Part One The Neijing tu in History * LOUIS KOMJATHY Abstract This article examinesthe history and content ofthe Neijingtu (Dia gram of Internal Pathways), a late nineteenthcentury stele currently housed in Baiyun guan (WhiteCloud Monastery; Beijing). The dia gramisoneofthemostwellknownillustrationsoftheDaoistbody,though itshistoricalprovenancehasnotbeensufficientlydocumentedtodate. The present article provides a more complete account of its context of production and dissemination, namely, within the context of Baiyun guan, the late imperialLongmen(Dragon Gate)lineage of theQuanzhen (CompletePerfection)monasticorder,andeliteimperialcourtculture.I then turn to a systematicstudy of its contentsand the Daoist methods ex pressedinitscontours.Withinitstopographicallandscape,onefindsaspe cificvisionoftheDaoistbody,abodyactualizedthroughDaoistalchemical * ThepresentarticleispartofmyongoingresearchprojectonDaoistbody mapsandDaoistviewsofself.IamgratefultoLiviaKohn,LiuXun,JiangSheng, and the anonymous readers of theJournalofDaoistStudiesfortheir helpful com ments. I also wish to thank Kate Townsend for her many insights into Daoist cultivationandChinesemedicine. 68/JournalofDaoistStudies1(2008) praxis. As such, the Neijing tu and its various rubbings were more than likelyintendedasvisualaidsforDaoistreligioustraining. Forreadability,thearticlehasbeendividedintotwoparts.Thecurrent section discusses the diagrams historical and terminological dimensions. Thesecondpart,scheduledtobepublishedinthenextissueoftheJournalof DaoistStudies,focusesoncontentandincludesacompletebilingualtransla tionwithillustrations. ThroughoutthehistoryoftheDaoisttradition,Daoistshavebeenexpert and extraordinary cartographers. Whether through textual descriptions or visual representations, Daoists have sought to map the patterns and constituentsofbothinternalandexternalworlds.Theyhavechartedthe cosmos through star diagrams, including the forms of the five planets and the twentyeight lunar mansions. They have mapped the layers of theheavens,thesubtlerealmsoftheuniverse,andthestellarabodesin habitedbythePerfected(zhenren).Theyhavediagramedthemoun tain peaks of this terrestrial landscape and the hidden grottoheavens (dongtian ) branching out like veins through the earth. They have charted the geomantic contours and qualities of place. They have mapped the internal spirits associated with the various orbs 1 and the processbywhichonerealizesthegivennessofcosmologicalsituatedness. They have diagramed the alchemical process of selftransformation and the subtle physiology of human aliveness. 2 In short, Daoists have mappedtheuniverseinitsvariouslayersandmutualinfluencesauni verse which is simultaneously cosmos, world, landscape, community, andself. 1 Onthetranslation ofzang/asorbseePorkert 1974.Althoughzang hasbeentranslatedinnumerousways(organ,viscera,depot,etc.),orbseemsthe bestchoiceasitincludesthelargerprocessoriented qi theory. 2 Examples of these various maps may be found throughout the pages of Needhametal.1983;Despeux1994;2000;Little2000.Ontheimportanceofspe cificgeographicallocationsintheDaoisttraditionsee,e.g.,NaquinandYu1992; Verellen1995;Hahn1988;2000;Qiao2000. Komjathy,MappingtheDaoistBody/69 70/JournalofDaoistStudies1(2008) TheNeijingtu (Diagram of Internal Pathways; see Figure 1) isonesuchdiagram. 3 TheNeijingtuisamapoftheDaoistinternalland scape and a storehouse of Daoist cultivation practices, specifically visu alization and alchemical techniques. The diagram depicts the head and torso of the Daoistbody as seen from thesideand inseatedmeditation posture.Itillustratesmorecommonlyrecognizableaspectsofthehuman body in combination with Daoist subtle anatomy and physiology. The spinalcolumn,framed ontherightandconnecting the lowertorso with the cranial cavity, draws ones immediate attention. The conventional representationofthespinalcolumnissupplementedbyspecificallyDao ist realities: on closer examination one notices three temples within the 3 The rubbing in my personal collection was acquired at Baiyun guan in 2002.Likeothermodernrubbingsfromtheextantstonestele,itlackstheguangxu inscription in the upper righthand corner (see Eichman 2000a), which is discussedbelowasakeytothehistoryofthediagram.Oflate,theNeijingtuhas becomeasortoflogoforDaoistStudiesintheWest.Ithasappearedin numerous publications,withvaryingdegreesofreflectiveconsideration.Forexample,ithas appeared on thecover of ThomasClearys TheInnerTeachingsofTaoism, in Livia Kohns TheTaoistExperience (Kohn1993,177),inJohnLagerweys TaoistRitualin ChineseSocietyandHistory (Lagerwey1987,289),andinSchippersLecorpstaoste (Schipper 1982, 143) without any explanation. The most detailedstudiesto date are Rousselle1933;Sakade 1991; Wang 1991/92; and Eichman 2000a.Additional commentsmaybefoundinChia1995;Cohen1997,15255;Despeux1994,4448; 2000;Li2003;Liun.d.;Needhametal.1983,11416;Schipper1978,356;Skar2003. Rousselle and Wang provide fairly systematic accounts, with Wang translating much of the diagram, but from an art historical perspective. Both also provide someinformationontherelationshipbetweenarubbingoftheNeijingtu andan unidentified painting. Eichmans comments are included in the art catalogue TaoismandtheArtsofChina, and, like Needham and Despeux, arefairly general. Needham, Despeux and Skar also provide some insights into the historical and doctrinal relationship between various Daoist body maps, including the Neijing tu. Here it perhaps deserves mentioning that most of the discussions of Daoist body maps rely on and often closelyfollowNeedham et al.1983. Note also that theNeijingtu(andmanyoftheoriginalimages)wasnotreproducedintheEng lish translation of Schippers La corpstaoste, where we find the following note: See the image of the Inner Landscape on page 000, where the lower Cinnabar Field (hsia tantien) is represented by an irrigated rice field being tilled by a youngbody(Schipper1993,235,n.24). Komjathy,MappingtheDaoistBody/71 spine, corresponding to the Three Passes (sanguan ) through which Daoist adepts engaging in the process of alchemical transformation en deavortocirculateqi.Inaddition,thethreeelixirfields(sandantian ) 4 withtheloweronecorrespondingtotheox(abdominalregion),the middle to the Cowherd (heart region), and the upper to the old man (head region)are clearly discernable. One also notes the head as a se ries of mountain peaks and the presence of bridges and pagodas inside the body. In addition, streams are flowing throughout the map (and throughout the body). These various details, as well as the textual and visual contours yet to be mentioned, reveal the Neijing tu as a detailed mappingoftheDaoistbody.Itrevealstheinternallandscapediscovered andactualizedthroughDaoistcultivation,specificallywithincertaincir cles of late imperial Daoism and branches of Daoist internal alchemy (neidan ), 5 notably the Longmen (Dragon Gate) branch of Quanzhen (Complete Perfection) at Baiyun guan (White CloudMonastery;Beijing)inthelatenineteenthcentury.Althoughsuch historical qualifications must, perhaps, be made, in its textual content, visual representations, and praxisbased concerns, the Neijing tu finds clear precedents in both SongJin (tenththirteenth century) lineages of internal alchemy and late imperial internal alchemy. 6 In addition, the diagram has retained a central place of importance within Daoist com 4 Elixir fields (dantian ), discussed in more detail below, are subtle, oftenmystical,energeticlocationsinthebody,whichfrequentlyincludeanon spatial dimension (e.g., mysticalcranial locations). They areplaces in which the bodysphysicalandenergeticaspects,theingredientsforthealchemicalmedi cineandthefoundationforimmortality,arestoredandtransformed.Theessen tial materials for elixirformation are vital essence (jing ) associated with the kidneys, qi associatedwiththelowerabdomen,spirit(shen)associatedwith the heartand brain, and bodily fluids (jinye), whichhave a variety of as sociations. Some internal alchemy systems also place emphasis on the ethereal soul(hun)andthecorporealsoul(po ).ForanattempttomapDaoistelixir formationintermsofChinesemedicaltheoryseeKomjathy2007,ch.6. 5 For some insights into the history and practice of internal alchemy see BaldrianHussein1983; Needham et al. 1983; Robinet 1989b; 1995; Pregadio and Skar2000;Skar2003;Komjathy2007. 6 TheexactlineageofinternalalchemydocumentedintheNeijingtuawaits future research.While I makesomesuggestions,acompletestudy of late impe rialneidan andLongmenmayclarifytheseandrelatedhistoricalissues. 72/JournalofDaoistStudies1(2008) munitiesintothetwentyfirstcentury,atestamenttotheenduringpower ofitsmappingoftheDaoistbodyandDaoistreligiouspraxis. 7 Inpart one of this article, Idiscuss thehistoricalbackground of the Neijingtu as well asthe layers ofmeaning embeddedin its title. Inpart two,whichwillappearinthenextissueoftheJournalofDaoistStudies,a detailed study of the graphic and textual components of the diagram is presented. I also draw attention to three specific Daoist cultivation methods illustrated in the Neijing tu, namely, praxisoriented applica tionsofclassicalChinesemedicalviewsofthebody;visualizationmeth ods which draw their inspiration from the Huangtingjing (Scrip ture on the Yellow Court; DZ 331; 332) 8 and which find clear historical precedents in early Shangqing (Highest Clarity) Daoism; and the alchemical technique known as the Waterwheel (heche ) or Micro cosmicOrbit(xiaozhoutian ). Theprimaryfocusofthepresentstudyisthetextualandvisualcon tent of the diagram itself, especially as one depiction of the Daoist al chemical or mystical body (see Komjathy 2007) and as one map of Daoist religious praxis as undertaken in the late imperial period. The majorcontributionofthispaperis,inturn,threefold.Itprovidesthefirst complete translation of the Neijing tu, including bilingual renderings of the diagram as divided into three sections. Second, it supplies greater specificity than anypreviousstudy concerningthe actual historicalcon text in which the original stele was commissioned and in which the original version may have been produced. Finally, I argue for reading the Neijing tu as a map of Daoist cultivation as understood and under takeninthecontextoflateimperialDaoismandintheLongmenbranch of Quanzhen, specifically at Baiyun guan during the late Qing dynasty (16441911).Onthemostbasiclevel,thediagramisanaestheticallypow 7 Some claims have also been made concerning the Neijing tu as part of Chinese medical history. See Fu etal. 1999; Li 2003.While purely medical ex planations prove unsatisfactory in terms of the diagrams content, the overlap pingcontoursofBuddhism,Daoism,andChinesemedicinemaygiveone pauseatthereifiednatureofthosecategories.TheNeijingtu,likecontemporane ous sources, reveals a complex pattern of interaction, adaptation, and transfor mationoftraditionsinthelateimperialperiod. 8 Daoist texts are cited according to Komjathy 2002, with numbers for the MingdynastyDaoistCanonparallelingSchipperssystem. Komjathy,MappingtheDaoistBody/73 erful depiction of the human body, and thus of the aspiring Daoist adepts own psychosomatic possibility. 9 On another level, it is the body as actualized through meditative praxis, and thus points towards two additional dimensions: seated meditation becomes represented as the normative and normalizing posture for human beings; and, like earlier mappingsofDaoistcultivation,theNeijingtuwasmorethanlikelyused (andcontinuestobeused) asavisualaidformeditation. Historical Contours ThereceivedNeijingtuisastonestelehousedatBaiyunguaninBeijing. Baiyun guan is the seat of contemporary Quanzhen Daoism, the official statesponsored Daoist monastic tradition in mainland China, and the headquarters of the Chinese Daoist Association (Zhongguo daojiao xie hui). 10 ItisalsothechiefmonasteryoftheLongmenbranch ofQuanzhen,traditionallysaidtohavebeenestablishedbyQiuChuji (Changchun [Perpetual Spring]; 11481227), but historically traced to Wang Changyue (Kunyang [Paradisiacal Yang]; 16221680)(Esposito2000,628;seealsoEsposito1993;2001). The received Neijing tu stele is a reproduction of a latenineteenth century engraving.Accordingto the inscription in the upper righthand cornerofatleastsomerubbingsofthe Neijingtu(seeEichman2000a),the engravingoftheoriginalsteleoccurredinthefirstthirdofthesixthlunar month in 1886 (guangxu bingwu nian heyue shanghuan ),that is, towards the end of the late imperialperiod and oftheMan chu Qingdynasty (16441911).Theguangxuinscription only occurs insome extantrubbings, and thishistoricaldetail, frommyperspective, provides an important clue into the history of the diagram now known as the Neijing tu. In contrast, the extant Neijing tu stone stele of Baiyun guan, similar reproductions distributed to various Daoist temples (e.g., 9 In this respect, the Neijingtu is not simply an artifact, a trace of some lost historical moment or a monument to disappearing tradition. It remains an enduring presence in various Daoist communities and in the lives of specific Daoists.Cf.Eichman2000b:231. 10 ForinformationonQuanzhenDaoismseeYao 1980;Tsui1991;Qingetal. 1996, vol. 3;JournalofChineseReligions29(2001); Eskildsen 2004;Komjathy2007. ForastudyofthehistoryofBaiyunguanseeMarsone1999. 74/JournalofDaoistStudies1(2008) Baxian gong, Chongyang gong, Qingyang gong), and modern rubbings lackthisinscription.This,inturn,pointstoanearlierengraving,regard ingwhichitscurrentstatus(extantornot),possiblelocation,andoriginal material(wood,stoneorbronze)remainamystery. TheoriginalengravingwascommissionedbyaLongmenmonkand court eunuch(taijian) named Liu Chengyin (d. 1894), whose Daoistname was Suyun (Pure Cloud). 11 Liu Chengyin was born in Dongguang county, Zhili province (presentday Hebei), an area known for its poverty and hence its steady supply of young boys who were often sold by their parents to be castrated and trained as eunuchs for the imperial household. Little else is known about Lius earlylifeandhiscareer.AsLiuXunpointsout, 11 The most readily available biographical information appears in a stele inscription written by Xiyou, a Manchu bannerman, and entitled Liu Su yundaoxingbei(SteleontheDaoistActivitiesofLiuSuyun;dat. 1886). It seems that this stele was originally located in the western front of the Nanji dian(Shrine ofthe Southern Polestar), which is now named Leizu dian (Shrine of the Patriarch of Thunder). Wang Chiping (pers. comm..);authors field observations(cf. Goossaert 2007, 224).For reproductions see Koyanagi 1934, 15859; Li 2003, 714. Other important, related steles include the Suyun zhenren daoxing beiji (dat. 1895), Suyun zhen renLiuxianshibeiji(dat.1895),LiuSuyuntaming (dat. ca. 1900), and Baiyun guan Changchun gonghui beiji (dat. 1886). On these and contemporaneous steles see Goossaert 2007. Most of the present biographical information on Liu Chengyin comes from the firstinscriptionandfromLiuXunsstudy(2004a)ofaseriesofpaintingshonor ing Bixia yuanjun (Primordial Goddess of Cerulean Mists), which had been commissioned by Gao Rentong (18411907), twentiethgeneration abbot of Baiyun guan (see also Liu 2004b). The relevant information on Liu Chengyin appears on pages 8494. Lius article also provides the interested readerwithafullerappreciationofthecomplexinteractionamongtheQingim perial elite,powerful Longmen clerics, and court eunuchs during the end of the Qing dynasty, withspecial attention tothe latenineteenth century Baiyun guan environs. See also Vincent Goossaerts The Taoists of Peking (2007), which pro videsamorecompletepictureofthereligioculturalcontextofBeijingduringthe late imperial and early modern periods. On Gao Rentong see especially pages 17275;informationofLiuChengyinappearsonpages21823. Komjathy,MappingtheDaoistBody/75 Official Qing sources generally neglect the history of eunuchs likeLiuwhoseprofessionandsocialclasswerewidelystigma tized. Nonetheless, circumstantial evidence found in non officialsourcesatteststoLiuspowerfulinfluenceandconnec tions at Qing court, and to the immense personal wealth he garneredfromtheseconnections.(Liu2004a,85) LiuChengyinwasapowerfulcourteunuchtoEmpressDowagerCixi (18351908) and a generous patron of Baiyun guan. 12 He became one CixismosttrustedchiefeunuchsfollowingtheexecutionofAnDehai (d. 1869). More germane to the present study, Liu Chengyin re ceived formal Longmen ordination under Zhang Yuanxuan (Gengyun [Tilling Clouds]; 18281887), one of the most famous Quanzhen monastic leaders of his era. This ordination ceremony oc curred in 1871 and included several hundred ordainees, one of whom was Gao Rentong (Shoushan [Longevity Mountain]; 1841 1907), 13 who would become the twentiethgeneration abbot of Baiyun guan after the death of Abbot Meng Yongcai (d. 1881). As a Longmen monk at Baiyun guan, Liu Chengyin served as an altar atten dant (hutanhuazhu) (Min and Li 1994, 482); as a patron of Bai yun guan and court confidante, he was a generous donor to and advo cateforthemonastery. 12 Itseemsthatamajormotivationforcourteunuchinterestinandsupport of Quanzhen Daoism centered on a popular imagining of Qiu Changchun. In circulationsinceatleastthesixteenthcentury,thoughwithouthistoricalsupport in terms of Qius actual life, this legend claimed that Qiu castrated himself in order to resistsexual favors bestowed on him by ChinggisQan (GenghisKhan; ca. 11621227;r. 12061227),theMongol ruler. Remembrance ofQius legendary selfcastrationbecamecentralduringfestivitiessurroundinghisbirthday.Occur ring from the first day of the first moon through the nineteenth day of the first moon, these festivities culminated in the celebration of Qius birthday on the nineteenthday,whichwaspopularlyknownasYanjiu . SeeLiu2004a,8891. OnQiuChangchunseeYao1980;1986;Zheng1995;Zhao1999. 13 GaoRentong,aswastraditionallythecaseforDaoistclerics,hadanum ber of names, including Yuntong , Tongyuan , Yunxi , and Ming dong[tong] []. Liu 2004a; Min and Li 1994, 825. The latter source also in cludesbriefentriesonLiuChengyin(482)andZhangYuanxuan(586). 76/JournalofDaoistStudies1(2008) Between 1871 and 1890, he helped the monastery raise a total of some 44,000taels of silver,morethanhalfof whichcame from Liu him self.Mostofthefundswenttopayforordinationceremonies,including the one that occurred in 1871, and the renovation and construction of monastic buildings. Liu Chengyin was also instrumental in funding the carvinganderectingofseveralmajorsteleinscriptions.Amongthese,he commissionedtheengraving oftheNeijingtu, whichwas erected at Bai yunguanin1886.LaterthisstelewasinlaidtogetherwiththeXiuzhentu (Diagram for Cultivating Perfection) (see Despeux 1994; Skar 2000),another,morecomplexdiagramoninternalalchemy,onawallin the rear garden of the monastery compound in 1890. The engraving of theXiuzhentu stele,likethatoftheNeijingtu,wascommissionedbyLiu. As is evidenced from such patronage, Liu Chengyin was interested in thepractice anddissemination of internalalchemypractice, at leastpar tiallythroughthecirculationofrubbingsoftheNeijingtuandXiuzhentu (see also Goossaert2007, 28593). In addition to studying andpracticing under Zhang Yuanxuan, Liu allegedly built a small selfcultivation re treatcalledZizhudaoyuan(DaoistCloisterofPurpleBamboo), located in the modern park of the same name in the western suburb of Beijing, where he engaged in neidan training after his retirement from court. Outside of the internal textual dimensions, the only known avail able historical information on this diagram comes from inscriptions in theNeijingtuitself.AccordingtoLiuChengyinscolophoninthelower leftcorner(seeFigure1): This diagram has never been transmitted before. The funda mental reason for this is because the Way of the Elixir is vast and subtle, and there are obtuse people who do not have the abilitytograspit.Consequently,itrarelyhasbeentransmitted intheworld. I happenedto observethe diagram among the books and paintings in the study (zhai ) of Gao Songshan . By chance,itwashangingonawall.Theskillusedinitspainting technique isfinely executed. The annotations of the joints and articulations (jinjie ), meridians and vessels (mailuo ) are clearly distinguished, and each one contains specific cavi ties(qiao ). Komjathy,MappingtheDaoistBody/77 Iexamined[thediagram]foralongtimeandrealizedthat my comprehension wasgrowing. I beganto realizethat exha lation and inhalation (huxi ) as well as expelling and in gesting (tuna ) of the human body are the waxing and waningaswellastheebbandflowofthecosmos. Ifyoucandivineandgaininsightintothis,youwillhave progressed more than halfway on your inquiry into the great WayoftheGoldenElixir(jindandadao ). In truth, I did not dare to keep this for myself alone. Therefore, I had it engraved on a printing block [so that it mightbe]widelydisseminated. Engraved with deep reverence as an inscribed record by LiuChengyin,theDaoistSuyun PrintingblockpreservedatBaiyun guaninBeijing WithregardtotheGaoSongshanmentionedintheabovepassage,ithas most often been taken as a geographical name (Needham et al. 1983; Despeux1994;2000;Eichman2000a;Wang199192),butmorethanlikely refers toapersonal name.Withregard tothe former,Gao Songshanhas been translated conventionally as tall Pine Mountain or as lofty Mount Song. If these characters refer to a geographical location, the mountain mentioned here remains unidentified. There are numerous mountains called Songshan (Pine Mountain) and presumably severalofthemorthepinesonthemwerehigh. 14 Despeuxsuggeststhat itrefers to Songshan in Henan (1994, 44; 2000, 521),but thecharac ter song(lofty) in the famed Songshan is different from that in the Neijingtu. 15 Liu Xunhas recently suggestedthat Gao Songshan is aper 14 See,e.g.,therelevantentryintheZhongwendacidian . 15 The famed Songshan does, of course,receivethe designation Song gao inapoembythatnameintheShijing (ClassicofPoetry)(see Legge 189395, vol. 4, 535). However, the context of the original Neijing tu engraving, that is, among Qingdynasty court elite and by a court eunuch and Longmen monk, was most likely the urban environment of Beijing. There is no evidence that Liu Chengyin went mountainhopping or cloudwandering during which he happened upon the diagram, or that he received some esoteric trans missioninasecretmountaincave,asmuchassuchdetailswouldprovesatisfy ing toWestern romanticized ideas about Daoism. Here we are dealing with a socioeconomic and religiohistorical context of imperial patronage and Daoist participation, which is substantiated by the fact that the original painting was 78/JournalofDaoistStudies1(2008) sonal name and most likely refers to Gao Rentong. This conjecture is basedonthefactthatLiuChengyinhadacloserelationshipwithAbbot GaoandthatGaoRentongsDaoistnamewasShoushan(2004a,94, n. 51). Moreover, historical contextualization, the fact that Liu was a LongmenmonkatBaiyunguan,anassociateandfellowordinandofGao, and achief eunuch in Beijing, supportssuch areading.However, if this is the case, then why does song replace the character shou in Gao RentongsDaoistnameasengravedintheNeijingtustele?Onepossibil ityisthatSongshanwasanicknameusedbysomeoftheLongmenDao ists at Baiyun guan, although I have found no evidence to support this conjecture.Another,complementarypossibilityisthatthetwocharacters, thoughvisuallyunrelated,wereseenassynonymousinaDaoistcultiva tionalcontext.Howwouldthisbethecase?Becausepinetrees(song),as evergreens,areatraditionalsymboloflongevity(shou). Based on Liu Chengyins testimony, the Neijing tu stele was pro duced from a painting or hanging scroll: I happened to observe this diagram among thebooks andpaintings inthestudioofGao Songshan. By chance, it washanging ona wall. This scantpiece of information is intriguingintermsofthephysicallocationofthepaintingandthepossi blecontextofitsuse.Liuscomments,implyinghappenstanceandfortu nateness,perhapssuggestthatthepaintingwasoutofplaceorobscured byotheraspectsofDaoistandelitematerialculture.Wasitjustoneitem among other literati paraphernalia and thus simply part of the environ ment of late imperial court culture, an aesthetic representation of the humanbody?Ifso,howcanoneexplaintheclearembodimentofDaoist cultivationalcultureinthediagram? Thecontent,specificallytheChinesemedicalandDaoistalchemical dimensions,point inadifferentdirection:asavisualaid for Daoistreli giouspraxis,both as an overall existential approach and as adistinctive set ofmeditative techniquesbased on alchemicaltransformation. Under this reading, thepaintingmay have only been takenout andhungdur ing specific practice timesit happened to be out because Gao Song shan either had been studying the diagram, was about to begin seated meditation, had just completed a training session, or had not put the paintingawayaftermeditation.Thispossibility,incombinationwiththe most likely executed by a highlevel artist in the service of the Qing imperial household(below). Komjathy,MappingtheDaoistBody/79 specifically Daoist content of the diagram, give further pause for reflec tion: Was the originalNeijingtupainting specificallymade for GaoRen tong, perhaps under his personal direction regarding content and graphic depiction? Or, was it perhaps a gift from the Qing imperial household upon his ascent to the position of abbot of Baiyun guan in 1881(fiveyearsbeforetheengravingoftheNeijingtu)?Ifso,thefactthat Gao Rentong possessed such a painting tells us something noteworthy abouttherelationshipamongtheQingrulingelite,Baiyunguan,andthe Longmenlineageinthelatenineteenthcentury:Baiyunguananditsab botwererecognizedasanintegralandnecessarydimensionofQingim perialpower(seeEsposito2000;2001;Liu2004a;2004b;Goossaert2007). Beyond such conjectures, Lius brief remarks point us towards an earlierpaintingthatwastheoriginalversionoftheNeijingtuandserved asthebasisforthecommissionedandreceivedNeijingtustele.Onesuch paintingiscurrentlyhousedintheZhongguoyishibowuguan (Museumof ChineseMedical History) in Beijing,and thispaint ing appearstobethe original Qingdynasty one (seeFu et al.1999, 200; also Rousselle 1933; Wang 199192, 143; Li 1992, 85; Despeux 1994, 44; Liu2004a,94,n.51).Itisgenerallyheldthatthispaintingwasaproduct of the Ruyi guan (Ruyi Studio), the Qing imperial art academy andpartoftheQingImperialHouseholdDepartment(neiwubu). IttoothusdatestotheQingdynasty,thoughtheexactdateandarchitect of production are currently unknown. In textual andvisual content, the extantpaintingdirectlyparallelstheNeijingtusteleofBaiyunguanwith someminordiscrepancies. 16 16 AsbothJosephNeedhametal.(1983)andCatherineDespeux(1994)have pointedout,atleastsomeoftheinspirationfortheNeijingtu derivesfromearlier DaoistdrawingsandillustrationsofthehumanbodyfoundintheMingdynasty DaoistCanon.Itisbeyondthescopeofthepresentstudytodocumentallofthe earlierprecedentsforthe Neijingtu, both in terms oftextual and visual content. From my perspective, the most significant earlier diagrams are as follows: the lateTang(618907)Shangqingdongzhenjiugongzifangtu(DZ 156),whichincludesparalleldiagramsofthebodyandpavilions,withthelatter resemblingthedepictionofthefirstpassinthelowersectionofthe Neijingtu;the thirteenthcentury Huangdi bashiyi nanjing zuantu jujie (DZ1024),whichcontainsdiagramsentitledneijingtu(4a5b),thefirstof which closely resemblesthe received Xiuzhentu;the Zazhujiejing ,ascontainedintheearlyfourteenthcenturyXiuzhenshishu(DZ263), 80/JournalofDaoistStudies1(2008) Certainfeaturesalsostandout.First,thecolorsusedinthepainting increasetheaestheticpowerandenergeticquality.Thegreenandbrown sections of the painting create a heightened contrast and visual impact with the white,red, andblue sections, with the latterbeing some ofthe most important locations for alchemical transformation. The painting also substantiatesthe fact that thetwocircles in theheadregion are the eyes:theleftoneisred,representingthesun,andtherightoneiswhite, representingthemoon. In addition, the energeticmovementdepicted in the painting, and perhaps being activated in the viewers own body, is even stronger than in the extant stele and related rubbings. The move ment clearly begins at the base of the torso, moves up the spine, and around the head. The connection between the Ren (Conception) and Du(Governing)vessels(below)receivesgreateremphasisthroughthe two sets of five bands being multicolored in the painting. Finally, the paintingcontainsanadditionalvisualdimension:twocompletecirclesof white light. The first surrounds the torso and represents the joining of the Ren and Du vessels, with the peak of the head clearly emphasized. Thesecondsurroundsthehead.Bothsuggesttheformationoractivation of the Daoist subtle body, including the emergence of pure white or goldenlightasasignofalchemicaltransformation. which has not only diagrams and an essay entitled neijingtu (18.2b3b) but also essays on inner observation (neiguan), theNine Palaces (jiugong ),threefields(santian ),fiveyinorbs(wuzang ),andsoforth(18.5b9b); and the Jindan dayao tu , DZ 1068, which contains a diagram of the human body asa mountain that includessomeparallelcontent withtheNeijing tu.Intermsofextracanonicaltexts,thereareimportantdiagramsintheearly seventeenthcentury Xingmingguizhi(ZW 314), late eighteenthcentury Huimingjing(ZW 131), early twentiethcentury Xingmingfajuemingzhi (ZW872), and of coursethe receivedXiuzhentu.Most ofthese were incirculationand/oraccessibleintheBaiyunguanenvironsofthelatenineteenth century. However,onecleardifferencestandsout:theNeijingtuissolelyamap pingoftheDaoistsubtleoralchemicalbody,lackingfleshandabodyascon ventionally understood. It is the body within the body actualized through al chemicalpraxis.Foranattempttotracethehistoryofdiagramsrelatedtoculti vatingperfection(xiuzhen )seeSkar2000.Forachronologicalchartofsuch mapsintermsofChinesesciencesee Zhu 1995,343. Komjathy,MappingtheDaoistBody/81 Terminological Contours ThetitleoftheNeijingtuhasbeenrenderedintoWesternlanguagesina variety of ways. 17 Most commentators agree on the standard rendering of nei as inner, interior, or internal, though nei may also have the connotation of esoteric. Similarly, tuposes relatively little diffi culty, and is commonly translated as illustration, chart, map, or diagram (see Reiter 1990; Despeux 2000; Strassberg2002). Thecruxof thetranslationenterpriserestsonjing ,mostfrequentlyencounteredin thesenseofscripture,classic,ortext.Thecharacteriscomposedof thesilk(si )radicalandthephoneticjing .Takeninthisway,vari ousmeaningsbranchout:text/classic,topassthrough,toregulate, to arrange, the warp (of a fabric), and meridians or arteries. Equallyplausible,andimpliedbysomeoftheseconnotations,isthatthe jing phoneticelementisalsoameaningcarrier.Etymologicallyspeaking, it refers to streams running underground or flowing water. Thus, one couldtranslate thejingof the Neijingtu as watercourse; theNeijing tu mightthenbeunderstoodastheDiagramofInternalWatercourses. While my own preferred translation is Diagram of Internal Path ways, avariety ofmeanings are intended.Onone level, it is adiagram of the inner currents or inner meridians. Here one may recall the followingpassagefromchapteroneoftheHuangdineijinglingshu (YellowThearchsInnerClassic:NuminousPivot;DZ1020): Generallyspeaking,thetwentyseven[locationsthroughwhich]qi ascends and descends are as follows: where it [qi] emerges is called wells (jing ); where it flows is called brooks (ying ); whereitrushesforthiscalledrapids(shu );whereitproceedsis called streams (jing); where it disappears is called confluences (he ).(DZ1020,1.3b;seealso Nanjing ch.68;Unschuld1986, 577) 17 The title of the Neijing tu has received the following translations: Die TafeldesInnerenGewebes(Rousselle1933,207);DiagramoftheInternalTex tureofMan(Needhametal.1983,114);DiagramoftheInternalCirculationof Man (Wang 1991/92, 141); Carte de la vision intrieure du corps (Despeux 1994,47);andIllustrationofInnerCirculation(Eichman2000a,350). 82/JournalofDaoistStudies1(2008) Theprecisemedicalmeaningofthispassageremainsopentoavarietyof interpretations, but jing is clearly present in the sense of stream and forms part of the technical description of the width and depth of the bodys qiflow. In contemporary Chinese medical usage, these jing streamareasaretheplaceswheretheqiofthemeridiansisbigger,wider, anddeeper.Intheseplaces,theflowofqiresemblesalargecurrent.They arecommonly used incontemporary acupuncture as treatmentpoints. 18 Whilethe Neijingtuobviouslyisnotamapofthejingstreamlocations,it nonethelesscarriesthesenseofsuchtechnicalmedicalterminology.Itis adiagramofthemeridians,theenergeticpathways,ofthehumanbody. These views are confirmed by Liu Chengyins own comments in the colophon:Theskillusedinitspaintingtechniqueisfinelyexecuted.The annotations of the joints and articulations, meridians and vessels are clearly distinguished, and each one contains specific cavities. In addi tiontoDiagramofInternalWatercourses,onecouldthustranslatethe titleastheDiagramofInternalMeridians. The abovecomments suggest thatmultiple layers ofmeaninghave beeninscribedandencryptedintheNeijingtu.Inadditiontothevarious connotations of jing as stream or meridian, I also would argue thattwoadditionalcharactersareimpliedbyandembeddedinthetitle. ThisargumentisbasedontheactualcontentsoftheNeijingtu,theinter textuality implied in its images and passages, and earlier historical precedents found in related Daoist body maps. The two characters to which I am referring are homonyms/cognates of jing pathway. They arejinglandscape andjingluminosities.Withthis implication, the Neijing tu is an illustration not only of the meridians of qi running through the body, but also of the Daoist body as terrestrial and cosmo 18 For a discussion of these points in the context of Traditional Chinese Medicine(TCM)see,e.g.,Maciocia1989,33553;Ellisetal.1989;Deadmanetal. 2001. In the present article, I use the phrase Traditional Chinese Medicine to refer to the medical system developed in Communist China during the second halfofthetwentiethcentury,specificallyundertheinfluenceofallopathicmedi cine and a Western scientific and materialistic paradigm. Classical Chinese medicinereferstotheworldviewandpracticesdocumentedintheearlyclassics. ForthemostcomprehensiveEnglishlanguagesourcesonthehistoryofChinese medicineseeLu1980;Unschuld1985;Eck1996,37195;Needhametal.2000;also Sivin 1987. Academic studies of Chinese medicine during the Qing dynasty are onlybeginningtobeundertaken.SeeUnschuld1998. Komjathy,MappingtheDaoistBody/83 logical landscape and as the dwellingplace of inner luminosities or ef fulgences. From a Daoist perspective, the human body corresponds to, embodies, various externalpresencesmountains,altars,colors, rivers, constellations,temples, spirits, forests, andso forth. TheNeijingtumaps the landscape which is the human self; in this sense, jingpathway also alludes to the character jing meaning region or landscape. The Neijingtumaybe understood as the Internal Landscape Map.This ar gument is supported by the fact that the titles of earlier diagrams that also illustrate the internalregions of the bodycontainthephraseneijing tu (see Zazhu jiejing , DZ 263, 18.2b3b; Nanjing zuantu jujie ,DZ1024,5a6b;Needhametal.1983,10910;Despeux 1994;Skar2003). Along with mapping the watercourses or meridians of the human body(jingstreams),andthelandscapewhichisthehumanbody(jing landscape), the Neijing tu also alludes to the jing luminosities which reside in various areas of the body. The Neijing tu maps various dimensionsoftheHuangtingjing(ScriptureontheYellowCourt), which survives in a neijing (DZ 331) and waijingversion (DZ 332) (see Schipper 1975; Robinet 1984; Huang 1990; Kroll 1996). 19 Al thoughinthetitlesoftheHuangtingjing thesedesignationscanandper haps should be read as esoteric or inner view and exoteric or outer view respectively, in Shangqing Daoism andas a Daoist techni 19 The technical terminology of the Huangting jing, especially its various esotericnamesfortheDaoistsubtlebody(e.g., mingmen ,yuchi ,sanguan ,santian,jianggong,etc.)wasutilizedbyinternalalchemylineages from the late Tang onwards (see Robinet 1989b; Pregadio and Skar 2000; Kom jathy 2007). The Yellow Court (huangting ) of the title and mentioned throughoutthescriptureismostoftenreadasreferringtothespleenregion.See, e.g.,theeighthcenturyHuangtingwaijing jingzhu ,DZ263,58.1b2a. However, it mayalso refertothe lower elixirfield, associated with theabdomi nalregion.Inthisrespect,itcorrespondstothelocationoftheOceanofQi(qihai )insomeneidanlineages.See,e.g.,thetenthcenturyChuandaoji,DZ 263, 15.14b; and the seventeenthcentury Xingming guizhi , ZW 314, 9.518. Various attempts were also made in the Tang dynasty (618907) to create visual representations based on the Huangting jing. See, e.g., Huangting neijing jing zhu , DZ 402; also DZ 1032, 11.1a12.27b; DZ 263, 5560; and Huangtingneijingtu ,DZ432;alsoDZ263,54. 84/JournalofDaoistStudies1(2008) caltermjing alsoalludestotheluminositiesoreffulgencesinthe body (seeHomann1971;Robinet1989a; 1993). Thesearethe innerbody godsorradiantspiritswhichresideindifferentcorporeallocations,spe cifically in the five yinorbs, and which have associations in the Five Phase(wuxing )systemofcorrelativecosmology,specificallyanimal, direction and color associations (see below). In the central region of the Neijingtu,thesebodygodsareidentifiedaccordingtotheesotericnames oftheorbspiritsasfoundintheHuangtingjing.Inthissense,theNeijing tu may be understood as the Diagram of Inner Luminosities, adding yetanotherpossiblelayertoalready multiplemeanings. Topographical Reflections The history of the received Neijing tu, a stone stele housed in the Quanzhen monastery of Baiyun guan, is as complex as its mapping of the Daoist body. Historical evidence, both internal and external to the diagramitself,suggeststhatthereceivedstele(anditsvariousrubbings) was based on an earlier stele, which was in turn produced from a still earliercolorpainting.Thatpaintingmaybeconsideredthesourcetext andispossiblystillextantintheMuseumofChineseMedicalHistoryof Beijing. The originalpainting oftheNeijingtuwasmost likely produced withintheRuyiStudio,theQingimperialartacademy.Itmayhavebeen made for or giventoGao Rentong (18411907),thetwentiethgeneration abbot of Baiyun guan, upon his ascension to abbotship in 1881. This painting was subsequently seen by Liu Chengyin (d. 1894), a Longmen monkandchiefeunuchtoEmpressDowagerCixi.Asamajorsupporter ofLongmenandBaiyunguan,andasafellowordinandandclosefriend of Abbot Gao, Liu Chengyin was instrumental in maintaining connec tions among the Longmen lineage, Baiyun guan and the Qing imperial house. Healsocommissionedtheengraving theNeijingtustele.This oc curred in 1886, andthestele was later inlaid in themonasticcompound ofBaiyunguanwithanotherLiucommissionedsteledepictingtheDao istbody,namely,the Xiuzhentu (DiagramonCultivatingPerfection). Thesevariousdetailsnot only provide a window into late imperial Chinesereligionandsociety;theyalsosuggestaDaoistcultivationalcon textinwhichseatedmeditationandalchemicalpraxisoccupiedacentral position.ThereceivedNeijingtuis amap of the Daoistbody,the Daoist Komjathy,MappingtheDaoistBody/85 internal landscape utilized and actualized in Daoistpractice.Assuch, it is theMapofInternalPathways, charting the contours of the Daoist body as envisioned within the context of late imperial Daoism, especially withinthe Longmen and WuLiu neidanlineages andwithinthe Baiyun guan environs. The terminological layers of its title, considered in con cert with its contents, are multifaceted: it maps the body as alchemical crucible, as landscape, as cosmos, as soteriological locus. 20 It maps the many dimensions of Daoist conceptions of self, including, naturalistic, cosmological, theistic and alchemical visions. 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I first provide a thorough analysis of the textual and visual dimensions of the Neijing tu, including a complete translation with the diagram divided into threesections.ThearticlealsoclarifiessomeinfluencesonthisDaoistbodymap anditscorrespondinginternalalchemysystem,specificallyindicatingapossible connectionwiththeemergingWuLiu sublineageofLongmen. This analysis is followed by a reconstruction of Daoist alchemical practice asexpressedintheNeijingtu.Iemphasizethreemethods:praxisorientedappli cationsofclassicalChinesemedicalviewsofthebody;visualizationswhichdraw their inspiration from the Huangting jing and find clear historical precedents in Shangqing Daoism; and the alchemical technique known as the Waterwheel or MicrocosmicOrbit.Thethreetechniquesformaninterconnectedsystem,wherein the adepts overall psychosomatic health is maintained and strengthened, his body is osmicized, and he awakens the mystical body, the bodybeyondthe body or yangspirit, i.e., the culmination of alchemical transformation and the preconditionforpostmortemtranscendence. Komjathy,MappingtheDaoistBody/65 Textual and Visual Contours ThemajortextualcomponentsoftheNeijingtuaretwopoemswrittenin regulated verse (lshi), or eight sevencharacter lines. They are lo cated above and below the strand of trees on the lefthand side of the diagram. Since various lines from these poems are distributed through out the diagram, attention to them is a prerequisite for further explora tion. The most significant convergence between the lines of the poems with thevisualcontentoccurs in the following locations: theabdominal region, where the ox is plowing the lower elixir field (poem 2, line 1, abbr. 2.1); the heart region, where the Cowherd is stringing together coins to form the Northern Dipper (2.2); and the head region, where Laozi sits inmeditation above the Buddhistmonk with upstretched and supportingarms(2.56). Other more general descriptions are also found, including refer encestothebodyasfields(tian)intheabdominal,heartandheadre gions(1.1,2.1);thewhitepearlabovetheheadasthegrainofmilletthat contains the world (2.3); andtheheadregionor the Renand Du vessels asthelocationwherethemysterybeyondmysteryisrealized(2.78).Fi nally,there are anumber of streams flowing into andthroughthehead, whichparallel thereference tothe spring in theUpper Valley (1.6). Cer tain sections of Neijing tu thus seem to have been executed as specific illustrationsoftheselines. ThepoemsthemselvesarefoundinthefifteenthcenturyLzuzhi (Records of Patriarch L; DZ 1484). 1 They are attributed to L Dongbin (Chunyang[PurifiedYang];b.798C.E.?),thesemi legendary patriarch of various internal alchemy (neidan ) lineages. NumerousneidantextshavebeenattributedtoLDongbinandhissup posedteacherZhongliQuan,whichformthesocalledZhongL textualtradition (see BaldrianHussein 1984, especially 2331; Boltz 1987, 13943). L Dongbin is also recognized as a patriarch of both QuanzhenandthesocalledNanzong(SouthernSchool).Theinclu sion of these poems in the Neijingtu points to its internal alchemy con 1 Numbers for works appearing in Daoist textual collections follow Kom jathy 2002, with those for the Mingdynasty Daoist Canon (DZ) paralleling Schipper and Verellen 2004. Other abbreviations include JH (Daozang jinghua), JHL(Daozangjinghualu),JY(Daozangjiyao),andZW(Zangwaidaoshu). 66/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009) text, thoughthe exact lineage of late imperial neidaniscurrently unclear and awaits further research. Does the Neijing tu embody a distinctive synthesis,whichinsomerespectrepresentsanewneidanlineage?Ordid itemergeasoneexpressionofaspecificlineageofinternalalchemy?As discussed in the previous installment of the present article and below, there are someclearand intriguingparallels with theemergingWuLiu sublineage of Longmen and with the subsect of the WuLiu line age called the Qianfeng lineage, 2 which was established in early twentiethcenturybyZhaoBichen(Shunyi[AttunedUnity]; 18601942)andwhichcametooccupyacentralplaceinmodernDaoism. In terms of the Neijing tu, the former, as an identifiable lineage, is roughlycontemporaneous,whilethelatterisslightlylater. Theupperpoemreads: Iamproperlyandattentivelycultivatingmyownfield Insidetherearenuminoussproutsthatlivefortenthousandyears. Theflowersresembleyellowgold,theircolornotuncommon; Theseedsarelikejadegrain,theirfruitsperfectlyround. CultivationcompletelydependsontheearthoftheCentral Palace; IrrigationnecessarilyreliesonthespringintheUpperValley. ThepracticeiscompletedsuddenlyandIattainthegreatDao IwandercarefreeoverlandandwaterasanimmortalofPenglai. (Seealso DZ1484,4.16a) Theemphasishereisonselfcultivationandalchemicaltransforma tion. The central metaphor is agriculturaljust as the horticulturalist must attentively tend his or her garden, so the Daoist adept must focus onspecificelixirfields(dantian )throughoutthebody.IntheNeijing tu, these fields are identifiedby name:themiddle elixir fieldjustbelow the heart is Genmountain earth (gentu ), 3 while the lower elixir 2 This sublineage derives its name fromtheMount Qianfeng (Hebei), and Zhao Bichen was directed to found it by his teacher Liaokong (Realized Emptiness; fl. 1895), who was a Chan monk. Interestingly, Liaokong claimed to have received direct instruction under Liu Huayang in 1799. See Xingmingfajue mingzhi,ZW872; Weishengsanzifajuejing;ZW873;Lu1970;Despeux1979. 3 The phrase Genmountain appears in the Neijingtu near the Cowherd andreferstothetrigram designatingmountainaswellastohexagram52, Komjathy,MappingtheDaoistBody/67 field near the level of the navel is called the correct [standard] elixir field(zhengdantian ). 4 Liketilling,planting,andharvestingcrops, the process of internal alchemy involves a cultivation cycle; one must prepare the ground and develop the appropriate physiological and cos mologicalaspects,forwhichtheNeijingtuservesasamapoftheDaoist internal landscape and as a visual aid for alchemical transformation. In theabovepoem,thefruitsofDaoistcultivationareflowersthecolorof yellowgoldandseedslikejadegrain,bothpoeticdescriptionsofspe cific alchemical experiences. Planted as a seed in the lower elixir field, and nourished through consistent attentiveness (yi ) and dedication (zhi ),qiaccumulatesandexpands.Withyellowbeingassociatedwith the Earth phase in Chinese correlative cosmology (see, e.g., Unschuld 1985; Major 1993), and as one of the esoteric names of the lower elixir field is the Yellow Court (huangting ), the poem suggests that the perfect qi (zhenqi ), the qi activated and circulated in internal al chemy practice, becomes a stronger presence in the body. The body be comesrarified. Genmountain . In Daoist internalalchemy, thetrigrams represent various psychophysiological aspects of the human being and stages in self transformation. The Genmountain trigram may, in turn, express the state of stillness as well as practices that help nourish such a condition. In the present case,the reference tothe heart region asthefield ofGenmountain earthsug geststhatexcessemotionalandintellectualactivityhasbecomestilled.Anexam ple of this type of Daoist exegesis on the Yijing may be found in Liu Yi mings (Wuyuan [Awakening to the Origin]; 17341821) Zhouyi chanzhen (True Explanation of the Yijing), collected in his Daoshu shier zhong (TwelveDaoistBooks).TheZhouyichanzhenappearsinZW245 and has been translated in Cleary 1986. In terms of the present discussion, see especiallyCleary1986,1035,19497,and2079. 4 Itshouldbenotedthatthelocationsoftheupper,middle,andlowerelixir fields change depending on the system of alchemy being employed. As in the Neijingtu,themostfrequentlocationsareinthehead,solarplexus/heartregion, and the lower abdomen. See,for example,the eleventhcentury Yunjiqiqian, DZ 1032,59.2a;alsoLi1991,70,80,139;MinandLi1994,70,110,125,272;Hu1995, 482,745,1141,1449,1675,1681.Insomecontemporaryformsofneidan,thethree elixirfields arethe head, lower abdomen and perineum, with the latter referred toasHuiyin andassociatedwithvitalessence.Authorsfieldobservations. 68/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009) This is one manifestation of the golden elixir (jindan ) men tioned in the poem and in Liu Chengyins colophon. The earth of the Central Palace most likely refers to the Scarlet Palace (jianggong), the area just below the heart. This interpretation receives substantiation bytheplacementofthepoemintheNeijingtuinlinewiththeCowherd (the heart region). Following the mapping of Daoist cultivation in the Neijing tu, the Daoist practitioner must still the emotions and nourish spirit, both associated with the Fire phase and thus with the heart. In addition,thepoememphasizesthepracticeofswallowingtheJadeDew (yuye;saliva),acentralcomponentofformingtheelixirofimmortal ity (see Komjathy 2007, ch. 6). At the end of the poem, we also find an allusiontochapteroneoftheZhuangzi (BookofMasterZhuang;DZ 670), entitled Xiaoyao you (Carefree Wandering); the Daoist adept,likethegreatPengbird,wanderseffortlesslythroughthetroubles of the world and maintains a more allencompassing perspective. Ac cording to the author of the poem, dedication to such cultivation tech niques will lead to attunement with the Dao and immortality, symbol izedasentranceintotheeasternparadiseofPenglaiIsland. The secondpoem againorients onetowardsthe importance ofcul tivation. Through alchemical transformation, the Daoist adept comes to encompass and be encompassed by the entire universe. The mutual resonance between the human body and the cosmos, and the embodi ment of the cosmos within and as the human body, becomes realized (seeSchipper1978;1993;Kohn1991a). Theironoxplowsthefieldwheregolden coinsaresown; Engravingthestone,theyoungladholdsastringofcash. Asinglegrainofmilletcontainstheentireworld; Mountainsandstreamsaredecoctedinahalfsheng cauldron. TheeyebrowsofwhiteheadedLaozihangdowntotheearth, Andtheblueeyedforeignmonkholdsuptheheavens. Orientyourselftowardsthemysteriousanditisrealized Outsideofthismysterythereisnoothermystery. (seealsoDZ1484,5.11a) The first line emphasizes the practice of tending to the bodys fields. Whilethis involves effort andprolongedpractice, symbolizedby theox (cf. Needham et al. 1983, 100; Wang 199192, 151; Eichman 2000a, 351), Komjathy,MappingtheDaoistBody/69 theoutcomewillbegoldencoins.Basedontheillustrationsofthe Neijing tu and theplacement of thepoem,theprimarybody locationbeing em phasized is that of the lower elixir field. Again taking into account the abovementioned associations of yellow and gold with the Earth phase and with the lower elixir field, the sowing and gathering of golden coinsindicatesanincreasedlevelofenergeticpresenceinthelowerab dominalregion,theprimarystorehouseofqiinthebody.Liketheprevi ous encounter with flowers of yellow gold, and like the discovery of goldingeneral,thisfruitisarareandpreciousoccurrenceintheworld. A grain of millet contains the world alludes to the famous Yel low Millet Dream (huangliangmeng ) of L Dongbin. According to one hagiography, found in the Yuandynasty (12601368) Zengxiang liexian zhuan (Illustrated Biographies of Arrayed Immortals; seeKohn1993,12632;cf.Chunyangshenhuaji,DZ305,1.3a5a),untilthe ageofsixtyfourLDongbin,althoughpracticingDaoistcultivation,still harboredpolitical aspirations.Havingfailed topass the imperial exami nation twice, one day L encounters Zhongli Quan, an accomplished Daoistadept.ZhongliQuaninturninvitesLtoaninnforameal,dur ingthepreparationofwhichLfallsasleep.Hethendreamsofanentire officialcareer,beginningwithsuccessandfameandendingwithfailure, humiliation, and despondency. When he awakens from this dream, the milletisstillbeingcooked.Inevenlesstimethanittakestocookmillet, L experiences onepossible life andthedissipation involved in seeking fame and reputation. He in turn becomes the disciple of Zhongli Quan (who knew of the dream before L told him), and eventually commits himself solely to Daoist cultivation, thus coming to represent the aspir ingDaoistpractitioneringeneral. Throughsuchdedication,mountainsandstreamsaredecoctedina halfsheng cauldron.Oneengagesintheactualizationandrefinementof internal presences and comes to reside in a larger matrix of being. The entire universe is the context for ones cultivation and ones very exis tencebecomescosmicized.Asillustratedinthecontoursofthe Neijingtu, theadeptengaginginalchemicalpraxisdiscoversthatthebodycontains streams, mountains, fields, forests, temples and constellations. Ones body is the cosmos, and the cosmos is ones body. Although such con ventionaldistinctionslikecosmosandself,orinternalandexter nal, arepotentially necessary atthebeginning of alchemicalpraxis, the 70/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009) finaloutcomeofalchemicaltransformation,rarificationandperhapsself divinization, results in the activation of the Daoist mystical body (see Komjathy 2007), a body which is transpersonal and infused with the Daos numinosity. This involves orienting yourself towards the myste rious.Thefinallinesofthepoem,withthefrequentrepetitionofmys terious(xuan ),invokechapteroneoftheDaodejing (Scripture ontheDaoandInnerPower):Mysteriousandagainmoremysterious the gateway to all wonders. The Daoist adeptmerges with the twofold mysterywhichistheDao.Heorsheliterallyshiftsontologicalconditions, abiding in a state of mystical pervasion with the Dao as a mystery be yond mystery, as a mystery simultaneously present and absent in its own mysteriousness. It is this presenceabsence that also circulates through theadepts ownbody asnuminouscurrents.Hereone encoun ters perhaps one of the most significant Daoist challenges to conven tional understandings of human being: ones physiology literally is sa cred. One embodies the Dao, and one may experience the Dao through/in/as ones own psychosomatic and energetic being. The bifur cation of transcendent divine and mundane material processes breaksdowninthisDaoistvisionofself. Beyond the two poems which provide a general description of the alchemical endeavor, the diagram as a whole can be seen to depict the Daoist alchemical practice of reversal in combination with the Micro cosmic Orbit method. Here I concentrate on the textual and visual as pects of theNeijingtu, while in thesubsequentsection Iprovide amore systematic explanation of the practices in the context of Daoist internal alchemypraxis.Theaspiringadeptmustsealhimselforherselfofffrom various sources of dissipation, includingsensory andemotionaldistrac tions.Heorshemustturninwardthroughmeditativepraxistorealizea return to psychosomatic and cosmological integration. For male adepts in particular, they must prevent dissipation of their core vitality, vital essence (jing ), which occurs through sexual activity and resulting seminalemission.Oneofthefoundationsofthealchemicalprocessisthe retention, circulation and transformation of the body fluids (see Kom jathy 2007). In the Neijing tu, this is depicted as movement of vital es sence, the water of the body, being reversed and transferred upward. Komjathy,MappingtheDaoistBody/71 Beginningatthefirstpass,onenoticesaboyandagirlworkingatread mill,representingyangandyinrespectively(see Fig. 2). Thecaption next to themreads themysterious yinyang tread mill.The longertextualcomponentexplains, 72/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009) Repeatedly,constantly,[thetreadmill]ispeddledincycles; Whenthemechanismrevolves,thewaterflowseastward. Thewater,tenthousandfathomsdeep,isseenstraighttoitsbottom; Asweetspringbubblesup,risingtothesummitofSouthern Mountain. By using the intent and sealing the lower gate, the perineum, the adept reverses the flow of vital essence. Instead of moving outward in the form of seminal emission for male adepts and menstrual blood for female adepts, both primary forms of dissipation, the vital essence be comes conserved, stored, circulated and transformed. Reference to the eastward flow of the vital essence (jing) also makes sense when read in relation to Weil (Tailbone Gate; the coccyx) as the first pass. 5 Accordingtothe Zhuangzi, Considering the waters of the world, none is greater than the ocean. Ten thousand streams flow into itthere has never beenatimewhentheyceased,buttheoceanisneverfull.The waterleaksoutatWeiltherehasneverbeenatimewhenit stopped, but the ocean is never empty. (17/42/68; cf. Watson 1968,176). The occurrence of Weil in the Neijing tu also adds an additional mythological component to its mapping of the Daoist body and the Daoistinternallandscape.Justasthewatersoftheoceanareturnedinto vaporattheWeilrock,sotoothebodyhasacorrespondingplaceinthe coccyx, identified as the first point on the Governing vessel (GV1) in contemporary Chinese medicine (see Ellis et al. 1989; Deadman et al. 2001). The lower section of the Neijing tu informs the viewer that the Kanwaterflowsinreverse,thatis,thevitalessence,associatedwiththe 5 The Three Passes (sanguan ) are usually identified as Tailbone Gate (weil ; the coccyx), Narrow Ridge (jiaji ; midspine), and Jade Pillow (yuzhen ; occiput). See, for example, the thirteenthcentury Jindandacheng ji ,Xiuzhenshishu,DZ263,10.6b;thethirteenthcenturyDadanzhizhi , DZ 244, 1.4a, 1.5a, 1.12a; and the seventeenthcentury Xingming guizhi, ZW314,9.518. Komjathy,MappingtheDaoistBody/73 trigram Kanwater and the kidneys, 6 is redirected upwards. In con trasttothenormalflowofessenceoutwardasasourceofdissipation, the Daoist adept, using his or her intent, guides vital essence and qi through Weil and initiates the reversion (fan; huan) of vital es sencetorepairthemarrowandbrain(seebelow). WithregardtotheascentofthebubblingspringtoSouthernMoun tain, Wang suggests that Southern Mountain should be the mountain range ofthesamename in the south ofXinjiang, which is regarded as a majorbranchofMountKunlun(Wang199192,150).Astheheadisfre quently referred to as Mount Kunlun in Daoist cultivation, 7 South ernMountainsuggeststhemovementofthevitalessenceandqifromthe lowerregionsofthebody(north)intotheupperregions(south),specifi callyintotheheadarea.MountKunluninthewest,inadditiontoPeng laiIslandintheeast,isaterrestrialparadiseandhometovariousimmor tals (xian ). In chapter eleven of the Shanhai jing (Classic of Mountains and Seas), a major source of Chinese mythology which con tains material from the third century B.C.E. to the second century C.E., Mount Kunlun is described as an epicenter of the universe, where the heavensandtheearthareperfectlyharmonized(seeBirrell1999a,13941; 1999b, 18385).This aspect of themaphints atthe Daoist goal of attain ing immortality, realizing complete cosmological alignment, mystical 6 In Daoist neidanpraxis,the eighttrigrams (bagua),commonly associ atedwiththeYijing (ClassicofChange),havevariouscorrespondences.The trigramsareasfollows:(1)Qianheaven(qian ) ,(2)Kunearth(kun ) , (3) Lifire (li ) , (4) Kanwater (kan ) , (5) Duilake (dui ) , (6) Zhenthunder(zhen ) ,(7)Sunwind(sun ) ,andGenmountain(gen ) . See the tenthcentury Chuandao ji , DZ 263, 14.11b; and thirteenth centuryJindandachengji ,DZ263,10.12b. 7 OneoftheearliestusagesofKunlunasareferencetothehead,andthusto the interiorization of paradise and immortality, appears in the thirdcentury Huangting waijing jing , DZ 332, 1.1b, also 2.1b. See also the eighth century Huangting waijing jing zhu, DZ 263, 58.7a; Jindandayao tu, DZ 1068, 3a; Xingming guizhi, ZW 314, 9.318. For some classical references to Kunlun in Daoism see Li 1991, 339; Min and Li 1994, 637; Hu 1995, 1164, 1176, 1381,1644. 74/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009) pervasion and/or selfdivinization. 8 In addition, the reference to the springbubblingup(quanyong )maybeaninversionofYongquan (BubblingSpring),locatedinthecenterofthesoleoffootandiden tifiedasthefirstpointonthekidneymeridianincontemporaryChinese medicine. 9 This reading adds additional support for the connection of Kanwater withvitalessence,asthekidneyshousevitalessence. Above themysterious yinyang treadmill,there aretwo furnaces withflamesflaringup,fourTaijidiagrams,andaploughboytendinghis ox(seeFig.2).Basedontheirlocationinthediagram,thefurnacessym bolizetheelixirfieldswherevitalessenceandqiarestored,transformed andcirculated. 10 AccordingtothecontoursoftheNeijingtu,theaspiring Daoist adept must focus his or her intent on various locations in the body,especiallyonWeil(TailboneGate;thecoccyx),Qihai(Ocean of Qi; the abdomen), andMingmen (Gate of Life; betweenthe kid neys) to increase the fire and circulate qi. As noted, agricultural meta phors abound, and the ploughboy and ox suggest focused attention on theprocessofalchemicaltransformation,especiallyontheconservation, transformationandcirculationofvitalessenceandqi. 8 The meaning of xian (immortal or transcendent) varies according to thespecific Daoistsubtradition and historical moment. In the Neijingtu, im mortality wouldseem to referto long life andalchemicaltransformation. It also seems to be taken as parallel to enlightenment or realization in Chan Bud dhism.InthecaseoftheDaoisttradition,whetherornotbecomingaxianren orzhenren meanspersonalcontinuationafterdeathisanopenquestion,and onethatrequirescriticalreflectionandmoreindepthhistoricalresearch. 9 Within Daoism,a clear depictionof Yongquan as located in the center of thesolesofthefeetappearsintheXiuzhentu. SeeDespeux1994;2000. 10 In neidanlineages,adistinctionisoftenmadebetweenthestoveorfur nace (lu ) and cauldron or tripod (ding). E.g., the fourteenthcentury Yuqingdanjue ,DZ240,2.16a;cf. Xiuzhen shishu,DZ263,10.2b. Komjathy,MappingtheDaoistBody/75 The four Taiji diagrams may be interpreted in a variety of ways. 11 Underonereading,andtheonethatIwouldsuggestisprimary,thedia grams symbolize the harmonization of the Five Phases through atten tiveness on lower elixir field, the central storage location for qi. In this case, the four diagrams would represent all of the phases (Wood [east, azure, liver, ethereal soul], Fire [south, red, heart, spirit], Metal [west, white, lungs,corporeal soul], and Water [north,black, kidneys,vital es sence or will]) except thatof theEarth, which oftenoccupies thecenter, or stillness, in Daoist cultivation. Stillness, sometimes spoken of as Per fect Earth (zhentu ), unites all of the other phases. 12 An alternative reading,proposedbySchipper,suggeststhattheseTaijidiagramsrepre sent the qi phases of the elixir field (Schipper 1978, 356). 13 There is no reason to believe that such interpretations are mutually exclusive; these layers ofmeaning, along with others unmentionedhere,may all be em beddedinthissectionoftheNeijingtu.Themostimportantthingtonote isthecentralityofthelowerelixirfieldinthe Neijingtu,initsmappingof theDaoistbody,andinitssystemofalchemicaltransformation. Movingupthespinestillfurther,onearrivesattheflamesbetween the vertebrae below of the second pass. This is Mingmen (Gate of Life),whichisagainconnectedwithvitalessenceanditstransformation into qi. 14 Charted according to function in contemporary Chinese medi 11 The history ofthestandard, modern Taijisymbol, andtheones depicted intheNeijingtu(i.e.,acircledividedintointerconnectedwhite[yang]andblack [yin]aspectsthatcontain a dot[seed] ofthe alternate colors[yinyang aspects]), is currently unclear. For some insights see the relevant entry on the Critical TermspageoftheCenterforDaoistStudieswebsite(www.daoistcenter.org).Its historicalusageinChinesecultureandamongDaoistsiscomplex. 12 There are a variety of extant diagrams calledZhentutu(Diagram ofPerfectEarth),whereinperfectearthisassociatedwiththeYellowCourtand intent, orthinking (yi). See, e.g.,Zazhuzhixuanpian, DZ263, 1.5a; Xingmingguizhi,ZW314,9.523. The latter diagram emphasizesstillingthe heart center. 13 Unfortunately,Schipperdoesnotprovideadetailedexplanationofthese qiphasesofthedantian.Suchtechnicalinformationmightaddadeeperunder standingofDaoistcultivation. 14 ThetermappearsasearlyasthethirdcenturyHuangtingjing.SeeDZ331, 11b; DZ 332, 1.1a. According to the eighthcentury Huangting neijing jing zhu, The Gate of Life is the lower elixir field (DZ 402, 3.19b). However, both the 76/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009) cine, where it is identified as the fourth point on the Governing Vessel (seeEllisetal.1989;Deadmanetal.2001),Mingmenasanenergeticloca tioninthebodyhastheabilitytoregulatetheGoverningvessel,to tonify thekidneys,tpnourishthespineandmarrow,andtostrengthenthefive yinorbs (wuzang ). Ascending still higher, there are two captions: cavityofthetwokidneystorehousesandmountainsandstreamsare decoctedinahalfsheng cauldron(seeFigs.3, 4). ComparingtheNeijingtustelewiththeQingdynastycoloredpaint ing (see Fu et al. 1999,200), the firstcaption, which reads cavity of the left andright kidney storehouses in thepainting,shouldhavebeen en graved at the level of the Weaving Maiden (the kidney region). It obvi ouslyreferstothekidneysandtheircorrespondinglocationinthelower sectionofthemap.Hereisonedirectconvergencebetweenthismapping ofDaoistalchemicaltransformationandclassicalChinesemedicalviews: the kidneys are the storehouse of vital essence and thus the foundation ofonescorevitality(seeHuangdineijingsuwen,chs.3,8,9, 10, 23; Ross 1985; Maciocia 1989, 67110; Unschuld 2003, 12444; also Needhametal.1983,22;Wang199192,150;below).Thusonecanmake theargumentthatthecentralityofMingmenandthekidneysinthissec tion of the Neijingtuand in its corresponding system of selfcultivation strengthens the adepts physical constitution and prepares the way for more advanced training, specifically rarification through alchemical transformation. Ascending themountainpathstill further, there aretwo additional phrases in line with the third temple orhut in the spine: upperpass of jadeperfectionand cavity ofthe numinouspeak.These lines refer to the upper pass known as Yuzhen (Jade Pillow). Passing through thesevariouslocations,thevitalessenceandqieventuallyenterthehead. AttentionisdrawntotheThreePassesastheyareareasthroughwhichit isdifficultfortheqitopassandthustheintentisoftenusedtohelpopen them. Xiuzhen tu and Xingming guizhi (ZW 314, 9.518) clearly place Mingmen in the kidneyregionalongthespine. Komjathy,MappingtheDaoistBody/77 78/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009) Passing through the final pass, one arrives at the mountain peaks that, fromaDaoistperspective,arethevariousenergeticlocationsinthehead (see Fig. 4). While the upper section of Neijing tu contains a variety of textualcomponentsthatcaneasilyleadtoconfusion,anattempttonego tiatethemofferssignificantcontributions.Firstandforemost,onenotices the graphic component depicting the Nine Peaks (jiufeng), some of which are in the center of the head. Sometimes synonymous with the Nine Palaces (jiugong ), these peaks are associated with traditional DaoistsubtleanatomyandphysiologyandareutilizedinDaoistmedita tionmethods. 15 The second most elevated peak, corresponding to Baihui (Hundred Meetings; GV20), the crownpoint in contemporary Chinese medicine, is identified as the Niwan Palace (niwan gong ), 16 a termthattransliteratesnirvanaandliterallymeansmudball.Thepoint is also known as prefecture of rising yang (shengyang fu ), showninthediagramasapearlorballoflightandrelatedtothelinea grain of millet contains the world from the L Dongbin poem. All of this, in combination with the phrase to prolong longevity and [attain] immortalityandBuddhahood,suggeststhefinalgoalofDaoistinternal alchemythecreationofanimmortalembryo(taixian ),alsoknown astheyangspirit(yangshen )orbodybeyondthebody(shenwai shen) (see Komjathy 2007). It may also be understood as nothing morethanrecoveringtheseedoforiginalyang(yuanyang) thatwas within the practitioner all along. The fact that the diagram equates im mortality and Buddhahood may add support for the suggestion that it 15 SeetheYuandanshangjing ,DZ1345,2b8a;also Zazhujiejing,DZ 263,18.6ab.ThefourteenthcenturyJindandayaotu containsan earlierDaoistmapofthebodyasamountainthatincludessomeofthenamesof theNinePalaces.SeeDZ1068,3a;alsoNeedhametal.1983,105;Despeux1994, 41;Komjathy2007,chs.4and6. 16 IntheNeijingtu,niwanislocatedabovethehead,andseeminglyrefersto Baihui as the location where the yangspirit exits the adepts body. However, Niwanisoftenassociatedwiththeupperelixirfield.See,forexample,theJindan dachengji, DZ 263, 10.3b. Forsome depictions ofthe exit ofthe yangspiritfrom thecrownpointseeXingmingguizhi,ZW314,9.585,9.590;Huimingjing, ZW131, 5.881; Xingmingfajuemingzhi,ZW872,26.114,26.119,26.120. Komjathy,MappingtheDaoistBody/79 derives from the WuLiu sublineage of Longmen (below), as that communityhasatexttitledXianfohezong (CommonLineageof ImmortalsandBuddhas;ZW843). 80/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009) Hereonealsonoticesthenuminousplatformofthicklymeshed net,aphrasewhichalsooccursinthefourteenthcenturyJindaodayaotu (DiagramofGreatEssentialsoftheGoldenElixir;DZ1068),a diagram depicting the Daoistbody as amountain and aclearprecursor tothereceivedNeijingtu.Eichmansuggeststhatthisphrase(anditscor respondinggraphicdepiction)impliestheultimategoalofalchemy,an audience with representatives of the celestial hierarchy (2000a, 350). Like his orher terrestrialbureaucraticcounterpart inrelation to theter restrialemperor,theDaoistpractitionerseeksanaudiencewiththehigh est realms of spirit beings, the gods and Perfected (zhenren ). This section of the diagram, then, invokes higher levels of alchemical refine ment, ending (or beginning) in an energetic merging with the Dao. If youorientyourselftowardsthemysterious,themysteriousmaybereal ized(seealsoWang199192,14546). In the upper section of the diagram there is an old man sitting in meditation (see Fig. 4). He wears a robe with the stylized character for longevity (shou ), and above him there is the following inscription: The eyebrows of whiteheaded Laozi hang down to the earth. Below him is a figure with upraised arms and the corresponding inscription: Theblueeyedforeignmonkholdsuptheheavens.Bothoftheselines comefromtheLDongbinpoems.Themoststraightforwardinterpreta tion of the two figures identifies them as Laozi and Bodhidharma, re spectively (see Rousselle 1933; Needham et al. 1983, 116). However, Wang, in a fairly convincing art historical discussion, argues that the iconographyoftheoldmanfiguresuggeststheImmortalOldManof the Southern Polestar, the eighth spirit of the brain (Wang 199192, 146). This interpretation may partially derive from the figures placement at the energetic location corresponding to higher levels of consciousness, eitherMingtang(HallofLight)and/orZuqiao(AncestralCav ity). 17 Wang also challenges the identification of the blueeyed monk as Bodhidharma,arguinginsteadthatheshouldbeunderstoodasacombi 17 As mentioned, in certain forms of Daoist meditation, Mingtang is in cluded as one of the Nine Palaces and identified as a mystical cranial location. ReferencestoZuqiaoasanothermysticalcraniallocationatthecenterofthehead appears inthe Xingmingguizhi(ZW 314) and throughout the pages ofthe Xing mingfajuemingzhi (ZW872). Komjathy,MappingtheDaoistBody/81 nationoftheLaughingBuddhaandtheelementmercuryand/orasMai treya,thefutureBuddha(Wang199192,149). Whileconvincing froman arthistoricalperspective andaccounting for certain iconographic features, this reading fails to provide an ade quate explanation of the two figures in terms of the larger Daoist tradi tion in general andneidanlineages associated with L Dongbin and late imperial Daoism in particular. Why would the person or community whooriginallyenvisioned,commissionedandproducedsuchamapping oftheDaoistbodyincludetheLaughingBuddhaand/orMaitreya? If one follows a relatively straightforward reading that recognizes the potential connection between the textual and visual contours of the Neijingtu, then these figures are Laozi and Bodhidharma. In the poems attributed to L Dongbin, Laozi is mentioned by name and the blue eyed foreign monk (biyan huseng ) is a standard name for Bo dhidharma (a.k.a. Damo ; see Xingyun 1989, 5848; also Ding 1939). Inaddition,withregardtolatemedievalneidan lineages,onefindsthese twofiguresassymbolicreferentsforalchemicalingredients:theoldman symbolizes lead (qian), while the monk represents mercury (hong) (seealsoWang199192,147;Eichman2000a,351).Theyarereferredtoas such in the Danfangbaojian zhi tu(Diagram ofthe Pre ciousMirroroftheElixirChamber),whichiscontainedinXiuzhenshishu (Ten Works on Cultivating Perfection; DZ 263, 26.5b6a), an anthologyoftheearlyfourteenthcentury.Heremercury(Bodhidharma) is said tocorrespond to thejade yefluids (yuye),spirit water (shen shui ), the Maiden (chan ), white snow (baixue ), and the azure dragon (qinglong), among other things; lead(Laozi) is saidto correspond to the gold yefluids (jinye), Jade Pond (yuchi), the Child (yinger ), yellow sprouts (huangya ), and the white tiger (baihu), among otherthings. In other neidandiscussionsoftheseal chemicalsymbols/ingredients,leadmayrefertovitalessence(jing)or originalspirit(yuanshen ),whilemercurymayrefertospirit(shen) ororiginalqi(yuanqi ). 18 Basedonthesecorrespondences,anumberofreadingsarepossible. First, and most basic, the adept accumulates and gathers saliva, the ye 18 Cf.Ershisijue,DZ1158,1bandDanyangyulu ,DZ1057, 15b.Seealso Chuandaoji,DZ263,15.11a15a. 82/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009) fluidsassociatedwithBodhidharma,inthemouth,theJadePondassoci ated with Laozi. These fluids are then swallowed down to purify the heartandeventuallycomminglewithoriginalqiinthelowerelixirfield. In this respect, onemay again reflect upon the symbolicmeaning of Bo dhidharma and Laozi as ones own physiology. Another possible read ingisthatoriginalqi,associatedwithmercuryandthefigureofBodhid harma, and original spirit, associated with lead and the figure of Laozi, becomecommingledintheadeptsupperelixirfield. ReadingtheupperfigureintheNeijingtuasLaozialsomakessense because Laozi is frequently recognized as the founder of the Daoist tradition and as the high god Laojun (Lord Lao). 19 In the lives of specific Daoists and Daoist communities, he also came to symbolize the culminationof Daoistcultivation. He himself, after all, transformed into theuniverse: Laozi transformed his form. His left eye became the sun, and his right eye became the moon. His head became Mount Kunlun. His beard became the planets and constellations. His bones became dragons; his flesh, wild animals; and his intes tines, snakes. His belly became the ocean; his fingers, the five sacredmountains;andhishair,grassesandtrees.Hisheartbe came the Flowery Canopy. Finally, his two kidneys were unitedandbecamethetruefatherandmother.(Xiaodaolun , T. 3102,52.144b1315; cf. Yunjiqiqian , DZ 1032, 10.7b8a;seeMaspero1981,340;Schipper1993,114;alsoKohn 1995,5455) 20 Laoziisthesupremelylonglived,forheisthecosmosandthecos mos is he. The Neijing tu suggests that Laozi represents the Daoist adepts own possibilityeach persons eyes, the two circles in the dia gram, are the sun and the moon, and each practitioners consciousness contains the numinous presence which Laozi embodied, at least from 19 For a revisionist historical analysis oftheconstruction of Laozi asa his toricalpersonageseeGraham1998(1986).Forstudiesofthesomeofthewaysin whichhehasbeenrepresentedintheDaoisttraditionseeSeidel1969;Kohn1999. 20 HereLaozitakestheplaceoftheprimordialbeingPanGu(seeBirrell 1999;Kohn1993,16869;1995). Komjathy,MappingtheDaoistBody/83 certainemicperspectives.Accordingtothediagram,theessenceofthe Dao and the Daoist tradition is literally contained in ones own brain. Thehumanbeing, from this Daoistperspective, is acosmologicalbeing: onesveryownbodycontainsmountains,temples,constellationsand the locus for immortality and perfection. In some forms of Daoist religious praxis, specifically visualization (cunxiang ) and inner observation (neiguan ) forms of meditation during the early and late medieval periods, the Daoist adept turns the light of the sun andmoon (the eyes) inward,thusilluminatingtheinternallandscapewhichishisorherown body(seeKohn1989;Robinet1989a;alsobelow).Onecanalsoarguethat, iftheNeijingtu originatesinaLongmencontext,thesignificanceofLaozi findssubstantiationinthefactthatheisidentifiedasoneofthesocalled Five Patriarchs (wuzu) of early Quanzhen and as one of the Three Purities (sanqing ) in later Quanzhen. This, at the very least, may help to explain the enduring power of the Neijing tu as a mapping of Daoistexistentialandontologicalpossibility. ThesignificanceofBodhidharmaisabitmoredifficulttodetermine. One interpretation is that Bodhidharma, paralleling Laozis place in manysectorsoftheDaoisttradition,representstheoriginandessenceof Chan(Zen)Buddhism.Thatis,theChantradition,consideredasawhole, identifies him as the founder (Dumoulin 1988, 8594). 21 In addition to the abovementioned alchemical symbolism, the inclusion of Bodhid harmamay havebeen a way of gainingculturalcapital, suggesting that neidan practiceandChanmeditationledtothesamegoal.Ifthisreading is convincing, the Neijing tu may also be suggesting the importance of crosstradition cultivation practice. Here one thinks of Bodhidharmas mythic nine years of meditation, or wallgazing (biguan ), as a symbolofintensiveanddedicatedreligiouspraxis. 22 Chaninspiredemp 21 Critical and revisionist historiography on the Chan tradition in general and Bodhidharma in particular,parallelingsuch research on Daoismand Laozi, questionsthehistoricityofBodhidharma.SeeBroughton1999;alsoFaure1993. 22 In this respect, ones interest is peaked by the presence of the four dia grams on Chan practice (walking, standing, sitting, and lying down) that areincludedintheXingmingguizhi,DZ314,9.554555.Inthechartonmeditation practice, one is urged to engage in prolonged periods of seated meditation. In addition,Liaokong(fl.1895),oneoftheteachersofZhaoBichen(founderof theQianfenglineage), wasaChanmonkwhopracticedneidan.ZhaoBichenis,in 84/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009) tiness meditation becomes represented as the foundation for alchemical transformation, which alsotakesplace in a seatedmeditationposture as representedintheNeijingtu.Atthesametime,theremaybeapolemical dimensiontheBuddhistisplacedbeneathandinsupportoftheDaoist. It is also plausible to interpret the blueeyed foreign monk holding up the heavens as an illustration of the Zygomatic arch (cheekbones), and Laozis eyebrowshangingdownto earth asthe gazebecoming aware ofinternalaspectsofDaoistsubtlephysiology. 23 Again,alloftheselayers maybeoccurringsimultaneouslyinthediagramsmappingoftheDaoist bodyandDaoistreligiouspraxis. Just to the left of the blueeyed foreign monk, there are two addi tionaltextualcomponents,whichreadasfollows: Fazang says: Violet eyes clarify the four great oceans; the whitelightpervadesMountSumeru. Cishi says: Between the eyebrows white light con stantly emanates; this can liberate all sentient beings from the sufferingofceaselessreincarnation. Here Fazang most likely refers to the historical Fazang (643 712), 24 the third patriarch of Huayan Buddhism who systematized its teaching, but preliminary research indicates that none of these lines are contained in Fazangs extant works. The figure could also be, as Wang turn, identified as aneleventhgenerationmember of theWuLiu sublineage of Longmen.SeeXi2004,especially116.Takentogether,thismeansthattherewere Daoist monks practicing Chan meditation, and Chan monks practicing Dao ist internal alchemy in the Baiyun guan environs and nearby Buddhist sacred sitesatatimeroughlycontemporaneouswiththecommissioningandengraving of the Neijingtu. The central importance of Bodhidharma and Chan again adds support for a WuLiu connection, as Liu Huayang, the cofounder, was a Chan monk.ForadditionalinsightsonDaoismandtheoverallreligioculturalcontext ofBeijingduringthelateimperialandearlymodernperiodsseeGoossaert2007. 23 In terms of Western physiology, the figures also could be interpreted as thesphenoid bone and the pituitary gland, housed in the sellaturcicaportion of the sphenoidbone. 24 With regard to Fazang, Rousselle (1933, 213) suggests that Fazang re fers to Dharmagupta, but Wang points out that Dharmaguptas Chinese name wasFami(Wang199192,148). Komjathy,MappingtheDaoistBody/85 suggests, an allusion to the name of Amitbha before his attainment of Buddhahood (199192, 149). Cishi (the merciful one) is the name of Maitreya, the future Buddha. It is this portion of the Neijingtu that I believeprovidessomeof theclearestinternalevidentfor aWuLiu connection.TheWuLiubranchofinternalalchemy,generallyidentified as a sublineage of Longmen, traces itself to Wu Shouyang (Chongxu[InfusedEmptiness];15741644)andLiuHuayang (Chuanlu [Transmitted Containment]; 17351799). Wu Shouyang identified himself as an eighthgeneration Longmen adherent, and he mayhavestudieddirectlyunderWangChangyue(Kunyang [Paradisiacal Yang]; 16221680), the key figure in the late imperial sys tematization of Longmen. 25 Liu Huayang, a Chan monk who converted from Confucianism, identified himself as the spiritual successor of Wu, possibly having received mystical instruction from him in 1780. 26 The name WuLiu was first used in 1897 in the WuLiu xianzong (Immortal Lineage of Wu and Liu), 27 a compilation that was edited by DengHuiji(fl.1897).Thatcollectionisthusroughlycontempora neous with the Neijing tu. Perhaps most relevant for present purposes, Liu Huayang continually cites the Huayan jing (Skt.: Avatamsaka Stra; Flower Garland Sutra) throughout his writings. For example, in theHuimingjing(Scripture on Wisdom and Lifedestiny), Liu ex plainsthattheeightdiagramsillustratethecombinedteachingsofDaoist internal alchemy and the Huayanjing (ZW 131, 5.878, 5.881). So, within theemerging,lateimperialWuLiusublineageofLongmen,Fazangwas a patriarch, and the Neijing tu in turn evidences some connection with thatneidan system. The content of the Fazang and Cishi couplets is intrinsically Bud dhist, showing the degree to which Buddhist worldview was an inte 25 For information on Wu Shouyangs life see his Tianxian zhengli zhilun zengzhu (JHL 77; ZW 127) and Min Yides Wu Chongxu lshi zhuan (JHL7). 26 ForinformationonLiuHuayangslife, see Huimingjing preface (ZW131). 27 The collection includes Wus Tianxian zhengli (ZW 843) and Xianfohezong (ZW 843) as well as Lius Huimingjing (ZW 131) and Jinxianzhenglun (ZW 132). A popular translation of the latter two worksappearsinWong1998. 86/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009) gralaspectofDaoistcultivationmodelsinthelateimperialperiod. 28 The textual andvisualcontours oftheNeijingturepresentacommingling of the worldviews and goals of Buddhism and Daoism, perhaps most clearly expressed in the final goal of prolonging longevity and [attain ing] immortality and Buddhahood at thehighestpointof thediagram. Both quotations speak of expansions of consciousness, extraordinary abilities, and liberation from suffering. That is, one encounters further attempts to inspire the observer to cultivate more perfected ontological conditions. In addition to themaincourse of qicirculation along thespine, the diagram depicts smaller circulation routes. Some streams flow down from the upper mountains, while others move from the center of the headtotheDescendingBridge(jiangqiao).Theformerrelatestothe Jade Nectar (yujiang ), Sweet Dew (ganlu ) and Spirit Water (shenshui) (see also Needham et al. 1983, 114; Eichman 2000a, 350). In theprocess of alchemicalrefinement, theperfectqi(zhenqi) rises up the Governing Vessel through the Three Gates, where it combines withtheSpiritWater,asymbolicnameforthesaliva,todescendbackto thecentralregionsofthebody(Needhametal.1983,7778).Daoistculti vationmethodsincreasetheproductionofsaliva,whichis,inturn,swal lowedandmadetodescendtowardsthelowerelixirfield.Thisinvolves dropping the tongue, represented in the Neijing tu as the Descending Bridge,fromitsnormalpositionoftouchingtheupperpalateanddrink ing the Jade Dew. The saliva then passes through the TwelveStoried TowerandthePalaceoftheSweetSpringandColdPeak,bothnames for the trachea. 29 The Jade Dew descends through the Scarlet Palace (ji anggong)tocleanse theheart,before it splashesand expands inthe OceanofQi(qihai ). Then,ofcourse,therearetheCowherd(niulang )andtheWeav ingMaiden(zhin)(seeFig.3).TheCowherd,correspondingtothe Western star of Altair in the Aquila constellation, is shown standing in theheartregionholdingtheNorthernDipper(UrsaMajor).Nexttohim 28 There is a similar tendency in such Daoist texts as the Xingming guizhi (ZW314), Huimingjing (ZW131),andXingmingfajuemingzhi (ZW872). 29 SeetheHuangtingjing,DZ332,1.1b;eighthcenturyHuangtingwaijingjing zhu,DZ263,58.7a;andthirteenthcenturyJindandachengji,DZ263,10.4b. Komjathy,MappingtheDaoistBody/87 is the following line from the lower L Dongbin poem: Engraving the stone,theyoungladholdsastringofcash.TheWeavingMaiden,corre sponding tothe Western star of Vega in the Lyraconstellation, sitsnear the strand of trees working her loom. The textual component near her reads, The Weaving Maiden transports and transfers. According to early Chinesemythology, theCowherd and WeavingMaiden are lovers fated to meet only once a year. They are separated by the Sky River (Milky Way), over which a magpie bridge is believed to form on their annual meeting day (see Birrell 1999b, 16567; Schafer 1977; Sun and Kistemaker 1997). 30 The figures suggest the meeting of two things that shouldbeunited,butwhichordinarilyremainseparated.Basedontheir locations in the Neijing tu, and on one alchemicallysymbolic level, the Cowherd represents the trigram Lifire , and is thus associated with the heart orb and with spirit. The Weaving Maiden represents the tri gramKanwater ,andisthusassociatedwiththekidneyorbandwith vitalessence.Likethemagpiebridge,theDaoistpractitionermuststrive tounitethesetwophysiologicalandenergeticaspects.Thisisfrequently referred to as the dual cultivation of innate nature (xing ), associated withspiritandconsciousness,andlifedestiny(ming ),associatedwith vital essence and physical vitality (see, e.g., Xingming guizhi, ZW 314; Xingmingfajuemingzhi, ZW 872). 31 In thecontext of Daoist neidanpraxis, the Kanwater and Lifire trigrams are frequently related to LaterHeaven(houtian )conditions,whileKunearth andQian heaven trigrams are related to Prior Heaven (xiantian) condi tions. The aspiring Daoist adept is urged to complete the process of in version(diandao ):replacingtheyanglineinKanwithayinline to create the pure or perfect yin condition of Kun, and replacing the 30 I leave open the possibility thatthere is an actual astronomical aspectto this section of the Neijing tu, wherein the adept connects with and ingests the astralqiofthesestars.Whetherornotthisisthecase,thediagramagainreveals thepractitionerofalchemicaltransformationasacosmicizedbeing. 31 Note that the Xingming fajue mingzhi, a text from a late imperial neidan context similar to the received Neijingtu, seems to contain a direct reference to the diagram.SeeZW 872, 26.67.However, under the interpretation of the Chan BuddhistLiaokong,thetwofigurestakeonaBuddhisthue,becomingassociated withaninconstantmindanddesire.Liaokongreversesthesymbolism,believing thattheCowherdrelatestoqiandtheWeavingMaidentotheheart. 88/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009) yinline in Li with a yangline to create the pure or perfect yang conditionofQian(cf.Xiuzhentu). 32 Like most esoteric alchemical symbolism, this process may be and hasbeeninterpretedinavarietyofways.First,basedontheassociation ofthekidneyswithvitalessenceandtheheartwithintent,theprocessof inversion here involves directing intent toward the Mingmen area. This initiates an upward movement of vital essence (the yang line), which includes the generation, transformation and circulation of bodily fluids. Someofthesefluidsthendescendintoandthroughtheheartregion(the yinline),cleansingandpurifyingconsciousness,beforefinallybeingab sorbed into the lower elixir field, the Ocean of Qi. This, in turn, creates Qianheaven, associated with the upper elixir field and original spirit, andKunearth,associatedwiththelowerelixir fieldandoriginalqi.Such an interpretation also adds an additional layer ofmeaning andpractice: the Later Heavencondition ofheart,characterizedby emotionaland in tellectual turbidity, is Lifire, while the Later Heaven condition of the kidneys, characterized by depletion of vital essence, is Kanwater. The Daoist adept transforms these ontological conditions into their original and perfected correlates: by conserving and transforming vital essence, originalqibecomesabundantinthelowerelixirfield;bystillingandpu rifyingthemind,originalspiritbecomesconcentratedintheupperelixir field. Finally, as Schipper observes, the infant born out of the union of theweaverandthecowherdstringspiecesofcashtogetherthatformthe constellation ofthe Dipperthestar offate, thuscreating anew life for thebody(Schipper1978,356).TheimageoftheCowherdandWeaving MaidenthusremindstheviewerthatprolongedDaoistcultivationleads toatransformedmodeofbeing,toadifferentontologicalcondition,con firming yet againthat my fate is withinme,not with theheavens (wo ming zai wo, bu zai tian ) (Baopuzi neipian , DZ1185,16.7a;Xishengjing ,DZ666,3.6a)(seeSchipper1978,365; see also Kohn 1991b, 250). The Northern Dipper (beidou ) is often identified in the Daoist tradition as the primary determinant and influ enceononesfateorlifedestiny(ming )(seeMinandLi1994,369). 32 See,forexample,theeleventhcenturyYuqingneiliandanjue , DZ240,1.10b; Li1991,310. Komjathy,MappingtheDaoistBody/89 In the Neijing tu, this constellation is no longer located in the external cosmos. It has become formed and issues from the Daoist adepts own heartmind. Through dedication to cultivation and alchemical transfor mation, the practitioner initiates a shift in ontological condition: from ordinarybeing,separatedfromtheDaoanddestinedtodissipate,toPer fected, merged with the Dao and transcending the vicissitudes of mun daneidentity.Onecreatesandinhabitsadifferentcosmos,oratleastthe cosmosascompletelyintegratedin,asandthroughonesownbeing. Cultivational and Alchemical Contours FromtheaboveanalysisofthetextualandvisualcontoursoftheNeijing tu,wehaveseenthattheNeijingtu representsasophisticatedandmulti layeredmappingoftheDaoistbodyandDaoistreligiouspraxis,specifi callyalchemicaltransformationasundertakeninthelateimperialperiod and more than likely in the emerging WuLiu neidan sublineage of Longmen active in and around the environs of Baiyun guan during the late Qing dynasty (16441911). As charted in the present study, theNei jing tu provides illustrations for a wide variety of Daoist cultivation methods. Three in particular stand out: praxisoriented applications of classical Chinese medical views of the body; visualization methods which draw their inspiration from the Huangting jing (Scripture on the Yellow Court; DZ 331; 332)and which findclear historicalprece dents in early Shangqing (Highest Clarity) Daoism; and the al chemical technique known as the Waterwheel (heche) or Microcos mic Orbit (xiao zhoutian ). These three techniques form an inter connected system, wherein the adepts overall psychosomatic health is maintainedandstrengthened,whereintheadeptsbodybecomescosmi cized, and wherein the adept awakens the mystical body, the body beyondthebody (shenwai shen ) or yangspirit (yangshen ), that is the culmination of alchemical transformation and the precondi tion for postmortem transcendence. Each of the techniques thus com plementsandsupplementstheothers. The Neijing tu contains multiple layers of meaning, including vari ous earlier Daoist visions of the body. Generally speaking, the founda tional Daoist understanding of the human body in selfcultivation line 90/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009) ages parallels that of classical Chinese medicine. 33 The basic system in corporatesyinyangandFivePhase(wuxing)cosmologies,withthe FivePhasesconsistingofWood,Fire,Earth,Metal,andWater.Theseba siccosmologies,reconciledintoaconsistentworldviewbyZouYan (ca. 305240 BCE), underlie some of the earliest of the received medical classics, the Huangdi neijing (Yellow Thearchs Inner Classics) (seeUnschuld1985;2003).Inthesetexts,theFivePhasesysteminvolves specificcorrespondences,someofwhichincludedirection,season,color, taste,grain,constellation,yinorb(zang /),emotion,senseorgan,and sound (see, e.g., Suwen, ch. 5; Unschuld 2003, 99124). In addition to a medical application of the now combined yinyangand Five Phase cos mology,thesemedicaltextsprovidefoundationalinformationonqithe ory,theoriesofdisease,andthemeridiansystem. The Neijing tu, in turn, draws attention to the classical Chinese medical view at the foundation of specific forms of Daoist cultivation, includingvarious lineagesof internal alchemy (see Robinet1989b; 1995; Pregadioand Skar 2000; Komjathy 2007). 34 One obvious textual strata in thediagramthatechoestheHuangdineijing textsistheimportanceofthe Du (Governing) and Ren (Conception) vessels, two of the Eight Extraordinary Vessels (qijing bamai ), which are mentioned by nameintheuppersectionofthe Neijingtu(seeFig.4).Hereisthe Neijing tu as the Diagramof Internal Pathways. Generally speaking, the Gov erning Vessel is thecentralmeridian on theback ofthe body, while the 33 Livia Kohn identifies three major Daoist views of the body, correspond ing to three distinct methods and intellectual traditions within Daoism: (1) the bodyasanadministrativesystem,rootedintheworldviewoftheDaodejing,and realizedinquietisticandmedicallyorientedmeditation;(2)thebodyastheresi dence of spirits or gods and associated with Shangqing visualization practices; and(3)thebodyasimmortaluniverse,avisiondevelopedundertheinfluenceof Buddhist insight meditation (Chn.: guan ; Skt.: vipayan) (Kohn 1991a, 230). ForadditionalinsightsonDaoistviewsofthebodyseeSchipper1978;1993;Lvi 1989;Andersen1995;Saso1997;Komjathy2007;forChineseviewsingeneralsee alsoAmes1993; Kuriyama1999.ForrelevanttranslationsseeKohn1993,16188. 34 ThestudyofthecrosspollinationbetweenDaoismandChinesemedicine is only just beginning, butseeUnschuld 1985;Strickmann 2002.Forsome ofthe better theoretical discussions of Chinese medicine see Porkert 1974; Liu 1988; Maciocia1989. Komjathy,MappingtheDaoistBody/91 ConceptionVesselisthecentralmeridianonthefront. 35 Theformerbasi cally begins at the coccyx, the Weil point or first of the Three Passes mentionedabove,movesfromthebaseofthespineupthemiddleofthe back, around the crownpoint, to the upper lip. The latter basically be ginsattheperineum,movesupthecenterlineofthefrontofthebody,to thelowerlip. 36 ThesevesselsaremostclearlydepictedintheNeijingtu as the two pairs of five bands near the front of the headthe Governing Vesselcontainstheqiofthefiveyangorbs(gallbladder,smallintestine, stomach, large intestine, bladder), while the Conception Vessel contains the qi associated with the five yinorbs (liver, heart, spleen, lung, kid ney). 37 One also notices the presence of the five yinorbs, combined with the gall bladder, in the textual material at the center of the Neijing tu. While only the traditional iconography of the liver is illustratedthe strand of trees corresponding to the Wood phase (see Fig. 3)the most basiclayerofmeaninghere referstothehealthof each orb and thusthe health of the entire organism, 38 with health being the smooth flow of qi throughoutthebody. Thus, we find thefollowingpassage inthe Suwen whereQiBo answerstheYellowThearchsinquiriesabouttheorbs: 35 Eichman (2000a, 351) confuses the Governing Vessel with the Thrusting Vessel. The Trusting Vessel, notthe Governing Vessel, isthe only meridianthat traversesthecenterofthebodyfromtoptobottom.InDaoistcultivation,diverg ing here from Chinese medicine, this vessel ascends and descends through the core of the body from Huiyin (Meeting of Yin; CV1), the perineum, to Baihui (Hundred Meetings; GV20), the crownpoint. See, e.g., Xingming fajue mingzhi, ZW872,26.94.PassagesfromtheHuangdineijing ontheThrustingVesselmaybe foundinSuwenchapter 60 andLingshuchapters33,38and62,and65.Foraclas sical discussion of the system of the Eight Extraordinary Vessels see Nanjing chapters27and28.ModernoverviewsofthesystemmaybefoundinLarre1997 aswellasinMatsumotoandBirch1986. 36 For some classical references to the Governing Vessel and Conception Vesselsee Suwen chapters41and60 andLingshu chapters10and65. 37 Although still developing, future research on Chinese views of embryo genesis may provide additional insights into the Daoist neidanemphasis on the EightExtraordinaryVessels.IftheThrusting,Governing,andConceptionvessels are the first meridians to develop, the Daoist adept would thus be accessing a moreprimordialmomentinthedifferentiationofself. 38 RecallthefourTaijidiagramsmentionedabove.See Figure2. 92/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009) QiBoreplied,Theheartistherootoflifeandtransformations of spirit (shen )The lungs are the root of qi and the resi denceofthecorporealsoul(po )Thekidneysaretherootof quiescenceandstoringandtheresidenceofvitalessenceThe liver is the root of extremes and the residence of the ethereal soul (hun )The spleen and stomach, along with the large intestine, small intestine, Triple Warmer, and the bladder, are therootofstorageandtheresidenceofnutritive[qi](yingqi ).(DZ1018,9.15b18b;cf.18.8a9b) 39 As expressed in the presence of the five yinorbs in the Neijing tu, the Daoistadeptmustunderstandthespecificfunctionsofeachorbandthe variousrelationshipsamong them. 40 Thehealth of eachorband thehar monization of their respective functions is a necessary precondition for further alchemical work. If one takes the guidelines of the Suwen seri ously,thisinvolvesasystemwhereindietetics,seasonalattunementand cosmology are interwoven: one eats different types of foods and differ ent flavors depending on ones constitutional tendencies, stage of life andthe dominant seasonal influence (see, e.g.,Suwen,chs. 1and 2). It is difficulttoknowifthisaspectofChinesemedicineandofDaoistcultiva tion is embedded in the Neijing tu, but the diagram clearly orients the adept towards the importance of the Five Phase system in general and the five yinorbs in particular. One may say that this textual strata and leveloftraining,rootedinaclassicalChinesemedicalview,underliesthe moreobvious allusion to theHuangtingjing,namely, the esotericnames oftheorbsoccurringinthissectionofthe Neijingtu. Before moving from this discussion of praxisbased applications of classical Chinese medicine to the potential visualization practices ex pressedinthediagram,afewadditionalpointsdeservereflection.Inthe previous section ontextualand visualcontours, I have emphasizedthat 39 In Chinese medicine, the Triple Warmer (sanjiao ) is one of the six yangorbs(liufu ).Itispairedwiththepericardium(xinbao ),whichwas added to the five yinorbs (wuzang ) in order to create parallelism. For an attempt to chart its significance in Daoist alchemy in general and Quanzhen in particularseeKomjathy2007,ch.4. 40 ForsomecontemporarydiscussionsseeMaciocia1989andRoss1994. Komjathy,MappingtheDaoistBody/93 the Neijingtu drawstheattentionoftheviewer,andoftheaspiringadept utilizing it as an aid to his or her training, to specific locations in the body. One must, of course, know the importance of such locations in Daoistalchemicalpracticetoidentifytheminadiagramthatlacksflesh, in a diagram of the subtle body and inner realms. The associations of these points in Daoist alchemical praxis has already been partially dis cussed above and receives clarification below, but it is also possible to chart them according their medical function in contemporary Chinese medicine. While potentially anachronistic in terms of the context in which the diagram originated, these comments are meant to show that there are clear psychosomatic effects and therapeutic benefits. Some of the relevantcorporeal regions are as follows:perineum (yinyang tread mill; Huiyin [Meeting of Yin]; CV1), coccyx (lower temple/pass; Weil[TailboneGate];GV1),lowerback(flamesinthespine;Mingmen [GateofLife];GV4),midspine(middletemple/pass;Jiaji [lit., BesidetheSpine; Narrow Ridge]; GV6), occiput (upper temple/pass; Yuzhen[JadePillow];BL9and/orNaohu [BrainDoor];GV17), crownpoint(secondhighestpeak;Baihui[HundredMeetings];GV 20), upper lip (end of upperbands;Yinjiao [GumIntersection]; GV 28), and lower lip (end of lowerbands;Chengjiang [FluidRecepta cle]; CV24) (see also Xingming guizhi, ZW 314, 9.518; Xingming fajue mingzhi,ZW 872,26.17). 41 As this list indicates, all ofthesepointsare on theGoverning Vessel (GV) andConception Vessel (CV), which arecon sidered extra meridians in contemporary Chinese medicine, meaning that they are not part of the standard twelve meridians associated with the yinorbs and yangorbs. One understanding of the socalled Eight Extraordinary Vessels is that they store overflow qi and are empty or inactiveinmostpeople(seeLarre1997; MatsumotoandBirch1986). In addition to being reservoirs of qi, they are related to vital es sence,onescorevitality,andprotectiveqi(weiqi ),theqithatpro tectsonefromexteriorpathogenicinfluences.Theactivationoftheseme ridians in Daoist alchemical praxis thus stabilizes ones overall health and increases ones resiliency to disease. These forms of Daoist cultiva tion also increase the levels of qi in the body, which fill the Eight Ex 41 FormoreonthefunctionofthesevariouspointsincontemporaryChinese medicineseeEllisetal.1989;Deadmanetal.2001. 94/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009) traordinary Vessels. The ordinary person has twelve active meridians and eight latent meridians; the Daoist alchemist has twenty active me ridians, including those associated with psychic abilities. In addition, although it is beyond the scope of the present study to provide a com plete explanation, the above acupoints or energetic locations in the body have specific functional/therapeutic associations in contemporary Chinesemedicine.Takentogether,theyconnecttheGoverning,Concep tion and Thrusting vessels; harmonize the entire orbmeridian system; strengthenthekidneysandvitalessence;nourishthemarrow,spineand brain; strengthen the digestive system; and calm the heart and spirit. In short, by activating and concentrating on these locations, Daoist adepts strengthentheiroverallpsychosomaticwellnessandawakenlatentener geticlayersoftheirbeing. As expressed intheNeijingtu, Daoistreligiouspraxisalso involves visualization methods which draw their inspiration from the Huangting jing(Scripture on theYellow Court; DZ 331;332)and which find clear historical precedents in early Shangqing (Highest Clarity) Daoism,specificallyvisualizingthefiveyinorbsintermsof wuxing color and light associations. 42 Asmentioned, an additional layer oftheNeijing tustitleistheDiagramofInnerLuminosities;thatis,thediagrammay be read/employed as an aid for visualizing/activating/lodging the inner body gods (see Kroll 1996). In the textual component near the heart re gion(seeFig.3),thevariousorbsareidentifiedaccordingtotheesoteric names of their specific spirits as found in the Huangtingneijingjing(DZ 331,3a).Thissectionofthe Neijingtu readsasfollows: Thespiritoftheheartis[called]ElixirOrigin,givenname GuardingtheNumen. Thespiritofthelungsis[called]BrilliantSplendor,givenname 42 Robinet(1993)providesinformationontheplaceoftheHuangtingjingin ShangqingDaoism(seealsoRobinet1984;2000).Schipper1975providesacritical edition with an index, while Homann 1971 gives a preliminary analysis of the Neijing jing. Partial translations appear in Kohn 1993; Kroll 1996. A complete translation appears in Huang 1990. Michael Saso (1995) has also published a translation, butthe reader is forewarned that many ofthetranslated passages bear little resemblance to the original text. For insights on earlier Shangqing visualizationpracticesseeespeciallyRobinet1989a;1993, ch.2. Komjathy,MappingtheDaoistBody/95 EmptinessComplete. Thespiritoftheliveris[called]DragonMist,givenname ContainingIllumination. Thespiritofthekidneysis[called]MysteriousObscurity, givennameNourishingtheChild. Thespiritofthespleenis[called]ContinuouslyExisting,given nameEtherealSoulPavilion. Thespiritofthegallbladderis[called]DragonGlory,given nameMajesticIllumination. 43 Comparing the two passages, theNeijingtuhas a number of discrepan cieswiththestandard,classicallist.Inadditiontotheuseofzi(per sonal[name])insteadofzi (stylename),thediagramstextinverts the first name for the lungs: the Huangting jing reading haohua (SplendidBrilliance),andtheNeijingtureadinghuahao (Brilliant Splendor). More significantly, the Neijing tu substitutes neng (able to)forlong (dragon)inthenamesoftheliverandgallbladder,and thefirstnamefortheliverspiritisincorrect.Inthediagram,itreadsnen gyao (Capable Glory) instead of longyan (Dragon Mist), thus reproducing the name for the spirit of the gall bladder from the Huangtingjing. Theassociationsoftheorbswithlightandspiritualpresencesparal lel those documented in the Huangting jingtexts, and the section of the Huangting neijing jing in which the above esoteric names appear con cludes as follows:The spirits of the six yangorbs and five yinorbs are the vital essences of the body....By visualizing (cun ) them day and night, 44 you will naturally attain longevity (DZ 331, 3b; see alsoHuang tingneijingfuzangliufubuxietu,DZ432). 43 I have put the orbs in their order of occurrence in the Huangting neijing jing even though the diagrams text does not follow a recognizable pattern. I have also corrected the names in my translation in Figure 3. I leave open the question of whether or not the efficacy of the technique is affected by utilizing incorrectnames. 44 Orbypreservingthemdayandnight.InthecontextofShangqingprac tices,cun isusuallytranslatedtovisualize.However,Ileaveopenthepossi bilitythatcun shouldbetakeninitsmorestandardsenseoftopreserve.Thatis, the Huangting jing may be more about stabilizing an abode for the various orb 96/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009) Reading Daoist religious praxis solely in terms of the diagram, the most that one can reasonably say is the adept must know the esoteric namesoftheorbsandtheirrelatedspirits,andheorshemustpracticean inner observation (neiguan ) and/or visualization (cunxiang ) techniqueinwhichcolorsandnuminouspresencesarecentral.Hereone must know the following wuxing correspondences: Wood liver (gall bladder)azuredragoneast;Fire heart red vermilionbirdsouth; Earth spleen yellow center; Metal lungs white tiger west; and Water kidneys black north Mysterious Warrior (snaketurtle). Based on the above passage and the corresponding correlative cosmo logical associations, the Daoist adept brings his or her awareness to the heart,recallstheesotericnamesdanyuanandshouling,andvisualizesthe heart as an orb of red light.Next, the adept brings his awareness to the lungs, recalls the esoteric names haohua and xucheng, and visualizes the lungs as an orb of white light. This is followed by the same process for theliver,kidneys,andspleen.Finally,theadeptbringshisawarenessto the gall bladder, recalls the esoteric names longyao and weiming, and visualizes the gall bladder as an orb of azure light. 45 This proposed re construction of the visualization technique is substantiated by the fol lowingadditionalpassagefromthe Huangtingjing: [The youth (tongzi ) of the lungs wears] white brocade robes with sashes of yellow clouds[The youth of the heart wears]flowingcinnabarbrocaderobeswithajadeshawl,gold bellsand vermilionsashes[The youth of the liver wears] az ure brocaderobeswithaskirtofjadebells[Theyouth ofthe kidneys wears] black brocade, cloud robes with dancing dragon banners[The youth of the spleen wears] yellow bro cade, jade robes with a tigeremblem sash[The youth of the spirits, about becoming aware of and observing these, than about imagining somethingtobethecase. 45 Thegallbladderistheyangorbpairedwiththeliver,andthusassociated with theWood phase. Inthe context oftheHuangtingjing, itis unclear why the gallbladderissingledout.HereIwouldalsomentionthatdaninthenameof the heart and xuan inthe kidneyssuggest acinnabarred color in the former anddeepbluecolorinthelatter. Komjathy,MappingtheDaoistBody/97 gall bladder wears] ninecolored brocade robes with a green flowerskirtandagoldbelt(DZ331,3b6a). 46 Thatis,thewuxing colorassociationsarementionedinthesectionof the Huangting jing that directly follows the passage listing the esoteric names of the orb spirits. If the middle section of theNeijingtu is an en cryptedandabridgedreminderfortheDaoistadeptutilizingtheHuang tingjing asavisualizationmanual,thenthetechniquebeingemployedis even more complex than my outline suggests. The wuxing colors are primary, but there are also secondary colors as well as anthropomor phic images for the orb spirits. 47 The adept encounters and becomes inhabitedbybodygodswithveryspecificvisualappearances,including robeswithcorrespondingcolorsandsymbols. 48 Thepraxisoriented applications ofclassical Chinesemedical views ofthebodyandthevisualizationofthefiveyinorbsbasedontheireso tericnamesintheHuangtingjingandcorrespondingwuxingassociations areintegratedintoacomprehensiveandinterconnectedsystemofDaoist cultivation and alchemical transformation in the Neijing tu. In this re spect,thediagramalsoclearly illustrates the neidantechnique known as the Waterwheel (heche) orMicrocosmic Orbitpractice (xiaozhoutian ;lit.,SmallerCelestialCycle). 49 Generallyspeaking,thispractice 46 Thisisatentativetranslation,asthevariousreferencestojadeandclouds may be to patterns in the clothes, colors of the clothes, or actual jade and clouds.Ihaveattemptedtostayasclosetotheoriginalaspossible. 47 In terms of continuities in Daoismin general and neidanlineages in par ticular,itisnoteworthythattheseesotericnamesoftheorbspiritsappearin,for example, the Xiuzhen taiji hunyuan zhixuan tu , DZ 150, 7a (seeBaryosherChemouny1996)andtheXingmingguizhi,ZW314,9.529. 48 Beyond this narrow and relatively conservative reading of the diagram, onefindssimilarvisualizationmethodsintextswhichslightlypredateorwhich are contemporaneous with the Neijing tu. See, e.g., the seventeenthcentury Xingming guizhi, ZW 314, 9.516, 9.519; Xingming fajue mingzhi, ZW 872, 26.101, 26.119.Cf. Jindandachengji,DZ263,10.7a; Dadanzhizhi,DZ244,1.4b,2.1a, passim. 49 Wang(199192,152),followingNeedhametal.(1983,7280;11416),iden tifiestheSmallerCelestialCycle(xiaozhoutian)withthecirculationofthe perfectqibetweentheheart(theCowherd)andthekidneys(Needhamsreins; the Weaving Maiden), while the Larger Celestial Cycle (da zhoutian ) in volvesthespinalcolumn.Incontrast,inmorecontemporarypracticestheMicro 98/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009) involves circulating qi up the Governing Vessel and down the Concep tionVesselinacontinuouscycle. 50 Thecentralityofthisalchemicaltech niqueintheNeijingtuissubstantiatedbyvariousdiagrammaticcontours: the Three Passes, including the importance of the perineum area (yin yang treadmill); the two sets of fivebands, identified in the map as the Du(Governing)andRen(Conception)vessels;theheartregion,through which the Sweet Dew and qi descend; and the lower elixir field, where theperfectqibecomesstored.Inaddition,thecoloreddimensionsofthe painting increase ones awareness of this aestheticpractical depiction andthecorrespondingenergeticmovementthroughthebody. As expressed in the Neijing tu and other late imperial Daoist sources, 51 theMicrocosmicOrbitpracticewasacentralcomponentoflate imperial Daoist neidanpraxis. In one version of this cultivation method, the Daoist practitioner uses the intent (yi ) to combine vital essence with qiandcirculate it up the Governing Vessel anddown the Concep cosmicOrbitfocusesspecificallyontheGoverningandConceptionvessels,while theMacrocosmicOrbitinvolvescirculatingqi throughalloftheEightExtraordi naryVessels.See,e.g.,Xingmingfajuemingzhi,ZW872. 50 The history of the socalled Microcosmic Orbit technique is currently known. There are clear historical precedents in SongJin neidan lineages, where thepracticeisusuallyreferredtoastheWaterwheel(heche)andsometimes asthe CelestialCycle(zhoutian).However,asfar as my readinggoes, most ofthose methods involve circulating vital essenceand qi upthespine,thus cor respondingtothepracticeofrevertingvitalessencetorestorethebrain(huan jingbunao). That is, they do not utilize the Conception and Governing vessels.See,e.g.,thetenthcenturyChuandaojiwhichhasachapterentitledHe che (DZ 263, 15.19b23b). Some related diagrams may be found in the Dadan zhizhi, DZ 244; Huangdi bashiyi nanjing zuantu jujie, DZ 1024, 4a. See also the Xiuzhen tu and the thirteenthcentury diagram entitled the Yixue lei (Section onMedical Learning), which ispreserved inthefifteenthcentury Shilin guangji (Needhametal.1983,112). 51 See, e.g.,Xingmingguizhi,ZW 314, 9.51819;Huimingjing,ZW131, 5.879 890; Xingming fajue mingzhi, ZW 872, 26.28, 26.94. On these texts see Wilhelm 1962; Lu 1973; Despeux 1979; Needham et al. 1983, Wong 1998; Darga 1999. A more thorough comparison between the Neijing tu and contemporaneous texts mightclarifyitsrelationshiptosuchlateimperiallineagesasLongmenandWu Liu.Itisalsonoteworthythatthesetextsarewidelycirculatedamongcontempo raryQuanzhenmonastics.Authorsfieldobservations. Komjathy,MappingtheDaoistBody/99 tion Vessel in a continual cycle. The Neijing tu draws attention to this particular cultivation method through the presence of not only the abovementioned vessels but also the three temples or huts along the spinalcolumn.ThesearetheThreePasses(sanguan )throughwhich itisdifficultfortheqi topass.Thepasses,fromlowertomiddletoupper, are as follows: Weil (Tailbone Gate; coccyx), Jiaji (Narrow Ridge; literally, besidethespine; midspine), and Yuzhen (Jade Pillow;occiput).IntheMicrocosmicOrbitpractice,particularattentionis giventothesethreelocationsinordertoopenthevesselsandensurethe efficacious movement of vital essence and qi through the body. In one version of the practice, the adept uses the intent to consecutively open Huiyin (perineum), Weil (coccyx), Mingmen (between kidneys), Jiaji (midspine), Yuzhen (occiput), Baihui (crownpoint), Shenguan (SpiritPass;thirdeye),andYinjiao (GumIntersection;cleftofupper lip). Next one uses the tongue to gather saliva and swallow it down throughtheTwelvestoriedTowerandScarletPalace,beforeitjoinswith theperfectqiinthelowerelixirfield.Eachofthesepositionsinturncor responds to one of the twelve branches (dizhi ), with the perineum being zi (north; midnight; winter solstice) and the crownpoint being wu (south; noon; summer solstice) (see Xingming fajue mingzhi, ZW 872, 26.17, 26.94). Recalling the two sets of five bands in the Neijing tu, the Microcosmic Orbit practice leads to the activation and maintenance of the other meridians and their related orbs. That is, circulating qi through the Governing and Conception vessels harmonizes the entire subtlebody. The activation ofand/or encounter withthissubtlebody is thus a central dimension of Daoist neidan praxis as documented in the Neijing tu and as expressed in late imperial Daoism. In addition, if the Daoist adept is also incorporating the abovementioned wuxing corre spondencesandvisualizationtechniques,astheNeijingtuseemstoindi cate, then his orherpractice literally embodiesatransformedcondition, atransformingprocess.Astraleffulgencesandvarioussubtlerealitiesare introduced into, merged with, and circulated through his or her very being. 100/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009) Reorientations In theprevious installmentof thepresent article, whichcoveredthehis torical and terminological contours of the Neijing tu, I emphasized its originsin theLongmenmonasticcommunityofBaiyunguanduringthe late Qing dynasty (16441911). These historical details have now been clarified based on internal textual evidence. The intermingling of Chan BuddhistandDaoistneidan concerns,specificallythereferencetoFazang, indicates a potential connection with the emerging WuLiu sublineage ofLongmen.Inaddition,analysisofinfluentiallateimperialDaoisttexts, includingworksthatwereroughlycontemporaneouswiththeNeijingtu andthat alsocirculated within the Longmenmonasticcommunity, indi catesstrongparallels.Ofparticularnoteinthisrespectisthestrongem phasis that Liu Huayang, one of the nominal founders of the WuLiu lineage,places on theHuayanjingand the MicrocosmicOrbitpractice in his Huimingjing. From the discussion of the textual and visual contours, as well as the cultivational and alchemical contours, it has become clear that the Neijingturepresentsa detailed andmultilayeredmapping ofthe Daoist body and Daoist religious praxis. On the one hand, it parallels various earlier neidan lineages and related diagrams of Daoist bodies. On the otherhand,theNeijingtuseemstobe a unique synthesis. It expresses a vision of the Daoist body as actualized through alchemical praxis and transformation. At the core of this vision is an emphasis on self cultivation:thebodycontainsfieldstobetended,seedstobesown,and graintobe gathered. That graincontainsthe universe, a universe which issimultaneouslycosmos,world,landscape,community,self.Itisauni verseactualizedthroughneidanpraxis,whichaccordingtotheNeijingtu involves the conservation and transformation of vital essence, produc tion and ingestion of saliva, visualization of the inner orbs, and activa tion of the Daoistalchemicalor mysticalbody (see Komjathy 2007). Thisistheyangspiritorthebodybeyondthebodythatistheprecondi tionforpostmortemsurvival.Itisamysticalbodybecauseonesbody becomes cosmicized, rarified and possibly divinized. Ones very physi ology becomes experienced as the numinous presence of the Dao made manifestandembodied.Itisalsomysticalbecausetherearenonspatial andsubtledimensionsthatrequireactualization.BasedontheNeijingtu, Komjathy,MappingtheDaoistBody/101 it is unclear if the ultimate goal of religious praxis expressed in its con tours is unification with and absorption into the Dao, enlightenment conceived of as the emergence of divine radiance, or the formation of a yangspiritthat will transcend thedeath ofthephysical body. Placed in thecontextofsimilarsystemsofinternalalchemy,especiallythoseofthe late imperial period, it is perhaps the latter: a yangspirit which exits throughthecrownpointuponthedeathofthephysicalbody,expressed asthepearlofwhitelightabovetheheadinthe Neijingtu. Toconclude,onemayrecallthewonderexpressedbyLiuChengyin whenhefirstencounteredthisdiagraminthestudioofGaoSongshan. Iexamined[thediagram]foralongtimeandrealizedthatmy comprehensionwasgrowing.Ibegantorealizethatexhalation andinhalationaswellasexpellingandingestingofthehuman bodyarethewaxingandwaningaswellastheebbandflowof the cosmos. If you can divine and gain insight into this, you will have progressed more than halfway on your inquiry into thegreatWayoftheGoldenElixir. AccordingtoLiu,Daoistsviewingthismapseetheirownpossibilityfor psychosomatic transformation reflected in its lines and images, in its mapping of the Daoist body and Daoist religious practice. Simultane ously,themapisnottheterritory(seeSmith1993).Thepurposeofamap istofamiliarizethetravelerwiththelandscape,andthemapismerelya preliminary stage indevelopingadeeper awareness of andrelationship with a particular region, to develop the appropriate orientation. Until one becomes so familiar with, so oriented towards, the landscape that one may burn the map as kindling for a mountain fire, the map has failed to serve its purpose. 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