CH 02

Chapter 2
Mechanical Behavior, Testing, and

Manufacturing Properties of
Materials
QUALITATIVE PROBLEMS
2.26 On the same scale for stress, the tensile true stress-true strain curve is higher
than the engineering stress-engineering strain curve. Explain whether this
condition also holds for a compression test.
During a compression test, the cross-sectional area of the specimen increases as the load
is increased. Since true stress is dened as load divided by the instantaneous cross-
sectional area of the specimen, the true stress in compression will be lower than the
engineering stress for a given load, providing that frictional forces (between the platens
and the specimen) are negligible.
2.27 What are the similarities and dierences between deformation and strain?
The similarities are that they are both a measure of a change in shape; strain is a
deformation normalized by initial length, and therefore is dimensionless.
2.28 Can a material have a negative Poissons ratio? Give a rationale for your
answer.
Solid material do not have a negative Poissons ratio, with the exception of some com-
posite materials (see Chapter 10), where there can be a negative Poissons ratio in a
given direction.
The rationale is harder to express. It should make sense to students that a material,
when stretched, should become narrower in the transverse directions. If Poissons ratio
were zero, then there would be no lateral deection. If the Poissons ratio were negative,
it would expand laterally when stretched longitudinally. Also consider compression - if
compressed axially, the material would need to thin laterally. This shouldnt make sense
to students.
This can be proven to violate the second law of thermodynamics by calculating all
components of strain energy in this case, but this is an advanced proof.
14
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Mechanical Behavior and Manufacturing Properties of Materials 15
2.29 It has been stated that the higher the value of m, the more diuse the neck
is, and likewise, the lower the value of m, the more localized the neck is.
Explain the reason for this behavior.
As discussed in Section 2.2.7 starting on p. 63, with high m values, the material stretches
to a greater length before it fails; this behavior is an indication that necking is delayed
with increasing m. When necking is about to begin, the necking regions strength with
respect to the rest of the specimen increases, due to strain hardening. However, the
strain rate in the necking region is also higher than in the rest of the specimen, because
the material is elongating faster there. Since the material in the necked region becomes
stronger as it is strained at a higher rate, the region exhibits a greater resistance to
necking. The increase in resistance to necking thus depends on the magnitude of m.
2.30 Explain why materials with high m values, such as hot glass and Silly Putty
R
,
when stretched slowly, undergo large elongations before failure. Consider
events taking place in the necked region of the specimen.
The answer is similar to Answer 2.29 above.
2.31 With a simple sketch, explain whether it is necessary to use the oset method
to determine the yield stress, Y , of a material that has been highly cold
worked.
As can be seen by reviewing Fig. 2.3 on p. 57, a highly cold-worked metal will have a
distinct change in slope on its stress-strain curve occurring at the yield point, so that
the oset method is not necessary. See also Fig. 2.5 on p. 61.
2.32 Explain why the dierence between engineering strain and true strain be-
comes larger as strain increases. Does this dierence occur for both tensile
and compressive strains? Explain.
The answer lies in the fact that the denitions of engineering strain and true strain are
dierent, the latter being based on the actual or instantaneous dimensions, as can be
seen in Eqs. (2.2) and (2.7) on p. 57 and p. 59, respectively. In both cases of tension and
compression, the dierence increases as strain increases. This is shown quantitatively in
Problem 2.74.
2.33 Consider an elastomer, such as a rubber band. This material can undergo
a large elastic deformation before failure, but after fracture it recovers com-
pletely to its original shape. Is this material brittle or ductile? Explain.
This is an interesting question and one that can be answered in a number of ways.
From a stress analysis standpoint, the large elastic deformations would lead to blunting
of stress concentrations, and the material would be considered ductile. However, in
manufacturing, ductility implies an ability to achieve a permanent change in shape;
in this case, a rubber band is extremely brittle, as there is essentially no permanent
deformation when the rubber band fractures in a tension test, for example.
2.34 If a material (such as aluminum) does not have an endurance limit, how then
would you estimate its fatigue life?
Materials without endurance limits have their fatigue life dened as a certain number of
cycles to failure at a given stress level. For engineering purposes, this denition allows
for an estimate of the expected lifetime of a part. The part is then usually taken out of
service before its lifetime is reached. An alternative approach is to use nondestructive
test techniques (Section 36.10) to periodically measure the accumulated damage in a
part, and then use fracture mechanics approaches to estimate the remaining life.
2.35 What role, if any, does friction play in a hardness test? Explain.
The eect of friction has been found to be minimal. In a hardness test, most of the
indentation occurs through plastic deformation, and there is very little sliding at the
indenter-workpiece interface; see Fig. 2.14 on p. 70.
2.36 Which hardness tests and scales would you use for very thin strips of metal,
such as aluminum foil? Explain.
A hardness test that produces small indentations would have to be used; also, since
aluminum foil is relatively soft, a very light load would be required. Two scales that
satisfy these requirements are the Knoop microhardness (HK) and the Vickers hardness
(HV) at very light loads (see Fig. 2.13 on p. 69). An area of current research is the
use of atomic force microscopy and nanoindenters to obtain the hardness of very thin
materials and coatings. The shape of the indenter used is not exactly the same as in
Fig. 2.13, and the loads are in the micro- to milli-Newton range.
2.37 Consider the circumstance where aVickers hardness test is conducted on a
material. Sketch the resulting indentation shape if there is a residual stress
on the surface.
There are many possible shapes. Consider the simple sketches below, where the Vickers
indentation for a material without residual stresses (the baseline) is shown in red. The
green example would be particular to the case where a uniaxial residual stress is aligned
with the indenter and is constant through the thickness. The blue example is more
typical, and shows a biaxial residual compressive residual stress. If the Vickers inventor
is not aligned with the stress, then the shape will be more of a rhomboid than square.
2.38 Which of the two tests, tension or compression, would require a higher ca-
pacity of testing machine, and why?
The compression test requires a higher capacity machine since the cross-sectional area
of the specimen increases as the test progresses. The increase in area requires a load
higher than that for the tension test to achieve the same stress level. Also, there is
friction between the at dies (platens) and the workpiece surfaces in a compression test
(see Sections 2.3 on p. 65 and 14.2 on p. 339) which results in higher pressures than
in tension; this higher pressure then requires larger forces for the same cross-sectional
area. In addition, there is more redundant work in compression testing than in tension
testing, so the material will work harden more (unless the test is conducted at elevated
temperatures).
2.39 List and explain briey the conditions that induce brittle fracture in an
otherwise ductile metal.
Brittle fracture can be induced by high deformation rates, lower temperatures (particu-
larly those with bcc structure), the presence of stress concentration (notches and cracks),
state of stress, radiation damage, corrosion (including hydrogen embrittlement). In each
case, the stress needed to cause yielding is raised above the stress needed to cause failure,
or the stress needed for a crack to propagate is below the yield stress of the material (as
with stress concentration).
2.40 List the factors that you would consider in selecting a hardness test. Explain
why.
Hardness tests mainly have three dierences: (a) type of indenter, (b) applied load,
and (c) method of indentation measurement, i.e., depth or surface area of indentation,
or rebound of indenter. The hardness test selected would depend on the estimated
hardness of the workpiece, its size and thickness, and if average hardness or the hardness
of individual microstructural components is desired. For instance, the scleroscope, which
is portable, is capable of measuring the hardness of large pieces that cannot be used for
measurement by other techniques.
The Brinell hardness test leaves a fairly large indentation, thus providing a good measure
of average hardness, while the Knoop test leaves a small indentation that allows for
determination of the hardness of the individual phases in a two-phase alloy. The small
indentation of the Knoop test also allows it to be useful in measuring the hardness of
very thin layers or plated layers on parts. Note that the depth of indentation should be
small relative to part thickness, and that any change in the appearance of the bottom
surface the part will make the test results invalid.
Figure 2.15 on p. 72 is a useful guide for determining which hardness test is valid for a
class of material. Note that often numerous hardness tests are suitable for a material.
In these cases, the best hardness test is the one that has one or more of the following
characteristics:
The best hardness test is often one that can be performed quickly; thus, it may be
desirable to also select a hardness test based on available equipment.
Hardness tests are often specied by customers as part of a quality control require-
ment. Whatever form of hardness test is specied by the customer is the appropriate
one to use.
A hardness test that is most commonly used in a plant may be the best choice since
technicians will be most familiar with the test protocol and the equipment is most
likely to be in good calibration.
Experimental error can be minimized by selecting a hardness test that gives the
largest penetration or indentation size.
2.41 On the basis of Fig. 2.5, can you calculate the percent elongation of the
materials listed? Explain.
Recall that elongation (total) is dened by Eq. (2.4) on p. 60 and depends on the
original gage length (l
o
) of the specimen. Note that if the gage length encompasses a
necked region only, it will register a larger percent elongation than if the gage length
is four or ve times as long as the necked region, for example. From Fig. 2.5 on p. 61,
the true necking and fracture strains can be determined. Since this is a true strain, it is
not dependent on the gage length. That is, regardless of the gage length, the same true
stress will be measured. Since there is no way of incorporating gage length, one cannot
obtain the percent elongation from Fig. 2.5. (See also the answer to Problem 2.57.)
2.42 If a metal tension-test specimen is rapidly pulled and broken, where would
the temperature be highest, and why?
Since temperature rise is due to work input, it is obvious that the temperature will be
highest in the necked region because that is where the strain is highest and, hence, the
energy dissipated per unit volume in plastic deformation is highest.
2.43 Comment on your observations regarding the contents of Table 2.2.
By the student. There are a large number of acceptable answers to this problem. A
student may compare the values in the table between dierent materials or material
classes. Alternatively, the students may comment on the size of the range in properties.
Students should be encouraged to develop well thought-out answers to this question.
2.44 Will the disk test be applicable to a ductile material? Why or why not?
With a ductile material, a point load on a disk results in the circular disk being attened
at the platens and attaining elliptical shape of the originally round specimen. The
attening converts the point load to a distributed load, completely changing the stress
state in the piece. Therefore, Eq. (2.10) on p. 66 is not valid, and the usefulness of the
test is compromised.
2.45 What hardness test is suitable for determining the hardness of a thin ceramic
coating on a piece of metal?
For a thin ceramic coating, it is still important that the hardness of the coating and not
the substrate be measured. Most ceramics have limited ductility (Section 8.3 starting
on p. 200), so that Knoop or Vickers tests are suitable, although the Mohs test can also
be used to obtain a qualitative value. Because of the increasing importance of coatings,
special microhardness tests have been developed for their hardness measurement.
2.46 Wire rope consists of many wires that bend and unbend as the rope is run
over a sheave. A wire-rope failure is investigated, and it is found that some
of the wires, when examined under a scanning electron microscope, display
cup-and-cone failure surfaces, while others display transgranular fracture
surfaces. Comment on these observations.
There are a large number of potential reasons for this behavior. However, a likely
explanation is that when the wire rope was in use, it was run over a sheave or drum
repeatedly. As a result, some of the wires in the rope failed due to fatigue, so they
display brittle fracture surfaces. At some point, enough wires have failed so that the
remaining wires fail due to static overload, and display cup-and-cone failure surfaces as
a result.
2.47 A statistical sampling of Rockwell C hardness tests are conducted on a mate-
rial, and it is determined that the material is defective because of insucient
hardness. The supplier claims that the tests are awed because the diamond
cone indenter was probably dull. Is this a valid claim? Explain.
Refer to Fig. 2.13 on p. 69 and note that if an indenter is blunt, then the penetration, t,
under a given load will be smaller than that using a sharp indenter. This then translates
into a higher hardness. The explanation is plausible, but in practice, hardness tests
are fairly reliable and measurements are consistent if the testing equipment is properly
calibrated and routinely serviced.
2.48 In a Brinell hardness test, the resulting impression is found to be elliptical.
Give possible explanations for this result.
Two possible explanations for an elliptical impression after a Brinell test are: (a) An
obvious reason is the possible presence of asymmetric residual stresses in the surface
layers of the material before the test. (b) The material itself may be highly anisotropic,
such as a ber-reinforced composite material, or due to severe cold working.
2.49 Some coatings are extremely thin some as thin as a few nanometers. Ex-
plain why even the Knoop test is not able to give reliable results for such
coatings. Recent investigations have attempted to use highly polished dia-
monds (with a tip radius around 5 nm) to indent such coatings in atomic force
microscopes. What concerns would you have regarding the appropriateness
of the test results?
With a coating of thickness of 5 nm, the stressed volume has to be approximately one-
tenth this depth, which begins to approach the size of individual atoms. Thus, a knoop
indentor would need to have a tip radius that was atomically sharp in order to get
results. Even with highly polished diamond tips in atomic force microscopes, this scale
problem is unavoidable. However, there are additional concerns in that the diamond
indenter may not be symmetric, there are large adhesive forces at the small scales, there
are complicated elastic and viscoelastic recovery at small length scales, there may be
residual stresses at the surface, and the stressed volume may or may not contain a
dislocation (whereas with Knoop tests, there is always a number of dislocations).
2.50 Select an appropriate hardness test for each of the following materials, and
justify your answer:
i. Cubic boron nitride
ii. Lead
iii. Cold-drawn 0.5%C steel
iv. Diamond
v. Caramel candy
vi. Granite
Figure 2.15 on p. 72 is a useful guide for selecting hardness tests.
i. Cubic boron nitride is very hard, and useful data can be obtained only from the
Knoop and Mohs tests. The Mohs scale is qualitative and does not give numerical
values for hardness, so the Knoop test is preferable.
ii. Lead. As shown in Fig. 2.15, lead is so soft that only the Brinell and Vickers tests
yield useful data. Recognizing that lead is very soft, the lightest loads in these
tests should be used. Consider the expected results in this test if a typical value of
hardness is 4 HB or 4 HV. For the Brinell test, Fig. 2.13 suggests that the expected
indentation for a 500 kg load is:
HB =
2P
(D)
D
2
d
2
Therefore, solving for d,
d =
D
2
D
2P
(D)(HB)
2
=
10
2
10
2(500)
[(10)] (4)
2
= 9.79 mm
Note that this dimension is almost the same as the diameter of the indentor, and
makes the usefulness of the test highly questionable. For the Vickers test, the
expected indentation test, using the lowest allowable load of 1 kg, is:
HV =
1.854P
L
2
L =
1.854P
HX
=
1.854(1)
4
= 0.68 mm
This is much more reasonable, suggesting that the Vickers test is the best alternative
for lead.
iii. Cold-drawn 0.5% steel. From Fig. 2.15, all of the hardness tests are suitable for this
material. As discussed in Problem 2.40, the best choice for this material will depend
on a number of factors.
iv. Diamond. The hardness of diamond is dicult to obtain. The hardness of diamond
is really determined by extrapolating the hardness on the Mohs curve to another
scale in Fig. 2.15. The hardness of diamond is usually quoted as 8000 to 10,000 HK.
v. Caramel (candy). This would be an interesting experiment to perform, but the
result will be that none of the hardness tests can be used for this material because
it is far too soft. Also, the hardness of caramel is strongly temperature-dependent
and that it creeps, so that hardness measurement may be meaningless.
vi. Granite. The hardness of granite varies according to the source, but it is approx-
imately around apatite on the Mohs scale. Thus, various hardness tests can give
valuable information on granite. Note, however, that in inspecting granite surfaces,
one can see various regions within which there would be hardness variations. The
particular hardness test selected will depend on various factors, as discussed in part
(c) above.
QUANTITATIVE PROBLEMS
2.51 A paper clip is made of wire 0.5 mm in diameter. If the original material from
which the wire is made is a rod 25 mm in diameter, calculate the longitudinal
engineering and true strains that the wire has undergone during processing.
Engineering strain is dened by Eq. (2.2) on p. 58. Thus, because of volume constancy
in plastic deformation, we may write
l
f
l
o
=
d
o
d
f
2
=
25
0.5
2
= 2500
or l
f
= 2500l
o
. Therefore, the engineering strain is, from Eq. (2.2) on p. 57,
e =
l
f
l
o
l
o
=
2500l
o
l
o
l
o
= 2499
True strain is dened by Eq. (2.7) on p. 59. Hence
= ln
l
l
o
= ln
2500l
o
l
o
= 7.824
Note the large dierence in strains, even though they both describe the same phe-
nomenon. (See also the last paragraph in Sec. 2.2.3 on p. 59.)
2.52 A 250-mm-long strip of metal is stretched in two steps, rst to 300 mm and
then to 400 mm. Show that the total true strain is the sum of the true strains
in each step; in other words, the true strains are additive. Show that, in the
case of engineering strains, the strains cannot be added to obtain the total
strain.
We rst calculate the true strains for each step:
Step 1:
1
= ln(300/250) = 0.182
Step 2:
2
= ln(400/300) = 0.288
Thus the total true strain is
total
= 0.182 + 0.288 = 0.470
The total strain may also be calculated from the nal and initial dimensions as
total
= ln(400/250) = 0.470
thus giving the same answer.
Engineering strains are calculated likewise. Thus,
Step 1: e
1
= (300 250)/250 = 0.200
Step 2: e
2
= (400 300)/300 = 0.333
Thus the total engineering strain is 0.200+0.333=0.533. However, when calculated from
the initial and nal dimensions, the total engineering strain is
e
total
= (400 250)/250 = 0.6
which is higher than the sum of the engineering strains. Consequently, engineering
strains are not additive, whereas true strains are.
2.53 Identify the two materials in Fig. 2.5 that have the lowest and the highest
uniform elongations. Calculate these quantities as percentages of the original
gage lengths.
The magnitude of uniform elongation is directly related to the true strain at the onset
of necking. As we see in Fig. 2.4c on p. 60, the necking strain on a true stress-true
strain curve corresponds to the beginning of the straight portion of the curve. Thus,
from Fig. 2.5 on p. 61, we note that the lowest uniform elongation is for 1112 cold-rolled
steel, with a necking strain of about 0.05. The highest is for 304 stainless steel, although
70-30 annealed brass is close to it, with a necking strain of about 0.45.
To relate these values to a percentage of the gage length (l
o
), we convert true strain to
percent elongation as follows:
= ln(l/l
o
)
Or, l/l
o
= e
. Hence,
Elongation = (e
1) 100
Thus, for 1112 cold-rolled steel
Elongation = (e
0.05
1) 100 = 5%
And for 70-30 brass, the specic value is
Elongation = (e
0.45
1) 100 = 57%
2.54 Plot the ultimate strength vs. stiness for the materials listed in Table 2.2,
and prepare a three-dimensional plot for these materials where the third axis
is their maximum elongation in 50 mm.
The graphs are constructed using the minimum values in Table 2.2 on p. 58 when ranges
of values exist. They are as follows:
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
Ceramics, glass
Silicon carbide
Silicon nitride
Thermoplastics
Thermoplastics, reinforced
Thermosets
Boron fibers
Carbon fibers
Glass fibers
Kevlar fibers
Spectra fibers
U
T
S

(
M
P
a
)
E (GPa)
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
U
T
S

(
M
P
a
)
E (GPa)
Lead
Aluminum
Copper
Magnesium
Molybdenum
Nickel
Steel
Titanium
Tungsten
Zinc
2.55 If you remove the layer of material ad from the part shown in Fig. 2.30d (for
instance, by machining or grinding), which way will the specimen curve? (
Hint: Assume that the part shown in sketch d in the gure is composed of
four horizontal springs held at the ends. Thus, from the top down, you have
compression, tension, compression, and tension springs.)
The part will bow downward, with the center of curvature below the part (that is, it will
hold water). The internal forces will have to achieve a state of static equilibrium. The
top layer of material ad, which is under compression, has the tendency to bend the bar
upward. When this stress is relieved, such as by removing the top layer by machining or
grinding, the bar will compensate by bending downward. Such residual stress systems
can be modeled with a set of horizontal tension and compression springs. Thus, starting
at the top, we have a compression, tension, compression, and tension spring.
2.56 Prove that the true strain at necking equals the strain hardening exponent.
Note that at necking,
d
d
=
Therefore, using a power law constitutive model,
= K
n
d
d
= Kn
n1
Therefore, since d/d = ,
K
n
= Kn
n1
which is solved as = n.
2.57 Percent elongation is always dened in terms of the original gage length, such
as 50 mm or 2 in. Explain how percent elongation would vary as the gage
length of the tensile-test specimen increases. (Hint: Recall that necking is
a local phenomenon.)
As gage length increases, the percent elongation (total) will decrease to a value rep-
resenting uniform elongation. For instance, consider taking a gage length that just
encompasses the necking region (thus approaching zero gage length); the percent elon-
gation in this region will be very high because the eect of localized deformation will
tend to greatly increase the elongation. As gage length increases, however, the localized
deformation zone has less and less eect on the total elongation.
2.58 Make a sketch showing the nature and distribution of residual stresses in
Fig. 2.31a and b, prior to the materials being cut. (Hint: Assume that
the split parts are free from any stresses; then force these parts back to the
shape they originally had.)
As the problem states, we assume that the split parts shown in Fig. 2.31a and b on p. 81
are free of stresses. After unbending the two halves (that is, closing the gap by pushing
the two halves together), you will note that the inner (mating) surfaces will now be
subjected to longitudinal compressive stresses, while the outer surfaces are in tension.
Consequently, this represents the state of stress prior to slitting.
2.59 You are given the K and n values of two dierent metals. Is this informa-
tion sucient to determine which metal is tougher? If not, what additional
information do you need?
Although the K and n values may give a good estimate of toughness, true fracture stress
and true strain at fracture are also required for accurate calculation of the toughness
of the metals. The modulus of elasticity and yield strength would provide information
about the area under the elastic region (known as modulus of resilience; see Example
2.2 on p. 71), but this region is very small and is negligible compared to the rest of the
curve.
2.60 A cable is made of two strands of dierent materials, A and B, and cross
sections, as follows: For material A, K = 60, 000 psi, n = 0.5, A
o
= 0.6
in
2
; for material B, K = 30, 000 psi, n = 0.5, A
o
= 0.3 in
2
. Calculate the
maximum tensile force that this cable can withstand prior to necking.
Note that necking will occur when = n = 0.5. At this point, the true stresses in each
cable are (using = K
n
), respectively,
A
= 60, 000
0.5
= 42, 400 psi
and
B
= 30, 000
0.5
= 21, 200 psi
The true areas at necking can be calculated as follows:
A
A
= 0.6e
0.5
= 0.364 in
2
and
A
B
= 0.3e
0.5
= 0.182 in
2
Thus the total load that the cable can support is
P
total
= (42, 400)(0.364) + (21, 200)(0.182) = 19, 300 lb
2.61 On the basis of the information given in Fig. 2.5, calculate the ultimate
tensile strength (engineering) of 304 stainless steel.
Recall that the denition of engineering stress is
eng
= P/A
o
, and that for true stress
it is = P/A. From Fig. 2.5 on p. 61, the true stress at necking for 304 stainless steel
is found to be about 130,000 psi, while the true strain is about 0.45. We also know that
the ratio of the original to the necked areas of the specimen is given by
ln
A
o
A
neck
= 0.45
or
A
neck
A
o
= e
0.45
= 0.63
Thus, the engineering stress is calculated as
eng
= (130, 000)(0.63) = 81, 900 psi
2.62 In a disk test performed on a specimen 1.00 in. in diameter and 1/4 in.
thick, the specimen fractures at a stress of 40,000 psi. What was the load on
it?
For this problem, we use Eq. (2.10) on p. 66. Thus,
=
2P
dt
; P =
dt
2
=
(40, 000 psi)(1 in.)(0.25 in.)
2
= 15, 700 lb
2.63 A piece of steel has a hardness of 300 HB. Calculate its tensile strength, in
MPa and in psi.
Using Eqs. (2.14) and (2.15) on p. 71 we nd that
UTS = 3.5(HB) = 3.5(300) = 1050 MPa
and in psi the similar calculation yields
UTS = 500(300) = 150, 000 psi = 150 ksi
2.64 A metal has the following properties: UTS = 70, 000 psi and n = 0.20.
Calculate its strength coecient, K.
Lets rst note that the true UTS of this material is given by = Kn
n
. We can then
determine the value of this stress from the UTS by following a procedure similar to the
Example 2.1 on p. 62. Since UTS = P/A
o
,
P = (UTS)A
o
= 70, 000A
o
Also,
P = A
neck
= A
o
e
0.20
= (0.8187)A
o
Therefore, the true stress at necking is
70, 000A
o
= (0.8187)A
o
= 85, 500 psi
Therefore, from Eq. (2.8) and realizing that at necking = n,
= 85, 500 psi = Kn
n
K =
85, 500
0.20
0
.20
= 118, 000 psi
2.65 Using only Fig. 2.5, calculate the maximum load in tension testing of an
annealed copper specimen with an original diameter of 5 mm.
We note from the gure that the necking strain for annealed copper is 0.40 and that the
true stress at necking is about 300 MPa. The true area at necking is therefore
A
neck
= A
o
e
n
=
4
5
2
e
0.40
= 13.16 mm
2
Hence the maximum load is
P
max
= (300 MN/m
2
)(13.16 mm
2
) = 3950 N
2.66 Estimate the modulus of resilience for a highly cold worked piece of steel
having a hardness of 250 HB, and for a piece of highly cold-worked copper
with a hardness of 100 HRB.
Refer to Example 2.2 on p. 71. For steel, the yield strength is roughly one-third the
hardness, or
Y
steel
=
H
3
=
250
3
= 83.33 kg/mm
2
= 118 ksi
For copper, the same relationship cannot be used, but an Internet search for highly
cold-worked copper,
Y
copper
=
H
3.3
=
100
3.3
= 33.3 kg/mm
2
= 47.4 ksi
From Table 2.1, E
steel
= 30 10
6
psi and E
copper
= 15 10
6
psi. Therefore, from
Example 2.2 for steel,
Modulus of Resilience =
Y
2
2E
=
118, 000
2(30 10
6
)
= 232 in-lb/in
3
and for copper,
Modulus of Resilience =
Y
2
2E
=
47, 400
2(15 10
6
)
= 74.9 in-lb/in
3
2.67 A metal has a strength coecient K = 100, 000 psi and n = 0.25. Assuming
that a tensile-test specimen made from this metal begins to neck at a true
strain of 0.25, show that the ultimate tensile strength is 59,340 psi.
The true UTS is given by
True UTS = Kn
n
= 100, 000(0.25)
0.25
= 70, 710 psi
The true UTS is also related to the UTS by:
True UTS = UTS(A
o
/A
neck
) = UTSe
n
= 1.28 UTS
Hence, UTS=70,710/1.28=55,200 psi.
2.68 Plot the true stresstrue strain curves for the materials listed in Table 2.3.
Note that these curves can be plotted using Eq. (2.8) on p. 61, but the strain at failure
is unknown. Some of the materials have their strain at failure indicated in Fig. 2.5 on
p. 61. Otherwise, the data must be obtained from an external source such as a handbook
or internet search. The following data summarizes the plot below:
Material K (MPa) n
f
Aluminum
1100-O 180 0.20 1.9
2024-T4 690 0.16 0.13
6061-O 205 0.20 0.15
6061-T6 410 0.05 0.077
7075-O 400 0.17 0.19
Brass
70-30, annealed 900 0.49 1.3
85-15, cold-rolled 580 0.34 0.49
Cobalt-base alloy 2070 0.50 0.14
Copper, annealed 315 0.54 1.5
Steel
Low-C, annealed 530 0.26 0.18
4135, annealed 1015 0.17 0.16
4135, cold-rolled 1100 0.14 0.14
4340, annealed 640 0.15 0.11
304 stainless, annealed 1275 0.45 1.3
410 stainless, annealed 960 0.10 0.15
The plot is as follows:
S
t
r
e
s
s

(
M
P
a
)
1000
800
600
400
200
0
Strain
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
1100-O Al
2024-T4 Al
6061-O Al
7075-O Al
70-30 Brass
85-15 Brass
Cobalt-base alloy
4135 annealed
4135
CR
4340 annealed
304 stainless
410
stainless
Copper, annealed
6061-O
Al
2.69 The design specication for a metal requires a minimum hardness of 80 HRA.
If a Rockwell test is performed and the depth of penetration is 60 m, is the
material acceptable?
Refer to Fig. 2.13 on p. 69. The Rockwell hardness is dened as
HRA = 100 500t = 100 500(0.06) = 70
Note that it is important that the depth of penetration be converted to millimeters
before calculating hardness. Using the correct units, it is seen that the hardness is too
low, and the material is not acceptable.
2.70 Calculate the major and minor pyramid angles for a Knoop indenter, and
compare your results with those obtained from Vickers and Rockwell A in-
denters.
Refer to Fig. 2.13 on p. 69 for the geometry of the indenters. For a Knoop indenter with
b/t = 4, the pyramids minor angle is given by
= tan
1
(2) = 63
Also, since L/b = 7.11 and b/t = 4, then

L
t
=
L
b
b
t
= (7.11)(4) = 28.44
Therefore, the major pyramid angle is
= tan
1
(14.22) = 86
2.71 If a material has a target hardness of 300 HB, what is the expected indenta-
tion diameter?
From Fig. 2.13 on p. 69 the indentation diameter depends on the load and the Brinell
hardness according to the equation
HB =
2P
(D)
D
2
d
2
where P is the load (either 500, 1500 or 3000 kg) and D is the diameter of the indenting
ball (10 mm). This equation can be solved for d as:
d =
D
2
D
2P
D(HB)
2
For a hardness of 300 HB, this results in the following for the dierent loads used in a
Brinell test:
P (kg) d (mm)
500 1.45
1500 2.50
3000 3.51
2.72 A Rockwell A test was conducted on a material and a penetration depth of
0.15 mm was recorded. What is the hardness of the material? What material
would typically have such a hardness value? If a Brinell hardness test were to
be conducted on this material, give an estimate of the indentation diameter
if the load used was 1500 kg.
From Fig. 2.13 on p. 69, the Rockwell hardness is calculated from
HRA = 100 500t = 100 500(0.15) = 25 HRA
From Fig. 2.15 on p. 72, a material with a 25 HRA should have a Brinell hardness of
around 70 HB (note that extrapolation is needed to obtain this estimate). Therefore,
from Fig. 2.12,
HB =
2P
(D)
D
2
d
2
or, solving for d,

d =
D
2
D
2P
(D)(HB)
2
=
10
2
10
2(1500)
(10)(70)
2
= 5.04 mm
2.73 For a cold-drawn 0.5% carbon steel, will a Rockwell C test or a Brinell test
at 500 kg result in a deeper penetration?
Referring to Fig. 2.15 on p. 72, such a material has a hardness of around 39 HRC and
350 HB. Now referring to Fig. 2.13, for the Rockwell C test,
39 = 100 500t t = 0.122 mm
For the Brinnel test (see Problem 2.72), assuming the lightest load
d =
D
2
2P
(D)(HB)
= 1.34 mm
Refer to the sketch below for the geometry.
5 mm
5 mm
d/2
x
Note that sin = (d/2)/5 and x = 5 5 cos . Therefore, for d = 1.34 mm, the depth of
penetration is x = 0.045 mm, which is smaller than the Rockwell C hardness test.
However, if 1500 kg is used, the depth of penetration is found to be x = 0.135 mm,
which is larger than the Rockwell C test. Therefore, the penetration can be larger for
the Brinell test, depending on the load used.
2.74 A material is tested in tension. Over a 1-in. gage length, the engineering
strain measurements are 0.01, 0.02, 0.03, 0.04, 0.05, 0.1, 0.15, 0.2, 0.5, and
1.0. Plot the true strain versus engineering strain for these readings.
The engineering strain is easy to calculate from Eq. (2.2) on p. 58, and the true strain
is given by Eq. (2.7) on p. 60 as
= ln
l
l
o
The following chart can then be made of the data points:

e 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.5 1.0
0.01 0.0198 0.0296 0.0392 0.0488 0.0953 0.1397 0.182 0.405 0.69
The plot is as follows:
Slope = 1
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
T
r
u
e

s
t
r
a
i
n
,

1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0

Engineering strain, e
2.75 A horizontal rigid bar c-c is subjecting specimen a to tension and specimen
b to frictionless compression such that the bar remains horizontal. (See
Fig. P2.75.) The force F is located at a distance ratio of 2 : 1. Both specimens
have an original cross-sectional area of 1 in
2
and the original lengths are a = 8
in. and b = 4.5 in. The material for specimen a has a true stress-true strain
curve of = 100, 000
0.5
. Plot the true stress-true strain curve that the
material for specimen b should have for the bar to remain horizontal.
F
2 1
a
b
c c
x
From the equilibrium of vertical forces and to keep the bar horizontal, we note that
2F
a
= F
b
. Hence, in terms of true stresses and instantaneous areas, we have
2
a
A
a
=
b
A
b
From volume constancy we also have, in terms of original and nal dimensions
A
oa
L
oa
= A
a
L
a
and
A
ob
L
ob
= A
b
L
b
where L
oa
= (8/4.5)L
ob
= 1.78L
ob
. From these relationships we can show that
b
= 2
8
4.5
K
a
L
b
L
a
Since
a
= K
0.5
a
where K = 100, 000 psi, we can now write
b
=
16K
4.5
L
b
L
a
a
Hence, for a deection of x,
b
=
16K
4.5
4.5 x
8 +x
ln
8 +x
8
The true strain in specimen b is given by
b
= ln
4.5 x
4.5
By inspecting the gure in the problem statement, we note that while specimen a gets
longer, it will continue exerting some force F
a
. However, specimen b will eventually
acquire a cross-sectional area that will become innite as x approaches 4.5 in., thus its
strength must approach zero. This observation suggests that specimen b cannot have a
true stress-true strain curve typical of metals, and that it will have a maximum at some
strain. This is seen in the plot of
b
shown below.
50,000
40,000
30,000
20,000
10,000
0
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
T
r
u
e

s
t
r
e
s
s

(
p
s
i
)
Absolute value of true strain
SYNTHESIS, DESIGN, AND PROJECTS
2.76 List and explain the desirable mechanical properties of (a) an elevator cable,
(b) a paper clip, (c) a leaf spring for a truck, (d) a bracket for a bookshelf,
(e) piano wire, (f ) a wire coat hanger, (g) the clip for a pen, and (h) a staple.
i. Elevator cable: The cable should not elongate elastically to a great extent or undergo
yielding under the load applied. These requirements call for a material with a high
elastic modulus and yield stress. The cable should also be suciently exible and
ductile to be wrapped around the drums during its use.
ii. Paper clip: The clip material must possess high ductility to allow it to be formed
without fracture. In its normal use, the clip should recover elastically when removed
as well as apply sucient force to hold papers together (thus should possess high
elastic modulus).
iii. Leaf spring: The function of the leaf spring is to absorb energy elastically upon
static or dynamic loading. The energy should be absorbed in an elastic manner
because after absorbing the energy, the spring should return to its original shape.
This requires a high yield stress and high elastic modulus that maximizes the area
under the elastic portion of the stress-strain curve (modulus of resilience).
iv. Bracket: Much like an elevator cable, but not as critical, a material with a high
yield stress and elastic modulus would be required. These properties would keep
the shelf from sagging excessively under load.
v. Piano wire: A piano wire is under high tension (hence high stress) to achieve the
desired tone. The wire should be able to maintain this stress level for a period of
time, or the piano would become out of tune. Thus, its yield stress should be high
in order to sustain the tension required to produce the tone, and should not be
susceptible to stress relaxation. Furthermore, it should be suciently ductile to be
able to be wound around the tightening mechanisms.
vi. Wire coat hanger: Much like the paper clip, the hanger requires a large amount of
deformation in its manufacturing, so the material must possess high ductility. The
hanger should also be able to maintain its shape when clothes are hung on it, hence
it should possess sucient yield strength and elastic modulus.
vii. Clip for a pen. A clip for a pen is intended to ax the pen to a pocket or other cloth
or paper; it is important that the clip material have the proper stiness so that the
force needed to make it attach is neither too high nor too low. The material should
have a high resilience, in that it should recover strains elastically, and it should do
so fairly rapidly.
viii. Staple: The properties should closely parallel a paper clip. The staple should have
high ductility to allow it to be deformed without fracture, and also a low yield stress
so the staple can be bent (as well as removed) easily without requiring the user to
exert a great amount of force.
2.77 When making a hamburger, you may have observed the type of cracks shown
in Fig. 2.20d. What would you do to avoid such cracks? [Note: Test ham-
burger patties by compressing them at dierent temperatures, and observe
the crack path (i.e., the path through the fat particles, the meat particles,
or their interface).]
These cracks do occur, and they can be eliminated by making sure that the chunk of
ground meat is not too cold. In experiments, which can be performed by the student,
it can be observed that when cold, cracks propagate through the meat particles rather
than through the fat. As temperature increases, cracks would propagate through the fat,
which eventually softens and melts as higher temperatures are reached (which is easily
observed when frying ground meat in a pan to make, for example, meat sauce).
2.78 An inexpensive claylike material called Silly Putty
R
is generally available in
stores that sell toys and games. Obtain a sample and perform the following
experiments: (a) Shape it into a ball, and drop it onto a at surface. (b)
Reround the ball and place a heavy book on it for one minute. (c) Shape the
putty into a long rod, and pull on itrst slowly, then very quickly. Describe
your observations, referring to the specic sections in this chapter where
each particular observation is relevant.
Silly putty is an extremely strain-rate sensitive material. When shaped into a ball and
bounced, it undergoes a high strain rate and acts as very rigid, elastic material; i.e., it
bounces. When placed on a table and subjected to a static force such as placing a book
in it, it deforms as a very soft, plastic material and there is very little elastic recovery.
When stretched slowly, it is very ductile; when stretched quickly, it can be seen that the
ductility is drastically reduced, and the stiness and strength are also much higher.
2.79 Make individual sketches of the mechanisms of testing machines that, in your
opinion, would be appropriate for tension, for torsion, and for compression
testing of specimens at dierent rates of deformation. What modications
would you make on these machines to include the eects of temperature on
material properties?
By the student. The important features are that the jaws of the machine must move
at constant speed; this can be simply done using a power screw drive, with a load cell
to measure force. More elaborate machines can use hydraulic power sources and control
systems to achieve any desired mode of loading. For testing at elevated temperatures, the
machine must be protected, and the specimen must be insulated from the environment
to maintain constant temperature during the test. This clearly requires a test chamber
that is thermally insulated.
2.80 In tension testing of specimens, mechanical and electronic instruments are
typically used to measure elongation. Make sketches of instruments that
would be suitable for this purpose, commenting on their accuracy. What
modications would you make to these instruments to include the use of
specimens at elevated temperatures?
By the student. There are a number of ways to measure elongation. Commercial exten-
someters usually have a means to clip the ends of the extensometer to a specimen, and
these clips are initially 25 or 50 mm (or a standard length) apart. This allows more direct
measurement of elongation [see Eq. (2.2); the quantity l
o
is pre-dened by the spacing
of clips]. Measurement of elongation can take place with potentiometers or strain gages;
the students should be encouraged to develop creative solutions to this problem.
2.81 Obtain small pieces of dierent metallic and nonmetallic materials, including
stones. Rub them against each other, observe the scratches made, and order
them in a manner similar to the Mohs hardness numbering system.
By the student. Some subtle points are that scratches may be dicult to detect and
measure when the hardness of the specimen and that of the harder body are close to
each other. Also, the materials to be tested may have hardness variations along their
surfaces.
2.82 Demonstrate the stress-relaxation phenomenon by tightly stretching thin
plastic strings between two nails placed at the ends of a long piece of wood.
Pluck the strings frequently, to test the tension as a function of time. Repeat
the test at a higher temperature by placing the xture in an oven set on low.
By the student. This experiment can be easily performed with a shing line, but one
must be careful with a wooden support in an oven. The string tone decreases in frequency
over time, demonstrating stress relaxation.
2.83 Demonstrate the impact toughness of a piece of round chalk by rst using a
triangular le to produce a V-notch on the cylindrical surface (as shown in
Fig. 2.19a) and then bending the chalk to break it.
By the student. Chalk is relatively easy to break by hand. With a carefully led, sharp
notch, a dramatic reduction in the required force can be easily observed. With a simple
xture (such as using a vise), the chalk can be cantilevered and small weights dropped
from ever higher distances to demonstrate the level of energy required to fracture the
chalk.
2.84 Using a large rubber band and a set of weights, obtain the forcedisplacement
curve for the rubber band. Is the result dierent from the stressstrain
curves shown in Fig. 2.4? Comment.
By the student. See also Fig. 7.14 on p. 191 and note that the behavior of rubber is
highly nonlinear elastic. Two qualitative examples of load-elongation or stress-strain
curves are given below. Some rubber bands have a prestress, so that a non-zero force
is needed to obtain a small deection, but these are rare. Most have section where the
slope of the stress-strain curve is low, but the curve is very steep near fracture. This
can be easily felt with a rubber band. Occasionally, there will be an initial sti section
as shown.
L
o
a
d

o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
Extension or strain
Finite load needed
for incremental strain
Initial high modulus may be absent
Low modulus extension
High modulus
extension at
high strain
Fracture
*
*
2.85 Design a test protocol to obtain the work of plastic deformation by measuring
the temperature rise in a workpiece, assuming that there is no heat loss and
that the temperature distribution is uniform throughout. If the specic
heat of the material decreases with increasing temperature, will the work
of deformation calculated using the specic heat at room temperature be
higher or lower than the actual work done? Explain.
By the student. The design should involve some form of plastic deformation, and the
incorporation of some means of measuring temperature, such as thermocouples. If tem-
peratures are measured, and the specic heat decreases with increasing temperature,
then for a given temperature rise, the work of deformation will be higher than actually
occurs.
2.86 Find or prepare some solid circular pieces of brittle materials, such as chalk,
ceramics, etc. and subject them to the type of test shown in Fig. 2.9 by using
the jaws of a simple vise. Describe your observations as to how the materials
fracture. Repeat the tests, using ductile materials, such as clay, soft metals,
etc., and describe your observations.
By the student. When carefully performed, one can demonstrate the failure mode as
described in the disc test on p. 67, namely, that the brittle material fractures in tension
along the midplane of the specimen. Note that most vises have a knurled, rough surface
nish which can inuence the results; a hard and at spacer may need to be inserted
into the jaws of the vise on opposite ends of the disk. Also, for a ductile material, the
disk will atten, and it may be very dicult to actually cause fracture if a soft specimen
is being used in the experiment.
2.87 Take several rubber bands and pull them at dierent temperatures, including
from a frozen state. Comment on their behavior, such as ductile or brittle.
Note that the behavior will depend on the specic rubber in the rubber band. However,
students should be able to demonstrate changes in material behavior. The stiness
should increase as the temperature decreases, and the ductility will decrease. Students
can perform such investigations fairly easily using simple weights to apply loads and
rulers to measure deection. Rubber bands can be frozen or the tests can be conducted
outside in cold climates.
2.88 Devise a simple xture for conducting the bend tests shown in Fig. 2.11.
Test sticks of various brittle materials by loading them with dead weights
until they break. Verify the statement in the text that the specimens on the
right in the gure will fracture sooner than the ones on the left.
By the student. This test can be performed using specially fabricated xtures on a
tension test machine. However, it can also be done very simply by using a small-diameter
rod, suspended between two desks and the load applied by a basket with two strings.
Three-point bending can be simulated by placing both strings at the same location, and
four-point bending by spacing the strings along the rod. The load in the basket can be
increased until the rod fails. Other alternatives are also possible.
2.89 By pressing a small ball bearing against the top surfaces of various materials,
such as clay and dough, observe the shape of the indentation with a magnier,
referring to those shapes shown in Fig. 2.14a and b.
By the student. Note that with simple materials, the indentation shape (when viewed
from above) will always be circular. An interesting specimen can be carefully prepared
by reinforcing threads placed in the material so that a non-circular patch can be created.
A side view of a deformed zone can be obtained by laminating materials, such as using
clays with dierent colors.
2.90 Describe your observations regarding Fig. 2.14c.
There are many potential observations and students should be encouraged to develop
their own well-stated insights. Examples of observations are the following:
The penetration depth is very small compared to the depth at which material is still
aected by the hardness test.
The aspect ratio of a typical hardness test can be described, note the large diameter
of the indent compared to its depth.
There doesnt seem to be evidence of shear at the indentor, although it is admittedly
dicult to discern from this image.
A ridge on the hardness test as shown in Fig. 2.14b doesnt appear to be present,
but from the image it looks like material may have encountered ow in the thickness
direction (i.e., out of the page).
2.91 Embed a small steel ball in a soft block of material such as clay, and compress
the clay as shown in Fig. 2.24a. Then slice the clay carefully along the center
plane and observe the deformation of the material. Repeat the experiment by
embedding a small round jelly bean in the clay and deforming the material.
Comment on your observations.
By the student. The steel ball will not deform, just as is shown in the middle sketch
of Fig. 2.24b on p. 78. The jelly bean has to be soft in order to simulate the behavior
shown in Fig. 2.24a. An alternative is to use two colors of Play-Doh
R
in a carefully
prepared specimen, with one material chilled to increase its stiness.
2.92 Devise a simple experiment, and perform tests on materials commonly found
around the house by bending them at dierent temperatures, for a qualitative
assessment of their transition temperature, as shown in Fig. 2.25.
By the student. This experiment can be performed fairly easily on materials such as
butter, chocolate, or cheese. The temperature can be varied and controlled by putting
the materials in a freezer or increasing it by immersion into water heated to dierent
temperatures. A qualitative assessment of transition temperature can thus be done;
also, a number of experiments can be performed to assess ductility (such as shearing the
material and observing the strains that can be achieved - shearing can include smearing
with a knife).
2.93 Obtain some solid and some tubular metal pieces, and slit them as shown in
Fig. 2.31. Comment on whether there were any residual stresses in the parts
prior to slitting them.
By the student. The answers can vary widely depending on the materials and their
processing history. Most tubes have been extruded and drawn and will have some
residual stresses notable. Some tubes may be annealed and therefore be residual stress
free.
2.94 Explain how you would obtain an estimate of the hardness for a carbon
nanotube. (See Section 8.6.2.)
This is an open-ended problem, and the student should be encouraged to consider a
wide range of solutions. The hardness of a nanotube would be very dicult to measure
directly. It may be more practical to measure properties that depend on hardness.
For example, one could evaluate a carbon nanotube by conducting a wear test in an
atomic force microscope and then comparing to wear tests on other materials to infer
the hardness. One could measure the breaking stress of a carbon nanotube and relating
this to hardness by H = 3Y (see p. 72). Alternatively, one could conduct molecular
dynamics simulations of carbon nanotubes being penetrated by a at indentor. These
approaches are not perfect, but the student should be encouraged to develop ideas.
2.95 Without using the words stress or strain, dene elastic modulus.
This is actually quite challenging, but historically signicant, since Thomas Young did
not have the benet of the concept of strain when he rst dened modulus of elasticity.
Youngs denition satises the project requirement. In Youngs words:
The modulus of the elasticity of any substance is a column of the same substance, capable
of producing a pressure on its base which is to the weight causing a certain degree of
compression as the length of the substance is to the diminution of the length.
There are many possible other denitions, of course.
2.96 We know that it is relatively easy to subject a specimen to hydrostatic com-
pression, such as by using a chamber lled with a liquid. Devise a means
whereby the specimen (say, in the shape of a cube or a round disk) can
be subjected to hydrostatic tension, or one approaching this state of stress.
(Note that a thin-walled, internally pressurized spherical shell is not a correct
answer, because it is subjected only to a state of plane stress.)
By the student. Students should be encouraged to design test specimens and means for
applying stresses. One solution is to have a cube with a xture adhesively bonded to
each of the sides of the cube, and the same load applied to each face. Another alternative
is to place a sphere in a mold of a stronger material and then reduce temperature (if the
coecient of thermal expansion is the same). Students or groups should be encouraged
to describe more options.

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Chapter 2

Mechanical Behavior, Testing, and

Also, since L/b = 7.11 and b/t = 4, then

or, solving for d,

The following chart can then be made of the data points:

1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0

The true strain in specimen b is given by

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