Chapter 2

Science, Systems,
Matter, and Energy
Chapter Overview Questions
What is science, and what do scientists do?
What are major components and behaviors of
complex systems?
What are the basic forms of matter, and what
makes matter useful as a resource?
What types of changes can matter undergo
and what scientific law governs matter?

Chapter Overview Questions (contd)
What are the major forms of energy, and
what makes energy useful as a resource?
What are two scientific laws governing
changes of energy from one form to another?
How are the scientific laws governing
changes of matter and energy from one form
to another related to resource use,
environmental degradation and
sustainability?
Updates Online
The latest references for topics covered in this section can be found at
the book companion website. Log in to the books e-resources page at
www.thomsonedu.com to access InfoTrac articles.

InfoTrac: Underwater Microscope Finds Biological Treasures in
Subtropical Ocean. Ascribe Higher Education News Service, June 26,
2006.
InfoTrac: In Bacterial Diversity, Amazon Is a 'Desert'; Desert Is an
'Amazon'. Ascribe Higher Education News Service, Jan 9, 2006.
InfoTrac: Making MGP wastes beneficial. Bob Paulson. Pollution
Engineering, June 2006 v38 i6 p20(5).
NASA: Nitrogen Cycle
Environmental Literacy Council: Phosphorous Cycle
National Sustainable Agriculture Information Service: Nutrient Cycles
Video: The Throw Away Society
This video clip is available in CNN Today
Videos for Environmental Science, 2004,
Volume VII. Instructors, contact your local
sales representative to order this volume,
while supplies last.

Core Case Study:
Environmental Lesson from Easter
Island
Thriving society
15,000 people by 1400.
Used resources faster
than could be renewed
By 1600 only a few
trees remained.
Civilization collapsed
By 1722 only several
hundred people left.
Figure 2-1
THE NATURE OF SCIENCE
What do scientists do?
Collect data.
Form hypotheses.
Develop theories,
models and laws about
how nature works.

Figure 2-2
Fig. 2-2, p. 29
Well-tested and
accepted patterns
in data become
scientific laws
Interpret data
Ask a question
Do experiments
and collect data
Formulate hypothesis
to explain data
Do more experiments
to test hypothesis
Revise hypothesis
if necessary
Well-tested and
accepted
hypotheses
become
scientific theories
Ask a question
Do experiments
and collect data
Formulate hypothesis
to explain data
Do more experiments
to test hypothesis
Revise hypothesis
if necessary
Well-tested and
accepted
hypotheses
become
scientific theories
Interpret data
Well-tested and
accepted patterns
In data become
scientific laws
Fig. 2-3, p. 30
Stepped Art
Scientific Theories and Laws: The
Most Important Results of Science
Scientific Theory
Widely tested and
accepted
hypothesis.
Scientific Law
What we find
happening over and
over again in
nature.
Figure 2-3
Fig. 2-3, p. 30
Research results
Scientific paper
Peer review by
experts in field
Paper
rejected
Paper accepted
Paper published in
scientific journal
Research evaluated
by scientific
community
Testing Hypotheses
Scientists test hypotheses using controlled
experiments and constructing mathematical
models.
Variables or factors influence natural processes
Single-variable experiments involve a control and
an experimental group.
Most environmental phenomena are
multivariable and are hard to control in an
experiment.
Models are used to analyze interactions of variables.
Scientific Reasoning and Creativity
Inductive reasoning
Involves using specific observations and
measurements to arrive at a general conclusion
or hypothesis.
Bottom-up reasoning going from specific to
general.
Deductive reasoning
Uses logic to arrive at a specific conclusion.
Top-down approach that goes from general to
specific.
Frontier Science, Sound Science, and
Junk Science
Frontier science has not been widely tested
(starting point of peer-review).
Sound science consists of data, theories and
laws that are widely accepted by experts.
Junk science is presented as sound science
without going through the rigors of peer-
review.


Limitations of Environmental Science
Inadequate data and scientific understanding
can limit and make some results
controversial.
Scientific testing is based on disproving rather
than proving a hypothesis.
Based on statistical probabilities.
MODELS AND BEHAVIOR OF
SYSTEMS
Usefulness of models
Complex systems are predicted by developing a
model of its inputs, throughputs (flows), and
outputs of matter, energy and information.
Models are simplifications of real-life.
Models can be used to predict if-then scenarios.
Feedback Loops:
How Systems Respond to Change
Outputs of matter, energy, or information fed
back into a system can cause the system to
do more or less of what it was doing.
Positive feedback loop causes a system to
change further in the same direction (e.g.
erosion)
Negative (corrective) feedback loop causes a
system to change in the opposite direction (e.g.
seeking shade from sun to reduce stress).

Feedback Loops:
Negative feedback can take so long that a
system reaches a threshold and changes.
Prolonged delays may prevent a negative
feedback loop from occurring.
Processes and feedbacks in a system can
(synergistically) interact to amplify the results.
E.g. smoking exacerbates the effect of asbestos
exposure on lung cancer.

TYPES AND STRUCTURE OF
MATTER
Elements and Compounds
Matter exists in chemical forms as elements and
compounds.
Elements (represented on the periodic table) are the
distinctive building blocks of matter.
Compounds: two or more different elements held
together in fixed proportions by chemical bonds.
Atoms
Figure 2-4
Ions
An ion is an atom or group of atoms with one
or more net positive or negative electrical
charges.
The number of positive or negative charges
on an ion is shown as a superscript after the
symbol for an atom or group of atoms
Hydrogen ions (H
+
), Hydroxide ions (OH
-
)
Sodium ions (Na
+
), Chloride ions (Cl
-
)

The pH (potential of Hydrogen) is the
concentration of hydrogen ions in one liter of
solution.


Figure 2-5
Compounds and Chemical Formulas
Chemical formulas are shorthand ways to
show the atoms and ions in a chemical
compound.
Combining Hydrogen ions (H
+
) and Hydroxide
ions (OH
-
) makes the compound H
2
O
(dihydrogen oxide, a.k.a. water).
Combining Sodium ions (Na
+
) and Chloride ions
(Cl
-
) makes the compound NaCl (sodium chloride
a.k.a. salt).

Organic Compounds: Carbon Rules
Organic compounds contain carbon atoms
combined with one another and with various
other atoms such as H
+
, N
+
, or Cl
-
.
Contain at least two carbon atoms combined
with each other and with atoms.
Methane (CH
4
) is the only exception.
All other compounds are inorganic.
Organic Compounds: Carbon Rules
Hydrocarbons: compounds of carbon and
hydrogen atoms (e.g. methane (CH
4
)).
Chlorinated hydrocarbons: compounds of
carbon, hydrogen, and chlorine atoms (e.g.
DDT (C
14
H
9
C
l5
)).
Simple carbohydrates: certain types of
compounds of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
(e.g. glucose (C
6
H
12
O
6
)).

Cells: The Fundamental Units of Life
Cells are the basic
structural and
functional units of all
forms of life.
Prokaryotic cells
(bacteria) lack a distinct
nucleus.
Eukaryotic cells (plants
and animals) have a
distinct nucleus.
Figure 2-6
Fig. 2-6a, p. 37
(a) Prokaryotic Cell
Protein construction
and energy conversion
occur without specialized
internal structures
Cell membrane
(transport of
raw materials and
finished products)
DNA
(information storage, no nucleus)
Fig. 2-6b, p. 37
Protein
construction
(b) Eukaryotic Cell
Cell membrane
(transport of raw
materials and
finished products)
Packaging
Energy
conversion
Nucleus
(information
storage)
Macromolecules, DNA, Genes and
Chromosomes
Large, complex organic
molecules (macromolecules)
make up the basic molecular
units found in living
organisms.
Complex carbohydrates
Proteins
Nucleic acids
Lipids
Figure 2-7
Fig. 2-7, p. 38
The genes in each cell are coded by
sequences of nucleotides in their DNA
molecules.
A human body contains trillions of cells,
each with an identical set of genes.

There is a nucleus inside each human
cell (except red blood cells).
Each cell nucleus has an identical set of
chromosomes, which are found in pairs.
A specific pair of chromosomes contains
one chromosome from each parent.
Each chromosome contains a long DNA
molecule in the form of a coiled double
helix.
Genes are segments of DNA on
chromosomes that contain instructions
to make proteinsthe building blocks
of life.
Fig. 2-7, p. 38
A human body contains trillions
of cells, each with an identical
set of genes.
There is a nucleus inside each
human cell (except red blood cells).
Each cell nucleus has an identical
set of chromosomes, which are
found in pairs.
A specific pair of chromosomes
contains one chromosome from
each parent.
Each chromosome contains a long
DNA molecule in the form of a coiled
double helix.
Genes are segments of DNA on
chromosomes that contain instructions
to make proteinsthe building blocks
of life.
The genes in each cell are coded
by sequences of nucleotides in
their DNA molecules.
Stepped Art
States of Matter
The atoms, ions, and molecules that make up
matter are found in three physical states:
solid, liquid, gaseous.
A fourth state, plasma, is a high energy
mixture of positively charged ions and
negatively charged electrons.
The sun and stars consist mostly of plasma.
Scientists have made artificial plasma (used in
TV screens, gas discharge lasers, florescent
light).
Matter Quality
Matter can be classified
as having high or low
quality depending on
how useful it is to us as
a resource.
High quality matter is
concentrated and easily
extracted.
low quality matter is more
widely dispersed and
more difficult to extract.
Figure 2-8
Fig. 2-8, p. 39
High Quality Low Quality
Salt
Solid
Gas
Coal
Coal-fired power plant emissions
Gasoline
Automobile emissions
Solution of salt in water
Aluminum ore Aluminum can
CHANGES IN MATTER
Matter can change from one physical form to
another or change its chemical composition.
When a physical or chemical change occurs, no
atoms are created or destroyed.
Law of conservation of matter.
Physical change maintains original chemical
composition.
Chemical change involves a chemical reaction
which changes the arrangement of the elements
or compounds involved.
Chemical equations are used to represent the
reaction.
Chemical Change
Energy is given off during the reaction as a product.

p. 39
Reactant(s) Product(s)
carbon
+ oxygen
carbon dioxide
+
energy
C + O
2
CO
2
energy +
energy +
black solid colorless gas colorless gas
+
Types of Pollutants
Factors that determine the severity of a
pollutants effects: chemical nature,
concentration, and persistence.
Pollutants are classified based on their
persistence:
Degradable pollutants
Biodegradable pollutants
Slowly degradable pollutants
Nondegradable pollutants

Nuclear Changes: Radioactive Decay

Natural radioactive decay: unstable isotopes
spontaneously emit fast moving chunks of
matter (alpha or beta particles), high-energy
radiation (gamma rays), or both at a fixed
rate.
Radiation is commonly used in energy production
and medical applications.
The rate of decay is expressed as a half-life (the
time needed for one-half of the nuclei to decay to
form a different isotope).
Nuclear Changes: Fission
Nuclear fission:
nuclei of certain
isotopes with large
mass numbers are
split apart into
lighter nuclei when
struck by neutrons.
Figure 2-9
Fig. 2-9, p. 41
Uranium-235
Uranium-235
Uranium-235
Uranium-235
Uranium-235
Uranium-235
Uranium-235
Uranium-235
Uranium-235
Uranium-235
Neutron
Fission
Fragment
Fission
Fragment
Energy
Energy Energy
Energy
n
n
n
n
n
n
Uranium-235
Uranium-235
Uranium-235
Uranium-235
Uranium-235
Uranium-235
Uranium-235
Uranium-235
Uranium-235 Fig. 2-6, p. 28
Neutron
Uranium-235
Energy
Fission
fragment
Fission
fragment
n
n
n
n
n
n
Energy
Energy
Energy
Stepped Art
Nuclear Changes: Fusion
Nuclear fusion: two isotopes of light elements
are forced together at extremely high
temperatures until they fuse to form a heavier
nucleus.
Figure 2-10
Fig. 2-10, p. 42
Neutron
+
Hydrogen-2
(deuterium nucleus)
Hydrogen-3
(tritium nucleus)
+
Proton Neutron
100
million C
Energy
+
Helium-4 nucleus
Products
Reaction
Conditions Fuel
+
ENERGY
Energy is the ability to do work and transfer
heat.
Kinetic energy energy in motion
heat, electromagnetic radiation
Potential energy stored for possible use
batteries, glucose molecules
Electromagnetic Spectrum
Many different forms of electromagnetic
radiation exist, each having a different
wavelength and energy content.
Figure 2-11
Fig. 2-11, p. 43
Sun
Nonionizing radiation Ionizing radiation
High energy, short
Wavelength
Wavelength in meters
(not to scale)
Low energy, long
Wavelength
Cosmic
rays
Gamma
Rays
X rays
Far
infrared
waves
Near
ultra-
violet
waves
Visible
Waves
Near
infrared
waves
Far
ultra-
violet
waves
Micro-
waves
TV
waves
Radio
Waves
Electromagnetic Spectrum
Organisms vary
in their ability to
sense different
parts of the
spectrum.
Figure 2-12
Fig. 2-12, p. 43
E
n
e
r
g
y

e
m
i
t
t
e
d

f
r
o
m

s
u
n

(
k
c
a
l
/
c
m
2
/
m
i
n
)

Wavelength (micrometers)
U
l
t
r
a
v
i
o
l
e
t

Visible
Infrared
Fig. 2-13, p. 44
Low-temperature heat
(100C or less) for
space heating
Moderate-temperature heat
(1001,000C) for
industrial processes, cooking,
producing
steam, electricity, and
hot water
Very high-temperature heat
(greater than 2,500C) for
industrial processes and
producing electricity to run
electrical devices (lights,
motors)
Mechanical motion to move
vehicles and other things)
High-temperature heat
(1,0002,500C) for
industrial processes and
producing electricity
Dispersed geothermal energy
Low-temperature heat
(100C or lower)
Normal sunlight
Moderate-velocity wind
High-velocity water flow
Concentrated geothermal energy
Moderate-temperature heat
(1001,000C)
Wood and crop wastes
High-temperature heat
(1,0002,500C)
Hydrogen gas
Natural gas
Gasoline
Coal
Food
Electricity
Very high temperature heat
(greater than 2,500C)
Nuclear fission (uranium)
Nuclear fusion (deuterium)
Concentrated sunlight
High-velocity wind
Source of Energy
Relative
Energy Quality
(usefulness)
Energy Tasks
ENERGY LAWS: TWO RULES WE
CANNOT BREAK
The first law of thermodynamics: we cannot
create or destroy energy.
We can change energy from one form to another.
The second law of thermodynamics: energy
quality always decreases.
When energy changes from one form to another,
it is always degraded to a more dispersed form.
Energy efficiency is a measure of how much
useful work is accomplished before it changes to
its next form.
Fig. 2-14, p. 45
Chemical
energy
(food)
Solar
energy
Waste
Heat
Waste
Heat
Waste
Heat
Waste
Heat
Mechanical
energy
(moving,
thinking,
living)
Chemical
energy
(photosynthesis)
SUSTAINABILITY AND MATTER
AND ENERGY LAWS
Unsustainable High-Throughput Economies:
Working in Straight Lines
Converts resources to goods in a manner that
promotes waste and pollution.
Figure 2-15
Fig. 2-15, p. 46
High-quality energy
Matter
Unsustainable
high-waste
economy
System
Throughputs
Inputs
(from environment)
Outputs
(into environment)
Low-quality energy (heat)
Waste and pollution
Sustainable Low-Throughput
Economies: Learning from Nature
Matter-Recycling-and-Reuse Economies:
Working in Circles
Mimics nature by recycling and reusing, thus
reducing pollutants and waste.
It is not sustainable for growing populations.

Fig. 2-16, p. 47
Recycle
and
reuse
Low-quality
Energy
(heat)
Waste
and
pollution
Pollution
control
Sustainable
low-waste
economy
Waste
and
pollution
Matter
Feedback
Energy Feedback
Inputs
(from environment)
Energy
conservation
Matter
Energy
System
Throughputs
Outputs
(into environment)