jheodore l852l897. . . . . . . .DLl71
ent, Mabel Virginia Anna .. . . . . . . . . . .DLl71
entham, |eremy l718l832 . . . . DLl07, l58, 252
entley, E. C. l875l95o. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL70
entley, Ihyllis l891l977 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl9l
entley, Richard loo2l712 . . . . . . . . . . . DL252
Richard entley |publishing house| . . . . . DLl0o
enton, Robert l932 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL11
enziger rothers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
_ circa 900l000 or 790825
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl1o; CDLl
erberova, Nina l90ll993 . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l7
erent, Wacaw l873l910 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l5
eresford, Anne l929 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL10
eresford, |ohn Davys
l873l917. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo2, l78, l97
'Experiment in the Novel" (l929)
|excerpt|. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3o
eresfordHowe, Constance l922 . . . . . DL88
R. G. erford Company. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
erg, Elizabeth l918 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL292
erg, Stephen l931 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL5
ergengruen, Werner l892l9o1 . . . . . . . . DL5o
erger, |ohn l92o . . . . . . DLl1, 207, 3l9, 32o
erger, Meyer l898l959 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL29
erger, Jhomas l921 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2; Y80
A Statement by Jhomas erger . . . . . . . . . Y80
ergman, Hjalmar l883l93l. . . . . . . . . . DL259
ergman, Ingmar l9l8 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL257
ergson, Henri l859l91l . . . . . . . . . . . . DL329
erkeley, Anthony l893l97l. . . . . . . . . . . DL77
erkeley, George lo85l753 . . . . DL3l, l0l, 252
Jhe erkley Iublishing Corporation . . . . . DL1o
erkman, Alexander l870l93o . . . . . . . . DL303
erlin, Irving l888l989. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o5
erlin, Lucia l93o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl30
erman, Marshall l910 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL21o
erman, Sabina l955 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL305
ernal, Vicente |. l888l9l5. . . . . . . . . . . . DL82
ernanos, Georges l888l918 . . . . . . . . . . DL72
ernard, Catherine loo3.l7l2. . . . . . . . . . DL2o8
ernard, Harry l898l979 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL92
ernard, |ohn l75ol828 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL37
ernard of Chartres circa l0o0ll21. . . . DLll5
ernard of Clairvaux l090ll53 . . . . . . . DL208
ernard, Richard l5o8lo1l/lo12 . . . . . . DL28l
ernard Silvestris
fl. circa ll30llo0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL208
ernardin de SaintIierre l737l8l1 . . . . . DL3l3
ernari, Carlo l909l992. . . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl77
ernhard, Jhomas
l93ll989 . . . . . . . . .DL85, l21; CDWL2
ernires, Louis de l951 . . . . . . . . . . . .DL27l
ernstein, Charles l950 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo9
roalde de Verville, Iranois
l55olo2o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL327
erriault, Gina l92ol999 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl30
errigan, Daniel l92l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL5
errigan, Jed l931l983 . . . . . . . . . . . DL5, lo9
erry, Wendell l931 . . . . . . . DL5, o, 231, 275
erryman, |ohn l9l1l972. . . . DL18; CDALl
ersianik, Louky l930 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo0
erssenbrugge, Meimei l917 . . . . . . . DL3l2
Jhomas erthelet |publishing house| . . . . .DLl70
erto, Giuseppe l9l1l978. . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl77
ertocci, Ieter Anthony l9l0l989 . . . . . .DL279
ertolucci, Attilio l9ll2000 . . . . . . . . . . DLl28
erton, Iierre l9202001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo8
ertrand, Louis 'Aloysius" l807l81l . . . .DL2l7
esant, Sir Walter l83ol90l . . . . . . DLl35, l90
essaLus, Agustina l922 . . . . . . . . . . DL287
essette, Gerard l920 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL53
essie, Alvah l901l985. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o
ester, Alfred l9l3l987. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL8
esterman, Jheodore l901l97o . . . . . . . DL20l
eston, Henry (Henry eston Sheahan)
l888l9o8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DL275
estSeller Lists
An Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y81
What`s Really Wrong With
estseller Lists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y81
estuzhev, Aleksandr Aleksandrovich
(Marlinsky) l797l837 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl98
estuzhev, Nikolai Aleksandrovich
l79ll855. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl98
ethamEdwards, Matilda arbara
(see Edwards, Matilda arbara etham)
etjeman, |ohn
l90ol981 . . . . . . . . .DL20; Y81; CDL7
etocchi, Carlo l899l98o . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl28
ettarini, Mariella l912 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl28
etts, Doris l932 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l8; Y82
everidge, Albert |. l8o2l927 . . . . . . . . . . .DLl7
everidge, |udith l95o . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL325
everley, Robert circa lo73l722 . . . . . DL21, 30
evilacqua, Alberto l931 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl9o
evington, Louisa Sarah l815l895. . . . . DLl99
eyle, MarieHenri (see Stendhal)
ze, Jhodore de (Jheodore eza)
l5l9lo05 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL327
hatt, Sujata l95o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL323
Biaoszewski, Miron l922l983 . . . . . . . DL232
ai_ PPO `~ f
RRP
`
ianco, Margery Williams l88ll911 . . . . DLlo0

ibaud, Adle l851l91l. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL92
ibaud, Michel l782l857 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL99
ibliography
ibliographical and Jextual Scholarship
Since World War II. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y89
Center for ibliographical Studies and
Research at the Lniversity of
California, Riverside. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y9l
Jhe Great ibliographers Series . . . . . . . . .Y93
Irimary ibliography. A Retrospective. . . .Y95
ichsel, Ieter l935 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL75
ickerstaff, Isaac |ohn l733circa l808 . . . . DL89
Drexel iddle |publishing house| . . . . . . . . . DL19
idermann, |acob
l577 or l578lo39 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo1
idwell, Walter Hilliard l798l88l . . . . . . . DL79
iehl, Charlotta Dorothea l73ll788. . . . . DL300
ienek, Horst l930l990 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL75
ierbaum, Otto |ulius l8o5l9l0. . . . . . . . . DLoo
ierce, Ambrose l812l9l1.
. . . . . . DLll, l2, 23, 7l, 71, l8o; CDAL3
igelow, William I. l879l9oo. . . . . . . . . . . DL9l
iggers, Earl Derr l881l933 . . . . . . . . . . DL30o
iggle, Lloyd, |r. l9232002. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL8
igiaretti, Libero l905l993 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl77
igland, Eileen l898l970 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl95
iglow, Hosea (see Lowell, |ames Russell)
igongiari, Iiero l9l1l997. . . . . . . . . . . . DLl28
ilac, Olavo l8o5l9l8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL307
ilenchi, Romano l909l989. . . . . . . . . . . DL2o1
illinger, Richard l890l9o5 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl21
illings, Hammatt l8l8l871. . . . . . . . . . . DLl88
illings, |ohn Shaw l898l975 . . . . . . . . . . DLl37
illings, |osh (see Shaw, Henry Wheeler)
inchy, Maeve l910 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l9
inding, Rudolf G. l8o7l938 . . . . . . . . . . . DLoo
ing Xin l900l999. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL328
ingay, Malcolm l881l953. . . . . . . . . . . . DL21l
ingham, Caleb l757l8l7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL12
ingham, George arry l90ol988 . . . . . . DLl27
ingham, Sallie l937 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL231
William ingley |publishing house| . . . . . . DLl51
inyon, Laurence l8o9l913 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl9
_~~ _~~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl12
iography
iographical Documents . . . . . . . . . . . .Y81, 85
A Celebration of Literary iography . . . . .Y98
Conference on Modern iography . . . . . . .Y85
Jhe Cult of iography
Excerpts from the Second Iolio Debate.
'iographies are generally a disease of
English Literature" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y8o
New Approaches to iography. Challenges
from Critical Jheory, LSC Conference
on Literary Studies, l990 . . . . . . . . . . .Y90
'Jhe New iography," by Virginia Woolf,
k v e~ qI
30 October l927. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl19
'Jhe Iractice of iography," in q b
p e ~ l b~I by
Harold Nicolson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl19
'Irinciples of iography," in b~~
~ l b~I by Sidney Lee . . . DLl19
Remarks at the Opening of 'Jhe iographical
Iart of Literature" Exhibition, by
William R. Cagle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y98
Survey of Literary iographies . . . . . . . . . .Y00
A Jransit of Ioets and Others. American
iography in l982 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y82
Jhe Year in Literary
iography. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y83-0l
iography, Jhe Iractice of.
An Interview with . L. Reid . . . . . . . . . . .Y83
An Interview with David Herbert Donald. . . Y87
An Interview with Humphrey Carpenter. . . . Y81
An Interview with |oan Mellen . . . . . . . . . .Y91
An Interview with |ohn Caldwell Guilds . . . . Y92
An Interview with William Manchester . . .Y85
|ohn ioren |publishing house| . . . . . . . . . . DL19
ioy Casares, Adolfo l9l1l999 . . . . . . . . DLll3
ird, Isabella Lucy l83ll901 . . . . . . . . . . DLloo
ird, Robert Montgomery l80ol851 . . . . DL202
ird, William l888l9o3 . . . . . . . . . . DL1; DSl5
Jhe Cost of the `~W William ird
to Ezra Iound. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y0l
irken, Sigmund von lo2olo8l . . . . . . . . DLlo1
irney, Earle l901l995. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL88
irrell, Augustine l850l933 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL98
isher, Iurman l9l8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl7l
ishop, Elizabeth
l9lll979 . . . . . . . . . . . DL5, lo9; CDALo
Jhe Elizabeth ishop Society . . . . . . . . . . .Y0l
ishop, |ohn Ieale l892l911 . . . . . . . DL1, 9, 15
ismarck, Otto von l8l5l898 . . . . . . . . . DLl29
isset, Robert l759l805 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl12
issett, ill l939 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL53
itov, Andrei Georgievich l937 . . . . . . . DL302
itzius, Albert (see Gotthelf, |eremias)
jrnboe, |ens l920l97o. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL297
jrnson, jrnstjerne l832l9l0 . . . . . . . DL329
jrnvig, Jhorkild l9l8 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l1
lack, David (D. M.) l91l . . . . . . . . . . . DL10
lack, Gavin (Oswald Morris Wynd)
l9l3l998 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL27o
lack, Lionel (Dudley arker)
l9l0l980 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL27o
lack, Winifred l8o3l93o . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL25
Walter |. lack |publishing house| . . . . . . . . DL1o
lackamore, Arthur lo79. . . . . . . . . DL21, 39
lackburn, Alexander L. l929 . . . . . . . . . . .Y85
lackburn, |ohn l923l993 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2ol
lackburn, Iaul l92ol97l . . . . . . . . DLlo; Y8l
lackburn, Jhomas l9lol977 . . . . . . . . . . DL27
lacker, Jerence l918 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL27l
lackmore, R. D. l825l900 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl8
lackmore, Sir Richard lo51l729. . . . . . . DLl3l
lackmur, R. I. l901l9o5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo3
lackwell, Alice Stone l857l950. . . . . . . . DL303
asil lackwell, Iublisher . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl0o
lackwood, Algernon Henry
l8o9l95l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl53, l5o, l78
lackwood, Caroline l93ll99o . . . . . DLl1, 207
William lackwood and Sons, Ltd. . . . . . . DLl51
_~ b j~~
l8l7l980 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll0
lades, William l821l890 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl81
laga, Lucian l895l9ol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL220
lagden, Isabella l8l7.l873 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl99
lair, Eric Arthur (see Orwell, George)
lair, Irancis Ireston l79ll87o. . . . . . . . . . DL13
lair, Hugh
i o ~ _ i (l783),
|excerpts| . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l
lair, |ames circa lo55l713. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL21
lair, |ohn Durburrow l759l823 . . . . . . . . DL37
lais, MarieClaire l939 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL53
laise, Clark l910 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL53
lake, George l893l9ol. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl9l
lake, Lillie Devereux l833l9l3. . . . DL202, 22l
lake, Nicholas (C. Day Lewis)
l901l972 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL77
lake, William
l757l827. . . . . . . DL93, l51, lo3; CDL3
Jhe lakiston Company . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
lanchard, Stephen l950 . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o7
lanchot, Maurice l9072003. . . . . . . . DL72, 29o
lanckenburg, Christian Iriedrich von
l711l79o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL91
landiana, Ana l912 . . . . . . DL232; CDWL1
lanshard, rand l892l987 . . . . . . . . . . . DL279
lasco Ibez, Vicente l8o7l928 . . . . . . . DL322
laser, Robin l925 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo5
laumanis, Rudolfs l8o3l908 . . . . . . . . . DL220
leasdale, Alan l91o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL215
ledsoe, Albert Jaylor
l809l877 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3, 79, 218
leecker, Ann Eliza l752l783 . . . . . . . . . . DL200
lelock and Company . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
lennerhassett, Margaret Agnew
l773l812 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL99
Geoffrey les |publishing house| . . . . . . . . DLll2
lessington, Marguerite, Countess of
l789l819 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLloo
`~ f ai_ PPO
RRQ
lew, Mary Clearman l939 . . . . . . . . . DL25o
licher, Steen Steensen l782l818 . . . . . . DL300
Jhe lickling Homilies circa 97l . . . . . . . DLl1o
lind, Mathilde l81ll89o . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl99
q _ ^~I 2000 ooker Irize winner,
Margaret Atwood. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL32o
lish, |ames l92ll975 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL8
E. liss and E. White
liven, ruce l889l977 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl37
lixen, Karen l885l9o2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l1
loch, Ernst l885l977. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL29o
loch, Robert l9l7l991. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL11
Jribute to |ohn D. MacDonald . . . . . . . . . Y8o
lock, Lawrence l938 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL22o
lock, Rudolph (see Lessing, runo)
lok, Aleksandr Aleksandrovich
l880l92l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL295
londal, Iatricia l92ol959 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL88
loom, Harold l930 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo7
loomer, Amelia l8l8l891 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL79
loomfield, Robert l7ool823 . . . . . . . . . . DL93
loomsbury Group. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DSl0
Jhe a~ Hoax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DSl0
loor, Ella Reeve l8o2l95l. . . . . . . . . . . DL303
lotner, |oseph l923 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlll
lount, Jhomas lol8.lo79. . . . . . . . . . . DL23o
loy, Lon l81ol9l7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl23
lume, |udy l938 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL52
Jribute to Jheodor Seuss Geisel . . . . . . . . Y9l
lunck, Hans Iriedrich l888l9ol . . . . . . . DLoo
lunden, Edmund l89ol971 . . . .DL20, l00, l55
lundeville, Jhomas l522.lo0o . . . . . . . DL23o
lunt, Lady Anne Isabella Noel
l837l9l7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl71
lunt, Wilfrid Scawen l810l922 . . . . .DLl9, l71
ly, Nellie (see Cochrane, Elizabeth)
ly, Robert l92o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL5
lyton, Enid l897l9o8. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo0
oaden, |ames l7o2l839 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL89
oal, Augusto l93l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL307
oas, Irederick S. l8o2l957 . . . . . . . . . . DLl19
Jhe obbsMerrill Company . . . . . . . DL1o, 29l
Jhe obbsMerrill Archive at the
Lilly Library, Indiana Lniversity. . . . . Y90
oborykin, Ietr Dmitrievich
l83ol92l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL238
obrov, Semen Sergeevich
l7o3.l8l0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl50
obrowski, |ohannes l9l7l9o5 . . . . . . . . . DL75
ocage, Manuel Maria arbosa du
l7o5l805. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL287
odenheim, Maxwell l892l951 . . . . . . DL9, 15
odenstedt, Iriedrich von l8l9l892. . . . DLl29
odini, Vittorio l9l1l970 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl28
odkin, M. McDonnell l850l933. . . . . . . DL70
odley, Sir Jhomas l515lol3. . . . . . . . . DL2l3
odley Head. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll2
odmer, |ohann |akob lo98l783. . . . . . . . DL97
odmershof, Imma von l895l982 . . . . . . DL85
odsworth, Ired l9l8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo8
var Gumundsson l939 . . . . . . . . DL293
oehm, Sydney l908l990. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL11
oer, Charles l939 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL5
oethius circa 180circa 521 . . . . . . . . . . . DLll5
oethius of Dacia circa l210. . . . . . . . . . DLll5
ogan, Louise l897l970 . . . . . . . . . . DL15, lo9
ogarde, Dirk l92ll999 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl1
ogdanov, Aleksandr Aleksandrovich
l873l928. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL295
ogdanovich, Ippolit Iedorovich
circa l713l803 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl50
David ogue |publishing house| . . . . . . . . DLl0o
ohjalian, Chris l9o0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL292
hme, |akob l575lo21 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo1
H. G. ohn |publishing house| . . . . . . . . . DLl0o
ohse, August looll712 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo8
oie, Heinrich Christian l711l80o . . . . . . DL91
oileauDespraux, Nicolas lo3ol7ll. . . . DL2o8
ojunga, Lygia l932 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL307
ok, Edward W. l8o3l930 . . . . . . DL9l; DSlo
oland, Eavan l911 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL10
oldrewood, Rolf (Jhomas Alexander rowne)
l82o.l9l5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL230
olingbroke, Henry St. |ohn, Viscount
lo78l75l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl0l
ll, Heinrich
l9l7l985. . . . . DLo9, 329; Y85; CDWL2
olling, Robert l738l775. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l
olotov, Andrei Jimofeevich
l738l833. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl50
olt, Carol l91l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo0
olt, Robert l921l995 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl3, 233
olton, Herbert E. l870l953. . . . . . . . . . . DLl7
onaventura . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL90
onaventure circa l2l7l271. . . . . . . . . . . DLll5
onaviri, Giuseppe l921 . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl77
ond, Edward l931 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl3, 3l0
ond, Michael l92o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlol
ondarev, Iurii Vasilèvich l921 . . . . . DL302
q _ mI l985 ooker Irize winner,
Keri Hulme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL32o
Albert and Charles oni
|publishing house| . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
oni and Liveright . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
onnefoy, Yves l923 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL258
onner, Marita l899l97l . . . . . . . . . . . . DL228
onner, Iaul Hyde l893l9o8 . . . . . . . . . . . . DSl7
onner, Sherwood (see McDowell, Katharine
Sherwood onner)
Robert onner`s Sons. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
onnin, Gertrude Simmons (see ZitkalaSa)
onsanti, Alessandro l901l981 . . . . . . . .DLl77
ontempelli, Massimo l878l9o0. . . . . . . DL2o1
ontemps, Arna l902l973 . . . . . . . . . DL18, 5l
q _ _ (l8o7l880, l881l9l8,
l935l938. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DSl3
Jhe ook League of America. . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
ook Reviewing
Jhe American ook Review. A Sketch . . . Y92
ook Reviewing and the
Literary Scene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y9o, 97
ook Reviewing in America . . . . . . . . Y87-91
ook Reviewing in America and the
Literary Scene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y95
ook Reviewing in Jexas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y91
ook Reviews in Glossy Magazines. . . . . . Y95
Do Jhey or Don`t Jhey.
Writers Reading ook Reviews. . . . . . Y0l
Jhe Most Iowerful ook Review
in America |k v q
_ o| . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y82
Some Surprises and Lniversal Jruths . . . . Y92
Jhe Year in ook Reviewing and the
Literary Situation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y98
ook Supply Company . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Jhe ook Jrade History Group. . . . . . . . . . . . Y93
Jhe ooker Irize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y9o-98
Address by Anthony Jhwaite,
Chairman of the ooker Irize |udges
Comments from Iormer ooker
Irize Winners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y8o
oorde, Andrew circa l190l519 . . . . . . . DLl3o
oorstin, Daniel |. l9l1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl7
Jribute to Archibald MacLeish . . . . . . . . . Y82
Jribute to Charles Scribner |r. . . . . . . . . . . Y95
ooth, Iranklin l871l918 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl88
ooth, Mary L. l83ll889. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL79
ooth, Ihilip l925 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y82
ooth, Wayne C. l92l . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo7
ooth, William l829l9l2 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl90
or, |osef l90ol979 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL299
orchardt, Rudolf l877l915 . . . . . . . . . . . DLoo
orchert, Wolfgang l92ll917 . . . . . . DLo9, l21
ording, Anders lol9lo77 . . . . . . . . . . . DL300
orel, Itrus l809l859 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll9
orgen, |ohan l902l979 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL297
orges, |orge Luis
l899l98o . . . DLll3, 283; Y8o; CDWL3
Jhe Ioetry of |orge Luis orges . . . . . . . . Y8o
A Iersonal Jribute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y8o
orgese, Giuseppe Antonio l882l952. . . DL2o1
ai_ PPO `~ f
RRR
`
rne, Ludwig l78ol837 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL90

ornstein, Miriam l950 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL209
orowski, Jadeusz
l922l95l . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l5; CDWL1
orrow, George l803l88l . . . . . . DL2l, 55, loo
osanquet, ernard l818l923 . . . . . . . . . DL2o2
oscn, |uan circa l190l512 . . . . . . . . . . DL3l8
osch, |uan l909200l. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl15
osco, Henri l888l97o. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL72
osco, Monique l927 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL53
osman, Herman Charles l905l95l . . . . DL225
ossuet, |acquesnigne lo27l701 . . . . . . DL2o8
ostic, |oe l908l988. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL21l
oston, Lucy M. l892l990 . . . . . . . . . . . DLlol
_ n~ o. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl
oston Lniversity
Editorial Institute at oston Lniversity. . . .Y00
Special Collections at oston Lniversity. . .Y99
oswell, |ames
l710l795. . . . . . . . . .DLl01, l12; CDL2
oswell, Robert l953 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL231
osworth, David . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y82
Excerpt from 'Excerpts from a Report
of the Commission," in q a~
a~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y82
ote, Hermann circa l1o0circa l520. . . . DLl79
otev, Khristo l817l87o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl17
otkin, Vasilii Ietrovich l8lll8o9 . . . . . . DL277
otta, Anne C. Lynch l8l5l89l . . . . . DL3, 250
otto, |n (see Krasko, Ivan)
ottome, Ihyllis l882l9o3 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl97
ottomley, Gordon l871l918. . . . . . . . . . . DLl0
ottoms, David l919 . . . . . . . . . DLl20; Y83
ottrall, Ronald l90ol959 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL20
ouchardy, |oseph l8l0l870 . . . . . . . . . . DLl92
oucher, Anthony l9lll9o8 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL8
oucher, |onathan l738l801. . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l
oucher de oucherville, Georges
l8l1l891 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL99
oudreau, Daniel (see Coste, Donat)
ouhours, Dominique lo28l702 . . . . . . . . DL2o8
ourassa, Napolon l827l9lo . . . . . . . . . . DL99
ourget, Iaul l852l935 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl23
ourinot, |ohn George l837l902 . . . . . . . . DL99
ourjaily, Vance l922 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2, l13
ourne, Edward Gaylord l8o0l908. . . . . . DL17
ourne, Randolph l88ol9l8 . . . . . . . . . . . DLo3
ousoo, Carlos l923 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl08
ousquet, |o l897l950 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL72
ova, en l932 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y8l
ovard, Oliver K. l872l915 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL25
ove, Emmanuel l898l915 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL72
owen, Elizabeth
l899l973 . . . . . . . . . .DLl5, lo2; CDL7
owen, Irancis l8lll890. . . . . . . . DLl, 59, 235
owen, |ohn l921 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl3
owen, Marjorie l88ol952. . . . . . . . . . . . DLl53
owenMerrill Company . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
owering, George l935 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL53
owers, athsheba lo7ll7l8 . . . . . . . . . . DL200
owers, Claude G. l878l958 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl7
owers, Edgar l9212000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL5
owers, Iredson Jhayer
l905l99l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl10; Y 9l
Jhe Editorial Style of Iredson owers . . . .Y9l
Iredson owers and
Studies in ibliography. . . . . . . . . . . . Y 9l
Iredson owers and the Cambridge
eaumont and Iletcher. . . . . . . . . . . . Y 9l
Iredson owers as Critic of Renaissance
Dramatic Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y 9l
Iredson owers as Music Critic . . . . . . . . .Y9l
Iredson owers, Master Jeacher . . . . . . . Y 9l
An Interview |on Nabokov| . . . . . . . . . . . Y80
Working with Iredson owers . . . . . . . . . .Y9l
owles, Iaul l9l0l999. . . . . . DL5, o, 2l8; Y99
owles, Samuel, III l82ol878. . . . . . . . . . . DL13
owles, William Lisle l7o2l850 . . . . . . . . . DL93
owman, Louise Morey l882l911. . . . . . . DLo8
owne, orden Iarker l817l9l9 . . . . . . . DL270
oyd, |ames l888l911 . . . . . . . . . . . DL9; DSlo
oyd, |ohn l9l22002 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l0
oyd, |ohn l9l9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL8
oyd, Martin l893l972 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o0
oyd, Jhomas l898l935 . . . . . DL9, 3lo; DSlo
oyd, William l952 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL23l
oye, Karin l900l91l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL259
oyesen, Hjalmar Hjorth
l818l895 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl2, 7l; DSl3
oylan, Clare l918 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o7
oyle, Kay l902l992 DL1, 9, 18, 8o; DSl5;
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y93
oyle, Roger, Earl of Orrery lo2llo79 . . . DL80
oyle, J. Coraghessan
l918 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l8, 278; Y8o
oi, Mirko l9l9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl8l
rackenbury, Alison l953 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL10
rackenridge, Hugh Henry
l718l8lo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll, 37
Jhe Rising Glory of America . . . . . . . . DL37
rackett, Charles l892l9o9 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o
rackett, Leigh l9l5l978 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL8, 2o
|ohn radburn |publishing house| . . . . . . . . DL19
radbury, Malcolm l9322000 . . . . . . DLl1, 207
radbury, Ray l920 . . . . . .DL2, 8; CDALo
radbury and Evans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl0o
raddon, Mary Elizabeth
l835l9l5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl8, 70, l5o
radford, Andrew lo8ol712. . . . . . . . . DL13, 73
radford, Gamaliel l8o3l932. . . . . . . . . . . DLl7
radford, |ohn l719l830 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL13
radford, Roark l89ol918. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL8o
radford, William l590lo57 . . . . . . . . DL21, 30
radford, William, III l7l9l79l. . . . . . DL13, 73
radlaugh, Charles l833l89l . . . . . . . . . . DL57
radley, David l950 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL33
radley, I. H. l81ol921. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o2
radley, Katherine Harris (see Iield, Michael)
radley, Marion Zimmer l930l999 . . . . . . . DL8
radley, William Aspenwall l878l939 . . . . . DL1
Ira radley and Company. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
|. W. radley and Company . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
radshaw, Henry l83ll88o . . . . . . . . . . . DLl81
radstreet, Anne
lol2 or lol3lo72. . . . . . . .DL21; CDAL2
radnas, Kazys l9l7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL220
radwardine, Jhomas circa l295l319. . . DLll5
rady, Irank l921l98o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlll
Irederic A. rady |publishing house|. . . . . . DL19
raga, Rubem l9l3l990 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL307
ragg, Melvyn l939 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl1, 27l
rahe, Jycho l51olo0l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL300
Charles H. rainard |publishing house|. . . . DL19
raine, |ohn
l922l98o . . . . . . . . . DLl5; Y8o; CDL7
raithwait, Richard l588lo73 . . . . . . . . . DLl5l
raithwaite, William Stanley
l878l9o2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL50, 51
rker, Llrich l735l798 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL91
ramah, Ernest l8o8l912 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL70
ranagan, Jhomas l771l813 . . . . . . . . . . . DL37
rancati, Vitaliano l907l951 . . . . . . . . . . DL2o1
ranch, William lackwell l927 . . . . . . . DL7o
rand, Christianna l907l988 . . . . . . . . . . DL27o
rand, Max (see Iaust, Irederick Schiller)
rando, Raul l8o7l930. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL287
randen Iress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
randes, Georg l812l927 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL300
ranner, H.C. l903l9oo. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l1
rant, Sebastian l157l52l . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl79
rantme (Iierre de ourdeille)
l510.lol1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL327
rassey, Lady Annie (Allnutt)
l839l887 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLloo
rathwaite, Edward Kamau
l930 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl25; CDWL3
rault, |acques l933 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL53
raun, Matt l932 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l2
`~ f ai_ PPO
RRS
raun, Volker l939 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL75, l21
rautigan, Richard
l935l981 . . . . . . . . . . DL2, 5, 20o; Y80, 81
raxton, |oanne M. l950 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1l
ray, Anne Eliza l790l883 . . . . . . . . . . . DLllo
ray, Jhomas lo5ol730 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL21
razdionis, ernardas l9072002 . . . . . . DL220
George raziller |publishing house| . . . . . . DL1o
Jhe read Loaf Writers` Conference l983. . . . Y81
reasted, |ames Henry l8o5l935 . . . . . . . DL17
recht, ertolt
l898l95o . . . . . . . . DL5o, l21; CDWL2
redel, Willi l90ll9o1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL5o
regendahl, Marie l8o7l910 . . . . . . . . . . DL2l1
reitinger, |ohann |akob l70ll77o. . . . . . . DL97
rekke, Iaal l923l993 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL297
remser, onnie l939 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo
remser, Ray l931l998. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo
rennan, Christopher l870l932 . . . . . . . DL230
rentano, ernard von l90ll9o1 . . . . . . . DL5o
rentano, Clemens l778l812 . . . . . . . . . . DL90
rentano, Iranz l838l9l7. . . . . . . . . . . . DL29o
rentano`s. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
renton, Howard l912 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl3
reslin, |immy l929l99o. . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl85
reton, Andr l89ol9oo . . . . . . . . . . DLo5, 258
reton, Nicholas circa l555circa lo2o. . . DLl3o
Jhe reton Lays
l300early fifteenth century . . . . . . . . DLl1o
rett, Lily l91o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL325
rett, Simon l915 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DL27o
rewer, Gil l922l983 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL30o
rewer, Luther A. l858l933 . . . . . . . . . . DLl87
rewer, Warren and Iutnam . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
rewster, Elizabeth l922 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo0
reytenbach, reyten l939 . . . . . . . . . DL225
ridge, Ann (Lady Mary Dolling Sanders
O`Malley) l889l971 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl9l
ridge, Horatio l80ol893 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl83
ridgers, Sue Ellen l912 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL52
ridges, Robert
l811l930 . . . . . . . . . . DLl9, 98; CDL5
Jhe ridgewater Library . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l3
ridie, |ames l888l95l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl0
rieux, Eugene l858l932 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl92
rigadere, Anna
l8oll933 . . . . . . . . . . . DL220; CDWL1
riggs, Charles Irederick
l801l877. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3, 250
righouse, Harold l882l958. . . . . . . . . . . DLl0
right, Mary Chavelita Dunne
(see Egerton, George)
rightman, Edgar Sheffield l881l953. . . .DL270
. |. rimmer Company. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
rines, Irancisco l932 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl31
rink, Andr l935 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL225
rinley, George, |r. l8l7l875. . . . . . . . . . DLl10
rinnin, |ohn Malcolm l9lol998 . . . . . . . DL18
risbane, Albert l809l890 . . . . . . . . . DL3, 250
risbane, Arthur l8o1l93o . . . . . . . . . . . . DL25
ritish Academy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll2
q _ ` l793l813 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll0
ritish Library
Jhe American Jrust for the
ritish Library. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y9o
Jhe ritish Library and the Regular
Readers` Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y9l
uilding the New ritish Library
at St Iancras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y91
ritish Literary Irizes . . . . . . . . . . . . DL207; Y98
ritish Literature
Jhe 'Angry Young Men". . . . . . . . . . . DLl5
AuthorIrinters, l17ol599 . . . . . . . . DLlo7
Jhe Comic Jradition Continued. . . . . DLl5
Documents on SixteenthCentury
Literature. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo7, l72
b _~ lo19 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl5l
Letter from London . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y9o
^ j j~~. . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo7
'Modern English Irose`` (l87o),
by George Saintsbury . . . . . . . . . . DL57
Sex, Class, Iolitics, and Religion |in the
ritish Novel, l930l959| . . . . . . . DLl5
Victorians on Rhetoric and Irose
Style. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL57
Jhe Year in ritish Iiction . . . . . . . . . . Y99-0l
'You`ve Never Had It So Good," Gusted
by 'Winds of Change". ritish
Iiction in the l950s, l9o0s,
and After . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl1
ritish Literature, Old and Middle English
AngloNorman Literature in the
Development of Middle English
Literature. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl1o
Jhe ^~ j ^ ~
p~~ j ^
circa l350l100 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl1o
^ o circa l200l225 . . . . . . . DLl1o
q ^Jp~ ` circa
890ll51 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl1o
q _~ j~ circa l000 . . . . . . DLl1o
_ circa 900l000 or
790825 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl1o; CDLl
Jhe lickling Homilies circa 97l . . . . DLl1o
Jhe reton Lays
l300early fifteenth century. . . . . DLl1o
q `~ m~
circa l100l125 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl1o
Jhe Celtic ackground to Medieval
English Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl1o
Jhe Chester Ilays circa l505l532;
revisions until l575 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl1o
` j circa l300 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl1o
Jhe English Language. 1l0
to l500 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl1o
Jhe Germanic Epic and Old English
Heroic Ioetry. tI t~I
and q c ~ c . . . . . . . DLl1o
g circa 930 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl1o
Jhe Matter of England l210l100. . . DLl1o
Jhe Matter of Rome early twelfth to
late fifteenth centuries . . . . . . . . . DLl1o
Middle English Literature.
An Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl1o
Jhe Middle English Lyric . . . . . . . . . DLl1o
Morality Ilays. j~ circa l150l500
and b~ circa l500. . . . . . . . DLl1o
NJown Ilays circa l1o8 to early
sixteenth century. . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl1o
Old English Literature.
An Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl1o
Old English Riddles
eighth to tenth centuries . . . . . . . DLl1o
q l ~ k~
circa ll89ll99 . . . . . . . . . . DLl1o
q m~ i l122l509 . . . . . . . . DLl1o
q p~~ circa 970 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl1o
Jhe p b i~ circa
thirteenth to fifteenth centuries . . . DLl1o
q _ o ~ i `~
g~ l8lll825. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll0
rito, Aristeo l912 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl22
rittain, Vera l893l970 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl9l
riusov, Valerii Iakovlevich
l873l921. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL295
rizeux, Auguste l803l858. . . . . . . . . . . .DL2l7
roadway Iublishing Company. . . . . . . . . DL1o
roch, Hermann
l88ol95l . . . . . . . . .DL85, l21; CDWL2
rochu, Andr l912 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL53
rock, Edwin l927l997. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL10
rockes, arthold Heinrich lo80l717 . . . DLlo8
rod, Max l881l9o8. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL8l
rodber, Erna l910 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl57
rodhead, |ohn R. l8l1l873. . . . . . . . . . . DL30
rodkey, Harold l930l99o . . . . . . . . . . . DLl30
rodsky, |oseph (Iosif Aleksandrovich
rodsky) l910l99o. . . . . . DL285, 329; Y87
Nobel Lecture l987 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y87
rodsky, Michael l918 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL211
roeg, ob l9l8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl7l
rgger, Suzanne l911 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l1
rome, Richard circa l590lo52 . . . . . . . . DL58
rome, Vincent l9l02001. . . . . . . . . . . . DLl55
romfield, Louis l89ol95o . . . . . . . . DL1, 9, 8o
romige, David l933 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl93
roner, E. M. l930 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL28
Jribute to ernard Malamud. . . . . . . . . . . Y8o
ronk, William l9l8l999 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo5
ronnen, Arnolt l895l959 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl21
ai_ PPO `~ f
RRT
`
ront, Anne l820l819 . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l, l99

ront, Charlotte
l8lol855 . . . . . .DL2l, l59, l99; CDL1
ront, Emily
l8l8l818 . . . . . . DL2l, 32, l99; CDL1
Jhe ront Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y98
rook, Stephen l917 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL201
rook Iarm l81ll817 . . . . . . . . DLl; 223; DS5
rooke, Irances l721l789. . . . . . . . . . . DL39, 99
rooke, Henry l703.l783. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL39
rooke, L. Leslie l8o2l910 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl1l
rooke, Margaret, Ranee of Sarawak
l819l93o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl71
rooke, Rupert
l887l9l5 . . . . . . . . . .DLl9, 2lo; CDLo
Jhe Iriends of the Dymock Ioets. . . . . . . .Y00
rooker, ertram l888l955 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL88
rookeRose, Christine l923 . . . . . DLl1, 23l
rookner, Anita l928 . . . . . DLl91, 32o; Y87
rooks, Charles Jimothy l8l3l883. . . DLl, 213
rooks, Cleanth l90ol991 . . . . . . . . DLo3; Y91
Jribute to Walker Iercy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y90
rooks, Gwendolyn
l9l72000 . . . . . . . . DL5, 7o, lo5; CDALl
rooks, |eremy l92ol991. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl1
rooks, Mel l92o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o
rooks, Noah l830l903 . . . . . . . . . DL12; DSl3
rooks, Richard l9l2l992 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL11
rooks, Van Wyck l88ol9o3 . . . . DL15, o3, l03
rophy, rigid l929l995 . . . . . . . DLl1, 70, 27l
rophy, |ohn l899l9o5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl9l
rorson, Hans Adolph lo91l7o1 . . . . . . . DL300
rossard, Chandler l922l993 . . . . . . . . . . DLlo
rossard, Nicole l913 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL53
roster, Dorothy Kathleen l877l950 . . . . DLlo0
rother Antoninus (see Everson, William)
rotherton, Lord l85ol930 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl81
rougham, |ohn l8l0l880 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll
rougham and Vaux, Henry Ieter
rougham, aron l778l8o8. . . . DLll0, l58
roughton, |ames l9l3l999. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL5
roughton, Rhoda l810l920 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl8
roun, Heywood l888l939 . . . . . . . . DL29, l7l
rowder, Earl l89ll973 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL303
rown, Alice l85ol918. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL78
rown, ob l88ol959 . . . . . . . . DL1, 15; DSl5
rown, Cecil l913 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL33
rown, Charles rockden
l77ll8l0 . . . . . . . . DL37, 59, 73; CDAL2
rown, Christy l932l98l. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl1
rown, Dee l9082002 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y80
rown, Irank London l927l9o2 . . . . . . . . DL7o
rown, Iredric l90ol972 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL8
rown, George Mackay
l92ll99o . . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl1, 27, l39, 27l
rown, Harry l9l7l98o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o
rown, Ian l915 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l0
rown, Larry l95l . . . . . . . . . . . . DL231, 292
rown, Lew l893l958 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o5
rown, Marcia l9l8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLol
rown, Margaret Wise l9l0l952. . . . . . . . DL22
rown, Morna Doris (see Ierrars, Elizabeth)
rown, Oliver Madox l855l871. . . . . . . . . DL2l
rown, Sterling l90ll989. . . . . . . . DL18, 5l, o3
rown, J. E. l830l897. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL35
rown, Jhomas Alexander (see oldrewood, Rolf)
rown, Warren l891l978. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL21l
rown, William Hill l7o5l793 . . . . . . . . . . DL37
rown, William Wells
l8l5l881 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3, 50, l83, 218
rown Lniversity
Jhe Iestival of Vanguard Narrative . . . . . .Y93
rowne, Charles Iarrar l831l8o7 . . . . . . . DLll
rowne, Irances l8lol879 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl99
rowne, Irancis Iisher l813l9l3. . . . . . . . DL79
rowne, Howard l908l999 . . . . . . . . . . . DL22o
rowne, |. Ross l82ll875. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL202
rowne, Michael Dennis l910 . . . . . . . . DL10
rowne, Sir Jhomas lo05lo82 . . . . . . . . DLl5l
rowne, William, of Javistock
l590lo15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl2l
rowne, Wynyard l9lll9o1 . . . . . . . DLl3, 233
rowne and Nolan. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl0o
rownell, W. C. l85ll928 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL7l
rowning, Elizabeth arrett
l80ol8ol . . . . . . . . . .DL32, l99; CDL1
rowning, Robert
l8l2l889 . . . . . . . . . .DL32, lo3; CDL1
Essay on Chatterron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL32
Introductory Essay. i m
_ p (l852) . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL32
'Jhe Novel in |Robert rowning`s|
'Jhe Ring and the ook`" (l9l2),
by Henry |ames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL32
rownjohn, Allan l93l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL10
Jribute to |ohn etjeman . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y81
rownson, Orestes Augustus
l803l87o . . . . . . . . . DLl, 59, 73, 213; DS5
ruccoli, Matthew |. l93l . . . . . . . . . . . DLl03
|oseph |Heller| and George |V. Higgins| . . . .Y99
Response |to usch on Iitzgerald|. . . . . . . .Y9o
Jribute to Albert Erskine . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y93
Jribute to Charles E. Ieinberg . . . . . . . . . .Y88
Working with Iredson owers . . . . . . . . . .Y9l
ruce, Charles l90ol97l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo8
ruce, |ohn Edward l85ol921
Jhree Documents |African American
poets| . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL50
ruce, Leo l903l979 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL77
ruce, Mary Grant l878l958. . . . . . . . . . DL230
ruce, Ihilip Alexander l85ol933 . . . . . . . DL17
ruceNovoa, |uan l911 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL82
ruckman, Clyde l891l955. . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o
ruckner, Ierdinand l89ll958. . . . . . . . . DLll8
rundage, |ohn Herbert (see Herbert, |ohn)
runner, |ohn l931l995. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2ol
Jribute to Jheodore Sturgeon . . . . . . . . . .Y85
rutus, Dennis
l921 . . . . . . . . . . DLll7, 225; CDWL3
ryan, C. D. . l93o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl85
ryan, William |ennings l8o0l925 . . . . . DL303
ryant, Arthur l899l985 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl19
ryant, William Cullen l791l878
. . . . . . . . . DL3, 13, 59, l89, 250; CDAL2
ryce, |ames l838l922. . . . . . . . . . . DLloo, l90
ryce Echenique, Alfredo
l939 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl15; CDWL3
ryden, ill l912 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL233
rydges, Sir Samuel Egerton
l7o2l837 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl07, l12
ryskett, Lodowick l51o.lol2 . . . . . . . . DLlo7
uchan, |ohn l875l910 . . . . . . . . DL31, 70, l5o
uchanan, George l50ol582 . . . . . . . . . . DLl32
uchanan, Robert l81ll90l . . . . . . . . DLl8, 35
'Jhe Ileshly School of Ioetry and
Other Ihenomena of the Day"
(l872) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL35
'Jhe Ileshly School of Ioetry.
Mr. D. G. Rossetti" (l87l),
by Jhomas Maitland . . . . . . . . . . . DL35
uchler, |ustus l9l1l99l . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL279
uchman, Sidney l902l975 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o
uchner, Augustus l59llool . . . . . . . . . . DLlo1
chner, Georg
l8l3l837 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl33; CDWL2
ucholtz, Andreas Heinrich lo07lo7l. . . . .DLlo8
uck, Iearl S.
l892l973 . . . . . . . DL9, l02, 329; CDAL7
ucke, Charles l78ll81o . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll0
ucke, Richard Maurice l837l902 . . . . . . . DL99
uckingham, Edwin l8l0l833. . . . . . . . . . DL73
uckingham, |oseph Jinker l779l8ol . . . . DL73
uckler, Ernest l908l981. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo8
uckley, Vincent l925l988 . . . . . . . . . . . DL289
uckley, William I., |r. l925 . . . . DLl37; Y80
Iublisher`s Statement Irom the
Initial Issue of k~~ o
(l9 November l955). . . . . . . . . . . DLl37
uckminster, |oseph Stevens
l781l8l2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL37
uckner, Robert l90ol989. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o
`~ f ai_ PPO
RRU
udd, Jhomas .lo98 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL21
ud, Guillaume l1o8l510 . . . . . . . . . . . DL327
udrys, A. |. l93l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL8
uechner, Irederick l92o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y80
uell, |ohn l927 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL53
uenaventura, Enrique l9252003 . . . . . . DL305
ufalino, Gesualdo l920l99o . . . . . . . . . DLl9o
uffon, GeorgesLouis Leclerc de
l707l788 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l3
'Le Discours sur le style". . . . . . . . . . DL3l1
|ob uffum |publishing house|. . . . . . . . . . DL19
ugnet, Georges l879l98l . . . . . . . . . . . . DL92
aluhturi 82l897 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3ll
uies, Arthur l810l90l. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL99
ukiet, Melvin |ules l953 . . . . . . . . . . DL299
ukowski, Charles l920l991 . . . DL5, l30, lo9
ulatovi, Miodrag
l930l99l . . . . . . . . . . . DLl8l; CDWL1
ulgakov, Mikhail Afanasèvich
l89ll910 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL272
ulgarin, Iaddei Venediktovich
l789l859. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl98
ulger, ozeman l877l932 . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl7l
ull, Olaf l883l933. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL297
ullein, William
between l520 and l530l57o. . . . . . . DLlo7
ullins, Ed l935 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DL7, 38, 219
ulosan, Carlos l9lll95o. . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l2
ulwer, |ohn lo0olo5o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL23o
ulwerLytton, Edward (also Edward
ulwer) l803l873 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l
'On Art in Iiction "(l838) . . . . . . . . . . DL2l
umpus, |erry l937 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y8l
unce and rother . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
unin, Ivan l870l953 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l7, 329
unner, H. C. l855l89o . . . . . . . . . . . .DL78, 79
unting, asil l900l985 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL20
untline, Ned (Edward Zane Carroll
|udson) l82ll88o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl8o
unyan, |ohn lo28lo88 . . . . . DL39; CDL2
Jhe Author`s Apology for
His ook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL39
urch, Robert l925 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL52
urciaga, |os Antonio l910 . . . . . . . . . DL82
urdekin, Katharine (Murray Constantine)
l89ol9o3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL255
rger, Gottfried August l717l791 . . . . . . DL91
urgess, Anthony ( |ohn Anthony urgess Wilson)
l9l7l993 . . . . . . DLl1, l91, 2ol; CDL8
Jhe Anthony urgess Archive at
the Harry Ransom Humanities
Research Center . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y98
Anthony urgess`s VV kW
An Opinion Ioll . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y81
urgess, Gelett l8ool95l . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll
urgess, |ohn W. l811l93l. . . . . . . . . . . . DL17
urgess, Jhornton W. l871l9o5. . . . . . . . DL22
urgess, Stringer and Company. . . . . . . . . DL19
urgos, |ulia de l9l1l953. . . . . . . . . . . . DL290
urick, Si l909l98o. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl7l
urk, |ohn Daly circa l772l808 . . . . . . . . DL37
urk, Ronnie l955 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL209
urke, Edmund l729.l797 . . . . . . . DLl01, 252
urke, |ames Lee l93o . . . . . . . . . . . . DL22o
urke, |ohnny l908l9o1. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o5
urke, Kenneth l897l993 . . . . . . . . . . DL15, o3
urke, Jhomas l88ol915 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl97
urley, Dan l907l9o2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL21l
urley, W. |. l9l1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DL27o
urlingame, Edward Livermore
l818l922 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL79
urliuk, David l882l9o7 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l7
urman, Carina l9o0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL257
urnet, Gilbert lo13l7l5 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl0l
urnett, Irances Hodgson
l819l921 . . . . . . . . . .DL12, l1l; DSl3, l1
urnett, W. R. l899l982. . . . . . . . . . . DL9, 22o
urnett, Whit l899l973 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl37
urney, Ianny l752l810 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL39
Dedication, q t~ (l8l1) . . . . . . DL39
Ireface to b~ (l778) . . . . . . . . . . . . DL39
urns, Alan l929 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl1, l91
urns, |oanne l915 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL289
urns, |ohn Horne l9lol953 . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y85
urns, Robert l759l79o . . . . DLl09; CDL3
urns and Oates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl0o
urnshaw, Stanley l90o . . . . . . . . . DL18; Y97
|ames Dickey and Stanley urnshaw
Correspondence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y02
Review of Stanley urnshaw. Jhe
Collected Ioems and Selected
Irose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y02
Jribute to Robert Ienn Warren . . . . . . . . . Y89
urr, C. Chauncey l8l5.l883 . . . . . . . . . DL79
urr, Esther Edwards l732l758. . . . . . . . DL200
urroughs, Edgar Rice l875l950 . . . . . . . . DL8
Jhe urroughs ibliophiles . . . . . . . . . . . . Y98
urroughs, |ohn l837l92l . . . . . . . . .DLo1, 275
urroughs, Margaret J. G. l9l7 . . . . . . DL1l
urroughs, William S., |r. l917l98l . . . . . DLlo
urroughs, William Seward l9l1l997
. . . . . . . . . . . . DL2, 8, lo, l52, 237; Y8l, 97
urroway, |anet l93o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo
urt, Maxwell Struthers
l882l951 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL8o; DSlo
A. L. urt and Company . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
urton, Hester l9l32000 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlol
urton, Isabel Arundell l83ll89o. . . . . . DLloo
urton, Miles (see Rhode, |ohn)
urton, Richard Irancis
l82ll890 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DL55, loo, l81
urton, Robert l577lo10. . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl5l
urton, Virginia Lee l909l9o8. . . . . . . . . DL22
urton, William Evans l801l8o0 . . . . . . . DL73
urwell, Adam Hood l790l819 . . . . . . . . DL99
ury, Lady Charlotte l775l8ol. . . . . . . . DLllo
usch, Irederick l91l200o . . . . . . . . . DLo, 2l8
Excerpts from Irederick usch`s LSC
Remarks |on I. Scott Iitzgerald| . . . . . Y9o
Jribute to |ames Laughlin . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y97
Jribute to Raymond Carver . . . . . . . . . . . Y88
usch, Niven l903l99l. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL11
ushnell, Horace l802l87o. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DSl3
usiness Literature
Jhe Claims of usiness and Literature.
An Lndergraduate Essay by
Maxwell Ierkins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y0l
ussires, Arthur de l877l9l3. . . . . . . . . . DL92
utler, Charles circa l5o0lo17 . . . . . . . . DL23o
utler, Guy l9l8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL225
utler, |oseph lo92l752. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL252
utler, |osephine Elizabeth l828l90o . . . DLl90
utler, |uan l912l98l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL53
utler, |udith l95o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL21o
utler, Octavia E. l917200o . . . . . . . . . . . DL33
utler, Iierce l881l953. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl87
utler, Robert Olen l915 . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl73
utler, Samuel lol3lo80. . . . . . . . . .DLl0l, l2o
utler, Samuel
l835l902 . . . . . . . DLl8, 57, l71; CDL5
utler, William Irancis l838l9l0 . . . . . . DLloo
E. H. utler and Company. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
utor, Michel l92o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL83
Nathaniel utter
utterworth, Hezekiah l839l905 . . . . . . . DL12
uttitta, Ignazio l899l997. . . . . . . . . . . . DLll1
utts, Mary l890l937. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL210
uzo, Alex l911 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL289
uzzati, Dino l90ol972. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl77
yars, etsy l928 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL52
yatt, A. S. l93o . . . . . . .DLl1, l91, 3l9, 32o
yles, Mather l707l788 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL21
Henry ynneman
ynner, Witter l88ll9o8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL51
yrd, William circa l513lo23 . . . . . . . . . .DLl72
yrd, William, II lo71l711 . . . . . . . . DL21, l10
yrne, |ohn Keyes (see Leonard, Hugh)
yron, George Gordon, Lord
l788l821. . . . . . . . . . DL9o, ll0; CDL3
Jhe yron Society of America. . . . . . . . . . Y00
ai_ PPO `~ f
RRV
`
yron, Robert l905l91l . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl95

yzantine Novel, Jhe Spanish . . . . . . . . . . DL3l8
`
Caballero onald, |os Manuel
l92o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl08
Cabaero, Eladio l930 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl31
Cabell, |ames ranch l879l958 . . . . . . . DL9, 78
Cabeza de aca, Manuel l853l9l5 . . . . . DLl22
Cabeza de aca Gilbert, Iabiola
l898l993 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl22
Cable, George Washington
l811l925 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl2, 71; DSl3
Cable, Mildred l878l952 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl95
Cabral, Manuel del l907l999. . . . . . . . . . DL283
Cabral de Melo Neto, |oo
l920l999 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL307
Cabrera, Lydia l900l99l . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl15
Cabrera Infante, Guillermo
l929 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll3; CDWL3
Cabrujas, |os Ignacio l937l995. . . . . . . . DL305
Cadell |publishing house|. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl51
Cady, Edwin H. l9l7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl03
Caedmon fl. o58o80 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl1o
Caedmon School circa oo0899 . . . . . . . . . DLl1o
Caesar, Irving l895l99o. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o5
Cafs, rasseries, and istros. . . . . . . . . . . . . DSl5
Cage, |ohn l9l2l992 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl93
Cahan, Abraham l8o0l95l . . . . . . . DL9, 25, 28
Cahn, Sammy l9l3l993. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o5
Cain, George l913 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL33
Cain, |ames M. l892l977 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL22o
Cain, Iaul (Ieter Ruric, George Sims)
l902l9oo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL30o
Caird, Edward l835l908 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o2
Caird, Mona l851l932. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl97
aks, Aleksandrs
l90ll950 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL220; CDWL1
Caldecott, Randolph l81ol88o . . . . . . . . DLlo3
|ohn Calder Limited
|Iublishing house| . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll2
Caldern de la arca, Ianny
l801l882 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl83
Caldwell, en l937 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL38
Caldwell, Erskine l903l987 . . . . . . . . . . DL9, 8o
H. M. Caldwell Company . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Caldwell, Jaylor l900l985. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DSl7
Calhoun, |ohn C. l782l850 . . . . . . . . . DL3, 218
Clinescu, George l899l9o5 . . . . . . . . . . DL220
Calisher, Hortense l9ll . . . . . . . . . . DL2, 2l8
Calkins, Mary Whiton l8o3l930. . . . . . . DL270
Callaghan, Mary Rose l911 . . . . . . . . . DL207
Callaghan, Morley l903l990 . . . . . DLo8; DSl5
Callahan, S. Alice l8o8l891. . . . . . . DLl75, 22l
`~~ | journal|. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y87
Callimachus circa 305 _.`.210 _.`.. . . . . . DLl7o
Calmer, Edgar l907l98o. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1
Calverley, C. S. l83ll881 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL35
Calvert, George Henry
l803l889 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl, o1, 218
Calverton, V. I. (George Goetz)
l900l910 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL303
Calvin, |ean l509l5o1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL327
Calvino, Italo l923l985 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl9o
Cambridge, Ada l811l92o. . . . . . . . . . . . DL230
Cambridge Iress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
`~ p E`~~ `~~~F
circa l050 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl18
Cambridge Lniversity
Cambridge and the Apostles . . . . . . . . . . . DS5
Cambridge Lniversity Iress . . . . . . . . . . . DLl70
Camden, William l55llo23. . . . . . . . . . . DLl72
Camden House. An Interview with
|ames Hardin. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y92
Cameron, Eleanor l9l22000 . . . . . . . . . . . DL52
Cameron, George Irederick
l851l885 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL99
Cameron, Lucy Lyttelton l78ll858. . . . . DLlo3
Cameron, Ieter l959 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL231
Cameron, William leasdell l8o2l95l. . . . DL99
Camm, |ohn l7l8l778 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l
Cames, Lus de l521l580. . . . . . . . . . . . DL287
Camon, Ierdinando l935 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl9o
Camp, Walter l859l925. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL21l
Campana, Dino l885l932 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll1
Campbell, ebe Moore l950200o . . . . . . DL227
Campbell, David l9l5l979. . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o0
Campbell, Gabrielle Margaret Vere
(see Shearing, |oseph, and owen, Marjorie)
Campbell, |ames Dykes l838l895 . . . . . . DLl11
Campbell, |ames Edwin l8o7l89o . . . . . . . DL50
Campbell, |ohn lo53l728. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL13
Campbell, |ohn W., |r. l9l0l97l . . . . . . . . . DL8
Campbell, Ramsey l91o . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2ol
Campbell, Robert l9272000 . . . . . . . . . . . DL30o
Campbell, Roy l90ll957 . . . . . . . . . . DL20, 225
Campbell, Jhomas l777l811 . . . . . . . DL93, l11
Campbell, William Edward (see March, William)
Campbell, William Wilfred l858l9l8 . . . . DL92
Campion, Edmund l539l58l . . . . . . . . . DLlo7
Campion, Jhomas
l5o7lo20 . . . . . . . . . . DL58, l72; CDLl
Campo, Rafael l9o1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL282
Campton, David l921 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL215
Camus, Albert l9l3l9o0 . . . . . . DL72, 32l, 329
Camus, |eanIierre l581lo52. . . . . . . . . . . DL2o8
Jhe Canadian Iublishers` Records Database . . .Y9o
Canby, Henry Seidel l878l9ol. . . . . . . . . . DL9l
Cancioneros. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL28o
Candelaria, Cordelia l913 . . . . . . . . . . . DL82
Candelaria, Nash l928 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL82
`~I Voltaire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l1
Canetti, Elias
l905l991 . . . . . DL85, l21, 329; CDWL2
Canham, Erwin Dain l901l982. . . . . . . . DLl27
Canitz, Iriedrich Rudolph Ludwig von
lo51lo99 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo8
Cankar, Ivan l87ol9l8. . . . . DLl17; CDWL1
Cannan, Gilbert l881l955 . . . . . . . . . DLl0, l97
Cannan, |oanna l89ol9ol . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl9l
Cannell, Kathleen l89ll971. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1
Cannell, Skipwith l887l957 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL15
Canning, George l770l827. . . . . . . . . . . . DLl58
Cannon, |immy l9l0l973 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl7l
Cano, Daniel l917 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL209
Old Dogs / New Jricks. New
Jechnologies, the Canon, and the
Structure of the Irofession . . . . . . . . . .Y02
Cant, Norma Elia l917 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL209
Cantwell, Robert l908l978 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL9
|onathan Cape and Harrison Smith
|publishing house| . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
|onathan Cape Limited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll2
apek, Karel l890l938 . . . . DL2l5; CDWL1
Capen, |oseph lo58l725. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL21
Capes, ernard l851l9l8. . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl5o
Capote, Jruman l921l981
. . . . . . . DL2, l85, 227; Y80, 81; CDALl
Capps, enjamin l922 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL25o
Caproni, Giorgio l9l2l990 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl28
Caragiale, Mateiu Ioan l885l93o. . . . . . . DL220
Carballido, Emilio l925 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL305
Cardarelli, Vincenzo l887l959 . . . . . . . . . DLll1
Cardenal, Ernesto l925 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL290
Crdenas, Reyes l918 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl22
Cardinal, Marie l929200l . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL83
Cardoza y Aragn, Luis l90ll992. . . . . . DL290
Carducci, Giosu l835l907 . . . . . . . . . . . DL329
Carew, |an l920 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl57
Carew, Jhomas l591 or l595lo10 . . . . . DLl2o
Carey, Henry circa lo87lo89l713 . . . . . . . DL81
Carey, Mathew l7o0l839. . . . . . . . . . . DL37, 73
M. Carey and Company . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Carey, Ieter l913 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL289, 32o
Carey and Hart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Carlell, Lodowick lo02lo75. . . . . . . . . . . . DL58
Carleton, William l791l8o9. . . . . . . . . . . DLl59
G. W. Carleton |publishing house| . . . . . . . DL19
Carlile, Richard l790l813 . . . . . . . . DLll0, l58
`~ f ai_ PPO
RSM
Carlson, Ron l917 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL211
Carlyle, |ane Welsh l80ll8oo. . . . . . . . . . DL55
Carlyle, Jhomas
l795l88l. . . . . . . . . . DL55, l11; CDL3
'Jhe Hero as Man of Letters.
|ohnson, Rousseau, urns"
(l81l) |excerpt| . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL57
Jhe Hero as Ioet. Dante; Shakspeare
(l81l) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL32
Carman, liss l8oll929 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL92
`~~ _~~ circa l230 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl38
Carnap, Rudolf l89ll970 . . . . . . . . . . . . .DL270
Carnero, Guillermo l917 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl08
Carossa, Hans l878l95o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLoo
Carpenter, Humphrey
l91o2005 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl55; Y81, 99
Carpenter, Stephen Cullen .l820. . . . . . . DL73
Carpentier, Alejo
l901l980 . . . . . . . . . . . DLll3; CDWL3
Carr, Emily l87ll915 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo8
Carr, |ohn Dickson l90ol977 . . . . . . . . . DL30o
Carr, Marina l9o1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL215
Carr, Virginia Spencer l929 . . . . . . DLlll; Y00
Carrera Andrade, |orge l903l978 . . . . . . DL283
Carrier, Roch l937 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL53
Carrillo, Adolfo l855l92o. . . . . . . . . . . . DLl22
Carroll, Gladys Hasty l901l999. . . . . . . . . DL9
Carroll, |ohn l735l8l5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL37
Carroll, |ohn l809l881 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL99
Carroll, Lewis
l832l898 . . . . . DLl8, lo3, l78; CDL1
Jhe Lewis Carroll Centenary . . . . . . . . . . Y98
Jhe Lewis Carroll Society
of North America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y00
Carroll, Iaul l927l99o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo
Carroll, Iaul Vincent l900l9o8 . . . . . . . . DLl0
Carroll and Graf Iublishers . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Carruth, Hayden l92l . . . . . . . . . . . DL5, lo5
Jribute to Raymond Carver. . . . . . . . . . . . Y88
Carryl, Charles E. l81ll920. . . . . . . . . . . DL12
Carson, Anne l950 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl93
Carson, Rachel l907l9o1 . . . . . . . . . . . . .DL275
Carswell, Catherine l879l91o. . . . . . . . . . DL3o
Cartagena, Alfonso de circa l381l15o . . DL28o
Cartagena, Jeresa de l125.. . . . . . . . . . . DL28o
Crtrescu, Mirea l95o . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL232
Carter, Angela
l910l992 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl1, 207, 2ol, 3l9
Carter, Elizabeth l7l7l80o. . . . . . . . . . . . DLl09
Carter, Henry (see Leslie, Irank)
Carter, Hodding, |r. l907l972 . . . . . . . . . DLl27
Carter, |ared l939 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL282
Carter, |ohn l905l975. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL20l
Carter, Landon l7l0l778. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l
Carter, Lin l930l988 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y8l
Carter, Martin l927l997 . . . .DLll7; CDWL3
Carter, Robert, and rothers . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Carter and Hendee. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Cartwright, |im l958 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL215
Cartwright, |ohn l710l821 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl58
Cartwright, William circa lolllo13 . . . . DLl2o
Caruthers, William Alexander
l802l81o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3, 218
Carver, |onathan l7l0l780 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l
Carver, Raymond l938l988 . . . DLl30; Y83,88
Iirst Strauss 'Livings`` Awarded to Cynthia
Ozick and Raymond Carver
An Interview with Raymond Carver. . . . Y83
Carvic, Heron l9l7.l980 . . . . . . . . . . . . .DL27o
Cary, Alice l820l87l. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL202
Cary, |oyce l888l957 . . . DLl5, l00; CDLo
Cary, Iatrick lo23.lo57 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl3l
Casal, |ulin del l8o3l893 . . . . . . . . . . . DL283
Case, |ohn l510lo00. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL28l
Casey, Gavin l907l9o1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o0
Casey, |uanita l925 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl1
Casey, Michael l917 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL5
Cassady, Carolyn l923 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo
'As I See It" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo
Cassady, Neal l92ol9o8 . . . . . . . . . . .DLlo, 237
Cassell and Company. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl0o
Cassell Iublishing Company . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Cassill, R. V. l9l92002 . . . . . . . . DLo, 2l8; Y02
Cassity, Jurner l929 . . . . . . . . . . DLl05; Y02
Cassius Dio circa l55/lo1post 229 . . . . . .DLl7o
Cassola, Carlo l9l7l987 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl77
Castellano, Olivia l911 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl22
Castellanos, Rosario
l925l971. . . . . . . . .DLll3, 290; CDWL3
Castelo ranco, Camilo l825l890 . . . . . DL287
Castile, Irotest Ioetry in. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL28o
Castile and Aragon, Vernacular Jranslations
in Crowns of l352l5l5. . . . . . . . . . . DL28o
Castillejo, Cristbal de l190.l550 . . . . . DL3l8
Castillo, Ana l953 . . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl22, 227
Castillo, Rafael C. l950 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL209
q `~ m~
circa l100l125 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl1o
Castlemon, Harry (see Iosdick, Charles Austin)
Castro, rian l950 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL325
Castro, Consuelo de l91o . . . . . . . . . . DL307
Castro Alves, Antnio de l817l87l. . . . . DL307
aule, Kole l92l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl8l
Caswall, Edward l8l1l878 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL32
Catacalos, Rosemary l911 . . . . . . . . . DLl22
Cather, Willa l873l917
. . . . . . . . DL9, 51, 78, 25o; DSl; CDAL3
Jhe Willa Cather Iioneer Memorial
and Education Ioundation . . . . . . . . . Y00
Catherine II (Ekaterina Alekseevna), 'Jhe Great,"
Empress of Russia l729l79o. . . . . . . DLl50
Catherwood, Mary Hartwell l817l902. . . DL78
Catledge, Jurner l90ll983. . . . . . . . . . . .DLl27
Catlin, George l79ol872 . . . . . . . . . DLl8o, l89
Cato the Elder 231 _.`.l19 _.`. . . . . . . . DL2ll
Cattafi, artolo l922l979 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl28
Catton, ruce l899l978 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl7
Catullus circa 81 _.`.51 _.`.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DL2ll; CDWLl
Causley, Charles l9l72003 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL27
Caute, David l93o . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl1, 23l
Cavendish, Duchess of Newcastle,
Margaret Lucas
lo23.lo73. . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl3l, 252, 28l
Cawein, Madison l8o5l9l1 . . . . . . . . . . . DL51
William Caxton |publishing house| . . . . . .DLl70
Jhe Caxton Irinters, Limited . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Caylor, O. I. l819l897 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL21l
Caylus, MartheMarguerite de
lo7ll729. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l3
Cayrol, |ean l9ll2005 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL83
Cecil, Lord David l902l98o . . . . . . . . . . DLl55
Cela, Camilo |os
l9lo2002 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL322, 329; Y89
Nobel Lecture l989 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y89
Celan, Iaul l920l970 . . . . . . DLo9; CDWL2
Celati, Gianni l937 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl9o
Celaya, Gabriel l9lll99l . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl08
Cline, LouisIerdinand l891l9ol . . . . . . DL72
Celtis, Conrad l159l508. . . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl79
Cendrars, laise l887l9ol . . . . . . . . . . . DL258
Jhe Steinbeck Centennial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y02
Censorship
Jhe Island Jrees Case. A Symposium on
School Library Censorship . . . . . . . . . Y82
Center for ibliographical Studies and
Research at the Lniversity of
California, Riverside . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y9l
Center for ook Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y81
Jhe Center for the ook in the Library
of Congress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y93
A New Voice. Jhe Center for the
ook`s Iirst Iive Years. . . . . . . . . . . . . Y83
Centlivre, Susanna loo9.l723. . . . . . . . . . DL81
Jhe Centre for Writing, Iublishing and
Irinting History at the Lniversity
of Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y00
Jhe Century Company . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
|. M. Edelstein`s Collection of
JwentiethCentury American Ioetry . . . . . Y02
ai_ PPO `~ f
RSN
`
Cernuda, Luis l902l9o3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl31

Cerruto, Oscar l9l2l98l . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL283
Cervantes, Lorna Dee l951 . . . . . . . . . . DL82
Csaire, Aim l9l3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL32l
de Cspedes, Alba l9lll997 . . . . . . . . . . DL2o1
Cetina, Gutierre de l5l1l7.l55o . . . . . . DL3l8
Ch., J. (see Marchenko, Anastasiia Iakovlevna)
Cha, Jheresa Hak Kyung l95ll982 . . . . DL3l2
Chaadaev, Ietr Iakovlevich
l791l85o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl98
Chabon, Michael l9o3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL278
Chacel, Rosa l898l991 . . . . . . . . . . DLl31, 322
Chacn, Eusebio l8o9l918 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL82
Chacn, Ielipe Maximiliano l873.. . . . . . . DL82
Chadwick, Henry l821l908. . . . . . . . . . . DL21l
ChadwyckHealey`s IullJext Literary Databases.
Editing Commercial Databases of
Irimary Literary Jexts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y95
Challans, Eileen Mary (see Renault, Mary)
Chalmers, George l712l825. . . . . . . . . . . . DL30
Chaloner, Sir Jhomas l520l5o5 . . . . . . . DLlo7
Chamberlain, Samuel S. l85ll9lo. . . . . . . DL25
Chamberland, Iaul l939 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo0
Chamberlin, William Henry l897l9o9. . . . DL29
Chambers, Charles Haddon l8o0l92l . . . DLl0
Chambers, Mara Cristina (see Mena, Mara Cristina)
Chambers, Robert W. l8o5l933 . . . . . . . DL202
W. and R. Chambers
|publishing house| . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl0o
Chambers, Whittaker l90ll9ol . . . . . . . DL303
Chamfort, SbastienRoch Nicolas de
l710.l791. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l3
Chamisso, Adelbert von l78ll838 . . . . . . . DL90
Champfleury l82ll889 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll9
Champier, Symphorien l172.l539. . . . . . DL327
Chan, |effery Iaul l912 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l2
Chandler, Harry l8o1l911. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL29
Chandler, Norman l899l973 . . . . . . . . . . DLl27
Chandler, Otis l927200o. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl27
Chandler, Raymond
l888l959 . . . .DL22o, 253; DSo; CDAL5
Raymond Chandler Centenary. . . . . . . . . .Y88
Chang, Diana l931 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l2
Channing, Edward l85ol93l. . . . . . . . . . . DLl7
Channing, Edward Jyrrell
l790l85o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl, 59, 235
Channing, William Ellery
l780l812 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl, 59, 235
Channing, William Ellery, II
l8l7l90l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl, 223
Channing, William Henry
l8l0l881 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl, 59, 213
Chapelain, |ean l595lo71. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o8
Chaplin, Charlie l889l977 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL11
Chapman, George
l559 or l5o0lo31 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo2, l2l
Chapman, Olive Murray l892l977 . . . . . DLl95
Chapman, R. W. l88ll9o0 . . . . . . . . . . . DL20l
Chapman, William l850l9l7. . . . . . . . . . . DL99
|ohn Chapman |publishing house| . . . . . . . DLl0o
Chapman and Hall |publishing house| . . . DLl0o
Chappell, Ired l93o . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo, l05
'A Detail in a Ioem" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl05
Chappell, William l582lo19 . . . . . . . . . . DL23o
Char, Ren l907l988 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL258
Charbonneau, |ean l875l9o0. . . . . . . . . . . DL92
Charbonneau, Robert l9lll9o7 . . . . . . . . DLo8
Charles, Gerda l9l1l99o. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl1
William Charles |publishing house| . . . . . . . DL19
Charles dÒrlans l391l1o5 . . . . . . . . . . DL208
Charley (see Mann, Charles)
Charrire, Isabelle de l710l805 . . . . . . . . DL3l3
Charskaia, Lidiia l875l937. . . . . . . . . . . . DL295
Charteris, Leslie l907l993 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL77
Chartier, Alain circa l385l130 . . . . . . . . . DL208
Charyn, |erome l937 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y83
Chase, orden l900l97l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o
Chase, Edna Woolman l877l957 . . . . . . . . DL9l
Chase, |ames Hadley (Ren Raymond)
l90ol985 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL27o
Chase, Mary Coyle l907l98l. . . . . . . . . . DL228
ChaseRiboud, arbara l93o . . . . . . . . . DL33
Chateaubriand, IranoisRen de
l7o8l818 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll9
Chtelet, GabrielleEmilie Du
l70ol719 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l3
Chatterjee, Lpamanyu l959 . . . . . . . . . DL323
Chatterton, Jhomas l752l770 . . . . . . . . . DLl09
Essay on Chatterton (l812), by
Robert rowning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL32
Chatto and Windus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl0o
Chatwin, ruce l910l989 . . . . . . . . DLl91, 201
Chaucer, Geoffrey
l310.l100 . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl1o; CDLl
New Chaucer Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y00
Chaudhuri, Amit l9o2 . . . . . . . . . DL2o7, 323
Chaudhuri, Nirad C. l897l999 . . . . . . . . DL323
Chauncy, Charles l705l787 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL21
Chauveau, Iierre|osephOlivier
l820l890 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL99
Chvez, Denise l918 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl22
Chvez, Iray Anglico l9l0l99o . . . . . . . . DL82
Chayefsky, Iaddy l923l98l. . . . . DL7, 11; Y8l
Cheesman, Evelyn l88ll9o9 . . . . . . . . . . DLl95
Cheever, Ezekiel lol5l708 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL21
Cheever, George arrell l807l890 . . . . . . . DL59
Cheever, |ohn l9l2l982
. . . . . . . DL2, l02, 227; Y80, 82; CDALl
Cheever, Susan l913 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y82
Cheke, Sir |ohn l5l1l557 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl32
Chekhov, Anton Iavlovich l8o0l901 . . . DL277
Chelsea House. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Chnedoll, Charles de l7o9l833 . . . . . . DL2l7
Cheney, rainard
Jribute to Caroline Gordon . . . . . . . . . . . .Y8l
Cheney, Ednah Dow l821l901 . . . . . . DLl, 223
Cheney, Harriet Vaughan l79ol889. . . . . . DL99
Chnier, Marie|oseph l7o1l8ll . . . . . . . DLl92
Cheng Xiaoqing l893l97o . . . . . . . . . . . . DL328
Cherny, Sasha l880l932 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l7
Chernyshevsky, Nikolai Gavrilovich
l828l889 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL238
Cherry, Kelly l910 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y83
Cherryh, C. |. l912 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y80
Chesebro`, Caroline l825l873 . . . . . . . . . DL202
Chesney, Sir George Jomkyns
l830l895 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl90
Chesnut, Mary oykin l823l88o. . . . . . . DL239
Chesnutt, Charles Waddell
l858l932 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl2, 50, 78
Chesson, Mrs. Nora (see Hopper, Nora)
Chester, Alfred l928l97l . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl30
Chester, George Randolph l8o9l921 . . . . DL78
revisions until l575 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl1o
Chesterfield, Ihilip Dormer Stanhope,
Iourth Earl of lo91l773. . . . . . . . . . . DLl01
Chesterton, G. K. l871l93o
. . DLl0, l9, 31, 70, 98, l19, l78; CDLo
'Jhe Ethics of Elfland" (l908) . . . . . . DLl78
Chettle, Henry
circa l5o0circa lo07. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl3o
Cheuse, Alan l910 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL211
Chew, Ada Nield l870l915 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl35
Cheyney, Edward I. l8oll917. . . . . . . . . . DL17
Chiang Yee l903l977 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l2
Chiara, Iiero l9l3l98o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl77
Chicanos
Chicano History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL82
Chicano Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL82
Chicano Literature. A ibliography . . DL209
A Contemporary Ilourescence of Chicano
Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y81
Literatura Chicanesca. Jhe View Irom
Without . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL82
Child, Irancis |ames l825l89o. . . . DLl, o1, 235
Child, Lydia Maria l802l880 . . . . DLl, 71, 213
Child, Ihilip l898l978 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo8
Childers, Erskine l870l922 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL70
Children`s Literature
Afterword. Iropaganda, NambyIamby,
and Some ooks of Distinction . . . DL52
`~ f ai_ PPO
RSO
Children`s ook Awards and Irizes. . . DLol
Children`s ook Illustration in the
Jwentieth Century . . . . . . . . . . . . DLol
Children`s Illustrators, l800l880 . . . DLlo3
Jhe Harry Iotter Ihenomenon . . . . . . . . . Y99
Iony Stories, Omnibus
Essay on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo0
Jhe Reality of One Woman`s Dream.
Jhe de Grummond Children`s
Literature Collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y99
School Stories, l9l1l9o0 . . . . . . . . . DLlo0
Jhe Year in Children`s
ooks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y92-9o, 98-0l
Jhe Year in Children`s Literature . . . . . . . Y97
Childress, Alice l9lol991 . . . . . . . .DL7, 38, 219
Childress, Mark l957 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL292
Childs, George W. l829l891 . . . . . . . . . . DL23
Chilton ook Company . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Chin, Irank l910 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL20o, 3l2
Chin, |ustin l9o9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l2
Chin, Marilyn l955 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l2
Chinweizu l913 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl57
Chinnov, Igor` l909l99o. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l7
Chitham, Edward l932 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl55
Chittenden, Hiram Martin l858l9l7 . . . . DL17
Chivers, Jhomas Holley l809l858. . . DL3, 218
Chkhartishvili, Grigorii Shalvovich
(see Akunin, oris)
Chocano, |os Santos l875l931 . . . . . . . DL290
Cholmondeley, Mary l859l925 . . . . . . . DLl97
Chomsky, Noam l928 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL21o
Chopin, Kate l850l901. . . DLl2, 78; CDAL3
Chopin, Ren l885l953 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL92
Choquette, Adrienne l9l5l973 . . . . . . . . . DLo8
Choquette, Robert l905l99l . . . . . . . . . . DLo8
Choyce, Lesley l95l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL25l
Chrtien de Jroyes
circa ll10circa ll90 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL208
Christensen, Inger l935 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l1
Christensen, Lars Saabye l953 . . . . . . DL297
q `~ b~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl
Jhe Christian Iublishing Company. . . . . . DL19
Christie, Agatha
l890l97o. . . . . . . .DLl3, 77, 215; CDLo
Christine de Iizan
circa l3o5circa l13l . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL208
Christopher, |ohn (Sam Youd) l922 . . DL255
` p~~ circa 950 . . . . . . DLl18
Christy, Howard Chandler l873l952 . . . DLl88
Chu, Louis l9l5l970. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l2
Chukovskaia, Lidiia l907l99o. . . . . . . . . DL302
Chulkov, Mikhail Dmitrievich
l713.l792 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl50
Church, enjamin l731l778 . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l
Church, Irancis Iharcellus l839l90o . . . . DL79
Church, Ieggy Iond l903l98o . . . . . . . . DL2l2
Church, Richard l893l972 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl9l
Church, William Conant l83ol9l7. . . . . . DL79
Churchill, Caryl l938 . . . . . . . . . . DLl3, 3l0
Churchill, Charles l73ll7o1 . . . . . . . . . . DLl09
Churchill, Winston l87ll917 . . . . . . . . . DL202
Churchill, Sir Winston
l871l9o5. . . DLl00, 329; DSlo; CDL5
Churchyard, Jhomas l520.lo01 . . . . . . DLl32
E. Churton and Company . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl0o
Chute, Marchette l909l991 . . . . . . . . . . DLl03
Ciardi, |ohn l9lol98o. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL5; Y8o
Cibber, Colley lo7ll757 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL81
Cicero l0o _.`.13 _.`. . . . . . .DL2ll, CDWLl
Cima, Annalisa l91l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl28
ingo, ivko l935l987. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl8l
Cioran, E. M. l9lll995 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL220
ipkus, Alfonsas (see NykaNilinas, Alfonsas)
Cirese, Eugenio l881l955. . . . . . . . . . . . DLll1
Crulis, Jnis (see els, Alberts)
Cisneros, Antonio l912 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL290
Cisneros, Sandra l951 . . . . . . . . . DLl22, l52
City Lights ooks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Civil War (l8ol-l8o5)
attles and Leaders of the Civil War. . . .DL17
Official Records of the Rebellion . . . . . DL17
Recording the Civil War . . . . . . . . . . . DL17
Cixous, Hlne l937 . . . . . . . . . . . DL83, 212
`~ Î Sophie Cottin . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l1
Clampitt, Amy l920l991 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl05
Jribute to Alfred A. Knopf. . . . . . . . . . . . . Y81
Clancy, Jom l917 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL227
Clapper, Raymond l892l911 . . . . . . . . . . DL29
Clare, |ohn l793l8o1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL55, 9o
Clarendon, Edward Hyde, Earl of
lo09lo71. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl0l
Clark, Alfred Alexander Gordon
(see Hare, Cyril)
Clark, Ann Nolan l89ol995 . . . . . . . . . . . DL52
Clark, C. E. Irazer, |r. l925200l. . . DLl87; Y0l
C. E. Irazer Clark |r. and
Hawthorne ibliography. . . . . . . DL2o9
Jhe Iublications of C. E. Irazer
Clark |r. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o9
Clark, Catherine Anthony l892l977. . . . . DLo8
Clark, Charles Heber l81ll9l5 . . . . . . . . DLll
Clark, Davis Wasgatt l8l2l87l. . . . . . . . . DL79
Clark, Douglas l9l9l993 . . . . . . . . . . . . .DL27o
Clark, Eleanor l9l3l99o. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo
Clark, |. I. l935 . . . . . . . . .DLll7; CDWL3
Clark, Lewis Gaylord
l808l873. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DL3, o1, 73, 250
Clark, Mary Higgins l929 . . . . . . . . . . DL30o
Clark, Walter Van Jilburg
l909l97l. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL9, 20o
Clark, William l770l838. . . . . . . . . DLl83, l8o
Clark, William Andrews, |r.
l877l931 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl87
C. M. Clark Iublishing Company . . . . . . . DL1o
Clarke, Sir Arthur C. l9l7 . . . . . . . . . . DL2ol
Jribute to Jheodore Sturgeon . . . . . . . . . . Y85
Clarke, Austin l89ol971 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl0, 20
Clarke, Austin C. l931 . . . . . . . . . DL53, l25
Clarke, Gillian l937 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL10
Clarke, |ames Ireeman
l8l0l888 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl, 59, 235; DS5
Clarke, |ohn circa l59olo58 . . . . . . . . . . DL28l
Clarke, Lindsay l939 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL23l
Clarke, Marcus l81ol88l . . . . . . . . . . . . DL230
Clarke, Iauline l92l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlol
Clarke, Rebecca Sophia l833l90o . . . . . . DL12
Clarke, Samuel lo75l729 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL252
Robert Clarke and Company. . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Clarkson, Jhomas l7o0l81o. . . . . . . . . . DLl58
Claudel, Iaul l8o8l955 . . . . . DLl92, 258, 32l
Claudius, Matthias l710l8l5 . . . . . . . . . . DL97
Clausen, Andy l913 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo
Claussen, Sophus l8o5l93l . . . . . . . . . . DL300
Clawson, |ohn L. l8o5l933 . . . . . . . . . . .DLl87
Claxton, Remsen and Haffelfinger . . . . . . . DL19
Clay, Cassius Marcellus l8l0l903 . . . . . . DL13
Clayton, Richard (see Haggard, William)
Cleage, Iearl l918 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL228
Cleary, everly l9lo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL52
Cleary, Kate McIhelim l8o3l905. . . . . . DL22l
Cleaver, Vera l9l9l992 and
Cleaver, ill l920l98l . . . . . . . . . . . . DL52
Cleeve, rian l92l2003 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DL27o
Cleland, |ohn l7l0l789 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL39
Clemens, Samuel Langhorne (Mark Jwain)
l835l9l0 . . . . . . . . . . DLll, l2, 23, o1, 71,
l8o, l89; CDAL3
Comments Irom Authors and Scholars on
their Iirst Reading of e c . . . . . Y85
Huck at l00. How Old Is
Huckleberry Iinn. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y85
Mark Jwain on Ierpetual Copyright . . . . . Y92
A New Edition of e c. . . . . . . . . . . . Y85
Clement, Hal l9222003 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL8
Clemo, |ack l9lol991. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL27
Clephane, Elizabeth Cecilia l830l8o9 . . DLl99
Cleveland, |ohn lol3lo58. . . . . . . . . . . . DLl2o
Cliff, Michelle l91o . . . . . .DLl57; CDWL3
Clifford, Lady Anne l590lo7o . . . . . . . . DLl5l
Clifford, |ames L. l90ll978 . . . . . . . . . . DLl03
ai_ PPO `~ f
RSP
`
Clifford, Lucy l853.l929. . . . . DLl35, l1l, l97

Clift, Charmian l923l9o9 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o0
Clifton, Lucille l93o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL5, 1l
Clines, Irancis X. l938 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl85
Clive, Caroline (V) l80ll873. . . . . . . . . . DLl99
Edward |. Clode |publishing house|. . . . . . . DL1o
Clough, Arthur Hugh l8l9l8ol . . . . . . . . DL32
Cloutier, Ccile l930 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo0
Clouts, Sidney l92ol982 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL225
Cluttonrock, Arthur l8o8l921 . . . . . . . . DL98
Coates, Robert M.
l897l973. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1, 9, l02; DSl5
Coatsworth, Elizabeth l893l98o . . . . . . . . DL22
Cobb, Charles E., |r. l913 . . . . . . . . . . . DL1l
Cobb, Irank I. l8o9l923 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL25
Cobb, Irvin S. l87ol911. . . . . . . . . DLll, 25, 8o
Cobbe, Irances Iower l822l901 . . . . . . . DLl90
Cobbett, William l7o3l835 . . . . DL13, l07, l58
Cobbledick, Gordon l898l9o9. . . . . . . . . DLl7l
Cochran, Jhomas C. l902l999 . . . . . . . . . DLl7
Cochrane, Elizabeth l8o7l922 . . . . . . DL25, l89
Cockerell, Sir Sydney l8o7l9o2 . . . . . . . . DL20l
Cockerill, |ohn A. l815l89o. . . . . . . . . . . . DL23
Cocteau, |ean l889l9o3 . . . . . . . DLo5, 258, 32l
Coderre, Emile (see |ean Narrache)
Cody, Liza l911 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL27o
Coe, |onathan l9ol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL23l
Coetzee, |. M. l910 . . . . . . . . DL225, 32o, 329
Coffee, Lenore |. l900.l981. . . . . . . . . . . . DL11
Coffin, Robert I. Jristram l892l955 . . . . . DL15
Coghill, Mrs. Harry (see Walker, Anna Louisa)
Cogswell, Ired l9l7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo0
Cogswell, Mason Iitch l7oll830 . . . . . . . . DL37
Cohan, George M. l878l912 . . . . . . . . . . DL219
Cohen, Arthur A. l928l98o. . . . . . . . . . . . DL28
Cohen, Leonard l931 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL53
Cohen, Matt l912 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL53
Cohen, Morris Raphael l880l917 . . . . . . DL270
Colasanti, Marina l937 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL307
Colbeck, Norman l903l987. . . . . . . . . . . DL20l
Colden, Cadwallader
lo88l77o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL21, 30, 270
Colden, |ane l721l7oo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL200
Cole, arry l93o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl1
Cole, George Watson l850l939. . . . . . . . DLl10
Colegate, Isabel l93l . . . . . . . . . . . DLl1, 23l
Coleman, Emily Holmes l899l971 . . . . . . . DL1
Coleman, Wanda l91o . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl30
Coleridge, Hartley l79ol819 . . . . . . . . . . . DL9o
Coleridge, Mary l8oll907. . . . . . . . . . DLl9, 98
Coleridge, Samuel Jaylor
l772l831 . . . . . . . . . . DL93, l07; CDL3
Coleridge, Sara l802l852. . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl99
Colet, |ohn l1o7l5l9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl32
Colette l873l951 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo5
Colette, Sidonie Gabrielle (see Colette)
Colinas, Antonio l91o . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl31
Coll, |oseph Clement l88ll92l . . . . . . . . DLl88
|. M. Edelstein`s Collection of
JwentiethCentury American Ioetry . . . . .Y02
Collier, |ohn l90ll980 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL77, 255
Collier, |ohn Iayne l789l883. . . . . . . . . . DLl81
Collier, Mary lo90l7o2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL95
Collier, Robert |. l87ol9l8. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL9l
I. I. Collier |publishing house| . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Collin and Small . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Collingwood, R. G. l889l913 . . . . . . . . . DL2o2
Collingwood, W. G. l851l932. . . . . . . . . DLl19
Collins, An floruit circa lo53. . . . . . . . . . . DLl3l
Collins, Anthony lo7ol729. . . . . . . . . . . . DL252
Collins, Merle l950 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl57
Collins, Michael l9o1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o7
Collins, Michael (see Lynds, Dennis)
Collins, Mortimer l827l87o . . . . . . . . . DL2l, 35
Collins, Jom (see Iurphy, |oseph)
Collins, Wilkie
l821l889 . . . . . . . DLl8, 70, l59; CDL1
'Jhe Lnknown Iublic`` (l858)
|excerpt| . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL57
Jhe Wilkie Collins Society . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y98
Collins, William l72ll759 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl09
Isaac Collins |publishing house|. . . . . . . . . . DL19
William Collins, Sons and Company. . . . . DLl51
Collis, Maurice l889l973 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl95
Collyer, Mary l7lo.l7o3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL39
Colman, enjamin lo73l717 . . . . . . . . . . . DL21
Colman, George, the Elder l732l791. . . . . DL89
Colman, George, the Younger
l7o2l83o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL89
S. Colman |publishing house| . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Colombo, |ohn Robert l93o . . . . . . . . . . DL53
Colonial Literature. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL307
Colquhoun, Iatrick l715l820 . . . . . . . . . DLl58
Colter, Cyrus l9l02002 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL33
Colum, Iadraic l88ll972. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl9
q `~ e ^~ k
A Symposium on. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y92
Columbus, Christopher l15ll50o . . . . . . DL3l8
Columella fl. first century ^.a.. . . . . . . . . . DL2ll
Colvin, Sir Sidney l815l927 . . . . . . . . . . DLl19
Colwin, Laurie l911l992. . . . . . . . DL2l8; Y80
Comden, etty l9l5 and
Green, Adolph l9l82002. . . . . . . DL11, 2o5
Comi, Girolamo l890l9o8. . . . . . . . . . . . DLll1
Comisso, Giovanni l895l9o9. . . . . . . . . . DL2o1
Commager, Henry Steele l902l998. . . . . . DLl7
Commynes, Ihilippe de
circa l117l5ll . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL208
Compton, D. G. l930 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2ol
Comptonurnett, Ivy l881.l9o9 . . . . . . . DL3o
Conan, Laure (Ilicit Angers)
l815l921 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL99
Concord, Massachusetts
Concord History and Life. . . . . . . . . . DL223
Concord. Literary History
of a Jown . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL223
Jhe Old Manse, by Hawthorne . . . . . DL223
Jhe Jhoreauvian Iilgrimage. Jhe
Structure of an American Cult . . . DL223
Concrete Ioetry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL307
Conde, Carmen l90ll99o . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl08
Condillac, Etienne onnot de
l7l1l780 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l3
Condorcet, Marie|eanAntoineNicolas Caritat,
marquis de l713l791 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l3
'Jhe Jenth Stage". . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l1
Congreve, William
lo70l729 . . . . . . . . . . .DL39, 81; CDL2
Ireface to f~ (lo92) . . . . . . . . . . . DL39
W. . Conkey Company . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Conlon, Evelyn l952 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l9
Conn, Stewart l93o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL233
Connell, Evan S., |r. l921 . . . . . . . . DL2; Y8l
Connelly, Marc l890l980 . . . . . . . . . DL7; Y80
Connolly, Cyril l903l971. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL98
Connolly, |ames . l8o8l957. . . . . . . . . . . DL78
Connor, Ralph (Charles William Gordon)
l8o0l937 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL92
Connor, Jony l930 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL10
Conquest, Robert l9l7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL27
Conrad, |oseph
l857l921 . . . . DLl0, 31, 98, l5o; CDL5
|ohn Conrad and Company . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Conroy, |ack l899l990. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y8l
A Jribute |to Nelson Algren|. . . . . . . . . . . .Y8l
Conroy, Iat l915 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo
q `~I l971 ooker Irize winner,
Nadine Gordimer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL32o
Considine, ob l90ol975. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL21l
Consolo, Vincenzo l933 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl9o
Constable, Henry l5o2lol3. . . . . . . . . . . DLl3o
Archibald Constable and Company . . . . . DLl51
Constable and Company Limited . . . . . . . DLll2
Constant, enjamin l7o7l830. . . . . . . . . . DLll9
Constant de Rebecque, Henrienjamin de
(see Constant, enjamin)
`~ f ai_ PPO
RSQ
Constantine, David l911 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL10
Constantine, Murray (see urdekin, Katharine)
ConstantinWeyer, Maurice l88ll9o1. . . . DL92
` (magazine)
Contempo Caravan.
Kites in a Windstorm . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y85
Jhe Continental Iublishing Company. . . . DL19
A Conversation between William Riggan
and |anette Jurner Hospital . . . . . . . . . . . . Y02
Conversations with Editors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y95
Conway, Anne lo3llo79. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL252
Conway, Moncure Daniel
l832l907. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl, 223
Cook, Ebenezer circa loo7circa l732. . . . . DL21
Cook, Edward Jyas l857l9l9. . . . . . . . . DLl19
Cook, Eliza l8l8l889 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl99
Cook, George Cram l873l921 . . . . . . . . DL2oo
Cook, Michael l933l991 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL53
David C. Cook Iublishing Company. . . . . DL19
Cooke, George Willis l818l923 . . . . . . . . DL7l
Cooke, |ohn Esten l830l88o . . . . . . . DL3, 218
Cooke, Ihilip Iendleton
l8lol850. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3, 59, 218
Cooke, Rose Jerry l827l892 . . . . . . . DLl2, 71
Increase Cooke and Company . . . . . . . . . . DL19
CookLynn, Elizabeth l930 . . . . . . . . . .DLl75
Coolbrith, Ina l81ll928 . . . . . . . . . . DL51, l8o
Cooley, Ieter l910 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl05
'Into the Mirror" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl05
Coolidge, Clark l939 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl93
Coolidge, Susan
(see Woolsey, Sarah Chauncy)
George Coolidge |publishing house|. . . . . . DL19
Coomaraswamy, Ananda l877l917. . . . . DL323
Cooper, Anna |ulia l858l9o1 . . . . . . . . . DL22l
Cooper, Edith Emma l8o2l9l3 . . . . . . . DL210
Cooper, Giles l9l8l9oo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl3
Cooper, |. California l9.. . . . . . . . . . . DL2l2
Cooper, |ames Ienimore
l789l85l. . . . . . . DL3, l83, 250; CDAL2
Jhe icentennial of |ames Ienimore Cooper.
An International Celebration. . . . . . . . Y89
Jhe |ames Ienimore Cooper Society . . . . . Y0l
Cooper, Kent l880l9o5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL29
Cooper, Susan l935 . . . . . . . . . . . DLlol, 2ol
Cooper, Susan Ienimore l8l3l891 . . . . . DL239
William Cooper |publishing house| . . . . . .DLl70
|. Coote |publishing house| . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl51
Coover, Robert l932 . . . . . . . . DL2, 227; Y8l
Jribute to Donald arthelme . . . . . . . . . . . Y89
Copeland and Day . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
opi, ranko l9l5l981. . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl8l
Copland, Robert l170.l518 . . . . . . . . . . DLl3o
Coppard, A. E. l878l957 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo2
Coppe, Iranois l812l908 . . . . . . . . . . DL2l7
Coppel, Alfred l92l2001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y83
Jribute to |essamyn West. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y81
Coppola, Irancis Iord l939 . . . . . . . . . . DL11
Copway, George (Kahgegagahbowh)
l8l8l8o9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl75, l83
Copyright
Jhe Development of the Author`s
Copyright in ritain . . . . . . . . . . DLl51
Jhe Digital Millennium Copyright Act.
Expanding Copyright Irotection in
Cyberspace and eyond . . . . . . . . . . . Y98
Editorial. Jhe Extension of Copyright . . . Y02
Mark Jwain on Ierpetual Copyright . . . . . Y92
Iublic Domain and the Violation
of Jexts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y97
Jhe _uestion of American Copyright
in the Nineteenth Century
Ireface, by George Haven Iutnam
Jhe Evolution of Copyright, by
rander Matthews
Summary of Copyright Legislation in
the Lnited States, by R. R. owker
Analysis of the Irovisions of the
Copyright Law of l89l, by
George Haven Iutnam
Jhe Contest for International Copyright,
by George Haven Iutnam
Cheap ooks and Good ooks,
by rander Matthews . . . . . . . . DL19
Writers and Jheir Copyright Holders.
the WAJCH Iroject . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y91
Corazzini, Sergio l88ol907 . . . . . . . . . . . DLll1
Corbett, Richard l582lo35. . . . . . . . . . . DLl2l
Corbire, Jristan l815l875 . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l7
Corcoran, arbara l9ll . . . . . . . . . . . . DL52
Cordelli, Iranco l913 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl9o
Corelli, Marie l855l921 . . . . . . . . . . DL31, l5o
Corle, Edwin l90ol95o. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y85
Corman, Cid l9212001. . . . . . . . . . . . DL5, l93
Cormier, Robert l9252000 . . . DL52; CDALo
Corn, Alfred l913 . . . . . . . . DLl20, 282; Y80
Corneille, Iierre lo0olo81 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o8
Cornford, Irances l88ol9o0. . . . . . . . . . DL210
Cornish, Sam l935 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1l
Cornish, William
circa l1o5circa l521 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl32
Cornwall, arry (see Irocter, ryan Waller)
Cornwallis, Sir William, the Younger
circa l579lol1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl5l
Cornwell, David |ohn Moore (see le Carr, |ohn)
Cornwell, Iatricia l95o . . . . . . . . . . . . DL30o
Coronel Lrtecho, |os l90ol991. . . . . . . DL290
Corpi, Lucha l915 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL82
Corrington, |ohn William
l932l988 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo, 211
Corriveau, Monique l927l97o . . . . . . . . DL25l
Corrothers, |ames D. l8o9l9l7. . . . . . . . . DL50
Corso, Gregory l930200l. . . . . . . .DL5, lo, 237
Cortzar, |ulio l9l1l981. . . .DLll3; CDWL3
Cortz, Carlos l9232005. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL209
Cortez, |ayne l93o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1l
Corvinus, Gottlieb Siegmund
lo77l71o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo8
Corvo, aron (see Rolfe, Irederick William)
Cory, Annie Sophie (see Cross, Victoria)
Cory, Desmond (Shaun Lloyd McCarthy)
l928 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DL27o
Cory, William |ohnson l823l892 . . . . . . . DL35
Coryate, Jhomas l577.lol7. . . . . . . DLl5l, l72
osi, Dobrica l92l . . . . .DLl8l; CDWL1
Cosin, |ohn l595lo72 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl5l, 2l3
Cosmopolitan ook Corporation. . . . . . . . DL1o
Cossa, Roberto l931 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL305
Costa, Maria Velho da (see Jhe Jhree Marias.
Literary History)
Costain, Jhomas . l885l9o5 . . . . . . . . . . DL9
Coste, Donat (Daniel oudreau)
l9l2l957. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL88
Costello, Louisa Stuart l799l870. . . . . . . DLloo
CotaCrdenas, Margarita l91l . . . . . DLl22
Ct, Denis l951 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL25l
Cotten, ruce l873l951 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl87
Cotter, |oseph Seamon, |r. l895l9l9. . . . . DL50
Cotter, |oseph Seamon, Sr. l8oll919 . . . . DL50
Cottin, Sophie l770l807 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l3
`~ ^ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l1
|oseph Cottle |publishing house| . . . . . . . DLl51
Cotton, Charles lo30lo87. . . . . . . . . . . . DLl3l
Cotton, |ohn l581lo52 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL21
Cotton, Sir Robert ruce l57llo3l . . . . DL2l3
Couani, Anna l918 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL325
Coulter, |ohn l888l980. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo8
Cournos, |ohn l88ll9oo. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL51
Courteline, Georges l858l929 . . . . . . . . DLl92
Cousins, Margaret l905l99o . . . . . . . . . .DLl37
Cousins, Norman l9l5l990 . . . . . . . . . . .DLl37
Couvreur, |essie (see Jasma)
Coventry, Irancis l725l751. . . . . . . . . . . . DL39
Dedication, q e m
i (l75l) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL39
Coverdale, Miles l187 or l188l5o9 . . . . DLlo7
N. Coverly |publishing house| . . . . . . . . . . DL19
CoviciIriede . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Cowan, Ieter l9l12002. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o0
Coward, Noel
l899l973. . . . . . . . . . DLl0, 215; CDLo
Coward, McCann and Geoghegan. . . . . . . DL1o
ai_ PPO `~ f
RSR
`
Cowles, Gardner l8oll91o . . . . . . . . . . . . DL29

Cowles, Gardner 'Mike", |r.
l903l985 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl27, l37
Cowley, Abraham lol8loo7. . . . . . . DLl3l, l5l
Cowley, Hannah l713l809. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL89
Cowley, Malcolm
l898l989 . . . . . . . DL1, 18; DSl5; Y8l, 89
Cowper, Richard ( |ohn Middleton Murry |r.)
l92o2002 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2ol
Cowper, William l73ll800. . . . . . . . DLl01, l09
Cox, A. . (see erkeley, Anthony)
Cox, |ames McMahon l903l971 . . . . . . . DLl27
Cox, |ames Middleton l870l957 . . . . . . . DLl27
Cox, Leonard circa l195circa l550 . . . . . DL28l
Cox, Ialmer l810l921 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL12
Coxe, Louis l9l8l993 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL5
Coxe, Jench l755l821 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL37
Cozzens, Irederick S. l8l8l8o9 . . . . . . . . DL202
Cozzens, |ames Gould l903l978 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . DL9, 291; Y81; DS2; CDALl
Cozzens`s j~ p~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y97
Ernest Hemingway`s Reaction to
|ames Gould Cozzens . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y98
|ames Gould CozzensA View
from Afar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y97
|ames Gould Cozzens. How to
Read Him. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y97
|ames Gould Cozzens Symposium and
Exhibition at the Lniversity of
South Carolina, Columbia . . . . . . . . . .Y00
j o~ (or Something) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y97
Novels for GrownLps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y97
Crabbe, George l751l832 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL93
Crace, |im l91o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL23l
Crackanthorpe, Hubert l870l89o . . . . . . DLl35
Craddock, Charles Egbert (see Murfree, Mary N.)
Cradock, Jhomas l7l8l770 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l
Craig, Daniel H. l8lll895. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL13
Craik, Dinah Maria l82ol887 . . . . . . DL35, lo3
Cramer, Richard en l950 . . . . . . . . . . DLl85
Cranch, Christopher Iearse
l8l3l892 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl, 12, 213; DS5
Crane, Hart l899l932 . . . . .DL1, 18; CDAL1
Iord, Sam Roth, and Hart Crane . . . . .Y02
Crane, R. S. l88ol9o7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo3
Crane, Stephen
l87ll900 . . . . . . . . DLl2, 51, 78; CDAL3
Stephen Crane. A Revaluation, Virginia
Jech Conference, l989. . . . . . . . . . . . .Y89
Jhe Stephen Crane Society. . . . . . . . . .Y98, 0l
Crane, Walter l815l9l5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo3
Cranmer, Jhomas l189l55o . . . . . . DLl32, 2l3
Crapsey, Adelaide l878l9l1. . . . . . . . . . . . DL51
Crashaw, Richard lol2/lol3lo19 . . . . . . DLl2o
Craven, Avery l885l980 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl7
Crawford, Charles l752circa l8l5 . . . . . . . DL3l
Crawford, I. Marion l851l909 . . . . . . . . . DL7l
Crawford, Isabel Valancy l850l887. . . . . . DL92
Crawley, Alan l887l975 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo8
Crayon, Geoffrey (see Irving, Washington)
Crayon, Iorte (see Strother, David Hunter)
Creamer, Robert W. l922 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl7l
Creasey, |ohn l908l973 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL77
Creative Age Iress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Creative Nonfiction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y02
Crbillon, ClaudeIrosper |olyot de
l707l777 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l3
Crbillon, ClaudeIrosper |olyot de
lo71l7o2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l3
William Creech |publishing house| . . . . . . DLl51
Jhomas Creede |publishing house| . . . . . . DLl70
Creel, George l87ol953 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL25
Creeley, Robert l92o2005
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL5, lo, lo9; DSl7
Creelman, |ames
l859l9l5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL23
Cregan, David l93l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl3
Creighton, Donald l902l979 . . . . . . . . . . . DL88
Crmazie, Octave l827l879 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL99
Crmer, Victoriano l909. . . . . . . . . . . . DLl08
Crenne, Helisenne de (Marguerite de riet)
l5l0.l5o0. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL327
Crescas, Hasdai circa l310l1l2. . . . . . . . DLll5
Crespo, Angel l92ol995 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl31
Cresset Iress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll2
Cresswell, Helen l931 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlol
Crvecoeur, Michel Guillaume |ean de
l735l8l3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL37
Crewe, Candida l9o1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL207
Crews, Harry l935 . . . . . . . . . . DLo, l13, l85
Crichton, Michael ( |ohn Lange, |effrey Hudson,
Michael Douglas) l912 . . . . DL292; Y8l
Crispin, Edmund (Robert ruce Montgomery)
l92ll978 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL87
Cristofer, Michael l91o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL7
Criticism
AfroAmerican Literary Critics.
An Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL33
Jhe Consolidation of Opinion. Critical
Responses to the Modernists . . . . . DL3o
'Criticism in Relation to Novels"
(l8o3), by G. H. Lewes . . . . . . . . . DL2l
Jhe Limits of Iluralism . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo7
Modern Critical Jerms, Schools, and
Movements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo7
'Ianic Among the Ihilistines``.
A Iostscript, An Interview
with ryan Griffin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y8l
Jhe Recovery of Literature. Criticism
in the l990s. A Symposium . . . . . . . . .Y9l
Jhe Stealthy School of Criticism (l87l),
by Dante Gabriel Rossetti. . . . . . . . DL35
Crnjanski, Milos
l893l977 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl17; CDWL1
Crocker, Hannah Mather l752l829 . . . . . DL200
Crockett, David (Davy)
l78ol83o . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3, ll, l83, 218
CroftCooke, Rupert (see ruce, Leo)
Crofts, Ireeman Wills l879l957. . . . . . . . . DL77
Croker, |ohn Wilson l780l857. . . . . . . . . DLll0
Croly, George l780l8o0. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl59
Croly, Herbert l8o9l930 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL9l
Croly, |ane Cunningham l829l90l . . . . . . DL23
Crompton, Richmal l890l9o9 . . . . . . . . . DLlo0
Cronin, A. |. l89ol98l. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl9l
Cros, Charles l812l888. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l7
Crosby, Caresse l892l970 and
Crosby, Harry l898l929 and . . DL1; DSl5
Crosby, Harry l898l929 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL18
Crosland, Camilla Joulmin (Mrs. Newton
Crosland) l8l2l895. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL210
Cross, Amanda (Carolyn G. Heilbrun)
l92o2003 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL30o
Cross, Gillian l915 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlol
Cross, Victoria l8o8l952 . . . . . . . . . DLl35, l97
CrossleyHolland, Kevin l91l . . . . DL10, lol
Crothers, Rachel l870l958. . . . . . . . . . DL7, 2oo
Jhomas Y. Crowell Company. . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Crowley, |ohn l912 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y82
Crowley, Mart l935 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL7, 2oo
Crown Iublishers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Crowne, |ohn lo1ll7l2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL80
Crowninshield, Edward Augustus
l8l7l859 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl10
Crowninshield, Irank l872l917. . . . . . . . . DL9l
Croy, Homer l883l9o5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1
Crumley, |ames l939 . . . . . . . . . DL22o; Y81
Cruse, Mary Anne l825.l9l0 . . . . . . . . . DL239
Cruz, Migdalia l958 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL219
Cruz, Sor |uana Ins de la lo5llo95 . . . . DL305
Cruz, Victor Hernndez l919 . . . . . . . . . DL1l
Cruz e Sousa, |oo l8oll898 . . . . . . . . . . DL307
Csokor, Iranz Jheodor l885l9o9 . . . . . . . DL8l
Csori, Sndor l930 . . . . . . DL232; CDWL1
Cuadra, Iablo Antonio l9l22002 . . . . . . DL290
Cuala Iress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll2
Cudworth, Ralph lol7lo88 . . . . . . . . . . . DL252
Cueva, |uan de la l513lol2. . . . . . . . . . . DL3l8
Cugoano, _uobna Ottabah l797.. . . . . . . . . . .Y02
Cullen, Countee
l903l91o . . . . . . . . . DL1, 18, 5l; CDAL1
Culler, |onathan D. l911 . . . . . . . . DLo7, 21o
Cullinan, Elizabeth l933 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL231
Culverwel, Nathaniel lol9.lo5l. . . . . . . DL252
Cumberland, Richard l732l8ll. . . . . . . . . DL89
`~ f ai_ PPO
RSS
Cummings, Constance Gordon
l837l921. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl71
Cummings, E. E.
l891l9o2 . . . . . . . . . . . DL1, 18; CDAL5
Jhe E. E. Cummings Society. . . . . . . . . . . Y0l
Cummings, Ray l887l957. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL8
Cummings and Hilliard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Cummins, Maria Susanna l827l8oo . . . . . DL12
Cumpin, Carlos l953 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL209
Cunard, Nancy l89ol9o5 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL210
|oseph Cundall |publishing house| . . . . . . DLl0o
Cuney, Waring l90ol97o . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL5l
CuneyHare, Maude l871l93o . . . . . . . . . DL52
Cunha, Euclides da l8ool909. . . . . . . . . DL307
Cunningham, Allan
l781l812. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLllo, l11
Cunningham, |. V. l9lll985 . . . . . . . . . . . DL5
Cunningham, Michael l952 . . . . . . . . DL292
Cunningham, Ieter (Ieter Lauder, Ieter
enjamin) l917 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o7
Ieter I. Cunningham
Cunquiero, Alvaro l9lll98l . . . . . . . . . DLl31
Cuomo, George l929 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y80
Cupples, Lpham and Company. . . . . . . . . DL19
Cupples and Leon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Cuppy, Will l881l919. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll
Curiel, arbara rinson l95o . . . . . . . DL209
Edmund Curll |publishing house|. . . . . . . DLl51
Currie, |ames l75ol805. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl12
Currie, Mary Montgomerie Lamb Singleton,
Lady Currie (see Iane, Violet)
` j circa l300. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl1o
Curti, Merle E. l897l99o . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl7
Curtis, Anthony l92o . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl55
Curtis, Cyrus H. K. l850l933 . . . . . . . . . DL9l
Curtis, George William
l821l892 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl, 13, 223
Curzon, Robert l8l0l873 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLloo
Curzon, Sarah Anne l833l898 . . . . . . . . . DL99
Cusack, Dymphna l902l98l . . . . . . . . . DL2o0
Cushing, Eliza Lanesford
l791l88o. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL99
Cushing, Harvey l8o9l939. . . . . . . . . . . DLl87
Custance, Olive (Lady Alfred Douglas)
l871l911. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL210
Cynewulf circa 770810 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl1o
Cyrano de ergerac, Savinien de
lol9lo55. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o8
Czepko, Daniel lo05loo0 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo1
Czerniawski, Adam l931 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL232
a
Dabit, Eugne l898l93o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo5
Daborne, Robert circa l580lo28. . . . . . . . DL58
Dbrowska, Maria
l889l9o5 . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l5; CDWL1
Dacey, Ihilip l939 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl05
'Eyes Across Centuries.
Contemporary Ioetry and 'Jhat
Vision Jhing,`" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl05
Dach, Simon lo05lo59 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo1
Dacier, Anne Le Ivre lo17l720 . . . . . . . DL3l3
Dagerman, Stig l923l951 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL259
Daggett, Rollin M. l83ll90l . . . . . . . . . . DL79
DÀguiar, Ired l9o0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl57
Dahl, Roald l9lol990. . . . . . . . . . . DLl39, 255
Dahlberg, Edward l900l977 . . . . . . . . . . . DL18
Dahn, Ielix l831l9l2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl29
q a~ t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL303
Dal`, Vladimir Ivanovich (Kazak Vladimir
Lugansky) l80ll872. . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl98
Dale, Ieter l938 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL10
Daley, Arthur l901l971 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl7l
Dall, Caroline Healey l822l9l2 . . . . . DLl, 235
Dallas, E. S. l828l879 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL55
q d~ p |excerpt|(l8oo) . . . . . . . DL2l
Jhe Dallas Jheater Center. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL7
DÀlton, Louis l900l95l. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl0
Dalton, Roque l935l975. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL283
Daly, Carroll |ohn l889l958. . . . . . . . . . DL22o
Daly, J. A. l87ll918. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll
Damon, S. Ioster l893l97l. . . . . . . . . . . . DL15
William S. Damrell |publishing house| . . . . DL19
Dana, Charles A. l8l9l897. . . . . . DL3, 23, 250
Dana, Richard Henry, |r.
l8l5l882 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl, l83, 235
Dandridge, Ray Garfield l882l930. . . . . . DL5l
Dane, Clemence l887l9o5 . . . . . . . . .DLl0, l97
Danforth, |ohn loo0l730 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL21
Danforth, Samuel, I lo2olo71. . . . . . . . . . DL21
Danforth, Samuel, II loool727 . . . . . . . . . DL21
a~ ^~~I IierreAmbroiseIranois
Choderlos de Laclos . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l1
Daniel, |ohn M. l825l8o5. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL13
Daniel, Samuel l5o2 or l5o3lol9. . . . . . . DLo2
Daniel Iress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl0o
Daniel`, Iulii l925l988. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL302
Daniells, Roy l902l979. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo8
Daniels, |im l95o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl20
Daniels, |onathan l902l98l . . . . . . . . . . DLl27
Daniels, |osephus l8o2l918 . . . . . . . . . . . DL29
Daniels, Sarah l957 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL215
Danilevsky, Grigorii Ietrovich
l829l890 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL238
Dannay, Irederic l905l982. . . . . . . . . . . DLl37
Danner, Margaret Esse l9l5 . . . . . . . . . DL1l
|ohn Danter |publishing house| . . . . . . . . .DLl70
Dantin, Louis (Eugene Seers)
l8o5l915 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL92
Danto, Arthur C. l921 . . . . . . . . . . . . .DL279
Danzig, Allison l898l987 . . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl7l
DÀrcy, Ella circa l857l937 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl35
Daro, Rubn l8o7l9lo. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL290
Dark, Eleanor l90ll985 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o0
Darke, Nick l918 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL233
Darley, Ielix Octavious Carr
l822l888 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl88
Darley, George l795l81o . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL9o
Darmesteter, Madame |ames
(see Robinson, A. Mary I.)
Darrow, Clarence l857l938. . . . . . . . . . . DL303
Darwin, Charles l809l882 . . . . . . . . . DL57, loo
Darwin, Erasmus l73ll802. . . . . . . . . . . . DL93
Daryush, Elizabeth l887l977. . . . . . . . . . . DL20
Das, Kamala l931 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL323
Dashkova, Ekaterina Romanovna
(ne Vorontsova) l713l8l0. . . . . . . . DLl50
Dashwood, Edme Elizabeth Monica de la Iasture
(see Delafield, E. M.)
Dattani, Mahesh l958 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL323
Daudet, Alphonse l810l897 . . . . . . . . . . DLl23
dÀulaire, Edgar Iarin l898l98o and
dÀulaire, Ingri l901l980 . . . . . . . . . . DL22
Davenant, Sir William lo0oloo8. . . . DL58, l2o
Davenport, Guy l9272005. . . . . . . . . . . . DLl30
Jribute to |ohn Gardner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y82
Davenport, Marcia l903l99o . . . . . . . . . . . . DSl7
Davenport, Robert circa l7
century. . . . . DL58
Daves, Delmer l901l977. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o
Davey, Irank l910 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL53
Davidson, Avram l923l993 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL8
Davidson, Donald l893l9o8. . . . . . . . . . . DL15
Davidson, Donald l9l72003 . . . . . . . . . . .DL279
Davidson, |ohn l857l909 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl9
Davidson, Lionel l922 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl1, 27o
Davidson, Robyn l950 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL201
Davidson, Sara l913 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl85
Davi Stefnsson fr Iagraskgi
l895l9o1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL293
Davie, Donald l922l995. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL27
Davie, Elspeth l9l9l995. . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl39
Davies, Sir |ohn l5o9lo2o . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl72
Davies, |ohn, of Hereford l5o5.lol8 . . . DLl2l
Davies, Rhys l90ll978 . . . . . . . . . . DLl39, l9l
Davies, Robertson l9l3l995. . . . . . . . . . . DLo8
Davies, Samuel l723l7ol . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l
Davies, Jhomas l7l2.l785 . . . . . . . DLl12, l51
ai_ PPO `~ f
RST
`
Davies, W. H. l87ll910 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl9, l71

Ieter Davies Limited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll2
Davin, Nicholas Ilood l810.l90l . . . . . . . DL99
Daviot, Gordon l89o.l952 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl0
(see also Jey, |osephine)
Davis, Arthur Hoey (see Rudd, Steele)
Davis, enjamin |. l903l9o1 . . . . . . . . . . DL303
Davis, Charles A. (Major |. Downing)
l795l8o7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll
Davis, Clyde rion l891l9o2. . . . . . . . . . . . DL9
Davis, Dick l915 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL10, 282
Davis, Irank Marshall l905l987 . . . . . . . . DL5l
Davis, H. L. l891l9o0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL9, 20o
Davis, |ack l9l72000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL325
Davis, |ohn l771l851 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL37
Davis, Lydia l917 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl30
Davis, Margaret Jhomson l92o . . . . . . . DLl1
Davis, Ossie l9l72005 . . . . . . . . . . DL7, 38, 219
Davis, Owen l871l95o. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL219
Davis, Iaxton l925l991. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y89
Davis, Rebecca Harding
l83ll9l0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL71, 239
Davis, Richard Harding l8o1l9lo
. . . . . . . . . . . . DLl2, 23, 78, 79, l89; DSl3
Davis, Samuel Cole l7o1l809. . . . . . . . . . . DL37
Davis, Samuel Iost l850l9l8. . . . . . . . . . DL202
Davison, Irank Dalby l893l970. . . . . . . . DL2o0
Davison, Ieter l928 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL5
Davydov, Denis Vasilèvich
l781l839 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL205
Davys, Mary lo71l732. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL39
Ireface to q t jK a~
(l725) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL39
DAW ooks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Dawe, ruce l930 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL289
Dawson, Ernest l882l917 . . . . . . . DLl10; Y02
Dawson, Iielding l930 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl30
Dawson, Sarah Morgan l812l909 . . . . . . DL239
Dawson, William l701l752. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l
Day, Angel fl. l583l599 . . . . . . . . . . DLlo7, 23o
Day, enjamin Henry l8l0l889. . . . . . . . . DL13
Day, Clarence l871l935 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll
Day, Dorothy l897l980 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL29
Day, Irank Iarker l88ll950 . . . . . . . . . . . DL92
Day, |ohn circa l571circa lo10 . . . . . . . . . . DLo2
Day, Marele l917 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL325
Day, Jhomas l718l789. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL39
|ohn Day |publishing house| . . . . . . . . . . . DLl70
Jhe |ohn Day Company . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Mahlon Day |publishing house| . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Day Lewis, C. (see lake, Nicholas)
Dazai Osamu l909l918 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl82
Deacon, William Arthur l890l977. . . . . . . DLo8
Deal, orden l922l985 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo
de Angeli, Marguerite l889l987. . . . . . . . . DL22
De Angelis, Milo l95l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl28
Debord, Guy l93ll991 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL29o
De ow, |. D. . l820l8o7 . . . . . . . DL3, 79, 218
Debs, Eugene V. l855l92o. . . . . . . . . . . . DL303
de ruyn, Gnter l92o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL75
de Camp, L. Sprague l9072000 . . . . . . . . . . DL8
De Carlo, Andrea l952 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl9o
De Casas, Celso A. l911 . . . . . . . . . . . DL209
Dechert, Robert l895l975 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl87
Declaration of the Rights of Man and of
the Citizen. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l1
a~~ o t~I Olympe
de Gouges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l1
Dedications, Inscriptions, and
Annotations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y0l-02
Dee, |ohn l527lo08 or lo09. . . . . . . DLl3o, 2l3
Deeping, George Warwick l877l950 . . . . DLl53
Deffand, Marie de VichyChamrond,
marquise Du lo9ol780 . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l3
Defoe, Daniel
loo0l73l . . . . . . . DL39, 95, l0l; CDL2
Ireface to ` g~ (l722) . . . . . . . . . DL39
Ireface to q c~ ^
o ` (l7l9) . . . . . . . . . . . DL39
Ireface to j c~ (l722) . . . . . . . . DL39
Ireface to o ` (l7l9) . . . . . . DL39
Ireface to o~~ (l721) . . . . . . . . . . . . DL39
de Iontaine, Ielix Gregory l831l89o. . . . . DL13
De Iorest, |ohn William
l82ol90o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl2, l89
DeIrees, Madeline l9l9 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl05
'Jhe Ioet`s Kaleidoscope. Jhe
Element of Surprise in the
Making of the Ioem" . . . . . . . . . . DLl05
DeGolyer, Everette Lee l88ol95o . . . . . . DLl87
de Graff, Robert l895l98l. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y8l
de Graft, |oe l921l978 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll7
De Groen, Alma l91l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL325
a e circa 980. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl18
Deighton, Len l929 . . . . . . .DL87; CDL8
De|ong, Meindert l90ol99l. . . . . . . . . . . . DL52
Dekker, Jhomas
circa l572lo32 . . . . . . DLo2, l72; CDLl
Delacorte, George J., |r. l891l99l. . . . . . . DL9l
Delafield, E. M. l890l913 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL31
Delahaye, Guy (Guillaume Lahaise)
l888l9o9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL92
de la Mare, Walter l873l95o
. . . . . . . . . . DLl9, l53, lo2, 255; CDLo
Deland, Margaret l857l915 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL78
Delaney, Shelagh l939 . . . . .DLl3; CDL8
Delano, Amasa l7o3l823 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl83
Delany, Martin Robinson l8l2l885. . . . . . DL50
Delany, Samuel R. l912 . . . . . . . . . . . DL8, 33
de la Roche, Mazo l879l9ol . . . . . . . . . . . DLo8
Delavigne, |ean Iranois Casimir
l793l813 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl92
Delbanco, Nicholas l912 . . . . . . . . . DLo, 231
Delblanc, Sven l93ll992 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL257
Del Castillo, Ramn l919 . . . . . . . . . . . DL209
Deledda, Grazia l87ll93o . . . . . . . . DL2o1, 329
De Len, Nephtal l915 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL82
Deleuze, Gilles l925l995 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL29o
Delfini, Antonio l907l9o3 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o1
Delgado, Abelardo arrientos l93l . . . . DL82
Del Giudice, Daniele l919 . . . . . . . . . . DLl9o
De Libero, Libero l90ol98l . . . . . . . . . . DLll1
Delibes, Miguel l920 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL322
Delicado, Irancisco
circa l175circa l510. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l8
DeLillo, Don l93o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo, l73
de Lint, Charles l95l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL25l
de Lisser H. G. l878l911 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll7
Dell, Iloyd l887l9o9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL9
Dell Iublishing Company . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
delle Grazie, Marie Eugene l8o1l93l . . . . DL8l
Deloney, Jhomas died lo00 . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo7
Deloria, Ella C. l889l97l. . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl75
Deloria, Vine, |r. l933 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl75
del Rey, Lester l9l5l993 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL8
Del Vecchio, |ohn M. l917 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DS9
Del`vig, Anton Antonovich l798l83l. . . . DL205
de Man, Iaul l9l9l983 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo7
DeMarinis, Rick l931 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l8
Demby, William l922 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL33
De Mille, |ames l833l880 . . . . . . . . . DL99, 25l
de Mille, William l878l955 . . . . . . . . . . . DL2oo
Deming, Ihilander l829l9l5 . . . . . . . . . . . DL71
Deml, |akub l878l9ol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l5
Demorest, William |ennings l822l895. . . . DL79
De Morgan, William l839l9l7 . . . . . . . . DLl53
Demosthenes 381 _.`.322 _.`. . . . . . . . . . DLl7o
Henry Denham |publishing house| . . . . . . DLl70
Denham, Sir |ohn lol5loo9. . . . . . . . DL58, l2o
Denison, Merrill l893l975 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL92
J. S. Denison and Company . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Dennery, Adolphe Ihilippe
l8lll899 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl92
Dennie, |oseph l7o8l8l2 . . . . . DL37, 13, 59, 73
Dennis, C. |. l87ol938 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o0
Dennis, |ohn lo58l731. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl0l
Dennis, Nigel l9l2l989 . . . . . . . . DLl3, l5, 233
Denslow, W. W. l85ol9l5 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl88
`~ f ai_ PPO
RSU
Dent, |. M., and Sons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll2
Dent, Lester l901l959 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL30o
Dent, Jom l932l998. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL38
Denton, Daniel circa lo2ol703 . . . . . . . . . DL21
DeIaola, Jomie l931 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLol
De _uille, Dan l829l898 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl8o
De _uincey, Jhomas
l785l859. . . . . . . . . DLll0, l11; CDL3
'Rhetoric`` (l828; revised, l859)
|excerpt| . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL57
'Style" (l810; revised, l859)
|excerpt| . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL57
Derby, George Horatio l823l8ol . . . . . . . DLll
|. C. Derby and Company . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Derby and Miller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
De Ricci, Seymour l88ll912 . . . . . . . . . DL20l
Derleth, August l909l97l . . . . . . . . DL9; DSl7
Derrida, |acques l9302001 . . . . . . . . . . . DL212
Jhe Derrydale Iress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Derzhavin, Gavriil Romanovich
l713l8lo. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl50
Desai, Anita l937 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DL27l, 323
Desani, G. V. l9092000. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL323
Desaulniers, Gonzalve l8o3l931. . . . . . . . DL92
DesbordesValmore, Marceline
l78ol859. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l7
Descartes, Ren l59olo50 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o8
Deschamps, Emile l79ll87l . . . . . . . . . . DL2l7
Deschamps, Eustache l310.l101 . . . . . . DL208
Desbiens, |eanIaul l927 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL53
des Iorts, LouisRene l9l8200l . . . . . . . DL83
Deshpande, Shashi l938 . . . . . . . . . . . DL323
Desiato, Luca l91l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl9o
Desjardins, MarieCatherine
(see Villedieu, Madame de)
Desnica, Vladan l905l9o7 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl8l
Desnos, Robert l900l915 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL258
Des Iriers, onaventure
l5l0.l513. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL327
Desportes, Ihilippe l51olo0o . . . . . . . . . DL327
DesRochers, Alfred l90ll978 . . . . . . . . . . DLo8
Des Roches, Madeleine l520.l587. and
Catherine des Roches l512l587.. . . . . DL327
Des Roches, Madeleine
l520.l587. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL327
Desrosiers, LoIaul l89ol9o7 . . . . . . . . . DLo8
Dessaulles, LouisAntoine l8l9l895 . . . . . DL99
Dessl, Giuseppe l909l977 . . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl77
Destouches, LouisIerdinand
(see Cline, LouisIerdinand)
Desvignes, Lucette l92o . . . . . . . . . . . DL32l
DeSylva, uddy l895l950 . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o5
De Jabley, Lord l835l895 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL35
Deutsch, abette l895l982 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL15
Deutsch, Niklaus Manuel
(see Manuel, Niklaus)
Andr Deutsch Limited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll2
Devanny, |ean l891l9o2. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o0
Deveaux, Alexis l918 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL38
De Vere, Aubrey l8l1l902 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL35
Devereux, second Earl of Essex, Robert
l5o5lo0l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl3o
Jhe DevinAdair Company . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
De Vinne, Jheodore Low
l828l9l1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl87
Devlin, Anne l95l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL215
DeVoto, ernard l897l955 . . . . . . . . . DL9, 25o
De Vries, Ieter l9l0l993 . . . . . . . . . . DLo; Y82
Jribute to Albert Erskine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y93
Dewart, Edward Hartley l828l903. . . . . . DL99
Dewdney, Christopher l95l . . . . . . . . . DLo0
Dewdney, Selwyn l909l979 . . . . . . . . . . . DLo8
Dewey, |ohn l859l952 . . . . . . . . . . .DL21o, 270
Dewey, Orville l791l882. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL213
Dewey, Jhomas . l9l5l98l . . . . . . . . . DL22o
DeWitt, Robert M., Iublisher . . . . . . . . . . DL19
DeWolfe, Iiske and Company . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Dexter, Colin l930 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL87
de Young, M. H. l819l925 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL25
Dhlomo, H. I. E. l903l95o. . . . . . . . DLl57, 225
Dhu alRummah (Abu alHarith Ghaylan ibn 'Lqbah)
circa o9ocirca 735 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3ll
Dhuoda circa 803after 813 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl18
q a~ l810l811 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL223
Jhe Dial Iress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
'Dialogue entre un prtre et un moribond,"
Marquis de Sade. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l1
Diamond, I. A. L. l920l988 . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o
Dias Gomes, Alfredo l922l999. . . . . . . . DL307
Daz del Castillo, ernal
circa l19ol581 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l8
Dibble, L. Grace l902l998 . . . . . . . . . . . DL201
Dibdin, Jhomas Irognall
l77ol817 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl81
Di Cicco, Iier Giorgio l919 . . . . . . . . . DLo0
Dick, Ihilip K. l928l982 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL8
Dick and Iitzgerald. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Dickens, Charles l8l2l870
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l, 55, 70, l59,
loo; DS5; CDL1
Dickey, Eric |erome l9ol . . . . . . . . . . . DL292
Dickey, |ames l923l997 . . . . . . . . . . . DL5, l93;
Y82, 93, 9o, 97; DS7, l9; CDALo
|ames Dickey and Stanley urnshaw
|ames Dickey at SeventyA Jribute . . . . . Y93
|ames Dickey, American Ioet. . . . . . . . . . . Y9o
Jhe |ames Dickey Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y99
Jhe Life of |ames Dickey. A Lecture to
the Iriends of the Emory Libraries,
by Henry Hart. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y98
Jribute to Archibald MacLeish . . . . . . . . . Y82
Jribute to Malcolm Cowley. . . . . . . . . . . . Y89
Jribute to Jruman Capote. . . . . . . . . . . . . Y81
Jributes |to Dickey| . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y97
Dickey, William l928l991 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL5
Dickinson, Emily
l830l88o . . . . . . . . . . DLl, 213; CDAL3
Dickinson, |ohn l732l808. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l
Dickinson, |onathan lo88l717 . . . . . . . . . DL21
Dickinson, Iatric l9l1l991. . . . . . . . . . . . DL27
Dickinson, Ieter l927 . . . . . . . DL87, lol, 27o
|ohn Dicks |publishing house| . . . . . . . . . DLl0o
Dickson, Gordon R. l923200l . . . . . . . . . . DL8
a~ i~ _~
^~ ^~ a~
i~ _~ b ~
` . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y98-02
a~ i~ _~
v~ Awards . . . . . . . . . .Y92-93, 97-02
q a~ k~~ _~ . . . . . . . DLl11
Diderot, Denis l7l3l781 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l3
'Jhe Encyclopedia". . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l1
Didion, |oan l931
. . . . . . . . DL2, l73, l85; Y8l, 8o; CDALo
Di Donato, Iietro l9lll992 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL9
Die Irstliche ibliothek Corvey . . . . . . . . . . . Y9o
Diego, Gerardo l89ol987 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl31
Dietz, Howard l89ol983. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o5
Dez, Luis Mateo l912 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL322
Digby, Everard l550.lo05 . . . . . . . . . . . DL28l
Digges, Jhomas circa l51ol595 . . . . . . . DLl3o
Jhe Digital Millennium Copyright Act.
Expanding Copyright Irotection in
Cyberspace and eyond . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y98
Diktonius, Elmer l89ol9ol. . . . . . . . . . . DL259
Dillard, Annie l915 . . . . . . . DL275, 278; Y80
Dillard, R. H. W. l937 . . . . . . . . . . . DL5, 211
Charles J. Dillingham Company . . . . . . . . DL19
G. W. Dillingham Company . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Edward and Charles Dilly
|publishing house| . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl51
Dilthey, Wilhelm l833l9ll. . . . . . . . . . . DLl29
Dimitrova, laga l922 . . . .DLl8l; CDWL1
Dimov, Dimitr l909l9oo. . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl8l
Dimsdale, Jhomas |. l83l.l8oo. . . . . . . DLl8o
Dinescu, Mircea l950 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL232
Dinesen, Isak (see lixen, Karen)
Ding Ling l901l98o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL328
Dingelstedt, Iranz von l8l1l88l . . . . . . DLl33
Dinis, |lio ( |oaquim Guilherme
Gomes Coelho) l839l87l. . . . . . . . . DL287
Dintenfass, Mark l91l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y81
ai_ PPO `~ f
RSV
`
Diogenes, |r. (see rougham, |ohn)

Diogenes Laertius circa 200. . . . . . . . . . . . DLl7o
DiIrima, Diane l931 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL5, lo
Disch, Jhomas M. l910 . . . . . . . . . . DL8, 282
'Le Discours sur le style," GeorgesLouis Leclerc
de uffon. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l1
a~I l999 ooker Irize winner,
|. M. Coetzee. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL32o
Diski, |enny l917 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL27l
Disney, Walt l90ll9oo. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL22
Disraeli, enjamin l801l88l . . . . . . . . DL2l, 55
DÌsraeli, Isaac l7ool818 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl07
ai_ Award for Distinguished
Literary Criticism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y02
Ditlevsen, Jove l9l7l97o . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l1
Ditzen, Rudolf (see Iallada, Hans)
Divakaruni, Chitra anerjee l95o . . . . DL323
Dix, Dorothea Lynde l802l887 . . . . . . DLl, 235
Dix, Dorothy (see Gilmer, Elizabeth Meriwether)
Dix, Edwards and Company . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Dix, Gertrude circa l871. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl97
Dixie, Ilorence Douglas l857l905 . . . . . . DLl71
Dixon, Ella Hepworth
l855 or l857l932. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl97
Dixon, Iaige (see Corcoran, arbara)
Dixon, Richard Watson l833l900 . . . . . . . DLl9
Dixon, Stephen l93o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl30
ai_ Award for Distinguished
Literary Criticism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y02
Dmitriev, Andrei Viktorovich l95o . . . . DL285
Dmitriev, Ivan Ivanovich l7o0l837. . . . . . DLl50
Dobell, ertram l812l9l1 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl81
Dobell, Sydney l821l871 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL32
Dobie, |. Irank l888l9o1. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l2
Dobles Yzaguirre, |ulieta l913 . . . . . . . . DL283
Dblin, Alfred l878l957. . . . . DLoo; CDWL2
Dobroliubov, Nikolai Aleksandrovich
l83ol8ol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL277
Dobson, Austin l810l92l . . . . . . . . . DL35, l11
Dobson, Rosemary l920 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o0
Doctorow, E. L.
l93l . . . . . DL2, 28, l73; Y80; CDALo
Dodd, Susan M. l91o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL211
Dodd, William E. l8o9l910. . . . . . . . . . . . DLl7
Anne Dodd |publishing house| . . . . . . . . . DLl51
Dodd, Mead and Company. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Doderer, Heimito von l89ol9oo . . . . . . . . DL85
. W. Dodge and Company. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Dodge, Mary Abigail l833l89o . . . . . . . . DL22l
Dodge, Mary Mapes
l83l.l905 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL12, 79; DSl3
Dodge Iublishing Company . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Dodgson, Charles Lutwidge (see Carroll, Lewis)
Dodsley, Robert l703l7o1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL95
R. Dodsley |publishing house| . . . . . . . . . . DLl51
Dodson, Owen l9l1l983. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL7o
Dodwell, Christina l95l . . . . . . . . . . . . DL201
Doesticks, _. K. Ihilander, I. .
(see Jhomson, Mortimer)
Doheny, Carrie Estelle l875l958 . . . . . . . DLl10
Doherty, |ohn l798.l851 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl90
Doig, Ivan l939 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL20o
Doina, tefan Augustin l922 . . . . . . . DL232
Dolet, Etienne l509l51o . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL327
Domnguez, Sylvia Maida l935 . . . . . . DLl22
Donaghy, Michael l951 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL282
Iatrick Donahoe |publishing house| . . . . . . DL19
Donald, David H. l920 . . . . . . . . DLl7; Y87
Donaldson, Scott l928 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlll
Doni, Rodolfo l9l9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl77
Donleavy, |. I. l92o . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo, l73
Donnadieu, Marguerite (see Duras, Marguerite)
Donne, |ohn
l572lo3l . . . . . . . . .DLl2l, l5l; CDLl
Donnelly, Ignatius l83ll90l . . . . . . . . . . . DLl2
R. R. Donnelley and Sons Company. . . . . . DL19
Donoghue, Emma l9o9 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o7
Donohue and Henneberry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Donoso, |os l921l99o . . . . DLll3; CDWL3
M. Doolady |publishing house| . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Dooley, Ebon (see Ebon)
Doolittle, Hilda l88ol9ol . . . . . DL1, 15; DSl5
Doplicher, Iabio l938 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl28
Dor, Milo l923 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL85
George H. Doran Company . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Dorat, |ean l508l588. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL327
Dorcey, Mary l950 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l9
Dorgels, Roland l88ol973 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo5
Dorn, Edward l929l999 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL5
Dorr, Rheta Childe l8ool918. . . . . . . . . . . DL25
Dorris, Michael l915l997 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl75
Dorset and Middlesex, Charles Sackville,
Lord uckhurst, Earl of lo13l70o . . . .DLl3l
Dorsey, Candas |ane l952 . . . . . . . . . . DL25l
Dorst, Jankred l925 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL75, l21
Dos Iassos, |ohn l89ol970
. . . . . . . . . DL1, 9, 3lo; DSl, l5; CDAL5
|ohn Dos Iassos. A Centennial
Commemoration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y9o
|ohn Dos Iassos. Artist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y99
|ohn Dos Iassos Newsletter . . . . . . . . . . . .Y00
rKpK^K (Documentary). . . . . . . . . . . . . DL271
Dostoevsky, Iyodor l82ll88l . . . . . . . . . DL238
Doubleday and Company . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Doubrovsky, Serge l928 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL299
Dougall, Lily l858l923 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL92
Doughty, Charles M.
l813l92o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl9, 57, l71
Douglas, Lady Alfred (see Custance, Olive)
Douglas, Ellen ( |osephine Ayres Haxton)
l92l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL292
Douglas, Gavin l17ol522. . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl32
Douglas, Keith l920l911 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL27
Douglas, Norman l8o8l952. . . . . . . . DL31, l95
Douglass, Irederick l8l7l895
. . . . . . . . . . DLl, 13, 50, 79, 213; CDAL2
Irederick Douglass Creative Arts Center Y0l
Douglass, William circa lo9ll752 . . . . . . . DL21
Dourado, Autran l92o . . . . . . . . . DLl15, 307
Dove, Arthur G. l880l91o. . . . . . . . . . . . DLl88
Dove, Rita l952 . . . . . . . . . DLl20; CDAL7
Dover Iublications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Doves Iress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll2
Dovlatov, Sergei Donatovich
l91ll990 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL285
Dowden, Edward l813l9l3 . . . . . . . . DL35, l19
Dowell, Coleman l925l985 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl30
Dowland, |ohn l5o3lo2o. . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl72
Downes, Gwladys l9l5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL88
Downing, |., Major (see Davis, Charles A.)
Downing, Major |ack (see Smith, Seba)
Dowriche, Anne
before l5o0after lol3 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl72
Dowson, Ernest l8o7l900 . . . . . . . . . DLl9, l35
William Doxey |publishing house|. . . . . . . . DL19
Doyle, Sir Arthur Conan
l859l930 . . . DLl8, 70, l5o, l78; CDL5
Jhe Iriory Scholars of New York . . . . . . . .Y99
Doyle, Kirby l932 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo
Doyle, Roddy l958 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl91, 32o
Drabble, Margaret
l939 . . . . . . . . DLl1, l55, 23l; CDL8
Jribute to Graham Greene . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y9l
Drach, Albert l902l995 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL85
Drachmann, Holger l81ol908. . . . . . . . . DL300
a~~ (Documentary) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL301
Dragojevi, Danijel l931 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl8l
Dragn, Osvaldo l929l999 . . . . . . . . . . . DL305
Drake, Samuel Gardner l798l875 . . . . . . DLl87
Drama (p Jheater)
Jhe Dramatic Iublishing Company . . . . . . DL19
Dramatists Ilay Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Drant, Jhomas
early l510s.l578 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo7
Draper, |ohn W. l8lll882 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL30
Draper, Lyman C. l8l5l89l . . . . . . . . . . . DL30
Drayton, Michael l5o3lo3l . . . . . . . . . . . DLl2l
Dreiser, Jheodore l87ll915
. . . . . . . DL9, l2, l02, l37; DSl; CDAL3
`~ f ai_ PPO
RTM
Jhe International Jheodore Dreiser
Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y0l
Notes from the Lnderground
of p `~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y0l
Dresser, Davis l901l977 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL22o
Drew, Elizabeth A.
'A Note on Jechnique" |excerpt|
(l92o) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3o
Drewe, Robert l913 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL325
Drewitz, Ingeborg l923l98o . . . . . . . . . . . DL75
Drieu La Rochelle, Iierre l893l915 . . . . . DL72
Drinker, Elizabeth l735l807 . . . . . . . . . . DL200
Drinkwater, |ohn l882l937. . . . . .DLl0, l9, l19
Jhe Iriends of the Dymock Ioets . . . . . . . Y00
DrosteHlshoff, Annette von
l797l818 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl33; CDWL2
Jhe Drue Heinz Literature Irize
Excerpt from 'Excerpts from a Report
of the Commission," in David
osworth`s q a~ a~
An Interview with David osworth . . . . . . Y82
Drummond, William, of Hawthornden
l585lo19 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl2l, 2l3
Drummond, William Henry l851l907 . . . DL92
Drummond de Andrade, Carlos
l902l987. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL307
Druzhinin, Aleksandr Vasilèvich
l821l8o1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL238
Druzhnikov, Yuri l933 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l7
Dryden, Charles l8o0.l93l . . . . . . . . . . .DLl7l
Dryden, |ohn
lo3ll700. . . . . . DL80, l0l, l3l; CDL2
Dri, Marin
circa l508l5o7 . . . . . . . .DLl17; CDWL1
Duane, William l7o0l835 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL13
Du artas, Guillaume l511l590 . . . . . . . DL327
Dub, Marcel l930 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL53
Dub, Rodolphe (see Hertel, Iranois)
Du ellay, |oachim l522.l5o0 . . . . . . . . DL327
Dubie, Norman l915 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl20
Dubin, Al l89ll915 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o5
Du occage, AnneMarie l7l0l802. . . . . DL3l3
Dubois, Silvia l788 or l789.l889 . . . . . . DL239
Du ois, W. E. .
l8o8l9o3 . . . .DL17, 50, 9l, 21o; CDAL3
Du ois, William Ine l9lol993 . . . . . . . DLol
Dubrovina, Ekaterina Oskarovna
l81ol9l3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL238
Dubus, Andre l93ol999 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl30
Jribute to Michael M. Rea. . . . . . . . . . . . . Y97
Dubus, Andre, III l959 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL292
Ducange, Victor l783l833. . . . . . . . . . . . DLl92
Du Chaillu, Iaul elloni l83l.l903 . . . . DLl89
Ducharme, Rjean l91l . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo0
Dui, |ovan l87ll913 . . . . .DLl17; CDWL1
Duck, Stephen l705.l75o . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL95
Gerald Duckworth and Company
Limited. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll2
Duclaux, Madame Mary (see Robinson, A. Mary I.)
Dudek, Louis l9l8200l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL88
Dudintsev, Vladimir Dmitrievich
l9l8l998 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL302
DudleySmith, Jrevor (see Hall, Adam)
Duell, Sloan and Iearce . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Duerer, Albrecht l17ll528 . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl79
Duff Gordon, Lucie l82ll8o9 . . . . . . . . DLloo
Dufferin, Helen Lady, Countess of Gifford
l807l8o7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl99
Duffield and Green. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Duffy, Maureen l933 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl1, 3l0
Dufief, Nicholas Gouin l77ol831 . . . . . . DLl87
Dufresne, |ohn l918 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL292
Dugan, Alan l9232003 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL5
Dugard, William lo0oloo2 . . . . . . . .DLl70, 28l
William Dugard |publishing house| . . . . . .DLl70
Dugas, Marcel l883l917. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL92
William Dugdale |publishing house|. . . . . DLl0o
Du Guillet, Iernette l520.l515. . . . . . . . DL327
Duhamel, Georges l881l9oo . . . . . . . . . . DLo5
Dujardin, Edouard l8oll919 . . . . . . . . . DLl23
Dukes, Ashley l885l959. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl0
Dumas, Alexandre l821l895 . . . . . . . DLl92
Dumas, Alexandre l802l870 . . . . . DLll9, l92
Dumas, Henry l931l9o8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1l
du Maurier, Daphne l907l989 . . . . . . . . DLl9l
Du Maurier, George l831l89o . . . . . DLl53, l78
Dummett, Michael l925 . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o2
Dunbar, Iaul Laurence
l872l90o. . . . . . . . DL50, 51, 78; CDAL3
Introduction to i i i (l89o),
by William Dean Howells . . . . . . . DL50
Dunbar, William
circa l1o0circa l522 . . . . . . . . . DLl32, l1o
Duncan, Dave l933 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL25l
Duncan, David |ames l952 . . . . . . . . . DL25o
Duncan, Norman l87ll9lo. . . . . . . . . . . . DL92
Duncan, _uince l910 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl15
Duncan, Robert l9l9l988 . . . . . . DL5, lo, l93
Duncan, Ronald l9l1l982 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl3
Duncan, Sara |eannette l8oll922. . . . . . . DL92
Dunigan, Edward, and rother . . . . . . . . . DL19
Dunlap, |ohn l717l8l2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL13
Dunlap, William l7ool839 . . . . . . . DL30, 37, 59
Dunlop, William 'Jiger" l792l818. . . . . . DL99
Dunmore, Helen l952 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o7
Dunn, Douglas l912 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL10
Dunn, Harvey Jhomas l881l952. . . . . . DLl88
Dunn, Stephen l939 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl05
'Jhe Good, Jhe Not So Good" . . . . DLl05
Dunne, Dominick l925 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL30o
Dunne, Iinley Ieter l8o7l93o. . . . . . . DLll, 23
Dunne, |ohn Gregory l932 . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y80
Dunne, Ihilip l908l992 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o
Dunning, Ralph Cheever l878l930 . . . . . . DL1
Dunning, William A. l857l922. . . . . . . . . .DLl7
Duns Scotus, |ohn circa l2ool308 . . . . . DLll5
Dunsany, Lord (Edward |ohn Moreton
Drax Ilunkett, aron Dunsany)
l878l957. . . . . . . . . DLl0, 77, l53, l5o, 255
Dunton, W. Herbert l878l93o . . . . . . . . DLl88
|ohn Dunton |publishing house| . . . . . . . . .DLl70
Dupin, AmantineAuroreLucile (see Sand, George)
Du Iont de Nemours, Iierre Samuel
l739l8l7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l3
Dupuy, Eliza Ann l8l1l880 . . . . . . . . . . DL218
Durack, Mary l9l3l991 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o0
Durand, Lucile (see ersianik, Louky)
Duranti, Irancesca l935 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl9o
Duranty, Walter l881l957 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL29
Duras, Marguerite (Marguerite Donnadieu)
l9l1l99o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL83, 32l
Durfey, Jhomas lo53l723 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL80
Durova, Nadezhda Andreevna
(Aleksandr Andreevich Aleksandrov)
l783l8oo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl98
Durrell, Lawrence l9l2l990
. . . . . . . . . . . DLl5, 27, 201; Y90; CDL7
William Durrell |publishing house|. . . . . . . DL19
Drrenmatt, Iriedrich
l92ll990 . . . . . . . . .DLo9, l21; CDWL2
Duston, Hannah lo57l737. . . . . . . . . . . . DL200
Dutt, Joru l85ol877 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL210
E. I. Dutton and Company . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Duun, Olav l87ol939 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL297
Duvoisin, Roger l901l980 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLol
Duyckinck, Evert Augustus
l8lol878. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3, o1, 250
Duyckinck, George L.
l823l8o3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3, 250
Duyckinck and Company. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Dwight, |ohn Sullivan l8l3l893. . . . . DLl, 235
Dwight, Jimothy l752l8l7. . . . . . . . . . . . DL37
America. or, A Ioem on the Settlement
of the ritish Colonies, by
Jimothy Dwight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL37
Dybek, Stuart l912 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl30
Dyer, Charles l928 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl3
Dyer, Sir Edward l513lo07. . . . . . . . . . . DLl3o
Dyer, George l755l81l. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL93
Dyer, |ohn lo99l757 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL95
Dyk, Viktor l877l93l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l5
Dylan, ob l91l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo
ai_ PPO `~ f
RTN
`
b
Eager, Edward l9lll9o1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL22
Eagleton, Jerry l913 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL212
Eames, Wilberforce
l855l937 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl10
Earle, Alice Morse
l853l9ll . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL22l
Earle, |ohn lo00 or lo0lloo5 . . . . . . . . . DLl5l
|ames H. Earle and Company . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
East Europe
Independence and Destruction,
l9l8l91l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL220
Social Jheory and Ethnography.
Languageand Ethnicity in
Western versus Eastern Man . . . . DL220
Eastlake, William l9l7l997 . . . . . . . . . DLo, 20o
Eastman, Carol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL11
Eastman, Charles A. (Ohiyesa)
l858l939 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl75
Eastman, Max l883l9o9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL9l
Eaton, Daniel Isaac l753l8l1. . . . . . . . . . DLl58
Eaton, Edith Maude l8o5l9l1. . . . . DL22l, 3l2
Eaton, Winnifred l875l951 . . . . . . . DL22l, 3l2
Eberhart, Richard
l9012005 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DL18; CDALl
Jribute to Robert Ienn Warren . . . . . . . . .Y89
Ebner, |eannie l9l82001. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL85
EbnerEschenbach, Marie von
l830l9lo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL8l
Ebon l912 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1l
Eooks` Second Act in Libraries. . . . . . . . . . . .Y02
b~ `~ circa l015. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl18
Ecco Iress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Echegaray, |os l832l9lo. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL329
Eckhart, Meister circa l2o0circa l328 . . . DLll5
q b o l805l8o8 . . . . . . . . . . . DLll0
Eco, Lmberto l932 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl9o, 212
Eddison, E. R. l882l915 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL255
Edel, Leon l907l997. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl03
Edelfeldt, Inger l95o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL257
|. M. Edelstein`s Collection of Jwentieth
Century American Ioetry (A Century of Ioetry,
a Lifetime of Collecting) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y02
Edes, enjamin l732l803. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL13
Edgar, David l918 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl3, 233
Viewpoint. Iolitics and
Ierformance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl3
Edgerton, Clyde l911 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL278
Edgeworth, Maria
l7o8l819 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLllo, l59, lo3
q b o l802l929. . . . . . . . . DLll0
Edinburgh Lniversity Iress . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll2
Editing
Conversations with Editors . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y95
Editorial Statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl37
Jhe Editorial Style of Iredson owers . . . .Y9l
Editorial. Jhe Extension of Copyright . . . .Y02
We See the Editor at Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y97
Whose r\ Jhe Iunction of Editing . . . Y97
Jhe Editor Iublishing Company. . . . . . . . . DL19
Editorial Institute at oston Lniversity . . . . . . .Y00
Edmonds, Helen Woods Ierguson
(see Kavan, Anna)
Edmonds, Randolph l900l983 . . . . . . . . . DL5l
Edmonds, Walter D. l903l998 . . . . . . . . . . DL9
Edric, Robert (see Armitage, G. E.)
Edschmid, Kasimir l890l9oo. . . . . . . . . . . DL5o
Edson, Margaret l9ol . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2oo
Edson, Russell l935 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL211
Edwards, Amelia Anne landford
l83ll892 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl71
Edwards, Dic l953 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL215
Edwards, Edward l8l2l88o. . . . . . . . . . . DLl81
Edwards, |onathan l703l758 . . . . . . . DL21, 270
Edwards, |onathan, |r. l715l80l . . . . . . . . DL37
Edwards, |unius l929 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL33
Edwards, Matilda arbara etham
l83ol9l9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl71
Edwards, Richard l521l5oo. . . . . . . . . . . . DLo2
Edwards, Sarah Iierpont l7l0l758. . . . . . DL200
|ames Edwards |publishing house|. . . . . . . DLl51
Effinger, George Alec l917 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL8
Egerton, George l859l915. . . . . . . . . . . . DLl35
Eggleston, Edward l837l902 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl2
Eggleston, Wilfred l90ll98o . . . . . . . . . . . DL92
Egltis, Anlavs l90ol993. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL220
Eguren, |os Mara l871l912 . . . . . . . . . . DL290
Ehrenreich, arbara l91l . . . . . . . . . . . DL21o
Ehrenstein, Albert l88ol950 . . . . . . . . . . . DL8l
Ehrhart, W. D. l918 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DS9
Ehrlich, Gretel l91o . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l2, 275
Eich, Gnter l907l972 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo9, l21
Eichendorff, |oseph Ireiherr von
l788l857 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL90
Eifukumonìn l27ll312 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL203
Eigner, Larry l92ol99o . . . . . . . . . . . . DL5, l93
b _~ lo19 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl5l
Eilhart von Oberge
circa ll10circa ll95. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl18
Einar enediktsson l8o1l910 . . . . . . . . . DL293
Einar Krason l955 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL293
Einar Mr Gumundsson l951 . . . . . . DL293
Einhard circa 770810 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl18
Eiseley, Loren l907l977 . . . . . . . . DL275, DSl7
Eisenberg, Deborah l915 . . . . . . . . . . . DL211
Eisenreich, Herbert l925l98o . . . . . . . . . . DL85
Eisner, Kurt l8o7l9l9. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLoo
Ekelf, Gunnar l907l9o8. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL259
Eklund, Gordon l915 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y83
Ekman, Kerstin l933 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL257
Ekwensi, Cyprian l92l . . . DLll7; CDWL3
Elaw, Zilpha circa l790. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL239
George Eld |publishing house|. . . . . . . . . . DLl70
Elder, Lonne, III l93l . . . . . . . . . DL7, 38, 11
Iaul Elder and Company . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Eldershaw, Ilora (M. arnard Eldershaw)
l897l95o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o0
Eldershaw, M. arnard (see arnard, Marjorie and
Eldershaw, Ilora)
q b jI l970 ooker Irize winner,
ernice Rubens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL32o
Jhe Electronic Jext Center and the Electronic
Archive of Early American Iiction at the
Lniversity of Virginia Library . . . . . . . . . .Y98
Eliade, Mircea l907l98o. . . . DL220; CDWL1
Elie, Robert l9l5l973 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL88
Elin Ielin l877l919. . . . . . . . DLl17; CDWL1
Eliot, George
l8l9l880 . . . . . . . .DL2l, 35, 55; CDL1
Jhe George Eliot Iellowship. . . . . . . . . . . .Y99
Eliot, |ohn lo01lo90 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL21
Eliot, J. S. l888l9o5
. . . . . . DL7, l0, 15, o3, 215, 329; CDAL5
J. S. Eliot Centennial. Jhe Return
of the Old Iossum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y88
Jhe J. S. Eliot Society. Celebration and
Scholarship, l980l999. . . . . . . . . . . . .Y99
Eliot`s Court Iress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl70
Elizabeth I l533lo03 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl3o
Elizabeth von NassauSaarbrcken
after l393l15o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl79
Elizondo, Salvador l932 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl15
Elizondo, Sergio l930 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL82
Elkin, Stanley
l930l995 . . . . . . . . .DL2, 28, 2l8, 278; Y80
Elles, Dora Amy (see Wentworth, Iatricia)
Ellet, Elizabeth I. l8l8.l877 . . . . . . . . . . . DL30
Elliot, Ebenezer l78ll819. . . . . . . . . . DL9o, l90
Elliot, Irances Minto (Dickinson)
l820l898 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLloo
Elliott, Charlotte l789l87l . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl99
Elliott, George l923 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo8
Elliott, George I. l9l8l980 . . . . . . . . . . . DL211
Elliott, |anice l93ll995 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl1
Elliott, Sarah arnwell l818l928 . . . . . . . DL22l
Elliott, Sumner Locke l9l7l99l . . . . . . . . DL289
Elliott, Jhomes and Jalbot . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Elliott, William, III l788l8o3. . . . . . . . DL3, 218
Ellin, Stanley l9lol98o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL30o
Ellis, Alice Jhomas (Anna Margaret Haycraft)
l932 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl91
Ellis, ret Easton l9o1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL292
`~ f ai_ PPO
RTO
Ellis, Edward S. l810l9lo. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL12
Irederick Staridge Ellis
|publishing house| . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl0o
Ellis, George E.
'Jhe New Controversy Concerning
Miracles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DS5
Jhe George H. Ellis Company. . . . . . . . . . DL19
Ellis, Havelock l859l939 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl90
Ellison, Harlan l931 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL8
Jribute to Isaac Asimov . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y92
Ellison, Ralph
l9l1l991. . . . DL2, 7o, 227; Y91; CDALl
Ellmann, Richard l9l8l987 . . . . . . DLl03; Y87
Ellroy, |ames l918 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL22o; Y9l
Jribute to Raymond Chandler. . . . . . . . . . Y88
Eluard, Iaul l895l952 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL258
Elyot, Jhomas l190.l51o. . . . . . . . . . . . DLl3o
Elytis, Odysseus l9lll99o . . . . . . . . . . . DL329
Emanuel, |ames Andrew l92l . . . . . . . . DL1l
Emecheta, uchi l911 . . . .DLll7; CDWL3
Emerson, Ralph Waldo
l803l882 . . . . . DLl, 59, 73, l83, 223, 270;
DS5; CDAL2
Ralph Waldo Emerson in l982 . . . . . . . . . Y82
Jhe Ralph Waldo Emerson Society. . . . . . Y99
Emerson, William l7o9l8ll . . . . . . . . . . . DL37
Emerson, William R. l923l997. . . . . . . . . . . . Y97
Emin, Iedor Aleksandrovich
circa l735l770 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl50
Emmanuel, Iierre l9lol981 . . . . . . . . . . DL258
Empedocles fifth century _.`. . . . . . . . . . . .DLl7o
Empson, William l90ol981 . . . . . . . . . . . DL20
Enchi Iumiko l905l98o . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl82
'Jhe Encyclopedia," Denis Diderot . . . . . DL3l1
Ende, Michael l929l995. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL75
End Shsaku l923l99o. . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl82
Engel, Marian l933l985 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL53
Engel`gardt, Sofìa Vladimirovna
l828l891 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DL277
Engels, Iriedrich l820l895 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl29
Engle, Iaul l908l99l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL18
Jribute to Robert Ienn Warren . . . . . . . . . Y89
English, Jhomas Dunn l8l9l902. . . . . . DL202
q b m~I l992 ooker Irize winner,
Michael Ondaatje. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL32o
Ennius 239 _.`.lo9 _.`. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2ll
Enquist, Ier Olov l931 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL257
Enright, Anne l9o2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o7
Enright, D. |. l9202002. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL27
Enright, Elizabeth l909l9o8 . . . . . . . . . . . DL22
Enright, Nick l9502003. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL325
Epic, Jhe SixteenthCentury Spanish. . . . DL3l8
Epictetus circa 55circa l25l30 . . . . . . . . .DLl7o
Epicurus 312/31l _.`.27l/270 _.`. . . . . . .DLl7o
dÈpinay, Louise (LouiseIlorenceItronille Jardieu
dÈsclavelles, marquise dÈpinay)
l72ol783 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l3
Epps, ernard l93o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL53
Epshtein, Mikhail Naumovich l950 . . DL285
Epstein, |ulius l9092000 and
Epstein, Ihilip l909l952. . . . . . . . . . . DL2o
Epstein, Leslie l938 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL299
Editors, Conversations with . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y95
Equiano, Olaudah
circa l715l797 . . . . . . . DL37, 50; CDWL3
Olaudah Equiano and Lnfinished
|ourneys. Jhe SlaveNarrative
Jradition and JwentiethCentury
Continuities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DLll7
Eragny Iress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll2
Erasmus, Desiderius l1o7l53o . . . . . . . . DLl3o
Erba, Luciano l922 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl28
Erdman, Nikolai Robertovich
l900l970. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DL272
Erdrich, Louise
l951 . . . . . . .DLl52, l75, 20o; CDAL7
Erenburg, Ilìa Grigorèvich l89ll9o7 . . .DL272
Erichsenrown, Gwethalyn Graham
(see Graham, Gwethalyn)
Eriugena, |ohn Scottus circa 8l0877 . . . . DLll5
Ernst, Iaul l8ool933 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLoo, ll8
Erofeev, Venedikt Vasilèvich
l938l990 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL285
Erofeev, Viktor Vladimirovich
l917 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL285
Ershov, Ietr Iavlovich l8l5l8o9. . . . . . . DL205
Erskine, Albert l9lll993 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y93
At Home with Albert Erskine . . . . . . . . . . Y00
Erskine, |ohn l879l95l. . . . . . . . . . . . DL9, l02
Erskine, Mrs. Steuart .l918 . . . . . . . . . . DLl95
Ertel`, Aleksandr Ivanovich
l855l908 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL238
Ervine, St. |ohn Greer l883l97l . . . . . . . . DLl0
Eschenburg, |ohann |oachim
l713l820. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL97
Escofet, Cristina l915 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL305
Escoto, |ulio l911 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl15
Esdaile, Arundell l880l95o. . . . . . . . . . . DL20l
Esenin, Sergei Aleksandrovich
l895l925 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL295
Eshleman, Clayton l935 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL5
Espaillat, Rhina I. l932 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL282
Espanca, Ilorbela l891l930 . . . . . . . . . . DL287
Espriu, Salvador l9l3l985 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl31
Ess Ess Iublishing Company . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Essex House Iress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll2
Esson, Louis l878l913 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o0
Essop, Ahmed l93l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL225
Esterhzy, Iter l950 . . . . . DL232; CDWL1
Estes, Eleanor l90ol988 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL22
Estes and Lauriat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Estienne, Henri II (Henricus Stephanus)
l53ll597 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL327
Estleman, Loren D. l952 . . . . . . . . . . . DL22o
Eszterhas, |oe l911 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl85
Etherege, George lo3ocirca lo92 . . . . . . . DL80
Ethridge, Mark, Sr. l89ol98l . . . . . . . . . .DLl27
Ets, Marie Hall l893l981 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL22
Etter, David l928 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl05
Ettner, |ohann Christoph lo51l721 . . . . DLlo8
Eucken, Rudolf l81ol92o. . . . . . . . . . . . DL329
Eudora Welty Remembered in
Jwo Exhibits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y02
Eugene Gant`s Irojected Works . . . . . . . . . . . . Y0l
Eupolemius fl. circa l095 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl18
Euripides circa 181 _.`.107/10o _.`.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl7o; CDWLl
Evans, Augusta |ane l835l909 . . . . . . . . DL239
Evans, Caradoc l878l915 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo2
Evans, Charles l850l935 . . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl87
Evans, Donald l881l92l . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL51
Evans, George Henry l805l85o . . . . . . . . DL13
Evans, Hubert l892l98o. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL92
Evans, Mari l923 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1l
Evans, Mary Ann (see Eliot, George)
Evans, Nathaniel l712l7o7 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l
Evans, Sebastian l830l909 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL35
Evans, Ray l9l5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o5
M. Evans and Company. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Evaristi, Marcella l953 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL233
Everett, Alexander Hill l790l817 . . . . . . . DL59
Everett, Edward l791l8o5. . . . . . . DLl, 59, 235
Everson, R. G. l903 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL88
Everson, William l9l2l991 . . . . . .DL5, lo, 2l2
Evreinov, Nikolai l879l953. . . . . . . . . . . .DL3l7
Ewald, |ohannes l713l78l. . . . . . . . . . . . DL300
Ewart, Gavin l9lol995. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL10
Ewing, |uliana Horatia l81ll885 . . . DL2l, lo3
q b~ l808l88l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll0
Exley, Irederick l929l992 . . . . . . . DLl13; Y8l
Editorial. Jhe Extension of Copyright . . . . . . . Y02
von Eyb, Albrecht l120l175 . . . . . . . . . . .DLl79
Eyre and Spottiswoode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl0o
Ezekiel, Nissim l9212001 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL323
Ezera, Regna l930 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL232
Ezzo .after l0o5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl18
c
Iaber, Irederick William l8l1l8o3. . . . . . DL32
Iaber and Iaber Limited . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll2
ai_ PPO `~ f
RTP
`
Iaccio, Rena (see Aleramo, Sibilla)

Iacsimiles
Jhe Lses of Iacsimile. A Symposium. . . . .Y90
Iadeev, Aleksandr Aleksandrovich
l90ll95o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL272
Iagundo, Ana Mara l938 . . . . . . . . . . DLl31
Iainzil`berg, Ilìa Arnol`dovich
(see Il`f, Ilìa and Ietrov, Evgenii)
Iair, Ronald L. l932 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL33
Iairfax, eatrice (see Manning, Marie)
Iairlie, Gerard l899l983 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL77
Ialdbakken, Knut l91l . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL297
Ialkberget, |ohan ( |ohan Ietter Lillebakken)
l879l9o7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL297
Iallada, Hans l893l917 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL5o
q c~ o~I l99l ooker Irize winner,
en Okri . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL32o
Iancher, etsy l928 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y83
Iane, Violet l813l905 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL35
Ianfrolico Iress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll2
Ianning, Katherine l927 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl27
Ianon, Irantz l925l9ol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL29o
Ianshawe, Sir Richard lo08looo . . . . . . . DLl2o
Iantasy Iress Iublishers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Iante, |ohn l909l983 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl30; Y83
AlIarabi circa 870950. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll5
Iarabough, Laura l919 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL228
Iarah, Nuruddin l915 . . . DLl25; CDWL3
Iarber, Norma l909l981 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLol
^ c~ ^ (Documentary). . . . . . . . DL308
Iargue, LonIaul l87ol917. . . . . . . . . . . DL258
Iarigoule, Louis (see Romains, |ules)
Iarjeon, Eleanor l88ll9o5. . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo0
Iarley, Harriet l8l2l907. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL239
Iarley, Walter l920l989. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL22
Iarmborough, Ilorence l887l978 . . . . . . . DL201
Iarmer, everley l91l . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL325
Iarmer, Ienelope l939 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlol
Iarmer, Ihilip |os l9l8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL8
Iarnaby, Jhomas l575.lo17. . . . . . . . . . . DL23o
Iarningham, Marianne (see Hearn, Mary Anne)
Iarquhar, George circa lo77l707. . . . . . . . . DL81
Iarquharson, Martha (see Iinley, Martha)
Iarrar, Irederic William l83ll903 . . . . . . DLlo3
Iarrar, Straus and Giroux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Iarrar and Rinehart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Iarrell, |. G. l935l979 . . . . . . . . DLl1, 27l, 32o
Iarrell, |ames J. l901l979 . . . . DL1, 9, 8o; DS2
Iast, Howard l9l12003 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL9
Iaulkner, William l897l9o2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
DL9, ll, 11, l02, 3lo, 330; DS2; Y8o; CDAL5
Iaulkner and Yoknapatawpha
Conference, Oxford, Mississippi. . . . . .Y97
Iaulkner Centennial Addresses . . . . . . . . . . Y97
'Iaulkner l00Celebrating the Work,"
Lniversity of South Carolina,
Columbia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y97
Impressions of William Iaulkner. . . . . . . . . Y97
William Iaulkner and the IeopletoIeople
Irogram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y8o
William Iaulkner Centenary
Celebrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y97
Jhe William Iaulkner Society. . . . . . . . . . .Y99
George Iaulkner |publishing house| . . . . . DLl51
Iaulks, Sebastian l953 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL207
Iauset, |essie Redmon l882l9ol . . . . . . . . DL5l
Iaust, Irederick Schiller (Max rand)
l892l911 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL25o
Iaust, Irvin
l921 . . . . . . . .DL2, 28, 2l8, 278; Y80, 00
I Wake Lp Screaming |Response to
Ken Auletta| . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y97
Jribute to ernard Malamud . . . . . . . . . . .Y8o
Jribute to Meyer Levin. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y8l
Iawcett, Edgar l817l901 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL202
Iawcett, Millicent Garrett l817l929 . . . . . DLl90
Iawcett ooks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Iay, Jheodore Sedgwick l807l898. . . . . . DL202
Iearing, Kenneth l902l9ol . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL9
Iederal Writers` Iroject . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Iederman, Raymond l928 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y80
Iedin, Konstantin Aleksandrovich
l892l977 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL272
Iedorov, Innokentii Vasilèvich
(see Omulevsky, Innokentii Vasilèvich)
Ieiffer, |ules l929 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL7, 11
Ieinberg, Charles E. l899l988. . . . DLl87; Y88
Ieind, arthold lo78l72l . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo8
Ieinstein, Elaine l930 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl1, 10
Ieirstein, Irederick l910 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL282
Ieiss, Iaul Louis l875l952 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl87
Ieldman, Irving l928 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo9
Ielipe, Carlos l9lll975 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL305
Ielipe, Lon l881l9o8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl08
Iell, Irederick, Iublishers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Iellowship of Southern Writers . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y98
Ielltham, Owen lo02.loo8 . . . . . . . DLl2o, l5l
Ielman, Shoshana l912 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL21o
Iels, Ludwig l91o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL75
Ielton, Cornelius Conway
l807l8o2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl, 235
Iel`zen, Iurii (Nikolai erngardovich Ireidenshtein)
l891.l913 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l7
MotheInelon, Iranois de Salignac de la
lo5ll7l5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o8
Ienn, Harry l837l9ll . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl88
Iennario, David l917 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo0
Ienner, Dudley l558.l587. . . . . . . . . . . . DL23o
Ienno, |enny l7o5.l803 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL200
Ienno, |ohn l75ll798. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL13
R. I. Ienno and Company. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Ienoglio, eppe l922l9o3 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl77
Ienton, Geoffrey l539.lo08. . . . . . . . . . . DLl3o
Ienton, |ames l919 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL10
Jhe Hemingway/Ienton
Correspondence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y02
Ierber, Edna l885l9o8. . . . . . . DL9, 28, 8o, 2oo
Ierdinand, Vallery, III (see Salaam, Kalamu ya)
Ierguson, Sir Samuel l8l0l88o . . . . . . . . . DL32
Ierguson, William Scott l875l951 . . . . . . . DL17
Iergusson, Robert l750l771 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl09
Ierland, Albert l872l913 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL92
Ierlinghetti, Lawrence
l9l9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL5, lo; CDALl
Jribute to Kenneth Rexroth . . . . . . . . . . . .Y82
Iermor, Iatrick Leigh l9l5 . . . . . . . . . . DL201
Iern, Ianny (see Iarton, Sara Iayson Willis)
Ierrars, Elizabeth (Morna Doris rown)
l907l995 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL87
Ierr, Rosario l912 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl15
Ierreira, Verglio l9lol99o. . . . . . . . . . . . DL287
E. Ierret and Company . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Ierrier, Susan l782l851 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLllo
Ierril, Jhomas Hornsby l89ol988. . . . . . DL20o
Ierrini, Vincent l9l3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL18
Ierron, |acques l92ll985. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo0
Ierron, Madeleine l922 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL53
Ierrucci, Iranco l93o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl9o
Iet, Afanasii Afanasèvich
l820.l892 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL277
Ietridge and Company . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Ieuchtersleben, Ernst Ireiherr von
l80ol819 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl33
Ieuchtwanger, Lion l881l958 . . . . . . . . . . DLoo
Ieuerbach, Ludwig l801l872. . . . . . . . . . DLl33
Ieuillet, Octave l82ll890. . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl92
Ieydeau, Georges l8o2l92l. . . . . . . . . . . DLl92
Iibiger, Mathilde l830l872. . . . . . . . . . . . DL300
Iichte, |ohann Gottlieb l7o2l8l1. . . . . . . . DL90
Iicke, Arthur Davison l883l915 . . . . . . . . DL51
Iiction
American Iiction and the l930s . . . . . . . DL9
Iiction estSellers, l9l0l915 . . . . . . . . DL9
Iostmodern Holocaust Iiction . . . . . . DL299
Jhe Year in Iiction . . . . . . . Y81, 8o, 89, 91-99
Jhe Year in Iiction. A iased View . . . . . .Y83
Jhe Year in L.S. Iiction . . . . . . . . . . . . Y00, 0l
Jhe Year`s Work in Iiction. A Survey . . . .Y82
Iiedler, Leslie A. l9l72003 . . . . . . . . . . DL28, o7
Jribute to ernard Malamud . . . . . . . . . . .Y8o
`~ f ai_ PPO
RTQ
Iield, arron l789l81o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL230
Iield, Edward l921 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl05
Iield, Eugene
l850l895 . . . . . . . . . DL23, 12, l10; DSl3
Iield, |ohn l515.l588 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo7
Iield, |oseph M. l8l0l85o . . . . . . . . . . . DL218
Iield, Marshall, III l893l95o . . . . . . . . . DLl27
Iield, Marshall, IV l9lol9o5 . . . . . . . . . DLl27
Iield, Marshall, V l91l . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl27
Iield, Michael (Katherine Harris radley)
l81ol9l1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL210
'Jhe Ioetry Iile" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl05
Iield, Nathan l587lol9 or lo20 . . . . . . . . DL58
Iield, Rachel l891l912 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL9, 22
Iielding, Helen l958 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL23l
Iielding, Henry
l707l751 . . . . . . . DL39, 81, l0l; CDL2
'Defense of ^~" (l752) . . . . . . . . . . DL39
q e ^ g ^
|excerpt| (l712) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL39
Letter to |Samuel| Richardson on `~~
(l718). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL39
Ireface to g ^ (l712) . . . . . . DL39
Ireface to Sarah Iielding`s c~~
i (l717) |excerpt| . . . . . . . . . . DL39
Ireface to Sarah Iielding`s q
^ a~ p (l711) . . . DL39
Review of `~~ (l718) . . . . . . . . . . . DL39
q g (l719) |excerpt| . . . . . . . . . . . DL39
Iielding, Sarah l7l0l7o8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL39
Ireface to q ` (l751) . . . . . . . . . . . DL39
Iields, Annie Adams l831l9l5 . . . . . . . . DL22l
Iields, Dorothy l905l971 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o5
Iields, |ames J. l8l7l88l . . . . . . . . . . DLl, 235
Iields, |ulia l938 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1l
Iields, Osgood and Company . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Iields, W. C. l880l91o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL11
Iierstein, Harvey l951 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2oo
Iiges, Eva l932 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl1, 27l
Iiguera, Angela l902l981 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl08
Iilmer, Sir Robert l58olo53 . . . . . . . . . . DLl5l
Iilson, |ohn circa l753l788 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL37
Iinch, Anne, Countess of Winchilsea
looll720. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL95
Iinch, Annie l95o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL282
Iinch, Robert l900 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL88
Iindley, Jimothy l9302002. . . . . . . . . . . . DL53
Iinlay, Ian Hamilton l925 . . . . . . . . . . . DL10
Iinley, Martha l828l909. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL12
Iinn, Elizabeth Anne (McCaul)
l825l92l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLloo
Iinnegan, Seamus l919 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL215
Iinney, |ack l9lll995. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL8
Iinney, Walter raden (see Iinney, |ack)
Iirbank, Ronald l88ol92o . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3o
Iirmin, Giles lol5lo97 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL21
Iirst Edition Library/Collectors`
Reprints, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y9l
Iischart, |ohann
l51o or l517l590 or l59l . . . . . . . . .DLl79
Iischer, Karoline Auguste Iernandine
l7o1l812. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL91
Iischer, Jibor l959 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL23l
Iish, Stanley l938 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo7
Iishacre, Richard l205l218 . . . . . . . . . . DLll5
Iisher, Clay (see Allen, Henry W.)
Iisher, Dorothy Canfield
l879l958. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL9, l02
Iisher, Leonard Everett l921 . . . . . . . . . DLol
Iisher, Roy l930 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL10
Iisher, Rudolph l897l931 . . . . . . . . . DL5l, l02
Iisher, Steve l9l3l980 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL22o
Iisher, Sydney George l85ol927. . . . . . . . DL17
Iisher, Vardis l895l9o8. . . . . . . . . . . . DL9, 20o
Iiske, |ohn lo08lo77. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL21
Iiske, |ohn l812l90l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL17, o1
Iitch, Jhomas circa l700l771 . . . . . . . . . . DL3l
Iitch, William Clyde l8o5l909. . . . . . . . . . DL7
IitzGerald, Edward l809l883. . . . . . . . . . DL32
Iitzgerald, I. Scott l89ol910
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1, 9, 8o; Y8l, 92;
DSl, l5, lo; CDAL1
I. Scott Iitzgerald. A Descriptive
ibliography, Supplement (200l) . . . . Y0l
I. Scott Iitzgerald Centenary
Celebrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y9o
I. Scott Iitzgerald Inducted into the
American Ioets` Corner at St. |ohn
the Divine; Ezra Iound anned . . . . . Y99
'I. Scott Iitzgerald. St. Iaul`s Native Son
and Distinguished American Writer".
Lniversity of Minnesota Conference,
293l October l982. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y82
Iirst International I. Scott Iitzgerald
Conference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y92
q d~ d~ (Documentary). . . . . DL2l9
q f k (Documentary) . . . .DL273
Iitzgerald, Ienelope
l9lo2000. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl1, l91, 32o
Iitzgerald, Robert l9l0l985 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y80
IitzGerald, Robert D. l902l987 . . . . . . . DL2o0
Iitzgerald, Jhomas l8l9l89l . . . . . . . . . . DL23
Iitzgerald, Zelda Sayre l900l918 . . . . . . . . . . Y81
Iitzhugh, Louise l928l971 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL52
Iitzhugh, William circa lo5ll70l . . . . . . . DL21
Ilagg, |ames Montgomery l877l9o0 . . . . DLl88
Ilanagan, Jhomas l9232002 . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y80
Ilanner, Hildegarde l899l987. . . . . . . . . . DL18
Ilanner, |anet l892l978. . . . . . . . . . DL1; DSl5
Ilannery, Ieter l95l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL233
Ilaubert, Gustave l82ll880 . . . . . . DLll9, 30l
Ilavin, Martin l883l9o7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL9
Ileck, Konrad (fl. circa l220) . . . . . . . . . . DLl38
Ilecker, |ames Elroy l881l9l5 . . . . . . DLl0, l9
Ileeson, Doris l90ll970 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL29
Ileier, Marieluise l90ll971 . . . . . . . DL5o, l21
Ileischer, Nat l887l972 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL21l
Ileming, Abraham l552.lo07. . . . . . . . . DL23o
Ileming, Ian l908l9o1 . . .DL87, 20l; CDL7
Ileming, |oan l908l980 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DL27o
Ileming, May Agnes l810l880 . . . . . . . . . DL99
Ileming, Iaul lo09lo10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo1
Ileming, Ieter l907l97l . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl95
Iletcher, Giles, the Elder l51ololl . . . . . DLl3o
Iletcher, Giles, the Younger
l585 or l58olo23. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl2l
Iletcher, |. S. l8o3l935 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL70
Iletcher, |ohn l579lo25. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL58
Iletcher, |ohn Gould l88ol950. . . . . . . DL1, 15
Iletcher, Ihineas l582lo50 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl2l
Ilieg, Helmut (see Heym, Stefan)
Ilint, I. S. l885l9o0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl9
Ilint, Jimothy l780l810 . . . . . . . . . . .DL73, l8o
Ilgstad, Kjartan l911 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL297
Ilorensky, Iavel Aleksandrovich
l882l937 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL295
Ilores, |uan de fl. l170l500. . . . . . . . . . . DL28o
IloresWilliams, |ason l9o9 . . . . . . . . . DL209
Ilorio, |ohn l553.lo25 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl72
Iludd, Robert l571lo37 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL28l
Ilynn, Elizabeth Gurley l890l9o1 . . . . . DL303
Io, Dario l92o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL330; Y97
Nobel Lecture l997. Contra |ogulatores
Obloquentes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y97
Ioden, Giles l9o7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o7
Iofanov, Konstantin Mikhailovich
l8o2l9ll . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DL277
Ioix, |. V. l893l987. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl31
Ioley, Martha l897l977 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl37
Iolger, Henry Clay l857l930 . . . . . . . . . DLl10
Iolio Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll2
Iollain, |ean l903l97l. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL258
Iollen, Charles l79ol810. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL235
Iollen, Eliza Lee (Cabot) l787l8o0 . . . DLl, 235
Iollett, Ken l919 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL87; Y8l
Iollett Iublishing Company . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
|ohn West Iolsom |publishing house| . . . . . DL19
Iolz, Hans
between l135 and l110l5l3 . . . . . . .DLl79
Ionseca, Manuel da l9lll993 . . . . . . . . DL287
Ionseca, Rubem l925 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL307
Iontane, Jheodor
l8l9l898 . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl29; CDWL2
Iontenelle, ernard Le ovier de
lo57l757 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o8, 3l3
Iontes, Montserrat l910 . . . . . . . . . . . DL209
ai_ PPO `~ f
RTR
`
Ionvisin, Denis Ivanovich

l711 or l715l792 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl50
Ioote, Horton l9lo . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o, 2oo
Ioote, Mary Hallock
l817l938 . . . . . . . . . . DLl8o, l88, 202, 22l
Ioote, Samuel l72ll777 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL89
Ioote, Shelby l9lo2005 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2, l7
Iorbes, Calvin l915 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1l
Iorbes, Ester l89ll9o7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL22
Iorbes, |ohn l950l998 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL=325
Iorbes, Rosita l893.l9o7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl95
Iorbes and Company. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Iorce, Ieter l790l8o8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL30
Iorch, Carolyn l950 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL5, l93
Iord, Charles Henri l9l32002 . . . . . . . . DL1, 18
Iord, Corey l902l9o9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll
Iord, Iord Madox
l873l939 . . . . . . .DL31, 98, lo2; CDLo
Iord, Sam Roth, and Hart Crane . . . . .Y02
|. . Iord and Company . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Iord, |esse Hill l928l99o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo
Iord, |ohn l58o.. . . . . . . . . . . DL58; CDLl
Iord, R. A. D. l9l5l998. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL88
Iord, Richard l911 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL227
Iord, Worthington C. l858l91l. . . . . . . . . DL17
Iords, Howard, and Hulbert . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Ioreman, Carl l9l1l981 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o
Iorester, C. S. l899l9oo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl9l
Jhe C. S. Iorester Society. . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y00
Iorester, Irank (see Herbert, Henry William)
Iormalism, New
Anthologizing New Iormalism . . . . . . DL282
Jhe Little Magazines of the
New Iormalism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL282
Jhe New Narrative Ioetry . . . . . . . . . DL282
Iresses of the New Iormalism and
the New Narrative . . . . . . . . . . . . DL282
Jhe Irosody of the New Iormalism . . DL282
Younger Women Ioets of the
New Iormalism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL282
Iorman, Harry uxton l812l9l7. . . . . . . DLl81
Iorns, Mara Irene l930 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL7
Iorrest, Leon l937l997. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL33
Iorsh, Ol`ga Dmitrievna l873l9ol. . . . . . DL272
Iorster, E. M. l879l970
. DL31, 98, lo2, l78, l95; DSl0; CDLo
'Iantasy," from ^ k
(l927) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl78
Iorster, Georg l751l791 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL91
Iorster, |ohn l8l2l87o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl11
Iorster, Margaret l938 . . . . . . . . . DLl55, 27l
Iorsyth, Irederick l938 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL87
Iorsyth, William
'Literary Style`` (l857) |excerpt| . . . . . . DL57
Iorten, Charlotte L. l837l9l1 . . . . . . DL50, 239
Iages from Her Diary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL50
Iortini, Iranco l9l7l991. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl28
Iortune, Mary ca. l833ca. l9l0 . . . . . . . . DL230
Iortune, J. Jhomas l85ol928 . . . . . . . . . . DL23
Iosdick, Charles Austin l812l9l5 . . . . . . . DL12
Iosse, |on l959 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL297
Ioster, David l911 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL289
Ioster, Genevieve l893l979 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLol
Ioster, Hannah Webster
l758l810 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL37, 200
Ioster, |ohn lo18lo8l. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL21
Ioster, Michael l901l95o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL9
Ioster, Myles irket l825l899 . . . . . . . . . DLl81
Ioster, William Z. l88ll9ol. . . . . . . . . . . DL303
Ioucault, Michel l92ol981. . . . . . . . . . . . DL212
Robert and Andrew Ioulis
Iouqu, Caroline de la Motte l771l83l . . . .DL90
Iouqu, Iriedrich de la Motte
l777l813. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL90
Iour Seas Company. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Iour Winds Iress. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Iournier, Henri Alban (see AlainIournier)
Iowler, Christopher l953 . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o7
Iowler, Connie May l958 . . . . . . . . . . . DL292
Iowler and Wells Company. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Iowles, |ohn
l92o . . . . . . . . DLl1, l39, 207; CDL8
Iox, |ohn l939 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL215
Iox, |ohn, |r. l8o2 or l8o3l9l9 . . . . DL9; DSl3
Iox, Iaula l923 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL52
Iox, Richard Kyle l81ol922. . . . . . . . . . . . DL79
Iox, William Irice l92o . . . . . . . . . DL2; Y8l
Remembering |oe Heller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y99
Richard K. Iox |publishing house|. . . . . . . . DL19
Ioxe, |ohn l5l7l587 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl32
Iraenkel, Michael l89ol957. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1
Irame, Ronald l953 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l9
Irance, Anatole l811l921 . . . . . . . . DLl23, 330
Irance, Richard l938 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL7
Irancis, Convers l795l8o3. . . . . . . . . . DLl, 235
Irancis, Dick l920 . . . . . . . .DL87; CDL8
Irancis, Sir Irank l90ll988 . . . . . . . . . . . DL20l
Irancis, |effrey, Lord l773l850. . . . . . . . . DLl07
C. S. Irancis |publishing house| . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Iranck, Sebastian l199l512 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl79
Irancke, Kuno l855l930 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL7l
Iranoise (Robertine arry) l8o3l9l0. . . . DL92
Iranois, Louise von l8l7l893. . . . . . . . . DLl29
Irank, runo l887l915 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll8
Irank, Leonhard l882l9ol . . . . . . . . DL5o, ll8
Irank, Melvin l9l3l988. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o
Irank, Waldo l889l9o7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL9, o3
Iranken, Rose l895.l988 . . . . . . DL228, Y81
Iranklin, enjamin
l70ol790 . . . . DL21, 13, 73, l83; CDAL2
Iranklin, |ames lo97l735 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL13
Iranklin, |ohn l78ol817. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL99
Iranklin, Miles l879l951 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL230
Iranklin Library . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Irantz, Ralph |ules l902l979 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1
Iranzos, Karl Emil l818l901 . . . . . . . . . . DLl29
Iraser, Antonia l932 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL27o
Iraser, G. S. l9l5l980 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL27
Iraser, Kathleen l935 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo9
Irattini, Alberto l922 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl28
Irau Ava .ll27. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl18
Iraunce, Abraham l558.l592 or l593 . . DL23o
Irayn, Michael l933 . . . . . DLl3, l1, l91, 215
Irazier, Charles l950 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL292
Irchette, LouisHonor l839l908 . . . . . . DL99
Irederic, Harold l85ol898. . . . DLl2, 23; DSl3
Ireed, Arthur l891l973 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o5
Ireeling, Nicolas l9272003 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL87
Jribute to Georges Simenon . . . . . . . . . . . .Y89
Ireeman, Douglas Southall
l88ol953 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl7; DSl7
Ireeman, |oseph l897l9o5 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL303
Ireeman, |udith l91o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL25o
Ireeman, Legh Richmond l812l9l5 . . . . . DL23
Ireeman, Mary E. Wilkins
l852l930 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl2, 78, 22l
Ireeman, R. Austin l8o2l913 . . . . . . . . . . DL70
Ireidank circa ll70circa l233. . . . . . . . . . DLl38
Ireiligrath, Ierdinand l8l0l87o . . . . . . . . DLl33
Iremlin, Celia l9l1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL27o
Irmont, |essie enton l831l902. . . . . . . DLl83
Irmont, |ohn Charles
l8l3l890 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl83, l8o
Irench, Alice l850l931 . . . . . . . . . DL71; DSl3
Irench, David l939 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL53
Irench, Evangeline l8o9l9o0. . . . . . . . . . DLl95
Irench, Irancesca l87ll9o0 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl95
|ames Irench |publishing house| . . . . . . . . . DL19
Samuel Irench |publishing house| . . . . . . . . DL19
Samuel Irench, Limited. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl0o
Irench Literature
GeorgesLouis Leclerc de uffon, 'Le Discours
sur le style". . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l1
Marie|eanAntoineNicolas Caritat, marquis de
Condorcet, 'Jhe Jenth Stage" . . . DL3l1
Sophie Cottin, `~ ^ . . . . . . . . . DL3l1
Declaration of the Rights of Man and of
the Citizen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l1
`~ f ai_ PPO
RTS
Denis Diderot, 'Jhe Encyclopedia". . DL3l1
Epic and east Epic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL208
Irench Arthurian Literature. . . . . . . . DL208
Olympe de Gouges, Dcclorotiov of tlc Iiglts
of !omov. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l1
Iranoise dÌssembourg de Graffigny, Icttcrs from
o Icruviov !omov. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l1
ClaudeAdrien Helvtius, Tlc Spirit of
Iows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l1
Iaul Henri Jhiry, baron d`Holbach (writing as
|eanaptiste de Mirabaud), Tlc Systcm
of Aoturc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l1
IierreAmbroiseIranois Choderlos de Laclos,
Dovgcrous Zcquoivtovccs . . . . . . . . . DL3l1
Lyric Ioetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o8
LouisSbastien Mercier, Ic Toblcou
dc Ioris . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l1
CharlesLouis de Secondat, baron de
Montesquieu, Tlc Spirit of Iows . . DL3l1
Other Ioets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l7
Ioetry in NineteenthCentury Irance.
Cultural ackground and Critical
Commentary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l7
Iomov dc lo Iosc: Guillaume de Lorris
l200 to l205circa l230, |ean de
Meun l235/l210circa l305 . . . . DL208
|ean|acques Rousseau, Tlc Sociol
Covtroct . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l1
Marquis de Sade, 'Dialogue entre un prtre et
un moribond" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l1
Saints` Lives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL208
Jroubadours, Troborit, and
Jrouvres. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL208
AnneRobert|acques Jurgot, baron de lÀulne,
'Memorandum on Local
Government". . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l1
Voltaire, 'An account of the death of the cheva
lier de La arre" . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l1
Voltaire, Covdidc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l1
Voltaire, Ililosoplicol Dictiovory . . . . . . DL3l1
Irench Jheater
Medieval Irench Drama . . . . . . . . . . DL208
Iarisian Jheater, Iall l981. Joward
a New aroque . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y85
Ireneau, Ihilip l752l832. . . . . . . . . . . . DL37, 13
Jhe Rising Glory of America. . . . . . . . DL37
Ireni, Melo l931 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl28
Irron, Elie Catherine l7l8l77o . . . . . . . DL3l3
Ireshfield, Douglas W. l815l931 . . . . . . .DLl71
Ireud, Sigmund l85ol939. . . . . . . . . . . . DL29o
Ireytag, Gustav l8lol895. . . . . . . . . . . . DLl29
Irda . Sigurardttir l910 . . . . . . . . DL293
Iridegrd, |an l897l9o8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL259
Iried, Erich l92ll988 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL85
Iriedan, etty l92l200o . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL21o
Iriedman, ruce |ay l930 . . . . . DL2, 28, 211
Iriedman, Carl l952 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL299
Iriedman, Kinky l911 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL292
Iriedrich von Hausen circa ll7lll90 . . . DLl38
Iriel, rian l929 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl3, 3l9
Iriend, Krebs l895.l9o7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1
Iries, Iritz Rudolf l935 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL75
Irisch, Max
l9lll99l . . . . . . . . .DLo9, l21; CDWL2
Irischlin, Nicodemus l517l590. . . . . . . . .DLl79
Irischmuth, arbara l91l . . . . . . . . . . . DL85
Iritz, |ean l9l5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL52
Iroissart, |ean circa l337circa l101 . . . . . DL208
Iromm, Erich l900l980 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL29o
Iromentin, Eugene l820l87o . . . . . . . . . DLl23
Irontinus circa ^.a. 35^.a. l03/l01. . . . . DL2ll
Irost, A. . l85ll928 . . . . . . . . . DLl88; DSl3
Irost, Robert
l871l9o3. . . . . . . . . DL51; DS7; CDAL1
Irostenson, Katarina l953 . . . . . . . . . . DL257
Irothingham, Octavius rooks
l822l895 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl, 213
Iroude, |ames Anthony
l8l8l891 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl8, 57, l11
Iruitlands l813l811 . . . . . . . . . DLl, 223; DS5
Iry, Christopher l9072005 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl3
Jribute to |ohn etjeman. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y81
Iry, Roger l8ool931. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DSl0
Iry, Stephen l957 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL207
Irye, Northrop l9l2l99l . . . . . . . DLo7, o8, 21o
Iuchs, Daniel l909l993 . . . . . DL9, 2o, 28; Y93
Jribute to Isaac ashevis Singer. . . . . . . . . Y9l
Iuentes, Carlos l928 . . . . .DLll3; CDWL3
Iuertes, Gloria l9l8l998 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl08
Iugard, Athol l932 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL225
Jhe Iugitives and the Agrarians.
Jhe Iirst Exhibition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y85
Iujiwara no Shunzei lll1l201 . . . . . . . . DL203
Iujiwara no Jameaki l230s.l290s. . . . . DL203
Iujiwara no Jameie ll98l275 . . . . . . . . . DL203
Iujiwara no Jeika llo2l21l . . . . . . . . . . DL203
Iuks, Ladislav l923l991. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL299
Iulbecke, William l5o0lo03. . . . . . . . . . .DLl72
Iuller, Charles l939 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL38, 2oo
Iuller, Henry lake l857l929 . . . . . . . . . . DLl2
Iuller, |ohn l937 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL10
Iuller, Margaret (see Iuller, Sarah)
Iuller, Roy l9l2l99l. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl5, 20
Jribute to Christopher Isherwood . . . . . . . Y8o
Iuller, Samuel l9l2l997 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o
Iuller, Sarah l8l0l850 . . . . . . . . . . DLl, 59, 73,
l83, 223, 239; DS5; CDAL2
Iuller, Jhomas lo08lool . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl5l
Iullerton, Hugh l873l915. . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl7l
Iullwood, William fl. l5o8 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL23o
Iulton, Alice l952 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl93
Iulton, Len l931 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y8o
Iulton, Robin l937 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL10
Iurbank, I. N. l920 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl55
Iuretire, Antoine lol9lo88. . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o8
Iurman, Laura l915 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y8o
Iurmanov, Dmitrii Andreevich
l89ll92o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DL272
Iurness, Horace Howard l833l9l2 . . . . . DLo1
Iurness, William Henry
l802l89o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl, 235
Iurnivall, Irederick |ames l825l9l0. . . . DLl81
Iurphy, |oseph (Jom Collins)
l813l9l2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL230
Iurthman, |ules l888l9oo. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o
Shakespeare and Montaigne. A
Symposium by |ules Iurthman . . . . . . Y02
Iurui Yoshikichi l937 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl82
Iushimi, Emperor l2o5l3l7 . . . . . . . . . . DL203
Iutabatei Shimei (Hasegawa Jatsunosuke)
l8o1l909 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl80
Iyleman, Rose l877l957 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo0
d
G., l972 ooker Irize winner,
|ohn erger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL32o
Gaarder, |ostein l952 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL297
Gadallah, Leslie l939 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL25l
Gadamer, HansGeorg l9002002 . . . . . . DL29o
Gadda, Carlo Emilio l893l973 . . . . . . . . .DLl77
Gaddis, William l922l998 . . . . . . . . . .DL2, 278
William Gaddis. A Jribute . . . . . . . . . . . . Y99
Gg, Wanda l893l91o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL22
Gagarin, Ivan Sergeevich l8l1l882 . . . . DLl98
Gagnon, Madeleine l938 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo0
Gaiman, Neil l9o0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2ol
Gaine, Hugh l72ol807 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL13
Hugh Gaine |publishing house| . . . . . . . . . DL19
Gaines, Ernest |.
l933 . . . . . DL2, 33, l52; Y80; CDALo
Gaiser, Gerd l908l97o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo9
Gaitskill, Mary l951 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL211
Galarza, Ernesto l905l981 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl22
Galaxy Science Iiction Novels . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Galbraith, Robert (or Caubraith)
circa l183l511 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL28l
Gale, Zona l871l938. . . . . . . . . . . .DL9, 228, 78
Galen of Iergamon l29after 2l0. . . . . . . .DLl7o
Gales, Winifred Marshall l7oll839 . . . . DL200
Galich, Aleksandr l9l8l977 . . . . . . . . . . .DL3l7
Medieval GalicianIortuguese Ioetry. . . . DL287
Gall, Louise von l8l5l855 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl33
Gallagher, Jess l913 . . . . . . .DLl20, 2l2, 211
ai_ PPO `~ f
RTT
`
Gallagher, Wes l9lll997 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl27

Gallagher, William Davis l808l891 . . . . . . DL73
Gallant, Mavis l922 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL53
Gallegos, Mara Magdalena l935 . . . . . DL209
Gallico, Iaul l897l97o . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL9, l7l
Gallop, |ane l952 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL21o
Galloway, Grace Growden l727l782. . . . . DL200
Galloway, |anice l95o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l9
Gallup, Donald l9l32000. . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl87
Galsworthy, |ohn l8o7l933
. . DLl0, 31, 98, lo2, 330; DSlo; CDL5
Galt, |ohn l779l839 . . . . . . . . . . DL99, llo, l59
Galton, Sir Irancis l822l9ll . . . . . . . . . . DLloo
Galvin, rendan l938 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL5
Gambaro, Griselda l928 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL305
Gambit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Gamboa, Reymundo l918 . . . . . . . . . . DLl22
d~ d k . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo2
Gan, Elena Andreevna (Zeneida Rva)
l8l1l812 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl98
Gandhi, Mohandas Karamchand
l8o9l918 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL323
Gandlevsky, Sergei Markovich
l952 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL285
Gannett, Irank E. l87ol957 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL29
Gant, Eugene. Irojected Works . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y0l
Gao Xingjian l910 . . . . . . . . . . . DL330; Y00
Nobel Lecture 2000. 'Jhe Case for
Literature" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y00
Gaos, Vicente l9l9l980 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl31
Garca, Andrew l851.l913 . . . . . . . . . . . DL209
Garca, Cristina l958 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL292
Garca, Lionel G. l935 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL82
Garca, Richard l91l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL209
Garca, Santiago l928 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL305
Garca Mrquez, Gabriel
l927 . . . . . DLll3, 330; Y82; CDWL3
Jhe Magical World of Macondo. . . . . . . . .Y82
Nobel Lecture l982. Jhe Solitude of
Latin America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y82
A Jribute to Gabriel Garca Mrquez . . . . .Y82
Garca Marruz, Iina l923 . . . . . . . . . . . DL283
GarcaCamarillo, Cecilio l913 . . . . . . . DL209
Garcilaso de la Vega circa l503l53o. . . . . DL3l8
Garcilaso de la Vega, Inca l539lolo . . . . DL3l8
Gardam, |ane l928 . . . . . . . . . DLl1, lol, 23l
Gardell, |onas l9o3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL257
Garden, Alexander circa lo85l75o. . . . . . . DL3l
Gardiner, |ohn Rolfe l93o . . . . . . . . . . DL211
Gardiner, Margaret Iower Iarmer
(see lessington, Marguerite, Countess of)
Gardner, |ohn
l933l982 . . . . . . . . . . DL2; Y82; CDAL7
Garfield, Leon l92ll99o . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlol
Garis, Howard R. l873l9o2 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL22
Garland, Hamlin l8o0l910 . . DLl2, 7l, 78, l8o
Jhe Hamlin Garland Society . . . . . . . . . . .Y0l
Garneau, IranoisXavier l809l8oo . . . . . DL99
Garneau, Hector de SaintDenys
l9l2l913 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL88
Garneau, Michel l939 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL53
Garner, Alan l931 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlol, 2ol
Garner, Helen l912 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL325
Garner, Hugh l9l3l979 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo8
Garnett, David l892l98l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL31
Garnett, Eve l900l99l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo0
Garnett, Richard l835l90o . . . . . . . . . . . DLl81
Garnier, Robert l515.l590 . . . . . . . . . . . DL327
Garrard, Lewis H. l829l887 . . . . . . . . . . DLl8o
Garraty, |ohn A. l920 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl7
Garrett, Almeida ( |oo aptista da Silva
Leito de Almeida Garrett)
l799l851 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL287
Garrett, George
l929 . . . . . . . . . . . DL2, 5, l30, l52; Y83
Literary Irizes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y00
My Summer Reading Orgy. Reading
for Iun and Games. One Reader`s
Report on the Summer of 200l . . . . . .Y0l
A Summing Lp at Century`s End . . . . . . . .Y99
Jribute to Michael M. Rea . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y97
Jribute to Iaxton Davis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y91
Jribute to William Goyen . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y83
A Writer Jalking. A Collage . . . . . . . . . . . .Y00
Garrett, |ohn Work l872l912. . . . . . . . . . DLl87
Garrick, David l7l7l779 . . . . . . . . . . . DL81, 2l3
Garrison, William Lloyd
l805l879 . . . . . . . . DLl, 13, 235; CDAL2
Garro, Elena l920l998. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl15
Garshin, Vsevolod Mikhailovich
l855l888 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL277
Garth, Samuel looll7l9. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL95
Garve, Andrew l908200l. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL87
Gary, Romain l9l1l980. . . . . . . . . . . DL83, 299
Gascoigne, George l539.l577 . . . . . . . . . DLl3o
Gascoyne, David l9lo200l . . . . . . . . . . . . DL20
Gash, |onathan ( |ohn Grant) l933 . . . . DL27o
Gaskell, Elizabeth Cleghorn
l8l0l8o5 . . . . . . DL2l, l11, l59; CDL1
Jhe Gaskell Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y98
Gaskell, |ane l91l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2ol
Gaspey, Jhomas l788l87l . . . . . . . . . . . . DLllo
Gass, William H. l921 . . . . . . . . . . . DL2, 227
Gates, Doris l90ll987 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL22
Gates, Henry Louis, |r. l950 . . . . . . . . . . DLo7
Gates, Lewis E. l8o0l921 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL7l
Gatto, Alfonso l909l97o . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll1
Gault, William Campbell l9l0l995 . . . . . DL22o
Jribute to Kenneth Millar . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y83
Gaunt, Mary l8oll912 . . . . . . . . . . DLl71, 230
Gautier, Jhophile l8lll872 . . . . . . . . . . DLll9
Gautreaux, Jim l917 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL292
Gauvreau, Claude l925l97l . . . . . . . . . . . DL88
Jhe d~~JIoet
fl. circa l350l100 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl1o
Gawsworth, |ohn (Jerence Ian Iytton
Armstrong) l9l2l970. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL255
Gay, Ebenezer lo9ol787. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL21
Gay, |ohn lo85l732 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL81, 95
Gayarr, Charles E. A. l805l895. . . . . . . . DL30
Charles Gaylord |publishing house|. . . . . . . DL19
Gaylord, Edward King l873l971 . . . . . . . DLl27
Gaylord, Edward Lewis l9l92003 . . . . . . DLl27
Gazdanov, Gaito l903l97l. . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l7
Gbler, Carlo l951 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL27l
Geda, Sigitas l913 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL232
Geddes, Gary l910 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo0
Geddes, Virgil l897l989. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1
Gedeon (Georgii Andreevich Krinovsky)
circa l730l7o3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl50
Gee, Maggie l918 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL207
Gee, Shirley l932 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL215
Geibel, Emanuel l8l5l881. . . . . . . . . . . . DLl29
Geiogamah, Hanay l915 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl75
Geis, ernard, Associates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Geisel, Jheodor Seuss l901l99l . . . DLol; Y9l
Gelb, Arthur l921 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl03
Gelb, arbara l92o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl03
Gelber, |ack l932 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL7, 228
Glinas, Gratien l909l999 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL88
Gellert, Christian Ierchtegott
l7l5l7o9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL97
Gellhorn, Martha l908l998. . . . . . . . . . . . Y82, 98
Gems, Iam l925 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl3
Genet, |ean l9l0l98o. . . . . . . . DL72, 32l; Y8o
Genette, Grard l930 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL212
Genevoix, Maurice l890l980. . . . . . . . . . . DLo5
Genis, Aleksandr Aleksandrovich
l953 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL285
Genlis, StphanieIlicit Ducrest, comtesse de
l71ol830 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l3
Genovese, Eugene D. l930 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl7
Gent, Ieter l912 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y82
Geoffrey of Monmouth
circa ll00ll55 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl1o
George, Elizabeth l919 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL30o
George, Henry l839l897 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL23
George, |ean Craighead l9l9 . . . . . . . . . DL52
George, W. L. l882l92o . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl97
`~ f ai_ PPO
RTU
George III, King of Great ritain
and Ireland l738l820. . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l3
Gcorgslicd 89o.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl18
Gerber, Merrill |oan l938 . . . . . . . . . . DL2l8
Gerhardie, William l895l977 . . . . . . . . . . DL3o
Gerhardt, Iaul lo07lo7o . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo1
Grin, Winifred l90ll98l. . . . . . . . . . . . DLl55
GrinLajoie, Antoine l821l882 . . . . . . . . DL99
German Literature
A Call to Letters and an Invitation
to the Electric Chair . . . . . . . . . . . DL75
Jhe Conversion of an Lnpolitical
Man. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLoo
Jhe German Radio Ilay . . . . . . . . . . DLl21
Jhe German Jransformation from the
aroque to the Enlightenment . . . . DL97
Germanophilism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLoo
A Letter from a New Germany . . . . . . . . . Y90
Jhe Making of a Ieople. . . . . . . . . . . . DLoo
Jhe Novel of Impressionism . . . . . . . . DLoo
Iattern and Iaradigm. History as
Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL75
Iremisses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLoo
Jhe `Jwenties and erlin. . . . . . . . . . . DLoo
Wolfram von Eschenbach`s Iorivol:
Irologue and ook 3. . . . . . . . . . DLl38
Writers and Iolitics. l87ll9l8 . . . . . . DLoo
German Literature, Middle Ages
Zbrogovs circa 790800 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl18
Zvvolicd between l077 and l08l. . . . . DLl18
Jhe Arthurian Jradition and
Its European Context . . . . . . . . . DLl38
Combridgc Sovgs (Cormivo Covtobrigcvsio)
circa l050 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl18
Clristus uvd dic Somoritcriv circa 950. . . DLl18
Dc Hcivrico circa 980. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl18
cbosis Coptivi circa l015. . . . . . . . . . . DLl18
Gcorgslicd 89o. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl18
German Literature and Culture from
Charlemagne to the Early Courtly
Ieriod . . . . . . . . . . . DLl18; CDWL2
Jhe Germanic Epic and Old English
Heroic Ioetry. !idsitl, !oldcrc,
and Tlc Iiglt ot Iivvsburg . . . . . . . DLl1o
Graf Rudolf between circa
ll70 and circa ll85 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl18
Hcliovd circa 850. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl18
Dos Hildcsbrovdslicd
circa 820 . . . . . . . . . DLl18; CDWL2
Ioiscrclrovil circa ll17 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl18
Jhe Legends of the Saints and a
Medieval Christian
Worldview. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl18
Iudus dc Zvticlristo circa llo0 . . . . . . . DLl18
Iudwigslicd 88l or 882 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl18
Muspilli circa 790circa 850 . . . . . . . . . DLl18
Uld Gcrmov Gcvcsis and Uld Gcrmov
xodus circa l050circa ll30 . . . . DLl18
Old High German Charms
and lessings . . . . . . DLl18; CDWL2
Jhe Uld Higl Gcrmov Isidor
circa 790800 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl18
Ictruslicd circa 851. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl18
Ilysiologus circa l070circa ll50 . . . . . DLl18
Iuodlicb circa l050l075 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl18
'Spiclmovvscpcv (circa ll52
circa l500) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl18
Jhe Strasbourg Oaths 812. . . . . . . . . DLl18
Totiov circa 830. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl18
!oltlorius circa 825. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl18
!cssobruvvcr Gcbct circa 7878l5 . . . . . DLl18
German Jheater
German Drama 800l280 . . . . . . . . . DLl38
German Drama from Naturalism
to Iascism. l889l933 . . . . . . . . . DLll8
Gernsback, Hugo l881l9o7 . . . . . . . . .DL8, l37
Gerould, Katharine Iullerton
l879l911. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL78
Samuel Gerrish |publishing house| . . . . . . . DL19
Gerrold, David l911 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL8
Gerso, Jeolinda l910 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL287
Gershon, Karen l923l993. . . . . . . . . . . . DL299
Gershwin, Ira l89ol983 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o5
Jhe Ira Gershwin Centenary. . . . . . . . . . . Y9o
Gerson, |ean l3o3l129 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL208
Gersonides l288l311 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll5
Gerstcker, Iriedrich l8lol872 . . . . . . . . DLl29
Gertsen, Aleksandr Ivanovich
(see Herzen, Alexander)
Gerstenberg, Heinrich Wilhelm von
l737l823 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL97
Gervinus, Georg Gottfried
l805l87l. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl33
Gery, |ohn l953 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL282
Gener, Solomon l730l788. . . . . . . . . . . . DL97
Geston, Mark S. l91o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL8
AlGhazali l058llll . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll5
Ghelderode, Michel de (AdolpheAdhmar Martens)
l898l9o2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL32l
Ghose, Zulfikar l935 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL323
Ghosh, Amitav l95o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL323
Tlc Glost Iood, l995 ooker Irize winner,
Iat arker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL32o
Gibbings, Robert l889l958. . . . . . . . . . . DLl95
Gibbon, Edward l737l791. . . . . . . . . . . . DLl01
Gibbon, |ohn Murray l875l952 . . . . . . . . DL92
Gibbon, Lewis Grassic (see Mitchell, |ames Leslie)
Gibbons, Iloyd l887l939 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL25
Gibbons, Kaye l9o0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL292
Gibbons, Reginald l917 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl20
Gibbons, William eighteenth century. . . . . DL73
Gibson, Charles Dana
l8o7l911. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl88; DSl3
Gibson, Graeme l931 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL53
Gibson, Margaret l911 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl20
Gibson, Margaret Dunlop l813l920. . . . .DLl71
Gibson, Wilfrid l878l9o2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl9
Gibson, William l9l1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL7
Gibson, William l918 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL25l
Gide, Andr l8o9l95l . . . . . . . DLo5, 32l, 330
Gigure, Diane l937 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL53
Gigure, Roland l929 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo0
Gil de iedma, |aime l929l990 . . . . . . . DLl08
GilAlbert, |uan l90ol991. . . . . . . . . . . . DLl31
Gilbert, Anthony l899l973. . . . . . . . . . . . DL77
Gilbert, Elizabeth l9o9 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL292
Gilbert, Sir Humphrey l537l583 . . . . . . DLl3o
Gilbert, Michael l9l2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL87
Gilbert, Sandra M. l93o . . . . . . . DLl20, 21o
Gilchrist, Alexander l828l8ol . . . . . . . . DLl11
Gilchrist, Ellen l935 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl30
Gilder, |eannette L. l819l9lo . . . . . . . . . . DL79
Gilder, Richard Watson l811l909 . . . .DLo1, 79
Gildersleeve, asil l83ll921. . . . . . . . . . . DL7l
Giles, Henry l809l882 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo1
Giles of Rome circa l213l3lo. . . . . . . . . DLll5
Gilfillan, George l8l3l878 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl11
Gill, Eric l882l910 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL98
Gill, Sarah Irince l728l77l . . . . . . . . . . . DL200
William I. Gill Company . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Gillespie, A. Lincoln, |r. l895l950 . . . . . . . DL1
Gillespie, Haven l883l975 . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o5
Gilliam, Ilorence fl. twentieth century . . . . . DL1
Gilliatt, Ienelope l932l993. . . . . . . . . . . . DLl1
Gillott, |acky l939l980 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl1
Gilman, Caroline H. l791l888 . . . . . . . DL3, 73
Gilman, Charlotte Ierkins l8o0l935 . . . DL22l
Jhe Charlotte Ierkins Gilman Society . . . Y99
W. and |. Gilman |publishing house| . . . . . DL19
Gilmer, Elizabeth Meriwether
l8oll95l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL29
Gilmer, Irancis Walker l790l82o . . . . . . . DL37
Gilmore, Mary l8o5l9o2 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o0
Gilroy, Irank D. l925 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL7
Gimferrer, Iere (Iedro) l915 . . . . . . . . DLl31
Ginger, Aleksandr S. l897l9o5 . . . . . . . . .DL3l7
Gingrich, Arnold l903l97o. . . . . . . . . . . .DLl37
Irospectus Irom the Initial Issue of
squirc (Autumn l933). . . . . . . . . .DLl37
'With the Editorial Ken," Irospectus
Irom the Initial Issue of Icv
(7 April l938) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl37
Ginibi, Ruby Langford l931 . . . . . . . . DL325
Ginsberg, Allen
l92ol997 . . . .DL5, lo, lo9, 237; CDALl
ai_ PPO `~ f
RTV
`
Ginzburg, Evgeniia
l901l977 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL302
Ginzburg, Lidiia Iakovlevna
l902l990 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL302
Ginzburg, Natalia l9lol99l. . . . . . . . . . . DLl77
Ginzkey, Iranz Karl l87ll9o3 . . . . . . . . . . DL8l
Gioia, Dana l950 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl20, 282
Giono, |ean l895l970. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL72, 32l
Giotti, Virgilio l885l957 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll1
Giovanni, Nikki l913 . . . .DL5, 1l; CDAL7
Giovannitti, Arturo l881l959. . . . . . . . . . DL303
Gipson, Lawrence Henry l880l97l . . . . . . DLl7
Girard, Rodolphe l879l95o . . . . . . . . . . . . DL92
Giraudoux, |ean l882l911. . . . . . . . . DLo5, 32l
Girondo, Oliverio l89ll9o7. . . . . . . . . . . DL283
Gissing, George l857l903. . . . . . DLl8, l35, l81
Jhe Ilace of Realism in Iiction (l895). . . DLl8
Giudici, Giovanni l921 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl28
Giuliani, Alfredo l921 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl28
Gjellerup, Karl l857l9l9 . . . . . . . . . DL300, 330
Glackens, William |. l870l938 . . . . . . . . . DLl88
Gladilin, Anatolii Jikhonovich
l935 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL302
Gladkov, Iedor Vasilèvich l883l958. . . . DL272
Gladstone, William Ewart
l809l898 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL57, l81
Glaeser, Ernst l902l9o3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo9
Glancy, Diane l91l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl75
Glanvill, |oseph lo3olo80 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL252
Glanville, rian l93l . . . . . . . . . . . DLl5, l39
Glapthorne, Henry lol0lo13. . . . . . . . . . . DL58
Glasgow, Ellen l873l915 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL9, l2
Jhe Ellen Glasgow Society . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y0l
Glasier, Katharine ruce l8o7l950. . . . . . DLl90
Glaspell, Susan l87ol918 . . . . . . DL7, 9, 78, 228
Glass, Montague l877l931 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll
Glassco, |ohn l909l98l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo8
Glauser, Iriedrich l89ol938. . . . . . . . . . . . DL5o
Glavin, Anthony l91o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l9
I. Gleason`s Iublishing Hall . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Gleim, |ohann Wilhelm Ludwig
l7l9l803 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL97
Glendinning, Robin l938 . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l0
Glendinning, Victoria l937 . . . . . . . . . . DLl55
Glidden, Irederick Dilley (Luke Short)
l908l975 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL25o
Glinka, Iedor Nikolaevich l78ol880 . . . . DL205
Glover, Keith l9oo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL219
Glover, Richard l7l2l785 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL95
Glover, Sue l913 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l0
Glck, Louise l913 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL5
Glyn, Elinor l8o1l913 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl53
Gnedich, Nikolai Ivanovich l781l833 . . . DL205
Gobineau, |osephArthur de
l8lol882 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl23
q d p~ qI l997 ooker Irize winner,
Arundhati Roy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL32o
Godber, |ohn l95o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL233
Godbout, |acques l933 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL53
Goddard, Morrill l8o5l937 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL25
Goddard, William l710l8l7. . . . . . . . . . . . DL13
Godden, Rumer l907l998 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlol
Godey, Louis A. l801l878 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL73
Godey and McMichael . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Godfrey, Dave l938 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo0
Godfrey, Jhomas l73ol7o3 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l
Godine, David R., Iublisher . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Godkin, E. L. l83ll902 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL79
Godolphin, Sidney lol0lo13 . . . . . . . . . . DLl2o
Godwin, Gail l937 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo, 231
M. |. Godwin and Company . . . . . . . . . . . DLl51
Godwin, Mary |ane Clairmont
l7ool81l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo3
Godwin, Iarke l8lol901 . . . . . . . . DL3, o1, 250
Godwin, William l75ol83o . . . . . . . DL39, l01,
l12, l58, lo3, 2o2; CDL3
Ireface to pK i (l799) . . . . . . . . . . . . DL39
Goering, Reinhard l887l93o . . . . . . . . . . DLll8
Goes, Albrecht l908 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo9
Goethe, |ohann Wolfgang von
l719l832 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL91; CDWL2
Goetz, Curt l888l9o0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl21
Goffe, Jhomas circa l592lo29. . . . . . . . . . DL58
Goffstein, M. . l910 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLol
Gogarty, Oliver St. |ohn l878l957 . . . . DLl5, l9
Gogol, Nikolai Vasilèvich l809l852 . . . . DLl98
Goines, Donald l937l971 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL33
Gold, Herbert l921 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2; Y8l
Jribute to William Saroyan. . . . . . . . . . . . .Y8l
Gold, Michael l893l9o7. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL9, 28
Goldbarth, Albert l918 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl20
Goldberg, Dick l917 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL7
Golden Cockerel Iress. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll2
Golding, Arthur l53olo0o . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl3o
Golding, Louis l895l958 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl95
Golding, William
l9lll993 . . . . . . . . . . .DLl5, l00, 255, 32o,
330; Y83; CDL7
Nobel Lecture l993. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y83
Jhe Stature of William Golding . . . . . . . . .Y83
Goldman, Emma l8o9l910 . . . . . . . . . . . DL22l
Goldman, William l93l . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL11
Goldring, Douglas l887l9o0 . . . . . . . . . . DLl97
Goldschmidt, Meir Aron l8l9l887 . . . . . DL300
Goldsmith, Oliver l730.l771
. . . . . . . DL39, 89, l01, l09, l12; CDL2
Goldsmith, Oliver l791l8ol. . . . . . . . . . . . DL99
Goldsmith Iublishing Company . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Goldstein, Richard l911 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl85
Goldsworthy, Ieter l95l . . . . . . . . . . . . DL325
Gollancz, Sir Israel l8o1l930 . . . . . . . . . . DL20l
Victor Gollancz Limited. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll2
Gomberville, Marin Le Roy, sieur de
lo00.lo71. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DL2o8
Gombrowicz, Witold
l901l9o9 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l5; CDWL1
Gomez, MadeleineAnglique Ioisson de
lo81l770 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l3
Gmez de Ciudad Real, Alvar (Alvar Gmez
de Guadalajara) l188l538 . . . . . . . . . DL3l8
Gmez_uiones, |uan l912 . . . . . . . . DLl22
Laurence |ames Gomme
Gompers, Samuel l850l921. . . . . . . . . . . DL303
Gonalves Dias, Antnio l823l8o1 . . . . . DL307
Goncharov, Ivan Aleksandrovich
l8l2l89l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL238
Goncourt, Edmond de l822l89o . . . . . . . DLl23
Goncourt, |ules de l830l870 . . . . . . . . . . DLl23
Gonzales, Rodolfo 'Corky" l928 . . . . . DLl22
Gonzaleserry, Erlinda l912 . . . . . . . . DL209
'Chicano Language". . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL82
Gonzlez, Angel l925 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl08
Gonzalez, Genaro l919 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl22
Gonzalez, N. V. M. l9l5l999. . . . . . . . . . DL3l2
Gonzlez, OttoRal l92l . . . . . . . . . . . DL290
Gonzalez, Ray l952 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl22
Gonzlez de Mireles, |ovita
l899l983 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl22
Gonzlez Martnez, Enrique
l87ll952 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL290
GonzlezJ., Csar A. l93l . . . . . . . . . . . DL82
Goodis, David l9l7l9o7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL22o
Goodison, Lorna l917 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl57
Goodman, Allegra l9o7 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL211
Goodman, Nelson l90ol998 . . . . . . . . . . DL279
Goodman, Iaul l9lll972. . . . . . . . . DLl30, 21o
Jhe Goodman Jheatre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL7
Goodrich, Irances l89ll981 and
Hackett, Albert l900l995 . . . . . . . . . . DL2o
Goodrich, Samuel Griswold
l793l8o0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl, 12, 73, 213
S. G. Goodrich |publishing house| . . . . . . . . DL19
C. E. Goodspeed and Company . . . . . . . . . DL19
Goodwin, Stephen l913 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y82
Googe, arnabe l510l591 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl32
Gookin, Daniel lol2lo87. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL21
Gopegui, eln l9o3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL322
`~ f ai_ PPO
RUM
Goran, Lester l928 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL211
Gordimer, Nadine l923 . . . . . . . . . DL225, 32o,
330; Y9l
Nobel Lecture l99l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y9l
Gordon, Adam Lindsay l833l870. . . . . . DL230
Gordon, Caroline
l895l98l . . . . . . . DL1, 9, l02; DSl7; Y8l
Gordon, Charles I. (see OyamO)
Gordon, Charles William (see Connor, Ralph)
Gordon, Giles l910 . . . . . . . . .DLl1, l39, 207
Gordon, Helen Cameron, Lady Russell
l8o7l919. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl95
Gordon, Lyndall l91l . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl55
Gordon, Mack l901l959. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o5
Gordon, Mary l919 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo; Y8l
Gordone, Charles l925l995 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL7
Gore, Catherine l800l8ol . . . . . . . . . . . DLllo
Goreooth, Eva l870l92o . . . . . . . . . . . DL210
Gores, |oe l93l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL22o; Y02
Jribute to Kenneth Millar . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y83
Gorey, Edward l9252000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLol
Gorgias of Leontini
circa 185 _.`.37o _.`. . . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl7o
Gor`ky, Maksim l8o8l93o . . . . . . . . . . . DL295
Gorodetsky, Sergei Mitrofanovich
l881l9o7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL295
Gorostiza, |os l90ll979. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL290
Grres, |oseph l77ol818 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL90
Gosse, Edmund l819l928. . . . . . DL57, l11, l81
Gosson, Stephen l551lo21 . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl72
q p ^ (l579) . . . . . . . . . . .DLl72
Gotanda, Ihilip Kan l95l . . . . . . . . . . DL2oo
Gotlieb, Ihyllis l92o . . . . . . . . . . . DL88, 25l
GoJoba ll80l239. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL203
Gottfried von Straburg
died before l230 . . . . . . DLl38; CDWL2
Gotthelf, |eremias l797l851. . . . . . . . . . . DLl33
Gottschalk circa 801/8088o9 . . . . . . . . . . DLl18
Gottsched, |ohann Christoph
l700l7oo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL97
Gtz, |ohann Nikolaus l72ll78l. . . . . . . . DL97
Goudge, Elizabeth l900l981. . . . . . . . . . DLl9l
Gouges, Olympe de l718l793 . . . . . . . . . DL3l3
a~~ o t~. . . . . . DL3l1
Gough, |ohn . l8l7l88o . . . . . . . . . . . . DL213
Gould, Wallace l882l910 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL51
Gournay, Marie de l5o5lo15 . . . . . . . . . DL327
Govoni, Corrado l881l9o5. . . . . . . . . . . DLll1
Govrin, Michal l950 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL299
Gower, |ohn circa l330l108 . . . . . . . . . . DLl1o
Goyen, William l9l5l983. . . . . . DL2, 2l8; Y83
Goytisolo, |os Augustn l928 . . . . . . . DLl31
Goytisolo, |uan l93l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL322
Goytisolo, Luis l935 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL322
Gozzano, Guido l883l9lo . . . . . . . . . . . DLll1
Grabbe, Christian Dietrich l80ll83o . . . DLl33
Gracq, |ulien (Louis Ioirier) l9l0 . . . . . DL83
Grady, Henry W. l850l889 . . . . . . . . . . . DL23
Graf, Oskar Maria l891l9o7 . . . . . . . . . . DL5o
d~ o between circa ll70 and
circa ll85. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl18
Graff, Gerald l937 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL21o
Graffigny, Iranoise dÌssembourg de
lo95l758. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l3
i ~ m~ t~ . . . . . . . . DL3l1
Richard Grafton |publishing house| . . . . . .DLl70
Grafton, Sue l910 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL22o
Graham, Irank l893l9o5 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL21l
Graham, George Rex l8l3l891 . . . . . . . . DL73
Graham, Gwethalyn (Gwethalyn Graham
Erichsenrown) l9l3l9o5. . . . . . . . . DL88
Graham, |orie l95l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl20
Graham, Katharine l9l7200l . . . . . . . . . DLl27
Graham, Lorenz l902l989 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL7o
Graham, Ihilip l9l5l9o3 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl27
Graham, R. . Cunninghame
l852l93o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL98, l35, l71
Graham, Shirley l89ol977 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL7o
Graham, Stephen l881l975. . . . . . . . . . . DLl95
Graham, W. S. l9l8l98o . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL20
William H. Graham |publishing house| . . . DL19
Graham, Winston l9l02003 . . . . . . . . . . . DL77
Grahame, Kenneth l859l932 . . . DL31, l1l, l78
Grainger, Martin Allerdale l871l91l . . . . DL92
Gramatky, Hardie l907l979 . . . . . . . . . . . DL22
Gramcko, Ida l921l991 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL290
Gramsci, Antonio l89ll937 . . . . . . . . . . DL29o
Granada, Iray Luis de l501l588 . . . . . . DL3l8
Grand, Sarah l851l913. . . . . . . . . . .DLl35, l97
Grandbois, Alain l900l975 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL92
Grandson, Oton de circa l315l397. . . . . DL208
Grange, |ohn circa l55o.. . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl3o
Granger, Jhomas l578lo27. . . . . . . . . . . DL28l
Granich, Irwin (see Gold, Michael)
Granin, Daniil l9l8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL302
Granovsky, Jimofei Nikolaevich
l8l3l855 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl98
Grant, Anne MacVicar l755l838 . . . . . . DL200
Grant, Duncan l885l978 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DSl0
Grant, George l9l8l988. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL88
Grant, George Monro l835l902. . . . . . . . DL99
Grant, Harry |. l88ll9o3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL29
Grant, |ames Edward l905l9oo . . . . . . . . DL2o
Grant, |ohn (see Gash, |onathan)
War of the Words (and Iictures). Jhe Creation
of a Graphic Novel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y02
Grass, Gnter l927 DL75, l21, 330; CDWL2
Nobel Lecture l999.
'Jo e Continued . . ." . . . . . . . . . . . . Y99
Jribute to Helen Wolff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y91
Grasty, Charles H. l8o3l921 . . . . . . . . . . DL25
Grau, Shirley Ann l929 . . . . . . . . . . DL2, 2l8
Graves, |ohn l920 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y83
Graves, Richard l7l5l801. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL39
Graves, Robert l895l985
. . . . DL20, l00, l9l; DSl8; Y85; CDLo
Jhe St. |ohn`s College
Robert Graves Jrust . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y9o
Gray, Alasdair l931 . . . . . . . .DLl91, 2ol, 3l9
Gray, Asa l8l0l888 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl, 235
Gray, David l838l8ol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL32
Gray, Simon l93o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl3
Gray, Robert l915 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL325
Gray, Jhomas l7lol77l . . . . DLl09; CDL2
Grayson, Richard l95l . . . . . . . . . . . . DL231
Grayson, William |. l788l8o3. . . . DL3, o1, 218
Jhe Great ibliographers Series. . . . . . . . . . . . Y93
q d~ d~ (Documentary) . . . . . . . . DL2l9
'Jhe Greatness of Southern Literature".
League of the South Institute for the
Study of Southern Culture and History
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y02
Grech, Nikolai Ivanovich l787l8o7 . . . . . DLl98
Greeley, Horace
l8lll872. . . . . . . . . . . . . .DL3, 13, l89, 250
Green, Adolph l9l52002 . . . . . . . . . DL11, 2o5
Green, Anna Katharine
l81ol935 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL202, 22l
Green, Duff l79ll875 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL13
Green, Elizabeth Shippen l87ll951 . . . . DLl88
Green, Gerald l922 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL28
Green, Henry l905l973 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl5
Green, |onas l7l2l7o7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l
Green, |oseph l70ol780. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l
Green, |ulien l900l998 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1, 72
Green, Iaul l891l98l. . . . . . . DL7, 9, 219; Y8l
Green, J. H. l83ol882 . . . . . . . . . . DLl90, 2o2
Green, Jerence M. l917 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL25l
J. and S. Green |publishing house|. . . . . . . DL19
Green Jiger Iress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Jimothy Green |publishing house| . . . . . . . DL19
Greenaway, Kate l81ol90l. . . . . . . . . . . DLl1l
Greenberg. Iublisher . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Greene, Asa l789l838. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll
Greene, elle da Costa l883l950 . . . . . . .DLl87
Greene, Graham l901l99l
. . . . . . . . . . . .DLl3, l5, 77, l00, lo2, 20l, 201;
Y85, 9l; CDL7
ai_ PPO `~ f
RUN
`
Jribute to Christopher Isherwood. . . . . . . .Y8o

Greene, Robert l558l592. . . . . . . . . . DLo2, lo7
Greene, Robert ernard (ob), |r.
l917 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl85
enjamin H Greene |publishing house| . . . . DL19
Greenfield, George l9l72000 . . . . . . . . . . .Y9l, 00
Derek Robinson`s Review of George
Greenfield`s o a . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y02
Greenhow, Robert l800l851 . . . . . . . . . . . DL30
Greenlee, William . l872l953 . . . . . . . . DLl87
Greenough, Horatio l805l852. . . . . . . DLl, 235
Greenwell, Dora l82ll882. . . . . . . . . DL35, l99
Greenwillow ooks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Greenwood, Grace (see Lippincott, Sara |ane Clarke)
Greenwood, Walter l903l971. . . . . . . DLl0, l9l
Greer, en l918 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo
Greflinger, Georg lo20.lo77 . . . . . . . . . . DLlo1
Greg, W. R. l809l88l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL55
Greg, W. W. l875l959 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL20l
Gregg, |osiah l80ol850 . . . . . . . . . . DLl83, l8o
Gregg Iress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Gregory, Horace l898l982. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL18
Gregory, Isabella Augusta Iersse, Lady
l852l932 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl0
Gregory of Rimini circa l300l358 . . . . . . DLll5
Gregynog Iress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll2
Greiff, Len de l895l97o . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL283
Greiffenberg, Catharina Regina von
lo33lo91 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo8
Greig, Nol l911 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL215
Grekova, Irina (Elena Sergeevna Venttsel`)
l9072002 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL302
Grenfell, Wilfred Jhomason
l8o5l910. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL92
Grenville, Kate l950 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL325
Gress, Elsa l9l9l988 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l1
Greve, Ielix Iaul (see Grove, Irederick Ihilip)
Greville, Iulke, Iirst Lord rooke
l551lo28 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo2, l72
Grey, Sir George, K.C.. l8l2l898 . . . . . DLl81
Grey, Lady |ane l537l551 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl32
Grey, Zane l872l939 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL9, 2l2
Zane Grey`s West Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y00
Grey Owl (Archibald Stansfeld elaney)
l888l938 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL92; DSl7
Grey Walls Iress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll2
Griboedov, Aleksandr Sergeevich
l795.l829 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL205
Grice, Iaul l9l3l988 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL279
Grier, Eldon l9l7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL88
Grieve, C. M. (see MacDiarmid, Hugh)
Griffin, artholomew fl. l59o . . . . . . . . . . DLl72
Griffin, ryan
'Ianic Among the Ihilistines``.
A Iostscript, An Interview
with ryan Griffin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y8l
Griffin, Gerald l803l810 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl59
Jhe Griffin Ioetry Irize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y00
Griffith, Elizabeth l727.l793 . . . . . . . . DL39, 89
Ireface to q a~ a (l7o9) . . . DL39
Griffith, George l857l90o . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl78
Ralph Griffiths |publishing house| . . . . . . . DLl51
Griffiths, Jrevor l935 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl3, 215
S. C. Griggs and Company . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Griggs, Sutton Elbert l872l930 . . . . . . . . . DL50
Grignon, ClaudeHenri l891l97o. . . . . . . . DLo8
Grigorèv, Apollon Aleksandrovich
l822l8o1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL277
Grigorovich, Dmitrii Vasilèvich
l822l899 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL238
Grigson, Geoffrey l905l985 . . . . . . . . . . . DL27
Grillparzer, Iranz
l79ll872 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl33; CDWL2
Grimald, Nicholas
circa l5l9circa l5o2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl3o
Grimk, Angelina Weld l880l958 . . . . DL50, 51
Grimk, Sarah Moore l792l873 . . . . . . . . DL239
Grimm, Irdric Melchior l723l807 . . . . DL3l3
Grimm, Hans l875l959 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLoo
Grimm, |acob l785l8o3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL90
Grimm, Wilhelm
l78ol859 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL90; CDWL2
Grimmelshausen, |ohann |acob Christoffel von
lo2l or lo22lo7o. . . . . . DLlo8; CDWL2
Grimshaw, eatrice Ethel l87ll953 . . . . . DLl71
Grmur Jhomsen l820l89o. . . . . . . . . . . DL293
Grin, Aleksandr Stepanovich
l880l932 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL272
Grindal, Edmund l5l9 or l520l583 . . . . DLl32
Gripe, Maria (Kristina) l923 . . . . . . . . . DL257
Griswold, Rufus Wilmot
l8l5l857 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3, 59, 250
Gronlund, Laurence l81ol899. . . . . . . . . DL303
Grosart, Alexander alloch l827l899 . . . DLl81
Grosholz, Emily l950 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL282
Gross, Milt l895l953 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll
Grosset and Dunlap. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Grosseteste, Robert circa llo0l253 . . . . . DLll5
Grossman, Allen l932 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl93
Grossman, David l951 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL299
Grossman, Vasilii Semenovich
l905l9o1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL272
Grossman Iublishers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Grosvenor, Gilbert H. l875l9oo. . . . . . . . . DL9l
Groth, Klaus l8l9l899. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl29
Groulx, Lionel l878l9o7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo8
Grove, Irederick Ihilip (Ielix Iaul Greve)
l879l918 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL92
Grove Iress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Groys, oris Efimovich l917 . . . . . . . . . DL285
Grubb, Davis l9l9l980 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo
Gruelle, |ohnny l880l938 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL22
von Grumbach, Argula
l192after l5o3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl79
Grundtvig, N. I. S. l783l872 . . . . . . . . . . DL300
Grymeston, Elizabeth
before l5o3before lo01 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl3o
Grynberg, Henryk l93o . . . . . . . . . . . . DL299
Gryphius, Andreas
lololoo1 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo1; CDWL2
Gryphius, Christian lo19l70o . . . . . . . . . DLlo8
Guare, |ohn l938 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL7, 219
Guarnieri, Gianfrancesco l931 . . . . . . . DL307
Guberman, Igor Mironovich l93o . . . . DL285
Gubergur ergsson l932 . . . . . . . . . . DL293
Gumundur dvarsson l901l971 . . . . . DL293
Gumundur Gslason Hagaln
l898l985 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL293
Gumundur Magnsson (see |n Jrausti)
Guerra, Jonino l920 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl28
Guest, arbara l920 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL5, l93
Guevara, Iray Antonio de l180.l515 . . . DL3l8
Guvremont, Germaine l893l9o8 . . . . . . . DLo8
Guglielminetti, Amalia l88ll91l . . . . . . . DL2o1
Guidacci, Margherita l92ll992 . . . . . . . . DLl28
Guilln, |orge l893l981 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl08
Guilln, Nicols l902l989 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL283
Guilloux, Louis l899l980 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL72
Guilpin, Everard
circa l572after lo08. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl3o
Guiney, Louise Imogen l8oll920 . . . . . . . DL51
Guiterman, Arthur l87ll913 . . . . . . . . . . . DLll
Gul`, Roman l89ol98o. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l7
Gumilev, Nikolai Stepanovich
l88ol92l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL295
Gnderrode, Caroline von
l780l80o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL90
Gunduli, Ivan l589lo38 . . . DLl17; CDWL1
Gunesekera, Romesh l951 . . . . . . DL2o7, 323
Gunn, ill l931l989. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL38
Gunn, |ames E. l923 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL8
Gunn, Neil M. l89ll973 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl5
Gunn, Jhom l929 . . . . . . . . DL27; CDL8
Gunnar Gunnarsson l889l975. . . . . . . . . DL293
Gunnars, Kristjana l918 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo0
Gnther, |ohann Christian lo95l723 . . . . DLlo8
Gupta, Sunetra l9o5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL323
Gurik, Robert l932 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo0
Gurney, A. R. l930 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2oo
Gurney, Ivor l890l937. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y02
Jhe Ivor Gurney Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y98
`~ f ai_ PPO
RUO
Guro, Elena Genrikhovna l877l9l3 . . . . DL295
Gustafson, Ralph l909l995 . . . . . . . . . . . DL88
Gustafsson, Lars l93o . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL257
Gtersloh, Albert Iaris l887l973 . . . . . . . DL8l
Guterson, David l95o . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL292
Guthrie, A. ., |r. l90ll99l . . . . . . . . DLo, 2l2
Guthrie, Ramon l89ol973 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1
Guthrie, Jhomas Anstey (see Anstey, IC)
Guthrie, Woody l9l2l9o7 . . . . . . . . . . . DL303
Jhe Guthrie Jheater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL7
Gutirrez Njera, Manuel l859l895 . . . . DL290
Guttormur |. Guttormsson l878l9oo . . . DL293
Gutzkow, Karl l8lll878 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl33
Guy, Ray l939 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo0
Guy, Rosa l925 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL33
Guyot, Arnold l807l881 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DSl3
Gwynn, R. S. l918 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL282
Gwynne, Erskine l898l918. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1
Gyles, |ohn lo80l755 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL99
Gyllembourg, Jhomasine l773l85o . . . . DL300
Gyllensten, Lars l92l . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL257
Gyrir Elasson l9ol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL293
Gysin, rion l9lol98o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo
e
H.D. (see Doolittle, Hilda)
Habermas, |rgen l929 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL212
Habington, William lo05lo51 . . . . . . . . DLl2o
Hacker, Marilyn l912 . . . . . . . . . DLl20, 282
Hackett, Albert l900l995 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o
Hacks, Ieter l928 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl21
Hadas, Rachel l918 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl20, 282
Hadden, riton l898l929 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL9l
Hagedorn, Iriedrich von l708l751 . . . . . DLlo8
Hagedorn, |essica Jarahata l919 . . . . . DL3l2
Hagelstange, Rudolf l9l2l981 . . . . . . . . . DLo9
Hagerup, Inger l905l985 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL297
Haggard, H. Rider
l85ol925 . . . . . . . . . . . DL70, l5o, l71, l78
Haggard, William (Richard Clayton)
l907l993. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL27o; Y93
Hagy, Alyson l9o0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL211
HahnHahn, Ida Grfin von l805l880 . . DLl33
Haigrown, Roderick l908l97o. . . . . . . . DL88
Haight, Gordon S. l90ll985. . . . . . . . . . DLl03
Hailey, Arthur l9202001. . . . . . . . . . DL88; Y82
Haines, |ohn l921 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL5, 2l2
Hake, Edward fl. l5oolo01. . . . . . . . . . . DLl3o
Hake, Jhomas Gordon l809l895. . . . . . . DL32
Hakluyt, Richard l552.lolo. . . . . . . . . . DLl3o
Halas, Irantisek l90ll919 . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l5
Halbe, Max l8o5l911. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll8
Halberstam, David l931 . . . . . . . . . . . DL21l
Haldane, Charlotte l891l9o9 . . . . . . . . . DLl9l
Haldane, |. . S. l892l9o1 . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo0
Haldeman, |oe l913 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL8
Haldeman|ulius Company. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Hale, E. |., and Son. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Hale, Edward Everett
l822l909 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl, 12, 71, 235
Hale, |anet Campbell l91o . . . . . . . . . .DLl75
Hale, Kathleen l8982000 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo0
Hale, Leo Jhomas (see Ebon)
Hale, Lucretia Ieabody l820l900. . . . . . . DL12
Hale, Nancy
l908l988 . . . . . . . . . DL8o; DSl7; Y80, 88
Hale, Sarah |osepha (uell)
l788l879 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl, 12, 73, 213
Hale, Susan l833l9l0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL22l
Hales, |ohn l581lo5o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl5l
Halvy, Ludovic l831l908 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl92
Haley, Alex l92ll992 . . . . . . . DL38; CDAL7
Haliburton, Jhomas Chandler
l79ol8o5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll, 99
Hall, Adam (Jrevor DudleySmith)
l920l995 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DL27o
Hall, Anna Maria l800l88l . . . . . . . . . . DLl59
Hall, Donald l928 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL5
Hall, Edward l197l517 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl32
Hall, Halsey l898l977. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL21l
Hall, |ames l793l8o8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DL73, 71
Hall, |oseph l571lo5o . . . . . . . . . . . DLl2l, l5l
Hall, Radclyffe l880l913 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl9l
Hall, Rodney l935 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL289
Hall, Sarah Ewing l7oll830 . . . . . . . . . . DL200
Hall, Stuart l932 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL212
Samuel Hall |publishing house| . . . . . . . . . DL19
alHallaj 857922 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3ll
Hallam, Arthur Henry l8lll833 . . . . . . . DL32
On Some of the Characteristics of
Modern Ioetry and On the
Lyrical Ioems of Alfred
Jennyson (l83l) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL32
Halldr Laxness (Halldr Gujnsson)
l902l998 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL293, 33l
Halleck, IitzGreene l790l8o7 . . . . . . DL3, 250
Haller, Albrecht von l708l777. . . . . . . . . DLlo8
Halliday, rett (see Dresser, Davis)
Halligan, Marion l910 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL325
HalliwellIhillipps, |ames Orchard
l820l889 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl81
Hallmann, |ohann Christian
lo10l701 or l7lo. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo8
Hallmark Editions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Halper, Albert l901l981 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL9
Halperin, |ohn William l91l . . . . . . . . DLlll
Halstead, Murat l829l908 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL23
Hamann, |ohann Georg l730l788. . . . . . . DL97
Hamburger, Michael l921 . . . . . . . . . . . DL27
Hamilton, Alexander l7l2l75o . . . . . . . . . DL3l
Hamilton, Alexander l755.l801 . . . . . . . . DL37
Hamilton, Cicely l872l952. . . . . . . . .DLl0, l97
Hamilton, Edmond l901l977 . . . . . . . . . . . DL8
Hamilton, Elizabeth l758l8lo. . . . . .DLllo, l58
Hamilton, Gail (see Corcoran, arbara)
Hamilton, Gail (see Dodge, Mary Abigail)
Hamish Hamilton Limited . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll2
Hamilton, Hugo l953 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o7
Hamilton, Ian l938200l . . . . . . . . . . DL10, l55
Hamilton, |anet l795l873 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl99
Hamilton, Mary Agnes l881l9o2 . . . . . . .DLl97
Hamilton, Iatrick l901l9o2 . . . . . . . .DLl0, l9l
Hamilton, Virginia l93o2002 . . . DL33, 52; Y0l
Hamilton, Sir William l788l85o . . . . . . . DL2o2
HamiltonIaterson, |ames l91l . . . . . . DL2o7
Hammerstein, Oscar, 2nd l895l9o0 . . . . DL2o5
Hammett, Dashiell
l891l9ol . . . . . . . DL22o; DSo; CDAL5
An Appeal in q^` . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y9l
q d~ h and Other Dashiell
Hammett Mysteries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y9o
Knopf to Hammett. Jhe Editoral
q j~ c~ (Documentary) . . . . DL280
Hammon, |upiter l7lldied between
l790 and l80o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l, 50
Hammond, |ohn .loo3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL21
Hamner, Earl l923 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo
Hampson, |ohn l90ll955. . . . . . . . . . . . DLl9l
Hampton, Christopher l91o . . . . . . . . . DLl3
Hamsun, Knut l859l952 . . . . . . . . . DL297, 330
HandelMazzetti, Enrica von
l87ll955. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL8l
Handke, Ieter l912 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL85, l21
Handlin, Oscar l9l5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl7
Hankin, St. |ohn l8o9l909 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl0
Hanley, Clifford l922 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl1
Hanley, |ames l90ll985 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl9l
Hannah, arry l912 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo, 231
Hannay, |ames l827l873 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l
Hannes Hafstein l8oll922 . . . . . . . . . . . DL293
Hano, Arnold l922 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL21l
Hanrahan, arbara l939l99l . . . . . . . . . DL289
Hansberry, Lorraine
l930l9o5 . . . . . . . . . . . .DL7, 38; CDALl
Hansen, |oseph l9232001 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL22o
Hansen, Martin A. l909l955 . . . . . . . . . DL2l1
ai_ PPO `~ f
RUP
`
Hansen, Jhorkild l927l989 . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l1

Hanson, Elizabeth lo81l737. . . . . . . . . . . DL200
Hapgood, Norman l8o8l937 . . . . . . . . . . . DL9l
Happel, Eberhard Werner lo17lo90. . . . . DLlo8
Haq, Kaiser l950 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL323
Harbach, Otto l873l9o3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o5
q e~ l815l819 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl, 223
Harburg, E. Y. 'Yip" l89ol98l . . . . . . . . DL2o5
Harcourt race |ovanovich . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Hardenberg, Iriedrich von (see Novalis)
Harding, Walter l9l7l99o . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlll
Hardwick, Elizabeth l9lo . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo
Hardy, Alexandre l572.lo32 . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o8
Hardy, Irank l9l7l991. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o0
Hardy, Jhomas
l810l928 . . . . . . . DLl8, l9, l35; CDL5
'Candour in English Iiction" (l890) . . . DLl8
Hare, Cyril l900l958 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL77
Hare, David l917 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl3, 3l0
Hare, R. M. l9l92002 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o2
Hargrove, Marion l9l92003 . . . . . . . . . . . DLll
Hring, Georg Wilhelm Heinrich
(see Alexis, Willibald)
Harington, Donald l935 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl52
Harington, Sir |ohn l5o0lol2 . . . . . . . . . DLl3o
Harjo, |oy l95l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl20, l75
Harkness, Margaret ( |ohn Law)
l851l923 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl97
Harley, Edward, second Earl of Oxford
lo89l71l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l3
Harley, Robert, first Earl of Oxford
looll721 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l3
Harlow, Robert l923 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo0
Harman, Jhomas fl. l5ool573. . . . . . . . . . DLl3o
Harness, Charles L. l9l5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL8
Harnett, Cynthia l893l98l . . . . . . . . . . . DLlol
Harnick, Sheldon l921 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o5
Jribute to Ira Gershwin. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y9o
Jribute to Lorenz Hart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y95
Harper, Edith Alice Mary (see Wickham, Anna)
Harper, Iletcher l80ol877 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL79
Harper, Irances Ellen Watkins
l825l9ll . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL50, 22l
Harper, Michael S. l938 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1l
Harper and rothers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Harpur, Charles l8l3l8o8 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL230
Harraden, eatrice l8o1l913 . . . . . . . . . . DLl53
George G. Harrap and Company
Limited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll2
Harriot, Jhomas l5o0lo2l . . . . . . . . . . . DLl3o
Harris, Alexander l805l871. . . . . . . . . . . DL230
Harris, enjamin .circa l720 . . . . . . . . DL12, 13
Harris, Christie l9072002. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL88
Harris, Errol E. l908 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL279
Harris, Irank l85ol93l . . . . . . . . . . DLl5o, l97
Harris, George Washington
l8l1l8o9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3, ll, 218
Harris, |oanne l9o1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL27l
Harris, |oel Chandler
l818l908 . . . . . . . . . . . DLll, 23, 12, 78, 9l
Jhe |oel Chandler Harris Association . . . .Y99
Harris, Mark l922 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2; Y80
Jribute to Irederick A. Iottle . . . . . . . . . . . Y87
Harris, William Jorrey l835l909. . . . . . . DL270
Harris, Wilson l92l . . . . . DLll7; CDWL3
Harrison, Mrs. urton
(see Harrison, Constance Cary)
Harrison, Charles Yale l898l951. . . . . . . . DLo8
Harrison, Constance Cary l813l920. . . . DL22l
Harrison, Irederic l83ll923 . . . . . . . DL57, l90
'On Style in English Irose`` (l898). . . . DL57
Harrison, Harry l925 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL8
|ames I. Harrison Company . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Harrison, |im l937 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y82
Harrison, M. |ohn l915 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2ol
Harrison, Mary St. Leger Kingsley
(see Malet, Lucas)
Harrison, Iaul Carter l93o . . . . . . . . . . . DL38
Harrison, Susan Irances l859l935. . . . . . . DL99
Harrison, Jony l937 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL10, 215
Harrison, William l535l593 . . . . . . . . . . DLl3o
Harrison, William l933 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL231
Harrisse, Henry l829l9l0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL17
Harry, |. S. l939 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL325
Jhe Harry Ransom Humanities Research Center
at the Lniversity of Jexas at Austin. . . . . .Y00
Harryman, Carla l952 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl93
Harsdrffer, Georg Ihilipp lo07lo58 . . . . DLlo1
Harsent, David l912 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL10
Hart, Albert ushnell l851l913. . . . . . . . . DLl7
Hart, Anne l7o8l831 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL200
Hart, Elizabeth l77ll833 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL200
Hart, |ulia Catherine l79ol8o7. . . . . . . . . . DL99
Hart, Kevin l951 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL325
Hart, Lorenz l895l913. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o5
Larry Hart. Still an Influence . . . . . . . . . . .Y95
Lorenz Hart. An American Lyricist . . . . . .Y95
Jhe Lorenz Hart Centenary . . . . . . . . . . . .Y95
Hart, Moss l901l9ol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL7, 2oo
Hart, Oliver l723l795 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l
Rupert HartDavis Limited . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll2
Harte, ret l83ol902
. . . . . . . . . DLl2, o1, 71, 79, l8o; CDAL3
Harte, Edward Holmead l922 . . . . . . . DLl27
Harte, Houston Harriman l927 . . . . . . DLl27
Harte, |ack l911 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l9
Hartlaub, Ielix l9l3l915 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL5o
Hartlebon, Otto Erich l8o1l905 . . . . . . . DLll8
Hartley, David l705l757. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL252
Hartley, L. I. l895l972 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl5, l39
Hartley, Marsden l877l913 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL51
Hartling, Ieter l933 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL75
Hartman, Geoffrey H. l929 . . . . . . . . . . DLo7
Hartmann, Sadakichi l8o7l911 . . . . . . . . . DL51
Hartmann von Aue
circa llo0circa l205. . . . DLl38; CDWL2
Hartshorne, Charles l8972000 . . . . . . . . . DL270
Haruf, Kent l913 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL292
Harvey, Gabriel l550.lo3l . . . DLlo7, 2l3, 28l
Harvey, |ack (see Rankin, Ian)
Harvey, |eanCharles l89ll9o7 . . . . . . . . . DL88
Harvill Iress Limited. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll2
Harwood, Gwen l920l995. . . . . . . . . . . . DL289
Harwood, Lee l939 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL10
Harwood, Ronald l931 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl3
alHasan alasri o12728 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3ll
Haek, |aroslav
l883l923 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l5; CDWL1
Haskins, Charles Homer l870l937 . . . . . . DL17
Haslam, Gerald l937 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l2
Hass, Robert l91l . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl05, 20o
Hasselstrom, Linda M. l913 . . . . . . . . . DL25o
Hastings, Michael l938 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL233
Hatar, Gyz l9l1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l5
Jhe Hatchillops Collection . . . . . . . . . . . DL7o
Hathaway, William l911 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl20
Hatherly, Ana l929 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL287
Hauch, Carsten l790l872. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL300
Hauff, Wilhelm l802l827 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL90
Hauge, Olav H. l908l991 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL297
Haugen, IaalHelge l915 . . . . . . . . . . . DL297
Haugwitz, August Adolph von
lo17l70o. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo8
Hauptmann, Carl l858l92l. . . . . . . . DLoo, ll8
Hauptmann, Gerhart
l8o2l91o . . . . . DLoo, ll8, 330; CDWL2
Hauser, Marianne l9l0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y83
Havel, Vclav l93o . . . . . . . DL232; CDWL1
Haven, Alice . Neal l827l8o3 . . . . . . . . DL250
Havergal, Irances Ridley l83ol879 . . . . . DLl99
Hawes, Stephen l175.before l529 . . . . . . DLl32
Hawker, Robert Stephen l803l875 . . . . . . DL32
Hawkes, |ohn
l925l998 . . . . . . . . . DL2, 7, 227; Y80, Y98
|ohn Hawkes. A Jribute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y98
Jribute to Donald arthelme . . . . . . . . . . .Y89
Hawkesworth, |ohn l720l773. . . . . . . . . . DLl12
Hawkins, Sir Anthony Hope (see Hope, Anthony)
`~ f ai_ PPO
RUQ
Hawkins, Sir |ohn l7l9l789 . . . . . . DLl01, l12
Hawkins, Walter Everette l883. . . . . . . . . DL50
Hawthorne, Nathaniel l801l8o1
. . . DLl, 71, l83, 223, 2o9; DS5; CDAL2
Jhe Nathaniel Hawthorne Society. . . . . . . Y00
Jhe Old Manse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL223
Hawthorne, Sophia Ieabody
l809l87l. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl83, 239
Hay, |ohn l835l905 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl2, 17, l89
Hay, |ohn l9l5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DL275
Hayashi Iumiko l903l95l . . . . . . . . . . . DLl80
Haycox, Ernest l899l950 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL20o
Haycraft, Anna Margaret (see Ellis, Alice Jhomas)
Hayden, Robert
l9l3l980. . . . . . . . . . . . DL5, 7o; CDALl
Haydon, enjamin Robert l78ol81o . . . DLll0
Hayes, |ohn Michael l9l9 . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o
Hayley, William l715l820. . . . . . . . . DL93, l12
Haym, Rudolf l82ll90l . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl29
Hayman, Robert l575lo29 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL99
Hayman, Ronald l932 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl55
Hayne, Iaul Hamilton
l830l88o . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DL3, o1, 79, 218
Hays, Mary l7o0l813 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl12, l58
Hayslip, Le Ly l919 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l2
Hayward, |ohn l905l9o5 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL20l
Haywood, Eliza lo93.l75o . . . . . . . . . . . . DL39
Dedication of i~~ |excerpt|
(l723). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL39
Ireface to q a m
|excerpt| (l723) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL39
q q~Jq~ |excerpt| . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL39
Haywood, William D. l8o9l928. . . . . . . DL303
Willis I. Hazard |publishing house| . . . . . . DL19
Hazlitt, William l778l830 . . . . . . . . DLll0, l58
Hazzard, Shirley l93l . . . . . . . . . DL289; Y82
Head, essie
l937l98o. . . . . . . . . DLll7, 225; CDWL3
Headley, |oel J. l8l3l897 . . . DL30, l83; DSl3
Heaney, Seamus l939 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DL10, 330;
Y95; CDL8
Nobel Lecture l991. Crediting Ioetry . . . . Y95
Heard, Nathan C. l93o . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL33
Hearn, Lafcadio l850l901 . . . . . .DLl2, 78, l89
Hearn, Mary Anne (Marianne Iarningham,
Eva Hope) l831l909 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL210
Hearne, |ohn l92o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll7
Hearne, Samuel l715l792 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL99
Hearne, Jhomas lo78.l735 . . . . . . . . . . DL2l3
Hearst, William Randolph l8o3l95l . . . . DL25
Hearst, William Randolph, |r.
l908l993 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl27
Heartman, Charles Irederick
l883l953 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl87
e~ ~ aI l975 ooker Irize winner,
Ruth Irawer |habvala . . . . . . . . . . . . DL32o
Heath, Catherine l921 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl1
Heath, |ames Ewell l792l8o2 . . . . . . . . . DL218
Heath, Roy A. K. l92o . . . . . . . . . . . . .DLll7
HeathStubbs, |ohn l9l8 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL27
Heavysege, Charles l8lol87o . . . . . . . . . . DL99
Hebbel, Iriedrich
l8l3l8o3 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl29; CDWL2
Hebel, |ohann Ieter l7o0l82o. . . . . . . . . . DL90
Heber, Richard l771l833 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl81
Hbert, Anne l9lo2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo8
Hbert, |acques l923 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL53
Hebreo, Len circa l1o0l520 . . . . . . . . . DL3l8
Hecht, Anthony l923 . . . . . . . . . . . DL5, lo9
Hecht, en l891l9o1 . . . . DL7, 9, 25, 2o, 28, 8o
Hecker, Isaac Jhomas l8l9l888. . . . . DLl, 213
Hedge, Irederic Henry
l805l890 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl, 59, 213; DS5
Hefner, Hugh M. l92o . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl37
Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Iriedrich
l770l83l. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL90
Heiberg, |ohan Ludvig l79ll8o0 . . . . . . DL300
Heiberg, |ohanne Luise l8l2l890. . . . . . DL300
Heide, Robert l939 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL219
Heidegger, Martin l889l97o . . . . . . . . . . DL29o
Heidenstam, Verner von l859l910 . . . . . DL330
Heidish, Marcy l917 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y82
Heienbttel, Helmut l92ll99o . . . . . . . . DL75
Heike monogatari . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL203
Hein, Christoph l911 . . . DLl21; CDWL2
Hein, Iiet l905l99o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l1
Heine, Heinrich l797l85o . . . DL90; CDWL2
Heinemann, Larry l911 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DS9
William Heinemann Limited . . . . . . . . . . DLll2
Heinesen, William l900l99l. . . . . . . . . . DL2l1
Heinlein, Robert A. l907l988 . . . . . . . . . . . DL8
Heinrich, Willi l920 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL75
Heinrich |ulius of runswick|
l5o1lol3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo1
Heinrich von dem Jrln
fl. circa l230. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl38
Heinrich von Melk
fl. after llo0. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl18
Heinrich von Veldeke
circa ll15circa ll90 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl38
Heinse, Wilhelm l71ol803 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL91
Heinz, W. C. l9l5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl7l
Heiskell, |ohn l872l972. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl27
Hejinian, Lyn l91l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo5
Helder, Herberto l930 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL287
e~ circa 850 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl18
Heller, |oseph
l923l999 . . . . . . DL2, 28, 227; Y80, 99, 02
Excerpts from |oseph Heller`s
LSC Address, 'Jhe Literature
of Despair" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y9o
Remembering |oe Heller, by William
Irice Iox . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y99
A Jribute to |oseph Heller . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y99
Heller, Michael l937 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo5
Hellman, Lillian l90ol981 . . . . . DL7, 228; Y81
Hellwig, |ohann lo09lo71. . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo1
Helprin, Mark l917 . . . . . . . . . . Y85; CDAL7
Helvtius, ClaudeAdrien l7l5l77l. . . . . DL3l3
q p i~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l1
Helwig, David l938 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo0
Hemans, Ielicia l793l835 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL9o
Hemenway, Abby Maria l828l890. . . . . DL213
Hemingway, Ernest l899l9ol . . . . . . DL1, 9, l02,
2l0, 3lo, 330; Y8l, 87, 99; DSl, l5, lo; CDAL1
A Centennial Celebration . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y99
Come to Iapa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y99
Jhe Ernest Hemingway Collection at
the |ohn I. Kennedy Library. . . . . . . . Y99
Ernest Hemingway Declines to
Introduce t~ ~ m~ . . . . . . . . . . . . Y0l
Ernest Hemingway`s Reaction to
|ames Gould Cozzens . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y98
Ernest Hemingway`s Joronto |ournalism
Revisited. With Jhree Ireviously
Lnrecorded Stories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y92
Ialsifying Hemingway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y9o
^ c~ ^ (Documentary) . . . . DL308
Hemingway Centenary Celebration
at the |IK Library. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y99
Jhe Hemingway/Ienton
Hemingway in the |IK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y99
Jhe Hemingway Letters Iroject
Iinds an Editor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y02
Hemingway Salesmen`s Dummies . . . . . . . Y00
Hemingway. JwentyIive Years Later . . . . Y85
A Literary Archaeologist Digs On.
A rief Interview with Michael
Reynolds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y99
Not Immediately Discernible . . . but
Eventually _uite Clear. Jhe c
i and c~ v~ of
Hemingway`s Centenary . . . . . . . . . . . Y99
Iackaging Iapa. q d~ b . . . . . . Y8o
Second International Hemingway
Colloquium. Cuba . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y98
Hmon, Louis l880l9l3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL92
Hempel, Amy l95l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l8
Hempel, Carl G. l905l997 . . . . . . . . . . . .DL279
Hemphill, Iaul l93o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y87
Hnault, Gilles l920l99o . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL88
Henchman, Daniel lo89l7ol . . . . . . . . . . DL21
Henderson, Alice Corbin l88ll919 . . . . . DL51
Henderson, Archibald l877l9o3 . . . . . . . DLl03
ai_ PPO `~ f
RUR
`
Henderson, David l912 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1l

Henderson, George Wylie l901l9o5 . . . . . DL5l
Henderson, Zenna l9l7l983 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL8
Henighan, Jom l931 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL25l
Henisch, Ieter l913 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL85
Henley, eth l952 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y8o
Henley, William Ernest l819l903 . . . . . . . DLl9
Henniker, Ilorence l855l923. . . . . . . . . . DLl35
Henning, Rachel l82ol9l1. . . . . . . . . . . . DL230
Henningsen, Agnes l8o8l9o2 . . . . . . . . . DL2l1
Henry, Alexander l739l821 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL99
Henry, uck l930 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o
Henry, Marguerite l902l997 . . . . . . . . . . . DL22
Henry, O. (see Iorter, William Sydney)
Henry, Robert Selph l889l970. . . . . . . . . . DLl7
Henry, Will (see Allen, Henry W.)
Henry VIII of England l19ll517 . . . . . . DLl32
Henry of Ghent
circa l2l7l229 l293 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll5
Henryson, Robert
l120s or l130scirca l505. . . . . . . . . . DLl1o
Henschke, Alfred (see Klabund)
Hensher, Ihilip l9o5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o7
Hensley, Sophie Almon l8ool91o . . . . . . . DL99
Henson, Lance l911 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl75
Henty, G. A. l832l902. . . . . . . . . . . . DLl8, l1l
Jhe Henty Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y98
Hentz, Caroline Lee l800l85o . . . . . . . DL3, 218
Heraclitus
fl. circa 500 _.`. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl7o
Herbert, Agnes circa l880l9o0. . . . . . . . . DLl71
Herbert, Alan Iatrick l890l97l . . . . . DLl0, l9l
Herbert, Edward, Lord, of Cherbury
l582lo18 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl2l, l5l, 252
Herbert, Irank l920l98o . . . . . .DL8; CDAL7
Herbert, George l593lo33. . DLl2o; CDLl
Herbert, Henry William l807l858 . . . . . DL3, 73
Herbert, |ohn l92o200l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL53
Herbert, Mary Sidney, Countess of Iembroke
(see Sidney, Mary)
Herbert, Xavier l90ll981 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o0
Herbert, Zbigniew
l921l998 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL232; CDWL1
Herbst, |osephine l892l9o9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL9
Herburger, Gunter l932 . . . . . . . . . DL75, l21
Herculano, Alexandre l8l0l877. . . . . . . . DL287
Hercules, Irank E. M. l9l7l99o. . . . . . . . . DL33
Herder, |ohann Gottfried l711l803 . . . . . . DL97
. Herder ook Company. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Heredia, |osMara de l812l905. . . . . . . DL2l7
Herford, Charles Harold l853l93l . . . . . DLl19
Hergesheimer, |oseph l880l951. . . . . . DL9, l02
Heritage Iress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Hermann the Lame l0l3l051 . . . . . . . . . DLl18
Hermes, |ohann Jimotheu l738l82l. . . . . DL97
Hermlin, Stephan l9l5l997 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo9
Hernndez, Alfonso C. l938 . . . . . . . . DLl22
Hernndez, Ins l917 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl22
Hernndez, Miguel l9l0l912. . . . . . . . . . DLl31
Hernton, Calvin C. l932 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL38
Herodotus circa 181 _.`.circa 120 _.`.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl7o; CDWLl
Hrot, Antoine l190.l5o7. . . . . . . . . . . DL327
Heron, Robert l7o1l807. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl12
Herr, Michael l910 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl85
Herrera, Daro l870l9l1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL290
Herrera, Iernando de l531.l597 . . . . . . . DL3l8
Herrera, |uan Ielipe l918 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl22
E. R. Herrick and Company . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Herrick, Robert l59llo71 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl2o
Herrick, Robert l8o8l938 . . . . . . . . DL9, l2, 78
Herrick, William l9l52001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y83
Herrmann, |ohn l900l959. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1
Hersey, |ohn
l9l1l993 . . . DLo, l85, 278, 299; CDAL7
Hertel, Iranois l905l985 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo8
Hervazin, |ean Iierre Marie (see azin, Herv)
Hervey, |ohn, Lord lo9ol713. . . . . . . . . . DLl0l
Herwig, Georg l8l7l875. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl33
Herzen, Alexander (Aleksandr Ivanovich
Gersten) l8l2l870 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL277
Herzog, Emile Salomon Wilhelm
(see Maurois, Andr)
Hesiod eighth century _.`. . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl7o
Hesse, Hermann
l877l9o2 . . . . . . . . . DLoo, 330; CDWL2
Hessus, Eobanus l188l510 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl79
Heureka! (see Kertsz, Imre and Nobel Irize
in Literature. 2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y02
Hewat, Alexander circa l713circa l821 . . . DL30
Hewett, Dorothy l9232002 . . . . . . . . . . . DL289
Hewitt, |ohn l907l987 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL27
Hewlett, Maurice l8oll923 . . . . . . . . DL31, l5o
Heyen, William l910 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL5
Heyer, Georgette l902l971. . . . . . . . . DL77, l9l
Heym, Stefan l9l3200l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo9
Heyse, Iaul l830l9l1 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl29, 330
Heytesbury, William
circa l3l0l372 or l373. . . . . . . . . . . . DLll5
Heyward, Dorothy l890l9ol. . . . . . . . DL7, 219
Heyward, Duose l885l910 . . . DL7, 9, 15, 219
Heywood, |ohn l197.l580.. . . . . . . . . . . DLl3o
Heywood, Jhomas l573 or l571lo1l . . . . DLo2
Hiaasen, Carl l953 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL292
Hibberd, |ack l910 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL289
Hibbs, en l90ll975 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl37
'Jhe Saturday Evening Iost reaffirms
a policy," en Hibb`s Statement
in q p~~ b m
(lo May l912) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl37
Hichens, Robert S. l8o1l950. . . . . . . . . . DLl53
Hickey, Emily l815l921. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl99
Hickman, William Albert l877l957 . . . . . . DL92
Hicks, Granville l90ll982 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL21o
Hidalgo, |os Luis l9l9l917 . . . . . . . . . . DLl08
Hiebert, Iaul l892l987 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo8
Hieng, Andrej l925 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl8l
Hierro, |os l9222002 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl08
Higgins, Aidan l927 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl1
Higgins, Colin l91ll988 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o
Higgins, George V.
l939l999 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2; Y8l, 98-99
Afterword |in response to Cozzen`s
j o~ (or Something)| . . . . . . . . . . . Y97
^ b a~W Jhe Last George V.
Higgins Novel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y99
Jhe ooks of George V. Higgins.
A Checklist of Editions
and Irintings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y00
George V. Higgins in Class . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y02
Jribute to Alfred A. Knopf . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y81
Jributes to George V. Higgins . . . . . . . . . .Y99
'What You Lose on the Swings You Make
Lp on the MerryGoRound". . . .Y99
Higginson, Jhomas Wentworth
l823l9ll . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl, o1, 213
Highsmith, Iatricia l92ll995. . . . . . . . . . DL30o
Highwater, |amake l912. . . . . . . . DL52; Y85
Hijuelos, Oscar l95l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl15
Hildegard von ingen l098ll79. . . . . . . . DLl18
a~ e~
circa 820 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl18; CDWL2
Hildesheimer, Wolfgang l9lol99l. . . DLo9, l21
Hildreth, Richard l807l8o5 . . . DLl, 30, 59, 235
Hill, Aaron lo85l750 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL81
Hill, Geoffrey l932 . . . . . . . .DL10; CDL8
George M. Hill Company . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Hill, 'Sir" |ohn l7l1.l775. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL39
Lawrence Hill and Company,
Iublishers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Hill, |oe l879l9l5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL303
Hill, Leslie l880l9o0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL5l
Hill, Reginald l93o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL27o
Hill, Susan l912 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl1, l39
Hill, Walter l912 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL11
Hill and Wang . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Hillberry, Conrad l928 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl20
Hillerman, Jony l925 . . . . . . . . . . DL20o, 30o
Hilliard, Gray and Company. . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Hills, Lee l90o2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl27
`~ f ai_ PPO
RUS
Hillyer, Robert l895l9ol . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL51
Hilsenrath, Edgar l92o . . . . . . . . . . . . DL299
Hilton, |ames l900l951. . . . . . . . . . . . DL31, 77
Hilton, Walter died l39o . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl1o
Hilton and Company . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Himes, Chester l909l981 . . . .DL2, 7o, l13, 22o
|oseph Hindmarsh |publishing house| . . . .DLl70
Hine, Daryl l93o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo0
Hingley, Ronald l920 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl55
HinojosaSmith, Rolando l929 . . . . . . . DL82
Hinton, S. E. l918 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .CDAL7
Hippel, Jheodor Gottlieb von
l71ll79o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL97
Hippius, Zinaida Nikolaevna
l8o9l915 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL295
Hippocrates of Cos fl. circa
125 _.`. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl7o; CDWLl
Hirabayashi Jaiko l905l972 . . . . . . . . . . DLl80
Hirsch, E. D., |r. l928 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo7
Hirsch, Edward l950 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl20
'Historical Novel," Jhe Holocaust . . . . . . DL299
Hoagland, Edward l932 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo
Hoagland, Everett H., III l912 . . . . . . . DL1l
Hoban, Russell l925 . . . . . . . . . . . DL52; Y90
Hobbes, Jhomas l588lo79. . . DLl5l, 252, 28l
Hobby, Oveta l905l995 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl27
Hobby, William l878l9o1 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl27
Hobsbaum, Ihilip l932 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL10
Hobsbawm, Eric (Irancis Newton)
l9l7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL29o
Hobson, Laura Z. l900l98o . . . . . . . . . . . DL28
Hobson, Sarah l917 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL201
Hoby, Jhomas l530l5oo . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl32
Hoccleve, Jhomas
circa l3o8circa l137 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl1o
Hoch, Edward D. l930 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL30o
Hochhuth, Rolf l93l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl21
Hochman, Sandra l93o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL5
Hocken, Jhomas Morland l83ol9l0 . . . DLl81
Hocking, William Ernest l873l9oo. . . . . .DL270
Hodder and Stoughton, Limited. . . . . . . . DLl0o
Hodgins, |ack l938 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo0
Hodgman, Helen l915 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl1
Hodgskin, Jhomas l787l8o9 . . . . . . . . . DLl58
Hodgson, Ralph l87ll9o2 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl9
Hodgson, William Hope
l877l9l8 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL70, l53, l5o, l78
Hoe, Robert, III l839l909 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl87
Hoeg, Ieter l957 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l1
Hoel, Sigurd l890l9o0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL297
Hoem, Edvard l919 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL297
Hoffenstein, Samuel l890l917 . . . . . . . . . DLll
Hoffman, Alice l952 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL292
Hoffman, Charles Ienno
l80ol881 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3, 250
Hoffman, Daniel l923 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL5
Jribute to Robert Graves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y85
Hoffmann, E. J. A.
l77ol822. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL90; CDWL2
Hoffman, Irank . l888l958 . . . . . . . . . DLl88
Hoffman, William l925 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL231
Jribute to Iaxton Davis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y91
Hoffmanswaldau, Christian Hoffman von
lololo79. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo8
Hofmann, Michael l957 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL10
Hofmannsthal, Hugo von
l871l929. . . . . . . . . .DL8l, ll8; CDWL2
Hofmo, Gunvor l92ll995 . . . . . . . . . . . DL297
Hofstadter, Richard l9lol970 . . . . . . . DLl7, 21o
Hogan, Desmond l950 . . . . . . . . . DLl1, 3l9
Hogan, Linda l917 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl75
Hogan and Jhompson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Hogarth Iress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll2; DSl0
Hogg, |ames l770l835. . . . . . . . .DL93, llo, l59
Hohberg, Wolfgang Helmhard Ireiherr von
lol2lo88 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo8
von Hohenheim, Ihilippus Aureolus
Jheophrastus ombastus (see Iaracelsus)
Hohl, Ludwig l901l980 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL5o
Hjholt, Ier l928 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l1
Holan, Vladimir l905l980 . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l5
d`Holbach, Iaul Henri Jhiry, baron
l723l789 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l3
q p k~ (as |eanaptiste de
Mirabaud) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l1
Holberg, Ludvig lo81l751 . . . . . . . . . . . DL300
Holbrook, David l923 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl1, 10
Holcroft, Jhomas l715l809 . . . . DL39, 89, l58
Ireface to ^ (l780). . . . . . . . . . . . . DL39
Holden, |onathan l91l . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl05
'Contemporary Verse Storytelling". . . DLl05
Holden, Molly l927l98l. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL10
Hlderlin, Iriedrich
l770l813. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL90; CDWL2
Holdstock, Robert l918 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2ol
e~I l971 ooker Irize winner,
Stanley Middleton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL32o
Holiday House . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Holinshed, Raphael died l580 . . . . . . . . . DLlo7
Holland, |. G. l8l9l88l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DSl3
Holland, Norman N. l927 . . . . . . . . . . . DLo7
Hollander, |ohn l929 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL5
Holley, Marietta l83ol92o . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll
Hollinghurst, Alan l951 . . . . . . . . DL207, 32o
Hollingsworth, Margaret l910 . . . . . . . . DLo0
Hollo, Anselm l931 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL10
Holloway, Emory l885l977 . . . . . . . . . . DLl03
Holloway, |ohn l920 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL27
Holloway House Iublishing Company . . . DL1o
Holme, Constance l880l955 . . . . . . . . . . DL31
Holmes, Abraham S. l82l.l908. . . . . . . . DL99
Holmes, |ohn Clellon l92ol988 . . . . .DLlo, 237
'Iour Essays on the eat
Generation". . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo
Holmes, Mary |ane l825l907 . . . . . DL202, 22l
Holmes, Oliver Wendell
l809l891 . . . . . . DLl, l89, 235; CDAL2
Holmes, Richard l915 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl55
Holmes, Jhomas |ames l871l959. . . . . . .DLl87
Jhe Holocaust 'Historical Novel" . . . . . . DL299
Holocaust Iiction, Iostmodern. . . . . . . . . DL299
Holocaust Novel, Jhe 'SecondGeneration"
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL299
Holroyd, Michael l935 . . . . . . . . DLl55; Y99
Holst, Hermann E. von l81ll901 . . . . . . DL17
Holt, |ohn l72ll781 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL13
Henry Holt and Company . . . . . . . . . DL19, 281
Holt, Rinehart and Winston. . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Holtby, Winifred l898l935. . . . . . . . . . . DLl9l
Holthusen, Hans Egon l9l3l997 . . . . . . . DLo9
Hlty, Ludwig Christoph Heinrich
l718l77o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL91
Holub, Miroslav
l923l998 . . . . . . . . . . . DL232; CDWL1
Holz, Arno l8o3l929 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll8
Home, Henry, Lord Kames
(see Kames, Henry Home, Lord)
Home, |ohn l722l808. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL81
Home, William Douglas l9l2l992 . . . . . . DLl3
Home Iublishing Company . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Homer circa eighthseventh centuries _.`.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl7o; CDWLl
Homer, Winslow l83ol9l0. . . . . . . . . . . DLl88
Homes, Geoffrey (see Mainwaring, Daniel)
Honan, Iark l928 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlll
Hone, William l780l812. . . . . . . . . .DLll0, l58
Hongo, Garrett Kaoru l95l . . . . DLl20, 3l2
Honig, Edwin l9l9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL5
Hood, Hugh l9282000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL53
Hood, Mary l91o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL231
Hood, Jhomas l799l815 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL9o
Hook, Sidney l902l989 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DL279
Hook, Jheodore l788l81l . . . . . . . . . . . DLllo
Hooker, |eremy l91l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL10
Hooker, Richard l551lo00 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl32
Hooker, Jhomas l58olo17. . . . . . . . . . . . DL21
hooks, bell l952 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL21o
Hooper, |ohnson |ones
l8l5l8o2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3, ll, 218
ai_ PPO `~ f
RUT
`
Hope, A. D. l9072000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL289

Hope, Anthony l8o3l933 . . . . . . . . DLl53, l5o
Hope, Christopher l911 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL225
Hope, Eva (see Hearn, Mary Anne)
Hope, Laurence (Adela Ilorence
Cory Nicolson) l8o5l901 . . . . . . . . . DL210
Hopkins, Ellice l83ol901. . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl90
Hopkins, Gerard Manley
l811l889 . . . . . . . . . . .DL35, 57; CDL5
Hopkins, |ohn .l570. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl32
Hopkins, |ohn H., and Son . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Hopkins, Lemuel l750l80l . . . . . . . . . . . . DL37
Hopkins, Iauline Elizabeth l859l930 . . . . DL50
Hopkins, Samuel l72ll803 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l
Hopkinson, Irancis l737l79l . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l
Hopkinson, Nalo l9o0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL25l
Hopper, Nora (Mrs. Nora Chesson)
l87ll90o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL210
Hoppin, Augustus l828l89o . . . . . . . . . . DLl88
Hora, |osef l89ll915 . . . . . . DL2l5; CDWL1
Horace o5 _.`.8 _.`. . . . . . . . DL2ll; CDWLl
Horgan, Iaul l903l995 . . . . . DLl02, 2l2; Y85
Horizon Iress. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Horkheimer, Max l895l973. . . . . . . . . . . DL29o
Hornby, C. H. St. |ohn l8o7l91o . . . . . . . DL20l
Hornby, Nick l957 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL207
Horne, Irank l899l971 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL5l
Horne, Richard Henry (Hengist)
l802 or l803l881 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL32
Horne, Jhomas lo08lo51 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL28l
Horney, Karen l885l952 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL21o
Hornung, E. W. l8ool92l . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL70
Horovitz, Israel l939 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL7
Horta, Maria Jeresa (see Jhe Jhree Marias.
Literary History)
Horton, George Moses l797.l883. . . . . . . DL50
George Moses Horton Society . . . . . . . . . .Y99
Horvth, Odn von l90ll938 . . . . . . DL85, l21
Horwood, Harold l923 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo0
E. and E. Hosford |publishing house| . . . . . DL19
Hoskens, |ane Ienn lo93l770.. . . . . . . . . DL200
Hoskyns, |ohn circa l5oolo38 . . . . . DLl2l, 28l
Hosokawa Ysai l535lol0. . . . . . . . . . . . DL203
Hospers, |ohn l9l8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL279
Hospital, |anette Jurner l912 . . . . . . . . DL325
Hostovsk, Egon l908l973. . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l5
Hotchkiss and Company . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
e i~I l981 ooker Irize winner,
Anita rookner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL32o
Hough, Emerson l857l923. . . . . . . . . . DL9, 2l2
Houghton, Stanley l88ll9l3 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl0
Houghton Mifflin Company . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
e ~ e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DSl3
Household, Geoffrey l900l988 . . . . . . . . . DL87
Housman, A. E. l859l93o . . . .DLl9; CDL5
Housman, Laurence l8o5l959. . . . . . . . . . DLl0
Houston, Iam l9o2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL211
Houwald, Ernst von l778l815 . . . . . . . . . . DL90
Hovey, Richard l8o1l900 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL51
e i~ f t~I e i~I l991 ooker Irize winner,
|ames Kelman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL32o
Howard, Donald R. l927l987 . . . . . . . . . DLlll
Howard, Maureen l930 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y83
Howard, Richard l929 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL5
Howard, Roy W. l883l9o1 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL29
Howard, Sidney l89ll939 . . . . . . . DL7, 2o, 219
Howard, Jhomas, second Earl of Arundel
l585lo1o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l3
Howe, E. W. l853l937. . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl2, 25
Howe, Henry l8lol893 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL30
Howe, Irving l920l993 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo7
Howe, |oseph l801l873 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL99
Howe, |ulia Ward l8l9l9l0. . . . . DLl, l89, 235
Howe, Iercival Iresland l88ol911. . . . . . DLl19
Howe, Susan l937 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl20
Howell, Clark, Sr. l8o3l93o. . . . . . . . . . . . DL25
Howell, Evan I. l839l905 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL23
Howell, |ames l591.looo. . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl5l
Howell, Soskin and Company . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Howell, Warren Richardson
l9l2l981 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl10
Howells, William Dean l837l920
. . . . . . . . . DLl2, o1, 71, 79, l89; CDAL3
Introduction to Iaul Laurence
Dunbar`s i i i
(l89o) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL50
Jhe William Dean Howells Society . . . . . .Y0l
Howitt, Mary l799l888 . . . . . . . . . . DLll0, l99
Howitt, William l792l879 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll0
Hoyem, Andrew l935 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL5
Hoyers, Anna Ovena l581lo55 . . . . . . . . DLlo1
Hoyle, Ired l9l5200l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2ol
Hoyos, Angela de l910 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL82
Henry Hoyt |publishing house| . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Hoyt, Ialmer l897l979. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl27
Hrabal, ohumil l9l1l997. . . . . . . . . . . . DL232
Hrabanus Maurus 77o.85o. . . . . . . . . . . . DLl18
Hronsk, |osef Cger l89ol9o0 . . . . . . . . DL2l5
Hrotsvit of Gandersheim
circa 935circa l000. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl18
Hubbard, Elbert l85ol9l5. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL9l
Hubbard, Kin l8o8l930. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll
Hubbard, William circa lo2ll701 . . . . . . . DL21
Huber, Jherese l7o1l829. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL90
Huch, Iriedrich l873l9l3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLoo
Huch, Ricarda l8o1l917 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLoo
Huddle, David l912 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl30
Hudgins, Andrew l95l . . . . . . . . . DLl20, 282
Hudson, Henry Norman l8l1l88o . . . . . . DLo1
Hudson, Stephen l8o8.l911 . . . . . . . . . . DLl97
Hudson, W. H. l81ll922. . . . . . DL98, l53, l71
Hudson and Goodwin. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Huebsch, . W., oral history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y99
. W. Huebsch |publishing house| . . . . . . . . DL1o
Hueffer, Oliver Madox l87ol93l. . . . . . . DLl97
Huet, Iierre Daniel
Ireface to q e o~
(l7l5) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL39
Hugh of St. Victor circa l09oll1l . . . . . . DL208
Hughes, David l930 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl1
Hughes, Dusty l917 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL233
Hughes, Hatcher l88ll915 . . . . . . . . . . . DL219
Hughes, |ohn lo77l720. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL81
Hughes, Langston l902l9o7 . . . . . . . DL1, 7, 18,
5l, 8o, 228, 3l5; DSl5; CDAL5
Hughes, Richard l900l97o. . . . . . . . . DLl5, lol
Hughes, Jed l930l998. . . . . . . . . . . . DL10, lol
Hughes, Jhomas l822l89o . . . . . . . . DLl8, lo3
Hugo, Richard l923l982 . . . . . . . . . . . DL5, 20o
Hugo, Victor l802l885 . . . . . . DLll9, l92, 2l7
Hugo Awards and Nebula Awards . . . . . . . . DL8
Huidobro, Vicente l893l918 . . . . . . . . . . DL283
Hull, Richard l89ol973 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL77
Hulda (Lnnur enediktsdttir jarklind)
l88ll91o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL293
Hulme, Keri l917 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL32o
Hulme, J. E. l883l9l7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl9
Hulton, Anne .l779. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL200
Humanism, SixteenthCentury
Spanish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l8
Humboldt, Alexander von l7o9l859 . . . . . DL90
Humboldt, Wilhelm von l7o7l835. . . . . . . DL90
Hume, David l7lll77o. . . . . . . . . . . DLl01, 252
Hume, Iergus l859l932. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL70
Hume, Sophia l702l771 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL200
HumeRothery, Mary Catherine
l821l885 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL210
Humishuma
(see Mourning Dove)
Hummer, J. R. l950 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl20
Humor
American Humor. A Historical
Survey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll
American Humor Studies Association . . . .Y99
Jhe Comic Jradition Continued
|in the ritish Novel|. . . . . . . . . . . . DLl5
Humorous ook Illustration . . . . . . . . . DLll
International Society for Humor Studies. . .Y99
`~ f ai_ PPO
RUU
Newspaper Syndication of American
Humor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll
Selected Humorous Magazines
(l820l950) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll
ruce Humphries |publishing house| . . . . DL1o
Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester
l39ll117. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l3
Humphrey, William
l921l997. . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo, 2l2, 231, 278
Humphreys, David l752l8l8 . . . . . . . . . . DL37
Humphreys, Emyr l9l9 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl5
Humphreys, |osephine l915 . . . . . . . . DL292
Hunayn ibn Ishaq 809873 or 877. . . . . . . DL3ll
Huncke, Herbert l9l5l99o. . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo
Huneker, |ames Gibbons
l857l92l. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL7l
Hunold, Christian Iriedrich
lo8ll72l. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo8
Hunt, Irene l907 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL52
Hunt, Leigh l781l859. . . . . . . . .DL9o, ll0, l11
Hunt, Violet l8o2l912 . . . . . . . . . . .DLlo2, l97
Hunt, William Gibbes l79ll833 . . . . . . . . DL73
Hunter, Evan (Ed Mcain)
l92o2005 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL30o; Y82
Hunter, |im l939 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl1
Hunter, Kristin l93l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL33
Jribute to |ulian Mayfield . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y81
Hunter, Mollie l922 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlol
Hunter, N. C. l908l97l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl0
HunterDuvar, |ohn l82ll899 . . . . . . . . . DL99
Huntington, Henry E. l850l927. . . . . . . DLl10
Jhe Henry E. Huntington Library . . . . . . Y92
Huntington, Susan Mansfield
l79ll823. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL200
Hurd and Houghton. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Hurst, Iannie l889l9o8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL8o
Hurst and lackett . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl0o
Hurst and Company. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Hurston, Zora Neale
l90l.l9o0. . . . . . . . . . DL5l, 8o; CDAL7
Husserl, Edmund l859l938 . . . . . . . . . . DL29o
Husson, |ulesIranoisIlix (see Champfleury)
Huston, |ohn l90ol987. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o
Hutcheson, Irancis lo91l71o . . . . . . DL3l, 252
Hutchinson, Ron l917 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL215
Hutchinson, R. C. l907l975 . . . . . . . . . . DLl9l
Hutchinson, Jhomas l7lll780 . . . . . . DL30, 3l
Hutchinson and Company
(Iublishers) Limited. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll2
Huth, Angela l938 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DL27l
Hutton, Richard Holt
l82ol897. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL57
von Hutten, Llrich l188l523 . . . . . . . . . .DLl79
Huxley, Aldous l891l9o3
. . . . . . DL3o, l00, lo2, l95, 255; CDLo
Huxley, Elspeth |osceline
l907l997 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL77, 201
Huxley, J. H. l825l895 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL57
Huyghue, Douglas Smith l8lol89l . . . . . DL99
Huysmans, |orisKarl l818l907 . . . . . . . DLl23
Hwang, David Henry
l957 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l2, 228, 3l2
Hyde, Donald l909l9oo . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl87
Hyde, Mary l9l22003. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl87
Hyman, Jrina Schart l939 . . . . . . . . . . DLol
f
Iavorsky, Stefan lo58l722 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl50
Iazykov, Nikolai Mikhailovich
l803l81o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL205
Ibez, Armando I. l919 . . . . . . . . . . DL209
Ibez, Sara de l909l97l . . . . . . . . . . . . DL290
Ibarbourou, |uana de l892l979. . . . . . . . DL290
Ibn Abi Jahir Jayfur 820893 . . . . . . . . . DL3ll
Ibn _utaybah 828889 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3ll
Ibn alRumi 83o89o. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3ll
Ibn Sa'd 781815. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3ll
Ibrahim alMawsili
712 or 713803 or 801 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3ll
Ibn ajja circa l077ll38. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll5
Ibn Gabirol, Solomon
circa l02lcirca l058 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll5
Ibn alMuqaffa' circa 723759 . . . . . . . . . . DL3ll
Ibn alMu'tazz 8ol908 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3ll
Ibuse Masuji l898l993 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl80
Ichij Kanera
(see Ichij Kaneyoshi)
Ichij Kaneyoshi (Ichij Kanera)
l102l18l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL203
Iffland, August Wilhelm
l759l8l1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL91
Iggulden, |ohn l9l7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL289
Ignatieff, Michael l917 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o7
Ignatow, David l9l1l997 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL5
Ike, Chukwuemeka l93l . . . . . . . . . . . DLl57
Ikky Sjun l391l18l. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL203
Iles, Irancis
(see erkeley, Anthony)
Il`f, Ilìa (Ilìa Arnol`dovich Iainzil`berg)
l897l937 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DL272
Illich, Ivan l92o2002. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL212
Illustration
Children`s ook Illustration in the
Jwentieth Century . . . . . . . . . . . . DLol
Children`s Illustrators, l800l880 . . . DLlo3
Early American ook Illustration . . . . DL19
Jhe Iconography of ScienceIiction
Art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL8
Jhe Illustration of Early German
Literary Manuscripts, circa
ll50circa l300 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl18
Minor Illustrators, l880l9l1 . . . . . . DLl1l
Illys, Gyula l902l983 . . . . .DL2l5; CDWL1
Imbs, ravig l901l91o . . . . . . . . . . DL1; DSl5
Imbuga, Irancis D. l917 . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl57
Immermann, Karl l79ol810 . . . . . . . . . . DLl33
Imru` al_ays circa 52ocirca 5o5. . . . . . . DL3ll
f ~ c p~I l97l ooker Irize winner,
V. S. Naipaul . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL32o
Inchbald, Elizabeth l753l82l . . . . . . . DL39, 89
Indiana Lniversity Iress. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y02
Ingamells, Rex l9l3l955 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o0
Inge, William l9l3l973. . . .DL7, 219; CDALl
Ingelow, |ean l820l897. . . . . . . . . . . DL35, lo3
Ingemann, . S. l789l8o2 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL300
Ingersoll, Ralph l900l985. . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl27
Jhe Ingersoll Irizes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y81
Ingoldsby, Jhomas (see arham, Richard Harris)
Ingraham, |oseph Holt l809l8o0 . . . . DL3, 218
Inman, |ohn l805l850 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL73
Innerhofer, Iranz l911 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL85
Innes, Michael ( |. I. M. Stewart)
l90ol991 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DL27o
Innis, Harold Adams l891l952. . . . . . . . . DL88
Innis, Mary _uayle l899l972. . . . . . . . . . DL88
In Sgi l12ll502. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL203
Inoue Yasushi l907l99l . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl82
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y02
International Iublishers Company. . . . . . . DL1o
Internet (publishing and commerce)
Author Websites. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y97
Jhe ook Jrade and the Internet . . . . . . . Y00
Eooks Jurn the Corner . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y98
Jhe EResearcher. Iossibilities
and Iitfalls. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y00
Interviews on Epublishing. . . . . . . . . . . . . Y00
|ohn Lpdike on the Internet . . . . . . . . . . . Y97
LitCheck Website. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y0l
Virtual ooks and Enemies of ooks. . . . . Y00
Interviews
Adoff, Arnold. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y0l
Aldridge, |ohn W. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y9l
Anastas, enjamin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y98
aker, Nicholson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y00
ank, Melissa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y98
ass, J. |. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y80
ernstein, Harriet. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y82
etts, Doris . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y82
osworth, David . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y82
ottoms, David . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y83
ai_ PPO `~ f
RUV
`
owers, Iredson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y80

urnshaw, Stanley. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y97
Carpenter, Humphrey. . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y81, 99
Carr, Virginia Spencer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y00
Carver, Raymond . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y83
Cherry, Kelly. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y83
Conroy, |ack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y8l
Coppel, Alfred. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y83
Cowley, Malcolm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y8l
Davis, Iaxton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y89
Devito, Carlo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y91
De Vries, Ieter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y82
Dickey, |ames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y82
Donald, David Herbert . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y87
Editors, Conversations with . . . . . . . . . . . .Y95
Ellroy, |ames. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y9l
Iancher, etsy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y83
Iaust, Irvin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y00
Iulton, Len . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y8o
Iurst, Alan. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y0l
Garrett, George . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y83
Gelfman, |ane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y93
Goldwater, Walter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y93
Gores, |oe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y02
Greenfield, George . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y9l
Griffin, ryan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y8l
Groom, Winston . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y0l
Guilds, |ohn Caldwell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y92
Hamilton, Virginia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y0l
Hardin, |ames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y92
Harris, Mark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y80
Harrison, |im. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y82
Hazzard, Shirley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y82
Herrick, William . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y0l
Higgins, George V. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y98
Hoban, Russell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y90
Holroyd, Michael . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y99
Horowitz, Glen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y90
Iggulden, |ohn. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y0l
|akes, |ohn. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y83
|enkinson, Edward . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y82
|enks, Jom. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y8o
Kaplan, |ustin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y8o
King, Ilorence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y85
Klopfer, Donald S. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y97
Krug, |udith. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y82
Lamm, Donald . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y95
Laughlin, |ames. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y9o
Lawrence, Starling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y95
Lindsay, |ack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y81
Mailer, Norman. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y97
Manchester, William . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y85
Max, D. J.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y91
McCormack, Jhomas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y98
McNamara, Katherine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y97
Mellen, |oan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y91
Menaker, Daniel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y97
Mooneyham, Lamarr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y82
Murray, Les. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y0l
Nosworth, David. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y82
O`Connor, Iatrick. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y81, 99
Ozick, Cynthia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y83
Ienner, |onathan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y83
Iennington, Lee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y82
Ienzler, Otto . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y9o
Ilimpton, George . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y99
Iotok, Chaim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y81
Iowell, Iadgett . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y0l
Irescott, Ieter S. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y8o
Rabe, David . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y9l
Rechy, |ohn. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y82
Reid, . L. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y83
Reynolds, Michael. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y95, 99
Robinson, Derek . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y02
Rollyson, Carl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y97
Rosset, arney . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y02
Schlafly, Ihyllis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y82
Schroeder, Iatricia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y99
Schulberg, udd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y8l, 0l
Scribner, Charles, III. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y91
Sipper, Ralph. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y91
Smith, Cork. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y95
Staley, Jhomas I. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y00
Styron, William. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y80
Jalese, Nan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y91
Jhornton, |ohn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y91
Joth, Susan Allen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y8o
Jyler, Anne . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y82
Vaughan, Samuel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y97
Von Ogtrop, Kristin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y92
Wallenstein, arry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y92
Weintraub, Stanley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y82
Williams, |. Chamberlain . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y81
Into the Iast. William |ovanovich`s
Reflections in Iublishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y02
Ionesco, Eugne l909l991 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL32l
Ireland, David l927 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL289
Jhe National Library of Ireland`s
New |ames |oyce Manuscripts. . . . . . . . . . .Y02
Irigaray, Luce l930 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL29o
Irving, |ohn l912 . . . . . . . . . . DLo, 278; Y82
Irving, Washington l783l859
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3, ll, 30, 59, 73, 71,
l83, l8o, 250; CDAL2
Irwin, Grace l907 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo8
Irwin, Will l873l918 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL25
Isaksson, Llla l9lo2000. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL257
Iser, Wolfgang l92o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL212
Isherwood, Christopher
l901l98o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl5, l95; Y8o
Jhe Christopher Isherwood Archive,
Jhe Huntington Library . . . . . . . . . . .Y99
Ishiguro, Kazuo l951 . . . . . . . . . . DLl91, 32o
Ishikawa |un l899l987. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl82
Iskander, Iazil` Abdulevich l929 . . . . . DL302
Jhe Island Jrees Case. A Symposium on
School Library Censorship
An Interview with |udith Krug
An Interview with Ihyllis Schlafly
An Interview with Edward . |enkinson
An Interview with Lamarr Mooneyham
An Interview with Harriet ernstein. . . . . .Y82
Islas, Arturo
l938l99l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl22
Issit, Debbie l9oo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL233
Ivanievi, Drago l907l98l . . . . . . . . . . . DLl8l
Ivanov, Georgii l891l951. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l7
Ivanov, Viacheslav Ivanovich
l8ool919 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL295
Ivanov, Vsevolod Viacheslavovich
l895l9o3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL272
Ivask, Yuri l907l98o. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l7
Ivaska, Astrde l92o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL232
M. |. Ivers and Company. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Iwaniuk, Wacaw l9l5200l . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l5
Iwano Hmei l873l920 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl80
Iwaszkiewicz, |arosav l891l980 . . . . . . . DL2l5
Iyayi, Iestus l917 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl57
Izumi Kyka l873l939 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl80
g
|ackmon, Marvin E. (see Marvin X)
|acks, L. I. l8o0l955 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl35
|ackson, Angela l95l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1l
|ackson, Charles l903l9o8. . . . . . . . . . . . DL231
|ackson, Helen Hunt
l830l885 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL12, 17, l8o, l89
|ackson, Holbrook l871l918 . . . . . . . . . . . DL98
|ackson, Laura Riding l90ll99l . . . . . . . . DL18
|ackson, Shirley
l9lol9o5 . . . . . . . . . . . DLo, 231; CDALl
|acob, Max l87ol911 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL258
|acob, Naomi l881.l9o1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl9l
|acob, Iiers Anthony Dillingham
(see Anthony, Iiers)
|acob, Violet l8o3l91o. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL210
|acobi, Iriedrich Heinrich l713l8l9. . . . . . DL91
|acobi, |ohann Georg l710l81l . . . . . . . . . DL97
George W. |acobs and Company. . . . . . . . . DL19
|acobs, Harriet l8l3l897 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL239
|acobs, |oseph l851l9lo. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl1l
|acobs, W. W. l8o3l913. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl35
Jhe W. W. |acobs Appreciation Society . . .Y98
|acobsen, |. I. l817l885 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL300
`~ f ai_ PPO
RVM
|acobsen, |rgenIrantz l900l938 . . . . . . DL2l1
|acobsen, |osephine l908 . . . . . . . . . . . DL211
|acobsen, Rolf l907l991 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL297
|acobson, Dan l929 . . . . . DLl1, 207, 225, 3l9
|acobson, Howard l912 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL207
|acques de Vitry circa llo0/ll70l210 . . . DL208
|ger, Irank l92ol977. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l1
|a'far alSadiq circa 7027o5 . . . . . . . . . . . DL3ll
William |aggard |publishing house| . . . . . .DLl70
|ahier, Iiero l881l9oo. . . . . . . . . . . DLll1, 2o1
al|ahiz circa 77o8o8 or 8o9 . . . . . . . . . . . DL3ll
|ahnn, Hans Henny l891l959 . . . . . DL5o, l21
|aimes, Ireyre, Ricardo l8oo.l933 . . . . . DL283
|akes, |ohn l932 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL278; Y83
|akobna |ohnson ( |akobna Sigurbjarnardttir)
l883l977. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL293
|akobson, Roman l89ol982 . . . . . . . . . . DL212
|ames, Alice l818l892. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL22l
|ames, C. L. R. l90ll989 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl25
|ames, Clive l939 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL325
|ames, George I. R. l80ll8o0 . . . . . . . . DLllo
|ames, Henry l813l9lo
. . . . . . .DLl2, 7l, 71, l89; DSl3; CDAL3
'Jhe Iuture of the Novel" (l899) . . . . DLl8
'Jhe Novel in |Robert rowning`s|
'Jhe Ring and the ook`"
(l9l2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL32
|ames, |ohn circa lo33l729 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL21
|ames, M. R. l8o2l93o . . . . . . . . . . DLl5o, 20l
|ames, Naomi l919 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL201
|ames, I. D. (Ihyllis Dorothy |ames White)
l920 . . . . . . DL87, 27o; DSl7; CDL8
Jribute to Charles Scribner |r. . . . . . . . . . . Y95
|ames, Jhomas l572.lo29 . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l3
L. I. |ames |publishing house| . . . . . . . . . . DL19
|ames, Will l892l912 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DSlo
|ames, William l812l9l0 . . . . . . . . . . . . .DL270
|ames VI of Scotland, I of England
l5oolo25 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl5l, l72
^ p q~ ` p o
~ `~ _ l ~
b p m (l581). . . . . .DLl72
|ameson, Anna l791l8o0. . . . . . . . . . DL99, loo
|ameson, Iredric l931 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo7
|ameson, |. Iranklin l859l937 . . . . . . . . . DLl7
|ameson, Storm l89ll98o . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3o
|anar, Drago l918 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl8l
|ans, Clara l910 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl31
|anevski, Slavko l9202000 . DLl8l; CDWL1
|anowitz, Jama l957 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL292
|ansson, Jove l9l1200l . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL257
|anvier, Jhomas l819l9l3 . . . . . . . . . . . DL202
|apan
'Jhe Development of Meiji |apan" . . DLl80
'Encounter with the West" . . . . . . . . DLl80
|apanese Literature
Letter from |apan. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y91, 98
Medieval Jravel Diaries . . . . . . . . . . . DL203
Surveys. l987l995 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl82
|aramillo, Cleofas M. l878l95o. . . . . . . . DLl22
|aramillo Levi, Enrique l911 . . . . . . . . DL290
|arir after o50circa 730. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3ll
|arman, Mark l952 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl20, 282
|arrell, Randall
l9l1l9o5 . . . . . . . . . . DL18, 52; CDALl
|arrold and Sons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl0o
|arry, Alfred l873l907. . . . . . . . . . . DLl92, 258
|arves, |ames |ackson l8l8l888 . . . . . . . DLl89
|asmin, Claude l930 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo0
|aunsudrabi, |nis l877l9o2. . . . . . . . . DL220
|ay, |ohn l715l829. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l
|ean de Garlande (see |ohn of Garland)
|efferies, Richard l818l887 . . . . . . . . DL98, l1l
Jhe Richard |efferies Society . . . . . . . . . . . Y98
|effers, Lance l9l9l985. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1l
|effers, Robinson
l887l9o2. . . . . . . . . . DL15, 2l2; CDAL1
|efferson, Jhomas
l713l82o. . . . . . . . . . DL3l, l83; CDAL2
|g l8ool910 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l5
|elinek, Elfriede l91o . . . . . . . . . . . DL85, 330
|ellicoe, Ann l927 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl3, 233
|emison, Mary circa l712l833. . . . . . . . . DL239
|en, Gish l955 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l2
|enkins, Dan l929 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL21l
|enkins, Elizabeth l905 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl55
|enkins, Robin l9l22005. . . . . . . . . . .DLl1, 27l
|enkins, William Iitzgerald (see Leinster, Murray)
Herbert |enkins Limited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll2
|ennings, Elizabeth l92o . . . . . . . . . . . . DL27
|ens, Walter l923 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo9
|ensen, Axel l9322003 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL297
|ensen, |ohannes V. l873l950 . . . . . DL2l1, 330
|ensen, Merrill l905l980. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl7
|ensen, Jhit l87ol957 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l1
|ephson, Robert l73ol803. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL89
|erome, |erome K. l859l927 . . . . .DLl0, 31, l35
Jhe |erome K. |erome Society . . . . . . . . . . Y98
|erome, |udson l927l99l. . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl05
'Reflections. After a Jornado". . . . . . DLl05
|errold, Douglas l803l857 . . . . . . . DLl58, l59
|ersild, Ier Christian l935 . . . . . . . . . . DL257
|esse, I. Jennyson l888l958 . . . . . . . . . . . DL77
|ewel, |ohn l522l57l. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL23o
|ohn I. |ewett and Company . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
|ewett, Sarah Orne l819l909 . . . .DLl2, 71, 22l
Jhe |ewish Iublication Society. . . . . . . . . . DL19
Studies in American |ewish Literature . . . . . . . Y02
|ewitt, |ohn Rodgers l783l82l . . . . . . . . . DL99
|ewsbury, Geraldine l8l2l880 . . . . . . . . . DL2l
|ewsbury, Maria |ane l800l833 . . . . . . . DLl99
|habvala, Ruth Irawer
l927 . . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl39, l91, 323, 32o
|iang Guangci l90ll93l . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL328
|imnez, |uan Ramn l88ll958 . . . DLl31, 330
|in, Ha l95o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL211, 292
|oans, Jed l9282003 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo, 1l
|odelle, Estienne l532.l573. . . . . . . . . . . DL327
|ha l525lo02. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL203
|hann Sigurjnsson l880l9l9 . . . . . . . . DL293
|hannes r Ktlum l899l972 . . . . . . . . DL293
|ohannis de Garlandia (see |ohn of Garland)
|ohn, Errol l921l988 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL233
|ohn, Eugenie (see Marlitt, E.)
|ohn of Dumbleton
circa l3l0circa l319 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll5
|ohn of Garland ( |ean de Garlande,
|ohannis de Garlandia)
circa ll95circa l272 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL208
Jhe |ohn Reed Clubs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL303
|ohns, Captain W. E. l893l9o8 . . . . . . . DLlo0
|ohnson, Mrs. A. E. ca. l858l922. . . . . . DL22l
|ohnson, Amelia (see |ohnson, Mrs. A. E.)
|ohnson, . S. l933l973 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl1, 10
|ohnson, Charles lo79l718 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL81
|ohnson, Charles l918 . . . . . . . . . . .DL33, 278
|ohnson, Charles S. l893l95o. . . . . . . DL5l, 9l
|ohnson, Colin (Mudrooroo) l938 . . . DL289
|ohnson, Denis l919 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl20
|ohnson, Diane l931 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y80
|ohnson, Dorothy M. l905-l981. . . . . . . DL20o
|ohnson, E. Iauline (Jekahionwake)
l8oll9l3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl75
|ohnson, Edgar l90ll995 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl03
|ohnson, Edward l598lo72. . . . . . . . . . . . DL21
|ohnson, Eyvind l900l97o . . . . . . . DL259, 330
|ohnson, Ienton l888l958 . . . . . . . . . DL15, 50
|ohnson, Georgia Douglas
l877.l9oo. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL5l, 219
|ohnson, Gerald W. l890l980 . . . . . . . . . DL29
|ohnson, Greg l953 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL231
|ohnson, Helene l907l995 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL5l
|acob |ohnson and Company . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
|ohnson, |ames Weldon
l87ll938. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL5l; CDAL1
|ohnson, |ohn H. l9l82005. . . . . . . . . . . .DLl37
ai_ PPO `~ f
RVN
`
'ackstage," Statement Irom the

Initial Issue of b
(November l915. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl37
|ohnson, |oseph |publishing house| . . . . . . DLl51
|ohnson, Linton Kwesi l952 . . . . . . . . . DLl57
|ohnson, Lionel l8o7l902. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl9
|ohnson, Nunnally l897l977. . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o
|ohnson, Owen l878l952 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y87
|ohnson, Iamela Hansford l9l2l98l. . . . . DLl5
|ohnson, Iauline l8oll9l3. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL92
|ohnson, Ronald l935l998. . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo9
|ohnson, Samuel lo9ol772 . . . DL21; CDL2
|ohnson, Samuel
l709l781. . . . . . . . . DL39, 95, l01, l12, 2l3
o~I no. 1 (l750) |excerpt| . . . . . . . . DL39
Jhe C Iour Samuel |ohnson Irize
for Nonfiction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y02
|ohnson, Samuel l822l882. . . . . . . . . . DLl, 213
|ohnson, Susanna l730l8l0 . . . . . . . . . . . DL200
|ohnson, Jerry l955 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL233
|ohnson, Lwe l931l981. . . . . DL75; CDWL2
enjamin |ohnson |publishing house| . . . . . DL19
enjamin, |acob, and Robert |ohnson
|publishing house| . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
|ohnston, Annie Iellows l8o3l93l. . . . . . . DL12
|ohnston, asil H. l929 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo0
|ohnston, David Claypole l798.l8o5 . . . . DLl88
|ohnston, Denis l90ll981 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl0
|ohnston, Ellen l835l873 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl99
|ohnston, George l9l2l970 . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o0
|ohnston, George l9l3l970 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL88
|ohnston, Sir Harry l858l927 . . . . . . . . . DLl71
|ohnston, |ennifer l930 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl1
|ohnston, Mary l870l93o. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL9
|ohnston, Richard Malcolm l822l898 . . . . DL71
|ohnstone, Charles l7l9.l800.. . . . . . . . . . DL39
|ohst, Hanns l890l978 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl21
|kull |akobsson l933l978 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL293
|olas, Eugene l891l952 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1, 15
|olley, Elizabeth l923 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL325
|n Stefn Sveinsson or Svensson (see Nonni)
|n Jrausti (Gumundur Magnsson)
l873l9l8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL293
|n r Vr ( |n |nsson) l9l72000 . . . . . DL293
|nas Hallgrmsson l807l815. . . . . . . . . . DL293
|ones, Alice C. l853l933 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL92
|ones, Charles C., |r. l83ll893 . . . . . . . . . DL30
|ones, D. G. l929 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL53
|ones, David l895l971 . . .DL20, l00; CDL7
|ones, Diana Wynne l931 . . . . . . . . . . . DLlol
|ones, Ebenezer l820l8o0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL32
|ones, Ernest l8l9l8o8. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL32
|ones, Gayl l919 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL33, 278
|ones, George l800l870 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl83
|ones, Glyn l905l995. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl5
|ones, Gwyn l907 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl5, l39
|ones, Henry Arthur l85ll929 . . . . . . . . . DLl0
|ones, Hugh circa lo92l7o0 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL21
|ones, |ames l92ll977 . . . . . . . DL2, l13; DSl7
|ames |ones Iapers in the Handy
Writers` Colony Collection at
the Lniversity of Illinois at
Springfield. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y98
Jhe |ames |ones Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y92
|ones, |enkin Lloyd l9ll2001. . . . . . . . . . DLl27
|ones, |ohn eauchamp l8l0l8oo . . . . . . DL202
|ones, |oseph, Major
(see Jhompson, William Jappan)
|ones, LeRoi (see araka, Amiri)
|ones, Lewis l897l939 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl5
|ones, Madison l925 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl52
|ones, Marie l95l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL233
|ones, Ireston l93ol979 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL7
|ones, Rodney l950 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl20
|ones, Jhom l915 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL211
|ones, Sir William l71ol791 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl09
|ones, William Alfred l8l7l900 . . . . . . . . . DL59
|ones`s Iublishing House. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
|ong, Erica l912 . . . . . . . . . . . DL2, 5, 28, l52
|onke, Gert I. l91o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL85
|onson, en
l572.lo37 . . . . . . . . .DLo2, l2l; CDLl
|onsson, Jor l9lol95l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL297
|ordan, |une l93o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL38
|orgensen, |ohannes l8ool95o . . . . . . . . . DL300
|ose, Nicholas l952 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL325
|oseph, |enny l932 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL10
|oseph and George. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y99
Michael |oseph Limited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll2
|osephson, Matthew l899l978 . . . . . . . . . . . DL1
|osephus, Ilavius 37l00. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl7o
|osephy, Alvin M., |r.
|osiah Allen`s Wife (see Holley, Marietta)
|osipovici, Gabriel l910 . . . . . . . . . DLl1, 3l9
|osselyn, |ohn .lo75 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL21
|oudry, Iatricia l92l2000. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL88
|ouve, Iierre |ean l887l97o . . . . . . . . . . . DL258
|ovanovich, William l920200l. . . . . . . . . . . . .Y0l
Into the Iast. William |ovanovich`s
Reflections on Iublishing . . . . . . . . . . .Y02
|Response to Ken Auletta| . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y97
q q tW William
|ovanovich . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y02
Jribute to Charles Scribner |r.. . . . . . . . . . .Y95
|ovine, Irancesco l902l950 . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o1
|ovine, Giuseppe l922 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl28
|oyaux, Ihilippe (see Sollers, Ihilippe)
|oyce, Adrien (see Eastman, Carol)
|oyce, |ames l882l91l
. . . . . . . . DLl0, l9, 3o, lo2, 217; CDLo
Danis Rose and the Rendering of r . . . .Y97
|ames |oyce Centenary. Dublin, l982. . . . .Y82
|ames |oyce Conference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y85
A |oyce (Con)Jext. Danis Rose and the
Remaking of r. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y97
Jhe National Library of Ireland`s
New |ames |oyce Manuscripts . . . . . . .Y02
Jhe New r . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y81
Iublic Domain and the Violation of
Jexts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y97
Jhe _uinn Draft of |ames |oyce`s
Circe Manuscript . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y00
Stephen |oyce`s Letter to the Editor of
q f q . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y97
rI Reader`s Edition. Iirst Reactions. . . Y97
We See the Editor at Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y97
Whose r\ Jhe Iunction of Editing . . . Y97
|ozsef, Attila l905l937 . . . . . DL2l5; CDWL1
San |uan de la Cruz l512l59l . . . . . . . . . DL3l8
|uarroz, Roberto l925l995. . . . . . . . . . . . DL283
Orange |udd Iublishing Company . . . . . . . DL19
|udd, Sylvester l8l3l853 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl, 213
g circa 930 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl1o
|uelHansen, Erna l815l922 . . . . . . . . . . DL300
|ulian of Norwich l312circa l120. . . . . . DLll1o
|ulius Caesar
l00 _.`.11 _.`. . . . . . . . . DL2ll; CDWLl
|une, |ennie
(see Croly, |ane Cunningham)
|ung, Carl Gustav l875l9ol. . . . . . . . . . . DL29o
|ung, Iranz l888l9o3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll8
|nger, Ernst l895l998. . . . . . DL5o; CDWL2
a q circa l275 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl38
|ungStilling, |ohann Heinrich
l710l8l7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL91
|unqueiro, Ablio Manuel Guerra
l850l923 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL287
|ustice, Donald l925 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y83
|uvenal circa ^.a. o0circa ^.a. l30
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2ll; CDWLl
Jhe |uvenile Library
(see M. |. Godwin and Company)
h
Kacew, Romain (see Gary, Romain)
Kafka, Iranz l883l921. . . . . . DL8l; CDWL2
Kahn, Gus l88ol91l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o5
Kahn, Roger l927 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl7l
Kaik Jakeshi l939l989 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl82
`~ f ai_ PPO
RVO
Kinn (Kristjn Nels |nsson/Kristjan
Niels |ulius) l8o0l93o . . . . . . . . . . . DL293
Kaiser, Georg l878l915. . . . DLl21; CDWL2
h~ circa ll17. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl18
Kaleb, Vjekoslav l905 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl8l
Kalechofsky, Roberta l93l . . . . . . . . . . DL28
Kaler, |ames Otis l818l9l2. . . . . . . . . DLl2, 12
Kalmar, ert l881l917 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o5
Kamensky, Vasilii Vasilèvich
l881l9ol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL295
Kames, Henry Home, Lord
lo9ol782. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l, l01
Kamo no Chmei (Kamo no Nagaakira)
ll53 or ll55l2lo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL203
Kamo no Nagaakira (see Kamo no Chmei)
Kampmann, Christian l939l988. . . . . . . DL2l1
Kandel, Lenore l932 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo
Kane, Sarah l97ll999 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l0
Kaneko, Lonny l939 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l2
Kang, Younghill l903l972. . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l2
Kanin, Garson l9l2l999. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL7
A Jribute (to Marc Connelly) . . . . . . . . . . Y80
Kaniuk, Yoram l930 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL299
Kant, Hermann l92o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL75
Kant, Immanuel l721l801. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL91
Kantemir, Antiokh Dmitrievich
l708l711 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl50
Kantor, MacKinlay l901l977 . . . . . . . DL9, l02
Kanze Kjir Nobumitsu l135l5lo . . . . DL203
Kanze Motokiyo (see Zeimi)
Kaplan, Ired l937 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlll
Kaplan, |ohanna l912 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL28
Kaplan, |ustin l925 . . . . . . . . . . . DLlll; Y8o
Kaplinski, |aan l91l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL232
Kapnist, Vasilii Vasilevich l758.l823 . . . DLl50
Karadi,Vuk Stefanovi
l787l8o1 . . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl17; CDWL1
Karamzin, Nikolai Mikhailovich
l7ool82o. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl50
Karinthy, Irigyes l887l938 . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l5
Karlfeldt, Erik Axel l8o1l93l. . . . . . . . . DL330
Karmel, Ilona l9252000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL299
Karnad, Girish l938 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL323
Karsch, Anna Louisa l722l79l . . . . . . . . . DL97
Kasack, Hermann l89ol9oo . . . . . . . . . . . DLo9
Kasai Zenz l887l927 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl80
Kaschnitz, Marie Luise l90ll971 . . . . . . . DLo9
Kassk, Lajos l887l9o7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l5
Kastelan, |ure l9l9l990 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl17
Kstner, Erich l899l971 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL5o
Kataev, Evgenii Ietrovich
(see Il`f, Ilìa and Ietrov, Evgenii)
Kataev, Valentin Ietrovich l897l98o. . . . DL272
Katenin, Iavel Aleksandrovich
l792l853. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL205
Kattan, Naim l928 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL53
Katz, Steve l935 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y83
KaJzetnik l35o33 (Yehiel Dinur)
l909200l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL299
Kauffman, |anet l915 . . . . . . . . . DL2l8; Y8o
Kauffmann, Samuel l898l97l. . . . . . . . . DLl27
Kaufman, ob l925l98o. . . . . . . . . . . DLlo, 1l
Kaufman, George S. l889l9ol . . . . . . . . . . DL7
Kaufmann, Walter l92ll980. . . . . . . . . . .DL279
Kavan, Anna (Helen Woods Ierguson
Edmonds) l90ll9o8. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL255
Kavanagh, I. |. l93l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL10
Kavanagh, Iatrick l901l9o7. . . . . . . . DLl5, 20
Kaverin, Veniamin Aleksandrovich
(Veniamin Aleksandrovich Zil`ber)
l902l989 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DL272
Kawabata Yasunari l899l972 . . . . . DLl80, 330
Kay, Guy Gavriel l951 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL25l
KayeSmith, Sheila l887l95o. . . . . . . . . . . DL3o
Kazakov, Iurii Iavlovich l927l982 . . . . . DL302
Kazin, Alfred l9l5l998. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo7
Keane, |ohn . l9282002 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl3
Keary, Annie l825l879 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo3
Keary, Eliza l827l9l8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL210
Keating, H. R. I. l92o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL87
Keatley, Charlotte l9o0 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL215
Keats, Ezra |ack l9lol983. . . . . . . . . . . . . DLol
Keats, |ohn l795l82l . . . DL9o, ll0; CDL3
Keble, |ohn l792l8oo . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL32, 55
Keckley, Elizabeth l8l8.l907 . . . . . . . . . DL239
Keeble, |ohn l911 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y83
Keeffe, arrie l915 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl3, 215
Keeley, |ames l8o7l931. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL25
W. . Keen, Cooke and Company . . . . . . . DL19
Jhe Mystery of Carolyn Keene . . . . . . . . . . . . Y02
Kefala, Antigone l935 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL289
Keillor, Garrison l912 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y87
Keith, Marian (Mary Esther MacGregor)
l871.l9ol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL92
Keller, Gary D. l913 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL82
Keller, Gottfried
l8l9l890 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl29; CDWL2
Keller, Helen l880l9o8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL303
Kelley, Edith Summers l881l95o . . . . . . . . DL9
Kelley, Emma Dunham .. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL22l
Kelley, Ilorence l859l932. . . . . . . . . . . . DL303
Kelley, William Melvin l937 . . . . . . . . . DL33
Kellogg, Ansel Nash l832l88o . . . . . . . . . DL23
Kellogg, Steven l91l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLol
Kelly, George E. l887l971. . . . . . . . . . .DL7, 219
Kelly, Hugh l739l777 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL89
Kelly, Iiet and Company . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Kelly, Robert l935 . . . . . . . . . . .DL5, l30, lo5
Kelman, |ames l91o . . . . . . .DLl91, 3l9, 32o
Kelmscott Iress. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll2
Kelton, Elmer l92o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL25o
Kemble, E. W. l8oll933. . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl88
Kemble, Ianny l809l893 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL32
Kemelman, Harry l908l99o. . . . . . . . . . . DL28
Kempe, Margery circa l373l138. . . . . . . DLl1o
Kempinski, Jom l938 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l0
Kempner, Iriederike l83ol901 . . . . . . . . DLl29
Kempowski, Walter l929 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL75
Kenan, Randall l9o3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL292
Claude Kendall |publishing company| . . . . DL1o
Kendall, Henry l839l882 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL230
Kendall, May l8oll913 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL210
Kendell, George l809l8o7 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL13
Keneally, Jhomas l935 . . . . DL289, 299, 32o
Kenedy, I. |., and Sons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Kenk circa l283circa l352. . . . . . . . . . . DL203
Kenna, Ieter l930l987 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL289
Kennan, George l815l921 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl89
Kennedy, A. L. l9o5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DL27l
Kennedy, Adrienne l93l . . . . . . . . . . . . DL38
Kennedy, |ohn Iendleton l795l870. . . DL3, 218
Kennedy, Leo l9072000. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL88
Kennedy, Margaret l89ol9o7 . . . . . . . . . . DL3o
Kennedy, Iatrick l80ll873 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl59
Kennedy, Richard S. l920 . . . . . . DLlll; Y02
Kennedy, William l928 . . . . . . . . DLl13; Y85
Kennedy, X. |. l929 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL5
Kennelly, rendan l93o . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL10
Kenner, Hugh l9232003 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo7
Jribute to Cleanth rooks . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y80
Mitchell Kennerley |publishing house| . . . . DL1o
Kenny, Maurice l929 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl75
Kent, Irank R. l877l958 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL29
Kenyon, |ane l917l995 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl20
Kenzheev, akhyt Shkurullaevich
l950 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL285
Keough, Hugh Edmund l8o1l9l2 . . . . . .DLl7l
Keppler and Schwartzmann . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Ker, |ohn, third Duke of Roxburghe
l710l801. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l3
Ker, N. R. l908l982 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL20l
KeralioRobert, LouiseIlicit de
l758l822. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l3
Kerlan, Irvin l9l2l9o3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl87
Kermode, Irank l9l9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL212
Kern, |erome l885l915. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl87
ai_ PPO `~ f
RVP
`
Kernaghan, Eileen l939 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL25l

Kerner, |ustinus l78ol8o2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL90
Kerouac, |ack
l922l9o9 . . . DL2, lo, 237; DS3; CDALl
Auction of |ack Kerouac`s
l o~ Scroll . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y0l
Jhe |ack Kerouac Revival . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y95
'Remeeting of Old Iriends``.
Jhe |ack Kerouac Conference . . . . . . .Y82
Statement of Correction to "Jhe |ack
Kerouac Revival" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y9o
Kerouac, |an l952l99o. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo
Charles H. Kerr and Company . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Kerr, Orpheus C. (see Newell, Robert Henry)
Kersh, Gerald l9lll9o8. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL255
Kertsz, Imre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL299, 330; Y02
Kesey, Ken
l935200l . . . . . . . . DL2, lo, 20o; CDALo
Kessel, |oseph l898l979 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL72
Kessel, Martin l90ll990 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL5o
Kesten, Hermann l900l99o . . . . . . . . . . . . DL5o
Keun, Irmgard l905l982 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo9
Key, Ellen l819l92o. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL259
Key and iddle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Keynes, Sir Geoffrey l887l982. . . . . . . . . DL20l
Keynes, |ohn Maynard l883l91o. . . . . . . . . DSl0
Keyserling, Eduard von l855l9l8 . . . . . . . DLoo
alKhalil ibn Ahmad circa 7l879l . . . . . . . DL3ll
Khan, Adib l919 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL323
Khan, Ismith l9252002 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl25
alKhansa` fl. late sixthmid
seventh centuries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3ll
Kharitonov, Evgenii Vladimirovich
l91ll98l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL285
Kharitonov, Mark Sergeevich l937 . . . . DL285
Khaytov, Nikolay l9l9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl8l
Khemnitser, Ivan Ivanovich
l715l781. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl50
Kheraskov, Mikhail Matveevich
l733l807 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl50
Khlebnikov, Velimir l885l922 . . . . . . . . . DL295
Khodasevich, Vladislav l88ol939 . . . . . . DL3l7
Khomiakov, Aleksei Stepanovich
l801l8o0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL205
Khristov, oris l915 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl8l
Khvoshchinskaia, Nadezhda Dmitrievna
l821l889 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL238
Khvostov, Dmitrii Ivanovich
l757l835. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl50
Kibirov, Jimur Iurèvich (Jimur
Iurèvich Zapoev) l955 . . . . . . . . . DL285
Kidd, Adam l802.l83l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL99
William Kidd |publishing house| . . . . . . . . DLl0o
Kidde, Harald l878l9l8. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL300
Kidder, Jracy l915 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl85
Kiely, enedict l9l9 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl5, 3l9
Kieran, |ohn l892l98l. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl7l
Kierkegaard, Sren l8l3l855. . . . . . . . . . DL300
Kies, Marietta l853l899. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL270
Kiggins and Kellogg. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Kiley, |ed l889l9o2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1
Kilgore, ernard l908l9o7. . . . . . . . . . . . DLl27
Kilian, Crawford l91l . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL25l
Killens, |ohn Oliver l9lol987 . . . . . . . . . . DL33
Killigrew, Anne loo0lo85 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl3l
Killigrew, Jhomas lol2lo83 . . . . . . . . . . . DL58
Kilmer, |oyce l88ol9l8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL15
Kilroy, Jhomas l931 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL233
Kilwardby, Robert circa l2l5l279 . . . . . . DLll5
Kilworth, Garry l91l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2ol
Kim, Anatolii Andreevich l939 . . . . . . DL285
Kimball, Richard urleigh l8lol892 . . . . DL202
Kincaid, |amaica l919
. . . . . . . DLl57, 227; CDAL7; CDWL3
Kinck, Hans Ernst l8o5l92o . . . . . . . . . . DL297
King, Charles l811l933 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl8o
King, Clarence l812l90l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl2
King, Ilorence l93o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y85
King, Irancis l923 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl5, l39
King, Grace l852l932 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl2, 78
King, Harriet Hamilton l810l920 . . . . . . DLl99
King, Henry l592loo9. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl2o
Solomon King |publishing house| . . . . . . . . DL19
King, Stephen l917 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl13; Y80
King, Susan Ietigru l821l875 . . . . . . . . . DL239
King, Jhomas l913 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl75
King, Woodie, |r. l937 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL38
Kinglake, Alexander William
l809l89l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL55, loo
Kingo, Jhomas lo31l703. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL300
Kingsbury, Donald l929 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL25l
Kingsley, Charles
l8l9l875 . . . . . . . . DL2l, 32, lo3, l78, l90
Kingsley, Henry l830l87o . . . . . . . . . DL2l, 230
Kingsley, Mary Henrietta l8o2l900. . . . . DLl71
Kingsley, Sidney l90ol995. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL7
Kingsmill, Hugh l889l919. . . . . . . . . . . . DLl19
Kingsolver, arbara
l955 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DL20o; CDAL7
Kingston, Maxine Hong
l910 . . DLl73, 2l2, 3l2; Y80; CDAL7
Kingston, William Henry Giles
l8l1l880 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo3
Kinnan, Mary Lewis l7o3l818. . . . . . . . . DL200
Kinnell, Galway l927 . . . . . . . . . . . DL5; Y87
Kinsella, |ohn l9o3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL325
Kinsella, Jhomas l928 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL27
Kipling, Rudyard l8o5l93o
. . . . . . . DLl9, 31, l1l, l5o, 330; CDL5
Kipphardt, Heinar l922l982 . . . . . . . . . . DLl21
Kirby, William l8l7l90o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL99
Kircher, Athanasius lo02lo80 . . . . . . . . . DLlo1
Kireevsky, Ivan Vasilèvich l80ol85o. . . . DLl98
Kireevsky, Ietr Vasilèvich l808l85o . . . . DL205
Kirk, Hans l898l9o2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l1
Kirk, |ohn Ioster l821l901 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL79
Kirkconnell, Watson l895l977. . . . . . . . . . DLo8
Kirkland, Caroline M.
l80ll8o1 . . . . . . . . DL3, 73, 71, 250; DSl3
Kirkland, |oseph l830l893. . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl2
Irancis Kirkman |publishing house| . . . . . DLl70
Kirkpatrick, Clayton l9l52001 . . . . . . . . DLl27
Kirkup, |ames l9l8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL27
Kirouac, Conrad (see MarieVictorin, Irre)
Kirsch, Sarah l935 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL75
Kirst, Hans Hellmut l9l1l989. . . . . . . . . . DLo9
Kis, Danilo l935l989. . . . . . DLl8l; CDWL1
Kita Morio l927 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl82
Kitcat, Mabel Greenhow l859l922 . . . . . DLl35
Kitchin, C. H. . l895l9o7 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL77
Kittredge, William l932 . . . . . . . . DL2l2, 211
Kiukhel`beker, Vil`gel`m Karlovich
l797l81o. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL205
Kizer, Carolyn l925 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL5, lo9
Kjaerstad, |an l953 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL297
Klabund l890l928 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLoo
Klaj, |ohann lololo5o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo1
Klappert, Ieter l912 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL5
Klass, Ihilip (see Jenn, William)
Klein, A. M. l909l972 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo8
Kleist, Ewald von l7l5l759 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL97
Kleist, Heinrich von
l777l8ll. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL90; CDWL2
Klma, Ivan l93l . . . . . . . . DL232; CDWL1
Klimentev, Andrei Ilatonovic
(see Ilatonov, Andrei Ilatonovich)
Klinger, Iriedrich Maximilian
l752l83l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL91
Kliuev, Nikolai Alekseevich l881l937 . . . DL295
Kliushnikov, Viktor Ietrovich
l81ll892 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL238
Klopfer, Donald S.
Impressions of William Iaulkner . . . . . . . . Y97
Oral History Interview with Donald
S. Klopfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y97
Klopstock, Iriedrich Gottlieb
l721l803 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL97
Klopstock, Meta l728l758 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL97
Kluge, Alexander l932 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL75
`~ f ai_ PPO
RVQ
Kluge, I. I. l912 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y02
Knapp, |oseph Ialmer l8o1l95l. . . . . . . . DL9l
Knapp, Samuel Lorenzo l783l838 . . . . . . DL59
|. |. and I. Knapton |publishing house| . . DLl51
Kniazhnin, Iakov orisovich
l710l79l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl50
Knickerbocker, Diedrich (see Irving, Washington)
Knigge, Adolph Iranz Iriedrich Ludwig,
Ireiherr von l752l79o. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL91
Charles Knight and Company . . . . . . . . . DLl0o
Knight, Damon l9222002 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL8
Knight, Etheridge l93ll992 . . . . . . . . . . . DL1l
Knight, |ohn S. l891l98l . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL29
Knight, Sarah Kemble loool727 . . . . DL21, 200
Knightruce, G. W. H. l852l89o . . . . . .DLl71
Knister, Raymond l899l932 . . . . . . . . . . . DLo8
Knoblock, Edward l871l915. . . . . . . . . . . DLl0
Knopf, Alfred A. l892l981 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y81
Knopf to Hammett. Jhe Editoral
Alfred A. Knopf |publishing house| . . . . . . DL1o
Knorr von Rosenroth, Christian
lo3olo89 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo8
Knowles, |ohn l92o200l. . . . . . DLo; CDALo
Knox, Irank l871l911 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL29
Knox, |ohn circa l5l1l572 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl32
Knox, |ohn Armoy l850l90o . . . . . . . . . . DL23
Knox, Lucy l815l881 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL210
Knox, Ronald Arbuthnott l888l957. . . . . DL77
Knox, Jhomas Wallace l835l89o. . . . . . DLl89
Knudsen, |akob l858l9l7 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL300
Knut, Dovid l900l955 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l7
Kobayashi Jakiji l903l933 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl80
Kober, Arthur l900l975 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll
Kobiakova, Aleksandra Ietrovna
l823l892 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL238
Kocbek, Edvard l901l98l . . . DLl17; CDWL1
Koch, C. |. l932 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL289
Koch, Howard l902l995. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o
Koch, Kenneth l9252002 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL5
Kda Rohan l8o7l917 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl80
Koehler, Jed l891l973 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o5
Koenigsberg, Moses l879l915. . . . . . . . . . DL25
Koeppen, Wolfgang l90ol99o. . . . . . . . . . DLo9
Koertge, Ronald l910 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl05
Koestler, Arthur l905l983 . . . . . . Y83; CDL7
Kohn, |ohn S. Van E. l90ol97o. . . . . . . . DLl87
Kokhanovskaia
(see Sokhanskaia, Nadezhda Stepanova)
Kokoschka, Oskar l88ol980. . . . . . . . . . DLl21
Kolatkar, Arun l9322001 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL323
Kolb, Annette l870l9o7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLoo
Kolbenheyer, Erwin Guido
l878l9o2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLoo, l21
Kolleritsch, Alfred l93l . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL85
Kolodny, Annette l91l . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo7
Kolts, ernardMarie l918l989. . . . . . . DL32l
Kol`tsov, Aleksei Vasilèvich
l809l812 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL205
Komarov, Matvei circa l730l8l2. . . . . . . DLl50
Komroff, Manuel l890l971. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1
Komunyakaa, Yusef l917 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl20
Kondoleon, Harry l955l991. . . . . . . . . . DL2oo
Koneski, lae l92ll993. . . DLl8l; CDWL1
Konigsburg, E. L. l930 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL52
Konparu Zenchiku l105l1o8. . . . . . . . . DL203
Konrd, Gyrgy l933 . . . . DL232; CDWL1
Konrad von Wrzburg
circa l230l287 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl38
Konstantinov, Aleko l8o3l897 . . . . . . . . DLl17
Konwicki, Jadeusz l92o . . . . . . . . . . . . DL232
Koontz, Dean l915 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL292
Kooser, Jed l939 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl05
Kopit, Arthur l937 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL7
Kops, ernard l92o. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl3
Kornbluth, C. M. l923l958 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL8
Krner, Jheodor l79ll8l3 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL90
Kornfeld, Iaul l889l912. . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll8
Korolenko, Vladimir Galaktionovich
l853l92l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DL277
Kosinski, |erzy l933l99l. . . . . . . DL2, 299; Y82
Kosma, Ciril l9l0l980 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl8l
Kosovel, Sreko l901l92o. . . . . . . . . . . . DLl17
Kostrov, Ermil Ivanovich l755l79o . . . . . DLl50
Kotzebue, August von l7oll8l9 . . . . . . . . DL91
Kotzwinkle, William l938 . . . . . . . . . . .DLl73
Kovai, Ante l851l889 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl17
Kovalevskaia, Sofìa Vasilèvna
l850l89l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DL277
Kovi, Kajetan l93l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl8l
Kozlov, Ivan Ivanovich l779l810. . . . . . . DL205
Kracauer, Siegfried l889l9oo . . . . . . . . . DL29o
Kraf, Elaine l91o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y8l
Kramer, |ane l938 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl85
Kramer, Larry l935 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL219
Kramer, Mark l911 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl85
Kranjevi, Silvije Strahimir l8o5l908 . . DLl17
Krasko, Ivan l87ol958 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l5
Krasna, Norman l909l981 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o
Kraus, Hans Ieter l907l988 . . . . . . . . . . DLl87
Kraus, Karl l871l93o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll8
Krause, Herbert l905l97o. . . . . . . . . . . . DL25o
Krauss, Ruth l9lll993. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL52
Krauth, Nigel l919 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL325
Kreisel, Henry l922l99l. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL88
Krestovsky V.
(see Khvoshchinskaia, Nadezhda Dmitrievna)
Krestovsky, Vsevolod Vladimirovich
l839l895 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL238
Kreuder, Ernst l903l972. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo9
KrvMickeviius, Vincas l882l951 . . . DL220
Kreymborg, Alfred l883l9oo . . . . . . . . DL1, 51
Krieger, Murray l9232000 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo7
Krim, Seymour l922l989 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo
Kripke, Saul l910 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DL279
Kristensen, Jom l893l971 . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l1
Kristeva, |ulia l91l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL212
Kristjn Nels |nsson/Kristjan Niels |ulius
(see Kinn)
Kritzer, Hyman W. l9l82002 . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y02
Krivulin, Viktor orisovich l911200l. . . DL285
Krlea, Miroslav
l893l98l . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl17; CDWL1
Krock, Arthur l88ol971 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL29
Kroetsch, Robert l927 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL53
Kropotkin, Ietr Alekseevich l812l92l . . .DL277
Kross, |aan l920 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL232
Kruchenykh, Aleksei Eliseevich
l88ol9o8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL295
Krdy, Gyula l878l933. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l5
Krutch, |oseph Wood
l893l970. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo3, 20o, 275
Krylov, Ivan Andreevich l7o9l811 . . . . . DLl50
Krymov, Iurii Solomonovich
(Iurii Solomonovich eklemishev)
l908l91l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DL272
Kubin, Alfred l877l959. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL8l
Kubrick, Stanley l928l999 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o
h circa l230l210. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl38
Kuffstein, Hans Ludwig von l582lo5o. . DLlo1
Kuhlmann, _uirinus lo5llo89. . . . . . . . DLlo8
Kuhn, Jhomas S. l922l99o . . . . . . . . . . .DL279
Kuhnau, |ohann loo0l722 . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo8
Kukol`nik, Nestor Vasilèvich
l809l8o8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL205
Kukun, Martin
l8o0l928 . . . . . . . . . . . .DL2l5; CDWL1
Kumin, Maxine l925 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL5
Kuncewicz, Maria l895l989 . . . . . . . . . . DL2l5
Kundera, Milan l929 . . . . . DL232; CDWL1
Kunene, Mazisi l930 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DLll7
Kunikida Doppo l8o9l908 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl80
Kunitz, Stanley l905200o . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL18
Kunjufu, |ohari M. (see Amini, |ohari M.)
Kunnert, Gunter l929 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL75
Kunze, Reiner l933 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL75
Kuo, Helena l9lll999 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l2
Kupferberg, Juli l923 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo
ai_ PPO `~ f
RVR
`
Kuprin, Aleksandr Ivanovich

l870l938 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL295
Kuraev, Mikhail Nikolaevich l939 . . . . DL285
Kurahashi Yumiko l935 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl82
Kureishi, Hanif l951 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl91, 215
Krnberger, Ierdinand l82ll879 . . . . . . . DLl29
Kurz, Isolde l853l911 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLoo
Kusenberg, Kurt l901l983. . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo9
Kushchevsky, Ivan Afanasèvich
l817l87o. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL238
Kushner, Jony l95o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL228
Kuttner, Henry l9l5l958. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL8
Kuzmin, Mikhail Alekseevich
l872l93o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL295
Kuznetsov, Anatoli
l929l979 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL299, 302
Kyd, Jhomas l558l591 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo2
Kyffin, Maurice circa l5o0.l598 . . . . . . . DLl3o
Kyger, |oanne l931 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo
Kyne, Ieter . l880l957. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL78
Kygoku Jamekane l251l332 . . . . . . . . . DL203
Kyrklund, Willy l92l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL257
i
L. E. L. (see Landon, Letitia Elizabeth)
Lab, Louise l520.l5oo. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL327
Laberge, Albert l87ll9o0. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo8
Laberge, Marie l950 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo0
Labiche, Eugne l8l5l888. . . . . . . . . . . . DLl92
Labrunie, Gerard (see Nerval, Gerard de)
La ruyre, |ean de lo15lo9o . . . . . . . . . . DL2o8
La Calprende lo09.loo3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o8
Lacan, |acques l90ll98l . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL29o
La Capria, Raffaele l922 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl9o
La Ceppde, |ean de l550.lo23. . . . . . . . DL327
La Chausse, IierreClaude Nivelle de
lo92l751 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l3
Laclos, IierreAmbroiseIranois Choderlos de
l71ll803 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l3
a~ ^~~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l1
Lacombe, Iatrice
(see JrullierLacombe, |oseph Iatrice)
Lacretelle, |acques de l888l985 . . . . . . . . . DLo5
Lacy, Ed l9lll9o8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL22o
Lacy, Sam l903 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl7l
Ladd, |oseph rown l7o1l78o . . . . . . . . . . DL37
La Iarge, Oliver l90ll9o3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL9
Lafayette, MarieMadeleine, comtesse de
lo31lo93 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o8
Laffan, Mrs. R. S. de Courcy
(see Adams, ertha Leith)
Lafferty, R. A. l9l12002. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL8
La Ilesche, Irancis l857l932 . . . . . . . . . . DLl75
La Iontaine, |ean de lo2llo95 . . . . . . . . . DL2o8
Laforet, Carmen l92l2001. . . . . . . . . . . . DL322
Laforge, |ules l8o0l887 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l7
Lagerkvist, Ir l89ll971 . . . . . . . . . DL259, 33l
Lagerlf, Selma
l858l910 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL259, 33l
Lagorio, Gina l922 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl9o
La Guma, Alex
l925l985 . . . . . . . . DLll7, 225; CDWL3
Lahaise, Guillaume (see Delahaye, Guy)
La Harpe, |eanIranois de l739l803. . . . .DL3l3
Lahiri, |humpa l9o7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DL323
Lahontan, LouisArmand de Lom dÀrce,
aron de loool7l5.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL99
Lai He l891l913 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL328
Laing, Kojo l91o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl57
Laird, Carobeth l895l983 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y82
Laird and Lee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Lake, Iaul l95l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL282
Lali, Ivan V. l93ll99o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl8l
Lali, Mihailo l9l1l992 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl8l
Lalonde, Michle l937 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo0
Lamantia, Ihilip l927 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo
Lamartine, Alphonse de
l790l8o9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l7
Lamb, Lady Caroline
l785l828 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLllo
Lamb, Charles
l775l831 . . . . . . DL93, l07, lo3; CDL3
Lamb, Mary l7o1l871 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo3
Lambert, Angela l910 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL27l
Lambert, AnneJhrse de (AnneJhrse de
Marguenat de Courcelles, marquise de Lambert)
lo17l733. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l3
Lambert, etty l933l983 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo0
La Mettrie, |ulien Offroy de
l709l75l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l3
Lamm, Donald
Goodbye, Gutenberg. A Lecture at
the New York Iublic Library,
l8 April l995 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y95
Lamming, George
l927 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl25; CDWL3
La Mothe Le Vayer, Iranois de
l588lo72 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o8
LÀmour, Louis l908l988. . . . . . . . DL20o; Y80
Lampman, Archibald l8oll899 . . . . . . . . . DL92
Lamson, Wolffe and Company . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Lancer ooks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Lanchester, |ohn l9o2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o7
Lander, Ieter (see Cunningham, Ieter)
Landesman, |ay l9l9 and
Landesman, Iran l927 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo
Landolfi, Jommaso l908l979. . . . . . . . . . DLl77
Landon, Letitia Elizabeth l802l838. . . . . . DL9o
Landor, Walter Savage l775l8o1 . . . . DL93, l07
Landry, NapolonI. l881l95o . . . . . . . . . DL92
Landvik, Lorna l951 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL292
Lane, Charles l800l870 . . . . . . . DLl, 223; DS5
Lane, I. C. l885l981 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL21l
Lane, Laurence W. l890l9o7. . . . . . . . . . . DL9l
Lane, M. Jravis l931 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo0
Lane, Iatrick l939 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL53
Lane, Iinkie Gordon l923 . . . . . . . . . . . DL1l
|ohn Lane Company . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Laney, Al l89ol988 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1, l7l
Lang, Andrew l811l9l2 . . . . . . DL98, l1l, l81
Langer, Susanne K. l895l985 . . . . . . . . . DL270
Langevin, Andr l927 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo0
Langford, David l953 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2ol
Langgsser, Elisabeth l899l950. . . . . . . . . DLo9
Langhorne, |ohn l735l779 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl09
Langland, William circa l330circa l100. . DLl1o
Langton, Anna l801l893. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL99
Lanham, Edwin l901l979 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1
Lanier, Sidney l812l88l . . . . . . . . DLo1; DSl3
Lanyer, Aemilia l5o9lo15 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl2l
Lao She l899l9oo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL328
Lapointe, Gatien l93ll983 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL88
Lapointe, IaulMarie l929 . . . . . . . . . . . DL88
La Rame, Iierre de (Ietrus Ramus, Ieter Ramus)
l5l5l572 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL327
Larcom, Lucy l821l893. . . . . . . . . . DL22l, 213
Lardner, |ohn l9l2l9o0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl7l
Lardner, Ring l885l933
. . . . . . DLll, 25, 8o, l7l; DSlo; CDAL1
Lardner l00. Ring Lardner
Centennial Symposium. . . . . . . . . . . . .Y85
Lardner, Ring, |r. l9l52000 . . . . . . . DL2o, Y00
Larivey, Iierre de l51llol9 . . . . . . . . . . . DL327
Larkin, Ihilip l922l985 . . . . . . DL27; CDL8
Jhe Ihilip Larkin Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y99
La Roche, Sophie von l730l807. . . . . . . . . DL91
La Rochefoucauld, Iranois duc de
lol3lo80 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DL2o8
La Rocque, Gilbert l913l981. . . . . . . . . . . DLo0
Laroque de Roquebrune, Robert
(see Roquebrune, Robert de)
Larrick, Nancy l9l02001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLol
Lars, Claudia l899l971 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL283
Larsen, Nella l893l9o1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL5l
Larsen, Jhger l875l928. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL300
Larson, Clinton I. l9l9l991 . . . . . . . . . . DL25o
La Sale, Antoine de
circa l38ol1o0/l1o7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL208
Las Casas, Iray artolom de
l171l5oo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l8
Lasch, Christopher l932l991. . . . . . . . . . DL21o
Lasdun, |ames l958 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l9
LaskerSchler, Else l8o9l915 . . . . . . DLoo, l21
Lasnier, Rina l9l5l997 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL88
`~ f ai_ PPO
RVS
Lassalle, Ierdinand l825l8o1 . . . . . . . . . DLl29
i~ lI l99o ooker Irize winner,
Graham Swift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL32o
La Jaille, |ean de l531.loll. . . . . . . . . . DL327
LateMedieval Castilian Jheater . . . . . . . DL28o
Latham, Robert l9l2l995. . . . . . . . . . . . DL20l
Lathan, Emma (Mary |ane Latsis |l927l997| and
Martha Henissart |l929 |) . . . . . . . DL30o
Lathrop, Dorothy I. l89ll980 . . . . . . . . . DL22
Lathrop, George Iarsons l85ll898 . . . . . DL7l
Lathrop, |ohn, |r. l772l820 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL37
Latimer, Hugh l192.l555. . . . . . . . . . . . DLl3o
Latimore, |ewel Christine McLawler
(see Amini, |ohari M.)
Latin Literature, Jhe Lniqueness of . . . . DL2ll
La Jour du Iin, Iatrice de l9lll975. . . . DL258
Latymer, William l198l583 . . . . . . . . . . DLl32
Laube, Heinrich l80ol881 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl33
Laud, William l573lo15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l3
Laughlin, |ames l9l1l997. . . . . . DL18; Y9o, 97
A Jribute |to Henry Miller| . . . . . . . . . . . . Y80
Jribute to Albert Erskine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y93
Jribute to Kenneth Rexroth. . . . . . . . . . . . Y82
Jribute to Malcolm Cowley. . . . . . . . . . . . Y89
Laumer, Keith l925l993 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL8
Lauremberg, |ohann l590lo58 . . . . . . . . DLlo1
Laurence, Margaret l92ol987. . . . . . . . . . DL53
Laurentius von Schnffis lo33l702. . . . . DLlo8
Laurents, Arthur l9l8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o
Laurie, Annie (see lack, Winifred)
Laut, Agnes Christiana l87ll93o . . . . . . . DL92
Lauterbach, Ann l912 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl93
Lautramont, Isidore Lucien Ducasse,
Comte de l81ol870 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l7
Lavater, |ohann Kaspar l71ll80l . . . . . . . DL97
Lavin, Mary l9l2l99o . . . . . . . . . . . DLl5, 3l9
Law, |ohn (see Harkness, Margaret)
Lawes, Henry l59oloo2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl2o
Lawler, Ray l922 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL289
Lawless, Anthony (see MacDonald, Ihilip)
Lawless, Emily (Jhe Hon. Emily Lawless)
l815l9l3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL210
Lawrence, D. H. l885l930
. . . . . DLl0, l9, 3o, 98, lo2, l95; CDLo
Jhe D. H. Lawrence Society of
North America. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y00
Lawrence, David l888l973 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL29
Lawrence, |erome l9l52001 . . . . . . . . . . DL228
Lawrence, Seymour l92ol991 . . . . . . . . . . . . Y91
Jribute to Richard Yates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y92
Lawrence, J. E. l888l935. . . . . . . . . . . . DLl95
Jhe J. E. Lawrence Society. . . . . . . . . . . . Y98
Lawson, George l598lo78 . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l3
Lawson, Henry l8o7l922 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL230
Lawson, |ohn .l7ll. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL21
Lawson, |ohn Howard l891l977. . . . . . . DL228
Lawson, Louisa Albury l818l920. . . . . . DL230
Lawson, Robert l892l957. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL22
Lawson, Victor I. l850l925 . . . . . . . . . . . DL25
Layard, Austen Henry l8l7l891. . . . . . . DLloo
Layton, Irving l9l2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL88
LaZamon fl. circa l200. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl1o
Lazarevi, Laza K. l85ll890. . . . . . . . . . DLl17
Lazarus, George l901l997 . . . . . . . . . . . DL20l
Lazhechnikov, Ivan Ivanovich
l792l8o9. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl98
Lea, Henry Charles l825l909 . . . . . . . . . DL17
Lea, Sydney l912 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl20, 282
Lea, Jom l907200l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo
Leacock, |ohn l729l802 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l
Leacock, Stephen l8o9l911 . . . . . . . . . . . DL92
Lead, |ane Ward lo23l701 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl3l
Leadenhall Iress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl0o
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y02
Leakey, Caroline Woolmer l827l88l . . . . DL230
Leapor, Mary l722l71o. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl09
Lear, Edward l8l2l888. . . . . . . DL32, lo3, loo
Leary, Jimothy l920l99o. . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo
W. A. Leary and Company . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Lautaud, Iaul l872l95o . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo5
Leavis, I. R. l895l978. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL212
Leavitt, David l9ol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl30
Leavitt and Allen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Le lond, Mrs. Aubrey l8oll931. . . . . . .DLl71
le Carr, |ohn (David |ohn Moore Cornwell)
l93l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL87; CDL8
Jribute to Graham Greene. . . . . . . . . . . . . Y9l
Jribute to George Greenfield. . . . . . . . . . . Y00
Lcavel, Roland (see Dorgeles, Roland)
Lechlitner, Ruth l90l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL18
Leclerc, Ilix l9l1l988. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo0
Le Clzio, |. M. G. l910 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL83
Leder, Rudolf (see Hermlin, Stephan)
Lederer, Charles l9l0l97o . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o
Ledwidge, Irancis l887l9l7 . . . . . . . . . . . DL20
Lee, Changrae l9o5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l2
Lee, Cherylene l953 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l2
Lee, Dennis l939 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL53
Lee, Don L. (see Madhubuti, Haki R.)
Lee, George W. l891l97o . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL5l
Lee, Gus l91o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l2
Lee, Harper l92o . . . . . . . . . . DLo; CDALl
Lee, Harriet l757l85l and
Lee, Sophia l750l821 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL39
Lee, Laurie l9l1l997 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL27
Lee, Leslie l935 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2oo
Lee, LiYoung l957 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo5, 3l2
Lee, Manfred . l905l97l . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl37
Lee, Nathaniel circa lo15lo92 . . . . . . . . . DL80
Lee, Robert E. l9l8l991. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL228
Lee, Sir Sidney l859l92o . . . . . . . . DLl19, l81
'Irinciples of iography," in
b~~ ~ l b~ . . . . . . DLl19
Lee, Janith l917 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2ol
Lee, Vernon
l85ol935 . . . . . . . .DL57, l53, l5o, l71, l78
Lee and Shepard. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Le Ianu, |oseph Sheridan
l8l1l873. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l, 70, l59, l78
Lefvre dÈtaples, |acques
l1o0.l53o. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL327
Leffland, Ella l93l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y81
le Iort, Gertrud von l87ol97l. . . . . . . . . . DLoo
Le Gallienne, Richard l8ool917 . . . . . . . . . DL1
Legar, Hugh Swinton
l797l813 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DL3, 59, 73, 218
Legar, |ames Mathewes l823l859. . . . DL3, 218
Lger, Antoine|. l880l950 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL88
Leggett, William l80ll839 . . . . . . . . . . . DL250
Le Guin, Lrsula K.
l929 . . . . . .DL8, 52, 25o, 275; CDALo
Lehman, Ernest l920 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL11
Lehmann, |ohn l907l989 . . . . . . . . . . DL27, l00
|ohn Lehmann Limited. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll2
Lehmann, Rosamond l90ll990 . . . . . . . . DLl5
Lehmann, Wilhelm l882l9o8. . . . . . . . . . DL5o
Leiber, Iritz l9l0l992. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL8
Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm lo1ol7lo . . . DLlo8
Leicester Lniversity Iress. . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll2
Leigh, Carolyn l92ol983 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o5
Leigh, W. R. l8ool955 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl88
Leinster, Murray l89ol975 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL8
Leiser, ill l898l9o5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL21l
Leisewitz, |ohann Anton l752l80o . . . . . . DL91
Leitch, Maurice l933 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl1
Leithauser, rad l913 . . . . . . . . . DLl20, 282
Leland, Charles G. l821l903 . . . . . . . . . . DLll
Leland, |ohn l503.l552 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl3o
Lemaire de elges, |ean l173.. . . . . . . . . DL327
Lemay, Iamphile l837l9l8 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL99
Lemelin, Roger l9l9l992 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL88
Lemercier, Louis|eanNpomucne
l77ll810. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl92
Le Moine, |ames MacIherson l825l9l2 . DL99
Lemon, Mark l809l870 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo3
ai_ PPO `~ f
RVT
`
Le Moyne, |ean l9l3l99o . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL88

Lemperly, Iaul l858l939 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl87
Leero, Vicente l933 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL305
LÈngle, Madeleine l9l8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL52
Lennart, Isobel l9l5l97l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL11
Lennox, Charlotte l729 or l730l801 . . . . . DL39
Lenox, |ames l800l880 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl10
Lenski, Lois l893l971 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL22
Lentricchia, Irank l910 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL21o
Lenz, Hermann l9l3l998 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo9
Lenz, |. M. R. l75ll792 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL91
Lenz, Siegfried l92o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL75
Len, Iray Luis de l527l59l . . . . . . . . . . DL3l8
Leonard, Elmore l925 . . . . . . . . . DLl73, 22o
Leonard, Hugh l92o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl3
Leonard, William Ellery l87ol911 . . . . . . . DL51
Leong, Russell C. l950 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l2
Leonov, Leonid Maksimovich
l899l991. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL272
Leonowens, Anna l831l9l1. . . . . . . . DL99, loo
Leontèv, Konstantin Nikolaevich
l83ll89l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL277
Leopold, Aldo l887l918. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL275
LeIan, Douglas l9l1l998 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL88
Lepik, Kalju l920l999 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL232
Leprohon, Rosanna Eleanor l829l879. . . . DL99
Le _ueux, William l8o1l927. . . . . . . . . . . DL70
Lermontov, Mikhail Iurèvich
l8l1l81l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL205
Lerner, Alan |ay l9l8l98o . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o5
Lerner, Max l902l992 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL29
LernetHolenia, Alexander l897l97o . . . . . DL85
Le Rossignol, |ames l8ool9o9 . . . . . . . . . . DL92
Lesage, AlainRen loo8l717 . . . . . . . . . . DL3l3
Lescarbot, Marc circa l570lo12 . . . . . . . . . DL99
LeSeur, William Dawson l810l9l7 . . . . . . DL92
LeSieg, Jheo. (see Geisel, Jheodor Seuss)
Leskov, Nikolai Semenovich
l83ll895 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL238
Leslie, Doris before l902l982 . . . . . . . . . DLl9l
Leslie, Eliza l787l858 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL202
Leslie, Irank (Henry Carter)
l82ll880 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL13, 79
Irank Leslie |publishing house| . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Lemian, olesaw l878l937 . . . . . . . . . . DL2l5
Lesperance, |ohn l835.l89l . . . . . . . . . . . DL99
Lespinasse, |ulie de l732l77o . . . . . . . . . . DL3l3
Lessing, runo l870l910 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL28
Lessing, Doris
l9l9 . . . . . . . DLl5, l39; Y85; CDL8
Lessing, Gotthold Ephraim
l729l78l . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL97; CDWL2
Jhe Lessing Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y00
LÈstoile, Iierre de l51ololl . . . . . . . . . . DL327
Le Sueur, Meridel l900l99o. . . . . . . . . . . DL303
Lettau, Reinhard l929l99o . . . . . . . . . . . . DL75
i ~ m~ t~I Iranoise dÌssembourg
de Graffigny . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l1
Jhe Hemingway Letters Iroject Iinds
an Editor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y02
Lever, Charles l80ol872 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l
Lever, Ralph ca. l527l585 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL23o
Leverson, Ada l8o2l933 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl53
Levertov, Denise
l923l997 . . . . . . . . . . . DL5, lo5; CDAL7
Levi, Ieter l93l2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL10
Levi, Irimo l9l9l987. . . . . . . . . . . . DLl77, 299
Levien, Sonya l888l9o0. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL11
Levin, Meyer l905l98l . . . . . . . . DL9, 28; Y8l
Levin, Ihillis l951 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL282
Lvinas, Emmanuel l90ol995 . . . . . . . . . DL29o
Levine, Norman l923 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL88
Levine, Ihilip l928 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL5
Levis, Larry l91o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl20
LviStrauss, Claude l908 . . . . . . . . . . DL212
Levitov, Aleksandr Ivanovich
l835.l877 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL277
Levy, Amy l8oll889 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl5o, 210
Levy, enn Wolfe l900l973 . . . . . . . DLl3; Y8l
Levy, Deborah l959 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l0
Lewald, Ianny l8lll889 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl29
Lewes, George Henry l8l7l878 . . . . . DL55, l11
(l8o3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l
q m p i~
(l8o5) |excerpt|. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL57
Lewis, Agnes Smith l813l92o . . . . . . . . . DLl71
Lewis, Alfred H. l857l9l1 . . . . . . . . . DL25, l8o
Lewis, Alun l9l5l911 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL20, lo2
Lewis, C. Day (see Day Lewis, C.)
Lewis, C. I. l883l9o1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL270
Lewis, C. S. l898l9o3
. . . . . . . . . . DLl5, l00, lo0, 255; CDL7
Jhe New York C. S. Lewis Society . . . . . . .Y99
Lewis, Charles . l812l921 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll
Lewis, David l91l200l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL279
Lewis, Henry Clay l825l850. . . . . . . . DL3, 218
Lewis, |anet l899l999 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y87
Lewis, Matthew Gregory
l775l8l8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL39, l58, l78
Lewis, Meriwether l771l809 . . . . . . DLl83, l8o
Lewis, Norman l9082003 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL201
Lewis, R. W. . l9l72002. . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlll
Lewis, Richard circa l700l731 . . . . . . . . . . DL21
Lewis, Saunders l893l985 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l0
Lewis, Sinclair l885l95l
. . . . . . . . . . DL9, l02, 33l; DSl; CDAL1
Sinclair Lewis Centennial Conference. . . . .Y85
Jhe Sinclair Lewis Society . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y99
Lewis, Wilmarth Sheldon l895l979. . . . . DLl10
Lewis, Wyndham l882l957 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl5
q ~ t j~
|excerpt| (l927). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3o
Lewisohn, Ludwig l882l955 . . . DL1, 9, 28, l02
Leyendecker, |. C. l871l95l. . . . . . . . . . . DLl88
Leyner, Mark l95o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL292
Lezama Lima, |os l9l0l97o . . . . . . DLll3, 283
Lzardire, MarieCharlotteIauline Robert de
l751l835 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l3
L`Heureux, |ohn l931 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL211
Libbey, Laura |ean l8o2l921. . . . . . . . . . DL22l
Libedinsky, Iurii Nikolaevich
l898l959 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL272
q i~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL303
Library History Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y0l
Eooks` Second Act in Libraries . . . . . . . . . . .Y02
Jhe Library of America. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Jhe Library of America. An Assessment
After Jwo Decades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y02
Licensing Act of l737. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL81
Leonard Lichfield I |publishing house| . . . DLl70
Lichtenberg, Georg Christoph
l712l799 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL91
Jhe Liddle Collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y97
Lidman, Sara l9232001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL257
Lieb, Ired l888l980. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl7l
Liebling, A. |. l901l9o3 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1, l7l
Lieutenant Murray (see allou, Maturin Murray)
i ~ q j~ hI l983 ooker Irize winner,
|. M. Coetzee. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL32o
i mI 2002 ooker Irize winner,
Yann Martel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL32o
Lighthall, William Douw l857l951 . . . . . . DL92
Lihn, Enrique l929l988. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL283
Lilar, Iranoise (see Mallet|oris, Iranoise)
Liliùokalani, _ueen l838l9l7. . . . . . . . . DL22l
Lillo, George lo9ll739. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL81
Lilly, |. K., |r. l893l9oo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl10
Lilly, Wait and Company . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Lily, William circa l1o8l522 . . . . . . . . . . DLl32
Lim, Shirley Geoklin l911 . . . . . . . . . . DL3l2
Lima, |orge de l893l953 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL307
Lima arreto, Afonso Henriques de
l88ll922 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL307
Limited Editions Club . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Limn, Graciela l938 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL209
Limonov, Eduard l913 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l7
Lincoln and Edmands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Lind, |akov l927 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL299
`~ f ai_ PPO
RVU
Linda Vilhjlmsdttir l958 . . . . . . . . . DL293
Lindesay, Ethel Iorence
(see Richardson, Henry Handel)
Lindgren, Astrid l9072002 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL257
Lindgren, Jorgny l938 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL257
Lindsay, Alexander William, Jwentyfifth
Earl of Crawford l8l2l880 . . . . . . . DLl81
Lindsay, Sir David circa l185l555 . . . . . DLl32
Lindsay, David l878l915. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL255
Lindsay, |ack l900l990 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y81
Lindsay, Lady (Caroline lanche
Elizabeth Iitzroy Lindsay)
l811l9l2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl99
Lindsay, Norman l879l9o9. . . . . . . . . . . DL2o0
Lindsay, Vachel
l879l93l. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL51; CDAL3
q i _~I 2001 ooker Irize winner,
Alan Hollinghurst . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL32o
Linebarger, Iaul Myron Anthony
(see Smith, Cordwainer)
Ling Shuhua l900l990 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL328
Link, Arthur S. l920l998 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl7
Linn, Ed l9222000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL21l
Linn, |ohn lair l777l801 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL37
Lins, Osman l921l978 . . . . . . . . . . DLl15, 307
Linton, Eliza Lynn l822l898 . . . . . . . . . . DLl8
Linton, William |ames l8l2l897. . . . . . . . DL32
arnaby ernard Lintot
Lion ooks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Lionni, Leo l9l0l999 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLol
Lippard, George l822l851 . . . . . . . . . . . DL202
Lippincott, Sara |ane Clarke
l823l901 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL13
|. . Lippincott Company. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Lippmann, Walter l889l971 . . . . . . . . . . . DL29
Lipton, Lawrence l898l975. . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo
Lisboa, Irene l892l958 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL287
Liscow, Christian Ludwig
l70ll7o0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL97
Lish, Gordon l931 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl30
Jribute to Donald arthelme . . . . . . . . . . . Y89
Lisle, CharlesMarieRen Leconte de
l8l8l891. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l7
Lispector, Clarice
l925.l977 . . . . . . . . DLll3, 307; CDWL3
LitCheck Website . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y0l
Literary Awards and Honors . . . . . . . . . . . Y8l-02
ooker Irize. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y8o, 9o-98
Jhe Drue Heinz Literature Irize . . . . . . . . Y82
Jhe Elmer Holmes obst Awards
in Arts and Letters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y87
Jhe Griffin Ioetry Irize. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y00
Literary Irizes |ritish|. . . . . . . . . DLl5, 207
National ook Critics Circle
Awards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y00-0l
Jhe National |ewish
ook Awards. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y85
Nobel Irize. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y80-02
Winning an Edgar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y98
q i~ ` ~ t o
NUNVJNUOU . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll0
Literary Ieriodicals.
`~~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y87
Expatriates in Iaris . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DSl5
New Literary Ieriodicals.
A Report for l987 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y87
A Report for l988 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y88
A Report for l989 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y89
A Report for l990 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y90
A Report for l99l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y9l
A Report for l992 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y92
A Report for l993 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y93
Literary Research Archives
Jhe Anthony urgess Archive at
the Harry Ransom Humanities
Research Center . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y98
Archives of Charles Scribner`s Sons. . . . . DSl7
erg Collection of English and
American Literature of the
New York Iublic Library. . . . . . . . . . . Y83
Jhe obbsMerrill Archive at the
Lilly Library, Indiana Lniversity. . . . . Y90
Die Irstliche ibliothek Corvey. . . . . . . . Y9o
Guide to the Archives of Iublishers,
|ournals, and Literary Agents in
North American Libraries . . . . . . . . . . Y93
Jhe Henry E. Huntington Library . . . . . . Y92
Jhe Humanities Research Center,
Lniversity of Jexas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y82
Jhe |ohn Carter rown Library . . . . . . . . Y85
Kent State Special Collections . . . . . . . . . . Y8o
Jhe Lilly Library. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y81
Jhe Modern Literary Manuscripts
Collection in the Special
Collections of the Washington
Lniversity Libraries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y87
A Iublisher`s Archives. G. I. Iutnam . . . . Y92
Special Collections at oston
Lniversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y99
Jhe Lniversity of Virginia Libraries . . . . . Y9l
Jhe William Charvat American Iiction
Collection at the Ohio State
Lniversity Libraries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y92
Literary Societies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y98-02
Jhe Margery Allingham Society . . . . . . . . Y98
Jhe American Studies Association
of Norway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y00
Jhe Arnold ennett Society. . . . . . . . . . . . Y98
Jhe Association for the Study of
Literature and Environment
(ASLE) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y99
elgian Luxembourg American Studies
Association . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y0l
Jhe E. I. enson Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y98
Jhe Elizabeth ishop Society. . . . . . . . . . . Y0l
Jhe |Edgar Rice| urroughs
ibliophiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y98
Jhe yron Society of America. . . . . . . . . . Y00
Jhe Lewis Carroll Society
of North America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y00
Jhe Willa Cather Iioneer Memorial
and Education Ioundation . . . . . . . . . Y00
New Chaucer Society. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y00
Jhe Wilkie Collins Society . . . . . . . . . . . . Y98
Jhe |ames Ienimore Cooper Society. . . . . Y0l
Jhe Stephen Crane Society . . . . . . . . . Y98, 0l
Jhe E. E. Cummings Society. . . . . . . . . . . Y0l
Jhe |ames Dickey Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y99
|ohn Dos Iassos Newsletter. . . . . . . . . . . . Y00
Jhe Iriory Scholars |Sir Arthur Conan
Doyle| of New York. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y99
Jhe International Jheodore Dreiser
Society. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y0l
Jhe George Eliot Iellowship . . . . . . . . . . . Y99
Jhe J. S. Eliot Society. Celebration and
Scholarship, l980l999 . . . . . . . . . . . . Y99
Jhe Ralph Waldo Emerson Society. . . . . . Y99
Jhe William Iaulkner Society . . . . . . . . . . Y99
Jhe C. S. Iorester Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y00
Jhe Hamlin Garland Society. . . . . . . . . . . Y0l
Jhe |Elizabeth| Gaskell Society . . . . . . . . . Y98
Jhe Charlotte Ierkins Gilman Society . . . Y99
Jhe Ellen Glasgow Society . . . . . . . . . . . . Y0l
Zane Grey`s West Society. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y00
Jhe Ivor Gurney Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y98
Jhe |oel Chandler Harris Association . . . . Y99
Jhe Nathaniel Hawthorne Society. . . . . . . Y00
Jhe |George Alfred| Henty Society . . . . . . Y98
George Moses Horton Society. . . . . . . . . . Y99
Jhe William Dean Howells Society. . . . . . Y0l
WW2 HMSO Iaperbacks Society . . . . . . Y98
American Humor Studies Association . . . . Y99
International Society for Humor Studies . . . Y99
Jhe W. W. |acobs Appreciation Society . . Y98
Jhe Richard |efferies Society. . . . . . . . . . . Y98
Jhe |erome K. |erome Society. . . . . . . . . . Y98
Jhe D. H. Lawrence Society of
North America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y00
Jhe J. E. Lawrence Society. . . . . . . . . . . . Y98
Jhe |Gotthold| Lessing Society . . . . . . . . . Y00
Jhe New York C. S. Lewis Society . . . . . . Y99
Jhe Sinclair Lewis Society. . . . . . . . . . . . . Y99
Jhe |ack London Research Center . . . . . . Y00
Jhe |ack London Society. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y99
Jhe Cormac McCarthy Society. . . . . . . . . Y99
Jhe Melville Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y0l
Jhe Arthur Miller Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y0l
Jhe Milton Society of America . . . . . . . . . Y00
International Marianne Moore Society . . . Y98
International Nabokov Society. . . . . . . . . . Y99
ai_ PPO `~ f
RVV
`
Jhe Vladimir Nabokov Society . . . . . . . . .Y0l

Jhe Ilannery O`Connor Society. . . . . . . . .Y99
Jhe Wilfred Owen Association. . . . . . . . . .Y98
Ienguin Collectors` Society . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y98
Jhe |E. A.| Ioe Studies Association . . . . . .Y99
Jhe Katherine Anne Iorter Society . . . . . .Y0l
Jhe eatrix Iotter Society. . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y98
Jhe Ezra Iound Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y0l
Jhe Iowys Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y98
Iroust Society of America . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y00
Jhe Dorothy L. Sayers Society . . . . . . . . . .Y98
Jhe ernard Shaw Society . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y99
Jhe Society for the Study of
Southern Literature. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y00
Jhe Wallace Stevens Society. . . . . . . . . . . .Y99
Jhe Harriet eecher Stowe Center . . . . . . .Y00
Jhe R. S. Surtees Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y98
Jhe Jhoreau Society. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y99
Jhe Jilling |E. I. enson| Society. . . . . . . .Y98
Jhe Jrollope Societies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y00
H. G. Wells Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y98
Jhe Western Literature Association . . . . . .Y99
Jhe William Carlos Williams Society. . . . .Y99
Jhe Henry Williamson Society. . . . . . . . . .Y98
Jhe |Nero| Wolfe Iack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y99
Jhe Jhomas Wolfe Society. . . . . . . . . . . . .Y99
Worldwide Wodehouse Societies. . . . . . . . .Y98
Jhe W. . Yeats Society of N.Y. . . . . . . . . .Y99
Jhe Charlotte M. Yonge Iellowship . . . . . .Y98
Literary Jheory
Jhe Year in Literary Jheory. . . . . . . Y92-Y93
i~ ~ kI `~ j~ (l885),
by George Moore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl8
Litt, Joby l9o8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o7, 3l9
Littell, Eliakim l797l870 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL79
Littell, Robert S. l83ll89o. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL79
Little, rown and Company . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Little Magazines and Newspapers . . . . . . . . . DSl5
Selected EnglishLanguage Little
Magazines and Newspapers
|Irance, l920l939| . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1
New Iormalism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL282
q i o l9l1l929 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DSl5
Littlewood, |oan l9l12002 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl3
Liu, Aimee E. l953 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l2
Liu E l857l909. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL328
Lively, Ienelope l933 . . . DLl1, lol, 207, 32o
Liverpool Lniversity Iress. . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll2
q i m (l753) . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl12
Livesay, Dorothy l909l99o . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo8
Livesay, Ilorence Randal l871l953 . . . . . . DL92
Livings, Henry l929l998 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl3
Livingston, Anne Home l7o3l81l . . . DL37, 200
Livingston, |ay l9l5200l . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o5
Livingston, Myra Cohn l92ol99o . . . . . . . DLol
Livingston, William l723l790 . . . . . . . . . . DL3l
Livingstone, David l8l3l873 . . . . . . . . . . DLloo
Livingstone, Douglas l932l99o . . . . . . . . DL225
Livshits, enedikt Konstantinovich
l88ol938 or l939 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL295
Livy 59 _.`.^.a. l7 . . . . . . . . DL2ll; CDWLl
Liyong, Jaban lo (see Jaban lo Liyong)
Lizrraga, Sylvia S. l925 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL82
Llamazares, |ulio l955 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL322
Llewellyn, Kate l93o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL325
Llewellyn, Richard l90ol983. . . . . . . . . . . DLl5
Llorns Jorres, Luis l87ol911 . . . . . . . . . DL290
Edward Lloyd |publishing house| . . . . . . . DLl0o
Lobato, |os ento Monteiro
l882l918 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL307
Lobel, Arnold l933 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLol
Lochhead, Liz l917 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l0
Lochridge, etsy Hopkins (see Iancher, etsy)
Locke, Alain l88ol951. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL5l
Locke, David Ross l833l888. . . . . . . . DLll, 23
Locke, |ohn lo32l701. . . . . DL3l, l0l, 2l3, 252
Locke, Richard Adams l800l87l . . . . . . . . DL13
LockerLampson, Irederick
l82ll895 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL35, l81
Lockhart, |ohn Gibson
l791l851 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DLll0, llo l11
Lockridge, Irancis l89ol9o3 . . . . . . . . . . DL30o
Lockridge, Richard l898l982. . . . . . . . . . DL30o
Lockridge, Ross, |r. l9l1l918 . . . . DLl13; Y80
i ~ p . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo2
Lodge, David l935 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl1, l91
Lodge, George Cabot l873l909. . . . . . . . . DL51
Lodge, Henry Cabot l850l921 . . . . . . . . . DL17
Lodge, Jhomas l558lo25 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl72
a m (l579) |excerpt| . . . . . . DLl72
Loeb, Harold l89ll971 . . . . . . . . . . DL1; DSl5
Loeb, William l905l98l . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl27
Loesser, Irank l9l0l9o9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o5
Lofting, Hugh l88ol917. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo0
Logan, Deborah Norris l7oll839 . . . . . . DL200
Logan, |ames lo71l75l. . . . . . . . . . . . DL21, l10
Logan, |ohn l923l987 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL5
Logan, Martha Daniell l701.l779 . . . . . . DL200
Logan, William l950 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl20
Logau, Iriedrich von lo05lo55 . . . . . . . . DLlo1
Logue, Christopher l92o . . . . . . . . . . . . DL27
Lohenstein, Daniel Casper von
lo35lo83 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo8
Lohrey, Amanda l917 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL325
Lo|ohansson, Ivar l90ll990 . . . . . . . . . . DL259
Lokert, George (or Lockhart)
circa l185l517 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL28l
Lomonosov, Mikhail Vasilèvich
l7lll7o5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl50
London, |ack
l87ol9lo . . . . . DL8, l2, 78, 2l2; CDAL3
Jhe |ack London Research Center . . . . . . . Y00
Jhe |ack London Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y99
q i j~~ l820l829 . . . . . . . . . DLll0
Long, David l918 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL211
Long, H., and rother . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Long, Haniel l888l95o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL15
Long, Ray l878l935. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl37
Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth
l807l882 . . . . . . . . DLl, 59, 235; CDAL2
Longfellow, Samuel l8l9l892 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl
Longford, Elizabeth l90o2002 . . . . . . . . . DLl55
Longinus circa first century . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl7o
Longley, Michael l939 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL10
J. Longman |publishing house| . . . . . . . . . DLl51
Longmans, Green and Company . . . . . . . . DL19
Longmore, George l793.l8o7 . . . . . . . . . . DL99
Longstreet, Augustus aldwin
l790l870 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3, ll, 71, 218
D. Longworth |publishing house| . . . . . . . . DL19
Lnn, ystein l93o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL297
Lonsdale, Irederick l88ll951 . . . . . . . . . . DLl0
Loos, Anita l893l98l. . . . . DLll, 2o, 228; Y8l
Lopate, Ihillip l913 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y80
Lope de Rueda l5l0.l5o5. . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l8
Lopes, Ierno l380/l390.l1o0. . . . . . . . DL287
Lopez, arry l915 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL25o, 275
Lpez, Diana (see Isabella, Ros)
Lpez, |osefina l9o9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL209
Lpez de Mendoza, igo
(see Santillana, Marqus de)
Lpez Velarde, Ramn l888l92l. . . . . . . DL290
Loranger, |eanAubert l89ol912 . . . . . . . . DL92
Lorca, Iederico Garca l898l93o . . . . . . . DLl08
Lord, |ohn Keast l8l8l872. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL99
Lorde, Audre l931l992 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1l
Lorimer, George Horace l8o7l937. . . . . . . DL9l
A. K. Loring |publishing house|. . . . . . . . . . DL19
Loring and Mussey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Lorris, Guillaume de (see o~ ~ o)
Lossing, enson |. l8l3l89l . . . . . . . . . . . DL30
Lothar, Ernst l890l971. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL8l
D. Lothrop and Company. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Lothrop, Harriet M. l811l921. . . . . . . . . . DL12
Loti, Iierre l850l923 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl23
Lotichius Secundus, Ietrus l528l5o0. . . . DLl79
`~ f ai_ PPO
SMM
Lott, Emmeline fl. nineteenth century . . . DLloo
Louisiana State Lniversity Iress. . . . . . . . . . . . Y97
Lounsbury, Jhomas R. l838l9l5. . . . . . . DL7l
Lous, Iierre l870l925 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl23
Lveid, Cecile l95l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL297
Lovejoy, Arthur O. l873l9o2 . . . . . . . . . .DL270
Lovelace, Earl l935 . . . . . DLl25; CDWL3
Lovelace, Richard lol8lo57 . . . . . . . . . . DLl3l
|ohn W. Lovell Company. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Lovell, Coryell and Company . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Lover, Samuel l797l8o8. . . . . . . . . . DLl59, l90
Lovesey, Ieter l93o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL87
Jribute to Georges Simenon . . . . . . . . . . . Y89
Lovinescu, Eugen
l88ll913 . . . . . . . . . . . DL220; CDWL1
Lovingood, Sut
(see Harris, George Washington)
Low, Samuel l7o5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL37
Lowell, Amy l871l925 . . . . . . . . . . . DL51, l10
Lowell, |ames Russell l8l9l89l
. . . . . . .DLl, ll, o1, 79, l89, 235; CDAL2
Lowell, Robert
l9l7l977 . . . . . . . . . . . DL5, lo9; CDAL7
Lowenfels, Walter l897l97o . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1
Lowndes, Marie elloc l8o8l917 . . . . . . . DL70
Lowndes, William Jhomas l798l813 . . . DLl81
Humphrey Lownes |publishing house| . . . .DLl70
Lowry, Lois l937 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL52
Lowry, Malcolm l909l957 . . . DLl5; CDL7
Lowther, Iat l935l975 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL53
Loy, Mina l882l9oo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1, 51
Loynaz, Dulce Mara l902l997. . . . . . . . DL283
Lozeau, Albert l878l921. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL92
Lu Ling l923l991 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL328
Lu Xun l88ll93o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL328
Lu Yin l898.l931 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL328
Lubbock, Iercy l879l9o5 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl19
Lucan ^.a. 39^.a. o5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2ll
Lucas, E. V. l8o8l938. . . . . . . . DL98, l19, l53
Iielding Lucas |r. |publishing house|. . . . . . DL19
Luce, Clare ooth l903l987 . . . . . . . . . . DL228
Luce, Henry R. l898l9o7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL9l
|ohn W. Luce and Company . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Lucena, |uan de ca. l130l50l. . . . . . . . . DL28o
Lucian circa l20l80. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl7o
LucieSmith, Edward l933 . . . . . . . . . . . DL10
Lucilius circa l80 _.`.l02/l0l _.`. . . . . . DL2ll
Lucini, Gian Iietro l8o7l9l1 . . . . . . . . . DLll1
Luco Cruchaga, Germn l891l93o . . . . DL305
Lucretius circa 91 _.`.circa 19 _.`.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2ll; CDWLl
Luder, Ieter circa l1l5l172. . . . . . . . . . . .DLl79
Ludlam, Charles l913l987 . . . . . . . . . . . DL2oo
Ludlum, Robert l927200l. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y82
i ^ circa llo0 . . . . . . . . . . DLl18
Ludvigson, Susan l912 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl20
Ludwig, |ack l922 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo0
Ludwig, Otto l8l3l8o5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl29
i 88l or 882. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl18
Luera, Yolanda l953 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl22
Luft, Lya l938 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl15
Lugansky, Kazak Vladimir
(see Dal`, Vladimir Ivanovich)
Lugn, Kristina l918 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL257
Lugones, Leopoldo l871l938 . . . . . . . . . DL283
Luhan, Mabel Dodge l879l9o2 . . . . . . . DL303
Lukcs, Georg (see Lukcs, Gyrgy)
Lukcs, Gyrgy
l885l97l. . . . . . . . .DL2l5, 212; CDWL1
Luke, Ieter l9l9l995 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl3
Lummis, Charles I. l859l928. . . . . . . . . DLl8o
Lundkvist, Artur l90ol99l. . . . . . . . . . . DL259
Lunts, Lev Natanovich
l90ll921 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DL272
I. M. Lupton Company . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Lupus of Ierrires
circa 805circa 8o2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl18
Lurie, Alison l92o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2
Lussu, Emilio l890l975. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o1
Lustig, Arnot l92o . . . . . . . . . . . DL232, 299
Luther, Martin
l183l51o . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl79; CDWL2
Luzi, Mario l9l12005 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl28
L`vov, Nikolai Aleksandrovich
l75ll803 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl50
Lyall, Gavin l9322003 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL87
Lydgate, |ohn circa l370l150 . . . . . . . . . DLl1o
Lyly, |ohn circa l551lo0o . . . . . . . . . DLo2, lo7
Lynch, Martin l950 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l0
Lynch, Iatricia l898l972 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo0
Lynch, Richard fl. l59olo0l. . . . . . . . . . .DLl72
Lynd, Robert l879l919. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL98
Lynds, Dennis (Michael Collins)
l921 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL30o
Jribute to Kenneth Millar . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y83
Why I Write Mysteries. Night and Day. . . Y85
Lyon, Matthew l719l822 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL13
Lyotard, |eanIranois l921l998 . . . . . . DL212
Lyricists
Additional Lyricists. l920l9o0. . . . . DL2o5
Lysias circa 159 _.`.circa 380 _.`.. . . . . . .DLl7o
Lytle, Andrew l902l995. . . . . . . . . . . DLo; Y95
Jribute to Caroline Gordon. . . . . . . . . . . . Y8l
Jribute to Katherine Anne Iorter . . . . . . . Y80
Lytton, Edward
(see ulwerLytton, Edward)
Lytton, Edward Robert ulwer
l83ll89l. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL32
j
Maass, |oachim l90ll972 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo9
Mabie, Hamilton Wright l815l9lo. . . . . . DL7l
Mac A`Ghobhainn, Iain (see Smith, Iain Crichton)
MacArthur, Charles l895l95o . . . . . DL7, 25, 11
Macaulay, Catherine l73ll79l . . . . . . . . DLl01
Macaulay, David l915 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLol
Macaulay, Rose l88ll958. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3o
Macaulay, Jhomas abington
l800l859 . . . . . . . . . . DL32, 55; CDL1
Macaulay Company . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Maceth, George l932l992 . . . . . . . . . . . DL10
Macbeth, Madge l880l9o5. . . . . . . . . . . . DL92
MacCaig, Norman l9l0l99o . . . . . . . . . . DL27
MacDiarmid, Hugh
l892l978. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL20; CDL7
MacDonald, Cynthia l928 . . . . . . . . . DLl05
MacDonald, George l821l905. . . . DLl8, lo3, l78
MacDonald, |ohn D.
l9lol98o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL8, 30o; Y8o
MacDonald, Ihilip l899.l980 . . . . . . . . . DL77
Macdonald, Ross (see Millar, Kenneth)
Macdonald, Sharman l95l . . . . . . . . . DL215
MacDonald, Wilson l880l9o7 . . . . . . . . . DL92
Macdonald and Company (Iublishers) . . DLll2
MacEwen, Gwendolyn l91ll987 . . . DL53, 25l
Macfadden, ernarr l8o8l955 . . . . . . DL25, 9l
MacGregor, |ohn l825l892. . . . . . . . . . . DLloo
MacGregor, Mary Esther (see Keith, Marian)
Macherey, Iierre l938 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL29o
Machado, Antonio l875l939 . . . . . . . . . DLl08
Machado, Manuel l871l917 . . . . . . . . . . DLl08
Machado de Assis, |oaquim Maria
l839l908 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL307
Machar, Agnes Maule l837l927 . . . . . . . . DL92
Machaut, Guillaume de
circa l300l377 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL208
Machen, Arthur Llewelyn |ones
l8o3l917 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3o, l5o, l78
MacIlmaine, Roland fl. l571. . . . . . . . . . . DL28l
MacInnes, Colin l9l1l97o . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl1
MacInnes, Helen l907l985 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL87
Mac Intyre, Jom l93l . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL215
Maiulis, |onas (see Maironis, |onas)
Mack, Maynard l909200l . . . . . . . . . . . DLlll
Mackall, Leonard L. l879l937 . . . . . . . . DLl10
MacKay, Isabel Ecclestone l875l928. . . . . DL92
Mackay, Shena l911 . . . . . . . . . . DL23l, 3l9
ai_ PPO `~ f
SMN
`
MacKaye, Iercy l875l95o . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL51

Macken, Walter l9l5l9o7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl3
MacKenna, |ohn l952 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l9
Mackenzie, Alexander l7o3l820 . . . . . . . . DL99
Mackenzie, Alexander Slidell
l803l818 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl83
Mackenzie, Compton l883l972 . . . . . DL31, l00
Mackenzie, Henry l715l83l . . . . . . . . . . . DL39
q iI no. 20 (l785) . . . . . . . . . . . DL39
Mackenzie, Kenneth (Seaforth Mackenzie)
l9l3l955 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o0
Mackenzie, William l758l828 . . . . . . . . . DLl87
Mackey, Nathaniel l917 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo9
Mackey, William Wellington l937 . . . . . . DL38
Mackintosh, Elizabeth (see Jey, |osephine)
Mackintosh, Sir |ames l7o5l832 . . . . . . . DLl58
Macklin, Charles lo99l797. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL89
Maclaren, Ian (see Watson, |ohn)
MaclarenRoss, |ulian l9l2l9o1. . . . . . . . DL3l9
MacLaverty, ernard l912 . . . . . . . . . . DL2o7
MacLean, Alistair l922l987 . . . . . . . . . . . DL27o
MacLean, Katherine Anne l925 . . . . . . . . DL8
Maclean, Norman l902l990 . . . . . . . . . . DL20o
MacLeish, Archibald l892l982
. . . . . . . DL1, 7, 15; Y82; DSl5; CDAL7
MacLennan, Hugh l907l990 . . . . . . . . . . . DLo8
MacLeod, Alistair l93o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo0
Macleod, Iiona (see Sharp, William)
Macleod, Norman l90ol985 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1
Mac Low, |ackson l9222001 . . . . . . . . . . DLl93
MacMahon, ryan l909l998. . . . . . . . . . DL3l9
Macmillan and Company . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl0o
Jhe Macmillan Company . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Macmillan`s English Men of Letters,
Iirst Series (l878l892) . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl11
MacNamara, rinsley l890l9o3 . . . . . . . . DLl0
MacNeice, Louis l907l9o3. . . . . . . . . . DLl0, 20
Macphail, Andrew l8o1l938 . . . . . . . . . . . DL92
Macpherson, |ames l73ol79o . . . . . . . . . . DLl09
Macpherson, |ay l93l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL53
Macpherson, |eanie l881l91o . . . . . . . . . . DL11
Macrae Smith Company . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
MacRaye, Lucy etty (see Webling, Lucy)
|ohn Macrone |publishing house|. . . . . . . . DLl0o
MacShane, Irank l927l999 . . . . . . . . . . . DLlll
MacyMasius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Madden, David l933 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo
Madden, Sir Irederic l80ll873 . . . . . . . . DLl81
Maddow, en l909l992. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL11
Maddux, Rachel l9l2l983. . . . . . . DL231; Y93
Madgett, Naomi Long l923 . . . . . . . . . . DL7o
Madhubuti, Haki R. l912 . . . . . DL5, 1l; DS8
Madison, |ames l75ll83o . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL37
Madsen, Svend Age l939 . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l1
Madrigal, Alfonso Iernndez de (El Jostado)
ca. l105l155 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL28o
Maeterlinck, Maurice l8o2l919. . . . DLl92, 33l
New Iormalism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL282
Magee, David l905l977 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl87
Maginn, William l791l812. . . . . . . . DLll0, l59
Magoffin, Susan Shelby l827l855 . . . . . . DL239
Mahan, Alfred Jhayer l810l9l1 . . . . . . . . DL17
Mahapatra, |ayanta l928 . . . . . . . . . . . DL323
MaheuxIorcier, Louise l929 . . . . . . . . . DLo0
Mahfz, Najb (Naguib Mahfouz)
l9ll200o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DL33l; Y88;
Mahfz, Najb l9ll . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y88
Nobel Lecture l988. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y88
Mahin, |ohn Lee l902l981 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL11
Mahon, Derek l91l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL10
Maiakovsky, Vladimir Vladimirovich
l893l930 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL295
Maikov, Apollon Nikolaevich
l82ll897 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL277
Maikov, Vasilii Ivanovich l728l778 . . . . . DLl50
Mailer, Norman l923
. . . . . . . DL2, lo, 28, l85, 278; Y80, 83, 97;
DS3; CDALo
Jribute to Meyer Levin. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y8l
Maillart, Ella l903l997. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl95
Maillet, Adrienne l885l9o3 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo8
Maillet, Antonine l929 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo0
Maillu, David G. l939 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl57
Maimonides, Moses ll38l201 . . . . . . . . . DLll5
Main Selections of the ookoftheMonth
Club, l92ol915 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL9
Mainwaring, Daniel l902l977 . . . . . . . . . . DL11
Mair, Charles l838l927 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL99
Mair, |ohn circa l1o7l550. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL28l
Maironis, |onas l8o2l932 . . DL220; CDWL1
Mais, Roger l905l955 . . . . . DLl25; CDWL3
Maitland, Sara l950 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL27l
Major, Andre l912 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo0
Major, Charles l85ol9l3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL202
Major, Clarence l93o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL33
Major, Kevin l919 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo0
Major ooks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Makanin, Vladimir Semenovich
l937 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL285
Makarenko, Anton Semenovich
l888l939 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL272
Makemie, Irancis circa lo58l708 . . . . . . . . DL21
q j~ ^~ Contract . . . . . . . . . . . .Y98
Makovsky, Sergei l877l9o2 . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l7
Maksimov, Vladimir Emelìanovich
l930l995 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL302
Maksimovi, Desanka
l898l993 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl17; CDWL1
Malamud, ernard l9l1l98o
. . . . . . . . DL2, 28, l52; Y80, 8o; CDALl
ernard Malamud Archive at the
Harry Ransom Humanities
Research Center . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y00
Mlncioiu, Ileana l910 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL232
Malaparte, Curzio
(Kurt Erich Suckert) l898l957 . . . . . DL2o1
Malerba, Luigi l927 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl9o
Malet, Lucas l852l93l. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl53
Malherbe, Iranois de l555lo28 . . . . . . . DL327
Mallarm, Stphane l812l898 . . . . . . . . . DL2l7
Malleson, Lucy eatrice (see Gilbert, Anthony)
Mallet|oris, Iranoise (Iranoise Lilar)
l930 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL83
Mallock, W. H. l819l923 . . . . . . . . . . DLl8, 57
'Every Man His Own Ioet; or,
Jhe Inspired Singer`s Recipe
ook" (l877). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL35
'Le Style cèst l`homme" (l892) . . . . . . DL57
j i ~ i~ (l920),
|excerpt| . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL57
Malone, Dumas l892l98o . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl7
Malone, Edmond l71ll8l2 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl12
Malory, Sir Jhomas
circa l100l1l0 l17l. . . .DLl1o; CDLl
Malouf, David l931 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL289
Malpede, Karen l915 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL219
Malraux, Andr l90ll97o . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL72
q j~ c~ (Documentary). . . . . . . . DL280
Malthus, Jhomas Robert
l7ool831 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl07, l58
Maltz, Albert l908l985 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl02
Malzberg, arry N. l939 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL8
Mamet, David l917 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL7
Mamin, Dmitrii Narkisovich
l852l9l2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL238
Manaka, Matsemela l95o . . . . . . . . . . . DLl57
Maas, |os ngel l97l . . . . . . . . . . . . DL322
Manchester Lniversity Iress . . . . . . . . . . . DLll2
Mandel, Eli l922l992. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL53
Mandel`shtam, Nadezhda Iakovlevna
l899l980 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL302
Mandel`shtam, Osip Emilèvich
l89ll938 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL295
Mandeville, ernard lo70l733 . . . . . . . . . DLl0l
Mandeville, Sir |ohn
mid fourteenth century . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl1o
Mandiargues, Andr Iieyre de
l909l99l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL83
Manea, Norman l93o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL232
Manfred, Irederick l9l2l991. . . . DLo, 2l2, 227
`~ f ai_ PPO
SMO
Manfredi, Gianfranco l918 . . . . . . . . . DLl9o
Mangan, Sherry l901l9ol . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1
Manganelli, Giorgio l922l990 . . . . . . . . DLl9o
Manilius fl. first century ^.a. . . . . . . . . . . DL2ll
Mankiewicz, Herman l897l953 . . . . . . . . DL2o
Mankiewicz, |oseph L. l909l993 . . . . . . . DL11
Mankowitz, Wolf l921l998. . . . . . . . . . . . DLl5
Manley, Delarivire lo72.l721 . . . . . . DL39, 80
Ireface to q p eI n
w~~I ~ w~~~ (l705) . . . . DL39
Mann, Abby l927 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL11
Mann, Charles l929l998 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y98
Mann, Emily l952 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2oo
Mann, Heinrich l87ll950. . . . . . . . . DLoo, ll8
Mann, Horace l79ol859 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl, 235
Mann, Klaus l90ol919 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL5o
Mann, Mary Ieabody l80ol887 . . . . . . . DL239
Mann, Jhomas
l875l955. . . . . . . . . DLoo, 33l; CDWL2
Mann, William DÀlton l839l920 . . . . . DLl37
Mannin, Ethel l900l981 . . . . . . . . . DLl9l, l95
Manning, Emily (see Australie)
Manning, Irederic l882l935. . . . . . . . . . DL2o0
Manning, Laurence l899l972 . . . . . . . . . DL25l
Manning, Marie l873.l915. . . . . . . . . . . . DL29
Manning and Loring. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Mannyng, Robert fl.
l303l338 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl1o
Mano, D. Keith l912 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo
Manor ooks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Manrique, Gmez l1l2.l190 . . . . . . . . . DL28o
Manrique, |orge ca. l110l179 . . . . . . . . . DL28o
Mansfield, Katherine l888l923. . . . . . . . DLlo2
Mantel, Hilary l952 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DL27l
Manuel, Niklaus circa l181l530 . . . . . . . .DLl79
Manzini, Gianna l89ol971 . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl77
Mao Dun l89ol98l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL328
Mapanje, |ack l911 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl57
Maraini, Dacia l93o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl9o
Maraise, MarieCatherineRene Darcel de
l737l822 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l1
Maramzin, Vladimir Rafailovich
l931 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL302
March, William (William Edward Campbell)
l893l951 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL9, 8o, 3lo
Marchand, Leslie A. l900l999 . . . . . . . . DLl03
Marchant, essie l8o2l91l. . . . . . . . . . . DLlo0
Marchant, Jony l959 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL215
Marchenko, Anastasiia Iakovlevna
l830l880 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL238
Marchessault, |ovette l938 . . . . . . . . . . . DLo0
Marcinkeviius, Justinas l930 . . . . . . . DL232
Marcos, Ilnio (Ilnio Marcos de arros)
l935l999 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL307
Marcus, Irank l928 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl3
Marcuse, Herbert l898l979 . . . . . . . . . . DL212
Marden, Orison Swett l850l921. . . . . . . DLl37
Marechera, Dambudzo l952l987 . . . . . . DLl57
Marek, Richard, ooks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Mares, E. A. l938 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl22
Marguerite de Navarre l192l519 . . . . . . DL327
Margulies, Donald l951 . . . . . . . . . . . DL228
Mariana, |uan de l535 or l53olo21 . . . . DL3l8
Mariani, Iaul l910 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlll
Maras, |avier l95l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL322
Marie de Irance fl. llo0ll78. . . . . . . . . . DL208
MarieVictorin, Irre (Conrad Kirouac)
l885l911 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL92
Marin, iagio l89ll985 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl28
Marinetti, Iilippo Jommaso
l87ol911. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll1, 2o1
Marinina, Aleksandra (Marina Anatolèvna
Alekseeva) l957 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL285
Marinkovi, Ranko
l9l3200l . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl17; CDWL1
Marion, Irances l88ol973 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL11
Marius, Richard C. l933l999 . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y85
Marivaux, Iierre Carlet de Chamblain de
lo88l7o3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l1
Markandaya, Kamala l9212001 . . . . . . . DL323
Markevich, oleslav Mikhailovich
l822l881 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL238
Markfield, Wallace l92o2002 . . . . . . . . DL2, 28
Markham, E. A. l939 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l9
Markham, Edwin l852l910 . . . . . . . DL51, l8o
Markish, David l938 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l7
Markle, Iletcher l92ll99l . . . . . . . . DLo8; Y9l
Marlatt, Daphne l912 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo0
Marlitt, E. l825l887 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl29
Marlowe, Christopher
l5o1l593 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo2; CDLl
Marlyn, |ohn l9l2l985. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL88
Marmion, Shakerley lo03lo39 . . . . . . . . . DL58
Marmontel, |eanIranois l723l799 . . . . DL3l1
Der Marner before l230circa l287 . . . . . DLl38
Marnham, Iatrick l913 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL201
Marot, Clment l19ol511. . . . . . . . . . . . DL327
Jhe j~~ q~ l588l589 . . . . . . . . DLl32
Marquand, |ohn I. l893l9o0 . . . . . . . DL9, l02
Marques, Helena l935 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL287
Marqus, Ren l9l9l979 . . . . . . . . DLll3, 305
Marquis, Don l878l937 . . . . . . . . . . . DLll, 25
Marriott, Anne l9l3l997 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo8
Marryat, Irederick l792l818 . . . . . . DL2l, lo3
Mars, |uan l933 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL322
Marsh, Capen, Lyon and Webb . . . . . . . . . DL19
Marsh, George Ierkins
l80ll882 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl, o1, 213
Marsh, |ames l791l812. . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl, 59
Marsh, Narcissus lo38l7l3. . . . . . . . . . . DL2l3
Marsh, Ngaio l899l982 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL77
Marshall, Alan l902l981 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o0
Marshall, Edison l891l9o7. . . . . . . . . . . DLl02
Marshall, Edward l932 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo
Marshall, Emma l828l899 . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo3
Marshall, |ames l912l992. . . . . . . . . . . . . DLol
Marshall, |oyce l9l3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL88
Marshall, Iaule l929 . . . . . . . . DL33, l57, 227
Marshall, Jom l938l993. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo0
Marsilius of Iadua
circa l275circa l312 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll5
Mars|ones, Adam l951 . . . . . . . . . DL207, 3l9
Marson, Lna l905l9o5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl57
Marston, |ohn l57olo31 . . . . . . . . . . .DL58, l72
Marston, Ihilip ourke l850l887. . . . . . . DL35
Martel, Yann l9o3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL32o
Martens, Kurt l870l915 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLoo
Mart, |os l853l895. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL290
Martial circa ^.a. 10circa ^.a. l03
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DL2ll; CDWLl
William S. Martien |publishing house| . . . . DL19
Martin, Abe (see Hubbard, Kin)
Martin, Catherine ca. l817l937. . . . . . . . DL230
Martin, Charles l912 . . . . . . . . . . DLl20, 282
Martin, Claire l9l1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo0
Martin, David l9l5l997 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o0
Martin, |ay l935 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlll
Martin, |ohann (see Laurentius von Schnffis)
Martin, Jhomas lo9ol77l . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l3
Martin, Violet Ilorence (see Ross, Martin)
Martin du Gard, Roger l88ll958. . . DLo5, 33l
Martineau, Harriet
l802l87o. . . . . DL2l, 55, l59, lo3, loo, l90
Martnez, Demetria l9o0 . . . . . . . . . . . DL209
Martnez de Joledo, Alfonso
l398.l1o8. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL28o
Martnez, Eliud l935 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl22
Martnez, Max l913 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL82
Martnez, Rubn l9o2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL209
Martn Gaite, Carmen l9252000 . . . . . . DL322
MartnSantos, Luis l921l9o1. . . . . . . . . DL322
Martinson, Harry l901l978 . . . . . . DL259, 33l
Martinson, Moa l890l9o1 . . . . . . . . . . . DL259
Martone, Michael l955 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l8
Martyn, Edward l859l923 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl0
Marvell, Andrew
lo2llo78. . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl3l; CDL2
ai_ PPO `~ f
SMP
`
Marvin X l911 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL38

Marx, Karl l8l8l883 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl29
Marzials, Jheo l850l920 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL35
Masefield, |ohn l878l9o7
. . . . . . . . . . . DLl0, l9, l53, lo0; CDL5
Masham, Damaris Cudworth, Lady
lo59l708 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL252
Masino, Iaola l908l989. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o1
Mason, A. E. W. l8o5l918. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL70
Mason, obbie Ann
l910 . . . . . . . . . . DLl73; Y87; CDAL7
Mason, I. van Wyck (Geoffrey Coffin, Irank W.
Mason, Ward Weaver) l90ll978. . . . . DL30o
Mason, William l725l797. . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl12
Mason rothers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
q j~~ n~ o
l817l850 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl
q j~. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL303
Massey, Gerald l828l907. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL32
Massey, Linton R. l900l971. . . . . . . . . . . DLl87
Massie, Allan l938 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL27l
Massinger, Ihilip l583lo10 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL58
Masson, David l822l907 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl11
Masters, Edgar Lee
l8o8l950 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DL51; CDAL3
Masters, Hilary l928 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL211
Masters, Olga l9l9l98o. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL325
Mastronardi, Lucio l930l979. . . . . . . . . . DLl77
Mat` Maria (Elizaveta Kuz`minaKaravdeva
Skobtsova, ne Iilenko) l89ll915 . . . . DL3l7
Matevski, Mateja l929 . . . DLl8l; CDWL1
Mather, Cotton
loo3l728 . . . . . . . DL21, 30, l10; CDAL2
Mather, Increase lo39l723 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL21
Mather, Richard l59oloo9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL21
Matheson, Annie l853l921 . . . . . . . . . . . DL210
Matheson, Richard l92o . . . . . . . . . . . DL8, 11
Matheus, |ohn I. l887l98o. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL5l
Mathews, Aidan l95o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l9
Mathews, Cornelius l8l7.l889 . . . DL3, o1, 250
Elkin Mathews |publishing house| . . . . . . . DLll2
Mathews, |ohn |oseph l891l979 . . . . . . . DLl75
Mathias, Roland l9l5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL27
Mathis, |une l892l927 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL11
Mathis, Sharon ell l937 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL33
Matkovi, Marijan l9l5l985 . . . . . . . . . . DLl8l
Matos, Antun Gustav l873l9l1 . . . . . . . . DLl17
Matos Iaoli, Irancisco l9l52000 . . . . . . . DL290
Matsumoto Seich l909l992 . . . . . . . . . . DLl82
Jhe Matter of England l210l100. . . . . . . DLl1o
Jhe Matter of Rome early twelfth to late
fifteenth century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl1o
Matthew of Vendme
circa ll30circa l200 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL208
Matthews, rander l852l929. . DL7l, 78; DSl3
Matthews, rian l93o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL325
Matthews, |ack l925 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo
Matthews, Victoria Earle l8oll907 . . . . . DL22l
Matthews, William l912l997. . . . . . . . . . . . DL5
Matthas |ochumsson l835l920 . . . . . . . . DL293
Matthas |ohannessen l930 . . . . . . . . . . DL293
Matthiessen, I. O. l902l950 . . . . . . . . . . . DLo3
Matthiessen, Ieter l927 . . . . . . . DLo, l73, 275
Maturin, Charles Robert l780l821 . . . . . DLl78
Matute, Ana Mara l92o . . . . . . . . . . . . DL322
Maugham, W. Somerset l871l9o5
. . . . DLl0, 3o, 77, l00, lo2, l95; CDLo
Maupassant, Guy de l850l893 . . . . . . . . DLl23
Maupertuis, IierreLouis Moreau de
lo98l759 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l1
Maupin, Armistead l911 . . . . . . . . . . . DL278
Mauriac, Claude l9l1l99o. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL83
Mauriac, Iranois l885l970. . . . . . . . DLo5, 33l
Maurice, Irederick Denison l805l872 . . . . DL55
Maurois, Andr l885l9o7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo5
Maury, |ames l7l8l7o9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l
Mavor, Elizabeth l927 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl1
Mavor, Osborne Henry (see ridie, |ames)
Maxwell, Gavin l9l1l9o9 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL201
Maxwell, William
l9082000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l8, 278; Y80
Jribute to Nancy Hale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y88
H. Maxwell |publishing house| . . . . . . . . . . DL19
|ohn Maxwell |publishing house| . . . . . . . . DLl0o
May, Elaine l932 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL11
May, Karl l812l9l2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl29
May, Jhomas l595/l59olo50 . . . . . . . . . . DL58
Mayer, ernadette l915 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo5
Mayer, Mercer l913 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLol
Mayer, O. . l8l8l89l. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3, 218
Mayes, Herbert R. l900l987 . . . . . . . . . . DLl37
Mayes, Wendell l9l9l992 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o
Mayfield, |ulian l928l981 . . . . . . . . DL33; Y81
Mayhew, Henry l8l2l887 . . . . . . DLl8, 55, l90
Mayhew, |onathan l720l7oo . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l
Mayne, Ethel Colburn l8o5l91l . . . . . . . DLl97
Mayne, |asper lo01lo72. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl2o
Mayne, Seymour l911 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo0
Mayor, Ilora Macdonald l872l932 . . . . . . DL3o
Mayrcker, Iriederike l921 . . . . . . . . . . DL85
Mazrui, Ali A. l933 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl25
Maurani, Ivan l8l1l890 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl17
Mazursky, Iaul l930 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL11
McAlmon, Robert l89ol95o . . . DL1, 15; DSl5
'A Night at ricktop`s" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y0l
McArthur, Ieter l8ool921 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL92
McAuley, |ames l9l7l97o. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o0
Robert M. Mcride and Company . . . . . . . DL1o
McCabe, Iatrick l955 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl91
McCafferty, Owen l9ol . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l0
McCaffrey, Anne l92o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL8
McCann, Colum l9o5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o7
McCarthy, Cormac l933 . . . . . DLo, l13, 25o
Jhe Cormac McCarthy Society . . . . . . . . .Y99
McCarthy, Mary l9l2l989 . . . . . . . . DL2; Y8l
McCarthy, Shaun Lloyd (see Cory, Desmond)
McCay, Winsor l87ll931 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL22
McClane, Albert |ules l922l99l . . . . . . . DLl7l
McClatchy, C. K. l858l93o . . . . . . . . . . . . DL25
McClellan, George Marion l8o0l931 . . . . DL50
'Jhe Negro as a Writer". . . . . . . . . . . . DL50
McCloskey, Robert l9l12003 . . . . . . . . . . DL22
McCloy, Helen l901l992. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL30o
McClung, Nellie Letitia l873l95l . . . . . . . DL92
McClure, |ames l939200o . . . . . . . . . . . . DL27o
McClure, |oanna l930 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo
McClure, Michael l932 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo
McClure, Ihillips and Company . . . . . . . . . DL1o
McClure, S. S. l857l919. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL9l
A. C. McClurg and Company. . . . . . . . . . . DL19
McCluskey, |ohn A., |r. l911 . . . . . . . . . DL33
McCollum, Michael A. l91o . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y87
McConnell, William C. l9l7 . . . . . . . . . DL88
McCord, David l897l997. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLol
McCord, Louisa S. l8l0l879 . . . . . . . . . . DL218
McCorkle, |ill l958 . . . . . . . . . . . DL231; Y87
McCorkle, Samuel Eusebius l71ol8ll. . . . DL37
McCormick, Anne O`Hare l880l951 . . . . DL29
McCormick, Kenneth Dale l90ol997 . . . . . . . Y97
McCormick, Robert R. l880l955 . . . . . . . DL29
McCourt, Edward l907l972. . . . . . . . . . . . DL88
McCoy, Horace l897l955 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL9
McCrae, Hugh l87ol958 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o0
McCrae, |ohn l872l9l8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL92
McCrumb, Sharyn l918 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL30o
McCullagh, |oseph . l812l89o . . . . . . . . DL23
McCullers, Carson
l9l7l9o7 . . . . . DL2, 7, l73, 228; CDALl
McCulloch, Jhomas l77ol813. . . . . . . . . . DL99
McCunn, Ruthanne Lum l91o . . . . . . DL3l2
McDermott, Alice l953 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL292
McDonald, Iorrest l927 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl7
McDonald, Walter l931 . . . . . . . DLl05, DS9
'Getting Started. Accepting the
Regions You Ownor Which
Own You". . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl05
`~ f ai_ PPO
SMQ
McDougall, Colin l9l7l981 . . . . . . . . . . . DLo8
McDowell, Katharine Sherwood onner
l819l883 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL202, 239
Obolensky McDowell
|publishing house| . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
McEwan, Ian l918 . . . . . .DLl1, l91, 3l9, 32o
McIadden, David l910 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo0
McIall, Irances Elizabeth Clarke
(see Grand, Sarah)
McIarland, Ron l912 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL25o
McIarlane, Leslie l902l977. . . . . . . . . . . . DL88
McIee, William l88ll9oo. . . . . . . . . . . . DLl53
McGahan, Andrew l9oo . . . . . . . . . . . DL325
McGahern, |ohn l931 . . . . . . DLl1, 23l, 3l9
McGee, Jhomas DÀrcy l825l8o8. . . . . . DL99
McGeehan, W. O. l879l933 . . . . . . . .DL25, l7l
McGill, Ralph l898l9o9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL29
McGinley, Ihyllis l905l978 . . . . . . . . DLll, 18
McGinniss, |oe l912 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl85
McGirt, |ames E. l871l930 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL50
McGlashan and Gill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl0o
McGough, Roger l937 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL10
McGrath, |ohn l935 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL233
McGrath, Iatrick l950 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL23l
McGrawHill. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
McGuane, Jhomas l939 . . . . . DL2, 2l2; Y80
Jribute to Seymour Lawrence . . . . . . . . . . Y91
McGuckian, Medbh l950 . . . . . . . . . . . DL10
McGuffey, William Holmes l800l873. . . . DL12
McGuinness, Irank l953 . . . . . . . . . . . DL215
McHenry, |ames l785l815 . . . . . . . . . . . DL202
McIlvanney, William l93o . . . . . . . DLl1, 207
McIlwraith, |ean Newton l859l938 . . . . . DL92
McInerney, |ay l955 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL292
McInerny, Ralph l929 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL30o
McIntosh, Maria |ane l803l878 . . . DL239, 218
McIntyre, |ames l827l90o. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL99
McIntyre, O. O. l881l938 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL25
McKay, Claude l889l918 . . . . .DL1, 15, 5l, ll7
Jhe David McKay Company. . . . . . . . . . . DL19
McKean, William V. l820l903 . . . . . . . . . DL23
McKenna, Stephen l888l9o7 . . . . . . . . . DLl97
Jhe McKenzie Jrust . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y9o
McKerrow, R. . l872l910 . . . . . . . . . . . DL20l
McKinley, Robin l952 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL52
McKnight, Reginald l95o . . . . . . . . . . DL231
McLachlan, Alexander l8l8l89o . . . . . . . DL99
McLaren, Iloris Clark l901l978. . . . . . . . DLo8
McLaverty, Michael l907l992. . . . . . . . . . DLl5
McLean, Duncan l9o1 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o7
McLean, |ohn R. l818l9lo. . . . . . . . . . . . DL23
McLean, William L. l852l93l . . . . . . . . . DL25
McLennan, William l85ol901 . . . . . . . . . DL92
McLoughlin rothers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
McLuhan, Marshall l9lll980 . . . . . . . . . DL88
McMaster, |ohn ach l852l932 . . . . . . . . DL17
McMillan, Jerri l95l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL292
McMurtry, Larry l93o
. . . . . . . . DL2, l13, 25o; Y80, 87; CDALo
McNally, Jerrence l939 . . . . . . . . . . .DL7, 219
McNeil, Ilorence l937 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo0
McNeile, Herman Cyril l888l937 . . . . . . DL77
McNickle, DÀrcy l901l977 . . . . . . . DLl75, 2l2
McIhee, |ohn l93l . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl85, 275
McIherson, |ames Alan l913 . . . . DL38, 211
McIherson, Sandra l913 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y8o
McJaggart, |. M. E. l8ool925 . . . . . . . . DL2o2
McWhirter, George l939 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo0
McWilliam, Candia l955 . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o7
McWilliams, Carey l905l980. . . . . . . . . DLl37
'q k~ Iuture," Carey
McWilliams`s Editorial Iolicy
in k~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl37
Mda, Zakes l918 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL225
Mead, George Herbert l8o3l93l . . . . . . .DL270
Mead, L. J. l811l9l1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl1l
Mead, Matthew l921 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL10
Mead, Jaylor circa l93l . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo
Meany, Jom l903l9o1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl7l
Mears, Gillian l9o1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL325
Mechthild von Magdeburg
circa l207circa l282 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl38
Medieval GalicianIortuguese Ioetry . . . . DL287
Medill, |oseph l823l899 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL13
Medoff, Mark l910 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL7
Meek, Alexander eaufort
l8l1l8o5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3, 218
Meeke, Mary .l8lo. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLllo
Mehta, Ved l931 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL323
Mei, Lev Aleksandrovich l822l8o2 . . . . .DL277
Meinke, Ieter l932 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL5
Meireles, Ceclia l90ll9o1 . . . . . . . . . . . DL307
Meja, Iedro l197l55l. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l8
Mejia Vallejo, Manuel l923 . . . . . . . . . DLll3
Melanchthon, Ihilipp l197l5o0 . . . . . . . .DLl79
Melanon, Robert l917 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo0
Mell, Max l882l97l . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL8l, l21
Mellow, |ames R. l92ol997. . . . . . . . . . . DLlll
Mel`nikov, Iavel Ivanovich l8l8l883 . . . DL238
Meltzer, David l937 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo
Meltzer, Milton l9l5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLol
Melville, Elizabeth, Lady Culross
circa l585lo10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl72
Melville, Herman
l8l9l89l . . . . . . . DL3, 71, 250; CDAL2
Jhe Melville Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y0l
Melville, |ames
(Roy Ieter Martin) l93l . . . . . . . . .DL27o
'Memorandum on Local Government," Anne
Robert|acques Jurgot, bacon de
lÀulne . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l1
Mena, |uan de l1lll15o. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL28o
Mena, Mara Cristina l893l9o5 . . . DL209, 22l
Menander 31231l _.`.circa 29229l _.`.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl7o; CDWLl
Menantes (see Hunold, Christian Iriedrich)
Mencke, |ohann urckhard lo71l732. . . DLlo8
Mencken, H. L. l880l95o
. . . . . . . . . DLll, 29, o3, l37, 222; CDAL1
'erlin, Iebruary, l9l7". . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y00
Irom the Initial Issue of ^~ j
( |anuary l921) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl37
Mencken and Nietzsche. An
Lnpublished Excerpt from H. L.
Mencken`s j i ~ ^ ~
b . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y93
Mendelssohn, Moses l729l78o . . . . . . . . . DL97
Mendes, Catulle l81ll909 . . . . . . . . . . . .DL2l7
Mndez M., Miguel l930 . . . . . . . . . . . DL82
Mendoza, Diego Hurtado de
l501l575. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l8
Mendoza, Eduardo l913 . . . . . . . . . . . DL322
Jhe Mercantile Library of New York. . . . . . . . Y9o
Mercer, Cecil William (see Yates, Dornford)
Mercer, David l928l980. . . . . . . . . . .DLl3, 3l0
Mercer, |ohn l701l7o8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l
Mercer, |ohnny l909l97o . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o5
Mercier, LouisSbastien l710l8l1 . . . . . DL3l1
i q~~ m~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l1
Meredith, George
l828l909 . . . . DLl8, 35, 57, l59; CDL1
Meredith, Louisa Anne l8l2l895 . . DLloo, 230
Meredith, Owen
(see Lytton, Edward Robert ulwer)
Meredith, William l9l9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL5
Meres, Irancis
m~~ q~~I t q~ (l598)
|excerpt| . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl72
Merezhkovsky, Dmitrii Sergeevich
l8o5l91l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL295
Mergerle, |ohann Llrich
(see Abraham Sancta Clara)
Mrime, Irosper l803l870 . . . . . . .DLll9, l92
Merino, |os Mara l91l . . . . . . . . . . . DL322
Merivale, |ohn Herman l779l811. . . . . . . DL9o
Meriwether, Louise l923 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL33
MerleauIonty, Maurice l908l9ol . . . . . DL29o
Merlin Iress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll2
ai_ PPO `~ f
SMR
`
Merriam, Eve l9lol992 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLol

Jhe Merriam Company . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Merril, |udith l923l997 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL25l
Jribute to Jheodore Sturgeon . . . . . . . . . .Y85
Merrill, |ames l92ol995. . . . . . . DL5, lo5; Y85
Merrill and aker. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Jhe Mershon Company . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Merton, Jhomas l9l5l9o8 . . . . . . . DL18; Y8l
Merwin, W. S. l927 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL5, lo9
|ulian Messner |publishing house| . . . . . . . . DL1o
Mszly, Mikls l92l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL232
|. Metcalf |publishing house| . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Metcalf, |ohn l938 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo0
Jhe Methodist ook Concern. . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Methuen and Company. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll2
Meun, |ean de (see o~ ~ o)
Mew, Charlotte l8o9l928 . . . . . . . . . DLl9, l35
Mewshaw, Michael l913 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y80
Meyer, Conrad Ierdinand l825l898 . . . . DLl29
Meyer, E. Y. l91o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL75
Meyer, Eugene l875l959 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL29
Meyer, Michael l92l2000. . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl55
Meyers, |effrey l939 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlll
Meynell, Alice l817l922. . . . . . . . . . . . DLl9, 98
Meynell, Viola l885l95o . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl53
Meyrink, Gustav l8o8l932 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL8l
Mzires, Ihilipe de circa l327l105 . . . . . DL208
Michael, Ib l915 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l1
Michael, Livi l9o0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o7
Michalis, Karen l872l950. . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l1
Michaels, Anne l958 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL299
Michaels, Leonard l9332003 . . . . . . . . . . DLl30
Michaux, Henri l899l981 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL258
Micheaux, Oscar l881l95l . . . . . . . . . . . . DL50
Michel of Northgate, Dan
circa l2o5circa l310. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl1o
Micheline, |ack l929l998. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo
Michener, |ames A. l907.l997 . . . . . . . . . . . DLo
Micklejohn, George circa l7l7l8l8. . . . . . . DL3l
Middle Hill Iress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl0o
Middleton, Christopher l92o . . . . . . . . . DL10
Middleton, Richard l882l9ll . . . . . . . . . DLl5o
Middleton, Stanley l9l9 . . . . . . . . . DLl1, 32o
Middleton, Jhomas l580lo27 . . . . . . . . . . DL58
j Ì l98l ooker Irize winner,
Salman Rushdie. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL32o
Miegel, Agnes l879l9o1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL5o
Mieelaitis, Eduardas l9l9l997 . . . . . . . . DL220
Miguis, |os Rodrigues l90ll980. . . . . . DL287
Mihailovi, Dragoslav l930 . . . . . . . . . DLl8l
Mihali, Slavko l928 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl8l
Mikhailov, A.
(see Sheller, Aleksandr Konstantinovich)
Mikhailov, Mikhail Larionovich
l829l8o5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL238
Mikhailovsky, Nikolai Konstantinovich
l812l901 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL277
Miles, |osephine l9lll985 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL18
Miles, Susan (Lrsula Wyllie Roberts)
l888l975 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL210
Milikovi, ranko l931l9ol. . . . . . . . . . . DLl8l
Milius, |ohn l911 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL11
Mill, |ames l773l83o . . . . . . . . DLl07, l58, 2o2
Mill, |ohn Stuart
l80ol873 . . . . . .DL55, l90, 2o2; CDL1
Jhoughts on Ioetry and Its Varieties
(l833) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL32
Andrew Millar |publishing house| . . . . . . . DLl51
Millar, Kenneth
l9l5l983 . . . . . . . . . . DL2, 22o; Y83; DSo
Mills, |uan |os l91o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL322
Millay, Edna St. Vincent
l892l950 . . . . . . . . . .DL15, 219; CDAL1
Millen, Sarah Gertrude l888l9o8 . . . . . . DL225
Miller, Andrew l9o0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o7
Miller, Arthur l9l52005. . . DL7, 2oo; CDALl
Jhe Arthur Miller Society. . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y0l
Miller, Caroline l903l992 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL9
Miller, Eugene Ethelbert l950 . . . . . . . . DL1l
Miller, Heather Ross l939 . . . . . . . . . . DLl20
Miller, Henry
l89ll980 . . . . . . . . DL1, 9; Y80; CDAL5
Miller, Hugh l802l85o. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl90
Miller, |. Hillis l928 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo7
Miller, |ason l939 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL7
Miller, |oaquin l839l9l3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl8o
Miller, May l899l995. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1l
Miller, Iaul l90ol99l. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl27
Miller, Ierry l905l9o3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl7, o3
Miller, Sue l913 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl13
Miller, Vassar l921l998 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl05
Miller, Walter M., |r. l923l99o . . . . . . . . . . DL8
Miller, Webb l892l910. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL29
|ames Miller |publishing house| . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Millett, Kate l931 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL21o
Millhauser, Steven l913 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2
Millican, Arthenia |. ates l920 . . . . . . . DL38
Milligan, Alice l8ool953 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL210
Mills, Magnus l951 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o7
Mills and oon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll2
Milman, Henry Hart l79ol8o8 . . . . . . . . . DL9o
Milne, A. A. l882l95o . . . . . DLl0, 77, l00, lo0
Milner, Ron l938 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL38
William Milner |publishing house| . . . . . . DLl0o
Milnes, Richard Monckton (Lord Houghton)
l809l885 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL32, l81
Milton, |ohn
lo08lo71 . . . . . DLl3l, l5l, 28l; CDL2
Jhe Milton Society of America. . . . . . . . . . Y00
Miosz, Czesaw
l9ll2001 . . . . . . . . DL2l5, 33l; CDWL1
Minakami Jsutomu l9l9 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl82
Minamoto no Sanetomo ll92l2l9. . . . . . DL203
Minco, Marga l920 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL299
Jhe Minerva Iress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl51
j~ circa ll50l280 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl38
Jhe Music of j~ . . . . . . . . . . . DLl38
Minns, Susan l839l938 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl10
Minsky, Nikolai l855l937 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l7
Minton, alch and Company . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Minyana, Ihilippe l91o . . . . . . . . . . . . DL32l
Mirbeau, Octave l818l9l7. . . . . . . . DLl23, l92
Mirikitani, |anice l91l . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l2
Mirk, |ohn died after l1l1.. . . . . . . . . . . . DLl1o
Mir, Gabriel l879l930 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL322
Mir, Ricardo l883l910. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL290
Miron, Gaston l928l99o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo0
^ j j~~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo7
Mirsky, D. S. l890l939 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l7
Mishima Yukio l925l970 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl82
Mistral, Irdric l830l9l1. . . . . . . . . . . . DL33l
Mistral, Gabriela l889l957 . . . . . . . DL283, 33l
Mitchel, |onathan lo21loo8. . . . . . . . . . . . DL21
Mitchell, Adrian l932 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL10
Mitchell, Donald Grant
l822l908 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl, 213; DSl3
Mitchell, Gladys l90ll983. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL77
Mitchell, |ames Leslie l90ll935. . . . . . . . . DLl5
Mitchell, |ohn (see Slater, Iatrick)
Mitchell, |ohn Ames l815l9l8. . . . . . . . . . DL79
Mitchell, |oseph l908l99o . . . . . . . DLl85; Y9o
Mitchell, |ulian l935 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl1
Mitchell, Ken l910 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo0
Mitchell, Langdon l8o2l935 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL7
Mitchell, Loften l9l9200l . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL38
Mitchell, Margaret l900l919 . . .DL9; CDAL7
Mitchell, S. Weir l829l9l1. . . . . . . . . . . . DL202
Mitchell, W. |. J. l912 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL21o
Mitchell, W. O. l9l1l998 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL88
Mitchison, Naomi Margaret (Haldane)
l897l999 . . . . . . . . . . DLlo0, l9l, 255, 3l9
Mitford, Mary Russell l787l855. . . . DLll0, llo
Mitford, Nancy l901l973. . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl9l
Mittelholzer, Edgar
l909l9o5 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll7; CDWL3
`~ f ai_ PPO
SMS
Mitterer, Erika l90o200l. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL85
Mitterer, Ielix l918 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl21
Mitternacht, |ohann Sebastian
lol3lo79. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo8
Miyamoto Yuriko l899l95l . . . . . . . . . . DLl80
Mizener, Arthur l907l988. . . . . . . . . . . . DLl03
Mo, Jimothy l950 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl91
Moberg, Vilhelm l898l973 . . . . . . . . . . . DL259
Modern Age ooks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Modern Language Association of America
Jhe Modern Language Association of
America Celebrates Its Centennial . . . Y81
Jhe Modern Library . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Modiano, Iatrick l915 . . . . . . . . . DL83, 299
Modjeska, Drusilla l91o . . . . . . . . . . . DL325
Moffat, Yard and Company . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Moffet, Jhomas l553lo01 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl3o
Mofolo, Jhomas l87ol918 . . . . . . . . . . . DL225
Mohr, Nicholasa l938 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl15
Moix, Ana Mara l917 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl31
Molesworth, Louisa l839l92l . . . . . . . . DLl35
Molire ( |eanaptiste Ioquelin)
lo22lo73 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o8
Mller, Ioul Martin l791l838 . . . . . . . . . DL300
Mllhausen, alduin l825l905. . . . . . . . DLl29
Molnr, Ierenc l878l952. . . DL2l5; CDWL1
Molnr, Mikls (see Mszly, Mikls)
Momaday, N. Scott
l931 . . . . . . .DLl13, l75, 25o; CDAL7
Mommsen, Jheodor l8l7l903 . . . . . . . . DL33l
Monkhouse, Allan l858l93o. . . . . . . . . . . DLl0
Monro, Harold l879l932 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl9
Monroe, Harriet l8o0l93o . . . . . . . . . DL51, 9l
Monsarrat, Nicholas l9l0l979 . . . . . . . . . DLl5
Montagu, Lady Mary Wortley
lo89l7o2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL95, l0l
Montague, C. E. l8o7l928 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl97
Montague, |ohn l929 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL10
Montaigne, Michel de l533l592 . . . . . . . DL327
Montale, Eugenio l89ol98l . . . . . . DLll1, 33l
Montalvo, Garci Rodrguez de
ca. l150.before l505 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL28o
Montalvo, |os l91ol991 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL209
Montemayor, |orge de l52l.l5ol. . . . . . DL3l8
Montero, Rosa l95l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL322
Monterroso, Augusto l92l2003 . . . . . . . DLl15
Montesquieu, CharlesLouis de Secondat, baron de
lo89l755. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l1
q p i~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l1
Montesquiou, Robert de l855l92l. . . . . DL2l7
Montgomerie, Alexander
circa l550.l598 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo7
Montgomery, |ames l77ll851. . . . . . DL93, l58
Montgomery, |ohn l9l9 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo
Montgomery, Lucy Maud
l871l912. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL92; DSl1
Montgomery, Marion l925 . . . . . . . . . . . DLo
Montgomery, Robert ruce (see Crispin, Edmund)
Montherlant, Henry de l89ol972 . . . DL72, 32l
q j o l719l811 . . . . . . . . . . DLll0
Monti, Ricardo l911 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL305
Montigny, Louvigny de l87ol955. . . . . . . DL92
Montoya, |os l932 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl22
Moodie, |ohn Wedderburn Dunbar
l797l8o9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL99
Moodie, Susanna l803l885 . . . . . . . . . . . DL99
Moody, |oshua circa lo33lo97 . . . . . . . . . DL21
Moody, William Vaughn l8o9l9l0. . . . .DL7, 51
j qI l987 ooker Irize winner,
Ienelope Lively . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL32o
Moorcock, Michael l939 .DLl1, 23l, 2ol, 3l9
Moore, Alan l953 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2ol
Moore, rian l92ll999. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL25l
Moore, Catherine L. l9lll987 . . . . . . . . . . DL8
Moore, Clement Clarke l779l8o3. . . . . . . DL12
Moore, Dora Mavor l888l979 . . . . . . . . . DL92
Moore, G. E. l873l958 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o2
Moore, George l852l933 . . . . DLl0, l8, 57, l35
i~ ~ kI `~ j~
(l885) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl8
Moore, Lorrie l957 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL231
Moore, Marianne
l887l972 . . . . . . . . . DL15; DS7; CDAL5
International Marianne Moore Society . . . Y98
Moore, Mavor l9l9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL88
Moore, Richard l927 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl05
'Jhe No Self, the Little Self, and
the Ioets". . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl05
Moore, J. Sturge l870l911 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl9
Moore, Jhomas l779l852. . . . . . . . . DL9o, l11
Moore, Ward l903l978. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL8
Moore, Wilstach, Keys and Company . . . . DL19
Moorehead, Alan l90ll983 . . . . . . . . . . DL201
Moorhouse, Irank l938 . . . . . . . . . . . DL289
Moorhouse, Geoffrey l93l . . . . . . . . . DL201
Moorish Novel of the Sixteenth
Century, Jhe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l8
Jhe MoorlandSpingarn Research
Center . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL7o
Moorman, Mary C. l905l991 . . . . . . . . DLl55
Mora, Iat l912 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL209
Moraes, Dom l9382001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL323
Moraes, Vinicius de l9l3l980 . . . . . . . . DL307
Moraga, Cherre l952 . . . . . . . . . . DL82, 219
Morales, Alejandro l911 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL82
Morales, Mario Roberto l917 . . . . . . . DLl15
Morales, Rafael l9l9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl08
and b~ circa l500 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl1o
Morand, Iaul (l888l97o) . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo5
Morante, Elsa l9l2l985 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl77
Morata, Olympia Iulvia l52ol555 . . . . . .DLl79
Moravia, Alberto l907l990. . . . . . . . . . . .DLl77
Mordaunt, Elinor l872l912 . . . . . . . . . . .DLl71
Mordovtsev, Daniil Lukich l830l905 . . . DL238
More, Hannah
l715l833. . . . . . . . . . . DLl07, l09, llo, l58
More, Henry lol1lo87 . . . . . . . . . . DLl2o, 252
More, Sir Jhomas
l177/l178l535 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl3o, 28l
Morejn, Nancy l911 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL283
Morellet, Andr l727l8l9 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l1
Morency, Iierre l912 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo0
Moreno, Dorinda l939 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl22
Moretti, Marino l885l979. . . . . . . . DLll1, 2o1
Morgan, erry l9l92002 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo
Morgan, Charles l891l958. . . . . . . . .DL31, l00
Morgan, Edmund S. l9lo . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl7
Morgan, Edwin l920 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL27
Morgan, |ohn Iierpont l837l9l3 . . . . . . DLl10
Morgan, |ohn Iierpont, |r. l8o7l913 . . . DLl10
Morgan, Robert l911 . . . . . . . . . DLl20, 292
Morgan, Sally l95l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL325
Morgan, Sydney Owenson, Lady
l77o.l859 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DLllo, l58
Morgner, Irmtraud l933l990 . . . . . . . . . . DL75
Morhof, Daniel Georg lo39lo9l . . . . . . DLlo1
Mori, Kyoko l957 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l2
Mori gai l8o2l922. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl80
Mori, Joshio l9l0l980 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l2
Mricz, Zsigmond l879l912 . . . . . . . . . . DL2l5
Morier, |ames |ustinian
l782 or l783.l819 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLllo
Mrike, Eduard l801l875. . . . . . . . . . . . DLl33
Morin, Iaul l889l9o3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL92
Morison, Richard l5l1.l55o . . . . . . . . . DLl3o
Morison, Samuel Eliot l887l97o . . . . . . . . .DLl7
Morison, Stanley l889l9o7. . . . . . . . . . . DL20l
Moritz, Karl Ihilipp l75ol793. . . . . . . . . . DL91
j `~ circa l220l230 . . . . . . . . DLl38
Morley, Christopher l890l957 . . . . . . . . . . DL9
Morley, |ohn l838l923. . . . . . . . DL57, l11, l90
Moro, Csar l903l95o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL290
Morris, George Iope l802l8o1. . . . . . . . . DL73
Morris, |ames Humphrey (see Morris, |an)
Morris, |an l92o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL201
Morris, Lewis l833l907 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL35
Morris, Margaret l737l8lo . . . . . . . . . . . DL200
ai_ PPO `~ f
SMT
`
Morris, Mary McGarry l913 . . . . . . . . DL292

Morris, Richard . l901l989 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl7
Morris, William l831l89o
. . . . DLl8, 35, 57, l5o, l78, l81; CDL1
Morris, Willie l931l999. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y80
Jribute to Irwin Shaw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y81
Morris, Wright
l9l0l998 . . . . . . . . . . . DL2, 20o, 2l8; Y8l
Morrison, Arthur l8o3l915 . . . . DL70, l35, l97
Morrison, Charles Clayton l871l9oo. . . . . DL9l
Morrison, |ohn l901l998. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o0
Morrison, Joni l93l
. . . . DLo, 33, l13, 33l; Y8l, 93; CDALo
Nobel Lecture l993. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y93
Morrissy, Mary l957 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o7
William Morrow and Company . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Morse, |ames Herbert l81ll923 . . . . . . . . DL7l
Morse, |edidiah l7oll82o. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL37
Morse, |ohn J., |r. l810l937 . . . . . . . . . . . DL17
Morselli, Guido l9l2l973. . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl77
j Î the ^~ and the
p~~ circa l350l100 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl1o
Mortimer, Iavell Lee l802l878. . . . . . . . . DLlo3
Mortimer, |ohn
l923 . . . . . . . . DLl3, 215, 27l; CDL8
Morton, Carlos l912 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl22
Morton, H. V. l892l979. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl95
|ohn I. Morton and Company . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Morton, Nathaniel lol3lo85 . . . . . . . . . . . DL21
Morton, Sarah Wentworth l759l81o . . . . . DL37
Morton, Jhomas circa l579circa lo17 . . . . DL21
Moscherosch, |ohann Michael
lo0lloo9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo1
Humphrey Moseley
Mser, |ustus l720l791. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL97
Mosley, Nicholas l923 . . . . . . . . . . DLl1, 207
Mosley, Walter l952 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL30o
Moss, Arthur l889l9o9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1
Moss, Howard l922l987 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL5
Moss, Jhylias l951 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl20
Motion, Andrew l952 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL10
Motley, |ohn Lothrop
l8l1l877 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl, 30, 59, 235
Motley, Willard l909l9o5 . . . . . . . . . DL7o, l13
Mott, Lucretia l793l880. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL239
enjamin Motte |r.
Motteux, Ieter Anthony loo3l7l8 . . . . . . . DL80
Mottram, R. H. l883l97l. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3o
Mount, Ierdinand l939 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL23l
Mour, Erin l955 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo0
Mourning Dove (Humishuma) between
l882 and l888.l93o . . . . . . . . . DLl75, 22l
Movies
Iiction into Iilm, l928l975. A List
of Movies ased on the Works
of Authors in ritish Novelists,
l930l959. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl5
Movies from ooks, l920l971. . . . . . . . DL9
Mowat, Iarley l92l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo8
A. R. Mowbray and Company,
Limited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl0o
Mowrer, Edgar Ansel l892l977 . . . . . . . . . DL29
Mowrer, Iaul Scott l887l97l . . . . . . . . . . . DL29
Edward Moxon |publishing house| . . . . . . DLl0o
|oseph Moxon |publishing house| . . . . . . . DLl70
Moyes, Iatricia l9232000. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL27o
Mphahlele, Es`kia (Ezekiel)
l9l9 . . . . . . . . . . DLl25, 225; CDWL3
Mroek, Sawomir l930 . . . DL232; CDWL1
Mtshali, Oswald Mbuyiseni
l910 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl25, 225
Mu Shiying l9l2l910. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL328
alMubarrad 82o898 or 899 . . . . . . . . . . . DL3ll
j . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo2
Mudford, William l782l818. . . . . . . . . . . DLl59
Mudrooroo (see |ohnson, Colin)
Mueller, Lisel l921 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl05
Muhajir, El (see Marvin X)
Muhajir, Nazzam Al Iitnah (see Marvin X)
Muhammad the Irophet circa 570o32 . . . DL3ll
Mhlbach, Luise l8l1l873. . . . . . . . . . . . DLl33
Muir, Edwin l887l959 . . . . . . . . DL20, l00, l9l
Muir, Helen l937 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl1
Muir, |ohn l838l9l1 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl8o, 275
Muir, Iercy l891l979 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL20l
Muj Ichien l22ol3l2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL203
Mukherjee, harati l910 . . . . DLo0, 2l8, 323
Mulcaster, Richard l53l or l532loll . . . DLlo7
Muldoon, Iaul l95l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL10
Mulisch, Harry l927 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL299
Mulkerns, Val l925 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l9
Mller, Iriedrich (see Mller, Maler)
Mller, Heiner l929l995 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl21
Mller, Maler l719l825 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL91
Muller, Marcia l911 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL22o
Mller, Wilhelm l791l827 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL90
Mumford, Lewis l895l990 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo3
Munby, A. N. L. l9l3l971 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL20l
Munby, Arthur |oseph l828l9l0 . . . . . . . . DL35
Munday, Anthony l5o0lo33 . . . . . . . DLo2, l72
Mundt, Clara (see Mhlbach, Luise)
Mundt, Jheodore l808l8ol . . . . . . . . . . DLl33
Munford, Robert circa l737l783. . . . . . . . . DL3l
Mungoshi, Charles l917 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl57
Munk, Kaj l898l911 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l1
Munonye, |ohn l929 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll7
Muoz Molina, Antonio l95o . . . . . . . DL322
Munro, Alice l93l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL53
George Munro |publishing house| . . . . . . . . DL19
Munro, H. H.
l870l9lo . . . . . . . . . .DL31, lo2; CDL5
Munro, Neil l8o1l930 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl5o
Norman L. Munro |publishing house| . . . . . DL19
Munroe, Kirk l850l930. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL12
Munroe and Irancis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
|ames Munroe and Company . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
|oel Munsell |publishing house| . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Munsey, Irank A. l851l925 . . . . . . . . DL25, 9l
Irank A. Munsey and Company. . . . . . . . . DL19
Mura, David l952 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l2
Murakami Haruki l919 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl82
Muratov, Iavel l88ll950. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l7
Murayama, Milton l923 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l2
Muravèv, Mikhail Nikitich l757l807 . . . . DLl50
Murdoch, Iris l9l9l999
. . . . . . . . . . DLl1, l91, 233, 32o; CDL8
Murdock, |ames
Irom p j m . . . . . . . . DS5
Murdoch, Rupert l93l . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl27
Murfree, Mary N. l850l922 . . . . . . . . DLl2, 71
Murger, Henry l822l8ol. . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll9
Murger, LouisHenri (see Murger, Henry)
Murnane, Gerald l939 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL289
Murner, Jhomas l175l537. . . . . . . . . . . . DLl79
Muro, Amado l9l5l97l. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL82
Murphy, Arthur l727l805 . . . . . . . . . DL89, l12
Murphy, eatrice M. l908l992 . . . . . . . . . DL7o
Murphy, Dervla l93l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL201
Murphy, Emily l8o8l933. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL99
Murphy, |ack l923l980 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL21l
|ohn Murphy and Company . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Murphy, |ohn H., III l9lo . . . . . . . . . . DLl27
Murphy, Richard l927l993 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL10
Murphy, Jom l935 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l0
Murray, Albert L. l9lo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL38
Murray, Gilbert l8ool957 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl0
Murray, |im l9l9l998 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL21l
|ohn Murray |publishing house| . . . . . . . . DLl51
Murray, |udith Sargent
l75ll820 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL37, 200
Murray, Les l938 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL289
Murray, Iauli l9l0l985 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1l
Murry, |ohn Middleton l889l957 . . . . . . DLl19
'Jhe reakLp of the Novel"
(l922) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3o
`~ f ai_ PPO
SMU
Murry, |ohn Middleton, |r. (see Cowper, Richard)
Musus, |ohann Karl August
l735l787 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL97
Muschg, Adolf l931 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL75
Musil, Robert
l880l912 . . . . . . . . DL8l, l21; CDWL2
j circa 790circa 850 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl18
Musset, Alfred de l8l0l857 . . . . . . .DLl92, 2l7
enjamin . Mussey
and Company . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Muste, A. |. l885l9o7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL303
Mutafchieva, Vera l929 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl8l
Mutis, Alvaro l923 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL283
Mwangi, Meja l918 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl25
Myers, Irederic W. H.
l813l90l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl90
Myers, Gustavus l872l912 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL17
Myers, L. H. l88ll911 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl5
Myers, Walter Dean l937 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL33
Myerson, |ulie l9o0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o7
Mykle, Agnar l9l5l991 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL297
MykolaitisIutinas,
Vincas l893l9o7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL220
Myles, Eileen l919 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl93
Myrdal, |an l927 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL257
Mystery
l985. Jhe Year of the Mystery.
A Symposium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y85
Comments from Other Writers . . . . . . . . . Y85
Jhe Second Annual New York Iestival
of Mystery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y00
Why I Read Mysteries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y85
Why I Write Mysteries. Night and Day,
by Michael Collins. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y85
k
Na Irous oneta circa l29ol328. . . . . . . DL208
Nabl, Iranz l883l971 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL8l
Nabakov, Vra l902l99l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y9l
Nabokov, Vladimir l899l977 . . . . . . . DL2, 211,
278, 3l7; Y80, 9l; DS3; CDALl
International Nabokov Society. . . . . . . . . . Y99
An Interview |On Nabokov|, by
Iredson owers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y80
Nabokov Iestival at Cornell. . . . . . . . . . . . Y83
Jhe Vladimir Nabokov Archive in the
erg Collection of the New York
Iublic Library. An Overview . . . . . . . Y9l
Jhe Vladimir Nabokov Society . . . . . . . . . Y0l
Ndasi, Ladislav (see |g)
Naden, Constance l858l889. . . . . . . . . . DLl99
Nadezhdin, Nikolai Ivanovich
l801l85o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl98
Nadson, Semen Iakovlevich l8o2l887 . . .DL277
Naevius circa 2o5 _.`.20l _.`. . . . . . . . . DL2ll
Nafis and Cornish. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Nagai Kaf l879l959 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl80
Nagel, Ernest l90ll985. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DL279
Nagibin, Iurii Markovich l920l991 . . . . DL302
Nagrodskaia, Evdokiia Apollonovna
l8ool930 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL295
Naipaul, Shiva l915l985. . . . . . . . . DLl57; Y85
Naipaul, V. S. l932 DLl25, 201, 207, 32o, 33l;
Y85, Y0l; CDL8; CDWL3
Nobel Lecture 200l. 'Jwo Worlds". . . . . . Y0l
Nakagami Kenji l91ol992 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl82
Nakanoin Masatada no Musume (see Nij, Lady)
Nakowska, Zofia l881l951 . . . . . . . . . . DL2l5
Namora, Iernando l9l9l989 . . . . . . . . . DL287
|oseph Nancrede |publishing house| . . . . . . DL19
Naranjo, Carmen l930 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl15
Narayan, R. K. l90o200l . . . . . . . . . . . . DL323
Narbikova, Valeriia Spartakovna
l958 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL285
Narezhny, Vasilii Jrofimovich
l780l825. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl98
Narrache, |ean (Emile Coderre)
l893l970. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL92
Nasby, Ietroleum Vesuvius (see Locke, David Ross)
Eveleigh Nash |publishing house| . . . . . . . DLll2
Nash, Ogden l902l97l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll
Nashe, Jhomas l5o7lo0l. . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo7
Nason, |erry l9l0l98o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL21l
Nasr, Seyyed Hossein l933 . . . . . . . . . .DL279
Nast, Cond l873l912 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL9l
Nast, Jhomas l810l902 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl88
Nastasijevi, Momilo l891l938 . . . . . . . DLl17
Nathan, George |ean l882l958. . . . . . . . DLl37
Nathan, Robert l891l985. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL9
Nation, Carry A. l81ol9ll. . . . . . . . . . . DL303
National ook Critics Circle Awards . . . . . Y00-0l
Jhe National |ewish ook Awards. . . . . . . . . . Y85
Natsume Sseki l8o7l9lo . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl80
Naughton, ill l9l0l992. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl3
Nava, Michael l951 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL30o
Navarro, |oe l953 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL209
Naylor, Gloria l950 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl73
Nazor, Vladimir l87ol919. . . . . . . . . . . . DLl17
Ndebele, Njabulo l918 . . . . . . . . . DLl57, 225
Neagoe, Ieter l88ll9o0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1
Neal, |ohn l793l87o . . . . . . . . . . . DLl, 59, 213
Neal, |oseph C. l807l817 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll
Neal, Larry l937l98l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL38
Jhe Neale Iublishing Company. . . . . . . . . DL19
Nearing, Scott l883l983 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL303
Nebel, Irederick l903l9o7 . . . . . . . . . . . DL22o
Nebrija, Antonio de l112 or l111l522 . . DL28o
Nedreaas, Jorborg l90ol987 . . . . . . . . . DL297
I. Jennyson Neely |publishing house| . . . . DL19
Negoiescu, Ion l92ll993. . . . . . . . . . . . DL220
Negri, Ada l870l915. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll1
Nehru, Iandit |awaharlal l889l9o1 . . . . DL323
Neihardt, |ohn G. l88ll973 . . . . . DL9, 51, 25o
Neidhart von Reuental
circa ll85circa l210 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl38
Neilson, |ohn Shaw l872l912 . . . . . . . . . DL230
Nekrasov, Nikolai Alekseevich
l82ll877. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DL277
Nekrasov, Viktor Ilatonovich
l9lll987. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL302
NeledinskyMeletsky, Iurii Aleksandrovich
l752l828. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl50
Nelligan, Emile l879l91l . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL92
Nelson, Alice Moore Dunbar l875l935 . . DL50
Nelson, Antonya l9ol . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL211
Nelson, Kent l913 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL231
Nelson, Richard K. l91l . . . . . . . . . . . .DL275
Nelson, Jhomas, and Sons |L.K.| . . . . . . DLl0o
Nelson, Jhomas, and Sons |L.S.|. . . . . . . . DL19
Nelson, William l908l978. . . . . . . . . . . . DLl03
Nelson, William Rockhill l81ll9l5 . . . . . DL23
Nemerov, Howard l920l99l . . . . . DL5, o; Y83
Nmeth, Lszl l90ll975 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l5
Nepos circa l00 _.`.post 27 _.`. . . . . . . . DL2ll
Nris, Salomja l901l915 . . DL220; CDWL1
Neruda, Iablo l901l973 . . . . . . . . . DL283, 33l
Nerval, Grard de l808l855. . . . . . . . . . .DL2l7
Nervo, Amado l870l9l9. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL290
Nesbit, E. l858l921 . . . . . . . . . DLl1l, l53, l78
Ness, Evaline l9lll98o. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLol
Nestroy, |ohann l80ll8o2. . . . . . . . . . . . DLl33
Nettleship, R. L. l81ol892 . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o2
Neugeboren, |ay l938 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL28
Neukirch, enjamin lo55l729. . . . . . . . . DLlo8
Neumann, Alfred l895l952 . . . . . . . . . . . DL5o
Neumann, Ierenc (see Molnr, Ierenc)
Neumark, Georg lo2llo8l. . . . . . . . . . . DLlo1
Neumeister, Erdmann lo7ll75o . . . . . . . DLlo8
Nevins, Allan l890l97l. . . . . . . . . . DLl7; DSl7
Nevinson, Henry Woodd l85ol91l . . . . DLl35
Jhe New American Library. . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
New Directions Iublishing Corporation. . . DL1o
q k j j~~ l8l1l881 . . . . DLll0
k v q _ o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y82
|ohn Newbery |publishing house|. . . . . . . DLl51
Newbolt, Henry l8o2l938 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl9
Newbound, ernard Slade (see Slade, ernard)
Newby, Eric l9l9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL201
Newby, I. H. l9l8l997. . . . . . . . . . . DLl5, 32o
Jhomas Cautley Newby
|publishing house| . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl0o
ai_ PPO `~ f
SMV
`
Newcomb, Charles King l820l891 . . . DLl, 223

Newell, Ieter l8o2l921 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL12
Newell, Robert Henry l83ol90l . . . . . . . . DLll
Newhouse, Samuel I. l895l979 . . . . . . . . DLl27
Newman, Cecil Earl l903l97o . . . . . . . . . DLl27
Newman, David l937 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL11
Newman, Irances l883l928. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y80
Newman, Irancis William l805l897 . . . . DLl90
Newman, G. I. l91o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l0
Newman, |ohn Henry
l80ll890 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl8, 32, 55
Mark Newman |publishing house|. . . . . . . . DL19
Newmarch, Rosa Harriet l857l910 . . . . . DL210
George Newnes Limited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll2
Newsome, Effie Lee l885l979 . . . . . . . . . . DL7o
Newton, A. Edward l8o1l910 . . . . . . . . . DLl10
Newton, Sir Isaac lo12l727 . . . . . . . . . . . DL252
Nex, Martin Andersen l8o9l951 . . . . . . DL2l1
Nezval, Vtslav
l900l958 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l5; CDWL1
Ngugi wa Jhiongò
l938 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl25; CDWL3
Niatum, Duane l938 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl75
Jhe k and the h~
circa l200 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl38
Nichol, . I. l911l988 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL53
Nicholas of Cusa l10ll1o1 . . . . . . . . . . . DLll5
Nichols, Ann l89l.l9oo. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL219
Nichols, everly l898l983. . . . . . . . . . . . DLl9l
Nichols, Dudley l895l9o0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o
Nichols, Grace l950 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl57
Nichols, |ohn l910 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y82
Nichols, Mary Sargeant (Neal) Gove
l8l0l881 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl, 213
Nichols, Ieter l927 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl3, 215
Nichols, Roy I. l89ol973 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl7
Nichols, Ruth l918 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo0
Nicholson, Edward Williams yron
l819l9l2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl81
Nicholson, Geoff l953 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL27l
Nicholson, Norman l9l1l987 . . . . . . . . . . DL27
Nicholson, William l872l919. . . . . . . . . . DLl1l
N Chuilleanin, Eilan l912 . . . . . . . . . DL10
Nicol, Eric l9l9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo8
Nicolai, Iriedrich l733l8ll . . . . . . . . . . . . DL97
Nicolas de Clamanges circa l3o3l137 . . . DL208
Nicolay, |ohn G. l832l90l and
Hay, |ohn l838l905. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL17
Nicole, Iierre lo25lo95 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o8
Nicolson, Adela Ilorence Cory (see Hope, Laurence)
Nicolson, Harold l88ol9o8 . . . . . . . DLl00, l19
'Jhe Iractice of iography," in
q b p e ~
l b~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl19
Nicolson, Nigel l9l72001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl55
N Dhuibhne, Eils l951 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l9
Niebuhr, Reinhold l892l97l . . . . . DLl7; DSl7
Niedecker, Lorine l903l970 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL18
Nieman, Lucius W. l857l935. . . . . . . . . . . DL25
Nietzsche, Iriedrich
l811l900 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl29; CDWL2
Mencken and Nietzsche. An Lnpublished
Excerpt from H. L. Mencken`s j i
~ ^ ~ b . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y93
Nievo, Stanislao l928 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl9o
Niggli, |osefina l9l0l983 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y80
Nightingale, Ilorence l820l9l0 . . . . . . . . DLloo
Nij, Lady (Nakanoin Masatada no Musume)
l258after l30o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL203
Nij Yoshimoto l320l388. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL203
Nikitin, Ivan Savvich l821l8ol . . . . . . . . DL277
Nikitin, Nikolai Nikolaevich l895l9o3 . . DL272
Nikolev, Nikolai Ietrovich l758l8l5 . . . . DLl50
Niles, Hezekiah l777l839 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL13
Nims, |ohn Irederick l9l3l999 . . . . . . . . . . DL5
Jribute to Nancy Hale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y88
Nin, Anas l903l977. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2, 1, l52
Nna jrk rnadttir l91l2000 . . . . . . . DL293
Nio, Ral l9ol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL209
Nissenson, Hugh l933 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL28
Niven, Irederick |ohn l878l911. . . . . . . . . DL92
Niven, Larry l938 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL8
Nixon, Howard M. l909l983 . . . . . . . . . DL20l
Nizan, Iaul l905l910. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL72
Njegos, Ietar II Ietrovi
l8l3l85l . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl17; CDWL1
Nkosi, Lewis l93o . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl57, 225
Noah, Mordecai M. l785l85l . . . . . . . . . DL250
Noailles, Anna de l87ol933 . . . . . . . . . . . DL258
Nobel Ieace Irize
Jhe Nobel Irize and Literary Iolitics . . . . .Y88
Elie Wiesel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y8o
Nobel Irize in Literature
Shmuel Yosef Agnon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL329
Vicente Aleixandre . . . . . . . . . . . DLl08, 329
Ivo Andri. . . . . . . . DLl17, 329; CDWL1
Miguel ngel Asturias. . . . . . . . DLll3, 290,
329; CDWL3
Samuel eckett . . . . . . . DLl3, l5, 233, 3l9,
32l, 329; Y90; CDL7
Saul ellow . . . . . . . . . . . DL2, 28, 299, 329;
Y82; DS3; CDALl
|acinto enevente . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL329
Henri ergson. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL329
jrnstjerne jrnson . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL329
Heinrich ll . . . DLo9, 329; Y85; CDWL2
|oseph rodsky . . . . . . . . . DL285, 329; Y87
Iearl S. uck . . . . . DL9, l02, 329; CDAL7
Ivan unin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l7, 329
Albert Camus . . . . . . . . . . . . DL72, 32l, 329
Elias Canetti . . . DL85, l21, 329; CDWL2
Giosu Carducci . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL329
Camilo |os Cela. . . . . . . . DL322, 329; Y89
Sir Winston Churchill . . . . . . . . DLl00, 329;
DSlo; CDL5
|. M. Coetzee. . . . . . . . . . . . DL225, 32o, 329
Grazia Deledda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o1, 329
|ose Echegaray . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL329
J. S. Eliot . . . . . . . DL7, l0, 15, o3, 215, 329;
Y88, 99; CDAL5
Odysseus Elytis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL329
Rudolf Eucken . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL329
William Iaulkner . . . .DL9, ll, 11, l02, 3lo,
330; DS2; Y8o; CDAL5
Dario Io . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL330; Y97
Anatole Irance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl23, 330
|ohn Galsworthy . . . . . . . .DLl0, 31, 98, lo2,
330; DSlo; CDL5
Gao Xingjian. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL330; Y00
Gabriel Garca Mrquez . . . . . . . . . . . DLl3,
330; Y82; CDWL3
Andr Gide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo5, 32l, 330
Karl Gjellerup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL300, 330
William Golding . . . . . . . . . .DLl5, l00, 255,
32o, 330; Y83; CDL7
Nadine Gordimer . . . . . . . DL225, 32o, 330;
Y9l
Gnter Grass. . . . . . . . DL75, l21, 330; Y99
Knut Hamsun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL297, 330
Gerhart Hauptmann . . . . . . . . . . DLoo, ll8,
330; CDWL2
Seamus Heaney. . . . . . . . . . DL10, 330; Y95;
CDL8
Verner von Heidenstam . . . . . . . . . . . DL330
Ernest Hemingway . . . . . . . . . . DL1, 9, l02,
2l0, 3lo, 330; Y8l, 87, 99; DSl, l5, lo;
CDAL1
Hermann Hesse . . . . DLoo, 330; CDWL2
Iaul Heyse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl29, 330
Elfriede |elinek . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL85, 330
|ohannes V. |ensen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL330
|uan Ramn |imnez . . . . . . . . . . DLl31, 330
Eyvind |ohnson. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL259, 330
Erik Axel Karlfeldt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL330
Yasunari Kawabata . . . . . . . . . . . DLl80, 330
Imre Kertsz . . . . . . . . . . . DL299, 330; Y02
Rudyard Kipling . . . . . . .DLl9, 31, l1l, l5o,
330; CDL5
Ir Lagerkvist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL33l
Selma Lagerf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL33l
Halldr Laxness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL33l
Sinclair Lewis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL33l
Maurice Maeterlinck. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL33l
Najb Mahfz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y88, 33l
Jhomas Mann . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL33l
`~ f ai_ PPO
SNM
Roger Martin du Gard. . . . . . . . . . . . DL33l
Harry Martinson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL33l
Iranois Mauriac . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL33l
Czesaw Miosz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL33l
Irdric Mistral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL33l
Gabriela Mistral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL33l
Jheodor Mommsen. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL33l
Eugenio Montale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL33l
Joni Morrison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y93, 33l
V. S. Naipaul . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y0l, 33l
Iablo Neruda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL33l
Kenzabur e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y91, 33l
Eugene O`Neill. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL33l
oris Iasternak . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL33l
Octavio Iaz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y90, 33l
Saint|ohn Ierse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL33l
Harold Iinter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL33l
Luigi Iirandello . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL33l
Henrik Iontoppidan. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL33l
Salvatore _uasimodo. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL332
Wadysaw Stanisaw Reymont . . . . . DLB-332
Romain Rolland. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL332
ertrand Russell. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL332
Nelly Sachs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL332
|os Saramago . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL332; Y98
|eanIaul Sartre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL332
George Seferis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL332
|aroslav Seifert . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL332; Y81
George ernard Shaw . . . . . . . . . . . . DL332
Mikhail Aleksandrovich Sholokov . . . DL332
Henryk Sienkiewicz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL332
Irans Eemil Sillanp. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL332
Claude Simon. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL332; Y85
Isaac achevis Singer . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL332
Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn . . . . . . . . . . . DL332
Wole Soyinka . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL332; Y8o
Carl Spitteler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL332
|ohn Steinbeck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL332
Sully Irudhomme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL332
Wisawa Szymborska . . . . . . . . . DL332; Y9o
Rabindranath Jagore . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL332
Sigrid Lndset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL332
Derek Walcott . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL332; Y92
Iatrick White . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL332
William utler Yeats. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL332
Nobre, Antnio l8o7l900 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL287
Nodier, Charles l780l811 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll9
Nol, Marie (Marie Mlanie Rouget)
l883l9o7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL258
Noel, Roden l831l891 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL35
Nogami Yaeko l885l985. . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl80
Nogo, Rajko Ietrov l915 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl8l
Nolan, William I. l928 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL8
Noland, C. I. M. l8l0.l858 . . . . . . . . . . . DLll
Noma Hiroshi l9l5l99l . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl82
Nonesuch Iress. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll2
Creative Nonfiction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y02
Nonni ( |n Stefn Sveinsson or Svensson)
l857l911. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL293
Noon, |eff l957 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o7
Noonan, Robert Ihillipe (see Jressell, Robert)
Noonday Iress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Noone, |ohn l93o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl1
Nora, Eugenio de l923 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl31
Nordan, Lewis l939 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL231
Nordbrandt, Henrik l915 . . . . . . . . . . DL2l1
Nordhoff, Charles l887l917 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL9
Norn, Lars l911 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL257
Norfolk, Lawrence l9o3 . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o7
Norman, Charles l901l99o . . . . . . . . . . DLlll
Norman, Marsha l917 . . . . . . . . . DL2oo; Y81
Norris, Charles G. l88ll915 . . . . . . . . . . . DL9
Norris, Irank
l870l902. . . . . . . DLl2, 7l, l8o; CDAL3
Norris, Helen l9lo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL292
Norris, |ohn lo57l7l2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL252
Norris, Leslie l92l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL27, 25o
Norse, Harold l9lo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo
Norte, Marisela l955 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL209
North, Marianne l830l890. . . . . . . . . . . .DLl71
North Ioint Iress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Nortje, Arthur l912l970 . . . . . . . . . DLl25, 225
Norton, Alice Mary (see Norton, Andre)
Norton, Andre l9l22005 . . . . . . . . . . . DL8, 52
Norton, Andrews l78ol853. . . . DLl, 235; DS5
Norton, Caroline l808l877 . . . DL2l, l59, l99
Norton, Charles Eliot l827l908 . . DLl, o1, 235
Norton, |ohn lo0oloo3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL21
Norton, Mary l903l992 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo0
Norton, Jhomas l532l581 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo2
W. W. Norton and Company. . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Norwood, Robert l871l932 . . . . . . . . . . . DL92
Nosaka Akiyuki l930 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl82
Nossack, Hans Erich l90ll977 . . . . . . . . . DLo9
Notker albulus circa 8109l2 . . . . . . . . . DLl18
Notker III of Saint Gall
circa 950l022 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl18
Notker von Zweifalten .l095. . . . . . . . . . DLl18
Nourse, Alan E. l928l992 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL8
Novak, Slobodan l921 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl8l
Novak, Vjenceslav l859l905 . . . . . . . . . DLl17
Novakovich, |osip l95o . . . . . . . . . . . . DL211
Novalis l772l80l. . . . . . . . . . DL90; CDWL2
Novaro, Mario l8o8l911 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll1
Novs Calvo, Lino l903l983 . . . . . . . . . DLl15
Novelists
i~ g~ Statements and
_uestionnaires from Iirst Novelists . . . . Y87
Novels
q `~ e ^~ k
A Symposium on. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y92
Jhe Great Modern Library Scam . . . . . . . Y98
Novels for GrownLps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y97
Jhe Iroletarian Novel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL9
Novel, Jhe 'SecondGeneration" Holocaust
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL299
Jhe Year in the Novel . . . . . . Y87-88, Y90-93
Novels, ritish
'Jhe reakLp of the Novel" (l922),
by |ohn Middleton Murry. . . . . . . DL3o
Jhe Consolidation of Opinion. Critical
Responses to the Modernists. . . . . DL3o
(l8o3), by G. H. Lewes . . . . . . . . . DL2l
'Experiment in the Novel" (l929)
|excerpt|, by |ohn D. eresford . . . DL3o
'Jhe Iuture of the Novel" (l899), by
Henry |ames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl8
q d~ p (l8oo), by E. S. Dallas
|excerpt|. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l
A Haughty and Iroud Generation
(l922), by Iord Madox Hueffer . . DL3o
Literary Effects of World War II . . . . . DLl5
'Modern Novelists Great and Small"
(l855), by Margaret Oliphant . . . . DL2l
Jhe Modernists (l932),
by |oseph Warren each . . . . . . . . DL3o
A Note on Jechnique (l92o), by
Elizabeth A. Drew |excerpts| . . . . . DL3o
NovelReading. q t `~
aX q t tK j~~
q~~ (l879),
by Anthony Jrollope . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l
Novels with a Iurpose (l8o1), by
|ustin M`Carthy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l
'On Art in Iiction" (l838),
by Edward ulwer. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l
Jhe Iresent State of the English Novel
(l892), by George Saintsbury . . . . DLl8
Representative Men and Women.
A Historical Ierspective on
the ritish Novel, l930l9o0. . . . . DLl5
'Jhe Revolt" (l937), by Mary Colum
|excerpts| . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3o
'Sensation Novels" (l8o3), by
H. L. Manse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l
Sex, Class, Iolitics, and Religion |in
the ritish Novel, l930l959| . . . . DLl5
q ~ t j~ (l927),
by Wyndham Lewis |excerpts| . . . DL3o
Noventa, Giacomo l898l9o0 . . . . . . . . . DLll1
Novikov, Nikolai Ivanovich
l711l8l8. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl50
Novomesk, Laco l901l97o . . . . . . . . . . DL2l5
Nowlan, Alden l933l983 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL53
Nowra, Louis l950 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL325
Noyes, Alfred l880l958 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL20
ai_ PPO `~ f
SNN
`
Noyes, Crosby S. l825l908 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL23

Noyes, Nicholas lo17l7l7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL21
Noyes, Jheodore W. l858l91o . . . . . . . . . DL29
Nozick, Robert l9382002. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL279
sixteenth century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl1o
Nugent, Irank l908l9o5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL11
Nunez, Sigrid l95l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l2
Nusi, ranislav
l8o1l938 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl17; CDWL1
David Nutt |publishing house| . . . . . . . . . . DLl0o
Nwapa, Ilora
l93ll993 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl25; CDWL3
Nye, Edgar Wilson (ill)
l850l89o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll, 23, l8o
Nye, Naomi Shihab l952 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl20
Nye, Robert l939 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl1, 27l
NykaNilinas, Alfonsas l9l9 . . . . . . . . DL220
l
Oakes, Lrian circa lo3llo8l . . . . . . . . . . . DL21
Oakes Smith, Elizabeth
l80ol893 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl, 239, 213
Oakley, Violet l871l9ol. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl88
Oates, |oyce Carol l938
. . . . . . . . . . . . DL2, 5, l30; Y8l; CDALo
Jribute to Michael M. Rea . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y97
ba Minako l930 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl82
Ober, Irederick Albion l819l9l3. . . . . . . DLl89
Ober, William l920l993. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y93
Oberholtzer, Ellis Iaxson l8o8l93o . . . . . . DL17
Jhe Obituary as Literary Iorm. . . . . . . . . . . . .Y02
Obradovi, Dositej l710.l8ll . . . . . . . . . DLl17
O`rien, Charlotte Grace l815l909. . . . . DL210
O`rien, Edna l932 DLl1, 23l, 3l9; CDL8
O`rien, Iitz|ames l828l8o2. . . . . . . . . . . DL71
O`rien, Ilann (see O`Nolan, rian)
O`rien, Kate l897l971 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl5
O`rien, Jim
l91o . . . . . DLl52; Y80; DS9; CDAL7
O Cadhain, Mirtn l905l970 . . . . . . . . . DL3l9
O`Casey, Sean l880l9o1 . . . . .DLl0; CDLo
Occom, Samson l723l792 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl75
Occomy, Marita onner l899l97l . . . . . . . DL5l
Ochs, Adolph S. l858l935 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL25
OchsOakes, George Washington
l8oll93l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl37
O`Connor, Ilannery l925l9o1
. . . . . . . . DL2, l52; Y80; DSl2; CDALl
Jhe Ilannery O`Connor Society. . . . . . . . .Y99
O`Connor, Irank l903l9oo . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo2
O`Connor, |oseph l9o3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o7
Octopus Iublishing Group . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll2
Oda Sakunosuke l9l3l917 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl82
Odell, |onathan l737l8l8 . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l, 99
O`Dell, Scott l903l989. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL52
Odets, Clifford l90ol9o3 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL7, 2o
Odhams Iress Limited. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll2
Odio, Eunice l922l971. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL283
Odoevsky, Aleksandr Ivanovich
l802l839 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL205
Odoevsky, Vladimir Iedorovich
l801 or l803l8o9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl98
Odoevtseva, Irina l895l990. . . . . . . . . . . DL3l7
O`Donnell, Ieter l920 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL87
O`Donovan, Michael (see O`Connor, Irank)
O`Dowd, ernard l8ool953. . . . . . . . . . . DL230
e, Kenzabur l935 . . . . . . DLl82, 33l; Y91
Nobel Lecture l991. |apan, the
Ambiguous, and Myself . . . . . . . . . . . .Y91
Oehlenschlger, Adam l779l850 . . . . . . . DL300
OÌaolain, |ulia l932 . . . . . . . . DLl1, 23l, 3l9
OÌaolain, Sean l900l99l . . . . . . . . . DLl5, lo2
OffLoop Jheatres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL7
Offord, Carl Ruthven l9l0l990. . . . . . . . . DL7o
lI l979 ooker Irize winner,
Ienelope Iitzgerald . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL32o
OÌlaherty, Liam l89ol981 . . . DL3o, lo2; Y81
Ogarev, Nikolai Ilatonovich l8l3l877. . . DL277
|. S. Ogilvie and Company . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Ogilvy, Eliza l822l9l2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl99
Ogot, Grace l930 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl25
O`Grady, Desmond l935 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL10
Ogunyemi, Wale l939 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl57
O`Hagan, Howard l902l982 . . . . . . . . . . . DLo8
O`Hara, Irank l92ol9oo . . . . . . . . DL5, lo, l93
O`Hara, |ohn
l905l970 . . . DL9, 8o, 321; DS2; CDAL5
|ohn O`Hara`s Iottsville |ournalism . . . . . .Y88
O`Hare, Kate Richards l87ol918 . . . . . . . DL303
O`Hegarty, I. S. l879l955 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL20l
Ohio State Lniversity
Lniversity Libraries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y92
Okada, |ohn l923l97l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l2
Okara, Gabriel l92l . . . . . DLl25; CDWL3
O`Keeffe, |ohn l717l833. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL89
Nicholas Okes |publishing house| . . . . . . . DLl70
Okigbo, Christopher
l930l9o7 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl25; CDWL3
Okot pìtek l93ll982. . . . . DLl25; CDWL3
Okpewho, Isidore l91l . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl57
Okri, en l959 . . . . . . . DLl57, 23l, 3l9, 32o
Olafur |hann Sigursson l9l8l988 . . . . DL293
q l aI l98o ooker Irize winner,
Kingsley Amis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL32o
Old Dogs / New Jricks. New Jechnologies,
the Canon, and the Structure of
the Irofession . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y02
Old Iranklin Iublishing House . . . . . . . . . . DL19
l d~ d and l d~ b
circa l050circa ll30. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl18
Jhe l e d~ f
circa 790800 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl18
Older, Iremont l85ol935. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL25
Oldham, |ohn lo53lo83. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl3l
Oldman, C. . l891l9o9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL20l
Olds, Sharon l912 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl20
Olearius, Adam l599lo7l . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo1
O`Leary, Ellen l83ll889 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL210
O`Leary, |uan E. l879l9o9. . . . . . . . . . . . DL290
Olesha, Iurii Karlovich l899l9o0. . . . . . . DL272
Oliphant, Laurence l829.l888. . . . . . DLl8, loo
Oliphant, Margaret l828l897. . . DLl8, l59, l90
'Modern NovelistsGreat and Small"
(l855) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l
Oliveira, Carlos de l92ll98l. . . . . . . . . . DL287
Oliver, Chad l928l993 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL8
Oliver, Mary l935 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL5, l93
Ollier, Claude l922 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL83
Olsen, Jillie l9l2/l9l32007
. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL28, 20o; Y80; CDAL7
Olson, Charles l9l0l970 . . . . . . . . DL5, lo, l93
Olson, Elder l909l992. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL18, o3
Olson, Sigurd I. l899l982 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL275
Jhe Omega Workshops. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DSl0
Omotoso, Kole l913 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl25
Omulevsky, Innokentii Vasilèvich
l83o |or l837|l883 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL238
Ondaatje, Michael l913 . . . . . DLo0, 323, 32o
O`Neill, Eugene l888l953 . DL7, 33l; CDAL5
Eugene O`Neill Memorial Jheater
Center. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL7
Eugene O`Neill`s Letters. A Review . . . . . .Y88
Onetti, |uan Carlos
l909l991 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll3; CDWL3
Onions, George Oliver l872l9ol. . . . . . . DLl53
Onofri, Arturo l885l928 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll1
O`Nolan, rian l9lll9oo. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL23l
Oodgeroo of the Jribe Noonuccal
(Kath Walker) l920l993 . . . . . . . . . . DL289
Opie, Amelia l7o9l853. . . . . . . . . . . DLllo, l59
Opitz, Martin l597lo39 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo1
Oppen, George l908l981. . . . . . . . . . . DL5, lo5
Oppenheim, E. Ihillips l8ool91o . . . . . . . DL70
Oppenheim, |ames l882l932. . . . . . . . . . . DL28
Oppenheimer, |oel l930l988 . . . . . . . . DL5, l93
Optic, Oliver (see Adams, William Jaylor)
Orczy, Emma, aroness l8o5l917 . . . . . . . DL70
Oregon Shakespeare Iestival . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y00
`~ f ai_ PPO
SNO
Origo, Iris l902l988 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl55
O`Riordan, Kate l9o0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o7
Orlovitz, Gil l9l8l973. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2, 5
Orlovsky, Ieter l933 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo
Ormond, |ohn l923 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL27
Ornitz, Samuel l890l957 . . . . . . . . . . DL28, 11
O`Rourke, I. |. l917 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl85
Orozco, Olga l920l999. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL283
Orten, |i l9l9l91l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l5
Ortese, Anna Maria l9l1 . . . . . . . . . . .DLl77
Ortiz, Lourdes l913 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL322
Ortiz, Simon |. l91l . . . . . . . . DLl20, l75, 25o
l and t circa l225l250 . . . . DLl38
Orton, |oe l933l9o7 . . . . DLl3, 3l0; CDL8
Orwell, George (Eric Arthur lair)
l903l950 . . DLl5, 98, l95, 255; CDL7
Jhe Orwell Year. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y81
(Re)Iublishing Orwell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y8o
Ory, Carlos Edmundo de l923 . . . . . . DLl31
Osbey, renda Marie l957 . . . . . . . . . . DLl20
Osbon, . S. l827l9l2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL13
Osborn, Sarah l7l1l79o . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL200
Osborne, |ohn l929l991. . . . . DLl3; CDL7
l~ ~ i~I l988 ooker Irize winner,
Ieter Carey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL32o
Osgood, Irances Sargent l8lll850. . . . . DL250
Osgood, Herbert L. l855l9l8. . . . . . . . . . DL17
|ames R. Osgood and Company . . . . . . . . DL19
Osgood, McIlvaine and Company . . . . . . DLll2
O`Shaughnessy, Arthur l811l88l. . . . . . . DL35
Iatrick O`Shea |publishing house| . . . . . . . DL19
Osipov, Nikolai Ietrovich l75ll799. . . . . DLl50
Oskison, |ohn Milton l879l917. . . . . . . . .DLl75
Osler, Sir William l819l9l9 . . . . . . . . . . DLl81
Osofisan, Iemi l91o . . . . DLl25; CDWL3
Ostenso, Martha l900l9o3 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL92
Ostrauskas, Kostas l92o . . . . . . . . . . . . DL232
Ostriker, Alicia l937 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl20
Ostrovsky, Aleksandr Nikolaevich
l823l88o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DL277
Ostrovsky, Nikolai Alekseevich
l901l93o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL272
Osundare, Niyi l917 . . . . .DLl57; CDWL3
Oswald, Eleazer l755l795 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL13
Oswald von Wolkenstein
l37o or l377l115 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl79
Otero, las de l9lol979 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl31
Otero, Miguel Antonio l859l911 . . . . . . . DL82
Otero, Nina l88ll9o5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL209
Otero Silva, Miguel l908l985. . . . . . . . . DLl15
Otfried von Weienburg
circa 800circa 875. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl18
Otis, roaders and Company. . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Otis, |ames (see Kaler, |ames Otis)
Otis, |ames, |r. l725l783 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l
Otsup, Nikolai l891l958. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l7
Ottaway, |ames l9ll2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl27
Ottendorfer, Oswald l82ol900 . . . . . . . . . DL23
Ottieri, Ottiero l9212002 . . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl77
OttoIeters, Louise l8l9l895 . . . . . . . . . DLl29
Otway, Jhomas lo52lo85 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL80
Ouellette, Iernand l930 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo0
Ouida l839l908 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl8, l5o
Outing Iublishing Company . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Overbury, Sir Jhomas
circa l58llol3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl5l
Jhe Overlook Iress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Ovid 13 _.`.^.a. l7 . . . . . . . DL2ll; CDWLl
Oviedo, Gonzalo Iernndez de
l178l557. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l8
Owen, Guy l925l98l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL5
Owen, |ohn l5o1lo22. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl2l
|ohn Owen |publishing house| . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Ieter Owen Limited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll2
Owen, Robert l77ll858 . . . . . . . . . . DLl07, l58
Owen, Wilfred
l893l9l8 . . . . . . . DL20; DSl8; CDLo
A Centenary Celebration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y93
Jhe Wilfred Owen Association . . . . . . . . . Y98
q l ~ k~
circa ll89ll99 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl1o
Owsley, Irank L. l890l95o. . . . . . . . . . . . DLl7
Oxford, Seventeenth Earl of, Edward
de Vere l550lo01 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl72
OyamO (Charles I. Gordon)
l913 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2oo
Ozerov, Vladislav Aleksandrovich
l7o9l8lo. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl50
Ozick, Cynthia l928 . . . DL28, l52, 299; Y82
Iirst Strauss 'Livings`` Awarded
to Cynthia Ozick and
Raymond Carver
An Interview with Cynthia Ozick . . . . Y83
m
Iace, Richard l182.l53o . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo7
Iacey, Desmond l9l7l975. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL88
Iacheco, |os Emilio l939 . . . . . . . . . . DL290
Iack, Robert l929 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL5
m~ `~ e~ e~ e~I l993 ooker Irize winner,
Roddy Doyle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL32o
Iadell Iublishing Company . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Iadgett, Ron l912 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL5
Iadilla, Ernesto Chvez l911 . . . . . . . DLl22
L. C. Iage and Company. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Iage, Louise l955 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL233
Iage, I. K. l9lo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo8
Iage, Jhomas Nelson
l853l922 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl2, 78; DSl3
Iage, Walter Hines l855l9l8 . . . . . . . .DL7l, 9l
Iaget, Irancis Edward l80ol882 . . . . . . DLlo3
Iaget, Violet (see Lee, Vernon)
Iagliarani, Elio l927 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl28
Iagnol, Marcel l895l971. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL32l
Iain, arry l8o1l928 . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl35, l97
Iain, Ihilip .circa looo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL21
Iaine, Robert Jreat, |r. l773l8ll . . . . . . . DL37
Iaine, Jhomas
l737l809 . . . . DL3l, 13, 73, l58; CDAL2
Iainter, George D. l9l1 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl55
Iainter, William l510.l591. . . . . . . . . . . DLl3o
Ialazzeschi, Aldo l885l971. . . . . . . DLll1, 2o1
Ialei, Marina Anatolèvna l955 . . . . . . DL285
Ialencia, Alfonso de l121l192 . . . . . . . . DL28o
Ials Matos, Luis l898l959 . . . . . . . . . . DL290
Ialey, Grace l922 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL28, 2l8
Ialey, William l713l805 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL252
Ialfrey, |ohn Gorham
l79ol88l. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl, 30, 235
Ialgrave, Irancis Jurner l821l897 . . . . . . DL35
Ialissy, ernard l5l0.l590. . . . . . . . . . . DL327
Ialmer, |oe H. l901l952. . . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl7l
Ialmer, Michael l913 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo9
Ialmer, Nettie l885l9o1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o0
Ialmer, Vance l885l959 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o0
Ialtock, Robert lo97l7o7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL39
Ialudan, |acob l89ol975. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l1
IaludinMller, Irederik l809l87o . . . . . DL300
Ian ooks Limited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll2
Ianaev, Ivan Ivanovich l8l2l8o2 . . . . . . DLl98
Ianaeva, Avdotìa Iakovlevna
l820l893 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL238
Ianama, Norman l9l12003 and
Irank, Melvin l9l3l988. . . . . . . . . . . DL2o
Iancake, reece D`| l952l979. . . . . . . . . DLl30
Ianduro, Leif l923l977. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l1
Ianero, Leopoldo l909l9o2 . . . . . . . . . . DLl08
Iangborn, Edgar l909l97o . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL8
Ianizzi, Sir Anthony l797l879. . . . . . . . . DLl81
Ianneton, Ihilippe (see Ringuet)
Ianova, Vera Iedorovna l905l973 . . . . . DL302
Ianshin, Alexei l910 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL8
Iansy (see Alden, Isabella)
Iantheon ooks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Iapadatengescu, Hortensia
l87ol955. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL220
Iapantonio, Michael l907l97o . . . . . . . . .DLl87
Iaperback Library . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
ai_ PPO `~ f
SNP
`
Iaperback Science Iiction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL8

Iapini, Giovanni l88ll95o. . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o1
Iaquet, Alfons l88ll911 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLoo
Iaracelsus l193l51l. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl79
Iaradis, Suzanne l93o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL53
Iral, Vladimr, l932 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL232
Iardoe, |ulia l801l8o2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLloo
Iar, Ambroise l5l0 or l5l7.l590 . . . . . DL327
Iaredes, Amrico l9l5l999 . . . . . . . . . . . DL209
Iareja Diezcanseco, Alfredo l908l993 . . . DLl15
Iarents` Magazine Iress. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Iaretsky, Sara l917 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL30o
Iarfit, Derek l912 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o2
Iarise, Goffredo l929l98o . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl77
Iarish, Mitchell l900l993 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o5
Iarizeau, Alice l930l990 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo0
Iark, Ruth l923. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o0
Iarke, |ohn l751l789 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l
Iarker, Dan l893l9o7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL21l
Iarker, Dorothy l893l9o7 . . . . . . . DLll, 15, 8o
Iarker, Gilbert l8o0l932 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL99
Iarker, |ames l7l1l770. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL13
Iarker, |ohn |publishing house| . . . . . . . . . DLl0o
Iarker, Matthew l501l575 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l3
Iarker, Robert . l932 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL30o
Iarker, Stewart l91ll988 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL215
Iarker, Jheodore l8l0l8o0 . . . . DLl, 235; DS5
Iarker, William Riley l90ol9o8. . . . . . . . DLl03
|. H. Iarker |publishing house| . . . . . . . . . DLl0o
Iarkes, essie Rayner (Madame elloc)
l829l925 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL210
Iarkman, Irancis
l823l893 . . . . . . . . . DLl, 30, l83, l8o, 235
Iarks, Gordon l9l2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL33
Iarks, Jim l951 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL23l
Iarks, William lo98l750 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL13
William Iarks |publishing house|. . . . . . . . . DL19
Iarley, Ieter (see Goodrich, Samuel Griswold)
Iarmenides late sixthfifth century _.`. . . . DLl7o
Iarnell, Jhomas lo79l7l8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL95
Iarnicki, Jeodor l908l988. . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l5
Iarnok, Sofiia Iakovlevna (Iarnokh)
l885l933 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL295
Iarr, Catherine l5l3.l518 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl3o
Iarra, Nicanor l9l1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL283
Iarrington, Vernon L. l87ll929. . . . . . DLl7, o3
Iarrish, Maxfield l870l9oo . . . . . . . . . . . DLl88
Iarronchi, Alessandro l9l1 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl28
Iarshchikov, Aleksei Maksimovich
(Raiderman) l951 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL285
m~~ o. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL303
Iarton, |ames l822l89l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL30
Iarton, Sara Iayson Willis
l8lll872 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL13, 71, 239
S. W. Iartridge and Company. . . . . . . . . . DLl0o
Iarun, Vesna l922 . . . . . . DLl8l; CDWL1
Iascal, laise lo23loo2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o8
Iasinetti, Iier Maria l9l3 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl77
Iasolini, Iier Iaolo l922l975. . . . . . DLl28, l77
Iastan, Linda l932 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL5
Iasternak, oris
l890l9o0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL302, 33l
Iaston, George (Emily Morse Symonds)
l8o0l93o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl19, l97
q m~ i l122l509 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl1o
Iastoral Novel of the Sixteenth
Century, Jhe. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l8
Iastorius, Irancis Daniel
lo5lcirca l720 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL21
Iatchen, Kenneth l9lll972 . . . . . . . . . DLlo, 18
Iater, Walter l839l891. . . DL57, l5o; CDL1
Aesthetic Ioetry (l873) . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL35
'Style" (l888) |excerpt| . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL57
Iaterson, A. . 'anjo" l8o1l91l . . . . . . DL230
Iaterson, Katherine l932 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL52
Iatmore, Coventry l823l89o. . . . . . . . DL35, 98
Iaton, Alan l903l988 . . . . . . . . . DL225; DSl7
Iaton, |oseph Noel l82ll90l. . . . . . . . . . . DL35
Iaton Walsh, |ill l937 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlol
Iatrick, Edwin Hill ('Jed") l90ll9o1 . . . DLl37
Iatrick, |ohn l90ol995. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL7
Iattee, Ired Lewis l8o3l950 . . . . . . . . . . . DL7l
Iatterson, Alicia l90ol9o3 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl27
Iatterson, Eleanor Medill l88ll918. . . . . . DL29
Iatterson, Eugene l923 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl27
Iatterson, |oseph Medill l879l91o. . . . . . . DL29
Iattillo, Henry l72ol80l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL37
Iaul, Elliot l89ll958 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1; DSl5
Iaul, |ean (see Richter, |ohann Iaul Iriedrich)
Iaul, Kegan, Jrench, Jrubner and
Company Limited. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl0o
Ieter Iaul ook Company. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Stanley Iaul and Company Limited . . . . . DLll2
Iaulding, |ames Kirke
l778l8o0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3, 59, 71, 250
Iaulin, Jom l919 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL10
Iauper, Ieter, Iress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Iaustovsky, Konstantin Georgievich
l892l9o8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL272
Iavese, Cesare l908l950 . . . . . . . . . DLl28, l77
Iavi, Milorad l929 . . . . . DLl8l; CDWL1
Iavlov, Konstantin l933 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl8l
Iavlov, Nikolai Iilippovich l803l8o1 . . . . . DLl98
Iavlova, Karolina Karlovna l807l893. . . . . DL205
Iavlovi, Miodrag
l928 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl8l; CDWL1
Iavlovsky, Eduardo l933 . . . . . . . . . . . DL305
Iaxton, |ohn l9lll985. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL11
Iayn, |ames l830l898 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl8
Iayne, |ohn l812l9lo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL35
Iayne, |ohn Howard l79ll852. . . . . . . . . . DL37
Iayson and Clarke. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Iaz, Octavio l9l1l998 . . . DL290, 33l; Y90, 98
Nobel Lecture l990. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y90
Iazzi, Roberto l91o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl9o
Iea, Enrico l88ll958. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o1
Ieabody, Elizabeth Ialmer
l801l891 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl, 223
Ireface to o ~ pW
b d~ m
p~ ` . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DS5
Elizabeth Ialmer Ieabody
Ieabody, |osephine Ireston l871l922 . . . DL219
Ieabody, Oliver William ourn
l799l818 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL59
Ieace, Roger l899l9o8. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl27
Ieacham, Henry l578lo11. . . . . . . . . . . . DLl5l
Ieacham, Henry, the Elder
l517lo31 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl72, 23o
Ieachtree Iublishers, Limited . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Ieacock, Molly l917 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl20
Ieacock, Jhomas Love l785l8oo. . . . DL9o, llo
Iead, Deuel .l727. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL21
Ieake, Mervyn l9lll9o8 . . . . . . DLl5, lo0, 255
Ieale, Rembrandt l778l8o0 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl83
Iear Jree Iress. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll2
Iearce, Ihilippa l920 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlol
H. . Iearson |publishing house| . . . . . . . . . DL19
Iearson, Hesketh l887l9o1 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl19
Ieattie, Donald Culross l898l9o1 . . . . . . DL275
Iechersky, Andrei (see Mel`nikov, Iavel Ivanovich)
Ieck, George W. l810l9lo. . . . . . . . . . DL23, 12
H. C. Ieck and Jheo. liss
Ieck, Harry Jhurston l85ol9l1 . . . . . DL7l, 9l
Ieden, William l9l3l999. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL231
Jribute to William Goyen . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y83
Ieele, George l55ol59o . . . . . . . . . . . DLo2, lo7
Iegler, Westbrook l891l9o9. . . . . . . . . . . DLl7l
Iguy, Charles l873l9l1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL258
Ieirce, Charles Sanders l839l9l1 . . . . . . DL270
Ieki, orislav l930l992 . . . DLl8l; CDWL1
Ielecanos, George I. l957 . . . . . . . . . . . DL30o
Ieletier du Mans, |acques l5l7l582 . . . . . DL327
Ielevin, Viktor Olegovich l9o2 . . . . . . DL285
`~ f ai_ PPO
SNQ
Iellegrini and Cudahy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Ielletier, Aim (see Vac, ertrand)
Ielletier, Irancine l959 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL25l
Iellicer, Carlos l897.l977 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL290
Iemberton, Sir Max l8o3l950 . . . . . . . . . DL70
de la Iea, Jerri l917 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL209
Ienfield, Edward l8ool925. . . . . . . . . . . DLl88
Ienguin ooks |L.K.| . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll2
Iifty Ienguin Years. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y85
Ienguin Collectors` Society . . . . . . . . . . . . Y98
Ienguin ooks |L.S.| . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Ienn, William lo11l7l8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL21
Ienn Iublishing Company . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Ienna, Sandro l90ol977 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll1
Iennell, |oseph l857l92o. . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl88
Ienner, |onathan l910 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y83
Iennington, Lee l939 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y82
Ienton, rian l901l95l . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o0
Iepper, Stephen C. l89ll972 . . . . . . . . . .DL270
Iepys, Samuel
lo33l703. . . . . . . . . DLl0l, 2l3; CDL2
Iercy, Jhomas l729l8ll. . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl01
Iercy, Walker l9lol990 . . . . . . . . DL2; Y80, 90
Jribute to Caroline Gordon. . . . . . . . . . . . Y8l
Iercy, William l575lo18 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl72
Ierec, Georges l93ol982. . . . . . . . . . DL83, 299
Ierelman, ob l917 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl93
Ierelman, S. |. l901l979 . . . . . . . . . . . DLll, 11
Ierez, Raymundo 'Jigre"
l91o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl22
Irez de Ayala, Ramn l880l9o2. . . . . . DL322
Irez de Guzmn, Iernn
ca. l377ca. l1o0. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL28o
IrezReverte, Arturo l95l . . . . . . . . . DL322
Ieri Rossi, Cristina l91l . . . . . . . DLl15, 290
Ierkins, Eugene l932 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1l
Ierkins, Maxwell
Jhe Claims of usiness and Literature.
An Lndergraduate Essay . . . . . . . . . . Y0l
Ierkins, William l558lo02 . . . . . . . . . . . DL28l
Ierkoff, Stuart Z. l930l971 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo
Ierley, Moses Henry l801l8o2. . . . . . . . . DL99
Iermabooks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Ierovsky, Aleksei Alekseevich
(Antonii Iogorel`sky) l787l83o. . . . . DLl98
Ierrault, Charles lo28l703. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o8
Ierri, Henry l5ollol7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL23o
Ierrin, Alice l8o7l931. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl5o
Ierry, Anne l938 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DL27o
Ierry, liss l8o0l951. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL7l
Ierry, Eleanor l9l5l98l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL11
Ierry, Henry (see Ierri, Henry)
Ierry, Matthew l791l858 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl83
Ierry, Sampson l717l823 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl58
Ierse, Saint|ohn l887l975. . . . . . . . DL258, 33l
Iersius ^.a. 31^.a. o2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2ll
Ierutz, Leo l882l957 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL8l
Iesetsky, ette l932 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl30
Iessanha, Camilo l8o7l92o. . . . . . . . . . . DL287
Iessoa, Iernando l888l935. . . . . . . . . . . DL287
Iestalozzi, |ohann Heinrich l71ol827 . . . . DL91
Ieter, Laurence |. l9l9l990. . . . . . . . . . . . DL53
Ieter of Spain circa l205l277 . . . . . . . . . DLll5
Ieterkin, |ulia l880l9ol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL9
Ieters, Ellis (Edith Iargeter)
l9l3l995 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DL27o
Ieters, Lenrie l932 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DLll7
Ieters, Robert l921 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl05
'Ioreword to i _~~" . . . . . DLl05
Ietersham, Maud l889l97l and
Ietersham, Miska l888l9o0 . . . . . . . . DL22
Ieterson, Charles |acobs l8l9l887 . . . . . . DL79
Ieterson, Len l9l7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL88
Ieterson, Levi S. l933 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL20o
Ieterson, Louis l922l998 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL7o
Ieterson, J. ., and rothers . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Ietitclair, Iierre l8l3l8o0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL99
Ietrescu, Camil l891l957 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL220
Ietronius circa ^.a. 20^.a. oo
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2ll; CDWLl
Ietrov, Aleksandar l938 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl8l
Ietrov, Evgenii (Evgenii Ietrovich Kataev)
l903l912 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DL272
Ietrov, Gavriil l730l80l . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl50
Ietrov, Valeri l920 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl8l
Ietrov, Vasilii Ietrovich l73ol799 . . . . . . DLl50
Ietrovi, Rastko
l898l919 . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl17; CDWL1
Ietrushevskaia, Liudmila Stefanovna
l938 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL285
m circa 851. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl18
Ietry, Ann l908l997 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL7o
Iettie, George circa l518l589 . . . . . . . . . DLl3o
Itur Gunnarsson l917 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL293
Ieyton, K. M. l929 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlol
Ifaffe Konrad fl. circa ll72. . . . . . . . . . . . DLl18
Ifaffe Lamprecht fl. circa ll50 . . . . . . . . . DLl18
Ifeiffer, Emily l827l890 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl99
Iforzheimer, Carl H. l879l957 . . . . . . . . DLl10
Ihaedrus circa l8 _.`.circa ^.a. 50 . . . . . DL2ll
Ihaer, Jhomas l5l0.l5o0 . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo7
Ihaidon Iress Limited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll2
Iharr, Robert Deane l9lol992 . . . . . . . . . DL33
Ihelps, Elizabeth Stuart l8l5l852. . . . . . DL202
Ihelps, Elizabeth Stuart l811l9ll. . . .DL71, 22l
Ihilander von der Linde
(see Mencke, |ohann urckhard)
Ihilby, H. St. |ohn . l885l9o0 . . . . . . . DLl95
Ihilip, Marlene Nourbese l917 . . . . . . .DLl57
Ihilippe, CharlesLouis l871l909 . . . . . . . DLo5
Ihilips, |ohn lo7ol708. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL95
Ihilips, Katherine lo32loo1 . . . . . . . . . . DLl3l
Ihillipps, Sir Jhomas l792l872. . . . . . . . DLl81
Ihillips, Caryl l958 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl57
Ihillips, David Graham
l8o7l9ll. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL9, l2, 303
Ihillips, |ayne Anne l952 . . . . . . DL292; Y80
Jribute to Seymour Lawrence . . . . . . . . . . Y91
Ihillips, Robert l938 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl05
'Iinding, Losing, Reclaiming. A Note
on My Ioems". . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl05
Jribute to William Goyen . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y83
Ihillips, Stephen l8o1l9l5 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl0
Ihillips, Llrich . l877l931. . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl7
Ihillips, Wendell l8lll881 . . . . . . . . . . . DL235
Ihillips, Willard l781l873 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL59
Ihillips, William l9072002 . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl37
Ihillips, Sampson and Company . . . . . . . . DL19
Ihillpotts, Adelaide Eden (Adelaide Ross)
l89ol993 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl9l
Ihillpotts, Eden l8o2l9o0. . . DLl0, 70, l35, l53
Ihilo circa 20l5 _.`.circa ^.a. 50 . . . . . . .DLl7o
m~ a~I Voltaire. . . . . . . . . . DL3l1
Ihilosophical Library . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Ihilosophy
EighteenthCentury Ihilosophical
ackground. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l
Ihilosophic Jhought in oston . . . . . DL235
Jranslators of the Jwelfth Century.
Literary Issues Raised and
Impact Created . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll5
Elihu Ihinney |publishing house| . . . . . . . . DL19
Ihoenix, |ohn (see Derby, George Horatio)
IHYLON (Iourth _uarter, l950),
Jhe Negro in Literature.
Jhe Current Scene. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL7o
m circa l070circa ll50. . . . . . . . . DLl18
II.O. (Ii O, Ieter Oustabasides)
l95l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL325
Iiccolo, Lucio l903l9o9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll1
Iichette, Henri l9212000 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL32l
Iickard, Jom l91o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL10
William Iickering |publishing house| . . . . DLl0o
Iickthall, Marjorie l883l922 . . . . . . . . . . DL92
Iicoult, |odi l9oo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL292
Iictorial Irinting Company . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Iiel, Gerard l9l52001. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl37
ai_ PPO `~ f
SNR
`
'An Announcement to Our Readers,"

Gerard Iiel`s Statement in p
^~ (April l918) . . . . . . . . . . DLl37
Iielmeier, |ohn l919 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2oo
Iiercy, Marge l93o . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl20, 227
Iierre, DC l9ol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL32o
Iierro, Albino l9lol995. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl28
Iignotti, Lamberto l92o . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl28
Iike, Albert l809l89l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL71
Iike, Zebulon Montgomery l779l8l3 . . . DLl83
Iillat, Ion l89ll915 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL220
Iil`niak, oris Andreevich (oris Andreevich
Vogau) l891l938 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL272
Iilon, |eanGuy l930 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo0
Iinar, Ilorencia fl. ca. late
fifteenth century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL28o
Iinckney, Eliza Lucas l722l793 . . . . . . . . DL200
Iinckney, |osephine l895l957 . . . . . . . . . . . DLo
Iindar circa 5l8 _.`.circa 138 _.`.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl7o; CDWLl
Iindar, Ieter (see Wolcot, |ohn)
Iineda, Cecile l912 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL209
Iinero, Arthur Wing l855l931 . . . . . . . . . DLl0
Iiero, Miguel l91ol988 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2oo
Iinget, Robert l9l9l997. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL83
Iinkney, Edward Coote
l802l828 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL218
Iinnacle ooks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Iion, Nlida l935 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl15, 307
Iinsky, Robert l910 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y82
Reappointed Ioet Laureate . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y98
Iinter, Harold l930
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl3, 3l0, 33l; CDL8
Writing for the Jheatre . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl3
Iinto, Ierno Mendes l509/l5ll.l583 . . DL287
Iiontek, Heinz l925 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL75
Iiozzi, Hester Lynch |Jhrale|
l71ll82l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl01, l12
Iiper, H. eam l901l9o1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL8
Iiper, Watty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL22
Iirandello, Luigi l8o7l93o . . . . . . . . DL2o1, 33l
Iirckheimer, Caritas l1o7l532 . . . . . . . . . DLl79
Iirckheimer, Willibald l170l530 . . . . . . . DLl79
Iires, |os Cardoso l925l998. . . . . . . . . . DL287
Iisar, Samuel l929 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y83
Iisarev, Dmitrii Ivanovich l810l8o8 . . . . DL277
Iisemsky, Aleksei Ieofilaktovich
l82ll88l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL238
Iitkin, Jimothy l7ool817. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL30
Iitter, Ruth l897l992 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL20
Iix, Mary loool709 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL80
Iixercourt, Ren Charles Guilbert de
l773l811 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl92
Iizarnik, Alejandra l93ol972 . . . . . . . . . . DL283
Il, |osefina l909l999 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL290
Ilaatje, Sol J. l87ol932 . . . . . . . . . . DLl25, 225
Ilanchon, Roger l93l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL32l
Ilante, David l910 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y83
Ilantinga, Alvin l932 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL279
Ilaten, August von l79ol835 . . . . . . . . . . . DL90
Ilath, Sylvia
l932l9o3 . . . . . . . . . DL5, o, l52; CDALl
Ilato circa 128 _.`.318317 _.`.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl7o; CDWLl
Ilato, Ann l821. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL239
Ilaton l737l8l2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl50
Ilatonov, Andrei Ilatonovich (Andrei
Ilatonovich Klimentev)
l899l95l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL272
Ilatt, Charles l915 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2ol
Ilatt and Munk Company. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Ilautus circa 251 _.`.l81 _.`.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2ll; CDWLl
Ilayboy Iress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
|ohn Ilayford |publishing house| . . . . . . . . DLl70
Der Ileier fl. circa l250 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl38
Ileijel, Agneta l910 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL257
Ilenzdorf, Llrich l931 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL75
Ileshcheev, Aleksei Nikolaevich
l825.l893 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL277
Ilessen, Elizabeth l911 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL75
Iletnev, Ietr Aleksandrovich
l792l8o5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL205
Iliekne, Elza Rozenberga (see Aspazija)
Iliekns, |nis (see Rainis, |nis)
Ilievier, Jheodor l892l955 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo9
Ilimpton, George l9272003 . . DLl85, 21l; Y99
Iliny the Elder ^.a. 23/21^.a. 79 . . . . . . . DL2ll
Iliny the Younger
circa ^.a. ol^.a. ll2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2ll
Ilomer, William
l903l973 . . . . . . . . . . . DL20, lo2, l9l, 225
Ilotinus 201270. . . . . . . . . . . DLl7o; CDWLl
Ilowright, Jeresa l952 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL25l
Ilume, Jhomas lo30l701 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l3
Ilumly, Stanley l939 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL5, l93
Ilumpp, Sterling D. l910 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1l
Ilunkett, |ames l9202003. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl1
Ilutarch
circa 1ocirca l20. . . . . . . DLl7o; CDWLl
Ilymell, Charles l935 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo
Iocket ooks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Iodest, |os |. l858l937 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL305
Ioe, Edgar Allan l809l819
. . . . . . . . . . DL3, 59, 73, 71, 218; CDAL2
Jhe Ioe Studies Association . . . . . . . . . . . .Y99
Ioe, |ames l92ll980 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL11
Jhe Ioet Laureate of the Lnited States . . . . . . .Y8o
Statements from Iormer Consultants
in Ioetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y8o
Ioetry
Aesthetic Ioetry (l873) . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL35
A Century of Ioetry, a Lifetime of
Collecting. |. M. Edelstein`s
Collection of Jwentieth
Century American Ioetry. . . . . . . . . . .Y02
'Certain Gifts," by etty Adcock . . . . DLl05
Concrete Ioetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL307
Contempo Caravan. Kites in a
Windstorm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y85
'Contemporary Verse Storytelling,"
by |onathan Holden . . . . . . . . . . . DLl05
'A Detail in a Ioem," by Ired
Chappell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl05
'Jhe English Renaissance of Art"
(l908), by Oscar Wilde . . . . . . . . . DL35
'Every Man His Own Ioet; or,
Jhe Inspired Singer`s Recipe
ook" (l877), by
H. W. Mallock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL35
'Eyes Across Centuries. Contemporary
Ioetry and 'Jhat Vision Jhing,`"
by Ihilip Dacey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl05
A Iield Guide to Recent Schools
of American Ioetry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y8o
'Iinding, Losing, Reclaiming.
A Note on My Ioems,
by Robert Ihillips" . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl05
'Jhe Ileshly School of Ioetry and Other
Ihenomena of the Day" (l872). . . . DL35
'Jhe Ileshly School of Ioetry.
Mr. D. G. Rossetti" (l87l) . . . . . . . DL35
Jhe G. Ross Roy Scottish Ioetry Collection
at the Lniversity of South Carolina . . .Y89
'Getting Started. Accepting the Regions
You Ownor Which Own You,"
by Walter McDonald . . . . . . . . . . DLl05
'Jhe Good, Jhe Not So Good," by
Stephen Dunn. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl05
Jhe Griffin Ioetry Irize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y00
Jhe Hero as Ioet. Dante; Shakspeare
(l81l), by Jhomas Carlyle . . . . . . DL32
'Images and 'Images,`" by Charles
Simic. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl05
'Into the Mirror," by Ieter Cooley . . . DLl05
'Knots into Webs. Some Autobiographical
Sources," by Dabney Stuart . . . . . DLl05
'LÈnvoi" (l882), by Oscar Wilde . . . . DL35
'Living in Ruin," by Gerald Stern . . . DLl05
Looking for the Golden Mountain.
Ioetry Reviewing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y89
Lyric Ioetry (Irench) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DL2o8
Medieval GalicianIortuguese
Ioetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL287
'Jhe No Self, the Little Self, and the
Ioets," by Richard Moore . . . . . . DLl05
On Some of the Characteristics of Modern
Ioetry and On the Lyrical Ioems of
Alfred Jennyson (l83l) . . . . . . . . . DL32
Jhe Iitt Ioetry Series. Ioetry Iublishing
Joday . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y85
'Jhe Ioetry Iile," by Edward
Iield . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl05
`~ f ai_ PPO
SNS
Ioetry in NineteenthCentury Irance.
Cultural ackground and Critical
Commentary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l7
Jhe Ioetry of |orge Luis orges . . . . . . . . Y8o
'Jhe Ioet`s Kaleidoscope. Jhe Element
of Surprise in the Making of the
Ioem" by Madeline DeIrees . . . . DLl05
Jhe IreRaphaelite Controversy . . . . . DL35
Irotest Ioetry in Castile. . . . . . . . . . . DL28o
'Reflections. After a Jornado,"
by |udson |erome. . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl05
Statements from Iormer Consultants
in Ioetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y8o
Statements on the Art of Ioetry . . . . . . DL51
Jhe Study of Ioetry (l880), by
Matthew Arnold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL35
A Survey of Ioetry Anthologies,
l879l9o0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL51
Jhoughts on Ioetry and Its Varieties
(l833), by |ohn Stuart Mill . . . . . . DL32
Lnder the Microscope (l872), by
A. C. Swinburne . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL35
Jhe Lnterberg Ioetry Center of the
92nd Street Y. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y98
Victorian Ioetry. Iive Critical
Views. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLV35
Year in Ioetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y83-92, 91-0l
Year`s Work in American Ioetry . . . . . . . . Y82
Ioets
q i m (l753). . . . . . . . . . DLl12
Minor Ioets of the Earlier
Seventeenth Century . . . . . . . . . . DLl2l
Other ritish Ioets Who Iell
in the Great War . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2lo
Other Ioets |Irench| . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l7
SecondGeneration Minor Ioets of
the Seventeenth Century . . . . . . . DLl2o
JhirdGeneration Minor Ioets of
the Seventeenth Century . . . . . . . DLl3l
Iogodin, Mikhail Ietrovich l800l875 . . . DLl98
Iogorel`sky, Antonii
(see Ierovsky, Aleksei Alekseevich)
Iohl, Irederik l9l9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL8
Jribute to Jheodore Sturgeon . . . . . . . . . . Y85
Ioirier, Louis (see Gracq, |ulien)
Iolek, Karel l892l915 . . . DL2l5; CDWL1
Iolanyi, Michael l89ll97o . . . . . . . . . . . DLl00
Iole, Reginald l500l558 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl32
Iolevoi, Nikolai Alekseevich l79ol81o . . DLl98
Iolezhaev, Aleksandr Ivanovich
l801l838 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL205
Ioliakoff, Stephen l952 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl3
Iolidori, |ohn William l795l82l. . . . . . . DLllo
Iolite, Carlene Hatcher l932 . . . . . . . . . DL33
Iollard, Alfred W. l859l911 . . . . . . . . . . DL20l
Iollard, Edward A. l832l872 . . . . . . . . . . DL30
Iollard, Graham l903l97o . . . . . . . . . . . DL20l
Iollard, Iercival l8o9l9ll. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL7l
Iollard and Moss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Iollock, Sharon l93o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo0
Iolonsky, Abraham l9l0l999. . . . . . . . . . DL2o
Iolonsky, Iakov Ietrovich l8l9l898 . . . . .DL277
Iolotsky, Simeon lo29lo80. . . . . . . . . . . DLl50
Iolybius circa 200 _.`.ll8 _.`. . . . . . . . . .DLl7o
Iomialovsky, Nikolai Gerasimovich
l835l8o3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL238
Iomilio, Mario l92ll990 . . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl77
Iompia, Raul (Raul dÀvila Iompia)
l8o3l895 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL307
Ionce, Mary Helen l938 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl22
IonceMontoya, |uanita l919 . . . . . . . DLl22
Ionet, |ohn l5lo.l55o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl32
Ionge, Irancis l899l988. . . . . . . . . DL258; Y02
Ioniatowska, Elena
l933 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DLll3; CDWL3
Ionsard, Iranois l8l1l8o7 . . . . . . . . . . DLl92
William Ionsonby |publishing house|. . . . .DLl70
Iontiggia, Giuseppe l931 . . . . . . . . . . DLl9o
Iontoppidan, Henrik l857l913 . . . . DL300, 33l
Iony Stories, Omnibus Essay on . . . . . . . DLlo0
Ioole, Ernest l880l950. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL9
Ioole, Sophia l801l89l. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLloo
Ioore, enjamin Ierley l820l887 . . . . . . . DL23
Iopa, Vasko l922l99l . . . . DLl8l; CDWL1
Iope, Abbie Hanscom l858l891. . . . . . . DLl10
Iope, Alexander
lo88l711. . . . . . DL95, l0l, 2l3; CDL2
Ioplavsky, oris l903l935 . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l7
Iopov, Aleksandr Serafimovich
(see Serafimovich, Aleksandr Serafimovich)
Iopov, Evgenii Anatolèvich l91o . . . . DL285
Iopov, Mikhail Ivanovich
l712circa l790. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl50
Iopovi, Aleksandar l929l99o . . . . . . . . DLl8l
Iopper, Karl l902l991 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o2
Iopular Culture Association/
American Culture Association . . . . . . . . Y99
Iopular Library . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Ioquelin, |eanaptiste (see Molire)
Iorete, Marguerite .l3l0. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL208
Iorlock, Martin (see MacDonald, Ihilip)
Iorpoise Iress. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll2
Iorta, Antonio l935l989. . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl28
Iorter, Anna Maria l780l832 . . . . . DLllo, l59
Iorter, Cole l89ll9o1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o5
Iorter, David l780l813 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl83
Iorter, Dorothy l951 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL325
Iorter, Eleanor H. l8o8l920. . . . . . . . . . . . DL9
Iorter, Gene Stratton (see StrattonIorter, Gene)
Iorter, Hal l9lll981. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o0
Iorter, Henry circa sixteenth century . . . . . DLo2
Iorter, |ane l77ol850 . . . . . . . . . . . .DLllo, l59
Iorter, Katherine Anne l890l980
. . . . . . . DL1, 9, l02; Y80; DSl2; CDAL7
Jhe Katherine Anne Iorter Society . . . . . . Y0l
Iorter, Ieter l929 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL10, 289
Iorter, William Sydney (O. Henry)
l8o2l9l0 . . . . . . . .DLl2, 78, 79; CDAL3
Iorter, William J. l809l858 . . . . . DL3, 13, 250
Iorter and Coates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Iortillo Jrambley, Estela l927l998 . . . . . DL209
Iortis, Charles l933 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo
Medieval GalicianIortuguese Ioetry. . . . DL287
Iosey, Alexander l873l908. . . . . . . . . . . .DLl75
mI l990 ooker Irize winner,
A. S. yatt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL32o
Iostans, Marianne circa l8l0l8o5 . . . . . DLloo
Iostgate, Raymond l89ol97l . . . . . . . . . .DL27o
Iostl, Carl (see Sealsfield, Carl)
Iostmodern Holocaust Iiction . . . . . . . . . DL299
Ioston, Jed l90ol971 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL5l
Iotekhin, Aleksei Antipovich
l829l908 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL238
Iotok, Chaim l9292002 . . . . . . . . . . DL28, l52
A Conversation with Chaim Iotok . . . . . . Y81
Jribute to ernard Malamud. . . . . . . . . . . Y8o
Iotter, eatrix l8ool913 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl1l
Jhe eatrix Iotter Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y98
Iotter, David M. l9l0l97l . . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl7
Iotter, Dennis l935l991 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL233
|ohn E. Iotter and Company . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Iottle, Irederick A. l897l987 . . . . . DLl03; Y87
Ioulin, |acques l937 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo0
Iound, Ezra l885l972
. . . . . . . . . . . DL1, 15, o3; DSl5; CDAL1
Jhe Cost of the `~W William ird
to Ezra Iound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y0l
Jhe Ezra Iound Society. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y0l
Ioverman, C. E. l911 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL231
Iovey, Meic l950 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l0
Iovich, Shirley l905l998 . . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl7l
Iowell, Anthony l9052000 . . . DLl5; CDL7
Jhe Anthony Iowell Society. Iowell and
the Iirst iennial Conference . . . . . . . Y0l
Iowell, Dawn l897l9o5
Dawn Iowell, Where Have You een
All Our Lives.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y97
Iowell, |ohn Wesley l831l902 . . . . . . . . DLl8o
Iowell, Iadgett l952 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL231
Iowers, |. I. l9l7l999 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl30
Iowers, |immy l903l995 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL21l
Iownall, David l938 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl1
Iowys, |ohn Cowper l872l9o3. . . . . DLl5, 255
Iowys, Llewelyn l881l939 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL98
Iowys, J. I. l875l953. . . . . . . . . . . . DL3o, lo2
ai_ PPO `~ f
SNT
`
Jhe Iowys Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y98

Ioynter, Nelson l903l978. . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl27
Irada, |uan Manuel de l970 . . . . . . . . . DL322
Irado, Adlia l935 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL307
Irado, Iedro l88ol952. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL283
Irados, Emilio l899l9o2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl31
Iraed, Mrs. Caroline (see Iraed, Rosa)
Iraed, Rosa (Mrs. Caroline Iraed)
l85ll935 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL230
Iraed, Winthrop Mackworth l802l839 . . . DL9o
Iraeger Iublishers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Iraetorius, |ohannes lo30lo80. . . . . . . . . DLlo8
Iratolini, Vasco l9l3l99l. . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl77
Iratt, E. |. l882l9o1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL92
Iratt, Samuel |ackson l719l8l1 . . . . . . . . . DL39
Ireciado Martin, Iatricia l939 . . . . . . . DL209
Irfontaine, Yves l937 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL53
Irelutsky, |ack l910 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLol
Irentice, George D. l802l870 . . . . . . . . . . DL13
IrenticeHall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Irescott, Orville l90ol99o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y9o
Irescott, William Hickling
l79ol859 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl, 30, 59, 235
Ireseren, Iranc
l800l819 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl17; CDWL1
Iresses (p ~ Iublishing)
Small Iresses in Great ritain and
Ireland, l9o0l985 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL10
Small Iresses I. |argon Society . . . . . . . . . .Y81
Small Iresses II. Jhe Spirit Jhat Moves
Ls Iress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y85
Small Iresses III. Iushcart Iress . . . . . . . . . Y87
Ireston, Margaret |unkin
l820l897 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL239, 218
Ireston, May Wilson l873l919 . . . . . . . . DLl88
Ireston, Jhomas l537l598. . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo2
Irvert, |acques l900l977. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL258
Irvost dÈxiles, Antoine Iranois
lo97l7o3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l1
Irice, Anthony l928 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL27o
Irice, Reynolds l933 . . . . . . . . DL2, 2l8, 278
Irice, Richard l723l79l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl58
Irice, Richard l919 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y8l
Irichard, Katharine Susannah
l883l9o9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o0
Irideaux, |ohn l578lo50 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL23o
Iriest, Christopher l913 . . . . . DLl1, 207, 2ol
Iriestley, |. . l891l981
. . . .DLl0, 31, 77, l00, l39; Y81; CDLo
Iriestley, |oseph l733l801 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL252
Irigov, Dmitrii Aleksandrovich l910 . . DL285
Irime, enjamin Young l733l79l. . . . . . . . DL3l
Irimrose, Diana floruit circa lo30 . . . . . . . DLl2o
Irince, I. J. l9l22003 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL20
Irince, Nancy Gardner
l799circa l85o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL239
Irince, Jhomas lo87l758. . . . . . . . . . DL21, l10
Iringle, Jhomas l789l831 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL225
Irintz, Wolfgang Casper lo1ll7l7 . . . . . . DLlo8
Irior, Matthew loo1l72l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL95
Irisco, Michele l9202003. . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl77
Irishvin, Mikhail Mikhailovich
l873l951 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL272
Iritchard, William H. l932 . . . . . . . . . . DLlll
Iritchett, V. S. l900l997. . . . . . . . . . . DLl5, l39
Irobyn, May l85o or l857l909 . . . . . . . . DLl99
Irocter, Adelaide Anne l825l8o1. . . . DL32, l99
Irocter, ryan Waller l787l871 . . . . . DL9o, l11
Iroctor, Robert l8o8l903. . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl81
Irokopovich, Ieofan lo8l.l73o . . . . . . . . DLl50
Irokosch, Irederic l90ol989 . . . . . . . . . . . DL18
Ironzini, ill l913 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL22o
Iropertius circa 50 _.`.post lo _.`.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2ll; CDWLl
Iropper, Dan l937 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo
Irose, Irancine l917 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL231
Irotagoras circa 190 _K`K120 _K`K . . . . . . . . DLl7o
Irotest Ioetry in Castile
ca. l115ca. l50o. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL28o
Iroud, Robert l728l8l3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL30
Iroust, Marcel l87ll922 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo5
Marcel Iroust at l29 and the Iroust
Society of America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y00
Marcel Iroust`s o~ q m~W
Jhe Rediscovered Galley Iroofs . . . . .Y00
Irutkov, Koz`ma Ietrovich
l803l8o3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL277
Irynne, |. H. l93o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL10
Irzybyszewski, Stanislaw l8o8l927 . . . . . . DLoo
IseudoDionysius the Areopagite floruit
circa 500 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll5
Iublic Lending Right in America
ILR and the Meaning of Literary
Iroperty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y83
Statement by Sen. Charles
McC. Mathias, |r. ILR. . . . . . . . . . . . .Y83
Statements on ILR by American Writers . . . Y83
Iublic Lending Right in the Lnited Kingdom
Jhe Iirst Year in the Lnited Kingdom . . . .Y83
Iublishers |listed by individual names|
Iublishers, Conversations with.
An Interview with Charles Scribner III . . .Y91
An Interview with Donald Lamm. . . . . . . .Y95
An Interview with |ames Laughlin . . . . . . .Y9o
An Interview with Iatrick O`Connor . . . . .Y81
Iublishing
Jhe Art and Mystery of Iublishing.
Interviews . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y97
ook Iublishing Accounting. Some asic
Concepts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y98
l873 Iublishers` Catalogues . . . . . . . . . DL19
Jhe Literary Scene 2002. Iublishing, ook
Reviewing, and Literary |ournalism. . .Y02
Main Jrends in JwentiethCentury
ook Clubs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Overview of L.S. ook Iublishing,
l9l0l915. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL9
Jhe Iitt Ioetry Series. Ioetry Iublishing
Joday . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y85
Iublishing Iiction at LSL Iress . . . . . . . . . Y87
Jhe Iublishing Industry in l998.
pJJ~K . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y98
Jhe Iublishing Industry in l999 . . . . . . . .Y99
Iublishers and Agents. Jhe Columbia
Connection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y87
Responses to Ken Auletta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y97
Southern Writers etween the Wars . . . . DL9
Jhe State of Iublishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y97
Jrends in JwentiethCentury
Mass Market Iublishing. . . . . . . . . DL1o
Jhe Year in ook Iublishing. . . . . . . . . . . .Y8o
IcklerMuskau, Hermann von
l785l87l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl33
Iurtolas, Soledad l917 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL322
Iufendorf, Samuel von lo32lo91. . . . . . . DLlo8
Iugh, Edwin William l871l930 . . . . . . . . DLl35
Iugin, A. Welby l8l2l852 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL55
Iuig, Manuel l932l990 . . . . DLll3; CDWL3
Iuisieux, Madeleine dÀrsant de
l720l798 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l1
Iulgar, Hernando del (Iernando del Iulgar)
ca. l13oca. l192. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL28o
Iulitzer, |oseph l817l9ll . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL23
Iulitzer, |oseph, |r. l885l955 . . . . . . . . . . . DL29
Iulitzer Irizes for the Novel, l9l7l915. . . . . DL9
Iulliam, Eugene l889l975 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl27
Iurcell, Deirdre l915 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o7
Iurchas, Samuel l577.lo2o . . . . . . . . . . . DLl5l
Iurdy, Al l9l82000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL88
Iurdy, |ames l923 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2, 2l8
Iurdy, Ken W. l9l3l972 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl37
Iusey, Edward ouverie l800l882 . . . . . . DL55
Iushkin, Aleksandr Sergeevich
l799l837 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL205
Iushkin, Vasilii L`vovich
l7ool830 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL205
Iutnam, George Ialmer
l8l1l872 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3, 79, 250, 251
G. I. Iutnam |publishing house| . . . . . . . . DL251
G. I. Iutnam`s Sons |L.K.| . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl0o
G. I. Iutnam`s Sons |L.S.| . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
A Iublisher`s Archives. G. I. Iutnam. . . . .Y92
Iutnam, Hilary l92o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL279
Iutnam, Samuel l892l950 . . . . . . . . DL1; DSl5
Iuttenham, George l529.l590. . . . . . . . . DL28l
Iuzo, Mario l920l999 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo
Iyle, Ernie l900l915 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL29
`~ f ai_ PPO
SNU
Iyle, Howard
l853l9ll. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL12, l88; DSl3
Iyle, Robert Michael l917 . . . . . . . . . . .DL275
Iym, arbara l9l3l980 . . . . . . DLl1, 207; Y87
Iynchon, Jhomas l937 . . . . . . . . . . .DL2, l73
Iyramid ooks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Iyrnelle, LouiseClarke l850l907. . . . . . . DL12
Iythagoras circa 570 _.`.. . . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl7o
n
_ays ibn alMulawwah circa o807l0 . . . . DL3ll
_ian Zhongshu l9l0l998 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL328
_uad, M. (see Lewis, Charles .)
_uaritch, ernard l8l9l899 . . . . . . . . . . DLl81
_uarles, Irancis l592lo11 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl2o
q n~ o l809l9o7 . . . . . . . . . DLll0
_uasimodo, Salvatore l90ll9o8. . . DLll1, 332
_ueen, Ellery (see Dannay, Irederic, and
Manfred . Lee)
_ueen, Irank l822l882 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL21l
Jhe _ueen City Iublishing House . . . . . . DL19
_ueirs, Ea de l815l900. . . . . . . . . . . . DL287
_ueneau, Raymond l903l97o . . . . . DL72, 258
_uennell, Ieter l905l993 . . . . . . . . DLl55, l95
_uental, Antero de
l812l89l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL287
_uesada, |os Luis l918 . . . . . . . . . . . DL290
_uesnel, |oseph l71ol809. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL99
_uillerCouch, Sir Arthur Jhomas
l8o3l911 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl35, l53, l90
_uin, Ann l93ol973 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl1, 23l
_uinault, Ihilippe lo35lo88 . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o8
_uincy, Samuel, of Georgia
fl. eighteenth century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l
_uincy, Samuel, of Massachusetts
l731l789 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l
_uindlen, Anna l952 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL292
_uine, W. V. l9082000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DL279
_uinn, Anthony l9l5200l . . . . . . . . . . . DLl22
_uinn, |ohn l870l921. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl87
_uinez, Naomi l95l . . . . . . . . . . . . DL209
_uintana, Leroy V. l911 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL82
_uintana, Miguel de lo7ll718
A Iorerunner of Chicano
Literature. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl22
_uintilian circa ^.a. 10circa ^.a. 9o . . . . DL2ll
_uintus Curtius Rufus
fl. ^.a. 35 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2ll
Harlin _uist ooks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
_uoirez, Iranoise (see Sagan, Iranoise)
o
Raabe, Wilhelm l83ll9l0 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl29
Raban, |onathan l912 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL201
Rabe, David l910 . . . . . . . . . . DL7, 228; Y9l
Rabelais, Iranois l191.l593 . . . . . . . . . DL327
Rabi'ah al'Adawiyyah circa 72080l . . . . DL3ll
Raboni, Giovanni l932 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl28
Rachilde l8o0l953 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl23, l92
Racin, Koo l908l913. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl17
Racine, |ean lo39lo99 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o8
Rackham, Arthur l8o7l939. . . . . . . . . . . DLl1l
Raczymow, Henri l918 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL299
Radauskas, Henrikas
l9l0l970. . . . . . . . . . . . DL220; CDWL1
Radcliffe, Ann l7o1l823 . . . . . . . . . . .DL39, l78
Raddall, Jhomas l903l991 . . . . . . . . . . . DLo8
Radford, Dollie l858l920 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL210
Radichkov, Yordan l9292001 . . . . . . . . . DLl8l
Radiguet, Raymond l903l923 . . . . . . . . . DLo5
Radishchev, Aleksandr Nikolaevich
l719l802. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl50
Radnti, Mikls
l909l911 . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l5; CDWL1
Radrign, |uan l937 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL305
Radvnyi, Netty Reiling (see Seghers, Anna)
Rafat, Jaufiq l927l998 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL323
Rahv, Ihilip l908l973. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl37
Raich, Semen Egorovich l792l855 . . . . . DL205
Raikovi, Stevan l928 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl8l
Raiderman (see Iarshchikov, Aleksei Maksimovich)
Raimund, Ierdinand |akob l790l83o . . . . DL90
Raine, Craig l911 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL10
Raine, Kathleen l9082003. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL20
Rainis, |nis l8o5l929. . . . . DL220; CDWL1
Rainolde, Richard
circa l530lo0o . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl3o, 23o
Rainolds, |ohn l519lo07. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL28l
Raki, Milan l87ol938 . . . . .DLl17; CDWL1
Rakosi, Carl l9032001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl93
Ralegh, Sir Walter
l551.lol8. . . . . . . . . . . . DLl72; CDLl
Raleigh, Walter
p (l897) |excerpt|. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL57
Ralin, Radoy l9232001. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl8l
Ralph, |ulian l853l903 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL23
Ramanujan, A. K. l929l993 . . . . . . . . . . DL323
Ramat, Silvio l939 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl28
Rame, Marie Louise de la (see Ouida)
Ramrez, Sergo l912 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl15
Ramke, in l917 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl20
Ramler, Karl Wilhelm l725l798 . . . . . . . . DL97
Ramon Ribeyro, |ulio l929l991 . . . . . . . DLl15
Ramos, Graciliano l892l953 . . . . . . . . . DL307
Ramos, Manuel l918 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL209
Ramos Sucre, |os Antonio l890l930. . . DL290
Ramous, Mario l921 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl28
Rampersad, Arnold l91l . . . . . . . . . . . DLlll
Ramsay, Allan lo81 or lo85l758 . . . . . . . DL95
Ramsay, David l719l8l5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL30
Ramsay, Martha Laurens l759l8ll . . . . DL200
Ramsey, Irank I. l903l930 . . . . . . . . . . DL2o2
Ranch, Hieronimus |ustesen
l539lo07 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL300
Ranck, Katherine _uintana l912 . . . . DLl22
Rand, Avery and Company . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Rand, Ayn l905l982 . . . DL227, 279; CDAL7
Rand McNally and Company . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Randall, David Anton l905l975 . . . . . . . DLl10
Randall, Dudley l9l12000 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1l
Randall, Henry S. l8lll87o . . . . . . . . . . . DL30
Randall, |ames G. l88ll953 . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl7
Jhe Randall |arrell Symposium. A Small
Collection of Randall |arrells. . . . . . . . Y8o
Excerpts Irom Iapers Delivered at the
Randall |arrel Symposium. . . . . . . . . . Y8o
Randall, |ohn Herman, |r. l899l980. . . . .DL279
Randolph, A. Ihilip l889l979. . . . . . . . . . DL9l
Anson D. I. Randolph
Randolph, Jhomas lo05lo35. . . . . . DL58, l2o
Random House . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Rankin, Ian ( |ack Harvey) l9o0 . . . . . DL2o7
Henry Ranlet |publishing house| . . . . . . . . DL19
Ransom, Harry l908l97o . . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl87
Ransom, |ohn Crowe
l888l971. . . . . . . . . . . DL15, o3; CDAL7
Ransome, Arthur l881l9o7 . . . . . . . . . . DLlo0
Rao, Raja l908 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL323
Raphael, Irederic l93l . . . . . . . . . DLl1, 3l9
Raphaelson, Samson l89ol983. . . . . . . . . DL11
Rare ook Dealers
ertram Rota and His ookshop. . . . . . . . Y9l
An Interview with Glenn Horowitz . . . . . . Y90
An Interview with Otto Ienzler . . . . . . . . . Y9o
An Interview with Ralph Sipper . . . . . . . . Y91
New York City ookshops in the
l930s and l910s. Jhe Recollections
of Walter Goldwater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y93
Rare ooks
Research in the American Antiquarian
ook Jrade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y97
Jwo Hundred Years of Rare ooks and
Literary Collections at the
Lniversity of South Carolina . . . . . . . Y00
Rascn anda, Vctor Hugo l918 . . . . DL305
Rashi circa l010ll05. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL208
Raskin, Ellen l928l981. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL52
Rasputin, Valentin Grigorèvich
l937 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL302
Rastell, |ohn l175.l53o. . . . . . . . . . . DLl3o, l70
ai_ PPO `~ f
SNV
`
Rattigan, Jerence
l9lll977 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl3; CDL7
Raven, Simon l927200l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL27l
Ravenhill, Mark l9oo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l0
Ravnkilde, Adda l8o2l883 . . . . . . . . . . . DL300
Rawicz, Iiotr l9l9l982 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL299
Rawlings, Marjorie Kinnan l89ol953
. . . . . . . . . . DL9, 22, l02; DSl7; CDAL7
Rawlinson, Richard lo90l755 . . . . . . . . . DL2l3
Rawlinson, Jhomas lo8ll725 . . . . . . . . . DL2l3
Rawls, |ohn l92l2002 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL279
Raworth, Jom l938 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL10
Ray, David l932 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL5
Ray, Gordon Norton l9l5l98o . . . . DLl03, l10
Ray, Henrietta Cordelia l819l9lo . . . . . . . DL50
Raymond, Ernest l888l971 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl9l
Raymond, Henry |. l820l8o9 . . . . . . . DL13, 79
Raymond, Ren (see Chase, |ames Hadley)
Razaf, Andy l895l973 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o5
alRazi 8o5.925.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3ll
Rea, Michael l927l99o. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y97
Michael M. Rea and the Rea Award for
the Short Story . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y97
Reach, Angus l82ll85o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL70
Read, Herbert l893l9o8 . . . . . . . . . . DL20, l19
Read, Martha Meredith
fl. nineteenth century. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL200
Read, Opie l852l939 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL23
Read, Iiers Iaul l91l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl1
Reade, Charles l8l1l881. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l
Reader`s Digest Condensed ooks . . . . . . . DL1o
o~ r Symposium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y97
Reading, Ieter l91o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL10
Reading Series in New York City. . . . . . . . . . . .Y9o
Reaney, |ames l92o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo8
Rebhun, Iaul l500.l51o . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl79
Rbora, Clemente l885l957. . . . . . . . . . . DLll1
Rebreanu, Liviu l885l911 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL220
Rechy, |ohn l931 . . . . . . . . DLl22, 278; Y82
Redding, |. Saunders l90ol988 . . . . . . DLo3, 7o
|. S. Redfield |publishing house|. . . . . . . . . . DL19
Redgrove, Ieter l9322003 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL10
Redmon, Anne l913 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y8o
Redmond, Eugene . l937 . . . . . . . . . . . DL1l
Redol, Alves l9lll9o9. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL287
|ames Redpath |publishing house| . . . . . . . . DL19
Reed, Henry l808l851. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL59
Reed, Henry l9l1l98o. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL27
Reed, Ishmael
l938 . . . . . . . . DL2, 5, 33, lo9, 227; DS8
Reed, Rex l938 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl85
Reed, Sampson l800l880. . . . . . . . . . . DLl, 235
Reed, Jalbot aines l852l893 . . . . . . . . . DLl1l
Reedy, William Marion l8o2l920 . . . . . . . DL9l
Reese, Lizette Woodworth l85ol935 . . . . . DL51
Reese, Jhomas l712l79o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL37
Reeve, Clara l729l807 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL39
Ireface to q l b _~
(l778) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL39
q m o~ (l785)
|excerpt| . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL39
Reeves, |ames l909l978 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlol
Reeves, |ohn l92o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL88
ReevesStevens, Garfield l953 . . . . . . . DL25l
Rgio, |os ( |os Maria dos Reis Iereira)
l90ll9o9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL287
Henry Regnery Company . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Rgo, |os Lins do l90ll957 . . . . . . . . . . DL307
Rehberg, Hans l90ll9o3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl21
Rehfisch, Hans |os l89ll9o0 . . . . . . . . . DLl21
Reich, Ebbe Klvedal l910 . . . . . . . . . . DL2l1
Reid, Alastair l92o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL27
Reid, . L. l9l8l990 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlll
Reid, Christopher l919 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL10
Reid, Iorrest l875l917 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl53
Reid, Helen Rogers l882l970 . . . . . . . . . . DL29
Reid, |ames fl. eighteenth century . . . . . . . . DL3l
Reid, Mayne l8l8l883. . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l, lo3
Reid, Jhomas l7l0l79o . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l, 252
Reid, V. S. (Vic) l9l3l987 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl25
Reid, Whitelaw l837l9l2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL23
Reilly and Lee Iublishing Company . . . . . . DL1o
Reimann, rigitte l933l973 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL75
Reinmar der Alte circa llo5circa l205. . . DLl38
Reinmar von Zweter
circa l200circa l250. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl38
Reisch, Walter l903l983 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL11
Reizei Iamily . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL203
Religion
A Crisis of Culture. Jhe Changing
Role of Religion in the
New Republic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL37
q o~ a~I l989 ooker Irize winner,
Kazuo Ishiguro . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL32o
Remarque, Erich Maria
l898l970 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL5o; CDWL2
Remington, Irederic
l8oll909 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl2, l8o, l88
Remizov, Aleksei Mikhailovich
l877l957. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL295
Renaud, |acques l913 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo0
Renault, Mary l905l983 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y83
Rendell, Ruth (arbara Vine)
l930 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL87, 27o
Rensselaer, Maria van Cortlandt van
lo15lo89 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL200
Repplier, Agnes l855l950 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL22l
Reshetnikov, Iedor Mikhailovich
l81ll87l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL238
Restif (Rtif) de La retonne, NicolasEdme
l731l80o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l1
Rettenbacher, Simon lo31l70o. . . . . . . . . DLlo8
Retz, |eanIranoisIaul de Gondi,
cardinal de lol3lo79. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DL2o8
Reuchlin, |ohannes l155l522. . . . . . . . . . DLl79
Reuter, Christian loo5after l7l2 . . . . . . . DLlo8
Ileming H. Revell Company . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Reverdy, Iierre l889l9o0. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL258
Reuter, Iritz l8l0l871 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl29
Reuter, Gabriele l859l91l . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLoo
Reventlow, Iranziska Grfin zu
l87ll9l8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLoo
Review of Reviews Office . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll2
Rexroth, Kenneth l905l982
. . . . . . DLlo, 18, lo5, 2l2; Y82; CDALl
Jhe Commercialization of the Image
of Revolt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo
Rey, H. A. l898l977. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL22
Reyes, Carlos |os l91l . . . . . . . . . . . . DL305
Reymont, Wadysaw Stanisaw
1867-1925. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLB-332
Reynal and Hitchcock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Reynolds, G. W. M. l8l1l879 . . . . . . . . . . DL2l
Reynolds, |ohn Hamilton
l791l852 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL9o
Reynolds, Sir |oshua l723l792. . . . . . . . . DLl01
Reynolds, Mack l9l7l983 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL8
Reza, Yazmina l959 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL32l
Reznikoff, Charles l891l97o . . . . . . . . DL28, 15
Rhetoric
Continental European Rhetoricians,
l100lo00, and Jheir Influence
in Reaissance England . . . . . . . . . DL23o
A Iinding Guide to Key Works on
Microfilm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL23o
Glossary of Jerms and Definitions of
Rhetoic and Logic . . . . . . . . . . . . DL23o
Rhett, Robert arnwell l800l87o. . . . . . . . DL13
Rhode, |ohn l881l9o1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL77
Rhodes, Eugene Manlove l8o9l931 . . . . DL25o
Rhodes, |ames Iord l818l927 . . . . . . . . . . DL17
Rhodes, Richard l937 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl85
Rhys, |ean l890l979
. . . . DL3o, ll7, lo2; CDL7; CDWL3
Ribeiro, ernadim
fl. ca. l175/l182l52o/l511. . . . . . . . . DL287
Ricardo, David l772l823 . . . . . . . . . DLl07, l58
Ricardou, |ean l932 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL83
Riccoboni, Marie|eanne (Marie|eanne de
Heurles Laboras de Mzires Riccoboni)
l7l3l792 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l1
Rice, Anne (A. N. Roquelare, Anne Rampling)
l91l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL292
Rice, Christopher l978 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL292
`~ f ai_ PPO
SOM
Rice, Elmer l892l9o7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1, 7
Rice, Grantland l880l951. . . . . . . . . .DL29, l7l
Rich, Adrienne l929 . . . . DL5, o7; CDAL7
Richard, Mark l955 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL231
Richard de Iournival
l20ll259 or l2o0. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL208
Richards, David Adams l950 . . . . . . . . DL53
Richards, George circa l7o0l8l1. . . . . . . . DL37
Richards, I. A. l893l979 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL27
Richards, Laura E. l850l913 . . . . . . . . . . DL12
Richards, William Carey l8l8l892. . . . . . DL73
Grant Richards |publishing house| . . . . . . DLll2
Richardson, Charles I. l85ll9l3 . . . . . . . DL7l
Richardson, Dorothy M. l873l957 . . . . . . DL3o
Jhe Novels of Dorothy Richardson
(l9l8), by May Sinclair . . . . . . . . . DL3o
Richardson, Henry Handel
(Ethel Ilorence Lindesay Robertson)
l870l91o. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl97, 230
Richardson, |ack l935 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL7
Richardson, |ohn l79ol852. . . . . . . . . . . . DL99
Richardson, Samuel
lo89l7ol. . . . . . . . . . DL39, l51; CDL2
Introductory Letters from the Second
Edition of m~~ (l71l) . . . . . . . . . DL39
Iostscript to |the Jhird Edition of |
`~~ (l75l) . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL39
Ireface to the Iirst Edition of
m~~ (l710) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL39
Ireface to the Jhird Edition of
`~~ (l75l) |excerpt| . . . . . . . . . DL39
Ireface to Volume l of `~~
(l717) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL39
Ireface to Volume 3 of `~~
(l718). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL39
Richardson, Willis l889l977 . . . . . . . . . . . DL5l
Riche, arnabe l512lol7 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl3o
Richepin, |ean l819l92o . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl92
Richler, Mordecai l93l200l . . . . . . . . . . . DL53
Richter, Conrad l890l9o8 . . . . . . . . . DL9, 2l2
Richter, Hans Werner l908l993 . . . . . . . . DLo9
Richter, |ohann Iaul Iriedrich
l7o3l825. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL91; CDWL2
|oseph Rickerby |publishing house| . . . . . DLl0o
Rickword, Edgell l898l982. . . . . . . . . . . . DL20
Riddell, Charlotte l832l90o . . . . . . . . . . DLl5o
Riddell, |ohn (see Iord, Corey)
Ridge, |ohn Rollin l827l8o7 . . . . . . . . . . .DLl75
Ridge, Lola l873l91l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL51
Ridge, William Iett l859l930 . . . . . . . . . DLl35
Riding, Laura (see |ackson, Laura Riding)
Ridler, Anne l9l2200l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL27
Ridruego, Dionisio l9l2l975 . . . . . . . . . DLl08
Riel, Louis l811l885. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL99
Riemer, |ohannes lo18l7l1. . . . . . . . . . . DLlo8
Riera, Carme l918 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL322
Rifbjerg, Klaus l93l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l1
Riffaterre, Michael l921 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo7
Riggs, Lynn l899l951. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl75
Riis, |acob l819l9l1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL23
|ohn C. Riker |publishing house| . . . . . . . . DL19
Riley, |ames l777l810 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl83
Riley, |ohn l938l978. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL10
Rilke, Rainer Maria
l875l92o. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL8l; CDWL2
Rimanelli, Giose l92o . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl77
Rimbaud, |eanNicolasArthur
l851l89l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l7
Rinehart and Company . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Ringuet l895l9o0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo8
Ringwood, Gwen Iharis l9l0l981 . . . . . . DL88
Rinser, Luise l9ll2002 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo9
Ros, Alberto l952 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl22
Ros, Isabella l918 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL82
Ripley, Arthur l895l9ol. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL11
Ripley, George l802l880 . . . . .DLl, o1, 73, 235
Jhe Rising Glory of America.
Jhree Ioems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL37
Jhe Rising Glory of America. Written in l77l
(l78o), by Hugh Henry rackenridge
and Ihilip Ireneau . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL37
Riskin, Robert l897l955 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o
Risse, Heinz l898l989 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo9
Rist, |ohann lo07loo7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo1
Ristikivi, Karl l9l2l977 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL220
Ritchie, Anna Mowatt l8l9l870 . . . . . DL3, 250
Ritchie, Anne Jhackeray l837l9l9. . . . . . DLl8
Ritchie, Jhomas l778l851 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL13
o m~~I l980 ooker Irize winner,
William Golding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL32o
Jhe Ritz Iaris Hemingway Award. . . . . . . . . . Y85
Mario Varga Llosa`s Acceptance Speech . . Y85
Rivard, Adjutor l8o8l915. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL92
Rive, Richard l93ll989 . . . . . . . . . DLl25, 225
Rivera, |os l955 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL219
Rivera, Marina l912 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl22
Rivera, Joms l935l981. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL82
Rivers, Conrad Kent l933l9o8. . . . . . . . . DL1l
Riverside Iress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Rivington, |ames circa l721l802. . . . . . . . DL13
Charles Rivington |publishing house|. . . . DLl51
Rivkin, Allen l903l990. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o
Roa astos, Augusto l9l72005 . . . . . . . . DLll3
RobbeGrillet, Alain l922 . . . . . . . . . . . DL83
Robbins, Jom l93o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y80
Roberts, Charles G. D. l8o0l913 . . . . . . . DL92
Roberts, Dorothy l90ol993 . . . . . . . . . . . DL88
Roberts, Elizabeth Madox
l88ll91l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DL9, 51, l02
Roberts, |ohn (see Swynnerton, Jhomas)
Roberts, Kate l89ll985 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l9
Roberts, Keith l9352000. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2ol
Roberts, Kenneth l885l957 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL9
Roberts, Michle l919 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL23l
Roberts, Jheodore Goodridge
l877l953 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL92
Roberts, Lrsula Wyllie (see Miles, Susan)
Roberts, William l7o7l819 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl12
|ames Roberts |publishing house| . . . . . . . DLl51
Roberts rothers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
A. M. Robertson and Company. . . . . . . . . DL19
Robertson, Ethel Ilorence Lindesay
(see Richardson, Henry Handel)
Robertson, William l72ll793 . . . . . . . . . DLl01
Robin, Leo l895l981 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o5
Robins, Elizabeth l8o2l952 . . . . . . . . . . .DLl97
Robinson, A. Mary I. (Madame |ames
Darmesteter, Madame Mary
Duclaux) l857l911 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL210
Robinson, Casey l903l979 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL11
Robinson, Derek l932 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y02
Robinson, Edwin Arlington
l8o9l935 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL51; CDAL3
Review by Derek Robinson of George
Greenfield`s o a . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y02
Robinson, Henry Crabb l775l8o7 . . . . . .DLl07
Robinson, |ames Harvey l8o3l93o . . . . . DL17
Robinson, Lennox l88ol958 . . . . . . . . . . DLl0
Robinson, Mabel Louise l871l9o2 . . . . . . DL22
Robinson, Marilynne l913 . . . . . . . . . DL20o
Robinson, Mary l758l800 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl58
Robinson, Richard circa l515lo07 . . . . . DLlo7
Robinson, Jherese l797l870 . . . . . . . DL59, l33
Robison, Mary l919 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl30
Robls, Emmanuel l9l1l995 . . . . . . . . . . DL83
Roccatagliata Ceccardi, Ceccardo
l87ll9l9. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll1
Rocha, Adolfo Correira da (see Jorga, Miguel)
Roche, illy l919 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL233
Rochester, |ohn Wilmot, Earl of
lo17lo80. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl3l
Rochon, Esther l918 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL25l
Rock, Howard l9lll97o. . . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl27
Rockwell, Norman Ierceval l891l978 . . DLl88
Rodgers, Carolyn M. l915 . . . . . . . . . . DL1l
Rodgers, W. R. l909l9o9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL20
Rodney, Lester l9ll . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL21l
Rodoreda, Merc l908l983 . . . . . . . . . . DL322
Rodrigues, Nelson l9l2l980. . . . . . . . . . DL307
ai_ PPO `~ f
SON
`
Rodrguez, Claudio l931l999 . . . . . . . . . DLl31

Rodrguez, |oe D. l913 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL209
Rodriguez, |udith l93o . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL325
Rodrguez, Luis |. l951 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL209
Rodriguez, Richard l911 . . . . . . . . DL82, 25o
Rodrguez |ulia, Edgardo l91o . . . . . . . DLl15
Roe, E. I. l838l888 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL202
Roethke, Jheodore
l908l9o3 . . . . . . . . . . .DL5, 20o; CDALl
Rogers, |ane l952 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl91
Rogers, Iattiann l910 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl05
Rogers, Samuel l7o3l855. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL93
Rogers, Will l879l935 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll
Rohmer, Sax l883l959. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL70
Roig, Montserrat l91ol99l . . . . . . . . . . . DL322
Roiphe, Anne l935 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y80
Rojas, Arnold R. l89ol988 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL82
Rojas, Iernando de ca. l175l51l . . . . . . . DL28o
Roland de la Ilatire, Marie|eanne
(Madame Roland) l751l793 . . . . . . . DL3l1
Rolfe, Edwin (Solomon Iishman)
l909l951 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL303
Rolfe, Irederick William
l8o0l9l3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL31, l5o
Rolland, Romain l8ool911 . . . . . . . . DLo5, 332
Rolle, Richard circa l290l300 l319 . . . . DLl1o
Rlvaag, O. E. l87ol93l . . . . . . . . . . . DL9, 2l2
Romains, |ules l885l972 . . . . . . . . . . DLo5, 32l
A. Roman and Company. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
o~ ~ oW Guillaume de Lorris
l200/l205circa l230, |ean de
Meun l235l210circa l305 . . . . . . . . DL208
Romano, Lalla l90o200l . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl77
Romano, Octavio l923 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl22
Rome, Harold l908l993 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o5
Romero, Leo l950 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl22
Romero, Lin l917 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl22
Romero, Orlando l915 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL82
Ronsard, Iierre de l521l585 . . . . . . . . . . DL327
Rook, Clarence l8o3l9l5. . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl35
Roosevelt, Jheodore
l858l9l9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL17, l8o, 275
Root, Waverley l903l982 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1
Root, William Iitt l91l . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl20
Roquebrune, Robert de l889l978 . . . . . . . DLo8
Rorty, Richard l93l . . . . . . . . . . . DL21o, 279
Rosa, |oo Guimarres l908l9o7. . . DLll3, 307
Rosales, Luis l9l0l992 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl31
Roscoe, William l753l83l . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo3
Rose, Dilys l951 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l9
Rose, Reginald l9202002 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o
Rose, Wendy l918 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl75
Rosegger, Ieter l813l9l8. . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl29
Rosei, Ieter l91o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL85
Rosen, Norma l925 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL28
Rosenbach, A. S. W. l87ol952. . . . . . . . . DLl10
Rosenbaum, Ron l91o . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl85
Rosenbaum, Jhane l9o0 . . . . . . . . . . . DL299
Rosenberg, Isaac l890l9l8 . . . . . . . . DL20, 2lo
Rosenfeld, Isaac l9l8l95o . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL28
Rosenthal, Harold l9l1l999 . . . . . . . . . . DL21l
|immy, Red, and Others. Harold
Rosenthal Remembers the Stars of
the Iress ox . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y0l
Rosenthal, M. L. l9l7l99o. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL5
Rosenwald, Lessing |. l89ll979. . . . . . . . DLl87
Ross, Alexander l59llo51. . . . . . . . . . . . DLl5l
Ross, Harold l892l95l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl37
Ross, |erry l92ol955 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o5
Ross, Leonard _. (see Rosten, Leo)
Ross, Lillian l927 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl85
Ross, Martin l8o2l9l5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl35
Ross, Sinclair l908l99o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL88
Ross, W. W. E. l891l9oo. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL88
Rosselli, Amelia l930l99o . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl28
Rossen, Robert l908l9oo. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o
Rosset, arney l922 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y02
Rossetti, Christina l830l891 . . . DL35, lo3, 210
Rossetti, Dante Gabriel
l828l882 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL35; CDL1
Jhe Stealthy School of
Criticism (l87l) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL35
Rossner, |udith l935 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo
Rostand, Edmond l8o8l9l8 . . . . . . . . . . DLl92
Rosten, Leo l908l997 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll
Rostenberg, Leona l9082005. . . . . . . . . . DLl10
Rostopchina, Evdokiia Ietrovna
l8lll858 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL205
Rostovsky, Dimitrii lo5ll709. . . . . . . . . . DLl50
Rota, ertram l903l9oo. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL20l
ertram Rota and His ookshop . . . . . . . .Y9l
Roth, Gerhard l912 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL85, l21
Roth, Henry l90o.l995 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL28
Roth, |oseph l891l939. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL85
Roth, Ihilip
l933 . . . . . DL2, 28, l73; Y82; CDALo
Rothenberg, |erome l93l . . . . . . . . . DL5, l93
Rothschild Iamily . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl81
Rotimi, Ola l938 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl25
Rotrou, |ean lo09lo50 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o8
Rousseau, |ean|acques l7l2l778 . . . . . . . DL3l1
q p~ `~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l1
Routhier, Adolpheasile l839l920 . . . . . . DL99
Routier, Simone l90ll987 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL88
George Routledge and Sons. . . . . . . . . . . . DLl0o
Roversi, Roberto l923 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl28
Rowe, Elizabeth Singer lo71l737 . . . . . DL39, 95
Rowe, Nicholas lo71l7l8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL81
Rowlands, Ian l9o1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l0
Rowlands, Samuel circa l570lo30 . . . . . . DLl2l
Rowlandson, Mary
circa lo37circa l7ll . . . . . . . . . . . DL21, 200
Rowley, William circa l585lo2o . . . . . . . . DL58
Rowling, |. K.
Jhe Harry Iotter Ihenomenon . . . . . . . . .Y99
Rowse, A. L. l903l997. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl55
Rowson, Susanna Haswell
circa l7o2l821 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL37, 200
Roy, Arundhati l9ol . . . . . . . . . . DL323, 32o
Roy, Camille l870l913. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL92
Jhe G. Ross Roy Scottish Ioetry Collection
at the Lniversity of South Carolina . . . . . .Y89
Roy, Gabrielle l909l983 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo8
Roy, |ules l9072000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL83
Jhe Royal Court Jheatre and the English
Stage Company. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl3
Jhe Royal Court Jheatre and the New
Drama . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl0
Jhe Royal Shakespeare Company
at the Swan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y88
Royall, Anne Newport l7o9l851 . . . . DL13, 218
Royce, |osiah l855l9lo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL270
Jhe Roycroft Irinting Shop. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
RoydeSmith, Naomi l875l9o1 . . . . . . . . DLl9l
Royster, Vermont l9l1l99o . . . . . . . . . . . DLl27
Richard Royston |publishing house| . . . . . DLl70
Rozanov, Vasilii Vasilèvich
l85ol9l9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL295
Rewicz, Tadeusz l92l . . . . . . . . . . . . DL232
Ruark, Gibbons l91l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl20
Ruban, Vasilii Grigorevich l712l795 . . . . DLl50
Rubens, ernice l9282001. . . . . DLl1, 207, 32o
Rubio, Murilo l9lol99l. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL307
Rubina, Dina Ilìnichna l953 . . . . . . . . DL285
Rubinshtein, Lev Semenovich l917 . . . DL285
Rudd and Carleton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Rudd, Steele (Arthur Hoey Davis) . . . . . . DL230
Rudkin, David l93o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl3
Rudnick, Iaul l957 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2oo
Rudnicki, Adolf l909l990 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL299
Rudolf von Ems circa l200circa l251 . . . DLl38
Ruffin, |osephine St. Iierre l812l921 . . . . DL79
Rufo, |uan Gutirrez l517.lo20.. . . . . . . DL3l8
Ruganda, |ohn l91l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl57
Ruggles, Henry |oseph l8l3l90o. . . . . . . . DLo1
Ruiz de urton, Mara Amparo
l832l895 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL209, 22l
Rukeyser, Muriel l9l3l980 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL18
`~ f ai_ PPO
SOO
Rule, |ane l93l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo0
Rulfo, |uan l9l8l98o . . . . . DLll3; CDWL3
Rumaker, Michael l932 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo
Rumens, Carol l911 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL10
Rummo, IaulEerik l912 . . . . . . . . . . . DL232
Runyon, Damon
l880l91o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll, 8o, l7l
o circa l050l075 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl18
Rush, enjamin l71ol8l3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL37
Rush, Rebecca l779. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL200
Rushdie, Salman l917 . . . . . DLl91, 323, 32o
Rusk, Ralph L. l888l9o2 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl03
Ruskin, |ohn
l8l9l900. . . . . . DL55, lo3, l90; CDL1
Russ, |oanna l937 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL8
Russell, enjamin l7oll815 . . . . . . . . . . . DL13
Russell, ertrand l872l970 . . . DLl00, 2o2, 332
Russell, Charles Edward l8o0l91l. . . . . . DL25
Russell, Charles M. l8o1l92o. . . . . . . . . DLl88
Russell, Eric Irank l905l978 . . . . . . . . . DL255
Russell, Ired l90o2003 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL21l
Russell, George William (see AE)
Russell, Countess Mary Annette eauchamp
(see Arnim, Elizabeth von)
Russell, Willy l917 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL233
. . Russell and Company . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
R. H. Russell and Son. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Rutebeuf fl.l219l277. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL208
Rutherford, Mark l83ll9l3 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl8
Ruxton, George Irederick
l82ll818 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl8o
Rva, Zeneida (see Gan, Elena Andreevna)
Ryan, Gig l95o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL325
Ryan, |ames l952 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o7
Ryan, Michael l91o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y82
Ryan, Oscar l901 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo8
Rybakov, Anatolii Naumovich
l9lll991. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL302
Ryder, |ack l87ll93o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL21l
Ryga, George l932l987 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo0
Rylands, Enriqueta Augustina Jennant
l813l908 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl81
Rylands, |ohn l80ll888 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl81
Ryle, Gilbert l900l97o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o2
Ryleev, Kondratii Iedorovich
l795l82o. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL205
Rymer, Jhomas lo13.l7l3. . . . . . . . . . . DLl0l
Ryskind, Morrie l895l985 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o
Rzhevsky, Aleksei Andreevich
l737l801 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl50
p
Jhe Saalfield Iublishing Company . . . . . . DL1o
Saba, Lmberto l883l957 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll1
Sbato, Ernesto l9ll . . . . DLl15; CDWL3
Saberhagen, Ired l930 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL8
Sabin, |oseph l82ll88l. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl87
Sabino, Iernando (Iernando Javares Sabino)
l9232001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL307
Sacer, Gottfried Wilhelm lo35lo99. . . . . DLlo8
Sachs, Hans l191l57o . . . . . . DLl79; CDWL2
Sachs, Nelly l89ll970. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL332
SCarneiro, Mrio de l890l9lo . . . . . . DL287
Sack, |ohn l9302001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl85
Sackler, Howard l929l982 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL7
Sackville, Lady Margaret l88ll9o3 . . . . DL210
Sackville, Jhomas l53olo08 and
Norton, Jhomas l532l581. . . . . . . . . DLo2
Sackville, Jhomas l53olo08. . . . . . . . . . DLl32
SackvilleWest, Edward l90ll9o5. . . . . . DLl9l
SackvilleWest, Vita l892l9o2. . . . . . DL31, l95
p~ eI l992 ooker Irize winner,
arry Lnsworth. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL32o
S de Miranda, Irancisco de
l18ll588.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL287
Sade, Marquis de (DonatienAlphonseIranois,
comte de Sade) l710l8l1 . . . . . . . . . DL3l1
'Dialogue entre un prtre et un
moribond". . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l1
Sadlier, Mary Anne l820l903. . . . . . . . . . DL99
D. and |. Sadlier and Company . . . . . . . . . DL19
Sadoff, Ira l915 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl20
Sadoveanu, Mihail l880l9ol . . . . . . . . . DL220
Sadur, Nina Nikolaevna l950 . . . . . . . DL285
Senz, enjamin Alire l951 . . . . . . . . . DL209
Saenz, |aime l92ll98o . . . . . . . . . . DLl15, 283
Saffin, |ohn circa lo2ol7l0 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL21
Sagan, Iranoise l935 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL83
Sage, Robert l899l9o2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1
Sagel, |im l917 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL82
Sagendorph, Robb Hansell l900l970 . . . DLl37
Sahagn, Carlos l938 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl08
Sahgal, Nayantara l927 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL323
Sahkomaapii, Iiitai (see Highwater, |amake)
Sahl, Hans l902l993. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo9
Said, Edward W. l935 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo7
Saigy lll8ll90 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL203
Saijo, Albert l92o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l2
Saiko, George l892l9o2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL85
Sainteeuve, CharlesAugustin
l801l8o9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l7
SaintExupry, Antoine de l900l911 . . . . DL72
SaintGelais, Mellin de l190.l558 . . . . . DL327
St. |ohn, |. Allen l872l957. . . . . . . . . . . . DLl88
St |ohn, Madeleine l912 . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o7
St. |ohns, Adela Rogers l891l988. . . . . . . DL29
St. Omer, Garth l93l . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DLll7
Saint Iierre, Michel de l9lol987 . . . . . . . DL83
Saintsbury, George l815l933 . . . . . . . DL57, l19
'Modern English Irose`` (l87o) . . . . . . DL57
Jhe Iresent State of the English
Novel (l892),. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl8
SaintSimon, Louis de Rouvroy, duc de
lo75l755 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l1
St. Dominic`s Iress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll2
Jhe St. |ohn`s College Robert Graves Jrust . . Y9o
St. Martin`s Iress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
pK k~ l873l88l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DSl3
Saiokuken Sch l118l532. . . . . . . . . . . DL203
Saki (see Munro, H. H.)
Salaam, Kalamu ya l917 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL38
Salacrou, Armand l899l989 . . . . . . . . . . DL32l
Salamun, Joma l91l . . . .DLl8l; CDWL1
Salas, Iloyd l93l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL82
SlazMarquez, Rubn l935 . . . . . . . . DLl22
Salcedo, Hugo l9o1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL305
Salemson, Harold |. l9l0l988. . . . . . . . . . . DL1
Salesbury, William l520.l581.. . . . . . . . DL28l
Salinas, Luis Omar l937 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL82
Salinas, Iedro l89ll95l . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl31
Salinger, |. D.
l9l9 . . . . . . . . .DL2, l02, l73; CDALl
Salkey, Andrew l928l995. . . . . . . . . . . . DLl25
Sallust circa 8o _.`.35 _.`.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DL2ll; CDWLl
Salt, Waldo l9l1l987 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL11
Salter, |ames l925 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl30
Salter, Mary |o l951 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl20
Saltus, Edgar l855l92l. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL202
Saltykov, Mikhail Evgrafovich
l82ol889 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL238
Salustri, Carlo Alberto (see Jrilussa)
Salverson, Laura Goodman l890l970. . . . DL92
Samain, Albert l858l900 . . . . . . . . . . . . .DL2l7
Sampson, Richard Henry (see Hull, Richard)
Samuels, Ernest l903l99o. . . . . . . . . . . . DLlll
Sanborn, Iranklin enjamin
l83ll9l7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl, 223
Snchez, Ilorencio l875l9l0 . . . . . . . . . . DL305
Snchez, Luis Rafael l93o . . . . . . DLl15, 305
Snchez, Ihilomeno 'Ihil`` l9l7 . . . . . DLl22
Snchez, Ricardo l91ll995. . . . . . . . . . . . DL82
Snchez, Sal l913 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL209
Sanchez, Sonia l931 . . . . . . . . . . DL1l; DS8
Snchez de Arvalo, Rodrigo
l101l170. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL28o
Snchez de adajoz, Diego .l552. . . . . . DL3l8
Snchez Ierlosio, Rafael l927 . . . . . . . DL322
Sand, George l801l87o. . . . . . . . . . .DLll9, l92
ai_ PPO `~ f
SOP
`
Sandburg, Carl
l878l9o7 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl7, 51; CDAL3
Sandel, Cora (Sara Iabricius)
l880l971 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL297
Sandemose, Aksel l899l9o5. . . . . . . . . . . DL297
Sanders, Edward l939 . . . . . . . . . . DLlo, 211
Sanderson, Robert l587loo3 . . . . . . . . . . DL28l
Sandoz, Mari l89ol9oo . . . . . . . . . . . . DL9, 2l2
Sandwell, . K. l87ol951 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL92
Sandy, Stephen l931 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo5
Sandys, George l578lo11. . . . . . . . . . DL21, l2l
Sangster, Charles l822l893 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL99
Sanguineti, Edoardo l930 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl28
Sanjnishi Sanetaka l155l537 . . . . . . . . . DL203
San Iedro, Diego de fl. ca. l192 . . . . . . . . DL28o
Sansay, Leonora .after l823 . . . . . . . . . . . DL200
Sansom, William l9l2l97o. . . . . . . . . . . . DLl39
SantÀnna, Affonso Romano de
l937 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL307
Santayana, George
l8o3l952 . . . . . . DL51, 7l, 21o, 270; DSl3
Santiago, Danny l9lll988. . . . . . . . . . . . DLl22
Santillana, Marqus de (igo Lpez de Mendoza)
l398l158 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL28o
Santmyer, Helen Hooven l895l98o . . . . . . . . .Y81
Santos, ienvenido l9lll99o . . . . . . . . . . DL3l2
Sanvitale, Irancesca l928 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl9o
Sapidus, |oannes l190l5ol. . . . . . . . . . . . DLl79
Sapir, Edward l881l939. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL92
Sapper (see McNeile, Herman Cyril)
Sappho circa o20 _.`.circa 550 _.`.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl7o; CDWLl
Saramago, |os l922 . . . . . . .DL287, 332; Y98
Nobel Lecture l998. How Characters
ecame the Masters and the Author
Jheir Apprentice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y98
Sarban ( |ohn W. Wall) l9l0l989. . . . . . . DL255
Sardou, Victorien l83ll908 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl92
Sarduy, Severo l937l993 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll3
Sargent, Iamela l918 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL8
SaroWiwa, Ken l91l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl57
Saroyan, Aram
Rites of Iassage |on William Saroyan| . . . .Y83
Saroyan, William
l908l98l . . . . . DL7, 9, 8o; Y8l; CDAL7
Sarraute, Nathalie l900l999. . . . . . . . DL83, 32l
Sarrazin, Albertine l937l9o7 . . . . . . . . . . . DL83
Sarris, Greg l952 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl75
Sarton, May l9l2l995 . . . . . . . . . . . DL18; Y8l
Sartre, |eanIaul
l905l980 . . . . . . . . . . . DL72, 29o, 32l, 332
Sassoon, Siegfried
l88ol9o7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL20, l9l; DSl8
A Centenary Essay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y8o
Jributes from Vivien I. Clarke and
Michael Jhorpe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y8o
Sata Ineko l901l998 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl80
Saturday Review Iress. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Saunders, |ames l9252001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl3
Saunders, |ohn Monk l897l910 . . . . . . . . . DL2o
Saunders, Margaret Marshall
l8oll917 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL92
Saunders and Otley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl0o
Saussure, Ierdinand de l857l9l3 . . . . . . . DL212
Savage, |ames l781l873 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL30
Savage, Marmion W. l803.l872 . . . . . . . . DL2l
Savage, Richard lo97.l713. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL95
Savard, IlixAntoine l89ol982. . . . . . . . . DLo8
Savery, Henry l79ll812. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL230
Saville, (Leonard) Malcolm l90ll982 . . . DLlo0
p~I l97o ooker Irize winner,
David Storey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL32o
Savinio, Alberto l89ll952 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o1
Sawyer, Robert |. l9o0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL25l
Sawyer, Ruth l880l970 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL22
Sayer, Mandy l9o3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL325
Sayers, Dorothy L.
l893l957 . . . . DLl0, 3o, 77, l00; CDLo
Jhe Dorothy L. Sayers Society . . . . . . . . . .Y98
Sayle, Charles Edward l8o1l921 . . . . . . . DLl81
Sayles, |ohn Jhomas l950 . . . . . . . . . . . DL11
Sbarbaro, Camillo l888l9o7 . . . . . . . . . . DLll1
Scalapino, Leslie l917 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl93
Scannell, Vernon l922 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL27
Scarry, Richard l9l9l991. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLol
Scve, Maurice circa l502circa l5o1. . . . . DL327
Schack, Hans Egede l820l859. . . . . . . . . DL300
Schaefer, |ack l907l99l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l2
Schaeffer, Albrecht l885l950 . . . . . . . . . . . DLoo
Schaeffer, Susan Iromberg l91l . . . DL28, 299
Schaff, Ihilip l8l9l893 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DSl3
Schaper, Edzard l908l981 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo9
Scharf, |. Jhomas l813l898. . . . . . . . . . . . DL17
Schede, Iaul Melissus l539lo02 . . . . . . . DLl79
Scheffel, |oseph Viktor von l82ol88o . . . DLl29
Scheffler, |ohann lo21lo77. . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo1
Schhad, Georges l905l999 . . . . . . . . . . DL32l
Schelling, Iriedrich Wilhelm |oseph von
l775l851 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL90
Scherer, Wilhelm l81ll88o . . . . . . . . . . . DLl29
Scherfig, Hans l905l979. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l1
Schickele, Ren l883l910 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLoo
Schiff, Dorothy l903l989. . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl27
Schiller, Iriedrich
l759l805 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL91; CDWL2
p Î l982 ooker Irize winner,
Jhomas Keneally . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL32o
Schirmer, David lo23lo87 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo1
Schlaf, |ohannes l8o2l91l . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll8
Schlegel, August Wilhelm l7o7l815 . . . . . . DL91
Schlegel, Dorothea l7o3l839 . . . . . . . . . . . DL90
Schlegel, Iriedrich l772l829. . . . . . . . . . . . DL90
Schleiermacher, Iriedrich l7o8l831 . . . . . . DL90
Schlesinger, Arthur M., |r. l9l7 . . . . . . . . DLl7
Schlumberger, |ean l877l9o8 . . . . . . . . . . . DLo5
Schmid, Eduard Hermann Wilhelm
(see Edschmid, Kasimir)
Schmidt, Arno l9l1l979 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo9
Schmidt, |ohann Kaspar (see Stirner, Max)
Schmidt, Michael l917 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL10
Schmidtbonn, Wilhelm August
l87ol952 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll8
Schmitz, Aron Hector (see Svevo, Italo)
Schmitz, |ames H. l9lll98l . . . . . . . . . . . . DL8
Schnabel, |ohann Gottfried lo92l7o0. . . . DLlo8
Schnackenberg, Gjertrud l953 . . . . . . . DLl20
Schnitzler, Arthur
l8o2l93l . . . . . . . . . DL8l, ll8; CDWL2
Schnurre, Wolfdietrich l920l989 . . . . . . . . DLo9
Schocken ooks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Scholartis Iress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll2
Scholderer, Victor l880l97l. . . . . . . . . . . DL20l
Jhe Schomburg Center for Research
in lack Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL7o
Schnbeck, Virgilio (see Giotti, Virgilio)
Schnherr, Karl l8o7l913. . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll8
Schoolcraft, |ane |ohnston l800l81l . . . . DLl75
School Stories, l9l1l9o0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo0
Schopenhauer, Arthur l788l8o0. . . . . . . . . DL90
Schopenhauer, |ohanna l7ool838 . . . . . . . DL90
Schorer, Mark l908l977. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl03
Schottelius, |ustus Georg lol2lo7o . . . . . DLlo1
Schouler, |ames l839l920 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL17
Schoultz, Solveig von l907l99o . . . . . . . . DL259
Schrader, Iaul l91o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL11
Schreiner, Olive
l855l920 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl8, l5o, l90, 225
Schroeder, Andreas l91o . . . . . . . . . . . . DL53
Schubart, Christian Iriedrich Daniel
l739l79l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL97
Schubert, Gotthilf Heinrich l780l8o0 . . . . DL90
Schcking, Levin l8l1l883 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl33
Schulberg, udd l9l1 . . . . . DLo, 2o, 28; Y8l
Excerpts from LSC Iresentation
|on I. Scott Iitzgerald| . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y9o
I. |. Schulte and Company . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Schulz, runo l892l912. . . . DL2l5; CDWL1
Schulze, Hans (see Iraetorius, |ohannes)
Schupp, |ohann althasar lol0lool. . . . . DLlo1
Schurz, Carl l829l90o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL23
`~ f ai_ PPO
SOQ
Schuyler, George S. l895l977 . . . . . . . DL29, 5l
Schuyler, |ames l923l99l . . . . . . . . . . DL5, lo9
Schwartz, Delmore l9l3l9oo . . . . . . . DL28, 18
Schwartz, |onathan l938 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y82
Schwartz, Lynne Sharon l939 . . . . . . . DL2l8
Schwarz, Sibylle lo2llo38. . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo1
Schwarzart, Andre l928 . . . . . . . . . . DL299
Schwerner, Armand l927l999 . . . . . . . . . DLlo5
Schwob, Marcel l8o7l905 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl23
Sciascia, Leonardo l92ll989. . . . . . . . . . .DLl77
Science Iiction and Iantasy
Documents in ritish Iantasy and
Science Iiction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl78
Hugo Awards and Nebula Awards . . . . DL8
Jhe Iconography of ScienceIiction
Art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL8
Jhe New Wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL8
Iaperback Science Iiction . . . . . . . . . . . DL8
Science Iantasy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL8
ScienceIiction Iandom and
Conventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL8
ScienceIiction Ianzines. Jhe Jime
inders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL8
ScienceIiction Iilms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL8
Science Iiction Writers of America
and the Nebula Award . . . . . . . . . . DL8
Selected ScienceIiction Magazines and
Anthologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL8
A World Chronology of Important Science
Iiction Works (l8l8l979). . . . . . . . DL8
Jhe Year in Science Iiction
and Iantasy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y00, 0l
Scot, Reginald circa l538l599. . . . . . . . . DLl3o
Scotellaro, Rocco l923l953. . . . . . . . . . . DLl28
Scott, Alicia Anne (Lady |ohn Scott)
l8l0l900. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL210
Scott, Catharine Amy Dawson
l8o5l931 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL210
Scott, Dennis l939l99l. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl25
Scott, Dixon l88ll9l5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL98
Scott, Duncan Campbell l8o2l917 . . . . . . DL92
Scott, Evelyn l893l9o3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL9, 18
Scott, I. R. l899l985. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL88
Scott, Irederick George l8oll911. . . . . . . DL92
Scott, Geoffrey l881l929 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl19
Scott, Harvey W. l838l9l0. . . . . . . . . . . . DL23
Scott, |ohn l918 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL325
Scott, Lady |ane (see Scott, Alicia Anne)
Scott, Iaul l920l978 . . . . . . . . . . DLl1, 207, 32o
Scott, Sarah l723l795 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL39
Scott, Jom l9l8l995. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL27
Scott, Sir Walter l77ll832
. . . . . . . DL93, l07, llo, l11, l59; CDL3
Scott, William ell l8lll890. . . . . . . . . . . DL32
Walter Scott Iublishing Company
Limited. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll2
William R. Scott |publishing house| . . . . . . DL1o
ScottHeron, Gil l919 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1l
Scribe, Eugne l79ll8ol. . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl92
Scribner, Arthur Hawley l859l932. . . . . DSl3, lo
Scribner, Charles l851l930. . . . . . . . . . . DSl3, lo
Scribner, Charles, |r. l92ll995 . . . . . . . . . . . . Y95
Reminiscences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DSl7
Charles Scribner`s Sons . . . . DL19; DSl3, lo, l7
Archives of Charles Scribner`s Sons. . . . . DSl7
p j~~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DSl3
p j . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DSl3
Scripps, E. W. l851l92o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL25
Scudder, Horace Elisha l838l902. . . . DL12, 7l
Scudder, Vida Dutton l8oll951 . . . . . . . . DL7l
Scudry, Madeleine de lo07l70l . . . . . . . . DL2o8
Scupham, Ieter l933 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL10
q p~I 2005 ooker Irize winner,
|ohn anville . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL32o
q p~I q p~I l978 ooker Irize winner,
Iris Murdoch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL32o
Seabrook, William l88ol915. . . . . . . . . . . . DL1
Seabury, Samuel l729l79o. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l
Seacole, Mary |ane Grant l805l88l . . . . DLloo
q p~~ circa 970. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl1o
Sealsfield, Charles (Carl Iostl)
l793l8o1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl33, l8o
Searle, |ohn R. l932 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DL279
Sears, Edward I. l8l9.l87o. . . . . . . . . . . . DL79
Sears Iublishing Company. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Seaton, George l9lll979 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL11
Seaton, William Winston l785l8oo. . . . . . DL13
Sebillet, Jhomas l5l2l589 . . . . . . . . . . . DL327
Martin Secker |publishing house| . . . . . . . DLll2
Martin Secker, and Warburg Limited. . . . DLll2
Jhe 'Second Generation" Holocaust
Novel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL299
Sedgwick, Arthur George l811l9l5 . . . . . DLo1
Sedgwick, Catharine Maria
l789l8o7. . . . . . . . . .DLl, 71, l83, 239, 213
Sedgwick, Ellery l872l9o0 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL9l
Sedgwick, Eve Kosofsky l950 . . . . . . . DL21o
Sedley, Sir Charles lo39l70l. . . . . . . . . . DLl3l
Seeberg, Ieter l925l999 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l1
Seeger, Alan l888l9lo. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL15
Seers, Eugene (see Dantin, Louis)
Seferis, George l900l97l. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL332
Segal, Erich l937 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y8o
Segal, Lore l928 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL299
Segedin, Ietar l909l998 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl8l
Seghers, Anna l900l983 . . . . DLo9; CDWL2
Seid, Ruth (see Sinclair, |o)
Seidel, Irederick Lewis l93o . . . . . . . . . . . . Y81
Seidel, Ina l885l971 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL5o
Seifert, |aroslav
l90ll98o . . . DL2l5, 332; Y81; CDWL1
|aroslav Seifert Jhrough the Eyes of
the EnglishSpeaking Reader . . . . . . . . Y81
Jhree Ioems by |aroslav Seifert. . . . . . . . . Y81
Seifullina, Lidiia Nikolaevna l889l951. . .DL272
Seigenthaler, |ohn l927 . . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl27
Seizin Iress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll2
Sjour, Victor l8l7l871 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL50
Sjour Marcou et Ierrand, |uan Victor
(see Sjour, Victor)
Sekowski, |sef|ulian, aron rambeus
(see Senkovsky, Osip Ivanovich)
Selby, ettina l931 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL201
Selby, Hubert |r. l9282001 . . . . . . . . . .DL2, 227
Selden, George l929l989 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL52
Selden, |ohn l581lo51 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l3
Seleni, Slobodan l933l995 . . . . . . . . . . DLl8l
Self, Edwin I. l920 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl37
Self, Will l9ol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL207
Seligman, Edwin R. A. l8oll939 . . . . . . . DL17
Selimovi, Mesa
l9l0l982 . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl8l; CDWL1
Sellars, Wilfrid l9l2l989 . . . . . . . . . . . . .DL279
Sellings, Arthur (Arthur Gordon Ley)
l9lll9o8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2ol
Selous, Irederick Courteney l85ll9l7 . . .DLl71
Seltzer, Chester E. (see Muro, Amado)
Jhomas Seltzer |publishing house| . . . . . . . DL1o
Selvadurai, Shyam l9o5 . . . . . . . . . . . DL323
Selvon, Sam l923l991 . . . . .DLl25; CDWL3
Semel, Nava l951 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL299
Semmes, Raphael l809l877 . . . . . . . . . . DLl89
Senancour, Etienne de l770l81o . . . . . . . DLll9
Sena, |orge de l9l9l978 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL287
Sendak, Maurice l928 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLol
Sender, Ramn |. l90ll982 . . . . . . . . . . DL322
Seneca the Elder
circa 51 _.`.circa ^.a. 10. . . . . . . . . . DL2ll
Seneca the Younger
circa l _.`.^.a. o5. . . . . .DL2ll; CDWLl
Sencal, Eva l905l988 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL92
Sengstacke, |ohn l9l2l997 . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl27
Senior, Olive l91l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl57
Senkovsky, Osip Ivanovich
( |zef|ulian Sekowski, aron rambeus)
l800l858 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl98
Senoa, August l838l88l. . . .DLl17; CDWL1
Sentimental Iiction of the Sixteenth
Century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l8
Sepamla, Sipho l932 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl57, 225
Serafimovich, Aleksandr Serafimovich
(Aleksandr Serafimovich Iopov)
l8o3l919 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DL272
ai_ PPO `~ f
SOR
`
Serao, Matilde l85ol927 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o1

Seredy, Kate l899l975 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL22
Sereni, Vittorio l9l3l983 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl28
William Seres |publishing house| . . . . . . . . DLl70
SergeevJsensky, Sergei Nikolaevich (Sergei
Nikolaevich Sergeev) l875l958. . . . . DL272
Serling, Rod l921l975 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o
Sernine, Daniel l955 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL25l
Serote, Mongane Wally l911 . . . . DLl25, 225
Serraillier, Ian l9l2l991 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlol
Serrano, Nina l931 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl22
Service, Robert l871l958 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL92
Sessler, Charles l851l935. . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl87
Seth, Vikram l952 . . . . . . . . DLl20, 27l, 323
Seton, Elizabeth Ann l771l82l. . . . . . . . . DL200
Seton, Ernest Jhompson
l8o0l912 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL92; DSl3
Seton, |ohn circa l509l5o7. . . . . . . . . . . . DL28l
Setouchi Harumi l922 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl82
Settle, Mary Lee l9l8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo
Seume, |ohann Gottfried l7o3l8l0. . . . . . . DL91
Seuse, Heinrich l295.l3oo. . . . . . . . . . . . DLl79
Seuss, Dr. (see Geisel, Jheodor Seuss)
Severianin, Igor` l887l91l . . . . . . . . . . . . DL295
Severin, Jimothy l910 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL201
Svign, Marie de Rabutin Chantal,
Madame de lo2olo9o . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o8
Sewall, |oseph lo88l7o9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL21
Sewall, Richard . l9082003 . . . . . . . . . . DLlll
Sewall, Samuel lo52l730 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL21
Sewell, Anna l820l878. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo3
Sewell, Stephen l953 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL325
Sexton, Anne l928l971 . . .DL5, lo9; CDALl
SeymourSmith, Martin l928l998 . . . . . . DLl55
Sgorlon, Carlo l930 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl9o
Shaara, Michael l929l988 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y83
Shabel`skaia, Aleksandra Stanislavovna
l815l92l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL238
Shadwell, Jhomas lo1l.lo92 . . . . . . . . . . DL80
Shaffer, Anthony l92o200l . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl3
Shaffer, Ieter l92o . . . .DLl3, 233; CDL8
Muhammad ibn Idris alShafi'i 7o7820 . . . DL3ll
Shaftesbury, Anthony Ashley Cooper,
Jhird Earl of lo7ll7l3 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl0l
Shaginian, Marietta Sergeevna
l888l982 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL272
Shairp, Mordaunt l887l939 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl0
Shakespeare, Nicholas l957 . . . . . . . . . . DL23l
Shakespeare, William
l5o1lolo . . . . . . DLo2, l72, 2o3; CDLl
Jhe New Variorum Shakespeare. . . . . . . . .Y85
Shakespeare and Montaigne. A Symposium
by |ules Iurthman. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y02
$o,loo,000 for a _> Observations on
q p~~ c cW q e
_ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y0l
JaylorMade Shakespeare. Or Is
'`Shall I Die.`` the LongLost Jext
of ottom`s Dream. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y85
Jhe Shakespeare Globe Jrust . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y93
Shakespeare Head Iress. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll2
Shakhova, Elisaveta Nikitichna
l822l899 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL277
Shakhovskoi, Aleksandr Aleksandrovich
l777l81o. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl50
Shalamov, Varlam Jikhonovich
l907l982 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL302
alShanfara fl. sixth century . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3ll
Shange, Ntozake l918 . . . . . . . . . . . DL38, 219
Shapcott, Jhomas W. l935 . . . . . . . . . . DL289
Shapir, Ol`ga Andreevna l850l9lo . . . . . DL295
Shapiro, Karl l9l32000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL18
Sharon Iublications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Sharov, Vladimir Aleksandrovich
l952 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL285
Sharp, Margery l905l99l . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlol
Sharp, William l855l905 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl5o
Sharpe, Jom l928 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl1, 23l
Shaw, Albert l857l917 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL9l
Shaw, George ernard
l85ol950 . . . DLl0, 57, l90, 332; CDLo
Jhe ernard Shaw Society . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y99
'Stage Censorship. Jhe Rejected
Statement" (l9ll) |excerpts| . . . . . DLl0
Shaw, Henry Wheeler l8l8l885 . . . . . . . . DLll
Shaw, Irwin
l9l3l981 . . . . . . DLo, l02; Y81; CDALl
Shaw, |oseph J. l871l952. . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl37
'As I Was Saying," |oseph J. Shaw`s
Editorial Rationale in _~ j~
( |anuary l927) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl37
Shaw, Mary l851l929 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL228
Shaw, Robert l927l978. . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl3, l1
Shaw, Robert . l917 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl20
Shawn, Wallace l913 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2oo
Shawn, William l907l992. . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl37
Irank Shay |publishing house| . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Shchedrin, N. (see Saltykov, Mikhail Evgrafovich)
Shcherbakova, Galina Nikolaevna
l932 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL285
Shcherbina, Nikolai Iedorovich
l82ll8o9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL277
Shea, |ohn Gilmary l821l892 . . . . . . . . . . DL30
Sheaffer, Louis l9l2l993 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl03
Sheahan, Henry eston (see eston, Henry)
Shearing, |oseph l88ol952. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL70
Shebbeare, |ohn l709l788 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL39
Sheckley, Robert l928 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL8
Shedd, William G. J. l820l891 . . . . . . . . . DLo1
Sheed, Wilfrid l930 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo
Sheed and Ward |L.S.| . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Sheed and Ward Limited |L.K.| . . . . . . . . DLll2
Sheldon, Alice . (see Jiptree, |ames, |r.)
Sheldon, Edward l88ol91o . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL7
Sheldon and Company . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Sheller, Aleksandr Konstantinovich
l838l900 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL238
Shelley, Mary Wollstonecraft l797l85l
. . . . . . . . . DLll0, llo, l59, l78; CDL3
Ireface to c~X I q
j m (l8l8) . . . . . . . . DLl78
Shelley, Iercy ysshe
l792l822 . . . . . . DL9o, ll0, l58; CDL3
Shelnutt, Eve l91l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl30
Shen Congwen l902l988. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL328
Shenshin (see Iet, Afanasii Afanasèvich)
Shenstone, William l7l1l7o3 . . . . . . . . . . . DL95
Shepard, Clark and rown . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Shepard, Ernest Howard l879l97o. . . . . . DLlo0
Shepard, Sam l913 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL7, 2l2
Shepard, Jhomas, I, lo01 or lo05lo19 . . . DL21
Shepard, Jhomas, II, lo35lo77 . . . . . . . . . DL21
Shepherd, Luke fl. l517l551. . . . . . . . . . . DLl3o
Sherburne, Edward lolol702. . . . . . . . . . DLl3l
Sheridan, Irances l721l7oo . . . . . . . . . DL39, 81
Sheridan, Richard rinsley
l75ll8lo . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DL89; CDL2
Sherman, Irancis l87ll92o . . . . . . . . . . . . DL92
Sherman, Martin l938 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL228
Sherriff, R. C. l89ol975 . . . . . . . DLl0, l9l, 233
Sherrod, lackie l9l9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL21l
Sherry, Norman l935 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl55
Jribute to Graham Greene . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y9l
Sherry, Richard l50ol55l or l555. . . . . . DL23o
Sherwood, Mary Martha l775l85l . . . . . DLlo3
Sherwood, Robert E. l89ol955 . . . DL7, 2o, 219
Shevyrev, Stepan Ietrovich
l80ol8o1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL205
Shi Juo (Lu Ien) l9l0l988 . . . . . . . . . . . DL328
Shiel, M. I. l8o5l917. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl53
Shiels, George l88ol919 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl0
Shiga Naoya l883l97l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl80
Shiina Rinz l9lll973 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl82
Shikishi Naishinn ll53.l20l . . . . . . . . . DL203
Shillaber, enjamin Ienhallow
l8l1l890 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl, ll, 235
Shimao Joshio l9l7l98o . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl82
Shimazaki Json l872l913 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl80
Shimose, Iedro l910 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL283
Shine, Jed l93l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL38
Shinkei l10ol175 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL203
Ship, Reuben l9l5l975 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL88
`~ f ai_ PPO
SOS
Shirer, William L. l901l993 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1
ShirinskyShikhmatov, Sergii Aleksandrovich
l783l837 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl50
Shirley, |ames l59olooo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL58
Shishkov, Aleksandr Semenovich
l753l81l. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl50
Shmelev, I. S. l873l950 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l7
Shockley, Ann Allen l927 . . . . . . . . . . . DL33
Sholokhov, Mikhail Aleksandrovich
l905l981 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DL272, 332
Shno |unz l92l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl82
Shore, Arabella l820.l90l . . . . . . . . . . . DLl99
Shore, Louisa l821l895 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl99
Short, Luke (see Glidden, Irederick Dilley)
Ieter Short |publishing house| . . . . . . . . . .DLl70
Shorter, Dora Sigerson l8ool9l8 . . . . . . DL210
Shorthouse, |oseph Henry l831l903 . . . . DLl8
Short Stories
Michael M. Rea and the Rea Award
for the Short Story. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y97
Jhe Year in Short Stories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y87
Jhe Year in the Short Story . . . . . . Y88, 90-93
Shtetsu l38ll159. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL203
Showalter, Elaine l91l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo7
Shreve, Anita l91o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL292
Shteiger, Anatolii l907l911 . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l7
Shukshin, Vasilii Makarovich
l929l971. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL302
Shulevitz, Lri l935 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLol
Shulman, Max l9l9l988. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll
Shute, Henry A. l85ol913 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL9
Shute, Nevil (Nevil Shute Norway)
l899l9o0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL255
Shuttle, Ienelope l917 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl1, 10
Shvarts, Evgenii L`vovich l89ol958 . . . . DL272
Sibawayhi circa 750circa 795 . . . . . . . . . . DL3ll
Sibbes, Richard l577lo35 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl5l
Sibiriak, D. (see Mamin, Dmitrii Narkisovich)
Siddal, Elizabeth Eleanor l829l8o2 . . . . DLl99
Sidgwick, Ethel l877l970. . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl97
Sidgwick, Henry l838l900 . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o2
Sidgwick and |ackson Limited . . . . . . . . . DLll2
Sidhwa, apsi l939 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL323
Sidney, Margaret (see Lothrop, Harriet M.)
Sidney, Mary l5ollo2l. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo7
Sidney, Sir Ihilip
l551l58o . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo7; CDLl
^ ^ m (the Olney edition,
l595, of a mF. . . . . . . . DLlo7
Sidney`s Iress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
q p h~I l973 ooker Irize winner,
|. G. Iarrell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL32o
Sienkiewicz, Henryk l81ol9lo . . . . . . . . DL332
Sierra, Rubn l91o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl22
Sierra Club ooks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Siger of rabant circa l210circa l281 . . . DLll5
Sigourney, Lydia Huntley
l79ll8o5. . . . . . .DLl, 12, 73, l83, 239, 213
Silkin, |on l930l997 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL27
Silko, Leslie Marmon
l918 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl13, l75, 25o, 275
Sillanp, Irans Eemil l888l9o1. . . . . . . DL332
Silliman, enjamin l779l8o1. . . . . . . . . . DLl83
Silliman, Ron l91o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo9
Silliphant, Stirling l9l8l99o . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o
Sillitoe, Alan l928 . . . . DLl1, l39; CDL8
Jribute to |. . Iriestly. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y81
Silman, Roberta l931 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL28
Silone, Ignazio (Secondino Jranquilli)
l900l978. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o1
Silva, everly l930 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl22
Silva, Clara l905l97o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL290
Silva, |os Asunci l8o5l89o . . . . . . . . . DL283
Silverberg, Robert l935 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL8
Silverman, Kaja l917 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL21o
Silverman, Kenneth l93o . . . . . . . . . . . DLlll
Simak, Clifford D. l901l988. . . . . . . . . . . . DL8
Simcoe, Elizabeth l7o2l850. . . . . . . . . . . . DL99
Simcox, Edith |emima l811l90l. . . . . . . DLl90
Simcox, George Augustus l81ll905. . . . . DL35
Sime, |essie Georgina l8o8l958 . . . . . . . . DL92
Simenon, Georges l903l989. . . . . . . DL72; Y89
Simic, Charles l938 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl05
'Images and 'Images`" . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl05
Simionescu, Mircea Horia l928 . . . . . . . DL232
Simmel, Georg l858l9l8 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL29o
Simmel, |ohannes Mario l921 . . . . . . . . DLo9
Valentine Simmes |publishing house| . . . . .DLl70
Simmons, Ernest |. l903l972 . . . . . . . . . DLl03
Simmons, Herbert Alfred l930 . . . . . . . DL33
Simmons, |ames l933 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL10
Simms, William Gilmore
l80ol870. . . . . . . . . . . .DL3, 30, 59, 73, 218
Simms and MÌntyre. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl0o
Simon, Claude l9l32005 . . . . . DL83, 332; Y85
Nobel Lecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y85
Simon, Neil l927 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DL7, 2oo
Simon and Schuster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Simonov, Konstantin Mikhailovich
l9l5l979. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL302
Simons, Katherine Drayton Mayrant
l890l9o9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y83
Simovi, Ljubomir l935 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl8l
Simpkin and Marshall
|publishing house| . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl51
Simpson, Helen l897l910 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL77
Simpson, Louis l923 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL5
Simpson, N. I. l9l9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl3
Sims, George l923l999. . . . . . . . . . . DL87; Y99
Sims, George Robert l817l922 . . .DL35, 70, l35
Sinn, Rogelio l902l991. . . . . . . . . DLl15, 290
Sinclair, Andrew l935 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl1
Sinclair, ertrand William l88ll972 . . . . . DL92
Sinclair, Catherine l800l8o1. . . . . . . . . . DLlo3
Sinclair, Clive l918 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l9
Sinclair, |o l9l3l995 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL28
Sinclair, Lister l92l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL88
Sinclair, May l8o3l91o . . . . . . . . . . . DL3o, l35
Jhe Novels of Dorothy Richardson
(l9l8) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3o
Sinclair, Lpton l878l9o8. . . . . . DL9; CDAL5
Lpton Sinclair |publishing house|. . . . . . . . DL1o
Singer, Isaac ashevis l901l99l
. . . . . DLo, 28, 52, 278, 332; Y9l; CDALl
Singer, Mark l950 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl85
Singh, Khushwant l9l5 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL323
Singmaster, Elsie l879l958 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL9
Siniavsky, Andrei (Abram Jertz)
l925l997 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL302
Sinisgalli, Leonardo l908l98l. . . . . . . . . DLll1
Siodmak, Curt l9022000. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL11
Srbu, Ion D. l9l9l989 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL232
Siringo, Charles A. l855l928 . . . . . . . . . DLl8o
Sissman, L. E. l928l97o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL5
Sisson, C. H. l9l12003 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL27
Sitwell, Edith l887l9o1 . . . . . . DL20; CDL7
Sitwell, Osbert l892l9o9. . . . . . . . . .DLl00, l95
Sivanandan, Ambalavaner l923 . . . . . DL323
SixteenthCentury Spanish Epic, Jhe. . . . DL3l8
Skcel, |an l922l989. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL232
Skalbe, Krlis l879l915. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL220
Skrmeta, Antonio
l910 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl15; CDWL3
Skavronsky, A. (see Danilevsky, Grigorii Ietrovich)
Skeat, Walter W. l835l9l2 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl81
William Skeffington |publishing house| . . DLl0o
Skelton, |ohn l1o3l529. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl3o
Skelton, Robin l925l997. . . . . . . . . . . . DL27, 53
kma, Antanas l9l0l9ol . . . . . . . . . . . DL220
Skinner, Constance Lindsay
l877l939 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL92
Skinner, |ohn Stuart l788l85l. . . . . . . . . . DL73
Skipsey, |oseph l832l903 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL35
SkouHansen, Jage l925 . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l1
Skrzynecki, Ieter l915 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL289
kvoreck, Josef l921 . . . . DL232; CDWL1
Slade, ernard l930 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL53
Slamnig, Ivan l930 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl8l
Slanekov, oena (see Jimrava)
ai_ PPO `~ f
SOT
`
Slataper, Scipio l888l9l5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o1

Slater, Iatrick l880l95l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo8
Slaveykov, Iencho l8ool9l2 . . . . . . . . . . DLl17
Slaviek, Milivoj l929 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl8l
Slavitt, David l935 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL5, o
Sleigh, urrows Willcocks Arthur
l82ll8o9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL99
Sleptsov, Vasilii Alekseevich l83ol878 . . . DL277
Slesinger, Jess l905l915. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl02
Slessor, Kenneth l90ll97l . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o0
Slick, Sam (see Haliburton, Jhomas Chandler)
Sloan, |ohn l87ll95l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl88
Sloane, William, Associates . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Slonimsky, Mikhail Leonidovich
l897l972. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL272
Sluchevsky, Konstantin Konstantinovich
l837l901 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL277
Small, Maynard and Company . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Smart, Christopher l722l77l . . . . . . . . . . DLl09
Smart, David A. l892l957 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl37
Smart, Elizabeth l9l3l98o . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL88
Smart, |. |. C. l920 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o2
Smedley, Menella ute l820.l877 . . . . . . DLl99
William Smellie |publishing house| . . . . . . DLl51
Smiles, Samuel l8l2l901 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL55
Smiley, |ane l919 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL227, 231
Smith, A. |. M. l902l980 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL88
Smith, Adam l723l790 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl01, 252
Smith, Adam (George |erome Waldo
Goodman) l930 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl85
Smith, Alexander l829l8o7 . . . . . . . . . DL32, 55
'On the Writing of Essays`` (l8o2) . . . . DL57
Smith, Amanda l837l9l5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL22l
Smith, etty l89ol972 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y82
Smith, Carol Sturm l938 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y8l
Smith, Charles Henry l82ol903 . . . . . . . . DLll
Smith, Charlotte l719l80o . . . . . . . . . DL39, l09
Smith, Chet l899l973. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl7l
Smith, Cordwainer l9l3l9oo. . . . . . . . . . . . DL8
Smith, Dave l912 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL5
Jribute to |ohn Gardner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y82
Smith, Dodie l89ol990 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl0
Smith, Doris uchanan l9312002 . . . . . . . DL52
Smith, E. E. l890l9o5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL8
Smith, Elihu Hubbard l77ll798 . . . . . . . . . DL37
Smith, Elizabeth Oakes (Irince)
(see Oakes Smith, Elizabeth)
Smith, Eunice l757l823 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL200
Smith, I. Hopkinson l838l9l5. . . . . . . . . . . DSl3
Smith, George D. l870l920 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl10
Smith, George O. l9lll98l . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL8
Smith, Goldwin l823l9l0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL99
Smith, H. Allen l907l97o . . . . . . . . . . . DLll, 29
Smith, Harry . l8o0l93o . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl87
Smith, Hazel rannon l9l1l991 . . . . . . . DLl27
Smith, Henry circa l5o0circa l59l. . . . . . DLl3o
Smith, Horatio (Horace)
l779l819 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL9o, llo
Smith, Iain Crichton (Iain Mac A`Ghobhainn)
l928l998 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL10, l39, 3l9
Smith, |. Allen l8o0l921 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL17
Smith, |ames l775l839 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL9o
Smith, |essie Willcox l8o3l935 . . . . . . . . DLl88
Smith, |ohn l580lo3l. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL21, 30
Smith, |ohn lol8lo52. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL252
Smith, |osiah l701l78l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL21
Smith, Ken l938 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL10
Smith, Lee l911 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl13; Y83
Smith, Logan Iearsall l8o5l91o. . . . . . . . . DL98
Smith, Margaret ayard l778l811 . . . . . . DL218
Smith, Mark l935 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y82
Smith, Michael lo98circa l77l . . . . . . . . . . DL3l
Smith, Iauline l882l959 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL225
Smith, Red l905l982 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL29, l7l
Smith, Roswell l829l892 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL79
Smith, Samuel Harrison l772l815 . . . . . . . DL13
Smith, Samuel Stanhope l75ll8l9 . . . . . . . DL37
Smith, Sarah (see Stretton, Hesba)
Smith, Sarah Iogson l771l870 . . . . . . . . . DL200
Smith, Seba l792l8o8. . . . . . . . . . . DLl, ll, 213
Smith, Stevie l902l97l. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL20
Smith, Sydney l77ll815. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl07
Smith, Sydney Goodsir l9l5l975. . . . . . . . DL27
Smith, Sir Jhomas l5l3l577 . . . . . . . . . . DLl32
Smith, Vivian l933 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL325
Smith, W. Gordon l928l99o . . . . . . . . . . DL3l0
Smith, Wendell l9l1l972 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl7l
Smith, William fl. l595l597 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl3o
Smith, William l727l803 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l
^ d~ f~ ` j~~
(l753) |excerpts| . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l
Smith, William l728l793 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL30
Smith, William Gardner l927l971 . . . . . . . DL7o
Smith, William Henry l808l872 . . . . . . . DLl59
Smith, William |ay l9l8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL5
Smith, Elder and Company . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl51
Harrison Smith and Robert Haas
|. Stilman Smith and Company . . . . . . . . . . DL19
W. . Smith and Company . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
W. H. Smith and Son. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl0o
Leonard Smithers |publishing house|. . . . . DLll2
Smollett, Jobias
l72ll77l. . . . . . . . . . . DL39, l01; CDL2
Dedication to c~ ` c~
(l753) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL39
Ireface to c~ ` c~
(l753) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL39
Ireface to o o~ (l718) . . . . . DL39
Smythe, Irancis Sydney l900l919 . . . . . . DLl95
Snelling, William |oseph l801l818 . . . . . DL202
Snellings, Rolland (see Jour, Askia Muhammad)
Snodgrass, W. D. l92o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL5
Snorri Hjartarson l90ol98o. . . . . . . . . . . DL293
Snow, C. I.
l905l980 . . . . . DLl5, 77; DSl7; CDL7
Snyder, Gary
l930 . . . . . . . . DL5, lo, lo5, 2l2, 237, 275
Sobiloff, Hy l9l2l970. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL18
q p~ `~I |ean|acques
Rousseau. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l1
Jhe Society for Jextual Scholarship and
qbuq . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y87
Jhe Society for the History of Authorship,
Reading and Iublishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y92
Sderberg, Hjalmar l8o9l91l . . . . . . . . . DL259
Sdergran, Edith l892l923 . . . . . . . . . . . DL259
Soffici, Ardengo l879l9o1 . . . . . . . . DLll1, 2o1
Sofola, 'Zulu l938 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl57
Sokhanskaia, Nadezhda Stepanovna
(Kokhanovskaia) l823.l881 . . . . . . . DL277
Sokolov, Sasha (Aleksandr Vsevolodovich
Sokolov) l913 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL285
Solano, Solita l888l975 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1
Soldati, Mario l90ol999 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl77
Soledad (see Zamudio, Adela)
Soljan, Antun l932l993 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl8l
Sollers, Ihilippe (Ihilippe |oyaux)
l93o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL83
Sollogub, Vladimir Aleksandrovich
l8l3l882 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl98
Sollors, Werner l913 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL21o
Solmi, Sergio l899l98l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll1
Sologub, Iedor l8o3l927 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL295
Solomon, Carl l928 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo
Solrzano, Carlos l922 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL305
Soloukhin, Vladimir Alekseevich
l921l997 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL302
Solovèv, Sergei Mikhailovich
l885l912 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL295
Solovèv, Vladimir Sergeevich
l853l900 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL295
Solstad, Dag l91l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL297
Solway, David l91l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL53
Solzhenitsyn, Aleksandr
l9l8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL302, 332
Solzhenitsyn and America. . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y85
Some asic Notes on Jhree Modern Genres.
Interview, lurb, and Obituary. . . . . . . . . .Y02
`~ f ai_ PPO
SOU
Somerville, Edith Cnone l858l919 . . . . DLl35
p ^ cI l9o9 ooker Irize winner,
I. H. Newby. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL32o
Somov, Orest Mikhailovich l793l833 . . . DLl98
Snderby, Knud l909l9oo . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l1
Sone, Monica l9l9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l2
Song, Cathy l955 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo9, 3l2
Sonnevi, Gran l939 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL257
Sono Ayako l93l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl82
Sontag, Susan l9332001 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2, o7
Sophocles 197/19o _.`.10o/105 _.`.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl7o; CDWLl
Sopov, Aco l923l982 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl8l
Sorel, Charles ca.lo00lo71. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o8
Srensen, Villy l929 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l1
Sorensen, Virginia l9l2l99l. . . . . . . . . . DL20o
Sorge, Reinhard |ohannes l892l9lo . . . . DLll8
Sorokin, Vladimir Georgievich
l955 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL285
Sorrentino, Gilbert l929 . . . . . DL5, l73; Y80
Sosa, Roberto l930 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL290
Sotheby, |ames lo82l712. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l3
Sotheby, |ohn l710l807. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l3
Sotheby, Samuel l77ll812. . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l3
Sotheby, Samuel Leigh l805l8ol . . . . . . DL2l3
Sotheby, William l757l833 . . . . . . . . DL93, 2l3
Soto, Gary l952 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL82
Soueif, Ahdaf l950 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o7
Souster, Raymond l92l . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL88
Jhe p b i~ circa
thirteenthfifteenth centuries. . . . . . . . DLl1o
Southerland, Ellease l913 . . . . . . . . . . . DL33
Southern, Jerry l921l995. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2
Southern Illinois Lniversity Iress. . . . . . . . . . . Y95
Southern Literature
Iellowship of Southern Writers . . . . . . . . . Y98
Jhe Iugitives and the Agrarians.
Jhe Iirst Exhibition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y85
Study of Southern Culture and
History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y02
Jhe Society for the Study of
Southern Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y00
Southern Writers etween the Wars . . . DL9
Southerne, Jhomas lo59l71o . . . . . . . . . . DL80
Southey, Caroline Anne owles
l78ol851. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLllo
Southey, Robert l771l813. . . . . . DL93, l07, l12
Southwell, Robert l5ol.l595 . . . . . . . . . DLlo7
Southworth, E. D. E. N. l8l9l899 . . . . . DL239
Sowande, ode l918 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl57
Jace Sowle |publishing house| . . . . . . . . . .DLl70
Soyfer, |ura l9l2l939 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl21
Soyinka, Wole
l931 .DLl25, 332; Y8o, Y87; CDWL3
Nobel Lecture l98o. Jhis Iast Must
Address Its Iresent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y8o
Spacks, arry l93l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl05
Spalding, Irances l950 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl55
Spanish yzantine Novel, Jhe . . . . . . . . . DL3l8
Spanish Jravel Writers of the
Late Middle Ages. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL28o
Spark, Muriel l9l8 . . . DLl5, l39; CDL7
Michael Sparke |publishing house| . . . . . . .DLl70
Sparks, |ared l789l8oo . . . . . . . . . DLl, 30, 235
Sparshott, Irancis l92o . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo0
Spth, Gerold l939 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL75
Spatola, Adriano l91ll988 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl28
Spaziani, Maria Luisa l921 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl28
p c p~~ i~
l838l812 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl
q p~ l828 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll0
Spedding, |ames l808l88l . . . . . . . . . . . DLl11
Spee von Langenfeld, Iriedrich
l59llo35 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo1
Speght, Rachel l597after lo30. . . . . . . . . DLl2o
Speke, |ohn Hanning l827l8o1. . . . . . . . DLloo
Spellman, A. . l935 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1l
Spence, Catherine Helen l825l9l0. . . . . DL230
Spence, Jhomas l750l8l1 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl58
Spencer, Anne l882l975 . . . . . . . . . . . DL5l, 51
Spencer, Charles, third Earl of Sunderland
lo71l722 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l3
Spencer, Elizabeth l92l . . . . . . . . . . DLo, 2l8
Spencer, George |ohn, Second Earl Spencer
l758l831. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl81
Spencer, Herbert l820l903 . . . . . . . . . DL57, 2o2
'Jhe Ihilosophy of Style`` (l852) . . . . DL57
Spencer, Scott l915 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y8o
Spender, |. A. l8o2l912 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL98
Spender, Stephen l909l995. . . DL20; CDL7
Spener, Ihilipp |akob lo35l705. . . . . . . . DLlo1
Spenser, Edmund
circa l552l599 . . . . . . . . DLlo7; CDLl
Envoy from q p~ `~ . . . . DLlo7
'Jhe Generall Argument of the
Whole ooke," from
q p~ `~ . . . . . . . . DLlo7
'A Letter of the Authors Expounding
His Whole Intention in the Course
of this Worke. Which for that It
Giueth Great Light to the Reader,
for the etter Vnderstanding
Is Hereunto Annexed,"
from q c~ n (l590) . . . . DLlo7
'Jo His ooke," from
q p~ `~ (l579) . . . DLlo7
'Jo the Most Excellent and Learned
oth Orator and Ioete, Mayster
Gabriell Haruey, His Verie Special
and Singular Good Irend E. K.
Commendeth the Good Lyking of
Jhis His Labour, and the Iatronage
of the New Ioete," from
q p~ `~ . . . . . . . . DLlo7
Sperr, Martin l911 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl21
Spewack, ella Cowen l899l990 . . . . . . DL2oo
Spewack, Samuel l899l97l. . . . . . . . . . . DL2oo
Spicer, |ack l925l9o5 . . . . . . . . . . .DL5, lo, l93
Spiegelman, Art l918 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL299
Spielberg, Ieter l929 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y8l
Spielhagen, Iriedrich l829l9ll. . . . . . . . DLl29
p~ (circa ll52circa l500) . . DLl18
Spier, Ieter l927 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLol
Spillane, Mickey l9l8200o . . . . . . . . . . . DL22o
Spink, |. G. Jaylor l888l9o2 . . . . . . . . . DL21l
Spinrad, Norman l910 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL8
Spires, Elizabeth l952 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl20
q p i~I ClaudeAdrien
Helvtius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l1
q p i~I CharlesLouis de Secondat, baron
de Montesquieu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l1
Spitteler, Carl l815l921 . . . . . . . . . DLl29, 332
Spivak, Lawrence E. l900l991 . . . . . . . . .DLl37
Spofford, Harriet Irescott
l835l92l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DL71, 22l
Sponde, |ean de l557l595 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL327
Sports
|immy, Red, and Others. Harold
Rosenthal Remembers the Stars
of the Iress ox. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y0l
Jhe Literature of oxing in England
through Arthur Conan Doyle . . . . . . . Y0l
Notable JwentiethCentury ooks
about Sports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL21l
Sprigge, Jimothy L. S. l932 . . . . . . . . DL2o2
Spring, Howard l889l9o5. . . . . . . . . . . . DLl9l
Springs, Elliott White l89ol959 . . . . . . . DL3lo
Squibob (see Derby, George Horatio)
Squier, E. G. l82ll888 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl89
StaalDelaunay, Marguerite|eanne Cordier de
lo81l750. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l1
Stableford, rian l918 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2ol
Stacpoole, H. de Vere l8o3l95l . . . . . . . DLl53
Stal, Germaine de l7ool8l7. . . . . . .DLll9, l92
StalHolstein, AnneLouise Germaine de
(see Stal, Germaine de)
Staffeldt, Schack l7o9l82o . . . . . . . . . . . DL300
Stafford, |ean l9l5l979 . . . . . . . . . . . . .DL2, l73
Stafford, William l9l1l993. . . . . . . . . DL5, 20o
Stallings, Laurence l891l9o8 . . . . . DL7, 11, 3lo
Stallworthy, |on l935 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL10
Stampp, Kenneth M. l9l2 . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl7
Stnescu, Nichita l933l983. . . . . . . . . . . DL232
Stanev, Emiliyan l907l979 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl8l
Stanford, Ann l9lol987 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL5
ai_ PPO `~ f
SOV
`
Stangerup, Henrik l937l998. . . . . . . . . . . DL2l1

Stanihurst, Richard l517lol8 . . . . . . . . . . DL28l
Stanitsky, N. (see Ianaeva, Avdotìa Iakovlevna)
Stankevich, Nikolai Vladimirovich
l8l3l810 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl98
Stankovi, orisav ('ora")
l87ol927 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl17; CDWL1
Stanley, Henry M. l81ll901 . . . . DLl89; DSl3
Stanley, Jhomas lo25lo78 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl3l
Stannard, Martin l917 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl55
William Stansby |publishing house| . . . . . . DLl70
Stanton, Elizabeth Cady l8l5l902. . . . . . . DL79
Stanton, Irank L. l857l927 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL25
Stanton, Maura l91o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl20
Stapledon, Olaf l88ol950. . . . . . . . . . DLl5, 255
Star Spangled anner Office . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Stark, Ireya l893l993 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl95
Starkey, Jhomas circa l199l538 . . . . . . . DLl32
Starkie, Walter l891l97o . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl95
Starkweather, David l935 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL7
Starrett, Vincent l88ol971 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl87
Stationers` Company of London, Jhe . . . . DLl70
Statius circa ^.a. 15^.a. 9o . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2ll
p~ lI l977 ooker Irize winner,
Iaul Scott . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL32o
Stead, Christina l902l983 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o0
Stead, Robert |. C. l880l959 . . . . . . . . . . . DL92
Steadman, Mark l930 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo
Stearns, Harold E. l89ll913 . . . . . . DL1; DSl5
Stebnitsky, M. (see Leskov, Nikolai Semenovich)
Stedman, Edmund Clarence l833l908. . . . DLo1
Steegmuller, Irancis l90ol991 . . . . . . . . . DLlll
Steel, Ilora Annie l817l929 . . . . . . . DLl53, l5o
Steele, Max l9222005. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y80
Steele, Richard
lo72l729 . . . . . . . . . .DL81, l0l; CDL2
Steele, Jimothy l918 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl20
Steele, Wilbur Daniel l88ol970 . . . . . . . . . DL8o
Wallace Markfield`s 'Steeplechase" . . . . . . . . . .Y02
Steere, Richard circa lo13l72l . . . . . . . . . . DL21
Stefn fr Hvtadal (Stefn Sigursson)
l887l933 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL293
Stefn Gumundsson (see Stephan G. Stephansson)
Stefn Hrur Grmsson
l9l9 or l9202002 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL293
Steffens, Lincoln l8ool93o. . . . . . . . . . . . DL303
Stefanovski, Goran l952 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl8l
Stegner, Wallace
l909l993 . . . . . . . . . . . DL9, 20o, 275; Y93
Stehr, Hermann l8o1l910 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLoo
Steig, William l9072003 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLol
Stein, Gertrude l871l91o
. . . . . . . DL1, 51, 8o, 228; DSl5; CDAL1
Stein, Leo l872l917 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1
Stein and Day Iublishers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Steinbeck, |ohn l902l9o8. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
DL7, 9, 2l2, 275, 309, 332; DS2; CDAL5
|ohn Steinbeck Research Center,
San |ose State Lniversity . . . . . . . . . . .Y85
Jhe Steinbeck Centennial . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y02
Steinem, Gloria l931 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL21o
Steiner, George l929 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo7, 299
Steinhoewel, Heinrich l1ll/l1l2l179 . . . DLl79
Steinn Steinarr (Aalsteinn Kristmundsson)
l908l958 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL293
Steinunn Sigurardttir l950 . . . . . . . . DL293
Steloff, Ida Irances l887l989 . . . . . . . . . . DLl87
Stendhal l783l812 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll9
Stephan G. Stephansson (Stefn Gumundsson)
l853l927 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL293
Stephen, Leslie l832l901 . . . . . . DL57, l11, l90
Stephen Iamily (loomsbury Group) . . . . . . DSl0
Stephens, A. G. l8o5l933 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL230
Stephens, Alexander H. l8l2l883 . . . . . . . DL17
Stephens, Alice arber l858l932 . . . . . . . DLl88
Stephens, Ann l8l0l88o . . . . . . . . DL3, 73, 250
Stephens, Charles Asbury l811.l93l . . . . DL12
Stephens, |ames l882.l950 . . . . DLl9, l53, lo2
Stephens, |ohn Lloyd l805l852 . . . . DLl83, 250
Stephens, Michael l91o . . . . . . . . . . . . DL231
Stephensen, I. R. l90ll9o5 . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o0
Sterling, George l8o9l92o . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL51
Sterling, |ames l70ll7o3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL21
Sterling, |ohn l80ol811 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLllo
Stern, Gerald l925 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl05
'Living in Ruin" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl05
Stern, Gladys . l890l973 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl97
Stern, Madeleine . l9l2 . . . . . . . DLlll, l10
Stern, Richard l928 . . . . . . . . . . DL2l8; Y87
Stern, Stewart l922 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o
Sterne, Laurence l7l3l7o8 . . . DL39; CDL2
Sternheim, Carl l878l912 . . . . . . . . . DL5o, ll8
Sternhold, Jhomas .l519. . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl32
Steuart, David l717l821 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l3
Stevens, Henry l8l9l88o. . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl10
Stevens, Wallace l879l955 . . . .DL51; CDAL5
Jhe Wallace Stevens Society. . . . . . . . . . . .Y99
Stevenson, Anne l933 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL10
Stevenson, D. E. l892l973 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl9l
Stevenson, Lionel l902l973 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl55
Stevenson, Robert Louis
l850l891 . . . . . . . DLl8, 57, l1l, l5o, l71;
DSl3; CDL5
'On Style in Literature.
Its Jechnical Elements`` (l885) . . . . DL57
Stewart, Donald Ogden
l891l980 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1, ll, 2o; DSl5
Stewart, Douglas l9l3l985 . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o0
Stewart, Dugald l753l828 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l
Stewart, George, |r. l818l90o . . . . . . . . . . DL99
Stewart, George R. l895l980. . . . . . . . . . . . DL8
Stewart, Harold l9lol995 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o0
Stewart, |. I. M. (see Innes, Michael)
Stewart, Maria W. l803.l879. . . . . . . . . . DL239
Stewart, Randall l89ol9o1. . . . . . . . . . . . DLl03
Stewart, Sean l9o5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL25l
Stewart and Kidd Company . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Sthen, Hans Christensen l511lol0 . . . . . DL300
Stickney, Jrumbull l871l901 . . . . . . . . . . . DL51
Stieler, Caspar lo32l707. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo1
Stifter, Adalbert
l805l8o8 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl33; CDWL2
Stiles, Ezra l727l795 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l
Still, |ames l90o200l . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL9; Y0l
Stirling, S. M. l953 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL25l
Stirner, Max l80ol85o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl29
Stith, William l707l755. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l
Stivens, Dal l9lll997. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o0
Elliot Stock |publishing house|. . . . . . . . . . DLl0o
Stockton, Annis oudinot l73ol80l. . . . . DL200
Stockton, Irank R.
l831l902 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL12, 71; DSl3
Stockton, |. Roy l892l972 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL21l
Ashbel Stoddard |publishing house| . . . . . . DL19
Stoddard, Charles Warren l813l909 . . . . DLl8o
Stoddard, Elizabeth l823l902 . . . . . . . . . DL202
Stoddard, Richard Henry
l825l903 . . . . . . . . . . . DL3, o1, 250; DSl3
Stoddard, Solomon lo13l729. . . . . . . . . . . DL21
Stoker, ram
l817l9l2 . . . . . . . DL3o, 70, l78; CDL5
On Writing a~~I from the
Introduction to a~~ (l897) . . . DLl78
a~~ (Documentary) . . . . . . . . . . . . DL301
Irederick A. Stokes Company . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Stokes, Jhomas L. l898l958 . . . . . . . . . . . DL29
Stokesbury, Leon l915 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl20
Stolberg, Christian Graf zu l718l82l. . . . . DL91
Stolberg, Iriedrich Leopold Graf zu
l750l8l9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL91
Stone, Lucy l8l8l893 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL79, 239
Stone, Melville l818l929 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL25
Stone, Robert l937 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl52
Stone, Ruth l9l5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl05
Stone, Samuel lo02loo3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL21
Stone, William Leete l792l811 . . . . . . . . DL202
Herbert S. Stone and Company. . . . . . . . . . DL19
Stone and Kimball . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Stoppard, Jom
l937 . . . . . . . DLl3, 233; Y85; CDL8
`~ f ai_ PPO
SPM
Ilaywrights and Irofessors. . . . . . . . . . DLl3
Storey, Anthony l928 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl1
Storey, David l933 . . . DLl3, l1, 207, 215, 32o
Storm, Jheodor
l8l7l888 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl29; CDWL2
Storni, Alfonsina l892l938 . . . . . . . . . . . DL283
Story, Jhomas circa lo70l712 . . . . . . . . . . DL3l
Story, William Wetmore l8l9l895 . . . DLl, 235
Storytelling. A Contemporary Renaissance . . . Y81
Stoughton, William lo3ll70l . . . . . . . . . . DL21
Stout, Rex l88ol975 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL30o
Stow, |ohn l525lo05 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl32
Stow, Randolph l935 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o0
Stowe, Harriet eecher l8lll89o . . . . . DLl,l2,
12, 71, l89, 239, 213; CDAL3
Jhe Harriet eecher Stowe Center . . . . . . Y00
Stowe, Leland l899l991 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL29
Stoyanov, Dimitr Ivanov (see Elin Ielin)
Strabo o1/o3 _.`.circa ^.a. 25 . . . . . . . . . .DLl7o
Strachey, Lytton l880l932 . . . . . DLl19; DSl0
Ireface to b s~ . . . . . . . . . DLl19
William Strahan |publishing house| . . . . . DLl51
Strahan and Company . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl0o
Strand, Mark l931 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL5
Jhe Strasbourg Oaths 812 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl18
Stratemeyer, Edward l8o2l930. . . . . . . . . DL12
Strati, Saverio l921 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl77
Stratton and arnard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
StrattonIorter, Gene
l8o3l921 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL22l; DSl1
Straub, Ieter l913 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y81
Strau, otho l911 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl21
Strau, David Iriedrich l808l871. . . . . . DLl33
Strauss, |ennifer l933 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL325
Jhe Strawberry Hill Iress . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl51
Strawson, I. I. l9l9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o2
Streatfeild, Noel l895l98o. . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo0
Street, Cecil |ohn Charles (see Rhode, |ohn)
Street, G. S. l8o7l93o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl35
Street and Smith . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Streeter, Edward l89ll97o . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll
Streeter, Jhomas Winthrop l883l9o5. . . DLl10
Stretton, Hesba l832l9ll . . . . . . . . DLlo3, l90
Stribling, J. S. l88ll9o5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL9
Der Stricker circa ll90circa l250 . . . . . . DLl38
Strickland, Samuel l801l8o7. . . . . . . . . . . DL99
Strindberg, August l819l9l2 . . . . . . . . . DL259
Stringer, Arthur l871l950 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL92
Stringer and Jownsend. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Strittmatter, Erwin l9l2l991. . . . . . . . . . . DLo9
Strnisa, Gregor l930l987 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl8l
Strode, William lo30lo15. . . . . . . . . . . . DLl2o
Strong, L. A. G. l89ol958. . . . . . . . . . . . DLl9l
Strother, David Hunter (Iorte Crayon)
l8lol888 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3, 218
Strouse, |ean l915 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlll
Strugatsky, Arkadii Natanovich
l925 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL302
Strugatsky, oris Natanovich l933 . . . DL302
Stuart, Dabney l937 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl05
'Knots into Webs. Some
Autobiographical Sources" . . . . . DLl05
Stuart, |esse l90ol981. . . . . . DL9, 18, l02; Y81
Lyle Stuart |publishing house| . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Stuart, Ruth McEnery l819.l9l7 . . . . . . DL202
Stub, Ambrosius l705l758. . . . . . . . . . . . DL300
Stubbs, Harry Clement (see Clement, Hal)
Stubenberg, |ohann Wilhelm von
lol9loo3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo1
Stuckenberg, Viggo l7o3l905 . . . . . . . . . DL300
Studebaker, William V. l917 . . . . . . . . DL25o
Studies in American |ewish Literature . . . . . . . Y02
Studio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll2
Stump, Al l9lol995 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL21l
Sturgeon, Jheodore
l9l8l985 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL8; Y85
Sturges, Ireston l898l959. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o
Styron, William l925200o
. . . . . . . . . . . DL2, l13, 299; Y80; CDALo
Suard, |eanaptisteAntoine
l732l8l7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l1
Surez, Clementina l902l99l . . . . . . . . . DL290
Surez, Mario l925 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL82
Suassuna, Ariano l927 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL307
Such, Ieter l939 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo0
Suckling, Sir |ohn lo09lo1l. . . . . . . DL58, l2o
Suckow, Ruth l892l9o0 . . . . . . . . . . . DL9, l02
Sudermann, Hermann l857l928. . . . . . . DLll8
Sue, Eugne l801l857. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll9
Sue, Marie|oseph (see Sue, Eugne)
Suetonius circa ^.a. o9post ^.a. l22 . . . . DL2ll
Suggs, Simon (see Hooper, |ohnson |ones)
Sui Sin Iar (see Eaton, Edith Maude)
Suits, Gustav l883l95o. . . . DL220; CDWL1
Sukenick, Ronald l9322001 . . . . . . DLl73; Y8l
An Author`s Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y82
SukhovoKobylin, Aleksandr Vasilèvich
l8l7l903. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DL277
Suknaski, Andrew l912 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL53
Sullivan, Alan l8o8l917 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL92
Sullivan, C. Gardner l88ol9o5. . . . . . . . . DL2o
Sullivan, Irank l892l97o . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll
Sully Irudhomme (Ren IranoisArmand
Irudhomme) l839l907. . . . . . . . . . . DL332
Sulte, enjamin l81ll923 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL99
Sulzberger, Arthur Hays l89ll9o8 . . . . . .DLl27
Sulzberger, Arthur Ochs l92o . . . . . . . .DLl27
Sulzer, |ohann Georg l720l779 . . . . . . . . . DL97
Sumarokov, Aleksandr Ietrovich
l7l7l777 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl50
Summers, Hollis l9lol987 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo
Sumner, Charles l8lll871 . . . . . . . . . . . DL235
Sumner, William Graham l810l9l0 . . . . .DL270
Henry A. Sumner
Sundman, Ier Olof l922l992 . . . . . . . . . DL257
Supervielle, |ules l881l9o0. . . . . . . . . . . DL258
Surtees, Robert Smith l803l8o1 . . . . . . . . DL2l
Jhe R. S. Surtees Society. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y98
Sutcliffe, Matthew l550.lo29 . . . . . . . . . DL28l
Sutcliffe, William l97l . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DL27l
Sutherland, Efua Jheodora l921l99o . . .DLll7
Sutherland, |ohn l9l9l95o . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo8
Sutro, Alfred l8o3l933 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl0
Svava |akobsdttir l930 . . . . . . . . . . . DL293
Svendsen, Hanne Marie l933 . . . . . . . DL2l1
Svevo, Italo (Ettore Schmitz)
l8oll928 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o1
Swados, Harvey l920l972 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2
Swain, Charles l80ll871. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL32
Swallow Iress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Swan Sonnenschein Limited. . . . . . . . . . . DLl0o
Swanberg, W. A. l907l992 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl03
Swedish Literature
Jhe Literature of the Modern
reakthrough. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL259
Swenson, May l9l9l989. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL5
Swerling, |o l897l9o1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL11
Swift, Graham l919 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl91, 32o
Swift, |onathan
loo7l715 . . . . . . . DL39, 95, l0l; CDL2
Swinburne, A. C.
l837l909. . . . . . . . . . . DL35, 57; CDL1
Lnder the Microscope (l872) . . . . . . . DL35
Swineshead, Richard floruit circa l350. . . DLll5
Swinnerton, Irank l881l982. . . . . . . . . . . DL31
Swisshelm, |ane Grey l8l5l881 . . . . . . . . DL13
Swope, Herbert ayard l882l958. . . . . . . DL25
Swords, |ames .l811 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL73
Swords, Jhomas l7o3l813 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL73
J. and |. Swords and Company . . . . . . . . . DL19
Swynnerton, Jhomas ( |ohn Roberts)
circa l500l551 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL28l
Sykes, Ella C. .l939 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl71
Sylvester, |osuah l5o2 or l5o3lol8 . . . . DLl2l
Symonds, Emily Morse (see Iaston, George)
Symonds, |ohn Addington
l810l893 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL57, l11
ai_ PPO `~ f
SPN
`
'Iersonal Style`` (l890) . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL57

Symons, A. |. A. l900l91l . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl19
Symons, Arthur l8o5l915 . . . . . . DLl9, 57, l19
Symons, |ulian l9l2l991 . . . . . .DL87, l55; Y92
|ulian Symons at Eighty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y92
Symons, Scott l933 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL53
Synge, |ohn Millington
l87ll909 . . . . . . . . . . .DLl0, l9; CDL5
Synge Summer School. |. M. Synge
and the Irish Jheater, Rathdrum,
County Wiclow, Ireland . . . . . . . . . . . .Y93
Syrett, Netta l8o5l913 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl35, l97
q p k~I Iaul Henri Jhiry,
baron d`Holbach (as |eanaptiste
de Mirabaud). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l1
Szab, Lrinc l900l957 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l5
Szab, Magda l9l7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l5
Szymborska, Wisawa
l923 . . . . . DL232, 332; Y9o; CDWL1
Nobel Lecture l99o.
Jhe Ioet and the World . . . . . . . . . . . .Y9o
q
Jaban lo Liyong l939. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl25
alJabari 839923 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3ll
Jablada, |os |uan l87ll915. . . . . . . . . . . DL290
i q~~ m~I LouisSbastien
Mercier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l1
Jabori, George l9l1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL215
Jabucchi, Antonio l913 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl9o
Jach, |osephCharles l820l891 . . . . . . . . DL99
Jachihara Masaaki l92ol980. . . . . . . . . . DLl82
Jacitus circa ^.a. 55circa ^.a. ll7
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2ll; CDWLl
Jadijanovi, Dragutin l905 . . . . . . . . . . DLl8l
Jafdrup, Iia l952 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l1
Jafolla, Carmen l95l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL82
Jaggard, Genevieve l891l918 . . . . . . . . . . DL15
Jaggart, |ohn l912 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl93
Jagger, Jheodor (see ruckner, Ierdinand)
Jagore, Rabindranath l8oll91l . . . DL323, 332
Jaiheiki late fourteenth century. . . . . . . . . DL203
Jait, |. Selwin, and Sons. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
q~ b j~~ l832l8ol . . . . . . DLll0
Jhe Jakarazaka Revue Company . . . . . . . . . . .Y9l
Jalander (see ohse, August)
Jalese, Gay l932 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl85
Jribute to Irwin Shaw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y81
Jalev, Dimitr l898l9oo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl8l
Jaliaferro, H. E. l8lll875 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL202
Jallent, Elizabeth l951 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl30
JallMountain, Mary l9l8l991. . . . . . . . . DLl93
Jalvj l797l870. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL59, l33
Jamsi, ron l897l9oo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l5
Jammsaare, A. H.
l878l910 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL220; CDWL1
Jan, Amy l952 . . . . . . DLl73, 3l2; CDAL7
Tandori, Dezs l938 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL232
Janner, Jhomas lo73/lo71l735. . . . . . . . DL2l3
Janizaki |unìchir l88ol9o5 . . . . . . . . . . DLl80
Japahonso, Luci l953 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl75
Jhe Mark Japer Iorum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL7
Jaradash, Daniel l9l32003 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL11
JarasovRodionov, Aleksandr Ignatèvich
l885l938 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL272
Jarbell, Ida M. l857l911 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL17
Jardieu, |ean l903l995 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL32l
Jardivel, |ulesIaul l85ll905. . . . . . . . . . . DL99
Jargan, arry l932 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl30
Jribute to |ohn Gardner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y82
Jarkington, ooth l8o9l91o . . . . . . . . DL9, l02
Jashlin, Irank l9l3l972. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL11
Jasma ( |essie Couvreur) l818l897 . . . . . DL230
Jate, Allen l899l979 . . . . . . DL1, 15, o3; DSl7
Jate, |ames l913 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL5, lo9
Jate, Nahum circa lo52l7l5 . . . . . . . . . . . DL80
q~~ circa 830. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl18
Jaufer, Veno l933 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl8l
Jauler, |ohannes circa l300l3ol. . . . . . . . DLl79
Javares, Salette l922l991. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL287
Javar, Ivan l85ll923 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl17
Javerner, Richard ca. l505l575 . . . . . . . . DL23o
Jaylor, Ann l782l8oo. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo3
Jaylor, ayard l825l878 . . . . . . . DL3, l89, 250
Jaylor, ert Leston l8ool92l. . . . . . . . . . . DL25
Jaylor, Charles H. l81ol92l . . . . . . . . . . . DL25
Jaylor, Edward circa lo12l729. . . . . . . . . . DL21
Jaylor, Elizabeth l9l2l975. . . . . . . . . . . . DLl39
Jaylor, Sir Henry l800l88o . . . . . . . . . . . . DL32
Jaylor, Henry l912 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL5
Who Owns American Literature . . . . . . . .Y91
Jaylor, |ane l783l821. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo3
Jaylor, |eremy circa lol3loo7 . . . . . . . . . DLl5l
Jaylor, |ohn l577 or l578 lo53 . . . . . . . . DLl2l
Jaylor, Mildred D. l913 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL52
Jaylor, Ieter l9l7l991 . . . DL2l8, 278; Y8l, 91
Jaylor, Susie King l818l9l2 . . . . . . . . . . DL22l
Jaylor, William Howland l90ll9oo. . . . . DL21l
William Jaylor and Company. . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Jeale, Edwin Way l899l980 . . . . . . . . . . DL275
Jeasdale, Sara l881l933. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL15
Jeffi, Nadezhda l872l952. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l7
Jeillier, |orge l935l99o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL283
Jelles, Lygia Iagundes l921 . . . . . DLll3, 307
q q tW William |ovanovich . . . . .Y02
Jemple, Sir William l555.lo27 . . . . . . . . DL28l
Jemple, Sir William lo28lo99 . . . . . . . . . DLl0l
Jemple, William I. l9l1l989. . . . . . . . . . DL255
Jemrizov, A. (see Marchenko, Anastasia Iakovlevna)
Jench, Watkin ca. l758l833. . . . . . . . . . . DL230
Jencin, AlexandrineClaude Gurin de
lo82l719 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l1
q f k (Documentary) . . . . . . . DL273
Jendriakov, Vladimir Iedorovich
l923l981 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL302
Jenn, William l9l9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL8
Jennant, Emma l937 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl1
Jenney, Jabitha Gilman l7o2l837 . . . DL37, 200
Jennyson, Alfred l809l892 . . .DL32; CDL1
On Some of the Characteristics of
Modern Ioetry and On the Lyrical
Ioems of Alfred Jennyson
(l83l) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL32
Jennyson, Irederick l807l898 . . . . . . . . . . DL32
Jenorio, Arthur l921 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL209
'Jhe Jenth Stage," Marie|eanAntoineNicolas
Caritat, marquis de Condorcet . . . . . . DL3l1
Jepl, |ohannes von
circa l350l1l1/l1l5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl79
Jepliakov, Viktor Grigorèvich
l801l812 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL205
Jerence circa l81 _.`.l59 _.`. or after
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2ll; CDWLl
St. Jeresa of vila l5l5l582 . . . . . . . . . . DL3l8
Jerhune, Albert Iayson l872l912 . . . . . . . . DL9
Jerhune, Mary Virginia l830l922. . . . . . . . DSl3
Jerpigorev, Sergei Nikolaevich (S. Atava)
l81ll895 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL277
Jerry, Megan l932 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL7, 219
Jerson, Ieter l932 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl3
Jesich, Steve l913l99o. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y83
Jessa, Delio l88ol939 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll1
Jestori, Giovanni l923l993
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl28, l77
Jexas
Jhe Year in Jexas Literature. . . . . . . . . . . .Y98
Jey, |osephine l89o.l952. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL77
Jhacher, |ames l751l811 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL37
Jhacher, |ohn oyd l817l909 . . . . . . . . . DLl87
Jhackeray, William Makepeace
l8lll8o3 . . . DL2l, 55, l59, lo3; CDL1
Jhames and Hudson Limited . . . . . . . . . . DLll2
Jhanet, Octave (see Irench, Alice)
Jhaxter, Celia Laighton
l835l891 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL239
Jhayer, Caroline Matilda Warren
l785l811 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL200
Jhayer, Douglas H. l929 . . . . . . . . . . . DL25o
Jheater
lack Jheatre. A Iorum |excerpts| . . . . DL38
Community and Commentators.
lack Jheatre and Its Critics . . . . . DL38
`~ f ai_ PPO
SPO
German Drama from Naturalism
to Iascism. l889l933 . . . . . . . . . DLll8
A Look at the Contemporary lack
Jheatre Movement . . . . . . . . . . . . DL38
Jhe Lord Chamberlain`s Office and
Stage Censorship in England. . . . . DLl0
New Iorces at Work in the American
Jheatre. l9l5l925 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL7
Off roadway and OffOff roadway . . DL7
Oregon Shakespeare Iestival . . . . . . . . . . . Y00
Ilays, Ilaywrights, and Ilaygoers . . . . DL81
Ilaywrights on the Jheater . . . . . . . . . DL80
Ilaywrights and Irofessors. . . . . . . . . . DLl3
Iroducing a~ _I a~ s~W
q c ~ c. . . . . . . . . . . Y97
Viewpoint. Iolitics and Ierformance,
by David Edgar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl3
Writing for the Jheatre,
by Harold Iinter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl3
Jhe Year in Drama. . . . . . . . . . Y82-85, 87-98
Jhe Year in L.S. Drama. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y00
Jheater, English and Irish
AntiJheatrical Jracts. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o3
revisions until l575 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl1o
Dangerous Years. London Jheater,
l939l915 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl0
A Defense of Actors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o3
Jhe Development of Lighting in the
Staging of Drama, l900l915 . . . . DLl0
Education. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o3
Jhe End of English Stage Censorship,
l915l9o8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl3
Epigrams and Satires . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o3
Eyewitnesses and Historians . . . . . . . DL2o3
Iringe and Alternative Jheater in
Great ritain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl3
Jhe Great War and the Jheater,
l9l1l9l8 |Great ritain| . . . . . . . DLl0
Licensing Act of l737 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL81
and b~ circa l500. . . . . . . . DLl1o
Jhe New Variorum Shakespeare . . . . . . . . Y85
sixteenth century . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl1o
Iolitics and the Jheater . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o3
Iractical Matters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o3
Irologues, Epilogues, Epistles to Readers,
and Excerpts from Ilays . . . . . . . DL2o3
Jhe Iublication of English
Renaissance Ilays . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo2
Regulations for the Jheater . . . . . . . . DL2o3
Sources for the Study of Judor and
Stuart Drama. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo2
Stage Censorship. 'Jhe Rejected Statement"
(l9ll), by ernard Shaw
|excerpts| . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl0
Synge Summer School. |. M. Synge and
the Irish Jheater, Rathdrum,
County Wiclow, Ireland . . . . . . . . . . . Y93
Jhe Jheater in Shakespeare`s Jime. . . DLo2
Jhe Jheatre Guild. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL7
Jhe Jownely Ilays fifteenth and
sixteenth centuries . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl1o
Jhe Year in ritish Drama. . . . . . . . . . Y99-0l
Jhe Year in Drama. London . . . . . . . . . . . Y90
Jhe Year in London Jheatre . . . . . . . . . . . Y92
^ v q~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL58
Jheaters
Jhe Abbey Jheatre and Irish Drama,
l900l915 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl0
Actors Jheatre of Louisville. . . . . . . . . . DL7
American Conservatory Jheatre . . . . . . DL7
Arena Stage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL7
lack Jheaters and Jheater
Organizations in America,
l9oll982. A Research List. . . . . . DL38
Jhe Dallas Jheater Center . . . . . . . . . . DL7
Eugene O`Neill Memorial Jheater
Center . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL7
Jhe Goodman Jheatre . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL7
Jhe Guthrie Jheater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL7
Jhe Mark Japer Iorum. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL7
Jhe National Jheatre and the Royal
Shakespeare Company. Jhe
National Companies . . . . . . . . . . . DLl3
OffLoop Jheatres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL7
Jhe Royal Court Jheatre and the
English Stage Company . . . . . . . . DLl3
Jhe Royal Court Jheatre and the
New Drama. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl0
Jhe Jakarazaka Revue Company . . . . . . . Y9l
Jhegan and the Astronomer
fl. circa 850. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl18
Jhelwall, |ohn l7o1l831. . . . . . . . . . DL93, l58
Jheocritus circa 300 _.`.2o0 _.`. . . . . . . .DLl7o
Jheodorescu, Ion N. (see Arghezi, Judor)
Jheodulf circa 7o0circa 82l. . . . . . . . . . . DLl18
Jheophrastus circa 37l _.`.287 _.`. . . . . .DLl7o
Jhriault, Yves l9l5l983 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL88
Jhrio, Adrien l925 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL53
Jheroux, Iaul l91l . . . . DL2, 2l8; CDAL7
Jhesiger, Wilfred l9l02003 . . . . . . . . . . DL201
Jhey All Came to Iaris . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DSl5
Jhibaudeau, Colleen l925 . . . . . . . . . . DL88
Jhiele, Colin l920 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL289
Jhielen, enedict l903l9o5 . . . . . . . . . . DLl02
Jhiongò Ngugi wa (see Ngugi wa Jhiongò)
Jhiroux dÀrconville, MarieGenevive
l720l805. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l1
q n~ l925l927, l929l932 . . . . . . . . . DSl5
Jhoma, Ludwig l8o7l92l. . . . . . . . . . . . . DLoo
Jhoma, Richard l902l971 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1
Jhomas, Audrey l935 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo0
Jhomas, D. M.
l935 . . . DL10, 207, 299; Y82; CDL8
Jhe Ilagiarism Controversy . . . . . . . . . . . Y82
Jhomas, Dylan
l9l1l953 . . . . . . DLl3, 20, l39; CDL7
Jhe Dylan Jhomas Celebration . . . . . . . . Y99
Jhomas, Ed l9ol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l0
Jhomas, Edward
l878l9l7. . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl9, 98, l5o, 2lo
Jhomas, Irederick William l80ol8oo . . DL202
Jhomas, Gwyn l9l3l98l. . . . . . . . . DLl5, 215
Jhomas, Isaiah l750l83l . . . . . . . DL13, 73, l87
Jhomas, |ohann lo21lo79 . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo8
Jhomas, |ohn l900l932 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1
Jhomas, |oyce Carol l938 . . . . . . . . . . DL33
Jhomas, Lewis l9l3l993 . . . . . . . . . . . . .DL275
Jhomas, Lorenzo l911 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1l
Jhomas, Norman l881l9o8 . . . . . . . . . . DL303
Jhomas, R. S. l9l52000 . . . . . DL27; CDL8
Isaiah Jhomas |publishing house| . . . . . . . DL19
Jhomasn von Zerclre
circa ll8ocirca l259 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl38
Jhomason, George lo02.looo . . . . . . . . DL2l3
Jhomasius, Christian lo55l728 . . . . . . . DLlo8
Jhompson, Daniel Iierce l795l8o8 . . . . DL202
Jhompson, David l770l857 . . . . . . . . . . . DL99
Jhompson, Dorothy l893l9ol. . . . . . . . . DL29
Jhompson, E. I. l921l993. . . . . . . . . . . DL212
Jhompson, Ilora l87ol917. . . . . . . . . . . DL210
Jhompson, Irancis
l859l907 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl9; CDL5
Jhompson, George Selden (see Selden, George)
Jhompson, Henry Yates l838l928. . . . . DLl81
Jhompson, Hunter S. l9392005. . . . . . . DLl85
Jhompson, |im l90ol977 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL22o
Jhompson, |ohn l938l97o . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo0
Jhompson, |ohn R. l823l873. . . . .DL3, 73, 218
Jhompson, Lawrance l90ol973 . . . . . . . DLl03
Jhompson, Maurice l811l90l . . . . . . .DL7l, 71
Jhompson, Ruth Ilumly l89ll97o . . . . . DL22
Jhompson, Jhomas Ihillips l813l933. . . DL99
Jhompson, William l775l833 . . . . . . . . DLl58
Jhompson, William Jappan
l8l2l882 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3, ll, 218
Jhomson, Cockburn
'Modern Style`` (l857) |excerpt| . . . . . DL57
Jhomson, Edward William l819l921 . . . DL92
Jhomson, |ames l700l718 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL95
Jhomson, |ames l831l882. . . . . . . . . . . . DL35
Jhomson, |oseph l858l895 . . . . . . . . . . .DLl71
Jhomson, Mortimer l83ll875 . . . . . . . . . DLll
Jhomson, Rupert l955 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o7
Jhon, Melanie Rae l957 . . . . . . . . . . . DL211
Jhor Vilhjlmsson l925 . . . . . . . . . . . DL293
ai_ PPO `~ f
SPP
`
rarinn Eldjrn l919 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL293

rbergur rarson l888l971 . . . . . . . . DL293
Jhoreau, Henry David l8l7l8o2 . . . DLl, l83,
223, 270, 298; DS5; CDAL2
Jhe Jhoreau Society. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y99
Jhe Jhoreauvian Iilgrimage. Jhe
Structure of an American Cult . . . DL223
Jhorne, William l5o8.lo30. . . . . . . . . . . DL28l
Jhornton, |ohn I.
|Response to Ken Auletta| . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y97
Jhorpe, Adam l95o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL23l
Jhorpe, Jhomas angs
l8l5l878 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3, ll, 218
Jhorup, Kirsten l912 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l1
Jhotl, irgitte lol0loo2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL300
Jhrale, Hester Lynch
(see Iiozzi, Hester Lynch |Jhrale|)
Jhe Jhree Marias. A Landmark Case in
Iortuguese Literary History
(Maria Isabel arreno, l939 ;
Maria Jeresa Horta, l937 ;
Maria Velho da Costa, l938 ) . . . . . DL287
Jhubron, Colin l939 . . . . . . . . . . DL201, 23l
Jhucydides
circa 155 _.`.circa 395 _.`. . . . . . . . . DLl7o
Jhulstrup, Jhure de l818l930 . . . . . . . . DLl88
Jhmmel, Moritz August von
l738l8l7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL97
Jhurber, |ames
l891l9ol . . . . . DL1, ll, 22, l02; CDAL5
Jhurman, Wallace l902l931 . . . . . . . . . . . DL5l
'Negro Ioets and Jheir Ioetry" . . . . . DL50
Jhwaite, Anthony l930 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL10
Jhe ooker Irize, Address . . . . . . . . . . . .Y8o
Jhwaites, Reuben Gold l853l9l3 . . . . . . . DL17
Jibullus circa 51 _.`.circa l9 _.`. . . . . . . . DL2ll
Jicknor, George l79ll87l . . . . DLl, 59, l10, 235
Jicknor and Iields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Jicknor and Iields (revived) . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Jieck, Ludwig l773l853. . . . . DL90; CDWL2
Jietjens, Eunice l881l911 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL51
Jikkanen, Mrta l935 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL257
Jilghman, Christopher circa l918. . . . . . . DL211
Jilney, Edmund circa l53olol0 . . . . . . . . DLl3o
Charles Jilt |publishing house| . . . . . . . . . DLl0o
|. E. Jilton and Company . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
JimeLife ooks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Jimes ooks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Jimothy, Ieter circa l725l782 . . . . . . . . . . DL13
Jimrava l8o7l95l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l5
Jimrod, Henry l828l8o7. . . . . . . . . . . DL3, 218
Jindal, Henrietta l8l8.l879. . . . . . . . . . . DLl99
Jinker, Chauncey rewster l87ol9o3 . . . . DLl10
Jinsley rothers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl0o
Jiptree, |ames, |r. l9l5l987 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL8
Jisma, Aleksandar l9212003 . . . . . . . . . . DLl8l
Jitus, Edward William
l870l952 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1; DSl5
Jiutchev, Iedor Ivanovich l803l873 . . . . DL205
Jlali, Miriam l933 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl57, 225
Jodd, arbara Euphan l890l97o . . . . . . . DLlo0
Jodorov, Jzvetan l939 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL212
Jofte, Robert
l5ol or l5o2lol9 or lo20. . . . . . . . . DLl72
Jibn, Colm l955 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL27l
Joklas, Alice . l877l9o7 . . . . . . . . . DL1; DSl5
Jokuda Shsei l872l913 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl80
Joland, |ohn lo70l722 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL252
Jolkien, |. R. R.
l892l973 . . . . . . DLl5, lo0, 255; CDLo
Joller, Ernst l893l939 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl21
Jollet, Elizabeth lo91l751 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL95
Jolson, Melvin . l898l9oo. . . . . . . . . DL18, 7o
Jolstaya, Jatyana l95l . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL285
Jolstoy, Aleksei Konstantinovich
l8l7l875. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL238
Jolstoy, Aleksei Nikolaevich l883l915 . . DL272
Jolstoy, Leo l828l9l0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL238
Jomalin, Claire l933 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl55
Jmas Gumundsson l90ll983 . . . . . . . DL293
Jomasi di Lampedusa, Giuseppe
l89ol957 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl77
Jomlinson, Charles l927 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL10
Jomlinson, H. M. l873l958. . . . DL3o, l00, l95
Abel Jompkins |publishing house|. . . . . . . . DL19
Jompson, enjamin lo12l7l1 . . . . . . . . . . DL21
Jomson, Graham R.
(see Watson, Rosamund Marriott)
Jonà l289l372. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL203
Jondelli, Iier Vittorio l955l99l. . . . . . . . DLl9o
Jonks, Rosemary l932 . . . . . . . . . . DLl1, 207
Jonna, Charlotte Elizabeth l790l81o. . . . DLlo3
|acob Jonson the Elder
Joole, |ohn Kennedy l937l9o9 . . . . . . . . . . . .Y8l
Joomer, |ean
l891l9o7 . . . . . . . . . . .DL15, 5l; CDAL1
Jopsoe, Vilhelm l810l88l . . . . . . . . . . . . DL300
Jor ooks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Jorberg, Iriedrich l908l979. . . . . . . . . . . . DL85
Jorga, Miguel (Adolfo Correira da Rocha)
l907l995 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL287
Jorre, Irancisco de la .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l8
Jorrence, Ridgely l871l950 . . . . . . . . DL51, 219
Jorrente allester, Gonzalo
l9l0l999 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL322
JorresMetzger, |oseph V. l933 . . . . . . . DLl22
Jorres Naharro, artolom de
l185.l523. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l8
El Jostado (see Madrigal, Alfonso Iernndez de)
Joth, Susan Allen l910 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y8o
Richard Jottell |publishing house| . . . . . . . DLl70
'Jhe Irinter to the Reader,"
(l557) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo7
JoughGuy Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL9
Jour, Askia Muhammad l938 . . . . . . . DL1l
Jourge, Albion W. l838l905 . . . . . . . . . . DL79
Journemir, Elizaveta Sailhas de (see Jur, Evgeniia)
Journeur, Cyril circa l580lo2o . . . . . . . . . DL58
Journier, Michel l921 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL83
Irank Jousey |publishing house| . . . . . . . . . DL19
Jower Iublications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Jowne, enjamin circa l710l793 . . . . . . . . DL13
Jowne, Robert l93o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL11
Jhe Jownely Ilays fifteenth and sixteenth
centuries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl1o
Jownsend, Sue l91o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL27l
Jownshend, Aurelian
by l583circa lo5l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl2l
Joy, arbara l908200l. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL201
Jozzi, Iederigo l883l920 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o1
Jracy, Honor l9l3l989 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl5
Jraherne, Jhomas lo37.lo71 . . . . . . . . . DLl3l
Jraill, Catharine Iarr l802l899. . . . . . . . . DL99
Jrain, Arthur l875l915 . . . . . . . . . DL8o; DSlo
Jranquilli, Secondino (see Silone, Ignazio)
Jhe Jransatlantic Iublishing Company . . . DL19
q q~~~ o l921l925 . . . . . . . . . DSl5
Jhe Jranscendental Club
l83ol810 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl; DL223
Jranscendentalism. . . . . . . DLl; DL223; DS5
'A Response from America," by
|ohn A. Heraud . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DS5
Iublications and Social Movements . . . . DLl
Jhe Rise of Jranscendentalism,
l8l5l8o0. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DS5
Jranscendentalists, American . . . . . . . . . . DS5
'What Is Jranscendentalism. y a
Jhinking Man," by |ames
Kinnard |r. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DS5
~ l927l938 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DSl5
Jranslations (Vernacular) in the Crowns of
Castile and Aragon l352l5l5 . . . . . . DL28o
Jranstrmer, Jomas l93l . . . . . . . . . . . DL257
Jranter, |ohn l913 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL289
Jravel Writing
American Jravel Writing, l77ol8o1
(checklist) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl83
ritish Jravel Writing, l910l997
(checklist) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL201
Jravel Writers of the Late
Middle Ages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL28o
(l87ol909) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl71
(l837l875) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLloo
(l9l0l939) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl95
`~ f ai_ PPO
SPQ
Jraven, . l882./l890.l9o9. . . . . . . . . DL9, 5o
Jravers, en l88ol980 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl0, 233
Jravers, I. L. (Iamela Lyndon)
l899l99o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo0
Jrediakovsky, Vasilii Kirillovich
l703l7o9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl50
Jreece, Henry l9lll9oo . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo0
Jreitel, |onathan l959 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o7
Jrejo, Ernesto l950l99l . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl22
Jrelawny, Edward |ohn
l792l88l. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DLll0, llo, l11
Jremain, Rose l913 . . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl1, 27l
Jremblay, Michel l912 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo0
Jrent, William I. l8o2l939. . . . . . . . . . DL17, 7l
Jrescot, William Henry l822l898 . . . . . . DL30
Jressell, Robert (Robert Ihillipe Noonan)
l870l9ll. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl97
Jrevelyan, Sir George Otto
l838l928 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl11
Jrevisa, |ohn circa l312circa l102 . . . . . DLl1o
Jrevisan, Dalton l925 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL307
Jrevor, William l928 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl1, l39
Jriana, |os l93l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL305
q c circa ll70ll80. . . . . . . . . . . DLl38
Jrifonov, Iurii Valentinovich
l925l98l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL302
Jrillin, Calvin l935 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl85
Jrilling, Lionel l905l975. . . . . . . . . . . DL28, o3
Jrilussa l87ll950 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll1
Jrimmer, Sarah l71ll8l0 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl58
Jriolet, Elsa l89ol970 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL72
Jripp, |ohn l927 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL10
Jrocchi, Alexander l925l981 . . . . . . . . . . DLl5
Jroisi, Dante l920l989 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl9o
Jrollope, Anthony
l8l5l882. . . . . . . .DL2l, 57, l59; CDL1
NovelReading. q t `~
aX q t tK j~~
q~~ (l879) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l
Jhe Jrollope Societies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y00
Jrollope, Irances l779l8o3 . . . . . . . . DL2l, loo
Jrollope, |oanna l913 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL207
Jroop, Elizabeth l93l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl1
Jropiclia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL307
Jrotter, Catharine lo79l719 . . . . . . . DL81, 252
Jrotti, Lamar l898l952. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL11
Jrottier, Iierre l925 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo0
Jrotzig, irgitta l929 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL257
Jroupe, _uincy Jhomas, |r. l913 . . . . . DL1l
|ohn I. Jrow and Company . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Jrowbridge, |ohn Jownsend l827l9lo . . DL202
Jrudel, |eanLouis l9o7 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL25l
q e h d~I 200l ooker Irize winner,
Ieter Carey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL32o
JruillierLacombe, |osephIatrice
l807l8o3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL99
Jrumbo, Dalton l905l97o . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o
Jrumbull, enjamin l735l820 . . . . . . . . . DL30
Jrumbull, |ohn l750l83l . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l
Jrumbull, |ohn l75ol813 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl83
Jruth, Sojourner l797.l883 . . . . . . . . . . DL239
Jscherning, Andreas lolllo59 . . . . . . . . DLlo1
Jsubouchi Shy l859l935 . . . . . . . . . . DLl80
Jsvetaeva, Marina Ivanovna
l892l91l. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL295
Juchman, arbara W.
Jucholsky, Kurt l890l935 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL5o
Jucker, Charlotte Maria
l82ll893 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo3, l90
Jucker, George l775l8ol . . . . . . . DL3, 30, 218
Jucker, |ames l808.l8oo.. . . . . . . . . . . . DL230
Jucker, Nathaniel everley
l781l85l. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3, 218
Jucker, St. George l752l827 . . . . . . . . . . . DL37
Juckerman, Irederick Goddard
l82ll873. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL213
Juckerman, Henry Jheodore l8l3l87l . . . . DLo1
Jumas, |uozas (see Vaizgantas)
Junis, |ohn R. l889l975 . . . . . . . . . . .DL22, l7l
Junstall, Cuthbert l171l559 . . . . . . . . . . DLl32
Junstrm, Gran l9372000. . . . . . . . . . . DL257
Juohy, Irank l925 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl1, l39
Jupper, Martin I. l8l0l889 . . . . . . . . . . . DL32
Jur, Evgeniia l8l5l892. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL238
Jurbyfill, Mark l89ol99l . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL15
Jurco, Lewis l931 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y81
Jurgenev, Aleksandr Ivanovich
l781l815. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl98
Jurgenev, Ivan Sergeevich
l8l8l883 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL238
Jurgot, baron de lÀulne, AnneRobert|acques
l727l78l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l1
'Memorandum on Local
Government". . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l1
Jurnbull, Alexander H. l8o8l9l8. . . . . . DLl81
Jurnbull, Andrew l92ll970 . . . . . . . . . . DLl03
Jurnbull, Gael l928 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL10
Jurnbe, Odet de l552l58l . . . . . . . . . . DL327
Jurner, Arlin l909l980. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl03
Jurner, Charles (Jennyson)
l808l879. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL32
Jurner, Ethel l872l958 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL230
Jurner, Irederick l913 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL10
Jurner, Irederick |ackson
l8oll932 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl7, l8o
Jurner, |oseph Addison l82ol8o8 . . . . . . DL79
Jurpin, Waters Edward l9l0l9o8 . . . . . . DL5l
Jurrini, Ieter l911 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl21
Jusquets, Esther l93o . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL322
Jutuola, Amos l920l997 . . .DLl25; CDWL3
Jwain, Mark (see Clemens, Samuel Langhorne)
Jweedie, Ethel rilliana
circa l8o0l910 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl71
A Century of Ioetry, a Lifetime of
Collecting. |. M. Edelstein`s
Collection of Jwentieth
Century American Ioetry . . . . . . . . . . . . Y02
Jwombly, Wells l935l977. . . . . . . . . . . . DL21l
Jwysden, Sir Roger l597lo72 . . . . . . . . . DL2l3
Jyard, Iontus de l52l.lo05 . . . . . . . . . . DL327
JyCasper, Linda l93l . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l2
Jyler, Anne l91l . . . .DLo, l13; Y82; CDAL7
Jyler, Mary Ialmer l775l8oo . . . . . . . . . DL200
Jyler, Moses Coit l835l900 . . . . . . . . . DL17, o1
Jyler, Royall l757l82o. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL37
Jylor, Edward urnett l832l9l7 . . . . . . . DL57
Jynan, Katharine l8oll93l . . . . . . DLl53, 210
Jyndale, William circa l191l53o . . . . . . DLl32
Jyree, Omar l9o9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL292
r
Lchida, Yoshiko l92ll992 . . DL3l2; CDAL7
Ldall, Nicholas l501l55o . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo2
Lgrsi, Dubravka l919 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl8l
Lhland, Ludwig l787l8o2. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL90
Lhse, odo l901l9o3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo9
Ljevi, Augustin 'Jin"
l89ll955 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl17
Llenhart, Niclas fl. circa lo00 . . . . . . . . . DLlo1
Llfeldt, Leonora Christina lo2llo98 . . . DL300
Llibarr, Sabine R. l9l92003 . . . . . . . . . . DL82
Llica, |orge l870l92o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL82
Llitskaya, Liudmila Evgenèvna
l913 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL285
Llivi, Ierruccio l9l2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl9o
Llizio, . George l889l9o9 . . . . . . . . . . DLl10
Llrich von Liechtenstein
circa l200circa l275 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl38
Llrich von Zatzikhoven
before ll91after l2l1 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl38
'Lmar ibn Abi Rabi'ah o117l2 or 72l . . DL3ll
Lnaipon, David l872l9o7. . . . . . . . . . . . DL230
Lnamuno, Miguel de l8o1l93o . . . DLl08, 322
Lnder, Marie l883l980 . . . DL220; CDWL1
Lnderhill, Evelyn l875l91l . . . . . . . . . . DL210
Lndset, Sigrid l882l919. . . . . . . . . . DL297, 332
Lngaretti, Giuseppe l888l970 . . . . . . . . DLll1
Lnger, Iriederike Helene
l71ll8l3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL91
ai_ PPO `~ f
SPR
`
Lnited States ook Company . . . . . . . . . . . DL19

Lniversal Iublishing and Distributing
Corporation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Lniversity of Colorado
Special Collections at the Lniversity of
Colorado at oulder. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y98
Indiana Lniversity Iress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y02
Jhe Lniversity of Iowa
Writers` Workshop Golden |ubilee . . . . . . .Y8o
Lniversity of Missouri Iress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y0l
Lniversity of South Carolina
Jhe G. Ross Roy Scottish
Ioetry Collection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y89
Jwo Hundred Years of Rare ooks and
Literary Collections at the
Lniversity of South Carolina . . . . . . . .Y00
Jhe Lniversity of South Carolina Iress . . . . . .Y91
Lniversity of Virginia
Jhe ook Arts Iress at the Lniversity
of Virginia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y9o
Jhe Electronic Jext Center and the
Electronic Archive of Early American
Iiction at the Lniversity of Virginia
Library . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y98
Lniversity of Virginia Libraries . . . . . . . . .Y9l
Lniversity of Wales Iress . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll2
Lniversity Iress of Ilorida. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y00
Lniversity Iress of Kansas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y98
Lniversity Iress of Mississippi. . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y99
Lnnur enediktsdttir jarklind (see Hulda)
Lno Chiyo l897l99o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl80
Lnruh, Iritz von l885l970. . . . . . . . . DL5o, ll8
Lnsworth, arry l930 . . . . . . . . . DLl91. 32o
Lnt, Mati l911 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL232
Jhe Lnterberg Ioetry Center of the
92nd Street Y. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y98
Lntermeyer, Louis l885l977 . . . . . . . . . . DL303
J. Iisher Lnwin |publishing house| . . . . . . DLl0o
Lpchurch, oyd . (see oyd, |ohn)
Lpdike, |ohn l932 . . . DL2, 5, l13, 2l8, 227;
Y80, 82; DS3; CDALo
|ohn Lpdike on the Internet . . . . . . . . . . . .Y97
Jribute to |ohn Ciardi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y8o
Lpts, Andrejs l877l970 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL220
Lppdal, Kristofer l878l9ol . . . . . . . . . . . DL297
Lpton, ertha l819l9l2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl1l
Lpton, Charles l918 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo
Lpton, Ilorence K. l873l922. . . . . . . . . . DLl1l
Lpward, Allen l8o3l92o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3o
Lrban, Milo l901l982 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l5
Lrea de Henrquez, Salom l850l897 . . DL283
Lrf, Honor d` l5o7lo25 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o8
Lrista, Alberto altazar (see Alurista)
Lrquhart, Ired l9l2l995 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl39
Lrrea, Luis Alberto l955 . . . . . . . . . . . DL209
Lrzidil, |ohannes l89ol970 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL85
rKpK^K (Documentary) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL271
Lsigli, Rodolfo l905l979 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL305
Lsk, Jhomas died l388 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl1o
Lslar Iietri, Arturo l90o200l . . . . . . . . . DLll3
Lspensky, Gleb Ivanovich
l813l902 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL277
Lssher, |ames l58llo5o. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l3
Lstinov, Ieter l92l2001. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl3
Lttley, Alison l881l97o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo0
Lz, |ohann Ieter l720l79o . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL97
s
Vadianus, |oachim l181l55l . . . . . . . . . . DLl79
Vac, ertrand (Aim Ielletier) l9l1 . . . . DL88
Vcietis, Ojrs l933l983 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL232
Vaculk, Ludvk l92o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL232
Vaiiulaitis, Antanas l90ol992. . . . . . . . . DL220
Vaiinaite, Judita 1937- . . . . . . . . . . . . .DLB-232
Vail, Laurence l89ll9o8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1
Vail, Ietr L`vovich l919 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL285
Vailland, Roger l907l9o5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL83
Vaigantas l8o9l933 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL220
Vajda, Ernest l887l951. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL11
Valds, Alfonso de circa l190.l532 . . . . . DL3l8
Valds, Gina l913 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl22
Valdes, |uan de l508l51l. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l8
Valdez, Luis Miguel l910 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl22
Valduga, Iatrizia l953 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl28
Vale Iress. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll2
Valente, |os Angel l9292000. . . . . . . . . . DLl08
Valenzuela, Luisa l938 . . . DLll3; CDWL3
Valera, Diego de l1l2l188. . . . . . . . . . . . DL28o
Valeri, Diego l887l97o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl28
Valerius Ilaccus fl. circa ^.a. 92. . . . . . . . . DL2ll
Valerius Maximus fl. circa ^.a. 3l . . . . . . . DL2ll
Valry, Iaul l87ll915. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL258
Valesio, Iaolo l939 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl9o
Valgardson, W. D. l939 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo0
Valle, Luz l899l97l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL290
Valle, Vctor Manuel l950 . . . . . . . . . . DLl22
ValleIncln, Ramn del
l8ool93o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl31, 322
Vallejo, Armando l919 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl22
Vallejo, Csar Abraham l892l938 . . . . . . DL290
Valls, |ules l832l885 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl23
Vallette, Marguerite Eymery (see Rachilde)
Valverde, |os Mara l92ol99o . . . . . . . . DLl08
Vampilov, Aleksandr Valentinovich (A. Sanin)
l937l972. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL302
Van Allsburg, Chris l919 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLol
Van Anda, Carr l8o1l915 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL25
Vanbrugh, Sir |ohn loo1l72o. . . . . . . . . . . DL80
Vance, |ack l9lo. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL8
Vanura, Vladislav
l89ll912 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l5; CDWL1
van der Iost, Laurens l90ol99o. . . . . . . . DL201
Van Dine, S. S. (see Wright, Willard Huntington)
Van Doren, Mark l891l972 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL15
van Druten, |ohn l90ll957 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl0
Van Duyn, Mona l92l2001. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL5
Van Dyke, Henry l852l933. . . . . . DL7l; DSl3
Van Dyke, Henry l928 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL33
Van Dyke, |ohn C. l85ol932. . . . . . . . . . DLl8o
Vane, Sutton l888l9o3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl0
Van Gieson, |udith l91l . . . . . . . . . . . . DL30o
Vanguard Iress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
van Gulik, Robert Hans l9l0l9o7. . . . . . . . DSl7
van Itallie, |eanClaude l93o . . . . . . . . . . DL7
Van Loan, Charles E. l87ol9l9 . . . . . . . . DLl7l
Vann, Robert L. l879l910 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL29
Van Rensselaer, Mariana Griswold
l85ll931 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL17
Van Rensselaer, Mrs. Schuyler
(see Van Rensselaer, Mariana Griswold)
Van Vechten, Carl l880l9o1 . . . . . . . DL1, 9, 5l
van Vogt, A. E. l9l22000. . . . . . . . . . . DL8, 25l
Varela, lanca l92o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL290
Vargas Llosa, Mario
l93o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl15; CDWL3
Acceptance Speech for the Ritz Iaris
Hemingway Award. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y85
Varley, |ohn l917 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y8l
Varnhagen von Ense, Karl August
l785l858 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL90
Varnhagen von Ense, Rahel
l77ll833 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL90
Varro llo _.`.27 _.`. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2ll
Vasilenko, Svetlana Vladimirovna
l95o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL285
Vasiliu, George (see acovia, George)
Vsquez, Richard l928 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL209
Vassa, Gustavus (see Equiano, Olaudah)
Vassalli, Sebastiano l91l . . . . . . . . . DLl28, l9o
Vaugelas, Claude Iavre de l585lo50. . . . .DL2o8
Vaughan, Henry lo2llo95. . . . . . . . . . . . DLl3l
Vaughan, Jhomas lo2llooo . . . . . . . . . . DLl3l
Vaughn, Robert l592.loo7 . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l3
Vaux, Jhomas, Lord l509l55o . . . . . . . . DLl32
Vazov, Ivan l850l92l. . . . . . DLl17; CDWL1
Vzquez Montalbn, Manuel
l939 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl31, 322
Va, Alfredo, |r. l950 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL209
`~ f ai_ PPO
SPS
Veblen, Jhorstein l857l929 . . . . . . . . . . DL21o
Vedel, Anders Srensen l512lolo. . . . . . DL300
Vega, |anine Iommy l912 . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo
Veiller, Anthony l903l9o5 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL11
VelsquezJrevino, Gloria l919 . . . . . . DLl22
Veley, Margaret l813l887 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl99
Velleius Iaterculus
circa 20 _.`.circa ^.a. 30. . . . . . . . . . DL2ll
Veloz Maggiolo, Marcio l93o . . . . . . . DLl15
Vel`tman, Aleksandr Iomich
l800l870. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl98
Venegas, Daniel ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL82
Venevitinov, Dmitrii Vladimirovich
l805l827. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL205
Verbitskaia, Anastasiia Alekseevna
l8oll928 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL295
Verde, Cesrio l855l88o. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL287
Vergil, Iolydore circa l170l555. . . . . . . . DLl32
Verssimo, Erico l905l975. . . . . . . . DLl15, 307
Verlaine, Iaul l811l89o . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l7
Vernacular Jranslations in the Crowns of
Castile and Aragon l352l5l5. . . . . . DL28o
Verne, |ules l828l905 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl23
s d iI 2003 ooker Irize winner,
DC Iierre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL32o
Verplanck, Gulian C. l78ol870 . . . . . . . . . DL59
Vertinsky, Aleksandr l889l957 . . . . . . . . DL3l7
Very, |ones l8l3l880 . . . . . . . . DLl, 213; DS5
Vesaas, Halldis Moren l907l995. . . . . . . DL297
Vesaas, Jarjei l897l970 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL297
Vian, oris l920l959 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL72, 32l
Viazemsky, Ietr Andreevich
l792l878 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL205
Vicars, Jhomas l59llo38. . . . . . . . . . . . DL23o
Vicente, Gil l1o5l53o/l510.. . . . . . . DL287, 3l8
Vickers, Roy l888.l9o5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL77
Vickery, Sukey l779l82l. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL200
Victoria l8l9l90l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL55
Victoria Iress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl0o
La vida de Lazarillo de Jormes . . . . . . . . DL3l8
Vidal, Gore l925 . . . . . . DLo, l52; CDAL7
Vidal, Mary Jheresa l8l5l873 . . . . . . . . DL230
Vidmer, Richards l898l978. . . . . . . . . . . DL21l
Viebig, Clara l8o0l952. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLoo
Vieira, Antnio, S. |. (Antonio Vieyra)
lo08lo97. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL307
Viereck, George Sylvester l881l9o2 . . . . . DL51
Viereck, Ieter l9lo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL5
Vietnam War (ended l975)
Resources for the Study of Vietnam War
Literature. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL9
Viets, Roger l738l8ll. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL99
VigilIion, Evangelina l919 . . . . . . . . DLl22
Vigneault, Gilles l928 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo0
Vigny, Alfred de l797l8o3. . . . . DLll9, l92, 2l7
Vigolo, Giorgio l891l983. . . . . . . . . . . . DLll1
Vik, jorg l935 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL297
Jhe Viking Iress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
VilaMatas, Enrique l918 . . . . . . . . . . DL322
Vilde, Eduard l8o5l933 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL220
Vilinskaia, Mariia Aleksandrovna
(see Vovchok, Marko)
Villa, |os Garca l908l997. . . . . . . . . . . DL3l2
Villanueva, Alma Luz l911 . . . . . . . . . DLl22
Villanueva, Jino l91l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL82
Villard, Henry l835l900. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL23
Villard, Oswald Garrison l872l919 . . DL25, 9l
Villarreal, Edit l911 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL209
Villarreal, |os Antonio l921 . . . . . . . . . DL82
Villaseor, Victor l910 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL209
Villedieu, Madame de (MarieCatherine
Desjardins) lo10.lo83. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o8
Villegas, Antonio de .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l8
Villegas de Magnn, Leonor
l87ol955. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl22
Villehardouin, Geoffroi de
circa ll50l2l5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL208
Villemaire, Yolande l919 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo0
Villena, Enrique de
ca. l382/81l132 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL28o
Villena, Luis Antonio de l95l . . . . . . . DLl31
Villiers, George, Second Duke
of uckingham lo28lo87 . . . . . . . . . . DL80
Villiers de lÌsleAdam, |eanMarie
Mathias IhilippeAuguste,
Comte de l838l889 . . . . . . . . . DLl23, l92
Villon, Iranois l13lcirca l1o3.. . . . . . . DL208
Vinaver, Michel (Michel Grinberg)
l927 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL32l
Vine Iress. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll2
Viorst, |udith l93l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL52
Vipont, Elfrida (Elfrida Vipont Ioulds,
Charles Vipont) l902l992 . . . . . . . . DLlo0
Viramontes, Helena Mara l951 . . . . . DLl22
Virgil 70 _.`.l9 _.`.. . . . . . . DL2ll; CDWLl
Vischer, Iriedrich Jheodor l807l887 . . . DLl33
Vitier, Cintio l92l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL283
Vitrac, Roger l899l952. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL32l
Vitruvius circa 85 _.`.circa l5 _.`. . . . . . DL2ll
Vitry, Ihilippe de l29ll3ol . . . . . . . . . . DL208
Vittorini, Elio l908l9oo . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o1
Vivanco, Luis Ielipe l907l975. . . . . . . . . DLl08
Vives, |uan Luis l193l510 . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l8
Vivian, E. Charles (Charles Henry Cannell,
Charles Henry Vivian, |ack Mann,
arry Lynd) l882l917 . . . . . . . . . . . DL255
Viviani, Cesare l917 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl28
Vivien, Rene l877l909 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l7
Vizenor, Gerald l931 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl75, 227
Vizetelly and Company . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl0o
Vladimov, Georgii
l93l2003 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL302
Voaden, Herman l903l99l. . . . . . . . . . . . DL88
Vo, |ohann Heinrich l75ll82o . . . . . . . . DL90
Vogau, oris Andreevich
(see Iil`niak, oris Andreevich)
Voigt, Ellen ryant l913 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl20
Voinovich, Vladimir Nikolaevich
l932 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL302
Vojnovi, Ivo l857l929 . . . . .DLl17; CDWL1
Vold, |an Erik l939 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL297
Volkoff, Vladimir l932 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL83
I. I. Volland Company. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Vollbehr, Otto H. I.
l872.l915 or l91o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl87
Vologdin (see Zasodimsky, Iavel Vladimirovich)
Voloshin, Maksimilian Aleksandrovich
l877l932 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL295
Volponi, Iaolo l921l991. . . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl77
Voltaire (IranoisMarie Arouet)
lo91l778. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l1
'An account of the death of the chevalier de
La arre". . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l1
`~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l1
m~ a~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l1
Vonarburg, Elisabeth l917 . . . . . . . . . . DL25l
von der Grn, Max l92o . . . . . . . . . . . . DL75
Vonnegut, Kurt l922 . . . . . . . . . . DL2, 8, l52;
Y80; DS3; CDALo
Jribute to Richard rautigan. . . . . . . . . . . Y81
Voranc, Ireihov l893l950. . . . . . . . . . . .DLl17
Voronsky, Aleksandr Konstantinovich
l881l937 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DL272
Vorse, Mary Heaton l871l9oo . . . . . . . . DL303
Vovchok, Marko l833l907 . . . . . . . . . . . DL238
Voynich, E. L. l8o1l9o0. . . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl97
Vroman, Mary Elizabeth
circa l921l9o7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL33
t
Wace, Robert ('Maistre")
circa ll00circa ll75 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl1o
Wackenroder, Wilhelm Heinrich
l773l798 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL90
Wackernagel, Wilhelm l80ol8o9 . . . . . . DLl33
Waddell, Helen l889l9o5 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL210
Waddington, Miriam l9l72001. . . . . . . . . DLo8
Wade, Henry l887l9o9. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL77
Wagenknecht, Edward l9002001 . . . . . . DLl03
Wgner, Elin l882l919. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL259
Wagner, Heinrich Leopold l717l779 . . . . . DL91
Wagner, Henry R. l8o2l957. . . . . . . . . . DLl10
ai_ PPO `~ f
SPT
`
Wagner, Richard l8l3l883. . . . . . . . . . . . DLl29

Wagoner, David l92o . . . . . . . . . . . . DL5, 25o
Wah, Ired l939 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo0
Waiblinger, Wilhelm l801l830 . . . . . . . . . DL90
Wain, |ohn
l925l991 . . . DLl5, 27, l39, l55; CDL8
Jribute to |. . Iriestly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y81
Wainwright, |effrey l911 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL10
Waite, Ieirce and Company. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Wakeman, Stephen H. l859l921 . . . . . . . DLl87
Wakoski, Diane l937 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL5
Walahfrid Strabo circa 808819 . . . . . . . . . DLl18
Henry Z. Walck |publishing house| . . . . . . . DL1o
Walcott, Derek
l930 . . . DLll7, 332; Y8l, 92; CDWL3
Nobel Lecture l992. Jhe Antilles.
Iragments of Epic Memory . . . . . . . . .Y92
Robert Waldegrave |publishing house| . . . DLl70
Waldis, urkhard circa l190l55o. . . . . . . DLl78
Waldman, Anne l915 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo
Waldrop, Rosmarie l935 . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo9
Walker, Alice l900l982 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL20l
Walker, Alice
l911 . . . . . . . . . . DLo, 33, l13; CDALo
Walker, Annie Louisa (Mrs. Harry Coghill)
circa l83ol907 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL210
Walker, George I. l917 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo0
Walker, |ohn risben l817l93l . . . . . . . . . DL79
Walker, |oseph A. l935 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL38
Walker, Kath (see Oodgeroo of the Jribe Noonuccal)
Walker, Margaret l9l5l998 . . . . . . . . DL7o, l52
Walker, Obadiah lololo99 . . . . . . . . . . . DL28l
Walker, Jed l931 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL10
Walker, Evans and Cogswell Company. . . . DL19
Wall, |ohn I. (see Sarban)
Wallace, Alfred Russel l823l9l3 . . . . . . . DLl90
Wallace, Dewitt l889l98l . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl37
Wallace, Edgar l875l932 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL70
Wallace, Lew l827l905. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL202
Wallace, Lila Acheson l889l981 . . . . . . . DLl37
'A Word of Jhanks," Irom the Initial
Issue of o~ a
(Iebruary l922) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl37
Wallace, Naomi l9o0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL219
Wallace Markfield`s 'Steeplechase" . . . . . . . . . .Y02
WallaceCrabbe, Chris l931 . . . . . . . . . DL289
Wallant, Edward Lewis
l92ol9o2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2, 28, l13, 299
Waller, Edmund lo0olo87 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl2o
Walpole, Horace l7l7l797 . . . . . DL39, l01, 2l3
Ireface to the Iirst Edition of
q `~ l~ (l7o1) . . . . DL39, l78
Ireface to the Second Edition of
q `~ l~ (l7o5) . . . . DL39, l78
Walpole, Hugh l881l91l. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL31
Walrond, Eric l898l9oo. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL5l
Walser, Martin l927 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL75, l21
Walser, Robert l878l95o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLoo
Walsh, Ernest l895l92o. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1, 15
Walsh, Robert l781l859. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL59
Walters, Henry l818l93l. . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl10
t~~ circa 825. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl18
Walther von der Vogelweide
circa ll70circa l230 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl38
Walton, Izaak
l593lo83 . . . . . . . . .DLl5l, 2l3; CDLl
Walwicz, Ania l95l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL325
Wambaugh, |oseph l937 . . . . . . . . . DLo; Y83
Wand, Alfred Rudolph l828l89l. . . . . . . DLl88
Wandor, Michelene l910 . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l0
Waniek, Marilyn Nelson l91o . . . . . . . DLl20
Wanley, Humphrey lo72l72o. . . . . . . . . . DL2l3
War of the Words (and Iictures).
Jhe Creation of a Graphic Novel . . . . . . . .Y02
Warburton, William lo98l779 . . . . . . . . . DLl01
Ward, Aileen l9l9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlll
Ward, Artemus (see rowne, Charles Iarrar)
Ward, Arthur Henry Sarsfield (see Rohmer, Sax)
Ward, Douglas Jurner l930 . . . . . . . . DL7, 38
Ward, Mrs. Humphry l85ll920 . . . . . . . . DLl8
Ward, |ames l813l925. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o2
Ward, Lynd l905l985 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL22
Ward, Lock and Company . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl0o
Ward, Nathaniel circa l578lo52. . . . . . . . . DL21
Ward, Jheodore l902l983. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL7o
Wardle, Ralph l909l988 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl03
Ware, Henry, |r. l791l813 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL235
Ware, William l797l852. . . . . . . . . . . . DLl, 235
Warfield, Catherine Ann l8lol877. . . . . . . . DL218
Waring, Anna Letitia l823l9l0 . . . . . . . . . . DL210
Irederick Warne and Company |L.K.| . . . . DLl0o
Irederick Warne and Company |L.S.| . . . . . DL19
Warner, Anne l8o9l9l3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL202
Warner, Charles Dudley l829l900 . . . . . . DLo1
Warner, Marina l91o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl91
Warner, Rex l905l98o. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl5
Warner, Susan l8l9l885 . . . . DL3, 12, 239, 250
Warner, Sylvia Jownsend
l893l978 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL31, l39
Warner, William l558lo09. . . . . . . . . . . . DLl72
Warner ooks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Warr, ertram l9l7l913. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL88
Warren, |ohn yrne Leicester
(see De Jabley, Lord)
Warren, Lella l899l982 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y83
Warren, Mercy Otis l728l8l1 . . . . . . DL3l, 200
Warren, Robert Ienn l905l989 . . . . . DL2, 18,
l52, 320; Y80, 89; CDALo
Warren, Samuel l807l877. . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl90
a t~ circa l230circa l280. . . . DLl38
Warton, |oseph l722l800. . . . . . . . . DLl01, l09
Warton, Jhomas l728l790. . . . . . . . DLl01, l09
Warung, Irice (William Astley)
l855l9ll . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL230
Washington, George l732l799 . . . . . . . . . . DL3l
Washington, Ned l90ll97o . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o5
Wassermann, |akob l873l931 . . . . . . . . . . DLoo
Wasserstein, Wendy l950200o. . . . . . . . . DL228
Wassmo, Herbjorg l912 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL297
Wasson, David Atwood l823l887 . . . . DLl, 223
Watanna, Onoto (see Eaton, Winnifred)
Waten, |udah l9ll.l985 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL289
Waterhouse, Keith l929 . . . . . . . . . . DLl3, l5
Waterman, Andrew l910 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL10
Waters, Irank l902l995. . . . . . . . . DL2l2; Y8o
Waters, Michael l919 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl20
Watkins, Jobias l780l855 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL73
Watkins, Vernon l90ol9o7 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL20
Watmough, David l92o . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL53
Watson, Colin l920l983 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL27o
Watson, Ian l913 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2ol
Watson, |ames Wreford (see Wreford, |ames)
Watson, |ohn l850l907 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl5o
Watson, Rosamund Marriott
(Graham R. Jomson) l8o0l9ll . . . . DL210
Watson, Sheila l909l998 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo0
Watson, Jhomas l515.l592 . . . . . . . . . . DLl32
Watson, Wilfred l9lll998. . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo0
W. |. Watt and Company . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Watten, arrett l918 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl93
Watterson, Henry l810l92l . . . . . . . . . . . DL25
Watts, Alan l9l5l973. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo
Watts, Isaac lo71l718. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL95
Iranklin Watts |publishing house| . . . . . . . . DL1o
Waugh, Alec l898l98l. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl9l
Waugh, Auberon l9392000 . . . DLl1, l91; Y00
Waugh, Evelyn l903l9oo
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl5, lo2, l95; CDLo
Way and Williams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Wayman, Jom l915 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL53
Wearne, Alan l918 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL325
Weatherly, Jom l912 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1l
Weaver, Gordon l937 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl30
Weaver, Robert l92l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL88
Webb, eatrice l858l913 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl90
Webb, Irancis l925l973. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o0
Webb, Irank |. fl. l857 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL50
`~ f ai_ PPO
SPU
Webb, |ames Watson l802l881 . . . . . . . . DL13
Webb, Mary l88ll927 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL31
Webb, Ihyllis l927 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL53
Webb, Sidney l859l917 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl90
Webb, Walter Irescott l888l9o3. . . . . . . . DLl7
Webbe, William .l59l. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl32
Webber, Charles Wilkins
l8l9l85o.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL202
Weber, Max l8o1l920. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL29o
Webling, Lucy (Lucy etty MacRaye)
l877l952 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL210
Webling, Ieggy (Arthur Weston)
l87ll919. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL210
Webster, Augusta l837l891. . . . . . . . DL35, 210
Webster, |ohn
l579 or l580lo31. . . . . . . DL58; CDLl
Jhe Melbourne Manuscript. . . . . . . . . . . . Y8o
Webster, Noah
l758l813. . . . . . . . . DLl, 37, 12, 13, 73, 213
Webster, Iaul Irancis l907l981. . . . . . . . DL2o5
Charles L. Webster and Company . . . . . . . DL19
Weckherlin, Georg Rodolf l581lo53 . . . DLlo1
Wedekind, Irank
l8o1l9l8. . . . . . . . . . . . DLll8; CDWL2
Weeks, Edward Augustus, |r.
l898l989 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl37
Weeks, Stephen . l8o5l9l8. . . . . . . . . . DLl87
Weems, Mason Locke l759l825 . . . DL30, 37, 12
Weerth, Georg l822l85o. . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl29
Weidenfeld and Nicolson . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll2
Weidman, |erome l9l3l998 . . . . . . . . . . . DL28
Weigl, ruce l919 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl20
Weil, |i l900l959 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL299
Weinbaum, Stanley Grauman
l902l935 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL8
Weiner, Andrew l919 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL25l
Weintraub, Stanley l929 . . . . . . . DLlll; Y82
Weise, Christian lo12l708 . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo8
Weisenborn, Gunther l902l9o9 . . . . DLo9, l21
Weiss, |ohn l8l8l879 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl, 213
Weiss, Iaul l90l2002 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DL279
Weiss, Ieter l9lol982 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo9, l21
Weiss, Jheodore l9lo2003 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL5
Wei, Ernst l882l910 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL8l
Weie, Christian Ielix l72ol801 . . . . . . . . DL97
Weitling, Wilhelm l808l87l . . . . . . . . . . DLl29
Welch, Denton l9l5l918 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l9
Welch, |ames l910 . . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl75, 25o
Welch, Lew l92ol97l. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo
Weldon, Iay l93l DLl1, l91, 3l9; CDL8
Wellek, Ren l903l995. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo3
Weller, Archie l957 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL325
Wells, Carolyn l8o2l912 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll
Wells, Charles |eremiah
circa l800l879. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL32
Wells, Gabriel l8o2l91o . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl10
Wells, H. G. l8ool91o
. . . . . . . . . . . . DL31, 70, l5o, l78; CDLo
H. G. Wells Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y98
Ireface to q p o~
eK dK t (l933) . . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl78
Wells, Helena l758.l821. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL200
Wells, Rebecca l952 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL292
Wells, Robert l917 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL10
Wellsarnett, Ida . l8o2l93l . . . . . DL23, 22l
Welsh, Irvine l958 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DL27l
Welty, Eudora l909200l . . . . . . . DL2, l02, l13;
Y87, 0l; DSl2; CDALl
Eudora Welty. Eye of the Storyteller . . . . . Y87
b~ t k . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y99
Eudora Welty`s Iuneral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y0l
Eudora Welty`s Ninetieth irthday . . . . . . Y99
Eudora Welty Remembered in
Jwo Exhibits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y02
Wendell, arrett l855l92l . . . . . . . . . . . . DL7l
Wentworth, Iatricia l878l9ol. . . . . . . . . . DL77
Wentworth, William Charles
l790l872 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL230
Wenzel, |eanIaul l917 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL32l
Werder, Diederich von dem l581lo57 . . DLlo1
Werfel, Iranz l890l915. . . . . . . . . . . DL8l, l21
Werner, Zacharias l7o8l823 . . . . . . . . . . . DL91
Jhe Werner Company . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Wersba, arbara l932 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL52
Wescott, Glenway
l90ll987. . . . . . . . . . . . .DL1, 9, l02; DSl5
Wesker, Arnold
l932 . . . . . . . . . DLl3, 3l0, 3l9; CDL8
Wesley, Charles l707l788 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL95
Wesley, |ohn l703l79l. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl01
Wesley, Mary l9l22002 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL23l
Wesley, Richard l915 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL38
Wessel, |ohan Herman l712l785. . . . . . . DL300
A. Wessels and Company. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
t d circa 7878l5. . . . . . . . . DLl18
West, Anthony l9l1l988 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl5
Jribute to Liam OÌlaherty . . . . . . . . . . . . Y81
West, Cheryl L. l957 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2oo
West, Cornel l953 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL21o
West, Dorothy l907l998 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL7o
West, |essamyn l902l981 . . . . . . . . . . DLo; Y81
West, Mae l892l980. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL11
West, Michael Lee l953 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL292
West, Michelle Sagara l9o3 . . . . . . . . . DL25l
West, Morris l9lol999 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL289
West, Nathanael
l903l910 . . . . . . . . . DL1, 9, 28; CDAL5
West, Iaul l930 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl1
West, Rebecca l892l983. . . . . . . . . . DL3o; Y83
West, Richard l91l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl85
West and |ohnson. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Westcott, Edward Noyes l81ol898. . . . . DL202
Jhe Western Literature Association . . . . . . . . . Y99
q t j
l835l81l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl; DL223
Western Iublishing Company . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Western Writers of America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y99
q t o l821l9l1 . . . . . . . DLll0
Weston, Arthur (see Webling, Ieggy)
Weston, Elizabeth |ane circa l582lol2 . . .DLl72
Wetherald, Agnes Ethelwyn l857l910 . . . DL99
Wetherell, Elizabeth (see Warner, Susan)
Wetherell, W. D. l918 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL231
Wetzel, Iriedrich Gottlob l779l8l9. . . . . . DL90
Weyman, Stanley |. l855l928. . . . . DLl1l, l5o
Wezel, |ohann Karl l717l8l9. . . . . . . . . . . DL91
Whalen, Ihilip l9232002 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo
Whalley, George l9l5l983. . . . . . . . . . . . DL88
Wharton, Edith l8o2l937. . . . . . . . . DL1, 9, l2,
78, l89; DSl3; CDAL3
Wharton, William l925 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y80
Whately, Mary Louisa l821l889 . . . . . . DLloo
Whately, Richard l787l8o3. . . . . . . . . . . DLl90
b o (l828;
revised, l81o) |excerpt| . . . . . . . . . DL57
Wheatley, Dennis l897l977. . . . . . . . . DL77, 255
Wheatley, Ihillis
circa l751l781. . . . . . . DL3l, 50; CDAL2
Wheeler, Anna Doyle l785l818. . . . . . . DLl58
Wheeler, Charles Stearns l8lol813 . . DLl, 223
Wheeler, Monroe l900l988 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1
Wheelock, |ohn Hall l88ol978. . . . . . . . . DL15
Irom |ohn Hall Wheelock`s
Oral Memoir . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y0l
Wheelwright, |. . l897l910 . . . . . . . . . . . DL15
Wheelwright, |ohn circa l592lo79 . . . . . . DL21
Whetstone, George l550l587 . . . . . . . . . DLl3o
Whetstone, Colonel Iete (see Noland, C. I. M.)
Whewell, William l791l8oo . . . . . . . . . . DL2o2
Whichcote, enjamin lo09.lo83 . . . . . . DL252
Whicher, Stephen E. l9l5l9ol . . . . . . . . DLlll
Whipple, Edwin Iercy l8l9l88o . . . . . DLl, o1
Whitaker, Alexander l585lol7. . . . . . . . . DL21
Whitaker, Daniel K. l80ll88l . . . . . . . . . DL73
Whitcher, Irances Miriam
l8l2l852 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll, 202
White, Andrew l579lo5o . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL21
White, Andrew Dickson l832l9l8 . . . . . . DL17
White, E. . l899l985 . . . DLll, 22; CDAL7
ai_ PPO `~ f
SPV
`
White, Edgar . l917 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL38

White, Edmund l910 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL227
White, Ethel Lina l887l911 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL77
White, Hayden V. l928 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL21o
White, Henry Kirke l785l80o . . . . . . . . . . DL9o
White, Horace l831l9lo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL23
White, |ames l928l999 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2ol
White, Iatrick l9l2l990 . . . . . . . . . DL2o0, 332
White, Ihyllis Dorothy |ames (see |ames, I. D.)
White, Richard Grant l82ll885 . . . . . . . . DLo1
White, J. H. l90ol9o1. . . . . . . . . . . DLlo0, 255
White, Walter l893l955. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL5l
Wilcox, |ames l919 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL292
William White and Company . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
White, William Allen l8o8l911 . . . . . . . DL9, 25
White, William Anthony Iarker
(see oucher, Anthony)
White, William Hale (see Rutherford, Mark)
Whitechurch, Victor L. l8o8l933 . . . . . . . DL70
Whitehead, Alfred North
l8oll917 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl00, 2o2
Whitehead, E. A. (Jed Whitehead)
l933 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l0
Whitehead, |ames l93o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y8l
Whitehead, William l7l5l785 . . . . . . DL81, l09
Whitfield, |ames Monroe l822l87l . . . . . . DL50
Whitfield, Raoul l898l915. . . . . . . . . . . . DL22o
Whitgift, |ohn circa l533lo01 . . . . . . . . . DLl32
Whiting, |ohn l9l7l9o3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl3
Whiting, Samuel l597lo79 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL21
Whitlock, rand l8o9l931. . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl2
Whitman, Albery Allson l85ll90l . . . . . . DL50
Whitman, Alden l9l3l990. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y9l
Whitman, Sarah Helen (Iower)
l803l878 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl, 213
Whitman, Walt
l8l9l892 . . . . DL3, o1, 221, 250; CDAL2
Albert Whitman and Company. . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Whitman Iublishing Company . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Whitney, Geoffrey
l518 or l552.lo0l. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl3o
Whitney, Isabella fl. l5ool573 . . . . . . . . . DLl3o
Whitney, |ohn Hay l901l982 . . . . . . . . . DLl27
Whittemore, Reed l9l9l995 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL5
Whittier, |ohn Greenleaf
l807l892 . . . . . . . . . . .DLl, 213; CDAL2
Whittlesey House . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Wickham, Anna (Edith Alice Mary Harper)
l881l917 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL210
Wickram, Georg circa l505circa l5ol . . . DLl79
Wicomb, Zo l918 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL225
Wideman, |ohn Edgar l91l . . . . . . DL33, l13
Widener, Harry Elkins l885l9l2. . . . . . . DLl10
Wiebe, Rudy l931 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo0
Wiechert, Ernst l887l950. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL5o
Wied, Gustav l858l9l1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL300
Wied, Martina l882l957 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL85
Wiehe, Evelyn May Clowes (see Mordaunt, Elinor)
Wieland, Christoph Martin l733l8l3 . . . . DL97
Wienbarg, Ludolf l802l872 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl33
Wieners, |ohn l931 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo
Wier, Ester l9l02000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL52
Wiesel, Elie
l928 . . . . DL83, 299; Y8o, 87; CDAL7
Nobel Lecture l98o. Hope, Despair and
Memory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y8o
Wiggin, Kate Douglas l85ol923 . . . . . . . . DL12
Wigglesworth, Michael lo3ll705. . . . . . . . DL21
Wilberforce, William l759l833 . . . . . . . . DLl58
Wilbrandt, Adolf l837l9ll. . . . . . . . . . . . DLl29
Wilbur, Richard l92l . . . DL5, lo9; CDAL7
Jribute to Robert Ienn Warren . . . . . . . . .Y89
Wilcox, |ames l919 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL292
Wild, Ieter l910 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL5
Wilde, Lady |ane Irancesca Elgee
l82l.l89o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl99
Wilde, Oscar l851l900
. DLl0, l9, 31, 57, l1l, l5o, l90; CDL5
'Jhe Critic as Artist`` (l89l). . . . . . . . . DL57
'Jhe Decay of Lying" (l889) . . . . . . . . DLl8
'Jhe English Renaissance of
Art" (l908) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL35
'LÈnvoi" (l882) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL35
Oscar Wilde Conference at Hofstra
Lniversity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y00
Wilde, Richard Henry l789l817 . . . . . . DL3, 59
W. A. Wilde Company . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Wilder, illy l90o2002. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o
Wilder, Laura Ingalls l8o7l957 . . . . . DL22, 25o
Wilder, Jhornton
l897l975. . . . . . . . DL1, 7, 9, 228; CDAL7
Jhornton Wilder Centenary at Yale . . . . . . Y97
Wildgans, Anton l88ll932 . . . . . . . . . . . DLll8
Wilding, Michael l912 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL325
Wiley, ell Irvin l90ol980. . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl7
|ohn Wiley and Sons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Wilhelm, Kate l928 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL8
Wilkes, Charles l798l877. . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl83
Wilkes, George l8l7l885 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL79
Wilkins, |ohn lol1lo72 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL23o
Wilkinson, Anne l9l0l9ol . . . . . . . . . . . . DL88
Wilkinson, Christopher l91l . . . . . . . . DL3l0
Wilkinson, Eliza Yonge
l757circa l8l3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL200
Wilkinson, Sylvia l910 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y8o
Wilkinson, William Cleaver l833l920. . . . DL7l
Willard, arbara l909l991. . . . . . . . . . . . DLlol
Willard, Emma l787l870 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL239
Willard, Irances E. l839l898. . . . . . . . . . DL22l
Willard, Nancy l93o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL5, 52
Willard, Samuel lo10l707 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL21
L. Willard |publishing house| . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Willeford, Charles l9l9l988 . . . . . . . . . . DL22o
William of Auvergne ll90l219 . . . . . . . . DLll5
William of Conches
circa l090circa ll51. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll5
William of Ockham circa l285l317 . . . . . DLll5
William of Sherwood
l200/l205l2oo/l27l . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll5
Lniversity Libraries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y92
Williams, en Ames l889l953. . . . . . . . . DLl02
Williams, C. K. l93o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL5
Williams, Chancellor l905l992 . . . . . . . . . DL7o
Williams, Charles l88ol915. . . DLl00, l53, 255
Williams, Denis l923l998 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll7
Williams, Emlyn l905l987. . . . . . . . . . DLl0, 77
Williams, Garth l9l2l99o . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL22
Williams, George Washington
l819l89l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL17
Williams, Heathcote l91l . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl3
Williams, Helen Maria l7oll827 . . . . . . . DLl58
Williams, Hugo l912 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL10
Williams, Isaac l802l8o5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL32
Williams, |oan l928 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo
Williams, |oe l889l972 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL21l
Williams, |ohn A. l925 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2, 33
Williams, |ohn E. l922l991 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo
Williams, |onathan l929 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL5
Williams, Miller l930 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl05
Williams, Nigel l918 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL23l
Williams, Raymond
l92ll988 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl1, 23l, 212
Williams, Roger circa lo03lo83. . . . . . . . . DL21
Williams, Rowland l8l7l870 . . . . . . . . . . DLl81
Williams, SammArt l91o . . . . . . . . . . . . DL38
Williams, Sherley Anne l911l999 . . . . . . . DL1l
Williams, J. Harry l909l979 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl7
Williams, Jennessee
l9lll983 . . . . . DL7; Y83; DS1; CDALl
Williams, Jerry Jempest l955 . . . DL20o, 275
Williams, Lrsula Moray l9ll . . . . . . . . DLlo0
Williams, Valentine l883l91o . . . . . . . . . . DL77
Williams, William Appleman l92ll990. . . DLl7
Williams, William Carlos
l883l9o3 . . . . . . DL1, lo, 51, 8o; CDAL1
Jhe William Carlos Williams Society. . . . .Y99
Williams, Wirt l92ll98o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo
A. Williams and Company . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Williams rothers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Williamson, David l912 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL289
Williamson, Henry l895l977. . . . . . . . . . DLl9l
Jhe Henry Williamson Society. . . . . . . . . .Y98
Williamson, |ack l908 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL8
`~ f ai_ PPO
SQM
Willingham, Calder aynard, |r.
l922l995 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2, 11
Williram of Ebersberg circa l020l085 . . DLl18
Willis, |ohn circa l572lo25 . . . . . . . . . . . DL28l
Willis, Nathaniel Iarker l80ol8o7
. . . . . . . . . . . DL3, 59, 73, 71, l83, 250; DSl3
Willis, Jed l9l8l992. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l0
Willkomm, Ernst l8l0l88o. . . . . . . . . . . DLl33
Wills, Garry l931 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL21o
Jribute to Kenneth Dale McCormick . . . . Y97
Willson, Meredith l902l981 . . . . . . . . . . DL2o5
Willumsen, Dorrit l910 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l1
Wilmer, Clive l915 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL10
Wilson, A. N. l950 . . . . . . . . DLl1, l55, l91
Wilson, Angus l9l3l99l. . . . . . DLl5, l39, l55
Wilson, Arthur l595lo52 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL58
Wilson, August l9152005 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL228
Wilson, Augusta |ane Evans l835l909 . . . DL12
Wilson, Colin l93l . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl1, l91
Jribute to |. . Iriestly. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y81
Wilson, Edmund l895l972 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo3
Wilson, Ethel l888l980 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo8
Wilson, I. I. l889l9o3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL20l
Wilson, Harriet E.
l827/l828.l8o3. . . . . . . . . DL50, 239, 213
Wilson, Harry Leon l8o7l939 . . . . . . . . . . DL9
Wilson, |ohn l588loo7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL21
Wilson, |ohn l785l851 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll0
Wilson, |ohn Anthony urgess
(see urgess, Anthony)
Wilson, |ohn Dover l88ll9o9 . . . . . . . . DL20l
Wilson, Lanford l937 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL7
Wilson, Margaret l882l973 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL9
Wilson, Michael l9l1l978. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL11
Wilson, Mona l872l951 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl19
Wilson, Robert Charles l953 . . . . . . . DL25l
Wilson, Robert McLiam l9o1 . . . . . . . DL2o7
Wilson, Robley l930 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l8
Wilson, Romer l89ll930 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl9l
Wilson, Jhomas l521l58l . . . . . . . DLl32, 23o
Wilson, Woodrow l85ol921. . . . . . . . . . . DL17
Effingham Wilson |publishing house| . . . . DLl51
Wimpfeling, |akob l150l528 . . . . . . . . . .DLl79
Wimsatt, William K., |r. l907l975. . . . . . . DLo3
Winchell, Walter l897l972 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL29
|. Winchester |publishing house|. . . . . . . . . DL19
Winckelmann, |ohann |oachim
l7l7l7o8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL97
Winckler, Iaul lo30lo8o. . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo1
Wind, Herbert Warren l9lo2005 . . . . . . .DLl7l
|ohn Windet |publishing house| . . . . . . . . .DLl70
Windham, Donald l920 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo
Windsor, Gerard l911 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL325
Wing, Donald Goddard l901l972 . . . . . DLl87
Wing, |ohn M. l811l9l7 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl87
Allan Wingate |publishing house|. . . . . . . DLll2
Winnemucca, Sarah l811l92l . . . . . . . . .DLl75
Winnifrith, Jom l938 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl55
Winsloe, Christa l888l911 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl21
Winslow, Anna Green l759l780 . . . . . . . DL200
Winsor, |ustin l83ll897 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL17
|ohn C. Winston Company . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Winters, Yvor l900l9o8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL18
Winterson, |eanette l959 . . . . . . . . DL207, 2ol
Winther, Christian l79ol87o . . . . . . . . . . DL300
Winthrop, |ohn l588lo19. . . . . . . . . . DL21, 30
Winthrop, |ohn, |r. lo0olo7o . . . . . . . . . . DL21
Winthrop, Margaret Jyndal
l59llo17. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL200
Winthrop, Jheodore
l828l8ol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL202
Winton, Jim l9o0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL325
Wirt, William l772l831 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL37
Wise, |ohn lo52l725. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL21
Wise, Jhomas |ames l859l937. . . . . . . . DLl81
Wiseman, Adele l928l992 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL88
Wishart and Company. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLll2
Wisner, George l8l2l819 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL13
Wister, Owen l8o0l938 . . . . . . . . .DL9, 78, l8o
Wister, Sarah l7oll801 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL200
Wither, George l588loo7 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl2l
Witherspoon, |ohn l723l791. . . . . . . . . . . DL3l
Tlc !orls of tlc Icv. olv !itlcrspoov
(l800l80l) |excerpts| . . . . . . . . . . DL3l
Withrow, William Henry l839l908 . . . . . DL99
Witkacy (see Witkiewicz, Stanisaw Ignacy)
Witkiewicz, Stanisaw Ignacy
l885l939 . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l5; CDWL1
Wittenwiler, Heinrich before l387
circa l1l1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl79
Wittgenstein, Ludwig l889l95l . . . . . . . DL2o2
Wittig, Monique l935 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL83
Witting, Amy ( |oan Austral Levick, ne Iraser)
l9l8200l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL325
Wodehouse, I. G.
l88ll975. . . . . . . . . . DL31, lo2; CDLo
Worldwide Wodehouse Societies . . . . . . . . Y98
Wohmann, Gabriele l932 . . . . . . . . . . . DL75
Woiwode, Larry l91l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo
Wolcot, |ohn l738l8l9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl09
Wolcott, Roger lo79l7o7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL21
Wolf, Christa l929 . . . . . . . .DL75; CDWL2
Wolf, Iriedrich l888l953 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl21
Wolfe, Gene l93l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL8
Wolfe, Jhomas l900l938 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
DL9, l02, 229; Y85; DS2, DSlo; CDAL5
'All the Iaults of Youth and Inexperience".
A Reader`s Report on
Jhomas Wolfe`s U Iost . . . . . . . . . . . . Y0l
Emendations for Iool Homcword, Zvgcl. . . . Y00
Eugene Gant`s Irojected Works. . . . . . . . . Y0l
Iire at the Old Kentucky Home
|Jhomas Wolfe Memorial| . . . . . . . . . Y98
Jhomas Wolfe Centennial
Celebration in Asheville . . . . . . . . . . . Y00
Jhe Jhomas Wolfe Collection at
the Lniversity of North Carolina
at Chapel Hill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y97
Jhe Jhomas Wolfe Society . . . . . . . . . .Y97, 99
Wolfe, Jom l93l . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl52, l85
|ohn Wolfe |publishing house| . . . . . . . . . .DLl70
Reyner (Reginald) Wolfe
Wolfenstein, Martha l8o9l90o . . . . . . . . DL22l
Wolff, David (see Maddow, en)
Wolff, Egon l92o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL305
Wolff, Helen l90ol991 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y91
Wolff, Jobias l915 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl30
Jribute to Raymond Carver . . . . . . . . . . . Y88
Wolfram von Eschenbach
circa ll70after l220 . . . .DLl38; CDWL2
Wolfram von Eschenbach`s Iorivol:
Irologue and ook 3. . . . . . . . . . DLl38
Wolker, |i l900l921 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l5
Wollstonecraft, Mary l759l797
. . . . . . . . . . DL39, l01, l58, 252; CDL3
Women
Women`s Work, Women`s Sphere.
Selected Comments from Women
Writers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL200
Women Writers in SixteenthCentury
Spain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l8
Wondratschek, Wolf l913 . . . . . . . . . . . DL75
Wong, Elizabeth l958 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2oo
Wong, Nellie l931 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l2
Wong, Shawn l919 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l2
Wongar, . (Sreten ozic) l932 . . . . . . DL325
Wood, Anthony a lo32lo95 . . . . . . . . . . DL2l3
Wood, enjamin l820l900 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL23
Wood, Charles l932l980 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl3
Jhe Charles Wood Affair.
A Ilaywright Revived . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y83
Wood, Mrs. Henry l8l1l887 . . . . . . . . . . DLl8
Wood, |oanna E. l8o7l927 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL92
Wood, Sally Sayward arrell Keating
l759l855. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL200
Wood, William fl. seventeenth century. . . . DL21
Samuel Wood |publishing house| . . . . . . . . DL19
Woodberry, George Edward
l855l930 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DL7l, l03
Woodbridge, enjamin lo22lo81 . . . . . . . DL21
ai_ PPO `~ f
SQN
`
Woodbridge, Irederick |. E. l8o7l910 . . . DL270

Woodcock, George l9l2l995. . . . . . . . . . . DL88
Woodhull, Victoria C. l838l927 . . . . . . . . DL79
Woodmason, Charles circa l720. . . . . . . . . DL3l
Woodress, |ames Leslie, |r. l9lo . . . . . . DLlll
Woods, Margaret L. l855l915. . . . . . . . . DL210
Woodson, Carter G. l875l950 . . . . . . . . . . DLl7
Woodward, C. Vann l908l999 . . . . . . . . . DLl7
Woodward, Stanley l895l9o5 . . . . . . . . . DLl7l
Woodworth, Samuel l785l812 . . . . . . . . . DL250
Wooler, Jhomas l785 or l78ol853 . . . . . DLl58
Woolf, David (see Maddow, en)
Woolf, Douglas l922l992. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL211
Woolf, Leonard l880l9o9 . . . . . . DLl00; DSl0
Woolf, Virginia l882l91l
. . . . . . . . DL3o, l00, lo2; DSl0; CDLo
'Jhe New iography," k v e~
qI 30 October l927. . . . . . . . DLl19
Woollcott, Alexander l887l913 . . . . . . . . . DL29
Woolman, |ohn l720l772 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l
Woolner, Jhomas l825l892. . . . . . . . . . . . DL35
Woolrich, Cornell l903l9o8. . . . . . . . . . . DL22o
Woolsey, Sarah Chauncy l835l905 . . . . . . DL12
Woolson, Constance Ienimore
l810l891 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl2, 71, l89, 22l
Worcester, |oseph Emerson
l781l8o5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl, 235
Wynkyn de Worde |publishing house|. . . . DLl70
Wordsworth, Christopher l807l885. . . . . DLloo
Wordsworth, Dorothy l77ll855. . . . . . . . DLl07
Wordsworth, Elizabeth
l810l932 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL98
Wordsworth, William
l770l850 . . . . . . . . . . DL93, l07; CDL3
Workman, Ianny ullock
l859l925 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl89
t i~ q~W A |ournal for the
New Millennium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y0l
World Iublishing Company . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
World War I (l9l1l9l8). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DSl8
Jhe Great War Exhibit and Symposium
at the Lniversity of South Carolina . . .Y97
Jhe Liddle Collection and Iirst World
War Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y97
Other ritish Ioets Who Iell
in the Great War. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2lo
Jhe SeventyIifth Anniversary of
the Armistice. Jhe Wilfred Owen
Centenary and the Great War Exhibit
at the Lniversity of Virginia. . . . . . . . .Y93
World War II (l939-l915)
Literary Effects of World War II . . . . . . DLl5
World War II Writers Symposium
at the Lniversity of South Carolina,
l2-l1 April l995 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y95
WW2 HMSO Iaperbacks Society . . . . . . .Y98
R. Worthington and Company . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Wotton, Sir Henry l5o8lo39 . . . . . . . . . . DLl2l
Wouk, Herman l9l5 . . . . . . . . Y82; CDAL7
Wreford, |ames l9l5l990. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL88
Wren, Sir Christopher lo32l723 . . . . . . . DL2l3
Wren, Iercival Christopher l885l91l . . . DLl53
Wrenn, |ohn Henry l81ll9ll . . . . . . . . . DLl10
Wright, C. D. l919 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl20
Wright, Charles l935 . . . . . . . . . DLlo5; Y82
Wright, Charles Stevenson l932 . . . . . . . DL33
Wright, Chauncey l830l875 . . . . . . . . . . DL270
Wright, Irances l795l852 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL73
Wright, Harold ell l872l911 . . . . . . . . . . . DL9
Wright, |ames l927l980
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL5, lo9; CDAL7
Wright, |ay l935 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1l
Wright, |udith l9l52000. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o0
Wright, Louis . l899l981. . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl7
Wright, Richard l908l9o0
. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL7o, l02; DS2; CDAL5
Wright, Richard . l937 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL53
Wright, S. Iowler l871l9o5 . . . . . . . . . . . DL255
Wright, Sarah Elizabeth l928 . . . . . . . . . DL33
Wright, J. H. 'Style" (l877) |excerpt| . . . . . DL57
Wright, Willard Huntington (S. S. Van Dine)
l887l939 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL30o; DSlo
Wrightson, Iatricia l92l . . . . . . . . . . . . DL289
Wrigley, Robert l95l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL25o
t c . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y85
Writing
A Writing Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y02
On Learning to Write . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y88
Jhe Irofession of Authorship.
Scribblers for read . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y89
A Writer Jalking. A Collage . . . . . . . . . . . .Y00
Wroth, Lawrence C. l881l970. . . . . . . . . DLl87
Wroth, Lady Mary l587lo53 . . . . . . . . . . DLl2l
Wu |ianren (Wo Ioshanren)
l8ool9l0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL328
Wu Zuxiang l908l991. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL328
Wumingshi (u aonan) l9l72002 . . . . . DL328
Wurlitzer, Rudolph l937 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl73
Wyatt, Sir Jhomas circa l503l512. . . . . . DLl32
Wycherley, William
lo1ll7l5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL80; CDL2
Wyclif, |ohn circa l335l381 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl1o
Wyeth, N. C. l882l915 . . . . . . . . DLl88; DSlo
Wyle, Niklas von circa l1l5l179 . . . . . . . DLl79
Wylie, Elinor l885l928 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL9, 15
Wylie, Ihilip l902l97l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL9
Wyllie, |ohn Cook l908l9o8 . . . . . . . . . . DLl10
Wyman, Lillie uffum Chace
l817l929 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL202
Wymark, Olwen l931 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL233
Wynd, Oswald Morris (see lack, Gavin)
Wyndham, |ohn ( |ohn Wyndham Iarkes
Lucas eynon Harris) l903l9o9 . . . . DL255
WynneJyson, Esm l898l972. . . . . . . . . DLl9l
u
Xenophon circa 130 _.`.circa 35o _.`. . . . . DLl7o
Xiang Kairan (Iingjiang uxiaoshengj uxiaosheng)
l890l957 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL328
Xiao Hong l9lll912 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL328
Xu Dishan (Luo Huasheng)
l893l91l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL328
Xu Zhenya l889l937 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL328
v
Yahp, eth l9o1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL325
Yamamoto, Hisaye l92l . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l2
Yamanaka, LoisAnn l9ol . . . . . . . . . . DL3l2
Yamashita, Karen Jei l95l . . . . . . . . . . DL3l2
Yamauchi, Wakako l921 . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l2
Yang Kui l905l985 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL328
Yasuoka Shtar l920 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl82
Yates, Dornford l885l9o0 . . . . . . . . . DL77, l53
Yates, |. Michael l938 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo0
Yates, Richard l92ol992 . . . DL2, 231; Y8l, 92
Yau, |ohn l950 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL231, 3l2
Yavorov, Ieyo l878l9l1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl17
Ye Shaojun (Ye Shengtao) l891l988. . . . . DL328
Yearsley, Ann l753l80o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl09
Yeats, William utler l8o5l939
. . . . . . . . DLl0, l9, 98, l5o, 332; CDL5
Jhe W. . Yeats Society of N.Y. . . . . . . . . .Y99
Yellen, |ack l892l99l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o5
Yep, Laurence l918 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL52, 3l2
Yerby, Irank l9lol99l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL7o
Yezierska, Anzia l880l970 . . . . . . . . . DL28, 22l
Yolen, |ane l939 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL52
Yonge, Charlotte Mary l823l90l. . . . DLl8, lo3
Jhe Charlotte M. Yonge Iellowship . . . . . .Y98
Jhe York Cycle circa l37ocirca l5o9 . . . . DLl1o
^ v q~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL58
Jhomas Yoseloff |publishing house| . . . . . . DL1o
Youd, Sam (see Christopher, |ohn)
Young, A. S. 'Doc" l9l9l99o. . . . . . . . . . DL21l
Young, Al l939 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL33
Young, Arthur l71ll820. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl58
Young, Dick l9l7 or l9l8l987. . . . . . . . . DLl7l
Young, Edward lo83l7o5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL95
Young, Irank A. 'Iay" l881l957 . . . . . . . DL21l
Young, Irancis rett l881l951. . . . . . . . . DLl9l
Young, Gavin l928 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL201
Young, Stark l88ll9o3. . . . . . . DL9, l02; DSlo
Young, Waldeman l880l938 . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o
William Young |publishing house| . . . . . . . . DL19
Young ear, Ray A. l950 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl75
Yourcenar, Marguerite l903l987 . . . DL72; Y88
Yovkov, Yordan l880l937 . . . .DLl17; CDWL1
Yu Dafu l89ol915. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL328
Yushkevich, Semen l8o8l927 . . . . . . . . . . .DL3l7
`~ f ai_ PPO
SQO
Yver, |acques l520.l570. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL327
w
Zachari, Iriedrich Wilhelm l72ol777 . . . DL97
Zagajewski, Adam l915 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL232
Zagoskin, Mikhail Nikolaevich
l789l852. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl98
Zaitsev, oris l88ll972. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l7
Zajc, Dane l929 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl8l
Zlte, Mra l952 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL232
Zalygin, Sergei Iavlovich l9l32000 . . . . DL302
Zamiatin, Evgenii Ivanovich l881l937 . . DL272
Zamora, ernice l938 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL82
Zamudio, Adela (Soledad) l851l928 . . . DL283
Zand, Herbert l923l970 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL85
Zangwill, Israel l8o1l92o . . . . . .DLl0, l35, l97
Zanzotto, Andrea l92l . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl28
Zapata Olivella, Manuel l920 . . . . . . . . DLll3
Zapoev, Jimur Iurèvich
(see Kibirov, Jimur Iurèvich)
Zasodimsky, Iavel Vladimirovich
l813l9l2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL238
Zebra ooks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1o
Zebrowski, George l915 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL8
Zech, Iaul l88ll91o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL5o
Zeidner, Lisa l955 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl20
Zeidonis, Imants l933 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL232
Zeimi (Kanze Motokiyo) l3o3l113. . . . . DL203
Zelazny, Roger l937l995. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL8
Zeng Iu l872l935 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL328
Zenger, |ohn Ieter lo97l71o . . . . . . . . DL21, 13
Zepheria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl72
Zernova, Ruf` l9l92001. . . . . . . . . . . . . DL3l7
Zesen, Ihilipp von lol9lo89. . . . . . . . . . DLlo1
Zhadovskaia, Iuliia Valerianovna
l821l883 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DL277
Zhang Ailing (Eileen Chang)
l920l995 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL328
Zhang Henshui l895l9o7 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL328
Zhang Jianyi l90ol985 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL328
Zhao Shuli l90ol970. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL328
Zhukova, Marìa Semenovna
l805l855 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DL277
Zhukovsky, Vasilii Andreevich
l783l852. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL205
Zhvanetsky, Mikhail Mikhailovich
l931 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL285
G. . Zieber and Company . . . . . . . . . . . . DL19
Ziedonis, Imants l933 . . . . . . . . . . . . CDWL1
Zieroth, Dale l91o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLo0
Zigler und Kliphausen, Heinrich
Anshelm von loo3lo97 . . . . . . . . . . DLlo8
Zil`ber, Veniamin Aleksandrovich
(see Kaverin, Veniamin Aleksandrovich)
Zimmer, Iaul l931 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL5
Zinberg, Len (see Lacy, Ed)
Zincgref, |ulius Wilhelm l59llo35 . . . . . DLlo1
Zindel, Iaul l93o . . . . . . . DL7, 52; CDAL7
Zinnes, Harriet l9l9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl93
Zinovèv, Aleksandr Aleksandrovich
l922 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL302
ZinovèvaAnnibal, Lidiia Dmitrievna
l8o5 or l8ool907 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL295
Zinzendorf, Nikolaus Ludwig von
l700l7o0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLlo8
ZitkalaSa l87ol938. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DLl75
Zverts, Mrti l903l990. . . . . . . . . . . . DL220
Zlatovratsky, Nikolai Nikolaevich
l815l9ll . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL238
Zola, Emile l810l902 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl23
Zolla, Elmire l92o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl9o
Zolotow, Charlotte l9l5 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL52
Zoshchenko, Mikhail Mikhailovich
l895l958 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DL272
Zschokke, Heinrich l77ll818 . . . . . . . . . . DL91
Zubly, |ohn |oachim l721l78l . . . . . . . . . DL3l
Zuolton, Ahmos, II l93o . . . . . . . . . . DL1l
Zuckmayer, Carl l89ol977 . . . . . . . . DL5o, l21
Zukofsky, Louis l901l978. . . . . . . . . . DL5, lo5
Zupan, Vitomil l9l1l987 . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl8l
upani, Oton l878l919 . . .DLl17; CDWL1
zur Mhlen, Hermynia l883l95l . . . . . . . DL5o
Zweig, Arnold l887l9o8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLoo
Zweig, Stefan l88ll912. . . . . . . . . . . DL8l, ll8
Zwicky, Iay l933 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL325
Zwinger, Ann l925 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .DL275
Zwingli, Huldrych l181l53l. . . . . . . . . . .DLl79
verland, Arnulf l889l9o8 . . . . . . . . . . DL297

Nobel Prize Laureates in Literature Part 4 - Quasimodo - Yeats

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Nobel Prize Laureates in Literature Part 4 - Quasimodo - Yeats

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a~ i~ _~

8" ln the publlsher`s Sigvotur |slc| serles, llm

Allen, Dick l939 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL282

Jhe Association for the Study of

arykova, Anna Iavlovna l839l893 . . . . DL277

ianco, Margery Williams l88ll911 . . . . DLlo0

rne, Ludwig l78ol837 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL90

ront, Anne l820l819 . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l, l99

yron, Robert l905l91l . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl95

Cernuda, Luis l902l9o3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl31

Clifford, Lucy l853.l929. . . . . DLl35, l1l, l97

Cowles, Gardner l8oll91o . . . . . . . . . . . . DL29

Davies, W. H. l87ll910 . . . . . . . . . . . DLl9, l71

Diogenes, |r. (see rougham, |ohn)

Iaccio, Rena (see Aleramo, Sibilla)

Ionvisin, Denis Ivanovich

Gallagher, Wes l9lll997 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLl27

Jribute to Christopher Isherwood. . . . . . . .Y8o

Hansen, Jhorkild l927l989 . . . . . . . . . . . DL2l1

Henderson, David l912 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL1l

Hope, A. D. l9072000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL289

owers, Iredson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y80

'ackstage," Statement Irom the

Kernaghan, Eileen l939 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL25l

Kuprin, Aleksandr Ivanovich

Le Moyne, |ean l9l3l99o . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL88

Jhe Vladimir Nabokov Society . . . . . . . . .Y0l

MacKaye, Iercy l875l95o . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL51

Marvin X l911 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL38

Merriam, Eve l9lol992 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DLol

Morris, Mary McGarry l913 . . . . . . . . DL292

Newcomb, Charles King l820l891 . . . DLl, 223

Noyes, Crosby S. l825l908 . . . . . . . . . . . . DL23

Iaperback Science Iiction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL8

'An Announcement to Our Readers,"

Jhe Iowys Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y98

Rodrguez, Claudio l931l999 . . . . . . . . . DLl31

Serao, Matilde l85ol927 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o1

Slataper, Scipio l888l9l5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL2o1

Stangerup, Henrik l937l998. . . . . . . . . . . DL2l1

'Iersonal Style`` (l890) . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL57

rarinn Eldjrn l919 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL293

Lnited States ook Company . . . . . . . . . . . DL19

Wagner, Richard l8l3l883. . . . . . . . . . . . DLl29

White, Edgar . l917 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DL38

Woodbridge, Irederick |. E. l8o7l910 . . . DL270

verland, Arnulf l889l9o8 . . . . . . . . . . DL297

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