Physics report

2013 by Khyati Kansagra, Bij Javia and Saurav Kini. Page 1

Index








Sr.no Topic Page Number
1.1 Introduction 2
1.2 Brief history of X-ray 3
1.3 X-radiation 4
1.4 Properties of X-rays 5-6
1.5 Interactions with matter 6
1.6 Bremsstrahlung Radiation and Moseley plot of
characteristic X-rays
7-8
1.7 X-rays machine 9-11
1.8 Radiation dosage 11
1.9 Chest radiograph 12-13
2.0 Radiographic films 14-16
2.1 Cassettes 16
2.2 Digital radiography 17
2.3 Computerized Tomography 18
2.4 Radiation safety 19
3.0 Terms related to the report 20-21
3.1 Citations 22

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1.1 Introduction
Pneumonia is a one of the deadliest forms of an Acute Respiratory Infection (ARI)
1
that
affects the lungs. It is primarily the inflammation of the lungs (or a part of a lung) caused
mostly by bacteria or viruses and more rarely other microorganism or as a result of the
use of certain drugs (that make the human immune system more susceptible). As a result,
pus (and other fluid) is produced, which fills the alveoli (the small air sacs which are
present in the lungs.
The presence of fluid in the lungs causes certain areas to be dense when viewed in an X-
ray. Thus A chest radiograph is frequently used in diagnosis, imaging is only needed in
people with mild disease, imaging is needed only in those with potential complications,
those who have not improved with treatment, or those in which the cause in uncertain.
X-ray presentations of pneumonia may be classified as lobar pneumonia,
bronchopneumonia (also known as lobular pneumonia), and interstitial
pneumonia
2.
Bacterial
3
, community-acquired pneumonia
4
, classically show lung
consolidation
5
of one lung segmental lobe which is known as lobar pneumonia
6.
However, findings may vary, and other patterns are common in other types of
pneumonia. Aspiration pneumonia
7
may present with bilateral opacities primarily in the
bases of the lungs and on the right side.
Radiographs of viral pneumonia
8
may appear normal, hyper-inflated, have bilateral
patchy areas, or present similar to bacterial pneumonia with lobar consolidation.
Radiologic findings may not be present in the early stages of the disease, especially in the
presence of dehydration; or may be difficult to be interpreted in those who are obese or
have a history of lung disease. A CT scan can give additional information in
indeterminate cases, thus we will discuss this a little bit later.
An X-ray by definition is a form of electromagnetic radiation. X-rays have a wavelength
in the range of 0.01 to 10 nanometers (or 10
-3
to 1 ), corresponding to frequencies in the
range 30 petahertz to 30 exahertz (310
16
Hz to 310
19
Hz) and energies in the range 100
eV to 100 keV. The wavelengths are shorter than those of UV rays and longer than those
of gamma rays. In many languages, X-radiation is called Rntgen radiation, after the
Wilhelm Rntgen.
9


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1.2 The brief history of X-rays:
German physicist Wilhelm Rntgen is usually credited as the discoverer of X-rays in
1895, because he was the first to systematically study them, though he is not the first to
have observed their effects. He
is also the one who gave them
the name X-rays, though
many referred to these as
Rntgen rays (as discussed
earlier) for several decades
after their discovery.
Hand mit Ringen (Hand with
Rings) print of Wilhelm
Rntgen's first "medical" X-
ray, of his wife's hand (Anna
Bertha Ludwig), taken on 22
December 1895(Diagram II)
Diagram I (old cathode tubes)
X-rays were found emanating from Crookes tubes
(experimental discharge tubes invented around 1875, by
scientists investigating the cathode rays i.e., energetic
electron beams, that were first created in the tubes.) Crookes
tubes created free electrons by ionization of the residual air in
the tube by a high DC voltage of anywhere between a few
kilovolts and 100 kV. This voltage accelerated the electrons
coming from the cathode to a high enough velocity that they
created X-rays when they struck the anode or the glass wall
of the tube. Many of the early Crookes tubes undoubtedly
radiated X-rays.
Diagram II- Hand mit Ringen


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1.3 X-radiation (Composed of X-rays)
X-rays have a wavelength in the range of 0.01 to 10 nanometers (or 10
-3
to 1 ),
corresponding to frequencies in the range 30 petahertz to 30 exahertz (31016 Hz to
31019 Hz) and energies in the range 100 eV to 100 keV (as described in Introduction).
X-rays are produced when electrons strike a metal target. The electron are liberated from
a heated filament and accelerated towards a metal (preferably a heavy metal). The X-rays
produced when these accelerated electrons collide with the nuclei of the metal target.
Diagram III
Essentially,
there are two
types of X-
radiations: X-rays
with photons
energies of 5-10
keV (below 0.2-
0.1 nm
wavelength) are
called hard X-
rays, while
those with lower energy are called soft X-rays. This classification is based on energy and
consequently their penetration powers. Hard X-rays are widely used to image the inside
of objects, e.g. in medical radiography and airport security. As a result, the term X-ray is
metonymically used to refer to a radiographic image produced using this method, in
addition to the method itself. Since the wavelengths of hard X-rays are similar to the size
of atoms they are also useful for determining crystal structures by X-ray crystallography.
On the other hand, soft X-rays are easily absorbed in air and the attenuation
10
length of
600 eV (~2 nm) X-rays in water is less than 1 micrometer. The difference between X-
rays and Gamma rays is not well known to most people, but one difference between the
two is that X-rays are emitted by electrons, while gamma rays are emitted by the atomic
nucleus. Due to all these features of X-rays (X-radiation), it finds great application in
radiography - use of X-rays to view a non-uniformly composed material (i.e. of varying
density and composition) such as the human body.

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1.4 Properties of X-rays
Fluorescence
X-Rays cause certain substances to fluoresce, i.e. to emit light in the visible
spectrum after absorbing X-rays.
Such substances include calcium tungstate or rare-earth phosphors, both found in
intensifying screens (q.v.).
Photographic effect
X-Rays produce a 'latent image' (invisible to the eye) on photographic film.
This image is made visible by processing the film.
Penetration
X-Rays can penetrate substances or tissues that are opaque to visible light.
They are gradually absorbed the further they pass through an object.
The amount of absorption depends on the atomic number and density of the object
and on the energy of the X-Rays.
Excitation and ionisation
X-Rays produce excitation and ionization of the atoms and molecule of the
substances through which they pass.
Excitation is the process of raising an electron to a higher energy level.
Ionisation is the process in which an electron is completely removed from an
atom.
Biological effect
X-Rays interact with living tissue and can cause biological changes.
These changes are mediated directly by excitation or ionisation of atoms or
indirectly as a result of chemical changes occurring near the cells.
Affected cells may be damaged or killed.
Genetic effects involve chromosomal damage or mutation in the reproductive cells
and will affect future generations.

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Somatic effects involve damage to the other tissues and result in changes within
the individual's lifetime (e.g. radiation burns, leukaemia).
Radiation is a particular hazard because its effects are painless, latent and
cumulative.

1.5 Interactions with Matter
When a beam of X-Rays passes through matter, its intensity is reduced as the
energy is absorbed or scattered.
The degree of attenuation(explained in terms related) depends on the atomic
number and physical density of the tissue, and the energy of the X-Rays.
The differential absorption of X-Rays by the various tissues of the patient allows a
radiographic image to be made.

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1.6 Bremsstrahlung Radiation and Moseley plot of characteristic X-rays (Higher
lever): applicable to characteristic X-rays (known so as they are associated
with atomic levels)
Even though both of these topics were extremely detailed, we decided to discuss them
due to their immense historical importance.
Characteristic x-rays are emitted from heavy
elements when their electrons make transitions
between the lower atomic energy levels. The
characteristic x-rays emission which shown as
two sharp peaks in the diagram on the left occur
when vacancies are produced in the n=1 or K-
shell of the atom and electrons drop down from
above to fill the gap (n=2 or n=3).
The x-rays produced by transitions from the n=2
to n=1 levels are called K-alpha x-rays, and those
for the n=3 to n=1 transition are called K-beta x-
rays.
Diagram IV Showing the Bremsstrahlung continuum
Transitions to the n=2 or L-shell are designated as L x-rays (n=3->2 is L-alpha, n=4->2
is L-beta, etc.).
The continuous distribution of x-rays which forms the base for the two sharp peaks at left
is called bremsstrahlung radiation. The word bremsstrahlung is derived from
bremsen to brake and Strahlung radiation, i.e. braking radiation.






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X-ray production typically involves bombarding a metal target in an x-ray tube (which
we will be discussing ahead) with high speed electrons which have been accelerated by
tens to hundreds of kilovolts of potential. The bombarding electrons can eject electrons
from the inner shells of the atoms of the metal target. Those vacancies will be quickly
replaced by electrons from higher levels, emitting x-rays with sharply defined frequencies
associated with the difference between the atomic energy levels of the target atoms.
Moseley
10
measured and plotted the x-ray frequencies for about 40 of the elements of the
periodic table for the first time by
Moseley. He showed that the K-alpha
x-rays followed a straight line when
the atomic number Z versus the square
root of frequency was plotted.
From his observations a formula was
derived,

Where;

K
= Frequency of the K-alpha X-
ray,
Z= Atomic number (NOT MASS)






Diagram V- Moseley plot

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1.7 X-ray machine or X-ray Generator
Diagram VI -Block Diagram of X-Rays machine
The production of X-rays:

Diagram VII Production of X-rays

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X-rays can be produced with the help of high vacuum tube with a heater (coil), cathode
and anode. Vacuum tube is operated at very high voltage. A special electron tube
(vacuum tube) is shown in the diagram VII which is used for production of x-rays. Such a
tube has a hot filament(Tungsten) cathode an anode made a very heavy metal(Mostly
Tungsten too). Electrons flow from the cathode to anode as in any diode tube. However a
large DC voltage is used between cathode and anode of x-rays tube. When heater is on
and very high voltage from the anode to cathode is applied the electron emits from
cathode and travel toward the anode with very high Velocity, as clear from Diagram VII,
this beam of electron strike the metal anode such speed that new rays are made from the
slanting surface of the anode these X-rays seem to bounce sideways and out of the tube.
As the DC voltage (anode-to-cathode of the x-rays tube) is increased, the wave length of
X-rays decreases.
Working of X-ray machine: (Diagram VI)
High voltage source and high voltage transformer: High voltage source is
responsible for providing high voltage to the H.V transformer for a decided time.
The H.V transformer produces 20 KV to 200 KV at the O/P. These voltages are
used to determine the contrast of the image. High voltages have higher contrast.

High voltage rectifier: This rectifier rectifies the high voltage produced by the
H.V.T and supplies them to the anode of the X-ray tube.

Thermal overload detector: The heat of the X-ray tube (should not be increase by a
specified range). If the heat is exceed from a specified value, and then the thermal
over load detector is used to turn off system.

Rotor control: Most of the X-ray tube anodes are rotated by an induction motor, in
order to limit beam power at any spot and helps to cool the anode as spinning it
helps reduce the temperature.

Pulse duration timer: The duration of the time must be very small so that ,the
patient does not receive the excessive dose and the film does not get overexposed.


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Aluminium Filter: The X-ray beam used in the medical field which contains a
broad band of frequencies. The unwanted frequencies in the x-ray based create
side effects Ex. extra dose for patient causing tumor also reduce the contrast in the
image. These are called soft x-ray. To eliminate these effects Aluminum filter is
used. The ideal frequency to use for medical purposes is 7 x 10
8
Hz.

Collimator: Another mean to reduce the dose of patient is to confine the X-ray
beam only on the region of interest on the body of patient. An external collimator
placed between patient and filter does this.

Diaphragm: X-rays inside the patient creates x-ray scattering, which tends to burn
the image, to absorb the scattered x-rays and eliminate the burning of an image a
lead grid is used which is called diaphragm.

Film and lead shield: The X-rays passed from the desired region of the patient
body are made to strike on the film (which will be discussed ahead) where they
produce an image of the body soft and hard parts. A lead shield is use to collect
the x-rays after striking on film.
Thus, the High Voltage source produces high voltage supply, which are rectified by
rectifier and applied to anode of the x-ray tube. Filament supply is also provided. As a
result x-rays tube producing an x-ray beam which is passed through the body and
produces image of body and the film, which is examined in laboratory.
1.8 Radiation Dosage: Sievert (Sv)
The Sievert (named after Rolf Maximilian Sievert) is the International System of Units
(SI) derived unit of equivalent radiation dose, effective dose, and committed dose.
Quantities that are measured in sieverts are designed to represent the stochastic biological
effects of ionizing radiation which is the type of radiation that is used in Medicine. (1 Sv
= 1 J/kg)



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1.9 Chest Radiograph: Commonly called CXR
A chest radiograph is a projection radiograph of the chest used to diagnose conditions
affecting the chest, its contents, and nearby structures. Chest radiographs are among the
most common films taken, being diagnostic of many conditions.
Like all methods of radiography, chest radiography employs ionizing radiation in the
form of X-rays to generate images of the chest. The typical radiation dose to an adult
from a chest radiograph is around 0.02 mSv for a front (PA) view or 0.04 mSv for a side
(lat) view.
The main regions where a chest X-ray may identify problems may be summarized as
ABCDEF by their first letters:
Airways, including hilar adenopathy or enlargement
Breast shadows
Bones, e.g. rib fractures and lytic bone lesions
Cardiac silhoutte, detecting cardiac enlargement
Costophrenic angles, including pleural effusions
Diaphragm, e.g. evidence of free air, indicative of perforation of an abdominal viscus
Edges, e.g. apices for fibrosis, pneumothorax, pleural thickening or plaques
Extrathoracic tissues
Fields (lung parenchyma), being evidence of alveolar filling
Failure, e.g. alveolar air space disease with prominent vascularity with or without pleural
effusions
Various Views possible in a chest radiograph:
Different views of the chest can be obtained by changing the relative orientation of the body and
the direction of the x-ray beams. The most common views are posteroanterior, anteroposterior,
and lateral.
In a posteroanterior (PA) view, the x-ray source is positioned so that x-rays enter through the
posterior (back) aspect of the chest, and exit out of the anterior (front) aspect where they are
detected. To obtain this view, individuals stand facing a flat surface behind which is an x-ray
detector. A radiation source is positioned behind the patient at a standard distance, and x-ray
beams are transmitted toward the patient.

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In anteroposterior (AP) views, the positions of the x-ray source and detector are reversed: x-rays
enter through the anterior aspect and exit through the posterior aspect of the chest. AP chest x-
rays are harder to interpret than PA x-rays and are therefore generally reserved for situations
where it is difficult for the patient to obtain a normal chest x-ray, such as when the patient cannot
get out of bed. In this situation, mobile X-ray equipment is used to obtain a lying down chest x-
ray (known as a "supine film"). As a result most supine films are also AP.
Lateral views of the chest are obtained in a similar fashion as the posteroanterior views, except in
the lateral view, the patient stands with both arms raised and the left side of the chest pressed
against a flat surface.
The diagrams below depict A- a normal chest radiograph,
while B- is a radiograph of a patient with Pneumonia.
Consolidation is evident in B, this is how pneumonia is
diagnosed.
Diagram IX Showing a comparison
between a Normal lung and the lungs
of a Pneumonia patient.


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2.0 Radiographic Film & the physics in them:
After production of X-rays passing them through the chest of the patient, the most
important part of the process of taking a chest radiograph is undertaken, capturing the
image on a film or digital
plate. X-ray films for general
radiography consist of an
emulsion gelatin containing
radiation sensitive silver halide
crystals, such as silver
bromide or silver chloride, and
a flexible, transparent, blue-
tinted base.

Diagram X -: Cross-section through a double emulsion film
The emulsion is different from those used in
other types of photography films to account
for the distinct characteristics of gamma rays
and X-rays, but X-ray films are sensitive to
light. The film base provides the structural
strength for the film. However, the base must
be flexible for ease of processing, essentially
be transparent to light and be dimensionally
stable over time. Early base materials were
Diagram XI: Schematic of an automatic film processor, showing the pathway followed by
film as it is guided by roller mechanisms through the processing solutions.
glass and cellulose nitrate, but more recently cellulose triacetate and polyester have been
adopted. A thin layer of adhesive is then applied to the base and this binds the emulsion
layer. Covering the emulsion is a thin super coat that serves to protect the emulsion from
mechanical damage.

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When x-rays, gamma rays, or light strike the grains of the sensitive silver halide in the
emulsion, some of the Br
-
ions are liberated and captured by the Ag+ ions. This change
is of such a small nature that it cannot be detected by ordinary physical methods and is
called a "latent (hidden) image." However, the exposed grains are now more sensitive to
the reduction process when exposed to a chemical solution (developer), and the reaction
results in the formation of black, metallic silver. It is this silver, suspended in the gelatin
on both sides of the base that creates an image.
Optical Density of an X-ray:
In general radiography, the X-ray image is first converted to a light image using
intensifying screens, which in turn produce a visible pattern of metallic black silver on
the X-ray film. Ultimately, the degree of
blackening is related to the intensity of the
radiation reaching the intensifying screen.
The amount of blackness on the film is
called the optical density, D, which is
defined in For example, if 100 light
photons are incident on a film and only
one is transmitted the film density would
be log
10
(100) or 2. Useful densities in
diagnostic radiology range from about 0.2 to about 2.5. High density means black films.
Characteristic Curve of an X-ray:
If the relationship between the logarithm of the radiation exposure and the optical
density is plotted we obtain a curve known as the Characteristic Curve. For film exposed
with an intensifying screen, this curve is essentially sigmoidal in shape. It is characterized
by:
A toe or region of low gradient at low
exposures,
A region of relatively steep increase in
density for minimal exposure
increases, and
Diagram XII: Characteristic Curve

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A third relatively flat region called the shoulder at high exposures.
The important part of the curve diagnostically is the approximately linear region between
the toe and the shoulder where the density is proportional to the logarithm of the
exposure.
2.1 Cassettes:
A cassette is a light-tight, robust container which will:
Hold the film and intensifying screens in close contact
Protect the film from visible light, since this will blacken the film as well as X-
Rays
Protect the film and screen from damage during use
Two intensifying screens are present within the cassette, either side of the film:
Screens contain materials which fluoresce when bombarded by X-Rays
The radiographic film is sensitive to this visible light emitted by the screens as
well as the X-Rays themselves
The use of both visible light and X-Ray photons allows the reduction of exposure
times
However, film without screens or a cassette is used when very fine detail is
required








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2.2 Digital Radiograph: or Computed Radiograph (CR)
In Computed Radiography the absorption of radiation causes electrons to become trapped
at intermediate energy levels. Phosphors having this property are therefore referred to as
Storage Phosphors. A latent X-ray image
can be recorded using a plate coated with
crystals of barium fluorohalide compounds
which contain trace amounts of europium.
The general form of these compounds is
BaFlX:Eu, where X can be Cl, Br or I or a
mixture thereof. Radiographic information
is recorded by elevating electrons to traps
in the energy gap and the number of filled
traps is proportional to the amount of
Diagram XIII- CR Imaging process
radiant energy absorbed. When stimulated by visible radiation of wavelength around 600
to 680 nm (i.e. red light), the crystals luminesce as the electrons return to their ground
state in the range 300-500 nm (blue).
The plate can be scanned in a raster pattern with a finely focused laser beam, e.g. He/Ne,
and a scanning mirror. The laser light stimulates the release of electrons from the traps
giving rise to the emission of light which is collected by a light guide and fed to a
photodetector, e.g. a photomultiplier tube. The signals generated by the photodetector as
the plate is being scanned are amplified and digitized by an analogue-to-digital converter
(ADC).
The image is in essence built up point by point and line by line to give a digital image
resolution of up to 4k x 4k pixels. Pixel size is typically 0.1 m. The imaging cycle is
completed by flooding the plate with a high intensity sodium discharge lamp that erases
any remnants of the latent image and essentially prepares the plate for reuse.
Digital radiography is obviously much more advantageous than the conventional method
of radiographic films in many ways some which include, plates can be re-used around
20000 times before they have to disposed of and the plate when connected to an Image
display and the X-ray obtained can be enhanced in whichever way required.

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2.3 Computerized Tomography (CT) or Computerized Axial Tomography (CAT):
Computed axial tomography also called computer assisted tomography (CAT scan) is a
medical imaging procedure that uses computer-
processed X-rays to produce tomographic images or
'slices' of specific areas of the body. These cross-
sectional images are used for diagnostic and
therapeutic purposes in various medical disciplines.
Digital geometry processing is used to generate a
three-dimensional image of the inside of an object
from a large series of two-dimensional X-ray
images taken around a single axis of rotation.
CT produces a volume of data that can be
manipulated, through a process known as
"windowing", in order to demonstrate various
bodily structures based on their ability to block
the X-ray beam.
Although historically the images generated were
in the axial or transverse plane, perpendicular to the long axis of the body, modern
scanners allow this volume of data to be reformatted in various planes or even as
volumetric (3D) representations of structures.
Essentially, Computerised Tomography (CT) scan is effectively a more developed version
of using x-ray, i.e. it uses a highly sensitive x-ray beam focused on specific parts of the
body and a detector picks up the beam as it passes through the body.






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3.0 Radiation safety:
To end this project we think that it is necessary to highlight the risks (such as cancer) that
a person is exposed to when an X-ray or a CT scan is done. Although, in real time these
risks are massively downplayed by the benefits of accurate diagnosis-
Protection of the radiographer
Patients should not be held during an exposure unless it is clinically necessary, i.e.
sedation or general anaesthesia is required in many cases
All persons participating in the examination should wear appropriate protective
clothing (lead rubber aprons, gloves/sleeves)
Persons not involved in the radiographic examination should be excluded from the
room
The room should be large and have protective screens for use during exposure
Appropriate dosemeters should be worn to identify if unacceptable exposure to X-
Rays is occurring
Protection of the patient
Use the fastest film/screen combination possible to obtain diagnostic pictures
Collimate the primary beam to include only the area of interest
Use a reasonable film-focal distance
Avoid repeat radiographs by ensuring proper exposure and development
Protection of the public
Doors and walls should be treated as required to prevent escape of radiation
Warning lights should be placed outside the radiography room to signal tube
preparation and exposure
Radiation warning signs should be present on the doors
People under the age of 16 and pregnant women should not be allowed to assist in
radiographic procedures


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2.5 Terms related to the report
1
Acute Respiratory Infection (ARI): They are the illnesses caused by an acute infection
which involves the upper respiratory tract: nose, sinuses, pharynx or larynx. This
commonly includes: tonsillitis, pharyngitis, laryngitis, sinusitis, otitis media, and the
common cold.
2
Interstitial pneumonia: Usual interstitial pneumonia (UIP) is a form of lung disease
characterized by progressive scarring of both lungs.The scarring (fibrosis) involves the
supporting framework (interstitium) of the lung. UIP is thus classified as a form of
interstitial lung disease. The term "usual" refers to the fact that UIP is the most common
form of interstitial fibrosis. "Pneumonia" indicates "lung abnormality", which includes
fibrosis and inflammation.
3
Bacterial Pneumonia: Bacteria are the most common cause of community-acquired
pneumonia (CAP), with Streptococcus pneumoniae isolated in nearly 50% of cases.
Other commonly isolated bacteria include: Haemophilus influenzae in 20%,
Chlamydophila pneumoniae in 13%, and Mycoplasma pneumoniae in 3% of cases;
Staphylococcus aureus; Moraxella catarrhalis; Legionella pneumophila and Gram-
negative bacilli. A number of drug-resistant versions of the above infections are
becoming more common, including drug-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae (DRSP)
and methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA).
4
Community-acquired pneumonia: Community-acquired pneumonia (CAP) is one of
several diseases in which individuals who have not recently been hospitalized develop an
infection of the lungs (pneumonia). CAP is a common illness and can affect people of all
ages. CAP occurs throughout the world and is a leading cause of illness and death.
Causes of CAP include bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites. CAP can be diagnosed by
symptoms and physical examination alone, though x-rays, examination of the sputum,
and other tests are often used. Individuals with CAP sometimes require treatment in a
hospital. CAP is primarily treated with antibiotic medication.
5
Lung consolidation: Is a region of (normally compressible) lung tissue that has filled
with liquid, a condition marked by induration (swelling or hardening of normally soft
tissue) of a normally aerated lung. It is considered a radiologic sign. Consolidation occurs
through accumulation of inflammatory cellular exudate in the alveoli and adjoining ducts.

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Simply, it is defined as alveolar space that contains liquid instead of gas. The fluid can be
pulmonary edema, inflammatory exudate, pus, inhaled water, or blood (from bronchial
tree or hemorrhage from a pulmonary artery). It is clinically important in pneumonia: the
signs of lobar pneumonia are characteristic and clinically referred to as consolidation.
6
Lobar pneumonia: Lobar pneumonia is a form of pneumonia that affects a large and
continuous area of the lobe of a lung
7
Aspiration pneumonia: Aspiration pneumonia is bronchopneumonia that develops due to
the entrance of foreign materials into the bronchial tree, usually oral or gastric contents
(including food, saliva, or nasal secretions). Depending on the acidity of the aspirate, a
chemical pneumonitis can develop, and bacterial pathogens (particularly anaerobic
bacteria) may add to the inflammation.
8
viral pneumonia: Viral pneumonia is a pneumonia caused by a virus
9
WilhelmRntgen: German physics professor who stumbled on X-rays while
experimenting with Lenard and Crookes tubes and began studying them. He wrote an
initial report "On a new kind of ray: A preliminary communication" and on December 28,
1895 submitted it to the Wrzburg's Physical-Medical Society journal. This was the first
paper written on X-rays. He is the first person to receive a Nobel Prize in physics!










Physics report




2013 by Khyati Kansagra, Bij Javia and Saurav Kini. Page 22

3.1 Citations
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/quantum/moseley.html
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/quantum/xrayc.html#c1
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bremsstrahlung
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiographic_equipment
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiography
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-ray
http://www.ndted.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/Radiography/Equipment
Materials/xrayGenerators.htm

The clinical significance of diagnostic modalities: X-rays - Katalin Klra Kiss
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chest_radiograph
http://www.daenotes.com/electronics/industrial-electronics/x-rays-machine-block-
diagram-working#axzz2WN0klYxQ
https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Basic_Physics_of_Digital_Radiography/