Manufacturing Lecture

Manufacturing Technology I
ME 303
Forging of Metals
Chapter 19-2
2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamenals o! Modern Manu!acurin"
#$e
Forged Coponents
Fi"ure %&.% 'a( Schemaic illusraion o! he se)s involved in !or"in" a *ni!e. '+( ,andin"-"ear com)onens !or
he ./0 and ./1 rans)or aircra!, made +y !or"in". 'c( General vie2 o! a &&/ M3 '/0,000 on( hydraulic )ress.
Source4 'a( .ouresy o! he Mundial ,,.. '+ and c( .ouresy o! Wyman-Gordon .om)any.
!200" #ohn $iley % &ons' Inc( M ) *roo+er' Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3,e
Forging
-eforation process in .hich .or/ is copressed
0et.een t.o dies using either ipact or gradual
pressure(
1ldest of the etal foring operations' dating

fro a0out 2000 3 C
4sed to a/e a +ariety of high-strength

coponents( i(e( engine cran/shafts' connecting
rods' gears' aircraft structural coponents' 5et
engine tur0ine parts
6lso' 0asic etals industries use forging to

esta0lish 0asic for of large parts that are
su0se7uently achined to final shape and si8e
Classification of Forging 1perations
Cold +s( hot forging9
:ot or .ar forging ost coon' due

to the significant deforation and the need
to reduce strength and increase ductility of
.or/ etal
Cold forging ad+antage9 increased

strength that results fro strain hardening
Ipact +s( press forging9
Forge haer - applies an ipact load
Forge press - applies gradual pressure

2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamenals o! Modern Manu!acurin"
#$e
Microstructure as a Function of
Manufacturing Method
Fi"ure %&.2 Schemaic illusraion o! a )ar made +y hree di!!eren )rocesses sho2in" "rain !lo2. 'a( .asin" +y
he )rocesses descri+ed in .ha)er %%. '+( Machinin" !orm a +lan*, descri+ed in Par I5 o! his +oo*, and 'c(
!or"in". 6ach )rocess has is o2n advana"es and limiaions re"ardin" e7ernal and inernal characerisics,
maerial )ro)eries, dimensional accuracy, sur!ace !inish, and he economics o! )roducion. Source4 .ouresy o!
For"in" Indusry 0ssociaion.
Types of Forging -ies
Open die forging
Impression die forging
Flashless forging
Figure 19(9 Three types of
forging9 ;a< open die
forging(
1pen--ie Forging
.or/ is copressed 0et.een t.o flat dies' allo.ing etal to
flo. laterally .ith iniu constraint
Figure 19(9
Three types of
forging9 ;0<
ipression die
forging(
Ipression--ie Forging
-ie contains ca+ity or ipression that is iparted to
.or/part
Metal flo. is constrained so that flash is created
Flash is e=cess etal that ust 0e tried off later(
Figure 19(9 Three types of forging ;c< flashless forging(
Flashless Forging
$or/part is copletely constrained
in die
>o e=cess flash is created
The starting +olue ust 0e
controlled +ery closely to atch
the +olue of the die ca+ity(
1pen -ie Forging
Copression of .or/part 0et.een t.o flat dies
&iilar to copression test .hen .or/part has

cylindrical cross section and is copressed
along its a=is
-eforation operation reduces height and

increases diaeter of .or/
Coon naes include upsetting or upset

forging
1pen -ie Forging .ith >o Friction
If no friction ;ideal case< occurs 0et.een .or/
and die surfaces' then hoogeneous deforation
occurs' so that radial flo. is unifor throughout
.or/part height and true strain is gi+en 0y9
.here h
o
? starting height@ and h ? height at
soe point during copression
6t h ? final +alue h
f
' true strain is a=iu
+alue
Figure 19(10 :oogeneous deforation of a cylindrical .or/part
under ideal conditions in an open die forging operation9 ;1< start of
process .ith .or/piece at its original length and diaeter' ;2<
partial copression' and ;3< final si8e(
1pen--ie Forging .ith >o Friction
1pen -ie Forging .ith >o Friction
Estiates of force to perfor upsetting can 0e
calculated9
F = Y
f
A
.here F ? force' l0 ;><@ 6 ? cross-sectional
area of the part' 2 ;in2<@ and Af ? flo.
stress corresponding to the strain' M)a
;l0,in2<(
6rea A continuously increases during the

operation as height is reduced(
Flo. stress Y
f
also increases as a result of
.or/ hardening' e=cept .hen the etal is
perfectly plastic ;i(e( n ? 0<(
!2010 #ohn $iley % &ons' Inc( M ) *roo+er' Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing B,e
1pen--ie Forging .ith Friction
Friction 0et.een .or/ and die surfaces

constrains lateral flo. of .or/' resulting in
0arreling effect
$hen perfored on a hot .or/part .ith cold

dies' the 0arreling effect is ore pronounced'
0ecause of9
a higher coefficient of friction typical in hot

.or/ing and
heat transfer at and near the die surfaces'
:eat transfer at and near die surfaces' cools

the etal and increases its resistance to
deforation
Figure 19(11 6ctual deforation of a cylindrical .or/part in
open die forging' sho.ing pronounced barreling9 ;1< start of
process' ;2< partial deforation' and ;3< final shape(
These effects are ore significant as the

diaeter-to-height ratio increases' due to the
greater contact area(
This cause the actual upsetting force to 0e

greater than the predicted( $e apply a shape
factor for appro=iation
F = K
f
Y
f
A
$here K
f
is the forging shape factor
E=aple 19(2
6 cylindrical .or/piece is su05ected to a cold
upset forging operation( The starting piece is "2
in height and 20 in diaeter( It is
reduced in the operation to a height of 3C (
The .or/ aterial has a flo. cur+e defined 0y
D ? 320 M)a and n ? 0(1"( 6ssue a
coefficient of friction of 0(1( -eterine the force
as the process 0egins' at interediate heights
of C2 ' B9 ' and at the final height of 3C
(
E=aple 19(2
FIG896 %:.%2 8)sein" !orce as
a!uncion o! hei"h h and hei"h
reducion 'ho ; h(. <his )lo is
someimes called he load sro*e curve.
develo)ed !rom he values in his
e7am)le.
Fig 19(13 &e+eral open-die forging operations9 ;a< fullering' ;0<
edging' and ;c< cogging(
Fullering' Edging' and Cogging(
Fullering is a forging operation perfored to

reduce the cross section and redistri0ute the
etal in a .or/part(
It is accoplished 0y dies .ith con+e=

surfaces(
Edging is siilar to fullering' e=cept that the

dies ha+e conca+e surfaces(
Cogging operation consists of a se7uence of

forging copressions along the length of a
.or/piece to reduce cross section and increase
length(
The ter increental forging is soeties

used for this process(
20%0 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamenals o! Modern Manu!acurin"
&$e
Forging a Eod' Fullering' and Edging
Fi"ure %&.7 'a( Sa"es in !or"in" a connecin" rod !or an inernal com+usion en"ine. 3oe he amoun o! !lash
re=uired o ensure )ro)er !illin" o! he die caviies. '+( Fullerin" and 'c( ed"in" o)eraions o )ro)erly disri+ue
he maerial 2hen )resha)in" he +lan* !or !or"in".
&$e
Cogging 1peration on a Eectangular 3ar
Fi"ure %&.& 'a( Schemaic illusraion o! a co""in" o)eraion on a recan"ular +ar. 1lac*smihs use his )rocess o
reduce he hic*ness o! +ars +y hammerin" he )ar on an anvil. 9educion in hic*ness is accom)anied +y
+arrelin", as in Fi". %&.#c. '+( 9educin" he diameer o! a +ar +y o)en-die !or"in"> noe he movemens o! he dies
and he 2or*)iece. 'c( <he hic*ness o! a rin" +ein" reduced +y o)en-die !or"in".
Ipression -ie Forging
;closed--ie Forging<
Copression of .or/part 0y dies .ith in+erse of
desired part shape
Flash is fored 0y etal that flo.s 0eyond die

ca+ity into sall gap 0et.een die plates
Flash ust 0e later tried' 0ut it ser+es an

iportant function during copression9
6s flash fors' friction resists continued etal flo.

into gap' constraining aterial to fill die ca+ity
In hot forging' etal flo. is further restricted 0y

cooling against die plates
Eestricting etal flo. significantly increases
copression' thus forcing filling of intricate details
in the die ca+ity(
Figure 19(1B &e7uence in ipression die forging9 ;1< 5ust prior
to initial contact .ith ra. .or/piece' ;2< partial copression'
and ;3< final die closure' causing flash to for in gap
0et.een die plates(
F=K
f
Y
f
A
?ue o !lash !ormaion and he more com)le7 )ar sha)es,

!orces in his )rocess are si"ni!icanly "reaer and more
di!!icul o analy@e han in o)en-die !or"in".
Ao2ever he !orce !ormula is he same as )revious e=. !or

o)en-die !or"in", +u is iner)reaion is sli"hly di!!eren4
Open-die forging Impression Die Forging
F ? force F ? a=iu force in the
operation
6 ? cross-sectional area of the
part
A ? pro5ected area of the part
including flash
F In ho !or"in", Y
f
= he yield sren"h o! he meal a he elevaed
em)eraure.
F In oher cases, selecion is di!!icul +ecause he srain varies
hrou"hou he 2or*)iece !or com)le7 sha)es.
F K
f
is a !acor inended o accoun !or increases in !orce re=uired o
!or"e )ar sha)es o! various com)le7iies.
Ipression -ie Forging )ractice
&e+eral foring steps often re7uired' .ith

separate die ca+ities for each step
3eginning steps redistri0ute etal for ore

unifor deforation and desired
etallurgical structure in su0se7uent steps
Final steps 0ring the part to final geoetry
Ipression-die forging is often perfored

anually 0y s/illed operator under ad+erse
conditions
6d+antages and Giitations
6d+antages of ipression-die forging

copared to achining fro solid stoc/9
:igher production rates
Gess .aste of etal
*reater strength
Fa+ora0le grain orientation in the etal
Giitations9
>ot capa0le of close tolerances
Machining often re7uired to achie+e

accuracies and features needed
Fig 19(12 Coparison of etal grain flo. in a part that is9 ;a< hot
forged .ith finish achining' and ;0< achined coplete
&$e
*rain Flo.
in Forging
Fi"ure %&.%2 0 )ierced round +ille
sho2in" "rain-!lo2 )aern 'see also
Fi" %&.%2c(. Source: .ouresy o!
,adish .o., Inc.
Fig 19(1C Cross sections of ;a< con+entional and ;0< precision
forgings(
Flashless Forging
Copression of .or/ in punch and die tooling
.hose ca+ity does not allo. for flash
&tarting .or/part +olue ust e7ual die

ca+ity +olue .ithin +ery close tolerance
F
I! he sarin" +lan* is oo lar"e, e7cessive
)ressures may cause dama"e o he die or
)ress.
F
I! he +lan* is oo small, he caviy 2ill no +e
!illed.
)rocess control ore deanding than

ipression die forging
Flashless Forging
3est suited to
F
part geoetries that are siple and
syetrical
F
$or/ aterials such as aluinu and
agnesiu and their alloys
1ften classified as a precision forging

process
Forces reach +alues copara0le to those

in ipression-die forging(
Figure 19(1" Flashless forging9 ;1< 5ust 0efore initial contact .ith
.or/piece' ;2< partial copression' and ;3< final punch and die
closure(
Flashless Forging
&$e
Closed--ie Forging Hersus Flashless
Forging
Fi"ure %&.: .om)arison o! closed-die !or"in" 2ih !lash 'le! side o! each illusraion( and )recision or !lashless
!or"in" 'ri"h side( o! a round +ille. Source 0!er A. <a*emasu, 5. 5a@=ue@, 1. Painer, and <. 0lan.
Fig 19(1I Coining operation9 ;1< start of cycle' ;2< copression
stro/e' and ;30 e5ection of finished part(
Coining
F
&pecial application of closed-die
forging in .hich fine details in the die
are ipressed into the top and
0otto surfaces of the .or/part(
F
6 coon application is the inting
of coins(
F
The process is also used to pro+ide
good surface finish and diensional
accuracy(
&$e
The Coining
)rocess
Fi"ure %&.%0 'a( Schemaic illusraion o! he coinin" )rocess. <he earlies coins 2ere made +y o)en-die !or"in"
and lac*ed )recision and shar) deails. '+( 0n e7am)le o! a modern coinin" o)eraion, sho2in" he 2or*)iece
and oolin". 3oe he deail and su)erior !inish ha can +e achieve in his )rocess. Source4 .ouresy o! . & W
Seel Sam) .o., Inc.
(b)
Forging :aers ;-rop :aers<
6pply ipact load against .or/part
T.o types9
*ra+ity drop haers - ipact energy fro
falling .eight of a hea+y ra
)o.er drop haers - accelerate the ra 0y
pressuri8ed air or stea
-isad+antage9 ipact energy transitted through
an+il into floor of 0uilding
Coonly used for ipression-die forging
Figure 19(19 -rop forging haer' fed 0y con+eyor and
heating units at the right of the scene ;photo courtesy of
Cha0ers0urg Engineering Copany<(
Figure 19(20 -iagra sho.ing details of a drop haer
for ipression die forging(
-rop :aer -etails
Forging )resses
6pply gradual pressure to accoplish
copression operation
Types9
Mechanical press - con+erts rotation of dri+e
otor into linear otion of ra
:ydraulic press - hydraulic piston actuates
ra
&cre. press - scre. echanis dri+es ra
&$e
)rinciples of Harious Forging Machines
Fi"ure %&.%7 Schemaic illusraion o! he )rinci)les o! various !or"in" machines. 'a( Mechanical
)ress 2ih an eccenric drive> he eccenric sha! can +e re)laced +y a cran*sha! o "ive he u)-and-
do2n moion o he ram. '+( Bnuc*le-Coin )ress. 'c( Scre2 )ress. 'd( Aydraulic )ress.
Ta0le 1B(3 &peed range of forging e7uipent
E7uipent &peed J,sJ
:ydraulic press
Mechanical press
&cre. press
*ra+ity drop haer
)o.er drop haer
Counter0lo. haer
0(0C-0(30
0(0C-1(2
0(C-1(2
3(C-B(I
3(0-9(0
B(2-9(0
&$e
Fi"ure %&./ 'a( hrou"h 'c( Sa"es in im)ression-die !or"in" o! a solid round +ille. 3oe he !ormaion o! !lash,
2hich is e7cess meal ha is su+se=uenly rimmed o!! 'see Fi". %&.7(. 'd( Sandard erminolo"y !or various
!eaures o! a !or"in" die.
Fig 19(21 Terinology for a con+entional ipression-die in forging
Design of Impression-Die Forgins:
Parting line.
It is the plane that di+ides the upper die fro the

lo.er die(
Called the flash line in ipression-die forging(
Its selection 0y the designer affects grain flo. in the

part' re7uired load' and flash foration(
The dies should part along a single' flat plane if at

all possi0le( If not' the parting plane should follo.
the contour of the part(
For ost forgings the parting line is usually at the

largest cross-section of the part(
Parting line.
For siple syetrical shapes the parting line is

usually a straight line at the center of the forging'
Cople= shapes' the line ay not lie in a single

plane(
The dies are then designed in such a .ay that they

loc/ during engageent in order to a+oid side
thrust' thus 0alancing forces and aintaining die
alignent(
The parting surface should 0e a plane through the

center of the forging and not near an upper or lo.er
edge(
Draft.
It is the aount of taper on the sides of the part

re7uired to reo+e it fro the die(
The ter also applies to the taper on the sides of

the die ca+ity(
Typical draft angles are 3

o
on aluinu and
agnesiu parts and 2
o
to "
o
on steel parts(
-raft angles on precision forgings are near 8ero(
4pon cooling' the forging shrin/s 0oth radially and

longitudinally' so internal draft angles are ade
larger than e=ternal ones(
Internal angles are a0out "

o
to 10
o
and e=ternal
angles a0out 3
o
to 2
o
(
Webs and ribs.
6 .e0 is a thin portion of the forging that is parallel

to the parting line'
a ri0 is a thin portion that is perpendicular to the

parting line(
These part features cause difficulty in etal flo. as

they 0ecoe thinner(
Fillet and corner radii.
&all radii tend to liit etal flo. and increase

stresses on die surfaces during forging(
Flash.
Flash foration causes pressure 0uildup inside the

die to proote filling of the ca+ity(
This pressure 0uildup is controlled 0y designing a

flash land and gutter into the die(
The land deterines the surface area along .hich

lateral flo. of etal occurs' there0y controlling the
pressure increase inside the die(
The gutter perits e=cess etal to escape .ithout

causing the forging load to reach e=tree +alues(
Design of Impression-Die Forgings:
Flash.
6fter sufficiently constraining lateral flo.' the flash

aterial is allo.ed to flo. into a gutter(
Thus the e=tra flash does not increase the forging load
unnecessary(
6 general guideline for flash clearance 0et.een dies is

3K of the a=iu thic/ness of the forging(
The length of the land is usually t.o to fi+e ties the

flash thic/ness(
Design of Impression-Die Forgings:
*enerous fillets and radii should 0e pro+ided(
Ei0s should 0e lo. and .ide(
The +arious sections should 0e 0alanced to

a+oid e=tree differences in etal flo.(
Full ad+antage should 0e ta/en of fi0er flo.

lines(
-iensional tolerances should not 0e closer

than necessary(
4psetting ;upset forging< and :eading
4psetting is a deforation operation in
.hich a cylindrical .or/part is
increased in diaeter and
reduced in length(
It is .idely used in the fastener industry to
for heads on nails' 0olts' and siilar
hard.are products(
In these applications' the ter heading is
often used to denote the operation(
4psetting ;upset forging< and :eading
More parts produced 0y upsetting than any other
forging operation ;ass-production operation<
)erfored 0oth as open-die forging and as
closed-die forging(
)erfored cold' .ar' or hot on achines called
headers or formers
$ire or 0ar stoc/ is fed into achine' end is
headed' then piece is cut to length
For 0olts and scre.s' thread rolling is then used
to for threads
Figure 19(22 6n upset forging operation to for a head on a 0olt
or siilar hard.are ite The cycle consists of9 ;1< .ire stoc/
is fed to the stop' ;2< gripping dies close on the stoc/ and the
stop is retracted' ;3< punch o+es for.ard' ;B< 0ottos to
for the head(
4pset Forging
Figure 19(23 E=aples of heading ;upset forging< operations9 ;a<
heading a nail using open dies' ;0< round head fored 0y punch'
;c< and ;d< t.o coon head styles for scre.s fored 0y die' ;e<
carriage 0olt head fored 0y punch and die(
:eading ;4pset Forging<
&$e
:eading
Fi"ure %&.%% 'a( Aeadin" o)eraion o !orm heads on !aseners, such as nails and rives. '+( Se=uence o!
o)eraions o )roduce a y)ical +ol head +y headin".
1( The follo.ing three rules should 0e follo.ed9
2( The length of unsupported etal that can 0e gathered or
upset in one 0lo. .ithout in5urious 0uc/ling should 0e liited
to three ties the diaeter of the 0ar(
3( Gengths of stoc/ greater than three ties the diaeter ay
0e upset successfully pro+ided that the diaeter of the ca+ity
is not ore than 1(2 ties the diaeter of the 0ar(
B( In an upset re7uiring stoc/ length greater than three ties the
0ar diaeter and .here the diaeter of the ca+ity is not ore
than 1(2 ties the diaeter of the 0ar ;the conditions of rule
2<' the length of unsupported etal 0eyond the face of the die
ust not e=ceed the diaeter of the 0ar(
6fter Materials and )rocesses in Manufacturing' 0y E( )aul -e*aro' #(T( 3lac/' and
Eonald 6( Dohser' )rentice :all of India' 2001
-esigning parts for upset-forging
&$e
&cheatics illustrating the rules go+erning 4pset forging
;Courtesy of >ationol Machinery Cornpony' Tiffin'1:(<
6fter Materials and )rocesses in Manufacturing' 0y E( )aul -e*aro' #(T( 3lac/' and Eonald 6(
Dohser' )rentice :all of India' 2001
Figure 19(2B &.aging process to reduce solid rod stoc/@ the dies
rotate as they haer the .or/ In radial forging' the
.or/piece rotates .hile the dies reain in a fi=ed orientation as
they haer the .or/(
&.aging
&.aging and Eadial Forging
6ccoplished 0y rotating dies that haer a
.or/piece radially in.ard to taper it as the
piece is fed into the dies
4sed to reduce diaeter of tu0e or solid rod
stoc/
Mandrel soeties re7uired to control shape and
si8e of internal diaeter of tu0ular parts
Radial forging is siilar to s.aging(
The difference is that in radial forging the dies do
not rotate around the .or/piece@ instead' the
.or/ is rotated as it feeds into the haering
dies(

&$e
&.aging
Fi"ure %&.%& 'a( Schemaic illusraion o! he roary-s2a"in" )rocess. '+( Formin" inernal )ro!iles on a u+ular
2or*)iece +y s2a"in". 'c( 0 die-closin" s2a"in" machine sho2in" !ormin" o! a se))ed sha!. 'd( <y)ical )ars
made +y s2a"in". Source4 .ouresy o! J. 9ichard Indusries.
&$e
&.aging .ith and .ithout a Mandrel
Fi"ure %&.%/ 'a( S2a"in" o! u+es 2ihou a mandrel> noe he increase in 2all hic*ness in he
die "a). '+( S2a"in" 2ih a mandrel> noe ha he !inal 2all hic*ness o! he u+e de)ends on he
mandrel diameer. 'c( 67am)les o! cross-secions o! u+es )roduced +y s2a"in" on sha)ed
mandrels. 9i!lin" 'inernal s)iral "rooves( in small "un +arrels can +e made +y his )rocess.
Fig 19(22 E=aples of parts ade 0y s.aging
'a( reducion o! solid soc*, '+( a)erin" a u+e, 'c( s2a"in" o !orm a "roove
on a u+e, 'd( )oinin" o! a u+e, and 'e( s2a"in" o! nec* on a "as cylinder.
Fig 19(2C Eoll forging
Eoll Forging
It is a deforation process used
to reduce the cross section of a cylindrical ;or
rectangular< .or/piece
0y passing it through a set of opposing rolls
that ha+e groo+es atching the desired
shape of the final part(
The rolls do not turn continuously in roll
forging'
rotate through only a portion of one
re+olution
corresponding to the desired deforation to
0e accoplished on the part(
Fig 19(2" 1r0ital forging(
1r0ital Forging
In this process' deforation occurs 0y eans of a
cone-shaped upper die that is siultaneously rolled
and pressed into the .or/part(
the .or/ is supported on a lo.er die' .hich has a
ca+ity into .hich the .or/ is copressed(
3ecause of inclined a=is' only a sall area of the
.or/ surface is copressed at any oent(
6s the upper die re+ol+es' the area under
copression also re+ol+es(
This result in a su0stantial reduction in press load
re7uired to accoplish deforation of the .or/(
FI*4EE 19(2I :u00ing9 ;1< 0efore deforation' and ;2< as the
process is copleted( >ote that the e=cess aterial fored 0y the
penetration of the hu0 ust 0e achined a.ay(
:u00ing
It is a deforation process in .hich a hardened
steel for is pressed into a soft steel ;or other soft
etal< 0loc/(
4sed to a/e old ca+ities for plastic olding and
die casting'
The hardened steel for' called the hu0' is
achined to the geoetry of the part to 0e olded(
&u0stantial pressures are re7uired ;hydraulic
press<(
Coplete foration of the die ca+ity often re7uires
se+eral steps9
hu00ing follo.ed 0y annealing to reco+er the .or/
etal fro strain hardening(
:u00ing
$hen significant aounts of aterial are defored
the e=cess ust 0e achined a.ay(
6d+antages9
it is generally easier to achine the positi+e for
than the ating negati+e ca+ity(
This ad+antage is ultiplied in cases .here ore
than one ca+ity are ade in the die 0loc/(
Isotheral Forging
hot-forging operation in .hich the .or/part is
aintained at or near its starting teperature
during deforation'
usually 0y heating the forging dies to the sae
ele+ated teperature(
the etal flo.s ore readily and the force re7uired
to perfor the process is reduced(
It is ore e=pensi+e than con+entional forging and
reser+ed for
difficult-to-forge etals' such as titaniu and
superalloys' and
cople= part shapes(
Isotheral Forging
It is soeties carried out in a +acuu to a+oid
rapid o=idation of the die aterial(
&iilar to this is hot-die forging'
dies are heated to teperature soe.hat 0elo.
that of the .or/ etal(
Triing
Cutting operation to reo+e flash fro .or/part
in ipression die forging
4sually done .hile .or/ is still hot' so a separate
triing press is included at the forging station

Triing can also 0e done 0y alternati+e
ethods' such as grinding or sa.ing
Figure 19(29 Triing operation ;shearing process< to reo+e
the flash after ipression die forging (
Triing 6fter Ipression--ie Forging
&$e
E=trusion and -ra.ing of Metals
E=trusion
Copression foring process in .hich .or/
etal is forced to flo. through a die opening to
produce a desired cross sectional shape
)rocess is siilar to s7uee8ing toothpaste out of
a toothpaste tu0e
In general' e=trusion is used to produce long
parts of unifor cross sections
&$e
E=trusions and )roducts Made fro
E=trusions
Fi"ure %/.2 67rusions and e7am)les o!
)roducs made +y secionin" o!!
e7rusions. Source: .ouresy o! Baiser
0luminum.
E=trusion ;features<
1( a +ariety of shapes are possi0le' especially
.ith hot e=trusion@
2( grain structure and strength properties are
enhanced in cold and .ar e=trusion@
3( fairly close tolerances are possi0le' especially
in cold e=trusion@ and
B( in soe e=trusion operations' little or no
.asted aterial is created(
2( :o.e+er' a liitation is that the cross section
of the e=truded part ust 0e unifor
throughout its length(
E=trusion ;Types<
T.o 0asic types9
F
-irect e=trusion
F
Indirect e=trusion
Classification 0y .or/ing teperature9
F
cold'
F
.ar' or
F
hot e=trusion(
Finally' Classification 0y .or/ing process
F
continuous process or
F
discrete process(
Figure 19(30 -irect e=trusion(
-irect E=trusion ;forward extrusion<
Coents on -irect E=trusion
6lso called forward extrusion
6s ra approaches die opening' a sall portion
of 0illet reains that cannot 0e forced through
die opening
This e=tra portion' called the butt' ust 0e
separated fro extrudate 0y cutting it 5ust
0eyond the die e=it
&tarting 0illet cross section usually round
Final shape of e=trudate is deterined 0y die
opening
The largest diension of the die opening ust 0e
saller than the diaeter of the 0illet(
E=trusion
F
significant friction e=ists 0et.een the .or/
surface and the .alls of the container as the
0illet is forced to slide(
F
This causes a su0stantial increase in the ra
force(
F
In hot e=trusion' the friction pro0le is
aggra+ated 0y the o=ide layer on the surface of
the 0illet(
F
The o=ide layer also can cause defects in the
e=truded product(
&$e
-irect-E=trusion
Fi"ure %/.% Schemaic illusraion o! he direc-e7rusion )rocess.
E=trusion
F
6 duy 0loc/ is often used 0et.een the ra
and the .or/ 0illet to address these pro0les(
F
The diaeter of the duy 0loc/ is slightly
saller than the 0illet diaeter(
F
so that a narro. ring of .or/ etal ;ostly the
o=ide layer< is left in the container' lea+ing the
final product free of o=ides(
E=trusion ;:ollo. sections<
F
The starting 0illet is prepared .ith a hole
parallel to its a=is(
F
This allo.s passage of a andrel that is
attached to the duy 0loc/(
F
6s the 0illet is copressed' the aterial is
forced to flo. through the clearance 0et.een
the andrel and the die opening(
Figure 19(31 ;a< -irect e=trusion to produce a hollo. or sei hollo.
cross sections@ ;0< hollo. and ;c< sei hollo. cross sections(
:ollo. and &ei-:ollo. &hapes
Tubing is e=truded fro a solid or hollo. 0illet to .all
thic/ness as sall as 1 (
For solid 0illets' the ra is fitted .ith a andrel that
pierces a hole in the 0illet(
3illets .ith a pre+iously pierced hole ay also 0e
e=truded in this .ay(
3ecause of friction and se+erity of deforation' thin-
.alled e=trusions are ore difficult to produce than
thic/-.alled e=trusions(
$all thic/ness is usually liited to 1 for
aluinu' 3 for car0on steel' and 2 for
stainless steels(
:ollo. and &ei-:ollo. &hapes
Figure 19(32 Indirect e=trusion to produce ;a< a solid
cross section and ;0< a hollo. cross section(
Indirect E=trusion
Coents on Indirect E=trusion
6lso called backward extrusion and reverse
extrusion
Giitations are iposed 0y
Go.er rigidity of hollo. ra
-ifficulty in supporting e=truded product as it
e=its die
There are practical liitations on the length
of the e=truded part(
&upport of the ra 0ecoes a pro0le as
.or/ length increases(
part cross section ust 0e unifor
throughout length

6d+antages of E=trusion
Hariety of shapes possi0le' especially in hot
e=trusion
*rain structure and strength enhanced in cold
and .ar e=trusion
Close tolerances possi0le' especially in cold
e=trusion
In soe operations' little or no .aste of
aterial
&ince the 0illet does not o+e relati+e to the
container@ no friction at container .alls' hence
lo.er ra force copared to direct e=trusion(
:ot +s( Cold E=trusion
:ot e=trusion - prior heating of 0illet to a0o+e its
recrystalli8ation teperature
Eeduces strength and increases ductility of
the etal' peritting ore si8e reductions
and ore cople= shapes
Cold e=trusion - generally used to produce
discrete parts
The ter ipact e=trusion is used to indicate
high speed cold e=trusion
&$e
E=trusion Teperature Eanges
Gu0rication in hot e=trusion
Gu0rication is critical in hot e=trusion for
certain etals ;e(g(' steels<'
special lu0ricants effecti+e under the harsh
conditions are used(
*lass is soeties used as a lu0ricant@
reduces friction'
it also pro+ides effecti+e theral insulation
0et.een the 0illet and the e=trusion
container(
6d+antages of :ot % Cold e=trusion
Hot
perits ore e=tree si8e reductions and ore cople=
shapes
reduction of ra force'
increased ra speed' and
ipro+ed grain flo. characteristics in the final product(
Cold
increased strength due to strain hardening'
Close tolerances'
ipro+ed surface finish'
a0sence of o=ide layers' and
high production rates(
eliinates the need for heating the starting 0illet(
Continuous versus Discrete Processing
6 true continuous process operates in steady-
state ode for an indefinite period of tie(
3ut these operations are ultiately liited 0y
the si8e of the 0illet(
These processes are ore accurately
descri0ed as seicontinuous operations(
In a discrete e=trusion operation' a single part
is produced in each e=trusion cycle(
Analysis of Extrusion
Fig 19(33 )ressure and other +aria0les in direct e=trusion
E=trusion Eatio
6lso called the reduction ratio' it is defined as
.here r
x
? e=trusion ratio@ A
o
? cross-sectional
area of the starting 0illet@ and A
f
? final cross-
sectional area of the e=truded section
6pplies to 0oth direct and indirect e=trusion
True strain ;ideal deforation .ith no friction and
no redundant .or/<
;19(20<
The pressure applied 0y the ra
;19(21<
.here ? a+erage flo. stress ;M)a<(
The actual true strain ;epirical relation proposed
0y #ohnson<
;19(22<
.here
x
? e=trusion strain@ a and b are epirical
constants for a gi+en die angle( Typical +alues9
a ? 0(I@ b ? 1(2 to 1(2( Halues of a and b tend
to increase .ith increasing die angle(
The ra pressure to perfor indirect extrusion
;19(23a<
In direct extrusion
.here p
f
? additional pressure re7uired to o+ercoe
friction' ;M)a<@ ? 0illet cross-sectional area'
;2<@ ? coefficient of friction at the container .all@ p
c
?
pressure of the 0illet against the container .all' ;M)a<@
and ? area of the interface 0et.een 0illet
and container .all ;2<(
In the .orst case' stic/ing occurs at the container
.all so that friction stress shear e7uals shear
yield strength of the .or/ etal9
.here As ? shear yield strength' ;M)a<( If .e
assue that ' then
The ra pressure in direct e=trusion
;19(230<
.here the ter 2G,-
0
accounts for the additional
pressure due to friction at the container-0illet
interface( G is portion of the 0illet length
reaining to 0e e=truded' and -
0
is the original
diaeter of the 0illet(

;19(230<
>ote that p is reduced as the reaining 0illet
length decreases during the process(
E7( ;19(230< pro0a0ly o+erestiates ra
pressure(
$ith good lu0rication' ra pressures .ould 0e
lo.er than +alues calculated 0y this e7uation(

Ea force
;19(2B<
)o.er re7uired to carry out the e=trusion
operation is siply
;19(22<
It is possi0le estiate the e=trusion force fro the
forula

&$e
Fi"ure %/./ 67rusion consan k !or various
meals a di!!eren em)eraures. Source4 0!er
P. ,oe2ensein
Fig 12(2 E=trusion constant k for +arious etals at
different teperatures
6fter Manufacturing Engineering and Technology' 0y &( Dalpa/5ian( 1992 0y 6ddison-$esley )u0lishing Copany(
Fig 19(3B Typical plots of ra pressure +ersus ra stro/e ;and
reaining 0illet length< for direct and indirect e=trusion
Example !"#
Extrusion Pressures
6 0illet "2 long and 22 in diaeter is to
0e e=truded in a direct e=trusion operation .ith
e=trusion ratio r
=
? B(0( The e=trudate has a round
cross section( The die angle ;half- angle< ? 90
o
(
The .or/ etal has a strength coefficient ? B12
M)a' and strain-hardening e=ponent ? 0(1I( 4se
the #ohnson forula .ith a ? 0(I and 0 ? 1(2 to
estiate e=trusion strain( -eterine the pressure
applied to the end of the 0illet as the ra o+es
for.ard(
&$e
)rocess Haria0les in -irect E=trusion
Fi"ure %/.& Process varia+les in direc e7rusion. <he die an"le, reducion in cross-secion, e7rusion s)eed,
+ille em)eraure, and lu+ricaion all a!!ec he e7rusion )ressure.
Coents on -ie 6ngle
Go. die angle - surface area is large' .hich
increases friction at die 0illet interface
:igher friction results in larger ra force
Garge die angle - ore tur0ulence in etal flo.
during reduction
Tur0ulence increases ra force re7uired
Figure 19(32 ;a< -efinition of die angle in direct e=trusion@ ;0<
effect of die angle on ra force(
E=trusion -ie Features
Coents on -ie 6ngle
1ptiu angle depends on9
F
.or/ aterial'
F
0illet teperature' and
F
lu0rication
The optiu angle is therefore difficult to
deterine for a gi+en e=trusion 5o0(
-ie designers rely on rules of thu0 and
5udgent to decide the appropriate angle(
1rifice &hape of E=trusion -ie
F
&iplest cross section shape is circular die
orifice
F
&hape of die orifice affects ra pressure
F
6s cross section 0ecoes ore cople='
higher pressure and greater force are re7uired
F
Effect of cross-sectional shape on pressure
can 0e assessed 0y eans the die shape
factor K
x
F
It is the ratio of the pressure re7uired to
e=trude a cross section of a gi+en shape
relati+e to the e=trusion pressure for a round
cross section of the sae area(
Figure 19(3C 6 cople= e=truded cross section for a heat
sin/ ;photo courtesy of 6luinu Copany of 6erica<
Cople= Cross &ection
The die shape factor in e=trusion
;19(2C<
.here C
=
? perieter of the e=truded cross
section' ;<@ and C
c
? perieter of a circle of
the sae area as the e=truded shape' ;<(
This e7uation is 0ased on epirical data ;6ltan
et al< o+er a range of C
=
,C
c
+alues fro 1(0 to
a0out C(0(
For shapes other than round' the pressure for
indirect e=trusion
;19(2"a<

and for direct e=trusion
;19(2"0<
-ie Materials
For ho e7rusion
F
ool and alloy seels.
Im)oran )ro)eries
F
hi"h 2ear resisance,
F
hi"h ho hardness, and
F
hi"h hermal conduciviy o remove hea !rom he )rocess.
!or cold e7rusion
F
ool seels and cemened car+ides.
?esira+le )ro)eries
F
Wear resisance and
F
a+iliy o reain sha)e under hi"h sress are.
.ar+ides are used 2hen hi"h )roducion raes, lon" die li!e,
and "ood dimensional conrol are re=uired.
E=trusion )resses
Either hori8ontal or +ertical
:ori8ontal ore coon
E=trusion presses - usually hydraulically dri+en'
.hich is especially suited to sei continuous
direct e=trusion of long sections
Mechanical dri+es - often used for cold e=trusion
of indi+idual parts
Manufacturing' Engineering % Technology' Fifth Edition' 0y &erope Dalpa/5ian and &te+en E( &chid(
I&3> 0-13-1BI9C2-I( ! 200C )earson Education' Inc(' 4pper &addle Ei+er' >#( 6ll rights reser+ed(
9-M> ;1000-ton< :ydraulic-E=trusion
)ress
Figure 12(1" *eneral +ie. of a 9-M> ;1000-ton< hydraulic-e=trusion press(
ource9 Courtesy of #ones % Gaughlin &teel Corporation(
E=trusion--ie Configurations
Fi"ure %/.7 <y)ical e7rusion-die con!i"uraions4 'a( die !or non!errous meals> '+( die !or !errous meals>
'c( die !or a <-sha)ed e7rusion made o! ho-2or* die seel and used 2ih molen "lass as a lu+rican.
Source4 'c( .ouresy o! ,<5 Seel .om)any.
E=trusion in Creation of Intricate )arts
Fi"ure %/.D 'a( 0n e7ruded E0E#-<E aluminum-ladder loc* !or aluminum e7ension ladders. <his )ar is D mm
'/$%E in.( hic* and is sa2ed !rom he e7rusion 'see Fi". %/.2(. '+-d( .om)onens o! various dies !or e7rudin"
inricae hollo2 sha)es. Source4 '+-d( 0!er B. ,aue and A. Sen"er
-esign of E=ruded Cross-&ections
Fi"ure %/.: Poor and "ood e7am)les o! cross-secions o +e e7ruded. 3oe he im)orance o!
eliminain" shar) corners and o! *ee)in" secion hic*nesses uni!orm. Source: J.G. 1ralla 'ed.(>
Handbook of Product Design for Manufacturing. 3e2 For*4 McGra2-Aill Pu+lishin" .om)any, %:DE.
8sed 2ih )ermission.
E=trusion of :eat
&in/s
Fi"ure %/.%0 'a( 0luminum e7rusion used as a hea sin* !or a )rined circui +oard. '+( ?ie and resulin" hea
sin* )ro!iles. Source4 .ouresy o! 0luminum 67ruders .ouncil.
Ipact E=trusion
F
It is perfored at higher speeds and shorter
stro/es than con+entional e=trusion(
F
used to a/e indi+idual coponents(
F
the punch ipacts the .or/part rather than
siply applying pressure to it(
F
Ipacting can 0e carried out as
o
for.ard e=trusion'
o
0ac/.ard e=trusion' or
o
co0inations of these(
FI*4EE 19(3"
&e+eral e=aples of ipact e=trusion9 ;a< for.ard' ;0< 0ac/.ard'
and ;c< co0ination of for.ard and 0ac/.ard(
Ipact E=trusion
F
Im)ac e7rusion is usually done cold on a variey o!
meals.
F
1ac*2ard im)ac e7rusion is mos common.
F
Producs made +y his )rocess include ooh)ase u+es
and +aery cases.
F
very hin 2alls are )ossi+le.
F
im)acin" )ermi lar"e reducions and hi"h )roducion
raes.
Fig 12(1B &cheatic illustration of the ipact-e=trusion process(
The e=truded parts are stripped using a stripper plate' as they
tend to stic/ to the punch
6fter Manufacturing Engineering and Technology' 0y &( Dalpa/5ian( 1992 0y 6ddison-$esley )u0lishing Copany(
Ipact-E=trusion )rocess
Figure 12(1B &cheatic illustration of the ipact-e=trusion process( The e=truded
parts are stripped 0y use of a stripper plate' 0ecause they tend to stic/ to the punch(
Cold E=trusion E=aples
Figure 12(11 T.o e=aples of cold e=trusion( Thin arro.s
indicate the direction of etal flo. during e=trusion(
Cold-E=truded &par/ )lug
Figure 12(12 )roduction steps for a
cold-e=truded spar/ plug( ource!
Courtesy of >ational Machinery
Copany(
Figure 12(13 6 cross-section
of the etal part in Fig 12(12
sho.ing the grain-flo. pattern(
ource9 Courtesy of >ational
Machinery Copany(
:ydrostatic E=trusion
F
1ne of the pro0les in direct e=trusion is
friction along the 0illetcontainer interface(
F
It can 0e addressed 0y surrounding the 0illet
.ith fluid(
F
This .ay' there is no friction inside the
container(
F
Conse7uently' ra force is significantly lo.er(
F
It can 0e carried out at roo teperature or at
ele+ated teperatures(
F
&pecial fluids and procedures ust 0e used at
ele+ated teperatures(
Fig 19(3I :ydrostatic e=trusion
:ydrostatic E=trusion
F
:ydrostatic pressure on the .or/ increases the
aterialLs ductility(
F
Therefore this process can 0e used on 0rittle
etals(
F
high reduction ratios are possi0le on ductile
aterials(
-isad+antage9
F
the process re7uire preparation of the starting
.or/ 0illet(
F
The 0illet ust 0e fored .ith a taper to fit
snugly into the die entry angle(
F
This esta0lishes a seal to pre+ent fluid fro
s7uirting out(
Types of E=trusion
Fi"ure %/.# <y)es o! e7rusion4 'a( indirec> '+( hydrosaic> 'c( laeral>
1ther E=trusion )rocesses
Fig 12(3 Types of e=trusion9 ;a< indirect@ ;0< hydrostatic@ and ;c< lateral
6fter Manufacturing Engineering and Technology' 0y &( Dalpa/5ian( 1992 0y 6ddison-$esley )u0lishing
Copany(
Fig 19(B2 &oe coon defects in e=trusion9 ;a<
center0urst' ;0< piping' and ;c< surface crac/ing
-efects in E=truded )roducts
Center0urst
;arro.head fracture' center crac/ing' or che+ron crac/ing<
F
6n internal crac/ that de+elops as a result of
tensile stresses along the centerline(
F
tensile stresses tend to occur under conditions
that cause large deforation in the regions of
the .or/ a.ay fro the central a=is(
F
The significant aterial o+eent in the outer
regions stretches the aterial along the center
of the .or/(
F
If stresses are great enough' 0ursting occurs(
F
Conditions that proote center0urst
F
high die angles'
F
lo. e=trusion ratios' and
F
ipurities that ser+e as starting points for
crac/ defects(
Che+ron Crac/ing
Figure 12(1C ;a< Che+ron crac/ing ;central 0urst< in e=truded round steel 0ars(
4nless the products are inspected' such internal defects ay reain
undetected and later cause failure of the parts in ser+ice( This defect can also
de+elop in the dra.ing of rod' of .ire' and of tu0es( ;0< &cheatic illustration
of rigid and plastic 8ones in e=trusion( The tendency to.ard che+ron crac/ing
increases if the t.o plastic 8ones do not eet( >ote that the plastic 8one can
0e ade larger either 0y decreasing the die angle or 0y increasing the reduction
in cross-section ;or 0oth<( ource9 6fter 3( 6+it8ur(
)iping
;tailpipe or fishtailing<
F
defect associated .ith direct e=trusion(
F
it is the foration of a sin/ hole in the end of
the 0illet(
F
The use of a duy 0loc/ .hose diaeter is
slightly less than that of the 0illet helps to a+oid
piping(
&urface Crac/ing
F
results fro high .or/part teperatures that
cause crac/s to de+elop at the surface(
F
They often occur .hen e=trusion speed is too
high' leading to high strain rates and
associated heat generation(
F
1ther factors9
F
high friction and
F
surface chilling of high teperature 0illets(

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Manufacturing Technology I

1ldest of the etal foring operations' dating

4sed to a/e a +ariety of high-strength

6lso' 0asic etals industries use forging to

Cold +s( hot forging9

:ot or .ar forging ost coon' due

Cold forging ad+antage9 increased

Ipact +s( press forging9

Forge haer - applies an ipact load

Forge press - applies gradual pressure

Open die forging

Impression die forging

&iilar to copression test .hen .or/part has

-eforation operation reduces height and

Coon naes include upsetting or upset

6rea A continuously increases during the

Friction 0et.een .or/ and die surfaces

$hen perfored on a hot .or/part .ith cold

a higher coefficient of friction typical in hot

heat transfer at and near the die surfaces'

:eat transfer at and near die surfaces' cools

These effects are ore significant as the

This cause the actual upsetting force to 0e

Fullering is a forging operation perfored to

It is accoplished 0y dies .ith con+e=

Edging is siilar to fullering' e=cept that the

Cogging operation consists of a se7uence of

The ter increental forging is soeties

Flash is fored 0y etal that flo.s 0eyond die

Flash ust 0e later tried' 0ut it ser+es an

6s flash fors' friction resists continued etal flo.

In hot forging' etal flo. is further restricted 0y

?ue o !lash !ormaion and he more com)le7 )ar sha)es,

Ao2ever he !orce !ormula is he same as )revious e=. !or

&e+eral foring steps often re7uired' .ith

3eginning steps redistri0ute etal for ore

Final steps 0ring the part to final geoetry

Ipression-die forging is often perfored

6d+antages of ipression-die forging

:igher production rates

Gess .aste of etal

Fa+ora0le grain orientation in the etal

>ot capa0le of close tolerances

Machining often re7uired to achie+e

&tarting .or/part +olue ust e7ual die

)rocess control ore deanding than

1ften classified as a precision forging

Forces reach +alues copara0le to those

It is the plane that di+ides the upper die fro the

Called the flash line in ipression-die forging(

Its selection 0y the designer affects grain flo. in the

The dies should part along a single' flat plane if at

For ost forgings the parting line is usually at the

For siple syetrical shapes the parting line is

Cople= shapes' the line ay not lie in a single

The dies are then designed in such a .ay that they

The parting surface should 0e a plane through the

It is the aount of taper on the sides of the part

The ter also applies to the taper on the sides of

Typical draft angles are 3

-raft angles on precision forgings are near 8ero(

4pon cooling' the forging shrin/s 0oth radially and

Internal angles are a0out "