MOISTURE CONTENT TEST

Moisture is the property of the moulding sand defined as the amount of water present in the
moulding sand. Low moisture content in the moulding sand does not develop strength properties.
High moisture content decreases permeability.
Procedure:
1. 20 to 50 gms of prepared sand is placed in the pan and is heated by an infrared heater bulb for
2 to 3 minutes.
2. he moisture in the moulding sand is thus evaporated.
3. Moulding sand is ta!en out of the pan and reweighed.
". he percentage of moisture can be calculated from the difference in the weights# of the
original moist and the conse$uently dried sand samples.
Observation and Calculation:
%1&%eight of the sand before drying' gms
%2&%eight of the sand after drying' gms
Percentage of moisture content = !"#!$% & !"% '
=
Result:
he percentage of moisture content obtained is ' gms
C()* CONTENT TEST
(lay influences strength# permeability and other moulding properties. )t is responsible for
bonding sand particles together.
1. *mall $uantity of prepared moulding sand was dried
2. %eigh 50 + 100 gms of dry moulding sand and transfer into wash bottle.
3. ,dd "-5cc of distilled water . 25cc of a 3/ 0a1H.
". ,gitate this mi2ture about 10 minutes with the help of sand stirrer.
5. ,fter the sand etc.# has settled for about 10 minutes# *iphon out the water from the wash
bottle.
3. 4ill the wash bottle with water up to the mar!er for the ne2t 2 trials.
-. 5emove and dry the settled down sand in an oven.
6. he clay content can be determined from the difference in weights of the initial and final sand
samples.
Observation and Calculation:
%1&%eight of the sand before drying' gms
%2&%eight of the sand after drying' gms
Percentage of moisture content = !"#!$% & !"% '
Result:
he percentage of clay content obtained is ' gms
SIE+E )N)(*SIS or% ,R)IN -INENESS TEST
he grain si7e# distribution# grain fitness are determined with the help of the fitness testing of
moulding sands. he apparatus consists of a number of standard sieves mounted one above the
other# on a power driven sha!er.
he sha!er vibrates the sieves and the sand placed on the top sieve gets screened and collects on
different sieves depending upon the various si7es of grains present in the moulding sand.
he top sieve is coarsest and the bottom&most sieve is the finest of all the sieves. )n between
sieve are placed in order of fineness from top to bottom.
Procedure
1. *ample of dry sand 8clay removed sand9 placed in the upper sieve
2. *and is vibrated for definite period
3. he amount of same retained on each sieve is weighted.
". :ercentage distribution of grain is computed.
Tabulation and Observation
PERME).I(IT* TEST
he $uantity of air that will pass through a standard specimen of the sand at a particular pressure
condition is called the permeability of the sand.
4ollowing are the ma;or parts of the permeability test e$uipment<
1. ,n inverted bell ;ar# which floats in a water.
2. *pecimen tube# for the purpose of hold the e$uipment
3. , manometer 8measure the air pressure9

Procedure
1. he air 82000cc volume9 held in the bell ;ar is forced to pass through the sand specimen.
2. ,t this time air entering the specimen e$ual to the air escaped through the specimen
3. a!e the pressure reading in the manometer.
". 0ote the time re$uired for 2000cc of air to pass the sand
5. (alculate the permeability number
3. Permeabilit/ number N% = + 0 1% & ) 0 P 0 T%%
Observation
=&=olume of air 8cc9 '
H&Height of the specimen 8mm9 '
,&,rea of the specimen 8mm
2
9 '
:&,ir pressure 8gm > cm
2
9 '
&ime ta!en by the air to pass through the sand 8seconds9 '
STREN,T1 TEST
Measurements of strength of moulding sands can be carried out on the universal sand strength
testing machine. he strength can be measured in compression# shear and tension.
he sands that could be tested are green sand# dry sand or core sand. he compression and shear
test involve the standard cylindrical specimen that was used for the permeability test.
,REEN COMPRESSION STREN,T1
?reen compression strength or simply green strength generally refers to the stress re$uired to
rupture the sand specimen under compressive loading. he sand specimen is ta!en out of the
specimen tube and is immediately 8any delay causes the drying of the sample which increases the
strength9 put on the strength testing machine and the force re$uired to cause the compression
failure is determined. he green strength of sands is generally in the range of 30 to 130 @:a.
,REEN S1E)R STREN,T1
%ith a sand sample similar to the above test# a different adapter is fitted in the universal machine
so that the loading now be made for the shearing of the sand sample. he stress re$uired to shear
the specimen along the a2is is then represented as the green shear strength. )t may vary from 10
to 50 @:a.
MOU(2 1)R2NESS TEST
Hardness of the mould surface can be tested with the help of an Aindentation hardness testerB. )t
consists of indicator# spring loaded spherical indenter.
INTRO2UCTION TO -OUN2R*
, foundr/ is a factory which produces metal casting from either ferrous or non&ferrousalloys.
Metals are turned into parts by melting the metal into a li$uid# pouring the metal in a mold# and
then removing the mold material or casting. he most common metal alloys processed
are aluminium and cast iron. However# other metals# such as steel# magnesium# copper# tin# and
7inc# can be processed.
Process:
)n the casting process a pattern is made in the shape of the desired part. his pattern is made out
of wood# plastic or metal. *imple designs can be made in a single piece or solid pattern. More
comple2 designs are made in two parts# called split patterns. , split pattern has a top or upper
section# called a cope# and a bottom or lower section called a drag. Coth solid and split patterns
can have cores inserted to complete the final part shape. %here the cope and drag separates is
called the parting line. %hen ma!ing a pattern it is best to taper the edges so that the pattern can
be removed without brea!ing the mold.
he patterns are then pac!ed in sand with a binder# which helps to harden the sand into a semi&
permanent shape. 1nce the sand mold is cured# the pattern is removed leaving a hollow space in
the sand in the shape of the desired part. he pattern is intentionally made larger than the cast
part to allow for shrin!age during cooling. *and cores can then be inserted in the mold to create
holes and improve the castingDs net shape. *imple patterns are normally open on top and melted
metal poured into them. wo piece molds are clamped together and melted metal is then poured
in to an opening# called a gate. )f necessary# vent holes will be created to allow hot gases to
escape during the pour. he pouring temperature of the metal should be a few hundred degrees
higher than the melting point to assure good fluidity# thereby avoiding prematurely cooling#
which will cause voids and porosity. %hen the metal cools# the sand mold is removed and the
metal part is ready for secondary operations# such as machining and plating. *and casting is the
least e2pensive of all of the casting processes.
)dvantages
he finished product of a foundry can be more geometrically comple2 than the product of
a rolling# forging# or machining process li!e milling or turning. he mechanical properties of
castings are e$ual in every direction# which ma!es them more suitable for multi&directional
loading conditions. , foundry is the original way to produce near net shape parts. (astings
fre$uently do not re$uire or only re$uire a little machining to create the finished part.
Ste3s involved
":# Melting
Melting is performed in a furnace. =irgin material# e2ternal scrap# internal scrap# and alloying
elements are used to charge the furnace.he process includes melting the charge# refining the
melt# ad;usting the melt chemistry and tapping into a transport vessel. 5efining is done to remove
deleterious gases and elements from the molten metal. Material is added during the melting
process to bring the final chemistry within a specific range specified by industry and>or internal
standards.Euring the tap# final chemistry ad;ustments are made.
-urnace:
Modern furnace types include Electric )rc -urnaces E)-%#Induction -urnaces# Cu3olas4
and crucible furnaces4 Reverberator/. 4urnace choice is dependent on the alloy system and
$uantities produced. 4or ferrous materials# F,4s# cupolas# and induction furnaces are commonly
used. 5everberatory and crucible furnaces are common for producing aluminum castings. he
furnace must be designed for temperatures over 3300 (elsius. he fuel used to reach these high
temperatures can be electricity or co!e.
$:#Molding
:rior to pouring a casting# the foundry produces a mold. he molds are constructed by several
different processes dependent upon the type of foundry# metal to be poured# $uantity of parts to
be produced# si7e of the casting and comple2ity of the casting. hese mold processes include<
Sand casting & ?reen or 5esin bonded sand mold.
(ost -oam casting & :olystyrene pattern with a mi2ture of ceramic and sand mold.
Investment lost 5a0% casting & %a2 or similar sacrificial pattern with a ceramic mold
Plaster casting & :laster mold
+#3rocess casting & =acuum is used in con;unction with thermoformed plastic to form
sand molds. 0o moisture# clay or resin is needed for sand to retain shape.
2ie casting & Metal mold.
.illet ingot% casting& *imple mold for producing ingots of metal normally for use in
other foundries.
6:# Pouring
)n a foundry# molten metal is poured into molds. :ouring can be accomplished with gravity# or it
may be assisted with a vacuum or pressuri7ed gas. Many modern foundries use robots or
automatic pouring machines for pouring molten metal. raditionally# molds were poured by hand
using ladles.
7:#S8a9eout
he solidified metal component is then removed from its mold. %here the mold is sand based#
this can be done by sha!ing or tumbling. his frees the cast component# which will still be
attached to the metal runners and gates & which are the channels through which the molten metal
travelled to reach the component itself.
::#2egating
Eegating is the removal of the heads# runners# gates# and risers from the casting. 5unners# gates#
and risers may be removed using cutting torches# band saws or ceramic cutoff blades. 4or some
metal types# and with some gating system designs# the sprue# runners and gates can be removed
by brea!ing them away from the casting with a hammer or specially designed !noc!out
machinery. 5isers must usually be removed using a cutting method but some newer methods of
riser removal use !noc!off machinery with special designs incorporated into the riser nec!
geometry that allow the riser to brea! off at the right place.
;:#Surface cleaning
,fter Eegating# sand or other molding media may adhere to the casting. o remove this the
surface is cleaned using a blasting process. his means a granular media will be propelled
against the surface of the casting to mechanically !noc! away the adhering sand. he media may
be blown with compressed air# or may be hurled using a shot wheel. he media stri!es the
casting surface at high velocity to dislodge the molding media 8for e2ample# sand9 from the
casting surface. 0umerous materials may be used as media# including steel# iron# other metal
alloys# aluminum o2ides# glass beads# walnut shells# ba!ing powder or numerous other materials.
he blasting media is selected to develop the color and reflectance of the cast surface. erms
used to describe this process include cleaning# blasting# shotblasting and sand blasting of
castings.
<:#-inis8ing
he final step in the process usually involves grinding# sanding# or machining the component in
order to achieve the desired dimensional accuracies# physical shape and surface finish.
5emoving the remaining gate material# called a gate stub# is usually done using
a grinder or sanding. hese processes are used because their material removal rates are slow
enough to control the amount of material. hese steps are done prior to any final machining.
,fter grinding# any surfaces that re$uires tight dimensional control are machined. Many castings
are machined in (0( milling centers. he reason for this is that these processes have better
dimensional capability and repeatability than many casting processes. However# it is not
uncommon today for many components to be used without machining.
INTRO2UCTION TO -OR,IN,
, process of wor!ing metal to a finished shape by hammering or pressing and is primarily a
GhotG operation. )t is applied to the production of shapes either impossible or too costly to ma!e
by other methods or needing properties not obtainable by casting. (ategories of forgings include
Hammer# :ress# Erop or *tamping.
4orging dates bac! to ancient times and was associated with the village blac!smith. =irtually all
ductile metals may be forged by first preheating the wor! piece to a forging temperature. he
wor! piece can be a billet# a wrought bar# a cast or sintered ingot etc. he forging process can
then be completed by hammering the wor! piece to the desired shape.
4orging has a mar!ed beneficial effect on the metals being shaped. heir toughness and
strength are improved because the process results in a beneficial orientation of the metal grain
structure. he repeated hot wor!ing causes the metal to become more dense and the grain Gflow
linesG to follow the contour of the final component.
here are a number of variations of the forging process a number are listed below.
19 1pen Eie>hammer or smith forging
29 Erop forging. 8(losed die9
39 :ress forging
"9 Hpset forging
59 *waging
39 5oll forging.
O3en 2ie -orging
1pen die 8smith forgings9 are made by using steam or air hammers or presses in con;unction
with blac!smith tools or flat type dies. here is little lateral confinement of the wor! piece. he
desired shape is obtained by manipulating the wor!piece between blows.
his process employs low cost tooling# is relatively simple# but has less control in determining
grain flow# mechanical properties and dimensions than other forging methods. his process can
only be carried out by s!illed operators.
%ith this process only parts of simple shape can be made. However depending on the si7e of he
hammer used forgings of up to I0 te can be made.
Closed 2ie -orging
his process is based on hammering the wor! pieces into into the desired shape by means of
closing dies. he hammering or pressing is performed# respectively# by a mechanical or hydraulic
press. *mall and medium si7ed forgings are generally made in presses ranging in capacity from
500 to 10000 te.
(losed die forgings have good dimensional accuracy# with improved mechanical properties
compared to open die forgings. he process has good reproducibility and rapid production rates
are possible. he initial cost of tooling is very high.
(losed die forging can be used to produce parts from a few grammes to 100 !g.
Press -orging
)n this process a slow s$uee7ing action is used to form the metal. he slow s$uee7ing action
penetrates the entire wor!piece allowing the process to be used for the forging of large
ob;ects. :ress forges are made in si7es of up to 50#000 te. Hpt to 15000 te the presses may be
mechanical or hydraulic. he larger presses are always hydraulically powered.
:ress forgings may use either open dies or closed dies. the latter are used for smaller
components which may be fully formed in one forging stro!e.
his process may is used for the production of large ob;ects train wheels and aircraft landing
gear parts
.
U3set -orging
his process uses barstoc! which is heated at the end which is being forged. he bar is
grippedin the fi2ed half of a die so that the length of material being forged pro;ects. he forging
blow is delivered by a moving die. *imple shapes are produced in a single stage but more
complicated shapes re$uire multiple stages.
he process# if carried out cold is called cold heading
S5aging
*waging is the forging method used for si7ing# pointing# tapering# and otherwise shaping of the
ends of rods or tubing.
Rolling
5olling is the most important metal wor!ing process and can be performed on either hot or cold
metal. Material is passed between cast of forged steel rolls which compress it and move it
forward. 5olling is a economical method of deformation if metal is re$uired in long lengths of
uniform cross section. 0ormal rolling achieves thic!ness reduction of about 2<1.
Slabs and blooms
)ngots are first rolled into either rectangular slabs or s$uare blooms which are produced as
intermediate stages. )n this rolling process the ingots are passed through the plain rolls
repeatedly in one direction and then in the reverse direction at each stage the rolls are brought
closer together. )f s$uare blooms are re$uired the material is rotated through I0
o
between rolling
operations.
Plates Stri3s and Sections
he rolling process can be used to produce plates# strips and rolled sections including channels#
Hniversal (olumns angles sections etc. he plates and strips are generally formed using plain
rolls. he rolls can bow which results in the plate being thic!er at the middle. he rolls can be
bac!ed up in four high roll arrangements. with additional rolls to reduce this tendency..
Planetar/ rolling mills
*mall diameter rollers are more effective than large ones in conveying rolling forces to
deforming metal. :lanetary mills ta!e advantage of this principle. his process can achieve
thic!ness reductions of up to 25<1