BIO 160- The Nervous System

Central Nervous System (CNS) is made up of the spinal cord and the brain.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) is made up of the nerves and ganglia outside of the brain and spinal cord.

Neuron Structure:
Neurons transmit information in the form of chemical signals called Nerve impluses to other neurons and to cells
outside of the nervous system.

A neuron has a rounded area called the cell body that contains the nucleus. Two types of extensions send and receive
electrochemical messages. Dendrites receive these messages while neurotransmitters transmit them.

Nerves are bundles of axons.

In the CNS, axons are enclosed by sheaths of myelin provided by Schwann cells (cells).

In the PNS, the axons are surrounded by sheaths of myelin provided by Schwann cells. Narrow gaps in this myelin sheath
are called nodes of Ranvier.

Neuron Types:
By Structure: Briefly describe the three types of neurons as classified by structure.
1. Multipolar Neurons (CNS): 1 axon and several dendrites
Most abundant
Motor neurons and interneurons
2. Bipolar Neurons (Special Senses): 1 axon and 1 dendrite
Rare, e.g., retinal neurons
3. Unipolar Neurons (PNS): single, short process that has two branches

By Function: Briefly describe the three types of neurons as classified by function.
1. Sensory Neurons (PNS): Transmit impulses from sensory receptors toward the CNS
2. Interneurons (CNS): Shuttle signals through CNS pathways; most are entirely within the CNS
3. Motor Neurons (PNS): Carry impulses from the CNS to effectors


Neuroglial cells:
Neuroglial cells fill spaces, support neurons, provide structural frameworks, produce myelin, and carry on phagocytosis.
CNS:
microglia cells are small cells that phagocytize bacterial cells and cellular debris.

astrocytes are near blood vessels and support structures, aid in metabolism, and respond to brain injury
by filling in spaces.

Nerve Impulse Conduction (bioelectric current) is a moving action potential:
Define the following terms.
Threshold stimulus: causes the membrane potential to become less negative


Action potential: Long-distance signals of axons
Briefly explain why nerve impulse conduction an all-or-none response? That is when a threshold stimulus is applied to
an axon, it response completely so that all impulses carried on a particular axon are of the same strength.

Neurotransmitters:
Neurotransmitters that increase postsynaptic membrane permeability to sodium ions may trigger impulses and are thus
excitory.

Other neurotransmitters may decrease membrane permeability to sodium ions, reducing the chance that it will reach
threshold and are thus inhibitory.

Nerve pathways:

Describe the components of a reflex arc.
Receptor
Sensory neuron
Integration center
Motor neuron
Effector

Central Nervous System

Meninges: The brain and spinal cord are surrounded by membranes called meninges that lie between the bone and the
soft tissues.

List the three layers of the meninges and briefly state one function of each layer.
the dura mater: outermost layer: home to meningeal veins
arachnoid membrane: middle layer: creates protective barrier to the brain
the pia mater: innermost layer: provides protection

Spinal Cord
What is a major difference between gray matter and white matter? The two main differences between white matter
and grey matter are biological and functional.

Where is gray matter found in the spinal cord? Center of the cord

Spinal Cord Function:

Nerve tracts are bundled axons of the Central Nervous System including the brain and spinal cord. Explain the functional
difference between the ascending and descending tracts of the spinal cord.
Ascending: tracts that conduct impulses to the brain
Descending: tracts conduct impulses down the cord away from the brain
Brain:

Cerebrum: The cerebrum is the largest portion of the brain.

A deep ridge of nerve fibers called the corpus callosum connects the two halves of the cerebrum.

Name the four lobes of the brain: The frontal, the parietal, the temporal, the occipital



A thin layer of gray matter, the cerebral cortex, lies on the outside of the cerebrum and contains 75% of the cell
bodies in the nervous system.

Ventricles and Cerebrospinal Fluid

The ventricles are continuous with the central canal of the spinal cord, and are filled with cerebro-spinal fluid. What is the
function/purpose of this fluid? Provides nutrients & cushions the CNS


Diencephalon:

The thalamus functions in sorting and directing sensory information arriving from other parts of
the nervous system, performing the services of both messenger and editor. It acts like an executive secretary for
the cerebrum.

The hypothalamus maintains homeostasis by regulating a wide variety of visceral activities and by linking the endocrine
system with the nervous system. List its other functions.

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Brainstem: .

What are the functions of the midbrain? including body temperature regulation, motor control, and sleep cycles.
Additionally, the midbrain influences hearing, vision, and arousal

What are the functions of the medulla oblongata? It's functions are involuntary, or done without thought

Cerebellum:

What are the functions of the cerebellum? Maintenance of balance and posture
Coordination of voluntary movements
Motor learning
Cognitive functions


Peripheral Nervous System

What is the general function of the somatic nervous system? Controls skeletal muscles

What is the general function of the autonomic nervous system? regulates the functions of our internal organs


Somatic Nervous System:
How many cranial nerves are there? 12 pairs
Most of the cranial nerves are mixed nerves.
How many spinal nerves are there? 31 pairs
How are spinal nerves named? region and level of the spinal cord
The root that contains the sensory neurons is the dorsal root. The motor neurons arise in the ventral root.



Autonomic Nervous System (ANS):
The ANS is part of the peripheral nervous system that functions independently without conscious thought. It is separated
into two divisions. What are the two divisions and what is the major functional difference between them?
Sympathetic: is involved in the stimulation of activities that prepare the body for action, such as increasing the
heart rate, increasing the release of sugar from the liver into the blood, and other generally considered as fight-or-
flight responses (responses that serve to fight off or retreat from danger).
Parasympathetic: activates tranquil functions, such as stimulating the secretion of saliva or digestive enzymes into
the stomach.