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VCE : UNIT 2- MOTION AND LIGHT

PHYSICS NOTES


1

Topic: Unit 2 - Motion and Light
WEEKLY PLANNER: Term 4
Each topic/week have a different colour.
Week Date

Topic

Assessments/Home Learning
Class per Week and
time of each class


(Each week will have four
, 50 minute classes)

Every week student also
do work program in the
class and if they missed
all students need to do it
as part of home learning.
Any missed home
learning programs will be
done in the week of
revision
1
06-Oct-2014

Aspects of Motion:
Describing motion in straight
line,
Graphic motion,
Equations of motion,
Vertical motion under gravity
Chapter 4.2, 4.3, 4.4
Home learning Sheet 1



2 13-Oct-2014
Newtons Law:
Force as a vector,
Newtons first law of motion,
Newtons second law of
motion,
Newtons third law of motion,
Chapter 5.2, 5.3, 5.4
Home learning Sheet 2
3 20-Oct-2014
Momentum, Energy, Work
& Power:
Relationship between
momentum and force ,
Conservation of momentum,
Work,
Mechanical energy,
Energy transformation and
power

Chapter 6.1,6.3
Home learning Sheet 3
4 27-Oct-2014
Revision of Motion: Revisit difficult questions

5 03-Nov-2014
Wave- like properties of
light:
Introducing waves ,
Representing wave features,
Waves and wave interactions
Chapter 7.1, 7.3
Home learning Sheet 4

6 10-Nov-2014
This week my students will be preparing for their SAC Exams
(from the questions that are listed at the end of each chapter
below) Next week they will be writing SAC. In period 3.
Pre SAC
Preparation in
this week:
7 07-Nov-2014
Models for Light:
Modelling simple light
properties ,
Refraction of light,
Chapter 8.1,8.2, 8.3, 8.4
Home learning Sheet 5

Period 1 and 2 we will continue models of light.



2

Critical angle,
Dispersion and polarisation of
light waves
SAC Test (period
3) on 28
th
May
2015.
End of week 5 is SAC.
Light: SAC:(30 marks)
8 24-Nov-2014
Mirrors, Lenses and optical
systems:
Geometrical optics and plane
mirror, Application of curved
mirrors: concave mirrors,
Convex mirrors,
Refraction and lenses,
Concave lenses,
Optical systems

Chapter 9.5, 9.6
Home learning Sheet 6
9/10
01-08 Dec-
2014
Investigations: Flight:
The four forces of flight,
Modelling forces in flight,
Investigating flight,
Investigation starting points

Revision for exams
Orientation weeks.
Chapter 13.1, 13,2,
Home learning Sheet 7



Revisit difficult questions
Orientation for year 12


Contents

Unit overview and time : 4
Key skills students should develop: 4

Chapter: Aspects of Motion:

Introduction: ........................................................................................................................................... 7
Previous year Questions ....................................................................................................................... 12
Work Program ....................................................................................................................................... 15


Chapter: Newton's Law
Topic: Newtons first law of motion ................................................................................................ 16
Topic: Newtons second law of motion ........................................................................................... 17


3

Topic: Newtons third law of motion ............................................................................................... 17
Work Program ....................................................................................................................................... 24


Chapter: Momentum, Energy, Work & Power
Study Design ......................................................................................................................................... 26
Topic: Impulse ................................................................................................................................. 27
Topic: Energy Work Power ............................................................................................................. 28
Work Program ....................................................................................................................................... 34

Chapter: Wave like properties of light:
Topic: Frequency ............................................................................................................................. 35
Topic: The Electro magnetic spectrum ............................................................................................ 37
Topic: Diffraction ........................................................................................................................... 41
Topic: Intereference ......................................................................................................................... 42
Work Program: ................................................................................................................................ 49


Chapter: Models of Light:
Topic: Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 50
Topic: Modelling Straight line propagation .................................................................................... 51
Topic: Refraction of Light .............................................................................................................. 52
Topic: Dispersion and polarisation of light waves .......................................................................... 53
Work program: ..................................................................................................................................... 56


Chapter: Mirrors, Lenses and optical systems:
Topic: Geometrical optics and plane mirror .................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.7
Topic: Application of curved mirrors: Concave mirrors.................................................................. 58
Topic: Convex mirrors ..................................................................................................................... 60
Topic: Refraction and lenses ........................................................................................................... 61
Topic: Concave lenses .................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Topic: Optical systems .................................................................................................................... 62
Work Program ....................................................................................................................................... 65



4


Chapter: Investigations of Flight:
Topic: The four forces of flight ........................................................................................................ 66
Topic: Modelling forces in flight .................................................................................................... 67
Topic: Investigating flight ............................................................................................................... 67
Topic: Investigations starting points ................................................................................................ 67

SAC Exam: . 70
SAC Rubric: .. 76




Unit Overview and time:

Unit 2 consists of two prescribed areas of study: Motion and Wave-like properties of light;
and a third area of study to be chosen from one of six detailed studies: Investigations: Flight.
As a guide, at least 20 hours of class time should be devoted to student practical work across
the three areas of study.

The key skills you as a student should develop and apply are:

1. Investigate and inquire scientifically:

Identify and select questions for investigation, formulating hypotheses and
identifying and addressing possible sources of uncertainty
Design and conduct first-hand investigations that include collecting, processing,
recording, analysing, synthesising and evaluating qualitative and quantitative data
Select and use equipment and materials appropriate to the investigation
Draw conclusions consistent with the question under investigation and the
information collected, identifying errors and evaluating investigative procedures
and reliability and accuracy of data
Identify and apply safe and responsible work practices when designing and
completing independent or collaborative investigations.

2. Analyse and apply physics understanding:

Identify and describe relevant scientific information, ideas and concepts, and the
connections between them
Select first-hand and second-hand data and evidence to demonstrate how physics
concepts, theories and models have developed and been modified over time
Explain how models are used by physical scientists to organise and understand
observed phenomena, identifying limitations of the models


5

Apply graphical, numerical and algebraic models to first-hand data collected
during practical investigations, and to second-hand data
model scientific ideas and processes
Calculate quantities and analyse and solve qualitative and quantitative problems
Apply understanding of concepts to explain qualitative and quantitative data in
both familiar and new contexts
Identify and explain alternative interpretations of qualitative and quantitative data
Analyse issues and implications for humans and the environment relating to
scientific and technological developments
Analyse and evaluate the reliability of physics-related information and opinions
presented in the public domain.

3. Communicate physics information and understanding:

Interpret, explain and communicate physics data, information and ideas
accurately and effectively, using communication modes appropriate for different
audiences and purposes
Apply scientific language and conventions correctly, including scientific formulas,
symbols, equations and units of measurement.



Area of study 1

Motion

Students learn about the models used to explain motion from the early theories of Aristotle
and the work of Galileo and Newton. These theories are developed through the examination
of aspects of motion including transport, games and sport. Students will study the historical
development of the Newtonian model of motion and apply it in the contexts of transport,
games and sport. In this study students will assume that the mass of finite objects can be
considered to be at a point: the centre of mass.



Outcome 1:

On completion of this unit the student should be able to investigate, analyse and
mathematically model motion of particles and bodies in terms of Aristotelian, Galilean and
Newtonian theories. To achieve this outcome the student will draw on the following key
knowledge and apply the key skills listed above.

Key knowledge you as a student will gain from the area of study of Motion is as follows:

Identify parameters of motion as vectors or scalars
Analyse straight-line motion under constant acceleration graphically, numerically
and algebraically
Analyse graphically non-uniform motion in a straight line
Compare the effect of a force as defined by Aristotle, Galileo and Newton
Describe the change in motion that results from the application of a force


6

Model weight, w, as the force of gravity acting at the centre of mass point
(approximated as the geometric centre) of a body, w = mg
Model forces as vectors acting at the point of application (with magnitude and
direction), labelling these forces using the convention force of on
Apply Newtons three laws of motion to a body on which a resultant vector force
acts
Apply the vector model of forces, including vector addition and components of
forces, to readily observable forces including weight, friction and reaction forces
Apply the concept of work done by a constant force
Work done = constant force x distance moved in direction of force
Work done = area under force-distance graph
Analyse Hookes Law for an ideal spring, F=-kx
Analyse energy transfers and transformations using an energy conservation model
including transfers between
Gravitational potential energy near Earths surface, mgh, and kinetic energy,
mv2
Potential energy in ideal springs, kx2 , and kinetic energy, mv2
Apply rate of energy transfer, power, P = E/t
Apply the concept of momentum, p = mv
Describe how action of a net force causes changes in momentum
Analyse impulse (momentum transfer) in an isolated system, for elastic collisions
between objects moving in a straight line
Apply graphical, numerical and algebraic models to primary data collected during
practical investigations of motion, and to secondary data
Identify and apply safe and responsible practices when investigating motion.



AREA OF STUDY 2

Wave-like properties of light

Light phenomena are examples of the interaction of the physical world with human biology.
The wave model of light, compared with the particle model of light, will be evaluated in
terms of satisfactorily explaining light phenomena. Students will use the wave-like properties
of light in the contexts of seeing with the unaided eye, extending visual and communication
capabilities, and special theatrical effects.

Outcome 2:
On completion of this unit the student should be able to describe and explain the wave model
of light, compare it with the particle model of light and apply it to observed light phenomena
in practical investigations. To achieve this outcome the student will draw on the following
key knowledge and apply the key skills listed above.


Key knowledge you as a student will gain from the area of study of Wave like properties
of Light is as follows:


describe transverse waves in terms of


7

Amplitude
Wavelength
Period and frequency
calculate wavelength, frequency, period and speed of travel of light waves, v = f
= /T
investigate and analyse the behaviour of light using ray diagrams including
Reflection, i = r
Refraction, Snells Law
Total internal reflection, critical angle
(Any form of image location is not required)
Describe light using a wave model and a particle model
Explain polarisation of visible light and its relation to a transverse wave model
Compare the wave model and the particle model of light in terms of whether they
adequately describe reflection and refraction
Identify visible light as a particular region of the spectrum of electromagnetic
radiation and that all light travels at the speed of light in a vacuum, c
Explain the colour components of white light as different frequencies of light
combining to appear white
explain colour dispersion in prisms and lenses in terms of refraction of the
components of white light as they pass from one medium to another
Identify and apply safe and responsible practices when working with light sources
and optical devices.




1. Aspects of Motion

Outcome
On completion of this topic you should be able to Investigate motion and related energy
transformations experimentally, and use the Newtonian model in one and two dimensions to analyse
motion in the context of transport and related aspects of safety, and motion in space.
You will have covered material from the study of movement including:
- a graphical description of motion
- instantaneous and average velocities
- motion with constant acceleration described using graphs and equations of motion
- Vertical motion under gravity.




8

Study Design
- Apply Newtons three laws of motion in situations where two or more coplanar forces act
along a straight line and in two dimensions;


Introduction
.
You will be familiar with many of the concepts of motion from your Physics Unit 2 studies. You must
know the definitions of the key terms, such as distance, displacement, speed, velocity, acceleration,
force, momentum and energy. In Unit 3 you will be expected to use many of the same techniques to
solve problems as in Year 11. This repeated content is illustrated in the diagram below.
..

When solving Year 12 problems, you will have to choosewhich concept of physics (Kinematics,
Momentum, Energy or Forces) will be most useful in solving the problems.

Some problems you will be only able to solve using one concept, others can be solved in more than
one way, but may be very simple using a particular technique. Hence you must be able to solve
problems using all of the concepts, and you must develop an instinct for choosing the most efficient
path.

You will also need to decide whether to use a graphical or numerical technique to solve problems.

In addition there are a few new topics, specifically motion in more than on dimension (projectile
motion), motion in different inertial frames, circular motion and Newtons law of Universal
Gravitation.
.



Motion
Kinematics
- x,u,v,a,t formulae
- graphs
Forces
- Newtons Laws
- Vector in one and
two dimensions
Momentum
- Conservation of
momentum
- Impulse
- Graphical Solutions

Energy
- Types (kinetic,
gravitational
potential, elastic
potential, Work)
- Calculations using
Conservation of
energy



9

Definitions

From your prior studies of motion you should be familiar with the following kinematic definitions:

Distance Travelled - How far an object has moved in total during its motion. (m).
Displacement How far an object is at from a reference position. (m)
Speed How fast an object is moving? (m/s)
Velocity How fast an object and what direction an object is moving in. (m/s)
Acceleration The rate at which the velocity of an object is changing i.e. how many (m/s)
the velocity of an object is changing by every second. Acceleration also has
a direction

These physical quantities can be divided into two categories, scalars and vectors.
Vectors: Vectors are quantities that have a magnitude and a direction.
E.g. displacement, velocity, and acceleration.
Scalars: Scalars are quantities that only have a magnitude,
E.g. speed and distance travelled.
Average Quantities

You will occasionally be asked to determine average quantities. For example, you may be asked to
determine the velocity, on average, at which a car was moving between two times. Average velocity
and acceleration are determined using the following formulae.










average velocity =
total displacement
time taken
vav =
2 1
x - x
t


average acceleration =
change in velocity
time taken
aav =
v - u
t




10

Where
x2 is the final position, x1 is the initial position, is the time period,
v is the final velocity and u is the initial velocity.
Graphs

You need to be able to use a wide range of graphs. When given a graph in the exam, look for the
following on the graph before even reading the question:
- Type of graph (F d, F v, Energy distance, F t etc.).
- The units on the axis.
- The limit reading on each axis.
- Look at the scale on both axes, be aware for anything non-standard
- Think about what is given by a direct reading from the graph, the gradient of the graph and the
area under the graph

In Year 11 Physics it is typical to restrict the types of graphs that you experience to those with time
usually on the horizontal axis. Expect to find distance and others on the horizontal axis in Year 12.
Graphical Techniques
In kinematics you can be asked to interpret several graphs. Graphs can be used to determine
instantaneous quantities i.e. the value of a quantity at a specific time. For example, a velocity time
graph (v-t) can be used to determine how fast an object was moving at a specific time. It could also be
used to determine how far the object has moved up to that time (by finding the area under the curve)
or its acceleration (by determining the gradient at a specific point). The type of information that can
be determined from different graphs is summarised in the following table.


Graph type

Found from
x - t v - t a t
Direct reading 'x' at any 't'
't' at any 'x'
'v' at any 't'
't' at any 'v'
'a' at any 't'
't' at any 'a'
Gradient Instantaneous
velocity at any
point.
Vav between any
two points
Instantaneous 'a'
Average 'a'
Meaningless


11

Area under graph Meaningless Ax Av


The gradient at a particular time is determined by drawing a tangent line to the curve at that point, and
then determining the gradient of the tangent line.

Constant Acceleration

Consider the following series of graphs. These illustrate the relationships mentioned in the table
above. Notice that the velocity time graph is the gradient of the displacement time graph, and the
acceleration time graph is the gradient of the velocity time graph.

Displacement Velocity Acceleration


v g

u

Time time time
t

Examples of Questions from previous year exams:
Example 1 Question
The figure below appeared in a newspaper featuring skydiving from an aircraft. In this particular
example the total mass of the skydiver and equipment is 100 kg. The skydiver jumps from a height of
3000 m above the ground and reaches a constant terminal velocity of 190 km h
-1
in a time of 15 s. She
then falls at this constant speed of 190 km h
-1
for a further 35 s before opening the parachute.


12





Convert 190 km h
-1
into m s
-1
.




Example 2 Question
On the set of axes, sketch a graph of the motion of the skydiver for the first 50 s of falling. (Air
resistance cannot be neglected.)


Example 3 Question
Explain why the speed remains constant between 15 s and 50 s of the motion.





13

Example 4 2002 Question 1
In a road test, a car was uniformly accelerated from rest over a distance of 400 m in 19.0 s. The driver
then applied the brakes, stopping the car in 5.1 s with constant deceleration.

Calculate the acceleration of the car for the first 400 m.

Example 5 2002 Question 2
Calculate the average speed of the car for the entire journey, covering both the acceleration and
braking sections.

Example 6 2002 Question 2
The graphs (A F) in the key below should be used when answering the two questions below. The
horizontal axis represents time and the vertical axis could be velocity or distance.




14



Example 7 2002 Question 3
Which of the graphs (A F) best represents the velocitytime graph of the car for the entire journey?

Example 8 2002 Question 4
Which of the graphs (A F) best represents the distancetime graph of the car for the entire journey?

References:
The topics and the Images are taken from Pearson place link below:
http://www.pearsonplaces.com.au/Products/Pearson_Reader/Heinemann_Physics_Enhanced/ctl/viewc
hapterslist/mid/6472.aspx, Heinemann physics 12 third edition, Rob Chapman et al, and mentor
teachers notes.
The exam Questions are taken from the previous exams.




Work Program after completion of each topic:
Chapter: Aspects of Motion

TOPIC CHAPTER QUESTIONS Completed
Describing motion in
straight line
4.1 1,2,3,5,8

Graphic motion 4.2 1,2,7,10
Equations of motion 4.3 1,8,9,10
Vertical motion under
gravity
4.4 1,3,10



15

Chapter Review Page 129 All

Checkpoints Chapter 4 All

Revision Booklet All










2. Newtons Law


Study Design
- Apply Newtons three laws of motion in situations where two or more coplanar forces act
along a straight line and in two dimensions;


Types of forces
Forces can be divided into two major categories, field forces and contact forces





Forces that act at a distance are called
FIELD FORCES, (gravitational,
electrical or magnetic)
Forces created by travelling bodies are
called CONTACT FORCES.




16



The relationship between a force and the acceleration it causes was first understood by Isaac Newton
(1672 1727). Newton summarised all motion by three laws:

Newtons First Law

An important consequence of this law was the
realisation that an object can be in motion without a
force being constantly applied to it. When you throw
a ball, you exert a force to accelerate the ball, but
once it is moving, no force is necessary to keep it
moving. Prior to this realisation it was believed that a constant force was necessary, and that this force
was supplied by that the air pinching in behind the ball. This model, first conceived by Aristotle,
proved tenacious, and students still fall into the trap of using it.

Newtons first law is commonly tested on the exam. This is achieved by the inclusion of statements
such as An object is moving with a constant velocity within questions. Whenever you see the key
words constant velocity in a question, you should highlight them. The realisation that the object is
travelling at a constant velocity, and hence that the net force on the object is zero, will be essential for
solving the problem.

Newtons Second Law

In words, Newtons Second Law states that a force
on an object causes the object to accelerate (change
its velocity). The amount of acceleration that occurs
depends on the size of the force and the mass of the
object. Large forces cause large accelerations.
Objects with large mass accelerate less when they
experience the same force as a small mass. The
acceleration of the object is in the same direction as
the net force on the object.

Newtons 1
st
law of motion
If an object has zero net force acting
on it, it will remain at rest, or continue
moving with an unchanged velocity.
Newtons 2
nd
law of motion

This law relates to the sum total of the
forces on the body ( F ) the body's mass
(m) and the acceleration produced (a)

F = ma.
a =
Note must have the same direction
as 'a'.


17

Newtons Third Law
This law is the most commonly misunderstood.
You need to appreciate that these action/reaction
forces act on DIFFERENT OBJECTS and so
you do not add them to find a resultant force.
For example, consider a book resting on a table
top as shown in the diagram below. There are
two forces acting on the book: Gravity is pulling the book downward and the tabletop is pushing the
book upwards. These forces are the same size, and are in opposite directions but THEY ARE NOT a
Newtons thirds law pair, because they both act on the same object.

The best way of avoiding making a mistake using Newtons third law
is to use the following statement.

F
A on B
= - F
B on A
In the example of the book on the table the force Table on Book is a Newton third law pair with the
force Book on Table. Notice the first force is on the book and the second force is on the table. They do not
act on the same object. Similarly the weight force, which is the gravitational attraction of the earth on
the book, is a Newton third law pair with the gravitational force of the book on the earth. The
gravitational effect of the book on the earth is not apparent because the earth is so massive that no
acceleration is noticeable.
Drawing Force Diagrams
You will often be asked to draw diagrams illustrating forces. There are several considerations when
drawing force diagrams:
- The arrows that represent the forces should point in the direction of applied force. The length
of the arrow represents the strength of the force, so some effort should be made to draw the
arrows to scale.
- An arrow representing a field force should begin at the centre of the object.
- An arrow representing a contact force should begin at the point on contact where the force is
applied.
- All forces should be labelled.
Some sample force diagrams of common situations are drawn below.
Mass on a string Mass in free flight




Newtons 3
rd
law of motion
For every action force acting on one object,
there is an equal but opposite reaction force
acting on the other object.
N
W
T
mg
mg


18

m







Velocity v = 0, so T = mg
Velocity v = constant upwards, so T = mg
Velocity v = constant downwards, so T = mg
Accelerating Upwards, T - mg = ma.
Acceleration Downwards, mg - T = ma.
EF = mg = ma


19

Mass pulled along a plane
Smooth (No Friction) Rough (Friction)

N a N
a
T Fr T

mg mg


T = ma, N + mg = 0 T - F = ma, N + mg = 0

Bodies with parallel forces acting









Bodies with non-parallel forces acting







m
m
m
m
m
m
m
m
m
m
a a
a
F1
F1
F1 F2
F2 F2
F1 + F2 = ma
F1 + F2 = ma
F2 F1 = ma
m
m
m
m
m
m
F1
F2
F2
F1
F1
F2
F1 + F2 = ma
F1 + F2 = ma
F1 + F2 = ma
a a
a


20

The vectors need to be resolved in order to solve for the acceleration.
Inclined planes
Another example of forces acting at angles to each other is an object on an incline plane. There are
only three different types of examples of a body on an incline plane without a driving force.

A body accelerating
The component of the weight force acting down the plane is larger then the frictional forces. (This is
also true if there are no frictional forces). For these situations you would take down the plane to be
positive, the reason for this is that the acceleration is down the plane.



A body travelling at constant speed
This can be the when an object is not changing its speed whilst travelling down an incline or when the
object is at rest on the incline plane.



Forces perpendicular to the plane
Fnet = mgcosu - N = 0

Forces parallel to the plane
Fnet = mgsinu - F = ma

Thus the acceleration is down the plane.
If there is not friction then the acceleration
is gsin

mg
N
F


Forces perpendicular to the
plane
Fnet = mgcos - N = 0

Forces parallel to the plane

mg
N
F


21

A body decelerating
For these situations you would choose up the plane to be positive, this is because this is the direction
of acceleration.



Examples Sample questions from previous exams:

Example 1 Question
A car has a maximum acceleration of 3.0 ms
-2
. What would its maximum acceleration be while
towing a car twice its own mass?








A train accelerates from rest at one station and travels to another station. The velocity-time for the
train is given below. The mass of the train is 5.0 x 10
5
kg. Assume that a constant frictional
resistance of 1.5 x 10
4
N acts on the train throughout its journey.


Forces perpendicular to the
plane
Fnet = mgcos - N = 0

Forces parallel to the plane
Fnet = F - mgsin = ma

mg
F
N


22


Example 2 Question
Calculate the distance between the two stations.




Example 3 Question
Calculate the net force acting on the train during the first 300 seconds.



The figure shows a car of mass 1600 kg towing a boat and trailer of mass 1200 kg.
The driver changes the engine power to maintain a constant speed of 72 km h
-1
on a straight road.
The total retarding force on the car is 1400 N and on the boat and trailer 1200 N.

Example 4 2004 Question 1
Calculate the driving force exerted by the car at this speed.




23





To overtake another car the driver accelerates at a constant rate of 1.20 m s
-2
from 72 km h
-1
until
reaching 108 km h
-1


Example 5 2004 Question 2
Calculate the distance covered during this acceleration.





Example 6 2004 Question 3
Calculate the tension in the coupling between the car and trailer during the acceleration. (Assume the
same retarding forces of 1400 N and 1200 N respectively.)






Two students are discussing the forces on the tyres of a car. Both agree that there must be a friction
force acting on the tyres of a car. The first student claims that the friction force acts to oppose the
motion of the car and slow it down, for example, when braking. The second student claims that
friction acts in the direction of motion as a driving force to speed the car up when accelerating.

Example 7 2004 Question 8
On the diagram of the front-wheel drive car in the figure below, clearly show all the forces acting on
the tyres of the car when it is accelerating forwards in a straight line. Use arrows for the force
vectors to show both the magnitude and point of action of the different forces.


24




References:
The topics and the Images are taken from Pearson place link below:
http://www.pearsonplaces.com.au/Products/Pearson_Reader/Heinemann_Physics_Enhanced/ctl/viewc
hapterslist/mid/6472.aspx, Heinemann physics 12 third edition, Rob Chapman et al, and mentor
teachers notes.
The exam Questions are taken from the previous exams.


Work Program after completion of each topic: :
Chapter: Newtons Law

TOPIC CHAPTER QUESTIONS Completed
Forces as Vector 5.1 2,4,,5,8
Newtons first law of
Motion
5.2 1,3,2,8

Newtons second law of
Motion
5.3 2,4,5,8,9

Newtons third law of
Motion
5.4 3,5,8,10

Chapter Review Page 163 All

Checkpoints Chapter 5 All



25

Revision Booklet All





3. Momentum, Energy, Work Power


Study Design
Apply laws of energy and momentum conservation in isolated systems;
Analyse impulse (momentum transfer) in an isolated system, for collisions between
objects moving in a straight line (Ft = mv);


Introduction
.
The momentum (p) of a body is the product of its mass and velocity.

p = mv.

The unit is kilogram metre per second (kgms
-1
)
Momentum is a vector. It has a magnitude and a direction.
Momentum is conserved when no external force acts. It is transferred to the earth whenever a body
hits the ground or slides to a halt.


26


Impulse



Conservation of momentum

When A and B collide, the action of A on B is equal and opposite to that of B on A. (Newtons 3
rd
)
Deductions from Newtons second law.
Consider a body of mass 'm' changing its velocity from 'u' to 'v' in
time 't' under the action of a constant force F.
From Newton's second law of motion,
F = ma, since a =
t
-
A
u v
F=
m - m
t
v u

FAt = mv - mu
The product of a constant force and the time for which it acts is
called the impulse (I) of the force.

I = FAt The unit is the Newton-second. (Ns)

Impulse is the change in momentum i.e. I = p2 - p1.

Thus the impulse can be measured by the change in momentum
produced. Impulse and momentum are vectors. So whenever a
force acts, the direction of all the following is the same:
F, a, v, F. t, p.


Notes on problem
solving
1. As momentum is a
vector, a sign
convention in
problems is
essential.
2. The negative sign
for the change in
momentum
indicates a loss of
momentum.
Remember that F is
the resultant forward
force.
Graphically - constant or non-constant forces.
Since F.
A
t = m
A
v for a constant force, it follows that the impulse will always be given by
the area under the force-time graph. This area also measures the change in momentum.
Area under "F - t" graph = Impulse =
A
momentum.
The slope of a momentum-time graph gives the force, and the area under a force-time graph
equals the change in momentum.
Notes
1. Calculations by either formula or graph involve v and
A
v. In many cases the body starts
from rest and then, and only then, does
A
v equal the actual velocity, v.
2. If asked for "p" look for impulse, if asked for impulse look for "p".
3. If answering for impulse, the units are "Ns" if answering for "p", the units are "kg m/s".




27

Hence the rate of change of momentum of A is equal and opposite to the
rate of change of momentum of B. Since the time of contact is the same
for both, then the change in momentum of A is equal and opposite to the
change in momentum of B.

That is, THE TOTAL MOMENTUM BEFORE IMPACT EQUALS
THE TOTAL MOMENTUM AFTER IMPACT.

This is known as the law of conservation of momentum. P(total) is constant before, during and after the
collision.




Energy, Work power

Study Design
Apply laws of energy and momentum conservation in isolated systems;

Notes.
1. Remember that a sign convention is essential.
2. If the bodies collide and stay together, then the momentum after the collision pfinal =
E
pinitial
E
mvfinal =
E
mvinitial
3. Mathematically, problems on 'collision' or 'explosion' are similar, except that for an explosion,
the momentum of the system before the blast is often zero.
4. p(total before the collision) = p(total after the collision)
5. Always draw a diagram
6. Any unit may be used for mass or velocity, as long as such units are consistent within the
equation.
Momentum transfer involving the Earth
1. Body rises under gravity - slows down and loses momentum to the earth.
2. Body falling under gravity - speeds up giving the earth equal and opposite
momentum change.
3. Falling body hits the ground - its p is transferred to the earth.
4. Body slowed due to friction - gives the earth and equal and opposite p.
5. Body accelerated due to friction - gives the earth an equal and opposite p.



A B


28

Apply the concept of work done by a constant force
Work done = constant force distance moved in direction of net force
Work done = area under force-distance graph;
Analyse transformations of energy between: kinetic energy; strain potential energy;
gravitational potential energy; and energy dissipated to the environment considered as a
combination of heat, sound and deformation of material
Kinetic energy, i.e. mv
2
; elastic and inelastic collisions in terms of conservation of
kinetic energy
strain potential energy, i.e. area under force-distance graph including ideal springs
obeying
Hookes Law, kx
2

Gravitational potential energy, i.e mgh or from area under force-distance graph and area
under field-distance graph multiplied by mass;


Introduction
.
Energy exists in many different forms, for example Kinetic Energy, Gravitational Potential Energy,
Electrical Energy, and Elastic Potential Energy. A fundamental principle of nature is that energy
cannot be created or destroyed, only transformed or transferred to another body. A body that has
energy may transfer some, or all, of its energy to another body. The total amount of energy remains
constant (conserved), even if it has been transformed to another type of energy. For example, during a
car crash, the car originally has kinetic energy. After the collision it will have less kinetic energy than
it began with. The lost kinetic energy will have been transferred to sound energy, heat energy or
energy of deformation.

Energy, Work and Power**

**Power is the rate of doing work, and
therefore the rate of increase of
energy. The average power, P, is the
total work done divided by the total
time interval. P =
t
W
A
=
t
Fd
A
= Fv
if the change in velocity is not from
zero, then Psupplied = F v A
Power is a scalar quantity with the
units of Joule sec
-1
or Watt.

** Not strictly on the course, but can be a useful idea.


29







The amount of energy transferred is called
work. The body losing energy does work,
the body gaining energy has work done on
it.

Work = Force displacement

Work is a scalar quantity,
The unit of Work is the Joule.
Work can also be expressed in units of
power time, this is the origin of the unit
kilowatt hours. Often the energy being
used is converted into heat energy.

A joule is the amount of work done
when a force of 1 Newton acts through
a distance of 1 metre.


30

Kinetic Energy (KE) is the energy a body
possesses due to its motion. This will be
equal to the work done by a force, F, on a
mass, m, to give it from rest a velocity, v, over
a displacement, x.
v
2
= u
2
+ 2ax, but u = 0.
v
2
= 2 a x = 2 x
mv
2
= F x
F x is the work done and mv
2
is the kinetic
energy gained by the body. So KE = mv
2
.
Potential Energy (PE), (U), is the
energy possessed by a body due to:
- Its state (elastic potential energy)
e.g. a compressed spring, or
- Its position (gravitational potential
energy) e.g. a raised mass.
Gravitational Potential Energy.
When changes in height 'h' are small
compared to the radius of the earth, the
potential energy Ug of a body near the
earth's surface is given by Ug = mgh.
Types of Energy





















Efficiency of Energy Conversions.

In most real life situations when energy is transferred from one object to another, not all of the energy
is transferred in a useful form. Some of the energy is turned into types of energy that are not desired,
such as heat, sound or light. The efficiency of the energy transfer is a measurement of how much of
the energy is transferred to the desired form of energy.
% Efficiency =
Final energy
Initial energy

100
1


Collisions



31






Energy and Graphs

The area under a force-displacement graph shows the work done. If the force is constant then the area
under the graph is given by W = F d where F is the force, d is the distance over which the force acts.
This is just the familiar work formula. If the force is not constant then the area under the graph must
be determined.

This assumes that the force and the displacement are in the same direction. If they aren't then the work is the product of the resolved part of
the force (in the direction of motion) the displacement.


Elastic collisions
If the collision is elastic, then both
momentum and energy is
conserved in the collision.
Efinal = Einitial and pfinal = pinitial

Inelastic collisions
If the collision is inelastic, momentum
is conserved, but energy is not, as
some energy is lost to the
environment. The energy that is lost
to the environment is usually
transformed into heat energy, sound
energy and energy of deformation.
pfinal = pinitial but Einitial > Efinal




32

Examples

A delivery van of mass 1200 kg, travelling south at 20 m s
1
, collides head-on with a power pole. The
impact crushes the crumple zone of the van by 0.60 m bringing the van to rest against the pole.

Example 1 2004 Question 4
Calculate the average force that the pole exerts on the van.





The standing 400 m time for a car is the time that it takes to travel 400 m on a level road,
accelerating from rest.

The standing 400 m time of a car was 16.0 s.

Example 1 2000 Question 1
Calculate the acceleration of the car, assuming constant acceleration for the entire journey.



Example 2 2000 Question 2
Assuming constant acceleration, calculate the speed of the car at the end of 400 m.






33






The test on the car was repeated in the opposite direction and the standing 400 m time was 18.0 s.


The momentum of the car at the end of the first 400 m may be represented in magnitude and
direction by the vector shown below.

Example 3 2000 Question 3
Which one of the vectors (AG) best represents the momentum change of the car, between the end
of the first and the end of the second run?

References:
The topics and the Images are taken from Pearson place link below:
http://www.pearsonplaces.com.au/Products/Pearson_Reader/Heinemann_Physics_Enhanced/ctl/viewc
hapterslist/mid/6472.aspx, Heinemann physics 12 third edition, Rob Chapman et al, and mentor
teachers notes.
The exam Questions are taken from the previous exams.



34


Work Program after completion of each topic:
Chapter: Momentum, Energy, Work power

TOPIC CHAPTER QUESTIONS Completed
Relationship between
momentum and force
6.1 1,3,5,9

Conservation of
momentum
6.2 2,3,5,7,8

Work 6.3 1,3,4,5,6
Mechanical energy 6.4 2,4,5,8,9
Energy transformation
and power
6.5 3,5,8,10

Chapter Review Page 203 All

Checkpoints Chapter 6 All

Revision Booklet All















35





4. Wave like properties of Light

The distance between any two identical points is called the wavelength .








Frequency
The frequency (f) is defined as the number of complete waves that pass a point in one second. The
units for frequency are Hertz, Hz, which are cycles per second.

Wave equation
The wave equation links the velocity of the wave to the frequency and the wavelength. v = f where
v is the velocity in m/s, f is the frequency in Hz and is the wavelength in metres. When we do this
with light we replace v with c to get c = f .

Transverse waves
When waves vibrate up and down in a direction perpendicular to the direction of motion of the wave,
it is referred to as a transverse wave. e.g. water waves, where the motion of the water particles is at
right angles (up and down) to the direction of the wave (forward).

V
a
r
i
a
t
i
o
n




36

Superposition
The displacement of two waves
combing with each other is
calculated by the vector addition
of the two components. The displacement of the combined pulse is the sum of the separate
displacements.
The two pulses pass through each
other without being altered. To find
the total wave disturbance at any
time, the individual displacements of
each wave are added at each
point.
When different waves pass
through the same region of
space, the individual waves add
together to produce the resultant wave. This is called superposition.




37


The Electromagnetic Spectrum

In a vacuum, all electromagnetic waves move at the same speed, c, and the speed of light. They differ
from one another in their wavelength (and thus frequency). The electromagnetic spectrum includes
waves with an enormous range of wavelengths, from hundreds of kilometres to smaller than the size
of the nucleus of an atom.

Visible light, (~4.3 10
-7
m to ~6.9 10
-7
m) is
detected by the retina of the eye. The longer
wavelengths (lower frequency waves) appear red,
and the shorter wavelengths (higher frequency
waves) appear violet. The limits of the visible
spectrum are not well defined, because eye
sensitivity drops off gradually at both long and short
wavelengths.

Visible light makes up less than 10
-6
% of the
measured electromagnetic (EM) spectrum.

By 1864 the Scottish physicist, James Maxwell, had
worked out a mathematical theory of
electromagnetism. He developed a series of
equations to show that the energies of heat, light and
electricity are propagated in free space (vacuum) as
electromagnetic waves, their different properties
being due to differences in wavelength and
frequency. Such waves travel at the same speed -
the speed of light. They are transverse waves in which the disturbance is a time variation in both an
electric and a magnetic field set at right angles to each other.

Maxwell suggested that the vibrating electric charges that produced light were the electric charges in
the atom. Maxwells theory also did not require, as a necessity, the idea that light had to have a
medium through which to travel. For years scientists had been searching for the medium or aether
through which light travelled. Maxwells work only assumed light to be travelling in an
electromagnetic field and not necessarily a particle medium. This explained why light appeared to
be able to travel through what scientists thought was a vacuum, but had been reluctant to believe was
a complete vacuum because they thought some sort of medium was essential for lights propagation.



38

The shorter the wavelength (hence higher frequency) the more energy associated with the ray. From
the diagram, Gamma rays have more energy than radio-waves.




39

Creation of Electromagnetic Waves

Name Generated by Detected by
Properties
Gamma-rays Changes of energy levels in
the nucleus
a) Photography
b) Ionisation
chamber
a) Penetrates matter
b) Ionise gases
c) Causes photo-electric
emission
X-rays Rapid deceleration of fast
moving electrons (e.g. by
tungsten target)
UV Orbital electrons of atoms.
E.g. the Sun
a) Photography
b) Photoelectric cell
a) Absorbed by glass
b) Can cause many chemical
reactions
c) (e.g. the tanning of
human skin)
d) Ionise atoms in the
atmosphere resulting in
the ionosphere
Visible light Re-arrangement of outer
orbital electrons in atoms
and molecules. (e.g.
incandescent solids)
a) Eye
b) Photography
c) Photocell

Can cause chemical action
Infra-red Outer electrons in atoms and
molecules
a) Photography by
special plate
b) Heating effect

a) Useful for seeing
molecular structures
b) Less scattered than
visible light by
atmosphere
Micro-waves Micro-wave generators Micro-wave receivers a) Microwave ovens
b) Radar communication
Radio Waves Oscillating electrons in radio
aerials
Tuned electric circuit Different wavelengths find
specialised uses in radio
communications

Some Common Visible Spectra







frequency
Intensity
Spectrum of an incandescent
light globe
Here are some graphs showing
the intensity of light emitted at
different wavelengths for
common sources of light. They
are not to scale.



40















frequency
Intensity
Spectrum of the Sun
frequency
Intensity
Spectrum of a fluorescent
light globe


41


Diffraction


explain the effects of varying the width of gap or diameter of an obstacle on the diffraction
pattern produced by light of appropriate wavelength in terms of the ratio /w (qualitative);


Sound waves can travel around corners, they spread out when they come through an open door rather
than staying as a narrow beam.

Diffraction is the bending of waves around obstacles in the path of the waves, or as waves pass
through narrow openings. In diffraction, the wave remains in the same medium and so its speed,
frequency and wavelength are unchanged. The only thing that changes is the direction of the wave as
it passes through gaps or around obstacles.





long wavelengths, low frequencies short wavelengths, high frequencies

When the obstacle is small compared with the wavelength of the light, there is very little disturbance.
Larger 'shadows' occur when the obstacle is much larger than the wavelength of the incident wave.
When light travels through a narrow opening the waves bend around both sides of the opening and are
diffracted into the region beyond the barriers on both sides.

Circular wavefronts Wavefronts straight, except for slight
bending at ends.





42


Narrow gap c) > w large gap < w




Interference


When waves pass through each other, they can add together so that the reinforce each other; or they
can cancel each other out. When the waves add together this is called constructive interference, and
will lead to a bright point. When the cancel each, this is called destructive interference and this leads
to a dark point. On the diagram below the blue lines represent the bright spots and the red lines
represent the dark areas.

Two dimensional representations
The amount of diffraction (bending) is given by the value
of the ratio

w
where w is either the width of the object or
the width of the opening.
If the ratio

w
1, then it is complete diffraction, i.e.
bending through 180
0
.

If the ratio

w
<< 1, there is very little diffraction.


43


The path difference between these two lines is zero. I.e. they are the same length, both are 4 .


The distance from S1 to P is
3.5 while the distance from
S2 to P is 4 . So the
difference between these two
lengths, called the path
difference is 0.5 .
Everywhere along the first
nodal line (on either side of
the central maximum) the
path difference will always
be 0.5 .
If we consider the point Q, the path difference is S2Q - S1Q = 5 - 3.5 = 1.5 .
S1 S2

For any nodal line the path difference is summarise by P.D. = (n - ) where n = 1, 2, 3.
For the anti-nodal lines the path difference P.D. = n where n= 0, 1, 2..

Youngs Double slit experiment
explain the results of Youngs double slit experiment in terms of
evidence for the wave-like nature of light
P
Q


44

Constructive and destructive interference of coherent waves in terms of path
differences, pd = n , pd = (n ) respectively
Qualitative effect of wavelength, distance of screen and slit separation on interference
patterns;
In 1801, Thomas Young, revived the wave model with an
experiment that demonstrated the wave nature of light. He
allowed the light from a distant source to pass through two
narrow parallel slits with a screen placed some distance behind
them. The particle model of light predicts that two bright lines
will be formed on the screen, one for each slit. In fact, Young
actually observed a series of alternating bright and dark lines
or fringes.

Young explained this result, using Huygens principle and
assuming that each narrow slit acted as a source of secondary
waves which spread out behind the slits and interfered with
each other to form the bright and dark bands. Antinodes where
crests met crests and troughs met troughs and constructively
interfered with each other to form the bright lines. Nodes were formed where crests met troughs and
troughs met crests and the displacements cancelled each other out by deconstructive interference,
producing lines of minimum intensity.


This experiment showed that light would
produce an interference pattern, because it
diffracted when passing through very small
slits if the sources were close enough
together. The pattern produced has a
pattern of nodes and antinodes just like
sound or water. A series of light and dark
lines were observed on the screen. Dark
lines correspond to cancellation, or nodes,
bright lines to antinodes.








45






46

Effect of wavelength




As the wavelength is increased the pattern spreads out.

Effect of the gap size




As the gap size is increased the number of lines increases.

Example 1 2002 Question 5
Youngs double slit experiment is set up by students in a laboratory as shown below. Monochromatic
light is shone onto the slits which are placed at a large distance from the screen. The intensity pattern
produced on the screen is a pattern of light and dark bands.
Small wavelength
Med. wavelength
Large wavelength
Small Gap
Med. Gap
Large Gap


47


The students then wonder what will happen if the light used is white light rather than monochromatic
light. All the students agree that there will be bands of colour on the screen, but have different
opinions about the centre band. Pat expects a white band in the centre while Robyn believes a
coloured band will be produced.
Select which of the students is correct and justify your answer.







Example 2 2004 Sample Question 1
In 1801, Thomas Young performed his now-famous interference experiment. In this experiment the
wave nature of light was demonstrated. The figure below is a drawing similar to the original sketch
recorded by Young at the time. The dark circles represent wave crests, and the troughs are midway
between these.

Which one or more of the following statements is true.


48

Constructive interference occurs where
A crests overlap crests. B crests overlap troughs
C troughs overlap crests. D troughs overlap troughs.

Example 3 2004 Sample Question 2
A group of students are attempting a modern version of this old experiment and plan to investigate the
use of different light sources. The figure below represents their intended setup together with their
prediction of the observed interference pattern on the screen.

- Hermione is keen to use a bright torchlight aimed at both slits simultaneously.
- Harry disagrees, he comments that we now have lasers in the 21st century and suggests that
two laser pointers, each aimed at one of the slits, would be preferable.
- Neville disagrees with both of them. Neville plans to cover Hermiones torch with a pinhole
and use this as a source.
Each suggestion is tried and only Nevilles idea resulted in the formation of bright and dark lines on the
screen.

Briefly explain why Harrys plan did not work.

References:
The topics and the Images are taken from Pearson place link below:
http://www.pearsonplaces.com.au/Products/Pearson_Reader/Heinemann_Physics_Enhanced/ctl/viewc
hapterslist/mid/6472.aspx, Heinemann physics 12 third edition, Rob Chapman et al, and mentor
teachers notes.
The exam Questions are taken from the previous exams.


49


Work Program after completion of each topic:
Chapter: Wave like properties of Light

TOPIC CHAPTER QUESTIONS Completed
Introducing Waves 7.1 2,4,6,9
Representing wave
features
7.2 1,2,3,5

Wave and wave
interactions
7.3 1,3,4,5,6

Chapter Review Page 245 All

Checkpoints Chapter 7 All

Revision Booklet All














50


8. Models of Light
__________________________________________________________________________________

It is a common trait of humans that when we seek to understand something we will intuitively attempt
to link the unknown with the known. In your earlier schooling a physical representation or model was
probably used to teach you about natures water cycle, or multiplication, or the properties of gases.
Young students benefit from the use of tangible items such as models; things that can be seen and
touched. As we grow, our knowledge and understanding can still benefit from the use of a modelling
approach, but our models can be more sophisticated. When computer-generated pictures were used to
model the complex equations of fractal geometry they had an amazing similarity to some structures
found in nature. Fractal images model things such as coastlines and snowflakes and they have become
popular works of art. A model is a system of some type that is well understood and that is used to build
a mental picture or analogy for an observed phenomenon, in our case the behaviour of light. A good
model will appear to behave in the same manner as the entity being investigated. A model for light
needs to be able to explain the observations of light that have already been made and ideally it would
predict new behaviours. Therefore, throughout this chapter, when deciding upon a model for light we
must examine each of its known behaviours in turn and assess the effectiveness of the chosen model.
Now that we have a thorough appreciation of the properties of waves, the question can be asked: Is light
a wave? If a wave is defined as the sum of its properties, does light exhibit all of the properties that are
known to belong to waves?

Curiosity about the nature of light has occupied the minds of physicists for centuries. The beginning of
human interest in the nature of light dates back to the ancient Greek, Arabian and Chinese philosophers.
In the early 19
th
century, evidence suggested that light could be modelled as a wave since it
exhibited the same set of properties as other things that had already been defined as waves: water waves,
sound waves, vibrations in springs and strings. If light exhibits sufficient properties in common with
these known waves, then surely it too could be assumed to be a wave?

The story of the development of a scientific model for light is not straightforward. The discussion of
light as a wave did not exist in isolation. The giants of physics became embroiled in a famous ongoing
scientific debate that posed the question: Is light made up of particles or waves? In this section we
look at how the very simplest behaviours of light can be readily modelled as either particles or waves.

Modelling simple light properties
Now that we have a thorough appreciation of the properties of waves, the question that can be
asked is: Is light a wave? If a wave is defined as the sum of its properties, does light exhibit all
of the properties known to belong to waves?
Curiosity about the nature of light has occupied the minds of physicists for centuries. The
beginning of human interest in the nature of light dates back to the ancient Greek, Arabian and
Chinese philosophers. In the early 19th century, evidence suggested that light could be
modelled as a wave since it exhibited the same set of properties as other things that had already
been defined as waves: water waves, sound waves, vibrations in springs and strings. If light


51

exhibits sufficient properties in common with these known waves, then surely it too could be
assumed to 'be' a wave?
The story of the development of a scientific model for light is not straightforward. The
discussion of light as a wave did not exist in isolation. The giants of physics became embroiled
in a famous ongoing scientific debate that posed the question: Is light made up of particles or
waves? In this section we look at how the very simplest behaviours of light can be readily
modelled as either particles or waves.
Modelling straight-line propagation

Light streaming through trees on a misty morning, the projectors beam in a dusty cinema, our limited
view when peeping through a keyhole and the distinct shape of shadows are all evidence for the straight-
line or rectilinear path of light. These examples provide evidence that lighttransmitted in a uniform
medium (i.e. a substance which is unchanging in its constitution) travels in straight lines. Our
awareness of the rectilinear propagation of light allows us to judge the distance to objects. The
mechanism by which our eyes and brain interpret a three-dimensional world is complex, but it relies on
the assumption that light in a uniform medium travels in straight lines.

Figure 8.13 When studying reflection, ray diagrams are the most convenient way of
representing the path of light.









52

Refraction of light
Refraction
Light travels in a straight path if it is travelling in a uniform medium, but as soon as light
enters a different medium its path may be bent. Evidence of the bending of light is shown in
Figure 8.14 in which a person's face can be seen through a glass of water. Some of the
person's face can be seen directly. Light must be travelling along a straight path from the
person's face to the observer's eyes. However, notice that parts of the person's face can also
be seen through the glass of water. The light rays from the person's face passing through the
glass of water have been re-directed or bent by the water towards the observer's eyes. The
bending or change of direction of light as it passes from one medium to another is called
refraction.
Figure 8.14
Various common phenomena are caused by refraction. Examples include the bend which
appears in a straw that is standing in a glass of water (Figure 8.15), the strangely shortened
appearance of your legs as you stand in a waist-deep swimming pool, and the 'puddles of
water' that you see on the road ahead on a warm day.

Figure 8.14 Refraction occurs because the light changes speed as it enters a medium of
different optical density. In this case the light reflected from the person's face is bent as it
enters and leaves the glass of water. As a result the face is seen 'inside' the glass of water.





53

Critical angle, TIR and EMR
Critical angle and total internal reflection
When light is incident upon the boundary between two media, reflection, transmission and
absorption may occur. As the angle of incidence increases, the intensity of the reflected beam
increases and less light is transmitted. Consider the case of light travelling from water into
air. Since the transmitted light enters a less optically dense medium it travels faster and is
refracted away from the normal. The series of diagrams in Figure 8.30 shows the effect that
increasing the angle of incidence has on the transmitted light.
Figure 8.30

Figure 8.30 The critical angle for light travelling from water into air is approximately 49. If
the incident angle is greater than 49 total internal reflection occurs.

Dispersion and polarisation of light waves
Dispersion
We have examined how the recognition of the wave nature of light allowed the development
of a full explanation of the refraction of light as it changes speed. For example, the change in
direction of travel of the light wave as it entered an optically denser medium occurred
because a section of the wavefront entered a slower medium. The slowing down of this
section of the wavefront, but not the section still travelling in the original medium, causes the
overall wave to veer from its original direction of travel.


54

Recall that white light is made up of many different frequencies (colours) of light. For some
materials the speed at which light is transmitted is actually slightly different for different
frequencies (colours) of light. This means that on refraction different colours of light will
take slightly different paths. This results in the spreading out of the white light into its
component colours. This is called the dispersion of white light.
Prisms split white light into its component colours. It took scientists many years to be able to
explain this phenomenon. Prior to Isaac Newton it was thought that glass prisms altered the
incoming white light by varying degrees to produce the spectrum of colour. Newton carried
out his investigations into dispersion and was the first to conclude that white light is actually
made up of the colours of the spectrum and therefore recombining these colours would
produce white light.
Figure 8.41 shows the dispersion of white light as it passes through a triangular prism. The
light is dispersed both on entering and leaving the prism, so that as the light emerges the
range of colours spreads over quite a wide angle. There are no distinct boundaries at which
one colour finishes and another begins.
Figure 8.41
As light enters a prism, it refracts due to a change in speed. Why does light slow down when
it enters a more optically dense medium? The light energy is being momentarily absorbed and
then re-radiated by the atoms that make up the medium. Different colours of light interact
differently with these atoms. As a result they travel at different speeds within the medium and
so are refracted through different angles. Of the colours that constitute the visible spectrum,
violet light is slowed down the most and so is refracted through the greatest angle. Red light
is slowed least and so is refracted the least.
A similar situation occurs when light speeds up on entering a new medium. Different colours
are refracted through different angles. Effectively, a particular medium, glass for example,
has a different refractive index for each colour of light. Light flint glass has a refractive index
of 1.62 for red light and 1.67 for violet light. Quartz has a refractive index of 1.45 for red
light and 1.47 for violet light. In a vacuum, however, all colours of light travel at the same
speed of 3.00 10
8
m s
1
.



55

Figure 8.41 Dispersion of white light by a triangular glass prism. On entering and leaving the
prism, the violet light is most significantly altered in speed and so it is refracted through the
greatest angle. Red light is slowed less and so is refracted the least.
Example Questions:
A narrow beam of white light enters a crystal quartz prism with an angle of incidence of 35.
In air, the white light travels at a speed of 3.00 10
8
m s
1
. In the prism the different colours
of light are slowed to varying degrees. The refractive index for red light in crystal quartz is
1.54 and for violet light the refractive index is 1.57. Calculate:
1. the angle of refraction for the red light
2. the angle of refraction for the violet light
3. the angle through which the spectrum is dispersed
4. the speed of the red light in the crystal quartz

Solutions:
1.

2.

3. Angle of dispersion = 21.9 21.4 = 0.5





56

4.

References:
The topics and the Images are taken from Pearson place link below:
http://www.pearsonplaces.com.au/Products/Pearson_Reader/Heinemann_Physics_Enhanced/ctl/viewc
hapterslist/mid/6472.aspx, Heinemann physics 12 third edition, Rob Chapman et al, and mentor
teachers notes.
The exam Questions are taken from the previous exams.


Work Program after completion of each topic:
Chapter: Models of Light

TOPIC CHAPTER QUESTIONS Completed
Modelling simple light
properties
8.1 1,2,3,5,8

Refraction of Light 8.2 1,2,7,10
Critical angle 8.3 1,8,9,10
Dispersion and
polarisation of light
waves
8.4 1,3,10

Chapter Review Page 297 All

Checkpoints Chapter 8 All

Revision Booklet All




57



















9. Mirrors, Lenses and Optical systems:


Geometrical optics and plane mirrors
Considering light to be a transverse electromagnetic wave an understanding of light has been
reached in relation to:
- the linear propagation of light waves in a uniform medium
- the regular reflection of light waves from smooth surfaces and diffuse reflection from
irregular surfaces
- the refraction of light waves as they change speed at the boundary between two media
- the dispersion of white light into its component colours (wavelengths)
- the existence of light as a part of the continuous electromagnetic spectrum
- The polarisation of light waves.
In addition to these wave ideas that we have already studied, the diffraction and interference
properties of light were discovered in 1803 by Thomas Young. Although not part of this


58

study, these discoveries were crucial in demonstrating the wave-like nature of light. Young
showed that when light passes through a narrow slit, bright bands are formed in regions on a
screen that a particle model would predict to be in shadow. Light was observed to bend its
path as it passed through the slit; that is, diffract. When a pair of slits is used, alternating
bright and dark bands form, imitating the interference that occurs between two sets of water
waves. These important wave-like behaviours of light are discussed in Heinemann Physics
12.
Figure 9.1
In the early 19th century scientists were satisfied that light truly had a wave-like nature. In
1819 Augustin Fresnel presented a wave theory of light that explained diffraction and
interference effects, and it appeared that the matter was settled. It was not until the next
century that observations were made that once again questioned the pure wave-like nature of
light. As your later studies may illustrate, there are some behaviours of light that a pure wave
model simply cannot explain.

Figure 9.1 in 1803, Thomas Young discovered the diffraction and interference properties of
light.

Figure 9.2 The path of light through many optical systems involving (a) lenses and (b)
mirrors can be accurately represented using rays. The modelling of image formation in simple
optical systems is far simpler using geometrical optics rather than a wave-optics approach.

Applications of curved mirrors: concave mirrors
The applications of plane mirrors in everyday life are limited due to the features of the image
that can be produced. For example, a plane mirror will be useless where magnification is
requiredthe image in a plane mirror is always the same size as the reflected object. Curved
mirrors provide a greater variety of options, depending on the extent and sense of the


59

curvature of the mirror and the placement of the object (Figure 9.5). It's simply a matter of
choosing the right mirror for the task to be undertaken. Shop-security mirrors, shaving and
make-up mirrors and dentist's mirrors all use a curved mirror to produce an image that is
appropriate for the situation in which it is used.
All curved mirrors are either concave or convex. A concave mirror is curved like the inside of
the bowl of a spoon, whereas a convex mirror is shaped like the back of a spoon. (One way to
remember which is which is to recall that a concave mirror forms a small cave or may cave
in.)
Curved mirrors are usually spherical in shapeas if the mirror has been made from a portion
of a spherebecause these are cheap and easy to manufacture. More specialised applications
require a mirror that is parabolic in shape. As you will see, the image of an object seen in
each mirror type can be analysed in the same way.
To understand how a curved mirror produces an image, it is important to understand how the
curved mirrors reflect light. Any curved mirror can be considered to be made up of a number
of tiny plane mirrors. A two-dimensional representation of this is shown in Figure 9.6,
although a real mirror will of course be three-dimensional. If parallel rays of light shine
directly onto the surface of each mirror, the rays reflect, thus obeying the law of reflection for
the position of the (plane) mirror at which it strikes. Parallel rays will converge to a single
point on reflection from a concave mirror. This point is called the focal point or focus of the
mirror. Parallel rays striking a convex mirror will diverge from an imaginary focal point
located behind the mirror.

Figure 9.5 In one mirror the image is upright and significantly reduced in size. The image in
the other mirror has been magnified many times.


60


Figure 9.6 each ray obeys the law of reflection, resulting in (a) converging rays or (b)
diverging rays. In each case, a focal point can be defined. A concave mirror has a real focus,
and the focal length is positive. The focus for the convex mirror is virtual, since its position is
determined by extrapolating the reflected rays behind the mirror.

Convex mirrors
Convex mirrors are very common in everyday life, often seen as large mirrors used for
security in the ceiling corners of shops or for traffic safety at 'blind corners', and as rear-view
mirrors for particularly long vehicles. Convex mirrors can be spherical, parabolic, ellipsoidal
or hyperbolic in shape, but the last three are only used in telescopes and other specialised
equipment.
Figure 9.14
The reflecting surface of a spherical convex mirror is again a portion of a sphere, but in this
case the reflective surface is on the outside of the sphere. Incident light rays parallel to the
principal axis of a convex mirror will diverge on reflection. If the rays are drawn back behind
the mirror, they appear to come from one single pointthe virtual principal focus of the
mirror (Figure 9.15). The distance from the pole of the mirror to this point is the focal length
of the mirror and, as with a concave mirror, the focal length is half the radius of curvature.
Convex mirrors (like plane mirrors) can only produce a virtual image.
Figure 9.15
A convex mirror always provides a wide field of view and an image that is always upright.
Examine Figure 9.16. Two observers are looking into mirrors of the same size. The observer


61

looking into the convex mirror is able to see rays coming from a much wider field of view
than the observer looking into the plane mirror.

Figure 9.14 Convex mirrors are used on the road to help drivers view traffic around sharp
corners.

Figure 9.15 the parallel rays reflected from a convex mirror will diverge in such a way that
they appear to come from a single pointa virtual focus.


Refraction and lenses
In the preceding sections we have seen how ray tracing can be used to demonstrate the
formation of images by plane and curved mirrors. A similar approach can be taken regarding
image formation by lenses. Keep in mind that our geometrical optics approach is justified
since diffraction (spreading) effects can be ignored. We assume that since we are dealing
with lenses that are much larger than the wavelength of light, the light will not diffract
appreciably. So it is quite appropriate to represent the path of light with straight rays.
The function of a lens can be demonstrated by examining the refraction of light rays as they
change speed on entering and exiting a lens. A lens is a transparent optical element that is
designed to cause light to converge or diverge. Lenses are usually made of glass or plastic.
Since refraction must occur as the light both enters and exits the lens, the curvature of both


62

surfaces of the lens must be chosen specifically for each application. The lenses we will be
studying fit into two categories: convex and concave lenses. Convex lenses have one or both
sides curved outwardly, like the back of a spoon. These are called plano-convex and bi-
convex respectively (Figure 9.21). Concave lenses have one or both surfaces curved inwardly
like the bowl of a spoon. These are called plano-concave and bi-concave respectively.


Figure 9.21 Spherical convex and concave lenses. Convex lenses are thicker in the middle.
Concave lenses are thinner in the middle. The curved surfaces form part of the surface of a
sphere.

Figure 9.22 Lenses cause light to (a) converge or (b) diverge.


Optical systems
We now examine a number of optical systems to discover how the principles of optics can be
put to use in telescopes and microscopes. The engineering involved in the design of optical
systems is complex. Much work has gone into discovering how to form the clearest possible
images, and this has been based on trial and error. Engineers design a system, build it, test it
and refine it! The examples we look at contain only two or three optical elements.


63

Sophisticated instruments contain many more elements in the desire to produce clearer
aberration-free images.
Aberration
When discussing the path of light through spherical lenses we have assumed that sharp,
perfect images are formed. You may have noticed that in fact the images formed have been
blurred and distorted, particularly near the outer edge, and the image sometimes has had
coloured edges. Deviations from the perfect image are an aberration. When scientists are
designing optical systems to carry out particular functions they must attempt to eradicate as
much aberration as possible. This is one reason why good quality optical equipment never
has just one or two lenses; often combinations of numerous lenses are required.

Examples:
A child examines a beetle by using a magnifying glass of focal length 7 cm. He holds the
magnifying glass 14 cm from the beetle and is disappointed with the image. Use graphical ray
tracing to explain:
1. why he is disappointed
2. Where he should hold the magnifying glass to see an enlarged image.
Solution
1. Select suitable horizontal and vertical scales, and place the object 14 cm from the
optical axis.

Trace the path of two rays. A real image is produced which is the same size as the object. The
boy is disappointed because the image is not enlarged.


64


2. To produce a magnified, upright image the object should be positioned inside the
focal point of the lens as shown. The closer the object is to the focal point the larger
the image.

References:
The topics and the Images are taken from Pearson place link below:
http://www.pearsonplaces.com.au/Products/Pearson_Reader/Heinemann_Physics_Enhanced/ctl/viewc
hapterslist/mid/6472.aspx and Heinemann physics 12 third edition, Rob Chapman et al.
The exam Questions are taken from the previous exams.



65

Work Program after completion of each topic:
Chapter: Mirror, Lenses and Optical systems

TOPIC CHAPTER QUESTIONS Completed
Relationship between
momentum and force
9.1 1,3,5,9

Conservation of
momentum
9.2 2,3,5,7,8

Work 9.3 1,3,4,5,6
Mechanical energy 9.4 2,4,5,8,9
Energy transformation
and power
9.5 3,5,8,10

Chapter Review Page 321 All

Checkpoints Chapter 9 All

Revision Booklet All






13. Investigations: Flight

Outcome
On completion of this chapter, you should be able to design, perform and report on an
experimental investigation related to an aspect of flight, and to explain results and
conclusions by including reference to Newton's laws of motion and Bernoulli's principle.
By the end of this chapter
You will have covered material from the study of movement including:


66

- applying earlier ideas on forces to the principles of flight
- applying concepts of forces, torques, centre of mass and equilibrium to balancing an
aircraft
- an explanation of the forces inherent in flight
- an explanation of lift
- modelling, experimentally, aircraft performance
- An analysis of the performance of aircraft.

The four forces of flight
Whatever the form of an aircraft, its motive power or purpose, there are four basic
aerodynamic forces: weight, lift, thrust and drag. These can be considered as two pairs of
opposing forces. Lift raises the aircraft upwards and weight pulls it down; thrust propels it
forwards and drag slows it down. In order for an aeroplane to fly level and straight at a steady
speed these forces are balanced and Newton's first law of motion applies.
The remainder of this investigation assumes that you have studied Newton's laws of motion
including the material on forces and vectors covered in Chapter 5 of the core material. Before
going any further make sure you review this area of study.
Information
An object remains at rest or will travel at constant speed in a straight line unless an
unbalanced force acts upon it.
For an aircraft travelling at constant velocity that means that:
- the size of the thrust force = the size of the drag force
- The size of the lift force = the size of the weight force.
In a vertical direction, if the amount of lift is less than the weight, the aircraft will begin to
fall or descend. Increasing the lift allows the aircraft to climb or increase its altitude. In
practice, the forces are difficult to consider in isolation, since speed is related to lift and drag.
However, considering the effective size of each of these forces at any point in time is the
basis of understanding flight.



67

Figure 13.1 the four basic aerodynamic forces are thrust, drag, lift and weight. In this
illustration, the size of each pair of forces is equal and opposite: thrust = drag and lift =
weight. Hence, the aeroplane will fly straight and level at a constant speed.

Modelling forces in flight
So far we have discussed and developed the four basic aerodynamic forces as if they were
acting at a single point. The initial advantage of considering the basic forces as acting on a
point source is that it allows us to isolate the effect of these forces from other complexities.
This was one of the strengths of Newton's approach to understanding forces. He was able to
isolate cause from effect. The analysis of many complicated systems can be simplified in a
similar manner.

Figure 13.12 the relative size of the four basic aerodynamic forces during take-off, while
cruising, and when landing, acting about the aircraft's centre of gravity.
Principles of investigation
The technology involved in many areas of aerospace is well beyond the understanding and
equipment available in a secondary physics course. However, the basic principles of flight
lift, thrust, drag and weightinvite investigation. A simple wind tunnel can be made in the
course of a single lesson. This is a process we can model on a small scale in a meaningful
investigation of our own design.
Investigation starting points
Throughout this study a number of suitable starting points or ideas for investigation have
been suggested. While by no means comprehensive, the following are some suggestions for
investigation requiring little equipment beyond what could reasonably be expected in a senior
secondary physics room. Further ideas, background and information are available from a


68

variety of sources. The Heinemann Physics 11 Pearson Reader will have regular updates and
links to selected worthwhile resources.
Video analysis, or force sensors and loggers, provide a more reliable method of recording
real-time maximum and minimum forces than will simple spring balances or beam balances.
A simple and cheap video analysis can be achieved using a video played back through a
television and traced onto graph paper. Check on the availability of other electronic
measuring alternatives or simulation software with your teacher.
- Investigating airflow in a wind tunnelInvestigate the effect of shape, speed and
basic aerofoil support structures on the flow of air through a simple wind tunnel.
Improve the design of the wind tunnel and observe the effect on airflow.
- Power versus thrust of a propeller (I)Vary the voltage supplied to an electric motor
driving a small propeller. Measure the resulting thrust produced by measuring the
displacement of an object suspended in the airflow from the propeller. Graph and
compare power versus thrust for two different propellers.
- Power versus thrust of a propeller (II)Use a rubber-band-powered aircraft to
investigate power versus thrust. Graph the number of twists of the rubber band versus
flight range and comment on the results.
- Efficiency of a propellerCompare length, pitch, number of blades, or any other
variable associated with propellers. Graph speed of rotation against airspeed for each
propeller and comment on comparative efficiencies.
- Modelling and testing aerofoilsconstruct a simple wind tunnel using the plans
provided. Test varying size, shape and thickness of aerofoils. Graph lift against
airspeed for each aerofoil. Use your graphs to compare the flight characteristics of
each aerofoil.
- Angle of attackConstruct a simple wind tunnel and a standard aerofoil shape. Vary
the angle of attack and measure the lift generated for a constant airspeed. Graph angle
of attack versus lift and comment on the results.
- Control surfacessuspend a simple model aircraft in a wind tunnel. Attach measuring
lines (i.e. lines attached to force measurers) to the sides of the model. Vary the
position of the vertical stabiliser and/or rudder. Graph rotational force measured
versus wind speed and comment on the results. Vary the profile of the model or the
size of the stabiliser. Graph size versus force and comment on the results.
- Simulating forceUse a force simulation program to simulate the forces acting on an
aircraft. Vary the size of the forces and investigate the effect on take-off, climb, cruise
and descent. Comment on your results.


69

-
- Figure 13.15 a model wind tunnel showing (a) the final model and (b) the standard
mounting of an aerofoil in the tunnel.
-
- Figure 13.16 Angle of attack or pitch angle of an aerofoil.

References:
The topics and the Images are taken from Pearson place link below:
http://www.pearsonplaces.com.au/Products/Pearson_Reader/Heinemann_Physics_Enhanced/ctl/viewc
hapterslist/mid/6472.aspx, Heinemann physics 12 third edition, Rob Chapman et al, and mentor
teachers notes.
The exam Questions are taken from the previous exams.







70




SAC: Light

STUDENT NUMBER
LETTER
Numbers
Words

Physics
Unit 4: Area of Study 2
Light
Data Analysis

SAC Date: 03 / Nov / 2014 (Session 3)
Reading Time: 5 Minutes
Writing Time: 40 Minutes






STUDENT NAME




71

Students are permitted to bring into class room: pens, pencils, eraser, rulers, blank sheets of
paper or white out liquid.

Key Knowledge and Skills
In their SAC students should be able to demonstrate the knowledge of: physics terms,
concepts, and their relationships, clear definitions and explanations and interpretation of
information correctly.

Analysis Questions:

A physicist discovers an old laser light source in the laboratory, but the labelling is missing.
She carries out a number of experiments to gain information about the characteristics of the
light emitted by the device.
Follow the descriptions of the physicists experiments, and make use of the data below to
develop information about the laser light.
Speed of light in a vacuum = 3.00 10
8
m s
1

Charge on an electron = 1.60 10
19
C
Rest mass of an electron = 9.11 10
31
kg
Plancks constant (in J s) = 6.63 10
34
J s
Plancks constant (in eV s) = 4.14 10
15
eV s
Threshold frequency of aluminium = 990 THz
Threshold frequency of magnesium = 870 THz
Threshold frequency of zinc = 740 THz
Threshold frequency of sodium = 550 THz
Threshold frequency of caesium = 440 THz

Experiment A
The physicist has some photocells handy, so she decides to find out which metals will
demonstrate the photoelectric effect using this laser light, and how the laser light affects the
release of photoelectrons.
1 Whilst successfully observing the photoelectric effect occurring using the laser and a
particular sample of metal, the physicist finds that she is able to utilise a filter to half the
intensity of light reaching the metal. What effect would this have on?
a the reading on her micro ammeter?
___________________________________________
___________________________________________


72

___________________________________________
___________________________________________
b the maximum kinetic energy of the emitted electrons?
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
___________________________________________


73

The physicist tests each metal in the previous table, but she finds that the laser light can only
produce the photoelectric effect for the caesium metal, and no other metals.
2 What does this tell her about the value of the maximum possible frequency of the laser
light? Justify your answer.
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
3 What is the maximum possible photon energy (in electronvolts) delivered by the laser
light?

4 Give two reasons why the discovery of the photoelectric effect challenged a pure wave
model for light.
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________


74

Experiment B

The physicist passes the laser light through two close, narrow slits and a pattern of light and
dark fringes is observed on a screen. Within a distance of 18.0 cm on the screen, she notices
there are alternately 12 bright bands and 12 dark bands. The narrow slits have a separation of
0.070 mm, and they are 1.69 m from the screen.
5 Calculate the fringe spacing, W, of the pattern observed on the screen.
6 The wavelength of the laser light is 6.21 10
7
m. Describe the effect on the fringe
spacing of:
a increasing the wavelength
b moving the screen closer
c increasing the slit separation.
7 Calculate the frequency of light of wavelength 6.21 10
7
m.
8 Calculate the momentum of one photon of light of wavelength 6.21 10
7
m.


75

9 If the laser light has a power output of 1.00 mW, how many photons are emitted by the
laser device each second?
10 A group of students are attempting a modern version of this old experiment and plan to
investigate the use of different light sources. The figure below represents their intended setup together
with their prediction of the observed interference pattern on the screen.

- Hermione is keen to use a bright torchlight aimed at both slits simultaneously.
- Harry disagrees, he comments that we now have lasers in the 21st century and suggests that
two laser pointers, each aimed at one of the slits, would be preferable.
- Neville disagrees with both of them. Neville plans to cover Hermiones torch with a pinhole
and use this as a source.
Each suggestion is tried and only Nevilles idea resulted in the formation of bright and dark lines on the
screen.

Briefly explain why Harrys plan did not work.

_________________________________________
_________________________________________
_________________________________________
_____________________________________


76

SAC Rubric:
Students will be assessed based on the following criteria.
Criteria:
In their SAC students should be able to demonstrate the knowledge of: physics terms,
concepts, and their relationships, clear definitions and explanations and interpretation of
information correctly.


Criteria Low -> Medium Medium -> High High -> Excellent

Knowledge of
Physics Terms
Question: 2,9

Student demonstrate poor to
basic knowledge of physics terms.

Student demonstrate good to
very good knowledge of physics
terms.

Student demonstrate
excellent knowledge of
physics terms.

Knowledge of
Physics Concepts
and their
relationships
Question: 5,6

Student demonstrate poor to
basic knowledge of physics
concepts and their relationships.


Student demonstrate good to
very good knowledge of physics
concepts and their relationships.


Student demonstrate
excellent knowledge of
physics concepts and their
relationships.

Clear Definitions
and Explanations
Question: 1,4, 10

Students has explained poorly to
basic explanation and definitions.

Students has explained clearly
and had good to very good
explanation and definitions.

Students has explained
clearly and had excellent
definitions.

Interpretation of the
information
correctly
Question: 3,7,8

Student have interpreted the
information poorly to basic
information.

Student have interpreted the
information correctly from good
to very good information.

Student have interpreted the
information correctly in an
excellent information.

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