The Kansas Teacher Education

ADVOCATE
Fall 2012 Vol. 20, No. 2



The official publication of the
Association of Teacher Educators Kansas

Dr. Bruce Quantic, Executive Editor

Dr. Rusty Meigs, Layout Editor
Baker University
Olathe Public Schools



Association of Teacher Educators - Kansas
Executive Council

Dr. Nancy Albrecht, President
Emporia State University

Dr. Pam Green, President Elect
Southwestern College

Dr. Pam Sells, Secretary
Pittsburg State University

Dr. Tim Fry, Executive Director
Washburn University

Message from the President of ATE-K

The Association of Teacher Educators-Kansas publishes the ADVOCATE at least
annually and upon occasion, bi-annually. Manuscript submissions include research reports,
position papers, action research, descriptions of programs or practices, and innovations in
education. Manuscripts are peer reviewed, without the name(s) of authors or institutions. I
encourage you to share this new online format of the journal with colleagues and encourage
them to submit a manuscript. Information about the ADVOCATE and the Association of
Teacher Educators-Kansas (ATE-K) can be found at: http://atekan.org.

Nancy Albrecht, Ed.D.
Professor of School Leadership/Middle & Secondary Teacher Education
Emporia State University


Editors Statement The ADVOCATE
Fall, 2012 ON-LINE EDITION

The ATE-K organization wants to provide a forum for research and ideas on teacher
education in Kansas and elsewhere so that we can improve our understanding of practices
that enable our students to become better teachers.

The ATE-K Board authorized the ADVOCATE to establish an on-line journal this
fall. As we make this transition, we will discontinue the printed version of the ADVOCATE.
If this makes you nervous, welcome to the club. The online journal may look different, but
the purpose of the journal remains the same. Of course, you may download and print off
hard copies for use in your offices and classrooms. You may even share hard copies with
your colleagues and libraries on your campuses.

The hard part is to submit articles for the ADVOCATE and then get the feedback
from our reviewers that indicate an acceptance for publication. Because the ADVOCATE is
a peer-reviewed journal, know that when you submit an article it will take some time to get
evaluations from our reviewers. Be ready to make changes if our reviewers recommend them.
Please go to our web site, atekan.org and get started. Click on Journal.

I want to thank Dr. Rusty Meigs for assisting with this transition. He is an invaluable
resource for the association.
.
Your comments are always welcome. Please assist us in making this a first class
online journal by providing us with feedback.

H.Bruce Quantic, Ed.D.
Editor, the ATE-K ADVOCATE

bquantic@yahoo.com
or
1213 N. Hamilton Cir.
Derby, Kansas 67

THE ADVOCATE

Fall 2012




The Wichita Teacher Inquiry Group (WTIG)
Lessening Structural, Cultural, Indirect and Direct forms of through Cultural
Competence and Transformative Teaching and Learning
Drs. Linda F. Rhone and Kimberly Johnson Burkhalter...1

Beyond Busses, Balls, and Beans: An Examination of the Leadership Skills of Kansas
Principals
Dr. Carolyn L. Carlson.....12

Alien Education
Dr. Jennifer Cady.18

Developing Cultural Competence through Problem Posing and Multicultural
Childrens Literature
Drs. Gayla Lohfink and Laurie Curtis.........24

Where Are All the Women? Gender Bias Persists in Social Studies Texts
Dr. Tim Fry and Brenna S. Hofelt...28
1
The Wichita Teacher Inquiry Group (WTIG)
Lessening Structural, Cultural, Indirect and Direct forms of through
Cultural Competence and Transformative Teaching and Learning

Linda F. Rhone, Ed.D.
Southwestern College
Kimberly Johnson Burkhalter, Ed.D.
Wichita Public Schools, USD 259

Abstract

Bullying at school is an international phenomenon, and as a result there is a need
for teachers to understand bullying behavior at its roots and beyond direct (hitting,
kicking, choking) and indirect (gossiping, cyberbullying, silencing ones voice) forms. If
we are really going to lessen bullying at school overtime, we must talk about the
unmentionable: Bullying at school is larger than one child pushing, hitting or kicking
another. Literature suggests it is quite disappointing that to date there has been no
significant impact on bullying at school in the United States (Juvonen, Graham, &
Schuster, 2003; Berger, 2007). Literature also suggests there is little to no national
conversation about how direct and indirect forms of bullying at school are connected to
ideological beliefs, structural practices and cultural competence. This particular study
explored the scholarly literature and educational practices of social justice guru, Paulo
Freire and their implications for examining ideology, structural practices, cultural
competence, and oppression, namely bullying at school. The teacher-participants in this
study became known as the Wichita Teacher Inquiry Group. The six 5
th
grade teachers,
diverse in race, gender and experience, were nominated by their principals to be a part
of this year-long endeavor. Fifth grade was selected because bullying behavior is most
extensive at the middle school level (Archer & Cote, 2005; Eslea & Rees, 2001;
Espelage, Meban, & Swearer, 2004; Pellgegrini & Long, 2002). One of the goals of this
study was to help 5
th
grade students learn an appropriate use of power before they
transition to middle school. The principals used social justice oriented teaching as the
criteria for nominating a teacher. Social justice teachers teaching practices are
designed to pose thought-provoking problems for students to devise understandings for
discussion. They address key social justice issues locally and globally--regarding
racism, class inequality, gender inequalities, planetary pollution and global warming,
war and peace, etc., and seek to integrate such issues as themes into the disciplinary
subject matters at hand rather than delivering free-standing lectures on them (Shor,
2011, p. 1.). The nominated teachers who became the six teacher-participants responded
to four surveys, participated in nine cultural circles (focused discussion), and were
videotaped while teaching a lesson in their respective classrooms. The teacher-
participants came to understand the connection between ideology, structure, culture and
oppression in their school contexts as well as how all four can perpetuate direct and
indirect bullying behavior. As a result of their experiences with this study, the teacher-
participants were convinced that teaching from a social justice orientation, a Freirean
perspective in particular, has the potential to lessen structural, cultural, indirect, and
2
direct forms of bullying, because it poses thought-provoking questions and addresses
power and inequities as it relates to race, social class, gender and the like. They were
also convinced that teaching from a social justice perspective could help them to guard
against becoming teacher bullies. This study was expected to allow those teachers who
were very effective at teaching from a social justice orientation to share their teaching
practices with those who had less experience. In the end, all social justice teachers,
veteran and novice were expected to enhance their skills through this work. Future
research should consider further investigation on how ideological beliefs, structural
practices and cultural competence can perpetuate direct and indirect forms of bullying so
that teacher education programs can address this before preservice teachers earn a
license to teach.

Key words: Research, Bullying, Ideology, Structural practices at school, Cultural
Competence, Critical Multicultural Social Justice Education, Cultural Bullying,
Structural Bullying

Introduction

Though there are many anti-bullying efforts in schools around the country, few of
them have been scientifically evaluated (Berger, 2007). One of the key factors in
whether evaluation takes place is funding. For example, Smith, Ryan, and Cousins (2007)
had three hundred ninety-five schools in the United States respond to a survey regarding
the evaluation activities of their anti-bullying programs. The results revealed that few of
the schools evaluated their anti-bullying programs, and those who did evaluate their
programs used low rigor. The schools that evaluated their programs received external
funding to do so
which also afforded them the opportunity to offer more anti-bullying programs (Smith,
Ryan, & Cousins, 2007).
Bullying, according to Coloroso (2003; 2011), at its core is contempt and violence
that is fueled by arrogance. Those who feel they are superior to others, often times,
believe they can harm people who they feel are less than they are, and these
perpetrators have no remorse. Coloroso (2003; 2011) explained that anyone can be a
target of bullying behavior; however, there are those who are more likely to be bullied
than others. Children who are vulnerable to becoming a target of bullying are generally
anxious, lack[ing in] self-confidence, unwilling to fight, shy, reserved, quiet, timid,
sensitive, poor, richperceived as inferior [due to race or ethnicity], or [are] those whose
gender/sexual orientation, or religion is perceived as inferior and deserving of contempt
(Coloroso, 2003, pp. 44-45). Many targets of bullying behavior are selected because their
physical, intellectual and behavioral characteristics are devalued (McEvoy, 2005).
McEvoy (2005) explained that if the basis of target selection happens to be a category
we recognize as discriminatory, then we also recognize bullying as a hate crime (p. 3).
Bullying can be perpetuated through ideology, structural practice and lack of cultural
competence.
3
Paulo Freire, a Brazilian theorist, educator and practitioner wrote a number of
influential books notably Pedagogy of the Oppressed. Paulo Freires observations which
included thirty years of teaching around the world informed him that most schools
promoted the values of the dominant class, creating a culture of silence where
underserved individuals were oppressed--deprived the means to think critically about
their place in the world (Freire, 1993). Much like American education in the 21
st
century,
cultural bias can be found throughout public school curricula and standardized testing,
cultural bias is believed to be salient throughout the instructional practices promoted and
executed by school teachers and administrators. For example: holding the belief that the
dominant or mainstream (presumably European and North American) cultural ways of
learning and knowing are superior to ways of learning and knowing that do not reflect
such a culture.

Ideology can be defined as an unquestioned set of beliefs about a group of
people. Though ideological beliefs continue to inform structural practices, cultural
knowledge, and ultimately teaching practices, scholars and practitioners argue that they
do not. Freire and Macedo (2005) explained that many K-12 schools and universities
express publicly that they keep all ideological beliefs out of schools and universities.
Freire and Macedo (2005) challenged the notion that ideology does not play a key role in
the construct of the derisive social categories of race, ethnicity, class, and gender in
schools and universities. They argued that the denial that ideology exists in schools and
universities is deceptive and hinders individuals from developing the critical skills
needed to become full participants of society (Freire and Macedo, 2005). Freire and
Macedo (2005) believe that ideological beliefs guide structural practices at school.

Structural bullying is maintained by Terror. According to Coloroso (2003),
terror is structural (systemic) bullying used to intimidate and maintain dominance within
systems. Terror flows along ideological gradients. Those with power are likely to bully
those who have less whether it is student-to-student or teacher-to-student. Much of the
structure of schools is based upon a sense of authority, and has many elements rooted in
the ideas of a factory, namely a strict sense of hierarchy (Freire, 1993; Rhone, 2008).
Transforming the way that parents and teachers, students and teachers, and students and
students interact with each other can change the school culture into a place where parents,
students and teachers can learn to think critically, not what to think. This means that
teachers would reinvent themselves to become change agents who are open to ideas from
those who are, often times, least likely to be listened to, parents and students. Students
can be vulnerable to teacher bullying. McEvoy provided an example of what teacher-to-
student bullying looks like:

An abusive teacher may argue that a student who complains is simply trying to
excuse his or her questionable academic performance. This shifts attention from
the teachers inappropriate conduct to a discussion of standards and to the
students motivation for complaining. This also has the minimizing effect of
suggesting to others that what is at stake is merely a personal difference, rather
than a systematic abuse of power (McEvoy, 2005, p. 2).

4
Twenlaw and Fonagy (2005) defined a bullying teacher as one who uses his or
her power to punish, manipulate, or disparage a student beyond what would be
reasonable disciplinary procedure (p. 2387). Page (2007) reports that teachers who are
unable to correct students who break the rules, disengage from the learning process, show
apathy, and who dont show concern for receiving bad marks can resort to classroom
control strategies that can change them into the biggest bullies in school. First, these
teachers were good students in their own schooling experience and are unable to
empathize with students who show little interest in following the rules (Page, 2007).
Second, most of these teachers have no experiences or teacher training to help them deal
effectively with children who refuse to cooperate (Page, 2007). Third, these teachers have
a set and limited knowledge base on how to interpret the underlying causes for why
students are unmotivated and why they are hostile or feel marginalized in the school
environment (Page, 2007). Further, few but some teachers resort to intentional bullying,
intimidation and/or humiliation to force uncooperative students to cooperate. In essence,
teachers resort to bullying to gain student control. Though bullying by teachers is
generally not direct (hitting, kicking, choking, etc.), it is powerful and very clear to see. It
can create a climate that provokes student-to-student indirect and direct forms of
bullying.

Cultural bullying is maintained through a lack of cultural competence, sometimes
associated with terror (Rhone, 2008 Coloroso, 2011; Campbell, 2010). It is cultural
bullying when a teacher or a student of the dominant culture singles out a student because
of his or her differences such as skin color, ethnicity, social class, language, and sexual
orientation. Cultural bullying is taking place when students of color are expected to
abandon their core identities including native language in order to fit into dominant
ideologies operating in the larger school context. Students from diverse racial, ethnic, and
impoverished backgrounds are most often not able to fit into what has long been
defined as appropriate behavior and high academic performers at school. Recent data
indicates that 90% of teachers in United States classrooms are white, middle class and
increasingly female (Cushner, McClelland, & Safford, 2009; King, 2000) while the
students they teach continue to get racially, ethically, linguistically, and
socioeconomically diverse. Many teachers and students bring discriminatory attitudes to
school that have been formed from teachings at home (Campbell, 2010). In most cases,
white teachers and students have not been exposed to a critically reflective curriculum to
examine and deconstruct long-held, deep-seated values and opinions (Campbell, 2012).
Teachers and students from the dominate culture might feel contempt for students who
are different from themselves due to cultural ignorance. What makes teacher expectations
and the resultant discrimination so difficult to eradicate is that personal beliefs are deep-
seated, part of our individual and cultural experiences, and therefore difficult to change
from the outside---they are also often hidden. Even if they believe it to be true, few
people are willing to admit that they consider white students to be smarter than African
American, Hispanic, Native American or wealthy students to be more capable than poor
students. And one would suspect that even fewer educators are willing to admit that they
treat underserved students any differently in the classroom than they do the rest of their
students.

5
In many United States teacher education programs, preservice teachers take one
course titled Diversity or Multicultural Education that does not examine unequal
distribution of power and/or white privilege (Gorski, 2008). In order for teachers to
develop a critical lens, it is important to move beyond food, clothing, and music
celebrations of diversity to examine whiteness and the privilege associated with it in
every aspect of society, especially in schools (Gorski, 2008; King, 2000). Today, white
teachers still avoid a serious conversation about how school systems apparently privilege
whiteness over other cultures. Therefore, systems that marginalize, bully, some students
and promote the well being and success of others remain untouched (King, 2000).
Critically examining ideological beliefs, structural practices, school cultural climate, and
teaching behaviors can help to ensure that all children will be treated with dignity and
respect. Even in the face of standard assessments and accountability through testing, it
remains vital for teachers to acknowledge diversity and the role of power in diversity.

Methods

Six principals were asked to nominate one 5
th
grade teacher in their buildings
whose teaching behaviors were consistent with a social justice orientation. Fifth grade
was selected because bullying behavior is most extensive at the middle school level
(Archer & Cote, 2005; Eslea & Rees, 2001; Espelage, Meban, & Swearer, 2004;
Pellgegrini & Long, 2002). This study drew on data from six 5
th
grade teachers through
four surveys, nine cultural circles, and one videotaped classroom observation. The
teachers were diverse by race, gender and experience. Every teacher had approximately
23 students in his or her classroom; therefore, the number of people directly and
indirectly impacted by this work was 144.

The teacher-participants used a Freirean lens to examine how oppression,
silencing, contempt and exclusion, all characteristics of bullying behavior, could be
embedded in ideological beliefs that guide the ranking and sorting regimes of what
schools do. For example, most ranking and sorting regimes result in middle class,
English speaking and mainly white students being ranked into advanced level classes,
while students who are impoverished, minority and who possess limited English skills are
overrepresented in special education classrooms.

Findings

Survey instrument #1 revealed that in general the nominees had a teaching
philosophy that represented a social justice orientation, they were different from each
other; yet, there were many commonalities. Every nominee identified a social justice
teacher as one who uses a very engaged approach to teaching designed to empower
students and lessen aggressive behavior, namely bullying. Further, the teacher-
participants reported that cooperative learning, debates, and journal writing, were among
the strategies that social justice teachers should use most often. On average, the
nominees rated themselves at 7.5, on a scale from 1 to 10, with 10 representing a teacher
who uses a social justice orientation in every content area. Generally, the nominees had a
strong desire to become more effective social justice educators. The nominees explained
6
that they were most familiar with direct bullying (hitting, kicking, choking, and spitting)
and less familiar with indirect (silencing of voice, threats, and verbal taunts), structural,
and cultural forms of bullying. After some discussion, they all believed various forms of
bullying were present in their schools and classrooms. Most of the nominees believed that
teaching with a social justice orientation was consistent with anti-bullying teaching
practices. All nominees believed that this study had a connection to the Cultural
Proficiency Initiative in the Wichita Public Schools, USD 259. Pre/survey #2 revealed
that the teacher-participants did not understand the interconnectedness of structural,
cultural, direct, and indirect forms of bullying. This data also revealed the first three
cultural circles were effective in helping teacher-participants to understand the
connectedness of structural, cultural, direct, and indirect forms of bullying and what
teacher-to-student bullying could look like. In survey instrument #3, using data from a
survey and observations, it was clear that all teachers had to varying degrees deepened
their social justice orientation approach in the classroom. They realized that teacher-to-
student bullying happens more often than they once believed, prior to this endeavor.
Survey instrument #4 showed the teacher-participants became more reflective
practitioners. The teacher-participants reported that this study caused them to examine
their own ideological beliefs about diverse cultures (race, ethnicity, language differences,
and social economic class) to ensure they were not using racist practices and they were
making clear connections between teaching, power, culture, privilege, and the present
day realities of those who continue to experience prejudice and discrimination. All came
to understand that dialogue is significant for students and themselves. Every teacher-
participant believes that it is possible to Lessen structural, cultural, direct, and indirect
forms of bullying through cultural competence and transformative teaching and learning
through the use of critical pedagogical practices as advocated by Paulo Freire. Critical
pedagogy advocates the use of education as a tool to help learners to better themselves by
developing voice for the purpose of creating a more just society. In other words,
education is designed to start the process for progressive social change.

Cultural Competence/Cultural Circles

Over a ten-month period, the teacher-participants attended nine cultural circles
(focused discussions) and participated in a number of learning activities. The cultural
circles were organized so that teacher-participants could read, reflect, dialogue, present
chapters from Paulo Freires work, and role play. At the core of the first three cultural
circles was an examination of ideological beliefs and structural practices that can oppress
some students at the expense of others. The teacher-participants learned about the
banking system. According to Freire, the banking system does not invite students
voices in the classroom. It is teacher-centered and does not consider students to have
valuable knowledge to share. Teacher A shared her feelings after the first three cultural
circles:

The dialogue we had about Pedagogy of the Oppressed made me look at how I
have been teaching and realize that while I have tried to be innovative and make
the classroom relevant to my students, when it comes to crunch time I tend to
count on a banking system, where I give students information and I expect them
7
to feed it back to me. I think one of the most beneficial parts of the first three
circles was observing every teacher participant present the way their assigned
social justice teacher taught a lesson. As I watched every presenter, I began to
get ideas of how I could present different lessons, so students could dialogue and
gain a greater appreciation for cultural differences, starting with their own.

Following the first three days of cultural circles, every teacher-participant was
challenged to return to their classrooms and put into practice what they learned by
transforming the content they were already teaching to include a critical lens, a deeper
social justice orientation. The teacher-participants were given resources that were not
limited to but inclusive of: The Planning to Change the World: A Plan Book for Social
Justice Teachers (2010-2011); Pedagogy of the Oppressed; Reinventing Paulo Freire: A
Pedagogy of Love; Teaching Community: A Pedagogy of Hope; and Rethinking Schools,
Vols. 1 & 2. During this year-long journey, teacher-participants were required to reflect
and post to the Wichita Teacher Inquiry Group website after every cultural circle and
when classroom interactions provoked them to do so. Teacher P captured the essence of
her experience after the first three cultural circles:

After the three days of circle time, I am reflecting that there will always be room
for growth, and that I have been extremely optimistic. I was prepared to learn
solutions to social justice inequities with the mindset that it was all student-to-
student based. The circle sessions have given me a wealth of opportunity to
review my classroom and my own building, to look inward at areas open to
professional growth on behalf of our own school staff, starting with myself.
Fortunately, this does work within the philosophy and the best practices, that
have been implied by the Cultural Proficiency education and Parent Engagement
team.

Transformative Teaching and Learning/Observations

The remaining cultural circles centralized putting a social justice orientation into
action in the classroom. The teacher-participants presented social justice lessons to the
Wichita Teacher Inquiry Group. The lessons were designed to teach curriculum from a
popular cultural, issues-oriented perspective using critical pedagogical techniques. The
lessons included narratives that have been historically marginalized in our society. The
teacher-participants used literature that explained how children who are bullied in many
instances grow up to bully others and get involved in criminal behavior. The teacher-
participants reported plans to include some of the approaches they learned from the work
of Antonia Darder, Reinventing Paulo Freire: A Pedagogy of Love, in their classrooms.
The approaches included Sharing Circles and the Daily News. According to Darder
(2002), Sharing Circles and the Daily News allow teachers to turn routine practices
into critical dialogue. These activities allow teachers to get more deeply involved in their
students lives in order to help them address some of the inequalities they live with daily,
especially bullying. Several teacher-participants reiterated that in order to help students to
transform their lives it is imperative that they have the chance to give voice to their
struggles. In the end, the teacher-participants encouraged each other to use teaching
8
materials from Teaching Tolerance www.teachingtolerance.org; Rethinking Our
Classrooms www.rethinkingourschools.org; Social Justice Plan Book
www.justiceplanbook.com; and weblinks from Critical Multicultural Pavilion
http://www.edchange.org/multicultural.

During December 2010, every teacher-participant was videotaped in their
individual classroom while teaching from a social justice orientation. The videotaping
revealed that their lessons were engaging and exposed their students to various
possibilities for addressing social injustices in their personal lives, communities, and at
school. The lessons included classroom dialogue, giving every student a chance to share
about his or her lived reality, in whole-class and small group settings. In addition, it
included role-play that took the students back in time to take on the roles of freedom
fighters who struggled for the right to vote. Instead of pure history lessons, students
enacted social movements designed to move groups of people from the margins to the
center in the American society. The 5
th
grade students role-played the positions of
perpetuator, victim and bystander in the bullying relationship in order to better
understand how they are connected. In one class, the students were inspired to start an
Anti-bullying Club. They voted to have their club meet once per week to discuss the
injustices of bullying and why it is important to report it, if one is a victim and/or
bystander. The Anti-bullying Club would include a website for students to dialogue
anonymously. One teacher-participant began having town-hall meetings and formed class
committees to address issues regarding those who enjoy privilege at the expense of
othersinjustice.

The six teacher-participants who participated in this study were nominated by
their principals as being teachers who have over time demonstrated a commitment to
teaching for social justice. Therefore, the teacher-participants came to the Wichita
Teacher Inquiry Group with a commitment to teach for social justice, teach through a
critical lens. Through their participation in this year-long endeavor, the teacher
participants simply used the cultural circles and critical multicultural lessons (in and out
of the classroom) to strengthen the skills they brought to this work. As they engaged in
critical dialogue and taught critical multicultural lessons, it became evident that they felt
strongly about using an anti-bias curriculum to address not avoid the issues that keep
students, teachers, parents, administrators and other school community members divided.
Though the teacher-participants believed that most schools worked to ensure that all
children receive a quality education, this process is not sanitized from the construct of
the derisive social categories of class, race, ethnicity, language, etc. (Freire and Macedo,
2005).
9
This study was expected to allow those teachers who were very effective at
teaching from a social justice orientation to share their teaching practices with those who
had less experience. In the end, all social justice teachers, veteran and novice were
expected to enhance their skills through this work. Future research should consider
further investigation on how ideological beliefs, structural practices and cultural
competence can perpetuate direct and indirect forms of bullying so that teacher education
programs can address the issue of teacher bullying before teachers graduate with a
license.

Limitations

We acknowledge that our original plan to organize at least two cultural circles for
the parents of the students in the teacher-participants classrooms to join us in this
endeavor would not happen. Among the concerns was whether parents would feel that
they were being told how to parent their children. In making the decision to proceed
without the parent-circles, we realized that we would be excluding a significant part of
this endeavor. Paulo Freire believed that any effort made to transform classroom spaces
to become more democratic should happen simultaneously with parents to ensure that
children would have a like experience at home. If a like study is continued at another
time, it will be imperative to include parents.

Discussion

Teaching for social justice means focusing on teachers and students activism
regarding the social, economic, and institutional structures that maintain unearned
privilege and disadvantage for particular racial, cultural, language, socioeconomic, and
gender groups. In addition, teaching for social justice means facilitating learning in a way
that acknowledges cultural and ethnic identity, using a culturally relevant approach to
teaching and learning, and building social supports to help all students thrive in the
classroom.

Bullying and being bullied is associated with health problems for children and
adults. Children and adults who are bullied have adjustment problems including poor
mental health and extreme violent behavior. Bullying behavior has long lasting effects for
the victim, bystander and perpetuator.

National Conference

The Wichita Teacher Inquiry Group engaged a national audience in a dialogue
about their year-long journey at the 18
th
Annual Pedagogy and Theatre of the Oppressed
Conference in Chicago, Illinois. The Pedagogy and Theatre of the Oppressed Conference
is based upon the work of the late Paulo Freire and the late Augusto Boal.
10
Resource

This project is an extension of a dissertation study written by Linda Fae Rhone
titled School Bullying: A Freirean Perspective. Rhone facilitates cultural circles (critical
discussions) and workshops designed to help a school community guard against structural
and cultural bullying and student-to-student and teacher-to-student bullying. Rhone can
be reached at: lindarhone@cox.net or (316) 847-2921.

Acknowledgement

A grant from the Kansas Health Foundation and a grant from the Gerber Institute
for Catholic Studies funded the Wichita Teacher Inquiry Group. The WTIG consisted of
six 5
th
grade teachers representing six schools in the Wichita Public Schools District. The
six teacher-participants selected for this endeavor received graduate credit, professional
development and (for some) an invitation to travel to the Pedagogy and Theatre of the
Oppressed Conference in Chicago, Illinois.

References

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443). New York: Guilford Press.
Berger, K. S. (2007). Update on bullying at school: Science forgotten? Developmental
Review, 27, 90-126.
Campbell, D. (2010). Reducing cultural bullying in schools. Leadership for Educational
and Organizational Advancement.
Coloroso, B. (2003). The bully, the bullied, and the bystander: From preschool to high
schoolHow parents and teachers can help break the cycle of violence.
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Cusher, K., McClelland, A., & Safford, P. (2009). Human Diversity in Education: An
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Darder. A. (2002). Reinventing Paulo Freire: A pedagogy of love. Boulder, CO:
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Eslea, M., & Rees, J. (2001). At what age are children most likely to be bullied at school?
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Hufford, D., Rhone, L. (Ed.).(2010). The Hufford reader. UT: Family Heritage
Publishers.
Juvonen, J., Graham, D., & Schuster, M.A. (2003). Bullying among young adolescents:
the strong, the weak, and the troubled. Pediatrics, 112, 1231-1237.
King, J. (2000). White teachers at the crossroads. Teaching Tolerance. Fall, 18, 1-5.
McEvoy, A. (2005). Teachers who bullying students: Patterns and policy implications.
Copyright: Alan McEvoy.
Page, B. (2007). The teacher as bully. Education News.
http://www.educationnews.org/articles/the -teacher-as-bully.html
Pellegrini, A. D., & Long, J.D. (2002). A longitudinal study of bullying, dominance, and
victimization during the transition from primary and secondary school. British
Journal of Developmental Psychology, 20, 259-280.
Rhone, L. (2008). School bullying: A Freirean perspective. Unpublished Dissertation.
Schramm-Pate, S. & Lussier, R. (2004). Teaching students how to think critically: The
Confederate Flag controversy in the high school social studies classroom. High
School Journal, Vol. 87, 2, pp. 56-66.
Smith, D., Ryan, W., & Cousins, B. (2007). Antibullying programs: A survey of
evaluation activities in public schools. Studies in Educational Evaluation, 33(2),
120-13
Shor, I. (2011). Social justice orientation. Listserv e-mail message. February 23.
Twenlow, S. W., & Fonagy, Pl. (2005). The prevalence of teachers who bully students in
schools with differing levels of behavioral problems. The American Journal of
Psychiatry, 162(12), 2387-2389.
12
Beyond Busses, Balls, and Beans: An Examination of the Leadership
Skills of Kansas Principals

Carolyn L. Carlson, Ph.D.
Washburn University

Introduction

Each year in American public schools, nearly 450,000 teachers leave their jobs
(Johnson, Berg, & Donaldson, 2005). This means that one-sixth of all teachers either
transfer to different schools/districts or leave the teaching profession altogether. One of
the main factors contributing to teachers decisions to remain at or leave their positions is
related to the level of support from school administrators. Not only is a principal
responsible for managing the school (the busses, balls, and beans), but the principal is
responsible for being the leader of the school as well. Research indicates that the decision
to remain or leave a particular school is greatly influenced by the principal and the
principals leadership style (Brown & Wynn, 2007). This study sought to examine how
the effectiveness of the leadership of principals in Kansas compares to the effectiveness
of the leadership of principals throughout the rest of country.

Background on Teacher Retention and Principal Leadership

The National Commission on Teaching and Americas Future report that every
school district in the country is affected by continuous teacher turnover (NCTAF, 2010).
The large numbers of teachers leaving the field of education (the phenomenon known as
attrition) can be explained, in part, to the working conditions and school environment
faced by many teachers. Research indicates that the working conditions of teachers affect
their ability to teach well and the satisfaction they obtain from their teaching (Johnson, et
al., 2005). One of the main sources affecting the working conditions of the school is the
leadership of the school. The effectiveness or ineffectiveness of the leadership of the
principal directly impacts the satisfaction of the teachers in the school (Johnson, et al.,
2005). Luekens, Lyter, Fox, & Chandler (2004) found that over one-third of teachers who
transferred to new schools reported that their dissatisfaction with the administrations
support was either a very important or extremely important reason for leaving their
position. Similarly, Johnson and Birkeland (2003) found that, among 50 novice
Massachusetts teachers studied over four years, those who decided to leave their schools
or the profession often described principals who were arbitrary, abusive, or neglectful. . .
. (p. 594).

While ineffective principal leadership often leads to teacher attrition, effective
principal leadership often leads to teacher retention. How principals execute their
leadership affects school organization, culture, and working conditions, which, in turn,
affect job satisfaction and teacher retention (Cornelia, 2010, p.3). Similarly, Useem
(2003) found that strong administrators and a collegial staff climate can lead to higher
rates of teacher retention (p. 18). New teachers perceive building principals to be the
vital link in their success (Danin & Bacon, 1999, p. 206). Research suggests that teacher
13
retention increases when school environments are organized for productive collegial
work under a principals effective leadership (Johnson, et al., 2005, p.67). For example,
Louis, Marks, and Kruse (1996) reported that principals who delegate authority and
support collective decision-making foster a collective responsibility for student learning
and instructional collaboration among teachers (p. 774). Effective principals create a
working environment that promotes teacher retention. The school principal has the
responsibility of creating an institutional atmosphere of collaboration and support, as
opposed to one in which individual teachers shut their doors and operate privately
(Heller, 2004, p. 6-7). Effective principals attract, support, and retain qualified teachers
who are successful in the classroom (Brown & Wynn, 2007).

Methodology

In this study, selected data from the National Center for Education Statistics
(NCES) 2007-2008 School and Staffing Survey were analyzed to examine teachers
responses to various statements regarding their teaching positions.

The survey consists of several questionnaires, including one designed specifically
for teachers to complete. This questionnaire asked participants about various issues,
including education and training, teaching assignments/experience, perceptions and
attitudes about teaching, and workplace conditions. Once the surveys are completed and
returned, names, addresses, and other identifying information are removed to protect the
confidentiality of the participants.

For researchers who qualify, restricted-use data may be used for analysis. This
data contains individually identifiable information that is confidential and protected by
law. Only those who have official clearance from the NCES may access this data. This
researcher holds a license to utilize restricted-use data.

Results and Discussion

Both public-use and restricted-use data from responses to selected questions from
the 2007-2008 Schools and Staffing Survey Teacher Questionnaire were used in this
study. Participants were asked to indicate a level of agreement to the following five
statements:
1. In this school, staff members are recognized for a job well done.
2. My principal enforces school rules for student conduct and backs me up
when I need it.
3. The principal knows what kind of school he or she wants and has
communicated it to the staff.
4. The school administrations behavior toward the staff is supportive and
encouraging.
5. I am generally satisfied with being a teacher at this school.
14
Weighted responses were used in the analysis of the data from each of the five
statements, indicating application of the results to 3,404,500 public school teachers in the
United States. These responses were compared to the responses to the same statements by
37,700 teachers in Kansas (See Table 1).

First, weighted responses to the statement, In this school, staff members are
recognized for a job well done were examined. The results indicate that nationwide, 34
percent of teachers strongly agree with the statement. Among the teachers in Kansas,
32.3 percent strongly agree with the statement. There is only a 1.7 percent difference
in the responses of the Kansas teachers as compared to the national average.

Second, 56 percent of participants nationwide strongly agree with the statement,
my principal enforces school rules for student conduct and backs me up when I need it.
In Kansas, 55.1 percent of teachers indicated that same level of agreement with the
statement, resulting in a less than one percent difference between the responses of Kansas
teachers and teachers nationwide.

Third, responses to the statement, the principal knows what kind of school he or
she wants and has communicated it to the staff indicate that 57.7 percent public school
teachers strongly agree with the statement. 55.2 percent of teachers in Kansas also
strongly agree that their school principals have effectively communicated his or her
vision for the school to the teachers a difference of 2.5 percent.

Fourth, weighted responses to the statement, The school administrations
behavior toward the staff is supportive and encouraging were examined, indicating that
55 percent of public school teachers in the nation strongly agree with the statement.
Kansas teachers indicated a slightly higher level of support and encouragement from their
principals. 57.7 percent of teachers in Kansas strongly agree with this statement, resulting
in 2.7 percent higher than the overall finding for the nation.

Fifth, only 59.4 percent of public school teachers strongly agree with the
statement, I am generally satisfied with being a teacher at this school. In Kansas, 57.1
percent of teachers strongly agree that they are generally satisfied with their teaching
positions, which is 2.3 percent less than that nationwide response.

These results indicate that Kansas principals are performing at a level similar to
principals across the nation. The largest difference in percentage of responses from
teachers nationwide and those in Kansas was 2.7 percent. However, this difference was is
a result of a higher number of Kansas teachers strongly agreeing that their principals were
supportive and encouraging.

These results are encouraging for the state of Kansas, particularly when noting
that a higher number of teachers in Kansas believe their school administration offers
more support and encouragement as compared to the remaining states in the nation.

15
However, while Kansas principals should be pleased with the indication that they
are providing similar levels of effective leadership to their teachers, there is still much
room for improvement. Only 32.3 percent of teachers in Kansas feel that staff members
are recognized for a job well done. This means that 67.7 percent of Kansas teachers did
not agree that teachers accomplishments are adequately acknowledged. Further, only
slightly more than half of all Kansas teachers agreed that their principals adequately
enforced rules, agreed that their principals have effectively communicated the goals of
the school, agreed that their principals are supportive, and agreed that they are satisfied
with their teaching positions. Therefore, almost half of all Kansas teachers do not agree
that their principals enforce rules, effectively communicate the mission of the school, or
are supportive of the teachers. Almost 43 percent of Kansas teachers are not satisfied
with their teaching positions. This lack of a supportive environment can result in teachers
leaving the school or the teaching profession altogether.

This should be addressed in two areas. First, academic institutions training
aspiring principals should provide them with the knowledge and skills to be effective
leaders in their future schools. Future principals should have a firm grasp on how to be
not only efficient managers of their schools busses, balls, and beans, but also how to
effectively be the leaders of their schools. Second, current Kansas principals should
address this issue in their own school environments by identifying areas of weakness in
their own leadership style. This self-reflection may improve their leadership skills and
prevent the loss of high-quality staff.

Table 1
Weighted Responses of Public School Teachers
Statement Percentage of
Teachers
Nationwide
Percentage of
Teachers in
Kansas
Difference
In this school, staff members are
recognized for a job well done.
34 32.3 1.7
My principal enforces school
rules for student conduct and
backs me up when I need it.
56 55.1 .9
The principal knows what kind of
school he or she wants and has
communicated it to the staff.
57.7 55.2 2.5
The school administrations
behavior toward the staff is
supportive and encouraging.
55 57.7 -2.7
I am generally satisfied with
being a teacher at this school.
59.4 57.1 2.3

16
Summary

Data analysis indicates similar findings in teachers beliefs in the effectiveness of
the leadership of the administration when comparing the results in Kansas to those
nationwide. While principals in Kansas should feel a sense of satisfaction that their
leadership abilities are similar to those of administrators across the nation, they must also
be aware of the improvements that can be made, potentially resulting in even higher
numbers of job satisfaction and, therefore, teacher retention.

Effective principals create an environment where teachers feel and sense of
collaboration and support, and as a result, are dedicated to their jobs. On the contrary,
ineffective principals fail to create such a climate, leaving the teachers to feel a sense of
isolation, leading to dissatisfaction with their jobs and a higher probability that they will
leave their teaching positions for either a different position in the teaching field or a
different position in a field outside of teaching. Current and aspiring principals in Kansas
(and across the nation) must recognize the impact they have on teacher retention and
must take steps to ensure that teachers in their schools feel a sense of satisfaction with
their jobs to improve the retention rate of teachers.

References

Brown, K. M. & Wynn, S. R. (2007). Teacher retention issues: How some principals are
supporting and keeping new teachers. Journal of School Leadership, 17(6), 664-
698.
Carroll, T. G. & Foster, E. (2010). Who will teach? Experience matters. Washington,
D.C.: National Commission on Teaching and Americas Future.
Cornelia, J. A. (2010). Principal leadership: The missing link in teacher retention.
(Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest. (3420054)
Danin, R. & Bacon, M.A. (1999). What teachers like (and dont like) about mandated
induction programs. In M. Scherer (Ed.), A better beginning: Supporting and
mentoring new teachers (p. 202-209). Alexandria, VA: Association for
Supervisions and Curriculum Development.
Heller, D. A. (2004). Teachers wanted: Attracting and retaining good teachers.
Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervisions and Curriculum Development.
Ingersoll, R. M. (2001). Teacher turnover and teacher shortages: An organizational
analysis. American Educational Research Journal, 38(3), 499-534.
Johnson, S. M., Berg, J. H., & Donaldson, M. L. (2005). Who stays in teaching and why:
A review of the literature on teacher retention. Cambridge, MA: Harvard
Graduate School of Education.
Johnson, S. M., & Birkeland, S. (2003). Pursuing a sense of success: New teachers
explain their career decisions. American Educational Research Journal, 40(3),
581-617.
Kardos, S. M. (2004). Supporting and sustaining new teachers in schools: The
importance of professional culture and mentoring. Harvard University,
Cambridge, MA.
17
Louis, K. S., Marks, H. M., & Kruse, S. (1996). Teachers professional community in
restructuring schools. American Educational Research Journal, 33(4), 757-798.
Luekens, M. T., Lyter, D. M., Fox, E. E., & Chandler, K. (2004). Teacher attrition and
mobility: Results from the teacher follow-up survey, 2000-01. Washington, D.C.:
National Center for Education Statistics.
National Center for Education Statistics (NCES). (2012). Retrieved March 20, 2012,
from Schools and Staffing Survey Web site: http://nces.ed.gov/surveys/sass/
Renard, L. (1999). Ask not what your school can do for you, but what you can do for
you. In M. Scherer (Ed.), A better beginning: Supporting and mentoring new
teachers (p. 225-232). Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervisions and
Curriculum Development.
Useem, E. (2003). The retention and qualifications of new teachers in Philadelphias
high-poverty middle schools: A three year cohort study. Philadelphia:
Philadelphia Education Fund.
Viadero, D. (2002). Researchers skewers explanations behind teacher shortage.
Education Week, 21(30), 7.

18
Alien Education

Jennifer Cady, Ph.D.
Southwestern College

Alien Education

Stepping into the classroom now-a-days is like walking through Times Square.
Students come equipped with vast levels of knowledge just like the diverse individuals
navigating the streets in the heart of New York City. The interactions embedded within
the classroom often mimic the commotion found as spectators eagerly await the infamous
ball drop. In the field of education though, once the ball drops, it is hard to pick up the
shattered pieces that fall to the ground. Thus, it becomes imperative to determine how the
teacher, grounded with the same solid foundation as the Statue of Liberty, can use her
skills in order to avoid offering the same traditional education that quite simply no longer
works for the intricate individuals of our nation.

To establish a firm foundation, educators should first seek to build a classroom
that thrives on respect for one another (Tomlinson, 2001). This is done through verbal
praise and acknowledgement of individual strengths. Moreover, it is done through the
teachers ability to express the value of each and every student. It isnt enough to take a
personal survey of each student at the beginning of the year only to throw it in a filing
cabinet so that later it can be shredded. The teacher has to go above and beyond the basic
collection of knowledge about each individual in order to weave the core of who each
individual is into the depths of each lesson (Connell, 2005). It takes time, energy, and
effort. As the year progresses though, the results are priceless similar to the bargains
one might find on the streets of the Big Apple.

Teachers must also possess the ability to establish an environment in which
collaboration thrives (Bruce & Calhoun, 1996). This does not mean that one individual
shares his/her ideas and everyone else must agree. Rather, the relationship between all
individuals must be one in which everyone feels safe in sharing his/her ideas (See
Appendix A & B). This can be accomplished by looking at answers via a multi-leveled
approach. There is never just one answer to a problem. Sharing this reality with students
allows students to feel as though they may in fact have a reasonable solution though it
may be different from others. When teachers open up the classroom to accept that
everyone has a unique way to arrive at the final outcome, a structure of thriving subways
will begin to emerge.

One of the key ingredients to education is the simplicity of movement (See
Appendix C & D). When teachers allow students to move and learn they allow for
retention of material (Connell, 2005; Wolfe, 2001). Too often, teachers fear losing
control, but when movement is involved the opposite occurs. Students begin to focus in
on the task at hand while displaying less behavioral issues. This can be done in a variety
of ways. Teachers can provide uncomplicated directions such as, Find someone in the
class who shares the same favorite color as you do then share your answer with him/her.
19
After the teacher provides directions she can set a timer for two minutes and allow the
students to take responsibility for their own learning. After the timer sounds, the teacher
could hold the students accountable for their learning by having them write their answer,
coupled with that of their partners answer, via a Venn diagram on a small personal
whiteboard (think green). This allows the teacher to visually identify mastery, or lack
thereof, and it allows the students to reflect. Often times, once students communicate
with others they will alter their outlook to reflect the desired outcome that the teacher
intended to begin with. Those who do not need to alter their answers are still provided
the opportunity to build communication skills, share their ideas, and express how their
ideas compare to others. The visitor in NYC will often flag down a taxi to navigate from
one location to the next. Learning through movement is much the same.

Teachers of modern learners must understand that when flying into an area that is
highly populated, full of relevant history, and fascinating on every level it is no longer
enough to provide a tour of the land through verbal communications while spectators sit
quietly by. The opposite is true. To be a successful teacher it is essential to tap into the
resources surrounding the population, weave the individual histories of its members into
the lessons, and allow for the independent expression of movement so that participants
retain the information in a manner that allows for future problem solving. To the
countryman, New York City may very well seem chaotic, but when chaos has a valid
purpose it can no longer be viewed as chaos. Rather, it should be deemed an intricate city
that many long to visit. The same is true for the prosperous classroom. When constructed
properly, visitors will flock to vacation in what is still viewed as alien to the field of
education. Once enough visitors have walked the beaten path the element of alienation
will dissipate and comfort will set in. At that point, post cards can be written and new
territories discovered.

References

Bruce, J. & Calhoun, E. (1996). Creating learning experiences: The role of instructional
theory and research. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.
Connell, J. D. (2005). Brain-based strategies to read every learner: Surveys,
questionnaires, and checklists that help you identify students strengths plus
engaging brain-based lessons and activities. NY: Scholastics, Inc.
Tomlinson, C. A. (2001). How to differentiate instruction in mixed ability classrooms
(2nd ed.). Alexandria, VA: ASCD.
Wolfe, P. (2001). Brain matters: Translating research into classroom practice.
Alexandria, VA: ASCD.
20
Appendix A

Cooperative Learning via a Safe Elementary Learning Environment



When students are assigned specific job tasks (e.g., recorder, writer, materials manager,
or speaker), within their cooperative groups, learning is heightened and classroom
management flows much smoother than when tasks are not clearly defined. Furthermore,
when teachers use items such as tickets to promote positive behavior expectations,
instead of removing recess as a punishment, the students gain self-confidence, self-
control, and are afforded the much needed opportunity to exercise and engage in social
interactions while enjoying fresh air. As well, a deeper understanding of probability can
be obtained when teachers share with students that the more tickets earned for positive
behavior the greater chance they have of winning a small prize at the conclusion of class.
The prizes do not have to be expensive. Teachers can use free homework passes, one-on-
one lunch coupons, or classroom privileges.

21

Appendix B

Cooperative Learning via a Safe Post-Secondary Learning Environment



At the college level, learners can engage in meaningful cooperative learning opportunities
in which each individual is assigned a specific task with the outcome resulting in the
ability to rationalize and reason through course content. Too often, the classroom
environment at the college level follows a teacher-centered approach with less emphasis
on student-centered learning. If we are to promote successful educators, competent and
knowledgeable in what it means to engage all learners, we have to not only verbalize our
expectations as college faculty, but also provide hands-on opportunities that will solidify
what effective cooperative structures entail.
22

Appendix C

Integration of Meaningful Movement at the Elementary Level



Signs can be strategically placed throughout the classroom in which students are
prompted to navigate to the area that corresponds with their answer choice. Upon arrival
at their destination, students can engage in meaningful conversations with those who
have a similar answer/response. This promotes critical thinking and helps students to
learn to effectively cooperate with one another. Furthermore, communication skills and a
deeper understanding of diverse outcomes can be enhanced by having groups report their
findings to the whole class. As well, this process provides a visual assessment for the
teacher to gauge the success, or lack thereof, of targeted learning objectives.
23
Appendix D

Integration of Meaningful Movement at the Post-Secondary Level



When faculty members, at the college level, provide learning experiences that extend
beyond the traditional method of lecturing, learners are afforded the opportunity to
engage the mind and body. Such learning opportunities not only build content knowledge
and peer relations, but they also extend a deeper understanding to pre-service teachers
regarding what it means to teach to the multiple intelligences. As an added bonus to this
teaching method, adult learners unveil heightened focus and attention to the task at hand.
The same is true for elementary students. This method works well for the majority of
learners, but particularly well for individuals diagnosed with Attention Deficit
Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) or Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD).
24
Developing Cultural Competence through Problem Posing and
Multicultural Childrens Literature

Gayla Lohfink, Ph.D.
Wichita State University
Laurie Curtis, Ph.D.
Kansas State University

Abstract

Increasing diversity in Kansas elementary schools is challenging educators to
teach culturally and linguistically diverse students effectively. Unfortunately, research
shows teachers as lacking in necessary cultural competencies. This article shares a
multicultural picture book action-research project and shows how pre-service teachers
constructed pedagogy by selecting literature that drew upon their students funds of
knowledge. Implementation of the same project in practicing teachers classrooms
revealed their self-reflections of students cultural connections frequently, but more often,
the teachers reflections focused on students connections to the curriculum. This
observation prompted an alternative problem-posing approach for utilizing multicultural
literature to be presented for teachers.

Implementing multicultural childrens literaturehas helped me to see that my
students grow up different than I did and come from different backgrounds and
have different families than I do, and it is something I need to remember when
planning for my students [and] not try to get students to fit into the way I feel
comfortable teaching (Pre-service teachers self-reflection after reading aloud
a multicultural picture book in a practicum setting - March, 2012).

Transforming ones cultural landscape, as this pre-service teachers reflection
demonstrates, requires examining ones personal understandings and recognizing
vacancies in previous experiencesholes that when recognized leave lasting
impressions and prompt one to change the status quo in education (Szecsi, Spillman,
Vzquez-Montilla, & Mayberry, 2010, p. 44). Teacher education programs have worked
at bringing about changes in mainstream education and particularly the cultural
competencies of their candidates for some time (Ming & Dukes, 2006). Incorporating
multicultural educational training to facilitate candidates awareness, knowledge, and
skills to more successfully teach students from cultures other than their own is common
(Pang, Stein, Gomez, matas, & Shimogori, 2011). Unfortunately, research shows that
while practicing teachers are aware and knowledgeable of diversity issues and support
multicultural teaching, they fail to consistently and effectively implement cultural
practices in their classrooms (Leighton & Harkins, 2010). Such evidence, coupled with
the growing diversity in our Kansas elementary classrooms (Center for Public Education,
2009), urges us, as literacy teacher educators, to seek ways that better develop our pre-
service and (ultimately) practicing teachers cultural competencies.

25
As such, the intent of this article is to share our multicultural picture book action-
research project (Author & Author, 2012) and show how pre-service teachers construct
pedagogy by selecting literature that draws upon their students funds of knowledge
(Moll, Amanti, Neff, & Gonzalez, 1992, p. 133). We also examine how such pedagogy
alone does not result in culturally competent teachers with behaviors that illustrate
culturally sensitive interactions with diverse groups (Leighton & Harkins, 2010) and
offer an approach for how elementary teachers might utilize multicultural literature to
further deepen their cultural teaching competencies.

Cultural Competence and Multicultural Literature

According to Ming & Dukes (2006), a teachers cultural competence is measured
by how successful he/she is at teaching students from cultures other than his/her own. It
involves teachers knowing how to tap into the diverse cultures of their students to make
learning meaningful and comprehensible (Pang et al., 2011, p. 560). Teachers can
design effective cultural pedagogy by bringing together students, instructional methods,
and materials that are imbued with cultural patterns of students everyday lives
(Hefflin, 2002, pp. 232-33). Multicultural literature is such material because it reflects the
values, facts, and attitudes or the deep structure of a culture, as well as its historical
perspectives (Szecsi et al., 2006). Because it is a safe place to display culture in an
interactive and positive way (teacher candidates self-reflection), we developed an
action-research multicultural picture book project for our teacher candidates. Each
semester, we review the project data, modify and enhance the project, and consider how
multicultural literature can impact both pre-service and practicing teachers cultural
competencies. Our reflections help us determine how we, as teacher educators, can
facilitate candidates transformation into culturally responsive educators.

Multicultural Picture Book Project

Our multicultural picture book project began with pre-service teachers inquiry of
quality, dual-language childrens picture booksbooks that reflected the most prominent
languages in their practicum settings. Each teacher candidate selected and researched one
picture book to share orally with his/her class members. Their presentations included
research, a selected oral reading, evaluation of the picture book in terms of its quality as a
multicultural literacy tool, and classroom application ideas. As our candidates reflected
upon this assignment, 98% of them reported that the use of these books had raised their
awareness of such literature as effective tools for increasing cultural sensitivity.

To increase our candidates inquiry and depth of investigation relative to
multicultural literature, we added technological toolsGlogster (www.glogster.edu/) and
VoiceThreadto the picture book project. Through technology, our pre-service
teachers probed for additional content and thus enhanced their knowledge of a book
itself, the author, illustrator, and thematic implications by examining the literature from
varying perspectives.

26
Our candidates cultural knowledge has been most impacted by the requirement
that they implement the book in a read-aloud within their practicum classroom that draws
upon their students funds of knowledge (Moll et al., 1992, p. 133). Sixty-seven percent
of their self-reflections following these read-aloud events showed how multicultural
literature as a pedagogical tool helped them to see how such methodology framed their
students cultural references and responses instead of their own.

Beyond the Multicultural Picture Book Project

Recently, we extended the multicultural picture book project to practicing
teacherstwo kindergarten teachers in a diverse, urban elementary school. Using similar
procedures and action-research methodology, we observed how multicultural literature
impacted their pedagogical understandings, as they, too, read aloud selected picture
books based upon their students funds of knowledge. While the teachers often reflected
upon the childrens cultural connections to the books (32% of their self-reflections), they
more often reflected (nearly 66%) upon how the children interacted with the literature
relative to the reading curriculum (characters, inferences, vocabulary, etc.). Such
observations suggest to us that pre-service and practicing teachers implementation of
multicultural literature read alouds is not enough. As Ming & Dukes (2006) noted, using
these materials as add-on[s] (p. 46) within school routines will not transform the
mainstream reading curriculum. Additional strategies are needed to help teachers design
and consistently practice culturally relevant pedagogy. Thus, the use of literature within a
problem-posing approach is offered.

Problem-posing with Multicultural Literature

Quintero (2004) maintains that problem-posing teaching using childrens
literature supports meaningful learning (p. 57). An example of problem-posing with
multicultural literature is a recent group of Kansas elementary students inquiring, How
does need and access to clean water affect children all over the world? These particular
students were learning about the country of Ethiopia in preparation of their teachers
forthcoming educational visit. To do this, they participated in the reading of several
childrens books about Ethiopia: The Perfect Orange, The Storytellers Beads, Fire on
the Mountain, and Only a Pigeon. Additionally, they studied a book entitled Our World
of Water by Beatrice Hollyer. While the first books provided a historical and cultural
understanding of Ethiopia and her people, the book by Hollyer provided a means for
students to connect personally to the children in Ethiopia via a common topicthe
availability and use of water.

The students engaged in meaningful conversations based upon their knowledge
about the uses of water, yet their understanding was limited by personal experiences.
How was water used, accessed, and valued by others throughout the world? Through
studying the literature, the students considered multiple perspectives in determining how
access to clean water might affect the opportunity students have to attend school, remain
healthy, and/or take care of family and animals. They took a field trip to a nearby river
and wrote stories to share what they had learned. After illustrating the stories, and leaving
27
room on the page for translation into Amharic, a predominant language in Ethiopia, their
teacher took the books to Ethiopia, so that Ethiopian students could learn about rivers in
Kansas. Truly, with the help of childrens literature, these Kansas students reflected on
meaningful concepts in profound ways.

Our suggested approaches with multicultural literature can help Kansas teachers
reconceptualize pedagogies relevant to CLD students, for such transformations may
foster their cultural competencies and ultimately impact children.

References

Author & Author. (2012). Facilitating pre-service teachers cultural responsiveness
through multicultural literature. The Journal of Multiculturalism in Education,
7(2), 1-21.
Center for Public Education, (2009). The United States of Education: The changing
demographics of the United States and its schools. Retrieved from
http://www.centerforpubliceducation.org/
Hefflin, B. R. (2002). Learning to develop culturally relevant pedagogy: A lesson about
cornrowed lives. The Urban Review, 34(3), 231-250.
Leighton, L., & Harkins, M. J. (2010). Teachers perceptions of their cultural
competencies: An investigation into the relationships among teacher
characteristics and cultural competence. Journal of Multicultural Education, 6(2),
1-28.
Ming, K., & Dukes, C. (2006). Fostering cultural competence through school-based
routines. Multicultural Education, 14(1), 42-48.
Moll, L. C., Amanti, C., Neff, D., & Gonzalez, N. (1992). Funds of knowledge for
teaching: Using a qualitative approach to connect homes and classrooms. Theory
into Practice, 31(2), 132-141.
Pang, V. O., Stein, R., Gomez, M., Matas, A., & Shimogori, Y. (2011). Cultural
competencies: Essential elements of caring-centered multicultural education.
Action in Teacher Education 2011 Yearbook, 33(5/6), 560-574.
Quintero, E. P. (2004). Will I lose a tooth? Will I learn to read? Problem posing with
multicultural childrens literature. Young Children, 59(3), 56-62.
Szecsi, T., Spillman, C., Vzquez-Montilla, Mayberry, S. C. (2010). Transforming
teacher cultural landscapes by reflecting on multicultural literature. Multicultural
Education, 17(4), 44-48.

Childrens Literature Cited

Araujo, F. P., & Xiao-Jun Li. (1994). The perfect orange: A tale from Ethiopia. Windsor,
CA: Rayve Productions.
Hollyer, B. (2009). Our world of water. New York: Henry Holt.
Kurtz, J., & Kurtz, C. (1997). Only a pigeon. New York: Simon and Schuster.
Kurtz, J. (1998). Fire on the mountain. New York: Aladdin.
Kurtz, J. (1998). The storytellers beads. New York: Harcourt.
28

Where Are All the Women?
Gender Bias Persists in Social Studies Texts

Tim Fry, Ph.D.
Washburn University
Brenna S. Hofelt
Washburn University

Introduction

Creating an inclusive and a more equitable classroom is a goal that all educators
should continually strive for. One area of concern is that many girls and young women do
not see themselves in curriculum materials--especially in the social studies. In the social
studies methods class I teach, my students are exposed to several forms of bias often
found in social studies textbooks. The students are also shown some of the bias I found
in two 7
th
grade social studies texts in a study I did in the early 1990s. Then as part of a
textbook analysis assignment, my students examine another social studies textbook for
gender bias. One former student of mine and co-researcher of this article greatly
expanded the project and examined several social studies texts currently in use in the
local area schools. What she found in her study was that women are still grossly
underrepresented in our schools social studies textbooks, and misrepresentation of
womens contributions in history and stereotypical gender-roles in todays educational
materials is still a problematic issue (Hofelt, 2012). Combining my students research
with the project I did in the early 1990s created a longevity study of gender bias in social
studies textbooks. Below we will provide some literature reviews on textbook bias,
highlight some of the various forms of bias often found in textbooks and then provide
data in table format derived from the examination of several social studies books used in
local school districts. We will also briefly explore some possible reasons for the
persistence of gender bias in social studies textbooks.

Literature Review

A review of the literature on textbook bias turned up numerous studies dating
back to the 1960s that showed there was gender bias in social studies textbooks
(Blakenship, 1984, Sadker, et al 1995). Research analyzing gender bias in social studies
textbooks was further developed with the 1970s feminist movement in what many
consider the second wave of the womens rights movement--the first wave happening
in the mid-1800s. However, Blumberg (2007) notes that 1970s research showed
womens contributions in textbooks to be nearly non-existent. Black (2006) noted that
throughout the 1970s that there were efforts by publishing companies to adopt gender
fair guidelines and that by the 1980s, research showed that equity in gender
representation had increased slightly though it was not yet fully equitable.

29
By the 1990s, textbook studies reveal modest improvements, that perhaps may
be attributed to the early feminist movement in the 70s (Blumberg, 2007). Black (2006)
notes that even though significant improvements were visible in incorporating women
into textbooks, evidence verified that they still lacked gender equity. Delaney (1996)
noted marginalized contributions of women in history texts and described the changes
as superficial and only cosmetic. In the last few decades, textbook publishers have
made changes to make the content more equitable, the fact remains that gender bias is
decreasing very slowly (Blumberg, 2009). Hickey & Kolterman (2006) noted that social
studies textbooks largely portray woman as passive bystanders in the worlds events,
with fewer than 11 percent of textbook images and references devoted to specific
women. Thompson (2003) sums it up by noting, We have centurys worth of sexist
socialization to overcome.

An important rationale for looking at textbooks is that studies have shown that
textbooks are the main instructional tools used in schools and therefore largely determine
curriculum (Blumberg, 2007). More succinctly, Blumberg reports that students spend on
average 85% of their time in the classroom using textbooks. Blumberg also notes that
research indicates that teachers not only use textbooks as instructional tools, but that the
content in the text largely guides their teaching intentions.

In light of this importance, texts should be examined because any forms of bias by
race or sex might result in psychological, social, educational, and economic harm to
students (ODonnell, 1973). Students receive so many cues about gender role behavior
that they psychologically limit themselves to traditional roles that can result in a lowered
sense of dignity and self-worth. Sociologically, biased texts can show young women that
they are at inferior status to males. Educationally and economically, young women are
steered away from prestigious and highly paid lines of work (Schenk, 1976).

Forms of Bias in Texts

A review of the literature also turned up some articles with suggestions for
selecting equitable textbooks (ODonnell, 1973; Blakenship, 1984; Bally & Smith, 1987).
According to these articles, photographs should be examined because of their ability to
spark interest and because they tend to leave lasting impressions. Pictures play a huge
role in early sex-role socialization by providing children with role models of what they
want to be when they grow up. Pictures then, have a large influence on the goals and
aspirations of students and social studies books should present images that help students
reach their potential (ODonnell, 1973). When checking pictures, see how many women
are the main or dominant characters in illustrations or photographs. Lack of women
results in a form of bias that Sadker and Sadker (1982) have classified as invisibility
and that omitting half of the worlds population cheats young women as women have
had among them many wise and brave leaders.

30
Another problem with pictures is that they commonly only show women in the
traditional role of housewife, nurse, secretary and waitress while men are shown in
prestigious positions like general, explorer or athlete. This form of bias is known as
stereotyping. It is also stereotyping when women are shown with character traits like
passiveness and weakness while men are characterized by traits of strength and
competitiveness (Bally and Smith, 1987).

Another suggestion in examining gender bias in social studies texts is to look at
the index. The fact that many indexes of social studies books have a category entitled
women but no social studies books have an index that contains a category entitled
men points out a form of bias that the Sadkers (1982) have labeled as imbalance.
Texts tend to be written from a one-sided male perspective, which give students a limited
point of view on the contributions and participation of women throughout history.
Frequency tabulations can be totaled on the number of men and women cited in the
index.

The main text should be examined by looking at the page numbers given under
the index entry women to see if it deals with any issues sensitive to women like
division of labor, suffrage or discrimination. If there are issues sensitive to women,
check to see if the issue is developed or glassed over in what the Sadkers (1982) have
called unreality. The main text can also be examined for sexist language in what the
Sadkers have labeled linguistic bias. Masculine terms like caveman, forefathers and
mankind deny any major contributions of women. Occupational titles like mailman and
policeman deny participation by women in those fields (Sacker, et al., 1993). The main
written text should also be examined for omission of individual contributions of women.
This would be considered a form of invisibility because individual women are not noted
and without any important contributions (Bally & Smith, 1987).

Special highlighted sections can be checked for the inclusion of women but these
sections can sometimes be compensatory insertions and are obvious attempts to make the
text seem more equitable. This type of bias is what the Sadkers have referred to as
fragmentation and tends to communicate to readers that women are interesting
diversions but not important enough to be included in the main part of the text (Sadker,
et al., 1993).

Textbooks Analyzed

To examine the textbooks, an instrument was developed to tabulate some of the
above mentioned forms of bias and the results of that tabulation can be found in the tables
below. Eight texts were examined in all covering grade levels of 3
rd
through 8
th
grade.
Two of the 7
th
grade texts were from the earlier study from the 1990s and had copyrights
of 1978 and 1990. The remaining six are more recent and several are still in use in local
school districts. Photos, illustrations, art images of men and women were documented
and we specifically looked for the dominant figure in each image. If no gender was
apparent, the image was not counted. Equal representation of both men and women in
an image was counted as neutral. We also looked specifically at the index, and noted the
31
number of contributions of women compared to those noted for men. Each textbook was
analyzed from the first page of the first chapter, to the last page of the last chapter.

It was surprising to see how little improvement there was in both photographs and
index citations over a thirty-year span. The problem of visibility for women in all of the
texts was easily evident. In the newer texts, modern or contemporary photos tended to
show more females doing more active types of things. However, anytime the newer texts
dealt with an illustration or picture from a historical section, it often reverted back to that
old tradition of exclusion and stereotyping. It was also interesting to note that the
disparity in the amount of written text on the two genders is even greater than the
disparity in the number of photos. Numbers from the textbook analysis also indicate that
the higher the grade level and more advanced the content was, the female to male
representation ratio gap got wider.

Textbook: 3rd Grade Houghton Mifflin, Social Studies: Communities (2005)

Women/Girls Men/Boys Neutral
Index category/number listed no no
Individual Contributions 11 25
Fragmented Text 4 8
Photos, Illustrations, and Art Images 46 63 70

Textbook: 4th Grade Harcourt Horizons, States and Regions (2005)

Women/Girls Men/Boys Neutral
Index category/number listed Yes/5 no
Individual Contributions 10 40
Fragmented Text 4 19
Photos, Illustrations, and Art Images 32 66 45

Textbook: 5th Grade, Houghton Mifflin, Social Studies: United States History (2005)

Women/Girls Men/Boys Neutral
Index category/number listed Yes/15 no
Individual Contributions 48 195
Fragmented Text 22 14
Photos, Illustrations, and Art Images 74 193 52

Textbook: 6th Grade, Scott Foresman, Social Studies: The World (2005)

Women/Girls Men/Boys Neutral
Index category/number listed Yes/20 no
Individual Contributions 34 85
Fragmented Text 11 17
Photos, Illustrations, and Art Images 48 167 35
32
Textbook: 7th Grade, Harcourt Horizons, Ancient Civilizations (2003)

Women/Girls Men/Boys Neutral
Index category/number listed Yes/16 no
Individual Contributions 17 111
Fragmented Text 4 10
Photos, Illustrations, and Art Images 29 68 34

Textbook: 7th Grade, Silver, Burdett and Ginn Inc., The World Yesterday and Today (1990)

Women/Girls Men/Boys Neutral
Index category/number listed Yes/12 no
Individual Contributions 12 109
Fragmented Text 4 8
Photos, Illustrations, and Art Images 36 105 79

Textbook: 7th Grade, Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc., The Old World (1978)

Women/Girls Men/Boys Neutral
Index category/number listed Yes/4 no
Individual Contributions 4 70
Fragmented Text 0 0
Photos, Illustrations, and Art Images 21 89 71

Text: 8th Grade, McDougal Littell, Creating America: A History of the United States (2005)

Women/Girls Men/Boys Neutral
Index category/number listed Yes/24 no
Individual Contributions 111 577
Fragmented Text 12 20
Photos, Illustrations, and Art Images 77 299 123


33
Women in History

Women have always been a part of our pre-history and written histories, but
Hickey and Kolterman (2006) state that our society has not always recognized their
contributions. Women of the past and present have not played passive roles in the
hidden shadows of half-truths. Women have contributed and continue to contribute to
the nation, through important economic, cultural and social roles, and are leaders on the
forefront of social change movements (Hickey & Kolterman, 2006).

The following are three examples of women who have all made significant
contributions during their time, though not a single one was mentioned in any of the
analyzed textbooks. These are only three extraordinary women out of millions who have
contributed to society and the world.

Mary Edwards Walker (1832-1919): American Civil War surgeon for the Union Army.
Walker is the only woman ever to receive the Congressional Medal of Honor.
(http://www.northnet.org/stlawrenceaauw/walker.htm)

Sarah Winnemucca (1844-1891): Born a member of the Paiute tribe, she was a prominent
Native American activist and writer. Winnemucca was the first Native American woman
known to have a published book. (http://www.aoc.gov/cc/art/nsh/winnemucca.cfm)

Hedy Lamarr (1913-2000): Austrian-American accomplished actress and co-inventor of a
radio transmission system used in WWII, which would later be the foundation for
wireless communication. (http://www.inventions.org/culture/female/lamarr.html)

The point is that these women have all contributed to our histories in the United States
and the world, yet they are not be included in any of these social studies texts!

Persistence of Gender Bias in Textbooks

Textbooks are costly to create and also to purchase, thus publishers will only
make additions or minor changes to consecutive series. According to Blumberg (2009),
carrying out a complete overhaul of textbooks to eliminate this bias is quite unlikely,
partly because it is very costly. Unfortunately, cost and lack of funding have shown to
play a large role in the slow pace of revisions in educational materials. Due to a decline in
federal funding, research in developing equity in curricula has dropped off the radar and
resources have been allocated elsewhere (Blumberg, 2007). Blumberg also notes the
focus of high-stakes testing--focus on meeting AYP and teaching students to pass state
assessments, is the overriding force in todays classroom. There may also be a general
belief that equity in schools is not an issue, and as research has found, there is a
commonly held belief that gender equity has been realized (Blumberg, 2007). If the
general public feels that there is no longer a problem of equity in the classroom, then
there will no longer be a push for change. Recent studies also show that men are filling
social studies teaching positions, now more than ever (Blumberg, 2007). It may for hard
for a male educator to address said bias if he hasnt experienced it before. If gender bias
34
in social studies textbooks and educational materials is to ever be fully be acknowledged
and resolved, gender equity needs to be a topic of discussion in teacher education.

Putting Equality into the Social Studies

History and social studies are important. Addressing inequality of gender in social
studies is important. Making a connection of history to students experiences makes for a
genuine source of awareness and understanding. As students become active participants
in the history-gathering process, their thinking and reasoning skills improve, their
academic achievement increases, their sense of self-worth is enhanced, and their curiosity
is piqued (Hickey & Kolterman, 2006). Students are more apt to find importance in social
studies materials when they can see themselves in the curriculum. According to
Chapman (2012), Using texts that omit contributions of women, that tokenize the
experiences of women, or those that stereotype gender roles, further compounds gender
bias in a schools curriculum. Inequality of gender in social studies teaching materials is
almost like teaching students only half of the histories of the world. Women are real, their
histories are real, and they have made contributions to the social studies.

Educators need to be aware of gender bias in educational materials so that it may
be eliminated (Chapman, 2012). When gender bias does occur, Teachers can help
students identify gender bias in texts and facilitate critical discussions as to why that bias
exists (Chapman, 2012). Being conscious of said bias is the first step not only in
schools to create equality, but also in society. Knowing bias is out there, and then
addressing the inequality is the key to change in our future. Thompson (2003) discusses
feminists theories which state that the focus should be on bringing gender bias out of the
dark so then it can be addressed and prevented from further occurring. If there is a place
to start to change how we think of ourselves in relation to one another, the public schools
however hostile to change themselves may yet be that place (Thompson, 2003).

References

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Civilizations. United States: Harcourt Horizons.
Arnsdorf, A. (1990). The World Yesterday and Today. New Jersey : Silver, Burdett &
Ginn.
Bally, G. D., & Smith, N. J. (1987). The Rural Administrators Role in Achieving Sex
Equity of Curriculum. The Rural Educator, 9 (1).
Blankenship, G. (1984). How to test a textbook for sexism. Social Education, 48, 282-
284.
Berson, M. J., & Bednarz, R. (2005). States and Regions. United States: Harcourt
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