Council for Research in Music Education

Preferences for Trumpet Tone Quality versus Intonation

Author(s): Clifford K. Madsen and John M. Geringer
Reviewed work(s):
Source: Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education, No. 46 (Spring, 1976), pp. 13-
22
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13
PREFERENCES FOR TRUMPET TONE QUALITY
VERSUS INTONATION
Clifford k. madsen and
John
m.
geringer
Scientific
inquiry
in the musician's world of art
represents
a
unique
attempt
to understand and eliminate some of the numerous difficulties
encountered
by performing
musicians.
Perhaps
one of the most
important
areas of
investigation
for
any
musician or musical
organization
concerns
playing
or
singing
"in tune."
Achieving satisfactory
intonation remains a
major
concern for
musicians; however,
a
problem
has
always
been
present
in
regard
to the
relationship
between tone
quality
and intonation.
Recog-
nized as a fundamental skill,
good
intonation is
necessary
to excellence in
musical
performance; good
tone
quality
also. These tenets have stimu-
lated a
growing
interest in the scientific
study
of intonational
patterns
in
relationship
to other related
problems.
The
relationship
between
percep-
tual discrimination and
performance responses
is
largely
inferential,
although
aural discrimination
ability
would
appear
to be a
major pre-
requisite
to intonational
proficiency.
The
present study
was undertaken to
investigate patterns
of
judgmental
discriminations and
preferences
with
regard
to
trumpet
tone
quality
versus tuned and mis-tuned
accompani-
ment of a
simple
musical
phrase.
Survey of Literature
The
experimental study
of
auditory phenomena
constitutes a
major
portion
of the scientific
investigation
of relevant variables in musical
performance.
Subtle discriminations of the ear to
frequency change,
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14
Clifford
K. Madsen and John M.
Geringer
intensity
and duration have
long
been
investigated.
Previous studies have
focused
upon
the relation of
pitch
to
intensity (Stevens, 1935; Morgan,
Garner,
&
Galambos, 1951),
the differential
sensitivity
of the ear to
pitch
changes
with successive tones
(second
tone
higher
or lower than the
first),
as well as
frequency
modulations of
single
tones in various
experimental
situations
(Vance, 1914; Knudson, 1923; Kranz, 1923;
Shower and
Biddulph,
1931; Harris, 1952;
Sergeant
and
Harris, 1962; Madsen,
Edmonson,
&
Madsen, 1969).
Research in
performance
over the
past
35
years
has
primarily
been con-
cerned with an
analysis
of
performed
intonational deviations in an isolated
musical situation
(Hurley, 1940; Madsen, 1962, 1966; Edmonson, 1967;
Forsythe,
1967).
Suggestions
for
improvement
in discrimination and
performance
of
pitch
also involve a vast amount of research
(Graves, 1964;
Vorce, 1964; Cuddy, 1965; Albert, 1967; Madsen, Wolfe,
&
Madsen,
1969).
The
performance
of scale intonation has been isolated for
experi-
mental
study, indicating propensity
to
perform
with
sharp
intonation.
Consistent with this is an
ability
to discriminate flatness more
accurately
than
sharpness
(Madsen, 1969, 1972, 1974;
Sharp,
1972).
Analysis
of total cent deviation and
sharp-flat
deviation across a
variety
of situations seems to indicate that musicians become
progressively
more
discriminating
in relation to both
age
and musical
training
toward
percep-
tion and
performance
of
descending
musical
patterns.
The
only exception
seems to be musical intervals which are
performed
with less cent deviation
in
ascending patterns
(Edmonson, 1972).
Investigation
of the discrimination and
performance
of tone
quality
has
not been extensive. One
study
demonstrated that
timbre,
not
intonation,
significantly
influenced localization in the median
saggital plane
(Butler,
1973).
The
principal
instrument and instrumental
preference
of
subjects
have also been found to influence discrimination of timbre
(Bernier
and
Stafford, 1972).
While the
inter-relationship
of timbre and
pitch
has been
investigated,
most studies have made use of stimuli not
usually present
in
music
(Fletcher, 1934; Lichte, 1941;
Lichte and
Gray, 1955; Jenkins,
1961; Plomp,
1967).
In a
study
related to the
present investigation,
Greer
(1970),
employing
musical
stimuli,
found that there was an overall differ-
ence between a
subject's ability
to
perform
"in tune" with
pitches
sounded
in four different timbres and that there is some indication that the
promi-
nence of certain
partais
of a timbre
might
affect external intonation.
Statement of the Problem
The
purpose
of the
study
was to
investigate
aural discriminations and
preferences concerning trumpet
tone
quality
and intonation.
Subjects
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Preferences for Trumpet
Tone
Quality
Versus Intonation
15
were asked to discriminate between
good
and bad tone
quality
and to
rank-order
eight
sets of
accompanied trumpet performances,
three
versions within each set. Each version varied in tone
quality (good,
bad)
and intonation
(sharp,
flat,
or
in-tune).
Two
hypotheses
were tested:
(1)
there is a
significant
difference in sub-
jects' preferences
between tone
quality
and intonation within an accom-
panied
context,
and
(2)
there is a
significant
difference in
subjects' prefer-
ences for
sharp,
flat,
or in-tune
accompaniment
in
relationship
to tone
quality.
Method
Design
This
experiment
used a
posttest-only design
intended to measure the
effects of
experimental manipulations. Subjects
were asked to rank the
eight
sets of
trumpet performances according
to the intonation and tone
quality
of the
soloist,
in order to determine
any
notable trends in
percep-
tual
judgments. Subjects
were also asked to indicate the reasons for their
ranking by placing
a
"
+
"
(to
indicate
"good")
or
"-
"
("bad")
next to
the intonation and tone
quality categories.
Selection
of Subject
and Materials
Fifty subjects randomly
selected from the
graduate
and
undergraduate
populations
within the School of Music at the Florida State
University
served as
subjects.
The
simple
musical
phrase
selected for the
experiment
was the first
four-measure
phrase
of
"Twinkle,
Twinkle Little
Star,"
played by
the
trumpet
in the
key
of concert F.
Recordings
were made
using
a
professional performer.
The
performer
played
this
phrase twenty
times and a
panel
of music
faculty
selected the
one best and the one worst tone
quality performed
from these
twenty
trials.
Recordings
were made while the
performer
viewed a Conn
Chromatic
Stroboscope.
The final versions selected for the
experimental
tape
were within 2 cents of
equi-temperament.
Further,
a series of
harmonic
analyses
were made to ascertain the differential
spectral
charac-
teristics of the two
trumpet
tone
qualities.
These
analyses
were made on a
Sound
Spectrograph (Kay
Electric
Company,
Model 6061
A,
Pine
Brook,
N.J.).
The chief
distinguishing
feature between the two
qualities
was that
for the mean of all
tones,
the second harmonic
(first overtone)
of the
judged
bad
quality
was 17 dB lower in relative sound
pressure
level than
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16
Clifford
K. Madsen and John M.
Geringer
the same harmonic of the
good quality.
There were other consistent
spec-
tral
differences,
and these are shown in
Figure
1.
Figure 1. Mean Harmonic Content of Judged Good Versus Bad
Trumpet Tone
Quality
Mis-tuned Deviations
All
accompaniments
were
played
on a Johnson Intonation Trainer
(E.
F. Johnson
Company, Waseca, Minnesota)
and consisted of
open
triadic
harmony
in octaves other than the
trumpet melody.
This
apparatus
has variable
tuning
for the twelve chromatic semitones with each
having
a
tunable
range
of about six semitones. The Conn Chromatic
Stroboscope
(C.
G. Conn
Company,
Elkhart, Indiana)
was used to calibrate the mis-
tunings. Adjustments
were made in cent deviations from the
equi-
tempered
scale as indicated
by
the
stroboscope
(a
cent is
equal
to 1/ 100th
part
of an
equi-tempered
semitone).
The
starting pitch
was
always
F
(349.23 Hz).
The cent deviations from
equi-temperament
of the mis-tuned
accompaniments
were 25 cents flat and 50 cents
sharp.
The third accom-
paniment
version was calibrated for in-tune
performances.
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Preferences for Trumpet
Tone
Quality
Versus Intonation
17
Experimental
Environment
Subjects
listened to all recorded materials in small
groups
of 4-8 in a
room
designed
for
experimentation
in music. Pilot
investigations involving
individual
testing
with individual
earphones
to control for
recording
imperfections
and external noise distractions did not indicate
significant
differences from
group presentations
(F
<
1).
Trials were recorded and
reproduced
for
subjects
on a
Sony
Recorder model number TC 630.
Procedures
All
subjects
were first asked to indicate their
ability
to discriminate
between
good
and bad tone
quality by responding
to two recorded
examples,
each of which consisted of two versions of the musical
phrase
without
accompaniment. Subjects
were instructed to
judge
the versions
only
in
relationship
to the tone
quality
of the
examples.
All
fifty subjects
correctly categorized
the
examples.
These two items were included to
establish the construct
validity
of the stimuli. If
subjects
were unable to
discriminate between
good
and bad tone
quality independent
of the
accompaniment, any meaningful comparison
of the relative
importance
of
intonation versus tone
quality
would be
precluded.
All
subjects
were then
given
a test
comprised
of
eight
trials of
trumpet
performance accompanied
with the Johnson Intonation Trainer. Each
trial consisted of the three intonation conditions
(50
cents
sharp,
in-tune,
and 25 cents
flat-accompaniment) played
with
good
or bad
trumpet
tone
quality
in a block random order. The
eight
sets of trial
presentations
were
also block randomized to control for order effects. Alternatives on the
answer sheet were
designed
to avoid
possible
test-choice
preference
with
regard
to
position
of the answers.
Subjects
indicated
responses by
rank-
ordering
the three
performances
of each
trial,
and indicated reasons for
their rank-order
by placing
a
plus
(+)
or minus
(
-
)
next to the rank for
the two
categories
intonation and tone
quality.
The
tempo
of all
presentations
was held constant
throughout
all test
items. The metronomic
marking
was set at 90 beats
per
minute
( J
=
90)
and each note of the
phrase
was held the duration of one tick to the next
(one full beat).
While duration
may
well be a factor in
pitch
and
quality
discrimination
(Bachem, 1954;
von
Bekesy,
1963),
in the
present study
this was held constant and was not
experimentally manipulated.
Between the three items of each of the
eight
trials,
subjects
listened to
30 seconds of recorded music intended to
destroy any possible tonality
affects
(Music:
Borodin
Symphony
#2 in b
minor,
first movement
-
no
subject recognized
the
music).
All
tunings
were calibrated before and
monitored
during experimental manipulation
(2 cents).
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18
Clifford
K. Madsen and John M.
Geringer
Results
Raw data consisted of
eight
sets of
categorical
indications for intonation
(+
or
-
),
eight
sets of tone
quality responses
(+
or
-
),
and
eight
sets of
rankings. Analysis
of the data indicated that
subjects
indeed discrimi-
nated across total stimulus
presentations
as evidenced
by
their
rankings
(x2
=
136.68,
df
=
5,
p
<
.001).
These data are
presented
in tabular form
in Table 1 . The
tendency
for
sharp
and in-tune intonation to be
preferred
over flat intonation
regardless
of tone
quality
is
clearly apparent.
Table 1.
-
Summed Ranks for Trumpet Tone
Quality
and Intonation
Quality
Good Bad Good Bad Good Bad Total
Intonation
sharp sharp
in-tune in-tune flat flat
Rank 312 320 332 356 520 560 2400
Summed Ranks are based
upon
rank of 1
=
most
preferred,
2
=
middle
preference
and 3
=
least
preference.
Specifically,
when the data were
analyzed
with
regard
to
rankings
of
intonation
only, subjects
demonstrated
ability
to discriminate between
sharp,
flat,
and in-tune intonation
(x2
=
134.31,
df
=
2,
p
< .001).
An
analysis
of
good
versus bad tone
quality rankings
revealed no
significant
difference
(x2
=
.082,
df
=
1,
p
> .7). This
finding
was
surprising
in that
all
subjects
had earlier demonstrated
ability
to make this
simple
discrimi-
nation when the
accompaniment
was not
present.
Additional
analyses
were made of
categorical
indices in order to cor-
roborate evaluation of the rank order
responses.
(It
should be remem-
bered that
subjects
were asked to indicate reasons for their
rankings.)
Subjects
differentiated both intonation
(x2
=
198.93,
p
< .001)
and tone
quality (x2
=
114.38,
p
< .001).
An
analysis
of the intonation
category independent
of the tone
quality
variable demonstrated
again
that
subjects
discriminate across the three
intonation conditions
(x2
=
198.92, df
=
2,
p
< .001). Also,
the intonation
category analyzed
with
respect
to the variation in tone
quality again
indi-
cated no
significant
differences
(x2
=
.819,
df
=
1,
p
> .3).
Evaluation of the
categorical responses
with
respect
to tone
quality
indi-
cated further substantiation of the above
findings. Subjects responded
differentially
to the
category
"tone
quality"
when intonation was
changed
(X2
=
64.79, df
=
2,
p
<
.001) and did not
significantly
differentiate when
tone
quality
itself was
varied,
although
there was a
tendency
to
prefer
the
good
tone
quality (x2
=
3.11,
df
=
1,
p
> .05).
Surprisingly,
in both the rank-order and
categorical responses, prefer-
ences for intonation were indicated in the
following
order: first
sharp.
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Preferences for Trumpet
Tone
Quality
Versus Intonation
ig
second in-
tune,
and
third,
flat. Significant
differences were found between
the
following:
in-tune versus flat
(x2
=
75.48,
p
< .001 ranked
data;
and
x2
=
96.92,
p
< .001
category
data),
and
sharp
versus flat
(x2
=
108.77,
p
<
.001 ranked
data;
and
x2
=
131.57,
p
< .001
category
data).
Direct com-
parisons
between
sharp
and in-tune were not
significantly
different,
how-
ever,
for the ranked
(x2
=
3.17,
p
>
.05)
or the
categorical (x2
=
3.68,
p
>
.05)
indices.
Results of the
present study may
be summarized as follows:
(1)
Gradu-
ate and
undergraduate
music
majors
discriminate between
good
and bad
trumpet
tone
quality
when the
trumpet performance
is not
accompanied.
(2)
Subject preference
for
good
versus bad
quality
within an
accompanied
context is not
significantly
different.
Additionally,
reasons
(expressed
"good"
or
"bad")
given
for these
preferences
are also not
significantly
different.
(3)
Subjects preferred sharp
and in-tune
accompaniment signifi-
cantly
more than flat
accompaniment.
(4)
In
every comparison subjects
indicated
preference
for intonation as
opposed
to
quality.
Even when sub-
jects responded categorically
to the tone
quality
index,
data indicated that
subjects
were
actually responding
to intonational variables rather than
quality
variables.
Discussion
This
study represents
an
attempt
to combine two
aspects
of musical
performance
(intonation
and tone
quality)
in order to
investigate
their
inter-relationship.
Researchers who are concerned with
adequately
con-
trolling
stimulus
presentations
will
immediately
realize the difficulties in
attempting
to
investigate
more than one variable
simultaneously.
There-
fore,
caution should be taken in
interpreting
current
findings mainly
because of limitations
concerning
the
present study.
It is
consequential,
however,
that two
pilot
studies
(N
=
53)
while
basically
intended as
exploratory,
substantiated these results. Nevertheless,
caution is in order.
Findings
from this
study
are derived from
only
one
trumpet performer
(emphasizing good
versus bad
quality) playing
one
simple
tune,
accom-
panied by
an electronic
keyboard
instrument in
simple
triadic
harmony.
Therefore,
to consider the
present study
as
anything
more than a
prelimi-
nary investigation
of these variables is to stretch the musical
imagination.
Regardless,
several
aspects
of the
study
seem
extremely interesting
and
warrant both
replication
and additional
investigation.
It should be
remembered that all
subjects
evidenced
easy
and consistent
ability
in dis-
criminating
between the
good
and bad
quality
without
accompaniment.
Furthermore,
spectrographic analysis
as well as the
panel
of
experts
cor-
roborated the extreme differences between the tone
qualities.
Therefore,
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20
Clifford
K. Madsen and John M.
Geringer
the
magnitude
of
subjects' responses
in not
being
able to discriminate
within context the exact same tones when
they
were not
accompanied
seems
very surprising.
Two areas of
particular
interest are relevant to the
applied
music
instructor.
Musically
trained listeners to music
apparently
exercise a mini-
mum
degree
of tone
quality
discrimination in an
accompanied
context.
Applied
music instructors
may
be
overemphasizing
the
importance
of tone
quality
in a
performance setting, by spending
a
good
deal of time and
energy attempting
to attain that elusive
goal
of a "musical" or
expressive
tone
quality.
If listeners cannot tell the difference between a
performer's
best and worst tone
qualities
in
context,
as this
study
would tend to
suggest,
time would seem to be more
profitably
utilized in the attainment
of
good
intonation within and between soloist and
accompanist.
The second
important finding
of interest concerns the determination of
satisfactory
intonation in musical
performance. Many
research studies in
the
past
have dealt with
very
small differences in variable
pitch,
i.e.,
studies which
compare
Just Intonation versus
Equal Temperament.
The
present study suggests
that deviations in intonation can be as
large
as 50
cents (1/4 tone)
between soloist and
accompanist
and in musical context
be
preferred
to the same extent or even
preferred
to a
greater degree
than
strictly
correct intonation.
Specifically,
on the basis of
past
research and
several
pilot
studies,
the
present experiment
was structured to
exaggerate
this
sharp/flat
difference
by making
the
sharp accompaniment
50 cents
out of tune and the flat
accompaniment only
25 cents out of tune. Even
with this difference it should be
emphasized
that the
sharp accompani-
ment was not
significantly
different from the in-tune
accompaniment.
This
tendency appears only
to
operate
for deviations on the
sharp
side
however,
and much smaller deviations towards flatness
(less
than 1/8
tone)
are
judged
as out of tune and of
poor
tone
quality.
References
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Quality
Versus Intonation
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