BO GIAO DUC VA AO TAO

TRNG I HC A LAT



TS. LU THE VINH





IEN T HOC













a Lat 2006

BO GIAO DUC VA AO TAO
TRNG I HC A LAT






TS. LU THE VINH






IEN T HOC























a Lat 2006

- 2 - IEN T HOC



LI NOI AU

Giao trnh ien t hoc c bien soan theo chng trnh khung cua
Bo Giao duc & ao tao ban hanh nam 2004 danh cho he ao tao c nhan Vat
ly, da vao cac bai giang ma tac gia a trnh bay cho sinh vien khoa Vat ly
trng ai hoc a lat trong nhng nam gan ay va da vao cuon giao trnh
ien hoc ma tac gia a viet nam 1987. e giup cho sinh vien de dang nam
bat c cac van e cot loi cua kien thc ve ien t hoc, tai lieu c trnh
bay ngan gon, xuc tch, chu trong nhieu en ban chat vat ly cua hien tng
ma khong i sau vao mo ta cac qua trnh thc nghiem cung nh nhng minh
hoa kem theo (sinh vien co the tm oc trong cac tai lieu tham khao). Nhng
tnh toan ly thuyet trong giao trnh s dung cac kien thc toan hoc giai tch toi
thieu ma sinh vien a c trang b trong cac hoc phan ve toan hoc. Cac v du
trong sach ngoai viec minh hoa ng dung cac nh luat con nham muc ch
ren luyen ky nang tnh toan, cung co kien thc va kha nang giai quyet cac bai
toan thc tien. Noi dung giao trnh c chuan b cho 5 n v hoc trnh tng
ng vi 75 tiet len lp, trong o co 60 tiet ly thuyet va 15 tiet bai tap. Noi
dung bai tap sinh vien se c trang b trong cac sach bai tap rieng.
Giao trnh la tai lieu hoc tap cho sinh vien khoa Vat ly, ong thi co the
s dung e tham khao cho sinh vien cac nganh ky thuat khi hoc chng trnh
Vat ly ai cng.
a lat, 2006
TAC GIA








IEN T HOC - 3 -


Chng 1.
IEN TRNG TRONG CHAN KHONG
1.1. IEN TCH, NH LUAT BAO TOAN IEN TCH
VAT DAN IEN VA VAT CACH IEN
I. Khai niem ien tch, ien tch nguyen to.
- Cac hien tng ve s nhiem ien a c biet en t thi co xa,
chung cho thay mot vai tnh chat ien cua vat chat: Mot so vat lieu (thuy tinh,
ebont, ) sau khi co sat vao long thu co the hut c cac vat nhe. Ta noi
chung a b nhiem ien.
- Tng tac gia cac vat nhiem ien cho thay trong t nhien ton tai 2
loai ien tch: ien tch dng va ien tch am. Cac ien tch cung dau th ay
nhau, khac dau th hut nhau. ien tch ton tai di dang cac hat s cap mang
ien. ien tch be nhat ton tai trong t nhien goi la ien tch nguyen to (ky
hieu la e: elementary), co gia tri:
(a)

e = 1,6 10
19
C 1.1)
- Hat c ban mang ien tch nguyen to am la electron: cau thanh vo
nguyen t.
- Hat c ban mang ien tch nguyen to dng la proton (p): la mot trong
hai thanh phan cau tao nen hat nhan nguyen t.
- Hat c ban khong mang ien cung proton cau thanh hat nhan nguyen
t la ntron (n) (tr nguyen t Hydro).
- trang thai bnh thng nguyen t trung hoa ve ien: so proton bang
so electron. Khi nguyen t thu them electron no tr thanh ion am, ngc lai
khi nguyen t b mat electron no bien thanh ion dng.
Mot vat mang ien khi nguyen t cua no tha hoac thieu electron, hoac
do s phan bo lai cac ien tch cha trong vat hoac trong cac phan khac nhau
cua vat (nhiem ien do co sat, do tiep xuc, do hng ng ).

(
a
) ien tch nguyen to la mot trong cac hang so vat ly quan trong cua t nhien.Hien
nay, khoa hoc a biet rang cac hat quark la thanh phan cuoi cung cua vat chat hat
nhan. Chung mang cac ien tch 3 / 2 hoac 3 / e e . Nhng cac hat nay (cac
hat thanh phan cua proton va ntron) khong the ton tai mot cach rieng biet, nen
khong the lay chung lam ien tch nguyen to.

Lu The Vinh
- 4 - IEN T HOC

ien tch cua mot vat bao gi cung bang mot boi so nguyen lan ien
tch nguyen to e :
/q/ = ne, (n = 1, 2, 3 ) (1.2)
II. nh luat bao toan ien tch.
Moi hien tng ve ien c biet cho en nay eu tuan theo nh luat
bao toan ien tch: Trong mot he co lap tong ien tch cua he la mot lng
bao toan.
III. Vat dan ien va vat cach ien.
Vat dan ien la nhng vat co cha cac hat tch ien (cac electron, cac
ion am, ion dng), cac ien tch nay co the di chuyen de dang ben trong vat.
Chang han trong kim loai, do cau truc cua nguyen t mot so electron nam
lp ngoai cung lien ket yeu vi hat nhan co the bt ra khoi nguyen t tr
thanh ien t t do. Cac ien t nay co the chuyen ong t do ben trong khoi
kim loai. Ta noi kim loai la vat dan ien. Trong chat ien phan cac hat tai
ien la cac ion dng va cac ion am. v.v .
Vat cach ien la vat ma trong no khong cha cac ien tch t do.
1.2. TNG TAC TNH IEN, NH LUAT COULOMB.
1. ien tch iem. Nhng vat tch ien ma co kch thc nho hn rat nhieu
so vi khoang cach gia chung.
2. Tng tac tnh ien. nh luat Coulomb .
Thc nghiem chng to rang: Cac ien tch cung dau th ay nhau, cac
ien tch khac dau th hut nhau. Nam 1785 C. A. Coulomb bang thc nghiem
tren can xoan a tm ra nh luat tng tac gia hai ien tch iem q
1
va q
2

at cach nhau mot khoang r (Hnh 1.1):
(1.3)
2
2 1

r
q q
k F =
Trong o k la he so ty le, co gia tr phu thuoc vao he n v o.
Trong he CGSE : k =1
Trong he SI :
0
4
1

= k = 9.10
9
N. m
2
/ C
2
(1.4)
Trong o:
0
= 8,86.10
12
C
2
/ N. m
2
: Hang so ien.
Bieu dien ca ve phng chieu va o ln:

IEN T HOC - 5 -


12
12
2
12
2 1
12

r
r
r
q q
k F = : Lc q
1
tac dung len q
2
. (1.5)

21
21
2
21
2 1
21

r
r
r
q q
k F = : Lc q
2
tac dung len q
1
. (1.6)

Hnh 1.1
nh luat coulomb: Lc tac dung tng ho gia hai ien tch iem co o
ln ty le nghch vi bnh phng khoang cach gia chung, ty le vi tch o ln
cua cac ien tch; co phng la ng thang noi hai iem tch, co chieu phu
thuoc vao dau cua hai ien tch.
3. Ap dung.
Ta hay so sanh tng tac tnh ien va tng tac hap dan. nh luat
Coulomb (1-3) co dang toan hoc giong het nh nh luat van vat hap dan. Tuy
nhien cng o cua chung lai rat khac nhau. Ta ap dung cho trng hp tng
tac gia 2 electron.
Hang so hap dan G = 6,67.10
-11
N. m
2
/ kg
2

Hang so tng tac tnh ien: k = 9.10
9
N. m
2
/ C
2

ien tch cua electron: e = 1,6.10
-19
C.
Khoi lng cua electron: m = 9,1.10
-31
kg.
Tng tac hap dan gia 2 electron:
2
2
2
2 1
r
m
G
r
m m
G F
g
= =
Tng tac tnh ien gia 2 electron:
2
2
2
2
1
r
e
k
r
q q
k F
c
= =
21 12
- F F =
q
1
q
2
r
12
F
21
F
r
21
F
12
F
q
1
q
2
Lu The Vinh
- 6 - IEN T HOC


42
11
9
2
31
19
2
10 2 , 4
10 67 , 6
10 9
10 1 , 9
10 6 , 1
=

G
k
m
e
F
F
g
c

Ket qua cho thay cng o tng tac hap dan vo cung be so vi tng
tac tnh ien. ieu nay giai thch tai sao khi nghien cu chuyen ong cua cac
ien tch ta khong quan tam ti tng tac hap dan.
1.5. IEN TRNG TRONG CHAN KHONG
1. Khai niem ien trng.
e giai thch c che tng tac gia cac ien tch trong lch s Vat ly
hoc xuat hien 2 thuyet:
Thuyet tac dung xa: Cho rang tng tac gia cac ien tch khong can
mot moi trng vat chat trung gian nao va tng tac c truyen i mot
cach tc thi. Khi ch co mot ien tch th moi trng xung quanh khong
xay ra bien oi nao.
Thuyet tac dung gan: Cho rang tng tac gia cac ien tch phai thong
qua mot moi trng vat chat trung gian bao quanh cac ien tch. Lc
tng tac c truyen t phan nay sang phan khac cua moi trng vi
van toc hu han (van toc truyen tng tac). Khi ch co mot ien tch th
moi trng xung quanh a co nhng bien oi.
Theo quan iem duy vat bien chng ta thay ro thuyet tac dung xa a
cong nhan ton tai chuyen ong phi vat chat. ieu nay khong the co c. Vat
ly hoc hien ai a bac bo thuyet tac dung xa va cong nhan thuyet tac dung
gan. e giai thch c che tng tac gia cac ien tch can phai cong nhan mot
thc the vat ly lam moi trng trung gian truyen tng tac gia chung. Thc
the vat ly nay chnh la ien trng. Khi co mat ien tch th xung quanh no
xuat hien mot ien trng. ien trng nay lan truyen trong khong gian vi
toc o hu han.
Tnh chat c ban cua ien trng: tac dung lc len bat ky ien tch
nao at trong no. C che tac dung nay c giai thch nh sau: Moi ien tch
tao ra xung quanh no mot ien trng, ien trng nay tac dung lc len ien
tch at trong no va ngc lai.
Trong phan sau khi nghien cu t trng va trng ien t ta se thay
ien trng ch la mot bieu hien cua trng ien t. o la mot dang cua vat
chat co ay u cac thuoc tnh xac nh ma con ngi co the nhan thc c:
nang lng, khoi lng va xung lng.

IEN T HOC - 7 -

2. Cng o ien trng.
e ac trng cho trng ve phng dien tac dung lc ngi ta a ra
khai niem cng o ien trng.
Xet ien trng tao ra bi mot ien tch Q.
Ta hay dung mot ien tch th q
0
at vao trong ien trng, q
0
se chu
tac dung mot lc F
0
.
Bay gi neu tai cung mot iem cua trng ta lan lt thay q
0
bang cac
ien tch th q
1
, q
2
, th tac dung lc len cac ien tch tng ng la F
1
, F
2
,
Gia tr cac lc la khac nhau. Nhng neu lap ty so:
const
2
2
1
1
0
0
= = = =
q
F
q
F
q
F
.
Ty so tren tai moi iem cua trng la khong oi, no ac trng cho
trng ve phng dien tac dung lc va c goi la cng o ien trng
q F E / = , hay di dang vec t:

q
F
E
r
r
= (1.7)
Cng o ien trng gay bi mot ien tch iem Q c xac nh
theo inh luat Coulomb.
Tng tac gia Q va q :
q E
r
qQ
k F
2
= =
T o:
2
r
Q
k
q
F
E = =
Hay di dang vec t:
2 3
0
1

4
Q r Q
E k
r r r
r = =
r
r
r
(1.8)
Neu Q =1 .v..t. th E = F.
Nh vay: Cng o ien trng tai mot iem la mot ai lng vat ly
ac trng cho trng ve phng dien tac dung lc, co o ln bang lc tac
dung len 1 n v ien tch dng at tai iem o va co hng cua lc nay
(hnh 1-2).
n v cua ien trng: Von / met (V/m)

Lu The Vinh
- 8 - IEN T HOC

M N
+1 +1

3. ng sc ien trng.
Dung e mo ta hnh anh ien trng. o la nhng ng ma tiep tuyen
vi no tai moi iem co phng trung vi vec t cng o ien trng tai iem
o. Chieu cua ng sc ch chieu cua ien trng.
Cac tnh chat cua ng sc:
ng sc ien trng la nhng ng cong h, chung bat au tren
cac ien tch dng va ket thuc tren cac ien tch am (hnh 1-3).
Cac ng sc khong cat nhau.
Mat o ng sc (so ng sc i qua mot n v dien tch at
vuong goc vi trng) cho biet gia tr cua cng o ien trng tai
moi iem.
Tren hnh 1-3 la s o ng sc ien trng cua mot so he ien tch:
ien tch iem dng (a), ien tch iem am (b) va ien trng gia 2 mat
phang song song tch ien eu trai dau (c).

4. Nguyen ly chong chat ien trng.
Xet mot he ien tch iem q
1
. q
2
. q
i
, , q
n
. Lc tac dung cua he len
mot ien tch th q
0
bang tong vec t cac lc thanh phan:


= = =
i i i i i
E q E q F F
r r r r

Hay:

=
i
E E
r r
(1-9)
E
uur
E
uur
Q > 0
Q < 0
Hnh 1-2
+ + + + + +
- - - - - -
Hnh 1-3
a) b) c)

IEN T HOC - 9 -

Neu he ien tch phan bo lien tuc tren mot mien S nao o th ien trng
cua he se la:

S
E dE =

uur uur
(1-10)
Neu ien tch phan bo doc mot day dan vi mat o dai :
dl
dq
=

3
0
1

4
dl
E r
r

=

uur u
L
r
(1-11)
Neu ien tch phan bo tren be mat vat dan vi mat o ien mat
ds
dq
=

3
0
S
1

4
dS
E r
r

=

uur
r
(1-12)
Neu ien tch phan bo theo the tch vat dan vi mat o ien khoi

=
d
dq


3
0
1

4
d
E r
r

=

uur
r
(1-13)
5. ien trng cua mot so he ien tch.
Ap dung nguyen ly chong chat ta co the xac nh c ien trng cua
mot so he ien tch phan bo n gian sau ay.
a) V du 1. Tnh cng o ien trng gay bi mot mat phang tch ien eu vo
han, vi mat o ien mat , tai mot iem M cach mat phang mot oan h.
Ta hay chia mat phang thanh cac nguyen to hnh vanh khan, co tam la
chan ng vuong goc ha t M xuong mat phang (O). Dung he truc toa o tru,
co truc Oz OM, ban knh cc r, goc (hnh 1-4).
Xet nguyen to dS = rdrd cha ien tch dq = rdrd gay ra tai M
mot ien trng vi phan:

2 2
l
rdrd
k
l
dq
k dE

= =
dE
uur
co phng la ng thang noi dS va M, chieu hng t dS en M
neu > 0 va ngc lai.
ien trng do toan mat phang gay ra tai M la:

n t
S S S
E dE dE dE = = +

uur
r r r

Lu The Vinh
- 10 - IEN T HOC

Do tnh chat oi xng nen de thay rang: Neu lay mot nguyen to dS oi
xng vi dS qua O th trng do no sinh ra la ' E d co cung o ln vi E d
nhng khac phng chieu. Phan tch
' '
'
t n
E d E d E
r r
+ = . De thay rang: d

t t
E d E d
r r
=
'

Xet cho toan mat phang th: 0 =

S
t
E d
r
. T o:

= n E d E , va

=
n
dE E

n
E d ' E d
dE
dE
t
dE
t

dS d O
h
d
l

S
Hnh 1-4

T hnh ve ta co: dE
n
= dE cos =

cos .
2
l
rdrd
k
Thay: l
2
= r
2
+ h
2
,
2 2
cos
h r
h
+
= ta co:

IEN T HOC - 11 -

dE
n
= h
h r
rdrd
k .
) (
2
3
2 2
+

Va:

+
=
+
=

0
2 2
0
2
0 0
2 2
0
1
2
4
) (
4
2
3
h r
h
h r
rdr
d
h
E

0
2

= E (1-14)
Nhan xet: Gia tr ien trng E khong phu thuoc v tr iem M, do o
ien trng tai moi iem la nh nhau, ien trng la eu.
Vec t ien trng E vuong goc vi mat phang va hng ra xa neu >0
va hng ve mat phang neu <0.
Da vao nguyen ly chong chat ta cung tnh c ien trng cua cac he
ien tch sau:
b) ien trng gay ra bi mot he cac ien tch iem q
1
, q
2
, , q
i
, , q
n
:

i
i
n
i
i
i
i
i
r
r
r
q
E E = =

=1
2
0
4
1

(1-15)
c) ien trng gay ra bi mot qua cau tch ien eu tren be mat vi mat o
ien mat trung vi ien trng gay bi mot ien tch iem q at tai tam
qua cau:

r
r
r
q
E =
2
0
4
1

(1-16)
d) ien trng gay bi lng cc ien.
Lng cc ien la he hai ien tch bang
nhau ve o ln nhng ngc nhau ve dau at
cach nhau mot khoang co nh l (hnh 1-5).


3
0 0
4 4
) ( 3
r
P r r P
E
e e

= (1-17)
Trong o l q Pe = goi la momen lng
cc ien.
e) ien trng gia 2 mat phang vo han, song
song, tch ien eu, trai dau:
+ q q
E
l
_ E
+
E
Hnh 1-5
M
Lu The Vinh
- 12 - IEN T HOC


0

= E (1-18)
f) ien trng gay bi mot qua cau tch ien eu theo the tch vi mat o
ien khoi :

r E R r
r
r
R
E R r
r
r
0
3
0
3
:
) (
3
:

=
=
(1-19)

1.4. IEN DCH THONG NH LY OXTROGRATXKI GAUSS.
1) Vec t ien dch
Ngoai vec t cng o ien trng E
r
, khi xac nh ien trng trong
mot moi trng bat ky ngi ta thng s dung vec t ien dch
r
(con goi la
vec t cam ng ien
D
D
r
).
- Trong chan khong: D
r
=
0
E
r
.
- Trong moi trng bat ky: D
r
=
0
E
r
+ P
r

Trong o P
r
la vec t phan cc ien moi ( xem trong chng ien moi).
2) ien dch thong.
ien dch thong la thong lng cua
vec t ien dch D
r
xuyen qua mot n v
dien tch at vuong goc vi ien trng.
n
D
n
- Dong vec t ien dch gi qua mot
ien tch nguyen to dS la (hnh 1-6):

dS
D
r
(1-20) cos
n
d D dS DdS D d = = = S
r
r
ien dch thong i qua mot dien tch
S bat ky:
Hnh 1-6



= = =
S S S
DdS S d D d cos
r r
. (1-21)
Neu ien trng la eu va mat phang S vuong goc vi ien trng th:
S D = (1-22)

IEN T HOC - 13 -

3) nh ly Oxtrogratxki - Gauss
Bai toan c ban cua tnh ien la xac nh cng o ien trng E
r
va
ien dch
r
tai moi iem cua trng tao bi he ien tch a cho. Trong nhieu
trng hp khi he ien tch co tnh chat oi xng, e tnh ien trng ngoai
phng phap dung nguyen ly chong chat ta co the s dung nh ly O-G.
D
Xet mot ien tch iem q > 0. Bao quanh ien tch bang mot mat cau
1

co tam tai iem at ien tch (hnh 1-7).
Do tnh chat oi xng nen ta
thay ien trng tai moi iem cua
mat cau la nh nhau va co phng
vuong goc vi mat cau. Gia tr cua
vec t ien cam D tai moi iem cua
mat cau la:
E
q
D
0
0
4

= =
ien dch thong qua mat cau
co gia tr:


7 Hnh 1-

1

2
q

q r
r
q
dS D dS D
S
n
S
n
= = = =

2
2
4
4

Gia tr cua ien dch thong khong phu thuoc vao ban knh cua mat cau
r. Do o ien dch thong i qua moi mat cau ong tam eu nh nhau.
Xet mot mat kn
2
bat ky bao quanh ien tch q. De thay rang ien
dch thong qua no cung bang q, khong phu thuoc vao v tr cua ien tch q ben
trong no.
Neu xet mot mat kn
3
khong bao quanh ien tch q, ta thay rang co
bao nhieu ng sc i vao th cung co bay nhieu ung sc i ra khoi no. Do
vay ien dch thong toan phan qua
3
la bang 0.
Tom lai: ien dch thong qua mot mat kn bat ky khong phu thuoc vao
v tr cua ien tch at trong no. Ket qua tren cung ung vi trng hp khi co
nhieu ien tch cha trong mat kn vi q = q
i
.
Ta co nh ly Oxtrogratxki Gauss: Dong vec t ien dch gi qua mot
mat kn bat ky bang tong ai so cac ien tch t do cha trong mat kn o.

= =
i
i
S
q S d D
r r
(1-23)
Lu The Vinh
- 14 - IEN T HOC

4) Dang vi phan cua nh ly O-G. Phng trnh Poisson.
Ap dung nh ly O-G cho mot the tch vo cung be dV = dxdydz. Trong
o dx, dy, dz la 3 vi phan o dai hng theo 3 truc x, y, z cua he toa o e
cac, co goc la M (x, y, z). Tai M, vec t ien cam co gia tr: D = D (x,y,z). Ta
hay tnh ien dch thong qua cac mat xung quanh hnh hop dV (hnh 1-8).

M (x,y,z)
z
Qua mat 1 (dy, dz): d
1
= D
x
dy dz
(co dau v cos = 1)
Qua mat 2 ( dy, dz): dydz dx
x
D
D d
x
x

+ =
2
ien thong qua ca hai mat 1 va 2 la:
dV
x
D
z d y d x d
x
D
D dxdy D d
x x
x x

+ + =
12

Tng t, ien thong qua cac mat 3, 4 va 5, 6 se la:
dV
y
D
d
y

=
34

dV
z
D
d
z

=
56

Tong ien dch thong qua toan mat kn se la:
dV
z
D
y
D
x
D
d
z
y
x

=
x
y
Hnh 1-8
r
O

IEN T HOC - 15 -

Neu trong the tch dV cha ien tch vi mat o ien khoi = (x,y,z)
th o ln ien tch cha trong dV la : dq = dV.
Ap dung nh ly O-G ta co:
dV
z
D
y
D
x
D
z
y
x

d = = dV
Hay: = D div
r
(1-23)
Phng trnh (1-23) chnh la phng trnh Poisson.
5) V du ap dung.
a) Tnh ien trng cua mot mat phang tch ien eu vo han vi mat o ien
mat .
Do tnh chat oi xng cua he, ta chon mat kn la mat tru ng co cac
ng sinh vuong goc vi mat phang, hai ay co dien tch S song song va
cach eu mat phang (hnh 1-9).
ien dch thong toan phan qua
mat tru bang tong ien dch thong i
qua 2 ay:
= 2 D S.
ien tch cha trong mat tru:
q = S
Ap dung nh ly O-G ta co:
= 2DS = S
T o:

0
2
;
2

= = E D
+ + + + +
S
E
E
Hnh 1-9
b) Tnh ien trng cua hai mat phang song song vo han tch ien eu trai
dau (hnh 1-10).
Ve ng sc ien trng cua 2 mat phang tch ien ta thay rang co
the ap dung nguyen ly chong chat hoac nh ly O-G e tnh ien trng cua
he. S dung nguyen ly chong chat, t s o ta thay: ben ngoai 2 mat phang
cac ng sc ngc chieu nhau tng oi mot, nen ien trng tong bang
khong. E = 0 .
Lu The Vinh
- 16 - IEN T HOC

Ben trong 2 mat phang cac ng sc cung chieu nen ien trng tang
len gap oi. Do o:
0

= E
Dung nh ly O-G ta cung de dang tm lai ket qua tren.
+ + + + + + + + +
Hnh 1-10
- - - - - - - -
-

c) Tnh ien trng cua mot qua cau tch ien eu theo the tch vi mat o
ien khoi .
Do tnh chat oi xng cau nen ta chon mat phang lay tch phan la mat
cau co tam trung vi tam qua cau.
Theo nh ly O-G ta co:

= = =
i
S S
q dS D S d D
r r

1- Neu r < R (ben trong qua cau).

3
1
2
1 1 1 1
3
4
4 r r D dS D
S
= = =


Hay:
1 1
3
r D

= , va
1
0
1
3
r E

=
ien trng trong qua cau la ham tuyen tnh cua r (hnh 1-11)
2- Neu r > R (ben ngoai qua cau).
q R r D dS D
S
= = = =

3 2
2 2 2 2
3
4
4
T o ta co:
2
2
2
2
3
2
4 r
q
r
R
D

=

IEN T HOC - 17 -


2
2 0
2
4 r
q
E

=
ien trng ben ngoai trung vi ien trng cua mot ien tch iem q
at tai tam qua cau.


1.5. LNG CC IEN.
1) nh ngha.
Lng cc ien la mot he 2 ien tch cung o ln, ngc dau, at cach
nhau mot khoang co nh l (hnh 1-12).
Lng cc ien c ac trng bang momen lng cc . Trong
o
l q p
r
r
=
l
r
la vec t hng t ien tch q en ien tch +q.

2) Tac dung cua ien trng len lng cc.
a- Lng cc trong ien trng eu.
O R R r r
O
r
1
r
2
R
Hnh 1-11
- q +q
l
r

Hnh 1-12
-q
+q
f
l
r
ur

f
ur

Lu The Vinh
- 18 - IEN T HOC

Moi ien tch chu tac dung cua mot lc E q f
r r
= . Cac lc tac dung len 2
ien tch co o ln bang nhau, nhng ngc hng nhau, nen tao ra mot ngau
lc co momen:
M = q E l sin ( E l
r r
) (1-24)
Hay di dang vec t M P E

=

uuur ur uur

Ngau lc lam cho lng cc quay trong ien trng, co xu hng sao
cho vec t lng cc ve song song vi ien trng. ) E (P
r r
.
Neu =
( )
P E
uuruur
= 0, ta co trang thai can bang ben: ) ( E . P
r
r
r
Neu = , ta co trang thai can bang khong ben: ) ( E P
r
.
a- Lng cc trong ien trng khong eu..
Gia s ban au lng cc nam song song vi mot ng sc ien
trng. Moi ien tch se chu tac dung cua mot lc, nhng o ln cua lc at
len 2 ien tch khong bang nhau (hnh 1-13).


Lc tac dung cua ien trng len ien tch q la:
E q f
r r
=
1
,
Trong o la ien trng tai iem at ien tch q. E
r
Lc tac dung cua ien trng len ien tch +q la:

+ = + = l
l
E
E q E q f
r
r
r r r
'
2
;
l
E

r
la bien thien cua cng o ien trng doc theo truc lng cc.
Lc tong hp at len lng cc se la:
-q +q
l
r
1
f
r

2
f
r

E
r

' E
r

f
r
Hnh 1-13

IEN T HOC - 19 -


l
E
p
l
E
l q l
l
E
E q E q f f f

+ + = + =
r
r
r
r r
r
r r r r r
2 1

Hay: ) ( E p grad f
r
r
r
= (1-25)
Lc nay co hng ve pha ien trng manh nen tac dung cua no se
keo lng cc ve pha ien trng manh .
Trong trng hp tong quat, khi lng cc co v tr bat ky trong ien
trng th ngoai tac dung cua lc , lng cc con chu tac dung
cua mot ngau lc lam cho no quay ve hng song song vi ien trng.
) ( E p grad f
r
r
r
=
Noi cach khac, khi at trong ien trng, lng cc se b quay ve hng
song song vi ien trng va b hut ve pha ien trng manh. ieu nay giai
thch hien tng hut gia vat tch ien va vat trung hoa, chang han ua thuy
tinh hay Ebont nhiem ien co the hut c cac vat nhe.

1.6. IEN THE.
1) Cong cua lc ien trng.
Xet chuyen ong cua mot ien tch th q
0
trong ien trng do ien tch
iem q tao ra theo mot ng cong MN (hnh 1-14).

r
1
r
1
M

N

q
q
0
F
r
r +dr
r dl

Hnh 1-14
Lc ien trng tac dung len ien tch q
0
la:

2
0
0
0
4 r
q q
E q F

= =
r r

Cong nguyen to trong di chuyen vo cung be dl :
r d E q r d F l d F l Fd l d F dA
0
) ( cos = = = =
r r r r

Lu The Vinh
- 20 - IEN T HOC

Cong toan phan tren oan ng MN :

= = = =

2 1 0
0
2
1
2
2
1
0
0
1 1
4 4 r r
qq
r
dr qq
dr F dA A
r
r
r
r MN

(1-26)
Bieu thc (1-26) cho thay cong A khong phu thuoc vao dang ng i,
ch phu thuoc vao iem au va iem cuoi ng i ( r
1
& r
2
). ien trng co
tnh chat cua mot trng the.
Lu so cua vec t E
r
. Xet trng hp ien tch th q
0
di chuyen theo
mot ng cong khep kn.
Cong nguyen to trong di chuyen vo cung be dl la:

0
cos ( ) cos ( ) dA F dl Fdl F dl q Edl E dl = = =
r r r r r r

Cong di chuyen mot n v ien tch dng theo mot cong tua kn L la:
cos( )
l
A Edl Edl Edl E dl
L L L
= = =

r r


Theo tnh chat the cua trng tnh ien ta co:
0 = =

L
l d E A
r r
(1-27)
Trong trng hp tong quat, tnh chat the cua trng tnh ien c
viet:
0 = E rot
r
(1-28)
2) ien the, hieu ien the.
a. The nang cua ien tch trong ien trng.
ien tch at trong ien trng se co the nang (tng tac). Cong di
chuyen ien tch trong ien trng bang o giam the nang cua no.
A = W
1
W
2
(1-29)

Trong o: W
1
the nang cua ien tch q
0
tai iem M
W
2
the nang cua ien tch q
0
tai iem N
T (1-29) va (1-26) ta co:

2 0
0
1 0
0
2 1
4 4 r
qq
r
qq
W W A

= =
Hay
2
2 0
0
2 1
1 0
0
1
4
&
4
C
r
qq
W C
r
qq
W + = + =


Tong quat, the nang cua ien tch q
0
trong trng toa o r la:

IEN T HOC - 21 -

C
r
qq
W + =
0
0
4

Trong o C la mot hang so tuy.
Ngi ta quy c khi r = , W = 0,
ta tnh c C = 0.
r
W
O
q va q
0
cung dau
q va q
0
khac dau
Hnh1-15
T o:

r
qq
W
0
0
4
= (1-30)
o th bieu dien the nang cua he hai
ien tch cung dau va khac dau trnh bay
tren hnh 1-15.
b. ien the.
Ta hay lan lt a cac ien tch th
q
0
, q
1
, q
2
, vao cung mot iem cua trng
do ien tch q gay ra. Cac ien tch se co
the nang tng ng W
0
, W
1
, W
2
, khac
nhau. Tuy nhien ta thay cac ty so:

const
q
W
q
W
q
W
= = = = ....
2
2
1
1
0
0

Ty so tren khong oi tai moi iem cua trng, no ac trng cho trng ve
mat nang lng, ngi ta s dung ai lng nay va goi la ien the:

r
q
q
W
0 0
4
= = (1-31)
c. Hieu ien the.
e y en bieu thc cong (1-29) ta co:
A = W
1
W
2
= q
0
(
1

2
) = q
0
U
12

ai lng U
12
=
1

2
goi la hieu ien the gia 2 iem MN. Ta co:

0
2 1
q
A
= (1-32)
Neu q
0
= +1 th A =
2 1

Lu The Vinh
- 22 - IEN T HOC

Nh vay: Hieu ien the gia hai iem co gia tr bang cong cua lc tnh
ien lam di chuyen mot n v ien tch dng gia hai iem o.
Ta lai co:
0
2 1
q
A
MN
= .
Neu iem N vo cung th
2
= 0. T o:
0
1
q
A
M
= . Tong quat ta co:

0
q
A
M
= (1-33)
Vay: ien the tai mot iem co gia tr bang cong cua lc trng khi di
chuyen mot n v ien tch dng t iem ta xet ra vo cung.
3) Mat ang the.
Quy tch hnh hoc cua nhng iem co cung ien the c goi la mat
ang the. Phng trnh cua mat ang the:
const z y x r = = ) , , ( ) (
r
(1-34)


Cac tnh chat ac trng:
Cong di chuyen ien tch tren mat ang the bang 0.
A
MN
= q
0
(
M

N
) = 0
Vec t ien trng vuong goc vi mat ang the tai moi iem.
That vay, ta hay xet cong di chuyen mot ien tch q
0
tren mat ang the
gia hai iem M va N.

o
r
90 , 0 cos , 0 , ,
0 cos
0
0
= =
= = =

hay va MN E q
MN E q MN F A

Hnh 1-16
a)
b)
E
r
E
r

IEN T HOC - 23 -

Quy c: Mat o ng ang the cho biet s bien thien cua ien the
trong khong gian. Khi o ta co:
ien trng eu: Mat ang the la cac mat phang song song cach
eu, vuong goc vi cac ng sc ien trng (hnh 1-16, a).
Mat ang the cua ien trng do ien tch iem tao ra la mat cau
ong tam (hnh 1-16, b).
4) Lien he gia ien the va ien trng.
Vec t cung o ien trng E
r
ac trng cho ien trng ve phng
dien tac dung lc.
ien the ac trng cho trng ve mat cong, nang lng.
Do vay hai ai lng nay phai co moi lien he vi nhau.
Xet 2 mat ang the rat gan nhau
1
va
2
, cach nhau mot khoang dx .
Gia s co mot ien tch th q
0
di chuyen theo ng sc ien trng t mat
1

sang mat
2
(hnh 1-17).
Cong thc hien trong di chuyen nay la:
dA = F
x
dx = q
o
E
x
dx
Mat khac: dA = q
0
(
1

2
) = q
0
d.
Do o:q
o
E
x
dx = q
0
d.
Hay:
dx
d
E
x

= (1-35)
Ty so
dx
d
bieu dien s bien thien cua
ien the theo phng x c goi la gradien
(grad) ien the theo phng x. Trong trng
hp tong quat ta co:
E grad =
uuuuur r
(1-36)

1

2
q
o
dx
M
N
E
5) The nang cua he ien tch iem.
Gia cac ien tch iem luon luon co tng tac Coulomb. Khi di chuyen
cac ien tch can thc hien cong. Do o cac ien tch co d tr nang lng
di dang the nang tng tac, no chnh bang cong e thiet lap nen he.
Xet he 2 ien tch iem q
1
va q
2
.
Khi 2 ien tch cach xa nhau ( r
12
= 0) the nang tng tac gia chung
bang 0.
Lu The Vinh
- 24 - IEN T HOC

Khi a chung lai gan nhau ta phai thc hien mot cong e thang cong
can cua lc trng. Cong nay se bien thanh the nang cua he ien tch.
Ta co: cong thc hien e a ien tch q
1
t ve cach q
2
mot oan r
12
la:
A
1
= q
1
(

1
) = q
1

1

Trong o
1
la ien the tai iem at q
1
do q
2
gay ra.

12 0
2
1
4 r
q

=
Do o:
12 0
2 1
1
4 r
q q
A

= (1-37)
Tng t, cong e a ien tch q
2
t ve cach q
1
mot oan r
12
la:

12 0
2 1
2
4 r
q q
A

= (1-38)
T (1-37) va (1-38) ta co:
A
1
= A
2
= the nang tng tac Wt cua he 2 ien tch.
A
1
= A
2
= q
1

1
= q
2

2
= Wt (1-39)
Hoac viet di dang oi xng:
) (
2
1
2 2 1 1
q q W
t
+ = (1-40)
Neu bay gi a them mot ien tch q
3
ve cach q
1
mot khoang r
13
, cach
q
2
mot khoang r
23
th cong can thc hien se phai la:

+ = =
23 0
2
13 0
1
3 3 3 3
4 4 r
q
r
q
q q A

(1-41)
Trong o:
23 0
2
13 0
1
3
4 4 r
q
r
q

+ = la ien the do q
1
va q
2
gay ra tai
iem at q
3
.
Cong toan phan hp nen he 3 ien tch bang the nang tng tac cua he,
co gia tr:

+ + = + = + = =
23 0
2
13 0
1
3
12 0
2 1
3 2 3 1
4 4 4 r
q
r
q
q
r
q q
A A A A A W
t

=

+ +

+ +

+ =
23 0
2
13 0
1
3
23 0
3
12 0
1
2
13 0
3
12 0
2
1
4 4 4 4 4 4 2
1
r
q
r
q
q
r
q
r
q
q
r
q
r
q
q

W
t
= ) (
2
1
3 3 2 2 1 1
q q q + + . (1-42)
Trong o:
1
ien the do q
2
va q
3
gay ra tai iem at q
1
.

IEN T HOC - 25 -


2
ien the do q
1
va q
3
gay ra tai iem at q
2
.

3
ien the do q
1
va q
2
gay ra tai iem at q
3
.
Tong quat, trng hp he gom n ien tch , the nang tng tac cua he:
.
4 2
1
2
1
1 1 0 1

= = =
= =
n
i
n
k k i
k i
n
i
i i t
r
q q
q

W (i k). (1-43)
Tong lay theo moi gia tr cua i,k t 1 en n tr gia tr i=k
Neu he ien tch phan bo bat ky, lien tuc trong mien khong gian nao o vi
mat o ien mat va mat o ien khoi th the nang cua he:


+ =
S V
t
dS dV W
2
1
2
1
(1-44)
ien the do toan bo he ien tch gay ra tai iem at cua dV va dS.
6) Nguyen ly chong chat ien the .
Xet mot he ien tch iem q
1
, q
2
, , q
i
, ., q
n
. Gia s co mot ien
tch th q
0
di chuyen trong ien trung do he gay ra. Lc tong hp cua trng
tac dung len q
0
la:

= + + + =
i
i n
f f f f f
r r r r r
2 1

Cong lc trng di chuyen q
0
t M en N la:




= + + + = =
MN MN
i
i n
MN MN
MN
A l d f l d f l d f l d f A
r r r r r r r r
2 1

Theo (1-26) ta co:

=
2 0 1 0
0
4 4
i
i
i
i
i
r
q
r
q
q A


Trong o r
i1
va r
i2
la khoang cach t q
i
ti M va N.
Mat khac:

= =

2 0
0
1 0
0
4 4
i
i
i
i
N M MN
r
q
q
r
q
q W W A


= q
0
(
M

N
).
T o ta co:

=
=
n
i i
i
M
r
q
1 1 0
4
,

=
=
n
i i
i
N
r
q
1 2 0
4
.
V M va N la bat ky, nen ien the gay bi he ien tch iem tai mot
iem xac nh bi ban knh r
i
se la:
Lu The Vinh
- 26 - IEN T HOC

=
=
n
i i
i
r
q
1 0
4
(1-45)
Neu he ien tch phan bo tren be mat vi mat o ien mat :

=
S
r
dS

0
4
1
(1-46)
Neu he ien tch phan bo theo the tch vi mat o ien khoi :

=
V
r
dV

0
4
1
(1-47)
7) Cac v du ap dung.
V du 1. Tnh cng o ien trng gia 2 ban phang song song vo han, tch
ien eu vi hieu ien the U =
1
-
2
. (hnh 1-18).
Ta co mat ang the la cac mat
phang song song cach eu nhau va
vuong goc vi cac ng sc ien
trng. Ap dung cong thc:

1
grad E =
r

2
Ta co:


2
0 1
d
d
E Edn d Edn d
dn

= = =


Hnh 1-18

, hay
2 1
= d E
d
U
d
E =

=
2 1


V du 2
Tnh cng o ien trng gay bi lng cc ien tai mot iem ben
ngoai cach xa lng cc (hnh 1-19).
ien the gay bi lng cc tai M la:

= =

= 1 2 0
2
1 0
1 1
4 4 r r
q
r
q
i i
i



2 1
2 1
0
4 r r
r r q
=

IEN T HOC - 27 -

Lu The Vinh

V r
1
, r
2
>> l nen co the lay:
) r p
r r
r
1
r
2
l cos; r
1
r
2
r
2
, vi = ( ,

E E
r

ta co:
Et

2
0
cos
4
1
r
p

= , (p = ql)
Theo he thc , taco: grad E =
r r
r

t r
E E E
r
+ =
Trong o:
3
0
2
cos
r
p
dr
d
E
r

= =
va
dt
d
E
t

= .
Xet di chuyen vo cung be MM theo
phng E
t
. Ta co: MM= dt = rd.
T o:
3
0
4
sin
r
p
rd
d
E
t

= = .
Vay:

2
3
0
2 2
cos 3 1
4
+ = + =
r
p
E E E
t r

Vec t E
r
hp vi phng r mot goc , vi tg = E
t
/ E
r
= 1/2 tg.
Khi = 0, iem M nam tren truc lng cc (v tr chnh Gauss th 1)

3
0
2 r
p
E

=
Khi = 1/2 , iem M nam tren ng trung trc cua lng cc (v tr
chnh Gauss th 2):

3
0
4 r
p
E

=
q
r
1 r
2
M
M

l
r

r



+q
Hnh 1-19

- 28 - IEN T HOC


Chng 2.
VAT DAN IEN
2.1. CAN BANG TNH IEN, NHNG TNH CHAT CUA VAT DAN
CAN BANG TNH IEN
2.1.1. Vat dan can bang tnh ien.
Vat dan ien la nhng vat co cha cac ien tch t do. oi vi kim loai
cac ien tch t do la cac electron dan.
Khi at trong ien trng, di tac dung cua lc trng cac ien tch
trong vat dan se phan bo lai. trang thai can bang tnh ien cng o ien
trng tai mot iem bat ky ben trong vat dan bang khong.
0 = E

Theo (1-36) ta co grad E =

= 0, t o: const = , nh vay:
Vat dan can bang tnh ien la vat ang the.
Mat khac, theo nh ly OG th: . 0 , 0
0
= = =
c

E div


Trong vat dan can bang tnh ien khong cha ien tch phan bo theo
the tch. Cac ien tch phan bo thanh mot lp mong tren be mat vat dan. V
mat vat dan la mat ang the nen vec t cng o ien trng phai vuong goc
vi be mat vat dan tai moi iem. Gia tr cua vec t E

tai mot iem sat be mat

vat dan bang bao nhieu?
Ta hay chon mat kn bao gom:
mot mat tru thang ng, vuong goc
vi mat vat dan;
co ay AB i qua M, ay kia la mot
phan mat ACB tuy y bao ben trong
vat dan (hnh 2-1).
Tnh ien dch thong toan phan i qua
mat kn .
- Qua mat ben cua hnh tru ien dch
thong bang 0.
- Qua mat ay ACB ien dch
thong cung bang 0 v trong vat dan
0 = E

.
- ien dch thong toan phan qua mat bang ien dch thong i qua
mat ay AB:
Hnh 2-1
A
A B
B
C
E

M
IEN T HOC - 29 -

Lu The Vinh
S q S D = = = u o
0
; va nh vay: D E
o
o
c
= = .
ien trng sat mat vat dan co gia tr ln gap 2 lan ien trng do
mot mat phang mang ien gay ra.
Nguyen nhan. Moi mot phan cua dien tch S luon gay ra ve 2 pha mot
ien trng co gia tr o / 2c
0
. Nhng cac ien tch trong vat dan phai phan bo
sao cho ien trng do chung sinh ra trong vat dan phai bang 0. Muon the cac
ien tch ben ngoai S phai gay ra mot ien trng o / 2c
0
ngc chieu vi
ien trng do cac ien tch S gay ra trong vat dan lam triet tieu no. Ben
ngoai vat dan 2 ien trng trung nhau. Ket qua ien trng tong cong ben
ngoai vat dan tang len gap oi.
2.1.2. Hien tng ien mui nhon.
trang thai can bang tnh ien cac ien tch phan bo thanh mot lp
mong tren be mat vat dan, nhng s phan bo nay phu thuoc vao hnh dang be
mat vat dan. Thc nghiem cho thay rang ien tch phan bo tap trung nhieu
nhat tai nhng cho loi (mui nhon) cua vat . Do o, cng o ien trng co
gia tr cc ai tai cho mui nhon. Hien tng tren dan en hieu ng ro ien
mui nhon.
Nguyen nhan: Tai mui nhon do E

ln, gay ion hoa khong kh xung

quanh lam xuat hien cac ion dng (+) va cac ion am (). Cac ion cung dau
vi ien tch mui nhon b lc ay Coloumb se i ri xa no, ngc lai cac ion
khac dau vi ien tch cua mui nhon se b hut va lam trung hoa dan ien tch
cua mui nhon (hnh 2-2). Ket qua, ien tch cua mui nhon se mat dan.


Hien tng ien mui nhon c ng dung nhieu trong ky thuat:
Che tao cac may phat tnh ien;
+ +
+ +
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ +
a)
b)
Hnh 2-2. Hien tng ien mui nhon

- 30 - IEN T HOC


Chong set;
Chong ro ien trong cac may, ong c lam vie c vi ien cao the, cac
bo phan kim loai cua ong c c che tao di dang tron, nhan.
2.1.3. Man chan tnh ien Noi at.
trang thai can bang tnh ien ben trong vat dan khong cha ien tch
ien trng trong long vat dan bang 0. Ket qua nay ung ca oi vi vat dan
rong gia va khong phu thuoc vao cach lam xuat hien ien tch tren vat
dan.
V du: Mot vat dan rong at trong ien trng, trong vat dan se xuat
hien cac ien tch hng ng. Cac ien tch nay phan bo tren be mat cua vat
dan o ma khong gay ra ien trng ben trong vat. Nh vay, mot vat dan rong
co tac dung nh mot man chan tnh ien (hnh 2-3,a). Chung bao ve cho cac
dung cu at ben trong phan rong se khong chu tac dung cua ien trng.

Hieu ng tren con c dung trong viec truyen ien tch t vat dan nay
sang vat dan khac. V du, can truyen ien tch cho mot tnh ien ke , ta noi
ien ke vi mot hnh tru kim loai (hnh tru Faraday). a vat tch ien vao
trong long hnh tru. ien tch se chay het ra ngoai hnh tru roi truyen cho ien
ke (hnh 2-3,b).
ng dung na trong ky thuat la noi at . Thng noi at vo may e
phong khi b ro ien th ien the gia vo may va at bang nhau, tranh b ien
giat khi s dung.

2.2. IEN DUNG TU IEN.
2.2.1. ien dung cua vat dan.
-
-
-
-
-
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
0 E =

+ + + +

+
+
+

+
+
+

a) b)
Hnh 2-3
IEN T HOC - 31 -

Lu The Vinh
Khi truyen cho vat dan mot ien tch q th mat o ien mat cua vat dan
ty le vi ien tch q.
o = k q
k he so ty le, no la mot ham cua toa o iem be mat vat dan.
ien the tao ra bi cac ien tch la:

0 0
1
4 4
S S
dS q kdS
r r
o

tc tc
= =
} }
(2-1)
Vi mot vat dan co lap tch ien, ien the cua no ty le vi ien tch q.

1
0
; hay : 4
S
q kdS
C
C r
tc

| |
|
= =
|
\ .
}
(2-2)
C c goi la ien dung cua vat dan co lap, co gia tr bang ien tch can
truyen cho vat dan e lam tang ien the vat dan len 1 von.
V du: ien dung cua mot qua cau co lap ban knh R co gia tr:
C = 4tc
0
R (2-3)
2.2.2. Tu ien.
He thong 2 vat dan at cach ien, gan nhau, tch ien trai dau co cung
o ln, sao cho ien trng tao bi he tap trung trong mien khong gian gii
han bi chung tao ra mot tu ien. Hai vat dan goi la 2 ban tu.
ien trng gia 2 ban tu luon ty le vi o ln cua cac ien tch:
E ~ q.
Ma theo theo (1-36) th grad E =

, tc ien the hay hieu ien

the U ty le vi ien tch q. Ta co the viet:
q = C (
1

2
) = C U
He so C ac trng cho kha nang tch ien cua tu c goi la ien dung
cua tu:

U
q q
C =

=
2 1

(2-4)
Neu
1

2
= 1V th C = q. Nh vay:
ien dung cua tu ien co tr so bang bang ien tch tren tu khi the hieu
gia hai ban la 1 von.
n v: Trong he SI ien dung C co n v la Fara (F).
1 Fara (F) = 1 Culong tren von (C/V).
ien dung phu thuoc vao v tr, hnh dang, kch thc cua cac ban tu,
vao moi trng cach ien gia hai ban tu. Khi gia 2 ban tu la chat ien moi,
ien dung cua tu ien tang len c lan. (c c goi la hang so ien moi).
- 32 - IEN T HOC


2.2.3. ien dung cua mot vai tu ien n gian.
1) Tu ien phang (hnh 2-4.a).
ien trng gia hai ban tu la eu va co gia tr:

0
c
o
= E
Hieu ien the gia 2 ban tu:

0
c
od
Ed U = =
ien tch cua ban tu: q = o S
T o:
d
S
U
q
C
0
c
= =
Neu gia 2 ban la ien moi (c) th:

d
S
C
0
c c
= (2-5)

2) Tu ien cau (hnh 2-4,b).
ien tch tren 2 ban tu la q va +q. Do tnh chat oi xng nen ien
trng gia 2 ban tu tai nhng iem cach eu tam la nh nhau va hng
vuong goc vi mat cau.

2
0
4
1
r
q
E =
c t

Vec t E

trung phng vi phap tuyen cua mat ang the va trung

phng ban knh cua 2 mat cau nen:

2
0
4
1
r
q
dr
d
dn
d
E = = =
tc


T o:
2
0
4
r
dr q
d =
tc

q
+o
o
S
d
E

+q
R
1
R
2
a)

b)

Hnh 2-4

IEN T HOC - 33 -

Lu The Vinh

|
|
.
|

\
|
= =
}
2 1 0
2
1
2
0
2 1
1 1
4 4 R R
q
r
r d q
R
R
tc tc


2 1
0
2 1
1 1
4
R R
q
C

=
tc

(2-6)
Neu R
2
>> R
1
, hay R
2
, ta co:
C = 4tc
0
R
1
bang ien dung cua mot qua cau co lap.
Neu R
2
R
1
= d << r th:

d
S
d
r
R R
R R
C
0
2
0
1 2
2 1
0
4 4
c
tc tc = ~

= .
Trong o: S = 4t r
2
~ dien tch cua mat tu. Ket qua tren trung vi ien
dung cua tu ien phang.
3) Tu ien hnh tru (hnh 2-5).
Goi ien tch tren 1 n v dai cua hnh tru la +q va q . ien the tren 2
ban tu la
1
va
2
. Dung nh ly Gauss va bieu thc lien he (1-36)
grad E =

, ta co:

1
2
0
2 1
ln
2 R
R q
tc
=
Va:

1
2
0
2 1
ln
2
R
R
q
C
tc

=

= (2-6)
Noi rieng, ket qua tren la ien dung cua
mot day cap boc kim (ruot kim loai, xung
quanh la cap li), trong trng hp nay ta
nhan them hang so ien moi c.

1
2
0
ln
2
R
R
C
c c t
= (2-7)

2.2.4. Ghep tu ien thanh bo.
R
1

R
2
Hnh 2-5
- 34 - IEN T HOC


Moi tu ien eu co 2 tham so nh mc la ien dung cua tu va ien ap
lam viec ln nhat cho phep.
ien ap lam viec ln nhat cho phep cua tu la gia tr ien ap ln nhat
co the at vao tu ma khong gay ra s anh thung lp ien moi gia 2 ban tu.
Gia tr nay phu thuoc vao be day lp ien moi, tnh chat va hnh dang cua cac
ban tu.
Trong thc te s dung, e at c cac yeu cau ve ien dung va ien
ap s dung, ngi ta phai tien hanh ghep cac tu ien.
1) Ghep noi tiep (hnh 2-6,a).
Ghep noi tiep nham lam tang ien ap s dung cua bo tu.

C2
A B
Cn
B
C1
A
C1
C2
Cn


Thc vay, do hng ng toan phan nen ien tch cua cac tu eu bang
nhau va bang Q va bang ien tch cua bo tu.
Q
1
= Q
2
= . = Q
n
= Q = Q
AB
(2-8)
Hieu ien the tren tng tu la:

n
n
C
Q
U
C
Q
U
C
Q
U = = = , , ,
2
2
1
1

ien ap cua bo tu bang tong cac ien ap rieng phan:
U
AB
= U
1
+ U
2
+ + U
n
(2-9)
U
AB
=
AB
n
C
Q
C C C
Q =
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ + +
1 1 1
2 1

Trong o C
AB
la ien dung tng ng cua bo tu:

=
= + + + =
n
i i n
AB
C C C C
C
1 2 1
1 1 1 1 1
(2-10)

2) Ghep song song (hnh 2-6, b)
a) b)
Hnh 2-6
IEN T HOC - 35 -

Lu The Vinh
Ghep song song nham lam tang ien dung tng ng cua bo tu. Thc
vay, gia s ta co n tu ghep song song vi nhau. Tat ca cac tu eu chu cung
mot hieu ien the U.
U
1
= U
2
= = U
n
= U = U
AB
(2-11)
Ta lan lt co: Q
1
= C
1
U, Q
2
= C
2
U, , Q
n
= C
n
U.
ien tch cua bo tu bang tong cac ien tch rieng phan:
Q
AB
= Q
1
+ Q
2
+ + Q
n
= Q (2-12)
Q
AB
= (C
1
+ C
2
+ + C
n
) U = C
AB
U
Trong o C
AB
la ien dung tng ng cua bo tu:

=
= + + + =
n
I
i n AB
C C C C C
1
2 1
(2-13)
2.3. NANG LNG IEN TRNG
2.3.1. Nang lng cua he ien tch.
Nang lng cua mot he ien tch ng yen hay the nang tng tac tnh
ien cua he bang cong e thiet lap nen he. Vi he gom cac ien tch q
1
, q
2
,
, q
i
, , q
n
nang lng cua he co gia tr:
) (
4 2
1
2
1
1 1 0 1
k i
r
q q
q W
n
i
n
k ik
k i
n
i
i i t
= = =

= = =
tc
(2-14)

i
ien the tai iem at ien tch q
i
do toan he (tr q
i
) gay ra.
r
ik
khoang cach gia cac ien tch q
i
va q
k
.
2.3.2. Nang lng cua vat dan tch ien.
La the nang tng tac gia cac ien tch nh x trong vat dan. Neu vat
dan khong chu tac dung cua trng ngoai (co lap) th nang lng rieng tng
ng cua cac ien tch trong no la:

2
2
2
1
2 2
1
C
C
q
q W = = = (2-15)
Trong o C la ien dung cua vat dan.
2.3.3. Nang lng cua tu ien a tch ien.
Mot he ien tch bat ky eu co nang lng theo (2-14) va (2-15). Nang
lng o chnh bang cong e thiet lap nen he.
Ta hay xet mot tu ien c tch ien.
Goi u la hieu ien the tc thi tren tu thi iem t trong qua trnh nap
cho tu, tng ng vi ien tch tren tu la q.
- 36 - IEN T HOC


Ta co: q = Cu, dq = C du.
Cong cua nguon e a them mot ien tch dq ti ban tu la:
dA = u dq = Cu du
Cong toan phan e thiet lap nen he ien tch tren tu la:

} }
= = =
2
1
2
1
U C du u C dA A
U
(2-16)
Cong nay bien thanh the nang cua he ien tch tren tu, tc nang lng
cua tu ien.
U Q
C
Q
U C W
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
2
= = = (2-17)
2.3.4. Nang lng cua ien trng.
Mot he ien tch bat ky eu co mang nang lng. Nang lng nay c
nh x au? Bang thc nghiem va ly thuyet khi nghien cu trng ien t (
gom ca E

va H

bien thien theo thi gian) chng to rang trng ien t co

mang nang lng.
Nang lng cua mot he ien tch nh x trong khoang khong gian co
ien trng. Noi cach khac ien trng mang nang lng.
Xet ien trng eu gia 2 ban cua mot tu ien phang. Nang lng cua
he theo (2-17) la:

2 0 2
2
1
2
1
U
d
S
U C W
c c
= =
hay V E Sd
d
U
U
d
S
W
2
0
2
0
2
0
2
1
2
1
2
1
c c c c c c =
|
.
|

\
|
= =
Trong o V = Sd the tch cua mien khong gian cha ien trng.
Nh vay, nang lng cua mot ien trng eu la:
V E W
2
0
2
1
c c = (2-18)
Mat o nang lng ien trng:

2
0
2
1
E
V
W
w c c = = (2-19)
Vi ien trng khong ong nhat gia tr mat o nang lng trng thay
oi t iem nay sang iem khac. Nang lng toan phan cua trng c xac
nh bang bieu thc:
IEN T HOC - 37 -

Lu The Vinh

} }
= =
V V
E
dV E dW W
2
0
2
1
c c (2-20)
2.3.5. Phng phap anh gng.
Ta hay xet hieu ng sau ay: Gia s trong mot ien trng nao o, ta
thay the mot mat ang the bang mot vat dan co cung hnh dang va co ien the
bang ien the cua mat ang the th s phan bo ien trng xung quanh khong
he thay oi.
Dung hieu ng tren ay xet
cho trng gay bi 2 ien tch iem
q va +q at cach nhau mot
khoang 2h. Bc tranh ng sc
ien trng cho thay ien trng
do chung tao ra co 2 phan oi xng
vi nhau qua mat phang MN. V
MN vuong goc vi cac ng sc
tai moi iem nen MN la mot mat
ang the. De thay ien the cua mat
ang the
MN
= 0.
Neu bay gi ta thay MN bang mot mat phang dan vo han va noi at mat
phang dan (e tao the
MN
= 0) th ta thay phan ien trng gia ien tch +q
va mat phang khong thay oi. Hieu ng nay cho phep ta n gian hoa viec
tnh toan cng o ien trng gia mot ien tch +q va cac ien tch cam ng
tren mat phang dan. Co the xem q la anh gng cua ien tch +q qua mat
phang dan: ien trng gia ien tch iem va mat phang dan vo han trung
vi ien trng tao bi ien tch khao sat va anh gng cua no qua mat phang
dan.
Noi cach khac: Tac dung gia mot ien tch iem vi cac ien tch cam
ng cua no tren mat phang dan co the thay the bang tac dung gia ien tch
khao sat vi anh gng cua no qua mat phang dan.
N
M
+q
-q
h
h
Hnh 2-7

- 38 - IEN T HOC

Chng 3.
IEN TRNG TRONG CHAT IEN MOI
3.1. HIEN TNG PHAN CC IEN MOI
3.1.1. Phan loai ien moi.
ien moi la nhng chat khong dan ien, trong chung khong cha cac
ien tch t do.
Ve tnh chat ien moi phan t ien moi tng ng nh mot lng cc
ien, co momen lng cc . Trong o q la ien tch tong cong cua cac
ien tch dng (hoac am) trong phan t, con l la khoang cach gia trong tam
cac ien tch dng va ien tch am.
p q =
uur ur
l
u
Khi khong co ien trng ngoai tac dung, neu l = 0, phan t c goi la
khong co cc. Ngc lai, neu l 0, phan t c goi la co cc
oi vi cac phan t cua ien moi khong co cc (H
2
, N
2
CCl
4
, cac
hydrocacbon v.v ) khi khong co ien trng ngoai, tam cua cac ien tch
dng va ien tch am trung nhau, momen ien bang 0. Khi at trong trng
ngoai xay ra s bien dang cac phan t (nguyen t), tc xay ra s dch chuyen
co hng cua cac ien tch trong trng lam trong tam cua cac ien tch lech
nhau va xuat hien momen ien cam ng ty le vi cng o ien trng E
r
.

0
p E =
uur ur u
(3-1)
Trong o he so phan cc hay o phan cc cua phan t hay nguyen
t ien moi, no ch phu thuoc vao the tch cua ien moi ma khong phu thuoc
vao nhiet o. Chuyen ong nhiet cua cac phan t ien moi khong anh hng
en s xuat hien momen lng cc trong chung.
oi vi cac ien moi co cc ( H
2
O, NH
3
, HCl, CH
3
Cl, v.v) moi phan
t co momen ien rieng khong oi p
uur
= const, gan vi tnh oi xng trong s
phan bo cua cac am may electron va hat nhan cua cac nguyen t nay. Trong
tam cua cac ien tch am va dng khong trung nhau ma luon cach nhau mot
khoang l co nh. Chung goi la cac lng cc cng .
Khi at trong ien trng ngoai, moi lng cc cng co momen p
r
se
chu tac dung mot ngau lc vi momen:
[ ] M p E =
uuur uur uur
(3-2)
Ngau lc nay co xu hng lam quay lng cc ve nh hng song song
vi ien trng.
Neu ien trng khong eu, lng cc con chu tac dung cua mot lc:

IEN T HOC - 39 -


( )
E
F grad p E p
l

= =

uur
uur uur uur
(3-3)
Trong o:
E
l

uur
bien thien cua ien trng doc theo truc lng cc.
Lc hng doc theo vec t F
uur
E l
uur
va keo lng cc ve pha ien trng
manh.
The nang cua lng cc cng trong trng ngoai E
uur
la:

( )
cos
t
W p E pE = =
uur uur
(3-4)
Trong o
( )
, p E =
uur uur
goc gia truc lng cc va hng cua ien
trng E
uur
. Dau () chng to v tr can bang ben cua lng cc ng vi v tr
co the nang cc tieu.
3.1.2. S phan cc ien moi.
Khi khong co trng ngoai, mo men lng cc cua cac phan t ien
moi hoac bang 0 (vi ien moi khong co cc) hoac nh hng hon loan (vi
ien moi co cc). Ket qua momen ien tong cong cua ien moi theo mot
phng bat ky la bang 0. ien moi khong phan cc.
Khi at trong trng ngoai, ien moi b phan cc, tc la luc nay tong
momen ien cua chung a khac khong. Ngi ta chia ra cac loai phan cc sau
ay:
Phan cc nh hng: Xay ra vi cac ien moi co cc. Cac lng cc
cng khi cha co ien trng phan bo hon loan do chuyen ong nhiet. Khi co
trng ngoai, di tac dung cua momen ngau lc (3-2) cac lng cc se quay
ve nh hng song song vi ien trng. Ket qua xuat hien s nh hng u
tien cua lng cc doc theo hng ien trng. S phan cc cang manh khi
tang cng o ien trng va giam khi tang nhiet o. Hien tng phan cc
nh hng xay ra vi hang loat cac chat long va chat kh.
Phan cc electron: Xay ra vi cac ien moi khong co cc kh va long.
Khi khong co trng ngoai cac ien tch phan bo oi xng, momen tong se
bang 0. Khi at trong trng ngoai xay ra s dch chuyen cua cac ien tch am
va dng theo hng ngc chieu nhau. Momen ien cang ln neu s dch
chuyen cua cac electron trong nguyen t cang de.
Phan cc ion: Xay ra vi cac ien moi tinh the nh NaCl, CsCl, co
cau truc mang tinh the ion. Khi at trong trng ngoai, hai mang ion trai dau
se dch chuyen ngc chieu nhau va xuat hien momen ien.
Lu The Vinh
- 40 - IEN T HOC

3.1.3. Vec t phan cc.
e o mc o phan cc ien moi ngi ta a vao khai niem vec t
phan cc P
r
co gia tr bang tong momen ien trong mot n v the tch.

1
n
i
i
p
P
V
=
=

uur
uur
(3-5)
Trong o: n so phan t (lng cc) cha trong the tch ien moi V
momen lng cc cua phan t ien moi th i
i
p
uur
Vi ien moi ong chat, ang hng loai khong co cc khi at trong
ien trng eu th:

0
P n p =
uur ur u
0
E

n mat o phan t chat ien moi.
momen ien cam ng cua mot phan t. p
uur
Theo (3-1) ta co
0
p =
ur ur
, nen co the viet:

0 0 0
P n E E = =
ur ur ur
(3-6)
Trong o:
0
n = he so nhiem ien hay o cam ien
Vi ien moi co cc, ong chat at trong ien trng eu :

0
P n p =
ur ur
(3-7)
Trong o: p gia tr trung bnh doc theo hng ien trng cua momen
ien rieng cua cac phan t tnh theo phan bo Boltzmann oi vi cac hat trong
trng lc:
E
T k
p
p
i
3
2
= (3-8)
p
i
momen

ien rieng khong oi cua moi phan t,
T nhiet o tuyet oi cua chat ien moi,
k = 1,38 . 10
-23
J/o

hang so Bolzmann,
E cng o ien trng tac dung len lng cc.
3.1.4. ien tch phan cc.
Khi cha phan cc mat o ien tch lien ket khoi va be mat cua ien
moi la bang khong. Qua trnh phan cc xay ra s dch chuyen cua cac ien
tch lien ket. Gia tr cua vec t mat o ien tch lien ket khoi va be mat

IEN T HOC - 41 -

phu thuoc vao vec t phan cc P
r
. Cac ien tch lien ket tng ng vi s
phan cc goi la ien tch phan cc.
ien tch phan cc the tch xuat hien khi ien moi khong ong nhat:
' div P =
uur
(3-9)
Neu ien moi la ong nhat, ang hng va trong ien trng eu th
mat o ien tch lien ket khoi se bang 0: ' 0 div P = =
uur

Tren be mat ien moi xuat hien ien tch lien ket be mat vi mat o
Xet mot mau ien moi co dang mot hnh tru xien, ay S, canh l song song vi
vec t (hnh 3-1). P
r
Tren mot ay xuat hien ien
tch vi mat o , ay kia + .
0
E
r

l +
+
+
+



n
n
P
r

Momen ien cua hnh tru:
p = S l
The tch hnh tru:
V = S l cos
o ln cua vec t phan cc:
Hnh 3-1

cos
'
cos
' '
= = =
l S
l S
V
p
P (3-10)
Hay:
n
P P = = cos ' (3-11)
Vi P
n
Hnh chieu cua vec t P
r
tren phap tuyen ngoai ay hnh tru.
Theo (3-11) ta co:
Tren ay phai < 2 cos > 0 > 0.
Tren ay trai > 2 cos < 0 < 0.
Khi xet lien he gia ien tch phan cc vi vec t ien trng E
r
ta co:

n e
E E P
0 0
cos cos ' = = = (3-12)
Theo (3-12) ta co:
Tai ni ng sc i vao: > 2, E
n
< 0 , xuat hien < 0
Tai ni ng sc i ra: < 2, E
n
> 0 , xuat hien > 0
3.2. IEN TRNG TRONG CHAT IEN MOI.
Khi phan cc ien moi do xuat hien cac ien tch lien ket + va -
nen se hnh thanh mot ien trng phu
'
E
r
hng ngc chieu vi ien trng
ngoai
r
. Ket qua ien trng trong chat ien moi se la tong hp cua 2 ien
trng noi tren:
0
E
Lu The Vinh
- 42 - IEN T HOC


'
0
E E E
r r r
+ = (3-13)
3.2.1. ien trng gia 2 ban cua mot tu ien phang.
Xet khoi ien moi ong chat gia 2 ban cua mot tu ien phang. Cac
ban tu c tch ien eu trai dau vi mat o ien mat la + va .
Lp ien moi c phan cc vi mat o ien mat tng ng la + va
. Ta co:

0 0
0
'
' ,

= = E va E
Do E
0
va E cung phng, ngc chieu nen ien trng tong hp se la:

0 0 0
0
'
'

P P
E E E
n

=

= =
v = P
n
= P ( cos = 1). Do o:

= +

=
0
0
0
) 1 ( E
E
E .
Hay:

0
0 0
) 1 (
E
E = =
+
= (3-14)
Trong o: = (1 + ) goi la hang so ien moi tng oi cua moi
trng. V 0 nen 1 oi vi moi moi trng.
3.2.2. Lien he gia cac vec t P va E D
r r r
, .
Trong chan khong ta a nh ngha vec t ien cam:

0 0 0
E D
r
=
r
Trong ien moi ta co: (3-15)
Vi ien moi ong chat ty le vi va trung vi ve hng, v
vay ta co:
P E D
r r r
+ =
0

P
r
E
r
E
r
(3-16) E E E E D
r r r r

0 0 0 0
) 1 ( = + = + =
r
Ta lai co:

'
E


0 0

= =

1
' ' ) 1 (

= = (3-17)

IEN T HOC - 43 -

3.2.3. inh ly Ostrogradsky - Gauss cho ien moi.
Khi vit nh ly Ostrogradsky - Gauss cho vec t cam ng ien D
r
trong
mot moi trng bat ky ta co:

=
i
i
q tdo
S
n
dS D (3-18)
E
r
Nu viet cho vec t cng o ien trng th:

+
k
k i
q q ket lien tdo =
S
i
n
dS E
0
(3-19)
Hay ( ) t ke lien do t + E
1
0

= div
r
(3-20)
Trong o:

D la ien thong xuyen qua mat kn S ;

tong so ien tch t do cha trong mat kn S;
S
n
dS

i
i
q tdo

k
k
q ket lien tong cac ien tch
lien ket cha trong S.

=
k
S
n k
dS P q ket lien (3-21)
P
n
hnh chieu cua vec t phan cc P
r
tren phng phap tuyen ngoai
cua nguyen to dien tch be mat dS.
3.2.4. ien trng gay bi mot vat mang ien hnh cau at trong ien moi
ong chat va ang hng.
Xet mot vat mang ien hnh cau tch ien +q at trong mot chat ien
moi ong chat, ang hng, vo han, co hang so ien moi . Tm cng o
ien trng tai iem M cach tam qua cau mot khoang r.
Do phan cc nen lp ien moi
sat be mat qua cau xuat hien mot lp
ien tch phan cc co mat o co
gia tr:
M
r
E(a)

E
+q

) ( ) 1 ( ) ( '
0 0
a E a E = =
Trong o E(a) cng o ien
trng trong ien moi tai mot iem
cach tam qua cau mot khoang a, vi a
la ban knh qua cau.
ien tch lien ket toan phan:
Hnh 3-2
q ) ( ) 1 ( 4 4 ' '
0
2 2
a E a a = =
Lu The Vinh
- 44 - IEN T HOC

Do tnh chat oi xng cau, cac ng sc la xuyen tam, mat o giam ty
le nghch vi bnh phng khoang cach ti tam qua cau. Tc la:
2
) (
) (
a
r
r E
a E
=
2

Do o: ) ( ) 1 ( 4 '
0
2
r E r q = ) ( ) 1 (
4
'
2
0
r E
r
q
=

Theo nguyen ly chong chat, trng tai M la tong cua 2 trng do q va q

gay ra, tc la:
E ) ( ) 1 (
4
1 '
4
1
4
1
) ( ' ) ( ) (
2
0
2
0
2
0
0
r E
r
q
r
q
r
q
r E r E r = = =

(3-22)

) (
4
1
) (
2
0
r E
r
q
r E = =
Nh vay: ien trng trong chat ien moi ong chat gay bi mot vat
mang ien hnh cau nho hn trong chan khong lan.
Gia tr cua vec t ien cam D:
A B
C
+
+
E
0

(3-23)
q
D E
r

D
0 0 2
= =
4
+
Ket luan: Khi lap ay tu ien bang mot ien moi
ong chat (a ngat tu khoi nguon nap) th vec t ien
cam
r
khong thay oi, con cng o ien trng
mot iem bat ky se giam i lan.
D
0
D E =
Neu ien moi khong lap ay tu ien th ket qua
tren se khong ung. V du tren hnh ve (3-3) ta thay tai B th E < E
0
, con tai A
& C th E > E
0
.
Hnh 3-3
3.3. LC TAC DUNG LEN IEN TCH AT TRONG IEN MOI.
Trong chan khong lc tac dung cua ien trng len ien tch q la:
q f E
r r
=
Trong ien moi. Khi mang mot ien tch vao trong ien moi ta phai tao
mot lo hong trong ien moi o. Neu ien moi long va kh th lo hong se co
dang be mat cua vat mang ien. Tren be mat lo hong se xuat hien cac ien
tch lien ket. Ket qua ien trng tac dung len ien tch se khac trong chan
khong.

IEN T HOC - 45 -

Neu ien moi ran th hnh dang lo hong do ta quyet nh. S phan bo
cac ien tch lien ket phu thuoc hnh dang lo hong, cho nen lc tac dung len
ien tch trong tng trng hp cu the se khac nhau.
oi vi ien moi long va kh con xay ra hien tng ien giao, la hien
tng ien moi khi b phan cc se bien dang.
Nguyen nhan: Khi phan cc cac phan t tr thanh cac lng cc ien.
Trong ien trng (noi chung la khong eu) cac lng cc se chu tac dung
cua nhng lc ien. Ket qua trong chat ien moi va mat gii han chat ien
moi va vat mang ien se xuat hien cac lc c hoc.
V du: Xet mot tu ien phang cha ay ien moi long hoac kh. Tren be
mat ien moi co cac ien tch lien ket (Hnh 3-4). Tnh lc tac dung gia 2
ban tu.
+ +
+
+
+
+
+

+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Khi cha co ien moi, ien trng cua moi
ban tu sinh ra la eu va co gia tr:

S
Q
E
0 0
0
2 2

= =
Lc tac dung gia 2 ban tu co gia tr:

S
Q
QE F
0
2
0 0
2
= =
Hnh 3-4
Khi lap ay ien moi vao tu, lc F se thay oi. Ta dung phng phap
cong ao e tnh lc nay. Ta co nang lng cua tu ien la:

S
d Q
C
Q
= =
0
2 2
2 2
W
Gia s di chuyen mot ban tu sang phai mot oan d, nang lng tu se
bien thien mot lng:
d
S
Q
W =
0
2
2
Bien thien nang lng cua tu bang cong di chuyen ban tu:
A W d F = =
Hay:

0
0
2
2
F
S
Q
d
W
F = =

= (3-24)
Nh vay: Lc tac dung gia cac ban tu nho hn trong chan khong lan.
Lu The Vinh
- 46 - IEN T HOC

oi vi ien moi ran: Tuy thuoc vao hnh dang lo hong tao ra ben trong
ien moi. Ta xet mot so trng hp sau ay:
Lo hong co dang mot hnh tru ng dai.
Gia s trong ien moi ong chat, phan cc eu, ta tao mot lo hong co
dang mot hnh tru ng dai, co ay nho va co ng sinh song song vi vec t
phan cc P
r
(hnh 3-5, a).


+
+
+
+
+
+












+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+

+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+1
+
+
+

E
ph
E
a) b)
Hnh 3-5

Tren 2 ay xuat hien cac ien tch phan cc mat o + va -, vi

=P
n
=P.
at mot ien tch th q = +1 n v vao gia hnh tru. V ay hnh tru
be va cach xa ien tch q nen tac dung cua cac ien tch lien ket len q rat nho
so vi tac dung cua trng ngoai. Do o lc at vao ien tch q co the xac
nh theo bieu thc:
E q F
r r
= (3-25)
Trong o E
r
la cng o ien trng trong chat ien moi.
Lo hong co dang mot hnh tru ng ngan, ay rong va vuong goc vi P
r

(hnh 3-5, b) th khi o tac dung cua cac ien tch lien ket len ien tch q
khong the bo qua . Tren ay co cac ien tch lien ket :
= P
n
= P.
V ay rong va khoang cach gia 2 ay be nen cac ien tch lien ket
gay ra gia hnh tru mot ien trng phu co hng trung vi E
r
va co gia tr:

0 0
'

P
E
ph
= =

IEN T HOC - 47 -

Do vay cng o ien trng toan phan tac dung len ien tch th at
tam hnh tru co gia tr:

0
'

P
E E
r
r r
+ = ( 3-26)
Lc tac dung len ien tch th se la:

+ =
0

P
E q F
r
r r
(3-27)
Mat khac: nen: E P
r r
0
=

0
) 1 (

D
q E q E q F
r
r r r
= = + = (3-28)
Lo hong co dang mot hnh cau. (hnh 3-6)
Tren be mat cau xuat hien ien tch lien ket co gia tr phu thuoc vao
v tr ta xet, bi v co gia tr va phng chieu nh nhau, nhng thanh phan
tren mat cau thay oi theo v tr tren mat cau.
P
r
n
P
r


Hnh 3-6

Dung toa o goc cc va goc phng v e nh v tr moi iem tren
mat cau. Ta co:
cos ' P P
n
= = (3-29)
Do tnh oi xng cau, nen ta thay ien trng gay bi cac ien tch lien
ket tren mat cau tai tam hnh cau co the phan tch thanh 2 thanh phan:

// ph ph ph
E d E d E d
r r r
+ =

(3-30)
Cac thanh phan
ph
E d
r
se triet tieu lan nhau.
P
ur
dS

+
+
+
+

ph
E d
r




//
dE
uur
dP

u

ur

Lu The Vinh
- 48 - IEN T HOC

Cac thanh phan E d
r
ph//
song song vi P
r
se cong lai vi nhau. Do vay
ta ch can xet cac thanh phan E d
r
ph//
.
Xet mot vi phan be mat dS = R
2
sin d d co cha ien tch lien ket la
q = dS = R
2
sin d d (3-31)
ien tch nay gay ra tai tam hnh cau mot ien trng nguyen to:

d d
R
d d R
R
dS
E d
ph
sin '
4
1 sin '
4
1 '
4
1
0
2
2
0
2
0
= = =
r

Hay:

cos sin
4
1
0
d d P dE
ph
= (3-32)
Va

d d P dE
ph
sin cos
4
1
2
0
//
= (3-33)


= =

0
2
0
2
0
) (
//
sin cos
4
1
d d P dE E
cau Mat
ph ph


0
3
1

P
E
ph
= (3-34)
Cng o ien trng tong hp tam qua cau la:

0
3
1

P
E E E E
ph ph
r
r r r r
+ = + = (3-35)
Ket qua nay ac biet quan trong khi xet cac chat ien moi ran co cau
truc tinh the lap phng. Moi phan t ien moi nam gia cac phan t khac
mot cach trung bnh co the xem nh phan t nam tam mot lo hong hnh cau.
Ket qua tren c ap dung e tnh lc tac dung len mot phan t chat ien moi
phan cc eu.
3.4. BIEN THIEN CUA IEN TRNG MAT GII HAN CHAT IEN MOI.
e bieu dien ien trng co the dung vec t hoac . Trong
ien moi khong ong chat gia tr cua hang so ien moi thay oi t iem nay
en iem khac dan en gia tr cua cac vec t E
r
va
r
cung thay oi.
E
r
P E D
r r r
+ =
0

D
Ta hay xet hai lp ien moi ong chat co hang so ien moi tng ng

1
va
2
at trong mot ien trng eu
r
(hnh 3-7, a). Do phan cc tren 2
lp ien moi xuat hien cac ien tch trai dau
1
va
2
. Cac ien tch nay gay
ra cac ien trng phu:
0
E

IEN T HOC - 49 -

(3-36)
0
'
2
2
0
'
1
1
;

= = E E
+ + + + + +

Neu hp vi phap tuyen mat gii han mot goc nao o ta co:
0
E
r
(3-37)
ot on o
E E E
r r r
+ =
ien trng tong hp trong ien moi se la:
(3-38)
o
on on n
o
on on n
E E E E
E E E E

'
2 '
2 2
'
1 '
1 1
= =
= =
Thanh phan tiep tuyen phu thuoc vao ien tch lien ket nen:
(3-39)
t t ot
E E E
2 1
= =
Mat khac . Do o:
n o n o
E E
2 2
'
2 1 1
'
1
; = =
(3-40)
n on n
n on n
E E E
E E E
2 2 2
1 1 1

=
=
Hay: (3-41)
2 2
2
1 1
1
1
1


on on
n
on on
n
E E
E
E E
E
=
+
=
=
+
=
Nh vay: Khi i qua mat phan cach thanh phan phap tuyen cua vec t
r
thay oi, con thanh phan tiep tuyen cua no khong thay oi. E
Xet vec t D
r
.
Ta co: , trong o: E D
o
r r
=
D
1n
=
1

o
E
1n
=
o
E
on

D
2n
=
2

o
E
2n
=
o
E
on

+ + + + + +
- - - - - -
-

-
- - - - -

1

'
E
1
uur
'
E
uur
2

E
u
0
ur
t
-
E
uuur
E
0
uuur
n 0
Hnh 3-7, a
Lu The Vinh
- 50 - IEN T HOC

D
1t
=
1

o
E
1t
=
1

o
E
ot

D
2t
=
2

o
E
2t
=
2

o
E
ot
Nh vay ta co:
(3-42)
1
2
2
1
2 1
2
1
2
1
2 1
&
&

= =
= =
n
n
t t
t
t
n n
E
E
E E
D
D
D D
(3-42) c goi la cac ieu kien bien cua cac vec t E & . D
r r
Y ngha: T cac phng trnh (3-42) ta thay rang: Khi qua mat phan
cach cac lp ien moi bien thien cua cac vec t E
r
& la khac nhau. D
r
Ta hay xet thong lng cua cac vec t & qua mot dien tch dS nam
tai phan gii cua 2 lp ien moi (hnh 3-7, b).
E
r
D
r

Hnh 3-7, b

2

dS
2
dS
1

2

1

D
1n
D
1t
D
2n
D
2t
D
1

D
2

a)
Xet vec t , ta co: dN
E1
= E
1n
dS
1
= E
1n
dS E
r
dN
E2
= E
2n
dS
2
= E
2n
dS (3-43)
V E
1n
E
2n
nen dN
E1
dN
E2
. Nh vay ng sc vec t b gian
oan khi i qua mat phan cach.
E
r
Xet vec t , ta co: dN
D1
= D
1n
dS
1
= D
1n
dS D
r
dN
D2
= D
2n
dS
2
= D
2n
dS (3-44)
V D
1n
= D
2n
nen dN
D1
= dN
D2
. Nh vay ng sc vec t

khong b
gian oan khi i qua mat phan cach.
D
uur
Bay gi ta hay viet nh ly O-G cho cac vec t & . E
r
D
r
Vi vec t D
r
. Do ng sc lien tuc, o ln cua D
r
ch phu thuoc
vao cac ien tch t do, nen ta co :

do t
q S d D N
S
DS
= =

r r

(3-45)
do t
= D diV
r

IEN T HOC - 51 -

Vi vec t E
r
. ng sc b gian oan do b anh hng cua cac ien
tch lien ket, do o o ln cua E
r
phu thuoc ca vao cac ien tch t do va ca
cac ien tch lien ket, nen ta co :

( )
( )
( )
ket lien do t
ket lien do t
ket lien do t
1
1
1

+ =
+ =
+ = =

o
V
o
E
o
S
E
E diV
N
q q S d E N
r
r r
s
(3-46)
Trong thc te khi xet cac bai toan ve ien moi ta thng xs dung vec
t thay cho vec t . D
uur
E
r
nh luat khuc xa :
T cac ieu kien (3-42) ta co the xac nh c ng i cua cac vec t
& khi i qua mat phan cach 2 lp ien moi bang cac bieu thc
sau (xem hnh 3-7):
E
uur
D
uur

2
1
2
1
2
2
1
1
2
1
2
2
2
1
1
1
;

= = =
= =
t
t
t
n
n
t
n
t
n
t
D
D
D
D
D
D
tg
tg
D
D
tg
D
D
tg
(3-47)
Cac bieu thc (3-47) con c goi la nh luat khuc xa oi vi vec t . D
uur
3.5. XENHET IEN VA AP IEN
3.5.1. Xenhet ien.
La hieu ng xay ra oi vi mot so tinh the. au tien ngi ta tm thay
muoi xenhet, sau o cac chat co tnh
chat tng t eu c goi la cac chat
xenhet.
Muoi xenhet co cong thc hoa
hoc la : NaKC
4
H
4
O
6
4H
2
O (bitactrat
natri kali ngam nc). Cau truc tinh the
cua no co dang bat ang hng trong
khong gian (Hnh 3-8).
c
a
b
Hnh 3-8
Hieu ng xenhet xay ra khi ta at
ien moi trong mot ien trng ngoai
sao cho hng cua trng song song vi
Lu The Vinh
- 52 - IEN T HOC

mot truc a hoac b cua tinh the : b a E hoac , //
r
. Cac tnh chat cua hieu ng the
hien nh sau :
1. Trong mot khoang nhiet o xac nh nao o, hang so ien moi ac biet
ln, co the at ti khoang (10
3
10
4
). Tren hnh (3-9,a) bieu dien s
phu thuoc cua hang so ien moi cua titanat bari (BaTiO
3
) vao nhiet
o. o th cho thay trong khoang 120
0
C , co gia tr gan 2000. Khi giam
nhiet o ti 80
0
C hang so ien moi tang vot ti gan 6000, sau o neu
tiep tuc giam nhiet o th lai giam xuong.
Hnh 3-9
5500
4500
40 60 80 100 120 140
0
C
E
a) b)
500
1500
2500
3500


2. Hang so ien moi va do o vec t ien cam D
r
trong ien moi khong
t le vi E
r
ma phu thuoc vao E
r
mot cach phc tap. Gia tr cua hang so ien
moi khong phai la hang so (xem hnh 3-9,b).
3. S phan cc ien moi khong ch
phu thuoc vao E
r
ma con phu thuoc vao
trang thai phan cc trc o cua ien
moi. Hien tng nay goi la hien tng
ien tre. o phan cc P khi thay oi
tuan hoan ien trng phan cc phu
thuoc vaoE
r
theo mot ng cong khep
kn ien tre (hnh 3-10).
P
d
P

E E
k
Hnh 3-10

O
chu trnh
Trong o :
P
d
o phan cc d
E
K
ien trng kh phan cc.
4. Hieu ng xenhet phu thuoc rat
nhieu vao nhiet o, no ch xay ra trong

IEN T HOC - 53 -

mot khoang nhiet o xac nh gii han bi cac iem Curie. V du vi muoi
xenhet, hieu ng ch xay ra trong khoang nhiet o gia +22,5
o
C va 15
o
C.
Ngoai khoang nhiet o tren xenhet tr thanh ien moi thng.
Mot so chat nh phot phat kali (KH
2
PO
4
) ; Asenat kali (KH
2
AsO
4
) ;
Titanat bari (BaTiO
4
) la nhng chat xenhet.
ng dung. Cac chat xenhet c s dung rong rai trong ky thuat ien va vo
tuyen ien. Vi hang so ien moi ln xenhet c s dung nh mot chat ien
moi co cao e che tao cac tu ien co kch thc nho nhng ien dung ln.
3.5.2. Giai thch.
Nguyen nhan cua hieu ng xenhet ien la do s phan cc t phat trong
tng mien rieng biet cua ien moi (goi la cac omen). Trong moi omen cac
momen ien sap xep sao cho ve toan bo momen cua ien moi bang 0. (V du
mot phan bo the hien nh hnh 3-11).
E
r

Hnh 3-11
a) b)

Khi co trng ngoai momen ien trong tng omen se nh hng u
tien theo phng cua ien trng. S nh hng cang manh khi ien trng
ngoai cang ln. Ket qua ien moi b phan cc.
Khi nhiet o T > T
C
chuyen ong nhiet ln co the pha v s nh hng
t nhien cua cac momen ien trong cac omen dan en lam mat hieu ng
xenhet.
3.5.3. Hieu ng ap ien.
a) Hieu ng ap ien xay ra oi vi mot so chat nh thach anh, muoi
xenhet, tuocmalin, titanat bari, v.v. Co 2 dang:
Hieu ng ap ien thuan: Khi b bien dang, tren be mat tinh the xuat hien
cac ien tch trai dau.
Hieu ng ap ien nghch: Tinh the ap ien khi at trong ien trng bien
thien se b bien dang.
Lu The Vinh
- 54 - IEN T HOC

Tinh the thach anh co dang luc lang vi 2 au la 2 hnh chop oi xng
nh tren hnh 3-12, a, Moi tinh the thach anh co 3 truc, ma moi truc co nhng
hieu ng ac biet gan vi cac hien tng quang, ien va c. Truc quang hoc Z
la truc i qua 2 nh hnh chop. Truc ien X i qua canh cua lang tru va vuong
goc vi truc quang. Truc c Y la truc hng vuong goc vi mat ben cua lang
tru.

a) b) c)
Hnh 3-12. Tinh the thach anh va cac truc cua no:
truc quang Z, truc ien X va truc c Y

Neu cat t tinh the thach anh ra mot khoi hnh hop, co cac canh nh
hng theo cac truc X, Y nh hnh 3-12, b th khi tac dung lc P
x
len tinh the
doc theo hng truc ien X, tren 2 be mat oi dien cua tinh the se xuat hien
cac ien tch trai dau (hieu ng doc):
Q
x
= D P
x
(3-48)
Trong o: D la hang so ap ien. Vi thach anh D = 2,1.10
-12
C/N
Neu tac dung lc c hoc P
y
doc theo truc c Y, tren 2 be mat cua tinh
the cung xuat hien cac ien tch (hieu ng ngang), nhng ngc dau vi hieu
ng doc:
(3-49)
x
y
y y
S
S
DP Q =
Trong o S
y
va S
x
tng ng la cac dien tch be mat ban tinh the vuong
goc vi cac truc Y va truc X.
Dau cua cac ien tch xuat hien se thay oi khi chuyen t bien dang
nen sang dan va ngc lai.
Hieu ng ap ien thuan noi tren c s dung e che tao cac bo
chuyen oi o lng e o chan ong, o o rung, o ap lc. u iem la rat

IEN T HOC - 55 -

b) Nguyen nhan:
Cac ien moi tinh the co cau truc mang tinh the ion, chung do nhieu
mang n gian hp thanh, cac mang nay c cau thanh t cac ion cung loai
at lech nhau trong khong gian. Khi b bien dang c hoc trong tinh the xay ra
2 bien oi:
au tien moi o c ban b bien dang, chang han khi b nen o hnh lap
phng bien thanh o hnh hop xien.
Sau o cac mang n gian b dch chuyen tng oi vi nhau va lam
xuat hien momen ien. Ket qua ien moi b phan cc.
Theo vat ly chat ran, s dch chuyen tren ch xay ra vi cac tinh the co
cau truc mang vi tam khong oi xng. Do o hien tng ap ien ch xay ra
vi cac tinh the co bac oi xng thap.
c) Hieu ng ap ien nghch.
La hien tng tinh the ap ien khi at trong ien trng bien thien se b
bien dang. Chieu bien dang phu thuoc vao chieu ien trng. Nh vay neu
ta dan 2 la kim loai vao 2 ma cua mot ban thach anh va at vao mot ien
trng bien thien tuan hoan th ban thach anh se b phan cc va bien dang
mot cach tuan hoan , tc la ban thach anh se dao ong. Dao ong se cang
manh neu tan so kch thch bang tan so dao ong rieng cua ban thach anh.
Hieu ng ap ien nghch c ng dung e che tao cac bien t trong
may phat song sieu am, tao dao ong thach anh trong cac may phat dao
ong, chuan tan so.
d) Tnh chat vat ly cua cac vat lieu dung trong chuyen oi ap ien.
1.Thach anh.
Hang so ap ien: D = 2,1.10
-12
C/N
Hang so ien moi: = 39,8 F/m
Mo un an hoi oi vi tinh the thach anh theo hng vuong goc vi
truc quay la 70 90 kN/mm
2
.
ng suat c hoc cho phep oi vi ban thach anh phu thuoc vao chat
lng mai mat tac dung va co the at (0,71,0).10
8
N/m
2
hay (70100) N/mm
2
.
ien tr suat cua ban tinh the thay oi theo cac hng truc (bang 3-1).


Bang 3-1
Lu The Vinh
- 56 - IEN T HOC

Nhiet o (
o
C)
ien tr suat (. m)
Doc truc quang Vuong goc vi truc quang
20 1.10
12
2.10
14
100 8.10
9

200 7.10
7

300 6.10
3


Ta thay ien tr suat cua thach anh doc theo truc quang phu thuoc
nhieu vao nhiet o trong khi khong thay oi doc theo phng vuong goc vi
truc quang. ien tr suat doc theo truc quang nho hn nhieu theo phng
vuong goc vi no.
Hang so ap ien D thc te khong phu thuoc vao nhiet o trong pham vi
en 200
o
C. Trong khoang t 200
o
C 500
o
C gia tr cua D thay oi khong
nhieu. Khi nhiet o ln hn 500
o
C hang so D giam nhanh va nhiet o 573
o
C
thach anh b mat tnh chat ap ien.
2. Muoi xe nhet. La loai co o nhay ap ien ln nhat ( D 300. 10
-12
C/N),
tuy nhien no co tnh chat hut am ln, o ben c hoc nho va ien tr suat thap,
nen han che viec s dung.
Chuyen oi ap ien dung xenhet ch c dung trong cac phep o lc
va ap lc thay oi nhanh trong cac moi trng co o am nho va nhiet o
trong phong.
3. Titanatbari. Khong s dung loai n tinh the ma thng s dung gom
phan cc titanatbari. Tnh chat ap ien cua gom titanatbari khong nhng phu
thuoc vao thanh phan va phng phap san xuat, ma con phu thuoc ca vao
ien ap phan cc va ng suat c hoc gay ra bi ai lng can o. Ngoai ra
con xay ra s thay oi tnh chat cua no theo thi gian, tc s gia hoa (thng
khoang 20 % sau 2 nam).
Lc c hoc nen at theo phng phan cc, ien tch phan cc xuat hien
tren mat vuong goc vi phng phan cc. Khi o hang so ap ien cua gom
titanatbari co gia tr D = 107. 10
-12
C/N. Hang so ien moi = 1240. 10
-11

F/m. Moun an hoi E = 115 G N/m
2
= 115 kN/mm
2
. Gom ap ien co o ben
c hoc cao va khong phu thuoc o am.



Chng 4.

IEN T HOC - 57 -

DONG IEN KHONG OI
4.1. NHNG KHAI NIEM C BAN
4.1.1. Dong ien.
Dong ien la dong chuyen di co hng cua cac ien tch. Ngi ta
phan biet cac trng hp sau :
Dong dan : la dong chuyen di co hng cua cac ien tch t do trong
vat dan di tac dung cua ien trng. Tuy thuoc vao vat dan ma ban
chat cua cac hat tai ien se khac nhau :
Trong kim loai : la dong cac electron t do.
Trong ban dan : la dong cac electron va cac lo dng.
Trong chat ien phan : la dong cac ion (+) va cac ion (-).
Trong chatkh: la dong cac ion (+) , cac ion (-) va cac electron.
Dong oi lu (dong keo theo): la dong tao ra do chuyen ong trong
khong gian cua cac vat dan tch ien.
Quy c : Chieu dong ien la chieu chuyen di co hng cua cac ien
tch dng.
4.1.2. ieu kien e duy tr dong ien.
Ta hay noi hai vat dan A va B vi nhau, trong o vat dan A co ien the

A
, vat dan B co ien the
B
vi
A
>

B
, tc la gia A va B ton tai mot hieu
ien the U
AB
=
A
-

B
(hnh 4-1). Tren day noi A va B se co mot ien trng
tnh (trng Coulomb) E
r
tac dung len cac ien tch va lam chung chuyen
ong co hng. S dch chuyen nay se dan ti s phan bo lai ien tch cua he,
ket qua lam can bang ien the va dong ien trong mach se nhanh chong triet
tieu. Nh vay trng Coulomb khong the duy tr dong ien.
e duy tr dong ien trong vat dan
can phai lap lai hieu ien the gia A va
B. Muon vay phai co mot trng lc E

r

co ban chat khac vi ien trng tnh (goi
la trng lc la) co chieu hng t B
sang A e a cac ien tch (+) t B tr
ve A va cac ien tch (-) t A tr lai ve B.
C che o c thc hien nh mot bo
phan goi la nguon suat ien ong (nguon
ien). co chc nang bien cac dang nang
lng khac thanh ien .
E
r

4.1.3. Mat o dong va cng o dong ien.
A
B
Hnh 4-1
E

r


Nguon ien
Lu The Vinh
- 58 - IEN T HOC

ng dong : la ng ma doc theo no cac ien tch chuyen ong. Chieu
ng dong la chieu chuyen ong cua cac ien tch dng.
Ong dong : Tap hp cac ng dong ta tren hai chu vi nao o.
Vi quy c nh tren cac ien tch khi chuyen ong se khong cat mat
ben cua ong. Ngha la cac ien tch trong ong khong chui ra ngoai ong va
ngc lai.
e ac trng nh lng cho dong ien ngi ta a ra khai niem mat
o dong va cng o dong ien.
Mat o dong ien : La mot ai lng vat ly co o ln bang ien lng
chuyen qua mot n v dien tch at vuong goc vi ng dong trong mot n
v thi gian.
Hay tng tng tach ra trong vat dan mot
dien tch S at vuong goc vi phng cua van toc
. ien lng chuyen qua dien tch S trong mot
n v thi gian se bang so ien tch cha trong the
tch cua hnh hop ch nhat co ay S, chieu cao v
(hnh 4-2).
v
r
S
v
J
Hnh 4-2
J = nev.
Trong o n mat o hat tai ien.
e bieu th ca phng chieu cua dong ien ta dung vec t mat o dong :
v ne J
r
r
(4-1) =
Cng o dong ien I : La mot ai lng vat ly co o ln bang ien lng
chuyen qua tiet dien thang cua vat dan trong mot n v thi gian :

= =
S
S d J
dt
dq
I
r r
(4-2)
Neu
dq
I
dt
= = const , dong c goi la dong khong oi ;
Neu
dq
I
dt
= const , dong c goi la dong bien thien.
Vi dong ien khong oi ta co the viet :

t
q
I = (4-3)
n v : Trong he SI n v cng o dong ien la Ampe (A), n v mat o
dong ien la A/m
2
.
4.2. NH LUAT OHM CHO OAN MACH ONG CHAT
4.2.1. nh luat Ohm.

IEN T HOC - 59 -

Vi mot oan mach dan ong chat, neu at gia 2 au cua no mot hieu
ien the U =
1

2
th trong mach se xuat hien mot dong ien co o ln ty le
vi U.
I = U (4-4)
he so ty le goi la ien dan cua vat.
4.2.2. en tr.
Trong bieu thc cua nh luat Ohm, ai lng nghch ao cua ac
trng cho mc o can tr dong ien c goi la ien tr cua vat dan :

1
= R (4-5)
Vi khai niem ien tr, bieu thc cua nh luat Ohm (4-4) c viet lai :

U
I
R
= (4-6)
Gia tr cua R phu thuoc vao hnh dang, ban chat, kch thc trang thai
cua vat dan. oi vi mot vat dan hnh tru ong chat ta co :

S
l
S
l
R = =

1
(4-7)
Trong o : ien tr suat, ac trung cho ban chat cua vat dan.
l chieu dai day dan.
S tiet dien ngang day dan.
ien dan suat cua mach.
Khi nhiet o thay oi, ien tr suat cua vat se thay oi va c ac
trng bang he so nhiet ien tr :

dt
d

1
= (4-8)
Gia tr cua cho biet so gia cua khi nhiet o tang len 1
0
C, no co gia
tr khac nhau trong nhng khoang nhiet o khac nhau, ieu o chng to s
phu thuoc cua theo nhiet o la khong tuyen tnh. Tuy nhien vi mot so chat
nh kim loai th s bien thien nay khong ln, va trong mot khoang nhiet o u
nho co the xem = const. Ta co the viet :
=
0
(1 + t). (4-9)
Gia tr cua co the am, co the dng. oi vi kim loai >0, con vi
cac chat ban dan va chat ien phan co < 0.
n v : Trong he SI n v cua ien tr c nh ngha :
= = = ( /
] [
] [
] Ohm A V
I
U
R [ )
Lu The Vinh
- 60 - IEN T HOC

oi vi ien tr suat : [] = m
4.2.3. Dang vi phan cua nh luat Ohm.
nh luat Ohm bieu dien theo (4-4) hoac (4-6) ap dung oi vi mot
oan day dan ong chat. e tm bieu thc cua nh luat oi vi tng iem cua
mot moi trng dan bat ky, ta phai viet bieu thc di dang vi phan. Tng
tng tach ra mot oan ong dong co chieu dai vo cung be dl gii han bi hai
tiet dien ngang dS cac ien the tng ng la
1
va
2
(vi
1
>
2
) at
vuong goc vi cac ng dong (hnh 4-2).

J
r
E
r
Hnh 4-2

2
dS
dl

1

Neu J
r
la mat o dong tai iem ang xet, ta co dong i qua dS se la :
dS J S d J I = =
r r
(4-10)
The hieu gia 2 au ong la :
1

2
l d E
r r
= = Edl (4-11)
ien tr cua oan ong dong :
dl
R
dS
= (4-12)
Theo nh luat Ohm ap dung cho oan ong dong ta co:

1

2
= RI (4-13)
T (4-13) va (4-11) ket hp vi (4-10) va (4-12) ta co :
Edl =
dl
JdS
dS

Suy ra :
1
J E E

= =
Hay di dang vec t: J E =
r r
(4-14)
Bieu thc (4-14) c goi la dang vi phan cua nh luat Ohm.

4.3. SUAT IEN ONG - NH LUAT OHM TONG QUAT.

IEN T HOC - 61 -

1. Trng tnh ien khong tao ra c dong ien khong oi trong mach. e
duy tr dong ien can tac dung len cac ien tch mot lc co ban chat phi tnh
ien goi la cac lc la
r
. Lc la nay do nguon ien tao ra.
*
F
Trng tao ra cac lc la goi la trng lc la E

r
. Nh vay trong mot
oan mach co nguon ien tac dung, qua mach co dong ien khong oi chay
qua, tai moi iem cua mach luon ton tai 2 trng :
Trng lc Coulomb : E
r
.
Trng lc la : E

.
r
I

+



E

Hnh 4-3


2

1
dl
2. nh luat Ohm trong trng hp nay
se co dang :
( ) J E E

= +
r r r
(4-15)
Xet mot oan mach vi phan dl
co dong ien khong oi I chay qua.
Khi o co the viet phng trnh (4-15)
di dang vo hng :
J = (E + E
*
) (4-15,a)
Bay gi nhan hai ve cua phng trnh (4-15,a) vi dl ta co :

( )
dl dl E E Edl E dl
S

I

= + = +

2 2 2
1 1 1
dl
I Edl E dl
S

= +

12 1 2
IR
(4-16)
+ E
12
(4-17) =
Trong o :
2
12
1
dl
R
S
=

ien tr cua oan mach AB

2
1 2
1
Edl =

Hieu ien the gia 2 iem 1-2
E
12
=
2
1
E dl

r
Suat ien ong tac dung tren oan 1-2.
Nh vay ta co :
1 2 12
IR = E
12
(4-18)
Bieu thc (4-18) bieu dien nh luat Ohm di dang tong quat.
Quy c ve dau : Khi i t 1 en 2 : I >0 neu cung chieu, ngc lai I <0.
E
12
>0 neu i t 1 en 2 i t cc (+) sang cc (-), ngc lai E
12
<0.
V du : Vi mach ien tren hnh 4-4 ta co :

1 2 1 2 1 2 1
( ) I R R r r e e
2
= + + + +
Lu The Vinh
- 62 - IEN T HOC


e r
e r
1
1 2
1
R
R
2
2
I
1
2

Hnh 4-4

3. Vi mach ien kn
1
=
2
do o ta co the viet :

i
i
e
I
R r
=
+

(4-20)
Trong o tong cac suat ien ong tac ong trong mach.
i
i
e

4.4. MACH PHAN NHANH NH LUAT KIRCHHOFF.

4..4.1. Mach phan nhanh.
Mach t nhieu nhanh ghep lai tao thanh cac nut va mat.
Nut. Ni gap nhau cua t nhat 3 nhanh tr len.
Mat . Mach vong khep kn bi cac nhanh.
e giai cac bai toan vi mach phan nhanh phc tap thng s dung 2
nh luat Kirchhoff sau ay.
4..4.2. Hai nh luat Kirchhoff.
1) nh luat Kirchhoff 1 (Viet cho nut). Tai moi nut theo nh luat bao toan
ien tch th tong so ien tch t nut va tong so ien tch i khoi nut sau mot
n v thi phai bang nhau. Noi cach khac tong cac dong ien ti nut phai
bang tong dong ien i khoi nut.
Neu quy c dong ti nut lay dau dng, dong i khoi nut lay dau am
ta co the viet bieu thc cua nh luat Kirchhoff 1 cho nut nh sau :
(4-21) 0
k
k
I =

M
I
1

I
2

I
3

I
4

Hnh 4-5
Tong ai so cac dong ien i qua
mot nut bang 0
V du vi nut M tren hnh 4-5 ta
co the viet :
I
1
I
2
I
3
I
4
= 0
1) nh luat Kirchhoff 2 (Viet cho
mat).

IEN T HOC - 63 -

Ta hay khao sat mot mach phan nhanh phc tap nh tren hnh 4-6. Xet
mach vong ABCD. Viet bieu thc cua nh luat Ohm tong quat cho tng oan
mach theo chieu dng cua mat ta co :

1 1 1
2 2 2
3 3 3
A B
B C
C A
I R e
I R e
I R e



= +
=
=

e
e
e
1
3 3
R
R
I
e
2
R
2
1
3
R
4
I
5
R
1
4
4
I
2
I
1
A
B
C
D
Cong cac phng trnh tren ve vi
ve ta co :
1 1 2 2 3 3 1 2
I R I R I R e e e +
3
= 0
hay :
1 1 2 2 3 3 1 2 3
I R I R I R e e e = + +
i i I
i I
I R e =



(4-22)
Hnh 4-6
Quy c : I >0 neu chay cung chieu dng cua mat, ngc lai I<0 ;
e>0 neu tac ong theo chieu dng cua mat, ngc lai e<0.
4.5. CONG VA CONG SUAT CUA DONG IEN.
4.5.1. Cong va cong suat cua dong ien.
Xet mot oan mach khong cha nguon ien gia hai iem 1-2 at vao
hieu ien the U
12
.

12 1 2
A A
U
q I

t
= = = (4-23)

1 2
( ) A I t = = U
12
It (4-24)
Neu oan mach co cha nguon, cong di chuyen ien tch q bao gom ca
cong cua trng lc la va cong cua lc ien Coulomb :

12 12
( A U I t I t U I t = + = + E E) (4-25)
Neu mach kn
12 1 2
0 U = = . Ta co cong trong mach do nguon ien
sinh ra : A I t = E .
Cong suat cua nguon ien.
- Vi oan mach khong co nguon :
A
P UI
t
= = (4-26)
- Vi oan mach co nguon : P UI I = + E (4-27)
- Vi mach kn : P I = E (4-28)
n v : Cong : [A] = [UIt] = V.A.s = J
Cong suat : [P] = [UI] = V.A. = W
4.5.2. nh luat Joule Lenx.
Lu The Vinh
- 64 - IEN T HOC


Tac dung nhiet cua dong ien do Joule va Lenx tm ra. Gia s tren
oan mach 1-2 co dong chay qua. Neu day dan ng yen, cong c hoc se
bang 0 va neu khong xay ra mot phan ng hoa hoc nao th cong cua dong
ien hoan toan bien thanh nhiet :
Q (4-29)
2 2
( ) 0,24 ( ) A UI t I Rt J I Rt Cl = = = =
dt
Neu dong qua mach bien thien theo thi gian th nhiet lng toa ra
trong thi gian t se la :
(4-30)
2
0
t
Q i R =

Dang vi phan cua nh luat Joule-Lenx.
Vi mot moi trng dan bat ky xet mot oan ong dong dV = dS.dl.
Nhiet lng toa ra tren dV trong thi gian dt la :
dQ = I
2
R dt =
2 2 2
( ) ( )
dl
JdS dt J dSdldt J dVdt
dS
= =
Mat o cong suat nhiet :

2 2
dQ
w J
dV dt
E = = =

2
w E = (4-31)
4.5.3. Cong suat mach ngoai, hieu suat cua nguon ien.
Xet mach kn cha nguon (E,r) va mach ngoai co ien tr R. Dong trong
mach :
I
R r
=
+
E
E = IR+ Ir
E I = I
2
R + I
2
r (4-32)
P
e
= E I Cong suat toan phan do nguon sinh ra.
Po = I
2
R Cong suat thoat ra mach ngoai (cong suat hu ch).
P
i
= I
2
r Cong suat tieu hao trong nguon (cong suat vo ch).
*Hieu suat :
2
(%)
( )
o
e
P I R R R
P I R r R r
= = = =
+ +
E
E E
(4-33)

IEN T HOC - 65 -

Chng 5.
CAC HIEN TNG IEN T VA ION
5.1. THUYET ELECTRON CO IEN
5.1.1. Ban chat cua cac hat tai ien trong kim loai
Thc nghiem chng to rang cac phan t tai ien trong kim loai chnh la
cac electron t do. Nguyen nhan la khi tao thanh mang tinh the, cac electron
hoa tr do lien ket yeu vi hat nhan nguyen t nen chung de dang thoat ra
khoi lien ket e tr thanh t do va tr thanh tai san tap the cua toan bo khoi
kim loai. Khi co ien trng ngoai tac dung, cac electron t do se chuyen
ong nh hng e tao nen dong ien.
Mat o electron t do (goi la electron dan) vi kim loai hoa tr mot xac
nh theo bieu thc:

o
N
n
A
= (5.1)
- khoi lng rieng cua kim loai, N so Avogaro, A nguyen t gam
Gia tr cua n
0
vao khoang 10
22
10
23
cm
-3
.
5.1.2. Thuyet electron co ien ve kim loai
Trong kim loai ton tai cac electron t do (electron dan), chuyen ong
cua chung c khao sat nh la kh electron giong nh kh ly tng. Tng
tac gia cac electron vi nhau khong ang ke. Tng tac gia cac electron
vi nut mang tinh the ch the hien khi va cham. Cac va cham dan en thiet
lap s can bang nhiet gia kh electron va mang tinh the.
Kh electron tuan theo chat che cac nh luat cua kh ly tng. Moi
electron co 3 bac t do, moi bac t do ng vi mot ong nang la 1/2KT. Do
o ong nang trung bnh cua chuyen ong nhiet hon on cua moi electron la:

2
1 3
2 2
T
W mv = = kT (5.2)
k = 1,38.10
-23
J/o Hang so Boltzmann
T Nhiet o tuyet oi
2
v
T
Trung bnh bnh phng cua van toc chuyen ong nhiet.
Moi nguyen t kim loai cho mot electron t do, mat o electron t do
xap x bang mat o nguyen t trong kim loai:
TS. Lu The Vinh
- 66 - IEN T HOC

22 23 3
10 10
o
N
n cm
A


= (5.3)
5.1.3. Giai thch ve tnh dan ien va ien tr kim loai
Bnh thng cac electron t do trong kim loai chuyen ong nhiet hon
loan khong co phng u tien. Khi co ien trng ngoai tac dung chung se
tham gia chuyen ong nh hng di tac dung cua lc ien trng.
Khi chuyen ong nh hng cac electron va cham vi nut mang tinh
the. Nang lng cua no truyen cho nut mang va bien thanh nhiet nang. o
chnh la nguyen nhan gay ra ien tr cua kim loai. Moi kim loai co cau truc
mang tinh the khac nhau nen tac dung ngan can chuyen ong nh hng
cua cac electron cung khac nhau, do o ien tr suat cua cac kim loai khac
nhau.
Khi nhiet o tang lam chuyen ong nhiet hon loan cua cac electron t
do tang len, ong thi nhiet o tang lam cho dao ong cua ion cac nut mang
cung tang len dan ti xac suat va cham gia electron vi cac nut mang tang
len. Do o ien tr kim loai tang theo nhiet o.
5.1.4. nh luat Ohm trong thuyet electron.
Theo thuyet electron co ien ta coi quang ng t do trung bnh la
quang ng cac electron i c sau 2 va cham lien tiep.
Neu trong kim loai ton tai mot ien trng E
ur
th moi electron se chu
mot lc ien trng f eE =
uur ur
. Lc nay gia toc cho electron lam cho van toc
cua no tang len t 0 en gia tr v
max
:

max
v
eE
m
=
ur
r
(5.4)
trong o la khoang thi gian electron i het quang ng .
Tnh trung bnh electron chuyen ong nh hng vi van toc:

max
tb
v 1 1
v
2 2 2
eE eE
m m u

= = =
r ur
r
ur
(5.5)
Trong o u la van toc trung bnh cua chuyen ong trong chuyen ong
hon loan.
Mat o dong ien dan la:

2
v
2
tb
o
o
n e
J n e E E
mu

= = =
r r ur ur
(5.6)
Trong o:
2
0
1
2
n e
mu

= = (5.7)
TS. Lu The Vinh
IEN T HOC - 67 -

5.1.5. nh luat Joule-Lenx trong thuyet electron.
cuoi quang ng t do trung bnh , electron thu c ong nang
cc ai:

2 2 2 2 2
2 2
max 2
1
2 2 2
e E e E
mv t
m m

= =
u
(5.8)
Khi va cham, toan bo nang lng nay truyen cho mang tinh the va bien
thanh nhiet. Tronh moi n v thi gian, moi electron chu
u

va cham (tan so
va cham), do o nhiet lng toa ra cung bat nhieu lan ln hn.
Nhiet lng toa ra trong mot n v the tch kim loai sau moi giay la:

2 2 2 2
2 2
0
0 2
2 2
n e e E u
Q n E E
mu mu

= = =

2 2
1
Q E E

= = (5.9)
5.2. LYTHUYET LNG T VE TNH DAN IEN CUA VAT RAN
5.2.1. Nhng han che cua thuyet electron co ien.
Thuyet electron co ien a co nhng thanh cong ang ke trong viec
giai thch cac tnh chat dan ien cua kim loai va noi chung cac vat dan loai
mot. Tuy nhien gii han ap dung cua no han che, trong nhieu trng hp no
mau thuan vi thc nghiem. Chang han theo thuyet electron co ien th ien
dan suat
2
0
2
n e
mu

= tc
1
~
T
. Nhng thc nghiem lai cho ket qua
1
~
T
.
Hoac theo ly thuyet tren th ty nhiet cua nguyen t kim loai (tc nhiet dung
rieng cua nguyen t) cung sai lech xa so vi thc nghiem.
S d co nhng mau thuan o la v trong vat ran chuyen ong cua
electron khong tuan theo cac quy luat cua c hoc co ien, ma no tuan theo
cac quy luat phc tap hn cua c hoc lng t. S phan bo cac electron khong
tuan theo phan bo Maxwell-Boltzmann cua thong ke co ien ma tuan theo
phan bo lng t Fermi-Dirac.
5.2.2. Thuyet mien nang lng ve vat ran.
1. Nang lng cua cac electron trong vat ran (noi rieng kim loai), cung
nh nang lng cua cac electron trong nguyen t b lng t hoa. Chung ch
nhan nhng gia tr gian oan, c bieu dien bang cac mc nang lng xac
nh (hnh 5-1).
TS. Lu The Vinh
- 68 - IEN T HOC

2. Vi mot nguyen t co lap, nang lng cac electron phan bo tren cac
mc tng ng vi xu hng trang thai co nang lng thap nhat nhng tuan
theo chat che nguyen ly Pauli:
Moi mc nang lng ch co the
co toi a 2 electron vi spin oi
song. Do vay cac mc nang
lng c lap ay t di len
tren. Khi b kch thch cac
electron co the nhay len mc
nang lng cao hn.
E
n
3. Xet nguyen t trong
mang tinh the vat ran, cac
electron con tng tac vi cac
nguyen t khac, do o moi mc nang lng se b tach ra lam N mc nho (N la
so nguyen t vat ran). Cac mc cach nhau c 10
22
eV. Trong mien nay
electron co the bat ky mot mc nho nao, goi la mien c phep. Gia cac
mien c phep ngan cach nhau mot khoang goi la mien cam. Cac electron
khong the co gia tr nang lng nam trong mien cam (hnh 5.2).
E
2
E
1
E
o
Hnh 5.1. S lng t hoa cac mc nang lng

4. Theo thuyet electron co ien, 0
0
K van toc cua cac electron trong
kim loai bang 0, va do o electron se nam mc nang lng thap nhat. Tuy
nhien theo thuyet lng t, s phan bo cac electron tuan theo nguyen ly Pauli,
do o cac electron se lap ay cac mc nang lng t di len. Cac mc tren
ch co 1 electron hoac bo trong hoan toan. Do o trang thai cua electron trong
ho the nang b lng t hoa, va khoang cach t mc cao nhat b electron
chiem ti b ho the se nho hn chieu sau ho the. Do vay cong thoat be mat
cua electron se nho hn nhieu chieu sau ho the. Mc cao nhat b electron
chiem goi la mc Fermi (hnh 5-3).
Mien cam
Mien c phep
N mc
E
A
McFermi
Hnh 5.3. Trang thai e
-
trong ho the nang Hnh 5.2. S tach cac mc nang lng
TS. Lu The Vinh
IEN T HOC - 69 -

5. Theo thuyet lng t 0
0
K cac electron chuyen ong vi van toc rat
ln. mv fermi van toc cua electron c 10
6
m/s. Trong khi theo ly thuyet
electron co ien van toc nay ch co the co nhiet o 5.10
4
K.
5.2.3. Phan loai vat dan va ien moi theo thuyet mien nang lng.
Theo thuyet mien nang lng th tnh chat ien cua vat ran khac nhau
do hai nguyen nhan:
- Th nhat: do chieu rong cua mien cam
- Th hai: do s lap ay cac electron trong mien c phep khac nhau.
ieu kien e mot vat ran dan ien la phai ton tai cac mc nang lng
t do e cho cac electron co the chuyen ong t do gia cac mc o.
- Trong kim loai: cac electron hoa tr cha chiem het cac mc nang lng
trong mien c phep, con trong cac mc nang lng cao hn va mien c
phep nay tr thanh mien dan. Ngha la khi co ien trng tac dung cac
electron de dang nhay len cac mc nang lng cao hn, tc la chuyen ong
nh hng, do o kim loai la vat dan ien.
- Trong ien moi. (v du NaCl) 0
0
K cac mien nang lng c phep pha
di (ng vi nang lng thap) b lap ay hoan toan. Cac mien pha tren bo
trong (mien t do). Be rong mien cam kha ln (tren 3 eV). Do vay khi co ien
trng, cac electron cha u nang lng e
nhay qua mien cam len mien t do tr
thanh electron dan. Ket qua khong co s
dch chuyen electron, va ien moi la chat
cach ien. Tuy nhien neu ien trng at
vao ien moi qua ln, luc o electron co
the u nang lng e nhay qua mien cam
len mien t do tr thanh electron dan, luc
o ta noi ien moi b anh thung.
Mien dan
Mien cam
Mien ay

5.3. S DAN IEN CUA CHAT BAN
DAN
5.3.1. Chat ban dan.
Gia kim loai va ien moi ton tai mot nhom cac nguyen to co ien tr
suat nam trong khoang t 10
-5
10
-8
m, goi la cac chat ban dan, ien hnh la
cac nguyen to Ge, Si, Te. nhiet o thap cac chat ban dan la khong dan
ien. nhiet o bnh thng cac chat ban dan tr thanh dan ien, ac biet khi
Hnh 5.4. Ban dan tinh khiet
TS. Lu The Vinh
- 70 - IEN T HOC

ban dan co lan tap chat nho th tnh chat ien cua no thay oi rat ln. Tuy
thuoc vao loai tap chat ma co 2 loai ban dan p va n.
5.3.2. S dan ien cua ban dan tinh khiet.
Theo thuyet mien nang lng, be rong mien cam cua cac ban dan
khong ln lam. V du, vi Ge khoang 0,72V, vi Si khoang 1,1V. Do vay,
trang thai bnh thng cac mc nang lng mien c phep a b lap ay,
nhng mot so electron mc cao nhat cua mien ay co the nhay qua mien
cam len mien dan tr thanh electron t do. Tuy nhien khi electron nhay len
mien dan no e lai mot lo trong, di tac dung cua ien trng ngoai mot
electron mc di co the de dang nhay len chiem cho lo trong o, va ban
than no lai e lai lo trong, mot electron ben di lai san sang nhay len
chiem cho v tr o. C nh the s dch chuyen cua electron len pha tren
tng ng vi s dch chuyen lo trong theo chieu ngc lai. Qua trnh o
hnh thanh nen s dan ien cua ban dan theo 2 cach:
- Dan ien bang electron dan tren mien t do (vi cac electron a nhay
len mien dan)
- Dan ien bang lo trongtrong mien ay (hnh 5.4)
5.3.3. Ban dan loai n va loai p.
Khi b pha tap tnh chat ien cua ban dan thay oi rat manh, tuy thuoc
vao loai tap chat ma co hai loai ban dan loai p va n.
a) Ban dan loai n. Xay ra khi pha mot lng nho Asen (As) vao Gecmani
(Ge) tinh khiet. Ge co 32 electron vi 4 electron hoa tr. Trong mang tinh the
moi nguyen t Ge dung 4 electron hoa tr e lien ket vi nhau tao thanh tng
cap lien ket ong hoa tr. Asen co 33 electron, trong o co 5 electron hoa tr.
Khi lot vao mang tinh the Ge no gop 4 electron hoa tr vao lien ket, con lai
electron th 5 se tha, do o se lien ket rat yeu vi hat nhan va de dang bt
ra khoi nguyen t e tr thanh electron t do, ban dan co kha nang dan ien.
TS. Lu The Vinh
IEN T HOC - 71 -

Ge
Ge
As
Ge
Ge
b)
0,015 eV
Mien cam
Mien ay
Mien dan
Mien donor
a)
Hnh 5.5. C che dan ien cua ban dan n

Theo thuyet mien nang lng, khi pha As vao Ge trong s o nang
lng xuat hien mot mien nang lng hep nam gan sat di mien dan c
0,015eV. Mien nay cha ay cac electron hoa tr cua As. Cac mc nang lng
mien nay goi la mc cho (donor). nhiet o bnh thng cac electron
mien nay co the de dang nhay len mien dan e tr thanh t do. Qua trnh nay
khong kem theo viec xuat hien lo trong trong mien ay, nen s dan ien
cua ban dan chu yeu la bang electron (hnh 5.5). V cac electron la cac hat
tch ien am nen ban dan loai nay goi la ban dan n (negative).
c) Nguyen t As trong mang tinh the Ge
d) Gian o nang lng cua ban dan n
b.Ban dan loai p. Neu pha lan vao Ge mot lng nho In th ta se c
ban dan loai p. V In hoa tr 3 nen khi tham gia mang tinh the vi Ge no se bo
trong mot moi lien ket. Do trong moi lien ket nay nen In de dang nhan them
mot electron t mot nguyen t Ge ben canh neu ta cung cap cho no nang
lng c chng 0,015 eV. Nhng khi electron va nhay i se e lai mot lo
trong va mot electron khac lai de dang nhay vao chiem v tr o. Dong
electron nhay i nay tng ng vi mot dong lo trong theo chieu ngc
lai (hnh 5.6,a).
Theo thuyet mien nang lng, khi pha In vao Ge tren s o nang lng
xuat hien mot mien nang lng hep nam sat ngay pha tren mien ay, cach no
c 0,015 eV. Mien nay gom cac mc nang lng bo trong goi la mien nhan
(acceptor). Cac electron mien ay de dang nhay len chiem cac mc nay.
Qua trnh o lam xuat hien cac lo trong ma khong lam xuat hien cac
electron dan. Do vay ban dan loai nay dan ien chu yeu bang lo nen goi la
ban dan loai p (positive)(hnh 5.6,b).
TS. Lu The Vinh
- 72 - IEN T HOC



5.4. HIEN TNG IEN CHO TIEP XUC GIA CAC KIM LOAI
5.4.1. Cong thoat, the hieu mat ngoai.
Cong can thiet e mot electron co the thoat ra khoi be mat kim loai goi
la cong thoat be mat, xac nh theo bieu thc:
A = e (5.10)
Trong o: - The hieu mat ngoai cua kim loai
e - ien tch cua electron
Cong thoat c o bang electron-volt (eV), 1eV = 1,6.10
-19
J
Nguyen nhan ton tai cong thoat:
- Th nhat: Khi ri khoi kim loai electron gay ra tren be mat kim loai
mot ien tch cam ng dng. Do o gia electron va kim loai xuat hien mot
lc hut ngan khong cho electron i xa khoi kim loai.
- Th hai: Do chuyen ong nhiet hon
loan cac electron co the vt ra khoi be mat
kim loai mot khoang nho tao thanh mot lp
may electron rat gan be mat. Ket qua hnh
thanh mot lp ien kep giong nh mot tu
ien co ban am la lp may electron, ban
dng la be mat kim loai, tao nen mot the
hieu mat ngoai . Khi muon bt ra khoi kim
loai electron can thc hien mot cong e
thang trng can noi tren. Electron trong kim
loai xem nh b nhot trong mot ho the co
Mien dan Ge
Ge
In
Mien cam
Ge
Ge
Mien ay
Mien acceptor
0,015 eV
Hnh 5.5. C che dan ien cua ban dan n
a) Nguyen t As trong mang tinh the Ge
b) Gian o nang lng cua ban dan n
a) b)
Ge
E
O
A
Hnh 5.7. Ho the giam electron
TS. Lu The Vinh
IEN T HOC - 73 -

2
1
v
2
m A e = (5.11)
5.4.2. Hieu ien the tiep xuc, nh ly Volta.
Thc nghiem chng to rang: khi noi 2 kim loai khac chat gia chung
xuat hien mot hieu ien the goi la hieu ien the tiep xuc co gia tr phu thuoc
vao ban chat, nhiet o cac kim loai.
Hieu ien the gia hai au cua mot oan mach gom nhieu kim loai
khac nhau ghep noi tiep ch phu thuoc vao ban chat cua kim loai hai au ma
khong phu thuoc vao ban chat cac kim loai gia mach. Co hai loai hieu ien
the tiep xuc trong va hieu ien the tiep xuc ngoai.
a) Hieu ien the tiep xuc trong.
Hieu ien the tiep xuc trong xuat hien do s khuech tan cac electron
dan qua cho tiep xuc (moi han) xay ra do s chenh lech nong o cac electron
dan trong hai kim loai. Gia s ta co hai kim loai 1 va 2 c ghep vi nhau.
Do chuyen ong nhiet hon loan cac electron t do trong 2 kim loai se khuech
tan qua moi han. Do mat o cac electron dan la khac nhau (gia s n
1
>n
2
) ta co
dong electron khuech tan t kim loai 1 sang kim loai 2 se ln hn dong
electron khuech tan theo chieu ngc lai. Ket qua, kim loai 1 se tch ien
dng con kim loai 2 se tch ien am. Tai cho tiep giap se xuat hien mot ien
trng hng t kim loai 1 sang kim loai 2. ien trng nay se ngan can
chuyen ong cua dong cac electron t 1 sang 2 va thuc ay chuyen ong cua
dong cac electron t 2 sang 1. Qua trnh at en trang thai can bang ong va
luc o gia hai kim loai ton tai mot hieu ien the tiep xuc U
i
co gia tr c 10
-2

en 10
-3
V.
Tren hnh 5.8 bieu dien o th
phan bo the nang cua cac electron co
s nhay mc khi qua moi han.
Theo thuyet electron co ien, ta
co the tnh c gia tr cua hieu ien
the tiep xuc trong. Ta co mat o n cua
chat kh c tnh theo phan bo
Boltzmann:
+

-
E
eU
U i
T
Hnh 5.8. Hieu the tiep xuc trong

TS. Lu The Vinh
- 74 - IEN T HOC


T
U
kT
o
n n e

=
vi U
T
la the nang cua phan t kh. V tap hp cac electron t do trong kim
loai c xem nh la kh electron nen trong trng hp 2 kim loai tiep xuc ta
co U
T
= eU
i
. T o ta co:

1 2
i
eU
kT
n n e

=
Hay:
2
1
ln
i
kT n
U
e n
= (5.11)
Trong o: - n
1
va n
2
la mat o electron trong hai kim loai
- k la hang so boltzmann.
Cong thc (5.11) cho thay hieu ien the tiep xuc trong U
i
phu thuoc vao
nhiet o va s chenh lech ve mat o n
2
/n
1
cua hai kim loai.
b) Hieu ien the tiep xuc ngoai.
La hieu ien the gia hai au t do cua hai kim loai khac nhau ghep
vi nhau. Ta hay xet trang thai thiet lap cac au t do cua hai kim loai tiep
xuc vi nhau.
Khi hai thanh kim loai tach ri nhau, trang thai nang lng cua cac
electron trong chung c ac trng bang cac ho the vi o sau tng ng e
1

va e
2
. Khi cho hai thanh kim loai tiep xuc vi nhau, tai lp tiep giap xay ra
qua trnh khuech tan cua cac electron va hnh thanh mot the hieu tiep xuc
trong U
i
. ay cua 2 ho the se chenh nhau mot khoang ung bang eU
i
. Do o
sau cua 2 ho the khac nhau, nen b ngoai cua chung se lech nhau. Ngha la
gia hai iem C va D bat ky ben ngoai va sat be mat kim loai se ton tai mot
hieu ien the, goi la hieu ien the tiep xuc ngoai U
a
(hnh 5.9).
TS. Lu The Vinh
IEN T HOC - 75 -



T hnh (5.9) ta co:

2 1 a i
eU e e eU =
Do o:

2 1 a i
U U = (5.12)
Lay dau + hoac phu thuoc vao dau cua U
i
. V gia tr cua hieu ien the
tiep xuc U
i
rat nho ch c 10
-2
en 10
-3
V, trong khi gia tr cua cac ien the
thoat lai co gia tr c vai von nen co the coi gan ung:

2 1 a
U = (5.13)
Ly thuyet lng t ve kim loai chng to cong thc tren la ung.
Neu oan mach gom nhieu kim loai ghep noi tiep th hieu ien the gia
hai au cua mot oan mach ch phu thuoc vao ban chat cua kim loai hai au
ma khong phu thuoc vao ban chat cac kim loai gia mach.
That vay. Gia s xet oan
mach gom co bon kim loai 1,2,3,4
ghep vi nhau (hnh 5.10). Ta hay
cat tng tng chung theo cac
ng aa va bb. Hieu ien the tiep
xuc gia cac au t do theo (5.13) se
lan lt la:

12 2 1
U =
23 3 2
U

=
34 4 3
U

=
Hieu ien the tiep xuc cua ca
mach ien la:
e
1
e
2


0

e
2

a)

eU
i
eU
a

C D


e
1
b)

Hnh 5.9. C che hnh thanh hieu ien the tiep xuc ngoai

Hnh 5.10. Hieu ien the tiep xuc ngoai
TS. Lu The Vinh
- 76 - IEN T HOC


12 23 34 2 1 3 2 4 3 4 1 14
( ) ( ) ( ) U U U U + + = + + = = (5.14)
Ngha la hieu ien the tiep xuc cua ca oan mach ch c xac nh bi
cac kim loai gia.
G NHIET IEN
g nay c Peltier phat hien vao nam
y thuoc vao chieu
o rang, nhiet lng Peltier ty le thuan vi ien tch

12
It = -
12
It (5.15)
Nhiet
ng bt nang lng cho mang tinh the, ket qua lam cho moi han
hap thu) ngoai nhiet lng Joule.
Hien tng nay goi la hien tng Thomson.
cac kim loai hai au, khong phu thuoc vao
5.5. CAC HIEN TN
5.5.1.Hien tng Peltier
Do ton tai hieu ien the tiep xuc, nen ngoai nhiet lng Joule toa ra
trong the tch vat dan con co mot nhiet lng phu na xay ra cho tiep xuc
gia hai kim loai khac nhau. Hien tn
1834 va c goi la hien tng Peltier.
Khi cho dong ien i qua cho tiep xuc gia hai kim loai, xay ra s hap
thu hay toa ra nhiet lng Q goi la nhiet lng Peltier, tu
dong ien, ket qua lam cho moi han lanh i hay nong len.
Thc nghiem chng t
toan phan i qua moi han:
Q

=
12
q =
ay
12
= -
21
goi la he so Peltier.
Chu y rang hien tng Peltier khac hien tng toa nhiet Joule-Lenx:
Nhiet lng Joule ty le vi I
2
va khong phu thuoc vao chieu dong ien I, trong
khi nhiet lng Peltier th ty le vi I va phu thuoc vao chieu dong ien.
lng Joule phu thuoc vao ien tr R con nhiet lng Peltier th khong.
Nguyen nhan: Do ton tai the hieu tiep xuc trong. Neu ien trng tai
moi han cung chieu dong ien no se can tr chuyen ong cua cac electron
lam ong nang cua chung giam. Cac electron phai lay them nang lng
mang tinh the, ket qua lam cho moi han lanh i. Ngc lai, neu ien trng
ngc chieu dong ien, cac electron se c gia toc them, chung tang ong
nang va nh
nong len.
5.5.2.Hien tng Thomson
Khao sat cac hien tng nhiet ien Thomson nhan thay rang: Ngay ca
trong mot vat dan ong nhat, neu nhiet o tai cac phan khac nhau cua vat dan
la khac nhau, th khi cho dong ien mot chieu chay qua vat dan se xay ra hien
tng co mot nhiet lng phu toa nhiet (hay
TS. Lu The Vinh
IEN T HOC - 77 -

Nhiet lng Thomson toa ra trong mot n v the tch trong mot n v
thi gian ty le vi gradient nhiet o dT/dx va vi mat o dong i:

T
dT
Q i
dx
= (5.16)
Trong o la he so ty le goi la he so Thomson.
Nguyen nhan: Nang lng cua cac electron au nong ln hn au
lanh, nen khi cac electron chuyen ong t au nong ti au lanh (ngc chieu
dong ien) no nhng bt nang lng cho mang tinh the lam vat dan nong
len. Ngc lai, khi electron chuyen ong t au lanh sang au nong no lay
them nang lng t mang tinh the lam vat dan lanh i.
5.5.3.Hien tng Seebeck.
a) Khi ghep cac kim loai khac chat, neu nhiet o cac moi han khac
nhau se lam xuat hien trong mach mot suat ien ong nhiet ien. Chang han
vi mach kn gom 2 kim loai khac chat ghep vi nhau (goi la cap nhiet ien),
neu nhiet o hai moi han khac nhau trong mach se xuat hien dong ien goi la
dong nhiet ien, hien tng nhiet ien c Seebeck phat hien vao nam 1821.
Suat ien ong nhiet ien c xac nh theo bieu thc:
(5.17) ( )
T
grad T dl dT
L L
E a = - = -

ur

Neu hieu nhiet o hai moi han khong ln ta co the viet:

1 2
( )
T
T T = E (5.18)
la he so nhiet ien vi phan ( , co gia tr phu thuoc vao ban
chat cua kim loai. Bang (5.1) cho gia tr cua tnh ra microvon tren o
(V/K) mot so kim loai oi vi Platin 0
o
C.
)
d
dT
=
E
Bang 5.1
Kim loai (V/K) Kim loai (V/K)
Bixmut
Sat
ong
-65,0
+16,0
+7,40
Ken (Ni)
Antimoni
Constantan
-16,4
+47,0
-34,4
Dau ( hoac +) trc tr so ch ro chieu cua dong nhiet ien, cu the la
moi han nong dong ien chay t kim loai co gia tr nho (gia tr ai so)
TS. Lu The Vinh
- 78 - IEN T HOC

sang kim loai kia. V du, cap Sat Constantan dong ien moi han nong
chay theo chieu t constantan (=-34,4V/K) sang Sat (=19,0V/K).
c) Nguyen nhan cua hien tng Seebeck.
Hien tng Seebeck xuat hien do hai nguyen nhan sau ay:
- Ton tai hien tng khuech tan u tien cac electron t au nong sang au
lanh, lam cho au nong tch ien dng, au lanh tch ien am.
- S phu thuoc cua hieu ien the tiep xuc vao nhiet o lam cho tong hieu
ien the tiep xuc trong khac khong:

1 2 2 1 1 2 2
1 2
1 2 1
( )
ln ln ln
T i i
kT n kT n k T T n
U U
e n e n e n

(5.19) = + = + = E
d) ng dung cua hien tng Seebeck.
- Hien tng Seebeck c ng dung e o nhiet o. T cong thc (5.18)
ta thay neu gi nhiet o mot au co nh (T
2
=T
0
), khi o suat nhiet ien ong
ta co the biet c nhiet o cua au kia (T
1
= T). Dung cu e o nhiet o goi
la cap nhiet ien.
Cap nhiet ien c s dung e o nhiet o rat cao cung nh rat thap, co
the o t xa nhng ni ma khong the cho phep o trc tiep bang cac nhiet ke
thong thng.
Trong bang 5-2 cho gia tr suat nhiet ien ong tao bi cac kim loai
khac nhau vi Platin khi nhiet o t
o
= 0
o
C va t = 100
o
C.
Bang 5-2
Vat lieu
Suat nhiet ien
E, (mV 100
o
C)
Vat lieu
Suat nhiet ien
E, (mV 100
o
C)
Nicrom
Mangan
ong
Crom
+2,2
+0,76
+0,76
+2,4
Constantan
Copen
Niken
Alumen
-3,4
-3,6
-1,5
-1,7
- Hien tng Seebeck con c ng dung e lam pin nhiet ien.
Khi mac noi tiep nhieu cap nhiet ien ta co the tao ra mot bo pin
vi suat ien ong c vai von va dong ti vai ampe. Tuy nhien hieu
suat cua pin rat thap (0,1%) nen ch s dung trong mot so trng hp
can thiet.
TS. Lu The Vinh
IEN T HOC - 79 -

5.6. CAC HIEN TNG PHAT XA ELECTRON
5.6.1. Phat xa nhiet electron.
Phat xa nhiet electron la hien tng phat xa electron ra khoi be mat
kim loai nh ot nong.
e bt electron ra khoi kim loai, nang lng cua electron phai ln hn
cong thoat be mat. Theo thuyet electron co ien, nang lng trung bnh cua
chuyen ong nhiet la . ieu kien e phat xa electron nhiet se la:
3
kT
2

3
2
k
kT e
Hay:
2
3
k
T e
k
(5.20)
Gia tr cua cong thoat e oi vi cac kim loai nam trong khoang t 1
en 4,5 eV. Neu = 2V th T
k
15000K.
Trong thc te, nhiet o phong cung a co mot so electron phat xa ra
khoi be mat kim loai, va bat au nhiet o 1000 3000K a co mot lng
ang ke cac electron thoat ra khoi be mat kim loai. S d nh vay la v trong
kim loai luon ton tai mot so electron co nang lng ln hn nang lng
chuyen ong nhiet trung bnh va chung co the de dang thoat ra khoi kim loai
nhiet o khong cao lam.
Hien tng phat xa nhiet electron ong mot vai tro ac biet quan trong
trong ky thuat ien va ien t (che tao en ien t, en ong tia am cc,)
5.6.2. Phat xa quang electron.
Phat xa quang electron la hien tng quang ien ngoai. Khi chieu anh
sang vao be mat kim loai, neu thoa man ieu kien quang ien cac electron s
bt ra khoi be mat kim loai.
ieu kien phat xa la: hf e
Hay:
e
f
h

(5.21)
Trong o: f la tan so anh sang kch thch, h la hang so Flanck.
5.6.3. Phat xa electron th cap.
TS. Lu The Vinh
- 80 - IEN T HOC

Phat xa electron th cap la hien tng phat xa electron t be mat kim
loai khi b cac electron ban pha. ac trng bang he so phat xa th cap:
N

2
1
(5.22) =
N
N
1
va N
2
la so hat electron s cap (hat ti) va electron th cap.
phu thuoc vao be mat kim loai, vao ong nang cua electron s cap.
Vi kim loai
max
2 < , vi ban dan 10 > hoac hn.
Hien tng phat xa th cap c dung trong cac ong nhan quang ien
e khuech ai tn hieu anh sang yeu trong viec o bc xa vi o nhay cao.
5.6.4. T phat xa electron hay phat xa catot lanh.
La hien tng phat xa electron khoi be mat kim loai khi co mot ien
trng rat manh tac dung. Neu be mat kim loai co mot ien trng tang toc
th no se hut cac electron trong nguyen t mat ngoai kim loai lam chung
vt qua hang rao the nang va bt ra khoi kim loai.
Hien tng phat xa electron sinh ra do hang rao the tren mat kim loai b
bien oi khi chu tac dung cua mot ien trng rat manh be mat. S bien
oi o dan ti lam giam o cao cua hang rao the (ho the), tc lam giam cong
thoat e, mat khac lam thu hep be rong cua ho the, lam tang xac suat chuyen
electron qua hang rao the. S bien oi cong thoat di tac dung cua ien
trng ngoai goi la hieu ng Shottky. Theo c hoc lng t o la hieu ng
ng ham (tunen) co mot xac suat e cac electron co the chui qua hang rao
the, mac du nang lng cua no nho hn be cao ho the.
Mat o dong phat xa J phu thuoc vao cng o ien trng ngoai theo
bieu thc:

/
o
E E
j e

= (5.23)
Trong o:
3
8
2
3
o
E mA
he

= (5.24)
A cong thoat be mat: A = e
- he so ty le phu thuoc vao ban chat be mat phat xa.
5.6. CAC DANG PHONG IEN TRONG CHAT KH.
ieu kien bnh thng chat kh la chat cach ien tot, trong chung hau
nh khong co cac phan t mang ien (ien tch, ion). Trong nhng ieu kien
xac nh chat kh b ion hoa va tr thanh chat dan ien.
TS. Lu The Vinh
IEN T HOC - 81 -

5.6.1. Tnh dan ien khong t lc.
S ion hoa xay ra do tac nhan ben ngoai (ot nong, chieu bc xa t
ngoai, tia X, v.v ) goi la cac tac nhan ion hoa.
5.6.2. Tnh dan ien duy tr.
Hien tng ion hoa xay ra do chnh ban than cac phan t mang ien
c ien trng gia toc va cham vi cac phan t trung hoa gay ion hoa.
5.6.3. S ion hoa va s tai hp cac ion.
Trong s phong ien cua chat kh luon co 2 qua trnh xay ra:
Qua trnh ion hoa phan t trung hoa.
Qua trnh tai hp cac ion va cac electron thanh phan t trung hoa.
Goi la so ion tai hp thanh phan t trung hoa th
'
o
n
' 2
o o
n n = .
Vi n
o
la mat o ion dng (hay am). Khi khong co dong ien, so ion
sinh ra se bang so ion tai hp. Tc la ta co:
o
n
2
o o
n n =
Do o, so ion cung dau trong mot n v the tch se la:

o
o
n
n

= (5.25)
trong o goi la he so tai hp.
5.6.4. o linh ong cua cac ion. La van toc cua cac ion khi ien trng tac
dung co cng o bang n v.
- Vi ion dng:
o
u u E
+ +
=
- Vi ion am:
o
u u E

=
Trong o: goi la o linh ong cua ion kh dng va am , va
o
u
+
o
u

5.6.5. nh luat Ohm cho chat kh.

Bieu thc nh luat Ohm cho s dan ien khong t lc cua chat kh:
( )
o o
o
J E en u u
+
= = + E
)
(5.26)
Trong o: la ien dan suat cua chat kh. Trong bang
(5.3) cho gia tr o linh ong cua ion mot so chat kh.
(
o o
o
en u u
+
= +
Bang 5.3
Chat kh o linh ong cua ion tnh ra 10
-4
m
2
/sV
TS. Lu The Vinh
- 82 - IEN T HOC

p=700mmHg va T = 18
o
C
o
u
+

o
u

Hydro (H
2
)
Oxy (O
2
)
Nit (N
2
)
Cacbon Oxyt (CO
2
)
Clo (Cl)
5,91
1,29
1,27
1,10
0,65
8,26
1,79
1,84
1,14
0,51
Bieu thc (5.26) ch ung khi mat o dong ien nho. Neu mat o dong
ien ln ti mc s tai hp khong kp xay ra th dong ien se khong phu thuoc
vao hieu ien the, dong c goi la bao hoa. o th J = J(E) bieu dien ac
tuyen vol-ampe cua s phong ien khong t
lc ch ra tren hnh 5.11.
- oan oa: tuan theo nh luat Ohm
- oan ab: khong tuan theo nh luat Ohm.
- oan bc: dong bao hoa
- oan cd: dong tang ot ngot, ng vi s
ion hoa do va cham rat manh cua cac electron
va ion do ien trng rat ln gia toc. Sau o
la s anh thung chat kh khi ien trng ng
vi the hieu no U
d
. Luc o chat kh tiep tuc
dan ien khi a ngat tac nhan ion hoa.
Hnh 5.11. ac tuyen Von-Ampe
5.6.6. nh luat Paschen
S dan ien t lc ch bat au xay ra mot ien the nao o goi la ien
the chay (no) U
d
. Da vao thc nghiem Paschen a a ra nh luat sau:
oi vi moi chat kh neu o dai cua khoang phong ien d va ap suat chat
kh p bien oi sao cho tch so d.p khong thay oi th o ln cua hieu ien the
chay (no) gi nguyen khong oi.
U
d
= F (p.d) (5.27)
nh luat nay cho biet, neu ap suat giam i bao nhieu lan va khoang
cach gia hai cc tang len bay nhieu lan th hieu ien the no U
d
at vao hai
cc khong thay oi gia tr.
nh luat nay co the c giai thch n gian nh sau: ap suat thap,
quang ng t do trung bnh cua cac electron ln, do o no van co the d tr
u nang lng e ion hoa chat kh ngay ca khi ien trng tang toc be.
TS. Lu The Vinh
IEN T HOC - 83 -

5.6.7. S phong ien thanh mien.
A
S phong thanh mien trong
chat kh c quan sat xay ra ap
suat thap (~10
-3
at) khi khong co
nguon ion hoa ben ngoai. Khi hieu
ien the at vao hai cc A va K at
gia tr ien the chay (khoang vai
tram von) trong ong quan sat thay
chat kh phat sang. Hnh anh phong
ien trong ong c mo ta tren
hnh 5.12. gom cac mien sau:
K
1 2 3 4 5
A
K
1 2 3 4 5
1- Lp sang am cc
2- Mien toi Crookes
3- Mien sang am cc
4- Mien toi Faraday
5- Cot sang dng cc
Trong nhieu trng hp cot
sang dng cc co nhng lp van.
Neu a A lai gan K th tat
ca cac mien gan am cc khong co
g thay oi ma ch co cot sang
dng cc ngan dan. Neu tiep tuc
lam ngan khoang cach tren th
mien toi Faraday khong con na,
s phong ien van tiep tuc cho en khi A tien en gii han cua mien sang am
cc va mien toi Crookes th s phong ien se tat.
ac trng cua s phong ien thanh mien la s phan bo ac biet cua
ien the doc theo chieu dai ong (hnh 5.13). Th nghiem cho thay hau het o
giam the xay ra trong mien toi Crookes, goi la o giam the catot U
K
.
Co the giai thch s phong ien thanh mien nh sau: Khi ien ap gia A
va K u ln cac electron va ion co san trong chat kh (du t) c gia toc tren
quang ng t do trung bnh kha dai (v ap suat thap) nen co u nang
lng e gay ra ion hoa do va cham tao ra cac ion mi lam tang mat o hat
tai ien va bat au co dong ien trong ong. Tiep en o giam the catot co tac
dung quan trong. Cac ion dng c tao ra do va cham (trong mien sang am
cc va cot sang dng cc) chuyen ong ve catot, khi i qua mien co o giam
the catot chung thu c nang lng u ln nen khi ap vao catot gay ra phat
xa electron th cap. Cac electron th cap sau khi phat xa ra khoi catot lai
1 2 3 4 5
U
l
O
Hnh 5.13.S phan bo ien the
K
A
Hnh 5.12. S phong ien thanh mien
1 2 3
K A
TS. Lu The Vinh
- 84 - IEN T HOC

chuyen ong ve pha anot, chung c tang toc manh trong vung giam the
catot, nen khi va cham vi cac phan t kh chung tiep tuc ion hoa chat kh tao
ra cac ion dng mi, cac ion nay en lt chung lai chuyen ong ve catot va
lai gay ra phat xa electron th cap mi. Qua trnh c nh the tiep dien va s
phong ien trong ong c duy tr.
Mien toi Crookes hnh thanh do cac electron th cap t catot chuyen
ong tren oan ng cha xay ra va cham vi cac phan t kh, va chung
cung cha u nang lng e ion hoa chat kh. Chieu rong mien toi Crookes
xap x quang ng t do trung bnh cua electron.
Mien sang catot la mien trong o xay ra va cham manh nhat cua
electron vi cac phan t kh. Nang lng ma electron truyen cho cac phan t
kh khi va cham khong an hoi se gay ra s ion hoa hay kch thch phan t
kh. Anh sang xuat hien do ket qua s kch thch cac phan t kh. Qua trnh
ion hoa trong mien nay tao ra cac ion dng can thiet e duy tr s phong
ien. Do o khi ta rut ngan khoang cach gia cac ien cc cho en khi khong
con mien sang nay na th s phong ien se ngng.
Cac electron th cap t catot sau khi va cham vi cac phan t kh trong
mien sang am cc se b giam van toc rat nhieu. Cac electron mi sinh ra
trong qua trnh ion hoa cung cha co u nang lng e ion hoa hoac kch
thch phan t phat sang, do vay mien tiep theo la mien toi Faraday. Trong
mien nay cac electron di chuyen ve Anot vi van toc be hn trong mien toi
Crookes.
S phan bo mat o ion dng va electron trong cac mien cua ong rat
khong eu. V ion dng chuyen ong rat cham so vi electron nen gan
catot mat o ion dng rat ln so vi mat o electron, do o gan catot xuat
hien ien tch khong gian dng rat ln, dan en o giam the ln gan catot
ma ta goi la o giam the am cc U
K
. Ngc lai trong cot sang dng ccth
mat o ion dng va electron gan bang nhau, nen ay khong co ien tch
khong gian. Do mat o electron ln nen cot sang dng cc co tnh dan ien
tot va o giam the mien nay rat nho. Trong mien nay xay ra s tai hp rat
manh cua ion dng va cac electron giai phong ra nang lng di dang
photon, do vay mien nay phat sang thanh cot sang dng cc.
Hien tng phong ien thanh mien c ng dung rong rai e che tao
cac loai en ong: en neon, en thuy ngan,
TS. Lu The Vinh
IEN T HOC - 85 -

5.6.8. Phong ien ho quang.
Phong ien ho quang
c tao thanh khi mat o
dong phong ln va c duy
tr bi s phat xa cac
electron t catot b nung
nong do cac va cham cua
nhng ion cung nh bi s
ion hoa cao do nhiet o cao.
I(A)
0
a) b)

Ho quang ien xay ra
trong moi trng hp khi ma
catot do ot nong, s phat xa
nhiet electron la nguyen
nhan can ban cua s ion hoa
chat kh.
U(V)
Hnh 5.13. S phong ien ho quang
Ho quang ien thong thng c tao ra bi nhng ien cc ac biet
bang than che tao bang cach nen grapht. Tren hnh 5.13,a cho ta hnh anh ho
quang xay ra ap suat kh quyen. Khoang cach gia 2 ien cc khoang 5mm
vi dong ien t 10 en 20A va the hieu gia chung khoang 40 en 50V. Do
phong ien ho quang thanh than am cc nhon dan, va mieng thanh than
dng cc cang lom vao tao thanh cai ho goi la mieng ho quang. Nhiet o
trong mieng ho quang ap suat kh quyen len en 4000
o
C va ap suat cao co
the len ti 10
4

o
C. Tren hnh 5.13,b la ac trng von-ampe cua s phong ien
ho quang.
Ho quang ien c ng dung e thap sang trong cac en ho quang, cac
may chieu ho quang, cac lo ho quang,
5.6.8. S phong ien hnh tia trong chat kh.
Trong s phong ien thanh mien ta thay: vi hieu ien the khong ln,
s phong ien bat au xay ra khi giam ap suat chat kh gia hai ien cc en
mot gia tr nao o. Bay gi neu ap suat chat kh bang ap suat kh quyen, ta
tang dan hieu ien the gia hai ien cc. Khi hieu ien the at en mot gia tr
nao o ta thay xuat hien tia la ien. Tia la ien xuyen qua khoang khong
gian phong ien rat nhanh roi tat, song lai xuat hien tia la khac. Ta thay mot
mach la nho va rat sang noi lien hai ien cc, thng co dang dch dac va co
rat nhieu nhanh (hnh 5.14).
TS. Lu The Vinh
Hnh 5.14. S phong ien hnh tia
- 86 - IEN T HOC

Trong s phong ien hnh tia ta quan sat thay cac thac electron tao
thanh cac ong dan ien, van toc lan truyen thac electron nho hn van toc tao
thanh ong dan ien. ieu o lien quan ti s quang ion hoa chat kh. Cac
nguyen t b kch thch bi cac thac electron se phat ra cac photon. Nhng
photon nay v chuyen ong vi van toc anh sang nen vt qua thac va ion hoa
cac nguyen t tren ng lan truyen.
Hien tng phong ien hnh tia thng gap trong ieu kien kh quyen la
set. Set la mot tia la ien khong lo do s phong ien gia mot am may va
mat at hoac gia hai am may tch ien trai dau khi gia chung ton tai mot
ien trng u manh (c 2.10
5
en 3.10
5
V/m). Cng o dong ien trong set
rat ln co the at ti 10.000 en 50.000 A. Hieu ien the gia am may va
mat at trc luc phat sinh ra set at ti 10
8
10
9
V. Set la tia la hep o 20
en 30cm, con chieu dai co the ti hang chuc kilomet. Trong dai hep o mot
ap suat rat cao cua chat kh c tao thanh gay ra s no. Sau khi set anh lam
gay ca dai nay do o sinh ra sam.
Set co the gay ra nhieu thiet hai cho nha ca, cong trnh kien truc va co
khi nguy hiem en tnh mang con ngi. Do vay cac cong trnh can co thiet b
chong set. Mot trong cac thiet b chong set la cot thu loi. o la mot cot kim
loai nhon c noi at va gan len cho cao nhat cua cong trnh. Do hieu ng ro
ien cho mui nhon (xem chng 2) ma ngan nga c set cho cong trnh.
5.6.9. Platxma.
Plaxma la mot trang thai ac biet cua vat chat trong o moi trng b
ion hoa cao o, mat o ion dng xap x mat o electron.
Trong ong phong ien thanh mien plaxma tao ra trong cot sang dng
cc, con trong s phong ien thanh tia, plaxma c tao ra trong ng phong
ien chnh. Plaxma phat sinh do chat kh b ot nong cao o goi la plaxma
nhiet o cao (hay plaxma ang nhiet), v du trong long mat tri, cac v sao
nhiet o hang chuc trieu o cac chat eu trang thai plaxma ang nhiet. Cac
lp kh quyen tren cao b ion hoa manh bi cac tia bc xa mat tri va vu tru
cung dang plaxma.
5.7. HIEN TNG IEN PHAN
5.7.1. Hien tng ien ly. Chat ien phan.
Thc nghiem chng to rang dung dch cac muoi, axt, baz la nhng
chat dan ien tot. ieu o c ly giai rang khi hoa tan trong dung moi cac
phan t cua chat hoa tan a phan ly thanh cac ion am va dng. V du:
TS. Lu The Vinh
IEN T HOC - 87 -


+
+
+
+
2 4 4
2
NaCl Na Cl
H SO H SO
(5.28)
S phan ly cac phan t thanh cac ion goi la s ien ly. Cac dung dch
tren goi la chat ien phan (hay vat dan ien loai 2). Thc nghiem con cho
thay s phan ly xay ra oi vi ca cac muoi khi b un nong chay.
5.7.2. S ien phan. nh luat Faraday.
a) S ien phan.
Trong cac chat ien phan do ton tai cac ion dng, ion am, nen khi at
trong ien trng cac ion se chuyen ong co hng tao thanh dong ien. Khi
co dong ien chay qua dung dch se xay ra hien tng ien phan hien tng
thoat ra ien cc mot thanh phan cau thanh nen dung dch chat ien phan.
Xet trng hp bnh ien phan co cac ien cc bang ong (Cu) nhung
trong dung dch ong sunfat (CuSO
4
). Khi co dong ien chay qua bnh ien
phan, cac ion Cu
++
chay ve catot nhan them 2 electron tr thanh nguyen t
trung hoa Cu bam vao ien cc. Ngc lai cac ion SO
- -
chay ve anot, tai ay
chung tac dung vi mot nguyen t ong ien cc e tao thanh CuSO
4
va
nhng 2 electron cho anot. Muoi CuSO
4
va tao ra lai tan ngay vao dung
dch. Hien tng tren lam cho dng cc b mon dan (hien tng dng cc
tan) trong khi am cc c boi ap them (hien tng ma ien). Ta co the coi
dong ien a co tac dung chuyen ch ong t cc dng sang cc am.
b) nh luat Faraday th nhat
Khoi lng m cua chat thoat ra ien cc ty le vi ien lng q chuyen
qua chat ien phan:
m kq kIt = = (5.29)
k- la he so ty le goi la ng lng ien hoa phu thuoc vao ban chat
hoa hoc cua chat thoat ra ien cc. Trong he SI n v cua ng lng ien
hoa la kg/C. V du vi bac (Ag) k = 1,118. 10
-6
kg/C.
c) nh luat Faraday th hai.
ng lng ien hoa cua mot chat ty le vi ng lng hoa hoc
A
k (5.30) c
n
=
Ty so
A
n
goi la ng lng hoa hoc cua nguyen to, trong o A la
nguyen t lng, n la hoa tr cua nguyen to.
TS. Lu The Vinh
- 88 - IEN T HOC

TS. Lu The Vinh
He so ty le c co cung gia tr vi tat ca cac chat. Ngi ta thng ky
hieu 1/c = F goi la so Faraday. Thc nghiem chng to rang:
F = 9,65.10
7
C/kmol
T (5.29) va (5.30) ta co cong thc chung bieu dien nh luat Faraday:

1 1 A A
m q
F n F n
= = It (5.31)
5.7.3. nh luat Ohm cho chat ien phan.
Dong ien trong chat ien phan c tao nen bi s dch chuyen co
hng cua nhng ion khac dau trong ien trng. Mat o dong ien trong chat
ien phan bang tong so mat o dong ien tao bi s dch chuyen cua cac ion
dng theo chieu ien trng va cac ion am theo chieu ngc lai.
( ) J F u u E E
+
= + = (5.32)
Trong o F la so Faraday; la nong o tng ng (so gam ng
lng chat hoa tan trong 1 n v the tch dung moi); la he so phan ly; u la
o linh ong cua cac ion; ( ) F u u
+
= + la ien dan suat tng cua chat
ien phan.
- 88 - IEN T HOC

Chng 6.
T TRNG TRONG CHAN KHONG
6.1. Tng tac t nh ly Ampere
6.1.1. Tng tac t.
Bang thc nghiem ngi ta a khao sat tng tac gia cac he:
Tng tac gia nam cham nam cham.
Tng tac gia nam cham dong ien.
Tng tac gia dong ien dong ien.
Cac tng tac tren co cung ban chat: tng tac gia cac ien tch
chuyen ong (dong ien) goi la tng tac t.
Tng tac t khac vi tng tac tnh ien:
Tng tac tnh ien xay ra gia cac ien tch ng yen va no phu
thuoc vao v tr, o ln cua cac ien tch, xay ra tuan theo nh luat Coulomb.
Tng tac t xay ra gia cac ien tch chuyen ong va no phu thuoc
vao tnh chat cua chuyen ong o, xay ra tuan theo nh luat Ampere. Khi xet
ban chat t cua nam cham ta se thay tnh chat t cua nam cham la do cac
dong ien phan t khep kn trong cac mau sat t tao ra.
6.1.2. nh ly Ampere.
a) Phan t dong ien: la mot phan vi phan cua dong ien co chieu dai dl, co
o ln bang tch so cua dong ien I vi vec t dl
r
: Idl
r
.
b) Tng tac gia 2 phan t dong ien.
Khao sat 2 phan t dong ien I
1
dl
1
va I
2
dl
2
at cach nhau mot khoang
r
(hnh 6-1). 12 r

n
I
2
dl
2

2
I
1
dl
1
r
12
M

dF
12

1
O

Hnh 6-1


IEN T HOC - 89 -

Bang thc nghiem cho thay lc tac dung cua phan t dong ien I
1
dl
1

le n pha n t do ng ie n I
2
dl
2
co gia tr:

12 1 1 2 2
2
12
1
I dl I dl
r
dF

12 1 2
sin sin dF
Hay ta viet:

1 1 2 2 1 2
12
2
12
sin sin I dl I dl
dF k
r

= (6-1)
Phng cua 12
2 2
( , dF I dl n
ur r
)
Chieu: nhn t mut cua 12 dF
ur
thay
2
dl
r
quay cung chieu kim ong ho ve
trung vi theo goc be nhat. Nh vay ta co the viet bieu thc vec t: n
r

2 1
2 1 1
12
3
12
[ [ I dl I dl r
dF k
r

=
2
]]
r r
r
ur
(6-2)
Trong o: k la he so ty le co gia tr phu thuoc vao he n v. Trong he
SI ta co:
0
4
k

= , vi hang so t.
7
0
4 10 / H m

=
Nh vay co the viet lai (5-2) nh sau:

2 1
0 2 1 12
12
3
12
[ [
4
I dl I dl r
dF
r

=
]]
r r
r
ur
(6-3)
Chu y. Khai niem phan t dong ien ch co y ngha thuan tuy toan hoc, no
giup cho viec tnh toan thuan li. V dong ien bao gi cung khep kn, nen lc
tac dung len toan dong ien se la:

( ) Toan dong ien
F d =

F
r r
(6-4)
6.2. T trng nh ly Biot-Savart-Laplace.
6.2.1. Khai niem t trng .
e giai thch c che tng tac t trong lch s Vat ly hoc a xuat hien 2
quan iem khac nhau:
Thuyet tac dung xa: cho rang tng tac t c truyen i mot cach tc
thi gia cac dong ien va khong can thong qua mot moi trng vat chat
trung gian nao. Khi ch co mot dong ien th moi trng xung quanh khong
xay ra mot bien oi nao.
Thuyet tac dung gan: cho rang tng tac t phai thong qua mot moi
trng vat chat trung gian bao quanh cac dong ien. Lc tng tac c
Lu The Vinh
- 90 - IEN T HOC

truyen t phan nay sang phan khac cua moi trng vi van toc hu han (van
toc truyen tng tac). Khi ch co mot dong ien th moi trng xung quanh a
co nhng bien oi.
Theo quan iem duy vat bien chng ta thay ro thuyet tac dung xa a
cong nhan ton tai chuyen ong phi vat chat. ieu nay khong the co c. Vat
ly hoc hien ai a bac bo thuyet tac dung xa va cong nhan thuyet tac dung
gan. e giai thch c che tng tac t gia cac dong ien can phai cong nhan
mot thc the vat ly lam moi trng trung gian truyen tng tac gia chung.
Thc the vat ly nay chnh la t trng. T trng ton tai xung quanh cac dong
ien, thong qua t trng ma t lc c truyen i vi van toc truyen tng
tac hu han bang van toc cua anh sang trong chan khong.
Tnh chat can ban cua t trng: tac dung lc t len mot dong ien bat ky
nao at trong no. T trng la dau hieu tong quat nhat e nhan biet dong
ien.
Trong phan sau ta se thay t trng cung nh ien trng ch la mot
bieu hien cua trng ien t. o la mot dang cua vat chat co ay u cac
thuoc tnh xac nh ma con ngi co the nhan thc c: nang lng, khoi
lng va xung lng.
6.2.2. Cam ng t B
r
va cng o t trng H
r
.
e ac trng nh lng cho trng ve mat tac dung lc ngi ta a ra
khai niem vec t cam ng t
r
. B
T bieu thc cua nh luat Ampere (6-3) neu tach rieng vec t :

1
0 1 12
1
3
12
[ ]
4
I dl r
dB
r

=
r
r
r
(6-5)
Ta thay ch phu thuoc vao
1
dB
r
1
1
I dl
uur
va v tr ta xet r
12
. No co the dung
e ac trng cho ve mac tac dung lc len
1
1
I dl
uur
2
2
I dl
uur
.
1
dB
r
c goi la vec t
cam ng t nguyen to do gay ra tai toa o r
12
.
1
1
I dl
uur
r
Cam ng t nguyen to do mot phan t dong ien bat ky gay ra: dB

0
3
[
4
I dl r
dB
r

]
=
r
r
r
(6-6)
Bieu thc (6-6) c goi la nh ly Biot-Savart-Laplace. Chieu cua vec
t la chieu cua tch vec t [ ] dB
r
dl r
r
r
.
n v. Trong he SI cam ng t o bang Tesla (T).
Nguyen ly chong chat t trng.

IEN T HOC - 91 -

Cung giong nh ien trng, t trng tuan theo nguyen ly chong chat.
Do dong ien bao gi cung khep kn, nen cam ng t do toan bo dong ien
gay ra tai mot iem nao o se bang tong cac cam ng t nguyen to do tat ca
cac phan t dong ien tao ra:

( ) Toan dong ien
B dB =

ur uur
(6-7)
T trng do nhieu dong ien gay ra tai mot iem nao o:
1 2 3
1
n
n i
i
B B B B B B
=
= + + + + =

ur ur ur ur ur ur
(6-8)
Vec t cng o t trng H
r
. Ngoai vec t cam ng t B
ur
ngi ta con
dung vec t cng o t trng H
r
.
Trong chan khong:
0
B
H

=
ur
uur
(6-9)
Trong t moi :
0
B
H J

=
ur
uur r
(6-10)
(Trong o J
r
vec t t hoa, se xet trong chng 8)
6.2.3. Ap dung nh ly Biot-Savart-Laplace.
1) Tnh t trng do mot dong ien tron gay ra tai mot iem nam tren
truc vong day.
Xet phan t dong gay ra tai M mot t trng nguyen to : I dl
uur
dB
r

0
3
[ ]
4
I dl r
dB
r

=
r
r
r

T trng toan phan do dong ien tron gay ra:
B d = B

ur uur
L

Do tnh oi xng co the phan tch : n dB dB dB = + t
ur ur
r
(hnh 6-2, a):

n t
B dB dB dB = = +

ur
r r r
L L L

Ta co: 0
t
dB =

r
L
; cos
n
dB dB =

r r
L L
.
V tat ca cac vec t n dB
ur
eu cung phng chieu nen co the viet:

Lu The Vinh
- 92 - IEN T HOC



2
0 0
3 3
cos 2
4 2
I R I
B dB dl R
r r



= = =

L L

Hay:
0 0
3 2
2 2 (
m
2 3/ 2
)
P
B IS
r R h


= =
+
(6-11)
Vi : P
m
= IS momen t cua dong ien tron (hnh 6-2, c)
vec t momen t song song cung chieu vi . m P IS =
ur r
n B
ur
Neu h = 0 :
0
0
3
2
m
P
B
R

= (6-12)
Neu R << h :
0
3
2
m
P
B
h

= (6-13)
2) Mot cach tng t ta co the tnh c t trng cua mot dong ien thang
dai vo han gay ra tai mot iem cach dong ien mot khoang r:

0
;
2 2
I I
B H
r r

= = . (6-14)
Phng va chieu tuan theo quy tac van nut chai: Cho cai van nut chai
tien theo chieu dong ien th chieu quay cua cai can van nut chai ch chieu
cua t trng
6.3. T thong nh ly Oxtrogratxki Gauss cho t trng.
6.3.1. ng cam ng t
Tng t nh trong ien trng, e mo ta hnh anh t trng ngi ta
dung khai niem ng sc t trng hay ng cam ng t. ay la nhng
ng ve trong trng ma tiep tuyen tai moi iem trung vi vec t cam ng t
tai iem o, co chieu la chieu cua t trng.
Tnh chat cua ng sc t:
- ng sc t la nhng ng cong kn, chung khong co iem bat au va
cung khong co iem ket thuc. T trng la mot trng xoay.
a)

b)

Hnh 6-2

m P
ur
ur
B
r
R
h
O
dB
n
Idl
M

dB

dB
t

IEN T HOC - 93 -

- Mat o ng sc (so ng sc xuyen qua mot n v dien tch at vuong
goc vi trng) cho biet o ln cua vec t cam ng t tai moi iem.
V du: ng sc t trng cua dong ien thang (hnh 6-3, a) va cua dong
ien tron (hnh 6-3, b).
Hnh 6-3
a) b)

6.3.2. T thong.
La thong lng cua vec t cam ng t B
ur
gi qua mot dien tch nao o.
Ta hay xet mot dien tch dS at trong trng. T thong gi qua dS co gia tr:
d B d S =
ur r
= B dS cos (6-15)
Trong o: dS vec t dien tch co o ln bang dS, co hng
cua phap tuyen vi dien tch
dS n =
r r
n
r

T thong toan phan gi qua mot mat hu han nao o co gia tr:

S S
d B = =

u
dS
r r
(6-16)
n v: Trong he SI t thong co n v la
Webe (Wb). Do o ta nh ngha n v cua
cam ng t B la Tesla t cong thc nh
ngha t thong nh sau:
n
r

2
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
Wb
B T
S m

= = =
Tesla la cam ng t cua mot t thong
eu 1 Vebe xuyen vuong goc qua mot mat
phang dien tch 1 met vuong.

6.3.3. nh ly Oxtrogratxki Gauss.

B
n

dS


B
r
Hnh 6-4

Lu The Vinh
- 94 - IEN T HOC

Ta hay tnh t thong gi qua mot mat kn bat ky.
Quy c. Ve phap tuyen dng n
r
cua mat kn hng t trong ra ngoai mat
kn. Nh vay cho nao ng sc i vao (>90
0
) nen t thong se co gia tr am,
con cho nao ng sc i ra ( <90
0
) nen t thong se co dau dng.

Ta co t thong gi qua toan mat kn se la:
cos BdS BdS

= =

ur r
=
1
+
2

Phan mat MNP (ng sc i vao):
1
cos
1
BdS

< 0 do
1
>90
0

Phan mat PQM (ng sc i ra):
2
cos
2
BdS

>0 do
2
<90
0

V cac ng sc t la khep kn, nen co bao nhieu ng sc i vao
mat kn th cung co bay nhieu ng sc i ra khoi mat kn. Noi cach khac ve
mat o ln
1
=
2
. Do vay t thong toan phan gi qua mat kn se la:

1 2 1 2
cos cos 0
MNP PQM
BdS BdS = + = =

0 BdS

= =

ur r

(6-17)
Bieu thc (6-17) the hien nh ly O-G cho t trng, no cho thay t
trng la mot trng xoay.
Trong giai tch toan ta a chng minh c rang:

V
BdS divB dV

=

ur r ur

(6-18)

1

2
n

n M
B
N

Q
P
Hnh 6-5


IEN T HOC - 95 -

Trong o V la the tch gii han bi mat kn . Ket hp (6-17) ta co:
0 divB=
ur
(6-19)
ay la dang vi phan cua nh ly O-G.
Tng t, neu viet nh ly O-G cho vec t cng o t trng ta co: H
uur
0, HdS divH

0 = =

uur r uur

(6-20)
Y ngha: Cac bieu thc (6-17, 6-19, 6-20) cho rang thay rang t trng la mot
trng xoay. ay la iem cho thay s khac biet c ban gia t trng va
trng tnh ien. ng sc ien trng la nhng ng cong h, chung bat
au va ket thuc tren cac ien tch (hay vo cc). Cac ng sc t trng
khong co iem bat au va iem ket thuc, chung la nhng ng cong kn.
ieu o chng to rang trong t nhien khong ton tai khai niem t tch .
6.3.4. nh ly dong toan phan (nh ly ve lu so vec t B)
a) nh ly: Trong tnh ien ta co lu so cua vec t cng o ien trngE
ur

c nh ngha la tch phan Edl

ur r
. Vi mot ng cong kn th: Edl
ur r

L
= 0
Tng t trong t trng ngi ta nh ngha lu so cua vec t cam ng
t theo mot ng cong nao o la tch phan: B
ur
Bdl

ur r
.
Ta hay xet mot ng cong phang, kn L bao quanh mot dong ien
thang dai vo han (hnh 6-6, a). ng cong nam trong mat phang vuong goc
vi dong ien. Chon chieu dng L la chieu cua t trng
ur
, ta co: B
2
0
cos( , ) Bdl Bdl B dl Brd Brd

= = =

ur r r r

L L L

Trong o:
0
2
I
B
r

; =

T o:
2
0
0
0
2
I
Bdl d I

= =

ur r

L
(6-21)
De thay, neu chieu dng cua L ngc lai th goc > /2 khi o gia
tr cua dlcos = rd < 0.
Lu The Vinh
- 96 - IEN T HOC



Nh vay lu so cua vec t B
ur
co the co dau dng hoac am tuy thuoc
vao chieu cua dong ien. I>0 neu chieu cua L va I thuan chieu theo quy tac
van nut chai va ngc lai.
Neu ng cong L khong bao quanh dong ien I (hnh 6-6, b) ta co:
Tren phan (abc) th goc < /2 nen dlcos = rd > 0.
Tren phan (cda) th goc > /2 nen dlcos = rd < 0.
Do o:
0 0
( ) ( )
[ ]
2 2
abc cda
I I
Bdl d d





= + =



ur r

L
0 =
Trong o: goc nhn t I ti L
Nh vay, neu L khong bao quanh dong ien th 0 Bdl =

ur r

L
.
+ Trong trng hp tong quat, neu L la mot ng cong co dang bat ky
(khong phang), khi o ta co the chia dl
r
thanh 2 thanh phan (hnh 6-7):

n t
dl dl dl = +
r r r

Trong o thanh phan dong ien nen song song vi
n
dl I B
r u
g ien nen vi I B
r ur
r
; con thanh
phan . Nh vay: song song vi don
t
dl
cos cos90
t
n n t
Bdl Bdl Bdl Bdl Bdl = + = +

o
ur r ur r ur r

L L L L L
Ket qua:
0
Bdl I =

L
ur r
ur r
neu L bao quanh dong ien I.
neu L khong bao quanh dong ien I. 0 Bdl =

L
r
d

dl
r
a
d
B
ur

L
I
Hnh 6-6
b
c

2
I

B
ur
a) b)

IEN T HOC - 97 -


Tong quat: Xet cho trng hp co nhieu dong ien xuyen qua L ta co the ap
dung nguyen ly chong chat t trng. nh ly Amprere ve dong toan phan
c phat bieu nh sau:
Lu so cua vec t cam ng t theo mot ng cong kn bat ky bang tong
ai so cng o dong ien xuyen qua dien tch gii han bi ng cong o
nhan vi
0
.

0 k
k
Bdl I =

ur r

L
(6-22)
Quy c: I
k
> 0 neu thuan chieu L theo quy tac van nut chai.
I
k
< 0 neu ngc chieu L. theo quy tac van nut chai.
b) Ap dung: nh ly dong toan phan c s dung e tnh toan t trng cua
mot dong ien nao o mot cach nhanh chong. Ta hay xet mot so trng hp
ien hnh sau ay:
V du 1. Tnh t trng cua mot dong ien thang dai vo han, co ng knh
d=2R tai mot iem ben trong va tai mot iem ben ngoai day dan.
Do tnh chat oi xng tru nen ng sc t trng la nhng ng tron
ong tam nam trong mat phang vuong goc vi dong ien I . Gia tr cua vec t
cam ng t B
ur
tai moi iem tren mot ng sc t la nh nhau. Ta hay chon
ng cong lay tch phan L trung vi mot ng sc t co ban knh r.
1 Xet iem M ben ngoai day dan (r > R) :

0
2 Bdl B dl B r I = = =

ur r
L L



0
;
2 2
I I
H
r r
B


= = . (6-23)
Hnh 6-7
I
L
dl
t
r
dl
dl
n
B
ur
Lu The Vinh
- 98 - IEN T HOC

M
N
R
r
R R

2 Xet iem N ben trong day dan (r<R).

0
' ' ' 2 B dl B dl B r I
r
B
B
max
L
Hnh 6-8
' = = =

uur r

L L


2
2
2 2
'
I Ir
I r
R R

= =

2
0
2
' 2
Ir
B r
R
=
Nh vay:

0
2
2
' ;
2
'
2
I r
B
R
I r
H
R

=
=
(6-24)

V du 2. Tnh t trng cua mot ong day hnh xuyen (torot)
Do tnh chat oi xng nen ng sc t la nhng ng tron ong tam.
Gia tr cua vec t cam ng t
ur
tai moi iem tren mot ng sc t la nh
nhau. Ta hay chon ng cong lay tch phan L trung vi mot ng sc t co
ban knh r xuyen qua moi vong day (R
1
< r < R
2
) (hnh 6-9).
B
Lu so cua vec t tren ng la :
ur r
B
ur

0
2 Bdl B dl B r NI = = =

L L

0
2
NI
B
r

= . (6-25)
Trong o: N so vong day quan cua torot.
Hnh 6-9
Do khoang cach r ti tam vong xuyen la
khac nhau, nen o ln cua vam ng t B
ur
trong
loi la khong eu theo phng ban knh. T (5-25)
ta thay rang cam ng t co gia tr cc ai mep
trong cung cua vong xuyen ng vi r
min
= R
1
va
cam ng t co gia tr gia tr nho nhat mep ngoai
cung cua vong xuyen, ng vi r
max
= R
2
.


IEN T HOC - 99 -

0
max 1
1
1 2 2
0 1 2
min 2
2
2
2
1
NI
B B
R
B B R R
NI B R
B B
R

= =


=

= =

(6-26)
V du 3. Tnh t trng cua ong day ien thang (xolenot) (hnh 6-10) .
Ong day ien thang dai co the xem
nh la mot oan cua ong day hnh xuyen
trong trng hp gii han khi tang ban knh
hnh xuyen len vo han : R
1
, R
2
khi o
theo (6-26) ta co:
Hnh 6-10


1 2
1 2
1
0
B B
B B
B

= =
T trng trong long ong day c xem nh eu, va co the ap dung ket
qua (6-25) e tnh t trng:

0
0
2
NI
B n
r
I

= = (6-27)
Trong o:
2
N
n
r
= so vong tren mot n v dai;
nI so ampevong/met.
Trong thc te, nhng ong day co chieu dai ln hn mi lan ng knh
cua no co the xem t trng trong long ong la eu va co the ap dung ket qua
(6-27) e tnh.
6.4. Tac dung cua t trng len dong ien.
6.4.1. Tac dung cua t trng len mot phan t dong ien
Theo nh ly Ampere lc tac dung cua
t trng co cam ng t
ur
len mot phan t
dong ien c xac nh bi phng trnh:
ur r uu
B
Hnh 6-11
[ ] dF I dl B =
r
o ln: sin( , ) dF IdlB dl B =
rur
;
Phng vuong goc vi mat phang ( , ) dl B
r uur
;
Chieu: Xac nh theo quy tac ban tay trai:

Cho ng sc t xuyen qua long ban tay,
Lu The Vinh
- 100 - IEN T HOC

chieu t co tay ti ngon tay la chieu dong ien th chieu doai ra cua ngon cai
ch chieu t lc (hnh 6-11).
6.4.2. Tac dung gia hai dong ien thang song song, dai vo han.
Xet hai dong ien thang song song dai vo han, at cach nhau mot
khoang d, co cac dong ien I
1
va I
2
chay qua (hnh 6-12).
Moi dong ien tao ra xung quanh
mot t trng va tac dung lc t len
dong ien kia. Cam ng t do dong ien
I
1
gay ra tai iem at cua mot phan t
bat ky
uur ur
co gia tr:
I
1
I
2

1
B
uur

12 dF
ur

d
Hnh 6-12
2 2
I dl

0 1
1
2
I
B
d

=
Co phng vuong goc vi mat
phang cha hai dong ien, co chieu xac
nh theo quy tac can nut chai (xem
hnh ve).
uu
chu tac dung t lc:
2 2
I dl
r ur
ur
12 1 2
2
[ ] dF I dl B =
r ur
Co o ln:

0 1 2 2
12
2
I I dl
dF

d
= . (6-28)
Phng cua dF12
ur
vuong goc vi 1 B
ur
va
2
dl
ur
, tc nam trong mat phang
cha hai dong ien va co chieu xac nh theo quy tac ban tay trai. Neu dong
I
2
chay cung chieu vi I
1
th lc dF12
ur
dF
hng ve pha dong I
1
(b hut), ngc
lai neu hai dong trai chieu nhau th 12
ur
se hng ra xa (b ay).
Mot cach tng t, lc tac dung cua dong I
2
len mot phan t dong ien
co gia tr:
1 1
I dl
ur r

0 1 2 1
21 21
2
I I dl
dF dF
d

= = (6-29)
Ve mat phng chieu: 12 21 dF dF =
ur ur

Sau khi xac nh ve mat phng chieu cua 12 dF
ur
theo nh tren ta i en
ket luan rang neu hai dong ien I
1
va I
2
cung chieu chung se hut nhau, ngc
chieu chung se ay nhau.
Tng tac gia hai dong ien thang dai vo han c dung e nh ngha
n v o cng o dong ien: Ampe.
Ampe la cng o cua mot dong ien khong oi theo thi gian, khi
chay qua hai day dan thang, song song, dai vo han, co tiet dien nho khong

IEN T HOC - 101 -

ang ke, at trong chan khong cach nhau 1 met, th gay ra tren moi met dai
cua moi day dan mot lc bang 2.10
7
Niutn .
T nh ngha Ampe, ta co the xac nh hang so
0
nh sau:

7
0
1.1
1
2 .1

2.10 =
T o:
0
= 4.10
7
n v SI
6.4.3. Mach ien kn trong t trng eu.
at trong t trng eu B
ur
mot khung day dan hnh ch nhat (a,b) co
dong ien I chay qua, sao cho B
ur
b. Gia s khung cng khong b bien dang.
(hnh 6-13).

Hnh 6-13

Cac canh a se chu cac lc : [ ]
a
f I a B =
ur r ur
, vi . a a dl =
r uur
, trong o dl
uur
la
vec t hng doc canh a theo chieu dong ien. Chieu cua cac lc
a
f
ur
co xu
hng keo dan khung.
Cac canh b nam vuong goc vi t trng, nen moi canh se chu tac
dung mot lc co o ln:
f I bB =
Cac lc nay vuong goc vi b va hng ngc chieu nhau tao thanh mot
ngau lc, co tac dung quay khung ve v tr sao cho khung vuong goc vi t
trng. Ngau lc M co o ln:
M = f.a.sin = IB ab sin = IBS sin
M = P
m
B sin .
Vi P
m
= IS momen t cua khung.
e y en phng chieu cua & m M P
uur ur
ta co the viet:
m M P B

=

uu ur r ur
(6-30)
Lu The Vinh
- 102 - IEN T HOC

Momen ngau lc M co xu hng quay khung sao cho vec t momen t
cua khung
ur
ve trung vi phng cua t trng m P B
ur
.
ur u
Neu m B , = 0 ta co v tr can bang ben;
ur
P
r
ur
Neu m B , = Ta co v tr can bang khong ben. P
Ket qua tren ung vi mot khung day kn, phang, co hnh dang bat ky.
That vay, ta hay chia nho khung thanh cac dai hnh ch nhat nho, sao cho
dong chay tren cac khung o cung chieu vi vong day. Cac dong ien cua cac
khung day pha trong se triet tieu lan nhau tng oi mot (hnh 6-14) v chung
chay ngc chieu nhau. Tren moi khung hnh ch nhat se chu tac dung cua
mot momen ngau lc:
M
k
= IBS
k
sin
Trong o S
k
dien tch cua khung th
k. Do hng cua cac momen M
k
la trung
nhau nen momen toan phan tac dung len
vong day se la:
I
Hnh 6-14
M = IBsin S
k
= IBS sin
Trong o S
k
= S dien tch toan phan
cua vong day. T o:
m M P B

=

uur ur ur

6.4.4. Mach ien kn trong t trng khong eu
Xet mot vong day dan kn, phang co dong I chay qua at trong mot t
trng khong eu
ur
. Moi phan t cua vong day chu tac dung cua mot lc
vuong goc vi vong day va vi t trng
B
dF
ur
B
ur
. Nhng do cac ng sc t
la khong eu, nen cac lc
ur
se lap mot goc khac 0 vi mat phang vong
day. Ta hay phan tch
ur
ra hai thanh phan:
B
ur
dF
dF
n t dF dF dF = +
ur ur ur

Cac thanh phan song song vi mat phang khung co tac dung keo
dan khung neu ( ) va nen khung neu (
t dF
ur
B
ur
m P
ur
m P B
ur ur
).
Cac thanh phan vuong goc vi mat phang khung, hp lai thanh lc
tong hp co tac dung dch chuyen khung trong t trng (hnh 6-15). Neu
khung b hut ve pha t trng manh. Ngc lai, neu
khung b ay ve pha t trng yeu.
n dF
ur
n F
ur
B m P
ur ur
m P B
ur ur

IEN T HOC - 103 -

dF
ur
t dF
ur

n dF
u

Ta co:
n F = n dF

ur ur
L

Ve o ln cua lc :
n m
B
F P
n

, vi
B
n

gradien t trng theo

phng phap tuyen n. Nh vay ta co the viet di dang vec t:
m F grad P B

=

ur ur ur
(6-31)
ng dung. Ket qua nghien cu tren giup ta giai thch c tai sao mot nam
cham hay mot cuon day co dong ien chay qua hut c cac mat sat. Di tac
dung cua t trng cua nam cham cac mat sat b t hoa, bien thanh cac nam
cham nho, co momen t xac nh, va chung b hut ve pha nam cham ni co t
trng manh.
Lc tac dung cua t trng len dong ien c ng dung nhieu trong ky
thuat o lng va trong ky thuat ien e che tao may ien.
6.5. Cong cua lc t.
6.5.1. Cong cua lc t khi di chuyen mot phan t dong ien
Dong ien at trong t trng se chu tac dung cua lc t F I dl B

=

ur r ur
.
Khi dong ien dch chuyen lc t se sinh cong.
Xet mot mach ien kn at trong t trng (hnh 6-16). Mach co mot
phan MN co the trt c tren 2 canh kia. oan mach MN chu tac dung cua
t lc: F = I l B.
Hnh 6-15
n F
ur
m P
ur
r

I
B
ur
Lu The Vinh
- 104 - IEN T HOC

Phng va chieu cua lc xac nh nh tren hnh ve 5-16 theo quy tac
ban tay trai. Di tac dung cua t lc F
ur
B n B
, gia s oan MN di chuyen mot
oan dx t v tr 1 sang v tr 2. Cong thc hien trong di chuyen o se la:
dA = Fdx = I l B.dx = I B dS = I d
Trong o dS la phan dien tch ma
oan day MN quet c trong qua trnh
di chuyen, d la t thong gi qua phan
dien tch dS.
Neu t trng khong vuong goc
vi mat phang cua mach ien, ta co the
phan tch
ur
ra hai thanh phan:
u
Hnh 6-16
B
ur
M
N
dx
F
ur

1 2

r
t B
n t B B B

vuong goc vi mach va
ur
song song
vi mach:
= +
ur ur ur
t B
n B
.
Lc tac dung luon vuong goc vi t trng, nen lc do thanh phan song
song gay ra vuong goc vi dch chuyen dx nen cong cua no bang khong.
Cong cua lc t la cong do thanh phan vuong goc
ur
ur
gay ra, do vay:
dA = I B
n
dS = I d (6-32)
Trong o B
n
dS = d la t thong do oan MN quet c khi di chuyen.
Neu MN di chuyen mot quang ng hu han t v tr 1 sang v tr 2 th cong
cua lc t se la:
2 2
2 1
1 1
( ) dA I d I I = = = =

(6-33) A
6.5.2. Mach ien kn di chuyen trong t trng.
Xet mot mach ien kn di chuyen trong t trng, gia s t trng
hng vuong goc vi mat phang cua mach (hnh 6-17).
oan mach abc chu tac dung lc F
1
tao vi phng dch chuyen mot
goc
1
> /2 nen cong cua lc sinh ra co dau am. Cong nay co gia tr bang
cng o dong ien chay trong mach, nhan vi t thong do phan mach nay
quet trong qua trnh di chuyen, tc la:
A
1
= I (
1
+
0
) (6-34)

IEN T HOC - 105 -

Lu The Vinh
oan mach cda chu tac dung cua t lc F
2
tao vi hng dch chuyen
mot goc nhon, nen cong sinh ra co dau dng. Cong nay co gia tr bang cng
o dong ien chay trong mach, nhan vi t thong do phan mach nay quet
trong qua trnh di chuyen, tc la:
A
2
= I (
0
+
2
) (6-35)
Cong toan phan khi di chuyen mach kn co gia tr:
A = A
1
+ A
2
= I (
2

1
) = I (6-36)
Ket qua tren ung cho trng hp mach kn di chuyen trong mot t
trng eu bat ky. T o ta co the ket luan:
Cong cua lc t khi di chuyen mot mach ien kn trong t trng co gia
tr bang tch so gia cng o dong ien chay trong mach va o bien thien
cua t thong gi qua dien tch cua mach kn.

6.5.3. The nang cua mach ien kn trong t trng.
Mach ien kn at trong t trng se co mot nang lng xac nh, co
gia tr bang cong e mang no vao trong t trng. Gia s ban au, mach vo
cc, t trng ni o bang khong nen t thong gi qua mach la
1
= 0. Khi
trong t trng, t thong gi qua mach se la
2
= . Cong cua lc t a
mach vao t trng la:
A = I (
2

1
) = I
Cong cua ngoai lc can thc hien co dau ngc vi cong cua lc t,
nen co gia tr la I. Cong nay bien thanh nang lng W cua mach ien:
W = I = IBS cos = m P B
ur ur
a
(6-37)
a
b
d
b
c
d
F
1

1

2

0
F
2

2
B
ur
c
Hnh 6-17

- 106 - IEN T HOC

Chng 7.
CHUYEN ONG CUA IEN TCH
TRONG IEN TRNG VA T TRNG
7.1. T trng cua ien tch chuyen ong.
Dong ien phat sinh ra t trng, nhng dong ien la dong chuyen di
co hng cua cac ien tch, do o ien tch chuyen ong se sinh ra t trng.
Xet mot phan t dong ien Idl
r
. Theo nh ly Biot-Savart-Laplace th t
trng nguyen to do no gay ra tai mot iem xac nh bi ban knh vec t se
la:
r
r

0
3
[ . ]
4
I dl r
dB
r

=
r r
(7-1)
Mat khac: I = J.S

0
J n ev =
r r
, do o:
I dl = n
0
e v . S.dl = N.e v
Trong o : N = n
0
. S dl = n
0
.V So ien t cha trong the tch V.
T o:
0
3
[ . ]
4
v r
dB Ne
r

=
r r
ur
(7-2)
o ln:

0
sin
4
v
dB Ne
r

= . (7-3)
Cam ng t do mot hat gay ra se la:

0
3
[ . ]
4
v r
B e
r

=
r r
ur
(7-4)
Ve phng va chieu cua la phng
chieu cua tch vec t [ . va phu thuoc vao
dau cua ien tch e.
B
ur
] v r
ur uur
B
ur

r
r

v
r
Hnh 7-1

Chu y: Ket qua tren co c khi xet day
dan ng yen vi ngi quan sat co dong
ien chay qua. Do o la van toc tng oi
cua ien tch oi vi ngi quan sat. Noi
cach khac o la van toc tng oi cua ien
tch trong he quy chieu ma ta o t trng.
Ket qua tren ch ung vi v << c va r khong
ln. Trong trng hp tong quat ta phai xet
en s lan truyen cua song ien t.
v
r

IEN T HOC - 107 -

7.2. Tac dung cua ien trng va t trng len ien tch chuyen ong.
E
ur
ien tch chu tac dung cua lc Coulomb: Trong ien trng
e F eE =
ur ur
(7-5)
Trong t trng ien tch chu tac dung cua lc Lozentx B
ur
[ ] L F e v B =
ur r ur
]}
(7-6)
Chieu cua lc Lozentx phu thuoc vao dau cua ien tch e (hnh 7-2)
Neu ien tch chuyen ong trong khong gian ton tai ca ien trng va
t trng th lc tac dung len hat se la:
F e{ [ E v B = +
ur ur r ur
(7-7)

L F
ur
L F
ur
B
ur
B
ur
v
e>0 e<0
v
a) b)
Hnh 7-2


7.3. Chuyen ong cua ien tch trong ien trng va t trng.
Khi mot hat mang ien tch e chuyen ong trong khong gian, o ton
tai ca ien trng va t trng th no se chu tac dung cua ca lc ien va lc
t, xac nh theo (7-7). Phng trnh chuyen ong cua hat se co dang:
[ ]
dv
m e
r
E e v B
dt
u
= +
r r ur
v
(7-8)
r
la van toc cua hat. trong o m la khoi lng cua hat,
Phng trnh (7-8) co the phan tch thanh 3 phng trnh vo hng dien
ta chuyen ong cua hat theo cac truc toa o tng ng. Ta se xet mot so
trng hp n gian sau ay.
Lu The Vinh
- 108 - IEN T HOC

7.3.1. Chuyen ong cua hat trong t trng eu.
1. Trng hp . Khi mot hat mang ien tch e bay vao t trng vi
van toc
r
se chu tac dung cua mot lc Lorentz:
v B
r ur
B
ur
v
(7-9) [ ] F e v B =
r r
r
Neu hat bay vao t trng eu theo phng vuong goc vi vec t cam
ng t
r
. Theo (7-9) lc Lorentz
r
se co gia tr: B F
F = evB sin 90
0
= e v B
V phng cua lc luon luon vuong goc vi phng cua vec t van
toc va phng cua t trng
ur
, do o
r
se ong vai tro tac dung cua mot
lc hng tam. Di tac dung cua lc , hat se chuyen ong theo mot qu
ao tron co ban knh r xac nh nh sau: (hnh 7-3).
F
r
v
r
B F
F
r
evB
r
v
m =
2
T o: r (7-10) =

v
e
B
m



Chu ky quay: T (7-11)
2 2 r
e
v
B
m

= =

Tan so goc cua hat: . (7-12)

2 e
B
T m

= =
goi la tan so Xyclotron.


v
r


B






ur




r
r
F
r
e>0
Hnh 7-3

IEN T HOC - 109 -

Ta thay chu ky T va tan so goc ch phu thuoc vao cam ng t B va ty
so e/m goi la ien tch rieng cua hat.
T (7-10) ta suy ra :
(7-13)
e v
m r B
=
Cong thc (7-13) cho ta c s e co the o ien tch rieng cua electron
e/m bang thc nghiem.
Trong thc nghiem, chum electron c tao ra t ong phong electron.
Cac electron sau khi c bc xa t Katot se c gia toc bi ien trng
gia Anot va Katot nh gia chung co mot mot hieu ien the gia toc U.
ong nang cua electron thu c trong ien trng la:
2
1
2
mv eU = (7-14)
T o van toc ma electron thu c se la:
2

eU
v
m
= (7-15)
Thay bieu thc cua v vao (7-13) ta c :
(7-16)
2 2
2 e U
m B r
=
Nh cac thiet b chuyen dung ta o c U, B. Ban knh quy ao r c
quan sat va o tren ong phong electron. Thay cac gia tr vao (7-16) ta tnh
c e/m .
1. Trng hp . (hnh 7-4) tao vi mot goc / 2 v B
r ur
Ta phan tch thanh hai thanh
phan :
r r
.
v
r
n t
v v v = +
r

t
v = v cos
v v sin
n
=
Lc Lorentz tac dung len ien tch
c xac nh theo phng trnh:
[ ] [ ] [
n t
F e v B e v B e v B = = +
r r r
r r r
[ ] t
t
F e v B =
ur
]
r
Hnh 7-4

Thanh phan = 0. Thanh phan co o ln
lam cho hat chuyen ong theo quy ao tron.
r
r
[ n
n
F e v B
u
] =
r
r
r
sin
t
F evB =
Do o chuyen ong cua hat se la tong hp cua 2 chuyen ong:
Lu The Vinh
- 110 - IEN T HOC

1 Chuyen ong tron eu trong mat phang vuong goc vi t trng , vi
van toc v
n
= v sin . Ban knh quy ao, chu ky va tan so xac nh theo cac
bieu thc (7-10, 7-11 va 7-12) giong nh khi hat bay vao theo phng vuong
goc vi t trng.
B
ur
2 Chuyen ong eu theo quan tnh doc theo t trng B
ur
vi van toc v
t

= v cos.
Ket qua quy ao cua hat se la mot ng xuan oc (hnh 7-4).
Bc ng xuan:
2 cos 1
.
t
v
v T
e
B
m

= = (7-17)
7.3.2. Bay t Hien tng cc quang.
Neu hat bay vao t trng khong eu theo mot hng tuy y, quy ao
cua hat se kha phc tap. Trong mot so trng hp khi t trng co tnh chat
oi xng se tao ra cac hieu ng rat ac biet.

Hnh 7-5. Bay t
Tren hnh (7-5) la quy ao xoan oc cua mot ien tch dng trong mot
t trng khong eu. Cac ng sc that hai ben nh co chai cho thay t
trng hai au manh hn gia. Neu t trng mot au u manh hat se b
phan xa au ay. Neu hat b phan xa ca hai au ta noi no b bay trong
mot chai t.
Nh vay, neu t trng co dang nh hnh (7-5) se tao ra mot bay t.
Khi ien tch ri vao trong bay t no se khong the thoat ra khoi bay.
T trng cua Trai at chung ta cung co dang mot cai bay t khong lo.
Cac electron va proton b bay tren tang cao kh quyen gia hai a cc Bac va
Nam tao nen vanh ai bc xa Van Allen. Cac hat c chay i chay lai gia hai
au cua chai t trong vong vai giay.

IEN T HOC - 111 -

Moi khi co s bung no cua Mat Tri, se co them cac electron va proton
nang lng cao ri vao vanh ai bc xa va hnh thanh mot ien trng ni
ma bnh thng electron van b phan xa. ien trng nay lam cho cac
electron khong b phan xa na ma b ay thang vao kh quyen, tai ay chung
va cham vi cac phan t, nguyen t kh. Qua trnh ion hoa va lam phat quang
sinh ra hien tng cc qnang ky v. Anh sang cc quang giong nh mot bc
rem sang, treo t o cao khoang 100 km ru xuong. Nguyen t Oxy phat ra
anh sang xanh luc, nguyen t Nit phat ra mau hong; nhng thng cac anh
sang nay m ti mc ta cam nhan nh mot mau trang ma quai .
Hien tng cc quang trai rong thanh cung tren cao tao ra cai goi la
vong cc quang. Tren hnh (7-6) mo ta hnh anh vong cc quang Bac cc
(Bac Greenland). a cc t Bac tng ng vi cc t Nam, cac ng sc
hoi tu vao theo chieu thang ng. Cac electron t ben ngoai khi i vao Trai
at se b bay va chuyen ong xoan oc quanh cac ng sc t nay va i
vao kh quyen Trai at cung v o phat sinh ra cc quang.

Hnh 7-6. Hien tng Cc quang

7.3.3. S lech cua hat mang ien trong ien trng va t trng.
1- Trong ien trng.
Xet chuyen ong cua mot hat mang ien (e>0) khi bay vao trong ien
trng eu gia hai ban cua mot tu ien phang, doc theo truc Ox vi van toc
ban au v
0.
Lc ien trng tac dung len hat la F e = E
ur ur
ng trnh chuyen
ong cua hat co dang:
. Ph
Lu The Vinh
- 112 - IEN T HOC


dv
m e
dt
= E
uur
ur
(7-18)
Chieu (7-18) len 2 truc toa o Ox va Oy ta co:

0
x
x
y
y
dv
a
dt
dv
e E
a
dt m
= =
= =
(7-19)
Tch phan (7-19) ta co:

0 x
y
v const v
e E
v t
m
= =
=
(7-20)
Ket qua hat se tham gia ong thi 2 chuyen ong:

Theo phng Ox: hat chuyen

ong eu theo quan tnh vi van toc
v
0;
Theo phng Oy: hat chuyen
ong nhanh dan eu vi gia toc
eE/m.
Hnh7-7
Quy ao chuyen ong cua hat co
dang parabol (hnh 7-7).
Neu goi l
1
la chieu dai cua
ban tu theo phng Ox, th thi gian chuyen ong cua hat trong ien trng se
la:

1
1
0
l
t =
v
Trong khoang thi gian t
1
quang ng chuyen ong cua hat theo
phng Oy la:

2
2
1
1 1
0
1 1
2 2
eE l
y at
m v

= =



Khi bay ra khoi tu ien, van toc cua hat la:
= =
1
1
0
y
eE l
v at
m v

Bat au t o, hat chuyen ong thang eu theo phng cua van toc
tong hp, lap vi truc Ox mot goc xac nh bi:

IEN T HOC - 113 -

= =
1
2
0
y
x
v
e l E
tg
v m v
(7-21)
Neu khoang cach t tu ien en man chan la l
2
th sau khi bay ra khoi
tu, hat b lech theo phng Oy mot khoang y
2
na:

1 2
2 2
2
0
l l E e
y l tg
m v
= =
o lech tong cong cua hat la:

1
1 2 1 2
2
0
1
2
e l
y y y E l l
m v

= + = +


(7-22)
Hay:
1 2
1
2
y tg l l

= +

(7-22,a)
Ket qua tren cho thay, sau khi ra khoi tu ien hat chuyen ong thang
giong nh no a xuat phat t gia tu ien, vi phng chuyen ong hp vi
truc Ox mot goc .
2-Trong t trng.
Bay gi xet s lech cua hat khi bay vao mot t trng eu B
ur
0
v
theo
phng vuong goc. Gia s hat co van toc ban au theo phng Ox la
uur
. T
trng tac dung trong khoang chieu dai l
1
(hnh 7-8),
Lc t tac dung len hat :
=
ur
r
r
0
[ ] F e v B
V nen o ln cua t lc la:
0
v
uur u
B
r
F = e v
0
B
Lc nay tac dung theo phng Oy
va gay ra gia toc cho hat :

0
F e
a v
m m
= = B
Phan tch tng t nh khi
hat bay vao ien trng, ta co o
lech cua hat trong t trng la:

1
1 2 1 2 1 2
0
1 1
2 2
e l
y y y B l l tg l l
m v


= + = + = +


Hnh 7-8

(7-23)
Trong o la goc lech cua hat so vi phng ban au.
Lu The Vinh
- 114 - IEN T HOC

7.3.4. Hieu ng Hall.
Mot chum electron trong chan khong co the b t trng lam lech. Cac
electron trong vat dan co dong ien cung b t trng lam lech. Nam 1879
Edwin H Hall, mot sinh vien cao hoc mi 24 tuoi tai trng ai hoc Johns
Hopkins a tm ra hieu ng nay.
Khi at mot vat dan co dong
ien chay qua trong mot t trng
theo phng vuong goc vi dong ien,
ngi ta thay gia hai mat vat dan
xuat hien mot the hieu. Hien tng
tren goi la hieu ng Hall, va the hieu
goi la the hieu Hall (hnh 7-9).
B
uur

2
d
J
uur
Hnh7-9
Thc nghiem cho thay o ln
cua the hieu Hall: U j , d, B
U = R d j B (7-24)
Trong o R la he so t le, phu thuoc vao ban chat cua vat dan goi la
hang so Hall.
Giai thch.
Hieu ng Hall chnh la he qua cua lc Lozentx. e n gian ta gia thiet
cac hat mang ien trong vat dan chuyen ong vi van toc nh nhau, bang van
toc trung bnh cua chuyen ong nh hng v.
Khi at vat dan trong t trng cac hat mang ien se chu tac dung cua
lc Lozentx
ur r u
nen se co them chuyen ong phu theo phng cua t
lc. Chieu chuyen ong phu thuoc vao dau cua ien tch e. (hnh 7-10)
[ ] F e v B =
r

Hnh 7-10
Ket qua lam cho mot mat vat dan tch ien dng, mat kia tch ien am
va ben trong vat dan xuat hien mot ien trng E
ur
. ien trng nay tac dung

IEN T HOC - 115 -

lc ien len cac ien tch co chieu ngc vi chieu t lc. Khi lc ien va
lc t can bang trang thai cua he se c xac lap:
eE
ur
eE
ur
= [ ] e v B
r ur
.
Hay: eE = e v B
T o: E = v B
The hieu Hall co gia tr:
0 0
1 j
U E d v B d B d d j B
n e n e
= = = = (7-25)
Ket qua nay trung vi cong thc thc nghiem (7-24). Do o hang so
Hall co gia tr:
0
1
R
n e
= (7-26)
ng dung. Hieu ng Hall cho phep ta xac nh c ban chat cua cac hat tai
ien trong vat dan mang ien tch dng hay am. Xac nh c mat o ien
tch n
0
. Co the dung hieu ng Hall e o toc o hat tai ien. ng dung heu
ng Hall trong viec che tao cac cam bien o t trng B
ur
.
7.3.5. May gia toc xyclotron.
Khi bay vao t trng theo phng vuong goc hat se chuyen ong theo
mot quy ao tron. Theo (7-11) th chu ky quay cua hat khong phu thuoc vao
van toc cua no. Tnh chat nay c ap dung e tao nen nhng may gia toc hat
goi la xyclotron . May gia toc hat c s dung e tao ra nhng hat co nang
lng ln dung trong nghien cu hat nhan.
Nguyen ly cau tao cua xyclotron
c mo ta nh hnh 7-11. Bo phan chnh
cua no gom hai ien cc e gia toc hat lam
bang ong la co dang la hai na hnh tru
tron (goi la Duan hay cc D). Hai ien cc
c at gia 2 cc cua mot nam cham
ien ln co t trng (B=1,5 T) hng
vuong goc vi be mat ien cc. Gia hai
ien cc at vao mot the hieu xoay chieu
cao tan c vai chuc kilovon do mot may
phat xoay chieu cung cap. Hat can gia toc
c cung cap t nguon at gia tam
cua Xyclotron.
Hnh 7-11
Lu The Vinh
- 116 - IEN T HOC

Qua trnh gia toc hat c thc hien nhieu lan lien tiep. Gia s mot
proton c phong ra tam xyclotron. Hat c ien trng gia 2 ban cc
gia toc va bay ve pha ban am. Khi bay vao khe cua ien cc am th hat se
chu tac dung cua t trng hng theo phng vuong goc nen quy ao cua
hat se la mot ng tron co ban knh t le vi van toc cua hat tnh theo bieu
thc (7-10): r = mv/eB .
Neu ta chon tan so cua the hieu xoay chieu at vao bang tan so
xyclotron (7-12) cua hat th sau khi hat quay c na vong tron en khe h
gia hai cc, ung luc the hieu oi dau (sau mot na chu ky) va at gia tr cc
ai. Hat lai c gia toc bi ien trng gia 2 khe va bay vao trong ien cc
th 2 vi van toc ln hn. Quy ao cua hat co ban knh ln hn trc, nhng
thi gian chuyen ong cua hat trong ien cc van khong thay oi (bang na
chu ky). Qua trnh c tiep noi lien tuc nhieu lan, van toc cua hat se tang len
mai.
Goi U la the hieu gia hai cc, moi lan qua khe hat thu them nang
lng bang eU. Neu hat qua khe n lan th nang lng cua hat se la neU.
Nang lng cc ai co the cung cap cho hat phu thuoc vao o ln cua
cam ng t B, vao ban knh cc ai r
max
cua hat, tc ban knh ien cc R.
Theo (7-10) ta co:

max
max
v
= =

r R
e
B
m

ong nang cc ai ma hat thu c la:

2 2
2 2
max
v 1
2 2
m e
R B
m
=
Nang lng cua hat tnh ra eV se la:
=
2 2
1
( )
2
e
W R B
m
eV (7-27)
V du . Dung Xyclotron e gia toc hat proton. Cho biet ban knh cc D la
R=0,5m. Cam ng t cua nam cham la B = 1T. Tnh nang lng cc ai hat
thu c.
Ta co, proton mang ien tch nguyen to dng, co khoi lng gap 1837
lan electron, do o:
19
8
31
1,6.10
0,96.10 /
9,1.10 .1837
e C
C kg
m kg

= =
Theo (7-27) ta co:

IEN T HOC - 117 -


2 2 8 2 6
1 1
0,96.10 0,5 1 12.10 12
2 2
e
W R B eV M
m
= = = eV .
Tuy nhien ta khong the c tiep tuc mai qua trnh gia toc. e tao hat co
nang lng rat cao, may xiclotron bnh thng khong the ap ng do khong
the tang B va R len mai. Nguyen nhan la khi van toc cua hat tang len th khoi
lng cua hat cung tang len do hieu ng tng oi tnh lam cho ty so e/m
giam. Khi van toc cua hat at gia tr u ln th tan so xyclotron cua no se
giam va mat ong bo vi hieu ien the cao tan ta at vao. Qua trnh gia toc se
ngng lai.
e giai quyet mau thuan nay ngi ta dung bien phap ieu chnh tan so
cua ien trng gia toc sao cho no luon luon phu hp vi s bien oi cua ty so
e/m cua hat (trong cac may nh xincro-xyclotron hay phazotron). Trong may
xincrotron cho proton ngi ta ieu chnh ca t trng B va tan so cua ien
trng gia toc. Bang cach nh vay co the thc hien c:
o Tan so cua proton luon ong bo vi tan so cua trng gia toc.
o Proton se chay theo quy ao tron thay cho quy ao xoan oc.
Nh vay th cau truc cua ien cc se co dang vong ong tru thay cho
hnh tru va ch can at nam cham doc theo quy ao tron cua ong ma khong
phai at nam cham tren toan bo dien tch bao bi vong gia toc (hnh 7-12).
Tuy nhien neu can nang lng cao th chieu dai cua vong ong gia toc
cung phai rat ln. Trong may xincrotron dung cho proton phong th nghiem
quoc te mang ten Fermilab ng ong gia toc co kch thc 2 inch vi chu vi
tong cong ti 4 dam (6,3km). Tren hnh 7-13 la anh chup toan canh t tren
khong vong t cua Fermilab va cac toa nha cua phong th nghiem gan vi no.
Proton phai thc hien khoang 400000 vong e co nang lng toan phan la 1
TeV (10
12
eV).
Nhu cau ve proton co nang lng cao hn na trong nghien cu vat ly
nang lng cao. Tren hnh 7-14 cho thay hnh anh vong t cua Fermilab (vong
nho) va vong t cua may gia toc tai trung tam nghien cu hat nhan chau Au
CERN (vong to hn ngay ben canh). Vong ln nhat la cua may sieu va cham
sieu dan (SSC) co the c xay dng Texas, no se cho phep tao ra qua trnh
va cham proton phan proton nang lng 20TeV. Vong t chu vi c 52
dam
Lu The Vinh
- 118 - IEN T HOC


Hnh 7-12. Quang canh doc theo ng ham cua Xincrotron e gia toc proton
Fermilab. Chu vi ng ham dai 6,3 km.

Hnh 7-13. Fermilab nhn t tren khong


Hnh 7-14.
Vong tron ln nhat la cua may sieu va cham sieu dan (SSC) ang chuan b xay dng
ve e len anh thanh pho Washington chup t ve tinh. Vong trung gian gia la cua may
gia toc tai CERN Thuy s. Vong nho nhat la cua may gia toc tai Fermilab.

IEN T HOC - 119 -

7.3.6. Xac nh ien tch rieng cua cac ien tch, khoi pho ky.
1) Xac nh ien tch rieng cua tia am cc.
Nam 1897 J. J. Thomson bang thc nghiem o ty so e/m cua cac hat
trong chum tia am cc a xac nh c ban chat cua tia am cc chnh la
chum cac electron chuyen ong. Tren hnh (7-15) mo ta mot dang hien ai
cua thiet b th nghiem ma J. Thomson a thc hien. Cac electron sau khi bc
xa nhiet t Katot c gia toc bang the hieu V va hoi tu qua man chan C se
bay vao mot vung khong gian co ca ien trng va t trng tac dung theo hai
phng vuong goc vi nhau (goi la cac trng bat cheo), sau o ap vao man
huynh quang.


Hnh 7-15. Mot dang hien ai cua thiet b J. Thomson
dung e o ty so e/m cua hat
T hnh ve ta thay rang bat luan hat mang ien dau g th ien trng
va t trng eu lam no lech theo hai chieu ngc nhau. Cac th nghiem cua
Thomson thc hien cac bc sau:
1- Cho E=0, B=0 ghi lai v tr vet sang tren man huynh quang.
2- Cho ien trng E tac dung, o o lech cua vet sang.
3- Gi nguyen ien trng E, cho t trng B tac dung. ieu chnh t
trng sao cho vet sang lai tr ve v tr ban au.
Quan sat chieu lech cua ien tch bc th 2 ta biet c dau cua hat
chuyen ong. e xac nh van toc cua hat, t bc th 3 ta thay mun e hat
khong b lech tac dung cua ien trng len hat la eE phi can bang vi tac
dung cua t trng evB , tc la:
eE = evB
Lu The Vinh
- 120 - IEN T HOC

T o:
E
v
B
= (7-28)
Bay gi ch can cho ien trng E, hoac t trng B tac dung rieng biet
va quan sat o lech cua chum tia. o goc lech cua chum tia va tnh ty so e/m
theo cac cong thc (7-21) hoac (7-23).
T ty so e/m Thomson a xac nh c ban chat cua tia am cc chnh
la dong cac electron chuyen ong.
1) Xac nh ien tch rieng cua Ion.
e xac nh ien tch rieng cua cac
ion noi chung, nam 1907 J. Thomson a
e xuat phng phap parabol nh sau:
Cho chum ion bay qua mot khu vc
co chieu dai l
1
trong o co ca ien trng
va t trng tac dung theo cung mot
hng song song song vi nhau, sau o
chuyen ong t do tren mot quang ng
l
2
. Cac vec t ien trng va t trng
song song vi nhau va vuong goc vi
phng cua chum ion (hnh 7-16). Gia s
chum tia chay doc theo truc Oz, cac vec
t E
ur
va
ur
hng theo phng Ox. Theo ket qua (7-22) va (7-23) neu v la van
toc cua hat, va gia s hat la ion dng th di tac dung cua ien trng hat b
lech theo phng truc Ox mot oan:
B
Hnh 7-16

1
1 2
2
1
2
l e
x E l l
m v

+


= (7-29)
T trng lam hat lech theo phng Oy mot oan:

1
1 2
1
2
l e
y B l l
m v

+


= (7-29,a)
Cac bieu thc (7-29) la toa o tren mat phang vuong goc vi truc Oz
cua nhng hat co e/m va v xac nh . Kh v t (7-29) ta c phng trnh quy
ao cua cac ion cung gia tr e/m la mot ng parabol.

IEN T HOC - 121 -

Lu The Vinh

2
2
1 1 2
1
( )
2
E m
x y
e
l B l l


=


+

(7-30)
Neu ta at mot knh anh e hng vet cua chum tia, th tren knh anh
nhng ion co ty so e/m khac nhau nam tren nhng parabol khac nhau. Biet cac
thong so cua th nghiem (l
1
, l
2
, E, B) ta co the xac nh c ty so e/m.
Da tren c s cua phng phap tren Axtn a che tao ra khoi pho ky
e xac nh ien tch rieng cua hat. S o nguyen tac cua khoi pho ky cho
tren hnh (7-17).

Hnh 7-17. Khoi pho ky
Cac ion c phong qua nhng khe hep e tao ra chum tia manh, sau
o lan lt cho i qua mot ien trng va t trng c bo tr sao cho tac
dung lam lech cua chung theo hai hng ngc nhau. Khi qua ien trng hat
co cung e/m b lech cang nhieu neu van toc cua no cang nho. Nh vay sau khi
ra khoi ien trng chum tia b phan ky thanh nhieu dai theo van toc. Khi bay
vao t trng quy ao cua ion b cong cang nhieu neu van toc cua no cang
nho. Ket qua sau khi ra khoi t trng, cac ion cung loai se hoi tu tai mot
iem. cac ion khac loai se hoi tu tai nhng iem khac nhau. Dung knh anh e
hng anh cua cac vet tng ng vi cac ion co e/m khac nhau.
Nh khoi pho ky ta co the xac nh mot cach chnh xac ien tch rieng
cua cac ion.


- 122 - IEN T HOC

Chng 8.
T TRNG TRONG VAT CHAT
8.1. S t hoa cac chat Phan loai t moi.
8.1.1. S t hoa cac chat.
Moi dong ien luon sinh ra xung quanh no mot t trng. Gia tr cua t
trng trong chan khong khac vi t trng trong moi trng vat chat. ieu
o c ly giai la ban than moi trng a b t hoa va ban than no cung sinh
ra mot t trng phu
ur
. Ket qua t trng tong cong se khac trong chan
khong. Cac chat co kha nang t hoa c goi la t moi (hay vat lieu t).
' B
Theo Ampere, t trng phu ' B
ur
la do cac dong ien phan t khep kn
trong pham vi tng phan t (nguyen t) gay ra. Moi dong ien phan t co mot
momen t rieng . Bnh thng do chuyen ong nhiet nen chung nh
hng hon loan khong co phng u tien, do o t trng tong theo mot
phng nao o la bang khong. Khi at trong t trng ngoai, cac momen t
phan t c nh hng u tien theo phng cua t trng. Ket qua t trng
tong theo phng trng ngoai khac khong. T moi a b t hoa.
m
i
P
uur
8.1.2. Vec t t hoa.
Khi b t hoa cac momen t rieng cua cac dong ien phan t c nh
hng theo phng cua t trng. Cng o t trng cang manh th nhng
dong ien phan t c nh hng cang manh. Do o tong cac momen t
phan t trong mot n v the tch t moi cang ln. V vay e ac trng cho
mc o t hoa t moi ngi ta a vao khai niem vec t t hoa. No co gia tr
bang tong momen t trong mot n v the tch.

1
N
m i
i
P
J
V
=
=

ur
uur
(8-1)
Trong o N so phan t (nguyen t) trong the tch V
momen t cua nguyen t th i. mi P
ur
Neu vat b t hoa khong eu th ta xet vec t t hoa tai moi iem cua
moi trng bang cach xet gii han cua (8-1).
0
1
1
lim
N
m i
V
i
J P
V

=

=

uur ur
(8-1,a)
Neu s t hoa la eu, t moi la ong chat th:

IEN T HOC - 123 -


m
J H =
uur uur
(8-2)

m
o t hoa t moi, co gia tr phu thuoc vao ban chat cua t moi.
8.1.3. T trng trong t moi.
Khi b t hoa t trng trong t moi se la chong chat cua t trng
0
B
uur

vi t trng : ' B
uur

0
' B B B = +
uur uur uur
H
(8-3)
e tien viec khao sat, trong t moi ngoai vec t cam ng t ngi
ta thng s dung vec t cng o t trng
B
uur
uur
, c xac nh bi:

0
B
H J

=
uur
uur uur
(8-4)
Trong chan khong J
uur
= 0 nen ta co:

0
0
B
H H

= =
uur
uur uuur

T (8-2) va (8-4) ta co:

0
m
B
H

= H
uur
uur uur

T o:
0 0
( 1)
m
B B
H

= =
+
uur ur
uur
u
(8-5)
Trong o: 1
m
= + o t tham cua moi trng. Gia tr cua cho
biet t trng trong t moi nho hn t trng trong chan khong bao nhieu lan.
Nh vay, can c vao
m
hoac o t tham ta co the chia t moi ra lam
3 loai sau:
Neu
m
> 0 >1, va
0
' B B
uur uur
0
| ' | | | B B <
uuur
uur
t moi la chat thuan t .
Neu
m
< 0 <1 , va | '
0
' B B
uur uur
0
| | | B B <
uuur
uur
0
' B B
t moi la chat nghch t.
Neu
m
> > 1 >>1,
uur uur
va
0
| ' | | | B B >>
uuur
uur
t moi la chat sat t.
Cong thc (8-5) thng c s dung di dang:

0 a
B H = = H
uur uur uur
T (8-6)
uur uur
(8-6)
ta thay, trong moi trng ong chat va ang hng th hai vec
t cung phng, cung chieu. va B H
8.2. Cac nh luat c ban cua t moi.
8.2.1. nh ly Oxtrogratxki Gauss.
Lu The Vinh
- 124 - IEN T HOC

Ta biet rang, cac ng sc t trong chan khong la nhng ng khep
kn. Trong t moi, t trng tong hp la chong chat cua t trng va t
trng phu , do o cac ng sc t cung phai la nhng ng khep kn.
Nh vay t thong gi qua mot mat kn bat ky luon luon bang khong.
0
B
uur
' B
uur
0
S
B dS =

uur uur

(8-7)
ay chnh la bieu thc cua nh ly O-G cho t moi. Ket qua nay mot
lan na cho thay trong t nhien khong ton tai t tch.
8.2.2. nh ly dong toan phan.
Trong chan khong ta co lu so cua vec t cam ng t theo mot ng
cong kn bat ky co gia tr bang:

0 k
k
Bdl I =

ur r

L

trong o la tong ai so cac dong ien xuyen qua dien tch gii han bi
ng cong kn o.
k
k
I

Trong t moi , nh ly ve lu so cua vec t B

uur
se co dang:

0
1 1
(
n m
k t do i phan t
k i
B dl I I
= =
= +

)
ur r

L
(8-8)
trong o la tong ai so cac dong ien phan t bao lay ng cong
kn L . Gia s ta lay lu thong tren mot oan vi phan dl tren ng cong L ,
chieu lay lu thong hp vi vec t t hoa
1
m
i phan t
i
I
=

J
ur
mot goc (hnh 8-1).
J
uur
S
dl
Hnh 8-1

Tren hnh 8 -1 cho thay rang so dong ien bao quanh dl bang tat ca cac
dong ien phan t co tam nam trong hnh tru co truc trung vi dl, co ay S

IEN T HOC - 125 -

bang dien tch cua mot dong ien phan t.
(8-9)
( ) bao quanh dl

dl
' ' cos cos
mi
phan t
I nI S dl nP dl J dl = = =

ur uur
trong o n la mat o phan t t moi. I la cng o cua mot dong ien phan
t. Nh vay, tong cac dong ien phan t bao quanh toan bo ng cong kn L
se la:

1
m
i phan t
i
I J
=
=

ur uur

L
(8-10)
Thay (8-10) vao (8-8) ta co:

0
1
( )
n
k t do
k
B dl I J dl
=
= +

ur r uur uur

L L

Hoac ta bien oi di dang:

1 0
n
k t do
k
B
J dl I

=

=

uur
uur uur

L

Ma
0
B
J H

=
uur
uur uur
nen ta co:

1
n
k t do
k
H dl I
=
=

uur uur

L
(8-11)
Nh vay, trong t moi cung nh trong chan khong lu so cua vec t H
uur

ch phu thuoc vao dong t do ma khong phu thuoc vao cac dong ien phan t.
Do vay khi giai cac bai toan trong t moi, viec s dung vec t lam cho bai
toan tr nen n gian hn.
H
uur
8.2.3. ieu kien bien cua cac vec t B
uur
H va
uur
B
.
Khi i qua mat phan cach cua hai moi trng cac ng sc t cung
giong nh cac ng sc ien trng se b khuc xa (H. 8-2). Ap dung cac nh
ly O-G va nh ly dong toan phan ta tm c quy luat thay oi cua cac thanh
phan phap tuyen va tiep tuyen cua cac vec t
uur
va H
uur
nh sau:

1 1
1 2
2 2
;
t
n n
t
B
B B
B

= = (8-12, a)

1 2
1 2
2 1
;
n
t t
n
H
H H
H

= = (8-12,b)
Lu The Vinh
- 126 - IEN T HOC


H
2t

H
2n
H
1n
H
2

H
1

H
1t
Hnh 8-2

1
Cac ieu kien (8-12) luon c
thc hien tren mat ngan cach hai moi
trng va c goi la cac ieu kien
bien cua cac vec t va . T cac
ieu kien o co the rut ra nh luat khuc
xa cho ng sc t nh sau:
B
uur
H
uur

1
2 2
tg
tg
1


= (8-13)

8.3. Giai thch s t hoa t moi.
8.3.1. Ban chat cua nhng dong ien phan t.
e giai thch s t hoa ta a da vao gia thuyet Ampere ve cac dong
ien phan t. Ban chat cua cac dong ien phan t nay la g?
Ta biet rang trong nguyen t, cac electron chuyen ong quanh hat nhan
theo cac quy ao khac nhau. e giai thch nhieu hien tng ien t ta co the
coi mot cach gan ung rang cac electron chuyen ong quanh hat nhan theo
nhng quy ao tron hay elp. Chuyen ong cua chung tng ng nh nhng
dong ien kn co momen t xac nh.
Gia s rang electron chuyen ong quanh hat nhan theo mot quy ao
tron ban knh r (hnh 8-3). Goi v va la van toc va tan so quay cua hat tren
quy ao, ta co:

2
v
r
(8-14) =

Dong ien do chuyen ong cua

electron sinh ra co chieu ngc vi chieu
quay cua hat va co cng o:

2
ev
I e
r

= = (8-15)
Neu goi S = r
2
la dien tch cua dong
ien tron th momen t quy ao
m
P
uur
ac
trng cho tac dung t cua dong ien nay la:


e
-
m
P
uur

L
uur



v
ur
r
Hnh 8-3

IEN T HOC - 127 -

2
2
m
ev
P I S n r n
r

= =
uur ur ur


1
2
m
P evr n =
uur ur
(8-16)
Trong o n
ur
la vec t phap tuyen n v cua mat S.
Mat khac v electron co khoi lng nen khi quay hat nhan no con co
momen ong lng quy ao L
uur
.
[ ] L r mv =
uur ur ur
(8-17)
Vec t vuong goc vi mat phang quy ao cua electron, co chieu sao
cho chieu quay cua electron la chieu thuan xung quanh no. Nh vay, hai vec
t va ngc chieu nhau. Ta co the viet:
L
uur
L
uur
m
P
uur
L mvr n =
uur ur
(8-18)
Lap ty so gia P
m
va L ta co:

1
2
m
P e
L m
= = (8-19)
Ty so c goi la he so t c (hay he so t hoi chuyen) cua electron.
Cong thc (8-19) ung cho ca quy ao elp, trong o ty so e/m chnh la ien
tch rieng cua electron co gia tr 1,76.10
11
C/kg. Dau tr do electron mang ien
tch am va cho biet hai vec t
m
P
uur
va L
uur
ngc chieu nhau.
Theo c hoc lng t, electron trong nguyen t ch chuyen ong theo
nhng quy ao dng nhat nh vi momen ong lng bang:

2
n
h
L n n

= = h. (8-20)
Trong o n la nhng so nguyen (1,2,3,. ), con h = 6,625.10
-34
J.s la
hang so Planck. Nh vay momen t nguyen t ch co the bang mot boi so
nguyen lan momen t nguyen to:
. .
m
P L n = h =
Vi n = 1 ta co:
19 34
23
34
1,6.10 .6,625.10
0,927.10 /
2 2 2,9.1.10 .2
m
e h
P J T
m

= = = (8-21)
Gia tr nay goi la manheto Bo, ky hieu
B
:
2
B
e
m
=
h
0,927.10
23
J/T . (8-22) =
Lu The Vinh
- 128 - IEN T HOC

Manheto Bo la momen t nguyen to ng vi chuyen ong cua electron
theo quy ao gan hat nhan nhat cua nguyen t n gian nhat la Hydro.
Thc nghiem va ly thuyet chng to rang ngoai momen t quy ao va
momen ong lng quy ao, electron con co momen t rieng va momen
ong lng rieng (goi la spin cua electron). Theo c hoc lng t, ty so
gia P
ms
va L
s
co gia tr:
m
s
P
uur
uur
s
L
2
ms
s
s
P e
L m
= = = (8-23)
Ngoai momen t cua cac electron, cac hat cau thanh hat nhan nguyen
t la proton va ntron cung co momen t. Tuy nhien gia tr cua chung rat nho
so vi momen t cua cac electron. Do o, khi xet momen t cua mot nguyen
t ta xem nh la momen t tong cong cua Z electron:
(8-24)
1
( )
Z
m mi i
i
P P P
=
= +

uur uuur uuur

ms
m
P
uur
co the ac trng cho mot dong ien tron khep kn. o chnh la dong
ien phan t theo gia thiet cua Ampere.
8.3.2. Hieu ng nghch t.
Chuyen ong cua electron xung quanh
hat nhan vi momen ong lng
B

L
O
dL
d
M
L
uur
giong
nh chuyen ong cua mot con quay. Do o
khi co ngoai lc tac ong co the phat sinh
hieu ng tien ong.
P
m
Gia s mat phang quy ao chuyen
ong cua electron nam nghieng so vi
phng cua t trng ngoai. Khi o truc
cha cac vec t
uu
va
uu
lap vi phng cua
t trng mot goc 0 .
m
P
r
L
e
-
r
uur
B
Chuyen ong cua electron tren quy
ao tng ng mot dong ien tron co
momen t:
Hnh 8-4

1
2
m
e
P L
m
=
uur uur



IEN T HOC - 129 -

Trong t trng electron chu tac dung cua momen lc : B
uur
[ ]
m
M P B =
uuur uur uur

Di tac dung cua M
uuur
m
r
mat phang quy ao cua electron se b chao i
chao lai, con cac vec t va P
uu
L
uur
se ao xung quanh xung quanh phng cua
t trng nhng van gi mot goc nghieng khong oi . Qua trnh nay lam
cho cac vec t
B
uur
m
P
uur
va vach thanh hai mat non tron xoay co nh O la goc
cua cac vec t va hai ay vuong goc vi t trng
L
uur
B
uur
(hnh 8-4).
Theo nh ly ve momen ong lng, trong khoang thi gian dt vec t L
uur

se nhan gia so . Ve o ln: dL M dt =
uur uuur
sin
m
dL P B dt =
Trong thi gian dt mat phang cha vec t L
uur
quay quanh mot goc: B
uur
sin
sin sin
m m
P B dt P dL
d B

dt
L L L


= = =
T o van toc goc cua chuyen ong tien ong se la:

2
m
L
P d e
B B
dt L m
B

= = = =
Neu xet ca phng va chieu cua cac vec t ta co the viet:

L
B =
uuur ur u
(8-25)
Vec t van toc goc
L

uuu
c goi la vec t van toc goc Larmor (hay tan
so Larmor). Chuyen ong cua cac vec t
r
m
P
uur
va L
uur
xung quanh t trng goi
la chuyen ong tien ong Larmor.
'
m
P
uuur
uur
' B

L
B
ur
I
v
r
S
Do chuyen ong tien ong Larmor cua nen
gay ra chuyen ong phu cua electron xung quanh
hng t trng. V vec t
L

uuur
uur
luon song song cung
chieu vi ma electron mang ien tcb am nen
chuyen ong phu nay tng ng mot dong ien co
momen t phu ngc chieu vi
B
B
uur
uur
(hnh 8-5).
Gia s rang r la khoang cach trung bnh t
electron en truc quay la khong oi. Chuyen ong
tien ong cua electron xay ra theo chieu thuan xung
quanh (ng tron khong co gach cheo) se tng
ng mot dong ien tron I:
B
Hnh 8-5
Lu The Vinh
- 130 - IEN T HOC

'
2
L
I e

= (8-26)
Dong I co momen t phu
'
m
P
uur
ngc chieu vi B
uur
(ng tron co gach
cheo), co gia tr:

' 2
' ' '
2
L
m
P I S e r

= = (8-27)
'
m
P
uur
goi la momen t cam ng.
Nh vay, di tac dung cua trng ngoai, tat ca cac electron trong
nguyen t eu tham gia chuyen ong tien ong vi tan so Larmor nh nhau.
lam phat sinh cac dong ien phu co momen t cam ng ngc vi hng
trng ngoai. Ve mat toan bo, nguyen t khi at trong trng ngoai co mot
momen t phu la:

' '
1
Z
m m
i
i
P P
=
=

uur uuur
(8-28)
ay la hieu ng nghch t chung cho moi chat.
8.3.2. Giai thch s t hoa cua chat nghch t.
Nghch t la nhng chat co momen t nguyen t bang khong, tc la
theo (8-24) tong momen t quy ao va momen t rieng la bang khong:

1
( )
Z
m mi ms i
i
P P P
=
0 = + =

uur uuur uuur

(8-29)
Cac chat nghch t trong thc te nh cac kh hiem (He, Ne, Ar, Xe, Rn)
hoac cac ion (Na
+
, Cl
-
) co cac lp electron giong nh kh hiem.
Khi at trong t trng ngoai, do hieu ng nghch t, nguyen t co mot
momen t phu luon ngc hng vi trng ngoai. Ket qua toan bo khoi t
moi co mot momen t tong cong khac khong va ngc hng vi trng
ngoai.

'
1
0
Z
m mi
i
P P
=
=

uuur
uur
(8-30)
Tnh chat nghch t cung the hien ca nhng chat ma co momen t
nguyen t (hay phan t ) khac khong. Tuy nhien hieu ng nghch t chiem u
the hn so vi hieu ng thuan t. Cac chat nh Cu, Ag, Sb, Bi, Pb, Zn, Si, Ge,
S, CO
2
, H
2
O, thuy tinh va a so cac hp chat hu c cung la nhng chat
nghch t.

IEN T HOC - 131 -

8.3.2. Giai thch s t hoa cua chat thuan t.
Thuan t phai la nhng chat co momen t nguyen t khac khong. Khi
cha co trng ngoai, do chuyen ong nhiet nen cac momen t nguyen t sap
xep hoan toan hon loan, khong co phng u tien. Ket qua tong momen t
theo mot phng nao o la bang khong.
Khi trng ngoai tac dung, cac momen t nguyen t se co s nh
hng u tien theo phng t trng. Do o tong momen t theo phng cua
t trng la khac khong. o la hieu ng thuan t.
Cung vi hieu ng thuan t th moi nguyen t eu co hieu ng nghch
t, ngha la toan bo vat van ton tai mot momen t cam ng ngc chieu t
trng ngoai. Tuy nhien hieu ng thuan manh hn hieu ng nghch, do o ve
mat toan bo tong hp hai hieu ng th t trng phu ' B
uur
trong t moi la cung
chieu vi t trng ngoai.
Cac kim loai kiem (Na, K, v.v), NO, Al, Pl, O, N, ebont, cac nguyen
to at hiem la nhng chat thuan t.
8.4. Chat sat t.
Cung vi thuan t va nghch t con co mot so chat co kha nang t hoa
rat manh. o t tham cua chung rat ln co the at ti 10
4
10
6
. Ngoai ac
tnh t hoa manh chat sat t con co mot so tnh chat ac biet sau:
8.4.1. ng cong t hoa.
S phu thuoc phi tuyen phc tap cua cam ng t B trong vat lieu sat t
vao cam ng t B
0
cua t trng ngoai la ac iem noi bat cua chat sat t.
Cac gia tr cua vec t t hoa J, o t tham va eu cung phu thuoc mot
cach phc tap vao B
0
. Cac tnh chat nay lan au tien c Stoletop nghien
cu . Cac ng cong bieu dien s phu thuoc cua B va J vao B
0
c goi la
cac ng cong t hoa (hnh 8-6. a, b), con cac ng cong bieu dien s phu
thuoc cua va
m
vao B
0
goi la cac ng Stoletop (hnh 8-7).
Tren hnh ve (8-6) cho thay cam ng t B cung nh J luc au tang
nhanh theo B
0
sau o tang cham va en mot gii han nao o th hau nh
chung khong phu thuoc vao B
0
na. Khi o chat sat t xay ra trang thai bao
hoa t.

Lu The Vinh
- 132 - IEN T HOC













a) b)
Hnh 8-6

Tren hnh 8-7 la s phu thuoc cua cac ham so (B
0
) va
m
(B
0
). Thoat
au va
m
tang t gia tr ban au ti mot gia tr cc ai, sau o giam dan
va giam tiem can ti gia tr n v, con
m
th giam dan ti 0.
ac iem s phu thuoc cua vao
B
0
cho thay ch nen dung loi sat t trong
mot gii han bien thien cua t trng.
Qua gii han nay se giam nhanh khi
t trng B
0
tang. Thc nghiem cho
thay ch nen dung chat sat t khi can co
t trng nho hn 2 Tesla, con neu can
tao t trng ln hn na th thc te
viec dung loi sat t cung vo ch.
8.4.2. Tnh t d (t tre) .
Cac chat sat t eu co tnh t d,
ngha la khi ngat t trng ngoai trong
chat sat t van con t tnh. Bang thc nghiem khi thay oi t trng t hoa B
0

ta co o th bieu dien s phu thuoc cua t trng trong chat sat t vao t
trng t hoa B = f(B
0
) xay ra theo mot ng cong kn goi la chu trnh t tre
(hnh 8-8) . Trong o B
k
la t trng kh t, B
d
la t d.
Hnh 8-7

IEN T HOC - 133 -


Hnh 8-8. Chu trnh t tre
T o th ta thay rang ng vi mot gia tr nao o cua B
0
co the co nhieu
gia tr cua B. Cam ng t tong hp trong vat lieu sat t se co gia tr nao tuy
thuoc vao trang thai ban au cua no.
Can c vao chu trnh t tre ngi ta chia chat sat t ra lam 2 loai: sat t
cng va sat t mem.
Sat t cng la loai co cam ng kh t B
k
ln, tnh t d manh va ben
vng. c s dung e lam nam cham vnh cu.
Sat t mem la loai co cam ng kh t B
k
nho, t d be. Loai nay lam
tang t trng trong long no len rat ln nen thng c s dung e
lam loi cua nam cham ien, loi bien the,
ac tnh t cua mot so vat lieu sat t ch ra tren bang 8-1.
8.4.3. Nhiet o Cuirie.
o t hoa cua chat nghch t khong phu thuoc nhiet o, trong khi o t
hoa cua hau het cac chat thuan t lai phu thuoc vao nhhiet o theo cong thc:

m
C
T
= (8-31)
Trong o C la hang so Curie, co gia tr phu thuoc vao ban chat cua vat
lieu t.
oi vi chat sat t, o t hoa cung phu thuoc vao nhiet o nhng phc
tap hn. Khi nhiet o tang kha nang t hoa cua vat sat t giam. en mot nhiet
o gii han T
Q
goi la nhiet o Curie cac tnh chat sat t cua vat lieu b bien
mat. o t hoa cua vat lieu sat t tuan theo cong thc:

m
Q
T T
=

C
(8-32)
Lu The Vinh
- 134 - IEN T HOC

V du: oi vi sat (Fe) T
Q
= 770
0
C; Niken (Ni) T
Q
= 360
0
C; Coban (Co)
T
Q
=1150
0
C.
Bang 8-1
Loai sat t Cam ng kh t B
k
Cam ng t d B
d

Sat t
cng
- Manhett (FeO, Fe
2
O
3
) 5. 10
-3
T 0,6 T
- Thep thng (1% C) (46). 10
-3
T (0,90,7) T
- Thep crom (3%Cr, 1%C) (68). 10
-3
T (1,050,85) T
- Thep vonfram (6%W, 1%C) (68). 10
-3
T (1,150,95) T
- Thep coban ( 1530% Co, 5%
W, 5% Cr, 1% Mo)
(23). 10
-3
T (0,90,8) T
Sat t
mem
- Sat tinh khiet, sau khi luyen
trong Hydro
0,025. 10
-4
T 0,2 T
- Sat non 0,5. 10
-4
T 0,84 T
- Sat Silic dung trong may bien
the (1% Si)
0,7. 10
-4
T 1,5 T
- Sat Silic dung trong may bien
the (4% Si)
0,35. 10
-4
T 0,5 T
- Pecmaloi (78% Ni, 22% Fe) 0,06. 10
-4
T 0,5 T

8.4.4. Tnh bat ang hng khi t hoa.
Vi cac chat sat t co cau truc tieu tinh the va neu nhng tieu tinh the
trong no phan bo hoan toan hon loan thl tnh bat ang hng cua vat sat t
khong the hien. oi vi loai nay vec t t hoa J
uur
khong phu thuoc vao hng
cua trng ngoai.
Neu chat sat t la mot tinh the thong nhat th vect t hoa J
uur
phu thuoc
vao hng cua trng ngoai oi vi truc tinh the, do o ng cong t hoa se
khac nhau theo cac hng t hoa khac nhau. Tren hnh (8-9) mo ta mot o c
ban cua tinh the sat. No cho thay hng t hoa de nhat la theo ng canh
cua o c ban [100], con hng t hoa kho nhat la theo ng cheo khong gian
[111].

IEN T HOC - 135 -

ng cheo khong gian
[111]
ng cheo canh
[100]
[110]
ng cheo mat
Hnh 8-9. Mot o c ban cua tinh the sat

8.4.5. Hien tng t giao.
Trong ien moi chung ta a biet hien tng ien giao, la hien tng
ien moi b bien dang khi phan cc. oi vi cac chat sat t xay ra mot hien
tng tng t, o la chat sat t b bien dang khi t hoa chung. Hien tng
nay goi la hien tng t giao c Joune phat hien t the ky th XIX. o ln
cua hieu ng va chieu bien dang phu thuoc vao o ln va hng cua t trng
t hoa ben ngoai.
8.5. Giai thch s t hoa cua chat sat t.
e giai thch ban chat cua cac chat sat t ngi ta a da tren cac c s
thc nghiem tin cay va ly thuyet hien ai ve vat lieu t la thuyet mien t hoa
t nhien. Theo thuyet nay th trong vat lieu sat t ton tai cac mien rieng biet
trong o xay ra s t hoa t phat goi la cac omen. Trong moi omen co s
nh hng rat manh cac momen t rieng en mc bao hoa ma khong can g
en t trng ngoai. Khi cha b t hoa cac omen nay phai phan bo sao cho
momen t tong cong cua vat sat t la bang khong. Tren hnh 8-10 cho ta hnh
anh mot kieu thc sap xep cac omen, trong o cac mien a c t hoa en
mc bao hoa va momen t cua moi mien eu bang nhau va bang 1 4
m
P
uur
m
P
.
ay la momen t toan phan cua vat sat t trang thai bao hoa.
uur
Khi at vat sat t vao t trng ngoai th nang lng cua cac mien se
khong nh nhau. Cac mien co vec t t hoa lap vi B
0
mot goc nhon se co nang
lng nho hn cac mien co goc tu. Do o se xay ra qua trnh dch chuyen ranh
gii gia cac omen e phan bo lai nang lng. Cac mien co nang lng nho se
Lu The Vinh
- 136 - IEN T HOC

n ra va cac mien co nang lng ln b thu hep lai (H. 8-10, b). Luc nay momen
t cua vat sat t bat au khac khong, sat t bat au b t hoa. Giai oan nay co
tnh chat thuan nghch (ng vi oan 1 cua ng cong t hoa tren H 8-10, f) .

1
4 m
P

Khi t trng ngoai B
0
tang en mot gia tr nao o th cac mien b thu hep
se khong con na (H. 8-10, c) va giai oan dch chuyen ranh gii ket thuc. Neu
tiep tuc tang B
0
th bat au mot giai oan mi. giai oan nay cac momen t
trong tng mien se quay ve theo hng song song vi t trng (H. 8-9, d). Khi
t trng ngoai u manh th tat ca cac momen t trong cac omen eu nh
hng song song vi t trng (H. 8-10, e). Vat sat t at trang thai bao hoa t
(oan 3 tren H. 8-10, f).
ac tnh cua qua trnh t hoa t au giai oan 2 tr i khong co tnh thuan
nghch. ieu o ly giai nguyen nhan gay ra hieu ng t tre. Khi bo t trng
ngoai B
0
, cac momen t rieng trong tng omen khong the quay tr lai trang thai
ban au, lam cho chat sat t co mot lng t d. Khi nung nong vat sat t qua
nhiet o Curie T
Q
, th do chuyen ong nhiet cua cac nguyen t manh en mc
khong nhng lam mat het t tnh cua vat ma con pha v hoan toan cac mien t
hoa t nhien. Khi o vat sat t tr thanh vat thuan t bnh thng.


B
0
1
2 m
P
a) b) c)
J
1 2 3
m
P
B
0 0
d) e) f)
Hnh 8-10

IEN T HOC - 137 -

8.6. Phan sat t va Ferit.
8.6.1. Phan sat t.
Tng tac trao oi trong cac chat sat t a gay ra s nh hng song
song cua cac momen t rieng cua cac electron trong moi omen. Bang ly
thuyet, t nam 1933 Landao a chng minh s ton tai nhng chat trong o
Spin cua cac electron co the c nh hng oi song do tac dung cua tng
tac trao oi manh. S phan bo eu an cac Spin oi song trong cac chat nay
lam cho momen t toan phan cua vat sat t bang khong (H. 8-11, a). Nhng
chat o goi la cac chat phan sat t.
V du, cac hp chat cua Mangan (MnO, MnS), cua Crom (NiCr, Cr
2
O
3
),
cua Vanai (VO
2
), v.v la cac chat phan sat t.
8.6.2. Ferit.
Trong mot so hp chat ban dan sat t, tng tac trao oi cung tao nen
s nh hng oi song cua cac Spin electron, nhng momen t do chung tao
ra theo hai chieu khong triet tieu lan nhau (H. 8-11, b). Cac hp chat nay goi
la cac Fert t. o la cac hp chat co cong thc hoa hoc tong quat la
MOFe
2
O
3
, trong o M la mot ion kim loai hoa tr hai nao o, chang han ong
(Cu
++
), kem (Zn
++
), ken (Ni
++
), Coban (Co
++
) v.v .
a) b)
Hnh 8-11

Fert c che tao bang cach thieu ket nhiet o 900 1400
0
C nhng
manh nho oxyt a tron that eu. ac iem cua Fert la co cam ng t d ln,
cam ng kh t nho, ong thi co ien tr suat rat ln (co the ti 10
4
m).
Nh cac tnh chat o ma Fert c s dung nhieu trong cac thiet b cao tan
e lam loi cac cuon day t cam do chung co ton hao Fucco be va cong khi t
hoa ngc nho.
Cac Fert magie-mangan va mot so vat lieu khac co chu trnh t tre gan
giong hnh ch nhat c s dung lam cac phan t nh hoac s dung lam cac
phan t logc trong ky thuat so.

Lu The Vinh
- 138 - IEN T HOC

8.7. Mach t.
Mach t la tap hp cac vat hoac mot phan khong gian ma trong o tap
trung t trng. Mach t la mot bo phan quan trong cua hau het cac may ien
va cac thiet b ien (khung bien the, khung ong c, may phat ien, .).
Dong t trong mach t ong vai tro tng t nh dong ien trong mach
ien. S dung cac nh ly va cac phng trnh c ban cua t hoc va s tng
quan gia mach t va mach ien ta co the giai c cac bai toan ve mach t.
8.7.1. Mach t khong phan nhanh.
Xet mach t khong phan nhanh n gian nh hnh 8-12. Mach gom 2
phan: phan mach trong khung sat t co tiet dien ngang S va o t tham , va
oan mach la khe h khong kh nho co cung tiet dien va o t tham
k
. Ap
dung nh ly dong toan phan cho ng cam ng t chnh gia ta co:
(8-33)
k k
khung sat khe
H dl H dl H dl Hl H l NI = + = + =

uur uur uur uur uur uur

L
Trong o H va H
k
tng ng la cng o t trng trong khung va trong
khe khong kh. N la so vong quan tren khung, I la dong ien trong cuon day.

Hnh 8-12
V tai moi tiet dien ngang cua mot mach t khong phan nhanh dong t
la nh nhau, nen ta co:

0 0
;
k
k
H H
S S

= =

(8-34)
Ket hp (8-34) va (8-33) ta co:

IEN T HOC - 139 -


0 0
m
k
m mk m
k
m
NI
l l
r r R
S
= = =
+
+
E E
(8-35)
Cong thc (8-35) co dang giong nh nh luat Ohm cho mach kn, trong
o
m
NI = E co vai tro giong nh suat ien ong, nen ta goi la la suat t ong
cua mach. ai lng R
m
co vai tro giong nh ien tr toan phan cua mach va
c goi la t tr toan phan cua mach.

0 0
k
m m mk
k
l l
R r r
S
= + = +

(8-36)
Mot trong nhng ng dung cua mach t khong phan nhanh la che tao
cac nam cham ien, ma ng dung cua no het sc rong rai trong cong nghiep
ien: lam cuon day trong relay ien t, cuon day nam cham ien trong cac
thiet b nang cua can cau v.v. Lc cc ai ma nam cham ien co the nang
trong vat (H.8-13) tnh gan ung theo cong
thc:

2
0
1
2
F B S

= (8-37)
Cng o t trng trong khung sat t co
the coi la bang cng o t trng trong chan
khong H
0
tao ra bi cac vong day ien, do o
cam ng t trong loi bang B =
0
H
0
. Khi i
qua mat gii han thanh phan phap tuyen cua B
khong thay oi, do o:

0
0
s
k
k k
B
H H


= =
Hnh 8-13
(8-38)
Do o t tham khong kh
k
1, con cua khung sat t
s
c hang nghn,
do o cng o t trng trong khe h khong kh gia hai cc t cua nam
cham ln hang nghn lan t trng cua cuon day khi khong co loi sat t.
8.7.2. Mach t phan nhanh.
Xet mot mach t phan nhanh nh tren hnh 8-14. Goi S
1
va l
1
tng ng
la tiet dien ngang va chieu dai cua oan loi gia BC. Tiet dien ngang va
chieu dai tong cong cua khung CDAB ben ngoai tng ng la S
2
va l
2
. Ta co:
Lu The Vinh
- 140 - IEN T HOC


1 2
1 2
1 0 1 2 0 2
, H H
S S

= = (8-39)
T o , ap dung nh ly dong toan phan cho mach t ta co:

1 2
1 2
1 0 1 1 0 2
H dl l l N I
S S

= + =

1 1
uur uur

L
(8-40)

b)
a)
D C
B A
R
2
R
1
R
2
E








Hnh 8-14


Nhng ta lai co:
1 2
1
1 0 1 1 0 2
;
l l
2
R R
S S
= =
i i k
i k
R =

E
0
la t tr tng ng
cua cac oan BC va CDAB. Con N
1
I
1
= E
1
la sc t ong cua mach kn ta co
the viet (8-40) di dang:

1
R
1
+
2
R
2
= E (8-41)
Trng hp tong quat mach t co nhieu nhanh re, cac nhanh co t tr
tng ng la R
i
, dong t
I
th (8-41) co dang:
(8-42)
Quy c ve dau:
I
> 0 neu cung chieu dng a chon, E
k
> 0 neu cuon
day sinh ra t thong cung chieu dng cua mach.
Cong thc (8-42) co dang giong bieu thc cua nh luat Kirchhoff viet
cho mat mang. Mot cach tng t, khi viet nh luat cho nut cua mach t ta
cung co bieu thc tng t nh luat Kirchhoff cho nut:

i
i
=

(8-43)
Vi quy c dong ti nut
I
> 0, dong i khoi nut
I
< 0.

IEN T HOC - 141 -

Nh vay, bai toan tnh t thong cua mot mach t bat ky cung tng t
nh bai toan tnh dong ien trong mach ien, trong o moi mach t co the so
sanh vi mach ien tng ng (8-12, b va 8-14, b).
8.8. Hien tng sieu dan.
8.8.1. Hien tng..
Hien tng sieu dan c nha bac hoc ngi Ha lan Kamerlingh-Onnes
phat hien ra lan au tien vao nam 1911. Khi nghien cu ien tr cua thuy
ngan ong thay rang nhiet o 4K ien tr cua thuy ngan ot ngot giam xuong
en 0. Sau o hien tng nay c phat hien nhieu kim loai va cac hp kim
khac (bang 8-2).
0 T
c
T

Nhiet o ma t o bat au xay

ra hien tng sieu dan goi la nhiet
o ti han T
c
. Trang thai cua cac
chat nhiet o nho hn nhiet o ti
han T
c
vi = 0 goi la trang thai
sieu dan. S phu thuoc cua ien tr
suat cua vat sieu dan vao nhiet o
c bieu

dien tren hnh 8-15.
Hnh 8-15

Bang 8-2
STT Chat T
c
, (K) STT Chat T
c
, (K)
1 Vonfram (W) 0,01 10 Indi (In) 3,40
2 Irii (Ir) 0,14 11 Thiec (Sn) 3,72
3 Hafni (Hf) 0,16 12 Thuy ngan (Hg) 4,15
4 Titan (Ti) 0,49 13 Vanai (V) 5,13
5 Caimi 0,52 14 Ch (Pb) 7,23
6 Zirconi (Zr) 0,55 15 Niobi (Nb) 9,26
7 Kem (Zn) 0,85 16 Nb-N 14,7
8 Molpen (Mo) 0,93 17 V
3
Si 17,0
9 Nhom (Al) 1,19 18 Nb
3
Sn 18,2


8.8.2. Cac tnh chat cua vat sieu dan.
Lu The Vinh
- 142 - IEN T HOC

Vat trang thai sieu dan co nhng tnh chat rat ac biet, khac han nhng
vat dan thong thng. Cac tnh chat ac biet o la:
Vat sieu dan la mot vat dan ien ly tng. Do ien tr bang khong, nen
neu trong vat sieu dan co dong ien th no co the ton tai rat lau, v khong co
s ton hao nhiet Joune-lenx.
Tnh sieu dan chu anh hng ln cua t trng. Khi co t trng tac
ong th nhiet o ti han T
c
ha xuong, ngha la vat tr nen sieu dan nhiet o
thap hn. Neu t trng u manh no co the lam mat tnh sieu dan cua vat. Gia
tr cua t trng lam mat tnh sieu dan mot nhiet o nao o goi la t trng
ti han H
c
.
Vat sieu dan la vat nghch t ly tng. trang thai sieu dan, moi ng
sc t eu b ay ra ngoai vat dan, tr mot lp rat mong ben ngoai be mat,
ngha la t trng trong long vat sieu dan luon luon bang khong. o t hoa
cua vat sieu dan = 1, va o t tham = 1+ = 0. Hien tng nay goi la
hieu ng Meissner c Meissner va Ochsenfeld phat hien ra vao nam 1933.
ay la thuoc tnh c ban th hai cua sieu dan ben canh tnh dan ien ly tng.
Do tnh nghch t ly tng nen khi at trong t trng vat sieu dan se chu tac
dung cua nhng lc co xu hng ay no ra khoi t trng. Ngi ta a lam
cac th nghiem chng minh hien tng nay, trong o mot mau oxyt ong, bari,
yttri sieu dan b ay noi bong benh ben tren mot thanh nam cham vnh cu.
8.8.3.ng dung cua sieu dan.
Do cac tnh chat ac biet ke tren, vat lieu sieu dan ngay t khi mi phat
hien a c trien khai ap dung, mac du gia thanh rat cao do phai lam cac he
thong lam lanh phc tap. ng dung cua sieu dan cc ky phong phu trong viec
thay the cac kim loai thong thng bang vat lieu sieu dan e tao ra cac may
moc thiet b hieu ng cao. Co the chia lam 2 nhom sau:
1. Cac thiet b, may moc co kch thc ln nh che tao cac nam cham sieu
dan cc manh dung cho may gia toc hat trong nghien cu hat nhan; cac
ong c, may phat ien hieu suat cao; tau hoa chay tren em t , v.v.
2. Cac thiet b, may moc kch thc nho, tinh xao dung trong ky thuat ien
t, may tnh; cac may o co o nhay cao dung trong ky thuat o lng.
ieu khien, t ong hoa, v.v
Cac may moc thiet b lam bang vat lieu sieu dan co nhng ac tnh quy
gia nh :
a) Hieu suat cao. Do ien tr bang khong nen khong tieu ton nang lng
ien. Do tnh nghch t ly tng nen co the giam ma sat ti mc toi a. Nh

IEN T HOC - 143 -

Lu The Vinh
vay chi ph ton hao nang lng giam en mc thap nhat, va hieu suat co the
at ti 98,8%.
b) Chat lng cao. Cac may moc che tao bang vat lieu sieu dan se cho o
chnh xac toi a, o nhay cao, toc o lam viec ln vi o on rat thap. Tan so
lam viec cua cac chuyen mach sieu dan at ti 10
10
Hz
c) Gon nhe. Cac linh kien sieu dan kch thc nho, do khong toa nhiet nen co
the at sat nhau. Chang han, mot nam cham thng muon tao t trng 1,5 T
co khoi lng ti 16 000 tan, trong khi mot nam cham sieu dan e tao t
trng 12,5 T co khoi lng nho hn 1 tan.
8.8.4. Sieu dan nhiet o cao.
Ngay sau khi phat hien ra hien tng sieu dan thuy ngan, nhieu
nguyen to khac trong bang tuan hoan a c khao sat va cho thay hien tng
nay con xay ra nhieu kim loai va cac hp kim khac (bang 8-2). ieu ac
biet ly thu la qua trnh tm kiem cac chat sieu dan ma co nhiet o ti han T
c

ln. Theo khoang nhiet o trong o ton tai trang thai sieu dan, ngi ta chia
cac chat sieu dan ra hai loai:
Sieu dan nhiet o thap. Cho cac chat co nhiet o ti han T
c
< 20 K
Sieu dan nhiet o cao. Cho cac chat co nhiet o ti han T
c
80 K.
Nam 1987 ngi ta a tao ra sieu dan trong khoang nhiet o t 8090K.
Nam 1988 a at c T
c
trong khoang 120130 K. Ngi ta hy vong vao
nhng nam ti co the tao ra c cac chat sieu dan nhiet o tu lanh ( 250
K) va nhiet o phong (300 K). ( Bang 8-3).
Bang 8-3

Nam Chat sieu dan T
c
(K) Nam Chat sieu dan T
c
(K)
1911 Hg 4,1 1973 Nb
3
Ge 23,2
1913 Pb 7,2 1986 La
2 x
Sr
x
CuO
4
40
1930 Nb 9,2 1987 Yba
2
Cu
3
O
7-
94
1954 Nb
3
Sn 18,1 1988 BiSrCuCa
2
O
x
110
1966 Nb
3
(Al
0,75
Ge
0,25
) 20-21 1988 Tl
2
Ba
2
Cu
2
O
x
125
1971 Nb
3
Ga 20,3

- 144 - IEN T HOC

Chng 9.
CM NG IN T
9.1. Hin tng cm ng in t
9.1.1. Th nghiem Faraday.
Sau khi tm ra tac dung t cua dong ien th mot van e at ra la : dong
ien sinh ra t trng, vay ngc lai nh t trng co sinh ra dong ien hay
khong? Faraday a chng minh bang thc nghiem va sau o Maxwell a
chng minh bang ly thuyet rang t trng bien thien se sinh ra dong ien
(hoac ien trng).
Trong th nghiem cua mnh Faraday a s dung hai vong day at gan
nhau. Mot vong day mac vi nguon ien mot chieu (goi la mach nguon).
Vong th 2 noi vi mot ien ke G (goi la mach th) (hnh 9-1). Khi thay oi
cng o dong ien trong mach nguon th thay trong mach th xuat hien dong
ien. Dong ien trong mach th xuat hien khong phu thuoc vao cach ta lam
bien oi dong trong mach nguon, nh bang cach ong hay ngat nguon hoac
ieu chnh bien tr trong mach. Nh vay s bien thien cua dong trong mach
nguon a tao ra khong gian xung quanh mot t trng bien thien, va s bien
thien cua t trng a lam xuat hien dong trong mach th.
Hieu ng tren cung xay ra khi ta gi nguyen dong trong mach nguon va
di chuyen v tr tng oi gia mach nguon va mach th, hoac thay the mach
nguon bang mot thanh nam cham vnh cu va di chuyen v tr tng oi cua
thanh nam cham so vi mach th.

G
+ -
R
Hnh 9-1. Th nghiem Faraday

Lu The Vinh
IEN T HOC - 145 -

Phan tch cac ket qua th nghiem ta thay rang: moi khi t thong gi qua
mot mach kn thay oi, trong mach xuat hien mot dong ien cam ng. Hien
tng tren goi la hien tng cam ng ien t.
9.1.2. Quy tac Lenx.
Trong th nghiem cua Faraday, s xuat hien dong cam ng trong mach
khong phu thuoc vao cach gay ra s bien thien t thong. Tuy nhien chieu cua
dong cam ng lai phu thuoc chat che vao s tang hay giam cua t thong qua
mach. Lenx a tm ra quy tac tong quat e xac nh chieu cua dong ien cam
ng, goi la quy tac Lenx:
Dong ien cam ng phai co chieu sao cho t trng do no sinh ra co tac
dung chong lai nguyen nhan sinh a ra no.
9.1.3. Suat ien ong cam ng. nh luat Faraday.
Maxwell, sau khi phan tch cac th nghiem cua Faraday va quy tac
Lenx, a trnh bay nh luat c ban cua hien tng cam ng ien t di dang
toan hoc:

F
= -
c
d
dt
E (9-1)
Trong o E
c
la suat ien ong cam ng xuat hien trong mach. Cong thc
(9-1) la dang toan hoc cua nh luat Faraday. No cho thay trong moi trng
hp suat ien ong cam ng co gia tr bang va nguc dau vi toc o bien
thien cua t thong gi qua mach kn. V F =

uur uur

S
B dS , nen:


F

= - = -

uur uur
c
S
d d
B dS
dt dt
E . (9-1,a)
Phng trnh (9-1,a) cho thay e thay oi t thong co the thay oi t
trng B
uu
hay thay oi dien tch S.
r
Dau (-) trong cong thc the hien nh luat Lenx.
1) Mach ng yen trong t trng bien thien theo thi gian.
Khi cho t trng B bien thien xuyen qua dien tch gii han bi mot
vong day dan S, trong vong day xuat hien mot suat ien ong cam ng va co
dong cam ng. Viec xuat hien dong cam ng chng to trong vong day xuat
hien mot ien trng, nhng ien trng nay khac vi ien trng tnh ien
cho no la mot ien trng xoay, co cac ng sc khep kn. Maxwell khi
khao sat hien tng nay a viet ra mot phng trnh c ban cua cac hien
tng ien t goi la phng trnh Maxwell Faraday.
Lu The Vinh
- 146 - IEN T HOC

2) Mach chuyen ong trong t trng khong oi.
Khi chuyen ong trong t trng vi van toc v
ur
cac ien tch t do trong
vat dan se chu tac dung cua t lc Lorentz [ = ]
uu r uur r u
L
v B F e . Di tac dung cua
t lc cac ien tch khac dau se dch chuyen ve hai au vat dan lam gia hai
au xuat hien mot hieu ien the.
Neu mach ien kn, trong mach se xuat hien dong cam ng, tc la xuat
hien suat ien ong cam ng.
Viec xuat hien suat ien ong cam ng trong mach kn cung nh the
hieu hai au mach h chng to trong vat dan a phat sinh trng lc la * E
uuur
.
Trong trng hp nay, ban chat lc tac dung cua trng lc la chnh la lc
Lorentz. Do vay ta co the viet:
* [ = = ]
uur
uur ur uur
L
F
E v B
e
. (9-2)
Mat khac ta biet rang suat ien ong trong mach kn co gia tr bang lu
so vec t trng lc la. Do o:
* [ = =

]
uur ur ur uur ur

c
E dl v B dl
L L
E (9-3)
Cong thc (9-3) cho phep ta tnh suat ien ong cam ng trong moi
trng hp.
9.1.3. ng dung.
1) T thong ke.
Hien tng cam ng ien t c
ng dung e che tao t thong ke e o t
trng. Nguyen ly cau tao cua t thong ke
rat n gian, no gom mot au o co dang
mot vong day dan noi vi mot ien ke. Khi
t trng gi qua vong day dan bien thien
trong vong day se xuat hien suat ien ong
cam ng (hnh 9-2). Qua mach co dong
cam ng:

1
= =
c
d
I
R R dt
E

Trong o R la ien tr cua toan mach. Neu giam t thong qua mach t
gia tr ve 0, ien lng chuyen qua mach se la:
B
uur
S
G
Hnh 9-2
Lu The Vinh
IEN T HOC - 147 -


0 0
1 1


= = = =

d
q I dt dt d
R dt R R
(9-4)
nh luat Faraday: o ln cua ien tch chuyen qua mach kn ty le vi o
bien thien cua t thong gi qua mach o. nh luat Faraday la c s e che
tao cac t thong ke.
ien tch q c o nh ien ke xung kch.


= = =
B S q R
q B
R S

R
2) Phat ien xoay chieu.
Hien tng cam ng ien t la c s e che tao cac may phat ien xoay
chieu. Nguyen ly cua may phat ien xoay chieu gom co mot khung day N
vong, dien tch S quay eu vi van toc goc trong mot t trng eu B
uur
(hnh
9-3), trong khung day se xuat hien mot suat ien ong cam ng:
( cos ) sin

= = =
c
d d
B S t BS t
dt d
E (9-4)

0
sin
c
E t = E (9-4,a)
Noi vi mach ngoai Z. Trong mach se co dong xoay chieu:

0
sin ( )
c
i
E
i t
Z Z
= =
E
(9-5)


S

=t
n
B
uur
B
uur
n
Hnh 9-3
9.2. Hien tng t cam.
9.2.1. T cam.
La hien tng phat sinh suat ien ong cam ng trong mach do chnh s
bien thien cua dong trong mach o gay ra. Suat ien ong phat sinh goi la suat
ien ong t cam. Dong sinh ra goi la dong t cam.
Lu The Vinh
- 148 - IEN T HOC

9.2.2. He so t cam.
Ta biet dong ien phat sinh ra xung quanh no mot t trng co o ln ty
le vi cng o dong ien. Ma t thong ty le vi t trng B tc la phai ty
le vi dong ien i :
= L i (9-6)
L la he so ty le goi la he so t cam hay o t cam cua mach. o t
cam L phu thuoc vao hnh dang, kch thc va vao o t tham cua moi
trng bao quanh mach. Neu mach khong co loi sat th L=const, va khi o
ty le thuan vi I.
Khi dong ien trong mach bien thien th suat ien ong t cam xuat
hien tnh theo cong thc:

c
d di
L
dt dt

= = E (vi L = const) (9-7)

Neu L const th:
( ) ( ) = = = +
c
d di dL di dL
Li L i L i
dt dt dt dt di dt
E
di

( ) = +
c
dL di
L i
di dt
E (9-8)
V du:
1) Tnh o t cam cua mot xolennot co chieu dai l gom N vong day tiet dien S.
Neu coi chieu dai l cua xolenot u ln th co the xem t trng ben
trong xolenot la eu

0
=
N
B I
l
(9-9)
2 2
2
0 0 0
2
N N
B S N IS I Sl n I V
l l
= = = =
2
0
L n V
I

= = (9-10)
2) Cap ong truc dai l:

0 2
1
ln
2

=
R
L l
R
(9-11)

1
R va
2
R la ban knh trong va ban knh ngoai cua hnh tru.
Lu The Vinh
IEN T HOC - 149 -

3) ng song hanh (cap 2 day):

0
ln
d
L l
R

(9-13)
Trong o, d la khoang cach gia hai truc day dan, R la ban knh tiet
dien ngang cua day dan (d/R >> 1).
9.2.2. Hien tng t cam khi ong mach va khi ngat mach.
La hien tng phat sinh dong t cam trong mach co o t cam L, nguon
suat ien ong E , ien tr R khi ong mach va khi ngat mach. S o th
nghiem hien tng t cam ch ra tren hnh (9-4).
L
L
R
- +
k
i
c
i
E
a)
i
c
i
R
k
-
+
E
b)

Hnh 9-4
1) T cam khi ong mach.
Khi ong mach (H. 9-4, a) bong en sang len t t ma khong at o
sang bnh thng ngay.
Goi E
c
la s... t cam khi ong mach, theo nh luat Ohm ta co:
c
di
IR L
dt
= + = E E E
Bieu dien dong ien i di dang tong cac thanh phan khong oi E /R va
dong t cam i
c
ta co:

c
i i
R
= +
E
(9-14)
Khi o i
c
nghiem ung phng trnh:
0
c
c
di R
i
dt L
+ =
Tch phan phng trnh tren ta co:

( )
R
t t
o
L
c
i e
R

=
E
(9-15)
Lu The Vinh
- 150 - IEN T HOC

Do o:
( )
(1 )
R
t t
o
L
i e
R

=
E
(9-16)
o th bieu dien (9-16) tren hnh 9-5, a. Ta thay do t cam nen dong
ien trong mach khong at ngay ti gia tr cc ai I
o
.
2) T cam khi ngat mach.
Khi ngat mach bong en loe len roi mi tat (H. 9-4, b). Neu ngay sau
khi ngat mach , tc bo suat ien ong trong mach, ta ong mach lai ngay th
theo nh luat Ohm ta co:

0
di
IR L
dt
= (9-17)
i

i


Trong o R
o
la ien tr cua mach khi khong co suat ien ong. Lay tch
phan phng trnh (9-17) va chu y cac ieu kien ban au:

0
0
t t
i I
R
=
= =
E

Ta co:

=
( )
0
0
R
t t
L
i I e (9-18)
o th bieu dien tren hnh (9-5, b) . Neu mach khong b noi tat ma e
h th R
O
, va:

( )
0
(1 )
R
t t
o
L
c
di
L R e
dt R

= =
E
E
Tai thi iem ngat mach: t = t
o
:
0
c
R
R
= >> E E E
t
o
t
o
1 2
1 2
R R
L L
>
1 2
1 2
R R
L L
>

t

t

a)

b)

O

O

0
I
R
=
E

Hnh 9-5
Lu The Vinh
IEN T HOC - 151 -

Nh vay, khi ngat mach, suat ien ong t cam trong mot khoang thi
gian ngan trong mach rat ln. Hien tng nay lam phat sinh tia la ien do
phong ien cho tiep xuc lam chay tiep xuc. e loai tr ngi ta thng mac
song song vi cong tac mot tu ien.
9.3. Dong ien Foucault.
Khi at mot vat dan ac trong mot t trng bien thien th trong vat dan
xuat hien nhng dong ien cam ng khep kn goi la cac dong ien xoay hay
dong Foucault.
Cac dong xoay gay hieu ng nhiet Joule-lenx lam ot nong vat dan.
Ngi ta li dung tnh chat nay e che tao cac lo ien cam ng co the nau
chay kim loai va san xuat cac hp kim trong chan khong. Nh o hp kim
tranh c s oxy hoa trong khong kh.
Dong Foucault cung phat sinh khi mot vat dan ac chuyen ong trong t
trng. Chieu cua dong cam ng tuan theo nh luat Lenx nen t trng do no
sinh ra co tac dung chong lai nguyen nhan a sinh ra no, tc la chong lai s
chuyen ong cua vat dan, nh vay phat sinh lc can bang t trng. Li dung
tnh chat nay ngi ta che tao cac bo phan can du bang t trng dung rong
rai trong cac dung cu o ien.
Tuy nhien trong nhieu trng hp, dong Foucault gay tac hai do ot
nong vat dan lam ton hao nang lng. Chang han, trong cac may bien the, cac
ong c, may phat ien loi sat chu tac dung cua t trng bien oi lam
phat sinh dong Foucault nen b ot nong. Ket qua, ton hao nang lng vo ch
va lam giam hieu suat cua may.
e giam tac hai do dong Foucault, ngi ta khong e nguyen ca khoi
kim loai uc loi thep ma dung nhieu la kim loai sn cach ien ghep lai vi
nhau, mat khac dung thep ky thuat co ien tr suat ln e giam dong. Do be
day moi la rat mong, ien tr ln nen cng o dong Foucault la rat nho, lam
giam hau het ton hao Foucault.
9.4. Hieu ng Skin (hieu ng lp da)
Khi qua vat dan co dong bien thien chay qua se lam phat sinh suat ien
ong t cam va dong ien xoay (H. 9-6). Cac dong ien xoay phai co chieu
sao cho t trng do no sinh ra chong lai s bien thien cua t trng sinh ra
no. Nh vay, doc theo truc vat dan dong cam ng co chieu ngc vi chieu
bien thien cua dong xoay chieu. Do hieu ng o, ien tr cua vat dan ben
trong loi ln hn ien tr tren be mat. Mat o dong xoay chieu cc ai tren
Lu The Vinh
- 152 - IEN T HOC

be mat vat dan. Tan so bien oi cua dong xoay chieu cang cao th tac dung
cua cac dong t cam trong day cang manh, phan dong ien chay trong ruot
day dan cang yeu. Bang thc nghiem chng to rang khi tan so cua dong cao
tan c 1000Hz th dong ch chay tren mot lp mong cua be mat chng 2mm.
Con vi tan so 100.000 Hz dong ch chay tren lp be mat day 0,2 mm. Hieu
ng tren goi la hieu ng Skin (hay hieu ng lp da).
0
di
dt
> 0
di
dt
<
i
C
i
C
i
C
i
C
Hnh 9-6


Do hieu ng Skin nen khi dung dong ien cao tan ngi ta che tao cac
day dan rong e tiet kiem kim loai. Hieu ng Skin dan en dong cao tan ch
toa nhiet tren mot lp mong be mat vat dan. He qua nay c ng dung e
toi be mat cac chi tiet may bang thep. Cong thc gan ung mo ta hieu ng
Skin trong mot day dan hnh tru ong chat nh sau:
4
0
1 1
3
0,997 0,277 1,5 10
1 3
10
4 64
k
khi k
R
K khi k
R
k khi k
k

+ <

= + <

+ + >

< (9-19)
Trong o:
R

la ien tr hieu ng cua vat dan co ban knh r oi v dong xoay

chieu tan so .
R
0
la ien tr cua vat dan oi vi dong khong oi.
1
2
0
, vi 2(2 )
2
r
k

= = .
ien tr suat cua vat dan vi dong khong oi.
Be sau cua hieu ng : khoang cach tnh t be mat vat dan ti iem
ma dong giam i e lan so vi dong tai be mat.
9.5. Ho cam.
Lu The Vinh
IEN T HOC - 153 -

La hien tng xuat hien suat ien ong cam ng trong cac mach ien
at gan nhau. S bien thien dong ien trong mach nay se gay ra s bien thien
t thong gi qua mach kia va tao ra trong mach o mot suat ien ong cam
ng.
Khao sat hai vong day dan kn co cac dong ien I
1
va I
2
tng ng at
gan nhau (H. 9-7).

I
1
I
2
Hnh 9-7
T thong do dong I
1
gi qua mach th 2 la :

12
= M
12
I
1
(9-20,a)
Trong o M
12
goi la he so ho cam gia vong 1 va vong 2.
Mot cach tng t, t thong do dong ien I
2
gi qua vong day 1 se la:

21
= M
21
I
2
(9-20,b)
Trong o M
21
goi la he so ho cam gia vong 2 va vong 1.
oi vi 2 vong day bat ky he so ho cam gia chung phu thuoc vao hnh
dang, kch thc, v tr tng ho oi vi nhau va vao o t tham cua moi
trng xung quanh. Neu gia 2 vong day khong co vat lieu sat t th ho cam
gia chung co gia tr nh nhau:
M
12
= M
21
= M (9-21)
Theo nh luat cam ng ien t, neu dong ien trong cac vong day bien
thien se lam xuat hien vong day kia suat ien ong cam ng:
12 1 1
2 12
21 2 2
1 21
d dI dI
M M
dt dt dt
d dI dI
M M
dt dt dt

= = =

= = =


E
E
(9-22)
Lu The Vinh
- 154 - IEN T HOC

So sanh cac cong thc (9-7) va ((9-22) ta thay he so ho cam M cung co
th nguyen giong he so t cam L. Trong he n v SI he so ho cam M co th
nguyen la Henrry (H).
9.6. Nang lng t trng.
9.6.1. Nang lng rieng cua dong ien.
oi vi dong ien khong oi, khi cho chay qua mot day dan th cong
suat cua nguon se bien thanh nhiet Joule-Lenx. oi vi dong ien bien oi,
do ton tai hien tng t cam cho nen qua trnh xay ra co khac. Khi dong ien
ang tang, trong mach xuat hien dong t cam co chieu ngc lai, lam cho
dong ien thc te qua mach nho hn gia tr thc. Ket qua, ch co mot phan
ien nang do nguon sinh ra bien thanh nhiet nang. Ngc lai, neu dong qua
mach ang giam, dong t cam xuat hien cung chieu lam cho nhiet lng toa
ra trong mach ln hn phan nang lng do nguon cung cap.
Theo nh luat bao nang lng, phan cong khi dong ien tang thieu hut
ch co the bien thanh mot dang nang lng khac e khi dong trong mach giam
no c giai phong ra. V rang khi dong ien tang t trng do no tao ra cung
tang va ngc lai khi dong ien giam th t trng cung giam, nen ro rang
phan nang lng nay la nang lng cua t trng.
e tnh nang lng t trng ta hay tr lai hnh (9-4) trong bai hien
tng t cam khi dong mach. Xet qua trnh thiet lap dong khi dong ien trong
mach ang tang, nguon ien phai thc hien mot cong e chong lai cong can
do xuat hien suat ien ong t cam. Neu goi E
c
la suat ien ong t cam
trong mach th cong thiet lap dong ien se co gia tr:

2
0 0 0
1
2
I I I
c
d
A i dt i dt Li dt LI
dt

= = = =

E (9-23)
Cong nay bien thanh nang lng cua ong day trong mach:

2
1
2
A W LI = = (9-24)
Cong thc (9-24) bieu dien nang lng t trng cua ong day co dong
ien theo nhng tham so ac trng cho mach ien: cng o dong ien I va
o t cam L. Do o ngi ta con goi no la nang lng rieng cua dong ien.
Trong c hoc ta biet rang ong nang cua mot vat co khoi lng m
chuyen ong vi van toc v co gia tr la 1/2 mv
2
, trong o m ac trng cho
Lu The Vinh
IEN T HOC - 155 -

quan tnh cua vat. So sanh vi nang lng cua ong day ta co khai niem tng
t la: o t cam L ac trng cho quan tnh cua mach ien.
9.6.2. Nang lng t trng.
Trong tnh ien ta biet rang nang lng ien trng nh x trong
khoang khong gian co ien trng. Ly thuyet va thc nghiem a chng to
rang nang lng t trng cung c phan bo trong khoang khong gian co t
trng, ngha la nh x trong t trng.
Ta hay xet nang lng t trng cua mot ong day theo (9-24), khi thay
gia tr cua ien cam L:

2 2
2
0 0 0
2
N N
L S Sl n V
l l
= = =
ta co:
2 2
1 1
2 2
o
W LI n V = =
2
I
Neu ong day u dai, t trng trong ong day la eu va co gia tr:
H = nI,
do o: =
H
I
n

T o:
2
2
2
1 1
2 2
o
H
W n V H
n

2
o
V = = (9-25)
V co the coi t trng tap trung trong long ong day, cong thc (9-25)
cho thay rang toan bo nang lng t trng phan bo eu trong the tch V vi
mat o nang lng w:
= = =
2
0
1 1
2 2
W
w H
V
BH (9-26)
oi vi t trng khong eu, ta hay chia nho mien khong gian cha
trng ra cac the tch nguyen to dV, trong o cha nang lng nguyen to dW.
Nang lng t trng nh x trong toan bo the tch V se la:
2
0
1 1
2 2
mm = = = =

V V V V
W dW wdV H dV BHdV (9-27)



Lu The Vinh
- 156 - IEN T HOC


Chng 10.
IN T TRNG THUYET MAXWELL

10.1. IEN TRNG XOAY,
PHNG TRNH MAXWELL - FARADAY.
10.1.1. ien trng xoay.
Trong th nghiem ve hien tng cam ng ien t cua Farday ta thay
rang: moi khi t thong gi qua mot mach ien kn bien thien th trong mach se
xuat hien mot suat ien ong cam ng. Co hai trng hp xay ra: hoac la
mach ng yen trong mot t trng bien thien, hoac la mach chuyen ong
trong t trng khong oi.
Ta hay xet trng hp mach ng yen trong t trng bien thien. Trong
mach xuat hien suat ien ong cam ng chng to rang a co nhng lc la tac
dung len cac ien tch, trong mach ton tai mot trng lc la. Phan tch cac ket
qua thc nghiem Maxwell a cho rang trng lc la ay chnh la ien
trng, nhng khac vi trng tnh ien, ien trng ay la ien trng
xoay, co cac ng sc khep kn. Do o, di tac dung cua lc ien trng
cac ien tch se chuyen ong theo quy ao khep kn lam xuat hien suat ien
ong trong mach.
Tren c s thc nghiem, Maxwell thay rang s xuat hien suat ien ong
trong mach khong phuc thuoc vao trang thai, ban chat va ieu kien vat ly cua
vat dan cau tao nen mach. Noi cach khac, s ton tai cua ien trng xoay
khong phai do mach ien quyet nh ma do chnh t trng. Mach ien ch la
phng tien giup ta phat hien s co mat cua ien trng xoay.
Mot cach tong quat, co the xem mach la mot ng cong kn bat ky
at trong t trng. Moi khi t trng bien thien, t thong gi qua dien tch
gii han bi mach kn bien thien. Khi o tai moi iem tren ng cong o
xuat hien mot ien trng xoay, ma lu thong cua ien trng nay theo ng
cong kn lam xuat hien suat ien ong cam ng trong mach.
Maxwell ket luan: Moi t trng bien thien theo thi gian eu lam xuat
hien ien trng xoay.
10.1.2. Phng trnh Maxwell Faraday.
Lu The Vinh
IEN T HOC - 157 -

Co the dien at nh lng ket luan cua Maxwell bang toan hoc. Theo
nh luat cam ng ien t Faraday suat ien ong cam ng xuat hien trong
mach co gia tr bang toc o bien thien cua t thong qua dien tch gii han:
E
F
= -
c
d
d t

Trong o: F =

ur uur
S
BdS la t thong gi qua dien tch S gii han bi
ng cong kn L . Xet trng hp mach ng yen trong t trng bien thien
ta co:

F
= =

ur
ur uur uur
S S
B d d
B dS dS
t d t d t
Mat khac, ta a biet rang suat ien ong trong mach co gia tr bang lu
so vec t trng lc la doc theo mach:

*
L
E =

uur uur
j
E dl
Trong trng hp nay trng lc la chnh la ien trng xoay, do o ta
co the viet:

L
F
= - = -

uur
ur uu
j
r uur
S
d B
(10-1) E dl dS
d t t
uur
B
Tren hnh 10-1 bieu dien cac
ng sc cua ien trng xoay la
nhng ng cong khep kn, vi t
trng B hng t di len va co
gia tr ang tang theo thi gian.


uur
E



Hnh 10-1
Bieu thc (10-1) la phng
trnh bieu dien moi lien he gia toc o bien thien cua t thong va ien
Lu The Vinh
- 158 - IEN T HOC

trng xoay. Noi cach khac no neu len moi lien he gia t trng bien thien
va ien trng. No cung dien ta tnh chat xoay cua ien trng. That vay, v
t trng bien thien nen 0
B
t

uur
, do o t (10-1) ta co: 0
L

ur uur
j
E dl . ieu
o chng to rang
uur
E la mot trng xoay.
Neu viet di dang vi phan th (10-1) co dang:

= -

uur
ur
B
rot E
t
(10-1, a)
Phng trnh (10-1) la mot trong nhng phng trnh c ban cua thuyet
Maxwell. No c rut ra t nh luat cam ng ien t Faraday va co ten goi
la phng trnh Maxwell Faraday.
10.2. DONG IEN DCH, PHNG TRNH MAXWELL - AMPERE
10.2.1. Dong ien dch.
Tren ay, ta a thay rang moi t trng bien thien theo thi gian eu
lam xuat hien ien trng xoay. Phan tch cac hien tng ien t khac nhau,
Maxwell a i en ket luan rang phai ton tai hien tng ngc lai la: Moi
ien trng bien thien theo thi gian eu lam xuat hien t trng.
V t trng la dau hieu c ban va tat yeu cua moi dong ien, cho nen
neu nh ien trng bien thien lam phat sinh t trng th no cung co tac
dung giong nh mot dong ien. Maxwell goi dong ien o la dong ien dch.
e phan biet no vi dong ien dan la dong chuyen ong cua cac ien tch.
Dong ien dch cung co tnh chat c ban giong dong ien dan cho no
gay ra t trng trong khong gian quanh no, nhng khac dong ien dan cac
tnh chat khac.
e lam sang to ban chat khai niem dong ien dch, chung ta hay xet th
nghiem sau ay. Mac mot mach ien nh hnh (10-1) gom mot tu ien C c
noi vi nguon ien mot chieu U thong qua mot khoa chuyen mach S (la ao
ien cho phep oi chieu nguon ien trong mach). e phat hien trong mach co
dong ien hay khong ta dung mot bong en lam ch th. V tu C lam h
mach nen bong en khong sang, trong mach khong co dong ien.
Tuy nhien neu ta xet trong khoang thi gian ngan khi bat au ong
mach hien tng se khac. Khi ong cong tac, tu se c nap, dong nap cho tu
chay qua day dan va lam cho bong en loe sang. Dong nap se giam ve 0 khi
Lu The Vinh
IEN T HOC - 159 -

tu a nap ay. Bay gi neu ta ao chieu nguon ien nh ao mach th cac ban
tu se c nap ien ngc lai. Trong mach lai co mot dong ien chay qua
nhng theo chieu ngc lai. Neu ta ao chieu nguon ien mot cach lien tuc
th trong mach se co mot dong ien xoay chieu chay qua vi tan so bang tan
so cua chuyen mach. Neu tan so chuyen mach bang 50Hz th dong ien trong
mach tng ng nh dong ien xoay chieu cong nghiep.
Ta thay trong qua trnh ao chieu
nguon ien, ien trng gia 2 ban tu
bien thien lien tuc vi cung tan so.
Dong ien dan trong mach c khep
kn mach bang ien trng bien thien
gia 2 ban tu, v ly do o nen Maxwell
a goi ien trng bien thien nay la
dong ien dch. Nh vay, khac vi dong
ien khong oi, dong ien bien thien co
the chay qua c tu ien nh dong
ien dch.
Ta hay tm moi lien he gia dong
ien dch va ien trng bien thien
trong v du tren. Gia s mot thi iem
nao o s phan bo ien tch tren 2 ban
tu nh tren hnh ve 10-2 vi mat o ien tch la + va -. Ta co:
+ - -
+
E
uur
+ -


+ -
+ -

S
U
- +
Hnh 10-2
Cng o ien trng trong khoang gia 2 ban tu co gia tr:

0
E

= (10-2)
Cam ng ien (hay ien dch): D = . (10-3)
ien tch toan phan tren mot ban tu la:
Q S DS = = (10-4)
Gia s tu ang phong ien. Dong trong mach co cng o:

dQ d
I S
dt dt

= = (10-5)
Tren ban tu co dong ien vi mat o:
Lu The Vinh
- 160 - IEN T HOC


I d
i
S dt

= = (10-6)
V tu ang phong ien nen ien trng gia 2 ban cung bien thien:

dD d
dt dt

= (10-7)
T (10-6) va (10-7) ta co:

dD
i
dt
= (10-8)
Nh vay ve mat o ln mat o dong ien dan trong mach co gia tr
bang ai lng
dD
dt
, ac trng cho toc o bien thien cua ien trng theo thi
gian.
Neu xet ca ve phng chieu, trong trng hp tong quat vec t cam ng
ien D
uur
con phu thuoc ca vao toa o, do vay trong trng hp nay ta dung
ao ham rieng theo thi gian:

D
D
t

g
uur
uur
(10-10)
Maxwell a goi
d
i
ur
la mat o dong ien dch. La ai lng co o ln va
hng cua ao ham vec t D
uur
theo thi gian, tc la:

d
D
i D
t

= =

g
uur
ur ur u
(10-10)
Vi khai niem dong ien dch ta thay rang trong trng hp tong quat
dong ien trong mach bao gi cung c khep kn bang dong ien toan phan.
Dong ien dch khong ch xuat hien trong lp ien moi gia 2 ban tu ma ngay
ca trong vat dan. That vay, neu trong day dan co dong ien bien thien tc la
co t trng bien thien th co ien trng bien thien ngha la co dong ien
dch. Dong ien toan phan co mat o bang tong mat o dong ien dan va
dong ien dch:
(10-11)
tp d
i i i i D = + = +
g
ur r ur r uur
10.2.2. Phng trnh Maxwell - Ampere.
Lu The Vinh
IEN T HOC - 161 -

Giong nh dong ien dan, dong ien dch cung gay ra t trng ma
chieu cua no cung c xac nh bang quy tac van nut chai. Tren hnh ve 10-3
minh hoa cac ng sc t gay ra bi dong ien dch gia hai ban cua mot tu
ien ng vi trng hp tu ang tch ien (a) va ang phong ien (b).

Trong trng hp tong quat, t trng c sinh ra bi dong ien toan
phan, bao gom ca dong dan va dong dch. Ta hay tm moi quan he nh lng
gia t trng va dong ien toan phan nh nh ly Ampere ve lu so cua vec
t cng o t trng.
Xet mot vat dan co dong bien thien chay qua. Lu so cua vec t cng
o t trng doc theo mot ng cong kn L xac nh theo nh ly Ampere:

tp
H dl I =

uur uur
j
L
(10-12)
Trong o I
tp
la cng o dong ien toan phan xuyen qua dien tch gii
han bi ng cong kn L
Ta co:
tp tp
S S
D
I i ds i dS
t

= = +

uur
uur uur r uur
(10-13)
Do o:
S
D
H dl i dS
t

= +

uur
ur ur r uur
j
L
(10-14)
+ +
D
t

D
t

a)
b)
Hnh 10-3
Lu The Vinh
- 162 - IEN T HOC

Bieu thc (10-14) c goi la phng trnh Maxwell Ampere. ay la
phng trnh c ban th hai cua thuyet Maxwell, neu len moi quan he nh
lng gia dong ien toan phan va t trng, noi cach khac no noi len moi
quan he gia t trng va ien trng bien thien. Neu bieu dien di dang vi
phan (10-14) co dang:

D
rot H i
t

= +

uur
ur r
(10-14,a)
10.3. HE PHNG TRNH MAXWELL. GIA TR CUA THUYET
MAXWELL.
Theo luan iem cua Maxwell th t trng bien thien theo thi gian lam
xuat hien ien trng xoay, ngc lai ien trng bien thien theo thi gian
lam phat sinh ra t trng, en lt mnh t trng bien thien lai lam phat
sinh ra ien trng. C nh the ien trng va t trng lien he chat che vi
nhau, chuyen hoa lan nhau, chung ong thi ton tai trong khong gian trong
mot trng thong nhat la trng ien t. Khai niem trng ien t c
Maxwell a ra lan au tien, no la mot dang ton tai cua vat chat, co nhng
tnh chat hoan toan xac nh.
10.3.1. He phng trnh Maxwell.
1) He phng trnh Maxwell th nhat.
He phng trnh Maxwell th nhat thiet lap tren c s phng trnh
Maxwell Ampere ket hp vi phng trnh cua nh ly Ostrogradxki Gauss
va nh luat Ohm di dang vi phan:

0
S
S
D
H dl i dS
t
D dS q
D E
J E

= +

=
=
=

uur
ur ur r uur
uur uur
uuur uur
ur uur
j

L
(10-15)
Hoac bieu dien di dang vi phan:
Lu The Vinh
IEN T HOC - 163 -


0
D
rot H i
t
div D
D E
J E

= +

=
=
=
uur r
uur
uuuur uur
uur uur
(10-15,a)
2) He phng trnh Maxwell th hai.
He phng trnh Maxwell th hai thiet lap tren c s phng trnh
Maxwell Faraday ket hp vi phng trnh dien ta tnh chat xoay cua t
trng bang nh ly Ostrogradski Gauss:

0
0
S
S
B
E dl dS
t
B dS
B H mm

= -

=
=

uur
ur uur u r
uur uur
ur uur
j
L
u
(10-16)
Hoac bieu dien di dang vi phan:

0
0
B
rot E
t
div B
B H mm

= -

=
=
uur
ur
ur
uur u r u
(10-16,a)

He phng trnh Maxwell la he phng trnh tong quat cua ien t
trng, no giup ta xac nh c moi tham so vat ly cua trng.
10.3.2. Gia tr cua thuyet Maxwell.
Thuyet Maxwell ve ien t trng co vai tro ac biet quan trong trong
s phat trien cua ien t hoc. Trc Maxwell, nhng hieu biet cua con ngi
ve cac hien tng ien va t con ri rac. Ngay en khoang nam 1820, ngi
ta van con quan niem rang ien va t la hai hien tng khac nhau, khong co
lien he g vi nhau.
Nam 1820, th nghiem cua Osted a chng to rang gia ien va t co
lien quan vi nhau, dong ien cung sinh ra t trng. Sau o la nhng nghien
cu cua Ampere ve cac hien tng ien t, ong a a ra gia thuyet ve s ton
tai cua cac dong ien phan t la nguyen nhan gay ra t tnh cua cac nam
cham vnh cu.
Lu The Vinh
- 164 - IEN T HOC

Tiep en la nhng phat minh ln cua Faraday ve hien tng cam ng
ien t. Ong cho rang neu dong ien sinh ra t trng th ngc lai t trng
cung co the sinh ra dong ien. Bang thc nghiem Faraday a chng minh
c ieu o. nh luat cam ng ien t la mot trong nhng nh luat c ban
cua tat ca cac may ien.
Tren c s cac phat minh cua Faraday, Ampere va nhng hieu biet ve
ien t trc o, Maxwell a tong quat hoa cac hien tng ien t trong mot
ly thuyet nh lng, dung cong cu toan hoc the hien bang cac phng trnh
Maxwell.
Cac phng trnh Maxwell bao gom moi nh luat c ban cua ien
trng va t trng. Do vay no la nhng phng trnh c ban, tong quat cua
ien t trng trong cac moi trng ng yen.
Thuyet Maxwell khong nhng giai thch c cac hien tng a biet
ma con tien oan c nhieu hien tng mi, quan trong. Gia thuyet hoan
toan mi trong thuyet Maxwell la gia thuyet ve t trng cua dong ien dch.
Tren c s o, Maxwell a tien oan bang ly thuyet s ton tai cua song ien
t, tc trng ien t trng bien thien, truyen trong khong gian vi van toc
xac nh.
Viec nghien cu bang ly thuyet nhng tnh chat cua song ien t a
a Maxwell en viec xay dng thuyet ien t ve anh sang. Theo thuyet nay
th anh sang la song ien t.
Nhng nghien cu bang thc nghiem sau o cua Hezt, Popop a
khang nh s ton tai cua song ien t. Cac th nghiem ve quang hoc cung a
khang nh s ung an ve ban chat ien t cua anh sang. o la nhng bang
chng cu the ve nhng thanh cong cua thuyet Maxwell.
10.4. TNH TNG OI CUA TRNG IEN T
1) S chuyen hoa tng ho gia ien trng va t trng gay nen do s
bien thien theo thi gian cua cac trng. Hien tng tren con co the xay ra do
chuyen ong tng oi cua cac he quy chieu quan tnh.

Hnh 10-4
S N
B
uur
ur
v

q
uur
E
Lu The Vinh
IEN T HOC - 165 -

Gia s co mot ien tch q >0 chuyen ong vi van toc v trong mot t
trng (hnh 10-4). Neu ngi quan sat ng yen so vi t trng th ien
tch q se chu tac dung mot lc Lorenzt:
ur
uur
B
[ ] f q v B =
ur ur r
(10-17)
Trong o v
r
la van toc chuyen ong tng oi cua ien tch q oi vi t
trng, con vec t cam ng t
0
B H =
r r
.
Neu ngi quan sat chuyen ong cung vi ien tch th oi vi ngi
quan sat ien tch q la ng yen, nen trong he quy chieu cua ngi quan sat
ien tch q se tao ra quanh no mot ien trng
ur
E . Mat khac van ton tai lc
tac dung f
ur
nh the len ien tch. ieu o chng to rang oi vi ngi quan
sat ien trng tac dung, co gia tr:
[
f
] E v B
q
= =
ur
ur ur r
(10-18)
ur r
va v B . ien trng nay co phng vuong goc vi
Nh vay, trng ien t phu thuoc vao he quy chieu ta xet. Neu trong
mot he quy chieu nao o co t trng th trong mot he quy chieu khac chuyen
ong tng oi vi no co ca t trng va ien trng.
1) Bien oi Lorenzt cua trng ien t.
Xet 2 he quy chieu O va O, trong o O chuyen ong tng oi doc
theo truc Ox vi van toc khong oi
ur
v (hnh 10-5).

Gia s trong he quy chieu O co mot t trng ma tai mot iem M nao
o co cac gia tr H
M
(H
x
, H
y
H
z
). Cung tai M nhng neu xet trong he quy chieu
O do chuyen ong tng oi vi O nen se xuat hien ien trng co cac thanh
v
M
x
y
z
y
x
z
O
O S N
Hnh 10-5
Lu The Vinh
- 166 - IEN T HOC

phan E
M
(E
x
, E
y
, E
z
). Bay gi ap dung cong thc (10-18) va chu y rang van toc
v co cac thanh phan { , 0, 0}
ur
v v , ta thay rang cac thanh phan cua ien trng
trong he quy chieu O se co gia tr:

'
'
'
0

x
y z
z z
E
E v B
E v B
(10-19)
Neu trong he O con co ca ien trng { , , }
uur
x y z
E E E E th trong he O
ien trng toan phan se la:

'
'
'

= +

x x
y y z
z z z
E E
E E v B
E E v B
(10-20)
2) Mot cach hoan toan tng t nh tren ta thay rang trong cac he quy
chieu chuyen ong tng oi oi vi ien trng se xuat hien t trng.
Thc vay, ta hay xet mot ien tch
q chuyen ong vi van v
ur
oi vi ngi
quan sat, ien tch nay se sinh ra mot t
trng (hnh 10-6):


3
[ ]
4
q v r
H
r

=
ur u
(10-21)
r
uur
trong he quy chieu cua ngi quan sat.
Nhng oi vi ngi quan sat cung
chuyen ong vi ien tch q th ien tch
lai sinh ra mot ien trng:



3
0
4
q
E r
r
=
uur ur
(10-22)
hay:
3
4
q
D
r
r

=
uur ur
(10-22,a)
v
ur
H

uur
D
uur
r
ur
0 q >



Hnh 10-6
Lu The Vinh
IEN T HOC - 167 -

Nh vay co the viet: [ H v D
u
] =
ur ur uur
(10-23)
trong o la van toc tng oi cua ien trng v
ur
D
uur
oi vi he quy chieu
trong o ta o t trng . Ket qua nay co tnh chat tong quat cho mot ien
trng bat ky.
H
uur
ur
uuur
Vay: Neu trong mot he quy chieu nao o co ien trng th trong cac
he quy chieu chuyen ong tng oi vi no co ca ien trng va t trng .
3) Ta hay xet 2 he quy chieu O va O, trong o O chuyen ong tng oi
oi vi O vi van toc v
ur
theo truc Ox.
Trong he O co ien trng tac dung, gia tr trng tai mot iem M nao
o co gia tr: {D
x
, D
y
, D
z
).
Neu xet trong he quy chieu O, ta thay ien trng chuyen ong tng
oi vi no vi van toc - {v,0,0}. Do o trong he nay xuat hien t trng
vi cac thanh phan { H
x
, H
y
, H
z
}. Ap dung cong thc (10-23), ta co:
v
' H

' 0
'
'
x
y z
z y
H
H v
H v
D
D
=
= +
=
(10-24)
Neu trong he O ngoai ien trng con co ca t trng tac dung vi
cac thanh phan {H
x
, H
y
, H
z
} th t trng toan phan trong he O se la:
H
uur

'
'
'
x x
y y z
z z y
H H
H H v
H H v D
D
=
= +
=
(10-25)
Cac cong thc (10-19), (10-20), (10-24) va (10-25) la cac phep bien oi
the hien s bien oi cua ien t trng trong cac he quy chieu quan tnh.
Chung ch ung trong trng hp cac ien tch chuyen ong cham. Do o cac
cong thc tren ch la cac cong thc bien oi trng ien t trong cac he quy
chieu chuyen ong cham (so vi van toc anh sang).
oi vi cac he chuyen ong vi van toc ln, nhng bieu thc tren
khong ap dung c. Trong trng hp o ta phai ap dung cac cong thc bien
oi cua thuyet tng oi. Theo nguyen ly tng oi cua Enstein, cac bieu thc
bien oi phai thoa man nhng ieu kien bat bien tng oi tnh, ma nhng
bieu thc va thu c khong thoa man tnh bat bien nay.
Lu The Vinh
- 168 - IEN T HOC

Trong trng hp tong quat, bang cach ap dung nguyen ly tng oi oi
vi ien t trng trong cac he quy chieu quan tnh ta thu c cac cong thc
bien oi sau:

' ' '
y z
2 2
2 2
, ,
1 1
z z
x x y z
E v B
E v B
E E E E
v v
c c

+
= = =

(10-26)

' ' '
2 2
2 2
, ,
1 1
y z
z z
x x y z
H v D
H v D
H H H H
v v
c c
+

= = =

(10-27)
o la nhng cong thc bien oi Lorentz cua trng ien t. Cac ai
lng E, D, B, H o trong he O, con E, D, B, H o trong he O chuyen
ong tng oi vi van toc v doc theo truc Ox.
10.5. DAO ONG IEN T CUA MACH
10.5.1. Dao ong cua mach kn.
Xet mot mach dao ong LC. Gia s cac tham so cua mach la tap trung,
ien tr toan bo day noi la R (hnh 10-7). e n gian ta gia s cac qua trnh
xay ra trong mach la chuan dng, ngha la cac gia tr tc thi cua dong ien la
nh nhau moi iem cua mach, va ta co the ap dung nh luat Kirchhoff cho
cac gia tr tc thi cua cac ai lng ien trong mach.
Gia s mach ang dao ong, xet thi
iem tu ang phong ien, goi dong phong la
i ta co:
R
I L
C
+
-
=
dq
i
dt

(co dau tr v ien tch q giam theo
thi gian)


Hnh 10-7

Ap dung nh luat Kirchhoff cho mach
kn ta co:

C
di
u i R L
dt
+ = (10-28)
Thay :
2
2
;
C
q di d q
u
C dt dt
= = , ta c:
Lu The Vinh
IEN T HOC - 169 -


2
2
0 + + =
d q dq q
L R
dt C dt

hay:
2
2
0 + + =
d q R dq q
L dt LC dt
(10-29)
at:
2
1
,
2
R
L LC
= = , ta co:

2
2 0 q q q + + = && & (10-30)
Phng trnh (10-30) la mot phng trnh vi phan tuyen tnh bac 2 oi
vi q, e giai can xet cac ieu kien ban au sau:
t = 0, q = Q
0
,
=
= =
0
0
t
dq
i
dt

Ta xet mot so trng hp sau:
1) Gia thiet ien tr mach bang khong: 0, 0
2
R
R
L
= = = ,
Phng trnh (10-30 tr thanh:

2
0 + = && q q (10-31)
Nghiem tong quat cua (10-31) co dang:
q = A cos ( t + ) (10-32)
Trong o A la bien o dao ong, la tan so goc
1
LC
= .
Chu ky dao ong : 2
2
T = LC

= . A va c xac nh bang cac

ieu kien ban au:
t = 0, q = A cos = Q
0

0
sin ( ) sin 0
t
dq
A t A
dt

=
= + = =

0
0 , A Q = =
T o, nghiem tong quat cua phng trnh (10-31) se la:
q = Q
0
cos t (10-33)
T (10-33) ta co quy luat bien thien cua ien ap u va dong ien i la:
Lu The Vinh
- 170 - IEN T HOC


0
0
cos cos
Q q
u t U
C C
t = = = (10-34)

0 0
sin sin
dq
i Q t I
dt
t = = = (10-35)
Cac ket qua (10-33) (10-34) va (10-35) cho thay rang trong mach xay ra
qua trnh dao ong cua cac ai lng q, u va i theo quy luat ieu hoa, nhng
dong ien nhanh pha hn hieu ien the mot goc /2. ay la trng hp ly
tng, mach dao ong t do, ieu hoa va khong tat.
2) Xet mach dao ong thc te.
Vi mach dao ong thc te ( R 0) . Phng trnh dao ong cua mach
c viet di dang ay u:

2
2
0
d q R dq q
L dt LC dt
+ + = hay:

2
2
2
2 0 + +
d q dq
q
dt dt
= (10-36)
Nghiem (10-36) phu thuoc tng quan gia cac ai lng, ta xet cac
trng hp sau:
a. Trng hp :
2 2
> .
Nghiem (10-36) co dang:
.
t
q Z e

= (10-37)
Trong o Z la mot ham so phu thuoc thi gian. Lay ao ham bac nhat
va bac 2 cua q theo thi gian t ta co:

t t
dq dZ
Z e e
dt dt

= +

2 2
2
2 2
2
t t
d q dZ d Z
Z e e e
dt
dt dt
t


= +


The vao phng trnh (10-37) va rut gon 2 ve cho e
t
ta c :

2
2 2
2
( )
d Z
Z
dt
+ = 0 (10-38)
Phng trnh (10-38) co nghiem:
cos ( )
o
Z A t = + . (10-39)
Lu The Vinh
IEN T HOC - 171 -

Vi
2 2
(
o
) = ; ta co nghiem tong quat:
cos ( )
t
o
q A e t

= + (10-40)
A va cung c xac nh t cac ieu kien ban au nh tren (A = Q
0
,
= 0), do o:

0
cos ( )
t
o
q Q e t

= (10-41)
Nghiem (10-41) cho thay ay la mot dao ong tat dan vi bien o giam
theo quy luat ham mu. goi la he so tat dan cua dao ong, cang ln dao
ong tat dan cang nhanh. Tren cac hnh (10-8, b, c) cho thay 2 dao ong tat
dan vi khac nhau. Bieu thc co cha cos ( )
o
t chng to dao ong tat dan
theo quy luat hnh sin. Goi T la chu ky cua dao ong tat dan, ta co:

2 2
0
2 2 2
1
2
T
R
LC L
2

= = =

(10-42)
So sanh vi trng hp mach khong co ien tr thuan ta thay s co mat
cua R a lam cho chu ky dao ong cua mach tang len. Vi <<, R<<L ta
co ket qua:
2 T L = C
2. Trng hp
2 2
> .
Nghiem phng trnh (10-36) co dang:

1 2
1 2
k t k t
q A e A e

= + (10-43)
Trong o:
2 2 2
1 2
va k k
2
= + = ; A
1
va A
2
la cac
hang so c xac nh t ieu kien ban au. Sau khi thay nghiem nay vao
phng trnh (10-36) va thay cac ieu kien ban au noi tren ta co:

1 1
1 0 2 0
1 2 1 2
; .
k k
A Q A Q
k k k k
= =


va:
2 1 0
1 2
1 2
( )
k t k t Q
q k e k
k k

=

e
2
(10-44)
Nghiem (10-44) ng vi mot qua trnh khong dao ong (hnh 10-7, d).
Neu ien tr cua mach rat ln,
2
> > th k
1
>>k
2
nghiem tren tr
thanh:
Lu The Vinh
- 172 - IEN T HOC


2
0
k t
q Q e

= (10-45)
o la trng hp bieu dien tren hnh (10-8, e).
T
a) O

Nh vay, ieu kien e mach co the dao ong la:
2 2
> , tc la:

1
2
2
R
>
LC 4L

b) O
c) O
d) O
e) O
f) O
t
t
t
t
t
t
q

2
1
k t
k e

1
2
k t
k e

q = Q
0
cos t
q = Q
0
e
-t
cos t

2 1 0
1 2
1 2
( )
k t k t Q
q k e k e
k k

=

2
0
k t
q Q e

=
Hnh 10-8
Lu The Vinh
IEN T HOC - 173 -

Hay 2
L
R <
C
(10-46)
10.5.2. S chuyen hoa nang lng trong dao ong ien t.
Xet ve mat nang lng, qua trnh dao ong ien t trong mach LC la
qua trnh xay ra s chuyen hoa gia nang lng ien trng tren tu ien va
nang lng t trng tren cuon day.
Thc vay, xet trng hp mach dao ong ly tng (R=0). Gia s trong
mach ang xay ra dao ong. Goi i la dong trong mach thi iem t tng ng
vi ien tch tren tu ien luc nay la q, ta co nang lng toan phan W trong
mach la:

2
2
1 1
2 2
H E
q
W W W L i cons
C
= + = + = t (10-47)
T o:
2
2
1 1
0
2 2
dW d q di q dq
L i Li
dt dt C dt C dt

= + = +


=
Neu thay :
2
2
va
dq di d q
i
dt dt dt
= = ta c:

2 2
2 2
1 1
0, : 0
d q d q
L q hay q
C L dt dt
+ = + =
C

Bay gi at
2
1
=
LC
ta se tm lai c phng trnh (10-31):

2
2 2
2
0, tc la: 0
d q
q q
dt
+ = + = && q (10-48)
Nghiem cua (10-48) co dang:
q = Q
0
cos ( t + )
Dong trong mach tng ng:

0
sin( )
dq
i Q
dt
t = = +
- Nang lng ien d tr trong mach dao ong thi iem t:

2 2
2
0
1
cos ( )
2 2
E
Q q
W
C C
t = = + (10-49)
- Nang lng t d tr trong mach dao ong thi iem t tng ng:
2
2 2 2 2
0
1 1
sin ( ) sin ( )
2 2 2
H
Q
W Li L t t
C
= = + = + (10-50)
Lu The Vinh
- 174 - IEN T HOC

o th bieu dien cac ham (10-49) va (10-50) tren hnh (10-8) cho thay
quy luat bien thien nang lng ien t trong mach dao ong LC.
2
0
2
Q
C

T/2 T 3T/2
W
E
W
H
O
t
Hnh 10-9. Bien thien nang lng ien t trong mach dao ong

T o th hnh (10-9) ta thay ro qua trnh chuyen hoa nang lng ien t
trong mach dao ong:
1. thi iem t bat ky, tong nang lng ien trng va t trng la
khong oi va co gia tr bang Q
2
/2C.
2. Cac gia tr cc ai cua W
E
va W
H
bang nhau va bang Q
2
/2C.
3. Khi nang lng t trng at gia tr cc ai th nang lng ien
trng bang khong va ngc lai.
10.5.3. Dao ong cua mach h, anten va s bc xa song ien t.
Mach dao ong LC xet tren la mach dao ong kn. Dao ong trong
mach se khong bc xa nang lng ra ben ngoai, v nang lng ien trng ch
tap trung gia hai ban tu ien, con nang lng t trng ch tap trung trong
long cuon day.
e co the bc xa nang lng ra moi trng xung quanh ngi ta che tao
cac mach dao ong h bang cach lam cho cac ban tu cach xa nhau va cuon
day co cac vong day xa nhau. Vi cach lam nh vay, mot phan ng sc
ien trng va ng sc t trng se i ra ben ngoai mach. Mot phan nang
lng cua mach se bc xa ra khong gian xung quanh. Mach bc xa cang nhieu
neu no cang h. Trong trng hp gii han, mach co dang mot day dan thang
(hnh 10-10), no c goi la anten. Khac vi trng hp mach dao ong kn
la mach co cac thong so (L,C) tap trung. Anten la mot mach dao ong co cac
thong so phan bo. o t cam cua anten xac nh bi o t cam cua tng oan
day dan, con ien dung cua anten c xac nh bi ien dung gia cac phan
Lu The Vinh
IEN T HOC - 175 -

cua no. Nh vay anten cung la mot mach dao ong co tan so rieng hoan toan
xac nh.

Hnh 10-10

Khi trong anten co dao ong ien t th co cac ien tch t do dch
chuyen trong no gay ra khong gian xung quanh mot ien t trng bien
thien. ien t trng nay lan truyen trong khong gian vi van toc xac nh
di dang song ien t.
Tren hnh 10-11, a minh hoa hnh anh cac ng sc ien trng trong
mat phang cha anten, con tren hnh 10-11, b cho ta hnh anh ng sc t
trng trong mat phang vuong goc vi truc anten tai mot thi iem nao o.
Co the nghien cu s bc xa song ien t ay u va chnh xac nh viec
giai cac phng trnh cua Maxwell. Bang ly thuyet va thc nghiem co the xac
nh c nhng tnh chat cua song ien t. gan anten song ien t co dang
phc tap, nhng xa anten, trong mien song, trng ien t co dang tng oi
n gian. Mat au song la mat cau, moi iem trong khong gian, vec t ien
trng E
ur
va t trng H
uur
luon vuong goc vi nhau va vuong goc vi phng
truyen song. Ba vec t E
ur
, H
uur
, v
r
theo th t hp thanh mot tam dien thuan.
Lu The Vinh
- 176 - IEN T HOC


Hnh 10-11
10.6. SONG IEN T T DO
10.6.1. S lan truyen song ien t .
Song ien t khi lan truyen trong khong gian khong co vat dan va ien
tch goi la song ien t t do.
Gia s tai mot iem O nao o trong khong gian, tai o co ien trng t
do
1
E

. Neu khong co ien tch e duy tr no th ien trng nay se bien mat.
Nhng theo thuyet Maxwell, ien trng E

bien thien gay ra t trng H

. V
E

giam, nen dong ien dch co mat o

0 d
E
i
t

r
ur
hng ngc chieu E

, va
ng sc t trng hng theo chieu kim ong ho neu nhn t tren xuong
(hnh 10-12). Nhng v trong moi trng khong co dong ien khong oi e duy
tr nen t trng se mat i va gay nen ien trng
1
E

.
1
E

co ng sc hng
ngc chieu kim ong ho nh hnh ve.
1
E

lam triet tieu E

O va lam xuat
hien ien trng 1. Khi
1
E

1 bien mat no lam xuat hien t trng

1
H

cung
hng theo chieu kim ong ho nh H

.
1
H

lam triet tieu H

va lam xuat hien

Lu The Vinh
IEN T HOC - 177 -

t trng xa hn.
1
H

bien mat lam xuat hien

2
E

v.v Nh vay, ban au O

ta co ien trng bien thien, ngay sau o xuat hien ca t trng va ien
trng khong gian xung quanh. ien trng va t trng lien he chat che
vi nhau, chuyen hoa lan nhau va lan truyen trong khong gian tao thanh song
ien t.
2
E

1
E

1

Ta cung thay rang trong qua trnh chuyen hoa gia ien trng va t
trng cac vec t va E H

luon vuong goc vi nhau va vuong goc vi phng
truyen song . Ba vec t , , E H V

lap thanh mot tam dien thuan.
Ta se khao sat s lan truyen song ien t t do mot cach chi tiet hn
bang cach ap dung cac phng trnh Maxwell.
Vi gia thiet song ien t t do, nen trong khong gian khong co vat dan,
tc la = 0 va i = 0. Ngoai ra v khong co ien tch t do nen = 0.
Ta gii han viec xet song ien t phang (mat au song phang). Khi o
cac vec t va E H

ch phu thuoc vao mot toa o khong gian va vao thi gian.
Trng hp nay xay ra khi xet song rat xa nguon, luc nay trong mot mien
u hep, mat au song co the xem la phang.
Gia s xet s truyen song theo phng truc x. Luc nay mat au song la
nhng mat phang vuong goc vi truc x, trong o gia tr cua cac vec t va E H


tai moi iem tren mat phang cung mot thi iem se co gia tr khong oi. Do
H

d
i

d
i

0
1
2
d
i

2
H

Hnh 10-12
Lu The Vinh
- 178 - IEN T HOC

o ao ham rieng phan cua va E H

theo cac bien y va z trong he phng trnh
Maxwellse triet tieu.
Nh vay, he phng trnh Maxwell viet cho song ien t t do phang se
co dang nh sau:
He phng trnh Maxwell th nhat:

0
0
hay

0
0
0 )
)
)
x
y
z
y
z
E
a
t
E
H E
rot H b
t x t
H
E
c
x t

= =

=

uur
ur
(10-51)

0
0, hay 0
x
E
div D
uur
x

= =

(10-52)
Vi la hang so ien moi cua moi trng
He phng trnh Maxwell th hai:
0
0 0
0
0 )
hay
H
uur
)
)
x
y
z
y
z
H
a
t
H
E
rot E b
t x t
E
H
c
x t

= =

ur
(10-53)
0 hay
0
0
x
H
divB
x

= =

ur
(10-54)
Vi la o t tham cua moi trng.
10.6.2. Cac tnh chat cua song ien t t do.
T cac phng trnh Maxwell va tm c ta se khao sat cac tnh chat
cua song ien t t do. Ket hp cac phng trnh (10-51,a), (10-52), (10-53,a)
va (10-54) ta co:

x
0
x
E H
x x
= =

va

0
x x
E H
t t

= =


Tc la: E
x
= const, va H
x
= const.
Lu The Vinh
IEN T HOC - 179 -

Cac ai lng E
x
va H
x
khong phu thuoc vao toa o va thi gian. ay
ta ch xet ien t trng bien thien, nen ien trng va t trng khong the co
thanh phan khong oi theo phng truc x, ngha la E
x
= H
x
= 0. Song ien t
khong co thanh phan dao ong doc theo phng truyen song, do vay song
ien t la song ngang.
Bay gi ta hay sap xep bon phng trnh con lai trong he phng trnh
Maxwell: (10-51, b, c) va (10-53, b , c) thanh hai he oc lap. Mot he lien he
thanh phan tren truc y cua ien trng vi thanh phan tren truc z cua t
trng:

0
0
y
E
z
H
t x
y
z
E
H
t x

(10-55)
He th hai lien he thanh phan tren truc z cua ien trng vi thanh
phan tren truc y cua t trng:

0
0
y
z
y
z
H
E
t x
H
E
t x

(10-56)
He phng trnh (10-55) cho thay rang bien thien cua ien trng E
y

theo thi gian ch lam xuat hien t trng H
z
theo phng truc z, ngc lai,
bien thien theo thi gian cua t trng theo phng truc z ch lam xuat hien
ien trng E
y
theo phng truc y. ieu nay co ngha la cac vec t va E H


luon vuong goc vi nhau va vuong goc vi phng truyen song. Ta cung rut ra
ket luan tng t t (10-56).
Hai he phng trnh tren cho ta hai nghiem oc lap. Ta ch gii han xet
song phan cc phang, la song co cac vec t dao ong ( va E H

) luon nam trong
mot mat phang xac nh, vuong goc vi nhau va vuong goc vi phng truyen
song.
Bang cach chon he toa o thch hp ta co the co nghiem cua phng
trnh song trong o vec t E

song song vi truc y, va nh the vec t H

song
song vi truc z. Ngha la:
Lu The Vinh
- 180 - IEN T HOC

E
y
= E, E
z
= 0 va: H
z
= H, H
y
= 0.


Phng trnh Maxwell cho song phan cc phang nay la:
0
E
)
)
0
H
a
t x
H E
b

=
(10-57)
ay o ham hai ve (10-57, a) theo thi gian, sau o nhan hai
ve vi
t x

B gi lay a
0
, ta c:

2 2
0 0 0
2
E H
x t t


=


b) theo toa o x ta c:

Lay ao ham hai ve (10-57,
2 2
0
2
E H
x t x


=


T o rut ra:

2 2
1 E
2 2
0 0
E
= (10-58,a)
), ta cung rut ra ph

t x
Lam tng t vi (10-57,b ng trnh oi vi H:
2 2
2 2
0 0
t x
1 H H
= (10-58,b)
ng phng tr h vi phan co dang tong quat:

Trong c hoc, ta a xet nh n
2 2
1 A
2 2 2
A
=
gian
di dang song. Nghiem cua nhng phng trnh song co dang tong quat:

t v x
ay la phng trnh truyen song, dien ta nhng song lan truyen trong
khong gian vi van toc truyen song la v. Mot ai lng A nao o, neu thoa
man phng trnh truyen song th no dien ta s lan truyen trong khong
1
( )
x
A f x
v
2
( )
x
A f x
v
=
= +

Lu The Vinh
IEN T HOC - 181 -

Trong o A
1
dien ta song lan truyen theo chieu dng cua truc x, con A
2

dien ta song lan truyen theo chieu am.
Nh vay, cac phng trnh (10-58) dien ta qua trnh song, trong o ien
trng E

va t trng H

lan truyen theo phng truc x. o chnh la song ien

t.
Nghiem cua (10-58) co dang:
( ); ( )
x x
E f t H g t = = m m
v v

at nghiem nay vao phng trnh song ta c:

1 1 1 c
v
0 0 0 0

= = = (10-59)
Trong o c la ai lng co th nguyen cua van toc.

0

Bay gi thay gia tr c xac nh bang thc nghiem:
0
9
1
4 .9.10
F
m

va gia tr a biet cua
0
:

7
0
4 .10
H
m


=
Ta co:

8
0 0
1
3.10 / c m s

= . (10-60)
Ta thay c co gia tr bang van toc cua anh sang trong chan khong. Nh
ay trong moi trng co hang so ien moi va o t tham , va
truyen song ien t la:
v n toc lan
v
n
c c
= = (10-61)
Trong o n la chiet suat cua moi trng.
sang.
gian nhat la song o dang nh
Trong chan khong, =1, =1 nen v = c. o la bang chng ve tnh ung
an cua thuyet ien t ve anh
Gia s xet trng hp n c h sin truyen
theo chieu dng cua truc x:

0
cos ( )
x
E E t
v
= (10-62)
Lu The Vinh
- 182 - IEN T HOC


. Thay (10-62) vao phng
ttrnh (10-57, a) ta co:

De thay rang (10-62) la nghiem cua phng trnh (10-58).
Bay gi ta hay t m bieu thc cho t trng H
0
0 0 0
sin ( )
sin ( )
E x
E t
t v
H E x
E t
x t v

= =


va

=
0 0
sin ( )
H x
H dx E t
x v

= =

dx

0 0
cos ( )
x
vE t C
v
= + ,
trong o C la hang so tch phan. Ta ch xet cac qua trnh dao ong nen
co the bo qua C va cho C = 0.
Thay gia tr
0 0
1
v

= , ta co:

0
0
cos ( )
0
x
H

E t
v

= (10-63)
: So sanh (10-62) va (10-63) ta thay
ien trng E

va t trng H

luon luon bien thien cung pha vi

nhau. Khi E cc ai th H cung cc ai, khi E bang khong th H cung bang
khong
g ien t vec t ien trng
.
Trong son E

va vec t t trng H

co gia
tri ty l

e vi nhau:
0 0
E H = (10-64)
y
E

x
z
O
H

Hnh 10-13

Lu The Vinh
IEN T HOC - 183 -

Tren hnh (10-13) la bc tranh cho ta thay s lan truyen song ien t
theo p
ng, cho nen song ien t noi rieng hay ien t trng noi
chung
dien tch S trong mot
thi g
canh la v.t (hnh 10-14).
The tch hnh hop la: V = S.vt. cos , trong o la goc gia phap
tuyen n cua S va van toc v.
ng v.t , do o nang lng
ong hnh hop ch nhat.
W = wV = w. S.vt cos
ien t bao gom mat o nang lng ien
trng va t trng:
hng truc Ox.
10.7. NANG LNG SONG IEN T
Song ien t la ien t trng bien thien lan truyen trong khong gian
theo thi gian. V ien trng va t trng la nhng dang ton tai cua vat chat
va chung co nang l
co mang nang lng. Qua trnh truyen song chnh la qua trnh truyen
nang lng ien t.
Ta hay tnh nang lng song ien t gi qua mot
ian t. Xet mot hnh hop xien, co ay S, canh trung vi phng cua
van toc v va co chieu da cua

V trong thi gian t song i c quanng
song gi qua S chnh bang nang lng song cha tr
Neu goi w la mat o nang lng ien t trng th:

Mat o nang lng song

2 2
0 0
1
( )
2
H = +
Mat khac, ta luon luon co:
w E
0 0
E H = , cho nen:

2
w E
2
0 0 0 0
H EH = + =
vt
n

Hnh 10-14
Lu The Vinh
- 184 - IEN T HOC

Ma:
1
v

0 0

W = E.H.S. cos.t
= , nen ta co:
Nh vay nang lng i qua S trong mot n v thi gian la:
cos
W
EHS
t

Ta co the viet lai ket qua tren bang cach a vao vec t mat o dong
nang lng P

xac nh nh sau:
[ ] P E H

= (10-65)
V cac vec t va E H
P = E.H

luon vuong goc vi nhau va vuong goc vi phng
truyen song , nen , vec t v P

vuong goc vi ca E va H, co phng
chieu trung vi vec t van toc v

. Do o ta co the viet:
W

n
P S
t
=

(10-66)
n
ie cua vec t P

trong o P = P cos la hnh ch u h

a
len p ng phap tuyen
cu S. Neu = 0, tc S vuong goc vi phng truyen song th P
n
= P.
Viet lai (10-66) vi viec chon t rat be ta co:

n
W
P S
t

(10-66a)
Nh vay, co the ac trng cho s truyen nang lng mot cach ay u
bang cach dung vec t P

. Hng cua P

la hng truyen nang lng. Gia tr

cua P bang nang lng truyen qua mot n v dien tch at vuong goc vi
phng truyen song trong mot n v thi gian.
Khai niem vec t mat o dong c Umop a ra khi xet s truyen
nang lng trong cac moi trng, con bieu thc (10-65) c Pointinh a ra
cho trng hp song ien t. Do o vec t P

c goi la vec t Umop-

Pointinh.
Neu ve trong trng ien t cac ng cong sao cho tiep tuyen tai moi

iem trung vi vec t P, th cac ng o bieu dien ng truyen nang lng

ien t va c goi la ng dong nang lng.
Lu The Vinh
IEN T HOC - 185 -

Anh sang chnh la song ien t, nen tia sang chnh la ng dong nang
lng cua song anh sang.
Theo nh ngha cua P ta co gia tr cua no la:
P = EH = wv =
c
n
(10-67)
V cac vec t va E H

va w luon bien thien, nen tai moi iem xac
oi theo th gia . Do o P cung bien nh gia tr cua E, H va w luon thay i n
thien theo thi gian. Goi I P = la cng o song, no chnh bang nang lng
trung bnh truyen qua mot n v dien tch at vuong goc vi phng truyen
v thi gian. Ta co:

song trong mot n
w
c
I P
n
= = (10-68)
Vi song hnh sin ta co:
2 2 2 2
0
w cos w( )
T
0 0 0
0
x
E H E t dt

= = =

(10-69)
T v
2 2
0 0

0 0
v v
2 2
I E H

= = (10-70)
Vi E
0
va

H
0
la bien o ien trng va t trng cua song, v = c/n la toc
o truyen song.
Nh vay, ta a xet nhng tnh chat quan trong cua song ien t: song
ien t co mang nang lng. Ngoai ra cac khao sat khac con cho thay song
ien t co xung lng va trng ien t co kho lng. Nhng tnh chat o cho
ay rang: trng ien t la mot dang cua vat chat.

th




Lu The Vinh
- 186 - IEN T HOC

MUC LUC
M
Chng
at bao toan ien tch. Vat dan ien
h ien
ien, nh luat Coulomb
1.4 , nh ly Ostrogradsky-Gauss 12
chat cua vat dan can
Chng ien moi
en moi
n moi
en moi
moi
Chn

ach ong chat
rchhoff
Chn ion
ua vat ran
an dan
a cac kim loai
Chn chan khong
au 2
1. ien trng trong chan khong 3
1.1 ien tch, nh lu
va vat cac
3
1.2 Tng tac tnh 4
1.3 ien trng trong chan khong
ien dch thong
6
1.5 Lng cc ien 17
1.6 ien the 19
Chng 2. Vat dan ien 28
2.1 Can bang tnh ien, nhng tnh
bang tnh ien
28
2.2 ien dung, tu ien 30
2.3 Nang lng ien trng 35
3. ien trng trong chat 38
3.1 Hien tng phan cc i 38
3.2 ien trng trong chat ie 40
3.3 Lc tac dung at len ien tch at trong i 44
3.4 Bien thien cua ien trng mat gii han chat ien 48
3.5 Xenhet ien va ap ien 51
g 4. Dong ien khong oi 57
4.1 Nhng khai niem c ban 57
4.2 nh luat Ohm cho oan m 59
4.3 Suat ien ong, nh luat Ohm tong quat 61
4.4 Mach phan nhanh, nh luat Ki 62
4.5 Cong va cong suat cua dong ien 63
g 5. Cac hien tng ien t va 65
5.1 Thuyet electron co ien 65
5.2 Ly thuyet lng t ve tnh dan ien c 67
5.3 S dan ien cua chat b 69
5.4 Hien tng ien cho tiep xuc gi 72
5.5 Cac hien tng nhiet ien 75
5.6 Cac hien tng phat xa electron 78
5.7 Cac dang phong ien trong chat kh 80
5.8 Hien tng ien phan 86
g 6 T trng trong 88
Lu The Vinh
IEN T HOC - 187 -

6.1
6.2 nh ly Biot-Savart-Laplace 89
cho t trng
6.5 t 103
Chn
ng
en ong
ien tch
rong ien trng va t
Chn
han loai t moi
luat c ban cua t moi
moi

sat t

dan
Chn ien t
ien t

Chn
hng trnh Maxwell-Faraday
nh Maxwell-Ampere
10.3 well. Gia tr cua thuyet Maxwell
10.4 Tnh tng oi cua trng ien t 164
10.5 Dao ong ien t cua mach 168
10.6 Song ien t t do 176
10.7 Nang lng 183
Tai lieu tham khao 188
Tng tac t, nh ly Ampere
T trng,
88
6.3 T thong, nh ly Ostrogradsky-Gauss 92
6.4 Tac dung cua t trng len dong ien
Cong cua lc
99
g 7 Chuyen ong cua ien tch trong ien trng va
t tr
106
7.1 T trng cua ien tch chuy 106
7.2 Tac dung ien trng va t trng len
chuyen ong
107
7.3 Chuyen ong cua ien tch t
trng
107
g 8 T trng trong vat chat 108
8.1 S t hoa cac chat, p 108
8.2 Cac nh 123
8.3 Giai thch s t hoa t 126
8.4 Chat sat t 131
8.5 Giai thch s t hoa cua chat 135
8.6 Phan sat t va Ferit 137
8.7 Mach t 138
8.8 Hien tng sieu 141
g 9 Cam ng 144
9.1 Hien tng cam ng 144
9.2 Hien tng t cam 146
9.3 Dong ien Foucault 151
9.4 Hieu ng Skin 151
9.5 Ho cam 153
9.6 Nang lng t trng 154
g 10 ien t trng, thuyet Maxwell 156
10.1 ien trng xoay, P 156
10.2 Dong ien dch, Phng tr 158
He phng trnh Max 162
song ien t
Lu The Vinh
- 188 - IEN T HOC

Lu The Vinh


THAM KHAO
h ien hoc. ai hoc a lat. 1987

at ly T4, T5.
. Lng Duyen Bnh, Nguyen Hu Ho. Bai tap vat ly ai cng Tap
2. NXB Giao duc 2003
6. Jean Marie Brebec (Ngi dch: Nguyen Hu Ho). ien t hoc
2 tap. NXB Giao duc 2001
7. .. . . -.: , 1970
8. .. . . 2. -.: , 1988



TAI LIEU
1. Lu The Vinh. Giao trn
2. Vu Thanh Khiet, Nguyen The Khoi, Vu Ngoc Hong. ien ai cng.
NXB Giao duc. 1982
3. Lng Duyen Bnh, D Tr Cong, Nguyen Hu Ho. Vat ly ai cng
Tap 2. NXB Giao duc . 1995
4. Davit Halliday, Robert Resnick, Jearl Walker. C S V
NXB Giao duc 1998
5