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Rashmin B. Patel
Pharmaceutical products formulated with more than one drug, typically referred to as
combination products, are intended to meet previously unmet patients need by combining the
therapeutic effects of two or more drugs in one product. These combination products can
present daunting challenges to the analytical chemist responsible for the development and
validation of analytical methods. This presentation will discuss the development and validation
High performance thin layer chromatography (HPTLC)) for drug products containing more than
one active ingredient. The official test methods that result from these processes are used by
quality control laboratories to ensure the identity, purity, potency, and performance of drug
products.
Introduction
The number of drugs introduced into the market is increasing every year. These drugs may be
either new entities or partial structural modification of the existing one. Very often there is a
time lag from the date of introduction of a drug into the market to the date of its inclusion in
pharmacopoeias. This happens because of the possible uncertainties in the continuous and
wider usage of these drugs, reports of new toxicities (resulting in their withdrawal from the
Under these conditions, standards and analytical procedures for these drugs may not be
• A proper analytical procedure for the drug may not be available in the literature due to
patent regulations,
• Analytical methods may not be available for the drug in the form of a formulation due
available,
• Analytical methods for a drug in combination with other drugs may not be available,
• The existing analytical procedures may require expensive reagents and solvents. It
may also involve cumbersome extraction and separation procedures and these may
not be reliable.
chromatographic methods like HPLC, GC and HPTLC etc. These methods are accurate and
precise with good reproducibility, but the cost of analysis is quite high owing to expensive
instrumentation, reagent and expertise. Hence it is worthwhile to develop simpler and cost
effective method for simultaneous estimation of drugs for routine analysis of formulation.
Spectrophotometric analysis fulfils such requirement where the simultaneous estimation of the
drug combination can be done with similar effectiveness as that of chromatographic methods.
samples containing only one absorbing component. The pharmaceutical analyst frequently
encounters the situation where the concentration of one or more substances is required in
samples known to contain other absorbing substances, which potentially interfere in the assay.
If the formula of the samples is known, the identity and concentration of the interfering
substance are known and the extent of interference in the assay may be determined.
analyst, which may eliminate certain sources of interference and permit the accurate
determination of all of the absorbing components. Each modification of the basic procedure
The basis of all the spectrophotometric techniques for multicomponent samples is the property
or
• the measured absorbance is the difference between the total absorbance of the
solution in the sample cell and that of the solution in the reference cell.
There are various spectrophotometric methods are available which can be used for the
• Difference spectrophotometry
If a sample contains two absorbing drugs (X and Y) each of which absorbs at the lmax of the
other (as shown in figure 1. λ1 andλ2), it may be possible to determine both drugs by
the technique of simultaneous equation (Vierodt’s method) provided that certain criteria
apply.
At λ1
Atλ2
Fig. 1: The overlain spectra of substance X and Y, showing the wavelength for the
Criteria for obtaining maximum precision have been suggested by Glenn3. According to him
absorbance ratio place limits on the relative concentrations of the components of the mixture.
The criteria are that the ratios should lie outside the range 0.1- 2.0 for the precise
determination of Y and X respectively. These criteria are satisfied only when the λmax of the
two components are reasonably dissimilar. An additional criterion is that the two components
do not interact chemically, thereby negating the initial assumption that the total absorbance is
the sum of the individual absorbance. The additive of the absorbance should always be
Simultaneous equation method using Matrices and Cramer's Rule can be explained as follows:
Consider a binary mixture of component X and Y for which the absorption spectra of individual
the total absorbance of a solution at a given wavelength is equal to the sum of the absorbance
of the individual components at the wavelength. Thus the absorbance of mixture at the
At λ1
At λ2
Where k = a x b
Let A, be a column matrix with 'i' elements [i, is the number of wavelength at which
measurements are done; here two wavelength 1 and 2 are taken in to consideration, so i=2].
Let C, be a column matrix with 'j' elements [j, is the number of components, in this case X and
Y are present, so j = 2]. Let k, be a matrix with i x j values so that it has number of rows
this case it has two rows and two columns). Hence we have
Since the number of wavelength equal to number of components, the equation (5) has a
unique solution.
C = k-1 x A ………….(6)
However, it will be faster to solve the equation (3) and (4) by means of cramer's rule. And
Therefore
equation method.
Drugs with large difference in the content in the combined dosage form have been estimated
known amount of pure drug have been added to the sample drugs.
Q-Absorbance method depends on the property that, for a substance which obeys Beer's law
at all wavelength, the ratio of absorbances at any two wavelengths is a constant value
independent of concentration or pathlength. For example, two different dilution of the same
substance give the same absorbance ratio A1/A2. In the USP, this ratio is referred to as Q
value.
In the quantitative assay of two components in a mixture by the absorbance ratio method,
absorbances are measured at two wavelengths. One being the λmax of one of the component
(λ2) and the other being a wavelength of equal absorptivities of the two components (As
Two equations are constructed as described for the method of simultaneous equation. Their
treatment is somewhat different, however, and uses the relationship ax1 = ay1 at λ1. Assume b
= 1cm
Divide each term by Cx + Cy and let Fx = Cx / (Cx + Cy) and Fy = Cy / (Cx + Cy) i.e. Fx and Fy
But Fy = 1 - Fx
Fig. 2: Wavelength for the assay of substances X and Y in admixture by the method
QM = Fx (QX - QY) + QY
Above equation gives fraction, rather than the concentration of X in the mixture in terms of
absorbance ratios. As these are independent of concentrations, only approximate, rater than
accurate, dilutions of X and Y and the sample mixture are required to determine QX,QY, and QM
respectively.
Cx +Cy = A1 / ax1
Above equation gives the concentration of X in terms of absorbance ratios, the absorbance of
The British Pharmacopoeia suggests the use of this method as the identification test for
Cyanocobalamin10.
method.
tablets14.
Derivative Spectroscopy 2
For the purpose of spectral analysis in order to relate chemical structure to electronic
transitions, and for analytical situations in which mixture contribute interfering absorption, a
second or higher derivative spectrum. (As shown in figure 3). In the context of derivative
order, or D0 spectrum.
The first derivative D1 spectrum is a plot of the rate of change of absorbance with wavelength
against wavelength i.e. a plot of the slope of the fundamental spectrum against wavelength or
a plot of dA/dλ vs. λ. . The maximum positive and maximum negative slope respectively in the
D spectrum correspond with a maximum and a minimum respectively in the D1 spectrum. The
λmax in D spectrum is a wavelength of zero slope and gives dA/dλ = 0 in the D1 spectrum.
The second derivative D2 spectrum is a plot of the curvature of the D spectrum against
wavelength or a plot of d2A/ dλ2 vs. λ. The maximum negative curvature in the D spectrum
gives a minimum in the D2 spectrum, and the maximum positive curvature in the D spectrum
gives two small maxima called satellite bands in the D2 spectrum. The wavelength of
maximum slope and zero curvature in the D spectrum correspond with cross-over points in the
D2 spectrum.
spectrophotometry. Firstly, an eve order spectrum is of narrower spectral bandwidth than its
overlapping bands than the fundamental spectrum and may permit the accurate determination
favour of substances of narrow spectral bandwidth against broad bandwidth substances. All
the amplitudes in the derivative spectrum are proportional to the concentration of the analyte,
Fig. 3: (b) First, (c) Second, (d) Third and (e)fourth derivative Spectrum of (a)
Gaussian peak.
The enhanced resolution and bandwidth discrimination increases with increasing derivative
order. However, it is also found that the concomitant increase in electronic noise inherent in
the generation of the higher order spectra, and the consequent reduction of the signal-to-
noise ratio, place serious practical limitations on the higher order spectra. For quantitative
purposes, second and fourth derivative spectra are the most frequently employed derivative
orders.
Derivative spectra may be generated by any of three techniques. The earliest derivative
spectra were obtained by modification of the optical system. Spectrophotometers with dual
monochromator set a small wavelength interval (Δλ, typically 1-3nm) apart, or with the facility
to oscillate the wavelength over a small range, are required. In either case the photodetector
generates a signal with amplitude proportional to the slope of the spectrum over the
wavelength interval. Instruments of this type are expensive and are essentially restricted to
absorbance, not with respect to wavelength, but with respect to time, thereby producing the
signal dA/dt. If the wavelength scan rate is constant (dλ/dt = C), the derivative with respect
to wavelength is given by
in particular the scan speed and the time constant. It is essential, therefore, to employ a
standard solution of the analyte to calibrate the measured value the instrumental conditions
selected.
spectra during or after the scan, to measure derivative amplitudes between specified
wavelengths and to calculate concentrations and associated statistics from the measured
amplitude.
spectroscopy method.
Drugs with large difference in the content in the combined dosage form have been estimated
known amount of pure drug have been added to the sample drugs.
spectrophotometric measurement22.
If the interference from the other absorbing substances is large, it may be possible to separate
the absorbing interferent from the analyte by solvent extraction procedure. These are
particularly appropriate for acidic or basic drugs whose state of ionisation determines their
solvent partitioning behavior. The judicious choice of pH of the aqueous medium may effect
the complete separation of the interferents from the analyte, the concentration of which may
Following drugs have been reported to be estimated by the Solvent extraction method.
Most of the drugs in multicomponent dosage forms can be analyzed by HPLC method because
of the several advantages like rapidity, specificity, accuracy, precision and ease of automation
in this method. HPLC method eliminates tedious extraction and isolation procedures. Some of
§ reusable columns (expensive columns but can be used for many analysis),
§ instrumentation tends itself to automation and quantitation (less time and less labour),
There are different modes of separation in HPLC. They are normal phase mode, reversed
phase mode, reverse phase ion pair chromatography, affinity chromatography and size
exclusion chromatography.
In the normal phase mode, the stationary phase is polar and the mobile phase is nonpolar in
nature. In this technique, nonpolar compounds travel faster and are eluted first. This is
because of the lower affinity between the nonpolar compounds and the stationary phase. Polar
compounds are retained for longer times because of their higher affinity with the stationary
phase. These compounds, therefore take more times to elute. Normal phase mode of
separation is therefore, not generally used for pharmaceutical applications because most of
the drug molecules are polar in nature and hence take longer time to elute.
Reversed phase mode is the most popular mode for analytical and preparative separations of
this mode, the stationary phase is nonpolar hydrophobic packing with octyl or octa decyl
functional group bonded to silica gel and the mobile phase is polar solvent. An aqueous mobile
phase allows the use of secondary solute chemical equilibrium (such as ionization control, ion
suppression, ion pairing and complexation) to control retention and selectivity. The polar
compound gets eluted first in this mode and nonpolar compounds are retained for longer time.
As most of the drugs and pharmaceuticals are polar in nature, they are not retained for longer
times and hence elute faster. The different columns used are octa decyl silane (ODS) or C18,
C8, C4, etc., (in the order of increasing polarity of the stationary phase).
In ion exchange chromatography, the stationary phase contains ionic groups like NR3+ or SO3- ,
which interact with the ionic groups of the sample molecules. This is suitable for the
separation of charged molecules only. Changing the pH and salt concentration can modulate
the retention.
Ion pair chromatography may be used for the separation of ionic compounds and this method
can also substitute for ion exchange chromatography. Strong acidic and basic compounds may
be separated by reversed phase mode by forming ion pairs (coulumbic association species
formed between two ions of opposite electric charge) with suitable counter ions. This
Affinity chromatography uses highly specific biochemical interactions for separation. The
stationary phase contains specific groups of molecules which can adsorb the sample if certain
steric and charge related conditions are satisfied. This technique can be used to isolate
Largest molecules are eluted first and the smallest molecules last. This method is generally
used when a mixture contains compounds with a molecular mass difference of at least 10%.
This mode can be further subdivided into gel permeation chromatography (with organic
§A chromatographic column,
§A detector,
A mobile phase is pumped under pressure from one or several reservoir and flows through the
column at a constant rate. For normal phase separation eluting power increases with
increasing polarity of the solvent but for reversed phase separation, eluting power decreases
A degasser is needed to remove dissolved air and other gases from the solvent. Special grades
of solvents are available for HPLC and these have been purified carefully in order to remove
absorbing impurities and particulate matter to prevent these particles from damaging the
Pumps:
The pump is one of the most important component of HPLC, since its performance directly
system.
1. Displacement pump: It produces a flow that tends to independent of viscosity and back
pressure and also output is pulse free. But it possesses limited capacity (250 ml).
2. Reciprocating pump: It has small internal volume (35 to 400 µl), their high output pressure
(upto 10,000 psi) and their constant flow rates. But it produces a pulsed flow.
3. Pneumatic or constant pressure pump: They are pulse free; suffer from limited capacity as
well as a dependence of flow rate on solvent viscosity and column back pressure. They are
Insertion of the sample onto the pressurized column must be as a narrow plug so that the
peak broadening attributable to this step is negligible. The injection system itself should have
There are three important ways of introducing the sample into injection port.
valve.
through a septum.
The column is usually made up of heavy glass or stainless steel tubing to withstand high
pressure. The columns are usually 10-30 cm long and 4-10 mm inside diameter containing
Columns with an internal diameter of 5 mm give good results because of compromise between
efficiency, sample capacity, and the amount of packing and solvent required.
Column packing:
The packing used in modern HPLC consist of small, rigid particles having a narrow particle size
1. Porous, polymeric beds: Porous, polymeric beds based on styrene divinyl benzene co-
polymers used doe ion exchange and size exclusion chromatography. For analytical purpose
these have now been replaced by silica based, packing which are more efficient and more
stable.
2. Porous layer beds: Consisting of a thin shell (1-3 µm) of silica or modified silica on an
spherical inert core (e.g. Glass). After the development of totally porous micro particulate
3. Totally Porous silica particles (dia. <10 µm): These packing have widely been used for
analytical HPLC in recent years. Particles of diameter >20 µm are usually dry packed. While
particles of diameter <20 µm are slurry packed in which particles are suspended on a suitable
solvent and the slurry so obtained is driven into the column under pressure.
(d) Detectors:
The function of the detector in HPLC is to monitor the mobile phase as it merges from the
1. Bulk property detectors: It compares overall changes in a physical property of the mobile
phase with and without an eluting solute. e.g. refractive index, dielectric constant or density.
2. Solute property detectors: It responds to a physical property of the solute which is not
exhibited by the pure mobile phase. e.g. UV absorbance, fluorescence or diffusion current.
Such detectors are about 1000 times more sensitive giving a detectable signal for a few
nanograms of sample.
Three methods are generally used for quantitative analysis. They are the external standard
method, the internal standard method and the standard addition method.
1. External standard method: The external standard method involves the use of a single
standard or up to three solutions. The peak area or the height of the sample and the standard
use are compared directly. One can also use the slope of the calibration curve based on
2. Internal standard method: A widely used technique of quantitation involves the addition
of an internal standard to compensate for various analytical errors. In this approach, a known
compound of a fixed concentration is added to the known amount of samples to give separate
peaks in the chromatograms to compensate for the losses of the compounds of interest during
sample pretreatment steps. Any loss of the component of interest will be accompanied by the
loss of an equivalent fraction of the internal standard. The accuracy of this approach obviously
dependence on the structural equivalence of the compounds of interest and the internal
standard.
c. It must behave equivalent to the compound of interest for analysis like pretreatments,
d. It must be added at a concentration that will produce a peak area or peak height ratio of
f. It must be stable, unreactive with sample components, column packing and the mobile
phase and
The internal standard should be added to the sample prior to sample preparation procedure
and homogenized with it. To be able to recalculate the concentration of a sample component
in the original sample, we have to demonstrate first the response factor. The response factor
(RF) is the ratio of peak areas of sample component (Ax) and the internal standard (AISTD)
obtained by injecting the same quantity. It can be calculated by using the formula,
RF = Ax / AISTD
On the basis of the response factor and strength of the internal standard (NISTD), the amount
formula,
The calculations described above can be used after proving the linearity of the calibration
curve for the internal standard and the analytical reference standard of the compound of
interest. When more than one component is to be analyzed from the sample, the response
factor of each component should be determined in the calculations using similar formula.
3. Standard addition method: In the standard addition method, a known amount of the
standard compound is added to the sample solution to be estimated. This method is suitable if
sufficient amount of the sample is available and is more realistic in the sense that it allows
necessary to keep the flow rate and the mobile phase composition constant. The sample
should be dissolved in the mobile phase. If the solvent used in the preparing the sample
solution and the mobile phase are not identical, the analysis can become less accurate and it
is also possible that the detector response is more dependent on the sample.
Design And Development And Of Separation Method
Methods for analyzing drugs in multicomponent dosage forms can be developed, provided one
has knowledge about the nature of the sample, namely, its molecular weight, polarity, ionic
character and the solubility parameter. An exact recipe for HPLC, however, cannot be provided
because method development involves considerable trial and error procedures. The most
difficult problem usually is where to start, what type of column is worth trying with what kind
of mobile phase. In general one begins with reversed phase chromatography, when the
compounds are hydrophilic in nature with many polar groups and are water soluble.
The organic phase concentration required for the mobile phase can be estimated by gradient
elution method. For aqueous sample mixtures, the best way to start is with gradient reversed
phase chromatography. Gradient can be started with 5-10% organic phase in the mobile
phase and the organic phase concentration (methanol or acetonitrile) can be increased up to
100% within 30-45min. Separation can then be optimized by changing the initial mobile phase
composition and the slope of the gradient according to the chromatogram obtained from the
preliminary run. The initial mobile phase composition can be estimated on the basis of where
the compounds of interest were eluted, namely, at what mobile phase composition.
Changing the polarity of mobile phase can alter elution of drug molecules. The elution strength
of a mobile phase depends upon its polarity, the stronger the polarity, higher is the elution.
Ionic samples (acidic or basic) can be separated, if they are present in undissociated form.
The pH of the mobile phase has to be selected in such a way that the compounds are not
ionized. If the retention times are too short, the decrease of the organic phase concentration
in the mobile phase can be in steps of 5%. If the retention times are too long, an increase of
In UV detection, good analytical results are obtained only when the wavelength is selected
carefully. This requires knowledge of the UV spectra of the individual components present in
the sample. If analyte standards are available, their UV spectra can be measured prior to
The molar absorbance at the detection wavelength is also an important parameter. When
peaks are not detected in the chromatograms, it is possible that the sample quantity is not
concentration normally provides good signals for UV active compounds around 220 nm. Even if
the compounds exhibit higher lmax, they absorb strongly at lower wavelength. It is not always
to avoid the detection at the sloppy part of the UV spectrum for precise quantitation. When
acceptable peaks are detected on the chromatogram, the investigation of the peak shapes can
The addition of peak modifiers to the mobile phase can affect the separation of ionic samples.
For examples, the retention of the basic compounds can be influenced by the addition of small
amounts of triethylamine (a peak modifier) to the mobile phase. Similarly for acidic
compounds small amounts of acids such as acetic acid can be used. This can lead to useful
changes in selectivity.
When tailing or fronting is observed, it means that the mobile phase is not totally compatible
with the solutes. In most case the pH is not properly selected and hence partial dissociation or
protonation takes place. When the peak shape does not improve by lower (1-2) or higher (8-
9) pH, then ion-pair chromatography can be used. For acidic compounds, cationic ion pair
molecules at higher pH and for basic compounds, anionic ion-pair molecules at lower pH can
be used. For amphoteric solutes or a mixture of acidic and basic compounds, ion-pair
The low solubility of the sample in the mobile phase can also cause bad peak shapes. It is
always advisable to use the same solvents for the preparation of sample solution as the mobile
Optimization can be started only after a reasonable chromatogram has been obtained. A
reasonable chromatogram means that more or less symmetrical peaks on the chromatogram
detect all the compounds. By sight change of the mobile phase composition, the position of
the peaks can be predicted within the range of investigated changes. An optimized
chromatogram is the one in which all the peaks are symmetrical and are well separated in less
run time.
The peak resolution can be increased by using a more efficient column (column with higher
theoretical plate number, N) which can be achieved by using a column of smaller particle size,
or a longer column. These factors, however, will increase the analysis time. Flow rate does not
System suitability is the checking of a system to ensure system performance before or during
the analysis of unknowns. Parameters such as plate count, tailing factors, resolution and
reproducibility (%RSD retention time and area for six repetitions) are determined and
compared against the specifications set for the method. These parameters are measured
during the analysis of a system suitability "sample" that is a mixture of main components and
expected by-products. Lists of the terms to be measured and their recommended limits
obtained from the analysis of the system suitability sample are given below.
Definition
The purpose of the system suitability test is to ensure that the complete testing system
(including instrument, reagents, columns, analysts) is suitable for the intended application.
"System suitability tests are an integral part of gas and liquid chromatographic methods. They
are used to verify that the resolution and reproducibility of the chromatographic system are
adequate for the analysis to be done. The tests are based on the concept that the equipment,
Similar to the analytical method development, the system suitability test strategy should be
revised as the analysts develop more experience with the assay. In general, consistency of
system performance (e.g., replicate injections of the standard) and chromatographic suitability
(e.g. tailing factor, column efficiency and resolution of the critical pair) are the main
During the early stage of the method development process some of the more sophisticated
system suitability tests may not be practical due to the lack of experience with the method. In
this stage, usually a more "generic" approach is used. For example, evaluation of the tailing
factor to check chromatographic suitability, and replicate injections of the system suitability
solution to check injection precision may be sufficient for an HPLC impurities assay.
In the early method development, it may be useful to perform some additional system
suitability tests to evaluate the system performances under different method conditions. This
information will help to develop an appropriate system suitability test strategy in the future.
As more experience is acquired for this method, a more sophisticated system suitability test
may be necessary. For HPLC impurities method intended to be stability indicating, a critical
pair for resolution determination should be identified. The critical pair is defined as the two
peaks with the least resolution in the chromatographic separation. Generally, a minimum
resolution limit is defined for the critical pair to ensure that the separations of all other
impurities are acceptable. All critical factors that will significantly impact the method
performance will need to be identified. Therefore, if the resolution test results exceed the
acceptance limit, the critical factors can be adjusted to optimize the system performance. If %
organic in the mobile phase has a significant impact on the resolution of the critical pair,
organic composition in the mobile phase can be adjusted within a predetermined range to
achieve the acceptable resolution. Therefore, system suitability strategy not only consists of
the tests and limits, but also the approach used to optimize system performance when the
original test result exceeds the limit. In addition, if the method demands high method
sensitivity (e.g. to analyze very low impurity levels), a detector sensitivity solution may be
required to demonstrate suitable signal-to-noise from the HPLC system. These system
suitability tests, combined with the typical replicate injections of the standard solution, may be
During the final stage of method development, there is a need to define the long-term
strategy for system suitability requirements, and the practicalities for all laboratories using
this method. If the system suitability test involves the use of any reference sample (i.e.
isolated and characterized impurity), the laboratory needs to have enough supply of this
reference sample to complete the system suitability test. However, maintaining the supply of
this reference sample in the long term is usually not an easy task. If the reference sample is a
degradation product of the drug substance, it is desirable to generate the reference sample in-
situ by artificially degrading the drug substance in order to streamline the method. Therefore,
extensive investigations must be done to evaluate the best approach to generate the
reference sample, and to identify the critical factors needed to ensure that the degradation
process is reproducible.
Numerous approaches can be used to set limits for system suitability tests. This depends on
the experience with the method, material available and personal preference. During method
development, it may be useful to perform some system suitability tests with no acceptance
limit. Firstly, it is premature to set any limit during the very early stage of method
development. Secondly, since experimental conditions will be varied intentionally during
method development, collecting system suitability data in these experiments will help the
analyst to evaluate the impact of results generated under different method conditions. This
information will be used to set appropriate system suitability limits in the future.
There are numerous guidelines which detail the expected limits for typical chromatographic
These suggested limits may be used as a reference to set up the initial system suitability
Making use of the method validation results is yet another approach. During the robustness
testing of method validation, critical method parameters such as mobile phase composition,
column temperature are varied to mimic the day-to-day variability. Therefore, the system
suitability results from these robustness experiments should reflect the expected range for the
system suitability results. As a result, the limits for system suitability tests can be determined
from these experiments. This is a very effective approach since the required system suitability
results can be generated during method validation, and no special study is required. However,
these results only reflect the expected performance of the system, but not necessarily the
minimum "performance standard" for acceptable results. For example, the minimum resolution
of the critical pair from method validation may be 3.5; however, a resolution of 2.0 may still
be acceptable as long as they are baseline resolved, and all other chromatographic parameters
remain acceptable.
Simulated Conditions
Ideally the analyst should observe the results from a "deteriorating" system and determine the
situations under which the results are no longer acceptable. One way to simulate the
deterioration of the system is to use an old or artificially degraded column in the analysis.
pH conditions. These old columns will provide the information about the changes
Parameter Recommendation
Capacity Factor (k’) The peak should be well-resolved from other peaks and the
Resolution (Rs) Rs of > 2 between the peak of interest and the closest eluting
If the results are adversely affected by the changes in column performance (e.g. unacceptable
precision of results due to overlapping peaks), the system suitability results from these
experiments will help to determine the limits for system suitability criteria.
This approach facilitates the investigation of the worst case scenario, which reflects minimum
performance standard used to ensure that the chromatography is not adversely affected.
The parameters that are affected by the changes in chromatographic conditions are:
§ Resolution (Rs),
§ Selectivity (a),
1. Resolution (Rs): Resolution is the parameter describing the separation power of the
The resolution, Rs, of two neighboring peaks is defined as the ratio of the distance between
two peak maxima. It is the difference between the retention times of two solutes divided by
their average peak width. For baseline separation, the ideal value of Rs is 1.5. It is calculated
where, Rt1 and Rt2 are the retention times of components 1 and 2 and
W1 and W2 are peak width of components 1 and 2.
There are three fundamental parameters that influence the resolution of a chromatographic
separation:
·selectivity (α)
These parameters provide you with different means to achieve better resolution, as well as
2. Capacity Factor (k’): Capacity factor is the ratio of the reduced retention volume to the
dead volume. Capacity factor, k’, is defined as the ratio of the number of molecules of solute
in the stationary phase to the number of molecules of the same in the mobile phase. Capacity
factor is a measure of how well the sample molecule is retained by a column during an
isocratic separation. The ideal value of k’ ranges from 2-10. Capacity factor can be determined
In most chromatography modes, capacity factor (k') changes by 10 percent for a temperature
change of 5 C.
between 2 and 5). Lower values may give inadequate resolution. Higher values are usually
associated with excessively brood peaks and unacceptably long run times.
If the analytes fall outside their specified windows run the initial column test protocol to
· solvent strength
· composition
· purity
· temperature
· column chemistry
· sample
If the shift in Capacity Factor (k') value is observed with both analytes and the column test
solution, the problem is most likely due to change in the column, temperature or mobile phase
composition. This is particularly true if the shift occurred gradually over a series of runs. If,
however the test mixture runs as expected, the problem is most likely sample-related.
two components in a mixture. Selectivity is the ratio of the capacity factors of both peaks, and
the ratio of its adjusted retention times. Selectivity represents the separation power of
This parameter is independent of the column efficiency; it only depends on the nature of the
components, eluent type, and eluent composition, and adsorbent surface chemistry. In
general, if the selectivity of two components is equal to 1, then there is no way to separate
a= V2 – V1 / V1 – V0 = k1’/ k2’
V1 and V2 =the retention volumes of the second and the first peak
respectively.
Fig. 7: Selectivity
When troubleshooting changes in Selectivity (α), the approach is similar to the approach used
When Selectivity (α) is affected, the corrective action depends on whether the problem is
Be sure to compare results obtained with the test solution to those observed when the column
was new. Use these results to distinguish column changes from problems with mobile phase
·purity
·temperature
of theoretical plates per meter. It is a measure of band spreading of a peak. Similar the band
spread, higher is the number of theoretical plates, indicating good column and system
performance. Columns with N ranging from 5,000 to 100,000 plates/meter are ideal for a good
· extra column band broadening (such as due to malfunctioning injector or improper tubing
ID)
You can recognize problems in your separation due to a loss of column efficiency when the
If the measured efficiency has degraded, either the column has degraded, or system
bandbroadening has increased. At this point, check system bandspreading against established
benchmarks.
Methods used for the measurement and calculation of column include (in order to sensitivity to
· 5 sigma
· 4 sigma
· Tangent
· 3 sigma
· ½ height
Choose the method that best suits your operating requirements. It is critical that the same
Figure above illustrates the use of the different peak widths of a Gaussian peak for the
established benchmark performance (such as test sample, flow rate, mobile phase composition
and so on). Measure the column efficiency against the established performance.
5. Peak asymmetry factor (Tf): Peak asymmetry factor, Tf, can be used as a criterion of column
performance. The peak half width, b, of a peak at 10% of the peak height, divided by the
For a well packed column, an asymmetry factor of 0.9 to 1.1 should be achievable.
HPTLC (High Performance Thin Layer Chromatography) is a well known and versatile
techniques.
Layer of Sorbent Ø 100µm
Separations Ø3 - 5 cm
Analysis Time ØShorter migration distance and the analysis time is greatly
reduced
Solid support ØWide choice of stationary phases like silica gel for normal
phase and C8 , C18 for reversed phase modes
Development chamber ØNew type that require less amount of mobile phase
Features of HPTLC
8. No interference from previous analysis - fresh stationary and mobile phases for each
analysis - no contamination
3. Layer pre-washing
4. Layer pre-conditioning
6. Chromatographic development
7. Detection of spots
8. Scanning
- 80% of analysis - silica gel GF · Basic substances, alkaloids and steroids Aluminum oxide
- Non-polar substances, fatty acids, carotenoids, cholesterol - RP2, RP8 and RP18
- Solvents used are Methanol, Chloroform: Methanol (1:1), Ethyl acetate: Methanol (1:1), - --
- Plates exposed to high humidity or kept on hand for long time to be activated
- Aluminum sheets should be kept in between two glass plates and placing in oven at 110-
- Linomat IV (automatic applicator) - nitrogen gas sprays sample and standard from syringe o-
Normal phase
- Non-polar compounds eluted first because of lower affinity with stationary phase
- Polar compounds retained because of higher affinity with the stationary phase
Reversed phase
- Polar compounds eluted first because of lower affinity with stationary phase
- Non-Polar compounds retained because of higher affinity with the stationary phase
- Multi component mobile phase once used not recommended for further use and solvent
- Twin trough chambers are used only 10 -15 ml of mobile phase is required
- Components of mobile phase should be mixed introduced into the twin - trough chamber
- Saturated chamber by lining with filter paper for 30 minutes prior to development - uniform
distribution of solvent vapours - less solvent for the sample to travel - lower Rf values.
- After development, remove the plate and mobile phase is removed from the plate - to avoid
- Dry in vacuum desiccator - avoid hair drier - essential oil components may evaporate
- Spots of fluorescent compounds can be seen at 254 nm (short wave length) or at 366 nm
- Spots of non fluorescent compounds can be seen - fluorescent stationary phase is used -
silica gel GF
- Non UV absorbing compounds like ethambutol, dicylomine etc - dipping the plates in 0.1%
iodine solution
- When individual component does not respond to UV - derivatisation required for detection
Quantification
chromatogram is scanned
- Camag TLC scanner III scan the chromatogram in reflectance or in transmittance mode by
- Calibration of single and multiple levels with linear or non-linear regressions are possible
when target values are to be verified such as stability testing and dissolution profile single
- Concentration of analyte in the sample is calculated by considering the sample initially taken
Set the analytical objective first that may be quantification or qualitative identification or
before starting HPTLC. Method for analyzing drugs in multicomponent dosage forms by HPTLC
demands primary knowledge about the nature of the sample, namely, structure, polarity,
volatility, stability and the solubility parameter. An exact recipe for HPTLC, however, also
same like HPLC cannot be provided because method development involves considerable trial
and error procedures. The most difficult problem usually is where to start, with what kind of
mobile phase.
Selection of stationary phase is quite easy that is to start with silica gel which is reasonable
and nearly suits all kind of drugs. Mobile phase optimization is carried out by using three level
techniques. First level involves use of neat solvents and then by finding some such solvents
which can have average separation power for the desired drugs. Second level involves
decreasing or increasing solvent strength using hexane or water for respective purposes.
Third level involves trying of mixtures instead of neat solvents from the selected solvents of
first and second level which can further be optimized by the use of modifier like acids or
bases.
Analytes are detected using fluorescence mode or absorbance mode. But if the analytes are
not detected perfectly than it need change of stationary phase or mobile phase or need the
Optimization can be started only after a reasonable chromatogram which can be done by slight
change in mobile phase composition. This leads to a reasonable chromatogram which has all
·Peak purity
1. Retention factor (Rf): Retention factor (Rf) is defined as the amount of separation due to
the solvent migration through the sorbent layer as shown in the formula. It depends on time
Rf = --------------------------------------------------------
two sided significance. During the purity test the spectrum taken at the first peak slope is
correlated with the spectrum of peak maximum [r(s,m)] and the correlation of the spectra
taken at the peak maximum with the one from the down slope or peak end [r(m,e)] which is
Validation is an act of proving that any procedure, process, equipment, material, activity or
system performs as expected under given set of conditions and also give the required
When extended to an analytical procedure, depending upon the application, it means that a
method works reproducibly, when carried out by same or different persons, in same or
§accuracy,
§selectivity/ specificity,
§The biggest advantage of method validation is that it builds a degree of confidence, not only
§Although the validation exercise may appear costly and time consuming, it results
inexpensive, eliminates frustrating repetitions and leads to better time management in the
end.
§Minor changes in the conditions such as reagent supplier or grade, analytical setup are
unavoidable due to obvious reasons but the method validation absorbs the shock of such
and accuracy were stated as laboratory controls. It was only in the cGMP guideline of March
1979 that the need for validation was implied. It was done in two sections: (1) Section
211.165, where the word ‘validation’ was used and (2) section 211.194, in which the proof of
suitability, accuracy and reliability was made compulsory for regulatory submissions. Another
guidance on validation of chromatographic methods was released by CDRE on 1st Nov. 1994.
The WHO published a guidelines under the title, ‘Validation of analytical procedures used in
the examination of pharmaceutical materials’. It appeared in the 32nd report of the WHO
1992.
The international Conference on Harmonization (ICH), which has been on the forefront of
developing the harmonized tripartite guidelines for adoption in the US, Japan and EC , has
issued two guidelines under the titles-‘ Text on validation of Analytical procedures(Q2A) and
Among the pharmacopoeias, USP XXII 1225 (1995) carries a section which describes
definition of method validation in 15 latest editions, but the term is completely missing form
validation process. The various Performance parameters, which are addressed in a validation
(1) Accuracy: -
The accuracy of an analytical method may be defined as the closeness of the test results
obtained by the method to the true value. It is the measure of the exactness of the analytical
method developed. Accuracy may often express as percent recovery by the assay of a known
which known amount of analyte have been added both above and below the normal levels
expected in the samples. Accuracy is then calculated from the test results as the percentage of
the analyte recovered by the assay. Dosage form assays commonly provide accuracy within 3-
determinations over a minimum of three concentration levels, covering the specified range
(2) Precision: -
The precision of an analytical method is the degree of agreement among individual test results
when the method is applied repeatedly to multiple samplings of homogenous samples. This is
usually expressed as the standard deviation or the relative standard deviation (coefficient of
Repeatability involves analysis of replicates by the analyst using the same equipment and
method and conducting the precision study over short period of time while reproducibility
§ Different Occasions,
§ Different Laboratories,
§ Different Analysts,
§ Different Equipments.
when repeated by same analyst under the same operating conditions (same reagents,
It is normally expected that at least six replicates be carried out and a table showing each
individual result provided from which the mean, standard deviation and co-efficient of
variation should be calculated for set of n value. The RSD values are important for showing
degree of variation expected when the analytical procedure is repeated several time in a
standard situation. (RSD below 1% for built drugs, RSD below 2% for assays in finished
product).
The ICH documents recommend that repeatability should be assessed using a minimum of
nine determinations covering the specified range for the procedure (i.e. three concentrations
and three replicates of each concentration or using a minimum of six determinations at 100%
putatively identical samples taken from the same homogenous batch of material.
Comparisions of results obtained by different analysts, by the use of different equipments, or
by carrying out the analysis at different times can also provide valuable information.
The linearity of an analytical method is its ability to elicit test results that are directly (or by a
samples within a given range. Linearity usually expressed in terms of the variance around the
test results obtained by the analysis of samples with varying concentrations of analyte.
The linear range of detectability that obeys Beer’s law is dependent on the compound analyzed
and the detector used. The working sample concentration and samples tested for accuracy
should be in the linear range. The claim that the method is linear is to be justified with
additional mention of zero intercept by processing data by linear least square regression. Data
is processed by linear least square regression declaring the regression co-efficient and b of the
linear equation y= ax + b together with the correlation coefficient of determination r. For the
The range of an analytical method is the interval between the upper and lower levels of the
analyte (including these levels) that have been demonstrated to be determined with precision,
Limit of detection:- The limit of detection is the parameter of limit tests. It is the lowest level
of analyte that can be detected, but not necessarily determined in a quantitative fashion,
using a specific method under the required experimental conditions. The limit test thus merely
determining the signal-to-noise ratio by comparing test results from the samples with known
concentration of analyte with those of blank samples and establishing the minimum level at
which the analyte can be reliably detected. A signal-to-noise ratio of 2:1 or 3:1 is generally
accepted.
The signal-to-noise ratio is determined by dividing the base peak by the standard deviation of
all data points below a set threshold. Limit of detection is calculated by taking the
concentration of the peak of interest divided by three times the signal-to-noise ratio.
For spectroscopic techniques or other methods that rely upon a calibration curve for
quantitative measurements, the IUPAC approach employs the standard deviation of the
intercept (Sa) which may be related to LOD and the slope of the calibration curve, b, by
LOD = 3 Sa / b
Limit of quantitation:- Limit of quantitation is a parameter of quantitative assays for low levels
of compounds in sample matrices such as impurities in bulk drugs and degradation products in
sample that may be determined with acceptable accuracy and precision when the required
procedure is applied.
determining the lowest level at which acceptable degrees of accuracy and precision are
attainable. Where the final assessment is based on an instrumental reading, the magnitude of
background response by analyzing a number of blank samples and calculating the standard
deviation of this response. The standard deviation multiplied by a factor (usually 10) provides
The selectivity of an analytical method is its ability to measure accurately and specifically the
analyte of interest in the presence of components that may be expected to be present in the
sample matrix.
If an analytical procedure is able to separate and resolve the various components of a mixture
and detect the analyte qualitatively the method is called selective. On the other hand, if the
method determines or measures quantitatively the component of interest in the sample matrix
Hence one basic difference in the selectivity and specificity is that, while the former is
Selectivity may be expressed in terms of the bias of the assay results obtained when the
procedure is applied to the analyte in the presence of expected levels of other components,
compared the results obtained when the procedure is applied to the analyte in the presence of
expected levels of other components, compared to the results obtained on the same analyte
without added substances. When the other components are all known and available, selectivity
may be determined by comparing the test results obtained on the analyte with and without
the addition of the potentially interfering materials. When such components are either
unidentified or unavailable, a measure of selectivity can often be obtained by determining the
recovery of a standard addition of pure analyte to a material containing a constant level of the
other components.
unaffected by small but deliberate variation in method parameters and provides an indication
of its reliability during normal usage. The determination of robustness requires that methods
results obtained by the analysis of the same samples under a variety of normal test
environmental conditions that may differ but are still within the specified parameters of the
assay. The testing of ruggedness is normally suggested when the method is to be used in
more than one laboratory. Ruggedness is normally expressed as the lack of the influence on
the test results of operational and environmental variables of the analytical method.
For the determination of ruggedness, the degree of reproducibility of test result is determined
as function of the assay variable. This reproducibility may be compared to the precision of the
assay under normal condition to obtain a measure of the ruggedness of the analytical method.
Stability of the sample, standard and reagents is required for a reasonable time to generate
reproducible and reliable results. For example, 24 hour stability is desired for solutions and
System suitability test provide the added assurance that on a specific occasion the method is
giving, accurate and precise results. System suitability test are run every time a method is
used either before or during analysis. The results of each system suitability test are compared
with defined acceptance criteria and if they pass, the method is deemed satisfactory on that
occasion. The nature of the test and the acceptance criteria will be based upon data generated
Not all the characteristics referred above will need to be considered in all cases. Analytical
Class B: Methods designed to detect and quantitative impurities in a bulk drug substance or
Class C: Methods used to determine quantitatively the concentration of a bulk drug substance
Class D: Methods used to assess the characteristic of finished dosage forms, such as
procedure:
Class A Class B Class C Class D
Accuracy X X X
Precision X X X
Robustness X X X X X
Linearity and X X X
range
Selectivity X X X X X
Limit of X X
Detection
Limit of X
Quantitation
As per USP:
Category I: Analytical methods for quantitation of major components of bulk drug substances
Category II: Analytical methods for determination of impurities in bulk drugs or for
Precision X X X
Specificity X X X May be X
Linearity X X May be
Conclusion:
The efficient development and validation of analytical methods are critical elements in the
important factors, which in turn will contribute to regulatory compliance. Experience is one of
these factors both the experience level of the individual scientists and the collective
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About Authors:
Rashmin B. Patel
B.Pharm and M.Pharm from A R College of Pharmacy, Vallabh Vidyanagar, Gujarat; India. His
areas of interest in research includes New Drug Delivery systems & Pharmaceutical Analysis.
Mrunali R. Patel
Gujarat; India. She completed her B.Pharm and M.Pharm from A R College of Pharmacy,
Vallabh Vidyanagar, Gujarat; India. Her area of interest in research includes New Drug
It taken lot of time to go through your article but I felt very happy to know the things
eswar :-)
reply to eswar
Dear Eswar
thank you for taking interest in my article and your comment regarding it.
Rashmin
Dear Sir, you have really made good effort in expalining the Analytical Method Development
for Pharmaceuticals I will ask all my friends to visit this article to gain good knowledge about
this topic.
In the Table: Data Elements Required for Assay I was not able to understand the term maybe,
I will sugest you to ask the Pharmainfo.net team to align the text more properly so that your
thank you very much for your compliments and feedback to my article.
Nice article