EDMA310_360 Research Informed Teaching Portfolio

Part 1: Literature Review

Childrens Learning of Algebra
Meghan Hannah: S00127198
Australian Catholic University

Introduction
Algebraic thinking is an essential and fundamental element of mathematical thinking
and reasoning. It primarily involves recognising patterns and general mathematical
relationships among numbers, objects and geometric shapes (Warren, 2011). This
paper will highlight the key mathematical concepts involved in algebra throughout the
primary years, including number structure, patterns, equivalence, generalising and
symbolism. In order for teachers to explain theses concepts they must have an
understanding of algebraic content, be able to understand how their students learn
and use instructional strategies that foster learning to develop algebraic thinking
(Suggate, Davis, Gouliding, 2006). The ways that children can learn these concepts
and further develop their understandings in algebra will also be discussed in this
paper including some misconceptions that may take place when learning algebra.
Key mathematical understandings that children need to construct and how
children learn these concepts
Developing algebraic thinking in the early school years provides a solid foundation for
later algebra symbol work (Chambers, 2008). Teaching students the big ideas and
key concepts of early algebra through real-world problems assists children to
understand the rules and applications involved in this mathematical area (Reys et al,
2012). The first concept that students need to develop is the recognition of the
number system. Although this is usually done through arithmetic, algebra and
arithmetic are linked in the early years, both supporting one another (Mulligan,
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Cavanagh, Keanan-Brown, 2012). In order for children to foster the structure of our
number system they need to be able to distinguish between the different types of
numbers e.g. Whole numbers, rational numbers and irrational numbers. Children
need to understand structure among our number system such as that all multiples of
10 end in 0 or that some numbers form a square. This will result in students
developing a deeper understanding of our number system and also assist in forming
a strong basis on which to build strict algebraic thinking in the later years (Mulligan,
et.al, 2012).
Early algebraic thinking develops through an awareness of the essential relationships
of patterns and the structure. It is through this structure that enables children be
aware of and learn to make generalisation (Vale, Godeassi, Clark, Cavigan, Missen,
2009). Being aware of structure and making generalisations within mathematics is
ideally about identifying pattern. In algebra students need to understand three
different aspects of patterns, which are; repeating patterns, growing patterns and
number patterns (Jorgensen, Dole, 2011). It is essential that children recognize these
aspects being able to distinguish between them. Research states that students must
develop a sense of pattern and structure in order to understand algebra and in order
to do so involves, visualising, representing and organising mathematical thinking
(Vale, Godeassi, Clark, Cavigan, Missen, 2009). It is this sense of pattern that
requires visual memory experiences to observe and represent the patterns. To
develop students understandings it is the teachers role to assist students to pay
attention to their memory experiences. Mulligan states, the teacher needs to scaffold
childrens attention on patterns (Mulligan, Cavanagh, Keanan-Brown, 2012). This
scaffolding can occur by allowing children to identify the unit of repeat in pattern and
encouraging children to explain the similarities and differences amongst patterns.
Patterns are logical mathematical relationships that must be constructed by the
students themselves to show clear understanding.
Another key concept in algebra is the algebraic representation as it introduces new
notations and symbols. This concept of algebra is the understanding that one thing
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can represent another (Moomaw,2011). As notation allows mathematical thinking to
be read, written and discussed easier, it becomes a fundamental part to students
understanding. Establishing algebraic representation as a mathematical tool rather
than a set of instructions allows students to build confidence and the ability to choose
the appropriate symbol correctly (Heath, 2010). Take the equal symbol as an
example. Many students are familiar with the symbol as suggest to placing the
answer after. It is through algebra that the understanding that the equal sign
represents equivalence needs to be shown.

Insights About Possible Misconceptions and Issues That Impact On Childrens
Learning
Misconceptions are problems that may lead to very serious learning difficulties. These
misconceptions may be caused by a variety of things such as students having
previous inadequate teaching, informal thinking, or poor remembrance (Allen, 2007).
It is due to these misconceptions that students often have difficulty with algebra in
various areas.
One misconception in algebra is the belief of many students that variables have
specific values, rather than being more general. Students commonly ignore the letters
used in algebra, replacing them with numerical values of letters of the alphabet
(Siemon, Beswick et. al, 2011). Many students struggle with the symbolic
representation of letters and research suggests that this is because symbols are often
presented to students in a very unusual and sometimes confusing manner.
Kitchemann (1981) found that during research students were able to understand and
respond correctly to a + b = 43, then a + b + 2=? but when faced with a question
such as Which is larger, 2n or n+2? students find it difficult as they feel that both
equations are asking the same question. This case depended on the basic
understanding of coefficients in algebra, where the placement of a number changes
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meaning, whereas in the first example, the positions of the numbers had no impact on
the process used to solve the equations (Yatsyla, 2008). Confusion caused by
interpreting letters as objects can arise in many ways as documented in Mathematics
Programmes of Study, NCC Inset Resources, National Curriculum Council for Great
Britain (1992) her are some examples: ignoring completely the presence of letters eg.
If I add 3 to x + 4 I get 7, not distinguishing between letters used as units of measure
eg. 8 m and 8m are the same and thinking that letters can only stand for natural
numbers eg. 6x=13 then x =2 .
Another difficulty in learning algebra is that many students, who are used to solving
problems arithmetically rather than algebraically, will resort to using arithmetic even
when encouraged or told to find the algebraic process. It has been discovered that
some students found to use previously understood skills and thinking in arithmetic to
solve algebraic problems (Stacey, MacGregor, 1999). It is very important to recognize
students doing this, to re-educate students to the correct mathematical thinking. The
distinction between the two is best defined as arithmetic thinking focuses on product
and algebraic thinking focuses on a process (Malara & Navarra, 2003)
Inadequate understanding of the uses of the equal sign and its properties when it is
used in an equation is a major problem that delayed solving equations correctly
(Allan, 2007). Many students hold misconceptions in respect to the equal sign.
Researchers found that for many students an equation only made sense if the action
occurred before an equal sign, eg. When asked to find the unknown for 7+8+?+9,
many students expressed this as 7+8= 15+ 9= 24 (Warren et. Al, 2009).



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Discussion of and Recommendations for Effective learning
It is essential that effective teaching takes place within a classroom particularly when
teaching algebra as discussed previously, there are many misconceptions and
difficulties that need to be prevented. One study showed that if misconceptions are
not changed and corrected by the fifth grade, students will keep their misconceptions
through college (Arnaudin & Mintzes, 1985). When teaching algebra it is significant
that teachers are able to recognise and shift their teaching from a telling approach to
an allowing discovery approach (Femiano, 2003). Using guided explorations
strategies will actively involve students in the process of organizing their arithmetic
into algebraic thinking to solve answers to questions. Things such as encouraging
children to predict and justify their predictions and thoughts in algebra assist in
supporting students mathematical thinking. (Siemon, et. al, 2011). To ensure
students are algebraically thinking rather than using arithmetic, using concrete
models can assist their development in this. Concrete models of algebra allow
students to make connections between the concrete and symbolic representation of
algebra with greater ease (Yatsyla, 2008). As many students become more engaged
in their learning when activities and lessons are hands on, concrete models will be
helpful for them to comprehend and develop the concepts of algebra as a different
way of thinking about maths, Using this idea opens many variety of ways that algebra
can be taught in the classroom such as creating real life problems which can promote
understandings of the concept in the classroom. (Yatsyla, 2008).

The language used by the teacher plays an important role in students understanding
of algebra. When teachers are discussing or talking about algebra it is essential that
they use algebraic terms and symbols as you would as if you were teaching children
a foreign language (Reys et al, 2012). Terms and symbols should be merged into
class discussions naturally and within the usual context to allow students to make
sense of them. It is vital that teachers avoid the fruit salad approach, that is saying
statement such as 3b + 2b is the same as 5b as 3 bananas and two bananas is five
bananas, or anything else similar. The fruit salad approach reinforces that b can
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stand for one object, where in algebra b can stand for any number of objects (Siemon
et. al, 2011). As the equals sign is one of the most poorly understood symbols in
algebra, it is through the teachers language that can reinforce the correct meaning of
equals. A statement such as is the same as should be used rather than equals.

Conclusion
This introduction of algebraic thinking into primary schools can be seen essential for
different strands of mathematics in the curriculum. Identifying pattern and structure in
algebra as well as understanding the number system are seen as key concepts in
teaching algebra. The language that is used when developing algebraic thinking has
a significant impact on students learning and there is strong evidence that students
have trouble engaging with particular algebraic concepts that stems from their
understandings of arithmetic rather than representing problems and finding
generalisations. It is fundamental that teachers choose the correct language,
materials and pedagogical approaches that allows students to explore and develop
their algebraic thinking and processes.













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References

- Barmby, P., Bilsborough, L., Harries, T., & Higgins, S. (2009). Primary
mathematics (1st ed.). Maidenhead, England: Open University Press

- Chambers, P. (2008). Teaching Mathematics in Primary Schools. New York:
Sage Publications.

- Donald, A. (2007). Student Thinking. Department Of Mathematics

- Femiano, R. (1998). Quick thinks math (1st ed.). Pacific Grove, CA: Critical
Thinking Books and Software.

- French, D. (2002). Teaching and learning algebra (1st ed.). London:
Continuum.

- Heath, B. (2010). What Do the Signs Say?. Australian Primary Mathematics
Classroom, 15(1), 29--32.

- Jorgensen Robin, Shelley Dole (2011). Teaching Mathematics in Primary
Schools (2nd ed.). Sydney, Australia: Allen and Unwin. (Original work
published 2004)

- Moonmaw, S. (2011). Teaching Mathematics in Early Childhood (1st ed.). Paul
H. Brookes

- Mulligan, J. T., & Mitchelmore, M. C. (2009). Awareness of pattern and
structure in early mathematical development. Mathematics Education
Research Journal, 21(2), 3349.

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- National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM). Curriculum and
Evaluation Standards for School Mathematics. Reston, Va.: NCTM, 1989.

- Papic, M., Mulligan, J., & Mitchelmore, M. (2011). Assessing the development
of preschoolers' mathematical patterning. Journal For Research In
Mathematics Education, 42(3), 237--269.

- Reys, Lindquist, Lambdin, Smith, Rogers, Falle, Frid, Bennet. (2012). Helping
children learn mathematics (1st ed.). Milton, Qld.: John Wiley and Son
Australia.

- Siemon, D. (2011). Teaching mathematics (1st ed.). South Melbourne, Vic.:
Oxford University Press.

- Suggate, J., Davis, A., & Goulding, M. (1998). Mathematical knowledge for
primary teachers (1st ed.). London: D. Fulton.

- Thornton, S., & others,. (2003). Enriching Student Learning of Pattern and
Algebra by Enriching Teachers' Understanding. Australian Primary
Mathematics Classroom, 8(3), 18.

- Vale, C., Godeassi, F., Clark, R., Cavigan, F., & Missen, K. (2009). Structure
Connects: Activities and Experiences for Primary Students. Prime Number,
24(3), 3.

- Warren, E., Mollinson, A., & Oestrich, K. (2009). Equivalence and equations in
early years classrooms. Australian Primary Mathematics Classroom, 14(1), 10.

- Yatsyla, M. (2011). Introducing algebra in a fifth grade classroom (1st ed.).
[S.l.]:Bibliobazaar,Llc.
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Part 2: Photos and Mathematical Investigations
Local Scenes That Can Prompt Mathematical Investigations and Are Relevant
To Primary School Children

Investiagtion 1



















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Prompts and Questions that Lead to Mathematical Investigations Based on the
Photo
The Pizza Investigation: Toms mum is making pizza for the family, with all the
ingredients she could find in the fridge. The ingredients she found were tomatoes,
cheese, ham and pineapple. The first pizza Toms mum made was with all the
ingredients shown in the picture. What are some options of possible pizzas she could
make only using those four ingredients?
Extension activity: Tom eats half a pizza; his sister eats half of what Tom eats,
while his parents eat 6 times more than his little sister. How many pizzas will be
required to feed the family?

The Underpinning Mathematical Concept
The maths concept that is used is this photo is through the use of patterns and the
structure involved with it. It is through using different structures that will enable
students to come up with different options for the pizzas. Students will be able use
their generalising techniques to estimate the total number of pizzas, e.g. finding all
the options that the ingredient ham has and multiplying it by 4. Students will need to
attempt different options for pizzas in order to form a conjecture about the total
number of pizzas. This question also requires students to develop their algebraic
reasoning and thinking.
Aspects That Children Need To Notice In Order To Construct Mathematical
Knowledge
- Different options using all the ingredients
- Generalising between the different ingredients
- Realising different methods to solve the different options
- Using algebraic thinking rather than arithmetic.


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Questions That the Teacher Can Ask To Prompt The Noticing
- How would you start this question? i.e. Would you create a table of the
different options?
- Would you start with one ingredient and think of all the options for that?
- What systematic approach could you use?
- Is there an easier way to solve this?


Suggestions for Differentiate the Learning To Decrease Or Increase The
Mathematical Complexity
Suggestions for Decreasing the Mathematical Complexity
- To decrease the mathematical complexity you would remove ingredients to
make it simpler eg. Only have two or three ingredients for the pizza.
- You could also give students a table that can assist them in writing up all the
options in a systematic approach.

Suggestions for Increasing the Mathematical Complexity
- To increase the complexity you could add extra ingredients that students would
need to consider for their option
- You could introduce mixes into pizzas. For example each half can have
different toppings.

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Investigation 2






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Prompts and Questions that Lead to Mathematical Investigations Based on the
Photo

The prices of runners constantly change. Before the factory opens on Monday, pair of
runners are priced at $25. If their price decreases $4 on Monday, increases $6 on
Tuesday, and then decreases $2 on Wednesday, what is the final price of the runners
on Wednesday?

The Underpinning Mathematical Concepts
The underpinning mathematical concept for this picture relates to the concept of using
algebraic thinking rather than basing thoughts on arithmetic. It uses problem-solving
skills and leads to show that discovery is essential. Although students may turn to use
their arithmetic skills, such as when subtracting the changes from the original price, it
opens opportunities to develop their use of mathematics as a language which will
enable the to build confidence in solving more advanced problems.


Aspects That Children Need To Notice In Order To Construct Mathematical
Knowledge
- Being able to think algebraically rather than basing their findings on arithmetic.
- Substituting letters and numbers as variables.
- Being able to respond to what is directly being asked
- Seeking for additional information in the question
- The use of algebraic language
- Being able to break down the problem

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Questions That the Teacher Can Ask To Prompt The Noticing
- What is the question asking initially?
- How can we write this as an equation or in a simpler form?
- Is the question able to be broken down?
- What kind of systematic approach may we use?

Suggestions for Decreasing the Mathematical Complexity
- Although question is already in simpler terms to decrease the complexity even
more, a variable could be taken out of the equation or decreased.
Suggestions for Increasing the Mathematical Complexity
- To increase the complexity of this problem the variables could be increased
and terms such as twice as much or six times could be used.
- The days can be changed to weeks or months and students can be asked to
solve for the whole year, creating a more in depth equation.

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Investigation 3


Prompts and Questions that Lead to Mathematical Investigations Based on the
Photo
Groups of campers were going to an island. On the first day 10 went over and 2 came
back. On the second day, 12 went over and 3 came back. If this pattern continues,
how many people would be on the island at the end of a week?
Extension: How many people would be on the island after 4 weeks?

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The Underpinning Mathematical Concepts
The underpinning mathematical concept involved in this picture is developing an
understanding of growing patterns. Students will be able to distinguish the growth
pattern through using the distinct units and terms from the problem i.e. the day and
the people on the island. Students will need to grasp the relationship that the terms
have with one another and the position they have in the pattern.

Aspects That Children Need To Notice In Order To Construct Mathematical
Knowledge
- The relationship between the terms (the people and the number of days)
- Recognising the pattern and being able to describe what is happening with it
Questions That the Teacher Can Ask To Prompt The Noticing
- What do you notice about this pattern?
- What is happening as the days go on?
- Is there a consistent change in the pattern?
- If so how can you describe this?


Suggestions for Decreasing the Mathematical Complexity
- To decrease the complexity you could reduce the number of days, instead of
asking after a week, ask after one more day
- Reduce the complexity of the pattern i.e. have the patterns increase/ decrease
by the same amount.


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Suggestions for Increasing the Mathematical Complexity
- - To increase the complexity you could expand the number of days, instead of
asking after a week, ask for a month.
- Increase the number of people and change the pattern numbers