MICROCONTROLLER BASED SINGLE

AXIS SOLAR TRACKER

Prepared by
Sl Name ID. No.
1 Ms. Rehana Akter ID: 102-296-511
2 Mir Md Emam Uddin ID: 102-168-511
3 Md. Jamil Uddin ID: 102-085-511
4 Md. Mahbub Mehedi ID: 102-049-511
5 MD. Shariful Amran ID: 102-102-511
A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment for the degree of
B.sc. in
Electrical and Electronics Engineering
Course Code: EEE 499
Atish Dipankar University of Science &
Technology (ADUST)
Department of Electrical & Electronic Engineering
i
MICROCONTROLLER BASED SINGLE AXIS SOLAR TRACKER
An internship report submitted to the department of EEE, Atish Dipankar
University of Science and Technology for partial fulfillment of the degree of
B.Sc. in Electrical and Electronic Engineering.
Submitted by:
Sl Name ID. No.
1 Ms. Rehana Akter ID: 102-296-511
2 Mir Md Emam Uddin ID: 102-168-511
3 Md. Jamil Uddin ID: 102-085-511
4 Md. Mahabub Mehedi ID: 102-049-511
5 MD. Shariful Amran ID: 102-102-511
Supervised By:
Marzia Hoque Tania Signature: _______________
Lecturer Date:
ii
Department of Electrical & Electronic Engineering
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the B.Sc. thesis entitled Microcontroller based single
axis solar tracker submitted by this group (Ms. Rehana Akter, ID No: 102-
296-511. Mir Imam Uddin, ID No: 102-168-511. Md Jamil Uddin, ID No: 102-
085-511. Md. Mahbub Mehedi, ID No: 102-049-511. Md Shariful Amran, ID
No: 102 102-511)
The thesis represents an independent and original work on the part of the
candidates. The research work has not previously formed the basis for the
award of any degree, diploma, fellowship or any other discipline.
The whole work of this thesis has been planned and carried out by this group
under supervision and guidance of the faculty members of Atish Dipankar
University of Science & Technology, Dhaka, Bangladesh.
____________________
Marzia Hoque Tania
Lecturer
Department of EEE
iii
ABSTRACT
The work we present is a microcontroller based single axis solar tracking device
which enables the solar panel. To face with the sunlight to increase the output
of the solar PV systems. It is an automatic tracking device which aims to
maximize in harvesting solar power. When the intensity of the light, decries, the
system automatically changes its direction to get the maximize intensity of
sunlight. Light depended resisters are used as sensor. Data received by the
sensors is processed by the microcontroller. Signal from the microcontroller in
send to the DC gear motor. The clockwise and anticlockwise rotation of the
motor is conducted by the relays. This prototype might be implemented is
residential uses. Due to low power consumption this prototype would be very
hungry is real life application.
Keywords: Solar tracking, solar tracker, microcontroller, DC motor, LDR.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
At first we would like to thank our supervisor, Marzia Hoque Tania, Lecturer, ADUST. for
giving us the opportunity to work under his supervision, the endless hours of help,
suggestions, advice and support to keep us on track during the development of this thesis.
Last, but not least, we would like to thank our parents and family for making it possible for us
to study and for their constant help and support.
The Authors
Dhaka
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DEDICATION
To Almighty ALLAH and Our Respective Parents
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Table of Contents
Abstract ...
Acknowledgement
Dedication ..
Figure ...
Table .
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Chapter- 1: Introduction and overview ..
1.1. Renewable energy ..
1.2. Use of Renewable Energy ....
1.3. Types of renewable energy
1.3.1 Solar energy ..
1.3.2 Wind energy ..
1.3.3 Geothermal energy ..
1.3.4 Bio energy ..
1.3.5 Hydropower ...
1.3.6 Ocean energy
1.3.7 Hydrogen energy ..
1.4 Importance of renewable energy ..
1.4.1 Environmental Benefits ..
1.4.2 Energy for our childrens .
1.4.3 Jobs and the Economy
1.4.4 Energy Security
1.5 Necessary of solar tracker .
1.6 Global technical potential of solar energy
01-09
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Chapter-2: Solar photovoltaic (PV) system ..
2.1 Photovoltaic (PV) system
2.2 Work of solar photovoltaic (PV) system ...
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11-12
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2.3 Types of photovoltaic (PV) systems .
2.3.1 Single-crystalline or mono crystalline
2.3.2 Polycrystalline cells .
2.3.4 Amorphous Silicon
2.4 Components of a solar photovoltaic (PV)
2.4.1 Charge controller ..
2.4.2 Batteries .
2.4.3 Inverter
2.5 Advantages of photovoltaic (PV) ...
2.6 Disadvantage of photovoltaic (PV)
2.7 Photovoltaic (PV) applications and market ..
11-12
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Chapter-3: Solar path of the sun .
3.1 Basic of solar radiation
3.2 Solar Constant and "Sun Value" .
3.3 Extraterrestrial and Terrestrial Spectra.
3.3.1 Extraterrestrial Spectra
3.3.2 Terrestrial Spectra
3.4 The Changing Terrestrial Solar Spectrum ...
3.5 Standard Spectra .
3.6 Geometry of Solar Radiation ..
3.7 Dirunal and Annual Variation .
3.8 Solar Motion ..
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Chapter-4: Solar tracking system ...........
4.1 Solar tracker .
4.2 Types of solar tracker .
4.2.1 Single axis solar tracker ..
4.2.1.1 Types of single axis solar tracker ...
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4.2.1.2 Horizontal single axis tracker (HSAT) .
4.2.1.3 Vertical single axis tracker (VSAT) ..
4.2.1.4 Tilted single axis tracker (TSAT) .
4.2.1.5 Polar aligned single axis trackers (PASAT)
4.2.2 Dual axis solar tracker .
4.2.2.1 Types of duel axis solar tracker .
4.2.2.2 Tiptilt dual axis tracker .
4.2.2.3 Azimuth-altitude dual axis tracker (AADAT) ...
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Chapter-5: Construction of microcontroller based single
axis solar tracker .
5.1 Single axis solar trackers ...
5.2 Mechanical System .
5.3 Methodology .
5.4 Working principle .
5.5 Description of the component
5.5.1 Microcontroller ..
5.5.1.1 Use of microcontroller ..
5.5.2 Gear-motor
5.5.2.1 Gear-motor Benefits .
5.5.2.2 Application of Gear-motor ...
5.5.3 Voltage regulator ..
5.5.4 Definition of relay
5.5.4.1 Types of relay
5.5.4.2 Application of relay ...
5.5.5 Resistor .
5.5.6 Capacitor ...
5.5.7 Transistor ..
5.5.7.1 Types of Transistor ..
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5.5.8 Push button switch ..
5.5.9 Oscillator
5.5.9.1 Application of oscillators ..
5.5.10 Light depended resistor (LDR)
5.5.10.1 Operation of LDR
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Chapter-6: Conclusion
6.1 Accuracy requirements...
6.2 Advantages of solar tracker ...
6.3 Scope of future work of solar trackers .
Summary
Reference ...
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x
Figure
Figure 1.1 solar energy .
Figure 1.2 wind energy .
Figure 1.3 Geothermal energy .
Figure 1.4 Bio-energy
Figure 1.5 Hydropower energy
Figure 1.6 Ocean energy ..
Figure 1.7 Hydrogen energy
Figure 2.1 Solar photovoltaic (V) system ...
Figure 2.2 Single-crystalline or mono crystalline ..
Figure 2.3 Multi- or poly-crystalline .
Figure 2.4 Amorphous silicon ..
Figure 2.5 Block diagram of a typical solar PV system
Figure: 3.1 Spectrum of the radiation outside the earths atmosphere
compared to spectrum of a 5800 K blackbody.
Figure: 3.2 The total global radiation on the ground has direct, scattered
and reflective components
Figure: 3.3 Normally incident solar spectrum at sea level on a clear day.
The dotted curve shows the extrarrestrial spectrum
Figure: 3.4 The path length in units of Air Mass, changes with the zenith
Angle ..
Figure: 3.5 Standard spectra
Figure: 3.6 Actual scan of a simulator with resolute on under 2 nm; high
resolution doesnt enhance these Doppler broadened lines. Middle:
Scan of same simulator with 10 nm resolution. Bottom: Smoothed
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version of top curve. We used repeated Savitsky-Golay smoothing .
Figure: 3.7 Comparison of the UV portion of the WMO measured solar
spectrum and the modeled CIE AM 1 direct spectrum. All the modeled
spectra, CIE or ASTM, used as standards, omit the fine details seen in
measured spectrum
Figure: 3.8 The solar disk subtends a 1/2 angle at the earth
Figure: 3.9 Diurnal variations of global solar radiative flux on a sunny
day
Figure: 3.10 Diurnal variations of global solar radiative flux on a cloudy
day..
Figure: 3.11 The global solar irradiance at solar noon measured in
Arizona, showing the annual variation.
Figure: 3.12 Solar Motion .
Figure 4.1 PV array fixed tilt .
Figure 4.2 Single axis tracking system ...
Figure 4.3 Dual axis tracking system ..
Figure 4.4 Single axis solar tracker .
Figure: 4.5 Horizontal single axis trackers
Figure: 4.6 Vertical single axis trackers .
Figure: 4.7 Tilted single axis trackers .
Figure: 4.8 Polar aligned single axis trackers ...
Figure 4.9 Dual axis solar trackers .
Figure: 4.10 Tiptilt dual axis trackers
Figure: 4.11 Azimuth-altitude dual axis trackers ..
Figure: 5.1 Final solar tracker prototypes .
Figure: 5.2 Block diagram of the project (single axis solar tracker)
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Figure: 5.3 Flow chart of the project (single axis solar tracker)..
Figure: 5.4 Circuit diagram of the project (single axis solar tracker)..
Figure: 5.5 Pin Diagram of Microcontroller (PIC 16F84A)
Figure: 5.6 Block Diagram of microcontroller (PIC 16F84A)
Figure: 5.7 Gear-motor .
Figure: 5.8 Voltage regulator
Figure: 5.9 Relay
Figure: 5.10 Symbol of resistor
Figure: 5.11 Picture of resistor .
Figure: 5.12 Symble of capacitor .
Figure: 5.13 Picture of Capacitor .
Figure: 5.14 Symble of Transistor ...
Figure: 5.15 Push button switch ..
Figure: 5.16 Circuit diagram of Oscillator ..
Figure: 5.17 Picture of LDR ..
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Table
Table 2.1 Efficiency of different types of solar cell
Table: 3.1 Power Densities of Published Standards.
Table: 5.1 Specification of solar tracking system ..
Table: 5.2 List of Equipments ...
Table: 5.3 Description of pin number of Microcontroller (PIC 16F84A)..
Table: 6.1 Accuracy direct powers lost ...
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Page 1 of 57
Chapter-1
Introduction and overview
Solar energy is being used as an alternative energy source years. But the
efficiency of solar panel, battery and the overall system efficiency are point of
concerns to use the solar PV system as means of power generation. The
sunlight is sufficient enough to overcome the power crisis of the world but is till
date it is not possible to capture and utilized the full range of the sun energy of
the sunlight.
This thesis book presents a solar tracking system to enhance the output power
of a solar PV system. This project helps to increases the power generation by
setting the equipment to get maximum sunlight automatically. This system is
tracking the sunlight. When there is a decrease in the intensity of light, this
system automatically changes its direction of the solar panel to get maximum
intensity of sunlight.
We are using three sensors in three directions to sense the direction of
maximum intensity of sunlight. The difference between the outputs of the
sensors is given to the microcontroller unit.
Here we are using the microcontroller for tracking the sunlight. It will process
the input voltage from the oscillator circuit and control the direction in which the
motor has to be rotated so that it will receive maximum intensity of light from the
sun.
1.1 Renewable Energy:
Renewable energy uses energy sources that are continually replenished by
naturethe sun, the wind, water, the Earths heat, and plants. Renewable
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energy technologies turn these fuels into usable forms of energymost often
electricity, but also heat, chemicals, or mechanical power.
1.2 Use of Renewable Energy:
Today we primarily use fossil fuels to heat and power our homes and fuel our
cars. Its convenient to use coal, oil, and natural gas for meeting our energy
needs, but we have a limited supply of these fuels on the Earth. Were using
them much more rapidly than they are being created. Eventually, they will run
out. And because of safety concerns and waste disposal problems, the United
States will retire much of its nuclear capacity by 2020. In the meantime, the
nations energy needs are expected to grow by 33 percent during the next 20
years. Renewable energy can help fill the gap. Even if we had an unlimited
supply of fossil fuels, using renewable energy is better for the environment. We
often call renewable energy technologies clean or green because they
produce few if any pollutants. Burning fossil fuels, however, sends greenhouse
gases into the atmosphere, trapping the suns heat and contributing to global
warming. Climate scientists generally agree that the Earths average
temperature has risen in the past century. If this trend continues, sea levels will
rise, and scientists predict that floods, heat waves, droughts, and other extreme
weather conditions could occur more often. Other pollutants are released into
the air, soil, and water when fossil fuels are burned. These pollutants take a
dramatic toll on the environmentand on humans. Air pollution contributes to
diseases like asthma. Acid rain from sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides harms
plants and fish. Nitrogen oxides also contribute to smog.
Renewable energy will also help us develop energy independence and security.
The United States imports more than 50 percent of its oil, up from 34 percent in
1973. Replacing some of our petroleum with fuels made from plant matter, for
example, could save money and strengthen our energy security. Renewable
energy is plentiful, and the technologies are improving all the time. There are
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many ways to use renewable energy. Most of us already use renewable energy
in our daily lives.
1.3 Types of renewable energy:
1.3.1 Solar energy:
Most renewable energy comes either directly or indirectly from the sun.
Sunlight, or solar energy, can be used directly for heating and lighting homes
and other buildings, for generating electricity, and for hot water heating, solar
cooling, and a variety of commercial and industrial uses.
Figure 1.1 Solar energy
1.3.2 Wind energy:
We have been harnessing the winds energy for hundreds of years. From old
Holland to farms in the United States, windmills have been used for pumping
water or grinding grain. Today, the windmills modern equivalent - a wind turbine
- can use the winds energy to generate electricity.
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Figure 1.2 Wind energy
1.3.3 Geothermal Energy:
Geothermal energy is the heat from the Earth. Its clean and sustainable.
Resources of geothermal energy range from the shallow ground to hot water
and hot rock found a few miles beneath the Earths surface, and down even
deeper to the extremely high temperatures of molten rock called magma.
Figure 1.3 Geothermal energy
1.3.4 Bio-energy:
We have used biomass energy or bio-energy - the energy from organic matter -
for thousands of years, ever since people started burning wood to cook food or
to keep warm. Even the fumes from landfills can be used as a biomass energy
source.
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Figure 1.4 Bio-energy
1.3.5 Hydropower:
Flowing water creates energy that can be captured and turned into electricity.
This is called hydroelectric power or hydropower. The most common type of
hydroelectric power plant uses a dam on a river to store water in a reservoir.
Water released from the reservoir flows through a turbine, spinning it, which in
turn activates a generator to produce electricity. But hydroelectric power doesnt
necessarily require a large dam. Some hydroelectric power plants just use a
small canal to channel the river water through a turbine.
Figure 1.5 Hydropower energy
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1.3.6 Ocean energy:
The Ocean can produce two types of energy: thermal energy from the suns
heat, and mechanical energy from the tides and waves. Oceans cover more
than 70% of Earths surface, making them the worlds largest solar collectors.
The suns heat warms the surface water a lot more than the deep ocean water,
and this temperature difference creates thermal energy. Just a small portion of
the heat trapped in the ocean could power the world.
Figure 1.6 Ocean energy
1.3.7 Hydrogen energy:
Hydrogen is the simplest element. An atom of hydrogen consists of only one
proton and one electron. Its also the most plentiful element in the universe.
Despite its simplicity and abundance, hydrogen doesnt occur naturally as a gas
on the Earth - its always combined with other elements. Water, for example, is
a combination of hydrogen and oxygen (H
2
O).
Page 7 of 57
Figure 1.7 Hydrogen energy
1.4 Importance of renewable energy:
Renewable energy is important because of the benefits it provides. The key
benefits are:
1.4.1 Environmental Benefits
Renewable energy technologies are clean sources of energy that have a much
lower environmental impact than conventional energy technologies.
1.4.2 Energy for our childrens
Renewable energy will not run out Ever. Other sources of energy are finite and
will someday be depleted.
1.4.3 Jobs and the Economy
Most renewable energy investments are spent on materials and workmanship
to build and maintain the facilities, rather than on costly energy imports.
Renewable energy investments are usually spent within the United States,
frequently in the same state, and often in the same town. Meanwhile, renewable
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energy technologies developed and built in the United States are being sold
overseas, providing a boost to the U.S. trade deficit.
1.4.4 Energy Security
After the oil supply disruptions of the early 1970s, our nation has increased its
dependence on foreign oil supplies instead of decreasing it. This increased
dependence impacts more than just our national energy policy.
1.5 Necessary of solar tracker:
Many standard PV systems in residential areas do not have solar trackers. For
their purposes, having the stand-alone system is sufficient and meets the needs
and goals of the customer.
Whether solar trackers are beneficial and recommended is dependent on
various factors, including weather, location, obstruction, and cost. In some
cases, solar trackers can potentially make solar panels 25-35% more efficient,
which means that more power can be generated with less space and less
panels.
However, if the location of the installation does not allow the trackers to work
effectively, then the cost of purchasing the solar trackers can lead to money
wasted. So, its important to discuss your goals with your installer and have
them give you a full on-site analysis of your particular project.
1.6 Global technical potential of solar energy:
The amount of solar energy that could be put to human use depends
signicantly on local factors such as land availability and meteorological
conditions and demands for energy services. The technical potential varies over
the different regions of the Earth, as do the assessment methodologies. As
described in a comparative literature study (Krewitt et al.,2009) for the German
Environment Agency, the solar electricity technical potential of PV and CSP
depends on the available solar irradiance, land use exclusion factors and the
future development of technology improvements. Note that this study used
different assumptions for the land use factors for PV and CSP. For PV, it
assumed that 98% of the technical potential comes from centralized PV power
plants and that the suitable land area in the world for PV deployment averages
1.67% of total land area. For CSP, all land areas with high direct-normal
irradiance (DNI)a minimum DNI of 2,000 kWh/m2/yr (7,200 MJ/m/yr)were
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dened as suitable, and just 20% of that land was excluded for other uses. The
resulting technical potentials for 2050 are 1,689 EJ/yr for PV and 8,043 EJ/yr for
CSP.
Analyzing the PV studies (Hofman et al., 2002; Hoogwijk, 2004; de Vries et al.,
2007) and the CSP studies (Hofman et al., 2002; Trieb, 2005; Trieb et al.,
2009a) assessed by Krewitt et al. (2009), the technical potential varies signi
cantly between these studies, ranging from 1,338 to 14,778 EJ/yr for PV and
248 and 10,791 EJ/yr for CSP. The main difference between the studies arises
from the allocated land area availabilities and, to some extent, on differences in
the power conversion efficiency used.
The technical potential of solar energy for heating purposes is vast and difficult
to assess. The deployment potential is mainly limited by the demand for heat.
Because of this, the technical potential is not assessed in the literature except
for REN21 (Hoogwijk and Graus, 2008) to which Krewitt et al. (2009) refer. In
order to provide a reference, REN21 has made a rough assessment of the
technical potential of solar water heating by taking the assumed available
rooftop area for solar PV applications from Hoogwijk (2004) and the irradiation
for each of the regions. Therefore, the range given by REN21 is a lower bound
only.
Page 10 of 57
Chapter-2
Solar photovoltaic (PV) system
2.1 Photovoltaic (PV) system
The increasing demand for energy, the continuous reduction in existing sources
of fossil fuels and the growing concern regarding environment pollution, have
pushed mankind to explore new technologies for the production of electrical
energy using clean, renewable sources, such as solar energy, wind energy, etc.
Among the non-conventional, renewable energy sources, solar energy affords
great potential for conversion into electric power, able to ensure an important
part of the electrical energy needs of the planet. The conversion of solar light
into electrical energy represents one of the most promising and challenging
energetic technologies, in continuous development, being clean, silent and
reliable, with very low maintenance costs and minimal ecological impact. Solar
energy is free, practically inexhaustible, and involves no polluting residues or
greenhouse gases emissions. The conversion principle of solar light into
electricity, called Photo-Voltaic or PV conversion, is not very new, but the
efficiency improvement of the PV conversion equipment is still one of top
priorities for many academic and/or industrial research groups all over the
world.
2.2 Work of solar photovoltaic (PV) system:
The sun delivers its energy to us in two main forms: heat and light. There are
two main types of solar power systems, namely, solar thermal systems that trap
heat to warm up water, and solar PV systems that convert sunlight directly into
electricity.
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When the PV modules are exposed to sunlight, they generate direct current
(DC) electricity. An inverter then converts the DC into alternating current
(AC) electricity, so that it can feed into one of the buildings AC distribution
boards (ACDB) without affecting the quality of power supply.
Figure: 2.1 solar photovoltaic (PV) systems
In the summary, the PV solar system consists of three parts:
i) Solar panels or solar arrays,
ii) Balance of system,
iii) Load.
2.3 Types of photovoltaic (PV) systems:
PV systems can provide clean power for small or large applications. They are
already installed and generating energy around the world on individual homes,
housing developments, offices and public buildings. Today, fully functioning
solar PV installations operate in both built environments and remote areas
where it is difficult to connect to the grid or where there is no energy
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infrastructure. PV installations that operate in isolated locations are known as
standalone systems. In built areas, PV systems can be mounted on top of roofs
(known as Building Adapted PV systems or BAPV) or can be integrated into
the roof or building facade (known as Building Integrated PV systems or
BIPV). Modern PV systems are not restricted to square and flat panel arrays.
They can be curved, flexible and shaped to the buildings design. Innovative
architects and engineers are constantly finding new ways to integrate PV into
their designs, creating buildings that are dynamic, beautiful and provide free,
clean energy throughout their life. With the growing demand of solar power new
technologies are being introduced and existing technologies are developing.
There are three main types of solar PV cells:
Single crystalline or mono crystalline
Multi- or poly-crystalline
Amorphous silicon
2.3.1 Single-crystalline or mono crystalline:
It is widely available and the most efficient cells materials among all. They
produce the most power per square foot of module. Each cell is cut from a
single crystal. The wafers then further cut into the shape of rectangular cells to
maximize the number of cells in the solar panel.
Figure: 2.2 Single crystalline or mono crystalline
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2.3.2 Polycrystalline cells:
They are made from similar silicon material except that instead of being grown
into a single crystal, they are melted and poured into a mold. This forms a
square block that can be cut into square wafers with less waste of space or
material than round single-crystal wafers.
Figure: 2.3 Multi- or poly-crystalline
2.3.3 Amorphous Silicon:
Amorphous silicon is newest in the thin film technology. In this technology
amorphous silicon vapor is deposited on a couple of micro meter thick
amorphous films on stainless steel rolls. Compared to the crystalline silicon, this
technology uses only 1% of the material.
Figure: 2.4 Amorphous silicon
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Table 2.1 Efficiency of different types of solar cells
Cell type Efficiency, %
Mono crystalline 12 18
Polycrystalline 12 18
Amorphous Silicon 6 8
2.4 Components of a solar photovoltaic (PV) system:
A typical solar PV system consists of solar panel, charge controller, batteries,
inverter and the load. Shows the block diagram of such a photovoltaic (PV)
system
Solar
panel Charge
controller
Battery
System
Inverter AC power
DC power
Figure 2.5 Block diagram of a typical solar PV system
2.4.1 Charge controller:
When battery is included in a system, the necessity of charge controller comes
forward. A charge controller controls the uncertain voltage build up. In a bright
sunny day the solar cells produce more voltage that can lead to battery
damage. A charge controller helps to maintain the balance in charging the
battery.
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2.4.2 Batteries:
To store charges batteries are used. There are many types of batteries
available in the market. But all of them are not suitable for solar PV
technologies. Mostly used batteries are nickel/cadmium batteries. There are
some other types of high energy density batteries such as- sodium/sulphur,
zinc/bromine flow batteries. But for the medium term batteries nickel/metal
hydride battery has the best cycling performance. For the long term option
iron/chromium redox and zinc/manganese batteries are best. Absorbed Glass
Mat (AGM) batteries are also one of the best available potions for solar PV use.
2.4.3 Inverter:
Solar panel generates dc electricity but most of the household and industrial
appliances need ac current. Inverter converts the dc current of panel or battery
to the ac current. We can divide the inverter into two categories. They are-
Stand alone and
Line-tied or utility-interactive
2.5 Advantages of photovoltaic (PV):
Environmentally friendly
No noise, no moving parts
No emissions
No use of fuels and water
Minimal maintenance requirements
Long lifetime, up to 30 years
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Electricity is generated wherever there is light, solar or artificial
PV operates even in cloudy weather conditions
Modular or custom-made energy, can be designed for any application
from watch to a multi-megawatt power plant
2.6 Disadvantage of photovoltaic (PV):
PV cannot operate without light
High initial costs that overshadow the low maintenance costs and lack of
fuel costs
Large area needed for large scale applications
PV generates direct current: special DC appliances or inverters are
needed in off-grid applications energy storage is needed, such as
batteries.
2.7 Photovoltaic (PV) applications and market:
An overview of the different solar cell technologies that are used or being
developed for two main solar cell applications, namely space and terrestrial
applications. The conversion efficiency of solar cells used in space applications
is the initial efficiency measured before the solar cells are launched into the
space. This conversion efficiency is also referred to as the begin-of-life
efficiency. Todays commercial PV systems in terrestrial applications convert
sunlight into electricity with efficiency ranging from 7% to 17%. They are highly
reliable and most producers give at least 20 years guarantee on module
performance. In case of the thin-film solar cells the best conversion efficiency
that has been achieved in laboratory is shown together with the conversion
efficiency that is typical for commercial solar cells.
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CHAPTER-3
SOLAR PATH OF THE SUN
3.1 Basics of Solar Radiation:
Radiation from the sun sustains life on earth and determines climate. The
energy flow within the sun results in a surface temperature of around 5800 K,
so the spectrum of the radiation from the sun is similar to that of a 5800 K
blackbody with fine structure due to absorption in the cool peripheral solar gas.
3.2 Solar Constant and "Sun Value":
The irradiance of the sun on the outer atmosphere when the sun and earth are
spaced at 1 AU - the mean earth/sun distance of 149,597,890 km - is called the
solar constant. Currently accepted values are about 1360 W m
-2
(the NASA
value given in ASTM E 490-73a is 1353 21 W m
-2
). The World Metrological
Organization (WMO) promotes a value of 1367 W m
-2
. The solar constant is the
total integrated irradiance over the entire spectrum (the area under the curve in
Fig. 1 plus the 3.7% at shorter and longer wavelengths.
The irradiance falling on the earths atmosphere changes over a year by about
6.6% due to the variation in the earth/sun distance. Solar activity variations
cause irradiance changes of up to 1%.
For Solar Simulators, it is convenient to describe the irradiance of the simulator
in suns. One sun is equivalent to irradiance of one solar constant.
Figure: 3.1 Spectrum of the radiation outside the earths atmosphere compared
to spectrum of a 5800 K blackbody.
Page 18 of 57
3.3 Extraterrestrial and Terrestrial Spectra:
3.3.1 Extraterrestrial Spectra:
Fig. 1 shows the spectrum of the solar radiation outside the earths atmosphere.
The range shown, 200 - 2500 nm, includes 96.3% of the total irradiance with
most of the remaining 3.7% at longer wavelengths. Many applications involve
only a selected region of the entire spectrum. In such a case, a "3 sun unit" has
three times the actual solar irradiance in the spectral range of interest and a
reasonable spectral match in this range.
Example
The model 91160 Solar Simulator has a similar spectrum to the extraterrestrial
spectrum and has an output of 2680 W m
-2
. This is equivalent to 1.96 times
1367 W m
-2
so the simulator is a 1.96 sun unit.
3.3.2 Terrestrial Spectra
The spectrum of the solar radiation at the earths surface has several
components (see Fig. 2). Direct radiation comes straight from the sun, diffuse
radiation is scattered from the sky and from the surroundings. Additional
radiation reflected from the surroundings (ground or sea) depends on the local
"albedo." The total ground radiation is called the global radiation. The direction
of the target surface must be defined for global irradiance. For direct radiation
the target surface faces the incoming beam.
All the radiation that reaches the ground passes through the atmosphere, which
modifies the spectrum by absorption and scattering. Atomic and molecular
oxygen and nitrogen absorb very short wave radiation, effectively blocking
radiation with wavelengths <190 nm. When molecular oxygen in the
atmosphere absorbs short wave ultraviolet radiation, it photodissociates. This
leads to the production of ozone. Ozone strongly absorbs longer wavelength
ultraviolet in the Hartley band from 200 - 300 nm and weakly absorbs visible
radiation. The widely distributed stratospheric ozone produced by the suns
radiation corresponds to approximately a 3 mm layer of ozone at STP. The "thin
ozone layer" absorbs UV up to 280 nm and (with atmospheric scattering)
shapes the UV edge of the terrestrial solar spectrum.
Water vapor, carbon dioxide, and to a lesser extent, oxygen, selectively absorb
in the near infrared, (as indicated in Fig. 3). Wavelength dependent Rayleigh
scattering and scattering from aerosols and other particulates, including water
droplets, also change the spectrum of the radiation that reaches the ground
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(and make the sky blue). For a typical cloudless atmosphere in summer and for
zero zenith angle, the 1367 W m
-2
reaching the outer atmosphere is reduced to
ca. 1050 W m
-2
direct beam radiation, and ca. 1120 W m
-2
global radiation on a
horizontal surface at ground level.
Figure: 3.2 The total global radiation on the ground has direct, scattered and
reflective components.
Figure: 3.3 Normally incident solar spectrum at sea level on a clear day. The
dotted curve shows the extrarrestrial spectrum.
3.4 The Changing Terrestrial Solar Spectrum:
Absorption and scattering levels change as the constituents of the atmosphere
change. Clouds are the most familiar example of change; clouds can block
most of the direct radiation. Seasonal variations and trends in ozone layer
thickness have an important effect on terrestrial ultraviolet level.
The ground level spectrum also depends on how far the suns radiation must
pass through the atmosphere. Elevation is one factor. Denver has a mile (1.6
km) less atmosphere above it than does Washington, and the impact of the time
of year on solar angle is important, but the most significant changes are due to
the earths rotation (see Fig. 4). At any location, the length of the path the
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radiation must take to reach ground level changes as the day progresses. So
not only are there the obvious intensity changes in ground solar radiation level
during the day, going to zero at night, but the spectrum of the radiation changes
through each day because of the changing absorption and scattering path
length.
With the sun overhead, direct radiation that reaches the ground passes straight
through the entire atmosphere, all of the air mass, overhead. We call this
radiation "Air Mass 1 Direct" (AM 1D) radiation, and for standardization
purposes we use a sea level reference site. The global radiation with the sun
overhead is similarly called "Air Mass 1 Global" (AM 1G) radiation. Because it
passes through no air mass, the extraterrestrial spectrum is called the "Air Mass
0" spectrum.
The atmospheric path for any zenith angle is simply described relative to the
overhead air mass (Fig. 4). The actual path length can correspond to air
masses of less than 1 (high altitude sites) to very high air mass values just
before sunset. Our Oriel Solar Simulators use filters to duplicate spectra
corresponding to air masses of 0, 1, 1.5 and 2, the values on which most
comparative test work is based.
Figure: 3.4 The path length in units of Air Mass, changes with the zenith angle.
3.5 Standard Spectra:
Solar radiation reaching the earths surface varies significantly with location,
atmospheric conditions including cloud cover, aerosol content, and ozone layer
condition, and time of day, earth/sun distance, solar rotation and activity. Since
the solar spectra depend on so many variables, standard spectra have been
developed to provide a basis for theoretical evaluation of the effects of solar
radiation and as a basis for simulator design. These standard spectra start from
a simplified (i.e. lower resolution) version of the measured extraterrestrial
spectra, and use sophisticated models for the effects of the atmosphere to
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calculate terrestrial spectra.
The most widely used standard spectra are those published by The Committee
Internationale dEclaraige (CIE), the world authority on radiometeric and
photometric nomenclature and standards. The American Society for Testing
and Materials (ASTM) publish three spectra - the AM 0, AM 1.5 Direct and AM
1.5 Global for a 37 tilted surface. The conditions for the AM 1.5 spectra were
chosen by ASTM "because they are representative of average conditions in the
48 contiguous states of the United States". Fig. 5 shows typical differences in
standard direct and global spectra. These curves are from the data in ASTM
Standards, E 891 and E 892 for AM 1.5, a turbidity of 0.27 and a tilt of 37
facing the sun and a ground albedo of 0.2.
Figure: 3.5 Standard spectra
Table: 3.1 Power Densities of Published Standards
Solar
Condition
Standard
Power Density (Wm
-2
)
Total
250 - 2500
nm
250 - 1100
nm
WMO Spectrum 1367
AM 0 ASTM E 490 1353 1302.6 1006.9
AM 1 CIE Publication 85, Table 2 969.7 779.4
AM 1.5 D ASTM E 891 768.3 756.5 584.7
AM 1.5 G ASTM E 892 963.8 951.5 768.6
AM 1.5 G CEI/IEC* 904-3 1000 987.2 797.5
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** Integration by modified trapezoidal technique
CEI = Commission Electro technique International
IEC = International Electro technical Commission
The appearance of a spectrum depends on the resolution of the measurement
and the presentation. Fig. 6 shows how spectral structure on a continuous
background appears at two different resolutions. It also shows the higher
resolution spectrum smoothed using Savitsky-Golay smoothing. The solar
spectrum contains fine absorption detail that does not appear in our spectra.
Here shows the detail in the ultraviolet portion of the World Metrological
Organizations (WMO) extraterrestrial spectrum. Fig. 7 also shows a portion of
the CEI AM 1 spectrum. The modeled spectrum shows none of the detail of the
WMO spectrum, which is based on selected data from many careful
measurements.
Figure: 3.6 Actual scan of a simulator with resolution under 2 nm; high
resolution doesnt enhance these Doppler broadened lines. Middle: Scan of
same simulator with 10 nm resolution. Bottom: Smoothed version of top curve.
We used repeated Savitsky-Golay smoothing.
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Figure: 3.7 Comparison of the UV portion of the WMO measured solar
spectrum and the modeled CIE AM 1 direct spectrum. All the modeled spectra,
CIE or ASTM, used as standards, omit the fine details seen in measured
spectrum.
3.6 Geometry of Solar Radiation:
The sun is a spherical source of about 1.39 million km diameter, at an average
distance (1 astronomical unit) of 149.6 million km from earth. The direct portion
of the solar radiation is collimated with an angle of approximately 0.53 (full
angle), while the "diffuse" portion is incident from the hemispheric sky and from
ground reflections and scatter. The "global" irradiation, the sum of the direct and
diffuse components, is essentially uniform. Since there is a strong forward
distribution in aerosol scattering, high aerosol loading of the atmosphere leads
to considerable scattered radiation appearing to come from a small annulus
around the solar disk, the solar aureole. This radiation mixed with the direct
beam is called circumsolar radiation.
Figure: 3.8 The solar disk subtends a 1/2 angle at the earth.
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3.7 Dirunal and Annual Variation:
Figs. 9 and 10 show typical diurnal variations of global solar radiative flux.
Actual half width and peak position of the curve shape depend on latitude and
time of year. Fig. 9 shows a cloudless atmosphere. Fig. 10 shows the impact of
clouds. Fig. 10 shows the global solar irradiance at solar noon measured in
Arizona, showing the annual variation.
Figure: 3.9 Diurnal variations of global solar radiative flux on a sunny day.
Figure: 3.10 Diurnal variations of global solar radiative flux on a cloudy day.
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Figure: 3.11 The global solar irradiance at solar noon measured in Arizona,
showing the annual variation.
3.8 Solar Motion:
Solar motion is defined as the calculated motion of the Sun with respect to a
specified reference frame. In practice, calculations of solar motion provide
information not only on the Suns motion with respect to its neighbors in the
Galaxy but also on the kinematic properties of various kinds of stars within the
system.
Figure: 3.12 Solar Motion
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Chapter-4
Solar tracking system
Tracking system for solar panels follow the path of the sun to maximize the
exposure of the panels to solar radiation in order to convert sunlight to energy.
In the case of a fixed solar collector the projection of the collector area into the
plane perpendicular to the radiation direction, is given by the cosine of the angle
of incidence (Fig. 1). The higher is the angle of incidence, the lower is the
power. The solar tracker, a device that keeps photovoltaic or photo thermal
panels in an optimum position perpendicular to the incident solar radiation
during daylight hours, can increase the collected energy by up to 57%.
Theoretical calculation of the energy surplus in the case of tracking collectors is
as follows: assuming the maximum radiation intensity is I=1100 W-m falling on
the area which is oriented perpendicularly to the direction of radiation. It is
assumed, the day lengths t=12h=43000s as well as the night length and it is
compared, the tracking collector which is all the time optimally oriented to the
sun with the fixed collector which is oriented perpendicularly to the direction of
radiation only at noon.
Figure 4.1 PV array Fixed tilt
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Figure 4.2 Single axis tracking system
Figure 4.3 Dual axis tracking system
4.1 Solar tracker:
A solar tracker is a device onto which solar panels are fitted which tracks the
motion of the sun across the sky, thus ensuring that the maximum amount of
sunlight strikes the panels throughout the day. There are many types of solar
trackers, of varying costs, sophistication, and performance.
4.2 Type of solar tracker:
There are many types of solar trackers, of varying costs, sophistication, and
performance. The two basic categories of trackers are single axis and dual axis.
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4.2.1 Single axis solar tracker:
Solar trackers can either have a horizontal or a vertical axis. The horizontal type
is used in tropical regions where the sun gets very high at noon, but the days
are short. The vertical type is used in high latitudes where the sun does not get
very high, but summer days can be very long. In concentrated solar power
applications, single axis trackers are used with parabolic and linear Fresnel
mirror designs.
Figure 4.4 Single axis solar tracker
4.2.1.1 Types of single axis solar tracker:
There are four types of single axis solar tracker:
4.2.1.2 Horizontal single axis tracker (HSAT):
The axis of rotation for horizontal single axis tracker is horizontal with respect to
the ground. The posts at either end of the axis of rotation of a horizontal single
axis tracker can be shared between trackers to lower the installation cost.
Field layouts with horizontal single axis trackers are very flexible. The simple
geometry means that keeping all of the axes of rotation parallel to one another
is all that is required for appropriately positioning the trackers with respect to
one another.
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Appropriate spacing can maximize the ratio of energy production to cost, this
being dependent upon local terrain and shading conditions and the time-of-day
value of the energy produced. Backtracking is one means of computing the
disposition of panels.
Horizontal trackers typically have the face of the module oriented parallel to the
axis of rotation. As a module tracks, it sweeps a cylinder that is rotationally
symmetric around the axis of rotation.
In single axis horizontal trackers, a long horizontal tube is supported on
bearings mounted upon pylons or frames. The axis of the tube is on a north-
south line. Panels are mounted upon the tube, and the tube will rotate on its
axis to track the apparent motion of the sun through the day.
Figure: 4.5 Horizontal single axis trackers
4.2.1.3 Vertical single axis tracker (VSAT):
The axis of rotation for vertical single axis trackers is vertical with respect to the
ground. These trackers rotate from East to West over the course of the day.
Such trackers are more effective at high latitudes than are horizontal axis
trackers.
Field layouts must consider shading to avoid unnecessary energy losses and to
optimize land utilization. Also optimization for dense packing is limited due to
the nature of the shading over the course of a year.
Vertical single axis trackers typically have the face of the module oriented at an
angle with respect to the axis of rotation. As a module tracks, it sweeps a cone
that is rotationally symmetric around the axis of rotation.
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Figure: 4.6 Vertical single axis trackers
4.2.1.4 Tilted single axis tracker (TSAT):
All trackers with axes of rotation between horizontal and vertical are considered
tilted single axis trackers. Tracker tilt angles are often limited to reduce the wind
profile and decrease the elevated end height.
Field layouts must consider shading to avoid unnecessary losses and to
optimize land utilization.
With backtracking, they can be packed without shading perpendicular to their
axis of rotation at any density. However, the packing parallel to their axes of
rotation is limited by the tilt angle and the latitude.
Tilted single axis trackers typically have the face of the module oriented
parallelto the axis of rotation. As a module tracks, it sweeps a cylinder that is
rotationally symmetric around the axis of rotation.
Figure: 4.7 Tilted single axis trackers
4.2.1.5 Polar aligned single axis trackers (PASAT):
This method is scientifically well known as the standard method of mounting a
telescope support structure. The tilted single axis is aligned to the polar star. It
is therefore called a polar aligned single axis tracker (PASAT). In this particular
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implementation of a tilted single axis tracker, the tilt angle is equal to the
site latitude. This aligns the tracker axis of rotation with the earths axis of
rotation.
Figure: 4.8 Polar aligned single axis trackers
4.2.2 Dual axis solar tracker:
Solar trackers have both a horizontal and a vertical axis and thus they can track
the suns apparent motion virtually anywhere in the world. CSP applications
using dual axis tracking include solar power towers and dish (Stirling engine)
systems. Dual axis tracking is extremely important in solar tower applications
due to the angle errors resulting from longer distances between the mirror and
the central receiver located in the tower structure.
Figure 4.9 Dual axis solar trackers
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4.2.2.1 Types of duel axis solar tracker:
There are four types of single axis solar tracker:
4.2.2.2 Tiptilt dual axis tracker (TTDAT):
A tiptilt dual axis tracker is so-named because the panel array is mounted on
the top of a pole. Normally the east-west movement is driven by rotating the
array around the top of the pole. On top of the rotating bearing is a T- or H-
shaped mechanism that provides vertical rotation of the panels and provides
the main mounting points for the array. The posts at either end of the primary
axis of rotation of a tiptilt dual axis tracker can be shared between trackers to
lower installation costs.
Other such TTDAT trackers have a horizontal primary axis and a dependent
orthogonal axis. The vertical azimuthally axis is fixed. This allows for great
flexibility of the payload connection to the ground mounted equipment because
there is no twisting of the cabling around the pole.
Field layouts with tiptilt dual axis trackers are very flexible. The simple
geometry means that keeping the axes of rotation parallel to one another is all
that is required for appropriately positioning the trackers with respect to one
another. Normally the trackers would have to be positioned at fairly low density
in order to avoid one tracker casting a shadow on others when the sun is low in
the sky. Tip-tilt trackers can make up for this by tilting closer to horizontal to
minimize up-sun shading and therefore maximize the total power being
collected.
The axes of rotation of many tiptilt dual axis trackers are typically aligned
either along a true north meridian or an east west line of latitude.
Given the unique capabilities of the Tip-Tilt configuration and the appropriated
controller totally automatic tracking is possible for use on portable platforms.
The orientation of the tracker is of no importance and can be placed as needed.
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Figure: 4.10 Tiptilt dual axis trackers
4.2.2.3 Azimuth-altitude dual axis tracker (AADAT):
An azimuthaltitude dual axis tracker has its primary axis vertical to the ground.
The secondary axis is then typically normal to the primary axis. They are similar
to tip-tilt systems in operation, but they differ in the way the array is rotated for
daily tracking. Instead of rotating the array around the top of the pole, AADAT
systems typically use a large ring mounted on the ground with the array
mounted on a series of rollers. The main advantage of this arrangement is the
weight of the array is distributed over a portion of the ring, as opposed to the
single loading point of the pole in the TTDAT. This allows AADAT to support
much larger arrays. Unlike the TTDAT, however, the AADAT system cannot be
placed closer together than the diameter of the ring, which may reduce the
system density, especially considering inter-tracker shading.
Figure: 4.11 Azimuth-altitude dual axis trackers
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Chapter-5
Construction of microcontroller
based single axis solar tracker
5.1 Single axis solar trackers:
Single axis trackers have one degree of freedom that acts as an axis of rotation.
The axis of rotation of single axis trackers is typically aligned along a true North
meridian. It is possible to align them in any cardinal direction with advanced
tracking algorithms.
There are several common implementations of single axis trackers. These
include horizontal single axis trackers (HSAT), vertical single axis trackers
(VSAT), tilted single axis trackers (TSAT) and polar aligned single axis trackers
(PSAT). The orientation of the module with respect to the tracker axis is
important when modeling performance.
Figure: 5.1 Final solar tracker prototypes
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5.2 Mechanical System:
As mentioned earlier, two separate prototypes were built and modified. The first
prototype was constructed mainly from wood board, with a few metal pieces
used as shafts and bearings. The wooden prototype used a DC motor to drive
the system, then it was modified with a 50:1 worm gear drive. Finally, the acrylic
prototype was built and was driven by a 180:1 worm gear drive. For each
prototype the azimuth axis was designed and modified first, followed shortly by
the altitude axis.
Table: 5.1 Specification of solar tracking system
Sl Design Aspect Specification
1 Weight 2.4 Kg (including the panel)
2 Watt 5-10 w
3 Size 40cm x 24cm x 15 cm
4 Material Bases- PVC pipe (20MM 3/4")
Panel chassis - Plastic board
- (.55inch x .55inch)
5.3 Methodology:
This project is divided into two parts, hardware development and programming
development. Figure 3.4 shows block diagram of the project.
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Voltage regulator
Sensor Microcontroller Driver
DC Geared
Motor
Solar panel
Frame Axis
Figure: 5.2 Block diagram of the project (single axis solar tracker)
Table: 5.2 List of Equipments:
Sl Name Capacity
1 Microcontroller PIC 16F84A
2 Oscillator 10 m-Hz
3 Transistor NPN BCF47
4 Resistor 56 k-ohm, 10 k-ohm, 1 k-ohm
5 Capacitor 22 PF
6 Relay 6 volt
7 Voltage regulator LM7805
8 Gear-motor
9 Pushbutton switch
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Yes
Yes
No
No
No
Yes
Figure: 5.3 Flow chart of the project (single axis solar tracker)
Start
Take input from 1
st
and 2
nd
sensors
Rotate 80 degree forward (East to West)
Stop processing until LDR3>LDR2
Take input from 2
nd
and 3
rd
sensors
LDR3>LDR2 ?
Rotate 80 degree forward (East to West)
Get interrupt stop forward rotation
Reverse to initial stage
Stop processing until getting the input
LDR2>LDR1 ?
Get input
Page 38 of 57
Figure: 5.4 Circuit diagram of the project (single axis solar tracker)
Page 39 of 57
5.4 Working principle:
The project is built using a balanced concept which is three signals from the
different sensors are compared. Light Dependent Resistor (LDR) as a light
sensor has been used. The three light sensors are separated by divider which
will create shadow on one side of the light sensor if the solar panel is not
perpendicular to the sun. For the controlling circuit, microcontroller PIC16F84A
acts as a brain that controls the movement of the motor via relay. Data received
from the sensors and processed by the microcontroller. The microcontroller will
send a data to the Bi-directional DC-geared motor via relay to ensure solar
panel is perpendicular towards the Sun. Relay controls the rotation of the motor
either to rotate clockwise or anticlockwise. The solar panel that attached to the
motor will be reacted according to the direction of the motor.
5.5 Description of the component:
5.5.1 Microcontroller:
A microcontroller is a compact standalone computer, optimized for control
applications. Entire processor, memory and the I/O interfaces are located on a
single piece of silicon so, it takes less time to read and write to external devices.
5.5.1.1 Use of Microcontroller:
Following are the reasons why microcontrollers are incorporated in control
systems:
a) Cost: Microcontrollers with the supplementary circuit components are
much cheaper than a computer with an analog and digital I/O
b) Size and Weight: Microcontrollers are compact and light compared to
computers
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c) Simple applications: If the application requires very few number of I/O
and the code is relatively small, which do not require extended amount of
memory and a simple LCD display is sufficient as a user interface, a
microcontroller would be suitable for this application.
d) Reliability: Since the architecture is much simpler than a computer it is
less likely to fail.
e) Speed: All the components on the microcontroller are located on a
single piece of silicon. Hence, the applications run much faster than it
does on a computer.
Figure: 5.5 Pin Diagram of Microcontroller (PIC 16F84A)
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Table: 5.3 Description of pin number of Microcontroller (PIC 16F84A)
Pin Number Description
1 RA2 - Port A
2 RA3 - Port A
3 RA4/TOCK1 - Port A
4 MCLR - Master Clear Input
5 Vss - Ground
6 RB0/INT - Port B
7 RB1 - Port B
8 RB2 - Port B
9 RB3 - Port B
10 RB4 - Port B
11 RB5 - Port B
12 RB6 - Port B
13 RB7 - Port B
14 Vdd - Positive Power Supply
15 OSC2/CLKOUT - Oscillator Output
16 OSC1/CLKIN - Oscillator Input
17 RA0 - Port A
18 RA1 - Port A
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Figure: 5.6 Block Diagram of microcontroller (PIC 16F84A)
The PIC16F84 has a RISC architecture compared to Von-Neumann. In
Harvard architecture, data bus and address bus are separate. Thus a greater
flow of data is possible through the central processing unit, and of course, a
greater speed of work. Separating a program from data memory makes it
further possible for instructions not to have to be 8-bit words. PIC16F84 uses 14
bits for instructions which allows for all instructions to be one word instructions.
It is also typical for Harvard architecture to have fewer instructions than von-
Neumanns, and to have instructions usually executed in one cycle.
Microcontrollers with Harvard architecture are also called "RISC
microcontrollers". RISC stands for Reduced Instruction Set Computer.
Microcontrollers with von-Neumanns architecture are called CISC
microcontrollers. Title CISC stands for Complex Instruction Set Computer
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Since PIC16F84 is a RISC microcontroller, that means that it has a reduced set
of instructions, more precisely 35 instructions. All of these instructions are
executed in one cycle except for instructions where the Program Counter does
not move to the next address (e.g. GOTO, RETURN etc).
The PIC16F84 belongs to a class of 8-bit microcontrollers of RISC architecture.
Its general structure is shown in the following diagram, representing basic
blocks.
Program memory (FLASH) for storing a written program
Since memory made in FLASH technology can be programmed and cleared
more than once, it makes this microcontroller suitable for device development.
EEPROM data memory that needs to be saved when there is no supply.
It is usually used for storing important data that must not be lost if power supply
suddenly stops. For instance, one such data is an assigned temperature in
temperature regulators. If during a loss of power supply this data was lost, we
would have to make the adjustment once again upon return of supply.
Thus our device looses on self-reliance.
RAM data memory used by a program during its execution. In RAM are stored
all inter results or temporary data during run time.
PORTA and PORTB are physical connections between the microcontroller and
the outside world. Port A has five, and port B has eight pins.
FREE-RUN TIMER is an 8-bit register inside a microcontroller that works
independently of the program. On every fourth clock of the oscillator it
increments its value until it reaches the maximum (255), and then it starts
counting over again from zero.
As we know the exact timing between each two increments of the timer
contents, timer can be used for measuring time which is very useful with some
devices.
CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT has a role of connective element between
other blocks in the microcontroller. It coordinates the work of other blocks and
executes the user program.
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5.5.2 Gear-motor:
A small motor (ac induction, permanent magnet dc, or brushless dc) designed
specifically with an integral (not separable) gear reducer (gearhead). The end
shield on the drive end of the motor is designed to provide a dual function. The
side facing the motor provides the armature/rotor bearing support and a sealing
provision through which the integral rotor or armature shaft pinion passes. The
other side of the end shield provides multiple bearing supports for the gearing
itself, and a sealing and fastening provision for the gearhousing. This
construction provides many benefits for a user and eliminates the guesswork of
sizing a motor and gear reducer on your own.
5.5.2.1 Gear-motor Benefits:
Using the right sized motor and gear head combination for an application helps
to prolong gear motor life and allows for optimum power management and
power utilization. Traditionally, design engineers oversized motors and gear
heads to add safety factors Bodine factory matched gear motors
consistently deliver rated performance.
Gear motors eliminate the need for motor/gear head couplings
and eliminate any potential bearing alignment problems, common when a motor
and gear head are bolted together by an end-user (separable gear heads).
Misalignment can result in bearing failure due to fretting corrosion.
5.5.2.2 Application of Gear-motor:
What power can openers, garage door openers, stair lifts, rotisserie motors,
timer cycle knobs on washing machines, power drills, cake mixers and
electromechanical clocks have in common is that they all use various
integrations of gear motors to derive a large force from a relatively small electric
motor at a manageable speed. In industry, gear motor applications in jacks,
cranes, lifts, clamping, robotics, conveyance and mixing are too numerous to
count.
Page 45 of 57
Figure: 5.7 Gear-motor
5.5.3 Voltage regulator
A circuit which is connected between the power source and a load, which
provides a constant voltage despite variations in input voltage or output load
Figure: 5.8 Voltage regulator
5.5.4 Definition of relay:
A relay is an electromechanical device that uses an electromagnet to open or
close a switch. The circuit that powers the electromagnets coil is completely
separate from the circuit that is switched on or off by the relays switch, so its
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possible to use a relay whose coil requires just a few volts to turn a line voltage
circuit on or off.
5.5.4.1 Types of relay:
1) Latching Relay
2) Reed Relay
3) Polarized Relay
4) Mercury-wetted Relay
5) Machine Tool Relay
6) Contactor Relay
7) Solid-state Relay
8) Overload Protection Relays
5.5.4.2 Application of relay:
Relays are remote control electrical switches that are controlled by another
switch, such as a horn switch or a computer as in a power train control module.
Relays allow a small current flow circuit to control a higher current circuit.
Several designs of relays are in use today 3-pin, 4-pin, 5-pin and 6-pinsingle
switch or duel switches.
Figure: 5.9 Relay
5.5.5 Resistor
Resistor is an electrical component that reduces the electric current. The
resistors ability to reduce the current is called resistance and is measured in
Page 47 of 57
units of ohms (symbol: ). If we make an analogy to water flow through pipes,
the resistor is a thin pipe that reduces the water flow.
.
Figure: 5.10 Symbol of resistor
Figure: 5.11 Picture of resistor
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5.5.6 Capacitor
Capacitor is an electronic component that stores electric charge. The capacitor
is made of 2 close conductors (usually plates) that are separated by a dielectric
material. The plates accumulate electric charge when connected to power
source. One plate accumulates positive charge and the other plate accumulates
negative charge. The capacitance is the amount of electric charge that is stored
in the capacitor at voltage of 1 Volt. The capacitance is measured in units
of Farad (F). The capacitor disconnects current in direct current (DC) circuits
and short circuit in alternating current (AC) circuits.
Figure: 5.12 Symble of capacitor
Figure: 5.13 Picture of Capacitor
5.5.7 Transistor
A transistor is a basic electrical component that alters the flow of electrical
current. Transistors are the building blocks of integrated circuits, such as
computer processors, or CPUs. Modern CPUs contain millions of individual
transistors that are microscopic in size.
Most transistors include three connection points, or terminals, which can
connect to other transistors or electrical components. By modifying the current
between the first and second terminals, the current between the second and
third terminals is changed. This allows a transistor to act as a switch, which can
turn a signal on or off. Since computers operate in binary, and a transistors "on"
or "off" state can represent a 1 or 0, transistors are suitable for performing
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mathematical calculations. A series of transistors may also be used as alogic
gate when performing logical operations.
5.5.7.1 Type of Transistor
Transistors are classified as either NPN or PNP according to the arrangement
of their N and P materials. Their basic construction and chemical treatment is
implied by their names, "NPN" or "PNP." That 2-3 is, an NPN transistor is
formed by introducing a thin region of P-type material between two regions of
N-type material. On the other hand, a PNP transistor is formed by introducing a
thin region of N-type material between two regions of P-type material.
Transistors constructed in this manner have two PN junctions, as shown in
figure 2-2. One PN junction is between the emitter and the base; the other PN
junction is between the collector and the base. The two junctions share one
section of semiconductor material so that the transistor actually consists of
three elements.
Figure: 5.14 Symble of Transistor
5.5.8 Push button switch:
A manual control device that opens or closes a circuit when pressed
pushbuttons can be normally open or normally closed
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Figure: 5.15 Push button switch
5.5.9 Oscillator:
An oscillator is a mechanical or electronic device that works on the principles
of oscillation: a periodic fluctuation between two things based on changes in
energy. Computers, clocks, watches, radios, and metal detectors are among
the many devices that use oscillators.
In a computer, a specialized oscillator, called the clock, serves as a sort of
pacemaker for the microprocessor. The clock frequency (or clock speed) is
usually specified in megahertz (MHz), and is an important factor in determining
the rate at which a computer can perform instructions.
5.5.9.1 Application of oscillators:
An oscillator is a circuit which produces a continuous output signal; thus it is
called a signal generator. When the signal produced is a sine wave of constant
amplitude and frequency, the oscillator circuit is called a sine wave generator.
The oscillator can produce a square wave signal in digital logic families such as
TTL, CMOS, or ECL.
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An oscillator can be divided into three definite sections:
(1) An amplifier
(2) The feedback connections
(3) The frequency determining components.
Figure: 5.16 Circuit diagram of Oscillator
5.5.10 Light depended resistor (LDR):
LDRs are the resistors whose resistance varies with the intensity of light
incident upon it. The resistance is typically very high when no light in incident
and it begins to reduce as light is incident upon it. LDR or a photo sensor finds
its application in many robotics/embedded system applications such as line
following robot, Light seeking robot, garage door opener when cars light is
incident upon it, solar tracker etc.
5.5.10.1 Operation of LDR:
It is known by many names such as LDR, photo resistor, photo conductor etc.
The resistor has a component which is sensitive to light. One of the
semiconductor materials used in constructing a LDR is cadmium sulphide
(CdS).
Since an electrical current would involve movement of electrons which drifts as
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per the potential difference applied at two ends, a LDR or photo resistor is
made up of a semi conductor material which has a high resistance and less free
electrons available for conduction and hence offers a higher resistance. As light
(of sufficient frequency) is incident upon this semiconductor material, photons
are absorbed by the lattice of the semiconductor and a part of this energy gets
transferred to the electrons in the lattice which would then have sufficient
energy to break free from the lattice and participate in conduction. Hence, the
resistance of the photo resistor reduces with varying intensity of incident light.
5.5.10.2 Applications of LDR:
It is used in burglar alarm to give alarming sound when a burglar invades
sensitive premises.
It is used in street light control to switch on the lights during
dusk (evening) and switch off during dawn (morning) automatically.
It is used in Lux meter to measure intensity of light in Lux.
It is used in photo sensitive relay circuit.
Figure: 5.17 Picture of LDR
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Chapter-6
Conclusion
A solar tracker is designed employing the new principle of using small solar
cells to function as self-adjusting light sensors, providing a variable indication of
their relative angle to the sun by detecting their voltage output. By using this
method, the solar tracker was successful in maintaining a solar array at a
sufficiently perpendicular angle to the sun. The power increase gained over a
fixed horizontal array was in excess of 30%.
To make sure we have plenty of energy in the future, its up to all of us to use
energy wisely. We must all conserve energy and use it efficiently. Its also up
to those who will create the new energy technologies of the future.
All energy sources have an impact on the environment. Concerns about the
greenhouse effect and global warming, air pollution, and energy security have
led to increasing interest and more development in renewable energy sources
such as solar, wind, geothermal, wave power and hydrogen.
But well need to continue to use fossil fuels and nuclear energy until new,
cleaner technologies can replace them. One of you who is reading this might
be another Albert Einstein or Marie Curie and find a new source of energy.
Until then, its up to all of us.
6.1 Accuracy requirements:
Sunlight has two components, the "direct beam" that carries about 90% of the
solar energy, and the "diffuse sunlight" that carries the remainder - the diffuse
portion is the blue sky on a clear day and increases proportionately on cloudy
days. As the majority of the energy is in the direct beam, maximizing collection
requires the sun to be visible to the panels as long as possible.
The energy contributed by the direct beam drops off with the cosine of the angle
between the incoming light and the panel. In addition, the reflectance(averaged
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across all polarizations) is approximately constant for angles of incidence up to
around 50, beyond which reflectance degrades rapidly.
Table: 6.1 Accuracy direct powers lost
For example trackers that have accuracies of 5 can deliver greater than
99.6% of the energy delivered by the direct beam plus 100% of the diffuse light.
As a result, high accuracy tracking is not typically used in non-concentrating PV
applications.
6.2 Advantages of solar tracker
Solar tracking systems are used to continually orient photovoltaic panels
towards the sun and can help maximize the investment in PV system.
Direct power lost (%) due to misalignment (angle i )
i Lost i hours Lost
0 0% 15 1 3.4%
1 0.015% 30 2 13.4%
3 0.14% 45 3 30%
8 1% 60 4 >50%
23.4 8.3% 75 5 >75%
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They are beneficial as the suns position in the sky will change gradually
over the course of a day and over the seasons throughout the year.
Advantages to using a tracker system like this will depend mainly on its
placement in determining how well it will increase the effectiveness of the
panels.
Energy production is at an optimum and energy output is increased year
round. This is especially significant throughout the summer months with
its long days of sunlight available to capture and no energy will be lost.
For those with limited space this means that a smaller array only needs to
be installed, a huge advantage for those smaller sites with only a small
area to place solar tracker.
6.3 Scope of future work of solar tracker:
Improving the mechanical structure.
Improving the load carrying capacity.
Putting solar panel with total system.
Adjusting the gear ratio to decrease energy loss.
Stopping the motors while there is no need of movement.
Reducing the cost of mechanical structure.
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Summary
A solar tracker is a device onto which solar panels are fitted which tracks the
motion of the sun across the sky, thus ensuring that the maximum amount of
sunlight strikes the panels throughout the day. When compared to the price of
the PV solar panels, the cost of a solar tracker is relatively low. We provide
highly efficient, proprietary single axis solar tracking systems. Our single-axis
solar trackers can typically increase electricity generation by 30%. Right now
the solar tracker is setup in a testing state and there is still work to be done to
make it a finalized product. We will continue to work on this tracker up until
graduation and possibly even over the summer. It has come a long way since
September but it is far from completely done. Designing, Building and testing
this solar tracker has been immensely full filling experience that has done a
great deal to develop our skills as an engineer.
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