-- 90 -- ASI -- An Engineers Guide to Fabricating Steel Structures Vol 2 -- Successful Welding of Steel Structures

7. Inspection and
Testing
A variety of non--destructive techniques is used for weld inspection and is described in
this Section. Inspection is expensive, never 100%effective and may involve destruction
of the component. It is aimed at detecting defective workmanship, rather than preventing
defects from occurring. It is essential that every effort be made to make the component
properly, rather than rely on inspection to identify faults.
Less important non--conformities can be inspected for randomly. Where the risk of
critical non--conformities (defects) is unacceptably high, 100% inspection should be
performed. However, no inspection technique is completely infallible. The risk of
defective work must be minimised by suitably qualified people carrying out the
production work to written process instructions.
7.1. Flaws, Non--Conformities and Defects
All commercial material contains imperfections. In this book, the following terms are
used.
Flaw, Discontinuity or Imperfection: A deviation from perfection in a
material. As well as large detrimental flaws, this includes atomic scale
imperfections such as solute atoms, lattice vacancies, dislocations and
larger imperfections such as impurity particles. The three terms are
synonymous although the terms flaw and imperfection tend to denote a
lowering in quality.
Non--conformity: Aflawthat if found, fails to meet the prescribedstandard.
It does not necessarily cause rejection of the material.
Defect: Aflawthat when assessed fails to meet the prescribed standard, and
causes rejectionof the material. The material has to be repaired or scrapped.
In most NDT publications, the termdefect is synonymous with non--conformity. The
distinction is subtle and only becomes important when considering randominspection or
acceptance based on a fitness--for--purpose assessment.
7.2. Inspection Integrity
Inspectors must not be influenced by those responsible for production and progress. In
the past inspectors have been pressured to accept defective work to avoid cost and
schedule impact. The risk to the fabrication is unacceptable. Product failure may
seriously impact public or operator safetyand risk environmental damage. The fabricator
should realise that they are exposed to expensive consequential damage claims.
-- 91 -- ASI -- An Engineers Guide to Fabricating Steel Structures Vol 2 -- Successful Welding of Steel Structures
7.2.1. Accreditation of Inspection Bodies
The National Association of Testing Authorities, Australia (NATA) has operated the
worlds first and most widely accepted accreditation scheme for inspection laboratories
for many years. Full use of the scheme ensures testing is of the highest integrity. It should
be used wherever possible, and particularly where testing is a contract requirement.
Several points are worth noting about the scheme.
NATA accredits organisations (laboratories) and not individuals, although
the laboratory must have a number of named individuals with recognised
skills who are authorised to sign reports.
NATA has rules regarding the way testing is undertaken and the content,
issue, control and archiving of reports. These rules cover the individuals
allowed to undertake tests, the test equipment used, the way results are
reported and the disposition of test evidence (such as radiographs and field
records).
An organisation gains accreditation by a process of peer review. To
maintain its accreditation it must submit itself to regular audit by NATA.
An organisation is only accredited for the types of testing for which it has
been reviewed and is current. These test types can be restricted. For
example, accreditation may be for radiography of a limited range of
materials.
Organisations performing testing in accordance with NATA rules may
endorse reports with the NATA logo. A test authority may issue a report
without NATA endorsement if testing is not done within NATA rules. It is
incumbent on the purchaser of the testing to order NATA reports when
required.
A fabricator that has accredited in--house inspection is required to satisfy
NATA of the independence of the inspection department from production
areas. It is therefore not necessary to insist on third party inspection.
NATA accreditation covers a variety of testing techniques including NDT,
chemical analysis and mechanical tests. However, it is not fully
comprehensive. For example, there is no NATA accreditation for visual
inspection.
7.2.2. Qualifications in Inspection
People using the major inspection techniques can gain qualifications issued by the
following bodies, all of which are recognised in Australia.
Australian Institute of Non Destructive Testing (AINDT)
Certification Scheme for Weldment Inspection Personnel (CSWIP). This
scheme originates in the UK.
American Society of Non Destructive Testing (ASNT)
7.3. Management of Inspections
All inspection methods are only effective if properly organised. Construction codes and
standards often define the inspections that are to be performed, but sometimes the
engineer has considerable discretion. It is important the following matters are addressed:
-- 92 -- ASI -- An Engineers Guide to Fabricating Steel Structures Vol 2 -- Successful Welding of Steel Structures
The extent of inspection and method of choosing samples
The test method to be used
The acceptance criteria for any flaws which might be found
7.4. Level of Inspection
It is necessary to determine the quantity of inspection during the design and planning
stage. This will depend on the criticality of the weld in question as discussed previously.
A partial inspection may save money, however it must be realised that non--conforming
flaws are likelytooccur inthe un--inspectedportion. The inspectionplanmust ensure that
the risk of a serious undiscovered defect is low.
7.4.1. Inspection Cost
Some NDT can be expensive, and sometimes inspection costs are equivalent to
fabrication costs, so a careful decision is important. It typically takes one hour to inspect
one metre of weld using the ultrasonic method provided access is good and the weld does
not contain large numbers of indications that are above the sensitivity level set. It takes
one hour to inspect five metres of seam using magnetic particle inspection in similar
circumstances. The cost of radiographs is closely related to the number of shots.
Generally, each 300mm of weld requires one radiograph, although there may be
circumstances where it is possible to expose several lengths of film simultaneously.
7.4.2. Importance of Inspection
The level of inspection should be dependent on the chance of a defect being found in a
weld and on the criticality of the weld. Flaws that are acceptable in non--critical welds are
defects in critical items.
The chance of a flaw occurring is dependent on the welding procedure. It is important
procedures are correct and are followed to avoid serious problems like weld cracking.
Mechanised welding processes are less likely to deposit randomflaws than manual ones.
Whenfaults occur, mechanisedprocedures are likelytoproduce longlengths of defective
weld. There is therefore a case to limit the inspection of mechanised welds to just the ends
and randompoints in between, rather than the whole weld length. This is because there is
less chance a critical defect will be missed.
Only the designer knows the importance of each joint. Therefore, there is merit in them
being involved in selection of welds to be inspected. The level of inspection should be
increased around critical areas.
The aim of any inspection is to detect trends in performance and correct them. Testing
should be undertaken early to ensure problems are detected and corrected. Leaving
inspection to the end of the project is likely to lead to disaster.
7.4.3. Amount of Inspection
Sometimes 100% inspection is required. More usually only a proportion of the item is
inspected.
a) Full Inspection
100%inspection of a weld implies that the full length of all welds in that category is to be
inspected by the nominated inspection method. The chance of missing an important
-- 93 -- ASI -- An Engineers Guide to Fabricating Steel Structures Vol 2 -- Successful Welding of Steel Structures
defect is real but small. Even with 100% inspection it must be realised that inspection
methods are fallible. Some non--conformances will be missed, depending on the
sensitivity of the method and the diligence of the inspector. Variation of technique will
affect sensitivity and interpretation of the standard may vary from one inspector to
another. A discontinuity considered compliant by one inspector may be considered
non--conforming by another.
Where a large number of non--conforming flaws are found, it is likely there are many
discontinuities which narrowly pass the inspection standards, with the possibility that a
fraction of these have been miss--interpreted as compliant. This risk is one reason why
safety factors are used in design codes.
b) Random Inspection
Random inspection has a higher risk of missing non--conformities, yet it may be
appropriate for welds of lower criticality. In specifying randominspection, care needs to
be taken to ensure the sample inspected is appropriate. Randominspection should not be
used for examining for critical defects.
Specifications commonly indicate a percentage inspection (5%, 10%) and leave it to the
fabricator and inspector for interpretation. It is important the sample selected is chosen at
random, so that the welder is not aware which welds are to be inspected. Inthe worst case,
the fabricator selects the proportion inspected, sometimes inadvertently by denying the
inspector access to more remote parts.
The sample examined should represent a proportion of a logically defined batch. When
manual welding techniques are employed, it should include some of each welders work.
It may include work done by each procedure or each welding process. The selection
should target the regions where non--conformities are more likely and the most critically
stressed areas. If non--conforming welding is found, it is necessarymore of this batch will
be examined to determine if the non--conformity is a chance event or a symptom of an
endemic problem. Steps can be taken to determine the cause of the non--conformities and
corrections made to correct the problem. If the batch examined is not logical, then the risk
of the problemextending beyondthe sample must be considered. Not to do so should lead
to a loss of confidence in the fabrication.
c) Statistical Sampling Techniques
There are various methods of selection of random samples based on a mathematical
treatment of the probability of determining if a batch contains defects or not. Australian
Standards AS 1199 and AS 1399 describe the principles involved. These statistical
sampling techniques are appropriate to large batches of similar items, and not structural
fabrication, which usually does not fall into this category. In this case welds are not
usually identical and are in relatively small numbers.
7.4.4. Identification of Defects
It is important to establish and follow a standard practice when discovering a defect to
ensure all defects found are repaired, that repairs are not performed inthe wrong location,
and the occurrence of a defect is recorded. The established practice in Australia is that:
The positions of defects are marked with a brightly coloured paint marker
(usually blue) on the workpiece. Any alternative to a paint marker must be
durable. Chalk should not be used.
Only defects are marked in this colour. Pens of this colour are only issued to
inspectors. All other marks (material identification, sentencing to scrap)
are made in different colours.
-- 94 -- ASI -- An Engineers Guide to Fabricating Steel Structures Vol 2 -- Successful Welding of Steel Structures
Defects from NDE methods are recorded on a NATA report. The defect
location is measured from a reference datum established by a standard
practice.
7.5. Visual Inspection
Final visual inspection is the most important inspection method despite being relatively
cheap. It is regarded as the primary inspection method for welds. This is because many of
the defects discovered (particularly lack of cleanliness, spatter, incomplete or excessive
welding, rough profile) may be particularly important, and yet are easy to repair. In
addition, many surface defects may interfere with other NDT techniques.
Final visual inspection is not sufficient. The fabricators inspector or welding supervisor
must make regular visual inspections before and during welding to ensure welds are
made in accordance with procedure to minimise the risk of defects and ensure weld
properties are as required.
7.5.1. Inspection Procedure
There is no Australian Standard describing a test method for visual inspection, although
there is a British Standard (BS 5289). The inspector must ensure that there is sufficient
light and that the access is adequate to ensure the area inspected is systematically and
thoroughly scanned. Visual aids, such as mirrors, torches, gauges, rulers and magnifiers
are used to assist the inspection. Feeling the surface also aids interpretation. The surface
beinginspectedmust be sufficientlyclean. It is quite usual for defects that were missedon
the original inspection, to be revealed when the fabrication is shot blasted to a uniform
grey colour for painting.
7.6. Pre--welding Inspection
This is undertaken by the boilermaker, pipe fitter or fabrication inspector as appropriate
to the level of quality required. Included in the inspection are:
Dimensions of components
Material identification of components
Weld joint dimensions
Weld joint cleanliness and freedom from surface defects
Quality of tack welds
Adequacy of fixtures, clamps or braces
7.6.1. Verification of Welding to the Approved Procedure
In many cases it is essential to verify that the welding procedure is followed, to ensure
welds will meet the required standard. This can be done by random checks of the
following factors on a frequent basis. Such checks can be as frequent as is necessary, and
are often required daily.
Preheat and interpass temperatures
Consumable types
Gas flow rates
Treatment of tack welds
An Engineers Guide
to Fabricating Steel
Structures
Volume 2
Successful Welding of
Steel Structures
By
John Taylor
BSc, Sen.MWeldI
-- iii --
ASI -- An Engineers Guide to Fabricating Steel Structures Vol 2 -- Successful Welding of Steel Structures
Contents
List of Figures v
List of Tables vii
1. Welded Connection Detailing 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2. Weld Preparation Details 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3. Butt Weld Preparations 13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4. Standardised and Prequalified Weld Preparations 17 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.5. Joint Preparations at Skewed Angles 17 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.6. Common Connections 19 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.7. From Design to Manufacture 22 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.8. References 24 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2. Fatigue of Steel Structures 25 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1. Fatigue of Polished Samples 26 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2. Fatigue Tests of Real Structures 26 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3. Fatigue Design using AS 4100 28 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4. Structural Detail Categories 31 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.5. Factors Affecting Fatigue Life 37 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.6. Designing to Improve Fatigue Life 39 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.7. Treatments to Improve Fatigue Life 39 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.8. References 41 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3. Column and Beam Structures 42 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1. Introduction 42 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2. Columns and Beams 42 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3. Rigid and Flexible Connections 46 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4. Welded Connections 47 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5. Trusses 54 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.6. Erection 55 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.7. References 57 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4. Tubular Structures 58 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1. Tubular Material 58 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2. Bend--forming of CHS, SHS and RHS 59 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3. Forming of Tube from Plate 60 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4. Weld Joint Designs 60 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.5. Welding and Inspection of Tubular Joints 67 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.6. References 68 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
-- iv -- ASI -- An Engineers Guide to Fabricating Steel Structures Vol 2 -- Successful Welding of Steel Structures
5. Storage and Processing Containers 69 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.1. Pressure Vessels 69 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2. Design of Tanks and Bins 69 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3. Manufacture of pressure vessels 70 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.4. Manufacture of flat bottomed tanks 70 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.5. References 76 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6. Residual Stress and Distortion 77 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.1. Residual Stress From a Thermal Gradient 77 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2. Residual stress in welds 79 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.3. Consequences of residual and reaction Stress 80 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.4. Measurement of Residual Stress 82 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.5. Reduction of Residual Stress 84 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.6. Distortion and its Control 85 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.7. References 89 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7. Inspection and Testing 90 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.1. Flaws, Non--Conformities and Defects 90 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.2. Inspection Integrity 90 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.3. Management of Inspections 91 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.4. Level of Inspection 92 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.5. Visual Inspection 94 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.6. Pre--welding Inspection 94 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.7. Liquid Penetrant Inspection 95 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.8. Magnetic Particle Inspection 97 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.9. Radiography 102 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.10. Ultrasonic Inspection 107 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.11. Proof Loading Tests 117 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.12. Other Techniques 119 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.13. References 122 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8. Management of Fabrication Quality 123 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.1. Aims of Quality Management 123 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.2. Appropriate Level of Quality Management 123 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.3. Quality Assurance to ISO 9000 125 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.4. AS / NZS / ISO 3834 Quality Requirements for Welding 127 . . . . . . . . . .
8.5. Design and Project Management 129 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.6. Inspection and Test Plan (ITP) 131 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.7. Process Instructions 131 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.8. Welding Procedures 133 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.9. Welding Personnel 135 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.10. Fabrication Inspection 138 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.11. Identification and Traceability 138 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.12. Documentation 141 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.13. References 141 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.14. Examples of Quality Assurance Forms 141 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .