Lab Manual Upes Physics

PHYSICS
LABMANUAL
Department of Physics
College of Engineering Studies
FOR
Engineering Students
(Semester 1)
Name...........................................................................................
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PROFESSIONAL
University of Petroleium and Energy Studies, Dehradun
2014-1
st
Ed.Revised
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INSTRUCTIONSFORLABORATORY
Theobjectiveofthelaboratoryislearning.Theexperimentsaredesignedtoillustratephenomenain
differentareasofPhysicsandtoexposeyoutomeasuringinstruments.Conducttheexperimentswith
interestandan attitudeoflearning.
Youneedtocomewellpreparedfortheexperiment
Workquietlyandcarefully(thewholepurposeofexperimentationistomakereliablemeasurements!)
andequallysharetheworkwithyourpartners.
Behonestinrecordingandrepresentingyourdata.Nevermakeupreadingsordoctorthemtogeta
betterfitforagraph.Ifaparticularreadingappearswrongrepeatthemeasurementcarefully.Inanyevent
allthedatarecordedinthetableshavetobefaithfullydisplayedonthegraph.
Allpresentationsofdata,tablesandgraphscalculationsshouldbeneatlyandcarefullydone.
Bringnecessarygraphpapersforeachofexperiment.Learntooptimizeonusageofgraph papers.
Graphsshouldbeneatlydrawnwithpencil.Alwayslabelgraphsandtheaxesanddisplay units.
Ifyoufinishearly,spendtheremainingtimetocompletethecalculationsanddrawinggraphs.Come
equippedwithcalculator,scales,pencilsetc.
No. EXPERIMENT PAGENO.
LISTOFEXPERIMENTS
5
8
12
15
20
23
26
30
33
37
41
46
51
Todeterminethewavelengthofsodiumlight(monochromaticlight)byNewtonsringsmethod.
Todeterminethewavelengthsofthemercury(blue,green/yellowy
1
,y
2
)lightbynormalincidence
method,usingdiffractiongrating.
Todetermi nethespeci fi crotati onofcanesugarsol uti onwi ththehel pofPol ari -meter.
TodeterminetheresistanceperunitlengthofaCareyfostersbridgewireandthentodetermine
thespecificresistanceofthegivenwire.
TodeterminetheenergybandgapofPNjunctionsemiconductordiodeinreversebiased.
Todeterminetheenergybandgapofasemiconductorusingfourprobemethod.
TostudytheHallEffectandhencedeterminethehallcoefficient(R
h
)andcarrierdensity(n)ofa
givensemiconductormaterials.
Todeterminethe(1)numericalaperture(NA),(2)powerlossesduetomacrobendingandadaptor
ofgivenopticalFiber.
TostudytheV-Icharacteristicsofpnjunctiondiodeandtocalculateresistanceofadiodein
forwardandreversebias.
LaserDiffractionmethodforsingleslitexperiment.
Studyofboththecurrentvoltagecharacteristicandthepowercurvetofindthemaximumpower
point(MPP)andefficiencyofasolarcell
TodeterminethewavelengthofsodiumlightwiththehelpofFresnelsbiprism
Todeterminethedispersivepowerofamaterialofprismusingspectrometer.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
Index
55-56
PROFESSIONAL PUBLICATIONS
AMBALA CANTT.
PROFESSIONALS Physics Lab Manual - I 5
AIM:Todeterminethewavelengthofsodiumlight(MonochromativLight)byNewtonsringsmethod.
APPARATUS:OpticalarrangementforNewtonsrings,travelingmicroscope,sodiumlamp,shortfocusconvex
lens,readinglensandspherometer.
PRINCIPLE&FORMULA:ConsideraPlano-convexlensoflargeradiusofcurvatureplacedonacircular
planeglassplate.Athinfilmofairisformedbetweentheglassplateandthelensasshown.AtthepointOwhere
thelensisincontactwiththeglassplate,thethicknessoftheairfilmiszeroandasweproceedawayfromO,the
thicknessofthefilmgraduallyincreases.AtthepointsaroundOandatequaldistancefromit,thethicknessof
thefilmissamesincethebottomsurfaceofthelensisspherical.
NowsupposethatmonochromaticlightisincidentnormallyontheairfilmatXatadistanceofafromO.This
lightispartiallyreflectedatthetopsurfaceoftheairfilmatXandafterrefractioninairpartiallyatY.Thetwo
reflectedbeamswillhavecertainpathdifferencedependinguponthethicknessofthefilm(XY).Interferenceof
thesetworeflectedbeamstakesplacewhichcanbeobservedthroughamicroscopeplacedverticallyabovethe
lens.ThepointXwillbebrightordark,dependinguponwhetherthepathdifferenceisoddorevennumberof
halfwavelengthofincidentlight.Similarlyinterferenceoflightoccursatallotherpointsofthefilmandasetof
ringswhicharealternatelybrightanddarkwillbeobservedwithadarkspotatthecentreoftherings.Eachring
isthelocusofallpointsinthefilmwhichareatthesamedistancefromthecentreOoftheringsystem.Ifd
m
and
d
n
arethediametersofthem
th
andn
th
darkringsrespectivelyandRistheradiusofcurvatureofthecurved
surfaceofthePlano-convexlens,itcanbeshownthatthewavelengthoflightisgivenby
( )
2 2
m n
d d
4R m n
ThusbyformingtheseringscalledNewtonsringsandbymeasuringtheirdiameters,thewavelengthoflightcan
bedetermined.
APPLICATIONS
Thicknessofathinfilm.
Radiusofcurvatureofconvexsurfaceofthegivenlens.
Refractiveindexofaliquid.
Wavelengthofamonochromaticlight.
ColorseparationscanningEquipments/Colourscanners.
AntiNewtonringGlassinphotographicindustry.
Figure1.1
EXPERIMENT NO. 1
PROCEDURE:
1. PlacethePlano-convexlensonthecircularplaneglassplatesuchthattheconvexsurfaceofthe
Planoconvexlensisincontactwiththeplaneglassplate.Placethiscombinationinthewoodenbox,
whichcontainaplaneglassplateinclinedby45
o
totheincidentlightfromtheshortfocusconvexlens.
Placethewoodenboxunderthetravelingmicroscopeandadjustituntilsharpringsareseen.
2. Bringthepointofthecrosswirestothecentrespotoftheringsystem.Startingfromthecentreofthering
systemmovethemicroscopecrosswirestotheleftuptothe19
th
darkring.(Thisnumberselected
arbitrarily).
3. Settheverticalcrosswiretangentialtothe19
th
darkringattheleftandnotethereadingonthehorizontal
scaleofthemicroscope.Repeatthesameforalternatedarkringsuntilcrosswirereaches1
st
darkring.
Similarlytakethereadingsofalternateringsattherightsidestartingfrom1
st
ring.
4. DeterminationofradiusofcurvatureoftheconvexsurfaceofthePlano-convexlens(R)
Takeoutthelensandmarkthesurfacewhichwasincontactwithglassplate.Placethespherometeron
theconvexsurfaceoftheplano-convexlensandnotethereadingofthespherometer(h
1
)thenplacethe
spherometerontheplaneglassplateandnotethereading(h
2
).
Readingofthespherometerforconvexsurfaceofthelens(h
1
) =cm
Readingofthespherometerforplaneglassplate(h
2
) =cm
Averagedistancebetweenthelegsofthespherometer(l) =cm
Heightoftheconvexsurface(h)=(h
1
h
2
) =cm
RadiusofcurvatureofthecurvedsurfaceofthePlano-convexlens
2
h
R ...................................cm
6h 2
l
= + =
TABLE
S.No. RingNo.
MicroscopeReading(cm)
Diameter
d=L~R
(cm)
d
2
(cm
2
)
Leftside(L) Rightside(R)
1 20
2 18
3 16
4 14
5 12
6 10
7 8
8 6
9 4
10 2

GRAPH
DrawagraphwiththeringnumberonX-axisand(diameter)
2
onY-axis.
Byjoiningthepointsastraightlinepassingthroughtheoriginisobtained
asshowninfigure1.2.Findtheslopeofthestraightline,whichis:
( )
( )
2 2
m n
d d
m n
CALCULATIONS
Radiusofcurvatureoftheplanoconvexlens(R) =cm
Diametersquareofthem
th
ringd
2
m
=cm
2
Diametersquareofthen
th
ringd
2
n
=cm
2
Slopeofthestraightline =cm
2
Wavelength(
) =cm
RESULT:WavelengthofSodiumlight(
)isfoundtobe=cm=.AA
0
PRECAUTIONS
1. Thelenssurfaceaswellascircularglassplatemustbewellcleaned.
2. Thecentrespotoftheringsystemshouldbedark.
1. WhatisNewtonsRing?Howaretheseringsformed?
2. Whyaretheseringscircular?Ifthefringesarenotexactlycircularwhatdoyouinfer?
3. WhyareyouusingthePlano-convexlensoflargefocallength?
4. Whydotheringsgetcloserastheorderofringsincreases?
5. Whyisthecentreoftheseringsdark?
REFERENCES
1 PracticalPhysicsGupta.Kumar
2 AtextbookofPracticalPhysicsR.KGoel.GovindRam
3 B.ScPracticalPhysicsC.LArora
Y

d
2
m

d
2
n

n m X
number of ring
O
D
i
a
m
e
t
e
r
2
VIVA-VOCE
Figure1.2
EXPERIMENT NO. 2
AIM:Todeterminethewavelengthofthespectrallines(Blue,Green,Yellow,Y
1,
Y
2
)byusingdiffraction
gratingthenormalincidencemethod.
APPARATUS:Spectrometer,diffractiongrating,spritlevel,mercuryvaporlampandmagnifyinglens.
PRINCIPLE&FORMULA
Diffractionisthephenomenonofbendingoflightaroundtheobstaclespeciallywhenpassedclosetosharpedges
orthroughaperturesornarrowopenings.Consideraplanetransmissiongratingwithalternateopaqueand
transparentlines.Letaparallelbeamoflightraysareincidentnormallyonthegrating.Mostoftheseraysare
transmittedinthedirectionoftheincidentlightthroughtransparentportionsofthegratingandifaconverginglens
isplacedintheirpath,theyarebroughttofocusatO.therewillbeaverybrightimage.Someoftheincidentlight
isdiffractedattheedgessuchasB,DandFetc.,atdifferentanglesasshowninfigure2.1.Ifweconsiderthese
rays(bendatBandDatanangle
u
fromthedirectionoftheincidentlight)allsuchraysformaparallelbeamand
afterpassingthroughthelens,theyarebroughttofocusatI.TheintensityatIwillbemaximumorminimum
dependinguponthepathdifferencebetweenthediffractedraysfromBandD.Ifdisthegratingelement(distance
betweentwoconsecutivelinesonthegrating),pathdifferenceisequaltodsin
u
.
B
D
F
O
I
Thusifdsinq=nl(anintegralnumberofwavelengths)thebrightimagesareformedinthefocalplaneofthelens.
Thesearecalledfirstorder,secondorder(n=1,2,3,)etc.,images.Thusonesetofimageswillbeformedonone
sideofthecentralbrightimageatO.alsothediffractionorbendingoflightraystakesplacetotheothersideof
theincidentdirectionandcorrespondingimagesofdifferentordersareformedontheothersideofthecentral
imageO.ThusinthefieldofviewofatelescopeofwhichthelensLformstheobjective,acentralbrightimage
andthediffractedimagesofdifferentorders(n=1,2,3,etc.)areobserved.Iftheincidentlightismonochromatic,
eachorderofdiffractedimagewillbeofthesamecolor,butifwhitelight(mercury)isincidentonthegrating,
eachdiffractedimageconsistsofawholespectrum.Thusspectraofdifferentordersareformedoneithersideof
thecentralwhiteimage.
APPLICATIONS
Gratingasfilters
Fiberoptictelecommunication
Beamsplitters
Figure2.1
Opticalcouplers
Metrological
Ground-basedastronomy
Ramanspectroscopy
Colorimetry
Atomicandmolecularspectroscopy
Fluorescencespectroscopy
FORMULA
( ) ( ) a b sin n Grating equation + u =
Or =
n
b)sin (a u +
Where
(a+b)=gratingelement
u
=angleofdiffraction.
n=orderofdiffraction
PROCEDURE
1. Makepreliminaryadjustmentsofthespectrometer.
2. Clampthegratingontheprismtablewiththehelpofaclamp.Adjustthegratingfornormalincidence
positionbythefollowingmethod.
I. SetthetelescopefordirectreadingpositionandnotethereadingV
1
andV
2
.
II. Add90
o
totheabovereadingandrotatethetelescopetothisreadingandfixit.
III. Nowrotategratinguntiltheimageoftheslitisatcrosswiresofthetelescopeandfixtheprism
table.Nowtheincidentlightismaking45
o
withthegratingplane(Seefigure2.2).
IV. Releasethevernierscaleknobandrotatethevernierscalethroughanangleof45
o
sothatthe
gratingmaintainsexactlynormaltotheincidentlight.Fixtheverniertableinthisposition;now
gratingisatnormalincidenceposition.
3. ReleasethetelescopeandrotateittoleftsideofthedirectreadingpositionuntiltheIorderspectrumis
seen.Nowcoincidetheverticalcrosswireoverthespectrallinesofdesiredcolorandnotedownthe
readingsinthetwoverniersasV
1
andV
2
.Further,rotatethetelescopetillIIorderspectrallinesare
visible,coincidethecrosswireandnotedownthereadingsintwoverniersasV
1
andV
2
against2
nd
order.
4. Nowrotatetelescopetotherightsideofthedirectreadingpositionuntilthefirstorderspectrumisseen.
Concidethecrosswireswiththesameyellowspectrallineandnotedownthereadingsinthetwoverniers
asV
1
'andV
2
'.RotatethetelescopefurtheruntiltheIIorderspectrallinesareseen,thencoincidethe
verticalcrosswireswithlinesandnotedownthereadingsasV
1
'andV
2
'.Theangleofdiffractionis
givenbyhalftheanglebetweencorrespondinglines.
CALCULATIONS
No.oflinespercmonthegrating=gratingelement=( ) ( )
2.54
a +b = 1/N =
15000
Telescope
Grating
Collimator
Source
Slit
45
o

45
o

90
o

Prism table

Figure2.2
TABLE
RESULT:Theobservedwavelengthsaregivenintable
PRECAUTIONS
1. Opticaladjustmentofthespectrometershouldbemadedirectly.
2. Theslitshouldbeasnarrowaspossible.
3. Gratingsurfaceshouldnotbetouchedwithfingersastheslitmightgetdamaged.
4. Thegratingshouldbeexactlynormaltotheincidentbeam.
5. Whiletakingobservations,telescopeandprismtableshouldbekeptfixed.
Figure2.3
Order
of
diffraction
Spectral
lines
SpectrometerReadings
Left Right
( ) ( )
1 1 2 2
V V V V
2
2
' ' +
u =
u
( ) a b sin
n
+ u
=
Iorder
1
V
2
V
2
V'
1
V'
Y
1
Y
2
Blue
Green
IIorder
Y
1
Y
2
Blue
Green
Colourofspecturlline

(observed)

(Standard)
%(Error)
Blue
Green
Yellow1
Yellow2
........
........
........
........
........
........
........
........
........
........
........
........
1. Whatisaplanetransmissiondiffractiongrating?
2. Whythegratingshouldbekeptnormaltotheplaneofgrating,thenwhichformulashouldbeapplied?
3. Whatis(a+b)intheformula?
4. Howmanyordersofspectradoyougethere?Whydoyounotgetthethirdorderspectrum?
5. Howmanytypesofgratingareknowntoyou?
6. Whatisthemaindifferencebetweenthespectrumobtainedbygratingandduetoprism?
7. Whatdoyoumeanbydispersionoflight?
8. Whyalightonpassingthroughtheprismdispersesintoitsconstituentcolours?
9. Definedispersivepowerofanymaterial?
10. Onwhatfactorsdoesthedispersivepowerdepend?
11. Whatistheangleofdeviation?
REFERENCES
4 EngineeringPhysics-M.NAvadhanulu,A.ADaniandP.MPokley
5 ALaboratoryManualofPhysicsD.PKhandelwal
6 B.ScPracticalPhysicsHarnamSingh
VIVA-VOCE
AIM:Todeterminethespecificrotationofcanesugarwiththehelpofapolarimeter.
APPARATUS:Half-shade/Bi-quartzpolarimeter,lightsource,sugar,measuringflask,beaker,analyticalbalance
andaweightbox.
PRINCIPLE&FORMULA
IfabeamofunpolarisedlightisviewedthroughtwocrossedNicolprisms(whentheprincipalplanesof
thetwoareperpendiculartoeachother)thefieldofviewiscompletelydark.ThefirstNicoliscalledthepolariser
andthesecondiscalledtheanalyzer.IfthesugarsolutionisintroducedbetweenthetwocrossedNicols,itis
foundthatlightisrestoredinthefieldofview.Toextinguishthelight,theanalyzerhastoberotatedthrougha
finiteangledependingontheconcentrationofthesugarsolution.Thisexperimentshowsthatthesubstance
introducedbetweentheNicolshasrotatedtheplaneofpolarization.Suchsubstancesarecalledopticallyactive
substancesandthephenomenoniscalledOpticalactivity.Iftheplaneofpolarizationisrotatedclockwise,the
substanceiscalleddextro-rotatory(righthanded)andifitisrotatedanti-clockwise,thesubstanceiscalledlevo-
rotatory(lefthanded).
Theangleubywhichtheplaneofpolarizationisrotatedisdirectlyproportionaltothelengthofthepath
traveledbythelightinthesubstance(l),theconcentrationofthesubstance(c).Italsodependsonthetemperature
andwavelengthoflight.Thusforaparticularwavelengthandtemperature
v
c or S c or S
c m
u u
u u = = =

l l
l l
Where
S=specificrotationorspecificrotatorypowerofthesubstance
u=rotationproducedindegree
m=massofsugaringm.dissolvedinwater
v=volumeofsugarsolution
l=lengthofthetubeindecimeter
Specificrotation,foragivenwavelengthatagiventemperature,isdefinedastherotationproducedbyone
decimeterlengthofthesolutionhavingaconcentrationof1gm/cc.
APPLICATIONS
SugarIndustry PharmaceuticalIndustry
ChemicalIndustry Flavours,FragrancesandEssentialOils
LAURENTSHALF-SHADEPOLARIMETER
Laurentshalfshadepolaririmeteristheinstrumentusedforfindingthespecificrotationofcertainoptically
activesolutions.TheessentialpartsofaLaurentshalf-shadepolarimeterareshowninthefigure.Sisunpolarised/
ordinarysourceoflightandLisaconvexlenswhichrenderstheincidentlightintoaparallelbeam.N
1
andN
2
are
twoNicloprisms.N
1
actsaspolariserwhileN
2
actsasanalyzer.N
2
canberotatedaboutacommonaxisofN
1
andN
2
.Therotationofanalyzer(N
2
)canbereadinagraduatedcircularscale(S.C.).Thevernierisalso
providedtoreadthefractionofadegree.Lightafterpassingthroughpolariserbecomesplanepolarizedwithits
EXPERIMENT NO. 3
vibrationsintheprincipalplaneoftheNicol(N
1
).Theplanepolarizedlightnowpassesthroughahalf-shade
device(H.S.)andthenthroughatubeTcontainingtheopticallyactivesubstance.UsuallyTisahollowglass
tubehavingalargediameterinthemiddlesothatnoairbubblemaybeinthepathoflightwhenfilledwithaliquid.
TheemergentlightonpassingthroughanalyzerN
2
isviewedthroughatelescopeT.Thetelescopeisfocusedon
thehalfshade.

lens polariser halfshade
L N
1
HS SC
circular scale tube
T
telescope
T
analyser
N
2

S
PROCEDURE
1. Weightexactly4gmsofsugaranddissolveitin100c.c.ofdistilledwaterinameasuringflask;makethe
solutionexactly100c.c.
2. Ifthepolarimeterisemployingahalfshadedevice,amonochromaticsourceisusedandifbiquartz
deviceisusedthanwhitelightcanbeused.Cleanthetubesuchthatitisfreefromdustandfillsitwith
distilledwaterandclosetheends.Placethetubeinpositioninsidethepolarimeter.
3. lookthroughthetelescopeandrotatetheanalyzertillthetwohalvesofthefieldofviewappearequally
bright.Takethereadingofmainscaleaswellasvernierscaleandfindoutthetotalreading(u
1
).
4. Takeoutthetubeandfillitcompletelywiththesugarsolutionsothattherearenoairbubblesinit.(Do
Not Over Tight the Cap It May Break the Tube)Closethetube,placeitinitspositioninthepolarimeter
andlookthroughthetelescope.Againsetthefieldofviewasexplainedinstep-3.Notethereadingofthe
analyzeronthecircularscale(u
2
).
5. Repeatstep4oftheexperimentfordifferentconcentrationsofthesolutionandtabulatetheobservations.
OBSERVATIONS
Leastcountofthevernierofthecircularscale =.
Lengthofthecylindricaltube(l) =.cm
Massofthesugardissolved(x) =. gm
Volumeofthesolution(v) =. cc.
Temperatureofthesolution(T)=roomtemperature =.
o
C
TABLE
S.No. Concentration
ofsolution
(x/v)gm/cc
Readingoncircularscalewhen
twohalvesareofequalintensity
x
n
Angleofrotationof
planeofpolarization
n 1
= x - x
10.. v
S =
.x l
1.
2.
3.
4.
Air/plainwater
4/100
8/100
12/100
x
1
x
2
x
3
x
4
GRAPH
Plotagraphbetweenconcentrationofthesolution(c)ontheX-axisandangleof
rotationoftheplaneofpolarizationofplanepolarizedlight(u)ontheY-axis.You
getastraightlinepassingthroughtheorigin.
CALCULATIONS
c
slope = Thespecificrotatorypower
S=
l
10 slope
Where listhelengthofthetubeincm
Readingwithdistilledwater,sayu
1
=.
RESULTS:Thespecificrotationofglucosesolutionat
o
Cforthegivenlightis_______________degree/unit
concentration/unitlength.
PRECAUTIONS
1. Thewindowcapofthetubecontainingthesolutionshouldbegentlytight,sothattherewillbenoleakage.
2. Thereshouldbenoairbubbleinthesolutioncontainedinthepolarimetertube.
3. Thetemperatureofthesolutionmustberecorded(roomtemperature).
4. Havingsettheanalyzerincorrectpositionw.r.tthepolarizer,turntheformerthrough180
o
andagainmakea
similarsetting.
5. Undernocircumstancesthepolarizershouldbetouchedduringonecompletesetofobservation.
6. Usesodiumlightforhalfshade,andwhitelightforbi-quartz.
1. Whatdoyoumeanbypolarizationoflight?
2. Howdoespolarizedlightdifferfromordinarylight?
3. Whatisangleofpolarization?
4. Whataretheplaneofpolarizationandplaneofvibration?
5. WhatisPolaroid?
6. WhataretheusesofPolaroidsindailylife?
7. WhatisBrewsterslaw?
8. Whatisthepolarizinganglefortheair-glass?
REFERENCES
4 ElectronicsfundamentalsandapplicationsRyder,J.D
5 PropertiesofsiliconandgermaniumConwell,E.M
VIVA-VOCE
X
Y
Concentration,c(ingm/cc)
AIM: TodeterminethespecificresistanceofagivenwirebyusingCarey-FostersBridge.
APPARATUSUSED:Carey-Fostersbridge,BatteryEliminator,zerocentregalvanometer,decimalresis-
tancebox,thickcopperstrips,givenexperimentalresistancewire,arheostatofrange10Oto20O,plug-key,
jockey,connectionwiresandscrewgauge.
FORMULAUSED:
(i) ForResistanceperUnitlengthofbridgewire():ThestandardresistanceboxR.B.forXinG
1
and
thickcopperstripforshorteningsothatY=0.
Theresistanceperunitlengthofbridgewireisgivenby;
2 1
X
/cm
l l
= O
whereX=knownfractionalresistancevalueresistancebox.
l
1
isthebalancinglengthwithXinG
1
andYinG
4
(beforeInterchanging)
l
2
4
andYinG
1
(afterInterchanging)
(ii) FortheunknownResistance:Theunknownresistance(Y)ofthegivenwireisgivenby;
R=Y=X-(l
2
l
1
) O
whereY(R)istheunknownresistanceofthegivenwireconnectedinG
4
andG
1
XisthevalueofresistanceinthedecimalresistanceboxconnectedingapG
1
andG
4
theoutergap.
l
1
1
andYinG
4
(beforeinterchanging)
l
2
4
andYinG
1
(afterinterchanging)
=resistanceperunitlengthofthebridgewire.
(iii) ThespecificresistanceSofthewireisgivenby:
2
RA Y
S ohm-cm
t
= =
r
l l
where,S=specificresistance, r=radiusofwireincm
l=lengthofwireincm, Y= resistanceofthewireinohm.
CIRCUITDIAGRAM
EXPERIMENT NO. 4
Figure4.1:Carey Fosters bridge for determining specific resistance
E:BatteryEliminator,KKey
P,Q:StandardResistanceinG2andG3respectively.
X:VariableresistancefromResistanceBox
Y:UnknownresistanceforwhichSistobedetermined.
G:Galvanometer,J:Jockey
SR
SR
G
1 G
2
G
3
G
4
E
X Y P
Q
K
J
G
W
1 W
2
l
1
known
resistance
unknown
resistance
PROCEDURE
Theexperimentisdoneinthefollowingthreesteps;
(a) MeasurementofResistanceperunitLength( )oftheBridgeWire:CalibrationoftheBridgeWire.
Forthisstep,setupthefollowingexperimentalset-up;
(i) PresstheJockeyJatthetwoendsofthewireW
1
andW
2
.Ifthedeflectionsingalvanometerare
oppositethecircuitconnectionsarecorrect.
(ii) Plugout0.1ohmofresistanceinX(inG
1
).Checkfortheoppositedeflections.Thenfindthepoint
exactlywherethedeflectionisbecomingzerobymovingthejockey.Thispointisthebalancingpoint.
(iii) NotethedistanceofnulldeflectionpointfromthepositiveendofwireW
1
togetthebalancinglength
(l
1
)
(iv) RepeatthisprocessbychangingXvaluesfrom0.1ohmto0.5ohmandnotedownthecorresponding
valuesofl
1
.
Calculatethevalueoflinearresistanceorresistanceperunitlengthofbridgewire foreachsetof
observationsbythefollowingformulaandfindtheaveragevalueof.
2 1
R
l l
=
andthenfinditsmean.
(b) Measurementofunknownresistanceofthegivenwire:
(i) Connectthecircuitasshowninfigure4.1.RemovethecopperstripfromthegapG
4
andconnectthe
givenunknownresistancewireofnearly50cmlength.
(ii) Introduceasuitableresistanceofnearly1-3ohminthedecimalresistanceboxxingapG
1
.
(iii) Slidethejockeyonthewiretillyougetabalancingpoint.Notebalancinglengthl
1
fromleftendW
1
ofthewire.
(iv) Interchangethepositionsofresistanceboxandunknownresistancewire.Againgetthebalancepoint
byslidingthejockeyonthewireandnotethebalancinglengthl
2
fromW
1.
(v) Repeatthisexperimentfordifferentvaluesofresistancesfromtheresistanceboxandgetothervalues
of(l
2
-l
1
).
(vi) Theunknownresistanceisgivenbytheformula:
2 1
R Y X ( ' ' ) l l = =
whereXistheresistanceintroducedintheresistanceboxand( )
2 1
l l ' ' isthedifferenceofthetwo
balancinglengthsbeforeandafterinterchangingtheR.B.andunknownresistanceineachcaseand
findthevalueofunknownresistance.
(c) Forspecificresistance:
(i) Measurethelengthoftheunknownresistancewireincm.
(ii) Measurethediameterofthegivenresistancewirebyscrewgaugeatfewplacesandthencalculate
meanvalueofdiameterandhenceradius;r=d/2
OBSERVATIONS
TableforthedeterminationoflinearresistanceofBridgeWire( )
S. Resistance(ohm) BalancingLength(cm) Linear
No. X Y Before After l
2
l
1
Resistance
Interchanging Interchanging
(cm)
2 1
X
/cm
l l
= O
XinG
1
(l
1
)
XinG
4
(l
2
)
1 0.1 0
2 0.2 0
3 0.3 0
4 0.4 0
5 0.5 0
(ii)Tableforthedeterminationofunknownresistanceofagivenwire:
S. Resistance(ohm) BalancingLength(cm)
No. X Y Before After l'
2
l'
1 2 1
Y X ( ) l l ' ' = + O
(Known) (Unknown) Interchanging Interchanging (cm)
XinG
1
(l'
1
) XinG
4
(l'
2
)
1 0.5 Y
2 1.0 Y
3 1.5 Y
4 2.0 Y
5 2.5 Y
AvgY=........
TheunknownresistanceofthewireisY=
(iii)Tableforthemeasurementofradiusofwirebyusingscrewguage
Error =.........
Correction =.........
S. No. P.S.R. H.S.C H.S.C.
L.C.TR=P.S.R+H.S.C
L.C
(mm) Observed Corrected (mm) (mm)
1
2
3
AverageDiameter:.mm
Radiusofthewire,r=d/2=..mm=.cm
CALCULATIONS
(a) Theresistanceperunitlengthofthebridgewireisgiven:
2 1
R
l l
=
(Similarlycalculateforotherobservationsandtakethemean)
(b) Theunknownresistanceofthegivenwireisgivenby;
( )
2 1
Y=X l l ' ' =.......ohm.(Similarly,calculateYforotherobservationsandtakethemean)
(c) Thespecificresistanceofgivenwireisgivenby;
2
R
S ............ohm-cm
t
= =
r
l
RESULTS
1. Theresistanceperunitlengthofwire=...........ohm/cm
2. Thespecificresistanceofthematerialofthewire=...........ohm-cm
Measuredvalue(S)
exp
Standardvalue(S)
th
PercentageError
(ohm-cm) (ohm-cm)
exp th
th
S - S
100
S
PRECAUTIONS
1. Theendoftheconnectionwiresshouldbecottonfree,cleanandmustbetightlyconnected.
2. SeethattheresistancesinfourarmsP,Q,XandYofthebridgemustbeofthesameordersothatthe
bridgeremainsquitesensitive.
3. Continuouscurrentshouldnotflowinthewireotherwiseitgetsheatedupanditsresistancemayundergo
achange.
4. Forthis,thejockeyshouldnotbedraggedcontinuouslyallalongthelengthofthewirebutshouldbe
tappedatdifferentpointsonthebridgewire.
5. Thebridgewireshouldbeuniformincross-section.
6. Thejockeyshouldbegentlyputonthewireandnotpressedhardtoavoidandchangeinthediameterof
thewire.
7. Thediameterofthewiremustbemeasuredintwoperpendiculardirectionsandatmanyplacesandthen
meanvalueofitmustbeused.
8. Ahighresistanceshouldbeusedinthecircuittomeasuretheexactbalancingpoint.(conventionally)
APPLICATIONS:
1. Comparetwonearlyequalresistance
2. Determinethetemperaturecoefficientofresistance( ) o .
1. WhatistheprincipalofCareyFostersBridge?
Ans. Itisbasedontheprinciplethatwhenresistanceofoutergapsareinterchanged,thereisshiftinthe
positionofbalancedpoint.Thedifferencebetweentheresistanceofbridgewirebetweenthesetwo
balancepoint.
P X
Q Y
=
2. InwhatrespectitisanimprovementoverMeterBridge?
3. Howdoestheaccuracyofresistanceperunitlengthofthewire( )dependonthedifferencebetween
theknownresistancesintheoutergaps?
4. Whatcanbethemaximumvalueofthisdifferencewhichyoucantake?
5. Whenwillyourapparatusbemostsensitive?
6. Whatisthematerialofthebridgewire?Whyithasbeenselected?
7. Whatwouldyouprefer,acopperstriporacopperwireintheoutergap?Why?
8. Whatdoes represents?Willitbesameateverypointofthebridgewire?
9. WhatistheeffectofincreasingtheeffectivelengthofBridgewire?
10. WhatisthebasicconstructionofaResistanceBox?
11. Whyisthewiredoubledinsidethebox?
12. WhatisthepercentagecompositionofthealloysconstantanandManganinofwhichresistancewiresare
made?
13. Whatdoyoumeanbytheresistanceofaconductor?
Ans. Theratioofthepotentialdifferencebetweenthetwoendsofaconductortothecurrentflowinginit,is
calledtheresistanceoftheconductor.
14. Onwhatfactorsdoesitdepend?
Ans. Resistanceofaconductorisdirectlyproportionaltoitslength(l),inverselyproportionaltotheareaofcross
section(A).Italsodependsuponthenatureofmaterialandtemperatureoftheconductor.(R=kl /A).
15. Whatisitsunit?
Ans. Unitofresistanceisohm.
16. Whatisspecificresistance?Whatisitsunit?
Ans. Specificresistanceofasubstanceisdefinedastheresistancematerialhavingunitlengthandunitareaof
crosssection
RA
S
l
=
ifA=1andl =1 then S=R
Itsunitisohm-cm
17. Isspecificresistancesameforallmaterials?
Ans. No,itisdifferentfordifferentmaterial.
18. Whatiseffectoftemperatureonresistance?
Ans. Itincreaseswithincreaseintemperature.
19. WhatistheeffectofincreasingtheeffectivelengthofaCareyFostersbridgewire?
Ans. Itwillincreasetheaccuracyoftheresultbecausethenpercentageerrorinreadingthepositionofthe
balancepointisverymuchdecreased.
20. Whatistheminimumdifferenceresistancethatyoucanmeasurewithitsbridgewire?
Ans. Itisequaltotheresistanceofthebridgewire.
21. Whatisthemaximumdifferenceinresistancethatyoucanmeasurewiththisbridgewire?
Ans. Itisequaltotheresistanceofthetotallengthofthebridgewire
VIVA-VOCE
AIM:Todeterminetheenergybandgapofasemiconductorusingajunctiondiode.
APPARATUS:Powersupply(DC-3Voltsfixed),Microammeter,electricallyheatedoven,Thermometer,
Semiconductordiode(OA79).
FormulaUsed:AgraphisplottedbetweenlogsI
s
and(10
3
/T)thatcomesouttobeastraightline.Itsslopeis
calculated.Bandgap,E,inelectronvolts,isgivenby
E=
036 . 5
line the of slope
eV
APPLICATIONS
Oneofthemostimportantapplicationsofdiodesisinthedesignofrectifiercircuits,clipper,clamper,
voltagemultiplier,comparator,samplinggatesandfilters.
THEORY
Asemi-conductordopedorundopedalwayspossessesanenergygap
betweenitsconductionandvalencebands.Forconductionofelectricity
acertainamountofenergyistobegiventotheelectron,sothatitgoes
fromthevalencebandtotheconductionband.Thisenergysoneededis
themeasureoftheenergygapEbetweenthetwobands.
Whenap-njunctionisreversebiasedasshowninFig.thecurrent
throughthejunctionisduetominoritycarriersi.e.duetoelectronsinP
sectionandholesinNsection.Theconcentrationofthesecarriers
dependsupontheenergygapE.ThereversesaturatedcurrentI
s
value
isfunctionofthetemperatureofthejunctiondiode,andvariesaccording
tothefollowingrelation:
( )
p
n
s e n p
p n
V
V
I A N N e E kT
P N
(

= + A (
`
(
)
log log exp
.(1)
Where
N
n
=densityofelectronsinNmaterial
N
p
=densityofholesinpmaterial
V
p
=velocityofholes
V
n
=velocityofelectrons
A=areaofthejunction
k=BoltzmannConstant
T=Absolutetemperatureofjunction
( )
3/2
n
n
3
2 2 m kT e
N
h
t
=
( )
3/ 2
p
p
3
2 2 m kT e
N
h
t
=
EXPERIMENT NO. 5
P N
Figure5.1:Reverse biasing of
a PN junction
m
n
isthemassoftheelectronandm
p
istheeffectivemassofhole.
Forsmallrangeoftemperaturerelation(1)canbeputas,
( )
3
s
I constant 5.036 E 10 T = A log ......(2)
Obviouslytherefore,ifagraphisplottedbetweenlogI
s
and10
3
/T,astraightlinewouldbeobtained.
Wheretheslopeofthisline=5.036E
HereEisinelectronvolts.
PROCEDURE
1. Plugthemainsleadtothenearestmainsocket
carrying230V
10%at50HzA.C.
2. Insertthethermometerandthediodeintheholes
oftheoven(Theholeneartothemeterisfordiode
OA-79)
3. Plugthetwoleadstothediodeinthesocket,Red
pluginredsocketandblackpluginblacksocket.
Maketheconnectionsasperfigure5.2.
(i) Now put the power ON/OFF switch to ON
positionandseethejewellightisglowing.
(ii) PuttheOVENswitchtoONpositionandallow
thetemperaturetoincreaseupto90C.
Note:As soon as the temperature reaches 95C switch off the oven enabling the temperature to
rise further and become stable around 90C
Whenthetemperaturebecomesstablestarttakingreadingsofcurrentandtemperature.Thecurrent
readingsshouldbetakeninstepsof5A.Thereadingsshouldbetakenduringfalloftemperaturefrom
90Cdownwards.
(iii)Tabulatereadingsintheformshownbelow:
TABLE
(iv) Plotagraphbetweenthereadingsof10
3
/TonX-axisandlogI
s
onY-axis.Thegraphshouldcome
asastraightlinecuttingboththeX-axisandY-axis.
(v) Nowdeterminetheslopeoftheline.
AfterdeterminingtheslopeofthelinecalculatestheBandGapasfollows:
E=
036 . 5
line the of slope
=eV
Figure5.2:Circuit diagram
Reversesaturationcurrentin
I
s
( A )
Temperature
in
o
C
Temperature
T(
o
K)
10
3
/T logI
s
PRECAUTIONS
1. Themaximumtemperatureshouldnotexceed95C.
2. Bulbofthethermometerandthediodeshouldbeinsertedwellintheoven.
3. Silicondiodesshouldnotbeusedwiththesetupsasinthatcasethetemperatureneededis125C,and
theoventhermometerprovidedwillnotstandtothistemperature.
1. Whatdoyoumeanbyenergybandgap?
2. Howarethebandsformedinthesolids?
3. Whatdoyoumeanbyvalenceband,conductionbandandforbiddenband?
4. Howdoyoudifferentiatebetweenaconductor,aninsulatorandasemiconductorinrelationtothe
energygap?
5. Whatdoyoumeanbyintrinsicandextrinsicsemiconductors?
6. WhysemiconductorsbehaveasaninsulatoratzerodegreeKelvin?
7. WhatisaP-Njunction?
8. Whatisann-typesemiconductorandp-typesemiconductors?
9. Whatdoyoumeanbyforwardandreversebiasingofajunctiondiode?
10. What are the positions of holes and electrons in the two semiconductors (p-type and n-type)
beforecontact?
11. Whatisadepletionlayer?
12. Whatistheorderofthicknessofdepletionlayer?
13. Whataretheapproximatevaluesofbandgapincaseofconductor,insulatorandsemiconductor?
Howdoestheresistivitychangeswiththechangeoftemperature?
VIVA-VOCE
AIM:Tostudytheresistivityofsemiconductorofdifferenttemperaturesandalsotodeterminethe
energybandgapofasemiconductor(germanium)usingfourprobemethod.
APPARATUS:Probearrangement,Sample(Germanium),Oven,FourProbeset-up,Thermometeretc.
FORMULAUSED:
Theresistivityofthesemiconductorcrystalwhichisgivenby:
( )
0
0
V
where 2 S
W/ S I f

= = t
wheref(W/S)isafractionwhichcanbeknownfortablegivenwiththesemiconductor.Sisthedistance
betweenprobes.Wisthethicknessofsemiconductorcrystal.VandIarethevoltageandcurrentacrossand
throughthecrystalchip.
TheenergybandgapE
g
(ineV)ofasemiconductorisgivenby:
10
2.3026
E 2 log
1/ T
g
k =
wherekisBoltzmanconstantequalto8.6
10
5
eV/degreeandTisthetemperatureinKelvin.
APPLICATIONS
-
Usedtobothcharacterizethematerialandasaprocesscontrolparameterforthesemiconductor
manufacturingprocess.
-
Resistivityofdifferentsemiconductingmaterials.
PROCEDURE
1. Connectonepairofthedirectcurrentsourcethroughmilli-ammeter.
2. Otherpairofprobesisconnectedtothemilli-voltmeter.
3. Placethefourprobearrangementintheelectricovenconnectedtoapowersupply.
4. Fixupathermometerinthisarrangement.
5. Switchontheconstantcurrentsourceandadjustthecurrenttoaparticularsuitablevaluesay2mA.
6. GoonmeasuringtheinnerprobevoltageVfordifferenttemperatures.
EXPERIMENT NO. 6
Direct
current
source
Power
Supply
Oven
Oven
I
I
Probes
mV
mV
V
S
W
Figure6.1:Circuit Diagram for Four Probe Method
Sample(crystal)chip
OBSERVATIONS
Current(I) =.mA(constant)
Distancebetweenprobes(S) =.mm
Thicknessofthecrystalchip(W) =..mm
TABLE
S. Temperature Voltage Temperature 1/T
10
3
Log
10

No. (C) (Volts) (K) (ohmcm)
1. 20 293 3.41
2. 30 303 3.30
3. 40 313
4. 50 --
5. 60 --
6. 70 --
7. 80 --
8. 90 --
9. 100 --
CALCULATIONS
FindresistancecorrespondingtotemperatureinKusing:
( )
0
0
V
ohm-cm where 2 S .........ohm cm
W/ S I f

= = t =
Fordifferent'V'calculate
0
andhenceinohmcm.Find(W/S)andthencorrespondingtothisvalue
choosethevalueoffunctionf(W/S)fromthefollowingtable;
TABLE:For f (W/S) function corresponding to W/S geometry of the crystal
S.No.W/S f(W/S) S.No. W/S f(W/S) S.No. W/S f(W/S)
1. 0.100 13.863 5. 0.500 2.780 9. 3.333 1.022
2. 0.141 9.704 6. 1.000 1.504 10. 5.000 1.007
3. 0.200 6.391 7. 1.414 1.223 11. 10.0001.00045
4. 0.250 5.9 8. 2.000 1.094
GRAPH
Nowplotagraphforlog
10
versus1/T
10
3
aspresentedinfigure6.2.
Slopeofthecurveis
10
log
AB
1
BC
1000
T
0
(ohmcm)
Hencebandgap,
10
T
2.3026
E 2 log ( V)
I
g
k e =
AB
2 2.303 1000
BC
k =
AB
E 0.396 V
BC
g
e =
RESULT
1. Resistivityofsemiconductorcrystalatdifferent
temperatureswasstudied&ispresentedinthegraphoflog
10
andI/T
10
3
.
2. EnergybandgapofsemiconductorcrystalE
g
=............eV
StandardE
g
ofGe=0.72eVandforSi=1.1eV
Standardvalue Observedvalue
Percentageerror 100 ...........%
Standardvalue
= =
PRECAUTIONSANDSOURCEOFERROR
1. Thesurfaceonwhichtheprobesrestshouldbeuniform.
2. Donotexceedthetemperatureoftheovenabove120Cforsafeside.
3. Semiconductorcrystalwithfourprobesisinstalledintheovenverycarefullyotherwisethecrystalmay
getdamagedbecauseitisbrittle.
4. Currentshouldremainconstantthroughouttheexperiment.
5. Minimumpressureisexertedforobtainingproperelectricalcontactstothechip.
1 Whatdoyoumeanbyenergybandgap?
2 Howarethebandsformedinthesolids?
3 Whatdoyoumeanbyvalencyband,conductionbandandforbiddenband?
4 Howdoyoudifferentiatebetweenaconductor,aninsulatorandasemiconductorinrelationtotheenergygap?
5 Whatdoyoumeanbyintrinsicandextrinsicsemiconductors?
6 WhysemiconductorsbehaveasaninsulatoratzerodegreeKelvin?
7 WhatisaP-Njunction?
8 Whatisann-typesemiconductorandp-typesemiconductors?
9 Whatdoyoumeanbyforwardandreversebiasingofajunctiondiode?
10 Whatistheadvantageoffourprobemethodoverothermethodsofmeasuringtheresistivity?
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
0
10 20 30 40
Slopeofthecurve=
AB
BC
1
T(K)
x1000
A
C B
VIVA-VOCE
Figure6.2
AIM:TostudytheHalleffectandhencedeterminetheHallcoefficient(R
H
)andcarrierdensity(n)of
agivensemiconductormaterial.
APPARATUS:HallProbe(GeCrystal)(thickness0.4-0.5mm);HallProbe(InAscrystal),HallEffectset-up
(Digitalmillvoltmeter(0-200mV)andconstantcurrentpowersupply,Electromagnet(Fieldintensity11,000
5%gauss),Constantcurrentpowersupply.
FORMULA:AsshowninFigure7.1,zisthethicknessalongZ-axisofthecrystal.Hzisthemagneticfield
appliedalongZaxis.CurrentIisflowingalongX-axis.HallvoltageV
H
isdevelopedacrossthefacesnormalto
Y-axisandxisthelengthofthecrystalalongX-axis;
(i) Hallcoefficient
z
H
H
IH
Z V
R
.
=
voltcm Coulomb cm
IH
Z V
G A
z
H
/ 10
.
3 8 1 1
=

whereV
H
isinvolts,I
i n
amperes,ZincmandH
z
ingauss.
(ii) Carrierdensity
3
.
1

= cm
q R
n
H
(whereq=electroniccharge=1.6x10
-19
C)
THEORY:AnE.M.F.issetuptransverselyacrossacurrentcarryingconductorwhenaperpendicularmagnetic
fieldisapplied.ThisiscalledtheHallEffect.
I
h
E =
h
V
y
H
y
Z
X
mV
Crystal
Polepiece
Z
S
N
V
h
I
x
I
x
Figure7.1:Sample for studying Hall effect
Figure7.2:Illustration of measurement of Hall Voltage
EXPERIMENT NO. 7
APPLICATIONS
AutomotiveIndustry:Level/tiltmeasurementsensor,Throttleanglesensorautomotivesensors,Crankshaft
positionorspeedsensor,Anti-skidsensor,DoorinterlockandignitionsensorTransmissionmountedspeed
sensor,RPMsensors,Distributormountedignitionsensoretc.
Electronicindustry:Sequencingsensors,Magneticcardreader,Proximitysensors,Officemachinesensors
Adjustablecurrentsensors,Linearfeedbacksensor,Multiplepositionsensor,Microprocessorcontrolledsensor,
BrushlessDCmotorsensorsetc.
AerospaceIndustry:Temperatureorpressuresensor,Remoteconveyorsensing,Remotereadingsensing,
Currentsensors,Flowratesensor(linearoutputPistondetectionsensor).
PROCEDURE
1. ConnectthewidthwisecontactsoftheHallProbe(withGecrystal)tothevoltageterminalandlengthwise
contactstocurrentterminalsoftheHalleffectset-up.
2. NowswitchONtheHallEffectsetupandadjustthecurrenttoafew(mA).
3. ChecktheZerofieldPotentialbychangingKnobtothevoltageside.Thisvoltageiserrorvoltageand
shouldbesubtractedfromtheHallvoltagereading.(i.e.,whenHallprobeisoutsidethemagneticfield).
4. NowplacetheHallprobeinthemagneticfield.ThisHallprobemustbefittedinthewoodenstandbefore
placing inmagneticfieldsothatHallprobebecomesperpendiculartothemagneticfield.
5. Switchontheelectromagnetpowersupplybyconnectingthepolepiecetothepowersupply.
6. NowplacetheHallprobe(InAs)attachedwithGauss-meterbetweenthepolepiecestomeasurethe
magneticfield.
7. MeasuretheHallvoltageasafunctionofcurrentkeepingthemagneticfieldconstant.
8. MeasuretheHallvoltageasafunctionofmagneticfieldkeepingasuitablevalueofcurrentasconstant
(Thisis donebyplacingtwoprobesbetweenthepolepiecesanddecreasethespacingbetweenthepole
pieceandmeasurethemagneticfieldandHallvoltage).
9. PlotthegraphbetweenV
H
andI(H
Z
=constant);V
H
andH(I=constant).
10. CalculatetheslopeV
H
/IandV
H
/H
Z
fromthetwographsandcalculateHallcoefficientintwowaysand
determinethemeanvalue.
OBSERVATIONS
ThicknessofthesemiconductorcrystalZ=0.5mm=0.05cm
Conductivity
1 1
1
ohm cm

o =
Table1:MagneticfieldHz=1000Gauss Table2:CurrentI=5mA
S.No.
Current
I(mA)
HallVotage
V
H
(mV)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
S.No.
Magneticfield
H
Z
(Gauss)
HallVotage
V
H
(mV)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
0
A
B
C
AB
BC
Slope=
Scale
x-axis1cm=.....mA
y-axis1cm=.....mV
Current,I(mA)
0
A
B
C
AB
BC
Slope=
Scale
x-axis1cm=.....Gauss
y-axis1cm=.....mV
Magneticfield(H )
Z
CALCULATIONS
Slope
= =
BC
AB
I
V
H
(FromplotV
H
vs
I), Slope
= =
BC
AB
H
V
Z
H
(FromplotV
H
vs
H
Z
)
(i)
= |
.
|
\
|
=
z
H
H
H
Z
I
V
Slope R
1 VoltcmAA
-1
G
-1
=x10
8
cm
3
/coul.
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
I
Z
H
V
Slope R
Z
H
H1 VoltcmAA
-1
G
-1
=x10
8
cm
3
/coul.
Mean
. /
2
3 2 1
coul cm
R R
R
H H
H
=
+
=
(ii) CarrierDensity
) 10 6 . 1 (
1
19
= = q
q R
n
H
3
19 3
/
) 10 6 . 1 ) / (
1
cm
coul coul cm
n =

=

RESULT
ThevalueofHallCoefficient(R
H
)iscm
3
/coul.
Thecarrierdensity(n)=/cm
3
.
Figure 7.3. Plot of V
H
versus I Figure 7.4. Plot of V
H
versus H
Z
PRECAUTIONS
1. The Hall probe is placed between the pole pieces (in magnetic field) such that maximum Hall
voltageisgenerated.
2. CurrentthroughtheHallprobeshouldbestrictlywithinthelimitasmentionedbythemanufacturer.
3. Hallvoltagedevelopedmustbemeasuredveryaccurately.
4. Magneticfieldisvariedgraduallyinstepstoavoiddamagetotheelectromagneticcoils.
1. WhatistheHallEffect?
2. Onwhatfactor,thesignoftheHallpotentialdifferencedevelops?
3. Whyisthepotentialdifferencedevelopedwhenatransversemagneticfieldisappliedtoacurrentcarrying
conductor?
4. Howwillyoudeterminethedirectionoftheforceexertedonthechargecarriers?
5. WhatistheHallcoefficient?Whatareitsunits?
REFERENCES
VIVA-VOCE
AIM:Todeterminethe(1)NumericalAperture(NA),(2)PowerLossesduetoMacrobendingand
adaptorofgivemopticalfibre.
APPARATUS:LED,NAJig,D.M.M,scaledscreen,adaptor,oneandthreemeterlengthofopticalfiber,
mandrel.
PRINCIPLE&FORMULA
1.TheNumericalAperture(N.A)ofanopticalfiber(stepindex)isgivenby
( )
1
2 2
2
core clad
N.A. n n =
......(1)
max
sin i =
or ( )
1
max
i sin N.A.
= ......(2)
n
core
=refractiveindexofcore,
n
clad
=refractiveindexofcladding
i
max
=acceptanceangle
Asshowninfigure8.1,lightfromtheendoftheoptical
fiberAfallsonthescreenBD.Letthediameterof
lightfallingonthescreenBD=W,Letthedistance
betweenendofthefiberandthescreenAO=L
KnowingWandL,theN.Acanbecalculatedand
substitutingthisN.AvalueinEq(2),theacceptance
anglecanbecalculated.
2. Lossesofpowerinfibreopticcablearemainlydue
toabsorptionorscatteringoflightwithOpticalfibre,
macrobendingandjointsbetweencables(adaptor).
ThislossofpowerPfrominput(P
o
)tooutput(P
L
)
atadistanceL,canbewrittenas
L
L 0
P P e
o
=
Whereistheattenuationcoefficientindecibels(dB)perunitlength.(GenerallydB/KM)
L
P
P
10.log
L
o
10
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
L
10
L 0
P P 10e
o | |
|
\ .
=
APPLICATIONS
Telecommunications
LocalAreaNetworks(LANs)andWideAreaNetworks(WANs)
FactoryAutomation,PremisesWiring.Fiber-opticbiomedicalsensors,Endoscopicimaging,
AerospaceandMilitaryApplications,Fiberopticsensors.
EXPERIMENT NO. 8
Foled
Opticalfibre
A
imax
L
D
O
B
W
Screen
N.A.=
W
(4L2+W2)
1
2
Figure:8.1
PROCEDURE
1. InsertoneendofeitheroneorthreemeterlengthopticalfibercabletheLEDandNAjig..Switchon
LED,thenredlightwillappearattheendofthefiberontheN.AJig.TurnSETP0/IFknobtheintensity
willincrease.ArrangethescaledscreenatadistanceL,andthenviewtheredspotonthescreen.
Measurethediameterofthespot(w).NotethemeasuredvaluesLandWinthetable.Repeatthe
experimentwithdifferentdistancesandnotethereadings.
S.No L(mm) W(mm) N.A imax
1
2
3
2. InsertoneendofthethreemeterlengthplasticopticalfibrecabletotheFOLEDandconnectanotherend
tothepowermetermodule.ConnectD.M.MtestleadstoPout,redleadtoredsocketandblackleadto
blacksocketrespectively.SetD.M.Mto2000mVrange.SwitchonLED,adjusttheSetPo/IFknobto
setoutputpoweroftheFOLEDtothevalue-22.0dBm(millidecibels)i.e.,DMMreadingwillbe-
220mV,notethisasP
O
,windthefibreonthemandrelandnotethereadingasP
O
w
1
,similarlyfortwo
andthreeturns.NotethereadingsasP
O
w
2
andP
O
w
3
respectively.
xO/Ppower(dBm) Lossduet oturns(dBm)
Po0 -
P
O
w
1
- (P
O
0-P
O
w
1
)=
P
O
w
2
- (P
O
0-P
O
w
2
)=
P
O
w
3
- (P
O
0-P
O
w
3
)=
3. ConnectonemeterOFcableasgivenaboveandsetD.M.Mforaconstantvalue(-120mV)andnotethe
readingasP
1
.SimilarlytakeP
2
byreplacingonemetercablewith3metercablewithoutdisturbingSET
P
O
/I
f
knob.Nowjointhe1and3mcableswiththeadopteronshowninthefigureandnoteDMM
readingasP
3
.
OBSERVATIONS
P
1
=
P
2
=
P
3
=
CALCULATIONS
TakeP
1
,
P
2
andP3asshowninFig.,withoutdisturbingtheSETPo/I
f
knob.
Lossinonemetercable(X)=
=
2
P P
1 2
Lossduetoadopter=P
3
P
1
3X=
1m cable
PO P1
3m cable

PO

P2

1m cable
P
O
3m cable

Adapter
P
3
RESULT
1. N.AofgivenOpticalfiberis
2. PowerlossduetooneturndBm,twoturnsdBmandthreeturnsdBm
3. PowerlossduetoonemetercabledBmandduetoadaptordBm
PRECAUTIONS
1. GentlyinserttheopticalfibercableistoLEDbyturningclockwisedirectionofitsclinchnut.(untilyoufeel
thefibertouchesthemicrolens)
2. Donotpushapplyingoverforcewhichmaydamagemicrolens
3. Gentlytighttheclinchnutthatholdstheinsertedfiberfirmly.
4. Beforetakingreadingcheckoutfiberisfreeofalltwistsandstrains.
5. TwocablesmustmeetatthecenteroftheadopterwhiletakingP
3
reading.
1. Whatdoyoumeanbynumericalaperture?
2. Onwhatfactorsthenumericalaperturedepends?
3. Whatdoyoumeanbyacceptanceangle?
4. Onwhatfactorstheacceptanceangleofthefiberdepends?
5. Afiberwithhighnumericalaperture(NA)ispreferableornot?Why?
6. Whatisirradiance?
7. Whatdoyoumeanbybandwidth?
REFERENCES
Figure8.2
VIVA-VOCE
AIM:TostudythecharacteristicsofPNJunctiondiodeandtocalculateresistanceofadiodein
forwardandreversebias.
APPARATUS:Powersupply,Voltmeter,Ammeter,Diodeandconnectingwires
PRINCIPLE
WhenaPtypematerialisjoinedwithNtype,aPNJunctionisformed.Theplanedividingthetwo
zonesisknownasajunction.Duetodiffusion,someoftheelectronsfromNregioncrossovertoPregion
wheretheyrecombinewithholes,andholesfromPregioncrossovertoNregionandrecombinewithelectrons.
Thusalayerisformedwhichisknownasdepletionlayerorchargefreeregionorspacechargeregionwhere
thereisnofreechargesavailableforconductionofcurrent.Thediffusionoftheelectronsandholesacrossthe
junctioncontinuestillapotentialbarrierisdevelopedindepletionlayerwhichpreventsfurtherdiffusionofcharges.
Thepotentialbarriercanbeincreasedordecreasedbyapplyinganexternalbiasvoltage.
APPLICATIONS
Electronicindustry
Signalrectifier/Diodegates/Diodeclamps
Limiter/Over-voltageprotection/Ionizingradiationdetectors
Temperaturemeasuring/Computerstocellularphonestodigitalaudioplayers.
THEORY
ForwardBias:WhentheP-Njunctionisforwardbiasedi.e.,whenthe+veterminalofthebatteryisconnected
totheP-sideandveterminalisconnectedtotheNside,theholesfromPsidearerepelledbypositive
chargesofthebatterytowardsthejunction.SimilarlyatthesametimeelectronsinNsidewillberepelledby
negativechargesfromthebatterytowardsthejunction.Herebatteryvoltageshouldbehightoimpartsufficient
energytothesecarrierstoovercomethepotentialbarrieratthejunctionandenablethemtocrossthejunction.
Henceacurrentstartflowingafteraminimumvoltagecalledpotentialbarriervoltage
Reverse Bias:
Revesebiasingincreasesthepotentialbarrier,therebyresultinginaverylittlecurrenttoflow.Whenthejunction
isreversebiasedi.e.,when+veterminalofthebatteryconnectedtotheNsideandveterminalisconnectedto
theP-side,theelectronsinNsideandholesinPsideareattractedawayfromthejunction.Forsufficient
negativebias,thedepletionregionbreaksdownandreversecurrentstartsflowingacrossthecircuit.
PROCEDURE
a)Forwardbias:
1. Connectthecircuitasshowninfigure9.1.
2. Vary the potent ial difference and note the
correspondingcurrentvalue.
3. Drawthegraphbytakingpotentialorvoltage(V)on
X-axisandcurrent(I)onY-axis.
EXPERIMENTNO.9A
+
mA
V
p n
R
L
RheostatorPOT
+
+
Figure9.1:Forward bias
b)Reversebias:
1. Maketheconnectionsasshowninfigure9.2.
2. Varythepotentialdifferenceandnotethecorrespondingcurrent
value.
3. Drawthegraphbytakingpotentialorvoltage(V)onX-axis
andcurrent(I)onY-axis.
TABLE
Forwardbias
Reversebias
S.No. V(volts) I(mA) S.No. -V(volts) -I(A)
1
1
2
3
4
4
5
5
6
RESULT:TheVoltAmperecharacteristicsofagivenPNJunction
Diodearestudied.
PRECAUTIONS
1. Seethatalltheconnectionsgivenproperly
2. Identifythepositionofthediode,whetheritisinforwardor
reversebias.
3.Donotapplyvoltagebeyondcertainvaluesineitherbias.
AIM: TostudytheV-IcharacteristicsofgivenZener Diodeandtodetermine Zenerbreakdown
voltagealsofindtheforwardandreverseresistance.
APPARATUS:Zenerdiode(3Z15V),3watts,Resistor75
O
,5W,Ammeter(0-500mA),Voltmeter(0-30V),
RPS.
+
V
p n
R
L
RheostatorPOT
+
+
Figure9.2:Reverse bias
mA
Forwardbias
Reversebias
V
Figure9.3
EXPERIMENTNO.9B
THEORY:Diodesaredesignedwithadequatepowersupplydissipationcapabilitiestooperateinbreakdown
voltageregionmaybeemployedasvoltagereferenceaswithoutvoltagedevices.Suchdiodesareknownas
avalanchediode.
Breakdownorzenerdiode,twomechanismsofbreakdownofdiodeforincreasingreversevoltageare
found.Firstwethermallygeneratedpotentialtoproducenewcarriersinturnproduceadditionalcarrieragain
throughprocessofmiscopyingbonds.Evenifinitiallyavailablecarriersdontacquiresufficientenergytodisrupt
bonds.Itispossibletoinitiatebreakdownvoltagethroughadirectruptureofbondsbecauseofexistenceof
strongelectricfieldunderthesecircumstances.Breakdownisknownaszenerbreakdown.
PROCEDURE
ForwardBias:Todetermineforwardcharacteristicsbuiltupthecircuit
asshowninthefigure.IncreasethesourcevaluevoltageV
cs
sothat
voltmeteradvancesinstepsof0.05V.Notethecorrespondingammeter
readingforincrementvalueofV
f
.
ReverseBias: Todeterminereversecharacteristicsbuiltupthecircuit
asshowninthefigure.IncreasesourcevoltageV
BB
sothatvoltmeter
readingadvancesinstepsof0.5V.Notethatcorrespondingammeter
readingI
Z
foreveryincrementatvalueofV
Z
.Tabulateallreadingsand
plotforwardcharacteristics.
CALCULATIONS
Staticforwardresistance,
F
F
F
V
R
I
=
=.........
Staticreverseresistance,
R
R
R
V
R
I
=
=.........
Dynamicforwardresistance
F
F
V
I
A
=
A
=.........
Dynamicreverseresistance
Z
Z
V
I
A
=
A
=.........
V
(0-30V)
RPS
S
ZenerDiode
A
+
_
_
+
VF
+
_
+
_
V
(0-30V)
RPS
BB
A
_
+
VZ
+
_
(0-30mA)
75ohms,5W
+
_
02
3Z15V
+
_
Figure9.5:Reverse bias circuit
S.No. V
F
(Volt)
I
F
(mA)
1
2
3
4
5
S.No.
V
Z
(Volt)
I
Z
( ) A
1
2
3
4
5
+I(mA)
I
-I(mA)
Z
+V(VsHs)
-V
VsHs
Barrier
Potential
IZ Mar
VZ
22mA
AI
F
AV
F
Figure9.6
RESULT
Dynamicforwardresistance =
Staticforwardresistance =
Dynamicreverseresistance =
Staticreverseresistance =
PRECAUTIONS
1. Caremustbetakenthatallthesourcesandmetersareconnectedwithcorrectpolarity.
2. Seethatthecurrentlimitofregulatedpowersupplyissetto250mA.
1. WhatisaZenerdiode?
2. Whatdoyouunderstandbybreakdownvoltage?
3. ExplainZenerandAvalanchebreakdown?
4. Whatiskneevoltage?
5. Explaintheroleofdopingfordifferentbehaviorofdiodes.
6. CanweinterchangetheVaxisandIaxisofdiodecharacteristiccurve?Ifnotwhy?
REFERENCES
VIVA-VOCE
AIM:MeasuringtheDiameterofaHumanHairbyLaserDiffraction
THEORY:Oftenitisnecessarytodeterminethediameterofafinewire,thinthreadorotherobjectthatcannot
bemeasuredbyconvectionalmeans.Theseitemscanbemeasuredbyusingmethodsofdiffractionandinterfer-
enceknownasYoungsDoubleSlitExperiment.WhileYoungsexperimentdealwiththepatternoflightimping-
ingontwonarrowsslitsseparatedbyasmalldistance,themethodcanbyappliedtoanobjectwithasmall
diameteraswell.Wherethediameteriswithinanorderofmagnitudeofthewavelengthoflaserlightused.
PROCEDURE
1 Takea15cmby15cmpieceandmakea10cmby10cmholeinthecenterofthecardboardpiece.
Thisisyourmountingbracket.
2. Selectonestrandofhairapproximately15-25cmlong.Thishairneedstobemountedonthemounting
bracketfromstep1.
3 Mountthehaironthebracketusingtape.Placethehairsothatitbisectsthemountingbracket.Make
surethehairistautandstraight.
4. Setthelaserpointer(orlaser)onthelabtable.Positioningthelasersothebeamstrikesthehairinthe
mountingbracket.(Youmayusebinderclipsorbookstopositionthelasersourceandthemounting
bracketonthetable.)
EXPERIMENT NO. 10
5. Makesurethelasersetupandmountingbracketfaceawallorscreen.
6. Recordthefollowingkeyparametersonthedatasheetprovided.Recordthewavelengthofthelaser
as
.Insomecaseitmaybenecessarytoaveragethewavelengthvaluesgivenonthelaserslabel.
TypicalvaluesforaredHeNeLaserare632-634nm.
Redlaserpointershaveatypicalrangebetween630nm680nm.Recordthedistance(D)betweenthe
mountingbracketandscreenorwall.(Ifyouareusingawallfor
ascreenitmightbeprudenttotapeapieceofwhitepaperonthewalltouseasabackground.)
7. Examinethepatternstrikingthescreen.Itshouldappearsimilartotheimagebelow.(Youmayneed
todarkentheworkareaorroomtoseethefainthigherorderbands.)
8. Carefullymeasurethebrightbandsbymeasuringfromthecenterofthebrightcentralbandtothestarting
edgeoffirstbrightbandontheleft.Recordthisvalueasy1i,undertheymicolumn.(Youmayfinda
bringspotinthecenterofthecentralband.Thispointcanbeusedasreference.)Measurefromthe
centerofthecentralbandagaintotheendofthefirstbrightbandontheleft.Recordthisasy1f,under
theymfcolumn.Theaverageofthesetwomeasurementsisthedistancebetweenthecentralbrightband
andthe1stordermaximum(m=1)ontheleftside.Recordthisonthedatatableasy1avgunderthe
ymavgcolumnonthedatasheet.Repeatthestepsforthe2
nd
,3
rd
,4
th
and5
th
orderbands.Ifyoucansee
thebandsbeyondm=5,measurethoseaswell.Makesureyoumeasurefromthemiddleofthecentral
bandtothebeginningandtheendofeachofthem
th
orderbands.
(Youmayhavetodarkentheroomtoseeallthebands.)
9. Aftermeasuringallthebandsontheleft.Proceedtomeasurethem
th
orderbandsontherightsideofthe
centralbandusingthesametechniquesoutlinedinstep8.Thisshouldyieldatotalsetofatleastten
measurements.
10. Foreachymavgcalculatethediameterofthehumanhair(d)using:
( )
mavg
d m D y =
11. Afterdeterminingthetenvaluesofdcalculatetheaveragediameterofahumanhairandthestandard
error
d
( ) o inthemeasurementofd.wherethestandarderroristhestandarddeviationofddividedby
thesquarerootofthenumberofmeasurementstaken.
1/2
d d
S N o =
EXAMPLECALCULATIONS
Exampleforthe1
st
order(m=1)bandforaHeNelaserwavelength
=633nm,andscreendistanceofD=1.5m.
( )
( )( ) ( )
9 5
1
d 633 10 m 1 1.5 0.02m 4.75 10 m or 47 m

= =
Exampleforthe4thorder(m=4)bandforaHeNelaserwavelength=633nm,andsecreendistanceofD=1.5m.
( )
( )( ) ( )
9 5
4
d 633 10 m 4 1.5 0.0575m 6.61 10 m or 66 m

= =
Thesameexperimentcanbetriedoutonaneedleorpin.
1. Whatistherangeofvaluesforhumanhair?
2. Averagetherangeofvaluesofhumanhair.Whatisthepercentdifferencebetweenyouraveragevalue
andtheaverageacceptedvaluefromdifferentsourcesofinformationsuchasbooksorinternet?
3. Whatotheritemscouldyoumeasureusingthistechnique?
4. WhatisHe-Nelaser?Howitworks?
5. Whywecantmeasurehumanhairdiameterusingscrewgauge?
6. Whatisdiameterofdustparticle(floatinginair)?
DiamterofahumanhairDataSheet
Laserwavelength
=
m
+7
+6
+5
+4
+3
+2
+1
0
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
-6
-7
|m|
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
N/A
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Y
mi
Y
mf
Y
mavg
CalculatedDiameter
AverageDiameter
Error
N/A N/A
VIVA-VOCE
Someexamplesofdiameterofhumanhair
Bibliographicentry
Result
StandardizedResult
PiezoTechnology.Epson(UK)Ltd.
DennyR'sHomepage.Denny&
GayleRossbach.Palmdale,CA
WhyChooseAWaterTreatment
System?Aqua-FreshDrinking
WaterSystems,Inc
Hair-ImportantFactsAboutHair.
CAQTICosmetics,Inc.
"45microns,2timessmallerthanthediameter
ofahumanhairandclosetothelimitof
resolutionforthehumaneye"
"Diameterofahumanhair
inches:0.001;centimeters:0.00254"
"Particulatecontaminantsincludingasbestos,
rust,sediment,dirt,andscaleassmallas0.2
microns(1/300thdiameterofahumanhair)."
"Flaxenhairisthefinest,from1/1500to1/500
ofaninchindiameterandblackhairisthe
coarsest,from1/450to1/140ofaninch."
90 m
25.4 m
60 m
17 50 m (flaxen)
51 181 m (black)
AIM: Study of both the current - voltage characteristic and the power curve to find the maximum power
point(MPP)andefficiencyofasolarcell.
APPARATUS:SolarPanelConsistof6solarCells,Tablelamp,Digital/AnalogD.Cammeterandvoltmeter.
THEORY:Asolarcellorphotovoltaiccellisadevicethatconvertslightenergyintoelectricalenergy.Sometimesthe
termsolar cellisreservedfordevicesintendedspecificallytocaptureenergyfromsunlight,whilethetermphotovoltaic
cellisusedwhenthelightsourceisunspecified.Fundamentally,thedeviceneedstofulfillonlytwofunctions:photo
generationofchargecarriers(electronsandholes)inalight-absorbingmaterial,andseparationofthechargecarriersto
aconductivecontactthatwilltransmittheelectricity.Thisconversioniscalledthephotovoltaic effect,andthefieldof
researchrelatedtosolarcellsisknownasphotovoltaic.
Solarcell
P n
10E/Step
RL
2V/20V
+
V
+
20/200mA
mA
-
+
+
(A)CircuitSymbol
Silicon
Coating
Sunlight
Energy
MetalContact
MetalContact
Junction
(B)Cross-section
P
N
APPLICATIONS
Telecommunication systems: Radio transceivers on mountain tops or telephone boxes in the country
can often be solar powered.
Remote monitoring and control: scientific research stations, seismic recording, weather stations,
etc. use very little power which, in combination with a dependable battery, is provided reliably by a
small PVmodule.
Ocean navigation aids: many lighthouses are powered by solar cells.
Water Pumping/Rural Electrification/Domestic supply
Health Care/Lighting Electronicindustry Electric Power Generation in Space.
EXPERIMENT NO. 11
Figure11.1
Figure11.2:Solar cell
SIMPLE EXPLANATION
1. Photonsinsunlighthitthesolarpanelandareabsorbedbysemiconductingmaterials,suchassilicon.
2. Electrons(negativelycharged)areknockedloosefromtheiratoms,allowingthemtoflowthroughthematerial
toproduceelectricity.Thecomplementarypositivechargesthatarealsocreated(likebubbles)arecalledholes
andflowinthedirectionoppositeoftheelectronsinasiliconsolarpanel.
3. Anarrayofsolarpanelsconvertssolarenergyintoausableamountofdirectcurrent(DC)electricity.
PHOTO GENERATION OF CHARGE CARRIER
Whenaphotonhitsapieceofsilicon,oneofthreethingscanhappen:
1. Thephotoncanpassstraightthroughthesiliconthis(generally)happensforlowerenergyphotons,
2. Thephotoncanreflectoffthesurface,
3. Thephotoncanbeabsorbedbythesiliconwhicheither:GeneratesheatorGenerateselectron-holepairs,ifthe
photonenergyishigherthanthesiliconbandgapvalue.
CHARGE CARRIER SEPARATION
Therearetwomainmodesforchargecarrierseparationinasolarcell:
1. Driftofcarriers,drivenbyanelectrostaticfieldestablishedacrossthedevice
2. Diffusionofcarriersfromzonesofhighcarrierconcentrationtozonesoflowcarrierconcentration(followinga
gradientofelectrochemicalpotential).
Inthewidelyusedp-n junctiondesignedsolarcells,thedominantmodeofchargecarrierseparationisbydrift.
However,innon-p-n junctiondesignedsolarcells(typicalofthethirdgenerationofsolarcellresearchsuchasdyeand
polymerthin-filmsolarcells),ageneralelectrostaticfieldhasbeenconfirmedtobeabsent,andthedominantmodeof
separationisviachargecarrierdiffusion.
PROCEDURE
1. TaketheSolarEnergyTrainerNV6005alongwithSolarPanel.
2. Placethesolarpanelinthestandandadjustthepanelatanangleofabout45withtheground.Directthesunlight
straightatthesolarpanel(angleof90).
Note: If sunlight is not properly available then any source of light like lamp can be used.
3. WiththeDB15connectorconnecttheSolarEnergyTrainerNV6005withSolarPanel.Thenwaitfor1minute
toavoiderrorsduetotemperaturefluctuations.
4. Setthepotentiometertomaximumresistancei.e.atfullyclockwisepositionandmeasureandrecorditsresistance
intotheObservationTable.
5. Connectthesolarcellasshowninthefollowingcircuitdiagramasshowninfigure11.3.
a. ConnectpositiveterminalofsolarcelltoP1terminal
ofthepotentiometer.
b. Connectotherendofpotentiometeri.e.P2topositive
terminalofammeter.
c. Connect negative terminal of ammeter to negative
terminalofsolarcell.
d. NowconnectthepositiveterminalofvoltmetertoP1
andnegativeterminalofvoltmetertoP2.
6. Recordthevaluesofcorrespondingvoltageandcurrent
intotheobservationTable.
SolarCells
Panel
V
A
+
+ -
-
P
1
P
2
Figure11.3
7. Nowgraduallymovethepotentiometerinanti-clockwisedirectionsothattheresistanceofthepotentiometer
decreases.Nowmeasuretheresistancesatsuccessivelysmallervaluesandrecordthecorrespondingvaluesof
voltagesandcurrentintotheObservationTablebelow.
Note: Always to measure the resistance of potentiometer at any position, first remove the patch cords from P
1
and
P
2
and measure resistance by multi meter. Reconnect these connections again for further measurements.
OBSERVATION TABLE
8. PlottheV-Icharacteristicsfromthemeasurementsrecordedinthetable,toshowhowthephotoelectriccurrent
dependsonthephotoelectricvoltageandtofindmaximumpowerpoint.
Fillfactor Calculation
Fill factor is the ratio of maxmium useful power to ideal power:
Maximum useful power is area of largest rectangle that can be
formed under V-I curve. V
m
and I
m
are values of voltage and
currentfortheseconditions.
Maximumusefulpower
m m
V I =
And Idealpower
OC SC
V I =
where I
SC
=maximumvalueofsaturationcurrent
V
OC
=emfgenratedbyphotovoltaiccellinopencircuit.
Fillfactor
m m
OC SC
V I
V I
FromV-Icharacteristicsyoucaneasilyfindthemaximumpower
point (MPP). MPP occurs where the product of voltage and
currentisgreatest.
9. Plotthecurveofpowerasafunctionofvoltagefrom
themeasurementsrecordedinthetable.
ExpectedPower-Voltagecurveisasshowninfigure11.6.
Resistance, R Voltage,V(Volt) Current,I(mA)
PowerCalculated
P=V.I(watt)
S.No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Figure11.4: Current voltage characteristic
of the solar cell
Voltage(V)
MPP
0.02
0.5 1 1.5 2.0
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.10
0.12
0.14
0.16
V
m V
OC
I
SC
I
SC
I
m
Voltage(V)
P
o
w
e
r
(
W
)
MPP
0.05
0.5 1 1.5 2.0
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
Figure 11.6: Power curve of the solar
cell as a function of voltage
Themaximumpowerpoint(MPP)isthemaximumvalueofpowerintheabovecurve.
Theresistance,RMPP,atwhichtheoutputpowerisatamaximum,canbecalculatedusingthefollowingformula:
MPP
MPP
MPP
V
R
I
=
TO CALCULATE THE EFFICIENCY () OF SOLAR CELL
Theefficiencyofthesolarcellistheratioofproducedelectricalpower(Pout)andtheincidentradiantpower(Pin).
Efficiencyofsolarcell,
out
in
P
=
P
WhereP
out
istheoutputelectricalpower(maximumpowerpoint).
Piniscalculatedbymultiplyingapproximatedirradiance(irradiancemeansradiantpowerofthelightincidentperunit
area)bytheeffectiveareaofthesolarcellonthepanel.
Thismethodusedthefactthatthepracticalvalueofthecurrent(maximumphotoelectriccurrentmeasured)isproportional
tothephotons(radiation)strikingthesolarcell.Thiscurrentisthereforeproportionaltotheincidentradiantpowerofthe
light.
Theopencircuitvoltagedependsonthesemiconductormaterialofwhichsolarcellismade.Itisnotproportionaltothe
incidentradiantpowerandthereforecannotbeusedforthismeasurement.
PROCEDURE
1. Efficiencyofsolarcell,
out
in
P
=
P
Where
P
out
(OutputElectricalPower)=MaximumPowerPoint(MPP)
P
in
(Incidentradiantpower)=ApproximatedIrradiance Areaofsolarcell=(F I
p
) AA
HereA=Areaofasolarcell(LengthxBreadth)m
2
I
p
=Practicalvalueofcurrent(maximumphotoelectriccurrentmeasured)indicatedontheammeter,Fis
aconstantandisgivenby
( )
MaximumsolarIrradiance
F= Specifiedbymanufactured
Maximumvalueofcurrent
Themaximumirradianceinsummerisapprox.1000W/m
2
.Themaximumvalueofthecurrentspecifiedbythe
manufacturerisachievedatthisvaluei.e.150mAinthegivensolarcells.(Theparametersofthesolarcell/panel
arerelatedtothestandardtestconditionsof1000W/m
2
andcelltemperatureof25C.)
2
W
1000
m
F =
150mA
2
W
6.67
m .mA
=
2. Multiplyingthepracticalvalueofcurrent(Ip)indicatedontheammeterbythefactorgivesanapproximationof
theradiantpowerperunitarea(irradiance)strikingthesolarcell.
2
W
F 6.67
m -mA
=
Approximationoftheradiantpowerperunitarea=.
3. Nowmeasuretheareainm
2
andputthevaluesintheformulagivenineq.Pin=
Now,wecancalculatetheefficiencyofsolarcellwith
out
In
P
=
P
WherePoutorMPP=..(Ascalculatedbeforeinexperiment)
=..
Theefficienciesofsolarcellsliebetween12to15%.Ifefficiencyisslightlylessthandeterminedvaluethenitisdueto
measuringerrorsandinaccuraciesindeterminingtheincidentradiantpower.Furthermore,theefficiencyofsolarpanel
islessthanthatoftheirseparateconstituentcells.Thisiscausedbylossesthatariseinmatchingsolarcellsthatdonot
allhaveexactlythesameproperties.Ifthesolarcellsareconnectedinseriestogeneratedesiredvoltage,themaximum
powerpointmaynotbesameforallcells.Solarcelllossesariseasnotallphotonsstrikingthesolarcellcanbe
convertedintochargecarriers.Partofthelightisreflectedassoonasithitsthesurfaceandthemetalcontactscast
shadows.Sincethephotonenergydoesnotcorrespondtotheenergygap,lessthanhalfoftheincidentenergyisused.
Recombinationofchargecarriers(atomicrebindingofelectrons)andelectricallossescausedbyinternalresistances
(ohmiclossesinthesemiconductor)ofthesolarcellanditscontactsalsoarise.
PRECAUTIONS
1. DonotmakeinterconnectionsontheboardwithmainsswitchedON.
2. Alltheconnectionsshouldbetight.
3. Switchoffaftertakingthereadings.
1. Whatissolarcell?
2. Whysolarcellisalsocalledphotovoltaiccell?
3. Whataretheusesofsolarcell?
4. Whatdoyoumeanphotoelectriceffect?
5. Onwhatfactorsdoesthephotocurrentdepend?
6. DefinetheefficiencyofSolarCell?
7. Howdoestemperatureeffectefficiencyofsolarcell/photovoltaiccell.
8. WhathappenstothecurrentwhenPhotovoltaiccellsareconnectedinseriesandinparallel.
9. Whatistheorderofcurrentinphotovoltaiccell?
10. Defineafillfactorofaphotovoltaiccell.
REFERENCES
VIVA-VOCE
AIM:Todeterminethewavelengthofsodiumlight(Monochromaticsource)withthehelpofFresnels
Bi-Prism.
APPARATUS:Opticalbenchwithuprights,sodiumlamp,Bi-prism,convexlens,slitandmicrometereyepiece.
Slitandmicrometereyepiecearealreadyfittedontheopticalbench.
FORMULA
ThewavelengthlofthesodiumlightisgivenbytheformulainthecaseofBi-prismexperiment.
Where b =fringewidth,
2d =distancebetweenthetwovirtualsources,
D =distancebetweentheslitandscreen(Eyepieceupright).
Again ( )
1 2
2d d d =
Where d
1
= distancebetweenthetwoimagesformedbytheconvexlensinoneposition.
d
2
= distancebetweenthetwoimagesformedbytheconvexlensinthesecondposition.
APPLICATIONS
Tomaketwocoherentsourceforinterference.Biprismmaketwosources.
Tofindwavelengthofamonochromaticlightsourceandfordeterminingthethicknessofathin
glasssheetwhenplacedbetweenbiprismandscreenoreyepiece.
DESCRIPTIONOFTHEAPPARATUS
Twocoherentsources,fromasinglesource,
toproduceinterferencepatternareobtainedwith
thehelpofaBi-prism.ABi-prismmayberegarded
asmadeupoftwoprismsofverysmallrefracting
anglesplacedbasetobase.Inactualpracticea
singleglassplateissuitablygrindedandpolishedtogiveasingleprismofobtuseangle179
0
leavingremaining
twoacuteanglesof30each
Theopticalbenchusedintheexperimentconsistsofaheavycastironbasesupportedonfourleveling
screws.Thereisagraduatedscalealongitsonearm.Thebenchisprovidedwithfouruprightswhichcanbe
clampedanywhereandthepositioncanbereadbymeansofvernierattachedtoit.Eachoftheuprightis
subjectedtothefollowingmotions:
(i) motionalongbench,
(ii) transversemotion(motionrightangletobench),
(iii) rotationabouttheaxisoftheupright,
(iv) withthehelpofatangentscrew,theslitandBi-prismcanberotatedintheirownverticalplanes.The
bencharrangementisshowninfigure12.1
ACTIONOFBI-PRISM
TheactionoftheBi-prismisshowninfigure12.2.
MonochromaticlightfromasourceSfallsontwopoints
oftheprismandisbenttowardsthebase.Duetothe
divisionofwavefront,therefractedlightappearstocome
EXPERIMENT NO. 12
Slit Biprism Lens
EyePiece
Source
ofLight
Figure12.1
d
S
1
S
2
S
y
1
y
2
E
P
F
Q
C
o
Figure12.2
fromS
1
andS
2
.Thewavesfromtwosourcesuniteandgiveinterferencepattern.Thefringesarehyperbolic,but
duetohigheccentricitytheyappeartobestraightlinesinthefocalplaneofeyepiece.
PROCEDURE
ADJUSTMENTS
1. Levelthebedofopticalbenchwiththehelpofspiritlevelandlevelingscrews.
2. Theslit,Bi-prismandeyepieceareadjustedatthesameheight.Theslitandthecrosswireofeyepiece
aremadevertical.
3. Themicrometereyepieceisfocussedoncrosswire.
4. Withanopeningprovidedtothecoverofthemonochromaticsource,thelightisallowedtoincidenton
theslitandthebenchissoadjustedthatlightcomesstraightalongitslengths.Thisadjustmentismadeto
avoidthelossoflightintensityfortheinterferencepattern.
5. PlacetheBi-prismuprightneartheslitandmovetheeyepiecesideway.Seethetwoimagesoftheslit
throughBi-prism;iftheyarenotseen,movetheuprightofBi-prismrightangletothebenchtilltheyare
obtained.MakethetwoimagesparallelbyrotatingBi-prisminitsownplane.
6. BringtheeyepieceneartotheBi-prismandgiveitarotationatrightangleofthebenchtoobtainapatch
oflight.Asamatteroffact,theinterferencefringesareobtainedinthispatchprovidedthattheedgeof
theprismisparalleltotheslit.
7. TomaketheedgeoftheBi-prismparallel
totheslit,theBi-prismisrotatedwith
the help of tangent screw till a clear
interferencepatternisobtained.These
fringescanbeeasilyseenevenwiththe
nakedeye.
Thelinejoiningthecentreoftheslitand
theedgeoftheBi-prismshouldbeparallel
tothebedofthebench.Ifthisisnotso,
therewillbealateralshiftandtheremoval
is most important. This is shown in
figure12.3.
(a) In order to adjust the system for
no lateral shift, the eyepiece is
moved away from Bi-prism. In
thiscase,thefringeswillmoveto
therightorleftbutwiththehelpofbasescrewprovidedwithBi-prism,itismovedatrightangle
tothebenchinadirectiontobringthefringesbacktotheiroriginalposition.
(b) NowmovetheeyepiecetowardstheBi-prismandthesameadjustmentismadewiththehelpof
eyepiece.Nowusingtheprocessagainandagain,thelateralshiftisremoved.
MESUREMENTS:
(A) MEASUREMENTOFFRINGEWIDTH(b)
1. Findouttheleastcountofthemicrometerscrew.
2. Placethemicrometerscrewatsuchadistancewherefringesaredistinct,brightandwidelyspaced,(say100cm.)
3. Thecrosswireismovedononesideofthefringestoavoi8dbacklasherror.Nowthecrosswireisfixed
atthecentreofabrightfringeanditsreadingisnotedonthemainscaleaswellasonmicrometerscrew.
S
Slit
LateralShift
S
1
S
2
S
NoLateralShift
S
1
S
2
Figure12.3
4. Thecrosswireisnowmovedandfixedatthecentreofeverysecondbrightfringe.Themicrometer
readingsarenoted.Fromtheseobservationsbcanbecalculated.
(B) MEASUREMENTOFD:
Thedistancebetweenslitandeyepieceuprightsisnoted.ThisdistancegivesD.ThevalueofDis
correctedforthebencherror.
(C) MEASUREMENTOF2d:
Thedistance2dbetweenthetwovirtualsourcescanbemeasuredwiththehelpoffig.(4).
1. Toobtainthevalueof2d,thepositionsofslitandBi-prismuprightsarenotdisturbed.
2. AconvexlensisintroducedbetweenBi-prismandeye-pieceandmovedinbetweentoobtaintwosharp
andfocusedimagesofthesource.Thedistancebetweentwoimagesisnoted.Inthefirstposition
figure12.4thedistanceisdenotedbyd
1
.
3. Thelensisagainmovedtowardseyepiecetoobtainthesecondpositionwhereagaintwosharpand
focusedimagesareobtained.Thedistanceinthiscaseisdenotedbyd
2
.Knowingd
1
andd
2
.Knowing
d
1
andd
2
,2dcanbecalculatedbyusingtheformula
( )
1 2
2d d d =
2d
S
1
d
2
d
1
S
2
1stpositionoflens 2ndpositionoflens
OBSERVATIONS
Pitchofthescrew =.cm.
No.ofdivisionsonthemicrometerscrew =.cm.
L.C.ofmicrometerscrew =..cm.
(I)TABLEFORFRINGEWIDTHb:
No.of
frings
Micrometerreading(a)
No.of
frings
Micrometerreading(b)
Deifference
for10
fringes
(a b)
Mean
for10
frings
Fringe
width
cms.
M.S.
reading
cms
V.C.
reading
Total
cms.
M.S.
reading
cms
V.C.
reading
Total
cms.
1
3
5
7
9
11
13
15
17
19
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
...... ......
Figure12.4
MEASUREMENTOF2d:
Positionofuprightcarryinglist =..cm.
Positionofuprightcarryingtheeyepiece =..cm.
ObservedvalueofD =..cm.
MEASUREMENTOF2d:
CALCULATIONS
o
2d
..........A
D
= =
RESULT:
Wavelengthofsodiumlight
=A
0
Standardvalueof
=A
0
Standardvalue-Experimentalvalue
Percentage error 100
Standardvalue
=
=.......%
PRECAUTIONS
1. Thesettingoftheuprightsatthesamelevelisessential.
2. Theslitshouldbeverticalandnarrow.
3. Fringeshiftshouldberemoved.
4. Bencherrorshouldbetakenintoaccount.
5. Crosswireshouldbefixedinthecentreofthefringewhiletakingobservationsforfringewidth.
6. Themicrometerscrewshouldberotatedonlyinonedirectiontoavoidbacklasherror.
7. Thefringewidthshouldbemeasuredatafairlylargedistance.
8. Convexlensofshorterfocallengthshouldbeused(f=25cm.approx.).
THEORETICALERROR
Weknow
2d

D
=
( )
1 2
d d
D
=
Takinglog
e
anddifferentiating,weget ,
2
2
1
1
2
1
2
1
d
d
d
d
D
D o o o
|
o|
o
+ + + =
Inourcase, .....
2 1
= = = d d o o o|
S.No.
1stpositionoflens
Mean2d
Micrometerreading
2ndpositionoflens
Iimage
a
IIimage
b
d
1
=
b a
Iimage
a
IIimage
b
( )
1 2
2d = d d
1
2
3
d
2
=
b a
1. Whatdoyoumeanbymonochromaticlight?WhatisBi-prism?
2. WhatisthefunctionofBi-prisminthisexperiment?
3. Whatarecoherentsources?
4. Isitpossibletoobserveinterferencefringeswithlightcomingfromtwoindependentlampsorcandles?
5. Whatdoyoumeanbyinterferenceoflight?Howmanytypesofinterferenceshaveyouread?
6. Whataretheconditionsforobtainingwelldefinedanddistinctinterference?
7. Isthereanylossofenergyininterference?Whatisfringewidth?Arethefringesequallyspaced?
8. AretheBiprismfringesperfectlystraight?
REFERENCES
VIVA-VOCE
AIM:TodeterminethedispersivepowerofamaterialofprismusingSpectrometer.
APPARATUS:Spectrometer,Prism,MercuryVaporLamp.
THEORY:Aspectrometerisusedtomeasurethenecessaryangles.Thespectrometerconsistsofthreeunits:(1)
collimator,(2)telescope,and(3)prismtable.Theprismtable,itsbaseandtelescopecanbeindependently
movedaroundtheircommonverticalaxis.Acircularangularscaleenablesonetoreadangulardisplacements
(togetherwithtwovernierslocateddiametricallyoppositetoeachother).
Intheexperiment,weneedtoproduceaparallelbeamofraystobeincidentontheprism.Thisisdone
withthehelpofacollimator.Thecollimatorhasanadjustablerectangularslitatoneendandaconvexlensatthe
otherend.Whentheilluminatedslitislocatedatthefocusofthelens(SeeFig.1),aparallelbeamofrays
emergesfromthecollimator.Wecantestthispoint,withthehelpofatelescopeadjustedtoreceiveparallelrays.
Wefirstpreparethetelescopetowardsthispurposeasfollows:
SETTINGTHEEYEPIECE:Focustheeyepieceofthetelescopeonitscrosswires(forviewingthecross
wiresagainstawhitebackgroundsuchasawall)suchthatadistinctimageofthecrosswireisseenbyyou.Inthis
context,rememberthatthehumaneyehasanaverageleastdistanceofdistinctvisionofabout25cm.When
youhavecompletedtheaboveeyepieceadjustment,youhaveapparentlygottheimageofthecrosswirelocated
atadistancecomfortableforyoureyes.Henceforthdonotdisturbtheeyepiece.
SETTINGTHETELESCOPE:Focusthetelescopeontoadistant(infinity!)object.Focusingisdoneby
changingtheseparationbetweentheobjectiveandtheeyepieceofthetelescope.Testfortheabsenceofa
parallaxbetweentheimageofthedistantobjectandtheverticalcrosswire.Parallax effect (i.e.separation of
two things when you move your head across horizontally) exits, if the cross-wire and the image of the
distant object are not at the same distance from your eyes.Nowthetelescopeisadjustedforreceiving
parallelrays.Henceforthdonotdisturbthetelescopefocusingadjustment.
SETTINGTHECOLLIMATOR:Usethetelescopeforviewingtheilluminatedslitthroughthecollimatorand
adjustthecollimator(changingtheseparationbetweenitslensandslit)tilltheimageoftheslitisbrought
totheplaneofcrosswiresasjudgedbytheabsenceofparallaxbetweentheimageoftheslitandcrosswires.
OPTICALLEVELINGOFTHEPRISM:
Theprismtablewouldhavebeennearlyleveledbeforeusehasstarted
theexperiment.However,foryourexperiment,youneedtodoabitof
levelingusingreflectedrays.Forthispurpose,placethetablewithoneapex
atthecenterandfacingthecollimator,withtheground(non-transparent)
faceperpendiculartothecollimatoraxisandawayfromcollimator.Slightly
adjusttheprismsothatthebeamoflightfromthecollimatorfallsonthetwo
reflectingfacessymmetrically(Fig.2)whenyouhaveachievedthislockthe
prismtableinthisposition.Turnthetelescopetoonesidesoastoreceive
thereflectedimageoftheslitcentrallyintothefieldofview.Thismaybe
achievedbyusingoneofthelevelingscrews.Theimagemustbecentral
whicheverfaceisusedasthereflectingface.Similarly,repeatthisprocedure
fortheotherside.
FINDINGTHEANGLEOFTHEPRISM(A):Withtheslitwidthnarroweddownsufficientlyandprism
tableleveled,locktheprismtableandnotetheangularpositionofthetelescopewhenoneofthereflectedimages
EXPERIMENT NO. 13
Figure13.1:Experimental setup
angle of prism
coincideswiththecrosswires.Repeatthisforthereflectedimageontheotherside(withoutdisturbingtheprism
andprismtable).Thedifferenceinthesetwoangularpositionsgives2a.
FINDINGANGLEOFMINIMUMDEVIATION(D
M)
Unlocktheprismtableforthemeasurementoftheangleofminimumdeviation(Dm).Locatetheimage
oftheslitafterrefractionthroughtheprismasshowninFig.3.Keepingtheimagealwaysinthefieldofview,
rotatetheprismtabletillthepositionwherethedeviationoftheimageoftheslitissmallest.Atthisposition,the
imagewillgobackward,evenwhenyoukeeprotatingtheprismtableinthesamedirection.Lockboththe
telescopeandtheprismtableandtousethefineadjustmentscrewforfinersettings.Notetheangularpositionof
theprism.Inthispositiontheprismissetforminimumdeviation.Withoutdisturbingtheprismtable,removethe
prismandturnthetelescope(nowunlockit)towardsthedirectraysfromthecollimator.Notethescalereading
ofthisposition.Theangleoftheminimumangulardeviation,viz,D
m
isthedifferencebetweenthereadingsfor
theselasttwosettings.
PRINCIPLE:RefractiveIndex():
Itisdefinedas
=
velocity of light invaccum
velocity of light inair
And
sin
sin 2
sin
sin
2
m
A D
i
A
r
+ | |
|
\ .
= =
Where AAngleofPrism
DmAngleofminimumdeviation
OBSERVATIONTABLES
Forangleoftheprism:
Vernier Telescopereadingfor
refl ectionfromfirstface
Telescopereadi ngfor
reflectionfromsecond
face
Di fference
(a~b)=2A
Mean
valueof
2A
A MeanA
(Degrees)
M
S
R
V
S
R
Total(a) M
S
R
V
S
R
Total(b)
V1
V
2


2.Forangleofminimumdeviation:
S.
No
Colour Vernier Dispersedimage
telescopeinminimum
deviationposition
Telescopereading
fordirectimage
Difference
(a~b)
Mean
deviation
D
m
(Degrees)
M
S
R
V
S
R
Total
(a)
M
S
R
V
S
R
Total
(b)
1.
green
V
1
V
2

2.
blue
V
1
V
2

DISPERSIVEPOWER( w):-Angularrotationforagivenwavelengthiscalleddispersivepowerofthematerial
ofaprism
READINGS
Directrayreading =R
Greencolourreading =R
1
Bluecolourreading =R
2
MinimumdeviationangleforgreenD
g
=R~R
1
MinimumdeviationangleforblueD
b
=RR
2
sin
2
sin
2
B
b
A D
A
+ | |
|
\ .
=
| |
|
\ .
,
sin
2
sin
2
g
G
A D
A
+ | |
|
\ .
=
| |
|
\ .
Dispersivepowerofthematerialoftheprism,Where
SPEEDOFLIGHTINPRISM:Speedoflightinprismisgivenby
PRECAUTIONS
1. Takethereadingswithoutanyparallaxerrors
2. Thefocusshouldbeattheedgeofgreenandbluerays
RESULTS:Thedispersivepowerofamaterialofgivenprismusingspectrometeris
=
Speedoflightinprism=
1. Whatdoyoumeanbydispersivepower?Defineit.
2. Onwhatfactors,thedispersivepowerdepends?
3. Whatisanormalspectrum?
4. CanyoufindoutthedispersivepowerofaPrismwithsodiumlight?
5. Howmanytypesofspectrayouknow?Whattypeofspectradoyouexpecttogetfrom(i)anincandescent
filamentlamp(ii)sunlight(iii)mercurylamp?
6. WhatisthedifferencebetweenaTelescopeandaMicroscope?
REFERENCES
VIVA-VOCE

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