GMAT 1

GMAT RC 117Passages
GMAT New 63Passages
Passage 1 (1/63)
(This passage was written in 1978.)
Recent years have brought minority-owned businesses in the United tates
unprecedented opportunities!as we"" as new and signi#cant ris$s. %ivi" rights
activists have "ong argued that one o& the principa" reasons why '"ac$s( )ispanics(
and other minority groups have di*cu"ty estab"ishing themse"ves in business is
that they "ac$ access to the si+ab"e orders and subcontracts that are generated by
"arge companies. ,ow %ongress( in apparent agreement( has re-uired by "aw that
businesses awarded &edera" contracts o& more than ./00(000 do their best to #nd
minority subcontractors and record their e1orts to do so on &orms #"ed with the
government. 2ndeed( some &edera" and "oca" agencies have gone so &ar as to set
speci#c percentage goa"s &or apportioning parts o& pub"ic wor$s contracts to
minority enterprises.
%orporate response appears to have been substantia". 3ccording to #gures
co""ected in 1977( the tota" o& corporate contracts with minority businesses rose
&rom .77 mi""ion in 1974 to .1.1 bi""ion in 1977. The pro5ected tota" o& corporate
contracts with minority businesses &or the ear"y 19806s is estimated to be over /7
bi""ion per year with no "etup anticipated in the ne8t decade. 9romising as it is &or
minority businesses( this increased patronage poses dangers &or them( too. :irst(
minority #rms ris$ e8panding too &ast and overe8tending themse"ves #nancia""y(
since most are sma"" concerns and( un"i$e "arge businesses( they o&ten need to
ma$e substantia" investments in new p"ants( sta1( e-uipment( and the "i$e in
order to per&orm wor$ subcontracted to them. 2&( therea&ter( their subcontracts are
&or some reason reduced( such #rms can &ace potentia""y cripp"ing #8ed e8penses.
The wor"d o& corporate purchasing can be &rustrating &or sma"" entrepreneurs who
get re-uests &or e"aborate &orma" estimates and bids. 'oth consume va"uab"e time
and resources( and a sma"" company6s e1orts must soon resu"t in orders( or both
the mora"e and the #nancia" hea"th o& the business wi"" su1er.
3 second ris$ is that ;hite-owned companies may see$ to cash in on the
increasing apportionments through &ormation o& 5oint ventures with minority-
owned concerns. <& course( in many instances there are "egitimate reasons &or
5oint ventures= c"ear"y( ;hite and minority enterprises can team up to ac-uire
business that neither cou"d ac-uire a"one. 'ut civi" rights groups and minority
business owners have comp"ained to %ongress about minorities being set up as
>&ronts? with ;hite bac$ing( rather than being accepted as &u"" partners in
"egitimate 5oint ventures.
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Third( a minority enterprise that secures the business o& one "arge corporate
customer o&ten runs the danger o& becoming!and remaining!dependent. @ven in
the best o& circumstances( #erce competition &rom "arger( more estab"ished
companies ma$es it di*cu"t &or sma"" concerns to broaden their customer basesA
when such #rms have near"y guaranteed orders &rom a sing"e corporate
bene&actor( they may tru"y have to strugg"e against comp"acency arising &rom
their current success.
1. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) present a commonplace idea and its inaccuracies
(B) describe a situation and its potential drawbacks
(C) propose a temporary solution to a problem
() analy!e a fre"uent source of disagreement
(#) e$plore the implications of a finding
2. The passage supplies information that would answer which of the following
"uestions%
(A) &hat federal agencies ha'e set percentage goals for the use of minority(owned
businesses in public works contracts%
(B) To which go'ernment agencies must businesses awarded federal contracts
report their efforts to find minority subcontractors%
(C) )ow widespread is the use of minority(owned concerns as *fronts+ by &hite
backers seeking to obtain subcontracts%
() )ow many more minority(owned businesses were there in 1,-- than in 1,-2%
(#) &hat is one set of conditions under which a small business might find itself
financially o'ere$tended%
.. According to the passage/ ci'il rights acti'ists maintain that one disad'antage
under which minority(owned businesses ha'e traditionally had to labor is that they
ha'e
(A) been especially 'ulnerable to go'ernmental mismanagement of the economy
(B) been denied bank loans at rates comparable to those afforded larger
competitors
(C) not had sufficient opportunity to secure business created by large corporations
() not been able to ad'ertise in those media that reach large numbers of potential
customers
(#) not had ade"uate representation in the centers of go'ernment power
0. The passage suggests that the failure of a large business to ha'e its bids for
subcontracts result "uickly in orders might cause it to
(A) e$perience frustration but not serious financial harm
(B) face potentially crippling fi$ed e$penses
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(C) ha'e to record its efforts on forms filed with the go'ernment
() increase its spending with minority subcontractors
(#) re'ise its procedure for making bids for federal contracts and subcontracts
1. The author implies that a minority(owned concern that does the greater part of its
business with one large corporate customer should
(A) a'oid competition with larger/ more established concerns by not e$panding
(B) concentrate on securing e'en more business from that corporation
(C) try to e$pand its customer base to a'oid becoming dependent on the
corporation
() pass on some of the work to be done for the corporation to other minority(
owned concerns
(#) use its influence with the corporation to promote subcontracting with other
minority concerns
2. 3t can be inferred from the passage that/ compared with the re"uirements of law/
the percentage goals set by *some federal and local agencies+ (lines 10(11) are
(A) more popular with large corporations
(B) more specific
(C) less contro'ersial
() less e$pensi'e to enforce
(#) easier to comply with
-. &hich of the following/ if true/ would most weaken the author4s assertion that/ in
the 1,-54s/ corporate response to federal re"uirements (lines 16(1,) was
substantial
(A) Corporate contracts with minority(owned businesses totaled 72 billion in 1,-,.
(B) Between 1,-5 and 1,-2/ corporate contracts with minority(owned businesses
declined by 21 percent.
(C) The figures collected in 1,-- underrepresented the e$tent of corporate
contracts with minority(owned businesses.
() The estimate of corporate spending with minority(owned businesses in 1,65 is
appro$imately 715 million too high.
(#) The 71.1 billion represented the same percentage of total corporate spending in
1,-- as did 7-- million in 1,-2.
6. The author would most likely agree with which of the following statements about
corporate response to working with minority subcontractors%
(A) Annoyed by the proliferation of *front+ organi!ations/ corporations are likely
to reduce their efforts to work with minority(owned subcontractors in the near
future.
(B) Although corporations showed considerable interest in working with minority
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businesses in the 1,-54s/ their a'ersion to go'ernment paperwork made them
reluctant to pursue many go'ernment contracts.
(C) The significant response of corporations in the 1,-54s is likely to be sustained
and concei'ably be increased throughout the 1,654s.
() Although corporations are eager to cooperate with minority(owned businesses/
a shortage of capital in the 1,-54s made substantial response impossible.
(#) The enormous corporate response has all but eliminated the dangers of o'er(
e$pansion that used to plague small minority(owned businesses.
Passage 2 (2/63)
;oodrow ;i"son was re&erring to the "ibera" idea o& the economic mar$et when
he said that the &ree enterprise system is the most e*cient economic system.
Ba8imum &reedom means ma8imum productiveness= our >openness? is to be the
measure o& our stabi"ity. :ascination with this idea" has made 3mericans de&y the
><"d ;or"d? categories o& sett"ed possessiveness versus unsett"ing deprivation(
the cupidity o& retention versus the cupidity o& sei+ure( a >status -uo? de&ended or
attac$ed. The United tates( it was be"ieved( had no status quo ante. <ur on"y
>station? was the turning o& a stationary whee"( spinning &aster and &aster. ;e did
not base our system on property but opportunity!which meant we based it not
on stabi"ity but on mobi"ity. The more things changed( that is( the more rapid"y the
whee" turned( the steadier we wou"d be. The conventiona" picture o& c"ass po"itics
is composed o& the )aves( who want a stabi"ity to $eep what they have( and the
)ave-,ots( who want a touch o& instabi"ity and change in which to scramb"e &or
the things they have not. 'ut 3mericans imagined a condition in which
specu"ators( se"&-ma$ers( runners are a"ways using the new opportunities given by
our "and. These economic "eaders (&ront-runners) wou"d thus be main"y agents o&
change. The nonstarters were considered the ones who wanted stabi"ity( a strong
re&eree to give them some position in the race( a regu"ative hand to ca"m manic
specu"ation= an authority that can ca"" things to a ha"t( begin things again &rom
compensatori"y staggered >starting "ines.?
>Re&orm? in 3merica has been steri"e because it can imagine no change e8cept
through the e8tension o& this metaphor o& a race( wider inc"usion o& competitors(
>a piece o& the action(? as it were( &or the disen&ranchised. There is no attempt to
ca"" o1 the race. ince our on"y stabi"ity is change( 3merica seems not to honor
the -uiet wor$ that achieves socia" interdependence and stabi"ity. There is( in our
"egends( no heroism o& the o*ce c"er$( no stab"e industria" wor$ &orce o& the
peop"e who actua""y ma$e the system wor$. There is no pride in being an
emp"oyee (;i"son as$ed &or a return to the time when everyone was an
emp"oyer). There has been no boasting about our socia" wor$ers!they are mere"y
signs o& the system6s &ai"ure( o& opportunity denied or not ta$en( o& things to be
e"iminated. ;e have no pride in our growing interdependence( in the &act that our
system can serve others( that we are ab"e to he"p those in need= empty boasts
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&rom the past ma$e us ashamed o& our present achievements( ma$e us try to
&orget or deny them( move away &rom them. There is no honor but in the
;onder"and race we must a"" run( a"" trying to win( none winning in the end (&or
there is no end).
1. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) critici!e the infle$ibility of American economic mythology
(B) contrast *8ld &orld+ and *9ew &orld+ economic ideologies
(C) challenge the integrity of traditional political leaders
() champion those Americans whom the author deems to be neglected
(#) suggest a substitute for the traditional metaphor of a race
2. According to the passage/ *8ld &orld+ 'alues were based on
(A) ability
(B) property
(C) family connections
() guild hierarchies
(#) education
.. 3n the conte$t of the author4s discussion of regulating change/ which of the
following could be most probably regarded as a *strong referee+ (line .5) in the
:nited ;tates%
(A) A school principal
(B) A political theorist
(C) A federal court <udge
() A social worker
(#) A go'ernment inspector
0. The author sets off the word *=eform+ (line .1) with "uotation marks in order to
(A) emphasi!e its departure from the concept of settled possessi'eness
(B) show his support for a systematic program of change
(C) underscore the fle$ibility and e'en amorphousness of :nited ;tates society
() indicate that the term was one of &ilson4s fa'orites
(#) assert that reform in the :nited ;tates has not been fundamental
1. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author most probably thinks that gi'ing
the disenfranchised *a piece of the action+ (line .6) is
(A) a compassionate/ if misdirected/ legislati'e measure
(B) an e$ample of Americans4 resistance to profound social change
(C) an inno'ati'e program for genuine social reform
() a monument to the efforts of industrial reformers
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(#) a surprisingly *8ld &orld+ remedy for social ills
2. &hich of the following metaphors could the author most appropriately use to
summari!e his own assessment of the American economic system (lines .1(25)%
(A) A windmill
(B) A waterfall
(C) A treadmill
() A gyroscope
(#) A bellows
-. 3t can be inferred from the passage that &oodrow &ilson4s ideas about the
economic market
(A) encouraged those who *make the system work+ (lines 01(02)
(B) perpetuated traditional legends about America
(C) re'ealed the pre<udices of a man born wealthy
() foreshadowed the stock market crash of 1,2,
(#) began a tradition of presidential proclamations on economics
6. The passage contains information that would answer which of the following
"uestions%
3. &hat techni"ues ha'e industrialists used to manipulate a free market%
33. 3n what ways are *9ew &orld+ and *8ld &orld+ economic policies similar%
333. )as economic policy in the :nited ;tates tended to reward independent action%
(A) 3 only
(B) 33 only
(C) 333 only
() 3 and 33 only
(#) 33 and 333 only
,. &hich of the following best e$presses the author4s main point%
(A) Americans4 pride in their <obs continues to gi'e them stamina today.
(B) The absence of a status quo ante has undermined :nited ;tates economic
structure.
(C) The free enterprise system has been only a useless concept in the :nited
;tates.
() The myth of the American free enterprise system is seriously flawed.
(#) >ascination with the ideal of *openness+ has made Americans a progressi'e
people.
Passage 3 (3/63)
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,o very satis&actory account o& the mechanism that caused the &ormation o&
the ocean basins has yet been given. The traditiona" view supposes that the upper
mant"e o& the earth behaves as a "i-uid when it is sub5ected to sma"" &orces &or
"ong periods and that di1erences in temperature under oceans and continents are
su*cient to produce convection in the mant"e o& the earth with rising convection
currents under the mid-ocean ridges and sin$ing currents under the continents.
Theoretica""y( this convection wou"d carry the continenta" p"ates a"ong as though
they were on a conveyor be"t and wou"d provide the &orces needed to produce the
sp"it that occurs a"ong the ridge. This view may be correctA it has the advantage
that the currents are driven by temperature di1erences that themse"ves depend
on the position o& the continents. uch a bac$-coup"ing( in which the position o&
the moving p"ate has an impact on the &orces that move it( cou"d produce
comp"icated and varying motions.
<n the other hand( the theory is imp"ausib"e because convection does not
norma""y occur a"ong "ines( and it certain"y does not occur a"ong "ines bro$en by
&re-uent o1sets or changes in direction( as the ridge is. 3"so it is di*cu"t to see
how the theory app"ies to the p"ate between the Bid-3t"antic Ridge and the ridge
in the 2ndian <cean. This p"ate is growing on both sides( and since there is no
intermediate trench( the two ridges must be moving apart. 2t wou"d be odd i& the
rising convection currents $ept e8act pace with them. 3n a"ternative theory is that
the sin$ing part o& the p"ate( which is denser than the hotter surrounding mant"e(
pu""s the rest o& the p"ate a&ter it. 3gain it is di*cu"t to see how this app"ies to the
ridge in the outh 3t"antic( where neither the 3&rican nor the 3merican p"ate has a
sin$ing part.
3nother possibi"ity is that the sin$ing p"ate coo"s the neighboring mant"e and
produces convection currents that move the p"ates. This "ast theory is attractive
because it gives some hope o& e8p"aining the enc"osed seas( such as the ea o&
Capan. These seas have a typica" oceanic Door( e8cept that the Door is over"aid by
severa" $i"ometers o& sediment. Their Doors have probab"y been sin$ing &or "ong
periods. 2t seems possib"e that a sin$ing current o& coo"ed mant"e materia" on the
upper side o& the p"ate might be the cause o& such deep basins. The enc"osed seas
are an important &eature o& the earth6s sur&ace( and serious"y re-uire e8p"anation
because( in addition to the enc"osed seas that are deve"oping at present behind
is"and arcs( there are a number o& o"der ones o& possib"y simi"ar origin( such as the
Eu"& o& Be8ico( the '"ac$ ea( and perhaps the ,orth ea.
1. According to the traditional 'iew of the origin of the ocean basins/ which of the
following is sufficient to mo'e the continental plates%
(A) 3ncreases in sedimentation on ocean floors
(B) ;preading of ocean trenches
(C) ?o'ement of mid(ocean ridges
() ;inking of ocean basins
(#) ifferences in temperature under oceans and continents
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2. 3t can be inferred from the passage that/ of the following/ the deepest sediments
would be found in the
(A) 3ndian 8cean
(B) Black ;ea
(C) ?id(Atlantic
() ;outh Atlantic
(#) @acific
.. The author refers to a *con'eyor belt+ in line 1. in order to
(A) illustrate the effects of con'ection in the mantle
(B) show how temperature differences depend on the positions of the continents
(C) demonstrate the linear nature of the ?id(Atlantic =idge
() describe the complicated motions made possible by back(coupling
(#) account for the rising currents under certain mid(ocean ridges
.. The author regards the traditional 'iew of the origin of the oceans with
(A) slight apprehension
(B) absolute indifference
(C) indignant anger
() complete disbelief
(#) guarded skepticism
0. According to the passage/ which of the following are separated by a plate that is
growing on both sides%
(A) The @acific 8cean and the ;ea of Aapan
(B) The ;outh Atlantic =idge and the 9orth ;ea =idge
(C) The Bulf of ?e$ico and the ;outh Atlantic =idge
() The ?id(Atlantic =idge and the 3ndian 8cean =idge
(#) The Black ;ea and the ;ea of Aapan
1. &hich of the following/ if it could be demonstrated/ would most support the
traditional 'iew of ocean formation%
(A) Con'ection usually occurs along lines.
(B) The upper mantle beha'es as a dense solid.
(C) ;edimentation occurs at a constant rate.
() ;inking plates cool the mantle.
(#) 3sland arcs surround enclosed seas.
2. According to the passage/ the floor of the Black ;ea can best be compared to a
(A) rapidly mo'ing con'eyor belt
(B) slowly settling foundation
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(C) rapidly e$panding balloon
() 'iolently erupting 'olcano
(#) slowly eroding mountain
-. &hich of the following titles would best describe the content of the passage%
(A) A escription of the 8ceans of the &orld
(B) ;e'eral Theories of 8cean Basin >ormation
(C) The Traditional Ciew of the 8ceans
() Con'ection and 8cean Currents
(#) Temperature ifferences among the 8ceans of the &orld
Passage 4 (4/63)
The &ossi" remains o& the #rst Dying vertebrates( the pterosaurs( have intrigued
pa"eonto"ogists &or more than two centuries. )ow such "arge creatures( which
weighed in some cases as much as a pi"oted hang-g"ider and had wingspans &rom
8 to 14 meters( so"ved the prob"ems o& powered Dight( and e8act"y what these
creatures were!repti"es or birds!are among the -uestions scientists have
pu++"ed over.
9erhaps the "east controversia" assertion about the pterosaurs is that they were
repti"es. Their s$u""s( pe"vises( and hind &eet are repti"ian. The anatomy o& their
wings suggests that they did not evo"ve into the c"ass o& birds. 2n pterosaurs a
great"y e"ongated &ourth #nger o& each &ore"imb supported a wing-"i$e membrane.
The other #ngers were short and repti"ian( with sharp c"aws. 2n birds the second
#nger is the principa" strut o& the wing( which consists primari"y o& &eathers. 2& the
pterosaurs wa"$ed on a"" &ours( the three short #ngers may have been emp"oyed
&or grasping. ;hen a pterosaur wa"$ed or remained stationary( the &ourth #nger(
and with it the wing( cou"d on"y turn upward in an e8tended inverted F-shape
a"ong each side o& the anima"6s body.
The pterosaurs resemb"ed both birds and bats in their overa"" structure and
proportions. This is not surprising because the design o& any Dying vertebrate is
sub5ect to aerodynamic constraints. 'oth the pterosaurs and the birds have ho""ow
bones( a &eature that represents a savings in weight. 2n the birds( however( these
bones are rein&orced more massive"y by interna" struts.
3"though sca"es typica""y cover repti"es( the pterosaurs probab"y had hairy
coats. T. ). )u8"ey reasoned that Dying vertebrates must have been warm-
b"ooded because Dying imp"ies a high rate o& metabo"ism( which in turn imp"ies a
high interna" temperature. )u8"ey specu"ated that a coat o& hair wou"d insu"ate
against "oss o& body heat and might stream"ine the body to reduce drag in Dight.
The recent discovery o& a pterosaur specimen covered in "ong( dense( and
re"ative"y thic$ hair"i$e &ossi" materia" was the #rst c"ear evidence that his
reasoning was correct.
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@1orts to e8p"ain how the pterosaurs became airborne have "ed to suggestions
that they "aunched themse"ves by 5umping &rom c"i1s( by dropping &rom trees( or
even by rising into "ight winds &rom the crests o& waves. @ach hypothesis has its
di*cu"ties. The #rst wrong"y assumes that the pterosaurs6 hind &eet resemb"ed a
bat6s and cou"d serve as hoo$s by which the anima" cou"d hang in preparation &or
Dight. The second hypothesis seems un"i$e"y because "arge pterosaurs cou"d not
have "anded in trees without damaging their wings. The third ca""s &or high waves
to channe" updra&ts. The wind that made such waves however( might have been
too strong &or the pterosaurs to contro" their Dight once airborne.
1. 3t can be inferred from the passage that scientists now generally agree that the
(A) enormous wingspan of the pterosaurs enabled them to fly great distances
(B) structure of the skeleton of the pterosaurs suggests a close e'olutionary
relationship to bats
(C) fossil remains of the pterosaurs re'eal how they sol'ed the problem of
powered flight
() pterosaurs were reptiles
(#) pterosaurs walked on all fours
2. The author 'iews the idea that the pterosaurs became airborne by rising into light
winds created by wa'es as
(A) re'olutionary
(B) unlikely
(C) unassailable
() probable
(#) outdated
.. According to the passage/ the skeleton of a pterosaur can be distinguished from
that of a bird by the
(A) si!e of its wingspan
(B) presence of hollow spaces in its bones
(C) anatomic origin of its wing strut
() presence of hooklike pro<ections on its hind feet
(#) location of the shoulder <oint <oining the wing to its body
0. The ideas attributed to T. ). )u$ley in the passage suggest that he would most
likely agree with which of the following statements%
(A) An animal4s brain si!e has little bearing on its ability to master comple$
beha'iors.
(B) An animal4s appearance is often influenced by en'ironmental re"uirements and
physical capabilities.
(C) Animals within a gi'en family group are unlikely to change their appearance
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dramatically o'er a period of time.
() The origin of flight in 'ertebrates was an accidental de'elopment rather than
the outcome of speciali!ation or adaptation.
(#) The pterosaurs should be classified as birds/ not reptiles.
1. 3t can be inferred from the passage that which of the following is characteristic of
the pterosaurs%
(A) They were unable to fold their wings when not in use.
(B) They hung upside down from branches as bats do before flight.
(C) They flew in order to capture prey.
() They were an early stage in the e'olution of the birds.
(#) They li'ed primarily in a forest(like habitat.
2. &hich of the following best describes the organi!ation of the last paragraph of the
passage%
(A) 9ew e'idence is introduced to support a traditional point of 'iew.
(B) Three e$planations for a phenomenon are presented/ and each is disputed by
means of specific information.
(C) Three hypotheses are outlined/ and e'idence supporting each is gi'en.
() =ecent disco'eries are described/ and their implications for future study are
pro<ected.
(#) A summary of the material in the preceding paragraphs is presented/ and
conclusions are drawn.
-. 3t can be inferred from the passage that some scientists belie'e that pterosaurs
(A) li'ed near large bodies of water
(B) had sharp teeth for tearing food
(C) were attacked and eaten by larger reptiles
() had longer tails than many birds
(#) consumed twice their weight daily to maintain their body temperature
Passage 5 (5/63)
)ow many rea""y su1er as a resu"t o& "abor mar$et prob"emsG This is one o& the
most critica" yet contentious socia" po"icy -uestions. 2n many ways( our socia"
statistics e8aggerate the degree o& hardship. Unemp"oyment does not have the
same dire conse-uences today as it did in the 19706s when most o& the
unemp"oyed were primary breadwinners( when income and earnings were usua""y
much c"oser to the margin o& subsistence( and when there were no countervai"ing
socia" programs &or those &ai"ing in the "abor mar$et. 2ncreasing aHuence( the rise
o& &ami"ies with more than one wage earner( the growing predominance o&
secondary earners among the unemp"oyed( and improved socia" we"&are
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protection have un-uestionab"y mitigated the conse-uences o& 5ob"essness.
@arnings and income data a"so overstate the dimensions o& hardship. 3mong the
mi""ions with hour"y earnings at or be"ow the minimum wage "eve"( the
overwhe"ming ma5ority are &rom mu"tip"e-earner( re"ative"y aHuent &ami"ies. Bost
o& those counted by the poverty statistics are e"der"y or handicapped or have
&ami"y responsibi"ities which $eep them out o& the "abor &orce( so the poverty
statistics are by no means an accurate indicator o& "abor mar$et patho"ogies.
Iet there are a"so many ways our socia" statistics underestimate the degree o&
"abor-mar$et-re"ated hardship. The unemp"oyment counts e8c"ude the mi""ions o&
&u""y emp"oyed wor$ers whose wages are so "ow that their &ami"ies remain in
poverty. Jow wages and repeated or pro"onged unemp"oyment &re-uent"y interact
to undermine the capacity &or se"&-support. ince the number e8periencing
5ob"essness at some time during the year is severa" times the number
unemp"oyed in any month( those who su1er as a resu"t o& &orced id"eness can
e-ua" or e8ceed average annua" unemp"oyment( even though on"y a minority o&
the 5ob"ess in any month rea""y su1er. :or every person counted in the month"y
unemp"oyment ta""ies( there is another wor$ing part-time because o& the inabi"ity
to #nd &u""-time wor$( or e"se outside the "abor &orce but wanting a 5ob. :ina""y(
income trans&ers in our country have a"ways &ocused on the e"der"y( disab"ed( and
dependent( neg"ecting the needs o& the wor$ing poor( so that the dramatic
e8pansion o& cash and in-$ind trans&ers does not necessari"y mean that those
&ai"ing in the "abor mar$et are ade-uate"y protected.
3s a resu"t o& such contradictory evidence( it is uncertain whether those
su1ering serious"y as a resu"t o& "abor mar$et prob"ems number in the hundreds o&
thousands or the tens o& mi""ions( and( hence( whether high "eve"s o& 5ob"essness
can be to"erated or must be countered by 5ob creation and economic stimu"us.
There is on"y one area o& agreement in this debate!that the e8isting poverty(
emp"oyment( and earnings statistics are inade-uate &or one their primary
app"ications( measuring the conse-uences o& "abor mar$et prob"ems.
1. &hich of the following is the principal topic of the passage%
(A) &hat causes labor market pathologies that result in suffering
(B) &hy income measures are imprecise in measuring degrees of po'erty
(C) &hich of the currently used statistical procedures are the best for estimating
the incidence of hardship that is due to unemployment
() &here the areas of agreement are among po'erty/ employment/ and earnings
figures
(#) )ow social statistics gi'e an unclear picture of the degree of hardship caused
by low wages and insufficient employment opportunities
2. The author uses *labor market problems+ in lines 1(2 to refer to which of the
following%
(A) The o'erall causes of po'erty
GMAT 1.
(B) eficiencies in the training of the work force
(C) Trade relationships among producers of goods
() ;hortages of <obs pro'iding ade"uate income
(#) ;trikes and inade"uate supplies of labor
.. The author contrasts the 1,.54s with the present in order to show that
(A) more people were unemployed in the 1,.54s
(B) unemployment now has less se'ere effects
(C) social programs are more needed now
() there now is a greater proportion of elderly and handicapped people among
those in po'erty
(#) po'erty has increased since the 1,.54s
0. &hich of the following proposals best responds to the issues raised by the author%
(A) 3nno'ati'e programs using multiple approaches should be set up to reduce the
le'el of unemployment.
(B) A compromise should be found between the positions of those who 'iew
<oblessness as an e'il greater than economic control and those who hold the
opposite 'iew.
(C) 9ew statistical indices should be de'eloped to measure the degree to which
unemployment and inade"uately paid employment cause suffering.
() Consideration should be gi'en to the ways in which statistics can act as partial
causes of the phenomena that they purport to measure.
(#) The labor force should be restructured so that it corresponds to the range of <ob
'acancies.
1. The author4s purpose in citing those who are repeatedly unemployed during a
twel'e(month period is most probably to show that
(A) there are se'eral factors that cause the payment of low wages to some
members of the labor force
(B) unemployment statistics can underestimate the hardship resulting from
<oblessness
(C) recurrent inade"uacies in the labor market can e$ist and can cause hardships
for indi'idual workers
() a ma<ority of those who are <obless at any one time to not suffer se'ere
hardship
(#) there are fewer indi'iduals who are without <obs at some time during a year
than would be e$pected on the basis of monthly unemployment figures
2. The author states that the mitigating effect of social programs in'ol'ing income
transfers on the income le'el of low(income people is often not felt by
(A) the employed poor
10 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(B) dependent children in single(earner families
(C) workers who become disabled
() retired workers
(#) full(time workers who become unemployed
-. According to the passage/ one factor that causes unemployment and earnings
figures to o'erpredict the amount of economic hardship is the
(A) recurrence of periods of unemployment for a group of low(wage workers
(B) possibility that earnings may be recei'ed from more than one <ob per worker
(C) fact that unemployment counts do not include those who work for low wages
and remain poor
() establishment of a system of record(keeping that makes it possible to compile
po'erty statistics
(#) pre'alence/ among low(wage workers and the unemployed/ of members of
families in which others are employed
6. The conclusion stated in lines ..(., about the number of people who suffer as a
result of forced idleness depends primarily on the point that
(A) in times of high unemployment/ there are some people who do not remain
unemployed for long
(B) the capacity for self(support depends on recei'ing moderate(to(high wages
(C) those in forced idleness include/ besides the unemployed/ both underemployed
part(time workers and those not acti'ely seeking work
() at different times during the year/ different people are unemployed
(#) many of those who are affected by unemployment are dependents of
unemployed workers
,. &hich of the following/ if true/ is the best criticism of the author4s argument
concerning why po'erty statistics cannot properly be used to show the effects of
problems in the labor market%
(A) A short(term increase in the number of those in po'erty can indicate a shortage
of <obs because the basic number of those unable to accept employment
remains appro$imately constant.
(B) >or those who are in po'erty as a result of <oblessness/ there are social
programs a'ailable that pro'ide a minimum standard of li'ing.
(C) @o'erty statistics do not consistently agree with earnings statistics/ when each
is taken as a measure of hardship resulting from unemployment.
() The elderly and handicapped categories include many who pre'iously were
employed in the labor market.
(#) ;ince the labor market is global in nature/ poor workers in one country are
competing with poor workers in another with respect to the le'el of wages and
GMAT 11
the e$istence of <obs.
Passage 6 (6/63)
2n the eighteenth century( Capan6s &euda" over"ords( &rom the shogun to the
humb"est samurai( &ound themse"ves under #nancia" stress. 2n part( this stress can
be attributed to the over"ords6 &ai"ure to ad5ust to a rapid"y e8panding economy(
but the stress was a"so due to &actors beyond the over"ords6 contro".
%oncentration o& the samurai in cast"e-towns had acted as a stimu"us to trade.
%ommercia" e*ciency( in turn( had put temptations in the way o& buyers. ince
most samurai had been reduced to id"eness by years o& peace( encouraged to
engage in scho"arship and martia" e8ercises or to per&orm administrative tas$s
that too$ "itt"e time( it is not surprising that their tastes and habits grew
e8pensive. <ver"ords6 income( despite the increase in rice production among their
tenant &armers( &ai"ed to $eep pace with their e8penses. 3"though short&a""s in
over"ords6 income resu"ted a"most as much &rom "a8ity among their ta8 co""ectors
(the near"y inevitab"e outcome o& hereditary o*ce-ho"ding) as &rom their higher
standards o& "iving( a mis&ortune "i$e a #re or Dood( bringing an increase in
e8penses or a drop in revenue( cou"d put a domain in debt to the city rice-bro$ers
who hand"ed its #nances. <nce in debt( neither the individua" samurai nor the
shogun himse"& &ound it easy to recover.
2t was di*cu"t &or individua" samurai over"ords to increase their income
because the amount o& rice that &armers cou"d be made to pay in ta8es was not
un"imited( and since the income o& Capan6s centra" government consisted in part o&
ta8es co""ected by the shogun &rom his huge domain( the government too was
constrained. There&ore( the To$ugawa shoguns began to "oo$ to other sources &or
revenue. %ash pro#ts &rom government-owned mines were a"ready on the dec"ine
because the most easi"y wor$ed deposits o& si"ver and go"d had been e8hausted(
a"though debasement o& the coinage had compensated &or the "oss. <pening up
new &arm"and was a possibi"ity( but most o& what was suitab"e had a"ready been
e8p"oited and &urther rec"amation was technica""y un&easib"e. Kirect ta8ation o&
the samurai themse"ves wou"d be po"itica""y dangerous. This "e&t the shoguns on"y
commerce as a potentia" source o& government income.
Bost o& the country6s wea"th( or so it seemed( was #nding its way into the
hands o& city merchants. 2t appeared reasonab"e that they shou"d contribute part
o& that revenue to ease the shogun6s burden o& #nancing the state. 3 means o&
obtaining such revenue was soon &ound by "evying &orced "oans( $nown as goyo-
kin= a"though these were not ta8es in the strict sense( since they were irregu"ar in
timing and arbitrary in amount( they were high in yie"d. Un&ortunate"y( they
pushed up prices. Thus( regrettab"y( the To$ugawa shoguns6 search &or so"vency
&or the government made it increasing"y di*cu"t &or individua" Capanese who "ived
on #8ed stipends to ma$e ends meet.
1. The passage is most probably an e$cerpt from
12 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(A) an economic history of Aapan
(B) the memoirs of a samurai warrior
(C) a modern no'el about eighteenth(century Aapan
() an essay contrasting Aapanese feudalism with its &estern counterpart
(#) an introduction to a collection of Aapanese folktales
2. &hich of the following financial situations is most analogous to the financial
situation in which Aapan4s Tokugawa shoguns found themsel'es in the eighteenth
century%
(A) A small business borrows hea'ily to in'est in new e"uipment/ but is able to
pay off its debt early when it is awarded a lucrati'e go'ernment contract.
(B) >ire destroys a small business/ but insurance co'ers the cost of rebuilding.
(C) A small business is turned down for a loan at a local bank because the owners
ha'e no credit history.
() A small business has to struggle to meet operating e$penses when its profits
decrease.
(#) A small business is able to cut back sharply on spending through greater
commercial efficiency and thereby compensate for a loss of re'enue.
.. &hich of the following best describes the attitude of the author toward the samurai
discussed in lines 11(12%
(A) &armly appro'ing
(B) ?ildly sympathetic
(C) Bitterly disappointed
() )arshly disdainful
(#) @rofoundly shocked
0. According to the passage/ the ma<or reason for the financial problems e$perienced
by Aapan4s feudal o'erlords in the eighteenth century was that
(A) spending had outdistanced income
(B) trade had fallen off
(C) profits from mining had declined
() the coinage had been sharply debased
(#) the samurai had concentrated in castle(towns
1. The passage implies that indi'idual samurai did not find it easy to reco'er from
debt for which of the following reasons%
(A) Agricultural production had increased.
(B) Ta$es were irregular in timing and arbitrary in amount.
(C) The Aapanese go'ernment had failed to ad<ust to the needs of a changing
economy.
GMAT 1-
() The domains of samurai o'erlords were becoming smaller and poorer as
go'ernment re'enues increased.
(#) There was a limit to the amount in ta$es that farmers could be made to pay.
2. The passage suggests that/ in eighteenth(century Aapan/ the office of ta$ collector
(A) was a source of personal profit to the officeholder
(B) was regarded with derision by many Aapanese
(C) remained within families
() e$isted only in castle(towns
(#) took up most of the officeholder4s time
-. &hich of the following could best be substituted for the word *This+ in line 0-
without changing the meaning of the passage%
(A) The search of Aapan4s Tokugawa shoguns for sol'ency
(B) The importance of commerce in feudal Aapan
(C) The unfairness of the ta$ structure in eighteenth century Aapan
() The difficulty of increasing go'ernment income by other means
(#) The difficulty e$perienced by both indi'idual samurai and the shogun himself
in e$tricating themsel'es from debt
6. The passage implies that which of the following was the primary reason why the
Tokugawa shoguns turned to city merchants for help in financing the state%
(A) A series of costly wars had depleted the national treasury.
(B) ?ost of the country4s wealth appeared to be in city merchants4 hands.
(C) Aapan had suffered a series of economic re'ersals due to natural disasters such
as floods.
() The merchants were already hea'ily indebted to the shoguns.
(#) >urther reclamation of land would not ha'e been economically ad'antageous.
,. According to the passage/ the actions of the Tokugawa shoguns in their search for
sol'ency for the go'ernment were regrettable because those actions
(A) raised the cost of li'ing by pushing up prices
(B) resulted in the e$haustion of the most easily worked deposits of sil'er and gold
(C) were far lower in yield than had originally been anticipated
() did not succeed in reducing go'ernment spending
(#) acted as a deterrent to trade
Passage 7 (7/63)
'etween the eighth and e"eventh centuries 3. K.( the 'y+antine @mpire staged
an a"most unpara""e"ed economic and cu"tura" reviva"( a recovery that is a"" the
more stri$ing because it &o""owed a "ong period o& severe interna" dec"ine. 'y the
16 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
ear"y eighth century( the empire had "ost rough"y two-thirds o& the territory it had
possessed in the year L00( and its remaining area was being raided by 3rabs and
'u"garians( who at times threatened to ta$e %onstantinop"e and e8tinguish the
empire a"together. The wea"th o& the state and its sub5ects was great"y
diminished( and artistic and "iterary production had virtua""y ceased. 'y the ear"y
e"eventh century( however( the empire had regained a"most ha"& o& its "ost
possessions( its new &rontiers were secure( and its inDuence e8tended &ar beyond
its borders. The economy had recovered( the treasury was &u""( and art and
scho"arship had advanced.
To consider the 'y+antine mi"itary( cu"tura"( and economic advances as
di1erentiated aspects o& a sing"e phenomenon is reasonab"e. 3&ter a""( these three
&orms o& progress have gone together in a number o& states and civi"i+ations.
Rome under 3ugustus and #&th-century 3thens provide the most obvious
e8amp"es in anti-uity. Boreover( an e8amination o& the apparent se-uentia"
connections among mi"itary( economic( and cu"tura" &orms o& progress might he"p
e8p"ain the dynamics o& historica" change.
The common e8p"anation o& these apparent connections in the case o&
'y+antium wou"d run "i$e thisA when the empire had turned bac$ enemy raids on
its own territory and had begun to raid and con-uer enemy territory( 'y+antine
resources natura""y e8panded and more money became avai"ab"e to patroni+e art
and "iterature. There&ore( 'y+antine mi"itary achievements "ed to economic
advances( which in turn "ed to cu"tura" reviva".
,o doubt this hypothetica" pattern did app"y at times during the course o& the
recovery. Iet it is not c"ear that mi"itary advances invariab"y came #rst( economic
advances second( and inte""ectua" advances third. 2n the 8L06s the 'y+antine
@mpire began to recover &rom 3rab incursions so that by 874 the mi"itary ba"ance
with the 3bbasid %a"iphate had been permanent"y a"tered in the empire6s &avor.
The beginning o& the empire6s economic reviva"( however( can be p"aced between
810 and 870. :ina""y( the 'y+antine reviva" o& "earning appears to have begun
even ear"ier. 3 number o& notab"e scho"ars and writers appeared by 788 and( by
the "ast decade o& the eighth century( a cu"tura" reviva" was in &u"" b"oom( a reviva"
that "asted unti" the &a"" o& %onstantinop"e in 1M/7. Thus the common"y e8pected
order o& mi"itary reviva" &o""owed by economic and then by cu"tura" recovery was
reversed in 'y+antium. 2n &act( the reviva" o& 'y+antine "earning may itse"& have
inDuenced the subse-uent economic and mi"itary e8pansion.
1. &hich of the following best states the central idea of the passage%
(A) The By!antine #mpire was a uni"ue case in which the usual order of military
and economic re'i'al preceding cultural re'i'al was re'ersed.
(B) The economic/ cultural/ and military re'i'al in the By!antine #mpire between
the eighth and ele'enth centuries was similar in its order to the se"uence of
re'i'als in Augustan =ome and fifth century Athens.
(C) After 615 By!antine economic reco'ery spurred a military and/ later/ cultural
GMAT 1,
e$pansion that lasted until 101..
() The eighth(century re'i'al of By!antine learning is an ine$plicable
phenomenon/ and its economic and military precursors ha'e yet to be
disco'ered.
(#) The re'i'al of the By!antine #mpire between the eighth and ele'enth centuries
shows cultural rebirth preceding economic and military re'i'al/ the re'erse of
the commonly accepted order of progress.
2. The primary purpose of the second paragraph is which of the following%
(A) To establish the uni"ueness of the By!antine re'i'al
(B) To show that Augustan =ome and fifth(century Athens are e$amples of
cultural/ economic/ and military e$pansion against which all subse"uent cases
must be measured
(C) To suggest that cultural/ economic/ and military ad'ances ha'e tended to be
closely interrelated in different societies
() To argue that/ while the re'i'als of Augustan =ome and fifth(century Athens
were similar/ they are unrelated to other historical e$amples
(#) To indicate that/ where'er possible/ historians should seek to make
comparisons with the earliest chronological e$amples of re'i'al
.. 3t can be inferred from the passage that by the ele'enth century the By!antine
military forces
(A) had reached their peak and begun to decline
(B) had eliminated the Bulgarian army
(C) were comparable in si!e to the army of =ome under Augustus
() were strong enough to withstand the Abbasid Caliphate4s military forces
(#) had achie'ed control of By!antine go'ernmental structures
0. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the By!antine #mpire sustained significant
territorial losses
(A) in 255
(B) during the se'enth century
(C) a century after the cultural achie'ements of the By!antine #mpire had been
lost
() soon after the re'i'al of By!antine learning
(#) in the century after 6-.
1. 3n the third paragraph/ the author most probably pro'ides an e$planation of the
apparent connections among economic/ military/ and cultural de'elopment in order
to
(A) suggest that the process of re'i'al in By!antium accords with this model
(B) set up an order of e'ents that is then shown to be not generally applicable to
25 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
the case of By!antium
(C) cast aspersions on traditional historical scholarship about By!antium
() suggest that By!antium represents a case for which no historical precedent
e$ists
(#) argue that military con"uest is the paramount element in the growth of empires
2. &hich of the following does the author mention as crucial e'idence concerning the
manner in which the By!antine re'i'al began%
(A) The By!antine military re'i'al of the 6254s led to economic and cultural
ad'ances.
(B) The By!antine cultural re'i'al lasted until 101..
(C) The By!antine economic reco'ery began in the ,554s.
() The re'i'al of By!antine learning began toward the end of the eighth century.
(#) By the early ele'enth century the By!antine #mpire had regained much of its
lost territory.
-. According to the author/ *The common e$planation+ (line 26) of connections
between economic/ military/ and cultural de'elopment is
(A) re'olutionary and too new to ha'e been applied to the history of the By!antine
#mpire
(B) reasonable/ but an anti"uated theory of the nature of progress
(C) not applicable to the By!antine re'i'al as a whole/ but does perhaps accurately
describe limited periods during the re'i'al
() e"ually applicable to the By!antine case as a whole and to the history of
military/ economic/ and cultural ad'ances in ancient Breece and =ome
(#) essentially not helpful/ because military/ economic/ and cultural ad'ances are
part of a single phenomenon
Passage 8 (8/63)
Firtua""y everything astronomers $nown about ob5ects outside the so"ar system
is based on the detection o& photons!-uanta o& e"ectromagnetic radiation. Iet
there is another &orm o& radiation that permeates the universeA neutrinos. ;ith (as
its name imp"ies) no e"ectric charge( and neg"igib"e mass( the neutrino interacts
with other partic"es so rare"y that a neutrino can cross the entire universe( even
traversing substantia" aggregations o& matter( without being absorbed or even
deDected. ,eutrinos can thus escape &rom regions o& space where "ight and other
$inds o& e"ectromagnetic radiation are b"oc$ed by matter. :urthermore( neutrinos
carry with them in&ormation about the site and circumstances o& their productionA
there&ore( the detection o& cosmic neutrinos cou"d provide new in&ormation about
a wide variety o& cosmic phenomena and about the history o& the universe.
'ut how can scientists detect a partic"e that interacts so in&re-uent"y with
GMAT 21
other matterG Twenty-#ve years passed between 9au"i6s hypothesis that the
neutrino e8isted and its actua" detectionA since then virtua""y a"" research with
neutrinos has been with neutrinos created arti#cia""y in "arge partic"e acce"erators
and studied under neutrino microscopes. 'ut a neutrino te"escope( capab"e o&
detecting cosmic neutrinos( is di*cu"t to construct. ,o apparatus can detect
neutrinos un"ess it is e8treme"y massive( because great mass is synonymous with
huge numbers o& nuc"eons (neutrons and protons)( and the more massive the
detector( the greater the probabi"ity o& one o& its nuc"eon6s reacting with a
neutrino. 2n addition( the apparatus must be su*cient"y shie"ded &rom the
inter&ering e1ects o& other partic"es.
:ortunate"y( a group o& astrophysicists has proposed a means o& detecting
cosmic neutrinos by harnessing the mass o& the ocean. ,amed KUB3,K( &or Keep
Underwater Buon and ,eutrino Ketector( the pro5ect ca""s &or p"acing an array o&
"ight sensors at a depth o& #ve $i"ometers under the ocean sur&ace. The detecting
medium is the seawater itse"&A when a neutrino interacts with a partic"e in an atom
o& seawater( the resu"t is a cascade o& e"ectrica""y charged partic"es and a Dash o&
"ight that can be detected by the sensors. The #ve $i"ometers o& seawater above
the sensors wi"" shie"d them &rom the inter&ering e1ects o& other high-energy
partic"es raining down through the atmosphere.
The strongest motivation &or the KUB3,K pro5ect is that it wi"" e8p"oit an
important source o& in&ormation about the universe. The e8tension o& astronomy
&rom visib"e "ight to radio waves to 8-rays and gamma rays never &ai"ed to "ead to
the discovery o& unusua" ob5ects such as radio ga"a8ies( -uasars( and pu"sars.
@ach o& these discoveries came as a surprise. ,eutrino astronomy wi"" doubt"ess
bring its own share o& surprises.
1. &hich of the following titles best summari!es the passage as a whole%
(A) At the Threshold of 9eutrino Astronomy
(B) 9eutrinos and the )istory of the :ni'erse
(C) The Creation and ;tudy of 9eutrinos
() The :?A9 ;ystem and )ow 3t &orks
(#) The @roperties of the 9eutrino
2. &ith which of the following statements regarding neutrino astronomy would the
author be most likely to agree%
(A) 9eutrino astronomy will supersede all present forms of astronomy.
(B) 9eutrino astronomy will be abandoned if the :?A9 pro<ect fails.
(C) 9eutrino astronomy can be e$pected to lead to ma<or breakthroughs in
astronomy.
() 9eutrino astronomy will disclose phenomena that will be more surprising than
past disco'eries.
(#) 9eutrino astronomy will always be characteri!ed by a large time lag between
22 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
hypothesis and e$perimental confirmation.
.. 3n the last paragraph/ the author describes the de'elopment of astronomy in order
to
(A) suggest that the potential findings of neutrino astronomy can be seen as part of
a series of astronomical successes
(B) illustrate the role of surprise in scientific disco'ery
(C) demonstrate the effecti'eness of the :?A9 apparatus in detecting
neutrinos
() name some cosmic phenomena that neutrino astronomy will illuminate
(#) contrast the moti'ation of earlier astronomers with that of the astrophysicists
working on the :?A9 pro<ect
0. According to the passage/ one ad'antage that neutrinos ha'e for studies in
astronomy is that they
(A) ha'e been detected for the last twenty(fi'e years
(B) possess a 'ariable electric charge
(C) are usually e$tremely massi'e
() carry information about their history with them
(#) are 'ery similar to other electromagnetic particles
1. According to the passage/ the primary use of the apparatus mentioned in lines 20(
.2 would be to
(A) increase the mass of a neutrino
(B) interpret the information neutrinos carry with them
(C) study the internal structure of a neutrino
() see neutrinos in distant regions of space
(#) detect the presence of cosmic neutrinos
2. The passage states that interactions between neutrinos and other matter are
(A) rare
(B) artificial
(C) undetectable
() unpredictable
(#) ha!ardous
-. The passage mentions which of the following as a reason that neutrinos are hard to
detect%
(A) Their per'asi'eness in the uni'erse
(B) Their ability to escape from different regions of space
(C) Their inability to penetrate dense matter
GMAT 2.
() The similarity of their structure to that of nucleons
(#) The infre"uency of their interaction with other matter
6. According to the passage/ the interaction of a neutrino with other matter can
produce
(A) particles that are neutral and massi'e
(B) a form of radiation that permeates the uni'erse
(C) inaccurate information about the site and circumstances of the neutrino4s
production
() charged particles and light
(#) a situation in which light and other forms of electromagnetic radiation are
blocked
,. According to the passage/ one of the methods used to establish the properties of
neutrinos was
(A) detection of photons
(B) obser'ation of the interaction of neutrinos with gamma rays
(C) obser'ation of neutrinos that were artificially created
() measurement of neutrinos that interacted with particles of seawater
(#) e$periments with electromagnetic radiation
Passage 9 (9/63)
Bost economists in the United tates seem captivated by the spe"" o& the &ree
mar$et. %onse-uent"y( nothing seems good or norma" that does not accord with
the re-uirements o& the &ree mar$et. 3 price that is determined by the se""er or(
&or that matter( estab"ished by anyone other than the aggregate o& consumers
seems pernicious. 3ccording"y( it re-uires a ma5or act o& wi"" to thin$ o& price-#8ing
(the determination o& prices by the se""er) as both >norma"? and having a va"uab"e
economic &unction. 2n &act( price-#8ing is norma" in a"" industria"i+ed societies
because the industria" system itse"& provides( as an e1ort"ess conse-uence o& its
own deve"opment( the price-#8ing that it re-uires. Bodern industria" p"anning
re-uires and rewards great si+e. )ence( a comparative"y sma"" number o& "arge
#rms wi"" be competing &or the same group o& consumers. That each "arge #rm wi""
act with consideration o& its own needs and thus avoid se""ing its products &or
more than its competitors charge is common"y recogni+ed by advocates o& &ree-
mar$et economic theories. 'ut each "arge #rm wi"" a"so act with &u"" consideration
o& the needs that it has in common with the other "arge #rms competing &or the
same customers. @ach "arge #rm wi"" thus avoid signi#cant price-cutting( because
price-cutting wou"d be pre5udicia" to the common interest in a stab"e demand &or
products. Bost economists do not see price-#8ing when it occurs because they
e8pect it to be brought about by a number o& e8p"icit agreements among "arge
#rms= it is not.
20 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
Boreover( those economists who argue that a""owing the &ree mar$et to
operate without inter&erence is the most e*cient method o& estab"ishing prices
have not considered the economies o& non-socia"ist countries other than the
United states. These economies emp"oy intentiona" price-#8ing( usua""y in an
overt &ashion. :orma" price-#8ing by carte" and in&orma" price-#8ing by
agreements covering the members o& an industry are commonp"ace. ;ere there
something pecu"iar"y e*cient about the &ree mar$et and ine*cient about price-
#8ing( the countries that have avoided the #rst and used the second wou"d have
su1ered drastica""y in their economic deve"opment. There is no indication that
they have.
ocia"ist industry a"so wor$s within a &ramewor$ o& contro""ed prices. 2n the
ear"y 19706s( the oviet Union began to give #rms and industries some o& the
De8ibi"ity in ad5usting prices that a more in&orma" evo"ution has accorded the
capita"ist system. @conomists in the United tates have hai"ed the change as a
return to the &ree mar$et. 'ut oviet #rms are no more sub5ect to prices
estab"ished by a &ree mar$et over which they e8ercise "itt"e inDuence than are
capita"ist #rms= rather( oviet #rms have been given the power to #8 prices.
1. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) refute the theory that the free market plays a useful role in the de'elopment of
industriali!ed societies
(B) suggest methods by which economists and members of the go'ernment of the
:nited ;tates can recogni!e and combat price(fi$ing by large firms
(C) show that in industriali!ed societies price(fi$ing and the operation of the free
market are not only compatible but also mutually beneficial
() e$plain the 'arious ways in which industriali!ed societies can fi$ prices in
order to stabili!e the free market
(#) argue that price(fi$ing/ in one form or another/ is an ine'itable part of and
benefit to the economy of any industriali!ed society
2. The passage pro'ides information that would answer which of the following
"uestions about price(fi$ing%
3. &hat are some of the ways in which prices can be fi$ed%
33. >or what products is price(fi$ing likely to be more profitable that the operation
of the free market%
333. 3s price(fi$ing more common in socialist industriali!ed societies or in non(
socialist industriali!ed societies%
(A) 3 only
(B) 333 only
(C) 3 and 33 only
() 33 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
GMAT 21
.. The author4s attitude toward *?ost economists in the :nited ;tates+(line 1) can
best be described as
(A) spiteful and en'ious
(B) scornful and denunciatory
(C) critical and condescending
() ambi'alent but deferential
(#) uncertain but interested
0. 3t can be inferred from the author4s argument that a price fi$ed by the seller
*seems pernicious+ (line -) because
(A) people do not ha'e confidence in large firms
(B) people do not e$pect the go'ernment to regulate prices
(C) most economists belie'e that consumers as a group should determine prices
() most economists associate fi$ed prices with communist and socialist
economies
(#) most economists belie'e that no one group should determine prices
1. The suggestion in the passage that price(fi$ing in industriali!ed societies is normal
arises from the author4s statement that price(fi$ing is
(A) a profitable result of economic de'elopment
(B) an ine'itable result of the industrial system
(C) the result of a number of carefully organi!ed decisions
() a phenomenon common to industriali!ed and non(industriali!ed societies
(#) a phenomenon best achie'ed cooperati'ely by go'ernment and industry
2. According to the author/ price(fi$ing in non(socialist countries is often
(A) accidental but producti'e
(B) illegal but useful
(C) legal and inno'ati'e
() traditional and rigid
(#) intentional and widespread
-. According to the author/ what is the result of the ;o'iet :nion4s change in
economic policy in the 1,-54s%
(A) ;o'iet firms show greater profit.
(B) ;o'iet firms ha'e less control o'er the free market.
(C) ;o'iet firms are able to ad<ust to technological ad'ances.
() ;o'iet firms ha'e some authority to fi$ prices.
(#) ;o'iet firms are more responsi'e to the free market.
6. &ith which of the following statements regarding the beha'ior of large firms in
22 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
industriali!ed societies would the author be most likely to agree%
(A) The directors of large firms will continue to anticipate the demand for
products.
(B) The directors of large firms are less interested in achie'ing a predictable le'el
of profit than in achie'ing a large profit.
(C) The directors of large firms will stri'e to reduce the costs of their products.
() ?any directors of large firms belie'e that the go'ernment should establish the
prices that will be charged for products.
(#) ?any directors of large firms belie'e that the price charged for products is
likely to increase annually.
,. 3n the passage/ the author is primarily concerned with
(A) predicting the conse"uences of a practice
(B) critici!ing a point of 'iew
(C) calling attention to recent disco'eries
() proposing a topic for research
(#) summari!ing conflicting opinions
Passage 10 (10/63)
%a1eine( the stimu"ant in co1ee( has been ca""ed >the most wide"y used
psychoactive substance on @arth.? nyder( Ka"y and 'runs have recent"y
proposed that ca1eine a1ect behavior by countering the activity in the human
brain o& a natura""y occurring chemica" ca""ed adenosine. 3denosine norma""y
depresses neuron #ring in many areas o& the brain. 2t apparent"y does this by
inhibiting the re"ease o& neurotransmitters( chemica"s that carry nerve impu"ses
&rom one neuron to the ne8t. Ji$e many other agents that a1ect neuron #ring(
adenosine must #rst bind to speci#c receptors on neurona" membranes. There are
at "east two c"asses o& these receptors( which have been designated 3
1
and 3
4
.
nyder et a" propose that ca1eine( which is structura""y simi"ar to adenosine( is
ab"e to bind to both types o& receptors( which prevents adenosine &rom attaching
there and a""ows the neurons to #re more readi"y than they otherwise wou"d.
:or many years( ca1eine6s e1ects have been attributed to its inhibition o& the
production o& phosphodiesterase( an en+yme that brea$s down the chemica"
ca""ed cyc"ic 3B9. 3 number o& neurotransmitters e8ert their e1ects by #rst
increasing cyc"ic 3B9 concentrations in target neurons. There&ore( pro"onged
periods at the e"evated concentrations( as might be brought about by a
phosphodiesterase inhibitor( cou"d "ead to a greater amount o& neuron #ring and(
conse-uent"y( to behaviora" stimu"ation. 'ut nyder et a" point out that the
ca1eine concentrations needed to inhibit the production o& phosphodiesterase in
the brain are much higher than those that produce stimu"ation. Boreover( other
compounds that b"oc$ phosphodiesterase6s activity are not stimu"ants.
GMAT 2-
To buttress their case that ca1eine acts instead by preventing adenosine
binding( nyder et a" compared the stimu"atory e1ects o& a series o& ca1eine
derivatives with their abi"ity to dis"odge adenosine &rom its receptors in the brains
o& mice. >2n genera"(? they reported( >the abi"ity o& the compounds to compete at
the receptors corre"ates with their abi"ity to stimu"ate "ocomotion in the mouse=
i.e.( the higher their capacity to bind at the receptors( the higher their abi"ity to
stimu"ate "ocomotion.? Theophy""ine( a c"ose structura" re"ative o& ca1eine and the
ma5or stimu"ant in tea( was one o& the most e1ective compounds in both regards.
There were some apparent e8ceptions to the genera" corre"ation observed
between adenosine-receptor binding and stimu"ation. <ne o& these was a
compound ca""ed 7-isobuty"-1-methy"8anthine (2'BN)( which bound very we"" but
actua""y depressed mouse "ocomotion. nyder et a" suggests that this is not a
ma5or stumb"ing b"oc$ to their hypothesis. The prob"em is that the compound has
mi8ed e1ects in the brain( a not unusua" occurrence with psychoactive drugs.
@ven ca1eine( which is genera""y $nown on"y &or its stimu"atory e1ects( disp"ays
this property( depressing mouse "ocomotion at very "ow concentrations and
stimu"ating it at higher ones.
1. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) discuss a plan for in'estigation of a phenomenon that is not yet fully
understood
(B) present two e$planations of a phenomenon and reconcile the differences
between them
(C) summari!e two theories and suggest a third theory that o'ercomes the
problems encountered in the first two
() describe an alternati'e hypothesis and pro'ide e'idence and arguments that
support it
(#) challenge the 'alidity of a theory by e$posing the inconsistencies and
contradictions in it
2. &hich of the following/ if true/ would most weaken the theory proposed by
;nyder et al%
(A) At 'ery low concentrations in the human brain/ both caffeine and theophylline
tend to ha'e depressi'e rather than stimulatory effects on human beha'ior.
(B) The ability of caffeine deri'ati'es at 'ery low concentrations to dislodge
adenosine from its receptors in mouse brains correlates well with their ability
to stimulate mouse locomotion at these low concentrations.
(C) The concentration of cyclic A?@ in target neurons in the human brain that
leads to increased neuron firing can be produced by se'eral different
phosphodiesterase inhibitors in addition to caffeine.
() The concentration of caffeine re"uired to dislodge adenosine from its receptors
in the human brain is much greater than the concentration that produces
26 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
beha'ioral stimulation in humans.
(#) The concentration of 3B?D re"uired to dislodge adenosine from its receptors
in mouse brains is much smaller than the concentration that stimulates
locomotion in the mouse.
.. According so ;nyder et al/ caffeine differs from adenosine in that caffeine
(A) stimulates beha'ior in the mouse and in humans/ whereas adenosine stimulates
beha'ior in humans only
(B) has mi$ed effects in the brain/ whereas adenosine has only a stimulatory effect
(C) increases cyclic A?@ concentrations in target neurons/ whereas adenosine
decreases such concentrations
() permits release of neurotransmitters when it is bound to adenosine receptors/
whereas adenosine inhibits such release
(#) inhibits both neuron firing and the production of phosphodiesterase when there
is a sufficient concentration in the brain/ whereas adenosine inhibits only
neuron firing
0. 3n response to e$perimental results concerning 3B?D/ ;nyder et al contended that
it is not uncommon for psychoacti'e drugs to ha'e
(A) mi$ed effects in the brain
(B) inhibitory effects on en!ymes in the brain
(C) close structural relationships with caffeine
() depressi'e effects on mouse locomotion
(#) the ability to dislodge caffeine from receptors in the brain
1. The passage suggests that ;nyder et al belie'e that if the older theory concerning
caffeine4s effects were correct/ which of the following would ha'e to be the case%
3. All neurotransmitters would increase the short(term concentration of cyclic
A?@ in target neurons.
33. ;ubstances other than caffeine that inhibit the production of phosphodiesterase
would be stimulants.
333. All concentration le'els of caffeine that are high enough to produce stimulation
would also inhibit the production of phosphodiesterase.
(A) 3 only
(B) 3 and 33 only
(C) 3 and 333 only
() 33 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
2. According to ;nyder et al/ all of the following compounds can bind to specific
receptors in the brain #DC#@T
(A) 3B?D
GMAT 2,
(B) caffeine
(C) adenosine
() theophylline
(#) phosphodiesterase
-. ;nyder et al suggest that caffeine4s ability to bind to A
1
and A
2
receptors can be at
least partially attributed to which of the following%
(A) The chemical relationship between caffeine and phosphodiesterase
(B) The structural relationship between caffeine and adenosine
(C) The structural similarity between caffeine and neurotransmitters
() The ability of caffeine to stimulate beha'ior
(#) The natural occurrence of caffeine and adenosine in the brain
6. The author "uotes ;nyder et al in lines .6(0. most probably in order to
(A) re'eal some of the assumptions underlying their theory
(B) summari!e a ma<or finding of their e$periments
(C) point out that their e$periments were limited to the mouse
() indicate that their e$periments resulted only in general correlations
(#) refute the ob<ections made by supporters of the older theory
,. The last paragraph of the passage performs which of the following functions%
(A) escribes a disconfirming e$perimental result and reports the e$planation
gi'en by ;nyder et al in an attempt to reconcile this result with their theory.
(B) ;pecifies the basis for the correlation obser'ed by ;nyder et al and presents an
e$planation in an attempt to make the correlation consistent with the operation
of psychoacti'e drugs other than caffeine.
(C) #laborates the description of the correlation obser'ed by ;nyder et al and
suggests an additional e$planation in an attempt to make the correlation
consistent with the older theory.
() =eports inconsistent e$perimental data and describes the method ;nyder et al
will use to reanaly!e this data.
(#) @ro'ides an e$ample of the hypothesis proposed by ;nyder et al and relates
this e$ample to caffeine4s properties.
Passage 11 (11/63)
3rchaeo"ogy as a pro&ession &aces two ma5or prob"ems. :irst( it is the poorest o&
the poor. <n"y pa"try sums are avai"ab"e &or e8cavating and even "ess is avai"ab"e
&or pub"ishing the resu"ts and preserving the sites once e8cavated. Iet
archaeo"ogists dea" with price"ess ob5ects every day. econd( there is the prob"em
o& i""ega" e8cavation( resu"ting in museum--ua"ity pieces being so"d to the highest
bidder.
.5 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
2 wou"d "i$e to ma$e an outrageous suggestion that wou"d at one stro$e provide
&unds &or archaeo"ogy and reduce the amount o& i""ega" digging. 2 wou"d propose
that scienti#c archeo"ogica" e8peditions and governmenta" authorities se""
e8cavated arti&acts on the open mar$et. uch sa"es wou"d provide substantia"
&unds &or the e8cavation and preservation o& archaeo"ogica" sites and the
pub"ication o& resu"ts. 3t the same time( they wou"d brea$ the i""ega" e8cavator6s
grip on the mar$et( thereby decreasing the inducement to engage in i""ega"
activities.
Iou might ob5ect that pro&essiona"s e8cavate to ac-uire $now"edge( not money.
Boreover( ancient arti&acts are part o& our g"oba" cu"tura" heritage( which shou"d
be avai"ab"e &or a"" to appreciate( not so"d to the highest bidder. 2 agree. e""
nothing that has uni-ue artistic merit or scienti#c va"ue. 'ut( you might rep"y
everything that comes out o& the ground has scienti#c va"ue. )ere we part
company. Theoretica""y( you may be correct in c"aiming that every arti&act has
potentia" scienti#c va"ue. 9ractica""y( you are wrong.
2 re&er to the thousands o& pottery vesse"s and ancient "amps that are
essentia""y dup"icates o& one another. 2n one sma"" e8cavation in %yprus(
archaeo"ogists recent"y uncovered 4(000 virtua""y indistinguishab"e sma"" 5ugs in a
sing"e courtyard( @ven precious roya" sea" impressions $nown as lmelekh hand"es
have been &ound in abundance!more than M(000 e8amp"es so &ar.
The basements o& museums are simp"y not "arge enough to store the arti&acts
that are "i$e"y to be discovered in the &uture. There is not enough money even to
cata"ogue the #nds= as a resu"t( they cannot be &ound again and become as
inaccessib"e as i& they had never been discovered. 2ndeed( with the he"p o& a
computer( so"d arti&acts cou"d be more accessib"e than are the pieces stored in
bu"ging museum basements. 9rior to sa"e( each cou"d be photographed and the
"ist o& the purchasers cou"d be maintained on the computer. 3 purchaser cou"d
even be re-uired to agree to return the piece i& it shou"d become needed &or
scienti#c purposes.
2t wou"d be unrea"istic to suggest that i""ega" digging wou"d stop i& arti&acts
were so"d on the open mar$et. 'ut the demand &or the c"andestine product wou"d
be substantia""y reduced. ;ho wou"d want an unmar$ed pot when another was
avai"ab"e whose provenance was $nown( and that was dated stratigraphica""y by
the pro&essiona" archaeo"ogist who e8cavated itG
1. The primary purpose of the passage is to propose
(A) an alternati'e to museum display of artifacts
(B) a way to curb illegal digging while benefiting the archaeological profession
(C) a way to distinguish artifacts with scientific 'alue from those that ha'e no such
'alue
() the go'ernmental regulation of archaeological sites
(#) a new system for cataloguing duplicate artifacts
GMAT .1
2. The author implies that all of the following statements about duplicate artifacts are
true #DC#@TE
(A) A market for such artifacts already e$ists.
(B) ;uch artifacts seldom ha'e scientific 'alue.
(C) There is likely to be a continuing supply of such artifacts.
() ?useums are well supplied with e$amples of such artifacts.
(#) ;uch artifacts fre"uently e$ceed in "uality those already catalogued in museum
collections.
.. &hich of the following is mentioned in the passage as a disad'antage of storing
artifacts in museum basements%
(A) ?useum officials rarely allow scholars access to such artifacts.
(B) ;pace that could be better used for display is taken up for storage.
(C) Artifacts disco'ered in one e$ca'ation often become separated from each
other.
() ;uch artifacts are often damaged by 'ariations in temperature and humidity.
(#) ;uch artifacts4 often remain uncatalogued and thus cannot be located once they
are put in storage.
0. The author mentions the e$ca'ation in Cyprus (lines .1(.0) to emphasi!e which of
the following points%
(A) Ancient lamps and pottery 'essels are less 'aluable/ although more rare/ than
royal seal impressions.
(B) Artifacts that are 'ery similar to each other present cataloguing difficulties to
archaeologists.
(C) Artifacts that are not uni"uely 'aluable/ and therefore could be sold/ are
a'ailable in large "uantities.
() Cyprus is the most important location for unearthing large "uantities of salable
artifacts.
(#) 3llegal sales of duplicate artifacts are wide(spread/ particularly on the island of
Cyprus.
1. The author4s argument concerning the effect of the official sale of duplicate
artifacts on illegal e$ca'ation is based on which of the following assumptions%
(A) @rospecti'e purchasers would prefer to buy authenticated artifacts.
(B) The price of illegally e$ca'ated artifacts would rise.
(C) Computers could be used to trace sold artifacts.
() 3llegal e$ca'ators would be forced to sell only duplicate artifacts.
(#) ?oney gained from selling authenticated artifacts could be used to in'estigate
and prosecute illegal e$ca'ators.
2. The author anticipates which of the following initial ob<ections to the adoption of
.2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
his proposal%
(A) ?useum officials will become unwilling to store artifacts.
(B) An o'ersupply of salable artifacts will result and the demand for them will fall.
(C) Artifacts that would ha'e been displayed in public places will be sold to
pri'ate collectors.
() 3llegal e$ca'ators will ha'e an e'en larger supply of artifacts for resale.
(#) Counterfeiting of artifacts will become more commonplace.
-. The author implies that which of the following would occur if duplicate artifacts
were sold on the open market%
3. 3llegal e$ca'ation would e'entually cease completely.
33. Cyprus would become the primary source of marketable duplicate artifacts.
333. Archaeologists would be able to publish the results of their e$ca'ations more
fre"uently than they currently do.
(A) 3 only
(B) 333 only
(C) 3 and 33 only
() 33 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
Passage 12 (12/63)
(This passage is e8cerpted &rom materia" pub"ished in 1980.)
:edera" e1orts to aid minority businesses began in the 19L06s when the ma""
'usiness 3dministration ('3) began ma$ing &edera""y guaranteed "oans and
government-sponsored management and technica" assistance avai"ab"e to
minority business enterprises. ;hi"e this program enab"ed many minority
entrepreneurs to &orm new businesses( the resu"ts were disappointing( since
manageria" ine8perience( un&avorab"e "ocations( and capita" shortages "ed to high
&ai"ure rates. @ven years a&ter the program was imp"emented( minority business
receipts were not -uite two percent o& the nationa" economy6s tota" receipts.
Recent"y &edera" po"icyma$ers have adopted an approach intended to
acce"erate deve"opment o& the minority business sector by moving away &rom
direct"y aiding sma"" minority enterprises and toward supporting "arger( growth-
oriented minority #rms through intermediary companies. 2n this approach( "arge
corporations participate in the deve"opment o& success&u" and stab"e minority
businesses by ma$ing use o& government-sponsored venture capita". The capita" is
used by a participating company to estab"ish a Binority @nterprise ma"" 'usiness
2nvestment %ompany or B@'2%. The B@'2% then provides capita" and guidance
to minority businesses that have potentia" to become &uture supp"iers or
customers o& the sponsoring company.
GMAT ..
B@'2%6s are the resu"t o& the be"ie& that providing estab"ished #rms with
easier access to re"evant management techni-ues and more 5ob-speci#c
e8perience( as we"" as substantia" amounts o& capita"( gives those #rms a greater
opportunity to deve"op sound business &oundations than does simp"y ma$ing
genera" management e8perience and sma"" amounts o& capita" avai"ab"e. :urther(
since potentia" mar$ets &or the minority businesses a"ready e8ist through the
sponsoring companies( the minority businesses &ace considerab"y "ess ris$ in
terms o& "ocation and mar$et Ductuation. :o""owing ear"y #nancia" and operating
prob"ems( sponsoring corporations began to capita"i+e B@'2%6s &ar above the
"ega" minimum o& ./00(000 in order to generate su*cient income and to sustain
the -ua"ity o& management needed. B@'2%6s are now emerging as increasing"y
important #nancing sources &or minority enterprises.
2ronica""y( B@'2% sta1s( which usua""y consist o& )ispanic and '"ac$
pro&essiona"s( tend to approach investments in minority #rms more pragmatica""y
than do many B@'2% directors( who are usua""y senior managers &rom sponsoring
corporations. The "atter o&ten sti"" thin$ main"y in terms o& the >socia"
responsibi"ity approach? and thus seem to pre&er dea"s that are ris$ier and "ess
attractive than norma" investment criteria wou"d warrant. uch di1erences in
viewpoint have produced uneasiness among many minority sta1 members( who
&ee" that minority entrepreneurs and businesses shou"d be 5udged by estab"ished
business considerations. These sta1 members be"ieve their point o& view is c"oser
to the origina" phi"osophy o& B@'2%6s and they are concerned that( un"ess a more
prudent course is &o""owed( B@'2% directors may revert to po"icies "i$e"y to re-
create the disappointing resu"ts o& the origina" '3 approach.
1. &hich of the following best states the central idea of the passage%
(A) The use of ?#;B3C4s for aiding minority entrepreneurs seems to ha'e greater
potential for success than does the original ;BA approach.
(B) There is a crucial difference in point of 'iew between the staff and directors of
some ?#;B3C4s.
(C) After initial problems with management and marketing/ minority businesses
ha'e begun to e$pand at a steady rate.
() ?inority entrepreneurs wishing to form new businesses now ha'e se'eral
e"ually successful federal programs on which to rely.
(#) >or the first time since 1,25/ large corporations are making significant
contributions to the de'elopment of minority businesses.
2. According to the passage/ the ?#;B3C approach differs from the ;BA approach in
that ?#;B3C4s
(A) seek federal contracts to pro'ide markets for minority businesses
(B) encourage minority businesses to pro'ide markets for other minority
businesses
(C) attempt to maintain a specified rate of growth in the minority business sector
.0 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
() rely on the participation of large corporations to finance minority businesses
(#) select minority businesses on the basis of their location
.. &hich of the following does the author cite to support the conclusion that the
results of the ;BA program were disappointing%
(A) The small number of new minority enterprises formed as a result of the
program
(B) The small number of minority enterprises that took ad'antage of the
management and technical assistance offered under the program
(C) The small percentage of the nation4s business receipts earned by minority
enterprises following the programs/ implementation
() The small percentage of recipient minority enterprises that were able to repay
federally guaranteed loans made under the program
(#) The small number of minority enterprises that chose to participate in the
program
0. &hich of the following statements about the ;BA program can be inferred from
the passage%
(A) The ma$imum term for loans made to recipient businesses was 11 years.
(B) Business loans were considered to be more useful to recipient businesses than
was management and technical assistance.
(C) The anticipated failure rate for recipient businesses was significantly lower
than the rate that actually resulted.
() =ecipient businesses were encouraged to relocate to areas more fa'orable for
business de'elopment.
(#) The capitali!ation needs of recipient businesses were assessed and then
pro'ided for ade"uately.
1. Based on information in the passage/ which of the following would be indicati'e
of the pragmatism of ?#;B3C staff members%
3. A reluctance to in'est in minority businesses that show marginal e$pectations
of return on the in'estments
33. A desire to in'est in minority businesses that produce goods and ser'ices likely
to be of use to the sponsoring company
333. A belief that the minority business sector is best ser'ed by in'esting primarily
in newly established businesses
(A) 3 only
(B) 333 only
(C) 3 and 33 only
() 33 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33 and 333
GMAT .1
2. The author refers to the *financial and operating problems+ (line .6) encountered
by ?#;B3C4s primarily in order to
(A) broaden the scope of the discussion to include the legal considerations of
funding ?#;B3C4; through sponsoring companies
(B) call attention to the fact that ?#;B3C4s must recei'e ade"uate funding in order
to function effecti'ely
(C) show that sponsoring companies were willing to in'est only 7155/555 of
go'ernment(sponsored 'enture capital in the original ?#;B3C4s
() compare ;BA and ?#;B3C limits on minimum funding
(#) refute suggestions that ?#;B3C4s ha'e been only marginally successful
-. The author4s primary ob<ecti'e in the passage is to
(A) dispro'e the 'iew that federal efforts to aid minority businesses ha'e been
ineffecti'e
(B) e$plain how federal efforts to aid minority businesses ha'e changed since the
1,254s
(C) establish a direct link between the federal efforts to aid minority businesses
made before the 1,254s and those made in the 1,654s
() analy!e the basis for the belief that <ob(specific e$perience is more useful to
minority businesses than is general management e$perience
(#) argue that the *social responsibility approach+ to aiding minority businesses is
superior to any other approach
6. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the attitude of some ?#;B3C staff
members toward the in'estments preferred by some ?#;B3C directors can best be
described as
(A) defensi'e
(B) resigned
(C) indifferent
() shocked
(#) disappro'ing
,. The passage pro'ides information that would answer which of the following
"uestions%
(A) &hat was the a'erage annual amount/ in dollars/ of minority business receipts
before the ;BA strategy was implemented%
(B) &hat locations are considered to be unfa'orable for minority businesses%
(C) &hat is the current success rate for minority businesses that are capitali!ed by
?#;B3C4s%
() )ow has the use of federal funding for minority businesses changed since the
1,254s%
.2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(#) )ow do minority businesses apply to participate in a ?#;B3C program%
Passage 13 (13/63)
The ma5ority o& success&u" senior managers do not c"ose"y &o""ow the c"assica"
rationa" mode" o& #rst c"ari&ying goa"s( assessing the prob"em( &ormu"ating options(
estimating "i$e"ihoods o& success( ma$ing a decision( and on"y then ta$ing action
to imp"ement the decision. Rather( in their day-by-day tactica" maneuvers( these
senior e8ecutives re"y on what is vague"y termed >intuition? to manage a networ$
o& interre"ated prob"ems that re-uire them to dea" with ambiguity( inconsistency(
nove"ty( and surprise= and to integrate action into the process o& thin$ing.
Eenerations o& writers on management have recogni+ed that some practicing
managers re"y heavi"y on intuition. 2n genera"( however( such writers disp"ay a
poor grasp o& what intuition is. ome see it as the opposite o& rationa"ity= others
view it as an e8cuse &or capriciousness.
2senberg6s recent research on the cognitive processes o& senior managers
revea"s that managers6 intuition is neither o& these. Rather( senior managers use
intuition in at "east #ve distinct ways. :irst( they intuitive"y sense when a prob"em
e8ists. econd( managers re"y on intuition to per&orm we""-"earned behavior
patterns rapid"y. This intuition is not arbitrary or irrationa"( but is based on years o&
painsta$ing practice and hands-on e8perience that bui"d s$i""s. 3 third &unction o&
intuition is to synthesi+e iso"ated bits o& data and practice into an integrated
picture( o&ten in an >3haO? e8perience. :ourth( some managers use intuition as a
chec$ on the resu"ts o& more rationa" ana"ysis. Bost senior e8ecutives are &ami"iar
with the &orma" decision ana"ysis mode"s and too"s( and those who use such
systematic methods &or reaching decisions are occasiona""y "eery o& so"utions
suggested by these methods which run counter to their sense o& the correct
course o& action. :ina""y( managers can use intuition to bypass in-depth ana"ysis
and move rapid"y to engender a p"ausib"e so"ution. Used in this way( intuition is an
a"most instantaneous cognitive process in which a manager recogni+es &ami"iar
patterns. <ne o& the imp"ications o& the intuitive sty"e o& e8ecutive management is
that >thin$ing? is inseparab"e &rom acting. ince managers o&ten >$now? what is
right be&ore they can ana"y+e and e8p"ain it( they &re-uent"y act #rst and e8p"ain
"ater. 3na"ysis is ine8tricab"y tied to action in thin$ingPacting cyc"es( in which
managers deve"op thoughts about their companies and organi+ations not by
ana"y+ing a prob"ematic situation and then acting( but by acting and ana"y+ing in
c"ose concert.
Eiven the great uncertainty o& many o& the management issues that they &ace(
senior managers o&ten instigate a course o& action simp"y to "earn more about an
issue. They then use the resu"ts o& the action to deve"op a more comp"ete
understanding o& the issue. <ne imp"ication o& thin$ingPacting cyc"es is that action
is o&ten part o& de#ning the prob"em( not 5ust o& imp"ementing the so"ution.
1. According to the passage/ senior managers use intuition in all of the following
GMAT .-
ways #DC#@T to
(A) speed up of the creation of a solution to a problem
(B) identify a problem
(C) bring together disparate facts
() stipulate clear goals
(#) e'aluate possible solutions to a problem
2. The passage suggests which of the following about the *writers on management+
mentioned in line 12%
(A) They ha'e critici!ed managers for not following the classical rational model of
decision analysis.
(B) They ha'e not based their analyses on a sufficiently large sample of actual
managers.
(C) They ha'e relied in drawing their conclusions on what managers say rather
than on what managers do.
() They ha'e misunderstood how managers use intuition in making business
decisions.
(#) They ha'e not acknowledged the role of intuition in managerial practice.
.. &hich of the following best e$emplifies *an FAhaG4 e$perience+ (line 26) as it is
presented in the passage%
(A) A manager risks taking an action whose outcome is unpredictable to disco'er
whether the action changes the problem at hand.
(B) A manager performs well(learned and familiar beha'ior patterns in creati'e
and uncharacteristic ways to sol'e a problem.
(C) A manager suddenly connects seemingly unrelated facts and e$periences to
create a pattern rele'ant to the problem at hand.
() A manager rapidly identifies the methodology used to compile data yielded by
systematic analysis.
(#) A manager swiftly decides which of se'eral sets of tactics to implement in
order to deal with the contingencies suggested by a problem.
0. According to the passage/ the classical model of decision analysis includes all of
the following #DC#@T
(A) e'aluation of a problem
(B) creation of possible solutions to a problem
(C) establishment of clear goals to be reached by the decision
() action undertaken in order to disco'er more information about a problem
(#) comparison of the probable effects of different solutions to a problem
1. 3t can be inferred from the passage that which of the following would most
probably be one ma<or difference in beha'ior between ?anager D/ who uses
.6 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
intuition to reach decisions/ and ?anager H/ who uses only formal decision
analysis%
(A) ?anager D analy!es first and then actsI ?anager H does not.
(B) ?anager D checks possible solutions to a problem by systematic analysisI
?anager H does not.
(C) ?anager D takes action in order to arri'e at the solution to a problemI
?anager H does not.
() ?anager H draws on years of hands(on e$perience in creating a solution to a
problemI ?anager D does not.
(#) ?anger H depends on day(to(day tactical maneu'eringI manager D does not.
2. 3t can be inferred from the passage that *thinkingJacting cycles+ (line 01) in
managerial practice would be likely to result in which of the following%
3. A manager analy!es a network of problems and then acts on the basis of that
analysis.
33. A manager gathers data by acting and obser'ing the effects of action.
333. A manager takes action without being able to articulate reasons for that
particular action.
(A) 3 only
(B) 33 only
(C) 3 and 33 only
() 33 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
-. The passage pro'ides support for which of the following statements%
(A) ?anagers who rely on intuition are more successful than those who rely on
formal decision analysis.
(B) ?anagers cannot <ustify their intuiti'e decisions.
(C) ?anagers4 intuition works contrary to their rational and analytical skills.
() Kogical analysis of a problem increases the number of possible solutions.
(#) 3ntuition enables managers to employ their practical e$perience more
efficiently.
6. &hich of the following best describes the organi!ation of the first paragraph of the
passage%
(A) An assertion is made and a specific supporting e$ample is gi'en.
(B) A con'entional model is dismissed and an alternati'e introduced.
(C) The results of recent research are introduced and summari!ed.
() Two opposing points of 'iew are presented and e'aluated.
(#) A widely accepted definition is presented and "ualified.
GMAT .,
Passage 14 (14/63)
,ear"y a century ago( bio"ogists &ound that i& they separated an invertebrate
anima" embryo into two parts at an ear"y stage o& its "i&e( it wou"d survive and
deve"op as two norma" embryos. This "ed them to be"ieve that the ce""s in the
ear"y embryo are undetermined in the sense that each ce"" has the potentia" to
deve"op in a variety o& di1erent ways. Jater bio"ogists &ound that the situation was
not so simp"e. 2t matters in which p"ane the embryo is cut. 2& it is cut in a p"ane
di1erent &rom the one used by the ear"y investigators( it wi"" not &orm two who"e
embryos.
3 debate arose over what e8act"y was happening. ;hich embryo ce""s are
determined( 5ust when do they become irreversib"y committed to their &ates( and
what are the >morphogenetic determinants? that te"" a ce"" what to becomeG 'ut
the debate cou"d not be reso"ved because no one was ab"e to as$ the crucia"
-uestions in a &orm in which they cou"d be pursued productive"y. Recent
discoveries in mo"ecu"ar bio"ogy( however( have opened up prospects &or a
reso"ution o& the debate. ,ow investigators thin$ they $now at "east some o& the
mo"ecu"es that act as morphogenetic determinants in ear"y deve"opment. They
have been ab"e to show that( in a sense( ce"" determination begins even be&ore an
egg is &erti"i+ed.
tudying sea urchins( bio"ogist 9au" Eross &ound that an un&erti"i+ed egg
contains substances that &unction as morphogenetic determinants. They are
"ocated in the cytop"asm o& the egg ce""= i.e.( in that part o& the ce""6s protop"asm
that "ies outside o& the nuc"eus. 2n the un&erti"i+ed egg( the substances are
inactive and are not distributed homogeneous"y. ;hen the egg is &erti"i+ed( the
substances become active and( presumab"y( govern the behavior o& the genes
they interact with. ince the substances are uneven"y distributed in the egg( when
the &erti"i+ed egg divides( the resu"ting ce""s are di1erent &rom the start and so can
be -ua"itative"y di1erent in their own gene activity.
The substances that Eross studied are materna" messenger R,36s!products o&
certain o& the materna" genes. )e and other bio"ogists studying a wide variety o&
organisms have &ound that these particu"ar R,36s direct( in "arge part( the
synthesis o& histones( a c"ass o& proteins that bind to K,3. <nce synthesi+ed( the
histones move into the ce"" nuc"eus( where section o& K,3 wrap around them to
&orm a structure that resemb"es beads( or $nots( on a string. The beads are K,3
segments wrapped around the histones= the string is the intervening K,3. 3nd it
is the structure o& these beaded K,3 strings that guide the &ate o& the ce""s in
which they are "ocated.
1. The passage is most probably directed at which kind of audience%
(A) ;tate legislators deciding about funding le'els for a state(funded biological
laboratory
(B) ;cientists speciali!ing in molecular genetics
05 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(C) =eaders of an alumni newsletter published by the college that @aul Bross
attended
() ?arine biologists studying the processes that gi'e rise to new species
(#) :ndergraduate biology ma<ors in a molecular biology course
2. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the morphogenetic determinants present in
the early embryo are
(A) located in the nucleus of the embryo cells
(B) e'enly distributed unless the embryo is not de'eloping normally
(C) inacti'e until the embryo cells become irre'ersibly committed to their final
function
() identical to those that were already present in the unfertili!ed egg
(#) present in larger "uantities than is necessary for the de'elopment of a single
indi'idual
.. The main topic of the passage is
(A) the early de'elopment of embryos of lower marine organisms
(B) the main contribution of modern embryology to molecular biology
(C) the role of molecular biology in dispro'ing older theories of embryonic
de'elopment
() cell determination as an issue in the study of embryonic de'elopment
(#) scientific dogma as a factor in the recent debate o'er the 'alue of molecular
biology
0. According to the passage/ when biologists belie'ed that the cells in the early
embryo were undetermined/ they made which of the following mistakes%
(A) They did not attempt to replicate the original e$periment of separating an
embryo into two parts.
(B) They did not reali!e that there was a connection between the issue of cell
determination and the outcome of the separation e$periment.
(C) They assumed that the results of e$periments on embryos did not depend on
the particular animal species used for such e$periments.
() They assumed that it was crucial to perform the separation e$periment at an
early stage in the embryo4s life.
(#) They assumed that different ways of separating an embryo into two parts
would be e"ui'alent as far as the fate of the two parts was concerned.
1. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the initial production of histones after an
egg is fertili!ed takes place
(A) in the cytoplasm
(B) in the maternal genes
(C) throughout the protoplasm
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() in the beaded portions of the 9A strings
(#) in certain sections of the cell nucleus
2. 3t can be inferred from the passage that which of the following is dependent on the
fertili!ation of an egg%
(A) Copying of maternal genes to produce maternal messenger =9A4s
(B) ;ynthesis of proteins called histones
(C) i'ision of a cell into its nucleus and the cytoplasm
() etermination of the egg cell4s potential for di'ision
(#) Beneration of all of a cell4s morphogenetic determinants
-. According to the passage/ the morphogenetic determinants present in the
unfertili!ed egg cell are which of the following%
(A) @roteins bound to the nucleus
(B) )istones
(C) ?aternal messenger =9A4s
() Cytoplasm
(#) 9onbeaded inter'ening 9A
6. The passage suggests that which of the following plays a role in determining
whether an embryo separated into two parts will de'elop as two normal embryos%
3. The stage in the embryo4s life at which the separation occurs
33. The instrument with which the separations is accomplished
333. The plane in which the cut is made that separates the embryo
(A) 3 only
(B) 33 only
(C) 3 and 33 only
() 3 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
,. &hich of the following circumstances is most comparable to the impasse
biologists encountered in trying to resol'e the debate about cell determination
(lines 12(16)%
(A) The problems faced by a literary scholar who wishes to use original source
materials that are written in an unfamiliar foreign language
(B) The situation of a mathematician who in preparing a proof of a theorem for
publication detects a reasoning error in the proof
(C) The difficulties of a space engineer who has to design e"uipment to function in
an en'ironment in which it cannot first be tested
() The predicament of a linguist trying to de'elop a theory of language
ac"uisition when knowledge of the structure of language itself is rudimentary
02 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
at best
(#) The dilemma confronting a foundation when the funds a'ailable to it are
sufficient to support one of two e"ually deser'ing scientific pro<ects but not
both
Passage 15 (15/63)
2n the two decades between 1910 and 1970( over ten percent o& the '"ac$
popu"ation o& the United tates "e&t the outh( where the preponderance o& the
'"ac$ popu"ation had been "ocated( and migrated to northern states( with the
"argest number moving( it is c"aimed( between 191L and 1918. 2t has been
&re-uent"y assumed( but not proved( that the ma5ority o& the migrants in what has
come to be ca""ed the Ereat Bigration came &rom rura" areas and were motivated
by two concurrent &actorsA the co""apse o& the cotton industry &o""owing the bo""
weevi" in&estation( which began in 1898( and increased demand in the ,orth &or
"abor &o""owing the cessation o& @uropean immigration caused by the outbrea$ o&
the :irst ;or"d ;ar in 191M. This assumption has "ed to the conc"usion that the
migrants6 subse-uent "ac$ o& economic mobi"ity in the ,orth is tied to rura"
bac$ground( a bac$ground that imp"ies un&ami"iarity with urban "iving and a "ac$
o& industria" s$i""s.
'ut the -uestion o& who actua""y "e&t the outh has never been rigorous"y
investigated. 3"though numerous investigations document an e8odus &rom rura"
southern areas to southern cities prior to the Ereat Bigration( no one has
considered whether the same migrants then moved on to northern cities. 2n 1910
over L00(000 '"ac$ wor$ers( or ten percent o& the '"ac$ wor$ &orce( reported
themse"ves to be engaged in >manu&acturing and mechanica" pursuits(? the
&edera" census category rough"y encompassing the entire industria" sector. The
Ereat Bigration cou"d easi"y have been made up entire"y o& this group and their
&ami"ies. 2t is perhaps surprising to argue that an emp"oyed popu"ation cou"d be
enticed to move( but an e8p"anation "ies in the "abor conditions then preva"ent in
the outh.
3bout thirty-#ve percent o& the urban '"ac$ popu"ation in the outh was
engaged in s$i""ed trades. ome were &rom the o"d artisan c"ass o& s"avery!
b"ac$smiths( masons( carpenters!which had had a monopo"y o& certain trades(
but they were gradua""y being pushed out by competition( mechani+ation( and
obso"escence. The remaining si8ty-#ve percent( more recent"y urbani+ed( wor$ed
in new"y deve"oped industries!tobacco( "umber( coa" and iron manu&acture( and
rai"roads. ;ages in the outh( however( were "ow( and '"ac$ wor$ers were aware(
through "abor recruiters and the '"ac$ press( that they cou"d earn more even as
uns$i""ed wor$ers in the ,orth than they cou"d as artisans in the outh. 3&ter the
bo"" weevi" in&estation( urban '"ac$ wor$ers &aced competition &rom the continuing
inDu8 o& both '"ac$ and ;hite rura" wor$ers( who were driven to undercut the
wages &ormer"y paid &or industria" 5obs. Thus( a move north wou"d be seen as
GMAT 0.
advantageous to a group that was a"ready urbani+ed and steadi"y emp"oyed( and
the easy conc"usion tying their subse-uent economic prob"ems in the ,orth to
their rura" bac$ground comes into -uestion.
1. The author indicates e$plicitly that which of the following records has been a
source of information in her in'estigation%
(A) :nited ;tates 3mmigration ;er'ice reports from 1,10 to 1,.5
(B) @ayrolls of southern manufacturing firms between 1,15 and 1,.5
(C) The 'olume of cotton e$ports between 16,6 and 1,15
() The federal census of 1,15
(#) Ad'ertisements of labor recruiters appearing in southern newspapers after
1,15
2. 3n the passage/ the author anticipates which of the following as a possible
ob<ection to her argument%
(A) 3t is uncertain how many people actually migrated during the Breat ?igration.
(B) The e'entual economic status of the Breat ?igration migrants has not been
ade"uately traced.
(C) 3t is not likely that people with steady <obs would ha'e reason to mo'e to
another area of the country.
() 3t is not true that the term *manufacturing and mechanical pursuits+ actually
encompasses the entire industrial sector.
(#) 8f the Black workers li'ing in southern cities/ only those in a small number of
trades were threatened by obsolescence.
.. According to the passage/ which of the following is true of wages in southern
cities in 1,15%
(A) They were being pushed lower as a result of increased competition.
(B) They had begun t to rise so that southern industry could attract rural workers.
(C) They had increased for skilled workers but decreased for unskilled workers.
() They had increased in large southern cities but decreased in small southern
cities.
(#) They had increased in newly de'eloped industries but decreased in the older
trades.
0. The author cites each of the following as possible influences in a Black worker4s
decision to migrate north in the Breat ?igration #DC#@T
(A) wage le'els in northern cities
(B) labor recruiters
(C) competition from rural workers
() 'oting rights in northern states
(#) the Black press
00 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
1. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the *easy conclusion+ mentioned in line 1.
is based on which of the following assumptions%
(A) @eople who migrate from rural areas to large cities usually do so for economic
reasons.
(B) ?ost people who lea'e rural areas to take <obs in cities return to rural areas as
soon as it is financially possible for them to do so.
(C) @eople with rural backgrounds are less likely to succeed economically in cities
than are those with urban backgrounds.
() ?ost people who were once skilled workers are not willing to work as
unskilled workers.
(#) @eople who migrate from their birthplaces to other regions of country seldom
undertake a second migration.
2. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) support an alternati'e to an accepted methodology
(B) present e'idence that resol'es a contradiction
(C) introduce a recently disco'ered source of information
() challenge a widely accepted e$planation
(#) argue that a discarded theory deser'es new attention
-. According to information in the passage/ which of the following is a correct
se"uence of groups of workers/ from highest paid to lowest paid/ in the period
between 1,15 and 1,.5%
(A) Artisans in the 9orthI artisans in the ;outhI unskilled workers in the 9orthI
unskilled workers in the ;outh
(B) Artisans in the 9orth and ;outhI unskilled workers in the 9orthI unskilled
workers in the ;outh
(C) Artisans in the 9orthI unskilled workers in the 9orthI artisans in the ;outh
() Artisans in the 9orth and ;outhI unskilled urban workers in the 9orthI
unskilled rural workers in the ;outh
(#) Artisans in the 9orth and ;outh/ unskilled rural workers in the 9orth and
;outhI unskilled urban workers in the 9orth and ;outh
6. The material in the passage would be most rele'ant to a long discussion of which
of the following topics%
(A) The reasons for the subse"uent economic difficulties of those who participated
in the Breat ?igration
(B) The effect of migration on the regional economies of the :nited ;tates
following the >irst &orld &ar
(C) The transition from a rural to an urban e$istence for those who migrated in the
Breat ?igration
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() The transformation of the agricultural ;outh following the boll wee'il
infestation
(#) The disappearance of the artisan class in the :nited ;tates as a conse"uence of
mechani!ation in the early twentieth century
Passage 16 (16/63)
2n 189L a Eeorgia coup"e suing &or damages in the accidenta" death o& their
two year o"d was to"d that since the chi"d had made no rea" economic contribution
to the &ami"y( there was no "iabi"ity &or damages. 2n contrast( "ess than a century
"ater( in 1979( the parents o& a three-year-o"d sued in ,ew Ior$ &or accidenta"-
death damages and won an award o& .7/0(000.
The trans&ormation in socia" va"ues imp"icit in 5u8taposing these two incidents
is the sub5ect o& Fiviana Qe"i+er6s e8ce""ent boo$( Pricing the Priceless Child.
Kuring the nineteenth century( she argues( the concept o& the >use&u"? chi"d who
contributed to the &ami"y economy gave way gradua""y to the present-day notion
o& the >use"ess? chi"d who( though producing no income &or( and indeed e8treme"y
cost"y to( its parents( is yet considered emotiona""y >price"ess.? ;e"" estab"ished
among segments o& the midd"e and upper c"asses by the mid-18006s( this new
view o& chi"dhood spread throughout society in the "ate-nineteenth and ear"y-
twentieth centuries as re&ormers introduced chi"d-"abor regu"ations and
compu"sory education "aws predicated in part on the assumption that a chi"d6s
emotiona" va"ue made chi"d "abor taboo.
:or Qe"i+er the origins o& this trans&ormation were many and comp"e8. The
gradua" erosion o& chi"dren6s productive va"ue in a maturing industria" economy(
the dec"ine in birth and death rates( especia""y in chi"d morta"ity( and the
deve"opment o& the companionate &ami"y (a &ami"y in which members were united
by e8p"icit bonds o& "ove rather than duty) were a"" &actors critica" in changing the
assessment o& chi"dren6s worth. Iet >e8pu"sion o& chi"dren &rom the Rcash ne8us(6
a"though c"ear"y shaped by pro&ound changes in the economic( occupationa"( and
&ami"y structures(? Qe"i+er maintains( >was a"so part o& a cu"tura" process Ro&
sacre"i+ation6 o& chi"dren6s "ives.? 9rotecting chi"dren &rom the crass business wor"d
became enormous"y important &or "ate-nineteenth-century midd"e-c"ass
3mericans( she suggests= this sacra"i+ation was a way o& resisting what they
perceived as the re"ent"ess corruption o& human va"ues by the mar$etp"ace.
2n stressing the cu"tura" determinants o& a chi"d6s worth( Qe"i+er ta$es issue
with practitioners o& the new >socio"ogica" economics(? who have ana"y+ed such
traditiona""y socio"ogica" topics as crime( marriage( education( and hea"th so"e"y in
terms o& their economic determinants. 3""owing on"y a sma"" ro"e &or cu"tura" &orces
in the &orm o& individua" >pre&erences(? these socio"ogists tend to view a"" human
behaviors as directed primari"y by the princip"e o& ma8imi+ing economic gain.
Qe"i+er is high"y critica" o& this approach( and emphasi+es instead the opposite
phenomenonA the power o& socia" va"ues to trans&orm price. 3s chi"dren became
02 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
more va"uab"e in emotiona" terms( she argues( their >e8change? or >surrender?
va"ue on the mar$et( that is( the conversion o& their intangib"e worth into cash
terms( became much greater.
1. 3t can be inferred from the passage that accidental(death damage awards in
America during the nineteenth century tended to be based principally on the
(A) earnings of the person at time of death
(B) wealth of the party causing the death
(C) degree of culpability of the party causing the death
() amount of money that had been spent on the person killed
(#) amount of suffering endured by the family of the person killed
2. 3t can be inferred from the passage that in the early 16554s children were generally
regarded by their families as indi'iduals who
(A) needed enormous amounts of security and affection
(B) re"uired constant super'ision while working
(C) were important to the economic well(being of a family
() were unsuited to spending long hours in school
(#) were financial burdens assumed for the good of society
.. &hich of the following alternati'e e$planations of the change in the cash 'alue of
children would be most likely to be put forward by sociological economists as they
are described in the passage%
(A) The cash 'alue of children rose during the nineteenth century because parents
began to increase their emotional in'estment in the upbringing of their
children.
(B) The cash 'alue of children rose during the nineteenth century because their
e$pected earnings o'er the course of a lifetime increased greatly.
(C) The cash 'alue of children rose during the nineteenth century because the
spread of humanitarian ideals resulted in a wholesale reappraisal of the worth
of an indi'idual.
() The cash 'alue of children rose during the nineteenth century because
compulsory education laws reduced the supply/ and thus raised the costs/ of
a'ailable child labor.
(#) The cash 'alue of children rose during the nineteenth century because of
changes in the way negligence law assessed damages in accidental death cases.
0. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) re'iew the literature in a new academic sub(field
(B) present the central thesis of a recent book
(C) contrast two approaches to analy!ing historical change
() refute a traditional e$planation of a social phenomenon
GMAT 0-
(#) encourage further work on a neglected historical topic
1. 3t can be inferred from the passage that which of the following statements was true
of American families o'er the course of the nineteenth century%
(A) The a'erage si!e of families grew considerably.
(B) The percentage of families in'ol'ed in industrial work declined dramatically.
(C) >amily members became more emotionally bonded to one another.
() >amily members spent an increasing amount of time working with each other.
(#) >amily members became more economically dependent on each other.
2. Leli!er refers to all of the following as important influences in changing the
assessment of children4s worth #DC#@T changes in
(A) the mortality rate
(B) the nature of industry
(C) the nature of the family
() attitudes toward reform mo'ements
(#) attitudes toward the marketplace
-. &hich of the following would be most consistent with the practices of sociological
economics as these practices are described in the passage%
(A) Arguing that most health(care professionals enter the field because they
belie'e it to be the most socially useful of any occupation
(B) Arguing that most college students choose ma<ors that they belie'e will lead to
the most highly paid <obs a'ailable to them
(C) Arguing that most decisions about marriage and di'orce are based on rational
assessments of the likelihood that each partner will remain committed to the
relationship
() Analy!ing changes in the number of people enrolled in colleges and
uni'ersities as a function of changes in the economic health of these
institutions
(#) Analy!ing changes in the ages at which people get married as a function of a
change in the a'erage number of years that young people ha'e li'ed away from
their parents
Passage 17 (17/63)
9rior to 197/( union e1orts to organi+e pub"ic-sector c"erica" wor$ers( most o&
whom are women( were somewhat "imited. The &actors &avoring unioni+ation
drives seem to have been either the presence o& "arge numbers o& wor$ers( as in
,ew Ior$ %ity( to ma$e it worth the e1ort( or the concentration o& sma"" numbers
in one or two "ocations( such as a hospita"( to ma$e it re"ative"y easy. Receptivity
to unioni+ation on the wor$ers6 part was a"so a consideration( but when there
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were "arge numbers invo"ved or the c"erica" wor$ers were the on"y unorgani+ed
group in a 5urisdiction( the mu"ti-occupationa" unions wou"d o&ten try to organi+e
them regard"ess o& the wor$ers6 initia" receptivity. The strategic reasoning was
based( #rst( on the concern that po"iticians and administrators might p"ay o1
unioni+ed against non-unioni+ed wor$ers( and( second( on the conviction that a
&u""y unioni+ed pub"ic wor$ &orce meant power( both at the bargaining tab"e and in
the "egis"ature. 2n "oca"ities where c"erica" wor$ers were &ew in number( were
scattered in severa" wor$p"aces( and e8pressed no interest in being organi+ed(
unions more o&ten than not ignored them in the pre-197/ period.
'ut since the mid-19706s( a di1erent strategy has emerged. 2n 1977( 7M
percent o& government c"erica" wor$ers were represented by a "abor organi+ation(
compared with ML percent o& government pro&essiona"s( MM percent o& government
b"ue-co""ar wor$ers( and M1 percent o& government service wor$ers. ince then(
however( the biggest increases in pub"ic-sector unioni+ation have been among
c"erica" wor$ers. 'etween 1977 and 1980( the number o& unioni+ed government
wor$ers in b"ue-co""ar and service occupations increased on"y about 1./ percent(
whi"e in the white-co""ar occupations the increase was 40 percent and among
c"erica" wor$ers in particu"ar( the increase was 44 percent.
;hat accounts &or this upsurge in unioni+ation among c"erica" wor$ersG :irst(
more women have entered the wor$ &orce in the past &ew years( and more o& them
p"an to remain wor$ing unti" retirement age. %onse-uent"y( they are probab"y
more concerned than their predecessors were about 5ob security and economic
bene#ts. 3"so( the women6s movement has succeeded in "egitimi+ing the
economic and po"itica" activism o& women on their own beha"&( thereby producing
a more positive attitude toward unions. The absence o& any comparab"e increase
in unioni+ation among private-sector c"erica" wor$ers( however( identi#es the
primary cata"yst!the structura" change in the mu"ti-occupationa" pub"ic-sector
unions themse"ves. <ver the past twenty years( the occupationa" distribution in
these unions has been steadi"y shi&ting &rom predominant"y b"ue-co""ar to
predominant"y white-co""ar. 'ecause there are &ar more women in white-co""ar
5obs( an increase in the proportion o& &ema"e members has accompanied the
occupationa" shi&t and has a"tered union po"icy-ma$ing in &avor o& organi+ing
women and addressing women6s issues.
1. According to the passage/ the public(sector workers who were most likely to
belong to unions in 1,-- were
(A) professionals
(B) managers
(C) clerical workers
() ser'ice workers
(#) blue(collar workers
2. The author cites union efforts to achie'e a fully unioni!ed work force (line 1.(1,)
GMAT 0,
in order to account for why
(A) politicians might try to oppose public(sector union organi!ing
(B) public(sector unions ha'e recently focused on organi!ing women
(C) early organi!ing efforts often focused on areas where there were large numbers
of workers
() union efforts with regard to public(sector clerical workers increased
dramatically after 1,-1
(#) unions sometimes tried to organi!e workers regardless of the workers4 initial
interest in unioni!ation
.. The author4s claim that/ since the mid(1,-54s/ a new strategy has emerged in the
unioni!ation of public(sector clerical workers (line 2.) would be strengthened if
the author
(A) described more fully the attitudes of clerical workers toward labor unions
(B) compared the organi!ing strategies employed by pri'ate(sector unions with
those of public(sector unions
(C) e$plained why politicians and administrators sometimes oppose unioni!ation
of clerical workers
() indicated that the number of unioni!ed public(sector clerical workers was
increasing e'en before the mid(1,-54s
(#) showed that the factors that fa'ored unioni!ation dri'es among these workers
prior to 1,-1 ha'e decreased in importance
0. According to the passage/ in the period prior to 1,-1/ each of the following
considerations helped determine whether a union would attempt to organi!e a
certain group of clerical workers #DC#@T
(A) the number of clerical workers in that group
(B) the number of women among the clerical workers in that group
(C) whether the clerical workers in that area were concentrated in one workplace
or scattered o'er se'eral workplaces
() the degree to which the clerical workers in that group were interested in
unioni!ation
(#) whether all the other workers in the same <urisdiction as that group of clerical
workers were unioni!ed
1. The author states that which of the following is a conse"uence of the women4s
mo'ement of recent years%
(A) An increase in the number of women entering the work force
(B) A structural change in multi(occupational public(sector unions
(C) A more positi'e attitude on the part of women toward unions
() An increase in the proportion of clerical workers that are women
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(#) An increase in the number of women in administrati'e positions
2. The main concern of the passage is to
(A) ad'ocate particular strategies for future efforts to organi!e certain workers into
labor unions
(B) e$plain differences in the unioni!ed proportions of 'arious groups of public(
sector workers
(C) e'aluate the effecti'eness of certain kinds of labor unions that represent
public(sector workers
() analy!ed and e$plain an increase in unioni!ation among a certain category of
workers
(#) describe and distinguish strategies appropriate to organi!ing different
categories of workers
-. The author implies that if the increase in the number of women in the work force
and the impact of the women4s mo'ement were the main causes of the rise in
unioni!ation of public(sector clerical workers/ then
(A) more women would hold administrati'e positions in unions
(B) more women who hold political offices would ha'e positi'e attitudes toward
labor unions
(C) there would be an e"ui'alent rise in unioni!ation of pri'ate(sector clerical
workers
() unions would ha'e shown more interest than they ha'e in organi!ing women
(#) the increase in the number of unioni!ed public(sector clerical workers would
ha'e been greater than it has been
6. The author suggests that it would be disad'antageous to a union if
(A) many workers in the locality were not unioni!ed
(B) the union contributed to political campaigns
(C) the union included only public(sector workers
() the union included workers from se'eral <urisdictions
(#) the union included members from only a few occupations
,. The author implies that/ in comparison with working women today/ women
working in the years prior to the mid(1,-54s showed a greater tendency to
(A) prefer smaller workplaces
(B) e$press a positi'e attitude toward labor unions
(C) ma$imi!e <ob security and economic benefits
() side with administrators in labor disputes
(#) "uit working prior of retirement age
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Passage 18 (18/63)
Bi"an$ovitch proposed in the ear"y twentieth century that the ice ages were
caused by variations in the @arth6s orbit around the un. :or sometime this theory
was considered untestab"e( "arge"y because there was no su*cient"y precise
chrono"ogy o& the ice ages with which the orbita" variations cou"d be matched.
To estab"ish such a chrono"ogy it is necessary to determine the re"ative
amounts o& "and ice that e8isted at various times in the @arth6s past. 3 recent
discovery ma$es such a determination possib"eA re"ative "and-ice vo"ume &or a
given period can be deduced &rom the ratio o& two o8ygen isotopes( 1L and 18(
&ound in ocean sediments. 3"most a"" the o8ygen in water is o8ygen 1L( but a &ew
mo"ecu"es out o& every thousand incorporate the heavier isotope 18. ;hen an ice
age begins( the continenta" ice sheets grow( steadi"y reducing the amount o&
water evaporated &rom the ocean that wi"" eventua""y return to it. 'ecause heavier
isotopes tend to be "e&t behind when water evaporates &rom the ocean sur&aces(
the remaining ocean water becomes progressive"y enriched in o8ygen 18. The
degree o& enrichment can be determined by ana"y+ing ocean sediments o& the
period( because these sediments are composed o& ca"cium carbonate she""s o&
marine organisms( she""s that were constructed with o8ygen atoms drawn &rom
the surrounding ocean. The higher the ratio o& o8ygen 18 to o8ygen 1L in a
sedimentary specimen( the more "and ice there was when the sediment was "aid
down.
3s an indicator o& shi&ts in the @arth6s c"imate( the isotope record has two
advantages. :irst( it is a g"oba" recordA there is remar$ab"y "itt"e variation in
isotope ratios in sedimentary specimens ta$en &rom di1erent continenta"
"ocations. econd( it is a more continuous record than that ta$en &rom roc$s on
"and. 'ecause o& these advantages( sedimentary evidence can be dated with
su*cient accuracy by radiometric methods to estab"ish a precise chrono"ogy o&
the ice ages. The dated isotope record shows that the Ductuations in g"oba" ice
vo"ume over the past severa" hundred thousand years have a patternA an ice age
occurs rough"y once every 100(000 years. These data have estab"ished a strong
connection between variations in the @arth6s orbit and the periodicity o& the ice
ages.
)owever( it is important to note that other &actors( such as vo"canic
particu"ates or variations in the amount o& sun"ight received by the @arth( cou"d
potentia""y have a1ected the c"imate. The advantage o& the Bi"an$ovitch theory is
that it is testab"eA changes in the @arth6s orbit can be ca"cu"ated and dated by
app"ying ,ewton6s "aws o& gravity to progressive"y ear"ier con#gurations o& the
bodies in the so"ar system. Iet the "ac$ o& in&ormation about other possib"e &actors
a1ecting g"oba" c"imate does not ma$e them unimportant.
1. 3n the passage/ the author is primarily interested in
(A) suggesting an alternati'e to an outdated research method
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(B) introducing a new research method that calls an accepted theory into "uestion
(C) emphasi!ing the instability of data gathered from the application of a new
scientific method
() presenting a theory and describing a new method to test that theory
(#) initiating a debate about a widely accepted theory
2. The author of the passage would be most likely to agree with which of the
following statements about the ?ilanko'itch theory%
(A) 3t is the only possible e$planation for the ice ages.
(B) 3t is too limited to pro'ide a plausible e$planation for the ice ages/ despite
recent research findings.
(C) 3t cannot be tested and confirmed until further research on 'olcanic acti'ity is
done.
() 3t is one plausible e$planation/ though not the only one/ for the ice ages.
(#) 3t is not a plausible e$planation for the ice ages/ although it has opened up
promising possibilities for future research.
.. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the isotope record taken from ocean
sediments would be less useful to researchers if which of the following were true%
(A) 3t indicated that lighter isotopes of o$ygen predominated at certain times.
(B) 3t had far more gaps in its se"uence than the record taken from rocks on land.
(C) 3t indicated that climate shifts did not occur e'ery 155/555 years.
() 3t indicated that the ratios of o$ygen 12 and o$ygen 16 in ocean water were
not consistent with those found in fresh water.
(#) 3t stretched back for only a million years.
0. According to the passage/ which of the following is true of the ratios of o$ygen
isotopes in ocean sediments%
(A) They indicate that sediments found during an ice age contain more calcium
carbonate than sediments formed at other times.
(B) They are less reliable than the e'idence from rocks on land in determining the
'olume of land ice.
(C) They can be used to deduce the relati'e 'olume of land ice that was present
when the sediment was laid down.
() They are more unpredictable during an ice age than in other climatic
conditions.
(#) They can be used to determine atmospheric conditions at 'arious times in the
past.
1. 3t can be inferred from the passage that precipitation formed from e'aporated
ocean water has
(A) the same isotopic ratio as ocean water
GMAT 1.
(B) less o$ygen 16 than does ocean water
(C) less o$ygen 16 than has the ice contained in continental ice sheets
() a different isotopic composition than has precipitation formed from water on
land
(#) more o$ygen 12 than has precipitation formed from fresh water
2. According to the passage/ which of the following is (are) true of the ice ages%
3. The last ice age occurred about 21/555 years ago.
33. 3ce ages ha'e lasted about 15/555 years for at least the last se'eral hundred
thousand years.
333. 3ce ages ha'e occurred about e'ery 155/555 years for at least the last se'eral
hundred thousand years.
(A) 3 only
(B) 33 only
(C) 333 only
() 3 and only
(#) 3/ 33 and 333
-. 3t can be inferred from the passage that calcium carbonate shells
(A) are not as susceptible to deterioration as rocks
(B) are less common in sediments formed during an ice age
(C) are found only in areas that were once co'ered by land ice
() contain radioacti'e material that can be used to determine a sediment4s
isotopic composition
(#) reflect the isotopic composition of the water at the time the shells were formed
6. The purpose of the last paragraph of the passage is to
(A) offer a note of caution
(B) introduce new e'idence
(C) present two recent disco'eries
() summari!e material in the preceding paragraphs
(#) offer two e$planations for a phenomenon
,. According to the passage/ one ad'antage of studying the isotope record of ocean
sediments is that it
(A) corresponds with the record of ice 'olume taken from rocks on land
(B) shows little 'ariation in isotope ratios when samples are taken from different
continental locations
(C) corresponds with predictions already made by climatologists and e$perts in
other fields
() confirms the record of ice 'olume initially established by analy!ing 'ariations
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in 'olcanic emissions
(#) pro'ides data that can be used to substantiate records concerning 'ariations in
the amount of sunlight recei'ed by the #arth
Passage 19 (19/63)
2n contrast to traditiona" ana"yses o& minority business( the socio"ogica"
ana"ysis contends that minority business ownership is a group-"eve" phenomenon(
in that it is "arge"y dependent upon socia"-group resources &or its deve"opment.
peci#ca""y( this ana"ysis indicates that support networ$s p"ay a critica" ro"e in
starting and maintaining minority business enterprises by providing owners with a
range o& assistance( &rom the in&orma" encouragement o& &ami"y members and
&riends to dependab"e sources o& "abor and c"iente"e &rom the owner6s ethnic group.
uch se"&-he"p networ$s( which encourage and support ethnic minority
entrepreneurs( consist o& >primary? institutions( those c"osest to the individua" in
shaping his or her behavior and be"ie&s. They are characteri+ed by the &ace-to-&ace
association and cooperation o& persons united by ties o& mutua" concern. They
&orm an intermediate socia" "eve" between the individua" and "arger >secondary?
institutions based on impersona" re"ationships. 9rimary institutions comprising the
support networ$ inc"ude $inship( peer( and neighborhood or community
subgroups.
3 ma5or &unction o& se"&-he"p networ$s is #nancia" support. Bost scho"ars agree
that minority business owners have depended primari"y on &ami"y &unds and
ethnic community resources &or investment capita". 9ersona" savings have been
accumu"ated( o&ten through &ruga" "iving habits that re-uire sacri#ces by the
entire &ami"y and are thus a product o& "ong-term &ami"y #nancia" behavior.
3dditiona" "oans and gi&ts &rom re"atives( &orthcoming because o& group ob"igation
rather than narrow investment ca"cu"ation( have supp"emented persona" savings.
2ndividua" entrepreneurs do not necessari"y re"y on their $in because they cannot
obtain #nancia" bac$ing &rom commercia" resources. They may actua""y avoid
ban$s because they assume that commercia" institutions either cannot
comprehend the specia" needs o& minority enterprise or charge unreasonab"y high
interest rates.
;ithin the "arger ethnic community( rotating credit associations have been
used to raise capita". These associations are in&orma" c"ubs o& &riends and other
trusted members o& the ethnic group who ma$e regu"ar contributions to a &und
that is given to each contributor in rotation. <ne author estimates that M0 percent
o& ,ew Ior$ %hinatown #rms estab"ished during 1900-19/0 uti"i+ed such
associations as their initia" source o& capita". )owever( recent immigrants and
third or &ourth generations o& o"der groups now emp"oy rotating credit associations
on"y occasiona""y to raise investment &unds. ome groups( "i$e '"ac$ 3mericans(
&ound other means o& #nancia" support &or their entrepreneuria" e1orts. The #rst
'"ac$-operated ban$s were created in the "ate nineteenth century as depositories
GMAT 11
&or dues co""ected &rom &raterna" or "odge groups( which themse"ves had sprung
&rom '"ac$ churches. '"ac$ ban$s made "imited investments in other '"ac$
enterprises. 2rish immigrants in 3merican cities organi+ed many bui"ding and "oan
associations to provide capita" &or home construction and purchase. They( in turn(
provided wor$ &or many 2rish home-bui"ding contractor #rms. <ther ethnic and
minority groups &o""owed simi"ar practices in &ounding ethnic-directed #nancia"
institutions.
1. Based on the information in the passage/ it would be K#A;T likely for which of
the following persons to be part of a self(help network%
(A) The entrepreneur4s childhood friend
(B) The entrepreneur4s aunt
(C) The entrepreneur4s religious leader
() The entrepreneur4s neighbor
(#) The entrepreneur4s banker
2. &hich of the following illustrates the working of a self(help support network/ as
such networks are described in the passage%
(A) A public high school offers courses in book(keeping and accounting as part of
its open(enrollment adult education program.
(B) The local go'ernment in a small city sets up a program that helps teen(agers
find summer <obs.
(C) A ma<or commercial bank offers low(interest loans to e$perienced indi'iduals
who hope to establish their own businesses.
() A neighborhood(based fraternal organi!ation de'elops a program of on(the(<ob
training for its members and their friends.
(#) A community college offers country residents training programs that can lead
to certification in a 'ariety of technical trades.
.. &hich of the following can be inferred from the passage about rotating credit
associations%
(A) They were de'eloped e$clusi'ely by Chinese immigrants.
(B) They accounted for a significant portion of the in'estment capital used by
Chinese immigrants in 9ew Hork in the early twentieth century.
(C) Third(generation members of an immigrant group who started businesses in
the 1,254s would ha'e been unlikely to rely on them.
() They were fre"uently <oint endea'ors by members of two or three different
ethnic groups.
(#) =ecent immigrants still fre"uently turn to rotating credit associations instead of
banks for in'estment capital.
0. The passage best supports which of the following statements%
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(A) A minority entrepreneur who had no assistance from family members would
not be able to start a business.
(B) ;elf(help networks ha'e been effecti'e in helping entrepreneurs primarily in
the last 15 years.
(C) ?inority groups ha'e de'eloped a range of alternati'es to standard financing
of business 'entures.
() The financial institutions founded by 'arious ethnic groups owe their success
to their uni"ue formal organi!ation.
(#) ;uccessful minority(owned businesses succeed primarily because of the
personal strengths of their founders.
1. &hich of the following best describes the organi!ation of the second paragraph%
(A) An argument is delineated/ followed by a counter(argument.
(B) An assertion is made and se'eral e$amples are pro'ided to illustrate it.
(C) A situation is described and its historical background is then outlined.
() An e$ample of a phenomenon is gi'en and is then used as a basis for general
conclusions.
(#) A group of parallel incidents is described and the distinctions among the
incidents are then clarified.
2. According to the passage/ once a minority(owned business is established/ self(help
networks contribute which of the following to that business%
(A) 3nformation regarding possible e$pansion of the business into nearby
communities
(B) #ncouragement of a business climate that is nearly free of direct competition
(C) 8pportunities for the business owner to rein'est profits in other minority(
owned businesses
() Contact with people who are likely to be customers of the new business
(#) Contact with minority entrepreneurs who are members of other ethnic groups
-. 3t can be inferred from the passage that traditional analyses of minority business
would be K#A;T likely to do which of the following%
(A) #$amine businesses primarily in their social conte$ts
(B) >ocus on current/ rather than historical/ e$amples of business enterprises
(C) ;tress common e$periences of indi'idual entrepreneurs in starting businesses
() >ocus on the maintenance of businesses/ rather than means of starting them
(#) >ocus on the role of indi'idual entrepreneurs in starting a business
6. &hich of the following can be inferred from the passage about the 3rish building
and loan associations mentioned in the last paragraph%
(A) They were started by third( or fourth(generation immigrants.
GMAT 1-
(B) They originated as offshoots of church(related groups.
(C) They fre"uently helped 3rish entrepreneurs to finance business not connected
with construction.
() They contributed to the employment of many 3rish construction workers.
(#) They pro'ided assistance for construction businesses owned by members of
other ethnic groups.
Passage 20 (20/63)
pecies interdependence in nature con&ers many bene#ts on the species
invo"ved( but it can a"so become a point o& wea$ness when one species invo"ved
in the re"ationship is a1ected by a catastrophe. Thus( Dowering p"ant species
dependent on insect po""ination( as opposed to se"&-po""ination or wind po""ination(
cou"d be endangered when the popu"ation o& insect-po""inators is dep"eted by the
use o& pesticides.
2n the &orests o& ,ew 'runswic$( &or e8amp"e( various pesticides have been
sprayed in the past 4/ years in e1orts to contro" the spruce budworm( an
economica""y signi#cant pest. cientists have now investigated the e1ects o& the
spraying o& Bataci"( one o& the anti-budworm agents that is "east to8ic to insect-
po""inators. They studied Bataci"6s e1ects on insect morta"ity in a wide variety o&
wi"d insect species and on p"ant &ecundity( e8pressed as the percentage o& the
tota" Dowers on an individua" p"ant that actua""y deve"oped &ruit and bore seeds.
They &ound that the most pronounced morta"ity a&ter the spraying o& Bataci"
occurred among the sma""er bees and one &ami"y o& Dies( insects that were a""
important po""inators o& numerous species o& p"ants growing beneath the tree
canopy o& &orests. The &ecundity o& p"ants in one common indigenous species( the
red-osier dogwood( was signi#cant"y reduced in the sprayed areas as compared to
that o& p"ants in contro" p"ots where Bataci" was not sprayed. This species is high"y
dependent on the insect-po""inators most vu"nerab"e to Bataci". The creeping
dogwood( a species simi"ar to the red-osier dogwood( but which is po""inated by
"arge bees( such as bumb"ebees( showed no signi#cant dec"ine in &ecundity. ince
"arge bees are not a1ected by the spraying o& Bataci"( these resu"ts add weight to
the argument that spraying where the po""inators are sensitive to the pesticide
used decreases p"ant &ecundity.
The -uestion o& whether the decrease in p"ant &ecundity caused by the
spraying o& pesticides actua""y causes a dec"ine in the overa"" popu"ation o&
Dowering p"ant species sti"" remains unanswered. 9"ant species dependent so"e"y
on seeds &or surviva" or dispersa" are obvious"y more vu"nerab"e to any decrease
in p"ant &ecundity that occurs( whatever its cause. 2&( on the other hand(
vegetative growth and dispersa" (by means o& shoots or runners) are avai"ab"e as
a"ternative reproductive strategies &or a species( then decreases in p"ant &ecundity
may be o& "itt"e conse-uence. The &ecundity e1ects described here are "i$e"y to
have the most pro&ound impact on p"ant species with a"" &our o& the &o""owing
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characteristicsA a short "i&e span( a narrow geographic range( an incapacity &or
vegetative propagation( and a dependence on a sma"" number o& insect-po""inator
species. 9erhaps we shou"d give specia" attention to the conservation o& such
p"ant species since they "ac$ $ey &actors in their de&enses against the
environmenta" disruption caused by pesticide use.
1. &hich of the following best summari!es the main point of the passage%
(A) ;pecies interdependence is a point of weakness for some plants/ but is
generally beneficial to insects in'ol'ed in pollination.
(B) #fforts to control the spruce budworm ha'e had deleterious effects on the red(
osier dogwood.
(C) The used of pesticides may be endangering certain plant species dependent on
insects for pollination.
() The spraying of pesticides can reduce the fecundity of a plant species/ but
probably does not affect its o'erall population stability.
(#) @lant species lacking key factors in their defenses against human
en'ironmental disruption will probably become e$tinct.
2. According to the author/ a flowering plant species whose fecundity has declined
due to pesticide spraying may not e$perience an o'erall population decline if the
plant species can do which of the following%
(A) =eproduce itself by means of shoots and runners.
(B) ;ur'i'e to the end of the growing season.
(C) ;ur'i'e in harsh climates.
() =espond to the fecundity decline by producing more flowers.
(#) Attract large insects as pollinators.
.. The passage suggests that the lack of an obser'ed decline in the fecundity of the
creeping dogwood strengthens the researchers conclusions regarding pesticide use
because the
(A) creeping dogwood is a species that does not resemble other forest plants
(B) creeping dogwood is a species pollinated by a broader range of insect species
than are most dogwood species
(C) creeping dogwood grows primarily in regions that were not sprayed with
pesticide/ and so ser'ed as a control for the e$periment
() creeping dogwood is similar to the red(osier dogwood/ but its insect
pollinators are known to be insensiti'e to the pesticide used in the study
(#) geographical range of the creeping dogwood is similar to that of the red(osier
dogwood/ but the latter species relies less on seeds for reproduction
0. The passage suggests that which of the following is true of the forest regions in
9ew Brunswick sprayed with most anti(budworm pesticides other than ?atacil%
GMAT 1,
(A) The fecundity of some flowering plants in those regions may ha'e decreased
to an e'en greater degree than in the regions where ?atacil is used.
(B) 3nsect mortality in those regions occurs mostly among the larger species of
insects/ such as bumblebees.
(C) The number of seeds produced by common plant species in those regions is
probably comparable to the number produced where ?atacil is sprayed.
() ?any more plant species ha'e become e$tinct in those regions than in the
regions where ?atacil is used.
(#) The spruce budworm is under better control in those regions than in the regions
where ?atacil is sprayed.
1. 3t can be inferred that which of the following is true of plant fecundity as it is
defined in the passage%
(A) A plant4s fecundity decreases as the percentage of unpollinated flowers on the
plant increases.
(B) A plant4s fecundity decreases as the number of flowers produced by the plant
decreases.
(C) A plant4s fecundity increases as the number of flowers produced by the plant
increases.
() A plant4s fecundity is usually low if the plant relies on a small number of
insect species for pollination.
(#) A plant4s fecundity is high if the plant can reproduce "uickly by means of
'egetati'e growth as well as by the production of seeds.
2. 3t can be inferred from the passage that which of the following plant species would
be K#A;T likely to e$perience a decrease in fecundity as a result of the spraying
of a pesticide not directly to$ic to plants%
(A) A flowering tree pollinated by only a few insect species
(B) A kind of insect(pollinated 'ine producing few flowers
(C) A wind(pollinated flowering tree that is short(li'ed
() A flowering shrub pollinated by a large number of insect species
(#) A type of wildflower typically pollinated by larger insects
-. &hich of the following assumptions most probably underlies the author4s tentati'e
recommendation in lines 11(10%
(A) )uman acti'ities that result in en'ironmental disruption should be abandoned.
(B) The use of pesticides is likely to continue into the future.
(C) 3t is economically beneficial to preser'e endangered plant species.
() @re'enting the endangerment of a species is less costly than trying to sa'e an
already endangered one.
(#) Conser'ation efforts aimed at preser'ing a few well(chosen species are more
25 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
cost(effecti'e than are broader(based efforts to impro'e the en'ironment.
Passage 21 (21/63)
'ernard 'ai"yn has recent"y reinterpreted the ear"y history o& the United tates
by app"ying new socia" research #ndings on the e8periences o& @uropean
migrants. 2n his reinterpretation( migration becomes the organi+ing princip"e &or
rewriting the history o& preindustria" ,orth 3merica. )is approach rests on &our
separate propositions.
The #rst o& these asserts that residents o& ear"y modern @ng"and moved
regu"ar"y about their countryside= migrating to the ,ew ;or"d was simp"y a
>natura" spi""over.? 3"though at #rst the co"onies he"d "itt"e positive attraction &or
the @ng"ish!they wou"d rather have stayed home!by the eighteenth century
peop"e increasing"y migrated to 3merica because they regarded it as the "and o&
opportunity. econd"y( 'ai"yn ho"ds that( contrary to the notion that used to
Dourish in 3merica history te8tboo$s( there was never a typica" ,ew ;or"d
community. :or e8amp"e( the economic and demographic character o& ear"y ,ew
@ng"and towns varied considerab"y.
'ai"yn6s third proposition suggests two genera" patterns prevai"ing among the
many thousands o& migrantsA one group came as indentured servants( another
came to ac-uire "and. urprising"y( 'ai"yn suggests that those who recruited
indentured servants were the driving &orces o& transat"antic migration. These
co"onia" entrepreneurs he"ped determine the socia" character o& peop"e who came
to preindustria" ,orth 3merica. 3t #rst( thousands o& uns$i""ed "aborers were
recruited= by the 17706s( however( 3merican emp"oyers demanded s$i""ed
artisans.
:ina""y( 'ai"yn argues that the co"onies were a ha"&-civi"i+ed hinter"and o& the
@uropean cu"ture system. )e is undoubted"y correct to insist that the co"onies
were part o& an 3ng"o-3merican empire. 'ut to divide the empire into @ng"ish core
and co"onia" periphery( as 'ai"yn does( deva"ues the achievements o& co"onia"
cu"ture. 2t is true( as 'ai"yn c"aims( that high cu"ture in the co"onies never matched
that in @ng"and. 'ut what o& seventeenth-century ,ew @ng"and( where the sett"ers
created e1ective "aws( bui"t a distinguished university( and pub"ished boo$sG
'ai"yn might respond that ,ew @ng"and was e8ceptiona". )owever( the ideas and
institutions deve"oped by ,ew @ng"and 9uritans had power&u" e1ects on ,orth
3merican cu"ture.
3"though 'ai"yn goes on to app"y his approach to some thousands o&
indentured servants who migrated 5ust prior to the revo"ution( he &ai"s to "in$ their
e8perience with the po"itica" deve"opment o& the United tates. @vidence
presented in his wor$ suggests how we might ma$e such a connection. These
indentured servants were treated as s"aves &or the period during which they had
so"d their time to 3merican emp"oyers. 2t is not surprising that as soon as they
served their time they passed up good wages in the cities and headed west to
GMAT 21
ensure their persona" independence by ac-uiring "and. Thus( it is in the west that
a pecu"iar"y 3merican po"itica" cu"ture began( among co"onists who were
suspicious o& authority and intense"y anti-aristocratic.
1. &hich of the following statements about migrants to colonial 9orth America is
supported by information in the passage%
(A) A larger percentage of migrants to colonial 9orth America came as indentured
ser'ants than as free agents interested in ac"uiring land.
(B) ?igrants who came to the colonies as indentured ser'ants were more
successful at making a li'elihood than were farmers and artisans.
(C) ?igrants to colonial 9orth America were more successful at ac"uiring their
own land during the eighteenth century than during the se'en(tenth century.
() By the 1-.54s/ migrants already skilled in a trade were in more demand by
American employers than were unskilled laborers.
(#) A significant percentage of migrants who came to the colonies to ac"uire land
were forced to work as field hands for prosperous American farmers.
2. The author of the passage states that Bailyn failed to
(A) gi'e sufficient emphasis to the cultural and political interdependence of the
colonies and #ngland
(B) describe carefully how migrants of different ethnic backgrounds preser'ed
their culture in the united ;tates
(C) take ad'antage of social research on the e$periences of colonists who migrated
to colonial 9orth America specifically to ac"uire land
() relate the e$perience of the migrants to the political 'alues that e'entually
shaped the character of the :nited ;tates
(#) in'estigate the li'es of #uropeans before they came to colonial 9orth America
to determine more ade"uately their moti'ations for migrating
.. &hich of the following best summari!es the author4s e'aluation of Bailyn4s fourth
proposition%
(A) 3t is totally implausible.
(B) 3t is partially correct.
(C) 3t is highly admirable.
() 3t is contro'ersial though persuasi'e.
(#) 3t is intriguing though unsubstantiated.
0. According to the passage/ Bailyn and the author agree on which of the following
statements about the culture of colonial 9ew #ngland%
(A) )igh culture in 9ew #ngland ne'er e"ualed the high culture of #ngland.
(B) The cultural achie'ements of colonial 9ew #ngland ha'e generally been
unrecogni!ed by historians.
22 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(C) The colonists imitated the high culture of #ngland/ and did not de'elop a
culture that was uni"uely their own.
() The southern colonies were greatly influenced by the high culture of 9ew
#ngland.
(#) 9ew #ngland communities were able to create laws and build a uni'ersity/ but
unable to create anything inno'ati'e in the arts.
1. According to the passage/ which of the following is true of #nglish migrants to the
colonies during the eighteenth century%
(A) ?ost of them were farmers rather than trades people or artisans.
(B) ?ost of them came because they were unable to find work in #ngland.
(C) They differed from other #nglish people in that they were willing to tra'el.
() They e$pected that the colonies would offer them increased opportunity.
(#) They were generally not as educated as the people who remained in #ngland.
2. The author of the passage is primarily concerned with
(A) comparing se'eral current interpretations of early American history
(B) suggesting that new social research on migration should lead to re'isions in
current interpretations of early American history
(C) pro'iding the theoretical framework that is used by most historians in
understanding early American history
() refuting an argument about early American history that has been proposed by
social historians
(#) discussing a reinterpretation of early American history that is based on new
social research on migration
-. 3t can be inferred from the passage that American history te$tbooks used to assert
that
(A) many migrants to colonial 9orth America were not successful financially
(B) more migrants came to America out of religious or political con'iction that
came in the hope of ac"uiring land
(C) 9ew #ngland communities were much alike in terms of their economics and
demographics
() many migrants to colonial 9orth America failed to maintain ties with their
#uropean relations
(#) the le'el of literacy in 9ew #ngland communities was 'ery high
6. The author of the passage would be most likely to agree with which of the
following statements about Bailyn4s work%
(A) Bailyn underestimates the effects of @uritan thought on 9orth American
culture.
(B) Bailyn o'eremphasi!es the economic dependence of the colonies on Breat
GMAT 2.
Britain.
(C) Bailyn4s description of the colonies as part of an Anglo(American empire is
misleading and incorrect.
() Bailyn failed to test his propositions on a specific group of migrants to
colonial 9orth America.
(#) Bailyn o'eremphasi!es the e$periences of migrants to the 9ew #ngland
colonies/ and neglects the southern and the western parts of the 9ew &orld.
Passage 22 (22/63)
Bany United tates companies have( un&ortunate"y( made the search &or "ega"
protection &rom import competition into a ma5or "ine o& wor$. ince 1980 the
United tates 2nternationa" Trade %ommission (2T%) has received about 480
comp"aints a""eging damage &rom imports that bene#t &rom subsidies by &oreign
governments. 3nother 7M0 charge that &oreign companies >dumped? their
products in the United tates at >"ess than &air va"ue.? @ven when no un&air
practices are a""eged( the simp"e c"aim that an industry has been in5ured by
imports is su*cient grounds to see$ re"ie&.
%ontrary to the genera" impression( this -uest &or import re"ie& has hurt more
companies than it has he"ped. 3s corporations begin to &unction g"oba""y( they
deve"op an intricate web o& mar$eting( production( and research re"ationships. The
comp"e8ity o& these re"ationships ma$es it un"i$e"y that a system o& import re"ie&
"aws wi"" meet the strategic needs o& a"" the units under the same parent
company.
2nternationa"i+ation increases the danger that &oreign companies wi"" use
import re"ie& "aws against the very companies the "aws were designed to protect.
uppose a United tates-owned company estab"ishes an overseas p"ant to
manu&acture a product whi"e its competitor ma$es the same product in the United
tates. 2& the competitor can prove in5ury &rom the imports!and that the United
tates company received a subsidy &rom a &oreign government to bui"d its p"ant
abroad!the United tates company6s products wi"" be uncompetitive in the United
tates( since they wou"d be sub5ect to duties.
9erhaps the most bra+en case occurred when the 2T% investigated a""egations
that %anadian companies were in5uring the United tates sa"t industry by dumping
roc$ sa"t( used to de-ice roads. The bi+arre aspect o& the comp"aint was that a
&oreign cong"omerate with United tates operations was crying &or he"p against a
United tates company with &oreign operations. The >United tates? company
c"aiming in5ury was a subsidiary o& a Kutch cong"omerate( whi"e the >%anadian?
companies inc"uded a subsidiary o& a %hicago #rm that was the second-"argest
domestic producer o& roc$ sa"t.
1. The passage is chiefly concerned with
(A) arguing against the increased internationali!ation of :nited ;tates corporations
20 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(B) warning that the application of laws affecting trade fre"uently has unintended
conse"uences
(C) demonstrating that foreign(based firms recei'e more subsidies from their
go'ernments than :nited ;tates firms recei'e from the :nited ;tates
go'ernment
() ad'ocating the use of trade restrictions for *dumped+ products but not for
other imports
(#) recommending a uniform method for handling claims of unfair trade practices
2. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the minimal basis for a complaint to the
3nternational Trade Commission is which of the following%
(A) A foreign competitor has recei'ed a subsidy from a foreign go'ernment.
(B) A foreign competitor has substantially increased the 'olume of products
shipped to the :nited ;tates.
(C) A foreign competitor is selling products in the :nited ;tates at less than fair
market 'alue.
() The company re"uesting import relief has been in<ured by the sale of imports
in the :nited ;tates.
(#) The company re"uesting import relief has been barred from e$porting products
to the country of its foreign competitor.
.. The last paragraph performs which of the following functions in the passage%
(A) 3t summari!es the discussion thus far and suggests additional areas of research.
(B) 3t presents a recommendation based on the e'idence presented earlier.
(C) 3t discusses an e$ceptional case in which the results e$pected by the author of
the passage were not obtained.
() 3t introduces an additional area of concern not mentioned earlier.
(#) 3t cites a specific case that illustrates a problem presented more generally in the
pre'ious paragraph.
0. The passage warns of which of the following dangers%
(A) Companies in the :nited ;tates may recei'e no protection from imports unless
they acti'ely seek protection from import competition.
(B) Companies that seek legal protection from import competition may incur legal
costs that far e$ceed any possible gain.
(C) Companies that are :nited ;tates(owned but operate internationally may not
be eligible for protection from import competition under the laws of the
countries in which their plants operate.
() Companies that are not :nited ;tates(owned may seek legal protection from
import competition under :nited ;tates import relief laws.
(#) Companies in the :nited ;tates that import raw materials may ha'e to pay
GMAT 21
duties on those materials.
1. The passage suggests that which of the following is most likely to be true of
:nited ;tates trade laws%
(A) They will eliminate the practice of *dumping+ products in the :nited ;tates.
(B) They will enable manufacturers in the :nited ;tates to compete more
profitably outside the :nited ;tates.
(C) They will affect :nited ;tates trade with Canada more negati'ely than trade
with other nations.
() Those that help one unit within a parent company will not necessarily help
other units in the company.
(#) Those that are applied to international companies will accomplish their
intended result.
2. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author belie'es which of the following
about the complaint mentioned in the last paragraph%
(A) The 3TC acted unfairly toward the complainant in its in'estigation.
(B) The complaint 'iolated the intent of import relief laws.
(C) The response of the 3TC to the complaint pro'ided suitable relief from unfair
trade practices to the complainant.
() The 3TC did not ha'e access to appropriate information concerning the case.
(#) #ach of the companies in'ol'ed in the complaint acted in its own best interest.
-. According to the passage/ companies ha'e the general impression that
3nternational Trade Commission import relief practices ha'e
(A) caused unpredictable fluctuations in 'olumes of imports and e$ports
(B) achie'ed their desired effect only under unusual circumstances
(C) actually helped companies that ha'e re"uested import relief
() been opposed by the business community
(#) had less impact on international companies than the business community
e$pected
6. According to the passage/ the 3nternational Trade Commission is in'ol'ed in
which of the following%
(A) 3n'estigating allegations of unfair import competition
(B) Branting subsidies to companies in the :nited ;tates that ha'e been in<ured by
import competition
(C) =ecommending legislation to ensure fair
() 3dentifying international corporations that wish to build plants in the :nited
;tates
(#) Assisting corporations in the :nited ;tates that wish to compete globally
22 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
Passage 23 (23/63)
3t the end o& the nineteenth century( a rising interest in ,ative 3merican
customs and an increasing desire to understand ,ative 3merican cu"ture
prompted ethno"ogists to begin recording the "i&e stories o& ,ative 3merican.
@thno"ogists had a distinct reason &or wanting to hear the storiesA they were a&ter
"inguistic or anthropo"ogica" data that wou"d supp"ement their own #e"d
observations( and they be"ieved that the persona" stories( even o& a sing"e
individua"( cou"d increase their understanding o& the cu"tures that they had been
observing &rom without. 2n addition many ethno"ogists at the turn o& the century
be"ieved that ,ative 3merican manners and customs were rapid"y disappearing(
and that it was important to preserve &or posterity as much in&ormation as cou"d
be ade-uate"y recorded be&ore the cu"tures disappeared &orever.
There were( however( arguments against this method as a way o& ac-uiring
accurate and comp"ete in&ormation. :ran+ 'oas( &or e8amp"e( described
autobiographies as being >o& "imited va"ue( and use&u" chieDy &or the study o& the
perversion o& truth by memory(? whi"e 9au" Radin contended that investigators
rare"y spent enough time with the tribes they were observing( and inevitab"y
derived resu"ts too tinged by the investigator6s own emotiona" tone to be re"iab"e.
@ven more important"y( as these "i&e stories moved &rom the traditiona" ora"
mode to recorded written &orm( much was inevitab"y "ost. @ditors o&ten decided
what e"ements were signi#cant to the #e"d research on a given tribe. ,ative
3mericans recogni+ed that the essence o& their "ives cou"d not be communicated
in @ng"ish and that events that they thought signi#cant were o&ten deemed
unimportant by their interviewers. 2ndeed( the very act o& te""ing their stories
cou"d &orce ,ative 3merican narrators to distort their cu"tures( as taboos had to be
bro$en to spea$ the names o& dead re"atives crucia" to their &ami"y stories.
Kespite a"" o& this( autobiography remains a use&u" too" &or ethno"ogica"
researchA such persona" reminiscences and impressions( incomp"ete as they may
be( are "i$e"y to throw more "ight on the wor$ing o& the mind and emotions than
any amount o& specu"ation &rom an ethno"ogist or ethno"ogica" theorist &rom
another cu"ture.
1. &hich of the following best describes the organi!ation of the passage%
(A) The historical backgrounds of two currently used research methods are
chronicled.
(B) The 'alidity of the data collected by using two different research methods is
compared.
(C) The usefulness of a research method is "uestioned and then a new method is
proposed.
() The use of a research method is described and the limitations of the results
obtained are discussed.
GMAT 2-
(#) A research method is e'aluated and the changes necessary for its adaptation to
other sub<ect areas are discussed.
2. &hich of the following is most similar to the actions of nineteenth(century
ethnologists in their editing of the life stories of 9ati'e Americans%
(A) A witness in a <ury trial in'okes the >ifth Amendment in order to a'oid relating
personally incriminating e'idence.
(B) A stockbroker refuses to di'ulge the source of her information on the possible
future increase in a stock4s 'alue.
(C) A sports announcer describes the action in a team sport with which he is
unfamiliar.
() A chef purposely e$cludes the special ingredient from the recipe of his
pri!ewinning dessert.
(#) A politician fails to mention in a campaign speech the similarities in the
positions held by her opponent for political office and by herself.
.. According to the passage/ collecting life stories can be a useful methodology
because
(A) life stories pro'ide deeper insights into a culture than the hypothesi!ing of
academics who are not members of that culture
(B) life stories can be collected easily and they are not sub<ect to in'alid
interpretations
(C) ethnologists ha'e a limited number of research methods from which to choose
() life stories make it easy to distinguish between the important and unimportant
features of a culture
(#) the collection of life stories does not re"uire a culturally knowledgeable
in'estigator
0. 3nformation in the passage suggests that which of the following may be a possible
way to eliminate bias in the editing of life stories%
(A) Basing all inferences made about the culture on an ethnological theory
(B) #liminating all of the emotion(laden information reported by the informant
(C) Translating the informant4s words into the researcher4s language
() =educing the number of "uestions and carefully specifying the content of the
"uestions that the in'estigator can ask the informant
(#) =eporting all of the information that the informant pro'ides regardless of the
in'estigator4s personal opinion about its intrinsic 'alue
1. The primary purpose of the passage as a whole is to
(A) "uestion an e$planation
(B) correct a misconception
(C) criti"ue a methodology
26 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
() discredit an idea
(#) clarify an ambiguity
2. 3t can be inferred from the passage that a characteristic of the ethnological research
on 9ati'e Americans conducted during the nineteenth century was the use of
which of the following%
(A) 3n'estigators familiar with the culture under study
(B) A language other than the informant4s for recording life stories
(C) Kife stories as the ethnologist4s primary source of information
() Complete transcriptions of informants4 descriptions of tribal beliefs
(#) ;tringent guidelines for the preser'ation of cultural data
-. The passage mentions which of the following as a factor that can affect the
accuracy of ethnologists4 transcriptions of life stories%
(A) The informants4 social standing within the culture
(B) The inclusi'eness of the theory that pro'ided the basis for the research
(C) The length of time the researchers spent in the culture under study
() The number of life stories collected by the researchers
(#) The 'erifiability of the information pro'ided by the research informants
6. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author would be most likely to agree
with which of the following statements about the usefulness of life stories as a
source of ethnographic information%
(A) They can be a source of information about how people in a culture 'iew the
world.
(B) They are most useful as a source of linguistic information.
(C) They re"uire editing and interpretation before they can be useful.
() They are most useful as a source of information about ancestry.
(#) They pro'ide incidental information rather than significant insights into a way
of life.
Passage 24 (24/63)
3"" o& the ce""s in a particu"ar p"ant start out with the same comp"ement o&
genes. )ow then can these ce""s di1erentiate and &orm structures as di1erent as
roots( stems( "eaves( and &ruitsG The answer is that on"y a sma"" subset o& the
genes in a particu"ar $ind o& ce"" are e8pressed( or turned on( at a given time. This
is accomp"ished by a comp"e8 system o& chemica" messengers that in p"ants
inc"ude hormones and other regu"atory mo"ecu"es. :ive ma5or hormones have
been identi#edA au8in( abscisic acid( cyto$inin( ethy"ene( and gibbere""in. tudies
o& p"ants have now identi#ed a new c"ass o& regu"atory mo"ecu"es ca""ed
o"igosaccharins.
GMAT 2,
Un"i$e the o"igosaccharins( the #ve we""-$nown p"ant hormones are p"eiotropic
rather than speci#c= that is( each has more than one e1ect on the growth and
deve"opment o& p"ants. The #ve has so many simu"taneous e1ects that they are
not very use&u" in arti#cia""y contro""ing the growth o& crops. 3u8in( &or instance(
stimu"ates the rate o& ce"" e"ongation( causes shoots to grow up and roots to grow
down( and inhibits the growth o& "atera" shoots. 3u8in a"so causes the p"ant to
deve"op a vascu"ar system( to &orm "atera" roots( and to produce ethy"ene.
The p"eiotropy o& the #ve we""-studied p"ant hormones is somewhat ana"ogous
to that o& certain hormones in anima". :or e8amp"e( hormones &rom the
hypotha"amus in the brain stimu"ate the anterior "obe o& the pituitary g"and to
synthesi+e and re"ease many di1erent hormones( one o& which stimu"ates the
re"ease o& hormones &rom the adrena" corte8. These hormones have speci#c
e1ects on target organs a"" over the body. <ne hormone stimu"ates the thyroid
g"and( &or e8amp"e( another the ovarian &o""ic"e ce""s( and so &orth. 2n other words(
there is a hierarchy o& hormones. uch a hierarchy may a"so e8ist in p"ants.
<"igosaccharins are &ragments o& the ce"" wa"" re"eased by en+ymesA di1erent
en+ymes re"ease di1erent o"igosaccharins. There are indications that p"eiotropic
p"ant hormones may actua""y &unction by activating the en+ymes that re"ease
these other( more speci#c chemica" messengers &rom the ce"" wa"".
1. According to the passage/ the fi'e well(known plant hormones are not useful in
controlling the growth of crops because
(A) it is not known e$actly what functions the hormones perform
(B) each hormone has 'arious effects on plants
(C) none of the hormones can function without the others
() each hormone has different effects on different kinds of plants
(#) each hormone works on only a small subset of a cell4s genes at any particular
time
2. The passage suggests that the place of hypothalamic hormones in the hormonal
hierarchies of animals is similar to the place of which of the following in plants%
(A) @lant cell walls
(B) The complement of genes in each plant cell
(C) A subset of a plant cell4s gene complement
() The fi'e ma<or hormones
(#) The oligosaccharins
.. The passage suggests that which of the following is a function likely to be
performed by an oligosaccharin%
(A) To stimulate a particular plant cell to become part of a plant4s root system
(B) To stimulate the walls of a particular cell to produce other oligosaccharins
(C) To acti'ate en!ymes that release specific chemical messengers from plant cell
-5 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
walls
() To duplicate the gene complement in a particular plant cell
(#) To produce multiple effects on a particular subsystem of plant cells
0. The author mentions specific effects that au$in has on plant de'elopment in order
to illustrate the
(A) point that some of the effects of plant hormones can be harmful
(B) way in which hormones are produced by plants
(C) hierarchical nature of the functioning of plant hormones
() differences among the best(known plant hormones
(#) concept of pleiotropy as it is e$hibited by plant hormones
1. According to the passage/ which of the following best describes a function
performed by oligosaccharins%
(A) =egulating the daily functioning of a plant4s cells
(B) 3nteracting with one another to produce different chemicals
(C) =eleasing specific chemical messengers from a plant4s cell walls
() @roducing the hormones that cause plant cells to differentiate to perform
different functions
(#) 3nfluencing the de'elopment of a plant4s cells by controlling the e$pression of
the cells4 genes
2. The passage suggests that/ unlike the pleiotropic hormones/ oligosaccharins could
be used effecti'ely to
(A) trace the passage of chemicals through the walls of cells
(B) pinpoint functions of other plant hormones
(C) artificially control specific aspects of the de'elopment of crops
() alter the complement of genes in the cells of plants
(#) alter the effects of the fi'e ma<or hormones on plant de'elopment
-. The author discusses animal hormones primarily in order to
(A) introduce the idea of a hierarchy of hormones
(B) e$plain the effects that au$in has on plant cells
(C) contrast the functioning of plant hormones and animals hormones
() illustrate the way in which particular hormones affect animals
(#) e$plain the distinction between hormones and regulatory molecules
Passage 25 (25/63)
2n 1977 the prestigious @wha ;omen6s University in eou"( Sorea( announced
the opening o& the #rst women6s studies program in 3sia. :ew academic programs
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have ever received such pub"ic attention. 2n broadcast debates( critics dismissed
the program as a betraya" o& nationa" identity( an imitation o& ;estern ideas( and
a distraction &rom the rea" tas$ o& nationa" uni#cation and economic deve"opment.
@ven supporters underestimated the program= they thought it wou"d be mere"y
another o& the many ;estern ideas that had a"ready proved use&u" in 3sian
cu"ture( a$in to air"ines( e"ectricity( and the assemb"y "ine. The &ounders o& the
program( however( rea"i+ed that neither view was correct. They had some
reservations about the app"icabi"ity o& ;estern &eminist theories to the ro"e o&
women in 3sia and &e"t that such theories shou"d be c"ose"y e8amined. Their
approach has thus &ar yie"ded important criti-ues o& ;estern theory( in&ormed by
the specia" e8perience o& 3sian women.
:or instance( "i$e the ;estern &eminist criti-ue o& the :reudian mode" o& the
human psyche( the Sorean criti-ue #nds :reudian theory cu"ture-bound( but in
ways di1erent &rom those cited by ;estern theorists. The Sorean theorists c"aim
that :reudian theory assumes the universa"ity o& the ;estern nuc"ear( ma"e-
headed &ami"y and &ocuses on the persona"ity &ormation o& the individua"(
independent o& society. 3n ana"ysis based on such assumptions cou"d be va"id &or
a high"y competitive( individua"istic society. 2n the :reudian &ami"y drama( &ami"y
members are assumed to be engaged in a Karwinian strugg"e against each other
!&ather against son and sib"ing against sib"ing. uch a concept pro5ects the
competitive mode" o& ;estern society onto human persona"ities. 'ut in the 3sian
concept o& persona"ity there is no idea" attached to individua"ism or to the
independent se"&. The ;estern mode" o& persona"ity deve"opment does not e8p"ain
ma5or characteristics o& the Sorean persona"ity( which is socia" and group-
centered. The >se"&? is a socia" being de#ned by and acting in a group( and the
we""-being o& both men and women is determined by the e-ui"ibrium o& the group(
not by individua" se"&-assertion. The idea" is one o& interdependency.
2n such a conte8t( what is recogni+ed as >dependency? in ;estern psychiatric
terms is not( in Sorean terms( an admission o& wea$ness or &ai"ure. 3"" this bears
direct"y on the 3sian perception o& men6s and women6s psycho"ogy because men
are a"so >dependent.? 2n Sorean cu"ture( men cry and otherwise easi"y show their
emotions( something that might be considered a betraya" o& mascu"inity in
;estern cu"ture. 2n the $inship-based society o& Sorea( &our generations may "ive
in the same house( which means that peop"e can be sons and daughters a"" their
"ives( whereas in ;estern cu"ture( the ro"es o& husband and son( wi&e and
daughter( are o&ten incompatib"e.
1. &hich of the following best summari!es the content of the passage%
(A) A criti"ue of a particular women4s studies program
(B) A report of work in social theory done by a particular women4s studies
program
(C) An assessment of the strengths and weaknesses of a particular women4s studies
program
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() An analysis of the philosophy underlying women4s studies programs
(#) An abbre'iated history of Morean women4s studies programs
2. 3t can be inferred from the passage that Morean scholars in the field of women4s
studies undertook an analysis of >reudian theory as a response to which of the
following%
(A) Attacks by critics of the #wha women4s studies program
(B) The superficiality of earlier criti"ues of >reudian theory
(C) The popularity of >reud in Morean psychiatric circles
() Their desire to encourage Morean scholars to adopt the >reudian model
(#) Their assessment of the rele'ance and limitations of &estern feminist theory
with respect to Morean culture
.. &hich of the following conclusions about the introduction of &estern ideas to
Morean society can be supported by information contained in the passage%
(A) #$cept for technological inno'ations/ few &estern ideas ha'e been
successfully transplanted into Morean society.
(B) The introduction of &estern ideas to Morean society is 'iewed by some
Moreans as a challenge to Morean identity.
(C) The de'elopment of the Morean economy depends hea'ily on the de'elopment
of new academic programs modeled after &estern programs.
() The e$tent to which &estern ideas must be adapted for acceptance by Morean
society is minimal.
(#) The introduction of &estern ideas to Morean society accelerated after 1,--.
0. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the broadcast media in Morea considered
the establishment of the #wha women4s studies program
(A) praiseworthy
(B) insignificant
(C) newsworthy
() imitati'e
(#) incomprehensible
1. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the position taken by some of the
supporters of the #wha women4s studies program was problematic to the founders
of the program because those supporters
(A) assumed that the program would be based on the uncritical adoption of
&estern theory
(B) failed to show concern for the issues of national unification and economic
de'elopment
(C) were unfamiliar with &estern feminist theory
() were not themsel'es scholars in the field of women4s studies
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(#) accepted the uni'ersality of >reudian theory
2. &hich of the following statements is most consistent with the 'iew of personality
de'elopment held by the #wha women4s studies group%
(A) @ersonality de'elopment occurs in identifiable stages/ beginning with
dependency in childhood and ending with independence in adulthood.
(B) Any theory of personality de'elopment/ in order to be 'alid/ must be uni'ersal.
(C) @ersonality de'elopment is influenced by the characteristics of the society in
which a person li'es.
() @ersonality de'elopment is hindered if a person is not permitted to be
independent.
(#) 9o theory of personality de'elopment can account for the differences between
Morean and &estern culture.
-. &hich of the following statements about the &estern feminist criti"ue of >reudian
theory can be supported by information contained in the passage%
(A) 3t recogni!es the influence of &estern culture on >reudian theory.
(B) 3t was written after 1,--.
(C) 3t acknowledges the uni'ersality of the nuclear/ male(headed family.
() 3t challenges >reud4s analysis of the role of daughters in &estern society.
(#) 3t fails to address the issue of competiti'eness in &estern society.
6. According to the passage/ critics of the #wha women4s studies program cited the
program as a threat to which of the following%
3. 9ational identity
33. 9ational unification
333. #conomic de'elopment
3C. >amily integrity
(A) 3 only
(B) 3 and 33 only
(C) 3/ 33/ and 333 only
() 33/ 333/ and 3C only
(#) 3/ 33/ 333/ and 3C
Passage 26 (26/63)
2n choosing a method &or determining c"imatic conditions that e8isted in the
past( pa"eoc"imato"ogists invo$e &our principa" criteria. :irst( the materia"!roc$s(
"a$es( vegetation( etc.!on which the method re"ies must be widespread enough
to provide p"enty o& in&ormation( since ana"ysis o& materia" that is rare"y
encountered wi"" not permit corre"ation with other regions or with other periods o&
geo"ogica" history. econd( in the process o& &ormation( the materia" must have
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received an environmenta" signa" that reDects a change in c"imate and that can be
deciphered by modern physica" or chemica" means. Third( at "east some o& the
materia" must have retained the signa" una1ected by subse-uent changes in the
environment. :ourth( it must be possib"e to determine the time at which the
in&erred c"imatic conditions he"d. This "ast criterion is more easi"y met in dating
marine sediments( because dating o& on"y a sma"" number o& "ayers in a marine
se-uence a""ows the age o& other "ayers to be estimated &air"y re"iab"y by
e8trapo"ation and interpo"ation. 'y contrast( because sedimentation is much "ess
continuous in continenta" regions( estimating the age o& a continenta" bed &rom
the $nown ages o& beds above and be"ow is more ris$y.
<ne very o"d method used in the investigation o& past c"imatic conditions
invo"ves the measurement o& water "eve"s in ancient "a$es. 2n temperate regions(
there are enough "a$es &or corre"ations between them to give us a re"iab"e picture.
2n arid and semiarid regions( on the other hand( the sma"" number o& "a$es and the
great distances between them reduce the possibi"ities &or corre"ation. Boreover(
since "a$e "eve"s are contro""ed by rates o& evaporation as we"" as by precipitation(
the interpretation o& such "eve"s is ambiguous. :or instance( the &act that "a$e
"eve"s in the semiarid southwestern United tates appear to have been higher
during the "ast ice age than they are now was at one time attributed to increased
precipitation. <n the basis o& snow-"ine e"evations( however( it has been
conc"uded that the c"imate then was not necessari"y wetter than it is now( but
rather that both summers and winters were coo"er( resu"ting in reduced
evaporation.
3nother prob"ematic method is to reconstruct &ormer c"imates on the basis o&
po""en pro#"es. The type o& vegetation in a speci#c region is determined by
identi&ying and counting the various po""en grains &ound there. 3"though the
re"ationship between vegetation and c"imate is not as direct as the re"ationship
between c"imate and "a$e "eve"s( the method o&ten wor$s we"" in the temperate
+ones. 2n arid and semiarid regions in which there is not much vegetation(
however( sma"" changes in one or a &ew p"ant types can change the picture
dramatica""y( ma$ing accurate corre"ations between neighboring areas di*cu"t to
obtain.
1. &hich of the following statements about the difference between marine and
continental sedimentation is supported by information in the passage%
(A) ata pro'ided by dating marine sedimentation is more consistent with
researchers4 findings in other disciplines than is data pro'ided by dating
continental sedimentation.
(B) 3t is easier to estimate the age of a layer in a se"uence of continental
sedimentation than it is to estimate the age of a layer in a se"uence of marine
sedimentation.
(C) ?arine sedimentation is much less widespread than continental sedimentation.
() =esearchers are more often forced to rely on e$trapolation when dating a layer
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of marine sedimentation than when dating a layer of continental sedimentation.
(#) ?arine sedimentation is much more continuous than is continental
sedimentation.
2. &hich of the following statements best describes the organi!ation of the passage
as a whole%
(A) The author describes a method for determining past climatic conditions and
then offers specific e$amples of situations in which it has been used.
(B) The author discusses the method of dating marine and continental se"uences
and then e$plains how dating is more difficult with lake le'els than with pollen
profiles.
(C) The author describes the common re"uirements of methods for determining
past climatic conditions and then discusses e$amples of such methods.
() The author describes 'arious ways of choosing a material for determining past
climatic conditions and then discusses how two such methods ha'e yielded
contradictory data.
(#) The author describes how methods for determining past climatic conditions
were first de'eloped and then describes two of the earliest known methods.
.. 3t can be inferred from the passage that paleoclimatologists ha'e concluded which
of the following on the basis of their study of snow(line ele'ations in the
southwestern :nited ;tates%
(A) There is usually more precipitation during an ice age because of increased
amounts of e'aporation.
(B) There was less precipitation during the last ice age than there is today.
(C) Kake le'els in the semiarid southwestern :nited ;tates were lower during the
last ice age than they are today.
() uring the last ice age/ cooler weather led to lower lake le'els than
paleoclimatologists had pre'iously assumed.
(#) The high lake le'els during the last ice age may ha'e been a result of less
e'aporation rather than more precipitation.
0. &hich of the following would be the most likely topic for a paragraph that
logically continues the passage%
(A) The kinds of plants normally found in arid regions
(B) The effect of 'ariation in lake le'els on pollen distribution
(C) The material best suited to preser'ing signals of climatic changes
() 8ther criteria in'oked by paleoclimatologists when choosing a method to
determine past climatic conditions
(#) A third method for in'estigating past climatic conditions
1. The author discusses lake le'els in the southwestern :nited ;tates in order to
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(A) illustrate the mechanics of the relationship between lake le'el/ e'aporation/
and precipitation
(B) pro'ide an e$ample of the uncertainty in'ol'ed in interpreting lake le'els
(C) pro'e that there are not enough ancient lakes with which to make accurate
correlations
() e$plain the effects of increased rates of e'aporation on le'els of precipitation
(#) suggest that snow(line ele'ations are in'ariably more accurate than lake le'els
in determining rates of precipitation at 'arious points in the past
2. 3t can be inferred from the passage that an en'ironmental signal found in
geological material would not be useful to paleoclimatologists if it
(A) had to be interpreted by modern chemical means
(B) reflected a change in climate rather than a long(term climatic condition
(C) was incorporated into a material as the material was forming
() also reflected subse"uent en'ironmental changes
(#) was contained in a continental rather than a marine se"uence
-. According to the passage/ the material used to determine past climatic conditions
must be widespread for which of the following reasons%
3. @aleoclimatologists need to make comparisons between periods of geological
history.
33. @aleoclimatologists need to compare materials that ha'e supported a wide
'ariety of 'egetation.
333. @aleoclimatologists need to make comparisons with data collected in other
regions.
(A) 3 only
(B) 33 only
(C) 3 and 33 only
() 3 and 333 only
(#) 33 and 333 only
6. &hich of the following can be inferred from the passage about the study of past
climates in arid and semiarid regions%
(A) 3t is sometimes more difficult to determine past climatic conditions in arid and
semiarid regions than in temperate regions.
(B) Although in the past more research has been done on temperate regions/
paleoclimatologists ha'e recently turned their attention to arid and semiarid
regions.
(C) Although more information about past climates can be gathered in arid and
semiarid than in temperate regions/ dating this information is more difficult.
() 3t is difficult to study the climatic history of arid and semiarid regions because
GMAT --
their climates ha'e tended to 'ary more than those of temperate regions.
(#) The study of past climates in arid and semiarid regions has been neglected
because temperate regions support a greater 'ariety of plant and animal life.
Passage 27 (27/63)
ince the "ate 19706s( in the &ace o& a severe "oss o& mar$et share in do+ens o&
industries( manu&acturers in the United tates have been trying to improve
productivity!and there&ore enhance their internationa" competitiveness!through
cost-cutting programs. (%ost-cutting here is de#ned as raising "abor output whi"e
ho"ding the amount o& "abor constant.) )owever( &rom 1978 through 1984(
productivity!the va"ue o& goods manu&actured divided by the amount o& "abor
input!did not improve= and whi"e the resu"ts were better in the business upturn o&
the three years &o""owing( they ran 4/ percent "ower than productivity
improvements during ear"ier( post-19M/ upturns. 3t the same time( it became
c"ear that the harder manu&actures wor$ed to imp"ement cost-cutting( the more
they "ost their competitive edge.
;ith this parado8 in mind( 2 recent"y visited 4/ companies= it became c"ear to
me that the cost-cutting approach to increasing productivity is &undamenta""y
Dawed. Banu&acturing regu"ar"y observes a >M0( M0( 40? ru"e. Rough"y M0 percent
o& any manu&acturing-based competitive advantage derives &rom "ong-term
changes in manu&acturing structure (decisions about the number( si+e( "ocation(
and capacity o& &aci"ities) and in approaches to materia"s. 3nother M0 percent
comes &rom ma5or changes in e-uipment and process techno"ogy. The #na" 40
percent rests on imp"ementing conventiona" cost-cutting. This ru"e does not imp"y
that cost-cutting shou"d not be tried. The we""-$nown too"s o& this approach!
inc"uding simp"i&ying 5obs and retraining emp"oyees to wor$ smarter( not harder!
do produce resu"ts. 'ut the too"s -uic$"y reach the "imits o& what they can
contribute.
3nother prob"em is that the cost-cutting approach hinders innovation and
discourages creative peop"e. 3s 3bernathy6s study o& automobi"e manu&acturers
has shown( an industry can easi"y become prisoner o& its own investments in cost-
cutting techni-ues( reducing its abi"ity to deve"op new products. 3nd managers
under pressure to ma8imi+e cost-cutting wi"" resist innovation because they $now
that more &undamenta" changes in processes or systems wi"" wrea$ havoc with the
resu"ts on which they are measured. 9roduction managers have a"ways seen their
5ob as one o& minimi+ing costs and ma8imi+ing output. This dimension o&
per&ormance has unti" recent"y su*ced as a basis o& eva"uation( but it has created
a penny-pinching( mechanistic cu"ture in most &actories that has $ept away
creative managers.
@very company 2 $now that has &reed itse"& &rom the parado8 has done so( in
part( by deve"oping and imp"ementing a manu&acturing strategy. uch a strategy
&ocuses on the manu&acturing structure and on e-uipment and process
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techno"ogy. 2n one company a manu&acturing strategy that a""owed di1erent areas
o& the &actory to specia"i+e in di1erent mar$ets rep"aced the conventiona" cost-
cutting approach= within three years the company regained its competitive
advantage. Together with such strategies( success&u" companies are a"so
encouraging managers to &ocus on a wider set o& ob5ectives besides cutting costs.
There is hope &or manu&acturing( but it c"ear"y rests on a di1erent way o&
managing.
1. The author of the passage is primarily concerned with
(A) summari!ing a thesis
(B) recommending a different approach
(C) comparing points of 'iew
() making a series of predictions
(#) describing a number of parado$es
2. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the manufacturers mentioned in line 2
e$pected that the measures they implemented would
(A) encourage inno'ation
(B) keep labor output constant
(C) increase their competiti'e ad'antage
() permit business upturns to be more easily predicted
(#) cause managers to focus on a wider set of ob<ecti'es
.. The primary function of the first paragraph of the passage is to
(A) outline in brief the author4s argument
(B) anticipate challenges to the prescriptions that follow
(C) clarify some disputed definitions of economic terms
() summari!e a number of long(accepted e$planations
(#) present a historical conte$t for the author4s obser'ations
0. The author refers to Abernathy4s study (line .2) most probably in order to
(A) "ualify an obser'ation about one rule go'erning manufacturing
(B) address possible ob<ections to a recommendation about impro'ing
manufacturing competiti'eness
(C) support an earlier assertion about one method of increasing producti'ity
() suggest the centrality in the :nited ;tates economy of a particular
manufacturing industry
(#) gi'en an e$ample of research that has "uestioned the wisdom of re'ising a
manufacturing strategy
1. The author4s attitude toward the culture in most factories is best described as
(A) cautious
GMAT -,
(B) critical
(C) disinterested
() respectful
(#) adulatory
2. 3n the passage/ the author includes all of the following #DC#@T
(A) personal obser'ation
(B) a business principle
(C) a definition of producti'ity
() an e$ample of a successful company
(#) an illustration of a process technology
-. The author suggests that implementing con'entional cost(cutting as a way of
increasing manufacturing competiti'eness is a strategy that is
(A) flawed and ruinous
(B) shortsighted and difficult to sustain
(C) popular and easily accomplished
() useful but inade"uate
(#) misunderstood but promising
Passage 28 (28/63)
The sett"ement o& the United tates has occupied traditiona" historians since
1897 when :rederic$ Cac$son Turner deve"oped his Frontier Thesis( a thesis that
e8p"ained 3merican deve"opment in terms o& westward e8pansion. :rom the
perspective o& women6s history( Turner6s e8c"usive"y mascu"ine assumptions
constitute a ma5or drawbac$A his de&enders and critics a"i$e have reconstructed
men6s( not women6s( "ives on the &rontier. )owever( precise"y because o& this
mascu"ine orientation( revising the Frontier Thesis by &ocusing on women6s
e8perience introduces new themes into women6s history!woman as "awma$er
and entrepreneur!and( conse-uent"y( new interpretations o& women6s
re"ationship to capita"( "abor( and statute.
Turner c"aimed that the &rontier produced the individua"ism that is the ha""mar$
o& 3merican cu"ture( and that this individua"ism in turn promoted democratic
institutions and economic e-ua"ity. )e argued &or the &rontier as an agent o& socia"
change. Bost nove"ists and historians writing in the ear"y to midtwentieth century
who considered women in the ;est( when they considered women at a""( &e""
under Turner6s spe"". 2n their wor$s these authors tended to g"ori&y women6s
contributions to &rontier "i&e. ;estern women( in Turnerian tradition( were a #erce"y
independent( capab"e( and durab"e "ot( &ree &rom the constraints binding their
eastern sisters. This interpretation imp"ied that the ;est provided a congenia"
environment where women cou"d aspire to their own goa"s( &ree &rom constrictive
65 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
stereotypes and se8ist attitudes. 2n Turnerian termino"ogy( the &rontier had
&urnished >a gate o& escape &rom the bondage o& the past.?
'y the midd"e o& the twentieth century( the Frontier Thesis &e"" into dis&avor
among historians. Jater( Reactionist writers too$ the view that &rontier women
were "one"y( disp"aced persons in a hosti"e mi"ieu that intensi#ed the worst
aspects o& gender re"ations. The renaissance o& the &eminist movement during the
19706s "ed to the tasist schoo"( which sidestepped the good bad dichotomy and
argued that &rontier women "ived "ives simi"ar to the "ive o& women in the @ast. 2n
one now-standard te8t( :aragher demonstrated the persistence o& the >cu"t o& true
womanhood? and the i""usionary -ua"ity o& change on the westward 5ourney.
Recent"y the tasist position has been revised but not entire"y discounted by new
research.
1. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) pro'ide a framework within which the history of women in nineteenth(century
America can be organi!ed
(B) discuss di'ergent interpretations of women4s e$perience on the western
frontier
(C) introduce a new hypothesis about women4s e$perience in nineteenth(century
America
() ad'ocate an empirical approach to women4s e$perience on the western frontier
(#) resol'e ambiguities in se'eral theories about women4s e$perience on the
western frontier
2. &hich of the following can be inferred about the no'elists and historians
mentioned in lines 1,(25%
(A) They misunderstood the powerful influence of constricti'e stereotypes on
women in the #ast.
(B) They assumed that the frontier had offered more opportunities to women than
had the #ast.
(C) They included accurate information about women4s e$periences on the
frontier.
() They underestimated the endurance and fortitude of frontier women.
(#) They agreed with some of Turner4s assumptions about frontier women/ but
disagreed with other assumptions that he made.
.. &hich of the following/ if true/ would pro'ide additional e'idence for the ;tasists4
argument as it is described in the passage%
(A) >rontier women relied on smaller support groups of relati'es and friends in the
&est than they had in the #ast.
(B) The urban frontier in the &est offered more occupational opportunity than the
agricultural frontier offered.
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(C) &omen participated more fully in the economic decisions of the family group
in the &est than they had in the #ast.
() &estern women recei'ed financial compensation for labor that was
comparable to what women recei'ed in the #ast.
(#) &estern women did not ha'e an effect on di'orce laws/ but lawmakers in the
&est were more responsi'e to women4s concerns than lawmakers in the #ast
were.
0. According to the passage/ Turner makes which of the following connections in his
>rontier Thesis%
3. A connection between American indi'idualism and economic e"uality
33. A connection between geographical e$pansion and social change
333. A connection between social change and financial prosperity
(A) 3 only
(B) 33 only
(C) 333 only
() 3 and 33 only
(#) 3/ 33 and 333
1. 3t can be inferred that which of the following statements is consistent with the
=eactionist position as it is described in the passage%
(A) Continuity/ not change/ marked women4s li'es as they mo'ed from #ast to
&est.
(B) &omen4s e$perience on the 9orth American frontier has not recei'ed enough
attention from modern historians.
(C) espite its rigors/ the frontier offered women opportunities that had not been
a'ailable in the #ast.
() Bender relations were more difficult for women in the &est than they were in
the #ast.
(#) &omen on the 9orth American frontier adopted new roles while at the same
time reaffirming traditional roles.
2. &hich of the following best describes the organi!ation of the passage%
(A) A current interpretation of a phenomenon is described and then ways in which
it was de'eloped are discussed.
(B) Three theories are presented and then a new hypothesis that discounts those
theories is described.
(C) An important theory and its effects are discussed and then ways in which it has
been re'ised are described.
() A contro'ersial theory is discussed and then 'iewpoints both for and against it
are described.
62 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(#) A phenomenon is described and then theories concerning its correctness are
discussed.
-. &hich of the following is true of the ;tasist ;chool as it is described in the
passage%
(A) 3t pro'ides new interpretations of women4s relationship to work and the law.
(B) 3t resol'es some of the ambiguities inherent in Turnerian and =eactionist
thought.
(C) 3t has recently been discounted by new research gathered on women4s
e$perience.
() 3t a'oids e$treme positions taken by other writers on women4s history.
(#) 3t was the first school of thought to suggest substantial re'isions to the
Frontier Thesis.
Passage 29 (29/63)
tudies o& the ;edde"" sea" in the "aboratory have described the physio"ogica"
mechanisms that a""ow the sea" to cope with the e8treme o8ygen deprivation that
occurs during its "ongest dives( which can e8tend /00 meters be"ow the ocean6s
sur&ace and "ast &or over 70 minutes. Recent #e"d studies( however( suggest that
during more typica" dives in the wi"d( this sea"6s physio"ogica" behavior is di1erent.
2n the "aboratory( when the sea" dives be"ow the sur&ace o& the water and stops
breathing( its heart beats more s"ow"y( re-uiring "ess o8ygen( and its arteries
become constricted( ensuring that the sea"6s b"ood remains concentrated near
those organs most crucia" to its abi"ity to navigate underwater. The sea"
essentia""y shuts o1 the Dow o& b"ood to other organs( which either stop
&unctioning unti" the sea" sur&aces or switch to an anaerobic (o8ygen-independent)
metabo"ism. The "atter resu"ts in the production o& "arge amounts o& "actic acid
which can adverse"y a1ect the p) o& the sea"6s b"ood( but since the anaerobic
metabo"ism occurs on"y in those tissues which have been iso"ated &rom the sea"6s
b"ood supp"y( the "actic acid is re"eased into the sea"6s b"ood on"y a&ter the sea"
sur&aces( when the "ungs( "iver( and other organs -uic$"y c"ear the acid &rom the
sea"6s b"oodstream.
Recent #e"d studies( however( revea" that on dives in the wi"d( the sea" usua""y
heads direct"y &or its prey and returns to the sur&ace in "ess than twenty minutes.
The absence o& high "eve"s o& "actic acid in the sea"6s b"ood a&ter such dives
suggests that during them( the sea"6s organs do not resort to the anaerobic
metabo"ism observed in the "aboratory( but are supp"ied with o8ygen &rom the
b"ood. The sea"6s "onger e8cursions underwater( during which it appears to be
either e8p"oring distant routes or evading a predator( do evo$e the diving
response seen in the "aboratory. 'ut why do the sea"6s "aboratory dives a"ways
evo$e this response( regard"ess o& their "ength or depthG ome bio"ogists
specu"ate that because in "aboratory dives the sea" is &orcib"y submerged( it does
GMAT 6.
not $now how "ong it wi"" remain underwater and so prepares &or the worst.
1. The passage pro'ides information to support which of the following
generali!ations%
(A) 8bser'ations of animals4 physiological beha'ior in the wild are not reliable
unless 'erified by laboratory studies.
(B) 3t is generally less difficult to obser'e the physiological beha'ior of an animal
in the wild than in the laboratory.
(C) The le'el of lactic acid in an animal4s blood is likely to be higher when it is
searching for prey than when it is e'ading predators.
() The le'el of lactic acid in an animal4s blood is likely to be lowest during those
periods in which it e$periences o$ygen depri'ation.
(#) The physiological beha'ior of animals in a laboratory setting is not always
consistent with their physiological beha'ior in the wild.
2. 3t can be inferred from the passage that by describing the &eddell seal as preparing
*for the worst+ (line 01)/ biologists mean that it
(A) prepares to remain underwater for no longer than twenty minutes
(B) e$hibits physiological beha'ior similar to that which characteri!es di'es in
which it heads directly for its prey
(C) e$hibits physiological beha'ior similar to that which characteri!es its longest
di'es in the wild
() begins to e$hibit predatory beha'ior
(#) clears the lactic acid from its blood before attempting to di'e
.. The passage suggests that during laboratory di'es/ the p) of the &eddell seal4s
blood is not ad'ersely affected by the production of lactic acid because
(A) only those organs that are essential to the seal4s ability to na'igate underwater
re'ert to an anaerobic mechanism
(B) the seal typically re'erts to an anaerobic metabolism only at the 'ery end of
the di'e
(C) organs that re'ert to an anaerobic metabolism are temporarily isolated from the
seal4s bloodstream
() o$ygen continues to be supplied to organs that clear lactic acid from the seal4s
bloodstream
(#) the seal remains submerged for only short periods of time
0. &hich of the following best summari!es the main point of the passage%
(A) =ecent field studies ha'e indicated that descriptions of the physiological
beha'ior of the &eddell seal during laboratory di'es are not applicable to its
most typical di'es in the wild.
(B) The &eddell seal has de'eloped a number of uni"ue mechanisms that enable it
60 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
to remain submerged at depths of up to 155 meters for up to -5 minutes.
(C) The results of recent field studies ha'e made it necessary for biologists to
re'ise pre'ious perceptions of how the &eddell seal beha'es physiologically
during its longest di'es in the wild.
() Biologists speculate that laboratory studies of the physiological beha'ior of
seals during di'es lasting more than twenty minutes would be more accurate if
the seals were not forcibly submerged.
(#) )ow the &eddell seal responds to o$ygen depri'ation during its longest di'es
appears to depend on whether the seal is searching for prey or a'oiding
predators during such di'es.
1. According to the author/ which of the following is true of the laboratory studies
mentioned in line 1%
(A) They fail to e$plain how the seal is able to tolerate the increased production of
lactic acid by organs that re'ert to an anaerobic metabolism during its longest
di'es in the wild.
(B) They present an o'ersimplified account of mechanisms that the &eddell seal
relies on during its longest di'es in the wild.
(C) They pro'ide e'idence that undermines the 'iew that the &eddell seal relies on
an anaerobic metabolism during its most typical di'es in the wild.
() They are based on the assumption that &eddell seals rarely spend more than
twenty minutes underwater on a typical di'e in the wild.
(#) They pro'ide an accurate account of the physiological beha'ior of &eddell
seals during those di'es in the wild in which they are either e'ading predators
or e$ploring distant routes.
2. The author cites which of the following as characteristic of the &eddell seal4s
physiological beha'ior during di'es obser'ed in the laboratory%
3. A decrease in the rate at which the seal4s heart beats
33. A constriction of the seal4s arteries
333. A decrease in the le'els of lactic acid in the seal4s blood
3C. A temporary halt in the functioning of certain organs
(A) 3 and 333 only
(B) 33 and 3C only
(C) 33 and 333 only
() 3/ 33/ and 3C only
(#) 3/ 333/ and 3C only
-. The passage suggests that because &eddell seals are forcibly submerged during
laboratory di'es/ they do which of the following%
(A) #$hibit the physiological responses that are characteristic of di'es in the wild
that last less than twenty minutes.
GMAT 61
(B) #$hibit the physiological responses that are characteristic of the longer di'es
they undertake in the wild.
(C) Cope with o$ygen depri'ation less effecti'ely than they do on typical di'es in
the wild.
() @roduce smaller amounts of lactic acid than they do on typical di'es in the
wild.
(#) 9a'igate less effecti'ely than they do on typical di'es in the wild.
Passage 30 (30/63)
ince the ear"y 19706s( historians have begun to devote serious attention to
the wor$ing c"ass in the United tates. Iet whi"e we now have studies o& wor$ing-
c"ass communities and cu"ture( we $now remar$ab"y "itt"e o& wor$"essness. ;hen
historians have paid any attention at a"" to unemp"oyment( they have &ocused on
the Ereat Kepression o& the 19706s. The narrowness o& this perspective ignores
the pervasive recessions and 5ob"essness o& the previous decades( as 3"e8ander
Seyssar shows in his recent boo$. @8amining the period 1870-1940( Seyssar
concentrates on Bassachusetts( where the historica" materia"s are particu"ar"y
rich( and the #ndings app"icab"e to other industria" areas.
The unemp"oyment rates that Seyssar ca"cu"ates appear to be re"ative"y
modest( at "east by Ereat Kepression standardsA during the worst years( in the
18706s and 18906s( unemp"oyment was around 1/ percent. Iet Seyssar right"y
understands that a better way to measure the impact o& unemp"oyment is to
ca"cu"ate unemp"oyment &re-uencies!measuring the percentage o& wor$ers who
e8perience any unemp"oyment in the course o& a year. Eiven this perspective(
5ob"essness "ooms much "arger.
Seyssar a"so scrutini+es unemp"oyment patterns according to s$i"" "eve"(
ethnicity( race( age( c"ass( and gender. )e #nds that rates o& 5ob"essness di1ered
primari"y according to c"assA those in midd"e-c"ass and white-co""ar occupations
were &ar "ess "i$e"y to be unemp"oyed. Iet the impact o& unemp"oyment on a
speci#c c"ass was not a"ways the same. @ven when dependent on the same trade(
ad5oining communities cou"d have dramatica""y di1erent unemp"oyment rates.
Seyssar uses these di1erentia" rates to he"p e8p"ain a phenomenon that has
pu++"ed historians!the start"ing"y high rate o& geographica" mobi"ity in the
nineteenth-century United tates. 'ut mobi"ity was not the dominant wor$ing-
c"ass strategy &or coping with unemp"oyment( nor was assistance &rom private
charities or state agencies. e"&-he"p and the he"p o& $in got most wor$ers through
5ob"ess spe""s.
;hi"e Seyssar might have spent more time deve"oping the imp"ications o& his
#ndings on 5ob"essness &or contemporary pub"ic po"icy( his study( in its thorough
research and creative use o& -uantitative and -ua"itative evidence( is a mode" o&
historica" ana"ysis.
62 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
1. The passage is primarily concerned with
(A) recommending a new course of in'estigation
(B) summari!ing and assessing a study
(C) making distinctions among categories
() critici!ing the current state of a field
(#) comparing and contrasting two methods for calculating data
2. The passage suggests that before the early 1,-54s/ which of the following was true
of the study by historians of the working class in the :nited ;tates%
(A) The study was infre"uent or superficial/ or both.
(B) The study was repeatedly critici!ed for its allegedly narrow focus.
(C) The study relied more on "ualitati'e than "uantitati'e e'idence.
() The study focused more on the working(class community than on working(
class culture.
(#) The study ignored working(class <oblessness during the Breat epression.
.. According to the passage/ which of the following is true of Meyssar4s findings
concerning unemployment in ?assachusetts%
(A) They tend to contradict earlier findings about such unemployment.
(B) They are possible because ?assachusetts has the most easily accessible
historical records.
(C) They are the first to mention the e$istence of high rates of geographical
mobility in the nineteenth century.
() They are rele'ant to a historical understanding of the nature of unemployment
in other states.
(#) They ha'e caused historians to reconsider the role of the working class during
the Breat epression.
0. According to the passage/ which of the following is true of the unemployment
rates mentioned in line 11%
(A) They ho'ered/ on a'erage/ around 11 percent during the period 16-5(1,25.
(B) They gi'e less than a full sense of the impact of unemployment on working(
class people.
(C) They o'erestimate the importance of middle class and white(collar
unemployment.
() They ha'e been considered by many historians to underestimate the e$tent of
working(class unemployment.
(#) They are more open to "uestion when calculated for years other than those of
peak recession.
1. &hich of the following statements about the unemployment rate during the Breat
epression can be inferred from the passage%
GMAT 6-
(A) 3t was sometimes higher than 11 percent.
(B) 3t has been analy!ed seriously only since the early 1,-54s.
(C) 3t can be calculated more easily than can unemployment fre"uency.
() 3t was ne'er as high as the rate during the 16-54s.
(#) 3t has been shown by Meyssar to be lower than pre'iously thought.
2. According to the passage/ Meyssar considers which of the following to be among
the important predictors of the likelihood that a particular person would be
unemployed in late nineteenth(century ?assachusetts%
3. The person4s class
33. &here the person li'ed or worked
333. The person4s age
(A) 3 only
(B) 33 only
(C) 3 and 33 only
() 3 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
-. The author 'iews Meyssar4s study with
(A) impatient disappro'al
(B) wary concern
(C) polite skepticism
() scrupulous neutrality
(#) "ualified admiration
6. &hich of the following/ if true/ would most strongly support Meyssar4s findings as
they are described by the author%
(A) Boston/ ?assachusetts/ and Nuincy/ ?assachusetts/ ad<oining communities/
had a higher rate of unemployment for working(class people in 16-5 than in
16,5.
(B) &hite(collar professionals such as attorneys had as much trouble as day
laborers in maintaining a steady le'el of employment throughout the period
16-5(1,25.
(C) &orking(class women li'ing in Cambridge/ ?assachusetts/ were more likely
than working(class men li'ing in Cambridge to be unemployed for some
period of time during the year 16-..
() 3n the 16,54s/ shoe(factory workers mo'ed away in large numbers from
Chelmsford/ ?assachusetts/ where shoe factories were being replaced by other
industries/ to ad<oining &est Chelmsford/ where the shoe industry flourished.
(#) 3n the late nineteenth century/ workers of all classes in ?assachusetts were
more likely than workers of all classes in other states to mo'e their place of
66 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
residence from one location to another within the state.
Passage 31 (31/63)
The number o& women directors appointed to corporate boards in the United
tates has increased dramatica""y( but the ratio o& &ema"e to ma"e directors
remains "ow. 3"though pressure to recruit women directors( un"i$e that to emp"oy
women in the genera" wor$ &orce( does not derive &rom "egis"ation( it is
neverthe"ess rea".
3"though sma"" companies were the #rst to have women directors( "arge
corporations current"y have a higher percentage o& women on their boards. ;hen
the chairs o& these "arge corporations began recruiting women to serve on boards(
they initia""y sought women who were chie& e8ecutive o*cers (%@<6s) o& "arge
corporations. )owever( such women %@<6s are sti"" rare. 2n addition( the idea" o&
si8 %@<6s (&ema"e or ma"e) serving on the board o& each o& the "argest
corporations is rea"i+ab"e on"y i& every %@< serves on si8 boards. This raises the
specter o& director over-commitment and the resu"tant di"ution o& contribution.
%onse-uent"y( the chairs ne8t sought women in business who had the e-uiva"ent
o& %@< e8perience. )owever( since it is on"y recent"y that "arge numbers o&
women have begun to rise in management( the chairs began to recruit women o&
high achievement outside the business wor"d. Bany such women are we"" $nown
&or their contributions in government( education( and the nonpro#t sector. The &act
that the women &rom these sectors who were appointed were o&ten ac-uaintances
o& the boards6 chairs seems -uite reasonab"eA chairs have a"ways considered it
important &or directors to interact com&ortab"y in the boardroom.
3"though many success&u" women &rom outside the business wor"d are
un$nown to corporate "eaders( these women are particu"ar"y -ua"i#ed to serve on
boards because o& the changing nature o& corporations. Today a company6s abi"ity
to be responsive to the concerns o& the community and the environment can
inDuence that company6s growth and surviva". ;omen are uni-ue"y positioned to
be responsive to some o& these concerns. 3"though conditions have changed( it
shou"d be remembered that most directors o& both se8es are over #&ty years o"d.
;omen o& that generation were o&ten encouraged to direct their attention toward
e1orts to improve the community. This &act is reDected in the career deve"opment
o& most o& the outstanding"y success&u" women o& the generation now in their
#&ties( who current"y serve on corporate boardsA 4/ percent are in education and
44 percent are in government( "aw( and the nonpro#t sector.
<ne organi+ation o& women directors is he"ping business become more
responsive to the changing needs o& society by raising the "eve" o& corporate
awareness about socia" issues( such as prob"ems with the economy( government
regu"ation( the aging popu"ation( and the environment. This organi+ation a"so
serves as a resource center o& in&ormation on accomp"ished women who are
potentia" candidates &or corporate boards.
GMAT 6,
1. The author of the passage would be most likely to agree with which of the
following statements about achie'ement of the *ideal+ mentioned in line 10%
(A) 3t has only recently become a possibility.
(B) 3t would be easier to meet if more C#84s were women.
(C) 3t is 'ery close to being a reality for most corporate boards.
() 3t might affect the "uality of directors4 ser'ice to corporations.
(#) 3t would be more reali!able if C#84s had a more e$tensi'e range of business
e$perience.
2. According to the passage/ the pressure to appoint women to corporate boards
differs from the pressure to employ women in the work force in which of the
following ways%
(A) Corporate boards are under less pressure because they ha'e such a small
number of openings.
(B) Corporate boards ha'e recei'ed less pressure from stockholders/ consumers/
and workers within companies to include women on their boards.
(C) Corporate boards ha'e recei'ed less pressure from the media and the public to
include women on their boards.
() Corporations ha'e only recently been pressured to include women on their
boards.
(#) Corporations are not sub<ect to statutory penalty for failing to include women
on their boards.
.. All of the following are e$amples of issues that the organi!ation described in the
last paragraph would be likely to ad'ise corporations on #DC#@T
(A) long(term inflation
(B) health and safety regulations
(C) retirement and pension programs
() the energy shortage
(#) how to de'elop new markets
0. 3t can be inferred from the passage that/ when seeking to appoint new members to
a corporation4s board/ the chair traditionally looked for candidates who
(A) had legal and go'ernmental e$perience
(B) had e$perience dealing with community affairs
(C) could work easily with other members of the board
() were already in'ol'ed in establishing policy for that corporation
(#) had influential connections outside the business world
1. According to the passage/ which of the following is true about women outside the
business world who are currently ser'ing on corporate boards%
,5 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(A) ?ost do not ser'e on more than one board.
(B) A large percentage will e'entually work on the staff of corporations.
(C) ?ost were already known to the chairs of the board to which they were
appointed.
() A larger percentage are from go'ernment and law than are from the nonprofit
sector.
(#) ?ost are less than fifty years old.
2. The passage suggests that corporations of the past differ from modern corporations
in which of the following ways%
(A) Corporations had greater input on go'ernment policies affecting the business
community.
(B) Corporations were less responsi'e to the financial needs of their employees.
(C) The ability of a corporation to keep up with changing markets was not a
crucial factor in its success.
() A corporation4s effecti'eness in coping with community needs was less likely
to affect its growth and prosperity.
(#) Corporations were sub<ect to more stringent go'ernment regulations.
-. &hich of the following best describes the organi!ation of the passage%
(A) A problem is described/ and then reasons why 'arious proposed solutions
succeeded or failed are discussed.
(B) A problem is described/ and then an ad'antage of resol'ing it is offered.
(C) A problem is described/ and then reasons for its continuing e$istence are
summari!ed.
() The historical origins of a problem are described/ and then 'arious measures
that ha'e successfully resol'ed it are discussed.
(#) The causes of a problem are described/ and then its effects are discussed.
6. 3t can be inferred from the passage that factors making women uni"uely 'aluable
members of modern corporate boards would include which of the following%
3. The nature of modern corporations
33. The increased number of women C#84s
333. The careers pursued by women currently a'ailable to ser'e on corporate boards
(A) 3 only
(B) 33 only
(C) 333 only
() 3 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
GMAT ,1
Passage 32 (32/63)
2ncreasing"y( historians are b"aming diseases imported &rom the <"d ;or"d &or
the staggering disparity between the indigenous popu"ation o& 3merica in 1M94!
new estimates o& which soar as high as 100 mi""ion( or appro8imate"y one-si8th o&
the human race at that time!and the &ew mi""ion &u""-b"ooded ,ative 3mericans
a"ive at the end o& the nineteenth century. There is no doubt that chronic disease
was an important &actor in the precipitous dec"ine( and it is high"y probab"e that
the greatest $i""er was epidemic disease( especia""y as mani&ested in virgin-soi"
epidemics.
Firgin-soi" epidemics are those in which the popu"ations at ris$ have had no
previous contact with the diseases that stri$e them and are there&ore
immuno"ogica""y a"most de&ense"ess. That virgin-soi" epidemics were important in
3merican history is strong"y indicated by evidence that a number o& dangerous
ma"adies!sma""po8( meas"es( ma"aria( ye""ow &ever( and undoubted"y severa"
more!were un$nown in the pre-%o"umbian ,ew ;or"d. The e1ects o& their sudden
introduction are demonstrated in the ear"y chronic"es o& 3merica( which contain
reports o& horrendous epidemics and steep popu"ation dec"ines( con#rmed in
many cases by recent -uantitative ana"yses o& panish tribute records and other
sources. The evidence provided by the documents o& 'ritish and :rench co"onies is
not as de#nitive because the con-uerors o& those areas did not estab"ish
permanent sett"ements and begin to $eep continuous records unti" the
seventeenth century( by which time the worst epidemics had probab"y a"ready
ta$en p"ace. :urthermore( the 'ritish tended to drive the native popu"ations away(
rather than ens"aving them as the paniards did( so that the epidemics o& 'ritish
3merica occurred beyond the range o& co"onists6 direct observation.
@ven so( the surviving records o& ,orth 3merica do contain re&erences to
dead"y epidemics among the indigenous popu"ation. 2n 1L1L-1L19 an epidemic(
possib"y o& bubonic or pneumonic p"ague( swept coasta" ,ew @ng"and( $i""ing as
many as nine out o& ten. Kuring the 1L706s sma""po8( the disease most &ata" to the
,ative 3merican peop"e( e"iminated ha"& the popu"ation o& the )uron and 2ro-uois
con&ederations. 2n the 18406s &ever devastated the peop"e o& the %o"umbia River
area( $i""ing eight out o& ten o& them.
Un&ortunate"y( the documentation o& these and other epidemics is s"ight and
&re-uent"y unre"iab"e( and it is necessary to supp"ement what "itt"e we do $now
with evidence &rom recent epidemics among ,ative 3mericans. :or e8amp"e( in
19/4 an outbrea$ o& meas"es among the ,ative 3merican inhabitants o& Ungava
'ay( Tuebec( a1ected 99 percent o& the popu"ation and $i""ed 7 percent( even
though some had the bene#t o& modern medicine. %ases such as this demonstrate
that even diseases that are not norma""y &ata" can have devastating conse-uences
when they stri$e an immuno"ogica""y de&ense"ess community.
1. The primary purpose of the passage is to
,2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(A) refute a common misconception
(B) pro'ide support for a hypothesis
(C) analy!e an argument
() suggest a solution to a dilemma
(#) reconcile opposing 'iewpoints
2. According to the passage/ 'irgin(soil epidemics can be distinguished from other
catastrophic outbreaks of disease in that 'irgin(soil epidemics
(A) recur more fre"uently than other chronic diseases
(B) affect a minimum of one(half of a gi'en population
(C) in'ol'e populations with no prior e$posure to a disease
() usually in'ol'e a number of interacting diseases
(#) are less responsi'e to medical treatment than are other diseases
.. According to the passage/ the British colonists were unlike the ;panish colonists in
that the British colonists
(A) collected tribute from the nati'e population
(B) kept records from a 'ery early date
(C) dro'e 9ati'e Americans off the land
() were unable to pro'ide medical care against epidemic disease
(#) ensla'ed the nati'e populations in America
0. &hich of the following can be inferred from the passage concerning ;panish
tribute records%
(A) They mention only epidemics of smallpo$.
(B) They were instituted in 10,2.
(C) They were being kept prior to the se'enteenth century.
() They pro'ide "uantitati'e and "ualitati'e e'idence about 9ati'e American
populations.
(#) They pro'e that certain diseases were unknown in the pre(Columbian 9ew
&orld.
1. The author implies which of the following about measles%
(A) 3t is not usually a fatal disease.
(B) 3t ceased to be a problem by the se'enteenth century.
(C) 3t is the disease most commonly in'ol'ed in 'irgin(soil epidemics.
() 3t was not a significant problem in ;panish colonies.
(#) 3t affects only those who are immunologically defenseless against it.
2. &hich of the following can be inferred from the passage about the 9ati'e
American inhabitants of :nga'a Bay%
GMAT ,.
(A) They were almost all killed by the 1,12 epidemic.
(B) They were immunologically defenseless against measles.
(C) They were the last nati'e people to be struck by a 'irgin(soil epidemic.
() They did not come into fre"uent contact with white Americans until the
twentieth century.
(#) They had been inoculated against measles.
-. The author mentions the 1,12 measles outbreak most probably in order to
(A) demonstrate the impact of modern medicine on epidemic disease
(B) corroborate the documentary e'idence of epidemic disease in colonial America
(C) refute allegations of unreliability made against the historical record of colonial
America
() ad'ocate new research into the continuing problem of epidemic disease
(#) challenge assumptions about how the statistical e'idence of epidemics should
be interpreted
6. &hich of the following/ if newly disco'ered/ would most seriously weaken the
author4s argument concerning the importance of 'irgin(soil epidemics in the
depopulation of 9ati'e Americans%
(A) #'idence setting the pre(Columbian population of the 9ew &orld at only 65
million
(B) ;panish tribute records showing periodic population fluctuations
(C) ocuments detailing sophisticated 9ati'e American medical procedures
() >ossils indicating 9ati'e American contact with smallpo$ prior to 10,2
(#) =emains of >rench settlements dating back to the si$teenth century
Passage 33 (33/63)
Unti" recent"y most astronomers be"ieved that the space between the ga"a8ies
in our universe was a near-per&ect vacuum. This orthodo8 view o& the universe is
now being cha""enged by astronomers who be"ieve that a heavy >rain? o& gas is
&a""ing into many ga"a8ies &rom the supposed"y empty space around them. The
gas apparent"y condenses into a co""ection o& sma"" stars( each a "itt"e "arger than
the p"anet Cupiter. These stars vast"y outnumber the other stars in a given ga"a8y.
The amount o& >interga"actic rain&a""? into some o& these ga"a8ies has been
enough to doub"e their mass in the time since they &ormed. cientists have begun
to suspect that this interga"actic gas is probab"y a mi8ture o& gases "e&t over &rom
the >big bang? when the ga"a8ies were &ormed and gas was &orced out o& ga"a8ies
by supernova e8p"osions.
2t is we"" $nown that when gas is coo"ed at a constant pressure its vo"ume
decreases. Thus( the physicist :abian reasoned that as interga"actic gas coo"s( the
coo"er gas shrin$s inward toward the center o& the ga"a8y. Beanwhi"e its p"ace is
,0 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
ta$en by hotter interga"actic gas &rom &arther out on the edge o& the ga"a8y( which
coo"s as it is compressed and Dows into the ga"a8y. The net resu"t is a continuous
Dow o& gas( starting as hot gases in interga"actic space and ending as a dri++"e o&
coo" gas ca""ed a >coo"ing Dow(? &a""ing into the centra" ga"a8y.
3 &air"y heretica" idea in the 19706s( the coo"ing-Dow theory gained support
when :abian observed a c"uster o& ga"a8ies in the conste""ation 9erseus and &ound
the centra" ga"a8y( ,E% 147/( to be a strange-"oo$ing ob5ect with irregu"ar( thin
strands o& gas radiating &rom it. 3ccording to previous specu"ation( these strands
were gases that had been b"own out by an e8p"osion in the ga"a8y. :abian(
however( disagreed. 'ecause the strands o& gas radiating &rom ,E% 147/ are
visib"e in optica" photographs( :abian suggested that such strands consisted not o&
gas b"own out o& the ga"a8y but o& coo"ing Dows o& gas streaming inward. )e
noted that the wave"engths o& the radiation emitted by a gas wou"d changes as
the gas coo"ed( so that as the gas Dowed into the ga"a8y and became coo"er( it
wou"d emit not 8-rays( but visib"e "ight( "i$e that which was captured in the
photographs. :abian6s hypothesis was supported by %ani+ares6 determination in
1984 that most o& the gas in the 9erseus c"uster was at a temperature o& 80
mi""ion degrees Se"vin( whereas the gas immediate"y surrounding ,E% 147/ (the
sub5ect o& the photographs) was at one-tenth this temperature.
1. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) illustrate a hypothesis about the origin of gala$ies
(B) pro'ide e'idence to dispute an accepted theory about the e'olution of gala$ies
(C) summari!e the state of and prospects for research in intergalactic astronomy
() report new data on the origins of intergalactic gas
(#) reconcile opposing 'iews on the formation of intergalactic gas
2. The author uses the phrase *orthodo$ 'iew of the uni'erse+ (line .) to refer to the
belief that
(A) the space between the gala$ies is de'oid of matter
(B) the space between gala$ies is occupied by stars that cannot be detected by
optical photographs
(C) gala$ies ha'e decreased in mass by half since their formation
() gala$ies contain stars/ each the si!e of Aupiter/ which form clusters
(#) gala$ies are being penetrated by gas forced out of other gala$ies by superno'a
e$plosions
.. 3t can be inferred from the passage that/ if >abian is correct/ gas in the peripheral
regions of a gala$y cluster
(A) streams outward into intergalactic space
(B) is hotter than gas in the central regions of the gala$y
(C) is composed primarily of gas left o'er from the big bang
GMAT ,1
() results in the creation of unusually large stars
(#) e$pands to increase the si!e of the gala$y
0. The author of the passage probably mentions Cani!ares4 determination in order to
(A) clarify an ambiguity in >abian4s research findings
(B) illustrate a generali!ation about the temperature of gas in a gala$y cluster
(C) introduce a new argument in support of the orthodo$ 'iew of gala$ies
() pro'ide support for >abian4s assertions about the @erseus gala$ies
(#) pro'ide an alternate point of 'iew concerning the mo'ement of gas within a
gala$y cluster
1. According to the passage/ >abian belie'es that gas flowing into a central gala$y
has which of the following characteristics%
(A) 3t is one(tenth hotter than it was in the outer regions of the gala$y cluster.
(B) 3t emits radiation with wa'elengths that change as the gas mo'es toward the
center of the gala$y.
(C) The total amount of radiation emitted diminishes as the gas cools.
() 3t loses ,5 percent of its energy as it mo'es to the center of the gala$y.
(#) 3t condenses at a rate much slower than the rate of decrease in temperature as
the gas flows inward.
2. According to the passage/ >abian4s theory makes use of which of the following
principles%
(A) Bas emanating from an e$plosion will be hotter the more distant it is from the
origin.
(B) The wa'elength of radiation emitted by a gas as it cools remains constant.
(C) 3f pressure remains constant/ the 'olume of a gas will decrease as it is cooled.
() The 'olume of a gas will increase as the pressure increases.
(#) As gas cools/ its density decreases.
-. 3t can be inferred from the passage that which of the following is true of >abian4s
theory%
(A) 3t did not recei'e appro'al until Cani!ares4 work was published.
(B) 3t was not widely accepted in the 1,-54s.
(C) 3t did not recei'e support initially because technology was not a'ailable to
confirm its tenets.
() 3t supports earlier speculation that intergalactic gas was largely the result of
e$plosions outside the gala$y.
(#) 3t was widely challenged until $(ray e'idence of gas temperatures in 9BC
12-1 had been presented.
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Passage 34 (34/63)
Sa+u$o ,a$ane6s history o& the ear"y Capanese immigrants to centra"
%a"i&ornia6s 9a5aro Fa""ey &ocuses on the deve"opment o& &arming communities
there &rom 1890 to 19M0. The 2ssei (#rst-generation immigrants) were brought into
the 9a5aro Fa""ey to raise sugar beets. Ji$e 2ssei "aborers in 3merican cities(
Capanese men in rura" areas sought emp"oyment via the >boss? system. The
system comprised three e"ementsA immigrant wage "aborers= 2ssei boardinghouses
where "aborers stayed= and "abor contractors( who gathered wor$ers &or a
particu"ar 5ob and then negotiated a contract between wor$ers and emp"oyer. This
same system was origina""y uti"i+ed by the %hinese "aborers who had preceded the
Capanese. 3 re"ated institution was the >"abor c"ub(? which provided 5ob
in&ormation and negotiated emp"oyment contracts and other "ega" matters( such
as the renta" o& "and( &or 2ssei who chose to be"ong and paid an annua" &ee to the
cooperative &or membership.
;hen the "oca" sugar beet industry co""apsed in 1904( the 2ssei began to "ease
"and &rom the va""ey6s strawberry &armers. The Capanese provided the "abor and
the crop was divided between "aborers and "andowners. The 2ssei thus moved
-uic$"y &rom wage-"abor emp"oyment to sharecropping agreements. 3 "imited
amount o& economic progress was made as some 2ssei were ab"e to rent or buy
&arm"and direct"y( whi"e others 5oined together to &orm &arming corporations. 3s
the 2ssei began to operate &arms( they began to marry and start &ami"ies( &orming
an estab"ished Capanese 3merican community. Un&ortunate"y( the 2ssei6s e1orts to
attain agricu"tura" independence were hampered by government restrictions( such
as the 3"ien Jand Jaw o& 1917. 'ut immigrants cou"d circumvent such
e8c"usionary "aws by "easing or purchasing "and in their 3merican-born chi"dren6s
names.
,a$ane6s case study o& one rura" Capanese 3merican community provides
va"uab"e in&ormation about the "ives and e8periences o& the 2ssei. 2t is( however(
too particu"aristic. This "imitation derives &rom ,a$ane6s methodo"ogy!that o& ora"
history!which cannot substitute &or a broader theoretica" or comparative
perspective. :uture research might we"" consider two issues raised by her studyA
were the 2ssei o& the 9a5aro Fa""ey simi"ar to or di1erent &rom 2ssei in urban
settings( and what variations e8isted between rura" Capanese 3merican
communitiesG
1. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) defend a contro'ersial hypothesis presented in a history of early Aapanese
immigrants to California
(B) dismiss a history of an early Aapanese settlement in California as narrow and ill
constructed
(C) summari!e and criti"ue a history of an early Aapanese settlement in California
GMAT ,-
() compare a history of one Aapanese American community with studies of
Aapanese settlements throughout California
(#) e$amine the differences between Aapanese and Chinese immigrants to central
California in the 16,54s
2. &hich of the following best describes a *labor club/+ as defined in the passage%
(A) An organi!ation to which 3ssei were compelled to belong if they sought
employment in the @a<aro Calley
(B) An association whose members included labor contractors and landowning
*bosses+
(C) A type of farming corporation set up by 3ssei who had resided in the @a<aro
Calley for some time
() A cooperati'e association whose members were dues(paying Aapanese laborers
(#) A social organi!ation to which Aapanese laborers and their families belonged
.. Based on information in the passage/ which of the following statements
concerning the Alien Kand Kaw of 1,1. is most accurate%
(A) 3t e$cluded American(born citi!ens of Aapanese ancestry from landownership.
(B) 3t sought to restrict the number of foreign immigrants to California.
(C) 3t successfully pre'ented 3ssei from e'er purchasing farmland.
() 3t was applicable to first(generation immigrants but not to their American(born
children.
(#) 3t was passed under pressure from the @a<aro Calley4s strawberry farmers.
0. ;e'eral 3ssei families <oin together to purchase a strawberry field and the
necessary farming e"uipment. ;uch a situation best e$emplifies which of the
following/ as it is described in the passage%
(A) A typical sharecropping agreement
(B) A farming corporation
(C) A *labor club+
() The *boss+ system
(#) Circum'ention of the Alien Kand Kaw
1. The passage suggests that which of the following was an indirect conse"uence of
the collapse of the sugar beet industry in the @a<aro Calley%
(A) The 3ssei formed a permanent/ family(based community.
(B) Boardinghouses were built to accommodate the 3ssei.
(C) The 3ssei began to lease land in their children4s names.
() The 3ssei adopted a labor contract system similar to that used by Chinese
immigrants.
(#) The 3ssei suffered a massi'e dislocation caused by unemployment.
,6 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
2. The author of the passage would most likely agree that which of the following/ if it
had been included in 9akane4s study/ would best remedy the particularistic nature
of that study%
(A) A statistical table comparing per capita income of 3ssei wage laborers and
sharecroppers in the @a<aro Calley
(B) A statistical table showing per capita income of 3ssei in the @a<aro Calley from
16,5 to 1,05
(C) A statistical table showing rates of farm ownership by Aapanese Americans in
four central California counties from 16,5 to 1,05
() A discussion of original company documents dealing with the @a<aro Calley
sugar beet industry at the turn of the century
(#) Transcripts of inter'iews conducted with members of the @a<aro Calley
Aapanese American community who were born in the 1,254s and 1,.54s
-. 3t can be inferred from the passage that/ when the 3ssei began to lease land from
the Calley4s strawberry farmers/ the 3ssei most probably did which of the
following%
(A) They used profits made from selling the strawberry crop to hire other 3ssei.
(B) They negotiated such agricultural contracts using the *boss+ system.
(C) They paid for the use of the land with a share of the strawberry crop.
() They earned higher wages than when they raised sugar beets.
(#) They 'iolated the Alien Kand Kaw.
Passage 35 (35/63)
2t can be argued that much consumer dissatis&action with mar$eting strategies
arises &rom an inabi"ity to aim advertising at on"y the "i$e"y buyers o& a given
product.
There are three groups o& consumers who are a1ected by the mar$eting
process. :irst( there is the mar$et segment!peop"e who need the commodity in
-uestion. econd( there is the program target!peop"e in the mar$et segment with
the >best #t? characteristics &or a speci#c product. Jots o& peop"e may need
trousers( but on"y a &ew -ua"i&y as "i$e"y buyers o& very e8pensive designer
trousers. :ina""y( there is the program audienceUa"" peop"e who are actua""y
e8posed to the mar$eting program without regard to whether they need or want
the product.
These three groups are rare"y identica". 3n e8ception occurs occasiona""y in
cases where customers &or a particu"ar industria" product may be &ew and easi"y
identi#ab"e. uch customers( a"" sharing a particu"ar need( are "i$e"y to &orm a
meaning&u" target( &or e8amp"e( a"" companies with a particu"ar app"ication o& the
product in -uestion( such as high-speed #""ers o& bott"es at breweries. 2n such
circumstances( direct se""ing (mar$eting that reaches on"y the program target) is
GMAT ,,
"i$e"y to be economica""y 5usti#ed( and high"y specia"i+ed trade media e8ist to
e8pose members o& the program target!and on"y members o& the program target
!to the mar$eting program.
Bost consumer-goods mar$ets are signi#cant"y di1erent. Typica""y( there are
many rather than &ew potentia" customers. @ach represents a re"ative"y sma""
percentage o& potentia" sa"es. Rare"y do members o& a particu"ar mar$et segment
group themse"ves neat"y into a meaning&u" program target. There are substantia"
di1erences among consumers with simi"ar demographic characteristics. @ven with
a"" the past decade6s advances in in&ormation techno"ogy( direct se""ing o&
consumer goods is rare( and mass mar$eting!a mar$eting approach that aims at
a wide audience!remains the on"y economica""y &easib"e mode. Un&ortunate"y(
there are &ew media that a""ow the mar$eter to direct a mar$eting program
e8c"usive"y to the program target. 2nevitab"y( peop"e get e8posed to a great dea"
o& mar$eting &or products in which they have no interest and so they become
annoyed.
1. The passage suggests which of the following about highly speciali!ed trade media%
(A) They should be used only when direct selling is not economically feasible.
(B) They can be used to e$clude from the program audience people who are not
part of the program target.
(C) They are used only for 'ery e$pensi'e products.
() They are rarely used in the implementation of marketing programs for
industrial products.
(#) They are used only when direct selling has not reached the appropriate market
segment.
2. According to the passage/ most consumer(goods markets share which of the
following characteristics%
3. Customers who differ significantly from each other
33. Karge numbers of potential customers
333. Customers who each represent a small percentage of potential sales
(A) 3 only
(B) 33 only
(C) 3 and 33 only
() 33 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
.. The passage suggests which of the following about direct selling%
(A) 3t is used in the marketing of most industrial products.
(B) 3t is often used in cases where there is a large program target.
(C) 3t is not economically feasible for most marketing programs.
155 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
() 3t is used only for products for which there are many potential customers.
(#) 3t is less successful at directing a marketing program to the target audience
than are other marketing approaches.
0. The author mentions *trousers+ (lines , and 11) most likely in order to
(A) make a comparison between the program target and the program audience
(B) emphasi!e the similarities between the market segment and the program target
(C) pro'ide an e$ample of the way three groups of consumers are affected by a
marketing program
() clarify the distinction between the market segment and the program target
(#) introduce the concept of the program audience
1. &hich of the following best e$emplifies the situation described in the last two
sentences of the passage%
(A) A product suitable for women age 21(.5 is marketed at meetings attended only
by potential customers.
(B) A company de'elops a new product and must de'elop an ad'ertising campaign
to create a market for it.
(C) An idea for a speciali!ed product remains une$plored because media e$posure
of the product to its few potential customers would be too e$pensi'e.
() A new product is de'eloped and marketers collect demographic data on
potential consumers before de'eloping a specific ad'ertising campaign.
(#) A product suitable for men age 25 and o'er is ad'ertised in a maga!ine read by
adults of all ages.
2. The passage suggests that which of the following is true about the marketing of
industrial products like those discussed in the third paragraph%
(A) The market segment and program target are identical.
(B) ?ass marketing is the only feasible way of ad'ertising such products.
(C) The marketing program cannot be directed specifically to the program target.
() ?ore customers would be needed to <ustify the e$pense of direct selling.
(#) The program audience would necessarily be made up of potential customers/
regardless of the marketing approach that was used.
-. The passage supports which of the following statements about demographic
characteristics and marketing%
(A) emographic research is of no use in determining how successful a product
will be with a particular group of consumers.
(B) A program audience is usually composed of people with similar demographic
characteristics.
(C) @sychological factors are more important than demographic factors in defining
a market segments.
GMAT 151
() Consumers with similar demographic characteristics do not necessarily form a
meaningful program target.
(#) Collecting demographic data is the first step that marketers take in designing a
marketing program.
6. 3t can be inferred from the passage that which of the following is true for most
consumer(goods markets%
(A) The program audience is smaller than the market segment.
(B) The program audience and the market segment are usually identical.
(C) The market segment and the program target are usually identical.
() The program target is larger than the market segment.
(#) The program target and the program audience are not usually identical.
Passage 36 (36/63)
9rotein synthesis begins when the gene encoding a protein is activated. The
gene6s se-uence o& nuc"eotides is transcribed into a mo"ecu"e o& messenger R,3
(mR,3)( which reproduces the in&ormation contained in that se-uence.
Transported outside the nuc"eus to the cytop"asm( the mR,3 is trans"ated into the
protein it encodes by an organe""e $nown as a ribosome( which strings together
amino acids in the order speci#ed by the se-uence o& e"ements in the mR,3
mo"ecu"e. ince the amount o& mR,3 in a ce"" determines the amount o& the
corresponding protein( &actors a1ecting the abundance o& mR,36s p"ay a ma5or
part in the norma" &unctioning o& a ce"" by appropriate"y regu"ating protein
synthesis. :or e8amp"e( an e8cess o& certain proteins can cause ce""s to pro"i&erate
abnorma""y and become cancerous= a "ac$ o& the protein insu"in resu"ts in
diabetes.
'io"ogists once assumed that the variab"e rates at which ce""s synthesi+e
di1erent mR,36s determine the -uantities o& mR,36s and their corresponding
proteins in a ce"". )owever( recent investigations have shown that the
concentrations o& most mR,36s corre"ate best( not with their synthesis rate( but
rather with the e-ua""y variab"e rates at which ce""s degrade the di1erent mR,36s
in their cytop"asm. 2& a ce"" degrades both a rapid"y and a s"ow"y synthesi+ed
mR,3 s"ow"y( both mR,36s wi"" accumu"ate to high "eve"s.
3n important e8amp"e o& this phenomenon is the deve"opment o& red b"ood
ce""s &rom their unspecia"i+ed parent ce""s in bone marrow. :or red b"ood ce""s to
accumu"ate su*cient concentrations o& hemog"obin (which transports o8ygen) to
carry out their main &unction( the ce""s6 parent ce""s must simu"taneous"y produce
more o& the constituent proteins o& hemog"obin and "ess o& most other proteins. To
do this( the parent ce""s ha"t synthesis o& non-hemog"obin mR,36s in the nuc"eus
and rapid"y degrade copies o& the non-hemog"obin mR,36s remaining in the
cytop"asm. )a"ting synthesis o& mR,3 a"one wou"d not a1ect the -uantities o&
proteins synthesi+ed by the mR,36s sti"" e8isting in the cytop"asm. 'io"ogists now
152 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
be"ieve that most ce""s can regu"ate protein production most e*cient"y by varying
both mR,3 synthesis and degradation( as deve"oping red ce""s do( rather than by
5ust varying one or the other.
1. The passage is primarily concerned with discussing the
(A) influence of m=9A concentrations on the de'elopment of red blood cells
(B) role of the synthesis and degradation of m=9A in cell functioning
(C) mechanism by which genes are transcribed into m=9A
() differences in m=9A concentrations in cell nuclei and in the cytoplasm
(#) way in which m=9A synthesis contributes to the onset of diabetes
2. The passage suggests that a biologist who held the 'iew described in the first
sentence of the second paragraph would most probably also ha'e belie'ed which
of the following%
(A) The rate of degradation of specific m=9A4s has little effect on protein
concentrations.
(B) The rate of degradation of specific m=9A4s should be studied intensi'ely.
(C) The rates of synthesis and degradation for any gi'en m=9A are normally
e"ual.
() ifferent m=9A4s undergo degradation at widely 'arying rates.
(#) ?ost m=9A4s degrade 'ery rapidly.
.. &hich of the following best describes the relationship between the second and
third paragraphs of the passage%
(A) The second paragraph presents arguments in support of a new theory and the
third paragraph presents arguments against that same theory.
(B) The second paragraph describes a traditional 'iew and the third paragraph
describes the 'iew that has replaced it on the basis of recent in'estigations.
(C) The third paragraph describes a specific case of a phenomenon that is
described generally in the second paragraph.
() The third paragraph describes an in'estigation that was undertaken to resol'e
problems raised by phenomena described in the second paragraph.
(#) Both paragraphs describe in detail specific e$amples of the phenomenon that is
introduced in the first paragraph.
0. The accumulation of concentrations of hemoglobin in red blood cells is mentioned
in the passage as an e$ample of which of the following%
(A) The effecti'eness of simultaneous 'ariation of the rates of synthesis and
degradation of m=9A
(B) The role of the ribosome in enabling a parent cell to de'elop properly into a
more speciali!ed form
(C) The importance of acti'ating the genes for particular proteins at the correct
GMAT 15.
moment
() The abnormal proliferation of a protein that threatens to make the cell
cancerous
(#) The kind of e'idence that biologists relied on for support of a 'iew of m=9A
synthesis that is now considered obsolete
1. To begin to control a disease caused by a protein deficiency/ the passage suggests
that a promising e$perimental treatment would be to administer a drug that would
reduce
(A) only the degradation rate for the m=9A of the protein in'ol'ed
(B) only the synthesis rate for the m=9A of the protein in'ol'ed
(C) both the synthesis and degradation rates for the m=9A of the protein in'ol'ed
() the incidence of errors in the transcription of m=9A4s from genetic nucleotide
se"uences
(#) the rate of acti'ity of ribosomes in the cytoplasm of most cells
2. According to the passage/ which of the following best describes the current 'iew
on the relationship between the synthesis and the degradation of m=9A in
regulating protein synthesis%
(A) Biologists ha'e recently become con'inced that the ribosome controls the rates
of synthesis and degradation of m=9A.
(B) There is no consensus among biologists as to the significance of m=9A
degradation in regulating protein synthesis.
(C) The concept of m=9A degradation is so new that most biologists still belie'e
that the 'ital role in protein regulation belongs to m=9A synthesis.
() egradation of m=9A is now considered to be the key process and m=9A
synthesis is no longer belie'ed to play a significant role.
(#) egradation of m=9A is now considered to be as important as m=9A
synthesis has been/ and still is/ belie'ed to be.
-. According to the passage/ which of the following can happen when protein
synthesis is not appropriately regulated%
(A) iabetes can result from errors that occur when the ribosomes translate m=9A
into protein.
(B) Cancer can result from an e$cess of certain proteins and diabetes can result
from an insulin deficiency.
(C) A deficiency of red blood cells can occur if bone marrow cells produce too
much hemoglobin.
() Cancer can be caused by e$cessi'ely rapid degradation of certain amino acids
in the cytoplasm of cells.
(#) #$cessi'e synthesis of one protein can trigger increased degradation of
m=9A4s for other proteins and create se'ere protein imbalances.
150 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
6. The passage suggests that a biologist who detected high le'els of two proteins in a
certain type of cell would be likely to consider which of the following as a possible
e$planation%
(A) The rate of m=9A degradation for one of the proteins increases as this type of
cell de'elops a more speciali!ed function.
(B) The two proteins are most likely constituents of a comple$ substance
supporting the cells4 speciali!ed function.
(C) The cells are likely to proliferate abnormally and possibly become cancerous
due to the le'els of these proteins.
() The m=9A4s for both proteins are being degraded at a low rate in that type of
cell.
(#) The m=9A4s for the two proteins are being synthesi!ed at identical rates in that
type of cell.
Passage 37 (37/63)
(This passage was e8cerpted &rom materia" written in 1990.)
3s the economic ro"e o& mu"tinationa"( g"oba" corporations e8pands( the
internationa" economic environment wi"" be shaped increasing"y not by
governments or internationa" institutions( but by the interaction between
governments and g"oba" corporations( especia""y in the United tates( @urope( and
Capan. 3 signi#cant &actor in this shi&ting wor"d economy is the trend toward
regiona" trading b"ocs o& nations( which has a potentia""y "arge e1ect on the
evo"ution o& the wor"d trading system. Two e8amp"es o& this trend are the United
tates-%anada :ree Trade 3greement (:T3) and @urope 1994( the move by the
@uropean %ommunity (@%) to dismant"e impediments to the &ree Dow o& goods(
services( capita"( and "abor among member states by the end o& 1994. )owever(
a"though numerous po"itica" and economic &actors were operative in "aunching the
move to integrate the @%6s mar$ets( concern about protectionism within the @%
does not appear to have been a ma5or consideration. This is in sharp contrast to
the :T3= the overwhe"ming reason &or that bi"atera" initiative was &ear o&
increasing United tates protectionism. ,onethe"ess( a"though mar$ed"y di1erent
in origin and nature( both regiona" deve"opments are high"y signi#cant in that they
wi"" &oster integration in the two "argest and richest mar$ets o& the wor"d( as we""
as provo$e -uestions about the &uture direction o& the wor"d trading system.
1. The primary purpose of the passage as a whole is to
(A) describe an initiati'e and propose its continuance
(B) chronicle a de'elopment and illustrate its inconsistencies
(C) identify a trend and suggest its importance
() summari!e a process and "uestion its significance
(#) report a phenomenon and outline its probable future
GMAT 151
2. According to the passage/ all of the following are elements of the shifting world
economy #DC#@T
(A) an alteration in the role played by go'ernments
(B) an increase in interaction between national go'ernments and international
regulatory institutions
(C) an increase in the formation of multinational trading alliances
() an increase in integration in the two richest markets of the world
(#) a fear of increasing :nited ;tates protectionism
.. The passage suggests which of the following about global corporations%
(A) Their continued growth depends on the e$istence of a fully integrated
international market.
(B) Their potential effect on the world market is a matter of ongoing concern to
international institutions.
(C) They will ha'e to assume "uasi(go'ernmental functions if current economic
trends continue.
() They ha'e pro'ided a model of economic success for regional trading blocs.
(#) Their influence on world economics will continue to increase.
0. According to the passage/ one similarity between the >TA and #urope 1,,2 is that
they both
(A) o'ercame concerns about the role of politics in the shifting world economy
(B) originated out of concern o'er unfair trade practices by other nations
(C) e$emplify a trend toward regionali!ation of commercial markets
() place the economic needs of the trading bloc ahead of those of the member
nations
(#) help to ensure the continued economic 'iability of the world community
1. &hich of the following can be inferred from the passage about the #uropean
Community prior to the adoption of the #urope 1,,2 program%
(A) There were restrictions on commerce between the member nations.
(B) The economic policies of the member nations focused on global trading issues.
(C) There were few impediments to trade between the member nations and the
:nited ;tates.
() The flow of goods between the member nations and Canada was insignificant.
(#) =elations between multinational corporations and the go'ernments of the
member nations were strained.
2. The author discusses the >TA and #urope 1,,2 most likely in order to
(A) point out the similarities between two seemingly disparate trading alliances
(B) illustrate how different economic moti'ations produce different types of
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trading blocs
(C) pro'ide contrasting e$amples of a trend that is influencing the world economy
() identify the most important characteristics of successful economic integration
(#) trace the history of regional trading blocs
-. &hich of the following best describes the organi!ation of the passage%
(A) An argument is put forth and e'idence for and against it gi'en.
(B) An assertion is made and opposing e'idence presented.
(C) Two hypotheses are described and shown to inconsistent with one another.
() A phenomenon is identified and illustrations of this phenomenon offered.
(#) A specific case of a phenomenon is discussed a generali!ation drawn.
Passage 38 (38/63)
2n Forces of Production( Kavid ,ob"e e8amines the trans&ormation o& the
machine-too" industry as the industry moved &rom re"iance on s$i""ed artisans to
automation. ,ob"e writes &rom a Bar8ist perspective( and his centra" argument is
that management( in its decisions to automate( conspired against "aborA the
power that the s$i""ed machinists wie"ded in the industry was into"erab"e to
management. ,ob"e &ai"s to substantiate this c"aim( a"though his argument is
impressive when he app"ies the Bar8ist concept o& >de-s$i""ing?!the use o&
techno"ogy to rep"ace s$i""ed "abor!to the automation o& the machine-too"
industry. 2n automating( the industry moved to computer-based( digiti+ed
>numerica"-contro"? (,P%) techno"ogy( rather than to artisan-generated >record-
p"aybac$? (RP9) techno"ogy.
3"though both systems reduced re"iance on s$i""ed "abor( ,ob"e c"ear"y pre&ers
RP9( with its inherent ac$now"edgment o& wor$ers6 s$i""sA un"i$e ,P%( its programs
were produced not by engineers at their computers( but by s$i""ed machinists(
who recorded their own movements to >teach? machines to dup"icate those
movements. )owever( ,ob"e6s on"y evidence o& conspiracy is that( a"though the
two approaches were rough"y e-ua" in technica" merit( management chose ,P%.
:rom this he conc"udes that automation is underta$en not because e*ciency
demands it or scienti#c advances a""ow it( but because it is a too" in the cease"ess
war o& capita"ists against "abor.
1. The author of the passage is primarily concerned with
(A) ree$amining a political position and defending its 'alidity
(B) e$amining a management decision and defending its necessity
(C) analy!ing a scholarly study and pointing out a central weakness
() e$plaining a trend in automation and warning about its dangers
(#) chronicling the history of an industry and critici!ing its de'elopment
GMAT 15-
2. According to information in the passage/ the term *de(skilling+ refers to the
(A) loss of skills to industry when skilled workers are replaced by unskilled
laborers
(B) substitution of mechani!ed processes for labor formerly performed by skilled
workers
(C) labor theory that automation is technologically comparable to skilled labor
() process by which skilled machinists *teach+ machines to perform certain tasks
(#) e$clusion of skilled workers from participation in the de'elopment of
automated technology
.. &hich of the following best characteri!es the function of the second paragraph of
the passage%
(A) 3t de'elops a topic introduced in the first paragraph.
(B) 3t pro'ides e'idence to refute a claim presented in the first paragraph.
(C) 3t gi'es e$amples of a phenomenon mentioned in the first paragraph.
() 3t presents a generali!ation about e$amples gi'en in the first paragraph.
(#) 3t suggests two possible solutions to a problem presented in the first paragraph.
0. The passage suggests which of the following about 9JC automation in the
machine(tool industry%
(A) 3t displaced fewer skilled workers than =J@ automation did.
(B) 3t could ha'e been implemented either by e$perienced machinists or by
computer engineers.
(C) 3t was designed without the acti'e in'ol'ement skilled machinists.
() 3t was more difficult to design than =J@ automation was.
(#) 3t was technically superior to =J@ automation.
1. &hich of the following phrases most clearly re'eals the attitude of the author of
the passage toward 9oble4s central argument%
(A) *conspired against+ (line 2)
(B) *intolerable to management+ (line -)
(C) *impressi'e when he applies the ?ar$ist concept+ (line ,)
() *clearly prefers+ (line 12)
(#) *only e'idence of conspiracy+ (line 21)
2. The author of the passage commends 9oble4s book for which of the following%
(A) Concentrating on skilled as opposed to unskilled workers in its discussion of
the machine(tool industry
(B) 8ffering a generali!ation about the moti'es behind the machine(tool industry4s
decision to automate
(C) ?aking an essential distinction between two kinds of technology employed in
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the machine(tool industry
() Calling into "uestion the notion that managers conspired against labor in the
automation of the machine(tool industry
(#) Applying the concept of de(skilling to the machine tool industry
-. &hich of the following best characteri!es >orces of @roduction as it is described in
the passage%
(A) A comparison of two interpretations of how a particular industry e'ol'ed
(B) An e$amination of the origin of a particular concept in industrial economics
(C) A study that points out the weakness of a particular interpretation of an
industrial phenomenon
() A history of a particular industry from an ideological point of 'iew
(#) An attempt to relate an industrial phenomenon in one industry to a similar
phenomenon in another industry
Passage 39 (39/63)
The sensation o& pain cannot accurate"y be described as >"ocated? at the point
o& an in5ury( or( &or that matter( in any one p"ace in the nerves or brain. Rather(
pain signa"s!and pain re"ie&!are de"ivered through a high"y comp"e8 interacting
circuitry.
;hen a ce"" is in5ured( a rush o& prostag"andins sensiti+es nerve endings at the
in5ury. 9rostag"andins are chemica"s produced in and re"eased &rom virtua""y a""
mamma"ian ce""s when they are in5uredA these are the on"y pain signa"s that do
not originate in the nervous system. 3spirin and other simi"ar drugs (such as
indomethacin and ibupro&en) $eep prostag"andins &rom being made by inter&ering
with an en+yme $nown as prostag"andin synthetase( or cyc"oo8ygenase. The
drugs6 e1ectiveness against pain is proportiona" to their success in b"oc$ing this
en+yme at the site o& in5ury.
:rom nerve endings at the in5ury( pain signa"s move to nerves &eeding into the
spina" cord. The "ong( tubu"ar membranes o& nerve ce""s carry e"ectrica" impu"ses.
;hen e"ectrica" impu"ses get to the spina" cord( a pain-signa"ing chemica" $nown
as substance 9 is re"eased there. ubstance 9 then e8cites nearby neurons to
send impu"ses to the brain. Joca" anesthetics such as novocaine and 8y"ocaine
wor$ by b"oc$ing the e"ectrica" transmission a"ong nerves in a particu"ar area.
They inhibit the Dow o& sodium ions through the membranes( ma$ing the nerves
e"ectrica""y -uiescent= thus no pain signa"s are sent to the spina" cord or to the
brain.
Recent discoveries in the study o& pain have invo"ved the brain itse"&!the
supervising organ that notices pain signa"s and that sends messages down to the
spina" cord to regu"ate incoming pain tra*c. @ndorphins!the brain6s own
morphine!are a c"ass o& sma"" peptides that he"p to b"oc$ pain signa"s within the
GMAT 15,
brain itse"&. The presence o& endorphins may a"so he"p to e8p"ain di1erences in
response to pain signa"s( since individua"s seem to di1er in their abi"ity to produce
endorphins. 2t now appears that a number o& techni-ues &or b"oc$ing chronic pain
!such as acupuncture and e"ectrica" stimu"ation o& the centra" brain stem!
invo"ve the re"ease o& endorphins in the brain and spina" cord.
1. The passage is primarily concerned with
(A) analy!ing ways that en!ymes and other chemicals influence how the body
feels pain
(B) describing the presence of endorphins in the brain and discussing ways the
body blocks pain within the brain itself
(C) describing how pain signals are con'eyed in the body and discussing ways in
which the pain signals can be blocked
() demonstrating that pain can be influenced by acupuncture and electrical
stimulation of the central brain stem
(#) differentiating the kinds of pain that occur at different points in the body4s
ner'ous system
2. According to the passage/ which of the following is one of the first things to occur
when cells are in<ured%
(A) The flow of electrical impulses through ner'e cells at the site of the in<ury is
broken.
(B) The production of substance @ tra'eling through ner'e cells to the brain
increases.
(C) #ndorphins begin to speed up the response of ner'e cells at the site of the
in<ury.
() A flood of prostaglandins sensiti!es ner'e endings at the site of the in<ury.
(#) 9er'e cells connected to the spinal cord become electrically "uiescent.
.. 8f the following/ which is most likely attributable to the effect of endorphins as
described in the passage%
(A) After an in<ection of no'ocaine/ a patient has no feeling in the area where the
in<ection was gi'en.
(B) After taking ibuprofen/ a person with a headache gets "uick relief.
(C) After recei'ing a local anesthetic/ an in<ured person reports relief in the
anestheti!ed area.
() After being gi'en aspirin/ a child with a badly scraped elbow feels better.
(#) After acupuncture/ a patient with chronic back pain reports that the pain is
much less se'ere.
0. 3t can be inferred from the passage that if the prostaglandin synthetase is only
partially blocked/ which of the following is likely to be true%
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(A) ;ome endorphins will be produced/ and some pain signals will be intensified.
(B) ;ome substance @ is likely to be produced/ so some pain signals will reach the
brain.
(C) ;ome sodium ions will be blocked/ so some pain signals will not reach the
brain.
() ;ome prostaglandins will be produced/ but production of substance @ will be
pre'ented.
(#) ;ome peptides in the brain will recei'e pain signals and begin to regulate
incoming pain traffic.
Passage 40 (40/63)
Capanese #rms have achieved the highest "eve"s o& manu&acturing e*ciency in
the wor"d automobi"e industry. ome observers o& Capan have assumed that
Capanese #rms use the same manu&acturing e-uipment and techni-ues as United
tates #rms but have bene#ted &rom the uni-ue characteristics o& Capanese
emp"oyees and the Capanese cu"ture. )owever( i& this were true( then one wou"d
e8pect Capanese auto p"ants in the United tates to per&orm no better than
&actories run by United tates companies. This is not the case= Capanese-run
automobi"e p"ants "ocated in the United tates and sta1ed by "oca" wor$ers have
demonstrated higher "eve"s o& productivity when compared with &actories owned
by United tates companies.
<ther observers "in$ high Capanese productivity to higher "eve"s o& capita"
investment per wor$er. 'ut a historica" perspective "eads to a di1erent conc"usion.
;hen the two top Capanese automobi"e ma$ers matched and then doub"ed United
tates productivity "eve"s in the mid-si8ties( capita" investment per emp"oyee was
comparab"e to that o& United tates #rms. :urthermore( by the "ate seventies( the
amount o& #8ed assets re-uired to produce one vehic"e was rough"y e-uiva"ent in
Capan and in the United tates.
ince capita" investment was not higher in Capan( it had to be other &actors that
"ed to higher productivity. 3 more &ruit&u" e8p"anation may "ie with Capanese
production techni-ues. Capanese automobi"e producers did not simp"y imp"ement
conventiona" processes more e1ective"yA they made critica" changes in United
tates procedures. :or instance( the mass-production phi"osophy o& United tates
automa$ers encouraged the production o& huge "ots o& cars in order to uti"i+e &u""y
e8pensive( component-speci#c e-uipment and to occupy &u""y wor$ers who have
been trained to e8ecute one operation e*cient"y. Capanese automa$ers chose to
ma$e sma""-"ot production &easib"e by introducing severa" departures &rom United
tates practices( inc"uding the use o& De8ib"e e-uipment that cou"d be a"tered
easi"y to do severa" di1erent production tas$s and the training o& wor$ers in
mu"tip"e 5obs. 3utoma$ers cou"d schedu"e the production o& di1erent components
or mode"s on sing"e machines( thereby e"iminating the need to store the bu1er
GMAT 111
stoc$s o& e8tra components that resu"t when specia"i+ed e-uipment and wor$ers
are $ept constant"y active.
1. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) present the ma<or steps of a process
(B) clarify an ambiguity
(C) chronicle a dispute
() correct misconceptions
(#) defend an accepted approach
2. The author suggests that if the obser'ers of Aapan mentioned in line . were correct/
which of the following would be the case%
(A) The e"uipment used in Aapanese automobile plants would be different from the
e"uipment used in :nited ;tates plants.
(B) Aapanese workers would be trained to do se'eral different production <obs.
(C) Culture would not ha'e an influence on the producti'ity le'els of workers.
() The workers in Aapanese(run plants would ha'e higher producti'ity le'els
regardless of where they were located.
(#) The production le'els of Aapanese(run plants located in the :nited ;tates
would be e"ual to those of plants run by :nited ;tates companies.
.. &hich of the following statements concerning the producti'ity le'els of
automakers can be inferred from the passage%
(A) @rior to the 1,254s/ the producti'ity le'els of the top Aapanese automakers
were e$ceeded by those of :nited ;tates automakers.
(B) The culture of a country has a large effect on the producti'ity le'els of its
automakers.
(C) uring the late 1,-54s and early 1,654s/ producti'ity le'els were comparable
in Aapan and the :nited ;tates.
() The greater the number of cars that are produced in a single lot/ the higher a
plant4s producti'ity le'el.
(#) The amount of capital in'estment made by automobile manufacturers in their
factories determines the le'el of producti'ity.
0. According to the passage/ which of the following statements is true of Aapanese
automobile workers%
(A) Their producti'ity le'els did not e"ual those of :nited ;tates automobile
workers until the late se'enties.
(B) Their high efficiency le'els are a direct result of cultural influences.
(C) They operate component(specific machinery.
() They are trained to do more than one <ob.
(#) They produce larger lots of cars than do workers in :nited ;tates factories.
112 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
1. &hich of the following best describes the organi!ation of the first paragraph%
(A) A thesis is presented and supporting e$amples are pro'ided.
(B) 8pposing 'iews are presented/ classified/ and then reconciled.
(C) A fact is stated/ and an e$planation is ad'anced and then refuted.
() A theory is proposed/ considered/ and then amended.
(#) An opinion is presented/ "ualified/ and then reaffirmed.
2. 3t can be inferred from the passage that one problem associated with the
production of huge lots of cars is which of the following%
(A) The need to manufacture fle$ible machinery and e"uipment
(B) The need to store e$tra components not re"uired for immediate use
(C) The need for e$pensi'e training programs for workers/ which emphasi!e the
de'elopment of facility in se'eral production <obs
() The need to alter con'entional mass(production processes
(#) The need to increase the in'estment per 'ehicle in order to achie'e high
producti'ity le'els
-. &hich of the following statements is supported by information stated in the
passage%
(A) Aapanese and :nited ;tates automakers differ in their approach to production
processes.
(B) Aapanese automakers ha'e perfected the use of single(function e"uipment.
(C) Aapanese automakers in'est more capital per employee than do :nited ;tates
automakers.
() :nited ;tates(owned factories abroad ha'e higher production le'els than do
Aapanese owned plants in the :nited ;tates.
(#) Aapanese automakers ha'e benefited from the cultural heritage of their
workers.
6. &ith which of the following predicti'e statement regarding Aapanese automakers
would the author most likely agree%
(A) The efficiency le'els of the Aapanese automakers will decline if they become
less fle$ible in their approach to production.
(B) Aapanese automakers producti'ity le'els double during the late 1,,54s.
(C) :nited ;tates automakers will originate new production processes before
Aapanese automakers do.
() Aapanese automakers will hire fewer workers than will :nited ;tates
automakers because each worker is re"uired to perform se'eral <obs.
(#) Aapanese automakers will spend less on e"uipment repairs than will :nited
;tates automakers because Aapanese e"uipment can be easily altered.
GMAT 11.
Passage 41 (41/63)
2t was once be"ieved that the brain was independent o& metabo"ic processes
occurring e"sewhere in the body. 2n recent studies( however( we have discovered
that the production and re"ease in brain neurons o& the neurotransmitter serotonin
(neurotransmitters are compounds that neurons use to transmit signa"s to other
ce""s) depend direct"y on the &ood that the body processes.
<ur #rst studies sought to determine whether the increase in serotonin
observed in rats given a "arge in5ection o& the amino acid tryptophan might a"so
occur a&ter rats ate mea"s that change tryptophan "eve"s in the b"ood. ;e &ound
that( immediate"y a&ter the rats began to eat( para""e" e"evations occurred in b"ood
tryptophan( brain tryptophan( and brain serotonin "eve"s. These #ndings
suggested that the production and re"ease o& serotonin in brain neurons were
norma""y coup"ed with b"ood-tryptophan increases. 2n "ater studies we &ound that
in5ecting insu"in into a rat6s b"oodstream a"so caused para""e" e"evations in b"ood
and brain tryptophan "eve"s and in serotonin "eve"s. ;e then decided to see
whether the secretion o& the anima"6s own insu"in simi"ar"y a1ected serotonin
production. ;e gave the rats a carbohydrate-containing mea" that we $new wou"d
e"icit insu"in secretion. 3s we had hypothesi+ed( the b"ood tryptophan "eve" and
the concentrations o& tryptophan serotonin in the brain increased a&ter the mea".
urprising"y( however( when we added a "arge amount o& protein to the mea"(
brain tryptophan and serotonin "eve"s &e"". ince protein contains tryptophan( why
shou"d it depress brain tryptophan "eve"sG The answer "ies in the mechanism that
provides b"ood tryptophan to the brain ce""s. This same mechanism a"so provides
the brain ce""s with other amino acids &ound in protein( such as tyrosine and
Jeucine. The consumption o& protein increases b"ood concentration o& the other
amino acids much more( proportionate"y( than it does that o& tryptophan. The
more protein in the mea"( the "ower is the ratio o& the resu"ting b"ood-tryptophan
concentration to the concentration o& competing amino acids( and the more s"ow"y
is tryptophan provided to the brain. Thus the more protein in a mea"( the "ess
serotonin subse-uent"y produced and re"eased.
1. &hich of the following titles best summari!es the contents of the passage%
(A) 9eurotransmittersE Their Crucial >unction in Cellular Communication
(B) iet and ;ur'i'alE An 8ld =elationship =ee$amined
(C) The Blood ;upply and the BrainE A =eciprocal ependence
() Amino Acids and 9eurotransmittersE The Connection Between ;erotonin
Ke'els and Tyrosine
(#) The #ffects of >ood 3ntake on the @roduction and =elease of ;erotoninE ;ome
=ecent >indings
2. According to the passage/ the speed with which tryptophan is pro'ided to the brain
cells of a rat 'aries with the
110 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(A) amount of protein present in a meal
(B) concentration of serotonin in the brain before a meal
(C) concentration of leucine in the blood rather than on the concentration of
tyrosine in the blood after a meal
() concentration of tryptophan in the brain before a meal
(#) number of serotonin(containing neurons present in the brain before a meal
.. According to the passage/ when the authors began their first studies/ they were
aware that
(A) they would e'entually need to design e$periments that in'ol'ed feeding rats
high concentrations of protein
(B) tryptophan le'els in the blood were difficult to monitor with accuracy
(C) serotonin le'els increased after rats were fed meals rich in tryptophan
() there were many neurotransmitters whose production was dependent on
metabolic processes elsewhere in the body
(#) serotonin le'els increased after rats were in<ected with a large amount of
tryptophan
0. According to the passage/ one reason that the authors ga'e rats carbohydrates was
to
(A) depress the rats4 tryptophan le'els
(B) pre'ent the rats from contracting diseases
(C) cause the rats to produce insulin
() demonstrate that insulin is the most important substance secreted by the body
(#) compare the effect of carbohydrates with the effect of proteins
1. According to the passage/ the more protein a rat consumes/ the lower will be the
(A) ratio of the rat4s blood(tryptophan concentration to the amount of serotonin
produced and released in the rat4s brain
(B) ratio of the rat4s blood(tryptophan concentration to the concentration in its
blood of the other amino acids contained in the protein
(C) ratio of the rat4s blood(tyrosine concentration to its blood(leucine
concentration
() number of neurotransmitters of any kind that the rat will produce and release
(#) number of amino acids the rat4s blood will contain
2. The authors4 discussion of the *mechanism that pro'ides blood tryptophan to the
brain cells+ (lines .1(.2) is meant to
(A) stimulate further research studies
(B) summari!e an area of scientific in'estigation
(C) help e$plain why a particular research finding was obtained
GMAT 111
() pro'ide supporting e'idence for a contro'ersial scientific theory
(#) refute the conclusions of a pre'iously mentioned research study
-. According to the passage/ an in<ection of insulin was most similar in its effect on
rats to an in<ection of
(A) tyrosine
(B) leucine
(C) blood
() tryptophan
(#) protein
6. 3t can be inferred from the passage that which of the following would be K#A;T
likely to be a potential source of aid to a patient who was not ade"uately producing
and releasing serotonin%
(A) ?eals consisting almost e$clusi'ely of protein
(B) ?eals consisting almost e$clusi'ely of carbohydrates
(C) ?eals that would elicit insulin secretion
() ?eals that had 'ery low concentrations of tyrosine
(#) ?eals that had 'ery low concentrations of leucine
,. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the authors initially held which of the
following hypotheses about what would happen when they fed large amounts of
protein to rats%
(A) The rats4 brain serotonin le'els would not decrease.
(B) The rats4 brain tryptophan le'els would decrease.
(C) The rats4 tyrosine le'els would increase less "uickly than would their leucine
le'els.
() The rats would produce more insulin.
(#) The rats would produce neurotransmitters other than serotonin.
Passage 42 (42/63)
)istorians sometimes &orget that history is continua""y being made and
e8perienced be&ore it is studied( interpreted( and read. These "atter activities have
their own history( o& course( which may impinge in une8pected ways on pub"ic
events. 2t is di*cu"t to predict when >new pasts? wi"" overturn estab"ished
historica" interpretations and change the course o& history.
2n the &a"" o& 19/M( &or e8amp"e( %. Fann ;oodward de"ivered a "ecture series at
the University o& Firginia which cha""enged the prevai"ing dogma concerning the
history( continuity( and uni&ormity o& racia" segregation in the outh. )e argued
that the Cim %row "aws o& the "ate nineteenth and ear"y twentieth centuries not
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on"y codi#ed traditiona" practice but a"so were a determined e1ort to erase the
considerab"e progress made by '"ac$ peop"e during and a&ter Reconstruction in
the 18706s. This revisionist view o& Cim %row "egis"ation grew in part &rom the
research that ;oodward had done &or the ,33%9 "ega" campaign during its
preparation &or Brown v. Board of Education. The upreme %ourt had issued its
ru"ing in this epocha" desegregation case a &ew months be&ore ;oodward6s
"ectures.
The "ectures were soon pub"ished as a boo$( The trange Career of !im Crow.
Ten years "ater( in a pre&ace to the second revised edition( ;oodward con&essed
with ironic modesty that the #rst edition >had begun to su1er under some o& the
handicaps that might be e8pected in a history o& the 3merican Revo"ution
pub"ished in 177L.? That was a bit "i$e hearing Thomas 9aine apo"ogi+e &or the
timing o& his pamph"et Common ense( which had a comparab"e impact. 3"though
Common ense a"so had a mass readership( 9aine had intended to reach and
inspireA he was not a historian( and thus not concerned with accuracy or the
dangers o& historica" anachronism. Iet( "i$e 9aine( ;oodward had an unerring
sense o& the revo"utionary moment( and o& how historica" evidence cou"d
undermine the mytho"ogica" tradition that was crushing the dreams o& new socia"
possibi"ities. Bartin Juther Sing( Cr.( testi#ed to the pro&ound e1ect o& The trange
Career of !im Crow on the civi" rights movement by praising the boo$ and -uoting
it &re-uent"y.
1. The *new pasts+ mentioned in line 2 can best be described as the
(A) occurrence of e'ents e$tremely similar to past e'ents
(B) history of the acti'ities of studying/ interpreting/ and reading new historical
writing
(C) change in people4s understanding of the past due to more recent historical
writing
() o'erturning of established historical interpretations by politically moti'ated
politicians
(#) difficulty of predicting when a gi'en historical interpretation will be
o'erturned
2. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the *pre'ailing dogma+ (line 15) held that
(A) Aim Crow laws were passed to gi'e legal status to well(established
discriminatory practices in the ;outh
(B) Aim Crow laws were passed to establish order and uniformity in the
discriminatory practices of different southern states
(C) Aim Crow laws were passed to erase the social gains that Black people had
achie'ed since =econstruction
() the continuity of racial segregation in the ;outh was disrupted by passage of
Aim Crow laws
GMAT 11-
(#) the Aim Crow laws of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries were
passed to re'erse the effect of earlier Aim Crow laws
.. &hich of the following is the best e$ample of writing that is likely to be sub<ect to
the kinds of *handicaps+ referred to in line 2-%
(A) A history of an auto manufacturing plant written by an employee during an
auto(buying boom
(B) A criti"ue of a statewide school(desegregation plan written by an elementary
school teacher in that state
(C) A newspaper article assessing the historical importance of a :nited ;tates
@resident written shortly after the @resident has taken office
() A scientific paper describing the benefits of a certain surgical techni"ue written
by the surgeon who de'eloped the techni"ue
(#) iary entries narrating the e'ents of a battle written by a soldier who
participated in the battle
0. The passage suggests that C. Cann &oodward and Thomas @aine were similar in
all of the following ways #DC#@TE
(A) Both had works published in the midst of important historical e'ents.
(B) Both wrote works that en<oyed widespread popularity.
(C) Both e$hibited an understanding of the rele'ance of historical e'idence to
contemporary issues.
() The works of both had a significant effect on e'ents following their
publication.
(#) Both were able to set aside worries about historical anachronism in order to
reach and inspire.
1. The attitude of the author of the passage toward the work of C. Cann &oodward is
best described as one of
(A) respectful regard
(B) "ualified approbation
(C) implied skepticism
() pointed criticism
(#) fer'ent ad'ocacy
2. &hich of the following best describes the new idea e$pressed by C. Cann
&oodward in his :ni'ersity of Cirginia lectures in 1,10%
(A) ;outhern racial segregation was continuous and uniform.
(B) Black people made considerable progress only after =econstruction.
(C) Aim Crow legislation was con'entional in nature.
() Aim Crow laws did not go as far in codifying traditional practice as they might
ha'e.
116 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(#) Aim Crow laws did much more than merely reinforce a tradition of segregation.
Passage 43 (43/63)
Coseph E"atthaar6s Forged in Battle is not the #rst e8ce""ent study o& '"ac$
so"diers and their ;hite o*cers in the %ivi" ;ar( but it uses more so"diers6 "etters
and diaries!inc"uding rare materia" &rom '"ac$ so"diers!and concentrates more
intense"y on '"ac$-;hite re"ations in '"ac$ regiments than do any o& its
predecessors. E"atthaar6s tit"e e8presses his thesisA "oya"ty( &riendship( and
respect among ;hite o*cers and '"ac$ so"diers were &ostered by the mutua"
dangers they &aced in combat.
E"atthaar accurate"y describes the government6s discriminatory treatment o&
'"ac$ so"diers in pay( promotion( medica" care( and 5ob assignments( appropriate"y
emphasi+ing the campaign by '"ac$ so"diers and their o*cers to get the
opportunity to #ght. That chance remained "imited throughout the war by army
po"icies that $ept most '"ac$ units serving in rear-eche"on assignments and
wor$ing in "abor batta"ions. Thus( whi"e their combat death rate was on"y one-third
that o& ;hite units( their morta"ity rate &rom disease( a ma5or $i""er in his war( was
twice as great. Kespite these obstac"es( the courage and e1ectiveness o& severa"
'"ac$ units in combat won increasing respect &rom initia""y s$eptica" or hosti"e
;hite so"diers. 3s one ;hite o*cer put it( >they have &ought their way into the
respect o& a"" the army.?
2n trying to demonstrate the magnitude o& this attitudina" change( however(
E"atthaar seems to e8aggerate the prewar racism o& the ;hite men who became
o*cers in '"ac$ regiments. >9rior to the war(? he writes o& these men( >virtua""y a""
o& them he"d power&u" racia" pre5udices.? ;hi"e perhaps true o& those o*cers who
5oined '"ac$ units &or promotion or other se"&-serving motives( this statement
misrepresents the attitudes o& the many abo"itionists who became o*cers in '"ac$
regiments. )aving spent years #ghting against the race pre5udice endemic in
3merican society( they participated eager"y in this mi"itary e8periment( which
they hoped wou"d he"p 3&rican 3mericans achieve &reedom and postwar civi"
e-ua"ity. 'y current standards o& racia" ega"itarianism( these men6s paterna"ism
toward 3&rican 3mericans was racist. 'ut to ca"" their &ee"ings >power&u" racia"
pre5udices? is to indu"ge in generationa" chauvinism!to 5udge past eras by
present standards.
1. The passage as a whole can best be characteri!ed as which of the following%
(A) An e'aluation of a scholarly study
(B) A description of an attitudinal change
(C) A discussion of an analytical defect
() An analysis of the causes of a phenomenon
(#) An argument in fa'or of re'ising a 'iew
GMAT 11,
2. According to the author/ which of the following is true of Blatthaar4s >orged in
Battle compared with pre'ious studies on the same topic%
(A) 3t is more reliable and presents a more complete picture of the historical e'ents
on which it concentrates than do pre'ious studies.
(B) 3t uses more of a particular kind of source material and focuses more closely
on a particular aspect of the topic than do pre'ious studies.
(C) 3t contains some unsupported generali!ations/ but it rightly emphasi!es a
theme ignored by most pre'ious studies.
() 3t surpasses pre'ious studies on the same topic in that it accurately describes
conditions often neglected by those studies.
(#) 3t makes skillful use of supporting e'idence to illustrate a subtle trend that
pre'ious studies ha'e failed to detect.
.. The author implies that the title of Blatthaar4s book refers specifically to which of
the following%
(A) The sense of pride and accomplishment that Black soldiers increasingly felt as
a result of their Ci'il &ar e$periences
(B) The ci'il e"uality that African Americans achie'ed after the Ci'il &ar/ partly
as a result of their use of organi!ational skills honed by combat
(C) The changes in discriminatory army policies that were made as a direct result
of the performance of Black combat units during the Ci'il &ar
() The impro'ed interracial relations that were formed by the races4 facing of
common dangers and their waging of a common fight during the Ci'il &ar
(#) The standards of racial egalitarianism that came to be adopted as a result of
&hite Ci'il &ar 'eterans4 repudiation of the pre'ious racism
0. The passage mentions which of the following as an important theme that recei'es
special emphasis in Blatthaar4s book%
(A) The attitudes of abolitionist officers in Black units
(B) The struggle of Black units to get combat assignments
(C) The conse"uences of the poor medical care recei'ed by Black soldiers
() The moti'es of officers ser'ing in Black units
(#) The discrimination that Black soldiers faced when trying for promotions
1. The passage suggests that which of the following was true of Black units4 disease
mortality rates in the Ci'il &ar%
(A) They were almost as high as the combat mortality rates of &hite units.
(B) They resulted in part from the relati'e ine$perience of these units when in
combat.
(C) They were especially high because of the nature of these units4 usual duty
assignments.
125 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
() They resulted in e$tremely high o'erall casualty rates in Black combat units.
(#) They e$acerbated the morale problems that were caused by the army4s
discriminatory policies.
2. The author of the passage "uotes the &hite officer in lines 2.(20 primarily in order
to pro'ide e'idence to support the contention that
(A) 'irtually all &hite officers initially had hostile attitudes toward Black soldiers
(B) Black soldiers were often forced to defend themsel'es from physical attacks
initiated by soldiers from &hite units
(C) the combat performance of Black units changed the attitudes of &hite soldiers
toward Black soldiers
() &hite units paid especially careful attention to the performance of Black units
in battle
(#) respect in the army as a whole was accorded only to those units/ whether Black
or &hite/ that performed well in battle
-. &hich of the following best describes the kind of error attributed to Blatthaar in
lines 21(26%
(A) 3nsisting on an unwarranted distinction between two groups of indi'iduals in
order to render an argument concerning them internally consistent
(B) ;upporting an argument in fa'or of a gi'en interpretation of a situation with
e'idence that is not particularly rele'ant to the situation
(C) @resenting a distorted 'iew of the moti'es of certain indi'iduals in order to
pro'ide grounds for a negati'e e'aluation of their actions
() escribing the conditions pre'ailing before a gi'en e'ent in such a way that
the contrast with those pre'ailing after the e'ent appears more striking than it
actually is
(#) Asserting that a gi'en e'ent is caused by another e'ent merely because the
other e'ent occurred before the gi'en e'ent occurred
6. &hich of the following actions can best be described as indulging in *generational
chau'inism+ (lines 05(01) as that practice is defined in the passage%
(A) Condemning a present(day monarch merely because many monarchs ha'e
been tyrannical in the past.
(B) Clinging to the formal standards of politeness common in one4s youth to such
a degree that any rela$ation of those standards is intolerable.
(C) Nuestioning the accuracy of a report written by an employee merely because
of the employee4s gender.
() eriding the superstitions accepted as *science+ in past eras without
acknowledging the pre'alence of irrational beliefs today.
(#) Kabeling a nineteenth(century politician as *corrupt+ for engaging in once(
acceptable practices considered intolerable today.
GMAT 121
Passage 44 (44/63)
2t was once assumed that a"" "iving things cou"d be divided into two
&undamenta" and e8haustive categories. Bu"tice""u"ar p"ants and anima"s( as we""
as many unice""u"ar organisms( are eu$aryotic!their "arge( comp"e8 ce""s have a
we""-&ormed nuc"eus and many organe""es. <n the other hand( the true bacteria
are pro$aryotic ce""( which are simp"e and "ac$ a nuc"eus. The distinction between
eu$aryotes and bacteria( initia""y de#ned in terms o& subce""u"ar structures visib"e
with a microscope( was u"timate"y carried to the mo"ecu"ar "eve". )ere pro$aryotic
and eu$aryotic ce""s have many &eatures in common. :or instance( they trans"ate
genetic in&ormation into proteins according to the same type o& genetic coding.
'ut even where the mo"ecu"ar processes are the same( the detai"s in the two
&orms are di1erent and characteristic o& the respective &orms. :or e8amp"e( the
amino acid se-uences o& various en+ymes tend to be typica""y pro$aryotic or
eu$aryotic. The di1erences between the groups and the simi"arities within each
group made it seem certain to most bio"ogists that the tree o& "i&e had on"y two
stems. Boreover( arguments pointing out the e8tent o& both structura" and
&unctiona" di1erences between eu$aryotes and true bacteria convinced many
bio"ogists that the precursors o& the eu$aryotes must have diverged &rom the
common ancestor be&ore the bacteria arose.
3"though much o& this picture has been sustained by more recent research( it
seems &undamenta""y wrong in one respect. 3mong the bacteria( there are
organisms that are signi#cant"y di1erent both &rom the ce""s o& eu$aryotes and
&rom the true bacteria( and it now appears that there are three stems in the tree
o& "i&e. ,ew techni-ues &or determining the mo"ecu"ar se-uence o& the R,3 o&
organisms have produced evo"utionary in&ormation about the degree to which
organisms are re"ated( the time since they diverged &rom a common ancestor( and
the reconstruction o& ancestra" versions o& genes. These techni-ues have strong"y
suggested that a"though the true bacteria indeed &orm a "arge coherent group(
certain other bacteria( the archaebacteria( which are a"so pro$aryotes and which
resemb"e true bacteria( represent a distinct evo"utionary branch that &ar
antedates the common ancestor o& a"" true bacteria.
1. The passage is primarily concerned with
(A) detailing the e'idence that has led most biologists to replace the trichotomous
picture of li'ing organisms with a dichotomous one
(B) outlining the factors that ha'e contributed to the current hypothesis concerning
the number of basic categories of li'ing organisms
(C) e'aluating e$periments that ha'e resulted in proof that the prokaryotes are
more ancient than had been e$pected
() summari!ing the differences in structure and function found among true
bacteria/ archaebacteria/ and eukaryotes
(#) formulating a hypothesis about the mechanisms of e'olution that resulted in
122 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
the ancestors of the prokaryotes
2. According to the passage/ in'estigations of eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells at the
molecular le'el supported the conclusion that
(A) most eukaryotic organisms are unicellular
(B) comple$ cells ha'e well(formed nuclei
(C) prokaryotes and eukaryotes form two fundamental categories
() subcellular structures are 'isible with a microscope
(#) prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells ha'e similar en!ymes
.. According to the passage/ which of the following statements about the two(
category hypothesis is likely to be true%
(A) 3t is promising because it e$plains the presence of true bacteria(like organisms
such as organelles in eukaryotic cells.
(B) 3t is promising because it e$plains why eukaryotic cells/ unlike prokaryotic
cells/ tend to form multicellular organisms.
(C) 3t is flawed because it fails to account for the great 'ariety among eukaryotic
organisms.
() 3t is flawed because it fails to account for the similarity between prokaryotes
and eukaryotes.
(#) 3t is flawed because it fails to recogni!e an important distinction among
prokaryotes.
0. 3t can be inferred from the passage that which of the following ha'e recently been
compared in order to clarify the fundamental classifications of li'ing things%
(A) The genetic coding in true bacteria and that in other prokaryotes
(B) The organelle structures of archaebacteria/ true bacteria/ and eukaryotes
(C) The cellular structures of multicellular organisms and unicellular organisms
() The molecular se"uences in eukaryotic =9A/ true bacterial =9A/ and
archaebacterial =9A
(#) The amino acid se"uences in en!ymes of 'arious eukaryotic species and those
of en!ymes in archaebacterial species
1. 3f the *new techni"ues+ mentioned in line .1 were applied in studies of biological
classifications other than bacteria/ which of the following is most likely%
(A) ;ome of those classifications will ha'e to be ree'aluated.
(B) ?any species of bacteria will be reclassified.
(C) 3t will be determined that there are four main categories of li'ing things rather
than three.
() 3t will be found that true bacteria are much older than eukaryotes.
(#) 3t will be found that there is a common ancestor of the eukaryotes/
archaebacteria/ and true bacteria.
GMAT 12.
2. According to the passage/ researchers working under the two(category hypothesis
were correct in thinking that
(A) prokaryotes form a coherent group
(B) the common ancestor of all li'ing things had comple$ properties
(C) eukaryotes are fundamentally different from true bacteria
() true bacteria are <ust as comple$ as eukaryotes
(#) ancestral 'ersions of eukaryotic genes functioned differently from their modern
counterparts
-. All of the following statements are supported by the passage #DC#@TE
(A) True bacteria form a distinct e'olutionary group.
(B) Archaebacteria are prokaryotes that resemble true bacteria.
(C) True bacteria and eukaryotes employ similar types of genetic coding.
() True bacteria and eukaryotes are distinguishable at the subcellular le'el.
(#) Amino acid se"uences of en!ymes are uniform for eukaryotic and prokaryotic
organisms.
6. The author4s attitude toward the 'iew that li'ing things are di'ided into three
categories is best described as one of
(A) tentati'e acceptance
(B) mild skepticism
(C) limited denial
() studious criticism
(#) whole hearted endorsement
Passage 45 (45/63)
@8cess inventory( a massive prob"em &or many businesses( has severa" causes(
some o& which are unavoidab"e. <verstoc$s may accumu"ate through production
overruns or errors. %ertain sty"es and co"ors prove unpopu"ar. ;ith some products
!computers and so&tware( toys( and boo$s!"ast year6s mode"s are di*cu"t to
move even at huge discounts. <ccasiona""y the competition introduces a better
product. 'ut in many cases the pub"ic6s buying tastes simp"y change( "eaving a
manu&acturer or distributor with thousands (or mi""ions) o& items that the #c$"e
pub"ic no "onger wants.
<ne common way to dispose o& this merchandise is to se"" it to a "i-uidator(
who buys as cheap"y as possib"e and then rese""s the merchandise through
cata"ogs( discount stores( and other out"ets. )owever( "i-uidators may pay "ess &or
the merchandise than it cost to ma$e it. 3nother way to dispose o& e8cess
inventory is to dump it. The corporation ta$es a straight cost write-o1 on its ta8es
and hau"s the merchandise to a "and#"". 3"though it is hard to be"ieve( there is a
sort o& convo"uted "ogic to this approach. 2t is per&ect"y "ega"( re-uires "itt"e time or
120 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
preparation on the company6s part( and so"ves the prob"em -uic$"y. The drawbac$
is the remote possibi"ity o& getting caught by the news media. Kumping per&ect"y
use&u" products can turn into a pub"ic re"ations nightmare. %hi"dren "iving in
poverty are &ree+ing and NIQ %ompany has 5ust sent /00 new snowsuits to the
"oca" dump. 9arents o& young chi"dren are bare"y getting by and TR %ompany
dumps 1(000 cases o& disposab"e diapers because they have s"ight imper&ections.
The managers o& these companies are not de"iberate"y waste&u"= they are
simp"y unaware o& a"" their a"ternatives. 2n 197L the 2nterna" Revenue ervice
provided a tangib"e incentive &or businesses to contribute their products to charity.
The new ta8 "aw a""owed corporations to deduct the cost o& the product donated
p"us ha"& the di1erence between cost and &air mar$et se""ing price( with the
proviso that deductions cannot e8ceed twice cost. Thus( the &edera" government
sanctions!indeed( encourages!an above-cost &edera" ta8 deduction &or
companies that donate inventory to charity.
1. The author mentions each of the following as a cause of e$cess in'entory
#DC#@T
(A) production of too much merchandise
(B) inaccurate forecasting of buyers4 preferences
(C) unrealistic pricing policies
() products4 rapid obsolescence
(#) a'ailability of a better product
2. The passage suggests that which of the following is a kind of product that a
li"uidator who sells to discount stores would be unlikely to wish to ac"uire%
(A) >urniture
(B) Computers
(C) Mitchen e"uipment
() Baby(care products
(#) Children4s clothing
.. The passage pro'ides information that supports which of the following statements%
(A) #$cess in'entory results most often from insufficient market analysis by the
manufacturer.
(B) @roducts with slight manufacturing defects may contribute to e$cess in'entory.
(C) >ew manufacturers ha'e taken ad'antage of the changes in the federal ta$
laws.
() ?anufacturers who dump their e$cess in'entory are often caught and e$posed
by the news media.
(#) ?ost products a'ailable in discount stores ha'e come from manufacturers4
e$cess(in'entory stock.
GMAT 121
0. The author cites the e$amples in lines 21(2, most probably in order to illustrate
(A) the fiscal irresponsibility of dumping as a policy for dealing with e$cess
in'entory
(B) the waste(management problems that dumping new products creates
(C) the ad'antages to the manufacturer of dumping as a policy
() alternati'es to dumping e$plored by different companies
(#) how the news media could portray dumping to the detriment of the
manufacturer4s reputation
1. By asserting that manufacturers *are simply unaware+ (line .1)/ the author
suggests which of the following%
(A) ?anufacturers might donate e$cess in'entory to charity rather than dump it if
they knew about the pro'ision in the federal ta$ code.
(B) The federal go'ernment has failed to pro'ide sufficient encouragement to
manufacturers to make use of ad'antageous ta$ policies.
(C) ?anufacturers who choose to dump e$cess in'entory are not aware of the
possible effects on their reputation of media co'erage of such dumping.
() The manufacturers of products disposed of by dumping are unaware of the
needs of those people who would find the products useful.
(#) The manufacturers who dump their e$cess in'entory are not familiar with the
employment of li"uidators to dispose of o'erstock.
2. The information in the passage suggests that which of the following/ if true/ would
make donating e$cess in'entory to charity less attracti'e to manufacturers than
dumping%
(A) The costs of getting the in'entory to the charitable destination are greater than
the abo'e(cost ta$ deduction.
(B) The news media gi'e manufacturers4 charitable contributions the same amount
of co'erage that they gi'e dumping.
(C) 9o straight(cost ta$ benefit can be claimed for items that are dumped.
() The fair(market 'alue of an item in e$cess in'entory is 1 times its cost.
(#) 3tems end up as e$cess in'entory because of a change in the public4s
preferences.
-. 3nformation in the passage suggests that one reason manufacturers might take
ad'antage of the ta$ pro'ision mentioned in the last paragraph is that
(A) there are many kinds of products that cannot be legally dumped in a landfill
(B) li"uidators often refuse to handle products with slight imperfections
(C) the law allows a deduction in e$cess of the cost of manufacturing the product
() media co'erage of contributions of e$cess(in'entory products to charity is
widespread and fa'orable
122 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(#) no ta$ deduction is a'ailable for products dumped or sold to a li"uidator
Passage 46 (46/63)
Traditiona""y( the #rst #rm to commercia"i+e a new techno"ogy has bene#ted
&rom the uni-ue opportunity to shape product de#nitions( &orcing &o""owers to
adapt to a standard or invest in an unproven a"ternative. Today( however( the
"argest payo1s may go to companies that "ead in deve"oping integrated
approaches &or success&u" mass production and distribution.
9roducers o& the 'eta &ormat &or videocassette recorders (F%R6s)( &or e8amp"e(
were #rst to deve"op the F%R commercia""y in 197/( but producers o& the riva" F)
(Fideo )ome ystem) &ormat proved to be more success&u" at &orming strategic
a""iances with other producers and distributors to manu&acture and mar$et their
F%R &ormat. ee$ing to maintain e8c"usive contro" over F%R distribution( 'eta
producers were re"uctant to &orm such a""iances and eventua""y "ost ground to F)
in the competition &or the g"oba" F%R mar$et.
Kespite 'eta6s substantia" techno"ogica" head start and the &act that F) was
neither technica""y better nor cheaper than 'eta( deve"opers o& F) -uic$"y
turned a s"ight ear"y "ead in sa"es into a dominant position. trategic a"ignments
with producers o& prerecorded tapes rein&orced the F) advantage. The
perception among consumers that prerecorded tapes were more avai"ab"e in F)
&ormat &urther e8panded F)6s share o& the mar$et. 'y the end o& the 19806s(
'eta was no "onger in production.
1. The passage is primarily concerned with which of the following%
(A) #'aluating two competing technologies
(B) Tracing the impact of a new technology by narrating a se"uence of e'ents
(C) =einterpreting an e'ent from contemporary business history
() 3llustrating a business strategy by means of a case history
(#) @roposing an inno'ati'e approach to business planning
2. According to the passage/ today4s successful firms/ unlike successful firms in the
past/ may earn the greatest profits by
(A) in'esting in research to produce cheaper 'ersions of e$isting technology
(B) being the first to market a competing technology
(C) adapting rapidly to a technological standard pre'iously set by a competing
firm
() establishing technological leadership in order to shape product definitions in
ad'ance of competing firms
(#) emphasi!ing the de'elopment of methods for the mass production and
distribution of a new technology
.. According to the passage/ consumers began to de'elop a preference for CC=4s in
GMAT 12-
the C); format because they belie'ed which of the following%
(A) CC=4s in the C); format were technically better than competing(format
CC=4s.
(B) CC=4s in the C); format were less e$pensi'e than competing(format CC=4s.
(C) C); was the first standard format for CC=4s.
() C); prerecorded 'ideotapes were more a'ailable than Beta(format tapes.
(#) CC=4s in the Beta format would soon cease to be produced.
0. The author implies that one way that C); producers won control o'er the CC=
market was by
(A) carefully restricting access to CC= technology
(B) gi'ing up a slight early lead in CC= sales in order to impro'e long(term
prospects
(C) retaining a strict monopoly on the production of prerecorded 'ideotapes
() sharing control of the marketing of C);(format CC=4s
(#) sacrificing technological superiority o'er Beta(format CC=4s in order to
remain competiti'e in price
1. The alignment of producers of C);(format CC=4s with producers of prerecorded
'ideotapes is most similar to which of the following%
(A) The alignment of an automobile manufacturer with another automobile
manufacturer to adopt a standard design for automobile engines.
(B) The alignment of an automobile manufacturer with an automoti'e glass
company whereby the manufacturer agrees to purchase automobile windshields
only from that one glass company.
(C) The alignment of an automobile manufacturer with a petroleum company to
ensure the widespread a'ailability of the fuel re"uired by a new type of engine
de'eloped by the manufacturer.
() The alignment of an automobile manufacturer with its dealers to adopt a plan
to impro'e automobile design.
(#) The alignment of an automobile dealer with an automobile rental chain to
adopt a strategy for an ad'ertising campaign to promote a new type of
automobile.
2. &hich of the following best describes the relation of the first paragraph to the
passage as a whole%
(A) 3t makes a general obser'ation to be e$emplified.
(B) 3t outlines a process to be analy!ed.
(C) 3t poses a "uestion to be answered.
() 3t ad'ances an argument to be disputed.
(#) 3t introduces conflicting arguments to be reconciled.
126 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
Passage 47 (47/63)
3ustra"ian researchers have discovered e"ectroreceptors (sensory organs
designed to respond to e"ectrica" #e"ds) c"ustered at the tip o& the spiny anteater6s
snout. The researchers made this discovery by e8posing sma"" areas o& the snout
to e8treme"y wea$ e"ectrica" #e"ds and recording the transmission o& resu"ting
nervous activity to the brain. ;hi"e it is true that tacti"e receptors( another $ind o&
sensory organ on the anteater6s snout( can a"so respond to e"ectrica" stimu"i( such
receptors do so on"y in response to e"ectrica" #e"d strengths about 1(000 times
greater than those $nown to e8cite e"ectroreceptors.
)aving discovered the e"ectroreceptors( researchers are now investigating how
anteaters uti"i+e such a sophisticated sensory system. 2n one behaviora"
e8periment( researchers success&u""y trained an anteater to distinguish between
two troughs o& water( one with a wea$ e"ectrica" #e"d and the other with none.
uch evidence is consistent with researchers6 hypothesis that anteaters use
e"ectroreceptors to detect e"ectrica" signa"s given o1 by prey= however(
researchers as yet have been unab"e to detect e"ectrica" signa"s emanating &rom
termite mounds( where the &avorite &ood o& anteaters "ive. ti""( researchers have
observed anteaters brea$ing into a nest o& ants at an ob"i-ue ang"e and -uic$"y
"ocating nesting chambers. This abi"ity -uic$"y to "ocate unseen prey suggests(
according to the researchers( that the anteaters were using their e"ectroreceptors
to "ocate the nesting chambers.
1. According to the passage/ which of the following is a characteristic that
distinguishes electroreceptors from tactile receptors%
(A) The manner in which electroreceptors respond to electrical stimuli
(B) The tendency of electroreceptors to be found in clusters
(C) The unusual locations in which electroreceptors are found in most species
() The amount of electrical stimulation re"uired to e$cite electroreceptors
(#) The amount of ner'ous acti'ity transmitted to the brain by electroreceptors
when they are e$cited
2. &hich of the following can be inferred about the e$periment described in the first
paragraph%
(A) =esearchers had difficulty 'erifying the e$istence of electroreceptors in the
anteater because electroreceptors respond to such a narrow range of electrical
field strengths.
(B) =esearchers found that the le'el of ner'ous acti'ity in the anteater4s brain
increased dramatically as the strength of the electrical stimulus was increased.
(C) =esearchers found that some areas of the anteater4s snout were not sensiti'e to
a weak electrical stimulus.
() =esearchers found that the anteater4s tactile receptors were more easily e$cited
GMAT 12,
by a strong electrical stimulus than were the electroreceptors.
(#) =esearchers tested small areas of the anteater4s snout in order to ensure that
only electroreceptors were responding to the stimulus.
.. The author of the passage most probably discusses the function of tactile receptors
(lines -(11) in order to
(A) eliminate and alternati'e e$planation of anteaters4 response to electrical stimuli
(B) highlight a type of sensory organ that has a function identical to that of
electroreceptors
(C) point out a serious complication in the research on electroreceptors in anteaters
() suggest that tactile receptors assist electroreceptors in the detection of
electrical signals
(#) introduce a factor that was not addressed in the research on electroreceptors in
anteaters
0. &hich of the following can be inferred about anteaters from the beha'ioral
e$periment mentioned in the second paragraph%
(A) They are unable to distinguish between stimuli detected by their
electroreceptors and stimuli detected by their tactile receptors.
(B) They are unable to distinguish between the electrical signals emanating from
termite mounds and those emanating from ant nests.
(C) They can be trained to recogni!e consistently the presence of a particular
stimulus.
() They react more readily to strong than to weak stimuli.
(#) They are more efficient at detecting stimuli in a controlled en'ironment than in
a natural en'ironment.
1. The passage suggests that the researchers mentioned in the second paragraph who
obser'ed anteaters break into a nest of ants would most likely agree with which of
the following statements%
(A) The e'ent they obser'ed pro'ides conclusi'e e'idence that anteaters use their
electroreceptors to locate unseen prey.
(B) The e'ent they obser'ed was atypical and may not reflect the usual hunting
practices of anteaters.
(C) 3t is likely that the anteaters located the ants4 nesting chambers without the
assistance of electroreceptors.
() Anteaters possess a 'ery simple sensory system for use in locating prey.
(#) The speed with which the anteaters located their prey is greater than what
might be e$pected on the basis of chance alone.
2. &hich of the following/ if true/ would most strengthen the hypothesis mentioned
in lines 1-(1,%
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(A) =esearchers are able to train anteaters to break into an underground chamber
that is emitting a strong electrical signal.
(B) =esearchers are able to detect a weak electrical signal emanating from the
nesting chamber of an ant colony.
(C) Anteaters are obser'ed taking increasingly longer amounts of time to locate the
nesting chambers of ants.
() Anteaters are obser'ed using 'arious angles to break into nests of ants.
(#) Anteaters are obser'ed using the same angle used with nests of ants to break
into the nests of other types of prey.
Passage 48 (48/63)
;hen 3. 9hi"ip Rando"ph assumed the "eadership o& the 'rotherhood o&
"eeping %ar 9orters( he began a ten-year batt"e to win recognition &rom the
9u""man %ompany( the "argest private emp"oyer o& '"ac$ peop"e in the United
tates and the company that contro""ed the rai"road industry6s s"eeping car and
par"or service. 2n 197/ the 'rotherhood became the #rst '"ac$ union recogni+ed
by a ma5or corporation. Rando"ph6s e1orts in the batt"e he"ped trans&orm the
attitude o& '"ac$ wor$ers toward unions and toward themse"ves as an identi#ab"e
group= eventua""y( Rando"ph he"ped to wea$en organi+ed "abor6s antagonism
toward '"ac$ wor$ers.
2n the 9u""man contest Rando"ph &aced &ormidab"e obstac"es. The #rst was
'"ac$ wor$ers6 understandab"e s$epticism toward unions( which had historica""y
barred '"ac$ wor$ers &rom membership. 3n additiona" obstac"e was the union that
9u""man itse"& had &ormed( which wea$ened support among '"ac$ wor$ers &or an
independent entity.
The 'rotherhood possessed a number o& advantages( however( inc"uding
Rando"ph6s own tactica" abi"ities. 2n 1948 he too$ the bo"d step o& threatening a
stri$e against 9u""man. uch a threat( on a nationa" sca"e( under '"ac$ "eadership(
he"ped rep"ace the stereotype o& the '"ac$ wor$er as servant with the image o&
the '"ac$ wor$er as wage earner. 2n addition( the porters6 very iso"ation aided the
'rotherhood. 9orters were scattered throughout the country( s"eeping in
dormitories in '"ac$ communities= their segregated "i&e protected the union6s
interna" communications &rom interception. That the porters were a homogeneous
group wor$ing &or a sing"e emp"oyer with sing"e "abor po"icy( thus sharing the
same grievances &rom city to city( a"so strengthened the 'rotherhood and
encouraged racia" identity and so"idarity as we"". 'ut it was on"y in the ear"y
19706s that &edera" "egis"ation prohibiting a company &rom maintaining its own
unions with company money eventua""y a""owed the 'rotherhood to become
recogni+ed as the porters6 representative.
,ot content with this triumph( Rando"ph brought the 'rotherhood into the
3merican :ederation o& Jabor( where it became the e-ua" o& the :ederation6s 10/
GMAT 1.1
other unions. )e reasoned that as a member union( the 'rotherhood wou"d be in a
better position to e8ert pressure on member unions that practiced race
restrictions. uch restrictions were eventua""y &ound unconstitutiona" in 19MM.
1. According to the passage/ by 1,.1 the skepticism of Black workers toward unions
was
(A) unchanged e$cept among Black employees of railroad(related industries
(B) reinforced by the actions of the @ullman Company4s union
(C) mitigated by the efforts of =andolph
() weakened by the opening up of many unions to Black workers
(#) largely alle'iated because of the policies of the American >ederation of Kabor
2. 3n using the word *understandable+ (line 10)/ the author most clearly con'eys
(A) sympathy with attempts by the Brotherhood between 1,21 and 1,.1 to
establish an independent union
(B) concern that the obstacles faced by =andolph between 1,21 and 1,.1 were
indeed formidable
(C) ambi'alence about the significance of unions to most Black workers in the
1,254s
() appreciation of the attitude of many Black workers in the 1,254s toward
unions
(#) regret at the historical attitude of unions toward Black workers
.. The passage suggests which of the following about the response of porters to the
@ullman Company4s own union%
(A) >ew porters e'er <oined this union.
(B) ;ome porters supported this union before 1,.1.
(C) @orters/ more than other @ullman employees/ enthusiastically supported this
union.
() The porters4 response was most positi'e after 1,.1.
(#) The porters4 response was unaffected by the general skepticism of Black
workers concerning unions.
0. The passage suggests that if the grie'ances of porters in one part of the :nited
;tates had been different from those of porters in another part of the country/
which of the following would ha'e been the case%
(A) 3t would ha'e been more difficult for the @ullman Company to ha'e had a
single labor policy.
(B) 3t would ha'e been more difficult for the Brotherhood to control its channels of
communication.
(C) 3t would ha'e been more difficult for the Brotherhood to build its membership.
() 3t would ha'e been easier for the @ullman Company4s union to attract
1.2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
membership.
(#) 3t would ha'e been easier for the Brotherhood to threaten strikes.
1. The passage suggests that in the 1,254s a company in the :nited ;tates was able to
(A) use its own funds to set up a union
(B) re"uire its employees to <oin the company4s own union
(C) de'elop a single labor policy for all its employees with little employee dissent
() pressure its employees to contribute money to maintain the company4s own
union
(#) use its resources to pre'ent the passage of federal legislation that would ha'e
facilitated the formation of independent unions
2. The passage supplies information concerning which of the following matters
related to =andolph%
(A) The steps he took to initiate the founding of the Brotherhood
(B) )is moti'ation for bringing the Brotherhood into the American >ederation of
Kabor
(C) The influence he had on the passage of legislation o'erturning race restrictions
in 1,00
() The influence he had on the passage of legislation to bar companies from
financing their own unions
(#) The success he and the Brotherhood had in influencing the policies of the other
unions in the American >ederation of Kabor
Passage 49 (49/63)
)istorians o& women6s "abor in the United tates at #rst "arge"y disregarded the
story o& &ema"e service wor$ers!women earning wages in occupations such as
sa"esc"er$( domestic servant( and o*ce secretary. These historians &ocused
instead on &actory wor$( primari"y because it seemed so di1erent &rom traditiona"(
unpaid >women6s wor$? in the home( and because the under"ying economic &orces
o& industria"ism were presumed to be gender-b"ind and hence emancipatory in
e1ect. Un&ortunate"y( emancipation has been "ess pro&ound than e8pected( &or not
even industria" wage "abor has escaped continued se8 segregation in the
wor$p"ace.
To e8p"ain this un#nished revo"ution in the status o& women( historians have
recent"y begun to emphasi+e the way a prevai"ing de#nition o& &emininity o&ten
determines the $inds o& wor$ a""ocated to women( even when such a""ocation is
inappropriate to new conditions. :or instance( ear"y te8ti"e-mi"" entrepreneurs( in
5usti&ying women6s emp"oyment in wage "abor( made much o& the assumption that
women were by nature s$i""&u" at detai"ed tas$s and patient in carrying out
repetitive chores= the mi"" owners thus imported into the new industria" order
GMAT 1..
hoary stereotypes associated with the homema$ing activities they presumed to
have been the purview o& women. 'ecause women accepted the more
unattractive new industria" tas$s more readi"y than did men( such 5obs came to be
regarded as &ema"e 5obs. 3nd emp"oyers( who assumed that women6s >rea"?
aspirations were &or marriage and &ami"y "i&e( dec"ined to pay women wages
commensurate with those o& men. Thus many "ower-s$i""ed( "ower-paid( "ess
secure 5obs came to be perceived as >&ema"e.?
Bore remar$ab"e than the origin has been the persistence o& such se8
segregation in twentieth-century industry. <nce an occupation came to be
perceived as >&ema"e.? emp"oyers showed surprising"y "itt"e interest in changing
that perception( even when higher pro#ts bec$oned. 3nd despite the urgent need
o& the United tates during the econd ;or"d ;ar to mobi"i+e its human resources
&u""y( 5ob segregation by se8 characteri+ed even the most important war
industries. Boreover( once the war ended( emp"oyers -uic$"y returned to men
most o& the >ma"e? 5obs that women had been permitted to master.
1. According to the passage/ <ob segregation by se$ in the :nited ;tates was
(A) greatly diminished by labor mobili!ation during the ;econd &orld &ar
(B) perpetuated by those te$tile(mill owners who argued in fa'or of women4s
employment in wage labor
(C) one means by which women achie'ed greater <ob security
() reluctantly challenged by employers e$cept when the economic ad'antages
were ob'ious
(#) a constant source of labor unrest in the young te$tile industry
2. According to the passage/ historians of women4s labor focused on factory work as
a more promising area of research than ser'ice(sector work because factory work
(A) in'ol'ed the payment of higher wages
(B) re"uired skill in detailed tasks
(C) was assumed to be less characteri!ed by se$ segregation
() was more readily accepted by women than by men
(#) fitted the economic dynamic of industrialism better
.. 3t can be inferred from the passage that early historians of women4s labor in the
:nited ;tates paid little attention to women4s employment in the ser'ice sector of
the economy because
(A) the e$treme 'ariety of these occupations made it 'ery difficult to assemble
meaningful statistics about them
(B) fewer women found employment in the ser'ice sector than in factory work
(C) the wages paid to workers in the ser'ice sector were much lower than those
paid in the industrial sector
() women4s employment in the ser'ice sector tended to be much more short(term
1.0 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
than in factory work
(#) employment in the ser'ice sector seemed to ha'e much in common with the
unpaid work associated with homemaking
0. The passage supports which of the following statements about the early mill
owners mentioned in the second paragraph%
(A) They hoped that by creating relati'ely unattracti'e *female+ <obs they would
discourage women from losing interest in marriage and family life.
(B) They sought to increase the si!e of the a'ailable labor force as a means to keep
men4s wages low.
(C) They argued that women were inherently suited to do well in particular kinds
of factory work.
() They thought that factory work bettered the condition of women by
emancipating them from dependence on income earned by men.
(#) They felt guilty about disturbing the traditional di'ision of labor in family.
1. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the *unfinished re'olution+ the author
mentions in line 1. refers to the
(A) entry of women into the industrial labor market
(B) recognition that work done by women as homemakers should be compensated
at rates comparable to those pre'ailing in the ser'ice sector of the economy
(C) de'elopment of a new definition of femininity unrelated to the economic
forces of industrialism
() introduction of e"ual pay for e"ual work in all professions
(#) emancipation of women wage earners from gender(determined <ob allocation
2. The passage supports which of the following statements about hiring policies in
the :nited ;tates%
(A) After a crisis many formerly *male+ <obs are reclassified as *female+ <obs.
(B) 3ndustrial employers generally prefer to hire women with pre'ious e$perience
as homemakers.
(C) @ost(;econd &orld &ar hiring policies caused women to lose many of their
wartime gains in employment opportunity.
() #'en war industries during the ;econd &orld &ar were reluctant to hire
women for factory work.
(#) The ser'ice sector of the economy has pro'ed more nearly gender(blind in its
hiring policies than has the manufacturing sector.
-. &hich of the following words best e$presses the opinion of the author of the
passage concerning the notion that women are more skillful than men in carrying
out detailed tasks%
(A) *patient+ (line 21)
GMAT 1.1
(B) *repetiti'e+ (line 21)
(C) *hoary+ (line 22)
() *homemaking+ (line 2.)
(#) *pur'iew+ (line 20)
6. &hich of the following best describes the relationship of the final paragraph to the
passage as a whole%
(A) The central idea is reinforced by the citation of e'idence drawn from
twentieth(century history.
(B) The central idea is restated in such a way as to form a transition to a new topic
for discussion.
(C) The central idea is restated and <u$taposed with e'idence that might appear to
contradict it.
() A partial e$ception to the generali!ations of the central idea is dismissed as
unimportant.
(#) =ecent history is cited to suggest that the central idea4s 'alidity is gradually
diminishing.
Passage 50 (50/63)
3ccording to a recent theory( 3rchean-age go"d--uart+ vein systems were
&ormed over two bi""ion years ago &rom magnetic Duids that originated &rom
mo"ten granite-"i$e bodies deep beneath the sur&ace o& the @arth. This theory is
contrary to the wide"y he"d view that the systems were deposited &rom
metamorphic Duids( that is( &rom Duids that &ormed during the dehydration o& wet
sedimentary roc$s.
The recent"y deve"oped theory has considerab"e practica" importance. Bost o&
the go"d deposits discovered during the origina" go"d rushes were e8posed at the
@arth6s sur&ace and were &ound because they had shed trai"s o& a""uvia" go"d that
were easi"y traced by simp"e prospecting methods. 3"though these same methods
sti"" "ead to an occasiona" discovery( most deposits not yet discovered have gone
undetected because they are buried and have no sur&ace e8pression.
The cha""enge in e8p"oration is there&ore to unrave" the subsur&ace geo"ogy o&
an area and pinpoint the position o& buried minera"s. Bethods wide"y used today
inc"ude ana"ysis o& aeria" images that yie"d a broad geo"ogica" overview=
geophysica" techni-ues that provide data on the magnetic( e"ectrica"( and
minera"ogica" properties o& the roc$s being investigated= and sensitive chemica"
tests that are ab"e to detect the subt"e chemica" ha"os that o&ten enve"op
minera"i+ation. )owever( none o& these high-techno"ogy methods are o& any va"ue
i& the sites to which they are app"ied have never minera"i+ed( and to ma8imi+e the
chances o& discovery the e8p"orer must there&ore pay particu"ar attention to
se"ecting the ground &ormations most "i$e"y to be minera"i+ed. uch ground
1.2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
se"ection re"ies to varying degrees on conceptua" mode"s( which ta$e into account
theoretica" studies o& re"evant &actors.
These mode"s are constructed primari"y &rom empirica" observations o& $nown
minera" deposits and &rom theories o& ore-&orming processes. The e8p"orer uses
the mode"s to identi&y those geo"ogica" &eatures that are critica" to the &ormation
o& the minera"i+ation being mode"ed( and then tries to se"ect areas &or e8p"oration
that e8hibit as many o& the critica" &eatures as possib"e.
1. The author is primarily concerned with
(A) ad'ocating a return to an older methodology
(B) e$plaining the importance of a recent theory
(C) enumerating differences between two widely used methods
() describing e'ents leading to a disco'ery
(#) challenging the assumptions on which a theory is based
2. According to the passage/ the widely held 'iew of Archean(age gold("uart! 'ein
systems is that such systems
(A) were formed from metamorphic fluids
(B) originated in molten granite(like bodies
(C) were formed from allu'ial deposits
() generally ha'e surface e$pression
(#) are not disco'erable through chemical tests
.. The passage implies that which of the following steps would be the first performed
by e$plorers who wish to ma$imi!e their chances of disco'ering gold%
(A) ;ur'eying se'eral sites known to ha'e been formed more than two billion
years ago
(B) Kimiting e$ploration to sites known to ha'e been formed from metamorphic
fluid
(C) :sing an appropriate conceptual model to select a site for further e$ploration
() :sing geophysical methods to analy!e rocks o'er a broad area
(#) Kimiting e$ploration to sites where allu'ial gold has pre'iously been found
0. &hich of the following statements about disco'eries of gold deposits is supported
by information in the passage%
(A) The number of gold disco'eries made annually has increased between the time
of the original gold rushes and the present.
(B) 9ew disco'eries of gold deposits are likely to be the result of e$ploration
techni"ues designed to locate buried minerali!ation.
(C) 3t is unlikely that newly disco'ered gold deposits will e'er yield as much as
did those deposits disco'ered during the original gold rushes.
GMAT 1.-
() ?odern e$plorers are di'ided on the "uestion of the utility of simple
prospecting methods as a source of new disco'eries of gold deposits.
(#) ?odels based on the theory that gold originated from magnetic fluids ha'e
already led to new disco'eries of gold deposits.
1. 3t can be inferred from the passage that which of the following is easiest to detect%
(A) A gold("uart! 'ein system originating in magnetic fluids
(B) A gold("uart! 'ein system originating in metamorphic fluids
(C) A gold deposit that is mi$ed with granite
() A gold deposit that has shed allu'ial gold
(#) A gold deposit that e$hibits chemical halos
2. The theory mentioned in line 1 relates to the conceptual models discussed in the
passage in which of the following ways%
(A) 3t may furnish a 'alid account of ore(forming processes/ and/ hence/ can
support conceptual models that ha'e great practical significance.
(B) 3t suggests that certain geological formations/ long belie'ed to be minerali!ed/
are in fact minerali!ed/ thus confirming current conceptual models.
(C) 3t suggests that there may not be enough similarity across Archean(age gold(
"uart! 'ein systems to warrant the formulation of conceptual models.
() 3t corrects e$isting theories about the chemical halos of gold deposits/ and thus
pro'ides a basis for correcting current conceptual models.
(#) 3t suggests that simple prospecting methods still ha'e a higher success rate in
the disco'ery of gold deposits than do more modern methods.
-. According to the passage/ methods of e$ploring for gold that are widely used
today are based on which of the following facts%
(A) ?ost of the #arth4s remaining gold deposits are still molten.
(B) ?ost of the #arth4s remaining gold deposits are e$posed at the surface.
(C) ?ost of the #arth4s remaining gold deposits are buried and ha'e no surface
e$pression.
() 8nly one type of gold deposit warrants e$ploration/ since the other types of
gold deposits are found in regions difficult to reach.
(#) 8nly one type of gold deposit warrants e$ploration/ since the other types of
gold deposits are unlikely to yield concentrated "uantities of gold.
6. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the efficiency of model(based gold
e$ploration depends on which of the following%
3. The closeness of the match between the geological features identified by the
model as critical and the actual geological features of a gi'en area
33. The degree to which the model chosen relies on empirical obser'ation of
known mineral deposits rather than on theories of ore(forming processes
1.6 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
333. The degree to which the model chosen is based on an accurate description of
the e'ents leading to minerali!ation
(A) 3 only
(B) 33 only
(C) 3 and 33 only
() 3 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33 and 333
Passage 51 (51/63)
;hi"e there is no b"ueprint &or trans&orming a "arge"y government-contro""ed
economy into a &ree one( the e8perience o& the United Singdom since 1979 c"ear"y
shows one approach that wor$sA privati+ation( in which state-owned industries are
so"d to private companies. 'y 1979( the tota" borrowings and "osses o& state-
owned industries were running at about V7 bi""ion a year. 'y se""ing many o& these
industries( the government has decreased these borrowings and "osses( gained
over V7M bi""ion &rom the sa"es( and now receives ta8 revenues &rom the new"y
privati+ed companies. 3"ong with a dramatica""y improved overa"" economy( the
government has been ab"e to repay 14./ percent o& the net nationa" debt over a
two-year period.
2n &act( privati+ation has not on"y rescued individua" industries and a who"e
economy headed &or disaster( but has a"so raised the "eve" o& per&ormance in
every area. 3t 'ritish 3irways and 'ritish Eas( &or e8amp"e( productivity per
emp"oyee has risen by 40 percent. 3t 3ssociated 'ritish 9orts( "abor disruptions
common in the 19706s and ear"y 19806s have now virtua""y disappeared. 3t 'ritish
Te"ecom( there is no "onger a waiting "ist!as there a"ways was be&ore privati+ation
!to have a te"ephone insta""ed.
9art o& this improved productivity has come about because the emp"oyees o&
privati+ed industries were given the opportunity to buy shares in their own
companies. They responded enthusiastica""y to the o1er o& shares= at 'ritish
3erospace( 89 percent o& the e"igib"e wor$ &orce bought shares= at 3ssociated
'ritish 9orts( 90 percent= and at 'ritish Te"ecom( 94 percent. ;hen peop"e have a
persona" sta$e in something( they thin$ about it( care about it( wor$ to ma$e it
prosper. 3t the ,ationa" :reight %onsortium( the new emp"oyee-owners grew so
concerned about their company6s pro#ts that during wage negotiations they
actua""y pressed their union to "ower its wage demands.
ome economists have suggested that giving away &ree shares wou"d provide a
needed acce"eration o& the privati+ation process. Iet they miss Thomas 9aine6s
point that >what we obtain too cheap we esteem too "ight"y.? 2n order &or the &ar-
ranging bene#ts o& individua" ownership to be achieved by owners( companies(
and countries( emp"oyees and other individua"s must ma$e their own decisions to
buy( and they must commit some o& their own resources to the choice.
GMAT 1.,
1. According to the passage/ all of the following were benefits of pri'ati!ing state(
owned industries in the :nited Mingdom #DC#@TE
(A) @ri'ati!ed industries paid ta$es to the go'ernment.
(B) The go'ernment gained re'enue from selling state(owned industries.
(C) The go'ernment repaid some of its national debt.
() @rofits from industries that were still state(owned increased.
(#) Total borrowings and losses of state(owned industries decreased.
2. According to the passage/ which of the following resulted in increased
producti'ity in companies that ha'e been pri'ati!ed%
(A) A large number of employees chose to purchase shares in their companies.
(B) >ree shares were widely distributed to indi'idual shareholders.
(C) The go'ernment ceased to regulate ma<or industries.
() :nions conducted wage negotiations for employees.
(#) #mployee(owners agreed to ha'e their wages lowered.
.. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author considers labor disruptions to be
(A) an ine'itable problem in a weak national economy
(B) a positi'e sign of employee concern about a company
(C) a predictor of employee reactions to a company4s offer to sell shares to them
() a phenomenon found more often in state(owned industries than in pri'ate
companies
(#) a deterrence to high performance le'els in an industry
0. The passage supports which of the following statements about employees buying
shares in their own companies%
(A) At three different companies/ appro$imately nine out of ten of the workers
were eligible to buy shares in their companies.
(B) Appro$imately ,5O of the eligible workers at three different companies chose
o buy shares in their companies.
(C) The opportunity to buy shares was discouraged by at least some labor unions.
() Companies that demonstrated the highest producti'ity were the first to allow
their employees the opportunity to buy shares.
(#) #ligibility to buy shares was contingent on employees4 agreeing to increased
work loads.
1. &hich of the following statements is most consistent with the principle described
in lines .5(.2%
(A) A democratic go'ernment that decides it is inappropriate to own a particular
industry has in no way abdicated its responsibilities as guardian of the public
interest.
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(B) The ideal way for a go'ernment to protect employee interests is to force
companies to maintain their share of a competiti'e market without go'ernment
subsidies.
(C) The failure to harness the power of self(interest is an important reason that
state(owned industries perform poorly.
() Bo'ernments that want to implement pri'ati!ation programs must try to
eliminate all resistance to the free(market system.
(#) The indi'idual shareholder will reap only a minute share of the gains from
whate'er sacrifices he or she makes to achie'e these gains.
2. &hich of the following can be inferred from the passage about the pri'ati!ation
process in the :nited Mingdom%
(A) 3t depends to a potentially dangerous degree on indi'idual ownership of
shares.
(B) 3t conforms in its most general outlines to Thomas @aine4s prescription for
business ownership.
(C) 3t was originally concei'ed to include some gi'ing away of free shares.
() 3t has been successful/ e'en though pri'ati!ation has failed in other countries.
(#) 3t is taking place more slowly than some economists suggest is necessary.
-. The "uotation in line ., is most probably used to
(A) counter a position that the author of the passage belie'es is incorrect
(B) state a solution to a problem described in the pre'ious sentence
(C) show how opponents of the 'iewpoint of the author of the passage ha'e
supported their arguments
() point out a parado$ contained in a contro'ersial 'iewpoint
(#) present a historical ma$im to challenge the principle introduced in the third
paragraph
Passage 52 (52/63)
ee$ing a competitive advantage( some pro&essiona" service #rms (&or
e8amp"e( #rms providing advertising( accounting( or hea"th care services) have
considered o1ering unconditiona" guarantees o& satis&action. uch guarantees
speci&y what c"ients can e8pect and what the #rm wi"" do i& it &ai"s to &u"#"" these
e8pectations. 9articu"ar"y with #rst-time c"ients( an unconditiona" guarantee can
be an e1ective mar$eting too" i& the c"ient is very cautious( the #rm6s &ees are
high( the negative conse-uences o& bad service are grave( or business is di*cu"t
to obtain through re&erra"s and word-o&-mouth.
)owever( an unconditiona" guarantee can sometimes hinder mar$eting e1orts.
;ith its imp"ication that &ai"ure is possib"e( the guarantee may( parado8ica""y(
cause c"ients to doubt the service #rm6s abi"ity to de"iver the promised "eve" o&
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service. 2t may conDict with a #rm6s desire to appear sophisticated( or may even
suggest that a #rm is begging &or business. 2n "ega" and hea"th care services( it
may mis"ead c"ients by suggesting that "awsuits or medica" procedures wi"" have
guaranteed outcomes. 2ndeed( pro&essiona" service #rms with outstanding
reputations and per&ormance to match have "itt"e to gain &rom o1ering
unconditiona" guarantees. 3nd any #rm that imp"ements an unconditiona"
guarantee without underta$ing a commensurate commitment to -ua"ity o& service
is mere"y emp"oying a potentia""y cost"y mar$eting gimmic$.
1. The primary function of the passage as a whole is to
(A) account for the popularity of a practice
(B) e'aluate the utility of a practice
(C) demonstrate how to institute a practice
() weigh the ethics of using a strategy
(#) e$plain the reasons for pursuing a strategy
2. All of the following are mentioned in the passage as circumstances in which
professional ser'ice firms can benefit from offering an unconditional guarantee
#DC#@TE
(A) The firm is ha'ing difficulty retaining its clients of long standing.
(B) The firm is ha'ing difficulty getting business through client recommendations.
(C) The firm charges substantial fees for its ser'ices.
() The ad'erse effects of poor performance by the firm are significant for the
client.
(#) The client is reluctant to incur risk.
.. &hich of the following is cited in the passage as a goal of some professional
ser'ice firms in offering unconditional guarantees of satisfaction%
(A) A limit on the firm4s liability
(B) ;uccessful competition against other firms
(C) Ability to <ustify fee increases
() Attainment of an outstanding reputation in a field
(#) 3mpro'ement in the "uality of the firm4s ser'ice
0. The passage4s description of the issue raised by unconditional guarantees for
health care or legal ser'ices most clearly implies that which of the following is
true%
(A) The legal and medical professions ha'e standards of practice that would be
'iolated by attempts to fulfill such unconditional guarantees.
(B) The result of a lawsuit of medical procedure cannot necessarily be determined
in ad'ance by the professionals handling a client4s case.
(C) The dignity of the legal and medical professions is undermined by any
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attempts at marketing of professional ser'ices/ including unconditional
guarantees.
() Clients whose lawsuits or medical procedures ha'e unsatisfactory outcomes
cannot be ade"uately compensated by financial settlements alone.
(#) @redicting the monetary cost of legal or health care ser'ices is more difficult
than predicting the monetary cost of other types of professional ser'ices.
1. &hich of the following hypothetical situations best e$emplifies the potential
problem noted in the second sentence of the second paragraph (lines 10(1-)%
(A) A physician4s unconditional guarantee of satisfaction encourages patients to
sue for malpractice if they are unhappy with the treatment they recei'e.
(B) A lawyer4s unconditional guarantee of satisfaction makes clients suspect that
the lawyer needs to find new clients "uickly to increase the firm4s income.
(C) A business consultant4s unconditional guarantee of satisfaction is undermined
when the consultant fails to pro'ide all of the ser'ices that are promised.
() An architect4s unconditional guarantee of satisfaction makes clients wonder
how often the architect4s buildings fail to please clients.
(#) An accountant4s unconditional guarantee of satisfaction leads clients to belie'e
that ta$ returns prepared by the accountant are certain to be accurate.
2. The passage most clearly implies which of the following about the professional
ser'ice firms mentioned in line 22%
(A) They are unlikely to ha'e offered unconditional guarantees of satisfaction in
the past.
(B) They are usually profitable enough to be able to compensate clients according
to the terms of an unconditional guarantee.
(C) They usually practice in fields in which the outcomes are predictable.
() Their fees are usually more affordable than those charged by other
professional ser'ice firms.
(#) Their clients are usually already satisfied with the "uality of ser'ice that is
deli'ered.
Passage 53 (53/63)
3"though genetic mutations in bacteria and viruses can "ead to epidemics(
some epidemics are caused by bacteria and viruses that have undergone no
signi#cant genetic change. 2n ana"y+ing the "atter( scientists have discovered the
importance o& socia" and eco"ogica" &actors to epidemics. 9o"iomye"itis( &or
e8amp"e( emerged as an epidemic in the United tates in the twentieth century=
by then( modern sanitation was ab"e to de"ay e8posure to po"io unti" ado"escence
or adu"thood( at which time po"io in&ection produced para"ysis. 9revious"y(
in&ection had occurred during in&ancy( when it typica""y provided "i&e"ong immunity
GMAT 10.
without para"ysis. Thus( the hygiene that he"ped prevent typhoid epidemics
indirect"y &ostered a para"ytic po"io epidemic. 3nother e8amp"e is Jyme disease(
which is caused by bacteria that are transmitted by deer tic$s. 2t occurred on"y
sporadica""y during the "ate nineteenth century but has recent"y become preva"ent
in parts o& the United tates( "arge"y due to an increase in the deer popu"ation that
occurred simu"taneous"y with the growth o& the suburbs and increased outdoor
recreationa" activities in the deer6s habitat. imi"ar"y( an outbrea$ o& dengue
hemorrhagic &ever became an epidemic in 3sia in the 19/06s because o&
eco"ogica" changes that caused "edes aegy#ti( the mos-uito that transmits the
dengue virus( to pro"i&erate. The stage is now set in the United tates &or a
dengue epidemic because o& the inadvertent introduction and wide dissemination
o& another mos-uito( "edes al$o#ictus.
1. The passage suggests that a lack of modern sanitation would make which of the
following most likely to occur%
(A) An outbreak of Kyme disease
(B) An outbreak of dengue hemorrhagic fe'er
(C) An epidemic of typhoid
() An epidemic of paralytic polio among infants
(#) An epidemic of paralytic polio among adolescents and adults
2. According to the passage/ the outbreak of dengue hemorrhagic fe'er in the 1,154s
occurred for which of the following reasons%
(A) The mos"uito Aedes aegypti was newly introduced into Asia.
(B) The mos"uito Aedes aegypti became more numerous.
(C) The mos"uito Aedes albopictus became infected with the dengue 'irus.
() 3ndi'iduals who would normally ac"uire immunity to the dengue 'irus as
infants were not infected until later in life.
(#) ?ore people began to 'isit and inhabit areas in which mos"uitoes li'e and
breed.
.. 3t can be inferred from the passage that Kyme disease has become pre'alent in
parts of the :nited ;tates because of which of the following%
(A) The inad'ertent introduction of Kyme disease bacteria to the :nited ;tates
(B) The inability of modern sanitation methods to eradicate Kyme disease bacteria
(C) A genetic mutation in Kyme disease bacteria that makes them more 'irulent
() The spread of Kyme disease bacteria from infected humans to noninfected
humans
(#) An increase in the number of humans who encounter deer ticks
0. &hich of the following can most reasonably be concluded about the mos"uito
Aedes albopictus on the basis of information gi'en in the passage%
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(A) 3t is nati'e to the :nited ;tates.
(B) 3t can proliferate only in Asia.
(C) 3t transmits the dengue 'irus.
() 3t caused an epidemic of dengue hemorrhagic fe'er in the 1,154s.
(#) 3t replaced Aedes aegypti in Asia when ecological changes altered Aedes
aegyptis habitat.
1. &hich of the following best describes the organi!ation of the passage%
(A) A parado$ is stated/ discussed and left unresol'ed.
(B) Two opposing e$planations are presented/ argued/ and reconciled.
(C) A theory is proposed and is then followed by descriptions of three e$periments
that support the theory.
() A generali!ation is stated and is then followed by three instances that support
the generali!ation.
(#) An argument is described and is then followed by three countere$amples that
refute the argument.
2. &hich of the following/ if true/ would most strengthen the author4s assertion about
the cause of the Kyme disease outbreak in the :nited ;tates%
(A) The deer population was smaller in the late nineteenth century than in the mid(
twentieth century.
(B) 3nterest in outdoor recreation began to grow in the late nineteenth century.
(C) 3n recent years the suburbs ha'e stopped growing.
() 8utdoor recreation enthusiasts routinely take measures to protect themsel'es
against Kyme disease.
(#) ;cientists ha'e not yet de'eloped a 'accine that can pre'ent Kyme disease.
Passage 54 (54/63)
Two modes o& argumentation have been used on beha"& o& women6s
emancipation in ;estern societies. 3rguments in what cou"d be ca""ed the
>re"ationa"? &eminist tradition maintain the doctrine o& >e-ua"ity in di1erence(? or
e-uity as distinct &or e-ua"ity. They posit that bio"ogica" distinctions between the
se8es resu"t in a necessary se8ua" division o& "abor in the &ami"y and throughout
society and that women6s procreative "abor is current"y underva"ued by society( to
the disadvantage o& women. 'y contrast( the individua"ist &eminist tradition
emphasi+es individua" human rights and ce"ebrates women6s -uest &or persona"
autonomy( whi"e downp"aying the importance o& gender ro"es and minimi+ing
discussion o& chi"dbearing and its attendant responsibi"ities.
'e&ore the "ate nineteenth century( these views coe8isted within the &eminist
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movement( o&ten within the writings o& the same individua". 'etween 1890 and
1940( however( re"ationa" &eminism( which had been the dominant strain in
&eminist thought( and which sti"" predominates among @uropean and non-;estern
&eminists( "ost ground in @ng"and and the United tates. 'ecause the concept o&
individua" rights was a"ready we"" estab"ished in the 3ng"o-a8on "ega" and
po"itica" tradition( individua"ist &eminism came to predominate in @ng"ish-spea$ing
countries. 3t the same time( the goa"s o& the two approaches began to seem
increasing"y irreconci"ab"e. 2ndividua"ist &eminists began to advocate a tota""y
gender-b"ind system with e-ua" rights &or a"". Re"ationa" &eminists( whi"e agreeing
that e-ua" educationa" and economic opportunities outside the home shou"d be
avai"ab"e &or a"" women( continued to emphasi+e women6s specia" contributions to
society as homema$ers and mothers= they demanded specia" treatment inc"uding
protective "egis"ation &or women wor$ers( state-sponsored maternity bene#ts( and
paid compensation &or housewor$.
Re"ationa" arguments have a ma5or pit&a""A because they under"ine women6s
physio"ogica" and psycho"ogica" distinctiveness( they are o&ten appropriated by
po"itica" adversaries and used to endorse ma"e privi"ege. 'ut the individua"ist
approach( by attac$ing gender ro"es( denying the signi#cance o& physio"ogica"
di1erence( and condemning e8isting &ami"ia" institutions as hope"ess"y patriarcha"(
has o&ten simp"y treated as irre"evant the &ami"y ro"es important to many women.
2& the individua"ist &ramewor$( with its c"aim &or women6s autonomy( cou"d be
harmoni+ed with the &ami"y-oriented concerns o& re"ationa" &eminists( a more
&ruit&u" mode" &or contemporary &eminist po"itics cou"d emerge.
1. The author of the passage alludes to the well(established nature of the concept of
indi'idual rights in the Anglo(;a$on legal and political tradition in order to
(A) illustrate the influence of indi'idualist feminist thought on more general
intellectual trends in #nglish history
(B) argue that feminism was already a part of the larger Anglo(;a$on intellectual
tradition/ e'en though this has often gone unnoticed by critics of women4s
emancipation
(C) e$plain the decline in indi'idualist thinking among feminists in non(#nglish(
speaking countries
() help account for an increasing shift toward indi'idualist feminism among
feminists in #nglish(speaking countries
(#) account for the philosophical differences between indi'idualist and relational
feminists in #nglish(speaking countries
2. The passage suggests that the author of the passage belie'es which of the
following%
(A) The predominance of indi'idualist feminism in #nglish(speaking countries is a
historical phenomenon/ the causes of which ha'e not yet been in'estigated.
(B) The indi'idualist and relational feminist 'iews are irreconcilable/ gi'en their
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theoretical differences concerning the foundations of society.
(C) A consensus concerning the direction of future feminist politics will probably
soon emerge/ gi'en the awareness among feminists of the need for cooperation
among women.
() @olitical ad'ersaries of feminism often misuse arguments predicated on
differences between the se$es to argue that the e$isting social system should be
maintained.
(#) =elational feminism pro'ides the best theoretical framework for contemporary
feminist politics/ but indi'idualist feminism could contribute much toward
refining and strengthening modern feminist thought.
.. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the indi'idualist feminist tradition denies
the 'alidity of which of the following causal statements%
(A) A di'ision of labor in a social group can result in increased efficiency with
regard to the performance of group tasks.
(B) A di'ision of labor in a social group causes ine"uities in the distribution of
opportunities and benefits among group members.
(C) A di'ision of labor on the basis of gender in a social group is necessitated by
the e$istence of se$(linked biological differences between male and female
members of the group.
() Culturally determined distinctions based on gender in a social group foster the
e$istence of differing attitudes and opinions among group members.
(#) #ducational programs aimed at reducing ine"ualities based on gender among
members of a social group can result in a sense of greater well(being for all
members of the group.
0. According to the passage/ relational feminists and indi'idualist feminists agree that
(A) indi'idual human rights take precedence o'er most other social claims
(B) the gender(based di'ision of labor in society should be eliminated
(C) laws guaranteeing e"ual treatment for all citi!ens regardless of gender should
be passed
() a greater degree of social awareness concerning the importance of motherhood
would be beneficial to society
(#) the same educational and economic opportunities should be a'ailable to both
se$es
1. According to the author/ which of the following was true of feminist thought in
&estern societies before 16,5%
(A) 3ndi'idualist feminist arguments were not found in the thought or writing of
non(#nglish(speaking feminists.
(B) 3ndi'idualist feminism was a strain in feminist thought/ but another strain/
relational feminism/ predominated.
GMAT 10-
(C) =elational and indi'idualist approaches were e"ually pre'alent in feminist
thought and writing.
() The predominant 'iew among feminists held that the welfare of women was
ultimately less important than the welfare of children.
(#) The predominant 'iew among feminists held that the se$es should recei'e
e"ual treatment under the law.
2. The author implies that which of the following was true of most feminist thinkers
in #ngland and the :nited ;tates after 1,25%
(A) They were less concerned with politics than with intellectual issues.
(B) They began to reach a broader audience and their programs began to be
adopted by mainstream political parties.
(C) They called repeatedly for international cooperation among women4s groups to
achie'e their goals.
() They moderated their initial criticism of the economic systems that
characteri!ed their societies.
(#) They did not attempt to unite the two different feminist approaches in their
thought.
Passage 55 (55/63)
(This passage was adapted &rom an artic"e written in 1994.)
ome observers have attributed the dramatic growth in temporary
emp"oyment that occurred in the United tates during the 19806s to increased
participation in the wor$&orce by certain groups( such as #rst-time or reentering
wor$ers( who supposed"y pre&er such arrangements. )owever( statistica" ana"yses
revea" that demographic changes in the wor$&orce did not corre"ate with
variations in the tota" number o& temporary wor$ers. 2nstead( these ana"yses
suggest that &actors a1ecting emp"oyers account &or the rise in temporary
emp"oyment. <ne &actor is product demandA temporary emp"oyment is &avored by
emp"oyers who are adapting to Ductuating demand &or products whi"e at the same
time see$ing to reduce overa"" "abor costs. 3nother &actor is "abor6s reduced
bargaining strength( which a""ows emp"oyers more contro" over the terms o&
emp"oyment. Eiven the ana"yses( which revea" that growth in temporary
emp"oyment now &ar e8ceeds the "eve" e8p"ainab"e by recent wor$&orce entry
rates o& groups said to pre&er temporary 5obs( #rms shou"d be discouraged &rom
creating e8cessive numbers o& temporary positions. Eovernment po"icyma$ers
shou"d consider mandating bene#t coverage &or temporary emp"oyees( promoting
pay e-uity between temporary and permanent wor$ers( assisting "abor unions in
organi+ing temporary wor$ers( and encouraging #rms to assign temporary 5obs
primari"y to emp"oyees who e8p"icit"y indicate that pre&erence.
1. The primary purpose of the passage is to
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(A) present the results of statistical analyses and propose further studies.
(B) e$plain a recent de'elopment and predict its e'entual conse"uences.
(C) identify the reasons for a trend and recommend measures to address it.
() outline se'eral theories about a phenomenon and ad'ocate one of them.
(#) describe the potential conse"uences of implementing a new policy and argue in
fa'or of that policy.
2. According to the passage/ which of the following is true of the *factors affecting
employers+ that are mentioned in lines ,(15%
(A) ?ost e$perts cite them as ha'ing initiated the growth in temporary
employment that occurred during the 1,654s.
(B) They may account for the increase in the total number of temporary workers
during the 1,654s.
(C) They were less important than demographic change in accounting for the
increase of temporary employment during the 1,654s.
() They included a sharp increase in the cost of labor during the 1,654s.
(#) They are more difficult to account for than at other factors in'ol'ed in the
growth of temporary employment during the 1,654s.
.. The passage suggests which of the following about the use of temporary
employment by firms during the 1,654s%
(A) 3t enabled firms to deal with fluctuating product demand far more efficiently
than they before the 1,654s.
(B) 3t increased as a result of increased participation in the workforce by certain
demography groups.
(C) 3t was discouraged by go'ernment(mandated policies.
() 3t was a response to preferences indicated by certain employees for more
fle$ible working arrangements.
(#) 3t increased partly as a result of workers4 reduced ability to control the terms of
their employment.
0. The passage suggests which of the following about the workers who took
temporary <obs during the 1,654s%
(A) Their <obs fre"uently led to permanent positions within firms.
(B) They constituted a less demographically di'erse group than has been
suggested.
(C) They were occasionally in'ol'ed in actions organi!ed by labor unions.
() Their pay declined during the decade in comparison with the pay of permanent
employees.
(#) They did not necessarily prefer temporary employment to permanent
employment.
GMAT 10,
1. The first sentence in the passage suggests that the obser'ers mentioned in line 1
would be most likely to predict which of the following%
(A) That the number of new temporary positions would decline as fewer workers
who preferred temporary employment entered the workforce.
(B) That the total number of temporary positions would increase as fewer workers
were able to find permanent positions.
(C) That employers would ha'e less control o'er the terms of workers4
employment as workers increased their bargaining strength.
() That more workers would be hired for temporary positions as product demand
increased.
(#) That the number of workers taking temporary positions would increase as more
workers in any gi'en demographic group entered the workforce.
2. 3n the conte$t of the passage/ the word *e$cessi'e+ (line 21) most closely
corresponds to which of the following phrases%
(A) >ar more than can be <ustified by worker preferences.
(B) >ar more than can be e$plained by fluctuations in product demand.
(C) >ar more than can be beneficial to the success of the firms themsel'es.
() >ar more than can be accounted for by an e$panding national economy.
(#) >ar more than can be attributed to increases in the total number of people in
the workforce.
-. The passage mentions each of the following as an appropriate kind of
go'ernmental action #DC#@T
(A) getting firms to offer temporary employment primarily to a certain group of
people
(B) encouraging e"uitable pay for temporary and permanent employees
(C) facilitating the organi!ation of temporary workers by labor unions
() establishing guidelines on the proportion of temporary workers that firms
should employ
(#) ensuring that temporary workers obtain benefits from their employers
Passage 56 (56/63)
3"though numbers o& anima"s in a given region may Ductuate &rom year to
year( the Ductuations are o&ten temporary and( over "ong periods( trivia".
cientists have advanced three theories o& popu"ation contro" to account &or this
re"ative constancy.
The #rst theory attributes a re"ative"y constant popu"ation to periodic c"imatic
catastrophes that decimate popu"ations with such &re-uency as to prevent them
&rom e8ceeding some particu"ar "imit. 2n the case o& sma"" organisms with short "i&e
cyc"es( c"imatic changes need not be catastrophicA norma" seasona" changes in
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photoperiod (dai"y amount o& sun"ight)( &or e8amp"e( can govern popu"ation
growth. This theory!the density-independent view!asserts that c"imatic &actors
e8ert the same regu"atory e1ect on popu"ation regard"ess o& the number o&
individua"s in a region.
3 second theory argues that popu"ation growth is primari"y density-dependent
!that is( the rate o& growth o& a popu"ation in a region decreases as the number
o& anima"s increases. The mechanisms that manage regu"ation may vary. :or
e8amp"e( as numbers increase( the &ood supp"y wou"d probab"y diminish( which
wou"d increase morta"ity. 2n addition( as Jot$a and Fo"terra have shown( predators
can #nd prey more easi"y in high-density popu"ations. <ther regu"ators inc"ude
physio"ogica" contro" mechanismsA &or e8amp"e( %hristian and Kavis have
demonstrated how the crowding that resu"ts &rom a rise in numbers may bring
about hormona" changes in the pituitary and adrena" g"ands that in turn may
regu"ate popu"ation by "owering se8ua" activity and inhibiting se8ua" maturation.
There is evidence that these e1ects may persist &or three generations in the
absence o& the origina" provocation. <ne cha""enge &or density-dependent
theorists is to deve"op mode"s that wou"d a""ow the precise prediction o& the
e1ects o& crowding.
3 third theory( proposed by ;ynne-@dwards and termed >epideictic(? argues
that organisms have evo"ved a >code? in the &orm o& socia" or epideictic behavior
disp"ays( such as winter-roosting aggregations or group voca"i+ing= such codes
provide organisms with in&ormation on popu"ation si+e in a region so that they
can( i& necessary( e8ercise reproductive restraint. )owever( ;ynne-@dwards6
theory( "in$ing anima" socia" behavior and popu"ation contro"( has been
cha""enged( with some 5usti#cation( by severa" studies.
1. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) argue against those scientists who maintain that animal populations tend to
fluctuate
(B) compare and contrast the density(dependent and epideictic theories of
population control
(C) pro'ide e$ample of some of the ways in which animals e$ercise reproducti'e
restraint to control their own numbers
() suggests that theories of population control that concentrate on the social
beha'ior of animals are more open to debate than are theories that do not
(#) summari!e a number of scientific theories that attempt to e$plain why animal
populations do not e$ceed certain limits
2. 3t can be inferred from the passage that proponents of the density(dependent theory
of population control ha'e not yet been able to
(A) use their theory to e$plain the population growth of organisms with short life
cycles
(B) reproduce the results of the study of Christian and a'is
GMAT 111
(C) e$plain ade"uately why the numbers of a population can increase as the
population4s rate of growth decreases
() make sufficiently accurate predictions about the effects of crowding
(#) demonstrate how predator populations are themsel'es regulated
.. &hich of the following/ if true/ would best support the density(dependent theory
of population control as it is described in the passage%
(A) As the number of fo$es in ?innesota decrease/ the growth rate of this
population of fo$es begins to increase.
(B) As the number of woodpeckers in Cermont decreases/ the growth rate of this
population of woodpeckers also begins to decrease.
(C) As the number of prairie dogs in 8klahoma increases/ the growth rate of this
population of prairie dogs also begins to increase.
() After the number of bea'ers in Tennessee decreases/ the number of predators
of these bea'ers begins to increase.
(#) After the number of eagles in ?ontana decreases/ the food supply of this
population of eagles also begins to decrease.
0. According to the &ynne(#dwards theory as it is described in the passage/
epideictic beha'ior displays ser'e the function of
(A) determining roosting aggregations
(B) locating food
(C) attracting predators
() regulating se$ual acti'ity
(#) triggering hormonal changes
1. The challenge posed to the &ynne(#dwards(theory by se'eral studies is regarded
by the author with
(A) complete indifference
(B) "ualified acceptance
(C) skeptical amusement
() perple$ed astonishment
(#) agitated dismay
2. &hich of the following statements would pro'ide the most of logical continuation
of the final paragraph of the passage%
(A) Thus &ynne(#dwards4 theory raises serious "uestions about the constancy of
animal population in a region.
(B) Because &ynne(#dwards4 theory is able to e$plain more kinds of animal
beha'ior than is the density(dependent theory/ epideictic e$planations of
population regulation are now widely accepted.
(C) The results of one study/ for instance/ ha'e suggested that group 'ocali!ing is
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more often used to defend territory than to pro'ide information about
population density.
() ;ome of these studies ha'e/ in fact/ worked out a systematic and comple$ code
of social beha'ior that can regulate population si!e.
(#) 8ne study/ for e$ample/ has demonstrated that birds are more likely to use
winter(roosting aggregations than group 'ocali!ing in order to pro'ide
information on population si!e.
Passage 57 (57/63)
2n recent years( teachers o& introductory courses in 3sian 3merican studies
have been &acing a di"emma none8istent a &ew decades ago( when hard"y any
te8ts in that #e"d were avai"ab"e. Today( e8ce""ent antho"ogies and other
introductory te8ts e8ist( and boo$s on individua" 3sian 3merican nationa"ity
groups and on genera" issues important &or 3sian 3mericans are pub"ished a"most
wee$"y. @ven pro&essors who are e8perts in the #e"d #nd it di*cu"t to decide which
o& these to assign to students= none8perts who teach in re"ated areas and are
"oo$ing &or writings &or and by 3sian 3merican to inc"ude in survey courses are in
an even worse position.
3 comp"icating &actor has been the continuing "ac$ o& specia"i+ed one-vo"ume
re&erence wor$s on 3sian 3mericans( such as biographica" dictionaries or des$top
encyc"opedias. uch wor$s wou"d enab"e students ta$ing 3sian 3merican studies
courses (and pro&essors in re"ated #e"ds) to "oo$ up basic in&ormation on 3sian
3merican individua"s( institutions( history( and cu"ture without having to wade
through mountains o& primary source materia". 2n addition( give such wor$s( 3sian
3merican studies pro&essors might &ee" more &ree to inc"ude more cha""enging
3sian 3merican materia" in their introductory reading "ists( since good re&erence
wor$s a""ow students to ac-uire on their own the bac$ground in&ormation
necessary to interpret di*cu"t or un&ami"iar materia".
1. The author of the passage is primarily concerned with doing which of the
following%
(A) =ecommending a methodology
(B) escribing a course of study
(C) iscussing a problem
() #'aluating a past course of action
(#) =esponding to a criticism
2. The *dilemma+ mentioned in line 2 can best be characteri!ed as being caused by
the necessity to make a choice when faced with a
(A) lack of acceptable alternati'es
(B) lack of strict standards for e'aluating alternati'es
(C) preponderance of bad alternati'es as compared to good
GMAT 11.
() multitude of different alternati'es
(#) large number of alternati'es that are nearly identical in content
.. The passage suggests that the factor mentioned in lines 10(1- complicates
professors4 attempts to construct introductory reading lists for courses in Asian
American studies in which of the following ways%
(A) By making it difficult for professors to identify primary source material and to
obtain standard information on Asian American history and culture
(B) By pre'enting professors from identifying e$cellent anthologies and
introductory te$ts in the field that are both recent and understandable to
students
(C) By pre'enting professors from ade"uately e'aluating the "uality of the
numerous te$ts currently being published in the field
() By making it more necessary for professors to select readings for their courses
that are not too challenging for students unfamiliar with Asian American
history and culture
(#) By making it more likely that the readings professors assign to students in their
courses will be drawn solely from primary sources
0. The passage implies that which of the following was true of introductory courses
in Asian American studies a few decades ago%
(A) The range of different te$tbooks that could be assigned for such courses was
e$tremely limited.
(B) The te$ts assigned as readings in such courses were often not 'ery challenging
for students.
(C) ;tudents often complained about the te$ts assigned to them in such courses.
() ;uch courses were offered only at schools whose libraries were rich in primary
sources.
(#) ;uch courses were the only means then a'ailable by which people in the
:nited ;tates could ac"uire knowledge of the field.
1. According to the passage/ the e$istence of good one('olume reference works about
Asian Americans could result in
(A) increased agreement among professors of Asian American studies regarding
the "uality of the sources a'ailable in their field
(B) an increase in the number of students signing up for introductory courses in
Asian American studies
(C) increased accuracy in writings that concern Asian American history and culture
() the use of introductory te$ts about Asian American history and culture in
courses outside the field of Asian American studies
(#) the inclusion of a wider range of Asian American material in introductory
reading lists in Asian American studies
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Passage 58 (58/63)
2n an attempt to improve the overa"" per&ormance o& c"erica" wor$ers( many
companies have introduced computeri+ed per&ormance monitoring and contro"
systems (%9B%) that record and report a wor$er6s computer-driven activities.
)owever( at "east one study has shown that such monitoring may not be having
the desired e1ect. 2n the study( researchers as$ed monitored c"erica" wor$ers and
their supervisors how assessments o& productivity a1ected supervisors6 ratings o&
wor$ers6 per&ormance. 2n contrast to unmonitored wor$ers doing the same wor$(
who without e8ception identi#ed the most important e"ement in their 5obs as
customer service( the monitored wor$ers and their supervisors a"" responded that
productivity was the critica" &actor in assigning ratings. This #nding suggested that
there shou"d have been a strong corre"ation between a monitored wor$er6s
productivity and the overa"" rating the wor$er received. )owever( measures o& the
re"ationship between overa"" rating and individua" e"ements o& per&ormance c"ear"y
supported the conc"usion that supervisors gave considerab"e weight to criteria
such as attendance( accuracy( and indications o& customer satis&action.
2t is possib"e that productivity may be a >hygiene &actor(? that is( i& it is too "ow(
it wi"" hurt the overa"" rating. 'ut the evidence suggests that beyond the point at
which productivity becomes >good enough(? higher productivity per se is un"i$e"y
to improve a rating.
1. According to the passage/ before the final results of the study were known/ which
of the following seemed likely%
(A) That workers with the highest producti'ity would also be the most accurate
(B) That workers who initially achie'ed high producti'ity ratings would continue
to do so consistently
(C) That the highest performance ratings would be achie'ed by workers with the
highest producti'ity
() That the most producti'e workers would be those whose super'isors claimed
to 'alue producti'ity
(#) That super'isors who claimed to 'alue producti'ity would place e"ual 'alue on
customer satisfaction
2. 3t can be inferred that the author of the passage discusses *unmonitored workers+
(line 15) primarily in order to
(A) compare the ratings of these workers with the ratings of monitored workers
(B) pro'ide an e$ample of a case in which monitoring might be effecti'e
(C) pro'ide e'idence of an inappropriate use of C@?C;
() emphasi!e the effect that C@?C; may ha'e on workers4 perceptions of their
<obs
(#) illustrate the effect that C@?C; may ha'e on workers4 ratings
GMAT 111
.. &hich of the following/ if true/ would most clearly ha'e supported the conclusion
referred to in lines 1,(21%
(A) =atings of producti'ity correlated highly with ratings of both accuracy and
attendance.
(B) #lectronic monitoring greatly increased producti'ity.
(C) ?ost super'isors based o'erall ratings of performance on measures of
producti'ity alone.
() 8'erall ratings of performance correlated more highly with measures of
producti'ity than the researchers e$pected.
(#) 8'erall ratings of performance correlated more highly with measures of
accuracy than with measures of producti'ity.
0. According to the passage/ a *hygiene factor+ (lines 222.) is an aspect of a
worker4s performance that
(A) has no effect on the rating of a worker4s performance
(B) is so basic to performance that it is assumed to be ade"uate for all workers
(C) is gi'en less importance than it deser'es in rating a worker4s performance
() is not likely to affect a worker4s rating unless it is <udged to be inade"uate
(#) is important primarily because of the effect it has on a worker4s rating
1. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) e$plain the need for the introduction of an inno'ati'e strategy
(B) discuss a study of the use of a particular method
(C) recommend a course of action
() resol'ed a difference of opinion
(#) suggest an alternati'e approach
Passage 59 (59/63)
choo"s e8pect te8tboo$s to be a va"uab"e source o& in&ormation &or students.
By research suggests( however( that te8tboo$s that address the p"ace o& ,ative
3mericans within the history o& the United tates distort history to suit a particu"ar
cu"tura" va"ue system. 2n some te8tboo$s( &or e8amp"e( sett"ers are pictured as
more humane( comp"e8( s$i""&u"( and wise than ,ative 3merican. 2n essence(
te8tboo$s stereotype and deprecate the numerous ,ative 3merican cu"tures whi"e
rein&orcing the attitude that the @uropean con-uest o& the ,ew ;or"d denotes the
superiority o& @uropean cu"tures. 3"though te8tboo$s eva"uate ,ative 3merican
architecture( po"itica" systems( and homema$ing( 2 contend that they do it &rom an
ethnocentric( @uropean perspective without recogni+ing that other perspectives
are possib"e.
<ne argument against my contention asserts that( by nature( te8tboo$s are
cu"tura""y biased and that 2 am simp"y underestimating chi"dren6s abi"ity to see
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through these biases. ome researchers even c"aim that by the time students are
in high schoo"( they $now they cannot ta$e te8tboo$s "itera""y. Iet substantia"
evidence e8ists to the contrary. Two researchers( &or e8amp"e( have conducted
studies that suggest that chi"dren6s attitudes about particu"ar cu"ture are strong"y
inDuenced by the te8tboo$s used in schoo"s. Eiven this( an ongoing( care&u"
review o& how schoo" te8tboo$s depict ,ative 3merican is certain"y warranted.
1. &hich of the following would most logically be the topic of the paragraph
immediately following the passage%
(A) ;pecific ways to e'aluate the biases of :nited ;tates history te$tbooks
(B) The centrality of the teacher4s role in :nited ;tates history courses
(C) 9ontraditional methods of teaching :nited ;tates history
() The contributions of #uropean immigrants to the de'elopment of the :nited
;tates
(#) &ays in which parents influence children4s political attitudes
2. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) describe in detail one research study regarding the impact of history te$tbooks
on children4s attitudes and beliefs about certain cultures
(B) describe re'isions that should be made to :nited ;tates history te$tbooks
(C) discuss the difficulty of presenting an accurate history of the :nited ;tates
() argue that te$tbooks used in schools stereotype 9ati'e Americans and
influence children4s attitudes
(#) summari!e ways in which some te$tbooks gi'e distorted pictures of the
political systems de'eloped by 'arious 9ati'e American groups
.. The author mentions two researchers4 studies (lines 22(21) most likely in order to
(A) suggest that children4s political attitudes are formed primarily through
te$tbooks
(B) counter the claim that children are able to see through stereotypes in te$tbooks
(C) suggest that younger children tend to interpret the messages in te$tbooks more
literally than do older children
() demonstrate that te$tbooks carry political messages meant to influence their
readers
(#) pro'e that te$tbooks are not biased in terms of their political presentations
0. The author4s attitude toward the content of the history te$tbooks discussed in the
passage is best described as one of
(A) indifference
(B) hesitance
(C) neutrality
() amusement
GMAT 11-
(#) disappro'al
1. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the researchers mentioned in line 1, would
be most likely to agree with which of the following statements%
(A) ;tudents form attitudes about cultures other than their own primarily inside the
school en'ironment.
(B) >or the most part/ seniors in high school know that te$tbooks can be biased.
(C) Te$tbooks play a crucial role in shaping the attitudes and beliefs of students.
() #lementary school students are as likely to recogni!e biases in te$tbooks as are
high school students.
(#) ;tudents are less likely to gi'e credence to history te$tbooks than to
mathematics te$tbooks.
2. The author implies that which of the following will occur if te$tbooks are not
carefully re'iewed%
(A) Children will remain ignorant of the #uropean settlers4 con"uest of the 9ew
&orld.
(B) Children will lose their ability to recogni!e biases in te$tbooks.
(C) Children will form negati'e stereotypes of 9ati'e Americans.
() Children will de'elop an understanding of ethnocentrism.
(#) Children will stop taking te$tbooks seriously.
Passage 60 (60/63)
Unti" recent"y( scientists did not $now o& a c"ose vertebrate ana"ogue to the
e8treme &orm o& a"truism observed in eusocia" insects "i$e ants and bees( whereby
individua"s cooperate( sometimes even sacri#cing their own opportunities to
survive and reproduce( &or the good o& others. )owever( such a vertebrate society
may e8ist among underground co"onies o& the high"y socia" rodent %eteroce#halus
gla$er& the na$ed mo"e rat.
3 na$ed mo"e rat co"ony( "i$e a beehive( wasp6s nest( or termite mound( is ru"ed
by its -ueen( or reproducing &ema"e. <ther adu"t &ema"e mo"e rats neither ovu"ate
nor breed. The -ueen is the "argest member o& the co"ony( and she maintains her
breeding status through a mi8ture o& behaviora" and( presumab"y( chemica"
contro". Tueens have been "ong-"ived in captivity( and when they die or are
removed &rom a co"ony one sees vio"ent #ghting &or breeding status among the
"arger remaining &ema"es( "eading to a ta$eover by a new -ueen.
@usocia" insect societies have rigid caste systems( each insect6s ro"e being
de#ned by its behavior( body shape( and physio"ogy. 2n na$ed mo"e rat societies(
on the other hand( di1erences in behavior are re"ated primari"y to reproductive
status (reproduction being "imited to the -ueen and a &ew ma"es)( body si+e( and
perhaps age. ma""er non-breeding members( both ma"e and &ema"e( seem to
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participate primari"y in gathering &ood( transporting nest materia"( and tunne"ing.
Jarger nonbreeders are active in de&ending the co"ony and perhaps in removing
dirt &rom the tunne"s. Carvis6 wor$ has suggested that di1erences in growth rates
may inDuence the "ength o& time that an individua" per&orms a tas$( regard"ess o&
its age.
%ooperative breeding has evo"ved many times in vertebrates( but un"i$e na$ed
mo"e rats( most cooperative"y breeding vertebrates (e8cept the wi"d dog( 'ycaon
#ictus) are dominated by a pair o& breeders rather than by a sing"e breeding
&ema"e. The division o& "abor within socia" groups is "ess pronounced among other
vertebrates than among na$ed mo"e rats( co"ony si+e is much sma""er( and mating
by subordinate &ema"es may not be tota""y suppressed( whereas in na$ed mo"e rat
co"onies subordinate &ema"es are not se8ua""y active( and many never breed.
1. &hich of the following most accurately states the main idea of the passage%
(A) 9aked mole rat colonies are the only known e$amples of cooperati'ely
breeding 'ertebrate societies.
(B) 9aked mole rat colonies e$hibit social organi!ation based on a rigid caste
system.
(C) Beha'ior in naked mole rat colonies may well be a close 'ertebrate analogue to
beha'ior in eusocial insect societies.
() The mating habits of naked mole rats differ from those of any other 'ertebrate
species.
(#) The basis for the di'ision of labor among naked mole rats is the same as that
among eusocial insects.
2. The passage suggests that Aar'is4 work has called into "uestion which of the
following e$planatory 'ariables for naked mole rat beha'ior%
(A) ;i!e
(B) Age
(C) =eproducti'e status
() =ate of growth
(#) @re'iously e$hibited beha'ior
.. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the performance of tasks in naked mole rat
colonies differs from task performance in eusocial insect societies in which of the
following ways%
(A) 3n naked mole rat colonies/ all tasks ate performed cooperati'ely.
(B) 3n naked mole rat colonies/ the performance of tasks is less rigidly determined
by body shape.
(C) 3n naked mole rat colonies/ breeding is limited to the largest animals.
() 3n eusocial insect societies/ reproduction is limited to a single female.
(#) 3n eusocial insect societies/ the distribution of tasks is based on body si!e.
GMAT 11,
0. According to the passage/ which of the following is a supposition rather than a fact
concerning the "ueen in a naked mole rat colony%
(A) ;he is the largest member of the colony.
(B) ;he e$erts chemical control o'er the colony.
(C) ;he mates with more than one male.
() ;he attains her status through aggression.
(#) ;he is the only breeding female.
1. The passage supports which of the following inferences about breeding among
Kycaon pictus%
(A) The largest female in the social group does not maintain reproducti'e status by
means of beha'ioral control.
(B) An indi'idual4s ability to breed is related primarily to its rate of growth.
(C) Breeding is the only task performed by the breeding female.
() Breeding in the social group is not cooperati'e.
(#) Breeding is not dominated by a single pair of dogs.
2. According to the passage/ naked mole rat colonies may differ from all other known
'ertebrate groups in which of the following ways%
(A) 9aked mole rats e$hibit an e$treme form of altruism.
(B) 9aked mole rats are cooperati'e breeders.
(C) Among naked mole rats/ many males are permitted to breed with a single
dominant female.
() Among naked mole rats/ different tasks are performed at different times in an
indi'idual4s life.
(#) Among naked mole rats/ fighting results in the selection of a breeding female.
-. 8ne function of the third paragraph of the passage is to
(A) state a conclusion about facts presented in an earlier paragraph
(B) introduce information that is contradicted by information in the fourth
paragraph
(C) "ualify the e$tent to which two pre'iously mentioned groups might be similar
() show the chain of reasoning that led to the conclusions of a specific study
(#) demonstrate that of three e$planatory factors offered/ two may be of e"ual
significance
Passage 61 (61/63)
%ora" ree&s are one o& the most &ragi"e( bio"ogica""y comp"e8( and diverse
marine ecosystems on @arth. This ecosystem is one o& the &ascinating parado8es
o& the biosphereA how do c"ear( and thus nutrient-poor( waters support such
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pro"i#c and productive communitiesG 9art o& the answer "ies within the tissues o&
the cora"s themse"ves. ymbiotic ce""s o& a"gae $nown as +oo8anthe""ae carry out
photosynthesis using the metabo"ic wastes o& the cora" thereby producing &ood &or
themse"ves( &or their cora"s( hosts( and even &or other members o& the ree&
community. This symbiotic process a""ows organisms in the ree& community to use
sparse nutrient resources e*cient"y.
Un&ortunate"y &or cora" ree&s( however( a variety o& human activities are
causing wor"dwide degradation o& sha""ow marine habitats by adding nutrients to
the water. 3gricu"ture( s"ash-and-burn "and c"earing( sewage disposa" and
manu&acturing that creates waste by-products a"" increase nutrient "oads in these
waters. Typica" symptoms o& ree& dec"ine are destabi"i+ed herbivore popu"ations
and an increasing abundance o& a"gae and #"ter-&eeding anima"s. Kec"ines in ree&
communities are consistent with observations that nutrient input is increasing in
direct proportion to growing human popu"ations( thereby threatening ree&
communities sensitive to subt"e changes in nutrient input to their waters.
1. The passage is primarily concerned with
(A) describing the effects of human acti'ities on algae in coral reefs
(B) e$plaining how human acti'ities are posing a threat to coral reef communities
(C) discussing the process by which coral reefs deteriorate in nutrient(poor waters
() e$plaining how coral reefs produce food for themsel'es
(#) describing the abundance of algae and filter(feeding animals in coral reef areas
2. The passage suggests which of the following about coral reef communities%
(A) Coral reef communities may actually be more likely to thri'e in waters that are
relati'ely low in nutrients.
(B) The nutrients on which coral reef communities thri'e are only found in
shallow waters.
(C) )uman population growth has led to changing ocean temperatures/ which
threatens coral reef communities.
() The growth of coral reef communities tends to destabili!e underwater
herbi'ore populations.
(#) Coral reef communities are more comple$ and di'erse than most ecosystems
located on dry land.
.. The author refers to *filter(feeding animals+ (line 25) in order to
(A) pro'ide an e$ample of a characteristic sign of reef deterioration
(B) e$plain how reef communities ac"uire sustenance for sur'i'al
(C) identify a factor that helps herbi'ore populations thri'e
() indicate a cause of decreasing nutrient input in waters that reefs inhabit
(#) identify members of coral reef communities that rely on coral reefs for
nutrients
GMAT 121
0. According to the passage/ which of the following is a factor that is threatening the
sur'i'al of coral reef communities%
(A) The waters they inhabit contain few nutrient resources.
(B) A decline in nutrient input is disrupting their symbiotic relationship with
!oo$anthellae.
(C) The degraded waters of their marine habitats ha'e reduced their ability to carry
out photosynthesis.
() They are too biologically comple$ to sur'i'e in habitats with minimal nutrient
input.
(#) &aste by(products result in an increase in nutrient input to reef communities.
1. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author describes coral reef
communities as parado$ical most likely for which of the following reasons%
(A) They are thri'ing e'en though human acti'ities ha'e depleted the nutrients in
their en'ironment.
(B) They are able to sur'i'e in spite of an o'erabundance of algae inhabiting their
waters.
(C) They are able to sur'i'e in an en'ironment with limited food resources.
() Their metabolic wastes contribute to the degradation of the waters that they
inhabit.
(#) They are declining e'en when the water surrounding them remains clear.
Passage 62 (62/63)
Two divergent de#nitions have dominated socio"ogists6 discussions o& the
nature o& ethnicity. The #rst emphasi+es the primordia" and unchanging character
o& ethnicity. 2n this view( peop"e have an essentia" need &or be"onging that is
satis#ed by membership in groups based on shared ancestry and cu"ture. 3
di1erent conception o& ethnicity de-emphasi+es the cu"tura" component and
de#nes ethnic groups as interest groups. 2n this view( ethnicity serves as a way o&
mobi"i+ing a certain popu"ation behind issues re"ating to its economic position.
;hi"e both o& these de#nitions are use&u"( neither &u""y captures the dynamic and
changing aspects o& ethnicity in the United tates. Rather( ethnicity is more
satis&actori"y conceived o& as a process in which pree8isting communa" bonds and
common cu"tura" attributes are adapted &or instrumenta" purposes according to
changing rea"-"i&e situations.
<ne e8amp"e o& this process is the rise o& participation by ,ative 3merican
peop"e in the broader United tates po"itica" system since the %ivi" Rights
movement o& the 19L06s. 'esides "eading ,ative 3mericans to participate more
active"y in po"itics (the number o& ,ative 3merican "egis"ative o*ceho"ders more
than doub"ed)( this movement a"so evo$ed increased interest in triba" history and
traditiona" cu"ture. %u"tura" and instrumenta" components o& ethnicity are not
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mutua""y e8c"usive( but rather rein&orce one another.
The %ivi" Rights movement a"so brought changes in the uses to which ethnicity
was put by Be8ican 3merican peop"e. 2n the 19L06s( Be8ican 3mericans &ormed
community-based po"itica" groups that emphasi+ed ancestra" heritage as a way o&
mobi"i+ing constituents. uch emerging issues as immigration and voting rights
gave Be8ican 3merican advocacy groups the means by which to promote ethnic
so"idarity. Ji$e @uropean ethnic groups in the nineteenth-century United tates(
"ate-twentieth-century Be8ican 3merican "eaders combined ethnic with
contemporary civic symbo"s. 2n 19L8 )enry %isneros( then mayor o& an 3ntonio(
Te8as( cited Be8ican "eader 'enito Cuare+ as a mode" &or Be8ican 3mericans in
their #ght &or contemporary civi" rights. 3nd every year( Be8ican 3mericans
ce"ebrate Cinco de (ayo as &ervent"y as many 2rish 3merican peop"e embrace t.
9atric$6s Kay (both are ma5or ho"idays in the countries o& origin)( with both
ho"idays having been reinvented in the conte8t o& the United tates and "in$ed to
idea"s( symbo"s( and heroes o& the United tates.
1. &hich of the following best states the main idea of the passage%
(A) 3n their definitions of the nature of ethnicity/ sociologists ha'e underestimated
the power of the primordial human need to belong.
(B) #thnicity is best defined as a dynamic process that combines cultural
components with shared political and economic interests.
(C) 3n the :nited ;tates in the twentieth century/ ethnic groups ha'e begun to
organi!e in order to further their political and economic interests.
() #thnicity in the :nited ;tates has been significantly changed by the Ci'il
=ights mo'ement.
(#) The two definitions of ethnicity that ha'e dominated sociologists discussions
are incompatible and should be replaced by an entirely new approach.
2. &hich of the following statements about the first two definitions of ethnicity
discussed in the first paragraph is supported by the passage%
(A) 8ne is supported primarily by sociologists/ and the other is fa'ored by
members of ethnic groups.
(B) 8ne emphasi!es the political aspects of ethnicity/ and the other focuses on the
economic aspects.
(C) 8ne is the result of analysis of :nited ;tates populations/ and the other is the
result of analysis of #uropean populations.
() 8ne focuses more on the ancestral components of ethnicity than does the
other.
(#) 8ne focuses more on immigrant groups than does the other.
.. The author of the passage refers to 9ati'e American people in the second
paragraph in order to pro'ide an e$ample of
(A) the ability of membership in groups based on shared ancestry and culture to
GMAT 12.
satisfy an essential human need
(B) how ethnic feelings ha'e both moti'ated and been strengthened by political
acti'ity
(C) how the Ci'il =ights mo'ement can help promote solidarity among :nited
;tates ethnic groups
() how participation in the political system has helped to impro'e a group4s
economic situation
(#) the benefits gained from renewed study of ethnic history and culture
0. The passage supports which of the following statements about the ?e$ican
American community%
(A) 3n the 1,254s the ?e$ican American community began to incorporate the
customs of another ethnic group in the :nited ;tates into the obser'ation of its
own ethnic holidays.
(B) 3n the 1,254s ?e$ican American community groups promoted ethnic solidarity
primarily in order to effect economic change.
(C) 3n the 1,254s leader of the ?e$ican American community concentrated their
efforts on promoting a renaissance of ethnic history and culture.
() 3n the 1,254s members of the ?e$ican American community were becoming
increasingly concerned about the issue of 'oting rights.
(#) 3n the 1,254s the ?e$ican American community had greater success in
mobili!ing constituents than did other ethnic groups in the :nited ;tates.
1. &hich of the following types of ethnic cultural e$pression is discussed in the
passage%
(A) The retelling of traditional narrati'es
(B) The wearing of traditional clothing
(C) The playing of traditional music
() The celebration of traditional holidays
(#) The preparation of traditional cuisine
2. 3nformation in the passage supports which of the following statements about many
#uropean ethnic groups in the nineteenth(century :nited ;tates%
(A) They emphasi!ed economic interests as a way of mobili!ing constituents
behind certain issues.
(B) They concei'ed of their own ethnicity as being primordial in nature.
(C) They created cultural traditions that fused :nited ;tates symbols with those of
their countries of origin.
() They de(emphasi!ed the cultural components of their communities in fa'or of
political interests.
(#) They organi!ed formal community groups designed to promote a renaissance
120 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
of ethnic history and culture.
-. The passage suggests that in 1,26 )enry Cisneros most likely belie'ed that
(A) many ?e$ican American would respond positi'ely to the e$ample of Benito
Auare!
(B) many ?e$ican American were insufficiently educated in ?e$ican history
(C) the fight for ci'il fights in the :nited ;tates had many strong parallels in both
?e$ican and 3rish history
() the "uickest way of organi!ing community(based groups was to emulate the
tactics of Benito Auare!
(#) ?e$ican Americans should emulate the strategies of 9ati'e American political
leaders
Passage 63 (63/63)
The &act that superior service can generate a competitive advantage &or a
company does not mean that every attempt at improving service wi"" create such
an advantage. 2nvestments in service( "i$e those in production and distribution(
must be ba"anced against other types o& investments on the basis o& direct(
tangib"e bene#ts such as cost reduction and increased revenues. 2& a company is
a"ready e1ective"y on a par with its competitors because it provides service that
avoids a damaging reputation and $eeps customers &rom "eaving at an
unacceptab"e rate( then investment in higher service "eve"s may be wasted( since
service is a deciding &actor &or customers on"y in e8treme situations.
This truth was not apparent to managers o& one regiona" ban$( which &ai"ed to
improve its competitive position despite its investment in reducing the time a
customer had to wait &or a te""er. The ban$ managers did not recogni+e the "eve"
o& customer inertia in the consumer ban$ing industry that arises &rom the
inconvenience o& switching ban$s. ,or did they ana"y+e their service improvement
to determine whether it wou"d attract new customers by producing a new
standard o& service that wou"d e8cite customers or by proving di*cu"t &or
competitors to copy. The on"y merit o& the improvement was that it cou"d easi"y be
described to customers.
1. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) contrast possible outcomes of a type of business in'estment
(B) suggest more careful e'aluation of a type of business in'estment
(C) illustrate 'arious ways in which a type of business in'estment could fail to
enhance re'enues
() trace the general problems of a company to a certain type of business
in'estment
(#) critici!e the way in which managers tend to analy!e the costs and benefits of
business in'estments
GMAT 121
2. According to the passage/ in'estments in ser'ice are comparable to in'estments in
production and distribution in terms of the
(A) tangibility of the benefits that they tend to confer
(B) increased re'enues that they ultimately produce
(C) basis on which they need to be weighed
() insufficient analysis that managers de'ote to them
(#) degree of competiti'e ad'antage that they are likely to pro'ide
.. The passage suggests which of the following about ser'ice pro'ided by the
regional bank prior to its in'estment in enhancing that ser'ice%
(A) 3t enabled the bank to retain customers at an acceptable rate.
(B) 3t threatened to weaken the bank4s competiti'e position with respect to other
regional banks.
(C) 3t had already been impro'ed after ha'ing caused damage to the bank4s
reputation in the past.
() 3t was slightly superior to that of the bank4s regional competitors.
(#) 3t needed to be impro'ed to attain parity with the ser'ice pro'ided by
competing banks.
0. The passage suggests that bank managers failed to consider whether or not the
ser'ice impro'ement mentioned in line 1,
(A) was too complicated to be easily described to prospecti'e customers
(B) made a measurable change in the e$periences of customers in the bank4s
offices
(C) could be sustained if the number of customers increased significantly
() was an inno'ation that competing banks could ha'e imitated
(#) was ade"uate to bring the bank4s general le'el of ser'ice to a le'el that was
comparable with that of its competitors
1. The discussion of the regional bank (line 1.(20) ser'es which of the following
functions within the passage as a whole%
(A) 3t describes an e$ceptional case in which in'estment in ser'ice actually failed
to produce a competiti'e ad'antage.
(B) 3t illustrates the pitfalls of choosing to in'est in ser'ice at a time when
in'estment is needed more urgently in another area.
(C) 3t demonstrates the kind of analysis that managers apply when they choose one
kind of ser'ice in'estment o'er another.
() 3t supports the argument that in'estments in certain aspects of ser'ice are more
ad'antageous than in'estments in other aspects of ser'ice.
(#) 3t pro'ides an e$ample of the point about in'estment in ser'ice made in the
first paragraph.
122 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
2. The author uses the word *only+ in line 2. most likely in order to
(A) highlight the oddity of the ser'ice impro'ement
(B) emphasi!e the relati'ely low 'alue of the in'estment in ser'ice impro'ement
(C) distinguish the primary attribute of the ser'ice impro'ement from secondary
attributes
() single out a certain merit of the ser'ice impro'ement from other merits
(#) point out the limited duration of the actual ser'ice impro'ement
GMAT 22Passages
Passage 64 (1/22)
The antigen-antibody immuno"ogica" reaction used to be regarded as typica" o&
immuno"ogica" responses. 3ntibodies are proteins synthesi+ed by specia"i+ed ce""s
ca""ed p"asma ce""s( which are &ormed by "ymphocytes (ce""s &rom the "ymph
system) when an antigen( a substance &oreign to the organism6s body( comes in
contact with "ymphocytes. Two important mani&estations o& antigen-antibody
immunity are "ysis( the rapid physica" rupture o& antigenic ce""s and the "iberation
o& their contents into the surrounding medium( and phagocytosis( a process in
which antigenic partic"es are engu"&ed by and very o&ten digested by
macrophages and po"ymorphs. The process o& "ysis is e8ecuted by a comp"e8 and
unstab"e b"ood constituent $nown as comp"ement( which wi"" not wor$ un"ess it is
activated by a speci#c antibody= the process o& phagocytosis is great"y &aci"itated
when the partic"es to be engu"&ed are coated by a speci#c antibody directed
against them.
The re"uctance to!abandon this hypothesis( however we"" it e8p"ains speci#c
processes( impeded new research( and &or many years antigens and antibodies
dominated the thoughts o& immuno"ogists so comp"ete"y that those immuno"ogists
over"oo$ed certain di*cu"ties. 9erhaps the primary di*cu"ty with the antigen-
antibody e8p"anation is the in&ormationa" prob"em o& how an antigen is recogni+ed
and how a structure e8act"y comp"ementary to it is then synthesi+ed. ;hen
mo"ecu"ar bio"ogists discovered( moreover( that such in&ormation cannot Dow &rom
protein to protein( but on"y &rom nuc"eic acid to protein( the theory that an antigen
itse"& provided the mo"d that directed the synthesis o& an antibody had to be
serious"y -ua"i#ed. The attempts at -ua"i#cation and the in&ormation provided by
research in mo"ecu"ar bio"ogy "ed scientists to rea"i+e that a second immuno"ogica"
reaction is mediated through the "ymphocytes that are hosti"e to and bring about
the destruction o& the antigen. This type o& immuno"ogica" response is ca""ed ce""-
mediated immunity.
Recent research in ce""-mediated immunity has been concerned not on"y with
the deve"opment o& new and better vaccines( but a"so with the prob"em o&
transp"anting tissues and organs &rom one organism to another( &or a"though
GMAT 12-
circu"ating antibodies p"ay a part in the re5ection o& transp"anted tissues( the
primary ro"e is p"ayed by ce""-mediated reactions. Kuring ce""-mediated responses(
receptor sites on speci#c "ymphocytes and sur&ace antigens on the &oreign tissue
ce""s &orm a comp"e8 that binds the "ymphocytes to the tissue. uch "ymphocytes
do not give rise to antibody-producing p"asma ce""s but themse"ves bring about
the death o& the &oreign-tissue ce""s( probab"y by secreting a variety o&
substances( some o& which are to8ic to the tissue ce""s and some o& which
stimu"ate increased phagocytic activity by white b"ood ce""s o& the macrophage
type. %e""-mediated immunity a"so accounts &or the destruction o& intrace""u"ar
parasites.
1. The author is primarily concerned with
(A) pro'ing that immunological reactions do not in'ol'e antibodies
(B) establishing that most immunological reactions in'ol'e antigens
(C) critici!ing scientists who will not change their theories regarding immunology
() analy!ing the importance of cells in fighting disease
(#) e$plaining two different kinds of immunological reactions
2. The author argues that the antigen(antibody e$planation of immunity *had to
seriously "ualified+ (line .-) because
(A) antibodies were found to acti'ate unstable components in the blood
(B) antigens are not e$actly complementary to antibodies
(C) lymphocytes ha'e the ability to bind to the surface of antigens
() antibodies are synthesi!ed from protein whereas antigens are made from
nucleic acid
(#) antigens ha'e no apparent mechanism to direct the formation of an antibody
.. The author most probably belie'es that the antigen(antibody theory of
immunological reaction.
(A) is wrong
(B) was accepted without e'idence
(C) is un'erifiable
() is a partial e$planation
(#) has been a di'isi'e issue among scientists
0. The author mentions all of the following as being in'ol'ed in antigen(antibody
immunological reactions #DC#@T the
(A) synthesis of a protein
(B) acti'ation of complement in the bloodstream
(C) destruction of antibodies
() entrapment of antigens by macrophages
(#) formation of a substance with a structure complementary to that of an antigen
126 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
1. The passage contains information that would answer which of the following
"uestions about cell(mediated immunological reactions%
3. o lymphocytes form antibodies during cell(mediated immunological
reactions%
33. &hy are lymphocytes more hostile to antigens during cell(mediated
immunological reactions than are other cell groups%
333. Are cell(mediated reactions more pronounced after transplants than they are
after parasites ha'e in'aded the organism%
(A) 3 only
(B) 3 and 33 only
(C) 3 and 333 only
() 33 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
2. The passage suggests that scientists might not ha'e de'eloped the theory of cell(
mediated immunological reactions if
(A) proteins e$isted in specific group types
(B) proteins could ha'e been shown to direct the synthesis of other proteins
(C) antigens were always destroyed by proteins
() antibodies were composed only of protein
(#) antibodies were the body4s primary means of resisting disease
-. According to the passage/ antibody(antigen and cell(mediated immunological
reactions both in'ol'e which of the following processes%
3. The destruction of antigens
33. The creation of antibodies
333. The destruction of intracellular parasites
(A) 3 only
(B) 33 only
(C) 333 only
() 3 and 33 only
(#) 33 and 333 only
6. The author supports the theory of cell(mediated reactions primarily by
(A) pointing out a contradiction in the assumption leading to the antigen(antibody
theory
(B) e$plaining how cell mediation accounts for phenomena that the antigen(
antibody theory cannot account for
(C) re'ealing new data that scientists arguing for the antigen(antibody theory ha'e
continued to ignore
GMAT 12,
() showing that the antigen(antibody theory fails to account for the breakup of
antigens
(#) demonstrating that cell mediation e$plains lysis and phagocytosis more fully
than the antigen(antibody theory does
Passage 65 (2/22)
The &ounders o& the Repub"ic viewed their revo"ution primari"y in po"itica" rather
than economic or socia" terms. 3nd they ta"$ed about education as essentia" to
the pub"ic good!a goa" that too$ precedence over $now"edge as occupationa"
training or as a means to se"&-&u"#""ment or se"&-improvement. <ver and over again
the Revo"utionary generation( both "ibera" and conservative in out"oo$( asserted
its conviction that the we"&are o& the Repub"ic rested upon an educated citi+enry
and that schoo"s( especia""y &ree pub"ic schoo"s( wou"d be the best means o&
educating the citi+enry in civic va"ues and the ob"igations re-uired o& everyone in
a democratic repub"ican society. 3"" agreed that the principa" ingredients o& a civic
education were "iteracy and the incu"cation o& patriotic and mora" virtues( some
others adding the study o& history and the study o& princip"es o& the repub"ican
government itse"&.
The &ounders( as was the case o& a"most a"" their successors( were "ong on
e8hortation and rhetoric regarding the va"ue o& civic education( but they "e&t it to
the te8tboo$ writers to disti"" the essence o& those va"ues &or schoo" chi"dren. Te8ts
in 3merican history and government appeared as ear"y as the 1790s. The
te8tboo$ writers turned out to be very "arge"y o& conservative persuasion( more
"i$e"y :edera"ist in out"oo$ than Ce1ersonian( and a"most universa""y agreed that
po"itica" virtue must rest upon mora" and re"igious precepts. ince most te8tboo$
writers were ,ew @ng"ander( this meant that the te8ts were in&used with
9rotestant and( above a""( 9uritan out"oo$s.
2n the #rst ha"& o& the Repub"ic( civic education in the schoo"s emphasi+ed the
incu"cation o& civic va"ues and made "itt"e attempt to deve"op participatory
po"itica" s$i""s. That was a tas$ "e&t to incipient po"itica" parties( town meetings(
churches and the co1ee or a"e houses where men gathered &or conversation.
3dditiona""y as a reading o& certain :edera"ist papers o& the period wou"d
demonstrate( the press probab"y did more to disseminate rea"istic as we"" as
partisan $now"edge o& government than the schoo"s. The goa" o& education(
however( was to achieve a higher &orm o& unum &or the new Repub"ic. 2n the
midd"e ha"& o& the nineteenth century( the po"itica" va"ues taught in the pub"ic and
private schoo"s did not change substantia""y &rom those ce"ebrated in the #rst #&ty
years o& the Repub"ic. 2n the te8tboo$s o& the day their rosy hues i& anything
became go"den. To the resp"endent va"ues o& "iberty( e-ua"ity( and a benevo"ent
%hristian mora"ity were now added the midd"e-c"ass virtues-especia""y o& ,ew
@ng"and-o& hard wor$( honesty and integrity( the rewards o& individua" e1ort( and
obedience to parents and "egitimate authority. 'ut o& a"" the po"itica" va"ues taught
1-5 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
in schoo"( patriotism was preeminent= and whenever teachers e8p"ained to schoo"
chi"dren why they shou"d "ove their country above a"" e"se( the idea o& "iberty
assumed pride o& p"ace.
1. The passage deals primarily with the
(A) content of early te$tbooks on American history and go'ernment
(B) role of education in late eighteenth(and early to mid(nineteenth(century
America
(C) influence of 9ew #ngland @uritanism on early American 'alues
() origin and de'elopment of the @rotestant work ethic in modern America
(#) establishment of uni'ersal free public education in America
2. According to the passage/ the founders of the =epublic regarded education
primarily as
(A) a religious obligation
(B) a pri'ate matter
(C) an unnecessary lu$ury
() a matter of indi'idual choice
(#) a political necessity
.. The author states that te$tbooks written in the middle part of the nineteenth
century
(A) departed radically in tone and style from earlier te$tbooks
(B) mentioned for the first time the 'alue of liberty
(C) treated traditional ci'ic 'irtues with e'en greater re'erence
() were commissioned by go'ernment agencies
(#) contained no reference to conser'ati'e ideas
0. &hich of the following would K#A;T likely ha'e been the sub<ect of an early
American te$tbook%
(A) basic rules of #nglish grammar
(B) the American =e'olution
(C) patriotism and other ci'ic 'irtues
() 'ocational education
(#) principles of American go'ernment
1. The author4s attitude toward the educational system she discusses can best be
described as
(A) cynical and unpatriotic
(B) realistic and analytical
(C) pragmatic and frustrated
GMAT 1-1
() disenchanted and bitter
(#) idealistic and nai'e
2. The passage pro'ides information that would be helpful in answering which of the
following "uestions%
(A) &hy were a disproportionate share of early American te$tbooks written by
9ew #ngland authors%
(B) &as the >ederalist party primarily a liberal or conser'ati'e force in early
American politics%
(C) )ow many years of education did the founders belie'e were sufficient to
instruct young citi!ens in ci'ic 'irtue%
() &hat were that names of some of the @uritan authors who wrote early
American te$tbooks%
(#) id most citi!ens of the early =epublic agree with the founders that public
education was essential to the welfare of the =epublic%
-. The author implies that an early American @uritan would likely insist that
(A) moral and religious 'alues are the foundation of ci'ic 'irtue
(B) te$tbooks should instruct students in political issues of 'ital concern to the
community
(C) te$tbooks should gi'e greater emphasis to the 'alue of indi'idual liberty than
to the duties of patriotism
() pri'ate schools with a particular religious focus are preferable to public
schools with no religious instruction
(#) go'ernment and religion are separate institutions and the church should not
interfere in political affairs
6. According to the passage citi!ens of the early =epublic learned about practical
political matters in all of the following ways #DC#@T
(A) reading newspapers
(B) attending town meetings
(C) con'ersing about political matters
() reading te$tbooks
(#) attending church
Passage 66 (3/22)
The hea"th-care economy is rep"ete with unusua" and even uni-ue economic
re"ationships. <ne o& the "east understood invo"ves the pecu"iar ro"es o& producer
or >provider? and purchaser or >consumer? in the typica" doctor-patient
re"ationship. 2n most sectors o& the economy( it is the se""er who attempts to
attract a potentia" buyer with various inducements o& price( -ua"ity( and uti"ity(
1-2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
and it is the buyer who ma$es the decision. ;here circumstances permit the
buyer no choice because there is e1ective"y on"y one se""er and the product is
re"ative"y essentia"( government usua""y asserts monopo"y and p"aces the industry
under price and other regu"ations. ,either o& these conditions prevai"s in most o&
the hea"th-care industry.
2n the hea"th-care industry( the doctor-patient re"ationship is the mirror image
o& the ordinary re"ationship between producer and consumer. <nce an individua"
has chosen to see a physician!and even then there may be no rea" choice!it is
the physician who usua""y ma$es a"" signi#cant purchasing decisionsA whether the
patient shou"d return >ne8t ;ednesday(? whether N-rays are needed( whether
drugs shou"d be prescribed( etc. 2t is a rare and sophisticated patient who wi""
cha""enge such pro&essiona" decisions or raise in advance -uestions about price(
especia""y when the ai"ment is regarded as serious.
This is particu"ar"y signi#cant in re"ation to hospita" care. The physician must
certi&y the need &or hospita"i+ation( determine what procedures wi"" be per&ormed(
and announce when the patient may be discharged. The patient may be consu"ted
about some o& these decisions( but in the main it is the doctor6s 5udgments that
are #na". Jitt"e wonder then that in the eyes o& the hospita" it is the physician who
is the rea" >consumer.? 3s a conse-uence( the medica" sta1 represents the >power
center? in hospita" po"icy and decision-ma$ing( not the administration.
3"though usua""y there are in this situation &our identi#ab"e participants!the
physician( the hospita"( the patient( and the payer (genera""y an insurance carrier
or government)!the physician ma$es the essentia" decisions &or a"" o& them. The
hospita" becomes an e8tension o& the physician= the payer genera""y meets most
o& the bona #de bi""s generated by the physicianPhospita"= and &or the most part
the patient p"ays a passive ro"e. 2n routine or minor i""nesses( or 5ust p"ain worries(
the patient6s options are( o& course( much greater with respect to use and price. 2n
i""nesses that are o& some signi#cance( however( such choices tend to evaporate(
and it is &or these i""nesses that the bu"$ o& the hea"th-care do""ar is spent. ;e
estimate that about 7/-80 percent o& hea"th-care e8penditures are determined by
physicians( not patients. :or this reason( economy measures directed at patients
or the genera" pub"ic are re"ative"y ine1ective.
1. The author4s primary purpose is to
(A) speculate about the relationship between a patient4s ability to pay and the
treatment recei'ed
(B) critici!e doctors for e$ercising too much control o'er patients
(C) analy!e some important economic factors in health care
() urge hospitals to reclaim their decision(making authority
(#) inform potential patients of their health(care rights
2. 3t can be inferred that doctors are able to determine hospital policies because
(A) it is doctors who generate income for the hospital
GMAT 1-.
(B) most of a patient4s bills are paid by his health insurance
(C) hospital administrators lack the e$pertise to "uestion medical decisions
() a doctor is ultimately responsible for a patient4s health
(#) some patients might refuse to accept their physician4s ad'ice
.. According to the author/ when a doctor tells a patient to *return ne$t &ednesday/+
the doctor is in effect
(A) taking ad'antage of the patient4s concern for his health
(B) instructing the patient to buy more medical ser'ices
(C) warning the patient that a hospital stay might be necessary
() ad'ising the patient to seek a second opinion
(#) admitting that the initial 'isit was ineffecti'e
0. The author is most probably leading up to
(A) a proposal to control medical costs
(B) a discussion of a new medical treatment
(C) an analysis of the causes of inflation in the :nited ;tates
() a study of lawsuits against doctors for malpractice
(#) a comparison of hospitals and factories
1. The tone of the passage can best be described as
(A) whimsical
(B) cautious
(C) analytical
() in"uisiti'e
(#) defiant
2. &ith which of the following statements would the author be likely to agree%
3. ?ost patients are reluctant to ob<ect to the course of treatment prescribed by a
doctor or to "uestion the cost of the ser'ices.
33. The more serious the illness of a patient/ the less likely it is that the patient will
ob<ect to the course of treatment prescribed or to "uestion the cost of ser'ices.
333. The payer/ whether insurance carrier or the go'ernment/ is less likely to
ac"uiesce to demands for payment when the illness of the patient is regarded as
serious.
(A) 3 only
(B) 33 only
(C) 3 and 33 only
() 33 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
1-0 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
-. The author4s primary concern is to
(A) define a term
(B) clarify a misunderstanding
(C) refute a theory
() discuss a problem
(#) announce a new disco'ery
6. The most important feature of a *consumer+ as that term is used in line .. of the
passage is that the *consumer+ is the party that
(A) pays for goods or ser'ices
(B) deli'ers goods or ser'ices
(C) orders goods or ser'ices
() reimburses a third party for goods or ser'ices
(#) supplies goods and ser'ices to a third party
Passage 67 (4/22)
3bout twice every century( one o& the massive stars in our ga"a8y b"ows itse"&
apart in a supernova e8p"osion that sends massive -uantities o& radiation and
matter into space and generates shoc$ waves that sweep through the arms o& the
ga"a8y. The shoc$ waves heat the interste""ar gas( evaporate sma"" c"ouds( and
compress "arger ones to the point at which they co""apse under their own gravity
to &orm new stars. The genera" picture that has been deve"oped &or the supernova
e8p"osion and its a&termath goes something "i$e this. Throughout its evo"ution( a
star is much "i$e a "ea$y ba""oon. 2t $eeps its e-ui"ibrium #gure through a ba"ance
o& interna" pressure against the tendency to co""apse under its own weight. The
pressure is generated by nuc"ear reactions in the core o& the star which must
continua""y supp"y energy to ba"ance the energy that "ea$s out in the &orm o&
radiation. @ventua""y the nuc"ear &ue" is e8hausted( and the pressure drops in the
core. ;ith nothing to ho"d it up( the matter in the center o& the star co""apses
inward( creating higher and higher densities and temperatures( unti" the nuc"ei
and e"ectrons are &used into a super-dense "ump o& matter $nown as a neutron
star.
3s the over"ying "ayers rain down on the sur&ace o& the neutron star( the
temperature rises( unti" with a b"inding Dash o& radiation( the co""apse is reversed.
3 thermonuc"ear shoc$ wave runs through the now e8panding ste""ar enve"ope(
&using "ighter e"ements into heavier ones and producing a bri""iant visua" outburst
that can be as intense as the "ight o& 10 bi""ion suns. The she"" o& matter thrown o1
by the e8p"osion p"ows through the surrounding gas( producing an e8panding
bubb"e o& hot gas( with gas temperatures in the mi""ions o& degrees. This gas wi""
emit most o& its energy at N-ray wave"engths( so it is not surprising that N-ray
observatories have provided some o& the most use&u" insights into the nature o&
GMAT 1-1
the supernova phenomenon. Bore than twenty supernova remnants have now
been detected in N-ray studies.
Recent discoveries o& meteorites with anoma"ous concentrations o& certain
isotopes indicate that a supernova might have precipitated the birth o& our so"ar
system more than &our and a ha"& bi""ion years ago. 3"though the c"oud that
co""apsed to &orm the un and the p"anets was composed primari"y o& hydrogen
and he"ium( it a"so contained carbon( nitrogen( and o8ygen( e"ements essentia" &or
"i&e as we $now it. @"ements heavier than he"ium are manu&actured deep in the
interior o& stars and wou"d( &or the most part( remain there i& it were not &or the
catac"ysmic supernova e8p"osions that b"ow giant stars apart. 3dditiona""y(
supernovas produce c"ouds o& high-energy partic"es ca""ed cosmic rays. These
high-energy partic"es continua""y bombard the @arth and are responsib"e &or many
o& the genetic mutations that are the driving &orce o& the evo"ution o& species.
1. &hich of the following titles best describes the content of the passage%
(A) The 8rigins and #ffects of ;uperno'as
(B) The Kife and eath of ;tars
(C) The 8rigins and #'olution of Kife on #arth
() The Aftermath of a ;uperno'a
(#) Ciolent Change in the :ni'erse
2. According to the passage/ we can e$pect a superno'a to occur in our gala$y
(A) about twice each year
(B) hundreds of times each century
(C) about once e'ery fifty years
() about once e'ery other century
(#) about once e'ery four to fi'e billion years
.. According to the passage all of the following are true of superno'as #DC#@T that
they
(A) are e$tremely bright
(B) are an e$plosion of some sort
(C) emit large "uantities of D(rays
() result in the destruction of a neutron star
(#) are caused by the collision of large gala$ies
0. The author employs which of the following to de'elop the first paragraph%
(A) Analogy
(B) eduction
(C) Benerali!ation
() #$ample
1-2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(#) =efutation
1. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the meteorites mentioned by the author at
line .,
(A) contain dangerous concentrations of radioacti'e materials
(B) gi'e off large "uantities of D(rays
(C) include material not created in the normal de'elopment of our solar system
() are larger than the meteors normally found in a solar system like ours
(#) contain pieces of a superno'a that occurred se'eral billion years ago
2. The author implies that
(A) it is sometimes easier to detect superno'as by obser'ation of the D(ray
spectrum than by obser'ation of 'isible wa'elengths of light
(B) life on #arth is endangered by its constant e$posure to radiation forces that are
released by a superno'a
(C) recently disco'ered meteorites indicate that the #arth and other planets of our
solar system sur'i'ed the e$plosion of a superno'a se'eral billion years ago
() lighter elements are formed from hea'ier elements during a superno'a as the
hea'ier elements are torn apart
(#) the core of a neutron star is composed largely of hea'ier elements such as
carbon/ nitrogen/ and o$ygen
-. According to the passage what is the first e'ent in the se"uence that leads to the
occurrence of a superno'a%
(A) An ordinary star begins to emit tremendous "uantities of D(rays.
(B) A neutron star is en'eloped by a superheated cloud of gas.
(C) An imbalance between light and hea'y elements causes an ordinary star to
collapse.
() A cloud of interstellar gas rich in carbon/ nitrogen/ and o$ygen/ collapses to
form a neutron star.
(#) An ordinary star e$hausts its supply of nuclear fuel and begins to collapse.
6. According to the passage a neutron star is
(A) a gaseous cloud containing hea'y elements
(B) an intermediate stage between an ordinary star and a superno'a
(C) the residue that is left by a superno'a
() the core of an ordinary star that houses the thermonuclear reactions
(#) one of billions of meteors that are scattered across the gala$y by a superno'a
,. The author is primarily concerned with
(A) speculating about the origins of our solar system
(B) presenting e'idence pro'ing the e$istence of superno'as
GMAT 1--
(C) discussing the nuclear reaction that occurs in the core of a star
() describing the se"uence of scientific e'ents
(#) dispro'ing a theory about the causes of superno'as
Passage 68 (5/22)
The uni-ueness o& the Capanese character is the resu"t o& two seeming"y
contradictory &orcesA the strength o& traditions and se"ective receptivity to &oreign
achievements and inventions. 3s ear"y as the 18L0s( there were counter
movements to the traditiona" orientation. Iu$ichi :u$u+awa( the most e"o-uent
spo$esman o& Capan6s >@n"ightenment(? c"aimedA >The %on&ucian civi"i+ation o& the
@ast seems to me to "ac$ two things possessed by ;estern civi"i+ationA science in
the materia" sphere and a sense o& independence in the spiritua" sphere.?
:u$u+awa6s great inDuence is &ound in the &ree and individua"istic phi"osophy o&
the Education Code o& 1874( but he was not ab"e to prevent the government &rom
turning bac$ to the canons o& %on&ucian thought in the )m#erial *escri#t o& 1890.
3nother inter"ude o& re"ative "ibera"ism &o""owed ;or"d ;ar 2( when the democratic
idea"ism o& 9resident ;oodrow ;i"son had an important impact on Capanese
inte""ectua"s and( especia""y studentsA but more important was the Jeninist
ideo"ogy o& the 1917 'o"shevi$ Revo"ution. 3gain in the ear"y 1970s( nationa"ism
and mi"itarism became dominant( "arge"y as a resu"t o& &ai"ing economic
conditions.
:o""owing the end o& ;or"d ;ar 22( substantia" changes were underta$en in
Capan to "iberate the individua" &rom authoritarian restraints. The new democratic
va"ue system was accepted by many teachers( students( inte""ectua"s( and o"d
"ibera"s( but it was not immediate"y embraced by the society as a who"e. Capanese
traditions were dominated by group va"ues( and notions o& persona" &reedom and
individua" rights were un&ami"iar.
Today( democratic processes are c"ear"y evident in the widespread participation
o& the Capanese peop"e in socia" and po"itica" "i&eA yet( there is no universa""y
accepted and stab"e va"ue system. Fa"ues are constant"y modi#ed by strong
in&usions o& ;estern ideas( both democratic and Bar8ist. choo" te8tboo$s
e8pound democratic princip"es( emphasi+ing e-ua"ity over hierarchy and
rationa"ism over tradition= but in practice these va"ues are o&ten misinterpreted
and distorted( particu"ar"y by the youth who trans"ate the individua"istic and
humanistic goa"s o& democracy into egoistic and materia"istic ones.
Bost Capanese peop"e have conscious"y re5ected %on&ucianism( but vestiges o&
the o"d order remain. 3n important &eature o& re"ationships in many institutions
such as po"itica" parties( "arge corporations( and university &acu"ties is the oya$un-
ko$un or parent-chi"d re"ation. 3 party "eader( supervisor( or pro&essor( in return
&or "oya"ty( protects those subordinate to him and ta$es genera" responsibi"ity &or
their interests throughout their entire "ives( an ob"igation that sometimes even
e8tends to arranging marriages. The corresponding "oya"ty o& the individua" to his
1-6 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
patron rein&orces his a""egiance to the group to which they both be"ong. 3
wi""ingness to cooperate with other members o& the group and to support without
-ua"i#cation the interests o& the group in a"" its e8terna" re"ations is sti"" a wide"y
respected virtue. The oya$un-ko$un creates "adders o& mobi"ity which an
individua" can ascend( rising as &ar as abi"ities permit( so "ong as he maintains
success&u" persona" ties with a superior in the vertica" channe"( the "atter
re-uirement usua""y ta$ing precedence over a need &or e8ceptiona" competence.
3s a conse-uence( there is "itt"e hori+onta" re"ationship between peop"e even
within the same pro&ession.
1. The author is mainly concerned with
(A) e$plaining the influence of Confucianism on modern Aapan
(B) analy!ing the reasons for Aapan4s postwar economic success
(C) discussing some important determinants of Aapanese 'alues
() describing managerial practices in Aapanese industry
(#) contrasting modern with prewar Aapanese society
2. &hich of the following is most like the relationship of the oyabun-kobun described
in the passage%
(A) A political candidate and the 'oting public
(B) A gifted scientist and his protPgP
(C) Two brothers who are partners in a business
() A <udge presiding at the trial of a criminal defendant
(#) A leader of a musical ensemble who is also a musician in the group
.. According to the passage/ Aapanese attitudes are influenced by which of the
following%
3. emocratic ideals
33. #lements of modern &estern culture
333. =emnants of an earlier social structure
(A) 3 only
(B) 33 only
(C) 3 and 33 only
() 33 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
0. The author implies that
(A) decisions about promotions are often based on personal feelings
(B) students and intellectuals do not understand the basic tenets of &estern
democracy
(C) &estern 'alues ha'e completely o'erwhelmed traditional Aapanese attitudes
GMAT 1-,
() respect for authority was introduced into Aapan following &orld &ar 33
(#) most Aapanese workers are members of a single political party
1. 3n de'eloping the passage/ the author does which of the following%
(A) 3ntroduce an analogy
(B) efine a term
(C) @resent statistics
() Cite an authority
(#) 3ssue a challenge
2. 3t can be inferred that the 3mperial =escript of 16,5
(A) was a protest by liberals against the lack of indi'idual liberty in Aapan
(B) marked a return in go'ernment policies to conser'ati'e 'alues
(C) implemented the ideals set forth in the Education Code of 16-2
() was influenced by the Keninist ideology of the Bolshe'ik =e'olution
(#) prohibited the teaching of &estern ideas in Aapanese schools
-. &hich of the following is the most accurate description of the organi!ation of the
passage%
(A) A se"uence of inferences in which the conclusion of each successi'e step
becomes a premise in the ne$t argument
(B) A list of generali!ations/ most of which are supported by only a single e$ample
(C) A chronological analysis of historical e'ents leading up to a description of the
current situation
() A statement of a commonly accepted theory that is then sub<ected to a critical
analysis
(#) An introduction of a key term that is then defined by gi'ing e$amples
6. &hich of the following best states the central thesis of the passage%
(A) The 'alue system of Aapan is based upon traditional and conser'ati'e 'alues
that ha'e/ in modern times/ been modified by &estern and other liberal 'alues.
(B) ;tudents and radicals in Aapan ha'e Keninist ideology to distort the meaning of
democratic/ &estern 'alues.
(C) The notions of personal freedom and indi'idual liberty did not find immediate
acceptance in Aapan because of the predominance of traditional group 'alues.
() ?odern Aapanese society is characteri!ed by hierarchical relationships in
which a personal tie to a superior is often more important than merit.
(#) The influence on Aapanese 'alues of the American ideals of personal freedom
and indi'idual rights is less important than the influence of Keninist ideology.
,. The tone of the passage can best be described as
(A) neutral and ob<ecti'e
165 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(B) disparaging and flippant
(C) critical and demanding
() enthusiastic and supporti'e
(#) skeptical and "uestioning
Passage 69 (6/22)
9ub"ic genera" hospita"s originated in the a"mshouse in#rmaries estab"ished as
ear"y as co"onia" times by "oca" governments to care &or the poor. Jater( in the "ate
eighteenth and ear"y nineteenth centuries( the in#rmary separated &rom the
a"mshouse and became an independent institution supported by "oca" ta8 money.
3t the same time( private charity hospita"s began to deve"op. 'oth private and
pub"ic hospita"s provided main"y &ood and she"ter &or the impoverished sic$( since
there was "itt"e that medicine cou"d actua""y do to cure i""ness( and the midd"e
c"ass was treated at home by private physicians.
Jate in the nineteenth century( the private charity hospita" began trying to
attract midd"e-c"ass patients. 3"though the depression o& 1890 stimu"ated the
growth o& charitab"e institutions and an e8panding urban popu"ation became
dependent on assistance( there was a dec"ine in private contributions to these
organi+ations which &orced them to "oo$ to "oca" government &or #nancia" support.
ince private institutions had a"so "ost bene&actors= they began to charge patients.
2n order to attract midd"e-c"ass patients( private institutions provided services and
amenities that distinguished between paying and non-paying patients and made
the hospita" a desirab"e p"ace &or private physicians to treat their own patients. 3s
paying patients became more necessary to the surviva" o& the private hospita"(
the pub"ic hospita"s s"ow"y became the on"y p"ace &or the poor to get treatment.
'y the end o& the nineteenth century( cities were reimbursing private hospita"s &or
their care o& indigent patients and the pub"ic hospita"s remained dependent on the
ta8 do""ars.
The advent o& private hospita" hea"th insurance( which provided midd"e-c"ass
patients with the purchasing power to pay &or private hospita" services(
guaranteed the private hospita" a regu"ar source o& income. 9rivate hospita"s
restricted themse"ves to revenue-generating patients( "eaving the pub"ic hospita"s
to care &or the poor. 3"though pub"ic hospita"s continued to provide services &or
patients with communicab"e diseases and outpatient and emergency services( the
'"ue %ross p"ans deve"oped around the needs o& the private hospita"s and the
inpatients they served. Thus( reimbursement &or ambu"atory care has been
minima" under most '"ue %ross p"ans( and provision o& outpatient care has not
been a ma5or &unction o& the private hospita"( in part because private patients can
a1ord to pay &or the services o& private physicians. 3dditiona""y( since ;or"d ;ar
22( there has been a tremendous inDu8 o& &edera" money into private medica"
schoo"s and the hospita"s associated with them. :urther( "arge private medica"
centers with e8pensive research e-uipment and programs have attracted the best
GMAT 161
administrators( physicians( and researchers. 3s a resu"t o& the greater resources
avai"ab"e to the private medica" centers( pub"ic hospita"s have increasing
prob"ems attracting high"y -ua"i#ed research and medica" personne". ;ith the
mainstream o& hea"th care #rm"y estab"ished in the private medica" sector( the
pub"ic hospita" has become a >dumping ground.?
1. According to the passage/ the 'ery first pri'ate hospitals
(A) de'eloped from almshouse infirmaries
(B) pro'ided better care than public infirmaries
(C) were established mainly to ser'ice the poor
() were supported by go'ernment re'enues
(#) catered primarily to the middle(class patients
2. 3t can be inferred that the author belie'es the differences that currently e$ist
between public and pri'ate hospitals are primarily the result of
(A) political considerations
(B) economic factors
(C) ethical concerns
() legislati'e re"uirements
(#) technological de'elopments
.. 3t can be inferred that the growth of pri'ate health insurance
(A) relie'ed local go'ernments of the need to fund public hospitals
(B) guaranteed that the poor would ha'e access to medical care
(C) forced middle(class patients to use public hospitals
() prompted the closing of many charitable institutions
(#) reinforced the distinction between public and pri'ate hospitals
0. &hich of the following would be the most logical topic for the author to introduce
in the ne$t paragraph%
(A) A plan to impro'e the "uality of public hospitals
(B) An analysis of the profit structure of health insurance companies
(C) A proposal to raise ta$es on the middle class
() A discussion of recent de'elopments in medical technology
(#) A list of the sub<ects studied by students in medical school
1. The author4s primary concern is to
(A) describe the financial structure of the healthcare industry
(B) demonstrate the importance of go'ernment support for health(care institutions
(C) critici!e wealthy institutions for refusing to pro'ide ser'ices to the poor
() identify the historical causes of the di'ision between pri'ate and public
162 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
hospitals
(#) praise public hospitals for their willingness to pro'ide health care for the poor
2. The author cites all of the following as factors contributing to the decline of public
hospitals #DC#@T.
(A) Bo'ernment money was used to subsidi!e pri'ate medical schools and
hospitals to the detriment of public hospitals.
(B) @ublic hospitals are not able to compete with pri'ate institutions for top flight
managers and doctors.
(C) Karge pri'ate medical centers ha'e better research facilities and more
e$tensi'e research programs than public hospitals.
() @ublic hospitals accepted the responsibility for treating patients with certain
diseases.
(#) Blue Cross insurance co'erage does not reimburse subscribers for medical
e$penses incurred in a public hospital.
-. The author4s attitude toward public hospitals can best be described as
(A) contemptuous and pre<udiced
(B) apprehensi'e and distrustful
(C) concerned and understanding
() enthusiastic and supporti'e
(#) unsympathetic and annoyed
6. The author implies that any outpatient care pro'ided by a hospital is
(A) paid for by pri'ate insurance
(B) pro'ided in lieu of treatment by a pri'ate physician
(C) supplied primarily by pri'ate hospitals
() a source of re'enue for public hospitals
(#) no longer pro'ided by hospitals/ public or pri'ate
,. &hich of the following titles best describes the content of the passage%
(A) @ublic 'ersus @ri'ate )ospitalsE A Competiti'e ?ismatch
(B) )istorical and #conomic >actors in the ecline of the @ublic )ospital
(C) A Comparison of the Nuality of Care @ro'ided in @ublic and @ri'ate )ospitals
() A @roposal for =e'amping the )ealth eli'ery ;er'ices ;ector of the
#conomy
(#) #conomic >actors That Contribute to the 3nability of the @oor to Bet Ade"uate
Care
Passage 70 (7/22)
The +ational ecurity "ct o& 19M7 created a nationa" mi"itary estab"ishment
GMAT 16.
headed by a sing"e ecretary o& Ke&ense. The "egis"ation had been a year-and-a-
ha"& in the ma$ing!beginning when 9resident Truman #rst recommended that the
armed services be reorgani+ed into a sing"e department. Kuring that period the
9resident6s concept o& a uni#ed armed service was torn apart and put bac$
together severa" times( the #na" measure to emerge &rom %ongress being a
compromise. Bost o& the opposition to the bi"" came &rom the ,avy and its
numerous civi"ian spo$esmen( inc"uding ecretary o& the ,avy Cames :orresta". 2n
support o& uni#cation (and a separate air &orce that was part o& the uni#cation
pac$age) were the 3rmy air &orces( the 3rmy( and( most important"y( the 9resident
o& the United tates.
9assage o& the bi"" did not bring an end to the bitter interservice disputes.
Rather than uni&y( the act served on"y to &ederate the mi"itary services. 2t neither
ha"ted the rapid demobi"i+ation o& the armed &orces that &o""owed ;or"d ;ar 22 nor
brought to the new nationa" mi"itary estab"ishment the "oya"ties o& o*cers
steeped in the traditions o& the separate services. 3t a time when the ba"ance o&
power in @urope and 3sia was rapid"y shi&ting( the services "ac$ed any precise
statement o& United tates &oreign po"icy &rom the ,ationa" ecurity %ounci" on
which to base &uture programs. The services bic$ered unceasing"y over their
respective ro"es and missions( a"ready comp"icated by the oviet nuc"ear
capabi"ity that &or the #rst time made the United tates sub5ect to devastating
attac$. ,ot even the appointment o& :orresta" as :irst ecretary o& Ke&ense
a""ayed the suspicions o& nava" o*cers and their supporters that the ro"e o& the
U.. ,avy was threatened with permanent ec"ipse. 'e&ore the war o& words died
down( :orresta" himse"& was driven to resignation and then suicide.
'y 19M8( the United tates mi"itary estab"ishment was &orced to ma$e do with
a budget appro8imate"y 10 percent o& what it had been at its wartime pea$.
Beanwhi"e( the cost o& weapons procurement was rising geometrica""y as the
nation came to put more and more re"iance on the atomic bomb and its de"ivery
systems. These two &actors inevitab"y made adversaries o& the ,avy and the 3ir
:orce as the batt"e between advocates o& the '-7L and the supercarrier so amp"y
demonstrates. Eiven severe #sca" restraints on the one hand( and on the other
the nation6s increasing re"iance on strategic nuc"ear deterrence( the conDict
between these two services over ro"es and missions was essentia""y a contest over
s"ices o& an ever-diminishing pie.
Iet i& in the end neither service was the obvious victor( the princip"e o& civi"ian
dominance over the mi"itary c"ear"y was. 2& there had ever been any danger that
the United tates mi"itary estab"ishment might e8p"oit( to the detriment o& civi"ian
contro"( the goodwi"" it en5oyed as a resu"t o& its victories in ;or"d ;ar 22( that
danger disappeared in the interservice animosities engendered by the batt"e over
uni#cation.
1. The author makes all of the following points about the 9ational ;ecurity Act of
1,0- #DC#@T
160 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(A) 3t pro'ided for a single ;ecretary of efense.
(B) The legislation that came out of Congress was a compromise measure.
(C) The legislation was initially proposed by @resident Truman.
() The 9a'y opposed the bill that e'entually became law.
(#) The bill was passed to help the nation4s demobili!ation effort.
2. &hich of the following best describes the tone of the selection%
(A) Analytical and confident
(B) =esentful and defensi'e
(C) 8b<ecti'e and speculati'e
() Tentati'e and skeptical
(#) @ersuasi'e and cynical
.. According to the passage/ the interser'ice strife that followed unification occurred
primarily between the
(A) Army and Army air forces
(B) Army and 9a'y
(C) Army air forces and 9a'y
() 9a'y and Army
(#) Air >orce and 9a'y
0. 3t can be inferred from the passage that >orrestal4s appointment as ;ecretary of
efense was e$pected to
(A) placate members of the 9a'y
(B) result in decreased le'els of defense spending
(C) outrage ad'ocates of the Army air forces
() win Congressional appro'al of the unification plan
(#) make >orrestal a @residential candidate against Truman
1. According to the passage/ @resident Truman supported which of the following%%
3. #limination of the 9a'y
33. A unified military ser'ice
333. #stablishment of a separate air force
(A) 3 only
(B) 33 only
(C) 3 and 33 only
() 33 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
2. &ith which of the following statements about defense unification would the author
most likely agree%
GMAT 161
(A) :nification ultimately undermined :nited ;tates military capability by inciting
interser'ice ri'alry.
(B) The unification legislation was necessitated by the drastic decline in
appropriations for the military ser'ices.
(C) Although the unification was not entirely successful/ it had the une$pected
result of ensuring ci'ilian control of the military.
() 3n spite of the attempted unification/ each ser'ice was still able to pursue its
own ob<ecti'es without interference from the other branches.
(#) :nification was in the first place unwarranted and in the second place
ineffecti'e.
-. According to the selection/ the political situation following the passage of the
9ational ;ecurity Act of 1,0- was characteri!ed by all of the following #DC#@T
(A) a shifting balance of power in #urope and in Asia
(B) fierce interser'ice ri'alries
(C) lack of strong leadership by the 9ational ;ecurity Council
() shrinking postwar military budgets
(#) a lame(duck @resident who was unable to unify the legislature
6. The author cites the resignation and suicide of >orrestal in order to
(A) underscore the bitterness of the interser'ice ri'alry surrounding the passage of
the National Security Act of 1,0-
(B) demonstrate that the 9a'y e'entually emerged as the dominant branch of
ser'ice after the passage of the National Security Act of 1,0-
(C) suggest that the nation would be better ser'ed by a unified armed ser'ice under
a single command
() pro'ide an e$ample of a military leader who preferred to ser'e his country in
war rather than in peace
(#) persuade the reader that >orrestal was a 'ictim of political opportunists and an
unscrupulous press
,. The author is primarily concerned with
(A) discussing the influence of personalities on political e'ents
(B) describing the administration of a powerful leader
(C) critici!ing a piece of legislation
() analy!ing a political de'elopment
(#) suggesting methods for controlling the military
Passage 71 (8/22)
'ehavior is one o& two genera" responses avai"ab"e to endothermic (warm-
162 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
b"ooded) species &or the regu"ation o& body temperature( the other being innate
(reDe8ive) mechanisms o& heat production and heat "oss. )uman beings re"y
primari"y on the #rst to provide a hospitab"e therma" microc"imate &or themse"ves(
in which the trans&er o& heat between the body and the environment is
accomp"ished with minima" invo"vement o& innate mechanisms o& heat production
and "oss. Thermoregu"atory behavior anticipates hyperthermia( and the organism
ad5usts its behavior to avoid becoming hyperthermicA it removes "ayers o&
c"othing( it goes &or a coo" swim( etc. The organism can a"so respond to changes in
the temperature o& the body core( as is the case during e8ercise= but such
responses resu"t &rom the direct stimu"ation o& thermoreceptors distributed wide"y
within the centra" nervous system( and the abi"ity o& these mechanisms to he"p
the organism ad5ust to gross changes in its environment is "imited.
Unti" recent"y it was assumed that organisms respond to microwave radiation
in the same way that they respond to temperature changes caused by other &orms
o& radiation. 3&ter a""( the argument runs( microwaves are radiation and heat body
tissues. This theory ignores the &act that the stimu"us to a behaviora" response is
norma""y a temperature change that occurs at the sur&ace o& the organism. The
thermoreceptors that prompt behaviora" changes are "ocated within the #rst
mi""imeter o& the s$in6s sur&ace( but the energy o& a microwave #e"d may be
se"ective"y deposited in deep tissues( e1ective"y bypassing these
thermoreceptors( particu"ar"y i& the #e"d is at near-resonant &re-uencies. The
resu"ting temperature pro#"e may we"" be a $ind o& reverse therma" gradient in
which the deep tissues are warmed more than those o& the sur&ace. ince the heat
is not conducted outward to the sur&ace to stimu"ate the appropriate receptors(
the organism does not >appreciate? this stimu"ation in the same way that it
>appreciates? heating and coo"ing o& the s$in. 2n theory( the interna" organs o& a
human being or an anima" cou"d be -uite "itera""y coo$ed we""-done be&ore the
anima" even rea"i+es that the ba"ance o& its thermomicroc"imate has been
disturbed.
Unti" a &ew years ago( microwave irradiations at e-uiva"ent p"ane-wave power
densities o& about 100 m;Pcm
4
were considered une-uivoca""y to produce
>therma"? e1ects= irradiations within the range o& 10 to 100 m;Pcm
4
might or
might not produce >therma"? e1ects= whi"e e1ects observed at power densities
be"ow 10 m;Pcm
4
were assumed to be >nontherma"? in nature. @8periments have
shown this to be an oversimp"i#cation( and a recent report suggests that #e"ds as
wea$ as 1 m;Pcm
4
can be thermogenic. ;hen the heat generated in the tissues
by an imposed radio &re-uency (p"us the heat generated by metabo"ism) e8ceeds
the heat-"oss capabi"ities o& the organism( the thermoregu"atory system has been
compromised. Iet surprising"y( not "ong ago( an increase in the interna" body
temperature was regarded mere"y as >evidence? o& a therma" e1ect.
1. The author is primarily concerned with
(A) showing that beha'ior is a more effecti'e way of controlling bodily
GMAT 16-
temperature than innate mechanisms
(B) critici!ing researchers who will not discard their theories about the effects of
microwa'e radiation on organisms
(C) demonstrating that effects of microwa'e radiation are different from those of
other forms of radiation
() analy!ing the mechanism by which an organism maintains its bodily
temperature in a changing thermal en'ironment
(#) discussing the importance of thermoreceptors in the control of the internal
temperature of an organism
2. The author makes which of the following points about innate mechanisms for heat
production%
3. They are go'erned by thermoreceptors inside the body of the organism rather
than at the surface.
33. They are a less effecti'e means of compensating for gross changes in
temperature than beha'ioral strategies.
333. They are not affected by microwa'e radiation.
(A) 3 only
(B) 3 and 33 only
(C) 3 and 333 only
() 33 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
.. &hich of the following would be the most logical topic for the author to take up in
the paragraph following the final paragraph of the selection%
(A) A suggestion for new research to be done on the effects of microwa'es on
animals and human beings
(B) An analysis of the differences between microwa'e radiation
(C) A proposal that the use of microwa'e radiation be prohibited because it is
dangerous
() A sur'ey of the literature on the effects of microwa'e radiation on human
beings
(#) A discussion of the strategies used by 'arious species to control hyperthermia
0. The author4s strategy in lines .,(02 is to
(A) introduce a hypothetical e$ample to dramati!e a point
(B) propose an e$periment to test a scientific hypothesis
(C) cite a case study to illustrate a general contention
() produce a countere$ample to dispro'e an opponent4s theory
(#) speculate about the probable conse"uences of a scientific phenomenon
166 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
1. The author implies that the proponents of the theory that microwa'e radiation acts
on organisms in the same way as other forms of radiation based their conclusions
primarily on
(A) laboratory research
(B) unfounded assumption
(C) control group sur'eys
() deducti'e reasoning
(#) causal in'estigation
2. The tone of the passage can best be described as
(A) genial and con'ersational
(B) alarmed and disparaging
(C) facetious and cynical
() scholarly and noncommittal
(#) scholarly and concerned
-. The author is primarily concerned with
(A) pointing out weaknesses in a popular scientific theory
(B) de'eloping a hypothesis to e$plain a scientific phenomenon
(C) reporting on new research on the effects of microwa'e radiation
() critici!ing the research methods of earlier in'estigators
(#) clarifying ambiguities in the terminology used to describe a phenomenon
Passage 72 (9/22)
ince ;ou"d ;ar 22 considerab"e advances have been made in the area o&
hea"th-care services. These inc"ude better access to hea"th care (particu"ar"y &or
the poor and minorities)( improvements in physica" p"ants( and increased numbers
o& physicians and other hea"th personne". 3"" have p"ayed a part in the recent
improvement in "i&e e8pectancy. 'ut there is mounting criticism o& the "arge
remaining gaps in access( unbrid"ed cost inDation( the &urther &ragmentation o&
service( e8cessive indu"gence in waste&u" high-techno"ogy >gadgeteering(? and a
brea$down in doctor-patient re"ationships. 2n recent years proposed panaceas and
new programs( sma"" and "arge( have pro"i&erated at a &everish pace and
disappointments mu"tip"y at a"most the same rate. This has "ed to an increased
pessimism!>everything has been tried and nothing wor$s?!which sometimes
borders on cynicism or even nihi"ism.
2t is true that the automatic >pass through? o& rapid"y spira"ing costs to
government and insurance carriers( which was set in a pub"ici+ed environment o&
>the richest nation in the wor"d(? produced &or a time a sense o& un"imited
resources and a""owed to deve"op a mood whereby every practitioner and
institution cou"d >do his own thing? without undue concern &or the >Bedica"
GMAT 16,
%ommons.? The practice o& &u""-cost reimbursement encouraged capita"
investment and now the industry is overcapita"i+ed. Bany cities have hundreds o&
e8cess hospita" beds= hospita"s have pro"i&erated a superabundance o& high-
techno"ogy e-uipment= and structura" ostentation and "u8ury were the order o&
the day. 2n any given day( one-&ourth o& a"" community beds are vacant= e8pensive
e-uipment is underused or( worse( used unnecessari"y. %apita" investment brings
rapid"y rising operating costs.
Iet( in part( this pessimism derives &rom e8pecting too much o& hea"th care. 2t
must be rea"i+ed that care is( &or most peop"e( a pain&u" e8perience( o&ten
accompanied by &ear and unwe"come resu"ts. 3"though there is vast room &or
improvement( hea"th care wi"" a"ways retain some unp"easantness and &rustration.
Boreover( the capacities o& medica" science are "imited. )umpty Kumpty cannot
a"ways be put bac$ together again. Too many physicians are re"uctant to admit
their "imitations to patients= too many patients and &ami"ies are unwi""ing to accept
such rea"ities. ,or is it true that everything has been tried and nothing wor$s( as
shown by the prepaid group practice p"ans o& the Saiser :oundation and at 9uget
ound. 2n the main( however( such underta$ings have been drowned by a
veritab"e Dood o& pub"ic and private moneys which have supported and
encouraged the continuation o& conventiona" practices and subsidi+ed their
shortcomings on a massive( a"most unrestricted sca"e. @8cept &or the most
idea"istic and dedicated( there were no incentives to see$ change or to practice
se"&-restraint or &ruga"ity. 2n this atmosphere( it is not &air to condemn as &ai"ures
a"" attempted e8periments= it may be more accurate to say many never had a &air
tria".
1. The author implies that the Maiser >oundation and @uget ;ound plans (lines 0-(06)
differed from other plans by
(A) encouraging capital in'estment
(B) re"uiring physicians to treat the poor
(C) pro'iding incenti'es for cost control
() employing only dedicated and idealistic doctors
(#) relying primarily on public funding
2. The author mentions all of the following as conse"uences of full(cost
reimbursement #DC#@T
(A) rising operating costs
(B) underused hospital facilities
(C) o'ercapitali!ation
() o'erreliance on e$pensi'e e"uipment
(#) lack of ser'ices for minorities
.. The tone of the passage can best be described as
(A) light(hearted and amused
1,5 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(B) ob<ecti'e but concerned
(C) detached and unconcerned
() cautious but sincere
(#) enthusiastic and enlightened
0. According to the author/ the *pessimism+ mentioned at line .1 is partly
attributable to the fact that
(A) there has been little real impro'ement in health(care ser'ices
(B) e$pectations about health(care ser'ices are sometimes unrealistic
(C) large segments of the population find it impossible to get access to health(care
ser'ices
() ad'ances in technology ha'e made health care ser'ice unaffordable
(#) doctors are now less concerned with patient care
1. The author cites the prepaid plans in lines 02(06 as
(A) countere$amples to the claim that nothing has worked
(B) e$amples of health(care plans that were o'er(funded
(C) e'idence that health(care ser'ices are fragmented
() proof of the theory that no plan has been successful
(#) e$periments that yielded disappointing results
2. 3t can be inferred that the sentence *)umpty umpty cannot always be put back
together again+ means that
(A) the cost of health(care ser'ices will not decline
(B) some people should not become doctors
(C) medical care is not really essential to good health
() illness is often unpleasant and e'en painful
(#) medical science cannot cure e'ery ill
-. &ith which of the following descriptions of the system for the deli'ery of health(
care ser'ices would the author most likely agree%
(A) 3t is biased in fa'or of doctors and against patients.
(B) 3t is highly fragmented and completely ineffecti'e
(C) 3t has not embraced new technology rapidly enough
() 3t is generally effecti'e but can be impro'ed
(#) 3t discourages people from seeking medical care
6. &hich of the following best describes the logical structure of the selection%
(A) The third paragraph is intended as a refutation of the first and second
paragraphs.
(B) The second and third paragraphs e$plain and put into perspecti'e the points
GMAT 1,1
made in the first paragraph.
(C) The second and third paragraphs e$plain and put into perspecti'e the points
made in the first paragraph.
() The first paragraph describes a problem/ and the second and third paragraphs
present two horns of a dilemma.
(#) The first paragraph describes a problem/ the second its causes/ and the third a
possible solution.
,. The author4s primary concern is to
(A) critici!e physicians and health(care administrators for in'esting in techno(
logically ad'anced e"uipment
(B) e$amine some problems affecting deli'ery of health(care ser'ices and assess
their se'erity
(C) defend the medical community from charges that health(care has not impro'ed
since &orld &ar 33
() analy!e the reasons for the health(care industry4s inability to pro'ide "uality
care to all segments of the population
(#) describe the peculiar economic features of the health(care industry that are the
causes of spiraling medical costs
Passage 73 (10/22)
Kuring the Fictorian period( women writers were measured against a socia"
rather than a "iterary idea". )ence( it was wide"y thought that nove"s by women
shou"d be modest( re"igious( sensitive( gui"e"ess( and chaste( "i$e their authors.
Bany Fictorian women writers too$ e8ception to this be"ie&( however( resisting the
imposition o& non"iterary restrictions on their wor$. 9ub"ishers soon discovered
that the gent"est and most iddy"i$e &ema"e nove"ists were tough-minded and
re"ent"ess when their pro&essiona" integrity was at sta$e. Seen"y aware o& their
artistic responsibi"ities( these women writers wou"d not ma$e concessions to
secure commercia" success.
The 'rontes( Eeorge @"iot( @"i+abeth 'arrett 'rowning( and their "esser-$nown
contemporaries repudiated( in their pro&essiona" "ives( the courtesy that Fictorian
"adies might e8act &rom Fictorian gent"emen. Kesiring rigorous and impartia"
criticism( most women writers did not wish reviewers to be $ind to them i&
$indness meant over"oo$ing their "iterary wea$nesses or Dattering them on their
accomp"ishments simp"y because o& their se8. They had e8pected derisive
reviews= instead( they &ound themse"ves con&ronted with generous criticism( which
they considered condescending. @"i+abeth 'arrett 'rowning "abe"ed it >the
comparative respect which means... abso"ute scorn.?
:or their part( Fictorian critics were virtua""y obsessed with #nding the p"ace o&
the woman writer so as to 5udge her appropriate"y. Bany b"unt"y admitted that
1,2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
they thought !ane Eyre a masterpiece i& written by a man( shoc$ing or disgusting
i& written by a woman. Boreover( reactionary reviewers were -uic$ to associate an
independent heroine with care&u""y concea"ed revo"utionary doctrine= severa"
considered !ane Eyre a radica" &eminist document( as indeed it was. To %har"otte
'ronte( who had demanded dignity and independence without any revo"utionary
intent and who considered herse"& po"itica""y conservative( their criticism was an
a1ront. uch criticism bunched a"" women writers together rather than treating
them as individua" artists.
%har"otte 'ronte6s e8perience served as a warning to other women writers
about the pre5udices that immediate"y associated them with &eminists and others
thought to be po"itica" radica"s. 2rritated( and an8ious to detach themse"ves &rom a
group stereotype( many e8pressed re"ative"y conservative views on the
emancipation o& women (e8cept on the sub5ect o& women6s education) and
stressed their own domestic accomp"ishments. )owever( in identi&ying themse"ves
with women who had chosen the traditiona" career path o& marriage and
motherhood( these writers encountered sti"" another threat to their creativity.
Fictorian prudery rendered virtua""y a"" e8perience that was uni-ue"y &eminine
unprintab"e. ,o nineteenth-century woman dared to describe chi"dbirth( much "ess
her se8ua" passion. Ben cou"d not write about their se8ua" e8periences either( but
they cou"d write about sport( business( crime( and war!a"" activities &rom which
women were barred. ma"" wonder no woman produced a nove" "i$e ,ar and
Peace. ;hat is ama+ing is the sheer vo"ume o& #rst-rate prose and poetry that
Fictorian women did write.
1. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) refute the contention that no Cictorian woman writer produced a no'el like
War and Peace
(B) trace the historical relationship between radical feminist politics and the
Cictorian no'els written by women
(C) show how three Cictorian women writers responded to criticism of their no'els
() resol'e the apparent contradiction between Cictorian women writers4 literary
inno'ati'eness and their rather conser'ati'e social 'iews
(#) describe the discrepancy between Cictorian society4s e$pectations of women
writers and the e$pectations of the women writers themsel'es
2. According to the passage/ Cictorian women writers *would not make concessions+
(line 1.) to publishers primarily because they felt that such concessions would
(A) re"uire them to limit descriptions of uni"uely feminine e$periences
(B) compromise their artistic integrity
(C) make them 'ulnerable to stereotyping by critics
() pro'ide no guarantee that their works would en<oy commercial success
(#) go against the traditions of #nglish letters
GMAT 1,.
.. The passage suggests that Cictorian criticism of works by women writers was
(A) indulgent
(B) perfunctory
(C) resourceful
() timely
(#) apolitical
0. The author of the passage "uotes #li!abeth Barrett Browning (lines 26(2,) in order
to demonstrate that Cictorian women writers
(A) possessed both talent and literary creati'ity
(B) felt that their works were misunderstood
(C) refused to make artistic concessions
() feared derisi'e criticism
(#) resented condescending criticism
1. 3t can be inferred from the passage that Charlotte Bronte considered the criticisms
le'eled at Aane #yre by reactionary re'iewers *an affront+ (line 0.) primarily
because such criticism
(A) e$posed her carefully concealed re'olutionary doctrine to public scrutiny
(B) assessed the literary merit of the no'el on the basis of its author4s se$
(C) assumed that her portrayal of an independent woman represented re'olutionary
ideas
() labeled the no'el shocking and disgusting without <ust cause
(#) denied that the no'el was a literary masterpiece
2. &hich of the following statements best describes the *threat+ mentioned in line 1-
of the passage%
(A) Critics demanded to know the se$ of the author before passing <udgment on
the literary "uality of a no'el.
(B) &omen writers were pre'ented from describing in print e$periences about
which they had special knowledge.
(C) The reading public tended to prefer historical no'els to no'els describing
contemporary Kondon society.
() @ublishers were urging Cictorian women writers to publish under their own
names rather than under pseudonyms.
(#) &omen writers4 domestic responsibilities tended to take time away from their
writing.
-. The passage suggests that the attitude of Cictorian women writers toward being
grouped together by critics was most probably one of
(A) relief
1,0 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(B) indifference
(C) amusement
() annoyance
(#) ambi'alence
6. 3t can be inferred from the passage that a Cictorian woman writer who did not
consider herself a feminist would most probably ha'e appro'ed of women4s
(A) entering the noncombat military
(B) entering the publishing business
(C) entering a uni'ersity
() <oining the stock e$change
(#) <oining a tennis club
,. The passage suggests that the literary creati'ity of Cictorian women writers could
ha'e been enhanced if
(A) women had been allowed to write about a broader range of sub<ects
(B) no'els of the period had been characteri!ed by greater stylistic and structural
ingenuity
(C) a reser'ed and decorous style had been a more highly 'alued literary ideal
() publishers had sponsored more new women no'elists
(#) critics had been kinder in re'iewing the works of women no'elists
Passage 74 (11/22)
3gricu"tura" progress provided the stimu"us necessary to set o1 economic
e8pansion in medieva" :rance. 3s "ong as those who wor$ed the "and were bare"y
ab"e to ensure their own subsistence and that o& their "and"ords( a"" other activities
had to be minima"( but when &ood surp"uses increased( it became possib"e to
re"ease more peop"e &or governmenta"( commercia"( re"igious and cu"tura" pursuits.
)owever( not a"" the &unds &rom the agricu"tura" surp"us were actua""y avai"ab"e
&or commercia" investment. Buch o& the surp"us( in the &orm o& &ood increases(
probab"y went to raise the subsistence "eve"= an additiona" amount( in the &orm o&
currency gained &rom the sa"e o& &ood( went into the roya" treasury to be used in
waging war. 3"though Jouis F22 o& :rance "evied a "ess crushing ta8 burden on his
sub5ects than did @ng"and6s )enry 22( Jouis F22 did spend great sums on an
unsuccess&u" crusade( and his vassa"s!both "ay and ecc"esiastic!too$ over
spending where their sovereign stopped. urp"us &unds were c"aimed both by the
%hurch and by &euda" "andho"ders( whereupon cathedra"s and cast"es
mushroomed throughout :rance.
The simu"taneous progress o& cathedra" bui"ding and( &or instance( vineyard
e8pansion in 'ordeau8 i""ustrates the very rea" competition &or avai"ab"e capita"
between the %hurch and commercia" interests= the &ormer produced inestimab"e
GMAT 1,1
mora" and artistic riches( but the "atter had a stronger immediate impact upon
gross nationa" product. Boreover( though a"" wars by de#nition are de&ensive( the
&re-uent crossings o& armies that "ived o1 the "and and impartia""y burned a"" the
huts and barns on their path consumed considerab"e resources.
ince demands on the agricu"tura" surp"us wou"d have varied &rom year to year(
we cannot precise"y ca"cu"ate their impact on the commercia" growth o& medieva"
:rance. 'ut we must bear that impact in mind when estimating the assets that
were "i$e"y to have been avai"ab"e &or investment. ,o doubt cast"e and cathedra"
bui"ding was not tota""y barren o& pro#t (&or the bui"ders( that is)( and it produced
intangib"e dividends o& materia" and mora" satis&action &or the community. @ven
wars handed bac$ a &ragment o& what they too$( at "east to a &ew. ti""( we cannot
p"ace on the same p"ane a primari"y destructive activity and a constructive one(
nor e8pect the same resu"ts &rom a new be"" tower as &rom a new water mi"".
3bove a""( medieva" :rance had "itt"e room &or investment over and above the
preservation o& "i&e. Eranted that war cost much "ess than it does today( that the
%hurch rendered a"" sorts o& educationa" and recreationa" services that were
unobtainab"e e"sewhere( and that government was &ar "ess demanding than is the
modern stateneverthe"ess( &or medieva" men and women( supporting
commercia" deve"opment re-uired considerab"e economic sacri#ce.
1. According to the passage/ agricultural re'enues in e$cess of the amount needed for
subsistence were used by medie'al kings to
(A) patroni!e the arts
(B) sponsor public recreation
(C) wage war
() build cathedrals
(#) fund public education
2. According to the passage/ which of the following was an important source of
re'enue in medie'al >rance%
(A) Cheese
(B) &ine
(C) &ool
() 8li'e oil
(#) Ceal
.. The passage suggests that which of the following would ha'e reduced the assets
immediately a'ailable for commercial in'estment in medie'al >rance%
3. =eno'ation of a large cathedral
33. A sharp increase in the birth rate
333. An in'asion of >rance by )enry 33
(A) 333 only
1,2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(B) 3 and 33 only
(C) 3 and 333 only
() 33 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
0. 3t can be inferred from the passage that more people could enter go'ernment and
the Church in medie'al >rance because
(A) the number of indi'idual landholdings in hea'ily agricultural areas was
beginning to increase
(B) an increase in the 'olume of international trade had brought an increase in the
population of cities
(C) a decrease in warfare had allowed the king to decrease the si!e of the army
() food producers could grow more food than they and their families needed to
sur'i'e
(#) landlords were prospering and thus were demanding a smaller percentage of
tenants4 annual yields
1. The author implies that the reason we cannot e$pect the same results from a new
bell tower as from a new water mill is that
(A) bell towers yield an intangible di'idend
(B) bell towers pro'ide material satisfaction
(C) water mills cost more to build than bell towers
() water mills di'ert funds from commerce
(#) water mills might well be destroyed by war
2. The author of the passage most probably bases his central argument on which of
the following theoretical assumptions often made by economists%
(A) ifferent people should be ta$ed in proportion to the benefit they can e$pect to
recei'e from public acti'ity.
(B) @erfect competition e$ists only in the case where no farmer/ merchant/ or
laborer controls a large enough share of the total market to influence market
price.
(C) A population wealthy enough to cut back its rate of consumption can funnel
the resulting sa'ings into the creation of capital.
() A full(employment economy must always/ to produce one good/ gi'e up
producing another good.
(#) There is a uni'ersal tendency for population/ unless checked by food supply/ to
increase in a geometric progression.
-. The author suggests that commercial e$pansion in medie'al >rance *re"uired
considerable economic sacrifice+ (lines 1,(25) primarily for which of the
following reasons%
GMAT 1,-
(A) Cathedrals cost more to build and rebuild than did castles.
(B) The numerous wars fought during the period left the royal treasury bankrupt.
(C) Kouis C33 le'ied a more crushing ta$ burden on his sub<ects than did )enry 33.
() Although much of the a'ailable surplus had been di'erted into 'ineyard
e$pansion/ the 'ineyards had not yet begun to produce.
(#) Although more food was being produced/ the subsistence le'el was not 'ery
far abo'e the minimum re"uired to sustain life.
6. The passage implies that which of the following yielded the lowest di'idend to
medie'al men and women relati'e to its cost%
(A) &arfare
(B) Cineyard e$pansion
(C) &ater mill construction
() Castle building
(#) Cathedral building
,. &hich of the following statements best e$presses the central idea of the passage%
(A) Commercial growth in medie'al >rance may be accurately computed by
calculating the number of castles and cathedrals built during the period.
(B) Competition between the Church and the feudal aristocracy for funds created
by agricultural surplus demonstrably slowed the economic growth of medie'al
>rance.
(C) espite such burdens as war and capital e$pansion by landholders/ commerce
in medie'al >rance e$panded steadily as the agricultural surplus increased.
() >unds actually a'ailable for commerce in medie'al >rance 'aried with the
demands placed on the agricultural surplus.
(#) The simultaneous progress of 'ineyard e$pansion and building in medie'al
>rance gi'es e'idence of a rapidly e$panding economy.
Passage 75 (12/22)
:or years scho"ars have contrasted s"avery in the United tates and in 'ra+i"(
stimu"ated by the &act that racia" patterns assumed such di1erent aspects in the
two countries a&ter emancipation. 'ra+i" never deve"oped a system o& rigid
segregation o& the sort that rep"aced s"avery in the United tates( and its racia"
system was Duid because its de#nition o& race was based as much on
characteristics such as economic status as on s$in co"or. Unti" recent"y( the most
persuasive e8p"anation &or these di1erences was that 9ortuguese institutions
especia""y the Roman %atho"ic church and Roman civi" "aw( promoted recognition
o& the s"ave6s humanity. The @ng"ish co"onists( on the other hand( constructed
their system o& s"avery out o& who"e c"oth. There were simp"y no precedents in
@ng"ish common "aw( and separation o& church and state barred 9rotestant c"ergy
1,6 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
&rom the ro"e that priests assumed in 'ra+i".
'ut the assumption that institutions a"one cou"d so power&u""y a1ect the history
o& two raw and ma""eab"e &rontier countries seems( on ree8amination( untenab"e.
Recent studies &ocus instead on a particu"ar set o& contrasting economic
circumstances and demographic pro#"es at signi#cant periods in the histories o&
the two countries. 9ersons o& mi8ed race -uic$"y appeared in both countries. 2n
the United tates they were considered to be '"ac$( a socia" de#nition that was
&easib"e because they were in the minority. 2n 'ra+i"( it was not &easib"e. Though
intermarriage was i""ega" in both countries( the "aws were unen&orceab"e in 'ra+i"
since ;hites &ormed a sma"" minority in an overwhe"ming"y '"ac$ popu"ation.
Banumission &or persons o& mi8ed race was a"so easier in 'ra+i"( particu"ar"y in the
nineteenth century when in the United tates it was hedged about with
di*cu"ties. :urthermore( a shortage o& s$i""ed wor$ers in 'ra+i" provided persons
o& mi8ed race with the opportunity to "earn cra&ts and trades( even be&ore genera"
emancipation( whereas in the United tates entry into these occupations was
b"oc$ed by ;hites su*cient"y numerous to #"" the posts. The conse-uence was
the deve"opment in 'ra+i" o& a "arge c"ass o& persons o& mi8ed race( pro#cient in
s$i""ed trades and cra&ts( who stood waiting as a community &or &reed s"aves to
5oin.
There shou"d be no i""usion that 'ra+i"ian society a&ter emancipation was co"or-
b"ind. Rather( the "arge popu"ation o& persons o& mi8ed race produced a racia"
system that inc"uded a third status( a bridge between the '"ac$ caste and the
;hite( which cou"d be traversed by means o& economic or inte""ectua"
achievement( marriage( or racia" heritage. The strict and sharp "ine between the
races so characteristic o& the United tates in the years immediate"y a&ter
emancipation was simp"y absent. ;ith the possib"e e8ception o& ,ew <r"eans( no
specia" >p"ace? deve"oped in the United tates &or persons o& mi8ed race. ad to
say( every pressure o& society wor$ed to prevent their attaining anything
appro8imating the economic and socia" position avai"ab"e to their counterparts in
'ra+i".
1. 3n the passage/ the author is primarily concerned with
(A) contrasting the systems of sla'ery that were established in Bra!il and in the
:nited ;tates
(B) critici!ing the arguments of those scholars who considered religion and law to
be the determinants of the systems of sla'ery in Bra!il and in the :nited ;tates
(C) describing the factors currently thought to be responsible for the differences in
the racial patterns that e'ol'ed in Bra!il and in the :nited ;tates
() ad'ocating further study of the differences between the racial systems that
de'eloped in Bra!il and in the :nited ;tates
(#) pointing out the factors that made the status of Blacks in the :nited ;tates
lower than that of Blacks in Bra!il
GMAT 1,,
2. According to the passage/ early scholars e$plained the differences between the
racial systems that de'eloped in the :nited ;tates and in Bra!il as the result of
which of the following factors%
(A) 3nstitutional
(B) emographic
(C) #conomic
() Beographical
(#) )istorical
.. 3n the conte$t in which it is found/ the phrase *constructed their system of sla'ery
out of whole cloth+ (lines 11(12) implies that the system of sla'ery established by
the #nglish settlers was
(A) based on fabrications and lies
(B) tailored to the settlers4 particular circumstances
(C) intended to ser'e the needs of a frontier economy
() de'eloped without direct influence from the settlers4 religion or legal system
(#) e'ol'ed without gi'ing recognition to the sla'e4s humanity
0. The author implies that the e$planation proposed by early scholars for the
differences between the systems of sla'ery in the :nited ;tates and in Bra!il is
(A) stimulating to historians and legal scholars
(B) more powerful than more recent e$planations
(C) persuasi'e in spite of minor deficiencies
() e$cessi'ely legalistic in its approach
(#) "uestionable in light of current scholarly work
1. The author mentions intermarriage/ manumission/ and the shortage of skilled
workers in Bra!il primarily in order to establish which of the following%
(A) The en'ironment in which Bra!il4s racial system de'eloped
(B) The influence of different legal and economic conditions in Bra!il and the
:nited ;tates on the life(style of persons of mi$ed race
(C) The origins of Bra!il4s large class of free skilled persons of mi$ed race
() The differences between treatment of sla'es in Bra!il and in the :nited ;tates
(#) The difficulties faced by persons of mi$ed race in the :nited ;tates/ as
compared to those in Bra!il
2. According to the passage/ Bra!ilian laws prohibiting intermarriage were
ineffecti'e because Bra!il had a
(A) @ortuguese Catholic heritage
(B) ;mall minority of whites
(C) Kiberal set of laws concerning manumission
255 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
() Karge number of freed sla'es
(#) ;hortage of people in the skilled crafts and trades
-. The use of "uotation marks around the word *place+ (line 1,) suggests that the
author intended to con'ey which of the following%
(A) An ambi'alent attitude toward the city of 9ew 8rleans
(B) A negati'e attitude toward the role of race in determining status in the :nited
;tates
(C) A critical comment about the maltreatment of persons of mi$ed race in the
:nited ;tates
() A double meaning/ indicating both a social status and a physical location
(#) An ambiguity/ referring to either the role persons of mi$ed race actually
played/ or the role they were assigned by the society
6. &ith which of the following statements regarding human beha'ior would the
author of the passage be most likely to agree%
(A) 8nly a fool or a political candidate would sing 'ery loudly the glories of the
institutions of &estern culture.
(B) Contact sportsQdisplacements of our abiding impulses to killQspeak of
essential human beha'ior more truthfully than all the theories of psychologists
and historians.
(C) >amily/ church/ political partyE these are the strong foundations of history and
human beha'ior.
() ?oney and its pursuitE an e$ploration of that theme will chart accurately the
de'elopment of ci'ili!ations and the determinants of human beha'ior.
(#) The circumstances in which humans find themsel'esQmore than treasured
beliefs or legal prescriptionsQmold human beha'ior.
Passage 76 (13/22)
Keserti#cation( the creation o& desert-"i$e conditions where none had e8isted
be&ore( is the resu"t o& the vagaries o& weather and c"imate or the
mismanagement o& the "and or( in most cases( some combination o& both. uch
eco"ogica" deterioration in the ahe" has been "in$ed in severa" ways to the
increased si+e o& "ivestoc$ herds. Kuring the #&teen years preceding 19L8( a
period o& e8treme"y &avorab"e rain&a""( the pastora"ists moved into the margina"
regions in the north with re"ative"y "arge herds. )owever( with the onset o& a
series o& dry years beginning at the end o& the rainy season in 19L7( the pastora"
popu"ations &ound themse"ves overta8ing very margina" range"ands( with the
resu"t that the nomads viewed themse"ves as victims o& a natura" disaster. The
mista$en idea that drought is an une8pected event has o&ten been used to e8cuse
the &act that "ong-range p"anning has &ai"ed to ta$e rain&a"" variabi"ity into account.
9eop"e b"ame the c"imate &or agricu"tura" &ai"ures in semiarid regions and ma$e it a
GMAT 251
scapegoat &or &au"ty popu"ation and agricu"tura" po"icies.
Keterioration and u"timate"y deserti#cation in the ahe" and in other
ecosystems can be combated on"y i& an eco"ogica""y rea"istic carrying capacity &or
the range"ands is determined. 3"though there appears to be widespread
agreement that such a determination wou"d be signi#cant( there has been "itt"e
agreement on how to ma$e operationa" the concept o& carrying capacity( de#ned
as the amount o& gra+ing stoc$ that the pasture can support without deterioration
o& either the pasture or the stoc$. hou"d the carrying capacity be geared to the
best( the average( or the poorest yearsG ;hich combination o& statistica"
measures wou"d be most meaning&u" &or the p"anning o& "ong-term deve"opment o&
range"andsG <n which variab"es shou"d such an assessment be based( vegetation(
rain&a""( soi"( ground and sur&ace water( or manageria" capabi"itiesG uch
inconc"usiveness within the scienti#c community( whi"e understandab"e( creates
con&usion &or the "and managers( who o&ten decide to ta$e no action or who
decide that a"" scienti#c suggestions are o& e-ua" weight and( there&ore(
indiscriminate"y choose any one o& those suggested. Eiven the downward spira" o&
"and deterioration( it becomes essentia" that an eco"ogica""y acceptab"e carrying
capacity be estab"ished and en&orced.
2t wi"" a"so be crucia" that "and managers $now what statistica" and -uasi-
statistica" measures actua""y meanA no sing"e number can ade-uate"y describe the
c"imate regime o& an arid or semiarid region. Jand managers must supp"ement
such terms as the >mean? with more in&ormative statistica" measures to
characteri+e ade-uate"y the variabi"ity o& the c"imate. The understanding o& this
high degree o& variabi"ity wi"" serve to remove one o& the ma5or obstac"es to
reso"ving the perennia" prob"ems o& the ahe" and o& other arid or semiarid
regions.
1. The author is primarily concerned with
(A) critici!ing a social attitude
(B) suggesting an approach to sol'ing a problem
(C) e$plaining the mechanics of a process
() defending the theories of ecological scientists
(#) establishing criteria for an e$periment
2. According to the passage/ which of the following contributed to the desertification
of the ;ahel%
3. The si!e of the li'estock herds gra!ing on the land
33. The "uality of the land in the ;ahel
333. The amount of rainfall after 1,2-
(A) 3 only
(B) 33 only
(C) 333 only
252 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
() 3 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
.. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the nomadic tribes who mo'ed into the
marginal regions of the ;ahel did 98T
(A) enlarge the si!e of their li'estock herds
(B) conser'e water after the drought began
(C) li'e in the ;ahel after 1,26
() e$pect a drastic change in weather conditions
(#) seek go'ernmental aid in o'ercoming drought conditions
0. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the concept of the carrying capacity of land
is
(A) still hypothetical rather than practical
(B) basically political rather than ecological
(C) independent of climatic conditions
() relati'ely unknown among ecologists
(#) generally misrepresented by ecologists
1. &hich of the following best states the author4s 'iew concerning the relationship
between the ecological scientist and the land manager%
(A) The scientist has not pro'ided the manager with clear guidelines that can be
used in regulating the producti'ity of land.
(B) The scientist has pro'ided theories that are too detailed for the manager to use
successfully.
(C) The scientist and the manager/ in attempting to regulate the use of semiarid
land/ ha'e ignored the traditional beha'ior patterns of pastoral communities.
() The manager has misunderstood and hence misapplied the suggestions of the
scientist.
(#) The manager has chosen from among the scientist4s suggestions those that are
economically rather than ecologically safe.
2. &ith which of the following statements concerning desertification would the
author be most likely to agree%
(A) 3t is the result of factors beyond the control of science.
(B) 3t is a problem largely affecting arid regions.
(C) 3t could be pre'ented if land managers understood statistics.
() 3t is not always the result of drastic climate changes alone.
(#) 3t is not attributable to faulty agricultural policies.
-. According to the passage/ a statistical description of the climate regime of an arid
or semiarid region would probably be
GMAT 25.
(A) misleading
(B) impossible
(C) comple$
() meaningless
(#) abstract
6. The tone of the passage can best be described as
(A) flippant
(B) ob<ecti'e
(C) aggressi'e
() apologetic
(#) unconcerned
Passage 77 (14/22)
The promise o& #nding "ong-term techno"ogica" so"utions to the prob"em o&
wor"d &ood shortages seems di*cu"t to &u"#"". Bany innovations that were once
heavi"y supported and pub"ici+ed( such as #sh-protein concentrate and protein
&rom a"gae grown on petro"eum substrates( have since &a""en by the wayside. The
proposa"s themse"ves were technica""y &easib"e( but they proved to be
economica""y unviab"e and to yie"d &ood products cu"tura""y unacceptab"e to their
consumers. Recent innovations such as opa-ue-4 mai+e( 3ntarctic $ri""( and the
wheat-rye hybrid tritica"e seem more promising( but it is too ear"y to predict their
u"timate &ate.
<ne characteristic common to unsuccess&u" &ood innovations has been that(
even with e8tensive government support( they o&ten have not been
techno"ogica""y adapted or cu"tura""y acceptab"e to the peop"e &or whom they had
been deve"oped. 3 success&u" new techno"ogy( there&ore( must #t the entire
sociocu"tura" system in which it is to #nd a p"ace. ecurity o& crop yie"d(
practica"ity o& storage( pa"atabi"ity( and costs are much more signi#cant than had
previous"y been rea"i+ed by the advocates o& new techno"ogies. :or e8amp"e( the
better protein -ua"ity in torti""as made &rom opa-ue-4 mai+e wi"" be o& on"y "imited
bene#t to a &ami"y on the margin o& subsistence i& the new mai+e is not cu"tura""y
acceptab"e or is more vu"nerab"e to insects.
The adoption o& new &ood techno"ogies depends on more than these technica"
and cu"tura" considerations= economic &actors and governmenta" po"icies a"so
strong"y inDuence the u"timate success o& any innovation. @conomists in the
3ng"o-3merican tradition have ta$en the "ead in investigating the economics o&
techno"ogica" innovation. 3"though they e8aggerate in c"aiming that pro#tabi"ity is
the $ey &actor guiding technica" change!they comp"ete"y disregard the
substantia" e1ects o& cu"ture!they are correct in stressing the importance o&
pro#ts. Bost techno"ogica" innovations in agricu"ture can be &u""y used on"y by
250 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
"arge "andowners and are on"y adopted i& these pro#t-oriented business peop"e
be"ieve that the innovation wi"" increase their incomes. Thus( innovations that
carry high rewards &or big agribusiness groups wi"" be adopted even i& they harm
segments o& the popu"ation and reduce the avai"abi"ity o& &ood in a country.
:urther( shou"d a new techno"ogy promise to a"ter substantia""y the pro#ts and
"osses associated with any production system( those with economic power wi""
strive to maintain and improve their own positions. ince "arge segments o& the
popu"ations o& many deve"oping countries are c"ose to the subsistence margin and
essentia""y power"ess( they tend to be the "osers in this system un"ess they are
aided by a government po"icy that ta$es into account the needs o& a"" sectors o&
the economy. There&ore( a"though technica" advances in &ood production and
processing wi"" perhaps be needed to ensure &ood avai"abi"ity( meeting &ood needs
wi"" depend much more on e-ua"i+ing economic power among the various
segments o& the popu"ations within the deve"oping countries themse"ves.
1. &hich of the following best describes the organi!ation of the first paragraph%
(A) A suggestion is made and arguments in its fa'or are pro'ided.
(B) A criticism is le'ied and an alternati'e proposal is suggested.
(C) A generali!ation is ad'anced and supporting e'idence is pro'ided.
() An e$ample is analy!ed and general conclusions are deri'ed from it.
(#) A position is stated and e'idence "ualifying it is pro'ided.
2. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author was unable to assess the truth of
which of the following statements about opa"ue(2 mai!e%
(A) 3t is a more recent inno'ation than the use of fish(protein concentrate.
(B) 3t can be stored as easily as other 'arieties of mai!e.
(C) 3t is more popular than the wheat(rye hybrid triticale.
() 3t produces tortillas of greater protein content than do other 'arieties of mai!e.
(#) 3t is more susceptible to insects than are other 'arieties of mai!e.
.. The passage mentions all of the following as factors important to the success of a
new food crop #DC#@T the
(A) practicality of storage of the crop
(B) security of the crop yield
(C) "uality of the crop4s protein
() cultural acceptability of the crop
(#) costs of production of the crop
0. According to the passage/ the use of Antarctic krill as a food is an inno'ation
whose future is
(A) basically gloomy but still uncertain
(B) somewhat promising but 'ery tentati'e
GMAT 251
(C) generally bright and 'irtually assured
() tied to the success of opa"ue(2 mai!e
(#) endangered by certain technical problems
1. The author suggests that/ in most de'eloping countries/ e$tensi'e go'ernment
inter'ention accompanying the introduction of a food inno'ation will
(A) usually be sufficient to guarantee the financial success of the inno'ation
(B) be necessary to ensure that the benefits of the inno'ation will be spread
throughout the society
(C) pro'ide the incenti'e necessary to con'ince landowners to try the inno'ation
() generally cost the country more than will be earned by the inno'ation
(#) normally occur only when the inno'ation fa'ors large landowners
2. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author would be most likely to agree
with which of the following statements concerning the solution to food shortages
in de'eloping countries%
(A) The introduction of technological inno'ations to reap profits might alle'iate
food shortages to some degree/ but any permanent solution can come only
from effecti'e go'ernmental inter'ention in the socioeconomic system.
(B) 3nno'ations in agricultural technology will be of little help/ and perhaps e'en
harmful/ in combating food shortages/ no matter how well designed they are to
suit local circumstances.
(C) Kong(lasting solutions will not be found until large landowners adopt
impro'ements that will make production more efficient and thus more
profitable.
() 3n order to achie'e a meaningful solution to the problem of food shortages/ the
tastes of the general population must be educated to accept the new food
products of modern agricultural technology.
(#) Although a short(term solution to food shortages can be achie'ed by importing
food from other countries/ a long(term solution re"uires a restructuring of the
countries4 socioeconomic system.
-. The first paragraph of the passage best supports which of the following
statements%
(A) Too much publicity can harm the chances for the success of a new food
inno'ation.
(B) 3nno'ations that produce culturally acceptable crops will generally be
successful.
(C) A food(product inno'ation can be technically feasible and still not be
economically 'iable.
() 3t is difficult to decide whether a food(product inno'ation has actually been a
success.
252 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(#) Triticale will not be a success as a food source for most de'eloping countries.
6. The author pro'ides a sustained argument to support which of the following
assertions%
(A) @rofitability is neither necessary nor sufficient for a new technology to be
adopted.
(B) @rofitability is the key factor guiding technological change.
(C) #conomic factors and go'ernmental policies strongly influence the ultimate
success of any inno'ation.
() 8pa"ue(2 mai!e is of limited benefit to poor families in de'eloping countries.
(#) 3nno'ations carrying high rewards for big agribusiness groups harm the poor.
,. The primary purpose of the passage is to discuss the
(A) means of assessing the e$tent of the world food shortage
(B) difficulties of applying technological solutions to the problem of food
shortages
(C) costs of introducing a new food technology into a de'eloping country
() Anglo(American bias of those trying to alle'iate world food problems
(#) nature of the new technological inno'ations in the area of food production
Passage 78 (15/22)
2n Roman times( de&eated enemies were genera""y put to death as crimina"s &or
having o1ended the emperor o& Rome. 2n the Bidd"e 3ges( however( the practice
o& ransoming( or returning prisoners in e8change &or money( became common.
Though some saw this custom as a step towards a more humane society( the
primary reasons behind it were economic rather than humanitarian.
2n those times( ru"ers had on"y a "imited abi"ity to raise ta8es. They cou"d
neither &orce their sub5ects to #ght nor pay them to do so. The promise o& materia"
compensation in the &orm o& goods and ransom was there&ore the on"y way o&
inducing combatants to participate in a war. 2n the Bidd"e 3ges( the predominant
incentive &or the individua" so"dier to participate in a war was the e8pectation o&
spoi"s. 3"though co""ecting ransom c"ear"y brought #nancia" gain( $eeping a
prisoner and arranging &or his e8change had its costs. %onse-uent"y( severa"
procedures were devised to reduce transaction costs.
<ne such device was a ru"e asserting that the prisoner had to assess his own
va"ue. This compe""ed the prisoner to estab"ish a va"ue without much distortion=
indicating too "ow a va"ue wou"d increase the captive6s chances o& being $i""ed(
whi"e indicating too high a va"ue wou"d either ruin him #nancia""y or create a
prohibitive"y e8pensive ransom that wou"d a"so resu"t in death.
3 second means o& reducing costs was the practice o& re"easing a prisoner on
his word o& honor. This procedure was advantageous to both parties since the
GMAT 25-
captor was re"ieved o& the e8pense o& $eeping the prisoner whi"e the captive had
&reedom o& movement. The captor a"so bene#ted #nancia""y by having his captive
raise the ransom himse"&. This >paro"e? was a viab"e practice since the re"eased
prisoner ris$ed recapture or reta"iation against his &ami"y. Boreover( in medieva"
society( brea$ing one6s word had serious conse-uences. ;hen( &or e8amp"e( Sing
:rancois 2 bro$e his word to the @mperor %har"es F in 1/4/( his reputation su1ered
immense"y.
3 third method o& reducing costs was the use o& specia"i+ed institutions to
estab"ish contact between the two parties. Two types o& institutions emergedA
pro&essiona" dea"ers who acted as bro$ers( and members o& re"igious orders who
acted as neutra" intermediaries. Kea"ers advanced money &or the ransom and
charged interest on the "oan. Two o& the re"igious orders that became
intermediaries were the Bercedarians and the Trinitarians( who between them
arranged the ransom o& near"y one mi""ion prisoners.
1. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) discuss the economic basis of the medie'al practice of e$changing prisoners
for ransom
(B) e$amine the history of the treatment of prisoners of war
(C) emphasi!e the importance of a warrior4s *word of honor+ during the ?iddle
Ages
() e$plore three ways of reducing the costs of ransom
(#) demonstrate why warriors of the ?iddle Ages looked forward to battles
2. 3t can be inferred from the passage that a medie'al soldier
(A) was less likely to kill captured members of opposing armies than was a soldier
of the =oman #mpire
(B) was similar to a 25th(century terrorist in that he operated on a basically
independent le'el and was moti'ated solely by economic incenti'es
(C) had few economic options and chose to fight because it was the only way to
earn an ade"uate li'ing
() was moti'ated to spare prisoners4 li'es by humanitarian rather than economic
ideals
(#) had no respect for his captured enemies since capti'es were typically regarded
as weak
.. &hich of the following best describes the change in policy from e$ecuting
prisoners in =oman times to ransoming prisoners in the ?iddle Ages%
(A) The emperors of =ome demanded more respect than did medie'al rulers and
thus =oman sub<ects went to greater lengths to defend their nation.
(B) 3t was a reflection of the lesser degree of direct control medie'al rulers had
o'er their sub<ects.
256 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(C) 3t became a show of strength and honor for warriors of the ?iddle Ages to be
able to capture and return their enemies.
() ?edie'al soldiers were not as humanitarian as their ransoming practices might
ha'e indicated.
(#) ?edie'al soldiers demonstrated more concern about economic policy than did
their =oman counterparts.
0. The author uses the phrase *without much distortion+ (line 22) in order
(A) to indicate that prisoners would fairly assess their worth
(B) to emphasi!e the important role medie'al prisoners played in determining
whether they should be ransomed
(C) to e$plain how prisoners often paid more than an appropriate ransom in order
to increase their chances for sur'i'al
() suggest that captors and capti'es often had understanding relationships
(#) to show that when in prison a soldier4s 'iew could become distorted
1. All of the following are mentioned in the passage as actions that were taken to
ensure that ransoming prisoners was a profitable operation #DC#@T
(A) each prisoner was made to designate the amount of ransom to be paid for his
return
(B) prisoners were released on the condition that they guaranteed that their
ransoms would be paid
(C) professional intermediaries were employed to facilitate the smooth e$change
of prisoner and ransom at a price to the prisoner
() religious orders acted as impartial mediators by arranging the trade(off of
ransom and prisoner
(#) medie'al rulers promised to aid soldiers in their efforts to collect ransom
2. 3n the author4s opinion/ a soldier4s decision to spare an ad'ersary4s life be linked
historically to
(A) the economic relationship of the warring states
(B) the case with which a soldier could capture and subse"uently imprison his
enemy
(C) the economic gain from taking an enemy prisoner rather than killing him in
combat
() technological ad'ances in weaponry
(#) the desire for soldiers to uphold their word of honor
-. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the process of arranging ransoms during
medie'al times was
(A) more lucrati'e for medie'al soldiers and kings than the winning of spoils
(B) a procedure so costly that it was not economically worthwhile for the captors
GMAT 25,
(C) futile for the capti'e since he risked recapture e'en after his ransom was paid
() a potential source of income for others aside from the captors of the prisoners
(#) handled only through ?ercedarian or Trinitarian intermediaries
6. &hich of the following best describes the organi!ation of the passage%
(A) An assertion is made/ briefly e$plained/ and then se'eral e$amples that refute
the assertion are gi'en.
(B) A hypothesis is offered/ carefully "ualified/ and then supporting data is
analy!ed.
(C) A generally accepted historical 'iewpoint is presented in order to introduce
discussion of its strengths and limitations.
() A historical analysis is made of a phenomenon and supporting details are
offered.
(#) A historical dispute is introduced/ and the case for one side is e$amined in
detail.
Passage 79 (16/22)
2n most earth-ua$es the @arth6s crust crac$s "i$e porce"ain. tress bui"ds up
unti" a &racture &orms at a depth o& a &ew $i"ometers and the crust s"ips to re"ieve
the stress. ome earth-ua$es( however( ta$e p"ace hundreds o& $i"ometers down
in the @arth6s mant"e( where high pressure ma$es roc$ so ducti"e that it Dows
instead o& crac$ing( even under stress severe enough to de&orm it "i$e putty. )ow
can there be earth-ua$es at such depthsG
That such deep events do occur has been accepted on"y since 1947( when the
seismo"ogist Siyoo ;adati convincing"y demonstrated their e8istence. 2nstead o&
comparing the arriva" times o& seismic waves at di1erent "ocations( as ear"ier
researchers had done. ;adati re"ied on a time di1erence between the arriva" o&
primary (9) waves and the s"ower secondary () waves. 'ecause 9 and waves
trave" at di1erent but &air"y constant speeds( the interva" between their arriva"s
increases in proportion to the distance &rom the earth-ua$e &ocus( or rupture
point.
:or most earth-ua$es( ;adati discovered( the interva" was -uite short near the
epicenter( the point on the sur&ace where sha$ing is strongest. :or a &ew events(
however( the de"ay was "ong even at the epicenter. ;adati saw a simi"ar pattern
when he ana"y+ed data on the intensity o& sha$ing. Bost earth-ua$es had a sma""
area o& intense sha$ing( which wea$ened rapid"y with increasing distance &rom the
epicenter( but others were characteri+ed by a "ower pea$ intensity( &e"t over a
broader area. 'oth the 9- interva"s and the intensity patterns suggested two
$inds o& earth-ua$esA the more common sha""ow events( in which the &ocus "ay
5ust under the epicenter( and deep events( with a &ocus severa" hundred
$i"ometers down.
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The -uestion remainedA how can such -ua$es occur( given that mant"e roc$ at
a depth o& more than /0 $i"ometers is too ducti"e to store enough stress to
&ractureG ;adati6s wor$ suggested that deep events occur in areas (now ca""ed
;adati-'enio1 +ones) where one crusta" p"ate is &orced under another and
descends into the mant"e. The descending roc$ is substantia""y coo"er than the
surrounding mant"e and hence is "ess ducti"e and much more "iab"e to &racture.
1. The passage is primarily concerned with
(A) demonstrating why the methods of early seismologists were flawed
(B) arguing that deep e'ents are poorly understood and deser'e further study
(C) defending a re'olutionary theory about the causes of earth"uakes and methods
of predicting them
() discussing e'idence for the e$istence of deep e'ents and the conditions that
allow them to occur
(#) comparing the effects of shallow e'ents with those of deep e'ents
2. The author uses the comparisons to porcelain and putty (lines 2 and 6) in order to
(A) e$plain why the #arth4s mantle is under great pressure
(B) distinguish the earth"uake4s epicenter from its focus
(C) demonstrate the conditions under which a &adati(Benioff !one forms
() e$plain why ; wa'es are slower than @ wa'es
(#) illustrate why the crust will fracture but the mantle will not
.. 3t can be inferred from the passage that if the ; wa'es from an earth"uake arri'e at
a gi'en location long after the @ wa'es/ which of the following must be true%
(A) The earth"uake was a deep e'ent.
(B) The earth"uake was a shallow e'ent.
(C) The earth"uake focus was distant.
() The earth"uake focus was nearby.
(#) The earth"uake had a low peak intensity.
0. The method used by &adati to determine the depths of earth"uakes is most like
which of the following%
(A) etermining the depth of a well by dropping stones into the well and timing
how long they take to reach the bottom
(B) etermining the height of a mountain by measuring the shadow it casts at
different times of the day
(C) etermining the distance from a thunderstorm by timing the inter'al between
the flash of a lightning bolt and the thunder it produces
() etermining the distance between two points by counting the number of paces
it takes to co'er the distance and measuring a single pace
(#) etermining the speed at which a car is tra'eling by timing how long it takes
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to tra'el a known distance
1. The passage supports which of the following statements about the relationship
between the epicenter and the focus of an earth"uake%
(A) @ wa'es originate at the focus and ; wa'es originate at the epicenter.
(B) 3n deep e'ents the epicenter and the focus are re'ersed.
(C) 3n shallow e'ents the epicenter and the focus coincide.
() 3n both deep and shallow e'ents the focus lies beneath the epicenter.
(#) The epicenter is in the crust/ whereas the focus is in the mantle.
2. The passage suggests that which of the following must take place in order for any
earth"uake to occur%
3. ;tress must build up.
33. Cool rock must descend into the mantle.
333. A fracture must occur.
(A) 3 only
(B) 33 only
(C) 333 only
() 3 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
-. 3nformation presented in the passage suggests that/ compared with seismic acti'ity
at the epicenter of a shallow e'ent/ seismic acti'ity at the epicenter of a deep e'ent
is characteri!ed by
(A) shorter @(; inter'als and higher peak intensity
(B) shorter @(; inter'als and lower peak intensity
(C) longer @(; inter'als and similar peak intensity
() longer @(; inter'als and higher peak intensity
(#) longer @(; inter'als and lower peak intensity
6. The passage suggests which of the following about the 'iews held by researchers
before 1,2-%
(A) ;ome researchers did not belie'e that deep e'ents could actually occur.
(B) ?any researchers re<ected the use of @(; inter'als for determining the depths
of earth"uakes.
(C) ;ome researchers doubted that the mantle was too ductile to store the stress
needed for an earth"uake.
() ?ost researchers e$pected @ wa'es to be slower than ; wa'es.
(#) >ew researchers accepted the current model of how shallow e'ents occur.
,. The author4s e$planation of how deep e'ents occur would be most weakened if
which of the following were disco'ered to be true%
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(A) eep e'ents are far less common than shallow e'ents.
(B) eep e'ents occur in places other than where crustal plates meet.
(C) ?antle rock is more ductile at a depth of se'eral hundred kilometers than it is
at 15 kilometers.
() The speeds of both @ and ; wa'es are slightly greater than pre'iously thought.
(#) Below 215 kilometers earth"uakes cease to occur.
Passage 80 (17/22)
Bost "arge corporations in the United tates were once run by individua"
capita"ists who owned enough stoc$ to dominate the board o& directors and
dictate company po"icy. 'ecause putting such "arge amounts o& stoc$ on the
mar$et wou"d on"y depress its va"ue( they cou"d not se"" out &or a -uic$ pro#t and
instead had to concentrate on improving the "ong-term productivity o& their
companies. Today( with &ew e8ceptions( the stoc$ o& "arge United tates
corporations is he"d by "arge institutions!pension &unds( &or e8amp"e!and
because these institutions are prohibited by antitrust "aws &rom owning a ma5ority
o& a company6s stoc$ and &rom active"y inDuencing a company6s decision-ma$ing(
they can enhance their wea"th on"y by buying and se""ing stoc$ in anticipation o&
Ductuations in its va"ue. 3 minority shareho"der is necessari"y a short term trader.
3s a resu"t( United tates productivity is un"i$e"y to improve un"ess shareho"ders
and the managers o& the companies in which they invest are encouraged to
enhance "ong-term productivity (and hence "ong-term pro#tabi"ity)( rather than
simp"y to ma8imi+e short-term pro#ts.
ince the return o& the o"d-sty"e capita"ist is un"i$e"y( today6s short-term traders
must be remade into tomorrow6s "ong-term capita"istic investors. The "ega" "imits
that now prevent #nancia" institutions &rom ac-uiring a dominant shareho"ding
position in a corporation shou"d be removed( and such institutions encouraged to
ta$e a more active ro"e in the operations o& the companies in which they invest. 2n
addition( any institution that ho"ds twenty percent or more o& a company6s stoc$
shou"d be &orced to give the pub"ic one day6s notice o& the intent to se"" those
shares. Un"ess the announced sa"e cou"d be e8p"ained to the pub"ic on grounds
other than anticipated &uture "osses( the va"ue o& the stoc$ wou"d p"ummet and(
"i$e the o"d-time capita"ists( ma5or investors cou"d cut their "osses on"y by he"ping
to restore their companies6 productivity. uch measures wou"d &orce #nancia"
institutions to become capita"ists whose success depends not on trading shares at
the propitious moment( but on increasing the productivity o& the companies in
which they invest.
1. 3n the passage/ the author is primarily concerned with doing which of the
following%
(A) Comparing two different approaches to a problem
(B) escribing a problem and proposing a solution
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(C) efending an established method
() @resenting data and drawing conclusions from the data
(#) Comparing two different analyses of a current situation
2. 3t can be inferred from the passage that which of the following is true of ma<ority
shareholders in a corporation%
(A) They make the corporation4s operational management decisions.
(B) They are not allowed to own more than fifty percent of the corporation4s stock.
(C) They cannot make "uick profits by selling their stock in the corporation.
() They are more interested in profits than in producti'ity.
(#) They cannot sell any of their stock in the corporation without gi'ing the public
ad'ance notice.
.. According to the passage/ the purpose of the re"uirement suggested in lines .5(..
would be which of the following%
(A) To encourage institutional stockholders to sell stock that they belie'e will
decrease in 'alue
(B) To discourage institutional stockholders from inter'ening in the operation of a
company whose stock they own
(C) To discourage short(term profit(taking by institutional stockholders
() To encourage a company4s employees to take an acti'e role in the ownership
of stock in the company
(#) To encourage in'estors to di'ersify their stock holdings
0. &hich of the following best e$plains the author4s statement that *A minority
shareholder is necessarily a short(term trader+ (lines 11(12)%
(A) The only way a minority shareholder can make money from stocks is to buy
and sell stocks as prices fluctuate o'er short periods of time.
(B) 8nly a shareholder who owns a ma<ority of a company4s stock can influence
the trading price of the stock o'er a long period of time.
(C) A minority shareholder is prohibited by law from buying stock and holding it
for long(term profits.
() Karge institutions like pension funds cannot legally own a ma<ority of any
corporation4s stock.
(#) A minority shareholder rarely takes an interest in the decisions of a
corporation4s board of directors.
1. The author suggests that which of the following is a true statement about people
who typify the *old style capitalist+ referred to in line 2.%
(A) They now rely on outdated management techni"ues.
(B) They seldom engaged in short(term trading of the stock they owned.
(C) They did not influence the in'estment policies of the corporations in which
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they in'ested.
() They now play a much smaller role in the stock market as a result of antitrust
legislation.
(#) They were primarily concerned with ma$imi!ing the short(term profitability of
the corporations in which they owned stock.
Passage 81 (18/22)
:or over 700 years( one o& the most enduring be"ie&s among historians o&
@ng"and has been that the character o& @ng"ish society has been shaped by the
uni-ue openness o& its ru"ing e"ite to entry by se"&-made entrepreneurs (especia""y
new"y wea"thy merchants) ab"e to buy their way into the ran$s o& e"ite society.
This upward mobi"ity( historians have argued( a""owed @ng"and to escape the c"ash
between those with socia"Ppo"itica" power and those with economic power( a
conDict that beset the rest o& @urope during the eighteenth and nineteenth
centuries. Upward mobi"ity was a"so used to e8p"ain @ng"and6s e8ceptiona"
stabi"ity since the "ate seventeenth century (no revo"utions( &or e8amp"e)( as we""
as such ma5or events as the deve"opment o& the most e*cient agricu"tura" system
in @urope( the ma$ing o& the #rst industria" revo"ution( and the onset o& severe
economic dec"ine.
'ut is the thesis trueG Recent wor$ on the supposed conse-uences o& an open
e"ite has a"ready produced some doubts. Jitt"e credence( &or e8amp"e( is now
accorded the idea that @ng"and6s "ate nineteenth-century economic dec"ine
resu"ted &rom absentee business owners too distracted by the demands o& e"ite
"i&e to manage their #rms proper"y. 'ut( a"though the importance o& an open e"ite
to other ma5or events has been severe"y -uestioned( it is on"y with a new wor$ by
Jawrence and Ceanne tone that the openness itse"& has been con&ronted.
@schewing the tac$ o& tracing the careers o& success&u" entrepreneurs to gauge
the openness o& the e"ite( the tones chose the a"ternative approach o& ana"y+ing
the e"ite itse"&( and proceeded via the ingenious route o& investigating country-
house ownership.
3rguing that ownership o& a country house was seen as essentia" &or
membership in the ru"ing e"ite( the tones ana"y+e the nature o& country-house
ownership in three counties &or the period 1/M0-1880. Their critica" #ndings are
provocativeA there was stri$ing"y "itt"e change in the ownership o& such houses
throughout the period. 2nstead( even in the &ace o& a demographic crisis (&ewer
marriages( dec"ining &erti"ity( rising in&ant morta"ity)( the o"d e"ite was ab"e to
maintain itse"&( and its estates( intact &or centuries through recourse to various
marriage and inheritance strategies. The popu"ar picture o& venerab"e e"ite
&ami"ies overcome by debt and se""ing out to merchants is simp"y not borne out by
the tones6 #ndings. Rather( the opportunities &or entrepreneurs to buy their way
into the e"ite( the tones show( were e8treme"y "imited. 2& &urther studies o&
country-house ownership attest to the representativeness and accuracy o& their
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data( then the tones6 conc"usion that the open e"ite thesis cannot be maintained
may( indeed( prove true.
1. According to the passage/ one of the traditional e$planations of #ngland4s late
nineteenth(century economic decline has been that it resulted from the
(A) tendency of the ruling elite to pursue conser'ati'e rather than inno'ati'e
economic policies
(B) failure of business entrepreneurs to reduce the power of the ruling elite in
#nglish society
(C) in'estment of large amounts of capital in the purchase and maintenance of
country houses
() tendency of business owners to attempt to retain control of their firms within
their families
(#) failure of leading business entrepreneurs to pay close attention to their firms
2. The author suggests that which of the following was true of most #uropean elites
during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries%
(A) The ranks of these elites were generally closed to most business entrepreneurs.
(B) The elites generally dominated industrial de'elopment.
(C) ;tatus within these elites was generally determined by the amount of land
owned.
() These elites generally were able to maintain their power unchallenged.
(#) The power of these elites generally forestalled the de'elopment of a large class
of self(made entrepreneurs.
.. Traditional historians of #ngland/ as they are described in the passage/ would be
most likely to agree with which of the following statements regarding open elites%
(A) They de'elop more easily in agricultural rather than industrial societies.
(B) They de'elop in response to particular sets of economic conditions.
(C) They tend to unite some of the powerful groups in a society.
() They tend to reduce class distinctions based on income in a society.
(#) They tend to insure ade"uate distribution of material goods in a society.
0. The tone of the passage suggests that the author regards the ;tones4
methodological approach as
(A) problematic
(B) difficult
(C) contro'ersial
() rigorous
(#) cle'er
1. &hich of the following best states the main idea of the passage%
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(A) Assumptions about the nature of #ngland4s ruling elite can no longer be used
with certitude to e$plain many ma<or economic de'elopments.
(B) The concept of the open elite is of paramount importance in e$plaining ma<or
#nglish political/ social/ and economic e'ents.
(C) The long(standing belief that #ngland possessed a remarkably open ruling elite
has recently been sub<ected to important and potentially lethal criticism.
() Although many possibilities are a'ailable/ the most reliable means of testing
the truth of the Fopen elite4 hypothesis is to analy!e changes in the composition
of the elite.
(#) An analysis of #nglish country(house ownership in #ngland indicates that
there were few opportunities for merchants to buy the estates of old members
of the landed elite.
2. &hich of the following can be inferred from the ;tones4 findings about #nglish
country(house ownership in the three counties during the period 1105(1665%
(A) Kittle change in the number or si!e of #nglish country houses occurred during
this period.
(B) &ealthy business owners constituted a growing percentage of #nglish country(
house owners during this period.
(C) ?ost of the families that owned country houses at the beginning of this period
continued to own them at the end.
() The most significant changes in #nglish country(house ownership occurred
during the second half of this period.
(#) ;elf(made entrepreneurs were able to enter the ranks of the #nglish country(
house owners during this period only through marriage.
-. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) resol'e a debate between two schools of thought.
(B) @resent research that "uestions an established 'iew.
(C) escribe and critici!e a new approach.
() efend a traditional interpretation against recent criticisms.
(#) Analy!e possible approaches to resol'ing a long(standing contro'ersy.
6. The ;tones suggest that ma<or problems facing the #nglish elite during the period
1105(1665 included which of the following%
3. A reduction in the number of their offspring
33. An increase in the amount of their indebtedness
333. A decline in their political and social power
(A) 3 only
(B) 333 only
(C) 3 and 33 only
GMAT 21-
() 33 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
,. The author suggests that the ;tones4 conclusions about the openness of the #nglish
elite would be strengthened by future studies that
(A) pay more attention to other recent historical works
(B) include more data on factors other than country(house ownership
(C) concentrate more on the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries
() e$pand the area of research to include more counties
(#) focus more on successful business entrepreneurs
Passage 82 (19/22)
%omparab"e worth is a concept that re5ects the premise o& a separate and
"ower wage hierarchy &or 5obs that are done primari"y by women( arguing instead
that earnings shou"d reDect on"y the worth o& the wor$ per&ormed. This worth
shou"d be determined by an eva"uation system that rates 5obs according to their
socia" importance and s$i"" re-uirements. 'ecause comparab"e worth does not
attac$ a"" &orms o& ine-ua"ity( it can have on"y a modest direct e1ect on the overa""
degree o& ine-ua"ity in society( but in attac$ing gender ine-ua"ity in the 5ob
c"assi#cation system it attac$s a ma5or component o& gender ine-ua"ity in the
United tates. The "i$e"ihood that other &orms o& ine-ua"ity wi"" become more
mani&est with the "essening o& gender ine-ua"ity is not a va"id argument against
comparab"e worth. 2ndeed( strugg"es &or comparab"e worth may he"p "aunch
campaigns against simi"ar &orms o& ine-uity. ti""( whi"e conservatives have batt"ed
hard against comparab"e worth( radica"s have been re"uctant to #ght &or it
because they see the narrow presentations in comparab"e worth "itigation as the
"imits o& the concept. 'ut in addition to he"ping redress particu"ar ine-uities(
comparab"e worth cou"d open a discussion o& the entire wage system. 2ts
theoretica" and po"itica" impact wi"" reach &ar beyond the &ramewor$ in which it
was conceived and &orce a rethin$ing o& assumptions under"ying current
emp"oyment practices and the mar$et itse"&.
)ow comparab"e worth wi"" a1ect the hierarchy o& wages is more di*cu"t to
&oresee. 2t does not direct"y cha""enge the concept o& a hierarchy= in &act( its
insistence that 5obs must be eva"uated imp"ies a hierarchy. )owever( its re5ection
o& the mar$et as an ade-uate basis &or determining wages initiates a discussion o&
how va"ue shou"d be assigned to 5obs. 3dvocates o& comparab"e worth have
cha""enged prevai"ing standards o& eva"uation( which them &rom &orma" 5ob
ova"ions #rst deve"oped in industria" settings. These eva"uations( based on points
awarded &or di1erent 5ob tas$s( gave considerab"e emphasis to such activities as
strenuous "i&ting and the operation o& e8pensive e-uipment. %onse-uent"y( the
s$i""s and $now"edge more typica" o& wor$ done by women are "ess heavi"y
emphasi+ed. The WKictionary o& <ccupationa" Tit"es6 revea"s numerous current
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instances o& such imba"ance in 5ob ratings.
;hi"e comparab"e-worth advocates accept the princip"e o& a hierarchy o&
wages( arguing on"y that they see$ more ob5ective measures o& 5ob worth( the
issues they raise provo$e a broader debate. This debate does not( as the
opponents have c"aimed( concern the &easibi"ity o& setting up and app"ying
eva"uative standards. @mp"oyers have done that &or centuries. Rather( the debate
is about the socia" va"ues and priorities under"ying the wage hierarchy and(
u"timate"y( the mar$et where age-o"d conventions and po"itica"( as opposed to
pure"y economic( &orces enter the process o& setting wages.
1. &hich of the following summari!es a main point of the passage%
(A) The history of comparable worth closely parallels the history of changes in the
structure of the economic system.
(B) The ultimate success of comparable worth depends on a public discussion of
the historical conditions that led to its formulation.
(C) Comparable worth has social implications that e$tend beyond specific
ad<ustments to the wage hierarchies for men and women.
() Comparable worth is gaining adherents e'en though it has traditionally met
with organi!ed opposition.
(#) Comparable worth has been instrumental in affording women access to <obs
that had been held largely by men.
2. 3t can be inferred that the phrase a separate and lower wage hierarchy for <obs that
are done primarily by women/ as used in lines 2(. of the passage/ most nearly
means which of the following%
(A) That there is a greater range of salaries for men than for women
(B) That women typically recei'e less money than men do for doing <obs of
appro$imately the same 'alue
(C) That there are fewer wage(earning women than men in the work force
() That men ha'e traditionally been more likely than women to recei'e
ad'ancement on the basis of seniority
(#) That men and women typically do not compete for the same <obs
.. 3n the first paragraph of the passage/ the author describes the potential role and
function of comparable worth in language that most often suggests
(A) artistic endea'ors
(B) business transactions
(C) criminal in'estigations
() military operations
(#) scientific e$periments
0. 3t can be inferred from the passage that ad'ocates of comparable worth belie'e
GMAT 21,
which of the following%
(A) A gi'en kind of work has a particular inherent 'alue to the employer or to
society.
(B) The market is more influenced by political and social forces now than it was in
the past.
(C) Bender ine"uality in the :nited ;tates is primarily a product of the current
economic system.
() Conser'ati'es and radicals ha'e the same reasons for not supporting
comparable worth.
(#) Those who de'ised <ob(e'aluation standards were more interested in economic
than political issues.
1. As used by the author in line 2 of the last paragraph/ *more ob<ecti'e+ most nearly
means
(A) more "uantifiable
(B) more seminal
(C) less categorical
() less <ob(specific
(#) less se$(biased
2. &hich of the following best represents the sort of "uestion at issue in the *broader
debate+ referred to in line 06 abo'e%
(A) &hat political factors ha'e affected the relationship between wages and <ob(
e'aluation ratings%
(B) &hat gains ha'e been achie'ed in the struggle for comparable(worth
legislation%
(C) &ill a new standard for <ob e'aluation be any more workable than the current
one%
() )ow will the balance of supply and demand be affected by comparable worth%
(#) )ow soon is it reasonable to e$pect the passage of stronger comparable(worth
legislation%
-. According to the passage/ which of the following is the most likely application of
the notion of comparable worth%
(A) The detailed e$planation of the 'arious forces that guide the market
(B) The formulation of attitudes about the role of supply and demand in setting
wages
(C) The establishment of a political coalition in the struggle against ine"uity
() The integration of the industrial work force into the <ob market for a ser'ice
and technology economy
(#) The reassessment of <ob characteristics as a means for determining <ust
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compensation
6. 3t can be inferred from the passage that radicals ha'e not supported comparable
worth because they 'iew it as being
(A) unrelated to historic de'elopments that ha'e molded the current economic
system
(B) an integral part of the same system that has institutionali!ed 'arious forms of
ine"uity
(C) likely to undermine the unity of a reform mo'e(men by polari!ing the different
interest groups
() too limited and restricted in its uses to promote fundamental changes in the
system
(#) inherently flawed in that it has gi'en rise to the concept of a wage hierarchy
,. The author4s primary purpose in the passage is to
(A) critici!e inconsistent e$periments
(B) suggest a new direction for research
(C) describe an intriguing geophysical phenomenon
() present e'idence supporting a theory
(#) e'aluate data relating to lunar geology
Passage 83 (20/22)
)istorians have "ong thought that 3merica was( &rom the beginning( pro&ound"y
inDuenced by the Joc$ean notion o& "iberty( with its strong emphasis on individua"
rights and se"&-interest. Iet in his recent boo$( historian C. E. 3. 9ococ$ argues that
ear"y 3merican cu"ture was actua""y rooted in the writings o& Bachiave""i( not
Joc$e. The imp"ications o& this substitution are importantA i& 9ococ$6s argument is
right( then 3mericans may not be as deep"y individua"istic and capita"istic as
many be"ieve.
9ococ$ argues that out o& the writings o& anti-uity Bachiave""i created a body
o& po"itica" thin$ing ca""ed >c"assica" repub"icanism.? This body o& thought revived
the ancient be"ie& that a human being was by nature a citi+en who achieved mora"
&u"#""ment by participating in a se"&-governing repub"ic. Jiberty was interpreted as
a condition that is rea"i+ed when peop"e are virtuous and are wi""ing to sacri#ce
their individua" interests &or the sa$e o& the community. To be comp"ete"y virtuous(
peop"e had to be independent and &ree o& the petty interests o& the mar$etp"ace.
The greatest enemy o& virtue was commerce. This c"assica" repub"ican tradition is
said by 9ococ$ to have shaped the ideo"ogy o& 3merica during the eighteenth
century.
Bany events in ear"y 3merican history can be reinterpreted in "ight o& 9ococ$6s
ana"ysis. Ce1erson is no "onger seen as a progressive reader o& Joc$e "eading
GMAT 221
3merica into its individua"istic &uture= instead Ce1erson is understood as a #gure
obsessed with virtue and corruption and &ear&u" o& new commercia" deve"opments.
2nDuenced by 9ococ$( some historians have even argued that a communitarian
and precapita"ist menta"ity was pervasive among the eighteenth-century &armers
o& 3merica.
Iet 9ococ$6s thesis and the reinterpretation o& the history o& eighteenth-century
3merica engendered by it are o& dubious va"idity. 2& 3mericans did be"ieve in the
idea"s o& c"assica" virtue that stressed civic duty and made the who"e community
greater than its discrete parts( then why did the co"onists "ac$ a sense o&
ob"igation to support the greater good o& the 'ritish @mpireG 2& indeed 3merica has
not a"ways been the society o& individua" rights and se"&-interest that it is today(
how and when did it be come soG %"assica" repub"icanism is e"itist( and it certain"y
had "itt"e to o1er the important new socia" groups o& artisans and shop$eepers
that emerged in 3merica during the eighteenth century. These midd"e-c"ass
radica"s( &or whom Cohn ;i"$es and Thomas 9aine were spo$esmen( had none o&
the independence &rom the mar$et that the "anded gentry had. They were "ess
concerned with virtue and community than they were with e-ua"ity and private
rights. They hated po"itica" privi"ege and wanted &reedom &rom an e"ite-dominated
state. 2n short( the United tates was created not in a mood o& c"assica" an8iety
over virtue and corruption( but in a mood o& "ibera" optimism over individua"
pro#ts and prosperity.
1. &hich of the following best states the author4s main point%
(A) Classical republicanism could not ha'e been the ideological basis of
eighteenth(century America.
(B) Classical republicanism is an elitist theory that was re<ected by eighteenth(
century artisans and shopkeepers.
(C) @ocock understates the importance of the contributions ?achia'elli made to
the formation of early American culture.
() @ocock fails to capture the great e$tent to which eighteenth(century Americans
were committed to a sense of ci'ic duty.
(#) @ocock4s account of Aefferson is incompatible with Aefferson4s commitment to
a Kockean notion of liberty.
2. The conception of liberty that/ according to @ocock/ formed the basis of America4s
eighteenth(century ideology is most clearly e$hibited by which of the following
indi'iduals%
(A) The merchant who rebuilds the damaged sidewalk in front of his store in order
to a'oid potential lawsuits by customers who might fall there
(B) The professor who allows her students to help her design the content and the
format of the courses she teaches
(C) The doctor who bows to go'ernment pressure and agrees to treat a small
number of low(income patients at no cost
222 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
() The lawyer who argues that a state law prohibiting smoking in public places
unfairly encroaches on the rights of smokers
(#) The engineer whose business suffers as a result of the personal time and energy
he de'otes to a program to clean up city streets
.. According to the author/ eighteenth(century American artisans and shopkeepers
had little reason to
(A) support the political efforts of Thomas Aefferson
(B) re<ect the ideals of classical 'irtue
(C) embrace the principles of classical republicanism
() renounce the political ob<ecti'es of the British #mpire
(#) worry about increasing profits and maintaining general prosperity
0. The author mentions which of the following as a fact that weakens @ocock4s
argument about the ideology of eighteenth(century America%
(A) Aefferson4s obsession with 'irtue and corruption and his fear of commercial
de'elopment
(B) The precapitalist mentality that was per'asi'e among farmers in early America
(C) The political decline of artisans and shopkeepers in eighteenth(century
America
() The colonists4 lack of commitment to support the general welfare of the British
#mpire
(#) The e$istence of political pri'ilege in early American society
1. The passage suggests that/ if classical republicanism had been the ideology of
eighteenth(century America/ which of the following would ha'e resulted%
(A) @eople would ha'e been moti'ated to open small businesses and e$pand
commercial acti'ity.
(B) Citi!ens and politicians would not ha'e been encouraged to agitate for
increased indi'idual rights.
(C) @eople would ha'e been con'inced that by pursuing their own interests they
were contributing to the good of the group.
() The political and social pri'ileges en<oyed by the landed gentry would ha'e
been destroyed.
(#) A mood of optimism among people o'er indi'idual profits and prosperity
would ha'e been created.
2. The author implies that @ocock4s argument about the ideology of eighteenth(
century America would be more plausible if the argument e$plained which of the
following%
(A) )ow a society that was once committed to the ideals of classical 'irtue could
be transformed into a society of indi'idual rights and self(interest
GMAT 22.
(B) )ow Thomas Aefferson could ha'e become obsessed with indi'idual rights and
with prosperity and profits
(C) &hy classical republicanism had such wide appeal among those who were free
from the demands of the marketplace
() &hy many colonists who embraced classical republicanism were reluctant to
place their indi'idual interests abo'e those of Breat Britain
(#) &hy the landed gentry in eighteenth(century America should ha'e belie'ed
that moral fulfillment is achie'ed by participating in a self(go'erning republic
-. According to the passage/ @ocock4s theory suggests that many eighteenth(century
Americans belie'ed that increasing commercial acti'ity would
(A) force the landed gentry to relin"uish their 'ast holdings
(B) enrich the nation and increase indi'idual rights
(C) cause some people to forfeit their liberty and 'irtue
() create a mood of optimism about national prosperity
(#) strengthen the political appeal of middle(class radicals
6. The author is primarily concerned with
(A) refuting a proposed thesis about eighteenth(century America
(B) analy!ing a long(established interpretation of American history
(C) critici!ing a set of deeply held beliefs about early American ideology
() reconciling opposing interpretations of eighteenth(century American ideology
(#) defending a no'el reading of the ideology of eighteenth(century America
Passage 84 (21/22)
3strophysicists wrest"ing with the study o& a new $ind o& star( the Dat( >two-
dimensiona"? con#gurations $nown as accretion dis$s have recent"y gained new
insights into the behavior o& these stars. 3ccretion dis$s e8ist in a variety o&
situations where matters swir" around a compact star such as a white dwar& star
or a neutron star. 3ccretion dis$s are a"so suspected o& p"aying a part in more
e8otic situations( in which the centra" ob5ect is imagined to be a supermassive
b"ac$ ho"e( the u"timate &orm o& co""apsed matter( rather than a compact star. The
mode"ing o& accretion dis$s is sti"" in its in&ancy( a situation ana"ogous to the days
when ordinary stars were mode"ed by using e"ementary sca"ing "aws without
bene#t o& $now"edge o& the nuc"ear processes that power the stars. imi"ar"y( the
basic physics o& the power by which accretion dis$s radiate( thought to originate
in a &orm o& turbu"ent &riction( is $nown on"y at the crudest "eve".
3ccretion dis$s were #rst de#ned in the conte8t o& %atac"ysmic variab"es. 2n
these systems( matter &rom the outer "ayers o& an ordinary star is attracted by the
gravitationa" inDuence o& a nearby orbiting white dwar& star( the matter "ost &rom
the ordinary star cannot stri$e the sur&ace o& the tiny white dwar& direct"y but
220 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
sett"es into an orbit around the star. The viscosity in the dis$ thus &ormed causes
heating( radiation( and a s"ow spira"ing o& dis$ matter onto the sur&ace o& the
white dwar&.
The rapid advances made in 8-ray astronomy in the past decade have
identi#ed a second type o& system in which accretion dis$s occur. 2n such a
system( an accretion dis$ whir"s about a neutron star rather than a white dwar&.
The inner reaches o& the accretion dis$ e8tend deep"y into the gravitationa"
potentia" o& the neutron star where very rapid motion is the ru"e. The energy
re"eased by &riction and the actua" raining o& the materia" &rom the dis$ onto the
sur&ace o& the neutron star is so great that radiation is given o1 in a power&u" Dood
o& 8-rays. 3nd in at "east one case( 8-ray astronomers be"ieve that the ob5ect in
the center o& an accretion dis$ is a b"ac$ ho"e( suggesting that a third system may
e8ist.
2t had been assumed that portions o& accretion dis$s wou"d be unstab"e and
that( as a resu"t( c"umping o& their matter into rings wou"d occur. There is no
evidence &rom observation( however( that accretion dis$s do( in &act( su1er &rom
these instabi"ities. 2n recent wor$( 3bramowic+ has shown that added gravitationa"
e1ects due to genera" re"ativity may a"ter the e8pected ,ewtonian gravitationa"
re"ationships in such a way that the dis$ remains stab"e( indicating that it is
possib"e that these predicted instabi"ities do not occur.
:urther progress toward understanding accretion dis$s wi"" invo"ve de#ning and
proposing so"utions to restricted prob"ems 5ust as was done in this case and was
done and continues to be done &or ordinary stars. 3bramowic+6 wor$ is a va"uab"e
e8amp"e o& the care that must be ta$en be&ore reaching conc"usions regarding
accretion dis$s.
1. The author of the passage is primarily concerned with
(A) comparing Abramowic!4 work to the work of earlier astrophysicists
(B) pro'iding information about accretion disks and discussing significant new
work
(C) defining the conditions under which accretion disks can be obser'ed
() e$ploring the "uestion of whether a black hole can e'er be the central ob<ect of
an accretion disk
(#) describing the phenomenon of accretion disks and re'iewing se'eral
conflicting theories of their origins
2. 3t can be inferred from the passage that predictions of the instability of accretion
disks were based on which of the following%
(A) A calculation of the probable effects of standard 9ewtonian gra'itational
relationships
(B) A calculation of the probable relationship between general relati'ity and
standard 9ewtonian gra'itational relationships
GMAT 221
(C) A calculation of the energy released by friction within a compact star
() 8bser'ation of the $(rays radiated by compact stars
(#) 8bser'ation of the clumping of accretion disk matter into rings around
compact stars
.. The author4s attitude toward Abramowic!4 work can best be described as one of
(A) uncertain appro'al
(B) un"ualified respect
(C) mild interest
() careful dismissal
(#) hostile skepticism
0. The passage suggests which of the following about current scientific knowledge of
the nuclear processes of ordinary stars%
(A) 3ts pattern of de'elopment has been analogous to that of de'elopments in $(ray
astronomy.
(B) 3ts role in the e$planation of turbulent friction has been significant.
(C) 3t has contributed to a more accurate modeling of ordinary stars.
() 3t lags behind knowledge of scaling laws.
(#) 3t e$plains the beha'ior of accretion disks as well as that of ordinary stars.
1. The passage suggests that Abramowic!4 work was moti'ated by which of the
following assumptions%
(A) The "uantity of energy released by accretion disks can be as large as it is only
if the disks are stable.
(B) 3mpro'ed techni"ues in $(ray astronomy would re'eal any instabilities
occurring in accretion disks.
(C) The lack of obser'ational e'idence of instabilities in accretion disks suggests
that predictions of their occurrence might be wrong.
() Mnown methods of obser'ing accretion disk surrounding compact stars and
black holes do not permit the obser'ation of the matter in accretion disks.
(#) The gra'itational potential of compact stars does not 'ary from star to star.
2. The passage implies which of the following about the progress of knowledge in
astrophysics%
(A) Adherence to outdated theories has/ in the past/ limited the acti'ities of
astrophysicists and restricted progress.
(B) @rogress has/ in the past/ occurred only as a result of significant breakthroughs
in basic physics and chemistry.
(C) @rogress has/ in the past/ occurred as a result of a process of defining and
sol'ing restricted problems.
222 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
() Bi'en the recent ac"uisition of knowledge about the nuclear processes of stars/
further progress is likely to be limited to the refinement of what is already
known.
(#) Conclusions in astrophysics ha'e/ in the past/ been seriously flawed/ thus
limiting progress/ although there ha'e recently been signs of change.
-. The passage suggests that/ compared to the study of ordinary stars/ the study of
accretion disks is
(A) deri'ati'e
(B) more sophisticated
(C) less clearly focused
() at an earlier stage of de'elopment
(#) more dependent on technological ad'ances
6. According to the passage/ some accretion disks originated in
(A) an increase in heat and radiation around an ordinary star
(B) a powerful flood of $(rays emitted by a neutron star
(C) a collision between two stars
() the turbulent friction on the surface of a compact star
(#) the accumulation of matter remo'ed from an ordinary star
,. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the significance of Abramowic!4 work is
that it
(A) pro'ides a means of measuring the gra'itational potential of neutron stars
(B) opens a new area for e$ploration in the field of $(ray astronomy
(C) pro'es that scaling laws cannot be applied to accretion disks
() proposes a new system of classification of stars
(#) suggests a resolution of a discrepancy between a theoretical prediction and
actual obser'ation
Passage 85 (22/22)
2t is an un&ortunate &act that most ,orth 3mericans $now "itt"e about 3merican
2ndian cu"ture and history. cho"ars have studied such matters( but they have not
succeeded in broadcasting their conc"usions wide"y. Thus( it is sti"" not wide"y
$nown that 3merican 2ndians have epics( that they per&ormed p"ays "ong be&ore
@uropeans arrived( and that they practiced po"itics and carried on trade.
<ne way to gain a &u""er appreciation o& this rich cu"ture is to e8amine
3merican 2ndian poetry( &or poetry is in a"" cu"tures the most centra" and articu"ate
o& the arts. 2t is especia""y important that we study 3merican 2ndian poetry as this
poetry can create a conte8t that gives cohesive e8pression to the cra&ts( the
arti&acts( and the iso"ated &acts that many 3mericans have managed to notice
GMAT 22-
wi""y-ni""y. @ven a survey o& 3merican 2ndian poetry revea"s a range o& poetic
thought and techni-ue that de#es easy genera"i+ation. Caro"d Ramsey ha+ards a
summary( however( which serves at "east to give the uninitiated reader some
sense o& what 3merican 2ndian poetry is "i$e. <vera""( he writes( it represents >an
ora"( &ormu"aic( traditiona"( and anonymous art &orm(? whose approach is to
emphasi+e the >mythic and sacred? components o& rea"ity. 2t >Dourished through
pub"ic per&ormances... by s$i""ed recita"ists whose audiences a"ready $new the
individua" stories? and va"ued the per&ormers &or their >abi"ity to e8p"oit their
materia" dramatica""y and to combine them their stories in "onger cyc"es?
rather than &or their >p"ot invention.? 'ecause this poetry be"ongs to high"y
ethnocentric triba" peop"es( whose cu"tures >we sti"" do not $now much about(? it
>is "i$e"y to seem a"" the more terse( even cryptic.?
3merican 2ndian poetry has another &eature that Ramsey ignoresA it is a"ways
&unctiona". ;hether sung( chanted( or recited= whether per&ormed ceremonia""y(
as entertainment( or as part o& a tas$ such as curing a patient or grinding corn= or
whether recited individua""y or by a group( it is a"ways &u""y woven into the &abric
o& ordinary "i&e.
:or comp"icated reasons( 3merican 2ndian poetry has basica""y been ignored by
non-2ndian cu"tures. Senneth Jinco"n writes that &ai"ure to hear 3merican 2ndian
voices resu"ts >part"y...&rom the tragedies o& triba" dis"ocation( part"y &rom
mistrans"ation( part"y &rom misconceptions about "iterature( part"y &rom cu"tura"
indi1erence.? 'rian wann suggests an additiona" e8p"anationA triba" poetry is
ora"( whereas @uropeans arrived in the ,ew ;or"d with a deep"y ingrained be"ie& in
the primacy o& the written word. 3s a resu"t( @uropean sett"es &ound it hard to
imagine that poetry cou"d e8ist without written te8ts and thus that the 3merican
2ndians had achieved something para""e" to what @uropeans ca""ed "iterature "ong
be&ore @uropeans arrived. 3s a conse-uence( @uropeans did not &u""y respond to
the rich vita"ity o& 3merican 2ndian poetry.
1. According to the passage/ American 3ndian cultures ha'e produced all of the
following forms of artistic e$pression #DC#@T
(A) crafts
(B) dramas
(C) songs
() written poems
(#) oral epics
2. According to Aarold =amsey/ American 3ndian poetry is an art form characteri!ed
by its
(A) unusual depictions of landscapes
(B) integration with e'eryday affairs
(C) uni'ersal accessibility
226 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
() highly original plots
(#) adaptability to public performance
.. According to Menneth Kincoln/ one of the reasons that non(3ndians ha'e had little
knowledge of American 3ndian poetry is that American 3ndian poems
(A) ha'e been poorly translated
(B) ha'e not yet attracted the scholarly attention they deser'e
(C) can be appreciated only when presented orally
() are difficult to understand without a background in comparati'e mythology
(#) are too stylistically comple$
0. According to the passage/ it would be unusual for American 3ndian poetry to be
(A) attributed to specific authors
(B) sung by a group of performers
(C) chanted while working
() sung during a sacred ceremony
(#) performed in a dramatic manner
1. 3t can be inferred from the passage that Brian ;wann belie'es which of the
following about the #uropean settlers of America%
(A) They probably were more literate/ on the a'erage/ than the general #uropean
population they left behind.
(B) They probably thought it necessary to understand American 3ndian politics
before studying American 3ndian literature.
(C) They probably did not recogni!e e'idence of an oral poetic tradition in the
American 3ndian cultures they encountered.
() They probably could not appreciate American 3ndian poetry because it was
composed in long narrati'e cycles.
(#) They probably did not study American 3ndian poetry because its sub<ect matter
was too practically oriented.
2. The tone of lines 12(12 suggests that the author belie'es that most Americans4
knowledge of American 3ndian culture can best be characteri!ed as
(A) spotty and contradictory
(B) stereotyped and limited
(C) confused and inaccurate
() unsystematic and superficial
(#) 'ague and biased
-. &hich of the following best describes the organi!ation of the last paragraph of the
passage%
(A) An obser'ation is made and "ualifications of it are pro'ided.
GMAT 22,
(B) A phenomenon is noted and e$planations for it are presented.
(C) A hypothesis is presented and arguments against it are cited.
() A prognosis is made and e'idence supporting it is discussed.
(#) A criticism is presented and information e$panding it is pro'ided.
GMAT 15Passages
Passage 86 (1/15)
@ar"y mode"s o& the geography o& the metropo"is were unice""u"arA that is( they
assumed that the entire urban district wou"d norma""y be dominated by a sing"e
centra" district( around which the various economic &unctions o& the community
wou"d be &ocused. This centra" business district (%'K) is the source o& so-ca""ed
high-order goods and services( which can most e*cient"y be provided &rom a
centra" "ocation rather than &rom numerous wide"y dispersed "ocations. Thus(
retai"ers o& in&re-uent"y and irregu"ar"y purchased goods( such as &ur coats(
5ewe"ry( and anti-ue &urniture( and specia"i+ed service out"ets( such as theaters(
advertising agencies( "aw #rms( and government agencies( wi"" genera""y be &ound
in the %'K. 'y contrast( "ess cost"y( more &re-uent"y demanded goods( such as
groceries and housewares( and "ow-order services( such as shoe repair and
hairdressing( wi"" be avai"ab"e at many sma""( wide"y scattered out"ets throughout
the metropo"is.
'oth the concentric-ring mode" o& the metropo"is( #rst deve"oped in %hicago in
the "ate nineteenth century( and the sector mode"( c"ose"y associated with the
wor$ o& )omer )oyt in the 1970s( ma$e the %'K the &oca" point o& the metropo"is.
The concentric-ring mode" assumes that the varying degrees o& need &or
accessibi"ity to the %'K o& various $inds o& economic entities wi"" be the main
determinant o& their "ocation. Thus( who"esa"e and manu&acturing #rms( which
need easy accessibi"ity to the specia"i+ed "ega"( #nancia"( and governmenta"
services provided in the %'K( wi"" norma""y be "ocated 5ust outside the %'K itse"&.
Residentia" areas wi"" occupy the outer rings o& the mode"( with "ow-income groups
residing in the re"ative"y crowded o"der housing c"ose to the business +one and
high-income groups occupying the outermost ring( in the more spacious( newer
residentia" areas bui"t up through urban e8pansion.
)omer )oyt6s sector mode" is a modi#ed version o& the concentric-ring mode".
Recogni+ing the inDuence o& ear"y estab"ished patterns o& geographic distribution
on the "ater growth o& the city( )oyt deve"oped the concept o& directional inertia.
3ccording to )oyt( custom and socia" pressures tend to perpetuate "ocationa"
patterns within the city. Thus( i& a particu"ar part o& the city (say( the east side)
becomes a common residentia" area &or higher-income &ami"ies( perhaps because
o& a particu"ar topographica" advantage such as a "a$e or other desirab"e &eature(
&uture e8pansion o& the high-income segment o& the popu"ation is "i$e"y to proceed
2.5 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
in the same direction. 2n our e8amp"e( as the metropo"is e8pands( a wedge-shaped
sector wou"d deve"op on the east side o& the city in which the higher-income
residence wou"d be c"ustered. Jower-income residences( a"ong with manu&acturing
&aci"ities( wou"d be con#ned( there&ore( to the western margins o& the %'K.
3"though )oyt6s mode" undoubted"y represented an advance in sophistication
over the simp"er concentric-ring mode"( neither mode" &u""y accounts &or the
increasing importance o& &oca" points other than the traditiona" %'K. Recent years
have witnessed he estab"ishment around o"der cities o& secondary nuc"ei centered
on suburban business districts. 2n other cases( particu"ar $inds o& goods( services(
and manu&acturing &aci"ities have c"ustered in specia"i+ed centers away &rom the
%'K( encouraging the deve"opment o& particu"ar housing patterns in the ad5acent
areas. 3 new mu"tice""u"ar mode" o& metropo"itan geography is needed to e8press
these and other emerging trends o& urban growth.
1. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) e$plain the significance of )oyt4s concept of directional inertia and its effect
on patterns of urban growth
(B) emphasi!e the inade"uacy of past attempts to e$plain patterns of urban
geography
(C) analy!e two 'arying theories concerning the distribution of residential areas
within and around the metropolis
() describe two models of metropolitan geography and suggest their limitations
(#) show the importance of the central business district as a focus for urban growth
2. 3t can be inferred from the passage that according to a unicellular urban model/ law
firms are commonly located near the center of a city mainly because
(A) law firms benefit from the pro$imity to financial and go'ernmental ser'ices
that a center city location pro'ides
(B) the demand for legal ser'ices is too irregular to support many small law firms
in the outer districts of the city
(C) law firms re"uire accessibility to the wholesale and retail businesses that
pro'ide a ma<or share of their clientele
() the high(income groups that make up the primary users of legal ser'ices
demand easy access to the firms4 offices
(#) the speciali!ed ser'ice personnel re"uired by a law firm are often interested in
residing as close as possible to the city center
.. According to the concentric(ring model/ in which of the following orders (from the
center of the city outward) would the areas of the typical city be arranged%
(A) central business district/ low(income housing/ wholesale and manufacturing
businesses/ high(income housing
(B) central business district/ wholesale and manufacturing businesses/ low(income
GMAT 2.1
housing/ high(income housing
(C) wholesale and manufacturing businesses/ central business district/ low(income
housing/ high(income housing
() central business district/ high(income housing/ wholesale and manufacturing
businesses/ low(income housing
(#) wholesale and manufacturing businesses/ low(income housing/ central
business district/ high(income housing
0. According to the passage/ the sector model differs from the concentric(ring model
primarily in that it
(A) stresses the role of topographic features in determining patterns of urban
de'elopment
(B) emphasi!es the continuing e$pansion of the city as an influence on urban
de'elopment
(C) recogni!es the importance of focal points of urban growth other than the
traditional central business district
() assumes that the need for access to the central business district is the main
determinant of urban de'elopmental patterns
(#) takes into account the influence of certain social factors on urban geographical
patterns
1. The passage states that both the concentric(ring model and the sector model
(A) inade"uately represent the forms of urban de'elopment emerging in today4s
cities
(B) need to be considerably refined to be of real use to students of urban growth
(C) ha'e been superseded by more recently de'eloped models of urban growth
() represent older cities more accurately than they do newly founded
metropolitan areas
(#) fail to e$plain the rapid outward growth of cities that has occurred in recent
years
2. According to the passage/ an updated model of urban geography would indicate
the
(A) phenomenal growth in population and area of suburban residential districts
beyond the limits of the city itself
(B) recent decline in the influence of business and industry o'er the geographical
patterns of urban growth
(C) growing importance of urban business and ser'ice centers located away from
the central business district
() clustering of business facilities in recently built areas/ while older districts are
turned into residential areas
2.2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(#) gradual displacement of older urban centers by new/ more highly speciali!ed
cities in geographically dispersed locations
-. All of the following are e$amples of the emerging trends of urban growth
described in the last paragraph of the passage #DC#@T
(A) the construction in a suburban community of a large shopping mall where
many of the local residents do most of their buying
(B) the opening of an industrial park on the outskirts of a declining older city
(C) the construction of hospital(medical school comple$ near a highway fifteen
miles from a downtown business district
() the building of a residential de'elopment near a suburban tool factory to house
the factory workers and their families
(#) the creation of a lu$ury housing de'elopment in a rural setting thirty miles
from the center of a city
6. &hich of the following best describes the organi!ation of the last paragraph of the
passage%
(A) 3t summari!es the information presented in the first three paragraphs and
draws some conclusions.
(B) 3t outlines a new model/ applies it to recent phenomena/ and argues in fa'or of
its adoption.
(C) 3t introduces no e'idence in support of an e$isting model.
() 3t e'aluates two models in the light of recent e'idence and ad'ocates the
de'elopment of a third model.
(#) 3t compares one model unfa'orably with another and de'elops the comparison
by citing e$amples.
Passage 87 (2/15)
There is widespread be"ie& that the emergence o& giant industries has been
accompanied by an e-uiva"ent surge in industria" research. 3 recent study o&
important inventions made since the turn o& the century revea"s that more than
ha"& were the product o& individua" inventors wor$ing a"one( independent o&
organi+ed industria" research. ;hi"e industria" "aboratories contributed such
important products as ny"on and transistors( independent inventors deve"oped air
conditioning( the automatic transmission( the 5et engine( the he"icopter( insu"in(
and streptomycin. ti"" other inventions( such as stain"ess stee"( te"evision(
si"icones( and 9"e8ig"as were deve"oped through the combined e1orts o&
individua"s and "aboratory teams.
Kespite these #nding( we are urged to support monopo"istic power on the
grounds that such power creates an environment supportive o& innovation. ;e are
to"d that the independent inventor( a"ong with the sma"" #rm( cannot a1ord to
underta$e the important research needed to improve our standard o& "iving whi"e
GMAT 2..
protecting our diminishing resources= that on"y the giant corporation or
cong"omerate( with its prodigious assets( can a1ord the $ind o& e8penditures that
produce the techno"ogica" advances vita" to economic progress. 'ut when we
e8amine e8penditures &or research( we #nd that o& the more than .7/ bi""ion spent
each year in this country( a"most two-thirds is spent by the &edera" government.
Bore than ha"& o& this government e8penditure is &unne"ed into mi"itary research
and product deve"opment( accounting &or the enormous increase in spending in
such industries as nuc"ear energy( aircra&t( missi"es( and e"ectronics. There are
those who consider it -uestionab"e that these de&ense-"in$ed research pro5ects wi""
either improve our standard o& "iving or do much to protect our diminishing
resources.
Recent history has demonstrated that we may have to a"ter our "ongstanding
conception o& the process actuated by competition. The price variab"e( once
perceived as the dominant aspect o& the process( is now subordinate to the
competition o& the new product( the new business structure( and the new
techno"ogy. ;hi"e it can be assumed that in a high"y competitive industry not
dominated by sing"e corporation( investment in innovation!a ris$y and e8pensive
budget item!might meet resistance &rom management and stoc$ho"ders
concerned about cost-cutting( e*cient organi+ation( and "arge advertising
budgets( it wou"d be an egregious error to e-uate the monopo"istic producer with
bounti&u" e8penditures on research. Jarge-sca"e enterprises tend to operate more
com&ortab"y in stab"e and secure circumstances( and their manageria"
bureaucracies tend to promote the status -uo and resist the threat imp"icit in
change. Boreover( in some cases( industria" giants &aced with "itt"e or no
competition see$ to avoid the capita" "oss resu"ting &rom obso"escence by
de"iberate"y obstructing techno"ogica" progress. 'y contrast( sma"" #rms
undeterred by "arge investments in p"ant and capita" e-uipment o&ten
aggressive"y pursue new techni-ues and new products( investing in innovation in
order to e8pand their mar$et shares.
The cong"omerates are not( however( comp"ete"y e8cept &rom strong
competitive pressures. There are instances in which they too must compete with
another industria" Eo"iath( and then their weapons may inc"ude "arge e8penditures
&or innovation.
1. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) ad'ocate an increase in go'ernment support of organi!ed industrial research
(B) point out a common misconception about the relationship between the e$tent
of industrial research and the growth of monopolistic power in industry
(C) describe the inade"uacies of small firms in dealing with the important matter
of research and inno'ation
() show that America4s strength depends upon indi'idual ingenuity and
resourcefulness
(#) encourage free(market competition among industrial giants
2.0 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
2. According to the passage/ important in'entions of the twentieth century
(A) were produced largely as a result of go'ernmental support for military
weapons research and de'elopment
(B) came primarily from the huge laboratories of monopolistic industries
(C) were produced at least as fre"uently by independent in'entors as by research
teams
() ha'e greater impact on smaller firms than on conglomerates
(#) sometimes ad'ersely affect our standard of li'ing and diminish our natural
resources
.. &hich of the following best describes the organi!ation of the second paragraph of
the passage%
(A) #$penditures for 'arious aspects of research are listed.
(B) =easons for supporting monopolistic power are gi'en and then "uestioned.
(C) Arguments are presented for minimi!ing competiti'e bidding for research.
() =esources necessary for research are defined.
(#) Costs for 'aried aspects of military research are "uestioned.
0. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author
(A) has little confidence in the ability of monopolistic industry to produce the
important in'entions of the future
(B) would rather see the federal go'ernment spend money on social ser'ices than
on the defense establishment
(C) fa'ors a conser'ati'e approach to inno'ation and places trust in conglomerates
to pro'ide efficient production
() feels that price should still be the dominant 'ariable in the competiti'e process
(#) belie'es that e$cessi'e competition is a deterrent to inno'ation
1. The passage contains information that answers which of the following "uestions%
3. &hat portion of the research dollar in this country is spent each year by the
federal go'ernment%
33. :nder what circumstances is an industrial giant likely to in'est hea'ily in
inno'ation%
333. &hy might a monopolistic producer want to suppress an inno'ation%
(A) 3 only
(B) 33 only
(C) 3 and 33 only
() 33 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
2. &ith which of the following statements would the author of the passage be most
GMAT 2.1
likely to agree%
(A) ?onopolistic power creates an en'ironment supporti'e of inno'ation.
(B) Bo'ernmental e$penditure for military research will do much to protect our
dwindling resources.
(C) 3ndustrial giants/ with their managerial bureaucracies/ respond more "uickly to
technological change than smaller firms do.
() >irms with a small share of the market aggressi'ely pursue inno'ations
because they are not locked into old capital e"uipment.
(#) The independent in'entor cannot afford to undertake the research needed to
impro'e our standard of li'ing.
-. &hich of the following proposals best responds to the issues raised by the author%
(A) Bo'ernmental restraints on monopolies should be lifted/ and go'ernment
funding should be made a'ailable to large corporations wishing to engage in
research.
(B) Bo'ernmental restraints on monopolies should be tightened/ and go'ernment
funding should be made a'ailable to small corporations and independent
indi'iduals wishing to engage in research.
(C) Bo'ernmental restraints on monopolies should be tightened/ and no
go'ernment funding should be pro'ided to any corporations or indi'iduals
wishing to engage in research.
() The amount the go'ernment spends on military research should be decreased/
and the amount it spends to impro'ed the standard of li'ing should be
increased.
(#) Bo'ernmental restraints on monopolies should be lifted/ and no go'ernment
funding should be pro'ided to any corporations or indi'iduals wishing to
engage in research.
6. &hich of the following/ if true/ would most weaken the author4s main point%
(A) 3n the last decade/ conglomerates ha'e significantly increased their research
budgets for defense technology.
(B) Ta$ restructuring permits smaller firms to write off a larger percentage of
profits against research.
(C) A ten(year study of the e$tent of resources de'oted to research by smaller
enterprises re'eals a steady decline.
() ?ilitary research is being directed more e$tensi'ely to space technology than
to short(range missiles.
(#) Competition from foreign industries has increased the cost of labor and
materials.
Passage 88 (3/15)
2.2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
haw6s de&ense o& a theater o& ideas brought him up against both his great
bugbears!commercia"i+ed art on the one hand and 3rt &or 3rt6s a$e on the
other. )is teaching is that beauty is a by-product o& other activity= that the artist
writes out o& mora" passion (in &orms varying &rom po"itica" conviction to re"igious
+ea")( not out o& "ove o& art= that the pursuit o& art &or its own sa$e is a &orm o& se"&-
indu"gence as bad as any other sort o& sensua"ity. 2n the end( the errors o& >pure?
art and o& commercia"i+ed art are identica"A they both appea" primari"y to the
senses. True art( on the other hand( is not mere"y a matter o& p"easure. 2t may be
unp"easant. 3 &avorite havian metaphor &or the &unction o& the arts is that o&
tooth-pu""ing. @ven i& the patient is under "aughing gas( the tooth is sti"" pu""ed.
The history o& aesthetics a1ords more e8amp"es o& a didactic than o& a
hedonist view. 'ut haw6s didacticism ta$es an unusua" turn in its app"ication to
the history o& arts. 2&( as haw ho"ds( ideas are a most important part o& a wor$ o&
art( and i&( as he a"so ho"ds( ideas go out o& date( it &o""ows that even the best
wor$s o& art go out o& date in some important respects and that the genera""y he"d
view that great wor$s are in a"" respects eterna" is not shared by haw. 2n the
pre&ace to Three Plays for Puritans( he maintains that renewa" in the arts means
renewa" in phi"osophy( that the #rst great artist who comes a"ong a&ter a renewa"
gives to the new phi"osophy &u"" and #na" &orm( that subse-uent artists( though
even more gi&ted( can do nothing but re#ne upon the master without matching
him. haw( whose essentia" modesty is as disarming as his pose o& vanity is
disconcerting( assigns to himse"& the ro"e( not o& the master( but o& the pioneer(
the ro"e o& a Bar"owe rather than o& a ha$espeare. >The whir"igig o& time wi""
soon bring my audiences to my own point o& view(? he writes( >and then the ne8t
ha$espeare that comes a"ong wi"" turn these petty tentatives o& mine into
masterpieces #na" &or their epoch.?
>:ina" &or their epoch?!even ha$espearean masterpieces are not #na" beyond
that. ,o one( says haw( wi"" ever write a better tragedy than 'ear or a better
opera than -on .iovanni or a better music drama than -er *ing des +i$elungen/
but 5ust as essentia" to a p"ay as this aesthetic merit is mora" re"evance which( i&
we ta$e a natura"istic and historica" view o& mora"s( it "oses( or part"y "oses( in
time. haw( who has the courage o& his historicism( consistent"y withstands the
view that mora" prob"ems do not change( and argues there&ore that &or us modern
"iterature and music &orm a 'ib"e surpassing in signi#cance the )ebrew 'ib"e. That
is haw6s anticipatory cha""enge to the neo-orthodo8y o& today.
1. The primary purpose of the passage is to discuss
(A) the unorthodo$y of ;haw4s 'iews on the Bible
(B) the aesthetic merit of ;haw4s plays
(C) ;haw4s theory of art
() ;ha'ian e$amples of the theater of ideas
GMAT 2.-
(#) ;haw4s naturalistic and historical 'iew of morals
2. The author sets off the word *pure+ (line ,) with "uotation marks in order to
(A) contrast it with the word *true/+ which appears later (line 15)
(B) suggest that/ in this conte$t/ it is synonymous with *commerciali!ed+ (line ,)
(C) underscore its importance
() strip away its negati'e connotations
(#) emphasi!e its positi'e connotations
.. According to the author/ ;haw compares art to tooth(pulling (lines 12(10) in order
to show that
(A) the moral rele'ance of a work of art must be e$tracted from the epoch in which
it was created
(B) true art is painful to the senses
(C) e'en the best works of art go out of date
() pleasure is not the sole purpose of art
(#) all art has a lasting effect on its audience
0. According to the author/ ;haw4s didacticism was unusual in that it was
characteri!ed by
(A) idealism
(B) historicism
(C) hedonism
() moralism
(#) religious !eal
1. 3t can be inferred from the passage that ;haw would probably agree with all of the
following statements about ;hakespeare #DC#@TE
(A) )e wrote out of a moral passion.
(B) All of his plays are out of date in some important respect.
(C) )e was the most profound and original thinker of his epoch.
() )e was a greater artist than ?arlowe.
(#) )is ear gi'es full and final form to the philosophy of his age.
2. &hich of the following does the author cite as a contradiction in ;haw%
(A) &hereas he pretended to be 'ain/ he was actually modest.
(B) )e "uestioned the significance of the )ebrew Bible/ and yet he belie'ed that a
great artist could be moti'ated by religious !eal.
(C) Although he insisted that true art springs from moral passion/ he re<ected the
notion that morals do not change.
() )e considered himself to be the pioneer of a new philosophy/ but he hoped his
2.6 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
audiences would e'entually adopt his point of 'iew.
(#) 8n the one hand/ he held that ideas are a most important part of a work of artI
on the other hand/ he belie'ed that ideas go out of date.
-. The ideas attributed to ;haw in the passage suggest that he would most likely
agree with which of the following statements%
(A) #'ery great poet digs down to a le'el where human nature is always and
e'erywhere alike.
(B) A play cannot be comprehended fully without some knowledge and
imaginati'e understanding of its conte$t.
(C) A great music drama like !er "ing des Nibelungen springs from a lo'e of
beauty/ not from a lo'e of art.
() ?orality is immutableI it is not something to be discussed and worked out.
(#) !on #io$anni is a masterpiece because it is as rele'ant today as it was when it
was created.
6. The passage contains information that answers which of the following "uestions%
3. According to ;haw/ what is the most important part of a work of art%
33. 3n ;haw4s 'iew/ what does the )ebrew Bible ha'e in common with on
Bio'anni%
333. According to the author/ what was ;haw4s assessment of himself as a
playwright%
(A) 3 only
(B) 333 only
(C) 3 and 33 only
() 33 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
,. As it is re'ealed in the passage/ the author4s attitude toward ;haw can best be
described as
(A) condescending
(B) completely neutral
(C) appro'ing
() en'ious
(#) adulatory
Passage 89 (4/15)
<ne o& the many theories about a"coho"ism is the "earning and rein&orcement
theory( which e8p"ains a"coho"ism by considering a"coho" ingestion as a reDe8
response to some stimu"us and as a way to reduce an inner drive state such as
&ear or an8iety. %haracteri+ing "i&e situations in terms o& approach and avoidance(
GMAT 2.,
this theory ho"ds that persons tend to be drawn to p"easant situations and
repe""ed by unp"easant ones. 2n the "atter case( a"coho" ingestion is said to reduce
the tension or &ee"ings o& unp"easantness and to rep"ace them with the &ee"ing o&
euphoria genera""y observed in most persons a&ter they have consumed one or
more drin$s.
ome e8perimenta" evidence tends to show that a"coho" reduces &ear in the
approach-avoidance situation. %onger trained one group o& rats to approach a
&ood goa" and( using aversion conditioning( trained another group to avoid e"ectric
shoc$. 3&ter an in5ection o& a"coho" the pu"" away &rom the shoc$ was measurab"e
wea$er( whi"e the pu"" toward the &ood was unchanged.
The obvious troub"es e8perienced by a"coho"ic persons appear to contradict the
"earning theory in the e8p"anation o& a"coho"ism. The discom&ort( pain( and
punishment they e8perience shou"d presumab"y serve as a deterrent to drin$ing.
The &act that a"coho"ic persons continue to drin$ in the &ace o& &ami"y discord( "oss
o& emp"oyment( i""ness( and other se-ue"s o& repeated bouts is e8p"ained by the
pro8imity o& the drive reduction to the consumption o& a"coho"= that is( a"coho" has
the immediate e1ect o& reducing tension whi"e the unp"easant conse-uences o&
drun$en behavior come on"y "ater. The "earning paradigm( there&ore( &avors the
estab"ishment and repetition o& the resort to a"coho".
2n &act( the an8ieties and &ee"ings o& gui"t induced by the conse-uences o&
e8cessive a"coho" ingestion may themse"ves become the signa" &or another bout
o& a"coho" abuse. The way in which the cue &or another bout cou"d be the an8iety
itse"& is e8p"ained by the process o& stimu"us genera"i+ationA conditions or events
occurring at the time o& rein&orcement tend to ac-uire the characteristics o& state
o& an8iety or &ear( the emotiona" state itse"& ta$es on the properties o& a stimu"us(
thus triggering another drin$ing bout.
The ro"e o& punishment is becoming increasing"y important in &ormu"ating a
cause o& a"coho"ism based on the princip"es o& "earning theory. ;hi"e punishment
may serve to suppress a response( e8periments have shown that in some cases it
can serve as a reward and rein&orce the behavior. Thus i& the a"coho"ic person has
"earned to drin$ under conditions o& both reward and punishment( either type o&
condition may precipitate renewed drin$ing.
3mp"e e8perimenta" evidence supports the hypothesis that e8cessive a"coho"
consumption can be "earned. 'y gradua""y increasing the concentration o& a"coho"
in drin$ing water( psycho"ogists have been ab"e to induce the ingestion o& "arger
amounts o& a"coho" by an anima" than wou"d be norma""y consumed. <ther
researchers have been ab"e to achieve simi"ar resu"ts by varying the schedu"e o&
rein&orcement!that is( by re-uiring the anima" to consume "arger and "arger
amounts o& the a"coho" so"utions be&ore rewarding it. 2n this manner( anima"s "earn
to drin$ enough to become dependent on a"coho" in terms o& demonstrating
withdrawa" symptoms.
1. The primary purpose of the passage is to
205 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(A) compare the learning and reinforcement theory to other theories of alcoholism
(B) discuss how the beha'ior of alcoholic persons is e$plained by learning theory
(C) argue that alcoholism is a learned beha'ior
() e$plain how fear and an$iety stimulate and reinforce drinking in alcoholic
persons
(#) present e$perimental e'idence in support of the learning and reinforcement
theory of alcoholism
2. The passage contains information that answers which of the following "uestions%
(A) &hat are some of the psychosocial problems associated with alcoholism%
(B) &hich has pro'en more effecti'e in the treatment of alcoholism/ a'ersion
conditioning or reinforcement%
(C) &hy does alcohol ingestion reduce tension and gi'e rise to a feeling of
euphoria in most people%
() According to the learning theory/ in what cases does punishment reinforce
rather than deter drinking in alcoholic persons%
(#) Are some persons genetically predisposed to alcoholism%
.. 3t can be inferred from the passage that a'ersion conditioning is based primarily on
the principle that
(A) electric shock stimulates a response
(B) beha'ior that is punished will be a'oided
(C) pain is a stronger stimulus than pleasure
() alcohol reduces fear
(#) beha'ior that is rewarded will be repeated
0. According to the passage/ which of the following is true of stimulus
generali!ation%
(A) 3t contradicts the learning and reinforcement theory of alcoholism.
(B) 3t is the process by which an organism learns to respond to one stimulus but
not to similar stimuli.
(C) 3t supports the hypothesis that e$cessi'e alcohol consumption can be learned.
() 3t e$plains why people tend to a'oid beha'ior that is associated with painful
e$periences.
(#) 3t occurs when the conditions associated with a stimulus come to e'oke the
same response as the stimulus itself e'okes.
1. The author cites Conger4s e$periment with two groups of rats in order to
(A) show that ingestion of alcohol does not affect appetite
(B) corroborate the findings of other academic researchers
(C) show that alcohol decreases fear
GMAT 201
() dispro'e the learning and reinforcement theory
(#) con'ince the reader of the usefulness of beha'ioral research
2. According to the passage/ which of the following could induce an alcoholic to
drink%
3. The need to relie'e tension
33. An$ieties resulting from guilt feelings about pre'ious drinking bouts
333. @unishment for alcoholic beha'ior
(A) 3 only
(B) 33 only
(C) 3 and 33 only
() 33 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
-. The passage contains information that supports which of the following statements%
(A) 3f the pleasurable taste of whisky leads to an ac"uired taste for brandy/ then
stimulus generali!ation has occurred.
(B) ;lapping a child for misbeha'ing may o'er time encourage the child to repeat
the misbeha'ior.
(C) 3f a person has learned to drink under two sets of conditions/ both must be
present in order to induce that person to drink again.
() Continued hea'y use of alcohol usually causes se'ere damage to the body and
ner'ous system.
(#) &hen consumed in moderation/ alcohol may benefit health.
6. According to the passage/ how does the beha'ior of alcoholics appear to contradict
learning theory%
(A) Kearning theory holds that people are drawn by pleasant situations and
repelled by unpleasant ones/ but in alcoholics that pattern appears to be
re'ersed.
(B) Contrary to learning theory/ alcoholic persons do not respond to life situations
in terms of approach and a'oidance.
(C) The unpleasant conse"uences of e$cessi'e alcoholic consumption do not deter
alcoholics from drinking/ as might be predicted from learning theory.
() According to learning theory/ drinking is a refle$ response to an e$ternal
stimulus/ but for alcoholics it is more often a way to reduce an inner dri'e such
as fear.
(#) 3nstead of the feeling of euphoria predicted by learning theory/ alcoholics
fre"uently e$perience discomfort and pain after drinking.
,. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author 'iews the learning and
reinforcement theory of alcoholism as
202 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(A) credible
(B) unassailable
(C) outdated
() fallacious
(#) re'olutionary
Passage 90 (5/15)
(The &o""owing passage was written in 1977.)
%hanges in the vo"ume o& unemp"oyment are governed by three &undamenta"
&orcesA the growth o& the "abor &orce( the increase in output per man-hour( and the
growth o& tota" demand &or goods and services. %hanges in the average hours o&
wor$ enter in e8act"y para""e" &ashion but have been -uantitative"y "ess signi#cant.
3s productivity rises( "ess "abor is re-uired per do""ar o& nationa" product( or more
goods and services can be produced with the same number o& man-hours. 2&
output does not grow( emp"oyment wi"" certain"y &a""= i& production increases more
rapid"y than productivity ("ess any dec"ine in average hours wor$ed)( emp"oyment
must rise. 'ut the "abor &orce grows( too. Un"ess gross nationa" product (tota" #na"
e8penditure &or goods and services corrected &or price changes) rises more rapid"y
than the sum o& productivity increase and "abor &orce growth (again modi#ed &or
any change in hours o& wor$)( the increase in emp"oyment wi"" be inade-uate to
absorb the growth in the "abor &orce. 2nevitab"y the unemp"oyment rate wi""
increase. <n"y when tota" production e8pands &aster than the rate o& "abor &orce
growth p"us the rate o& productivity increase and minus the rate at which average
annua" hours &a"" does the unemp"oyment rate &a"". 2ncreases in productivity were
more important than growth o& the "abor &orce as sources o& the wide gains in
output e8perienced in the period &rom the end o& ;or"d ;ar 22 to the mid-si8ties.
These increases in potentia" production simp"y were not matched by increases in
demand ade-uate to maintain steady &u"" emp"oyment.
@8cept &or the recession years o& 19M9( 19/M( and 19/8( the rate o& economic
growth e8ceeded the rate o& productivity increase. )owever( in the "ate 19/0s
productivity and the "abor &orce were increasing more rapid"y than usua"( whi"e the
growth o& output was s"ower than usua". This accounted &or the change in
emp"oyment rates.
'ut i& part o& the nationa" purpose is to reduce and contain unemp"oyment(
arithmetic is not enough. ;e must $now which o& the basic &actors we can contro"
and which we wish to contro". Unemp"oyment wou"d have risen more s"ow"y or
&a""en more rapid"y i& productivity had increased more s"ow"y( or the "abor &orce
had increased more s"ow"y( or the hours o& wor$ had &a""en more steep"y( or tota"
output had grown more rapid"y. These are not independent &actors( however( and
a change in any o& them might have caused changes in the others.
3 society can choose to reduce the growth o& productivity( and it can probab"y
GMAT 20.
#nd ways to &rustrate its own creativity. )owever( whi"e a reduction in the growth
o& productivity at the e8pense o& potentia" output might resu"t in higher
emp"oyment in the short run( the "ong-run e1ect on the nationa" interest wou"d be
disastrous.
;e must a"so give consideration to the &act that hidden beneath nationa"
averages is continuous movement into( out o&( between( and within "abor mar$ets.
:or e8amp"e( 1/ years ago( the average number o& persons in the "abor &orce was
77.M mi""ion( with about LL.7 mi""ion emp"oyed and 7.9 mi""ion unemp"oyed. Iet 1M
mi""ion e8perienced some term o& unemp"oyment in that year. ome were new
entrants to the "abor &orce= others were "aid o1 temporari"y. The remainder were
those who were permanent"y or inde#nite"y severed &rom their 5obs. Thus( the
average number unemp"oyed during a year understates the actua" vo"ume o&
invo"untary disp"acement that occurs.
)igh unemp"oyment is not an inevitab"e resu"t o& the pace o& techno"ogica"
change but the conse-uence o& passive pub"ic po"icy. ;e can anticipate a
moderate increase in the "abor &orce accompanied by a s"ow and irregu"ar dec"ine
in hours o& wor$. 2t &o""ows that the output o& the economy!and the aggregate
demand to buy it!must grow by more than M percent a year 5ust to prevent the
unemp"oyment rate &rom rising( and by even more i& the unemp"oyment rate is to
&a"" &urther. Iet our economy has se"dom( i& ever( grown at a rate greater than 7./
percent &or any e8tended "ength o& time. ;e have no cause o& comp"acency.
9ositive #sca"( monetary( and manpower po"icies wi"" be needed in the &uture.
1. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) define the economic terms used in the discussion of employment
(B) critici!e the decisions of past administrations during recession years
(C) call for the application of positi'e economic control policies in the years that
lie ahead
() allay current fears about increasing unemployment
(#) document the rise of American producti'ity since &orld &ar 33
2. According to the passage/ if the labor force does not grow and there is no decline
in the a'erage number of hours worked/ under which of the following conditions
will the employment rate ine'itably rise%
(A) Total production e$pands faster than the total demand for goods and ser'ices.
(B) The total demand for goods and ser'ices and producti'ity both rise.
(C) 8utput per man(hour and gross national product both rise.
() @roducti'ity increases more rapidly than production.
(#) @roduction increases more rapidly than output per man(hour.
.. 3t can be inferred from the passage than in the late 1,15s/ which of the following
occurred%
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3. The growth in output was less than ..1 percent.
33. The a'erage number of hours worked declined.
333. The increase in output per man(hour was greater than usual.
(A) 3 only
(B) 33 only
(C) 333 only
() 3 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
0. 3t can be inferred from the passage that during the recession years of 1,0,/ 1,10/
and 1,16/ which of the following most likely occurred%
(A) The labor force increased more rapidly than it did in any other year between
1,01 and 1,21.
(B) ?ore labor was re"uired per dollar of national product than in any other year
between 1,01 and 1,21.
(C) The a'erage number of hours worked rose.
() >ull employment was attained.
(#) The rate of unemployment increased.
1. 3t can be inferred from the passage that if a policy to increase employment by
reducing the growth of producti'ity at the e$pense of potential output were
adopted/ the author most likely would regard it as
(A) sound but inade"uate
(B) o'erly aggressi'e
(C) fri'olous
() insidious
(#) unob<ectionable
2. 3t can be inferred from the passage that/ according to the author/ the actual number
of people who e$perience some term of unemployment during any gi'en year
(A) is the difference between the number of persons in the labor force and the
number of persons employed that year
(B) does not reflect mo'ement into/ out of/ between/ and within labor markets
(C) e$ceeds the a'erage number unemployed during that year
() o'erstate the 'olume of in'oluntary displacement that occurs during the year
(#) is impossible to calculate
-. The passage contains information that answers all of the following "uestions
#DC#@TE
(A) &hat is gross national product%
(B) &hat effect does a change in producti'ity in'ariably ha'e on gross national
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product%
(C) :nder what conditions might employment rise in the short run%
() &hat effect does an increase in output and a decrease in number of hours
worked ha'e on producti'ity%
(#) &hat was the a'erage number of people unemployed in 1,22%
6. &hich of the following best describes the organi!ation of the fifth paragraph of the
passage%
(A) An assertion is made/ data are pro'ided to support it/ and the assertion is
reiterated in different words.
(B) ;e'eral figures are gi'en and hypothesis is formulated to e$plain them.
(C) An e$ample is gi'en to support the conclusion drawn in the preceding
paragraph.
() A statement is made/ data are pro'ided to illustrate and amplify the statement/
and a conclusion is drawn.
(#) A generali!ation is made and an e$ample is gi'en to refute it.
,. &hich of the following proposals best responds to the author4s concerns%
(A) The go'ernment should manipulate the si!e of the labor force to pre'ent future
recessions.
(B) The go'ernment should maintain some controls o'er the economy/ but it
should allow the employment rate to rise and fall with the gross national
product/ as a check on labor costs.
(C) @eople should accept that unemployment is undesirable but una'oidable.
() The go'ernment should manage the economy carefully.
(#) The go'ernment should not interfere in the interplay among the three forces
affecting unemployment.
15. &hich of the following best summari!es the main idea of the passage%
(A) &e can and must take steps to ensure that the unemployment rate does not
continue to rise as our population and our use of technology increase.
(B) 3ncreases in potential production must be matched by increases in demand in
order to maintain steady full employment.
(C) )igh unemployment is not an ine'itable result of the pace of technological
change but the conse"uence of passi'e public policy.
() 3f part of the national purpose is to reduce and contain unemployment/
arithmetic is not enough.
(#) >ull employment/ regardless of fluctuations in the economy/ is within the realm
of possibility.
Passage 91 (6/15)
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3 ma5ority ta$en co""ective"y may be regarded as a being whose opinions and(
most &re-uent"y( whose interests are opposed to those o& another being( which is
sty"ed a minority. 2& it is admitted that a man possessing abso"ute power may
misuse that power by wronging his adversaries( why shou"d a ma5ority not be
"iab"e to the same reproachG Ben are not apt to change their characters by
agg"omeration= nor does their patience in the presence o& obstac"es increase with
the consciousness o& their strength. :or these reasons we shou"d not wi""ing"y
invest any group o& our &e""ows with that un"imited authority which we shou"d
re&use to any individua".
<ne socia" power must a"ways predominate over others( but "iberty is
endangered when this power is chec$ed by no obstac"es which may retard its
course and &orce it to moderate its own vehemence. Un"imited power is in itse"& a
bad and dangerous thing( and no power on earth is so worthy o& honor &or itse"& or
o& reverentia" obedience to the rights which it represents that we shou"d admit its
uncontro""ed and a""-predominant authority. ;hen the right and means o& abso"ute
command are con&erred on a peop"e or a $ing( on an aristocracy or a democracy(
a monarchy or a repub"ic( there has been imp"anted the germ o& tyranny.
The main evi" o& the present democratic institutions o& the United tates does
not arise( as is o&ten asserted in @urope( &rom their wea$ness( but &rom their
overpowering strength= the e8cessive "iberty which reigns in that country is not so
a"arming as is the very inade-uate security which e8ists against tyranny.
;hen an individua" or a party is wronged in the United tates( to whom can he
app"y &or redressG 2& to the pub"ic opinion( pub"ic opinion constitutes the ma5ority=
i& to the "egis"ature( it represents the ma5ority and imp"icit"y obeys its in5unctions=
i& to the e8ecutive power( it is appointed by the ma5ority and remains a passive
too" in its hands= the pub"ic troops consist o& the ma5ority under arms= the 5ury is
the ma5ority invested with the right o& hearing 5udicia" cases( and in certain states
even the 5udges are e"ected by the ma5ority. )owever ini-uitous or absurd the evi"
comp"ained about( no sure barrier is estab"ished to de&end against it.
1. &hich of the following would be the most appropriate title for the passage%
(A) The Tyranny of the ?a<ority
(B) emocracyE Triumph of the @eople
(C) Abuses of @ower
() The >ailure of emocracy in the :nited ;tates
(#) ?inority =ights
2. &hich of the following best paraphrases the author4s statement in the third
sentence of paragraph 1 (lines -(11)%
(A) 3ndi'iduals do not change their beha'ior when they act in concert with others
who are likeminded/ and/ knowing they are acting as part of the group/ they are
GMAT 20-
not likely to show greater restraint when opposed than they would if they were
acting indi'idually.
(B) Broups are not different from one another/ they all show strong impatience
when thwarted.
(C) The character of men is formed by the accumulation of their traits/ and
patience is not a common trait among men of strength.
() The leopard does not change its spots no matter how long it li'es/ and it is/ and
remains/ patient in the presence of obstacles.
(#) ?en change their beha'ior when they act in groupsI they are more patient
when they are in the company of their fellows than they are when they are
alone.
.. &ith which of the following statements would the author of the passage be most
likely to agree%
(A) emocracy is no greater defense against tyranny than is monarchy or
aristocracy.
(B) ?inority rule would probably be more responsi'e to the needs of all people
than ma<ority rule.
(C) 9o go'ernment should be trusted since all go'ernments are e"ually tyrannical.
() ;ince one social power must always predominate o'er others/ it is futile to
pro'ide checks and balances in go'ernment.
(#) To render itself immune to the germ of tyranny/ the :nited ;tates should
strengthen its political institutions.
0. &hich of the following/ assuming that each is true/ would most weaken the point
that the author is making in the last two paragraphs of the passage%
(A) The framers of the :.;. Constitution deliberately separated the three branches
of the go'ernment to pre'ent tyranny.
(B) There is not a single ma<ority in the :nited ;tatesI there are many ma<orities/
each composed of a different collection of indi'iduals and each acting as a
restraint on the others.
(C) The >irst Amendment to the :.;. Constitution specifically guarantees the right
of each citi!en to petition the go'ernment for redress of grie'ances.
() #'en though the :nited ;tates is not a direct democracy/ all :.;. citi!ens ha'e
an e"ual opportunity to participate in political life and to hold public office.
(#) The framers of the :.;. Constitution had two primary concernsE to pre'ent the
go'ernment from e$ercising tyranny o'er the people and to pre'ent the
ma<ority from e$ercising tyranny o'er the minority.
1. The author4s treatment of the topic of the passage can best be described as
(A) ironic
(B) neutral
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(C) logical
() irre'erent
(#) diffident
2. 3n the passage/ the author is primarily concerned with
(A) challenging a commonly held belief
(B) contrasting two opposing 'iews
(C) ad'ocating a course of action
() reconciling an apparent conflict
(#) proposing a solution to an unrecogni!ed problem
Passage 92 (7/15)
3"though much has been written about the theo"ogica" conDicts with Karwinian
theory( "itt"e is $nown o& the power&u" scienti#c ob5ections that modi#ed Karwin6s
be"ie&s.
Kuring Karwin6s "i&etime( the accepted theory o& heredity was not Bende"6s
theory o& particu"ate inheritance( which( though pub"ished( was unrecogni+ed( but
the theory o& b"ending inheritance( which ho"ds that &orms intermediate between
those o& the parents resu"t &rom mating. Cen$in pointed out that i& a rare and
&avorab"e mutation occurred( it wou"d soon be b"ended out by repeated crossings
&rom the wi"d-type &orm. Kisputing Karwin6s conception o& evo"ution as proceeding
through the natura" se"ection o& those with s"ight"y better characteristics that
arose random"y( Cen$in conc"uded that natura" se"ection cou"d not account &or the
tremendous diversity o& "i&e( hypothesi+ing that "arge numbers o& organisms
mutated simu"taneous"y in the same direction!a contro""ed orthogenetic process
resemb"ing a series o& >specia" creations.?
ince >specia" creationism? was an ideo"ogica" target o& his( Karwin &ound
himse"& in a -uandary. 3"though he did not abandon his theory( he admitted that
natura" se"ection p"ayed a much sma""er part in evo"ution than he had previous"y
c"aimed. )e a"so embraced the Jamarc$ian concept that ac-uired traits in parents
are transmitted to their o1spring( thus providing a mechanism by which an entire
popu"ation cou"d change in the same direction at once.
3nother potent ob5ection came &rom the physicists "ed by Jord Se"vin( who
contested the assumption o& previous geo"ogists and bio"ogists that "i&e had
e8isted &or bi""ions o& years( i& not in#nite"y. )ow( they as$ed( cou"d evo"ution
proceed by s"ow steps in mi""ions o& years( and how cou"d advanced &orms
recent"y evo"ved show such great di1erencesG The Se"vinists( basing their
conc"usion on the assumption that the sun was an incandescent "i-uid mass
rapid"y radiating heat( ca"cu"ated that the age o& the earth was between 40 and
M0 mi""ion years.
GMAT 20,
3dmitting that their ca"cu"ations were correct and their premises rationa"(
Karwin was &orced to ad5ust this theory. )e proposed that change had occurred
much more rapid"y in the past than in the present( where species seemed static(
and that more advanced &orms varied more rapid"y than "ower &orms. This
provided &urther reason to advocate Jamarc$6s theory o& inheritance( because that
cou"d account &or the rapid change.
2nteresting"y( both these retreats o& Karwin were "ater shown to be &au"ty. The
discovery that the sun runs on a near"y in#nite amount o& atomic &ue" tota""y
inva"idated Se"vin6s argument( Bende" was >rediscovered? in the twentieth
century( when it was pointed out that the particu"ate nature o& inheritance meant
that &avorab"e mutation not on"y cou"d persist( but cou"d rapid"y become
preva"ent.
1. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) outline the process by which arwin formulated and modified his theory of
natural selection
(B) propose a new interpretation of arwin4s theory of e'olution
(C) e$plain how other scientists of the time helped arwin modify and perfect his
theories
() defend arwinian theory against the ob<ections raised by arwin4s
contemporaries in the scientific community
(#) discuss some of the scientific contro'ersy that arwin sparked and describe his
response to it
2. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the theory of blending inheritance would
predict that the offspring of
(A) two strains of snapdragons/ one with abnormal/ radically symmetrical flowers
and the other with normal/ bilaterally symmetrical flowers/ would always ha'e
normal/ bilaterally symmetrical flowers
(B) a white horse and a black horse would always be gray
(C) a man with type A blood and a woman with type B blood would always ha'e
type A/ type B/ or type AB blood
() a fly with large eyes and a fly with small eyes would always ha'e one large
eye and one small eye
(#) two pink(flowered plants would always be red or white
.. 3t can be inferred from the passage that *wild(type+ (line 12) means
(A) nonmutant
(B) rare
(C) abnormal
() random
(#) fa'orable
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0. &hich of the following/ if it could be demonstrated/ would tend to support the
Kamarckian concept that arwin embraced%
(A) )uman beings e'ol'ed from now(e$tinct animals much like chimpan!ees as a
result of an erratic accumulation of changes in the gene pool through thousands
of generations.
(B) ;ome parental traits disappear in offspring and reappear in the following
generation.
(C) All species of organisms were immutably created in their present forms.
() =ats who ha'e had their trails cut off produce tailless offspring.
(#) Those hereditary traits that make their owners more likely to grow up and
reproduce become increasingly common in a population from one generation
to the ne$t.
1. The author4s attitude toward Aenkin and Mel'in can best be described as
(A) respectful
(B) contemptuous
(C) ambi'alent
() denunciatory
(#) adulatory
2. According to the passage/ arwin modified his beliefs in order to
(A) bring them into line with the theory of particulate inheritance
(B) dispro'e Kord Mel'in4s 'iew on the age of the earth
(C) meet the ob<ections of Aenkin and Kamarck
() resol'e theological conflicts about e'olution
(#) dissociate himself from those who belie'ed in *special creationism+ (line 21)
-. The author sets off the word *redisco'ered+ (line 11) in "uotation marks in order
to
(A) emphasi!e that ma<or scientific theories are rarely acknowledged or accepted
when they are first promulgated
(B) indicate that the term is somewhat ironic/ since ?endel4s work was 'irtually
ignored when it was published
(C) rebuke the scientific community for deliberately suppressing ?endel4s work
until long after his death
() underscore the similarity between ?endel4s theory of particulate inheritance
and the theory of blending inheritance that was accepted during his lifetime
(#) suggest that a scientist of arwin4s stature should ha'e read ?endel4s work
when it was first published and immediately recogni!ed its importance
6. 3t can be inferred from the passage that if ?endel4s work had been recogni!ed and
accepted during arwin4s lifetime/ it would ha'e had which of the following
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effect%
3. 3t would ha'e refuted Aenkin4s ob<ections to arwin4s theories.
33. 3t would ha'e supported arwin4s theory that e'olution proceeds by 'ery slow
steps o'er millions of years.
333. 3t would ha'e clarified and supported arwin4s theory of natural selection.
(A) 3 only
(B) 333 only
(C) 3 and 333 only
() 33 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
,. All of the following can be reasonably inferred from the passage #DC#@TE
(A) The idea that e'olution occurs by means of natural selection was not widely
accepted until the twentieth century.
(B) arwin4s theories were originally predicated on the assumption that the earth
is more than 05 million years old.
(C) ?any of arwin4s ideas about heredity were later shown to be incorrect.
() 8ther scientists of arwin4s time/ including both Aenkin and Kamarck/
belie'ed in e'olution.
(#) arwin was the only scientist of his day who belie'ed in natural selection.
Passage 93 (8/15)
2n terms o& its preva"ence( obesity is the "eading disease in the United tates.
There is no universa""y accepted standard &or obesity( de#ned genera""y as an
e8cess o& adipose tissue( but a common ru"e o& thumb c"assi#es peop"e who are
more than 40 percent above their desirab"e weight as obese. 'y this measure( 70
percent o& men and M0 percent o& women in 3merica are obese. 3"though studies
show that &ew o& these peop"e wi"" ever recover &u""y and permanent"y &rom the
disease( the incidence o& obesity in &uture generations can be reduced.
3dipose tissue is a triumph o& evo"ution. :at yie"ds 9 ca"ories per gram( whi"e
protein( "i$e carbohydrates( yie"ds on"y M ca"ories per gram. :at a"so contains
much "ess water than protein does. There&ore( &at is much more e*cient &or
storing e8cess energy than is protein. 9rimitive humans( with uncertain &ood
sources( had a great need &or e8cess &at( and their bodies adapted according"y.
Bodern humans( with a predictab"e &ood supp"y and a sedentary "i&e-sty"e( are
burdened by this vestige o& evo"ution. 3"though they need some adipose tissue to
provide insu"ation and protect interna" organs &rom in5ury( modern humans need
much "ess than their primitive ancestors did.
2n an attempt to shed e8cess adipose tissue( many 3mericans turn &rom one
&ad diet to another( and a bi""ion-do""ar diet industry has grown up to aid them in
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their e1orts. ,everthe"ess( the #ve-year cure rate &or obesity is very "ow. 2n &act(
by comparison( cancer is more curab"e. The reasons &or this are psycho"ogica" as
we"" as physio"ogica".
:rom a physica" standpoint( "osing a pound or two a wee$ &or a &ew wee$s is
not di*cu"t because most o& the "oss is in the &orm o& protein and water( and
protein carries &our times its weight in water. )owever( protein is a"so the on"y
source o& nitrogen in the body( and when the body "oses too much nitrogen( it acts
to correct the imba"ance by e8creting "ess nitrogen than it ta$es in. )ence beyond
a certain point additiona" weight "oss must come &rom adipose tissue( which(
because o& its compactness( ta$es "onger to shed. The body6s tendency to return
to nitrogen ba"ance and to protect its energy reserves can be so strong that
dieters may stop "osing or even gain weight whi"e sti"" e8pending more ca"ories
than they ingest. 3s a resu"t( they &re-uent"y su1er not on"y &rom hunger(
wea$ness( and a decreased metabo"ic rate( but a"so &rom depression and
inactivity( a"" o& which "ead them to abandon their diets. 9robab"y because o&
numerous psycho"ogica" &actors as we"" as physio"ogica" &actors such as increased
"ipid synthesis( they then tend to regain weight rapid"y.
;hi"e vigorous attempts to reduce obesity in 3merica shou"d be aimed at a""
a1ected( the most success&u" e1orts are "i$e"y to be those directed toward
chi"dren. 2& the advertising and &ood industries stop trying to se"" high-ca"orie(
nutritiona""y de#cient &ood to chi"dren( and i& parents understand that the &eeding
patterns they impose on their chi"dren can determine the ado"escent and adu"t
eating habits those chi"dren wi"" deve"op( the &uture generation may not be as &at
as ours is.
1. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) e$plain why pre'ention is the best defense against obesity
(B) critici!e the food and ad'ertising industries for encouraging bad eating habits
and thus contributing to the pre'alence of obesity in the :nited ;tates
(C) recruit 'olunteers for a national crusade against obesity
() discourage dependency on fad diets as a method for losing weight
(#) argue that obesity is a genetic disorder that is 'irtually impossible to cure
2. By the rule of thumb mentioned in the passage/ which of the following would be
considered obese%
3. A 21(pound toddler whose desirable weight is 25 pounds
33. A large(framed woman weighting 105 pounds whose desirable weight for her
height is between 112 and 125 pounds
333. A 1-1(pound man who was 21 pounds o'er his desirable weight and then
gained an additional 15 pounds
(A) 33 only
(B) 333 only
GMAT 21.
(C) 3 and 333 only
() 33 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
.. &hich of the following/ if true/ best helps to e$plain why a greater percentage of
women than men in the :nited ;tates are considered obese by the measure
mentioned in the passage%
(A) The measure is the same for both men and women/ but it is normal for women
to carry a greater percentage of fat at any weight.
(B) The a'erage man is hea'ier than the a'erage womanI therefore/ men generally
need to gain more weight than women do before they are considered obese.
(C) There are more women in the :nited ;tates than there are men.
() Because of the influence of the fashion and film industries/ many American
women consider themsel'es obese e'en though they are not.
(#) &omen burn off fewer calories than men because their bodies contain a lower
percentage of muscle/ and muscle burns calories at a faster rate than fat.
0. According to the passage/ modern humans do not need to store as much fat as
primiti'e humans because
(A) modern humans work fewer hours than their primiti'e forebears did
(B) the diet of modern humans is higher in protein than was the diet of primiti'e
humans
(C) modern humans eat more regularly than primiti'e humans did
() primiti'e humans had to insulate their bodies from the cold whereas modern
humans do not
(#) the food consumed by modern humans has a higher nutritional 'alue than that
consumed by primiti'e humans
1. All of the following statements about protein are supported by the passage
#DC#@TE
(A) Bram for gram/ foods that are high in protein are lower in calories than foods
that are high in fat.
(B) The body gets all of its nitrogen from protein.
(C) 9ine grams of protein yield the same number of calories as 0 grams of fat.
() @rotein is not con'erted into adipose tissue.
(#) >i'e grams of protein carry 25 grams of water.
2. The author mentions that *cancer is more curable+ (line 2-) than obesity in order
to
(A) underscore the point that obesity is the leading disease in the :nited ;tates
(B) support the conclusion that it is easier to keep people from becoming obese
than it is to cure them once they are
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(C) discourage obese people from trying to lose weight
() demonstrate by analogy that more money should be spent on obesity research
(#) refute the contention that the causes of obesity are purely physiological
-. The passage contains information that answers which of the following "uestions%
(A) &hat percent of the total population in the :nited ;tates is obese%
(B) &hat psychological factors cause people to gain weight rapidly once they go
off a diet%
(C) &hat function does nitrogen perform in the body%
() )ow is an indi'idual4s desirable eight determined%
(#) 3f a snack bar contains 1.5 calories and 0 grams of fat/ what percentage of the
calories in the bar come from fat%
6. The author mentions all of the following as factors that cause obese people to
abandon diets #DC#@T
(A) depression
(B) increased lipid synthesis
(C) a negati'e nitrogen balance
() ener'ation
(#) a lower metabolic rate
,. &hich of the following/ if it could be demonstrated/ would most strengthen the
claim that the feeding patterns of children *can determine the adolescent and adult
eating habits those children will de'elop+ (lines 11(12)%
(A) The incidence of obesity in children whose parents are both obese is 65
percent.
(B) Thirty(si$ percent of infants who are obese during their first half year of life
are also o'erweight between the ages of 25 and .2.
(C) #$cessi'e weight gain during the teen years can set the stage for a lifetime
battle against the bulge.
() :p to 65 percent of youngsters who are fat as 1(year(olds end up fat as adults.
(#) The a'erage child witnesses more than 11/555 commercials a year for snacks/
candy/ and soft drinks laden with fat/ sugar/ and calories.
Passage 94 (9/15)
The impressionist painters e8press"y disavowed any interest in phi"osophy( yet
their new approach to art had &ar-reaching phi"osophica" imp"ications. :or the view
o& matter that the 2mpressionists assumed di1ered pro&ound"y &rom the view that
had previous"y prevai"ed among artists. This view he"ped to uni&y the artistic
wor$s created in the new sty"e.
The ancient Eree$s had conceived o& the wor"d in concrete terms( even
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endowing abstract -ua"ities with bodies. This Eree$ view o& matter persisted( so
&ar as painting was concerned( into the nineteenth century. The 2mpressionists( on
the other hand( viewed "ight( not matter( as the u"timate visua" rea"ity. The
phi"osopher Taine e8pressed the 2mpressionist view o& things when he said( >The
chie& Rperson6 in a picture is the "ight in which everything is bathed.?
2n 2mpressionist painting( so"id bodies became mere reDectors o& "ight( and
distinctions between one ob5ect and another became arbitrary conventions= &or by
"ight a"" things were we"ded together. The treatment o& both co"or and out"ine was
trans&ormed as we"". %o"or( &ormer"y considered a property inherent in an ob5ect(
was seen to be mere"y the resu"t o& vibrations o& "ight on the ob5ect6s co"or"ess
sur&ace. 3nd out"ine( whose &unction had &ormer"y been to indicate the "imits o&
ob5ects( now mar$ed instead mere"y the boundary between units o& pattern( which
o&ten merged into one another.
The 2mpressionist wor"d was composed not o& separate ob5ects but o& many
sur&aces on which "ight struc$ and was reDected with varying intensity to the eye
through the atmosphere( which modi#ed it. 2t was this process that produced the
mosaic o& co"ors that &ormed an 2mpressionist canvas. >Jight becomes the so"e
sub5ect o& the picture(? writes Bauc"air. >The interest o& the ob5ect upon which it
p"ays is secondary. 9ainting thus conceived becomes a pure"y optic art.?
:rom this pro&ound"y revo"utionary &orm o& art( then( a"" ideas!re"igious( mora"(
psycho"ogica"!were e8c"uded( and so were a"" emotions e8cept certain aesthetic
ones. The peop"e( p"aces( and things depicted in an 2mpressionist picture do not
te"" story or convey any specia" meaning= they are( instead( mere"y parts o&
pattern o& "ight drawn &rom nature and captured on canvas by the artist.
1. The author of the passage is primarily concerned with
(A) e$plaining how the 3mpressionists were influenced by scientific studies of
light and color
(B) discussing the philosophical implications of the 3mpressionist style of painting
(C) identifying the re'olutionary artistic techni"ues de'eloped by the 3mpressionist
painters
() analy!ing the influence of thinkers like Taine and ?auclair on 3mpressionist
painting
(#) defending the importance of the 3mpressionist painters in the history of modern
art
2. According to the passage/ the 3mpressionists differed from the ancient Breeks in
that the 3mpressionists
(A) considered color to be property inherent in ob<ects
(B) placed a higher 'alue on the narrati'e element in painting
(C) depicted the ob<ects in a painting as isolated/ rather than united in a single
pattern
212 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
() treated light/ rather than matter/ as the ultimate reality
(#) regarded art primarily as a medium for e$pressing moral and aesthetic ideas
.. The author4s "uotation of a statement by Taine (lines 11(12) ser'es which of the
following functions in the passage%
(A) 3t furnishes a specific e$ample of an 3mpressionist painting that features light
as its chief sub<ect.
(B) 3t resol'es an apparent contradiction in the philosophy of the 3mpressionists.
(C) 3t "ualifies the statement that the ancient Breeks 'iewed the world in concrete
terms.
() 3t summari!es the uni"ue perspecti'e that the 3mpressionists brought to
painting.
(#) 3t pro'ides a concrete illustration of the far(reaching philosophical implications
of 3mpressionism.
0. According to the passage/ the 3mpressionists belie'ed that the atmosphere
(A) reflects light with 'arying intensity
(B) creates the illusion of color in colorless surfaces
(C) modifies the shapes of ob<ects
() is the result of 'ibrations of light
(#) affects the way we percei'ed color
1. The author4s use of the term *mosaic of colors+ (line .2) suggests that
3mpressionist paintings were characteri!ed by
(A) discontinuous dabs of unmi$ed pigment
(B) broad/ sweeping brush strokes
(C) clearly defined forms and ob<ects
() sub<ects de'oid of emoti'e or literary "ualities
(#) the glowing reds/ greens/ and midnight blues of stained glass
2. The passage contains information that answers which of the following "uestions%
3. )ow did the 3mpressionists percei'e matter%
33. &hat is the unifying element in a typical 3mpressionist painting%
33. )ow did the 3mpressionists4 'iew of color differ from that of eighteenth(
century artists%
(A) 3 only
(B) 333 only
(C) 3 and 33 only
() 33 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
GMAT 21-
-. The ideas attributed to the 3mpressionists in the passage suggest that an
3mpressionist painter would be most likely to agree with which of the following
statement%
(A) A picture is significant primarily as a manifestation of the artist4s mental state.
(B) The highest purpose of art is to teach religious truths.
(C) The "uality of a picture has nothing to do with the nature of the ob<ects it
depicts.
() An artist should stri'e to recreate on can'as the inner nature of ob<ects from
real life.
(#) 3t is futile to attempt to paint pictures that aim to copy the optical appearance
of the world.
Passage 95 (10/15)
Radiation occurs &rom three natura" sourcesA radioactive materia" in the
environment( such as in soi"( roc$( or bui"ding materia"s= cosmic rays= and
substances in the human body( such as radioactive potassium in bone and
radioactive carbon in tissues. These natura" sources account &or an e8posure o&
about 100 mi""irems a year &or the average 3merican.
The "argest sing"e source o& man-made radiation is medica" N rays( yet most
scientists agree that ha+ards &rom this source are not as great as those &rom
weapons test &a""out( since strontium 90 and carbon 1M become incorporated into
the body( hence de"ivering radiation &or an entire "i&etime. The issue is( however(
by no means uncontroversia". The "ast two decades have witnessed intensi#ed
e8amination and dispute about the e1ects o& "ow-"eve" radiation( beginning with
the United ,ations cienti#c %ommittee on the @1ects o& 3tomic Radiation( which
reported in 19/8 that >even the sma""est amounts o& radiation are "i$e"y to cause
de"eterious genetic and perhaps a"so somatic e1ects.?
3 survey conducted in 'ritain con#rmed that an abnorma""y high percentage o&
patients su1ering &rom arthritis o& the spine who had been treated with N rays
contracted cancer. 3nother study revea"ed a high incidence o& chi"dhood cancer in
cases where the mother had been given prenata" pe"vic N rays. These studies
have pointed to the need to ree8amine the assumption that e8posure to "ow-"inear
energy trans&er presents on"y a minor ris$.
Recent"y( e8amination o& the death certi#cates o& &ormer emp"oyees o& a ;est
%oast p"ant that produces p"utonium &or nuc"ear weapons revea"ed mar$ed"y
higher rates &or cancers o& the pancreas( "ung( bone marrow( and "ymphatic
system than wou"d have been e8pected in a norma" popu"ation.
;hi"e the ,ationa" 3cademy o& ciences committee attributes this di1erence to
chemica" or other environmenta" causes rather than radiation( other scientists
maintain that any radiation e8posure( no matter how sma""( "eads to an increase in
cancer ris$. 2t is be"ieved by some that a dose o& one rem( i& sustained over many
216 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
generations( wou"d "ead to an increase o& 1 percent in the number o& serious
genetic de&ects at birth( a possib"e increase o& 1(000 disorders per mi""ion births.
2n the meantime( regu"atory e1orts have been disorgani+ed( &ragmented(
inconsistent( and characteri+ed by internecine stri&e and bureaucratic de"ays. 3
enate report conc"uded that coordination o& regu"ation among invo"ved
departments and agencies was not possib"e because o& 5urisdictiona" disputes and
con&usion. <ne &edera" agency has been unsuccess&u" in its e1orts to obtain
su*cient &unding and manpower &or the en&orcement o& e8isting radiation "aws(
and the chairperson o& a pane" especia""y created to deve"op a coordinated &edera"
program has resigned.
1. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) e$plain the difference between natural and man(made radiation
(B) arouse concern about the risks connected with e$posure to radiation
(C) critici!e the :nited 9ations ;cientific Committee on the #ffects of Atomic
=adiation
() ad'ocate limiting the use of atomic weapons testing/ since the fallout is
e$tremely ha!ardous
(#) publici!e the results of British medical sur'ey
2. &hich of the following/ according to the passage/ is a list of three natural sources
of radiation%
(A) =adioacti'e potassium in bone/ strontium ,5/ uranium ore
(B) Carbon 10 in tissues/ cosmic rays/ D rays
(C) Cosmic rays/ radioacti'e potassium in bones/ radioacti'e carbon in tissues
() @lutonium/ radioacti'e material in rock/ strontium ,5
(#) D rays/ carbon 10/ plutonium
.. &hich of the following does the author cite in support of the "uotation from the
:nited 9ations ;cientific Committee on the #ffects of Atomic =adiation (lines 16(
25)%
3. ;trontium ,5 and carbon 10 become incorporated into the body and deli'er
radiation for an entire lifetime.
33. An abnormally high percentage of patients with arthritis of the spine who were
treated with D rays subse"uently contracted cancer.
333. A high incidence of cancer appeared among children of mothers who had been
gi'en prenatal pel'ic D rays.
(A) 3 only
(B) 33 only
(C) 3 and 33 only
() 33 and 333 only
GMAT 21,
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
0. The passage contains information that answers which of the following "uestions%
(A) )ow many millirems of radiation from man(made sources is the a'erage
American e$posed to each year%
(B) 3s e$posure to radiation linked to any other diseases besides cancer%
(C) )ow many types of radiation are there%
() &hat is the ma$imum le'el of radiation to which humans can safely be
e$posed%
(#) &hy is e$posure to the fallout from weapons testing considered by some to be
more ha!ardous than e$posure to D rays%
1. According to the passage/ some scientists belie'e that a dose of one rem of
radiation continued o'er a period of generations would
(A) raise the strontium ,5 le'els in the body but otherwise ha'e little effect
(B) relie'e the acute suffering of those afflicted with arthritis of the spine without
side effects
(C) ha'e the effect of increasing by 1 percent the cases of serious genetic defects
() ha'e little impact on the regulatory efforts of federal agencies
(#) cause an additional 1/555 per million cases of cancer of the bone marrow or
lymphatic system
2. 3t can be inferred from the last paragraph of the passage that the chairperson who
resigned from the panel to de'elop a coordinated federal program for radiation
regulation most likely did so because
(A) he or she disagreed with the findings of the ;enate committee
(B) his or her agency could not obtain funding or manpower for implementation of
e$isting laws
(C) he or she supported the position of the 9ational Academy of ;ciences
committee and opposed regulation of radiation e$posure
() he or she was disorgani!ed and inconsistent in chairing the panel
(#) regulatory efforts ha'e been balked by disputes/ confusion/ and bureaucratic
delays
-. The passage contains e'idence suggesting that it was most likely written
(A) in 1,16
(B) by a British scientist
(C) for the <ournal of the 9ational Academy of ;ciences
() by a lobbyist for the defense industry
(#) in the late 1,-5s
6. The passage implies that each of the following statements about radiation has been
225 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
disputed #DC#@T%
(A) #'en small doses of radiation are likely to cause birth defects.
(B) #$posure to low(linear energy transfer presents only a minor risk.
(C) ?any small doses of radiation are as harmful as a single large dose.
() )umans can tolerate a certain amount of radiation.
(#) #$posure to radiation causes cancer.
Passage 96 (11/15)
Bany readers assume that( as a neoc"assica" "iterary critic( amue" Cohnson
wou"d norma""y pre&er the abstract( the &orma"( and the regu"ated to the concrete(
the natura"( and the spontaneous in a wor$ o& "iterature. Iet any c"ose reading o&
Cohnson6s criticism shows that Cohnson is not b"ind to the importance o& the
immediate( vivid( speci#c detai" in "iterature= rather( he wou"d underscore the
need &or the telling rather than the mere"y accidental detai".
2n other ways( too( Cohnson6s critica" method had much in common with that o&
the Romantics( with whom Cohnson and( indeed( the entire neoc"assica" tradition
are genera""y supposed to be in conDict. Cohnson was we"" aware( &or e8amp"e( o&
the steri"ity o& "iterary criticism that is "ega"istic or pedantic( as was the case with
the worst products o& the neoc"assica" schoo". )is &amous argument against the
s"avish &o""owing o& the >three unities? o& c"assica" drama is a good e8amp"e( as is
his de&ense o& the supposed"y i""egitimate >tragicomic? mode o& ha$espeare6s
"atest p"ays. ,ote( in particu"ar( the basis o& that de&enseA >That this is a practice
contrary to the ru"es o& criticism(? Cohnson wrote( >wi"" be readi"y a""owed= but
there is a"ways an appea" &rom criticism to nature.?
The sentiment thus e8pressed cou"d easi"y be endorsed by any o& the
Romantics= the empiricism it e8emp"i#es is vita" -ua"ity o& Cohnson6s criticism( as is
the wi""ingness to 5ettison >"aws? o& criticism when to do so ma$es possib"e a more
direct appea" to the emotions o& the reader. 3ddison6s Cato( high"y praised in
Cohnson6s day &or its >correctness(? is damned with &aint praise by CohnsonA >Cato
a1ords a sp"endid e8hibition o& arti#cia" and #ctitious manners( and de"ivers 5ust
and nob"e sentiments( in diction easy( e"evated( and harmonious( but its hopes
and &ears communicate no vibration to the heart.? ;ordsworth cou"d hard"y
demur.
@ven on the -uestion o& poetic diction( which( according to the usua"
interpretation o& ;ordsworth6s 1800 pre&ace to the 'yrical Ballads( was the centra"
area o& conDict between Romantic and 3ugustan( Cohnson6s views are surprising"y
>modern.? 2n his 'ife of -ryden( he de&ends the use o& a specia" diction in poetry(
it is true= but his reasons are a""-important. :or Cohnson( poetic diction shou"d
serve the ends o& direct emotiona" impact and ease o& comprehension( not those
o& &a"se pro&undity or grandiosity. >;ords too &ami"iar(? he wrote( >or too remote(
GMAT 221
de&eat the purpose o& a poet. :rom those sounds which we hear on sma"" or on
coarse occasions( we do not easi"y receive strong impressions( or de"ight&u"
images= and words to which we are near"y strangers( whenever they occur( draw
that attention on themse"ves which they shou"d transmit to things.? 2& the poetic
diction o& the neoc"assica" poets( at its worst( erects need"ess barriers between
reader and meaning( that envisioned by Cohnson wou"d do 5ust the oppositeA it
wou"d put the reader in c"oser contact with the >things? that are the poem6s
sub5ect.
1. The author of the passage de'elops her points about Aohnson primarily by
(A) contrasting Aohnson4s critical methods with those of his contemporaries
(B) citing specific illustrations drawn from Aohnson4s work
(C) alluding to contemporary comments about Aohnson4s theories
() "uoting Aohnson4s remarks about the critical approaches pre'alent in his own
day
(#) emphasi!ing the fallacies inherent in the most common 'iew of Aohnson
2. The passage implies that the <udging of literary works according to preconcei'ed
rules
(A) tends to lessen the effecti'eness of much modern literary criticism
(B) is the primary distinguishing mark of the neoclassical critic
(C) was the primary neoclassical techni"ue against which the =omantics rebelled
() is the underlying basis of much of Aohnson4s critical work
(#) characteri!es e$amples of the worst neoclassical criticism
.. The passage implies that the neoclassical critics generally condemned
(A) ;hakespeare4s use of the *tragicomic+ (line 16) literary mode
(B) the sla'ish following of the *three unities+ (line 12) in drama
(C) attempts to <udge literary merit on the basis of *correctness+ (line 26)
() artificiality and abstraction in literary works
(#) the use of a special diction in the writing of poetry
0. According to the author/ Aohnson4s defense of ;hakespeare4s latest plays illustrates
Aohnson4s reliance on which of the following in his criticism%
(A) The sentiments endorsed by the =omantics
(B) The criteria set forth by &ordsworth in his 1655 preface to the yrical %allads
(C) The precedents established by the Breek and =oman playwrights of the
Classical Age
() The principles followed by the neoclassical school of criticism
(#) )is own e$perience and <udgment
1. According to the passage/ Aohnson4s opinion of Addison4s Cato was
222 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(A) roundly condemnatory
(B) somewhat self(contradictory
(C) ultimately negati'e
() effusi'ely adulatory
(#) uncharacteristically bold
2. According to the passage/ Aohnson4s 'iews on the use of a special diction in the
writing of poetry were
(A) *modern+ in their re<ection of a clear(cut di'ision between the diction of
poetry and that of prose
(B) *neoclassical+ in their emphasis on the use of language that appeals directly to
the emotions of the reader
(C) *=omantic+ in their defense of the idea that a special diction for poetry could
be stylistically effecti'e
() *modern+ in their underlying concern for the impact of the literary work on the
sensibility of the reader
(#) *neoclassical+ in their emphasis on ease of comprehension as a literary 'irtue
-. 3t can be inferred from the passage that in addition to being a literary critic/
Aohnson was also a
(A) surprisingly modern poet
(B) poet in the Augustan mode
(C) dramatist
() biographer
(#) naturalist
6. &hich one of the following statements best summari!es the main point of the
passage%
(A) Although many of Aohnson4s critical opinions resemble those of the
neoclassical critics/ his basic concerns are closer to those of the =omantics.
(B) The usual classification of Aohnson as a member of the neoclassical school of
criticism is based on an inaccurate e'aluation of his critical theories and ideals.
(C) The =omantic critics were mistaken in their belief that the critical ideas they
formulated represented a departure from those propounded by Aohnson.
() Although many of Aohnson4s critical opinions resemble those of the =omantic
critics/ his basic concerns are closer to those of the neoclassical critics.
(#) Aohnson4s literary criticism represents an attempt to unify the best elements of
the neoclassical and the =omantic schools of criticism.
,. The author of the passage is primarily concerned with
(A) defending a reputation
GMAT 22.
(B) reconciling conflicting 'iews
(C) comparing two schools of thought
() challenging an assumption
(#) presenting new e'idence in support of an established theory
Passage 97 (12/15)
The idea o& bui"ding >,ew Towns? to absorb growth is &re-uent"y considered a
cure-a"" &or urban prob"ems. 2t is erroneous"y assumed that i& new residents can be
diverted &rom e8isting centers( the present urban situation at "east wi"" get no
worse. 2t is &urther and e-ua""y erroneous"y assumed that since @uropean ,ew
Towns have been #nancia""y and socia""y success&u"( we can e8pect the same sorts
o& resu"ts in the United tates.
9resent p"anning( thin$ing( and "egis"ation wi"" not produce the $inds o& ,ew
Town that have been success&u" abroad. 2t wi"" mu"tip"y suburbs or encourage
deve"opments in areas where "and is cheap and construction pro#tab"e rather
than where ,ew Towns are genuine"y needed.
uch i""-considered pro5ects not on"y wi"" &ai" to re"ieve pressures on e8isting
cities but wi""( in &act( tend to wea$en those cities &urther by drawing away high-
income citi+ens and increasing the concentration o& "ow-income groups that are
unab"e to provide ta8 income. The remaining ta8payers( according"y( wi"" &ace
increasing burdens( and industry and commerce wi"" see$ escape. Un&ortunate"y(
this mechanism is a"ready at wor$ in some metropo"itan areas.
The promoters o& ,ew Towns so &ar in the United tates have been deve"opers(
bui"ders( and #nancia" institutions. The main interest o& these promoters is
economic gain. :urthermore( &edera" regu"ations designed to promote the ,ew
Town idea do not consider socia" needs as the @uropean ,ew Town p"ans do. 2n
&act( our regu"ations speci&y virtua""y a"" the ingredients o& the typica" suburban
community( with a bit o& po"itica" rhetoric thrown in.
3 wor$ab"e 3merican ,ew Town &ormu"a shou"d be estab"ished as #rm"y here as
the nationa" &ormu"a was in 'ritain. 3"" possib"e socia" and governmenta"
innovations as we"" as #nancia" &actors shou"d be thorough"y considered and
accommodated in this po"icy. 2ts ob5ectives shou"d be c"ear"y stated( and both
incentives and pena"ties shou"d be provided to ensure that the ob5ectives are
pursued. 2& such a po"icy is deve"oped( then the ,ew Town approach can p"ay an
important ro"e in a""eviating 3merica6s urban prob"ems.
1. The passage contains information that answers which of the following "uestions%
(A) &here did the idea of 9ew Towns originate%
(B) )ow does Britain4s 9ew Town formula differ from that of other #uropean
countries%
(C) &hat is the purpose of building 9ew Towns%
220 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
() &hat incenti'es and penalties will be necessary to make a 9ew Town formula
workable%
(#) &hy ha'e #uropean 9ew Towns been financially successful%
2. The author belie'es that 9ew Towns are not being built where they are genuinely
needed because
(A) the go'ernment offers de'elopers incenti'es to build in other areas
(B) the promoters of 9ew Town are moti'ated chiefly by self(interest
(C) few people want to li'e in areas where land is still cheap
() no studies ha'e been done to determine the best locations
(#) federal regulations make construction in those areas less profitable
.. According to the author/ ill(considered 9ew Towns will tend to weaken e$isting
cities in which of the following ways%
3. They will cause an erosion in the ta$ base of e$isting cities.
33. The will di'ert residents from e$isting cities to other areas.
333. They will increase the number of low(income residents in e$isting cities.
(A) 3 only
(B) 33 only
(C) 3 and 33 only
() 33 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
0. According to the passage/ as compared with American 9ew Towns/ #uropean 9ew
Towns ha'e been designed with greater concern for
(A) social needs
(B) financial factors
(C) urban congestion
() the profits of de'elopers and builders
(#) the en'ironment
1. The author4s tone in discussing *de'elopers/ builders/ and financial institutions+
(lines 21(22) can best be described as
(A) critical
(B) pedantic
(C) e'asi'e
() captious
(#) 'itriolic
2. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author belie'es which of the following
about suburbs%
GMAT 221
(A) They are a panacea for urban problems.
(B) They will soon be plagued by the same problems that now plague cities.
(C) They are poor models for 9ew Towns.
() They dri'e up property 'alues in inner cities.
(#) They alle'iate some/ but not all/ of America4s urban problems.
-. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author considers the present American
9ew Town formula to be
(A) thoroughly considered
(B) insufficiently inno'ati'e
(C) potentially workable
() o'erly restricti'e
(#) financially sound
6. The author of the passage is primarily concerned with
(A) arguing for a change in policy
(B) e$ploring the implications of no'el idea
(C) comparing and contrasting two manifestations of the same phenomenon
() proposing a radically new solution to an old problem
(#) summari!ing recent research on a topic
Passage 98 (13/15)
2n reaction to a rigid( overre#ned c"assica" curricu"um( some educationa"
phi"osophers have swung sharp"y to an espousa" o& >"i&e e8perience? as the so"e
source o& "earning. Using their narrow interpretation o& Cohn Kewey6s theories &or
support and spouting such phrases as >Teach the chi"d( not the sub5ect(? they
demand an end to rigorous study and insist that on"y through doing can "earning
ta$e p"ace. ;hi"e not a"" adherents to this phi"osophy wou"d tota""y e"iminate the
study o& great boo$s( the gradua" subordination o& "iterature in the schoo"
curricu"um reDects their inDuence.
;hat is the purpose o& "iteratureG ;hy read i& "i&e a"one is to be our teacherG
Cames Coyce te""s us that the artist revea"s the human condition by re-creating "i&e
out o& "i&e= 3ristot"e( that art presents universa" truths because its &orm is ta$en
&rom nature. Thus( conscious"y or otherwise( great writers e8tend our
understanding o& ourse"ves and our wor"d. ;e can soar with them to the heights
o& aspiration or p"ummet with them to the depths o& despair. )ow much wider is
the understanding we gain &rom reading than &rom viewing "i&e through the
$eyho"e o& our individua" e8perience.
This &unction o& "iterature( the en"arging o& our "i&e sphere( is o& ma5or
importance in itse"&. 3dditiona""y( however( "iterature suggests so"utions to socia"
222 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
prob"ems. The overweening ambitions o& po"itica" "eaders!and their sneering
contempt &or the "aw!did not appear &or the #rst time in the writings o& 'ernstein
and ;oodward. The prob"ems and behavior o& the gui"t-ridden did not await the
appearance o& the bearded psychoana"ysts o& the nineteenth century.
:edera" Cudge Jearned )and wrote( >2 venture to be"ieve that it is as important
to a 5udge ca""ed upon to pass on a -uestion o& constitutiona" "aw( to have at "east
a bowing ac-uaintance with Thucydides( Eibbon( and %ar"y"e( with )omer( Kante(
ha$espeare( and Bi"ton( with Bontaigne and Rabe"ais( with 9"ato( 'acon( )ume(
and Sant( as with the boo$s which have been speci#ca""y written on the sub5ect.
:or in such matters everything turns upon the spirit in which he approaches the
-uestions be&ore him.?
)ow do we overcome our dissenterG ;e must start with the #e"d o& agreementA
the be"ie& that education shou"d serve to improve the individua" and society. ;e
must persuade our dissenters that the voices o& human e8perience stretch our
human &acu"ties and open us to "earning. ;e must convince them o& the unity o&
"i&e and art. ;e must prove to them that &ar &rom being separate( "iterature is that
part o& "i&e that i""umines "i&e.
1. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) list the writers who make up the backbone of a great literature curriculum
(B) e$plain the function of literature
(C) ad'ocate the adoption of a new philosophy of education
() plead for the retention of great literature as a fundamental part of the school
curriculum
(#) o'ercome the opposition of ewey4s followers to the inclusion of
contemporary literature in the curriculum
2. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author considers those who belie'e in
*Flife e$perience4 as the sole source of learning+ (line .) to be
(A) practical
(B) progressi'e
(C) misguided
() infle$ible
(#) ignorant
.. Based on the information in the passage/ with which of the following statements
about education would Aohn ewey be most likely to agree%
(A) #ducation should be a continuous reconstruction of li'ing e$perience/ with the
child the center of concern.
(B) #ducation is the imparting of knowledge/ not the drawing out of what is
already in the child.
(C) Though rigid/ the classical curriculum has ser'ed us well for centuries and
GMAT 22-
should be restored.
() The purpose of education is to correct the ine"ualities brought about by the
rise of ci'ili!ation.
(#) Children should be taught only the skills and knowledge they need to get
ahead.
0. The author implies that children who learn e$clusi'ely by doing are likely to
(A) be good problem sol'ers but poor <udges
(B) be more guilt(ridden than those who learn both by doing and reading
(C) ha'e below(a'erage reading skills
() belie'e that art has nothing to do with life
(#) ha'e a myopic 'iew of themsel'es and the world
1. &hich of the following best describes the organi!ation of the third paragraph of
the passage%
(A) An idea is reiterated/ a new idea is introduced/ and two supporting e$amples
are gi'en.
(B) The preceding paragraph is summari!ed and conclusions are drawn.
(C) A new idea is introduced/ the idea is "ualified/ and the implications of the idea
are analy!ed.
() The main idea of the preceding paragraph is restated/ and e'idence is gi'en to
support it.
(#) Two functions of literature are identified/ and an e$ample of each is gi'en.
2. The author "uotes Audge Kearned )and (lines .2(01 primarily in order to
(A) call attention to the writing of Thucydides and Carlyle
(B) support the point that literature broadens the reader4s understanding
(C) point out that constitutional law is a part of the great literature of the past
() show that e'eryone/ including <udges/ en<oys reading
(#) gi'e specific e$amples of writers who ha'e suggested solutions to social
problems
-. &hich of the following could best be substituted for the words *the sub<ect+ (line
.,) in the "uotation from Audge )and without altering the meaning of the
"uotation%
(A) The "uestion of constitutional law before the <udge
(B) The contempt of political leaders for the law
(C) ;ocial problems
() The liberal arts/ specifically history/ literature/ and philosophy
(#) The human condition
6. The passage supplies information to suggest that the author and the educational
226 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
philosophers mentioned in the first paragraph would agree that
(A) learning is the key to adaptability in an e'er(changing en'ironment
(B) the traditional classroom should be transformed into a learning laboratory
(C) the purpose of education is to impro'e society as well as the indi'idual
() one must know history in order to understand the present and the future
(#) the primary aim of education is the transmission of culture
,. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author makes which of the following
assumptions about his readers%
(A) They belie'e that schools should reflect society.
(B) They belie'e that the sub<ect/ not the child/ should be taught.
(C) They fa'or a return to the classical curriculum.
() They share his 'iew that the study of great books is essential to education.
(#) They belie'e that only through reading can learning take place.
Passage 99 (14/15)
Bethods &or typing b"ood were deve"oped around the turn o& the century( about
the same time that #ngerprints were #rst used &or identi#cation. <n"y in the "ast
decade or two( however( have scientists begun to be"ieve that genetic mar$ers in
b"ood and other bodi"y Duids may someday prove as use&u" in crime detection as
#ngerprints.
The standard 3'< b"ood typing has "ong been used as a &orm o& negative
identi#cation. 3dded sophistication came with the discovery o& additiona"
subgroups o& genetic mar$ers in b"ood and with the discovery that genetic
mar$ers are present not on"y in b"ood but a"so in other bodi"y Duids( such as
perspiration and sa"iva.
These discoveries were o& "itt"e use in crime detection( however( because o& the
circumstances in which po"ice scientists must wor$. Rather than a p"enti&u" samp"e
o& b"ood &resh"y drawn &rom a patient( the crime "aboratory is "i$e"y to receive on"y
a tiny Dec$ o& dried b"ood o& un$nown age &rom an un$nown >donor? on a shirt or
a scrap o& rag that has spent hours or days e8posed to air( high temperature( and
other contaminants.
'ritish scientists &ound a method &or identi&ying genetic mar$ers more precise"y
in sma"" samp"es. 2n this process( ca""ed e"ectrophoresis( a samp"e is p"aced on a
tray containing a ge" through which an e"ectrica" current is then passed. 3 trained
ana"yst reads the resu"ting patterns in the ge" to determine the presence o&
various chemica" mar$ers.
@"ectrophoresis made it possib"e to identi&y severa" thousand subgroups o&
b"ood types rather than the twe"ve $nown be&ore. )owever( the e-uipment and
specia" training re-uired were e8pensive. 2n addition( the process cou"d "ead to the
GMAT 22,
destruction o& evidence. :or e8amp"e( repeated tests o& a b"ood-Dec$ed shirt!one
&or each mar$er!"ed to increasing deterioration o& the evidence and the cost o& a
wee$ or more o& "aboratory time.
2t remained &or another 'ritish researcher( 'rian ;re8a""( to demonstrate that
simu"taneous ana"yses( using an ine8pensive e"ectrophoresis apparatus( cou"d test
&or ten di1erent genetic mar$ers within a 4M-hour period. This deve"opment made
the study o& b"ood and other Duid samp"es an even more va"uab"e too" &or crime
detection.
1. The author of the passage is primarily concerned with describing
(A) how ad'ances in crime detection methods ha'e led to new disco'eries in
science
(B) 'arious ways in which crime detection laboratories assist the police
(C) the de'elopment of new scientific tools for use in crime detection
() areas of current research in the science of crime detection
(#) de'elopments in genetic research and their application to crime detection
2. 3t can be inferred from the passage that electrophoresis resembles fingerprinting in
that both
(A) pro'ide a form of negati'e identification in crime detection
(B) were first de'eloped by British scientists
(C) may be used to help identify those who were present at the time of a crime
() were de'eloped by scientists at around the same time
(#) must be employed almost immediately after a crime to be effecti'e
.. The author sets off the word *Fdonor4+ (line 16) with "uotation marks in order to
(A) emphasi!e that most of the blood samples recei'ed by crime laboratories come
from anonymous sources
(B) underscore the contrast between the work done in a crime laboratory and that
done in a blood bank
(C) call attention to the fact that/ because of underfunding/ crime laboratories are
forced to rely on charitable contributions
() show that the word is being used in a technical/ rather than a general/ sense
(#) indicate that the blood samples recei'ed by crime laboratories are not gi'en
freely
0. The passage contains information that would answer which of the following
"uestions%
(A) 3s e'idence of genetic markers in bodily fluids admissible in court%
(B) Can electrophoresis be used to identify genetic markers in sali'a%
(C) )ow many subgroups of blood types are currently identifiable%
2-5 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
() )ow accurate is the process of electrophoresis%
(#) )ow many tests for genetic markers must police scientists run in order to
establish the identity of a criminal%
1. According to the passage/ all of the following may reduce the usefulness of a fluid
sample for crime detection #DC#@T
(A) the passage of time
(B) discoloration or staining
(C) e$posure to heat
() the small si!e of the sample
(#) e$posure to contaminants
2. The passage implies that electrophoresis may help scientists determine
(A) whether or not a sample of blood could ha'e come from a particular person
(B) the age and condition of a dried specimen of blood or other bodily fluid
(C) when and where a crime was probably committed
() the cause of death in homicide cases
(#) the age/ gender/ and ethnic background of an unknown criminal suspect
-. According to the passage/ Brian &re$all4s refinement of electrophoresis led to
(A) more accurate test results
(B) easier a'ailability of fluid samples
(C) wider applicability of genetic analysis
() increased costs of testing
(#) more rapid testing
6. &hich of the following statements about genetic markers can be inferred from the
passage%
3. They carry an electrical charge.
33. They cannot be identified through standard AB8 blood typing.
333. They were of no use in crime detection before the in'ention of electrophoresis.
(A) 3 only
(B) 33 only
(C) 333 only
() 33 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
Passage 100 (15/15)
The de"egates to the %onstitutiona" %onvention were rea"ists. They $new that
the greatest batt"es wou"d ta$e p"ace a&ter the convention( once the %onstitution
GMAT 2-1
had a"ready been dra&ted and signed. The de"egates had overstepped their
bounds. 2nstead o& amending the 3rtic"es o& %on&ederation by which the 3merican
states had previous"y been governed( they had proposed an entire"y new
government. Under these circumstances( the convention was understandab"y
re"uctant to submit its wor$ to the %ongress &or approva".
2nstead( the de"egates decided to pursue what amounted to a revo"utionary
course. They dec"ared that rati#cation o& the new %onstitution by nine states
wou"d be su*cient to estab"ish the new government. 2n other words( the
%onstitution was being submitted direct"y to the peop"e. ,ot even the %ongress(
which had ca""ed the convention( wou"d be as$ed to approve its wor$.
The "eaders o& the convention shrewd"y wished to bypass the state "egis"atures(
which were attached to states6 rights and which re-uired in most cases the
agreement o& two houses. :or speedy rati#cation o& the %onstitution( the sing"e-
chambered( specia""y e"ected state rati&ying conventions o1ered the greatest
promise o& agreement.
'att"e "ines were -uic$"y drawn. The :edera"ists( as the supporters o& the
%onstitution were ca""ed( had one so"id advantageA they came with a concrete
proposa". Their opponents( the 3nti&edera"ists( came with none. ince the
3nti&edera"ists were opposing something with nothing( their ob5ections( though
sincere( were basica""y negative. They stood &or a po"icy o& dri&t whi"e the
:edera"ists were providing c"ear "eadership.
:urthermore( a"though the 3nti&edera"ists c"aimed to be the democratic group(
their opposition to the %onstitution did not necessari"y spring &rom a more
democratic view o& government. Bany o& the 3nti&edera"ists were as distrust&u" o&
the common peop"e as their opponents. 2n ,ew Ior$( &or e8amp"e( Eovernor
Eeorge %"inton critici+ed the peop"e &or their #c$"eness and their tendency to
>vibrate &rom one e8treme to another.? @"bridge Eerry o& Bassachusetts( who
re&used to sign the %onstitution( asserted that >the evi"s we e8perience Dow &rom
the e8cess o& democracy(? and Cohn :. Bercer o& Bary"and pro&essed "itt"e &aith in
his neighbors as voters when he said that >the peop"e cannot $now and 5udge the
character o& candidates.?
1. The author is primarily concerned with
(A) contrasting the opposing sides in a battle
(B) analy!ing the effects of an e'ent
(C) urging a reassessment of history
() critici!ing the opponents of a plan
(#) describing the background of conflict
2. According to the passage/ the delegates to the Constitutional Con'ention did not
submit their work to Congress for appro'al because
(A) they knew that most members of congress would want to broaden the powers
2-2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
of the national go'ernment
(B) it was unclear whether Congress had the legal right to offer or withhold such
appro'al
(C) they considered it more democratic to appeal directly to the citi!ens of the
separate states
() they belie'ed that Congress would not accept the sweeping changes they had
proposed
(#) Congress was dominated by a powerful group of Antifederalist leaders
.. According to the passage/ in contrast to most state legislatures/ state ratifying
con'entions were
(A) elected
(B) unicameral
(C) characteri!ed by strong leadership
() nearly unanimous in their support of the new Constitution
(#) opposed to states4 rights
0. The author characteri!es the leaders of the Constitutional Con'ention as
(A) shrewd and 'isionary
(B) liberal and enlightened
(C) radical and idealistic
() cle'er and pragmatic
(#) elo"uent and persuasi'e
1. 3n stating that the Antifederalists *were opposing something with nothing+ (line
26)/ the author suggests that the Antifederalists
(A) based most of their arguments on their antidemocratic sentiments
(B) lacked leaders who were as articulate as the >ederalist leaders
(C) were unable to rally significant support for their position among the populace
() had few reasonable arguments to put forth in support of their position
(#) offered no alternati'e plan of go'ernment of their own
2. &hich of the following statements about #lbridge Berry can be inferred from the
passage%
(A) )e was a delegate to the ?assachusetts state ratifying con'ention.
(B) )e was a delegate to the Constitutional Con'ention.
(C) )e was the architect of the *policy of drift+ (line .5) ad'ocated by the
Antifederalists.
() )e claimed to ha'e a more democratic 'iew of go'ernment than the
>ederalists.
(#) )e was one of the leaders of the Antifederalist @arty.
GMAT 2-.
-. The author4s "uotation of Aohn >. ?ercer (lines 0.(01) ser'es which of the
following functions in the passage%
(A) 3t summari!es the last paragraph.
(B) 3t furnishes a concrete e$ample.
(C) 3t articulates the main point of the passage.
() 3t clarifies the preceding "uotation.
(#) 3t e$presses a general conclusion.
6. &hich of the following would be the most appropriate title for the passage%
(A) i'ided Keadership at the Constitutional Con'ention
(B) )ow the Constitution Became Kaw
(C) The :.;. ConstitutionE 3ts ;trengths and &eaknesses
() The Battle for =atification of the Constitution
(#) The Ciews of the Antifederalists on emocracy
OG 17Passages
Passage 101 (1/17)
Two recent pub"ications o1er di1erent assessment o& the career o& the &amous
'ritish nurse :"orence ,ightinga"e. 3 boo$ by 3nne ummers see$s to debun$ the
idea"i+ations and present a rea"ity at odds with ,ightinga"e6s heroic reputation.
3ccording to ummers( ,ightinga"e6s importance during the %rimean ;ar has
been e8aggeratedA not unti" near the war6s end did she become supervisor o& the
&ema"e nurses. 3dditiona""y( ummers writes that the contribution o& the nurses to
the re"ie& o& the wounded was at best margina". The prevai"ing prob"ems o&
mi"itary medicine were caused by army organi+ationa" practices( and the addition
o& a &ew nurses to the medica" sta1 cou"d be no more than symbo"ic. ,ightinga"e6s
p"ace in the nationa" pantheon( ummers asserts( is "arge"y due to the
propagandistic e1orts o& contemporary newspaper reporters.
'y contrast( the editors o& a new vo"ume o& ,ightinga"e6s "etters view
,ightinga"e as a person who signi#cant"y inDuenced not on"y her own age but a"so
subse-uent generations. They high"ight her ongoing e1orts to re&orm sanitary
conditions a&ter the war. :or e8amp"e( when she "earned that peacetime "iving
conditions in 'ritish barrac$s were so horrib"e that the death rate o& en"isted men
&ar e8ceeded that o& neighboring civi"ian popu"ations( she succeeded in
persuading the government to estab"ish a Roya" %ommission on the )ea"th o& the
3rmy. he used sums raised through pub"ic contributions to &ound a nurses6
training hospita" in Jondon. @ven in administrative matters( the editors assert( her
practica" inte""igence was &ormidab"eA as recent"y as 19M7 the 'ritish 3rmy6s
medica" services were sti"" using the cost-accounting system she had devised in
2-0 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
the 18L06s.
2 be"ieve that the evidence o& her "etters supports continued respect &or
,ightinga"e6s bri""iance and creativity. ;hen counse"ing a vi""age schoo"master to
encourage chi"dren to use their &acu"ties o& observation( she sounds "i$e a modern
educator. )er insistence on c"assi&ying the prob"ems o& the needy in order to
devise appropriate treatments is simi"ar to the approach o& modern socia" wor$ers.
2n sum( a"though ,ightinga"e may not have achieved a"" o& her goa"s during the
%rimean ;ar( her breadth o& vision and abi"ity to rea"i+e ambitious pro5ects have
earned her an eminent p"ace among the ran$s o& socia" pioneers.
-.. The passage is primarily concerned with e'aluating
(A) the importance of >lorence 9ightingale4s inno'ations in the field of nursing
(B) contrasting approaches to the writing of historical biography
(C) contradictory accounts of >lorence 9ightingale4s historical significance
() the "uality of health care in nineteenth(century #ngland
(#) the effect of the Crimean &ar on de'elopments in the field of health care
-0. According to the passage/ the editors of 9ightingale4s letters credit her with
contributing to which of the following%
(A) 3mpro'ing of the sur'i'al rate for soldiers in British Army hospitals during the
Crimean &ar
(B) The de'elopment of a nurses4 training curriculum that was far in ad'ance of its
day
(C) The increase in the number of women doctors practicing in British Army
hospitals
() #stablishment of the first facility for training nurses at a ma<or British
uni'ersity
(#) The creation of an organi!ation for monitoring the peacetime li'ing conditions
of British soldiers
-1. The passage suggests which of the following about 9ightingale4s relationship with
the British public of her day%
(A) ;he was highly respected/ her pro<ects recei'ing popular and go'ernmental
support.
(B) ;he encountered resistance both from the army establishment and the general
public.
(C) ;he was supported by the working classes and opposed by the wealthier
classes.
() ;he was supported by the military establishment but had to fight the
go'ernmental bureaucracy.
(#) After initially being recei'ed with enthusiasm/ she was "uickly forgotten.
GMAT 2-1
-2. The passage suggests which of the following about sanitary conditions in Britain
after the Crimean &ar%
(A) &hile not ideal/ they were superior to those in other parts of the world.
(B) Compared with conditions before the war/ they had deteriorated.
(C) They were more ad'anced in rural areas than in the urban centers.
() They were worse in military camps than in the neighboring ci'ilian
populations.
(#) They were uniformly crude and unsatisfactory throughout #ngland.
--. &hich of the following statements regarding the differing interpretations of
9ightingale4s importance would the author most likely agree%
(A) ;ummers misunderstood both the importance of 9ightingale4s achie'ements
during the Crimean &ar and her subse"uent influence on British policy.
(B) The editors of 9ightingale4s letters made some 'alid points about her practical
achie'ements/ but they still e$aggerated her influence on subse"uent
generations.
(C) Although ;ummers4 account of 9ightingale4s role in the Crimean &ar may be
accurate/ she ignored e'idence of 9ightingales4 subse"uent achie'ement that
suggests that her reputation as an eminent social reformer is well deser'ed.
() The editors of 9ightingale4s letters mistakenly propagated the outdated
ideali!ation of 9ightingale that only impedes attempts to arri'e at a balance
assessment of her true role.
(#) The e'idence of 9ightingale4s letters supports ;ummers4 conclusions both
about 9ightingale4s acti'ities and about her influence.
-6. &hich of the following is an assumption underlying the author4s assessment of
9ightingale4s creati'ity%
(A) #ducational philosophy in 9ightingale4s day did not normally emphasi!e
de'eloping children4s ability to obser'e.
(B) 9ightingale was the first to notice the poor li'ing conditions in British military
barracks in peacetime.
(C) 9o educator before 9ightingale had thought to enlist the help of 'illage
schoolmasters in introducing new teaching techni"ues.
() :ntil 9ightingale began her work/ there was no concept of organi!ed help for
the needy in nineteenth(century Britain.
(#) The British Army4s medical ser'ices had no cost(accounting system until
9ightingale de'ised one in the 16254s.
-,. 3n the last paragraph/ the author is primarily concerned with
(A) summari!ing the arguments about 9ightingale presented in the first two
paragraphs
(B) refuting the 'iew of 9ightingale4s career presented in the preceding paragraph
2-2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(C) analy!ing the weaknesses of the e'idence presented elsewhere in the passage
() citing e'idence to support a 'iew of 9ightingale4s career
(#) correcting a factual error occurring in one of the works under re'iew
Passage 102 (2/17)
3 meteor stream is composed o& dust partic"es that have been e5ected &rom a
parent comet at a variety o& ve"ocities. These partic"es &o""ow the same orbit as
the parent comet( but due to their di1ering ve"ocities they s"ow"y gain on or &a""
behind the disintegrating comet unti" a shroud o& dust surrounds the entire
cometary orbit. 3stronomers have hypothesi+ed that a meteor stream shou"d
broaden with time as the dust partic"es6 individua" orbits are perturbed by
p"anetary gravitationa" #e"ds. 3 recent computer-mode"ing e8periment tested this
hypothesis by trac$ing the inDuence o& p"anetary gravitation over a pro5ected
/(000-year period on the positions o& a group o& hypothetica" dust partic"es. 2n the
mode"( the partic"es were random"y distributed throughout a computer simu"ation
o& the orbit o& an actua" meteor stream( the Eeminid. The researcher &ound( as
e8pected( that the computer-mode" stream broadened with time. %onventiona"
theories( however( predicted that the distribution o& partic"es wou"d be
increasing"y dense toward the center o& a meteor stream. urprising"y( the
computer-mode" meteor stream gradua""y came to resemb"e a thic$-wa""ed( ho""ow
pipe.
;henever the @arth passes through a meteor stream( a meteor shower occurs.
Boving at a "itt"e over 1(/00(000 mi"es per day around its orbit( the @arth wou"d
ta$e( on average( 5ust over a day to cross the ho""ow( computer-mode" Eeminid
stream i& the stream were /(000 years o"d. Two brie& periods o& pea$ meteor
activity during the shower wou"d be observed( one as the @arth entered the thic$-
wa""ed >pipe? and one as it e8ited. There is no reason why the @arth shou"d
a"ways pass through the stream6s e8act center( so the time interva" between the
two bursts o& activity wou"d vary &rom one year to the ne8t.
)as the predicted twin-pea$ed activity been observed &or the actua" year"y
Eeminid meteor showerG The Eeminid data between 1970 and 1979 show 5ust
such a bi&urcation( a secondary burst o& meteor activity being c"ear"y visib"e at an
average o& 19 hours (1(400(000 mi"es) a&ter the #rst burst. The time interva"s
between the bursts suggest the actua" Eeminid stream is about 7(000 years o"d.
65. The primary focus of the passage is on which of the following%
(A) Comparing two scientific theories and contrasting the predictions that each
would make concerning a natural phenomenon
(B) escribing a new theoretical model and noting that it e$plains the nature of
obser'ations made of a particular natural phenomenon
(C) #'aluating the results of a particular scientific e$periment and suggesting
further areas for research
GMAT 2--
() #$plaining how two different natural phenomena are related and
demonstrating a way to measure them
(#) Analy!ing recent data deri'ed from obser'ations of an actual phenomenon and
constructing a model to e$plain the data
61. According to the passage/ which of the following is an accurate statement
concerning meteor streams%
(A) ?eteor streams and comets start out with similar orbits/ but only those of
meteor streams are perturbed by planetary gra'itation.
(B) ?eteor streams grow as dust particles are attracted by the gra'itational fields
of comets.
(C) ?eteor streams are composed of dust particles deri'ed from comets.
() Comets may be composed of se'eral kinds of materials/ while meteor streams
consist only of large dust particles.
(#) 8nce formed/ meteor streams hasten the further disintegration of comets.
62. The author states that the research described in the first paragraph was undertaken
in order to
(A) determine the age of an actual meteor stream
(B) identify the 'arious structural features of meteor streams
(C) e$plore the nature of a particularly interesting meteor stream
() test the hypothesis that meteor streams become broader as they age
(#) show that a computer model could help in e$plaining actual astronomical data
6.. 3t can be inferred from the passage that which of the following would most
probably be obser'ed during the #arth4s passage through a meteor stream if the
con'entional theories mentioned in line 16 were correct%
(A) ?eteor acti'ity would gradually increase to a single/ intense peak/ and then
gradually decline.
(B) ?eteor acti'ity would be steady throughout the period of the meteor shower.
(C) ?eteor acti'ity would rise to a peak at the beginning and at the end of the
meteor shower.
() =andom bursts of 'ery high meteor acti'ity would be interspersed with
periods of 'ery little acti'ity.
(#) 3n years in which the #arth passed through only the outer areas of a meteor
stream/ meteor acti'ity would be absent.
60. According to the passage/ why do the dust particles in a meteor stream e'entually
surround a comet4s original orbit%
(A) They are e<ected by the comet at differing 'elocities.
(B) Their orbits are uncontrolled by planetary gra'itational fields.
(C) They become part of the meteor stream at different times.
2-6 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
() Their 'elocity slows o'er time.
(#) Their e<ection 'elocity is slower than that of the comet.
61. The passage suggests that which of the following is a prediction concerning
meteor streams that can be deri'ed from both the con'entional theories mentioned
in line 16 and the new computer(deri'ed theory%
(A) ust particles in a meteor stream will usually be distributed e'enly throughout
any cross section of the steam.
(B) The orbits of most meteor streams should cross the orbit of the #arth at some
point and gi'e rise to a meteor shower.
(C) 8'er time the distribution of dust in a meteor stream will usually become
denser at the outside edges of the stream than at the center.
() ?eteor showers caused by older meteor streams should be/ on a'erage/ longer
in duration than those caused by 'ery young meteor streams.
(#) The indi'idual dust particles in older meteor streams should be/ on a'erage/
smaller than those that compose younger meteor streams.
62. 3t can be inferred from the last paragraph of the passage that which of the
following must be true of the #arth as it orbits the ;un%
(A) ?ost meteor streams it encounters are more than 2/555 years old.
(B) &hen passing through a meteor stream/ it usually passes near to the stream4s
center.
(C) 3t crosses the Beminid meteor stream once e'ery year.
() 3t usually takes o'er a day to cross the actual Beminid meteor stream.
(#) 3t accounts for most of the gra'itational perturbation affecting the Beminid
meteor stream.
6-. &hich of the following is an assumption underlying the last sentence of the
passage%
(A) 3n each of the years between 1,-5 and 1,-,/ the #arth took e$actly 1, hours to
cross the Beminid meteor stream.
(B) The comet associated with the Beminid meteor stream has totally
disintegrated.
(C) The Beminid meteor stream should continue to e$ist for at least 1/555 years.
() The Beminid meteor stream has not broadened as rapidly as the con'entional
theories would ha'e predicted.
(#) The computer(model Beminid meteor stream pro'ides an accurate
representation of the de'elopment of the actual Beminid stream.
Passage 103 (3/17)
The new schoo" o& po"itica" history that emerged in the 19L06s and 19706s
GMAT 2-,
sought to go beyond the traditiona" &ocus o& po"itica" historians on "eaders and
government institutions by e8amining direct"y the po"itica" practices o& ordinary
citi+ens. Ji$e the o"d approach( however( this new approach e8c"uded women. The
very techni-ues these historians used to uncover mass po"itica" behavior in the
nineteenth-century United tates!-uantitative ana"yses o& e"ection returns( &or
e8amp"e!were use"ess in ana"y+ing the po"itica" activities o& women( who were
denied the vote unti" 1940.
'y rede#ning >po"itica" activity(? historian 9au"a 'a$er has deve"oped a po"itica"
history that inc"udes women. he conc"udes that among ordinary citi+ens( po"itica"
activism by women in the nineteenth century pre#gured trends in twentieth-
century po"itics. Ke#ning >po"itics? as >any action ta$en to a1ect the course o&
behavior o& government or o& the community(? 'a$er conc"udes that( whi"e voting
and ho"ding o*ce were restricted to men( women in the nineteenth century
organi+ed themse"ves into societies committed to socia" issues such as
temperance and poverty. 2n other words( 'a$er contends( women activists were
ear"y practitioners o& nonpartisan( issue-oriented po"itics and thus were more
interested in en"isting "awma$ers( regard"ess o& their party a*"iation( on beha"& o&
certain issues than in ensuring that one party or another won an e"ection. 2n the
twentieth century( more men drew c"oser to women6s ideas about po"itics and
too$ up modes o& issue-oriented po"itics that 'a$er sees women as having
pioneered.
1.1. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) enumerate reason why both traditional scholarly methods and newer scholarly
methods ha'e limitations
(B) identify a shortcoming in a scholarly approach and describe an alternati'e
approach
(C) pro'ide empirical data to support a long(held scholarly assumption
() compare two scholarly publications on the basis of their authors4 backgrounds
(#) attempt to pro'ide a partial answer to a long(standing scholarly dilemma
1.2. The passage suggests which of the following concerning the techni"ues used by
the new political historians described in the first paragraph of the passage%
(A) They in'ol'ed the e$tensi'e use of the biographies of political party leaders
and political theoreticians.
(B) They were concei'ed by political historians who were reacting against the
political climates of the 1,25s and 1,-5s.
(C) They were of more use in analy!ing the positions of :nited ;tates political
parties in the nineteenth century than in analy!ing the positions of those in the
twentieth century.
() They were of more use in analy!ing the political beha'ior of nineteenth(
century 'oters than in analy!ing the political acti'ities of those who could not
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'ote during that period.
(#) They were de'ised as a means of tracing the influence of nineteenth(century
political trends on twentieth(century political trends.
1... 3t can be inferred that the author of the passage "uotes Baker directly in the
second paragraph primarily in order to
(A) clarify a position before pro'iding an alternati'e of that position
(B) differentiate between a no'el definition and traditional definitions
(C) pro'ide an e$ample of a point agreed on by different generations of scholars
() pro'ide an e$ample of the prose style of an important historian
(#) amplify a definition gi'en in the first paragraph
1.0. According to the passage/ @aula Baker and the new political historians of the
1,254s and 1,-54s shared which of the following%
(A) A commitment to interest(group politics
(B) A disregard for political theory and ideology
(C) An interest in the ways in which nineteenth(century politics prefigured
contemporary politics
() A reliance on such "uantitati'e techni"ues as the analysis of election returns
(#) An emphasis on the political in'ol'ement of ordinary citi!ens
1.1. &hich of the following best describes the structure of the first paragraph of the
passage%
(A) Two scholarly approaches are compared/ and a shortcoming common to both is
identified.
(B) Two ri'al schools of thought are contrasted/ and a third is alluded to.
(C) An outmoded scholarly approach is described/ and a correcti'e approach is
called for.
() An argument is outlined/ and counterarguments are mentioned.
(#) A historical era is described in terms of its political trends.
1.2. The information in the passage suggests that a pre(1,254s political historian
would ha'e been most likely to undertake which of the following studies%
(A) An analysis of 'oting trends among women 'oters of the 1,254s
(B) A study of male 'oters4 gradual ideological shift from party politics to issue(
oriented politics
(C) A biography of an influential nineteenth(century minister of foreign affairs
() An analysis of narrati'es written by pre'iously unrecogni!ed women acti'ists
(#) A study of 'oting trends among naturali!ed immigrant laborers in a nineteenth(
century logging camp
GMAT 261
Passage 104 (4/17)
,ew observations about the age o& some g"obu"ar c"usters in our Bi"$y ;ay
ga"a8y have cast doubt on a "ong-he"d theory about how the ga"a8y was &ormed.
The Bi"$y ;ay contains about 14/ g"obu"ar c"usters (compact groups o& anywhere
&rom severa" tens o& thousands to perhaps a mi""ion stars) distributed in a rough"y
spherica" ha"o around the ga"actic nuc"eus. The stars in these c"usters are be"ieved
to have been born during the &ormation o& the ga"a8y( and so may be considered
re"ics o& the origina" ga"actic nebu"a( ho"ding vita" c"ues to the way the &ormation
too$ p"ace.
The conventiona" theory o& the &ormation o& the ga"a8y contends that rough"y
14 to 17 bi""ion years ago the Bi"$y ;ay &ormed over a re"ative"y short time (about
400 mi""ion years) when a spherica" c"oud o& gas co""apsed under the pressure o&
its own gravity into a disc surrounded by a ha"o. uch a rapid &ormation o& the
ga"a8y wou"d mean that a"" stars in the ha"o shou"d be very near"y the same age.
)owever( the astronomer Bichae" 'o"te has &ound considerab"e variation in the
ages o& g"obu"ar c"usters. <ne o& the c"usters studied by 'o"te is 4 bi""ions years
o"der than most other c"usters in the ga"a8y( whi"e another is 4 bi""ion years
younger. 3 co""eague o& 'o"te contends that the c"uster ca""ed 9a"omar 14 is /
bi""ion years younger than most other g"obu"ar c"usters.
To e8p"ain the age di1erences among the g"obu"ar c"usters( astronomers are
ta$ing a second "oo$ at >renegade? theories. <ne such new"y &ashionab"e theory(
#rst put &orward by Richard Jarson in the ear"y 19706s( argues that the ha"o o& the
Bi"$y ;ay &ormed over a period o& a bi""ion or more years as hundreds o& sma"" gas
c"ouds dri&ted about( co""ided( "ost orbita" energy( and #na""y co""apsed into a
centra""y condensed e""iptica" system. Jarson6s conception o& a >"umpy and
turbu"ent? protoga"a8y is comp"emented by computer mode"ing done in the
19706s by mathematician 3"an Toomre( which suggests that c"ose"y interacting
spira" ga"a8ies cou"d "ose enough orbita" energy to merge into a sing"e ga"a8y.
1.-. The passage is primarily concerned with discussing
(A) the importance of determining the age of globular clusters in assessing when
the ?ilky &ay gala$y was formed
(B) recent changes in the procedure used by astronomers to study the formation of
the ?ilky &ay gala$y
(C) current disputes among astronomers regarding the si!e and form of the ?ilky
&ay gala$y
() the effect of new disco'eries regarding globular clusters on theories about the
formation of the ?ilky &ay gala$y
(#) the origin/ nature/ and significance of groups of stars known as globular
clusters
1.6. According to the passage/ one way in which Karson4s theory and the con'entional
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theory of the formation of the ?ilky &ay gala$y differs is in their assessment of
the
(A) amount of time it took to form the gala$y
(B) si!e of the gala$y immediately after its formation
(C) particular gas in'ol'ed in the formation of the gala$y
() importance of the age of globular clusters in determining how the gala$y was
formed
(#) shape of the halo that formed around the gala$y
1.,. &hich of the following/ if true/ would be most useful in supporting the
conclusions drawn from recent obser'ations about globular clusters%
(A) There is firm e'idence that the absolute age of the ?ilky &ay gala$y is
between 15 and 1- billion years.
(B) A sur'ey re'eals that a gala$y close to the ?ilky &ay gala$y contains globular
clusters of ages close to the age of @alomar 12.
(C) A mathematical model pro'es that small gas clouds mo'e in regular patterns.
() ;pace probes indicate that the stars in the ?ilky &ay gala$y are composed of
se'eral different types of gas.
(#) A study of o'er 1/155 indi'idual stars in the halo of the ?ilky &ay gala$y
indicates wide discrepancies in there ages.
105. 3f Bolte and his colleague are both correct/ it can be inferred that the globular
cluster @alomar 12 is appro$imately
(A) 1 billion years younger than any other cluster in the gala$y
(B) the same age as most other clusters in the gala$y
(C) - billion years younger than another cluster in the gala$y
() 12 billion years younger than most other clusters in the gala$y
(#) 2 billion years younger than most other clusters in the gala$y
101. The passage suggests that Toomre4s work complements Karson4s theory because
it
(A) specifies more precisely the time frame proposed by Karson
(B) subtly alters Karson4s theory to make it more plausible
(C) supplements Karson4s hypothesis with direct astronomical obser'ations
() pro'ides theoretical support for the ideas suggested by Karson
(#) e$pands Karson4s theory to make it more widely applicable
102. &hich of the following most accurately states a finding of Bolte4s research/ as
described in the passage%
(A) The globular clusters in the ?ilky &ay gala$y are 2 billion years older than
predicted by the con'entional theory.
GMAT 26.
(B) The ages of at least some globular clusters in the ?ilky &ay gala$y differ by
at least 0 billion years.
(C) 8ne of the globular clusters in the ?ilky &ay gala$y is 1 billion years younger
than most others.
() The globular clusters in the ?ilky &ay gala$y are significantly older than the
indi'idual stars in the halo.
(#) ?ost globular clusters in the ?ilky &ay gala$y are between 11 and 11 billion
years old.
10.. The author of the passage puts the word *renegade+ (line 2,) in "uotation marks
most probably in order to
(A) emphasi!e the lack of support for the theories in "uestion
(B) contrast the contro'ersial "uality of the theories in "uestion with the
respectable character of their formulators
(C) generate skepticism about the theories in "uestion
() ridicule the scientists who once doubted the theories in "uestion
(#) indicate that the theories in "uestion are no longer as uncon'entional as they
once seemed
Passage 105 (5/17)
Kuring the 19L06s and 19706s( the primary economic deve"opment strategy o&
"oca" governments in the United tates was to attract manu&acturing industries.
Un&ortunate"y( this strategy was usua""y imp"emented at another community6s
e8penseA many manu&acturing &aci"ities were "ured away &rom their moorings
e"sewhere through ta8 incentives and s"ic$ promotiona" e1orts. Through the
trans&er o& 5obs and re"ated revenues that resu"ted &rom this practice( one town6s
triumph cou"d become another town6s tragedy.
2n the 19806s the strategy shi&ted &rom this +ero-sum game to one ca""ed >high-
techno"ogy deve"opment(? in which "oca" governments competed to attract new"y
&ormed high-techno"ogy manu&acturing #rms. 3"though this approach was
pre&erab"e to victimi+ing other geographica" areas by ta$ing their 5obs( it a"so had
its shortcomingsA high-tech manu&acturing #rms emp"oy on"y a specia""y trained
&raction o& the manu&acturing wor$&orce( and there simp"y are not enough high-
tech #rms to satis&y a"" geographic areas.
Recent"y( "oca" governments have increasing"y come to recogni+e the
advantages o& yet a third strategyA the promotion o& homegrown sma"" businesses.
ma"" indigenous businesses are created by a near"y ubi-uitous resource( "oca"
entrepreneurs. ;ith roots in their communities( these individua"s are "ess "i$e"y to
be enticed away by incentives o1ered by another community. 2ndigenous industry
and ta"ent are $ept at home( creating an environment that both provides 5obs and
&osters &urther entrepreneurship.
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100. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) ad'ocate more effecti'e strategies for encouraging the de'elopment of high(
technology enterprises in the :nited ;tates
(B) contrast the incenti'es for economic de'elopment offered by local
go'ernments with those offered by the pri'ate sector
(C) acknowledge and counter ad'erse criticism of programs being used to
stimulate local economic de'elopment
() define and e$plore promotional efforts used by local go'ernments to attract
new industry
(#) re'iew and e'aluate strategies and programs that ha'e been used to stimulate
economic de'elopment
101. The passage suggests which of the following about the ma<ority of :nited ;tates
manufacturing industries before the high(technology de'elopment era of the
1,654s%
(A) They lost many of their most inno'ati'e personnel to small entrepreneurial
enterprises.
(B) They e$perienced a ma<or decline in profits during the 1,254s and 1,-54s.
(C) They could pro'ide real economic benefits to the areas in which they were
located.
() They employed workers who had no speciali!ed skills.
(#) They acti'ely interfered with local entrepreneurial 'entures.
102. The tone of the passage suggests that the author is most optimistic about the
economic de'elopment potential of which of the following groups%
(A) Kocal go'ernments
(B) )igh(technology promoters
(C) Kocal entrepreneurs
() ?anufacturing(industry managers
(#) #conomic de'elopment strategists
10-. The passage does 98T state which of the following about local entrepreneurs%
(A) They are found nearly e'erywhere.
(B) They encourage further entrepreneurship.
(C) They attract out(of(town in'estors.
() They employ local workers.
(#) They are established in their communities.
106. The author of the passage mentions which of the following as an ad'antage of
high(technology de'elopment%
(A) 3t encourages the moderni!ation of e$isting manufacturing facilities.
GMAT 261
(B) 3t promotes healthy competition between ri'al industries.
(C) 3t encourages the growth of related industries.
() 3t takes full ad'antage of the e$isting workforce.
(#) 3t does not ad'antage one local workforce at the e$pense of another.
Passage 106 (6/17)
Researchers compared the number o& tooth &ractures in present-day carnivores
with tooth &ractures in carnivores that "ived 7L(000 to 10(000 years ago and that
were preserved in the Rancho Ja 'rea tar pits in Jos 3nge"es. The brea$age
&re-uencies in the e8tinct species were stri$ing"y higher than those in the present-
day species.
2n considering possib"e e8p"anations &or this #nding( the researchers dismissed
demographic bias because o"der individua"s were not overrepresented in the &ossi"
samp"es. They re5ected preservationa" bias because a tota" absence o& brea$age in
two e8tinct species demonstrated that the &ractures were not the resu"t o&
abrasion within the pits. They ru"ed out "oca" bias because brea$age data obtained
&rom other 9"eistocene sites were simi"ar to the Ja 'rea data. The e8p"anation
they consider most p"ausib"e is behaviora" di1erences between e8tinct and
present-day carnivores!in particu"ar( more contact between the teeth o&
predators and the bones o& prey due to more thorough consumption o& carcasses
by the e8tinct species. uch thorough carcass consumption imp"ies to the
researchers either that prey avai"abi"ity was "ow( at "east seasona""y( or that there
was intense competition over $i""s and a high rate o& carcass the&t due to re"ative"y
high predator densities.
2.1. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) present se'eral e$planations for a well(known fact
(B) suggest alternati'e method of resol'ing a debate
(C) argue in fa'or of a contro'ersial theory
() "uestion the methodology used in a study
(#) discuss the implications of a research finding
2.2. The passage suggests that/ compared with @leistocene carni'ores in other areas/
@leistocene carni'ores in the Ka Brea area
(A) included the same species/ in appro$imately the same proportions
(B) had a similar fre"uency of tooth fractures
(C) populated the Ka Brea more densely
() consumed their preys more thoroughly
(#) found it harder to obtain sufficiency prey
2... According to the passage/ the researchers belie'es that the high fre"uency of
262 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
tooth breakage in carni'ores found at Ka Brea was caused primarily by
(A) the aging process in indi'idual carni'ores
(B) contact between the fossils in the pits
(C) poor preser'ation of the fossils after they were remo'ed from the pits
() the impact of carni'ores4 teeth against the bones of their prey
(#) the impact of carni'ores4 teeth against the bones of other carni'ores during
fights o'er kills
2.0. The researchers4 conclusion concerning the absence of demographic bias would
be most seriously undermined if it were found that
(A) the older as indi'idual carni'ore is/ the more likely it is to ha'e a large number
of tooth fractures
(B) the a'erage age at death of a present(day carni'ores is greater than was the
a'erage age at death of a @leistocene carni'ore
(C) in @leistocene carni'ore species/ older indi'iduals consumed carcasses as
thoroughly as did younger indi'iduals
() the methods used to determine animals4 ages in fossil samples tend to
misidentify many older indi'iduals as younger indi'iduals
(#) data concerning the ages of fossil samples cannot pro'ide reliable information
about beha'ioral differences between e$tinct carni'ores and present(day
carni'ores
2.1. The passage suggests that if the researchers had not found that two e$tinct
carni'ore species were free of tooth breakage/ the researchers would ha'e
concluded that
(A) the difference in breakage fre"uencies could ha'e been the result of damage to
the fossil remains in the Ka Brea pits
(B) the fossils in other @leistocene sites could ha'e higher breakage fre"uencies
than do the fossils in the Ka Brea pits
(C) @leistocene carni'ore species probably beha'ed 'ery similarly to one another
with respect to consumption of carcass
() all @leistocene carni'ores species differed beha'iorally from present(day
carni'ore species
(#) predator densities during the @leistocene era were e$tremely high
Passage 107 (7/17)
Kuring the nineteenth-century( occupationa" in&ormation about women that
was provided by the United tates census!a popu"ation count conducted each
decade!became more detai"ed and precise in response to socia" changes.
Through 18M0( simp"e enumeration by househo"d mirrored a home-based
agricu"tura" economy and hierarchica" socia" orderA the head o& the househo"d
GMAT 26-
(presumed ma"e or absent) was speci#ed by name( whereas other househo"d
members were on"y indicated by the tota" number o& persons counted in various
categories( inc"uding occupationa" categories. Ji$e &arms( most enterprises were
&ami"y-run( so that the census measured economic activity as an attribute o& the
entire househo"d( rather than o& individua"s.
The 18/0 census( part"y responding to antis"avery and women6s rights
movements( initiated the co""ection o& speci#c in&ormation about each individua" in
a househo"d. ,ot unti" 1870 was occupationa" in&ormation ana"y+ed by genderA the
census superintendent reported 1.8 mi""ion women emp"oyed outside the home in
>gain&u" and reputab"e occupations.? 2n addition( he arbitrari"y attributed to each
&ami"y one woman >$eeping house.? <ver"ap between the two groups was not
ca"cu"ated unti" 1890( when the rapid entry o& women into the paid "abor &orce and
socia" issues arising &rom industria"i+ation were causing women6s advocates and
women statisticians to press &or more thorough and accurate accounting o&
women6s occupations and wages.
2.2. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) e$plain and criti"ue the methods used by early statisticians
(B) compare and contrast a historical situation with a current(day one
(C) describe and e$plain a historical change
() discuss historical opposition to an established institution
(#) trace the origin of a contemporary contro'ersy
2.-. #ach of the following aspects of nineteenth(century :nited ;tates censuses is
mentioned in the passage #DC#@T the
(A) year in which data on occupations began to be analy!ed by gender
(B) year in which specific information began to be collected on indi'iduals in
addition to the head of the household
(C) year in which o'erlap between women employed outside the home and women
keeping house was first calculated
() way in which the 16,5 census measured women4s income le'els and
educational backgrounds
(#) way in which household members were counted in the 1605 census
2.6. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the 1605 :nited ;tates census pro'ided a
count of which of the following%
(A) &omen who worked e$clusi'ely in the home
(B) @eople engaged in nonfarming occupations
(C) @eople engaged in social mo'ements
() &omen engaged in family(run enterprises
(#) ?en engaged in agriculture
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2.,. The author uses the ad<ecti'e *simple+ in line 1 most probably to emphasi!e that
the
(A) collection of census information became progressi'ely more difficult
throughout the nineteenth(century
(B) technology for tabulating census information was rudimentary during the first
half of the nineteenth century
(C) home(based agricultural economy of the early nineteenth century was easier to
analy!e than the later industrial economy
() economic role of women was better defined in the early nineteenth century
than in the late nineteenth century
(#) information collected by early(nineteen(century censuses was limited in its
amount of detail
205. The passage suggests which of the following about the *women4s ad'ocates and
women statisticians+ mentioned in lines 2-(26%
(A) They wanted to call attention to the lack of pay for women who worked in the
home.
(B) They belie'ed that pre'ious census information was inade"uate and did not
reflect certain economic changes in the :nited ;tates.
(C) They had begun to press for changes in census(taking methods as part of their
participation in the antisla'ery mo'ement.
() They thought that census statistics about women would be more accurate if
more women were employed as census officials.
(#) They had conducted independent studies that disputed the official statistics
pro'ided by pre'ious :nited ;tates censuses.
Passage 108 (8/17)
The modern mu"tinationa" corporation is described as having originated when
the owner-managers o& nineteenth-century 'ritish #rms carrying on internationa"
trade were rep"aced by teams o& sa"aried managers organi+ed into hierarchies.
2ncreases in the vo"ume o& transactions in such #rms are common"y be"ieved to
have necessitated this structura" change. ,ineteenth-century inventions "i$e the
steamship and the te"egraph( by &aci"itating coordination o& manageria" activities(
are described as $ey &actors. i8teenth- and seventeenth-century chartered
trading companies( despite the internationa" scope o& their activities( are usua""y
considered irre"evant to this discussionA the vo"ume o& their transactions is
assumed to have been too "ow and the communications and transport o& their day
too primitive to ma$e comparisons with modern mu"tinationa"s interesting.
2n rea"ity( however( ear"y trading companies success&u""y purchased and
out#tted ships( bui"t and operated o*ces and warehouses( manu&actured trade
goods &or use abroad( maintained trading posts and production &aci"ities overseas(
GMAT 26,
procured goods &or import( and so"d those goods both at home and in other
countries. The "arge vo"ume o& transactions associated with these activities seems
to have necessitated hierarchica" management structures we"" be&ore the advent
o& modern communications and transportation. :or e8amp"e( in the )udson6s 'ay
%ompany( each &ar-Dung trading outpost was managed by a sa"aried agent( who
carried out the trade with the ,ative 3mericans( managed day-to-day operations(
and oversaw the post6s wor$ers and servants. <ne chie& agent( answerab"e to the
%ourt o& Kirectors in Jondon through the correspondence committee( was
appointed with contro" over a"" o& the agents on the bay.
The ear"y trading companies did di1er stri$ing"y &rom modern mu"tinationa"s in
many respects. They depended heavi"y on the nationa" governments o& their
home countries and thus characteristica""y acted abroad to promote nationa"
interests. Their top managers were typica""y owners with a substantia" minority
share( whereas senior managers6 ho"dings in modern mu"tinationa"s are usua""y
insigni#cant. They operated in a pre-industria" wor"d( gra&ting a system o&
capita"ist internationa" trade onto a pre-modern system o& artisan and peasant
production. Kespite these di1erences( however( ear"y trading companies
organi+ed e1ective"y in remar$ab"y modern ways and merit &urther study as
ana"ogues o& more modern structures.
201. The author4s main point is that
(A) modern multinationals originated in the si$teenth and se'enteenth centuries
with the establishment of chartered trading companies
(B) the success of early chartered trading companies/ like that of modern
multinationals/ depended primarily on their ability to carry out comple$
operations
(C) early chartered trading companies should be more seriously considered by
scholars studying the origins of modern multinationals
() scholars are "uite mistaken concerning the origins of modern multinationals
(#) the management structures of early chartered trading companies are
fundamentally the same as those of modern multinationals
202. According to the passage/ early chartered trading companies are usually described
as
(A) irrele'ant to a discussion of the origins of the modern multinational
corporation
(B) interesting but ultimately too unusually to be good sub<ects for economic study
(C) analogues of nineteenth(century British trading firms
() rudimentary and 'ery early forms of the modern multinational corporation
(#) important national institutions because they e$isted to further the political aims
of the go'ernments of their home countries
20.. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author would characteri!e the
2,5 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
acti'ities engaged in by early chartered trading companies as being
(A) comple$ enough in scope to re"uire a substantial amount of planning and
coordination on the part of management
(B) too simple to be considered similar to those of a modern multinational
corporation
(C) as intricate as those carried out by the largest multinational corporations today
() often unprofitable due to slow communications and unreliable means of
transportation
(#) hampered by the political demands imposed on them by the go'ernments of
their home countries
200. The author lists the 'arious acti'ities of early chartered trading companies in
order to
(A) analy!e the 'arious ways in which these acti'ities contributed to changes in
management structure in such companies
(B) demonstrate that the 'olume of business transactions of such companies
e$ceeded that of earlier firms
(C) refute the 'iew that the 'olume of business undertaken by such companies was
relati'ely low
() emphasi!e the international scope of these companies4 operations
(#) support the argument that such firms coordinated such acti'ities by using
a'ailable means of communication and transport
201. &ith which of the following generali!ations regarding management structures
would the author of the passage most probably agree%
(A) )ierarchical management structures are the most efficient management
structures possible in a modern conte$t.
(B) >irms that routinely ha'e a high 'olume of business transactions find it
necessary to adopt hierarchical management structures.
(C) )ierarchical management structures cannot be successfully implemented
without modern communications and transportation.
() ?odern multinational firms with a relati'ely small 'olume of business
transactions usually do not ha'e hierarchically organi!ed management
structures.
(#) Companies that adopt hierarchical management structures usually do so in
order to facilitate e$pansion into foreign trade.
202. The passage suggests that modern multinationals differ from early chartered
trading companies in that
(A) the top managers of modern multinationals own stock in their own companies
rather than simply recei'ing a salary
(B) modern multinationals depend on a system of capitalist international trade
GMAT 2,1
rather than on less modern trading systems
(C) modern multinationals ha'e operations in a number of different foreign
counties rather than merely in one or two
() the operations of modern multinationals are highly profitable despite the more
stringent en'ironmental and safety regulations of modern go'ernments
(#) the o'erseas operations of modern multinationals are not go'erned by the
national interests of their home countries
20-. The author mentions the artisan and peasant production systems of early
chartered trading companies as an e$ample of
(A) an area of operations of these companies that was unhampered by rudimentary
systems of communications and transport
(B) a similarity that allows fruitful comparison of these companies with modern
multinationals
(C) a positi'e achie'ement of these companies in the face of 'arious difficulties
() a system that could not ha'e emerged in the absence of management
hierarchies
(#) a characteristic that distinguishes these companies from modern multinationals
206. The passage suggests that one of the reasons that early chartered trading
companies deser'e comparison with early modern multinationals is
(A) the degree to which they both depended on new technology
(B) the similar nature of their management structures
(C) similarities in their top managements4 degree of ownership in the company
() their common dependence on political stability abroad in order to carry on
foreign operations
(#) their common tendency to re'olutioni!e systems of production
Passage 109 (9/17)
2n an un#nished but high"y suggestive series o& essays( the "ate arah
@isenstein has &ocused attention on the evo"ution o& wor$ing women6s va"ues &rom
the turn o& the century to the :irst ;or"d ;ar. @isenstein argues that turn-o&-the-
century women neither who""y accepted nor re5ected what she ca""s the dominant
>ideo"ogy o& domesticity(? but rather too$ this and other avai"ab"e ideo"ogies!
&eminism( socia"ism( trade unionism!and modi#ed or adapted them in "ight o&
their own e8periences and needs. 2n thus maintaining that wage-wor$ he"ped to
produce a new >consciousness? among women( @isenstein to some e8tent
cha""enges the recent( controversia" proposa" by Jes"ie Tent"er that &or women the
wor$ e8perience on"y served to rein&orce the attractiveness o& the dominant
ideo"ogy. 3ccording to the Tent"er( the degrading conditions under which many
&ema"e wage earners wor$ed made them view the &ami"y as a source o& power and
2,2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
esteem avai"ab"e nowhere e"se in their socia" wor"d. 2n contrast( @isenstein6s study
insists that wage-wor$ had other imp"ications &or women6s identities and
consciousness. Bost important"y( her wor$ aims to demonstrate that wage-wor$
enab"ed women to become aware o& themse"ves as a distinct socia" group capab"e
o& de#ning their co""ective circumstance. @isenstein insists that as a group
wor$ing-c"ass women were not ab"e to come to co""ective consciousness o& their
situation unti" they began entering the "abor &orce( because domestic wor$ tended
to iso"ate them &rom one another.
Un&ortunate"y( @isenstein6s un#nished study does not deve"op these ideas in
su*cient depth or detai"( o1ering tanta"i+ing hints rather than an e8haustive
ana"ysis. ;hatever @isenstein6s overa"" p"an may have been( in its current &orm
her study su1ers &rom the "imited nature o& the sources she depended on. he
uses the speeches and writings o& re&ormers and "abor organi+ers( who she
ac$now"edges were &ar &rom representative( as the voice o& the typica" woman
wor$er. 3nd there is "ess than ade-uate attention given to the di1ering va"ues o&
immigrant groups that made up a signi#cant proportion o& the popu"ation under
investigation. ;hi"e raising important -uestions( @isenstein6s essays do not
provide de#nitive answer( and it remains &or others to ta$e up the cha""enges they
o1er.
20,. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) critici!e a scholar4s assumptions and methodology
(B) e'aluate an approach to women4s study
(C) compare two sociological theories
() correct a misconception about feminist theory
(#) defend an unpopular ideology
215. 3t can be inferred from the passage that/ in #isenstein4s 'iew/ working women at
the turn of the century had which of the following attitudes toward the dominant
ideology of their time%
(A) They resented the dominant ideology as degrading.
(B) They preferred the dominant ideology to other a'ailable ideologies.
(C) They began to 'iew the dominant ideology more fa'orably as a result of their
e$periences in the labor force.
() They accepted some but not all aspects of the dominant ideology.
(#) They belie'ed that the dominant ideology isolated them from one another.
211. &hich of the following best describes the organi!ation of the first paragraph of
the passage%
(A) A chronological account of a historical de'elopment is presented/ and then
future de'elopments are predicted.
(B) A term is defined according to se'eral different schools of thought/ and then a
GMAT 2,.
new definition is formulated.
(C) A theory is presented/ an alternati'e 'iewpoint is introduced/ and then the
reasoning behind the initial theory is summari!ed.
() A tentati'e proposal is made/ reasons for and against it are weighed/ and then a
modified 'ersion of the proposal is offered.
(#) A contro'ersy is described/ its historical implications are assessed/ and then a
compromise is suggested.
212. &hich of the following would the author of the passage be most likely to appro'e
as a continuation of #isenstein4s study%
(A) An oral history of prominent women labor organi!ers
(B) An analysis of letters and diaries written by typical female wage earners at the
turn of the century
(C) An assessment of what different social and political groups defined as the
dominant ideology in the early twentieth century
() A theoretical study of how socialism and feminism influenced one another at
the turn of the century
(#) A documentary account of labor4s role in the introduction of women into the
labor force
Passage 110 (10/17)
,eotropica" coasta" mangrove &orests are usua""y >+ona"(? with certain
mangrove species &ound predominant"y in the seaward portion o& the habitat and
other mangrove species on the more "andward portions o& the coast. The ear"iest
research on mangrove &orests produced descriptions o& species distribution &rom
shore to "and( without e8p"oring the causes o& the distributions.
The idea that +onation is caused by p"ant succession was #rst e8pressed by C.
). Kavis in a study o& :"orida mangrove &orests. 3ccording to Kavis6 scheme( the
shore"ine is being e8tended in a seaward direction because o& the >"and-bui"ding?
ro"e o& mangroves( which( by trapping sediments over time( e8tend the shore. 3s
a habitat gradua""y becomes more in"and as the shore e8tends( the >"and-
bui"ding? species are rep"aced. This continuous process o& accretion and
succession wou"d be interrupted on"y by hurricanes or storm Dushings.
Recent"y the universa" app"ication o& Kavis6 succession paradigm has been
cha""enged. 2t appears that in areas where wea$ currents and wea$ tida" energies
a""ow the accumu"ation o& sediments( mangroves wi"" &o""ow "and &ormation and
acce"erate the rate o& soi" accretion= succession wi"" proceed according to Kavis6
scheme. 'ut on stab"e coast"ines( the distribution o& mangrove species resu"ts in
other patterns o& +onation= >"and bui"ding? does not occur.
To #nd a princip"e that e8p"ains the various distribution patterns( severa"
researchers have "oo$ed to sa"inity and its e1ects on mangrove. ;hi"e mangroves
2,0 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
can deve"op in &resh water( they can a"so thrive in sa"inities as high as 4./ times
that o& seawater. )owever( those mangrove species &ound in &reshwater habitats
do we"" on"y in the absence o& competition( thus suggesting that sa"inity to"erance
is a critica" &actor in competitive success among mangrove species. Research
suggests that mangroves wi"" norma""y dominate high"y sa"ine regions( a"though
not because they re-uire sa"t. Rather( they are metabo"ica""y e*cient (and hence
grow we"") in portions o& an environment whose high sa"inity e8c"udes p"ants
adapted to "ower sa"inities. Tides create di1erent degrees o& sa"inity a"ong a
coast"ine. The characteristic mangrove species o& each +one shou"d e8hibit a
higher metabo"ic e*ciency at that sa"inity than wi"" any potentia" invader(
inc"uding other species o& mangrove.
21.. The primary of the purpose of the passage is to
(A) refute the idea that the !onation e$hibited in mangro'e forests is caused by
adaptation to salinity
(B) describe the pattern of !onation typically found in >lorida mangro'e forests
(C) argue that a'is4 succession paradigm cannot be successfully applied to
>lorida mangro'e forests
() discuss hypotheses that attempt to e$plain the !onation of coastal mangro'e
forests
(#) establish that plants that do well in saline forest en'ironments re"uire salt to
achie'e ma$imum metabolic efficiency
210. According to the passage/ the earliest research on mangro'e forest produced
which of the following%
(A) ata that implied random patterns of mangro'e species distribution
(B) escriptions of species distributions suggesting !onation
(C) escriptions of the de'elopment of mangro'e forests o'er time
() =eclassification of species formerly thought to be identical
(#) ata that confirmed the *land(building+ role of mangro'es
211. 3t can be inferred from the passage that a'is4 paradigm does 98T apply to
which of the following%
(A) The shoreline of >lorida mangro'e forests first studies by a'is
(B) A shoreline in an area with weak currents
(C) A shoreline in an area with weak tidal energy
() A shoreline e$tended by *land(building+ species of mangro'e
(#) A shoreline in which few sediments can accumulate
212. 3nformation in the passage indicates that the author would most probably regard
which of following statements as 39C8==#CT%
(A) Coastal mangro'e forests are usually !onal.
GMAT 2,1
(B) )urricanes interrupt the process of accretion and succession that e$tends
e$isting shorelines.
(C) ;pecies of plants that thri'e in a saline habitat re"uire salt to flourish.
() @lants with the highest metabolic efficiency in a gi'en habitat tend to e$clude
other plants from that habitat.
(#) ;horeline in areas with weak currents and tides are more likely to be e$tended
through the process of accumulation of sediment than are shorelines with
strong currents and tides.
Passage 111 (11/17)
Bodern manu&acturers( who need re"iab"e sources o& materia"s and
techno"ogica""y advanced components to operate pro#tab"y( &ace an increasing"y
di*cu"t choice between owning the producers o& these items (a practice $nown as
bac$ward integration) and buying &rom independent producers. Banu&acturers
who integrate may reap short-term rewards( but they o&ten restrict their &uture
capacity &or innovative product deve"opment.
'ac$ward integration removes the need &or some purchasing and mar$eting
&unctions( centra"i+es overhead( and permits manu&acturers to e"iminate
dup"icated e1orts in research and deve"opment. ;here components are
commodities (&errous meta"s or petro"eum( &or e8amp"e)( bac$ward integration
a"most certain"y boosts pro#ts. ,everthe"ess( because product innovation means
adopting the most techno"ogica""y advanced and cost-e1ective ways o& ma$ing
components( bac$ward integration may entai" a serious ris$ &or a techno"ogica""y
active company!&or e8amp"e( a producer o& sophisticated consumer e"ectronics.
3 company that decides to ma$e rather than buy important parts can "oc$ itse"&
into an outdated techno"ogy. 2ndependent supp"iers may be unwi""ing to share
innovations with assemb"ers with whom they are competing. Boreover( when an
assemb"er sets out to master the techno"ogy o& producing advanced components(
the resu"ting demands on its resources may compromise its abi"ity to assemb"e
these components success&u""y into end products. Jong-term contracts with
supp"iers can achieve many o& the same cost bene#ts as bac$ward integration
without compromising a company6s abi"ity to innovate.
)owever( moving away &rom bac$ward integration is not a comp"ete so"ution
either. Keve"oping innovative techno"ogies re-uires independent supp"iers o&
components to invest huge sums in research and deve"opment. The resu"ting "ow
pro#t margins on the sa"e o& components threaten the "ong-term #nancia" stabi"ity
o& these #rms. 'ecause the abi"ity o& end-product assemb"ers to respond to
mar$et opportunities depends heavi"y on supp"iers o& components( assemb"ers are
o&ten &orced to integrate by purchasing the supp"iers o& components 5ust to $eep
their supp"iers in business.
21-. According to the passage/ all of the following are benefits associated with
2,2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
backward integration #DC#@TE
(A) impro'ement in the management of o'erhead e$penses
(B) enhancement of profit margins on sales of components
(C) simplification of purchasing and marketing operations
() reliability of a source of necessary components
(#) elimination of unnecessary research efforts
216. According to passage/ when an assembler buys a firm that makes some important
component of the end product that the assembler produces/ independent suppliers
of the same component may
(A) withhold technological inno'ations from the assembler
(B) e$perience impro'ed profit margins on sales of their products
(C) lower their prices to protect themsel'es from competition
() suffer financial difficulties and go out of business
(#) stop de'eloping new 'ersions of the component
21,. &hich of the following best describes the way the last paragraph functions in the
conte$t of the passage%
(A) The last in a series of arguments supporting the central argument of the
passage is presented.
(B) A 'iewpoint is presented which "ualifies one presented earlier in the passage.
(C) #'idence is presented in support of the argument de'eloped in the preceding
paragraph.
() Nuestions arising from the earlier discussion are identified as points of
departure for further study of the topic.
(#) A specific e$ample is presented to illustrate the main elements of argument
presented in the earlier paragraphs.
225. According to the passage/ which of the following relationships between profits
and in'estments in research and de'elopment holds true for producers of
technologically ad'anced components%
(A) ?odest in'estments are re"uired and the profit margins on component sales
are low.
(B) ?odest in'estments are re"uired but the profit margins on component sales are
"uite high.
(C) espite the huge in'estments that are re"uired/ the profit margins on
components sales are high.
() Because huge in'estments are re"uired/ the profit margins on component sales
are low.
(#) Kong(term contractual relationships with purchasers of components ensure a
high ratio of profits to in'estment costs.
GMAT 2,-
Passage 112 (12/17)
)omeostasis( an anima"6s maintenance o& certain interna" variab"es within an
acceptab"e range( particu"ar"y in e8treme physica" environments( has "ong
interested bio"ogists. The desert rat and the came" in the most water-deprived
environments( and marine vertebrates in an a""-water environment( encounter the
same regu"atory prob"emA maintaining ade-uate interna" Duid ba"ance.
:or desert rats and came"s( the prob"em is conservation o& water in an
environment where standing water is none8istent( temperature is high( and
humidity is "ow. Kespite these handicaps( desert rats are ab"e to maintain the
osmotic pressure o& their b"ood( as we"" as their tota" body-water content( at
appro8imate"y the same "eve"s as other rats. <ne countermeasure is behaviora"A
these rats stay in burrows during the hot part o& the day( thus avoiding "oss o&
Duid through panting or sweating( which are regu"atory mechanisms &or
maintaining interna" body temperature by evaporative coo"ing. 3"so( desert rats6
$idneys can e8crete a urine having twice as high a sa"t content as sea water.
%ame"s( on the other hand( re"y more on simp"e endurance. They cannot store
water( and their re"iance on an entire"y une8ceptiona" $idney resu"ts in a rate o&
water "oss through rena" &unction signi#cant"y higher than that o& desert rats. 3s a
resu"t( came"s must to"erate "osses in body water o& up to thirty percent o& their
body weight. ,everthe"ess( came"s do re"y on a specia" mechanism to $eep water
"oss within a to"erab"e rangeA by seating and panting on"y when their body
temperature e8ceeds that which wou"d $i"" a human( they conserve interna" water.
Barine vertebrates e8perience di*cu"ty with their water ba"ance because
though there is no shortage o& seawater to drin$( they must drin$ a "ot o& it to
maintain their interna" Duid ba"ance. 'ut the e8cess sa"ts &rom the seawater must
be discharged somehow( and the $idneys o& most marine vertebrates are unab"e
to e8crete a urine in which the sa"ts are more concentrated than in seawater. Bost
o& these anima"s have specia" sa"t-secreting organs outside the $idney that enab"e
them to e"iminate e8cess sa"t.
221. &hich of the following most accurately states the purpose of the passage%
(A) To compare two different approaches to the study of homeostasis
(B) To summari!e the findings of se'eral studies regarding organisms4
maintenance of internal 'ariables in e$treme en'ironments
(C) To argue for a particular hypothesis regarding 'arious organisms4 conser'ation
of water in desert en'ironments
() To cite e$amples of how homeostasis is achie'ed by 'arious organisms
(#) To defend a new theory regarding the maintenance of ade"uate fluid balance
222. According to the passage/ the camel maintains internal fluid balance in which of
the following ways%
2,6 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
3. By beha'ioral a'oidance of e$posure to conditions that lead to fluid loss
33. By an ability to tolerate high body temperatures
333. By reliance on stored internal fluid supplies
(A) 3 only
(B) 33 only
(C) 3 and 33 only
() 33 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
22.. 3t can be inferred from the passage that some mechanisms that regulate internal
body temperature/ like sweating and panting/ can lead to which of the following%
(A) A rise in the e$ternal body temperature
(B) A drop in the body4s internal fluid le'el
(C) A decrease in the osmotic pressure of the blood
() A decrease in the amount of renal water loss
(#) A decrease in the urine4s salt content
220. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author characteri!es the camel4s
kidney as *entirely une$ceptional+ (line 20) primarily to emphasi!e that it
(A) functions much as the kidney of a rat functions
(B) does not aid the camel in coping with the e$ceptional water loss resulting from
the e$treme conditions of its en'ironment
(C) does not enable the camel to e$crete as much salt as do the kidneys of marine
'ertebrates
() is similar in structure to the kidneys of most mammals li'ing in water(depri'ed
en'ironments
(#) re"uires the help of other organs in eliminating e$cess salt
Passage 113 (13/17)
2n the seventeenth-century :"orentine te8ti"e industry( women were emp"oyed
primari"y in "ow-paying( "ow-s$i"" 5obs. To e8p"ain this segregation o& "abor by
gender( economists have re"ied on the use&u" theory o& human capita". 3ccording
to this theory( investment in human capita"!the ac-uisition o& di*cu"t 5ob-re"ated
s$i""s!genera""y bene#ts individua"s by ma$ing them e"igib"e to engage in we""-
paid occupations. ;omen6s ro"e as chi"d bearers( however( resu"ts in interruptions
in their participation in the 5ob mar$et (as compared with men6s) and thus reduces
their opportunities to ac-uire training &or high"y s$i""ed wor$. 2n addition( the
human capita" theory e8p"ains why there was a high concentration o& women
wor$ers in certain "ow-s$i"" 5obs( such as weaving( but not in others( such as
combing or carding( by positing that because o& their primary responsibi"ity in
GMAT 2,,
chi"d rearing women too$ occupations that cou"d be carried out in the home.
There were( however( di1erences in pay sca"es that cannot be e8p"ained by the
human capita" theory. :or e8amp"e( ma"e construction wor$ers were paid
signi#cant"y higher wage than &ema"e ta1eta weavers. The wage di1erence
between these two "ow-s$i"" occupations stems &rom the segregation o& "abor by
genderA because a "imited number o& occupations were open to women( there was
a "arge supp"y o& wor$ers in their #e"ds( and this >overcrowding? resu"ted in
women receiving "ower wages and men receiving higher wages.
221. The passage suggests that combing and carding differ from wea'ing in that
combing and carding are
(A) low(skill <obs performed by primarily by women employees
(B) low(skill <obs that were not performed in the home
(C) low(skill <obs performed by both male and female employees
() high(skill <obs performed outside the home
(#) high(skill <obs performed by both male and female employees
222. &hich of the following/ if true/ would most weaken the e$planation pro'ided by
the human capital theory for women4s concentration in certain occupations in
se'enteenth(century >lorence%
(A) &omen were unlikely to work outside the home e'en in occupations whose
house were fle$ible enough to allow women to accommodate domestic tasks as
well as paid labor.
(B) @arents were less likely to teach occupational skills to their daughters than they
were to their sons.
(C) &omen4s participation in the >lorentine paid labor force grew steadily
throughout the si$teenth and se'enteenth centuries.
() The 'ast ma<ority of female wea'ers in the >lorentine wool industry had
children.
(#) >ew women worked as wea'ers in the >lorentine silk industry/ which was
de'oted to making cloths that re"uired a high degree of skill to produce.
22-. The author of the passage would be most likely to describe the e$planation
pro'ided by the human capital theory for the high concentration of women in
certain occupations in the se'enteenth(century >lorence te$tile industry as
(A) well founded though incomplete
(B) difficult to articulate
(C) plausible but poorly substantiated
() seriously flawed
(#) contrary to recent research
.55 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
Passage 114 (14/17)
Baps made by non-,ative 3mericans to depict ,ative 3merican "and tenure(
resources and popu"ation distributions appeared a"most as ear"y as @uropeans6
#rst encounters with ,ative 3mericans and too$ many &ormA missionaries6 #e"d
s$etches( e8p"orers6 drawings( and surveyors6 maps( as we"" as maps rendered in
connection with treaties invo"ving "and trans&ers. Bost e8isting maps o& ,ative
3merican "ands are reconstructions that are based "arge"y on archaeo"ogy( ora"
reports( and evidence gathered &rom observers6 accounts in "etter( diaries( and
o*cia" reports= according"y( the accuracy o& these maps is especia""y dependent
on the mapma$ers6 own interpretive abi"ities.
Bany e8isting maps a"so reDect the 1/0-year ro"e o& the 'ureau o& 2ndian
31airs ('23) in administering triba" "ands. Though these maps incorporate some
in&ormation g"eaned direct"y &rom ,ative 3mericans( rare"y has ,ative 3merican
cartography contributed to this o*cia" record( which has been compi"ed(
surveyed( and authenticated by non-,ative 3merican. Thus our current
cartographic record re"ating to ,ative 3merican tribes and their migrations and
cu"tura" &eatures( as we"" as territoria"ity and contemporary trust "ands( reDects the
origins o& the data( the mi8ed purposes &or which the maps have been prepared(
and changes both in United tates government po"icy and in non-,ative
3mericans6 attitudes toward an understanding o& ,ative 3mericans.
226. &hich of the following best describes the content of the passage%
(A) A chronology of the de'elopment of different methods for mapping 9ati'e
Americans
(B) A discussion of how the mapmaking techni"ues of 9ati'e Americans differed
from those of #uropeans
(C) An argument concerning the present(day uses to which historical maps of
9ati'e American lands are put
() An argument concerning the nature of information contained in maps of 9ati'e
American lands
(#) A proposal for impro'ing the accuracy of maps of 9ati'e American lands
22,. The passage mentions each of the following as a factor affecting current maps of
9ati'e American lands #DC#@T
(A) :nited ;tates go'ernment policy
(B) non(9ati'e Americans4 perspecti'e on 9ati'e Americans
(C) origins of the information utili!ed to produce the maps
() changes in ways that tribal lands are used
(#) the reason for producing the maps
GMAT .51
2-5. The passage suggests which of the following about most e$isting maps of 9ati'e
American lands%
(A) They do not record the migrations of 9ati'e American tribes.
(B) They ha'e been preser'ed primarily because of their connection with treaties
in'ol'ing land transfers.
(C) They tend to reflect archaeological e'idence that has become outdated.
() They tend to be less accurate when they are based on oral reports than when
they are based on written documents.
(#) They are not based primarily on the mapmakers4 firsthand obser'ations of
9ati'e American lands.
2-1. All of the following are e$amples of the type of e'idence used in creating *?ost
e$isting maps+ (line -(6) #DC#@T
(A) a nineteenth(century go'ernment report on population distribution of a
particular tribe
(B) taped con'ersations with people who li'ed on 9ati'e American tribal lands in
the early twentieth century
(C) aerial photographs of geological features of lands inhabited by 9ati'e
Americans
() findings from a recently e$ca'ated site once inhabited by a certain 9ati'e
American people
(#) a <ournal kept by a non(9ati'e American e$plorer who tra'eled in 9ati'e
American territory in the early nineteenth century
Passage 115 (15/17)
(This passage was written in 198M.)
2t is now possib"e to hear a recording o& %aruso6s singing that is &ar superior to
any made during his "i&etime. 3 decades-o"d wa8-cy"inder recording o& this great
operatic tenor has been digiti+ed( and the digiti+ed signa" has been processed by
computer to remove the e8traneous sound( or >noise(? introduced by the now
>ancient? wa8-cy"inder recording process.
3"though this digita" techni-ue needs improvements( it represents a new and
superior way o& recording and processing sound which overcomes many o& the
"imitations o& ana"og recording. 2n ana"og recording systems( the origina" sound is
represented as a continuous wave&orm created by variations in the sound6s
amp"itude over time. ;hen ana"og p"aybac$ systems reproduce this wave&orm(
however( they invariab"y introduce distortions. :irst( the wave&orm produced
during p"aybac$ di1ers somewhat &rom the origina" wave&orm. econd( the
medium that stores the ana"og recording creates noise during p"aybac$ which
gets added to the recorded sounds.
Kigita" recordings( by contrast( reduce the origina" sound to a series o& discrete
.52 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
numbers that represent the sound6s wave&orm. 'ecause the digita" p"aybac$
system >reads? on"y numbers( any noise and distortion that may accumu"ate
during storage and manipu"ation o& the digiti+ed signa" wi"" have "itt"e e1ectA as
"ong as the numbers remain recogni+ab"e( the origina" wave&orm wi"" be
reconstructed with "itt"e "oss in -ua"ity. )owever( because the wave&orm is
continuous( whi"e its digita" representation is composed o& discrete numbers( it is
impossib"e &or digita" systems to avoid some distortion. <ne $ind o& distortion(
ca""ed >samp"ing error(? occurs i& the sound is samp"ed (i.e.( its amp"itude is
measured) too in&re-uent"y( so that the amp"itude changes more than one
-uantum (the sma""est change in amp"itude measured by the digita" system)
between samp"ings. 2n e1ect( the sound is changing too -uic$"y &or the system to
record it accurate"y. 3 second &orm o& distortion is >-uanti+ing error(? which arises
when the amp"itude being measured is not a who"e number o& -uanta( &orcing the
digita" recorder to round o1. <ver the "ong term( these errors are random( and the
noise produced (a bac$ground bu++ing) is simi"ar to ana"og noise e8cept that it
on"y occurs when recorded sounds are being reproduced.
2-2. &hich of the following best describes the relationship of the first paragraph to the
passage as a whole%
(A) The first paragraph introduces a general thesis that is elaborated on in detail
elsewhere in the passage.
(B) The first paragraph presents a concrete instance of a problem that is discussed
elsewhere in the passage.
(C) The first paragraph describes a traditional process that is contrasted
unfa'orably with a newer process described elsewhere in the passage.
() The first paragraph presents a dramatic e$ample of the potential of a process
that is described elsewhere in the passage.
(#) The first paragraph describes a historic incident that ser'ed as the catalyst for
de'elopments described elsewhere in the passage.
2-.. According the passage/ one of the ways in which analog recording systems differ
from digital recording systems is that analog systems
(A) can be used to reduce background noise in old recordings
(B) record the original sound as a continuous wa'eform
(C) distort the original sound somewhat
() can a'oid introducing e$traneous and nonmusical sounds
(#) can reconstruct the original wa'eform with little loss in "uality
2-0. &hich of the following statements about the numbers by which sound is
represented in a digital system can be inferred from the passage%
(A) They describe the time inter'al between successi'e sounds in a passage of
music.
(B) They model large changes in the amplitude of the initial sound with relati'ely
GMAT .5.
poor precision.
(C) They are slightly altered each time they are read by the playback apparatus.
() They are not readily altered by distortion and noise accumulated as the digital
signal is stored and manipulated.
(#) They are stored in the recording medium in small groups that can be read
simultaneously by the playback apparatus.
2-1. &hich of the following can be inferred from the passage about the digital
approach to the processing of sound%
(A) 3t was de'eloped in competition with wa$(cylinder recording technology.
(B) 3t has resulted in the first distortion(free playback system.
(C) 3t has been e$tensi'ely applied to nonmusical sounds.
() 3t cannot yet process music originally recorded on analog e"uipment.
(#) 3t is not yet capable of reprocessing old recordings in a completely distortion(
free manner.
Passage 116 (16/17)
The &unction o& capita" mar$ets is to &aci"itate an e8change o& &unds among a""
participants( and yet in practice we #nd that certain participants are not on a par
with others. Bembers o& society have varying degrees o& mar$et strength in terms
o& in&ormation they bring to a transaction( as we"" as o& purchasing power and
creditworthiness( as de#ned by "enders.
:or e8amp"e( within minority communities( capita" mar$ets do not proper"y
&u"#"" their &unctions= they do not provide access to the aggregate Dow o& &unds in
the United tates. The #nancia" system does not generate the credit or
investment vehic"es needed &or underwriting economic deve"opment in minority
areas. The prob"em under"ying this dys&unction is &ound in a rationing mechanism
a1ecting both the avai"ab"e a"ternatives &or investment and the amount o&
#nancia" resources. This creates a distributive mechanism pena"i+ing members o&
minority groups because o& their socioeconomic di1erences &rom others. The
e8isting system e8presses de#nite socia""y based investment pre&erences that
resu"t &rom the previous a""ocation o& income and that inDuence the a""ocation o&
resources &or the present and &uture. The system tends to increase the ine-ua"ity
o& income distribution. 3nd( in the United tates economy( a greater ine-ua"ity o&
income distribution "eads to a greater concentration o& capita" in certain types o&
investment.
Bost traditiona" #nancia"-mar$et ana"ysis studies ignore #nancia" mar$ets6
de#ciencies in a""ocation because o& ana"ysts6 inherent pre&erences &or the simp"e
mode" o& per&ect competition. %onventiona" #nancia" ana"ysis pays "imited
attention to issues o& mar$et structure and dynamics( re"ative costs o&
in&ormation( and prob"ems o& income distribution. Bar$et participants are viewed
.50 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
as acting as entire"y independent and homogeneous individua"s with per&ect
&oresight about capita"-mar$et behavior. 3"so( it is assumed that each individua" in
the community at "arge has the same access to the mar$et and the same
opportunity to transact and to e8press the pre&erence appropriate to his or her
individua" interest. Boreover( it is assumed that transaction costs &or various
types o& #nancia" instruments (stoc$s( bonds( etc.) are e-ua""y $nown and e-ua""y
divided among a"" community members.
2-2. The main point made by the passage is that
(A) financial markets pro'ide for an optimum allocation of resources among all
competing participants by balancing supply and demand
(B) the allocation of financial resources takes place among separate indi'idual
participants/ each of whom has access to the market
(C) the e$istence of certain factors ad'ersely affecting members of minority
groups shows that financial markets do not function as con'entional theory
says they function
() in'estments in minority communities can be made by the use of 'arious
alternati'e financial instruments/ such as stocks and bonds
(#) since transaction costs for stocks/ bonds/ and other financial instruments are
not e"ually apportioned among all minority(group members/ the financial
market is sub<ect to criticism
2--. The passage states that traditional studies of the financial market o'erlook
imbalances in the allocation of financial resources because
(A) an optimum allocation of resources is the final result of competition among
participants
(B) those performing the studies choose an o'ersimplified description of the
influences on competition
(C) such imbalances do not appear in the statistics usually compiled to measure the
market4s beha'ior
() the analysts who study the market are unwilling to accept criticism of their
methods as biased
(#) socioeconomic difference form the basis of a rationing mechanism that puts
minority groups at a disad'antage
2-6. The author4s main point is argued by
(A) gi'ing e$amples that support a con'entional generali!ation
(B) showing that the 'iew opposite to the author4s is self(contradictory
(C) critici!ing the presuppositions of a proposed plan
() showing that omissions in a theoretical description make it inapplicable in
certain cases
(#) demonstrating that an alternati'e hypothesis more closely fits the data
GMAT .51
2-,. A difference in which of the following would be an e$ample of ine"uality in
transaction costs as alluded to in lines 05(0.%
(A) ?a$imum amounts of loans e$tended by a bank to businesses in different
areas
(B) >ees charged to large and small in'estors for purchasing stocks
(C) @rices of similar goods offered in large and small stores in an area
() ;tipends paid to different attorneys for preparing legal suits for damages
(#) #$change rates in dollars for currencies of different countries
265. &hich of the following can be inferred about minority communities on the basis
of the passage%
(A) They pro'ide a significant portion of the funds that become a'ailable for
in'estment in the financial market.
(B) They are penali!ed by the ta$ system/ which increases the ine"uality of the
distribution of income between in'estors and wage earners.
(C) They do no recei'e the share of the amount of funds a'ailable for in'estment
that would be e$pected according to traditional financial(market analysis.
() They are not granted go'ernmental subsidies to assist in underwriting the cost
of economic de'elopment.
(#) They pro'ide the same access to alternati'e sources of credit to finance
businesses as do ma<ority communities.
261. According to the passage/ a "uestionable assumption of the con'entional theory
about the operation of financial markets is that
(A) creditworthiness as determined by lenders is a factor determining market
access
(B) market structure and market dynamics depend on income distribution
(C) a scarcity of alternati'e sources of funds would result from taking
socioeconomic factors into consideration
() those who engage in financial(market transactions are perfectly well informed
about the market
(#) ine"ualities in income distribution are increased by the functioning of the
financial market
262. According to the passage/ analysts ha'e con'entionally tended to 'iew those who
participate in financial market as
(A) <udging in'estment preferences in terms of the good of society as a whole
(B) influencing the allocation of funds through prior ownership of certain kinds of
assets
(C) 'arying in market power with respect to one another
() basing <udgments about future e'ents mainly on chance
.52 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(#) ha'ing e"ual opportunities to engage in transactions
Passage 117 (17/17)
(The &o""owing is based on materia" written in 199L.)
The Bontrea" 9rotoco" on ubstances that Kep"ete the <+one Jayer( signed in
1987 by more than 1/0 nations( has attained its short-term goa"sA it has
decreased the rate o& increase in amounts o& most o+one-dep"eting chemica"s
reaching the atmosphere and has even reduced the atmospheric "eve"s o& some o&
them. The pro5ection that the o+one "ayer wi"" substantia""y recover &rom o+one
dep"etion by 40/0 is based on the assumption that the protoco"6s regu"ations wi""
be strict"y &o""owed. Iet there is considerab"e evidence o& vio"ations( particu"ar"y in
the &orm o& the re"ease o& o+one-dep"eting ch"oroDuorocarbons (%:%6s)( which are
common"y used in the re&rigeration( heating( and air conditioning industries.
These vio"ations reDect industry attitudes= &or e8amp"e( in the United tates( M8
percents o& respondents in a recent survey o& subscribers to "ir Conditioning&
%eating& and *efrigeration +ews( an industry trade 5ourna"( said that they did not
be"ieve that %:%6s damage the o+one "ayer. Boreover( some in the industry
apparent"y do not want to pay &or %:% substitutes( which can run #ve times the
cost o& %:%6s. %onse-uent"y( a b"ac$ mar$et in imported i""icit %:%6s has grown.
@stimates o& the contraband %:% trade range &rom 10(000 to 44(000 tons a year(
with most o& the %:%6s originating in 2ndia and %hina( whose agreements under
the 9rotoco" sti"" a""ow them to produce %:%6s. 2n &act( the United tates %ustoms
ervice reports that %:%-14 is a contraband prob"em second on"y to i""icit drugs.
26.. According to the passage/ which of the following best describes most o!one(
depleting chemicals in 1,,2 as compared to those in 1,6-%
(A) The le'els of such chemicals in the atmosphere had decreased.
(B) The number of such chemicals that reached the atmosphere had declined.
(C) The amounts of such chemicals released had increased but the amounts that
reached the atmosphere had decreased.
() The rate of increase in amounts of such chemicals reaching the atmosphere
had decreased.
(#) The rate at which such chemicals were being reduced in the atmosphere had
slowed.
260. The author of the passage compares the smuggling of C>C4s to the illicit drug
trade most likely for which of the following reasons%
(A) To "ualify a pre'ious claim
(B) To emphasi!e the e$tent of a problem
(C) To pro'ide an e$planation for an earlier assertion
() To suggest that the illicit C>C trade/ likely the illicit drug trade/ will continue
to increase
GMAT .5-
(#) To suggest that the conse"uences of a relati'ely little(known problem are as
serious as those of a well(known one
261. The passage suggests which of the following about the illicit trade in C>C4s%
(A) 3t would cease if manufacturers in 3ndia and China stopped producing C>C4s.
(B) ?ost people who participate in such trade do not belie'e that C>C4s deplete
the o!one layer.
(C) 3t will probably surpass illicit drugs as the largest contraband problem faced by
the :nited ;tates Custom ;er'ices.
() 3t is fostered by people who do not want to pay the price of C>C substitutes.
(#) 3t has grown primarily because of the e$pansion of the refrigeration/ heating/
and air(conditioning industries in foreign countries.
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GRE RC (No. 2 No. 9)
No. 2-1
SECTION A
@8tended debate concerning the e8act point o& origin o& individua" &o"$ta"es to"d
by 3&ro-3merican s"aves has un&ortunate"y ta$en precedence over ana"ysis o& the
ta"es6 meaning and &unction. %u"tura" continuities with 3&rica were not dependent
on importation and perpetuation o& speci#c &o"$ta"es in their pristine &orm. 2t is in
the p"ace that ta"es occupied in the "ives o& the s"aves and in the meaning s"aves
derived &rom them that the c"earest resemb"ances to 3&rican tradition can be
&ound. 3&ro-3merican s"aves did not borrow ta"es indiscriminate"y &rom the ;hites
among whom they "ived. '"ac$ peop"e were most inDuenced by those @uro-
3merican ta"es whose &unctiona" meaning and aesthetic appea" had the greatest
simi"arity to the ta"es with deep roots in their ancestra" home"and. Regard"ess o&
where s"ave ta"es came &rom( the essentia" point is that( with respect to "anguage(
de"ivery( detai"s o& characteri+ation( and p"ot( s"aves -uic$"y made them their own.
1-. The author claims that most studies of folktales told by Afro(American sla'es are
inade"uate because the studies
(A) fail to recogni!e any possible #uro(American influence on the folktales
(B) do not pay enough attention to the features of a folktale that best re'eal an
African influence
(C) o'erestimate the number of folktales brought from Africa by the sla'es
() do not consider the fact that a folktale can be changed as it is retold many
times
(#) o'ersimplify the di'erse and comple$ traditions of the sla'es ancestral
homeland
16. The author4s main purpose is to
(A) create a new field of study
(B) discredit an e$isting field of study
(C) change the focus of a field of study
() transplant scholarly techni"ues from one field of study to another
(#) restrict the scope of a burgeoning new field of study
1,. The passage suggests that the author would regard which of the following areas of
in"uiry as most likely to re'eal the sla'es4 cultural continuities with Africa%
(A) The means by which Blacks disseminated their folktales in nineteenth(century
America
(B) ;pecific regional differences in the styles of deli'ery used by the sla'es in
GRE .5,
telling folktales
(C) The functional meaning of Black folktales in the li'es of &hite children raised
by sla'e
() The specific way the sla'es used folktales to impart moral teaching to their
children
(#) The comple$ities of plot that appear most fre"uently in the sla'es4 tales
25. &hich of the following techni"ues is used by the author in de'eloping the
argument in the passage%
(A) Bi'ing a clichP a new meaning
(B) @ointedly refusing to define key terms
(C) Alternately presenting generalities and concrete details
() Concluding the passage with a restatement of the first point made in the
passage
(#) Au$taposing statements of what is not the case and statements of what is the
case
The energy contained in roc$ within the earth6s crust represents a near"y
un"imited energy source( but unti" recent"y commercia" retrieva" has been "imited
to underground hot water andPor steam recovery systems. These systems have
been deve"oped in areas o& recent vo"canic activity( where high rates o& heat Dow
cause visib"e eruption o& water in the &orm o& geysers and hot springs. 2n other
areas( however( hot roc$ a"so e8ists near the sur&ace but there is insu*cient
water present to produce eruptive phenomena. Thus a potentia" hot dry roc$
()KR) reservoir e8ists whenever the amount o& spontaneous"y produced
geotherma" Duid has been 5udged inade-uate &or e8isting commercia" systems.
3s a resu"t o& recent energy crisis( new concepts &or creating )KR recovery
systems!which invo"ve dri""ing ho"es and connecting them to arti#cia" reservoirs
p"aced deep within the crust!are being deve"oped. 2n a"" attempts to retrieve
energy &rom )KR6s( arti#cia" stimu"ation wi"" be re-uired to create either su*cient
permeabi"ity or bounded Dow paths to &aci"itate the remova" o& heat by circu"ation
o& a Duid over the sur&ace o& the roc$.
The )KR resource base is genera""y de#ned to inc"uded crusta" roc$ that is
hotter than 1/0( is at depths "ess than ten $i"ometers( and can be dri""ed with
present"y avai"ab"e e-uipment. 3"though we""s deeper than ten $i"ometers are
technica""y &easib"e( prevai"ing economic &actors wi"" obvious"y determine the
commercia" &easibi"ity o& we""s at such depths. Roc$ temperatures as "ow as 100
may be use&u" &or space heating= however( &or producing e"ectricity( temperatures
greater than 400 are desirab"e.
The geotherma" gradient( which speci#ca""y determines the depth o& dri""ing
re-uired to reach a desired temperature( is a ma5or &actor in the recoverabi"ity o&
geotherma" resources. Temperature gradient maps generated &rom oi" and gas
.15 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
we"" temperature-depth records $ept by the 3merican 3ssociation o& 9etro"eum
Eeo"ogists suggest that tappab"e high-temperature gradients are distributed a""
across the United tates. (There are many areas( however( &or which no
temperature gradient records e8ist.)
2ndications are that the )KR resource base is very "arge. 2& an average
geotherma" temperature gradient o& 44 per $i"ometer o& depth is used( a
staggering 17(000(000 -uadri""ion '.T.U.6s o& tota" energy are ca"cu"ated to be
contained in crusta" roc$ to a ten-$i"ometer depth in the United tates. 2& we
conservative"y estimate that on"y about 0.4 percent is recoverab"e( we #nd a tota"
o& a"" the coa" remaining in the United tates. The remaining prob"em is to ba"ance
the economics o& deeper( hotter( more cost"y we""s and sha""ower( coo"er( "ess
e8pensive we""s against the va"ue o& the #na" product( e"ectricity andPor heat.
21. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) alert readers to the e$istence of )=4s as an a'ailable energy source
(B) document the challengers that ha'e been surmounted in the effort to reco'er
energy from )=4s
(C) warn the users of coal and oil that )=4s are not an economically feasible
alternati'e
() encourage the use of new techni"ues for the reco'ery of energy from
underground hot water and steam
(#) urge consumers to demand "uicker de'elopment of )= resources for the
production of energy
22. The passage would be most likely to appear in a
(A) petrological research report focused on the history of temperature(depth
records in the :nited ;tates
(B) congressional report urging the conser'ation of oil and natural gas reser'es in
the :nited ;tates
(C) technical <ournal article concerned with the reco'erability of newly identified
energy sources
() consumer report describing the e$tent and accessibility of remaining coal
resources
(#) pamphlet designed to introduce homeowners to the ad'antages of )= space(
heating systems
2.. According the passage/ an a'erage geothermal gradient of 22 per kilometer of
depth can be used to
(A) balance the economics of )= energy retrie'al against that of underground
hot water or steam reco'ery systems
(B) determine the amount of energy that will used for space heating in the :nited
;tates
GRE .11
(C) pro'ide comparisons between hot water and )= energy sources in :nited
;tates
() re'ise the estimates on the e$tent of remaining coal resources in the :nited
;tates
(#) estimate the total )= resource base in the :nited ;tates
20. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the a'ailability of temperature(depth
records for any specific area in the :nited ;tates depends primarily on the
(A) possibility that )=4s may be found in that area
(B) e$istence of pre'ious attempts to obtain oil or gas in that area
(C) history of successful hot water or steam reco'ery efforts in that area
() failure of inhabitants to conser'e oil gas reser'es in that area
(#) use of coal as a substitute for oil or gas in that area
21. According to the passage/ in all )= reco'ery systems fluid will be necessary in
order to allow
(A) sufficient permeability
(B) artificial stimulation
(C) drilling of holes
() construction of reser'oirs
(#) transfer of heat
22. According to the passage/ if the a'erage geothermal gradient in an area is 22 per
kilometer of depth/ which of the following can be reliably predicted%
3. The temperature at the base of a 15(kilometer well will be sufficient for the
production of electricity.
33. rilling of wells deeper than 15 kilometers will be economically feasible.
333. 3nsufficient water is present to produce erupti'e phenomena.
(A) 3 only
(B) 33 only
(C) 3 and 33 only
() 33 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
2-. &hich of the following would be the most appropriate title for the passage%
(A) #nergy from &ater ;ourcesE The >easibility of Commercial ;ystems
(B) Beothermal #nergy =etrie'alE Colcanic Acti'ity and )ot ry =ocks
(C) #nergy :ndergroundE Beothermal ;ources Bi'e &ay to >ossil >uels
() Tappable #nergy for America4s >utureE )ot ry =ocks
(#) )igh Beothermal Bradients in the :nited ;tatesE ?yth or =eality%
.12 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
SECTION B
:our "ega" approaches may be &o""owed in attempting to channe" techno"ogica"
deve"opment in socia""y use&u" directionA speci#c directives( mar$et incentive
modi#cations( crimina" prohibitions( and changes in decision-ma$ing structures.
peci#c directives invo"ve the government6s identi&ying one or more &actors
contro""ing research( deve"opment( or imp"ementation o& a given techno"ogy.
Kirectives a1ecting such &actors may vary &rom administrative regu"ation o&
private activity to government ownership o& a techno"ogica" operation. Bar$et
incentive modi#cations are de"iberate a"terations o& the mar$et within which
private decisions regarding the deve"opment and imp"ementation o& techno"ogy
are made. uch modi#cations may consist o& imposing ta8es to cover the costs to
society o& a given techno"ogy( granting subsidies to pay &or socia" bene#ts o& a
techno"ogy( creating the right to sue to prevent certain techno"ogica"
deve"opment( or easing procedura" ru"es to enab"e the recovery o& damages to
compensate &or harm caused by destructive techno"ogica" activity. %rimina"
prohibitions may modi&y techno"ogica" activity in areas impinging on &undamenta"
socia" va"ues( or they may modi&y human behavior "i$e"y to resu"t &rom
techno"ogica" app"ications!&or e8amp"e( the deactivation o& automotive po""ution
contro" devices in order to improve vehic"e per&ormance. 3"teration o& decision-
ma$ing structures inc"udes a"" possib"e modi#cations in the authority( constitution(
or responsibi"ity o& private and pub"ic entities deciding -uestions o& techno"ogica"
deve"opment and imp"ementation. uch a"terations inc"ude the addition o& pub"ic-
interest members to corporate boards( the imposition by statute o& duties on
governmenta" decision-ma$ers( and the e8tension o& warranties in response to
consumer action.
@1ective use o& these methods to contro" techno"ogy depends on whether or
not the goa" o& regu"ation is the optima" a""ocation o& resources. ;hen the ob5ect is
optima" resource a""ocation( that combination o& "ega" methods shou"d be used
that most near"y yie"ds the a""ocation that wou"d e8ist i& there were no e8terna"
costs resu"ting &rom a""ocating resources through mar$et activity. There are
e8terna" costs when the price set by buyers and se""ers o& goods &ai"s to inc"ude
some costs( to anyone( that resu"t &rom the production and use o& the goods. uch
costs are interna"i+ed when buyers pay them.
3ir po""ution &rom motor vehic"es imposes e8terna" costs on a"" those e8posed
to it( in the &orm o& soi"ing( materia"s damage( and diseaseA these e8terna"ities
resu"t &rom &ai"ure to p"ace a price on air( thus ma$ing it a &ree good( common to
a"". uch e8terna"ities "ead to nonoptima" resource a""ocation( because the private
net product and the socia" net product o& mar$et activity are not o&ten identica". 2&
a"" e8terna"ities were interna"i+ed( transactions wou"d occur unti" bargaining cou"d
no "onger improve the situation( thus giving an optima" a""ocation o& resources at a
given time.
GRE .1.
1-. The passage is primarily concerned with describing
(A) ob<ecti'es and legal method for directing technological de'elopment
(B) technical approaches to the problem of controlling market acti'ity
(C) economic procedures for facilitating transactions between buyers and sellers
() reasons for slowing the technological de'elopment in light of en'ironmentalist
ob<ections
(#) technological inno'ations making it possible to achie'e optimum allocation of
resources
16. The author cites air pollution from motor 'ehicles in lines 10(12 in order to
(A) re'ise cost estimates calculated by including the costs of resources
(B) e'aluate legal methods used to pre'ent technological de'elopments
(C) gi'e e$amples of costs not included in buyer(seller bargains
() refute hypotheses not made on the basis of monetary e$change 'alues
(#) commend technological research undertaken for the common welfare
1,. According to the passage/ transactions between pri'ate buyers and sellers ha'e
effects on society that generally
(A) are harmful when all factors are considered
(B) gi'e rise to e'er(increasing resource costs
(C) reflect an optimal allocation of natural resources
() encompass more than the effects on the buyers and sellers alone
(#) are guided by legal controls on the de'elopment of technology
25. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author does 98T fa'or which of the
following%
(A) @rotecting the en'ironment for future use
(B) Changing the balance of power between opposing interests in business
(C) 3nter'ening in the acti'ity of the free market
() ?aking prices reflect costs to e'eryone in society
(#) Causing technological de'elopment to cease
21. A gasoline(conser'ation ta$ on the purchase of large automobiles/ with the
proceeds of the ta$ rebated to purchasers of small automobiles/ is an e$ample of
(A) a specific directi'e
(B) a market incenti'e modification
(C) an optimal resource allocation
() an alteration of a decision(making structure
(#) an e$ternal cost
22. 3f there were no e$ternal costs/ as they are described in the passage/ which of the
.10 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
following would be true%
(A) All technology(control methods would be effecti'e.
(B) ;ome resource allocations would be illegal.
(C) @rices would include all costs to members of society.
() ;ome decision(making structures would be altered.
(#) The a'ailability of common goods would increase.
2.. The author assumes that/ in determining what would be an optimal allocation of
resources/ it would be possible to
(A) assign monetary 'alue to all damage resulting from the use of technology
(B) combine legal methods to yield the theoretical optimum
(C) con'ince buyers to bear the burden of damage from technological
de'elopments
() predict the costs of new technological de'elopments
(#) deri'e an e"uation making costs depend on prices
20. 8n the basis of the passage/ it can be inferred that the author would agree with
which of the following statements concerning technological de'elopment%
(A) The go'ernment should own technological operations.
(B) The effect of technological de'elopment cannot be controlled.
(C) ;ome technological de'elopments are beneficial.
() The current state of technological de'elopment results in a good allocation of
resources.
(#) Applications of technological de'elopments are criminally destructi'e.
The who"e biosphere( "i$e the individua" organisms that "ive inside it( e8ists in a
chemica""y dynamic state. 2n this homeostatic system( a great number o& organic
compounds are synthesi+ed( trans&ormed( and decomposed continuous"y=
together( these processes constitute the ma5or parts o& the carbon cyc"e. :or the
smooth operation o& this cyc"e( degradation is 5ust as important as synthesisA the
green p"ants produce great -uantities o& po"ymers( such as ce""u"ose( and
innumerab"e other compounds "i$e a"$a"oids( terpenes( and Davonoids( that green
p"ants cannot use as sources o& energy during respiration. The re"ease o& the
carbon in these compounds &or recyc"ing depends a"most entire"y on the action o&
both aerobic and anaerobic bacteria and certain types o& &ungi. ome bacteria and
&ungi possess the uni-ue and e8treme"y important biochemica" asset o& being ab"e
to cata"y+e the o8idation o& numerous inert products( thereby initiating reaction
se-uences that produce carbon dio8ide and so return much carbon to a &orm that
active"y enters into "i&e cyc"es once again.
21. The passage contains information that would answer which of the following
"uestions about the carbon cycle%
3. &hat are some of the compounds that are broken down in the carbon cycle%
GRE .11
33. &hy are some compounds that are in'ol'ed in the carbon cycle less reacti'e
than others%
333. &hat role do bacteria and fungi play in the carbon cycle%
(A) 3 only
(B) 33 only
(C) 333 only
() 3 and 33 only
(#) 3 and 333 only
22. The author implies that which of the following is the primary reason that
degradation is as important as synthesis to the smooth operation of the carbon
cycle%
(A) ?ost of the polymers and organic compounds found in the plant kingdom are
chemically unstable.
(B) The synthesis of some organic material depri'es life processes of an energy
source.
(C) ecomposition permits the recycling of carbon that would otherwise be fi$ed
in certain substances.
() ?any organisms cannot use plants as a source of food/ but can feed on bacteria
and fungi.
(#) Bacteria and fungi could not sur'i'e if some carbon compounds were not
degraded.
2-. The author4s contention about the importance of bacteria and fungi in the
production of energy for life processes would be most clearly strengthened if
which of the following were found to be true%
(A) Both aerobes and anaerobes pro'ide sources of energy through the
decomposition of organic material.
(B) ?ost compounds containing carbon are una'ailable as energy sources e$cept
to some bacteria and fungi.
(C) Bacteria and fungi break down inert material in ways that do not in'ol'e
o$idation.
() ?any compounds remain inert/ e'en in the presence of bacteria and fungi.
(#) Bacteria and fungi assist in the synthesis of many organic compounds.
No. 2-2
SECTION A
@ven as the number o& &ema"es processed through 5uveni"e courts c"imbs
steadi"y( an imp"icit consensus remains among scho"ars in crimina" 5ustice that
.12 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
ma"e ado"escents de#ne the de"in-uency prob"em in the United tates. ;e
suggest two reasons why this view persists. :irst( &ema"e ado"escents are accused
primari"y o& victim"ess crimes( such as truancy( that do not invo"ve c"ear-cut
damage to persons or property. 2& committed by adu"ts( these actions are not even
considered prosecutab"e= i& committed by 5uveni"e ma"es( they have traditiona""y
been "oo$ed on "enient"y by the courts. Thus( ironica""y( the p"ight o& &ema"e
de"in-uents receives "itt"e scrutiny because they are accused o& committing
re"ative"y minor o1enses. econd( the courts have "ong 5usti#ed so-ca""ed
preventive intervention into the "ives o& young &ema"es viewed as antisocia" with
the rationa"e that women are especia""y vu"nerab"e. Traditiona" stereotypes o&
women as the wea$er and more dependent se8 have "ed to ear"ier intervention
and "onger periods o& misdirected supervision &or &ema"e de"in-uents than &or
ma"es.
1-. &hich of the following statements best e$presses the irony pointed out by the
authors in lines 1.(12 of the passage%
(A) >emale delin"uents tend to commit 'ictimless crimes more fre"uently than
their male counterparts.
(B) The predicament of male delin"uents recei'es more attention than that of
females because males are accused of more serious crimes.
(C) Adults are fre"uently punished less se'erely than adolescents for committing
more serious crimes.
() The <u'enile <ustice system cannot correct its biases because it does not e'en
recogni!e them.
(#) Although the number of female delin"uents is steadily increasing/ the crimes of
which they are accused are not particularly serious.
16. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the authors belie'e traditional stereotypes
of women to be
(A) fre"uently challenged
(B) persistently ine$plicable
(C) potentially harmful
() rapidly changing
(#) habitually disregarded
1,. The passage suggests that scholars in criminal <ustice could be critici!ed for which
of the following%
(A) :nderestimating the seriousness of <u'enile crime
(B) =ationali!ing the distinction made between <u'eniles and adults in the legal
system
(C) Concerning themsel'es too little with the pre'ention of <u'enile delin"uency
() >ocusing on those whose crimes ha'e in'ol'ed damage to persons or property
GRE .1-
(#) >ailing to point out in<ustices in the correctional system
cattered around the g"obe are more than one hundred regions o& vo"canic
activity $nown as hot spots. Un"i$e most vo"canoes( hot spots are rare"y &ound
a"ong the boundaries o& the continenta" and oceanic p"ates that comprise the
@arth6s crust= most hot spots "ie deep in the interior o& p"ates and are anchored
deep in the "ayers o& the @arth6s sur&ace. )ot spots are a"so distinguished &rom
other vo"canoes by their "avas( which contain greater amounts o& a"$a"i meta"s
than do those &rom vo"canoes at p"ate margins.
2n some cases( p"ates moving past hot spots have "e&t trai"s o& e8tinct
vo"canoes in much the same way that wind passing over a chimney carries o1
pu1s o& smo$e. 2t appears that the )awaiian 2s"ands were created in such a
manner by a sing"e source o& "ava( we""ing up &rom a hot spot( over which the
9aci#c <cean p"ate passed on a course rough"y &rom the east toward the
northwest( carrying o1 a "ine o& vo"canoes o& increasing age. Two other 9aci#c
is"and chains!the 3ustra" Ridge and the Tuamotu Ridge!para""e" the
con#guration o& the )awaiian chain= they are a"so a"igned &rom the east toward
the northwest( with the most recent vo"canic activity near their eastern
terminuses.
That the 9aci#c p"ate and the other p"ates are moving is now beyond dispute=
the re"ative motion o& the p"ates has been reconstructed in detai". )owever( the
re"ative motion o& the p"ates with respect to the @arth6s interior cannot be
determined easi"y. )ot spots provide the measuring instruments &or reso"ving the
-uestion o& whether two continenta" p"ates are moving in opposite directions or
whether one is stationary and the other is dri&ting away &rom it. The most
compe""ing evidence that a continenta" p"ate is stationary is that( at some hot
spots( "avas o& severa" ages are superposed instead o& being spread out in
chrono"ogica" se-uence. <& course( reconstruction o& p"ate motion &rom the trac$s
o& hot-spot vo"canoes assumes that hot spots are immobi"e( or near"y so. evera"
studies support such an assumption( inc"uding one that has shown that prominent
hot spots throughout the wor"d seem not to have moved during the past ten
mi""ion years.
'eyond acting as &rames o& re&erence( hot spots apparent"y inDuence the
geophysica" processes that prope" the p"ates across the g"obe. ;hen a continenta"
p"ate comes to rest over a hot spot( materia" we""ing up &rom deeper "ayers &orms
a broad dome that( as it grows( deve"ops deep #ssures. 2n some instances( the
continenta" p"ate may rupture entire"y a"ong some o& the #ssures so that the hot
spot initiates the &ormation o& a new ocean. Thus( 5ust as ear"ier theories have
e8p"ained the mobi"ity o& the continenta" p"ates( so hot-spot activity may suggest
a theory to e8p"ain their mutabi"ity.
25. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) describe the way in which hot spots influence the e$tinction of 'olcanoes
(B) describe and e$plain the formation of the oceans and continents
.16 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(C) e$plain how to estimate the age of la'a flows from e$tinct 'olcanoes
() describe hot spots and e$plain how they appear to influence and record the
motion of plates
(#) describe the formation and orientation of island chains in the @acific 8cean
21. According to the passage/ hot spots differ from most 'olcanoes in that hot spots
(A) can only be found near islands
(B) are acti'e whereas all other 'olcanoes are e$tinct
(C) are situated closer to the earth4s surface
() can be found along the edges of the plates
(#) ha'e greater amounts of alkali metals in their la'as
22. 3t can be inferred from the passage that e'idence for the apparent course of the
@acific plate has been pro'ided by the
(A) contours of the continents
(B) dimensions of ocean hot spots
(C) concurrent mo'ement of two hot spots
() pattern of fissures in the ocean floor
(#) configurations of se'eral mid(ocean island chains
2.. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the spreading out of la'as of different ages
at hot spots indicates that a
(A) hot spot is acti'e
(B) continental plate has mo'ed
(C) continental rupture is imminent
() hot spot had been mo'ing 'ery rapidly
(#) 'olcano contains large concentrations of alkali metals
20. The passage suggests which of the following about the )awaiian 3slands/ the
Austral =idge/ and the Tuamotu =idge%
(A) The three chains of islands are mo'ing eastward.
(B) All the islands in the three chains ha'e stopped mo'ing.
(C) The three island chains are a result of the same plate mo'ement.
() The )awaiian 3slands are receding from the other two island chains at a
relati'ely rapid rate.
(#) The Austral =idge and the Tuamotu =idge chains ha'e mo'ed closer together
whereas the )awaiian 3slands ha'e remained stationary.
21. &hich of the following/ if true/ would best support the author4s statement that hot(
spot acti'ity may e$plain the mutability of continental plates%
(A) )ot spots mo'e more rapidly than the continental and oceanic plates.
GRE .1,
(B) )ot spots are reliable indicators of the age of continental plates.
(C) )ot spots are regions of 'olcanic acti'ity found only in the interiors of the
continental plates.
() The alignment of hot spots in the @acific 8cean parallels the alignment of
@acific 8cean islands.
(#) The coastlines of Africa and ;outh America suggest that they may once ha'e
constituted a single continent that ruptured along a line of hot spots.
22. The author4s argument that hot spots can be used to reconstruct the mo'ement of
continental plates is weakened by the fact that
(A) hot spots are ne'er found at the boundaries of plates
(B) only e$tinct 'olcanoes remain after a plate mo'es o'er a hot spot
(C) la'a flow patterns for all hot spots ha'e not been shown to be the same
() the immobility or near immobility of hot spots has not been conclusi'ely
pro'en
(#) the changing configurations of islands make pinpointing the locations of hot
spots difficult
2-. The author4s style can best be described as
(A) dramatic
(B) archaic
(C) esoteric
() ob<ecti'e
(#) humanistic
SECTION B
3"though scientists observe that an organism6s behavior &a""s into rhythmic
patterns( they disagree about how these patterns are a1ected when the organism
is transported to a new environment. <ne e8perimenter( 'rown( brought oysters
&rom %onnecticut waters to 2""inois waters. he noted that the oysters initia""y
opened their she""s widest when it was high tide in %onnecticut( but that a&ter
&ourteen days their rhythms had adapted to the tide schedu"e in 2""inois. 3"though
she cou"d not posit an une-uivoca" causa" re"ationship between behavior and
environmenta" change( 'rown conc"uded that a change in tide schedu"e is one o&
severa" possib"e e8ogenous inDuences (those outside the organism) on the
oysters6 rhythms. 3nother e8perimenter( )amner( however( discovered that
hamsters &rom %a"i&ornia maintain their origina" rhythms even at the outh 9o"e.
)e conc"uded that endogenous inDuences (those inside the organism) seem to
a1ect an organism6s rhythmic behavior.
1-. All of the following could be considered e$amples of e$ogenous influences on an
organism #DC#@T the influence of the
.25 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(A) le'el of a hormone on a field mouse4s readiness for mating
(B) temperature of a region on a bear4s hibernation
(C) salt le'el of a ri'er on a fish4s migration
() humidity of an area on a cat4s shedding of its fur
(#) pro$imity of an owl on a li!ard4s searching for food
16. &hich of the following statements best describes the conclusion drawn by Brown
(lines 10(1-)
(A) A change in tide schedule is the primary influence on an oyster4s rhythms.
(B) A change in tide schedule may be an important e$ogenous influence on an
oyster4s rhythms.
(C) #$ogenous influences/ such as a change in tide schedule/ seldom affect an
oyster4s rhythms.
() #ndogenous influences ha'e no effect on an oyster4s rhythms.
(#) #ndogenous influences are the only influences on an oyster4s rhythms.
1,. The passage suggests that Brown4s study was similar to )amner4s in which of the
following ways%
3. Both e$perimenters disco'ered that a new en'ironment had a significant effect
on an organism4s beha'ior rhythms.
33. Both e$perimenters obser'ed an organism4s beha'ioral rhythms after the
organism had been transported to a new en'ironment.
333. Both e$perimenters knew an organism4s rhythmic patterns in its original
en'ironment.
(A) 3 only
(B) 33 only
(C) 3 and 33 only
() 33 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
25. &hich of the following/ if true/ would most weaken Brown4s conclusion%
(A) The oyster gradually closed their shells after high tide in 3llinois had passed.
(B) The oysters4 beha'ioral rhythms maintained their adaptation to the tide
schedule in 3llinois throughout thirty days of obser'ation.
(C) ;i$teen days after they were mo'ed to 3llinois/ the oysters opened their shells
widest when it was high tide in Connecticut.
() A scientist who brought ?aryland oysters to ?aine found that the oysters
opened their shells widest when it was high tide in ?aine.
(#) 3n an e$periment similar to Brown4s/ a scientist was able to establish a clear
causal relationship between en'ironmental change and beha'ioral rhythms.
GRE .21
9icture-ta$ing is a techni-ue both &or anne8ing the ob5ective wor"d and &or
e8pressing the singu"ar se"&. 9hotographs depict ob5ective rea"ities that a"ready
e8ist( though on"y the camera can disc"ose them. 3nd they depict an individua"
photographer6s temperament( discovering itse"& through the camera6s cropping o&
rea"ity. That is( photography has two antithetica" idea"sA in the #rst( photography is
about the wor"d and the photographer is a mere observe who counts &or "itt"e= but
in the second( photography is the instrument o& intrepid( -uesting sub5ectivity and
the photographer is a"".
These conDicting idea"s arise &rom a &undamenta" uneasiness on the part o&
both photographers and viewers o& photographs toward the aggressive
component in >ta$ing? a picture. 3ccording"y( the idea" o& a photographer as
observer is attractive because it imp"icit"y denies that picture-ta$ing is an
aggressive act. The issue( o& course( is not so c"ear-cut. ;hat photographers do
cannot be characteri+ed as simp"y predatory or as simp"y( and essentia""y(
benevo"ent. 3s a conse-uence( one idea" o& picture-ta$ing or the other is a"ways
being rediscovered and championed.
3n important resu"t o& the coe8istence o& these two idea"s is a recurrent
ambiva"ence toward photography6s means. ;hatever the c"aims that photography
might ma$e to be a &orm o& persona" e8pression on a par with painting( its
origina"ity is ine8tricab"y "in$ed to the powers o& a machine. The steady growth o&
these powers has made possib"e the e8traordinary in&ormativeness and
imaginative &orma" beauty o& many photographs( "i$e )aro"d @dgerton6s high-
speed photographs o& a bu""et hitting its target or o& the swir"s and eddies o& a
tennis stro$e. 'ut as cameras become more sophisticated( more automated( some
photographers are tempted to disarm themse"ves or to suggest that they are not
rea""y armed( pre&erring to submit themse"ves to the "imits imposed by premodern
camera techno"ogy because a cruder( "ess high-powered machine is thought to
give more interesting or emotive resu"ts( to "eave more room &or creative accident.
:or e8amp"e( it has been virtua""y a point o& honor &or many photographers(
inc"uding ;a"$er @vans and %artier-'resson( to re&use to use modern e-uipment.
These photographers have come to doubt the va"ue o& the camera as an
instrument o& >&ast seeing.? %artier-'resson( in &act( c"aims that the modern
camera may see too &ast.
This ambiva"ence toward photographic means determines trends in taste. The
cu"t o& the &uture (o& &aster and &aster seeing) a"ternates over time with the wish to
return to a purer past!when images had a handmade -ua"ity. This nosta"gia &or
some pristine state o& the photographic enterprise is current"y widespread and
under"ies the present-day enthusiasm &or daguerreotypes and the wo$ o&
&orgotten nineteenth-century provincia" photographers. 9hotographers and
viewers o& photographs( it seems( need periodica""y to resist their own
$nowingness.
21. According to the passage/ interest among photographers in each of photography4s
.22 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
two ideals can be described as
(A) rapidly changing
(B) cyclically recurring
(C) steadily growing
() unimportant to the 'iewers of photographs
(#) unrelated to changes in technology
22. The author is primarily concerned with
(A) establishing new technical standards for contemporary photography
(B) analy!ing the influence of photographic ideals on picture(taking
(C) tracing the de'elopment of camera technology in the twentieth century
() describing how photographers4 indi'idual temperaments are reflected in their
work
(#) e$plaining how the technical limitations imposed by certain photographers on
themsel'es affect their work
2.. The passage states all of the following about photographs #DC#@TE
(A) They can display a cropped reality.
(B) The can con'ey information.
(C) They can depict the photographer4s temperament.
() They can possess great formal beauty.
(#) They can change the 'iewer4s sensibilities.
20. The author mentions the work of )arold #dgerton in order to pro'ide an e$ample
of
(A) how a controlled ambi'alence toward photography4s means can produce
outstanding pictures
(B) how the content of photographs has changed from the nineteenth century to the
twentieth
(C) the popularity of high(speed photography in the twentieth century
() the relationship between photographic originality and technology
(#) the primacy of formal beauty o'er emotional content
21. The passage suggests that photographers such as &alker #'ans prefer old(
fashioned techni"ues and e"uipment because these photographers
(A) admire instruments of fast seeing
(B) need to feel armed by technology
(C) stri'e for intense formal beauty in their photographs
() like the discipline that comes from self(imposed limitations
(#) dislike the dependence of photographic effecti'eness on the powers of a
machine
GRE .2.
22. According to the passage/ the two antithetical ideals of photography differ
primarily in the
(A) 'alue that each places on the beauty of the finished product
(B) emphasis that each places on the emotional impact of the finished product
(C) degree of technical knowledge that each re"uires of the photographer
() e$tent of the power that each re"uires of the photographer4s e"uipment
(#) way in which each defines the role of the photographer
2-. &hich of the following statements would be most likely to begin the paragraph
immediately following the passage%
(A) @hotographers/ as a result of their heightened awareness of time/ are constantly
trying to capture e'ents and actions that are fleeting.
(B) Thus the cult of the future/ the worship of machines and speed/ is firmly
established in spite of efforts to the contrary by some photographers.
(C) The re<ection of technical knowledge/ howe'er/ can ne'er be complete and
photography cannot for any length of time pretend that it has no weapons.
() The point of honor in'ol'ed in re<ecting comple$ e"uipment is/ howe'er/ of no
significance to the 'iewer of a photograph.
(#) Conse"uently the impulse to return to the past through images that suggest a
handwrought "uality is nothing more that a passing fad.
No. 2-3
SECTION A
2t is we"" $nown that bio"ogica" changes at the mo"ecu"ar "eve" have
morphogenetic conse-uences( conse-uences a1ecting the &ormation and
di1erentiation o& tissues and organs. 2t is superDuous to point out that gene
mutations and disturbances o& the bio-synthetic processes in the embryo may
resu"t in abnorma"ities in the morpho"ogy (structure) o& an organism. )owever(
whereas much is $nown about causes and conse-uences at the mo"ecu"ar "eve"(
and in spite o& an enormous accumu"ation o& chemica" and morpho"ogica" data on
embryos o& various $inds( our understanding o& how genes contro" morphogenesis
is sti"" &ar &rom comp"ete. 9erhaps one reason &or this is that mo"ecu"ar bio"ogists
and morpho"ogists spea$ di1erent "anguages. ;hereas the &ormer spea$ about
messenger-R,3 and con&ormationa" changes o& protein mo"ecu"es( the "atter
spea$ o& ectoderms( hypob"asts( and neura" crests.
<ne so"ution to this predicament is to try to #nd some phenomena re"evant to
morphogenesis which both the mo"ecu"ar bio"ogist and the morpho"ogist can
understand and discuss. 3s morphogenesis must be basica""y the resu"t o&
changes in behavior o& the individua" ce""s( it seems "ogica" to as$ morpho"ogists
to describe the morphogenetic events observed in terms o& changes in ce""u"ar
.20 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
contact( changes in the rate o& pro"i&eration o& ce""s( or simi"ar phenomena. <nce
this is done( it may be appropriate to as$ -uestions about the mo"ecu"ar
bac$ground &or these changes. <ne may( &or instance( as$ whether variations in
ce"" contact reDect a"terations in the popu"ations o& mo"ecu"es at the ce"" sur&ace(
or one may in-uire about the mo"ecu"ar basis &or the increased ce"" mobi"ity
invo"ved in ce"" dispersion.
tudies o& this $ind have been carried out with ce""s re"eased &rom tissues in
various ways and then a""owed to revea" their behavior a&ter being spread out into
a thin "ayer. 2n many cases( such ce""s show the abi"ity to reaggregate( a&ter which
di1erent ce"" types may sort themse"ves out into di1erent "ayers and even ta$e
part in sti"" more intricate morphogenetic events. 'ut in most cases( the behavior
o& ce""s in the intact embryo is di*cu"t to study because o& the thic$ness and
opacity o& the ce"" masses. The sea urchin embryo( however( has the advantage
that it is so transparent that each ce"" can be easi"y observed throughout
deve"opment. Thus( by recording the deve"opment o& a sea urchin embryo with
time-"apse photography( the research scientist might discover previous"y un$nown
&eatures o& ce""u"ar behavior. 9erhaps the study o& the sea urchin in this manner
can provide a medium by which the mo"ecu"ar bio"ogist and the morpho"ogist can
begin communicating with each other more e1ective"y about the way in which
genes contro" morphogenesis.
1-. The author4s primary purpose is to
(A) outline a procedure and discuss possible applications
(B) e'aluate an e$periment in terms of its applicability to medical research
(C) propose a method for curing specific genetic disorders
() e$plain a problem and suggest a solution for it
(#) re'eal the shortcomings of se'eral attitudes toward genetic research
16. The author states that research into the genetic control of morphogenesis has been
impeded by
(A) an incomplete understanding of biomolecular reactions that are highly
comple$
(B) a lack of communication between scientists whose work could be
complementary
(C) a reluctance on the part of morphologists to share data with molecular
biologists
() a lack of research in the area of morphology
(#) the una'ailability of suitable research e"uipment
1,. The ma<or ob<ecti'e of the author4s proposal is to
(A) de'ise a techni"ue for pro'ing that abnormalities in morphology result from
gene mutations
GRE .21
(B) impro'e the procedures for organi!ing chemical and morphological data
(C) increase the accuracy of measurements of cell populations and cell mobility
() reduce the margin of error in the study of conformational changes of protein
molecules
(#) pro'ide a plan for increasing knowledge about the influence of genes on
morphogenesis
25. 3t can be inferred from the passage that some cells that ha'e been isolated from an
organism ha'e the ability to
(A) control morphogenesis
(B) reform to make higher organisms
(C) reorgani!e to form clusters of cells
() regulate the transmission of light through the cell wall
(#) regulate the rate of tissue formation
21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the study of the effects of genes on
morphogenesis is best accomplished by obser'ing
(A) intact de'eloping embryos
(B) adult sea urchins
(C) isolated li'ing cells
() groups of genetically mutated cells
(#) cells from the same kink of tissue
22. According to the passage/ it is difficult to study cells in most intact embryos
because
(A) morphogenetic e'ents cannot be isolated
(B) embryos die "uickly
(C) embryos are difficult to obtain
() indi'idual cells reaggregate too "uickly
(#) indi'idual cells are difficult to see
2.. &hich of the following se"uences best describes the author4s suggestion for future
research on morphogenesis%
(A) Accumulation of data/ simplification of language/ e$planation of
morphogenesis
(B) ispersion of cells/ e'aluation of cell acti'ity/ de'elopment of an e$planatory
hypothesis
(C) Classification of cell types/ separation of cell/ obser'ation of cell acti'ity
() 8bser'ation of cell de'elopment/ description of cell beha'ior/ e$planation at
the molecular le'el
(#) ifferentiation of cell types/ description of cell structure/ analysis of molecular
.22 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
components
20. The tone of the author4s discussion of the difference in the language used by
morphologists and that used by molecular biologists is one of
(A) indifference
(B) neutrality
(C) derision
() approbation
(#) indignation
The b"ac$ e8perience( one might automatica""y assume( is $nown to every
'"ac$ author. )enry Cames was pondering a simi"ar assumption when he saidA >Iou
were to su1er your &ate. That was not necessari"y to $now it.? This disparity
between an e8perience and $now"edge o& that e8perience is the "ongest bridge an
artist must cross. Kon J. Jee( in his picture o& the '"ac$ poet( >studying his own
poetry and the poetry o& other '"ac$ poets(? touches on the crucia" point. 2n order
to trans&orm his own su1erings!or 5oys!as a '"ac$ person into usab"e $now"edge
&or his readers( the author must #rst order his e8periences in his mind. <n"y then
can he create &ee"ing"y and coherent"y the combination o& &act and meaning that
'"ac$ audiences re-uire &or the ree8p"oration o& their "ives. 3 cu"tura" community
o& '"ac$ authors studying one another6s best wor$s systematica""y wou"d
represent a dynamic interchange o& the spirit!corrective and instructive and
increasing"y beauti&u" in its recorded e8pression.
21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author considers poetry to be which of
the following%
(A) A means of di'ersion in which suffering is transformed into <oy
(B) An art form that sometimes stifles creati'e energy
(C) A bridge between the mundane and the unreal
() A medium for con'eying important information
(#) An area where beauty must be sacrificed for accuracy
22. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author would be K#A;T likely to
appro'e of which of the following%
(A) Courses that promote cultural awareness through the study of contemporary art
(B) The de'elopment of creati'e writing courses that encourage mutual criticism
of student work
(C) Browing interest in e$temporaneous writing that records e$periences as they
occur
() A shift in interest from abstract philosophical poetry to concrete
autobiographical poetry
(#) &orkshops and newsletters designed to promote dialogues between poets
GRE .2-
2-. The author refers to )enry Aames primarily in order to
(A) support his own perception of the *longest bridge+ (lines 2(-)
(B) illustrate a coherent *combination of fact and meaning+ (lines 10(11)
(C) pro'ide an e$ample of *dynamic interchange of the spirit+ (line 1,)
() establish the per'asi'eness of lack of self(knowledge
(#) contrast Aames4s ideas about poetry with those of on K. Kee
SECTION B
By ob5ective is to ana"y+e certain &orms o& $now"edge( not in terms o&
repression or "aw( but in terms o& power. 'ut the word power is apt to "ead to
misunderstandings about the nature( &orm( and unity o& power. 'y power( 2 do not
mean a group o& institutions and mechanisms that ensure the subservience o& the
citi+enry. 2 do not mean( either( a mode o& sub5ugation that( in contrast to
vio"ence( has the &orm o& the ru"e. :ina""y( 2 do not have in mind a genera" system
o& domination e8erted by one group over another( a system whose e1ects(
through successive derivations( pervade the entire socia" body. The sovereignty o&
the state( the &orm o& "aw( or the overa"" unity o& a domination are on"y the
termina" &orms power ta$es.
2t seems to me that power must be understood as the mu"tip"icity o& &orce
re"ations that are immanent in the socia" sphere= as the process that( through
cease"ess strugg"e and con&rontation( trans&orms( strengthens( or reverses them=
as the support that these &orce re"ations #nd in one another( or on the contrary(
the dis5unctions and contradictions that iso"ate them &rom one another= and "ast"y(
as the strategies in which they ta$e e1ect( whose genera" design or institutiona"
crysta""i+ation is embodied in the state apparatus( in the &ormu"ation o& the "aw( in
the various socia" hegemonies.
Thus( the viewpoint that permits one to understand the e8ercise o& power( even
in its more >periphera"? e1ects( and that a"so ma$es it possib"e to use its
mechanisms as a structura" &ramewor$ &or ana"y+ing the socia" order( must not be
sought in a uni-ue source o& sovereignty &rom which secondary and descendent
&orms o& power emanate but in the moving substrate o& &orce re"ations that( by
virtue o& their ine-ua"ity( constant"y engender "oca" and unstab"e states o& power.
2& power seems omnipresent( it is not because it has the privi"ege o& conso"idating
everything under its invincib"e unity( but because it is produced &rom one moment
to the ne8t( at every point( or rather in every re"ation &rom one point to another.
9ower is everywhere( not because it embraces everything( but because it comes
&rom everywhere. 3nd i& power at times seems to be permanent( repetitious( inert(
and se"&-reproducing( it is simp"y because the overa"" e1ect that emerges &rom a""
these mobi"ities is a concatenation that rests on each o& them and see$s in turn to
arrest their movement. <ne needs to be nomina"istc( no doubtA power is not an
institution( and not a structure= neither is it a certain strength we are endowed
.26 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
with= it is the name that one attributes to a comp"e8 strategic situation in a
particu"ar society.
1-. The author4s primary purpose in defining power is to
(A) counteract self(ser'ing and confusing uses of the term
(B) establish a compromise among those who ha'e defined the term in different
ways
(C) increase comprehension of the term by pro'iding concrete e$amples
() demonstrate how the meaning of the term has e'ol'ed
(#) a'oid possible misinterpretations resulting from the more common uses of the
term
16. According to the passage/ which of the following best describes the relationship
between law and power%
(A) Kaw is the protector of power.
(B) Kaw is the source of power.
(C) Kaw sets bounds to power.
() Kaw is a product of power.
(#) Kaw is a stabili!er of power.
1,. &hich of the following methods is 98T used e$tensi'ely by the author in
describing his own conception of power%
(A) =estatement of central ideas
(B) @ro'ision of concrete e$amples
(C) Analysis and classification
() Comparison and contrast
(#) ;tatement of cause and effect
25. &ith which of the following statement would the author be most likely to agree%
(A) @ower tends to corruptI absolute power corrupts absolutely.
(B) The highest proof of 'irtue is to possess boundless power without abusing it.
(C) To lo'e knowledge is to lo'e power.
() 3t is from the people and their deeds that power springs.
(#) The health of the people as a state is the foundation on which all their power
depends.
21. The author4s attitude toward the 'arious kinds of compulsion employed by social
institutions is best described as
(A) concerned and sympathetic
(B) scientific and detached
(C) suspicious and cautious
GRE .2,
() reproachful and disturbed
(#) meditati'e and wistful
22. According to the passage/ states of power are transient because of the
(A) differing natures and directions of the forces that create them
(B) rigid structural framework in which they operate
(C) uni"ue source from which they emanate
() per'asi'e nature and comple$ity of the mechanisms by which they operate
(#) concatenation that seeks to arrest their mo'ement
2.. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author belie'es the conflict among
social forces to be
(A) essentially the same from one society to another e'en though its outward
manifestation may seem different
(B) usually the result of misunderstandings that impede social progress
(C) an ine'itable feature of the social order of any state
() wrongly blamed for disrupting the stability of society
(#) best moderated in states that possess a strong central go'ernment
The hypothesis o& an e8panding @arth has never attracted notab"e support( and
i& it were not &or the historica" e8amp"e o& continenta" dri&t( such indi1erence might
be a "egitimate response to an apparent"y improbab"e concept. 2t shou"d be
remembered( however( that dri&t too was once regarded as i""usory( but the idea
was $ept a"ive unti" evidence &rom physicists compe""ed geo"ogists to reinterpret
their data.
<& course( it wou"d be as dangerous to overreact to history by conc"uding that
the ma5ority must now be wrong about e8pansion as it wou"d be to reenact the
response that greeted the suggestion that the continents had dri&ted. The cases
are not precise"y ana"ogous. There were serious prob"ems with the pre-dri&t wor"d
view that a dri&t theory cou"d he"p to reso"ve( whereas @arth e8pansion appears to
o1er no comparab"e advantages. 2&( however( physicists cou"d show that the
@arth6s gravitationa" &orce has decreased with time( e8pansion wou"d have to be
reconsidered and accommodated.
20. The passage indicates that one reason why the e$pansion hypothesis has attracted
little support is that it will not
(A) o'ercome deficiencies in current geologic hypotheses
(B) clarify theories concerning the #arth4s gra'itational forces
(C) complement the theory of continental drift
() accommodate rele'ant theories from the field of physics
(#) withstand criticism from scientists outside the field of geology
21. The final acceptance of a drift theory could best be used to support the argument
..5 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
that
(A) physicists are reluctant to communicate with other scientists
(B) improbable hypotheses usually turn out to be 'alid
(C) there should be cooperation between different fields of science
() there is a need for go'ernmental control of scientific research
(#) scientific theories are often pro'ed by accident
22. 3n de'eloping his argument/ the author warns against
(A) relying on incomplete measurements
(B) introducing irrele'ant information
(C) re<ecting corroborati'e e'idence
() accepting uninformed opinions
(#) making unwarranted comparisons
2-. 3t can be deduced from the passage that the gra'itational force at a point on the
#arth4s surface is
(A) representati'e of the geologic age of the #arth
(B) analogous to the mo'ement of land masses
(C) similar to optical phenomena such as mirages
() proportional to the si!e of the #arth
(#) dependent on the speed of the #arth4s rotation
No. 3-1
SECTION A
,otab"e as important nineteenth-century nove"s by women( Bary he""ey6s
Frankenstein and @mi"y 'ronte6s ,uthering %eights treat women very di1erent"y.
he""ey produced a >mascu"ine? te8t in which the &ates o& subordinate &ema"e
characters seem entire"y dependent on the actions o& ma"e heroes or anti-heroes.
'ronte produced a more rea"istic narrative( portraying a wor"d where men batt"e
&or the &avors o& apparent"y high-spirited( independent women. ,everthe"ess(
these two nove"s are a"i$e in severa" crucia" ways. Bany readers are convinced
that the compe""ing mysteries o& each p"ot concea" e"aborate structures o& a""usion
and #erce( though shadowy( mora" ambitions that seem to indicate metaphysica"
intentions( though e1orts by critics to articu"ate these intentions have generated
much controversy. 'oth nove"ists use a storyte""ing method that emphasi+es ironic
dis5unctions between di1erent perspectives on the same events as we"" as ironic
tensions that inhere in the re"ationship between sur&ace drama and concea"ed
authoria" intention( a method 2 ca"" an evidentiary narrative techni-ue.
1-. The primary purpose of the passage is to
GRE ..1
(A) defend a contro'ersial interpretation of two no'els
(B) e$plain the source of widely recogni!ed responses to two no'els
(C) delineate broad differences between two no'els
() compare and contrast two no'els
(#) critici!e and e'aluate two no'els
16. According the passage/ Frankenstein differs from Wuthering &eights in its
(A) use of multiple narrators
(B) method of disguising the author4s real purposes
(C) portrayal of men as determiners of the no'el4s action
() creation of a realistic story
(#) contro'ersial effect on readers
1,. &hich of the following narrati'e strategies best e$emplifies the *e'identiary
narrati'e techni"ue+ mentioned in line 20%
(A) Telling a story in such a way that the author4s real intentions are discernible
only through interpretations of allusions to a world outside that of the story
(B) Telling a story in such a way that the reader is aware as e'ents unfold of the
author4s underlying purposes and the ways these purposes conflict with the
drama of the plot
(C) Telling a story in a way that both directs attention to the incongruities among
the points of 'iew of se'eral characters and hints that the plot has a
significance other than that suggested by its mere e'ents
() Telling a story as a mystery in which the reader must deduce/ from the
conflicting e'idence presented by se'eral narrators/ the moral and
philosophical significance of character and e'ent
(#) Telling a story from the author4s point of 'iew in a way that implies both the
author4s and the reader4s ironic distance from the dramatic unfolding of e'ents
25. According to the passage/ the plots of Wuthering &eights and Frankenstein are
notable for their elements of
(A) drama and secrecy
(B) heroism and tension
(C) realism and ambition
() mystery and irony
(#) morality and metaphysics
%"imatic conditions are de"icate"y ad5usted to the composition o& the @arth6s
atmosphere. 2& there were a change in the atmosphere!&or e8amp"e( in the
re"ative proportions o& atmospheric gases!the c"imate wou"d probab"y change
a"so. 3 s"ight increase in water vapor( &or instance( wou"d increase the heat-
retaining capacity o& the atmosphere and wou"d "ead to a rise in g"oba"
..2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
temperatures. 2n contrast( a "arge increase in water vapor wou"d increase the
thic$ness and e8tent o& the c"oud "ayer( reducing the amount o& so"ar energy
reaching the @arth6s sur&ace.
The "eve" o& carbon dio8ide( %<
4
( in the atmosphere has an important e1ect on
c"imatic change. Bost o& the @arth6s incoming energy is short-wave"ength
radiation( which tends to pass through atmospheric %<
4
easi"y. The @arth(
however( reradiates much o& the received energy as "ong-wave"ength radiation(
which %<
4
absorbs and then remits toward the @arth. This phenomenon( $nown as
the greenhouse e1ect( can resu"t in an increase in the sur&ace temperature o& a
p"anet. 3n e8treme e8amp"e o& the e1ect is shown by Fenus( a p"anet covered by
heavy c"ouds composed most"y o& %<
4
( whose sur&ace temperatures have been
measured at M70. 2& the %<
4
content o& the atmosphere is reduced( the
temperature &a""s. 3ccording to one respectab"e theory( i& the atmospheric %<
4

concentration were ha"ved( the @arth wou"d become comp"ete"y covered with ice.
3nother e-ua""y respectab"e theory( however( states that a ha"ving o& the %<
4

concentration wou"d "ead on"y to a reduction in g"oba" temperatures o& 7.
2&( because o& an increase in &orest #res or vo"canic activity( the %<
4
content o&
the atmosphere increased( a warmer c"imate wou"d be produced. 9"ant growth(
which re"ies on both the warmth and the avai"abi"ity o& %<
4
wou"d probab"y
increase. 3s a conse-uence( p"ants wou"d use more and more %<
4
. @ventua""y %<
4
"eve"s wou"d diminish and the c"imate( in turn( wou"d become coo"er. ;ith reduced
temperatures many p"ants wou"d die= %<
4
wou"d thereby be returned to the
atmosphere and gradua""y the temperature wou"d rise again. Thus( i& this process
occurred( there might be a "ong-term osci""ation in the amount o& %<
4
present in
the atmosphere( with regu"ar temperature increases and decreases o& a set
magnitude.
ome c"imato"ogists argue that the burning o& &ossi" &ue"s has raised the "eve" o&
%<
4
in the atmosphere and has caused a g"oba" temperature increase o& at "east
1. 'ut a supposed g"oba" temperature rise o& 1 may in rea"ity be on"y severa"
regiona" temperature increases( restricted to areas where there are many
meteoro"ogica" stations and caused simp"y by shi&ts in the pattern o& atmospheric
circu"ation. <ther areas( &or e8amp"e the outhern )emisphere oceanic +one( may
be e8periencing an e-uiva"ent temperature decrease that is unrecogni+ed
because o& the shortage o& meteoro"ogica" recording stations.
21. The passage supplies information for answering which of the following "uestions%
(A) &hy are pro<ections of the effects of changes in water 'apor le'els on the
climate so inaccurate%
(B) &hat are the steps in the process that takes place as C8
2
absorbs long(
wa'elength radiation%
(C) )ow might our understanding of the greenhouse effect be impro'ed if the
burning of fossil fuels were decreased%
GRE ...
() &hat might cause a series of regular increases and decreases in the amount of
C8
2
in the atmosphere%
(#) &hy are there fewer meteorological recording stations in the ;outhern
)emisphere oceanic !one than elsewhere%
22. The author is primarily concerned with
(A) e$plaining the effects that the burning of fossil fuels might ha'e on climate
(B) illustrating the effects of C8
2
on atmospheric radiation
(C) discussing effects that changes in the C8
2
le'el in the atmosphere might ha'e
on climate
() challenging hypotheses about the effects of water 'apor and C8
2
on climate
(#) refuting hypotheses by climatologists about the causes of global temperature
fluctuations
2.. The passage suggests that a large decrease in the amount of C8
2
in the atmosphere
would result in
(A) at least a slight decrease in global temperatures
(B) at the most a slight increase in short(wa'elength radiation reaching the #arth
(C) a slight long(term increase in global temperatures
() a large long(term increase in the amount of 'olcanic acti'ity
(#) a slight short(term increase in atmosphere water 'apor content
20. The author refers to Cenus primarily in order to
(A) show the inherent weakness of the greenhouse effect theory
(B) show that the greenhouse effect works on other planets but not on #arth
(C) show the e$tent to which #arth4s atmosphere differs from that of Cenus
() support the contention that as water 'apor increase/ the amount of C8
2

increases
(#) support the argument that the C8
2
le'el in the atmosphere has a significant
effect on climate
21. The passage suggests that if there were a slight global warming at the present time/
it would be
(A) easy to measure the e$act increase in temperature because of the abundance of
temperature recording stations throughout the world
(B) difficult to measure the increase of C8
2
in the atmosphere because of local
'ariations in amounts
(C) easy to demonstrate the effects of the warming on the water 'apor in the
atmosphere
() difficult to pro'e that the warming was caused by the burning of fossil fuels
(#) easy to pro'e that the warming was caused by an increase of cloud co'er
..0 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
22. The discussion of climate in the passage suggests which of the following
conclusion%
3. Climate is not perfectly stable/ and slight regional temperature 'ariations can
be considered a normal feature of the en'ironment.
33. &e are unable at present to measure global temperature changes precisely.
333. The most important cause of regional climatic fluctuations is the change in
C8
2
le'els in the atmosphere.
(A) 3 only
(B) 333 only
(C) 3 and 33 only
() 33 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
2-. All of the following can be found in the author4s discussion of climate #DC#@T
(A) a statement about the effects of increased 'olcanic acti'ity on the #arth4s
temperatures
(B) an indication of the effect of an increase in water 'apor in the atmosphere
(C) a contrast between two theories about the effects of a lowering of C8
2
le'els in
the atmosphere
() a generali!ation about the efficiency of meteorological recording stations
(#) a hypothesis about the relationship between atmospheric gases and changes in
climate
SECTION B
The :ood and Krug 3dministration has recent"y proposed severe restrictions on
the use o& antibiotics to promote the hea"th and growth o& meat anima"s.
Bedications added to &eeds $i"" many microorganisms but a"so encourage the
appearance o& bacteria" strains that are resistant to anti-in&ective drugs. 3"ready(
&or e8amp"e( penici""in and the tetracyc"ines are not as e1ective therapeutica""y as
they once were. The drug resistance is chieDy con&erred by tiny circ"ets o& genes(
ca""ed p"asmids( that can be e8changed between di1erent strains and even
di1erent species o& bacteria. 9"asmids are a"so one o& the two $inds o& vehic"es
(the other being viruses) that mo"ecu"ar bio"ogists depend on when per&orming
gene transp"ant e8periments. @ven present guide"ines &orbid the "aboratory use o&
p"asmids bearing genes &or resistance to antibiotics. Iet( whi"e congressiona"
debate rages over whether or not to toughen these restrictions on scientists in
their "aboratories( "itt"e congressiona" attention has been &ocused on an i""-advised
agricu"tura" practice that produces $nown de"eterious e1ects.
1-. 3n the passage/ the author is primarily concerned with
(A) disco'ering methods of eliminating harmful microorganisms without
GRE ..1
subse"uently generating drug(resistant bacteria
(B) e$plaining reasons for congressional inaction on the regulation of gene
transplant e$periments
(C) describing a problematic agricultural practice and its serious genetic
conse"uences
() 'erifying the therapeutic ineffecti'eness of anti(infecti'e drugs
(#) e'aluating recently proposed restrictions intended to promote the growth of
meat animals
16. According to the passage/ the e$change of plasmids between different bacteria can
results in which of the following%
(A) ?icroorganisms resistant to drugs
(B) Therapeutically useful circlets of genes
(C) Anti(infecti'e drugs like penicillin
() Ciruses for use by molecular biologists
(#) Cehicles for performing gene transplant e$periments
1,. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author belie'es that those in fa'or of
stiffening the restrictions on gene transplant research should logically also
(A) encourage e$periments with any plasmids e$cept those bearing genes for
antibiotic resistance
(B) "uestion the addition of anti(infecti'e drugs to li'estock feeds
(C) resist the use of penicillin and tetracyclines to kill microorganisms
() agree to the de'elopment of meatier li'estock through the use of antibiotics
(#) fa'or congressional debate and discussion of all science and health issues
25. The author4s attitude toward the de'elopment of bacterial strains that render
antibiotic drugs ineffecti'e can best be described as
(A) indifferent
(B) perple$ed
(C) pretentious
() insincere
(#) apprehensi'e
Kuring ado"escence( the deve"opment o& po"itica" ideo"ogy becomes apparent
in the individua"= ideo"ogy here is de#ned as the presence o& rough"y consistent
attitudes( more or "ess organi+ed in re&erence to a more encompassing( though
perhaps tacit( set o& genera" princip"es. 3s such( po"itica" ideo"ogy is dim or absent
at the beginning o& ado"escence. 2ts ac-uisition by the ado"escent( in even the
most modest sense( re-uires the ac-uisition o& re"ative"y sophisticated cognitive
s$i""sA the abi"ity to manage abstractness( to synthesi+e and genera"i+e( to
imagine the &uture. These are accompanied by a steady advance in the abi"ity to
..2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
understand princip"es.
The chi"d6s rapid ac-uisition o& po"itica" $now"edge a"so promotes the growth o&
po"itica" ideo"ogy during ado"escence. 'y $now"edge 2 mean more than the dreary
>&acts(? such as the composition o& county government that the chi"d is e8posed
to in the conventiona" ninth-grade civics course. ,or do 2 mean on"y in&ormation
on current po"itica" rea"ities. These are &acets o& $now"edge( but they are "ess
critica" than the ado"escent6s absorption( o&ten unwitting( o& a &ee"ing &or those
many unspo$en assumptions about the po"itica" system that comprise the
common ground o& understanding!&or e8amp"e( what the state can appropriate"y
demand o& its citi+ens( and vice versa( or the proper re"ationship o& government to
subsidiary socia" institutions( such as the schoo"s and churches. Thus po"itica"
$now"edge is the awareness o& socia" assumptions and re"ationships as we"" as o&
ob5ective &acts. Buch o& the naivetX that characteri+es the younger ado"escent6s
grasp o& po"itics stems not &rom an ignorance o& >&acts? but &rom conventions o&
the system( o& what is and is not customari"y done( and o& how and why it is or is
not done.
Iet 2 do not want to overemphasi+e the signi#cance o& increased po"itica"
$now"edge in &orming ado"escent ideo"ogy. <ver the years 2 have become
progressive"y disenchanted about the centra"ity o& such $now"edge and have
come to be"ieve that much current wor$ in po"itica" socia"i+ation( by re"ying too
heavi"y on its apparent ac-uisition( has been mis"ed about the tempo o& po"itica"
understanding in ado"escence. Cust as young chi"dren can count numbers in series
without grasping the princip"e o& ordination( young ado"escents may have in their
heads many random bits o& po"itica" in&ormation without a secure understanding
o& those concepts that wou"d give order and meaning to the in&ormation.
Ji$e magpies( chi"dren6s minds pic$ up bits and pieces o& data. 2& you
encourage them( they wi"" drop these at your &eet!Repub"icans and Kemocrats(
the tripartite division o& the &edera" system( perhaps even the capita" o&
Bassachusetts. 'ut unti" the ado"escent has grasped the integumenta" &unction
that concepts and princip"es provide( the data remain &ragmented( random(
disordered.
21. The author4s primary purpose in the passage is to
(A) clarify the kinds of understanding an adolescent must ha'e in order to de'elop
a political ideology
(B) dispute the theory that a political ideology can be ac"uired during adolescence
(C) e$plain why adolescents are generally uninterested in political arguments
() suggest 'arious means of encouraging adolescents to de'elop personal
political ideologies
(#) e$plain why an adolescent4s political ideology usually appears more
sophisticated than it actually is
22. According to the author/ which of the following contributes to the de'elopment of
GRE ..-
political ideology during adolescence%
(A) Conscious recognition by the adolescent of his or her own nai'etP
(B) Thorough comprehension of the concept of ordination
(C) #'aluation by the adolescent of the general principles encompassing his or her
specific political ideas
() 3ntuiti'e understanding of relationships among 'arious components of society
(#) =e<ection of abstract reasoning in fa'or of in'ol'ement with pragmatic
situations
2.. The author uses the term *common ground of understanding+ (line 2-) to refer to
(A) familiar legislation regarding political acti'ity
(B) the e$periences that all adolescents share
(C) a society4s general sense of its own political acti'ity
() a society4s willingness to resol'e political tensions
(#) the assumption that the state controls social institutions
20. The passage suggests that/ during early adolescence/ a child would find which of
the following most difficult to understand%
(A) A book chronicling the ways in which the presidential inauguration ceremony
has changed o'er the years
(B) An essay in which an incident in British history is used to e$plain the system
of monarchic succession
(C) A summary of the respecti'e responsibilities of the legislati'e/ e$ecuti'e/ and
<udicial branches of go'ernment
() A debate in which the participants argue/ respecti'ely/ that the federal
go'ernment should or should not support pri'ate schools
(#) An article detailing the specific religious groups that founded American
colonies and the guiding principles of each one
21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author would be most likely to agree
with which of the following statements about schools%
(A) They should present political information according to carefully planned/
schematic arrangements.
(B) They themsel'es constitute part of a general sociopolitical system that
adolescents are learning to understand.
(C) 3f they were to introduce political sub<ect matter in the primary grades/
students would understand current political realities at an earlier age.
() They are ineffectual to the degree that they disregard adolescents4 political
nai'etP.
(#) Because they are subsidiary to go'ernment their contribution to the political
understanding of adolescent must be limited.
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22. &hich of the following best summari!es the author4s e'aluation of the
accumulation of political knowledge by adolescents%
(A) 3t is un"uestionably necessary/ but its significance can easily be o'erestimated.
(B) 3t is important/ but not as important as is the ability to appear knowledgeable.
(C) 3t delays the necessity of considering underlying principles.
() 3t is primarily rele'ant to an understanding of limited/ local concerns/ such as
county politics.
(#) 3t is primarily dependent on information gleaned from high school courses
such as ci'ics.
2-. &hich of the following statements best describes the organi!ation of the author4s
discussion of the role of political knowledge in the formation of political ideology
during adolescence%
(A) )e acknowledges its importance/ but then modifies his initial assertion of that
importance.
(B) )e consistently resists the idea that it is important/ using a series of e$amples
to support his stand.
(C) )e wa'ers in e'aluating it and finally uses analogies to e$plain why he is
indecisi'e.
() )e begins by "uestioning con'entional ideas about its importance/ but finally
concedes that they are correct.
(#) )e carefully refrains from making an initial <udgment about it/ but later
confirms its critical role.
No. 3-2
SECTION A
The ma$ing o& c"assi#cations by "iterary historians can be a somewhat ris$y
enterprise. ;hen '"ac$ poets are discussed separate"y as a group( &or instance(
the e8tent to which their wor$ reDects the deve"opment o& poetry in genera"
shou"d not be &orgotten( or a distortion o& "iterary history may resu"t. This caution
is particu"ar"y re"evant in an assessment o& the di1erences between '"ac$ poets at
the turn o& the century (1900-1909) and those o& the generation o& the 19406s.
These di1erences inc"ude the bo"der and more &orthright speech o& the "ater
generation and its technica" inventiveness. 2t shou"d be remembered( though( that
comparab"e di1erences a"so e8isted &or simi"ar generations o& ;hite poets.
;hen poets o& the 19106s and 19406s are considered together( however( the
distinctions that "iterary historians might ma$e between >conservative? and
>e8perimenta"? wou"d be o& "itt"e signi#cance in a discussion o& '"ac$ poets(
a"though these remain he"p&u" c"assi#cations &or ;hite poets o& these decades.
%ertain"y di1erences can be noted between >conservative? '"ac$ poets such as
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%ounter %u""en and %"aude BcSay and >e8perimenta"? ones such as Cean Toomer
and Jangston )ughes. 'ut '"ac$ poets were not batt"ing over o"d or new sty"es=
rather( one accomp"ished '"ac$ poet was ready to we"come another( whatever his
or her sty"e( &or what mattered was racia" pride.
)owever( in the 19406s '"ac$ poets did debate whether they shou"d dea" with
speci#ca""y racia" sub5ects. They as$ed whether they shou"d on"y write about '"ac$
e8perience &or a '"ac$ audience or whether such demands were restrictive. 2t may
be said( though( that virtua""y a"" these poets wrote their best poems when they
spo$e out o& racia" &ee"ing( race being( as Cames ;e"don Cohnson right"y put it(
>per&orce the thing the ,egro poet $nows best.?
3t the turn o& the century( by contrast( most '"ac$ poets genera""y wrote in the
conventiona" manner o& the age and e8pressed nob"e( i& vague( emotions in their
poetry. These poets were not unusua""y gi&ted( though Roscoe Camison and E. B.
Bc%"e""en may be mentioned as e8ceptions. They chose not to write in dia"ect(
which( as ter"ing 'rown has suggested( >meant a re5ection o& stereotypes o&
,egro "i&e(? and they re&used to write on"y about racia" sub5ects. This re&usa" had
both a positive and a negative conse-uence. 3s 'rown observes( >Fa"uab"y
insisting that ,egro poets shou"d not be con#ned to issues o& race( these poets
committed YanZ error[ they re&used to "oo$ into their hearts and write.? These are
important insights( but one must stress that this re&usa" to "oo$ within was a"so
typica" o& most ;hite poets o& the United tates at the time. They( too( o&ten
turned &rom their own e8perience and conse-uent"y produced not very
memorab"e poems about vague topics( such as the peace o& nature.
1-. According to the passage/ most turn(of(the(century Black poets generally did
which of the following%
(A) &rote in ways that did not challenge accepted literary practice.
(B) escribed scenes from their own li'es.
(C) Aroused patriotic feelings by e$pressing de'otion to the land.
() #$pressed comple$ feelings in the words of ordinary people.
(#) 3nterpreted the frustrations of Blacks to an audience of &hites.
16. According to the passage/ an issue facing Black poets in the 1,254s was whether
they should
(A) seek a consensus on new techni"ues of poetry
(B) write e$clusi'ely about and for Blacks
(C) withdraw their support from a repressi'e society
() turn away from social "uestions to recollect the tran"uility of nature
(#) identify themsel'es with an international mo'ement of Black writers
1,. 3t can be inferred from the passage that classifying a poet as either conser'ati'e or
e$perimental would be of *little significance+ (line 21) when discussing Black
poets of the 1,154s and the 1,254s because
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(A) these poets wrote in 'ery similar styles
(B) these poets all wrote about nature in the same way
(C) these poets were fundamentally united by a sense of racial achie'ement despite
differences in poetic style
() such a method of classification would fail to take account of the influence of
general poetic practice
(#) such a method of classification would be rele'ant only in a discussion of poets
separated in time by more than three decades
25. The author "uotes ;terling Brown in lines 1.(12 in order to
(A) present an interpretation of some black poets that contradicts the author4s own
assertion about their acceptance of 'arious poetic styles
(B) introduce a distinction between Black poets who used dialect and &hite poets
who did not
(C) dispro'e Aames &eldon Aohnson4s claim that race is what *the 9egro poet
knows best+
() suggest what were the effects of some Black poets4 decision not to write only
about racial sub<ects
(#) pro'e that Black poets at the turn of the century wrote less con'entionally than
did their &hite counterparts
21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author finds the work of the ma<ority of
the Black poets at the turn of the century to be
(A) une$citing
(B) calming
(C) confusing
() delightful
(#) inspiring
22. The author would be most likely to agree that poets tend to produce better poems
when they
(A) e$press a lo'e of nature
(B) declaim noble emotions
(C) a'oid technical "uestions about style
() emulate the best work of their predecessors
(#) write from personal e$perience
2.. &hich of the following best describes the attitude of the author toward
classification as a techni"ue in literary history%
(A) #nthusiastic
(B) 3ndifferent
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(C) &ary
() erisi'e
(#) efensi'e
The primary method previous"y used by pa"eonto"ogists to estimate c"imatic
changes that occurred during 9"eistocene g"acia" cyc"es was the determination o&
18
<P
1L
< ratios in ca"careous &ossi"s. )owever( because this ratio is inDuenced by a
number o& &actors( the abso"ute magnitude o& the temperature di1erence between
9"eistocene g"acia" and interg"acia" cyc"es cou"d not be une-uivoca""y ascertained.
:or e8amp"e( both temperature Ductuations and isotopic changes in seawater
a1ect the
18
<P
1L
< ratio. 3nd( since both &actors inDuence the ratio in the same
direction( the contribution o& each to the
18
<P
1L
< cannot be determined.
:ortunate"y( recent studies indicate that the racemi+ation reaction o& amino
acids can be used to determine more accurate"y temperatures that occurred
during 9"eistocene g"acia" cyc"es. <n"y J-amino acids are usua""y &ound in the
proteins o& "iving organisms( but over "ong periods o& geo"ogica" time these acids
undergo racemi+ation( producing K-amino acids( which are not &ound in proteins.
This reaction depends on both time and temperature= thus( i& one variab"e is
$nown( the reaction can be used to ca"cu"ate the other.
20. 3t can be inferred from the passage that determination of the temperatures
mentioned in line 1- through
16
8J
12
8 ratios and determination through
racemi!ation reactions both re"uire which of the following%
(A) Calcium deposits known to be from @leistocene seas
(B) @roteins containing both K(amino acids and (amino acids
(C) Blacial debris from both before and after the @leistocene period
() >ossil material from organisms li'ing during the @leistocene period
(#) @roteins containing both amino acids and
16
8
21. The passage suggests that the
16
8J
12
8 ratio could be used more successfully as a
means of measurement if scientists were able to
(A) determine the
16
8J
12
8 ratio in li'ing animals as well as in fossil remains
(B) locate a greater number of calcareous fossils from the @leistocene glacial and
interglacial cycles
(C) locate the factors other than temperature fluctuations and isotopic changes in
seawater that affect the
16
8J
12
8 ratio
() arri'e at more e$act determinations of which amino acids are found in the
proteins of li'ing organisms
(#) isolate the relati'e effects of temperature fluctuations and isotopic changes in
seawater on
16
8J
12
8 ratios
22. The information in the passage can be used to answer which of the following
"uestions%
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3. o temperature 'ariations and isotopic changes in seawater cause the
16
8J
12
8
ratio to shift in the same direction%
33. &hat are the methods used to determine the
16
8J
12
8 ratio%
333. 3s the study of racemi!ation reactions useful in estimating climatic changes that
occurred during @leistocene glacial cycles if only one of the two important
'ariables is known%
(A) 3 only
(B) 3 and 33 only
(C) 3 and 333 only
() 33 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
2-. According to the passage/ before the recent e$periments described in the passage
were completed/ scientists could
(A) determine temperatures only for @leistocene seas
(B) determine temperatures that occurred during @leistocene glacial cycles only by
e$amining fossil remains
(C) measure changes in temperatures that occurred during @leistocene glacial
cycles with only "uestionable accuracy
() only partially identify factors tending to lower @leistocene temperatures
(#) accurately determine temperatures only for land masses affected by glaciation
SECTION B
%himps and chi"dren( gu""s and Eree$s!the etho"ogists go their merry way(
comparing bits o& human cu"tura" behavior with bits o& genetica""y programmed
anima" behavior. True( humans are anima"s= they share certain anatomica"
&eatures with other anima"s( and some items o& human behavior may seem
ana"ogous to the behavior o& other anima"s. 'ut such ana"ogies can serious"y
mis"ead i& we &ai" to "oo$ at the conte8t o& a particu"ar item o& behavior. Thus one
etho"ogist compares the presentation o& a twig by a cormorant with gi&t-giving in
humans. Iet the cormorant6s twig-presentation simp"y inhibits attac$ and is
comparab"e to other appeasement ritua"s &ound in many species. )uman gi&t-
giving di1ers in &orm and purpose not on"y &rom cu"ture to cu"ture( but within the
same cu"ture in various socia" conte8ts. @verything signi#cant about it derives
&rom its socia" conte8t. Thus( etho"ogists can accomp"ish "itt"e!beyond reminding
us that we are anima"s!unti" they study humans as cu"tura" beings.
1-. The author is primarily concerned with
(A) demonstrating the usefulness of ethology in disco'ering the beha'ioral limits
within which humans operate
(B) ob<ecting to the degradation of humanity implicit in the ethologists e"uation of
GRE .0.
humans and animals
(C) pointing out the dangers inherent in comparing highly dissimilar species/ such
as humans and cormorants/ rather than similar ones/ such as humans and apes
() refuting the idea that the appeasement rituals in human cultural beha'ior can
be profitably sub<ected to ethological analysis
(#) arguing that the ethologists4 assumption that human beha'ior can be
straightforwardly compared with animal beha'ior is in'alid
16. The author belie'es that gift(gi'ing in humans
(A) is instincti'e beha'ior
(B) is analogous to appeasement rituals in other animals
(C) is not an appropriate sub<ect of study for ethologists
() must be considered within its social conte$t to be properly understood
(#) may be a cultural remnant of beha'ior originally designed to inhibit attack
1,. The author4s attitude toward contemporary ethologists can best be described as
(A) pu!!led
(B) conciliatory
(C) defensi'e
() amused
(#) disparaging
25. &hich of the following statements from a report on a cross(cultural study of gift(
gi'ing would/ if true/ most strongly support the author4s assertions concerning
human gift(gi'ing%
(A) 3n e'ery culture studied/ it was found that some forms of gift(gi'ing are acts of
aggression that place the recei'er under obligation to the gi'er.
(B) ?ost go'ernmental ta$ation systems differentiate between gifts of property
gi'en to children during a parent4s lifetime/ and a child4s inheritance of the
same property from a parent dying without a will.
(C) ;ome gift(gi'ing customs ha'e analogous forms in nearly e'ery culture/ as in
the almost uni'ersal custom of welcoming strangers with gifts of food.
() 3n 9orth America/ generally speaking/ money is an acceptable holiday gift to
one4s letter carrier or garbage collector/ but is often considered an insult if
gi'en to one4s employer/ friends/ or relati'es.
(#) ;ome gifts/ being conciliatory in nature/ indicate by their costliness the degree
of hostility they must appease in the recipient.
:ew areas o& neurobehaviora" research seemed more promising in the ear"y
si8ties than that investigating the re"ationship between protein synthesis and
"earning. The conceptua" &ramewor$ &or this research was derived direct"y &rom
mo"ecu"ar bio"ogy( which had shown that genetic in&ormation is stored in nuc"eic
.00 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
acids and e8pressed in proteins. ;hy not ac-uired in&ormation as we""G
The #rst step toward estab"ishing a connection between protein synthesis and
"earning seemed to be b"oc$ memory (cause amnesia) by interrupting the
production o& protein. ;e were &ortunate in #nding a non"etha" dosage o&
puromycin that cou"d( it #rst appeared( thorough"y inhibit brain protein synthesis
as we"" as re"iab"y produce amnesia.
'e&ore the actua" connection between protein synthesis and "earning cou"d be
estab"ished( however( we began to have doubts about whether inhibition o&
protein synthesis was in &act the method by which puromycin produced amnesia.
:irst( other drugs( g"utarimides!themse"ves potent protein-synthesis inhibitors!
either &ai"ed to cause amnesia in some situations where it cou"d easi"y be induced
by puromycin or produced an amnesia with a di1erent time course &rom that o&
puromycin. econd( puromycin was &ound to inhibit protein synthesis by brea$ing
certain amino-acid chains( and the resu"ting &ragments were suspected o& being
the actua" cause o& amnesia in some cases. Third( puromycin was reported to
cause abnorma"ities in the brain( inc"uding sei+ures. Thus( not on"y were
decreased protein synthesis and amnesia dissociated( but a"ternative mechanisms
&or the amnestic action o& puromycin were readi"y suggested.
o( puromycin turned out to be a disappointment. 2t came to be regarded as a
poor agent &or amnesia studies( a"though( o& course( it was poor on"y in the
conte8t o& our origina" paradigm o& protein-synthesis inhibition. 2n our &rustration(
our initia" response was simp"y to change drugs rather than our conceptua"
orientation. 3&ter many such disappointments( however( it now appears un"i$e"y
that we wi"" ma$e a #rm connection between protein synthesis and "earning
mere"y by pursuing the approaches o& the past. <ur e8perience with drugs has
shown that a"" the amnestic agents o&ten inter&ere with memory in ways that
seem unre"ated to their inhibition o& protein synthesis. Bore important"y( the
notion that the interruption or intensi#cation o& protein production in the brain can
be re"ated in cause-and-e1ect &ashion to "earning now seems simp"istic and
unproductive. Remove the battery &rom a car and the car wi"" not go. Krive the car
a "ong distance at high speed and the battery wi"" become more high"y charged.
,either o& these &acts proves that the battery powers the car= on"y a $now"edge o&
the overa"" automotive system wi"" revea" its mechanism o& the "ocomotion and
the ro"e o& the battery within that system.
21. This passage was most likely e$cerpted from
(A) a diary kept by a practicing neurobeha'ioral researcher
(B) a newspaper article on recent ad'ances in the biochemistry of learning
(C) a technical article on e$perimental techni"ues in the field of molecular biology
() an article summari!ing a series of scientific in'estigations in neurobeha'ioral
research
(#) a book re'iew in a leading <ournal de'oted to genetic research
GRE .01
22. The primary purpose of the passage is to show that e$tensi'e e$perimentation has
(A) demonstrated the importance of amino(acid fragmentation in the induction of
amnesia
(B) cast doubt on the 'alue of puromycin in the neurobeha'ioral in'estigation of
learning
(C) re'ealed the importance of amnesia in the neurobeha'ioral study of learning
() not yet demonstrated the applicability of molecular biology to neurobeha'ioral
research
(#) not supported the hypothesis that learning is directly dependent on protein
synthesis
2.. According to the passage/ neurobeha'iorists initially based their belief that protein
synthesis was related to learning on which of the following%
(A) Traditional theories about learning
(B) 9ew techni"ues in protein synthesis
(C) @re'ious disco'eries in molecular biology
() ;pecific research into learning and amnesia
(#) )istoric e$periments on the effects of puromycin
20. The passage mentions all of the following as effects of puromycin #DC#@TE
(A) brain sei!ures
(B) memory loss
(C) inhibition of protein synthesis
() destruction of genetic information
(#) fragmentation of amino(acid chains
21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that/ after puromycin was percei'ed to be a
disappointment/ researchers did which of the following%
(A) They ceased to e$periment with puromycin and shifted to other promising
protein(synthesis inhibitors.
(B) They ceased to e$periment with puromycin/ and ree$amined through
e$periments the relationship between genetic information and ac"uired
information.
(C) The continued to e$periment with puromycin/ but applied their results to other
facets of memory research.
() They continued to e$periment with puromycin/ but also tried other protein(
synthesis inhibitors.
(#) They continued to e$periment with puromycin until a new neuroanatomical
framework was de'eloped.
22. 3n the e$ample of the car (lines 16(21)/ the battery is meant to represent which of
the following elements in the neurobeha'ioral research program%
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(A) @uromycin
(B) Amnesia
(C) Blutarimides
() @rotein synthesis
(#) Ac"uired information
2-. &hich of the following statements could be most likely to come after the last
sentence of the passage%
(A) The failures of the past/ howe'er/ must not impede further research into the
amnestic action of protein(synthesis inhibitors.
(B) 3t is a legacy of this research/ therefore/ that molecular biology4s genetic
models ha'e led to disagreements among neurobeha'iorists.
(C) The ambi'alent status of current research/ howe'er/ should not deter
neurobeha'iorists from e$ploring the deeper connections between protein
production and learning.
() 3t is important in the future/ therefore/ for beha'ioral biochemists to emphasi!e
more strongly the place of their specific findings within the o'erall protein(
synthesis model of learning.
(#) 3t is important in the future/ therefore/ for beha'ioral biochemists to focus on
the se'eral components of the total learning system.
No. 3-3
SECTION A
3"though pathogenic organisms constant"y a"ight on the s$in( they #nd it a very
un&avorab"e environment and( in the absence o& in5ury( have great di*cu"ty
co"oni+ing it. This >se"&-steri"i+ing? capacity o& the s$in resu"ts &rom the tendency
o& a"" we""-deve"oped ecosystems toward homeostasis( or the maintenance o& the
status -uo.
pecies that typica""y "ive in soi"( water( and e"sewhere rare"y mu"tip"y on the
s$in. Undamaged s$in is a"so un&avorab"e to most human pathogens. The s$in is
too acid and too arid &or some species. The constant shedding o& the sur&ace s$in
"ayers &urther hinders the estab"ishment o& invaders. The most interesting de&ense
mechanism( however( resu"ts &rom the metabo"ic activities o& the resident Dora.
Unsaturated &atty acids( an important component o& the "ipids in sebum co""ected
&rom the s$in sur&ace( inhibit the growth o& severa" bacteria" and &unga" cutaneous
pathogens. These acids are a metabo"ic product o& certain gram-positive members
o& the cutaneous community( which brea$ down the more comp"e8 "ipids in &resh"y
secreted sebum.
1-. The primary purpose of the passage is to
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(A) offer an analysis of metabolic processes
(B) detail the ways in which bacteria and fungi can be inhibited
(C) describe mechanisms by which the skin protects itself against pathogens
() analy!e the methods whereby biological systems maintain the status "uo
(#) pro'ide a specific e$ample of the skin4s basic defenses against pathogens
16. The *resident flora+ mentioned in line 12 refer to
(A) *:nsaturated fatty acids+ (line 1-)
(B) *sebum collected from the skin surface+ (lines 16(1,)
(C) *bacterial and fungal cutaneous pathogens+ (lines 1,(25)
() *certain gram(positi'e members of the cutaneous community+ (lines 21(22)
(#) *more comple$ lipids+ (lines 2.)
1,. Among the natural defenses of the skin against pathogenic organisms are all of the
following #DC#@T the
(A) dryness of the skin
(B) acidity of the skin
(C) tendency of the pathogens toward homeostasis
() shedding of surface layers of the skin
(#) metabolic breakdown of lipids
25. The author presents her material in which of the following ways%
(A) ;tating a problem and then supplying a solution
(B) @resenting a phenomenon and then analy!ing reason for it
(C) @ro'iding information and then drawing a conclusion from it
() ?aking a general statement and then arguing by analogy
(#) ?aking an inference and then de'eloping it by illustration
>Basterpieces are dumb(? wrote :"aubert( >They have a tran-ui" aspect "i$e the
very products o& nature( "i$e "arge anima"s and mountains.? )e might have been
thin$ing o& ,ar and Peace& that vast( si"ent wor$( un&athomab"e and simp"e(
provo$ing end"ess -uestions through the ma5esty o& its being. To"stoi6s simp"icity is
>overpowering(? says the critic 'ay"ey( >disconcerting(? because it comes &rom
>his casua" assumption that the wor"d is as he sees it.? Ji$e other nineteenth-
century Russian writers he is >impressive? because he >means what he says(? but
he stands apart &rom a"" others and &rom most ;estern writers in his identity with
"i&e( which is so comp"ete as to ma$e us &orget he is an artist. )e is the center o&
his wor$( but his egocentricity is o& a specia" $ind. Eoethe( &or e8amp"e( says
'ay"ey( >cared &or nothing but himse"&. To"stoi was nothing but himse"&.?
:or a"" his varied modes o& writing and the mu"tip"icity o& characters in his
#ction( To"stoi and his wor$ are o& a piece. The &amous >conversion? o& his midd"e
years( moving"y recounted in his Confession& was a cu"mination o& his ear"y
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spiritua" "i&e( not a departure &rom it. The apparent"y &undamenta" changes that
"ed &rom epic narrative to dogmatic parab"e( &rom a 5oyous( buoyant attitude
toward "i&e to pessimism and cynicism( &rom ,ar and Peace to The 0reut1er
onata& came &rom the same rest"ess( impressionab"e depths o& an independent
spirit yearning to get at the truth o& its e8perience. >Truth is my hero(? wrote
To"stoi in his youth( reporting the #ghting in ebastopo". Truth remained his hero!
his own( not others6( truth. <thers were awed by ,apo"eon( be"ieved that a sing"e
man cou"d change the destinies o& nations( adhered to meaning"ess ritua"s(
&ormed their tastes on estab"ished canons o& art. To"stoi reversed a""
preconceptions= and in every reversa" he overthrew the >system(? the >machine(?
the e8terna""y ordained be"ie&( the conventiona" behavior in &avor o& unsystematic(
impu"sive "i&e( o& inward motivation and the so"utions o& independent thought.
2n his wor$ the arti#cia" and the genuine are a"ways e8hibited in dramatic
oppositionA the supposed"y great ,apo"eon and the tru"y great( unregarded "itt"e
%aptain Tushin( or ,icho"as Rostov6s actua" e8perience in batt"e and his "ater
account o& it. The simp"e is a"ways pitted against the e"aborate( $now"edge gained
&rom observation against assertions o& borrowed &aiths. To"stoi6s magica" simp"icity
is a product o& these tensions= his wor$ is a record o& the -uestions he put to
himse"& and o& the answers he &ound in his search. The greatest characters o& his
#ction e8emp"i&y this search( and their happiness depends on the measure o& their
answers. To"stoi wanted happiness( but on"y hard-won happiness( that emotiona"
&u"#""ment and inte""ectua" c"arity which cou"d come on"y as the pri+e o& a""-
consuming e1ort. )e scorned "esser satis&actions.
21. &hich of the following best characteri!es the author4s attitude toward Tolstoi%
(A) ;he deprecates the cynicism of his later works.
(B) ;he finds his theatricality artificial.
(C) ;he admires his wholehearted sincerity.
() ;he thinks his inconsistency disturbing.
(#) ;he respects his de'otion to orthodo$y.
22. &hich of the following best paraphrases >laubert4s statement "uoted in lines 1(0%
(A) ?asterpiece seem ordinary and unremarkable from the perspecti'e of a later
age.
(B) Breat works of art do not e$plain themsel'es to us any more than natural
ob<ects do.
(C) 3mportant works of art take their place in the pageant of history because of
their uni"ueness.
() The most important aspects of good art are the orderliness and tran"uility it
reflects.
(#) ?asterpieces which are of enduring 'alue represent the forces of nature.
2.. The author "uotes from Bayley (line 6(25) to show that
GRE .0,
(A) although Tolstoi obser'es and interprets life/ he maintains no self(conscious
distance from his e$perience
(B) the realism of Tolstoi4s work gi'es the illusion that his no'els are reports of
actual e'ents
(C) unfortunately/ Tolstoi is unaware of his own limitation/ though he is sincere in
his attempt to describe e$perience
() although Tolstoi works casually and makes unwarranted assumption/ his work
has an ine$plicable appearance of truth
(#) Tolstoi4s personal perspecti'e makes his work almost unintelligible to the
ma<ority of his readers
20. The author states that Tolstoi4s con'ersion represented
(A) a radical renunciation of the world
(B) the re<ection of a'ant(garde ideas
(C) the natural outcome of his earlier beliefs
() the acceptance of religion he had earlier re<ected
(#) a fundamental change in his writing style
21. According to the passage/ Tolstoi4s response to the accepted intellectual and
artistic 'alues of his times was to
(A) select the most 'alid from among them
(B) combine opposing 'iewpoints into a new doctrine
(C) re<ect the claims of religion in order to ser'e his art
() sub'ert them in order to defend a new political 'iewpoint
(#) upset them in order to be faithful to his e$perience
22. 3t can be inferred from the passage that which of the following is true of War and
Peace%
(A) 3t belongs to an early period of Tolstoi4s work.
(B) 3t incorporates a polemic against the disorderliness of =ussian life.
(C) 3t has a simple structural outline.
() 3t is a work that reflects an ironic 'iew of life.
(#) 3t conforms to the standard of aesthetic refinement fa'ored by Tolstoi4s
contemporaries.
2-. According to the passage/ the e$planation of Tolstoi4s *magical simplicity+ (line
11) lies partly in his
(A) remarkable power of obser'ation and his facility in e$act description
(B) persistent disregard for con'entional restraints together with his great energy
(C) unusual ability to reduce the description of comple$ situations to a few words
() abiding hatred of religious doctrine and preference for new scientism
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(#) continuing attempt to represent the natural in opposition to the pretentious
SECTION B
The stratospheric o+one "ayer is not a comp"ete"y uni&orm stratum( nor does it
occur at the same a"titude around the g"obe. 2t "ies c"osest to the @arth over the
po"es and rises to ma8imum a"titude over the e-uator. 2n the stratosphere( o+one
is continuous"y being made and destroyed by natura" processes. Kuring the day
the un brea$s down some o& the o8ygen mo"ecu"es to sing"e o8ygen atoms( and
these reacting with the o8ygen mo"ecu"es that have not been dissociated( &orm
o+one. )owever( the sun"ight a"so brea$s down o+one by converting some o& it
bac$ to norma" o8ygen. 2n addition natura""y occurring nitrogen o8ides enter into
the cyc"e and speed the brea$down reactions. The amount o& o+one present at
any one time is the ba"ance between the processes that create it and those that
destroy it.
ince the sp"itting o& the o8ygen mo"ecu"es depends direct"y upon the intensity
o& so"ar radiation( the greatest rate o& o+one production occurs over the tropics.
)owever o+one is a"so destroyed most rapid"y there( and wind circu"ation patterns
carry the o+one-enriched upper "ayers o& the atmosphere away &rom the e-uator.
2t turns out that the "argest tota" o+one amounts are &ound at high "atitudes. <n a
typica" day the amount o& o+one over Binnesota( &or e8amp"e( is 70 percent
greater than the amount over Te8as( 900 mi"es &arther south. The density and
a"titude o& the o+one "ayer a"so change with the seasons( the weather( and the
amount o& so"ar activity. ,everthe"ess( at any one p"ace above the @arth6s sur&ace(
the "ong-term averages maintained by natura" processes are be"ieved to be
reasonab"y constant.
The amount o& o+one near the @arth is on"y a sma"" percent o& the amount in
the stratosphere( and e8change o& mo"ecu"es between the o+one "ayer and the air
at ground "eve" is thought to be re"ative"y sma"". :urthermore( the o+one mo"ecu"e
is so unstab"e that on"y a tiny &raction o& ground-"eve" o+one cou"d survive the
"ong trip to the stratosphere( so the o+one "ayer wi"" not be rep"enished to any
signi#cant degree by the increasing concentrations o& o+one that have been
detected in recent years near the earth6s sur&ace. The "ong-term averages o&
o+one both near ground "eve" and in the stratosphere are regu"ated by continuous
processes that are constant"y destroying and creating it in each o& these p"aces.
This is why scientists are so concerned about human beings in5ection into the
stratosphere o& chemica"s "i$e nitrogen o8ides( which are cata"ysts that &aci"itate
the brea$down o& o+one. 2& the o+one "ayer is dep"eted signi#cant"y( more
u"travio"et radiation wou"d penetrate to the @arth6s sur&ace and damage many
"iving organisms.
1-. The passage suggests that factors contributing to the 'ariation in the amount of
o!one abo'e different areas of the #arth4s surface include which of the following%
3. ;ome of the o!one found at higher latitudes was produced elsewhere.
GRE .11
33. There is usually a smaller amount of naturally occurring nitrogen o$ide o'er
high latitudes.
333. The rate of o!one production o'er the poles is less than that o'er the tropics.
(A) 33 only
(B) 333 only
(C) 3 and 33 only
() 3 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
16. &hich of the following best states the central idea of the passage%
(A) 9aturally occurring nitrogen o$ides/ as well as those introduced by humans/
threaten to deplete the layer of o!one in the stratosphere.
(B) A delicate but reasonably constant balance e$ists between the natural processes
that produce and those that destroy o!one in the stratosphere.
(C) There is little hope that the increased concentrations of ground(le'el o!one
obser'ed in recent years can offset any future depletion of stratospheric o!one.
() ?eteorologically induced changes in the concentration of o!one in the
stratosphere tend to cancel themsel'es out o'er a period of time.
(#) ;olar radiation not only produces and destroys !one but also poses a ha!ard to
human life.
1,. The processes that determine the amount of o!one in a gi'en portion of the
stratosphere most resemble which of the following%
(A) Automobile emissions and seasonal fog that create a layer of smog o'er a city
(B) @lanting and har'esting acti'ities that produce a crop whose si!e is always
about the same
(C) &ithdrawals and deposits made in a bank account whose a'erage balance
remains about the same
() Assets and liabilities that determine the net worth of a corporation
(#) )igh grades and low grades made by a student whose a'erage remains about
the same from term to term
25. According to the passage/ which of the following has the K#A;T effect on the
amount of o!one at a gi'en location in the upper atmosphere%
(A) Katitude
(B) &eather
(C) ;eason
() Bround(le'el o!one
(#) ;olar acti'ity
21. The author pro'ides information that answers which of the following "uestions%
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3. &hat is the a'erage thickness of the stratospheric o!one layer%
33. &hy does increased e$posure to ultra'iolet radiation damage many li'ing
organisms%
333. &hat is the role of o$ygen in the production of stratospheric !one%
(A) 3 only
(B) 33 only
(C) 333 only
() 3 and 33
(#) 33 and 333
22. 3n e$plaining what determines the amount of o!one in the stratosphere/ the author
describes natural processes that form
(A) an interacti'e relationship
(B) a reducti'e system
(C) a linear progression
() a set of randomly occurring phenomena
(#) a set of sporadically recurring e'ents
:ee"ings o& hope"essness among medieva" wor$ers trapped in the poverty cyc"e
gradua""y "essened as it became possib"e &or women6s "abor to supp"ement a
&ami"y6s money income by more than pennies. 'y 1700( women spinners cou"d be
&ound wor$ing on their own &or wea"thy sponsors( even a&ter the introduction in
2ta"y and :rance o& prohibition against advancing money &or supp"ies to women
spinners. )istorians have usua""y interpreted this prohibition simp"y as evidence o&
women6s economic sub5ection( since it ob"iged them to turn to usurers= however(
it was a"so a"most certain"y a response to a trend toward di1erentia" reward &or
women6s higher s$i"". Iarn can be spun irregu"ar"y and "umpi"y( but per&ect"y
smooth yarn is worth more. ;or$ing &or merchant entrepreneurs on time rates(
women had been paid hard"y more than chi"dren= wor$ing as entrepreneurs
themse"ves and producing good wor$ by the piece( they cou"d brea$ into the
rationa" system o& di1erentia" rewards.
2.. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) propose and defend a theory about the conse"uences of a certain historical
e'ent
(B) present historical facts and offer a broader interpretation of those facts than has
been offered in the past
(C) describe the socioeconomic effects of a widely held attitude during a particular
historical period
() demonstrate the superiority of using an economic approach to historical
analysis
(#) call attention to the influence of the te$tile industry on society during a
GRE .1.
particular historical period
20. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author 'iews the system of paying all
workers e"ually on time rates as
(A) unfair and not rational
(B) undesirable but una'oidable
(C) efficient and profitable
() ad'antageous to most women workers
(#) e'idence of a trend toward a more modern wage system
21. The passage implies which of the following about women spinners in medie'al
#urope%
(A) ?ost of them worked independently for wealthy sponsors.
(B) They were not typical of medie'al women entrepreneurs.
(C) ;ome of them were paid for their work after it was done/ according to its
'alue.
() They would ha'e been able to contribute substantial amounts to their families
incomes were it not for the prohibition against ad'ancing money to them.
(#) They were ine'itably disad'antaged in the marketplace because they were
obliged to obtain money for their supplies from usurers.
22. The passage implies that feelings of hopelessness among medie'al workers
(A) resulted primarily from the lack of a rational system of differential rewards
(B) disappeared completely once medie'al te$tile workers were able to break the
cycle of po'erty
(C) were more pre'alent among female workers than among male workers
() came into being in part because of women4s limited earning capacity
(#) were particularly common among te$tile workers in 3taly and >rance
2-. The author suggests that historians ha'e done which of the following%
(A) >ailed to gi'e ade"uate consideration to the economic contribution of women
during the medie'al period.
(B) 8'erestimated the degree of hopelessness e$perienced by medie'al workers
trapped in the po'erty cycle.
(C) 3gnored the fact that by 1.55 many women spinners were working
independently rather than for merchant entrepreneurs.
() =egard the economic status of women in 3taly and >rance as representati'e of
women4s status throughout medie'al #urope.
(#) 8'erlooked part of the significance of a prohibition go'erning one aspect of
yarn production in medie'al #urope.
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No. 4-1
SECTION A
'y the time the 3merican co"onists too$ up arms against Ereat 'ritain in order
to secure their independence( the institution o& '"ac$ s"avery was deep"y
entrenched. 'ut the contradiction inherent in this situation was( &or many( a
source o& constant embarrassment. >2t a"ways appeared a most ini-uitous scheme
to me(? 3bigai" 3dams wrote her husband in 177M( >to #ght ourse"ves &or what we
are dai"y robbing and p"undering &rom those who have as good a right to &reedom
as we have.?
Bany 3mericans besides 3bigai" 3dams were struc$ by the inconsistency o&
their stand during the ;ar o& 2ndependence( and they were not averse to ma$ing
moves to emancipate the s"aves. Tua$ers and other re"igious groups organi+ed
antis"avery societies( whi"e numerous individua"s manumitted their s"aves. 2n &act(
within severa" years o& the end o& the ;ar o& 2ndependence( most o& the @astern
states had made provisions &or the gradua" emancipation o& s"aves.
1-. &hich of the following best states the central idea of the passage%
(A) The &ar of 3ndependence produced among many Black Americans a
heightened consciousness of the ine"uities in American society.
(B) The &ar of 3ndependence strengthened the bonds of sla'ery of many Black
Americans while intensifying their desire to be free.
(C) The &ar of 3ndependence e$posed to many Americans the contradiction of
sla'ery in a country seeking its freedom and resulted in efforts to resol'e that
contradiction.
() The &ar of 3ndependence pro'oked strong criticisms by many Americans of
the institution of sla'ery/ but produced little substanti'e action against it.
(#) The &ar of 3ndependence renewed the efforts of many American groups
toward achie'ing Black emancipation.
16. The passage contains information that would support which of the following
statements about the colonies before the &ar of 3ndependence%
(A) They contained organi!ed antisla'ery societies.
(B) They allowed indi'iduals to own sla'es.
(C) They prohibited religious groups from political action.
() They were inconsistent in their legal definitions of sla'e status.
(#) They encouraged abolitionist societies to e$pand their influence.
1,. According to the passage/ the &ar of 3ndependence was embarrassing to some
Americans for which of the following reasons%
3. 3t in'ol'ed a struggle for many of the same liberties that Americans were
GRE .11
denying to others.
33. 3t in'ol'ed a struggle for independence from the 'ery nation that had founded
the colonies.
333. 3t in'ol'ed a struggle based on inconsistencies in the participants4 conceptions
of freedom.
(A) 3 only
(B) 33 only
(C) 3 and 33 only
() 3 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
25. &hich of the following statements regarding American society in the years
immediately following the &ar of 3ndependence is best supported by the passage%
(A) The une$pected successes of the antisla'ery societies led to their gradual
demise in the #astern states.
(B) ;ome of the newly independent American states had begun to make progress
toward abolishing sla'ery.
(C) Americans like Abigail Adams became disillusioned with the slow progress of
emancipation and gradually abandoned the cause.
() #mancipated sla'es gradually were accepted in the #astern states as e"ual
members of American society.
(#) The abolition of sla'ery in many #astern states was the result of close
cooperation between religious groups and free Blacks.
The evo"ution o& se8 ratios has produced( in most p"ants and anima"s with
separate se8es( appro8imate"y e-ua" numbers o& ma"es and &ema"es. ;hy shou"d
this be soG Two main $inds o& answers have been o1ered. <ne is couched in terms
o& advantage to popu"ation. 2t is argued that the se8 ratio wi"" evo"ve so as to
ma8imi+e the number o& meetings between individua"s o& the opposite se8. This is
essentia""y a >group se"ection? argument. The other( and in my view correct( type
o& answer was #rst put &orward by :isher in 1970. This >genetic? argument starts
&rom the assumption that genes can inDuence the re"ative numbers o& ma"e and
&ema"e o1spring produced by an individua" carrying the genes. That se8 ratio wi""
be &avored which ma8imi+es the number o& descendants an individua" wi"" have
and hence the number o& gene copies transmitted. uppose that the popu"ation
consisted most"y o& &ema"esA then an individua" who produced sons on"y wou"d
have more grandchi"dren. 2n contrast( i& the popu"ation consisted most"y o& ma"es(
it wou"d pay to have daughters. 2&( however( the popu"ation consisted o& e-ua"
numbers o& ma"es and &ema"es( sons and daughters wou"d be e-ua""y va"uab"e.
Thus a one-to-one se8 ratio is the on"y stab"e ratio= it is an >evo"utionari"y stab"e
strategy.? 3"though :isher wrote be&ore the mathematica" theory o& games had
been deve"oped( his theory incorporates the essentia" &eature o& a game!that the
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best strategy to adopt depends on what others are doing.
ince :isher6s time( it has been rea"i+ed that genes can sometimes inDuence
the chromosome or gamete in which they #nd themse"ves so that the gamete wi""
be more "i$e"y to participate in &erti"i+ation. 2& such a gene occurs on a se8-
determining (N or I) chromosome( then high"y aberrant se8 ratios can occur. 'ut
more immediate"y re"evant to game theory are the se8 ratios in certain parasitic
wasp species that have a "arge e8cess o& &ema"es. 2n these species( &erti"i+ed eggs
deve"op into &ema"es and un&erti"i+ed eggs into ma"es. 3 &ema"e stores sperm and
can determine the se8 o& each egg she "ays by &erti"i+ing it or "eaving it
un&erti"i+ed. 'y :isher6s argument( it shou"d sti"" pay a &ema"e to produce e-ua"
numbers o& sons and daughters. )ami"ton( noting that the eggs deve"op within
their host!the "arva o& another insect!and that the new"y emerged adu"t wasps
mate immediate"y and disperse( o1ered a remar$ab"y cogent ana"ysis. ince on"y
one &ema"e usua""y "ays eggs in a given "arva( it wou"d pay her to produce one
ma"e on"y( because this one ma"e cou"d &erti"i+e a"" his sisters on emergence. Ji$e
:isher( )ami"ton "oo$ed &or an evo"utionari"y stab"e strategy( but he went a step
&urther in recogni1ing that he was "oo$ing &or a strategy.
21. The author suggests that the work of >isher and )amilton was similar in that both
scientists
(A) conducted their research at appro$imately the same time
(B) sought to manipulate the se$ ratios of some of the animals they studied
(C) sought an e$planation of why certain se$ ratios e$ist and remain stable
() studied game theory/ thereby pro'iding important groundwork for the later
de'elopment of strategy theory
(#) studied reproduction in the same animal species
22. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author considers >isher4s work to be
(A) fallacious and unprofessional
(B) definiti'e and thorough
(C) inaccurate but popular/ compared with )amilton4s work
() admirable/ but not as up(to(date as )amilton4s work
(#) accurate/ but tri'ial compared with )amilton4s work
2.. The passage contains information that would answer which of the following
"uestions about wasps%
3. )ow many eggs does the female wasp usually lay in a single host lar'a%
33. Can some species of wasp determine se$ ratios among their offspring%
333. &hat is the appro$imate se$ ratio among the offspring of parasitic wasps%
(A) 3 only
(B) 33 only
(C) 333 only
GRE .1-
() 3 and 33 only
(#) 33 and 333 only
20. 3t can be inferred that the author discusses the genetic theory in greater detail than
the group selection theory primarily because he belie'es that the genetic theory is
more
(A) complicated
(B) accurate
(C) popular
() comprehensi'e
(#) accessible
21. According to the passage/ successful game strategy depends on
(A) the ability to ad<ust one4s beha'ior in light of the beha'ior of others
(B) one4s awareness that there is safety in numbers
(C) the degree of stability one can create in one4s immediate en'ironment
() the accuracy with which one can predict future e'ents
(#) the success one achie'es in conser'ing and storing one4s resources
22. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the mathematical theory of games has been
(A) de'eloped by scientists with an interest in genetics
(B) adopted by )amilton in his research
(C) helpful in e$plaining how genes can sometimes influence gametes
() based on animals studies conducted prior to 1,.5
(#) useful in e$plaining some biological phenomena
2-. &hich of the following is 98T true of the species of parasitic wasps discussed in
the passage%
(A) Adult female wasps are capable of storing sperm.
(B) >emale wasps lay their eggs in the lar'ae of other insects.
(C) The adult female wasp can be fertili!ed by a male that was hatched in the same
lar'a as herself.
() ;o few male wasps are produced that e$tinction is almost certain.
(#) ?ale wasps do not emerge from their hosts until they reach se$ual maturity.
SECTION B
Thomas )ardy6s impu"ses as a writer( a"" o& which he indu"ged in his nove"s(
were numerous and divergent( and they did not a"ways wor$ together in harmony.
)ardy was to some degree interested in e8p"oring his characters6 psycho"ogies(
though impe""ed "ess by curiosity than by sympathy. <ccasiona""y he &e"t the
impu"se to comedy (in a"" its detached co"dness) as we"" as the impu"se to &arce(
.16 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
but he was more o&ten inc"ined to see tragedy and record it. )e was a"so inc"ined
to "iterary rea"ism in the severa" senses o& that phrase. )e wanted to describe
ordinary human beings= he wanted to specu"ate on their di"emmas rationa""y (and(
un&ortunate"y( even schematica""y)= and he wanted to record precise"y the
materia" universe. :ina""y( he wanted to be more than a rea"ist. )e wanted to
transcend what he considered to be the bana"ity o& so"e"y recording things e8act"y
and to e8press as we"" his awareness o& the occu"t and the strange.
2n his nove"s these various impu"ses were sacri#ced to each other inevitab"y
and o&ten. 2nevitab"y( because )ardy did not care in the way that nove"ists such as
:"aubert or Cames cared( and there&ore too$ paths o& "east resistance. Thus( one
impu"se o&ten surrendered to a &resher one and( un&ortunate"y( instead o& e8acting
a compromise( simp"y disappeared. 3 desire to throw over rea"ity a "ight that
never was might give way abrupt"y to the desire on the part o& what we might
consider a nove"ist-scientist to record e8act"y and concrete"y the structure and
te8ture o& a Dower. 2n this instance( the new impu"se was at "east an energetic
one( and thus its indu"gence did not resu"t in a re"a8ed sty"e. 'ut on other
occasions )ardy abandoned a peri"ous( ris$y( and high"y energi+ing impu"se in
&avor o& what was &or him the &ata""y re"a8ing impu"se to c"assi&y and schemati+e
abstract"y. ;hen a re"a8ing impu"se was indu"ged( the sty"e!that sure inde8 o& an
author6s "iterary worth!was certain to become verbose. )ardy6s wea$ness
derived &rom his apparent inabi"ity to contro" the comings and goings o& these
divergent impu"ses and &rom his unwi""ingness to cu"tivate and sustain the
energetic and ris$y ones. )e submitted to #rst one and then another( and the
spirit b"ew where it "isted= hence the unevenness o& any one o& his nove"s. )is
most contro""ed nove"( 2nder the .reenwood Tree& prominent"y e8hibits two
di1erent but reconci"ab"e impu"ses!a desire to be a rea"ist-historian and a desire
to be a psycho"ogist o& "ove!but the s"ight inter"oc$ings o& p"ot are not enough to
bind the two comp"ete"y together. Thus even this boo$ sp"its into two distinct
parts.
1-. &hich of the following is the most appropriate title for the passage/ based on its
content%
(A) 'nder the #reen(ood TreeE )ardy4s Ambiguous Triumph
(B) The =eal and the ;trangeE The 9o'elist4s ;hifting =ealms
(C) #nergy )ersus =eposeE The =ole ofE 8rdinary @eople in )ardy4s >iction
() )ardy4s 9o'elistic 3mpulsesE The @roblem of Control
(#) i'ergent 3mpulsesE The 3ssue of :nity in the 9o'el
16. The passage suggests that the author would be most likely to agree with which of
the following statements about literary realism%
(A) Kiterary realism is most concerned with the e$ploration of the internal li'es of
ordinary human beings.
(B) The term *literary realism+ is susceptible to more than a single definition.
GRE .1,
(C) Kiterary realism and an interest in psychology are likely to be at odds in a
no'elist4s work.
() *Kiterary realism+ is the term most often used by critics in describing the
method of )ardy4s no'els.
(#) A propensity toward literary realism is a less interesting no'elistic impulse
than is an interest in the occult and the strange.
1,. The author of the passage considers a writer4s style to be
(A) a reliable means by which to measure the writer4s literary merit
(B) most apparent in those parts of the writer4s work that are not realistic
(C) problematic when the writer attempts to follow perilous or risky impulses
() shaped primarily by the writer4s desire to classify and schemati!e
(#) the most accurate inde$ of the writer4s literary reputation
25. &hich of the following words could best be substituted for *rela$ed+ (line .-)
without substantially changing the author4s meaning%
(A) informal
(B) confined
(C) risky
() wordy
(#) metaphoric
21. The passage supplies information to suggest that its author would be most likely to
agree with which of the following statements about the no'elists >laubert and
Aames%
(A) They indulged more impulses in their no'els than did )ardy in his no'els.
(B) They ha'e elicited a greater degree of fa'orable response from most literary
critics than has )ardy.
(C) 3n the writing of their no'els/ they often took pains to effect a compromise
among their 'arious no'elistic impulses.
() =egarding no'elistic construction/ they cared more about the opinions of other
no'elists than about the opinions of ordinary readers.
(#) They wrote no'els in which the impulse toward realism and the impulse away
from realism were e'ident in e"ual measure.
22. &hich of the following statements best describes the organi!ation of lines 2- to 01
of the passage (*ThusRabstractly+)%
(A) The author makes a disappro'ing obser'ation and then presents two cases/ one
of which leads to a "ualification of his disappro'al and the other of which does
not.
(B) The author draws a conclusion from a pre'ious statement/ e$plains his
conclusion in detail/ and then gi'es a series of e$amples that ha'e the effect of
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resol'ing an inconsistency.
(C) The author concedes a point and then makes a counterargument/ using an
e$tended comparison and contrast that "ualifies his original concession.
() The author makes a <udgment/ points out an e$ception to his <udgment/ and
then contradicts his original assertion.
(#) The author summari!es and e$plains an argument and then ad'ances a brief
history of opposing arguments.
2.. &hich of the following statements about the use of comedy in )ardy4s no'els is
best supported by the passage%
(A) )ardy4s use of comedy in his no'els tended to weaken his literary style.
(B) )ardy4s use of comedy in his no'els was inspired by his natural sympathy.
(C) Comedy appeared less fre"uently in )ardy4s no'els than did tragedy.
() Comedy played an important role in )ardy4s no'els though that comedy was
usually in the form of farce.
(#) Comedy played a secondary role in )ardy4s more controlled no'els only.
20. The author implies which of the following about 'nder the #reen(ood Tree in
relation to )ardy4s other no'els%
(A) 3t is )ardy4s most thorough in'estigation of the psychology of lo'e.
(B) Although it is his most controlled no'el/ it does not e$hibit any harsh or risky
impulses.
(C) 3t/ more than his other no'els/ re'eals )ardy as a realist interested in the
history of ordinary human beings.
() 3n it )ardy4s no'elistic impulses are managed somewhat better than in his
other no'els.
(#) 3ts plot/ like the plots of all of )ardy4s other no'els/ splits into two distinct
parts.
Upwards o& a bi""ion stars in our ga"a8y have burnt up their interna" energy
sources( and so can no "onger produce the heat a star needs to oppose the inward
&orce o& gravity. These stars( o& more than a &ew so"ar masses( evo"ve( in genera"(
much more rapid"y than does a star "i$e the un. Boreover( it is 5ust these more
massive stars whose co""apse does not ha"t at intermediate stages (that is( as
white dwar&s or neutron stars). 2nstead( the co""apse continues unti" a singu"arity
(an in#nite"y dense concentration o& matter) is reached.
2t wou"d be wonder&u" to observe a singu"arity and obtain direct evidence o& the
undoubted"y bi+arre phenomena that occur near one. Un&ortunate"y in most cases
a distant observer cannot see the singu"arity= outgoing "ight rays are dragged
bac$ by gravity so &orce&u""y that even i& they cou"d start out within a &ew
$i"ometers o& the singu"arity( they wou"d end up in the singu"arity itse"&.
21. The author4s primary purpose in the passage is to
GRE .21
(A) describe the formation and nature of singularities
(B) e$plain why large numbers of stars become singularities
(C) compare the characteristics of singularities with those of stars
() e$plain what happens during the stages of a singularity4s formation
(#) imply that singularities could be more easily studied if obser'ers could get
closer to them
22. The passage suggests which of the following about the ;un%
3. The ;un could e'ol'e to a stage of collapse that is less dense than a singularity.
33. 3n the ;un/ the inward force of gra'ity is balanced by the generation of heat.
333. The ;un emits more obser'able light than does a white dwarf or a neutron star.
(A) 3 only
(B) 333 only
(C) 3 and 33 only
() 33 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
2-. &hich of the following sentences would most probably follow the last sentence of
the passage%
(A) Thus/ a physicist interested in studying phenomena near singularities would
necessarily hope to find a singularity with a measurable gra'itational field.
(B) Accordingly/ physicists to date ha'e been unable to obser'e directly any
singularity.
(C) 3t is specifically this startling phenomenon that has allowed us to codify the
scant information currently a'ailable about singularities.
() ?oreo'er/ the e$istence of this e$traordinary phenomenon is implied in the
e$tensi'e reports of se'eral physicists.
(#) Although unanticipated/ phenomena such as these are consistent with the
structure of a singularity.
No. 4-2
SECTION A
The evo"ution o& inte""igence among ear"y "arge mamma"s o& the grass"ands
was due in great measure to the interaction between two eco"ogica""y
synchroni+ed groups o& these anima"s( the hunting carnivores and the herbivores
that they hunted. The interaction resu"ting &rom the di1erences between predator
and prey "ed to a genera" improvement in brain &unctions= however( certain
components o& inte""igence were improved &ar more than others.
The $ind o& inte""igence &avored by the interp"ay o& increasing"y smarter
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catchers and increasing"y $eener escapers is de#ned by attention!that aspect o&
mind carrying consciousness &orward &rom one moment to the ne8t. 2t ranges &rom
a passive( &ree-Doating awareness to a high"y &ocused( active #8ation. The range
through these states is mediated by the arousa" system( a networ$ o& tracts
converging &rom sensory systems to integrating centers in the brain stem. :rom
the more re"a8ed to the more vigorous "eve"s( sensitivity to nove"ty is increased.
The organism is more awa$e( more vigi"ant= this increased vigi"ance resu"ts in the
apprehension o& ever more subt"e signa"s as the organism becomes more
sensitive to its surroundings. The processes o& arousa" and concentration give
attention its direction. 3rousa" is at #rst genera"( with a Dooding o& impu"ses in the
brain stem= then gradua""y the activation is channe"ed. Thus begins concentration(
the ho"ding o& consistent images. <ne meaning o& inte""igence is the way in which
these images and other a"ert"y searched in&ormation are used in the conte8t o&
previous e8perience. %onsciousness "in$s past attention to the present and
permits the integration o& detai"s with perceived ends and purposes.
The e"ements o& inte""igence and consciousness come together marve"ous"y to
produce di1erent sty"es in predator and prey. )erbivores and carnivores deve"op
di1erent $inds o& attention re"ated to escaping or chasing. 3"though in both $inds
o& anima"( arousa" stimu"ates the production o& adrena"ine and norepinephrine by
the adrena" g"ands( the e1ect in herbivores is primari"y &ear( whereas in carnivores
the e1ect is primari"y aggression. :or both( arousa" attunes the anima" to what is
ahead. 9erhaps it does not e8perience &orethought as we $now it( but the anima"
does e8perience something "i$e it. The predator is searching"y aggressive(
innerdirected( tuned by the nervous system and the adrena" hormones( but aware
in a sense c"oser to human consciousness than( say( a hungry "i+ard6s instinctive
snap at a passing beet"e. Using past events as a &ramewor$( the "arge mamma"
predator is wor$ing out a re"ationship between movement and &ood( sensitive to
possibi"ities in co"d trai"s and distant sounds!and yesterday6s un&orgotten
"essons. The herbivore prey is o& a di1erent mind. 2ts mood o& wariness rather than
searching and its attitude o& genera" e8pectancy instead o& anticipating are si"$-
thin vei"s o& tran-ui"ity over an e8p"osive endocrine system.
1-. The author is primarily concerned with
(A) dispro'ing the 'iew that herbi'ores are less intelligent than carni'ores
(B) describing a relationship between animals4 intelligence and their ecological
roles
(C) establishing a direct link between early large mammals and their modern
counterparts
() analy!ing the ecological basis for the dominance of some carni'ores o'er other
carni'ores
(#) demonstrating the importance of hormones in mental acti'ity
16. The author refers to a hungry li!ard (line 11) primarily in order to
GRE .2.
(A) demonstrate the similarity between the hunting methods of mammals and
those of nonmammals
(B) broaden the application of his argument by including an insecti'ore as an
e$ample
(C) make a distinction between higher and lower le'els of consciousness
() pro'ide an additional illustration of the brutality characteristic of predators
(#) offer an ob<ection to suggestions that all animals lack consciousness
1,. 3t can be inferred from the passage that in animals less intelligent than the
mammals discussed in the passage
(A) past e$perience is less helpful in ensuring sur'i'al
(B) attention is more highly focused
(C) muscular coordination is less highly de'eloped
() there is less need for competition among species
(#) en'ironment is more important in establishing the proper ratio of prey to
predator
25. The sensiti'ity described in lines 12(21 is most clearly an e$ample of
(A) *free(floating awareness+ (lines 12(1-)
(B) *flooding of impulses in the brain stem+ (lines 2,(.5)
(C) *the holding of consistent images+ (lines .1(.2)
() *integration of details with percei'ed ends and purposes+ (lines .-(.6)
(#) *silk(thin 'eils of tran"uility+ (line 20)
21. The author4s attitude toward the mammals discussed in the passage is best
described as
(A) superior and condescending
(B) lighthearted and <ocular
(C) apologetic and conciliatory
() wistful and tender
(#) respectful and admiring
22. The author pro'ides information that would answer which of the following
"uestions%
3. &hy is an aroused herbi'ore usually fearful%
33. &hat are some of the degrees of attention in large mammals%
333. &hat occurs when the stimulus that causes arousal of a mammal is remo'ed%
(A) 3 only
(B) 333 only
(C) 3 and 33 only
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() 33 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33 and 333
2.. According to the passage/ impro'ement in brain function among early large
mammals resulted primarily from which of the following%
(A) 3nterplay of predator and prey
(B) @ersistence of free(floating awareness in animals of the grasslands
(C) Bradual dominance of warm(blooded mammals o'er cold(blooded reptiles
() 3nteraction of early large mammals with less intelligent species
(#) 3mpro'ement of the capacity for memory among herbi'ores and carni'ores
20. According to the passage/ as the process of arousal in an organism continues/ all of
the following may occur #DC#@TE
(A) the production of adrenaline
(B) the production of norepinephrine
(C) a heightening of sensiti'ity to stimuli
() an increase in selecti'ity with respect to stimuli
(#) an e$pansion of the range of states mediated by the brain stem
Toc-uevi""e( apparent"y( was wrong. Cac$sonian 3merica was not a Duid(
ega"itarian society where individua" wea"th and poverty were ephemera"
conditions. 3t "east so argues @. 9essen in his iconoc"astic study o& the very rich in
the United tates between 184/ and 18/0.
9essen does present a -uantity o& e8amp"es( together with some re&reshing"y
inte""igib"e statistics( to estab"ish the e8istence o& an inordinate"y wea"thy c"ass.
Though active in commerce or the pro&essions( most o& the wea"thy were not se"&-
made( but had inherited &ami"y &ortunes. 2n no sense mercuria"( these great
&ortunes survived the #nancia" panics that destroyed "esser ones. 2ndeed( in
severa" cities the wea"thiest one percent constant"y increased its share unti" by
18/0 it owned ha"& o& the community6s wea"th. 3"though these observations are
true( 9essen overestimates their importance by conc"uding &rom them that the
undoubted progress toward ine-ua"ity in the "ate eighteenth century continued in
the Cac$sonian period and that the United tates was a c"ass-ridden( p"utocratic
society even be&ore industria"i+ation.
21. According to the passage/ @essen indicates that all of the following were true of
the 'ery wealthy in the :nited ;tates between 1621 and 1615 #DC#@TE
(A) They formed a distinct upper class.
(B) ?any of them were able to increase their holdings.
(C) ;ome of them worked as professionals or in business.
() ?ost of them accumulated their own fortunes.
(#) ?any of them retained their wealth in spite of financial uphea'als.
GRE .21
22. The author4s attitude toward @essen4s presentation of statistics can be best
described as
(A) disappro'ing
(B) shocked
(C) suspicious
() amused
(#) laudatory
2-. &hich of the following best states the author4s main point%
(A) @essen4s study has o'erturned the pre'iously established 'iew of the social and
economic structure of early nineteenth(century America.
(B) Toc"ue'ille4s analysis of the :nited ;tates in the Aacksonian era remains the
definiti'e account of this period.
(C) @essen4s study is 'aluable primarily because it shows the continuity of the
social system in the :nited ;tates throughout the nineteenth century.
() The social patterns and political power of the e$tremely wealthy in the :nited
;tates between 1621 and 1615 are well documented.
(#) @essen challenges a 'iew of the social and economic system in the :nited
;tates from 1621 to 1615/ but he draws conclusions that are incorrect.
SECTION B
>2 want to critici+e the socia" system( and to show it at wor$( at its most
intense.? Firginia ;oo"&6s provocative statement about her intentions in writing
(rs. -alloway has regu"ar"y been ignored by the critics( since it high"ights an
aspect o& her "iterary interests very di1erent &rom the traditiona" picture o& the
>poetic? nove"ist concerned with e8amining states o& reverie and vision and with
&o""owing the intricate pathways o& individua" consciousness. 'ut Firginia ;oo"&
was a rea"istic as we"" as a poetic nove"ist( a satirist and socia" critic as we"" as a
visionaryA "iterary critics6 cava"ier dismissa" o& ;oo"&6s socia" vision wi"" not
withstand scrutiny.
2n her nove"s( ;oo"& is deep"y engaged by the -uestions o& how individua"s are
shaped (or de&ormed) by their socia" environments( how historica" &orces impinge
on peop"e6s "ives( how c"ass( wea"th( and gender he"p to determine peop"e6s &ates.
Bost o& her nove"s are rooted in a rea"istica""y rendered socia" setting and in a
precise historica" time.
;oo"&6s &ocus on society has not been genera""y recogni+ed because o& her
intense antipathy to propaganda in art. The pictures o& re&ormers in her nove"s are
usua""y satiric or sharp"y critica". @ven when ;oo"& is &undamenta""y sympathetic
to their causes( she portrays peop"e an8ious to re&orm their society and possessed
o& a message or program as arrogant or dishonest( unaware o& how their po"itica"
ideas serve their own psycho"ogica" needs. ()er ,riters -iary notesA >the on"y
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honest peop"e are the artists(? whereas >these socia" re&ormers and
phi"anthropists[harbor[discreditab"e desires under the disguise o& "oving their
$ind[?) ;oo"& detested what she ca""ed >preaching? in #ction( too( and critici+ed
nove"ist K. ). Jawrence (among others) &or wor$ing by this method.
;oo"&6s own socia" criticism is e8pressed in the "anguage o& observation rather
than in direct commentary( since &or her( #ction is a contemp"ative( not an active
art. he describes phenomena and provides materia"s &or a 5udgment about
society and socia" issues= it is the reader6s wor$ to put the observations together
and understand the coherent point o& view behind them. 3s a mora"ist( ;oo"&
wor$s by indirection( subt"y undermining o*cia""y accepted mores( moc$ing(
suggesting( ca""ing into -uestion( rather than asserting( advocating( bearing
witnessA hers is the satirist6s art.
;oo"&6s "iterary mode"s were acute socia" observers "i$e %he$hov and %haucer.
3s she put it in The Common *eader& >2t is sa&e to say that not a sing"e "aw has
been &ramed or one stone set upon another because o& anything %haucer said or
wrote= and yet( as we read him( we are absorbing mora"ity at every pore.? Ji$e
%haucer( ;oo"& chose to understand as we"" as to 5udge( to $now her society root
and branch!a decision crucia" in order to produce art rather than po"emic.
1-. &hich of the following would be the most appropriate title for the passage%
(A) @oetry and ;atire as 3nfluences on the 9o'els of Cirginia &oolf
(B) Cirginia &oolfE Critic and Commentator on the Twentieth(Century 9o'el
(C) Trends in Contemporary =eform ?o'ements as a Mey to :nderstanding
Cirginia &oolf4s 9o'els
() ;ociety as Allegory for the 3ndi'idual in the 9o'els of Cirginia &oolf
(#) Cirginia &oolf4s 9o'elsE Critical =eflections on the 3ndi'idual and on ;ociety
16. 3n the first paragraph of the passage/ the author4s attitude toward the literary critics
mentioned can best be described as
(A) disparaging
(B) ironic
(C) facetious
() skeptical but resigned
(#) disappointed but hopeful
1,. 3t can be inferred from the passage that &oolf chose Chaucer as a literary model
because she belie'ed that
(A) Chaucer was the first #nglish author to focus on society as a whole as well as
on indi'idual characters
(B) Chaucer was an honest and forthright author/ whereas no'elists like / )/
Kawrence did not sincerely wish to change society
(C) Chaucer was more concerned with understanding his society than with calling
GRE .2-
its accepted mores into "uestion
() Chaucer4s writing was greatly/ if subtly/ effecti'e in influencing the moral
attitudes of his readers
(#) her own no'els would be more widely read if/ like Chaucer/ she did not o'ertly
and 'ehemently critici!e contemporary society
25. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the most probable reason &oolf
realistically described the social setting in the ma<ority of her no'els was that she
(A) was aware that contemporary literary critics considered the no'el to be the
most realistic of literary genres
(B) was interested in the effect of a person4s social milieu on his or her character
and actions
(C) needed to be as attenti'e to detail as possible in her no'els in order to support
the arguments she ad'anced in them
() wanted to show that a painstaking fidelity in the representation of reality did
not in any way hamper the artist
(#) wished to pre'ent critics from charging that her no'els were written in an
ambiguous and ine$act style
21. &hich of the following phrases best e$presses the sense of the word
*contemplati'e+ as it is used in lines 0.(00 of the passage%
(A) Bradually elucidating the rational structures underlying accepted mores
(B) =eflecting on issues in society without pre<udice or emotional commitment
(C) A'oiding the aggressi'e assertion of the author4s perspecti'e to the e$clusion
of the reader4s <udgment
() Con'eying a broad 'iew of society as a whole rather than focusing on an
isolated indi'idual consciousness
(#) Appreciating the world as the artist sees it rather than <udging it in moral terms
22. The author implies that a ma<or element of the satirist4s art is the satirist4s
(A) consistent adherence to a position of lofty disdain when 'iewing the foibles of
humanity
(B) insistence on the helplessness of indi'iduals against the social forces that seek
to determine an indi'idual4s fate
(C) cynical disbelief that 'isionaries can either enlighten or impro'e their societies
() fundamental assumption that some ambiguity must remain in a work of art in
order for it to reflect society and social mores accurately
(#) refusal to indulge in polemic when presenting social mores to readers for their
scrutiny
2.. The passage supplies information for answering which of the following "uestions%
(A) )a'e literary critics ignored the social criticism inherent in the works of
.26 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
Chekho' and Chaucer%
(B) oes the author belie'e that &oolf is solely an introspecti'e and 'isionary
no'elist%
(C) &hat are the social causes with which &oolf shows herself to be sympathetic
in her writings%
() &as . ). Kawrence as concerned as &oolf was with creating realistic settings
for his no'els%
(#) oes &oolf attribute more power to social en'ironment or to historical forces
as shapers of a person4s life%
2t is a popu"ar misconception that nuc"ear &usion power is &ree o& radioactivity=
in &act( the deuterium-tritium reaction that nuc"ear scientists are current"y
e8p"oring with such +ea" produces both a"pha partic"es and neutrons. (The
neutrons are used to produce tritium &rom a "ithium b"an$et surrounding the
reactor.) 3nother common misconception is that nuc"ear &usion power is a virtua""y
un"imited source o& energy because o& the enormous -uantity o& deuterium in the
sea. 3ctua""y( its "imits are set by the amount o& avai"ab"e "ithium( which is about
as p"enti&u" as uranium in the @arth6s crust. Research shou"d certain"y continue on
contro""ed nuc"ear &usion( but no energy program shou"d be premised on its
e8istence unti" it has proven practica". :or the immediate &uture( we must
continue to use hydroe"ectric power( nuc"ear #ssion( and &ossi" &ue"s to meet our
energy needs. The energy sources a"ready in ma5or use are in ma5or use &or good
reason.
20. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) critici!e scientists who belie'e that the deuterium(tritium fusion reaction can
be made feasible as an energy source
(B) admonish scientists who ha'e failed to correctly calculate the amount of
lithium a'ailable for use in nuclear fusion reactors
(C) defend the continued short(term use of fossil fuels as a ma<or energy source
() caution against uncritical embrace of nuclear fusion power as a ma<or energy
source
(#) correct the misconception that nuclear fusion power is entirely free of
radioacti'ity
21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author belie'es which of the following
about the current state of public awareness concerning nuclear fusion power%
(A) The public has been deliberately misinformed about the ad'antages and
disad'antages of nuclear fusion power.
(B) The public is unaware of the principal ad'antage of nuclear fusion o'er
nuclear fission as an energy source.
(C) The public4s awareness of the scientific facts concerning nuclear fusion power
is somewhat distorted and incomplete.
GRE .2,
() The public is not interested in increasing its awareness of the ad'antages and
disad'antages of nuclear fusion power.
(#) The public is aware of the disad'antages of nuclear fusion power but not of its
ad'antages.
22. The passage pro'ides information that would answer which of the following
"uestions%
(A) &hat is likely to be the principal source of deuterium for nuclear fusion
power%
(B) )ow much incidental radiation is produced in the deuterium tritium fusion
reaction%
(C) &hy are scientists e$ploring the deuterium(tritium fusion reaction with such
!eal%
() &hy must the tritium for nuclear fusion be synthesi!ed from lithium%
(#) &hy does the deuterium(tritium reaction yield both alpha particles and
neutrons%
2-. &hich of the following statements concerning nuclear scientists is most directly
suggested in the passage%
(A) 9uclear scientists are not themsel'es aware of all of the facts surrounding the
deuterium(tritium fusion reaction.
(B) 9uclear scientists e$ploring the deuterium(tritium reaction ha'e o'erlooked
key facts in their eagerness to pro'e nuclear fusion practical.
(C) 9uclear scientists may ha'e o'erestimated the amount of lithium actually
a'ailable in the #arth4s crust.
() 9uclear scientists ha'e not been entirely dispassionate in their in'estigation of
the deuterium(tritium reaction.
(#) 9uclear scientists ha'e insufficiently in'estigated the lithium(to(tritium
reaction in nuclear fusion.
No. 4-3
SECTION A
Ereat comic art is never otherword"y( it does not see$ to mysti&y us( and it does
not deny ambiguity by branding as evi" whatever di1ers &rom good. Ereat comic
artists assume that truth may bear a"" "ights( and thus they see$ to accentuate
contradictions in socia" action( not g"oss over or transcend them by appea"s to
e8trasocia" symbo"s o& divine ends( cosmic purpose( or "aws o& nature. The
moment o& transcendence in great comic art is a socia" moment( born out o& the
conviction that we are human( even though we try to be gods. The comic
community to which artists address themse"ves is a community o& reasoning(
.-5 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
"oving( 5oy&u"( compassionate beings( who are wi""ing to assume the human ris$s
o& acting rationa""y. ;ithout invo$ing gods or demons( great comic art arouses
courage in reason( courage which grows out o& trust in what human beings can do
as humans.
1-. The passage suggests that great comic art can be characteri!ed as optimistic about
the ability of humans to
(A) rid themsel'es of pride
(B) transcend the human condition
(C) differentiate clearly between good and e'il
() a'oid social conflicts
(#) act rationally
16. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author admires great comic artists
primarily for their
(A) ability to understand the fre"uently subtle differences between good and e'il
(B) ability to reconcile the contradictions in human beha'ior
(C) ability to distinguish between rational and irrational beha'ior
() insistence on confronting the truth about the human condition
(#) insistence on condemning human faults and weaknesses
1,. &hich of the following is the most accurate description of the organi!ation of the
passage%
(A) A se"uence of obser'ations leading to a prediction
(B) A list of inferences drawn from facts stated at the beginning of the passage
(C) A series of assertions related to one general sub<ect
() A statement of the ma<or idea/ followed by specific e$amples
(#) A succession of ideas mo'ing from specific to general
2t has "ong been $nown that the rate o& o8idative metabo"ism (the process that
uses o8ygen to convert &ood into energy) in any anima" has a pro&ound e1ect on
its "iving patterns. The high metabo"ic rate o& sma"" anima"s( &or e8amp"e( gives
them sustained power and activity per unit o& weight( but at the cost o& re-uiring
constant consumption o& &ood and water. Fery "arge anima"s( with their re"ative"y
"ow metabo"ic rates( can survive we"" on a sporadic &ood supp"y( but can generate
"itt"e metabo"ic energy per gram o& body weight. 2& on"y o8idative metabo"ic rate is
considered( there&ore( one might assume that sma""er( more active( anima"s cou"d
prey on "arger ones( at "east i& they attac$ed in groups. 9erhaps they cou"d i& it
were not &or anaerobic g"yco"ysis( the great e-ua"i+er.
3naerobic g"yco"ysis is a process in which energy is produced( without o8ygen(
through the brea$down o& musc"e g"ycogen into "actic acid and adenosine
triphosphate (3T9)( the energy provider. The amount o& energy that can be
produced anaerobica""y is a &unction o& the amount o& g"ycogen present!in a""
GRE .-1
vertebrates about 0./ percent o& their musc"es6 wet weight. Thus the anaerobic
energy reserves o& a vertebrate are proportiona" to the si+e o& the anima". 2&( &or
e8amp"e( some predators had attac$ed a 100-ton dinosaur( norma""y torpid( the
dinosaur wou"d have been ab"e to generate a"most instantaneous"y( via anaerobic
g"yco"ysis( the energy o& 7(000 humans at ma8imum o8idative metabo"ic energy
production. This e8p"ains how many "arge species have managed to compete with
their more active neighborsA the compensation &or a "ow o8idative metabo"ic rate
is g"yco"ysis.
There are "imitations( however( to this compensation. The g"ycogen reserves o&
any anima" are good( at most( &or on"y about two minutes at ma8imum e1ort(
a&ter which on"y the norma" o8idative metabo"ic source o& energy remains. ;ith
the conc"usion o& a burst o& activity( the "actic acid "eve" is high in the body Duids(
"eaving the "arge anima" vu"nerab"e to attac$ unti" the acid is reconverted( via
o8idative metabo"ism( by the "iver into g"ucose( which is then sent (in part) bac$
to the musc"es &or g"ycogen resynthesis. Kuring this process the enormous energy
debt that the anima" has run up through anaerobic g"yco"ysis must be repaid( a
debt that is proportiona""y much greater &or the "arger vertebrates than &or the
sma""er ones. ;hereas the tiny shrew can rep"ace in minutes the g"ycogen used
&or ma8imum e1ort( &or e8amp"e( the gigantic dinosaur wou"d have re-uired more
than three wee$s. 2t might seem that this interminab"y "ong recovery time in a
"arge vertebrate wou"d prove a grave disadvantage &or surviva". :ortunate"y(
musc"e g"ycogen is used on"y when needed and even then on"y in whatever
-uantity is necessary. <n"y in times o& panic or during morta" combat wou"d the
entire reserves be consumed.
25. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) refute a misconception about anaerobic glycolysis
(B) introduce a new hypothesis about anaerobic glycolysis
(C) describe the limitations of anaerobic glycolysis
() analy!e the chemistry of anaerobic glycolysis and its similarity to o$idati'e
metabolism
(#) e$plain anaerobic glycolysis and its effects on animal sur'i'al
21. According to the author/ glycogen is crucial to the process of anaerobic glycolysis
because glycogen
(A) increases the organism4s need for AT@
(B) reduces the amount of AT@ in the tissues
(C) is an inhibitor of the o$idati'e metabolic production of AT@
() ensures that the synthesis of AT@ will occur speedily
(#) is the material from which AT@ is deri'ed
22. According to the author/ a ma<or limitation of anaerobic glycolysis is that it can
(A) produce in large animals more lactic acid than the li'er can safely recon'ert
.-2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(B) necessitate a dangerously long reco'ery period in large animals
(C) produce energy more slowly than it can be used by large animals
() consume all of the a'ailable glycogen regardless of need
(#) reduce significantly the rate at which energy is produced by o$idati'e
metabolism
2.. The passage suggests that the total anaerobic energy reser'es of a 'ertebrate are
proportional to the 'ertebrate4s si!e because
(A) larger 'ertebrates conser'e more energy than smaller 'ertebrates
(B) larger 'ertebrates use less o$ygen per unit weight than smaller 'ertebrates
(C) the ability of a 'ertebrate to consume food is a function of its si!e
() the amount of muscle tissue in a 'ertebrate is directly related to its si!e
(#) the si!e of a 'ertebrate is proportional to the "uantity of energy it can utili!e
20. The author suggests that/ on the basis of energy production/ a 155(ton dinosaur
would ha'e been markedly 'ulnerable to which of the following%
3. =epeated attacks by a single smaller/ more acti'e ad'ersary
33. ;ustained attack by numerous smaller/ more acti'e ad'ersaries
333. An attack by an indi'idual ad'ersary of similar si!e
(A) 33 only
(B) 3 and 33 only
(C) 3 and 333 only
() 33 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the time re"uired to replenish muscle
glycogen following anaerobic glycolysis is determined by which of the following
factors%
3. =ate of o$idati'e metabolism
33. Nuantity of lactic acid in the body fluids
333. @ercentage of glucose that is returned to the muscles
(A) 3 only
(B) 333 only
(C) 3 and 33 only
() 3 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
22. The author is most probably addressing which of the following audiences%
(A) College students in an introductory course on animal physiology
(B) )istorians of science in'estigating the disco'ery of anaerobic glycolysis
GRE .-.
(C) Braduate students with speciali!ed training in comparati'e anatomy
() Loologists interested in prehistoric animals
(#) Biochemists doing research on o$idati'e metabolism
2-. &hich of the following best states the central idea of the passage%
(A) The disad'antage of a low o$idati'e metabolic rate in large animals can be
offset by their ability to con'ert substantial amounts of glycogen into energy.
(B) The most significant problem facing animals that ha'e used anaerobic
glycolysis for energy is the resynthesis of its by(product/ glucose/ into
glycogen.
(C) The benefits to animals of anaerobic glycolysis are offset by the profound costs
that must be paid.
() The ma<or factor ensuring that a large animal will triumph o'er a smaller
animal is the large animal4s ability to produce energy 'ia anaerobic glycolysis.
(#) The great differences that e$ist in metabolic rates between species of small
animals and species of large animals can ha'e important effects on the patterns
of their acti'ities.
SECTION B
The dar$ regions in the starry night s$y are not poc$ets in the universe that are
devoid o& stars as had "ong been thought. Rather( they are dar$ because o&
interste""ar dust that hides the stars behind it. 3"though its visua" e1ect is so
pronounced( dust is on"y a minor constituent o& the materia"( e8treme"y "ow in
density( that "ies between the stars. Kust accounts &or about one percent o& the
tota" mass o& interste""ar matter. The rest is hydrogen and he"ium gas( with sma""
amounts o& other e"ements. The interste""ar materia"( rather "i$e terrestria" c"ouds(
comes in a"" shapes and si+es. The average density o& interste""ar materia" in the
vicinity o& our un is 1(000 to 10(000 times "ess than the best terrestria"
"aboratory vacuum. 2t is on"y because o& the enormous interste""ar distances that
so "itt"e materia" per unit o& vo"ume becomes so signi#cant. <ptica" astronomy is
most direct"y a1ected( &or a"though interste""ar gas is per&ect"y transparent( the
dust is not.
1-. According to the passage/ which of the following is a direct perceptual
conse"uence of interstellar dust%
(A) ;ome stars are rendered in'isible to obser'ers on #arth.
(B) ?any 'isible stars are made to seem brighter than they really are.
(C) The presence of hydrogen and helium gas is re'ealed.
() The night sky appears dusty at all times to obser'ers on #arth.
(#) The dust is conspicuously 'isible against a background of bright stars.
16. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the density of interstellar material is
.-0 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(A) higher where distances between the stars are shorter
(B) e"ual to that of interstellar dust
(C) unusually low in the 'icinity of our ;un
() independent of the incidence of gaseous components
(#) not homogeneous throughout interstellar space
1,. 3t can be inferred from the passage that it is because space is so 'ast that
(A) little of the interstellar material in it seems substantial
(B) normal units of 'olume seem futile for measurements of density
(C) stars can be far enough from #arth to be obscured e'en by 'ery sparsely
distributed matter
() interstellar gases can/ for all practical purposes/ be regarded as transparent
(#) optical astronomy would be of little use e'en if no interstellar dust e$isted
2n his 197L study o& s"avery in the United tates( )erbert Eutman( "i$e :oge"(
@ngerman( and Eenovese( has right"y stressed the s"aves6 achievements. 'ut
un"i$e these historians( Eutman gives p"antation owners "itt"e credit &or these
achievements. Rather( Eutman argues that one must "oo$ to the '"ac$ &ami"y and
the s"aves6 e8tended $inship system to understand how crucia" achievements(
such as the maintenance o& a cu"tura" heritage and the deve"opment o& a
communa" consciousness( were possib"e. )is #ndings compe" attention.
Eutman recreates the &ami"y and e8tended $inship structure main"y through an
ingenious use o& what any historian shou"d draw upon( -uanti#ab"e data( derived
in this case most"y &rom p"antation birth registers. )e a"so uses accounts o& e8-
s"aves to probe the human rea"ity behind his statistics. These sources indicate
that the two-parent househo"d predominated in s"ave -uarters 5ust as it did
among &reed s"aves a&ter emancipation. 3"though Eutman admits that &orced
separation by sa"e was &re-uent( he shows that the s"aves6 pre&erence( revea"ed
most c"ear"y on p"antations where sa"e was in&re-uent( was very much &or stab"e
monogamy. 2n "ess conc"usive &ashion :oge"( @ngerman( and Eenovese had
a"ready indicated the predominance o& two-parent househo"ds= however( on"y
Eutman emphasi+es the pre&erence &or stab"e monogamy and points out what
stab"e monogamy meant &or the s"aves6 cu"tura" heritage. Eutman argues
convincing"y that the stabi"ity o& the '"ac$ &ami"y encouraged the transmission o&
!and so was crucia" in sustaining!the '"ac$ heritage o& &o"$"ore( music( and
re"igious e8pression &rom one generation to another( a heritage that s"aves were
continua""y &ashioning out o& their 3&rican and 3merican e8periences.
Eutman6s e8amination o& other &acets o& $inship a"so produces important
#ndings. Eutman discovers that cousins rare"y married( an e8ogamous tendency
that contrasted sharp"y with the endogamy practiced by the p"antation owners.
This pre&erence &or e8ogamy( Eutman suggests( may have derived &rom ;est
3&rican ru"es governing marriage( which( though they di1ered &rom one triba"
GRE .-1
group to another( a"" invo"ved some $ind o& prohibition against unions with c"ose
$in. This taboo against cousins6 marrying is important( argues Eutman( because it
is one o& many indications o& a strong awareness among s"aves o& an e8tended
$inship networ$. The &act that distant"y re"ated $in wou"d care &or chi"dren
separated &rom their &ami"ies a"so suggests this awareness. ;hen b"ood
re"ationships were &ew( as in new"y created p"antations in the outhwest( >#ctive?
$inship arrangements too$ their p"ace unti" a new pattern o& consanguinity
deve"oped. Eutman presents convincing evidence that this e8tended $inship
structure!which he be"ieves deve"oped by the mid-to-"ate eighteenth century!
provided the &oundations &or the strong communa" consciousness that e8isted
among s"aves.
2n sum( Eutman6s study is signi#cant because it o1ers a c"ose"y reasoned and
origina" e8p"anation o& some o& the s"aves6 achievements( one that correct"y
emphasi+es the resources that s"aves themse"ves possessed.
25. According to the passage/ >ogel/ #ngerman/ Beno'ese/ and Butman ha'e all done
which of the following%
3. iscounted the influence of plantation owners on sla'es4 achie'ements.
33. #mphasi!ed the achie'ements of sla'es.
333. @ointed out the pre'alence of the two(parent household among sla'es.
3C. ;howed the connection between stable monogamy and sla'es4 cultural
heritage.
(A) 3 and 33 only
(B) 3 and 3C only
(C) 33 and 333 only
() 3/ 333/ and 3C only
(#) 33/ 333/ and 3C only
21. &ith which of the following statements regarding the resources that historians
ought to use would the author of the passage be most likely to agree%
(A) )istorians ought to make use of written rather than oral accounts.
(B) )istorians should rely primarily on birth registers.
(C) )istorians should rely e$clusi'ely on data that can be "uantified.
() )istorians ought to make use of data that can be "uantified.
(#) )istorians ought to draw on earlier historical research but they should do so in
order to refute it.
22. &hich of the following statements about the formation of the Black heritage of
folklore/ music/ and religious e$pression is best supported by the information
presented in the passage%
(A) The heritage was formed primarily out of the e$periences of those sla'es who
attempted to preser'e the stability of their families.
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(B) The heritage was not formed out of the e$periences of those sla'es who
married their cousins.
(C) The heritage was formed more out of the African than out of the American
e$periences of sla'es.
() The heritage was not formed out of the e$periences of only a single generation
of sla'es.
(#) The heritage was formed primarily out of sla'es4 e$periences of
interdependence on newly created plantations in the ;outhwest.
2.. 3t can be inferred from the passage that/ of the following/ the most probable reason
why a historian of sla'ery might be interested in studying the type of plantations
mentioned in line 21 is that this type would
(A) gi'e the historian access to the most complete plantation birth registers
(B) permit the historian to obser'e the kinship patterns that had been most popular
among &est African tribes
(C) pro'ide the historian with e'idence concerning the preference of freed sla'es
for stable monogamy
() furnish the historian with the opportunity to disco'er the kind of marital
commitment that sla'es themsel'es chose to ha'e
(#) allow the historian to e$amine the influence of sla'es4 preferences on the
actions of plantation owners
20. According to the passage/ all of the following are true of the &est African rules
go'erning marriage mentioned in lines 02(15 #DC#@TE
(A) The rules were deri'ed from rules go'erning ficti'e kinship arrangements.
(B) The rules forbade marriages between close kin.
(C) The rules are mentioned in )erbert Butman4s study.
() The rules were not uniform in all respects from one &est African tribe to
another.
(#) The rules ha'e been considered to be a possible source of sla'es4 marriage
preferences.
21. &hich of the following statements concerning the marriage practices of plantation
owners during the period of Black sla'ery in the :nited ;tates can most logically
be inferred from the information in the passage%
(A) These practices began to alter sometime around the mid(eighteenth century.
(B) These practices 'aried markedly from one region of the country to another.
(C) @lantation owners usually based their choice of marriage partners on economic
considerations.
() @lantation owners often married earlier than sla'es.
(#) @lantation owners often married their cousins.
GRE .--
22. &hich of the following best describes the organi!ation of the passage%
(A) The author compares and contrasts the work of se'eral historians and then
discusses areas for possible new research.
(B) The author presents his thesis/ draws on the work of se'eral historians for
e'idence to support his thesis/ and concludes by reiterating his thesis.
(C) The author describes some features of a historical study and then uses those
features to put forth his own argument.
() The author summari!es a historical study/ e$amines two main arguments from
the study/ and then shows how the arguments are potentially in conflict with
one another.
(#) The author presents the general argument of a historical study/ describes the
study in more detail/ and concludes with a brief <udgments of the study4s 'alue.
2-. &hich of the following is the most appropriate title for the passage/ based on its
content%
(A) The 3nfluence of )erbert Butman on )istorians of ;la'ery in the :nited ;tates
(B) Butman4s #$planation of )ow ;la'es Could ?aintain a Cultural )eritage and
e'elop a Communal Consciousness
(C) ;la'ery in the :nited ;tatesE 9ew Contro'ersy About an 8ld ;ub<ect
() The Black )eritage of >olklore/ ?usic/ and =eligious #$pressionE 3ts Browing
3nfluence
(#) The Black >amily and #$tended Minship ;tructureE )ow They &ere 3mportant
for the >reed ;la'e
No. 5-1
SECTION A
3 Bar8ist socio"ogist has argued that racism stems &rom the c"ass strugg"e that
is uni-ue to the capita"ist system!that racia" pre5udice is generated by capita"ists
as a means o& contro""ing wor$ers. )is thesis wor$s re"ative"y we"" when app"ied to
discrimination against '"ac$s in the United tates( but his de#nition o& racia"
pre5udice as >racia""y-based negative pre5udgments against a group genera""y
accepted as a race in any given region o& ethnic competition(? can be interpreted
as a"so inc"uding hosti"ity toward such ethnic groups as the %hinese in %a"i&ornia
and the Cews in medieva" @urope. )owever( since pre5udice against these "atter
peop"es was not inspired by capita"ists( he has to reason that such antagonisms
were not rea""y based on race. )e disposes thus"y (a"beit unconvincing"y) o& both
the into"erance &aced by Cews be&ore the rise o& capita"ism and the ear"y
twentieth-century discrimination against <rienta" peop"e in %a"i&ornia( which(
inconvenient"y( was instigated by wor$ers.
.-6 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
1-. The passage supplies information that would answer which of the following
"uestions%
(A) &hat accounts for the pre<udice against the Aews in medie'al #urope%
(B) &hat conditions caused the discrimination against 8riental people in
California in the early twentieth century%
(C) &hich groups are not in ethnic competition with each other in the :nited
;tates%
() &hat e$planation did the ?ar$ist sociologist gi'e for the e$istence of racial
pre<udice%
(#) &hat e'idence did the ?ar$ist sociologist pro'ide to support his thesis%
16. The author considers the ?ar$ist sociologist4s thesis about the origins of racial
pre<udice to be
(A) unoriginal
(B) unpersuasi'e
(C) offensi'e
() obscure
(#) speculati'e
1,. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the ?ar$ist sociologist would argue that in
a noncapitalist society racial pre<udice would be
(A) per'asi'e
(B) tolerated
(C) ignored
() forbidden
(#) none$istent
25. According to the passage/ the ?ar$ist sociologist4s chain of reasoning re"uired
him to assert that pre<udice toward 8riental people in California was
(A) directed primarily against the Chinese
(B) similar in origin to pre<udice against the Aews
(C) understood by 8riental people as ethnic competition
() pro'oked by workers
(#) nonracial in character
'y 19/0( the resu"ts o& attempts to re"ate brain processes to menta" e8perience
appeared rather discouraging. uch variations in si+e( shape( chemistry(
conduction speed( e8citation thresho"d( and the "i$e as had been demonstrated in
nerve ce""s remained neg"igib"e in signi#cance &or any possib"e corre"ation with the
mani&o"d dimensions o& menta" e8perience.
,ear the turn o& the century( it had been suggested by )ering that di1erent
modes o& sensation( such as pain( taste( and co"or( might be corre"ated with the
GRE .-,
discharge o& speci#c $inds o& nervous energy. )owever( subse-uent"y deve"oped
methods o& recording and ana"y+ing nerve potentia"s &ai"ed to revea" any such
-ua"itative diversity. 2t was possib"e to demonstrate by other methods re#ned
structura" di1erences among neuron types= however( proo& was "ac$ing that the
-ua"ity o& the impu"se or its condition was inDuenced by these di1erences( which
seemed instead to inDuence the deve"opmenta" patterning o& the neura" circuits.
3"though -ua"itative variance among nerve energies was never rigid"y disproved(
the doctrine was genera""y abandoned in &avor o& the opposing view( name"y( that
nerve impu"ses are essentia""y homogeneous in -ua"ity and are transmitted as
>common currency? throughout the nervous system. 3ccording to this theory( it is
not the -ua"ity o& the sensory nerve impu"ses that determines the diverse
conscious sensations they produce( but rather the di1erent areas o& the brain into
which they discharge( and there is some evidence &or this view. 2n one
e8periment( when an e"ectric stimu"us was app"ied to a given sensory #e"d o& the
cerebra" corte8 o& a conscious human sub5ect( it produced a sensation o& the
appropriate moda"ity &or that particu"ar "ocus( that is( a visua" sensation &rom the
visua" corte8( an auditory sensation &rom the auditory corte8( and so on. <ther
e8periments revea"ed s"ight variations in the si+e( number( arrangement( and
interconnection o& the nerve ce""s( but as &ar as psychoneura" corre"ations were
concerned( the obvious simi"arities o& these sensory #e"ds to each other seemed
much more remar$ab"e than any o& the minute di1erences.
)owever( cortica" "ocus( in itse"&( turned out to have "itt"e e8p"anatory va"ue.
tudies showed that sensations as diverse as those o& red( b"ac$( green( and
white( or touch( co"d( warmth( movement( pain( posture( and pressure apparent"y
may arise through activation o& the same cortica" areas. ;hat seemed to remain
was some $ind o& di1erentia" patterning e1ects in the brain e8citationA it is the
di1erence in the centra" distribution o& impu"ses that counts. 2n short( brain theory
suggested a corre"ation between menta" e8perience and the activity o& re"ative"y
homogeneous nerve-ce"" units conducting essentia""y homogeneous impu"ses
through homogeneous cerebra" tissue. To match the mu"tip"e dimensions o&
menta" e8perience psycho"ogists cou"d on"y point to a "imit"ess variation in the
spatiotempora" patterning o& nerve impu"ses.
21. The author suggests that/ by 1,15/ attempts to correlate mental e$perience with
brain processes would probably ha'e been 'iewed with
(A) indignation
(B) impatience
(C) pessimism
() indifference
(#) defiance
22. The author mentions *common currency+ in line 22 primarily in order to
emphasi!e the
.65 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(A) lack of differentiation among ner'e impulses in human beings
(B) similarity of the sensations that all human beings e$perience
(C) similarities in the 'iews of scientists who ha'e studied the human ner'ous
system
() continuous passage of ner'e impulses through the ner'ous system
(#) recurrent "uestioning by scientists of an accepted e$planation about the
ner'ous system
2.. The description in lines .2(.6 of an e$periment in which electric stimuli were
applied to different sensory fields of the cerebral corte$ tends to support the theory
that
(A) the simple presence of different cortical areas cannot account for the di'ersity
of mental e$perience
(B) 'ariation in spatiotemporal patterning of ner'e impulses correlates with
'ariation in sub<ecti'e e$perience
(C) ner'e impulses are essentially homogeneous and are relati'ely unaffected as
they tra'el through the ner'ous system
() the mental e$periences produced by sensory ner'e impulses are determined by
the cortical area acti'ated
(#) 'ariation in neuron types affects the "uality of ner'e impulses
20. According to the passage/ some e'idence e$ists that the area of the corte$
acti'ated by a sensory stimulus determines which of the following%
3. The nature of the ner'e impulse
33. The modality of the sensory e$perience
333. Nualitati'e differences within a modality
(A) 33 only
(B) 333 only
(C) 3 and 33 only
() 33 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33 and 333
21. The passage can most accurately be described as a discussion concerning historical
'iews of the
(A) anatomy of the brain
(B) manner in which ner'e impulses are conducted
(C) significance of different cortical areas in mental e$perience
() mechanics of sense perception
(#) physiological correlates of mental e$perience
22. &hich of the following best summari!es the author4s opinion of the suggestion
GRE .61
that different areas of the brain determine perceptions produced by sensory ner'e
impulses%
(A) 3t is a plausible e$planation/ but it has not been completely pro'ed.
(B) 3t is the best e$planation of brain processes currently a'ailable.
(C) 3t is dispro'ed by the fact that the 'arious areas of the brain are physiologically
'ery similar.
() There is some e'idence to support it/ but it fails to e$plain the di'ersity of
mental e$perience.
(#) There is e$perimental e'idence that confirms its correctness.
2-. 3t can be inferred from the passage that which of the following e$hibit the K#A;T
"ualitati'e 'ariation%
(A) 9er'e cells
(B) 9er'e impulses
(C) Cortical areas
() ;patial patterns of ner'e impulses
(#) Temporal patterns of ner'e impulses
SECTION B
The trans&er o& heat and water vapor &rom the ocean to the air above it
depends on a dise-ui"ibrium at the inter&ace o& the water and the air. ;ithin about
a mi""imeter o& the water( air temperature is c"ose to that o& the sur&ace water(
and the air is near"y saturated with water vapor. 'ut the di1erences( however
sma""( are crucia"( and the dise-ui"ibrium is maintained by air near the sur&ace
mi8ing with air higher up( which is typica""y appreciab"y coo"er and "ower in water-
vapor content. The air is mi8ed by means o& turbu"ence that depends on the wind
&or its energy. 3s wind speed increases( so does turbu"ence( and thus the rate o&
heat and moisture trans&er. Ketai"ed understanding o& this phenomenon awaits
&urther study. 3n interacting!and comp"icating!phenomenon is wind-to-water
trans&er o& momentum that occurs when waves are &ormed. ;hen the wind ma$es
waves( it trans&ers important amounts o& energy!energy that is there&ore not
avai"ab"e to provide turbu"ence.
1-. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) resol'e a contro'ersy
(B) describe a phenomenon
(C) outline a theory
() confirm research findings
(#) classify 'arious obser'ations
16. According to the passage/ wind o'er the ocean generally does which of the
.62 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
following%
3. Causes relati'ely cool/ dry air to come into pro$imity with the ocean surface.
33. ?aintains a steady rate of heat and moisture transfer between the ocean and the
air.
333. Causes fre"uent changes in the temperature of the water at the ocean4s surface.
(A) 3 only
(B) 33 only
(C) 3 and 33 only
() 33 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
1,. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author regards current knowledge about
heat and moisture transfer from the ocean to air as
(A) re'olutionary
(B) inconse"uential
(C) outdated
() deri'ati'e
(#) incomplete
25. The passage suggests that if on a certain day the wind were to decrease until there
was no wind at all which of the following would occur%
(A) The air closest to the ocean surface would become saturated with water 'apor.
(B) The air closest to the ocean surface would be warmer than the water.
(C) The amount of moisture in the air closest to the ocean surface would decrease.
() The rate of heat and moisture transfer would increase.
(#) The air closest to the ocean would be at the same temperature as air higher up.
@8traordinary creative activity has been characteri+ed as revo"utionary( Dying
in the &ace o& what is estab"ished and producing not what is acceptab"e but what
wi"" become accepted. 3ccording to this &ormu"ation( high"y creative activity
transcends the "imits o& an e8isting &orm and estab"ishes a new princip"e o&
organi+ation. )owever( the idea that e8traordinary creativity transcends
estab"ished "imits is mis"eading when it is app"ied to the arts( even though it may
be va"id &or the sciences. Ki1erences between high"y creative art and high"y
creative science arise in part &rom a di1erence in their goa"s. :or the sciences( a
new theory is the goa" and end resu"t o& the creative act. 2nnovative science
produces new propositions in terms o& which diverse phenomena can be re"ated to
one another in more coherent ways. uch phenomena as a bri""iant diamond or a
nesting bird are re"egated to the ro"e o& data( serving as the means &or &ormu"ating
or testing a new theory. The goa" o& high"y creative art is very di1erentA the
phenomenon itse"& becomes the direct product o& the creative act. ha$espeare6s
%amlet is not a tract about the behavior o& indecisive princes or the uses o&
GRE .6.
po"itica" power= nor is 9icasso6s painting .uernica primari"y a propositiona"
statement about the panish %ivi" ;ar or the evi"s o& &ascism. ;hat high"y
creative artistic activity produces is not a new genera"i+ation that transcends
estab"ished "imits( but rather an aesthetic particu"ar. 3esthetic particu"ars
produced by the high"y creative artist e8tend or e8p"oit( in an innovative way( the
"imits o& an e8isting &orm( rather than transcend that &orm.
This is not to deny that a high"y creative artist sometimes estab"ishes a new
princip"e o& organi+ation in the history o& an artistic #e"d= the composer
Bonteverdi( who created music o& the highest aesthetic va"ue( comes to mind.
Bore genera""y( however( whether or not a composition estab"ishes a new
princip"e in the history o& music has "itt"e bearing on its aesthetic worth. 'ecause
they embody a new princip"e o& organi+ation( some musica" wor$s( such as the
operas o& the :"orentine %amerata( are o& signa" historica" importance( but &ew
"isteners or musico"ogists wou"d inc"ude these among the great wor$s o& music.
<n the other hand( Bo+art6s The (arriage of Figaro is sure"y among the
masterpieces o& music even though its modest innovations are con#ned to
e8tending e8isting means. 2t has been said o& 'eethoven that he topp"ed the ru"es
and &reed music &rom the stiDing con#nes o& convention. 'ut a c"ose study o& his
compositions revea"s that 'eethoven overturned no &undamenta" ru"es. Rather( he
was an incomparab"e strategist who e8p"oited "imits!the ru"es( &orms( and
conventions that he inherited &rom predecessors such as )aydn and Bo+art(
)ande" and 'ach!in stri$ing"y origina" ways.
21. The author considers a new theory that coherently relates di'erse phenomena to
one another to be the
(A) basis for reaffirming a well(established scientific formulation
(B) byproduct of an aesthetic e$perience
(C) tool used by a scientist to disco'er a new particular
() synthesis underlying a great work of art
(#) result of highly creati'e scientific acti'ity
22. The author implies that Beetho'en4s music was strikingly original because
Beetho'en
(A) stro'e to outdo his predecessors by becoming the first composer to e$ploit
limits
(B) fundamentally changed the musical forms of his predecessors by adopting a
richly in'enti'e strategy
(C) embellished and interwo'e the melodies of se'eral of the great composers who
preceded him
() manipulated the established con'entions of musical composition in a highly
inno'ati'e fashion
(#) attempted to create the illusion of ha'ing transcended the musical forms of his
.60 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
predecessors
2.. The passage states that the operas of the >lorentine Camerata are
(A) un<ustifiably ignored by musicologists
(B) not generally considered to be of high aesthetic 'alue e'en though they are
important in the history of music
(C) among those works in which popular historical themes were portrayed in a
musical production
() often inappropriately cited as e$amples of musical works in which a new
principle of organi!ation was introduced
(#) minor e$ceptions to the well(established generali!ation that the aesthetic worth
of a composition determines its importance in the history of music
20. The passage supplies information for answering all of the following "uestions
#DC#@TE
(A) )as unusual creati'e acti'ity been characteri!ed as re'olutionary%
(B) id Beetho'en work within a musical tradition that also included )andel and
Bach%
(C) 3s ?o!art4s The *arriage o+ Figaro an e$ample of a creati'e work that
transcended limits%
() &ho besides ?onte'erdi wrote music that the author would consider to
embody new principles of organi!ation and to be of high aesthetic 'alue%
(#) oes anyone claim that the goal of e$traordinary creati'e acti'ity in the arts
differs from that of e$traordinary creati'e acti'ity in the sciences%
21. The author regards the idea that all highly creati'e artistic acti'ity transcends
limits with
(A) deep skepticism
(B) strong indignation
(C) marked indifference
() moderate amusement
(#) sharp derision
22. The author implies that an inno'ati'e scientific contribution is one that
(A) is cited with high fre"uency in the publications of other scientists
(B) is accepted immediately by the scientific community
(C) does not relegate particulars to the role of data
() presents the disco'ery of a new scientific fact
(#) introduces a new 'alid generali!ation
2-. &hich of the following statements would most logically concluded the last
paragraph of the passage%
GRE .61
(A) :nlike Beetho'en/ howe'er/ e'en the greatest of modern composers/ such as
;tra'insky/ did not transcend e$isting musical forms.
(B) 3n similar fashion/ e$isting musical forms were e'en further e$ploited by the
ne$t generation of great #uropean composers.
(C) Thus/ many of the great composers displayed the same combination of talents
e$hibited by ?onte'erdi.
() By contrast/ the 'iew that creati'ity in the arts e$ploits but does not transcend
limits is supported in the field of literature.
(#) Actually/ Beetho'en4s most original works were largely unappreciated at the
time that they were first performed.
No. 5-2
SECTION A
Fisua" recognition invo"ves storing and retrieving memories. ,eura" activity(
triggered by the eye( &orms an image in the brain6s memory system that
constitutes an interna" representation o& the viewed ob5ect. ;hen an ob5ect is
encountered again( it is matched with its interna" representation and thereby
recogni+ed. %ontroversy surrounds the -uestion o& whether recognition is a
para""e"( one-step process or a seria"( step-by-step one. 9sycho"ogists o& the
Eesta"t schoo" maintain that ob5ects are recogni+ed as who"es in a para""e"
procedureA the interna" representation is matched with the retina" image in a
sing"e operation. <ther psycho"ogists have proposed that interna" representation
&eatures are matched seria""y with an ob5ect6s &eatures. 3"though some
e8periments show that( as an ob5ect becomes &ami"iar( its interna" representation
becomes more ho"istic and the recognition process corresponding"y more para""e"(
the weight o& evidence seems to support the seria" hypothesis( at "east &or ob5ects
that are not notab"y simp"e and &ami"iar.
1-. The author is primarily concerned with
(A) e$plaining how the brain recei'es images
(B) synthesi!ing hypotheses of 'isual recognition
(C) e$amining the e'idence supporting the serial recognition hypothesis
() discussing 'isual recognition and some hypotheses proposed to e$plain it
(#) reporting on recent e$periments dealing with memory systems and their
relationship to neural acti'ity
16. According to the passage/ Bestalt psychologists make which of the following
suppositions about 'isual recognition%
3. A retinal image is in e$actly the same forms as its internal representation.
33. An ob<ect is recogni!ed as a whole without any need for analysis into
.62 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
component parts.
333. The matching of an ob<ect with its internal representation occurs in only one
step.
(A) 33 only
(B) 333 only
(C) 3 and 333 only
() 33 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
1,. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the matching process in 'isual recognition
is
(A) not a neural acti'ity
(B) not possible when an ob<ect is 'iewed for the 'ery first time
(C) not possible if a feature of a familiar ob<ect is changed in some way
() only possible when a retinal image is recei'ed in the brain as a unitary whole
(#) now fully understood as a combination of the serial and parallel processes
25. 3t terms of its tone and form/ the passage can best be characteri!ed as
(A) a biased e$position
(B) a speculati'e study
(C) a dispassionate presentation
() an indignant denial
(#) a dogmatic e$planation
2n "arge part as a conse-uence o& the &eminist movement( historians have
&ocused a great dea" o& attention in recent years on determining more accurate"y
the status o& women in various periods. 3"though much has been accomp"ished
&or the modern period( premodern cu"tures have proved more di*cu"tA sources are
restricted in number( &ragmentary( di*cu"t to interpret( and o&ten contradictory.
Thus it is not particu"ar"y surprising that some ear"ier scho"arship concerning such
cu"tures has so &ar gone uncha""enged. 3n e8amp"e is Cohann 'acho&en6s 18L1
treatise on 3ma+ons( women-ru"ed societies o& -uestionab"e e8istence
contemporary with ancient Ereece.
tarting &rom the premise that mytho"ogy and "egend preserve at "east a
nuc"eus o& historica" &act( 'acho&en argued that women were dominant in many
ancient societies. )is wor$ was based on a comprehensive survey o& re&erences in
the ancient sources to 3ma+onian and other societies with matri"inea" customs!
societies in which descent and property rights are traced through the &ema"e "ine.
ome support &or his theory can be &ound in evidence such as that drawn &rom
)erodotus( the Eree$ >historian? o& the #&th century '. %.( who spea$s o& an
3ma+onian society( the auromatae( where the women hunted and &ought in
wars. 3 woman in this society was not a""owed to marry unti" she had $i""ed a
GRE .6-
person in batt"e.
,onethe"ess( this assumption that the #rst recorders o& ancient myths have
preserved &acts is prob"ematic. 2& one begins by e8amining why ancients re&er to
3ma+ons( it becomes c"ear that ancient Eree$ descriptions o& such societies were
meant not so much to represent observed historica" &act!rea" 3ma+onian
societies!but rather to o1er >mora" "essons? on the supposed outcome o&
women6s ru"e in their own society. The 3ma+ons were o&ten characteri+ed( &or
e8amp"e( as the e-uiva"ents o& giants and centaurs( enemies to be s"ain by Eree$
heroes. Their customs were presented not as those o& a respectab"e society( but
as the very antitheses o& ordinary Eree$ practices.
Thus( 2 wou"d argue( the purpose o& accounts o& the 3ma+ons &or their ma"e
Eree$ recorders was didactic( to teach both ma"e and &ema"e Eree$s that a""-
&ema"e groups( &ormed by withdrawa" &rom traditiona" society( are destructive and
dangerous. Byths about the 3ma+ons were used as arguments &or the ma"e-
dominated status -uo( in which groups composed e8c"usive"y o& either se8 were
not permitted to segregate themse"ves permanent"y &rom society. 'acho&en was
thus mis"ed in his re"iance on myths &or in&ormation about the status o& women.
The sources that wi"" probab"y te"" contemporary historians most about women in
the ancient wor"d are such socia" documents as gravestones( wi""s( and marriage
contracts. tudies o& such documents have a"ready begun to show how mista$en
we are when we try to derive our picture o& the ancient wor"d e8c"usive"y &rom
"iterary sources( especia""y myths.
21. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) compare competing new approaches to understanding the role of women in
ancient societies
(B) in'estigate the ramifications of Bachofen4s theory about the dominance of
women in ancient societies
(C) e$plain the burgeoning interest among historians in determining the actual
status of women in 'arious societies
() analy!e the nature of Ama!onian society and unco'er similarities between it
and the Breek world
(#) critici!e the 'alue of ancient myths in determining the status of women in
ancient societies
22. All of the following are stated by the author as problems connected with the
sources for knowledge of premodern cultures #DC#@TE
(A) partial completeness
(B) restricted accessibility
(C) difficulty of interpretation
() limited "uantity
(#) tendency toward contradiction
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2.. &hich of the following can be inferred from the passage about the myths recorded
by the ancient Breeks%
3. They sometimes included portrayals of women holding positions of power.
33. They sometimes contained elaborate e$planations of inheritance customs.
333. They comprise almost all of the material a'ailable to historians about ancient
Breece.
(A) 3 only
(B) 333 only
(C) 3 and 333 only
() 33 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
20. &hich of the following is presented in the passage as e'idence supporting the
author4s 'iew of the ancient Breeks4 descriptions of the Ama!ons%
(A) The re"uirement that ;auromatae women kill in battle before marrying
(B) The failure of historians to 'erify that women were e'er go'ernors of ancient
societies
(C) The classing of Ama!ons with giants and centaurs
() The well(established unreliability of )erodotus as a source of information
about ancient societies
(#) The recent disco'ery of ancient societies with matrilineal customs
21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the probable reactions of many males in
ancient Breece to the idea of a society ruled by women could best characteri!ed as
(A) confused and dismayed
(B) wary and hostile
(C) cynical and disinterested
() curious but fearful
(#) e$cited but an$ious
22. The author suggests that the main reason for the persisting influence of Bachofen4s
work is that
(A) feminists ha'e shown little interest in ancient societies
(B) Bachofen4s knowledge of Ama!onian culture is unparalleled
(C) reliable information about the ancient world is difficult to ac"uire
() ancient societies show the best e'idence of women in positions of power
(#) historians ha'e been primarily interested in the modern period
2-. The author4s attitude toward Bachofen4s treatise is best described as one of
(A) "ualified appro'al
(B) profound ambi'alence
GRE .6,
(C) studied neutrality
() pointed disagreement
(#) unmitigated hostility
SECTION B
2nitia""y the Finaver theory that Ba"ory6s eight romances( once thought to be
&undamenta""y uni#ed( were in &act eight independent wor$s produced both a
sense o& re"ie& and an unp"easant shoc$. Finaver6s theory com&ortab"y e8p"ained
away the apparent contradictions o& chrono"ogy and made each romance
independent"y satis&ying. 2t was( however( disagreeab"e to #nd that what had
been thought o& as one boo$ was now eight boo$s. 9art o& this response was the
natura" reaction to the disturbance o& set ideas. ,everthe"ess( even now( a&ter
"engthy consideration o& the theory6s re#ned but "egitimate observations( one
cannot avoid the conc"usion that the eight romances are on"y one wor$. 2t is not
-uite a matter o& disagreeing with the theory o& independence( but o& re5ecting its
imp"icationsA that the romances may be ta$en in any or no particu"ar order( that
they have no cumu"ative e1ect( and that they are as separate as the wor$s o& a
modern nove"ist.
1-. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) discuss the 'alidity of a hypothesis
(B) summari!e a system of general principles
(C) propose guidelines for future argument
() stipulate conditions for acceptance of an interpretation
(#) deny accusations about an apparent contradiction
16. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author belie'es which of the following
about ?alory4s works%
3. There are meaningful links between and among the romances.
33. The subtleties of the romances are obscured when they are taken as one work.
333. Any contradictions in chronology among the romances are less important than
their o'erall unity.
(A) 3 only
(B) 333 only
(C) 3 and 333 only
() 33 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
1,. The author of the passage concedes which of the following about the Cina'er
theory%
(A) 3t gi'es a clearer understanding of the unity of ?alory4s romances.
.,5 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(B) 3t demonstrates the irrationality of considering ?alory4s romances to be
unified.
(C) 3t establishes acceptable links between ?alory4s romances and modern no'els.
() 3t unifies earlier and later theories concerning the chronology of ?alory4s
romances.
(#) 3t makes 'alid and subtle comments about ?alory4s romances.
25. 3t can be inferred from the passage that/ in e'aluating the Cina'er theory/ some
critics were
(A) fre"uently misled by the inconsistencies in ?alory4s work
(B) initially biased by pre'ious interpretations of ?alory4s work
(C) conceptually displeased by the general interpretation that Cina'er re<ected
() generally in agreement with Cina'er4s comparisons between ?alory and
modern no'elists
(#) originally skeptical about Cina'er4s early conclusions with respect to modern
no'els
;e can distinguish three di1erent rea"ms o& matter( three "eve"s on the
-uantum "adder. The #rst is the atomic rea"m( which inc"udes the wor"d o& atoms(
their interactions( and the structures that are &ormed by them( such as mo"ecu"es(
"i-uids and so"ids( and gases and p"asmas. This rea"m inc"udes a"" the phenomena
o& atomic physics( chemistry( and( in a certain sense( bio"ogy. The energy
e8changes ta$ing p"ace in this rea"m are o& a re"ative"y "ow order. 2& these
e8changes are be"ow one e"ectron vo"t( such as in the co""isions between
mo"ecu"es o& the air in a room( then atoms and mo"ecu"es can be regarded as
e"ementary partic"es. That is( they have >conditiona" e"ementarity? because they
$eep their identity and do not change in any co""isions or in other processes at
these "ow energy e8changes. 2& one goes to higher energy e8changes( say 10
M
e"ectron vo"ts( then atoms and mo"ecu"es wi"" decompose into nuc"ei and
e"ectrons= at this "eve"( the "atter partic"es must be considered as e"ementary. ;e
#nd e8amp"es o& structures and processes o& this #rst rung o& the -uantum "adder
on @arth( on p"anets( and on the sur&aces o& stars.
The ne8t rung is the nuc"ear rea"m. )ere the energy e8changes are much
higher( on the order o& mi""ions o& e"ectron vo"ts. 3s "ong as we are dea"ing with
phenomena in the atomic rea"m( such amounts o& energy are unavai"ab"e( and
most nuc"ei are inertA they do not change. )owever( i& one app"ies energies o&
mi""ions o& e"ectron vo"ts( nuc"ear reactions( #ssion and &usion( and the processes
o& radioactivity occur= our e"ementary partic"es then are protons( neutrons( and
e"ectrons. 2n addition( nuc"ear processes produce neutrinos( partic"es that have no
detectab"e mass or charge. 2n the universe( energies at this "eve" are avai"ab"e in
the centers o& stars and in star e8p"osions. 2ndeed( the energy radiated by the
stars is produced by nuc"ear reactions. The natura" radioactivity we #nd on @arth
is the "ong-"ived remnant o& the time when now-earth"y matter was e8pe""ed into
GRE .,1
space by a ma5or ste""ar e8p"osion.
The third rung o& the -uantum "adder is the subnuc"ear rea"m. )ere we are
dea"ing with energy e8changes o& many bi""ions o& e"ectron vo"ts. ;e encounter
e8cited nuc"eons( new types o& partic"es such as mesons( heavy e"ectrons( -uar$s(
and g"uons( and a"so antimatter in "arge -uantities. The g"uons are the -uanta( or
sma""est units( o& the &orce (the strong &orce) that $eeps the -uar$s together. 3s
"ong as we are dea"ing with the atomic or nuc"ear rea"m( these new types o&
partic"es do not occur and the nuc"eons remain inert. 'ut at subnuc"ear energy
"eve"s( the nuc"eons and mesons appear to be composed o& -uar$s( so that the
-uar$s and g"uons #gure as e"ementary partic"es.
21. The primary topic of the passage is which of the following%
(A) The interaction of the realms on the "uantum ladder
(B) Atomic structures found on #arth/ on other planets/ and on the surfaces of stars
(C) Ke'els of energy that are released in nuclear reactions on #arth and in stars
() @articles and processes found in the atomic/ nuclear/ and subnuclear realms
(#) 9ew types of particles occurring in the atomic realm
22. According to the passage/ radioacti'ity that occurs naturally on #arth is the result
of
(A) the production of particles that ha'e no detectable mass or electric charge
(B) high energy e$changes on the nuclear le'el that occurred in an ancient
e$plosion in a star
(C) processes that occur in the center of the ;un/ which emits radiation to the #arth
() phenomena in the atomic realm that cause atoms and molecules to decompose
into nuclei and electrons
(#) high('oltage discharges of electricity that took place in the atmosphere of the
#arth shortly after the #arth was formed
2.. The author organi!es the passage by
(A) making distinctions between two groups of particles/ those that are elementary
and those that are composite
(B) e$plaining three methods of transferring energy to atoms and to the smaller
particles that constitute atoms
(C) describing se'eral le'els of processes/ increasing in energy/ and corresponding
sets of particles/ generally decreasing in si!e
() putting forth an argument concerning energy le'els and then conceding that
se'eral "ualifications of that argument are necessary
(#) making se'eral successi'e refinements of a definition of elementarity on the
basis of se'eral groups of e$perimental results
20. According to the passage/ which of the following can be found in the atomic
.,2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
realm%
(A) ?ore than one le'el of energy e$change
(B) #$actly one elementary particle
(C) #$actly three kinds of atomic structures
() Three le'els on the "uantum ladder
(#) 9o particles smaller than atoms
21. According to the author/ gluons are not
(A) considered to be detectable
(B) produced in nuclear reactions
(C) encountered in subnuclear energy e$changes
() related to the strong force
(#) found to be conditionally elementary
22. At a higher energy le'el than the subnuclear le'el described/ if such a higher le'el
e$ists/ it can be e$pected on the basis of the information in the passage that there
would probably be
(A) e$cited nucleons
(B) elementary mesons
(C) a kind of particle without detectable mass or charge
() e$changes of energy on the order of millions of electron 'olts
(#) another set of elementary particles
2-. The passage speaks of particles as ha'ing conditional elementarity if they
(A) remain unchanged at gi'en le'el of energy e$change
(B) cannot be decomposed into smaller constituents
(C) are mathematically simpler than some other set of particles
() release energy at a low le'el in collisions
(#) belong to the nuclear le'el on the "uantum ladder
No. 5-3
SECTION A
The be"ie& that art originates in intuitive rather than rationa" &acu"ties was
wor$ed out historica""y and phi"osophica""y in the somewhat wearisome vo"umes
o& 'enedetto %roce( who is usua""y considered the originator o& a new aesthetic.
%roce was( in &act( e8pressing a very o"d idea. Jong be&ore the Romantics stressed
intuition and se"&-e8pression( the &ren+y o& inspiration was regarded as
&undamenta" to art( but phi"osophers had a"ways assumed it must be contro""ed by
"aw and by the inte""ectua" power o& putting things into harmonious order. This
GRE .,.
genera" phi"osophic concept o& art was supported by technica" necessities. 2t was
necessary to master certain "aws and to use inte""ect in order to bui"d Eothic
cathedra"s( or set up the stained g"ass windows o& %hartres. ;hen this bracing
e"ement o& cra&tsmanship ceased to dominate artists6 out"oo$( new technica"
e"ements had to be adopted to maintain the inte""ectua" e"ement in art. uch were
"inear perspective and anatomy.
1-. The passage suggests that which of the following would most likely ha'e occurred
if linear perspecti'e and anatomy had not come to influence artistic endea'or%
(A) The craftsmanship that shaped Bothic architecture would ha'e continued to
dominate artists4 outlooks.
(B) ;ome other technical elements would ha'e been adopted to discipline artistic
inspiration.
(C) 3ntellectual control o'er artistic inspiration would not ha'e influenced painting
as it did architecture.
() The role of intuiti'e inspiration would not ha'e remained fundamental to
theories of artistic creation.
(#) The assumptions of aesthetic philosophers before Croce would ha'e been
in'alidated.
16. The passage supplies information for answering which of the following "uestions%
(A) oes =omantic art e$hibit the triumph of intuition o'er intellect%
(B) id an emphasis on linear perspecti'e and anatomy dominate =omantic art%
(C) Are the intellectual and intuiti'e faculties harmoniously balanced in post(
=omantic art%
() Are the effects of the rational control of artistic inspiration e'ident in the great
works of pre(=omantic eras%
(#) &as the artistic craftsmanship displayed in Bothic cathedrals also an element
in paintings of this period%
1,. The passage implies that which of the following was a traditional assumption of
aesthetic philosophers%
(A) 3ntellectual elements in art e$ert a necessary control o'er artistic inspiration.
(B) Architecture has ne'er again reached the artistic greatness of the Bothic
cathedrals.
(C) Aesthetic philosophy is determined by the technical necessities of art.
() Artistic craftsmanship is more important in architectural art than in pictorial
art.
(#) @aintings lacked the intellectual element before the in'ention of linear
perspecti'e and anatomy.
25. The author mentions *linear perspecti'e and anatomy+ in the last sentence in order
to do which of the following%
.,0 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(A) #$pand his argument to include painting as well as architecture
(B) 3ndicate his disagreement with Croce4s theory of the origins of art
(C) ;upport his point that rational order of some kind has often seemed to
discipline artistic inspiration
() #$plain the rational elements in Bothic painting that corresponded to
craftsmanship in Bothic architecture
(#) ;how the increasing sophistication of artists after the Bothic period
(The passage be"ow is drawn &rom an artic"e pub"ished in 19L4.)
%omputer programmers o&ten remar$ that computing machines( with a per&ect
"ac$ o& discrimination( wi"" do any &oo"ish thing they are to"d to do. The reason &or
this "ies( o& course( in the narrow #8ation o& the computing machine6s
>inte""igence? on the detai"s o& its own perceptions!its inabi"ity to be guided by
any "arge conte8t. 2n a psycho"ogica" description o& the computer inte""igence(
three re"ated ad5ectives come to mindA sing"e-minded( "itera"-minded( and
simp"eminded. Recogni+ing this( we shou"d at the same time recogni+e that this
sing"e-mindedness( "itera"-mindedness( and simp"emindedness a"so characteri+es
theoretica" mathematics( though to a "esser e8tent.
ince science tries to dea" with rea"ity( even the most precise sciences
norma""y wor$ with more or "ess imper&ect"y understood appro8imations toward
which scientists must maintain an appropriate s$epticism. Thus( &or instance( it
may come as a shoc$ to mathematicians to "earn that the chrodinger e-uation
&or the hydrogen atom is not a "itera""y correct description o& this atom( but on"y
an appro8imation to a somewhat more correct e-uation ta$ing account o& spin(
magnetic dipo"e( and re"ativistic e1ects= and that this corrected e-uation is itse"&
on"y an imper&ect appro8imation to an in#nite set o& -uantum #e"d-theoretica"
e-uations. 9hysicists( "oo$ing at the origina" chrodinger e-uation( "earn to sense
in it the presence o& many invisib"e terms in addition to the di1erentia" terms
visib"e( and this sense inspires an entire"y appropriate disregard &or the pure"y
technica" &eatures o& the e-uation. This very hea"thy s$epticism is &oreign to the
mathematica" approach.
Bathematics must dea" with we""-de#ned situations. Thus( mathematicians
depend on an inte""ectua" e1ort outside o& mathematics &or the crucia"
speci#cation o& the appro8imation that mathematics is to ta$e "itera""y. Eive
mathematicians a situation that is the "east bit i""-de#ned( and they wi"" ma$e it
we""-de#ned( perhaps appropriate"y( but perhaps inappropriate"y. 2n some cases(
the mathematicians6 "itera"-mindedness may have un&ortunate conse-uences. The
mathematicians turn the scientists6 theoretica" assumptions( that is( their
convenient points o& ana"ytica" emphasis( into a8ioms( and then ta$e these a8ioms
"itera""y. This brings the danger that they may a"so persuade the scientists to ta$e
these a8ioms "itera""y. The -uestion( centra" to the scienti#c investigation but
intense"y disturbing in the mathematica" conte8t!what happens i& the a8ioms are
re"a8edG!is thereby ignored.
GRE .,1
The physicist right"y dreads precise argument( since an argument that is
convincing on"y i& it is precise "oses a"" its &orce i& the assumptions on which it is
based are s"ight"y changed( whereas an argument that is convincing though
imprecise may we"" be stab"e under sma"" perturbations o& its under"ying
assumptions.
21. The author discusses computing machines in the first paragraph primarily in order
to do which of the following%
(A) 3ndicate the dangers inherent in relying to a great e$tent on machines
(B) 3llustrate his 'iews about the approach of mathematicians to problem sol'ing
(C) Compare the work of mathematicians with that of computer programmers
() @ro'ide one definition of intelligence
(#) #mphasi!e the importance of computers in modern technological society
22. According to the passage/ scientists are skeptical toward their e"uations because
scientists
(A) work to e$plain real/ rather than theoretical or simplified/ situations
(B) know that well(defined problems are often the most difficult to sol'e
(C) are unable to e$press their data in terms of multiple 'ariables
() are unwilling to rela$ the a$ioms they ha'e de'eloped
(#) are unable to accept mathematical e$planations of natural phenomena
2.. 3t can be inferred from the passage that scientists make which of the following
assumptions about scientific arguments%
(A) The literal truth of the arguments can be made clear only in a mathematical
conte$t.
(B) The arguments necessarily ignore the central "uestion of scientific
in'estigation.
(C) The arguments probably will be con'incing only to other scientists.
() The conclusions of the arguments do not necessarily follow from their
premises.
(#) The premises on which the arguments are based may change.
20. According to the passage/ mathematicians present a danger to scientists for which
of the following reasons%
(A) ?athematicians may pro'ide theories that are incompatible with those already
de'eloped by scientists.
(B) ?athematicians may define situation in a way that is incomprehensible to
scientists.
(C) ?athematicians may con'ince scientists that theoretical assumptions are facts.
() ;cientists may come to belie'e that a$iomatic statements are untrue.
(#) ;cientists may begin to pro'ide arguments that are con'incing but imprecise.
.,2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
21. The author suggests that the approach of physicists to sol'ing scientific problems
is which of the following%
(A) @ractical for scientific purposes
(B) etrimental to scientific progress
(C) :nimportant in most situations
() #$pedient/ but of little long(term 'alue
(#) #ffecti'e/ but rarely recogni!ed as such
22. The author suggests that a mathematician asked to sol'e a problem in an ill(
defined situation would first attempt to do which of the following%
(A) 3dentify an analogous situation
(B) ;implify and define the situation
(C) Cary the underlying assumptions of a description of the situation
() etermine what use would be made of the solution pro'ided
(#) #'aluate the theoretical assumptions that might e$plain the situation
2-. The author implies that scientists de'elop a healthy skepticism because they are
aware that
(A) mathematicians are better able to sol'e problems than are scientists
(B) changes in a$iomatic propositions will ine'itably undermine scientific
arguments
(C) well(defined situations are necessary for the design of reliable e$periments
() mathematical solutions can rarely be applied to real problems
(#) some factors in most situations must remain unknown
SECTION B
2n eighteenth-century :rance and @ng"and( re&ormers ra""ied around ega"itarian
idea"s( but &ew re&ormers advocated higher education &or women. 3"though the
pub"ic decried women6s "ac$ o& education( it did not encourage "earning &or its own
sa$e &or women. 2n spite o& the genera" pre5udice against "earned women( there
was one p"ace where women cou"d e8hibit their eruditionA the "iterary sa"on. Bany
writers have de#ned the woman6s ro"e in the sa"on as that o& an inte""igent
hostess( but the sa"on had more than a socia" &unction &or women. 2t was an
in&orma" university( too( where women e8changed ideas with educated persons(
read their own wor$s and heard those o& others( and received and gave criticism.
2n the 17/06s( when sa"ons were #rm"y estab"ished in :rance( some @ng"ish
women( who ca""ed themse"ves >'"uestoc$ing(? &o""owed the e8amp"e o& the
salonnieres (:rench sa"on hostesses) and &ormed their own sa"ons. Bost
'"uestoc$ings did not wish to mirror the salonnieres= they simp"y desired to adapt
a proven &ormu"a to their own purpose!the e"evation o& women6s status through
mora" and inte""ectua" training. Ki1erences in socia" orientation and bac$ground
GRE .,-
can account perhaps &or di1erences in the nature o& :rench and @ng"ish sa"ons.
The :rench sa"on incorporated aristocratic attitudes that e8a"ted court"y p"easure
and emphasi+ed artistic accomp"ishments. The @ng"ish '"uestoc$ings( originating
&rom a more modest bac$ground( emphasi+ed "earning and wor$ over p"easure.
3ccustomed to the regimented "i&e o& court circ"es( salonnieres tended toward
&orma"ity in their sa"ons. The @ng"ish women( though somewhat puritanica"( were
more casua" in their approach.
3t #rst( the '"uestoc$ings did imitate the salonnieres by inc"uding men in their
circ"es. )owever( as they gained cohesion( the '"uestoc$ings came to regard
themse"ves as a women6s group and to possess a sense o& &ema"e so"idarity
"ac$ing in the salonnieres( who remained iso"ated &rom one another by the
primacy each he"d in her own sa"on. 2n an atmosphere o& mutua" support( the
'"uestoc$ings went beyond the sa"on e8perience. They trave"ed( studied( wor$ed(
wrote &or pub"ication( and by their activities cha""enged the stereotype o& the
passive woman. 3"though the salonnieres were aware o& se8ua" ine-ua"ity( the
narrow boundaries o& their wor"d $ept their inte""ectua" pursuits within
conventiona" "imits. Bany salonnieres( in &act( camouDaged their nontraditiona"
activities behind the ro"e o& hostess and de&erred to men in pub"ic.
Though the '"uestoc$ings were trai"b"a+ers when compared with the
salonnieres( they were not &eminists. They were too traditiona"( too hemmed in by
their generation to demand socia" and po"itica" rights. ,onethe"ess( in their desire
&or education( their wi""ingness to go beyond the con#nes o& the sa"on in pursuing
their interests( and their championing o& unity among women( the '"uestoc$ings
began the process o& -uestioning women6s ro"e in society.
1-. &hich of the following best states the central idea of the passage%
(A) The establishment of literary salons was a response to reformers4 demands for
social rights for women.
(B) Kiterary salons were originally intended to be a meeting ground for
intellectuals of both se$es/ but e'entually became social gatherings with little
educational 'alue.
(C) 3n #ngland/ as in >rance/ the general pre<udice against higher education for
women limited women4s function in literary salons to a primarily social one.
() The literary salons pro'ided a sounding board for >rench and #nglish women
who called for access to all the educational institutions in their societies on an
e"ual basis with men.
(#) >or women/ who did not ha'e access to higher education as men did/ literary
salons pro'ided an alternate route to learning and a challenge to some of
society4s basic assumptions about women.
16. According to the passage/ a significant distinction between the salonnieres and
Bluestockings was in the way each group regarded which of the following%
(A) The 'alue of ac"uiring knowledge
.,6 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(B) The role of pleasure in the acti'ities of the literary salon
(C) The desirability of a complete break with societal traditions
() The inclusion of women of different backgrounds in the salons
(#) The attainment of full social and political e"uality with men
1,. The author refers to differences in social background between salonnieres and
Bluestockings in order to do which of the following%
(A) Critici!e the 'iew that their choices of acti'ities were significantly influenced
by male salon members
(B) iscuss the reasons why literary salons in >rance were established before
those in #ngland
(C) Nuestion the importance of the Bluestockings in shaping public attitudes
toward educated women
() =efute the argument that the >rench salons had little influence o'er the
direction the #nglish salons took
(#) #$plain the differences in atmosphere and style in their salons
25. &hich of the following statements is most compatible with the principles of the
salonnieres as described in the passage%
(A) &omen should aspire to be not only educated but independent as well.
(B) The duty of the educated women is to pro'ide an acti'e political model for less
educated women.
(C) e'otion to pleasure and art is <ustified in itself.
() ;ubstance/ rather than form/ is the most important consideration in holding a
literary salon.
(#) ?en should be e$cluded from groups of women4s rights supporters.
21. The passage suggests that the Bluestockings might ha'e had a more significant
impact on society if it had not been for which of the following%
(A) Competiti'eness among their salons
(B) Their emphasis on indi'idualism
(C) The limited scope of their acti'ities
() Their acceptance of the >rench salon as a model for their own salons
(#) Their unwillingness to defy aggressi'ely the con'entions of their age
22. &hich of the following could best be considered a twentieth(century counterpart
of an eighteenth century literary salon as it is described in the passage%
(A) A social sorority
(B) A community center
(C) A lecture course on art
() A humanities study group
GRE .,,
(#) An association of moral reformers
2.. To an assertion that Bluestockings were feminists/ the author would most probably
respond with which of the following%
(A) Admitted uncertainty
(B) Nualified disagreement
(C) :n"uestioning appro'al
() Complete indifference
(#) ;trong disparagement
20. &hich of the following titles best describes the content of the passage%
(A) #ighteenth(Century #galitarianism
(B) >eminists of the #ighteenth Century
(C) #ighteenth(Century @recursors of >eminism
() 3ntellectual Kife in the #ighteenth Century
(#) >emale #ducation =eform in the #ighteenth Century
;hen the same parameters and -uantitative theory are used to ana"y+e both
termite co"onies and troops o& rhesus maca-ues( we wi"" have a uni#ed science o&
sociobio"ogy. %an this ever rea""y happenG 3s my own studies have advanced( 2
have been increasing"y impressed with the &unctiona" simi"arities between insect
and vertebrate societies and "ess so with the structura" di1erences that seem( at
#rst g"ance( to constitute such an immense gu"& between them. %onsider &or a
moment termites and maca-ues. 'oth &orm cooperative groups that occupy
territories. 2n both $inds o& society there is a we""-mar$ed division o& "abor.
Bembers o& both groups communicate to each other hunger( a"arm( hosti"ity(
caste status or ran$( and reproductive status. :rom the specia"ist6s point o& view(
this comparison may at #rst seem &aci"e!or worse. 'ut it is out o& such de"iberate
oversimp"i#cation that the beginnings o& a genera" theory are made.
21. &hich of the following best summari!es the author4s main point%
(A) 8'ersimplified comparisons of animal societies could diminish the likelihood
of de'eloping a unified science of sociobiology.
(B) :nderstanding the ways in which animals as different as termites and rhesus
maca"ues resemble each other re"uires train in both biology and sociology.
(C) ?ost animals organi!e themsel'es into societies that e$hibit patterns of group
beha'ior similar to those of human societies.
() Animals as different as termites and rhesus maca"ues follow certain similar
and predictable patterns of beha'ior.
(#) A study of the similarities between insect and 'ertebrate societies could
pro'ide the basis for a unified science of sociobiology.
22. The author4s attitude toward the possibility of a unified theory in sociobiology is
055 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
best described as which of the following%
(A) Buarded optimism
(B) :n"ualified enthusiasm
(C) 8b<ecti'e indifference
() =esignation
(#) issatisfaction
2-. 3n discussing insect and 'ertebrate societies/ the author suggests which of the
following%
(A) A distinguishing characteristic of most insect and 'ertebrate societies is a well(
marked di'ision of labor.
(B) The caste structure of insect societies is similar to that of 'ertebrate societies.
(C) ?ost insect and 'ertebrate societies form cooperati'e groups in order to
occupy territory.
() The means of communication among members of insect societies is similar to
that among members of 'ertebrate societies.
(#) There are significant structural differences between insect and 'ertebrate
societies.
No. 6-1
SECTION A
3 mysterious phenomenon is the abi"ity o& over-water migrants to trave" on
course. 'irds( bees( and other species can $eep trac$ o& time without any sensory
cues &rom the outside wor"d( and such >bio"ogica" c"oc$s? c"ear"y contribute to
their >compass sense.? :or e8amp"e( they can use the position o& the un or stars(
a"ong with the time o& day( to #nd north. 'ut compass sense a"one cannot e8p"ain
how birds navigate the oceanA a&ter a Doc$ trave"ing east is b"own &ar south by a
storm( it wi"" assume the proper northeaster"y course to compensate. 9erhaps(
some scientists thought( migrants determine their geographic position on @arth by
ce"estia" navigation( a"most as human navigators use stars and p"anets( but this
wou"d demand o& the anima"s a &antastic map sense. Researchers now $now that
some species have a magnetic sense( which might a""ow migrants to determine
their geographic "ocation by detecting variations in the strength o& the @arth6s
magnetic #e"d.
1-. The main idea of the passage is that
(A) migration o'er land re"uires a simpler e$planation than migration o'er water
does
(B) the means by which animals migrate o'er water are comple$ and only partly
understood
GRE 051
(C) the ability of migrant animals to keep track of time is related to their magnetic
sense
() knowledge of geographic location is essential to migrants with little or no
compass sense
(#) e$planations of how animals migrate tend to replace/ rather than build on/ one
another
16. 3t can be inferred from the passage that if the flock of birds described in lines 6(12
were na'igating by compass sense alone/ they would/ after the storm/ fly
(A) east
(B) north
(C) northwest
() south
(#) southeast
1,. 3n maintaining that migrating animals would need *a fantastic map sense+ (line 1-)
to determine their geographic position by celestial na'igation/ the author intends to
e$press
(A) admiration for the ability of the migrants
(B) skepticism about celestial na'igation as an e$planation
(C) certainly that the phenomenon of migration will remain mysterious
() interest in a new method of accounting for o'er(water migration
(#) surprise that animals apparently na'igate in much the same way that human
beings do
25. 8f the following descriptions of migrating animals/ which most strongly suggests
that the animals are depending on magnetic cues to orient themsel'es%
(A) @igeons can properly read<ust their course e'en when flying long distances
through e$ceedingly dense fogs.
(B) Bison are able to reach their destination by passing through a landscape that
has been partially altered by a recent fire.
(C) #lephants are able to find grounds that some members of the herd ha'e ne'er
seen before.
() ;wallows are able to return to a gi'en spot at the same time e'ery year.
(#) ?onarch butterflies coming from different parts of 9orth America are able to
arri'e at the same location each winter.
Roger Rosenb"att6s boo$ Black Fiction( in attempting to app"y "iterary rather
than sociopo"itica" criteria to its sub5ect( success&u""y a"ters the approach ta$en by
most previous studies. 3s Rosenb"att notes( criticism o& '"ac$ writing has o&ten
served as a prete8t &or e8pounding on '"ac$ history. 3ddison Eay"e6s recent wor$(
&or e8amp"e( 5udges the va"ue o& '"ac$ #ction by overt"y po"itica" standards( rating
052 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
each wor$ according to the notions o& '"ac$ identity which it propounds.
3"though #ction assured"y springs &rom po"itica" circumstances( its authors
react to those circumstances in ways other than ideo"ogica"( and ta"$ing about
nove"s and stories primari"y as instruments o& ideo"ogy circumvents much o& the
#ctiona" enterprise. Rosenb"att6s "iterary ana"ysis disc"oses a*nities and
connections among wor$s o& '"ac$ #ction which so"e"y po"itica" studies have
over"oo$ed or ignored.
;riting acceptab"e criticism o& '"ac$ #ction( however( presupposes giving
satis&actory answers to a number o& -uestions. :irst o& a""( is there a su*cient
reason( other than the racia" identity o& the authors( to group together wor$s by
'"ac$ authorsG econd( how does '"ac$ #ction ma$e itse"& distinct &rom other
modern #ction with which it is "arge"y contemporaneousG Rosenb"att shows that
'"ac$ #ction constitutes a distinct body o& writing that has an identi#ab"e(
coherent "iterary tradition. Joo$ing at nove"s written by '"ac$s over the "ast eighty
years( he discovers recurring concerns and designs independent o& chrono"ogy.
These structures are thematic( and they spring( not surprising"y( &rom the centra"
&act that the '"ac$ characters in these nove"s e8ist in a predominant"y ;hite
cu"ture( whether they try to con&orm to that cu"ture o& rebe" against it.
Black Fiction does "eave some aesthetic -uestions open. Rosenb"att6s thematic
ana"ysis permits considerab"e ob5ectivity= he even e8p"icit"y states that it is not his
intention to 5udge the merit o& the various wor$s!yet his re"uctance seems
misp"aced( especia""y since an attempt to appraise might have "ed to interesting
resu"ts. :or instance( some o& the nove"s appear to be structura""y di1use. 2s this a
de&ect( or are the authors wor$ing out o&( or trying to &orge( a di1erent $ind o&
aestheticG 2n addition( the sty"e o& some '"ac$ nove"s( "i$e Cean Toomer6s Cane(
verges on e8pressionism or surrea"ism= does this techni-ue provide a counterpoint
to the preva"ent theme that portrays the &ate against which '"ac$ heroes are
pitted( a theme usua""y conveyed by more natura"istic modes o& e8pressionG
2n spite o& such omissions( what Rosenb"att does inc"ude in his discussion
ma$es &or an astute and worthwhi"e study. Black Fiction surveys a wide variety o&
nove"s( bringing to our attention in the process some &ascinating and "itt"e-$nown
wor$s "i$e Cames ;e"don Cohnson6s "uto$iogra#hy of an E3-Colored (an. 2ts
argument is tight"y constructed( and its &orthright( "ucid sty"e e8emp"i#es
"eve"headed and penetrating criticism.
21. The author of the passage ob<ects to criticism of Black fiction like that by Addison
Bayle because it
(A) emphasi!es purely literary aspects of such fiction
(B) misinterprets the ideological content of such fiction
(C) misunderstands the notions of Black identity contained in such fiction
() substitutes political for literary criteria in e'aluating such fiction
(#) ignores the interplay between Black history and Black identity displayed in
GRE 05.
such fiction
22. The author of the passage is primarily concerned with
(A) e'aluating the soundness of a work of criticism
(B) comparing 'arious critical approaches to a sub<ect
(C) discussing the limitations of a particular kind of criticism
() summari!ing the ma<or points made in a work of criticism
(#) e$plaining the theoretical background of a certain kind of criticism
2.. The author of the passage belie'es that %lack Fiction would ha'e been impro'ed
had =osenblatt
(A) e'aluated more carefully the ideological and historical aspects of Black fiction
(B) attempted to be more ob<ecti'e in his approach to no'els and stories by Black
authors
(C) e$plored in greater detail the recurrent thematic concerns of Black fiction
throughout its history
() established a basis for placing Black fiction within its own uni"ue literary
tradition
(#) assessed the relati'e literary merit of the no'els he analy!es thematically
20. The author4s discussion of %lack Fiction can be best described as
(A) pedantic and contentious
(B) critical but admiring
(C) ironic and deprecating
() argumentati'e but unfocused
(#) stilted and insincere
21. 3t can be inferred that the author of the passage would be K#A;T likely to appro'e
of which of the following%
(A) An analysis of the influence of political e'ents on the personal ideology of
Black writes
(B) A critical study that applies sociopolitical criteria to autobiographies by Black
authors
(C) A literary study of Black poetry that appraises the merits of poems according
to the political acceptability of their themes
() An e$amination of the growth of a distinct Black literary tradition within the
conte$t of Black history
(#) A literary study that attempts to isolate aesthetic "ualities uni"ue to Black
fiction
22. The author of the passage uses all of the following in the discussion of
=osenblatt4s book #DC#@T
050 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(A) rhetorical "uestions
(B) specific e$amples
(C) comparison and contrast
() definition of terms
(#) personal opinion
2-. The author of the passage refers to Aames &eldon Aohnson4s Autobiography o+ an
E,-Colored *an most probably in order to
(A) point out affinities between =osenblatt4s method of thematic analysis and
earlier criticism
(B) clarify the point about e$pressionistic style made earlier in the passage
(C) "ualify the assessment of =osenblatt4s book made in the first paragraph of the
passage
() illustrate the affinities among Black no'els disclosed by =osenblatt4s literary
analysis
(#) gi'e a specific e$ample of one of the accomplishments of =osenblatt4s work
SECTION B
The mo"ecu"es o& carbon dio8ide in the @arth6s atmosphere a1ect the heat
ba"ance o& the @arth by acting as a one-way screen. 3"though these mo"ecu"es
a""ow radiation at visib"e wave"engths( where most o& the energy o& sun"ight is
concentrated( to pass through( they absorb some o& the "onger-wave"ength(
in&rared emissions radiated &rom the @arth6s sur&ace( radiation that wou"d
otherwise be transmitted bac$ into space. :or the @arth to maintain a constant
average temperature( such emissions &rom the p"anet must ba"ance incoming
so"ar radiation. 2& there were no carbon dio8ide in the atmosphere( heat wou"d
escape &rom the @arth much more easi"y. The sur&ace temperature wou"d be so
much "ower that the oceans might be a so"id mass o& ice.
Today( however( the potentia" prob"em is too much carbon dio8ide. The burning
o& &ossi" &ue"s and the c"earing o& &orests have increased atmospheric carbon
dio8ide by about 1/ percent in the "ast hundred years( and we continue to add
carbon dio8ide to the atmosphere. %ou"d the increase in carbon dio8ide cause a
g"oba" rise in average temperature( and cou"d such a rise have serious
conse-uences &or human societyG Bathematica" mode"s that a""ow us to ca"cu"ate
the rise in temperature as a &unction o& the increase indicate that the answer is
probab"y yes.
Under present conditions a temperature o&-18 can be observed at an a"titude
o& / to L $i"ometers above the @arth. 'e"ow this a"titude (ca""ed the radiating
"eve")( the temperature increases by about L per $i"ometer approaching the
@arth6s sur&ace( where the average temperature is about 1/. 3n increase in the
amount o& carbon dio8ide means that there are more mo"ecu"es o& carbon dio8ide
GRE 051
to absorb in&rared radiation. 3s the capacity o& the atmosphere to absorb in&rared
radiation increases( the radiating "eve" and the temperature o& the sur&ace must
rise.
<ne mathematica" mode" predicts that doub"ing the atmospheric carbon
dio8ide wou"d raise the g"oba" mean sur&ace temperature by 4./. This mode"
assumes that the atmosphere6s re"ative humidity remains constant and the
temperature decreases with a"titude at a rate o& L./ per $i"ometer. The
assumption o& constant re"ative humidity is important( because water vapor in the
atmosphere is another e*cient absorber o& radiation at in&rared wave"engths.
'ecause warm air can ho"d more moisture than coo" air( the re"ative humidity wi""
be constant on"y i& the amount o& water vapor in the atmosphere increases as the
temperature rises. There&ore( more in&rared radiation wou"d be absorbed and
reradiated bac$ to the @arth6s sur&ace. The resu"tant warming at the sur&ace cou"d
be e8pected to me"t snow and ice( reducing the @arth6s reDectivity. Bore so"ar
radiation wou"d then be absorbed( "eading to a &urther increase in temperature.
1-. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) warn of the dangers of continued burning of fossil fuels
(B) discuss the significance of increasing the amount of carbon dio$ide in the
atmosphere
(C) e$plain how a constant temperature is maintained on the #arth4s surface
() describe the ways in which 'arious atmospheric and climatic conditions
contribute to the #arth4s weather
(#) demonstrate the usefulness of mathematical models in predicting long(range
climatic change
16. According to the passage/ the greatest part of the solar energy that reaches the
#arth is
(A) concentrated in the infrared spectrum
(B) concentrated at 'isible wa'elengths
(C) absorbed by carbon dio$ide molecules
() absorbed by atmospheric water 'apor
(#) reflected back to space by snow and ice
1,. According to the passage/ atmospheric carbon dio$ide performs all of the
following functions #DC#@TE
(A) absorbing radiation at 'isible wa'elengths
(B) absorbing infrared radiation
(C) absorbing outgoing radiation from the #arth
() helping to retain heat near the #arth4s surface
(#) helping to maintain a constant a'erage temperature on the #arth4s surface
052 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
25. &hich of the following best describes the author4s attitude toward the increasing
amount of carbon dio$ide in the atmosphere and its conse"uences%
(A) 3ncredulous
(B) Completely detached
(C) 3nterested but skeptical
() Angry yet resigned
(#) 8b<ecti'e yet concerned
21. 3t can be concluded from information contained in the passage that the a'erage
temperature at an altitude of 1 kilometer abo'e the #arth is about
(A) 11
(B) ,
(C) 2.1
() (12
(#) (16
22. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the construction of the mathematical model
mentioned in the passage in'ol'ed the formulation of which of the following%
(A) An assumption that the amount of carbon dio$ide added to the atmosphere
would in reality steadily increase
(B) An assumption that human acti'ities are the only agencies by which carbon
dio$ide is added to the atmosphere
(C) Assumptions about the social and political conse"uences of any curtailment of
the use of fossil fuels
() Assumptions about the physical conditions that are likely to pre'ail during the
period for which the model was made
(#) Assumptions about the differential beha'ior of carbon dio$ide molecules at the
'arious le'els of temperature calculated in the model
2.. According to the passage/ which of the following is true of the last hundred years%
(A) >ossil fuels were burned for the first time.
(B) Breater amounts of land were cleared than at any time before.
(C) The a'erage temperature at the #arth4s surface has become 2 cooler.
() The amount of carbon dio$ide in the atmosphere has increased measurably.
(#) The amount of farmland worldwide has doubled.
ome modern anthropo"ogists ho"d that bio"ogica" evo"ution has shaped not
on"y human morpho"ogy but a"so human behavior. The ro"e those anthropo"ogists
ascribe to evo"ution is not o& dictating the detai"s o& human behavior but one o&
imposing constraints!ways o& &ee"ing( thin$ing( and acting that >come natura""y?
in archetypa" situations in any cu"ture. <ur >&rai"ties?!emotions and motives such
as rage( &ear( greed( g"uttony( 5oy( "ust( "ove!may be a very mi8ed assortment(
GRE 05-
but they share at "east one immediate -ua"ityA we are( as we say( >in the grip? o&
them. 3nd thus they give us our sense o& constraints.
Unhappi"y( some o& those &rai"ties!our need &or ever-increasing security
among them!are present"y ma"adaptive. Iet beneath the over"ay o& cu"tura"
detai"( they( too( are said to be bio"ogica" in direction( and there&ore as natura" to
us as are our appendi8es. ;e wou"d need to comprehend thorough"y their
adaptive origins in order to understand how bad"y they guide us now. 3nd we
might then begin to resist their pressure.
20. The primary purpose of the passage is to present
(A) a position on the foundations of human beha'ior and on what those
foundations imply
(B) a theory outlining the parallel de'elopment of human morphology and of
human beha'ior
(C) a diagnostic test for separating biologically determined beha'ior patterns from
culture(specific detail
() a practical method for resisting the pressures of biologically determined dri'es
(#) an o'er'iew of those human emotions and moti'es that impose constraints on
human beha'ior
21. The author implies that control to any e$tent o'er the *frailties+ that constrain our
beha'ior is thought to presuppose
(A) that those frailties are recogni!ed as currently beneficial and adapti'e
(B) that there is little or no o'erlay of cultural detail that masks their true nature
(C) that there are cultures in which those frailties do not *come naturally+ and
from which such control can be learned
() a full understanding of why those frailties e'ol'ed and of how they function
now
(#) a thorough grasp of the principle that cultural detail in human beha'ior can
differ arbitrarily from society to society
22. &hich of the following most probably pro'ides an appropriate analogy from
human morphology for the *details+ 'ersus *constraints+ distinction made in the
passage in relation to human beha'ior%
(A) The ability of most people to see all the colors of the 'isible spectrum as
against most people4s inability to name any but the primary colors
(B) The ability of e'en the least fortunate people to show compassion as against
people4s inability to mask their feelings completely
(C) The ability of some people to di'e to great depths as against most people4s
inability to swim long distances
() The psychological profile of those people who are able to delay gratification as
against people4s inability to control their li'es completely
056 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(#) The greater lung capacity of mountain peoples that helps them li'e in o$ygen(
poor air as against people4s inability to fly without special apparatus
2-. 3t can be inferred that in his discussion of maladapti'e frailties the author assumes
that
(A) e'olution does not fa'or the emergence of adapti'e characteristics o'er the
emergence of maladapti'e ones
(B) any structure or beha'ior not positi'ely adapti'e is regarded as transitory in
e'olutionary theory
(C) maladapti'e characteristics/ once fi$ed/ make the emergence of other
maladapti'e characteristics more likely
() the designation of a characteristic as being maladapti'e must always remain
highly tentati'e
(#) changes in the total human en'ironment can outpace e'olutionary change
No. 6-2
SECTION A
;hether the "anguages o& the ancient 3merican peop"es were used &or
e8pressing abstract universa" concepts can be c"ear"y answered in the case o&
,ahuat". ,ahuat"( "i$e Eree$ and Eerman( is a "anguage that a""ows the &ormation
o& e8tensive compounds. 'y the combination o& radica"s or semantic e"ements(
sing"e compound words can e8press comp"e8 conceptua" re"ations( o&ten o& an
abstract universa" character.
The tlamatinime (>those who $now?) were ab"e to use this rich stoc$ o&
abstract terms to e8press the nuances o& their thought. They a"so avai"ed
themse"ves o& other &orms o& e8pression with metaphorica" meaning( some
probab"y origina"( some derived &rom To"tec coinages. <& these &orms the most
characteristic in ,ahuat" is the 5u8taposition o& two words that( because they are
synonyms( associated terms( or even contraries( comp"ement each other to evo$e
one sing"e idea. Used as metaphor( the 5u8taposed terms connote speci#c or
essentia" traits o& the being they re&er to( introducing a mode o& poetry as an
a"most habitua" &orm o& e8pression.
1-. A main purpose of the passage is to
(A) delineate the function of the tla-atini-e in 9ahuatl society
(B) e$plain the abstract philosophy of the 9ahuatl thinkers
(C) argue against a theory of poetic e$pression by citing e'idence about the
9ahuatl
() e$plore the rich metaphorical heritage the 9ahuatl recei'ed from the Toltecs
(#) describe some conceptual and aesthetic resources of the 9ahuatl language
GRE 05,
16. According to the passage/ some abstract uni'ersal ideas can be e$pressed in
9ahuatl by
(A) taking away from a word any reference to particular instances
(B) remo'ing a word from its associations with other words
(C) gi'ing a word a new and opposite meaning
() putting 'arious meaningful elements together in one word
(#) turning each word of a phrase into a poetic metaphor
1,. 3t can be inferred solely from the information in the passage that
(A) there are many languages that/ like Breek or Berman/ allow e$tensi'e
compounding
(B) all abstract uni'ersal ideas are ideas of comple$ relations
(C) some record or e'idence of the thought of the tla-atini-e e$ists
() metaphors are always used in 9ahuatl to e$press abstract conceptual
relationships
(#) the abstract terms of the 9ahuatl language are habitually used in poetry
Bany theories have been &ormu"ated to e8p"ain the ro"e o& gra+ers such as
+oop"an$ton in contro""ing the amount o& p"an$tonic a"gae (phytop"an$ton) in
"a$es. The #rst theories o& such gra+er contro" were mere"y based on observations
o& negative corre"ations between a"ga" and +oop"an$ton numbers. 3 "ow number o&
a"ga" ce""s in the presence o& a high number o& gra+ers suggested( but did not
prove( that the gra+ers had removed most o& the a"gae. The converse observation(
o& the absence o& gra+ers in areas o& high phytop"an$ton concentration( "ed )ardy
to propose his princip"e o& anima" e8c"usion( which hypothesi+ed that
phytop"an$ton produced a repe""ent that e8c"uded gra+ers &rom regions o& high
phytop"an$ton concentration. This was the #rst suggestion o& a"ga" de&enses
against gra+ing.
9erhaps the &act that many o& these #rst studies considered on"y a"gae o& a si+e
that cou"d be co""ected in a net (net phytop"an$ton)( a practice that over"oo$ed
the sma""er phytop"an$ton (nannop"an$ton) that we now $now gra+ers are most
"i$e"y to &eed on( "ed to a de-emphasis o& the ro"e o& gra+ers in subse-uent
research. 2ncreasing"y( as in the individua" studies o& Jund( Round( and Reyno"ds(
researchers began to stress the importance o& environmenta" &actors such as
temperature( "ight( and water movements in contro""ing a"ga" numbers. These
environmenta" &actors were amenab"e to #e"d monitoring and to simu"ation in the
"aboratory. Era+ing was be"ieved to have some e1ect on a"ga" numbers( especia""y
a&ter phytop"an$ton growth rates dec"ined at the end o& b"oom periods( but
gra+ing was considered a minor component o& mode"s that predicted a"ga"
popu"ation dynamics.
The potentia" magnitude o& gra+ing pressure on &reshwater phytop"an$ton has
on"y recent"y been determined empirica""y. tudies by )argrave and Eeen
015 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
estimated natura" community gra+ing rates by measuring &eeding rates o&
individua" +oop"an$ton species in the "aboratory and then computing community
gra+ing rates &or #e"d conditions using the $nown popu"ation density o& gra+ers.
The high estimates o& gra+ing pressure postu"ated by these researchers were not
&u""y accepted( however( unti" the gra+ing rates o& +oop"an$ton were determined
direct"y in the #e"d( by means o& new e8perimenta" techni-ues. Using a specia""y
prepared &eeding chamber( )aney was ab"e to record +oop"an$ton gra+ing rates in
natura" #e"d conditions. 2n the periods o& pea$ +oop"an$ton abundance( that is( in
the "ate spring and in the summer( )aney recorded ma8imum dai"y community
gra+ing rates( &or nutrient-poor "a$es and bog "a$es( respective"y( o& L.L percent
and 11M percent o& dai"y phytop"an$ton production. %"adocerans had higher
gra+ing rates than copepods( usua""y accounting &or 80 percent o& the community
gra+ing rate. These rates varied seasona""y( reaching the "owest point in the
winter and ear"y spring. )aney6s thorough research provides convincing #e"d
evidence that gra+ers can e8ert signi#cant pressure on phytop"an$ton popu"ation.
25. The author most likely mentions )ardy4s principle of animal e$clusion in order to
(A) gi'e an e$ample of one theory about the interaction of gra!ers and
phytoplankton
(B) defend the first theory of algal defenses against gra!ing
(C) support the contention that phytoplankton numbers are controlled primarily by
en'ironmental factors
() demonstrate the superiority of laboratory studies of !ooplankton feeding rates
to other kinds of studies of such rates
(#) refute researchers who belie'ed that low numbers of phytoplankton indicated
the gra!ing effect of low numbers of !ooplankton
21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the *first theories+ of gra!er control
mentioned in line 0 would ha'e been more con'incing if researchers had been able
to
(A) obser'e high phytoplankton numbers under natural lake conditions
(B) disco'er negati'e correlations between algae and !ooplankton numbers from
their field research
(C) understand the central importance of en'ironmental factors in controlling the
growth rates of phytoplankton
() make 'erifiable correlations of cause and effect between !ooplankton and
phytoplankton numbers
(#) in'ent laboratory techni"ues that would ha'e allowed them to bypass their
field research concerning gra!er control
22. &hich of the following/ if true/ would call into "uestion )ardy4s principle of
animal e$clusion%
(A) Looplankton are not the only organisms that are affected by phytoplankton
GRE 011
repellents.
(B) Looplankton e$clusion is unrelated to phytoplankton population density.
(C) Looplankton population density is higher during some parts of the year than
during others.
() 9et phytoplankton are more likely to e$clude !ooplankton than are
nannoplankton.
(#) @hytoplankton numbers can be strongly affected by en'ironmental factors.
2.. The author would be likely to agree with which of the following statements
regarding the pressure of gra!ers on phytoplankton numbers%
3. Bra!ing pressure can 'ary according to the indi'idual type of !ooplankton.
33. Bra!ing pressure can be lower in nutrient(poor lakes than in bog lakes.
333. Bra!ing tends to e$ert about the same pressure as does temperature.
(A) 3 only
(B) 333 only
(C) 3 and 33 only
() 33 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
20. The passage supplies information to indicate that )argra'e and Been4s conclusion
regarding the gra!ing pressure e$erted by !ooplankton on phytoplankton numbers
was most similar to the conclusion regarding gra!ing pressure reached by which of
the following researchers%
(A) )ardy
(B) Kund
(C) =ound
() =eynolds
(#) )aney
21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that one way in which many of the early
researchers on gra!er control could ha'e impro'ed their data would ha'e been to
(A) emphasi!e the effects of temperature/ rather than of light/ on phytoplankton
(B) disregard nannoplankton in their analysis of phytoplankton numbers
(C) collect phytoplankton of all si!es before analy!ing the e$tent of phytoplankton
concentration
() recogni!e that phytoplankton other than net phytoplankton could be collected
in a net
(#) understand the crucial significance of net phytoplankton in the diet of
!ooplankton
22. According to the passage/ )argra'e and Been did which of the following in their
012 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
e$periments%
(A) They compared the gra!ing rates of indi'idual !ooplankton species in the
laboratory with the natural gra!ing rates of these species.
(B) The hypothesi!ed about the population density of gra!ers in natural habitats by
using data concerning the population density of gra!ers in the laboratory.
(C) They estimated the community gra!ing rates of !ooplankton in the laboratory
by using data concerning the natural community gra!ing rates of !ooplankton.
() They estimated the natural community gra!ing rates of !ooplankton by using
data concerning the known population density of phytoplankton.
(#) They estimated the natural community gra!ing rates of !ooplankton by using
laboratory data concerning the gra!ing rates of indi'idual !ooplankton species.
2-. &hich of the following is a true statement about the !ooplankton numbers and
!ooplankton gra!ing rates obser'ed in )aney4s e$periments%
(A) &hile !ooplankton numbers began to decline in August/ !ooplankton gra!ing
rates began to increase.
(B) Although !ooplankton numbers were high in ?ay/ gra!ing rates did not
become high until Aanuary.
(C) Both !ooplankton numbers and gra!ing rates were higher in ecember than in
9o'ember.
() Both !ooplankton numbers and gra!ing rates were lower in ?arch than in
Aune.
(#) Both !ooplankton numbers and gra!ing rates were highest in >ebruary.
SECTION B
)ydrogeo"ogy is a science dea"ing with the properties( distribution( and
circu"ation o& water on the sur&ace o& the "and( in the soi" and under"ying roc$s(
and in the atmosphere. The hydro"ogic cyc"e( a ma5or topic in this science( is the
comp"ete cyc"e o& phenomena through which water passes( beginning as
atmospheric water vapor( passing into "i-uid and so"id &orm as precipitation(
thence a"ong and into the ground sur&ace( and #na""y again returning to the &orm
o& atmospheric water vapor by means o& evaporation and transpiration.
The term >geohydro"ogy? is sometimes erroneous"y used as a synonym &or
>hydrogeo"ogy.? Eeohydro"ogy is concerned with underground water. There are
many &ormations that contain water but are not part o& the hydro"ogic cyc"e
because o& geo"ogic changes that have iso"ated them underground. These
systems are proper"y termed geohydro"ogic but not hydrogeo"ogic. <n"y when a
system possesses natura" or arti#cia" boundaries that associate the water within it
with the hydro"ogic cyc"e may the entire system proper"y be termed
hydrogeo"ogic.
1-. The author4s primary purpose is most probably to
GRE 01.
(A) present a hypothesis
(B) refute an argument
(C) correct a misconception
() predict an occurrence
(#) describe an enigma
16. 3t can be inferred that which of the following is most likely to be the sub<ect of
study by a geohydrologist%
(A) ;oft/ porous rock being worn away by a waterfall
(B) &ater depositing minerals on the banks of a gorge through which the water
runs
(C) The trapping of water in a sealed underground rock ca'ern through the action
of an earth"uake
() &ater becoming unfit to drink through the release of pollutants into it from a
manufacturing plant
(#) The changing course of a ri'er channel as the action of the water wears away
the rocks past which the ri'er flows
1,. The author refers to *many formations+ (line 12) primarily in order to
(A) clarify a distinction
(B) introduce a sub<ect
(C) draw an analogy
() emphasi!e a similarity
(#) resol'e a conflict
The historian :rederic$ C. Turner wrote in the 18906s that the agrarian
discontent that had been deve"oping steadi"y in the United tates since about
1870 had been precipitated by the c"osing o& the interna" &rontier!that is( the
dep"etion o& avai"ab"e new "and needed &or &urther e8pansion o& the 3merican
&arming system. ,ot on"y was Turner6s thesis inDuentia" at the time( it was "ater
adopted and e"aborated by other scho"ars( such as Cohn K. )ic$s in The Po#ulist
*evolt (1971). 3ctua""y( however( new "ands were ta$en up &or &arming in the
United tates throughout and beyond the nineteenth century. 2n the 18906s( when
agrarian discontent had become most acute( 1(100(000 new &arms were sett"ed(
which was /00(000 more than had been sett"ed during the previous decade. 3&ter
1890( under the terms o& the )omestead 3ct and its successors( more new "and
was ta$en up &or &arming than had been ta$en up &or this purpose in the United
tates up unti" that time. 2t is true that a high proportion o& the new"y &armed "and
was suitab"e on"y &or gra+ing and dry &arming( but agricu"tura" practices had
become su*cient"y advanced to ma$e it possib"e to increase the pro#tabi"ity o&
&arming by uti"i+ing even these re"ative"y barren "ands.
The emphasis given by both scho"ars and statesmen to the presumed
010 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
disappearance o& the 3merican &rontier he"ped to obscure the great importance o&
changes in the conditions and conse-uences o& internationa" trade that occurred
during the second ha"& o& the nineteenth century. 2n 18L9 the ue+ %ana" was
opened and the #rst transcontinenta" rai"road in the United tates was comp"eted.
3n e8tensive networ$ o& te"egraph and te"ephone communications was spunA
@urope was connected by submarine cab"e with the United tates in 18LL and
with outh 3merica in 187M. 'y about 1870 improvements in agricu"tura"
techno"ogy made possib"e the &u"" e8p"oitation o& areas that were most suitab"e &or
e8tensive &arming on a mechani+ed basis. )uge tracts o& "and were being sett"ed
and &armed in 3rgentina( 3ustra"ia( %anada( and in the 3merican ;est( and these
areas were 5oined with one another and with the countries o& @urope into an
interdependent mar$et system. 3s a conse-uence( agrarian depressions no "onger
were "oca" or nationa" in scope( and they struc$ severa" nations whose interna"
&rontiers had not vanished or were not about to vanish. 'etween the ear"y 18706s
and the 18906s( the mounting agrarian discontent in 3merica para""e"ed the
a"most uninterrupted dec"ine in the prices o& 3merican agricu"tura" products on
&oreign mar$ets. Those stap"e-growing &armers in the United tates who e8hibited
the greatest discontent were those who had become most dependent on &oreign
mar$ets &or the sa"e o& their products. 2nso&ar as 3mericans had been deterred
&rom ta$ing up new "and &or &arming( it was because mar$et conditions had made
this period a peri"ous time in which to do so.
25. The author is primarily concerned with
(A) showing that a certain interpretation is better supported by the e'idence than is
an alternati'e e$planation
(B) de'eloping an alternati'e interpretation by using sources of e'idence that
formerly had been una'ailable
(C) "uestioning the accuracy of the e'idence that most scholars ha'e used to
counter the author4s own interpretation
() re'iewing the e'idence that formerly had been thought to obscure a 'alid
interpretation
(#) presenting e'idence in support of a contro'ersial 'ersion of an earlier
interpretation
21. According to the author/ changes in the conditions of international trade resulted in
an
(A) underestimation of the amount of new land that was being famed in the :nited
;tates
(B) underutili!ation of relati'ely small but rich plots of land
(C) o'ere$pansion of the world transportation network for shipping agricultural
products
() e$tension of agrarian depressions beyond national boundaries
(#) emphasis on the importance of market forces in determining the prices of
GRE 011
agricultural products
22. The author implies that the change in the state of the American farmer4s morale
during the latter part of the nineteenth century was traceable to the American
farmer4s increasing perception that the
(A) costs of culti'ating the land were prohibiti'e within the :nited ;tates
(B) de'elopment of the first transcontinental railroad in the :nited ;tates occurred
at the e$pense of the American farmer
(C) American farming system was about to run out of the new farmland that was
re"uired for its e$pansion
() prices of American agricultural products were deteriorating especially rapidly
on domestic markets
(#) proceeds from the sales of American agricultural products on foreign markets
were unsatisfactory
2.. According to the passage/ which of the following occurred prior to 16,5%
(A) >rederick A. Turner4s thesis regarding the American frontier became
influential.
(B) The )omestead Act led to an increase in the amount of newly farmed land in
the :nited ;tates.
(C) The manufacturers of technologically ad'anced agricultural machinery rapidly
increased their marketing efforts.
() irect lines of communication were constructed between the :nited ;tates and
;outh America.
(#) Technological ad'ances made it fruitful to farm e$tensi'ely on a mechani!ed
basis.
20. The author implies that/ after certain territories and countries had been <oined into
an interdependent market system in the nineteenth century/ agrarian depressions
within that system
(A) spread to se'eral nations/ e$cluding those in which the internal frontier
remained open
(B) manifested themsel'es in se'eral nations/ including those in which new land
remained a'ailable for farming
(C) slowed down the pace of new technological de'elopments in international
communications and transportation
() affected the local and national prices of the nonagricultural products of se'eral
nations
(#) encouraged se'eral nations to sell more of their agricultural products on
foreign markets
21. The author pro'ides information concerning newly farmed lands in the :nited
;tates (lines 11(2-) as e'idence in direct support of which of the following%
012 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(A) A proposal by >rederick A. Turner that was later disputed by Aohn . )icks
(B) An elaboration by Aohn . )icks of a thesis that formerly had been "uestioned
by >rederick A. Turner
(C) The established 'iew that was disputed by those scholars who adopted the
thesis of >rederick A. Turner
() The thesis that important changes occurred in the nature of international trade
during the second half of the nineteenth century
(#) The 'iew that the American frontier did not become closed during the
nineteenth century or soon thereafter
22. The author implies that the cause of the agrarian discontent was
(A) masked by the 'agueness of the official records on newly settled farms
(B) o'ershadowed by disputes on the reliability of the e$isting historical e'idence
(C) misidentified as a result of influential but erroneous theori!ing
() o'erlooked because of a preoccupation with market conditions
(#) undetected because 'isible indications of the cause occurred so gradually and
sporadically
2-. The author4s argument implies that/ compared to the yearly price changes that
actually occurred on foreign agricultural markets during the 16654s/ American
farmers would ha'e most preferred yearly price changes that were
(A) much smaller and in the same direction
(B) much smaller but in the opposite direction
(C) slightly smaller and in the same direction
() similar in si!e but in the opposite direction
(#) slightly greater and in the same direction
No. 6-3
SECTION A
The use o& heat pumps has been he"d bac$ "arge"y by s$epticism about
advertisers6 c"aims that heat pumps can provide as many as two units o& therma"
energy &or each unit o& e"ectrica" energy used( thus apparent"y contradicting the
princip"e o& energy conservation. )eat pumps circu"ate a Duid re&rigerant that
cyc"es a"ternative"y &rom its "i-uid phase to its vapor phase in a c"osed "oop. The
re&rigerant( starting as a "ow-temperature( "ow-pressure vapor( enters a
compressor driven by an e"ectric motor. The re&rigerant "eaves the compressor as
a hot( dense vapor and Dows through a heat e8changer ca""ed the condenser(
which trans&ers heat &rom the re&rigerant to a body o& air. ,ow the re&rigerant( as a
high-pressure( coo"ed "i-uid( con&ronts a Dow restriction which causes the pressure
GRE 01-
to drop. 3s the pressure &a""s( the re&rigerant e8pands and partia""y vapori+es(
becoming chi""ed. 2t then passes through a second heat e8changer( the
evaporator( which trans&ers heat &rom the air to the re&rigerant( reducing the
temperature o& this second body o& air. <& the two heat e8changers( one is "ocated
inside( and the other one outside the house( so each is in contact with a di1erent
body o& airA room air and outside air( respective"y.
The Dow direction o& re&rigerant through a heat pump is contro""ed by va"ves.
;hen the re&rigerant Dow is reversed( the heat e8changers switch &unction. This
Dow-reversa" capabi"ity a""ows heat pumps either to heat or coo" room air. ,ow( i&
under certain conditions a heat pump puts out more therma" energy than it
consumes in e"ectrica" energy( has the "aw o& energy conservation been
cha""engedG ,o( not even remote"yA the additiona" input o& therma" energy into the
circu"ating re&rigerant via the evaporator accounts &or the di1erence in the energy
e-uation.
Un&ortunate"y( there is one rea" prob"em. The heating capacity o& a heat pump
decreases as the outdoor temperature &a""s. The drop in capacity is caused by the
"essening amount o& re&rigerant mass moved through the compressor at one time.
The heating capacity is proportiona" to this mass Dow rateA the "ess the mass o&
re&rigerant being compressed( the "ess the therma" "oad it can trans&er through
the heat-pump cyc"e. The vo"ume Dow rate o& re&rigerant vapor through the
sing"e-speed rotary compressor used in heat pumps is appro8imate"y constant.
'ut co"d re&rigerant vapor entering a compressor is at "ower pressure than warmer
vapor. There&ore( the mass o& co"d re&rigerant!and thus the therma" energy it
carries!is "ess than i& the re&rigerant vapor were warmer be&ore compression.
)ere( then( "ies a genuine drawbac$ o& heat pumpsA in e8treme"y co"d c"imates
!where the most heat is needed!heat pumps are "east ab"e to supp"y enough
heat.
1-. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) e$plain the differences in the working of a heat pump when the outdoor
temperature changes
(B) contrast the heating and the cooling modes of heat pumps
(C) describe heat pumps/ their use/ and factors affecting their use
() ad'ocate the more widespread use of heat pumps
(#) e$pose e$tra'agant claims about heat pumps as false
16. The author resol'es the "uestion of whether heat pumps run counter to the
principle of energy conser'ation by
(A) carefully "ualifying the meaning of that principle
(B) pointing out a factual error in the statement that gi'es rise to this "uestion
(C) supplying additional rele'ant facts
() denying the rele'ance of that principle to heat pumps
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(#) e$plaining that heat pumps can cool/ as well as heat/ room air
1,. 3t can be inferred from the passage that/ in the course of a heating season/ the
heating capacity of a heat pump is greatest when
(A) heating is least essential
(B) electricity rates are lowest
(C) its compressor runs the fastest
() outdoor temperatures hold steady
(#) the heating demand surges
25. 3f the author4s assessment of the use of heat pumps (lines 1(2) is correct/ which of
the following best e$presses the lesson that ad'ertisers should learn from this
case%
(A) o not make e$aggerated claims about the products you are trying to promote.
(B) >ocus your ad'ertising campaign on 'ague analogies and 'eiled implications
instead of on facts.
(C) o not use facts in your ad'ertising that will strain the prospecti'e client4s
ability to belie'e.
() o not assume in your ad'ertising that the prospecti'e clients know e'en the
most elementary scientific principles.
(#) Concentrate your ad'ertising firmly on financially rele'ant issues such as price
discounts and efficiency of operation.
21. The passage suggests that heat pumps would be used more widely if
(A) they could also be used as air conditioners
(B) they could be mo'ed around to supply heat where it is most needed
(C) their heat output could be thermostatically controlled
() models with truly superior cooling capacity were ad'ertised more effecti'ely
(#) people appreciated the role of the e'aporator in the energy e"uation
22. According to the passage/ the role of the flow restriction (lines 12(1-) in a heat
pump is to
(A) measure accurately the flow rate of the refrigerant mass at that point
(B) compress and heat the refrigerant 'apor
(C) bring about the e'aporation and cooling of refrigerant
() e$change heat between the refrigerant and the air at that point
(#) re'erse the direction of refrigerant flow when needed
2.. The author regards the notion that heat pumps ha'e a genuine drawback as a
(A) cause for regret
(B) sign of premature defeatism
GRE 01,
(C) welcome challenge
() case of sloppy thinking
(#) focus for an educational campaign
3"" o& :rancoise Kuparc6s surviving paintings b"end portraiture and genre. )er
sub5ects appear to be ac-uaintances whom she has as$ed to pose= she has
captured both their se"&-consciousness and the spontaneity o& their everyday
activities( the depiction o& which characteri+es genre painting. 'ut genre painting(
especia""y when it portrayed members o& the humb"est c"asses( was never popu"ar
in eighteenth-century :rance. The Je ,ain brothers and Eeorges de Ja Tour( who
a"so chose such themes( were "arge"y ignored. Their present high standing is due
to a di1erent( more democratic po"itica" c"imate and to di1erent aesthetic va"uesA
we no "onger re-uire artists to provide idea" images o& humanity &or our mora"
edi#cation but rather regard such idea"i+ation as a &a"si#cation o& the truth.
Kuparc gives no improving message and discreet"y re&rains &rom 5udging her
sub5ects. 2n brie&( her wor$s neither e"evate nor instruct. This restraint "arge"y
e8p"ains her "ac$ o& popu"ar success during her "i&etime( even i& her ta"ent did not
go comp"ete"y unrecogni+ed by her eighteenth-century :rench contemporaries.
20. According to the passage/ modern 'iewers are not likely to 'alue which of the
following "ualities in a painting%
(A) The technical elements of the painting
(B) The spontaneity of the painting
(C) The moral lesson imparted by the painting
() The degree to which the painting realistically depicts its sub<ect
(#) The degree to which the artist4s personality is re'ealed in the painting
21. 3f the history of uparc4s artistic reputation were to follow that of the Ke 9ain
brothers and Beorges de Ka Tour/ present(day assessments of her work would be
likely to contain which of the following%
(A) An e'aluation that accords high status to her work
(B) Acknowledgement of her technical e$pertise but dismissal of her sub<ect
matter as tri'ial
(C) Agreement with assessments made in her own time but acknowledgements of
the e$ceptional "uality of a few of her paintings
() @lacement of her among the foremost artists of her century
(#) A reclassification of her work as portraiture rather than genre painting
22. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the term *genre painting+ would most
likely apply to which of the following%
(A) A painting depicting a glorious moment of 'ictory following a battle
(B) A painting illustrating a narrati'e from the Bible
(C) A portrayal of a mythological Breek goddess
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() A portrayal of a ser'ant engaged in his work
(#) A formal portrait of an eighteenth(century king
2-. The argument of the passage best supports which of the following contentions
concerning <udgments of artistic work%
(A) Aesthetic <udgments can be influenced by the political beliefs of those making
the <udgment.
(B) Audgments of the 'alue of an artist4s work made by his or her contemporaries
must be discounted before a true <udgment can be made.
(C) ?odern aesthetic taste is once again mo'ing in the direction of regarding
idealistic painting as the most desirable form of painting.
() 3n order to be highly regarded/ an artist cannot be solely identified with one
particular kind of painting.
(#) ;pontaneity is the most 'aluable "uality a portrait painter can ha'e.
SECTION B
Bycorrhi+a" &ungi in&ect more p"ants than do any other &ungi and are necessary
&or many p"ants to thrive( but they have escaped widespread investigation unti"
recent"y &or two reasons. :irst( the symbiotic association is so we""-ba"anced that
the roots o& host p"ants show no damage even when dense"y in&ected. econd( the
&ungi cannot as yet be cu"tivated in the absence o& a "iving root. Kespite these
di*cu"ties( there has been important new wor$ that suggests that this symbiotic
association can be harnessed to achieve more economica" use o& cost"y
superphosphate &erti"i+er and to permit better e8p"oitation o& cheaper( "ess so"ub"e
roc$ phosphate. Bycorrhi+a" bene#ts are not "imited to improved phosphate
upta$e in host p"ants. 2n "egumes( mycorrhi+a" inocu"ation has increased nitrogen
#8ation beyond "eve"s achieved by adding phosphate &erti"i+er a"one. %ertain
symbiotic associations a"so increase the host p"ant6s resistance to harm&u" root
&ungi. ;hether this resistance resu"ts &rom e8c"usion o& harm&u" &ungi through
competition &or sites( &rom metabo"ic change invo"ving antibiotic production( or
&rom increased vigor is undetermined.
1-. &hich of the following most accurately describes the passage%
(A) A description of a replicable e$periment
(B) A summary report of new findings
(C) A recommendation for abandoning a difficult area of research
() A refutation of an earlier hypothesis
(#) A confirmation of earlier research
16. The le'el of information in the passage abo'e is suited to the needs of all of the
following people #DC#@TE
(A) a researcher whose <ob is to identify potentially profitable areas for research
GRE 021
and product de'elopment
(B) a state official whose position re"uires her to alert farmers about possible
inno'ations in farming
(C) an official of a research foundation who identifies research pro<ects for
potential funding
() a biologist attempting to keep up with scientific de'elopments in an area
outside of his immediate area of speciali!ation
(#) a botanist conducting e$periments to determine the relationship between
degree of mycorrhi!al infection and e$pected uptake of phosphate
1,. 3t can be inferred from the passage that which of the following has been a factor
influencing the e$tent to which research on mycorrhi!al fungi has progressed%
(A) Kack of funding for such research
(B) Kack of immediate application of such research
(C) Kack of a method for identifying mycorrhi!al fungi
() ifficulties surrounding laboratory production of specimens for study
(#) ifficulties ensuing from the high cost and scarcity of superphosphate
fertili!ers
25. The passage suggests which of the following about the increased resistance to
harmful root fungi that some plants infected with mycorrhi!al fungi seem to
e$hibit%
(A) There are at least three hypotheses that might account for the increase.
(B) An e$planation lies in the fact that mycorrhi!al fungi increase more rapidly in
number than harmful root fungi do.
(C) The plants that show increased resistance also e$hibit impro'ed nitrogen
fi$ation.
() ;uch increases may be independent of mycorrhi!al infection.
(#) 3t is unlikely that a satisfactory e$planation can be found to account for the
increase.
2n the ear"y 19/06s( historians who studied preindustria" @urope (which we may
de#ne here as @urope in the period &rom rough"y 1700 to 1800) began( &or the #rst
time in "arge numbers( to investigate more o& the preindustria" @uropean
popu"ation than the 4 or 7 percent who comprised the po"itica" and socia" e"iteA the
$ings( genera"s( 5udges( nob"es( bishops( and "oca" magnates who had hitherto
usua""y #""ed history boo$s. <ne di*cu"ty( however( was that &ew o& the remaining
97 percent recorded their thoughts or had them chronic"ed by contemporaries.
:aced with this situation( many historians based their investigations on the on"y
records that seemed to e8istA birth( marriage( and death records. 3s a resu"t(
much o& the ear"y wor$ on the none"ite was arid"y statistica" in nature= reducing
the vast ma5ority o& the popu"ation to a set o& numbers was hard"y more
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en"ightening than ignoring them a"together. )istorians sti"" did not $now what
these peop"e thought or &e"t.
<ne way out o& this di"emma was to turn to the records o& "ega" courts( &or here
the voices o& the none"ite can most o&ten be heard( as witnesses( p"ainti1s( and
de&endants. These documents have acted as >a point o& entry into the menta"
wor"d o& the poor.? )istorians such as Je Roy Jadurie have used the documents to
e8tract case histories( which have i""uminated the attitudes o& di1erent socia"
groups (these attitudes inc"ude( but are not con#ned to( attitudes toward crime
and the "aw) and have revea"ed how the authorities administered 5ustice. 2t has
been societies that have had a deve"oped po"ice system and practiced Roman "aw(
with its written depositions( whose court records have yie"ded the most data to
historians. 2n 3ng"o-a8on countries hard"y any o& these bene#ts obtain( but it has
sti"" been possib"e to g"ean in&ormation &rom the study o& "ega" documents.
The e8traction o& case histories is not( however( the on"y use to which court
records may be put. )istorians who study preindustria" @urope have used the
records to estab"ish a series o& categories o& crime and to -uanti&y indictments
that were issued over a given number o& years. This use o& the records does yie"d
some in&ormation about the none"ite( but this in&ormation gives us "itt"e insight
into the menta" "ives o& the none"ite. ;e a"so $now that the number o& indictments
in preindustria" @urope bears "itt"e re"ation to the number o& actua" crimina" acts(
and we strong"y suspect that the re"ationship has varied wide"y over time. 2n
addition( aggregate popu"ation estimates are very sha$y( which ma$es it di*cu"t
&or historians to compare rates o& crime per thousand in one decade o& the
preindustria" period with rates in another decade. Eiven these inade-uacies( it is
c"ear why the case history use o& court records is to be pre&erred.
21. The author suggests that/ before the early 1,154s/ most historians who studied
preindustrial #urope did which of the following%
(A) >ailed to make distinctions among members of the preindustrial #uropean
political and social elite.
(B) :sed in'estigatory methods that were almost e$clusi'ely statistical in nature.
(C) 3naccurately estimated the influence of the preindustrial #uropean political and
social elite.
() Confined their work to a narrow range of the preindustrial #uropean
population.
(#) Tended to rely hea'ily on birth/ marriage/ and death records.
22. According to the passage/ the case histories e$tracted by historians ha'e
(A) scarcely illuminated the attitudes of the political and social elite
(B) indicated the manner in which those in power apportioned <ustice
(C) focused almost entirely on the thoughts and feelings of different social groups
toward crime and the law
GRE 02.
() been considered the first kind of historical writing that utili!ed the records of
legal courts
(#) been based for the most part on the trial testimony of police and other legal
authorities
2.. 3t can be inferred from the passage that much of the early work by historians on
the #uropean nonelite of the preindustrial period might ha'e been more
illuminating if these historians had
(A) used different methods of statistical analysis to in'estigate the nonelite
(B) been more successful in identifying the attitudes of ci'il authorities/ especially
those who administered <ustice/ toward the nonelite
(C) been able to draw on more accounts/ written by contemporaries of the nonelite/
that described what this nonelite thought
() relied more hea'ily on the personal records left by members of the #uropean
political and social elite who li'ed during the period in "uestion
(#) been more willing to base their research on the birth/ marriage/ and death
records of the nonelite
20. The author mentions Ke =oy Kadurie (line 22) in order to
(A) gi'e an e$ample of a historian who has made one kind of use of court records
(B) cite a historian who has based case histories on the birth/ marriage/ and death
records of the nonelite
(C) identify the author of the "uotation cited in the pre'ious sentence
() gain authoritati'e support for the 'iew that the case history approach is the
most fruitful approach to court records
(#) point out the first historian to reali!e the 'alue of court records in illuminating
the beliefs and 'alues of the nonelite
21. According to the passage/ which of the following is true of indictments for crime
in #urope in the preindustrial period%
(A) They ha'e/ in terms of their numbers/ remained relati'ely constant o'er time.
(B) They gi'e the historian important information about the mental li'es of those
indicted.
(C) They are not a particularly accurate indication of the e$tent of actual criminal
acti'ity.
() Their importance to historians of the nonelite has been generally
o'erestimated.
(#) Their problematic relationship to actual crime has not been acknowledged by
most historians.
22. 3t can be inferred from the passage that a historian who wished to compare crime
rates per thousand in a #uropean city in one decade of the fifteenth century with
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crime rates in another decade of that century would probably be most aided by
better information about which of the following%
(A) The causes of unrest in the city during the two decades
(B) The aggregate number of indictments in the city nearest to the city under
in'estigation during the two decades
(C) The number of people who li'ed in the city during each of the decades under
in'estigation
() The mental attitudes of criminals in the city/ including their feelings about
authority/ during each of the decades under in'estigation
(#) The possibilities for a member of the city4s nonelite to become a member of
the political and social elite during the two decades
2-. The passage would be most likely to appear as part of
(A) a book re'iew summari!ing the achie'ements of historians of the #uropean
aristocracy
(B) an essay describing trends in the practice of writing history
(C) a te$tbook on the application of statistical methods in the social sciences
() a report to the historical profession on the work of early(twentieth(century
historians
(#) an article urging the adoption of historical methods by the legal profession
No. 7-1
SECTION A
<ur visua" perception depends on the reception o& energy reDecting or
radiating &rom that which we wish to perceive. 2& our eyes cou"d receive and
measure in#nite"y de"icate sense-data( we cou"d perceive the wor"d with in#nite
precision. The natura" "imits o& our eyes have( o& course( been e8tended by
mechanica" instruments= te"escopes and microscopes( &or e8amp"e( e8pand our
capabi"ities great"y. There is( however( an u"timate "imit beyond which no
instrument can ta$e us= this "imit is imposed by our inabi"ity to receive sense-data
sma""er than those conveyed by an individua" -uantum o& energy. ince these
-uanta are be"ieved to be indivisib"e pac$ages o& energy and so cannot be &urther
re#ned( we reach a point beyond which &urther reso"ution o& the wor"d is not
possib"e. 2t is "i$e a drawing a chi"d might ma$e by stic$ing indivisib"e discs o&
co"or onto a canvas.
;e might thin$ that we cou"d avoid this "imitation by using -uanta with
e8treme"y "ong wave"engths= such -uanta wou"d be su*cient"y sensitive to
convey e8treme"y de"icate sense-data. 3nd these -uanta wou"d be use&u"( as "ong
as we on"y wanted to measure energy( but a comp"ete"y accurate perception o&
the wor"d wi"" depend a"so on the e8act measurement o& the "engths and positions
GRE 021
o& what we wish to perceive. :or this( -uanta o& e8treme"y "ong wave"engths are
use"ess. To measure a "ength accurate"y to within a mi""ionth o& an inch( we must
have a measure graduated in mi""ionths o& an inch= a yardstic$ graduated in
inches in use"ess. Tuanta with a wave"ength o& one inch wou"d be( in a sense(
measures that are graduated in inches. Tuanta o& e8treme"y "ong wave"ength are
use"ess in measuring anything e8cept e8treme"y "arge dimensions.
Kespite these di*cu"ties( -uanta have important theoretica" imp"ications &or
physics. 2t used to be supposed that( in the observation o& nature( the universe
cou"d be divided into two distinct parts( a perceiving sub5ect and a perceived
ob5ect. 2n physics( sub5ect and ob5ect were supposed to be entire"y distinct( so that
a description o& any part o& the universe wou"d be independent o& the observer.
The -uantum theory( however( suggests otherwise( &or every observation invo"ves
the passage o& a comp"ete -uantum &rom the ob5ect to the sub5ect( and it now
appears that this passage constitutes an important coup"ing between observer
and observed. ;e can no "onger ma$e a sharp division between the two in an
e1ort to observe nature ob5ective"y. uch an attempt at ob5ectivity wou"d distort
the crucia" interre"atioship o& observer and observed as parts o& a sing"e who"e.
'ut( even &or scientists( it is on"y in the wor"d o& atoms that this new deve"opment
ma$es any appreciab"e di1erence in the e8p"anation o& observations.
1-. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) discuss a problem that hinders precise perception of the world
(B) point out the inade"uacies of accepted units of measurement
(C) critici!e attempts to distinguish between percei'ing sub<ects and percei'ed
ob<ects
() compare and contrast ri'al scientific hypotheses about how the world should
be measured and obser'ed
(#) suggest the limited function of sensory obser'ation
16. According to the passage/ "uanta with an e$tremely long wa'elength cannot be
used to gi'e complete information about the physical world because they
(A) e$ist independently of sense(data
(B) are graduated only in inches
(C) ha'e an insignificant amount of energy
() cannot/ with present(day instruments/ be isolated from "uanta of shorter
wa'elength
(#) pro'ide an insufficiently precise means of measuring length and position
1,. &hich of the following describes a situation most analogous to the situation
discussed in lines ,(1.%
(A) A mathematician can only sol'e problems the solution of which can be
deduced from known a$iom.
022 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(B) An animal can respond to no command that is more complicated syntactically
than any it has pre'iously recei'ed.
(C) A 'iewer who has not learned/ at least intuiti'ely/ the con'entions of painting/
cannot understand perspecti'e in a drawing.
() A sensiti!ed film will record no detail on a scale that is smaller than the grain
of the film.
(#) A shadow cast on a screen by an opa"ue ob<ect will ha'e sharp edge only if the
light source is small or 'ery distant.
25. The author uses the analogy of the child4s drawing (lines 1-(1,) primarily in order
to
(A) illustrate the ultimate limitation in the precision of sense(data con'eyed by
"uanta
(B) show the sense of helplessness scientists feel in the face of significant
obser'ational problems
(C) anticipate the ob<ections of the those scientists who belie'e that no
instrumental aid to obser'ation is entirely reliable
() e$emplify the similarities between packages of energy and 'arieties of color
(#) disparage those scientists who belie'e that measurement by means of "uanta
offers an accurate picture of the world
21. The author implies that making a sharp di'ision between sub<ect and ob<ect in
physics is
(A) possible in a measurement o ob<ect4s length and position/ but not in a
measurement of its energy
(B) still theoretically possible in the small(scale world of atoms and electrons
(C) possible in the case of obser'ations in'ol'ing the passage of a complete
"uantum
() no longer an entirely accurate way to describe obser'ation of the uni'erse
(#) a goal at which scientists still aim
22. The author4s use of the phrase *in a sense+ (line .0) implies which of the
following%
(A) Nuanta of e$tremely long wa'elength are essentially graduated in inches.
(B) "uanta of one(inch wa'elength are not precisely analogous to yardsticks
graduated in inches.
(C) Nuanta of e$tremely long wa'elength/ in at least on e respect/ resemble "uanta
of shorter wa'elength.
() "uanta of on(inch wa'elength and "uanta of e$tremely long wa'elength do not
differ only in their wa'elengths.
(#) "uanta of one(inch wa'elength must be measured by different standards than
GRE 02-
"uanta of e$tremely long wa'elength.
2.. According to the passage/ the "uantum theory can be distinguished from pre'ious
theories of physics by its
(A) insistence on scrupulously precise mathematical formulations
(B) understanding of the inherent interrelationship of percei'er and percei'ed
(C) recognition of the need for sophisticated instruments of measurement
() emphasis on small(scale rather than on large(scale phenomena
(#) regard for philosophical issues as well as for strictly scientific ones
Ti""ie <"sen6s #ction and essays have been wide"y and right"y ac$now"edged as
ma5or contributions to 3merican "iterature. )er wor$ has been particu"ar"y va"ued
by contemporary &eminists. Iet &ew o& <"sen6s readers rea"i+e the e8tent to which
her vision and choice o& sub5ect are rooted in an ear"ier "iterary heritage!the
tradition o& radica" po"itica" thought( most"y socia"ist and anarchist( o& the 19106s
and 19406s( and the <"d Je&t tradition o& the 19706s. 2 do not mean that one can
ade-uate"y e8p"ain the e"o-uence o& her wor$ in terms o& its po"itica" origins( or
that "e&t-wing po"itics were the sing"e most important inDuence on it. By point is
that its centra" consciousness!its pro&ound understanding o& c"ass and gender as
shaping inDuences on peop"e6s "ives!owes much to that ear"ier "iterary heritage(
a heritage that( in genera"( has not been su*cient"y va"ued by most contemporary
"iterary critics.
20. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) argue that 8lsen4s understanding of class and gender is her greatest gift as a
writer
(B) acknowledge 8lsen4s importance as the leading spokesperson for a radical
literary heritage
(C) point out a literary heritage to which 8lsen4s work is related
() urge literary critics to in'estigate the origins of a literary heritage
(#) suggest that 8lsen4s work has been placed in a literary heritage to which it
does not belong
21. According to the author/ which of the following is true of the heritage mentioned
in the passage%
(A) 3t emphasi!es gender as the determinate influence on people4s li'es.
(B) 3t has been the most important influence on 8lsen4s work.
(C) 3t includes political traditions that span three decades of the twentieth century.
() 3t e$plains the elo"uence but not the sub<ect matter of 8lsen4s work.
(#) 3t reflects primarily the de'elopment of socialist political thought in the early
twentieth century.
22. 3n the sentence *3 do not R influence on it+ (lines 15(10)/ the author dos which of
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the following%
(A) Broadens an e$isting classification.
(B) Contradicts the passage4s central thesis.
(C) Nualifies a commonly accepted point of 'iew.
() @resents conflicting e$planations for a phenomenon.
(#) enies possible interpretations of an earlier assertion.
2-. According to the author/ 8lsen4s work has been
(A) rightly acknowledged for its contribution to political thought
(B) thought to represent the beginning of new literary tradition
(C) a needed impetus for social change
() most clearly influenced by feminism
(#) deser'edly admired by readers
SECTION B
%urrent"y( the paramount prob"em in the #e"d o& biomateria"s( the science o&
rep"acing diseased tissue with human-made imp"ants( is contro" over the inter&ace(
or sur&ace( between imp"anted biomateria"s and "iving tissues. The physica"
properties o& most tissues can be matched by care&u" se"ection o& raw materia"sA
meta"s( ceramics( or severa" varieties o& po"ymer materia"s. @ven the re-uirement
that biomateria"s processed &rom these materia"s be nonto8ic to host tissue can
be met by techni-ues derived &rom studying the reactions o& tissue cu"tures to
biomateria"s or &rom short-term imp"ants. 'ut achieving necessary matches in
physica" properties across inter&aces between "iving and non-"iving matter re-uires
$now"edge o& which mo"ecu"es contro" the bonding o& ce""s to each other!an area
that we have not yet e8p"ored thorough"y. 3"though recent research has a""owed
us to stabi"i+e the tissue-biomateria" inter&ace by contro""ing either the chemica"
reactions or the microstructure o& the biomateria"( our &undamenta" understanding
o& how imp"ant devices adhere to tissues remains woe&u""y incomp"ete.
1-. According to the passage/ the ma<or problem currently facing scientists in the field
of biomaterials is
(A) assessing and regulating the bonding between host tissue and implants
(B) controlling the transfer of potentially to$ic materials across the interface of
tissue and implant
(C) disco'ering new materials from which to construct implant de'ices
() deciding in what situations implants are needed
(#) determining the importance of short(term implants to long(term stability of
tissue(implant interfaces
16. The passage suggests which of the following about the recent research mentioned
GRE 02,
in lines 1,(21%
(A) 3t has sol'ed one set of problems but has created another.
(B) 3t has concentrated on secondary concerns but has ignored primary concerns.
(C) 3t has impro'ed practical applications of biomaterial technology without
pro'iding a complete theoretical e$planation of that impro'ement.
() 3t has thoroughly in'estigated properties of biomaterials but has paid little
attention to rele'ant characteristics of human tissue.
(#) 3t has pro'ided considerable information on short(term implant technology but
little on long(term implant technology.
1,. The author4s primary purpose is to
(A) answer a theoretical "uestion in the field of biomaterials
(B) discuss the current state of technology in the field of biomaterials
(C) resol'e a research dispute in the field of biomaterial
() predict an ethical crisis for biomaterials researchers
(#) suggest some practical benefits of biomaterial implants
2s"amic "aw is a particu"ar"y instructive e8amp"e o& >sacred "aw.? 2s"amic "aw is a
phenomenon so di1erent &rom a"" other &orms o& "aw!notwithstanding( o& course(
a considerab"e and inevitab"e number o& coincidences with one or the other o&
them as &ar as sub5ect matter and positive enactments are concerned!that its
study is indispensab"e in order to appreciate ade-uate"y the &u"" range o& possib"e
"ega" phenomena. @ven the two other representatives o& sacred "aw that are
historica""y and geographica""y nearest to it( Cewish "aw and Roman %atho"ic canon
"aw( are perceptib"y di1erent.
'oth Cewish "aw and canon "aw are more uni&orm than 2s"amic "aw. Though
historica""y there is a discernib"e brea$ between Cewish "aw o& the sovereign state
o& ancient 2srae" and o& the Kiaspora (the dispersion o& Cewish peop"e a&ter the
con-uest o& 2srae")( the spirit o& the "ega" matter in "ater parts o& the <"d
Testament is very c"ose to that o& the Ta"mud( one o& the primary codi#cations o&
Cewish "aw in the Kiaspora. 2s"am( on the other hand( represented a radica"
brea$away &rom the 3rab paganism that preceded it= 2s"amic "aw is the resu"t o& an
e8amination( &rom a re"igious ang"e( o& "ega" sub5ect matter that was &ar &rom
uni&orm( comprising as it did the various components o& the "aws o& pre-2s"amic
3rabia and numerous "ega" e"ements ta$en over &rom the non-3rab peop"es o& the
con-uered territories. 3"" this was uni#ed by being sub5ected to the same $ind o&
re"igious scrutiny( the impact o& which varied great"y( being a"most none8istent in
some #e"ds( and in others originating nove" institutions. This centra" dua"ity o&
"ega" sub5ect matter and re"igious norm is additiona" to the variety o& "ega"(
ethica"( and ritua" ru"es that is typica" o& sacred "aw.
2n its re"ation to the secu"ar state( 2s"amic "aw di1ered &rom both Cewish and
canon "aw. Cewish "aw was buttressed by the cohesion o& the community(
0.5 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
rein&orced by pressure &rom outside= its ru"es are the direct e8pression o& this
&ee"ing o& cohesion( tending toward the accommodation o& dissent. %anon and
2s"amic aw( on the contrary( were dominated by the dua"ism o& re"igion and state(
where the state was not( in contrast with Cudaism( an a"ien power but the po"itica"
e8pression o& the same re"igion. 'ut the conDict between state and re"igion too$
di1erent &orms= in %hristianity it appeared as the strugg"e &or po"itica" power on
the part o& a tight"y organi+ed ecc"esiastica" hierarchy( and canon "aw was one o&
its po"itica" weapons. 2s"amic "aw( on the other hand( was never supported by an
organi+ed institution= conse-uent"y( there never deve"oped an overt tria" o&
strength. There mere"y e8isted discordance between app"ication o& the sacred "aw
and many o& the regu"ations &ramed by 2s"amic states= this antagonism varied
according to p"ace and time.
25. The author4s purpose in comparing 3slamic law to Aewish law and canon law is
most probably to
(A) contend that traditional legal sub<ect matter does not play a large role in
3slamic law
(B) support his argument that 3slamic law is a uni"ue kind of legal phenomenon
(C) emphasi!e the 'ariety of forms that can all be considered sacred law
() pro'ide an e$ample of how he belie'es comparati'e institutional study should
be undertaken
(#) argue that geographical and historical pro$imity does not necessarily lead to
parallel institutional de'elopment
21. The passage pro'ides information to answer which of the following "uestions%
(A) oes 3slamic law depend on sources other than Arab legal principles%
(B) &hat secular practices of 3slamic states conflicted with 3slamic law%
(C) Are Aewish law and canon law the most typical e$amples of sacred law%
() 3s Aewish law more uniform than canon law%
(#) &hat characteri!ed Arab law of the pre(3slamic era%
22. According to the passage/ which of the following statements about sacred law is
correct%
(A) The 'arious systems of sacred law originated in a limited geographical area.
(B) The 'arious systems of sacred law ha'e had marked influence on one another.
(C) ;ystems of sacred law usually rely on a wide 'ariety of precedents.
() ;ystems of sacred law generally contain prescriptions go'erning di'erse
aspects of human acti'ity.
(#) ;ystems of sacred law function most effecti'ely in communities with relati'ely
small populations.
2.. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the application of 3slamic law in 3slamic
states has
GRE 0.1
(A) systematically been opposed by groups who belie'e it is contrary to their
interests
(B) suffered irreparably from the lack of firm institutional backing
(C) fre"uently been at odds with the legal acti'ity of go'ernment institutions
() remained unaffected by the political forces operating alongside it
(#) benefited from the fact that it ne'er e$perienced a direct confrontation with the
state
20. &hich of the following most accurately describes the organi!ation of the passage%
(A) A uni'ersal principle is ad'anced and then discussed in relation to a particular
historical phenomenon.
(B) A methodological inno'ation is suggested and then e$amples of its efficacy are
pro'ided.
(C) A traditional interpretation is "uestioned and then modified to include new
data.
() A general opinion is e$pressed and then supporti'e illustrations are ad'anced.
(#) A contro'ersial 'iewpoint is presented and then both supporti'e e'idence and
contradictory e'idence are cited.
21. The passage implies that the relationship of 3slamic/ Aewish/ and canon law is
correctly described by which of the following statements%
3. Because each constitutes an e$ample of sacred law/ they necessarily share
some features.
33. They each de'eloped in reaction to the interference of secular political
institutions.
333. The differences among them result partly from their differing emphasis on
purely ethical rules.
(A) 3 only
(B) 333 only
(C) 3 and 33 only
() 33 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
22. The passage suggests that canon law differs from 3slamic law in that only canon
law
(A) contains prescriptions that nonsacred legal systems might regard as properly
legal
(B) concerns itself with the duties of a person in regard to the community as a
whole
(C) was affected by the tension of the conflict between religion and state
() de'eloped in a political en'ironment that did not challenge its fundamental
0.2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
e$istence
(#) played a role in the direct confrontation between institutions 'ying for power
2-. All of the following statements about the de'elopment of 3slamic law are implied
in the passage #DC#@TE
(A) @re(3slamic legal principles were incorporated into 3slamic law with widely
differing degrees of change.
(B) i'erse legal elements were <oined together through the application of a purely
religious criterion.
(C) Although some of the sources of 3slamic law were pagan/ its integrity as a
sacred law was not compromised by their incorporation.
() There was a fundamental shared characteristic in all pre(3slamic legal matter
taken o'er by 3slamic law.
(#) Although 3slam emerged among the Arabs/ 3slamic law was influenced by
ethnically di'erse elements.
No. 7-2
SECTION A
@ight percent o& the @arth6s crust is a"uminum( and there are hundreds o&
a"uminum-bearing minera"s and vast -uantities o& the roc$s that contain them.
The best a"uminum ore is bau8ite( de#ned as aggregates o& a"uminous minera"s(
more or "ess impure( in which a"uminum is present as hydrated o8ides. 'au8ite is
the richest o& a"" those a"uminous roc$s that occur in "arge -uantities( and it yie"ds
a"umina( the intermediate product re-uired &or the production o& a"uminum.
3"umina a"so occurs natura""y as the minera" corundum( but corundum is not
&ound in "arge deposits o& high purity( and there&ore it is an impractica" source &or
ma$ing a"uminum. Bost o& the many abundant nonbau8ite a"uminous minera"s
are si"icates( and( "i$e a"" si"icate minera"s( they are re&ractory( resistant to
ana"ysis( and e8treme"y di*cu"t to process. The a"uminum si"icates are there&ore
genera""y unsuitab"e a"ternatives to bau8ite because considerab"y more energy is
re-uired to e8tract a"umina &rom them.
1-. The author implies that a mineral must either be or readily supply which of the
following in order to be classified as an aluminum ore%
(A) An aggregate
(B) Bau$ite
(C) Alumina
() Corundum
(#) An aluminum silicate
16. The passage supplies information for answering all of the following "uestions
GRE 0..
regarding aluminous minerals #DC#@TE
(A) &hat percentage of the aluminum in the #arth4s crust is in the form of
bau$ite%
(B) Are aluminum(bearing nonbau$ite minerals plentiful%
(C) o the aluminous minerals found in bau$ite contain hydrated o$ides%
() Are aluminous hydrated o$ides found in rocks%
(#) o large "uantities of bau$ite e$ist%
1,. The author implies that corundum would be used to produce aluminum if
(A) corundum could be found that is not contaminated by silicates
(B) the production of alumina could be eliminated as an intermediate step in
manufacturing aluminum
(C) many large deposits of 'ery high "uality corundum were to be disco'ered
() new technologies were to make it possible to con'ert corundum to a silicate
(#) manufacturers were to reali!e that the world4s supply of bau$ite is not
unlimited
Traditiona""y( the study o& history has had #8ed boundaries and &oca" points!
periods( countries( dramatic events( and great "eaders. 2t a"so has had c"ear and
#rm notions o& scho"ar"y procedureA how one in-uires into a historica" prob"em(
how one presents and documents one6s #ndings( what constitutes admissib"e and
ade-uate proo&.
3nyone who has &o""owed recent historica" "iterature can testi&y to the
revo"ution that is ta$ing p"ace in historica" studies. The current"y &ashionab"e
sub5ects come direct"y &rom the socio"ogy cata"ogA chi"dhood( wor$( "eisure. The
new sub5ects are accompanied by new methods. ;here history once was primari"y
narrative( it is now entire"y ana"ytic. The o"d -uestions >;hat happenedG? and
>)ow did it happenG? have given way to the -uestion >;hy did it happenG?
9rominent among the methods used to answer the -uestion >;hy? is
psychoana"ysis( and its use has given rise to psychohistory.
9sychohistory does not mere"y use psycho"ogica" e8p"anations in historica"
conte8ts. )istorians have a"ways used such e8p"anations when they were
appropriate and when there was su*cient evidence &or them. 'ut this pragmatic
use o& psycho"ogy is not what psychohistorians intend. They are committed( not
5ust to psycho"ogy in genera"( but to :reudian psychoana"ysis. This commitment
prec"udes a commitment to history as historians have a"ways understood it.
9sychohistory derives its >&acts? not &rom history( the detai"ed records o& events
and their conse-uences( but &rom psychoana"ysis o& the individua"s who made
history( and deduces its theories not &rom this or that instance in their "ives( but
&rom a view o& human nature that transcends history. 2t denies the basic criterion
o& historica" evidenceA that evidence be pub"ic"y accessib"e to( and there&ore
assessab"e by( a"" historians. 3nd it vio"ates the basic tenet o& historica" methodA
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that historians be a"ert to the negative instances that wou"d re&ute their theses.
9sychohistorians( convinced o& the abso"ute rightness o& their own theories( are
a"so convinced that theirs is the >deepest? e8p"anation o& any event( that other
e8p"anations &a"" short o& the truth.
9sychohistory is not content to vio"ate the discip"ine o& history (in the sense o&
the proper mode o& studying and writing about the past)= it a"so vio"ates the past
itse"&. 2t denies to the past an integrity and wi"" o& its own( in which peop"e acted
out o& a variety o& motives and in which events had a mu"tip"icity o& causes and
e1ects. 2t imposes upon the past the same determinism that it imposes upon the
present( thus robbing peop"e and events o& their individua"ity and o& their
comp"e8ity. 2nstead o& respecting the particu"arity o& the past( it assimi"ates a""
events( past and present( into a sing"e deterministic schema that is presumed to
be true at a"" times and in a"" circumstances.
25. &hich of the following best states the main point of the passage%
(A) The approach of psychohistorians to historical study is currently in 'ogue e'en
though it lacks the rigor and 'erifiability of traditional historical method.
(B) Traditional historians can benefit from studying the techni"ues and findings of
psychohistorians.
(C) Areas of sociological study such as childhood and work are of little interest to
traditional historians.
() The psychological assessment of an indi'idual4s beha'ior and attitudes is more
informati'e than the details of his or her daily life.
(#) )istory is composed of uni"ue and nonrepeating e'ents that must be
indi'idually analy!ed on the basis of publicly 'erifiable e'idence.
21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that one way in which traditional history can be
distinguished from psychohistory is that traditional history usually
(A) 'iews past e'ents as comple$ and ha'ing their own indi'iduality
(B) relies on a single interpretation of human beha'ior to e$plain historical e'ents
(C) interprets historical e'ents in such a way that their specific nature is
transcended
() turns to psychological e$planations in historical conte$ts to account for e'ents
(#) relies strictly on data that are concrete and "uantifiable
22. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the methods used by psychohistorians
probably pre'ent them from
(A) presenting their material in chronological order
(B) producing a one(sided picture of an indi'idual4s personality and moti'ations
(C) unco'ering alternati'e e$planations that might cause them to "uestion their
own conclusions
() offering a consistent interpretation of the impact of personality on historical
GRE 0.1
e'ents
(#) recogni!ing connections between a go'ernment4s political actions and the
aspirations of go'ernment leaders
2.. The passage supplies information for answering which of the following "uestions%
(A) &hat are some specific e$amples of the use of psychohistory in historical
interpretation%
(B) &hen were the con'entions go'erning the practice of traditional history first
established%
(C) &hen do traditional historians consider psychological e$planations of
historical de'elopments appropriate%
() &hat sort of historical figure is best suited for psychohistorical analysis%
(#) &hat is the basic criterion of historical e'idence re"uired by traditional
historians%
20. The author mentions which of the following as a characteristic of the practice of
psychohistorians%
(A) The li'es of historical figures are presented in episodic rather than narrati'e
form.
(B) Archi'es used by psychohistorians to gather material are not accessible to
other scholars.
(C) @ast and current e'ents are all placed within the same deterministic schema.
() #'ents in the adult life of a historical figure are seen to be more conse"uential
than are those in the childhood of the figure.
(#) Analysis is focused on group beha'ior rather than on particular e'ents in an
indi'idual4s life.
21. The author of the passage suggests that psychohistorians 'iew history primarily as
(A) a report of e'ents/ causes/ and effects that is generally accepted by historians
but which is/ for the most part/ un'erifiable
(B) an episodic account that lacks cohesion because records of the role of
childhood/ work/ and leisure in the li'es of historical figures are rare
(C) an uncharted sea of seemingly une$plainable e'ents that ha'e meaning only
when e$amined as discrete units
() a record of the way in which a closed set of immutable psychological laws
seems to ha'e shaped e'ents
(#) a proof of the e$istence of intricate causal interrelationships between past and
present e'ents
22. The author of the passage puts the word *deepest+ (line 00) in "uotation marks
most probably in order to
(A) signal her reser'ations about the accuracy of psychohistorians4 claims for their
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work
(B) draw attention to a contradiction in the psychohistorians4 method
(C) emphasi!e the ma<or difference between the traditional historians4 method and
that of psychohistorians
() disassociate her opinion of the psychohistorians4 claims from her opinion of
their method
(#) "uestion the usefulness of psychohistorians4 insights into traditional historical
scholarship
2-. 3n presenting her analysis/ the author does all of the following #DC#@TE
(A) ?ake general statement without reference to specific e$amples.
(B) escribe some of the criteria employed by traditional historians.
(C) Nuestion the ade"uacy of the psychohistorians4 interpretation of e'ents.
() @oint out inconsistencies in the psychohistorians4 application of their methods.
(#) Contrast the underlying assumptions of psychohistorians with those of
traditional historians.
SECTION B
Cean ;agner6s most enduring contribution to the study o& 3&ro-3merican poetry
is his insistence that it be ana"y+ed in a re"igious( as we"" as secu"ar( &rame o&
re&erence. The appropriateness o& such an approach may seem se"&-evident &or a
tradition commencing with spiritua"s and owing its ear"y &orms( rhythms(
vocabu"ary( and evange"ica" &ervor to ;es"eyan hymna"s. 'ut be&ore ;agner a
secu"ar out"oo$ that ana"y+ed '"ac$ poetry so"e"y within the conte8t o& po"itica"
and socia" protest was dominant in the #e"d.
2t is ;agner who #rst demonstrated the essentia" &usion o& racia" and re"igious
&ee"ing in 3&ro-3merican poetry. The two( he argued( &orm a symbiotic union in
which re"igious &ee"ings are o&ten app"ied to racia" issues and racia" prob"ems are
o&ten pro5ected onto a metaphysica" p"ane. ;agner &ound this most e"o-uent"y
i""ustrated in the '"ac$ spiritua"( where the desire &or &reedom in this wor"d and the
hope &or sa"vation in the ne8t are ine8tricab"y intertwined.
1-. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) contrast the theories of Aean &agner with those of other contemporary critics
(B) document the influence of Aean &agner on the de'elopment of Afro(American
poetry
(C) e$plain the rele'ance of Aean &agner4s work to the study of Afro(American
religion
() indicate the importance of Aean &agner4s analysis of Afro(American poetry
(#) present the contributions of Aean &agner to the study of Black spirituals
GRE 0.-
16. All of the following aspects of Afro(American poetry are referred to in the passage
as ha'ing been influenced by &esleyan hymnals #DC#@TE
(A) sub<ect matter
(B) word choice
(C) rhythm
() structure
(#) tone
1,. 3t can be inferred from the passage that/ before &agner/ most students of Afro(
American poetry did which of the following%
(A) Contributed appreciably to the transfer of political protest from Afro(American
poetry to direct political action.
(B) 3gnored at least some of the historical roots of Afro(American poetry.
(C) Analy!ed fully the aspects of social protest to be found in such traditional
forms of Afro(American poetry as the Black spiritual.
() =egarded as unimportant the de'elopment of fer'ent emotionalism in a portion
of Afro(American poetry.
(#) Concentrated on the comple$ relations between the technical elements in Afro(
American poetry and its political content.
Two re"ative"y recent independent deve"opments stand behind the current
ma5or research e1ort on nitrogen #8ation( the process by which bacteria
symbiotica""y render "eguminous p"ants independent o& nitrogen &erti"i+er. The one
deve"opment has been the rapid( sustained increase in the price o& nitrogen
&erti"i+er. The other deve"opment has been the rapid growth o& $now"edge o& and
technica" sophistication in genetic engineering. :erti"i+er prices( "arge"y tied to the
price o& natura" gas( huge amounts o& which go into the manu&acture o& &erti"i+er(
wi"" continue to represent an enormous and esca"ating economic burden on
modern agricu"ture( spurring the search &or a"ternatives to synthetic &erti"i+ers.
3nd genetic engineering is 5ust the sort o& &undamenta" brea$through that opens
up prospects o& who""y nove" a"ternatives. <ne such nove" idea is that o& inserting
into the chromosomes o& p"ants discrete genes that are not a part o& the p"ants6
natura" constitutionA speci#ca""y( the idea o& inserting into non"eguminous p"ants
the genes( i& they can be identi#ed and iso"ated( that #t the "eguminous p"ants to
be hosts &or nitrogen-#8ing bacteria. )ence( the intensi#ed research on "egumes.
,itrogen #8ation is a process in which certain bacteria use atmospheric
nitrogen gas( which green p"ants cannot direct"y uti"i+e( to produce ammonia( a
nitrogen compound p"ants can use. 2t is one o& nature6s great ironies that the
avai"abi"ity o& nitrogen in the soi" &re-uent"y sets an upper "imit on p"ant growth
even though the p"ants6 "eaves are bathed in a sea o& nitrogen gas. The
"eguminous p"ants!among them crop p"ants such as soybeans( peas( a"&a"&a( and
c"over!have so"ved the nitrogen supp"y prob"em by entering into a symbiotic
re"ationship with the bacteria" genus *hi1o$ium= as a matter o& &act( there is a
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speci#c strain o& *hi1o$ium &or each species o& "egume. The host p"ant supp"ies
the bacteria with &ood and a protected habitat and receives surp"us ammonia in
e8change. )ence( "egumes can thrive in nitrogen-dep"eted soi".
Un&ortunate"y( most o& the ma5or &ood crops!inc"uding mai+e( wheat( rice( and
potatoes!cannot. <n the contrary( many o& the high-yie"ding hybrid varieties o&
these &ood crops bred during the Ereen Revo"ution o& the 19L06s were se"ected
speci#ca""y to give high yie"ds in response to generous app"ications o& nitrogen
&erti"i+er. This poses an additiona"( &ormidab"e cha""enge to p"ant geneticistsA they
must wor$ on enhancing #8ation within the e8isting symbioses. Un"ess they
succeed( the yie"d gains o& the Ereen Revo"ution wi"" be "arge"y "ost even i& the
genes in "egumes that e-uip those p"ants to enter into a symbiosis with nitrogen
#8ers are identi#ed and iso"ated( and even i& the trans&er o& those gene
comp"e8es( once they are &ound( becomes possib"e. The overa"" tas$ "oo$s
&orbidding( but the sta$es are too high not to underta$e it.
25. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) e$pose the fragile nature of the foundations on which the high yields of
modern agriculture rest
(B) argue that genetic engineering promises to lead to e'en higher yields than are
achie'able with synthetic fertili!ers
(C) argue that the capacity for nitrogen(fi$ing symbioses is transferable to
nonleguminous plants
() e$plain the reasons for and the ob<ecti'es of current research on nitrogen(
fi$ing symbioses
(#) describe the nature of the genes that regulate the symbiosis between legumes
and certain bacteria
21. According to the passage/ there is currently no strain of "hi.obiu- that can enter
into a symbiosis with
(A) alfalfa
(B) clo'er
(C) mai!e
() peas
(#) soybeans
22. The passage implies that which of the following is true of the bacterial genus
"hi.obiu-%
(A) "hi.obiu- bacteria are found primarily in nitrogen(depleted soils.
(B) ;ome strains of "hi.obiu- are not capable of entering into a symbiosis with
any plant.
(C) 9ewly bred 'arieties of legumes cannot be hosts to any strain of "hi.obiu-.
() "hi.obiu- bacteria cannot sur'i'e outside the protected habitat pro'ided by
GRE 0.,
host plants.
(#) "hi.obiu- bacteria produce some ammonia for their own purposes.
2.. 3t can be inferred from the passage that which of the following was the most
influential factor in bringing about intensified research on nitrogen fi$ation%
(A) The high yields of the Breen =e'olution
(B) The persistent upward surge in natural gas prices
(C) The 'ariety of "hi.obiu- strains
() The mechani!ation of modern agriculture
(#) The en'ironmental ill effects of synthetic fertili!ers
20. &hich of the following situations is most closely analogous to the situation
described by the author as one of nature4s great ironies (lines 26(.2)%
(A) That of a farmer whose crops ha'e failed because the normal midseason rains
did not materiali!e and no preparations for irrigation had been made
(B) That of a long(distance runner who loses a marathon race because of a wrong
turn that cost him twenty seconds
(C) That of shipwrecked sailors at sea in a lifeboat/ with one flask of drinking
water to share among them
() That of a motorist who runs out of gas a mere fi'e miles from the nearest gas
station
(#) That of tra'elers who want to reach their destination as fast and as cheaply as
possible/ but find that cost increases as tra'el speed increases
21. According to the passage/ the ultimate goal of the current research on nitrogen
fi$ation is to de'elop
(A) strains of "hi.obiu- that can enter into symbioses with e$isting 'arieties of
wheat/ rice/ and other nonlegumes
(B) strains of "hi.obiu- that produce more ammonia for leguminous host plants
than do any of the strains presently known
(C) 'arieties of wheat/ rice/ and other nonlegumes that yield as much as do
e$isting 'arieties/ but re"uire less nitrogen
() 'arieties of wheat/ rice/ and other nonlegumes that maintain an ade"uate
symbiotic relationship with nitrogen(fi$ing bacteria and produce high yields
(#) high(yielding 'arieties of wheat/ rice/ and other nonlegumes that are
genetically e"uipped to fi$ nitrogen from the air without the aid of bacteria
22. The author regards the research program under discussion as
(A) original and e$tensi'e but ill(defined as to method
(B) necessary and ambitious but 'ulnerable to failure
(C) cogent and worthwhile but se'erely under(funded
() prohibiti'ely e$pensi'e but conceptually elegant
005 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(#) theoretically fascinating but practically useless
2-. ?ost nearly parallel/ in its fundamental approach/ to the research program
described in the passage would be a program designed to
(A) achie'e greater frost resistance in frost(tender food plants by means of
selecti'e breeding/ thereby e$panding those plants4 area of culti'ation
(B) achie'e greater yields from food plants by interplanting crop plants that are
mutually beneficial
(C) find ine$pensi'e and abundant natural substances that could/ without reducing
yields/ be substituted for e$pensi'e synthetic fertili!ers
() change the genetic makeup of food plants that cannot li'e in water with high
salinity/ using genes from plants adapted to salt water
(#) de'elop/ through genetic engineering/ a genetic configuration for the ma<or
food plants that impro'es the storage characteristics of the edible portion of the
plants
No. 7-3
SECTION A
<& )omer6s two epic poems( the 4dyssey has a"ways been more popu"ar than
the )liad( perhaps because it inc"udes more &eatures o& mytho"ogy that are
accessib"e to readers. 2ts sub5ect (to use Baynard Bac$6s categories) is >"i&e-as-
spectac"e(? &or readers( diverted by its various incidents( observe its hero
<dysseus primari"y &rom without= the tragic )liad( however( presents >"i&e-as-
e8perience?A readers are as$ed to identi&y with the mind o& 3chi""es( whose
motivations render him a not particu"ar"y "i$ab"e hero. 2n addition( the )liad( more
than the 4dyssey( suggests the comp"e8ity o& the gods6 invo"vement in human
actions( and to the e8tent that modern readers #nd this comp"e8ity a need"ess
comp"ication( the )liad is "ess satis&ying than the 4dyssey( with its simp"er scheme
o& divine 5ustice. :ina""y( since the )liad presents a historica""y veri#ab"e action(
Troy6s siege( the poem raises historica" -uestions that are absent &rom the
4dysseys b"ithe"y imaginative wor"d.
1-. The author uses ?ack4s *categories+ (lines 0(1) most probably in order to
(A) argue that the /liad should replace the 0dyssey as the more popular poem
(B) indicate ?ack4s importance as a commentator on the /liad and the 0dyssey
(C) suggest one way in which the /liad and the 0dyssey can be distinguished
() point out some of the difficulties faced by readers of the /liad and the 0dyssey
(#) demonstrate that the /liad and the 0dyssey can best be distinguished by
comparing their respecti'e heroes
16. The author suggests that the 'ariety of incidents in the 0dyssey is likely to deter
GRE 001
the reader from
(A) concentrating on the poem4s mythological features
(B) concentrating on the psychological states of the poem4s central character
(C) accepting the e$planation that ha'e been offered for the poem4s popularity
() accepting the poem4s scheme of di'ine <ustice
(#) accepting ?aynard ?ack4s theory that the poem4s sub<ect is *life(as(spectacle+
1,. The passage is primarily concerned with
(A) distinguishing arguments
(B) applying classifications
(C) initiating a debate
() resol'ing a dispute
(#) de'eloping a contrast
25. 3t can be inferred from the passage that a reader of the /liad is likely to ha'e
trouble identifying with the poem4s hero for which of the following reasons%
(A) The hero is e'entually re'ealed to be unheroic.
(B) The hero can be obser'ed by the reader only from without.
(C) The hero4s psychology is not historically 'erifiable.
() The hero4s emotions often do not seem appealing to the reader.
(#) The hero4s emotions are not sufficiently 'arious to engage the reader4s
attention.
:"at#sh( such as the Dounder( are among the &ew vertebrates that "ac$
appro8imate bi"atera" symmetry (symmetry in which structures to the "e&t and
right o& the body6s mid"ine are mirror images). Bost stri$ing among the many
asymmetries evident in an adu"t Dat#sh is eye p"acementA be&ore maturity one
eye migrates( so that in an adu"t Dat#sh both eyes are on the same side o& the
head. ;hi"e in most species with asymmetries virtua""y a"" adu"ts share the same
asymmetry( members o& the starry Dounder species can be either "e&t-eyed (both
eyes on the "e&t side o& head) or right-eyed. 2n the waters between the United
tates and Capan( the starry Dounder popu"ations vary &rom about /0 percent "e&t-
eyed o1 the United tates ;est %oast( through about 70 percent "e&t-eyed ha"&way
between the United tates and Capan( to near"y 100 percent "e&t-eyed o1 the
Capanese coast.
'io"ogists ca"" this $ind o& gradua" variation over a certain geographic range a
>c"ine? and interpret c"ines as strong indications that the variation is adaptive( a
response to environmenta" di1erences. :or the starry Dounder this interpretation
imp"ies that a geometric di1erence (between #sh that are mirror images o& one
another) is adaptive( that "e&t-eyedness in the Capanese starry Dounder has been
se"ected &or( which provo$es a perp"e8ing -uestionsA what is the se"ective
advantage in having both eyes on one side rather than on the otherG
002 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
The ease with which a #sh can reverse the e1ect o& the sidedness o& its eye
asymmetry simp"y by turning around has caused bio"ogists to study interna"
anatomy( especia""y the optic nerves( &or the answer. 2n a"" Dat#sh the optic nerves
cross( so that the right optic nerve is 5oined to the brain6s "e&t side and vice versa.
This crossing introduces an asymmetry( as one optic nerve must cross above or
be"ow the other. E. ). 9ar$er reasoned that i&( &or e8amp"e( a Dat#sh6s "e&t eye
migrated when the right optic nerve was on top( there wou"d be a twisting o&
nerves( which might be mechanica""y disadvantageous. :or starry Dounders( then(
the "e&t-eyed variety wou"d be se"ected against( since in a starry Dounder the "e&t
optic nerve is uppermost.
The prob"em with the above e8p"anation is that the Capanese starry Dounder
popu"ation is a"most e8c"usive"y "e&t-eyed( an natura" se"ection never promotes a
pure"y "ess advantageous variation. 3s other e8p"anations proved e-ua""y
untenab"e( bio"ogists conc"uded that there is no important adaptive di1erence
between "e&t-eyedness and right-eyedness( and that the two characteristics are
genetica""y associated with some other adaptive"y signi#cant characteristic. This
situation is one common"y encountered by evo"utionary bio"ogists( who must o&ten
decide whether a characteristic is adaptive or se"ective"y neutra". 3s &or the "e&t-
eyed and right-eyed Dat#sh( their di1erence( however stri$ing( appears to be an
evo"utionary red herring.
21. According to the passage/ starry flounder differ from most other species of flatfish
in that starry flounder
(A) are not basically bilaterally symmetric
(B) do not become asymmetric until adulthood
(C) do not all share the same asymmetry
() ha'e both eyes on the same side of the head
(#) tend to cluster in only certain geographic regions
22. The author would be most likely to agree with which of the following statements
about left(eyedness and right(eyedness in the starry flounder%
3. They are adapti'e 'ariations by the starry flounder to en'ironmental
differences.
33. They do not seem to gi'e ob'ious selecti'e ad'antages to the starry flounder.
333. They occur in different proportions in different locations.
(A) 3 only
(B) 33 only
(C) 3 and 333 only
() 33 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
2.. According to the passage/ a possible disad'antage associated with eye migration in
GRE 00.
flatfish is that the optic ner'es can
(A) adhere to one another
(B) detach from the eyes
(C) cross
() stretch
(#) twist
20. &hich of the following best describes the organi!ation of the passage as a whole%
(A) A phenomenon is described and an interpretation presented and re<ected.
(B) A generali!ation is made and supporting e'idence is supplied and weighed.
(C) A contradiction is noted and a resolution is suggested and then modified.
() A series of obser'ations is presented and e$plained in terms of the dominant
theory.
(#) A hypothesis is introduced and corroborated in the light of new e'idence.
21. The passage supplies information for answering which of the following "uestions%
(A) &hy are Aapanese starry flounder mostly left(eyed%
(B) &hy should the eye(sidedness in starry flounder be considered selecti'ely
neutral%
(C) &hy ha'e biologists recently become interested in whether a characteristic is
adapti'e or selecti'ely neutral%
() )ow do the eyes in flatfish migrate%
(#) )ow did @arker make his disco'eries about the anatomy of optic ner'es in
flatfish%
22. &hich of the following is most clearly similar to a cline as it is described in the
second paragraph of the passage%
(A) A 'egetable market in which the 'arious items are grouped according to place
of origin
(B) A wheat field in which different 'arieties of wheat are planted to yield a crop
that will bring the ma$imum profit
(C) A flower stall in which the 'arious species of flowers are arranged according to
their price
() A housing de'elopment in which the length of the front struts supporting the
porch of each house increases as houses are built up the hill
(#) A national park in which the ranger stations are placed so as to be
inconspicuous/ and yet as easily accessible as possible
2-. &hich of the following phrases from the passage best e$presses the author4s
conclusion about the meaning of the difference between left(eyed and right(eyed
flatfish%
000 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(A) *?ost striking+ (line 0)
(B) *'ariation is adapti'e+ (line 1,)
(C) *mechanically disad'antageous+ (lines .-.6)
() *adapti'ely significant+ (lines 06(0,)
(#) *e'olutionary red herring+ (line 10)
SECTION B
2& a supernova (the e8p"osion o& a massive star) triggered star &ormation &rom
dense c"ouds o& gas and dust( and i& the most massive star to be &ormed &rom the
c"oud evo"ved into a supernova and triggered a new round o& star &ormation( and
so on( then a chain o& star-&orming regions wou"d resu"t. 2& many such chains were
created in a di1erentia""y rotating ga"a8y( the distribution o& stars wou"d resemb"e
the observed distribution in a spira" ga"a8y.
This "ine o& reasoning under"ies an e8citing new theory o& spira"-ga"a8y
structure. 3 computer simu"ation based on this theory has reproduced the
appearance o& many spira" ga"a8ies without assuming an under"ying density wave(
the ha""mar$ o& the most wide"y accepted theory o& the "arge-sca"e structure o&
spira" ga"a8ies. That theory maintains that a density wave o& spira" &orm sweeps
through the centra" p"ane o& a ga"a8y( compressing c"ouds o& gas and dust( which
co""apse into stars that &orm a spira" pattern.
1-. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) describe what results when a superno'a triggers the creation of chains of star(
forming regions
(B) propose a modification in the most widely accepted theory of spiral(gala$y
structure
(C) compare and contrast the roles of clouds of gas and dust in two theories of
spiral(gala$y structure
() describe a new theory of spiral(gala$y structure and contrast it with the most
widely accepted theory
(#) describe a new theory of spiral(gala$y structure and discuss a reason why it is
inferior to the most widely accepted theory
16. The passage implies that/ according to the new theory of spiral(gala$y structure/ a
spiral gala$y can be created by superno'as when the superno'as are
(A) producing an underlying density wa'e
(B) affected by a density wa'e of spiral form
(C) distributed in a spiral pattern
() located in the central plane of a gala$y
(#) located in a differentially rotating gala$y
GRE 001
1,. &hich of the following/ if true/ would most discredit the new theory as described
in the passage%
(A) The e$act mechanism by which a star becomes a superno'a is not yet
completely known and may e'en differ for different stars.
(B) Chains of star(forming regions like those postulated in the new theory ha'e
been obser'ed in the 'icinity of dense clouds of gas and dust.
(C) The most massi'e stars formed from superno'a e$plosions are unlikely to
e'ol'e into superno'as.
() Computer simulations of superno'as pro'ide a poor picture of what occurs <ust
before a superno'a e$plosion.
(#) A density wa'e cannot compress clouds of gas and dust to a density high
enough to create a star.
25. The author4s attitude toward the new theory of spiral(gala$y structure can best be
described as
(A) euphoric
(B) enthusiastic
(C) concerned
() critical
(#) disputatious
The #rst mention o& s"avery in the statutes o& the @ng"ish co"onies o& ,orth
3merica does not occur unti" a&ter 1LL0!some &orty years a&ter the importation o&
the #rst '"ac$ peop"e. Jest we thin$ that s"avery e8isted in &act be&ore it did in
"aw( <scar and Bary )and"in assure us that the status o& '"ac$ peop"e down to the
1LL06s was that o& servants. 3 criti-ue o& the )and"ins6 interpretation o& why "ega"
s"avery did not appear unti" the 1LL06s suggests that assumptions about the
re"ation between s"avery and racia" pre5udice shou"d be ree8amined( and that
e8p"anations &or the di1erent treatment o& '"ac$ s"aves in ,orth and outh
3merica shou"d be e8panded.
The )and"ins e8p"ain the appearance o& "ega" s"avery by arguing that( during
the 1LL06s( the position o& ;hite servants was improving re"ative to that o& '"ac$
servants. Thus( the )and"ins contend( '"ac$ and ;hite servants( hereto&ore
treated a"i$e( each attained a di1erent status. There are( however( important
ob5ections to this argument. :irst( the )and"ins cannot ade-uate"y demonstrate
that the ;hite servant6s position was improving during and a&ter the 1LL06s=
severa" acts o& the Bary"and and Firginia "egis"atures indicate otherwise. 3nother
Daw in the )and"ins6 interpretation is their assumption that prior to the
estab"ishment o& "ega" s"avery there was no discrimination against '"ac$ peop"e. 2t
is true that be&ore the 1LL06s '"ac$ peop"e were rare"y ca""ed s"aves. 'ut this
shou"d not overshadow evidence &rom the 1L706s on that points to racia"
discrimination without using the term s"avery. uch discrimination sometimes
stopped short o& "i&etime servitude or inherited status!the two attributes o& true
002 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
s"avery!yet in other cases it inc"uded both. The )and"ins6 argument e8c"udes the
rea" possibi"ity that '"ac$ peop"e in the @ng"ish co"onies were never treated as the
e-ua"s o& ;hite peop"e.
This possibi"ity has important rami#cations. 2& &rom the outset '"ac$ peop"e
were discriminated against( then "ega" s"avery shou"d be viewed as a reDection
and an e8tension o& racia" pre5udice rather than( as many historians inc"uding the
)and"ins have argued( the cause o& pre5udice. 2n addition( the e8istence o&
discrimination be&ore the advent o& "ega" s"avery o1ers a &urther e8p"anation &or
the harsher treatment o& '"ac$ s"aves in ,orth than in outh 3merica. :reyre and
Tannenbaum have right"y argued that the "ac$ o& certain traditions in ,orth
3merica!such as a Roman conception o& s"avery and a Roman %atho"ic emphasis
on e-ua"ity!e8p"ains why the treatment o& '"ac$ s"aves was more severe there
than in the panish and 9ortuguese co"onies o& outh 3merica. 'ut this cannot be
the who"e e8p"anation since it is mere"y negative( based on"y on a "ac$ o&
something. 3 more compe""ing e8p"anation is that the ear"y and sometimes
e8treme racia" discrimination in the @ng"ish co"onies he"ped determine the
particu"ar nature o& the s"avery that &o""owed.
21. &hich of the following statements best describes the organi!ation of lines 1(6 of
the passage%
(A) A historical trend is sketched and an e$ception to that trend is cited.
(B) #'idence for a historical irregularity is mentioned and a generali!ation from
that e'idence is ad'anced.
(C) A parado$ about the origins of an institution is pointed out and the author4s
e$planation of the parado$ is e$pounded.
() A statement about a historical phenomenon is offered and a possible
misinterpretation of that statement is addressed.
(#) An interpretation of the rise of an institution is stated and e'idence for that
interpretation is pro'ided.
22. &hich of the following is the most logical inference to be drawn from the passage
about the effects of *se'eral acts of the ?aryland and Cirginia legislatures+ (lines
22(2.) passed during and after the 12254s%
(A) The acts negati'ely affected the pre(12254s position of Black as well as of
&hite ser'ants.
(B) The acts had the effect of impairing rather than impro'ing the position of
&hite ser'ants relati'e to what it had been before the 12254s.
(C) The acts had a different effect o n the position of &hite ser'ants than did many
of the acts passed during this time by the legislatures of other colonies.
() The acts/ at the 'ery least/ caused the position of &hite ser'ants to remain no
better than it had been before the 12254s.
(#) The acts/ at the 'ery least/ tended to reflect the attitudes toward Black ser'ants
GRE 00-
that already e$isted before the 12254s.
2.. &ith which of the following statements regarding the status of Black people in the
#nglish colonies of 9orth America before the 12254s would the author be K#A;T
likely to agree%
(A) Although Black people were not legally considered to be sla'es/ they were
often called sla'es.
(B) Although sub<ect to some discrimination/ Black people had a higher legal
status than they did after the 12254s.
(C) Although sometimes sub<ect to lifetime ser'itude/ Black people were not
legally considered to be sla'es.
() Although often not treated the same as &hite people/ Black people/ like many
&hite people/ possessed the legal status of ser'ants.
(#) Although apparently sub<ect to more discrimination after 12.5 than before
12.5/ Black people from 1225 to the 12254s were legally considered to be
ser'ants.
20. According to the passage/ the )andlins ha'e argued which of the following about
the relationship between racial pre<udice and the institution of legal sla'ery in the
#nglish colonies of 9orth America%
(A) =acial pre<udice and the institution of sla'ery arose simultaneously.
(B) =acial pre<udice most often took the form of the imposition of inherited status/
one of the attributes of sla'ery.
(C) The source of racial pre<udice was the institution of sla'ery.
() Because of the influence of the =oman Catholic church/ racial pre<udice
sometimes did not result in sla'ery.
(#) Although e$isting in a lesser form before the 12254s/ racial pre<udice increased
sharply after sla'ery was legali!ed.
21. The passage suggests that the e$istence of a =oman conception of sla'ery in
;panish and @ortuguese colonies had the effect of
(A) e$tending rather than causing racial pre<udice in these colonies
(B) hastening the legali!ation of sla'ery in these colonies
(C) mitigating some of the conditions of sla'ery for Black people in these colonies
() delaying the introduction of sla'ery into the #nglish colonies
(#) bringing about an impro'ement in the treatment of Black sla'es in the #nglish
colonies
22. The author considers the e$planation put forward by >reyre and Tannenbaum for
the treatment accorded Black sla'es in the #nglish colonies of 9orth America to be
(A) ambitious but misguided
(B) 'alid but limited
006 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(C) popular but suspect
() anachronistic and contro'ersial
(#) premature and illogical
2-. &ith which of the following statements regarding the reason for the introduction
of legal sla'ery in the #nglish colonies of 9orth America would the author be most
likely to agree%
(A) The introduction is partly to be e$plained by reference to the origins of
sla'ery/ before the 12254s/ in the ;panish and @ortuguese colonies.
(B) The introduction is to be e$plained by reference to a growing consensus
beginning in the 12.54s about what were the attributes of true sla'ery.
(C) The introduction is more likely to be e$plained by reference to a decline than
to an impro'ement in the position of &hite ser'ants in the colonies during and
after the 12254s.
() The introduction is more likely to be e$plained by reference to the position of
Black ser'ants in the colonies in the 12.54s than by reference to their position
in the 12054s and 12154s.
(#) The introduction is more likely to be e$plained by reference to the history of
Black people in the colonies before 1225 than by reference to the impro'ing
position of &hite ser'ants during and after the 12254s.
No. 8-1
SECTION A
Eeo"ogists have "ong $nown that the @arth6s mant"e is heterogeneous( but its
spatia" arrangement remains unreso"ved!is the mant"e essentia""y "ayered or
irregu"ar"y heterogeneousG The best evidence &or the "ayered mant"e thesis is the
we""-estab"ished &act that vo"canic roc$s &ound on oceanic is"ands( is"ands be"ieved
to resu"t &rom mant"e p"umes arising &rom the "ower mant"e( are composed o&
materia" &undamenta""y di1erent &rom that o& the midocean ridge system( whose
source( most geo"ogists contend( is the upper mant"e.
ome geo"ogists( however( on the basis o& observations concerning mant"e
8eno"iths( argue that the mant"e is not "ayered( but that heterogeneity is created
by Duids rich in >incompatib"e e"ements? (e"ements tending toward "i-uid rather
than so"id state) perco"ating upward and trans&orming portions o& the upper
mant"e irregu"ar"y( according to the vagaries o& the Duids6 pathways. ;e be"ieve(
perhaps unimaginative"y( that this debate can be reso"ved through &urther study(
and that the undere8p"ored midocean ridge system is the $ey.
1-. &hich of the following best e$presses the main idea of the passage%
(A) Current theories regarding the structure of the #arth4s mantle cannot account
GRE 00,
for new disco'eries regarding the composition of mantle $enoliths.
(B) There are conflicting hypotheses about the heterogeneity of the #arth4s mantle
because few mantle elements ha'e been thoroughly studied.
(C) >urther research is needed to resol'e the debate among geologists o'er the
composition of the midocean ridge system.
() There is clear(cut disagreement within the geological community o'er the
structure of the #arth4s mantle.
(#) There has recently been a strong and e$citing challenge to geologists4 long(
standing belief in the heterogeneity of the #arth4s mantle.
16. According to the passage/ it is belie'ed that oceanic islands are formed from
(A) the same material as mantle $enoliths
(B) the same material as the midocean ridge system
(C) 'olcanic rocks from the upper mantle
() incompatible elements percolating up from the lower mantle
(#) mantle plumes arising from the lower mantle
1,. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the supporters of the *layered(mantle+
theory belie'e which of the following%
3. The 'olcanic rocks on oceanic islands are composed of material deri'ed from
the lower part of the mantle.
33. The materials of which 'olcanic rocks on oceanic islands and midocean ridges
are composed are typical of the layers from which they are thought to
originate.
333. The differences in composition between 'olcanic rocks on oceanic islands and
the midocean ridges are a result of different concentrations of incompatible
elements.
(A) 3 only
(B) 333 only
(C) 3 and 33 only
() 33 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
25. The authors suggest that their proposal for determining the nature of the mantle4s
heterogeneity might be considered by many to be
(A) pedestrian
(B) contro'ersial
(C) unrealistic
() no'el
(#) parado$ical
015 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
Bany "iterary detectives have pored over a great pu++"e concerning the writer
Barce" 9roustA what happened in 1909G )ow did Contre aint-Beuve( an essay
attac$ing the methods o& the critic aint 'euve( turn into the start o& the nove"
*emem$rance of Things PastG 3 recent"y pub"ished "etter &rom 9roust to the editor
Fa""ette con#rms that :a""ois( the editor o& the 19/M edition o& Contre aint-Beuve(
made an essentia""y correct guess about the re"ationship o& the essay to the nove".
:a""ois proposed that 9roust had tried to begin a nove" in 1908( abandoned it &or
what was to be a "ong demonstration o& aint-'euve6s b"indness to the rea" nature
o& great writing( &ound the essay giving rise to persona" memories and #ctiona"
deve"opments( and a""owed these to ta$e over in a steadi"y deve"oping nove".
Kra&t passages in 9roust6s 1909 noteboo$s indicate that the transition &rom
essay to nove" began in Contre aint-Beuve( when 9roust introduced severa"
e8amp"es to show the power&u" inDuence that invo"untary memory e8erts over the
creative imagination. 2n e1ect( in trying to demonstrate that the imagination is
more pro&ound and "ess submissive to the inte""ect than aint-'euve assumed(
9roust e"icited vita" memories o& his own and( #nding subt"e connections between
them( began to amass the materia" &or *emem$rance. 'y 3ugust( 9roust was
writing to Fa""ette( in&orming him o& his intention to deve"op the materia" as a
nove". Baurice 'ardeche( in (arcel Proust& romancier( has shown the importance
in the dra&ts o& *emem$rance o& spontaneous and apparent"y random
associations o& 9roust6s subconscious. 3s incidents and reDections occurred to
9roust( he continua""y inserted new passages a"tering and e8panding his narrative.
'ut he &ound it di*cu"t to contro" the dri&t o& his inspiration. The very richness and
comp"e8ity o& the meaning&u" re"ationships that $ept presenting and rearranging
themse"ves on a"" "eve"s( &rom abstract inte""igence to pro&ound dreamy &ee"ings(
made it di*cu"t &or 9roust to set them out coherent"y. The beginning o& contro"
came when he saw how to connect the beginning and the end o& his nove".
2ntrigued by 9roust6s c"aim that he had >begun and #nished? *emem$rance at
the same time( )enri 'onnet discovered that parts o& *emem$rances "ast boo$
were actua""y started in 1909. 3"ready in that year( 9roust had dra&ted
descriptions o& his nove"6s characters in their o"d age that wou"d appear in the
#na" boo$ o& *emem$rance( where the permanence o& art is set against the
ravages o& time. The "etter to Fa""ette( dra&ts o& the essay and nove"( and 'onnet6s
researches estab"ish in broad out"ine the process by which 9roust generated his
nove" out o& the ruins o& his essay. 'ut those o& us who hoped( with So"b( that
So"b6s new"y pub"ished comp"ete edition o& 9roust6s correspondence &or 1909
wou"d document the process in greater detai" are disappointed. :or unti" 9roust
was con#dent that he was at "ast in sight o& a viab"e structure &or *emem$rance(
he to"d &ew correspondents that he was producing anything more ambitious than
Contre aint-Beuve.
21. The passage is primarily concerned with
(A) the role of in'oluntary memory in @roust4s writing
GRE 011
(B) e'idence concerning the genesis of @roust4s no'el "e-e-brance o+ Things
Past
(C) conflicting scholarly opinions about the 'alue of studying the drafts of
"e-e-brance o+ Things Past
() @roust4s correspondence and what it re'eals about "e-e-brance o+ Things
Past
(#) the influence of ;aint(Beu'e4s criticism on @roust4s no'el "e-e-brance o+
Things Past
22. 3t can be inferred from the passage that all of the following are literary detecti'es
who ha'e tried/ by means of either scholarship or criticism/ to help sol'e the *great
pu!!le+ mentioned in lines 1(2 #DC#@TE
(A) Bardeche
(B) Bonnet
(C) >allois
() Molb
(#) Callette
2.. According to the passage/ in drafts of Contre Saint %eu$e @roust set out to show
that ;aint(Beu'e made which of the following mistakes as a critic%
3. ;aint(Beu'e made no effort to study the de'elopment of a no'el through its
drafts and re'isions.
33. ;aint(Beu'e assigned too great a role in the creati'e process to a writer4s
conscious intellect.
333. ;aint(Beu'e concentrated too much on plots and not enough on imagery and
other elements of style.
(A) 33 only
(B) 333 only
(C) 3 and 33 only
() 3 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
20. &hich of the following best states the author4s attitude toward the information that
scholars ha'e gathered about @roust4s writing in 1,5,%
(A) The author is disappointed that no new documents ha'e come to light since
>allois4s speculations.
(B) The author is dissatisfied because there are too many gaps and inconsistencies
in the drafts.
(C) The author is confident that >allois4s 1,10 guess has been pro'ed largely
correct/ but regrets that still more detailed documentation concerning @roust4s
transition from the essay to the no'el has not emerged.
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() The author is satisfied that >allois4s <udgment was largely correct/ but feels
that @roust4s early work in designing and writing the no'el was probably far
more deliberate than >allois4s description of the process would suggest.
(#) The author is satisfied that the facts of @roust4s life in 1,5, ha'e been
thoroughly established/ but belie'es such documents as drafts and
correspondence are only of limited 'alue in a critical assessment of @roust4s
writing.
21. The author of the passage implies that which of the following would be the
K#A;T useful source of information about @roust4s transition from working on
Contre Saint-%eu$e to ha'ing a 'iable structure for "e-e-brance o+ Things Past%
(A) >allois4s comments in the 1,10 edition of Contre Saint-%eu$e
(B) @roust4s 1,5, notebooks/ including the drafts of "e-e-brance o+ Things Past
(C) @roust4s 1,5, correspondence/ e$cluding the letter to Callette
() Bardeche4s ?arcel @roust/ romancier
(#) Bonnet4s researches concerning @roust4s drafts of the final book of
"e-e-brance o+ Things Past
22. The passage offers information to answer which of the following "uestions%
(A) @recisely when in 1,5, did @roust decide to abandon Contre Saint-%eu$e%
(B) @recisely when in 1,5, did @roust decide to connect the beginning and the end
of "e-e-brance o+ Things Past%
(C) &hat was the sub<ect of the no'el that @roust attempted in 1,56%
() &hat specific criticisms of ;aint(Beu'e appear/ in fictional form/ in
"e-e-brance o+ Things Past%
(#) &hat is a theme concerning art that appears in the final book of "e-e-brance
o+ Things Past%
2-. &hich of the following best describes the relationship between Contre Saint-
%eu$e and "e-e-brance o+ Things Past as it is e$plained in the passage%
(A) 3mmediately after abandoning Contre Saint-%eu$e/ at Callette4s suggestion/
@roust started "e-e-brance as a fictional demonstration that ;aint(Beu'e was
wrong about the imagination.
(B) 3mmediately after abandoning Contre Saint-%eu$e/ at Callette4s suggestion/
@roust turned his attention to "e-e-brance/ starting with incidents that had
occurred to him while planning the essay.
(C) espondent that he could not find a coherent structure for Contre Saint-%eu$e/
an essay about the role of memory in fiction/ @roust began instead to write
"e-e-brance/ a no'el de'oted to important early memories.
() &hile de'eloping his argument about the imagination in Contre Saint-%eu$e/
@roust described and began to link together personal memories that became a
foundation for "e-e-brance.
GRE 01.
(#) &hile de'eloping his argument about memory and imagination in Contre
Saint-%eu$e1 @roust created fictional characters to embody the abstract themes
in his essay.
SECTION B
Traditiona" research has con&ronted on"y Be8ican and United tates
interpretations o& Be8ican-3merican cu"ture. ,ow we must a"so e8amine the
cu"ture as we Be8ican 3mericans have e8perienced it( passing &rom a sovereign
peop"e to compatriots with new"y arriving sett"ers to( #na""y( a con-uered peop"e!
a charter minority on our own "and.
;hen the panish #rst came to Be8ico( they intermarried with and absorbed
the cu"ture o& the indigenous 2ndians. This po"icy o& co"oni+ation through
accu"turation was continued when Be8ico ac-uired Te8as in the ear"y 18006s and
brought the indigenous 2ndians into Be8ican "i&e and government. 2n the 18406s(
United tates citi+ens migrated to Te8as( attracted by "and suitab"e &or cotton. 3s
their numbers became more substantia"( their po"icy o& ac-uiring "and by subduing
native popu"ations began to dominate. The two ideo"ogies c"ashed repeated"y(
cu"minating in a mi"itary conDict that "ed to victory &or the United tates. Thus(
sudden"y deprived o& our parent cu"ture( we had to evo"ve uni-ue"y Be8ican-
3merican modes o& thought and action in order to survive.
1-. The author4s purpose in writing this passage is primarily to
(A) suggest the moti'es behind ?e$ican and :nited ;tates inter'ention in Te$as
(B) document certain early ob<ecti'es of ?e$ican(American society
(C) pro'ide a historical perspecti'e for a new analysis of ?e$ican(American
culture
() appeal to both ?e$ican and :nited ;tates scholars to gi'e greater
consideration to economic interpretations of history
(#) bring to light pre'iously o'erlooked research on ?e$ican Americans
16. The author most probably uses the phrase *charter minority+ (lines 2(-) to
reinforce the idea that ?e$ican Americans
(A) are a nati'e rather than an immigrant group in the :nited ;tates
(B) played an acti'e political role when Te$as first became part of the :nited
;tates
(C) recogni!ed 'ery early in the nineteenth century the need for official
confirmation of their rights of citi!enship
() ha'e been misunderstood by scholars trying to interpret their culture
(#) identify more closely with their 3ndian heritage than with their ;panish
heritage
1,. According to the passage/ a ma<or difference between the coloni!ation policy of
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the :nited ;tates and that of ?e$ico in Te$as in the 16554s was the
(A) degree to which policies were based on tradition
(B) form of economic interdependency between different cultural groups
(C) number of people who came to settle new areas
() treatment of the nati'e inhabitants
(#) relationship between the military and the settlers
25. &hich of the following statements most clearly contradicts the information in this
passage%
(A) 3n the early 16554s/ the ;panish committed more resources to settling
California than to de'eloping Te$as.
(B) &hile Te$as was under ?e$ican control/ the population of Te$as "uadrupled/
in spite of the fact that ?e$ico discouraged immigration from the :nited
;tates.
(C) By the time ?e$ico ac"uired Te$as/ many 3ndians had already married people
of ;panish heritage.
() ?any ?e$icans li'ing in Te$as returned to ?e$ico after Te$as was anne$ed
by the :nited ;tates.
(#) ?ost 3ndians li'ing in Te$as resisted ;panish acculturation and were either
killed or ensla'ed.
This passage was adapted &rom an artic"e pub"ished in 1984.
Unti" about #ve years ago( the very idea that peptide hormones might be made
anywhere in the brain besides the hypotha"amus was astounding. 9eptide
hormones( scientists thought( were made by endocrine g"ands and the
hypotha"amus was thought to be the brains6 on"y endocrine g"and. ;hat is more(
because peptide hormones cannot cross the b"ood-brain barrier( researchers
be"ieved that they never got to any part o& the brain other than the
hypotha"amus( where they were simp"y produced and then re"eased into the
b"oodstream.
'ut these be"ie&s about peptide hormones were -uestioned as "aboratory a&ter
"aboratory &ound that antiserums to peptide hormones( when in5ected into the
brain( bind in p"aces other than the hypotha"amus( indicating that either the
hormones or substances that cross-react with the antiserums are present. The
immuno"ogica" method o& detecting peptide hormones by means o& antiserums(
however( is imprecise. %ross-reactions are possib"e and this method cannot
determine whether the substances detected by the antiserums rea""y are the
hormones( or mere"y c"ose re"atives. :urthermore( this method cannot be used to
determine the "ocation in the body where the detected substances are actua""y
produced.
,ew techni-ues o& mo"ecu"ar bio"ogy( however( provide a way to answer these
-uestions. 2t is possib"e to ma$e speci#c comp"ementary K,36s (cK,36s) that can
GRE 011
serve as mo"ecu"ar probes to see$ out the messenger R,36s (mR,36s) o& the
peptide hormones. 2& brain ce""s are ma$ing the hormones( the ce""s wi"" contain
these mR,36s. 2& the products the brain ce""s ma$e resemb"e the hormones but
are not identica" to them( then the cK,36s shou"d sti"" bind to these mR,36s( but
shou"d not bind as tight"y as they wou"d to mR,36s &or the true hormones. The
ce""s containing these mR,36s can then be iso"ated and their mR,36s decoded to
determine 5ust what their protein products are and how c"ose"y the products
resemb"e the true peptide hormones.
The mo"ecu"ar approach to detecting peptide hormones using cK,3 probes
shou"d a"so be much &aster than the immuno"ogica" method because it can ta$e
years o& tedious puri#cations to iso"ate peptide hormones and then deve"op
antiserums to them. Roberts( e8pressing the sentiment o& many researchers(
statesA >2 was trained as an endocrino"ogist. 'ut it became c"ear to me that the
#e"d o& endocrino"ogy needed mo"ecu"ar bio"ogy input. The process o& grinding out
protein puri#cations is 5ust too s"ow.?
2&( as the initia" tests with cK,3 probes suggest( peptide hormones rea""y are
made in the brain in areas other than the hypotha"amus( a theory must be
deve"oped that e8p"ains their &unction in the brain. ome have suggested that the
hormones are a"" growth regu"ators( but Rosen6s wor$ on rat brains indicates that
this cannot be true. 3 number o& other researchers propose that they might be
used &or interce""u"ar communication in the brain.
21. &hich of the following titles best summari!es the passage%
(A) 3s ?olecular Biology the Mey to :nderstanding 3ntercellular Communication
in the Brain%
(B) ?olecular BiologyE Can =esearchers #$ploit 3ts Techni"ues to ;ynthesi!e
@eptide )ormones%
(C) The Ad'antages and isad'antages of the 3mmunological Approach to
etecting @eptide )ormones
() @eptide )ormonesE )ow ;cientists Are Attempting to ;ol'e @roblems of Their
etection and to :nderstand Their >unction
(#) @eptide )ormonesE The =ole @layed by ?essenger =9A4s in Their etection
22. The passage suggests that a substance detected in the brain by use of antiserums to
peptide hormones may
(A) ha'e been stored in the brain for a long period of time
(B) play no role in the functioning of the brain
(C) ha'e been produced in some part of the body other than the brain
() ha'e escaped detection by molecular methods
(#) play an important role in the functioning of the hypothalamus
2.. According to the passage/ confirmation of the belief that peptide hormones are
made in the brain in areas other than the hypothalamus would force scientists to
012 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(A) re<ect the theory that peptide hormones are made by endocrine glands
(B) re'ise their beliefs about the ability of antiserums to detect peptide hormones
(C) in'ent techni"ues that would allow them to locate accurately brain cells that
produce peptide hormones
() search for techni"ues that would enable them to distinguish peptide hormones
from their close relati'es
(#) de'elop a theory that e$plains the role played by peptide hormones in the brain
20. &hich of the following is mentioned in the passage as a drawback of the
immunological method of detecting peptide hormones%
(A) 3t cannot be used to detect the presence of growth regulators in the brain.
(B) 3t cannot distinguish between the peptide hormones and substances that are
'ery similar to them.
(C) 3t uses antiserums that are unable to cross the blood(brain barrier.
() 3t in'ol'es a purification process that re"uires e$tensi'e training in
endocrinology.
(#) 3t in'ol'es in<ecting foreign substances directly into the bloodstream.
21. The passage implies that/ in doing research on rat brains/ =osen disco'ered that
(A) peptide hormones are used for intercellular communication
(B) complementary 9A4s do not bind to cells producing peptide hormones
(C) products closely resembling peptide hormones are not identical to peptide
hormones
() some peptide hormones do not function as growth regulators
(#) antiserums cross(react with substances that are not peptide hormones
22. &hich of the following is a way in which the immunological method of detecting
peptide hormones differs from the molecular method%
(A) The immunological method uses substances that react with products of
hormone(producing cells/ whereas the molecular method uses substances that
react with a specific component of the cells themsel'es.
(B) The immunological method has produced results consistent with long(held
beliefs about peptide hormones/ whereas the molecular method has produced
results that upset these beliefs.
(C) The immunological method re"uires a great deal of e$pertise/ whereas the
molecular method has been used successfully by nonspecialists.
() The immunological method can only be used to test for the presence of peptide
hormones within the hypothalamus/ whereas the molecular method can be used
throughout the brain.
(#) The immunological method uses probes that can only bind with peptide
hormones/ whereas the molecular method uses probes that bind with peptide
GRE 01-
hormones and substances similar to them.
2-. The idea that the field of endocrinology can gain from de'elopments in molecular
biology is regarded by =oberts with
(A) incredulity
(B) derision
(C) indifference
() pride
(#) enthusiasm
No. 8-2
SECTION A
Ragtime is a musica" &orm that synthesi+es &o"$ me"odies and musica"
techni-ues into a brie& -uadri""e-"i$e structure( designed to be p"ayed!e8act"y as
written!on the piano. 3 strong ana"ogy e8ists between @uropean composers "i$e
Ra"ph Faughan ;i""iams( @dvard Erieg( and 3nton Kvora$ who combined &o"$
tunes and their own origina" materia"s in "arger compositions and the pioneer
ragtime composers in the United tates. %omposers "i$e cott Cop"in and Cames
cott were in a sense co""ectors or musico"ogists( co""ecting dance and &o"$ music
in '"ac$ communities and conscious"y shaping it into brie& suites or antho"ogies
ca""ed piano rags.
2t has sometimes been charged that ragtime is mechanica". :or instance(
;i"&red Be""ers comments( >rags were trans&erred to the piano"a ro"" and( even i&
not p"ayed by a machine( shou"d be p"ayed "i$e a machine( with meticu"ous
precision.? )owever( there is no reason to assume that ragtime is inherent"y
mechanica" simp"y because commercia" manu&acturers app"ied a mechanica"
recording method to ragtime( the on"y way to record pianos at that date.
Ragtime6s is not a mechanica" precision( and it is not precision "imited to the sty"e
o& per&ormance. 2t arises &rom ragtime6s &o""owing a we""-de#ned &orm and obeying
simp"e ru"es within that &orm.
The c"assic &ormu"a &or the piano rag disposes three to #ve themes in si8teen-
bar strains( o&ten organi+ed with repeats. The rag opens with a bright( memorab"e
strain or theme( &o""owed by a simi"ar theme( "eading to a trio o& mar$ed "yrica"
character( with the structure conc"uded by a "yrica" strain that para""e"s the
rhythmic deve"opments o& the ear"ier themes. The aim o& the structure is to rise
&rom one theme to another in a stair-step manner( ending on a note o& triumph or
e8hi"aration. Typica""y( each strain is divided into two 8-bar segments that are
essentia""y a"i$e( so the rhythmic-me"odic unit o& ragtime is on"y eight bars o& 4PM
measure. There&ore( themes must be brie& with c"ear( sharp me"odic #gures. ,ot
concerned with deve"opment o& musica" themes( the ragtime composer instead
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sets a theme down intact( in #nished &orm( and "in$s it to various re"ated themes.
Tension in ragtime compositions arises &rom a po"arity between two basic
ingredientsA a continuous bass!ca""ed by 5a++ musicians a boom-chic$ bass!in
the pianist6s "e&t hand( and its me"odic( syncopated counterpart in the right hand.
Ragtime remains distinct &rom 5a++ both as an instrumenta" sty"e and as a
genre. Ragtime sty"e stresses a pattern o& repeated rhythms( not the constant
inventions and variations o& 5a++. 3s a genre( ragtime re-uires strict attention to
structure( not inventiveness or virtuosity. 2t e8ists as a tradition( a set o&
conventions( a body o& written scores( separate &rom the individua" p"ayers
associated with it. 2n this sense ragtime is more a$in to &o"$ music o& the
nineteenth century than to 5a++.
1-. &hich of the following best describes the main purpose of the passage%
(A) To contrast ragtime music and <a!!
(B) To acknowledge and counter significant ad'erse criticisms of ragtime music
(C) To define ragtime music as an art form and describe its structural
characteristics
() To re'iew the history of ragtime music and analy!e ragtime4s effect on
listeners
(#) To e$plore the similarities between ragtime music and certain #uropean
musical compositions
16. According to the passage/ each of the following is a characteristic of ragtime
compositions that follow the classic ragtime formula #DC#@TE
(A) syncopation
(B) well(defined melodic figures
(C) rising rhythmic(melodic intensity
() full de'elopment of musical themes
(#) a bass line distinct from the melodic line
1,. According to the passage/ =alph Caughan &illiams/ Anton 'orak/ and ;cott
Aoplin are similar in that they all
(A) conducted research into musicological history
(B) wrote original compositions based on folk tunes
(C) collected and recorded abbre'iated piano suites
() created intricate sonata(like musical structures
(#) e$plored the relations between Black music and continental folk music
25. The author re<ects the argument that ragtime is a mechanical music because that
argument
(A) o'erlooks the precision re"uired of the ragtime player
(B) does not accurately describe the sound of ragtime pianola music
GRE 01,
(C) confuses the means of recording and the essential character of the music
() e$aggerates the influence of the performance style of professional ragtime
players on the reputation of the genre
(#) improperly identifies commercial ragtime music with the subtler classic
ragtime style
21. 3t can be inferred that the author of the passage belie'es that the most important
feature of ragtime music is its
(A) commercial success
(B) formal structure
(C) emotional range
() impro'isational opportunities
(#) role as a forerunner of <a!!
22. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the essential nature of ragtime has been
obscured by commentaries based on
(A) the way ragtime music was first recorded
(B) interpretations of ragtime by <a!! musicians
(C) the dance fashions that were contemporary with ragtime
() early re'iewers4 accounts of characteristic structure
(#) the musical sources used by ;cott Aoplin and Aames ;cott
2.. &hich of the following is most nearly analogous in source and artistic character to
a ragtime composition as described in the passage%
(A) ;ymphonic music deri'ed from comple$ <a!! motifs
(B) An e$perimental no'el based on well(known cartoon characters
(C) A dramatic production in which actors in'ent scenes and impro'ise lines
() A ballet whose disciplined choreography is based on folk(dance steps
(#) A painting whose abstract shapes e'oke familiar ob<ects in a natural landscape
@cho"ocating bats emit sounds in patterns!characteristic o& each species!that
contain both &re-uency-modu"ated (:B) and constant-&re-uency (%:) signa"s. The
broadband :B signa"s and the narrowband %: signa"s trave" out to a target( reDect
&rom it( and return to the hunting bat. 2n this process o& transmission and
reDection( the sounds are changed( and the changes in the echoes enab"e the bat
to perceive &eatures o& the target.
The :B signa"s report in&ormation about target characteristics that modi&y the
timing and the #ne &re-uency structure( or spectrum( o& echoes!&or e8amp"e( the
target6s si+e( shape( te8ture( sur&ace structure( and direction in space. 'ecause o&
their narrow bandwidth( %: signa"s portray on"y the target6s presence and( in the
case o& some bat species( its motion re"ative to the bat6s. Responding to changes
in the %: echo6s &re-uency( bats o& some species correct in Dight &or the direction
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and ve"ocity o& their moving prey.
20. According to the passage/ the information pro'ided to the bat by C> echoes differs
from that pro'ided by >? echoes in which of the following ways%
(A) 8nly C> echoes alert the bat to mo'ing targets.
(B) 8nly C> echoes identify the range of widely spaced targets.
(C) 8nly C> echoes report the target4s presence to the bat.
() 3n some species/ C> echoes enable the bat to <udge whether it is closing in on
its target.
(#) 3n some species/ C> echoes enable the bat to discriminate the si!e of its target
and the direction in which the target is mo'ing.
21. According to the passage/ the configuration of the target is reported to the
echolocating bat by changes in the
(A) echo spectrum of C> signals
(B) echo spectrum of >? signals
(C) direction and 'elocity of the >? echoes
() delay between transmission and reflection of the C> signals
(#) relati'e fre"uencies of the >? and the C> echoes
22. The author presents the information concerning bat sonar in a manner that could be
best described as
(A) argumentati'e
(B) commendatory
(C) critical
() disbelie'ing
(#) ob<ecti'e
2-. &hich of the following best describes the organi!ation of the passage%
(A) A fact is stated/ a process is outlined/ and specific details of the process are
described.
(B) A fact is stated/ and e$amples suggesting that a distinction needs correction are
considered.
(C) A fact is stated/ a theory is presented to e$plain that fact/ and additional facts
are introduced to 'alidate the theory.
() A fact is stated/ and two theories are compared in light of their e$planations of
this fact.
(#) A fact is stated/ a process is described/ and e$amples of still another process
are illustrated in detail.
SECTION B
GRE 021
The socia" sciences are "ess "i$e"y than other inte""ectua" enterprises to get
credit &or their accomp"ishments. 3rguab"y( this is so because the theories and
conceptua" constructs o& the socia" sciences are especia""y accessib"eA human
inte""igence apprehends truths about human a1airs with particu"ar &aci"ity. 3nd
the discoveries o& the socia" sciences( once iso"ated and "abe"ed( are -uic$"y
absorbed into conventiona" wisdom( whereupon they "ose their distinctiveness as
scienti#c advances.
This underappreciation o& the socia" sciences contrasts odd"y with what many
see as their overuti"i+ation. Eame theory is pressed into service in studies o&
shi&ting internationa" a""iances. @va"uation research is ca""ed upon to demonstrate
successes or &ai"ures o& socia" programs. Bode"s &rom economics and demography
become the de#nitive too"s &or e8amining the #nancia" base o& socia" security. Iet
this rush into practica" app"ications is itse"& -uite understandab"eA pub"ic po"icy
must continua""y be made( and po"icyma$ers right"y &ee" that even tentative
#ndings and untested theories are better guides to decision-ma$ing than no
#ndings and no theories at a"".
1-. The author is primarily concerned with
(A) ad'ocating a more modest 'iew/ and less widespread utili!ation/ of the social
sciences
(B) analy!ing the mechanisms for translating disco'eries into applications in the
social sciences
(C) dissol'ing the air of parado$ inherent in human beings studying themsel'es
() e$plaining a peculiar dilemma that the social sciences are in
(#) maintaining a strict separation between pure and applied social science
16. &hich of the following is a social science discipline that the author mentions as
being possibly o'erutili!ed%
(A) Con'entional theories of social change
(B) Bame theory
(C) ecision(making theory
() #conomic theories of international alliances
(#) ;ystems analysis
1,. 3t can be inferred from the passage that/ when speaking of the *o'erutili!ation+
(line 11) of the social sciences/ the author is referring to the
(A) premature practical application of social science ad'ances
(B) habitual reliance on the social sciences e'en where common sense would ser'e
e"ually well
(C) practice of bringing a greater 'ariety of social science disciplines to bear on a
problem than the nature of the problem warrants
() use of social science constructs by people who do not fully understand them
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(#) tendency on the part of social scientists to recast e'eryday truths in social
science <argon
25. The author confronts the claim that the social sciences are being o'erutili!ed with
(A) proof that o'ere$tensions of social science results are self(correcting
(B) e'idence that some public policy is made without any recourse to social
science findings or theories
(C) a long list of social science applications that are perfectly appropriate and
e$tremely fruitful
() the argument that o'erutili!ation is by and large the e$ception rather than the
rule
(#) the obser'ation that this practice represents the lesser of two e'ils under
e$isting circumstances
The term >2ce 3ge? may give a wrong impression. The epoch that geo"ogists
$now as the 9"eistocene and that spanned the 1./ to 4.0 mi""ion years prior to the
current geo"ogic epoch was not one "ong continuous g"aciation( but a period o&
osci""ating c"imate with ice advances punctuated by times o& interg"acia" c"imate
not very di1erent &rom the c"imate e8perienced now. 2ce sheets that derived &rom
an ice cap centered on northern candinavia reached southward to %entra"
@urope. 3nd 'eyond the margins o& the ice sheets( c"imatic osci""ations a1ected
most o& the rest o& the wor"d= &or e8amp"e( in the deserts( periods o& wetter
conditions (p"uvia"s) contrasted with drier( interp"uvia" periods. 3"though the time
invo"ved is so short( about 0.0M percent o& the tota" age o& the @arth( the amount
o& attention devoted to the 9"eistocene has been incredib"y "arge( probab"y
because o& its immediacy( and because the epoch "arge"y coincides with the
appearance on @arth o& humans and their immediate ancestors.
There is no re"iab"e way o& dating much o& the 2ce 3ge. Eeo"ogica" dates are
usua""y obtained by using the rates o& decay o& various radioactive e"ements
&ound in minera"s. ome o& these rates are suitab"e &or very o"d roc$s but invo"ve
increasing errors when used &or young roc$s= others are suitab"e &or very young
roc$s and errors increase rapid"y in o"der roc$s. Bost o& the 2ce 3ge spans a period
o& time &or which no e"ement has an appropriate decay rate.
,everthe"ess( researchers o& the 9"eistocene epoch have deve"oped a"" sorts o&
more or "ess &anci&u" mode" schemes o& how they wou"d have arranged the 2ce 3ge
had they been in charge o& events. :or e8amp"e( an ear"y c"assi#cation o& 3"pine
g"aciation suggested the e8istence there o& &our g"aciations( named the Eun+(
Binde"( Riss( and ;urm. This succession was based primari"y on a series o&
deposits and events not direct"y re"ated to g"acia" and interg"acia" periods( rather
than on the more usua" modern method o& studying bio"ogica" remains &ound in
interg"acia" beds themse"ves interstrati#ed within g"acia" deposits. Iet this
succession was &orced wi""y-ni""y onto the g"aciated parts o& ,orthern @urope(
where there are partia" successions o& true g"acia" ground moraines and
GRE 02.
interg"acia" deposits( with hopes o& u"timate"y piecing them together to provide a
comp"ete 9"eistocene succession. @radication o& the 3"pine nomenc"ature is sti""
proving a )ercu"ean tas$.
There is no conc"usive evidence about the re"ative "ength( comp"e8ity( and
temperatures o& the various g"acia" and interg"acia" periods. ;e do not $now
whether we "ive in a postg"acia" period or an interg"acia" period. The chi"" truth
seems to be that we are a"ready past the optimum c"imate o& postg"acia" time.
tudies o& certain &ossi" distributions and o& the po""en o& certain temperate p"ants
suggest decreases o& a degree or two in both summer and winter temperatures
and( there&ore( that we may be in the dec"ining c"imatic phase "eading to
g"aciation and e8tinction.
21. 3n the passage/ the author is primarily concerned with
(A) searching for an accurate method of dating the @leistocene epoch
(B) discussing problems in'ol'ed in pro'iding an accurate picture of the
@leistocene epoch
(C) declaring opposition to the use of the term *3ce Age+ for the @leistocene epoch
() critici!ing fanciful schemes about what happened in the @leistocene epoch
(#) refuting the idea that there is no way to tell if we are now li'ing in an 3ce Age
22. The *wrong impression+ (line 1) to which the author refers is the idea that the
(A) climate of the @leistocene epoch was not 'ery different from the climate we
are now e$periencing
(B) climate of the @leistocene epoch was composed of periods of 'iolent storms
(C) @leistocene epoch consisted of 'ery wet/ cold periods mi$ed with 'ery day/ hot
periods
() @leistocene epoch comprised one period of continuous glaciation during which
9orthern #urope was co'ered with ice sheets
(#) @leistocene epoch had no long periods during which much of the #arth was
co'ered by ice
2.. According to the passage/ one of the reasons for the deficiencies of the *early
classification of Alpine glaciation+ (lines .2(..) is that it was
(A) deri'ed from e'idence that was only tangentially related to times of actual
glaciation
(B) based primarily on fossil remains rather than on actual li'ing organisms
(C) an abstract/ imaginati'e scheme of how the period might ha'e been structured
() based on unmethodical e$aminations of randomly chosen glacial biological
remains
(#) deri'ed from e'idence that had been hapha!ardly gathered from glacial
deposits and inaccurately e'aluated
020 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
20. &hich of the following does the passage imply about the *early classification of
Alpine glaciation+ (lines .2(..)%
(A) 3t should not ha'e been applied as widely as it was.
(B) 3t represents the best possible scientific practice/ gi'en the tools a'ailable at
the time.
(C) 3t was a 'aluable tool/ in its time/ for measuring the length of the four periods
of glaciation.
() 3t could be useful/ but only as a general guide to the e'ents of the @leistocene
epoch.
(#) 3t does not shed any light on the methods used at the time for in'estigating
periods of glaciation.
21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that an important result of producing an
accurate chronology of e'ents of the @leistocene epoch would be a
(A) clearer idea of the origin of the #arth
(B) clearer picture of the #arth during the time that humans de'eloped
(C) clearer understanding of the reasons for the e$istence of deserts
() more detailed understanding of how radioacti'e dating of minerals works
(#) firmer understanding of how the northern polar ice cap de'eloped
22. The author refers to deserts primarily in order to
(A) illustrate the idea that an interglacial climate is marked by oscillations of wet
and dry periods
(B) illustrate the idea that what happened in the deserts during the 3ce Age had far(
reaching effects e'en on the ice sheets of Central and 9orthern #urope
(C) illustrate the idea that the effects of the 3ce Age4s climatic 'ariations e$tended
beyond the areas of ice
() support the 'iew that during the 3ce Age sheets of ice co'ered some of the
deserts of the world
(#) support the 'iew that we are probably li'ing in a postglacial period
2-. The author would regard the idea that we are li'ing in an interglacial period as
(A) unimportant
(B) unscientific
(C) self(e'ident
() plausible
(#) absurd
No. 8-3
GRE 021
SECTION A
(This passage is e8cerpted &rom an artic"e that was pub"ished in 1981.)
The deep sea typica""y has a sparse &auna dominated by tiny worms and
crustaceans( with an even sparser distribution o& "arger anima"s. )owever( near
hydrotherma" vents( areas o& the ocean where warm water emerges &rom
subterranean sources( "ive remar$ab"e densities o& huge c"ams( b"ind crabs( and
#sh.
Bost deep-sea &aunas re"y &or &ood on particu"ate matter( u"timate"y derived
&rom photosynthesis( &a""ing &rom above. The &ood supp"ies necessary to sustain
the "arge vent communities( however( must be many times the ordinary &a""out.
The #rst reports describing vent &aunas proposed two possib"e sources o&
nutritionA bacteria" chemosynthesis( production o& &ood by bacteria using energy
derived &rom chemica" changes( and advection( the dri&ting o& &ood materia"s &rom
surrounding regions. Jater( evidence in support o& the idea o& intense "oca"
chemosynthesis was accumu"atedA hydrogen su"#de was &ound in vent water=
many vent-site bacteria were &ound to be capab"e o& chemosynthesis= and
e8treme"y "arge concentrations o& bacteria were &ound in samp"es o& vent water
thought to be pure. This #na" observation seemed decisive. 2& such astonishing
concentrations o& bacteria were typica" o& vent outDow( then &ood within the vent
wou"d dwar& any contribution &rom advection. )ence( the wide"y -uoted
conc"usion was reached that bacteria" chemosynthesis provides the &oundation &or
hydrotherma"-vent &ood chains!an e8citing prospect because no other
communities on @arth are independent o& photosynthesis.
There are( however( certain di*cu"ties with this interpretation. :or e8amp"e(
some o& the "arge sedentary organisms associated with vents are a"so &ound at
ordinary deep-sea temperatures many meters &rom the nearest hydrotherma"
sources. This suggests that bacteria" chemosynthesis is not a su*cient source o&
nutrition &or these creatures. 3nother di*cu"ty is that simi"ar"y dense popu"ations
o& "arge deep-sea anima"s have been &ound in the pro8imity o& >smo$ers?!vents
where water emerges at temperatures up to 7/0. ,o bacteria can survive such
heat( and no bacteria were &ound there. Un"ess smo$ers are consistent"y "ocated
near more hospitab"e warm-water vents( chemosynthesis can account &or on"y a
&raction o& the vent &aunas. 2t is conceivab"e( however( that these "arge( sedentary
organisms do in &act &eed on bacteria that grow in warm-water vents( rise in the
vent water( and then rain in periphera" areas to nourish anima"s "iving some
distance &rom the warm-water vents.
,onethe"ess advection is a more "i$e"y a"ternative &ood source. Research has
demonstrated that advective Dow( which originates near the sur&ace o& the ocean
where suspended particu"ate matter accumu"ates( transports some o& that matter
and water to the vents. @stimates suggest that &or every cubic meter o& vent
discharge( 7/0 mi""igrams o& particu"ate organic materia" wou"d be advected into
022 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
the vent area. Thus( &or an average-si+ed vent( advection cou"d provide more than
70 $i"ograms o& potentia" &ood per day. 2n addition( it is "i$e"y that sma"" "ive
anima"s in the advected water might be $i""ed or stunned by therma" andPor
chemica" shoc$( thereby contributing to the &ood supp"y o& vents.
12. The passage pro'ides information for answering which of the following "uestions%
(A) &hat causes warm(water 'ents to form%
(B) o 'ent faunas consume more than do deep(sea faunas of similar si!e%
(C) o bacteria li'e in the 'ent water of smokers%
() &hat role does hydrogen sulfide play in chemosynthesis%
(#) &hat accounts for the locations of deep(sea smokers%
1-. The information in the passage suggests that the ma<ority of deep(sea faunas that
li'e in non'ent habitats ha'e which of the following characteristics%
(A) They do not normally feed on particles of food in the water.
(B) They are smaller than many 'ent faunas.
(C) They are predators.
() They deri'e nutrition from a chemosynthetic food source.
(#) They congregate around a single main food source.
16. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) describe a pre'iously unknown natural phenomenon
(B) reconstruct the e'olution of a natural phenomenon
(C) establish une"ui'ocally the accuracy of a hypothesis
() sur'ey e$planations for a natural phenomenon and determine which is best
supported by e'idence
(#) entertain criticism of the author4s research and pro'ide an effecti'e response
1,. &hich of the following does the author cite as a weakness in the argument that
bacterial chemosynthesis pro'ides the foundation for the food chains at deep(sea
'ents%
(A) Cents are coloni!ed by some of the same animals found in other areas of the
ocean floor.
(B) Cent water does not contain sufficient "uantities of hydrogen sulfide.
(C) Bacteria cannot produce large "uantities of food "uickly enough.
() Karge concentrations of minerals are found in 'ent water.
(#) ;ome bacteria found in the 'ents are incapable of chemosynthesis.
25. &hich of the following is information supplied in the passage that would support
the statement that the food supplies necessary to sustain 'ent communities must be
many times that of ordinary fallout%
3. Karge 'ent faunas mo'e from 'ent to 'ent in search of food.
GRE 02-
33. Cent faunas are not able to consume food produced by photosynthesis.
333. Cents are more densely populated than are other deep(sea areas.
(A) 3 only
(B) 333 only
(C) 3 and 33 only
() 33 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
21. The author refers to *smokers+ (line .6) most probably in order to
(A) show how thermal shock can pro'ide food for some 'ent faunas by stunning
small animals
(B) pro'e that the habitat of most deep(sea animals is limited to warm(water 'ents
(C) e$plain how bacteria carry out chemosynthesis
() demonstrate how ad'ection compensates for the lack of food sources on the
seafloor
(#) present e'idence that bacterial chemosynthesis may be an inade"uate source of
food for some 'ent faunas
22. &hich of the following can be inferred from the passage about the particulate
matter that is carried down from the surface of the ocean%
(A) 3t is the basis of bacterial chemosynthesis in the 'ents.
(B) 3t may pro'ide an important source of nutrition for 'ent faunas.
(C) 3t may cause the internal temperature of the 'ents to change significantly.
() 3t is transported as large aggregates of particles.
(#) 3t contains hydrogen sulfide.
Throughout human history there have been many stringent taboos concerning
watching other peop"e eat or eating in the presence o& others. There have been
attempts to e8p"ain these taboos in terms o& inappropriate socia" re"ationships
either between those who are invo"ved and those who are not simu"taneous"y
invo"ved in the satis&action o& a bodi"y need( or between those a"ready satiated
and those who appear to be shame"ess"y gorging. Undoubted"y such e"ements
e8ist in the taboos( but there is an additiona" e"ement with a much more
&undamenta" importance. 2n prehistoric times( when &ood was so precious and the
on-"oo$ers so hungry( not to o1er ha"& o& the "itt"e &ood one had was unthin$ab"e(
since every g"ance was a p"ea &or "i&e. :urther( during those times( peop"e e8isted
in nuc"ear or e8tended &ami"y groups( and the sharing o& &ood was -uite "itera""y
supporting one6s &ami"y or( by e8tension( preserving one6s se"&.
2.. 3f the argument in the passage is 'alid/ taboos against eating in the presence of
others who are not also eating would be K#A;T likely in a society that
(A) had always had a plentiful supply of food
026 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(B) emphasi!ed the need to share worldly goods
(C) had a nomadic rather than an agricultural way of life
() emphasi!ed the 'alue of pri'acy
(#) discouraged o'erindulgence
20. The author4s hypothesis concerning the origin of taboos against watching other
people eat emphasi!es the
(A) general palatability of food
(B) religious significance of food
(C) limited a'ailability of food
() 'arious sources of food
(#) nutritional 'alue of food
21. According to the passage/ the author belie'es that past attempts to e$plain some
taboos concerning eating are
(A) unimaginati'e
(B) implausible
(C) inelegant
() incomplete
(#) unclear
22. 3n de'eloping the main idea of the passage/ the author does which of the
following%
(A) ownplays earlier attempts to e$plain the origins of a social prohibition.
(B) Adapts a scientific theory and applies it to a spiritual relationship.
(C) ;implifies a comple$ biological phenomenon by e$plaining it in terms of
social needs.
() =eorgani!es a system designed to guide personal beha'ior.
(#) Codifies earlier/ unsystemati!ed con<ectures about family life.
SECTION B
(This passage is &rom a boo$ pub"ished in 197/.)
That Jouise ,eve"son is be"ieved by many critics to be the greatest twentieth-
century scu"ptor is a"" the more remar$ab"e because the greatest resistance to
women artists has been( unti" recent"y( in the #e"d o& scu"pture. ince ,eo"ithic
times( scu"pture has been considered the prerogative o& men( part"y( perhaps( &or
pure"y physica" reasonsA it was erroneous"y assumed that women were not suited
&or the hard manua" "abor re-uired in scu"pting stone( carving wood( or wor$ing in
meta". 2t has been on"y during the twentieth century that women scu"ptors have
been recogni+ed as ma5or artists( and it has been in the United tates( especia""y
GRE 02,
since the decades o& the #&ties and si8ties( that women scu"ptors have shown the
greatest origina"ity and creative power. Their rise to prominence para""e"s the
deve"opment o& scu"pture itse"& in the United tatesA whi"e there had been a &ew
ta"ented scu"ptors in the United tates be&ore the 19M06s( it was on"y a&ter 19M/!
when ,ew Ior$ was rapid"y becoming the art capita" o& the wor"d!that ma5or
scu"pture was produced in the United tates. ome o& the best was the wor$ o&
women.
'y &ar the most outstanding o& these women is Jouise ,eve"son( who in the
eyes o& many critics is the most origina" &ema"e artist a"ive today. <ne &amous and
inDuentia" critic( )i"ton Sramer( said o& her wor$( >:or myse"&( 2 thin$ Bs. ,eve"son
succeeds where the painters o&ten &ai".?
)er wor$s have been compared to the %ubist constructions o& 9icasso( the
urrea"istic ob5ects o& Biro( and the Ber+bau o& chwitters. ,eve"son wou"d be the
#rst to admit that she has been inDuenced by a"" o& these( as we"" as by 3&rican
scu"pture( and by ,ative 3merican and pre-%o"umbian art( but she has absorbed
a"" these inDuences and sti"" created a distinctive art that e8presses the urban
"andscape and the aesthetic sensibi"ity o& the twentieth century. ,eve"son says( >2
have a"ways wanted to show the wor"d that art is everywhere( e8cept that it has
to pass through a creative mind.?
Using most"y discarded wooden ob5ects "i$e pac$ing crates( bro$en pieces o&
&urniture( and abandoned architectura" ornaments( a"" o& which she has hoarded
&or years( she assemb"es architectura" constructions o& great beauty and power.
%reating very &ree"y with no s$etches( she g"ues and nai"s ob5ects together( paints
them b"ac$( or more rare"y white or go"d( and p"aces them in bo8es. These
assemb"ages( wa""s( even entire environments create a mysterious( a"most awe-
inspiring atmosphere. 3"though she has denied any symbo"ic or re"igious intent in
her wor$s( their three-dimensiona" grandeur and even their tit"es( such as ky
Cathedral and +ight Cathedral( suggest such connotations. 2n some ways( her
most ambitious wor$s are c"oser to architecture than to traditiona" scu"pture( but
then neither Jouise ,eve"son nor her art #ts into any neat category.
1-. The passage focuses primarily on which of the following%
(A) A general tendency in twentieth(century art
(B) The work of a particular artist
(C) The artistic influences on women sculptors
() Critical responses to twentieth(century sculpture
(#) ?aterials used by twentieth(century sculptors
16. &hich of the following statements is supported by information gi'en in the
passage%
(A) ;ince 1,01 women sculptors in the :nited ;tates ha'e produced more
sculpture than ha'e men sculptors.
0-5 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(B) ;ince 1,15 sculpture produced in the :nited ;tates has been the most original
and creati'e sculpture produced anywhere.
(C) >rom 1,55 to 1,15 women sculptors in #urope en<oyed more recognition for
their work than did women sculptors in the :nited ;tates.
() @rior to 1,01 there were many women sculptors whose work was ignored by
critics.
(#) @rior to 1,01 there was little ma<or sculpture produced by men or women
sculptors working in the :nited ;tates.
1,. The author "uotes )ilton Mramer in lines 21(2- most probably in order to illustrate
which of the following%
(A) The realism of 9e'elson4s work
(B) The uni"ue "ualities of 9e'elson4s style
(C) The e$tent of critical appro'al of 9e'elson4s work
() A distinction between sculpture and painting
(#) A reason for the prominence of women sculptors since the 1,154s
25. &hich of the following is one way in which 9e'elson4s art illustrates her theory as
it is e$pressed in lines .2(.6%
(A) ;he sculpts in wood rather than in metal or stone.
(B) ;he paints her sculptures and frames them in bo$es.
(C) ;he makes no preliminary sketches but rather allows the sculpture to de'elop
as she works.
() ;he puts together pieces of ordinary ob<ects once used for different purposes to
make her sculptures.
(#) ;he does not deliberately attempt to con'ey symbolic or religious meanings
through her sculpture.
21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author belie'es which of the following
about 9e'elson4s sculptures%
(A) They suggest religious and symbolic meanings.
(B) They do not ha'e "ualities characteristic of sculpture.
(C) They are mysterious and awe(inspiring/ but not beautiful.
() They are uni"uely American in style and sensibility.
(#) They show the influence of twentieth(century architecture.
22. The author regards 9e'elson4s stature in the art world as *remarkable+ (line .) in
part because of which of the following%
(A) )er work is currently o'errated.
(B) &omen sculptors ha'e found it especially difficult to be accepted and
recogni!ed as ma<or artists.
GRE 0-1
(C) 9e'elson4s sculptures are difficult to understand.
() ?any art critics ha'e fa'ored painting o'er sculpture in writing about
de'elopments in the art world.
(#) >ew of the artists prominent in the twentieth century ha'e been sculptors.
2.. &hich of the following statements about 9e'elson4s sculptures can be inferred
from the passage%
(A) They are meant for display outdoors.
(B) They are often painted in se'eral colors.
(C) They are sometimes 'ery large.
() They are hand car'ed by 9e'elson.
(#) They are built around a central wooden ob<ect.
Fo"canic roc$ that &orms as Duid "ava chi""s rapid"y is ca""ed pi""ow "ava. This
rapid chi""ing occurs when "ava erupts direct"y into water (or beneath ice) or when
it Dows across a shore"ine and into a body o& water. ;hi"e the term >pi""ow "ava?
suggests a de#nite shape( in &act geo"ogists disagree. ome geo"ogists argue that
pi""ow "ava is characteri+ed by discrete( e""ipsoida" masses. <thers describe pi""ow
"ava as a tang"ed mass o& cy"indrica"( interconnected Dow "obes. Buch o& this
controversy probab"y resu"ts &rom unwarranted e8trapo"ations o& the origina"
con#guration o& pi""ow Dows &rom two-dimensiona" cross sections o& eroded pi""ows
in "and outcroppings. Firtua""y any cross section cut through a tang"ed mass o&
interconnected Dow "obes wou"d give the appearance o& a pi"e o& discrete
e""ipsoida" masses. 3de-uate three-dimensiona" images o& intact pi""ows are
essentia" &or de#ning the true geometry o& pi""owed Dows and thus ascertaining
their mode o& origin. 2ndeed( the term >pi""ow(? itse"& suggestive o& discrete
masses( is probab"y a misnomer.
20. &hich of the following is a fact presented in the passage%
(A) The shape of the connections between the separate/ sacklike masses in pillow
la'a is unknown.
(B) ?ore accurate cross sections of pillow la'a would re'eal the mode of origin.
(C) &ater or ice is necessary for the formation of pillow la'a.
() 9o three(dimensional e$amples of intact pillows currently e$ist.
(#) The origin of pillow la'a is not yet known.
21. 3n the passage/ the author is primarily interested in
(A) analy!ing the source of a scientific contro'ersy
(B) critici!ing some geologists4 methodology
(C) pointing out the flaws in a geological study
() proposing a new theory to e$plain e$isting scientific e'idence
(#) describing a physical phenomenon
0-2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
22. The author of the passage would most probably agree that the geologists
mentioned in line 2 (*;ome geologists+) ha'e made which of the following errors
in reasoning%
3. Benerali!ed un<ustifiably from a'ailable e'idence.
33. eliberately ignored e$isting countere'idence.
333. =epeatedly failed to take new e'idence into account.
(A) 3 only
(B) 33 only
(C) 333 only
() 3 and 33 only
(#) 33 and 333 only
2-. The author implies that the *contro'ersy+ (line ,) might be resol'ed if
(A) geologists did not persist in using the term *pillow+
(B) geologists did not rely on potentially misleading information
(C) geologists were more willing to confer directly with one another
() two(dimensional cross sections of eroded pillows were a'ailable
(#) e$isting pillows in land outcroppings were not so badly eroded
No. 9-1
SECTION A
Bany critics o& @mi"y 'ronte6s nove" ,uthering %eights see its second part as a
counterpoint that comments on( i& it does not reverse( the #rst part( where a
>romantic? reading receives more con#rmation. eeing the two parts as a who"e is
encouraged by the nove"6s sophisticated structure( revea"ed in its comp"e8 use o&
narrators and time shi&ts. Eranted that the presence o& these e"ements need not
argue an authoria" awareness o& nove"istic construction comparab"e to that o&
)enry Cames( their presence does encourage attempts to uni&y the nove"6s
heterogeneous parts. )owever( any interpretation that see$s to uni&y a"" o& the
nove"6s diverse e"ements is bound to be somewhat unconvincing. This is not
because such an interpretation necessari"y sti1ens into a thesis (a"though rigidity
in any interpretation o& this or o& any nove" is a"ways a danger)( but because
,uthering %eights has reca"citrant e"ements o& undeniab"e power that( u"timate"y(
resist inc"usion in an a""-encompassing interpretation. 2n this respect( ,uthering
%eights shares a &eature o& %amlet.
1-. According to the passage/ which of the following is a true statement about the first
and second parts of Wuthering &eights%
(A) The second part has recei'ed more attention from critics.
GRE 0-.
(B) The second part has little relation to the first part.
(C) The second part annuls the force of the first part.
() The second part pro'ides less substantiation for a *romantic+ reading.
(#) The second part is better because it is more realistic.
16. &hich of the following inferences about )enry Aames4s awareness of no'elistic
construction is best supported by the passage%
(A) Aames/ more than any other no'elist/ was aware of the difficulties of no'elistic
construction.
(B) Aames was 'ery aware of the details of no'elistic construction.
(C) Aames4s awareness of no'elistic construction deri'ed from his reading of
Bronte.
() Aames4s awareness of no'elistic construction has led most commentators to see
unity in his indi'idual no'els.
(#) Aames4s awareness of no'elistic construction precluded him from 'iolating the
unity of his no'els.
1,. The author of the passage would be most likely to agree that an interpretation of a
no'el should
(A) not try to unite heterogeneous elements in the no'el
(B) not be infle$ible in its treatment of the elements in the no'el
(C) not argue that the comple$ use of narrators or of time shifts indicates a
sophisticated structure
() concentrate on those recalcitrant elements of the no'el that are outside the
no'el4s main structure
(#) primarily consider those elements of no'elistic construction of which the
author of the no'el was aware
25. The author of the passage suggests which of the following about &a-let%
3. &a-let has usually attracted critical interpretations that tend to stiffen into
theses.
33. &a-let has elements that are not amenable to an all(encompassing critical
interpretation.
333. &a-let is less open to an all(encompassing critical interpretation than is
Wuthering &eights.
3C. &a-let has not recei'ed a critical interpretation that has been widely accepted
by readers.
(A) 3 only
(B) 33 only
(C) 3 and 3C only
() 333 and 3C only
0-0 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333 only
The determination o& the sources o& copper ore used in the manu&acture o&
copper and bron+e arti&acts o& 'ron+e 3ge civi"i+ations wou"d add great"y to our
$now"edge o& cu"tura" contacts and trade in that era. Researchers have ana"y+ed
arti&acts and ores &or their concentrations o& e"ements( but &or a variety o&
reasons( these studies have genera""y &ai"ed to provide evidence o& the sources o&
the copper used in the ob5ects. @"ementa" composition can vary within the same
copper-ore "ode( usua""y because o& varying admi8tures o& other e"ements(
especia""y iron( "ead( +inc( and arsenic. 3nd high concentrations o& coba"t or +inc(
noticed in some arti&acts( appear in a variety o& copper-ore sources. Boreover( the
processing o& ores introduced poor"y contro""ed changes in the concentrations o&
minor and trace e"ements in the resu"ting meta". ome e"ements evaporate during
sme"ting and roasting= di1erent temperatures and processes produce di1erent
degrees o& "oss. :ina""y( Du8( which is sometimes added during sme"ting to remove
waste materia" &rom the ore( cou"d add -uantities o& e"ements to the #na" product.
3n e"ementa" property that is unchanged through these chemica" processes is
the isotopic composition o& each meta""ic e"ement in the ore. 2sotopic composition(
the percentages o& the di1erent isotopes o& an e"ement in a given samp"e o& the
e"ement( is there&ore particu"ar"y suitab"e as an indicator o& the sources o& the ore.
<& course( &or this purpose it is necessary to #nd an e"ement whose isotopic
composition is more or "ess constant throughout a given ore body( but varies &rom
one copper ore body to another or( at "east( &rom one geographic region to
another.
The idea" choice( when isotopic composition is used to investigate the source o&
copper ore( wou"d seem to be copper itse"&. 2t has been shown that sma"" but
measurab"e variations occur natura""y in the isotopic composition o& copper.
)owever( the variations are "arge enough on"y in rare ores= between samp"es o&
the common ore minera"s o& copper( isotopic variations greater than the
measurement error have not been &ound. 3n a"ternative choice is "ead( which
occurs in most copper and bron+e arti&acts o& the 'ron+e 3ge in amounts
consistent with the "ead being derived &rom the copper ores and possib"y &rom the
Du8es. The isotopic composition o& "ead o&ten varies &rom one source o& common
copper ore to another( with variations e8ceeding the measurement error= and
pre"iminary studies indicate virtua""y uni&orm isotopic composition o& the "ead &rom
a sing"e copper-ore source. ;hi"e some o& the "ead &ound in an arti&act may have
been introduced &rom Du8 or when other meta"s were added to the copper ore(
"ead so added in 'ron+e 3ge processing wou"d usua""y have the same isotopic
composition as the "ead in the copper ore. Jead isotope studies may thus prove
use&u" &or interpreting the archaeo"ogica" record o& the 'ron+e 3ge.
21. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) discuss the techni"ues of analy!ing lead isotope composition
(B) propose a way to determine the origin of the copper in certain artifacts
GRE 0-1
(C) resol'e a dispute concerning the analysis of copper ore
() describe the deficiencies of a currently used method of chemical analysis of
certain metals
(#) offer an interpretation of the archaeological record of the Bron!e Age
22. The author first mentions the addition of flu$ during smelting (lines 16(21) in
order to
(A) gi'e a reason for the failure of elemental composition studies to determine ore
sources
(B) illustrate differences between 'arious Bron!e Age ci'ili!ations
(C) show the need for using high smelting temperatures
() illustrate the uniformity of lead isotope composition
(#) e$plain the success of copper isotope composition analysis
2.. The author suggests which of the following about a Bron!e Age artifact containing
high concentrations of cobalt or !inc%
(A) 3t could not be reliably tested for its elemental composition.
(B) 3t could not be reliably tested for its copper isotope composition.
(C) 3t could not be reliably tested for its lead isotope composition.
() 3t could ha'e been manufactured from ore from any one of a 'ariety of
sources.
(#) 3t could ha'e been produced by the addition of other metals during the
processing of the copper ore.
20. According to the passage/ possible sources of the lead found in a copper or bron!e
artifact include which of the following%
3. The copper ore used to manufacture the artifact
33. >lu$ added during processing of the copper ore
333. 8ther metal added during processing of the copper ore
(A) 3 only
(B) 33 only
(C) 333 only
() 33 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
21. The author re<ects copper as the *ideal choice+ mentioned in line .. because
(A) the concentration of copper in Bron!e Age artifacts 'aries
(B) elements other than copper may be introduced during smelting
(C) the isotopic composition of copper changes during smelting
() among common copper ores/ differences in copper isotope composition are too
small
0-2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(#) within a single source of copper ore/ copper isotope composition can 'ary
substantially
22. The author makes which of the following statements about lead isotope
composition%
(A) 3t often 'aries from one copper(ore source to another.
(B) 3t sometimes 'aries o'er short distances in a single copper(ore source.
(C) 3t can 'ary during the testing of artifacts/ producing a measurement error.
() 3t fre"uently changes during smelting and roasting.
(#) 3t may change when artifacts are buried for thousands of years.
2-. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the use of flu$ in processing copper ore
can alter the lead isotope composition of the resulting metal #DC#@T when
(A) there is a smaller concentration of lead in the flu$ than in the copper ore
(B) the concentration of lead in the flu$ is e"ui'alent to that of the lead in the ore
(C) some of the lead in the flu$ e'aporates during processing
() any lead in the flu$ has the same isotopic composition as the lead in the ore
(#) other metals are added during processing
SECTION B
ince the )awaiian 2s"ands have never been connected to other "and masses(
the great variety o& p"ants in )awaii must be a resu"t o& the "ong-distance
dispersa" o& seeds( a process that re-uires both a method o& transport and an
e-uiva"ence between the eco"ogy o& the source area and that o& the recipient
area.
There is some dispute about the method o& transport invo"ved. ome bio"ogists
argue that ocean and air currents are responsib"e &or the transport o& p"ant seeds
to )awaii. Iet the resu"ts o& Dotation e8periments and the "ow temperatures o& air
currents cast doubt on these hypotheses. Bore probab"e is bird transport( either
e8terna""y( by accidenta" attachment o& the seeds to &eathers( or interna""y( by the
swa""owing o& &ruit and subse-uent e8cretion o& the seeds. ;hi"e it is "i$e"y that
&ewer varieties o& p"ant seeds have reached )awaii e8terna""y than interna""y(
more varieties are $nown to be adapted to e8terna" than to interna" transport.
1-. The author of the passage is primarily concerned with
(A) discussing different approaches biologists ha'e taken to testing theories about
the distribution of plants in )awaii
(B) discussing different theories about the transport of plant seeds to )awaii
(C) discussing the e$tent to which air currents are responsible for the dispersal of
plant seeds to )awaii
() resol'ing a dispute about the adaptability of plant seeds to bird transport
GRE 0--
(#) resol'ing a dispute about the ability of birds to carry plant seeds long distances
16. The author mentions the results of flotation e$periments on plant seeds (lines 15(
12) most probably in order to
(A) support the claim that the distribution of plants in )awaii is the result of the
long(distance dispersal of seeds
(B) lend credibility to the thesis that air currents pro'ide a method of transport for
plant seeds to )awaii
(C) suggest that the long(distance dispersal of seeds is a process that re"uires long
periods of time
() challenge the claim that ocean currents are responsible for the transport of
plant seeds to )awaii
(#) refute the claim that )awaiian flora e'ol'ed independently from flora in other
parts of the world
1,. 3t can be inferred from information in the passage that the e$istence in alpine
regions of )awaii of a plant species that also grows in the southwestern :nited
;tates would <ustify which of the following conclusions%
(A) The ecology of the southwestern :nited ;tates is similar in important respects
to the ecology of alpine regions of )awaii.
(B) There are ocean currents that flow from the southwestern :nited ;tates to
)awaii.
(C) The plant species disco'ered in )awaii must ha'e tra'eled from the
southwestern :nited ;tates only 'ery recently.
() The plant species disco'ered in )awaii reached there by attaching to the
feathers of birds migrating from the southwestern :nited ;tates.
(#) The plant species disco'ered in )awaii is especially well adapted to transport
o'er long distances.
25. The passage supplies information for answering which of the following "uestions%
(A) &hy does successful long(distance dispersal of plant seeds re"uire an
e"ui'alence between the ecology of the source area and that of the recipient
area%
(B) &hy are more 'arieties of plant seeds adapted to e$ternal rather than to
internal bird transport%
(C) &hat 'arieties of plant seeds are birds that fly long distances most likely to
swallow%
() &hat is a reason for accepting the long(distance dispersal of plant seeds as an
e$planation for the origin of )awaiian flora%
(#) &hat e'idence do biologists cite to argue that ocean and air currents are
responsible for the transport of plant seeds to )awaii%
3 "ong-he"d view o& the history o& the @ng"ish co"onies that became the United
0-6 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
tates has been that @ng"and6s po"icy toward these co"onies be&ore 17L7 was
dictated by commercia" interests and that a change to a more imperia" po"icy(
dominated by e8pansionist mi"itarist ob5ectives( generated the tensions that
u"timate"y "ed to the 3merican Revo"ution. 2n a recent study( tephen aunders
;ebb has presented a &ormidab"e cha""enge to this view. 3ccording to ;ebb(
@ng"and a"ready had a mi"itary imperia" po"icy &or more than a century be&ore the
3merican Revo"ution. )e sees %har"es 22( the @ng"ish monarch between 1LL0 and
1L8/( as the proper successor o& the Tudor monarchs o& the si8teenth century and
o& <"iver %romwe""( a"" o& whom were bent on e8tending centra"i+ed e8ecutive
power over @ng"and6s possessions through the use o& what ;ebb ca""s >garrison
government.? Earrison government a""owed the co"onists a "egis"ative assemb"y(
but rea" authority( in ;ebb6s view( be"onged to the co"onia" governor( who was
appointed by the $ing and supported by the >garrison(? that is( by the "oca"
contingent o& @ng"ish troops under the co"onia" governor6s command.
3ccording to ;ebb( the purpose o& garrison government was to provide mi"itary
support &or a roya" po"icy designed to "imit the power o& the upper c"asses in the
3merican co"onies. ;ebb argues that the co"onia" "egis"ative assemb"ies
represented the interests not o& the common peop"e but o& the co"onia" upper
c"asses( a coa"ition o& merchants and nobi"ity who &avored se"&-ru"e and sought to
e"evate "egis"ative authority at the e8pense o& the e8ecutive. 2t was( according to
;ebb( the co"onia" governors who &avored the sma"" &armer( opposed the
p"antation system( and tried through ta8ation to brea$ up "arge ho"dings o& "and.
'ac$ed by the mi"itary presence o& the garrison( these governors tried to prevent
the gentry and merchants( a""ied in the co"onia" assemb"ies( &rom trans&orming
co"onia" 3merica into a capita"istic o"igarchy.
;ebb6s study i""uminates the po"itica" a"ignments that e8isted in the co"onies in
the century prior to the 3merican Revo"ution( but his view o& the crown6s use o&
the mi"itary as an instrument o& co"onia" po"icy is not entire"y convincing. @ng"and
during the seventeenth century was not noted &or its mi"itary achievements.
%romwe"" did mount @ng"and6s most ambitious overseas mi"itary e8pedition in
more than a century( but it proved to be an utter &ai"ure. Under %har"es 22( the
@ng"ish army was too sma"" to be a ma5or instrument o& government. ,ot unti" the
war with :rance in 1L97 did ;i""iam 222 persuade 9ar"iament to create a
pro&essiona" standing army( and 9ar"iaments price &or doing so was to $eep the
army under tight "egis"ative contro". ;hi"e it may be true that the crown
attempted to curtai" the power o& the co"onia" upper c"asses( it is hard to imagine
how the @ng"ish army during the seventeenth century cou"d have provided
signi#cant mi"itary support &or such a po"icy.
21. The passage can best be described as a
(A) sur'ey of the inade"uacies of a con'entional 'iewpoint
(B) reconciliation of opposing points of 'iew
(C) summary and e'aluation of a recent study
GRE 0-,
() defense of a new thesis from anticipated ob<ections
(#) re'iew of the subtle distinctions between apparently similar 'iews
22. The passage suggests that the 'iew referred to in lines 1(- argued that
(A) the colonial go'ernors were sympathetic to the demands of the common
people
(B) Charles 33 was a pi'otal figure in the shift of #nglish monarchs toward a more
imperial policy in their go'ernorship of the American colonies
(C) the American =e'olution was generated largely out of a conflict between the
colonial upper classes and an alliance of merchants and small farmers
() the military did not play a ma<or role as an instrument of colonial policy until
1-2.
(#) the colonial legislati'e assemblies in the colonies had little influence o'er the
colonial go'ernors
2.. 3t can be inferred from the passage that &ebb would be most likely to agree with
which of the following statements regarding garrison go'ernment%
(A) Barrison go'ernment ga'e legislati'e assemblies in the colonies relati'ely
little authority/ compared to the authority that it ga'e the colonial go'ernors.
(B) Barrison go'ernment pro'ed relati'ely ineffecti'e until it was used by Charles
33 to curb the power of colonial legislatures.
(C) Barrison go'ernment became a less 'iable colonial policy as the #nglish
@arliament began to e$ert tighter legislati'e control o'er the #nglish military.
() 8li'er Cromwell was the first #nglish ruler to make use of garrison
go'ernment on a large scale.
(#) The creation of a professional standing army in #ngland in 12,- actually
weakened garrison go'ernment by di'erting troops from the garrisons
stationed in the American colonies.
20. According to the passage/ &ebb 'iews Charles 33 as the *proper successor+ (line
1.) of the Tudor monarchs and Cromwell because Charles 33
(A) used colonial ta$ re'enues to fund o'erseas military e$peditions
(B) used the military to e$tend e$ecuti'e power o'er the #nglish colonies
(C) wished to transform the American colonies into capitalistic oligarchies
() resisted the #nglish @arliament4s efforts to e$ert control o'er the military
(#) allowed the American colonists to use legislati'e assemblies as a forum for
resol'ing grie'ances against the crown
21. &hich of the following/ if true/ would most seriously weaken the author4s
assertion in lines 10(16%
(A) Because they were poorly administered/ Cromwell4s o'erseas military
e$peditions were doomed to failure.
065 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(B) Because it relied primarily on the symbolic presence of the military/ garrison
go'ernment could be effecti'ely administered with a relati'ely small number
of troops.
(C) :ntil early in the se'enteenth century/ no professional standing army in #urope
had performed effecti'ely in o'erseas military e$peditions.
() ?any of the colonial go'ernors appointed by the crown were also
commissioned army officers.
(#) ?any of the #nglish troops stationed in the American colonies were 'eterans
of other o'erseas military e$peditions.
22. According to &ebb4s 'iew of colonial history/ which of the following was (were)
true of the merchants and nobility mentioned in line .5%
3. They were opposed to policies formulated by Charles 33 that would ha'e
transformed the colonies into capitalistic oligarchies.
33. They were opposed to attempts by the #nglish crown to limit the power of the
legislati'e assemblies.
333. They were united with small farmers in their opposition to the stationing of
#nglish troops in the colonies.
(A) 3 only
(B) 33 only
(C) 3 and 33 only
() 33 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
2-. The author suggests that if &illiam 333 had wanted to make use of the standing
army mentioned in line 12 to administer garrison go'ernment in the American
colonies/ he would ha'e had to.
(A) make peace with >rance
(B) abolish the colonial legislati'e assemblies
(C) seek appro'al from the #nglish @arliament
() appoint colonial go'ernors who were more sympathetic to royal policy
(#) raise additional re'enues by increasing ta$ation of large landholdings in the
colonies
No. 9-2
SECTION A
3 serious critic has to comprehend the particu"ar content( uni-ue structure( and
specia" meaning o& a wor$ o& art. 3nd here she &aces a di"emma. The critic must
recogni+e the artistic e"ement o& uni-ueness that re-uires sub5ective reaction= yet
GRE 061
she must not be undu"y pre5udiced by such reactions. )er "i$es and dis"i$es are
"ess important than what the wor$ itse"& communicates( and her pre&erences may
b"ind her to certain -ua"ities o& the wor$ and thereby prevent an ade-uate
understanding o& it. )ence( it is necessary that a critic deve"op a sensibi"ity
in&ormed by &ami"iarity with the history o& art and aesthetic theory. <n the other
hand( it is insu*cient to treat the artwor$ so"e"y historica""y( in re"ation to a #8ed
set o& ideas or va"ues. The critic6s $now"edge and training are( rather( a
preparation o& the cognitive and emotiona" abi"ities needed &or an ade-uate
persona" response to an artwor$6s own particu"ar -ua"ities.
1-. According to the author/ a serious art critic may a'oid being pre<udiced by her
sub<ecti'e reactions if she
(A) treats an artwork in relation to a fi$ed set of ideas and 'alues
(B) brings to her obser'ation a knowledge of art history and aesthetic theory
(C) allows more time for the obser'ation of each artwork
() takes into account the preferences of other art critics
(#) limits herself to that art with which she has ade"uate familiarity
16. The author implies that it is insufficient to treat a work of art solely historically
because
(A) doing so would lead the critic into a dilemma
(B) doing so can blind the critic to some of the artwork4s uni"ue "ualities
(C) doing so can insulate the critic from personally held beliefs
() sub<ecti'e reactions can produce a biased response
(#) critics are not sufficiently familiar with art history
1,. The passage suggests that the author would be most likely to agree with which of
the following statements%
(A) Art speaks to the passions as well as to the intellect.
(B) ?ost works of art e$press unconscious wishes or desires.
(C) The best art is accessible to the greatest number of people.
() The art produced in the last few decades is of inferior "uality.
(#) The meaning of art is a function of the social conditions in which it was
produced.
25. The author4s argument is de'eloped primarily by the use of
(A) an attack on sentimentality
(B) an e$ample of successful art criticism
(C) a criti"ue of artists training
() a warning against e$tremes in art criticism
(#) an analogy between art criticism and art production
062 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
Firuses( in&ectious partic"es consisting o& nuc"eic acid pac$aged in a protein
coat (the capsid)( are di*cu"t to resist. Unab"e to reproduce outside a "iving ce""(
viruses reproduce on"y by subverting the genetic mechanisms o& a host ce"". 2n
one $ind o& vira" "i&e cyc"e( the virus #rst binds to the ce""6s sur&ace( then
penetrates the ce"" and sheds its capsid. The e8posed vira" nuc"eic acid produces
new viruses &rom the contents o& the ce"". :ina""y( the ce"" re"eases the vira"
progeny( and a new ce"" cyc"e o& in&ection begins. The human body responds to a
vira" in&ection by producing antibodiesA comp"e8( high"y speci#c proteins that
se"ective"y bind to &oreign mo"ecu"es such as viruses. 3n antibody can either
inter&ere with a virus6s abi"ity to bind to a ce""( or can prevent it &rom re"easing its
nuc"eic acid.
Un&ortunate"y( the common co"d( produced most o&ten by rhinoviruses( is
intractab"e to antivira" de&ense. )umans have di*cu"ty resisting co"ds because
rhinoviruses are so diverse( inc"uding at "east 100 strains. The strains di1er most
in the mo"ecu"ar structure o& the proteins in their capsids. ince disease-#ghting
antibodies bind to the capsid( an antibody deve"oped to protect against one
rhinovirus strain is use"ess against other strains. Ki1erent antibodies must be
produced &or each strain.
3 de&ense against rhinoviruses might nonethe"ess succeed by e8p"oiting hidden
simi"arities among the rhinovirus strains. :or e8amp"e( most rhinovirus strains
bind to the same $ind o& mo"ecu"e (de"ta-receptors) on a ce""6s sur&ace when they
attac$ human ce""s. %o"onno( ta$ing advantage o& these common receptors(
devised a strategy &or b"oc$ing the attachment o& rhinoviruses to their appropriate
receptors. Rather than &ruit"ess"y searching &or an antibody that wou"d bind to a""
rhinoviruses( %o"onno rea"i+ed that an antibody binding to the common receptors
o& a human ce"" wou"d prevent rhinoviruses &rom initiating an in&ection. 'ecause
human ce""s norma""y do not deve"op antibodies to components o& their own ce""s(
%o"onno in5ected human ce""s into mice( which did produce an antibody to the
common receptor. 2n iso"ated human ce""s( this antibody proved to be
e8traordinari"y e1ective at thwarting the rhinovirus. Boreover( when the antibody
was given to chimpan+ees( it inhibited rhinovira" growth( and in humans it
"essened both the severity and duration o& co"d symptoms.
3nother possib"e de&ense against rhinoviruses was proposed by Rossman( who
described rhinoviruses6 detai"ed mo"ecu"ar structure. Rossman showed that
protein se-uences common to a"" rhinovirus strains "ie at the base o& a deep
>canyon? scoring each &ace o& the capsid. The narrow opening o& this canyon
possib"y prevents the re"ative"y "arge antibody mo"ecu"es &rom binding to the
common se-uence( but sma""er mo"ecu"es might reach it. 3mong these sma""er(
nonantibody mo"ecu"es( some might bind to the common se-uence( "oc$ the
nuc"eic acid in its coat( and thereby prevent the virus &rom reproducing.
21. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) discuss 'iral mechanisms and possible ways of circum'enting certain kinds of
GRE 06.
those mechanisms
(B) challenge recent research on how rhino'iruses bind to receptors on the surfaces
of cells
(C) suggest future research on rhino'iral growth in chimpan!ees
() defend a contro'ersial research program whose purpose is to disco'er the
molecular structure of rhino'irus capsids
(#) e'aluate a dispute between ad'ocates of two theories about the rhino'irus life
cycle
22. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the protein se"uences of the capsid that
'ary most among strains of rhino'irus are those
(A) at the base of the *canyon+
(B) outside of the *canyon+
(C) responsible for producing nucleic acid
() responsible for pre'enting the formation of delta(receptors
(#) pre'enting the capsid from releasing its nucleic acid
2.. 3t can be inferred from the passage that a cell lacking delta(receptors will be
(A) unable to pre'ent the rhino'iral nucleic acid from shedding its capsid
(B) defenseless against most strains of rhino'irus
(C) unable to release the 'iral progeny it de'elops after infection
() protected from new infections by antibodies to the rhino'irus
(#) resistant to infection by most strains of rhino'irus
20. &hich of the following research strategies for de'eloping a defense against the
common cold would the author be likely to find most promising%
(A) Continuing to look for a general antirhino'iral antibody
(B) ;earching for common cell(surface receptors in humans and mice
(C) Continuing to look for similarities among the 'arious strains of rhino'irus
() isco'ering how the human body produces antibodies in response to a
rhino'iral infection
(#) etermining the detailed molecular structure of the nucleic acid of a rhino'irus
21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the purpose of Colonno4s e$periments was
to determine whether
(A) chimpan!ees and humans can both be infected by rhino'iruses
(B) chimpan!ees can produce antibodies to human cell(surface receptors
(C) a rhino'irus4 nucleic acid might be locked in its protein coat
() binding antibodies to common receptors could produce a possible defense
against rhino'iruses
(#) rhino'iruses are 'ulnerable to human antibodies
060 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
22. According to the passage/ =ossman4s research suggests that
(A) a defense against rhino'iruses might e$ploit structural similarities among the
strains of rhino'irus
(B) human cells normally do not de'elop antibodies to components of their own
cells
(C) the 'arious strains of rhino'irus differ in their ability to bind to the surface of a
host cell
() rhino'irus 'ersatility can work to the benefit of researchers trying to find a
useful antibody
(#) Colonno4s research findings are probably in'alid
2-. According to the passage/ in order for a gi'en antibody to bind to a gi'en
rhino'iral capsid/ which of the following must be true%
(A) The capsid must ha'e a deep *canyon+ on each of its faces.
(B) The antibody must be specific to the molecular structure of the particular
capsid.
(C) The capsid must separate from its nucleic acid before binding to an antibody.
() The antibody must bind to a particular cell(surface receptor before it can bind
to a rhino'irus.
(#) The antibody must first enter a cell containing the particular rhino'irus.
SECTION B
Kiamonds( an occasiona" component o& rare igneous roc$s ca""ed "amproites
and $imber"ites( have never been dated satis&actori"y. )owever( some diamonds
contain minute inc"usions o& si"icate minera"s( common"y o"ivine( pyro8ene( and
garnet. These minera"s can be dated by radioactive decay techni-ues because o&
the very sma"" -uantities o& radioactive trace e"ements they( in turn( contain.
Usua""y( it is possib"e to conc"ude that the inc"usions are o"der than their diamond
hosts( but with "itt"e indication o& the time interva" invo"ved. ometimes( however(
the crysta" &orm o& the si"icate inc"usions is observed to resemb"e more c"ose"y the
interna" structure o& diamond than that o& other si"icate minera"s. 2t is not $nown
how rare this resemb"ance is( or whether it is most o&ten seen in inc"usions o&
si"icates such as garnet( whose crysta""ography is genera""y somewhat simi"ar to
that o& diamond= but when present( the resemb"ance is regarded as compe""ing
evidence that the diamonds and inc"usions are tru"y cogenetic.
1-. The author implies that silicate inclusions were most often formed
(A) with small diamonds inside of them
(B) with trace elements deri'ed from their host minerals
(C) by the radioacti'e decay of rare igneous rocks
() at an earlier period than were their host minerals
GRE 061
(#) from the crystalli!ation of rare igneous material
16. According to the passage/ the age of silicate minerals included in diamonds can be
determined due to a feature of the
(A) trace elements in the diamond hosts
(B) trace elements in the rock surrounding the diamonds
(C) trace elements in the silicate minerals
() silicate minerals4 crystal structure
(#) host diamonds4 crystal structure
1,. The author states that which of the following generally has a crystal structure
similar to that of diamond%
(A) Kamproite
(B) Mimberlite
(C) 8li'ine
() @yro$ene
(#) Barnet
25. The main purpose of the passage is to
(A) e$plain why it has not been possible to determine the age of diamonds
(B) e$plain how it might be possible to date some diamonds
(C) compare two alternati'e approaches to determining the age of diamonds
() compare a method of dating diamonds with a method used to date certain
silicate minerals
(#) compare the age of diamonds with that of certain silicate minerals contained
within them
Kiscussion o& the assimi"ation o& 9uerto Ricans in the United tates has &ocused
on two &actorsA socia" standing and the "oss o& nationa" cu"ture. 2n genera"(
e8cessive stress is p"aced on one &actor or the other( depending on whether the
commentator is ,orth 3merican or 9uerto Rican. Bany ,orth 3merican socia"
scientists( such as <scar )and"in( Coseph :it+patric$( and <scar Jewis( consider
9uerto Ricans as the most recent in a "ong "ine o& ethnic entrants to occupy the
"owest rung on the socia" "adder. uch a >sociodemographic? approach tends to
regard assimi"ation as a benign process( ta$ing &or granted increased economic
advantage and inevitab"e cu"tura" integration( in a supposed"y ega"itarian conte8t.
)owever( this approach &ai"s to ta$e into account the co"onia" nature o& the 9uerto
Rican case( with this group( un"i$e their @uropean predecessors( coming &rom a
nation po"itica""y subordinated to the United tates. @ven the >radica"? criti-ues o&
this mainstream research mode"( such as the criti-ue deve"oped in -ivided
ociety( attach the issue o& ethnic assimi"ation too mechanica""y to &actors o&
economic and socia" mobi"ity and are thus unab"e to i""uminate the cu"tura"
subordination o& 9uerto Ricans as a co"onia" minority.
062 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
2n contrast( the >co"onia"ist? approach o& is"and-based writers such as @duardo
eda-'oni""a( Banue" Ba"donado-Kenis( and Juis ,ieves-:a"con tends to view
assimi"ation as the &orced "oss o& nationa" cu"ture in an une-ua" contest with
imposed &oreign va"ues. There is( o& course( a strong tradition o& cu"tura"
accommodation among other 9uerto Rican thin$ers. The writings o& @ugenio
:ernande+ Bende+ c"ear"y e8emp"i&y this tradition( and many supporters o& 9uerto
Rico6s commonwea"th status share the same universa"i+ing orientation. 'ut the
9uerto Rican inte""ectua"s who have written most about the assimi"ation process in
the United tates a"" advance cu"tura" nationa"ist views( advocating the
preservation o& minority cu"tura" distinctions and re5ecting what they see as the
sub5ugation o& co"onia" nationa"ities.
This cu"tura" and po"itica" emphasis is appropriate( but the co"onia"ist thin$ers
misdirect it( over"oo$ing the c"ass re"ations at wor$ in both 9uerto Rican and ,orth
3merican history. They pose the c"ash o& nationa" cu"tures as an abso"ute po"arity(
with each cu"ture understood as static and undi1erentiated. Iet both the 9uerto
Rican and ,orth 3merican traditions have been sub5ect to constant cha""enge
&rom cu"tura" &orces within their own societies( &orces that may move toward each
other in ways that cannot be written o1 as mere >assimi"ation.? %onsider( &or
e8amp"e( the indigenous and 3&ro-%aribbean traditions in 9uerto Rican cu"ture and
how they inDuence and are inDuenced by other %aribbean cu"tures and '"ac$
cu"tures in the United tates. The e"ements o& coercion and ine-ua"ity( so centra"
to cu"tura" contact according to the co"onia"ist &ramewor$ p"ay no ro"e in this $ind
o& convergence o& racia""y and ethnica""y di1erent e"ements o& the same socia"
c"ass.
21. The author4s main purpose is to
(A) critici!e the emphasis on social standing in discussions of the assimilation of
@uerto =icans in the :nited ;tates
(B) support the thesis that assimilation has not been a benign process for @uerto
=icans
(C) defend a 'iew of the assimilation of @uerto =icans that emphasi!es the
preser'ation of national culture
() indicate deficiencies in two schools of thought on the assimilation of @uerto
=icans in the :nited ;tates
(#) re<ect the attempt to formulate a general framework for discussion of the
assimilation of @uerto =icans in the :nited ;tates
22. According to the passage/ cultural accommodation is promoted by
(A) #duardo ;eda(Bonilla
(B) ?anuel ?aldonado(enis
(C) the author of !i$ided Society
() the ma<ority of social scientists writing on immigration
GRE 06-
(#) many supporters of @uerto =ico4s commonwealth status
2.. 3t can be inferred from the passage that a writer such as #ugenio >ernande!
?ende! would most likely agree with which of the following statements
concerning members of minority ethnic groups%
(A) 3t is necessary for the members of such groups to adapt to the culture of the
ma<ority.
(B) The members of such groups generally encounter a culture that is static and
undifferentiated.
(C) ;ocial mobility is the most important feature of the e$perience of members of
such groups.
() ;ocial scientists should emphasi!e the cultural and political aspects of the
e$perience of members of such groups.
(#) The assimilation of members of such groups re"uires the forced abandonment
of their authentic national roots.
20. The author implies that the @uerto =ican writers who ha'e written most about
assimilation do 98T do which of the following%
(A) =egard assimilation as benign.
(B) =esist cultural integration.
(C) escribe in detail the process of assimilation.
() Take into account the colonial nature of the @uerto =ican case.
(#) Critici!e supporters of @uerto =ico4s commonwealth status.
21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the *colonialist+ approach is so called
because its practitioners
(A) support @uerto =ico4s commonwealth status
(B) ha'e a strong tradition of cultural accommodation
(C) emphasi!e the class relations at work in both @uerto =ican and 9orth
American history
() pose the clash of national cultures as an absolute polarity in which each culture
is understood as static and undifferentiated
(#) regard the political relation of @uerto =ico to the :nited ;tates as a significant
factor in the e$perience of @uerto =icans
22. The author regards the emphasis by island(based writers on the cultural and
political dimensions of assimilation as
(A) ironic
(B) dangerous
(C) fitting but misdirected
() illuminating but easily misunderstood
(#) peculiar but benign
066 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
2-. The e$ample discussed in lines 11(10 is intended by the author to illustrate a
(A) strength of the sociodemographic approach
(B) strength of the *colonialist+ approach
(C) weakness of the sociodemographic approach
() weakness of the *colonialist+ approach
(#) weakness of the cultural(accommodationist approach
No. 9-3
SECTION A
%"assica" physics de#nes the vacuum as a state o& absenceA a vacuum is said to
e8ist in a region o& space i& there is nothing in it. 2n the -uantum #e"d theories that
describe the physics o& e"ementary partic"es( the vacuum becomes somewhat
more comp"icated. @ven in empty space( partic"es can appear spontaneous"y as a
resu"t o& Ductuations o& the vacuum. :or e8amp"e( an e"ectron and a positron( or
antie"ectron( can be created out o& the void. 9artic"es created in this way have
on"y a Deeting e8istence= they are annihi"ated a"most as soon as they appear( and
their presence can never be detected direct"y. They are ca""ed virtua" partic"es in
order to distinguish them &rom rea" partic"es( whose "i&etimes are not constrained
in the same way( and which can be detected. Thus it is sti"" possib"e to de#ne that
vacuum as a space that has no rea" partic"es in it.
<ne might e8pect that the vacuum wou"d a"ways be the state o& "owest
possib"e energy &or a given region o& space. 2& an area is initia""y empty and a rea"
partic"e is put into it( the tota" energy( it seems( shou"d be raised by at "east the
energy e-uiva"ent o& the mass o& the added partic"e. 3 surprising resu"t o& some
recent theoretica" investigations is that this assumption is not invariab"y true.
There are conditions under which the introduction o& a rea" partic"e o& #nite mass
into an empty region o& space can reduce the tota" energy. 2& the reduction in
energy is great enough( an e"ectron and a positron wi"" be spontaneous"y created.
Under these conditions the e"ectron and positron are not a resu"t o& vacuum
Ductuations but are rea" partic"es( which e8ist inde#nite"y and can be detected. 2n
other words( under these conditions the vacuum is an unstab"e state and can
decay into a state o& "ower energy= i.e.( one in which rea" partic"es are created.
The essentia" condition &or the decay o& the vacuum is the presence o& an
intense e"ectric #e"d. 3s a resu"t o& the decay o& the vacuum( the space permeated
by such a #e"d can be said to ac-uire an e"ectric charge( and it can be ca""ed a
charged vacuum. The partic"es that materia"i+e in the space ma$e the charge
mani&est. 3n e"ectric #e"d o& su*cient intensity to create a charged vacuum is
"i$e"y to be &ound in on"y one p"aceA in the immediate vicinity o& a superheavy
atomic nuc"eus( one with about twice as many protons as the heaviest natura"
nuc"ei $nown. 3 nuc"eus that "arge cannot be stab"e( but it might be possib"e to
GRE 06,
assemb"e one ne8t to a vacuum &or "ong enough to observe the decay o& the
vacuum. @8periments attempting to achieve this are now under way.
1-. &hich of the following titles best describes the passage as a whole%
(A) The CacuumE 3ts >luctuations and ecay
(B) The CacuumE 3ts Creation and 3nstability
(C) The CacuumE A ;tate of Absence
() @articles That ?ateriali!e in the Cacuum
(#) Classical @hysics and the Cacuum
16. According to the passage/ the assumption that the introduction of a real particle
into a 'acuum raises the total energy of that region of space has been cast into
doubt by which of the following%
(A) >indings from laboratory e$periments
(B) >indings from obser'ational field e$periments
(C) Accidental obser'ations made during other e$periments
() isco'ery of se'eral erroneous propositions in accepted theories
(#) @redictions based on theoretical work
1,. 3t can be inferred from the passage that scientists are currently making efforts to
obser'e which of the following e'ents%
(A) The decay of a 'acuum in the presence of 'irtual particles
(B) The decay of a 'acuum ne$t to a superhea'y atomic nucleus
(C) The creation of a superhea'y atomic nucleus ne$t to an intense electric field
() The creation of a 'irtual electron and a 'irtual positron as a result of
fluctuations of a 'acuum
(#) The creation of a charged 'acuum in which only real electrons can be created
in the 'acuum4s region of space
25. @hysicists4 recent in'estigations of the decay of the 'acuum/ as described in the
passage/ most closely resemble which of the following hypothetical e'ents in other
disciplines%
(A) 8n the basis of data gathered in a carefully controlled laboratory e$periment/ a
chemist predicts and then demonstrates the physical properties of a newly
synthesi!ed polymer.
(B) 8n the basis of manipulations of macroeconomic theory/ an economist predicts
that/ contrary to accepted economic theory/ inflation and unemployment will
both decline under conditions of rapid economic growth.
(C) 8n the basis of a rereading of the te$ts of Aane Austen4s no'els/ a literary critic
suggests that/ contrary to accepted literary interpretations. Austen4s plots were
actually metaphors for political e'ents in early nineteenth(century #ngland.
() 8n the basis of data gathered in carefully planned obser'ations of se'eral
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species of birds/ a biologist proposes a modification in the accepted theory of
interspecies competition.
(#) 8n the basis of a study of obser'ations incidentally recorded in ethnographers4
descriptions of non(&estern societies/ an anthropologist proposes a new theory
of kinship relations.
21. According to the passage/ the author considers the reduction of energy in an empty
region of space to which a real particle has been added to be
(A) a well(known process
(B) a fre"uent occurrence
(C) a fleeting aberration
() an unimportant e'ent
(#) an une$pected outcome
22. According to the passage/ 'irtual particles differ from real particles in which of the
following ways%
3. Cirtual particles ha'e e$tremely short lifetimes.
33. Cirtual particles are created in an intense electric field.
333. Cirtual particles cannot be detected directly.
(A) 3 only
(B) 33 only
(C) 333 only
() 3 and 33 only
(#) 3 and 333 only
2.. The author4s assertions concerning the conditions that lead to the decay of the
'acuum would be most weakened if which of the following occurred%
(A) ;cientists created an electric field ne$t to a 'acuum/ but found that the electric
field was not intense enough to create a charged 'acuum.
(B) ;cientists assembled a superhea'y atomic nucleus ne$t to a 'acuum/ but found
that no 'irtual particles were created in the 'acuum4s region of space.
(C) ;cientists assembled a superhea'y atomic nucleus ne$t to a 'acuum/ but found
that they could not then detect any real particles in the 'acuum4s region of
space.
() ;cientists introduced a 'irtual electron and a 'irtual positron into a 'acuum4s
region of space/ but found that the 'acuum did not then fluctuate.
(#) ;cientists introduced a real electron and a real positron into a 'acuum4s region
of space/ but found that the total energy of the space increased by the energy
e"ui'alent of the mass of the particles.
imone de 'eauvoir6s wor$ great"y inDuenced 'etty :riedan6s!2ndeed( made it
possib"e. ;hy( then( was it :riedan who became the prophet o& women6s
GRE 0,1
emancipation in the United tatesG 9o"itica" conditions( as we"" as a certain anti-
inte""ectua" bias( prepared 3mericans and the 3merican media to better receive
:riedan6s deradica"i+ed and high"y pragmatic The Feminine (ystique( pub"ished in
19L7( than 'eauvoir6s theoretica" reading o& women6s situation in The econd
e3. 2n 19/7 when The econd e3 #rst appeared in trans"ation in the United
tates( the country had entered the si"ent( &ear&u" &ortress o& the anticommunist
Bc%arthy years (19/0-19/M)( and 'eauvoir was suspected o& Bar8ist sympathies.
@ven The +ation( a genera""y "ibera" maga+ine( warned its readers against >certain
po"itica" "eanings? o& the author. <pen ac$now"edgement o& the e8istence o&
women6s oppression was too radica" &or the United tates in the #&ties( and
'eauvoir6s conc"usion( that change in women6s economic condition( though
insu*cient by itse"&( >remains the basic &actor? in improving women6s situation(
was particu"ar"y unacceptab"e.
20. According to the passage/ one difference between The Fe-inine *ystique and The
Second Se, is that >riedan4s book
(A) re<ects the idea that women are oppressed
(B) pro'ides a primarily theoretical analysis of women4s li'es
(C) does not reflect the political beliefs of its author
() suggests that women4s economic condition has no impact on their status
(#) concentrates on the practical aspects of the "uestions of women4s emancipation
21. The author "uotes from The Nation most probably in order to
(A) modify an earlier assertion
(B) point out a possible e$ception to her argument
(C) illustrate her central point
() clarify the meaning of a term
(#) cite an e$pert opinion
22. 3t can be inferred from the passage that which of the following is not a factor in the
e$planation of why The Fe-inine *ystique was recei'ed more positi'ely in the
:nited ;tates than was The Second Se,%
(A) By 1,2. political conditions in the :nited ;tates had changed.
(B) >riedan4s book was less intellectual and abstract than Beau'oir4s.
(C) =eaders did not recogni!e the powerful influence of Beau'oir4s book on
>riedan4s ideas.
() >riedan4s approach to the issue of women4s emancipation was less radical than
Beau'oir4s.
(#) American readers were more willing to consider the problem of the oppression
of women in the si$ties than they had been in the fifties.
2-. According to the passage/ Beau'oir4s book asserted that the status of women
0,2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(A) is the outcome of political oppression
(B) is inherently tied to their economic condition
(C) can be best impro'ed under a communist go'ernment
() is a theoretical/ rather than a pragmatic/ issue
(#) is a critical area of discussion in ?ar$ist economic theory
SECTION B
<ne o& the -uestions o& interest in the study o& the evo"ution o& spiders is
whether the weaving o& orb webs evo"ved on"y once or severa" times. 3bout ha"&
the 7/(000 $nown $inds o& spiders ma$e webs= a third o& the web weavers ma$e
orb webs. ince most orb weavers be"ong either to the 3raneidae or the
U"oboridae &ami"ies( the origin o& the orb web can be determined on"y by
ascertaining whether the &ami"ies are re"ated.
Recent ta8onomic ana"ysis o& individua"s &rom both &ami"ies indicates that the
&ami"ies evo"ved &rom di1erent ancestors( thereby contradicting ;ieh"e6s theory.
This theory postu"ates that the &ami"ies must be re"ated( based on the assumption
that comp"e8 behavior( such as web bui"ding( cou"d evo"ve on"y once. 3ccording to
Su""man( web structure is the on"y characteristic that suggests a re"ationship
between &ami"ies. The &ami"ies di1er in appearance( structure o& body hair( and
arrangement o& eyes. <n"y U"oborids "ac$ venom g"ands. :urther identi#cation and
study o& characteristic &eatures wi"" undoubted"y answer the -uestion o& the
evo"ution o& the orb web.
1-. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) settle the "uestion of whether orb webs e'ol'ed once or more than once
(B) describe scientific speculation concerning an issue related to the e'olution of
orb webs
(C) analy!e the differences between the characteristic features of spiders in the
Araneidae and :loboridae families
() "uestion the methods used by earlier in'estigators of the habits of spiders
(#) demonstrate that Araneidae spiders are not related to :loboridae spiders
16. 3t can be inferred from the passage that all orb(wea'ing spiders belong to types of
spiders that
(A) lack 'enom glands
(B) are included either in the :loboridae or Araneidae families
(C) share few characteristic features with other spider types
() comprise less than a third of all known types of spiders
(#) are more recently e'ol'ed than other types of spiders
1,. According to the passage/ members of the Araneidae family can be distinguished
GRE 0,.
from members of the :loboridae family by all of the following #DC#@TE
(A) the presence of 'enom glands
(B) the type of web they spin
(C) the structure of their body hair
() the arrangement of their eyes
(#) their appearance
25. &hich of the following statements/ if true/ most weakens &iehle4s theory that
comple$ beha'ior could e'ol'e only once%
(A) )orses/ introduced to the 9ew &orld by the ;paniards/ thri'ed under di'erse
climatic conditions.
(B) @lants of the @almaceae family/ descendants of a common ancestor/ e'ol'ed
uni"ue seed forms e'en though the plants occupy similar habitats throughout
the world.
(C) All mammals are descended from a small/ rodentlike animal whose physical
characteristics in some form are found in all its descendants.
() @lants in the Cactaceae and #uphorbiaceae families/ although they often look
alike and ha'e de'eloped similar mechanisms to meet the rigors of the desert/
e'ol'ed independently.
(#) The Cuban anole/ which was recently introduced in the >lorida wilds/ is
"uickly replacing the nati'e >lorida chameleon because the anole has no
competitors.
>9opu"ar art? has a number o& meanings( impossib"e to de#ne with any
precision( which range &rom &o"$"ore to 5un$. The po"es are c"ear enough( but the
midd"e tends to b"ur. The )o""ywood ;estern o& the 19706s( &or e8amp"e( has
e"ements o& &o"$"ore( but is c"oser to 5un$ than to high art or &o"$ art. There can be
great trash( 5ust as there is bad high art. The musica"s o& Eeorge Eershwin are
great popu"ar art( never aspiring to high art. chubert and 'rahms( however( used
e"ements o& popu"ar music!&o"$ themes!in wor$s c"ear"y intended as high art.
The case o& Ferdi is a di1erent oneA he too$ a popu"ar genre!bourgeois
me"odrama set to music (an accurate de#nition o& nineteenth-century opera)!
and( without a"tering its &undamenta" nature( transmuted it into high art. This
remains one o& the greatest achievements in music( and one that cannot be &u""y
appreciated without recogni+ing the essentia" trashiness o& the genre.
3s an e8amp"e o& such a transmutation( consider what Ferdi made o& the
typica" po"itica" e"ements o& nineteenth-century opera. Eenera""y in the p"ots o&
these operas( a hero or heroine!usua""y portrayed on"y as an individua"(
un&ettered by c"ass!is caught between the immora" corruption o& the aristocracy
and the doctrinaire rigidity or secret greed o& the "eaders o& the pro"etariat. Ferdi
trans&orms this naive and un"i$e"y &ormu"ation with music o& e8traordinary energy
and rhythmic vita"ity( music more subt"e than it seems at #rst hearing. There are
scenes and arias that sti"" sound "i$e ca""s to arms and were c"ear"y understood as
0,0 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
such when they were #rst per&ormed. uch pieces "end an immediacy to the
otherwise vei"ed po"itica" message o& these operas and ca"" up &ee"ings beyond
those o& the opera itse"&.
<r consider Ferdi6s treatment o& character. 'e&ore Ferdi( there were rare"y any
characters at a"" in musica" drama( on"y a series o& situations which a""owed the
singers to e8press a series o& emotiona" states. 3ny attempt to #nd coherent
psycho"ogica" portraya" in these operas is misp"aced ingenuity. The on"y coherence
was the singer6s voca" techni-ueA when the cast changed( new arias were a"most
a"ways substituted( genera""y adapted &rom other operas. Ferdi6s characters( on
the other hand( have genuine consistency and integrity( even i&( in many cases(
the consistency is that o& pasteboard me"odrama. The integrity o& the character is
achieved through the musicA once he had become estab"ished( Ferdi did not
rewrite his music &or di1erent singers or countenance a"terations or substitutions
o& somebody e"se6s arias in one o& his operas( as every eighteenth-century
composer had done. ;hen he revised an opera( it was on"y &or dramatic economy
and e1ectiveness.
21. The author refers to ;chubert and Brahms in order to suggest
(A) that their achie'ements are no less substantial than those of Cerdi
(B) that their works are e$amples of great trash
(C) the e$tent to which ;chubert and Brahms influenced the later compositions of
Cerdi
() a contrast between the con'entions of nineteenth(century opera and those of
other musical forms
(#) that popular music could be employed in compositions intended as high art
22. According to the passage/ the immediacy of the political message in Cerdi4s operas
stems from the
(A) 'itality and subtlety of the music
(B) audience4s familiarity with earlier operas
(C) portrayal of heightened emotional states
() indi'idual talents of the singers
(#) 'erisimilitude of the characters
2.. According to the passage/ all of the following characteri!e musical drama before
Cerdi #DC#@TE
(A) arias tailored to a particular singer4s ability
(B) adaptation of music from other operas
(C) psychological inconsistency in the portrayal of characters
() e$pression of emotional states in a series of dramatic situations
(#) music used for the purpose of defining a character
GRE 0,1
20. 3t can be inferred that the author regards Cerdi4s re'isions to his operas with
(A) regret that the original music and te$ts were altered
(B) concern that many of the re'isions altered the plots of the original work
(C) appro'al for the intentions that moti'ated the re'isions
() pu!!lement/ since the re'isions seem largely insignificant
(#) enthusiasm/ since the re'isions were aimed at reducing the con'entionality of
the operas4 plots
21. According to the passage/ one of Cerdi4s achie'ements within the framework of
nineteenth(century opera and its con'entions was to
(A) limit the e$tent to which singers influenced the musical compositions and
performance of his operas
(B) use his operas primarily as forums to protest both the moral corruption and
dogmatic rigidity of the political leaders of his time
(C) portray psychologically comple$ characters shaped by the political
en'ironment surrounding them
() incorporate elements of folklore into both the music and plots of his operas
(#) introduce political elements into an art form that had traditionally a'oided
political content
22. &hich of the following best describes the relationship of the first paragraph of the
passage to the passage as a whole%
(A) 3t pro'ides a group of specific e$amples from which generali!ations are drawn
later in the passage.
(B) 3t leads to an assertion that is supported by e$amples later in the passage.
(C) 3t defines terms and relationships that are challenged in an argument later in
the passage.
() 3t briefly compares and contrasts se'eral achie'ements that are e$amined in
detail later in the passage.
(#) 3t e$plains a method of <udging a work of art/ a method that is used later in the
passage.
2-. 3t can be inferred that the author regards the independence from social class of the
heroes and heroines of nineteenth(century opera as
(A) an ideali!ed but fundamentally accurate portrayal of bourgeois life
(B) a plot con'ention with no real connection to political reality
(C) a plot refinement uni"ue to Cerdi
() a symbolic representation of the position of the bourgeoisie relati'e to the
aristocracy and the proletariat
(#) a con'ention largely seen as irrele'ant by audiences
0,2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
No. 9-4
SECTION A
(The artic"e &rom which the passage was ta$en appeared in 1984.)
Theorists are divided concerning the origin o& the Boon. ome hypothesi+e that
the Boon was &ormed in the same way as were the p"anets in the inner so"ar
system (Bercury( Fenus( Bars( and @arth)!&rom p"anet-&orming materia"s in the
preso"ar nebu"a. 'ut( un"i$e the cores o& the inner p"anets( the Boon6s core
contains "itt"e or no iron( whi"e the typica" p"anet-&orming materia"s were -uite rich
in iron. <ther theorists propose that the Boon was ripped out o& the @arth6s roc$y
mant"e by the @arth6s co""ision with another "arge ce"estia" body a&ter much o& the
@arth6s iron &e"" to its core. <ne prob"em with the co""ision hypothesis is the
-uestion o& how a sate""ite &ormed in this way cou"d have sett"ed into the near"y
circu"ar orbit that the Boon has today. :ortunate"y( the co""ision hypothesis is
testab"e. 2& it is true( the mant"eroc$s o& the Boon and the @arth shou"d be the
same geochemica""y.
1-. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) present two hypotheses concerning the origin of the ?oon
(B) discuss the strengths and weaknesses of the collision hypothesis concerning
the origin of the ?oon
(C) propose that hypotheses concerning the ?oon4s origin be tested
() argue that the ?oon could not ha'e been formed out of the typical planet(
forming materials of the presolar nebula
(#) describe one reason why the ?oon4s geochemical makeup should resemble
that of the #arth
16. According to the passage/ ?ars and the #arth are similar in which of the following
ways%
3. Their satellites were formed by collisions with other celestial bodies.
33. Their cores contain iron.
333. They were formed from the presolar nebula.
(A) 333 only
(B) 3 and 33 only
(C) 3 and 333 only
() 33 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
1,. The author implies that a nearly circular orbit is unlikely for a satellite that
(A) circles one of the inner planets
GRE 0,-
(B) is deficient in iron
(C) is different from its planet geochemically
() was formed by a collision between two celestial bodies
(#) was formed out of the planet(forming materials in the presolar nebula
25. &hich of the following/ if true/ would be most likely to make it difficult to 'erify
the collision hypothesis in the manner suggested by the author%
(A) The ?oon4s core and mantlerock are almost inacti'e geologically.
(B) The mantlerock of the #arth has changed in composition since the formation of
the ?oon/ while the mantlerock of the ?oon has remained chemically inert.
(C) ?uch of the #arth4s iron fell to the #arth4s core long before the formation of
the ?oon/ after which the #arth4s mantlerock remained unchanged.
() Certain of the #arth4s elements/ such as platinum/ gold/ and iridium/ followed
iron to the #arth4s core.
(#) The mantlerock of the ?oon contains elements such as platinum/ gold/ and
iridium.
urprising"y enough( modern historians have rare"y interested themse"ves in
the history o& the 3merican outh in the period be&ore the outh began to become
se"&-conscious"y and distinctive"y >outhern?!the decades a&ter 181/.
%onse-uent"y( the cu"tura" history o& 'ritain6s ,orth 3merican empire in the
seventeenth and eighteenth centuries has been written a"most as i& the outhern
co"onies had never e8isted. The 3merican cu"ture that emerged during the
%o"onia" and Revo"utionary eras has been depicted as having been simp"y an
e8tension o& ,ew @ng"and 9uritan cu"ture. )owever( 9ro&essor Kavis has recent"y
argued that the outh stood apart &rom the rest o& 3merican society during this
ear"y period( &o""owing its own uni-ue pattern o& cu"tura" deve"opment. The case
&or outhern distinctiveness rests upon two re"ated premisesA #rst( that the
cu"tura" simi"arities among the #ve outhern co"onies were &ar more impressive
than the di1erences( and second( that what made those co"onies a"i$e a"so made
them di1erent &rom the other co"onies. The #rst( &or which Kavis o1ers an
enormous amount o& evidence( can be accepted without ma5or reservations= the
second is &ar more prob"ematic.
;hat ma$es the second premise prob"ematic is the use o& the 9uritan co"onies
as a basis &or comparison. Tuite proper"y( Kavis decries the e8cessive inDuence
ascribed by historians to the 9uritans in the &ormation o& 3merican cu"ture. Iet
Kavis inadvertent"y adds weight to such ascriptions by using the 9uritans as the
standard against which to assess the achievements and contributions o& outhern
co"onia"s. Throughout( Kavis &ocuses on the important( and undeniab"e(
di1erences between the outhern and 9uritan co"onies in motives &or and patterns
o& ear"y sett"ement( in attitudes toward nature and ,ative 3mericans( and in the
degree o& receptivity to metropo"itan cu"tura" inDuences.
)owever( recent scho"arship has strong"y suggested that those aspects o& ear"y
0,6 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
,ew @ng"and cu"ture that seem to have been most distinct"y 9uritan( such as the
strong re"igious orientation and the communa" impu"se( were not even typica" o&
,ew @ng"and as a who"e( but were "arge"y con#ned to the two co"onies o&
Bassachusetts and %onnecticut. Thus( what in contrast to the 9uritan co"onies
appears to Kavis to be pecu"iar"y outhern!ac-uisitiveness( a strong interest in
po"itics and the "aw( and a tendency to cu"tivate metropo"itan cu"tura" mode"s!
was not on"y more typica""y @ng"ish than the cu"tura" patterns e8hibited by 9uritan
Bassachusetts and %onnecticut( but a"so a"most certain"y characteristic o& most
other ear"y modern 'ritish co"onies &rom 'arbados north to Rhode 2s"and and ,ew
)ampshire. ;ithin the "arger &ramewor$ o& 3merican co"onia" "i&e( then( not the
outhern but the 9uritan co"onies appear to have been distinctive( and even they
seem to have been rapid"y assimi"ating to the dominant cu"tura" patterns by the
"ate %o"onia" period.
21. The author is primarily concerned with
(A) refuting a claim about the influence of @uritan culture on the early American
;outh
(B) refuting a thesis about the distincti'eness of the culture of the early American
;outh
(C) refuting the two premises that underlie a'is4 discussion of the culture of the
American ;outh in the period before 1611
() challenging the hypothesis that early American culture was homogeneous in
nature
(#) challenging the contention that the American ;outh made greater contributions
to early American culture than @uritan 9ew #ngland did
22. The passage implies that the attitudes toward 9ati'e Americans that pre'ailed in
the ;outhern colonies
(A) were in conflict with the cosmopolitan outlook of the ;outh
(B) deri'ed from ;outherners4 strong interest in the law
(C) were modeled after those that pre'ailed in the 9orth
() differed from those that pre'ailed in the @uritan colonies
(#) de'eloped as a response to attitudes that pre'ailed in ?assachusetts and
Connecticut
2.. According to the author/ the depiction of American culture during the Colonial and
=e'olutionary eras as an e$tension of 9ew #ngland @uritan culture reflects the
(A) fact that historians ha'e o'erestimated the importance of the @uritans in the
de'elopment of American culture
(B) fact that early American culture was deeply influenced by the strong religious
orientation of the colonists
(C) failure to recogni!e important and undeniable cultural differences between
GRE 0,,
9ew )ampshire and =hode 3sland on the one hand and the ;outhern colonies
on the other
() e$tent to which ?assachusetts and Connecticut ser'ed as cultural models for
the other American colonies
(#) e$tent to which colonial America resisted assimilating cultural patterns that
were typically #nglish
20. The author of the passage is in agreement with which of the following elements of
a'is4 book%
3. a'is4 claim that ac"uisiti'eness was a characteristic uni"ue to the ;outh
during the Colonial period
33. a'is4 argument that there were significant differences between @uritan and
;outhern culture during the Colonial period
333. a'is4 thesis that the ;outhern colonies shared a common culture
(A) 3 only
(B) 33 only
(C) 333 only
() 3 and 33 only
(#) 33 and 333 only
21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author would find a'is4 second
premise (lines 16(25) more plausible if it were true that
(A) @uritan culture had displayed the tendency characteristic of the ;outh to
culti'ate metropolitan cultural models
(B) @uritan culture had been dominant in all the non(;outhern colonies during the
se'enteenth and eighteen centuries
(C) the communal impulse and a strong religious orientation had been more
pre'alent in the ;outh
() the 'arious cultural patterns of the ;outhern colonies had more closely
resembled each other
(#) the cultural patterns characteristic of most early modern British colonies had
also been characteristic of the @uritan colonies
22. The passage suggests that by the late Colonial period the tendency to culti'ate
metropolitan cultural models was a cultural pattern that was
(A) dying out as @uritan influence began to grow
(B) self(consciously and distincti'ely ;outhern
(C) spreading to ?assachusetts and Connecticut
() more characteristic of the ;outhern colonies than of #ngland
(#) beginning to spread to =hode 3sland and 9ew )ampshire
2-. &hich of the following statements could most logically follow the last sentence of
155 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
the passage%
(A) Thus/ had more attention been paid to the e'idence/ a'is would not ha'e
been tempted to argue that the culture of the ;outh di'erged greatly from
@uritan culture in the se'enteenth century.
(B) Thus/ con'ergence/ not di'ergence/ seems to ha'e characteri!ed the cultural
de'elopment of the American colonies in the eighteenth century.
(C) Thus/ without the cultural di'ersity represented by the America ;outh/ the
culture of colonial America would certainly ha'e been homogeneous in nature.
() Thus/ the contribution of ;outhern colonials to American culture was certainly
o'ershadowed by that of the @uritans.
(#) Thus/ the culture of America during the Colonial period was far more sensiti'e
to outside influences than historians are accustomed to acknowledge.
SECTION B
:or some time scientists have be"ieved that cho"estero" p"ays a ma5or ro"e in
heart disease because peop"e with &ami"ia" hypercho"estero"emia( a genetic
de&ect( have si8 to eight times the norma" "eve" o& cho"estero" in their b"ood and
they invariab"y deve"op heart disease. These peop"e "ac$ ce""-sur&ace receptors &or
"ow-density "ipoproteins (JKJ6s)( which are the &undamenta" carriers o& b"ood
cho"estero" to the body ce""s that use cho"estero". ;ithout an ade-uate number o&
ce""-sur&ace receptors to remove JKJ6s &rom the b"ood( the cho"estero"-carrying
JKJ6s remain in the b"ood( increasing b"ood cho"estero" "eve"s. cientists a"so
noticed that peop"e with &ami"ia" hypercho"estero"emia appear to produce more
JKJ6s than norma" individua"s. )ow( scientists wondered( cou"d a genetic mutation
that causes a s"owdown in the remova" o& JKJ6s &rom the b"ood a"so resu"t in an
increase in the synthesis o& this cho"estero"-carrying proteinG
ince scientists cou"d not e8periment on human body tissue( their $now"edge
o& &ami"ia" hypercho"estero"emia was severe"y "imited. )owever( a brea$through
came in the "aboratories o& Ioshio ;atanabe o& Sobe University in Capan in 1980.
;atanabe noticed that a ma"e rabbit in his co"ony had ten times the norma"
concentration o& cho"estero" in its b"ood. 'y appropriate breeding( ;atanabe
obtained a strain o& rabbits that had very high cho"estero" "eve"s. These rabbits
spontaneous"y deve"oped heart disease. To his surprise( ;atanabe &urther &ound
that the rabbits( "i$e humans with &ami"ia" hypercho"estero"emia( "ac$ed JKJ
receptors. Thus( scientists cou"d study these ;atanabe rabbits to gain a better
understanding o& &ami"ia" hypercho"estero"emia in humans.
9rior to the brea$through at Sobe University( it was $nown that JKJ6s are
secreted &rom the "iver in the &orm o& a precursor( ca""ed very "ow-density
"ipoproteins (FJKJ6s)( which carry trig"ycerides as we"" as re"ative"y sma"" amounts
o& cho"estero". The trig"ycerides are removed &rom the FJKJ6s by &atty and other
tissues. ;hat remains is a remnant partic"e that must be removed &rom the b"ood.
GRE 151
;hat scientists "earned by studying the ;atanabe rabbits is that the remova" o&
the FJKJ remnant re-uires the JKJ receptor. ,orma""y( the ma5ority o& the FJKJ
remnants go to the "iver where they bind to JKJ receptors and are degraded. 2n
the ;atanabe rabbit( due to a "ac$ o& JKJ receptors on "iver ce""s( the FJKJ
remnants remain in the b"ood and are eventua""y converted to JKJ6s. The JKJ
receptors thus have a dua" e1ect in contro""ing JKJ "eve"s. They are necessary to
prevent oversynthesis o& JKJ6s &rom FJKJ remnants and they are necessary &or
the norma" remova" o& JKJ6s &rom the b"ood. ;ith this $now"edge( scientists are
now we"" on the way toward deve"oping drugs that dramatica""y "ower cho"estero"
"eve"s in peop"e aHicted with certain &orms o& &ami"ia" hypercho"estero"emia.
1-. 3n the passage/ the author is primarily concerned with
(A) presenting a hypothesis and describing compelling e'idence in support of it
(B) raising a "uestion and describing an important disco'ery that led to an answer
(C) showing that a certain genetically caused disease can be treated effecti'ely
with drugs
() e$plaining what causes the genetic mutation that leads to heart disease
(#) discussing the importance of research on animals for the study of human
disease
16. &hich of the following drugs/ if de'eloped/ would most likely be an e$ample of
the kind of drug mentioned in line 1.%
(A) A drug that stimulates the production of CKK remnants
(B) A drug that stimulates the production of KK receptors on the li'er
(C) A drug that stimulates the production of an en!yme needed for cholesterol
production
() A drug that suppresses the production of body cells that use cholesterol
(#) A drug that pre'ents triglycerides from attaching to CKK4s
1,. The passage supplies information to answer which of the following "uestions%
(A) &hich body cells are the primary users of cholesterol%
(B) )ow did scientists disco'er that KK4s are secreted from the li'er in the form
of a precursor%
(C) &here in the body are CKK remnants degraded%
() &hich body tissues produce triglycerides%
(#) &hat techni"ues are used to determine the presence or absence of cell(surface
receptors%
25. According to the passage/ by studying the &atanabe rabbits scientists learned that
(A) CKK remnants are remo'ed from the blood by KK receptors in the li'er
(B) KK4s are secreted from the li'er in the form of precursors called CKK4s
(C) CKK remnant particles contain small amounts of cholesterol
152 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
() triglycerides are remo'ed from CKK4s by fatty tissues
(#) KK receptors remo'e KK4s from the blood
21. The de'elopment of drug treatments for some forms of familial
hypercholesterolemia is regarded by the author as
(A) possible/ but not 'ery important
(B) interesting/ but too costly to be practical
(C) promising/ but many years off
() e$tremely unlikely
(#) highly probable
22. The passage implies that if the &atanabe rabbits had had as many KK receptors
on their li'ers as do normal rabbits/ the &atanabe rabbits would ha'e been
(A) less likely than normal rabbits to de'elop heart disease
(B) less likely than normal rabbits to de'elop high concentrations of cholesterol in
their blood
(C) less useful than they actually were to scientists in the study of familial
hypercholesterolemia in humans
() unable to secrete CKK4s from their li'ers
(#) immune to drugs that lower cholesterol le'els in people with certain forms of
familial hypercholesterolemia
2.. The passage implies that &atanabe rabbits differ from normal rabbits in which of
the following ways%
(A) &atanabe rabbits ha'e more KK receptors than do normal rabbits.
(B) The blood of &atanabe rabbits contains more CKK remnants than does the
blood of normal rabbits.
(C) &atanabe rabbits ha'e fewer fatty tissues than do normal rabbits.
() &atanabe rabbits secrete lower le'els of CKK4s than do normal rabbits.
(#) The blood of &atanabe rabbits contains fewer KK4s than does the blood of
normal rabbits.
(The artic"e &rom which this passage was ta$en appeared in 1981.)
;hen spea$ing o& Romare 'earden( one is tempted to say( >3 great '"ac$
3merican artist.? The sub5ect matter o& 'earden6s co""ages is certain"y '"ac$.
9ortraya"s o& the &o"$ o& Bec$"enburg %ounty( ,orth %aro"ina( whom he remembers
&rom ear"y chi"dhood( o& the 5a++ musicians and tenement roo&s o& his )ar"em
days( o& 9ittsburgh stee"wor$ers( and his reconstruction o& c"assica" Eree$ myths
in the guise o& the ancient '"ac$ $ingdom o& 'enin( attest to this. 2n natura"
harmony with this choice o& sub5ect matter are the socia" sensibi"ities o& the artist(
who remains active today with the %in-ue Ea""ery in Banhattan( which he he"ped
&ound and which is devoted to showing the wor$ o& minority artists.
GRE 15.
Then why not ca"" 'earden a '"ac$ 3merican artistG 'ecause u"timate"y this
categori+ation is too narrow. >;hat stands up in the end is structure(? 'earden
says. >;hat 2 try to do is amp"i&y. 2& 2 were 5ust creating a picture o& a &arm woman
&rom bac$ home( it wou"d have meaning to her and peop"e there. 'ut art amp"i#es
itse"& to something universa".?
20. According to the passage/ all of the following are depicted in Bearden4s collages
#DC#@TE
(A) workers in @ittsburgh4s steel mills
(B) scenes set in the ancient kingdom of Benin
(C) people Bearden knew as a child
() traditional representations of the classical heroes of Breek mythology
(#) the <a!! musicians of the )arlem Bearden used to know
21. The author suggests that Bearden should not be called a Black American artist
because
(A) there are many collages by Bearden in which the sub<ect matter is not Black
(B) Bearden4s work reflects the Black American e$perience in a highly indi'idual
style
(C) through the structure of Bearden4s art his Black sub<ects come to represent all
of humankind
() Bearden4s true significance lies not so much in his own work as in his efforts
to help other minority artists
(#) much of Bearden4s work uses the ancient Black kingdom of Benin for its
setting
22. Bearden4s social sensibilities and the sub<ect matter of his collages are mentioned
by the author in order to e$plain
(A) why one might be tempted to call Bearden a Black American artist
(B) why Bearden cannot be readily categori!ed
(C) why Bearden4s appeal is thought by many to be ultimately uni'ersal
() how deeply an artist4s artistic creations are influenced by he artist4s social
conscience
(#) what makes Bearden uni"ue among contemporary Black American artists
2-. The author of the passage is chiefly concerned with
(A) discussing Bearden4s philosophy of art
(B) assessing the significance of the ethnic element in Bearden4s work
(C) acknowledging Bearden4s success in gi'ing artistic e$pression to the Black
American e$perience
() pointing out Bearden4s helpfulness to other minority artists
(#) tracing Bearden4s progress toward artistic maturity
150 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
No. 9-5
SECTION A
Qoop"an$ton( tiny anima"s adapted to an e8istence in the ocean( have evo"ved
c"ever mechanisms &or obtaining their &ood( miniscu"e phytop"an$ton (p"ant
p"an$ton). 3 very specia"i+ed &eeding adaptation in +oop"an$ton is that o& the
tadpo"e"i$e appendicu"arian who "ives in a wa"nut-si+ed (or sma""er) ba""oon o&
mucus e-uipped with #"ters that capture and concentrate phytop"an$ton. The
ba""oon( a transparent structure that varies in design according to the type o&
appendicu"arian in habiting it( a"so protects the anima" and he"ps to $eep it aDoat.
;ater containing phytop"an$ton is pumped by the appendicu"arian6s muscu"ar tai"
into the ba""oon6s incurrent #"ters( passes through the &eeding #"ter where the
appendicu"arian suc$s the &ood into its mouth( and then goes through an e8it
passage. :ound in a"" the oceans o& the wor"d( inc"uding the 3rctic <cean(
appendicu"arians tend to remain near the water6s sur&ace where the density o&
phytop"an$ton is greatest.
1-. 3t can be inferred from the passage that which of the following is true of
appendicularians%
(A) They are e$clusi'ely carni'orous.
(B) They ha'e more than one method of obtaining food.
(C) They can tolerate frigid water.
() They can disguise themsel'es by secreting mucus.
(#) They are more sensiti'e to light than are other !ooplankton.
16. The author is primarily concerned with
(A) e$plaining how appendicularians obtain food
(B) e$amining the flotation methods of appendicularians
(C) mapping the distribution of appendicularians around the world
() describing how appendicularians differ from other !ooplankton
(#) comparing the 'arious types of balloons formed by appendicularians
1,. According to the passage/ all of the following are descripti'e of appendicularians
#DC#@TE
(A) tailed
(B) 'egetarian
(C) small(si!ed
() single(celled
(#) ocean(dwelling
25. The passage suggests that appendicularians tend to remain in surface waters
GRE 151
because they
(A) prefer the warmer water near the surface
(B) are unable to secrete mucus at the lower le'els of the ocean
(C) use the contrast of light and shadow at the surface to hide from predators
() li'e in balloons that cannot withstand he water pressure deeper in the ocean
(#) eat food that grows more profusely near the surface
tudents o& United tates history( see$ing to identi&y the circumstances that
encouraged the emergence o& &eminist movements( have thorough"y investigated
the mid-nineteenth-century 3merican economic and socia" conditions that
a1ected the status o& women. These historians( however( have ana"y+ed "ess &u""y
the deve"opment o& speci#ca""y &eminist ideas and activities during the same
period. :urthermore( the ideo"ogica" origins o& &eminism in the United tates have
been obscured because( even when historians did ta$e into account those &eminist
ideas and activities occurring within the United tates( they &ai"ed to recogni+e
that &eminism was then a tru"y internationa" movement actua""y centered in
@urope. 3merican &eminist activists who have been described as >so"itary? and
>individua" theorists? were in rea"ity connected to a movement!utopian socia"ism
!which was a"ready popu"ari+ing &eminist ideas in @urope during the two decades
that cu"minated in the #rst women6s rights con&erence he"d at eneca :a""s( ,ew
Ior$( in 18M8. Thus( a comp"ete understanding o& the origins and deve"opment o&
nineteenth-century &eminism in the United tates re-uires that the geographica"
&ocus be widened to inc"ude @urope and that the detai"ed study a"ready made o&
socia" conditions be e8panded to inc"ude the ideo"ogica" deve"opment o& &eminism.
The ear"iest and most popu"ar o& the utopian socia"ists were the aint-
imonians. The speci#ca""y &eminist part o& aint-imonianism has( however( been
"ess studied than the group6s contribution to ear"y socia"ism. This is regrettab"e on
two counts. 'y 1874 &eminism was the centra" concern o& aint-imonianism and
entire"y absorbed its adherents6 energy= hence( by ignoring its &eminism(
@uropean historians have misunderstood aint-imonianism. Boreover( since
many &eminist ideas can be traced to aint-imonianism( @uropean historians6
appreciation o& "ater &eminism in :rance and the United tates remained "imited.
aint-imon6s &o""owers( many o& whom were women( based their &eminism on
an interpretation o& his pro5ect to reorgani+e the g"obe by rep"acing brute &orce
with the ru"e o& spiritua" powers. The new wor"d order wou"d be ru"ed together by
a ma"e( to represent reDection( and a &ema"e( to represent sentiment. This
comp"ementarity reDects the &act that( whi"e the aint-imonians did not re5ect
the be"ie& that there were innate di1erences between men and women( they
neverthe"ess &oresaw an e-ua""y important socia" and po"itica" ro"e &or both se8es
in their utopia.
<n"y a &ew aint-imonians opposed a de#nition o& se8ua" e-ua"ity based on
gender distinction. This minority be"ieved that individua"s o& both se8es were born
simi"ar in capacity and character( and they ascribed ma"e-&ema"e di1erences to
152 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
socia"i+ation and education. The envisioned resu"t o& both currents o& thought(
however( was that women wou"d enter pub"ic "i&e in the new age and that se8ua"
e-ua"ity wou"d reward men as we"" as women with an improved way o& "i&e.
21. 3t can be inferred that the author considers those historians who describe early
feminists in the :nited ;tates as *solitary+ to be
(A) insufficiently familiar with the international origins of nineteenth(century
American feminist thought
(B) o'erly concerned with the regional di'ersity of feminist ideas in the period
before 1606
(C) not focused narrowly enough in their geographical scope
() insufficiently aware of the ideological conse"uences of the ;eneca >alls
conference
(#) insufficiently concerned with the social conditions out of which feminism
de'eloped
22. According to the passage/ which of the following is true of the ;eneca >alls
conference on women4s rights%
(A) 3t was primarily a product of nineteenth(century ;aint(;imonian feminist
thought.
(B) 3t was the work of American acti'ists who were independent of feminists
abroad.
(C) 3t was the culminating achie'ement of the utopian socialist mo'ement.
() 3t was a manifestation of an international mo'ement for social change and
feminism.
(#) 3t was the final manifestation of the women4s rights mo'ement in the :nited
;tates in the nineteenth century.
2.. The author4s attitude toward most #uropean historians who ha'e studied the ;aint(
;imonians is primarily one of
(A) appro'al of the specific focus of their research
(B) disappro'al of their lack of attention to the issue that absorbed most of the
;aint(;imonians4 energy after 16.2
(C) appro'al of their general focus on social conditions
() disappro'al of their lack of attention to links between the ;aint(;imonians and
their American counterparts
(#) disagreement with their interpretation of the ;aint(;imonian belief in se$ual
e"uality
20. The author mentions all of the following as characteristic of the ;aint(;imonians
#DC#@TE
(A) The group included many women among its members.
GRE 15-
(B) The group belie'ed in a world that would be characteri!ed by se$ual e"uality.
(C) The group was among the earliest #uropean socialist groups.
() ?ost members belie'ed that women should enter public life.
(#) ?ost members belie'ed that women and men were inherently similar in ability
and character.
21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the ;aint(;imonians en'isioned a utopian
society ha'ing which of the following characteristics%
(A) 3t would be worldwide.
(B) 3t would emphasi!e dogmatic religious principles.
(C) 3t would most influence the :nited ;tates.
() 3t would ha'e armies composed of women rather than of men.
(#) 3t would continue to de'elop new feminist ideas.
22. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author belie'es that study of ;aint(
;imonianism is necessary for historians of American feminism because such study
(A) would clarify the ideological origins of those feminist ideas that influenced
American feminism
(B) would increase understanding of a mo'ement that deeply influenced the
utopian socialism of early American feminists
(C) would focus attention on the most important aspect of ;aint(;imonian thought
before 16.2
() promises to offer insight into a mo'ement that was a direct outgrowth of the
;eneca >alls conference of 1606
(#) could increase understanding of those ideals that absorbed most of the energy
of the earliest American feminists
2-. According to the passage/ which of the following would be the most accurate
description of the society en'isioned by most ;aint(;imonians%
(A) A society in which women were highly regarded for their e$tensi'e education
(B) A society in which the two genders played complementary roles and had e"ual
status
(C) A society in which women did not enter public life
() A social order in which a body of men and women would rule together on the
basis of their spiritual power
(#) A social order in which distinctions between male and female would not e$ist
and all would share e"ually in political power
SECTION B
)istorica""y( a cornerstone o& c"assica" empiricism has been the notion that
every true genera"i+ation must be con#rmab"e by speci#c observations. 2n
156 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
c"assica" empiricism( the truth o& >3"" ba""s are red(? &or e8amp"e( is assessed by
inspecting ba""s= any observation o& a non red ba"" re&utes une-uivoca""y the
proposed genera"i+ation.
:or ;. F. <. Tuine( however( this constitutes an over"y >narrow? conception o&
empiricism. >3"" ba""s are red(? he maintains( &orms one strand within an entire
web o& statements (our $now"edge)= individua" observations can be re&erred on"y
to this web as a who"e. 3s new observations are co""ected( he e8p"ains( they must
be integrated into the web. 9rob"ems occur on"y i& a contradiction deve"ops
between a new observation( say( >That ba"" is b"ue(? and the pree8isting
statements. 2n that case( he argues( any statement or combination o& statements
(not mere"y the >o1ending? genera"i+ation( as in c"assica" empiricism) can be
a"tered to achieve the &undamenta" re-uirement( a system &ree o& contradictions(
even i&( in some cases( the a"teration consists o& "abe"ing the new observation a
>ha""ucination.?
1-. The author of the passage is primarily concerned with presenting
(A) criticisms of Nuine4s 'iews on the proper conceptuali!ation of empiricism
(B) e'idence to support Nuine4s claims about the problems inherent in classical
empiricism
(C) an account of Nuine4s counterproposal to one of the traditional assumptions of
classical empiricism
() an o'er'iew of classical empiricism and its contributions to Nuine4s alternate
understanding of empiricism
(#) a history of classical empiricism and Nuine4s reser'ations about it
16. According to Nuine4s conception of empiricism/ if a new obser'ation were to
contradict some statement already within our system of knowledge/ which of the
following would be true%
(A) The new obser'ation would be re<ected as untrue.
(B) Both the obser'ation and the statement in our system that it contradicted would
be discarded.
(C) 9ew obser'ations would be added to our web of statements in order to e$pand
our system of knowledge.
() The obser'ation or some part of our web of statements would need to be
ad<usted to resol'e the contradiction.
(#) An entirely new field of knowledge would be created.
1,. As described in the passage/ Nuine4s specific argument against classical
empiricism would be most strengthened if he did which of the following%
(A) @ro'ided e'idence that many obser'ations are actually hallucinations.
(B) #$plained why new obser'ations often in'alidate pree$isting generali!ations.
(C) Challenged the mechanism by which specific generali!ations are deri'ed from
GRE 15,
collections of particular obser'ations.
() ?entioned other critics of classical empiricism and the substance of their
approaches.
(#) Ba'e an e$ample of a specific generali!ation that has not been in'alidated
despite a contrary obser'ation.
25. 3t can be inferred from the passage that Nuine considers classical empiricism to be
*o'erly Fnarrow4 + (lines -(6) for which of the following reasons%
3. Classical empiricism re"uires that our system of generali!ations be free of
contradictions.
33. Classical empiricism demands that in the case of a contradiction between an
indi'idual obser'ation and a generali!ation/ the generali!ation must be
abandoned.
333. Classical empiricism asserts that e'ery obser'ation will either confirm an
e$isting generali!ation or initiate a new generali!ation.
(A) 33 only
(B) 3 and 33 only
(C) 3 and 333 only
() 33 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
Unti" recent"y astronomers have been pu++"ed by the &ate o& red giant and
supergiant stars. ;hen the core o& a giant star whose mass surpasses 1.M times
the present mass o& our un (B

) e8hausts its nuc"ear &ue"( it is unab"e to support

its own weight and co""apses into a tiny neutron star. The gravitationa" energy
re"eased during this imp"osion o& the core b"ows o1 the remainder o& the star in a
gigantic e8p"osion( or a supernova. ince around /0 percent o& a"" stars are
be"ieved to begin their "ives with masses greater than 1.MB

( we might e8pect
that one out o& every two stars wou"d die as a supernova. 'ut in &act( on"y one
star in thirty dies such a vio"ent death. The rest e8pire much more peace&u""y as
p"anetary nebu"as. 3pparent"y most massive stars manage to "ose su*cient
materia" that their masses drop be"ow the critica" va"ue o& 1.M B

be&ore they
e8haust their nuc"ear &ue".
@vidence supporting this view comes &rom observations o& 2R%\1041L( a
pu"sating giant star "ocated 700 "ight-years away &rom @arth. 3 huge rate o& mass
"oss (1 B

every 10(000 years) has been deduced &rom in&rared observations o&
ammonia (,)
7
) mo"ecu"es "ocated in the circumste""ar c"oud around 2R%\1041L.
Recent microwave observations o& carbon mono8ide (%<) mo"ecu"es indicate a
simi"ar rate o& mass "oss and demonstrate that the escaping materia" e8tends
outward &rom the star &or a distance o& at "east one "ight-year. 'ecause we $now
the si+e o& the c"oud around 2R%\1041L and can use our observations o& either
,)
7
or %< to measure the outDow ve"ocity( we can ca"cu"ate an age &or the
circumste""ar c"oud. 2R%\1041L has apparent"y e8pe""ed( in the &orm o& mo"ecu"es
115 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
and dust grains( a mass e-ua" to that o& our entire un within the past ten
thousand years. This imp"ies that some stars can shed huge amounts o& matter
very -uic$"y and thus may never e8pire as supernovas. Theoretica" mode"s as we""
as statistics on supernovas and p"anetary nebu"as suggest that stars that begin
their "ives with masses around L B

shed su*cient materia" to drop be"ow the

critica" va"ue o& 1.M B

. 2R%\1041L( &or e8amp"e( shou"d do this in a mere /0(000

years &rom its birth( on"y an instant in the "i&e o& a star.
'ut what p"ace does 2R%\1041L have in ste""ar evo"utionG 3stronomers suggest
that stars "i$e 2R%\1041L are actua""y >protop"anetary nebu"as?!o"d giant stars
whose dense cores have a"most but not -uite rid themse"ves o& the Du1y
enve"opes o& gas around them. <nce the star has "ost the entire enve"ope( its
e8posed core becomes the centra" star o& the p"anetary nebu"a and heats and
ioni+es the "ast vestiges o& the enve"ope as it Dows away into space. This
con#guration is a &u""-Dedged p"anetary nebu"a( "ong &ami"iar to optica"
astronomers.
21. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) offer a method of calculating the age of circumstellar clouds
(B) describe the conditions that result in a star4s e$piring as a superno'a
(C) discuss new e'idence concerning the composition of planetary nebulas
() e$plain why fewer stars than predicted e$pire as superno'as
(#) sur'ey conflicting theories concerning the composition of circumstellar clouds
22. The passage implies that at the beginning of the life of 3=CS15212/ its mass was
appro$imately
(A) -.5 ?

(B) 2.5 ?

(C) 1.5 ?

() 1.0 ?

(#) 1.5 ?

2.. The 'iew to which line 16 refers ser'es to

(A) reconcile seemingly contradictory facts
(B) undermine a pre'iously held theory
(C) take into account data pre'iously held to be insignificant
() resol'e a contro'ersy
(#) "uestion new methods of gathering data
20. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author assumes which of the following
in the discussion of the rate at which 3=CS15212 loses mass%
(A) The circumstellar cloud surrounding 3=CS15212 consists only of C8 and 9)
.

molecules.
GRE 111
(B) The circumstellar cloud surrounding 3=CS15212 consists of material e$pelled
from that star.
(C) The age of a star is e"ual to that of its circumstellar cloud.
() The rate at which 3=CS15212 loses mass 'aries significantly from year to year.
(#) ;tars with a mass greater than 2 ?

lose mass at a rate faster than stars with a

mass less than 2 ?

do.
21. According to information pro'ided by the passage/ which of the following stars
would astronomers most likely describe as a planetary nebula%
(A) A star that began its life with a mass of 1.1 ?

/ has e$hausted its nuclear fuel/

and has a core that is 'isible to astronomers
(B) A star that began its life with a mass of 2 ?

/ lost mass at a rate of 1 ?

per
15/555 years/ and e$hausted its nuclear fuel in 05/555 years
(C) A star that has e$hausted its nuclear fuel/ has a mass of 1.2 ?

/ and is
surrounded by a circumstellar cloud that obscures its core from 'iew
() A star that began its life with a mass greater than 2 ?

/ has <ust recently

e$hausted its nuclear fuel/ and is in the process of releasing massi'e amounts
of gra'itational energy
(#) A star that began its life with a mass of 1.1 ?

/ has yet to e$haust its nuclear

fuel/ and e$hibits a rate of mass loss similar to that of 3=CS15212
22. &hich of the following statements would be most likely to follow the last sentence
of the passage%
(A) ;uperno'as are not necessarily the most spectacular e'ents that astronomers
ha'e occasion to obser'e.
(B) Apparently/ stars that ha'e a mass of greater than 2 ?

are somewhat rare.

(C) =ecent studies of C8 and 9)
.
in the circumstellar clouds of stars similar to
3=CS15212 ha'e led astronomers to belie'e that the formation of planetary
nebulas precedes the de'elopment of superno'as.
() 3t appears/ then/ that 3=CS15212 actually represents an intermediate step in the
e'olution of a giant star into a planetary nebula.
(#) Astronomers ha'e yet to de'elop a consistently accurate method for measuring
the rate at which a star e$hausts its nuclear fuel.
2-. &hich of the following titles best summari!es the content of the passage%
(A) 9ew ?ethods of Calculating the Age of Circumstellar Clouds
(B) 9ew #'idence Concerning the Composition of @lanetary 9ebulas
(C) @rotoplanetary 9ebulaE A =arely 8bser'ed @henomenon
() @lanetary 9ebulasE An #nigma to Astronomers
(#) The iminution of a ;tar4s ?assE A Crucial >actor in ;tellar #'olution
112 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
No. 9-6
SECTION A
(This passage is &rom an artic"e pub"ished in 1977)
The recent change to a""-vo"unteer armed &orces in the United tates wi""
eventua""y produce a gradua" increase in the proportion o& women in the armed
&orces and in the variety o& women6s assignments( but probab"y not the dramatic
gains &or women that might have been e8pected. This is so even though the
armed &orces operate in an ethos o& institutiona" change oriented toward
occupationa" e-ua"ity and under the &edera" sanction o& e-ua" pay &or e-ua" wor$.
The di*cu"ty is that women are un"i$e"y to be trained &or any direct combat
operations. 3 signi#cant portion o& the "arger society remains uncom&ortab"e as
yet with e8tending e-ua"ity in this direction. There&ore( &or women in the mi"itary(
the search &or e-ua"ity wi"" sti"" be based on &unctiona" e-uiva"ence( not identity or
even simi"arity o& tas$. <pportunities seem certain to arise. The growing emphasis
on deterrence is bound to o1er increasing scope &or women to become invo"ved in
nove" types o& noncombat mi"itary assignments.
1-. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) present an o'er'iew of the different types of assignments a'ailable to women
in the new :nited ;tates all('olunteer armed forces
(B) present a reasoned prognosis of the status of women in the new :nited ;tates
all('olunteer armed forces
(C) present the new :nited ;tates all('olunteer armed forces as a model case of
e"ual employment policies in action
() analy!e reforms in the new :nited ;tates all('olunteer armed forces
necessitated by the increasing number of women in the military
(#) analy!e the use of functional e"ui'alence as a substitute for occupational
e"uality in the new :nited ;tates all('olunteer armed forces
16. According to the passage/ despite the :nited ;tates armed forces4 commitment to
occupational e"uality for women in the military/ certain other factors preclude
women4s
(A) recei'ing e"ual pay for e"ual work
(B) ha'ing access to positions of responsibility at most le'els
(C) drawing assignments from a wider range of assignments than before
() benefiting from opportunities arising from new noncombat functions
(#) being assigned all of the military tasks that are assigned to men
1,. The passage implies that which of the following is a factor conduci'e to a more
e"uitable representation of women in the :nited ;tates armed forces than has
GRE 11.
e$isted in the past%
(A) The all('olunteer character of the present armed forces
(B) The past ser'ice records of women who had assignments functionally
e"ui'alent to men4s assignments
(C) The le'el of awareness on the part of the larger society of military issues
() A decline in the proportion of deterrence oriented noncombat assignments
(#) =estricti'e past policies go'erning the military assignments open to women
25. The *dramatic gains for women+ (line 1) and the attitude/ as described in lines 11(
12/ of a *significant portion of the larger society+ are logically related to each
other inasmuch as the author puts forward the latter as
(A) a public response to achie'ement of the former
(B) the ma<or reason for absence of the former
(C) a precondition for any prospect of achie'ing the former
() a catalyst for a further e$tension of the former
(#) a reason for some of the former being lost again
<& the thousands o& specimens o& meteorites &ound on @arth and $nown to
science( on"y about 100 are igneous= that is( they have undergone me"ting by
vo"canic action at some time since the p"anets were #rst &ormed. These igneous
meteorites are $nown as achondrites because they "ac$ chondru"es!sma"" stony
spheru"es &ound in the thousands o& meteorites (ca""ed >chondrites?) composed
primari"y o& una"tered minera"s that condensed &rom dust and gas at the origin o&
the so"ar system. 3chondrites are the on"y $nown samp"es o& vo"canic roc$s
originating outside the @arth-Boon system. Bost are thought to have been
dis"odged by interbody impact &rom asteroids( with diameters o& &rom 10 to /00
$i"ometers( in so"ar orbit between Bars and Cupiter.
hergottites( the name given to three anoma"ous achondrites so &ar discovered
on @arth( present scientists with a genuine enigma. hergottites crysta""i+ed &rom
mo"ten roc$ "ess than 1.1 bi""ion years ago (some 7./ bi""ion years "ater than
typica" achondrites) and were presumab"y e5ected into space when an ob5ect
impacted on a body simi"ar in chemica" composition to @arth.
;hi"e most meteorites appear to derive &rom comparative"y sma"" bodies(
shergottites e8hibit properties that indicate that their source was a "arge p"anet(
conceivab"y Bars. 2n order to account &or such an un"i$e"y source( some unusua"
&actor must be invo$ed( because the impact needed to acce"erate a &ragment o&
roc$ to escape the gravitationa" #e"d o& a body even as sma"" as the Boon is so
great that no meteorites o& "unar origin have been discovered.
;hi"e some scientists specu"ate that shergottites derive &rom 2o (a vo"canica""y
active moon o& Cupiter)( recent measurements suggest that since 2o6s sur&ace is
rich in su"&ur and sodium( the chemica" composition o& its vo"canic products wou"d
probab"y be un"i$e that o& the shergottites. Boreover( any &ragments dis"odged
110 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
&rom 2o by interbody impact wou"d be un"i$e"y to escape the gravitationa" pu"" o&
Cupiter.
The on"y other "ogica" source o& shergottites is Bars. pace-probe photographs
indicate the e8istence o& giant vo"canoes on the Bartian sur&ace. :rom the sma""
number o& impact craters that appear on Bartian "ava Dows( one can estimate
that the p"anet was vo"canica""y active as recent"y as a ha"&-bi""ion years ago!and
may be active today. The great ob5ection to the Bartian origin o& shergottites is
the absence o& "unar meteorites on @arth. 3n impact capab"e o& e5ecting a
&ragment o& the Bartian sur&ace into an @arth-intersecting orbit is even "ess
probab"e than such an event on the Boon( in view o& the Boon6s sma""er si+e and
c"oser pro8imity to @arth. 3 recent study suggests( however( that perma&rost ices
be"ow the sur&ace o& Bars may have a"tered the e1ects o& impact on it. 2& the ices
had been rapid"y vapori+ed by an impacting ob5ect( the e8panding gases might
have he"ped the e5ected &ragments reach escape ve"ocity. :ina""y( ana"yses
per&ormed by space probes show a remar$ab"e chemica" simi"arity between
Bartian soi" and the shergottites.
21. The passage implies which of the following about shergottites%
3. They are products of 'olcanic acti'ity.
33. They deri'e from a planet larger than #arth.
333. They come from a planetary body with a chemical composition similar to that
of 3o.
(A) 3 only
(B) 33 only
(C) 3 and 33 only
() 33 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
22. According to the passage/ a meteorite disco'ered on #arth is unlikely to ha'e
come from a large planet for which of the following reasons%
(A) There are fewer large planets in the solar system than there are asteroids.
(B) ?ost large planets ha'e been 'olcanically inacti'e for more than a billion
years.
(C) The gra'itational pull of a large planet would probably prohibit fragments
from escaping its orbit.
() There are no chondrites occurring naturally on #arth and probably none on
other large planets.
(#) 3nterbody impact is much rarer on large than on small planets because of the
density of the atmosphere on large planets.
2.. The passage suggests that the age of shergottites is probably
(A) still entirely undetermined
GRE 111
(B) less than that of most other achondrites
(C) about ..1 billion years
() the same as that of typical achondrites
(#) greater than that of the #arth
20. According to the passage/ the presence of chondrules in a meteorite indicates that
the meteorite
(A) has probably come from ?ars
(B) is older than the solar system itself
(C) has not been melted since the solar system formed
() is certainly less than 0 billion years old
(#) is a small fragment of an asteroid
21. The passage pro'ides information to answer which of the following "uestions%
(A) &hat is the precise age of the solar system%
(B) )ow did shergottites get their name%
(C) &hat are the chemical properties shared by shergottites and ?artian soils%
() )ow 'olcanically acti'e is the planet Aupiter%
(#) &hat is a ma<or feature of the ?artian surface%
22. 3t can be inferred from the passage that each of the following is a consideration in
determining whether a particular planet is a possible source of shergottites that
ha'e been disco'ered on #arth #DC#@T the
(A) planet4s si!e
(B) planet4s distance from #arth
(C) strength of the planet4s field of gra'ity
() pro$imity of the planet to its moons
(#) chemical composition of the planet4s surface
2-. 3t can be inferred from the passage that most meteorites found on #arth contain
which of the following%
(A) Crystals
(B) Chondrules
(C) ?etals
() ;odium
(#) ;ulfur
SECTION B
The transp"antation o& organs &rom one individua" to another norma""y invo"ves
two ma5or prob"emsA (1) organ re5ection is "i$e"y un"ess the transp"antation
112 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
antigens o& both individua"s are near"y identica"( and (4) the introduction o& any
unmatched transp"antation antigens induces the deve"opment by the recipient o&
donor-speci#c "ymphocytes that wi"" produce vio"ent re5ection o& &urther
transp"antations &rom that donor. )owever( we have &ound that among many
strains o& rats these >norma"? ru"es o& transp"antation are not obeyed by "iver
transp"ants. ,ot on"y are "iver transp"ants never re5ected( but they even induce a
state o& donor-speci#c unresponsiveness in which subse-uent transp"ants o& other
organs( such as s$in( &rom that donor are accepted permanent"y. <ur hypothesis is
that (1) many strains o& rats simp"y cannot mount a su*cient"y vigorous
destructive immune-response (using "ymphocytes) to outstrip the "iver6s re"ative"y
great capacity to protect itse"& &rom immune-response damage and that (4) the
systemic unresponsiveness observed is due to concentration o& the recipient6s
donor-speci#c "ymphocytes at the site o& the "iver transp"ant.
1-. The primary purpose of the passage is to treat the accepted generali!ations about
organ transplantation in which of the following ways%
(A) #$plicate their main features
(B) ;uggest an alternati'e to them
(C) #$amine their 'irtues and limitations
() Critici!e the ma<or e'idence used to support them
(#) @resent findings that "ualify them
16. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author belie'es that an important
difference among strains of rats is the
(A) si!e of their li'ers
(B) constitution of their skin
(C) strength of their immune(response reactions
() sensiti'ity of their antigens
(#) adaptability of their lymphocytes
1,. According to the hypothesis of the author/ after a successful li'er transplant/ the
reason that rats do not re<ect further transplants of other organs from the same
donor is that the
(A) transplantation antigens of the donor and the recipient become matched
(B) lymphocytes of the recipient are weakened by the acti'ity of the transplanted
li'er
(C) subse"uently transplanted organ is able to repair the damage caused by the
recipient4s immune(response reaction
() transplanted li'er continues to be the primary locus for the recipient4s
immune(response reaction
(#) recipient is unable to manufacture the lymphocytes necessary for the immune(
response reaction
GRE 11-
25. &hich of the following new findings about strains of rats that do not normally
re<ect li'er transplants/ if true/ would support the authors4 hypothesis%
3. ;tomach transplants are accepted by the recipients in all cases.
33. 3ncreasing the strength of the recipient4s immune(response reaction can induce
li'er(transplant re<ection.
333. 8rgans from any other donor can be transplanted without re<ection after li'er
transplantation.
3C. @re'enting lymphocytes from being concentrated at the li'er transplant
produces acceptance of skin transplants.
(A) 33 only
(B) 3 and 333 only
(C) 33 and 3C only
() 3/ 33/ and 333 only
(#) 3/ 333/ and 3C only
9ractica""y spea$ing( the artistic maturing o& the cinema was the sing"e-handed
achievement o& Kavid ;. Eri*th (187/-19M8). 'e&ore Eri*th( photography in
dramatic #"ms consisted o& "itt"e more than p"acing the actors be&ore a stationary
camera and showing them in &u"" "ength as they wou"d have appeared on stage.
:rom the beginning o& his career as a director( however( Eri*th( because o& his
"ove o& Fictorian painting( emp"oyed composition. )e conceived o& the camera
image as having a &oreground and a rear ground( as we"" as the midd"e distance
pre&erred by most directors. 'y 1910 he was using c"ose-ups to revea" signi#cant
detai"s o& the scene or o& the acting and e8treme "ong shots to achieve a sense o&
spectac"e and distance. )is appreciation o& the camera6s possibi"ities produced
nove" dramatic e1ects. 'y sp"itting an event into &ragments and recording each
&rom the most suitab"e camera position( he cou"d signi#cant"y vary the emphasis
&rom camera shot to camera shot.
Eri*th a"so achieved dramatic e1ects by means o& creative editing. 'y
5u8taposing images and varying the speed and rhythm o& their presentation( he
cou"d contro" the dramatic intensity o& the events as the story progressed. Kespite
the re"uctance o& his producers( who &eared that the pub"ic wou"d not be ab"e to
&o""ow a p"ot that was made up o& such 5u8taposed images( Eri*th persisted( and
e8perimented as we"" with other e"ements o& cinematic synta8 that have become
standard ever since. These inc"uded the Dashbac$( permitting broad psycho"ogica"
and emotiona" e8p"oration as we"" as narrative that was not chrono"ogica"( and the
crosscut between two para""e" actions to heighten suspense and e8citement. 2n
thus e8p"oiting &u""y the possibi"ities o& editing( Eri*th transposed devices o& the
Fictorian nove" to #"m and gave #"m mastery o& time as we"" as space.
'esides deve"oping the cinema6s "anguage( Eri*th immense"y broadened its
range and treatment o& sub5ects. )is ear"y output was remar$ab"y ec"ecticA it
inc"uded not on"y the standard comedies( me"odramas( westerns( and thri""ers( but
116 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
a"so such nove"ties as adaptations &rom 'rowning and Tennyson( and treatments
o& socia" issues. 3s his successes mounted( his ambitions grew( and with them the
who"e o& 3merican cinema. ;hen he remade Enoch "rden in 1911( he insisted
that a sub5ect o& such importance cou"d not be treated in the then conventiona"
"ength o& one ree". Eri*th6s introduction o& the 3merican-made mu"tiree" picture
began an immense revo"ution. Two years "ater( !udith of Bethulia( an e"aborate
historicophi"osophica" spectac"e( reached the unprecedented "ength o& &our ree"s(
or one hour6s running time. :rom our contemporary viewpoint( the pretensions o&
this #"m may seem a triDe "udicrous( but at the time it provo$ed end"ess debate
and discussion and gave a new inte""ectua" respectabi"ity to the cinema.
21. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) discuss the importance of Briffith to the de'elopment of the cinema
(B) describe the impact on cinema of the flashback and other editing inno'ations
(C) deplore the state of American cinema before the ad'ent of Briffith
() analy!e the changes in the cinema wrought by the introduction of the multireel
film
(#) document Briffith4s impact on the choice of sub<ect matter in American films
22. The author suggests that Briffith4s film inno'ations had a direct effect on all of the
following #DC#@TE
(A) film editing
(B) camera work
(C) scene composing
() sound editing
(#) directing
2.. 3t can be inferred from the passage that before 1,15 the normal running time of a
film was
(A) 11 minutes or less
(B) between 11 and .5 minutes
(C) between .5 and 01 minutes
() between 01 minutes and 1 hour
(#) 1 hour or more
20. The author asserts that Briffith introduced all of the following into American
cinema #DC#@TE
(A) consideration of social issues
(B) adaptations from Tennyson
(C) the flashback and other editing techni"ues
() photographic approaches inspired by Cictorian painting
(#) dramatic plots suggested by Cictorian theater
GRE 11,
21. The author suggests that Briffith4s contributions to the cinema had which of the
following results%
3. Kiterary works/ especially Cictorian no'els/ became popular sources for film
sub<ects.
33. Audience appreciation of other film directors4 e$perimentations with cinematic
synta$ was increased.
333. ?any of the artistic limitations thought to be inherent in filmmaking were
shown to be really none$istent.
(A) 33 only
(B) 333 only
(C) 3 and 33 only
() 33 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
22. 3t can be inferred from the passage that Briffith would be most likely to agree with
which of the following statements%
(A) The good director will attempt to e$plore new ideas as "uickly as possible.
(B) The most important element contributing to a film4s success is the ability of the
actors.
(C) The camera must be considered an integral and acti'e element in the creation
of a film.
() The cinema should emphasi!e serious and sober e$aminations of fundamental
human problems.
(#) The proper composition of scenes in a film is more important than the details
of their editing.
2-. The author4s attitude toward photography in the cinema before Briffith can best be
described as
(A) sympathetic
(B) nostalgic
(C) amused
() condescending
(#) hostile
GRE RC
1990 04
SECTION A
125 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
'ecause o& its accuracy in out"ining the @arth6s subsur&ace( the seismic-
reDection method remains the most important too" in the search &or petro"eum
reserves. 2n #e"d practice( a subsur&ace is mapped by arranging a series o& wave-
train sources( such as sma"" dynamite e8p"osions( in a grid pattern. 3s each source
is activated( it generates a wave train that moves downward at a speed
determined uni-ue"y by the roc$6s e"astic characteristics. 3s roc$ inter&aces are
crossed( the e"astic characteristics encountered genera""y change abrupt"y( which
causes part o& the energy to be reDected bac$ to the sur&ace( where it is recorded
by seismic instruments. The seismic records must be processed to correct &or
positiona" di1erences between the source and the receiver( &or unre"ated wave
trains( and &or mu"tip"e reDections &rom the roc$ inter&aces. Then the data
ac-uired at each o& the speci#c source "ocations are combined to generate a
physica" pro#"e o& the subsur&ace( which can eventua""y be used to se"ect targets
&or dri""ing.
1-. The passage is primarily concerned with
(A) describing an important techni"ue
(B) discussing a new method
(C) in'estigating a contro'ersial procedure
() announcing a significant disco'ery
(#) promoting a no'el application
16. According to the passage/ in the seismic(reflection method all of the following
ha'e a significant effect on the signal detected by the seismic instruments
#DC#@T the
(A) presence of unrelated wa'e trains
(B) placement of the seismic instruments
(C) number of sources in the grid pattern
() nature of the reflecti'ity of the rock interfaces
(#) properties of rocks through which the wa'e train has tra'eled
1,. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the seismic(reflection method would be
likely to yield an inaccurate physical profile of the subsurface in which of the
following circumstances%
(A) 3f the speed at which the wa'e train mo'ed downward changed
(B) 3f the recei'er were not positioned directly at the wa'e(train source
(C) 3f the rock on one side of a rock interface had similar elastic characteristics to
those of the rock on the other side
() 3f the seismic records obtained for the different sources in a grid were highly
similar to each other
(#) 3f there were no petroleum deposits beneath the area defined by the grid of
wa'e(train sources
GRE 121
25. &hich of the following best describes the organi!ation of the passage%
(A) A method is critici!ed/ and an alternati'e is suggested.
(B) An illustration is e$amined/ and some errors are e$posed.
(C) An assertion is made/ and a procedure is outlined.
() A series of e$amples is presented/ and a conclusion is drawn.
(#) A hypothesis is ad'anced/ and supporting e'idence is supplied.
Bodern archaeo"ogica" #nds can sti"" contribute much to the study o& ancient
"iterature. :or e8amp"e( &orty years ago a survey o& the ear"y Eree$ dramatist
3eschy"us6 p"ays wou"d have started with The u##liant ,omen. Bany &actors
interna" to the p"ay( but perhaps most especia""y the prominence o& the chorus
(which in this p"ay has the main ro"e)( "ed scho"ars to consider it one o& 3eschy"us6
ear"ier wor$s. The consensus was that here was a drama tru"y reDecting an ear"y
stage in the evo"ution o& tragedy out o& chora" "yric. The p"ay was dated as ear"y
as the M906s '.%.( in any event( we"" be&ore 3eschy"us6 p"ay The Persians o& M74
'.%. Then( in 19/4( a &ragment o& papyrus &ound at <8yrhynchus was pub"ished
stating the o*cia" circumstances and resu"ts o& a dramatic contest. The &ragment
announced that 3eschy"us won #rst pri+e with his Kanaid tetra"ogy( o& which The
u##liant ,omen is the opening p"ay( and de&eated ophoc"es in the process.
ophoc"es did not compete in any dramatic contest be&ore ML8 '.%.( when he won
his #rst victory. )ence( e8cept by specia" p"eading (e. g.( that the tetra"ogy was
composed ear"y in 3eschy"us6 career but not produced unti" the ML06s '.%.)( the
Kanaid tetra"ogy must be put a&ter ML8 '.%. 2n addition( a &ew "etters in the
&ragment suggest the name 3rchedemides( archon in ML7 '.%.( thus perhaps tying
the p"ays to that precise date( a"most e8act"y ha"&way between 3eschy"us6 even
"gainst The$es o& ML7 '.%. and his 4resteia.
The imp"ication o& the papyrus administered a severe shoc$ to the vast
ma5ority o& c"assica" scho"ars( who had con#dent"y asserted that not on"y the ro"e
o& the chorus but a"so "anguage( metrics( and characteri+ation a"" pointed to an
ear"y date. The discovery has resu"ted in no "ess than a tota" reeva"uation o& every
chrono"ogica" criterion that has been app"ied to or derived &rom 3eschy"us6 p"ays.
The activity has been bris$( and a new creed has now spread. The prominence o&
the chorus in The u##liant ,omen now is seen not as a sign o& primitivism but as
ana"ogous to the massive chora" songs o& the 4resteia. tatistics have been
&ormu"ated( or re&ormu"ated( to show that sty"istica""y The u##liant ,omen does
actua""y occupy a position a&ter The Persians and even "gainst The$es& which
now become the >primitive? p"ays( and be&ore the 4resteia. ;hi"e the new
doctrine seems a"most certain"y correct( the one papyrus &ragment raises the
specter that another may be unearthed( showing( &or instance( that it was a
posthumous production o& the Kanaid tetra"ogy which bested ophoc"es( and
throwing the date once more into utter con&usion. This is un"i$e"y to happen( but it
warns us that perhaps the most sa"utary &eature o& the papyrus scrap is its
message o& the e8treme di*cu"ty o& c"assi&ying and categori+ing rigid"y the
122 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
deve"opment o& a creative artist.
21. The author of the passage focuses primarily on
(A) discussing a series of modern archaeological finds and their impact on the
study of Breek literature
(B) recounting the effect of one archaeological find on modern ideas concerning a
particular author4s work
(C) gi'ing a definiti'e and coherent account of the chronology of a particular
author4s work
() illustrating the many 'arieties of difficulties in'ol'ed in establishing facts
concerning ancient literature
(#) determining the e$act 'alue of archaeological finds in relation to the history of
ancient literature
22. &ith respect to the study of ancient literature/ which of the following statements
best e$presses the author4s main point concerning modern archaeological finds%
(A) They can profoundly alter accepted 'iews of ancient literary works/ and can
encourage fle$ibility in the way scholars look at the creati'e de'elopment of
any artist.
(B) They can be se'erely shocking and can ha'e a re'i'ifying effect on the study
of ancient literature/ which has recently suffered from a lack of interest on the
part of scholars.
(C) They can raise more "uestions than they answer and can be unreliable sources
of information.
() They generally confirm scholars4 ideas about ancient literary works and allow
them to dispense with inferences drawn from the works4 internal structure.
(#) They often undermine scholarly consensus in certain areas and create utter
confusion concerning an author4s work.
2.. According to the passage/ in the absence of definite knowledge concerning the
dates of composition of ancient literary works/ literary historians do which of the
following when trying to establish the chronology of an author4s work%
(A) ?ake assumptions about a single work4s date of composition if such
assumptions would not seriously affect interpretations of other works by the
same author.
(B) raw inferences concerning the date of a work4s composition based on
e'idence internal to that work and on the author4s other works.
(C) 3gnore the date of a work4s composition which is supplied by archaeological
research when literary factors internal to the work contradict that date.
() =efrain from speculation concerning a work4s date of composition unless
archaeological finds produce information concerning it.
(#) #stimate the date of a work4s composition without attempting to relate it to the
GRE 12.
author4s de'elopment as an artist.
20. 3t can be inferred from the passage that which of the following plays or groups of
plays is considered the latest in the date of its composition%
(A) The @ersians
(B) The anaid tetralogy
(C) The 0resteia
() ;e'en Against Thebes
(#) The ;uppliant &omen
21. &ith which of the following statements regarding the chronological criteria
mentioned in line ..(.0 would the author be most likely to agree%
(A) ;uch criteria/ whether applied to or deri'ed from the plays/ should only be
used to confirm already e$isting knowledge.
(B) ;uch criteria/ although deri'ed from reliable e$ternal and internal e'idence/
should be changed continually to a'oid rigidity in thinking.
(C) ;uch criteria/ based on statistical analysis/ are inherently more reliable than
those of forty years ago.
() ;uch criteria/ e'en when unsupported by e$ternal e'idence/ can resol'e most
"uestions.
(#) ;uch criteria/ based on often ambiguous internal e'idence/ can lead to
erroneous reconstructions of the chronology of an author4s work.
22. The author4s attitude toward the *acti'ity+ mentioned in line .1 and its
conse"uences can best be described as one of
(A) amused tolerance
(B) mocking en'y
(C) gra'e doubt
() angry disappro'al
(#) unrestrained enthusiasm
2-. The allusion to the hypothetical papyrus fragment in line 01(0, does which of the
following%
(A) ;upports an argument concerning the date of The Suppliant Wo-en.
(B) =efutes the 'iews of the ma<ority of scholars concerning the 8$yrhynchus
papyrus find.
(C) @redicts the future results of archaeological research proposed in the passage.
() :ndermines the 'alidity of the currently accepted chronology of Aeschylus4
works.
(#) Nualifies the author4s agreement with the *new creed+ de'eloped since the
8$yrhynchus papyrus find.
120 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
SECTION B
cho"ars o&ten &ai" to see that music p"ayed an important ro"e in the
preservation o& 3&rican cu"ture in the United tates. They correct"y note that
s"avery stripped some cu"tura" e"ements &rom '"ac$ peop"e!their po"itica" and
economic systems!but they underestimate the signi#cance o& music in
sustaining other 3&rican cu"tura" va"ues. 3&rican music( un"i$e the music o& some
other cu"tures( was based on a tota" vision o& "i&e in which music was not an
iso"ated socia" domain. 2n 3&rican cu"ture music was pervasive( serving not on"y
re"igion( but a"" phases o& "i&e( inc"uding birth( death( wor$( and p"ay. The methods
that a community devises to perpetuate itse"& come into being to preserve
aspects o& the cu"tura" "egacy that that community perceives as essentia". Busic(
"i$e art in genera"( was so ine8tricab"y a part o& 3&rican cu"ture that it became a
crucia" means o& preserving the cu"ture during and a&ter the dis"ocations o&
s"avery.
1-. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) analy!e the impact that sla'ery had on African political and economic systems
(B) re'iew the attempt of recent scholarship to study the influence of African
music on other music
(C) correct the failure of some scholars to appreciate the significance of music in
African culture
() sur'ey the ways by which people attempt to preser'e their culture against the
effects of oppression
(#) compare the relati'e importance of music with that of other art forms in culture
16. 3n line ,/ the phrase *isolated social domain+ refers to
(A) African music in relation to contemporary culture as a whole
(B) music as it may be percei'ed in non(African cultures
(C) a feature of African music that aided in transmitting African cultural 'alues
() an aspect of the African cultural legacy
(#) the influence of music on contemporary culture
1,. &hich of the following statements concerning the function of African music can
be inferred from the passage%
(A) 3t preser'ed cultural 'alues because it was thoroughly integrated into the li'es
of the people.
(B) 3t was more important in the de'elopment of African religious life than in
other areas of culture.
(C) 3t was de'eloped in response to the loss of political and economic systems.
() 3ts per'asi'eness in African culture hindered its effecti'eness in minimi!ing
the impact of sla'ery.
GRE 121
(#) 3ts isolation from the economic domains of life enabled it to sur'i'e the
destructi'e impact of sla'ery.
25. According to the author/ scholars would err in drawing which of the following
conclusions%
3. ;la'ery stripped the sla'es of their political and economic systems.
33. African music was similar to all other traditions of music in that it originated in
a total 'ision of life.
333. ?usic was a crucial part of the African cultural legacy.
(A) 3 only
(B) 33 only
(C) 3 and 33 only
() 33 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
Traditiona""y( po""ination by wind has been viewed as a reproductive process
mar$ed by random events in which the vagaries o& the wind are compensated &or
by the generation o& vast -uantities o& po""en( so that the u"timate production o&
new seeds is assured at the e8pense o& producing much more po""en than is
actua""y used. 'ecause the potentia" ha+ards po""en grains are sub5ect to as they
are transported over "ong distances are enormous( wind-po""inated p"ants have( in
the view above( compensated &or the ensuing "oss o& po""en through happenstance
by virtue o& producing an amount o& po""en that is one to three orders o&
magnitude greater than the amount produced by species po""inated by insects.
)owever( a number o& &eatures that are characteristic o& wind-po""inated p"ants
reduce po""en waste. :or e8amp"e( many wind-po""inated species &ai" to re"ease
po""en when wind speeds are "ow or when humid conditions prevai". Recent
studies suggest another way in which species compensate &or the ine*ciency o&
wind po""ination. These studies suggest that species &re-uent"y ta$e advantage o&
the physics o& po""en motion by generating speci#c aerodynamic environments
within the immediate vicinity o& their &ema"e reproductive organs. 2t is the
morpho"ogy o& these organs that dictates the pattern o& airDow disturbances
through which po""en must trave". The speed and direction o& the airDow
disturbances can combine with the physica" properties o& a species6 po""en to
produce a species-speci#c pattern o& po""en co""ision on the sur&aces o& &ema"e
reproductive organs. 9rovided that these sur&aces are strategica""y "ocated( the
conse-uences o& this combination can signi#cant"y increase the po""en-capture
e*ciency o& a &ema"e reproductive organ.
3 critica" -uestion that remains to be answered is whether the morpho"ogica"
attributes o& the &ema"e reproductive organs o& wind-po""inated species are
evo"utionary adaptations to wind po""ination or are mere"y &ortuitous. 3 comp"ete
reso"ution o& the -uestion is as yet impossib"e since adaptation must be eva"uated
&or each species within its own uni-ue &unctiona" conte8t. )owever( it must be
122 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
said that( whi"e evidence o& such evo"utionary adaptations does e8ist in some
species( one must be care&u" about attributing morpho"ogy to adaptation. :or
e8amp"e( the spira" arrangement o& sca"e-bract comp"e8es on ovu"e-bearing pine
cones( where the &ema"e reproductive organs o& coni&ers are "ocated( is important
to the production o& airDow patterns that spira" over the cone6s sur&aces( thereby
passing airborne po""en &rom one sca"e to the ne8t. )owever( these patterns
cannot be viewed as an adaptation to wind po""ination because the spira"
arrangement occurs in a number o& non-wind-po""inated p"ant "ineages and is
regarded as a characteristic o& vascu"ar p"ants( o& which coni&ers are on"y one
$ind( as a who"e. There&ore( the spira" arrangement is not "i$e"y to be the resu"t o&
a direct adaptation to wind po""ination.
21. The author of the passage is primarily concerned with discussing
(A) the current debate on whether the morphological attributes of wind(pollinated
plants are e'olutionary adaptations
(B) the kinds of airflow patterns that permit wind(pollinated plants to capture
pollen most efficiently
(C) the ways in which the reproducti'e processes of wind(pollinated plants are
controlled by random e'ents
() a recently proposed e$planation of a way in which wind(pollinated plants
reduce pollen waste
(#) a specific morphological attribute that permits one species of wind(pollinated
plant to capture pollen
22. The author suggests that e$planations of wind pollination that emphasi!e the
production of 'ast "uantities of pollen to compensate for the randomness of the
pollination process are
(A) debatable and misleading
(B) ingenious and con'incing
(C) accurate but incomplete
() intriguing but contro'ersial
(#) plausible but un'erifiable
2.. According to the passage/ the *aerodynamic en'ironments+ mentioned in line 2./
when they are produced/ are primarily determined by the
(A) presence of insects near the plant
(B) physical properties of the plant4s pollen
(C) shape of the plant4s female reproducti'e organs
() amount of pollen generated by the plant
(#) number of seeds produced by the plant
20. According to the passage/ true statements about the release of pollen by wind(
pollinated plants include which of the following%
GRE 12-
3. The release can be affected by certain en'ironmental factors.
33. The amount of pollen released increases on a rainy day.
333. @ollen is sometimes not released by plants when there is little wind.
(A) 33 only
(B) 333 only
(C) 3 and 33 only
() 3 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
21. The passage suggests that the recent studies cited in lines 1,(21 ha'e not done
which of the following%
(A) ?ade any distinctions between different species of wind(pollinated plants.
(B) Considered the physical properties of the pollen that is produced by wind(
pollinated plants.
(C) 3ndicated the general range within which plant(generated airflow disturbances
are apt to occur.
() 3ncluded in'estigations of the physics of pollen motion and its relationship to
the efficient capture of pollen by the female reproducti'e organs of wind(
pollinated plants.
(#) emonstrated that the morphological attributes of the female reproducti'e
organs of wind(pollinated plants are usually e'olutionary adaptations to wind
pollination.
22. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the claim that the spiral arrangement of
scale(bract comple$es on an o'ule(bearing pine cone is an adaptation to wind
pollination would be more con'incing if which of the following were true%
(A) ;uch an arrangement occurred only in wind(pollinated plants.
(B) ;uch an arrangement occurred in 'ascular plants as a whole.
(C) ;uch an arrangement could be shown to be beneficial to pollen release.
() The number of bracts could be shown to ha'e increased o'er time.
(#) The airflow patterns o'er the cone4s surfaces could be shown to be produced
by such arrangements.
2-. &hich of the following/ if known/ is likely to ha'e been the kind of e'idence used
to support the 'iew described in the first paragraph%
(A) &ind speeds need not be 'ery low for wind(pollinated plants to fail to release
pollen.
(B) The female reproducti'e organs of plants often ha'e a sticky surface that
allows them to trap airborne pollen systematically.
(C) Brasses/ as well as conifers/ generate specific aerodynamic en'ironments
within the immediate 'icinity of their reproducti'e organs.
126 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
() =ain showers often wash airborne pollen out of the air before it e'er reaches
an appropriate plant.
(#) The density and si!e of an airborne pollen grain are of e"ual importance in
determining whether that grain will be captured by a plant.
1990 10
SECTION A
2t has been $nown &or many decades that the appearance o& sunspots is
rough"y periodic( with an average cyc"e o& e"even years. Boreover( the incidence
o& so"ar Dares and the Du8 o& so"ar cosmic rays( u"travio"et radiation( and 8-
radiation a"" vary direct"y with the sunspot cyc"e. 'ut a&ter more than a century o&
investigation( the re"ation o& these and other phenomena( $nown co""ective"y as
the so"ar-activity cyc"e( to terrestria" weather and c"imate remains unc"ear. :or
e8amp"e( the sunspot cyc"e and the a""ied magnetic-po"arity cyc"e have been
"in$ed to periodicities discerned in records o& such variab"es as rain&a""(
temperature( and winds. 2nvariab"y( however( the re"ation is wea$( and common"y
o& dubious statistica" signi#cance.
@1ects o& so"ar variabi"ity over "onger terms have a"so been sought. The
absence o& recorded sunspot activity in the notes $ept by @uropean observers in
the "ate seventeenth and ear"y eighteenth centuries has "ed some scho"ars to
postu"ate a brie& cessation o& sunspot activity at that time (a period ca""ed the
Baunder minimum). The Baunder minimum has been "in$ed to a span o& unusua"
co"d in @urope e8tending &rom the si8teenth to the ear"y nineteenth centuries. The
rea"ity o& the Baunder minimum has yet to be estab"ished( however( especia""y
since the records that %hinese na$ed-eye observers o& so"ar activity made at that
time appear to contradict it. cientists have a"so sought evidence o& "ong-term
so"ar periodicities by e8amining indirect c"imato"ogica" data( such as &ossi" records
o& the thic$ness o& ancient tree rings. These studies( however( &ai"ed to "in$
une-uivoca""y terrestria" c"imate and the so"ar-activity cyc"e( or even to con#rm
the cyc"e6s past e8istence.
2& consistent and re"iab"e geo"ogica" or archaeo"ogica" evidence tracing the
so"ar-activity cyc"e in the distant past cou"d be &ound( it might a"so reso"ve an
important issue in so"ar physicsA how to mode" so"ar activity. %urrent"y( there are
two mode"s o& so"ar activity. The #rst supposes that the un6s interna" motions
(caused by rotation and convection) interact with its "arge-sca"e magnetic #e"d to
produce a dynamo( a device in which mechanica" energy is converted into the
energy o& a magnetic #e"d. 2n short( the un6s "arge-sca"e magnetic #e"d is ta$en
to be se"&-sustaining( so that the so"ar-activity cyc"e it drives wou"d be maintained
with "itt"e overa"" change &or perhaps bi""ions o& years. The a"ternative e8p"anation
supposes that the un6s "arge-sca"e magnetic #e"d is a remnant o& the #e"d the
un ac-uired when it &ormed( and is not sustained against decay. 2n this mode"(
GRE 12,
the so"ar mechanism dependent on the un6s magnetic #e"d runs down more
-uic$"y. Thus( the characteristics o& the so"ar-activity cyc"e cou"d be e8pected to
change over a "ong period o& time. Bodern so"ar observations span too short a
time to revea" whether present cyc"ica" so"ar activity is a "ong-"ived &eature o& the
un( or mere"y a transient phenomenon.
1-. The author focuses primarily on
(A) presenting two competing scientific theories concerning solar acti'ity and
e'aluating geological e'idence often cited to support them
(B) gi'ing a brief o'er'iew of some recent scientific de'elopments in solar physics
and assessing their impact on future climatological research
(C) discussing the difficulties in'ol'ed in linking terrestrial phenomena with solar
acti'ity and indicating how resol'ing that issue could ha'e an impact on our
understanding of solar physics
() pointing out the futility of a certain line of scientific in"uiry into the terrestrial
effects of solar acti'ity and recommending its abandonment in fa'or of purely
physics(oriented research
(#) outlining the specific reasons why a problem in solar physics has not yet been
sol'ed and faulting the o'erly theoretical approach of modern physicists
16. &hich of the following statements about the two models of solar acti'ity/ as they
are described in lines .-(11/ is accurate%
(A) 3n both models cyclical solar acti'ity is regarded as a long(li'ed feature of the
;un/ persisting with little change o'er billions of years.
(B) 3n both models the solar(acti'ity cycle is hypothesi!ed as being dependent on
the large(scale solar magnetic field.
(C) 3n one model the ;un4s magnetic field is thought to play a role in causing solar
acti'ity/ whereas in the other model it is not.
() 3n one model solar acti'ity is presumed to be unrelated to terrestrial
phenomena/ whereas in the other model solar acti'ity is thought to ha'e
obser'able effects on the #arth.
(#) 3n one model cycles of solar acti'ity with periodicities longer than a few
decades are considered to be impossible/ whereas in the other model such
cycles are predicted.
1,. According to the passage/ late se'enteenth and early eighteenth(century Chinese
records are important for which of the following reasons%
(A) They suggest that the data on which the ?aunder minimum was predicated
were incorrect.
(B) They suggest that the ?aunder minimum cannot be related to climate.
(C) They suggest that the ?aunder minimum might be 'alid only for #urope.
() They establish the e$istence of a span of unusually cold weather worldwide at
1.5 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
the time of the ?aunder minimum.
(#) They establish that solar acti'ity at the time of the ?aunder minimum did not
significantly 'ary from its present pattern.
25. The author implies which of the following about currently a'ailable geological and
archaeological e'idence concerning the solar(acti'ity cycle%
(A) 3t best supports the model of solar acti'ity described in lines .-(01.
(B) 3t best supports the model of solar acti'ity described in lines 01(12.
(C) 3t is insufficient to confirm either model of solar acti'ity described in the third
paragraph.
() 3t contradicts both models of solar acti'ity as they are presented in the third
paragraph.
(#) 3t dispro'es the theory that terrestrial weather and solar acti'ity are linked in
some way.
21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the argument in fa'or of the model
described in lines .-(01 would be strengthened if which of the following were
found to be true%
(A) #pisodes of intense 'olcanic eruptions in the distant past occurred in cycles
ha'ing 'ery long periodicities.
(B) At the present time the global le'el of thunderstorm acti'ity increases and
decreases in cycles with periodicities of appro$imately 11 years.
(C) 3n the distant past cyclical climatic changes had periodicities of longer than
255 years.
() 3n the last century the length of the sunspot cycle has been known to 'ary by
as much as 2 years from its a'erage periodicity of 11 years.
(#) )undreds of millions of years ago/ solar(acti'ity cycles displayed the same
periodicities as do present(day solar(acti'ity cycles.
22. 3t can be inferred from the passage that Chinese obser'ations of the ;un during the
late se'enteenth and early eighteenth centuries
(A) are ambiguous because most sunspots cannot be seen with the naked eye
(B) probably were made under the same weather conditions as those made in
#urope
(C) are more reliable than #uropean obser'ations made during this period
() record some sunspot acti'ity during this period
(#) ha'e been employed by scientists seeking to argue that a change in solar
acti'ity occurred during this period
2.. 3t can be inferred from the passage that studies attempting to use tree(ring
thickness to locate possible links between solar periodicity and terrestrial climate
are based on which of the following assumptions%
GRE 1.1
(A) The solar(acti'ity cycle e$isted in its present form during the time period in
which the tree rings grew.
(B) The biological mechanisms causing tree growth are unaffected by short(term
weather patterns.
(C) A'erage tree(ring thickness 'aries from species to species.
() Tree(ring thicknesses reflect changes in terrestrial climate.
(#) Both terrestrial climate and the solar(acti'ity cycle randomly affect tree(ring
thickness.
The common be"ie& o& some "inguists that each "anguage is a per&ect vehic"e &or
the thoughts o& the nation spea$ing it is in some ways the e8act counterpart o&
the conviction o& the Banchester schoo" o& economics that supp"y and demand wi""
regu"ate everything &or the best. Cust as economists were b"ind to the numerous
cases in which the "aw o& supp"y and demand "e&t actua" wants unsatis#ed( so a"so
many "inguists are dea& to those instances in which the very nature o& a "anguage
ca""s &orth misunderstandings in everyday conversation( and in which(
conse-uent"y( a word has to be modi#ed or de#ned in order to present the idea
intended by the spea$erA >)e too$ his stic$!no( not Cohn6s( but his own.? ,o
"anguage is per&ect( and i& we admit this truth( we must a"so admit that it is not
unreasonab"e to investigate the re"ative merits o& di1erent "anguages or o&
di1erent detai"s in "anguages.
20. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) analy!e an interesting feature of the #nglish language
(B) refute a belief held by some linguists
(C) show that economic theory is rele'ant to linguistic study
() illustrate the confusion that can result from the improper use of language
(#) suggest a way in which languages can be made more nearly perfect
21. The misunderstanding presented by the author in lines 1.(10 is similar to which of
the following%
3. D uses the word *you+ to refer to a group/ but H thinks that D is referring to
one person only.
33. D mistakenly uses the word *anomaly+ to refer to a typical e$ample/ but H
knows that *anomaly+ means *e$ception.+
333. D uses the word *bachelor+ to mean *unmarried man/+ but H mistakenly thinks
that bachelor means *unmarried woman.+
(A) 3 only
(B) 33 only
(C) 333 only
() 3 and 33 only
(#) 33 and 333 only
1.2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
22. 3n presenting the argument/ the author does all of the following #DC#@TE
(A) gi'e an e$ample
(B) draw a conclusion
(C) make a generali!ation
() make a comparison
(#) present a parado$
2-. &hich of the following contributes to the misunderstanding described by the
author in lines 1.(10%
(A) 3t is unclear whom the speaker of the sentence is addressing.
(B) 3t is unclear to whom the word *his+ refers the first time it is used.
(C) 3t is unclear to whom the word *his+ refers the second time it is used.
() The meaning of *took+ is ambiguous.
(#) 3t is unclear to whom *)e+ refers.
SECTION B
2t is &re-uent"y assumed that the mechani+ation o& wor$ has a revo"utionary
e1ect on the "ives o& the peop"e who operate the new machines and on the
society into which the machines have been introduced. :or e8amp"e( it has been
suggested that the emp"oyment o& women in industry too$ them out o& the
househo"d( their traditiona" sphere( and &undamenta""y a"tered their position in
society. 2n the nineteenth century( when women began to enter &actories( Cu"es
imon( a :rench po"itician( warned that by doing so( women wou"d give up their
&emininity. :riedrich @nge"s( however( predicted that women wou"d be "iberated
&rom the >socia"( "ega"( and economic subordination? o& the &ami"y by techno"ogica"
deve"opments that made possib"e the recruitment o& >the who"e &ema"e se8 into
pub"ic industry.? <bservers thus di1ered concerning the socia" desirabi"ity o&
mechani+ation6s e1ects( but they agreed that it wou"d trans&orm women6s "ives.
)istorians( particu"ar"y those investigating the history o& women( now serious"y
-uestion this assumption o& trans&orming power. They conc"ude that such
dramatic techno"ogica" innovations as the spinning 5enny( the sewing machine(
the typewriter( and the vacuum c"eaner have not resu"ted in e-ua""y dramatic
socia" changes in women6s economic position or in the prevai"ing eva"uation o&
women6s wor$. The emp"oyment o& young women in te8ti"e mi""s during the
2ndustria" Revo"ution was "arge"y an e8tension o& an o"der pattern o& emp"oyment
o& young( sing"e women as domestics. 2t was not the change in o*ce techno"ogy(
but rather the separation o& secretaria" wor$( previous"y seen as an apprenticeship
&or beginning managers( &rom administrative wor$ that in the 18806s created a
new c"ass o& >dead-end? 5obs( thence&orth considered >women6s wor$.? The
increase in the numbers o& married women emp"oyed outside the home in the
twentieth century had "ess to do with the mechani+ation o& housewor$ and an
GRE 1..
increase in "eisure time &or these women than it did with their own economic
necessity and with high marriage rates that shran$ the avai"ab"e poo" o& sing"e
women wor$ers( previous"y( in many cases( the on"y women emp"oyers wou"d
hire.
;omen6s wor$ has changed considerab"y in the past 400 years( moving &rom
the househo"d to the o*ce or the &actory( and "ater becoming most"y white-co""ar
instead o& b"ue-co""ar wor$. :undamenta""y( however( the conditions under which
women wor$ have changed "itt"e since be&ore the 2ndustria" Revo"utionA the
segregation o& occupations by gender( "ower pay &or women as a group( 5obs that
re-uire re"ative"y "ow "eve"s o& s$i"" and o1er women "itt"e opportunity &or
advancement a"" persist( whi"e women6s househo"d "abor remains demanding.
Recent historica" investigation has "ed to a ma5or revision o& the notion that
techno"ogy is a"ways inherent"y revo"utionary in its e1ects on society.
Bechani+ation may even have s"owed any change in the traditiona" position o&
women both in the "abor mar$et and in the home.
1-. &hich of the following statements best summari!es the main idea of the passage%
(A) The effects of the mechani!ation of women4s work ha'e not borne out the
fre"uently held assumption that new technology is inherently re'olutionary.
(B) =ecent studies ha'e shown that mechani!ation re'olutioni!es a society4s
traditional 'alues and the customary roles of its members.
(C) ?echani!ation has caused the nature of women4s work to change since the
3ndustrial =e'olution.
() The mechani!ation of work creates whole new classes of <obs that did not
pre'iously e$ist.
(#) The mechani!ation of women4s work/ while e$tremely re'olutionary it its
effects/ has not/ on the whole/ had the deleterious effects that some critics had
feared.
16. The author mentions all of the following in'entions as e$amples of dramatic
technological inno'ations #DC#@T the
(A) sewing machine
(B) 'acuum cleaner
(C) typewriter
() telephone
(#) spinning <enny
1,. 3t can be inferred from the passage that/ before the 3ndustrial =e'olution/ the
ma<ority of women4s work was done in which of the following settings%
(A) Te$tile mills
(B) @ri'ate households
(C) 8ffices
1.0 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
() >actories
(#) ;mall shops
25. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author would consider which of the
following to be an indication of a fundamental alteration in the conditions of
women4s work%
(A) ;tatistics showing that the ma<ority of women now occupy white(collar
positions
(B) 3nter'iews with married men indicating that they are now doing some
household tasks
(C) ;ur'eys of the labor market documenting the recent creation of a new class of
<obs in electronics in which women workers outnumber men four to one
() Census results showing that working women4s wages and salaries are/ on the
a'erage/ as high as those of working men
(#) #nrollment figures from uni'ersities demonstrating that increasing numbers of
young women are choosing to continue their education beyond the
undergraduate le'el
21. The passage states that/ before the twentieth century/ which of the following was
true of many employers%
(A) They did not employ women in factories.
(B) They tended to employ single rather than married women.
(C) They employed women in only those <obs that were related to women4s
traditional household work.
() They resisted technological inno'ations that would radically change women4s
roles in the family.
(#) They hired women only when "ualified men were not a'ailable to fill the open
positions.
22. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author most probably belie'es which of
the following to be true concerning those historians who study the history of
women%
(A) Their work pro'ides insights important to those e$amining social phenomena
affecting the li'es of both se$es.
(B) Their work can only be used cautiously by scholars in other disciplines.
(C) Because they concentrate only on the role of women in the workplace/ they
draw more reliable conclusions than do other historians.
() &hile highly interesting/ their work has not had an impact on most historians4
current assumptions concerning the re'olutionary effect of technology in the
workplace.
(#) They oppose the further mechani!ation of work/ which/ according to their
findings/ tends to perpetuate e$isting ine"ualities in society.
GRE 1.1
2.. &hich of the following best describes the function of the concluding sentence of
the passage%
(A) 3t sums up the general points concerning the mechani!ation of work made in
the passage as a whole.
(B) 3t draws a conclusion concerning the effects of the mechani!ation of work
which goes beyond the e'idence presented in the passage as a whole.
(C) 3t restates the point concerning technology made in the sentence immediately
preceding it.
() 3t "ualifies the author4s agreement with scholars who argue for a ma<or
re'ision in the assessment of the impact of mechani!ation on society.
(#) 3t suggests a compromise between two seemingly contradictory 'iews
concerning the effects of mechani!ation on society.
(This passage is e8cerpted &rom an artic"e that was pub"ished in 1984.)
;arm-b"ooded anima"s have e"aborate physio"ogica" contro"s to maintain
constant body temperature (in humans( 77). ;hy then during sic$ness shou"d
temperature rise( apparent"y increasing stress on the in&ected organismG 2t has
"ong been $nown that the "eve" o& serum iron in anima"s &a""s during in&ection.
Eariba"di #rst suggested a re"ationship between &ever and iron. )e &ound that
microbia" synthesis o& siderophores!substances that bind iron!in bacteria o& the
genus almonella dec"ined at environmenta" temperatures above 77 and
stopped at M0.7. Thus( &ever wou"d ma$e it more di*cu"t &or an in&ecting
bacterium to ac-uire iron and thus to mu"tip"y. %o"d-b"ooded anima"s were used to
test this hypothesis because their body temperature can be contro""ed in the
"aboratory. S"uger reported that o& iguanas in&ected with the potentia""y "etha"
bacterium ". hydro#hilia( more survived at temperatures o& M4 than at 77(
even though hea"thy anima"s pre&er the "ower temperature. ;hen anima"s at M4
were in5ected with an iron so"ution( however( morta"ity rates increased
signi#cant"y. Research to determine whether simi"ar phenomena occur in warm-
b"ooded anima"s is sore"y needed.
20. The passage is primarily concerned with attempts to determine
(A) the role of siderophores in the synthesis of serum iron
(B) new treatments for infections that are caused by A2 hydrophilia
(C) the function of fe'er in warm(blooded animals
() the mechanisms that ensure constant body temperature
(#) iron utili!ation in cold(blooded animals
21. According to the passage/ Baribaldi determined which of the following%
(A) That serum iron is produced through microbial synthesis.
(B) That microbial synthesis of siderophores in warm(blooded animals is more
efficient at higher temperatures.
1.2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(C) That only iron bound to other substances can be used by bacteria.
() That there is a relationship between the synthesis of siderophores in bacteria of
the genus Sal-onella and en'ironmental temperature.
(#) That bacteria of the genus Sal-onella re"uire iron as a nutrient.
22. &hich of the following can be inferred about warm(blooded animals solely on the
basis of information in the passage%
(A) The body temperatures of warm(blooded animals cannot be easily controlled
in the laboratory.
(B) &arm(blooded animals re"uire more iron in periods of stress than they do at
other times.
(C) &arm(blooded animals are more comfortable at an en'ironmental temperature
of .- than they are at a temperature of 02.
() 3n warm(blooded animals/ bacteria are responsible for the production of
siderophores/ which/ in turn/ make iron a'ailable to the animal.
(#) 3n warm(blooded animals/ infections that lead to fe'er are usually traceable to
bacteria.
2-. 3f it were to be determined that *similar phenomena occur in warm(blooded
animals+ (lines 21(22)/ which of the following/ assuming each is possible/ is likely
to be the most effecti'e treatment for warm(blooded animals with bacterial
infections%
(A) Administering a medication that lowers the animals4 body temperature
(B) 3n<ecting the animals with an iron solution
(C) Administering a medication that makes serum iron una'ailable to bacteria
() @ro'iding the animals with reduced(iron diets
(#) Meeping the animals in an en'ironment with temperatures higher than .-
1991 02
SECTION A
3s Ei"bert ;hite( Karwin( and others observed "ong ago( a"" species appear to
have the innate capacity to increase their numbers &rom generation to generation.
The tas$ &or eco"ogists is to untang"e the environmenta" and bio"ogica" &actors that
ho"d this intrinsic capacity &or popu"ation growth in chec$ over the "ong run. The
great variety o& dynamic behaviors e8hibited by di1erent popu"ations ma$es this
tas$ more di*cu"tA some popu"ations remain rough"y constant &rom year to year=
others e8hibit regu"ar cyc"es o& abundance and scarcity= sti"" others vary wi"d"y(
with outbrea$s and crashes that are in some cases p"ain"y corre"ated with the
weather( and in other cases not.
To impose some order on this $a"eidoscope o& patterns( one schoo" o& thought
GRE 1.-
proposes dividing popu"ations into two groups. These eco"ogists posit that the
re"ative"y steady popu"ations have >density-dependent? growth parameters= that
is( rates o& birth( death( and migration which depend strong"y on popu"ation
density. The high"y varying popu"ations have >density-independent? growth
parameters( with vita" rates bu1eted by environmenta" events= these rates
Ductuate in a way that is who""y independent o& popu"ation density.
This dichotomy has its uses( but it can cause prob"ems i& ta$en too "itera""y. :or
one thing( no popu"ation can be driven entire"y by density-independent &actors a""
the time. ,o matter how severe"y or unpredictab"y birth( death and migration
rates may be Ductuating around their "ong-term averages( i& there were no
density-dependent e1ects( the popu"ation wou"d( in the "ong run( either increase
or decrease without bound (barring a mirac"e by which gains and "osses cance"ed
e8act"y). 9ut another way( it may be that on average 99 percent o& a"" deaths in a
popu"ation arise &rom density-independent causes( and on"y one percent &rom
&actors varying with density. The &actors ma$ing up the one percent may seem
unimportant( and their cause may be corresponding"y hard to determine. Iet(
whether recogni+ed or not( they wi"" usua""y determine the "ong-term average
popu"ation density.
2n order to understand the nature o& the eco"ogist6s investigation( we may thin$
o& the density-dependent e1ects on growth parameters as the >signa"? eco"ogists
are trying to iso"ate and interpret( one that tends to ma$e the popu"ation increase
&rom re"ative"y "ow va"ues or decrease &rom re"ative"y high ones( whi"e the density-
independent e1ects act to produce >noise? in the popu"ation dynamics. :or
popu"ations that remain re"ative"y constant( or that osci""ate around repeated
cyc"es( the signa" can be &air"y easi"y characteri+ed and its e1ects described( even
though the causative bio"ogica" mechanism may remain un$nown. :or irregu"ar"y
Ductuating popu"ations( we are "i$e"y to have too &ew observations to have any
hope o& e8tracting the signa" &rom the overwhe"ming noise. 'ut it now seems c"ear
that a"" popu"ations are regu"ated by a mi8ture o& density-dependent and density-
independent e1ects in varying proportions.
1-. The author of the passage is primarily concerned with
(A) discussing two categories of factors that control population growth and
assessing their relati'e importance
(B) describing how growth rates in natural populations fluctuate o'er time and
e$plaining why these changes occur
(C) proposing a hypothesis concerning population si!es and suggesting ways to
test it
() posing a fundamental "uestion about en'ironmental factors in population
growth and presenting some currently accepted answers
(#) refuting a commonly accepted theory about population density and offering a
new alternati'e
1.6 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
16. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author considers the dichotomy
discussed in the second paragraph to be
(A) applicable only to erratically fluctuating populations
(B) useful/ but only if its limitations are recogni!ed
(C) dangerously misleading in most circumstances
() a complete and sufficient way to account for obser'ed phenomena
(#) conceptually 'alid/ but too confusing to apply on a practical basis
1,. &hich of the following statements can be inferred from the last paragraph%
(A) >or irregularly fluctuating populations/ doubling the number of obser'ations
made will probably result in the isolation of density(dependent effects.
(B) ensity(dependent effects on population dynamics do not occur as fre"uently
as do density(independent effects.
(C) At present/ ecologists do not understand any of the underlying causes of the
density(dependent effects they obser'e in population dynamics.
() ensity(dependent effects on growth parameters are thought to be caused by
some sort of biochemical *signaling+ that ecologists hope e'entually to
understand.
(#) 3t is sometimes possible to infer the e$istence of a density(dependent factor
controlling population growth without understanding its causati'e mechanism.
25. According to the passage/ which of the following is a true statement about density(
dependent factors in population growth%
(A) They ultimately account for long(term population le'els.
(B) They ha'e little to do with long(term population dynamics.
(C) They are always more easily isolated and described than those that are density(
independent.
() They include random en'ironmental e'ents.
(#) They contradict current ecological assumptions about population dynamics.
21. According to the passage/ all of the following beha'iors ha'e been e$hibited by
different populations #DC#@TE
(A) roughly constant population le'els from year to year
(B) regular cycles of increases and decreases in numbers
(C) erratic increases in numbers correlated with the weather
() unchecked increases in numbers o'er many generations
(#) sudden declines in numbers from time to time
22. The discussion concerning population in lines 20(05 ser'es primarily to
(A) demonstrate the difficulties ecologists face in studying density(dependent
factors limiting population growth
GRE 1.,
(B) ad'ocate more rigorous study of density(dependent factors in population
growth
(C) pro'e that the death rates of any population are ne'er entirely density(
independent
() gi'e an e$ample of how death rates function to limit population densities in
typical populations
(#) underline the importance of e'en small density(dependent factors in regulating
long(term population densities
2.. 3n the passage/ the author does all of the following #DC#@TE
(A) cite the 'iews of other biologists
(B) define a basic problem that the passage addresses
(C) present conceptual categories used by other biologists
() describe the results of a particular study
(#) draw a conclusion
2n *aisin in the un( Jorraine )ansberry does not re5ect integration or the
economic and mora" promise o& the 3merican dream= rather( she remains "oya" to
this dream whi"e "oo$ing( rea"istica""y( at its incomp"ete rea"i+ation. <nce we
recogni+e this dua" vision( we can accept the p"ay6s ironic nuances as de"iberate
socia" commentaries by )ansberry rather than as the >unintentiona"? irony that
'igsby attributes to the wor$. 2ndeed a curious"y persistent re&usa" to credit
)ansberry with a capacity &or intentiona" irony has "ed some critics to interpret the
p"ay6s thematic conDicts as mere con&usion( contradiction( or ec"ecticism. 2saacs(
&or e8amp"e( cannot easi"y reconci"e )ansberry6s intense concern &or her race with
her idea" o& human reconci"iation. 'ut the p"ay6s comp"e8 view o& '"ac$ se"&-
esteem and human so"idarity as compatib"e is no more >contradictory? than Ku
'ois6 &amous( we""-considered idea" o& ethnic se"&-awareness coe8isting with
human unity( or :anon6s emphasis on an idea" internationa"ism that a"so
accommodates nationa" identities and ro"es.
20. The author4s primary purpose in this passage is to
(A) e$plain some critics4 refusal to consider "aisin in the Sun a deliberately ironic
play
(B) suggest that ironic nuances ally "aisin in the Sun with u Bois4 and >anon4s
writings
(C) analy!e the fundamental dramatic conflicts in "aisin in the Sun
() <ustify the inclusion of contradictory elements in "aisin in the Sun
(#) affirm the thematic coherence underlying "aisin in the Sun
21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author belie'es which of the following
about )ansberry4s use of irony in "aisin in the Sun%
(A) 3t deri'es from )ansberry4s eclectic approach to dramatic structure.
105 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(B) 3t is <ustified by )ansberry4s loyalty to a fa'orable depiction of American life.
(C) 3t is influenced by the themes of works by u Bois and >anon.
() 3t is more consistent with )ansberry4s concern for Black Americans than with
her ideal of human reconciliation.
(#) 3t reflects )ansberry4s reser'ations about the e$tent to which the American
dream has been reali!ed.
22. 3n which of the following does the author of the passage reinforce his criticism of
responses such as 3saacs4 to "aisin in the Sun%
(A) The statement that )ansberry is *loyal+ (line .) to the American dream
(B) The description of )ansberry4s concern for Black Americans as *intense+ (line
1.)
(C) The assertion that )ansberry is concerned with *human solidarity+ (line 11)
() The description of u Bois4 ideal as *well(considered+ (line 1-)
(#) The description of >anon4s internationalism as *ideal+ (line 1,)
2-. The author of the passage would probably consider which of the following
<udgments to be most similar to the reasoning of critics described in lines 6(12%
(A) The world is certainly flatI therefore/ the person proposing to sail around it is
un"uestionably foolhardy.
(B) =adioacti'ity cannot be directly percei'edI therefore/ a scientist could not
possibly control it in a laboratory.
(C) The painter of this picture could not intend it to be funny/ therefore/ its humor
must result from a lack of skill.
() Traditional social mores are beneficial to cultureI therefore/ anyone who
de'iates from them acts destructi'ely.
(#) >ilmmakers who produce documentaries deal e$clusi'ely with factsI therefore/
a filmmaker who reinterprets particular e'ents is misleading us.
SECTION B
ome recent historians have argued that "i&e in the 'ritish co"onies in 3merica
&rom appro8imate"y 17L7 to 1789 was mar$ed by interna" conDicts among
co"onists. 2nheritors o& some o& the viewpoints o& ear"y twentieth-century
9rogressive historians such as 'eard and 'ec$er( these recent historians have put
&orward arguments that deserve eva"uation.
The $ind o& conDict most emphasi+ed by these historians is c"ass conDict. Iet
with the Revo"utionary ;ar dominating these years( how does one distinguish
c"ass conDict within that "arger conDictG %ertain"y not by the side a person
supported. 3"though many o& these historians have accepted the ear"ier
assumption that Joya"ists represented an upper c"ass( new evidence indicates that
Joya"ists( "i$e rebe"s( were drawn &rom a"" socioeconomic c"asses. (2t is nonethe"ess
GRE 101
probab"y true that a "arger percentage o& the we""-to-do 5oined the Joya"ists than
5oined the rebe"s.) Joo$ing at the rebe" side( we #nd "itt"e evidence &or the
contention that "ower-c"ass rebe"s were in conDict with upper-c"ass rebe"s. 2ndeed(
the war e1ort against 'ritain tended to suppress c"ass conDicts. ;here it did not(
the disputing rebe"s o& one or another c"ass usua""y became Joya"ists. Joya"ism
thus operated as a sa&ety va"ve to remove socioeconomic discontent that e8isted
among the rebe"s. Kisputes occurred( o& course( among those who remained on
the rebe" side( but the e8traordinary socia" mobi"ity o& eighteenth-century
3merican society (with the obvious e8ception o& s"aves) usua""y prevented such
disputes &rom hardening a"ong c"ass "ines. ocia" structure was in &act so Duid!
though recent statistics suggest a narrowing o& economic opportunity as the "atter
ha"& o& the century progressed!that to ta"$ about socia" c"asses at a"" re-uires the
use o& "oose economic categories such as rich( poor( and midd"e c"ass( or
eighteenth-century designations "i$e >the better sort.? Kespite these vague
categories( one shou"d not c"aim une-uivoca""y that hosti"ity between
recogni+ab"e c"asses cannot be "egitimate"y observed. <utside o& ,ew Ior$(
however( there were very &ew instances o& open"y e8pressed c"ass antagonism.
)aving said this( however( one must add that there is much evidence to
support the &urther c"aim o& recent historians that sectiona" conDicts were
common between 17L7 and 1789. The >9a8ton 'oys? incident and the Regu"ator
movement are representative e8amp"es o& the widespread( and 5usti#ed(
discontent o& western sett"ers against co"onia" or state governments dominated by
eastern interests. 3"though undertones o& c"ass conDict e8isted beneath such
hosti"ity( the opposition was primari"y geographica". ectiona" conDict!which a"so
e8isted between ,orth and outh!deserves &urther investigation.
2n summary( historians must be care&u" about the $ind o& conDict they
emphasi+e in eighteenth-century 3merica. Iet those who stress the achievement
o& a genera" consensus among the co"onists cannot &u""y understand that
consensus without understanding the conDicts that had to be overcome or
repressed in order to reach it.
1-. The author considers the contentions made by the recent historians discussed in the
passage to be
(A) potentially 'erifiable
(B) partially <ustified
(C) logically contradictory
() ingenious but flawed
(#) capricious and unsupported
16. The author most likely refers to *historians such as Beard and Becker+ (lines 1(2)
in order to
(A) isolate the two historians whose work is most representati'e of the 'iewpoints
of @rogressi'e historians
102 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(B) emphasi!e the need to find connections between recent historical writing and
the work of earlier historians
(C) make a case for the importance of the 'iews of the @rogressi'e historians
concerning eighteenth(century American life
() suggest that @rogressi'e historians were the first to disco'er the particular
internal conflicts in eighteenth(century American life mentioned in the passage
(#) point out historians whose 'iews of history anticipated some of the 'iews of
the recent historians mentioned in the passage
1,. According to the passage/ Koyalism during the American =e'olutionary &ar
ser'ed the function of
(A) eliminating the disputes that e$isted among those colonists who supported the
rebel cause
(B) drawing upper/ as opposed to lower/ socioeconomic classes away from the
rebel cause
(C) tolerating the kinds of socioeconomic discontent that were not allowed to e$ist
on the rebel side
() channeling conflict that e$isted within a socioeconomic class into the war
effort against the rebel cause
(#) absorbing members of socioeconomic groups on the rebel side who felt
themsel'es in contention with members of other socioeconomic groups
25. The passage suggests that the author would be likely to agree with which of the
following statements about the social structure of eighteenth(century American
society%
3. 3t allowed greater economic opportunity than it did social mobility.
33. 3t permitted greater economic opportunity prior to 1-15 than after 1-15.
333. 3t did not contain rigidly defined socioeconomic di'isions.
3C. 3t pre'ented economic disputes from arising among members of the society.
(A) 3 and 3C only
(B) 33 and 333 only
(C) 333 and 3C only
() 3/ 33/ and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ 333/ and 3C
21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author would be most likely to agree
with which of the following statements regarding socioeconomic class and support
for the rebel and Koyalist causes during the American =e'olutionary &ar%
(A) 3dentifying a person4s socioeconomic class is the least accurate method of
ascertaining which side that person supported.
(B) 3dentifying a person as a member of the rebel or of the Koyalist side does not
GRE 10.
necessarily re'eal that person4s particular socioeconomic class.
(C) Both the rebel and the Koyalist sides contained members of all socioeconomic
classes/ although there were fewer disputes among socioeconomic classes on
the Koyalist side.
() Both the rebel and the Koyalist sides contained members of all socioeconomic
classes/ although the Koyalist side was made up primarily of members of the
upper classes.
(#) Both the rebel and the Koyalist sides contained members of all socioeconomic
classes/ although many upper(class rebels e'entually <oined the Koyalists.
22. The author suggests which of the following about the representati'eness of
colonial or state go'ernments in America from 1-2. to 1-6,%
(A) The go'ernments inade"uately represented the interests of people in western
regions.
(B) The go'ernments more often represented class interests than sectional
interests.
(C) The go'ernments were less representati'e than they had been before 1-2..
() The go'ernments were dominated by the interests of people of an upper
socioeconomic class.
(#) The go'ernments of the northern colonies were less representati'e than were
the go'ernments of the southern colonies.
2.. According to the passage/ which of the following is a true statement about
sectional conflicts in America between 1-2. and 1-6,%
(A) These conflicts were instigated by eastern interests against western settlers.
(B) These conflicts were the most serious kind of conflict in America.
(C) The conflicts e'entually led to openly e$pressed class antagonism.
() These conflicts contained an element of class hostility.
(#) These conflicts were moti'ated by class conflicts.
ince 19/7( many e8perimenta" attempts to synthesi+e the chemica"
constituents o& "i&e under >primitive @arth conditions? have been per&ormed( but
none o& these e8periments has produced anything approaching the comp"e8ity o&
the simp"est organism. They have demonstrated( however( that a variety o& the
comp"e8 mo"ecu"es current"y ma$ing up "iving organisms cou"d have been present
in the ear"y ocean and atmosphere( with on"y one "imitationA such mo"ecu"es are
synthesi+ed &ar "ess readi"y when o8ygen-containing compounds dominate the
atmosphere. There&ore some scientists postu"ate that the @arth6s ear"iest
atmosphere( un"i$e that o& today( was dominated by hydrogen( methane( and
ammonia.
:rom these studies( scientists have conc"uded that the sur&ace o& the primitive
@arth was covered with oceans containing the mo"ecu"es &undamenta" to "i&e.
100 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
3"though( at present( scientists cannot e8p"ain how these re"ative"y sma""
mo"ecu"es combined to produce "arger( more comp"e8 mo"ecu"es( some scientists
have precipitous"y ventured hypotheses that attempt to e8p"ain the deve"opment(
&rom "ager mo"ecu"es( o& the ear"iest se"&-dup"icating organisms.
20. According to the passage/ which of the following can be inferred about the process
by which the chemical constituents of life were synthesi!ed under primiti'e #arth
conditions%
(A) The synthesis is unlikely to occur under current atmospheric conditions.
(B) The synthesis is common in modern laboratories.
(C) The synthesis occurs more readily in the atmosphere than in the ocean.
() The synthesis easily produces the most comple$ organic molecules.
(#) The synthesis is accelerated by the presence of o$ygen(containing compounds.
21. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) point out that theories about how life de'eloped on #arth ha'e changed little
since 1,1.
(B) warn of increasing le'els of hydrogen/ methane/ and ammonia in the #arth4s
atmosphere
(C) describe the de'elopment since 1,1. of some scientists4 understanding of how
life began on #arth
() demonstrate that the synthesis of life in the laboratory is too difficult for
modern technology
(#) describe how primiti'e atmospheric conditions produced the comple$
molecules of li'ing organisms
22. 3t can be inferred from the passage that *some scientists+ assume which of the
following concerning *larger/ more comple$ molecules+ (line 25)%
(A) The earliest atmosphere was formed primarily of these molecules.
(B) Chemical processes in'ol'ing these molecules proceeded much more slowly
under primiti'e #arth conditions.
(C) The presence of these molecules would necessarily precede the e$istence of
simple organisms.
() #$perimental techni"ues will ne'er be sufficiently sophisticated to produce in
the laboratory simple organisms from these chemical constituents.
(#) #$planations could easily be de'eloped to e$plain how simple molecules
combined to form these more comple$ ones.
2-. The author4s reaction to the attempts that ha'e been made to e$plain the
de'elopment of the first self(duplication organisms can best be described as one of
(A) enthusiasm
(B) e$pectation
GRE 101
(C) dismay
() skepticism
(#) antipathy
1991 04
SECTION A
2sadora Kuncan6s master"y writings on the dance revea" the depth o& her
determination to create a "yric &orm o& the art which was &ree o& characteri+ation(
storyte""ing( and the theatrica" e8hibition o& s$i""s. he wished to discard the
traditiona" methods and estab"ished vocabu"aries o& such dance &orms as ba""et
and to e8p"ore the interna" sources o& human e8pressiveness. he shunned bodi"y
ornamentation and strove to use on"y the natura" movements o& her body(
undistorted by acrobatic e8aggeration and stimu"ated on"y by interna" compu"sion.
2n her recita"s Kuncan danced to the music o& 'eethoven( ;agner( and E"uc$(
among others( but( contrary to popu"ar be"ie&( she made no attempt to visua"i+e or
to interpret the music= rather( she simp"y re"ied on it to provide the inspiration &or
e8pressing inner &ee"ings through movement. he did not regard this use o& music
as idea"( however( be"ieving that she wou"d someday dispense with music entire"y.
That day never came.
1-. The author is primarily concerned with uncan4s
(A) masterful lyricism as e$pressed in her writings on the dance
(B) concerted efforts to subdue the natural mo'ements of the dance
(C) belated recognition that she could not actually fulfill all of her ideals for the
dance
() basic standards for the dance form that she wished to create and perform
(#) continuous responsi'eness to a popular misconception about the nature of her
new art form
16. The author implies that uncan relied on music in her recitals in order to
(A) interpret musical works solely by means of natural body mo'ements
(B) foster the illusion that music ser'es as an inspiration for the dance
(C) inspire the e$pression of inner feeling when she danced
() 'alidate the public belief that music inspires the e$pression of feeling through
mo'ement
(#) counter the public belief that she made no attempt to 'isuali!e music
1,. According to the passage/ uncan intended to de'elop an art form that would do
all of the following #DC#@T
(A) a'oid the use of standard ballet techni"ues
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(B) re'itali!e an earlier established 'ocabulary
(C) draw on internal sources of human e$pressi'eness
() create intended effects without the use of acrobatic e$aggeration
(#) deri'e inspiration solely from inner feelings
25. 3t can be inferred from the passage that which of the following endea'ors is
K#A;T compatible with uncan4s ideals for the dance%
(A) :sing music to stimulate the inspiration to dance
(B) Attempting to free an art form of both characteri!ation and storytelling
(C) ?inimi!ing the theatrical e$hibition of skills
() Being inspired to e$press inner feeling through mo'ement
(#) Creating a lyric art form by drawing on inner personal resources
The recent( apparent"y success&u"( prediction by mathematica" mode"s o& an
appearance o& @" ,ino!the warm ocean current that periodica""y deve"ops a"ong
the 9aci#c coast o& outh 3merica!has e8cited researchers. Cacob '5er$nes
pointed out over 40 years ago how winds might create either abnorma""y warm or
abnorma""y co"d water in the eastern e-uatoria" 9aci#c. ,onethe"ess( unti" the
deve"opment o& the mode"s no one cou"d e8p"ain why conditions shou"d regu"ar"y
shi&t &rom one to the other( as happens in the periodic osci""ations between
appearances o& the warm @" ,ino and the co"d so-ca""ed anti-@" ,ino. The answer(
at "east i& the current mode" that "in$s the behavior o& the ocean to that o& the
atmosphere is correct( is to be &ound in the ocean.
2t has "ong been $nown that during an @" ,ino( two conditions e8istA (1)
unusua""y warm water e8tends a"ong the eastern 9aci#c( principa""y a"ong the
coasts o& @cuador and 9eru( and (4) winds b"ow &rom the west into the warmer air
rising over the warm water in the east. These winds tend to create a &eedbac$
mechanism by driving the warmer sur&ace water into a >pi"e? that b"oc$s the
norma" upwe""ing o& deeper( co"d water in the east and &urther warms the eastern
water( thus strengthening the wind sti"" more. The contribution o& the mode" is to
show that the winds o& an @" ,ino( which raise sea "eve" in the east(
simu"taneous"y send a signa" to the west "owering sea "eve". 3ccording to the
mode"( that signa" is generated as a negative Rossby wave( a wave o& depressed(
or negative( sea "eve"( that moves westward para""e" to the e-uator at 4/ to 8/
$i"ometers per day. Ta$ing months to traverse the 9aci#c( Rossby waves march to
the western boundary o& the 9aci#c basin( which is mode"ed as a smooth wa"" but
in rea"ity consists o& -uite irregu"ar is"and chains( such as the 9hi"ippines and
2ndonesia.
;hen the waves meet the western boundary( they are reDected( and the mode"
predicts that Rossby waves wi"" be bro$en into numerous coasta" Se"vin waves
carrying the same negative sea-"eve" signa". These eventua""y shoot toward the
e-uator( and then head eastward a"ong the e-uator prope""ed by the rotation o&
the @arth at a speed o& about 4/0 $i"ometers per day. ;hen enough Se"vin waves
GRE 10-
o& su*cient amp"itude arrive &rom the western 9aci#c( their negative sea-"eve"
signa" overcomes the &eedbac$ mechanism tending to raise the sea "eve"( and
they begin to drive the system into the opposite co"d mode. This produces a
gradua" shi&t in winds( one that wi"" eventua""y send positive sea-"eve" Rossby
waves westward( waves that wi"" eventua""y return as co"d cyc"e-ending positive
Se"vin waves( beginning another warming cyc"e.
21. The primary function of the passage as a whole is to
(A) introduce a new e$planation of a physical phenomenon
(B) e$plain the difference between two related physical phenomena
(C) illustrate the limitations of applying mathematics to complicated physical
phenomena
() indicate the direction that research into a particular physical phenomenon
should take
(#) clarify the differences between an old e$planation of a physical phenomenon
and a new model of it
22. &hich of the following best describes the organi!ation of the first paragraph%
(A) A theory is presented and critici!ed.
(B) A model is described and e'aluated.
(C) A result is reported and its importance e$plained.
() A phenomenon is noted and its significance debated.
(#) A hypothesis is introduced and contrary e'idence presented.
2.. According to the passage/ which of the following features is characteristic of an #l
9ino%
(A) Cold coastal water near @eru
(B) &inds blowing from the west
(C) =andom occurrence
() &orldwide effects
(#) ;hort duration
20. According to the model presented in the passage/ which of the following normally
signals the disappearance of an #l 9ino%
(A) The arri'al in the eastern @acific of negati'e sea(le'el Mel'in wa'es.
(B) A shift in the direction of the winds produced by the start of an anti(#l 9ino
elsewhere in the @acific.
(C) The reflection of Mel'in wa'es after they reach the eastern boundary of the
@acific/ along #cuador and @eru.
() An increase in the speed at which negati'e =ossby wa'es cross the @acific.
(#) The creation of a reser'oir of colder/ deep ocean water trapped under the pile
of warmer/ surface ocean water.
106 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that which of the following would result fairly
immediately from the cessation of the winds of an #l 9ino%
3. 9egati'e =ossby wa'es would cease to be generated in the eastern @acific.
33. The sea le'el in the eastern @acific would fall.
333. The surface water in the eastern @acific would again be cooled by being mi$ed
with deep water.
(A) 3 only
(B) 33 only
(C) 3 and 33 only
() 3 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
22. &hich of the following/ if true/ would most seriously undermine the 'alidity of the
model of #l 9ino that is presented in the passage%
(A) uring some years #l 9ino e$tends significantly farther along the coasts of
#cuador and @eru than during other years.
(B) uring periods of unusually cool temperatures along the eastern @acific/ an #l
9ino is much colder than normal.
(C) The normal upwelling of cold water in the eastern @acific depends much more
on the local characteristics of the ocean than on atmospheric conditions.
() The 'ariations in the time it takes =ossby wa'es to cross the @acific depend on
the power of the winds that the wa'es encounter.
(#) The western boundary of the @acific basin is so irregular that it impedes most
coastal Mel'in wa'es from heading eastward.
2-. The passage best supports the conclusion that during an anti(#l 9ino the fastest(
mo'ing signal wa'es are
(A) negati'e =ossby wa'es mo'ing east along the e"uator
(B) positi'e =ossby wa'es mo'ing west along the e"uator
(C) negati'e Mel'in wa'es mo'ing west along the e"uator
() positi'e Mel'in wa'es mo'ing west along the e"uator
(#) positi'e Mel'in wa'es mo'ing east along the e"uator
SECTION B
)istorians have on"y recent"y begun to note the increase in demand &or "u8ury
goods and services that too$ p"ace in eighteenth-century @ng"and. BcSendric$ has
e8p"ored the ;edgwood #rm6s remar$ab"e success in mar$eting "u8ury pottery=
9"umb has written about the pro"i&eration o& provincia" theaters( musica" &estiva"s(
and chi"dren6s toys and boo$s. ;hi"e the &act o& this consumer revo"ution is hard"y
in doubt( three $ey -uestions remainA ;ho were the consumersG ;hat were their
GRE 10,
motivesG 3nd what were the e1ects o& the new demand &or "u8uriesG
3n answer to the #rst o& these has been di*cu"t to obtain. 3"though it has been
possib"e to in&er &rom the goods and services actua""y produced what
manu&actures and servicing trades thought their customers wanted( on"y a study
o& re"evant persona" documents written by actua" consumers wi"" provide a precise
picture o& who wanted what. ;e sti"" need to $now how "arge this consumer
mar$et was and how &ar down the socia" sca"e the consumer demand &or "u8ury
goods penetrated. ;ith regard to this "ast -uestion( we might note in passing that
Thompson( whi"e right"y restoring "aboring peop"e to the stage o& eighteenth-
century @ng"ish history( has probab"y e8aggerated the opposition o& these peop"e
to the inroads o& capita"ist consumerism in genera"= &or e8amp"e( "aboring peop"e
in eighteenth-century @ng"and readi"y shi&ted &rom home-brewed beer to
standardi+ed beer produced by huge( heavi"y capita"i+ed urban breweries.
To answer the -uestion o& why consumers became so eager to buy( some
historians have pointed to the abi"ity o& manu&acturers to advertise in a re"ative"y
uncensored press. This( however( hard"y seems a su*cient answer. BcSendric$
&avors a Feb"en mode" o& conspicuous consumption stimu"ated by competition &or
status. The >midd"ing sort? bought goods and services because they wanted to
&o""ow &ashions set by the rich. 3gain( we may wonder whether this e8p"anation is
su*cient. Ko not peop"e en5oy buying things as a &orm o& se"&-grati#cationG 2& so(
consumerism cou"d be seen as a product o& the rise o& new concepts o&
individua"ism and materia"ism( but not necessari"y o& the &ren+y &or conspicuous
competition.
:ina""y( what were the conse-uences o& this consumer demand &or "u8uriesG
BcSendric$ c"aims that it goes a "ong way toward e8p"aining the coming o& the
2ndustria" Revo"ution. 'ut does itG ;hat( &or e8amp"e( does the production o& high-
-ua"ity pottery and toys have to do with the deve"opment o& iron manu&acture or
te8ti"e mi""sG 2t is per&ect"y possib"e to have the psycho"ogy and rea"ity o& a
consumer society without a heavy industria" sector.
That &uture e8p"oration o& these $ey -uestions is undoubted"y necessary shou"d
not( however( diminish the &orce o& the conc"usion o& recent studiesA the insatiab"e
demand in eighteenth-century @ng"and &or &rivo"ous as we"" as use&u" goods and
services &oreshadows our own wor"d.
1-. 3n the first paragraph/ the author mentions ?cMendrick and @lumb most probably
in order to
(A) contrast their 'iews on the sub<ect of lu$ury consumerism in eighteenth(
century #ngland
(B) indicate the inade"uacy of historiographical approaches to eighteenth(century
#nglish history
(C) gi'e e$amples of historians who ha'e helped to establish the fact of growing
consumerism in eighteenth(century #ngland
115 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
() support the contention that key "uestions about eighteenth(century
consumerism remain to be answered
(#) compare one historian4s interest in lu$ury goods such as pottery to another
historian4s interest in lu$ury ser'ices such as musical festi'als
16. &hich of the following items/ if preser'ed from eighteenth(century #ngland/
would pro'ide an e$ample of the kind of documents mentioned in lines 12(1-%
(A) A written agreement between a supplier of raw materials and a supplier of
lu$ury goods
(B) A diary that mentions lu$ury goods and ser'ices purchased by its author
(C) A theater ticket stamped with the date and name of a particular play
() A payroll record from a company that produced lu$ury goods such as pottery
(#) A newspaper ad'ertisement describing lu$ury goods and ser'ices a'ailable at a
seaside resort
1,. According to the passage/ Thompson attributes to laboring people in eighteenth(
century #ngland which of the following attitudes toward capitalist consumerism%
(A) #nthusiasm
(B) Curiosity
(C) Ambi'alence
() ;tubbornness
(#) )ostility
25. 3n the third paragraph/ the author is primarily concerned with
(A) contrasting two theses and offering a compromise
(B) "uestioning two e$planations and proposing a possible alternati'e to them
(C) paraphrasing the work of two historians and "uestioning their assumptions
() e$amining two theories and endorsing one o'er the other
(#) raising se'eral "uestions but implying that they cannot be answered
21. According to the passage/ a Ceblen model of conspicuous consumption has been
used to
(A) in'estigate the e$tent of the demand for lu$ury goods among social classes in
eighteenth(century #ngland
(B) classify the kinds of lu$ury goods desired by eighteenth(century consumers
(C) e$plain the moti'ation of eighteenth(century consumers to buy lu$ury goods
() establish the e$tent to which the tastes of rich consumers were shaped by the
middle classes in eighteenth(century #ngland
(#) compare lu$ury consumerism in eighteenth(century #ngland with such
consumerism in the twentieth century
22. According to the passage/ eighteenth(century #ngland and the contemporary world
GRE 111
of the passage4s readers are
(A) dissimilar in the e$tent to which lu$ury consumerism could be said to be
widespread among the social classes
(B) dissimilar in their definitions of lu$ury goods and ser'ices
(C) dissimilar in the e$tent to which lu$ury goods could be said to be a stimulant
of industrial de'elopment
() similar in their strong demand for a 'ariety of goods and ser'ices
(#) similar in the e$tent to which a middle class could be identified as imitating the
habits of a wealthier class
2.. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author would most probably agree with
which of the following statements about the relationship between the 3ndustrial
=e'olution and the demand for lu$ury goods and ser'ices in eighteenth(century
#ngland%
(A) The growing demand for lu$ury goods and ser'ices was a ma<or factor in the
coming of the 3ndustrial =e'olution.
(B) The 3ndustrial =e'olution e$ploited the already e$isting demand for lu$ury
goods and ser'ices.
(C) Although the demand for lu$ury goods may ha'e helped bring about the
3ndustrial =e'olution/ the demand for lu$ury ser'ices did not.
() There is no reason to belie'e that the 3ndustrial =e'olution was directly dri'en
by a growing demand for lu$ury goods and ser'ices.
(#) The increasing demand for lu$ury goods and ser'ices was a cultural
phenomenon that has been conclusi'ely demonstrated to ha'e been separate
from the coming of the 3ndustrial =e'olution.
Researchers are #nding that in many ways an individua" bacterium is more
ana"ogous to a component ce"" o& a mu"tice""u"ar organism than it is to a &ree-
"iving( autonomous organism. "na$aena( a &reshwater bacteria( is a case in point.
3mong photosynthetic bacteria( "na$aena is unusua"A it is capab"e o& both
photosynthesis and nitrogen #8ation. ;ithin a sing"e ce""( these two biochemica"
processes are incompatib"eA o8ygen produced during photosynthesis( inactivates
the nitrogenase re-uired &or nitrogen #8ation. 2n "na$aena communities(
however( these processes can coe8ist. ;hen #8ed nitrogen compounds are
abundant( "na$aena is strict"y photosynthetic and its ce""s are a"" a"i$e. ;hen
nitrogen "eve"s are "ow( however( specia"i+ed ce""s ca""ed heterocysts are produced
which "ac$ ch"orophy"" (necessary &or photosynthesis) but which can #8 nitrogen
by converting nitrogen gas into a usab"e &orm. ubmicroscopic channe"s deve"op
which connect the heterocyst ce""s with the photosynthetic ones and which are
used &or trans&erring ce""u"ar products between the two $inds o& "na$aena ce""s.
20. According to the passage/ which of the following statements is true of bacteria that
engage in photosynthesis%
112 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(A) They e'entually become two autonomous cells.
(B) They cannot normally also engage in nitrogen fi$ation.
(C) 8$ygen normally inacti'ates them.
() Cellular products are constantly transferred between such bacteria.
(#) They normally lack chlorophyll.
21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that cell differentiation within Anabaena is
regulated by the
(A) amount of o$ygen Anabaena cells produce
(B) season of the year
(C) amount of fi$ed nitrogen compounds a'ailable
() number of microscopic channels uniting Anabaena cells
(#) amount of chlorophyll in Anabaena cells
22. The passage supports which of the following inferences about heterocysts%
(A) )eterocysts do not produce o$ygen.
(B) 9itrogen gas inacti'ates heterocysts.
(C) Chlorophyll increases the producti'ity of heterocysts.
() )eterocysts allow nitrogen fi$ation and photosynthesis to occur in the same
cell.
(#) )eterocysts are more important for Anabaenas functioning than are
photosynthetic cells.
2-. The author uses the e$ample of Anabaena to illustrate the
(A) uni"ueness of bacteria among unicellular organisms
(B) inade"uacy of an e$isting 'iew of bacteria
(C) ability of unicellular organisms to engage in photosynthesis
() 'ariability of a freshwater bacteria
(#) difficulty of in'estigating e'en the simplest unicellular organisms
1991 10
SECTION A
3ided by the recent abi"ity to ana"y+e samp"es o& air trapped in g"aciers(
scientists now have a c"earer idea o& the re"ationship between atmospheric
composition and g"oba" temperature change over the past 1L0(000 years. 2n
particu"ar( determination o& atmospheric composition during periods o& g"acia"
e8pansion and retreat (coo"ing and warming) is possib"e using data &rom the 4(000
meter Fosto$ ice core dri""ed in 3ntarctica. The techni-ue invo"ved is simi"ar to
that used in ana"y+ing cores o& marine sediments( where the ratio o& the two
GRE 11.
common isotopes o& o8ygen(
18
< and
1L
<( accurate"y reDects past temperature
changes. 2sotopic ana"ysis o& o8ygen in the Fosto$ core suggests mean g"oba"
temperature Ductuations o& up to 10 degrees centigrade over the past 1L0(000
years.
Kata &rom the Fosto$ core a"so indicate that the amount o& carbon dio8ide has
Ductuated with temperature over the same periodA the higher the temperature(
the higher the concentration o& carbon dio8ide and the "ower the temperature( the
"ower the concentration. 3"though change in carbon dio8ide content c"ose"y
&o""ows change in temperature during periods o& deg"aciation( it apparent"y "ags
behind temperature during periods o& coo"ing. The corre"ation o& carbon dio8ide
with temperature( o& course( does not estab"ish whether changes in atmospheric
composition caused the warming and coo"ing trends or were caused by their.
The corre"ation between carbon dio8ide and temperature throughout the
Fosto$ record is consistent and predictab"e. The abso"ute temperature changes(
however( are &rom / to 1M times greater than wou"d be e8pected on the basis o&
carbon dio8ide6s own abi"ity to absorb in&rared radiation( or radiant heat. This
reaction suggests that( -uite aside &rom changes in heat-trapping gases(
common"y $nown as greenhouse gases( certain positive &eedbac$s are a"so
amp"i&ying the temperature change. uch &eedbac$s might invo"ve ice on "and and
sea( c"ouds( or water vapor( which a"so absorb radiant heat.
<ther data &rom the Fosto$ core show that methane gas a"so corre"ates c"ose"y
with temperature and carbon dio8ide. The methane concentration near"y doub"ed(
&or e8amp"e( between the pea$ o& the penu"timate g"acia" period and the &o""owing
interg"acia" period. ;ithin the present interg"acia" period it has more than doub"ed
in 5ust the past 700 years and is rising rapid"y. 3"though the concentration o&
atmospheric methane is more than two orders o& magnitude "ower than that o&
carbon dio8ide( it cannot be ignoredA the radiative properties o& methane ma$e it
40 times more e1ective( mo"ecu"e &or mo"ecu"e( than carbon dio8ide in absorbing
radiant heat. <n the basis o& a simu"ation mode" that c"imato"ogica" researchers
have deve"oped( methane appears to have been about 4/ percent as important as
carbon dio8ide in the warming that too$ p"ace during the most recent g"acia"
retreat 8(000 to 10(000 years ago.
1-. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) interpret data
(B) e$plain research methodology
(C) e'aluate a conclusion
() suggest a new techni"ue
(#) attack a theory
16. According to the passage/ which of the following statements about methane is
true%
(A) ?ethane is found in marine sediments.
110 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(B) ?ethane is more effecti'e than carbon dio$ide in absorbing radiant heat.
(C) The #arth4s atmosphere now contains more than twice as much methane as it
does carbon dio$ide.
() The higher the concentration of carbon dio$ide in the #arth4s atmosphere/ the
lower the concentration of methane.
(#) ?ost of the global warming that has occurred during the past 15 years has been
associated with increased methane concentration.
1,. According to the passage/ which of the following statements best describes the
relationship between carbon dio$ide and global temperature%
(A) Carbon dio$ide le'els change immediately in response to changes in
temperature.
(B) Carbon dio$ide le'els correlate with global temperature during cooling periods
only.
(C) 8nce carbon dio$ide le'els increase/ they remain high regardless of changes in
global temperature.
() Carbon dio$ide le'els increase more "uickly than global temperature does.
(#) uring cooling periods/ carbon dio$ide le'els initially remain high and then
decline.
25. The author mentions *certain positi'e feedbacks+ (lines .1(.2) in order to indicate
that
(A) increased concentration of carbon dio$ide in the #arth4s atmosphere is
responsible for global temperature increase
(B) some climate simulation models ha'e produced useful information
(C) greenhouse gases alone do not account for global temperature increase
() 'ariables that benefit life are causing global temperature to increase
(#) beneficial substances that are not heat(trapping gases and that contribute to
global temperature increase ha'e been found in the Costok ice core
21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that a long(term decrease in the concentration
of carbon dio$ide in the #arth4s atmosphere would
(A) increase methane concentration in the #arth4s atmosphere
(B) accompany a period of glaciation
(C) encourage the formation of more o$ygen isotopes in the #arth4s atmosphere
() promote the formation of more water in the #arth4s global en'ironment
(#) increase the amount of infrared radiation absorbed by the #arth4s atmosphere
22. The passage suggests that when the methane concentration in the #arth4s
atmosphere decreases/ which of the following also happens%
(A) Blaciers melt faster.
(B) The concentration of carbon dio$ide increases.
GRE 111
(C) The mean global temperature decreases.
() Carbon dio$ide absorbs more radiant beat.
(#) ?ore clouds form in the #arth4s atmosphere.
2.. 3n the fourth paragraph/ the author is primarily concerned with
(A) restating the main idea of the passage
(B) using research findings to de'elop a simulation model
(C) outlining the direction of future reser'es
() pro'iding an additional e$ample of a phenomenon
(#) introducing a conflicting hypothesis
2n The ,omen of (e3ico City& 5678-59:6( y"via Barina 3rrom argues that the
status o& women in Be8ico %ity improved during the nineteenth century. 3ccording
to 3rrom( househo"ds headed by &ema"es and instances o& women wor$ing outside
the home were much more common than scho"ars have estimated= e1orts by the
Be8ican government to encourage &ema"e education resu"ted in increased &ema"e
"iteracy= and inDuentia" ma"e writers wrote pieces advocating education(
emp"oyment( and increased &ami"y responsibi"ities &or women( whi"e dep"oring
women6s po"itica" and marita" ine-ua"ity. Bention o& the &act that the civi" codes o&
1870 and 188M signi#cant"y advanced women6s rights wou"d have &urther
strengthened 3rrom6s argument.
3rrom does not discuss whether women6s improved status counteracted the
e1ects on women o& instabi"ity in the Be8ican economy during the nineteenth
century. )owever( this is not so much a wea$ness in her wor$ as it is the
inevitab"e resu"t o& scho"ars6 neg"ect o& this period. 2ndeed( such gaps in Be8ican
history are precise"y what ma$e 3rrom6s pioneering study an important addition to
Jatin 3merican women6s history.
20. The passage is primarily concerned with doing which of the following%
(A) =e'iewing a historical study of the status of women in ?e$ico City during the
nineteenth century
(B) Analy!ing the effects of economic instability on the status of women in
?e$ico during the nineteenth century
(C) Ad'ancing a thesis e$plaining why women4s status in ?e$ico City impro'ed
during the nineteenth century
() =e<ecting the thesis that the status of women in ?e$ico City during the
nineteenth century actually impro'ed
(#) @raising an author for a pioneering attempt to bridge significant gaps in
?e$ico4s economic history prior to 1-,5
21. According to the author of the passage/ Arrom4s study can be characteri!ed as *an
important addition to Katin American women4s history+ (lines 21(22) because it
(A) offers a radical thesis concerning the status of women4s ci'il rights in ?e$ican
112 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
society during the nineteenth century
(B) relies on a new method of historical analysis that has not pre'iously been
applied to Katin American history
(C) focuses only on the status of women in ?e$ican society
() addresses a period in ?e$ican history that scholars ha'e to some e$tent
neglected
(#) is the first study to recogni!e the role of the ?e$ican go'ernment in
encouraging women4s education
22. 3t can be inferred from the passage that Arrom would agree with which of the
following assertions%
(A) #fforts by the ?e$ican go'ernment to encourage education for women during
the nineteenth century were hampered by the economic instability of that
period.
(B) The most significant ad'ances in the rights of ?e$ican women during the
nineteenth century occurred prior to 161-.
(C) 3mpro'ements in the status of women in ?e$ico City during the nineteenth
century were accompanied by similar impro'ements in the status of women in
other large Katin American cities.
() ;cholars ha'e in the past accorded the most significance to nineteenth(century
?e$ican literature that supported the status "uo in women4s political and
marital rights.
(#) ;cholars ha'e in the past underestimated the number of households headed by
females in ?e$ico City.
2-. &hich of the following best describes the author4s attitude toward Arrom4s work%
(A) :ncritical appro'al
(B) #nthusiasm tempered by minor reser'ations
(C) @raise for her thesis/ despite skepticism regarding the sources of her e'idence
() =eluctant acceptance/ despite lingering doubts regarding the accuracy of her
thesis
(#) =e<ection/ despite admiration for her attempt to break new ground in a hitherto
neglected field
SECTION B
9resent-day phi"osophers usua""y envision their discip"ine as an endeavor that
has been( since anti-uity( distinct &rom and superior to any particu"ar inte""ectua"
discip"ine( such as theo"ogy or science. uch phi"osophica" concerns as the mind-
body prob"em or( more genera""y( the nature o& human $now"edge( they be"ieve(
are basic human -uestions whose tentative phi"osophica" so"utions have served as
the necessary &oundations on which a"" other inte""ectua" specu"ation has rested.
GRE 11-
The basis &or this view( however( "ies in a serious misinterpretation o& the past(
a pro5ection o& modern concerns onto past events. The idea o& an autonomous
discip"ine ca""ed >phi"osophy(? distinct &rom and sitting in 5udgment on such
pursuits as theo"ogy and science turns out( on c"ose e8amination( to be o& -uite
recent origin. ;hen( in the seventeenth century( Kescartes and )obbes re5ected
medieva" phi"osophy( they did not thin$ o& themse"ves( as modern phi"osophers
do( as proposing a new and better phi"osophy( but rather as &urthering >the
war&are between science and theo"ogy.? They were #ghting( a"beit discreet"y( to
open the inte""ectua" wor"d to the new science and to "iberate inte""ectua" "i&e &rom
ecc"esiastica" phi"osophy and envisioned their wor$ as contributing to the growth(
not o& phi"osophy( but o& research in mathematics and physics. This "in$ between
phi"osophica" interests and scienti#c practice persisted unti" the nineteenth
century( when dec"ine in ecc"esiastica" power over scho"arship and changes in the
nature o& science provo$ed the #na" separation o& phi"osophy &rom both.
The demarcation o& phi"osophy &rom science was &aci"itated by the
deve"opment in the ear"y nineteenth century o& a new notion( that phi"osophy6s
core interest shou"d be epistemo"ogy( the genera" e8p"anation o& what it means to
$now something. Bodern phi"osophers now trace that notion bac$ at "east to
Kescartes and pino+a( but it was not e8p"icit"y articu"ated unti" the "ate
eighteenth century( by Sant( and did not become bui"t into the structure o&
academic institutions and the standard se"&-descriptions o& phi"osophy pro&essors
unti" the "ate nineteenth century. ;ithout the idea o& epistemo"ogy( the surviva" o&
phi"osophy in an age o& modern science is hard to imagine. Betaphysics(
phi"osophy6s traditiona" core!considered as the most genera" description o& how
the heavens and the earth are put together!had been rendered a"most
comp"ete"y meaning"ess by the spectacu"ar progress o& physics. Sant( however( by
&ocusing phi"osophy on the prob"em o& $now"edge( managed to rep"ace
metaphysics with epistemo"ogy( and thus to trans&orm the notion o& phi"osophy as
>-ueen o& sciences? into the new notion o& phi"osophy as a separate( &oundationa"
discip"ine. 9hi"osophy became >primary? no "onger in the sense o& >highest? but in
the sense o& >under"ying?. 3&ter Sant( phi"osophers were ab"e to reinterpret
seventeenth-and eighteenth-century thin$ers as attempting to discover >)ow is
our $now"edge possib"eG? and to pro5ect this -uestion bac$ even on the ancients.
1-. &hich of the following best e$presses the author4s main point%
(A) @hilosophy4s o'erriding interest in basic human "uestions is a legacy primarily
of the work of Mant.
(B) @hilosophy was deeply in'ol'ed in the se'enteenth(century warfare between
science and religion.
(C) The set of problems of primary importance to philosophers has remained
relati'ely constant since anti"uity.
() The status of philosophy as an independent intellectual pursuit is a relati'ely
recent de'elopment.
116 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(#) The role of philosophy in guiding intellectual speculation has gradually been
usurped by science.
16. According to the passage/ present(day philosophers belie'e that the mind(body
problem is an issue that
(A) has implications primarily for philosophers
(B) may be affected by recent ad'ances in science
(C) has shaped recent work in epistemology
() has little rele'ance to present(day philosophy
(#) has ser'ed as a basis for intellectual speculation since anti"uity
1,. According to the author/ philosophy became distinct from science and theology
during the
(A) ancient period
(B) medie'al period
(C) se'enteenth century
() nineteenth century
(#) twentieth century
25. The author suggests that escartes4 support for the new science of the se'enteenth
century can be characteri!ed as
(A) pragmatic and hypocritical
(B) cautious and inconsistent
(C) daring and opportunistic
() intense but fleeting
(#) strong but prudent
21. The author of the passage implies which of the following in discussing the
de'elopment of philosophy during the nineteenth century%
(A) 9ineteenth(century philosophy took science as its model for understanding the
bases of knowledge.
(B) The role of academic institutions in shaping metaphysical philosophy grew
enormously during the nineteenth century.
(C) 9ineteenth(century philosophers carried out a program of in'estigation
e$plicitly laid out by escartes and ;pino!a.
() Mant had an o'erwhelming impact on the direction of nineteenth(century
philosophy.
(#) 9ineteenth(century philosophy made ma<or ad'ances in understanding the
nature of knowledge.
22. &ith which of the following statements concerning the writing of history would
the author of the passage be most likely to agree%
GRE 11,
(A) )istory should not emphasi!e the role played by ideas o'er the role played by
indi'iduals.
(B) )istory should not be distorted by attributing present(day consciousness to
historical figures.
(C) )istory should not be focused primarily on those past e'ents most rele'ant to
the present.
() )istory should be concerned with describing those aspects of the past that
differ most from those of the present.
(#) )istory should be e$amined for the lessons it can pro'ide in understanding
current problems.
2.. The primary function of the passage as a whole is to
(A) compare two competing models
(B) analy!e a difficult theory
(C) present new e'idence for a theory
() correct an erroneous belief by describing its origins
(#) resol'e a long(standing theoretical contro'ersy
'io"ogists have "ong maintained that two groups o& pinnipeds( sea "ions and
wa"ruses( are descended &rom a terrestria" bear"i$e anima"( whereas the remaining
group( sea"s( shares an ancestor with wease"s. 'ut the recent discovery o&
detai"ed simi"arities in the s$e"eta" structure o& the Dippers in a"" three groups
undermines the attempt to e8p"ain away super#cia" resemb"ance as due to
convergent evo"ution!the independent deve"opment o& simi"arities between
unre"ated groups in response to simi"ar environmenta" pressures. :"ippers may
indeed be a necessary response to a-uatic "i&e= turt"es( wha"es( and dugongs a"so
have them. 'ut the common detai"ed design &ound among the pinnipeds probab"y
indicates a common ancestor. Boreover( wa"ruses and sea"s drive themse"ves
through the water with thrusts o& their hind Dippers( but sea "ions use their &ront
Dippers. 2& anatomica" simi"arity in the Dippers resu"ted &rom simi"ar environmenta"
pressures( as posited by the convergent evo"ution theory( one wou"d e8pect
wa"ruses and sea"s( but not sea"s and sea "ions( to have simi"ar Dippers.
20. According to the passage/ it has been recently disco'ered that
(A) there are detailed skeletal similarities in the flippers of pinnipeds
(B) sea lions/ seals/ and walruses are all pinnipeds
(C) pinnipeds are descended from animals that once li'ed on land
() animals without common ancestors sometimes e'ol'e in similar ways
(#) animals that ha'e flippers do not all use them in the same way
21. The author implies that which of the following was part of the long(standing 'iew
concerning pinnipeds%
(A) @innipeds are all descended from a terrestrial bearlike animal.
125 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(B) @innipeds share a common ancestor with turtles/ whales/ and dugongs.
(C) ;imilarities among pinnipeds are due to their all ha'ing had to adapt to a"uatic
life.
() There are detailed similarities in the skeletal structure of the flippers in all
pinnipeds.
(#) Con'ergent e'olution cannot account for the similarities among pinnipeds.
22. The author implies which of the following about the fact that turtles/ whales/ and
dugongs all ha'e flippers%
(A) 3t can be e$plained by the hypothesis that turtles/ whales/ and dugongs are
'ery closely related.
(B) 3t can be e$plained by the idea of con'ergent e'olution.
(C) 3t suggests that turtles/ whales/ and dugongs e'ol'ed in separate parts of the
world.
() 3t undermines the 'iew that turtles/ whales/ and dugongs are all descended
from terrestrial ancestors.
(#) 3t is the primary difference between turtles/ whales/ and dugongs/ on the one
hand/ and pinnipeds/ on the other.
2-. 3n presenting the argument in the passage/ the author does which of the following%
(A) Contends that key terms in an opposing 'iew ha'e been improperly used.
(B) Contends that opponents ha'e purposely obscured important e'idence.
(C) ;hows that two theories thought to be in conflict are actually complementary.
() ;hows that ad'ocates of a theory ha'e not always stated their 'iew in the same
manner.
(#) ;hows that an implication of a theory is contradicted by the facts.
1992 02
SECTION A
The more that is discovered about the intricate organi+ation o& the nervous
system( the more it seems remar$ab"e that genes can success&u""y speci&y the
deve"opment o& that system. )uman genes contain too "itt"e in&ormation even to
speci&y which hemisphere o& the brain each o& a human6s 10
11
neurons shou"d
occupy( "et a"one the hundreds o& connections that each neuron ma$es. :or such
reasons( we can assume that there must be an important random &actor in neura"
deve"opment( and in particu"ar( that errors must and do occur in the deve"opment
o& a"" norma" brains.
The most vivid e8pression o& such errors occurs in genetica""y identica"
(isogenic) organisms. @ven when reared under the same conditions( isogenic
GRE 121
organisms are rare"y e8act copies o& one another( and their di1erences have
revea"ed much about the random variations that resu"t &rom an organism6s "imited
supp"y o& genetic in&ormation. 2n isogenic Kaphniae( &or e8amp"e( even though the
position( si+e( and branching pattern o& each optic neuron are remar$ab"y
constant( there is some variabi"ity in connectivity( and the number o& synapses
varies great"y. This variabi"ity is probab"y the resu"t o& random scatter beyond the
reso"ution o& genetic contro" and is best termed >imprecision(? since its converse(
the degree o& c"ustering about a mean( is conventiona""y( ca""ed >precision.?
2mprecision shou"d be distinguished &rom deve"opmenta" mista$esA wrong"y
migrated neurons( incorrect connections( and the "i$e. To use a computer ana"ogy(
minor rounding-o1 errors occur universa""y and are ana"ogous to imprecision( but
occasiona""y a binary digit is incorrect"y transmitted( perhaps ruining a ca"cu"ation(
and this incorrect transmission is ana"ogous to a deve"opmenta" mista$e. Thus(
imprecision is a &orm o& inaccuracy inherent within the "imits o& design( but
mista$es are &orms o& gross &a""ibi"ity.
'oth imprecision and gross &a""ibi"ity can p"ausib"y be b"amed on the
insu*ciency o& genetic in&ormation( since either cou"d be reduced by adding more
in&ormation. 2t is universa""y accepted among in&ormation theorists that codes and
"anguages can be made mista$e-resistant by incorporating redundancy. )owever(
since the amount o& space avai"ab"e in any in&ormation system is "imited(
increased redundancy resu"ts in decreased precision. :or e8amp"e( ] when written
incorrect"y in @ng"ish( >three point oen &our two( >can be understood correct"y
even though a typographica" error has occurred. Bore precision cou"d be gained(
however( i& those 4M spaces were #""ed with 3rabic numera"s= then ] cou"d be
e8pressed to 47 signi#cant digits( a"though any error wou"d signi#cant"y change
the meaning. There e8ists a trade-o1( the more precise"y a system is speci#ed(
using a given "imited amount o& in&ormation( the greater the danger o& gross
mista$es. The overa"" scheme by which genetic in&ormation is rationed out in
organisms( there&ore( must invo"ve a compromise between two conDicting
prioritiesA precision and the avoidance o& gross mista$es.
1-. &hich of the following best e$presses the main idea of the passage%
(A) Although studies of isogenic organisms ha'e shown that all organisms are
sub<ect to de'elopmental 'ariations/ there is still scientific debate o'er the
e$act causes of these 'ariations.
(B) Because of limitations on the amount of information contained in the genes of
organisms/ de'eloping ner'ous systems are sub<ect to two basic kinds of error/
the likelihood of one of which is reduced only when the likelihood of the other
is increased.
(C) The comple$ity of an organism4s genetic information means that much of the
unusual 'ariation that occurs among organisms can best be e$plained as the
result of de'elopmental mistakes.
() 9ew findings about the nature of the genetic control of neural de'elopment
122 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
support the work of some scientists who argue that the computer is an
e$tremely useful model for understanding the ner'ous system.
(#) The ma<or disco'ery made by scientists studying the genetic control of neural
de'elopment is that both imprecision and gross de'elopmental error can be
traced to specific types of mutations in specific genes.
16. According to the passage/ one of the reasons it has been assumed that there is an
important random element in human neural de'elopment is that
(A) genes cannot specify certain types of de'elopmental processes as well as they
can others
(B) the intricacy of the ner'ous system allows small de'elopmental errors to occur
without harmful effects
(C) the amount of information contained in the genes is less than the amount
necessary to specify the location of the neurons
() the number of neurons in the human brain 'aries greatly from indi'idual to
indi'idual
(#) it is theoretically impossible for an organism to protect itself completely from
gross de'elopmental mistakes
1,. The author suggests which of the following about the findings of information
theorists%
(A) Their findings pro'ocati'ely challenge the standard e$planation of redundancy
in genes.
(B) Their findings pro'ide useful insights into understanding the rationing of
genetic information.
(C) Their findings help to e$plain why imprecision can occur in neural
de'elopment but not why gross mistakes can occur.
() Their findings suggest that genes may be able to specify neural de'elopment
more accurately than had pre'iously been thought.
(#) Their findings support the work of those who use computer operations as
models for understanding genetic control.
25. According to the passage/ of the following aspects of the optic neurons of isogenic
aphniae/ which 'aries the most%
(A) ;i!e
(B) Connecti'ity
(C) @osition
() Branching pattern
(#) 9umber of synapses
21. &hich of the following best describes the organi!ation of the first paragraph%
(A) A specific case is presented/ its details are analy!ed/ and a conclusion is drawn
GRE 12.
from it.
(B) A disco'ery is announced/ its most significant application is discussed/ and
possibilities for the future are suggested.
(C) A generali!ation is made/ specific situations in which it is applicable are noted/
and problems with it are suggested.
() An obser'ation is made/ specifics are pro'ided to support it/ and a
generali!ation is deri'ed.
(#) A hypothesis is presented/ its implications are clarified/ and applications of it
are discussed.
22. The author uses all of the following to clarify the distinction between imprecision
and gross mistake in neural de'elopment #DC#@T
(A) classification of borderline phenomena
(B) a description of the relationship between the phenomena denoted by each term
(C) specific e$amples of the phenomena denoted by each term
() an e$planation of at least one of the key terms in'ol'ed
(#) analogies to other types of phenomena
2.. &hich of the following can be inferred from the passage about the genetic
information of aphniae%
3. There is probably some degree of redundancy in the information controlling
neural de'elopment.
33. ?ost of the information for neural de'elopment stored in the genes is used to
specify the positions of the optic neurons.
333. There is sufficient information to preclude the occurrence of gross mistakes
during neural de'elopment.
(A) 3 only
(B) 33 only
(C) 333 only
() 3 and 33 only
(#) 33 and 333 only
2n a recent study( Kavid %ressy e8amines two centra" -uestions concerning
@ng"ish immigration to ,ew @ng"and in the 1L706sA what $inds o& peop"e
immigrated and whyG Using contemporary "iterary evidence( shipping "ists( and
customs records( %ressy #nds that most adu"t immigrants were s$i""ed in &arming
or cra&ts( were "iterate( and were organi+ed in &ami"ies. @ach o& these
characteristics sharp"y distinguishes the 41(000 peop"e who "e&t &or ,ew @ng"and
in the 1L706s &rom most o& the appro8imate"y 777(000 @ng"ish peop"e who had
immigrating to 3merica by 1700.
;ith respect to their reasons &or immigrating( %ressy does not deny the
&re-uent"y noted &act that some o& the immigrants o& the 1L706s( most notab"y the
120 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
organi+ers and c"ergy( advanced re"igious e8p"anations &or departure( but he #nds
that such e8p"anations usua""y assumed primacy on"y in retrospect. ;hen he
moves beyond the principa" actors( he #nds that re"igious e8p"anations were "ess
&re-uent"y o1ered and he conc"udes that most peop"e immigrated because they
were recruited by promises o& materia" improvement.
20. 3n the passage/ the author is primarily concerned with
(A) summari!ing the findings of an in'estigation
(B) analy!ing a method of argument
(C) e'aluating a point of 'iew
() hypothesi!ing about a set of circumstances
(#) establishing categories
21. According to the passage/ Cressy would agree with which of the following
statements about the organi!ers among the #nglish immigrants to 9ew #ngland in
the 12.54s%
3. ?ost of them were clergy.
33. ;ome of them offered a religious e$planation for their immigration.
333. They did not offer any reasons for their immigration until some time after they
had immigrated.
3C. They were more likely than the a'erage immigrant to be moti'ated by material
considerations.
(A) 3 only
(B) 33 only
(C) 33 and 333 only
() 3/ 333/ and 3C only
(#) 33/ 333/ and 3C only
22. According to the passage/ Cressy has made which of the following claims about
what moti'ated #nglish immigrants to go to 9ew #ngland in the 12.54s%
(A) They were moti'ated by religious considerations alone.
(B) They were moti'ated by economic considerations alone.
(C) They were moti'ated by religious and economic considerations e"ually.
() They were moti'ated more often by economic than by religious
considerations.
(#) They were moti'ated more often by religious than by economic considerations.
2-. The passage suggests that the ma<ority of those #nglish people who had
immigrated to America by the late se'enteenth century were
(A) clergy
(B) young children
GRE 121
(C) organi!ed in families
() skilled in crafts
(#) illiterate
SECTION B
2s the "iterary critic "i$e the poet( responding creative"y( intuitive"y( sub5ective"y
to the written word as the poet responds to human e8perienceG <r is the critic
more "i$e a scientist( &o""owing a series o& demonstrab"e( veri#ab"e steps( using an
ob5ective method o& ana"ysisG
:or the woman who is a practitioner o& &eminist "iterary criticism( the
sub5ectivity versus ob5ectivity( or critic-as-artist-or-scientist( debate has specia"
signi#cance= &or her( the -uestion is not on"y academic( but po"itica" as we""( and
her de#nition wi"" court specia" ris$s whichever side o& the issue it &avors. 2& she
de#nes &eminist criticism as ob5ective and scienti#c!a va"id( veri#ab"e(
inte""ectua" method that anyone( whether man or woman( can per&ormthe
de#nition not on"y prec"udes the critic-as-artist approach( but may a"so impede
accomp"ishment o& the uti"itarian po"itica" ob5ectives o& those who see$ to change
the academic estab"ishment and its thin$ing( especia""y about se8 ro"es. 2& she
de#nes &eminist criticism as creative and intuitive( privi"eged as art( then her wor$
becomes vu"nerab"e to the pre5udices o& stereotypic ideas about the ways in which
women thin$( and wi"" be dismissed by much o& the academic estab"ishment.
'ecause o& these pre5udices( women who use an intuitive approach in their
criticism may #nd themse"ves charged with inabi"ity to be ana"ytica"( to be
ob5ective( or to thin$ critica""y. ;hereas men may be &ree to c"aim the ro"e o&
critic-as-artist( women run di1erent pro&essiona" ris$s when they choose intuition
and private e8perience as critica" method and de&ense.
These -uestions are po"itica" in the sense that the debate over them wi""
inevitab"y be "ess an e8p"oration o& abstract matters in a spirit o& disinterested
in-uiry than an academic power strugg"e in which the careers and pro&essiona"
&ortunes o& many women scho"ars!on"y now entering the academic pro&ession in
substantia" numbers!wi"" be at sta$e( and with them the chances &or a distinctive
contribution to humanistic understanding( a contribution that might be an
important inDuence against se8ism in our society.
3s "ong as the academic estab"ishment continues to regard ob5ective ana"ysis
as >mascu"ine? and an intuitive approach as >&eminine(? the theoretician must
steer a de"icate phi"osophica" course between the two. 2& she wishes to construct a
theory o& &eminist criticism( she wou"d be we"" advised to p"ace it within the
&ramewor$ o& a genera" theory o& the critica" process that is neither pure"y
ob5ective nor pure"y intuitive. )er theory is then more "i$e"y to be compared and
contrasted with other theories o& criticism with some degree o& dispassionate
distance.
122 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
1-. &hich of the following titles best summari!es the content of the passage%
(A) )ow Theories of Kiterary Criticism Can Best Be :sed
(B) @roblems Confronting &omen &ho Are >eminist Kiterary Critics
(C) A )istorical o'er'iew of >eminist literary Criticism
() A 9ew Theory of Kiterary Criticism
(#) Kiterary CriticismE Art or ;cience%
16. 3t can be inferred that the author belie'es which of the following about women
who are literary critics%
3. They can make a uni"ue contribution to society.
33. They must de'elop a new theory of the critical process.
333. Their criticisms of literature should be entirely ob<ecti'e.
(A) 3 only
(B) 33 only
(C) 3 and 333 only
() 33 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
1,. The author specifically mentions all of the following as difficulties that
particularly affect women who are theoreticians of feminist literary criticism
#DC#@T the
(A) tendency of a predominantly male academic establishment to form
preconceptions about women
(B) limitations that are imposed when criticism is defined as ob<ecti'e and
scientific
(C) likelihood that the work of a woman theoretician who claims the pri'ilege of
art will be 'iewed with pre<udice by some academics
() inescapability of power struggles between women in the academic profession
and the academic establishment
(#) tendency of members of the academic establishment to treat all forms of
feminist literary theory with hostility
25. According to the author/ the debate mentioned in the passage has special
significance for the woman who is a theoretician of feminist literary criticism for
which of the following reasons%
(A) There are large numbers of capable women working within the academic
establishment.
(B) There are a few powerful feminist critics who ha'e been recogni!ed by the
academic establishment.
(C) Kike other critics/ most women who are literary critics define criticism as
either scientific or artistic.
GRE 12-
() &omen who are literary critics face professional risks different from those
faced by men who are literary critics.
(#) &omen who are literary critics are more likely to participate in the debate than
are men who are literary critics.
21. &hich of the following is presented by the author in support of the suggestion that
there is stereotypic thinking among members of the academic establishment%
(A) A distincti'ely feminist contribution to humanistic understanding could work
against the influence of se$ism among members of the academic
establishment.
(B) &omen who define criticism as artistic may be seen by the academic
establishment as being incapable of critical thinking.
(C) The debate o'er the role of the literary critic is often seen as a political one.
() &omen scholars are only now entering academia in substantial numbers.
(#) The woman who is a critic is forced to construct a theory of literary criticism.
22. &hich of the following is most likely to be one of the *utilitarian political
ob<ecti'es+ mentioned by the author in line 12%
(A) To forge a new theory of literary criticism
(B) To pursue truth in a disinterested manner
(C) To demonstrate that women are interested in literary criticism that can be
'iewed either sub<ecti'ely or ob<ecti'ely
() To con'ince the academic establishment to re'ise the ways in which it assesses
women scholars4 professional "ualities
(#) To dissuade women who are literary critics from taking a sub<ecti'e approach
to literary criticism
2.. 3t can be inferred that the author would define as *political+ (line .5) "uestions
that
(A) are contested largely through contentions o'er power
(B) are primarily academic in nature and open to abstract analysis
(C) are not in themsel'es important
() cannot be resol'ed without e$tensi'e debate
(#) will be debated by both men and women
YThis passage was e8cerpted &rom an artic"e pub"ished in 1979.Z
Tuantum mechanics is a high"y success&u" theoryA it supp"ies methods &or
accurate"y ca"cu"ating the resu"ts o& diverse e8periments( especia""y with minute
partic"es. The predictions o& -uantum mechanics( however( give on"y the
probabi"ity o& an event( not a deterministic statement o& whether or not the event
wi"" occur. 'ecause o& this probabi"ism( @instein remained strong"y dissatis#ed with
the theory throughout his "i&e( though he did not maintain that -uantum
126 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
mechanics is wrong. Rather( he he"d that it is incomp"eteA in -uantum mechanics
the motion o& a partic"e must be described in terms o& probabi"ities( he argued(
on"y because some parameters that determine the motion have not been
speci#ed. 2& these hypothetica" >hidden parameters? were $nown( a &u""y
deterministic tra5ectory cou"d be de#ned. igni#cant"y( this hidden-parameter
-uantum theory "eads to e8perimenta" predictions di1erent &rom those o&
traditiona" -uantum mechanics. @instein6s ideas have been tested by e8periments
per&ormed since his death( and as most o& these e8periments support traditiona"
-uantum mechanics( @instein6s approach is a"most certain"y erroneous.
20. The author regards the idea that traditional "uantum mechanics is incomplete with
(A) appro'al
(B) surprise
(C) indifference
() apprehension
(#) skepticism
21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author4s conclusion that #instein4s
approach is *erroneous+ (line 22) might ha'e to be modified because
(A) it is theoretically possible to generate plausible theories with hidden
parameters within them
(B) some e$perimental tests of #instein4s theory do not disconfirm the hidden(
parameter theory of "uantum mechanics
(C) it is possible for a theory to ha'e hidden parameters and yet be probabilistic
() traditional "uantum mechanics has not yet been used to analy!e all of the
phenomena to which it could be applied
(#) there are too many possible hidden parameters to de'elop meaningful tests of
hidden(parameter theories
22. According to the passage/ #instein posed ob<ections to the
(A) e$istence of hidden parameters in "uantum theory
(B) probabilistic nature of "uantum mechanics
(C) idea that "uantum mechanics is incomplete
() results of e$periments testing "uantum theory
(#) importance accorded "uantum mechanics in physics
2-. The passage suggests that which of the following would ha'e resulted if the
e$periments mentioned in lines 16(25 had not supported the predictions of
traditional "uantum mechanics%
(A) #instein/ had he been ali'e/ would ha'e re'ised his approach to "uantum
mechanics.
(B) )idden(parameter theories would ha'e been considered inaccurate descriptions
GRE 12,
of real(world phenomena.
(C) A deterministic description of the motion of a particle might still be considered
possible.
() Nuantum mechanics would ha'e ceased to attract the attention of physicists.
(#) #instein/ had he been ali'e/ would ha'e abandoned attempts to specify the
hidden parameters that describe motion.
1992 04
SECTION A
The 19L06s witnessed two pro&ound socia" movementsA the civi" rights
movement and the movement protesting the war in Fietnam. 3"though they
over"apped in time( they were "arge"y distinct. :or a brie& moment in 19L7(
however( it appeared that the two movements might unite under the "eadership o&
Bartin Juther Sing( Cr.
Sing6s ro"e in the antiwar movement appears to re-uire "itt"e e8p"anation( since
he was the &oremost advocate o& nonvio"ence o& his time. 'ut Sing6s stance on the
Fietnam ;ar cannot be e8p"ained in terms o& paci#sm a"one. 3&ter a""( he was
something o& a "atecomer to the antiwar movement( even though by 19L/ he was
convinced that the ro"e o& the United tates in the war was inde&ensib"e. ;hy then
the two years that passed be&ore he trans"ated his private misgivings into pub"ic
dissentG 9erhaps he be"ieved that he cou"d not critici+e 3merican &oreign po"icy
without endangering the support &or civi" rights that he had won &rom the &edera"
government.
1-. According to the passage/ the delay referred to in lines 12(11 is perhaps
attributable to which of the following%
(A) Ming4s ambi'alence concerning the role of the :nited ;tates in the war in
Cietnam
(B) Ming4s attempts to consolidate support for his leadership within the ci'il rights
mo'ement
(C) Ming4s desire to keep the leadership of the ci'il rights mo'ement distinct from
that of the antiwar mo'ement
() Ming4s desire to draw support for the ci'il rights mo'ement from the
leadership of the antiwar mo'ement
(#) Ming4s reluctance to <eopardi!e federal support for the ci'il rights mo'ement
16. The author supports the claim that *Ming4s stance on the Cietnam &ar cannot be
e$plained in terms of pacifism alone+ (lines 15(12) by implying which of the
following%
(A) There is little e'idence that Ming was e'er a student of pacifist doctrine.
1-5 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(B) Ming/ despite pacifist sympathies/ was not con'inced that the policy of the
federal go'ernment in Cietnam was wrong.
(C) Ming4s belief in non'iolence was formulated in terms of domestic policy rather
than in terms of international issues.
() )ad Ming4s actions been based on pacifism alone/ he would ha'e <oined the
antiwar mo'ement earlier than he actually did.
(#) 8pponents of :nited ;tates foreign policy within the federal go'ernment
con'inced Ming of their need for support.
1,. &hich of the following can be inferred from the passage about the mo'ement
opposing the war in Cietnam%
(A) 3t preceded the ci'il rights mo'ement.
(B) 3t began in 1,21.
(C) 3t was supported by many who otherwise opposed public dissent.
() 3t drew support from most ci'il rights leaders.
(#) 3t was well underway by 1,2-.
25. &hich of the following best describes the passage%
(A) 3t discusses an apparent inconsistency and suggests a reason for it.
(B) 3t outlines a se"uence of historical e'ents.
(C) 3t shows why a commonly held 'iew is inaccurate.
() 3t e'aluates an e$planation and finally accepts that e$planation.
(#) 3t contrasts two 'iews of an issue.
;hat causes a he"i8 in nature to appear with either a de8tra" (>right-handed(?
or c"oc$wise) twist or a sinistra" (>"e&t-handed(? or counterc"oc$wise) twist is one o&
the most intriguing pu++"es in the science o& &orm. Bost spira"-shaped snai"
species are predominant"y de8tra". 'ut at one time( handedness (twist direction o&
the she"") was e-ua""y distributed within some snai" species that have become
predominant"y de8tra" or( in a &ew species( predominant"y sinistra". ;hat
mechanisms( contro" handedness and $eep "e&t-handedness rareG
2t wou"d seem un"i$e"y that evo"ution shou"d discriminate against sinistra" snai"s
i& sinistra" and de8tra" snai"s are e8act mirror images( &or any disadvantage that a
sinistra" twist in itse"& cou"d con&er on its possessor is a"most inconceivab"e. 'ut
"e&t- and right-handed snai"s are not actua""y true mirror images o& one another.
Their shapes are noticeab"y di1erent. inistra" rarity might( then( be a
conse-uence o& possib"e disadvantages con&erred by these other concomitant
structura" &eatures. 2n addition( perhaps "e&t- and right-handed snai"s cannot mate
with each other( having incompatib"e twist directions. 9resumab"y an individua" o&
the rarer &orm wou"d have re"ative di*cu"ty in #nding a mate o& the same hand(
thus $eeping the rare &orm rare or creating geographica""y separated right-and
"e&t-handed popu"ations.
GRE 1-1
'ut this evo"utionary mechanism combining dissymmetry( anatomy( and
chance does not provide an ade-uate e8p"anation o& why right-handedness shou"d
have become predominant. 2t does not e8p"ain( &or e8amp"e( why the in&re-uent
unions between snai"s o& opposing hands produce &ewer o1spring o& the rarer than
the commoner &orm in species where each parent contributes e-ua""y to
handedness. ,or does it e8p"ain why( in a species where one parent determines
handedness( a brood is not e8c"usive"y right- or "e&t-handed when the o1spring
wou"d have the same genetic predisposition. 2n the @uropean pond snai" 'ymnaea
#eregra( a predominant"y de8tra" species whose handedness is materna""y
determined( a brood might be e8pected to be e8c"usive"y right or "e&t-handed!
and this o&ten occurs. )owever( some broods possess a &ew snai"s o& the opposing
hand( and in predominant"y sinistra" broods( the incidence o& de8tra"ity is
surprising"y high.
)ere( the evo"utionary theory must de&er to a theory based on an e8p"icit
deve"opmenta" mechanism that can &avor either right or "e&t-handedness. 2n the
case o& 'ymnaea #eregra( studies indicate that a de8tra" gene is e8pressed during
egg &ormation= i.e.( be&ore egg &erti"i+ation( the gene produces a protein( &ound in
the cytop"asm o& the egg( that contro"s the pattern o& ce"" division and thus
handedness. 2n e8periments( an in5ection o& cytop"asm &rom de8tra" eggs changes
the pattern o& sinistra" eggs( but an in5ection &rom sinistra" eggs does not inDuence
de8tra" eggs. <ne e8p"anation &or the di1ering e1ects is that a"" 'ymnaea #eregra
eggs begin "e&t-handed but most switch to being right-handed. Thus( the path to a
so"ution to the pu++"e o& handedness in a"" snai"s appears to be as twisted as the
he"i8 itse"&.
21. &hich of the following would ser'e as an e$ample of *concomitant structural
features+ (line 1,) that might disad'antage a snail of the rarer form%
(A) A shell and body that are an e$act mirror image of a snail of the commoner
form
(B) A smaller population of the snails of the rarer form
(C) A chip or fracture in the shell caused by an ob<ect falling on it
() A pattern on the shell that better camouflages it
(#) A smaller shell opening that restricts mobility and ingestion relati'e to that of a
snail of the commoner form
22. The second paragraph of the passage is primarily concerned with offering possible
reasons why
(A) it is unlikely that e'olutionary mechanisms could discriminate against sinistral
snails
(B) sinistrality is relati'ely uncommon among snail species
(C) de$tral and sinistral populations of a snail species tend to intermingle
() a theory based on a de'elopmental mechanism inade"uately accounts for the
1-2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
predominance of de$trality across snail species
(#) de$tral snails breed more readily than sinistral snails/ e'en within
predominantly sinistral populations
2.. 3n describing the *e'olutionary mechanism+ (line 2-)/ the author mentions which
of the following%
(A) The fa'orable conditions for nurturing new offspring
(B) The 'ariable en'ironmental conditions that affect sur'i'al of adult snails
(C) The a'ailability of potential mates for breeding
() The structural identity of offspring to parents of the same hand
(#) The fre"uency of unions between snails of different species
20. According to the passage/ which of the following is true of y-naea peregra%
(A) )andedness within the species was at one time e"ually distributed between left
and right.
(B) :nder laboratory conditions/ de$tral eggs from y-naea peregra can be
artificially induced to de'elop into sinistral snails.
(C) Broods of y-naea peregra are/ without 'ariation/ e$clusi'ely sinistral or
de$tral.
() )andedness in y-naea peregra offspring is determined by only one of the
parents.
(#) Beographic factors ha'e played a larger role than has genetics in the e'olution
of the species.
21. The passage implies that in y-naea peregra/ there will generally be
(A) more offspring of the nondominant hand in broods where handedness is
determined after/ rather than before/ fertili!ation
(B) a sinistral gene that produces a protein in the cytoplasm of the egg cell
(C) fewer sinistral offspring in de$tral broods than de$tral offspring in sinistral
broods
() e"ual numbers of e$clusi'ely left(and right(handed broods
(#) an increasing occurrence of left(handedness in successi'e broods
22. 3t can be inferred from the passage that a predominantly sinistral snail species
might stay predominantly sinistral for each of the following reasons #DC#@T for
(A) a de'elopmental mechanism that affects the cell(di'ision pattern of snails
(B) structural features that ad'antage de$tral snails of the species
(C) a relati'ely small number of snails of the same hand for de$tral snails of the
species to mate with
() anatomical incompatibility that pre'ents mating between snails of opposing
hands within the species
GRE 1-.
(#) geographic separation of sinistral and de$tral populations
2-. &hich of the following accurately describes the relationship between the
e'olutionary and de'elopmental theories discussed in the passage%
(A) Although the two theories reach the same conclusion/ each is based on
different assumptions.
(B) They present contradictory e$planations of the same phenomenon.
(C) The second theory accounts for certain phenomena that the first cannot
e$plain.
() The second theory demonstrates why the first is 'alid only for 'ery unusual/
special cases.
(#) They are identical and interchangeable in that the second theory merely
restates the first in less technical terms.
SECTION B
Recent"y some scientists have conc"uded that meteorites &ound on @arth and
"ong be"ieved to have a Bartian origin might actua""y have been b"asted &ree o&
Bars6s gravity by the impact on Bars o& other meteorites. This conc"usion has "ed
to another -uestionA whether meteorite impacts on @arth have simi"ar"y driven
roc$s &rom this p"anet to Bars.
3ccording to astronomer . 3. 9hinney( $ic$ing a roc$ hard enough to &ree it
&rom @arth6s gravity wou"d re-uire a meteorite capab"e o& ma$ing a crater more
than L0 mi"es across. Boreover( even i& @arth roc$s were &reed by meteorite
impact( Bars6s orbit is much "arger than @arth6s( so 9hinney estimates that the
probabi"ity o& these roc$s hitting Bars is about one-tenth as great as that o& Bars6s
roc$s hitting @arth. To demonstrate this estimate( 9hinney used a computer to
ca"cu"ate where 1(000 hypothetica" partic"es wou"d go i& e5ected &rom @arth in
random directions. )e &ound that 17 o& the 1(000 partic"es wou"d hit Bars.
1-. The passage is primarily concerned with
(A) presenting an argument to support a particular hypothesis
(B) suggesting an answer to a theoretical "uestion
(C) "uestioning the assumptions of a research pro<ect
() critici!ing e$perimental results
(#) e$plaining the origin of certain scientific data
16. According to the passage/ which of the following e'ents may ha'e initiated the
process that led to the presence on #arth of meteorites from ?ars%
(A) A meteorite struck the #arth with tremendous 'elocity.
(B) A meteorite collided with ?ars.
(C) Appro$imately 1/555 rocks were e<ected from ?ars.
1-0 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
() The orbits of #arth and ?ars brought the planets to their closest points.
(#) =ocks from a meteorite impact broke free of #arth4s gra'ity.
1,. The passage suggests that which of the following is true concerning the probability
that a rock/ if e<ected from ?ars/ will hit the #arth%
(A) The probability is increased when particles are e<ected from ?ars in random
directions.
(B) The probability is increased by the presence of large craters on the surface of
?ars.
(C) The probability is decreased when ?ars4s orbit brings the planet close to #arth.
() The probability is greater than the probability that a rock from #arth will hit
?ars.
(#) The probability is less than the probability that a rock from #arth will escape
#arth4s gra'ity.
25. &hich of the following/ if true/ would cast most doubt on @hinney4s estimate of
the probability of #arth rocks hitting ?ars%
(A) =ather than going in random directions/ about 21 percent of all particles
e<ected from #arth go in the same direction into space.
(B) Appro$imately 155 meteorites large enough to make a noticeable crater hit the
#arth each year.
(C) 9o rocks of #arth origin ha'e been detected on ?ars.
() The 'elocity of rocks escaping from #arth4s gra'ity is lower than the 'elocity
of meteorites hitting the #arth.
(#) 9o craters more than 25 miles across ha'e been found on ?ars.
3 >scientistic? view o& "anguage was dominant among phi"osophers and
"inguists who a1ected to deve"op a scienti#c ana"ysis o& human thought and
behavior in the ear"y part o& this century. Under the &orce o& this view( it was
perhaps inevitab"e that the art o& rhetoric shou"d pass &rom the status o& being
regarded as o& -uestionab"e worth (because a"though it might be both a source o&
p"easure and a means to urge peop"e to right action( it might a"so be a means to
distort truth and a source o& misguided action) to the status o& being who""y
condemned. 2& peop"e are regarded on"y as machines guided by "ogic( as they
were by these >scientistic? thin$ers( rhetoric is "i$e"y to be he"d in "ow regard= &or
the most obvious truth about rhetoric is that it spea$s to the who"e person. 2t
presents its arguments #rst to the person as a rationa" being( because persuasive
discourse( i& honest"y conceived( a"ways has a basis in reasoning. Jogica"
argument is the p"ot( as it were( o& any speech or essay that is respect&u""y
intended to persuade peop"e. Iet it is a characteri+ing &eature o& rhetoric that it
goes beyond this and appea"s to the parts o& our nature that are invo"ved in
&ee"ing( desiring( acting( and su1ering. 2t reca""s re"evant instances o& the
emotiona" reactions o& peop"e to circumstances!rea" or #ctiona"!that are simi"ar
GRE 1-1
to our own circumstances. uch is the purpose o& both historica" accounts and
&ab"es in persuasive discourseA they indicate "itera""y or symbo"ica""y how peop"e
may react emotiona""y( with hope or &ear( to particu"ar circumstances. 3 speech
attempting to persuade peop"e can achieve "itt"e un"ess it ta$es into account the
aspect o& their being re"ated to such hopes and &ears.
Rhetoric( then( is addressed to human beings "iving at particu"ar times and in
particu"ar p"aces. :rom the point o& view o& rhetoric( we are not mere"y "ogica"
thin$ing machines( creatures abstracted &rom time and space. The study o&
rhetoric shou"d there&ore be considered the most humanistic o& the humanities(
since rhetoric is not directed on"y to our rationa" se"ves. 2t ta$es into account what
the >scientistic? view "eaves out. 2& it is a wea$ness to harbor &ee"ings( then
rhetoric may be thought o& as dea"ing in wea$ness. 'ut those who re5ect the idea
o& rhetoric because they be"ieve it dea"s in "ies and who at the same time hope to
move peop"e to action( must either be "iars themse"ves or be very naive= pure
"ogic has never been a motivating &orce un"ess it has been subordinated to human
purposes( &ee"ings( and desires( and thereby ceased to be pure "ogic.
21. According to the passage/ to re<ect rhetoric and still hope to persuade people is
(A) an aim of most speakers and writers
(B) an indication either of dishonesty or of credulity
(C) a way of displaying distrust of the audience4s moti'es
() a characteristic of most humanistic discourse
(#) a way of a'oiding e$cessi'ely abstract reasoning
22. 3t can be inferred from the passage that in the late nineteenth century rhetoric was
regarded as
(A) the only necessary element of persuasi'e discourse
(B) a dubious art in at least two ways
(C) an outmoded and tedious amplification of logic
() an open offense to the rational mind
(#) the most important of the humanistic studies
2.. The passage suggests that the disparagement of rhetoric by some people can be
traced to their
(A) reaction against science
(B) lack of training in logic
(C) desire to persuade people as completely as possible
() misunderstanding of the use of the term *scientistic+
(#) 'iew of human moti'ation
20. The passage suggests that a speech that attempts to persuade people to act is likely
to fail if it does 98T
1-2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(A) distort the truth a little to make it more acceptable to the audience
(B) appeal to the self(interest as well as the humanitarianism of the audience
(C) address listeners4 emotions as well as their intellects
() concede the logic of other points of 'iew
(#) show how an immediately desirable action is consistent with timeless
principles
21. The passage suggests that to consider people as *thinking machines+ (line .-) is to
consider them as
(A) beings separated from a historical conte$t
(B) replaceable parts of a larger social machine
(C) more comple$ than other animals
() liars rather than honest people
(#) infallible in their reasoning
22. &hich of the following persuasi'e de'ices is 98T used in the passage%
(A) A sample of an actual speech deli'ered by an orator
(B) The contrast of different points of 'iew
(C) The repetition of key ideas and e$pressions
() An analogy that seeks to e$plain logical argument
(#) #'aluati'e or <udgmental words
2-. &hich of the following best states the author4s main point about logical argument%
(A) 3t is a sterile/ abstract discipline/ of little use in real life.
(B) 3t is an essential element of persuasi'e discourse/ but only one such element.
(C) 3t is an important means of persuading people to act against their desires.
() 3t is the lowest order of discourse because it is the least imaginati'e.
(#) 3t is essential to persuasi'e discourse because it deals with uni'ersal truths.
1992 10
SECTION A
)an$ Borgan( the hero o& Bar$ Twain6s " Connecticut ;ankee in 0ing "rthurs
Court& is a nineteenth-century master mechanic who mysterious"y awa$ening in
si8th-century 'ritain( "aunches what he hopes wi"" be a peace&u" revo"ution to
trans&orm 3rthurian 'ritain into an industria"i+ed modern democracy. The nove"(
written as a spoo& o& Thomas Ba"ory6s (orte d "rthur( a popu"ar co""ection o&
#&teenth-century "egends about si8th-century 'ritain( has been made into three
upbeat movies and two musica" comedies. ,one o& these trans"ations to screen
and stage( however( dramati+e the anarchy at the conc"usion o& " Connecticut
GRE 1--
;ankee( which ends with the vio"ent overthrow o& Borgan6s three-year-o"d
progressive order and his return to the nineteenth century( where he apparent"y
commits suicide a&ter being "abe"ed a "unatic &or his incoherent babb"ings about
drawbridges and batt"ements. The 3merican pub"ic( a"though en5oying Twain6s
humor( evident"y re5ected his cynicism about techno"ogica" advancement and
change through peace&u" revo"ution as antithetica" to the United tates doctrine o&
progress.
1-. According to the passage/ which of the following is a true statement about the
reception of A Connecticut 3ankee in 4ing Arthurs Court by the American public%
(A) The public had too strong a belief in the doctrine of progress to accept the
cynicism demonstrated at the conclusion of Twain4s no'el.
(B) Twain4s no'el recei'ed little public recognition until the work was adapted for
motion pictures and plays.
(C) Although the public en<oyed Twain4s humor/ his use of both si$th(century and
nineteenth(century characters confused many people.
() The public has continued to en<oy Twain4s story/ but the last part of the no'el
seems too 'iolent to American minds.
(#) Because of the cynicism at the end of the book/ the public re<ected Twain4s
work in fa'or of the work of Thomas ?alory.
16. The author uses the e$amples of *three upbeat mo'ies and two musical comedies+
(lines ,(15) primarily in order to demonstrate that
(A) well(written no'els like A Connecticut 3ankee in 4ing Arthurs Court/
regardless of their tone or theme/ can be translated to the stage and screen
(B) the American public has traditionally been more interested in watching plays
and mo'ies than in reading no'els like A Connecticut 3ankee in 4ing Arthurs
Court
(C) Twain4s o'erall message in A Connecticut 3ankee in 4ing Arthurs Court is one
that had a profound impact on the American public
() Twain4s A Connecticut 3ankee in 4ing Arthurs Court has been a more popular
'ersion of the Arthurian legends than has ?alory4s *orte d Arthur
(#) A Connecticut 3ankee in 4ing Arthurs Court has been accepted as an
en<oyable and humorous tale in 'ersions that ha'e omitted the anarchy at the
no'el4s conclusion
1,. The author of the passage characteri!es Thomas ?alory4s *orte d Arthur as
which of the following%
(A) The best(known and most authoritati'e collection of Arthurian tales written in
the #nglish language
(B) A collection of legends that ha'e been used as the basis for three mo'ies and
two musical comedies
1-6 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(C) A historical account of Ming Arthur/ the si$th(century king of Britain
() A collection of legends about si$th(century Britain that ha'e e$isted since at
least the fifteenth century
(#) The no'el about the life of Ming Arthur that inspired Twain4s cynicism about
nineteenth(century notions of progress
25. 3t can be inferred from the passage that ?ark Twain would most probably ha'e
belie'ed in which of the following statements about societal change%
(A) =e'olutions/ in order to be successful in changing society/ ha'e to be carried
out without 'iolence.
(B) Technological ad'ancements are limited in their ability to change society and
will likely bring liabilities along with any potential benefits.
(C) The belief in the unmitigated benefits of societal change is antithetical to the
American doctrine of progress.
() The political system of si$th(century Britain was more conduci'e to societal
change than was the political system of nineteenth(century America.
(#) Technological ad'ances and peaceful re'olutions/ although sometimes
accompanied by unintended 'iolence and resistance to societal change/
e'entually lead to a more progressi'e order.
The intensive wor$ o& materia"s scientists and so"id-state physicists has given
rise to a c"ass o& so"ids $nown as amorphous meta""ic a""oys( or g"assy meta"s.
There is a growing interest among theoretica" and app"ied researchers a"i$e in the
structura" properties o& these materia"s.
;hen a mo"ten meta" or meta""ic a""oy is coo"ed to a so"id( a crysta""ine
structure is &ormed that depends on the particu"ar a""oy composition. 2n contrast(
mo"ten nonmeta""ic g"ass-&orming materia"s( when coo"ed( do not assume a
crysta""ine structure( but instead retain a structure somewhat "i$e that o& the "i-uid
an amorphous structure. 3t room temperature( the natura" "ong-term tendency
&or both types o& materia"s is to assume the crysta""ine structure. The di1erence
between the two is in the $inetics or rate o& &ormation o& the crysta""ine structure(
which is contro""ed by &actors such as the nature o& the chemica" bonding and the
ease with which atoms move re"ative to each other. Thus( in meta"s( the $inetics
&avors rapid &ormation o& a crysta""ine structure( whereas in nonmeta""ic g"asses
the rate o& &ormation is so s"ow that a"most any coo"ing rate is su*cient to resu"t
in an amorphous structure. :or g"assy meta"s to be &ormed( the mo"ten meta"
must be coo"ed e8treme"y rapid"y so that crysta""i+ation is suppressed.
The structure o& g"assy meta"s is thought to be simi"ar to that o& "i-uid meta"s.
<ne o& the #rst attempts to mode" the structure o& a "i-uid was that by the "ate C.
K. 'erna" o& the University o& Jondon( who pac$ed hard spheres into a rubber
vesse" in such a way as to obtain the ma8imum possib"e density. The resu"ting
dense( random-pac$ed structure was the basis &or many attempts to mode" the
structure o& g"assy meta"s. %a"cu"ations o& the density o& a""oys based on 'erna"-
GRE 1-,
type mode"s o& the a""oys meta" component agreed &air"y we"" with the
e8perimenta""y determined va"ues &rom measurements on a""oys consisting o& a
nob"e meta" together with a meta""oid( such as a""oys o& pa""adium and si"icon( or
a""oys consisting o& iron( phosphorus( and carbon( a"though sma"" discrepancies
remained. <ne di1erence between rea" a""oys and the hard spheres used in 'erna"
mode"s is that the components o& an a""oy have di1erent si+es( so that mode"s
based on two si+es o& spheres are more appropriate &or a binary a""oy( &or
e8amp"e. The sma""er meta""oid atoms o& the a""oy might #t into ho"es in the
dense( random-pac$ed structure o& the "arger meta" atoms.
<ne o& the most promising properties o& g"assy meta"s is their high strength
combined with high ma""eabi"ity. 2n usua" crysta""ine materia"s( one #nds an
inverse re"ation between the two properties( whereas &or many practica"
app"ications simu"taneous presence o& both properties is desirab"e. <ne residua"
obstac"e to practica" app"ications that is "i$e"y to be overcome is the &act that
g"assy meta"s wi"" crysta""i+e at re"ative"y "ow temperatures when heated s"ight"y.
21. The author is primarily concerned with discussing
(A) crystalline solids and their beha'ior at different temperatures
(B) molten materials and the kinetics of the formation of their crystalline structure
(C) glassy metals and their structural characteristics
() metallic alloys and problems in determining their density
(#) amorphous materials and their practical utili!ation
22. The author implies that the rate at which the molten materials discussed in the
passage are cooled is a determinant of the
(A) chemical composition of the resulting solids
(B) strength of the chemical bonds that are formed
(C) kinetics of the materials4 crystalline structure
() structure the materials assume
(#) stability of the materials4 crystalline structure
2.. The author4s speculation about the appropriateness of models using spheres of two
si!es for binary alloys would be strongly supported if models using spheres of two
si!es yielded
(A) 'alues for density identical to 'alues yielded by one(sphere models using the
smaller spheres only
(B) 'alues for density agreeing nearly perfectly with e$perimentally determined
'alues
(C) 'alues for density agreeing nearly perfectly with 'alues yielded by models
using spheres of three si!es
() significantly different 'alues for density depending on the si!e ratio between
the two kinds of spheres used
165 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(#) the same 'alues for density as the 'alues for appropriately chosen models that
use only medium(si!ed spheres
20. The author4s attitude toward the prospects for the economic utili!ation of glassy
metals is one of
(A) disinterest
(B) impatience
(C) optimism
() apprehension
(#) skepticism
21. According to the passage/ which of the following determines the crystalline
structure of a metallic alloy%
(A) At what rate the molten alloy is cooled
(B) )ow rapid the rate of formation of the crystalline phase is
(C) )ow the different(si!ed atoms fit into a dense/ random(packed structure
() &hat the alloy consists of and in what ratios
(#) At what temperature the molten alloy becomes solid
22. &hich of the following best describes the relationship between the structure of
li"uid metals and the structure of glassy metals/ as it is presented in the passage%
(A) The latter is an illustrati'e e$ample of the former.
(B) The latter is a large(scale 'ersion of the former.
(C) The former is a structural elaboration of the latter.
() The former pro'ides an instructi'e contrast to the latter.
(#) The former is a fair appro$imation of the latter.
2-. 3t can be inferred from the passage that/ theoretically/ molten nonmetallic glasses
assume a crystalline structure rather than an amorphous structure only if they are
cooled
(A) 'ery e'enly/ regardless of the rate
(B) rapidly/ followed by gentle heating
(C) e$tremely slowly
() to room temperature
(#) to e$tremely low temperatures
SECTION B
2n a per&ect"y &ree and open mar$et economy( the type o& emp"oyer
government or privateshou"d have "itt"e or no impact on the earnings
di1erentia"s between women and men. )owever( i& there is discrimination against
one se8( it is un"i$e"y that the degree o& discrimination by government and private
GRE 161
emp"oyers wi"" be the same. Ki1erences in the degree o& discrimination wou"d
resu"t in earnings di1erentia"s associated with the type o& emp"oyer. Eiven the
nature o& government and private emp"oyers( it seems most "i$e"y that
discrimination by private emp"oyers wou"d be greater. Thus( one wou"d e8pect
that( i& women are being discriminated against( government emp"oyment wou"d
have a positive e1ect on women6s earnings as compared with their earnings &rom
private emp"oyment. The resu"ts o& a study by :uchs support this assumption.
:uchs6s resu"ts suggest that the earnings o& women in an industry composed
entire"y o& government emp"oyers wou"d be 1M. L percent greater than the
earnings o& women in an industry composed e8c"usive"y o& private emp"oyees(
other things being e-ua".
2n addition( both :uchs and anborn have suggested that the e1ect o&
discrimination by consumers on the earnings o& se"&-emp"oyed women may be
greater than the e1ect o& either government or private emp"oyer discrimination
on the earnings o& women emp"oyees. To test this hypothesis( 'rown se"ected a
"arge samp"e o& ;hite ma"e and &ema"e wor$ers &rom the 1970 %ensus and
divided them into three categoriesA private emp"oyees( government emp"oyees(
and se"&-emp"oyed. ('"ac$ wor$ers were e8c"uded &rom the samp"e to avoid
pic$ing up earnings di1erentia"s that were the resu"t o& racia" disparities.) 'rown6s
research design contro""ed &or education( "abor-&orce participation( mobi"ity(
motivation( and age in order to e"iminate these &actors as e8p"anations o& the
study6s resu"ts. 'rown6s resu"ts suggest that men and women are not treated the
same by emp"oyers and consumers. :or men( se"&-emp"oyment is the highest
earnings category( with private emp"oyment ne8t( and government "owest. :or
women( this order is reversed.
<ne can in&er &rom 'rown6s resu"ts that consumers discriminate against se"&-
emp"oyed women. 2n addition( se"&-emp"oyed women may have more di*cu"ty
than men in getting good emp"oyees and may encounter discrimination &rom
supp"iers and &rom #nancia" institutions.
'rown6s resu"ts are c"ear"y consistent with :uch6s argument that discrimination
by consumers has a greater impact on the earnings o& women than does
discrimination by either government or private emp"oyers. 3"so( the &act that
women do better wor$ing &or government than &or private emp"oyers imp"ies that
private emp"oyers are discriminating against women. The resu"ts do not prove
that government does not discriminate against women. They do( however(
demonstrate that i& government is discriminating against women( its
discrimination is not having as much e1ect on women6s earnings as is
discrimination in the private sector.
1-. The passage mentions all of the following as difficulties that self(employed
women may encounter #DC#@TE
(A) discrimination from suppliers
(B) discrimination from consumers
162 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(C) discrimination from financial institutions
() problems in obtaining good employees
(#) problems in obtaining go'ernment assistance
16. The author would be most likely to agree with which of the following conclusions
about discrimination against women by pri'ate employers and by go'ernment
employers%
(A) Both pri'ate employers and go'ernment employers discriminate/ with e"ual
effects on women4s earnings.
(B) Both pri'ate employers and go'ernment employers discriminate/ but the
discrimination by pri'ate employers has a greater effect on women4s earnings.
(C) Both pri'ate employers and go'ernment employers discriminate/ but the
discrimination by go'ernment employers has a greater effect on women4s
earnings.
() @ri'ate employers discriminateI it is possible that go'ernment employers
discriminate.
(#) @ri'ate employers discriminateI go'ernment employers do not discriminate.
1,. A study of the practices of financial institutions that re'ealed no discrimination
against self(employed women would tend to contradict which of the following%
(A) ;ome tentati'e results of >uchs4s study
(B) ;ome e$plicit results of Brown4s study
(C) A suggestion made by the author
() >uchs4s hypothesis
(#) ;anborn4s hypothesis
25. According to Brown4s study/ women4s earnings categories occur in which or the
following orders/ from highest earnings to lowest earnings%
(A) Bo'ernment employment/ self(employment/ pri'ate employment
(B) Bo'ernment employment/ pri'ate employment/ self(employment
(C) @ri'ate employment/ self(employment/ go'ernment employment
() @ri'ate employment/ go'ernment employment/ self(employment
(#) ;elf(employment/ pri'ate employment/ go'ernment employment
21. The passage e$plicitly answers which of the following "uestions%
(A) &hy were Black workers e$cluded from the sample used in Brown4s study%
(B) &hy do pri'ate employers illuminate more against women than do
go'ernment employers%
(C) &hy do self(employed women ha'e more difficulty than men in hiring high(
"uality employees%
() &hy do suppliers discriminate against self(employed women%
GRE 16.
(#) Are Black women and Black men treated similarly by employers and
consumers%
22. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the statements in the last paragraph are
most probably which of the following%
(A) Brown4s elaboration of his research results
(B) Brown4s tentati'e inference from his data
(C) Brown4s conclusions/ based on common(sense reasoning
() The author4s conclusions/ based on >uchs4s and Brown4s results
(#) The author4s criticisms of >uchs4s argument/ based on Brown4s results
2.. &hich of the following titles best describes the content of the passage as a whole%
(A) The 9ecessity for #arnings ifferentials in a >ree ?arket #conomy
(B) &hy iscrimination Against #mployed &omen by Bo'ernment #mployers
and @ri'ate #mployers iffers from iscrimination Against ;elf(#mployed
&omen by Consumers
(C) )ow iscrimination Affects &omen4s Choice of Type of #mployment
() The =elati'e #ffect of @ri'ate #mployer iscrimination on ?en4s #arnings as
Compared to &omen4s #arnings
(#) The =elati'e #ffect of iscrimination by Bo'ernment #mployers/ @ri'ate
#mployers/ and Consumers on &omen4s #arnings
The success o& Duoride in combating denta" decay is we"" estab"ished and(
without a doubt( socia""y bene#cia". )owever( Duoride6s to8ic properties have been
$nown &or a century. 2n humans e8cessive inta$e (&or adu"ts( over M mi""igrams per
day) over many years can "ead to s$e"eta" Duorosis( a we""-de#ned s$e"eta"
disorder( and in some p"ant species( Duoride is more to8ic than o+one( su"&ur
dio8ide( or pesticides.
ome important -uestions remain. :or e8amp"e( the precise "ower "imit at
which the Duoride content o& bone becomes to8ic is sti"" undetermined. 3nd whi"e
Duoride inta$e &rom water and air can be eva"uated re"ative"y easi"y( it is much
harder to estimate how much a given popu"ation ingests &rom &oodstu1s because
o& the wide variations in individua" eating habits and in Duoride concentrations in
&oodstu1s. These di*cu"ties suggest that we shou"d by wary o& indiscriminate"y
using Duoride( even in the &orm o& Duoride-containing denta" products.
20. 3n the passage/ the author is primarily concerned with
(A) analy!ing and categori!ing
(B) comparing and contrasting
(C) synthesi!ing and predicting
() describing and cautioning
(#) summari!ing and reinterpreting
160 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
21. The passage suggests that it would be easier to calculate fluoride intake from food
if
(A) ade"uate diets were a'ailable for most people.
(B) indi'idual eating habits were more uniform
(C) the fluoride content of food was more 'aried
() more people were aware of the fluoride content of food
(#) methods for measuring the fluoride content of food were more generally
agreed on
22. 8ne function of the second paragraph of the passage is to
(A) raise doubts about fluoride4s to$icity
(B) introduce the issue of fluoride4s to$icity
(C) differentiate a to$ic from a nonto$ic amount of fluoride
() indicate that necessary knowledge of fluoride remains incomplete
(#) discuss the foodstuffs that are most likely to contain significant concentrations
of fluoride
2-. The passage suggests which of the following about the effect of fluoride on
humans%
(A) The effect is more easily measured than is the effect of e$posure to pesticides.
(B) The effect of fluoride intake from water and air is relati'ely difficult to
monitor.
(C) 3n general the effect is not likely to be as harmful as the effect of e$posure to
sulfur dio$ide.
() An intake of 0 milligrams o'er a long period of time usually leads to a skeletal
disorder in humans.
(#) An intake of slightly more than 0 milligrams for only a few months is not
likely to be life(threatening.
1993 02
SECTION A
2t is now estab"ished that the Bi"$y ;ay is &ar more e8tended and o& much
greater mass than was hitherto thought. )owever( a"" that is visib"e o& the
constituents o& the Bi"$y ;ay6s corona (outer edge)( where much o& the ga"a8y6s
mass must be "ocated( is a tiny &raction o& the corona6s mass. Thus( most o& the
Bi"$y ;ay6s out"ying matter must be dar$.
;hyG Three &acts are sa"ient. :irst( dwar& ga"a8ies and g"obu"ar c"usters( into
which most o& the stars o& the Bi"$y ;ay6s corona are probab"y bound( consist
main"y o& o"d stars. econd( o"d stars are not high"y "uminous. Third( no one has
GRE 161
detected in the corona the c"ouds o& gaseous matter such as hydrogen and carbon
mono8ide that are characteristic o& the bright parts o& a ga"a8y. 3t present(
there&ore( the best e8p"anation!though sti"" -uite tentative&or the dar$ness o&
the corona is that the corona is composed main"y o& o"d( burned-out stars.
1-. The passage as a whole is primarily concerned with
(A) analy!ing a current debate
(B) critici!ing a well(established theory
(C) showing how new facts support a pre'iously dismissed hypothesis
() stating a conclusion and adducing e'idence that may <ustify it
(#) contrasting two types of phenomena and showing how they are related
16. According to the passage/ a bright part of a gala$y typically includes
(A) dwarf gala$ies and clusters of stars
(B) a balanced mi$ture of old and new stars
(C) a large portion of the gala$y4s mass
() part of the corona of the gala$y
(#) gases such as hydrogen and carbon mono$ide
1,. 3t can be inferred from the passage that/ compared with what they now think/ until
fairly recently astronomers belie'ed that the ?ilky &ay
(A) was much darker
(B) was much smaller
(C) was mo'ing much more slowly
() had a much larger corona
(#) had much less gaseous matter
25. The passage presents which of the following as incontro'ertible%
3. The low luminosity of old stars
33. The absence of clouds of gaseous matter from the corona of the ?ilky &ay
333. The predominance of globular clusters and dwarf gala$ies in the corona of the
?ilky &ay
(A) 3 only
(B) 333 only
(C) 3 and 33 only
() 33 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
<ne o& the principa" themes o& ;a"+er6s criti-ue o& "ibera" capita"ism is that it is
insu*cient"y ega"itarian. ;a"+er6s case against the economic ine-ua"ity generated
by capita"ism and in &avor o& >a radica" redistribution o& wea"th? is presented in a
wide"y cited essay entit"ed >2n Ke&ense o& @-ua"ity.?
162 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
The most stri$ing &eature o& ;a"+er6s criti-ue is that( &ar &rom re5ecting the
princip"e o& reward according to merit( ;a"+er insists on its va"idity. 9eop"e who
e8ce" shou"d receive the superior bene#ts appropriate to their e8ce""ence. 'ut
peop"e e8hibit a great variety o& -ua"ities>inte""igence( physica" strength( agi"ity
and grace( artistic creativity( mechanica" s$i""( "eadership( endurance( memory(
psycho"ogica" insight( the capacity &or hard wor$even mora" strength( sensitivity(
the abi"ity to e8press compassion.? @ach deserves its proper recompense( and
hence a proper distribution o& materia" goods shou"d reDect human di1erences as
measured on a"" these di1erent sca"es. Iet( under capita"ism( the abi"ity to ma$e
money (>the green thumb o& bourgeois society?) enab"es its possessor to ac-uire
a"most >every other sort o& socia" good(? such as the respect and esteem o&
others.
The centerpiece o& ;a"+er6s argument is the invocation o& a -uotation &rom
9asca"6s Pensees( which conc"udesA >Tyranny is the wish to obtain by one means
what can on"y be had by another.? 9asca" be"ieves that we owe di1erent duties to
di1erent -ua"ities. o we might say that in&atuation is the proper response to
charm( and awe the proper response to strength. 2n this "ight( ;a"+er
characteri+es capita"ism as the tyranny o& money (or o& the abi"ity to ma$e it). 3nd
;a"+er advocates as the means o& e"iminating this tyranny and o& restoring
genuine e-ua"ity >the abo"ition o& the power o& money outside its sphere.? ;hat
;a"+er envisions is a society in which wea"th is no "onger convertib"e into socia"
goods with which it has no intrinsic connection.
;a"+er6s argument is a pu++"ing one. 3&ter a""( why shou"d those -ua"ities
unre"ated to the production o& materia" goods be rewarded with materia" goodsG 2s
it not tyrannica"( in 9asca"6s sense( to insist that those who e8ce" in >sensitivity? or
>the abi"ity to e8press compassion? merit e-ua" wea"th with those who e8ce" in
-ua"ities (such as >the capacity &or hard wor$?) essentia" in producing wea"thG Iet
;a"+er6s argument( however de#cient( does point to one o& the most serious
wea$nesses o& capita"ismname"y( that it brings to predominant positions in a
society peop"e who( no matter how "egitimate"y they have earned their materia"
rewards( o&ten "ac$ those other -ua"ities that evo$e a1ection or admiration. ome
even argue p"ausib"y that this wea$ness may be irremediab"eA in any society that(
"i$e a capita"ist society( see$s to become ever wea"thier in materia" terms
disproportionate rewards are bound to Dow to the peop"e who are instrumenta" in
producing the increase in its wea"th.
21. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) argue that &al!er4s criti"ue of liberal capitalism is the cornerstone of &al!er4s
thinking
(B) identify and to deprecate the origins of the intellectual tradition championed by
&al!er
(C) present more clearly than does the essay *3n efense of #"uality+ the
distincti'e features of &al!er4s politico(economic theories
GRE 16-
() demonstrate that &al!er4s criti"ue of liberal capitalism is neither original nor
persuasi'e
(#) outline and to e$amine critically &al!er4s position on economic e"uality
22. The author mentions all of the following as issues addressed by &al!er #DC#@TE
(A) proper recompense for indi'idual e$cellence
(B) proper interpretation of *economic e"uality+
(C) proper le'el of a society4s wealth
() grounds for calling capitalism *the tyranny of money+
(#) e$changeability of money for social goods
2.. The argumentation in the passage turns importantly on the "uestion of what should
be the proper relation between
(A) *liberal capitalism+ (line 2) and *bourgeois society+ (lines 25(21)
(B) *reward+ (line 6) and *recompense+ (line 1-)
(C) *sensiti'ity+ (line 11) and *the ability to e$press compassion+ (lines 11(12)
() *distribution of material goods+ (lines 1-(16) and *redistribution of wealth+
(lines 0(1)
(#) *social goods+ (line .-) and *material goods+ (line 01)
20. The passage pro'ides sufficient information to answer which of the following
"uestions%
(A) &hat weight in relation to other "ualities should a "uality like sensiti'ity ha'e/
according to &al!er/ in determining the proper distribution of goods%
(B) &hich "uality does &al!er deem too highly 'alued under liberal capitalism%
(C) &hich are the social goods that are/ according to &al!er/ outside the reach of
the power of money%
() &hat practical steps does &al!er suggest be taken to relie'e the economic
ine"uality generated by capitalism%
(#) &hat deficiencies in &al!er4s own argument does &al!er acknowledge%
21. The author implies that &al!er4s interpretation of the principle of reward
according to merit is distincti'e for its
(A) insistence on ma$imi!ing e'eryone4s rewards
(B) emphasis on e"uality
(C) pro'en 'alidity
() broad conception of what constitutes merit
(#) broad conception of what constitutes a reward
22. The author4s interpretation of the principle that *we owe different duties to
different "ualities+ (lines 26(2,) suggests that which of the following would most
probably be the duty paired with the "uality of 'eracity%
166 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(A) ignity
(B) Trust
(C) Affection
() 8bedience
(#) 3ntegrity
2-. The author implies that sensiti'ity is not a "uality that
(A) is essential in producing wealth
(B) wealthy people lack
(C) can be sensibly measured on a scale
() characteri!es tyrannical people
(#) is owed a duty in @ascal4s sense
SECTION B
The outpouring o& contemporary 3merican 2ndian "iterature in the "ast two
decades( o&ten ca""ed the ,ative 3merican Renaissance( represents &or many the
#rst opportunity to e8perience ,ative 3merican poetry. The appreciation o&
traditiona" ora" 3merican 2ndian "iterature has been "imited( hampered by poor
trans"ations and by the di*cu"ty( even in the rare cu"tura""y sensitive and
aesthetica""y satis&ying trans"ation( o& comp"ete"y conveying the origina"6s verse
structure( tone( and synta8.
'y writing in @ng"ish and e8perimenting with @uropean "iterary &orms(
contemporary 3merican 2ndian writers have broadened their potentia" audience(
whi"e c"ear"y retaining many essentia" characteristics o& their ancestra" ora"
traditions. :or e8amp"e( 9u"it+er-pri+ewinning author ,. cott Bomaday6s poetry
o&ten treats art and morta"ity in a manner that reca""s 'ritish romantic poetry(
whi"e his poetic response to the power o& natura" &orces reca""s %hero$ee ora"
"iterature. 2n the same way( his nove"s( an art &orm @uropean in origin( disp"ay an
e"o-uence that echoes the oratorica" grandeur o& the great nineteenth-century
3merican 2ndian chie&s.
1-. According to the passage/ ?omaday4s poetry shares which of the following with
British romantic poetry%
(A) Cerse structure
(B) 8ratorical techni"ues
(C) ?anner of treating certain themes
() :se of certain syntactical constructions
(#) @atterns of rhythm and rhyme
16. &hich of the following is most likely one of the reasons that the author mentions
the work of 9. ;cott ?omaday%
GRE 16,
(A) To illustrate how the author belie'es that members of the 9ati'e American
=enaissance ha'e broadened their potential audience
(B) To emphasi!e the similarities between ?omaday4s writings and their #uropean
literary models
(C) To demonstrate the contemporary appeal of traditional 9ati'e American oral
literature
() To suggest that contemporary American 3ndian writers ha'e sacrificed
traditional 'alues for popular literary success
(#) To imply the continuing popularity of translations of oral American 3ndian
literature
1,. &hich of the following can be inferred from the passage about written translations
of oral 9ati'e American poetry%
(A) They were less widely read than are the works of contemporary 9ati'e
American poets writing in #nglish.
(B) They were often made by writers who were intimately familiar with both
#nglish and 9ati'e American languages.
(C) They often ga'e their readers aesthetic satisfaction/ despite their inaccuracies.
() They usually lacked comple$ 'erse structure.
(#) They were o'erly dependent on #uropean literary models.
25. The passage suggests which of the following about American 3ndian poets before
the 9ati'e American =enaissance%
(A) Art and mortality were rarely the sub<ects of their poetry.
(B) Their oratorical grandeur reached its peak in the nineteenth century.
(C) They occasionally translated their own poetry.
() They seldom wrote poetry in #nglish.
(#) They emphasi!ed structure/ tone/ and synta$ rather than literary form.
Recent #ndings suggest that visua" signa"s are &ed into at "east three separate
processing systems in the brain( each with its own distinct &unction. <ne system
appears to process in&ormation about shape perception= a second( in&ormation
about co"or= a third( in&ormation about movement( "ocation( and spatia"
organi+ation. 3n understanding o& the &unctions and capabi"ities o& these three
systems can shed "ight on how artists manipu"ate materia"s to create surprising
visua" e1ects.
2t is possib"e to summari+e the &unctions o& the three subsystems o& the visua"
system as &o""ows. The parvo system carries high"y detai"ed in&ormation about
stationary ob5ects and about borders that are &ormed by contrasting co"ors. 2t does
not( however( carry in&ormation about speci#c co"ors. 'ecause much o& the
in&ormation about the shape o& ob5ects can be represented by their borders( we
suspect that this system is important in shape perception. The b"ob system
1,5 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
processes in&ormation about co"ors( but not about movement( shape
discrimination( or depth. The magno system carries in&ormation about movement
and depth. 2t is good at detecting motion but poor at scrutini+ing stationary
images. 2n addition it appears to be co"orb"ind= it is unab"e to perceive borders
that are visib"e on"y on the basis o& co"or contrast.
%e""s in the parvo system can distinguish between two co"ors at any re"ative
brightness o& the two. %e""s in the co"or-b"ind magno system( on the other hand(
are ana"ogous to a b"ac$-and-white photograph in the way they &unctionA they
signa" in&ormation about the brightness o& sur&aces but not about their co"ors. :or
any pair o& co"ors there is a particu"ar brightness ratio at which two co"ors( &or
e8amp"e red and green( wi"" appear as the same shade o& gray in a b"ac$-and-
white photograph( hence any border between them wi"" vanish. imi"ar"y at some
re"ative red-to-green brightness "eve"( the red and green wi"" appear identica" to
the magno system. The red and green are then ca""ed e-ui"uminant. 3 border
between two e-ui"uminant co"ors has co"or contrast but no "uminance contrast.
Bany artists have seemed to be empirica""y aware o& these under"ying
princip"es and have used them to ma8imi+e particu"ar e1ects. ome o& the
pecu"iar e1ects o& <p 3rt( &or e8amp"e( probab"y arise &rom co"or combinations
that are strong activators o& the parvo system but are wea$ stimu"i &or the magno
system. 3n ob5ect that is e-ui"uminant with its bac$ground "oo$s vibrant and
unstab"e. The reason is that the parvo system can signa" the ob5ect6s shape but
the magno system cannot see its borders and there&ore cannot signa" either the
movement or the position o& the ob5ect. )ence it seems to 5ump around( dri&t( or
vibrate on the canvas.
21. The passage is primarily concerned with
(A) describing subsystems of the 'isual system and showing their rele'ance to art
(B) comparing three theories on how the 'isual system analy!es images in a work
of art
(C) e$plaining how artists use color contrasts to create particular 'isual effects
() e$plaining how the 'isual system distinguishes among different colors
(#) describing functions of the first three phases of the 'isual system
22. &hich of the following would create 'isual effects most similar to those discussed
in lines 0.(06%
(A) A watercolor in which colors are applied imprecisely to outlined shapes
(B) A painting in which different shades of the same color are used to obscure the
boundaries between ob<ects
(C) A black(and(white sketch in which shading is used to con'ey a sense of depth
() An ad'ertisement in which key words are at the same le'el of brightness as a
background of contrasting color
(#) A design in which two different shades of gray are <u$taposed to heighten the
GRE 1,1
contrast between them
2.. The passage pro'ides information about which of the following%
(A) &hy the same system can process information about mo'ement and location
(B) &hy the par'o system is considered to be responsible for shape perception
(C) &hy the blob system can process information about colors but not mo'ement
() The mechanism that enables the blob system to distinguish between stationary
ob<ects
(#) The mechanism that enables the magno system to carry information about
shape discrimination
20. According to the passage/ which of the following is true of the 'isual system%
(A) 3t processes 'isual signals in three consecuti'e stages.
(B) 3t processes 'isual signals through separate processing systems in the brain.
(C) 3t consists of only three separate systems.
() 3t consists of a single hierarchical system rather than a multipartite system.
(#) 3t consists of separate system with high o'erlap in processing functions.
21. The author mentions a *black(and(white photograph+ (line 2,) most probably in
order to e$plain
(A) how the par'o system distinguishes between different shapes and colors
(B) how the magno system uses luminosity to identify borders between ob<ects
(C) the mechanism that makes the magno system color(blind
() why the magno system is capable of percei'ing mo'ing images
(#) the brightness ratio at which colors become indistinguishable to the par'o
system
22. The author uses all of the following in the discussion in the third paragraph
#DC#@TE
(A) an e$ample
(B) definition of terms
(C) contrast
() a rhetorical "uestion
(#) analogy
2-. The passage suggests which of the following about the magno system%
(A) 3t percei'es borders on the basis of luminance contrast.
(B) 3t percei'es shapes on the basis of color contrast.
(C) 3t is better at percei'ing stationary ob<ects than it is at detecting mo'ement.
() 3t can detect motion but it cannot signal the position of an ob<ect.
(#) 3t is better at processing information about mo'ement than it is at processing
1,2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
information about depth.
1993 04
SECTION A
3"though( recent years have seen substantia" reductions in no8ious po""utants
&rom individua" motor vehic"es( the number o& such vehic"es has been steadi"y
increasing conse-uent"y( more than 100 cities in the United tates sti"" have "eve"s
o& carbon mono8ide( particu"ate matter( and o+one (generated by photochemica"
reactions with hydrocarbons &rom vehic"e e8haust) that e8ceed "ega""y estab"ished
"imits. There is a growing rea"i+ation that the on"y e1ective way to achieve &urther
reductions in vehic"e emissionsshort o& a massive shi&t away &rom the private
automobi"eis to rep"ace conventiona" diese" &ue" and gaso"ine with c"eaner-
burning &ue"s such as compressed natura" gas( "i-ue#ed petro"eum gas( ethano"(
or methano".
3"" o& these a"ternatives are carbon-based &ue"s whose mo"ecu"es are sma""er
and simp"er than those o& gaso"ine. These mo"ecu"es burn more c"ean"y than
gaso"ine( in part because they have &ewer( i& and( carbon-carbon bonds( and the
hydrocarbons they do emit are "ess "i$e"y to generate o+one. The combustion o&
"arger mo"ecu"es( which have mu"tip"e carbon-carbon bonds( invo"ves a more
comp"e8 series o& reactions. These reactions increase the probabi"ity o&
incomp"ete combustion and are more "i$e"y to re"ease uncombusted and
photochemica""y active hydrocarbon compounds into the atmosphere. <n the
other hand( a"ternative &ue"s do have drawbac$s. %ompressed natura" gas wou"d
re-uire that vehic"es have a set o& heavy &ue" tan$sa serious "iabi"ity in terms o&
per&ormance and &ue" e*ciency!and "i-ue#ed petro"eum gas &aces &undamenta"
"imits on supp"y.
@thano" and methano"( on the other hand( have important advantages over
other carbon-based a"ternative &ue"sA they have a higher energy content per
vo"ume and wou"d re-uire minima" changes in the e8isting networ$ &or distributing
motor &ue". @thano" is common"y used as a gaso"ine supp"ement( but it is current"y
about twice as e8pensive as methano"( the "ow cost o& which is one o& its
attractive &eatures. Bethano"6s most attractive &eature( however( is that it can
reduce by about 90 percent the vehic"e emissions that &orm o+one( the most
serious urban air po""utant.
Ji$e any a"ternative &ue"( methano" has its critics. Iet much o& the criticism is
based on the use o& >gaso"ine c"one? vehic"es that do not incorporate even the
simp"est design improvements that are made possib"e with the use o& methano". 2t
is true( &or e8amp"e( that a given vo"ume o& methano" provides on"y about one-ha"&
o& the energy that gaso"ine and diese" &ue" do= other things being e-ua"( the &ue"
tan$ wou"d have to be somewhat "arger and heavier. )owever( since methano"-
&ue"ed vehic"es cou"d be designed to be much more e*cient than >gaso"ine c"one?
GRE 1,.
vehic"es &ue"ed with methano"( they wou"d need comparative"y "ess &ue". Fehic"es
incorporating on"y the simp"est o& the engine improvements that methano" ma$es
&easib"e wou"d sti"" contribute to an immediate "essening o& urban air po""ution.
1-. The author of the passage is primarily concerned with
(A) countering a flawed argument that dismisses a possible solution to a problem
(B) reconciling contradictory points of 'iew about the nature of a problem
(C) identifying the strengths of possible solutions to a problem
() discussing a problem and arguing in fa'or of one solution to it
(#) outlining a plan of action to sol'e a problem and discussing the obstacles
blocking that plan
16. According to the passage/ incomplete combustion is more likely to occur with
gasoline than with an alternati'e fuel because
(A) the combustion of gasoline releases photochemically acti'e hydrocarbons
(B) the combustion of gasoline in'ol'es an intricate series of reactions
(C) gasoline molecules ha'e a simple molecular structure
() gasoline is composed of small molecules.
(#) gasoline is a carbon(based fuel
1,. The passage suggests which of the following about air pollution%
(A) >urther attempts to reduce emissions from gasoline(fueled 'ehicles will not
help lower urban air(pollution le'els.
(B) Attempts to reduce the pollutants that an indi'idual gasoline(fueled 'ehicle
emits ha'e been largely unsuccessful.
(C) >ew serious attempts ha'e been made to reduce the amount of pollutants
emitted by gasoline(fueled 'ehicles.
() @ollutants emitted by gasoline(fueled 'ehicles are not the most critical source
of urban air pollution.
(#) =eductions in pollutants emitted by indi'idual 'ehicles ha'e been offset by
increases in pollution from sources other than gasoline(fueled 'ehicles.
25. which of the following most closely parallels the situation described in the first
sentence of the passage%
(A) Although a town reduces its public ser'ices in order to a'oid a ta$ increase/
the town4s ta$ rate e$ceeds that of other towns in the surrounding area.
(B) Although a state passes strict laws to limit the type of to$ic material that can be
disposed of in public landfills/ illegal dumping continues to increase.
(C) Although a town4s citi!ens reduce their indi'idual use of water/ the town4s
water supplies continue to dwindle because of a steady increase in the total
population of the town.
() Although a country attempts to increase the sale of domestic goods by adding
1,0 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
a ta$ to the price of imported goods/ the sale of imported goods within the
country continues to increase.
(#) Although a country reduces the speed limit on its national highways/ the
number of fatalities caused by automobile accidents continues to increase.
21. The author describes which of the following as the most appealing feature of
methanol%
(A) 3t is substantially less e$pensi'e than ethanol.
(B) 3t could be pro'ided to consumers through the e$isting motor fuel distribution
system.
(C) 3t has a higher energy content than other alternati'e fuels.
() 3ts use would make design impro'ements in indi'idual 'ehicles feasible.
(#) 3ts use would substantially reduce o!one le'els.
22. 3t can be inferred from the passage that a 'ehicle specifically designed to use
methanol for fuel would
(A) be somewhat lighter in total body weight than a con'entional 'ehicle fueled
with gasoline
(B) be more e$pensi'e to operate than a con'entional 'ehicle fueled with gasoline
(C) ha'e a larger and more powerful engine than a con'entional 'ehicle fueled
with gasoline
() ha'e a larger and hea'ier fuel tank than a *gasoline clone+ 'ehicle fueled with
methanol
(#) a'erage more miles per gallon than a *gasoline clone+ 'ehicle fueled with
methanol
2.. 3t can be inferred that the author of the passage most likely regards the criticism of
methanol in the last paragraph as
(A) flawed because of the assumptions on which it is based
(B) inapplicable because of an inconsistency in the critics4 arguments
(C) misguided because of its e$clusi'ely technological focus
() inaccurate because it ignores consumers4 concerns
(#) in'alid because it reflects the personal bias of the critics
9au"e Barsha""6s Brown .irl& Brownstones (19/9) was a "andmar$ in the
depiction o& &ema"e characters in '"ac$ 3merican "iterature. Barsha"" avoided the
oppressed and tragic heroine in conDict with ;hite society that had been typica"
o& the protest nove"s o& the ear"y twentieth century. Ji$e her immediate
predecessors( Qora ,ea"e )urston and Ewendo"yn 'roo$s( she &ocused her nove"
on an ordinary '"ac$ woman6s search &or identity within the conte8t o& a '"ac$
community. 'ut Barsha"" e8tended the ana"ysis o& '"ac$ &ema"e characters begun
by )urston and 'roo$s by depicting her heroine6s deve"opment in terms o& the
re"ationship between her 'arbadian 3merican parents( and by e8p"oring how ma"e
GRE 1,1
and &ema"e ro"es were de#ned by their immigrant cu"ture( which in turn was
inDuenced by the materia"ism o& ;hite 3merica. 'y p"acing characters within a
wider cu"tura" conte8t( Barsha"" attac$ed racia" and se8ua" stereotypes and paved
the way &or e8p"orations o& race( c"ass( and gender in the nove"s o& the 19706s.
20. The passage is primarily concerned with
(A) comparing the works of three Black American authors
(B) describing common themes in Black American literature
(C) discussing an important work in Black American literature
() pro'iding insights about Black American literature in the early twentieth
century
(#) pro'iding historical information about the writing of Black American no'els in
the second half the twentieth century
21. According to the passage/ )urston/ Brooks/ and ?arshall are alike in that they
(A) did not e$amine the effects of &hite culture on their characters4 li'es
(B) were hea'ily influenced by the protest no'els of the early twentieth century
(C) used Black communities as the settings for their no'els
() wrote primarily about the difficulties their characters encountered in &hite
culture
(#) wrote e$clusi'ely about female characters and the e$periences of women
22. The author4s description of the way in which ?arshall depicts her heroine4s
de'elopment is most probably intended to
(A) continue the discussion of similarities in the works of Brooks/ )urston/ and
?arshall
(B) describe the specific racial and se$ual stereotypes that ?arshall attacked
(C) contrast the characters in ?arshall4s no'els with those in later works
() show how ?arshall e$tends the portrayal of character initiated by her
predecessors
(#) compare themes in ?arshall4s early work with themes in her later no'els
2-. 3t can be inferred that the author of the passage would describe %ro(n #irl1
%ro(nstones as being
(A) completely different from no'els written before 1,1,
(B) highly influenced by no'els written in the early twentieth century
(C) similar to the protest no'els that preceded it
() important in the late 1,154s but dated today
(#) an important influence on no'els written in the 1,-54s
SECTION B
1,2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
Bany phi"osophers disagree over the de#nition o& mora"ity( but most disputants
&a"" into one o& two categoriesA egocentrics( who de#ne mora"ity as the pursuit o&
se"&-&u"#""ment( and sociocentrics( who de#ne mora"ity as an individua"6s
ob"igations to society. ;here does the truth "ieG :ortunate"y( the stem o& the word
>mora"ity? provides some c"ues. The word >mores? origina""y re&erred to the
customs o& pre"iterate cu"tures. Bores( which embodied each cu"ture6s idea"
princip"es &or governing every citi+en( were deve"oped in the be"ie& that the
&oundation o& a community "ies in the cu"tivation o& individua" powers to be p"aced
in service to the community. These mores were concerned with such s$i""s as &ood-
gathering and war&are as we"" as an individua"6s re"ationships with others. Thus( 2
submit( >mora"ity? must be concerned with what is honored by the community at
"arge. )owever( se"&-&u"#""ment is important to mora"ity because un&u"#""ed
citi+ens( no matter how virtuous( cannot per&orm the duties mora"ity assigns
them.
1-. The primary purpose of this passage is to
(A) summari!e an argument
(B) resol'e a dispute
(C) trace a word4s origin
() pro'e a hypothesis
(#) initiate a debate
16. According to the passage/ mores in preliterate cultures concerned such skills as
warfare and food(gathering because these skills were
(A) characteristic of an indi'idual4s self(fulfillment
(B) e$amples of a culture4s traditions
(C) manifestations of an indi'idual4s ideals
() demonstrations of an indi'idual4s contributions to the community
(#) e$amples of a community4s go'erning principles
1,. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author would be most likely to agree
with which of the following statements regarding sociocentrics and egocentrics%
(A) The position of the sociocentrics is stronger than that of the egocentrics.
(B) The positions of the egocentrics and sociocentrics are of e"ual merit.
(C) There is no merit in the position of the egocentrics.
() 9either position contributes 'ery much to an understanding of the definition of
morality.
(#) The dispute between the egocentrics and sociocentrics is based on tri'ial
issues.
25. &ith which of the following statements regarding the relationship between the
indi'idual and morality would the author be most likely to agree%
GRE 1,-
(A) >ailure in social obligations is the price of success in indi'idual endea'ors.
(B) The unfulfilled citi!en cannot fulfill his moral obligations to the community.
(C) ?orality is unconcerned with conflicts among citi!ens.
() The unfulfilled citi!en is without 'irtue.
(#) &ealth harms a citi!en4s moral standing in the community.
(This passage was written in 197/.)
The comp"ications &re-uent"y accompanying diabetes( such as impairment o&
vision and o& $idney &unction( are now thought to resu"t &rom the "ac$ o&
continuous contro" o& b"ood g"ucose concentrations. The hea"thy pancreas( in
response to increases in b"ood g"ucose concentration( re"eases sma"" -uantities o&
insu"in throughout the day and thereby maintains the concentration within
physio"ogica" "imits (normog"ycemia). 'ut the diabetic genera""y receives on"y one
"arge dose dai"y. The diabetic6s b"ood g"ucose concentration can thus Ductuate
great"y during the interva" between doses( and it has been suggested that the
comp"ications resu"t &rom the periods o& high concentrations o& b"ood g"ucose
(hyperg"ycemia). Bany investigators thus be"ieve that restoration o&
normog"ycemia might ha"t the progression o& such comp"ications and perhaps
even reverse them.
There are three primary techni-ues that have been investigated &or restoration
o& normog"ycemia. They areA transp"antation o& who"e( hea"thy pancreases=
transp"antation o& is"ets o& Jangerhans( that portion o& the pancreas that actua""y
secretes insu"in= and imp"antation o& arti#cia" pancreases. There has( in &act( been
a great dea" o& success in the deve"opment o& these techni-ues and each seems(
on the who"e( promising. ,onethe"ess( it wi"" undoubted"y be many years be&ore
any one o& them is accepted as a treatment &or diabetes.
To many peop"e( the obvious approach wou"d seem to be simp"y to transp"ant
pancreases &rom cadavers in the same manner that $idneys and other organs are
routine"y transp"anted. That was the rationa"e in 19LL when the #rst recorded
pancreas transp"ant was per&ormed. 'etween 19LL and 197/( there were &orty-si8
pancreas transp"ants in &orty-#ve other patients in the United tates and #ve
other countries. 'ut on"y one o& these patients is sti"" a"ive with a &unctioning
gra&t( and surgeons have &ound that the procedure is not as simp"e as they once
thought.
The surviving patient has re-uired no insu"in since the operation. 3nother
patient survived L78 days without re-uiring insu"in. 3nd one patient survived a
transp"antation &or more than a year( but died when he chose not to ta$e the
immunosuppressive drugs. These resu"ts( though meager( suggest that the
procedure has the potentia" &or success.
The rest o& the patients( however( either re5ected the transp"ant or died within
a short period. There does not appear to be any technica" prob"em with the
procedure. Rather( most o& the patients were a"ready so severe"y debi"itated by
1,6 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
the comp"ications o& diabetes that they cou"d not withstand the surgery and the
immunosuppressive regimen re-uired to prevent re5ection. Bore than ha"& o& the
patients( &urthermore( a"so re-uired a $idney transp"ant. Bost investigators now
agree that the simu"taneous transp"antation o& both organs is too great a shoc$ to
the patient and great"y increases the tota" ris$.
21. &hich of the following best states one of the main conclusions of the passage%
(A) Although the techni"ues for pancreas transplants appear to be theoretically
correct/ there are problems that must be sol'ed before the operation can be
used as a treatment for diabetes.
(B) Although the techni"ues for pancreas transplants are still being de'eloped/ the
e$perimental results show that the operation will be a successful treatment for
diabetes in the near future.
(C) Although pancreas transplants are reliable/ many diabetics are reluctant to
undergo the operation because of the side effects of immunosuppressi'e drugs.
() Although pancreas transplants alone are not generally successful/ the operation
can be used in con<unction with other procedures to treat diabetes.
(#) Although pancreas transplants ha'e not been successful in treating diabetes/
research indicates that other procedures may soon be de'eloped.
22. According to the passage/ widely spaced doses of insulin can cause.
(A) re'ersal of normal kidney function
(B) delay in the onset of diabetes
(C) radical changes in the concentration of blood glucose
() restoration of normoglycemia
(#) marked 'ariations in the islets of Kangerhans
2.. According to the passage/ a periodic high concentration of blood glucose in
diabetics is a possible cause of
(A) deterioration of the pancreas
(B) damage to the eyes and kidneys
(C) re<ection of transplanted organs
() inade"uate secretion of insulin
(#) increased production of blood cells
20. 3t can be inferred from the passage that one of the important contributing causes of
the failure of most pancreas transplants has been the
(A) reluctance of patients to cooperate with physicians
(B) imperfect techni"ues used in the operations
(C) scarcity of immunosuppressi'e drugs
() una'ailability or healthy pancreases
(#) weakened condition of the patients
GRE 1,,
21. The author pro'ides information that would answer which of the following
"uestions%
3. &hat is hyperglycemia%
33. &hat is one cause of hyperglycemia%
333. &hat are some of the organs that can be ad'ersely affected by hyperglycemia%
(A) 3 only
(B) 33 only
(C) 3 and 333 only
() 33 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
22. 8n the basis of the information in the passage/ which of the following can be
inferred about the islets of Kangerhans%
3. They are important for the normal control of blood glucose concentration.
33. They can be transplanted independently of other pancreatic cells.
333. They regulate immunosuppressi'e reactions.
(A) 3 only
(B) 333 only
(C) 3 and 33 only
() 3 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
2-. The passage suggests that the author considers the data concerning the success of
pancreas transplants to be
(A) in'alid
(B) indirect
(C) inaccurate
() insufficient
(#) inappropriate
SECTION C
2n :ebruary 18M8 the peop"e o& 9aris rose in revo"t against the constitutiona"
monarchy o& Jouis-9hi"ippe. Kespite the e8istence o& e8ce""ent narrative accounts(
the :ebruary Kays( as this revo"t is ca""ed( have been "arge"y ignored by socia"
historians o& the past two decades. :or each o& the three other ma5or insurrections
in nineteenth-century 9arisCu"y 1870( Cune 18M8( and Bay 1871!there e8ists at
"east a s$etch o& participants6 bac$grounds and an ana"ysis( more or "ess rigorous(
o& the reasons &or the occurrence o& the uprisings. <n"y in the case o& the :ebruary
Revo"ution do we "ac$ a use&u" description o& participants that might characteri+e
it in the "ight o& what socia" history has taught us about the process o&
255 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
revo"utionary mobi"i+ation.
Two reasons &or this re"ative neg"ect seem obvious. :irst( the insurrection o&
:ebruary has been overshadowed by that o& Cune. The :ebruary Revo"ution
overthrew a regime( to be sure( but met with so "itt"e resistance that it &ai"ed to
generate any rea" sense o& historica" drama. 2ts successor( on the other hand(
appeared to pit $ey socioeconomic groups in a "i&e-or-death strugg"e and was
wide"y seen by contemporary observers as mar$ing a historica" departure.
Through their interpretations( which e8ert a continuing inDuence on our
understanding o& the revo"utionary process( the impact o& the events o& Cune has
been magni#ed( whi"e( as an unintended conse-uence( the signi#cance o& the
:ebruary insurrection has been diminished. econd( "i$e other >success&u"?
insurrections( the events o& :ebruary &ai"ed to generate the most desirab"e $inds
o& historica" records. 3"though the Cune insurrection o& 18M8 and the 9aris
%ommune o& 1871 wou"d be considered watersheds o& nineteenth-century :rench
history by any standard( they a"so present the socia" historian with a signa"
advantageA these &ai"ed insurrections created a mass o& inva"uab"e documentation
as a by-product o& authorities6 e1orts to search out and punish the rebe"s.
Tuite di1erent is the outcome o& success&u" insurrections "i$e those o& Cu"y 1870
and :ebruary 18M8. @8periences are reto"d( but participants typica""y resume their
dai"y routines without ever recording their activities. Those who p"ayed sa"ient
ro"es may become the ob5ects o& high"y embe""ished verba" accounts or in rare
cases( o& ce"ebratory artic"es in contemporary periodica"s. 3nd it is true that the
pub"ic"y ac$now"edged "eaders o& an uprising &re-uent"y write memoirs. )owever(
such documents are "i$e"y to be high"y unre"iab"e( unrepresentative( and
unsystematica""y preserved( especia""y when compared to the detai"ed 5udicia"
dossiers prepared &or everyone arrested &o""owing a &ai"ed insurrection. 3s a
conse-uence( it may prove di*cu"t or impossib"e to estab"ish &or a success&u"
revo"ution a comprehensive and trustworthy picture o& those who participated( or
to answer even the most basic -uestions one might pose concerning the socia"
origins o& the insurgents.
1-. According to the passage/ *a useful description of participants+ (lines 11(12) e$ists
for which of the following insurrections of nineteenth(century >rance%
3. The Auly 3nsurrection of 16.5
33. The >ebruary =e'olution of 1606
333. The Aune insurrection of 1606
3C. The ?ay insurrection of 16-1
(A) 3 and 333 only
(B) 33 and 3C only
(C) 3/ 33/ and 333 only
() 3/ 333/ and 3C only
(#) 33/ 333/ and 3C only
GRE 251
16. 3t can be inferred from the passage that support for the ob<ecti'es of the >ebruary
=e'olution was
(A) negligible
(B) misguided
(C) fanatical
() spontaneous
(#) widespread
1,. &hich of the following/ best describes the organi!ation of the second paragraph%
(A) The thesis of the passage is stated and supporting e'idence systematically
presented.
(B) Two 'iews regarding the thesis presented in the first paragraph are compared
and contrasted.
(C) #'idence refuting the thesis presented in the first paragraph is systematically
presented.
() The thesis presented in the first paragraph is systematically supported.
(#) The thesis presented in the first paragraph is further defined and a conclusion
drawn.
25. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author considers which of the
following essential for understanding a re'olutionary mobili!ation%
(A) A comprehensi'e theory of re'olution that can be applied to the ma<or
insurrections of the nineteenth century
(B) Awareness of the e'ents necessary for a re'olution to be successful
(C) Access to narrati'es and memoirs written by eyewitnesses of a gi'en
re'olution
() The historical perspecti'e pro'ided by the passage of a considerable amount of
time
(#) Mnowledge of the socioeconomic backgrounds of a re'olution4s participants
21. &hich of the following can be inferred about the *detailed <udicial dossiers+
referred to in line 0,%
(A) 3nformation contained in the dossiers sheds light on the social origins of a
re'olution4s participants.
(B) The dossiers closely resemble the narrati'es written by the re'olution4s leaders
in their personal memoirs.
(C) The information that such dossiers contain is untrustworthy and
unrepresentati'e of a re'olution4s participants.
() ;ocial historians prefer to a'oid such dossiers whene'er possible because they
are e$cessi'ely detailed.
(#) The >ebruary =e'olution of 1606 produced more of these dossiers than did the
252 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
Aune insurrection.
22. &hich of the following is the most logical ob<ection to the claim made in lines .6(
.,%
(A) The >ebruary =e'olution of 1606 is much less significant than the Auly
insurrection of 16.5.
(B) The backgrounds and moti'ations of participants in the Auly insurrection of
16.5 ha'e been identified/ howe'er cursorily.
(C) #'en less is known about the Auly insurrection of 16.5 than about the >ebruary
=e'olution of 1606.
() )istorical records made during the Auly insurrection of 16.5 are less reliable
than those made during the ?ay insurrection of 16-1.
(#) The importance of the Auly insurrection of 16.5 has been magnified at the
e$pense of the significance of the >ebruary =e'olution of 1606.
2.. &ith which of the following statements regarding re'olution would the author
most likely agree%
(A) =e'olutionary mobili!ation re"uires a great deal of planning by people
representing disaffected groups.
(B) The ob<ecti'es of the >ebruary =e'olution were more radical than those of the
Aune insurrection.
(C) The process of re'olutionary mobili!ation 'aries greatly from one re'olution
to the ne$t.
() =e'olutions 'ary greatly in the usefulness of the historical records that they
produce.
(#) As knowledge of the >ebruary =e'olution increases/ chances are good that its
importance will e'entually eclipse that of the Aune insurrection.
<ne advantage o& breeding 3&rican bees with other bee types (3&ricani+ation)
may be resistance to the parasitic mite <arroa =aco$soni& a ma5or threat to
modern bee$eeping. 2n parts o& @urope( this mite is devastating honeybees and
$i""ing many co"onies despite preventive measures by bee$eepers. 'ut in 'ra+i"
<arroa =aco$soni has been present in 3&ricani+ed bees since 1974 without the "oss
o& a sing"e co"ony( even though bee$eepers there undertoo$ no preventive
measures. The mites "ay eggs within the brood ce""s o& immature bees( and
deve"oping mites &eed on the hemo"ymph (b"ood) o& bee pupae. 'ut &ewer mites
reproduce in 3&ricani+ed bees than in @uropean bees. ome researchers point out
that this resistance may be re"ated to the 3&ricani+ed wor$er bee6s shorter
deve"opment period( which prevents some mites &rom reaching maturity. Recent"y
the mite has become a serious prob"em in co"onies o& @uropean bees in ,orth
3merica. 3&ricani+ation o& these bees may be the best sa&eguard against this
parasite.
20. The passage suggests that which of the following was true of the honeybee
GRE 25.
colonies described in line 0(2%
(A) Their life e$pectancy/ when free of disease/ was shorter than that of #uropean
bee colonies in 9orth America.
(B) They were not Africani!ed.
(C) Their life cycle did not accommodate the feeding habits of )arroa 5acobsoni2
() They responded well to measures to control )arroa 5acobsoni.
(#) They were managed using methods that were more modern than those
employed in Bra!il.
21. The author cites all of the following as e'idence that Africani!ed bees4 resistance
to )arroa 5acobsoni is superior to that of #uropean bees #DC#@TE
(A) >ewer )arroa 5acobsoni mites reproduce in Africani!ed bees.
(B) )arroa 5acobsoni is killing many bee colonies in #urope.
(C) Beekeepers in Bra!il ha'e not used pre'enti'e measures to protect their
colonies.
() Bra!ilian bee colonies ha'e endured )arroa 5acobsoni since 1,-2.
(#) At least some #uropean bee colonies ha'e been sa'ed by pre'enti'e measures.
22. According to the passage/ research suggests that one possible reason the
Africani!ed bees in Bra!il ha'e successfully resisted )arroa 5acobsoni is that
(A) the life cycle of the Africani!ed bee may limit the )arroa 5acobsoni mite4s
opportunity to reach full de'elopment
(B) the Africani!ed bees may ha'e had an opportunity to de'elop a chemical
resistance to )arroa 5acobsoni
(C) the location of bee colonies in Bra!il may pro'ide a natural deterrent to )arroa
5acobsoni
() )arroa 5acobsoni may be relati'ely new to Bra!il and may not ha'e had time
to become widespread
(#) beekeepers may ha'e de'eloped effecti'e control techni"ues for )arroa
5acobsoni
2-. The author4s argument regarding the resistance of Africani!ed bees to )arroa
5acobsoni would be most weakened if which of the following were true%
(A) The bees in Bra!il were resistant before being Africani!ed.
(B) The number of bee colonies in 9orth American increased dramatically whereas
the number in Bra!il remained unchanged.
(C) ?ites found in #uropean bees reproduce at a faster rate than mites of identical
species found in the bees in Bra!il.
() Africani!ed bees retain many of the characteristics of #uropean bees.
(#) Bee colonies in #urope continue to produce greater "uantities of honey than do
those in Bra!il.
250 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
1993 10
SECTION A
,ationa" character is not &orma""y considered by socia" scientists in discussing
economic and socia" deve"opment today. They be"ieve that peop"e di1er and that
these di1erences shou"d be ta$en into account somehow( but they have as yet
discovered no way to inc"ude such variab"es in their &orma" mode"s o& economic
and socia" deve"opment. The di*cu"ty "ies in the nature o& the data that
supposed"y de#ne di1erent nationa" characters. 3nthropo"ogists and others are on
much #rmer ground when they attempt to describe the cu"tura" norms &or a sma""
homogeneous tribe or vi""age than when they underta$e the &ormidab"e tas$ o&
discovering the norms that e8ist in a comp"e8 modern nation-state composed o&
many disparate groups. The situation is &urther comp"icated by the nature o&
5udgments about character( since such 5udgments are over"y dependent on
impressions and since( &urthermore( impressions are usua""y stated in -ua"itative
terms( it is impossib"e to ma$e a re"iab"e comparison between the nationa"
characters o& two countries.
1-. The author4s main point in the passage is that national character
(A) is too elusi'e to merit attention by anthropologists and other social scientists
(B) is of greater interest to social scientists today than it has been in the past
(C) is still too difficult to describe with the precision re"uired by many social
scientists
() has become increasingly irrele'ant because of the comple$ity of modern life
(#) can be described more accurately by anthropologists than by other social
scientists
16. Bi'en the information in the passage/ which of the following is 98T true of
modern nation(states%
(A) They are comple$.
(B) They are heterogeneous.
(C) They are of interest to social scientists.
() They lack cultural norms.
(#) They differ from one another in terms of national character.
1,. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the social scientists mentioned in lines 1(-
would agree with which of the following statements%
3. 3t is e$tremely difficult to create models that account for both economic and
social de'elopment.
33. ?odels of economic and social de'elopment would be impro'ed by the
inclusion of ade"uate descriptions of national character.
GRE 251
333. 3t is important to supplement formal models of economic and social
de'elopment with "ualitati'e impressions of national character.
(A) 3 only
(B) 33 only
(C) 333 only
() 3 and 333 only
(#) 33 and 333 only
25. &hich of the following best describes the organi!ation of the passage%
(A) A problem is presented and reasons for its e$istence are supplied.
(B) A contro'ersial 'iew is presented and e'idence for its 'alidity is supplied.
(C) A hypothesis is presented and possible means of 'erifying it are suggested.
() A recent de'elopment is described and then analy!ed.
(#) A dispute is summari!ed and one side defended.
<ne o& the simp"est and best $nown $inds o& crysta" is the ionic sa"t( o& which a
typica" e8amp"e is sodium ch"oride or ordinary tab"e sa"t. The &undamenta"
components o& an ionic sa"t are ionsA atoms or mo"ecu"es that have become
e"ectrica""y charged by gaining or "osing one or more e"ectrons. 2n &orming sodium
ch"oride( &or e8amp"e( sodium atoms give up an e"ectron (thereby becoming
positive"y charged) and ch"orine atoms gain an e"ectron (thereby becoming
negative"y charged). The ions are attracted to one another by their opposite
charges( and they stac$ together compact"y( "i$e tight"y pac$ed spheres.
Recent"y( scientists at Bichigan tate University created a new $ind o& crysta"
ca""ed an e"ectride. 2n e"ectrides( the anions (negative ions) are comp"ete"y
rep"aced by e"ectrons( which are trapped in natura""y &ormed cavities within a
&ramewor$ o& regu"ar"y stac$ed cations (positive ions). @"ectrides are the #rst
e8amp"es o& ionic sa"ts in which a"" these anionic sites are occupied so"e"y by
e"ectrons.
Un"i$e other types o& anions( anionic e"ectrons do not behave as i& they were
simp"e charged spheres. 2n particu"ar( because o& their "ow mass and their
tendency to interact with one another over great distances( they cannot be
>pinned down? to any one "ocation. 2nstead( they wander c"ose to and among the
atoms "ining the cavity and interact with e"ectrons in nearby cavities( perhaps
changing p"aces with them.
The properties o& an e"ectride depend "arge"y on the distance between the
cavities that ho"d trapped e"ectrons. ;hen the trapped e"ectrons are &ar apart(
they do not interact strong"y( and so behave somewhat "i$e an array o& iso"ated
negative charges. ;hen they are c"oser together( they begin to disp"ay properties
associated with "arge ensemb"es o& identica" partic"es. ;hen they are sti"" c"oser(
the ensemb"e properties dominate and the e"ectrons >de"oca"i+e?A they are no
"onger tight"y bound within individua" cavities but are more or "ess &ree to pass
252 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
through the spaces within the &rame-wor$ o& positive ions.
'y synthesi+ing e"ectrides &rom a variety o& materia"s( one can vary the
geometry o& the anionic cavities and their re"ation to the surrounding cations. The
resu"ting properties may ma$e it possib"e &or e"ectrides to become a basis &or
economica""y use&u" new materia"s and devices. :or instance( because the
e"ectrons in some e"ectrides are very wea$"y bound( these crysta"s cou"d be
e1ective as photosensitive detectors( in which an impinging photon "iberates an
e"ectron( resu"ting in a sma"" e"ectric current. The same wea$ binding cou"d a"so
ma$e e"ectrides use&u" in so"ar-energy converters and as cathodes in batteries.
<ne obstac"e is the tendency o& e"ectrides to decompose through reaction with air
and water. Researchers are see$ing ways to increase their stabi"ity.
21. The passage is primarily concerned with discussing
(A) a way to isolate electrons
(B) the characteristics of a new kind of crystal
(C) the structure of an ionic salt
() commercial uses for electrides
(#) the properties of ions
22. 3n the first paragraph/ the author is primarily concerned with
(A) introducing a 'ariant on the standard atomic theory
(B) describing how chlorine atoms can become negati'ely charged
(C) describing some early research at ?ichigan ;tate :ni'ersity
() presenting the identifying properties of an electride
(#) pro'iding background for the technical discussion to follow
2.. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the differences between the beha'ior of
anionic electrons and normal anions result from which of the following features of
electrons/ as compared to normal anions%
3. The much lower mass of electrons
33. The much greater tendency of electrons to interact with one another o'er large
distances
333. The much greater likelihood of electrons to remain trapped in naturally formed
anionic ca'ities
(A) 3 only
(B) 33 only
(C) 3 and 33 only
() 3 and 333 only
(#) 33 and 333 only
20. According to the passage/ the defining characteristic of an electride is which of the
following%
GRE 25-
(A) 3ts positi'e ions are of particularly low mass.
(B) 3ts ions possess identical electrical charges.
(C) 3t contains a framework of regularly stacked ions.
() 3ts ions demonstrate strong mutual attraction.
(#) 3ts negati'e ions consist solely of electrons.
21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that anions beha'ing as *simple charged
spheres+ (line 22) could be e$pected to
(A) readily lose electrons and become positi'ely charged
(B) mo'e freely in and out of their ca'ities
(C) respond to photons by liberating electrons
() stack with other anions to create a regular framework
(#) remain fi$ed relati'e to their cations
22. 3t can be inferred from the passage that an electride beha'es most like a normal
ionic crystal when the electride has which of the following features%
(A) The anionic ca'ities are widely separated.
(B) All of the trapped electrons are able to delocali!e.
(C) The trapped electrons are liberated by impinging photons.
() The ions are tightly packed together.
(#) ?ost of the cations ha'e lost their electrical charge.
2-. &ith which of the following statements regarding electrides would the author most
likely agree%
(A) They ha'e pro'en themsel'es to be of great commercial 'alue.
(B) Their future commercial 'alue is promising but uncertain.
(C) They are interesting but of no practical 'alue.
() They ha'e commercial 'alue mainly in solar(energy applications.
(#) Their principal importance will lie in scientific research.
SECTION B
Typica""y the -ueen honeybee is mother to a"" the bees in a hive= a&ter mating
with severa" ma"e drones &rom other co"onies( she "ays &erti"i+ed eggs that deve"op
into a""-&ema"e wor$er bees and "ays un&erti"i+ed eggs that become a""-ma"e
drones. ;hen a -ueen dies( wor$ers o&ten "ay un&erti"i+ed eggs that hatch into
drones. Iet wor$ers rare"y reproduce whi"e a -ueen reigns.
3ccording to natura" se"ection theory( a wor$er wou"d enhance her #tness!or
abi"ity to propagate her genes!by hatching her own eggs in addition to or in
p"ace o& the -ueen6s. 'ut a typica" wor$er6s #tness wou"d be diminished i& other
wor$ers6 sons( who have "ess genetic materia" in common with the wor$er(
256 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
supp"anted the -ueen6s sons (the wor$er6s brothers). Researchers( testing the
hypothesis that wor$ers usua""y somehow b"oc$ each other6s attempts to
reproduce( put un&erti"i+ed eggs "aid by wor$ers and by the -ueen into a hive.
<ther wor$ers -uic$"y devoured the wor$ers6 eggs whi"e "eaving the -ueen6s eggs
a"one.
1-. The author refers to the e$periment described in lines 12(1, in order to
(A) e$plain how worker bees are pre'ented from mating with drones
(B) e$plain how worker bees hatch and nurture the "ueen4s young
(C) demonstrate the uni'ersality of natural selection
() show that worker bees are capable of thwarting each other4s attempts to
reproduce
(#) pro'ide a model of daily life in a typical honeybee hi'e
16. The inner workings in a honeybee hi'e that regulate reproduction/ as they are
described in the passage/ are most similar to which of the following types of
human societies%
(A) A totalitarian society in which citi!ens4 *policing+ of each other4s actions helps
to maintain the status "uo.
(B) A pacifist state in which the indi'iduals are strongly opposed to the use of
'iolence or aggression to settle disputes.
(C) A democratic society in which the 'oice of the ma<ority rules.
() A parliamentary society in which a few members/ organi!ed as a cabinet wield
e$ecuti'e power.
(#) An anarchic state in which order and stable social structures are lacking.
1,. The passage best supports which of the following inferences about the fitness of
honeybees%
(A) =eproduction diminishes any indi'idual honeybee4s fitness.
(B) An indi'idual worker4s fitness can be maintained without the indi'idual herself
reproducing.
(C) A hierarchy of stronger and weaker indi'iduals among the worker bees
determines which indi'iduals will reproduce when a "ueen dies.
() &hile a "ueen reigns/ the fitness of the worker bees is increased and that of the
drones is diminished.
(#) >itness encourages worker bees to hatch honeybee eggs without regard for the
relatedness of the young to the *parent.+
25. The passage suggests which of the following about the eggs laid by worker bees%
(A) 8ne of the eggs hatches into the ne$t "ueen.
(B) The eggs are in'ariably destroyed by other worker bees.
(C) #ach worker tries to hide her eggs from the other worker bees.
GRE 25,
() The eggs hatch only if the worker has mated with a drone from another hi'e.
(#) The eggs are less likely to be harmed by other workers if the "ueen is dead.
2n the #e"ds o& Ke"ano( %a"i&ornia( in 19L/( Juis Fa"de+ started the Teatro
%ampesino (:armwor$er6s Theater)( and with it initiated the renaissance o&
Be8ican 3merican theater. The Teatro %ampesino had an avowed"y po"itica"
purposeA to ra""y cam#esinos (&armwor$ers) in support o& the &arm wor$ers6 stri$e
then being organi+ed by %esar %have+. Fa"de+6 dramatic presentations( ca""ed
actos& spo$e to a cam#esino audience and addressed topics and themes direct"y
re"ated to the stri$e. Fa"de+6 ear"y actos were composed o& a series o& scenes
about the stri$e e8perience acted by cam#esino vo"unteers. )is "ater actos were
presented by a new"y constituted pro&essiona" company( sti"" ca""ed the Teatro
%ampesino( and addressed such themes as the impact o& the Fietnam ;ar on
Be8ican 3mericans and the dangers o& assimi"ation( themes re"evant to urban
Be8ican 3mericans as we"" as to cam#esinos. 3"" Fa"de+6 actos contained e"ements
o& song and dance( re"ied "itt"e on stage e1ects or props( and &eatured the use o&
mas$s. These dramatic e"ements( a"ong with an intense"y socia" or po"itica"
purpose and the use o& a mi8ture o& panish( @ng"ish( and Be8ican 3merican
dia"ects in the dia"ogues( which rea"istica""y capture the Davor o& Be8ican
3merican conversation( are sti"" characteristic both o& the acto and o& most other
&orms o& Be8ican 3merican theater today.
2nnovative as it is( the acto owes much to the theater traditions o& other
periods and regions. Ji$e ear"y panish 3merican re"igious dramas( secu"ar &o"$
dramas( and the Be8ican car#as o& a somewhat "ater period( actos are usua""y
per&ormed outdoors by trave"ing groups o& p"ayers or by "oca" theater groups. The
improvised comic satire o& the actos is o&ten attributed to Fa"de+6 study o& the
2ta"ian commedia dell arte o& the si8teenth century( a"though some critics see it
as a direct reDection o& the comic and improvisationa" -ua"ities o& the more
contemporary and "oca" car#as o& Be8ican theater. The 2ta"ian inDuence is "i$e"y(
whatever Fa"de+ immediate sourceA the Be8ican car#as themse"ves are said to
have originated &rom the theater pieces o& a si8teenth-century panish writer
inspired by encounters with 2ta"ian commedia dell arte troupes on tour in pain.
The @ng"ish-"anguage theater has provided e"ements as we""A Fa"de+ himse"& has
ac$now"edged his debt to the agitprop socia"ist theater that appeared in the
United tates during the 19406s and 19706s. 2n particu"ar( his actos contain the
same assortment o& semia""egorica" characters and the same b"end o& music(
chorus( and dia"ogue &ound in some o& the agitprop pieces( as we"" as the same
#erce spirit o& socia" and po"itica" criti-ue. :ina""y( many o& Fa"de+6 "ater theater
pieces &ree"y incorporate characters( p"ots and symbo"s drawn &rom the
indigenous myths and ritua"s o& the pre-)ispanic peop"es o& Jatin 3merica. 2n &act(
no other art &orm i""ustrates more c"ear"y the depth and comp"e8ity o& the Be8ican
3merican heritage itse"& than does the acto o& Juis Fa"de+ and the Teatro
%ampesino.
215 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
21. According to the passage/ the original impetus behind the establishment of the
Teatro Campesino was which of the following%
(A) To help urban ?e$ican Americans understand the problems confronting
striking ca-pesinos in California
(B) To promote an attitude of pride in the depth and richness of the ?e$ican
American heritage among striking ca-pesinos
(C) To pro'ide striking campesinos an opportunity to use their creati'e talents to
e$press their political opinions
() To allow its founder to e$press his personal support of the ca-pesinos strike
effort
(#) To mobili!e ca-pesinos to support the farm workers4 strike in California
22. The author cites all of the following as probable influences on Calde!4
de'elopment of the acto #DC#@T the
(A) theater of si$teenth(century 3taly
(B) carpas of ?e$ico
(C) drama of classical Breece
() #nglish(language theater of the :nited ;tates
(#) myths and rituals of pre()ispanic America
2.. The passage suggests that which of the following was true of the later actos of the
Teatro Campesino%
(A) They were more politically effecti'e than were earlier actos.
(B) They were presented primarily outdoors/ whereas earlier actos were presented
inside theaters.
(C) They used a greater mi$ture of dialects than did the earlier actos.
() They addressed a broader audience than did the earlier actos.
(#) They differed from earlier actos in that they contained fewer impro'isational
elements.
20. &hich of the following best describes the author4s e'aluation of the 'iews of the
critics cited in lines .2(.,%
(A) Their 'iews/ if correct/ do not preclude the e$istence of an 3talian influence on
the acto.
(B) Their 'iews are unlikely to be correct/ gi'en the differences e$isting between
?e$ican and ?e$ican American theater.
(C) Their 'iews concerning the ?e$ican carpas are essentially correct/ but they
lack familiarity with the acto2
() Their 'iews are probably more correct than the 'iews of those who ha'e
attributed the comic and impro'isational elements of the acto to earlier sources.
(#) Their 'iews betray a lack of familiarity with the co--edia dell arte.
GRE 211
21. The passage suggests that which of the following e$plains the characteristic use of
a mi$ture of ;panish/ #nglish/ and ?e$ican American dialects in the works of
?e$ican American playwrights%
(A) ?e$ican American playwrights wish to include in their works elements drawn
from the traditions and history of pre()ispanic America.
(B) ?e$ican American playwrights try to guarantee that their works are fully
understood by the broadest possible audience/ including those who may speak
only one language.
(C) ;uch a linguistic mi$ faithfully reflects the linguistic di'ersity of ?e$ican
American culture/ and is easily understood by most ?e$ican Americans.
() ?any ?e$ican American playwrights are "uite familiar with both the ;panish(
language and the #nglish(language theater traditions.
(#) ?any different languages are still spoken within the confines of the :nited
;tates/ although #nglish is still the most common first language of its citi!ens.
22. According to the passage/ which of the following elements characteristic of the
acto are also found in some agitprop theater pieces%
(A) The use of masks
(B) Comic impro'isation
(C) An outdoor setting
() ?inimal use of comple$ stage effects or props
(#) An assortment of semiallegorical characters
2-. &hich of the following/ if true/ most strengthens the author4s argument concerning
the debt of the acto to the theater traditions of other periods and regions%
(A) ?any popular forms of theater rely hea'ily on impro'isation.
(B) @lays resembling the acto in structure were written in the 1,-54s by &est
African playwrights who are interested in dramati!ing the richness of their own
cultures.
(C) The use of masks has/ at one time or another/ been characteristic of the theater
traditions of almost all cultures/ e'en those most isolated from outside
influences.
() uring a strike/ it is common for union members to present musical skits
dramati!ing the 'alues of solidarity and resistance.
(#) Before 1,21 Kuis Calde! had attended many performances of traditional
?e$ican theater groups touring the western :nited ;tates.
1994 02
SECTION A
212 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
3na"y+ing the physics o& dance can add &undamenta""y to a dancer6s s$i"".
3"though dancers se"dom see themse"ves tota""y in physica" terms!as body mass
moving through space under the inDuence o& we""-$nown &orces and obeying
physica" "awsneither can they a1ord to ignore the physics o& movement. :or
e8amp"e( no matter how much a dancer wishes to "eap o1 the Door and then start
turning( the "aw o& conservation o& angu"ar momentum abso"ute"y prevents such a
movement.
ome movements invo"ving primari"y vertica" or hori+onta" motions o& the body
as a who"e( in which rotations can be ignored( can be studied using simp"e
e-uations o& "inear motion in three dimensions. )owever( rotationa" motions
re-uire more comp"e8 approaches that invo"ve ana"yses o& the way the body6s
mass is distributed( the a8es o& rotation invo"ved in di1erent types o& movement(
and the sources o& the &orces that produce the rotationa" movement.
1-. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) initiate a debate o'er two approaches to analy!ing a field of study
(B) describe how one field of knowledge can be applied to another field
(C) point out the contradictions between two distinct theories
() define and elaborate on an accepted scientific principle
(#) discuss the application of a new theory within a new setting
16. The author mentions all of the following as contributing to an understanding of the
physics of dance #DC#@TE
(A) the law of conser'ation of angular momentum
(B) analyses of the way in which the body4s mass is distributed
(C) e"uations of linear motion in three dimensions
() analyses of the sources that produce rotational motions
(#) the technical terms for mo'ements such as leaps and turns
1,. The author implies that dancers can become more skilled by doing which of the
following%
(A) 3gnoring rotational mo'ements
(B) :nderstanding the forces that permit 'arious mo'ements
(C) ;ol'ing simple linear e"uations
() Kearning the technical terms utili!ed by choreographers
(#) Circum'enting the law of conser'ation of angular momentum
25. Analysis of which of the following would re"uire the kind of comple$ approach
described in lines 10(1,%
(A) A long leap across space
(B) A short <ump upward with a return to the same place
(C) A sustained and controlled turn in place
GRE 21.
() ;hort/ rapid steps forward and then backward without turning
(#) Nuick sidesteps in a diagonal line
)uman re"ations have commanded peop"e6s attention &rom ear"y times. The
ways o& peop"e have been recorded in innumerab"e myths( &o"$ta"es( nove"s(
poems( p"ays( and popu"ar or phi"osophica" essays. 3"though the &u"" signi#cance
o& a human re"ationship may not be direct"y evident( the comp"e8ity o& &ee"ings
and actions that can be understood at a g"ance is surprising"y great. :or this
reason psycho"ogy ho"ds a uni-ue position among the sciences. >2ntuitive?
$now"edge may be remar$ab"y penetrating and can signi#cant"y he"p us
understand human behavior( whereas in the physica" sciences such commonsense
$now"edge is re"ative"y primitive. 2& we erased a"" $now"edge o& scienti#c physics
&rom our modem word( not on"y wou"d we not have cars and te"evision sets( we
might even #nd that the ordinary person was unab"e to cope with the
&undamenta" mechanica" prob"ems o& pu""eys and "evers. <n the other hand i& we
removed a"" $now"edge o& scienti#c psycho"ogy &rom our wor"d( prob"ems in
interpersona" re"ations might easi"y be coped with and so"ved much as be&ore. ;e
wou"d sti"" >$now? how to avoid doing something as$ed o& us and how to get
someone to agree with us= we wou"d sti"" >$now? when someone was angry and
when someone was p"eased. <ne cou"d even o1er sensib"e e8p"anations &or the
>whys? o& much o& the se"&6s behavior and &ee"ings. 2n other words( the ordinary
person has a great and pro&ound understanding o& the se"& and o& other peop"e
which( though un&ormu"ated or on"y vague"y conceived( enab"es one to interact
with others in more or "ess adaptive ways. Soh"er( in re&erring to the "ac$ o& great
discoveries in psycho"ogy as compared with physics( accounts &or this by saying
that >peop"e were ac-uainted with practica""y a"" territories o& menta" "i&e a "ong
time be&ore the &ounding o& scienti#c psycho"ogy.?
9arado8ica""y( with a"" this natura"( intuitive( commonsense capacity to grasp
human re"ations( the science o& human re"ations has been one o& the "ast to
deve"op. Ki1erent e8p"anations o& this parado8 have been suggested. <ne is that
science wou"d destroy the vain and p"easing i""usions peop"e have about
themse"ves= but we might as$ why peop"e have a"ways "oved to read pessimistic(
debun$ing writings( &rom @cc"esiastes to :reud. 2t has a"so been proposed that 5ust
because we $now so much about peop"e intuitive"y( there has been "ess incentive
&or studying them scienti#ca""y= why shou"d one deve"op a theory( carry out
systematic observations( or ma$e predictions about the obviousG 2n any case( the
#e"d o& human re"ations( with its vast "iterary documentation but meager scienti#c
treatment( is in great contrast to the #e"d o& physic in which there are re"ative"y
&ew nonscienti#c boo$s.
21. According to the passage/ it has been suggested that the science of human relations
was slow to de'elop because
(A) intuiti'e knowledge of human relations is deri'ed from philosophy
(B) early scientists were more interested in the physical world
210 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(C) scientific studies of human relations appear to in'estigate the ob'ious
() the scientific method is difficult to apply to the study of human relations
(#) people generally seem to be more attracted to literary than to scientific writings
about human relations
22. The author4s statement that *@sychology holds a uni"ue position among the
sciences+ (lines 6(,) is supported by which of the following claims in the passage%
(A) The full meaning of a human relationship may not be ob'ious.
(B) Commonsense understanding of human relations can be incisi'e.
(C) 3ntuiti'e knowledge in the physical sciences is relati'ely ad'anced.
() ;ub<ecti'e bias is difficult to control in psychological research.
(#) @sychological facts are too imprecise to lead to great disco'eries.
2.. According to the passage/ an understanding of the self can be
(A) highly biased due to unconscious factors
(B) profound e'en when 'aguely concei'ed
(C) impro'ed by speciali!ed training
() irrele'ant for understanding human relations
(#) more reliable than knowledge about other people
20. 3t can be inferred that the author would most likely agree with which of the
following statements regarding people who li'ed before the ad'ent of scientific
psychology%
(A) Their understanding of human relations was "uite limited.
(B) They were uninterested in ac"uiring knowledge of the physical world.
(C) They misunderstood others more fre"uently than do people today.
() Their intuitions about human relations were reasonably sophisticated.
(#) They were more likely to hold pleasing illusions about themsel'es than are
people today.
21. The author implies that attempts to treat human relations scientifically ha'e thus
far been relati'ely
(A) unilluminating
(B) parado$ical
(C) pessimistic
() encouraging
(#) uninterpretable
22. The author refers to people who are attracted to *pessimistic/ debunking writings+
(line 00) in order to support which of the following ideas%
(A) 3nteresting books about human relations are typically pessimistic.
GRE 211
(B) @eople tend to ignore scientific e$planations of human relations.
(C) @eople rarely hold pleasing illusions about themsel'es.
() A scientific approach human relations would undermine the pleasing illusions
people hold of themsel'es.
(#) 3t is doubtful that the science of human relations de'eloped slowly because of
a desire to maintain pleasing illusions.
2-. 3t can be inferred that the author assumes that commonsense knowledge of human
relations is
(A) e"ually well de'eloped among all adults within a gi'en society
(B) considerably more accurate in some societies than in others
(C) biased insofar as it is based on myths and folktales
() typically unrelated to an indi'idual4s interactions with other people
(#) usually sufficiently accurate to facilitate interactions with others
SECTION B
3"though a historica" "ac$ o& access to &orma" panish-"anguage education
initia""y "imited the opportunities o& some %hicanos to hone their s$i""s as writers o&
panish( their bi"ingua" cu"ture c"ear"y &ostered an e8uberant and compe""ing ora"
tradition. 2t has thus genera""y been by way o& the emphasis on ora" "iterary
creativity that these %hicano writers( whose @ng"ish-"anguage wor$s are
sometimes uninspired( deve"oped the power&u" and arresting "anguage that
characteri+ed their panish-"anguage wor$s. This panish-@ng"ish di1erence is not
surprising. ;hen writing in panish( these authors stayed c"ose to the spo$en
traditions o& their communities where pub"ication( support( and instructive
response wou"d come -uic$"y in "oca" or regiona" newspapers. ;or$s in @ng"ish(
however( o&ten re-uired the e"imination o& nuance or co""o-uia"ism( the adoption
o& a &orma" tone( and the ad5ustment o& themes or ideas to satis&y the di1erent
demands o& nationa" pub"ications.
1-. The passage is primarily concerned with doing which of the following%
(A) ebating the historical 'alue of a literary mo'ement
(B) escribing and accounting for a difference in literary styles
(C) #$plaining a publishing decision and e'aluating its results
() Analy!ing the e$pectations of a particular group of readers
(#) Classifying se'eral kinds of literary production
16. According to the author/ the Chicano oral e$perience contributed directly to which
of the following characteristics in the work of some Chicano writers%
(A) A sensiti'ity to and adeptness in using the spoken language
(B) A tendency to appear in national rather than regional publications
212 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(C) A style reflecting the influence of ;panish language education
() A reliance on a rather formal style
(#) A capacity to appeal to a broad range of audiences
1,. &hich of the following best describes the function of the last two sentences of the
passage (lines 11(1,)%
(A) They e$pand on an ad'antage mentioned in the first sentence of the
passage(lines 1(1).
(B) They outline the conse"uences of a limitation discussed in the first sentence of
the passage (lines 1(1).
(C) They pro'ide e$plicit e$amples drawn from the oral and the written works
mentioned in the second sentence of the passage (lines 1(15).
() They e$plain the causes of a phenomenon mentioned in the third sentence of
the passage(lines 15(11).
(#) They limit the applicability of a generali!ation made in the third sentence of
the passage (lines 15(11).
25. The passage suggests that which of the following was probably characteristic of
the *national publications+ mentioned in line 1,%
(A) They primarily presented scholarly material of little interest to a general
audience.
(B) They sometimes published articles treating contro'ersial themes.
(C) They encouraged authors to feature local issues in articles in order to increase
circulation.
() They included a significant number of articles by minority authors.
(#) They took a stylistically formal approach to material of interest to a general
audience.
The two c"aws o& the mature 3merican "obster are decided"y di1erent &rom
each other. The crusher c"aw is short and stout= the cutter c"aw is "ong and
s"ender. uch bi"atera" asymmetry( in which the right side o& the body is( in a""
other respects( a mirror image o& the "e&t side( is not un"i$e handedness in
humans. 'ut where the ma5ority o& humans are right-handed( in "obsters the
crusher c"aw appears with e-ua" probabi"ity on either the right or "e&t side o& the
body.
'i"atera" asymmetry o& the c"aws comes about gradua""y. 2n the 5uveni"e &ourth
and #&th stages o& deve"opment( the paired c"aws are symmetrica" and cutter"i$e.
3symmetry begins to appear in the 5uveni"e si8th stage o& deve"opment( and the
paired c"aws &urther diverge toward we""-de#ned cutter and crusher c"aws during
succeeding stages. 3n intriguing aspect o& this deve"opment was discovered by
Fictor @mme". )e &ound that i& one o& the paired c"aws is removed during the
&ourth or #&th stage( the intact c"aw invariab"y becomes a crusher( whi"e the
regenerated c"aw becomes a cutter. Remova" o& a c"aw during a "ater 5uveni"e
GRE 21-
stage or during adu"thood( when asymmetry is present( does not a"ter the
asymmetry= the intact and the regenerate c"aws retain their origina" structures.
These observations indicate that the conditions that trigger di1erentiation
must operate in a random manner when the paired c"aws are intact but in a
nonrandom manner when one o& the c"aws is "ost. <ne possib"e e8p"anation is that
di1erentia" use o& the c"aws determines their asymmetry. 9erhaps the c"aw that is
used more becomes the crusher. This wou"d e8p"ain why( when one o& the c"aws is
missing during the &ourth or #&th stage( the intact c"aw a"ways becomes a crusher.
;ith two intact c"aws( initia" use o& one c"aw might prompt the anima" to use it
more than the other throughout the 5uveni"e &ourth and #&th stages( causing it to
become a crusher.
To test this hypothesis( researchers raised "obsters in the 5uveni"e &ourth and
#&th stages o& deve"opment in a "aboratory environment in which the "obsters
cou"d manipu"ate oyster chips. (,ot coincidenta""y( at this stage o& deve"opment
"obsters typica""y change &rom a habitat where they dri&t passive"y( to the ocean
Door where they have the opportunity to be more active by burrowing in the
substrate.) Under these conditions( the "obsters deve"oped asymmetric c"aws( ha"&
with crusher c"aws on the "e&t( and ha"& with crusher c"aws on the right. 2n
contrast( when 5uveni"e "obsters were reared in a smooth tan$ without the oyster
chips( the ma5ority deve"oped two cutter c"aws. This unusua" con#guration o&
symmetrica" cutter c"aws did not change when the "obsters were subse-uent"y
p"aced in a manipu"atab"e environment or when they "ost and regenerated one or
both c"aws.
21. The passage is primarily concerned with
(A) drawing an analogy between asymmetry in lobsters and handedness in humans
(B) de'eloping a method for predicting whether crusher claws in lobsters will
appear on the left or right side
(C) e$plaining differences between lobsters4 crusher claws and cutter claws
() discussing a possible e$planation for the way bilateral asymmetry is
determined in lobsters
(#) summari!ing the stages of de'elopment of the lobster
22. #ach of the following statements about the de'elopment of a lobster4s crusher
claw is supported by information in the passage #DC#@TE
(A) 3t can be stopped on one side and begun on the other after the <u'enile si$th
stage.
(B) 3t occurs gradually o'er a number of stages.
(C) 3t is initially apparent in the <u'enile si$th stage.
() 3t can occur e'en when a prospecti'e crusher claw is remo'ed in the <u'enile
si$th stage.
(#) 3t is less likely in the absence of a manipulatable en'ironment.
216 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
2.. &hich of the following e$perimental results/ if obser'ed/ would most clearly
contradict the findings of Cictor #mmel%
(A) A left cutterlike claw is remo'ed in the fifth stage and a crusher claw de'elops
on the right side.
(B) A left cutterlike claw is remo'ed in the fourth stage and a crusher claw
de'elops on the left side.
(C) A left cutterlike claw is remo'ed in the si$th stage and a crusher claw de'elops
on the right side.
() Both cutterlike claws are remo'ed in the fifth stage and a crusher claw
de'elops on the left side.
(#) Both cutterlike claws are remo'ed in the fourth stage and a crusher claw
de'elops on the right side.
20. 3t can be inferred that of the two laboratory en'ironments mentioned in the
passage/ the one with oyster chips was designed to
(A) pro'e that the presence of oyster chips was not necessary for the de'elopment
of a crusher claw
(B) pro'e that the relati'e length of time that the lobsters were e$posed to the
oyster(chip en'ironment had little impact on the de'elopment of a crusher claw
(C) eliminate the en'ironment as a possible influence in the de'elopment of a
crusher claw
() control on which side the crusher claw de'elops
(#) simulate the conditions that lobsters encounter in their natural en'ironment
21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that one difference between lobsters in the
earlier stages of de'elopment and those in the <u'enile fourth and fifth stages is
that lobsters in the early stages are
(A) likely to be less acti'e
(B) likely to be less symmetrical
(C) more likely to lose a claw
() more likely to replace a crusher claw with a cutter claw
(#) more likely to regenerate a lost claw
22. &hich of the following conditions does the passage suggest is a possible cause for
the failure of a lobster to de'elop a crusher claw%
(A) The loss of a claw during the third or earlier stage of de'elopment
(B) The loss of a claw during the fourth or fifth stage of de'elopment
(C) The loss of a claw during the si$th stage of de'elopment
() e'elopment in an en'ironment de'oid of material that can be manipulated
(#) e'elopment in an en'ironment that changes fre"uently throughout the stages
of de'elopment
GRE 21,
2-. The author regards the idea that differentiation is triggered randomly when paired
claws remain intact as
(A) irrefutable considering the authoritati'e nature of #mmel4s obser'ations
(B) likely in 'iew of present e'idence
(C) contradictory to con'entional thinking on lobster(claw differentiation
() purely speculati'e because it is based on scattered research and
e$perimentation
(#) unlikely because of apparent inconsistencies with theories on handedness in
humans
1994 04
SECTION A
Ke&enders o& specia" protective "abor "egis"ation &or women o&ten maintain that
e"iminating such "aws wou"d destroy the &ruits o& a century-"ong strugg"e &or the
protection o& women wor$ers. @ven a brie& e8amination o& the historic practice o&
courts and emp"oyers wou"d show that the &ruit o& such "aws has been bitterA they
are( in practice( more o& a curse than a b"essing.
e8-de#ned protective "aws have o&ten been based on stereotypica"
assumptions concerning women6s needs and abi"ities( and emp"oyers have
&re-uent"y used them as "ega" e8cuses &or discriminating against women. 3&ter the
econd ;or"d ;ar( &or e8amp"e( businesses and government sought to persuade
women to vacate 5obs in &actories( thus ma$ing room in the "abor &orce &or
returning veterans. The reviva" or passage o& state "aws "imiting the dai"y or
wee$"y wor$ hours o& women convenient"y accomp"ished this. @mp"oyers had on"y
to dec"are that overtime hours were a necessary condition o& emp"oyment or
promotion in their &actory( and women cou"d be -uite "ega""y #red( re&used 5obs( or
$ept at "ow wage "eve"s( a"" in the name o& >protecting? their hea"th. 'y va"idating
such "aws when they are cha""enged by "awsuits( the courts have co""uded over
the years in estab"ishing di1erent( "ess advantageous emp"oyment terms &or
women than &or men( thus reducing women6s competitiveness on the 5ob mar$et.
3t the same time( even the most we""-intentioned "awma$ers( courts( and
emp"oyers have o&ten been b"ind to the rea" needs o& women. The "awma$ers and
the courts continue to permit emp"oyers to o1er emp"oyee hea"th insurance p"ans
that cover a"" $nown human medica" disabi"ities e8cept those re"ating to
pregnancy and chi"dbirth.
:ina""y( "abor "aws protecting on"y specia" groups are o&ten ine1ective at
protecting the wor$ers who are actua""y in the wor$p"ace. ome chemica"s( &or
e8amp"e( pose reproductive ris$s &or women o& chi"dbearing years= manu&acturers
using the chemica"s comp"y with "aws protecting women against these ha+ards by
re&using to hire them. Thus the se8-de#ned "egis"ation protects the hypothetica"
225 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
&ema"e wor$er( but has no e1ect whatever on the sa&ety o& any actua" emp"oyee.
The hea"th ris$s to ma"e emp"oyees in such industries cannot be neg"igib"e( since
chemica"s to8ic enough to cause birth de&ects in &etuses or steri"ity in women are
presumab"y harm&u" to the human metabo"ism. 9rotective "aws aimed at changing
production materia"s or techni-ues in order to reduce such ha+ards wou"d bene#t
a"" emp"oyees without discriminating against any.
2n sum( protective "abor "aws &or women are discriminatory and do not meet
their intended purpose. Jegis"ators shou"d recogni+e that women are in the wor$
&orce to stay( and that their needsgood hea"th care( a decent wage( and a sa&e
wor$p"aceare the needs o& a"" wor$ers. Jaws that ignore these &acts vio"ate
women6s rights &or e-ua" protection in emp"oyment.
1-. According to the author/ which of the following resulted from the passage or
re'i'al of state laws limiting the work hours of women workers%
(A) &omen workers were compelled to lea'e their <obs in factories.
(B) ?any employers had difficulty in pro'iding <obs for returning 'eterans.
(C) ?any employers found it hard to attract women workers.
() The health of most women factory workers impro'ed.
(#) #mployment practices that addressed the real needs of women workers became
common.
16. The author places the word *protecting+ in "uotation marks in line 21 most likely
in order to suggest that
(A) she is "uoting the actual wording of the laws in "uestion
(B) the protecti'e nature of the laws in "uestion should not be o'erlooked
(C) protecting the health of workers is important to those who support protecti'e
labor laws
() the laws in "uestion were really used to the detriment of women workers/
despite being o'ertly protecti'e in intent
(#) the health of workers is not in need of protection/ e'en in <obs where many
hours of o'ertime work are re"uired
1,. The passage suggests that which of the following is a shortcoming of protecti'e
labor laws that single out a particular group of workers for protection%
(A) ;uch laws are often too weak to be effecti'e at protecting the group in
"uestion.
(B) ;uch laws are usually drafted by legislators who/ do not ha'e the best interests
of workers at heart.
(C) ;uch laws e$ert no pressure on employers to eliminate ha!ards in the
workplace.
() Compliance with such laws is often costly for employers and pro'okes
lawsuits by employees claiming discrimination.
GRE 221
(#) #mployer compliance with such laws results in increased tension among
workers on the <ob/ because such laws unfairly pri'ilege one group of
employees o'er another.
25. According to the first paragraph of the passage/ the author considers which of the
following to be most helpful in determining the 'alue of special protecti'e labor
legislation for women%
(A) A comparati'e study of patterns of work(related illnesses in states that had
such laws and in states that did not
(B) An estimate of how many women workers are in fa'or of such laws
(C) An analysis of the cost to employers of complying with such laws
() A consideration of what intentions the ad'ocates of such laws really had
concerning women workers
(#) An e$amination of the actual effects that such laws ha'e had in the past on
women workers
21. The main point of the passage is that special protecti'e labor laws for women
workers are
(A) unnecessary because most workers are well protected by e$isting labor laws
(B) harmful to the economic interests of women workers while offering them little
or no actual protection
(C) not worth preser'ing e'en though they do represent a hard(won legacy of the
labor mo'ement
() contro'ersial because male workers recei'e less protection than they re"uire
(#) inade"uate in that they often do not pre'ent employers from e$posing women
workers to many health ha!ards
22. The author implies that which of the following is characteristic of many employee
health insurance plans%
(A) They co'er all the common medical conditions affecting men/ but only some
of those affecting women.
(B) They lack the special pro'isions for women workers that proposed special
labor laws for women would pro'ide.
(C) They pay the medical costs associated with pregnancy and childbirth only for
the spouses of male employees/ not for female employees.
() They meet minimum legal re"uirements/ but do not ade"uately safeguard the
health of either male or female employees.
(#) They ha'e recently been impro'ed as a result of the passage of new labor laws/
but continue to e$clude co'erage of certain uncommon medical conditions
affecting women.
2.. According to the passage/ special labor laws protecting women workers tend
generally to ha'e which of the following effects%
222 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(A) They tend to modify the stereotypes employees often hold concerning women.
(B) They increase the ad'antage to employers of hiring men instead of women/
making it less likely that women will be hired.
(C) They decrease the likelihood that employers will offer more protection to
women workers than that which is absolutely re"uired by law.
() They increase the tendency of employers to deny health insurance and
disability plans to women workers.
(#) They ha'e little impact of any kind on women workers/ since typically 'ery
few women are employed in those classes of <obs co'ered by the laws.
;hi"e it is true that "iving organisms are pro&ound"y a1ected by their
environment( it is e-ua""y important to remember that many organisms are a"so
capab"e o& a"tering their habitat signi#cant"y( sometimes "imiting their own
growth. The inDuence o& the bio"ogica" component o& an ecosystem is o&ten
greater in &resh waters that in marine or terrestria" systems( because o& the sma""
si+e o& many &reshwater bodies. Bany o& the important e1ects o& organisms are
re"ated to their physio"ogy( especia""y growth and respiration. 'y their growth
many species can dep"ete essentia" nutrients within the system( thus "imiting their
own growth or that o& other species. Jund has demonstrated that in Ja$e
;indermere the a"ga "sterionella is unab"e to grow in conditions that it itse"& has
created. <nce a year( in the spring( this p"ant starts to grow rapid"y in the "a$e(
using up so much si"ica &rom the water that by "ate spring there is no "onger
enough to maintain its own growth. The popu"ation decreases dramatica""y as a
resu"t.
20. &hich of the following is an e$ample of the type of organism described in lines 2(
1%
(A) A kind of ant that feeds on the sweet <uice e$uded by the twigs of a species of
thorn tree that grows in dry areas.
(B) A kind of fish that/ after growing to maturity in the ocean/ returns to fresh
water.
(C) A kind of flower that has markings distinctly perceptible in ultra'iolet light to
the species of bee that pollinates the flower.
() A kind of tree with seeds that germinate readily only in a sunny spot and then
de'elop into mature trees that shade the area below them.
(#) A kind of butterfly/ itself nonpoisonous/ with the same markings as a kind of
butterfly that birds refuse to eat because it is poisonous.
21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that which of the followings is true about
Asterionella plants in Kake &indermere%
(A) They are not present e$cept in early spring.
(B) They contribute silica to the waters as they grow.
(C) They are food for other organisms.
GRE 22.
() They form a silica(rich layer on the lake bottom.
(#) Their growth peaks in the spring.
22. The passage indicates that organisms fre"uently ha'e the strongest effects on their
en'ironment in
(A) oceans/ since oceans contain the largest organisms li'ing on #arth
(B) oceans/ since oceans pro'ide habitats for many different kinds of species
(C) freshwater bodies/ since such effects become pronounced in relati'ely small
spaces
() freshwater lakes/ since nutrients in freshwater lakes are present only in small
amounts
(#) land areas/ since there e$ist ma<or influences of climate on the kinds of small
organisms supported in land areas
2-. The primary topic of the passage is the way in which
(A) organisms are affected by the amount of nutrients a'ailable
(B) organisms can change their own surroundings
(C) elements of freshwater habitats impede the growth of small organisms
() the reproduction of organisms is controlled by factors in the en'ironment
(#) plant matter in a gi'en locale can increase up to a limit
SECTION B
2t is their sensitive response to human circumstance that accounts &or the
persistence o& certain universa" ideas. Rabbi Beir( a second-century scho"ar(
admonished his discip"es to "oo$ not at the pitcher but at its contents because( he
stated( >Bany a new pitcher has been &ound to be &u"" o& o"d wine.? This was his
way o& emphasi+ing the importance o& the distinction between &orm and idea( and
o& stressing that the integrity o& an idea is more important than the &orm o& its
e8pression.
%reative ideas not on"y produce their own instruments o& surviva" as time and
circumstances demand( but permit the substitution o& new &orms &or o"d under the
pressure o& changed circumstances. :or e8amp"e democracy( as an idea(
originated in ancient Ereece and was carried &rom there to ;estern @urope and
the 3mericas. 'ut it did not retain the ancient Eree$ &ormA it passed through
severa" re&orming processes and e8ists today in many countries. Kemocratic
governments di1er in &orm because democracy is in princip"e dynamic and has
there&ore responded to "oca" needs.
1-. The author is primarily concerned with
(A) illustrating the importance of a historical figure
(B) discussing an important characteristic of human ideas
220 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(C) describing the history of the growth of democracy
() contrasting ancient and modern 'iews of the importance of creati'e ideas
(#) e'aluating the contribution of ancient Breece to modern go'ernment
16. According to the passage/ democracy is an e$ample of
(A) a human circumstance that has molded creati'e ideas
(B) an instrument of sur'i'al that has altered its original form
(C) an attribute of a creati'e idea that has allowed that idea to persist
() a creati'e idea that has persisted because of its adaptability
(#) a reforming process that has culminated in the creation of modern go'ernments
1,. The *new pitcher+ mentioned in line 2 is the e"ui'alent of which of the following
elements in the author4s discussion of democracy (lines 11(22)%
(A) Ancient Breece
(B) The idea of democracy
(C) A modern democratic go'ernment
() A dynamic principle
(#) The Breek form of democracy
25. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author would disagree most with which
of the following assertions%
(A) Changing circumstances sometimes gi'e rise to original ideas.
(B) Creati'e ideas ha'e uni'ersal applications.
(C) Changing human needs influence uni'ersal ideas.
() emocratic institutions are appropriate in the modern world.
(#) An idea must be e$pressed in a traditional way.
'e&ore 19L/ many scientists pictured the circu"ation o& the ocean6s water mass
as consisting o& "arge( s"ow-moving currents( such as the Eu"& tream. That view(
based on 100 years o& observations made around the g"obe( produced on"y a
rough appro8imation o& the true circu"ation. 'ut in the 19/06s and the 19L06s(
researchers began to emp"oy new"y deve"oped techni-ues and e-uipment(
inc"uding subsur&ace Doats that move with ocean currents and emit identi#cation
signa"s( and ocean-current meters that record data &or months at #8ed "ocations in
the ocean. These instruments disc"osed an une8pected "eve" o& variabi"ity in the
deep ocean. Rather than being characteri+ed by smooth( "arge-sca"e currents that
change seasona""y (i& at a"")( the seas are dominated by what oceanographers ca""
mesosca"e #e"dsA Ductuating( energetic Dows whose ve"ocity can reach ten times
the mean ve"ocity o& the ma5or currents.
Besosca"e phenomenathe oceanic ana"ogue o& weather systemso&ten
e8tend to distances o& 100 $i"ometers and persist &or 100 days (weather systems
genera""y e8tend about 1(000 $i"ometers and "ast 7 to / days in any given area).
GRE 221
Bore than 90 percent o& the $inetic energy o& the entire ocean may be accounted
&or by mesosca"e variabi"ity rather than by "arge-sca"e currents. Besosca"e
phenomena may( in &act( p"ay a signi#cant ro"e in oceanic mi8ing( air-sea
interactions( and occasiona"but &ar-reachingc"imatic events such as @" ,ino(
the atmospheric-oceanic disturbance in the e-uatoria" 9aci#c that a1ects g"oba"
weather patterns.
Un&ortunate"y( it is not &easib"e to use conventiona" techni-ues to measure
mesosca"e #e"ds. To measure them proper"y( monitoring e-uipment wou"d have to
be "aid out on a grid at interva"s o& at most /0 $i"ometers( with sensors at each
grid point "owered deep in the ocean and $ept there &or many months. 'ecause
using these techni-ues wou"d be prohibitive"y e8pensive and time-consuming( it
was proposed in 1979 that tomography be adapted to measuring the physica"
properties o& the ocean. 2n medica" tomography 8-rays map the human body6s
density variations (and hence interna" organs)= the in&ormation &rom the 8-rays(
transmitted through the body a"ong many di1erent paths( is recombined to &orm
three-dimensiona" images o& the body6s interior. 2t is primari"y this mu"tip"icative
increase in data obtained &rom the mu"tipath transmission o& signa"s that accounts
&or oceanographers6 attraction to tomographyA it a""ows the measurement o& vast
areas with re"ative"y &ew instruments. Researchers reasoned that "ow-&re-uency
sound waves( because they are so we"" described mathematica""y and because
even sma"" perturbations in emitted sound waves can be detected( cou"d be
transmitted through the ocean over many di1erent paths and that the properties
o& the ocean6s interiorits temperature( sa"inity( density( and speed o& currents
cou"d be deduced on the basis o& how the ocean a"tered the signa"s. Their initia"
tria"s were high"y success&u"( and ocean acoustic tomography was born.
21. According to the passage/ scientists are able to use ocean acoustic tomography to
deduce the properties of the ocean4s interior in part because
(A) low(fre"uency sound wa'es are well described mathematically
(B) mesoscale phenomena are so large as to be easily detectable
(C) information from sound wa'es can be recombined more easily than
information from $(rays
() tomography is better suited to measuring mesoscale phenomena than to
measuring small(scale systems
(#) density 'ariations in the ocean are mathematically predictable
22. The passage suggests that medical tomography operates on the principle that
(A) $(rays are superior to sound wa'es for producing three(dimensional images
(B) sound wa'es are altered as they pass through regions of 'arying density
(C) images of the body4s interior can be produced by analy!ing a single $(ray
transmission through the body
() the 'arying densities within the human body allow $(rays to map the internal
222 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
organs
(#) information from $(rays and sound wa'es can be combined to produce a highly
detailed image of the body4s interior
2.. &hich of the following is most similar to medical tomography as it is described in
the passage%
(A) The use of ocean(current meters to determine the direction and 'elocity of the
ocean4s mesoscale fields
(B) The use of earth"uake shockwa'e data collected at se'eral different locations
and combined to create a three(dimensional image of the #arth4s interior
(C) The use of a grid(point sensory system to map global weather patterns
() The use of subsurface floats to map large(scale circulation in the ocean
(#) The use of computer technology to halt the progress of a particular disease
within the human body4s internal organs
20. The author mentions #l 9ino (line 2-) primarily in order to emphasi!e which of
the following points%
(A) The brief duration of weather patterns
(B) The 'ariability of mesoscale phenomena
(C) The difficulty of measuring the ocean4s large(scale currents
() The effecti'eness of low(fre"uency sound wa'es in mapping the ocean
(#) The possible impact of mesoscale fields on weather conditions
21. &hich of the following best describes the organi!ation of the third paragraph of
the passage%
(A) A theory is proposed/ considered/ and then attended.
(B) 8pposing 'iews are presented/ elaborated/ and then reconciled.
(C) A problem is described/ then a solution is discussed and its effecti'eness is
affirmed.
() An argument is ad'anced/ then refuted/ and an alternati'e is suggested.
(#) A hypothesis is presented/ "ualified/ and then reaffirmed.
22. The passage suggests that which of the following would be true if the ocean4s
circulation consisted primarily of large/ slow(mo'ing currents%
(A) The influence of mesoscale fields on global weather patterns would remain the
same.
(B) Karge(scale currents would e$hibit more 'ariability than is actually obser'ed.
(C) The ma<ority of the ocean4s kinetic energy would be deri'ed from mesoscale
fields.
() Atmospheric(oceanic disturbances such as #l 9ino would occur more often.
(#) Con'entional measuring techni"ues would be a feasible method of studying
GRE 22-
the physical properties of the ocean.
2-. &hich of the following/ if presented as the first sentence of a succeeding
paragraph/ would most logically continue the discussion presented in the passage%
(A) Timekeeping in medical tomography must be precise because the changes in
tra'el time caused by density fluctuations are slight.
(B) To understand how ocean acoustic tomography works/ it is necessary to know
how sound tra'els in the ocean.
(C) ;hips are another possibility/ but they would need to stop e'ery 15 kilometers
to lower measuring instruments.
() These 'ariations amount to only about 2 to . percent of the a'erage speed of
sound in water/ which is about 1/ 155 meters per second.
(#) The de'ice used in medical tomography emits a specially coded signal/ easily
distinguishable from background noise.
1994 10
SECTION A
The :ourteenth 3mendment to the United tates %onstitution( rati#ed in 18L8(
prohibits state governments &rom denying citi+ens the >e-ua" protection o& the
"aws.? 3"though precise"y what the &ramers o& the amendment meant by this
e-ua" protection c"ause remains unc"ear( a"" interpreters agree that the &ramers6
immediate ob5ective was to provide a constitutiona" warrant &or the %ivi" Rights
3ct o& 18LL( which guaranteed the citi+enship o& a"" persons born in the United
tates and sub5ect to United tates 5urisdiction. This dec"aration( which was
echoed in the te8t o& the :ourteenth 3mendment( was designed primari"y to
counter the upreme %ourt6s ru"ing in -red cott v. andford that '"ac$ peop"e in
the United tates cou"d be denied citi+enship. The act was vetoed by 9resident
3ndrew Cohnson( who argued that the Thirteenth 3mendment( which abo"ished
s"avery( did not provide %ongress with the authority to e8tend citi+enship and
e-ua" protection to the &reed s"aves. 3"though %ongress prompt"y overrode
Cohnson6s veto( supporters o& the act sought to ensure its constitutiona"
&oundations with the passage o& the :ourteenth 3mendment.
The broad "anguage o& the amendment strong"y suggests that its &ramers were
proposing to write into the %onstitution not a "aundry "ist o& speci#c civi" rights but
a princip"e o& e-ua" citi+enship that &orbids organi+ed society &rom treating any
individua" as a member o& an in&erior c"ass. Iet &or the #rst eight decades o& the
amendment6s e8istence( the upreme %ourt6s interpretation o& the amendment
betrayed this idea" o& e-ua"ity. 2n the Civil *ights Cases o& 1887( &or e8amp"e( the
%ourt invented the >state action? "imitation( which asserts that >private? decisions
by owners o& pub"ic accommodations and other commercia" businesses to
segregate their &aci"ities are insu"ated &rom the reach o& the :ourteenth
226 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
3mendment6s guarantee o& e-ua" protection under the "aw.
3&ter the econd ;or"d ;ar( a 5udicia" c"imate more hospitab"e to e-ua"
protection c"aims cu"minated in the upreme %ourt6s ru"ing in Brown v. Board of
Education that racia""y segregated schoo"s vio"ated the e-ua" protection c"ause o&
the :ourteenth 3mendment. Two doctrines embraced by the upreme %ourt
during this period e8tended the amendment6s reach. :irst( the %ourt re-uired
especia""y strict scrutiny o& "egis"ation that emp"oyed a >suspect c"assi#cation(?
meaning discrimination against a group on grounds that cou"d be construed as
racia". This doctrine has broadened the app"ication o& the :ourteenth 3mendment
to other( nonracia" &orms o& discrimination( &or whi"e some 5ustices have re&used to
#nd any "egis"ative c"assi#cation other than race to be constitutiona""y dis&avored(
most have been receptive to arguments that at "east some nonracia"
discriminations( se8ua" discrimination in particu"ar( are >suspect? and deserve this
heightened scrutiny by the courts. econd( the %ourt re"a8ed the state action
"imitation on the :ourteenth 3mendment( bringing new &orms o& private conduct
within the amendment6s reach.
1-. &hich of the following best describes the main idea of the passage%
(A) By presenting a list of specific rights/ framers of the >ourteenth Amendment
were attempting to pro'ide a constitutional basis for broad <udicial protection
of the principle of e"ual citi!enship.
(B) 8nly after the ;upreme Court adopted the suspect classification approach to
re'iewing potentially discriminatory legislation was the applicability of the
>ourteenth Amendment e$tended to include se$ual discrimination.
(C) 9ot until after the ;econd &orld &ar did the ;upreme Court begin to interpret
the >ourteenth Amendment in a manner consistent with the principle of e"ual
citi!enship that it e$presses.
() 3nterpreters of the >ourteenth Amendment ha'e yet to reach consensus with
regard to what its framers meant by the e"ual protection clause.
(#) Although the reluctance of <udges to e$tend the reach of the >ourteenth
Amendment to nonracial discrimination has betrayed the principle of e"ual
citi!enship/ the ;upreme Court4s use of the state action limitation to insulate
pri'ate acti'ity from the amendment4s reach has been more harmful.
16. The passage suggests that the principal effect of the state action limitation was to
(A) allow some discriminatory practices to continue unimpeded by the >ourteenth
Amendment
(B) influence the ;upreme Court4s ruling in %ro(n $1 %oard o+ Education
(C) pro'ide e$panded guidelines describing prohibited actions
() prohibit states from enacting laws that 'iolated the intent of the Ci'il =ights
Act of 1622
(#) shift to state go'ernments the responsibility for enforcement of laws
GRE 22,
prohibiting discriminatory practices
1,. The author4s position regarding the intent of the framers of the >ourteenth
Amendment would be most seriously undermined if which of the following were
true%
(A) The framers had anticipated state action limitations as they are described in the
passage.
(B) The framers had merely sought to pre'ent discriminatory acts by federal
officials.
(C) The framers were concerned that the Ci'il =ights Act of 1622 would be
o'erturned by the ;upreme Court.
() The framers were aware that the phrase *e"ual protection of the laws+ had
broad implications.
(#) The framers belie'ed that racial as well as non(racial forms of discrimination
were unacceptable.
25. According to the passage/ the original proponents of the >ourteenth Amendment
were primarily concerned with
(A) detailing the rights afforded by the principle of e"ual citi!enship
(B) pro'iding support in the Constitution for e"ual protection for all citi!ens of the
:nited ;tates
(C) closing a loophole that could be used to deny indi'iduals the right to sue for
enforcement of their ci'il rights
() asserting that the ci'il rights protected by the Constitution included nonracial
discrimination as well as racial discrimination
(#) granting state go'ernments broader discretion in interpreting the Ci'il =ights
Act of 1622
21. The author implies that the >ourteenth Amendment might not ha'e been enacted if
(A) Congress4 authority with regard to legislating ci'il rights had not been
challenged
(B) the framers had anticipated the ;upreme Court4s ruling in %ro(n $2 %oard o+
Education
(C) the framers had belie'ed that it would be used in deciding cases of
discrimination in'ol'ing non(racial groups
() most state go'ernments had been willing to protect citi!ens4 ci'il rights
(#) its essential elements had not been implicit in the Thirteenth Amendment
22. According to the passage/ which of the following most accurately indicates the
se"uence of the e'ents listed below%
3. Ci'il =ights Act of 1622
33. red ;cott '. ;andford
2.5 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
333. >ourteenth Amendment
3C. Ceto by @resident Aohnson
(A) 3/ 33/ 333/ 3C
(B) 3/ 3C/ 33/ 333
(C) 3/ 3C/ 333/ 33
() 33/ 3/ 3C/ 333
(#) 333/ 33/ 3/ 3C
2.. &hich of the following can be inferred about the second of the two doctrines
referred to in lines .,(01 of the passage%
(A) 3t caused some <ustices to rule that all types of discrimination are prohibited by
the Constitution.
(B) 3t shifted the focus of the ;upreme Court from racial to nonracial
discrimination.
(C) 3t narrowed the concern of the ;upreme Court to legislation that employed a
suspect classification.
() 3t caused legislators who were writing new legislation to re<ect language that
could be construed as permitting racial discrimination.
(#) 3t made it more difficult for commercial businesses to practice racial
discrimination.
The @arth6s magnetic #e"d is generated as the mo"ten iron o& the @arth6s outer
core revo"ves around its so"id inner core. ;hen surges in the mo"ten iron occur(
magnetic tempests are created. 3t the @arth6s sur&ace( these tempests can be
detected by changes in the strength o& the @arth6s magnetic #e"d. :or reasons not
&u""y understood( the #e"d itse"& reverses periodica""y every mi""ion years or so.
Kuring the past mi""ion years( &or instance( the magnetic north po"e has migrated
between the 3ntarctic and the 3rctic.
%"ear"y( geophysicists who see$ to e8p"ain and &orecast changes in the #e"d
must understand what happens in the outer core. Un"i$e meteoro"ogists( however(
they cannot re"y on observations made in their own "i&etimes. ;hereas
atmospheric storms arise in a matter o& hours and "ast &or days( magnetic
tempests deve"op over decades and persist &or centuries. :ortunate"y scientists
have been recording changes in the @arth6s magnetic #e"d &or more than 700
years.
20. 3n the passage/ the author is primarily concerned with
(A) analy!ing a complicated scientific phenomenon and its impact on the #arth4s
surface features
(B) describing a natural phenomenon and the challenges its study presents to
researchers
(C) discussing a scientific field of research and the gaps in researchers4
GRE 2.1
methodological approaches to it
() comparing two distinct fields of physical science and the different research
methods employed in each
(#) proposing an e$planation for a geophysical phenomenon and an e$periment
that could help confirm that e$planation
21. The passage suggests which of the following about surges in the #arth4s outer
core%
(A) They occur cyclically e'ery few decades.
(B) They can be predicted by changes in the #arth4s inner core.
(C) They are detected through indirect means.
() They are linked to disturbances in the #arth4s atmosphere.
(#) They last for periods of about 1 million years.
22. 3t can be inferred from the passage that geophysicists seeking to e$plain magnetic
tempests ought to conduct research on the #arth4s outer core because the #arth4s
outer core
(A) is more fully understood than the #arth4s magnetic field
(B) is more easily obser'ed than the #arth4s magnetic field
(C) has been the sub<ect of e$tensi'e scientific obser'ation for .55 years
() is in'ol'ed in generating the #arth4s magnetic field
(#) reflects changes in the inner core caused by magnetic tempests
2-. 3n the second paragraph/ the author is primarily concerned with
(A) stating a limitation that helps determine a research methodology
(B) making a comparati'e analysis of two different research methodologies
(C) assessing the amount of empirical data in the field of physical science
() suggesting an optimistic way of 'iewing a widely feared phenomenon
(#) describing a fundamental issue and discussing its future impact on society
SECTION B
The de&o"iation o& mi""ions o& acres o& trees by massive in&estations o& gypsy
moth caterpi""ars is a recurring phenomenon in the northeastern United tates. 2n
studying these outbrea$s( scientists have discovered that a1ected trees #ght bac$
by re"easing to8ic chemica"s( main"y pheno"s( into their &o"iage. These no8ious
substances "imit caterpi""ars6 growth and reduce the number o& eggs that &ema"e
moths "ay. 9heno"s a"so ma$e the eggs sma""er( which reduces the growth o& the
&o""owing year6s caterpi""ars. 'ecause the number o& eggs a &ema"e moth produces
is direct"y re"ated to her si+e( and because her si+e is determined entire"y by her
&eeding success as a caterpi""ar( the trees6 de&ensive mechanism has an impact on
moth &ecundity.
2.2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
The gypsy moth is a"so sub5ect to attac$ by the nuc"eopo"yhedrosis virus( or
wi"t disease( a particu"ar"y important $i""er o& the caterpi""ars in outbrea$ years.
%aterpi""ars contract wi"t disease when they eat a "ea& to which the virus( encased
in a protein g"obu"e( has become attached. <nce ingested by a caterpi""ar( the
protein g"obu"e disso"ves( re"easing thousands o& viruses( or virions( that a&ter
about two wee$s mu"tip"y enough to #"" the entire body cavity. ;hen the
caterpi""ar dies( the virions are re"eased to the outside( encased in a new protein
g"obu"e synthesi+ed &rom the caterpi""ar6s tissues and ready to be pic$ed up by
other caterpi""ars.
Snowing that pheno"s( inc"uding tannins( o&ten act by associating with and
a"tering the activity o& proteins( researchers &ocused on the e1ects on caterpi""ars
o& ingesting the virus and "eaves together. They &ound that on tannin-rich oa$
"eaves( the virus is considerab"y "ess e1ective at $i""ing caterpi""ars than when it is
on aspen "eaves( which are "ower in pheno"s. 2n genera"( the more concentrated
the pheno"s in tree "eaves( the "ess dead"y the virus. Thus( whi"e high"y
concentrated pheno"s in tree "eaves reduce the caterpi""ar popu"ation by "imiting
the si+e o& caterpi""ars and( conse-uent"y( the si+e o& the &ema"e6s egg c"uster(
these same chemica"s a"so he"p caterpi""ars survive by disab"ing the wi"t virus.
:orest stands o& red oa$s( with their tannin-rich &o"iage( may even provide
caterpi""ars with sa&e havens &rom disease. 2n stands dominated by trees such as
aspen( however( incipient gypsy moth outbrea$s are -uic$"y suppressed by vira"
epidemics.
:urther research has shown that caterpi""ars become virtua""y immune to the
wi"t virus as the trees on which they &eed respond to increasing de&o"iation. The
trees6 own de&enses raise the thresho"d o& caterpi""ar vu"nerabi"ity to the disease(
a""owing popu"ations to grow denser without becoming more susceptib"e to
in&ection. :or these reasons( the bene#ts to the caterpi""ars o& ingesting pheno"s
appear to outweigh the costs. Eiven the presence o& the virus( the trees6
de&ensive tactic apparent"y has bac$#red.
1-. &hich of the following statements best e$presses the main point of the passage%
(A) =ecurring outbreaks of infestation by gypsy moth caterpillars ha'e had a
de'astating impact on trees in the northeastern :nited ;tates.
(B) A mechanism used by trees to combat the threat from gypsy moth caterpillars
has actually made some trees more 'ulnerable to that threat.
(C) Although deadly to gypsy moth caterpillars/ wilt disease has failed to
significantly affect the population density of the caterpillars.
() The tree species with the highest le'els of phenols in their foliage are the most
successful in defending themsel'es against gypsy moth caterpillars.
(#) 3n their efforts to de'elop new methods for controlling gypsy moth caterpillars/
researchers ha'e focused on the effects of phenols in tree lea'es on the insects4
growth and reproduction.
GRE 2..
16. 3n lines 12(10/ the phrase *the trees4 defensi'e mechanism has an impact on moth
fecundity+ refers to which of the following phenomena%
(A) >emale moths that ingest phenols are more susceptible to wilt 'irus/ which
causes them to lay smaller eggs.
(B) )ighly concentrated phenols in tree lea'es limit caterpillars4 food supply/
thereby reducing the gypsy moth population.
(C) @henols attack the protein globule that protects moth egg clusters/ making
them 'ulnerable to wilt 'irus and lowering their sur'i'al rate.
() @henols in oak lea'es dri'e gypsy moths into forest stands dominated by
aspens/ where they succumb to 'iral epidemics.
(#) The consumption of phenols by caterpillars results in undersi!ed female gypsy
moths/ which tend to produce small egg clusters.
1,. 3t can be inferred from the passage that wilt disease 'irions depend for their
sur'i'al on
(A) protein synthesi!ed from the tissues of a host caterpillar
(B) aspen lea'es with high concentrations of phenols
(C) tannin(rich oak lea'es
() nutrients that they synthesi!e from gypsy moth egg clusters
(#) a rising threshold of caterpillar 'ulnerability to wilt disease
25. &hich of the following/ if true/ would most clearly demonstrate the operation of
the trees4 defensi'e mechanism as it is described in the first paragraph of the
passage%
(A) Caterpillars feeding on red oaks that were more than 15 percent defoliated
grew to be only two(thirds the si!e of those feeding on trees with relati'ely
intact foliage.
(B) 8ak lea'es in areas unaffected by gypsy moths were found to ha'e higher
le'els of tannin on a'erage than aspen lea'es in areas infested with gypsy
moths.
(C) The sur'i'al rate of gypsy moth caterpillars e$posed to the wilt 'irus was 05
percent higher for those that fed on aspen lea'es than for those that ate oak
lea'es.
() >emale gypsy moths produced an a'erage of 21 percent fewer eggs in areas
where the wilt 'irus flourished than did moths in areas that were free of the
'irus.
(#) Bypsy moth egg clusters deposited on oak trees were found to ha'e relati'ely
large indi'idual eggs compared to those deposited on aspen trees.
21. &hich of the following best describes the function of the third paragraph of the
passage%
(A) 3t resol'es a contradiction between the ideas presented in the first and second
2.0 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
paragraphs.
(B) 3t introduces research data to support the theory outlined in the second
paragraph.
(C) 3t draws a conclusion from conflicting e'idence presented in the first two
paragraphs.
() 3t shows how phenomena described in the first and second paragraphs act in
combination.
(#) 3t elaborates on the thesis introduced in the first paragraph after a digression in
the second paragraph.
22. 3t can be inferred from the passage that gypsy moth caterpillars become immune to
the wilt 'irus as a result of
(A) consuming a wide range of nutrients from a 'ariety of leaf types
(B) feeding on lea'es that contain high le'els of phenols
(C) producing fewer offspring/ which fa'ors the sur'i'al of the hardiest
indi'iduals
() ingesting the 'irus together with lea'es that do not contain tannin
(#) growing population density/ which outstrips the ability of the 'irus to multiply
and spread
2.. &hich of the following statements about gypsy moth caterpillars is supported by
information presented in the passage%
(A) &ilt disease is more likely to strike small gypsy moth caterpillars than large
ones.
(B) The concentration of phenols in tree lea'es increases as the gypsy moth
caterpillar population dies off.
(C) >emale gypsy moth caterpillars stop growing after they ingest lea'es
containing phenols.
() iffering concentrations of phenols in lea'es ha'e differing effects on the
ability of the wilt 'irus to kill gypsy moth caterpillars.
(#) The longer a gypsy moth population is e$posed to wilt disease/ the greater the
likelihood that the gypsy moth caterpillars will become immune to the 'irus.
The sweep o& narrative in 3. ,. ;i"son6s biography o& %. . Jewis is impressive
and there is much that is acute and we"" argued. 'ut much in this wor$ is care"ess
and unworthy o& its author. ;i"son( a nove"ist and an accomp"ished biographer(
has &ai"ed to do what any writer on such a sub5ect as Jewis ought to do( name"y
wor$ out a coherent view o& how the various "iterary wor$s by the sub5ect are to
be described and commented on. Kecisions have to be made on what to "oo$ at in
detai" and what to pass by with 5ust a mention. ;i"son has not thought this
prob"em out. :or instance( Till ,e %ave Faces( Jewis6 treatment o& the @ros and
9syche story and one o& his best-e8ecuted and most moving wor$s( is mere"y
GRE 2.1
mentioned by ;i"son( though it i""uminates Jewis6 spiritua" deve"opment( whereas
Jewis6 minor wor$ Pilgrims *egress is "oo$ed at in considerab"e detai".
20. The author of the passage implies that &ilson4s e$amination of Pilgri-s "egress
(A) is not as coherent as his treatment of Till We &a$e Faces
(B) would ha'e been more appropriate in a separate treatise because of the scope
of Pilgri-s =egress
(C) demonstrates how &ilson4s narrow focus ignores the general themes of Kewis4
works
() was more e$tensi'e than warranted because of the relati'e unimportance of
Pilgri-s "egress
(#) was disproportionately long relati'e to the amount of effort Kewis de'oted to
writing Pilgri-s "egress
21. The author of the passage would be most likely to agree with which of the
following statements regarding Till We &a$e Faces%
(A) 3t is an impro'ement o'er the #ros and @syche story on which it is based.
(B) 3t illustrated Kewis4 attempt to in'ol'e his readers emotionally in the story of
#ros and @syche.
(C) 3t was more highly regarded by &ilson than by Kewis himself.
() 3t is one of the outstanding literary achie'ements of Kewis4 career.
(#) 3t is probably one of the most popular of Kewis4 works.
22. &hich of the following best describes the organi!ation of the passage%
(A) An e'aluation is made/ and aspects of the e'aluation are e$panded on with
supporting e'idence.
(B) A theory is proposed/ and supporting e$amples are pro'ided.
(C) A position is e$amined/ analy!ed/ and re<ected.
() A contradiction is described/ then the points of contention are e'aluated and
reconciled.
(#) 8pposing 'iews are presented and e'aluated/ then modifications are ad'ocated.
2-. &hich of the following best describes the content of the passage%
(A) A criti"ue of A. 9. &ilson as a biographer
(B) An e'aluation of the significance of se'eral works by C. ;. Kewis
(C) An appraisal of a biography by A. 9. &ilson
() A ranking of the elements necessary for a well(structured biography
(#) A proposal for e'aluating the literary merits of the works of C. ;. Kewis
1995 04
2.2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
SECTION A
2nDuenced by the view o& some twentieth-century &eminists that women6s
position within the &ami"y is one o& the centra" &actors determining women6s socia"
position( some historians have underestimated the signi#cance o& the woman
su1rage movement. These historians contend that nineteenth-century su1ragist
was "ess radica" and( hence( "ess important than( &or e8amp"e( the mora" re&orm
movement or domestic &eminismtwo nineteenth-century movements in which
women strugg"ed &or more power and autonomy within the &ami"y. True( by
emphasi+ing these strugg"es( such historians have broadened the conventiona"
view o& nineteenth-century &eminism( but they do a historica" disservice to
su1ragism. ,ineteenth-century &eminists and anti-&eminist a"i$e perceived the
su1ragists6 demand &or en&ranchisement as the most radica" e"ement in women6s
protest( in part because su1ragists were demanding power that was not based on
the institution o& the &ami"y( women6s traditiona" sphere. ;hen eva"uating
nineteenth-century &eminism as a socia" &orce( contemporary historians shou"d
consider the perceptions o& actua" participants in the historica" events.
1-. The author asserts that the historians discussed in the passage ha'e
(A) influenced feminist theorists who concentrate on the family
(B) honored the perceptions of the women who participated in the women suffrage
mo'ement
(C) treated feminism as a social force rather than as an intellectual tradition
() paid little attention to feminist mo'ements
(#) e$panded the con'entional 'iew of nineteenth(century feminism
16. The author of the passage asserts that some twentieth(century feminists ha'e
influenced some historians 'iew of the
(A) significance of the woman suffrage mo'ement
(B) importance to society of the family as an institution
(C) degree to which feminism changed nineteenth(century society
() philosophical traditions on which contemporary feminism is based
(#) public response to domestic feminism in the nineteenth century
1,. The author of the passage suggests that which of the following was true of
nineteenth(century feminists%
(A) Those who participated in the moral reform mo'ement were moti'ated
primarily by a desire to reconcile their pri'ate li'es with their public positions.
(B) Those who ad'ocated domestic feminism/ although less 'isible than the
suffragists/ were in some ways the more radical of the two groups.
(C) Those who participated in the woman suffrage mo'ement sought social roles
for women that were not defined by women4s familial roles.
GRE 2.-
() Those who ad'ocated domestic feminism regarded the gaining of more
autonomy within the family as a step toward more participation in public life.
(#) Those who participated in the nineteenth(century moral reform mo'ement
stood midway between the positions of domestic feminism and suffragism.
25. The author implies that which of the following is true of the historians discussed in
the passage%
(A) They argue that nineteenth(century feminism was not as significant a social
force as twentieth(century feminism has been.
(B) They rely too greatly on the perceptions of the actual participants in the e'ents
they study.
(C) Their assessment of the relati'e success of nineteenth(century domestic
feminism does not ade"uately take into account the effects of antifeminist
rhetoric.
() Their assessment of the significance of nineteenth(century suffragism differs
considerably from that of nineteenth(century feminists.
(#) They de'ote too much attention to nineteenth(century suffragism at the
e$pense of more radical mo'ements that emerged shortly after the turn of the
century.
Bany ob5ects in dai"y use have c"ear"y been inDuenced by science( but their
&orm and &unction( their dimensions and appearance( were determined by
techno"ogists( artisans( designers( inventors( and engineers!using non-scienti#c
modes o& thought. Bany &eatures and -ua"ities o& the ob5ects that a techno"ogist
thin$s about cannot be reduced to unambiguous verba" descriptions= they are
dea"t with in the mind by a visua"( nonverba" process. 2n the deve"opment o&
;estern techno"ogy( it has been non-verba" thin$ing( by and "arge( that has #8ed
the out"ines and #""ed in the detai"s o& our materia" surroundings. 9yramids(
cathedra"s( and roc$ets e8ist not because o& geometry or thermodynamics( but
because they were #rst a picture in the minds o& those who bui"t them.
The creative shaping process o& a techno"ogist6s mind can be seen in near"y
every arti&act that e8ists. :or e8amp"e( in designing a diese" engine( a techno"ogist
might impress individua" ways o& nonverba" thin$ing on the machine by
continua""y using an intuitive sense o& rightness and #tness. ;hat wou"d be the
shape o& the combustion chamberG ;here shou"d the va"ves be p"acedG hou"d it
have a "ong or short pistonG uch -uestions have a range o& answers that are
supp"ied by e8perience( by physica" re-uirements( by "imitations o& avai"ab"e
space( and not "east by a sense o& &orm. ome decisions( such as wa"" thic$ness
and pin diameter( may depend on scienti#c ca"cu"ations( but the nonscienti#c
component o& design remains primary.
Kesign courses( then( shou"d be an essentia" e"ement in engineering curricu"a.
,onverba" thin$ing( a centra" mechanism in engineering design( invo"ves
perceptions( the stoc$-in-trade o& the artist( not the scientist. 'ecause perceptive
2.6 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
processes are not assumed to entai" >hard thin$ing(? nonverba" thought is
sometimes seen as a primitive stage in the deve"opment o& cognitive processes
and in&erior to verba" or mathematica" thought. 'ut it is parado8ica" that when the
sta1 o& the %istoric "merican Engineering *ecord wished to have drawings made
o& machines and isometric views o& industria" processes &or its historica" record o&
3merican engineering( the on"y co""ege students with the re-uisite abi"ities were
not engineering students( but rather students attending architectura" schoo"s.
2& courses in design( which in a strong"y ana"ytica" engineering curricu"um
provide the bac$ground re-uired &or practica" prob"em-so"ving( are not provided(
we can e8pect to encounter si""y but cost"y errors occurring in advanced
engineering systems. :or e8amp"e( ear"y mode"s o& high-speed rai"road cars
"oaded with sophisticated contro"s were unab"e to operate in a snowstorm
because a &an suc$ed snow into the e"ectrica" system. 3bsurd random &ai"ures that
p"ague automatic contro" systems are not mere"y trivia" aberrations= they are a
reDection o& the chaos that resu"ts when design is assumed to be primari"y a
prob"em in mathematics.
21. 3n the passage/ the author is primarily concerned with
(A) identifying the kinds of thinking that are used by technologists
(B) stressing the importance of non'erbal thinking in engineering design
(C) proposing a new role for nonscientific thinking in the de'elopment of
technology
() contrasting the goals of engineers with those of technologists
(#) critici!ing engineering schools for emphasi!ing science in engineering
curricula
22. 3t can be inferred that the author thinks engineering curricula are
(A) strengthened when they include courses in design
(B) weakened by the substitution of physical science courses for courses designed
to de'elop mathematical skills
(C) strong because non'erbal thinking is still emphasi!ed by most of the courses
() strong despite the errors that graduates of such curricula ha'e made in the
de'elopment of automatic control systems
(#) strong despite the absence of nonscientific modes of thinking
2.. &hich of the following statements best illustrates the main point of lines 1(26 of
the passage%
(A) &hen a machine like a rotary engine malfunctions/ it is the technologist who is
best e"uipped to repair it.
(B) #ach component of an automobilefor e$ample/ the engine or the fuel tank
has a shape that has been scientifically determined to be best suited to that
component4s function.
GRE 2.,
(C) A telephone is a comple$ instrument designed by technologists using only
non'erbal thought.
() The designer of a new refrigerator should consider the designs of other
refrigerators before deciding on its final form.
(#) The distincti'e features of a suspension bridge reflect its designer4s
conceptuali!ation as well as the physical re"uirements of its site.
20. &hich of the following statements would best ser'e as an introduction to the
passage%
(A) The assumption that the knowledge incorporated in technological
de'elopments must be deri'ed from science ignores the many non(scientific
decisions made by technologists.
(B) Analytical thought is no longer a 'ital component in the success of
technological de'elopment.
(C) As knowledge of technology has increased/ the tendency has been to lose sight
of the important role played by scientific thought in making decisions about
form/ arrangement/ and te$ture.
() A mo'ement in engineering colleges toward a technician4s degree reflects a
demand for graduates who ha'e the non'erbal reasoning ability that was once
common among engineers.
(#) A technologist thinking about a machine/ reasoning through the successi'e
steps in a dynamic process/ can actually turn the machine o'er mentally.
21. The author calls the predicament faced by the &istoric A-erican Engineering
"ecord *parado$ical+ (lines .2(.-) most probably because
(A) the publication needed drawings that its own staff could not make
(B) architectural schools offered but did not re"uire engineering design courses for
their students
(C) college students were "ualified to make the drawings while practicing
engineers were not
() the drawings needed were so complicated that e'en students in architectural
schools had difficulty making them
(#) engineering students were not trained to make the type of drawings needed to
record the de'elopment of their own discipline
22. According to the passage/ random failures in automatic control systems are *not
merely tri'ial aberrations+ (lines 1.) because
(A) automatic control systems are designed by engineers who ha'e little practical
e$perience in the field
(B) the failures are characteristic of systems designed by engineers relying too
hea'ily on concepts in mathematics
(C) the failures occur too often to be taken lightly
205 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
() designers of automatic control systems ha'e too little training in the analysis
of mechanical difficulties
(#) designers of automatic control systems need more help from scientists who
ha'e a better understanding of the analytical problems to be sol'ed before such
systems can work efficiently
2-. The author uses the e$ample of the early models of high(speed railroad cars
primarily to
(A) weaken the argument that modern engineering systems ha'e ma<or defects
because of an absence of design courses in engineering curricula
(B) support the thesis that the number of errors in modern engineering systems is
likely to increase
(C) illustrate the idea that courses in design are the most effecti'e means for
reducing the cost of designing engineering systems
() support the contention that a lack of attention to the nonscientific aspects of
design results in poor conceptuali!ation by engineers
(#) weaken the proposition that mathematics is a necessary part of the study of
design
SECTION B
<ne e8p"anation &or the tendency o& anima"s to be more vigi"ant in sma""er
groups than in "arger ones assumes that the vigi"ant behavior"oo$ing up( &or
e8amp"eis aimed at predators. 2& individua"s on the edge o& a group are more
vigi"ant because they are at greater ris$ o& being captured( then individua"s on
average wou"d have to be more vigi"ant in sma""er groups( because the anima"s on
the periphery o& a group &orm a greater proportion o& the who"e group as the si+e
o& the group diminishes.
)owever( a di1erent e8p"anation is necessary in cases where the vigi"ant
behavior is not directed at predators. C. Srebs has discovered that great b"ue
herons "oo$ up more o&ten when in sma""er Doc$s than when in "arger ones( so"e"y
as a conse-uence o& poor &eeding conditions. Srebs hypothesi+es that the herons
in sma""er Doc$s are watching &or herons that they might &o""ow to better &eeding
poo"s( which usua""y attract "arger numbers o& the birds.
1-. 3t can be inferred from the passage that in species in which 'igilant beha'ior is
directed at predators/ the tendency of the animals to be more 'igilant in smaller
groups than in larger ones would most likely be minimi!ed if which of the
following were true%
(A) The 'igilance of animals on the periphery of a group always e$ceeded that of
animals located in its interior/ e'en when predators were not in the area.
(B) The risk of capture for indi'iduals in a group was the same/ whether they were
located in the interior of the group or on its periphery.
GRE 201
(C) Animals on the periphery of a group tended to be less capable of defending
themsel'es from attack by predators than animals located in the interior of the
group.
() Animals on the periphery of a group tended to bear marks that were more
distincti'e to predators than animals located in the interior of the group.
(#) Animals on the periphery of a group tended to ha'e shorter life spans than
animals located in the interior of the group.
16. &hich of the following best describes the relationship of the second paragraph to
the first%
(A) The second paragraph relies on different e'idence in drawing a conclusion
similar to that e$pressed in the first paragraph.
(B) The second paragraph pro'ides further elaboration on why an assertion made
at the end of the first paragraph pro'es to be true in most cases.
(C) The second paragraph pro'ides additional information in support of a
hypothesis stated in the first paragraph.
() The second paragraph pro'ides an e$ample of a case in which the assumption
described in the first paragraph is unwarranted.
(#) The second paragraph describes a phenomenon that has the same cause as the
phenomenon described in the first paragraph.
1,. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author of the passage would be most
likely to agree with which of the following assertions about 'igilant beha'ior%
(A) The larger the group of animals/ the higher the probability that indi'iduals in
the interior of the group will e$hibit 'igilant beha'ior.
(B) Cigilant beha'ior e$hibited by indi'iduals in small groups is more effecti'e at
warding off predators than the same beha'ior e$hibited by indi'iduals in larger
groups.
(C) Cigilant beha'ior is easier to analy!e in species that are preyed upon by many
different predators than in species that are preyed upon by relati'ely few of
them.
() The term *'igilant/+ when used in reference to the beha'ior of animals/ does
not refer e$clusi'ely to beha'ior aimed at a'oiding predators.
(#) The term *'igilant/+ when used in reference to the beha'ior of animals/ usually
refers to beha'ior e$hibited by large groups of animals.
25. The passage pro'ides information in support of which of the following assertions%
(A) The a'oidance of predators is more important to an animal4s sur'i'al than is
the "uest for food.
(B) Cigilant beha'ior aimed at predators is seldom more beneficial to groups of
animals than to indi'idual animals.
(C) ifferent species of animals often de'elop different strategies for dealing with
202 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
predators.
() The si!e of a group of animals does not necessarily reflect its success in
finding food.
(#) ;imilar beha'ior in different species of animals does not necessarily ser'e the
same purpose.
The ear"iest controversies about the re"ationship between photography and art
centered on whether photography6s #de"ity to appearances and dependence on a
machine a""owed it to be a #ne art as distinct &rom mere"y a practica" art.
Throughout the nineteenth century( the de&ense o& photography was identica" with
the strugg"e to estab"ish it as a #ne art. 3gainst the charge that photography was
a sou""ess( mechanica" copying o& rea"ity( photographers asserted that it was
instead a privi"eged way o& seeing( a revo"t against commonp"ace vision( and no
"ess worthy an art than painting.
2ronica""y( now that photography is secure"y estab"ished as a #ne art( many
photographers #nd it pretentious or irre"evant to "abe" it as such. erious
photographers various"y c"aim to be #nding( recording( impartia""y observing(
witnessing events( e8p"oring themse"vesanything but ma$ing wor$s o& art. 2n
the nineteenth century( photography6s association with the rea" wor"d p"aced it in
an ambiva"ent re"ation to art= "ate in the twentieth century( an ambiva"ent re"ation
e8ists because o& the Bodernist heritage in art. That important photographers are
no "onger wi""ing to debate whether photography is or is not a #ne art( e8cept to
proc"aim that their own wor$ is not invo"ved with art( shows the e8tent to which
they simp"y ta$e &or granted the concept o& art imposed by the triumph o&
BodernismA the better the art( the more subversive it is o& the traditiona" aims o&
art.
9hotographers6 disc"aimers o& any interest in ma$ing art te"" us more about the
harried status o& the contemporary notion o& art than about whether photography
is or is not art. :or e8amp"e( those photographers who suppose that( by ta$ing
pictures( they are getting away &rom the pretensions o& art as e8emp"i#ed by
painting remind us o& those 3bstract @8pressionist painters who imagined they
were getting away &rom the inte""ectua" austerity o& c"assica" Bodernist painting by
concentrating on the physica" act o& painting. Buch o& photography6s prestige
today derives &rom the convergence o& its aims with those o& recent art(
particu"ar"y with the dismissa" o& abstract art imp"icit in the phenomenon o& 9op
painting during the 19L06s. 3ppreciating photographs is a re"ie& to sensibi"ities
tired o& the menta" e8ertions demanded by abstract art. %"assica" Bodernist
paintingthat is( abstract art as deve"oped in di1erent ways by 9icasso(
Sandins$y( and Batissepresupposes high"y deve"oped s$i""s o& "oo$ing and a
&ami"iarity with other paintings and the history o& art. 9hotography( "i$e 9op
painting( reassures viewers that art is not hard= photography seems to be more
about its sub5ects than about art.
9hotography( however( has deve"oped a"" the an8ieties and se"&-consciousness
GRE 20.
o& a c"assic Bodernist art. Bany pro&essiona"s private"y have begun to worry that
the promotion o& photography as an activity subversive o& the traditiona"
pretensions o& art has gone so &ar that the pub"ic wi"" &orget that photography is a
distinctive and e8a"ted activityin short( an art.
21. 3n the passage/ the author is primarily concerned with
(A) defining the ?odernist attitude toward art
(B) e$plaining how photography emerged as a fine art after the contro'ersies of
the nineteenth century
(C) e$plaining the attitudes of serious contemporary photographers toward
photography as art and placing those attitudes in their historical conte$t
() defining the 'arious approaches that serious contemporary photographers take
toward their art and assessing the 'alue of each of those approaches
(#) identifying the ways that recent mo'ements in painting and sculpture ha'e
influenced the techni"ues employed by serious photographers
22. &hich of the following ad<ecti'es best describes *the concept of art imposed by
the triumph of ?odernism+ as the author represents it in lines 21(2-%
(A) 8b<ecti'e
(B) ?echanical
(C) ;uperficial
() ramatic
(#) @arado$ical
2.. The author introduces Abstract #$pressionist painters (lines .0) in order to
(A) pro'ide an e$ample of artists who/ like serious contemporary photographers/
disa'owed traditionally accepted aims of modern art
(B) call attention to artists whose works often bear a physical resemblance to the
works of serious contemporary photographers
(C) set forth an analogy between the Abstract #$pressionist painters and classical
?odernist painters
() pro'ide a contrast to @op artists and others who created works that e$emplify
the ?odernist heritage in art
(#) pro'ide an e$planation of why serious photography/ like other contemporary
'isual forms/ is not and should not pretend to be an art
20. According to the author/ the nineteenth(century defenders of photography
mentioned in the passage stressed that photography was
(A) a means of making people familiar with remote locales and unfamiliar things
(B) a technologically ad'anced acti'ity
(C) a de'ice for obser'ing the world impartially
() an art comparable to painting
200 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(#) an art that would e'entually replace the traditional arts
21. According to the passage/ which of the following best e$plains the reaction of
serious contemporary photographers to the "uestion of whether photography is an
art%
(A) The photographers4 belief that their reliance on an impersonal machine to
produce their art re"uires the surrender of the authority of their personal 'ision
(B) The photographers4 fear that serious photography may not be accepted as an art
by the contemporary art public
(C) The influence of Abstract #$pressionist painting and @op Art on the sub<ect
matter of the modern photograph
() The photographers4 belief that the best art is sub'ersi'e of art as it has
pre'iously been defined
(#) The notorious difficulty of defining art in its relation to realistic representation
22. According to the passage/ certain serious contemporary photographers e$pressly
make which of the following claims about their photographs%
(A) Their photographs could be created by almost anyone who had a camera and
the time to de'ote to the acti'ity.
(B) Their photographs are not e$amples of art but are e$amples of the
photographers4 impartial obser'ation of the world.
(C) Their photographs are important because of their sub<ects but not because of
the responses they e'oke in 'iewers.
() Their photographs e$hibit the same ageless principles of form and shading that
ha'e been used in painting.
(#) Their photographs represent a conscious glorification of the mechanical
aspects of twentieth(century life.
2-. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author most probably considers serious
contemporary photography to be a
(A) contemporary art that is struggling to be accepted as fine art
(B) craft re"uiring sensiti'ity but by no means an art
(C) mechanical copying of reality
() modern art that displays the ?odernist tendency to try to sub'ert the
pre'ailing aims of art
(#) modern art that displays the tendency of all ?odernist art to become
increasingly formal and abstract
1995 10
SECTION A
GRE 201
2t is possib"e &or students to obtain advanced degrees in @ng"ish whi"e $nowing
"itt"e or nothing about traditiona" scho"ar"y methods. The conse-uences o& this
neg"ect o& traditiona" scho"arship are particu"ar"y un&ortunate &or the study o&
women writers. 2& the canonthe "ist o& authors whose wor$s are most wide"y
taughtis ever to inc"ude more women( scho"ars must be we"" trained in historica"
scho"arship and te8tua" editing. cho"ars who do not $now how to read ear"y
manuscripts( "ocate rare boo$s( estab"ish a se-uence o& editions( and so on are
bere&t o& crucia" too"s &or revising the canon.
To address such concerns( an e8perimenta" version o& the traditiona" scho"ar"y
methods course was designed to raise students6 consciousness about the
use&u"ness o& traditiona" "earning &or any modern critic or theorist. To minimi+e the
arti#cia" aspects o& the conventiona" course( the usua" procedure o& assigning a
"arge number o& sma"" prob"ems drawn &rom the entire range o& historica" periods
was abandoned( though this procedure has the obvious advantage o& at "east
super#cia""y &ami"iari+ing students with a wide range o& re&erence sources. 2nstead
students were engaged in a co""ective e1ort to do origina" wor$ on a neg"ected
eighteenth-century writer( @"i+abeth Eri*th( to give them an authentic e8perience
o& "iterary scho"arship and to inspire them to ta$e responsibi"ity &or the -ua"ity o&
their own wor$.
Eri*th6s wor$ presented a number o& advantages &or this particu"ar
pedagogica" purpose. :irst( the body o& e8tant scho"arship on Eri*th was so tiny
that it cou"d a"" be read in a day= thus students spent "itt"e time and e1ort
mastering the "iterature and had a c"ear #e"d &or their own discoveries. Eri*th6s
p"ay The Platonic ,ife e8ists in three versions( enough to provide i""ustrations o&
editoria" issues but not too many &or beginning students to manage. 2n addition(
because Eri*th was success&u" in the eighteenth century( as her continued
productivity and &avorab"e reviews demonstrate( her e8c"usion &rom the canon and
virtua" disappearance &rom "iterary history a"so he"ped raise issues concerning the
current canon.
The range o& Eri*th6s wor$ meant that each student cou"d become the wor"d6s
"eading authority on a particu"ar Eri*th te8t. :or e8amp"e( a student studying
Eri*th6s ,ife in the *ight obtained a #rst edition o& the p"ay and studied it &or
some wee$s. This student was suitab"y shoc$ed and outraged to #nd its tit"e
trans&ormed into " ,ife in the +ight in ;att6s Bi$liotheca Britannica. uch
e8periences( inevitab"e and common in wor$ing on a writer to whom so "itt"e
attention has been paid( serve to vaccinate the student2 hope &or a "i&etime
against credu"ous use o& re&erence sources.
1-. The author of the passage is primarily concerned with
(A) re'ealing a commonly ignored deficiency
(B) proposing a return to traditional terminology
(C) describing an attempt to correct a shortcoming
202 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
() assessing the success of a new pedagogical approach
(#) predicting a change in a traditional teaching strategy
16. 3t can be inferred that the author of the passage e$pects that the e$perience of the
student mentioned as ha'ing studied Wi+e in the "ight would ha'e which of the
following effects%
(A) 3t would lead the student to disregard information found in the %ibliotheca
%ritannica.
(B) 3t would teach the student to "uestion the accuracy of certain kinds of
information sources when studying neglected authors.
(C) 3t would teach the student to a'oid the use of reference sources in studying
neglected authors.
() 3t would help the student to understand the importance of first editions in
establishing the authorship of plays.
(#) 3t would enhance the student4s appreciation of the works of authors not
included in the canon.
1,. The author of the passage suggests that which of the following is a disad'antage of
the strategy employed in the e$perimental scholarly methods course%
(A) ;tudents were not gi'en an opportunity to study women writers outside the
canon.
(B) ;tudents4 original work would not be appreciated by recogni!ed scholars.
(C) Kittle scholarly work has been done on the work of #li!abeth Briffith.
() ?ost of the students in the course had had little opportunity to study
eighteenth(century literature.
(#) ;tudents were not gi'en an opportunity to encounter certain sources of
information that could pro'e useful in their future studies.
25. &hich of the following best states the *particular pedagogical purpose+ mentioned
in line 26%
(A) To assist scholars in re'ising the canon of authors
(B) To minimi!e the tri'ial aspects of the traditional scholarly methods course
(C) To pro'ide students with information about Briffith4s work
() To encourage scholarly rigor in students4 own research
(#) To reestablish Briffith4s reputation as an author
21. &hich of the following best describes the function of the last paragraph in relation
to the passage as a whole%
(A) 3t summari!es the benefits that students can deri'e from the e$perimental
scholarly methods course.
(B) 3t pro'ides additional reasons why Briffith4s work raises issues ha'ing to do
with the canon of authors.
GRE 20-
(C) 3t pro'ides an illustration of the immediate nature of the e$periences students
can deri'e from the e$perimental scholarly methods course.
() 3t contrasts the e$perience of a student in the e$perimental scholarly methods
course with the e$perience of a student in the traditional course.
(#) 3t pro'ides information that emphasi!es the suitability of Briffith4s work for
inclusion in the canon of authors.
22. 3t can be inferred that which of the following is most likely to be among the
*issues+ mentioned in line .6%
(A) &hy has the work of Briffith/ a woman writer who was popular in her own
century/ been e$cluded from the canon%
(B) 3n what ways did Briffith4s work reflect the political climate of the eighteenth
century%
(C) )ow was Briffith4s work recei'ed by literary critics during the eighteenth
century%
() )ow did the error in the title of Briffith4s play come to be made%
(#) )ow did critical reception of Briffith4s work affect the "uantity and "uality of
that work%
2.. 3t can be inferred that the author of the passage considers traditional scholarly
methods courses to be
(A) irrele'ant to the work of most students
(B) inconse"uential because of their narrow focus
(C) unconcerned about the accuracy of reference sources
() too superficial to establish important facts about authors
(#) too wide(ranging to appro$imate genuine scholarly acti'ity
@8periments show that insects can &unction as po""inators o& cycads( rare(
pa"m"i$e tropica" p"ants. :urthermore( cycads removed &rom their native habitats
and there&ore &rom insects native to those habitatsare usua""y in&erti"e.
,everthe"ess( anecdota" reports o& wind po""ination in cycads cannot be ignored.
The structure o& cycads ma"e cones is -uite consistent with the wind dispersa" o&
po""en( c"ouds o& which are re"eased &rom some o& the "arger cones. The ma"e cone
o& Cycas circinalis( &or e8amp"e( sheds a"most 100 cubic centimeters o& po""en(
most o& which is probab"y dispersed by wind. ti""( many ma"e cycad cones are
comparative"y sma"" and thus produce &ar "ess po""en. :urthermore( the structure
o& most &ema"e cycad cones seems inconsistent with direct po""ination by wind.
<n"y in the %ycas genus are the &ema"es6 ovu"es accessib"e to airborne po""en(
since on"y in this genus are the ovu"es surrounded by a "oose aggregation o&
megasporophy""s rather than by a tight cone.
20. According to the passage/ the si!e of a male cycad cone directly influences which
of the following%
206 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(A) The arrangement of the male cone4s structural elements
(B) The mechanism by which pollen is released from the male cone
(C) The degree to which the o'ules of female cycads are accessible to airborne
pollen
() The male cone4s attracti'eness to potential insect pollinators
(#) The amount of pollen produced by the male cone
21. The passage suggests that which of the following is true of the structure of cycad
cones%
(A) The structure of cycad cones pro'ides conclusi'e e'idence in fa'or of one
particular e$planation of cycad pollination.
(B) The structure of cycad cones pro'ides e'idence concerning what triggers the
first step in the pollination process.
(C) An irresol'able discrepancy e$ists between what the structure of most male
cycad cones suggests about cycad pollination and what the structure of most
female cones suggests about that process.
() The structure of male cycad cones rules out a possible mechanism for cycad
pollination that is suggested by the structure of most female cycad cones.
(#) The structure of male cycad cones is consistent with a certain means of cycad
pollination/ but that means is inconsistent with the structure of most female
cycad cones.
22. The e'idence in fa'or of insect pollination of cycads presented in lines 2(0 would
be more con'incing if which of the following were also true%
(A) 8nly a small 'ariety of cycad species can be successfully transplanted.
(B) Cycads can sometimes be pollinated by means other than wind or insects.
(C) 3nsects indigenous to regions to which cycads are transplanted sometimes feed
on cycads.
() &inds in the areas to which cycads are usually transplanted are similar to
winds in cycads4 nati'e habitats.
(#) The transplantation of cycads from one region to another usually in'ol'es the
accidental remo'al and introduction of insects as well.
2-. The passage suggests that which of the following is true of scientific in'estigations
of cycad pollination%
(A) They ha'e not yet produced any systematic e'idence of wind pollination in
cycads.
(B) They ha'e so far confirmed anecdotal reports concerning the wind pollination
of cycads.
(C) They ha'e/ until recently/ produced little e'idence in fa'or of insect pollination
in cycads.
GRE 20,
() They ha'e primarily been carried out using cycads transplanted from their
nati'e habitats.
(#) They ha'e usually concentrated on describing the physical characteristics of
the cycad reproducti'e system.
SECTION B
(This passage is adapted &rom an artic"e pub"ished in 1981.)
The term >remote sensing? re&ers to the techni-ues o& measurement and
interpretation o& phenomena &rom a distance. 9rior to the mid-19L06s the
interpretation o& #"m images was the primary means &or remote sensing o& the
@arth6s geo"ogic &eatures. ;ith the deve"opment o& the optomechanica" scanner(
scientists began to construct digita" mu"tispectra" images using data beyond the
sensitivity range o& visib"e "ight photography. These images are constructed by
mechanica""y a"igning pictoria" representations o& such phenomena as the
reDection o& "ight waves outside the visib"e spectrum( the re&raction o& radio
waves( and the dai"y changes in temperature in areas on the @arth6s sur&ace.
Kigita" mu"tispectra" imaging has now become the basic too" in geo"ogic remote
sensing &rom sate""ites.
The advantage o& digita" over photographic imaging is evidentA the resu"ting
numerica" data are precise"y $nown( and digita" data are not sub5ect to the
vagaries o& di*cu"t-to-contro" chemica" processing. ;ith digita" processing( it is
possib"e to combine a "arge number o& spectra" images. The ac-uisition o& the #rst
mu"tispectra" digita" data set &rom the mu"tispectra" scanner (B) aboard the
sate""ite Jandsat in 1974 conse-uent"y attracted the attention o& the entire
geo"ogic community. Jandsat B data are now being app"ied to a variety o&
geo"ogic prob"ems that are di*cu"t to so"ve by conventiona" methods a"one. These
inc"ude speci#c prob"ems in minera" and energy resource e8p"oration and the
charting o& g"aciers and sha""ow seas.
3 more &undamenta" app"ication o& remote sensing is to augment conventiona"
methods &or geo"ogic mapping o& "arge areas. Regiona" maps present
compositiona"( structura"( and chrono"ogica" in&ormation &or reconstructing
geo"ogic evo"ution. uch reconstructions have important practica" app"ications
because the conditions under which roc$ units and other structura" &eatures are
&ormed inDuence the occurrence o& ore and petro"eum deposits and a1ect the
thic$ness and integrity o& the geo"ogic media in which the deposits are &ound.
Eeo"ogic maps incorporate a "arge( varied body o& speci#c #e"d and "aboratory
measurements( but the maps must be interpretative because #e"d measurements
are a"ways "imited by roc$ e8posure( accessibi"ity and "abor resources. ;ith
remote-sensing techni-ues it is possib"e to obtain much geo"ogic in&ormation
more e*cient"y than it can be obtained on the ground. These techni-ues a"so
&aci"itate overa"" interpretation. ince detai"ed geo"ogic mapping is genera""y
conducted in sma"" areas( the continuity o& regiona" &eatures that have
215 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
intermittent and variab"e e8pressions is o&ten not recogni+ed( but in the
comprehensive views o& Jandsat images these continuities are apparent.
)owever( some critica" in&ormation cannot be obtained through remote sensing(
and severa" characteristics o& the Jandsat B impose "imitations on the
ac-uisition o& diagnostic data. ome o& these "imitations can be overcome by
designing sate""ite systems speci#ca""y &or geo"ogic purposes= but( to be most
e1ective( remote-sensing data must sti"" be combined with data &rom #e"d surveys
and "aboratory tests( the techni-ues o& the ear"ier twentieth century.
1-. By using the word *interpretati'e+ in line 05/ the author is indicating which of the
following%
(A) ;ome maps are based more on data from aerial photography than on data from
field operations.
(B) ;ome maps are based almost e$clusi'ely on laboratory measurements.
(C) ;ome maps are based on incomplete data from field obser'ations.
() ;ome maps show only large geologic features.
(#) ;ome maps can be three(dimensional.
16. &ith which of the following statements about geologic mapping would the author
be most likely to agree%
(A) Beologic mapping is basically an art and not a science.
(B) Beologic mapping has not changed significantly since the early 1,254s.
(C) Beologic mapping will ha'e limited practical applications until remote(sensing
systems are perfected.
() A de'elopmental milestone in geologic mapping was reached in 1,-2.
(#) &ithout the present 'ariety of remote(sensing techni"ues/ geologic mapping
could not be done.
1,. According to the passage/ measurements of which of the following can be
pro'ided by the optomechanical scanner but not by 'isible(light photography%
(A) The amount of 'isible light reflected from oceans
(B) The density of foliage in remote areas on the #arth4s surface
(C) aily temperature changes of areas on the #arth4s surface
() The degree of radioacti'ity emitted by e$posed rocks on the #arth4s surface
(#) Atmospheric conditions o'er large landmasses
25. 3t can be inferred from the passage that a ma<or disad'antage of photographic
imaging in geologic mapping is that such photography
(A) cannot be used at night
(B) cannot focus on the details of a geologic area
(C) must be chemically processed
() is always enhanced by digital reconstruction
GRE 211
(#) cannot reflect changes o'er e$tended periods of time
21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that Kandsat images differ from con'entional
geologic maps in that Kandsat images
(A) re'eal the e$act si!e of petroleum deposits and ore deposits
(B) indicate the continuity of features that might not otherwise be interpreted as
continuous
(C) predict the mo'ements of glaciers
() pro'ide highly accurate data about the occurrence of mineral deposits
(#) re'eal the integrity of the media in which petroleum deposits and ore deposits
are found
22. The passage pro'ides information about each of the following topics #DC#@TE
(A) the principal method of geologic remote sensing prior to the mid(1,254s
(B) some of the phenomena measured by digital multi(spectral images in remote
sensing
(C) some of the practical uses of regional geologic maps
() the kinds of problems that are difficult to sol'e solely through con'entional
methods of geologic mapping
(#) the specific limitations of the Kandsat multi(spectral scanner
2.. The passage suggests which of the following about the *con'entional methods+
mentioned in line 2,%
(A) They consist primarily of field sur'eys and laboratory measurements.
(B) They are not useful in pro'iding information necessary for reconstructing
geologic e'olution.
(C) They ha'e rarely been used by geologists since 1,-2.
() They are used primarily to gather compositional information about geologic
features.
(#) They are limited primarily because of difficulties in'ol'ed in interpreting film
images.
3"though the deve"opment o& new in&rastructure (such pub"ic &aci"ities as power
p"ants( schoo"s( and bridges) is usua""y determined by governmenta" p"anning(
sometimes this deve"opment can be p"anned more De8ib"y and rea"istica""y by
private investors who anticipate pro#t &rom the co""ection o& user &ees. uch
pro#ts can contribute to the #nancing o& more in&rastructure i& demand proves
great enough( whereas the re"uctance o& deve"opers to invest in such pro5ects can
signa" that additiona" in&rastructure is not needed. Kuring the economic boom o&
the 19806s( &or e8amp"e( the state o& Firginia authori+ed private deve"opers to
bui"d a .700 mi""ion to"" road. These deve"opers obtained the needed right-o&-way
&rom property owners( but by 1997 they sti"" had not raised the necessary
#nancing. The unwi""ingness o& investors to #nance this pro5ect does not negate
212 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
the viabi"ity o& private"y #nanced roads= rather( it i""ustrates a virtue o& private
#nancing. 2& a road appears un"i$e"y to attract enough &uture tra*c to pay &or the
road( then it shou"d not be bui"t.
20. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) build a case for increasing the de'elopment of new infrastructure
(B) ad'ocate an alternati'e to go'ernment financing of infrastructure
(C) e$plain the failure of a pri'ately financed 'enture
() suggest the types of infrastructure most appropriate for pri'ate financing
(#) argue against go'ernment restrictions on de'eloping new infrastructure
21. The passage implies that the *go'ernmental planning+ mentioned in line . may
lead to which of the following problems%
(A) 3mproper use of profits deri'ed from user fees
(B) :nduly slow de'elopment of necessary new infrastructure
(C) :nrealistic decisions about de'eloping new infrastructure
() 3ncorrect predictions about profits to be gained from user fees
(#) 8bstruction of pri'ate financing for the de'elopment of new infrastructure
22. According to the passage/ which of the following is true of the toll road mentioned
in line 12%
(A) After it was built/ it attracted too little traffic to pay for its construction.
(B) 3t was partially financed by the state of Cirginia.
(C) 3ts de'elopment was authori!ed during an economic boom.
() 3ts construction was contro'ersial among local residents.
(#) 3ts de'elopers were discouraged by go'ernmental restrictions on ac"uiring the
necessary land.
2-. The passage suggests that which of the following would occur if a pri'ately
financed bridge that pro'ed to be profitable failed after a number of years to meet
the demands of traffic%
(A) @ri'ate de'elopers who financed the bridge would rely on go'ernmental
authorities to de'elop new infrastructure.
(B) :ser fees would be increased so that usage would become more costly.
(C) Bo'ernmental authorities would be reluctant to rely on pri'ate contractors to
de'elop a new bridge.
() The success of the pro<ect would be <eopardi!ed by public dissatisfaction with
the pro<ect4s ade"uacy.
(#) @rofits generated by user fees would be used to help finance the construction
of new infrastructure to alle'iate the traffic problem.
GRE 21.
1996 04
SECTION A
3s peop"e age( their ce""s become "ess e*cient and "ess ab"e to rep"ace
damaged components. 3t the same time their tissues sti1en. :or e8amp"e( the
"ungs and the heart musc"e e8pand "ess success&u""y( the b"ood vesse"s become
increasing"y rigid( and the "igaments and tendons tighten.
:ew investigators wou"d attribute such diverse e1ects to a sing"e cause.
,everthe"ess( researchers have discovered that a process "ong $nown to disco"or
and toughen &oods may a"so contribute to age-re"ated impairment o& both ce""s
and tissues. That process is nonen+ymatic g"ycosy"ation( whereby g"ucose
becomes attached to proteins without the aid o& en+ymes. ;hen en+ymes attach
g"ucose to proteins (en+ymatic g"ycosy"ation)( they do so at a speci#c site on a
speci#c protein mo"ecu"e &or a speci#c purpose. 2n contrast( the nonen+ymatic
process adds g"ucose hapha+ard"y to any o& severa" sites a"ong any avai"ab"e
peptide chain within a protein mo"ecu"e.
This nonen+ymatic g"ycosy"ation o& certain proteins has been understood by
&ood chemists &or decades( a"though &ew bio"ogists recogni+ed unti" recent"y that
the same steps cou"d ta$e p"ace in the body. ,onen+ymatic g"ycosy"ation begins
when an a"dehyde group (%)<) o& g"ucose and an amino group (,)
4
) o& a protein
are attracted to each other. The mo"ecu"es combine( &orming what is ca""ed a
chi1 base within the protein. This combination is unstab"e and -uic$"y rearranges
itse"& into a stab"er( but sti"" reversib"e( substance $nown as an 3madori product.
2& a given protein persists in the body &or months or years( some o& its 3madori
products s"ow"y dehydrate and rearrange themse"ves yet again( into new g"ucose-
derived structures. These can combine with various $inds o& mo"ecu"es to &orm
irreversib"e structures named advanced g"ycosy"ation end products (3E@6s). Bost
3E@6s are ye""owish brown and Duorescent and have speci#c spectrographic
properties. Bore important &or the body( many are a"so ab"e to cross-"in$ ad5acent
proteins( particu"ar"y ones that give structure to tissues and organs. 3"though no
one has yet satis&actori"y described the origin o& a"" such bridges between
proteins( many investigators agree that e8tensive cross-"in$ing o& proteins
probab"y contributes to the sti1ening and "oss o& e"asticity characteristic o& aging
tissues.
2n an attempt to "in$ this process with the deve"opment o& cataracts (the
browning and c"ouding o& the "ens o& the eye as peop"e age)( researchers studied
the e1ect o& g"ucose on so"utions o& puri#ed crysta""in( the ma5or protein in the
"ens o& the eye. E"ucose-&ree so"utions remained c"ear( but so"utions with g"ucose
caused the proteins to &orm c"usters( suggesting that the mo"ecu"es had become
cross-"in$ed. The c"usters di1racted "ight( ma$ing the so"ution opa-ue. The
researchers a"so discovered that the pigmented cross-"in$s in human cataracts
210 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
have the brownish co"or and Duorescence characteristic o& 3E@6s. These data
suggest that nonen+ymatic g"ycosy"ation o& "ens crysta""ins may contribute to
cataract &ormation.
1-. &ith which of the following statements concerning the stiffening of aging tissues
would the author most likely agree%
(A) 3t is caused to a large degree by an increased rate of cell multiplication.
(B) 3t parado$ically both helps and hinders the longe'ity of proteins in the human
body.
(C) 3t can be counteracted in part by increased ingestion of glucose(free foods.
() 3t is e$acerbated by increased en!ymatic glycosylation.
(#) 3t probably in'ol'es the nonen!ymatic glycosylation of proteins.
16. According to the passage/ which of the following statements is true of the process
that discolors and toughens foods%
(A) 3t takes place more slowly than glycosylation in the human body.
(B) 3t re"uires a higher ratio of glucose to protein than glycosylation re"uires in
the human body.
(C) 3t does not re"uire the aid of en!ymes to attach glucose to protein.
() 3t proceeds more "uickly when the food proteins ha'e a molecular structure
similar to that of crystallin proteins.
(#) 3ts effecti'eness depends hea'ily on the amount of en'ironmental moisture.
1,. According to the passage/ which of the following is characteristic of en!ymatic
glycosylation of proteins%
(A) AB#4s are formed after a period of months or years.
(B) @roteins affected by the process are made unstable.
(C) Blucose attachment impairs and stiffens tissues.
() Blucose is attached to proteins for specific purposes.
(#) Amino groups combine with aldehyde groups to form ;chiff bases.
25. According to the passage/ which of the following statements is true of Amadori
products in proteins%
(A) They are more plentiful in a dehydrated en'ironment.
(B) They are created through en!ymatic glycosylation.
(C) They are composed entirely of glucose molecules.
() They are deri'ed from ;chiff bases.
(#) They are deri'ed from AB#4s.
21. &hich of the following best describes the function of the third paragraph of the
passage (lines 1,(2,)%
(A) 3t offers e'idence that contradicts the findings described in the first two
GRE 211
paragraphs.
(B) 3t presents a specific e$ample of the process discussed in the first two
paragraphs.
(C) 3t e$plains a problem that the researchers mentioned in the second paragraph
ha'e yet to sol'e.
() 3t e'aluates the research disco'eries described in the pre'ious paragraph.
(#) 3t begins a detailed description of the process introduced in the pre'ious two
paragraphs.
22. The passage suggests that which of the following would be K#A;T important in
determining whether nonen!ymatic glycosylation is likely to ha'e taken place in
the proteins of a particular tissue%
(A) The likelihood that the tissue has been e$posed to free glucose
(B) The color and spectrographic properties of structures within the tissue
(C) The amount of time that the proteins in the tissue ha'e persisted in the body
() The number of amino groups within the proteins in the tissue
(#) The degree of elasticity that the tissue e$hibits
2.. 3f the hypothesis stated in lines 12(16 is true/ it can be inferred that the crystallin
proteins in the lenses of people with cataracts
(A) ha'e increased elasticity
(B) do not respond to en!ymatic glycosylation
(C) are more susceptible to stiffening than are other proteins
() are at least se'eral months old
(#) respond more acutely than other proteins to changes in moisture le'els
;riting o& the 2ro-uois nation( mith has argued that through the chie&s6
counci"( triba" chie&s traditiona""y maintained comp"ete contro" over the po"itica"
a1airs o& both the 2ro-uois triba" "eague and the individua" tribes be"onging to the
"eague( whereas the so"e 5urisdiction over re"igious a1airs resided with the
shamans. 3ccording to mith( this division was maintained unti" the "ate
nineteenth century( when the disso"ution o& the chie&s6 counci" and the
conse-uent diminishment o& the chie&s6 po"itica" power &ostered their increasing
invo"vement in re"igious a1airs.
)owever( mith &ai"s to recogni+e that this division o& power between the triba"
chie&s and shamans was not actua""y rooted in 2ro-uois tradition= rather( it resu"ted
&rom the 2ro-uois6 resett"ement on reservations ear"y in the nineteenth century.
9rior to resett"ement( the chie&s6 counci" contro""ed on"y the broad po"icy o& the
triba" "eague= individua" tribes had institutions!most important( the "onghouse!
to govern their own a1airs. 2n the "onghouse( the tribe6s chie& inDuenced both
po"itica" and re"igious a1airs.
20. The primary purpose of the passage is to
212 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(A) "uestion the published conclusions of a scholar concerning the history of the
3ro"uois nation
(B) establish the relationship between an earlier scholar4s work and new
anthropological research
(C) summari!e scholarly contro'ersy concerning an incident from 3ro"uois history
() trace two generations of scholarly opinion concerning 3ro"uois social
institutions
(#) differentiate between 3ro"uois political practices and 3ro"uois religious
practices
21. 3t can be inferred that the author of the passage regards ;mith4s argument as
(A) pro'ocati'e and potentially useful/ but flawed by poor organi!ation
(B) elo"uently presented/ but needlessly inflammatory
(C) accurate in some of its particulars/ but inaccurate with regard to an important
point
() historically sound/ but o'erly detailed and redundant
(#) persuasi'e in its time/ but now largely outdated
22. The author of the passage implies that which of the following occurred after the
3ro"uois were resettled on reser'ations early in the nineteenth century%
(A) Chiefs became more in'ol'ed in their tribes4 religious affairs.
(B) The authority of the chiefs4 council o'er the affairs of indi'idual tribes
increased.
(C) The political influence of the 3ro"uois shamans was diminished.
() 3ndi'idual tribes coalesced into the 3ro"uois tribal league.
(#) The longhouse because a political rather than a religious institution.
2-. &hich of the following best e$presses an opinion presented by the author of the
passage%
(A) ;mith has o'erstated the importance of the political role played by 3ro"uois
tribal chiefs in the nineteenth century.
(B) ;mith has o'erlooked the fact that the 3ro"uois rarely allowed their shamans to
e$ercise political authority.
(C) ;mith has failed to e$plain why the chiefs4 council was dissol'ed late in the
nineteenth century.
() ;mith has failed to acknowledge the role prior to the nineteenth century of the
3ro"uois tribal chiefs in religious affairs.
(#) ;mith has failed to recogni!e that the 'ery structure of 3ro"uois social
institutions reflects religious beliefs.
SECTION B
GRE 21-
(ary Barton( particu"ar"y in its ear"y chapters( is a moving response to the
su1ering o& the industria" wor$er in the @ng"and o& the 18M06s. ;hat is most
impressive about the boo$ is the intense and painsta$ing e1ort made by the
author( @"i+abeth Eas$e""( to convey the e8perience o& everyday "i&e in wor$ing-
c"ass homes. )er method is part"y documentary in natureA the nove" inc"udes such
&eatures as a care&u""y annotated reproduction o& dia"ect( the e8act detai"s o& &ood
prices in an account o& a tea party( an itemi+ed description o& the &urniture o& the
'artons6 "iving room( and a transcription (again annotated) o& the ba""ad >The
<"dham ;eaver.? The interest o& this record is considerab"e( even though the
method has a s"ight"y distancing e1ect.
3s a member o& the midd"e c"ass( Eas$e"" cou"d hard"y he"p approaching
wor$ing-c"ass "i&e as an outside observer and a reporter( and the reader o& the
nove" is a"ways conscious o& this &act. 'ut there is genuine imaginative re-creation
in her accounts o& the wa"$ in Ereen )eys :ie"ds( o& tea at the 'artons6 house( and
o& Cohn 'arton and his &riend6s discovery o& the starving &ami"y in the ce""ar in the
chapter >9overty and Keath.? 2ndeed( &or a simi"ar"y convincing re-creation o& such
&ami"ies6 emotions and responses (which are more crucia" than the materia" detai"s
on which the mere reporter is apt to concentrate)( the @ng"ish nove" had to wait
L0 years &or the ear"y writing o& K. ). Jawrence. 2& Eas$e"" never -uite conveys the
sense o& &u"" participation that wou"d comp"ete"y authenticate this aspect o& (ary
Barton( she sti"" brings to these scenes an intuitive recognition o& &ee"ings that has
its own su*cient conviction.
The chapter ><"d 3"ice6s )istory? bri""iant"y dramati+es the situation o& that
ear"y generation o& wor$ers brought &rom the vi""ages and the countryside to the
urban industria" centers. The account o& Cob Jegh( the weaver and natura"ist who
is devoted to the study o& bio"ogy( vivid"y embodies one $ind o& response to an
urban industria" environmentA an a*nity &or "iving things that hardens( by its very
contrast with its environment( into a $ind o& cran$iness. The ear"y chapters!about
&actory wor$ers wa"$ing out in spring into Ereen )eys :ie"ds= about 3"ice ;i"son(
remembering in her ce""ar the twig-gathering &or brooms in the native vi""age that
she wi"" never again see= about Cob Jegh( intent on his impa"ed insects!capture
the characteristic responses o& a generation to the new and crushing e8perience
o& industria"ism. The other ear"y chapters e"o-uent"y portray the deve"opment o&
the instinctive cooperation with each other that was a"ready becoming an
important tradition among wor$ers.
1-. &hich of the following best describes the author4s attitude toward Baskell4s use of
the method of documentary record in *ary %arton%
(A) :ncritical enthusiasm
(B) :nresol'ed ambi'alence
(C) Nualified appro'al
216 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
() =esigned acceptance
(#) ?ild irritation
16. According to the passage/ *ary %arton and the early no'els of . ). Kawrence
share which of the following%
(A) epiction of the feelings of working(class families
(B) ocumentary ob<ecti'ity about working(class circumstances
(C) =ichly detailed description of working(class ad<ustment to urban life
() 3maginati'ely structured plots about working(class characters
(#) #$perimental prose style based on working(class dialect
1,. &hich of the following is most closely analogous to Aob Kegh in *ary %arton/ as
that character is described in the passage%
(A) An entomologist who collected butterflies as a child
(B) A small(town attorney whose hobby is nature photography
(C) A young man who lea'es his family4s dairy farm to start his own business
() A city dweller who raises e$otic plants on the roof of his apartment building
(#) A union organi!er who works in a te$tile mill under dangerous conditions
25. 3t can be inferred from e$amples gi'en in the last paragraph of the passage that
which of the following was part of *the new and crushing e$perience of
industrialism+ (lines 02(0-) for many members of the #nglish working class in the
nineteenth century%
(A) #$tortionate food prices
(B) Beographical displacement
(C) )a!ardous working conditions
() Alienation from fellow workers
(#) issolution of family ties
21. 3t can be inferred that the author of the passage belie'es that *ary %arton might
ha'e been an e'en better no'el if Baskell had
(A) concentrated on the emotions of a single character
(B) made no attempt to re(create e$periences of which she had no firsthand
knowledge
(C) made no attempt to reproduce working(class dialects
() grown up in an industrial city
(#) managed to transcend her position as an outsider
22. &hich of the following phrases could best be substituted for the phrase *this
aspect of *ary %arton+ in line 2, without changing the meaning of the passage as
a whole%
(A) the material details in an urban working(class en'ironment
GRE 21,
(B) the influence of *ary %arton on lawrence4s early work
(C) the place of *ary %arton in the de'elopment of the #nglish no'el
() the e$tent of the po'erty and physical suffering among #ngland4s industrial
workers in the 16054s
(#) the portrayal of the particular feelings and responses of working(class
characters
2.. The author of the passage describes *ary %arton as each of the following
#DC#@TE
(A) insightful
(B) meticulous
(C) 'i'id
() poignant
(#) lyrical
3s o& the "ate 19806s( neither theorists nor "arge-sca"e computer c"imate
mode"s cou"d accurate"y predict whether c"oud systems wou"d he"p or hurt a
warming g"obe. ome studies suggested that a &our percent increase in
stratocumu"us c"ouds over the ocean cou"d compensate &or a doub"ing in
atmospheric carbon dio8ide( preventing a potentia""y disastrous p"anetwide
temperature increase. <n the other hand( an increase in cirrus c"ouds cou"d
increase g"oba" warming.
That c"ouds represented the wea$est e"ement in c"imate mode"s was i""ustrated
by a study o& &ourteen such mode"s. %omparing c"imate &orecasts &or a wor"d with
doub"e the current amount o& carbon dio8ide( researchers &ound that the mode"s
agreed -uite we"" i& c"ouds were not inc"uded. 'ut when c"ouds were incorporated(
a wide range o& &orecasts was produced. ;ith such discrepancies p"aguing the
mode"s( scientists cou"d not easi"y predict how -uic$"y the wor"d6s c"imate wou"d
change( nor cou"d they te"" which regions wou"d &ace dustier droughts or dead"ier
monsoons.
20. The author of the passage is primarily concerned with
(A) confirming a theory
(B) supporting a statement
(C) presenting new information
() predicting future disco'eries
(#) reconciling discrepant findings
21. 3t can be inferred that one reason the fourteen models described in the passage
failed to agree was that
(A) they failed to incorporate the most up(to(date information about the effect of
clouds on climate
(B) they were based on faulty information about factors other than clouds that
225 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
affect climate
(C) they were based on different assumptions about the o'erall effects of clouds on
climate
() their originators disagreed about the kinds of forecasts the models should
pro'ide
(#) their originators disagreed about the factors other than clouds that should be
included in the models
22. 3t can be inferred that the primary purpose of the models included in the study
discussed in the second paragraph of the passage was to
(A) predict future changes in the world4s climate
(B) predict the effects of cloud systems on the world4s climate
(C) find a way to pre'ent a disastrous planetwide temperature increase
() assess the percentage of the #arth4s surface co'ered by cloud systems
(#) estimate by how much the amount of carbon dio$ide in the #arth4s atmosphere
will increase
2-. The information in the passage suggests that scientists would ha'e to answer
which of the following "uestions in order to predict the effect of clouds on the
warming of the globe%
(A) &hat kinds of cloud systems will form o'er the #arth%
(B) )ow can cloud systems be encouraged to form o'er the ocean%
(C) &hat are the causes of the pro<ected planetwide temperature increase%
() &hat proportion of cloud systems are currently composed of cirrus of clouds%
(#) &hat proportion of the clouds in the atmosphere form o'er land masses%
1996 04
SECTION A
:or many years( 'en5amin Tuar"es6 semina" account o& the participation o&
3&rican 3mericans in the 3merican Revo"ution has remained the standard wor$ in
the #e"d. 3ccording to Tuar"es( the outcome o& this conDict was mi8ed &or 3&rican
3merican s"aves who en"isted in 'ritain6s #ght against its rebe""ious 3merican
co"onies in return &or the promise o& &reedomA the 'ritish treacherous"y reso"d
many into s"avery in the ;est 2ndies( whi"e others obtained &reedom in %anada
and 3&rica. 'ui"ding on Tuar"es6 ana"ysis o& the "atter group( y"via :rey studied
the &ormer s"aves who emigrated to 'ritish co"onies in %anada. 3ccording to :rey(
these re&ugeesthe most success&u" o& the 3&rican 3merican Revo"utionary ;ar
participantsviewed themse"ves as the ideo"ogica" heirs o& the 3merican
Revo"ution. :rey sees this inheritances reDected in their demands &or the same
rights that the 3merican revo"utionaries had demanded &rom the 'ritishA "and
GRE 221
ownership( "imits to arbitrary authority and burdensome ta8es( and &reedom o&
re"igion.
1-. According to the passage/ which of the following is true about the African
American =e'olutionary &ar participants who settled in Canada after the
American =e'olution%
(A) Although they were politically unaligned with either side/ they identified more
with British ideology than with American ideology.
(B) &hile they were not immediately betrayed by the British/ they ultimately
suffered the same fate as did African American =e'olutionary &ar participants
who were resold into sla'ery in the &est 3ndies.
(C) They settled in Canada rather than in Africa because of the greater religious
freedom a'ailable in Canada.
() They were more politically acti'e than were African American =e'olutionary
&ar participants who settled in Africa.
(#) They were more successful than were African American =e'olutionary &ar
participants who settled Africa.
16. &hich of the following is most analogous to the relationship between the African
American =e'olutionary &ar participants who settled in Canada after the
American =e'olution and the American re'olutionaries/ as that relationship is
described in the passage%
(A) A brilliant pupil of a great musician rebels against the teacher/ but adopts the
teacher4s musical style after the teacher4s une$pected death.
(B) Two warring rulers finally make peace after a lifetime of strife when they
reali!e that they ha'e been duped by a common enemy.
(C) A child who has sided with a domineering parent against a defiant sibling later
makes demands of the parent similar to those once made by the sibling.
() A writer spends much of her life populari!ing the work of her mentor/ only to
disco'er late in life that much of the older writer4s work is plagiari!ed from the
writings of a foreign contemporary.
(#) Two research scientists spend much of their careers working together toward a
common goal/ but later "uarrel o'er which of them should recei'e credit for
the training of a promising student.
1,. The author of the passage suggests that which of the following is true of Ben<amin
Nuarles4 work%
(A) 3t introduced a new and untried research methodology.
(B) 3t contained theories so contro'ersial that they ga'e rise to an entire generation
of scholarship.
(C) 3t was a pioneering work that has not yet been displaced by subse"uent
scholarship.
222 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
() 3t launched the career of a scholar who later wrote e'en more important works.
(#) At the time it appeared/ its author already en<oyed a well(established reputation
in the field.
25. &hich of the following can be inferred from the passage concerning Britain4s rule
in its Canadian colonies after the American =e'olution%
(A) )umiliated by their defeat by the Americans/ the British sharply curtailed ci'il
rights in their Canadian colonies.
(B) The British largely ignored their Canadian colonies.
(C) The British encouraged the coloni!ation of Canada by those African
Americans who had ser'ed on the American side as well as by those who had
ser'ed on the British side.
() ;ome of Britain4s policies in its Canadian colonies were similar to its policies
in its American colonies before the American =e'olution.
(#) To reduce the debt incurred during the war/ the British imposed e'en higher
ta$es on the Canadian colonists than they had on the American colonists.
<ver the years( bio"ogists have suggested two main pathways by which se8ua"
se"ection may have shaped the evo"ution o& ma"e birdsong. 2n the #rst( ma"e
competition and intrase8ua" se"ection produce re"ative"y short( simp"e songs used
main"y in territoria" behavior. 2n the second( &ema"e choice and interse8ua"
se"ection produce "onger( more comp"icated songs used main"y in mate attraction=
"i$e such visua" ornamentation as the peacoc$6s tai"( e"aborate voca"
characteristics increase the ma"e6s chances o& being chosen as a mate( and he
thus en5oys more reproductive success than his "ess ostentatious riva"s. The two
pathways are not mutua""y e8c"usive( and we can e8pect to #nd e8amp"es that
reDect their interaction. Teasing them apart has been an important cha""enge to
evo"utionary bio"ogists.
@ar"y research con#rmed the ro"e o& intrase8ua" se"ection. 2n a variety o&
e8periments in the #e"d( ma"es responded aggressive"y to recorded songs by
e8hibiting territoria" behavior near the spea$ers. The brea$through &or research
into interse8ua" se"ection came in the deve"opment o& a new techni-ue &or
investigating &ema"e response in the "aboratory. ;hen &ema"e cowbirds raised in
iso"ation in sound-proo& chambers were e8posed to recordings o& ma"e song( they
responded by e8hibiting mating behavior. 'y -uanti&ying the responses(
researchers were ab"e to determine what particu"ar &eatures o& the song were
most important. 2n &urther e8periments on song sparrows( researchers &ound that
when e8posed to a sing"e song type repeated severa" times or to a repertoire o&
di1erent song types( &ema"es responded more to the "atter. The beauty o& the
e8perimenta" design is that it e1ective"y ru"es out con&ounding variab"es= acoustic
iso"ation assures that the &ema"e can respond on"y to the song structure itse"&.
2& interse8ua" se"ection operates as theori+ed( ma"es with more comp"icated
songs shou"d not on"y attract &ema"es more readi"y but shou"d a"so en5oy greater
GRE 22.
reproductive success. 3t #rst( however( researchers doing #e"dwor$ with song
sparrows &ound no corre"ation between "arger repertoires and ear"y mating( which
has been shown to be one indicator o& reproductive success= &urther( common
measures o& ma"e -ua"ity used to predict reproductive success( such as weight(
si+e( age( and territory( a"so &ai"ed to corre"ate with song comp"e8ity.
The con#rmation researchers had been see$ing was #na""y achieved in studies
invo"ving two varieties o& warb"ers. Un"i$e the song sparrow( which repeats one o&
its severa" song types in bouts be&ore switching to another( the warb"er
continuous"y composes much "onger and more variab"e songs without repetition.
:or the #rst time( researchers &ound a signi#cant corre"ation between repertoire
si+e and ear"y mating( and they discovered &urther that repertoire si+e had a more
signi#cant e1ect than any other measure o& ma"e -ua"ity on the number o& young
produced. The evidence suggests that warb"ers use their e8treme"y e"aborate
songs primari"y to attract &ema"es( c"ear"y con#rming the e1ect o& interse8ua"
se"ection on the evo"ution o& birdsong.
21. The passage is primarily concerned with
(A) showing that intrase$ual selection has a greater effect on birdsong than does
interse$ual selection
(B) contrasting the role of song comple$ity in se'eral species of birds
(C) describing research confirming the suspected relationship between interse$ual
selection and the comple$ity of birdsong
() demonstrating the superiority of laboratory work o'er field studies in
e'olutionary biology
(#) illustrating the effecti'eness of a particular approach to e$perimental design in
e'olutionary biology
22. The author mentions the peacock4s tail in line 6 most probably in order to
(A) cite an e$ception to the theory of the relationship between intrase$ual selection
and male competition
(B) illustrate the importance of both of the pathways that shaped the e'olution of
birdsong
(C) draw a distinction between competing theories of interse$ual selection
() gi'e an e$ample of a feature that may ha'e e'ol'ed through interse$ual
selection by female choice
(#) refute a commonly held assumption about the role of song in mate attraction
2.. According to the passage/ which of the following is specifically related to
intrase$ual selection%
(A) >emale choice
(B) Territorial beha'ior
(C) Comple$ song types
220 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
() Karge song repertoires
(#) Cisual ornamentation
20. &hich of the following/ if true/ would most clearly demonstrate the interaction
mentioned in lines 11(1.%
(A) >emale larks respond similarly both to short/ simple songs and to longer/ more
complicated songs.
(B) ?ale canaries use 'isual ornamentation as well as elaborate song repertoires
for mate attraction.
(C) Both male and female blackbirds de'elop elaborate 'isual and 'ocal
characteristics.
() ?ale <ays use songs to compete among themsel'es and to attract females.
(#) ?ale robins with elaborate 'isual ornamentation ha'e as much reproducti'e
success as ri'als with elaborate 'ocal characteristics.
21. The passage indicates that researchers raised female cowbirds in acoustic isolation
in order to
(A) eliminate confounding 'ariables
(B) appro$imate field conditions
(C) measure reproducti'e success
() "uantify repertoire comple$ity
(#) pre'ent early mating
22. According to the passage/ the song sparrow is unlike the warbler in that the song
sparrow
(A) uses songs mainly in territorial beha'ior
(B) continuously composes long and comple$ songs
(C) has a much larger song repertoire
() repeats one song type before switching to another
(#) responds aggressi'ely to recorded songs
2-. The passage suggests that the song sparrow e$periments mentioned in lines .-(0.
failed to confirm the role of interse$ual selection because
(A) females were allowed to respond only to the song structure
(B) song sparrows are unlike other species of birds
(C) the e$periments pro'ided no e'idence that elaborate songs increased male
reproducti'e success
() the e$periments included the songs of only a small number of different song
sparrows
(#) the e$periments duplicated some of the limitations of pre'ious field studies
GRE 221
SECTION B
3n e8periment conducted aboard pace Jab in 1987 was the #rst attempt to
grow protein crysta"s in the "ow-gravity environment o& space. That e8periment is
sti"" cited as evidence that growing crysta"s in microgravity can increase crysta"
si+eA the authors reported that they grew "yso+yme protein crysta"s 1(000 times
"arger than crysta"s grown in the same device on @arth. Un&ortunate"y( the authors
did not point out that their crysta"s were no "arger than the average crysta" grown
using other( more standard techni-ues in an @arth "aboratory.
,o research has yet produced resu"ts that cou"d 5usti&y the enormous costs o&
producing crysta"s on a "arge sca"e in space. To get an unbiased view o& the
use&u"ness o& microgravity crysta" growth( crysta"s grown in space must be
compared with the best crysta"s that have been grown with standard techni-ues
on @arth. Eiven the great e8pense o& conducting such e8periments with proper
contro"s( and the "imited promise o& e8periments per&ormed thus &ar( it is
-uestionab"e whether &urther e8periments in this area shou"d even be conducted.
1-. According to the passage/ which of the following is true about the ;pace Kab
e$periment conducted in 1,6.%
(A) 3t was the first e$periment to take place in the microgra'ity en'ironment of
space.
(B) 3t was the first e$periment in which researchers in space were able to grow
lyso!yme protein crystals greater in si!e than those grown on #arth.
(C) 3ts results ha'e been superseded by subse"uent research in the field of
microgra'ity protein crystal growth.
() 3ts results are still considered by some to be e'idence for the ad'antages of
microgra'ity protein crystal growth.
(#) 3ts results are considered by many to be in'alid because nonstandard
techni"ues were employed.
16. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author would find the ;pace Kab
e$periment more impressi'e if which of the following were true%
(A) The results of the ;pace Kab e$periment could be replicated in producing other
kinds of crystals in addition to lyso!yme protein.
(B) The de'ice used in the e$periment produced larger crystals on #arth than it did
in space.
(C) The si!e of the crystals produced in the e$periment e$ceeded the si!e of
crystals grown in #arth laboratories using standard techni"ues.
() The cost of producing the crystals in space e$ceeded that of producing them
using standard laboratory techni"ues.
(#) The standard techni"ues used in #arth laboratories were modified in the ;pace
Kab e$periment due to the effects of microgra'ity.
222 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
1,. &hich of the following can be inferred from the passage about the de'ice used to
grow crystals in the ;pace Kab e$periment%
(A) The de'ice is more e$pensi'e to manufacture than are the de'ices used in
standard techni"ues in an #arth laboratory.
(B) The de'ice has not been used to grow crystals in space since the ;pace Kab
e$periment of 1,6..
(C) Crystals grown in the de'ice on #arth tend to be much smaller than crystals
grown in it in space.
() Crystals grown in the de'ice in space ha'e been e$ceeded in si!e by crystals
grown in subse"uent e$periments in space using other de'ices.
(#) The e$periments in which the de'ice was used were conducted with proper
controls.
25. The passage suggests that the author would most probably agree with which of the
following assessments of the results of the ;pace Kab e$periment%
(A) Although the results of the e$periment are impressi'e/ the e$periment was too
limited in scope to allow for definiti'e conclusions.
(B) The results of the e$periment are impressi'e on the surface/ but the report is
misleading.
(C) The results of the e$periment con'incingly confirm what researchers ha'e long
suspected.
() Because of design flaws/ the e$periment did not yield any results rele'ant to
the issue under in'estigation.
(#) The results of the e$periment are too contradictory to allow for easy
interpretation.
2n 1947 the innovative Russian #"mma$er K+iga Fertov described #"mma$ing
as a process that "eads viewers toward a >&resh perception o& the wor"d.? Fertov6s
description o& #"mma$ing shou"d app"y to #"ms on the sub5ect o& art. Iet #"ms on
art have not had a power&u" and pervasive e1ect on the way we see.
9ub"ications on art Dourish( but these boo$s and artic"es do not necessari"y
succeed in teaching us to see more deep"y or more c"ear"y. Buch writing in art
history advances the discourse in the #e"d but is un"i$e"y to in&orm the eye o& one
un&ami"iar with its po"emics. :i"ms( however( with their capacity to present
materia" visua""y and to reach a broader audience( have the potentia" to enhance
visua" "iteracy (the abi"ity to identi&y the detai"s that characteri+e a particu"ar
sty"e) more e1ective"y than pub"ications can. Un&ortunate"y( &ew o& the hundred or
so #"ms on art that are made each year in the United tates are broadcast
nationa""y on prime-time te"evision.
The &act that #"ms on art are rare"y seen on prime-time te"evision may be due
not on"y to "imitations on distribution but a"so to the shortcomings o& many such
#"ms. ome o& these shortcomings can be attributed to the &ai"ure o& art historians
GRE 22-
and #"mma$ers to co""aborate c"ose"y enough when ma$ing #"ms on art. These
pro&essiona"s are ab"e( within their respective discip"ines( to increase our
awareness o& visua" &orms. :or c"ose co""aboration to occur( pro&essiona"s in each
discip"ine need to recogni+e that #"ms on art can be both educationa" and
entertaining( but this wi"" re-uire compromise on both sides.
3 #"mma$er who is creating a #"m about the wor$ o& an artist shou"d not &o""ow
the standards set by roc$ videos and advertising. :i"mma$ers need to resist the
impu"se to move the camera -uic$"y &rom detai" to detai" &or &ear o& boring the
viewer( to &rame the image &or the sa$e o& drama a"one( to add music &or &ear o&
si"ence. :i"mma$ers are aware that an art ob5ect demands concentration and( at
the same time( are concerned that it may not be compe""ing enough!and so they
hope to provide re"ie& by interposing >rea"? scenes that bear on"y a tangentia"
re"ationship to the sub5ect. 'ut a wor$ o& art needs to be e8p"ored on its own
terms. <n the other hand( art historians need to trust that one can indicate and
ana"y+e( not so"e"y with words( but a"so by directing the viewer6s ga+e. The
specia"i+ed written "anguage o& art history needs to be re"in-uished or at "east
tempered &or the screen. <n"y an e1ective co""aboration between #"mma$ers and
art historians can create #"ms that wi"" enhance viewers6 perceptions o& art.
21. The passage suggests that a filmmaker desiring to enhance 'iewers4 perceptions of
art should do which of the following%
(A) =ely on the precise language of art history when de'eloping scripts for films
on art.
(B) =ely on dramatic narrati'e and music to set a film4s tone and style.
(C) =ecogni!e that a work of art by itself can be compelling enough to hold a
'iewer4s attention.
() epend more strongly on narration instead of camera mo'ements to guide the
'iewer4s ga!e.
(#) #mphasi!e the social and the historical conte$ts within which works of art
ha'e been created.
22. The author of the passage refers to Certo' in the first paragraph most probably in
order to
(A) pro'ide an e$ample of how films can be used to influence perceptions
(B) present e'idence to support the argument that films ha'e been used
successfully to influence 'iewers4 perceptions
(C) introduce the notion that film can influence how 'iewers see
() contrast a traditional 'iew of the uses of film with a more modern 'iew
(#) describe how film can change a 'iewer4s perception of a work of art
2.. &hich of the following best describes the organi!ation of the passage%
(A) An obser'ation about an unsatisfactory situation is offered/ the reasons for the
situation are discussed/ and then ways to change it are suggested.
226 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(B) Two opinions regarding a contro'ersial phenomenon are contrasted/ supporting
e'idence for each is presented/ and then the two opinions are reconciled.
(C) Criticism of a point of 'iew is discussed/ the criticism is answered/ and then
the criticism is applied to another point of 'iew.
() A point of 'iew is described/ e'idence supporting the 'iew is pro'ided/ and
then a summary is presented.
(#) A strategy is presented/ reasons for its past failure are discussed/ and then a
recommendation that will be abandoned is offered.
20. The passage is primarily concerned with
(A) discussing why film4s potential as a medium for presenting art to the general
public has not been fully reali!ed and how film might be made more effecti'e
in this regard
(B) discussing the shortcomings of films on art and the technological inno'ations
re"uired to increase the impact of film on 'isual literacy
(C) discussing the ad'antages and the disad'antages of using films rather than
publications to present works of art to the general public
() presenting information to support the 'iew that films on art must focus more
on education and less on entertainment in order to increase 'isual literacy
(#) presenting information to support the 'iew that films on art/ because they reach
a broader audience than many other kinds of media/ ha'e had greater success
in promoting 'isual literacy
21. The author would most likely agree with which of the following statements about
film and 'isual literacy%
(A) =eading a publication about a work of art and then seeing a film about the
same work is the most effecti'e way to de'elop 'isual literacy.
(B) An increase in a 'iewer4s awareness of 'isual forms will also lead to an
increased attention span.
(C) >ilm has a great but not yet fully e$ploited capacity to increase 'iewers4
awareness of 'isual forms.
() A film that focuses on the details of a work of art will hinder the de'elopment
of 'isual literacy.
(#) >ilms on art would more effecti'ely enhance the 'isual literacy of teenagers if
filmmakers followed the standards set by rock 'ideos.
22. According to the passage/ art historians desiring to work with filmmakers to
enhance the public4s appreciation of art need to acknowledge which of the
following%
(A) The art historian4s role in the creation of a film on art is likely to be a relati'ely
minor one.
(B) >ilm pro'ides an ideal opportunity to ac"uaint 'iewers with a wide range of
GRE 22,
issues that relate incidentally to a work of art.
(C) An in(depth analysis of a work of art is not an appropriate topic for a film on
art.
() Although silence may be an appropriate background when 'iewing a work of
art in a museum/ it is inappropriate in a film.
(#) >ilm can use non'erbal means to achie'e some of the same results that a
spoken or written discourse can achie'e.
2-. &hich of the following would describe the author4s most likely reaction to a claim
that films on art would more successfully promote 'isual literacy if they followed
the standards set for rock 'ideos%
(A) Ambi'alence
(B) 3ndifference
(C) ;ympathy
() 3nterest
(#) isdain
1996 10
SECTION A
This is not to deny that the '"ac$ gospe" music o& the ear"y twentieth century
di1ered in important ways &rom the s"ave spiritua"s. ;hereas spiritua"s were
created and disseminated in &o"$ &ashion( gospe" music was composed( pub"ished(
copyrighted( and so"d by pro&essiona"s. ,everthe"ess( improvisation remained
centra" to gospe" music. <ne has on"y to "isten to the recorded repertoire o& gospe"
songs to rea"i+e that '"ac$ gospe" singers rare"y sang a song precise"y the same
way twice and never according to its e8act musica" notation. They per&ormed what
5a++ musicians ca"" >head arrangements? proceeding &rom their own &ee"ings and
&rom the way >the spirit? moved them at the time. This improvisatory e"ement
was reDected in the manner in which gospe" music was pub"ished. '"ac$ gospe"
composers scored the music intended &or ;hite singing groups &u""y( indicating
the various voca" parts and the accompaniment( but the music produced &or '"ac$
singers inc"uded on"y a voca" "ine and piano accompaniment.
1-. &hich of the following best describes *head arrangement+ as the term is used in
line 11%
(A) A published 'ersion of a gospel song produced for use by Black singers
(B) A gospel song based on a sla'e spiritual
(C) A musical score shared by a gospel singer and a <a!! musician
() An informally written composition intended for use by a gospel singer
(#) An impro'ised performance inspired by the singer4s emotions
2-5 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
16. The author mentions *folk fashion+ (line 0) most likely in order to
(A) counter an assertion about the role of impro'isation in music created by Black
people
(B) compare early gospel music with gospel music written later in the twentieth
century
(C) make a distinction between gospel music and sla'e spirituals
() introduce a discussion about the dissemination of sla'e spirituals
(#) describe a similarity between gospel music and sla'e spirituals
1,. The passage suggests which of the following about Black gospel music and sla'e
spirituals%
(A) Both became widely known in the early twentieth century.
(B) Both had an important impro'isatory element.
(C) Both were fre"uently performed by <a!! musicians.
() Both were published with only a 'ocal line and piano accompaniment.
(#) Both were disseminated chiefly by Black singing groups.
25. 8f the following sentences/ which is most likely to ha'e immediately preceded the
passage%
(A) >ew composers of gospel music drew on traditions such as the spiritual in
creating their songs.
(B) ;pirituals and Black gospel music were deri'ed from the same musical
tradition.
(C) The creation and singing of spirituals/ practiced by Black Americans before the
Ci'il &ar/ continued after the war.
() ;pirituals and gospel music can be clearly distinguished from one another.
(#) 3mpro'isation was one of the primary characteristics of the gospel music
created by Black musicians.
3bout a century ago( the wedish physica" scientist 3rrhenius proposed a "aw
o& c"assica" chemistry that re"ates chemica" reaction rate to temperature.
3ccording to the 3rrhenius e-uation( chemica" reactions are increasing"y un"i$e"y
to occur as temperatures approach abso"ute +ero( and at abso"ute +ero (+ero
degrees Se"vin( or minus 477 degrees %e"sius) reactions stop. )owever( recent
e8perimenta" evidence revea"s that a"though the 3rrhenius e-uation is genera""y
accurate in describing the $ind o& chemica" reaction that occurs at re"ative"y high
temperatures( at temperatures c"oser to +ero a -uantum-mechanica" e1ect $nown
as tunne"ing comes into p"ay= this e1ect accounts &or chemica" reactions that are
&orbidden by the princip"es o& c"assica" chemistry. peci#ca""y( entire mo"ecu"es
can >tunne"? through the barriers o& repu"sive &orces &rom other mo"ecu"es and
chemica""y react even though these mo"ecu"es do not have su*cient energy(
according to c"assica" chemistry( to overcome the repu"sive barrier.
GRE 2-1
The rate o& any chemica" reaction( regard"ess o& the temperature at which it
ta$es p"ace( usua""y depends on a very important characteristic $nown as its
activation energy. 3ny mo"ecu"e can be imagined to reside at the bottom o& a so-
ca""ed potentia" we"" o& energy. 3 chemica" reaction corresponds to the transition
o& a mo"ecu"e &rom the bottom o& one potentia" we"" to the bottom o& another. 2n
c"assica" chemistry( such a transition can be accomp"ished on"y by going over the
potentia" barrier between the we""s( the height o& which remains constant and is
ca""ed the activation energy o& the reaction. 2n tunne"ing( the reacting mo"ecu"es
tunne" &rom the bottom o& one to the bottom o& another we"" without having to rise
over the barrier between the two we""s. Recent"y researchers have deve"oped the
concept o& tunne"ing temperatureA the temperature be"ow which tunne"ing
transitions great"y outnumber 3rrhenius transitions( and c"assica" mechanics gives
way to its -uantum counterpart.
This tunne"ing phenomenon at very "ow temperatures suggested my
hypothesis about a co"d prehistory o& "i&eA the &ormation o& rather comp"e8 organic
mo"ecu"es in the deep co"d o& outer space( where temperatures usua""y reach on"y
a &ew degrees Se"vin. %osmic rays (high-energy protons and other partic"es) might
trigger the synthesis o& simp"e mo"ecu"es( such as interste""ar &orma"dehyde( in
dar$ c"ouds o& interste""ar dust. 3&terward comp"e8 organic mo"ecu"es wou"d be
&ormed( s"ow"y but sure"y( by means o& tunne"ing. 3&ter 2 o1ered my hypothesis(
)oy"e and ;ic$ramasinghe argued that mo"ecu"es o& interste""ar &orma"dehyde
have indeed evo"ved into stab"e po"ysaccharides such as ce""u"ose and starch.
Their conc"usions( a"though strong"y disputed( have generated e8citement among
investigators such as myse"& who are proposing that the ga"actic c"ouds are the
p"aces where the prebio"ogica" evo"ution o& compounds necessary to "i&e occurred.
21. The author of the passage is primarily concerned with
(A) describing how the principles of classical chemistry were de'eloped
(B) initiating a debate about the kinds of chemical reactions re"uired for the
de'elopment of life
(C) e$plaining how current research in chemistry may be related to broader
biological concerns
() reconciling opposing theories about chemical reactions
(#) clarifying inherent ambiguities in the laws of classical chemistry
22. According to the passage/ classical chemical reactions and tunneling reactions are
alike in which of the following ways%
(A) 3n both types of reactions/ reacting molecules ha'e to rise o'er the barrier
between the two wells.
(B) 3n both types of reactions/ a transition is made from the bottom of one
potential well to the bottom of another.
(C) 3n neither type of reaction does the height of the barrier between the wells
remain constant.
2-2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
() 3n neither type of reaction does the rate of a chemical reaction depend on its
acti'ation energy.
(#) 3n both types of reactions/ reacting molecules are able to go through the barrier
between the two wells.
2.. According to the Arrhenius e"uation as discussed in the passage/ which of the
following statements about chemical reactions is true%
(A) Chemical reactions are less likely to occur at temperatures close to absolute
!ero.
(B) 3n some cases the rate of a chemical reaction is related to temperature and in
other cases it is not.
(C) Chemical reactions fre"uently occur at a few degrees abo'e absolute !ero/ but
they are 'ery unpredictable.
() The rate of a chemical reaction depends on many other factors besides
temperature.
(#) Chemical reaction rate and temperature are not related.
20. The author4s attitude toward the theory of a cold pre(history of life can best be
described as
(A) neutral
(B) skeptical
(C) mildly positi'e
() 'ery supporti'e
(#) pointedly critical
21. The author4s hypothesis concerning the cold prehistory of life would be most
weakened if which of the following were true%
(A) Cosmic rays are unlikely to trigger the formation of simple molecules.
(B) Tunneling occurs only in a narrow band of temperatures around !ero degrees
Mel'in.
(C) The synthesis of interstellar formaldehyde can be acti'ated by means other
than cosmic rays.
() ;imple molecules can be synthesi!ed by means of tunneling.
(#) Classical chemical reactions do not occur at temperatures close to absolute
!ero.
22. &hich of the following best describes the hypothesis of )oyle and
&ickramasinghe as it is presented in the passage%
(A) Cosmic rays can directly synthesi!e comple$ organic molecules.
(B) The galactic clouds are the places where prebiological e'olution of compounds
necessary to life occurred.
(C) 3nterstellar formaldehyde can be synthesi!ed by tunneling.
GRE 2-.
() ?olecules of interstellar formaldehyde can e'ol'e into comple$ organic
molecules.
(#) Comple$ organic molecules can be synthesi!ed from stable polysaccharides
such as cellulose and starch.
2-. &hich of the following best describes the organi!ation of the first two paragraphs
of the passage%
(A) The author cites a basic principle of classical chemistry and then describes the
research from which that principle was de'eloped.
(B) The author cites an apparent contradiction to the principles of classical
chemistry and then e$plains the process of a chemical reaction to show there is
in fact no contradiction.
(C) The author describes the role of heat in chemical reactions and then offers a
detailed e$planation of its function.
() The author presents a law of classical chemistry in order to introduce a kind of
chemical reaction that differs from it and then e$plains the essential difference
between the two.
(#) The author presents the fundamental rules of classical chemistry in order to
introduce an e$planation of a specific chemical reaction.
SECTION B
3"though the hormone adrena"ine is $nown to regu"ate memory storage( it does
not pass &rom the b"ood into brain ce""s. ;e are &aced with an apparent parado8A
how can a hormone that does not act direct"y on the brain have such a "arge
e1ect on brain &unctionG
Recent"y( we tested the possibi"ity that one o& the hormone6s actions outside
the brain might be responsib"e. ince one conse-uence o& adrena"ine re"ease in an
anima" is an increase in b"ood g"ucose "eve"s( we e8amined the e1ects o& g"ucose
on memory in rats. ;e &ound that g"ucose in5ected immediate"y a&ter training
enhances memory tested the ne8t day. 3dditiona" evidence was provided by
negative #ndingsA drugs ca""ed adrenergic antagonists( which b"oc$ periphera"
adrena"ine receptors( disrupted adrena"ine6s abi"ity to regu"ate memory but did
not a1ect memory enhancements produced by g"ucose that was not stimu"ated by
adrena"ine. These resu"ts are as they shou"d be i& adrena"ine a1ects memory
modu"ation by increasing b"ood g"ucose "eve"s.
1-. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) reconcile two opposing theories
(B) compare two different e$planations for a phenomenon
(C) describe e$perimental research that appears to support an unpopular theory
() present e'idence that may help to resol'e an apparent contradiction
2-0 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(#) describe a hypothesis that has cause a contro'ersy
16. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author would most likely describe the
*additional e'idence+ (line 12) pro'ided by e$periments with adrenergic
antagonists as
(A) re'olutionary
(B) disappointing
(C) incomplete
() une$pected
(#) corroborati'e
1,. The passage pro'ides information about which of the following topics%
(A) The mechanism by which glucose affects memory storage
(B) The e'idence that prompted scientist to test the effects of adrenaline on
memory regulation
(C) The reason that the effects of glucose on memory were tested
() The ways that memory storage modifies the structure of the brain
(#) The kinds of training used to test memory enhancement in rats
25. The author refers to the results of the e$periment using adrenergic antagonists as
*negati'e findings+ (line 1.) most likely because the adrenergic antagonists
(A) failed to disrupt adrenaline4s effect on memory
(B) did not affect glucose4s ability to enhance memory
(C) did not block adrenaline4s ability to increase blood glucose le'els
() only partially affected adrenaline4s ability to enhance memory
(#) disrupted both adrenaline4s and glucose4s effect on memory
The age at which young chi"dren begin to ma$e mora" discriminations about
harm&u" actions committed against themse"ves or others has been the &ocus o&
recent research into the mora" deve"opment o& chi"dren. Unti" recent"y( chi"d
psycho"ogists supported pioneer deve"opmenta"ist Cean. 9iaget in his hypothesis
that because o& their immaturity( chi"dren under age seven do not ta$e into
account the intentions o& a person committing accidenta" or de"iberate harm( but
rather simp"y assign punishment &or transgressions on the basis o& the magnitude
o& the negative conse-uences caused. 3ccording to 9iaget( chi"dren under age
seven occupy the #rst stage o& mora" deve"opment( which is characteri+ed by
mora" abso"utism (ru"es made by authorities must be obeyed) and imminent
5ustice (i& ru"es are bro$en( punishment wi"" be meted out). Unti" young chi"dren
mature( their mora" 5udgments are based entire"y on the e1ect rather than the
cause o& a transgression. )owever( in recent research( Seasey &ound that si8-year-
o"d chi"dren not on"y distinguish between accidenta" and intentiona" harm( but a"so
5udge intentiona" harm as naughtier( regard"ess o& the amount o& damage
produced. 'oth o& these #ndings seem to indicate that chi"dren( at an ear"ier age
GRE 2-1
than 9iaget c"aimed( advance into the second stage o& mora" deve"opment( mora"
autonomy( in which they accept socia" ru"es but view them as more arbitrary than
do chi"dren in the #rst stage.
Seasey6s research raises two $ey -uestions &or deve"opmenta" psycho"ogists
about chi"dren under age sevenA do they recogni+e 5usti#cations &or harm&u"
actions( and do they ma$e distinctions between harm&u" acts that are preventab"e
and those acts that have un&oreseen harm&u" conse-uencesG tudies indicate that
5usti#cations e8cusing harm&u" actions might inc"ude pub"ic duty( se"&-de&ense( and
provocation. :or e8amp"e( ,esda"e and Ru"e conc"uded that chi"dren were capab"e
o& considering whether or not an aggressor6s action was 5usti#ed by pub"ic dutyA
#ve year o"ds reacted very di1erent"y to >'onnie wrec$s 3nn6s pretend house?
depending on whether 'onnie did it >so somebody won6t &a"" over it? or because
'onnie wanted >to ma$e 3nn &ee" bad.? Thus( a chi"d o& #ve begins to understand
that certain harm&u" actions( though intentiona"( can be 5usti#ed= the constraints o&
mora" abso"utism no "onger so"e"y guide their 5udgments.
9sycho"ogists have determined that during $indergarten chi"dren "earn to ma$e
subt"e distinctions invo"ving harm. Kar"ey observed that among acts invo"ving
unintentiona" harm( si8-year-o"d chi"dren 5ust entering $indergarten cou"d not
di1erentiate between &oreseeab"e( and thus preventab"e( harm and un&oreseeab"e
harm &or which the perpetrator cannot be b"amed. even months "ater( however(
Kar"ey &ound that these same chi"dren cou"d ma$e both distinctions( thus
demonstrating that they had become mora""y autonomous.
21. &hich of the following best describes the passage as a whole%
(A) An outline for future research
(B) An e$panded definition of commonly misunderstood terms
(C) An analysis of a dispute between two theorists
() A discussion of research findings in an ongoing in"uiry
(#) A confirmation of an established authority4s theory
22. According to the passage/ arley found that after se'en months of kindergarten si$
year olds ac"uired which of the following abilities%
(A) ifferentiating between foreseeable and unforeseeable harm
(B) 3dentifying with the perpetrator of a harmful action
(C) Austifying harmful actions that result from pro'ocation
() #'aluating the magnitude of negati'e conse"uences resulting from the
breaking of rules
(#) =ecogni!ing the difference between moral absolutism and moral autonomy
2.. According to the passage/ @iaget and Measey would not ha'e agreed on which of
the following points%
(A) The kinds of e$cuses children gi'e for harmful acts they commit
2-2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(B) The age at which children begin to discriminate between intentional and
unintentional harm
(C) The intentions children ha'e in perpetrating harm
() The circumstances under which children punish harmful acts
(#) The <ustifications children recogni!e for mitigating punishment for harmful
acts
20. 3t can be inferred that the term *public duty+ (line ..) in the conte$t of the passage
means which of the following%
(A) The necessity to apprehend perpetrators.
(B) The responsibility to punish transgressors
(C) An obligation to pre'ent harm to another
() The assignment of punishment for harmful action
(#) A <ustification for punishing transgressions
21. According to the passage/ Measey4s findings support which of the following
conclusions about si$(year(old children%
(A) They ha'e the ability to make autonomous moral <udgments.
(B) They regard moral absolutism as a threat to their moral autonomy.
(C) They do not understand the concept of public duty.
() They accept moral <udgment made by their peers more easily than do older
children.
(#) They make arbitrary moral <udgments.
22. 3t can be inferred from the passage that @iaget would be likely to agree with which
of the following statements about the punishment that children under se'en assign
to wrongdoing%
(A) The se'erity of the assigned punishment is determined by the percei'ed
magnitude of negati'e conse"uences more than by any other factor.
(B) The punishment is to be administered immediately following the transgression.
(C) The children assign punishment less arbitrarily than they do when they reach
the age of moral autonomy.
() The punishment for acts of unintentional harm is less se'ere than it is for acts
in'ol'ing accidental harm.
(#) The more de'elopmentally immature a child/ the more se'ere the punishment
that the child will assign.
2-. According to the passage/ the research of 9esdale and =ule suggests which of the
following about fi'e(year(old children%
(A) Their reactions to intentional and accidental harm determine the se'erity of the
punishments they assign.
(B) They/ as perpetrators of harmful acts/ disregard the feelings of the children
GRE 2--
they harm.
(C) They take into account the moti'ations of actions when <udging the beha'ior
of other children.
() They 'iew public duty as a <ustification for accidental/ but not intentional/
harm.
(#) They <ustify any action that protects them from harm.
1997 04
SECTION A
Eeo"ogists )arris and Eass hypothesi+ed that the Red ea ri&t deve"oped a"ong
the "ine o& a suture (a sp"ice in the @arth6s crust) &ormed during the "ate
9rotero+oic era( and that signi#cant observab"e di1erences in the composition o&
the upper "ayers o& roc$s deposited on either side o& the suture give c"ues to the
di1erent natures o& the under"ying igneous roc$s.
<ther geo"ogists argued that neither the upper roc$ "ayer nor the under"ying
igneous roc$s on the one side o& the ri&t di1er &undamenta""y &rom the
corresponding "ayers on the other side. These geo"ogists be"ieve( there&ore( that
there is inade-uate evidence to conc"ude that a suture under"ies the ri&t.
2n response( )arris and Eass asserted that the upper roc$ "ayers on the two
sides o& the ri&t had not been shown to be o& simi"ar age( structure( or
geochemica" content. :urthermore( they cited new evidence that the under"ying
igneous roc$s on either side o& the ri&t contain signi#cant"y di1erent $inds o& rare
meta"s.
1-. @art of the )arris and Bass hypothesis about the =ed ;ea rift would be weakened
if it could be demonstrated that the composition of upper rock layers
(A) cannot cause a suture to de'elop
(B) has no effect on where a suture will occur
(C) cannot pro'ide information about the nature of underlying rocks
() is similar on the two sides of a rift unless a suture di'ides the two sides
(#) is usually different from the composition of underlying rocks
16. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the *8ther geologists+ (line 6) would be
most likely to agree with which of the following statements%
(A) ;imilar geological features along both sides of a possible suture imply the
e$istence of that suture.
(B) ;utures can be disco'ered only where they are not obscured by superimposed
geological features.
(C) The composition of igneous rocks permits prediction of the likelihood of a rift
de'eloping through them.
2-6 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
() 3t is possible to date igneous rocks by carefully studying the different kinds of
rare metals contained in them and by obser'ing their similarity to the layer of
rock that lies abo'e them.
(#) The e$istence of rock layers on one side of a rift that are similar in composition
to rock layers on the other side suggests that no suture e$ists between the two
sides.
1,. 3t can be inferred from the passage that )arris and Bass ha'e done which of the
following%
(A) rawn detailed diagrams of the =ed ;ea rift.
(B) Based their conclusions on the way in which sutures de'elop in the #arth4s
crust.
(C) =e<ected other geologists ob<ections to their hypothesis about the =ed ;ea rift.
() ;uggested that the presence of rare metals in rocks indicates an underlying
suture.
(#) Asserted that rifts usually occur along the lines of sutures.
25. According to the passage/ )arris and Bass ha'e mentioned all of the following
properties of rocks along the =ed ;ea rift #DC#@TE
(A) age of the upper layers of rock
(B) structure of the upper layers of rocks
(C) geochemical content of the upper layers of rocks
() metallic content of the underlying igneous rocks
(#) age of the underlying igneous rocks
9roponents o& di1erent 5a++ sty"es have a"ways argued that their predecessors6
musica" sty"e did not inc"ude essentia" characteristics that de#ne 5a++ as 5a++.
Thus( 19M06s swing was be"itt"ed by beboppers o& the 19/06s( who were
themse"ves attac$ed by &ree 5a++ers o& the 19L06s. The neoboppers o& the 19806s
and 19906s attac$ed a"most everybody e"se. The titanic #gure o& '"ac$
sa8ophonist Cohn %o"trane has comp"icated the arguments made by proponents o&
sty"es &rom bebop through neobop because in his own musica" 5ourney he drew
&rom a"" those sty"es. )is inDuence on a"" types o& 5a++ was immeasurab"e. 3t the
height o& his popu"arity( %o"trane "arge"y abandoned p"aying bebop( the sty"e that
had brought him &ame( to e8p"ore the outer reaches o& 5a++.
%o"trane himse"& probab"y be"ieved that the on"y essentia" characteristic o& 5a++
was improvisation( the one constant in his 5ourney &rom bebop to open-ended
improvisations on moda"( 2ndian( and 3&rican me"odies. <n the other hand( this
dogged student and prodigious technicianwho insisted on spending hours each
day practicing sca"es &rom theory boo$s!was never ab"e to 5ettison comp"ete"y
the inDuence o& bebop( with its &ast and e"aborate chains o& notes and ornaments
on me"ody.
GRE 2-,
Two sty"istic characteristics shaped the way %o"trane p"ayed the tenor
sa8ophone( he &avored p"aying &ast runs o& notes bui"t on a me"ody and depended
on heavy( regu"ar"y accented beats. The #rst "ed %o"trane to >sheets o& sound(?
where he raced &aster and &aster( pi"e-driving notes into each other to suggest
stac$ed harmonies. The second meant that his sense o& rhythm was a"most as
c"ose to roc$ as to bebop.
Three recordings i""ustrate %o"trane6s energi+ing e8p"orations. Recording 0ind
of Blue with Bi"es Kavis( %o"trane &ound himse"& outside bop( e8p"oring moda"
me"odies. )ere he p"ayed surging( "engthy so"os bui"t "arge"y around repeated
moti&san organi+ing princip"e un"i$e that o& &ree 5a++ sa8ophone p"ayer <rnette
%o"eman( who modu"ated or a"tered me"odies in his so"os. <n .iant te#s(
%o"trane debuted as "eader( introducing his own compositions. )ere the sheets o&
sound( downbeat accents( repetitions( and great speed are part o& each so"o( and
the variety o& the shapes o& his phrases is uni-ue. %o"trane6s searching
e8p"orations produced so"id achievement. (y Favorite Things was another $ind o&
watershed. )ere %o"trane p"ayed the soprano sa8ophone( an instrument se"dom
used by 5a++ musicians. Busica""y( the resu"ts were astounding. ;ith the soprano6s
piping sound( ideas that had sounded dar$ and brooding ac-uired a &ee"ing o&
giddy &antasy.
;hen %o"trane began recording &or the 2mpu"seO "abe"( he was sti"" searching.
)is music became raucous( physica". )is inDuence on roc$ers was enormous(
inc"uding Cimi )endri8( the roc$ guitarist( who( &o""owing %o"trane( raised the
e8tended guitar so"o using repeated moti&s to a $ind o& roc$ art &orm.
21. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) discuss the place of Coltrane in the world of <a!! and describe his musical
e$plorations
(B) e$amine the nature of bebop and contrast it with impro'isational <a!!
(C) analy!e the musical sources of Coltrane4s style and their influence on his work
() acknowledge the influence of Coltrane4s music on rock music and rock
musicians
(#) discuss the arguments that di'ide the proponents of different <a!! styles
22. The author implies that which of the following would ha'e been an effect of
Coltrane4s ha'ing chosen to play the tenor rather than the soprano sa$ophone on
*y Fa$orite Things%
(A) The tone of the recording would ha'e been more somber.
(B) The influence of bebop on the recording would ha'e been more ob'ious.
(C) The music on the recording would ha'e sounded less raucous and physical.
() )is influence on rock music might ha'e been less per'asi'e.
(#) The style of the recording would ha'e been indistinguishable from that on
4ind o+ %lue2
265 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
2.. &hich of the following best describes the organi!ation of the fourth paragraph%
(A) A thesis referred to earlier in the passage is mentioned and illustrated with
three specific e$amples.
(B) A thesis is stated and three e$amples are gi'en each suggesting that a
correction needs to be made to a thesis referred to earlier in the passage.
(C) A thesis referred to earlier in the passage is mentioned/ and three e$amples are
presented and ranked in order of their support of the thesis.
() A thesis is stated/ three seemingly opposing e$amples are presented/ and their
underlying correspondence is e$plained.
(#) A thesis is stated/ three dissimilar e$amples are considered/ and the thesis is
restated.
20. According to the passage/ Aohn Coltrane did all of the following during his career
#DC#@TE
(A) impro'ise on melodies from a number of different cultures
(B) perform as leader as well as soloist
(C) spend time impro'ing his technical skills
() e$periment with the sounds of 'arious instruments
(#) eliminate the influence of bebop on his own music
21. The author mentions the work of 8rnette Coleman in the fourth paragraph in order
to do which of the following%
(A) #$pand the discussion by mentioning the work of a sa$ophone player who
played in Coltrane4s style.
(B) Compare Coltrane4s solos with the work of another <a!! artist.
(C) ;upport the idea that rational organi!ing principles need to be applied to
artistic work.
() ;how the increasing intricacy of Coltrane4s work after he abandoned bebop.
(#) 3ndicate disagreement with the way Coltrane modulated the motifs in his
lengthy solos.
22. According to the passage/ a ma<or difference between Coltrane and other <a!!
musicians was the
(A) degree to which Coltrane4s music encompassed all of <a!!
(B) repetition of motifs that Coltrane used in his solos
(C) number of his own compositions that Coltrane recorded
() indifference Coltrane maintained to musical techni"ue
(#) importance Coltrane placed on rhythm in <a!!
2-. 3n terms of its tone and form/ the passage can best be characteri!ed as
(A) dogmatic e$planation
GRE 261
(B) indignant denial
(C) enthusiastic praise
() speculati'e study
(#) lukewarm re'iew
SECTION B
3 specia" mucous coating that serves as a chemica" camouDage a""ows c"own
#sh to "ive among the dead"y tentac"es o& the unsuspecting sea anemone. Utter"y
dependent on this un"i$e"y host &or protection &rom predators( c"own #sh have
evo"ved in iso"ated communities( a pattern that has "ed to unusua" behaviora"
adaptations.
The rigid"y de#ned hierarchy o& each c"own-#sh community is dominated by a
monogamous breeding pair consisting o& the "argest #sh( a &ema"e( and the ne8t
"argest( a ma"e( attended by a #8ed number o& se8ua""y immature #sh ranging in
si+e &rom "arge to tiny. 3 remar$ab"e adaptation is that the deve"opment o& these
5uveni"es is somehow arrested unti" the hierarchy changes= then they grow in
"oc$step( maintaining their re"ative si+es. ;hi"e the community thus economi+es
on "imited space and &ood resources( "i&e is ris$y &or new"y spawned c"own #sh. <n
hatching( the hundreds o& "arvae dri&t o1 into the p"an$ton. 2&( within three wee$s(
the de&ense"ess "arva" c"own #sh "ocates a suitab"e anemone (either by pure
chance or perhaps guided by chemica"s secreted by the anemone)( it may survive.
)owever( i& an anemone is &u""y occupied( the resident c"own #sh wi"" repe" any
newcomer.
Though advantageous &or estab"ished community members( the suspended
and staggered maturation o& 5uveni"es might seem to pose a danger to the
continuity o& the communityA there is on"y one successor &or two breeding #sh.
hou"d one o& a pair die( the remaining #sh cannot swim o1 in search o& a mate(
nor is one "i$e"y to arrive. 2t wou"d seem inevitab"e that reproduction must
sometimes have to ha"t( pending the chance arriva" and maturation o& a "arva" #sh
o& the appropriate se8.
This( however( turns out not to be the case. 2n e8periments( vacancies have
been contrived by removing an estab"ished #sh &rom a community. @"imination o&
the breeding ma"e triggers the prompt maturation o& the "argest 5uveni"e. @ach
remaining 5uveni"e a"so grows somewhat( and a minuscu"e newcomer drops in
&rom the p"an$ton. Remova" o& the &ema"e a"so triggers growth in a"" remaining #sh
and acceptance o& a newcomer( but the &ema"e is rep"aced by the adu"t ma"e.
;ithin days( the ma"e6s behavior a"ters and physio"ogica" trans&ormation is
comp"ete within a &ew months. Thus( whichever o& the breeding pair is "ost( a
re"ative"y "arge 5uveni"e can #"" the void( and reproduction can resume with a
minima" "oss o& time. :urthermore( the new mate has a"ready proved its abi"ity to
survive.
262 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
This trans&ormation o& a ma"e into a &ema"e( or protandrous hermaphroditism(
is rare among ree& #sh. The more common protogynous hermaphroditism( where
&ema"es change into ma"es( does not occur among c"own #sh. 3n intriguing
-uestion &or &urther research is whether a 5uveni"e c"own #sh can turn direct"y into
a &ema"e or whether it must &unction #rst as a ma"e.
1-. The passage is primarily concerned with
(A) analy!ing the mutually ad'antageous relationship between two species
(B) comparing two forms of hermaphroditism among clown fish
(C) describing and e$plaining aspects of clown(fish beha'ior
() outlining proposed research on clown(fish reproduction
(#) attempting to reconcile inconsistent obser'ations of clown(fish de'elopment
16. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the clown fish is able to sur'i'e in close
association with the sea anemone because the
(A) sea anemone cannot detect the presence of the clown fish
(B) tentacles of the sea anemone cannot grasp the slippery clown fish
(C) sea anemone prefers other prey
() clown fish does not actually come within the range of the sea anemone4s
tentacles
(#) clown fish has de'eloped tolerance to the sea anemone4s poison
1,. According to the passage/ adult clown fish would be at a disad'antage if they were
not associated with sea anemones because the clown fish would
(A) be incapable of se$ual transformation
(B) be 'ulnerable to predators
(C) ha'e no reliable source of food
() ha'e to lay their eggs in the open
(#) face competition from other clown fish
25. 3t can be inferred from the passage that se$ change would ha'e been less necessary
for the clown fish if
(A) the male clown fish were larger than the female
(B) each sea anemone were occupied by se'eral 'arieties of clown fish
(C) many mature clown fish of both se$es occupied each sea anemone
() <u'enile clown fish had a high mortality rate
(#) both male clown fish and female clown fish were highly territorial
21. The author mentions all of the following as characteristic of the *rigidly defined
hierarchy+ (line 6) of the clown(fish community #DC#@TE
(A) At any time only one female clown fish can be reproducti'ely acti'e
(B) The mature clown fish are monogamous
GRE 26.
(C) The growth of clown fish is synchroni!ed
() The ma$imum number of clown fish is fi$ed
(#) There are e"ual numbers of male <u'eniles and female <u'eniles
22. &hich of the following statements about newly hatched clown fish can be inferred
from the passage%
(A) They de'elop rapidly.
(B) They remain close to the sea anemone occupied by their parents.
(C) They are more sensiti'e to chemical signals than are adult clown fish.
() They are not protected by their parents.
(#) They are less 'ulnerable to predation than are adult fish.
2.. &hich of the following/ if true/ would be K#A;T consistent with the author4s
e$planation of the ad'antage of hermaphroditism for clown fish%
(A) The number of indi'iduals in a clown(fish community fluctuates significantly.
(B) Adult clown fish fre"uently cannibali!e their young.
(C) The sea anemone tolerates clown fish only during a specific stage of the
anemone4s life cycle.
() Au'enile clown fish rarely reach maturity.
(#) Clown(fish communities are capable of efficiently recruiting solitary adult
clown fish.
%omparing designs in music with visua" designs raises interesting -uestions.
;e are &ami"iar with the easy trans&ers o& terms denoting -ua"ities &rom one #e"d
to another. The basic prob"em can be put this wayA can music sound the way a
design "oo$sG The e"ements o& music are not the same as those o& painting. They
may be ana"ogous( but to be ana"ogous is not to be identica". 2s it possib"e( then(
&or the same broad characteristics to emerge &rom di1erent perceptua"
conditionsG
Two &acts about the re"ation between broad characteristics o& a wor$ and their
perceptua" conditions must be $ept distinct. :irst( the g"oba" characteristics o& a
visua" or auditory comp"e8 are determined by the discernib"e parts and their
re"ationships. Thus( any notab"e change in the parts or their re"ationships
produces a change in some o& the g"oba" characteristics. econd( a change in the
parts or their re"ationships may "eave other g"oba" characteristics unchanged.
20. 3n the first paragraph/ the author is primarily concerned with establishing the fact
that
(A) comparisons are not e"uations
(B) auditory phenomena are not 'isual phenomena
(C) fre"uently used comparisons are usually inaccurate
() careless perceptions result from careless thought
260 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(#) "uestions concerning perception are psychological
21. 3n the passage/ the author is primarily concerned with
(A) distinguishing mutually e$clusi'e categories
(B) clarifying an apparent contradiction
(C) supporting new ideas
() analy!ing a problem
(#) comparing opinions
22. The second paragraph is primarily concerned with establishing the idea that
(A) different global characteristics of a work result from the same discernible parts
(B) the parts of a work of art influence the total perception of the work
(C) 'isual and auditory characteristics can be combined
() changes in the parts of a work remain isolated from the work as a whole
(#) the 'isual comple$es in a work of art influence the work4s auditory comple$es
2-. &hich of the following statements is most likely be a continuation of the passage%
(A) The search for broad similarities thus begins by understanding and
distinguishing these two facts.
(B) The search for musical('isual analogies thus depends on the comple$ity of the
works being compared.
(C) The search for music and art of the highest "uality thus depends on 'ery
different assumptions.
() Thus music and painting e$ist in mutually e$clusi'e worlds.
(#) Thus music and painting are too complicated to be e'aluated in terms of
analogies.
1997 11
SECTION A
2nvestigators o& mon$eys6 socia" behavior have a"ways been struc$ by
mon$eys6 aggressive potentia" and the conse-uent need &or socia" contro" o& their
aggressive behavior. tudies directed at describing aggressive behavior and the
situations that e"icit it( as we"" as the socia" mechanisms that contro" it( were
there&ore among the #rst investigations o& mon$eys6 socia" behavior.
2nvestigators initia""y be"ieved that mon$eys wou"d compete &or any resource in
the environmentA hungry mon$eys wou"d #ght over &ood( thirsty mon$eys wou"d
#ght over water( and( in genera"( any time more than one mon$ey in a group
sought the same incentive simu"taneous"y( a dispute wou"d resu"t and wou"d be
reso"ved through some &orm o& aggression. )owever( the motivating &orce o&
competition &or incentives began to be doubted when e8periments "i$e
GRE 261
outhwic$6s on the reduction o& space or the withho"ding o& &ood &ai"ed to produce
more than temporary increases in intragroup aggression. 2ndeed( &ood deprivation
not on"y &ai"ed to increase aggression but in some cases actua""y resu"ted in
decreased &re-uencies o& aggression.
tudies o& anima"s in the wi"d under conditions o& e8treme &ood deprivation
"i$ewise revea"ed that starving mon$eys devoted a"most a"" avai"ab"e energy to
&oraging( with "itt"e energy remaining &or aggressive interaction. :urthermore(
accumu"ating evidence &rom "ater studies o& a variety o& primate groups( &or
e8amp"e( the study conducted by 'ernstein( indicates that one o& the most potent
stimu"i &or e"iciting aggression is the introduction o& an intruder into an organi+ed
group. uch introductions resu"t in &ar more serious aggression than that produced
in any other types o& e8periments contrived to produce competition.
These studies o& intruders suggest that adu"t members o& the same species
introduced to one another &or the #rst time show considerab"e hosti"ity because( in
the absence o& a socia" order( one must be estab"ished to contro" interanima"
re"ationships. ;hen a sing"e new anima" is introduced into an e8isting socia"
organi+ation( the newcomer meets even more serious aggression. ;hereas in the
#rst case aggression estab"ishes a socia" order( in the second case resident
anima"s mob the intruder( thereby initia""y e8c"uding the new anima" &rom the
e8isting socia" unit. The simu"taneous introduction o& severa" anima"s "essens the
e1ect( i& on"y because the group divides its attention among the mu"tip"e targets.
2&( however( the severa" anima"s introduced to a group constitute their own socia"
unit( each group may #ght the opposing group as a unit= but( again( no individua"
is sub5ected to mass attac$( and the very cohesion o& the groups prec"udes
pro"onged individua" combat. The submission o& the de&eated group( rather than
un"eashing unchec$ed aggression on the part o& the victorious group( reduces
both the intensity and &re-uency o& &urther attac$. Bon$ey groups there&ore see to
be organi+ed primari"y to maintain their estab"ished socia" order rather than to
engage in hosti"ities per se.
1-. The author of the passage is primarily concerned with
(A) ad'ancing a new methodology for changing a monkey4s social beha'ior
(B) comparing the methods of se'eral research studies on aggression among
monkeys
(C) e$plaining the reasons for researchers4 interest in monkeys4 social beha'ior
() discussing the de'elopment of in'estigators4 theories about aggression among
monkeys
(#) e$amining the effects of competition on monkeys4 social beha'ior
16. &hich of the following best summari!es the findings reported in the passage about
the effects of food depri'ation on monkeys4 beha'ior%
(A) >ood depri'ation has no effect on aggression among monkeys.
(B) >ood depri'ation increases aggression among monkeys because one of the
262 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
most potent stimuli for eliciting aggression is the competition for incenti'es.
(C) >ood depri'ation may increase long(term aggression among monkeys in a
laboratory setting/ but it produces only temporary increases among monkeys in
the wild.
() >ood depri'ation may temporarily increase aggression among monkeys/ but it
also leads to a decrease in conflict.
(#) >ood depri'ation decreases the intensity but not the fre"uency of aggressi'e
incidents among monkey.
1,. According to the author/ studies such as ;outhwick4s had which of the following
effects on in'estigators4 theories about monkeys4 social beha'ior%
(A) They suggested that e$isting theories about the role of aggression among
monkeys did not fully account for the monkeys4 ability to maintain an
established social order.
(B) They confirmed in'estigators4 theories about monkeys4 aggressi'e response to
competition for food and water.
(C) They confirmed in'estigators4 beliefs about the moti'ation for continued
aggression among monkeys in the same social group.
() They dispro'ed in'estigators4 theory that the introduction of intruders in an
organi!ed monkey group elicits intragroup aggressi'e beha'ior.
(#) They cast doubt on in'estigators4 theories that could account for obser'ed
patterns of aggression among monkeys.
25. The passage suggests that in'estigators of monkeys social beha'ior ha'e been
especially interested in aggressi'e beha'ior among monkeys because
(A) aggression is the most common social beha'ior among monkeys
(B) successful competition for incenti'es determines the social order in a monkey
group
(C) situations that elicit aggressi'e beha'ior can be studied in a laboratory
() most monkeys are potentially aggressi'e/ yet they li'e in social units that
could not function without control of their aggressi'e impulses
(#) most monkeys are social/ yet they fre"uently respond to newcomers entering
e$isting social units by attacking them
21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the establishment and preser'ation of
social order among a group of monkeys is essential in order to
(A) keep the monkeys from straying and <oining other groups
(B) control aggressi'e beha'ior among group members
(C) pre'ent the domination of that group by another
() protect indi'iduals seeking to become members of that group from mass attack
(#) pre'ent aggressi'e competition for incenti'es between that group and another
GRE 26-
22. The passage supplies information to answer which of the following "uestions%
(A) )ow does the reduction of space affect intragroup aggression among monkeys
in an e$perimental setting%
(B) o family units within a monkey social group compete with other family units
for food%
(C) &hat are the mechanisms by which the social order of an established group of
monkeys controls aggression within that group%
() )ow do monkeys engaged in aggression with other monkeys signal
submission%
(#) o monkeys of different species engage in aggression with each other o'er
food%
2.. &hich of the following best describes the organi!ation of the second paragraph%
(A) A hypothesis is e$plained and counter e'idence is described.
(B) A theory is ad'anced and specific e'idence supporting it is cited.
(C) >ield obser'ations are described and a conclusion about their significance is
drawn.
() Two theories are e$plained and e'idence supporting each of them is detailed.
(#) An e$planation of a general principle is stated and specific e$amples of its
operation are gi'en.
3na"ysis o& prehistoric air trapped in tiny bubb"es beneath the po"ar ice sheets
and o& the composition o& ice surrounding those bubb"es suggests a corre"ation
between carbon dio8ide "eve"s in the @arth6s atmosphere and g"oba" temperature
over the "ast 1L0(000 years. @stimates o& g"oba" temperature at the time air in the
bubb"es was trapped re"y on measuring the re"ative abundances o& hydrogen and
its heavier isotope( deuterium( in the ice surrounding the bubb"es. ;hen g"oba"
temperatures are re"ative"y "ow( water containing deuterium tends to condense
and precipitate be&ore reaching the po"es= thus( ice deposited at the po"es when
the g"oba" temperature was coo"er contained re"ative"y "ess deuterium than ice
deposited at warmer g"oba" temperatures. @stimates o& g"oba" temperature based
on this in&ormation( combined with ana"ysis o& the carbon dio8ide content o& air
trapped in ice deep beneath the po"ar sur&ace( suggest that during periods o&
postg"acia" warming carbon dio8ide in the @arth6s atmosphere increased by
appro8imate"y M0 percent.
20. 3n the passage/ the author is primarily concerned with doing which of the
following%
(A) escribing a new method of estimating decreases in global temperature that
ha'e occurred o'er the last 125/555 years
(B) escribing a method of analysis that pro'ides information regarding the
relation between the carbon dio$ide content of the #arth4s atmosphere and
global temperature
266 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(C) @resenting information that suggests that global temperature has increased
o'er the last 125/555 years
() escribing the kinds of information that can be gleaned from a careful analysis
of the contents of sheets
(#) emonstrating the difficulty of arri'ing at a firm conclusion regarding how
increases in the amount of carbon dio$ide in the #arth4s atmosphere affect
global temperature
21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that during periods of postglacial warming/
which of the following occurred%
(A) The total 'olume of air trapped in bubbles beneath the polar ice sheets
increased.
(B) The amount of deuterium in ice deposited at the poles increased.
(C) Carbon dio$ide le'els in the #arth atmosphere decreased.
() The amount of hydrogen in the #arth4s atmosphere decreased relati'ely the
amount of deuterium.
(#) The rate at which ice was deposited at the poles increased.
22. The author states that there is e'idence to support which of the following
assertions%
(A) #stimates of global temperature that rely on measurements of deuterium in ice
deposited at the poles are more reliable than those based on the amount of
carbon dio$ide contained in air bubbles beneath the polar surface.
(B) The amount of deuterium in the #arth4s atmosphere tends to increase as global
temperature decreases.
(C) @eriods of postglacial warming are characteri!ed by the presence of increased
le'els of carbon dio$ide in the #arth4s atmosphere.
() 3ncreases in global temperature o'er the last 125/555 years are largely the
result of increases in the ratio of deuterium to hydrogen in the #arth4s
atmosphere.
(#) 3ncreases in global temperature o'er the last 125/555 years ha'e been
accompanied by decreases in the amount of deuterium in the ice deposited at
the poles.
2-. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the conclusion stated in the last sentence
would need to be ree'aluated if scientists disco'ered that which of the following
were true%
(A) The amount of deuterium in ice deposited on the polar surface is significantly
greater than the amount of deuterium in ice located deep beneath the polar
surface.
(B) Both the air bubbles trapped deep beneath the polar surface and the ice
surrounding them contain relati'ely low le'els of deuterium.
GRE 26,
(C) Air bubbles trapped deep beneath the polar surface and containing relati'ely
high le'els of carbon dio$ide are surrounded by ice that contained relati'ely
low le'els of deuterium.
() The current le'el of carbon dio$ide in the #arth4s atmosphere e$ceeds the le'el
of carbon dio$ide in the prehistoric air trapped beneath the polar surface.
(#) 3ncreases in the le'el of carbon dio$ide in the #arth4s atmosphere are
accompanied by increases in the amount of deuterium in the ice deposited at
the poles.
SECTION B
'rac$en &ern has been spreading &rom its wood"and strongho"ds &or centuries(
but the rate o& encroachment into open countryside has "ate"y increased
a"arming"y throughout northern and western 'ritain. 3 tough competitor( brac$en
reduces the va"ue o& gra+ing "and by crowding out other vegetation. The &ern is
itse"& poisonous to "ivestoc$( and a"so encourages pro"i&eration o& sheep tic$s(
which not on"y attac$ sheep but a"so transmit diseases. ,o "ess important to some
peop"e are brac$en6s e1ects on threatened habitats and on the use o& up"ands &or
recreationa" purposes( even though many appreciate its beauty.
'io"ogica" contro"s may be the on"y economic so"ution. <ne potentia""y cheap
and se"&-sustaining method o& ha"ting the spread o& brac$en is to introduce natura"
enemies o& the p"ant. 2nitia""y unrestrained by predators o& their own( &oreign
predators are "i$e"y to be ab"e to mu"tip"y rapid"y and overwhe"m intended targets.
'ecause brac$en occurs throughout the wor"d( there is p"enty o& scope &or this
approach. Two candidates( both moths &rom the outhern )emisphere( are now
being studied.
<& course( bio"ogica" contro" agents can sa&e"y be re"eased on"y i& it can be
veri#ed that they &eed so"e"y on the target weed. The screening tests have so &ar
been &raught with di*cu"ties. The #rst "arge shipment o& moths succumbed to a
disease. Erowing enough brac$en indoors is di*cu"t( and the moths do not readi"y
e8p"oit cut stems. These are common prob"ems with rearing insects &or bio"ogica"
contro".
<ther prob"ems can be &oreseen. 9o"icyma$ers need to consider many &actors
and opinions such as the cost o& contro" compared to e8isting methods( and the
impact o& the c"earance o& brac$en on the "andscape( wi"d"i&e( and vegetation. 2n
&act( scientists a"ready have much o& the in&ormation needed to assess the impact
o& bio"ogica" contro" o& brac$en( but it is spread among many individua"s(
organi+ations( and government bodies. The potentia" gains &or the environment
are "i$e"y to outweigh the "osses because &ew p"ants( insects( mamma"s( and birds
"ive associated on"y with brac$en( and many wou"d bene#t &rom a return o& other
vegetation or &rom a more diverse mosaic o& habitats. 'ut "ega" conse-uences o&
attempts at bio"ogica" contro" present a potentia" mine#e"d. :or e8amp"e( many
rura" tenants sti"" have the right o& >estoyers(? the right to cut brac$en as bedding
2,5 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
&or "ivestoc$ and uses. ;hat wou"d happen i& they were deprived o& these rightsG
<nce a bio"ogica" contro" agent is re"eased( it is di*cu"t to contro" its speed. ;hat
consideration is due "andowners who do not want to contro" brac$enG 3ccording to
"aw( the re"ease o& the bio"ogica" contro" agents must be authori+ed by the
secretary o& state &or the environment. 'ut 'ritain "ac$s the "ega" and
administrative machinery to assemb"e evidence &or and against re"ease.
1-. &hich of the following best states the main idea of the passage%
(A) ;tudies suggest that biological control of bracken will not be technically
feasible.
(B) Although biological control appears to be the best solution to bracken
infestation/ careful assessment of the conse"uences is re"uired.
(C) #n'ironmentalists are hoping that laboratory technicians will find a way to
raise large numbers of moths in capti'ity.
() Bracken is currently the best solution to the proliferation of nonnati'e moth
species.
(#) #'en after researchers disco'er the most economical method of pest control/
the go'ernment has no authority to implement a control program.
16. According to the passage/ which of the following can be inferred about sheep
ticks%
(A) They increase where bracken spreads.
(B) They are dangerous only to sheep.
(C) They are especially adapted to woodland.
() They ha'e no natural enemies.
(#) They cause disease among bracken.
1,. The author cites all of the following as disad'antages of bracken encroachment
#DC#@TE
(A) Bracken is poisonous to farm animals.
(B) Bracken inhibits the growth of 'aluable 'egetation.
(C) Bracken indirectly helps spread certain diseases.
() Bracken is aesthetically ob<ectionable.
(#) Bracken disturbs habitats that some people would like to protect.
25. The final paragraph can best be described as
(A) a summation of arguments presented in pre'ious paragraphs
(B) the elimination of competing arguments to strengthen a single remaining
conclusion
(C) an enumeration of ad'antages to biological control
() an e$pansion of the discussion from the particular e$ample of bracken control
to the general problem of go'ernment regulation
GRE 2,1
(#) an o'er'iew of the 'ariety of factors re"uiring further assessment
21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that it is ad'antageous to choose as the
biological control agent a predator that is foreign to the targeted en'ironment for
which of the following reasons%
(A) Conser'ation groups prefer not to fa'or one nati'e species o'er another.
(B) All local predators ha'e already been o'erwhelmed by the target species.
(C) Kocal predators cannot be effecti'ely screened since they already e$ist in the
wild.
() There is little risk of an artificially introduced foreign predator multiplying out
of control.
(#) 9ati'e predator species are generally limited by their own predators.
22. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the screening tests performed on the
biological control agent are designed primarily to determine
(A) its effecti'eness in eliminating the target species
(B) the response of local residents to its introduction
(C) the risk it poses to species other than the target
() its resistance to the stress of shipment
(#) the likelihood of its sur'i'al indoors
2.. As it is discussed in the passage/ the place of bracken within the forest habitat can
best be described as
(A) rapidly e$panding
(B) the sub<ect of contro'ersy
(C) well established
() circumscribed by numerous predators
(#) a significant nutrient source
3""en and ;o"$owit+6s research cha""enges the common c"aim that homewor$
waged "abor per&ormed at home &or a companyis primari"y a response to women
wor$ers6 needs and pre&erences. 'y &ocusing on a "imited geographica" area in
order to gather in-depth in&ormation( the authors have avoided the
methodo"ogica" pit&a""s that have p"agued ear"ier research on homewor$. Their
#ndings disprove accepted notions about homewor$ersA that they are un-ua"i#ed
&or other 5obs and that they use homewor$ as a short-term strategy &or dea"ing
with chi"d care.
The authors conc"ude that the persistence o& homewor$ cannot be e8p"ained
by appea" to such notions( &or( in &act( homewor$ers do not di1er sharp"y &rom
other emp"oyed women. Bost homewor$ers wou"d pre&er to wor$ outside the
home but are constrained &rom doing so by "ac$ o& opportunity. 2n &act( homewor$
is driven by emp"oyers6 desires to minimi+e #8ed costsA homewor$ers receive no
bene#ts and are paid "ess than regu"ar emp"oyees.
2,2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
20. The passage is primarily concerned with
(A) ad'ocating a contro'ersial theory
(B) presenting and challenging the results of a study
(C) describing a problem and proposing a solution
() discussing research that opposes a widely accepted belief
(#) comparing se'eral e$planations for the same phenomenon
21. According to the passage/ which of the following has been generally belie'ed
about homework%
(A) The benefits of homework accrue primarily to employers rather than to
homeworkers.
(B) )omework is pre'alent predominantly in rural areas.
(C) )omework is primarily a response to the preferences of women workers.
() >ew homeworkers rely on homework for the ma<ority of their family income.
(#) ?ost homework is seasonal and part(time rather than full(time and year(round.
22. Allen and &olkowit!4s research suggests that each of the following is true of most
homeworkers #DC#@TE
(A) They do not necessarily resort to homework as a strategy for dealing with child
care.
(B) Their family situations are not unlike those of other employed women.
(C) They are as well "ualified as women who work outside the home.
() They perform professional(le'el duties rather than manual tasks or piecework.
(#) They do not prefer homework to employment outside the home.
2-. The passage suggests which of the following about pre'ious research on
homework%
(A) 3t was conducted primarily with women who did not ha'e e$tensi'e household
responsibilities or care for small children at home.
(B) 3t was conducted with homeworkers and companies o'er a large geographical
area.
(C) 3t indicated that women homeworkers had numerous opportunities to work
outside the home.
() 3t indicated that homeworkers usually work for companies that are close to
their homes.
(#) 3t indicated that homework was financially ad'antageous to large companies.
1998 04
SECTION A
GRE 2,.
Buch o& the research on ha""ucinogenic drugs such as JK has &ocused on the
neurotransmitter serotonin( a chemica" that when re"eased &rom a presynaptic
serotonin-secreting neuron causes the transmission o& a nerve impu"se across a
synapse to an ad5acent postsynaptic( or target( neuron. There are two ma5or
reasons &or this emphasis. :irst( it was discovered ear"y on that many o& the ma5or
ha""ucinogens have a mo"ecu"ar structure simi"ar to that o& serotonin. 2n addition(
anima" studies o& brain neurochemistry &o""owing administration o& ha""ucinogens
invariab"y reported changes in serotonin "eve"s.
@ar"y investigators correct"y reasoned that the structura" simi"arity to the
serotonin mo"ecu"e might imp"y that JK6s e1ects are brought about by an action
on the neurotransmission o& serotonin in the brain. Un&ortunate"y( the "eve" o&
technica" e8pertise in the #e"d o& brain research was such that this hypothesis had
to be tested on periphera" tissue (tissue outside the brain). Two di1erent groups o&
scientists reported that JK power&u""y b"oc$aded serotonin6s action. Their
conc"usions were -uic$"y cha""enged( however. ;e now $now that the action o& a
drug at one site in the body does not necessari"y correspond to the drug6s action
at another site( especia""y when one site is in the brain and the other is not.
'y the 19L06s( technica" advances permitted the direct testing o& the
hypothesis that JK and re"ated ha""ucinogens act by direct"y suppressing the
activity o& serotonin-secreting neurons themse"ves!the so-ca""ed presynaptic
hypothesis. Researchers reasoned that i& the ha""ucinogenic drugs act by
suppressing the activity o& serotonin-secreting neurons( then drugs administered
a&ter these neurons had been destroyed shou"d have no e1ect on behavior(
because the system wou"d a"ready be ma8ima""y suppressed. %ontrary to their
e8pectations( neuron destruction enhanced the e1ect o& JK and re"ated
ha""ucinogens on behavior. Thus( ha""ucinogenic drugs apparent"y do not act
direct"y on serotonin-secreting neurons.
)owever( these and other avai"ab"e data do support an a"ternative hypothesis
that JK and re"ated drugs act direct"y at receptor sites on serotonin target
neurons (the postsynaptic hypothesis). The &act that JK e"icits >serotonin
syndrome?!that is( causes the same $inds o& behaviors as does the
administration o& serotonin!in anima"s whose brains are dep"eted o& serotonin
indicates that JK acts direct"y on serotonin receptors( rather than indirect"y
through the re"ease o& stores o& serotonin. The enhanced e1ect o& JK reported
a&ter serotonin dep"etion cou"d be due to a pro"i&eration o& serotonin receptor sites
on serotonin target neurons. This phenomenon o&ten &o""ows neuron destruction or
neurotransmitter dep"etion= the increase in the number o& receptor sites appears
to be a compensatory response to decreased input. igni#cant"y( this hypothesis
is supported by data &rom a number o& di1erent "aboratories.
1-. According to the passage/ which of the following is one of the primary factors that
led researchers studying hallucinogenic drugs to focus on serotonin%
(A) The suppression of the acti'ity of serotonin(secreting neurons by the
2,0 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
administration of hallucinogens
(B) The obser'ed similarities in the chemical structures of serotonin and
hallucinogens
(C) The effects the administration of hallucinogens has on serotonin production in
the human brain
() ;erotonin(induced changes in the effects of hallucinogens on beha'ior
(#) )allucinogen(induced changes in the effects of serotonin on beha'ior
16. 3t can be inferred that researchers abandoned the presynaptic hypothesis because
(A) a new and more attracti'e hypothesis was suggested
(B) no research was reported that supported the hypothesis
(C) research results pro'ided e'idence to counter the hypothesis
() the hypothesis was supported only by studies of animals and not by studies of
human beings
(#) the le'el of technical e$pertise in the field of brain research did not permit
ade"uate testing of the hypothesis
1,. &hich of the following best e$presses the main idea of the passage%
(A) =esearch has suggested that the neurotransmitter serotonin is responsible for
the effects of hallucinogenic drugs on the brain and on beha'ior.
(B) =esearchers ha'e spent an inade"uate amount of time de'eloping theories
concerning the way in which the effects of hallucinogenic drugs occur.
(C) =esearch results strongly suggest that hallucinogenic drugs create their effects
by acting on the serotonin receptor sites located on target neurons in the brain.
() =esearchers ha'e recently made 'aluable disco'eries concerning the effects of
depleting the amount of serotonin in the brain.
(#) =esearchers ha'e concluded that hallucinogenic drugs suppress the acti'ity of
serotonin(secreting neurons.
25. The research described in the passage is primarily concerned with answering
which of the following "uestions%
(A) )ow can researchers control the effects that K; has on beha'ior%
(B) )ow are animals4 reactions to K; different from those of human beings%
(C) &hat triggers the effects that K; has on human beha'ior%
() &hat technical ad'ances would permit researchers to predict more accurately
the effects of K; on beha'ior%
(#) &hat relationship does the suppression of neuron acti'ity ha'e to the
occurrence of *serotonin syndrome+%
21. &hich of the following best defines *serotonin syndrome+ (line 02) as the term is
used in the passage%
(A) The series of beha'iors/ usually associated with the administration of
GRE 2,1
serotonin/ that also occurs when K; is administered to animals whose brains
are depleted of serotonin
(B) The series of beha'iors/ usually associated with the administration of K;/
that also occurs when the amount of serotonin in the brain is reduced
(C) The ma$imal suppression of neuron acti'ity that results from the destruction of
serotonin(secreting neurons
() The release of stores of serotonin from serotonin(secreting neurons in the brain
(#) The proliferation of serotonin receptor sites that follows depletion of serotonin
supplies in the brain
22. &hich of the following best describes the organi!ation of the argument that the
author of the passage presents in the last two paragraphs%
(A) Two approaches to testing a hypothesis are described/ and the greater merits of
one approach are indicated.
(B) The assumptions underlying two hypotheses are outlined/ and e'idence for and
against each hypothesis is discussed.
(C) A phenomenon is described/ and hypotheses concerning its occurrence are
considered and re<ected.
() The reasoning behind a hypothesis is summari!ed/ e'idence supporting the
hypothesis is presented/ and research that counters the supporting e'idence is
described.
(#) A hypothesis is discussed/ e'idence undermining the hypothesis is re'ealed/
and a further hypothesis based on the undermining e'idence is e$plained.
2.. The author4s attitude toward early researchers4 reasoning concerning the
implications of similarities in the structures of serotonin and K; molecules can
best be described as one of
(A) complete agreement
(B) reluctant support
(C) subtle condescension
() irre'erent dismissal
(#) strong opposition
;hen "iterary periods are de#ned on the basis o& men6s writing( women6s
writing must be &orcib"y assimi"ated into an irre"evant gridA a Renaissance that is
not a renaissance &or women( a Romantic period in which women p"ayed very "itt"e
part( a modernism with which women conDict. imu"taneous"y( the history o&
women6s writing has been suppressed( "eaving "arge( mysterious gaps in accounts
o& the deve"opment o& various genres. :eminist criticism is beginning to correct
this situation. Bargaret 3nne Koody( &or e8amp"e( suggests that during >the
period between the death o& Richardson and the appearance o& the nove"s o& cott
and 3usten(? which has >been regarded as a dead period(? "ate-eighteenth-
2,2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
century women writers actua""y deve"oped >the paradigm &or women6s #ction o&
the nineteenth century!something hard"y "ess than the paradigm o& the
nineteenth-century nove" itse"&.? :eminist critics have a"so pointed out that the
twentieth-century writer Firginia ;oo"& be"onged to a tradition other than
modernism and that this tradition sur&aces in her wor$ precise"y where criticism
has hitherto &ound obscurities( evasions( imp"ausibi"ities( and imper&ections.
20. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author 'iews the di'ision of literature
into periods based on men4s writing as an approach that
(A) makes distinctions among literary periods ambiguous
(B) is appropriate for e'aluating only premodern literature
(C) was misunderstood until the ad'ent of feminist criticism
() pro'ides a 'aluable basis from which feminist criticism has e'ol'ed
(#) obscures women4s contributions to literature
21. The passage suggests which of the following about Cirginia &oolf4s work%
3. 9onfeminist criticism of it has been flawed.
33. Critics ha'e treated it as part of modernism.
333. 3t is based on the work of late(eighteenth(century women writers.
(A) 3 only
(B) 33 only
(C) 3 and 33 only
() 33 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33 and 333
22. The author "uotes oody most probably in order to illustrate
(A) a contribution that feminist criticism can make to literary criticism
(B) a modernist approach that conflicts with women4s writing
(C) writing by a woman which had pre'iously been ignored
() the hitherto o'erlooked significance of ;cott4s and Austen4s no'els
(#) a standard system of defining literary periods
2-. The passage pro'ides information that answers which of the following "uestions%
(A) 3n what tradition do feminist critics usually place Cirginia &oolf%
(B) &hat are the main themes of women4s fiction of the nineteenth century%
(C) &hat e'ents moti'ated the feminist reinterpretation of literary history%
() )ow has the period between =ichardson4s death and ;cott4s and Austen4s
no'els traditionally been regarded by critics%
(#) )ow was the de'elopment of the nineteenth(century no'el affected by
women4s fiction in the same century%
GRE 2,-
SECTION B
The origin o& the theory that ma5or geo"ogic events may occur at regu"ar
interva"s can be traced bac$ not to a study o& vo"canism or p"ate tectonics but to
an investigation o& marine e8tinctions. 2n the ear"y 19806s( scientists began to "oo$
c"ose"y at the -uestion o& how these e8tinctions occur. Two pa"eonto"ogists( Raup
and ep$os$i( compi"ed a master "ist o& marine species that died out during the
past 4L8 mi""ion years and noted that there were brie& periods during which many
species disappeared at once. These mass e8tinctions occurred at surprising"y
regu"ar interva"s.
Jater studies revea"ed that e8tinctions o& terrestria" repti"es and mamma"s a"so
occurred periodica""y. These #ndings( combined with the research o& Raup and
ep$os$i( "ed scientists to hypothesi+e the e8istence o& some $ind o& cyc"ica""y
recurring &orce power&u" enough to a1ect "iving things pro&ound"y. pecu"ation that
so power&u" a &orce might a1ect geo"ogic events as we"" "ed geo"ogists to search
&or evidence o& periodicity in episodes o& vo"canism( seaDoor spreading( and p"ate
movement.
1-. According to the passage/ =aup and ;epkoski4s research was concerned with
(A) learning more about the habitats of marine species
(B) studying plate tectonics and the occurrence of 'olcanism o'er the past 226
million years
(C) e$amining e$tinctions of marine species o'er the past 226 million years
() finding out whether a rhythmically recurring geologic force e$ists
(#) confirming pre'ious e'idence suggesting that e$tinction of terrestrial species
occurred regularly
16. The author of the passage would most likely describe the findings of =aup and
;epkoski as
(A) plausible/ because the findings supported the theories of pre'ious researchers
(B) significant/ because the findings were an impetus for subse"uent research
(C) contro'ersial/ because the findings contradicted the theories of pre'ious
researchers
() "uestionable/ because the authors were not working in their field of e$pertise
(#) definiti'e/ because the findings confirmed the e$istence of a rhythmically
recurring force
1,. The author of the passage is primarily concerned with
(A) determining the dates of 'arious geologic e'ents
(B) defending the conclusions reached by =aup and ;epkoski
(C) establishing a link between the disciplines of paleontology and geology
() pro'ing that mass e$tinctions of marine animals occur periodically
2,6 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(#) e$plaining how a theory concerning geologic e'ents was formulated
25. The passage suggests which of the following about the *force+ mentioned in lines
12 and 16%
(A) 3t is responsible for most of the ma<or geologic e'ents that ha'e occurred.
(B) 3t is responsible for most of the marine e$tinctions that ha'e occurred.
(C) 3ts recurrence is unlikely to be able to be predicted by scientists.
() 3ts e$istence was not seriously considered by scientists before =aup and
;epkoski did their research.
(#) 3ts e$istence was confirmed by the research of =aup and ;epkoski.
3 recent history o& the %hicago meat-pac$ing industry and its wor$ers
e8amines how the industry grew &rom its appearance in the 18706s through the
ear"y 18906s. Beat-pac$ers( the author argues( had good wages( wor$ing
conditions( and prospects &or advancement within the pac$inghouses( and did not
cooperate with "abor agitators since "abor re"ations were so harmonious. 'ecause
the history maintains that conditions were above standard &or the era( the
&re-uency o& "abor disputes( especia""y in the mid-18806s( is not accounted &or. The
wor$ ignores the &act that the 18806s were crucia" years in 3merican "abor history(
and that the pac$inghouse wor$ers6 e1orts were part o& the nationa" movement
&or "abor re&orm.
2n &act( other historica" sources &or the "ate nineteenth century record
deteriorating housing and high disease and in&ant morta"ity rates in the industria"
community( due to "ow wages and unhea"thy wor$ing conditions. 3dditiona" data
&rom the University o& %hicago suggest that the pac$inghouses were dangerous
p"aces to wor$. The government investigation commissioned by 9resident
Theodore Rooseve"t which eventua""y "ed to the adoption o& the 190L Beat
2nspection 3ct &ound the pac$inghouses unsanitary( whi"e socia" wor$ers observed
that most o& the wor$ers were poor"y paid and overwor$ed. The history may be
too optimistic because most o& its data date &rom the 18806s at the "atest( and the
in&ormation provided &rom that decade is insu*cient"y ana"y+ed. %onditions
actua""y dec"ined in the 18806s( and continued to dec"ine a&ter the 18806s( due to
a reorgani+ation o& the pac$ing process and a massive inDu8 o& uns$i""ed wor$ers.
The deterioration in wor$er status( part"y a resu"t o& the new avai"abi"ity o&
uns$i""ed and hence cheap "abor( is not discussed. Though a detai"ed account o&
wor$ in the pac$ing-houses is attempted( the author &ai"s to distinguish between
the wages and conditions &or s$i""ed wor$ers and &or those uns$i""ed "aborers who
comprised the ma5ority o& the industry6s wor$ers &rom the 18806s on. ;hi"e
conditions &or the &ormer were arguab"y to"erab"e due to the strategic importance
o& s$i""ed wor$ers in the comp"icated s"aughtering( cutting( and pac$ing process
(though wor$er comp"aints about the rate and conditions o& wor$ were &re-uent)(
pay and conditions &or the "atter were wretched.
The author6s misinterpretation o& the origins o& the &ee"ings the meat-pac$ers
GRE 2,,
had &or their industria" neighborhood may account &or the history6s &au"ty
genera"i+ations. The pride and contentment the author remar$s upon were(
arguab"y( "ess the products o& the industria" wor"d o& the pac$ers!the giant yards
and the intricate p"ants!than o& the unity and vibrance o& the ethnic cu"tures that
&ormed a viab"e community on %hicago6s outh ide. 2ndeed( the strength o& this
community succeeded in generating a socia" movement that e1ective"y
con&ronted the prob"ems o& the industry that provided its "ive"ihood.
21. The passage is primarily concerned with discussing
(A) how historians ought to e$plain the origins of the conditions in the Chicago
meat(packing industry
(B) why it is difficult to determine the actual nature of the conditions in the
Chicago meat(packing industry
(C) why a particular account of the conditions in the Chicago meat(packing
industry is inaccurate
() what ought to be included in any account of the Chicago meat(packers4 role in
the national labor mo'ement
(#) what data are most rele'ant for an accurate account of the relations between
Chicago meat(packers and local labor agitators
22. The author of the passage mentions all of the following as describing negati'e
conditions in the meat(packing industry #DC#@TE
(A) data from the :ni'ersity of Chicago
(B) a recent history of the meat(packing industry
(C) social workers
() historical sources for the late nineteenth century
(#) go'ernment records
2.. The author of the passage mentions the *social mo'ement+ (line 1-) generated by
Chicago4s ;outh ;ide community primarily in order to
(A) inform the reader of e'ents that occurred in the meat(packing industry after the
period of time co'ered by the history
(B) suggest the history4s limitations by pointing out a situation that the history
failed to e$plain ade"uately
(C) sal'age the history4s point of 'iew by suggesting that there were positi'e
de'elopments in the meat(packing industry due to worker unity
() introduce a new issue designed to elaborate on the good relationship between
the meat(packers and Chicago4s ethnic communities
(#) suggest that the history should ha'e focused more on the general issue of the
relationship between labor mo'ements and healthy industrial communities
20. According to the passage/ the working conditions of skilled workers in the meat(
packing industry during the 16654s were influenced by
-55 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(A) the workers4 determined complaints about the rate and conditions of their work
(B) the efforts of social workers to impro'e sanitation in the packinghouses
(C) the workers4 ability to perform the industry4s comple$ tasks
() impro'ements in the industry4s packing process that occurred in the 16654s
(#) opportunities for <ob ad'ancement due to the filling of less desirable positions
by increasing numbers of unskilled workers
21. The author of the passage uses the second paragraph to
(A) summari!e the main point of the history discussed in the passage
(B) e$plain why the history discussed in the passage has been disparaged by critics
(C) e'aluate the findings of recent studies that undermine the premises of the
history discussed in the passage
() introduce a hypothesis that will be discussed in detail later in the passage
(#) present e'idence that is intended to refute the argument of the history
discussed in the passage
22. The tone of the author of the passage in discussing the meat(packer community on
Chicago4s ;outh ;ide can best be described as one of
(A) appreciation of the community4s ability to cope with difficult conditions
(B) admiration for the community4s refusal to cooperate with labor agitators
(C) indignation at the kinds of social conditions the community faced
() annoyance at the community4s inability to abolish discrimination in the meat(
packing industry
(#) concern that the meat(packers4 feelings for their community ha'e not been
documented
2-. The information in the passage suggests that the author of the history discussed in
the passage made which of the following errors%
(A) >ailing to recogni!e the effect of the di'ersity of the ;outh ;ide community on
the meat(packers4 efforts to reform the industry
(B) Attributing good working conditions in the meat(packing industry to the efforts
of labor agitators
(C) 8'eremphasi!ing the importance of the a'ailability of unskilled labor as an
influence on conditions in the meat packing industry
() 3nterpreting the meat(packers4 feelings for their community as appreciation of
their industry
(#) >ailing to obser'e the pride and contentment felt by the meat(packers
1998 11
GRE -51
SECTION A
(This passage is &rom a boo$ pub"ished in 19L0.)
;hen we consider great painters o& the past( the study o& art and the study o&
i""usion cannot a"ways be separated. 'y i""usion 2 mean those contrivances o&
co"or( "ine( shape( and so &orth that "ead us to see mar$s on a Dat sur&ace as
depicting three-dimensiona" ob5ects in space. 2 must emphasi+e that 2 am not
ma$ing a p"ea( disguised or otherwise( &or the e8ercise o& i""usionist tric$s in
painting today( a"though 2 am( in &act( rather critica" o& certain theories o& non-
representationa" art. 'ut to argue over these theories wou"d be to miss the point.
That the discoveries and e1ects o& representation that were the pride o& ear"ier
artists have become trivia" today 2 wou"d not deny &or a moment. Iet 2 be"ieve that
we are in rea" danger o& "osing contact with past masters i& we accept the
&ashionab"e doctrine that such matters never had anything to do with art. The
very reason why the representation o& nature can now be considered something
commonp"ace shou"d be o& the greatest interest to art historians. ,ever be&ore
has there been an age when the visua" image was so cheap in every sense o& the
word. ;e are surrounded and assai"ed by posters and advertisements( comics and
maga+ine i""ustrations. ;e see aspects o& rea"ity represented on te"evision(
postage stamps( and &ood pac$ages. 9ainting is taught in schoo" and practiced as
a pastime( and many modest amateurs have mastered tric$s that wou"d have
"oo$ed "i$e sheer magic to the &ourteenth-century painter Eiotto. @ven the crude
co"ored renderings on a cerea" bo8 might have made Eiotto6s contemporaries
gasp. 9erhaps there are peop"e who conc"ude &rom this that the cerea" bo8 is
superior to a Eiotto= 2 do not. 'ut 2 thin$ that the victory and vu"gari+ation o&
representationa" s$i""s create a prob"em &or both art historians and critics.
2n this connection it is instructive to remember the Eree$ saying that to marve"
is the beginning o& $now"edge and i& we cease to marve" we may be in danger o&
ceasing to $now. 2 be"ieve we must restore our sense o& wonder at the capacity to
con5ure up by &orms( "ines( shades( or co"ors those mysterious phantoms o& visua"
rea"ity we ca"" >pictures.? @ven comics and advertisements( right"y viewed(
provide &ood &or thought. Cust as the study o& poetry remains incomp"ete without
an awareness o& the "anguage o& prose( so( 2 be"ieve( the study o& art wi"" be
increasing"y supp"emented by in-uiry into the >"inguistics? o& the visua" image.
The way the "anguage o& art re&ers to the visib"e wor"d is both so obvious and so
mysterious that it is sti"" "arge"y un$nown e8cept to artists( who use it as we use
a"" "anguage!without needing to $now its grammar and semantics.
1-. The author of the passage e$plicitly disagrees with which of the following
statements4
(A) 3n modern society e'en nonartists can master techni"ues that great artists of
the fourteenth century did not employ.
(B) The ability to represent a three(dimensional ob<ect on a flat surface has nothing
-52 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
to do with art.
(C) 3n modern society the 'ictory of representational skills has created a problem
for art critics.
() The way that artists are able to represent the 'isible world is an area that needs
a great deal more study before it can be fully understood.
(#) ?odern painters do not fre"uently make use of illusionist tricks in their work.
16. The author suggests which of the following about art historians%
(A) They do not belie'e that illusionist tricks ha'e become tri'ial.
(B) They generally spend little time studying contemporary artists.
(C) They ha'e not gi'en enough consideration to how the representation of nature
has become commonplace.
() They generally tend to argue about theories rather than address substanti'e
issues.
(#) They are less likely than art critics to study comics or ad'ertisements.
1,. &hich of the following best states the author4s attitude toward comics/ as
e$pressed in the passage%
(A) They constitute an inno'ati'e art form.
(B) They can be a worthwhile sub<ect for study.
(C) They are critically important to an understanding of modem art.
() Their 'isual structure is more comple$ than that of medie'al art.
(#) They can be understood best if they are e$amined in con<unction with
ad'ertisements.
25. The author4s statement regarding how artists use the language of art (lines 06(12)
implies that
(A) artists are better e"uipped than are art historians to pro'ide detailed
e'aluations of other artists4 work
(B) many artists ha'e an unusually "uick/ intuiti'e understanding of language
(C) artists can produce works of art e'en if they cannot analy!e their methods of
doing so
() artists of the past/ such as Biotto/ were better educated about artistic issues
than were artists of the author4s time
(#) most artists probably consider the processes in'ol'ed in their work to be
closely akin to those in'ol'ed in writing poetry
21. The passage asserts which of the following about commercial art%
(A) There are many e$amples of commercial art whose artistic merit is e"ual to
that of great works of art of the past.
(B) Commercial art is hea'ily influenced by whate'er doctrines are fashionable in
the serious art world of the time.
GRE -5.
(C) The line between commercial art and great art lies primarily in how an image
is used/ not in the moti'ation for its creation.
() The le'el of technical skill re"uired to produce representational imagery in
commercial art and in other kinds of art cannot be compared.
(#) The per'asi'eness of contemporary commercial art has led art historians to
under'alue representational skills.
22. &hich of the following can be inferred from the passage about the adherents of
*certain theories of nonrepresentational art+ (lines ,(15)%
(A) They consider the use of illusion to be inappropriate in contemporary art.
(B) They do not agree that marks on a flat surface can e'er satisfactorily con'ey
the illusion of three(dimensional space.
(C) They do not discuss important works of art created in the past.
() They do not think that the representation of nature was e'er the primary goal
of past painters.
(#) They concern themsel'es more with types of art such as ad'ertisements and
maga!ine illustrations than with traditional art.
2.. 3t can be inferred from the passage that someone who wanted to analy!e the
*grammar and semantics+ (line 12) of the language of art would most
appropriately comment on which of the following%
(A) The relationship between the drawings in a comic strip and the accompanying
te$t
(B) The amount of detail that can be included in a tiny illustration on a postage
stamp
(C) The sociological implications of the images chosen to ad'ertise a particular
product
() The degree to which 'arious colors used in different 'ersions of the same
poster would attract the attention of passersby
(#) The particular <u$taposition of shapes in an illustration that makes one shape
look as though it were behind another
The 1977 @ndangered pecies 3ct made into "ega" po"icy the concept that
endangered species o& wi"d"i&e are precious as part o& a natura" ecosystem. The
near"y unanimous passage o& this act in the United tates %ongress( reDecting the
rising nationa" popu"arity o& environmenta"ism( mas$ed a bitter debate. 31ected
industries c"ung to the &ormer wi"d"i&e po"icy o& va"uing individua" species
according to their economic use&u"ness. They &ought to minimi+e the "aw6s impact
by "imiting de#nitions o& $ey terms( but they "ost on near"y every issue. The act
de#ned >wi"d"i&e? as a"most a"" $inds o& anima"s!&rom "arge mamma"s to
invertebrates!and p"ants. >Ta$ing? wi"d"i&e was de#ned broad"y as any action that
threatened an endangered species= areas vita" to a species6 surviva" cou"d be
&edera""y protected as >critica" habitats.? Though these de#nitions "egis"ated
-50 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
strong environmenta"ist goa"s( po"itica" compromises made in the en&orcement o&
the act were to determine 5ust what economic interests wou"d be set aside &or the
sa$e o& eco"ogica" stabi"i+ation.
20. According to the passage/ which of the following does the #ndangered ;pecies Act
define as a *critical habitat+%
(A) A natural ecosystem that is threatened by imminent de'elopment
(B) An industrial or urban area in which wildlife species ha'e almost ceased to li'e
among humans
(C) A natural area that is crucial to the sur'i'al of a species and thus eligible for
federal protection
() A wilderness area in which the *taking+ of wildlife species is permitted rarely
and only under strict federal regulation
(#) A natural en'ironment that is protected under law because its wildlife has a
high economic 'alue
21. According to the passage/ which of the following is an e$planation for the degree
of support that the #ndangered ;pecies Act recei'ed in Congress%
(A) Concern for the en'ironment had gained increasing national popularity.
(B) #cological research had created new economic opportunities dependent on the
sur'i'al of certain species.
(C) Congress had long wanted to change the e$isting wildlife policy.
() The growth of industry had endangered increasing numbers of wildlife species.
(#) Kegislators did not anticipate that the act could be effecti'ely enforced.
22. 3t can be inferred from the passage that if business interests had won the debate on
pro'isions of the 1,-. #ndangered ;pecies Act/ which of the following would
ha'e resulted%
(A) #n'ironmentalist concepts would not ha'e become widely popular.
(B) The definitions of key terms of the act would ha'e been more restricted.
(C) #nforcement of the act would ha'e been more difficult.
() The act would ha'e had stronger support from Congressional leaders.
(#) The public would ha'e boycotted the industries that had the greatest impact in
defining the act.
2-. The author refers to the terms *wildlife+ (line 11)/ *taking+ (line 1.)/ and *critical
habitats+ (line 12) most likely in order to
(A) illustrate the misuse of scientific language and concepts in political processes
(B) emphasi!e the importance of selecting precise language in transforming
scientific concepts into law
(C) represent terminology whose definition was crucial in writing en'ironmentalist
goals into law
GRE -51
() demonstrate the tri'iality of the issues debated by industries before Congress
passed the #ndangered ;pecies Act
(#) show that broad definitions of key terms in many types of laws resulted in
ambiguity and thus left room for disagreement about how the law should be
enforced
SECTION B
:rom the 19006s through the 19/06s waitresses in the United tates deve"oped
a &orm o& unionism based on the unions6 de#ning the s$i""s that their occupation
inc"uded and en&orcing standards &or the per&ormance o& those s$i""s. This
>occupationa" unionism? di1ered substantia""y &rom the >wor$site unionism?
preva"ent among &actory wor$ers. Rather than unioni+ing the wor$&orces o&
particu"ar emp"oyers( waitress "oca"s sought to contro" their occupation throughout
a city. <ccupationa" unionism operated through union hiring ha""s( which provided
&ree p"acement services to emp"oyers who agreed to hire their personne" on"y
through the union. )iring ha""s o1ered union waitresses co""ective emp"oyment
security( not individua" 5ob securitya basic protection o1ered by wor$site unions.
That is( when a waitress "ost her 5ob( the "oca" did not intervene with her emp"oyer
but p"aced her e"sewhere= and when 5obs were scarce( the wor$ hours avai"ab"e
were distributed &air"y among a"" members rather than being assigned according
to seniority.
1-. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) analy!e a current trend in relation to the past
(B) discuss a particular solution to a longstanding problem
(C) analy!e changes in the way that certain standards ha'e been enforced
() apply a generali!ation to an unusual situation
(#) describe an approach by contrasting it with another approach
16. &hich of the following statements best summari!es a distinction mentioned in the
passage between waitress unions and factory workers4 unions%
(A) &aitress unions were more successful than factory workers4 unions in that they
were able to unioni!e whole cities.
(B) &aitress unions had an impact on only certain local areas/ whereas the impact
of factory workers4 unions was national.
(C) &aitress union members held primarily part(time positions/ whereas factory
workers4 unions placed their members in full(time <obs.
() &aitress unions emphasi!ed the occupation of workers/ whereas factory
workers4 unions emphasi!ed the worksite at which workers were employed.
(#) &aitress unions defined the skills of their trade/ whereas the skills of factory
trades were determined by employers4 groups.
-52 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
1,. According to the passage/ which of the following was characteristic of the form of
union that :nited ;tates waitresses de'eloped in the first half of the twentieth
century%
(A) The union represented a wide 'ariety of restaurant and hotel ser'ice
occupations.
(B) The union defined the skills re"uired of waitresses and disciplined its members
to meet certain standards.
(C) The union billed employers for its members4 work and distributed the earnings
among all members.
() The union negotiated the enforcement of occupational standards with each
employer whose workforce <oined the union.
(#) The union ensured that a worker could not be laid off arbitrarily by an
employer.
25. The author of the passage mentions *particular employers+ (line 6) primarily in
order to
(A) suggest that occupational unions found some employers difficult to satisfy
(B) indicate that the occupational unions ser'ed some employers but not others
(C) emphasi!e the uni"ue focus of occupational unionism
() accentuate the hostility of some employers toward occupational unionism
(#) point out a weakness of worksite unionism
2n prehistoric times brachiopods were one o& the most abundant and diverse
&orms o& "i&e on @arthA more than 70(000 species o& this c"am"i$e creature have
been cata"oged &rom &ossi" records. Today brachiopods are not as numerous( and
e8isting species are not we"" studied( part"y because neither the anima"6s Deshy
inner tissue nor its she"" has any commercia" va"ue. Boreover( in contrast to the
greater diversity o& the e8tinct species( the appro8imate"y 700 $nown surviving
species are re"ative"y uni&orm in appearance. Bany +oo"ogists have interpreted
this as a sign that the anima" has been unab"e to compete success&u""y with other
marine organisms in the evo"utionary strugg"e.
evera" things( however( suggest that the conventiona" view needs revising.
:or e8amp"e( the genus 'ingula has an unbro$en &ossi" record e8tending over
more than ha"& a bi""ion years to the present. Thus( i& "ongevity is any measure(
brachiopods are the most success&u" organisms e8tant. :urther( recent studies
suggest that diversity among species is a "ess important measure o& evo"utionary
success than is the abi"ity to withstand environmenta" change( such as when a
"ayer o& c"ay rep"aces sand on the ocean bottom. The re"ative"y greater uni&ormity
among the e8isting brachiopod species may o1er greater protection &rom
environmenta" change and hence may reDect high"y success&u" adaptive behavior.
The adaptive advantages o& uni&ormity &or brachiopods can be seen by
considering specia"i+ation( a process that occurs as a resu"t o& pro"onged
GRE -5-
co"oni+ation o& a uni&orm substrate. Those that can survive on many sur&aces are
ca""ed genera"ists( whi"e those that can survive on a "imited range o& substrates
are ca""ed specia"ists. <ne specia"ist species( &or e8amp"e( has va"ves weighted at
the base( a characteristic that assures that the organism is proper"y positioned &or
&eeding in mud and simi"ar substrates= other species secrete g"ue a""owing them
to survive on the &ace o& underwater c"i1s. The &ossi" record demonstrates that
most brachiopod "ineages have &o""owed a trend toward increased specia"i+ation.
)owever( during periods o& environmenta" instabi"ity( when a particu"ar substrate
to which a specia"ist species has adapted is no "onger avai"ab"e( the species
-uic$"y dies out. Eenera"ists( on the other hand( are not dependent on a particu"ar
substrate( and are thus "ess vu"nerab"e to environmenta" change. <ne study o& the
&ossi" record revea"ed a mass e8tinction o& brachiopods &o""owing a change in
sedimentation &rom cha"$ to c"ay. <& the 7/ brachiopod species &ound in the cha"$(
on"y L survived in the c"ay( a"" o& them genera"ists.
3s "ong as enough genera"ist species are maintained( and studies o& arctic and
subarctic seas suggest that genera"ists are o&ten dominant members o& the
marine communities there( it seems un"i$e"y that the phy"um is c"ose to
e8tinction.
21. 3n the passage/ the author is primarily concerned with
(A) re<ecting an earlier e$planation for the longe'ity of certain brachiopod species
(B) ree'aluating the implications of uniformity among e$isting brachiopod species
(C) describing the 'arieties of en'ironmental change to which brachiopods are
'ulnerable
() reconciling opposing e$planations for brachiopods4 lack of e'olutionary
success
(#) elaborating the mechanisms responsible for the tendency among brachiopod
species toward speciali!ation
22. 3t can be inferred from the passage that many !oologists assume that a large
di'ersity among species of a gi'en class of organisms typically leads to which of
the following%
(A) ifficulty in classification
(B) A discontinuous fossil record
(C) A greater chance of sur'i'al o'er time
() 9umerical abundance
(#) A longer life span
2.. The second paragraph makes use of which of the following%
(A) ;pecific e$amples
(B) Analogy
(C) ?etaphor
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() Nuotation
(#) #$aggeration
20. The author suggests that the scientists holding the con'entional 'iew mentioned in
lines 11(12 make which of the following errors%
(A) They mistakenly emphasi!e sur'i'al rather than di'ersity.
(B) They misunderstand the causes of speciali!ation.
(C) They misuse !oological terminology.
() They catalog fossili!ed remains improperly.
(#) They o'erlook an alternati'e criterion of e'olutionary success.
21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the decision to study an organism may
sometimes be influenced by
(A) its practical or commercial benefits to society
(B) the nature and pre'alence of its fossili!ed remains
(C) the relati'e con'enience of its geographical distribution
() its similarity to one or more better(known species
(#) the degree of its physiological comple$ity
22. &hich of the following/ if true/ would most strengthen the author4s claim (lines
12(1-) that *it seems unlikely that the phylum is close to e$tinction+%
(A) Beneralist species now li'ing in arctic water gi'e few if any indications of a
tendency towards significant future speciali!ation.
(B) Loologists ha'e recently disco'ered that a common marine organism is a
natural predator of brachiopods.
(C) 3t was recently disco'ered that certain brachiopod species are almost always
concentrated near areas rich in offshore oil deposits.
() The ratio of specialist to Beneralist species is slowly but steadily increasing.
(#) 3t is easier for a brachiopod to sur'i'e a change in sedimentation than a change
in water temperature.
2-. 3nformation in the passage supports which of the following statements about
brachiopods%
3. >ew brachiopods li'ing in prehistoric times were specialists.
33. A tendency toward speciali!ation/ though typical/ is not ine'itable.
333. ;pecialist species dominate in all but arctic and subarctic waters.
(A) 3 only
(B) 33 only
(C) 33 and 333 only
() 3 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33 and 333
GRE -5,
1999 04
SECTION A
This passage is based on an artic"e pub"ished in 1990.
@ight times within the past mi""ion years( something in the @arth6s c"imatic
e-uation has changed( a""owing snow in the mountains and the northern "atitudes
to accumu"ate &rom one season to the ne8t instead o& me"ting away. @ach time(
the enormous ice sheets resu"ting &rom this continua" bui"dup "asted tens o&
thousands o& years unti" the end o& each particu"ar g"acia" cyc"e brought a warmer
c"imate. cientists specu"ated that these g"acia" cyc"es were u"timate"y driven by
astronomica" &actorsA s"ow( cyc"ic changes in the eccentricity o& the @arth6s orbit
and in the ti"t and orientation o& its spin a8is. 'ut up unti" around 70 years ago(
the "ac$ o& an independent record o& ice-age timing made the hypothesis
untestab"e.
Then in the ear"y 19/06s @mi"iani produced the #rst comp"ete record o& the
wa8ings and wanings o& past g"aciations. 2t came &rom a seeming"y odd p"ace( the
seaDoor. ing"e-ce"" marine organisms ca""ed >&oramini&era? house themse"ves in
she""s made &rom ca"cium carbonate. ;hen the &oramini&era die( sin$ to the
bottom( and become part o& seaDoor sediments( the carbonate o& their she""s
preserves certain characteristics o& the seawater they inhabited. 2n particu"ar( the
ratio o& a heavy isotope o& o8ygen (o8ygen-18) to ordinary o8ygen (o8ygen-1L) in
the carbonate preserves the ratio o& the two o8ygens in water mo"ecu"es.
2t is now understood that the ratio o& o8ygen isotopes in seawater c"ose"y
reDects the proportion o& the wor"d6s water "oc$ed up in g"aciers and ice sheets. 3
$ind o& meteoro"ogica" disti""ation accounts &or the "in$. ;ater mo"ecu"es
containing the heavier isotope tend to condense and &a"" as precipitation s"ight"y
sooner than mo"ecu"es containing the "ighter isotope. )ence( as water vapor
evaporated &rom warm oceans moves away &rom its source( its o8ygen-18 returns
more -uic$"y to the oceans than does its o8ygen-1L. ;hat &a""s as snow on distant
ice sheets and mountain g"aciers is re"ative"y dep"eted o& o8ygen-18. 3s the
o8ygen-18-poor ice bui"ds up( the oceans become re"ative"y enriched in the
isotope. The "arger the ice sheets grow( the higher the proportion o& o8ygen-18
becomes in seawater!and hence in the sediments.
3na"y+ing cores dri""ed &rom seaDoor sediments( @mi"iani &ound that the
isotopic ratio rose and &e"" in rough accord with the @arth6s astronomica" cyc"es.
ince that pioneering observation( o8ygen-isotope measurements have been
made on hundreds o& cores. 3 chrono"ogy &or the combined record enab"es
scientists to show that the record contains the very same periodicities as the
orbita" processes. <ver the past 800(000 years( the g"oba" ice vo"ume has pea$ed
every 100(000 years( matching the period o& the orbita" eccentricity variation. 2n
addition( >wrin$"es? superposed on each cyc"e!sma"" decreases or surges in ice
-15 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
vo"ume!have come at interva"s o& rough"y 47(000 and M1(000 years( in $eeping
with the precession and ti"t &re-uencies o& the @arth6s spin a8is.
1-. &hich of the following best e$presses the main idea of the passage%
(A) ?arine sediments ha'e allowed scientists to amass e'idence tending to
confirm that astronomical cycles dri'e the #arth4s glacial cycles.
(B) The ratio between two different isotopes of o$ygen in seawater correlates
closely with the si!e of the #arth4s ice sheets.
(C) ;urprisingly/ single(cell marine organisms pro'ide a record of the #arth4s ice
ages.
() The #arth4s astronomical cycles ha'e recently been re'ealed to ha'e an
une$pectedly large impact on the #arth4s climate.
(#) The earth has e$perienced eight periods of intense glaciation in the past million
years/ primarily as a result of substantial changes in its orbit.
16. The passage asserts that one reason that oceans become enriched in o$ygen(16 as
ice sheets grow is because
(A) water molecules containing o$ygen(16 condense and fall as precipitation
slightly sooner than those containing o$ygen(12
(B) the ratio of o$ygen(16 to o$ygen(12 in water 'apor e'aporated from oceans is
different from that of these isotopes in seawater
(C) growing ice sheets tend to lose their o$ygen(16 as the temperature of the
oceans near them gradually decreases
() less water 'apor e'aporates from oceans during glacial periods and therefore
less o$ygen(16 is remo'ed from the seawater
(#) the free!ing point of seawater rich in o$ygen(16 is slightly lower than that of
seawater poor in o$ygen(16
1,. According to the passage/ the large ice sheets typical of glacial cycles are most
directly caused by
(A) changes in the a'erage temperatures in the tropics and o'er open oceans
(B) prolonged increases in the rate at which water e'aporates from the oceans
(C) e$treme seasonal 'ariations in temperature in northern latitudes and in
mountainous areas
() steadily increasing precipitation rates in northern latitudes and in mountainous
areas
(#) the continual failure of snow to melt completely during the warmer seasons in
northern latitudes and in mountainous areas
25. 3t can be inferred from the passage that which of the following is true of the water
locked in glaciers and ice sheets today%
(A) 3t is richer in o$ygen(16 than fro!en water was during past glacial periods.
GRE -11
(B) 3t is primarily located in the northern latitudes of the #arth.
(C) 3ts ratio of o$ygen isotopes is the same as that pre'alent in seawater during the
last ice age.
() 3t is steadily decreasing in amount due to increased thawing during summer
months.
(#) 3n comparison with seawater/ it is relati'ely poor in o$ygen(16.
21. The discussion of the o$ygen(isotope ratios in paragraph three of the passage
suggests that which of the following must be assumed if the conclusions described
in lines 0,(16 are to be 'alidly drawn%
(A) The #arth4s o'erall annual precipitation rates do not dramatically increase or
decrease o'er time.
(B) The 'arious chemicals dissol'ed in seawater ha'e had the same concentrations
o'er the past million years.
(C) 9atural processes unrelated to ice formation do not result in the formation of
large "uantities of o$ygen(16.
() &ater molecules falling as precipitation usually fall on the open ocean rather
than on continents or polar ice packs.
(#) 3ncreases in global temperature do not increase the amount of water that
e'aporates from the oceans.
22. The passage suggests that the scientists who first constructed a coherent/
continuous picture of past 'ariations in marine(sediment isotope ratios did which
of the following%
(A) =elied primarily on the data obtained from the analysis of #miliani4s core
samples.
(B) Combined data deri'ed from the analysis of many different core samples.
(C) ?atched the data obtained by geologists with that pro'ided by astronomers.
() #'aluated the isotope(ratio data obtained in se'eral areas in order to eliminate
all but the most reliable data.
(#) Compared data obtained from core samples in many different marine
en'ironments with data samples deri'ed from polar ice caps.
2.. The passage suggests that the scientists mentioned in line 6 considered their
reconstruction of past astronomical cycles to be
(A) unreliable because astronomical obser'ations ha'e been made and recorded for
only a few thousand years
(B) ade"uate enough to allow that reconstruction4s use in e$plaining glacial cycles
if a record of the latter could be found
(C) in need of confirmation through comparison with an independent source of
information about astronomical phenomena
() incomplete and therefore unusable for the purposes of e$plaining the causes of
-12 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
ice ages
(#) ade"uate enough for scientists to support conclusi'ely the idea that ice ages
were caused by astronomical changes
3"though Fictor Turner6s writings have proved &ruit&u" &or #e"ds beyond
anthropo"ogy( his de#nition o& ritua" is over"y restrictive. Ritua"( he says( is
>prescribed &orma" behavior &or occasions not given over to techno"ogica" routine(
having re&erence to be"ie&s in mystica" beings or powers.? >Techno"ogica" routine?
re&ers to the means by which a socia" group provides &or its materia" needs.
Turner6s di1erentiating ritua" &rom techno"ogy he"ps us recogni+e that &estiva"s and
ce"ebrations may have "itt"e purpose other than p"ay( but it obscures the practica"
aims( such as ma$ing crops grow or hea"ing patients( o& other ritua"s. :urther(
Turner6s de#nition imp"ies a necessary re"ationship between ritua" and mystica"
be"ie&s. )owever( not a"" ritua"s are re"igious= some re"igions have no re&erence to
mystica" beings= and individua"s may be re-uired on"y to participate in( not
necessari"y be"ieve in( a ritua". Turner6s assumption that ritua" behavior &o""ows
be"ie& thus "imits the use&u"ness o& his de#nition in studying ritua" across cu"tures.
20. According to the passage/ which of the following does Turner e$clude from his
conception of ritual%
(A) Beha'ior based on beliefs
(B) Beha'ior based on formal rules
(C) Celebrations whose purpose is play
() =outines directed toward practical ends
(#) >esti'als honoring supernatural beings
21. The passage suggests that an assumption underlying Turner4s definition of ritual is
that
(A) anthropological concepts apply to other fields
(B) festi'als and ceremonies are related cultural phenomena
(C) there is a relationship between play and practical ends
() rituals refer only to belief in mystical beings or powers
(#) mystical beings and powers ha'e certain common attributes across cultures
22. 3t can be inferred that the author of the passage belie'es each of the following
concerning rituals #DC#@TE
(A) ;ome are unrelated to religious belief.
(B) ;ome are intended to ha'e practical conse"uences.
(C) ;ome ha'e no purpose other than play.
() They sometimes in'ol'e reference to mystical beings.
(#) They are predominantly focused on agricultural ends.
2-. &hich of the following best describes the organi!ation of the passage%
GRE -1.
(A) >actual data are presented and a hypothesis is proposed.
(B) A distinction is introduced then shown not to be a true distinction.
(C) A statement is "uoted/ and two assumptions on which it is based are clarified.
() A definition is challenged/ and two reasons for the challenge are gi'en.
(#) An opinion is offered and then placed within a historical framework.
SECTION B
'en5amin :ran$"in estab"ished that "ightning is the trans&er o& positive or
negative e"ectrica" charge between regions o& a c"oud or &rom c"oud to earth. uch
trans&ers re-uire that e"ectrica""y neutra" c"ouds( with uni&orm charge distributions(
become e"ectri#ed by separation o& charges into distinct regions. The greater this
separation is( the greater the vo"tage( or e"ectrica" potentia" o& the c"oud.
cientists sti"" do not now the precise distribution o& charges in thunderc"ouds nor
how separation ade-uate to support the huge vo"tages typica" o& "ightning bo"ts
arises. 3ccording to one theory( the precipitation hypothesis( charge separation
occurs as a resu"t o& precipitation. Jarger drop"ets in a thunderc"oud precipitate
downward past sma""er suspended drop"ets. %o""isions among drop"ets trans&er
negative charge to precipitating drop"ets( "eaving the suspended drop"ets with a
positive charge( thus producing a positive dipo"e in which the "ower region o& the
thunderc"oud is #""ed with negative"y charged raindrops and the upper with
positive"y charged suspended drop"ets.
1-. The passage is primarily concerned with discussing which of the following%
(A) A central issue in the e$planation of how lightning occurs
(B) Ben<amin >ranklin4s acti'ities as a scientist
(C) =esearch into the strength and distribution of thunderstorms
() The direction of mo'ement of electrical charges in thunderclouds
(#) The relation between a cloud4s charge distribution and its 'oltage
16. The passage suggests that lightning bolts typically
(A) produce a distribution of charges called a positi'e dipole in the clouds where
they originate
(B) result in the mo'ement of negati'e charges to the centers of the clouds where
they originate
(C) result in the suspension of large/ positi'ely charged raindrops at the tops of the
clouds where they originate
() originate in clouds that ha'e large numbers of negati'ely charged droplets in
their upper regions
(#) originate in clouds in which the positi'e and negati'e charges are not
uniformly distributed
-10 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
1,. According to the passage/ Ben<amin >ranklin contributed to the scientific study of
lightning by
(A) testing a theory proposed earlier/ showing it to be false/ and de'eloping an
alternati'e/ far more successful theory of his own
(B) making an important disco'ery that is still important for scientific
in'estigations of lightning
(C) introducing a hypothesis that/ though recently shown to be false/ pro'ed to be
a useful source of insights for scientists studying lightning
() de'eloping a techni"ue that has enabled scientists to measure more precisely
the phenomena that affect the strength and location of lightning bolts
(#) predicting correctly that two factors pre'iously thought unrelated to lightning
would e'entually be shown to contribute <ointly to the strength and location of
lightning bolts
25. &hich of the following/ if true/ would most seriously undermine the precipitation
hypothesis/ as it is set forth in the passage%
(A) Karger clouds are more likely than smaller clouds to be characteri!ed by
complete separation of positi'e and negati'e charges.
(B) 3n smaller clouds lightning more often occurs within the cloud than between
the cloud and the earth.
(C) Karge raindrops mo'e more rapidly in small clouds than they do in large
clouds.
() Clouds that are smaller than a'erage in si!e rarely/ if e'er/ produce lightning
bolts.
(#) 3n clouds of all si!es negati'e charges concentrate in the center of the clouds
when the clouds become electrically charged.
'e&ore Jaura Ei"pin (1891-1979)( &ew women in the history o& photography had
so devoted themse"ves to chronic"ing the "andscape. <ther women had
photographed the "and( but none can be regarded as a "andscape photographer
with a sustained body o& wor$ documenting the physica" terrain. 3nne 'rigman
o&ten photographed wood"ands and coasta" areas( but they were genera""y
settings &or her art&u""y p"aced sub5ects. Korothea Jange6s "andscapes were a"ways
conceived o& as counterparts to her portraits o& rura" women.
3t the same time that Ei"pin6s interest in "andscape wor$ distinguished her
&rom most other women photographers( her approach to "andscape photography
set her apart &rom men photographers who( "i$e Ei"pin( documented the western
United tates. ;estern 3merican "andscape photography grew out o& a ma"e
tradition( pioneered by photographers attached to government and commercia"
survey teams that went west in the 18L06s and 18706s. These e8p"orer-
photographers documented the ;est that their emp"oyers wanted to seeA an
e8otic and ma5estic "and shaped by awesome natura" &orces( unpopu"ated and
ready &or 3merican sett"ement. The ne8t generation o& ma"e photographers(
GRE -11
represented by 3nse" 3dams and @"iot 9orter( o&ten wor$ed with conservationist
groups rather than government agencies or commercia" companies( but they
nonethe"ess preserved the >heroic? sty"e and maintained the ro"e o& respect&u"
outsider peering in with reverence at a &ragi"e natura" wor"d.
:or Ei"pin( by contrast( the "andscape was neither an empty vista awaiting
human sett"ement nor a 5ewe"-"i$e scene resisting human intrusion( but a peop"ed
"andscape with a rich history and tradition o& its own( an environment that shaped
and mo"ded the "ives o& its inhabitants. )er photographs o& the Rio Erande( &or
e8amp"e( consistent"y depict the river in terms o& its signi#cance to human
cu"tureA as a source o& irrigation water( a source o& &ood &or "ivestoc$( and a
provider o& town sites. 3"so instructive is Ei"pin6s genera" avoidance o& e8treme
c"ose-ups o& her natura" sub5ectsA &or her( emb"ematic detai"s cou"d never suggest
the intricacies o& the interre"ationship between peop"e and nature that made the
"andscape a compe""ing sub5ect. ;hi"e it is dangerous to draw conc"usions about a
>&eminine? way o& seeing &rom the wor$ o& one woman( it can nonethe"ess be
argued that Ei"pin6s uni-ue approach to "andscape photography was ana"ogous to
the wor$ o& many women writers who( &ar more than their ma"e counterparts(
described the "andscape in terms o& its potentia" to sustain human "i&e.
Ei"pin never spo$e o& herse"& as a photographer with a &eminine perspectiveA
she eschewed any discussion o& gender as it re"ated to her wor$ and maintained
"itt"e interest in interpretations that re"ied on the concept o& a >woman6s eye.?
Thus it is ironic that her photographic evocation o& a historica" "andscape shou"d
so c"ear"y present a distinctive"y &eminine approach to "andscape photography.
21. &hich of the following best e$presses the main idea of the passage%
(A) Bilpin4s landscape photographs more accurately documented the ;outhwest
than did the photographs of e$plorers and conser'ationists.
(B) Bilpin4s style of landscape photography substantially influenced the heroic
style practiced by her male counterparts.
(C) The labeling of Bilpin4s style of landscape photography as feminine ignores
important ties between it and the heroic style.
() Bilpin4s work e$emplifies an arguably feminine style of landscape
photography that contrasts with the style used by her male predecessors.
(#) Bilpin4s style was strongly influenced by the work of women writers who
described the landscape in terms of its relationship to people.
22. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the teams mentioned in line 1, were most
interested in which of the following aspects of the land in the western :nited
;tates%
(A) 3ts fragility in the face of increased human intrusion
(B) 3ts role in shaping the li'es of indigenous peoples
(C) 3ts potential for sustaining future settlements
-12 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
() 3ts importance as an en'ironment for rare plants and animals
(#) 3ts unusual 'ulnerability to e$treme natural forces
2.. The author of the passage claims that which of the following is the primary reason
why Bilpin generally a'oided e$treme close(ups of natural sub<ects%
(A) Bilpin belie'ed that pictures of natural details could not depict the
interrelationship between the land and humans.
(B) Bilpin considered close(up photography to be too closely associated with her
predecessors.
(C) Bilpin belie'ed that all of her photographs should include people in them.
() Bilpin associated close(up techni"ues with photography used for commercial
purposes.
(#) Bilpin feared that pictures of small details would suggest an indifference to the
fragility of the land as a whole.
20. The passage suggests that a photographer who practiced the heroic style would be
most likely to emphasi!e which of the following in a photographic series focusing
on the =io Brande%
(A) 3ndigenous people and their ancient customs relating to the ri'er
(B) The e$ploits of na'igators and e$plorers
(C) :npopulated/ pristine parts of the ri'er and its surroundings
() #$isting commercial 'entures that relied hea'ily on the ri'er
(#) The dams and other monumental engineering structures built on the ri'er
21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the first two generations of landscape
photographers in the western :nited ;tates had which of the following in
common%
(A) They photographed the land as an entity that had little interaction with human
culture.
(B) They ad'anced the philosophy that photographers should resist alliances with
political or commercial groups.
(C) They were con'inced that the pristine condition of the land needed to be
preser'ed by go'ernment action.
() They photographed the land as a place ready for increased settlement.
(#) They photographed only those locations where humans had settled.
22. Based on the description of her works in the passage/ which of the following
would most likely be a sub<ect for a photograph taken by Bilpin%
(A) A 'ista of a canyon still untouched by human culture
(B) A portrait of a 'isitor to the &est against a desert backdrop
(C) A 'iew of historic 9ati'e American dwellings car'ed into the side of a natural
cliff
GRE -1-
() A picture of artifacts from the &est being transported to the eastern :nited
;tates for retail sale
(#) An abstract pattern created by the shadows of clouds on the desert
2-. The author of the passage mentions women writers in line 15 most likely in order
to
(A) counter a widely held criticism of her argument
(B) bolster her argument that Bilpin4s style can be characteri!ed as a feminine
style
(C) suggest that Bilpin took some of her ideas for photographs from landscape
descriptions by women writers
() clarify the interrelationship between human culture and the land that Bilpin
was attempting to capture
(#) offer an analogy between photographic close(ups and literary descriptions of
small details
-16 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
LSAT 01 SECTON
T!"e 35 "!#$%es 26 &$es%!o#s
Directions: Each passage in this section is followed by a group of questions to be answered on
the basis of what is stated or implied in the passage. For some of the questions, more than one
of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However, you are to choose the best
answer, that is, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question, and
blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.
2mmigrants6 adoption o& @ng"ish as their primary "anguage is one measure o&
assimi"ation into the "arger United tates society. Eenera""y "anguages de#ne
socia" groups and provide 5usti#cation &or socia" structures. )ence( a distinctive
"anguage sets a cu"tura" group o1 &rom the dominant "anguage group. Throughout
United tates history this pattern has resu"ted in one consistent( unhappy
conse-uence( discrimination against members o& the cu"tura" minority. Janguage
di1erences provide both a way to rationa"i+e subordination and a ready means &or
achieving it.
Traditiona""y( @ng"ish has rep"aced the native "anguage o& immigrant groups by
the second or third generation. ome characteristics o& today6s panish-spea$ing
popu"ation( however( suggest the possibi"ity o& a departure &rom this historica"
pattern. Bany &ami"ies retain ties in Jatin 3merica and move bac$ and &orth
between their present and &ormer communities. This >revo"ving door?
phenomenon( a"ong with the high probabi"ity o& additiona" immigrants &rom the
south( means that "arge panish-spea$ing communities are "i$e"y to e8ist in the
United tates &or the inde#nite &uture.
This e8pectation under"ies the ca"" &or nationa" support &or bi"ingua" education
in panish-spea$ing communities6 pub"ic schoo"s. 'i"ingua" education can serve
di1erent purposes( however. 2n the 19L0s( such programs were estab"ished to
&aci"itate the "earning o& @ng"ish so as to avoid disadvantaging chi"dren in their
other sub5ects because o& their "imited @ng"ish. Bore recent"y( many advocates
have viewed bi"ingua" education as a means to maintain chi"dren6s native
"anguages and cu"tures. The issue is important &or peop"e with di1erent po"itica"
agendas( &rom absorption at one po"e to separatism at the other.
To date( the eva"uations o& bi"ingua" education6s impact on "earning have been
inconc"usive. The issue o& bi"ingua" education has( neverthe"ess( served to unite
the "eadership o& the nation6s )ispanic communities. Erounded in concerns about
status that are direct"y traceab"e to the United tates history o& discrimination
against )ispanics( the demand &or maintenance o& the panish "anguage in the
schoo"s is an assertion o& the worth o& a peop"e and their cu"ture. 2& the United
tates is tru"y a mu"ticu"tura" nationthat is( i& it is one cu"ture reDecting the
contributions o& manythis demand shou"d be seen as a demand not &or
separation but &or inc"usion.
Bore direct e1orts to &orce inc"usion can be misguided. :or e8amp"e(
LSAT -1,
movements to dec"are @ng"ish the o*cia" "anguage do not tru"y advance the
cohesion o& a mu"ticu"tura" nation. They a"ienate the twenty mi""ion peop"e who do
not spea$ @ng"ish as their mother tongue. They are unnecessary since the pub"ic6s
business is a"ready conducted "arge"y in @ng"ish. :urther( given the present state
o& understanding about the e1ects o& bi"ingua" education on "earning( it wou"d be
unwise to re-uire the universa" use o& @ng"ish. :ina""y( it is &or parents and "oca"
communities to choose the path they wi"" &o""ow( inc"uding how much o& their
cu"ture they want to maintain &or their chi"dren.
1. 3t can be inferred from the passage that one of the characteristics of immigrant
groups to the :nited ;tates has traditionally been that/ after immigration/ relati'ely
few members of the group
(A) became politically acti'e in their new communities
(B) mo'ed back and forth repeatedly between the :nited ;tates and their former
communities
(C) used their nati'e languages in their new communities
() suffered discrimination in their new communities at the hands of the cultural
ma<ority
(#) sought assimilation into the dominant culture of the new communities they
were entering
2. The passage suggests that one of the effects of the debate o'er bilingual education
is that it has
(A) gi'en the )ispanic community a new(found pride in its culture
(B) hampered the education of ;panish(speaking students
(C) demonstrated the negati'e impact on imposing #nglish as the official :nited
;tates language
() pro'ided a common banner under which the ;panish(speaking communities
could rally
(#) polari!ed the opinions of local ;panish(speaking community leaders
.. 3n lines .6(.,/ the phrase *different political agendas+ refers specifically to
conflicting opinions regarding the
(A) means of legislating the assimilation of minorities into :nited ;tates society
(B) methods of inducing )ispanics to adopt #nglish as their primary language
(C) means of achie'ing nondiscriminatory education for )ispanics
() official gi'en responsibility for decisions regarding bilingual education
(#) e$tent to which )ispanics should blend into the larger :nited ;tates society
0. 3n lines 20(21 the author says that *3t would be unwise to re"uire the uni'ersal use
of #nglish.+ 8ne reason for this/ according to the author/ is that
(A) it is not clear yet whether re"uiring the uni'ersal use of #nglish would
-25 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
promote or hinder the education of children whose #nglish is limited
(B) the nation4s )ispanic leaders ha'e shown that bilingual education is most
effecti'e when it includes the maintenance of the ;panish language in the
schools
(C) re"uiring the uni'ersal use of #nglish would reduce the cohesion of the
nation4s )ispanic communities and leadership
() the "uestion of language in the schools should be answered by those who
e'aluate bilingual education/ not by people with specific political agendas
(#) it has been shown that bilingual education is necessary to a'oid disad'antaging
in their general learning children whose #nglish is limited
1. 3n the last paragraph/ the author of the passage is primarily concerned with
discussing
(A) reasons against enacting a measure that would mandate the forced inclusion of
immigrant groups within the dominant :nited culture
(B) the 'irtues and limitations of declaring #nglish the official language of the
:nited ;tates
(C) the history of attitudes within the )ispanic community toward bilingual
education in the :nited ;tates
() the importance for immigrant groups of maintaining large segments of their
culture to pass on to their children
(#) the difference in cultures between )ispanics and other immigrant groups in the
:nited ;tates
The re&usa" o& some countries to e8tradite persons accused or convicted o&
terrorist act has &ocused attention on the prob"ems caused by the po"itica" o1ense
e8ception to e8tradition. @8tradition is the process by which one country returns
an accused or convicted person &ound within its borders to another country &or
tria" or punishment. Under the po"itica" o1ense e8ception( the re-uested state
may( i& it considers the crime to be a >po"itica" o1ense(? deny e8tradition to the
re-uesting state.
9rotection o& po"itica" o1enses is a recent addition to the ancient practice o&
e8tradition. 2t is the resu"t o& two &undamenta" changes that occurred as @uropean
monarchies were rep"aced by representative governments. :irst( these
governments began to re5ect what had been a primary intent o& e8tradition( to
e8pedite the return o& po"itica" o1enders( and instead sought to protect dissidents
Deeing despotic regimes. econd( countries began to contend that they had no
"ega" or mora" duty to e8tradite o1enders without speci#c agreements creating
such ob"igations. 3s e8tradition "aws subse-uent"y deve"oped through
internationa" treaties( the po"itica" o1ense e8ception gradua""y became an
accepted princip"e among ;estern nations.
There is no internationa" consensus( however( as to what constitutes a po"itica"
LSAT -21
o1ense. :or ana"ytica" purposes i""ega" po"itica" conduct has traditiona""y been
divided into two categories. >9ure? po"itica" o1enses are acts perpetrated direct"y
against the government( such as treason and espionage. These crimes are
genera""y recogni+ed as none8traditab"e( even i& not e8press"y e8c"uded &rom
e8tradition by the app"icab"e treaty. 2n contrast( common crimes( such as murder(
assau"t( and robbery( are genera""y e8traditab"e. )owever( there are some
common crimes that are so inseparab"e &rom a po"itica" act that the entire o1ense
is regarded as po"itica". These crimes( which are ca""ed >re"ative? po"itica" o1enses(
are genera""y none8traditab"e. Kespite the widespread acceptance o& these
ana"ytic constructs( the distinctions are more academic than meaning&u". ;hen it
comes to rea" cases( there is no agreement about what trans&orms a common
crime into a po"itica" o1ense and about whether terrorist acts &a"" within the
protection o& the e8ception. Bost terrorists c"aim that their acts do &a"" under this
protection.
,ations o& the wor"d must now ba"ance the competing needs o& po"itica"
&reedom and internationa" pub"ic order. 2t is time to ree8amine the po"itica" o1ense
e8ception( as internationa" terrorism eradicates the critica" distinctions between
po"itica" o1enses and nonpo"itica" crimes. The on"y rationa" and attainab"e
ob5ective o& the e8ception is to protect the re-uested person against un&air
treatment by the re-uesting country. The internationa" community needs to #nd
an a"ternative to the po"itica" o1ense e8ception that wou"d protect the rights o&
re-uested persons and yet not o1er terrorists immunity &rom crimina" "iabi"ity.
2. 3n the passage/ the author primarily seeks to
(A) define a set of terms
(B) outline a new approach
(C) describe a current problem
() e$pose an illegal practice
(#) present historical information
-. According to the passage/ when did countries begin to e$cept political offenders
from e$tradition%
(A) when the principle of e$traditing accused or con'icted persons originated
(B) when some nations began refusing to e$tradite persons accused or con'icted of
terrorist acts
(C) when representati'e go'ernments began to replace #uropean monarchies
() when countries began to refuse to e$tradite persons accused or con'icted of
common crimes
(#) when go'ernments began to use e$tradition to e$pedite the return of political
offenders
6. Bi'en the discussion in the passage/ which one of the following distinctions does
the author consider particularly problematic%
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(A) between common crimes and *relati'e+ political offense
(B) between *pure+ political offenses and common crimes
(C) between *pure+ political offenses and *relati'e+ political offenses
() between terrorist acts and acts of espionage
(#) between the political offense e$ception and other e$ceptions to e$tradition
,. According to the author/ the primary purpose of the political offense e$ception
should be to
(A) ensure that terrorists are tried for their acts
(B) ensure that indi'iduals accused of political crimes are not treated unfairly
(C) distinguish between political and nonpolitical offenses
() limit e$tradition to those accused of *pure+ political offenses
(#) limit e$tradition to those accused of *relati'e+ political offenses
15. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author would agree with which one of
the following statements about the political offense e$ception%
(A) The e$ception is 'ery unpopular.
(B) The e$ception is probably illegal.
(C) The e$ception is used too little.
() The e$ception needs rethinking.
(#) The e$ception is too limited.
11. &hen referring to a balance between *the competing needs of political freedom
and international public order+ (lines 10(11) the author means that nations must
strike a balance between
(A) allowing persons to protest political in<ustice and pre'enting them from
committing political offenses
(B) protecting the rights of persons re"uested for e$tradition and holding terrorists
criminally liable
(C) maintaining the political offense e$ception to e$tradition and clearing up the
confusion o'er what is a political offense
() allowing nations to establish their own e$tradition policies and establishing an
agreed(upon international approach to e$tradition
(#) protecting from e$tradition persons accused of *pure+ political offenses and
ensuring the trial of persons accused of *relati'e+ political offenses
12. The author would most likely agree that the political offense e$ception
(A) has/ in some cases/ been stretched beyond intended use
(B) has been used too infre"uently to be e'aluated
(C) has been a modestly useful weapon again terrorism
() has ne'er met the ob<ecti'e for which it was originally established
LSAT -2.
(#) has been of more academic than practical 'alue to political dissidents
1.. &hich one of the following/ if true/ would gi'e the author most cause to
reconsider her recommendation regarding the political offence e$ception (lines 22(
22)%
(A) ?ore nations started refusing to e$tradite persons accused or con'icted of
terrorist acts.
(B) ?ore nations started e$traditing persons accused or con'icted of treason/
espionage/ and other similar crimes.
(C) The nations of the world sharply decreased their use of the political offense
e$ception protect persons accused of each of the 'arious types of *pure+
political offenses.
() The nations of the world sharply decreased their use of the political offense
e$ception to protect persons accused of each of the 'arious types of *relati'e+
political offenses.
(#) The nations of the world started to disagree o'er the analytical distinction
between *pure+ political offenses and *relati'e+ political offenses.
3s is we"" $nown and has o&ten been described( the machine industry o& recent
times too$ its rise by a gradua" emergence out o& handicra&t in @ng"and in the
eighteenth century. ince then the mechanica" industry has progressive"y been
getting the upper hand in a"" the civi"i+ed nations( in much the same degree in
which these nations have come to be counted as civi"i+ed. This mechanica"
industry now stands dominant at the ape8 o& the industria" system.
The state o& the industria" arts( as it runs on the "ines o& the mechanica"
industry( is a techno"ogy o& physics and chemistry. That is to say( it is governed by
the same "ogic as the scienti#c "aboratories. The procedure( the princip"es( habits
o& thought( preconceptions( units o& measurement and o& va"uation( are the same
in both cases.
The techno"ogy o& physics and chemistry is not derived &rom estab"ished "aw
and custom( and it goes on its way with as near"y comp"ete a disregard o& the
spiritua" truths o& "aw and custom as the circumstances wi"" permit. The rea"ities
with which this techno"ogy is occupied are o& another order o& actua"ity( "ying
a"together within the three dimensions that contain the materia" universe( and
running a"together on the "ogic o& materia" &act. 2n e1ect it is the "ogic o&
inanimate &acts.
The mechanica" industry ma$es use o& the same range o& &acts hand"ed in the
same impersona" way and directed to the same manner o& ob5ective resu"ts. 2n
both cases a"i$e it is o& the #rst importance to e"iminate the >persona" e-uation(?
to "et the wor$ go &orward and "et the &orces at wor$ ta$e e1ect -uite ob5ective"y(
without hindrance or deDection &or any persona" end( interest( or gain. 2t is the
technician6s p"ace in industry( as it is the scientist6s p"ace in the "aboratory( to
serve as an inte""ectua" embodiment o& the &orces at wor$( iso"ate the &orces
-20 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
engaged &rom a"" e8traneous disturbances( and "et them ta$e &u"" e1ect a"ong the
"ines o& designed wor$. The technician is an active or creative &actor in the case
on"y in the sense that he is the $eeper o& the "ogic which governs the &orces at
wor$.
These &orces that so are brought to bear in mechanica" industry are o& an
ob5ective( impersona"( unconventiona" nature( o& course. They are o& the nature o&
opa-ue &act. 9ecuniary gain is not one o& these impersona" &acts. 3ny
consideration o& pecuniary gain that may be in5ected into the technician6s wor$ing
p"ans wi"" come into the case as an intrusive and a"ien &actor( whose so"e e1ect is
to deDect( retard( derange and curtai" the wor$ in hand. 3t the same time
considerations o& pecuniary gain are the on"y agency brought into the case by the
businessmen( and the on"y ground on which they e8ercise a contro" o& production.
10. The author of the passage is primarily concerned with discussing
(A) industrial organi!ation in the eighteenth century
(B) the moti'es for pecuniary gain
(C) the technician4s place in mechanical industry
() the impersonal organi!ation of industry
(#) the material contribution of physics in industrial society
11. The author of the passage suggests that businessmen in the mechanical industry
are responsible mainly for
(A) keeping the logic go'erning the forces at work
(B) managing the profits
(C) directing the acti'ities of the technicians
() employing the technological procedures of physics and chemistry
(#) treating material gain as a spiritual truth
12. &hich one of the following/ if true/ would contradict the author4s belief that the
role of technician is to be *the keeper of the logic+ (lines 01(02)%
(A) All technicians are human beings with feelings and emotions.
(B) An interest in pecuniary gain is the technician4s sole moti'e for participation in
industry.
(C) The technician4s working plans do not coincide with the technician4s pecuniary
interests.
() Technicians are employed by businessmen to o'ersee the forces at work.
(#) Technicians refuse to carry out the instructions of the businessmen.
1-. The author would probably most strongly agree with which one of the following
statements about the e'olution of the industrial system%
(A) The handicraft system of industry emerged in eighteenth(century #ngland and
was subse"uently replaced by the machine industry.
LSAT -21
(B) The handicraft system of industrial production has gradually gi'en rise to a
mechanistic technology that dominates contemporary industry.
(C) The handicraft system emerged as the dominant factor of production in
eighteenth(century #ngland but was soon replaced by mechanical techni"ues
of production.
() The mechanical system of production that preceded the handicraft system was
the precursor of contemporary means of production.
(#) The industrial arts de'eloped as a result of the growth of the mechanical
industry that followed the decline of the handicraft system of production.
16. &hich one of the following best describes the author4s attitude toward scientific
techni"ues%
(A) critical
(B) hostile
(C) idealistic
() ironic
(#) neutral
(This passage was origina""y pub"ished in 190/)
The word democracy may stand &or a natura" socia" e-ua"ity in the body po"itic
or &or a constitutiona" &orm o& government in which power "ies more or "ess direct"y
in the peop"e6s hand. The &ormer may be ca""ed socia" democracy and the "ater
democratic government. The two di1er wide"y( both in origin and in mora"
princip"e. Eenetica""y considered( socia" democracy is something primitive(
unintended( proper to communities where there is genera" competence and no
mar$ed persona" eminence. There be no wi"" aristocracy( no prestige( but instead
an inte""igent readiness to "end a hand and to do in unison whatever is done. 2n
other words( there wi"" be that most democratic o& governmentsno government
at a"". 'ut when pressure o& circumstances( danger( or inward stri&e ma$es
recogni+ed and pro"onged guidance necessary to a socia" democracy( the &orm its
government ta$es is that o& a rudimentary monarchy estab"ished by e"ection or
genera" consent. 3 natura" "eader emerges and is instinctive"y obeyed. That "eader
may indeed be &ree"y critici+ed and wi"" not be screened by any pomp or
traditiona" mystery= he or she wi"" be easy to rep"ace and every citi+en wi"" &ee"
essentia""y his or her e-ua". Iet such a state is at the beginnings o& monarchy and
aristocracy.
9o"itica" democracy( on the other hand( is a "ate and arti#cia" product. 2t arises
by a gradua" e8tension o& aristocratic privi"eges( through rebe""ion against abuses(
and in answer to rest"essness on the peop"e6s part. 2ts princip"e is not the absence
o& eminence( but the discovery that e8isting eminence is no "onger genuine and
representative. 2t may retain many vestiges o& o"der and "ess democratic
institutions. :or under democratic governments the peop"e have not created the
state= they mere"y contro" it. Their suspicions and 5ea"ousies are -uieted by
-22 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
assigning to them a voice( perhaps on"y a veto( in the administration. The
peop"e6s "iberty consists not in their origina" responsibi"ity &or what e8ists( but
mere"y in the &acu"ty they have ac-uired o& abo"ishing any detai" that may distress
or wound them( and o& imposing any new measure( which( seen against the
bac$ground o& e8isting "aws( may commend itse"& &rom time to time to their
instinct and mind.
2& we turn &rom origins to idea"s( the contrast between socia" and po"itica"
democracy is no "ess mar$ed. ocia" democracy is a genera" ethica" idea"( "oo$ing
to human e-ua"ity and brotherhood( and inconsistent( in its radica" &orm( with such
institutions as the &ami"y and hereditary property. Kemocratic government( on the
contrary( is mere"y a means to an end( an e8pedient &or the better and smoother
government o& certain states at certain 5unctures. 2t invo"ves no specia" idea"s o&
"i&e= it is a -uestion o& po"icy( name"y( whether the genera" interest wi"" be better
served by granting a"" peop"e an e-ua" voice in e"ections. :or po"itica" democracy
must necessari"y be a government by deputy( and the -uestions actua""y
submitted to the peop"e can be on"y very "arge rough matters o& genera" po"icy or
o& con#dence in party "eaders.
1,. The author suggests that the lack of *marked personal eminence+ (line 11) is an
important feature of a social democracy because
(A) such a society is also likely to contain the seeds of monarchy and aristocracy
(B) the absence of 'isible social leaders in such a society will probably impede the
de'elopment of a political democracy
(C) social democracy represents a more sophisticated form of go'ernment than
political democracy
() a society that lacks recogni!ed leadership will be unable to accomplish its
cultural ob<ecti'es
(#) the absence of 'isible social leaders in such a community is likely to be
accompanied by a spirit of cooperation
25. &hich one of the following forms of go'ernment does the author say is most
likely to e'ol'e from a social democracy%
(A) monarchy
(B) go'ernment by deputy
(C) political democracy
() representati'e democracy
(#) constitutional democracy
21. The author of the passage suggests that a political democracy is likely to ha'e been
immediately preceded by which one of the following forms of social organi!ation%
(A) a social democracy in which the spirit of participation has been diminished by
the need to maintain internal security
LSAT -2-
(B) an aristocratic society in which go'ernment leaders ha'e grown insensiti'e to
people4s interests
(C) a primiti'e society that stresses the radical e"uality of all its members
() a state of utopian brotherhood in which no go'ernment e$ists
(#) a go'ernment based on general ethical ideals
22. According to the passage/ *the people4s liberty+ (line 02) in a political democracy
is best defined as
(A) a willingness to accept responsibility for e$isting go'ernmental forms
(B) a myth perpetrated by aristocratic leaders who refuse to grant political power
to their sub<ects
(C) the ability to impose radically new measures when e$isting go'ernmental
forms are found to be inade"uate
() the ability to secure concessions from a go'ernment that may retain many
aristocratic characteristics
(#) the ability to elect leaders whom the people consider socially e"ual to
themsel'es
2.. According to the author of this passage/ a social democracy would most likely
adopt a formal system of go'ernment when
(A) recogni!ed leadership becomes necessary to deal with social problems
(B) people lose the instincti'e ability to cooperate in sol'ing social problems
(C) a ruling monarch decides that it is necessary to grant political concessions to
the people
() citi!ens no longer consider their social leaders essentially e"ual to themsel'es
(#) the human instinct to obey social leaders has been weakened by suspicion and
<ealousy
20. According to the passage/ which one of the following is likely to occur as a result
of the disco'ery that *e$isting eminence is no longer genuine and representati'e+
(lines .1(.2)%
(A) Aristocratic pri'ileges will be strengthened/ which will result in a further loss
of the people4s liberty.
(B) The go'ernment will be forced to admit its responsibility for the inade"uacy of
e$isting political institutions.
(C) The remaining 'estiges of less democratic institutions will be banished from
go'ernment.
() @eople will gain political concessions from the go'ernment and a 'oice in the
affairs of state.
(#) @eople will demand that political democracy conform to the ethical ideals of
social democracy.
-26 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the practice of *go'ernment by deputy+
(line 20) in a political democracy probably has its origins in
(A) aristocratic ideals
(B) human instincts
(C) a commitment to human e"uality
() a general ethical ideal
(#) a policy decision
22. &hich one of the following statements/ if true/ would contradict the author4s
notion of the characteristics of social democracy%
(A) 8rgani!ed go'ernmental systems tend to arise spontaneously/ rather than in
response to specific problem situations.
(B) The presence of an organi!ed system of go'ernment stifles the e$pression of
human e"uality and brotherhood.
(C) ;ocial democracy represents a more primiti'e form of communal organi!ation
than political democracy.
() @rolonged and formal leadership may become necessary in a social democracy
when problems arise that cannot be resol'ed by recourse to the general
competence of the people.
(#) Although political democracy and social democracy are radically different
forms of communal organi!ation/ it is possible for both to contain elements of
monarchy.
LSAT 02 SECTON
T!"e 35 "!#$%es 2' &$es%!o#s
Directions: Each passage in this section is followed by a group of questions to be answered on
the basis of what is stated or implied in the passage. For some of the questions, more than one
of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However, you are to choose the best
answer, that is, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question, and
blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.
There is substantia" evidence that by 194L( with the pub"ication o& The ,eary
Blues( Jangston )ughes had bro$en with two we""-estab"ished traditions in 3&rican
3merican "iterature. 2n The ,eary Blues( )ughes chose to modi&y the traditions
that decreed that 3&rican 3merican "iterature must promote racia" acceptance and
integration( and that( in order to do so( it must reDect an understanding and
mastery o& ;estern @uropean "iterary techni-ues and sty"es. ,ecessari"y e8c"uded
by this decree( "inguistica""y and thematica""y( was the vast amount o& secu"ar &o"$
materia" in the ora" tradition that had been created by '"ac$ peop"e in the years o&
s"avery and a&ter. 2t might be pointed out that even the spiritua"s or >sorrow
songs? o& the s"aves!as distinct &rom their secu"ar songs and stories!had been
@uropeani+ed to ma$e them acceptab"e within these 3&rican 3merican traditions
a&ter the %ivi" ;ar. 2n 18L4 northern ;hite writers had commented &avorab"y on
LSAT -2,
the uni-ue and provocative me"odies o& these >sorrow songs? when they #rst
heard them sung by s"aves in the %aro"ina sea is"ands. 'ut by 191L( ten years
be&ore the pub"ication o& The ,eary Blues( )urry T. 'ur"eigh( the '"ac$ baritone
so"oist at ,ew Ior$6s u"tra&ashionab"e aint Eeorge6s @piscopa" %hurch( had
pub"ished !u$ilee ongs of the 2nited tates( with every spiritua" arranged so that
a concert singer cou"d sing it >in the manner o& an art song.? %"ear"y( the artistic
wor$ o& '"ac$ peop"e cou"d be used to promote racia" acceptance and integration
on"y on the condition that it became @uropeani+ed.
@ven more than his rebe""ion against this restrictive tradition in 3&rican
3merican art( )ughes6s e8pression o& the vibrant &o"$ cu"ture o& '"ac$ peop"e
estab"ished his writing as a "andmar$ in the history o& 3&rican 3merican "iterature.
Bost o& his &o"$ poems have the distinctive mar$s o& this &o"$ cu"ture6s ora"
traditionA they contain many instances o& naming and enumeration( considerab"e
hyperbo"e and understatement( and a strong in&usion o& street-ta"$ rhyming. There
is a deceptive vei" o& art"essness in these poems. )ughes prided himse"& on being
an impromptu and impressionistic writer o& poetry. )is( he insisted( was not an
art&u""y constructed poetry. Iet an ana"ysis o& his dramatic mono"ogues and other
poems revea"s that his poetry was care&u""y and art&u""y cra&ted. 2n his &o"$ poetry
we #nd &eatures common to a"" &o"$ "iterature( such as dramatic e""ipsis( narrative
compression( rhythmic repetition( and monosy""abic emphasis. The pecu"iar
mi8ture o& irony and humor we #nd in his writing is a distinguishing &eature o& his
&o"$ poetry. Together( these aspects o& )ughes6s writing he"ped to modi&y the
previous restrictions on the techni-ues and sub5ect matter o& '"ac$ writers and
conse-uent"y to broaden the "inguistic and thematic range o& 3&rican 3merican
"iterature.
1. The author mentions which one of the following as an e$ample of the influence of
Black folk culture on )ughes4s poetry%
(A) his e$ploitation of ambiguous and decepti'e meanings
(B) his care and craft in composing poems
(C) his use of naming and enumeration
() his use of first(person narrati'e
(#) his strong religious beliefs
2. The author suggests that the *decepti'e 'eil+ (line 02) in )ughes4s poetry obscures
(A) e'idence of his use of oral techni"ues in his poetry
(B) e'idence of his thoughtful deliberation in composing his poems
(C) his scrupulous concern for representati'e details in his poetry
() his incorporation of &estern #uropean literary techni"ues in his poetry
(#) his engagement with social and political issues rather than aesthetic ones
.. &ith which one of the following statements regarding 6ubilee Songs o+ the 'nited
States would the author be most likely to agree%
-.5 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
(A) 3ts publication marked an ad'ance in the intrinsic "uality of African American
art.
(B) 3t pa'ed the way for publication of )ughes4s The &eary Blues by making
African American art fashionable.
(C) 3t was an authentic replication of African American spirituals and *sorrow
songs+.
() 3t demonstrated the e$tent to which spirituals were adapted in order to make
them more broadly accepted.
(#) 3t was to the spiritual what )ughes4s The &eary Blues was to secular songs
and stories.
0. The author most probably mentions the reactions of northern &hite writers to non(
#uropeani!ed *sorrow songs+ in order to
(A) indicate that modes of e$pression acceptable in the conte$t of sla'ery in the
;outh were acceptable only to a small number of &hite writers in the 9orth
after the Ci'il &ar
(B) contrast &hite writers earlier appreciation of these songs with the growing
tendency after the Ci'il &ar to regard #uropeani!ed 'ersions of the songs as
more acceptable
(C) show that the re"uirement that such songs be #uropeani!ed was internal to the
African American tradition and was unrelated to the literary standards or
attitudes of &hite writers
() demonstrate that such songs in their non(#uropeani!ed form were more
imaginati'e
(#) suggest that &hite writers benefited more from e$posure to African American
art forms than Black writers did from e$posure to #uropean art forms
1. The passage suggests that the author would be most likely to agree with which one
of the following statements about the re"uirement that Black writers employ
&estern #uropean literary techni"ues%
(A) The re"uirement was imposed more for social than for aesthetic reasons.
(B) The re"uirement was a relati'ely unimportant aspect of the African American
tradition.
(C) The re"uirement was the chief reason for )ughes4s success as a writer.
() The re"uirement was appropriate for some forms of e$pression but not for
others.
(#) The re"uirement was ne'er as strong as it may ha'e appeared to be.
2. &hich one of the following aspects of )ughes4s poetry does the author appear to
'alue most highly%
(A) its no'elty compared to other works of African American literature
(B) its subtle understatement compared to that of other kinds of folk literature
LSAT -.1
(C) its 'irtuosity in adapting musical forms to language
() its e$pression of the folk culture of Black people
(#) its uni'ersality of appeal achie'ed through the adoption of collo"uial
e$pressions
)istorians genera""y agree that( o& the great modern innovations( the rai"road
had the most &ar-reaching impact on ma5or events in the United tates in the
nineteenth and ear"y twentieth centuries( particu"ar"y on the 2ndustria" Revo"ution.
There is( however( considerab"e disagreement among cu"tura" historians regarding
pub"ic attitudes toward the rai"road( both at its inception in the 1870s and during
the ha"& century between 1880 and 1970( when the nationa" rai" system was
comp"eted and reached the +enith o& its popu"arity in the United tates. 2n a
recent boo$( Cohn ti"goe has addressed this issue by arguing that the >romantic-
era distrust? o& the rai"road that he c"aims was present during the 1870s vanished
in the decades a&ter 1880. 'ut the argument he provides in support o& this
position is unconvincing.
;hat ti"goe ca""s >romantic-era distrust? was in &act the reaction o& a minority
o& writers( artistes( and inte""ectua"s who distrusted the rai"road not so much &or
what it was as &or what it signi>ed. Thoreau and )awthorne appreciated( even
admired( an improved means o& moving things and peop"e &rom one p"ace to
another. ;hat these writers and others were concerned about was not the new
machinery as such( but the new $ind o& economy( socia" order( and cu"ture that it
pre#gured. 2n addition( ti"goe is wrong to imp"y that the critica" attitude o& these
writers was typica" o& the periodA their distrust was "arge"y a reaction against the
prevai"ing attitude in the 1870s that the rai"road was an un-ua"i#ed improvement.
ti"goe6s assertion that the ambiva"ence toward the rai"road e8hibited by
writers "i$e )awthorne and Thoreau disappeared a&ter the 1880s is a"so
mis"eading. 2n support o& this thesis( ti"goe has unearthed an impressive vo"ume
o& materia"( the wor$ o& hitherto un$nown i""ustrators( 5ourna"ists( and nove"ists( a""
devotees o& the rai"road= but it is not c"ear what this new materia" proves e8cept
perhaps that the wor$s o& popu"ar cu"ture great"y e8panded at the time. The
vo"ume o& the materia" proves nothing i& ti"goe6s point is that the ear"ier distrust
o& a minority o& inte""ectua"s did not endure beyond the 1880s( and( odd"y( much
o& ti"goe6s other evidence indicates that it did. ;hen he g"ances at the treatment
o& rai"roads by writers "i$e )enry Cames( inc"air Jewis( or :. cott :it+gera"d( what
comes through in spite o& ti"goe6s ana"ysis is remar$ab"y "i$e Thoreau6s &ee"ing o&
contrariety and ambiva"ence. ()ad he "oo$ed at the wor$ o& :ran$ ,orris( @ugene
<6,ei""( or )enry 3dams( ti"goe6s case wou"d have been much stronger.) The
point is that the sharp contrast between the enthusiastic supporters o& the
rai"road in the 1870s and the minority o& inte""ectua" dissenters during that period
e8tended into the 1880s and beyond.
-. The passage pro'ides information to answer all of the following "uestions
#DC#@TE
-.2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
(A) uring what period did the railroad reach the !enith of its popularity in the
:nited ;tates%
(B) )ow e$tensi'e was the impact of the railroad on the 3ndustrial =e'olution in
the :nited ;tates/ relati'e to that of other modern inno'ations%
(C) &ho are some of the writers of the 16.5s who e$pressed ambi'alence toward
the railroad%
() 3n what way could ;tilgoe ha'e strengthened his argument regarding
intellectuals4 attitudes toward the railroad in the years after the 1665s%
(#) &hat arguments did the writers after the 1665s/ as cited by ;tilgoe/ offer to
<ustify their support for the railroad%
6. According to the author of the passage/ ;tilgoe uses the phrase *romantic(era
distrust+ (line 1.) to imply that the 'iew he is referring to was
(A) the attitude of a minority of intellectuals toward technological inno'ation that
began after 16.5
(B) a commonly held attitude toward the railroad during the 16.5s
(C) an ambi'alent 'iew of the railroad e$pressed by many poets and no'elists
between 1665 and 1,.5
() a criti"ue of social and economic de'elopments during the 16.5s by a minority
of intellectuals
(#) an attitude toward the railroad that was disseminated by works of popular
culture after 1665
,. According to the author/ the attitude toward the railroad that was reflected in
writings of )enry Aames/ ;inclair Kewis/ and >. ;cott >it!gerald was
(A) influenced by the writings of >rank 9orris/ #ugene 849eill/ and )enry Adams
(B) similar to that of the minority of writers who had e$pressed ambi'alence
toward the railroad prior to the 1665s
(C) consistent with the public attitudes toward the railroad that were reflected in
works of popular culture after the 1665s
() largely a reaction to the works of writers who had been se'erely critical of the
railroad in the 16.5s
(#) consistent with the pre'ailing attitude toward the railroad during the 16.5s
15. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author uses the phrase *works of
popular culture+ (line 01) primarily to refer to the
(A) work of a large group of writers that was published between 1665 and 1,.5
and that in ;tilgoe4s 'iew was highly critical of the railroad
(B) work of writers who were hea'ily influenced by )awthorne and Thoreau
(C) large 'olume of writing produced by )enry Adams/ ;inclair Kewis/ and
#ugene 849eill
LSAT -..
() work of <ournalists/ no'elists/ and illustrators who were responsible for
creating enthusiasm for the railroad during the 16.5s
(#) work of <ournalists/ no'elists/ and illustrators that was published after 1665
and that has recei'ed little attention from scholars other than ;tilgoe
11. &hich one of the following can be inferred from the passage regarding the work of
>rank 9orris/ #ugene 849eill/ and )enry Adams%
(A) Their work ne'er achie'ed broad popular appeal.
(B) Their ideas were disseminated to a large audience by the popular culture of the
early 1655s.
(C) Their work e$pressed a more positi'e attitude toward the railroad than did that
of )enry Aames/ ;inclair Kewis/ and >. ;cott >it!gerald.
() Although they were primarily no'elists/ some of their work could be classified
as <ournalism.
(#) Although they were influenced by Thoreau/ their attitude toward the railroad
was significantly different from his.
12. 3t can be inferred from the passage that ;tilgoe would be most likely to agree with
which one of the following statements regarding the study of cultural history%
(A) 3t is impossible to know e$actly what period historians are referring to when
they use the term *romantic era.+
(B) The writing of intellectuals often anticipates ideas and mo'ements that are
later embraced by popular culture.
(C) &riters who were not popular in their own time tell us little about the age in
which they li'ed.
() The works of popular culture can ser'e as a reliable indicator of public
attitudes toward modern inno'ations like the railroad.
(#) The best source of information concerning the impact of an e'ent as large as
the 3ndustrial =e'olution is the pri'ate letters and <ournals of indi'iduals.
1.. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) e'aluate one scholar4s 'iew of public attitudes toward the railroad in the
:nited ;tates from the early nineteenth to the early twentieth century
(B) re'iew the treatment of the railroad in American literature of the nineteenth
and twentieth centuries
(C) sur'ey the 'iews of cultural historians regarding the railroad4s impact on ma<or
e'ents in :nited ;tates history
() e$plore the origins of the public support for the railroad that e$isted after the
completion of a national rail system in the :nited ;tates
(#) define what historians mean when they refer to the *romantic(era distrust+ of
the railroad
Three basic adaptive responses!regu"atory( acc"imatory( and deve"opmenta"!
-.0 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
may occur in organisms as they react to changing environmenta" conditions. 2n a""
three( ad5ustment o& bio"ogica" &eatures (morpho"ogica" ad5ustment) or o& their use
(&unctiona" ad5ustment) may occur. Regu"atory responses invo"ve rapid changes in
the organism6s use o& its physio"ogica" apparatus!increasing or decreasing the
rates o& various processes( &or e8amp"e. 3cc"imation invo"ves morpho"ogica"
change!thic$ening o& &ur or red b"ood ce"" pro"i&eration!which a"ters physio"ogy
itse"&. uch structura" changes re-uire more time than regu"atory response
changes. Regu"atory and acc"imatory responses are both reversib"e.
Keve"opmenta" responses( however( are usua""y permanent and irreversib"eA
they become #8ed in the course o& the individua"6s deve"opment in response to
environmenta" conditions at the time the response occurs. <ne such response
occurs in many $inds o& water bugs. Bost water-bug species inhabiting sma"" "a$es
and ponds have two generations per year. The #rst hatches during the spring(
reproduces during the summer( then dies. The eggs "aid in the summer hatch and
deve"op into adu"ts in "ate summer. They "ive over the winter be&ore breeding in
ear"y spring. 2ndividua"s in the second (overwintering) generation have &u""y
deve"oped wings and "eave the water in autumn to overwinter in &orests( returning
in spring to sma"" bodies o& water to "ay eggs. Their wings are abso"ute"y
necessary &or this seasona" dispersa". The summer (ear"y) generation( in contrast(
is usua""y dimorphic!some individua"s have norma" &unctiona" (macropterous)
wings= others have much-reduced (micropterous) wings o& no use &or Dight. The
summer generation6s dimorphism is a compromise strategy( &or these individua"s
usua""y do not "eave the ponds and thus genera""y have no use &or &u""y deve"oped
wings. 'ut sma"" ponds occasiona""y dry up during the summer( &orcing the water
bugs to search &or new habitats( an eventua"ity that macropterous individua"s are
we"" adapted to meet.
The dimorphism o& micropterous and macropterous individua"s in the summer
generation e8presses deve"opmenta" De8ibi"ity= it is not genetica""y determined.
The individua"6s wing &orm is environmenta""y determined by the temperature to
which deve"oping eggs are e8posed prior to their being "aid. @ggs maintained in a
warm environment a"ways produce bugs with norma" wing( but e8posure to co"d
produces micropterous individua"s. @ggs producing the overwintering brood are a""
&ormed during the "ate summer6s warm temperatures. )ence( a"" individua"s in the
overwintering brood have norma" wings. @ggs "aid by the overwintering adu"ts in
the spring( which deve"op into the summer generation o& adu"ts( are &ormed in
ear"y autumn and ear"y spring. Those eggs &ormed in autumn are e8posed to co"d
winter temperatures( and thus produce micropterous adu"ts in the summer
generation. Those &ormed during the spring are never e8posed to co"d
temperatures( and thus yie"d individua"s with norma" wing. 3du"t water bugs o& the
overwintering generation brought into the "aboratory during the co"d months and
$ept warm( produce on"y macropterous o1spring.
10. The primary purpose of the passage is to
LSAT -.1
(A) illustrate an organism4s functional adapti'e response to changing
en'ironmental conditions
(B) pro'e that organisms can e$hibit three basic adapti'e responses to changing
en'ironmental conditions
(C) e$plain the differences in form and function between micropterous and
macropterous water bugs and analy!e the effect of en'ironmental changes on
each
() discuss three different types of adapti'e responses and pro'ide an e$ample that
e$plains how one of those types of responses works
(#) contrast acclimatory responses with de'elopmental responses and suggest an
e$planation for the e'olutionary purposes of these two responses to changing
en'ironmental conditions
11. The passage supplies information to suggest that which one of the following would
happen if a pond inhabited by water bugs were to dry up in Aune%
(A) The number of de'elopmental responses among the water(bug population
would decrease.
(B) Both micropterous and macropterous water bugs would show an acclimatory
response.
(C) The generation of water bugs to be hatched during the subse"uent spring
would contain an unusually large number of macropterous indi'iduals.
() The dimorphism of the summer generation would enable some indi'iduals to
sur'i'e.
(#) The dimorphism of the summer generation would be genetically transferred to
the ne$t spring generation.
12. 3t can be inferred from the passage that if the winter months of a particular year
were unusually warm/ the
(A) eggs formed by water bugs in the autumn would probably produce a higher
than usual proportion of macropterous indi'iduals
(B) eggs formed by water bugs in the autumn would probably produce an entire
summer generation of water bugs with smaller than normal wings
(C) eggs of the o'erwintering generation formed in the autumn would not be
affected by this temperature change
() o'erwintering generation would not lea'e the ponds for the forest during the
winter
(#) o'erwintering generation of water bugs would most likely form fewer eggs in
the autumn and more in the spring
1-. According to the passage/ the dimorphic wing structure of the summer generation
of water bugs occurs because
(A) the o'erwintering generation forms two sets of eggs/ one e$posed to the colder
-.2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
temperatures of winter and one e$posed only to the warmer temperatures of
spring
(B) the eggs that produce micropterous and macropterous adults are
morphologically different
(C) water bugs respond to seasonal changes by making an acclimatory functional
ad<ustment in the wings
() water bugs hatching in the spring li'e out their life spans in ponds and ne'er
need to fly
(#) the o'erwintering generation/ which produces eggs de'eloping into the
dimorphic generation/ spends the winter in the forest and the spring in small
ponds
16. 3t can be inferred from the passage that which one of the following is an e$ample
of a regulatory response%
(A) thickening of the plumage of some birds in the autumn
(B) increase in pulse rate during 'igorous e$ercise
(C) gradual darkening of the skin after e$posure to sunlight
() gradual enlargement of muscles as a result of weight lifting
(#) de'elopment of a hea'y fat layer in bears before hibernation
1,. According to the passage/ the generation of water bugs hatching during the
summer is likely to
(A) be made up of e"ual numbers of macropterous and micropterous indi'iduals
(B) lay its eggs during the winter in order to e$pose them to cold
(C) show a marked inability to fly from one pond to another
() e$hibit genetically determined differences in wing form from the early spring(
hatched generation
(#) contain a much greater proportion of macropterous water bugs than the early
spring(hatched generation
25. The author mentions laboratory e$periments with adult water bugs (lines 2.(22) in
order to illustrate which one of the following%
(A) the function of the summer generation4s dimorphism
(B) the irre'ersibility of most de'elopmental adapti'e responses in water bugs
(C) the effect of temperature on de'eloping water(bug eggs
() the morphological difference between the summer generation and the
o'erwintering generation of water bugs
(#) the functional ad<ustment of water bugs in response to seasonal temperature
'ariation
21. &hich one of the following best describes the organi!ation of the passage%
(A) Biological phenomena are presented/ e$amples of their occurrence are
LSAT -.-
compared and contrasted/ and one particular e$ample is illustrated in detail.
(B) A description of related biological phenomena is stated/ and two of those
phenomena are e$plained in detail with illustrated e$amples.
(C) Three related biological phenomena are described/ a hypothesis e$plaining
their relationship is presented/ and supporting e'idence is produced.
() Three complementary biological phenomena are e$plained/ their causes are
e$amined/ and one of them is described by contrasting its causes with the other
two.
(#) A new way of describing biological phenomena is suggested/ its applications
are presented/ and one specific e$ample is e$amined in detail.
The %onstitution o& the United tates does not e8p"icit"y de#ne the e8tent o&
the 9resident6s authority to invo"ve United tates troops in conDicts with other
nations in the absence o& a dec"aration o& war. 2nstead( the -uestion o& the
9resident6s authority in this matter &a""s in the ha+y area o& concurrent power(
where authority is not e8press"y a""ocated to either the 9resident or the %ongress.
The %onstitution gives %ongress the basic power to dec"are war( as we"" as the
authority to raise and support armies and a navy( enact regu"ations &or the contro"
o& the mi"itary( and provide &or the common de&ense. The 9resident( on the other
hand( in addition to being ob"igated to e8ecute the "aws o& the "and( inc"uding
commitments negotiated by de&ense treaties( is named commander in chie& o& the
armed &orces and is empowered to appoint envoys and ma$e treaties with the
consent o& the enate. 3"though this a""ocation o& powers does not e8press"y
address the use o& armed &orces short o& a dec"ared war( the spirit o& the
%onstitution at "east re-uires that %ongress shou"d be invo"ved in the decision to
dep"oy troops( and in passing the ;ar 9owers Reso"ution o& 1977( %ongress has at
"ast rec"aimed a ro"e in such decisions.
)istorica""y( United tates 9residents have not waited &or the approva" o&
%ongress be&ore invo"ving United tates troops in conDicts in which a state o& war
was not dec"ared. <ne scho"ar has identi#ed 199 mi"itary engagements that
occurred without the consent o& %ongress( ranging &rom Ce1erson6s conDict with
the 'arbary pirates to ,i8on6s invasion o& %ambodia during the Fietnam conDict(
which 9resident ,i8on argued was 5usti#ed because his ro"e as commander in
chie& a""owed him a"most un"imited discretion over the dep"oyment o& troops.
)owever( the Fietnam conDict( never a dec"ared war( represented a turning point
in %ongress6s to"erance o& presidentia" discretion in the dep"oyment o& troops in
undec"ared wars. Ea"vani+ed by the human and monetary cost o& those hosti"ities
and showing a new determination to &u"#"" its proper ro"e( %ongress enacted the
;ar 9owers Reso"ution o& 1977( a statute designed to ensure that the co""ective
5udgment o& both %ongress and the 9resident wou"d be app"ied to the invo"vement
o& United tates troops in &oreign conDicts.
The reso"ution re-uired the 9resident( in the absence o& a dec"aration o& war( to
consu"t with %ongress >in every possib"e instance? be&ore introducing &orces and
-.6 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
to report to %ongress within M8 hours a&ter the &orces have actua""y been
dep"oyed. Bost important( the reso"ution a""ows %ongress to veto the invo"vement
once it begins( and re-uires the 9resident( in most cases( to end the invo"vement
within L0 days un"ess %ongress speci#ca""y authori+es the mi"itary operation to
continue. 2n its #na" section( by dec"aring the reso"ution is not intended to a"ter
the constitutiona" authority o& either %ongress or the 9resident( the reso"ution
asserts that congressiona" invo"vement in decisions to use armed &orce is in
accord with the intent and spirit o& the %onstitution.
22. 3n the passage/ the author is primarily concerned with
(A) showing how the Cietnam conflict led to a new interpretation of the
Constitution4s pro'isions for use of the military
(B) arguing that the &ar @owers =esolution of 1,-. is an attempt to reclaim a
share of constitutionally concurrent power that had been usurped by the
@resident
(C) outlining the history of the struggle between the @resident and Congress for
control of the military
() pro'iding e$amples of conflicts inherent in the Constitution4s approach to a
balance of powers
(#) e$plaining how the &ar @owers =esolution of 1,-. alters the Constitution to
eliminate an o'erlap of authority
2.. &ith regard to the use of :nited ;tates troops in a foreign conflict without a
formal declaration of war by the :nited ;tates/ the author belie'es that the :nited
;tates Constitution does which one of the following%
(A) assumes that the @resident and Congress will agree on whether troops should
be used
(B) pro'ides a clear(cut di'ision of authority between the @resident and Congress
in the decision to use troops
(C) assigns a greater role to the Congress than to the @resident in deciding whether
troops should be used
() grants final authority to the @resident to decide whether to use troops
(#) intends (;3B93>H/ ?#A9) that both the @resident and Congress should be
in'ol'ed in the decision to use troops
20. The passage suggests that each of the following contributed to Congress4s enacting
the &ar @owers =esolution of 1,-. #DC#@T
(A) a change in the attitude in Congress toward e$ercising its role in the use of
armed forces
(B) the failure of @residents to uphold commitments specified in defense treaties
(C) Congress4s desire to be consulted concerning :nited ;tates military actions
instigated by the @resident
LSAT -.,
() the amount of money spent on recent conflicts waged without a declaration of
war
(#) the number of li'es lost in Cietnam
21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the &ar @owers =esolution of 1,-. is
applicable only in *the absence of a declaration of war+ (lines 06(0,) because
(A) Congress has enacted other laws that already set out presidential re"uirements
for situations in which war has been declared
(B) by 'irtue of declaring war/ Congress already implicitly participates in the
decision to deploy troops
(C) the @resident generally recei'es broad public support during wars that ha'e
been formally declared by Congress
() Congress felt that the @resident should be allowed unlimited discretion in
cases in which war has been declared
(#) the :nited ;tates Constitution already e$plicitly defines the reporting and
consulting re"uirements of the @resident in cases in which war has been
declared
22. 3n can be inferred from the passage that the author belie'es that the &ar @owers
=esolution of 1,-.
(A) is not in accord with the e$plicit roles of the @resident and Congress as defined
in the Constitution
(B) interferes with the role of the @resident as commander in chief of the armed
forces
(C) signals Congress4s commitment to fulfill a role intended for it by the
Constitution
() fails e$plicitly to address the use of armed forces in the absence of a
declaration of war
(#) confirms the role historically assumed by @residents
2-. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author would be most likely to agree
with which one of the following statements regarding the in'asion of Cambodia%
(A) Because it was undertaken without the consent of Congress/ it 'iolated the
intent and spirit of the Constitution.
(B) Because it gal'ani!ed support for the &ar @owers =esolution/ it contributed
indirectly to the e$pansion of presidential authority.
(C) Because it was necessitated by a defense treaty/ it re"uired the consent of
Congress.
() 3t ser'ed as a precedent for a new interpretation of the constitutional limits on
the @resident4s authority to deploy troops.
(#) 3t differed from the actions of past @residents in deploying :nited ;tates troops
in conflicts without a declaration of war by Congress.
-05 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
26. According to the pro'isions of the &ar @owers =esolution of 1,-. as described in
the passage/ if the @resident percei'es that an international conflict warrants the
immediate in'ol'ement of :nited ;tates armed forces/ the @resident is compelled
in e'ery instance to
(A) re"uest that Congress consider a formal declaration of war
(B) consult with the leaders of both house of Congress before deploying armed
forces
(C) desist from deploying any troops unless e$pressly appro'ed by Congress
() report to Congress within 06 hours of the deployment of armed forces
(#) withdraw any armed forces deployed in such a conflict within 25 days unless
war is declared
LSAT 03 SECTON
T!"e 35 "!#$%es 27 &$es%!o#s
Directions: Each passage in this section is followed by a group of questions to be answered on
the basis of what is stated or implied in the passage. For some of the questions, more than one
of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However, you are to choose the best
answer, that is, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question, and
blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.
The e8tent o& a nation6s power over its coasta" ecosystems and the natura"
resources in its coasta" waters has been de#ned by two internationa" "aw
doctrinesA &reedom o& the seas and ad5acent state sovereignty. Unti" the mid-
twentieth century( most nations &avored app"ication o& broad open-seas &reedoms
and "imited sovereign rights over coasta" waters. 3 nation had the right to inc"ude
within its territoria" dominion on"y a very narrow band o& coasta" waters (genera""y
e8tending three mi"es &rom the shore"ine)( within which it had the authority but
not the responsibi"ity( to regu"ate a"" activities. 'ut( because this area o& territoria"
dominion was so "imited( most nations did not estab"ish ru"es &or management or
protection o& their territoria" waters.
Regard"ess o& whether or not nations en&orced regu"ations in their territoria"
waters( "arge ocean areas remained &ree o& contro"s or restrictions. The citi+ens o&
a"" nations had the right to use these unrestricted ocean areas &or any innocent
purpose( inc"uding navigation and #shing. @8cept &or contro"s over its own
citi+ens( no nation had the responsibi"ity( "et a"one the uni"atera" authority( to
contro" such activities in internationa" waters. 3nd( since there were &ew standards
o& conduct that app"ied on the >open seas?( there were &ew 5urisdictiona" conDicts
between nations.
The "ac$ o& standards is traceab"e to popu"ar perceptions he"d be&ore the
midd"e o& this century. 'y and "arge( marine po""ution was not perceived as a
signi#cant prob"em( in part because the adverse e1ect o& coasta" activities on
ocean ecosystems was not wide"y recogni+ed( and po""ution caused by human
activities was genera""y be"ieved to be "imited to that caused by navigation.
LSAT -01
Boreover( the &reedom to #sh( or over#sh( was an essentia" e"ement o& the
traditiona" "ega" doctrine o& &reedom o& the seas that no maritime country wished
to see "imited. 3nd #na""y( the techno"ogy that "ater a""owed e8p"oitation o& other
ocean resources( such as oi"( did not yet e8ist.
To date( contro""ing po""ution and regu"ating ocean resources have sti"" not been
comprehensive"y addressed by "aw( but internationa" "aw!estab"ished through the
customs and practices o& nations!does not prec"ude such e1orts. 3nd two recent
deve"opments may actua""y "ead to &uture internationa" ru"es providing &or
ecosystem management. :irst( the estab"ishment o& e8tensive #shery +ones
e8tending territoria" authority as &ar as 400 mi"es out &rom a country6s coast( has
provided the opportunity &or nations individua""y to manage "arger ecosystems.
This opportunity( combined with nationa" se"&-interest in maintaining #sh
popu"ations( cou"d "ead nations to reeva"uate po"icies &or management o& their
#sheries and to address the prob"em o& po""ution in territoria" waters. econd( the
internationa" community is beginning to understand the importance o& preserving
the resources and eco"ogy o& internationa" waters and to show signs o& accepting
responsibi"ity &or doing so. 3s an internationa" consensus regarding the need &or
comprehensive management o& ocean resources deve"ops( it wi"" become more
"i$e"y that internationa" standards and po"icies &or broader regu"ation o& human
activities that a1ect ocean ecosystems wi"" be adopted and imp"emented.
1. According to the passage/ until the mid(twentieth century there were few
<urisdictional disputes o'er international waters because.
(A) the nearest coastal nation regulated acti'ities
(B) few controls or restrictions applied to ocean areas
(C) the ocean areas were used for only innocent purposes
() the freedom of the seas doctrine settled all claims concerning na'igation and
fishing
(#) broad authority o'er international waters was shared e"ually among all nations
2. According to the international law doctrines applicable before the mid(twentieth
century/ if commercial acti'ity within a particular nation4s territorial waters
threatened all marine life in those waters/ the nation would ha'e been
(A) formally censured by an international organi!ation for not properly regulating
marine acti'ities
(B) called upon by other nations to establish rules to protect its territorial waters
(C) able but not re"uired to place legal limits on such commercial acti'ities
() allowed to resol'e the problem at it own discretion pro'iding it could contain
the threat to its own territorial waters
(#) permitted to hold the commercial offenders liable only if they were citi!ens of
that particular nation
.. The author suggests that/ before the mid(twentieth century/ most nations4 actions
-02 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
with respect to territorial and international waters indicated that
(A) managing ecosystems in either territorial or international waters was gi'en low
priority
(B) unlimited resources in international waters resulted in little interest in
territorial waters
(C) nations considered it their responsibility to protect territorial but not
international waters
() a nation4s authority o'er its citi!enry ended at territorial lines
(#) although nations could e$tend their territorial dominion beyond three miles
from their shoreline/ most chose not to do so
0. The author cites which one of the following as an effect of the e$tension of
territorial waters beyond the three(mile limit%
(A) increased political pressure on indi'idual nations to establish comprehensi'e
laws regulating ocean resources
(B) a greater number of <urisdictional disputes among nations o'er the regulation
of fishing on the open seas
(C) the opportunity for some nations to manage large ocean ecosystems
() a new awareness of the need to minimi!e pollution caused by na'igation
(#) a political incenti'e for smaller nations to sol'e the problems of pollution in
their coastal waters
1. According to the passage/ before the middle of the twentieth century/ nations failed
to establish rules protecting their territorial waters because
(A) the waters appeared to be unpolluted and to contain unlimited resources
(B) the fishing industry would be ad'ersely affected by such rules
(C) the si!e of the area that would be sub<ect to such rules was insignificant
() the technology needed for pollution control and resource management did not
e$ist
(#) there were few <urisdictional conflicts o'er nations4 territorial waters
2. The passage as a whole can best be described as
(A) a chronology of the e'ents that ha'e led up to present(day crisis
(B) a legal in"uiry into the abuse of e$isting laws and the likelihood of reform
(C) a political analysis of the problems inherent in directing national attention to
an international issue
() a historical analysis of a problem that re"uires international attention
(#) a proposal for adopting and implementing international standards to sol'e an
ecological problem
The human species came into being at the time o& the greatest bio"ogica"
diversity in the history o& the @arth. Today( as human popu"ations e8pand and
LSAT -0.
a"ter the natura" environment( they are reducing bio"ogica" diversity to its "owest
"eve" since the end o& the Beso+oic era( L/ mi""ion years ago. The u"timate
conse-uences o& this bio"ogica" co""ision are beyond ca"cu"ation( but they are
certain to be harm&u". That( in essence( is the biodiversity crisis.
The history o& g"oba" diversity can be summari+ed as &o""owsA a&ter the initia"
Dowering o& mu"tice""u"ar anima"s( there was a swi&t rise in the number o& species
in ear"y 9a"eo+oic times (between L00 and M70 mi""ion years ago)( then p"ateau"i$e
stagnation &or the remaining 400 mi""ion years o& the 9a"eo+oic era( and #na""y a
s"ow but steady c"imb through the Beso+oic and %eno+oic eras to diversity6s a""-
time high. This history suggests that bio"ogica" diversity was hard won and a "ong
time in coming. :urthermore( this pattern o& increase was set bac$ by #ve massive
e8tinction episodes. The most recent o& these( during the %retaceous period( is by
&ar the most &amous( because it ended the age o& the dinosaurs( con&erred
hegemony on the mamma"s( and u"timate"y made possib"e the ascendancy o& the
human species. 'ut the cretaceous crisis was minor compared with the 9ermian
e8tinctions 4M0 mi""ion years ago( during which between 77 and 9L percent o&
marine anima" species perished. 2t too$ / mi""ion years( we"" into Beso+oic times(
&or species diversity to begin a signi#cant recovery.
;ithin the past 10(000 years bio"ogica" diversity has entered a who""y new era.
)uman activity has had a devastating e1ect on species diversity( and the rate o&
human-induced e8tinctions is acce"erating. )a"& o& the bird species o& 9o"ynesia
have been e"iminated through hunting and the destruction o& native &orests.
)undreds o& #sh species endemic to Ja$e Fictoria are now threatened with
e8tinction &o""owing the care"ess introduction o& one species o& #sh( the ,i"e perch.
The "ist o& such biogeographic disasters is e8tensive.
'ecause every species is uni-ue and irrep"aceab"e( the "oss o& biodiversity is
the most pro&ound process o& environmenta" change. 2ts conse-uences are a"so
the "east predictab"e because the va"ue o& @arth6s biota (the &auna and Dora
co""ective"y) remains "arge"y unstudied and unappreciated= un"i$e materia" and
cu"tura" wea"th( which we understand because they are the substance o& our
everyday "ives( bio"ogica" wea"th is usua""y ta$en &or granted. This is a serious
strategic error( one that wi"" be increasing"y regretted as time passes. The biota is
not on"y part o& a country6s heritage( the product o& mi""ions o& years o& evo"ution
centered on that p"ace= it is a"so a potentia" source &or immense untapped
materia" wea"th in the &orm o& &ood( medicine( and other commercia""y important
substance.
-. &hich one of the following best e$presses the main idea of the passage%
(A) The reduction in biodi'ersity is an irre'ersible process that represents a
setback both for science and for society as a whole.
(B) The material and cultural wealth of a nation are insignificant when compared
with the country4s biological wealth.
(C) The enormous di'ersity of life on #arth could not ha'e come about without
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periodic e$tinctions that ha'e conferred preeminence on one species at the
e$pense of another.
() The human species is in the process of initiating a massi'e e$tinction episode
that may make past episodes look minor by comparison.
(#) The current decline in species di'ersity is human(induced tragedy of
incalculable proportions that has potentially gra'e conse"uences for the human
species.
6. &hich one of the following situations is most analogous to the history of global
di'ersity summari!ed in lines 15(16 of the passage%
(A) The number of fish in a lake declines abruptly as a result of water pollution/
then makes a slow comeback after cleanup efforts and the passage of
ordinances against dumping.
(B) The concentration of chlorine in the water supply of large city fluctuates
widely before stabili!ing at a constant and safe le'el.
(C) An old(fashioned article of clothing goes in and out of style periodically as a
result of features in fashion maga!ines and the popularity of certain period
films.
() After 'aluable mineral deposits are disco'ered/ the population of a geographic
region booms then le'els off and begins to decrease at a slow and steady pace.
(#) The 'ariety of styles stocked by a shoe store increases rapidly after the store
opens/ holds constant for many months/ and then gradually creeps upward.
,. The author suggests which one of the following about the Cretaceous crisis%
(A) 3t was the second most de'astating e$tinction episode in history.
(B) 3t was the most de'astating e$tinction episode up until that time.
(C) 3t was less de'astating to species di'ersity than is the current biodi'ersity
crisis.
() The rate of e$tinction among marine animal species as a result of the crisis did
not approach -- percent.
(#) The dinosaurs comprised the great ma<ority of species that perished during the
crisis.
15. The author mentions the 9ile perch in order to pro'ide an e$ample of
(A) a species that has become e$tinct through human acti'ity
(B) the typical lack of foresight that has led to biogeographic disaster
(C) a marine animal species that sur'i'ed the @ermian e$tinctions
() a species that is a potential source of material wealth
(#) the kind of action that is necessary to re'erse the decline in species di'ersity
11. All of the following are e$plicitly mentioned in the passage as contributing to the
e$tinction of species #DC#@T
LSAT -01
(A) hunting
(B) pollution
(C) deforestation
() the growth of human populations
(#) human(engineered changes in the en'ironment
12. The passage suggests which one of the following about material and cultural
wealth%
(A) Because we can readily assess the 'alue of material and cultural wealth/ we
tend not to take them for granted.
(B) Aust as the biota is a source of potential material wealth/ it is an untapped
source of cultural wealth as well.
(C) ;ome degree of material and cultural wealth may ha'e to be sacrificed if we
are to protect our biological heritage.
() ?aterial and cultural wealth are of less 'alue than biological wealth because
they ha'e e'ol'ed o'er a shorter period of time.
(#) ?aterial wealth and biological wealth are interdependent in a way that material
wealth and cultural wealth are not.
1.. The author would be most likely to agree with which one of the following
statements about the conse"uences of the biodi'ersity crisis%
(A) The loss of species di'ersity will ha'e as immediate an impact on the material
of nations as on their biological wealth.
(B) The crisis will likely end the hegemony of the human race and bring about the
ascendancy of another species.
(C) The effects of the loss of species di'ersity will be dire/ but we cannot yet tell
how dire.
() 3t is more fruitful to discuss the conse"uences of the crisis in terms of the
potential loss to humanity than in strictly biological loss to humanity than in
strictly biological terms.
(#) The conse"uences of the crisis can be minimi!ed/ but the pace of e$tinctions
can not be re'ersed.
;omen6s participation in the revo"utionary events in :rance between 1789 and
179/ has on"y recent"y been given nuanced treatment. @ar"y twentieth century
historians o& the :rench Revo"ution are typi#ed by Caures( who( though
sympathetic to the women6s movement o& his own time( never even mentions its
antecedents in revo"utionary :rance. @ven today most genera" histories treat on"y
cursori"y a &ew individua" women( "i$e Barie 3ntoinette. The recent studies by
Jandes( 'adinter( Eodineau( and Roudinesco( however( shou"d signa" a much-
needed reassessment o& women6s participation.
Eodineau and Roudinesco point to three signi#cant phases in that
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participation. The #rst( up to mid-1794( invo"ved those women who wrote po"itica"
tracts. Typica" o& their orientation to theoretica" issues!in Eodineaus6s view(
without practica" e1ect!is Barie Eou+e6s -eclaration of the *ight of ,omen. The
emergence o& voca" midd"e-c"ass women6s po"itica" c"ubs mar$s the second phase.
:ormed in 1791 as ad5uncts o& midd"e-c"ass ma"e po"itica" c"ubs( and origina""y
phi"anthropic in &unction( by "ate 1794 independent c"ubs o& women began to
advocate mi"itary participation &or women. 2n the #na" phase( the &amine o& 179/
occasioned a mass women6s movementA women sei+ed &ood supp"ies( ho"d
o*cia"s hostage( and argued &or the imp"ementation o& democratic po"itics. This
phase ended in Bay o& 179/ with the mi"itary suppression o& this mu"tic"ass
movement. 2n a"" three phases women6s participation in po"itics contrasted
mar$ed"y with their participation be&ore 1789. 'e&ore that date some nob"ewomen
participated indirect"y in e"ections( but such participation by more than a narrow
range o& the popu"ation!women or men!came on"y with the Revo"ution.
;hat ma$es the recent studies particu"ar"y compe""ing( however( is not so
much their organi+ation o& chrono"ogy as their unDinching wi""ingness to con&ront
the reasons &or the co""apse o& the women6s movement. :or Jandes and 'adinter(
the necessity o& women6s having to spea$ in the estab"ished vocabu"aries o&
certain inte""ectua" and po"itica" tradition diminished the abi"ity o& the women6s
movement to resist suppression. Bany women( and many men( they argue(
"ocated their vision within the con#ning tradition o& Cean-Cac-ues Rousseau( who
"in$ed ma"e and &ema"e ro"es with pub"ic and private spheres respective"y. 'ut(
when women went on to ma$e po"itica" a""iances with radica" Cacobin men(
'adinter asserts( they adopted a vocabu"ary and a vio"ent"y e8tremist viewpoint
that un&ortunate"y was even more damaging to their po"itica" interests.
@ach o& these scho"ars has di1erent po"itica" agenda and ta$es a di1erent
approach!Eodineau( &or e8amp"e( wor$s with po"ice archives whi"e Roudinesco
uses e8p"anatory schema &rom modern psycho"ogy. Iet( admirab"y( each gives
center stage to a group that previous"y has been margina"i+ed( or at best
undi1erentiated( by historians. 3nd in the case o& Jandes and 'adinter( the reader
is "e&t with a sobering awareness o& the cost to the women o& the Revo"ution o&
spea$ing in borrowed voices.
10. &hich one of the following best states the main point of the passage%
(A) According to recent historical studies/ the participation of women in the
re'olutionary e'ents of 1-6,(1-,1 can most profitably be 'iewed in three
successi'e stages.
(B) The findings of certain recent historical studies ha'e resulted from an earlier
general reassessment/ by historians/ of women4s participation in the
re'olutionary e'ents of 1-6,(1-,1.
(C) Adopting the 'ocabulary and 'iewpoint of certain intellectual and political
traditions resulted in no political ad'antage for women in >rance in the years
1-6,(1-,1.
LSAT -0-
() Certain recent historical studies ha'e pro'ided a much(needed description and
e'aluation of the e'ol'ing roles of women in the re'olutionary e'ents of 1-6,(
1-,1.
(#) )istorical studies that seek to e$plain the limitations of the women4s
mo'ement is more con'incing than are those that seek only to describe the
general features of that mo'ement.
11. The passage suggests that Bodineau would be likely to agree with which one of
the following statements about ?arie Bou!e4s eclaration of the =ights of
&omen%
(A) This work was not understood by many of Bou!e4s contemporaries.
(B) This work indirectly inspired the formation of independent women4s political
clubs.
(C) This work had little impact on the world of political action.
() This work was the most compelling produced by a >rench woman between
1-6, and 1-,2.
(#) This work is typical of the kind of writing >rench women produced between
1-,. and 1-,1.
12. According to the passage/ which one of the following is a true statement about the
purpose of the women4s political cubs mentioned in line 25%
(A) These clubs fostered a mass women4s mo'ement.
(B) These clubs e'entually de'eloped a purpose different from their original
purpose.
(C) These clubs were founder to ad'ocate military participation for women.
() These clubs counteracted the original purpose of male political clubs.
(#) These clubs lost their direction by the time of the famine of 1-,1.
1-. The primary function of the first paragraph of the passage is toE
(A) outline the author4s argument about women4s roles in >rances between 1-6,
and 1-,1
(B) anticipate possible challenges to the findings of the recent studies of women in
>rance between 1-6, and 1-,1
(C) summari!e some long(standing e$planations of the role of indi'idual women
in >rance between 1-6, and 1-,1
() present a conte$t for the discussion of recent studies of women in >rance
between 1-6, and 1-,1
(#) characteri!e 'arious eighteenth(century studies of women in >rance
16. The passage suggests that Kandes and Badinter would be likely to agree with
which one of the following statements about the women4s mo'ement in >rance in
the 1-,5s%
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(A) The mo'ement might ha'e been more successful if women had de'eloped
their own political 'ocabularies.
(B) The downfall of the mo'ement was probably unrelated to it alliance with
Aacobin men.
(C) The mo'ement had a great deal of choice about whether to adopt a =ousseauist
political 'ocabulary.
() The mo'ement would ha'e triumphed if it had not been suppressed by military
means.
(#) The mo'ement 'iewed a =ousseauist political tradition/ rather than a Aacobin
political ideology/ as detrimental to its interests.
1,. 3n the conte$t of the passage/ the word *cost+ in line 2. refers to the
(A) dichotomy of pri'ate roles for women and public roles for men
(B) almost none$istent political participation of women before 1-6,
(C) historians4 lack of differentiation among 'arious groups of women
() political alliances women made with radical Aacobin men
(#) collapse of the women4s mo'ement in the 1-,5s
25. The author of the passage is primarily concerned with
(A) critici!ing certain political and intellectual traditions
(B) summari!ing the main points of se'eral recent historical studies and assessing
their 'alue
(C) establishing a chronological se"uence and arguing for its importance
() comparing and contrasting women4s political acti'ities before and after the
>rench =e'olution
(#) ree$amining a long(held point of 'iew and isolating its strengths and
weaknesses
3rt historians6 approach to :rench 2mpressionism has changed signi#cant"y in
recent years. ;hi"e a decade ago Rewa"d6s %istory of )m#ressionism( which
emphasi+es 2mpressionist painters6 sty"istic innovations( was uncha""enged( the
"iterature on impressionism has now become a $ind o& ideo"ogica" batt"e#e"d( in
which more attention is paid to the sub5ect matter o& the paintings( and to the
socia" and mora" issues raised by it( than to their sty"e. Recent"y( po"itica""y
charged discussions that address the impressionists6 une-ua" treatment o& men
and women and the e8c"usion o& modern industry and "abor &rom their pictures
have tended to crowd out the sty"istic ana"ysis &avored by Rewa"d and his
&o""owers. 2n a new wor$ i""ustrating this trend( Robert J. )erbert dissociates
himse"& &rom &orma"ists whose preoccupation with the sty"istic &eatures o&
impressionist painting has( in )erbert6s view( "e&t the history out o& art history= his
aim is to restore impressionist paintings >to their sociocu"tura" conte8t.? )owever(
his arguments are not #na""y persuasive.
LSAT -0,
2n attempting to p"ace impressionist painting in its proper historica" conte8t(
)erbert has redrawn the traditiona" boundaries o& impressionism. Jimiting himse"&
to the two decades between 18L0 and 1880( he assemb"es under the
impressionist banner what can on"y be described as a somewhat eccentric
grouping o& painters. %e+anne( 9isarro( and is"ey are a"most entire"y ignored(
"arge"y because their paintings do not suit )erbert6s emphasis on themes o& urban
"i&e and suburban "eisure( whi"e Banet( Kegas( and %ai""ebotte!who paint scenes
o& urban "i&e but whom many wou"d hard"y characteri+e as impressionists
dominate the #rst ha"& o& the boo$. 3"though this new description o& 2mpressionist
painting provides a more uni#ed conception o& nineteenth-century :rench painting
by grouping -uite disparate modernist painters together and emphasi+ing their
common concerns rather than their sty"istic di1erence( it a"so &orces )erbert to
over"oo$ some o& the most important genres o& impressionist painting!
portraiture( pure "andscape( and sti""-"i&e painting.
Boreover( the rationa"e &or )erbert6s emphasis on the socia" and po"itica"
rea"ities that 2mpressionist paintings can be said to communicate rather than on
their sty"e is #na""y undermined by what even )erbert concedes was the &ai"ure o&
2mpressionist painters to serve as particu"ar"y conscientious i""ustrators o& their
socia" mi"ieu. They "e&t much ordinary e8perience!wor$ and poverty( &or e8amp"e
!out o& their paintings and what they did put in was trans&ormed by a sty"e that
had on"y an indirect re"ationship to the socia" rea"ities o& the wor"d they depicted.
,ot on"y were their pictures inventions rather than photographs( they were
inventions in which sty"e to some degree disrupted description. Their painting in
e1ect have two "eve"s o& sub5ectA what is represented and how it is represented(
and no art historian can a1ord to emphasi+e one at the e8pense o& the other.
21. &hich one of the following best e$presses the main point of the passage%
(A) The style of impressionist paintings has only an indirect relation to their
sub<ect matter.
(B) The approach to impressionism that is illustrated by )erbert4s recent book is
inade"uate.
(C) The historical conte$t of impressionist paintings is not rele'ant to their
interpretation.
() impressionism emerged from a historical conte$t of ideological conflict and
change.
(#) Any ade"uate future interpretation of impressionism will ha'e to come to
terms with )erbert4s 'iew of this art mo'ement.
22. According to the passage/ =ewald4s book on impressionism was characteri!ed by
which one of the following%
(A) e'enhanded ob<ecti'ity about the achie'ements of impressionism
(B) bias in fa'or of certain impressionist painters
(C) an emphasis on the stylistic features of impressionist painting
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() an idiosyncratic 'iew of which painters were to be classified as impressionists
(#) a refusal to enter into the ideological debates that had characteri!ed earlier
discussions of impressionism
2.. The author implies that )erbert4s redefinition of the boundaries of impressionism
resulted from which one of the following%
(A) an e$clusi'e emphasis on form and style
(B) a bias in fa'or of the representation of modern industry
(C) an attempt to place impressionism within a specific sociocultural conte$t
() a broadening of the term impressionism to include all nineteenth(century
>rench painting
(#) an insufficient familiarity with earlier interpretations of impressionism
20. The author states which one of the following about modern industry and labor as
sub<ects for painting%
(A) The impressionists neglected these sub<ects in their paintings.
(B) )erbert4s book on impressionism fails to gi'e ade"uate treatment of these
sub<ects.
(C) The impressionists4 treatment of these sub<ects was ideali!ed.
() =ewald4s treatment of impressionist painters focused inordinately on their
representations of these sub<ects.
(#) ?odernist painters presented a distorted picture of these sub<ects.
21. &hich one of the following most accurately describes the structure of the author4s
argument in the passage%
(A) The first two paragraphs each present independent arguments for a conclusion
that is drawn in the third paragraph.
(B) A thesis is stated in the first paragraph and re'ised in the second paragraph and
re'ised in the second paragraph/ and the re'ised thesis is supported with
argument in the third paragraph.
(C) The first two paragraphs discuss and critici!e a thesis/ and the third paragraph
presents an alternati'e thesis.
() a claim is made in the first paragraph/ and the ne$t two paragraph/ and the ne$t
two paragraphs each present reasons for accepting that claim.
(#) An argument is presented in the first paragraph/ a counterargument is presented
in the second paragraph/ and the third paragraph suggests a way to resol'e the
dispute.
22. The author4s statement that impressionist paintings *were in'entions in which
style to some degree disrupted description+ (lines 1-(1,) ser'es to
(A) strengthen the claim that impressionist sought to emphasi!e the differences
between painting and photography
LSAT -11
(B) weaken the argument that style is the only important feature of impressionist
paintings
(C) indicate that impressionists recogni!ed that they had been strongly influence
by photography
() support the argument that an e$clusi'e emphasis on the impressionists sub<ect
matter is mistaken
(#) undermine the claim that impressionists neglected certain kinds of sub<ect
matter
2-. The author would most likely regard a book on the impressionists that focused
entirely on their style as
(A) a product of the recent confusion caused by )erbert4s book on impressionism
(B) emphasi!ing what impressionists themsel'es took to be their primary artistic
concern
(C) an o'erreaction against the traditional interpretation of impressionism
() neglecting the most inno'ati'e aspects of impressionism
(#) addressing only part of what an ade"uate treatment should co'er
LSAT 0( SECTON )
T!"e 35 "!#$%es 27 &$es%!o#s
Directions: Each passage in this section is followed by a group of questions to be answered on
the basis of what is stated or implied in the passage. For some of the questions, more than one
of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However, you are to choose the best
answer, that is, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question, and
blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.
Eovernments o& deve"oping countries occasiona""y enter into economic
deve"opment agreements with &oreign investors who provide capita" and
techno"ogica" e8pertise that may not be readi"y avai"ab"e in such countries.
'esides the norma" economic ris$ that accompanies such enterprises( investors
&ace the additiona" ris$ that the host government may attempt uni"atera""y to
change in its &avor the terms o& the agreement or even to terminate the
agreement a"together and appropriate the pro5ect &or itse"&. 2n order to ma$e
economic deve"opment agreements more attractive to investors( some deve"oping
countries have attempted to strengthen the security o& such agreements with
c"auses speci&ying that the agreements wi"" be governed by >genera" princip"es o&
"aw recogni+ed by civi"i+ed nations?!a set o& "ega" princip"es or ru"es shared by
the wor"d6s ma5or "ega" systems. )owever( advocates o& governments6 &reedom to
modi&y or terminate such agreements argue that these agreements &a"" within a
specia" c"ass o& contracts $nown as administrative contracts( a concept that
originated in :rench "aw. They assert that under the theory o& administrative
contracts( a government retains inherent power to modi&y or terminate its own
contract( and that this power indeed constitutes a genera" princip"e o& "aw.
-12 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
)owever( their argument is Dawed on at "east two counts.
:irst( in :rench "aw not a"" government contracts are treated as administrative
contracts. ome contracts are designated as administrative by speci#c statute( in
which case the contractor is made aware o& the app"icab"e "ega" ru"es upon
entering into agreement with the government. 3"ternative"y( the contracting
government agency can itse"& designate a contract as administrative by inc"uding
certain terms not &ound in private civi" contracts. Boreover( even in the case o&
administrative contracts( :rench "aw re-uires that in the event that the
government uni"atera""y modi#es the terms o& the contract( it must compensate
the contractor &or any increased burden resu"ting &rom the government6s action. 2n
e1ect( the government is thus prevented &rom modi&ying those contractua" terms
that de#ne the #nancia" ba"ance o& the contract.
econd( the :rench "aw o& administrative contracts( a"though adopted by
severa" countries( is not so universa""y accepted that it can be embraced as a
genera" princip"e o& "aw. 2n both the United tates and the United Singdom(
government contracts are governed by the ordinary "aw o& contracts( with the
resu"t that the government can reserve the power to modi&y or terminate a
contract uni"atera""y on"y by writing such power into the contract as a speci#c
provision. 2ndeed( the very &act that termination and modi#cation c"auses are
common"y &ound in government contracts suggests that a government6s capacity
to modi&y or terminate agreements uni"atera""y derives &rom speci#c contract
provisions( not &rom inherent state power.
1. 3n the passage/ the author is primarily concerned with doing which one of the
following%
(A) pointing out flaws in an argument pro'ided in support of a position
(B) analy!ing the weaknesses inherent in the proposed solution to a problem
(C) marshaling e'idence in support of a new e$planation of a phenomenon
() analy!ing the risks inherent in adopting a certain course of action
(#) ad'ocating a new approach to a problem that has not been sol'ed by traditional
means
2. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author would be most likely to agree
with which one of the following assertions regarding the *general principles of
law+ mentioned in lines 12(1- of the passage%
(A) They fail to take into account the special needs and interests of de'eloping
countries that enter into agreements with foreign in'estors.
(B) They ha'e only recently been in'oked as criteria for ad<udicating disputes
between go'ernments and foreign in'estors.
(C) They are more compatible with the laws of >rance and the :nited ;tates than
with those of the :nited Mingdom.
() They do not assert that go'ernments ha'e an inherent right to modify
LSAT -1.
unilaterally the terms of agreements that they ha'e entered into with foreign
in'estors.
(#) They are not useful in ad<udicating disputes between de'eloping countries and
foreign in'estors.
.. The author implies that which one of the following is true of economic
de'elopment agreements%
(A) They pro'ide greater economic benefits to the go'ernments that are parties to
such agreements than to foreign in'estors.
(B) They are interpreted differently by courts in the :nited Mingdom than they are
by courts in the :nited ;tates.
(C) They ha'e proliferated in recent years as a result of go'ernments4 attempts to
make them more legally secure.
() They entail greater risk to in'estors when the go'ernments that enter into such
agreements reser'e the right to modify unilaterally the terms of the agreements.
(#) They ha'e become less attracti'e to foreign in'estors as an increasing number
of go'ernments that enter into such agreements consider them go'erned by the
law of ordinary contracts.
0. According to the author/ which one of the following is true of a contract that is
designated by a >rench go'ernment agency as an administrati'e contract%
(A) 3t re"uires the go'ernment agency to pay for unanticipated increases in the
cost of deli'ering the goods and ser'ices specified in the contract.
(B) 3t pro'ides the contractor with certain guarantees that are not normally
pro'ided in pri'ate ci'il contracts.
(C) 3t must be ratified by the passage of a statute.
() 3t discourages foreign companies from bidding on the contract.
(#) 3t contains terms that distinguish it from a pri'ate ci'il contract.
1. 3t can be inferred from the passage that under the *ordinary law of contracts+ (lines
1.(10)/ a go'ernment would ha'e the right to modify unilaterally the terms of a
contract that it had entered into with a foreign in'estor if which one of the
following were true%
(A) The go'ernment undertook a greater economic risk by entering into the
contract than did the foreign in'estor.
(B) The cost to the foreign in'estor of abiding by the terms of the contract
e$ceeded the original estimates of such costs.
(C) The modification of the contract did not result in any increased financial
burden for the in'estor.
() Both the go'ernment and the in'estor had agreed to abide by the general
principles of law recogni!ed by ci'ili!ed nations.
(#) The contract contains a specific pro'ision allowing the go'ernment to modify
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the contract.
2. 3n the last paragraph/ the author refers to go'ernment contracts in the :nited ;tates
and the :nited Mingdom primarily in order to
(A) Cite two go'ernments that often reser'e the right to modify unilaterally
contracts that they enter into with foreign in'estors.
(B) ;upport the assertion that there is no general principle of law go'erning
contracts between pri'ate indi'iduals and go'ernments.
(C) Cast doubt on the alleged uni'ersality of the concept of administrati'e
contracts.
() @ro'ide e$amples of legal systems that might benefit from the concept of
administrati'e contracts.
(#) @ro'ide e$amples of characteristics that typically distinguish go'ernment
contracts from pri'ate ci'il contracts.
-. &hich one of the following best states the author4s main conclusion in the
passage%
(A) @ro'iding that an international agreement be go'erned by general principles of
law is not a 'iable method of guaranteeing the legal security of such an
agreement.
(B) >rench law regarding contracts is significantly different from those in the
:nited ;tates and the :nited Mingdom.
(C) Contracts between go'ernments and pri'ate in'estors in most nations are
go'erned by ordinary contract law.
() An inherent power of a go'ernment to modify or terminate a contract cannot
be considered a general principle of law.
(#) Contracts between go'ernments and pri'ate in'estors can be secured only by
reliance on general principles of law.
6. The author4s argument in lines 1-(22 would be most weakened if which one of the
following were true%
(A) The specific pro'isions of go'ernment contracts often contain e$plicit
statements of what all parties to the contracts already agree are inherent state
powers.
(B) Bo'ernments are more fre"uently put in the position of ha'ing to modify or
terminate contracts than are pri'ate indi'iduals.
(C) ?odification clauses in economic de'elopment agreements ha'e fre"uently
been challenged in international tribunals by foreign in'estors who were a
party to such agreements.
() The general principles of law pro'ide that modification clauses cannot allow
the terms of a contract to be modified in such a way that the financial balance
of the contract is affected.
LSAT -11
(#) Termination and modification agreements are often interpreted differently by
national courts than they are by international tribunals.
,ico :ri5da writes that emotions are governed by a psycho"ogica" princip"e
ca""ed the >"aw o& apparent rea"ity?A emotions are e"icited on"y by events
appraised as rea"( and the intensity o& these emotions corresponds to the degree
to which these events are appraised as rea". This observation seems
psycho"ogica""y p"ausib"e( but emotiona" responses e"icited by wor$s o& art raise
countere8amp"es.
:ri5da6s "aw accounts &or my panic i& 2 am a&raid o& sna$es and see an ob5ect 2
correct"y appraise as a ratt"esna$e( and a"so &or my identica" response i& 2 see a
coi"ed garden hose 2 mista$en"y perceive to be a sna$e. )owever( suppose 2 am
watching a movie and see a sna$e g"iding toward its victim. ure"y 2 might
e8perience the same emotions o& panic and distress( though 2 $now the sna$e is
not rea". These responses e8tend even to phenomena not conventiona""y accepted
as rea". 3 movie about ghosts( &or e8amp"e( may be terri&ying to a"" viewers( even
those who #rm"y re5ect the possibi"ity o& ghosts( but this is not because viewers
are con&using cinematic depiction with rea"ity. Boreover( 2 can &ee" strong
emotions in response to ob5ects o& art that are interpretations( rather than
representations( o& rea"ityA 2 am moved by Bo+art6s *equiem( but 2 $now that 2 am
not at a rea" &unera". )owever( i& :ri5da6s "aw is to e8p"ain a"" emotiona" reactions(
there shou"d be no emotiona" response at a"" to aesthetic ob5ects or events(
because we $now they are not rea" in the way a "iving ratt"esna$e is rea".
Bost psycho"ogists( perp"e8ed by the &ee"ings they ac$now"edge are aroused
by aesthetic e8perience( have c"aimed that these emotions are genuine( but
di1erent in $ind &rom nonaesthetic emotions. This( however( is a descriptive
distinction rather than an empirica" observation and conse-uent"y "ac$s
e8p"anatory va"ue. <n the other hand( Eombrich argues that emotiona" responses
to art are ersat+= art triggers remembrances o& previous"y e8perienced emotions.
These debates have prompted the psycho"ogist Rad&ord to argue that peop"e do
e8perience rea" me"ancho"y or 5oy in responding to art( but that these are
irrationa" responses precise"y because peop"e $now they are reacting to i""usory
stimu"i. :ri5da6s "aw does not he"p us to untang"e these positions( since it simp"y
imp"ies that events we recogni+e as being represented rather than rea" cannot
e"icit emotion in the #rst p"ace.
:ri5da does suggest that a vivid imagination has >properties o& rea"ity?!
imp"ying( without e8p"anation( that we ma$e aesthetic ob5ects or events >rea"? in
the act o& e8periencing them. )owever( as cruton argues( a necessary
characteristic o& the imaginative construction that can occur in an emotiona"
response to art is that the person $nows he or she is pretending. This is what
distinguishes imagination &rom psychotic &antasy.
,. &hich one of the following best states the central idea of the passage%
(A) The law of apparent reality fails to account satisfactorily for the emotional
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nature of belief.
(B) Theories of aesthetic response fail to account for how we distinguish
unreasonable from reasonable responses to art.
(C) The law of apparent reality fails to account satisfactorily for emotional
responses to art.
() @sychologists ha'e been unable to determine what accounts for the changeable
nature of emotional responses to art.
(#) @sychologists ha'e been unable to determine what differentiates aesthetic from
nonaesthetic emotional responses.
15. According to the passage/ >ri<da4s law asserts that emotional responses to e'ents
are
(A) unpredictable because emotional responses depend on how aware the person is
of the reality of an e'ent
(B) weaker if the person cannot distinguish illusion from reality
(C) more or less intense depending on the degree to which the person percei'es the
e'ent to be real
() more intense if the person percei'es an e'ent to be frightening
(#) weaker if the person <udges an e'ent to be real but unthreatening
11. The author suggests that >ri<da4s notion of the role of imagination in aesthetic
response is problematic because it
(A) ignore the unselfconsciousness that is characteristic of emotional responses to
art
(B) ignores the distinction between genuine emotion and ersat! emotion
(C) ignores the fact that a person who is imagining knows that he or she is
imagining
() makes irrele'ant distinctions between 'i'id and weak imaginati'e capacities
(#) suggests/ in reference to the obser'ation of art/ that there is no distinction
between real and illusory stimuli
12. The passage supports all of the following statements about the differences between
Bombrich and =adford #DC#@TE
(A) =adfod4s argument relies on a notion of irrationality in a way that
Bomgbrich4s argument does not.
(B) Bmbrich4s position is closer to the position of the ma<ority of psychologists
than is =adford4s.
(C) Bombrich/ unlike =adford/ argues that we do not ha'e true emotions in
response to art.
() Bombrich4s argument rests on a notion of memory in a way that =adford4s
argument does not.
LSAT -1-
(#) =adford4s argument/ unlike Bombrich4s/ is not focused on the artificial "uality
of emotional responses to art.
1.. &hich one of the following best captures the progression of the author4s argument
in lines ,(.1%
(A) The emotional responses to e'ents ranging from the real to the depicted
illustrate the irrationality of emotional response.
(B) A series of e'ents that range from the real to the depicted con'eys the contrast
between real e'ents and cinematic depiction.
(C) An intensification in emotional response to a series of e'ents that range from
the real to the depicted illustrates >ri<da4s law.
() A progression of e'ents that range from the real to the depicted e$amines the
precise nature of panic in relation to feared ob<ect.
(#) The consistency of emotional responses to e'ents that range from the real to
the depicted challenges >ri<da4s law.
10. Author4s assertions concerning mo'ies about ghosts imply that all of the following
statements are false #DC#@TE
(A) ?o'ies about ghosts are terrifying in proportion to 'iewers4 beliefs in the
phenomenon of ghosts.
(B) ?o'ies about imaginary phenomena like ghosts may be <ust as terrifying as
mo'ies about phenomena like snake.
(C) ?o'ies about ghosts and snakes are not terrifying because people know that
what they 'iewing is not real.
() ?o'ies about ghosts are terrifying to 'iewers who pre'iously re<ected the
possibility of ghosts because mo'ies permanently alter the 'iewers sense of
reality.
(#) ?o'ies about ghosts elicit a 'ery different emotional response from 'iewers
who do not belie'e in ghosts than mo'ies about snakes elicit from 'iewers who
are frightened by snakes.
11. &hich one of the following statements best e$emplifies the position of =adford
concerning the nature of emotional response to art%
(A) A person watching a mo'ie about guerrilla warfare irrationally belie'es that he
or she is present at the battle.
(B) A person watching a play about a kidnapping feels nothing because he or she
rationally reali!es it is not a real e'ent.
(C) A person gets particular en<oyment out of writing fictional narrati'es in which
he or she figures as a main character.
() A person irrationally bursts into tears while reading a no'el about a destructi'e
fire/ e'en while reali!ing that he or she is reading about a fictional e'ent.
(#) A person who is afraid of snakes trips o'er a branch and irrationally panics.
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3"though bacteria are unice""u"ar and among the simp"est autonomous &orms o&
"i&e( they show a remar$ab"e abi"ity to sense their environment. They are attracted
to materia"s they need and are repe""ed by harm&u" substances. Bost types o&
bacteria swim very erratica""yA short smooth runs in re"ative"y straight "ines are
&o""owed by brie& tumb"es( a&ter which the bacteria shoot o1 in random directions.
This "eaves researchers with the -uestion o& how such bacteria #nd their way to
an attractant such as &ood or( in the case o& photosynthetic bacteria( "ight( i& their
swimming pattern consists on"y o& smooth runs and tumb"es( the "atter resu"ting in
random changes in direction.
<ne c"ue comes &rom the observation that when a chemica" attractant is added
to a suspension o& such bacteria( the bacteria swim a"ong a gradient o& the
attractant( &rom an area where the concentration o& the attractant is wea$er to an
area where it is stronger. 3s they do so( their swimming is characteri+ed by a
decrease in tumb"ing and an increase in straight runs over re"ative"y "onger
distances. 3s the bacteria encounter increasing concentrations o& the attractant(
their tendency to tumb"e is suppressed( whereas tumb"ing increases whenever
they move away &rom the attractant. The net e1ect is that runs in the direction o&
higher concentrations o& the attractant become "onger and straighter as a resu"t
o& the suppression o& tumb"ing( whereas runs away &rom it are shortened by an
increased tendency o& the bacteria to tumb"e and change direction.
'io"ogists have proposed two mechanisms that bacteria might use in detecting
changes in the concentration o& a chemica" attractant. :irst( a bacterium might
compare the concentration o& a chemica" at the &ront and bac$ o& its ce"" body
simu"taneous"y. 2& the concentration is higher at the &ront o& the ce""( then it $nows
it is moving up the concentration gradient( &rom an area where the concentration
is "ower to an area where it is higher. 3"ternative"y( it might measure the
concentration at one instant and again a&ter a brie& interva"( in which case the
bacterium must retain a memory o& the initia" concentration. Researchers
reasoned that i& bacteria do compare concentrations at di1erent times( then when
sudden"y e8posed to a uni&orm"y high concentration o& an attractant( the ce""s
wou"d behave as i& they were swimming up a concentration gradient( with "ong(
smooth runs and re"ative"y &ew tumb"es. 2&( on the other hand( bacteria detect a
chemica" gradient by measuring it simu"taneous"y at two distinct points( &ront and
bac$( on the ce"" body( they wou"d not respond to the 5ump in concentration
because the concentration o& the attractant in &ront and bac$ o& the ce""s( though
high( wou"d be uni&orm. @8perimenta" evidence suggests that bacteria compare
concentrations at di1erent times.
12. 3t can be inferred from the passage that which one of the following e$perimental
results would suggest that bacteria detect changes in the concentration of an
attractant by measuring its concentration in front and back of the cell body
simultaneously%
(A) &hen suddenly transferred from a medium in which the concentration of an
LSAT -1,
attractant was uniformly low to one in which the concentration was uniformly
high/ the tendency of the bacteria to tumble and undergo random changes in
direction increased.
(B) &hen suddenly transferred from a medium in which the concentration of an
attractant was uniformly low to one in which the concentration was uniformly
high/ the bacteria4s e$hibited no change in the pattern of their motion.
(C) &hen suddenly transferred from a medium in which the concentration of an
attractant was uniformly low to one in which the concentration was uniformly
high/ the bacteria4s mo'ement was characteri!ed by a complete absence of
tumbling.
() &hen placed in a medium in which the concentration of an attractant was in
some areas low and in others high/ the bacteria e$hibited an increased tendency
to tumble in those areas where the concentration of the attractant was high.
(#) &hen suddenly transferred from a medium in which the concentration of an
attractant was uniformly low to one that was completely free of attractants/ the
bacteria e$hibited a tendency to suppress tumbling and mo'e in longer/
straighter lines.
1-. 3t can be inferred from the passage that a bacterium would increase the likelihood
of its mo'ing away from an area where the concentration of a harmful substance is
high if it did which one of the following%
(A) 3ncreased the speed at which it swam immediately after undergoing the
random changes in direction that result from tumbling.
(B) etected the concentration gradient of an attractant toward which it could
begin to swim.
(C) =elied on the simultaneous measurement of the concentration of the substance
in front and back of its body/ rather than on the comparison of the
concentration at different points in time.
() #$hibited a complete cessation of tumbling when it detected increases in the
concentration of substance.
(#) #$hibited an increased tendency to tumble as it encountered increasing
concentrations of the substance/ and suppressed tumbling as it detected
decreases in the concentration of the substance.
16. 3t can be inferred from the passage that when describing bacteria as *swimming up
a concentration gradient+ (lines 0,(15)/ the author means that they were beha'ing
as if they were swimming
(A) Against a resistant medium that makes their swimming less efficient.
(B) Away from a substance to which they are normally attracted.
(C) Away from a substance that is normally harmful to them.
() >rom an area where the concentration of a repellent is weaker to an area where
it is completely absent.
-25 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
(#) >rom an area where the concentration of a substance is weaker to an area
where it is stronger.
1,. The passage indicates that the pattern that characteri!es a bacterium4s motion
changes in response to
(A) The kinds of chemical attractants present in different concentration gradients.
(B) The mechanism that the bacterium adopts in determining the presence of an
attractant.
(C) The bacterium4s detection of changes in the concentration of an attractant.
() The e$tent to which neighboring bacteria are engaged in tumbling.
(#) Changes in the inter'als of time that occur between the bacterium4s
measurement of the concentration of an attractant.
25. &hich one of the following best describes the organi!ation of the third paragraph
of the passage%
(A) Two approaches to a problem are discussed/ a test that would determine which
is more efficient is described/ and a conclusion is made/ based on e$perimental
e'idence.
(B) Two hypotheses are described/ a way of determining which of them is more
likely to be true is discussed/ and one said to be more accurate on the basis of
e$perimental e'idence.
(C) Two hypotheses are described/ the flaws inherent in one of them are
elaborated/ and e$perimental e'idence confirming the other is cited.
() An assertion that a species has adopted two different mechanisms to sol'e a
particular problem is made/ and e'idence is then pro'ided in support of that
assertion.
(#) An assertion that one mechanism for sol'ing a particular problem is more
efficient than another is made/ and e'idence is then pro'ided in support of that
assertion.
21. The passage pro'ides information in support of which one of the following
assertions%
(A) The seemingly erratic motion e$hibited by a microorganism can in fact reflect
a mechanism by which it is able to control its mo'ement.
(B) Biologists often o'erstate the comple$ity of simple organisms such as bacteria.
(C) A bacterium cannot normally retain a memory of a measurement of the
concentration of an attractant.
() Bacteria now appear to ha'e less control o'er their mo'ement than biologists
had pre'iously hypothesi!ed.
(#) @hotosynthetic bacteria appear to ha'e more control o'er their mo'ement than
do bacteria that are not photosynthetic.
3nthropo"ogist Kavid Bande"baum ma$es a distinction between "i&e-passage
LSAT -21
studies and "i&e-history studies which emerged primari"y out o& research
concerning ,ative 3mericans. Ji&e-passage studies( he says( >emphasi+e the
re-uirements o& society( showing how groups socia"i+e and encu"turate their
young in order to ma$e them into viab"e members o& society.? Ji&e histories(
however( >emphasi+e the e8periences and re-uirements o& the individua"( how the
person copes with society rather than how society copes with the stream o&
individua"s.? Ji&e-passage studies bring out the genera" cu"tura" characteristics
and commona"ities that broad"y de#ne a cu"ture( but are unconcerned with an
individua"6s choices or how the individua" perceives and responds to the demands
and e8pectations imposed by the constraints o& his or her cu"ture. This distinction
can c"ear"y be seen in the autobiographies o& ,ative 3merican women.
:or e8amp"e( some ear"y recorded autobiographies( such as The "uto$iogra#hy
of a Fo3 )ndian ,oman( a "i&e passage recorded by anthropo"ogist Truman
Biche"son( emphasi+es prescribed ro"es. The narrator presents her story in a way
that con&orms with triba" e8pectations. Biche"son6s wor$ is va"uab"e as
ethnography( as a reDection o& the day-to-day responsibi"ities o& Bes-ua$ie
women( yet as is o&ten the case with "i&e-passage studies( it presents "itt"e o& the
centra" character6s psycho"ogica" motivation. The :o8 woman6s "i&e story &ocuses
on her triba" education and integration into the ways o& her peop"e( and re"ates
on"y what Biche"son u"timate"y decided was worth preserving. The di1erence
between the two types o& studies is o&ten the resu"t o& the amount o& contro" the
narrator maintains over the materia"= autobiographies in which there are no
recorder-editors are &ar more reDective o& the "i&e-history category( &or there are
no outsiders shaping the story to reDect their preconceived notions o& what the
genera" cu"tura" patterns are.
:or e8amp"e( in Baria %ampbe""6s account o& growing up as a %anadian Betis
who was inDuenced strong"y( and o&ten negative"y( by the non-,ative 3merican
wor"d around her( one "earns a great dea" about the "i&e o& ,ative 3merican
women( but %ampbe""6s individua" story( which is to"d to us direct"y( is a"ways the
center o& her narrative. %"ear"y it is important to her to communicate to the
audience what her e8periences as a ,ative 3merican have been. Through
%ampbe""6s story o& her &ami"y the reader "earns o& the e1ect o& poverty and
pre5udice on a peop"e. The reader becomes an intimate o& %ampbe"" the writer(
sharing her pain and ce"ebrating her sma"" victories. 3"though %ampbe""6s boo$ is
written as a "i&e history (the dramatic moments( the &rustrations( and the &ears are
c"ear"y hers)( it revea"s much about ethnic re"ations in %anada whi"e reDecting the
period in which it was written.
22. &hich one of the following is the most accurate e$pression of the main point of
the passage%
(A) The contributions of life(history studies to anthropology ha'e made life(
passage studies obsolete.
(B) espite their dissimilar approaches to the study of culture/ life(history and life(
-22 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
passage studies ha'e similar goals.
(C) The autobiographies of 9ati'e American women illustrate the differences
between life(history and life(passage studies.
() The roots of ?aria Campbell4s autobiography can be traced to earlier
narrati'es such as The Autobiography o+ a Fo, /ndian Wo-an.
(#) espite its shortcomings/ the life(passage study is a more effecti'e tool than
the life(history study for identifying important cultural patterns.
2.. The term *prescribed roles+ in line 20 of the passage refers to the
(A) >unction of life(passage studies in helping ethnologists to understand cultural
tradition.
(B) >unction of life(history studies in helping ethnologists to gather information.
(C) &ay in which a sub<ect of a life passage 'iews himself or herself.
() =oles clearly distinguishing the narrator of an autobiography from the recorder
of an autobiography.
(#) =oles generally adopted by indi'iduals in order to comply with cultural
demands.
20. The reference to the *psychological moti'ation+ (line .5) of the sub<ect of The
Autobiography o+ a Fo, /ndian Wo-an ser'es primarily to
(A) ismiss as irrele'ant the personal perspecti'e in the life(history study.
(B) 3dentify an aspect of e$perience that is not commonly a ma<or focus of life(
passage studies.
(C) Clarify the narrator4s self(acknowledged purpose in relating a life passage.
() ;uggest a common conflict between the goals of the narrator and those of the
recorder in most life(passage studies.
(#) Assert that de'eloping an understanding of an indi'idual4s psychological
moti'ation usually undermines ob<ecti'e ethnography.
21. &hich one of following statements about ?aria Campbell can be inferred from
material in the passage%
(A) ;he was familiar with the 'ery early history of her tribe but lacked insight into
the moti'ations of non(9ati'e Americans.
(B) ;he was unfamiliar with ?ichelson4s work but had probably read a number of
life(passage studies about 9ati'e Americans.
(C) ;he had training as a historian but was not "ualified as an anthropologist.
() )er family influenced her beliefs and opinions more than the e'ents of her
time did.
(#) )er life history pro'ides more than a record of her personal e$perience.
22. According to the passage/ one way in which life history studies differ from life(
passage studies is that life(history studies are
LSAT -2.
(A) :sually told in the sub<ect4s nati'e language.
(B) Kess reliable because they rely solely on the sub<ect4s recall.
(C) ?ore likely to be told without the influence of an intermediary.
() ?ore creati'e in the way they interpret the sub<ect4s cultural legacy.
(#) ?ore representati'e of the historian4s point of 'iew than of the ethnographer4s.
2-. &hich one of the following pairings best illustrates the contrast between life
passages and life histories%
(A) A study of the attitudes of a society toward a mainstream religion and an
analysis of techni"ues used to instruct members of that religious group.
(B) A study of how a preindustrial society maintains peace with neighboring
societies and a study of how a postindustrial society does the same.
(C) A study of the way a military organi!ation establishes and maintains discipline
and a newly enlisted soldier4s narrati'e describing his initial responses to the
military en'ironment.
() An analysis of a society4s means of subsistence and a study of how its
members celebrate religious holidays.
(#) A political history of a society focusing on leaders and parties and a study of
how the electorate shaped the political landscape of the society.
LSAT 05 SECTON
T!"e 35 "!#$%es 2' &$es%!o#s
Directions: Each passage in this section is followed by a group of questions to be answered on
the basis of what is stated or implied in the passage. For some of the questions, more than one
of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However, you are to choose the best
answer, that is, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question, and
blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.
Unti" recent"y many astronomers be"ieved that asteroids trave" about the so"ar
system unaccompanied by sate""ites. These astronomers assumed this because
they considered asteroid-sate""ite systems inherent"y unstab"e. Theoreticians
cou"d have to"d them otherwiseA even minuscu"e bodies in the so"ar system can
theoretica""y have sate""ites( as "ong as everything is in proper sca"e. 2& a bow"ing
ba"" were orbiting about the un in the asteroid be"t( it cou"d have a pebb"e
orbiting it as &ar away as a &ew hundred radii (or about /0 meters) without "osing
the pebb"e to the un6s gravitationa" pu"".
<bservations now suggest that asteroid sate""ites may e8ists not on"y in theory
but a"so in rea"ity. evera" astronomers have noticed( whi"e watching asteroids
pass brieDy in &ront o& stars( that something besides the $nown asteroid
sometimes b"oc$s out the star as we"". 2s that something a sate""iteG
The most convincing such report concerns the asteroid )ercu"ina( which was
due to pass in &ront o& a star in 1978. 3stronomers waiting &or the predicted event
-20 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
&ound not 5ust one occu"tation( or ec"ipse( o& the star( but two distinct drops in
brightness. <ne was the predicted occu"tation( e8act"y on time. The other( "asting
about #ve seconds( preceded the predicted event by about two minutes. The
presence o& a secondary body near )ercu"ina thus seemed strong"y indicated. To
cause the secondary occu"tation( an unseen sate""ite wou"d have to be about M/
$i"ometers in diameter( a -uarter o& the si+e o& )ercu"ina( and at a distance o& 990
$i"ometers &rom the asteroid at the time. These va"ues are within theoretica"
bounds( and such an asteroid-sate""ite pair cou"d be stab"e.
;ith the )ercu"ina event( apparent secondary occu"tations became
>respectab"e?!and more common"y reported. 2n &act( so common did reports o&
secondary events become that they are now simp"y too numerous &or a"" o& them
to be accurate. @ven i& every asteroid has as many sate""ites as can be #tted
around it without an undue number o& co""isions( on"y one in every hundred
primary occu"tations wou"d be accompanied by a secondary event (one in every
thousand i& asteroid sate""ites system resemb"ed those o& the p"anets).
Iet even astronomers who #nd the case &or asteroid sate""ites unconvincing at
present say they wou"d change their minds i& a photoe"ectric record were made o&
a we""-behaved secondary event. 'y >we""-behaved? they mean that during
occu"tation the observed brightness must drop sharp"y as the star win$s out and
must rise sharp"y as it reappears &rom behind the obstructing ob5ect( but the
brightness during the secondary occu"tation must drop to that o& the asteroid( no
higher and no "ower. This wou"d ma$e it e8treme"y un"i$e"y that an airp"ane or a
g"itch in the instruments was mas-uerading as an occu"ting body.
1. &hich one of the following best e$presses the main idea of the passage%
(A) The obser'ation of )erculina represented the crucial e'ent that astronomical
obser'ers and theoreticians had been waiting for to establish a con'incing case
for the stability of asteroid(satellite systems.
(B) Although astronomers long belie'ed that obser'ation supports the e$istence of
stable asteroid(satellite systems/ numerous recent reports ha'e increased
skepticism on this issue in astronomy.
(C) Theoreticians4 'iews on the stability of asteroid(satellite systems may be
re'ised in the light of reports like those about )erculina.
() Astronomers continue to consider it respectable to doubt the stability of
asteroid(satellite systems/ but new theoretical de'elopments may change their
'iews.
(#) The )erculina e'ent suggests that theoreticians4 'iews about asteroid(satellite
systems may be correct/ and astronomers agree about the kind of e'idence
needed to clearly resol'e the issue.
2. &hich one of the following is mentioned in the passage as pro'iding e'idence that
)erculina has a satellite%
(A) the diameter of a body directly obser'ed near )erculina
LSAT -21
(B) the distance between )erculina and planet nearest to it
(C) the shortest possible time in which satellites of )erculina/ if any/ could
complete a single orbit
() the occultation that occurred shortly before the predicted occultation by
)erculina
(#) the precise e$tent to which obser'ed brightness dropped during the occultation
by )erculina
.. According to the passage/ the attitude of astronomers toward asteroid satellites
since the )erculina e'ent can best described as
(A) open(mindedness combined with a concern for rigorous standards of proof
(B) contempt for and impatience with the position held by theoreticians
(C) bemusement at a chaotic mi$ of theory/ inade"uate or spurious data/ and calls
for scientific rigor
() hardheaded skepticism/ implying re<ection of all data not recorded
automatically by state(of(the(art instruments
(#) admiration for the methodical process by which science progresses from initial
hypothesis to incontro'ertible proof
0. The author implies that which one of the following was true prior to reports of the
)erculina e'ent%
(A) ;ince no good theoretical model e$isted/ all claims that reports of secondary
occultations were common were disputed.
(B) ;ome of the reported obser'ations of secondary occultations were actually
obser'ations of collisions of satellites with one another.
(C) 3f there were obser'ations of phenomena e$actly like the phenomena now
labeled secondary occultations/ astronomers were less likely than to ha'e
reported such obser'ations.
() The pre'ailing standards concerning what to classify as a well(beha'ed
secondary e'ent were less stringent than they are now.
(#) Astronomers were eager to publish their obser'ations of occultations of stars
by satellites of asteroids.
1. The information presented in the passage implies which one of the following about
the fre"uency of reports of secondary occultations after the )erculina e'ent%
(A) The percentage of reports of primary occultations that also included reports of
secondary occultations increased tenfold compared to the time before the
)erculina e'ent.
(B) @rimary occultations by asteroids were reported to ha'e been accompanied by
secondary occultations in about one out of e'ery thousand cases.
(C) The absolute number of reports of secondary occultations increased tenfold
compared to the time before the )erculina e'ent.
-22 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
() @rimary occultations by asteroids were reported to ha'e been accompanied by
secondary occultations in more than one out of e'ery hundred cases.
(#) 3n more than one out of e'ery hundred cases/ primary occultations were
reported to ha'e been accompanied by more than one secondary occultation.
2. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) cast doubts on e$isting reports of secondary occultations of stars
(B) describe e$perimental efforts by astronomers to separate theoretically
belie'able obser'ations of satellites of asteroids from spurious ones
(C) re'iew the de'elopment of ideas among astronomers about whether or not
satellites of asteroids e$ist
() bring a theoretician4s perspecti'e to bear on an incomplete discussion of
satellites of asteroids
(#) illustrate the limits of reasonable speculation concerning the occultation of
stars
-. The passage suggests that which one of the following would most help to resol'e
the "uestion of whether asteroids ha'e satellites%
(A) a re'iew of pre(1,-6 reports of secondary occultations
(B) an impro'ed theoretical model of stable satellite systems
(C) a photoelectric record of a well(beha'ed secondary occultation
() a more stringent definition of what constitutes a well(beha'ed secondary
occultation
(#) a powerful telescope that would permit a comparison of ground(based
obser'ation with those made from airplanes
)istorians attempting to e8p"ain how scienti#c wor$ was done in the "aboratory
o& the seventeenth-century chemist and natura" phi"osopher Robert 'oy"e must
address a &undamenta" discrepancy between how such e8perimentation was
actua""y per&ormed and the seventeenth-century rhetoric describing it. Jeaders o&
the new Roya" ociety o& Jondon in the 1LL0s insisted that authentic science
depended upon actua" e8periments per&ormed( observed( and recorded by the
scientists themse"ves. Re5ecting the traditiona" contempt &or manua" operations(
these scientists( a"" members o& the @ng"ish upper c"ass( were not to thin$
themse"ves demeaned by the muc$ing about with chemica"s( &urnaces( and
pumps= rather( the wi""ingness o& each o& them to become( as 'oy"e himse"& said( a
mere >drudge? and >under-bui"der? in the search &or Eod6s truth in nature was
ta$en as a sign o& their nobi"ity and %hristian piety.
This rhetoric has been so e1ective that one modern historian assures us that
'oy"e himse"& actua""y per&ormed a"" o& the thousand or more e8periments he
reported. 2n &act( due to poor eyesight( &ragi"e hea"th( and &re-uent absences &rom
his "aboratory( 'oy"e turned over much o& the "abor o& obtaining and recording
e8perimenta" resu"ts to paid technicians( a"though pub"ished accounts o& the
LSAT -2-
e8periments rare"y( i& ever( ac$now"edged the technicians6 contributions. ,or was
'oy"e uni-ue in re"ying on technicians without pub"ic"y crediting their wor$.
;hy were the contributions o& these technicians not recogni+ed by their
emp"oyersG <ne reason is the historica" tendency( which has persisted into the
twentieth century( to view scienti#c discovery as resu"ting &rom momentary
Dashes o& individua" insight rather than &rom e8tended periods o& cooperative
wor$ by individua"s with varying "eve"s o& $now"edge and s$i"". Boreover( despite
the c"amor o& seventeenth-century scienti#c rhetoric commending a hands-on
approach( science was sti"" overwhe"ming"y an activity o& the @ng"ish upper c"ass(
and the traditiona" contempt that gentee" society maintained &or manua" "abor
was pervasive and deep"y rooted. :ina""y( a"" o& 'oy"e6s technicians were
>servants(? which in seventeenth-century usage meant anyone who wor$ed &or
pay. To seventeenth-century sensibi"ities( the wage re"ationship was charged with
po"itica" signi#cance. ervants( meaning wage earners( were e8c"uded &rom the
&ranchise because they were perceived as u"timate"y dependent on their wages
and thus contro""ed by the wi"" o& their emp"oyers. Technicians remained invisib"e
in the po"itica" economy o& science &or the same reasons that under"ay servants6
genera" po"itica" e8c"usion. The technicians6 contribution( their observations and
5udgment( i& ac$now"edged( wou"d not have been perceived in the "arger scienti#c
community as ob5ective because the technicians were dependent on the wages
paid to them by their emp"oyers. ervants might have made the apparatus wor$(
but their contributions to the ma$ing o& scienti#c $now"edge were "arge"y!and
convenient"y!ignored by their emp"oyers.
6. &hich one of the following best summari!es the main idea of the passage%
(A) ;e'enteenth(century scientific e$perimentation would ha'e been impossible
without the work of paid laboratory technicians.
(B) ;e'enteenth(century social con'entions prohibited upper(class laboratory
workers from taking public credit for their work.
(C) ;e'enteenth(century 'iews of scientific disco'ery combined with social class
distinctions to ensure that laboratory technicians4 scientific work was ne'er
publicly acknowledged.
() ;e'enteenth(century scientists were far more dependent on their laboratory
technicians than are scientists today/ yet far less willing to acknowledge
technicians4 scientific contributions.
(#) ;e'enteenth(century scientists liberated themsel'es from the stigma attached to
manual labor by relying hea'ily on the work of laboratory technicians.
,. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the *se'enteenth(century rhetoric+
mentioned in line 2 would ha'e more accurately described the e$perimentation
performed in Boyle4s laboratory if which one of the following were true%
(A) :nlike many se'enteenth(century scientists/ Boyle recogni!ed that most
scientific disco'eries resulted from the cooperati'e efforts of many indi'iduals.
-26 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
(B) :nlike many se'enteenth(century scientists/ Boyle maintained a deeply rooted
and per'asi'e contempt for manual labor.
(C) :nlike many se'enteenth(century scientists/ Boyle was a member of the =oyal
;ociety of Kondon.
() Boyle generously acknowledged the contribution of the technicians who
worked in his laboratory.
(#) Boyle himself performed the actual labor of obtaining and recording
e$perimental results.
15. According to the author/ ser'ants of se'enteenth(century #ngland were e$cluded
from the franchised because of the belief that
(A) their interests were ade"uately represented by their employers
(B) their education was inade"uate to make informed political decisions
(C) the independence of their political <udgment would be compromised by their
economic dependence on their employers
() their participation in the elections would be a polari!ing influence on the
political process
(#) the manual labor that they performed did not constitute a contribution to the
society that was sufficient to <ustify their participation in elections
11. According to the author/ the =oyal ;ociety of Kondon insisted that scientists
abandon the
(A) belief that the primary purpose of scientific disco'ery was to re'eal the di'ine
truth that could be found in nature
(B) 'iew that scientific knowledge results largely from the insights of a few
brilliant indi'iduals rather than from the cooperati'e efforts of many workers
(C) se'enteenth(century belief that ser'ants should be denied the right to 'ote
because they were dependent on wages paid to them by their employers
() traditional disdain for manual labor that was maintained by most members of
the #nglish upper class during the se'enteenth(century
(#) idea that the search for scientific truth was a sign of piety
12. The author implies that which one of the following beliefs was held in both the
se'enteenth and the twentieth centuries%
(A) 3ndi'idual insights rather than cooperati'e endea'ors produce most scientific
disco'eries.
(B) )ow science is practiced is significantly influenced by the political beliefs and
assumption of scientists.
(C) ;cientific research undertaken for pay cannot be considered ob<ecti'e.
() ;cientific disco'ery can re'eal di'ine truth in nature.
(#) ;cientific disco'ery often relies on the unacknowledged contributions of
LSAT -2,
laboratory technicians.
1.. &hich one of the following best describes the organi!ation of the last paragraph%
(A) ;e'eral alternati'e answers are presented to a "uestion posed in the pre'ious
paragraph/ and the last is adopted as the most plausible.
(B) A "uestion regarding the cause of the phenomenon described in the pre'ious
paragraph is posed/ two possible e$planations are re<ected/ and e'idence is
pro'ided in support of a third.
(C) A "uestion regarding the phenomenon described in the pre'ious paragraph is
posed/ and se'eral incompatible 'iews are presented.
() A "uestion regarding the cause of the phenomenon described in the pre'ious
paragraph is posed/ and se'eral contributing factors are then discussed.
(#) ;e'eral answers to a "uestion are e'aluated in light of recent disco'eries cited
earlier in the passage.
10. The author4s discussion of the political significance of the *wage relationship+
(line 06) ser'es to
(A) place the failure of se'enteenth(century scientists to acknowledge the
contributions of their technicians in the large conte$t of relations between
workers and their employers in se'enteenth(century #ngland
(B) pro'ide e'idence in support of the author4s more general thesis regarding the
relationship of scientific disco'ery to the economic conditions of societies in
which it takes place
(C) pro'ide e'idence in support of the author4s e$planation of why scientists in
se'enteenth(century #ngland were reluctant to rely on their technicians for the
performance of anything but the most menial tasks
() illustrate political and economic changes in the society of se'enteenth(century
#ngland that had a profound impact on how scientific research was conduced
(#) undermine the 'iew that scientific disco'ery results from indi'idual enterprise
rather than from the collecti'e endea'or of many workers
11. 3t can be inferred from the passage that *the clamor of se'enteenth(century
scientific rhetoric+ (lines .,(05) refers to
(A) the claim that scientific disco'ery results largely from the insights of brilliant
indi'iduals working alone
(B) ridicule of scientists who were members of the #nglish upper class and who
were thought to demean themsel'es by engaging in the manual labor re"uired
by their e$periments
(C) criticism of scientists who publicly acknowledged the contributions of their
technicians
() assertions by members of the =oyal ;ociety of Kondon that scientists
themsel'es should be responsible for obtaining and recording e$perimental
--5 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
results
(#) the claim by Boyle and his colleagues that the primary reason for scientific
research is to disco'er e'idence of di'ine truth in the natural world
<ne type o& vio"ation o& the antitrust "aws is the abuse o& monopo"y power.
Bonopo"y power is the abi"ity o& a #rm to raise its prices above the competitive
"eve"!that is( above the "eve" that wou"d e8ist natura""y i& severa" #rms had to
compete!without driving away so many customers as to ma$e the price increase
unpro#tab"e. 2n order to show that a #rm has abused monopo"y power( and
thereby vio"ated the antitrust "aws( two essentia" &acts must be estab"ished. :irst(
a #rm must be shown to possess monopo"y power( and second( that power must
have been used to e8c"ude competition in the monopo"i+ed mar$et or re"ated
mar$ets.
The price a #rm may charge &or its product is constrained by the avai"abi"ity o&
c"ose substitutes &or the product. 2& a #rm attempts to charge a higher price!a
supracompetitive price!consumers wi"" turn to other #rms ab"e to supp"y
substitute products at competitive prices. 2& a #rm provides a "arge percentage o&
the products actua""y or potentia""y avai"ab"e( however( customers may #nd it
di*cu"t to buy &rom a"ternative supp"iers. %onse-uent"y( a #rm with a "arge share
o& the re"evant mar$et o& substitutab"e products may be ab"e to raise its price
without "osing many customers. :or this reason courts o&ten use mar$et share as a
rough indicator o& monopo"y power.
upracompetitive prices are associated with a "oss o& consumers6 we"&are
because such prices &orce some consumers to buy a "ess attractive mi8 o&
products than they wou"d ordinari"y buy. upracompetitive prices( however( do not
themse"ves constitute an abuse o& monopo"y power. 3ntitrust "aws do not attempt
to counter the mere e8istence o& monopo"y power( or even the use o& monopo"y
power to e8tract e8traordinari"y high pro#ts. :or e8amp"e( a #rm en5oying
economies o& sca"e!that is( "ow unit production costs due to high vo"ume!does
not vio"ate the antitrust "aws when it obtains a "arge mar$et share by charging
prices that are pro#tab"e but so "ow that its sma""er riva"s cannot survive. 2& the
antitrust "aws posed disincentives to the e8istence and growth o& such #rms( the
"aws cou"d impair consumers6 we"&are. @ven i& the #rm( upon ac-uiring monopo"y
power( chose to raise prices in order to increase pro#ts( it wou"d not be in
vio"ation o& the antitrust "aws.
The antitrust prohibitions &ocus instead on abuses o& monopo"y power that
e8c"ude competition in the monopo"i+ed mar$et or invo"ve "everage!the use o&
power in one mar$et to reduce competition in another. <ne such &orbidden
practice is a tying arrangement( in which a monopo"ist conditions the sa"e o& a
product in one mar$et on the buyer6s purchase o& another product in a di1erent
mar$et. :or e8amp"e( a #rm en5oying a monopo"y in the communications systems
mar$et might not se"" its products to a consumer un"ess that customer a"so buys
its computer systems( which are competing with other #rms6 computer systems.
LSAT --1
The &ocus on the abuse o& monopo"y power( rather than on monopo"y itse"&(
&o""ows &rom the primary purpose o& the antitrust "awsA to promote consumers6
we"&are through assurance o& the -ua"ity and -uantity o& products avai"ab"e to
consumers.
12. &hich one of the following distinctions between monopoly power and the abuse
of monopoly power would the author say underlies the antitrust laws discussed in
the passage%
(A) ?onopoly power is assessed in term of market share/ whereas abuse of
monopoly power is assessed in term of market control.
(B) ?onopoly power is easy to demonstrate/ whereas abuse of monopoly power is
difficult to demonstrate.
(C) ?onopoly power in'ol'es only one market/ whereas abuse of monopoly
power in'ol'es at least two or more related markets.
() ?onopoly power is the ability to charge supracompetiti'e prices/ whereas
abuse of monopoly power is the use of that ability.
(#) ?onopoly power does not necessarily hurt consumer welfare/ whereas abuse
of monopoly power does.
1-. &ould the use of le'erage meet the criteria for abuse of monopoly power outlined
in the first paragraph%
(A) 9o/ because le'erage in'ol'es a nonmonopoli!ed market.
(B) 9o/ unless the le'erage in'ol'es a tying arrangement.
(C) Hes/ because le'erage is a characteristic of monopoly power.
() Hes/ unless the firm using le'erage is charging competiti'e prices.
(#) Hes/ because le'erage is used to eliminate competition in a related market.
16. &hat is the main purpose of the third paragraph (lines 26Q0-)%
(A) to distinguish between supracompetiti'e prices and supracompetiti'e profits
(B) to describe the positi'e use of monopoly power
(C) to introduce the concept of economies of scale
() to distinguish what is not co'ered by the antitrust law under discussion from
what is co'ered
(#) to remind the reader of the issue of consumers welfare
1,. Bi'en only the information in the passage/ with which one of the following
statements about competition would those responsible for the antitrust laws most
likely agree%
(A) Competition is essential to consumers4 welfare.
(B) There are acceptable and unacceptable ways for firms to reduce their
competition.
(C) The preser'ation of competition is the principal aim of the antitrust laws.
--2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
() ;upracompetiti'e prices lead to reductions in competition.
(#) Competition is necessary to ensure high("uality products at low prices.
25. &hich one of the following sentences would best complete the last paragraph of
the passage%
(A) By limiting consumers4 choices/ abuse of monopoly power reduces consumers4
welfare/ but monopoly alone can sometimes actually operate in the consumers4
best interest.
(B) &hat is needed now is a set of related laws to deal with the negati'e impacts
that monopoly itself has on consumers4 ability to purchase products at
reasonable cost.
(C) 8'er time/ the antitrust laws ha'e been 'ery effecti'e in ensuring competition
and/ conse"uently/ consumers4 welfare in the 'olatile communications and
computer systems industries.
() By controlling supracompetiti'e prices and corresponding supracompetiti'e
profits/ the antitrust laws ha'e/ indeed/ gone a long way toward meeting that
ob<ecti'e.
(#) As noted abo'e/ the necessary restraints on monopoly itself ha'e been left to
the market/ where competiti'e prices and economies of scale are rewarded
through increased market share.
3msden has divided ,ava5o weaving into &our distinct sty"es. )e argues that
three o& them can be identi#ed by the type o& design used to &orm hori+onta"
bandsA co"ored strips( +ig+ags( or diamonds. The &ourth( or bordered( sty"e he
identi#es by a distinct border surrounding centra""y p"aced( dominating #gures.
3msden be"ieves that the diamond sty"e appeared a&ter 18L9 when( under
3ng"o inDuence and encouragement( the b"an$et became a rug with "arger
designs and bo"der "ines. The bordered sty"e appeared about 1890( and( 3msden
argues( it reDects the greatest number o& 3ng"o inDuences on the new"y emerging
rug business. The 3ng"o desire that anything with a graphic designs have a top(
bottom( and border is a cu"tura" pre&erence that the ,ava5o abhorred( as
evidenced( he suggests( by the &act that in ear"y bordered specimens strips o&
co"or une8pected"y brea$ through the enc"osing pattern.
3msden argues that the bordered rug represents a radica" brea$ with previous
sty"es. )e asserts that the border changed the artistic prob"em &acing weaversA a
b"an$ area suggests the use o& iso"ated #gures( whi"e traditiona"( banded ,ava5o
designs were continuous and did not use iso"ated #gures. The o"d patterns
a"ternated hori+onta" decorative +ones in a regu"ar order.
3msden6s view raises severa" -uestions. :irst( what is invo"ved in a"tering
artistic sty"esG ome studies suggest that artisans6 motor habits and thought
processes must be revised when a sty"e changes precipitous"y. 2n the evo"ution o&
,ava5o weaving( however( no radica" revisions in the way artic"es are produced
need be assumed. 3&ter a""( a"" weaving subordinates design to the physica"
LSAT --.
"imitations created by the process o& weaving( which inc"udes creating an edge or
border. The habits re-uired to ma$e decorative borders are( there&ore( "atent and
easi"y brought to the sur&ace.
econd( is the re"ationship between the banded and bordered sty"es as simp"e
as 3msden suggestsG )e assumes that a brea$ in sty"e is a brea$ in psycho"ogy.
'ut i& sty"e resu"ts &rom constant -uests &or invention( such sty"istic brea$s are
inevitab"e. ;hen a sty"e has e8hausted the possibi"ities inherent in its princip"es(
artists cast about &or new( but not necessari"y a"ien( princip"es. ,ava5o weaving
may have reached this turning point prior to 1890.
Third( is there rea""y a signi#cant sty"istic gapG Two other sty"es "ie between the
banded sty"es and the bordered sty"es. They suggest that disintegration o& the
bands may have a"tered visua" and motor habits and prepared the way &or a
border #""ed with separate units. 2n the %hie& ;hite 3nte"ope b"an$et( dated prior
to 18L/( ten years be&ore the #rst 3ng"o trading post on the ,ava5o reservation(
who"e and partia" diamonds interrupt the Dowing design and become separate
&orms. 9arts o& diamonds arranged vertica""y at each side may be seen to
anticipate the border.
21. The author4s central thesis is that
(A) the 9a'a<o re<ected the stylistic influences of Anglo culture
(B) 9a'a<o wea'ing cannot be classified by Amsden4s categories
(C) the 9a'a<o changed their style of wea'ing because they sought the challenge
of new artistic problems
() original motor habits and thought processes limit the e$tent to which a style
can be re'ised
(#) the casual factors leading to the emergence of the bordered style are not as
clear(cut as Amsden suggests
22. 3t can be inferred from the passage that Amsden 'iews the use of *strips of color+
(line 16) in the early bordered style as
(A) a sign of resistance to a change in style
(B) an echo of the diamond style
(C) a feature deri'ed from Anglo culture
() an attempt to disintegrate the rigid form of the banded style
(#) a means of differentiating the top of the wea'ing from the bottom
2.. The author4s 'iew of 9a'a<o wea'ing suggests which one of the following%
(A) The appearance of the first trading post on the 9a'a<o reser'ation coincided
with the appearance of the diamond style.
(B) Traces of thought processes and motor habits of one culture can generally be
found in the art of another culture occupying the same period and region.
(C) The bordered style may ha'e de'eloped gradually from the banded style as a
--0 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
result of 9a'a<o e$periencing with design.
() The influence of Anglo culture was not the only non(9ati'e American
influence on 9a'a<o wea'ing.
(#) )ori!ontal and 'ertical rows of diamond forms were transformed by the
9a'a<os into solid lines to create the bordered style.
20. According to the passage/ 9a'a<o wea'ings made prior to 16,5 typically were
characteri!ed by all of the following #DC#@T
(A) repetition of forms
(B) o'erall patterns
(C) hori!ontal bands
() isolated figures
(#) use of color
21. The author would most probably agree with which one of the following
conclusions about the stylistic de'elopment of 9a'a<o wea'ing%
(A) The styles of 9a'a<o wea'ing changed in response to changes in 9a'a<o motor
habits and thought processes.
(B) The !ig!ag style was the result of stylistic influences from Anglo culture.
(C) 9a'a<o wea'ing used isolated figures in the beginning/ but combined
naturalistic and abstract designs in later styles.
() 9a'a<o wea'ing changed gradually from a style in which the entire surface
was co'ered by hori!ontal bands to one in which central figures dominated the
surface.
(#) The styles of 9a'a<o wea'ing always contained some type of isolated figure.
22. The author suggests that Amsden4s claim that borders in 9a'a<o wea'ing were
inspired by Anglo culture could be
(A) concei'ed as a response to imagined correspondences between Anglo and
9a'a<o art
(B) biased by Amsden4s feelings about Anglo culture
(C) a result of Amsden4s failing to take into account certain aspects of 9a'a<o
wea'ing
() based on a limited number of specimens of the styles of 9a'a<o wea'ing
(#) based on a confusion between the stylistic features of the !ig!ag and diamond
styles
2-. The author most probably mentions the Chief &hite Antelope blanket in order to
(A) establish the credit influence of Anglo culture on the bordered style
(B) cast doubts on the claim that the bordered style arose primarily from Anglo
influence
(C) cite an e$ample of a blanket with a central design and no border
LSAT --1
() suggest that the Anglo influence produced significant changes in the two
earliest styles of 9a'a<o wea'ing
(#) illustrate how the 9a'a<o had e$hausted the stylistic possibilities of the
diamond style
26. The passage is primarily concerned with
(A) comparing and contrasting different styles
(B) "uestioning a 'iew of how a style came into being
(C) proposing alternati'e methods of in'estigating the e'olution of styles
() discussing the influence of one culture on another
(#) analy!ing the effect of the interaction between two different cultures
LSAT 06 SECTON
T!"e 35 "!#$%es 27 &$es%!o#s
Directions: Each passage in this section is followed by a group of questions to be answered on
the basis of what is stated or implied in the passage. For some of the questions, more than one
of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However, you are to choose the best
answer, that is, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question, and
blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.
The Ta&t-)art"ey 3ct( passed by the United tates %ongress in 19M7( gave
states the power to enact >right-to-wor$? "egis"ation that prohibits union shop
agreements. 3ccording to such an agreement( a "abor union negotiates wages and
wor$ing conditions &or a"" wor$ers in a business( and a"" wor$ers are re-uired to
be"ong to the union. ince 19M7( 40 states have adopted right-to-wor$ "aws. Buch
o& the "iterature concerning right-to-wor$ "aws imp"ies that such "egis"ation has not
actua""y had a signi#cant impact. This point o& view( however( has not gone
uncritici+ed. Thomas F %arro"" has proposed that the conc"usions drawn by
previous researchers are attributab"e to their myopic &ocus on the premise that(
un"ess right-to-wor$ "aws signi#cant"y reduce union membership within a state(
they have no e1ect. %arro"" argues that the right-to-wor$ "aws >do matter? in that
such "aws generate di1erences in rea" wages across states. peci#ca""y( %arro""
indicates that whi"e right-to-wor$ "aws may not >destroy? unions by reducing the
abso"ute number o& unioni+ed wor$ers( they do impede the spread o& unions and
thereby reduce wages within right-to-wor$ states. 'ecause the countervai"ing
power o& unions is wea$ened in right-to-wor$ states( manu&acturers and their
supp"iers can act cohesive"y in competitive "abor mar$ers( thus "owering wages in
the a1ected industries.
uch a #nding has important imp"ications regarding the demographics o&
emp"oyment and wages in right-to-wor$ states. peci#ca""y( i& right-to-wor$ "aws
"ower wages by wea$ening union power( minority wor$ers can be e8pected to
su1er a re"ative"y greater economic disadvantage in right-to-wor$ states than in
union shop states. This is so because( contrary to what was once thought( union
--2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
tend to have a signi#cant positive impact on the economic position o& minority
wor$ers( especia""y '"ac$ wor$ers( re"ative to ;hite wor$ers. Bost studies
concerned with the impact o& unionism on the '"ac$ wor$er6s economic position
re"ative to the ;hite wor$er6s have concentrated on the changes in '"ac$ wages
due to union membership. That is( they have concentrated on union versus
nonunion groups. 2n a pioneering study( however( 3shen&e"ter #nds that these
studies over"oo$ an important &actA a"though cra&t unionism increase the
di1erentia" between the wages o& ;hite wor$ers and '"ac$ wor$ers due to the
traditiona" e8c"usion o& minority wor$ers &rom unions in the cra&t sectors o& the
"abor mar$et( strong positive wage gains are made by '"ac$ wor$ers within
industria" unions. 2n &act( 3shen&e"ter estimates that industria" unionism decreases
the di1erentia" between the wages o& '"ac$ wor$ers and ;hite wor$ers by about 7
percent. 2& state right-to-wor$ "aws wea$en the economic power o& unions to raise
wages( '"ac$ wor$ers wi"" e8perience a disproportionate dec"ine in their re"ative
wage positions. '"ac$ wor$ers in right-to-wor$ states wou"d there&ore e8perience a
dec"ine in their re"ative economic positions un"ess there is strong economic growth
in right-to-wor$ states( creating "abor shortages and thereby driving up wages.
1. The reasoning behind the *literature+ (line ,)/ as that reasoning is presented in the
passage/ is most analogous to the reasoning behind which one of the following
situations%
(A) A law is proposed that benefits many but disad'antages a fewE those
ad'ocating passage of the law argue that the disad'antages to few are not so
serious that the benefits should be denied to many.
(B) A new ta$ on certain categories of consumer items is proposedE those in fa'or
of the ta$ argue that those affected by the ta$ are well able to pay it/ since the
items ta$ed are lu$ury items.
(C) A college sets strict course re"uirements that e'ery student must complete
before graduatingI students already enrolled argue that it is unfair for the new
re"uirements to apply to those enrolled before the change.
() The personnel office of a company designs a promotions become effecti'e on
Aanuary 1E the managers protest that such a policy means that they cannot
respond fast enough to changes in staffing needs.
(#) A fare increase in a public transportation system does not significantly reduce
the number of fares soldE the management of the public transportation system
asserts/ therefore/ that the fare hike has had no negati'e effects.
2. According to the passage/ which one of the following is true of Carroll4s study%
(A) 3t implies that right(to(work laws ha'e had a negligible effect on workers in
right(to(work states.
(B) 3t demonstrates that right(to(work laws ha'e significantly decreased union
membership from what it once was in right(to(work states.
(C) 3t argues that right(to(work laws ha'e affected wages in right(to(work states.
LSAT ---
() 3t supports the findings of most earlier researchers.
(#) 3t e$plains the mechanisms by which collusion between manufacturers and
suppliers is accomplished.
.. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author belie'es which one of following
about craft unions%
(A) Craft unions ha'e been successful in ensuring that the wages of their members
remain higher than the wages of nonunion workers in the same occupational
groups.
(B) The number of minority workers <oining craft unions has increased sharply in
states that ha'e not adopted right(to(work legislation.
(C) &ages for workers belonging to craft unions ha'e generally risen faster and
more steadily than wages for workers belonging to industrial unions.
() The wages of workers belonging to craft unions ha'e not been significantly
affected by right(to(work legislation/ although the wages of workers belonging
to industrial unions ha'e been negati'ely affected.
(#) The wages of workers belonging to craft unions are more likely to be dri'en up
in the e'ent of labor shortages than are the wages of workers belonging to
industrial unions.
0. &hich one of the following best describes the effect industrial unionism has had
on the wages of Black workers relati'e to those of &hite workers/ as that effect is
presented in the passage%
(A) @rior to 1,0-/ industrial unionism had little effect on the wages of Black
workers relati'e to those of &hite workersE since 1,0-/ it has had a slight
positi'e effect.
(B) @rior to 1,0-/ industrial unionism had a strong positi'e effect on the wages of
Black workers relati'e to those of &hite workersE since 1,0-/ it has had little
effect.
(C) @rior to 1,0-/ industrial unionism had a negati'e effect on the wages of Black
workers relati'e to those of &hite workersE since 1,0-/ it has had a significant
positi'e effect.
() 3ndustrial unionism has contributed moderately to an increase in the wage
differential between Black workers and &hite workers.
(#) 3ndustrial unionism has contributed strongly to a . percent decrease in the
wage differential between Black workers and &hite workers.
1. According to the passage/ which one of the following could counteract the effects
of a decrease in unions4 economic power to raise wages in right(to(work states%
(A) a decease in the number of union shop agreements
(B) strong economic growth that creates labor shortages
(C) a decrease in membership in craft unions
--6 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
() the merging of large industrial unions
(#) a decline in the craft sectors of the labor market
2. &hich one of the following best describes the passage as a whole%
(A) an o'er'iew of a problem in research methodology and a recommended
solution to that problem
(B) a comparison of two competing theories and a suggestion for reconciling them
(C) a criti"ue of certain legislation and a proposal for modification of that
legislation
() a re'iew of research that challenges the conclusions of earlier researchers
(#) a presentation of a specific case that confirms the findings of an earlier study
2n the "ate nineteenth century( the need &or women physicians in missionary
hospita"s in %anton( %hina( "ed to e8panded opportunities &or both ;estern women
and %hinese women. The presence o& ;estern women as medica" missionaries in
%hina was made possib"e by certain changes within the ;estern missionary
movement. 'eginning in the 1870s( increasing"y "arge numbers o& women were
&orming women6s &oreign mission societies dedicated to the support o& women6s
&oreign mission wor$. 'eyond giving the women who organi+ed the societies a
&orma" activity outside their home circ"es( these organi+ations enab"ed an
increasing number o& sing"e women missionaries (as opposed to women who were
part o& the more typica" husband-wi&e missionary teams) to wor$ abroad. 'e&ore
the &ormation o& these women6s organi+ations( mission &unds had been co""ected
by ministers and other church "eaders( most o& whom emphasi+ed "oca" parish
wor$. ;hat money was spent on &oreign missions was under the contro" o&
e8c"usive"y ma"e &oreign mission boards whose members were uni&orm"y uneasy
about the new idea o& sending sing"e women out into the mission #e"d. 'ut as
women6s groups began raising impressive amounts o& money donated speci#ca""y
in support o& sing"e women missionaries( the home churches bowed both to
women6s changing ro"es at home and to increasing numbers o& sing"e pro&essiona"
missionary women abroad.
3"though the idea o& emp"oying a woman physician was a daring one &or most
;estern missionaries in %hina( the advantages o& a we""-trained ;estern woman
physician cou"d not be ignored by %anton mission hospita" administrators. 3
woman physician cou"d attend women patients without o1ending any o& the
accepted conventions o& &ema"e modesty. @ventua""y( some o& these women were
ab"e to &ound and head separate women6s medica" institutions( thereby gaining
access to pro&essiona" responsibi"ities &ar beyond those avai"ab"e to them at home.
These deve"opments a"so "ed to the attainment o& va"uab"e training and status
by a signi#cant number o& %hinese women. The presence o& women physicians in
%anton mission hospita"s "ed many %hinese women to avai" themse"ves o& ;estern
medicine who might otherwise have &ai"ed to do so because o& their cu"ture6s
emphasis on physica" modesty. 2n order to provide enough women physicians &or
LSAT --,
these patients( growing numbers o& young %hinese women were given instruction
in medicine. This enab"ed them to earn an independent income( something that
was then "arge"y unavai"ab"e to women within traditiona" %hinese society. Bany
women graduates were eventua""y ab"e to go out on their own into private
practice( &reeing themse"ves o& dependence upon the mission community.
The most important resu"t o& these opportunities was the estab"ishment o&
c"ear evidence o& women6s abi"ities and strengths( c"ear reasons &or a1ording
women e8panded opportunities( and c"ear ro"e mode"s &or how these abi"ities and
responsibi"ities might be e8ercised.
-. &hich one of the following statements about &estern women missionaries
working abroad can be inferred from the passage%
(A) There were 'ery few women in'ol'ed in foreign missionary work before the
16-5s.
(B) ?ost women working abroad as missionaries before the 16-5s were financed
by women4s foreign mission societies.
(C) ?ost women employed in mission hospitals abroad before the 16-5s were
trained as nurses rather than as physicians.
() The ma<ority of professional women missionaries working abroad before the
16-5s were located in Canton/ China.
(#) ?ost women missionaries working abroad before the 16-5s were married to
men who were also missionaries.
6. The author mentions that most foreign mission boards were e$clusi'ely male most
probably in order to
(A) Contrast foreign mission boards with the boards of secular organi!ations
sending aid to China.
(B) #$plain the policy of foreign mission boards toward training Chinese women
in medicine.
(C) Austify the preference of foreign mission boards for professionally "ualified
missionaries.
() )elp account for the attitude of foreign mission boards towards sending single
women missionaries abroad.
(#) ifferentiate foreign mission boards from boards directing parish work at
home.
,. &hich one of the following best describes the organi!ation of the passage%
(A) A situation is described/ conditions that brought about the situation are
e$plained/ and results of the situation are enumerated.
(B) An assertion is made/ statements supporting and refuting the assertion are
e$amined/ and a conclusion is drawn.
(C) An obstacle is identified/ a 'ariety of possible ways to o'ercome the obstacle
-65 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
are presented/ and an opinion is 'entured.
() A predicament is outlined/ factors leading up to the predicament are
scrutini!ed/ and a tentati'e resolution of the predicament is recommended.
(#) A de'elopment is analy!ed/ the drawbacks and ad'antages accompanying the
de'elopment are contrasted/ and an e'entual outcome is predicted.
15. &hich one of the following/ if true/ would most undermine the author4s analysis of
the reason for the increasing number of single women missionaries sent abroad
beginning in the 16-5s%
(A) The &estern church boards that sent the greatest number of single women
missionaries abroad had not recei'ed any financial support from women4s
au$iliary groups.
(B) The women who were sent abroad as missionary physicians had been raised in
families with a strong history of missionary commitment.
(C) ?ost of the single missionary women sent abroad were trained as teachers and
translators rather than as medical practitioners.
() The western church boards tended to send abroad single missionary women
who had pre'iously been acti'e in local parish work.
(#) 9one of the single missionary women who were sent abroad were acti'e
members of foreign mission boards.
11. According to the passage/ which one of the following was a factor in the
acceptance of &estern women as physicians in mission hospitals in Canton/
China%
(A) The number of male physicians practicing in that region.
(B) The specific women4s foreign mission society that supplied the funding.
(C) The specific home parishes from which the missionary women came.
() The cultural con'entions of the host society.
(#) The relations between the foreign mission boards and the hospital
administrators.
12. The passage suggests which one of the following about medical practices in late(
nineteenth(century Canton/ China%
(A) There was great suspicion of non(Chinese medical practices.
(B) ?edical care was more often administered in the home than in hospitals.
(C) 3t was customary for women physicians to donate a portion of their income for
the maintenance of their e$tended family.
() 3t was not customary for female patients to be treated by male physicians.
(#) Houng women tended to be afforded as many educational opportunities in
medicine as young men were.
2n recent years the ear"y music movement( which advocates per&orming a wor$
LSAT -61
as it was per&ormed at the time o& its composition( has ta$en on the character o& a
crusade( particu"ar"y as it has moved beyond the sphere o& medieva" and baro-ue
music and into music &rom the "ate eighteenth and ear"y nineteenth centuries by
composers such as Bo+art and 'eethoven. Eranted( $now"edge about the
e8perience o& p"aying o"d music on now-obso"ete instruments has been o&
inestimab"e va"ue to scho"ars. ,everthe"ess( the ear"y music approach to
per&ormance raises pro&ound and troub"ing -uestions.
@ar"y music advocates assume that composers write on"y &or the instruments
avai"ab"e to them( but evidence suggests that composers o& 'eethoven6s stature
imagined e8traordinari"y high and "ow notes as part o& their compositions( even
when they recogni+ed that such notes cou"d not be p"ayed on instruments
avai"ab"e at the time. 2n the score o& 'eethoven6s #rst piano concerto( there is a
>wrong? note( a high :-natura" where the me"ody obvious"y ca""s &or a high :-
sharp( but pianos did not have this high an :-sharp when 'eethoven composed
the concerto. 'ecause 'eethoven once e8pressed a desire to revise his ear"y
wor$s to e8p"oit the e8tended range o& pianos that became avai"ab"e to him some
years "ater( it seems "i$e"y that he wou"d have p"ayed the :-sharp i& given the
opportunity. To use a piano e8act"y contemporary with the wor$6s composition
wou"d re-uire p"aying a note that was probab"y &rustrating &or 'eethoven himse"&
to have had to p"ay.
2n addition( ear"y music advocates o&ten inadvertent"y divorce music and its
per&ormance &rom the "i&e o& which they were( and are( a part. The discovery that
)aydn6s and Bo+art6s symphonies were conducted during their "i&etimes by a
pianist who p"ayed the chords to $eep the orchestra together has given rise to
ear"y music recordings in which a piano can be heard obtrusive"y in the
&oreground( despite evidence indicating that the orchestra" piano was virtua""y
inaudib"e to audiences at eighteenth-century concerts and was dropped as
musica""y unnecessary when a better way to beat time was &ound. 3nd a"though in
the ear"y nineteenth century the #rst three movements (sections) o& Bo+art6s and
'eethoven6s symphonies were o&ten p"ayed &aster( and the "ast movement s"ower
than today( this di1erence can readi"y be e8p"ained by the &act that at that time
audiences app"auded at the end o& each movement( rather than withho"ding
app"ause unti" the end o& the entire wor$. 3s a resu"t( musicians were not &orced
into e8tra bri""iance in the #na"e in order to generate app"ause( as they are now. To
restore the origina" tempo o& these symphonies represents an irrationa" denia" o&
the &act that our concepts o& musica" intensity and e8citement have -uite simp"y(
changed.
1.. 3t can be inferred from the passage that by *a piano e$actly contemporary+ (line
.5) with the composition of Beetho'en4s first piano concerto/ the author means the
kind of piano that was
(A) esigned to be inaudible to the audience when used by conductors of
orchestras.
-62 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
(B) 3ncapable of playing the high >(natural that is in the score of Beetho'en4s
original 'ersion of the concerto.
(C) :na'ailable to ?o!art and )aydn.
() 3ncapable of playing the high >(sharp that the melody of the concerto calls for.
(#) 3nfluential in Beetho'en4s decision to re'ise his early compositions.
10. &hich one of the following best e$presses the main idea of the passage%
(A) The early music mo'ement has yet to resol'e a number of troubling "uestions
regarding its approach to the performance of music.
(B) The early music mo'ement/ while largely successful in its approach to the
performance of medie'al and baro"ue music/ has yet to <ustify its use of
obsolete instruments in the performance of music by Beetho'en and ?o!art.
(C) The early music approach to performance often assumes that composers write
music that is perfectly tailored to the limitations of the instruments on which it
will be performed during their lifetimes.
() Although ad'ocates of early music know much about the instruments used to
perform music at the time it was composed/ they lack information regarding
how the style of such performances has changed since such music was written.
(#) The early music mo'ement has not yet fully e$ploited the knowledge that it
has gained from playing music on instruments a'ailable at the time such music
was composed.
11. 3n the second paragraph/ the author discusses Beetho'en4s first piano concerto
primarily in order to
(A) 3llustrate how piano music began to change in response to the e$tended range
of pianos that became a'ailable during Beetho'en4s lifetime.
(B) 3llustrate how Beetho'en4s work failed to anticipate the changes in the design
of instruments that were about to be made during his lifetime.
(C) ;uggest that early music ad'ocates commonly perform music using scores that
do not reflect re'isions made to the music years after it was originally
composed.
() 3llustrate how composers like Beetho'en sometimes composed music that
called for notes that could not be played on instruments that were currently
a'ailable.
(#) @ro'ide an e$ample of a piano composition that is especially amenable to
being played on piano a'ailable at the time the music was composed.
12. The author suggests that the final mo'ements of symphonies by ?o!art and
Beetho'en might be played more slowly by today4s orchestras if which one of the
following were to occur%
(A) 8rchestras were to use instruments no more ad'anced in design than those
used by orchestras at the time ?o!art and Beetho'en composed their
LSAT -6.
symphonies.
(B) Audiences were to return to the custom of applauding at the end of each
mo'ement of a symphony.
(C) Audiences were to reser'e their most enthusiastic applause for the most
brilliantly played finales.
() Conductors were to return to the practice of playing the chords on an
orchestral piano to keep the orchestra together.
(#) Conductors were to conduct the symphonies in the manner in which Beetho'en
and ?o!art had conducted them.
1-. &hich one of the following best describes the organi!ation of the last paragraph%
(A) A generali!ation is made e'idence undermining it is presented/ and a
conclusion re<ecting it is then drawn.
(B) A criticism is stated and then elaborated with two supporting e$amples.
(C) An assumption is identified and then e'idence undermining its 'alidity is
presented.
() An assumption is identified and then e'idence fre"uently pro'ided in support
of it is then critically e'aluated.
(#) Two specific cases are presented and then a conclusion regarding their
significance is drawn.
16. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author4s e$planation in lines 15(10
would be most weakened if which one of the following were true%
(A) ?usicians who perform in modern orchestras generally recei'e more e$tensi'e
training than did their nineteenth(century counterparts.
(B) Breaks between the mo'ements of symphonies performed during the early
nineteenth century often lasted longer than they do today because nineteenth(
century musicians needed to retune their instruments between each mo'ement.
(C) #arly nineteenth(century orchestral musicians were generally as concerned
with the audience4s response to their music as are the musicians who perform
today in modern orchestras.
() #arly nineteenth(century audience applauded only perfunctorily after the first
three mo'ements of symphonies and con'entionally withheld their most
enthusiastic applause until the final mo'ement was completed.
(#) #arly nineteenth(century audiences were generally more knowledgeable about
music than are their modern counterparts.
1,. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author would be most likely to agree
with which one of the following assertions regarding the early music recordings
mentioned in the third paragraph%
(A) These recordings fail to recogni!e that the last mo'ements of )aydn4s and
?o!art4s symphonies were often played slower in the eighteenth century than
-60 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
they are played today.
(B) These recordings betray the influence of baro"ue musical style on those early
music ad'ocates who ha'e recently turned their attention to the music of
)aydn and ?o!art.
(C) By making audible the sound of an orchestral piano that was inaudible in
eighteenth century performances/ these recordings attempt to achie'e aesthetic
integrity at the e$pense of historical authenticity.
() By making audible the sound of an orchestral piano that was inaudible in
eighteenth century performances/ these recordings unwittingly create music
that is unlike what eighteenth century audiences heard.
(#) These recordings suggest that at least some ad'ocates of early music recogni!e
that concepts of musical intensity and e$citement ha'e changed since )aydn
and ?o!art composed their symphonies.
25. The author suggests that the modern audience4s tendency to withhold applause
until the end of a symphony4s performance is primarily related to which one of the
following%
(A) The replacement of the orchestral piano as a method of keeping the orchestra
together.
(B) A gradual increase since the time of ?o!art and Beetho'en in audiences4
e$pectations regarding the ability of orchestral musicians.
(C) A change since the early nineteenth century in audiences4 concepts of musical
e$citement and intensity.
() A more sophisticated appreciation of the structural integrity of the symphony
as a piece of music.
(#) The tendency of orchestral musicians to employ their most brilliant effects in
the early.
3"though the United tates stee" industry &aces wide"y pub"ici+ed economic
prob"ems that have eroded its stee" production capacity( not a"" branches o& the
industry have been e-ua""y a1ected. The stee" industry is not mono"ithicA it
inc"udes integrated producers( minimi""s( and specia"ty-stee" mi""s. The integrated
producers start with iron ore and coa" and produce a wide assortment o& shaped
stee"s. The minimi""s reprocess scrap stee" into a "imited range o& "ow--ua"ity
products( such as rein&orcing rods &or concrete. The specia"ty-stee" mi""s are
simi"ar to minimi""s in that they tend to be sma""er than the integrated producers
and are based on scrap( but they manu&acture much more e8pensive products
than minimi""s do and common"y have an active in-house research-and-
deve"opment e1ort.
'oth minimi""s and specia"ty-stee" mi""s have succeeded in avoiding the worst
o& the economic di*cu"ties that are aHicting integrated stee" producers( and
some o& the mi""s are -uite pro#tab"e. 'oth ta$e advantage o& new techno"ogy &or
re#ning and casting stee"( such as continuous casting( as soon as it becomes
LSAT -61
avai"ab"e. The minimi""s concentrate on producing a narrow range o& products &or
sa"e in their immediate geographic area( whereas specia"ty-stee" mi""s preserve
De8ibi"ity in their operations in order to &u"#"" a customer6s particu"ar
speci#cations.
3mong the &actors that constrain the competitiveness o& integrated producers
are e8cessive "abor( energy( and capita" costs( as we"" as manu&acturing
inDe8ibi"ity. Their e-uipment is o"d and "ess automated( and does not incorporate
many o& the "atest re#nement in stee"ma$ing techno"ogy. (:or e8amp"e( on"y
about ha"& o& the United tates integrated producers have continuous casters(
which combine pouring and ro""ing into one operation and thus save the cost o&
separate ro""ing e-uipment.) <ne might conc"ude that the o"der "abor-intensive
machinery sti"" operating in United tates integrated p"ants is at &au"t &or the poor
per&ormance o& the United tates industry( but this cannot e8p"ain why Capanese
integrated producers( who produce a higher--ua"ity product using "ess energy and
"abor( are a"so e8periencing economic troub"e. The &act is that the common
techno"ogica" denominator o& integrated producers is an inherent"y ine*cient
process that is sti"" rooted in the nineteenth century.
2ntegrated producers have been unab"e to compete success&u""y with minimi""s
because the minimi""s( "i$e specia"ty-stee" mi""s( have dispensed a"most entire"y
with the archaic energy and capita"-intensive &ront end o& integrated stee"ma$ingA
the iron-sme"ting process( inc"uding the mining and preparation o& the raw
materia"s and the b"ast-&urnace operation. 2n addition( minimi""s have &ound a
pro#tab"e way to mar$et stee" productsA as indicated above( they se"" their
#nished products "oca""y( thereby reducing transportation costs( and concentrate
on a "imited range o& shapes and si+es within a narrow group o& products that can
be manu&actured economica""y. :or these reasons( minimi""s have been ab"e to
avoid the economic dec"ine a1ecting integrated stee" producers.
21. &hich one of the following best e$presses the main idea of the passage%
(A) :nited ;tates steel producers face economic problems that are shared by
producers in other nations.
(B) ?inimills are the most successful steel producers because they best meet
market demands for cheap steel.
(C) ?inimills and specialty(steel mills are more economically competiti'e than
integrated producers because they use new technology and a'oid the costs of
the iron(smelting process.
() :nited ;tates steel producers are e$periencing an economic decline that can be
traced back to the nineteenth century.
(#) 9ew steelmaking technologies such as continuous casting will replace blast(
furnace operations to re'erse the decline in :nited ;tates steel production.
22. The author mentions all of the following as features of minimills #DC#@T
(A) fle$ibility in their operations
-62 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
(B) local sale of their products
(C) a'oidance of mining operations
() use of new steel(refining technology
(#) a limited range of low("uality products
2.. The author of the passage refers to *Aapanese integrated producers+ (line 0.)
primarily in order to support the 'iew that
(A) different economic difficulties face the steel industries of different nations
(B) not all integrated producers share a common technological denominator
(C) labor(intensi'e machinery cannot be blamed for the economic condition of
:nited ;tates integrated steel producers
() modern steelmaking technology is generally labor(and energy(efficient
(#) labor(intensi'e machinery is an economic burden on :nited ;tates integrated
steel producers
20. &hich one of the following best describes the organi!ation of the third paragraph%
(A) A hypothesis is proposed and supportedI then an opposing 'iew is presented
and critici!ed.
(B) A debate is described and illustratedE then a contrast is made and the debate is
resol'ed.
(C) A dilemma is described and cited as e'idence for a broader criticism.
() A proposition is stated and argued/ then re<ected in fa'or of a more general
statement/ which is supported with additional e'idence.
(#) Beneral statements are made and details gi'enI then an e$planation is proposed
and re<ected/ and an alternati'e is offered.
21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that :nited ;tates specialty(steel mills
generally differ from integrated steel producers in that the specialty(steel mills
(A) sell products in a restricted geographical area
(B) share the economic troubles of the minimills
(C) resemble specialty(steel mills found in Aapan
() concentrate on producing a narrow range of products
(#) do not operate blast furnaces
22. #ach of the following describes an industry facing a problem also e$perienced by
:nited ;tated integrated steel producers #DC#@T
(A) a paper(manufacturing company that e$periences difficulty in obtaining
enough timber and other raw materials to meet its orders
(B) a food(canning plant whose canning machines must constantly be tended by
human operators
(C) a te$tile firm that spends hea'ily on capital e"uipment and energy to process
LSAT -6-
raw cotton before it is turned into fabric
() a window(glass manufacturer that is unable to produce "uickly different
'arieties of glass with special features re"uired by certain customers
(#) a leather(goods company whose hand(operated cutting and stitching machines
were manufactured in 3taly in the 1,25s
2-. &hich one of the following/ if true/ would best ser'e as supporting e'idence for
the author4s e$planation of the economic condition of integrated steel producers%
(A) Those nations that deri'e a larger percentage of their annual steel production
from minimills than the :nited ;tates does also ha'e a smaller per capita trade
deficit.
(B) ?any integrated steel producers are as adept as the specialty(steel mills at
producing high("uality products to meet customer specifications.
(C) 3ntegrated steel producers in the :nited ;tates are rapidly adopting the
production methods of Aapanese integrated producers.
() 3ntegrated steel producers in the :nited ;tates are now attempting to de'elop a
worldwide market by ad'ertising hea'ily.
(#) Those nations in which iron(smelting operations are carried out independently
of steel production must hea'ily subsidi!e those operations in order to make
them profitable.
LSAT 07 SECTON
T!"e 35 "!#$%es 27 &$es%!o#s
Directions: Each passage in this section is followed by a group of questions to be answered on
the basis of what is stated or implied in the passage. For some of the questions, more than one
of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However, you are to choose the best
answer, that is, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question, and
blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.
The "abor &orce is o&ten organi+ed as i& wor$ers had no &ami"y responsibi"ities.
9reschoo"-age chi"dren need &u""-time care= chi"dren in primary schoo" need care
a&ter schoo" and during schoo" vacations. 3"though day-care services can reso"ve
some schedu"ing conDicts between home and o*ce( wor$ers cannot a"ways #nd
or a1ord suitab"e care. @ven when they obtain such care( parents must sti"" cope
with emergencies( such as i""nesses( that $eep chi"dren at home. Boreover(
chi"dren need more than tending= they a"so need meaning&u" time with their
parents. %onventiona" &u""-time wor$days( especia""y when combined with
unavoidab"e househo"d duties( are too inDe8ib"e &or parents with primary chi"d-
care responsibi"ity.
3"though a sma"" but increasing number o& wor$ing men are sing"e parents(
those barriers against success&u" participation in the "abor mar$et that are re"ated
to primary chi"d-care responsibi"ities main"y disadvantage women. @ven in &ami"ies
where both parents wor$( cu"tura" pressures are traditiona""y much greater on
-66 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
mothers than on &athers to bear the primary chi"d-rearing responsibi"ities.
2n reconci"ing chi"d-rearing responsibi"ities with participation in the "abor
mar$et( many wor$ing mothers are &orced to ma$e compromises. :or e8amp"e(
appro8imate"y one-third o& a"" wor$ing mothers are emp"oyed on"y part-time( even
though part-time 5obs are dramatica""y underpaid and o&ten "ess desirab"e in
comparison to &u""-time emp"oyment. @ven though part-time wor$ is usua""y
avai"ab"e on"y in occupations o1ering minima" emp"oyee responsibi"ity and "itt"e
opportunity &or advancement or se"&-enrichment( such emp"oyment does a""ow
many women the time and De8ibi"ity to &u"#"" their &ami"y duties( but on"y at the
e8pense o& the advantages associated with &u""-time emp"oyment.
Boreover( even mothers with &u""-time emp"oyment must compromise
opportunities in order to ad5ust to barriers against parents in the "abor mar$et.
Bany choose 5obs entai"ing "itt"e cha""enge or responsibi"ity or those o1ering
De8ib"e schedu"ing( o&ten avai"ab"e on"y in poor"y paid positions( whi"e other
wor$ing mothers( a"though wi""ing and ab"e to assume as much responsibi"ity as
peop"e without chi"dren( #nd that their need to spend regu"ar and predictab"e time
with their chi"dren inevitab"y causes them to "ose career opportunities to those
without such demands. Thus( women in education are more "i$e"y to become
teachers than schoo" administrators( whose more conventiona" &u""-time wor$
schedu"es do not correspond to the schedu"es o& schoo"-age chi"dren( whi"e &ema"e
"awyers are more "i$e"y to practice "aw in trusts and estates( where they can
contro" their wor$ schedu"es( than in "itigation( where they cannot.
,onpro&essiona" women are concentrated in secretaria" wor$ and department
store sa"es( where their absences can be covered easi"y by substitutes and where
they can enter and "eave the wor$ &orce with "itt"e "oss( since the 5obs o1er so "itt"e
persona" gain. 2ndeed( as "ong as the "abor mar$et remains hosti"e to parents( and
&ami"y ro"es continue to be a""ocated on the basis o& gender( women wi"" be
serious"y disadvantaged in that "abor mar$et.
1. &hich one of the following best summari!es the main idea of the passage%
(A) Current trends in the labor force indicate that working parents/ especially
women/ may not always need to choose between occupational and child(care
responsibilities.
(B) 3n order for mothers to ha'e an e"ual opportunity for ad'ancement in the labor
force/ traditional family roles ha'e to be ree$amined and re'ised.
(C) Although single parents who work ha'e to balance parental and career
demands/ single mothers suffer resulting employment disad'antages that single
fathers can almost always a'oid.
() Although child(care responsibilities disad'antage many women in the labor
force/ professional women (such as teachers and lawyers) are better able to
o'ercome this problem than are nonprofessional women.
(#) Traditional work schedules are too infle$ible to accommodate the child(care
responsibilities of many parents/ a fact that se'erely disad'antages women in
LSAT -6,
the labor force.
2. &hich one of the following statements about part(time work can be inferred from
the information presented in the passage%
(A) 8ne(third of all part(time workers are working mothers.
(B) @art(time work generally offers fewer opportunities for ad'ancement to
working mothers than to women generally.
(C) @art(time work/ in addition to ha'ing relati'ely poor wages/ often re"uires that
employees work during holidays/ when their children are out of school.
() @art(time employment/ despite its disad'antages/ pro'ides working mothers
with an opportunity to address some of the demands of caring for children.
(#) ?any mothers with primary child(care responsibility choose part(time <obs in
order to better e$ploit full(time career opportunities after their children are
grown.
.. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author would be most likely to agree
with which one of the following statements about working fathers in two(parent
families%
(A) They are e"ually burdened by the employment disad'antages placed upon all
parentsQmale and femaleQin the labor market.
(B) They are so absorbed in their <obs that they often do not see the in<ustice going
on around them.
(C) They are shielded by the traditional allocation of family roles from many of the
pressures associated with child(rearing responsibilities.
() They help compound the ine"uities in the labor market by keeping women
form competing with men for career opportunities.
(#) They are responsible for many of the problems of working mothers because of
their insistence on traditional roles in the family.
0. 8f the following/ which one would the author most likely say is the most
troublesome barrier facing working parents with primary child(care responsibility%
(A) the lack of full(time <obs open to women
(B) the infle$ibility of work schedules
(C) the low wages of part(time employment
() the limited ad'ancement opportunities for nonprofessional employees
(#) the practice of allocating responsibilities in the workplace on the basis of
gender
1. The passage suggests that day care is at best a limited solution to the pressures
associated with child rearing for all of the following reasons #DC#@TE
(A) #'en the best day care a'ailable cannot guarantee that children will ha'e
meaningful time with their parents.
-,5 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
(B) ;ome parents cannot afford day(care ser'ices.
(C) &orking parents sometimes ha'e difficulty finding suitable day care for their
children.
() @arents who send their children to day care still need to pro'ide care for their
children during 'acations.
(#) #'en children who are in day care may ha'e to stay home when they are sick.
2. According to the passage/ many working parents may be forced to make any of the
following types of career decisions #DC#@T
(A) declining professional positions for nonprofessional ones/ which typically
ha'e less con'entional work schedules
(B) accepting part(time employment rather than full(time employment
(C) taking <obs with limited responsibility/ and thus more limited career
opportunities/ in order to ha'e a more fle$ible schedule
() pursuing career speciali!ations that allow them to control their work schedules
instead of pursuing a more desirable speciali!ation in the same field
(#) limiting the career potential of one parent/ often the mother/ who assumes
greater child(care responsibility
-. &hich one of the following statements would most appropriately continue the
discussion at the end of the passage%
(A) At the same time/ most men will remain better able to en<oy the career and
salary opportunities offered by the labor market.
(B) 8f course/ men who are married to working mothers know of these
employment barriers but seem unwilling to do anything about them.
(C) 8n the other hand/ salary le'els may become more e"uitable between men and
women e'en if the other career opportunities remain more accessible to men
than to women.
() 8n the contrary/ men with primary child(rearing responsibilities will continue
to en<oy more ad'antages in the workplace than their female counterparts.
(#) Thus/ institutions in society that fa'or men o'er women will continue to widen
the gap between the career opportunities a'ailable for men and for women.
%ritics have "ong been pu++"ed by the inner contradictions o& ma5or characters
in Cohn ;ebster6s tragedies. 2n his The -uchess of (al>( &or instance( the Kuchess
is >good? in demonstrating the obvious tenderness and sincerity o& her "ove &or
3ntonio( but >bad? in ignoring the wishes and we"&are o& her &ami"y and in ma$ing
re"igion a >c"oa$? hiding wor"d"y se"&-indu"gence. 'oso"a is >bad? in serving
:erdinand( >good? in turning the Kuchess6 thoughts toward heaven and in
p"anning to avenge her murder. The ancient Eree$ phi"osopher 3ristot"e imp"ied
that such contradictions are virtua""y essentia" to the tragic persona"ity( and yet
critics $eep coming bac$ to this e"ement o& inconsistency as though it were an
eccentric &eature o& ;ebster6s own tragic vision.
LSAT -,1
The prob"em is that( as an @"i+abethan p"aywright( ;ebster has become a
prisoner o& our critica" presuppositions. ;e have( in recent years( been da++"ed by
the way the ear"ier Renaissance and medieva" theater( particu"ar"y the mora"ity
p"ay( i""uminates @"i+abethan drama. ;e now understand how the habit o& mind
that saw the wor"d as a batt"eground between good and evi" produced the
mora"ity p"ay. Bora"ity p"ays a""egori+ed that conDict by presenting characters
whose actions were de#ned as the embodiment o& good or evi". This mode" o&
rea"ity "ived on( over"aid by di1erent conventions( in the most sophisticated
@"i+abethan wor$s o& the &o""owing age. Iet ;ebster seems not to have been as
heavi"y inDuenced by the mora"ity p"ay6s mode" o& rea"ity as were his @"i+abethan
contemporaries= he was apparent"y more sensitive to the more mora""y
comp"icated 2ta"ian drama than to these @ng"ish sources. %onse-uent"y( his
characters cannot be eva"uated according to reductive &ormu"as o& good and evi"(
which is precise"y what modern critics have tried to do. They choose what seem to
be the most promising o& the contradictor va"ues that are dramati+ed in the p"ay(
and treat those va"ues as i& they were the on"y basis &or ana"y+ing the mora"
deve"opment o& the p"ay6s ma5or characters( attributing the inconsistencies in a
character6s behavior to artistic incompetence on ;ebster6s part. The "ac$ o&
consistency in ;ebster6s characters can be better understood i& we recogni+e that
the ambiguity at the heart o& his tragic vision "ies not in the e8terna" wor"d but in
the dua"ity o& human nature. ;ebster estab"ishes tension in his p"ays by setting
up conDicting systems o& va"ue that appear immora" on"y when one va"ue system
is viewed e8c"usive"y &rom the perspective o& the other. )e presents us not on"y
with characters that we condemn inte""ectua""y or ethica""y and at the same time
impu"sive"y approve o&( but a"so with 5udgments we must accept as "ogica""y
sound and yet #nd emotiona""y repu"sive. The di"emma is not on"y dramaticA it is
tragic( because the conDict is irreconci"ab"e( and because it is ours as much as
that o& the characters.
6. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) clarify an ambiguous assertion
(B) pro'ide e'idence in support of a commonly held 'iew
(C) analy!e an unresol'ed "uestion and propose an answer
() offer an alternati'e to a flawed interpretation
(#) describe and categori!e opposing 'iewpoints
,. The author suggests which one of the following about the dramatic works that
most influenced &ebster4s tragedies%
(A) They were not concerned with dramati!ing the conflict between good and e'il
that was presented in morality plays.
(B) They were not as sophisticated as the 3talian sources from which other
#li!abethan tragedies were deri'ed.
(C) They ha'e ne'er been ade"uately understood by critics.
-,2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
() They ha'e only recently been used to illuminate the con'entions of
#li!abethan drama.
(#) They ha'e been considered by many critics to be the reason for &ebster4s
apparent artistic incompetence.
15. The author4s allusion to Aristotle4s 'iew of tragedy in lines 11(1. ser'es which one
of the following functions in the passage%
(A) 3t introduces a commonly held 'iew of &ebster4s tragedies that the author
plans to defend.
(B) 3t supports the author4s suggestion that &ebster4s conception of tragedy is not
idiosyncratic.
(C) 3t pro'ides an e$ample of an approach to &ebster4s tragedies that the author
critici!es.
() 3t establishes the similarity between classical and modern approaches to
tragedy.
(#) 3t supports the author4s assertion that #li!abethan tragedy cannot be fully
understood without the help of recent scholarship.
11. 3t can be inferred from the passage that modern critics4 interpretations of &ebster4s
tragedies would be more 'alid if
(A) the ambiguity inherent in &ebster4s tragic 'ision resulted from the duality of
human nature
(B) &ebster4s conception of the tragic personality were similar to that of Aristotle
(C) &ebster had been hea'ily influenced by the morality play
() #li!abethan dramatists had been more sensiti'e to 3talian sources of influence
(#) the inner conflicts e$hibited by &ebster4s characters were similar to those of
modern audiences
12. &ith which one of the following statements regarding #li!abethan drama would
the author be most likely to agree%
(A) The skill of #li!abethan dramatists has in recent years been o'erestimated.
(B) The con'entions that shaped #li!abethan drama are best e$emplified by
&ebster4s drama.
(C) #li!abethan drama/ for the most part/ can be 'iewed as being hea'ily
influenced by the morality play.
() 8nly by carefully e$amining the work of his #li!abethan contemporaries can
&ebster4s achie'ement as a dramatist be accurately measured.
(#) #li!abethan drama can best be described as influenced by a composite of
3talian and classical sources.
1.. 3t can be inferred from the passage that most modern critics assume which one of
the following in their interpretation of &ebster4s tragedies%
LSAT -,.
(A) &ebster4s play tended to allegori!e the conflict between good and e'il more
than did those of his contemporaries.
(B) &ebster4s plays were deri'ed more from 3talian than from #nglish sources.
(C) The artistic flaws in &ebster4s tragedies were largely the result of his
ignorance of the classical definition of tragedy.
() &ebster4s tragedies pro'ide no rele'ant basis for analy!ing the moral
de'elopment of their characters.
(#) 3n writing his tragedies/ &ebster was influenced by the same sources as his
contemporaries.
10. The author implies that &ebster4s conception of tragedy was
(A) artistically flawed
(B) highly con'entional
(C) largely deri'ed from the morality play
() somewhat different from the con'entional #li!abethan conception of tragedy
(#) uninfluenced by the classical conception of tragedy
%u"tivation o& a sing"e crop on a given tract o& "and "eads eventua""y to
decreased yie"ds. <ne reason &or this is that harm&u" bacteria" phytopathogens(
organisms parasitic on p"ant hosts( increase in the soi" surrounding p"ant roots.
The prob"em can be cured by crop rotation( denying the pathogens a suitab"e host
&or a period o& time. )owever( even i& crops are not rotated( the severity o&
diseases brought on by such phytopathogens o&ten decreases a&ter a number o&
years as the microbia" popu"ation o& the soi" changes and the soi" becomes
>suppressive? to those diseases. ;hi"e there may be many reasons &or this
phenomenon( it is c"ear that "eve"s o& certain bacteria( such as Pseudomonas
?uorescens( a bacterium antagonistic to a number o& harm&u" phytopathogens(
are greater in suppressive than in nonsuppressive soi". This suggests that the
presence o& such bacteria suppresses phytopathogens. There is now considerab"e
e8perimenta" support &or this view. ;heat yie"d increases o& 47 percent have been
obtained in #e"d tria"s by treatment o& wheat seeds with Duorescent
pseudomonads. imi"ar treatment o& sugar beets( cotton( and potatoes has had
simi"ar resu"ts.
These improvements in crop yie"ds through the app"ication o& Pseudomonas
?uorescens suggest that agricu"ture cou"d bene#t &rom the use o& bacteria
genetica""y a"tered &or speci#c purposes. :or e8amp"e( a &orm o& phytopathogen
a"tered to remove its harm&u" properties cou"d be re"eased into the environment in
-uantities &avorab"e to its competing with and eventua""y e8c"uding the harm&u"
norma" strain. ome e8periments suggest that de"iberate"y re"easing a"tered
nonpathogenic Pseudomonas syringae cou"d crowd out the nona"tered variety that
causes &rost damage. <pponents o& such research have ob5ected that the
de"iberate and "arge-sca"e re"ease o& genetica""y a"tered bacteria might have
de"eterious resu"ts. 9roponents( on the other hand( argue that this particu"ar strain
-,0 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
is a"tered on"y by the remova" o& the gene responsib"e &or the strain6s propensity
to cause &rost damage( thereby rendering it sa&er than the phytopathogen &rom
which it was derived.
ome proponents have gone &urther and suggest that genetic a"teration
techni-ues cou"d create organisms with tota""y new combinations o& desirab"e
traits not &ound in nature. :or e8amp"e( genes responsib"e &or production o&
insecticida" compounds have been transposed &rom other bacteria into
pseudomonads that co"oni+e corn roots. @8periments o& this $ind are di*cu"t and
re-uire great careA such bacteria are deve"oped in high"y arti#cia" environments
and may not compete we"" with natura" soi" bacteria. ,everthe"ess( proponents
contend that the prospects &or improved agricu"ture through such methods seem
e8ce""ent. These prospects "ead many to hope that current e1orts to assess the
ris$s o& de"iberate re"ease o& a"tered microorganisms wi"" success&u""y answer the
concerns o& opponents and create a c"imate in which such research can go
&orward without undue impediment.
11. &hich one of the following best summari!es the main idea of the passage%
(A) =ecent field e$periments with genetically altered @seudomonas bacteria ha'e
shown that releasing genetically altered bacteria into the en'ironment would
not in'ol'e any significant danger.
(B) #ncouraged by current research/ ad'ocates of agricultural use of genetically
altered bacteria are optimistic that such use will e'entually result in impro'ed
agriculture/ though opponents remain wary.
(C) Current research indicates that adding genetically altered Pseudo-onas
syringae bacteria to the soil surrounding crop plant roots will ha'e many
beneficial effects/ such as the pre'ention of frost damage in certain crops.
() Benetic alteration of a number of harmful phytopathogens has been ad'ocated
by many researchers who contend that these techni"ues will e'entually replace
such outdated methods as crop rotation.
(#) Benetic alteration of bacteria has been successful in highly artificial laboratory
conditions/ but opponents of such research ha'e argued that these techni"ues
are unlikely to produce organisms that are able to sur'i'e in natural
en'ironments.
12. The author discusses naturally occurring Pseudo-onas +luorescens bacteria in the
first paragraph primarily in order to do which one of the following%
(A) pro'e that increases in the le'el of such bacteria in the soil are the sole cause
of soil suppressi'ity
(B) e$plain why yields increased after wheat fields were sprayed with altered
Pseudo-onas +luorescens bacteria
(C) detail the chemical processes that such bacteria use to suppress organisms
parasitic to crop plants/ such as wheat/ sugar beets/ and potatoes
LSAT -,1
() pro'ide background information to support the argument that research into the
agricultural use of genetically altered bacteria would be fruitful
(#) argue that crop rotation is unnecessary/ since diseases brought on by
phytopathogens diminish in se'erity and e'entually disappear on their own
1-. 3t can be inferred from the author4s discussion of Pseudo-onas +luorescens
bacteria that which one of the following would be true of crops imper'ious to
parasitical organisms%
(A) Pseudo-onas +luorescens bacteria would be absent from the soil surrounding
their roots.
(B) They would crowd out and e'entually e$clude other crop plants if their growth
were not carefully regulated.
(C) Their yield would not be likely to be impro'ed by adding Pseudo-onas
+luorescens bacteria to the soil.
() They would mature more "uickly than crop plants that were susceptible to
parasitical organisms.
(#) Ke'els of phytopathogenic bacteria in the soil surrounding their roots would be
higher compared with other crop plants.
16. 3t can be inferred from the passage that crop rotation can increase yields in part
because
(A) mo'ing crop plants around makes them hardier and more resistant to disease
(B) the number of Pseudo-onas +luorescens bacteria in the soil usually increases
when crops are rotated
(C) the roots of many crop plants produce compounds that are antagonistic to
phytopathogens harmful to other crop plants
() the presence of phytopathogenic bacteria is responsible for the ma<ority of
plant diseases
(#) phytopathogens typically attack some plant species but find other species to be
unsuitable hosts
1,. According to the passage/ proponents of the use of genetically altered bacteria in
agriculture argue that which one of the following is true of the altered bacteria
used in the frost(damage e$periments%
(A) The altered bacteria had a genetic constitution differing from that of the
normal strain only in that the altered 'ariety had one less gene.
(B) Although the altered bacteria competed effecti'ely with the nonaltered strain in
the laboratory/ they were not as 'iable in natural en'ironments.
(C) The altered bacteria were much safer and more effecti'e than the naturally
occurring Pseudo-onas +luorescens bacteria used in earlier e$periments.
() The altered bacteria were antagonistic to se'eral types of naturally occurring
phytopathogens in the soil surrounding the roots of frost(damaged crops.
-,2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
(#) The altered bacteria were released into the en'ironment in numbers sufficient
to guarantee the 'alidity of e$perimental results.
25. &hich one of the following/ if true/ would most seriously weaken the proponents4
argument regarding the safety of using altered Pseudo-onas syringae bacteria to
control frost damage%
(A) Pseudo-onas syringae bacteria are primiti'e and ha'e a simple genetic
constitution.
(B) The altered bacteria are deri'ed from a strain that is parasitic to plants and can
cause damage to crops.
(C) Current genetic(engineering techni"ues permit the large(scale commercial
production of such bacteria.
() 8ften genes whose presence is responsible for one harmful characteristic must
be present in order to pre'ent other harmful characteristics.
(#) The frost(damage e$periments with Pseudo-onas syringae bacteria indicate
that the altered 'ariety would only replace the normal strain if released in
sufficient numbers.
2n 1887 the Kawes 3ct "egis"ated wide-sca"e private ownership o& reservation
"ands in the United tates &or ,ative 3mericans. The act a""otted p"ots o& 80 acres
to each ,ative 3merican adu"t. )owever( the ,ative 3mericans were not granted
outright tit"e to their "ands. The act de#ned each grant as a >trust patent(?
meaning that the 'ureau o& 2ndian 31airs ('23)( the governmenta" agency in
charge o& administering po"icy regarding ,ative 3mericans( wou"d ho"d the
a""otted "and in trust &or 4/ years( during which time the ,ative 3merican owners
cou"d use( but not a"ienate (se"") the "and. 3&ter the 4/-year period( the ,ative
3merican a""ottee wou"d receive a >&ee patent? awarding &u"" "ega" ownership o&
the "and.
Two main reasons were advanced &or the restriction on the ,ative 3mericans6
abi"ity to se"" their "ands. :irst( it was c"aimed that &ree a"ienabi"ity wou"d "ead to
immediate trans&er o& "arge amounts o& &ormer reservation "and to non-,ative
3mericans( conse-uent"y threatening the traditiona" way o& "i&e on those
reservations. 3 second ob5ection to &ree a"ienation was that ,ative 3mericans
were unaccustomed to( and did not desire( a system o& private "andownership.
Their custom( it was said( &avored communa" use o& "and.
)owever( both o& these arguments bear on"y on the trans&er o& ,ative
3merican "ands to non-,ative 3mericansA neither o1ers a reason &or prohibiting
,ative 3mericans &rom trans&erring "and among themse"ves. e""ing "and to each
other wou"d not threaten the ,ative 3merican cu"ture. 3dditiona""y( i& communa"
"and use remained pre&erab"e to ,ative 3mericans a&ter a""otment( &ree a"ienabi"ity
wou"d have a""owed a""ottees to se"" their "ands bac$ to the tribe.
;hen stated rationa"es &or government po"icies prove empty( using an interest-
group mode" o&ten provides an e8p"anation. ;hi"e neither ,ative 3mericans nor
LSAT -,-
the potentia" non-,ative 3merican purchasers bene#ted &rom the restraint on
a"ienation contained in the Kawes 3ct( one c"ear"y de#ned group did bene#tA the
'23 bureaucrats. 2t has been convincing"y demonstrated that bureaucrats see$ to
ma8imi+e the si+e o& their sta1s and their budgets in order to compensate &or the
"ac$ o& other sources o& &u"#""ment( such as power and prestige. 3dditiona""y(
po"iticians tend to &avor the growth o& governmenta" bureaucracy because such
growth provides increased opportunity &or the e8ercise o& po"itica" patronage. The
restraint on a"ienation vast"y increased the amount o& wor$( and hence the
budgets( necessary to imp"ement the statute. Unti" a""otment was ended in 197M(
granting &ee patents and "easing ,ative 3merican "ands were among the principa"
activities o& the United tates government. <ne hypothesis( then( &or the
temporary restriction on a"ienation in the Kawes 3ct is that it reDected a
compromise between non-,ative 3mericans &avoring immediate a"ienabi"ity so
they cou"d purchase "and and the '23 bureaucrats who administered the
privati+ation system.
21. &hich one of the following best summari!es the main idea of the passage%
(A) :nited ;tates go'ernment policy toward 9ati'e Americans has tended to
disregard their needs and consider instead the needs of non(9ati'e American
purchasers of land.
(B) 3n order to preser'e the uni"ue way of life on 9ati'e American reser'ations/
use of 9ati'e American lands must be communal rather than indi'idual.
(C) The awes Act4s restriction on the right of 9ati'e Americans to sell their land
may ha'e been implemented primarily to ser'e the interests of politicians and
bureaucrats.
() The clause restricting free alienability in the awes Act greatly e$panded
:nited ;tates go'ernmental acti'ity in the area of land administration.
(#) ;ince passage of the awes Act in 166-/ 9ati'e Americans ha'e not been able
to sell or transfer their former reser'ation land freely.
22. &hich one of the following statements concerning the reason for the end of
allotment/ if true/ would pro'ide the most support for the author4s 'iew of
politicians%
(A) @oliticians reali!ed that allotment was damaging the 9ati'e American way of
life.
(B) @oliticians decided that allotment would be more congruent with the 9ati'e
American custom of communal land use.
(C) @oliticians belie'ed that allotment4s continuation would not enhance their
opportunities to e$ercise patronage.
() @oliticians felt that the staff and budgets of the B3A had grown too large.
(#) @oliticians were concerned that too much 9ati'e American land was falling
into the hands of non(9ati'e Americans.
-,6 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
2.. &hich one of the following best describes the organi!ation of the passage%
(A) The passage of a law is analy!ed in detail/ the benefits and drawbacks of one
of its clauses are studied/ and a final assessment of the law is offered.
(B) The history of a law is narrated/ the effects of one of its clauses on 'arious
populations are studied/ and repeal of the law is ad'ocated
(C) A law is e$amined/ the political and social backgrounds of one of its clauses
are characteri!ed/ and the permanent effects of the law are studied.
() A law is described/ the rationale put forward for one of its clauses is outlined
and dismissed/ and a different rationale for the clause is presented.
(#) The legal status of an ethnic group is e$amined with respect to issues of
landownership and commercial autonomy/ and the benefits to ri'al groups due
to that status are e$plained.
20. The author4s attitude toward the reasons ad'anced for the restriction on alienability
in the awes Act at the time of its passage can best be described as
(A) completely credulous
(B) partially appro'ing
(C) basically indecisi'e
() mildly "uestioning
(#) highly skeptical
21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that which one of the following was true of
9ati'e American life immediately before passage of the awes Act%
(A) ?ost 9ati'e Americans supported themsel'es through farming.
(B) 9ot many 9ati'e Americans personally owned the land on which they li'ed.
(C) The land on which most 9ati'e Americans li'ed had been bought from their
tribes.
() >ew 9ati'e Americans had much contact with their non(9ati'e American
neighbors.
(#) >ew 9ati'e Americans were willing to sell their land to non(9ati'e Americans.
22. According to the passage/ the type of landownership initially obtainable by 9ati'e
Americans under the awes Act differed from the type of ownership obtainable
after a 21(year period in that only the latter allowed
(A) owners of land to farm it
(B) owners of land to sell it
(C) go'ernment some control o'er how owners disposed of land
() owners of land to build on it with relati'ely minor go'ernmental restrictions
(#) go'ernment to charge owners a fee for de'eloping their land
2-. &hich of the following/ if true/ would most strengthen the author4s argument
regarding the true moti'ation for the passage of the awes Act%
LSAT -,,
(A) The legislators who 'oted in fa'or of the awes Act owned land ad<acent to
9ati'e American reser'ations.
(B) The ma<ority of 9ati'e Americans who were granted fee patents did not sell
their land back to their tribes.
(C) 9ati'e Americans managed to preser'e their traditional culture e'en when they
were geographically dispersed.
() The legislators who 'oted in fa'or of the awes Act were hea'ily influenced
by B3A bureaucrats.
(#) 9on(9ati'e Americans who purchased the ma<ority of 9ati'e American lands
consolidated them into larger farm holdings.
LSAT 0' SECTON
T!"e 35 "!#$%es 2' &$es%!o#s
Directions: Each passage in this section is followed by a group of questions to be answered on
the basis of what is stated or implied in the passage. For some of the questions, more than one
of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However, you are to choose the best
answer, that is, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question, and
blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.
The "aw-and-"iterature movement c"aims to have introduced a va"uab"e
pedagogica" innovation into "ega" studyA instructing students in techni-ues o&
"iterary ana"ysis &or the purpose o& interpreting "aws and in the reciproca" use o&
"ega" ana"ysis &or the purpose o& interpreting "iterary te8ts. The resu"ts( according
to advocates( are not on"y conceptua" brea$throughs in both "aw and "iterature but
a"so more sensitive and humane "awyers. ;hatever the truth o& this "ast c"aim(
there can be no doubt that the movement is a successA "aw-and-"iterature is an
accepted sub5ect in "aw 5ourna"s and in "eading "aw schoo"s. 2ndeed( one indication
o& the movement6s strength is the &act that its most distinguished critic( Richard 3.
9osner( parado8ica""y ends up e8pressing -ua"i#ed support &or the movement in a
recent study in which he systematica""y re&utes the writings o& its "eading "ega"
scho"ars and cooperating "iterary critics.
%riti-uing the movement6s assumption that "awyers can o1er specia" insights
into "iterature that dea"s with "ega" matters( 9osner points out that writers o&
"iterature use the "aw "oose"y to convey a particu"ar idea or as a metaphor &or the
wor$ings o& the society envisioned in their #ction. Jega" -uestions per se( about
which a "awyer might instruct readers( are se"dom at issue in "iterature. This is
why practitioners o& "aw-and-"iterature end up discussing the "aw itse"& &ar "ess
than one might suppose. Bovement "eader Cames ;hite( &or e8amp"e( in his
discussion o& arguments in the )liad( bare"y touches on "aw( and then so genera""y
as to render himse"& vu"nerab"e to 9osner6s devastating remar$ that >any
argument can be ana"ogi+ed to a "ega" dispute.?
imi"ar"y( the notion that "iterary criticism can be he"p&u" in interpreting "aw is
prob"ematic. 9osner argues that "iterary criticism in genera" aims at e8p"oring
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richness and variety o& meaning in te8ts( whereas "ega" interpretation aims at
discovering a sing"e meaning. 3 "iterary approach can thus on"y con&use the tas$
o& interpreting the "aw( especia""y i& one adopts current &ashions "i$e
deconstruction( which ho"ds that a"" te8ts are inherent"y uninterpretab"e.
,everthe"ess( 9osner writes that "aw-and-"iterature is a #e"d with >promise?.
;hyG 9erhaps( recogni+ing the success o& a movement that( in the past( has
sing"ed him out &or abuse( he is attempting to appease his detractors( paying
obeisance to the movements institutiona" success by dec"aring that it >deserves a
p"ace in "ega" research? whi"e "eaving it to others to draw the conc"usion &rom his
cogent ana"ysis that it is an entire"y &actitious underta$ing( deserving o& no
inte""ectua" respect whatsoever. 3s a resu"t( his wor$ stands both as a rebutta" o&
"aw-and-"iterature and as a tribute to the power it has come to e8ercise in
academic circ"es.
1. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) assess the law(and(literature mo'ement by e$amining the position of one of its
most prominent critics
(B) assert that a mutually beneficial relationship e$ists between the study of law
and the study of literature
(C) pro'ide e$amples of the law(and(literature mo'ement in practice by discussing
the work of its proponents
() dismiss a prominent critics recent study of the law(and(literature mo'ement
(#) describe the role played by literary scholars in pro'iding a broader conte$t for
legal issues
2. @osner4s stated position with regard to the law(and(literature mo'ement is most
analogous to which one of the following%
(A) a musician who is trained in the classics but fre"uently plays modern music
while performing on stage
(B) a partisan who transfers allegiance to a new political party that demonstrates
more promise but has fewer documented accomplishments
(C) a sports fan who wholeheartedly supports the team most likely to win rather
than his or her personal fa'orite
() an ideologue who remains committed to his or her own 'iew of a sub<ect in
spite of compelling e'idence to the contrary
(#) a salesperson who describes the faults in a fashionable product while
conceding that it may ha'e some 'alue
.. The passage suggests that @osner regards legal practitioners as using an approach
to interpreting law that
(A) eschews disco'ery of multiple meanings
(B) employs techni"ues like deconstruction
LSAT 651
(C) interprets laws in light of 'arying community standards
() is informed by the positions of literary critics
(#) de(emphasi!es the social rele'ance of the legal tradition
0. The @assage suggests that @osner might find legal training useful in the
interpretation of a literary te$t in which
(A) a legal dispute symboli!es the relationship between two characters
(B) an oppressi'e law is used to symboli!e an oppressi'e culture
(C) one of the key issues in'ol'es the answer to a legal "uestion
() a legal contro'ersy is used to represent a moral conflict
(#) the working of the legal system suggests something about the political
character of a society
1. The author uses the word *success+ in line 11 to refer to the law(and(literature
mo'ement4s
(A) positi'e effect on the sensiti'ity of lawyers
(B) widespread acceptance by law schools and law <ournals
(C) ability to offer fresh insights into literary te$ts
() ability to encourage inno'ati'e approaches in two disciplines
(#) response to recent criticism in law <ournals
2. According to the passage/ @osner argues that legal analysis is not generally useful
in interpreting literature because
(A) use of the law in literature is generally of a "uite different nature than use of
the law in legal practice
(B) law is rarely used to con'ey important ideas in literature
(C) lawyers do not ha'e enough literary training to analy!e literature competently
() legal interpretations of literature tend to focus on legal issues to the e$clusion
of other important elements
(#) legal interpretations are only rele'ant to contemporary literature
-. According to @osner/ the primary difficulty in using literary criticism to interpret
law is that
(A) the goals of the two disciplines are incompatible
(B) there are few ad'ocates for the law(and(literature mo'ement in the literary
profession
(C) the task of interpreting law is too comple$ for the techni"ues of literary
criticism
() the interpretation of law relies hea'ily on legal precedent
(#) legal scholars are reluctant to adopt the practice in the classroom
3 recent generation o& historians o& science( &ar &rom portraying accepted
652 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
scienti#c views as ob5ective"y accurate reDections o& a natura" wor"d( e8p"ain the
acceptance o& such views in terms o& the ideo"ogica" biases o& certain inDuentia"
scientists or the institutiona" and rhetorica" power such scientists wie"d. 3s an
e8amp"e o& ideo"ogica" bias( it has been argued that 9asteur re5ected the theory o&
spontaneous generation not because o& e8perimenta" evidence but because he
re5ected the materia"ist ideo"ogy imp"icit in that doctrine. These historians seem to
#nd a""ies in certain phi"osophers o& science who argue that scienti#c views are
not imposed by rea"ity but are &ree inventions o& creative minds( and that
scienti#c c"aims are never more than brave con5ectures( a"ways sub5ect to
inevitab"e &uture &a"si#cation. ;hi"e these phi"osophers o& science themse"ves
wou"d not be "i$e"y to have much truc$ with the recent historians( it is an easy
step &rom their views to the e8tremism o& the historians.
;hi"e this re5ection o& the traditiona" be"ie& that scienti#c views are ob5ective
reDections o& the wor"d may be &ashionab"e( it is deep"y imp"ausib"e. ;e now
$now( &or e8amp"e( that water is made o& hydrogen and o8ygen and that parents
each contribute one-ha"& o& their chi"dren6s comp"ement o& genes. 2 do not be"ieve
any serious-minded and in&ormed person can c"aim that these statements are not
&actua" descriptions o& the wor"d or that they wi"" inevitab"y be &a"si#ed.
)owever( science6s accumu"ation o& "asting truths about the wor"d is not by any
means a straight&orward matter. ;e certain"y need to get beyond the naive view
that the truth wi"" automatica""y revea" itse"& to any scientist who "oo$s in the right
direction= most o&ten( in &act( a who"e series o& prior discoveries is needed to tease
rea"ity6s truths &rom e8periment and observation. 3nd the phi"osophers o& science
mentioned above are -uite right to argue that new scienti#c ideas o&ten correct
o"d ones by indicating errors and imprecision (as( say( ,ewton6s ideas did to
Sep"er6s). ,or wou"d 2 deny that there are interesting -uestions to be answered
about the socia" processes in which scienti#c activity is embedded. The
persuasive processes by which particu"ar scienti#c groups estab"ish their
e8perimenta" resu"ts as authoritative are themse"ves socia" activities and can be
rewarding"y studied as such. 2ndeed( much o& the new wor$ in the history o&
science has been e8treme"y revea"ing about the institutiona" interactions and
rhetorica" devices that he"p determine whose resu"ts achieve prominence.
'ut one can accept a"" this without accepting the thesis that natura" rea"ity
never p"ays any part at a"" in determining what scientists be"ieve. ;hat the new
historians ought to be showing us is how those doctrines that do in &act #t rea"ity
wor$ their way through the comp"e8 socia" processes o& scienti#c activity to
eventua""y receive genera" scienti#c acceptance.
6. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author would be most likely to agree
with which one of the following characteri!ations of scientific truth%
(A) 3t is often implausible.
(B) 3t is sub<ect to ine'itable falsification.
(C) 3t is rarely ob'ious and transparent.
LSAT 65.
() 3t is rarely disco'ered by creati'e processes.
(#) 3t is less often established by e$perimentation than by the rhetorical power of
scientists.
,. According to the passage/ Mepler4s ideas pro'ide an e$ample of scientific ideas
that were
(A) corrected by subse"uent in"uiries
(B) dependent on a series of prior obser'ations
(C) originally thought to be imprecise and then later confirmed
() established primarily by the force of an indi'iduals rhetorical power
(#) specifically taken up for the purpose of falsification by later scientists
15. 3n the third paragraph of the passage/ the author is primarily concerned with
(A) presenting conflicting e$planations for a phenomenon
(B) suggesting a field for possible future research
(C) "ualifying a pre'iously e$pressed point of 'iew
() pro'iding an answer to a theoretical "uestion
(#) attacking the assumptions that underlie a set of beliefs
11. The use of the words *any serious(minded and informed person4 (lines 26(2,)
ser'es which one of the following functions in the conte$t of the passage%
(A) to satiri!e chronologically earlier notions about the composition of water
(B) to reinforce a pre'iously stated opinion about certain philosophers of science
(C) to suggest the author4s reser'ations about the *traditional belief+ mentioned in
line 22
() to anticipate ob<ections from someone who would argue for an ob<ecti'ely
accurate description of the world
(#) to discredit someone who would argue that certain scientific assertions do not
factually describe reality
12. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author would most likely agree with
which one of the following statements about the relationship between the 'iews of
*certain philosophers of science+ (lines l2(1.) and those of the recent historians%
(A) These two 'iews are difficult to differentiate.
(B) These two 'iews share some similarities.
(C) The 'iews of the philosophers ought to be seen as the source of the historians4
'iews.
() Both 'iews emphasi!e the rhetorical power of scientists.
(#) The historians e$plicitly acknowledge that their 'iews are indebted to those of
the philosophers.
1.. &hich one of the following best characteri!es the author4s assessment of the
650 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
opinions of the new historians of science/ as these opinions are presented in the
passage%
(A) They lack any credibility.
(B) They themsel'es can be rewardingly studied as social phenomena.
(C) They are least con'incing when they concern the actions of scientific groups.
() Although they are gross o'erstatements/ they lead to some 'aluable insights.
(#) Although they are now popular/ they are likely to be refused soon.
10. 3n concluding the passage/ the author does which one of the following%
(A) offers a prescription
(B) presents a parado$
(C) makes a prediction
() concedes an argument
(#) anticipates ob<ections
11. The authors attitude toward the *thesis+ mentioned in line 12 is re'ealed in which
one of the following pairs of words%
(A) *biases+ (line 1) and *rhetorical+ (line 2)
(B) *wield+ (line -) and *falsification+ (line 1-)
(C) *con<ectures+ (line l2) and *truck with+ (line 1,)
() *e$tremism+ (line 25) and *implausible+ (line 20)
(#) *nai'e+ (line .1) and *errors4 (line 02)
Unti" recent"y( it was thought that the %hero$ee( a ,ative 3merican tribe( were
compe""ed to assimi"ate @uro-3merican cu"ture during the 1840s. Kuring that
decade( it was supposed( ;hite missionaries arrived and( together with their part-
%hero$ee intermediaries( imposed the bene#ts o& >civi"i+ation? on %hero$ee tribes
whi"e the United tates government active"y promoted accu"tura"i+ation by
encouraging the %hero$ee to switch &rom hunting to sett"ed agricu"ture. This view
was based on the assumption that the end o& a ,ative 3merican group6s economic
and po"itica" autonomy wou"d automatica""y mean the end o& its cu"tura" autonomy
as we"".
;i""iam E. BcJaugh"in has recent"y argued that not on"y did %hero$ee cu"ture
Dourish during and a&ter the 1840s( but the %hero$ee themse"ves active"y and
continua""y reshaped their cu"ture. Bissionaries did have a decisive impact during
these years( he argues( but that impact was &ar &rom what it was intended to be.
The missionaries6 tendency to cater to the interests o& an accu"turating part-
%hero$ee e"ite (who comprised the bu"$ o& their converts) at the e8pense o& the
more traditiona"ist &u""-%hero$ee ma5ority created great intratriba" tensions. 3s the
e"ite initiated re&orms designed to "egitimi+e their own and the %hero$ee ,ation6s
p"ace in the new repub"ic o& the United tates( antimission %hero$ee reacted by
&ostering reviva"s o& traditiona" re"igious be"ie&s and practices. )owever( these
LSAT 651
reviva"s did not( according to BcJaugh"in( undermine the e"itist re&orms( but
supp"emented them with popu"ar traditiona"ist counterparts.
Traditiona"ist %hero$ee did not re5ect the e"itist re&orms outright( BcJaugh"in
argues( simp"y because they recogni+ed that there was more than one way to use
the s$i""s the missionaries cou"d provide them. 3s he -uotes one group as saying(
>;e want our chi"dren to "earn @ng"ish so that the ;hite man cannot cheat us.?
Bany traditiona"ists %hero$ee we"comed the missionaries &or another reasonA they
perceived that it wou"d be use&u" to have ;hite a""ies. 2n the end( BcJaugh"in
asserts( most members o& the %hero$ee counci"( inc"uding traditiona"ists(
supported a move which preserved many o& the re&orms o& the part-%hero$ee e"ite
but "imited the activities and inDuence o& the missionaries and other ;hite
sett"ers. 3ccording to BcJaugh"in( the identity and cu"ture that resu"ted were
distinctive"y %hero$ee( yet reDected the "arger po"itica" and socia" setting in which
they Dourished.
'ecause his wor$ concentrates on the nineteenth century( BcJaugh"in
un&ortunate"y over"oo$s ear"ier sources o& inDuence( such as eighteen-century
;hite resident traders and neighbors( thus obscuring the re"ative impact o& the
missionaries o& the 1840s in contributing to both accu"tura"i+ation and resistance
to it among the %hero$ee. )owever( BcJaugh"in is undoubted"y correct in
recogni+ing that cu"ture is an ongoing process rather than a static entity( and he
has made a signi#cant contribution to our understanding o& how %hero$ee cu"ture
changed whi"e retaining its essentia" identity a&ter con&ronting the missionaries.
12. &hich one of the following best states the main idea of the passage%
(A) ?cKaughlin4s studies of the impact of missionaries on Cherokee culture
during the 1625s are fundamentally flawed/ since ?cKaughlin ignores the
greater impact of &hite resident traders in the eighteenth century.
(B) Though his work is limited in perspecti'e/ ?cKaughlin is substantially correct
that changes in Cherokee culture in the 1625s were mediated by the Cherokee
themsel'es rather than simply imposed by the missionaries.
(C) Although ?cKaughlin is correct in asserting that cultural changes among the
Cherokee were autonomous and so not a result of the presence of missionaries/
he o'eremphasi!es the role of intertribal conflicts.
() ?cKaughlin has shown that Cherokee culture not only flourished during and
after the 1625s/ but that changes in Cherokee culture during this time
de'eloped naturally from elements already present in Cherokee culture.
(#) Although ?cKaughlin o'erlooks a number of rele'ant factors in Cherokee
cultural change in the 1625s/ he con'incingly demonstrates that these changes
were fostered primarily by missionaries.
1-. &hich one of the following statements regarding the Cherokee council in the
1625s can be inferred from the passage%
(A) ?embers of the Cherokee council were elected democratically by the entire
652 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
Cherokee 9ation.
(B) 3n order for a policy to come into effect for the Cherokee 9ation/ it had to ha'e
been appro'ed by a unanimous 'ote of the Cherokee council.
(C) espite the fact that the Cherokee were dominated politically and
economically by the :nited ;tates in the 1625s/ the Cherokee council was able
to o'erride policies set by the :nited ;tates go'ernment.
() Though it did not ha'e complete autonomy in go'erning the Cherokee 9ation/
it was able to set some policies affecting the acti'ities of &hite people li'ing in
tribal areas.
(#) The proportions of traditionalist and acculturating Cherokee in the Cherokee
council were determined by the proportions of traditionalist and acculturating
Cherokee in the Cherokee population.
16. &hich one of the following statements regarding the attitudes of traditionalist
Cherokee toward the reforms that were instituted in the 1625s can be inferred from
the passage%
(A) They supported the reforms merely as a way of placating the increasingly
'ocal acculturating elite.
(B) They thought that the reforms would lead to the destruction of traditional
Cherokee culture but felt powerless to stop the reforms.
(C) They supported the reforms only because they thought that they were
ine'itable and it was better that the reforms appear to ha'e been initiated by the
Cherokee themsel'es.
() They belie'ed that the reforms were a natural e$tension of already e$isting
Cherokee traditions.
(#) They 'iewed the reforms as a means of preser'ing the Cherokee 9ation and
protecting it against e$ploitation.
1,. According to the passage/ ?cKaughlin cites which one of the following as a
contributing factor in the re'i'al of traditional religious beliefs among the
Cherokee in the 1625s%
(A) ?issionaries were gaining con'erts at an increasing rate as the 1625s
progressed.
(B) The traditionalist Cherokee ma<ority thought that most of the reforms initiated
by the missionaries4 con'erts would corrupt Cherokee culture.
(C) ?issionaries unintentionally created conflict among the Cherokee by fa'oring
the interests of the acculturating elite at the e$pense of the more traditionalist
ma<ority.
() Traditionalist Cherokee recogni!ed that only some of the reforms instituted by
a small Cherokee elite would be beneficial to all Cherokee.
(#) A small group of Cherokee con'erted by missionaries attempted to institute
reforms designed to ac"uire political supremacy for themsel'es in the
LSAT 65-
Cherokee council.
25. &hich one of the following/ if true/ would most seriously undermine
?cKaughlin4s account of the course of reform among the Cherokee during the
1625s%
(A) Traditionalist Cherokee gained control o'er the ma<ority of seats on the
Cherokee council during the 1625s.
(B) The :nited ;tates go'ernment took an acti'e interest in political and cultural
de'elopments within 9ati'e American tribes.
(C) The missionaries li'ing among the Cherokee in the 1625s were strongly in
fa'or of the cultural reforms initiated by the acculturating elite.
() =e'i'als of traditional Cherokee religious beliefs and practices began late in
the eighteenth century/ before the missionaries arri'ed.
(#) The acculturating Cherokee elite of the 1625s did not 'iew the reforms they
initiated as beneficial to all Cherokee.
21. 3t can be inferred from the author4s discussion of ?cKaughlin4s 'iews that the
author thinks that Cherokee acculturali!ation in the 1625s
(A) was re'ersed in the decades following the 1625s
(B) may ha'e been part of an already(e$isting process of acculturali!ation
(C) could ha'e been the result of earlier contacts with missionaries
() would not ha'e occurred without the encouragement of the :nited ;tates
go'ernment
(#) was primarily a result of the influence of &hite traders li'ing near the
Cherokee
2n the history o& nineteenth-century "andscape painting in the United tates(
the Juminists are distinguished by their &ocus on atmosphere and "ight. The
accepted view o& Juminist paintings is that they are basica""y spiritua" and imp"y a
tran-ui" mysticism that contrasts with ear"ier 3merican artists6 concept o& nature
as dynamic and energetic. 3ccording to this view( the Juminist atmosphere(
characteri+ed by >pure and constant "ight(? guides the on"oo$er toward a "ucid
transcendenta"ism( an idea"i+ed vision o& the wor"d.
;hat this view &ai"s to do is to identi&y the true signi#cance o& this
transcendenta" atmosphere in Juminist paintings. The prosaic &actors that are
revea"ed by a c"oser e8amination o& these wor$s suggest that the g"owing
appearance o& nature in Juminism is actua""y a sign o& nature6s domestication( its
adaptation to human use. The idea"i+ed Juminist atmosphere thus seems to
convey( not an intensi#cation o& human responses to nature( but rather a muting
o& those emotions( "i$e awe and &ear( which untamed nature e"icits.
<ne critic( in describing the spiritua" -ua"ity o& harbor scenes by :it+ )ugh
Jane( an important Juminist( care&u""y notes that >at the pea$ o& Juminist
deve"opment in the 18/0s and 18L0s( spiritua"ism in 3merica was e8treme"y
656 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
widespread.? 2t is a"so true( however( that the 18/0s and 18L0s were a time o&
trade e8pansion. :rom 18M8 unti" his death in 18L/( Jane "ived in a house with a
view o& the harbor o& E"oucester( Bassachusetts( and he made short trips to
Baine( ,ew Ior$( 'a"timore( and probab"y 9uerto Rico. 2n a"" o& these p"aces he
painted the harbors with their ships!the instruments o& e8panding trade.
Jane usua""y depicts p"aces "i$e ,ew Ior$ )arbor( with ships at anchor( but
even when he depicts more remote( "ess commercia""y active harbors( nature
appears pastora" and domesticated rather than primitive or une8p"ored. The ships(
rather than the surrounding "andscapes!inc"uding the sea!are genera""y the
active e"ement in his pictures. :or Jane the sea is( in e1ect( a cana" or a trade
route &or commercia" activity( not a &ree power&u" e"ement( as it is in the ear"y
pictures o& his predecessor( %o"e. :or Jane nature is subdued( even when storms
are approaching= thus( the sea is a"ways a viab"e highway &or the transport o&
goods. 2n sum( 2 consider Jane6s sea simp"y an environment &or human activity!
nature no "onger invio"ate. The "uminescence that Jane paints symbo"i+es nature6s
humb"ed state( &or the "ight itse"& is as doci"e as the Juminist sea( and its
tran-ui"ity in a sense signi#es no more than good conditions on the highway to
progress. 9rogress( probab"y even more than transcendence( is the secret
message o& Juminism. 2n a sense( Juminist pictures are an ideo"ogica" 5usti#cation
o& the atmosphere necessary &or business( i& a"so an e8aggerated( idea"istic
rendering o& that atmosphere.
22. The passage is primarily concerned with discussing
(A) the importance of religion to the art of a particular period
(B) the way one artist4s work illustrates a tradition of painting
(C) the significance of the sea in one artist4s work
() differences in the treatment of nature as a more acti'e or a less acti'e force
(#) 'ariations in the artistic treatment of light among nineteenth(century landscape
painters
2.. The author argues that nature is portrayed in Kane4s pictures as
(A) wild and une$plored
(B) ideali!ed and distant
(C) continually changing
() difficult to understand
(#) subordinate to human concerns
20. The passage contains information to suggest that the author would most probably
agree with which one of the following statements%
(A) The pre'ailing religious principles of a gi'en time can be reflected in the art of
that time.
(B) 3n order to interest 'iewers/ works of art must depict familiar sub<ects in detail.
LSAT 65,
(C) Because commerce is unusual as a sub<ect in art/ the painter of commercial
acti'ity must tra'el and obser'e it widely.
() Mnowing about the en'ironment in which an artist li'ed can aid in an
understanding of a work by that artist.
(#) The most popular works of art at a gi'en time are de'oted to furthering
economic or social progress.
21. According to the author/ a supporter of the 'iew of Kuminism described in the first
paragraph would most likely
(A) be unimpressed by the paintings glowing light
(B) consider Kuminist scenes to be undomesticated and wild
(C) interpret the Kuminist depiction of nature incorrectly
() see Kuminist paintings as practical rather than mystical
(#) focus on the paintings4 sub<ect matter instead of an atmosphere and light
22. According to the author/ the sea is significant in Kane4s paintings because of its
association with
(A) e$ploration
(B) commerce
(C) canals
() idealism
(#) mysticism
2-. The author4s primary purpose is to
(A) refute a new theory
(B) replace an inade"uate analysis
(C) summari!e current critics4 attitudes
() support another critic4s e'aluation
(#) describe the history of a misinterpretation
26. The author "uotes a critic writing about Kane (lines 21(2-) most probably in order
to
(A) suggest that Kuminism was the dominant mode of painting in the 1615s and
1625s
(B) support the idea that Kane was interested in spiritualism
(C) pro'ide an e$ample of the primary cultural factors that influenced the
Kuminists
() e$plain why the de'elopment of Kuminism coincided with that of spiritualism
(#) illustrate a common misconception concerning an important characteristic of
Kane4s paintings
LSAT 09 SECTON
615 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
T!"e 35 "!#$%es 26 &$es%!o#s
Directions: Each passage in this section is followed by a group of questions to be answered on
the basis of what is stated or implied in the passage. For some of the questions, more than one
of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However, you are to choose the best
answer, that is, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question, and
blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.
3&ter thirty years o& investigation into ce"" genetics( researchers made start"ing
discoveries in the 19L0s and ear"y 1970s which cu"minated in the deve"opment o&
processes( co""ective"y $nown as recombinant deo8yribonuc"eic acid (rK,3)
techno"ogy( &or the active manipu"ation o& a ce""6s genetic code. The techno"ogy
has created e8citement and controversy because it invo"ves a"tering K,3!which
contains the bui"ding b"oc$s o& the genetic code.
Using rK,3 techno"ogy( scientists can trans&er a portion o& the K,3 &rom one
organism to a sing"e "iving ce"" o& another. The scientist chemica""y >snips? the
K,3 chain o& the host ce"" at a predetermined point and attaches another piece o&
K,3 &rom a donor ce"" at that p"ace( creating a comp"ete"y new organism.
9roponents o& rK,3 research and deve"opment c"aim that it wi"" a""ow scientists
to #nd cures &or disease and to better understand how genetic in&ormation
contro"s an organism6s deve"opment. They a"so see many other potentia""y
practica" bene#ts( especia""y in the pharmaceutica" industry. ome corporations
emp"oying the new techno"ogy even c"aim that by the end o& the century a"" ma5or
diseases wi"" be treated with drugs derived &rom microorganisms created through
rK,3 techno"ogy. 9harmaceutica" products a"ready deve"oped( but not yet
mar$eted( indicate that these predictions may be rea"i+ed.
9roponents a"so cite nonmedica" app"ications &or this techno"ogy. @nergy
production and waste disposa" may bene#tA genetica""y a"tered organisms cou"d
convert sewage and other organic materia" into methane &ue". 3gricu"ture might
a"so ta$e advantage o& rK,3 techno"ogy to produce new varieties o& crops that
resist &ou" weather( pests( and the e1ects o& poor soi".
3 ma5or concern o& the critics o& rK,3 research is that genetica""y a"tered
microorganisms might escape &rom the "aboratory. 'ecause these microorganisms
are "aboratory creations that( in a"" probabi"ity( do not occur in nature( their
interaction with the natura" wor"d cannot be predicted with certainty. 2t is possib"e
that they cou"d cause previous"y un$nown( perhaps incurab"e diseases. The e1ect
o& genetica""y a"tered microorganisms on the wor"d6s microbio"ogica" predator-prey
re"ationships is another potentia""y serious prob"em pointed out by the opponents
o& rK,3 research. 2ntroducing a new species may disrupt or even destroy the
e8isting ecosystem. The co""apse o& interdependent re"ationships among species(
e8trapo"ated to its e8treme( cou"d eventua""y resu"t in the destruction o& humanity.
<pponents o& rK,3 techno"ogy a"so cite ethica" prob"ems with it. :or e8amp"e(
it gives scientists the power to instant"y cross evo"utionary and species
boundaries that nature too$ mi""ennia to estab"ish. The imp"ications o& such power
LSAT 611
wou"d become particu"ar"y pro&ound i& genetic engineers were to tin$er with
human genes( a practice that wou"d bring us one step c"oser to 3"dous )u8"ey6s
grim vision in Brave +ew ,orld o& a tota"itarian society that engineers human
beings to &u"#"" speci#c ro"es.
1. 3n the passage/ the author is primarily concerned with doing which one of the
following%
(A) e$plaining the process and applications of r9A technology
(B) ad'ocating continued r9A research and de'elopment
(C) pro'iding e'idence indicating the need for regulation of r9A research and
de'elopment
() summari!ing the contro'ersy surrounding r9A research and de'elopment
(#) arguing that the en'ironmental risks of r9A technology may outweigh its
medical benefits
2. According to the passage/ which one of the following is an accurate statement
about research into the genetic code of cells%
(A) 3t led to the de'elopment of processes for the manipulation of 9A.
(B) 3t was initiated by the disco'ery of r9A technology.
(C) 3t led to the use of new treatments for ma<or diseases.
() 3t was uni'ersally heralded as a great benefit to humanity.
(#) 3t was moti'ated by a desire to create new organisms.
.. The potential benefits of r9A technology referred to in the passage include all of
the following #DC#@T
(A) new methods of waste treatment
(B) new biological knowledge
(C) enhanced food production
() de'elopment of less e$pensi'e drugs
(#) increased energy production
0. &hich one of the following/ if true/ would most weaken an argument of opponents
of r9A technology%
(A) 9ew safety procedures de'eloped by r9A researchers make it impossible for
genetically altered microorganisms to escape from laboratories.
(B) A genetically altered microorganism accidentally released from a laboratory is
successfully contained.
(C) A particular r9A(engineered microorganism introduced into an ecosystem
attracts predators that keep its population down.
() Benetically altered organisms designed to process sewage into methane cannot
sur'i'e outside the waste treatment plant.
(#) A specific hereditary disease that has plagued humankind for generations is
612 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
successfully eradicated.
1. The author4s reference in the last sentence of the passage to a society that
engineers human beings to fulfill specific roles ser'es to
(A) emphasi!e the potential medical dangers of r9A technology
(B) ad'ocate research on the use of r9A technology in human genetics
(C) warn of the possible disasters that could result from upsetting the balance of
nature
() present %ra$e Ne( World as an e$ample of a work of fiction that accurately
predicted technological de'elopments
(#) illustrate the sociopolitical ramifications of applying genetic engineering to
humans
2. &hich one of the following/ if true/ would most strengthen an argument of the
opponents of r9A technology%
(A) Agricultural products de'eloped through r9A technology are no more
attracti'e to consumers than are traditional crops.
(B) Benetically altered microorganisms ha'e no natural predators but can prey on
a wide 'ariety of other microorganisms.
(C) rugs produced using r9A technology cost more to manufacture than drugs
produced with traditional technologies.
() #cosystems are impermanent systems that are often liable to collapse/ and
occasionally do so.
(#) Benetically altered microorganisms generally cannot sur'i'e for more than a
few hours in the natural en'ironment.
Eray mar$eting( the se""ing o& trademar$ed products through channe"s o&
distribution not authori+ed by the trademar$ ho"der( can invo"ve distribution o&
goods either within a mar$et region or across mar$et boundaries. Eray mar$eting
within a mar$et region (>channe" Dow diversion?) occurs when manu&acturer-
authori+ed distributors se"" trademar$ed goods to unauthori+ed distributors who
then se"" the goods to consumers within the same region. :or e8amp"e( -uantity
discounts &rom manu&acturers may motivate authori+ed dea"ers to enter the gray
mar$et because they can purchase "arger -uantities o& a product than they
themse"ves intend to stoc$ i& they can se"" the e8tra units through gray mar$eting
channe"s.
;hen gray mar$eting occurs across mar$et boundaries( it is typica""y in an
internationa" setting and may be ca""ed >para""e" importing.? Banu&acturers o&ten
produce and se"" products in more than one country and estab"ish a networ$ o&
authori+ed dea"ers in each country. 9ara""e" importing occurs when trademar$ed
goods intended &or one country are diverted &rom proper channe"s (channe" Dow
diversion) and then e8ported to unauthori+ed distributors in another country.
Trademar$ owners 5usti#ab"y argue against gray mar$eting practices since such
LSAT 61.
practices c"ear"y 5eopardi+e the goodwi"" estab"ished by trademar$ ownersA
consumers who purchase trademar$ed goods in the gray mar$et do not get the
same >e8tended product(? which typica""y inc"udes pre- and postsa"e service.
@-ua""y important( authori+ed distributors may cease to promote the product i& it
becomes avai"ab"e &or much "ower prices through unauthori+ed channe"s.
%urrent debate over regu"ation o& gray mar$eting &ocuses on three disparate
theories in trademar$ "aw that have been various"y and con&using"y app"ied to
para""e" importation casesA universa"ity( e8haustion( and territoria"ity. The theory
o& universa"ity ho"ds that a trademar$ is on"y an indication o& the source or origin
o& the product. This theory does not recogni+e the goodwi"" &unctions o& a
trademar$. ;hen the courts app"y this theory( gray mar$eting practices are
a""owed to continue because the origin o& the product remains the same
regard"ess o& the speci#c route o& the product through the channe" o& distribution.
The e8haustion theory ho"ds that a trademar$ owner re"in-uishes a"" rights once a
product has been so"d. ;hen this theory is app"ied( gray mar$eting practices are
a""owed to continue because the trademar$ owners6 rights cease as soon as their
products are so"d to a distributor. The theory o& territoria"ity ho"ds that a
trademar$ is e1ective in the country in which it is registered. Under the theory o&
territoria"ity( trademar$ owners can stop gray mar$eting practices in the
registering countries on products bearing their trademar$s. ince on"y the
territoria"ity theory a1ords trademar$ owners any rea" "ega" protection against
gray mar$eting practices( 2 be"ieve it is inevitab"e as we"" as desirab"e that it wi""
come to be consistent"y app"ied in gray mar$eting cases.
-. &hich one of the following best e$presses the main point of the passage%
(A) Bray marketing is unfair to trademark owners and should be legally controlled.
(B) Bray marketing is practiced in many different forms and places/ and legislators
should recogni!e the futility of trying to regulate it.
(C) The mechanisms used to control gray marketing across markets are different
from those most effecti'e in controlling gray marketing within markets.
() The three trademark law theories that ha'e been applied in gray marketing
cases lead to different case outcomes.
(#) Current theories used to interpret trademark laws ha'e resulted in increased
gray marketing acti'ity.
6. The function of the passage as a whole is to
(A) critici!e the moti'es and methods of those who practice gray marketing
(B) e'aluate the effects of both channel flow di'ersion and parallel importation
(C) discuss the methods that ha'e been used to regulate gray marketing and
e'aluate such methods4 degrees of success
() describe a contro'ersial marketing practice and e'aluate se'eral legal 'iews
regarding it
610 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
(#) discuss situations in which certain marketing practices are common and
analy!e the economic factors responsible for their de'elopment
,. &hich one of the following does the author offer as an argument against gray
marketing%
(A) ?anufacturers find it difficult to monitor the effecti'eness of promotional
efforts made on behalf of products that are gray marketed.
(B) Bray marketing can discourage product promotion by authori!ed distributors.
(C) Bray marketing forces manufacturers to accept the low profit margins that
result from "uantity discounting.
() Bray marketing discourages competition among unauthori!ed dealers.
(#) Nuality standards in the manufacture of products likely to be gray marketed
may decline.
15. The information in the passage suggests that proponents of the theory of
territoriality would probably differ from proponents of the theory of e$haustion on
which one of the following issues%
(A) the right of trademark owners to enforce/ in countries in which the trademarks
are registered/ distribution agreements intended to restrict distribution to
authori!ed channels
(B) the right of trademark owners to sell trademarked goods only to those
distributors who agree to abide by distribution agreements
(C) the legality of channel flow di'ersion that occurs in a country other than the
one in which a trademark is registered
() the significance consumers attach to a trademark
(#) the usefulness of trademarks as marketing tools
11. The author discusses the impact of gray marketing on goodwill in order to
(A) fault trademark owners for their unwillingness to offer a solution to a ma<or
consumer complaint against gray marketing
(B) indicate a way in which manufacturers sustain damage against which they
ought to be protected
(C) highlight one way in which gray marketing across markets is more problematic
than gray marketing within a market
() demonstrate that gray marketing does not always benefit the interests of
unauthori!ed distributors
(#) argue that consumers are unwilling to accept a reduction in price in e$change
for elimination of ser'ice
12. The author4s attitude toward the possibility that the courts will come to e$ercise
consistent control o'er gray marketing practices can best be characteri!ed as one
of
LSAT 611
(A) resigned tolerance
(B) utter dismay
(C) reasoned optimism
() unbridled fer'or
(#) cynical indifference
1.. 3t can be inferred from the passage that some channel flow di'ersion might be
eliminated if
(A) profit margins on authori!ed distribution of goods were less than those on
goods marketed through parallel importing
(B) manufacturers relie'ed authori!ed channels of all responsibility for product
promotion
(C) manufacturers charged all authori!ed distributors the same unit price for
products regardless of "uantity purchased
() the postsale ser'ice policies of authori!ed channels were controlled by
manufacturers
(#) manufacturers refused to pro'ide the *e$tended product+ to consumers who
purchase goods in the gray market
3ny study o& autobiographica" narratives that appeared under the ostensib"e
authorship o& 3&rican 3merican writers between 17L0 and 18L/ inevitab"y raises
concerns about authenticity and interpretation. hou"d an autobiography whose
written composition was "itera""y out o& the hands o& its narrator be considered as
the "iterary e-uiva"ent o& those autobiographies that were authored independent"y
by their sub5ectsG
2n many cases( the so-ca""ed edited narrative o& an e8-s"ave ought to be treated
as a ghostwritten account inso&ar as "iterary ana"ysis is concerned( especia""y
when it was composed by its editor &rom >a statement o& &acts? provided by an
3&rican 3merican sub5ect. '"assingame has ta$en pains to show that the editors o&
severa" o& the more &amous antebe""um s"ave narratives were >noted &or their
integrity? and thus were un"i$e"y to distort the &acts given them by s"ave
narrators. :rom a "iterary standpoint( however( it is not the mora" integrity o&
these editors that is at issue but the "inguistic( structura"( and tona" integrity o&
the narratives they produces. @ven i& an editor &aith&u""y reproduced the &acts o& a
narrator6s "i&e( it was sti"" the editor who decided what to ma$e o& these &acts( how
they shou"d be emphasi+ed( in what order they ought to be presented( and what
was e8traneous or germane. Readers o& 3&rican 3merican autobiography then and
now have too readi"y accepted the presumption o& these eighteenth- and
nineteenth-century editors that e8perientia" &acts recounted ora""y cou"d be
recorded and sorted by an amanuensis-editor( ta$en out o& their origina" conte8ts(
and then pub"ished with editoria" pre&aces( &ootnotes( and appended commentary(
a"" without compromising the va"idity o& the narrative as a product o& an 3&rican
3merican consciousness.
612 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
Transcribed narratives in which an editor e8p"icit"y de"imits his or her ro"e
undoubted"y may be regarded as more authentic and reDective o& the narrator6s
thought in action than those edited wor$s that Desh out a statement o& &acts in
ways unaccounted &or. ti""( it wou"d be na^ve to accord dictated ora" narratives
the same status as autobiographies composed and written by the sub5ects o& the
stories themse"ves. This point is i""ustrated by an ana"ysis o& ;or$s 9rogress
3dministration interviews with e8-s"aves in the 1970s that suggests that narrators
o&ten to"d interviewers what they seemed to want to hear. 2& it seemed impo"itic
&or &ormer s"aves to te"" a"" they $new and thought about the past to interviewers
in the 1970s( the same cou"d be said o& escaped s"aves on the run in the
antebe""um era. Kictated narratives( there&ore( are "iterary te8ts whose
authenticity is di*cu"t to determine. 3na"ysts shou"d reserve c"ose ana"ytic
readings &or independent"y authored te8ts. Kiscussion o& co""aborative te8ts
shou"d ta$e into account the conditions that governed their production.
10. &hich one of the following best summari!es the main point of the passage%
(A) The personal integrity of an autobiography4s editor has little rele'ance to its
'alue as a literary work.
(B) Autobiographies dictated to editors are less 'aluable as literature than are
autobiographies authored by their sub<ects.
(C) The facts that are recorded in an autobiography are less important than the
personal impressions of its author.
() The circumstances under which an autobiography was written should affect the
way it is interpreted as literature.
(#) The autobiographies of African Americans written between 1-25 and 1621
deser'e more careful study than they ha'e so far recei'ed.
11. The information in the passage suggests that the role of the *editor+ (lines 2.(20)
is most like that of
(A) an artist who wishes to in'ent a uni"ue method of con'eying the emotional
impact of a scene in a painting
(B) a worker who must interpret the instructions of an employer
(C) a critic who must pro'ide e'idence to support opinions about a play being
re'iewed
() an architect who must make the best use of a natural setting in designing a
public building
(#) a historian who must decide how to direct the reenactment of a historical e'ent
12. &hich one of the following best describes the author4s opinion about applying
literary analysis to edited autobiographies%
(A) The author is adamantly opposed to the application of literary analysis to
edited autobiographies.
(B) The author is skeptical of the 'alue of close analytical reading in the case of
LSAT 61-
edited autobiographies.
(C) The author belie'es that literary analysis of the prefaces/ footnotes/ and
commentaries that accompany edited autobiographies would be more useful
than an analysis of the te$t of the autobiographies.
() The author belie'es that an e$clusi'ely literary analysis of edited
autobiographies is more 'aluable than a reading that emphasi!es their historical
import.
(#) The author belie'es that the literary analysis of edited autobiographies would
enhance their linguistic/ structural/ and tonal integrity.
1-. The passage supports which one of the following statements about the readers of
autobiographies of African Americans that were published between 1-25 and
1621%
(A) They were more concerned with the personal details in the autobiographies
than with their historical significance.
(B) They were unable to distinguish between ghostwritten and edited
autobiographies.
(C) They were less naT'e about the facts of sla'e life than are readers today.
() They presumed that the editing of the autobiographies did not affect their
authenticity.
(#) They had little interest in the moral integrity of the editors of the
autobiographies.
16. &hen one of the following words/ as it is used in the passage/ best ser'es to
underscore the author4s concerns about the authenticity of the autobiographies
discussed%
(A) *ostensible+ (line 2)
(B) *integrity+ (line 16)
(C) *e$traneous+ (line 2-)
() *delimits+ (line .,)
(#) *impolitic+ (line 11)
1,. According to the passage/ close analytic reading of an autobiography is
appropriate only when the
(A) autobiography has been dictated to an e$perienced amanuensis(editor
(B) autobiography attempts to reflect the narrator4s thought in action
(C) autobiography was authored independently by its sub<ect
() moral integrity of the autobiography4s editor is well established
(#) editor of the autobiography collaborated closely with its sub<ect in its editing
25. 3t can be inferred that the discussion in the passage of Blassingame4s work
primarily ser'es which one of the following purposes%
616 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
(A) 3t adds an authority4s endorsement to the author4s 'iew that edited narrati'es
ought to be treated as ghostwritten accounts.
(B) 3t pro'ides an e$ample of a mistaken emphasis in the study of autobiography.
(C) 3t presents an account of a new method of literary analysis to be applied to
autobiography.
() 3t illustrates the inade"uacy of traditional approaches to the analysis of
autobiography.
(#) 3t emphasi!es the importance of the relationship between editor and narrator.
3 conventiona" view o& nineteenth-century 'ritain ho"ds that iron
manu&acturers and te8ti"e manu&acturers &rom the north o& @ng"and became the
wea"thiest and most power&u" peop"e in society a&ter about 1874. 3ccording to
Bar8ist historians( these industria"ists were the target o& the wor$ing c"ass in its
strugg"e &or power. 3 new study by Rubinstein( however( suggests that the rea"
wea"th "ay with the ban$ers and merchants o& Jondon. Rubinstein does not deny
that a northern industria" e"ite e8isted but argues that it was consistent"y
outnumbered and outdone by a Jondon-based commercia" e"ite. )is c"aims are
provocative and deserve consideration.
Rubinstein6s c"aim about the "ocation o& wea"th comes &rom his investigation o&
probate records. These indicate the va"ue o& persona" property( e8c"uding rea"
property (bui"dings and "and)( "e&t by individua"s at death. 2t does seem as i& "arge
&ortunes were more &re-uent"y made in commerce than in industry and( within
industry( more &re-uent"y &rom a"coho" or tobacco than &rom te8ti"es or meta".
)owever( such records do not une-uivoca""y ma$e Rubinstein6s case.
Uncertainties abound about how the probate ru"es &or va"uing assets were actua""y
app"ied. Bi""s and &actories( being rea" property( were c"ear"y e8c"udedA machinery
may a"so have been( &or the same reason. ;hat the va"uation conventions were
&or stoc$-in-trade (goods &or sa"e) is a"so uncertain. 2t is possib"e that their probate
va"ues were much "ower than their actua" mar$et va"ueA cash or near-cash( such
as ban$ ba"ances or stoc$s( were( on the other hand( invariab"y considered at &u""
&ace va"ue. 3 &urther comp"ication is that probate va"uations probab"y too$ no
notice o& a business6s goodwi"" (&avor with the pub"ic) which( since it represents
e8pectations about &uture pro#t-ma$ing( wou"d today very o&ten be a "arge
&raction o& mar$et va"ue. ;hether &actors "i$e these introduced systematic biases
into the probate va"uations o& individua"s with di1erent types o& businesses wou"d
be worth investigating.
The orthodo8 view that the wea"thiest individua"s were the most power&u" is
a"so -uestioned by Rubinstein6s study. The prob"em &or this orthodo8 view is that
Rubinstein #nds many mi""ionaires who are tota""y un$nown to nineteenth-century
historiansA the reason &or their obscurity cou"d be that they were not power&u".
2ndeed( Rubinstein dismisses any notion that great wea"th had anything to do with
entry into the governing e"ite( as represented by bishops( higher civi" servants(
and chairmen o& manu&acturing companies. The on"y re-uirements were university
LSAT 61,
attendance and a &ather with a midd"e-c"ass income.
Rubinstein( in another study( has begun to buttress his #ndings about the
"ocation o& wea"th by ana"y+ing income ta8 returns( which revea" a geographica"
distribution o& midd"e-c"ass incomes simi"ar to that o& wea"thy incomes revea"ed
by probate records. 'ut unti" &urther con#rmatory investigation is done( his c"aims
can on"y be considered partia""y convincing.
21. The main idea of the passage is that
(A) the ?ar$ist interpretation of the relationship between class and power in
nineteenth(century Britain is no longer 'iable
(B) a simple e"uation between wealth and power is unlikely to be supported by
new data from nineteenth(century British archi'es
(C) a recent historical in'estigation has challenged but not dispro'ed the orthodo$
'iew of the distribution of wealth and the relationship of wealth to power in
nineteenth(century Britain
() probate records pro'ide the historian with a re'ealing but incomplete glimpse
of the e$tent and location of wealth in nineteenth(century Britain
(#) an attempt has been made to confirm the findings of a new historical study of
nineteenth(century Britain/ but complete confirmation is likely to remain
elusi'e
22. The author of the passage implies that probate records as a source of information
about wealth in nineteenth(century Britain are
(A) self(contradictory and misleading
(B) ambiguous and outdated
(C) contro'ersial but readily a'ailable
() re'ealing but difficult to interpret
(#) widely used by historians but fully understandable only by specialists
2.. The author suggests that the total probate 'aluations of the personal property of
indi'iduals holding goods for sale in nineteenth(century Britain may ha'e been
(A) affected by the 'aluation con'entions for such goods
(B) less accurate than the 'aluations for such goods pro'ided by income ta$
returns
(C) less/ on a'erage/ if such goods were tobacco(related than if they were alcohol(
related
() greater/ on a'erage/ than the total probate 'aluations of those indi'iduals who
held bank balances
(#) dependent on whether such goods were held by industrialists or by merchants
or bankers
20. According to the passage/ =ubinstein has pro'ided e'idence that challenges which
625 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
one of the following claims about nineteenth(century Britain%
(A) The distribution of great wealth between commerce and industry was not
e"ual.
(B) Karge incomes were typically made in alcohol and tobacco rather than in
te$tiles and metal.
(C) A Kondon(based commercial elite can be identified.
() An official go'erning elite can be identified.
(#) There was a necessary relationship between great wealth and power.
21. The author mentions that goodwill was probably e$cluded from the probate
'aluation of a business in nineteenth(century Britain most likely in order to
(A) gi'e an e$ample of a business asset about which little was known in the
nineteenth century
(B) suggest that the probate 'aluations of certain businesses may ha'e been
significant underestimations of their true market 'alue
(C) make the point that this e$clusion probably had an e"ual impact on the probate
'aluations of all nineteenth(century British businesses
() indicate that e$pectations about future profit(making is the single most
important factor in determining the market 'alue of certain businesses
(#) argue that the twentieth(century method of determining probate 'aluations of a
business may be consistently superior to the nineteenth(century method
22. &hich one of the following studies would pro'ide support for =ubinstein4s
claims%
(A) a study that indicated that many members of the commercial elite in
nineteenth(century Kondon had insignificant holdings of real property
(B) a study that indicated that in the nineteenth century/ industrialists from the
north of #ngland were in fact a target for working(class people
(C) a study that indicated that/ in nineteenth(century Britain/ probate 'alues of
goods for sale were not as high as probate 'alues of cash assets
() a study that indicated that the wealth of nineteenth(century British
industrialists did not appear to be significantly greater when the full 'alue of
their real property holdings was actually considered
(#) a study that indicated that at least some members of the official go'erning elite
in nineteenth(century Britain owned more real property than had pre'iously
been thought to be the case
2-. &hich one of the following/ if true/ would cast the most doubt on =ubinstein4s
argument concerning wealth and the official go'erning elite in nineteenth(century
Britain%
(A) #ntry into this elite was more dependent on uni'ersity attendance than on
religious background.
LSAT 621
(B) Attendance at a prestigious uni'ersity was probably more crucial than a certain
minimum family income in gaining entry into this elite.
(C) Bishops as a group were somewhat wealthier/ at the point of entry into this
elite/ than were higher ci'il ser'ants or chairmen of manufacturing companies.
() The families of many members of this elite owned few/ if any/ shares in iron
industries and te$tile industries in the north of #ngland.
(#) The composition of this elite included 'ice(chancellors/ many of whom held
office because of their wealth.
LSAT 10 SECTON
T!"e 35 "!#$%es 27 &$es%!o#s
Directions: Each passage in this section is followed by a group of questions to be answered on
the basis of what is stated or implied in the passage. For some of the questions, more than one
of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However, you are to choose the best
answer, that is, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question, and
blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.
Bany argue that recent deve"opments in e"ectronic techno"ogy such as
computers and videotape have enab"ed artists to vary their &orms o& e8pression.
:or e8amp"e( video art can now achieve images whose e1ect is produced by
>digita"i+ation?A brea$ing up the picture using computeri+ed in&ormation
processing. uch new techno"ogies create new ways o& seeing and hearing by
adding di1erent dimensions to o"der &orms( rather than rep"acing those &orms.
%onsider 'ocale( a #"m about a modern dance company. The camera operator
wore a teadicamTB( an uncomp"icated device that a""ows a camera to be
mounted on a person so that the camera remains steady no matter how the
operator moves. The teadicamTB captures the dance in ways impossib"e with
traditiona" mounts. uch new e-uipment a"so a""ows &or the preservation o&
previous"y unrecordab"e aspects o& per&ormances( thus enriching archives.
'y %ontrast( others c"aim that techno"ogy subverts the artistic enterpriseA that
artistic e1orts achieved with machines preempt human creativity( rather than
being inspired by it. The origina"ity o& musica" per&ormance( &or e8amp"e( might
su1er( as musicians wou"d be deprived o& the opportunity to spontaneous"y
change pieces o& music be&ore "ive audiences. ome even worry that techno"ogy
wi"" e"iminate "ive per&ormance a"together= per&ormances wi"" be recorded &or
home viewing( abo"ishing the re"ationship between per&ormer and audience. 'ut
these negative views assume both that techno"ogy poses an unprecedented
cha""enge to the arts and that we are not committed enough to the artistic
enterprise to preserve the "ive per&ormance( assumptions that seem unnecessari"y
cynica". 2n &act( techno"ogy has traditiona""y assisted our capacity &or creative
e8pression and can re#ne our notions o& any give art &orm.
:or e8amp"e( the portab"e camera and the snapshot were deve"oped at the
same time as the rise o& impressionist painting in the nineteenth century. These
622 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
photographic techno"ogies encouraged a new appreciation. 2n addition(
impressionist artists "i$e Kegas studied the e"ements o& "ight and movement
captured by instantaneous photography and used their new understanding o& the
way our perceptions distort rea"ity to try to more accurate"y capture rea"ty in their
wor$. ince photos can capture the >moments? o& a movement( such as a hand
partia""y raised in a gesture o& greeting( 2mpressionist artists were inspired to paint
such moments in order to more e1ective"y convey the -ua"ity o& spontaneous
human action. 9hotography &reed artists &rom the preconception that a sub5ect
shou"d be painted in a static( arti#cia" entirety( and inspired them to capture the
random and &ragmentary -ua"ities o& our wor"d. :ina""y( since photography
preempted painting as the means o& obtaining portraits( painters had more
&reedom to vary their sub5ect matter( thus giving rise to the abstract creations
characteristic o& modern art.
1. &hich one of the following statements best e$presses the main idea of the
passage%
(A) The progress of art relies primarily on technology.
(B) Technological inno'ation can be beneficial to art.
(C) There are risks associated with using technology to create art.
() Technology will transform the way the public responds to art.
(#) The relationship between art and technology has a lengthy history.
2. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author shares which one of the
following opinions with the opponents of the use of new technology in art%
(A) The li'e performance is an important aspect of the artistic enterprise.
(B) The public4s commitment to the artistic enterprise is "uestionable.
(C) =ecent technological inno'ations present an entirely new sort of challenge to
art.
() Technological inno'ations of the past ha'e been 'ery useful to artists.
(#) The performing arts are especially 'ulnerable to technological inno'ation.
.. &hich one of the following/ if true/ would most undermine the position held by
opponents of the use of new technology in art concerning the effect of technology
on li'e performance%
(A) ;ur'eys show that when recordings of performances are made a'ailable for
home 'iewing/ the public becomes far more knowledgeable about different
performing artists.
(B) ;ur'eys show that some people feel comfortable responding spontaneously to
artistic performances when they are 'iewing recordings of those performances
at home.
(C) After a li'e performance/ sales of recordings for home 'iewing of the
particular performing artist generally increase.
LSAT 62.
() The distribution of recordings of artists4 performances has begun to attract
many new audience members to their li'e performances.
(#) ?usicians are less apt to make creati'e changes in musical pieces during
recorded performances than during li'e performances.
0. The author uses the e$ample of the ;teadicamT? primarily in order to suggest that
(A) the filming of performances should not be limited by inade"uate e"uipment
(B) new technologies do not need to be 'ery comple$ in order to benefit art
(C) the interaction of a traditional art form with a new technology will change
attitudes toward technology in general
() the replacement of a traditional technology with a new technology will
transform definitions of a traditional art form
(#) new technology does not so much preempt as enhance a traditional art form
1. According to the passage/ proponents of the use of new electronic technology in
the arts claim that which one of the following is true%
(A) ?ost people who re<ect the use of electronic technology in art forget that
machines re"uire a person to operate them.
(B) #lectronic technology allows for the e$pansion of archi'es because longer
performances can be recorded.
(C) #lectronic technology assists artists in finding new ways to present their
material.
() #lectronic technology makes the practice of any art form more efficient by
speeding up the creati'e process.
(#) ?odern dance is the art form that will probably benefit most from the use of
electronic technology.
2. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author would agree with which one of
the following statements regarding changes in painting since the nineteenth
century%
(A) The artistic e$periments of the nineteenth century led painters to use a 'ariety
of methods in creating portraits/ which they then applied to other sub<ect
matter.
(B) The nineteenth(century knowledge of light and mo'ement pro'ided by
photography inspired the abstract works characteristic of modern art.
(C) 8nce painters no longer felt that they had to paint con'entional portraits/ they
turned e$clusi'ely to abstract portraiture.
() 8nce painters were less limited to the impressionist style/ they were able to
e$periment with a 'ariety of styles of abstract art.
(#) 8nce painters painted fewer con'entional portraits/ they had greater
opportunity to mo'e beyond the literal depiction of ob<ects.
Kuring the 19M0s and 19/0s the United tates government deve"oped a new
620 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
po"icy toward ,ative 3mericans( o&ten $nown as >read5ustment.? 'ecause the
increased awareness o& civi" rights in these decades he"ped rein&orce the be"ie&
that "i&e on reservations prevented ,ative 3mericans &rom e8ercising the rights
guaranteed to citi+ens under the United tates %onstitution( the read5ustment
movement advocated the end o& the &edera" government6s invo"vement in ,ative
3merican a1airs and encouraged the assimi"ation o& ,ative 3mericans as
individua"s into mainstream society. )owever( the same years a"so saw the
emergence o& a ,ative 3merican "eadership and e1orts to deve"op triba"
instructions and rea*rm triba" identity. The c"ash o& these two trends may be
traced in the attempts on the part o& the 'ureau o& 2ndian 31airs ('23) to convince
the <neida tribe o& ;isconsin to accept read5ustment.
The cu"mination o& '23 e1orts to sway the <neida occurred at a meeting that
too$ p"ace in the &a"" o& 19/L. The '23 suggested that it wou"d be to the <neida6s
bene#t to own their own property and( "i$e other homeowners( pay rea" estate
ta8es on it. The '23 a"so emphasi+ed that( a&ter read5ustment( the government
wou"d not attempt to restrict ,ative 3mericans6 abi"ity to se"" their individua""y
owned "ands. The <neida were then o1ered a one-time "ump-sum payment o&
.L0(000 in "ieu o& the .0./4 annuity guaranteed in perpetuity to each member o&
the tribe under the %anandaigua Treaty.
The e1orts o& the '23 to >se""? read5ustment to the tribe &ai"ed because the
<neida rea"i+ed that they had heard simi"ar o1ers be&ore. The <neida de"egates
reacted negative"y to the '236s #rst suggestion because ta8ation o& ,ative
3merican "ands had been one past vehic"e &or dispossessing the <neidaA a&ter the
distribution o& some triba" "ands to individua" ,ative 3mericans in the "ate
nineteenth century( ,ative 3merican "ands became sub5ect to ta8ation( resu"ting
in new and impossib"e #nancia" burdens( &orec"osures( and subse-uent ta8 sa"es o&
property. The <neida de"egates were e-ua""y suspicious o& the '236s emphasis on
the rights o& individua" "andowners( since in the "ate nineteenth century many
individua" ,ative 3mericans had been convinced by unscrupu"ous specu"ators to
se"" their "ands. :ina""y( the o1er o& a "ump-sum payment was unanimous"y
opposed by the <neida de"egates( who saw that changing the terms o& a treaty
might 5eopardi+e the many pending "and c"aims based upon the treaty.
3s a resu"t o& the 19/L meeting( the <neida re5ected read5ustment. 2nstead(
they determined to improve triba" "i&e by "obbying &or &edera" monies &or
postsecondary education( &or the improvement o& drainage on triba" "ands( and &or
the bui"ding o& a conva"escent home &or triba" members. Thus( by "earning the
"essons o& history( the <neida were ab"e to survive as a tribe in their home"and.
-. &hich one of the following would be most consistent with the policy of
read<ustment described in the passage%
(A) the establishment among 9ati'e Americans of a tribal system of a elected
go'ernment
(B) the creation of a national pro<ect to preser'e 9ati'e American language and
LSAT 621
oral history
(C) the establishment of programs to encourage 9ati'e Americans to mo'e from
reser'ations to urban areas
() the de'elopment of a large(scale effort to restore 9ati'e American lands to
their original tribes
(#) the reaffirmation of federal treaty obligations to 9ati'e American tribes
6. According to the passage/ after the 1,12 meeting the 8neida resol'ed to
(A) obtain impro'ed social ser'ices and li'ing conditions for members of the tribe
(B) pursue litigation designed to reclaim tribal lands
(C) secure recognition of their uni"ue status as a self(go'erning 9ati'e American
nation within the :nited ;tates
() establish new kinds of tribal institutions
(#) culti'ate a life(style similar to that of other :nited ;tates citi!ens
,. &hich one of the following best describes the function of the first paragraph in the
conte$t of the passage as a whole%
(A) 3t summari!es the basis of a conflict underlying negotiations described
elsewhere in the passage.
(B) 3t presents two positions/ one of which is defended by e'idence pro'ided in
succeeding paragraphs.
(C) 3t compares competing interpretations of a historical conflict.
() 3t analy!es the causes of a specific historical e'ent and predicts a future
de'elopment.
(#) 3t outlines the history of a go'ernment agency.
15. The author refers to the increased awareness of ci'il rights during the 1,05s and
1,15s most probably in order to
(A) contrast the read<ustment mo'ement with other social phenomena
(B) account for the stance of the 9ati'e American leadership
(C) help e$plain the impetus for the read<ustment mo'ement
() e$plain the moti'es of B3A bureaucrats
(#) foster support for the policy of read<ustment
11. The passage suggests that ad'ocates of read<ustment would most likely agree with
which one of the following statements regarding the relationship between the
federal go'ernment and 9ati'e Americans%
(A) The federal go'ernment should work with indi'idual 9ati'e Americans to
impro'e life on reser'ations.
(B) The federal go'ernment should be no more in'ol'ed in the affaires of 9ati'e
Americans than in the affairs of other citi!ens.
622 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
(C) The federal go'ernment should assume more responsibility for pro'iding
social ser'ices to 9ati'e Americans.
() The federal go'ernment should share its responsibility for maintaining 9ati'e
American territories with tribal leaders.
(#) The federal go'ernment should obser'e all pro'isions of treaties made in the
past with 9ati'e Americans.
12. The passage suggests that the 8neida delegates 'iewed the Canandaigua Treaty as
(A) a 'aluable safeguard of certain 8neida rights and pri'ileges
(B) the source of many past problems for the 8neida tribe
(C) a model for the type of agreement they hoped to reach with the federal
go'ernment
() an important step toward recognition of their status as an independent 9ati'e
American nation
(#) an obsolete agreement without rele'ance for their current condition
1.. &hich one of the following situations most closely parallels that of the 8neida
delegates in refusing to accept a lump(sum payment of 725/555%
(A) A uni'ersity offers s a student a four(year scholarship with the stipulation that
the student not accept any outside employmentI the student refuses the offer
and attends a different school because the amount of the scholarship would not
ha'e co'ered li'ing e$penses.
(B) A company seeking to reduce its payroll obligations offers an employee a large
bonus if he will accept early retirementI the employee refuses because he does
not want to compromise an outstanding worker4s compensation suit.
(C) @arents of a teenager offer to pay her at the end of the month for performing
weekly chores rather than paying her on a weekly basisI the teenager refuses
because she has a number of financial obligations that she must meet early in
the month.
() A car dealer offers a customer a 7155 cash payment for buying a new carI the
customer refuses because she does not want to pay ta$es on the amount/ and
re"uests instead that her monthly payments be reduced by a proportionate
amount.
(#) A landlord offers a tenant se'eral months rent(free in e$change for the tenant4s
agreeing not to demand that her apartment be painted e'ery two years/ as is
re"uired by the leaseI the tenant refuses because she would ha'e to spend her
own time painting the apartment.
Kirect observation o& contemporary societies at the thresho"d o& widespread
"iteracy has not assisted our understanding o& how such "iteracy a"tered ancient
Eree$ society( in particu"ar its po"itica" cu"ture. The discovery o& what Eoody has
ca""ed the >enab"ing e1ects? o& "iteracy in contemporary societies tends to seduce
the observer into con&using o&ten rudimentary $now"edge o& how to read with
LSAT 62-
popu"ar access to important boo$s and documentsA this con&usion is then
pro5ected onto ancient societies. >2n ancient Ereece(? Eoody writes( >a"phabetic
reading and writing was important &or the deve"opment o& po"itica" democracy.?
3n e8amination o& the ancient Eree$ city 3thens e8emp"i#es how this sort o&
con&usion is detrimenta" to understanding ancient po"itics. 2n 3thens( the ear"y
deve"opment o& a written "aw code was retrospective"y mytho"ogi+ed as the
critica" &actor in brea$ing the power monopo"y o& the o"d aristocracyA hence the
Eree$ tradition o& the >"aw-giver(? which has captured the imaginations o&
scho"ars "i$e Eoody. 'ut the app"ication and e*cacy o& a"" "aw codes depend on
their interpretation by magistrates and courts( and un"ess the right o&
interpretation is >democrati+ed(? the mere e8istence o& written "aws changes
"itt"e.
2n &act( never in anti-uity did any but the e"ite consu"t documents and boo$s.
@ven in Eree$ courts the 5uries heard on"y the re"evant statutes read out during
the proceedings( as they heard verba" testimony( and they then rendered their
verdict on the spot( without the bene#t o& any discussion among themse"ves. True(
in 3thens the 5uries were representative o& a broad spectrum o& the popu"ation(
and these 5uries( drawn &rom diverse socia" c"asses( both interpreted what they
had heard and determined matters o& &act. )owever( they guided so"e"y by the
speeches prepared &or the parties by pro&essiona" p"eaders and by the -uotations
o& "aws or decrees within the speeches( rather than by their own access to any
$ind o& document or boo$.
Eranted( peop"e today a"so re"y heavi"y on a tru"y $now"edgeab"e minority &or
in&ormation and its interpretation( o&ten transmitted ora""y. Iet this is sti""
&undamenta""y di1erent &rom an ancient society in which there was no >popu"ar
"iterature(? i.e.( no newspapers( maga+ines( or other media that dea"t with
sociopo"itica" issues. 3n ancient "aw code wou"d have been ana"ogous to the Jatin
'ib"e( a venerated document but a c"osed boo$. The resistance o& the medieva"
%hurch to vernacu"ar trans"ations o& the 'ib"e( in the ;est at "east( is there&ore a
pointer to the rea"ities o& ancient "iteracy. ;hen &undamenta" documents are
accessib"e &or study on"y to an e"ite( the rest o& the society is sub5ect to the e"ite6s
interpretation o& the ru"es o& behavior( inc"uding right po"itica" behavior. 3thens(
inso&ar as it &unctioned as a democracy( did so not because o& widespread
"iteracy( but because the e"ite had chosen to accept democratic institutions.
10. &hich one of the following statements best e$presses the main idea of the
passage%
(A) emocratic political institutions grow organically from the traditions and
con'entions of a society.
(B) emocratic political institutions are not necessarily the outcome of literacy in
a society.
(C) =eligious authority/ like political authority/ can determine who in a gi'en
society will ha'e access to important books and documents.
626 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
() Those who are best educated are most often those who control the institutions
of authority in a society.
(#) Those in authority ha'e a 'ested interest in ensuring that those under their
control remain illiterate.
11. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author assumes which one of the
following about societies in which the people possess a rudimentary reading
ability%
(A) They are more politically ad'anced than societies without rudimentary reading
ability.
(B) They are unlikely to e$hibit the positi'e effects of literacy.
(C) They are rapidly e'ol'ing toward widespread literacy.
() ?any of their people might not ha'e access to important documents and
books.
(#) ?ost of their people would not participate in political decision(making.
12. The author refers to the truly knowledgeable minority in contemporary societies in
the conte$t of the fourth paragraph in order to imply which one of the following%
(A) Because they ha'e a popular literature that closes the gap between the elite and
the ma<ority/ contemporary societies rely far less on the knowledge of e$perts
than did ancient societies.
(B) Contemporary societies rely on the knowledge of e$perts/ as did ancient
societies/ because contemporary popular literature so fre"uently con'eys
specious information.
(C) Although contemporary societies rely hea'ily on the knowledge of e$perts/
access to popular literature makes contemporary societies less dependent on
e$perts for information about rules of beha'ior than were ancient societies.
() &hile only some members of the elite can become e$perts/ popular literature
gi'es the ma<ority in contemporary society an opportunity to become members
of such an elite.
(#) Access to popular literature distinguishes ancient from contemporary societies
because it relies on a le'el of educational achie'ement attainable only be a
contemporary elite.
1-. According to the passage/ each of the following statements concerning ancient
Breek <uries is true #DC#@TE
(A) They were somewhat democratic insofar as they were composed largely of
people from the lowest social classes.
(B) They were e$posed to the law only insofar as they heard rele'ant statutes read
out during legal proceedings.
(C) They ascertained the facts of a case and interpreted the laws.
() They did not ha'e direct access to important books and documents that were
LSAT 62,
a'ailable to the elite.
(#) They rendered 'erdicts without benefit of pri'ate discussion among
themsel'es.
16. The author characteri!es the Breek tradition of the *law(gi'er+ (line 21) as an
effect mythologi!ing most probably in order to
(A) illustrate the ancient Breek tendency to memoriali!e historical e'ents by
transforming them into myths
(B) con'ey the historical importance of the de'elopment of the early Athenian
written law code
(C) con'ey the high regard in which the Athenians held their legal tradition
() suggest that the de'elopment of a written law code was not primarily
responsible for diminishing the power of the Athenian aristocracy
(#) suggest that the Breek tradition of the *law(gi'er+ should be understood in the
larger conte$t of Breek mythology
1,. The author draws an analogy between the Katin Bible and an early law code (lines
0,(11) in order to make which one of the following points%
(A) ocuments were considered authoritati'e in premodern society in proportion
to their inaccessibility to the ma<ority.
(B) ocuments that were percei'ed as highly influential in premodern societies
were not necessarily accessible to the society4s ma<ority.
(C) &hat is most re'ered in a nondemocratic society is what is most fre"uently
misunderstood.
() @olitical documents in premodern societies e$erted a social influence similar
to that e$erted by religious documents.
(#) @olitical documents in premodern societies were inaccessible to the ma<ority of
the population because of the language in which they were written.
25. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) argue that a particular method of obser'ing contemporary societies is
inconsistent
(B) point out the weaknesses in a particular approach to understanding ancient
societies
(C) present the disad'antages of a particular approach to understanding the
relationship between ancient and contemporary societies
() e$amine the importance of de'eloping an appropriate method for
understanding ancient societies
(#) con'ey the difficulty of accurately understanding attitudes in ancient societies
The @ng"ish who in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries inhabited those
co"onies that wou"d "ater become the United tates shared a common po"itica"
vocabu"ary with the @ng"ish in @ng"and. teeped as they were in the @ng"ish
6.5 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
po"itica" "anguage( these co"onia"s &ai"ed to observe that their e8perience in
3merica had given the words a signi#cance -uite di1erent &rom that accepted by
the @ng"ish with whom they debated= in &act( they c"aimed that they were more
"oya" to the @ng"ish po"itica" tradition than were the @ng"ish in @ng"and.
2n many respects the po"itica" institutions o& @ng"and were reproduced in these
3merican co"onies. 'y the midd"e o& eighteenth century( a"" o& these co"onies
e8cept &our were headed by Roya" Eovernors appointed by the Sing and perceived
as bearing a re"ation to the peop"e o& the co"ony simi"ar to that o& the Sing to the
@ng"ish peop"e. Boreover( each o& these co"onies en5oyed a representative
assemb"y( which was conscious"y mode"ed( in powers and practices( a&ter the
@ng"ish 9ar"iament. 2n both @ng"and and these co"onies( on"y property ho"ders
cou"d vote.
,everthe"ess( though @ng"ish and co"onia" institutions were structura""y simi"ar(
attitudes toward those institutions di1ered. :or e8amp"e( @ng"ish "ega"
deve"opment &rom the ear"y seventeenth century had been moving steadi"y
toward the abso"ute power o& 9ar"iament. The most unmista$ab"e sign o& this
tendency was the "ega" assertion that the Sing was sub5ect to the "aw. Together
with this reso"ute denia" o& the abso"ute right o& $ings went the assertion that
9ar"iament was un"imited in its powerA it cou"d change even the %onstitution by its
ordinary acts o& "egis"ation. 'y the eighteenth century the @ng"ish had accepted
the idea that the par"iamentary representatives o& the peop"e were omnipotent.
The citi+ens o& these co"onies did not "oo$ upon the @ng"ish 9ar"iament with
such &ond eyes( nor did they concede that their own assemb"ies possessed such
wide powers. There were good historica" reasons &or this. To the @ng"ish the word
>constitution? meant the who"e body o& "aw and "ega" custom &ormu"ated since the
beginning o& the $ingdom( whereas to these co"onia"s a constitution was a speci#c
written document( enumerating speci#c powers. This distinction in meaning can
be traced to the &act that the &oundations o& government in the various co"onies
were written charters granted by the %rown. These e8press authori+ations to
govern were tangib"e( de#nite things. <ver the years these co"onia" had o&ten
repaired to the charters to 5usti&y themse"ves in the strugg"e against tyrannica"
governors or o*cia"s o& the %rown. Bore than a century o& government under
written constitutions convinced these co"onists o& the necessity &or and e*cacy o&
protecting their "iberties against governmenta" encroachment by e8p"icit"y
de#ning a"" governmenta" powers in a document.
21. &hich one of the following best e$presses the main idea of the passage%
(A) The colonials and the #nglish mistakenly thought that they shared a common
political 'ocabulary.
(B) The colonials and the #nglish shared a 'ariety of institutions.
(C) The colonials and the #nglish had conflicting interpretations of the language
and institutional structures that they shared.
LSAT 6.1
() Colonial attitudes toward #nglish institutions grew increasingly hostile in the
eighteenth century.
(#) ;e'enteenth(century #nglish legal de'elopment accounted for colonial
attitudes toward constitutions.
22. The passage supports all of the following statements about the political conditions
present by the middle of the eighteenth century in the American colonies discussed
in the passage #DC#@TE
(A) Colonials who did not own property could not 'ote.
(B) All of these colonies had representati'e assemblies modeled after the British
@arliament.
(C) ;ome of these colonies had =oyal Bo'ernors.
() =oyal Bo'ernors could be remo'ed from office by colonial assemblies.
(#) 3n these colonies/ =oyal Bo'ernors were regarded as ser'ing a function like
that of a king.
2.. The passage implies which one of the following about #nglish kings prior to the
early se'enteenth century%
(A) They were the source of all law.
(B) They fre"uently flouted laws made by @arliament.
(C) Their power relati'e to that of @arliament was considerably greater than it was
in the eighteenth century.
() They were more often the sources of legal reform than they were in the
eighteenth century.
(#) They had to combat those who belie'ed that the power of @arliament was
absolute.
20. The author mentions which one of the following as e'idence for the eighteenth(
century #nglish attitude toward @arliament%
(A) The #nglish had become uncomfortable with institutions that could claim
absolute authority.
(B) The #nglish reali!ed that their interests were better guarded by @arliament than
by the Ming.
(C) The #nglish allowed @arliament to make constitutional changes by legislati'e
enactment.
() The #nglish felt that the Ming did not possess the knowledge that could enable
him to rule responsibly.
(#) The #nglish had decided that it was time to reform their representati'e
go'ernment.
21. The passage implies that the colonials discussed in the passage would ha'e
considered which one of the following to be a source of their debates with
6.2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
#ngland%
(A) their changed use of the #nglish political 'ocabulary
(B) #nglish commitment to parliamentary representation
(C) their uni"uely #nglish e$perience
() their refusal to adopt any #nglish political institutions
(#) their greater loyalty to the #nglish political traditions
22. According to the passage/ the #nglish attitude toward the #nglish Constitution
differed from the colonial attitude toward constitutions in that the #nglish regarded
their Constitution as
(A) the legal foundation of the kingdom
(B) a document containing a collection of customs
(C) a cumulati'e corpus of legislation and legal traditions
() a record alterable by royal authority
(#) an unchangeable body of go'ernmental powers
2-. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) e$pose the misunderstanding that has characteri!ed descriptions of the
relationship between se'enteenth and eighteenth(century #ngland and certain
of its American colonies
(B) suggest a reason for #ngland4s treatment of certain of its American colonies in
the se'enteenth and eighteenth centuries
(C) settle an ongoing debate about the relationship between #ngland and certain of
its American colonies in the se'enteenth and eighteenth centuries
() interpret the e'ents leading up to the independence of certain of #ngland4s
American colonies in the eighteenth century
(#) e$plain an aspect of the relationship between #ngland and certain of its
American colonies in the se'enteenth and eighteenth centuries
LSAT 11 SECTON
T!"e 35 "!#$%es 26 &$es%!o#s
Directions: Each passage in this section is followed by a group of questions to be answered on
the basis of what is stated or implied in the passage. For some of the questions, more than one
of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However, you are to choose the best
answer, that is, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question, and
blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.
<i" companies needs o1shore p"at&orms primari"y because the oi" or natura" gas
the companies e8tract &rom the ocean Door has to be processed be&ore pumps can
be used to move the substances ashore. 'ut because processing crude
(unprocessed oi" or gas) on a p"at&orm rather than at &aci"ities onshore e8poses
wor$ers to the ris$s o& e8p"osion and to an unpredictab"e environment(
LSAT 6..
researchers are attempting to diminish the need &or human "abor on p"at&orms and
even to e"iminate p"at&orms a"together by redesigning two $inds o& pumps to
hand"e crude. These pumps cou"d then be used to boost the natura" pressure
driving the Dow o& crude( which( by itse"&( is su*cient on"y to bring the crude to
the p"at&orm( "ocated 5ust above the we""head. %urrent"y( pumps that cou"d boost
this natura" pressure su*cient"y to drive the crude through a pipe"ine to the shore
do not wor$ consistent"y because o& the crude6s content. %rude may consist o& oi"
or natura" gas in mu"tiphase states!combinations o& "i-uids( gases( and so"ids
under pressure!that do not reach the we""head in constant proportions. The Dow
o& crude oi"( &or e8amp"e( can change -uic$"y &rom L0 percent "i-uid to 70 percent
gas. This surge in gas content causes "oss o& >head?( or pressure inside a pump(
with the resu"t that a pump can no "onger impart enough energy to transport the
crude mi8ture through the pipe"ine and to the shore.
<& two pumps being redesigned( the positive-disp"acement pump is promising
because it is immune to sudden shi&ts in the proportion o& "i-uid to gas in the
crude mi8ture. 'ut the pump6s design( which consists o& a sing"e or twin screw
pushing the Duid &rom one end o& the pump to the other( brings crude into c"ose
contact with most parts o& the pump( and thus re-uires that it be made o&
e8pensive( corrosion-resistant materia". The a"ternative is the centri&uga" pump(
which has a rotating impe""er that suc$s Duid in at one end and &orces Duid out at
the other. 3"though this pump has a proven design and has wor$ed &or years with
"itt"e maintenance in waste-disposa" p"ants( researchers have discovered that
because the swir" o& its impe""er separates gas out &rom the oi" that norma""y
accompanies it( signi#cant reductions in head can occur as it operates.
Research in the deve"opment o& these pumps is &ocused main"y on trying to
reduce the cost o& the positive-disp"acement pump and attempting to ma$e the
centri&uga" pump more to"erant o& gas. <ther researchers are "oo$ing at ways o&
adapting either $ind o& pump &or use underwater( so that crude cou"d be moved
direct"y &rom the sea bottom to processing &aci"ities onshore( e"iminating
p"at&orms.
1. &hich one of following best e$presses the main idea of the passage%
(A) 8il companies are e$perimenting with technologies that may help diminish the
danger to workers from offshore crude processing.
(B) 8il companies are seeking methods of installing processing facilities
underwater.
(C) =esearchers are de'eloping se'eral new pumps designed to enhance human
labor efficiency in processing facilities.
() =esearchers are seeking to de'elop e"uipment that would preempt the need for
processing facilities onshore.
(#) =esearchers are seeking ways to separate li"uids from gases in crude in order
to enable safer processing.
6.0 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
2. The passage supports which one of the following statements about the natural
pressure dri'ing the flow of crude%
(A) 3t is higher than that created by the centrifugal pump.
(B) 3t is constant regardless of relati'e proportions of gas and li"uid.
(C) 3t is able to carry the crude only as far as the wellhead.
() 3t is able to carry the crude to the platform.
(#) 3t is able to carry the crude to the shore.
.. &hich one of the following best describes the relationship of the second paragraph
to the passage as a whole%
(A) 3t offers concrete detail designed to show that the argument made in the first
paragraph is flawed.
(B) 3t pro'ides detail that e$pands upon the information presented in the first
paragraph.
(C) 3t enhances the author4s discussion by ob<ecti'ely presenting in detail the pros
and cons of a claim made in the first paragraph.
() 3t detracts from the author4s discussion by presenting 'arious problems that
"ualify the goals presented.
(#) 3t modifies an obser'ation made in the first paragraph by detailing 'iewpoints
against it.
0. &hich one of the following phrases/ if substituted for the word *head+ in line 0-/
would K#A;T change the meaning of the sentence%
(A) the flow of the crude inside the pump
(B) the 'olume of oil inside the pump
(C) the 'olume of gas inside the pump
() the speed of the impeller mo'ing the crude
(#) the pressure inside of the pump
1. &ith which one of the following statements regarding offshore platforms would
the author most likely agree%
(A) 3f a reduction of human labor on offshore platform is achie'ed/ there is no real
need to eliminate platforms altogether.
(B) =educing human labor on offshore platforms is desirable because researchers4
knowledge about the transportation of crude is dangerously incomplete.
(C) The dangers in'ol'ed in working on offshore platforms make their elimination
a desirable goal.
() The positi'e(displacement pump is the better alternati'e for researchers/
because it would allow them to eliminate platforms altogether.
(#) Though researchers ha'e succeeded in reducing human labor on offshore
platforms/ they think that it would be inad'isable to eliminate platforms
LSAT 6.1
altogether/ because these platforms ha'e other uses.
2. &hich one of the following can be inferred from the passage about pumps that are
currently a'ailable to boost the natural pressure of crude%
(A) The efficiency of these pumps depends on there being no gas in the flow of
crude.
(B) These pumps are more efficient when the crude is less sub<ect to sudden
increases in the proportion of gas to li"uid.
(C) A sudden change from solid to li"uid in the flow of crude increases the
efficiency of these pumps.
() The proportion of li"uid to gas in the flow of crude does not affect the
efficiency of these pumps.
(#) A sudden change from li"uid to gas in the flow of crude increases the risk of
e$plosion due to rising pressure inside these pumps.
-. The passage implies that the positi'e(displacement pump differs from the
centrifugal pump in that the positi'e(displacement pump
(A) is more promising/ but it also is more e$pensi'e and demands more
maintenance
(B) is especially well research/ since it has been used in other settings
(C) in'ol'es the use of a single or twin screw that sucks fluid in at one end of the
pump
() is problematic because it cause rapid shifts from li"uid to gas content in crude
(#) in'ol'es e$posure of many parts of the pump to crude
6. The passage implies that the current state of technology necessitates that crude be
mo'ed to shore
(A) in a multiphase state
(B) in e"ual proportions of gas to li"uid
(C) with small proportions of corrosi'e material
() after ha'ing been processed
(#) largely in the form of a li"uid
To critics accustomed to the sty"e o& #&teenth-century narrative paintings by
2ta"ian artists &rom Tuscany( the Fenetian e8amp"es o& narrative paintings with
re"igious sub5ects that 9atricia :ortini 'rown ana"y+es in a recent boo$ wi"" come
as a great surprise. ;hi"e the Tuscan paintings present "arge-sca"e #gures( c"ear
narratives( and simp"e settings( the Fenetians #""ed their pictures with do+ens o&
sma"" #gures and e"aborate bui"ding( in addition to a wea"th o& care&u""y observed
anecdota" detai" o&ten irre"evant to the paintings6 principa" sub5ects!the re"igious
stories they narrate. 3"though it occasiona""y obscured these stories( this
accumu"ation o& circumstantia" detai" &rom Fenetian "i&e!the inc"usion o&
prominent Fenetian citi+ens( &or e8amp"e!was considered appropriate to the
6.2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
narration o& historica" sub5ects and under"ined the authenticity o& the historica"
events depicted. 2ndeed( 'rown argues that the distinctive sty"e o& the Fenetian
paintings!what she ca""s the >eyewitness sty"e?!was inDuenced by Fenetian
a*nity &or a strong"y parochia" type o& historica" writing( consisting a"most
e8c"usive"y o& vernacu"ar chronic"es o& "oca" events embroidered with a"" $inds o&
inconse-uentia" detai".
3nd yet( whi"e Fenetian attitudes toward history that are reDected in their art
account in part &or the di1erence in sty"e between Fenetian and Tuscan narrative
paintings( 'rown has over"oo$ed some practica" inDuences( such as c"imate.
Tuscan churches are #""ed with &rescoes that( in contrast to Fenetian narrative
paintings( consist main"y o& "arge #gures and easi"y recogni+ed re"igious stories( as
one wou"d e8pect o& paintings that are norma""y viewed &rom a distance and are
designed primari"y to remind the &aith&u" o& their re"igious tenets. 2n Fenice( where
the damp c"imate is unsuited to &resco( narrative &rescoes in churches were a"most
none8istent( with the resu"t that Fenetian artists and their pub"ic had no practica"
e8perience o& the "arge-sca"e representation o& &ami"iar re"igious stories. Their
mode" &or painted stories was the cyc"e o& secu"ar historica" paintings in the
Fenetian magistrate6s pa"ace( which were indeed the counterpart o& written
history and were made a"" the more authoritative by a pro"i&eration o&
circumstantia" detai".
Boreover( because painting &rescoes re-uires an unusua""y sure hand(
particu"ar"y in the representation o& human &orm( the deve"opment o& drawing s$i""
was centra" to artistic training in Tuscany( and by 1/00 the pub"ic there tended to
distinguish artists on the basis o& how we"" they cou"d draw human #gures. 2n
Fenice( a city virtua""y without &rescoes( this $ind o& s$i"" was ac-uired and
appreciated much "ater. Eenti"e 'e""ini( &or e8amp"e( a"though regarded as one o&
the supreme painters o& the day( was &eeb"e at drawing. <n the other hand( the
emphasis on architecture so evident in the Fenetian narrative paintings was
something that "oca" painters obvious"y pri+ed( "arge"y because painting
architecture in perspective was seen as a particu"ar test o& the Fenetian painter6s
s$i"".
,. &hich one of the following best states the main idea of the passage%
(A) Tuscan painters4 use of fresco e$plains the prominence of human figures in the
narrati'e paintings that they produced during the fifteenth century.
(B) 3n addition to fifteenth(century Cenetian attitudes toward history/ other factors
may help to e$plain the characteristic features of Cenetian narrati'e paintings
with religious sub<ects produced during that period.
(C) The inclusion of authentic detail from Cenetian life distinguished fifteenth(
century Cenetian narrati'e paintings from those that were produced in Tuscany.
() Cenetian painters were generally more skilled at painting buildings than
Tuscan painters were at drawing human forms.
(#) The cycle of secular historical paintings in the Cenetian magistrate4s palace
LSAT 6.-
was the primary narrati'e paintings with religious sub<ects.
15. 3n the passage/ the author is primarily concerned with
(A) @ointing out the superiority of one painting style o'er another.
(B) Citing e'idence that re"uires a ree'aluation of a con'entionally held 'iew.
(C) iscussing factors that e$plain a difference in painting styles.
() 8utlining the strengths and weaknesses of two opposing 'iews regarding the
e'olution of a painting style.
(#) Arguing for the irrele'ance of one theory and for its replacement by a more
plausible alternati'e.
11. As it is described in the passage/ Brown4s e$planation of the use of the eyewitness
style in Cenetian narrati'e painting suggests that
(A) The painting of architecture in perspecti'e re"uires greater drawing skill than
does the representation of a human form in a fresco.
(B) Certain characteristics of a style of painting can reflect a style of historical
writing that was common during the same period.
(C) The eyewitness style in Cenetian narrati'e paintings with religious sub<ects
was largely the result of the influence of Tuscan artists who worked primarily
in fresco.
() The historical detail in Cenetian narrati'e paintings with religious sub<ects can
be traced primarily to the influence of the paintings in the Cenetian
magistrate4s palace.
(#) A style of painting can be dramatically transformed by a sudden influ$ of
artists from another region.
12. The author suggests that fifteenth(century Cenetian narrati'e paintings with
religious sub<ects were painted by artists who
(A) were able to draw human figures with more skill after they were apprenticed to
painters in Tuscany
(B) assumed that their paintings would typically be 'iewed from a distance
(C) were a ma<or influence on the artists who produced the cycle of historical
paintings in the Cenetian magistrate4s palace
() were reluctant to paint frescoes primarily because they lacked the drawing skill
that painting frescoes re"uired
(#) were better at painting architecture in perspecti'e than they were at drawing
human figures
1.. The author implies that Cenetian narrati'e paintings with religious sub<ects
included the representation of elaborate buildings in part because
(A) the ability to paint architecture in perspecti'e was seen in Cenice as proof of a
painter4s skill
6.6 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
(B) the sub<ects of such paintings were often religious stories
(C) large frescoes were especially conduci'e to representing architecture in
perspecti'e
() the architecture of Cenice in the fifteenth century was more elaborate than was
the architecture of Tuscany
(#) the paintings were imitations of a kind of historical writing that was popular in
Tuscany
10. &hich one of the following/ if true/ would most weaken the author4s contention
that fifteenth(century Cenetian artists *had no practical e$perience of the large(
scale representation of familiar religious stories+ (line 05(02)%
(A) The style of secular historical paintings in the palace of the Cenetian
magistrate was similar to that of Cenetian narrati'e paintings with religious
sub<ects.
(B) The style of the historical writing produced by fifteenth(century Cenetian
authors was similar in its inclusion of anecdotal details to secular paintings
produced during that century in Tuscany.
(C) ?any of the artists who produced Cenetian narrati'e paintings with religious
sub<ects ser'ed as apprentices in Tuscany/ where they had become familiar
with the techni"ue of painting of frescoes.
() >ew of the frescoes painted in Tuscany during the fifteenth century had secular
sub<ects/ and those that did often betrayed the artist4s inability to represent
elaborate architecture in perspecti'e.
(#) >ew of the Cenetian narrati'e paintings produced toward the end of the
fifteenth century show e'idence of the enhanced drawing skill that
characteri!ed the paintings produced in Cenice a century later.
%urrent"y( "ega" scho"ars agree that in some cases "ega" ru"es do not speci&y a
de#nite outcome. These scho"ars be"ieve that such indeterminacy resu"ts &rom the
vagueness o& "anguageA the boundaries o& the app"ication o& a term are o&ten
unc"ear. ,everthe"ess( they maintain that the system o& "ega" ru"es by and "arge
rests on c"ear core meanings that do determine de#nite outcomes &or most cases.
%ontrary to this view( an ear"ier group o& "ega" phi"osophers( ca""ed >rea"ists(?
argued that indeterminacy pervades every part o& the "aw.
The rea"ists he"d that there is a"ways a c"uster o& ru"es re"evant to the decision
in any "itigated case. :or e8amp"e( deciding whether an aunt6s promise to pay her
niece a sum o& money i& she re&rained &rom smo$ing is en&orceab"e wou"d invo"ve
a number o& ru"es regarding such issues as o1er( acceptance( and revocation.
Jinguistic vagueness in any one o& these ru"es wou"d a1ect the outcome o& the
case( ma$ing possib"e mu"tip"e points o& indeterminacy( not 5ust one or two( in any
"ega" case.
:or the rea"ists( an even more damaging $ind o& indeterminacy stems &rom the
&act that in a common-"aw system based on precedent( a 5udge6s decision is he"d
LSAT 6.,
to be binding on 5udges in subse-uent simi"ar cases. Cudicia" decisions are
e8pressed in written opinions( common"y he"d to consist o& two partsA the ho"ding
(the decision &or or against the p"ainti1 and the essentia" grounds or "ega" reasons
&or it( that is( what subse-uent 5udges are bound by)( and the dicta (everything in
an opinion not essentia" to the decision( &or e8amp"e( comments about points o&
"aw not treated as the basis o& the outcome). The rea"ists argued that in practice
the common-"aw system treats the >ho"dingPdicta? distinction "oose"y. They
pointed out that even when the 5udge writing an opinion characteri+es part o& it as
>the ho"ding(? 5udges writing subse-uent opinions( a"though un"i$e"y to dispute
the decision itse"&( are not bound by the origina" 5udge6s perception o& what was
essentia" to the decision. Jater 5udges have tremendous "eeway in being ab"e to
rede#ne the ho"ding and the dicta in a precedentia" case. This "eeway enab"es
5udges to choose which ru"es o& "aw &ormed the basis o& the decision in the ear"ier
case. ;hen 5udging a"most any case( then( a 5udge can #nd a re"evant
precedentia" case which( in subse-uent opinions( has been read by one 5udge as
stating one "ega" ru"e( and by another 5udge as stating another( possib"y
contradictory one. 3 5udge thus &aces an indeterminate "ega" situation in which he
or she has to choose which ru"es are to govern the case at hand.
11. According to the passage/ the realists argued that which one of the following is
true of a common(law system%
(A) 3t gi'es rise to numerous situations in which the decisions of earlier <udges are
found to be in error by later <udges.
(B) 3t possesses a clear set of legal rules in theory/ but in practice most <udges are
unaware of the strict meaning of those rules.
(C) 3ts strength lies in the re"uirement that <udges decide cases according to
precedent rather than according to a set of abstract principles.
() 3t would be impro'ed if <udges refrained from willfully misinterpreting the
written opinions of prior <udges.
(#) 3t treats the difference between the holding and the dicta in a written opinion
rather loosely in practice.
12. According to the passage/ which one of the following best describes the
relationship between a <udicial holding and a <udicial decision%
(A) The holding is not commonly considered binding on subse"uent <udges/ but
the decision is.
(B) The holding formally states the outcome of the case/ while the decision
e$plains it.
(C) The holding e$plains the decision but does not include it.
() The holding consists of the decision and the dicta.
(#) The holding sets forth and <ustifies a decision.
1-. The information in the passage suggests that the realists would most likely ha'e
605 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
agreed with which one of the following statements about the reaction of <udges to
past interpretations of a precedential case/ each of which states a different legal
rule%
(A) The <udges would most likely disagree with one or more of the interpretations
and o'erturn the earlier <udges4 decisions.
(B) The <udges might differ from each other concerning which of the
interpretations would apply in a gi'en case.
(C) The <udges probably would consider themsel'es bound by all the legal rules
stated in the interpretations.
() The <udges would regard the lack of unanimity among interpretations as
e'idence that no precedents e$isted.
(#) The <udges would point out in their holdings the inherent contradictions arising
from the earlier <udges4 differing interpretations.
16. 3t can be inferred from the passage that most legal scholars today would agree with
the realists that
(A) Kinguistic 'agueness can cause indeterminacy regarding the outcome of a
litigated case.
(B) 3n any litigated case/ se'eral different and possibly contradictory legal rules
are rele'ant to the decision of the case.
(C) The distinction between holding and dicta in a written opinion is usually
difficult to determine in practice.
() The boundaries of applicability of terms may sometimes be difficult to
determine/ but the core meanings of the terms are well established.
(#) A common(law system gi'es <udges tremendous leeway in interpreting
precedents/ and contradictor readings of precedential cases can usually be
found.
1,. The passage suggests that the realists belie'ed which one of the following to be
true of the dicta in a <udge4s written opinion%
(A) The <udge writing the opinion is usually careful to specify those parts of the
opinion he or she considers part of the dicta.
(B) The appropriateness of the <udge4s decision would be disputed by subse"uent
<udges on the basis of legal rules e$pressed in the dicta.
(C) A consensus concerning what constitutes the dicta in a <udge4s opinion comes
to be fi$ed o'er time as subse"uent similar cases are decided.
() ;ubse"uent <udges can consider parts of what the original <udge saw as the
dicta to be essential to the original opinion.
(#) The <udge4s decision and the grounds for it are usually easily distinguishable
from the dicta.
25. &hich one of the following best describes the o'erall organi!ation of the passage%
LSAT 601
(A) A traditional point of 'iew is e$plained and problems arising from it are
described.
(B) Two conflicting systems of thought are compared point for point and then
e'aluated.
(C) A legal concept is defined and arguments <ustifying that definition are refuted.
() Two 'iewpoints on an issue are briefly described and one of those 'iewpoints
is discussed at greater length.
(#) A theoretical description of how a system de'elops is contrasted with the actual
practices characteri!ing the system.
21. &hich one of the following titles best reflects the content of the passage%
(A) Kegal 3ndeterminacyE The ebate Continues
(B) )olding Cersus ictaE A istinction &ithout a ifference
(C) Kinguistic CaguenessE 3s 3t Circumscribed in Kegal Terminology%
() Kegal 3ndeterminacyE The =ealist4s Ciew of 3ts ;cope
(#) Kegal =ules and the @recedential ;ystemE )ow Audges 3nterpret the @recedents
Iears a&ter the movement to obtain civi" rights &or b"ac$ peop"e in the United
tates made its most important gains( scho"ars are reaching &or a theoretica"
perspective capab"e o& c"ari&ying its momentous deve"opments. ,ew theories o&
socia" movements are being discussed( not 5ust among socia" psycho"ogists( but
a"so among po"itica" theorists.
<& the many competing &ormu"ations o& the >c"assica"? socia" psycho"ogica"
theory o& socia" movement( three are prominent in the "iterature on the civi" rights
movementA >rising e8pectations(? >re"ative deprivation(? and >C-curve.? @ach
con&orms to a causa" se-uence characteristic o& c"assica" socia" movement theory(
"in$ing some unusua" condition( or >system strain(? to the generation o& unrest.
;hen these versions o& the c"assica" theory are app"ied to the civi" rights
movement( the source o& strain is identi#ed as a change in b"ac$ socioeconomic
status that occurred short"y be&ore the widespread protest activity o& the
movement.
:or e8amp"e( the theory o& rising e8pectations asserts that protest activity was
a response to psycho"ogica" tensions generated by gains e8perienced immediate"y
prior to the civi" rights movement. 3dvancement did not satis&y ambition( but
created the desire &or &urther advancement. <n"y s"ight"y di1erent is the theory o&
re"ative deprivation. )ere the impetus to protest is identi#ed as gains achieved
during the premovement period( coup"ed with simu"taneous &ai"ure to ma$e any
appreciab"e headway re"ative to the dominant group. The C-curve theory argues
that the movement occurred because a pro"onged period o& rising e8pectations
and grati#cation was &o""owed by a sharp reversa".
9o"itica" theorists have been dismissive o& these app"ications o& c"assica" theory
to the civi" rights movement. Their arguments rest on the conviction that(
602 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
imp"icit"y( the c"assica" theory trivia"i+es the po"itica" ends o& movement
participants( &ocusing rather on presumed psycho"ogica" dys&unctionsA reduction o&
comp"e8 socia" situations to simp"e paradigms o& stimu"us and response obviates
the re"evance o& a"" but the shortest-term ana"ysis. :urthermore( the theories "ac$
predictive va"ueA >strain? is a"ways present to some degree( but socia" movement
is not. )ow can we $now which strain wi"" provo$e upheava"G
These very "egitimate comp"aints having &re-uent"y been made( it remains to
#nd a means o& testing the strength o& the theories. 9rob"ematica""y( whi"e
proponents o& the various theories have contradictory interpretations o&
socioeconomic conditions "eading to the civi" rights movement( e8amination o&
various statistica" records regarding the materia" status o& b"ac$ 3mericans yie"ds
amp"e evidence to support any o& the three theories. The steady rise in median
b"ac$ &ami"y income supports the rising e8pectations hypothesis= the stabi"ity o&
the economic position o& b"ac$ vis-_-vis white 3mericans "ends credence to the
re"ative deprivation interpretation= unemp"oyment data are consistent with the C-
curve theory. 3 better test is the comparison o& each o& these economic indicators
with the &re-uency o& movement-initiated events reported in the press=
unsurprising"y( none corre"ates signi#cant"y with the pace o& reports about
movement activity.
22. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the classical theory of social mo'ement
would not be appropriately applied to an annual general election because such an
election
(A) may focus on personalities rather than on political issues
(B) is not pro'oked primarily by an unusual condition
(C) may be decided according to the psychological needs of 'oters
() may not entail momentous de'elopments
(#) actually entails two or more distinct social mo'ements
2.. According to the passage/ the *rising e$pectations+ and *relati'e depri'ation+
models differ in which one of the following ways%
(A) They predict different responses to the same socioeconomic conditions.
(B) They disagree about the rele'ance of psychological e$planations for protest
mo'ements.
(C) They are meant to e$plain different kinds of social change.
() They describe the moti'ation of protesters in slightly different ways.
(#) They disagree about the rele'ance of socioeconomic status to system strain.
20. The author implies that political theorists attribute which one of the following
assumptions to social psychologists who apply the classical theory of social
mo'ements to the ci'il rights mo'ement%
(A) @articipants in any gi'en social mo'ement ha'e conflicting moti'ations.
LSAT 60.
(B) ;ocial mo'ements are ultimately beneficial to society.
(C) 8nly strain of a socioeconomic nature can pro'oke a social mo'ement.
() The political ends of mo'ement participants are best analy!ed in terms of
participants4 psychological moti'ations.
(#) @sychological moti'ations of mo'ement participants better illuminate the
causes of social mo'ements than do participants4 political moti'ations.
21. &hich one of the following statements is supported by the results of the *better
test+ discussed in the last paragraph of the passage%
(A) The test confirms the three classical theories discussed in the passage.
(B) The test pro'ides no basis for deciding among the three classical theories
discussed in the passage.
(C) The test shows that it is impossible to apply any theory of social mo'ements to
the ci'il rights mo'ement.
() The test indicates that press co'erage of the ci'il rights mo'ement was biased.
(#) The test 'erifies that the ci'il rights mo'ement generated socioeconomic
progress.
22. The 'alidity of the *better test+ (line 21) as proposed by the author might be
undermined by the fact that
(A) the press is selecti'e about the mo'ement acti'ities it chooses to co'er
(B) not all economic indicators recei'e the same amount of press co'erage
(C) economic indicators often contradict one another
() a mo'ement(initiated e'ent may not correlate significantly with any of the
three economic indicators
(#) the pace of mo'ement(initiated e'ents is difficult to anticipate
2-. The main purpose of the passage is to
(A) @ersuade historians of the indispensability of a theoretical framework for
understanding recent history.
(B) @resent a new model of social mo'ement.
(C) Account for a shift in a theoretical debate.
() ;how the unity underlying the di'erse classical models of social mo'ement.
(#) iscuss the reasoning behind and shortcomings of certain social psychological
theories.
LSAT 12 SECTON
T!"e 35 "!#$%es 26 &$es%!o#s
Directions: Each passage in this section is followed by a group of questions to be answered on
the basis of what is stated or implied in the passage. For some of the questions, more than one
of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However, you are to choose the best
600 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
answer, that is, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question, and
blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.
,ear"y every writer on the phi"osophy o& civi" rights activist Bartin Juther Sing(
Cr.( ma$es a connection between Sing and )enry Kavid Thoreau( usua""y via
Thoreau6s &amous essay( >%ivi" Kisobedience? (18M9). 2n his boo$ tride Toward
Freedom (19/8)( Sing himse"& stated that Thoreau6s essay was his #rst inte""ectua"
contact with the theory o& passive resistance to governmenta" "aws that are
perceived as mora""y un5ust. )owever( this emphasis on Thoreau6s inDuence on
Sing is un&ortunateA #rst( Sing wou"d not have agreed with many other aspects o&
Thoreau6s phi"osophy( inc"uding Thoreau6s u"timate acceptance o& vio"ence as a
&orm o& protest= second( an overemphasis on the inDuence o& one essay has $ept
historians &rom noting other correspondences between Sing6s phi"osophy and
transcendenta"ism. >%ivi" Kisobedience? was the on"y e8amp"e o&
transcendenta"ist writing with which Sing was &ami"iar( and in many other
transcendenta"ist writings( inc"uding wor$s by Ra"ph ;a"do @merson and Bargaret
:u""er( Sing wou"d have &ound ideas more near"y a$in to his own.
The $ind o& civi" disobedience Sing had in mind was( in &act( -uite di1erent &rom
Thoreau6s view o& civi" disobedience. Thoreau( "i$e most other transcendenta"ists(
was primari"y interested in re&orm o& the individua"( whereas Sing was primari"y
interested in re&orm o& society. 3s a protest against the Be8ican ;ar( Thoreau
re&used to pay ta8es( but he did not hope by his action to &orce a change in
nationa" po"icy. ;hi"e he encouraged others to adopt simi"ar protests( he did not
attempt to mount any mass protest action against un5ust "aws. 2n contrast to
Thoreau( Sing began to advocate the use o& mass civi" disobedience to e1ect
revo"utionary changes within the socia" system.
)owever( Sing6s writings suggest that( without rea"i+ing it( he was an incipient
transcendenta"ist. Bost transcendenta"ists subscribed to the concept o& >higher
"aw? and inc"uded civi" disobedience to un5ust "aws as part o& their strategy. They
o&ten invo$ed the concept o& higher "aw to 5usti&y their opposition to s"avery and to
advocate disobedience to the strengthened :ugitive "ave Jaw o& 18/0. 2n his
second ma5or boo$( Sing6s discussion o& 5ust and un5ust "aws and the responsibi"ity
o& the individua" is very simi"ar to the transcendenta"ists6 discussion o& higher "aw.
2n re&erence to how one can advocate brea$ing some "aws and obeying others(
Sing notes that there are two types o& "aws( 5ust and un5ust= he describes a 5ust
"aw as a >code that s-uares with the mora" "aw? and an un5ust "aw as a >code that
is out o& harmony with the mora" "aw.? Thus( Sing6s opposition to the in5ustice o&
"ega"i+ed segregation in the twentieth century is phi"osophica""y a$in to the
transcendenta"ists6 opposition to the :ugitive "ave Jaw in the nineteenth century.
1. &hich one of the following best states the main idea of the passage%
(A) Ming4s philosophy was more influenced by Thoreau4s essay on ci'il
disobedience than by any other writing of the transcendentalists.
(B) &hile historians may ha'e o'erestimated Thoreau4s influence on Ming/ Ming
LSAT 601
was greatly influenced by a number of the transcendentalist philosophers.
(C) Thoreau4s and Ming4s 'iews on ci'il disobedience differed in that Ming was
more concerned with the social reform than with the economic reform of
society.
() Although historians ha'e o'eremphasi!ed Thoreau4s influence on Ming/ there
are parallels between Ming4s philosophy and transcendentalism that ha'e not
been fully appreciated.
(#) Ming4s ideas about law and ci'il disobedience were influenced by
transcendentalism in general and Thoreau4s essays in particular.
2. &hich one of the following statements about *Ci'il isobedience+ would the
author consider most accurate%
(A) 3t was not Ming4s first contact with the concept of passi'e resistance to un<ust
laws.
(B) 3t was one of many e$amples of transcendentalist writing with which Ming was
familiar.
(C) 3t pro'ided Ming with a model for using passi'e resistance to effect social
change.
() 3t contains a number of ideas with which other transcendentalists strongly
disagreed.
(#) 3t influenced Ming4s philosophy on passi'e resistance to un<ust laws.
.. 3n the first paragraph/ the author is primarily concerned with
(A) chronicling the de'elopment of Ming4s philosophy on passi'e resistance to
un<ust law
(B) suggesting that a common emphasis on one influence on Ming4s philosophy
has been misleading
(C) pro'iding new information about the influence of twentieth(century
philosophers on Ming4s work
() summari!ing the work of historians of the most important influences on Ming4s
philosophy
(#) pro'iding background information about nineteenth(century transcendentalist
philosophers
0. According to the passage/ which one of the following is true of4 #merson and
>uller%
(A) ;ome of their ideas were less typical of transcendentalism than were some of
Thoreau4s ideas.
(B) They were more concerned with the reform of society than with the reform of
the indi'idual.
(C) They would ha'e been more likely than Thoreau to agree with Ming on the
necessity of mass protest in ci'il disobedience.
602 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
() Their ideas about ci'il disobedience and un<ust laws are as well known as
Thoreau4s are.
(#) ;ome of their ideas were more similar to Ming4s than were some of Thoreau4s.
1. According to the passage/ Ming differed from most transcendentalists in that he
(A) opposed 'iolence as a form of ci'il protest
(B) opposed war as an instrument of foreign policy under any circumstances
(C) belie'ed that <ust laws had an inherent moral 'alue
() was more interested in reforming society than in reforming the indi'idual
(#) protested social and legal in<ustice in :nited ;tates society rather than :nited
;tates foreign policy
2. The passage suggests which one of the following about Thoreau%
(A) )e was the first to de'elop fully the theory of ci'il disobedience.
(B) )is work has had a greater influence on contemporary thinkers than has the
work of #merson and >uller.
(C) )is philosophy does not contain all of the same elements as the philosophies
of the other transcendentalists.
() )e ad'ocated using ci'il disobedience to force the federal go'ernment to
change its policies on war.
(#) )e is better known for his ideas on social and legal reform than for his ideas on
indi'idual reform.
-. The passage pro'ides support for which one of the following statements about the
"uotations in lines 12(11%
(A) They are an e$ample of a way in which Ming4s ideas differed from Thoreau4s
but were similar to the ideas of other transcendentalists.
(B) They pro'ide e'idence that pro'es that Ming4s philosophy was affected by
transcendentalist thought.
(C) They suggest that Ming/ like the transcendentalists/ <udged human laws by
ethical standards.
() They suggest a theoretical basis for Ming4s philosophy of go'ernment.
(#) They pro'ide a paraphrase of Thoreau4s position on <ust and un<ust laws.
2n -emocracies and its Critics( Robert Kah" de&ends both democratic va"ue and
p"ura"ist democracies( or po"yarchies (a rough shorthand term &or ;estern po"itica"
systems). Kah" argues convincing"y that the idea o& democracy rests on po"itica"
e-ua"ity!the e-ua"ity capacity o& a"" citi+ens to determine or inDuence co""ective
decisions. <& course( as Kah" recogni+es( i& hierarchica" ordering is inevitab"e in
any structure o& government( and i& no society can guarantee per&ect e-ua"ity in
the resources that may give rise to po"itica" inDuence( the democratic princip"e o&
po"itica" e-ua"ity is incapab"e o& &u"" rea"i+ation. o actua" systems can be deemed
democratic on"y as appro8imations to the idea". 2t is on these grounds that Kah"
LSAT 60-
de&ends po"yarchy.
3s a representative system in which e"ected o*cia"s both determine
government po"icy and are accountab"e to a broad-based e"ectorate( po"yarchy
rein&orces a di1usion o& power away &rom any sing"e center and toward a variety
o& individua"s( groups( and organi+ations. 2t is this centri&uga" characteristic( Kah"
argues( that ma$es po"yarchy the nearest possib"e appro8imation to the
democratic idea". 9o"yarchy achieves this di1usion o& power through party
competition and the operation o& pressure groups. %ompeting &or votes( parties
see$ to o1er di1erent sections o& the e"ectorate what they most want= they do not
as$ what the ma5ority thin$s o& an issue( but what po"icy commitments wi"" sway
the e"ectora" decisions o& particu"ar groups. @-ua""y( groups that have strong
&ee"ings about an issue can organi+e in pressure groups to inDuence pub"ic po"icy.
Kuring the 19L0s and 1970s( criticism o& the theory o& p"ura"ist democracy was
vigorous. Bany critics pointed to a gap between the mode" and the rea"ity o&
;estern po"itica" systems. They argued that the distribution o& power resources
other than the vote was so uneven that the po"itica" order systematica""y gave
added weight to those who were a"ready richer or organi+ationa""y more power&u".
o the power o& some groups to e8c"ude issues a"together &rom the po"itica"
agenda e1ective"y countered any di1usion o& inDuence on decision-ma$ing.
3"though such criticism became subdued during the 1980s( Kah" himse"& seems
to support some o& the ear"ier criticism. 3"though he regrets that some ;estern
inte""ectua"s demand more democracy &rom po"yarchies than is possib"e( and is
cautious about the possibi"ity o& &urther democrati+ation( he neverthe"ess ends his
boo$ by as$ing what changes in structures and consciousness might ma$e
po"itica" "i&e more democratic in present po"yarchies. <ne answer( he suggests( is
to "oo$ at the economic order o& po"yarchies &rom the point o& view o& the citi+en
as we"" as &rom that o& producers and consumers. This wou"d re-uire a critica"
e8amination o& both the distribution o& those economic resources that are at the
same time po"itica" resources( and the re"ationship between po"itica" structures
and economic enterprises.
6. The characteri!ation of polyarchies as *centrifugal+ (line 22) emphasi!es the
(A) way in which political power is decentrali!ed in a polyarchy
(B) central role of power resources in a polyarchy
(C) kind of concentrated power that political parties generate in a polyarchy
() dynamic balance that e$ists between economic enterprises and elected officials
in a polyarchy
(#) dynamic balance that e$ists between 'oters and elected officials in a polyarchy
,. 3n the third paragraph/ the author of the passage refers to criticism of the theory of
polyarchy democracy primarily in order to
(A) refute ahl4s statement that &estern intellectuals e$pect more democracy from
polyarchies than is possible
606 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
(B) ad'ocate the need for rethinking the basic principles on which the theory of
democracy rests
(C) suggest that the structure of go'ernment within pluralist democracies should
be changed
() point out a flaw in ahl4s argument that the principle of political e"uality
cannot be fully reali!ed
(#) point out an ob<ection to ahl4s defense of polyarchy
15. According to the passage/ the aim of a political party in a polyarchy is to do which
one of the following%
(A) determine what the position of the ma<ority of 'oters is on a particular issue
(B) determine what position on an issue will earn the support of particular groups
of 'oters
(C) organi!e 'oters into pressure groups in order to influence public policy on a
particular issue
() ensure that elected officials accurately represent the position of the party on
specific issue
(#) ensure that elected officials accurately represent the position of the electorate
on specific issues
11. 3t can be inferred from the passage that ahl assumes which one of the following
in his defense of polyarchies%
(A) @olyarchies are limited in the e$tent to which they can embody the idea of
democracy.
(B) The structure of polyarchical go'ernments is free of hierarchical ordering.
(C) The citi!ens of a polyarchy ha'e e"ual access to the resources that pro'ide
political influence.
() @olyarchy is the best political system to foster the growth of political parties.
(#) @olyarchy is a form of go'ernment that is not influenced by the interests of
economic enterprises.
12. &hich one of the following is most closely analogous to pluralist democracies as
they are described in relation to the democratic principle of political e"uality%
(A) an e$act copy of an ancient artifact that is on display in a museum
(B) a performance of a musical score whose range of tonality cannot be completely
captured by any actual instruments
(C) a lecture by a former astronaut to a class of young students who would like to
be astronauts
() the commemoration of a historical e'ent each year by a historian presenting a
lecture on a topic related to the e'ent
(#) the mold from which a number of identical castings of a sculpture are made
LSAT 60,
1.. &hich one of the following/ if true/ would most strengthen ahl4s defense of
polyarchy%
(A) The political agenda in a polyarchy is strongly influenced by how power
resources other than the 'ote are distributed.
(B) The outcome of elections is more often determined by the financial resources
candidates are able to spend during campaigns than by their stands on political
issue.
(C) @ublic policy in a polyarchy is primarily determined by decision(makers who
are not accountable to elected officials.
() @olitical parties in a polyarchy help concentrate political power in the central
go'ernment.
(#) ;mall and di'erse pressure groups are able to e$ert as much influence on
public policy in a polyarchy as are large and powerful groups.
10. The passage can best be described as
(A) an in"uiry into how present(day polyarchies can be made more democratic
(B) a commentary on the means pressure groups employ to e$ert influence within
polyarchies
(C) a description of the relationship between polyarchies and economic enterprises
() a discussion of the strengths and weaknesses of polyarchy as a form of
democracy
(#) an o'er'iew of the similarities between political parties and pressure groups in
a polyarchy
The o"d be"ie& that c"imatic stabi"ity accounts &or the high "eve" o& species
diversity in the 3ma+on River basin o& outh 3merica emerged( strange"y enough(
&rom observations o& the deep sea. anders discovered high diversity among the
mud-dwe""ing anima"s o& the deep ocean. )e argued that such diversity cou"d be
attributed to the absence o& signi#cant Ductuations in c"imate and physica"
conditions( without which the e8tinction o& species shou"d be rare. 2n the course o&
time new species wou"d continue to evo"ve( and so the rate o& speciation wou"d be
greater than the rate o& e8tinction( resu"ting in the accumu"ation o& great diversity.
anders argued that the 3ma+on tropica" rain &orest is ana"ogous to the deep seaA
because the rain &orest has a stab"e c"imate( e8tinction shou"d be rare. @vidence
that some species o& rain-&orest trees have persisted &or some 70 mi""ion years in
the 3ma+on basin( added to the absence o& winter and g"aciation( supports this
view.
Recent"y however( severa" observations have cast doubt on the va"idity o& the
stabi"ity hypothesis and suggest that the c"imate o& the 3ma+on basin has
Ductuated signi#cant"y in the past. )a1er noted that di1erent species o& birds
inhabit di1erent corners o& the basin in spite o& the &act that essentia""y unbro$en
green &orest spreads &rom the western edge to the eastern edge o& the region.
This pattern presented a pu++"e to bio"ogists studying the distributions o& p"ants
615 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
and anima"sA why wou"d di1erent species inhabit di1erent parts o& the &orest i& the
habitat in which they "ived had a stab"e c"imateG
)a1er proposed a compe""ing e8p"anation &or the distribution o& species.
<bserving that species &ound on high ground are di1erent &rom those on "ow
ground and $nowing that in the 3ma+on "ow"ands are drier than up"ands( he
proposed that during the ice ages the 3ma+on "ow"ands became a near-desert
arid p"ain= meanwhi"e( the more e"evated regions became is"ands o& moisture and
hence served as re&uges &or the &auna and Dora o& the rain &orest. 9opu"ations that
were once continuous diverged and became permanent"y separated. )a1er6s
hypothesis appears to e8p"ain the distribution o& species as we"" as the unusua"
species diversity. The ice-age re&uges wou"d have protected e8isting species &rom
e8tinction. 'ut the periodic geographic iso"ation o& re"ated popu"ations (there have
been an estimated 17 ice ages to date) wou"d have &aci"itated the deve"opment o&
new species as e8isting species on the "ow"ands adapted to changing c"imates.
3"though no conc"usive proo& has yet been &ound to support )a1er6s
hypothesis( it has "ed other researchers to gauge the e1ects o& c"imatic changes(
such as storms and Dooding( on species diversity in the 3ma+on basin. Their
research suggests that c"imatic disturbances he"p account &or the sp"endid
diversity o& the 3ma+on rain &orest.
11. As discussed in the first paragraph of the passage/ ;anders4 analogy between the
deep sea and the Ama!on basin in'ol'es which one of the following assumptions%
(A) Both the Ama!on basin and the deep sea support an unusually high rate of
speciation.
(B) Both the rain(forest trees in the Ama!on basin and the mud(dwelling animals
in the deep sea ha'e sur'i'ed for .5 million years.
(C) Both the deep sea and the Ama!on basin ha'e not e$perienced dramatic
changes in climate or physical conditions.
() A dependable supply of water to the Ama!on basin and the deep sea has
moderated the rate of e$tinction in both habitats.
(#) The rate of speciation in the Ama!on basin is e"ui'alent to the rate of
speciation in the deep sea.
12. The author of the passage would most likely agree with which one of the following
statements about )affer4s hypothesis%
(A) 3t pro'ides an intriguing and complete e$planation for the high rate of species
di'ersity in the Ama!on basin.
(B) 3t is partially correct in that a number of climatic disturbances account for
species di'ersity in the Ama!on basin.
(C) 3t has not yet been 'erified/ but it has had an influential effect on current
research on species di'ersity in the Ama!on basin.
() 3t is better than ;anders4 theory in accounting for the low rate of species
LSAT 611
e$tinction in the Ama!on basin.
(#) 3t pro'ides a compelling e$planation for the distribution of species in the
Ama!on basin but does not account for the high species di'ersity.
1-. According to the passage/ lowlands in the Ama!on basin currently differ from
uplands in which one of the following respects%
(A) Kowlands are desertlike/ whereas uplands are lush.
(B) Kowlands are less 'ulnerable to glaciation during the ice ages than are uplands.
(C) :plands support a greater di'ersity of species than do lowlands.
() :plands are wetter than are lowlands.
(#) :plands are more densely populated than are lowlands.
16. &hich one of the following best describes the organi!ation of the passage%
(A) A hypothesis is discussed/ e'idence that undercuts that hypothesis is presented
and a new hypothesis that may account for the e'idence is described.
(B) A recently obser'ed phenomenon is described/ an e$planation for that
phenomenon is discussed/ and the e$planation is e'aluated in light of pre'ious
research findings.
(C) ;e'eral hypotheses that may account for a pu!!ling phenomenon are described
and discounted/ and a more promising hypothesis is presented.
() A hypothesis and the assumptions on which it is based are described/ and
e'idence is pro'ided to suggest that the hypothesis is only partially correct.
(#) Two alternati'e e$planations for a phenomenon are presented and compared/
and e$periments designed to test each theory are described.
1,. The author of the passage mentions the number of ice ages in the third paragraph
most probably in order to
(A) pro'ide proof that cooler and drier temperatures are primarily responsible for
the distribution of species in the Ama!on
(B) e$plain how populations of species were protected from e$tinction in the
Ama!on basin
(C) e$plain how most e$isting species were able to sur'i'e periodic climatic
disturbances in the Ama!on basin
() suggest that certain kinds of climatic disturbances cause more species di'ersity
than do other kinds of climatic disturbances
(#) suggest that geographic isolation may ha'e occurred often enough to cause
high species di'ersity in the Ama!on basin
25. The passage suggests that which one of the following is true of ;anders4
hypothesis%
(A) )e underestimated the effects of winter and glaciation in the Ama!on basin on
the tropical rain forest.
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(B) )e failed to recogni!e the similarity in physical conditions of the Ama!on
lowlands and the Ama!on uplands.
(C) )e failed to take into a count the relati'ely high rate of e$tinction during the
ice ages in the Ama!on basin.
() )e o'erestimated the length of time that species ha'e sur'i'ed in the Ama!on
basin.
(#) )e failed to account for the distribution of species in the Ama!on basin.
21. &hich one of the following is e'idence that would contribute to the *proof+
mentioned in line 10%
(A) Accurately dated sediment cores from a freshwater lake in the Ama!on
indicate that the lake4s water le'el rose significantly during the last ice age.
(B) ata based on radiocarbon dating of fossils suggest that the Ama!on uplands
were too cold to support rain forests during the last ice age.
(C) Computer models of climate during global ice ages predict only insignificant
reductions of monsoon rains in tropical areas such as the Ama!on.
() >ossils preser'ed in the Ama!on uplands during the last ice age are found
together with minerals that are the products of an arid landscape.
(#) >ossili!ed pollen from the Ama!on lowlands indicates that during the last ice
age the Ama!on lowlands supported 'egetation that needs little water rather
than the rain forests they support today.
3"though surveys o& medieva" "egis"ation( gui"d organi+ation( and termino"ogy
used to designate di1erent medica" practitioners have demonstrated that
numerous medica" specia"ties were recogni+ed in @urope during the Bidd"e 3ges(
most historians continue to e-uate the term >woman medica" practitioner(?
wherever they encounter it in medieva" records( with >midwi&e.? This common
practice obscures the &act that( a"though women were not represented on a""
"eve"s o& medicine e-ua""y( they were represented in a variety o& specia"ties
throughout the broad medica" community. 3 re"iab"e study by ;ic$ersheimer and
Cac-uart documents that o& 7(LM7 medica" practitioners in :rance during the
twe"&th through #&teenth centuries( 141 were women= o& these( on"y MM were
identi#ed as midwives( whi"e the rest practiced as physicians( surgeons(
apothecaries( barbers( and other hea"ers.
;hi"e preserving termino"ogica" distinctions somewhat increases the -ua"ity o&
the in&ormation e8tracted &rom medieva" documents concerning women medica"
practitioners( scho"ars must a"so reopen the who"e -uestion o& why documentary
evidence &or women medica" practitioners comprises such a tiny &raction o& the
evidence historians o& medieva" medicine usua""y present. 2s this due to the
"imitations o& the historica" record( as has been c"aimed( or does it a"so resu"t &rom
the methods historians useG Eranted( apart &rom medica" "icenses( the principa"
sources o& in&ormation regarding medica" practitioners avai"ab"e to researchers are
wi""s( property trans&ers( court records( and simi"ar documents( a"" o& which
LSAT 61.
typica""y underrepresent women because o& restrictive medieva" "ega" traditions.
,onethe"ess( the parameters researchers choose when they de#ne their
investigations may contribute to the prob"em. tudies &ocusing on the upper
eche"ons o& >"earned? medicine( &or e8amp"e( tend to e8c"ude hea"ers on the "ega"
and socia" &ringes o& medica" practice( where most women wou"d have been
&ound.
The advantages o& broadening the scope o& such studies is immediate"y
apparent in 9e""ing and ;ebster6s study o& si8teenth-century Jondon. 2nstead o&
&ocusing so"e"y on o*cia""y recogni+ed and "icensed practitioners( the researchers
de#ned a medica" practitioner as >any individua" whose occupation is basica""y
concerned with the care o& the sic$.? Using this de#nition( they &ound primary
source in&ormation suggesting that there were L0 women medica" practitioners in
the city o& Jondon in 1/L0. 3"though this #gure may be s"ight"y e8aggerated( the
evidence contrasts stri$ing"y with that o& Eott&ried( whose ear"ier survey identi#ed
on"y 48 women medica" practitioners in a"" o& @ng"and between 1770 and 1/70.
:ina""y( such studies provide on"y statistica" in&ormation about the variety and
preva"ence o& women6s medica" practice in medieva" @urope. :uture studies might
a"so ma$e pro#tab"e use o& ana"yses deve"oped in other areas o& women6s history
as a basis &or e8p"oring the socia" conte8t o& women6s medica" practice.
2n&ormation about economic riva"ry in medicine( women6s "iteracy( and the contro"
o& medica" $now"edge cou"d add much to our growing understanding o& women
medica" practitioners6 ro"e in medieva" society.
22. &hich one of the following best e$presses the main point of the passage%
(A) =ecent studies demonstrate that women medical practitioners were more
common in #ngland than in the rest of &estern #urope during the ?iddle
Ages.
(B) The "uantity and "uality of the information historians unco'er concerning
women4s medical practice in medie'al #urope would be impro'ed if they
changed their methods of study.
(C) The sparse e'idence for women medical practitioners in studies dealing with
the ?iddle Ages is due primarily to the limitations of the historical record.
() Mnowledge about the social issues that influenced the role women medical
practitioners played in medie'al society has been enhanced by se'eral recent
studies.
(#) Analyses de'eloped in other areas of women4s history could probably be used
to pro'ide more information about the social conte$t of women4s medical
practice during the ?iddle Ages.
2.. &hich one of the following is most closely analogous to the error the author
belie'es historians make when they e"uate the term *woman medical practitioner+
with *midwife+%
(A) e"uating pear with apple
610 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
(B) e"uating science with biology
(C) e"uating super'isor with subordinate
() e"uating member with nonmember
(#) e"uating instructor with trainee
20. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author would be most likely to agree
with which one of the following assertions regarding Bottfried4s study%
(A) Bottfried4s study would ha'e recorded a much larger number of women
medical practitioners if the time frame co'ered by the study had included the
late si$teenth century.
(B) The small number of women medical practitioners identified in Bottfried4s
study is due primarily to problems caused by inaccurate sources.
(C) The small number of women medical practitioners identified in Bottfried4s
study is due primarily to the loss of many medie'al documents.
() The results of Bottfried4s study need to be considered in light of the social
changes occurring in &estern #urope during the fourteenth and fifteenth
centuries.
(#) 3n setting the parameters for his study. Bottfried appears to ha'e defined the
term *medical practitioner+ 'ery narrowly.
21. The passage suggests that a future study that would be more informati'e about
medie'al women medical practitioners might focus on which one of the following%
(A) the effect of social change on the political and economic structure of medie'al
society
(B) the effect of social constraints on medie'al women4s access to a medical
education
(C) the types of medical specialties that de'eloped during the ?iddle Ages
() the reasons why medie'al historians tend to e"uate the term *woman medical
practitioner+ with midwife
(#) the historical de'elopments responsible for the medie'al legal tradition4s
restrictions on women
22. The author refers to the study by &ickersheimer and Aac"uart in order to
(A) demonstrate that numerous medical specialties were recogni!ed in &estern
#urope during the ?iddle Ages
(B) demonstrate that women are often underrepresented in studies of medie'al
medical practitioners
(C) pro'e that midwi'es were officially recogni!ed as members of the medical
community during the ?iddle Ages
() pro'e that midwi'es were only a part of a larger community of women
medical practitioners during the ?iddle Ages
LSAT 611
(#) pro'e that the e$istence of midwi'es can be documented in &estern #urope as
early as the twelfth century
2-. 3n the passage/ the author is primarily concerned with doing which one of the
following%
(A) describing new methodological approaches
(B) re'ising the definitions of certain concepts
(C) comparing two different analyses
() arguing in fa'or of changes in method
(#) chronicling certain historical de'elopments
LSAT 13 SECTON
T!"e 35 "!#$%es 26 &$es%!o#s
Directions: Each passage in this section is followed by a group of questions to be answered on
the basis of what is stated or implied in the passage. For some of the questions, more than one
of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However, you are to choose the best
answer, that is, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question, and
blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.
Bodern architecture has been critici+ed &or emphasi+ing practica" and technica"
issues at the e8pense o& aesthetic concerns. The high-rise bui"dings constructed
throughout the industria"i+ed wor"d in the 19L0s and 1970s provide amp"e
evidence that cost-e*ciency and uti"ity have became the overriding concerns o&
the modern architect. )owever( <tto ;agner6s semina" te8t on modern
architecture( #rst pub"ished in Eermany in 189L( indicates that the &ai"ure o&
modern architecture cannot be b"amed on the idea"s o& its &ounders.
;agner6s (odern "rchitecture ca""ed &or a new sty"e based on modern
techno"ogies and mode"s o& construction. )e insisted that there cou"d be no return
to traditiona"( preindustria" mode"s= on"y by accepting who"ehearted"y the po"itica"
and techno"ogica" revo"utions o& the nineteenth century cou"d the architect
estab"ish the &orms appropriate to a modern( urban society. >3"" modern creation(?
;agner wrote( >must correspond to the new materia"s and demands o& the
present[must i""ustrate our own better( democratic( se"&-con#dent( idea" nature(?
and must incorporate the new >co"ossa" technica" and scienti#c achievements? o&
the age. This wou"d indeed seem to be the basis o& a pure"y materia"ist de#nition
o& architecture( a prototype &or the simp"istic &orm-&o""ows-&unction dogma that
opponents have identi#ed as the inte""ectua" basis o& modern architecture.
'ut the picture was more comp"e8( &or ;agner was a"ways care&u" to
distinguish between art and engineering. U"timate"y( he envisaged the architect
deve"oping the s$i""s o& the engineer without "osing the powers o& aesthetic
5udgment that ;agner &e"t were uni-ue to the artist. >ince the engineer is
se"dom a born artist and the architect must "earn as a ru"e to be an engineer(
architects wi"" in time succeed in e8tending their inDuence into the rea"m occupied
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by the engineers( so that "egitimate aesthetic demands can be met in a
satis&actory way.? 2n this symbiotic re"ationship essentia" to Bodernism( art was to
e8ercise the contro""ing inDuence.
,o other prospect was imaginab"e &or ;agner( who was #rm"y rooted as a
designer and( indeed( as a teacher in the %"assica" tradition. The apparent
inconsistency o& a con&essed %"assicist advising against the mechanica" imitation
o& historica" mode"s and arguing &or new &orms appropriate to the modern age
created e8act"y the tension that made ;agner6s writings and bui"dings so
interesting. ;hi"e he 5usti#ed( &or e8amp"e( the choice o& a circu"ar ground p"an &or
churches in terms o& optima" sight-"ines and the techno"ogy o& the gasometer( the
true inspiration was derived &rom the centra"i+ed churches o& the 2ta"ian
Renaissance. )e ac$now"edged as rationa"ist that there was no way bac$ to the
socia" and techno"ogica" conditions that had produced the wor$ o& Biche"ange"o or
:ischer von @r"ach( but he recogni+ed his emotiona" attachment to the great wor$s
o& the 2ta"ian Renaissance and 3ustrian 'aro-ue.
1. &hich one of the following best e$presses the main idea of the passage%
(A) ?odern architecture has been critici!ed for emphasi!ing practical and
technical issues and for failing to focus on aesthetic concerns.
(B) Critics ha'e failed to take into account the technological inno'ations and
aesthetic features that architects ha'e incorporated into modern buildings.
(C) &agner4s *odern Architecture pro'ides architects with a chronicle of the
origins of modern architecture.
() &agner4s *odern Architecture indicates that the founders of modern
architecture did not belie'e that practical issues should supersede the aesthetic
concerns of the past.
(#) &agner4s seminal te$t/ *odern Architecture/ pro'ides the intellectual basis for
the purely materialistic definition of modern architecture.
2. According to the passage/ &agner asserts which one of the following about the
roles of architect and engineer%
(A) The architect should make decision about aesthetic issues and lea'e decision
about technical matters to the engineers.
(B) The engineer has often de'eloped the powers of aesthetic <udgment pre'iously
thought to be uni"ue to the architect.
(C) The <udgment of the engineer should be as important as the <udgment of the
architect when decisions are made about aesthetic issues.
() The technical <udgment of the engineer should pre'ail o'er the aesthetic
<udgment of the architect in the design of modern buildings.
(#) The architect should ac"uire the knowledge of technical matters typically held
by the engineer.
.. The passage suggests that &agner would be K#A;T likely to agree with which one
LSAT 61-
of the following statements about classical architecture and the modern architect%
(A) The modern architect should a'oid the mechanical imitation of the models of
the 3talian =enaissance and Austrian Baro"ue.
(B) The modern architect cannot design buildings appropriate to a modern/ urban
society and still retain emotional attachments to the forms of the 3talian
=enaissance and Austrian Baro"ue.
(C) The modern architect should possess knowledge of engineering as well as of
the architecture of the past.
() The modern architect should not base designs on the technological conditions
that underlay the design of the models of the 3talian =enaissance and Austrian
Baro"ue.
(#) The designs of modern architects should reflect political ideals different from
those reflected in the designs of classical architecture.
0. The passage suggests which one of the following about the "uotations from
*odern Architecture cited in the second paragraph%
(A) They represent the part of &agner4s work that has had the least influence on
the architects who designed the high(rise buildings of the 1,25s and 1,-5s.
(B) They describe the part of &agner4s work that is most often e'oked by
proponents of &agner4s ideas on art and technology.
(C) They do not ade"uately reflect the comple$ity of &agner4s ideas on the use of
modern technology in architecture.
() They reflect &agner4s acti'e participation in the political re'olutions of the
nineteenth century.
(#) They pro'ide an o'er'iew of &agner4s ideas on the relationship between art
and technology.
1. The author of the passage states which one of the following about the concerns of
modern architecture%
(A) Cost(efficiency/ utility/ and aesthetic demands are the primary concerns of the
modern architect.
(B) @ractical issues supersede aesthetic concerns in the design of many modern
buildings.
(C) Cost(efficiency is more important to the modern architects than are other
practical concerns.
() The design of many new buildings suggests that modern architects are still
inspired by architectural forms of the past.
(#) ?any modern architects use current technology to design modern buildings
that are aesthetically pleasing.
2. The author mentions &agner4s choice of a *circular ground plan for churches+
(line 10) most likely in order to
616 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
(A) pro'ide an e$ample of the kinds of technological inno'ations &agner
introduced into modern architecture
(B) pro'ide an e$ample of &agner4s dismissal of historical forms from 3talian
=enaissance
(C) pro'ide an e$ample of a modern building where technological issues were
much less significant than aesthetic demands
() pro'ide e'idence of &agner4s tendency to imitate 3talian =enaissance and
Austrian Baro"ue models
(#) pro'ide e'idence of the tension between &agner4s commitment to modern
technology and to the Classical tradition
-. The passage is primarily concerned with
(A) summari!ing the history of a debate
(B) e$plaining a traditional argument
(C) describing and e'aluating a recent approach
() <ustifying a recent criticism by presenting new e'idence
(#) supporting an assertion by discussing an important work
2n order to e8p"ain the socioeconomic achievement( in the &ace o&
disadvantages due to racia" discrimination( o& %hinese and Capanese immigration
to the United tates and their descendants( socio"ogists have typica""y app"ied
either cu"tura""y based or structura""y based theories!but never both together. To
use an economic metaphor( cu"tura""y based e8p"anations assert the importance
o& the supp"y side o& the "abor mar$et( emphasi+ing the -ua"ities immigrant
groups bring with them &or competition in the United tates "abor mar$et. uch
e8p"anations reDect a human-capita" perspective in which status attainment is
seen as a resu"t o& individua"s6 abi"ity to generate resources. tructura""y based
e8p"anations( on the other hand( e8amine the mar$et condition o& the immigrants6
host society( particu"ar"y its discriminatory practices and their impact on the
status attainment process o& immigrant groups. 2n the economic metaphor(
structura" e8p"anations assert the importance o& the demand side o& the "abor
mar$et.
2n order to understand the socioeconomic mobi"ity o& %hinese and Capanese
immigrants and their descendants( on"y an ana"ysis o& supp"y-side and demand-
side &actors together( in the conte8t o& historica" events( wi"" su*ce. <n the
cu"tura" or supp"y side( di1erences in immigration pattern and &ami"y &ormation
resu"ted in di1erent rates o& socioeconomic achievement &or %hinese and
Capanese immigrants. :or various reasons( %hinese immigrants remained
so5ourners and did not (e8cept &or urban merchants) estab"ish &ami"ies. They were
a"so hampered by ethnic conDict in the "abor mar$et. Capanese immigrants( on the
other hand( were "ess constrained( made the transition &rom so5ourner to sett"er
within the #rst two decades o& immigration( and "e&t "ow-wage "abor to estab"ish
sma"" businesses based on a househo"d mode o& production. %hinese so5ourners
LSAT 61,
without &ami"ies were more vu"nerab"e to demora"i+ation( whereas Capanese
immigrants &aced societa" hosti"ity with the emotiona" resources provide by a
stab"e &ami"y "i&e. <nce %hinese immigrants began to estab"ish nuc"ear &ami"ies
and produce a second generation( instituting househo"d production simi"ar to that
estab"ished by Capanese immigrants( their socioeconomic attainment soon
para""e"ed that o& Capanese immigrants and their descendants.
<n the structura" or demand side( changes in institutiona" constraints(
immigration "aws( "abor mar$ets( and societa" hosti"ity were rooted in the
dynamics o& capita"ist economic deve"opment. @ar"y capita"ist deve"opment
generated a demand &or "ow-wage "abor that cou"d not be &u"#""ed. @ar"y %hinese
and Capanese emigration was a response to this demand. 2n an advanced
capita"ist economy( the demand &or immigrant "abor is more di1erentiatedA s$i""ed
pro&essiona" and technica" "abor #""s empty positions in the primary "abor mar$et
and( with the traditiona" uns$i""ed "ow-wage "abor( creates two immigrant streams.
The high "eve"s o& education attained by the descendants o& %hinese and Capanese
immigrants and their concentration in strategic states such as %a"i&ornia paved
the way &or the movement o& the second generation into the e8panding primary
"abor mar$et in the advanced capita"ist economy that e8isted a&ter the econd
;or"d ;ar.
6. &hich one of the following best e$presses the main idea of the passage%
(A) The socioeconomic achie'ement of Chinese and Aapanese immigrants and
their descendants is best e$plained by a historical e$amination of the economic
structures pre'alent in the :nited ;tates when such immigrant groups arri'ed.
(B) The socioeconomic achie'ement of Chinese and Aapanese immigrants and their
descendants is best e$plained by an e$amination of their cultural backgrounds/
in particular their le'el of educational attainment.
(C) The socioeconomic achie'ement of Chinese and Aapanese immigrants and their
descendants has taken place in the conte$t of a culturally based emphasis on
the economic welfare of the nuclear family.
() 8nly the market structure of the capitalist economy of the :nited ;tates in
which supply has historically been regulated by demand can account for the
socioeconomic achie'ement of Chinese and Aapanese immigrants and their
descendants.
(#) 8nly an analysis that combines an e$amination of the culture of Chinese and
Aapanese immigrant groups and the socioeconomic structure of the host
country can ade"uately e$plain the socioeconomic achie'ement of Chinese and
Aapanese immigrants and their descendants.
,. &hich one of the following can best be described as a supply(side element in the
labor market/ as such elements are e$plained in the passage%
(A) concentration of small businesses in a gi'en geographical area
(B) need for workers with 'arying degrees of skill
625 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
(C) high 'alue placed by immigrants on work
() e$pansion of the primary labor market
(#) de'elopment of an ad'anced capitalist economy
15. &hich one of the following best states the function of the author4s mention of
*two immigration streams+ (line 22)%
(A) 3t demonstrates the effects of changes in human capital.
(B) 3t illustrates the operation of the primary labor market.
(C) 3t e$plains the nature of early Chinese and Aapanese immigration.
() 3t characteri!es the result of changing demand(side factors.
(#) 3t underscores an influence on the labor market.
11. 3t can be inferred that the author4s analysis of the socioeconomic achie'ement of
Chinese and Aapanese immigrants and their descendants differs from that of most
sociologists primarily in that most sociologists
(A) address the effects of the interaction of causal factors
(B) e$clude the factor of a de'eloping capitalist economy
(C) do not apply an economic metaphor
() emphasi!e the disad'antageous effects of racial discrimination
(#) focus on a single type of theoretical e$planation
12. 3t can be inferred that which one of the following was an element of the e$perience
of both Chinese and Aapanese immigrants in the :nited ;tates%
(A) initial status as so<ourners
(B) slow accumulation of capital
(C) "uick transition from laborer to manager
() rapid establishment of nuclear families
(#) rapid ac"uisition of technical skills
1.. The author is primarily concerned with
(A) ad'ancing a synthesis of approaches to an issue
(B) challenging a tentati'e answer to a "uestion
(C) e'aluating the soundness of theories
() resol'ing the differences between schools of thought
(#) outlining the achie'ements of a group
3"though the "ega" systems o& @ng"and and the United tates are super#cia""y
simi"ar( they di1er pro&ound"y in their approaches to and uses o& "ega" reasonsA
substantive reasons in the United tates( whereas in @ng"and the reverse is true.
This distinction reDects a di1erence in the visions o& "aw that prevai" in the two
counties. 2n @ng"and the "aw has traditiona""y been viewed as a system o& ru"es=
the United tates &avors a vision o& "aw as an outward e8pression o& the
LSAT 621
community6s sense o& right and 5ustice.
ubstantive reasons( as app"ied to "aw( are based on mora"( economic( po"itica"(
and other considerations. These reasons are &ound both >in the "aw? and >outside
the "aw(? so to spea$. ubstantive reasons in&orm the content o& a "arge part o&
the "awA constitutions( statutes( contracts( verdicts( and the "i$e. %onsider( &or
e8amp"e( a statute providing (to ma$e a proviso or stipu"ation) that >no vehic"es
sha"" be ta$en into pub"ic par$s?. uppose that no speci#c rationa"es or purposes
were e8p"icit"y written into this statute( but that it was c"ear (&rom its "egis"ative
history) that the substantive purpose o& the statute was to ensure -uiet and
sa&ety in the par$. ,ow suppose that a veterans6 group mounts a ;or"d ;ar 22 5eep
(in running order but without a battery) as a war memoria" on a concrete s"ab in
the par$( and charges are brought against its members. Bost 5udges in the United
tates wou"d #nd the de&endants not gui"ty because what they did had no adverse
e1ect on par$ -uiet and sa&ety.
:orma" reasons are di1erent in that they &re-uent"y prevent substantive
reasons &rom coming into p"ay( even when substantive reasons are e8p"icit"y
incorporated into the "aw at hand. :or e8amp"e( when a document &ai"s to comp"y
with stipu"ated re-uirements( the court may render the document "ega""y
ine1ective. 3 wi"" re-uiring written witness may be dec"ared nu"" and void and
there&ore( unen&orceab"e &or the &orma" reason that the re-uirement was not
observed. <nce the "ega" ru"e!that a wi"" is inva"id &or "ac$ o& proper witnessing!
has been c"ear"y estab"ished( and the "ega"ity o& the ru"e is not in -uestion(
app"ication o& that ru"e prec"udes &rom consideration substantive arguments in
&avor o& the wi""6s va"idity or en&orcement.
Jega" scho"ars in @ng"and and the United tates have "ong bemused
themse"ves with e8treme e8amp"es o& &orma" and substantive reasoning. <n the
one hand( &orma" reasoning in @ng"and has "ed to wooden interpretations o&
statutes and an unwi""ingness to deve"op the common "aw through 5udicia"
activism. <n the other hand( &reewhee"ing substantive reasoning in the United
tates has resu"ted in statutory interpretations so "ibera" that the te8ts o& some
statutes have been ignored a"together.
10. &hich one of the following best describes the content of the passage as a whole%
(A) an analysis of similarities and differences between the legal systems of
#ngland and the :nited ;tates
(B) a ree'aluation of two legal systems with the use of e$amples
(C) a contrast between the types of reasons embodied in the :nited ;tates and
#ngland legal systems
() an e$planation of how two distinct 'isions of the law shaped the de'elopment
of legal reasoning
(#) a presentation of two types of legal reasons that shows the characteristics they
ha'e in common
622 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
11. 3t can be inferred from the passage that #nglish <udges would be likely to find the
'eterans4 group discussed in the second paragraph guilty of 'iolating the statute
because
(A) not to do so would encourage others to act as the group did
(B) not to do so would be to 'iolate the substanti'e reasons underlying the law
(C) the 'eterans failed to comply with the substanti'e purpose of the statute
() the 'eterans failed to demonstrate that their acti'ities had no ad'erse effect on
the public
(#) the 'eterans failed to comply with the stipulated re"uirements of the statute
12. >rom the discussion of wills in the third paragraph it can be inferred that
substanti'e arguments as to the 'alidity of a will might be considered under which
one of the following circumstances%
(A) The legal rule re"uiring that a will be witnessed in writing does not stipulate
the format of the will.
(B) The legal rule re"uiring that a will be witnessed stipulates that the will must be
witnessed in writing by two people.
(C) The legal rule re"uiring that a will be witnessed in writing stipulates that the
witnessing must be done in the presence of a <udge.
() A <udge rules that the law re"uires a will to be witnessed in writing regardless
of e$tenuating circumstances.
(#) A <udge rules that the law can be interpreted to allow for a 'erbal witness to a
will in a case in'ol'ing a medical emergency.
1-. The author of the passage makes use of all of the following in presenting the
discussion of the #nglish and the :nited ;tates legal systems #DC#@T
(A) comparison and contrast
(B) generali!ation
(C) e$plication of term
() a chronology of historical de'elopments
(#) a hypothetical case
16. &hich one of the following best describes the function of the last paragraph of the
passage%
(A) 3t presents the conse"uences of e$treme interpretations of the two types of
legal reasons discussed by the author.
(B) 3t shows how legal scholars can incorrectly use e$treme e$amples to support
their 'iews.
(C) 3t corrects inaccuracies in legal scholars4 'iews of the nature of the two types
of legal systems.
() 3t suggests how characteri!ations of the two types of legal reasons can become
LSAT 62.
con'oluted and inaccurate.
(#) 3t presents scholars4 characteri!ations of both legal systems that are only
partially correct.
1,. The author of the passage suggests that in #nglish law a substanti'e interpretation
of a legal rule might be warranted under which one of the following
circumstances%
(A) ;ocial conditions ha'e changed to the e$tent that to continue to enforce the
rule would be to decide contrary to present(day social norms.
(B) The composition of the legislature has changed to the e$tent that to enforce the
rule would be contrary to the 'iews of the ma<ority in the present legislati'e
assembly.
(C) The legality of the rule is in "uestion and its enforcement is open to <udicial
interpretation.
() 3ndi'iduals who ha'e 'iolated the legal rule argue that application of the rule
would lead to unfair <udicial interpretations.
(#) ;uperior court <udges ha'e consistently ruled in decisions regarding the
interpretation of the legal rule.
25. According to the passage/ which one of the following statements about substanti'e
reasons is true%
(A) They may be written into laws/ but they may also e$ert an e$ternal influence
on the law.
(B) They must be e$plicitly written into the law in order to be rele'ant to the
application of the law.
(C) They are legal in nature and determine particular applications of most laws.
() They often pro'ide <udges with specific rationales for disregarding the laws of
the land.
(#) They are peripheral to the law/ whereas formal reasons are central to the law.
)ow does the brain $now when carbohydrates have been or shou"d be
consumedG The answer to this -uestion is not $nown( but one e"ement in the
e8p"anation seems to be the neurotransmitter serotonin( one o& a c"ass o&
chemica" mediators that may be re"eased &rom a presynaptic neuron and that
cause the transmission o& a nerve impu"se across a synapse to an ad5acent
postsynaptic neuron. 2n genera"( it has been &ound that drugs that se"ective"y
&aci"itate serotonin-mediated neurotransmission tend to cause weight "oss(
whereas drugs that b"oc$ serotonin-mediated transmission o&ten have the
opposite e1ectA they o&ten induce carbohydrate craving and conse-uent weight
gain.
erotonin is a derivative o& tryptophan( an amino acid that is norma""y present
at "ow "eve"s in the b"oodstream. The rate o& conversion is a1ected by the
proportion o& carbohydrates in an individua"6s dietA carbohydrates stimu"ate the
620 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
secretion o& insu"in( which &aci"itates the upta$e o& most amino acids into
periphera" tissues( such as musc"es. '"ood tryptophan "eve"s( however( are
una1ected by insu"in( so the proportion o& tryptophan in the b"ood re"ative to the
other amino acids increases when carbohydrates are consumed. ince tryptophan
competes with other amino acids &or transport across the b"ood-brain barrier into
the brain( insu"in secretion indirect"y speeds tryptophan6s entry into the centra"
nervous system where( in a specia" c"uster o& neurons( it is converted into
serotonin.
The "eve" o& serotonin in the brain in turn a1ects the amount o& carbohydrate
an individua" chooses to eat. Rats that are a""owed to choose among synthetic
&oods containing di1erent proportions o& carbohydrate and protein wi"" norma""y
a"ternate between &oods containing most"y protein and those containing most"y
carbohydrate. )owever( i& rats are given drugs that enhance the e1ect o&
serotonin( the rats6 carbohydrate inta$e is reduced. <n the other hand( when rats
are given drugs that interrupt serotonin-mediated neurotransmission( their brains
&ai" to respond when carbohydrates are eaten( so the desire &or them persists.
2n human beings a serotonin"i$e drug( d-&enDuramine (which re"ease serotonin
into brain synapses and then pro"ong its action by b"oc$ing its reabsorption into
the presynaptic neuron)( se"ective"y suppresses carbohydrate snac$ing (and its
associated weight gain) in peop"e who crave carbohydrates. 2n contrast( drugs
that b"oc$ serotonin-mediated transmission or that interact with neurotransmitters
other than serotonin have the opposite e1ectA they o&ten induce carbohydrate
craving and subse-uent weight gain. 9eop"e who crave carbohydrates report
&ee"ing re&reshed and invigorated a&ter eating a carbohydrate-rich mea" (which
wou"d be e8pected to increase brain serotonin "eve"s)( in contrast( those who do
not crave carbohydrates become s"eepy &o""owing a high-carbohydrate mea".
These #ndings suggest that serotonin has other e1ects that may be use&u"
indicators o& serotonin "eve"s in human beings.
21. &hich one of the following best states the main idea of the passage
(A) The body4s need for carbohydrates 'aries with the le'el of serotonin in the
blood.
(B) The body4s use of carbohydrates can be regulated by the administration of
serotoninlike drugs.
(C) The role of serotonin in regulating the consumption of carbohydrates is similar
in rats and in humans.
() The body4s desire for carbohydrates can be influenced by serotonin or
serotoninlike drugs.
(#) Tryptophan initiates a chain of e'ents that regulates the body4s use of
carbohydrates.
22. The term *rate+ (line 1-) refers to the rate at which
(A) serotonin is produced from tryptophan
LSAT 621
(B) carbohydrates are taken into the body
(C) carbohydrates stimulate the secretion of insulin
() insulin facilitates the uptake of amino acids into peripheral tissues
(#) tryptophan enters the bloodstream
2.. 3t can be inferred that a person is likely to car'e carbohydrates when
(A) the amount of insulin produced is too high
(B) the amount of serotonin in the brain is too low
(C) more tryptophan than usual crosses the blood(brain barrier
() neurotransmission by neurotransmitters other than serotonin is interrupted
(#) amino acids other than tryptophan are taken up by peripheral tissues
20. The information in the passage indicates that if human beings were gi'en a drug
that inhibits the action of serotonin/ which one of the following might be e$pected
to occur%
(A) ;ub<ects would probably show a preference for carbohydrate(rich snacks
rather than protein(rich snacks.
(B) ;ub<ects would probably become sleepy after eating a carbohydrate(rich meal.
(C) ;ub<ects would be more likely to lose weight than before they took the drug.
() ;ub<ects4 blood tryptophan le'els would probably increase.
(#) ;ub<ects4 desire for both carbohydrates and proteins would increase.
21. The primary purpose of the second paragraph in the passage is to
(A) pro'ide an o'er'iew of current research concerning the effect of serotonin on
carbohydrate consumption
(B) contrast the role of tryptophan in the body with that of serotonin
(C) discuss the role of serotonin in the transmission of neural impulses
() e$plain how the brain knows that carbohydrates should be consumed
(#) establish a connection between carbohydrate intake and the production of
serotonin
22. 3t can be inferred that after a person has taken d(fenflurarmine/ he or she will
probably be
(A) inclined to gain weight
(B) sleepy much of the time
(C) unlikely to cra'e carbohydrates
() unable to sleep as much as usual
(#) likely to secrete more insulin than usual
2-. The author4s primary purpose is to
(A) defend a point of 'iew
622 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
(B) correct a misconception
(C) assess conflicting e'idence
() suggest new directions for in'estigation
(#) pro'ide information that helps e$plain a phenomenon
LSAT 1( SECTON
T!"e 35 "!#$%es 26 &$es%!o#s
Directions: Each passage in this section is followed by a group of questions to be answered on
the basis of what is stated or implied in the passage. For some of the questions, more than one
of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However, you are to choose the best
answer, that is, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question, and
blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.
3 ma5or tenet o& the neurosciences has been that a"" neurons (nerve ce""s) in
the brains o& vertebrate anima"s are &ormed ear"y in deve"opment. 3n adu"t
vertebrate( it was be"ieved( must ma$e do with a #8ed number o& neuronsA those
"ost through disease or in5ury are not rep"aced( and adu"t "earning ta$es p"ace not
through generation o& new ce""s but through modi#cation o& connections among
e8isting ones.
)owever( new evidence &or neurogenesis (the birth o& new neurons) has come
&rom the study o& canary song. Ioung canaries and other songbirds "earn to sing
much as humans "earn to spea$( by imitating mode"s provided by their e"ders.
evera" wee$s a&ter birth( a young bird produces its #rst rudimentary attempts at
singing= over the ne8t &ew months the song becomes more structured and stab"e(
reaching a &u""y deve"oped state by the time the bird approaches its #rst breeding
season. 'ut this repertoire o& song is not permanent"y "earned. 3&ter each
breeding season( during "ate summer and &a""( the bird "oses mastery o& its
deve"oped >vocabu"ary(? and its song becomes as unstab"e as that o& a 5uveni"e
bird. Kuring the &o""owing winter and spring( however( the canary ac-uires new
songs( and by the ne8t breeding season it has deve"oped an entire"y new
repertoire.
Recent neuro"ogica" research into this "earning and re"earning process has
shown that the two most important regions o& the canary6s brain re"ated to the
"earning o& songs actua""y vary in si+e at di1erent times o& the year. 2n the spring(
when the bird6s song is high"y deve"oped and uni&orm( the regions are rough"y
twice as "arge as they are in the &a"". :urther e8periments tracing individua" nerve
ce""s within these regions have shown that the number o& neurons drops by about
78 percent a&ter the breeding season( but by the &o""owing breeding season( new
ones have been generated to rep"ace them. 3 possib"e e8p"anation &or this
continua" rep"acement o& nerve ce""s may have to do with the canary6s re"ative"y
"ong "i&e span and the re-uirements o& Dight. 2ts brain wou"d have to be
substantia""y "arger and heavier than might be &easib"e &or Dying i& it had to carry
a"" the brain ce""s needed to process and retain a"" the in&ormation gathered over a
LSAT 62-
"i&etime.
3"though the idea o& neurogenesis in the adu"t mamma"ian brain is sti"" not
genera""y accepted( these #ndings might he"p uncover a mechanism that wou"d
enab"e the human brain to repair itse"& through neurogenesis. ;hether such
rep"acement o& neurons wou"d disrupt comp"e8 "earning processes or "ong-term
memory is not $nown( but songbird research cha""enges scientists to identi&y the
genes or hormones that orchestrate neurogenesis in the young human brain and
to "earn how to activate them in the adu"t brain.
1. &hich one of the following best e$presses the main idea of the passage%
(A) 9ew e'idence of neurogenesis in canaries challenges an established
neurological theory concerning brain cells in 'ertebrates and suggests the
possibility that human brains may repair themsel'es.
(B) The brains of canaries differ from the brains of other 'ertebrate animals in that
the brains of adult canaries are able to generate neurons.
(C) =ecent studies of neurogenesis in canaries/ building on established theories of
'ertebrate neurology/ pro'ide important clues as to why researchers are not
likely to disco'er neurogenesis in adult humans.
() =ecent research into neurogenesis in canaries refutes a long(held belief about
the limited supply of brain cells and pro'ides new information about
neurogenesis in the adult human brain.
(#) 9ew information about neurogenesis in canaries challenges older hypotheses
and clarifies the importance of the yearly cycle in learning processes and
neurological replacement among 'ertebrates.
2. According to the passage/ which one of the following is true of the typical adult
canary during the late summer and fall%
(A) The canary4s song repertoire takes on a fully structured and stable "uality.
(B) A process of neurogenesis replaces the song(learning neurons that were lost
during the preceding months.
(C) The canary begins to learn an entirely new repertoire of songs based on the
models of other canaries.
() The regions in the canary4s brain that are central to the learning of song
decrease in si!e.
(#) The canary performs slightly modified 'ersions of the songs it learned during
the preceding breeding season.
.. 3nformation in the passage suggests that the author would most likely regard which
one of the following as K#A;T important in future research on neurogenesis in
humans%
(A) research on possible similarities between the neurological structures of
humans and canaries
626 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
(B) studies that compare the ratio of brain weight to body weight in canaries to that
in humans
(C) neurological research on the genes or hormones that acti'ate neurogenesis in
the brain of human infants
() studies about the ways in which long(term memory functions in the human
brain
(#) research concerning the processes by which humans learn complicated tasks
0. &hich one of the following/ if true/ would most seriously undermine the
e$planation proposed by the author in the third paragraph%
(A) A number of songbird species related to the canary ha'e a shorter life span
than the canary and do not e$perience neurogenesis.
(B) The brain si!e of se'eral types of airborne birds with life spans similar to those
of canaries has been shown to 'ary according to a two(year cycle of
neurogenesis.
(C) ;e'eral species of airborne birds similar to canaries in si!e are known to ha'e
brains that are substantially hea'ier than the canary4s brain.
() 3ndi'idual canaries that ha'e larger(than(a'erage repertoires of songs tend to
ha'e better de'eloped muscles for flying.
(#) 3ndi'idual canaries with smaller and lighter brains than the a'erage tend to
retain a smaller(than(a'erage repertoire of songs.
1. The use of the word *'ocabulary+ (line 2.) ser'es primarily to
(A) demonstrate the presence of a rudimentary grammatical structure in canary
song
(B) point out a similarity between the patterned groupings of sounds in a canary4s
song and the syllabic structures of words
(C) stress the stability and uniformity of canary4s song throughout its lifetime
() suggest a similarity between the possession of a repertoire of words among
humans and a repertoire of songs among canaries
(#) imply that the comple$ity of the canary4s song repertoire is e"ual to that of
human language
2. According to the passage/ which one of the following factors may help account for
the occurrence of neurogenesis in canaries%
(A) the life span of the a'erage canary
(B) the process by which canaries learn songs
(C) the fre"uency of canary breeding seasons
() the number of regions in the canary brain related to song learning
(#) the amount of time an a'erage canary needs to learn a repertoire of songs
-. &hich one of the following best describes the organi!ation of the third paragraph%
LSAT 62,
(A) A theory is presented/ analy!ed/ and modified/ and a <ustification for the
modification is offer.
(B) =esearch results are ad'anced and reconciled with results from other studies/
and a shared principle is described.
(C) =esearch results are presented/ further details are pro'ided/ and a hypothesis is
offered to e$plain the results.
() =esearch results are reported/ their implications are e$plained/ and an
application to a related field is proposed.
(#) =esearch results are reported/ their significance is clarified/ and they are
reconciled with pre'iously established neurological tenets.
6. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author would most likely describe the
current understanding of neurogenesis as
(A) e$hausti'e
(B) progressi'e
(C) incomplete
() anti"uated
(#) incorrect
:or too many years scho"ars o& 3&rican 3merican history &ocused on the harm
done by s"aveho"ders and by the institution o& s"avery( rather than on what
3&ricans in the United tates were ab"e to accomp"ish despite the e1ects o& that
institution. 2n (yne 4wne .round( T. ). 'reen and tephen 2nnes contribute
signi#cant"y to a recent( we"come shi&t &rom a white-centered to a b"ac$-centered
in-uiry into the ro"e o& 3&rican 3mericans in the 3merican co"onia" period. 'reen
and 2nnes &ocus not on s"aves( but on a sma"" group o& &reed indentured servants
in ,orthampton %ounty (in the %hesapea$e 'ay region o& Firginia) who( according
to the authors( maintained their &reedom( secured property( and interacted with
persons o& di1erent races and economic standing &rom 1L40 through the 1L70s.
3&rican 3mericans "iving on the %hesapea$e were to some e8tent disadvantaged(
say 'reen and 2nnes( but this did not prec"ude the attainment o& status rough"y
e-ua" to that o& certain white p"anters o& the area. %ontinuous"y acting within
b"ac$ socia" networ$s( and &orming economic re"ationships with white p"anters(
"oca" ,ative 3mericans( indentured servants( and white sett"ers outside the gentry
c"ass( the &ree 3&rican 3mericans o& ,orthampton %ounty he"d their own in the
rough-hewn wor"d o& %hesapea$e 'ay.
The authors emphasi+e that in this ear"y period( when the percentage o&
3&rican 3mericans in any given %hesapea$e county was sti"" no more than 10
percent o& the popu"ation( very "itt"e was predetermined so &ar as racia" status or
race re"ations were concerned. 'y schoo"ing themse"ves in the "oca" "ega" process
and by wor$ing prodigious"y on the "and( 3&rican 3mericans ac-uired property(
estab"ished &ami"ies( and warded o1 contentious white neighbors. 'reen and 2nnes
do ac$now"edge that po"itica" power on the %hesapea$e was asymmetrica""y
6-5 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
distributed among b"ac$ and white residents. )owever( they underemphasi+e
much evidence that customary "aw( on"y gradua""y embodies in statutory "aw( was
c"osing in on &ree 3&rican 3mericans we"" be&ore the 1L70sA during the 1LL0s(
when the proportion o& 3&rican 3mericans in Firginia increased dramatica""y(
Firginia tightened a "aw regu"ating interracia" re"ations (1LL4) and enacted a
statute prohibiting baptism &rom a"tering s"ave status (1LL7). 3nthony Cohnson( a
"eader in the community o& &ree 3&rican 3mericans in the %hesapea$e 'ay region(
so"d the "and he had cu"tivated &or more than twenty years and moved north with
his &ami"y around 1LL/( an action that the authors attribute to a search &or >&resh(
more productive "and.? 'ut the answer to why the Cohnsons "e&t that area where
they had "abored so "ong may "ie in their rea"i+ation that their white neighbors
were a"ready beginning the transition &rom a "arge"y white indentured "abor &orce
to re"iance on a "arge"y b"ac$ s"ave "abor &orce( and that the institution o& s"avery
was threatening their descendants6 chances &or &reedom and success in Firginia.
,. The author of the passage ob<ects to many scholarly studies of African American
history for which one of the following reasons%
(A) Their emphases ha'e been on statutory law rather than on customary law.
(B) They ha'e ignored specific historical situations and personages in fa'or of
broad interpretations.
(C) They ha'e focused on the least e'entful periods in African American history.
() They ha'e underemphasi!ed the economic system that was the basis of the
institution of sla'ery.
(#) They ha'e failed to focus to a sufficient e$tent on the achie'ements of African
Americans.
15. &hich one of the following can be inferred from the passage concerning the
relationship between the African American population and the law in the
Chesapeake Bay region of Cirginia Between 1215 and 12-5%
(A) The laws affecting black citi!ens were embodies in statutes much more
gradually than were lays affecting white citi!ens.
(B) As the percentage of black citi!ens in the population grew/ the legal restrictions
placed on them also increased.
(C) Because of discriminatory laws/ black farmers suffered more economic
setbacks than did white farmers.
() Because of legal constraints on hiring indentured ser'ants/ black farmers faced
a chronic labor shortage on their farms.
(#) The adherence to customary law was more rigid in regions with relati'ely large
numbers of free black citi!ens.
11. The author of the passage most probably refers to Anthony Aohnson and his family
in order to
(A) pro'ide a specific e$ample of the potential shortcomings of Breen and 3nnes4
LSAT 6-1
interpretation of historical e'ents
(B) pro'ide a specific e$ample of rele'ant data o'erlooked by Breen and 3nnes in
their discussion of historical e'ents
(C) pro'ide a specific e$ample of data that Breen and 3nnes might profitably ha'e
used in pro'ing their thesis
() argue that the standard interpretation of historical e'ents is superior to Breen
and 3nnes4 re'isionist interpretation
(#) argue that a new historiographical method is needed to pro'ide a full and
coherent reading of historical e'ents
12. The attitude of the author of the passage toward Breen and 3nnes4 study can best be
described as one of
(A) condescending dismissal
(B) wholehearted acceptance
(C) contentious challenge
() "ualified appro'al
(#) sincere pu!!lement
1.. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) summari!e pre'ious interpretations
(B) ad'ocate a new approach
(C) propose and then illustrate a thesis
() present and e'aluate an interpretation
(#) describe a historical e'ent
Jate nineteenth-century boo$s about the :rench artist ;atteau (1L8M-1741)
betray a curious b"ind spotA more than any sing"e artist be&ore or since( ;atteau
provided his age with an inDuentia" image o& itse"&( and nineteenth-century writers
accepted this image as genuine. This was "arge"y due to the enterprise o&
;atteau6s &riends who( soon a&ter his death( organi+ed the printing o& engraved
reproductions o& the great bu"$ o& his wor$!both his paintings and his drawings!
so that ;atteau6s tota" artistic output became and continued to be more
accessib"e than that o& any other artist unti" the twentieth-century advent o& art
monographs i""ustrated with photographs. These engravings presented aristocratic
(and wou"d-be aristocratic) eighteenth-century :rench society with an image o&
itse"& that was high"y acceptab"e and wide"y imitate by other artists( however "itt"e
re"ationship that image bore to rea"ity. 'y 188M( the bicentenary o& ;atteau6s
birth( it was standard practice &or biographers to re&er to him as >the
personi#cation o& the witty and amiab"e eighteenth century.?
2n &act( ;atteau saw "itt"e enough o& that >witty and amiab"e? century &or which
so much nosta"gia was genera""y &e"t between about 1870 and 1940( a period
during which enthusiasm &or the artist reached its pea$. The eighteenth century6s
6-2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
#rst decades( the period o& his artistic activity( were &air"y ca"amitous ones. Kuring
his short "i&e( :rance was a"most continua""y at warA his native region was overrun
with &oreign troops( and 9aris was threatened by siege and by a rampaging army
rabb"e. The dread&u" winter o& 1709( the year o& ;atteau6s #rst 9aris successes(
was mar$ed by mi"itary de&eat and a disastrous &amine.
Bost o& ;atteau6s nineteenth-century admirers simp"y ignored the grim
bac$ground o& the wor$s they &ound so "yrica" and charming. Those who too$ the
inconvenient historica" &acts into consideration did so on"y in order to re&ute the
wide"y he"d deterministic view that the content and sty"e o& an artist6s wor$ were
abso"ute"y dictated by heredity and environment. (:or ;atteau admirers( such
determinism was unthin$ab"eA the artist was born in a :"emish town on"y si8 years
a&ter it #rst became part o& :rance( yet ;atteau was -uintessentia""y :rench. 3s
one patriotic :rench biographer put it( >2n Kreden( 9otsdam( and 'er"in 2 have
never come across a ;atteau without &ee"ing re&reshed by a breath o& native air.?
@ven such writers( however( persisted in according ;atteau6s canvases a
privi"eged status as representative >personi#cations? o& the eighteenth century.
The discrepancy between historica" &act and artistic vision( use&u" in re&uting the
e8treme deterministic position( mere"y &orced these writers to see$ a new &ormu"a
that a""owed them to preserve the desired identity between image and rea"ity( this
time a rather suspicious"y psychic oneA ;atteau did not record the society he
$new( but rather >&oresaw? a society that deve"oped short"y a&ter his death.
10. &hich one of the following best describes the o'erall organi!ation of the passage%
(A) A particular phenomenon is discussed/ the reasons that it is atypical are put
forward/ and these reasons are e'aluated and refined.
(B) An assumption is made/ results deri'ing from it are compared with what is
known to be true/ and the assumption is finally re<ected as counterfactual.
(C) A point of 'iew is described/ one hypothesis accounting for it is introduced and
re<ected/ and a better hypothesis is offered for consideration.
() A general characteri!ation is offered/ e$amples supporting it are introduced/
and its special applicability to a particular group is asserted.
(#) A particular 'iewpoint is e$plained/ its shortcomings are discussed/ and its
persistence in the face of these is noted.
11. The passage suggests that late(nineteenth(century biographers of &atteau
considered the eighteenth century to be *witty and amiable+ in large part because
of
(A) what they saw as &atteau4s typical eighteenth(century talent for transcending
reality through art
(B) their opposition to the determinism that dominated late(nineteenth(century
>rench thought
(C) a lack of access to historical source material concerning the early eighteenth
century in >rance
LSAT 6-.
() the nature of the image con'eyed by the works of &atteau and his many
imitators
(#) their political bias in fa'or of aristocratic regimes and societies
12. According to the passage/ e$planations of artistic production based on determinism
were unthinkable to &atteau admirers for which one of the following reasons%
(A) 3f such e$planations were widely accepted/ too many people who would
otherwise ha'e admired &atteau would cease to appreciate &atteau4s works.
(B) 3f such e$planations were adopted/ they would make it difficult for &atteau
admirers to e$plain why &atteau4s works were purchased and admired by
foreigners.
(C) 3f such e$planations were correct/ many artists who/ like &atteau/ considered
themsel'es >rench would ha'e to e$cluded from histories of >rench art.
() 3f such simple e$planations were offered/ other more comple$ arguments
concerning what made &atteau4s works especially charming would go
une$plored.
(#) 3f such e$planations were true/ &atteau4s works would reflect a *>lemish+
sensibility rather than the especially *>rench+ one these admirers saw in them.
1-. The phrase *curious blind spot+ (line 2 (.) can best be interpreted as referring to
which one of the following%
(A) some biographers4 persistent inability to appreciate what the author considers a
particularly admirable e"uality
(B) certain writers4 surprising lack of awareness of what the author considers an
ob'ious discrepancy
(C) some writers4 willful refusal to e'aluate properly what the author considers a
'aluable source of information about the past
() an ine$plicable tendency on the part of some writers to under'alue an artist
whom the author considers e$tremely influential
(#) a marked bias in fa'or of a certain painter and a concomitant pre<udice against
contemporaries the author considers e"ually talented
16. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author4s 'iew of &atteau4s works
differs most significantly from that of most late(nineteen(century &atteau admirers
in which one of the following ways%
(A) :nlike most late(nineteenth(century &atteau admirers/ the author appreciates
the importance of &atteau4s artistic accomplishment.
(B) The author finds &atteau4s works to be much less lyrical and charming than
did most late(nineteenth(century admirers of the works.
(C) 3n contrast to most late(nineteenth(century &atteau admirers/ the author finds
it misleading to see &atteau4s works as accurately reflecting social reality.
() The author is much more willing to entertain deterministic e$planations of the
6-0 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
origins of &atteau4s works than were most late(nineteenth(century &atteau
admirers.
(#) :nlike most late(nineteenth(century admirers of &atteau/ the author considers
it impossible for any work of art to personify or represent a particular historical
period.
1,. The author asserts that during the period of &atteau4s artistic acti'ity >rench
society was e$periencing which one of the following%
(A) widespread social uphea'al caused by war
(B) a per'asi'e sense of nostalgia for an ideali!ed past
(C) increased domination of public affairs by a powerful aristocracy
() rapid adoption by the middle classes of aristocratic manners and life(style
(#) a need to reconcile the >rench self(image with >rench social realities
25. The information gi'en in the passage suggests that which one of the following
principles accurately characteri!es the relationship between an artist4s work and
the impact it is likely to ha'e on a society%
(A) An artist4s recognition by society is most directly determined by the degree to
which his or her works are percei'ed as lyrical and charming.
(B) An artist will ha'e the greatest influence on a society that 'alues art
particularly highly.
(C) The works of an artist who captures the true and essential nature of a gi'en
society will probably ha'e a great impact on that society.
() The degree of influence an artist4s 'ision will ha'e on a society is conditional
on the 'isibility of the artist4s work.
(#) An artist who is much imitate by contemporaries will usually fail to ha'e an
impact on a society unless the imitators are talented.
:aced with the prob"ems o& insu*cient evidence( o& conDicting evidence( and o&
evidence re"ayed through the Dawed perceptua"( retentive( and narrative abi"ities
o& witnesses( a 5ury is &orced to draw in&erences in its attempt to ascertain the
truth. 'y app"ying the same cognitive too"s they have deve"oped and used over a
"i&etime( 5urors engage in the in&erentia" e8ercise that "awyers ca"" &act-#nding. 2n
certain decision-ma$ing conte8ts that are re"evant to the tria" o& "awsuits(
however( these norma""y re"iab"e cognitive too"s may cause 5urors to commit
in&erentia" errors that distort rather than revea" the truth.
3"though 5uries can ma$e a variety o& in&erentia" errors( most o& these mista$es
in 5udgment invo"ve the drawing o& an unwarranted conc"usion &rom the evidence(
that is( deciding that the evidence proves something that( in rea"ity( it does not
prove. :or e8amp"e( evidence that the de&endant in a crimina" prosecution has a
prior conviction may encourage 5urors to presume the de&endant6s gui"t( because
o& their preconception that a person previous"y convicted o& a crime must be
inc"ined toward repeated crimina" behavior. That common"y he"d be"ie& is at "east a
LSAT 6-1
partia" distortion o& rea"ity= not a"" &ormer convicts engage in repeated crimina"
behavior. 3"so( 5ury may give more probative weight than ob5ective ana"ysis wou"d
a""ow to vivid photographic evidence depicting a shooting victim6s wounds( or may
underestimate the weight o& de&ense testimony that is not de"ivered in a
su*cient"y &orce&u" or persuasive manner. :ina""y( comp"e8 or vo"uminous
evidence might be so con&using to a 5ury that its members wou"d draw tota""y
unwarranted conc"usions or even ignore the evidence entire"y.
Recent empirica" research in cognitive psycho"ogy suggests that peop"e tend to
commit in&erentia" errors "i$e these under certain predictab"e circumstances. 'y
e8amining the avai"ab"e in&ormation( the situation( and the type o& decision being
made( cognitive psycho"ogists can describe the $inds o& in&erentia" errors a person
or group is "i$e"y to ma$e. These patterns o& human decision-ma$ing may provide
the courts with a guide to eva"uating the e1ect o& evidence on the re"iabi"ity o& the
5ury6s in&erentia" processes in certain situations.
The notion that 5uries can commit in&erentia" errors that 5eopardi+e the
accuracy o& the &act-#nding process is not un$nown to the courts. 2n &act( one o& a
presiding 5udge6s duties is to minimi+e 5ury in&erentia" error through e8p"anation
and c"ari#cation. ,onethe"ess( most 5udges now emp"oy on"y a "imited and
primitive concept o& 5ury in&erentia" errorA "imited because it &ai"s to recogni+e the
potentia" &or error outside certain traditiona" situations( primitive because it
ignores the research and conc"usions o& psycho"ogists in &avor o& notions about
human cognition he"d by "awyers.
21. &hich one of the following best e$presses the main idea of the passage%
(A) &hen making decisions in certain predictable situations/ <uries may commit
inferential errors that obscure rather than re'eal the truth.
(B) The 'iews of human cognition taken by cogniti'e psychologists on the one
hand and by the legal profession on the other are demonstrably dissimilar.
(C) &hen confronting powerful preconceptions/ particularly shocking e'idence/ or
comple$/ situation/ <urors make errors in <udgment.
() The problem of inferential error by <uries is typical of the difficulties with
cogniti'e processes that people face in their e'eryday li'es.
(#) Auries would probably make more reliable decisions if cogniti'e psychologists/
rather than <udges/ instructed them about the problems inherent in drawing
unwarranted conclusions.
22. 8f the following hypothetical reforms in trial procedure/ which one would the
author be most likely to support as the best way to address the problem of <ury
inferential error%
(A) a mo'e away from <ury trial
(B) the institution of minimum formal educational re"uirements for <urors
(C) the de'elopment of strict guidelines for defense testimony
6-2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
() specific training for <udges in the area of <ury instruction
(#) restrictions on lawyers4 use of psychological research
2.. 3n the second paragraph/ the author4s primary purpose is to
(A) refute the idea that the fact(finding process is a complicated e$ercise
(B) emphasi!e how carefully e'idence must be presented in order to a'oid <ury
inferential error
(C) e$plain how commonly held beliefs affect the <ury4s ability to ascertain the
truth
() pro'ide e$amples of situations that may precipitate <ury errors
(#) recommend a method for minimi!ing mistakes by <uries
20. &hich one of the following best describes the author4s attitude toward the ma<ority
of <udges today%
(A) apprehensi'e about whether they are consistent in their instruction of <uries
(B) doubtful of their ability to draw consistently correct conclusions based on the
e'idence
(C) critical of their failure to take into account potentially helpful research
() pessimistic about their willingness to make significant changes in trial
procedure
(#) concerned about their allowing the presentation of comple$ and 'oluminous
e'idence in the courtroom
21. &hich one of the following statements/ if true/ would most seriously undermine
the author4s suggestion about the use of current psychological research in the
courtroom%
(A) All guidelines about human beha'ior must take account of 'ariations in the
patterns of human decision(making.
(B) Current models of how humans make decisions apply reliably to indi'iduals
but do not hold for decisions made by groups.
(C) The current conception of <ury inferential error employed by <udges has been
in use for nearly a century.
() 3nferential errors can be more easily predicted in controlled situations such as
the trial of lawsuits than in other kinds of decision(making processes.
(#) 3n certain predictable circumstances/ <uries are less susceptible to inferential
errors than they are in other circumstances.
22. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author would be most likely to agree
with which one of the following generali!ations about lawyers%
(A) They ha'e a less sophisticated understanding of human cognition than do
psychologists.
(B) They often present comple$ or 'oluminous information merely in order to
LSAT 6--
confuse a <ury.
(C) They are no better at making logical inferences from the testimony at a trial
than are most <udges.
() They ha'e worked to help <udges minimi!e <ury inferential error.
(#) They are unrealistic about the ability of <urors to ascertain the truth.
2-. The author would be most likely to agree with which one of the following
generali!ations about a <ury4s decision(making process%
(A) The more e'idence that a <ury has/ the more likely it is that the <ury will reach
a reliable 'erdict.
(B) Auries usually o'erestimate the 'alue of 'isual e'idence such as photographs.
(C) Aurors ha'e preconceptions about the beha'ior of defendants that pre'ent them
from making an ob<ecti'e analysis of the e'idence in a criminal trial.
() ?ost of the <urors who make inferential errors during a trial do so because
they are unaccustomed to ha'ing to make difficult decisions based on
inferences.
(#) The manner in which e'idence is presented to a <ury may influence the <ury
either to o'erestimate or to underestimate the 'alue of that e'idence.
LSAT 15 SECTON
T!"e 35 "!#$%es 27 &$es%!o#s
Directions: Each passage in this section is followed by a group of questions to be answered on
the basis of what is stated or implied in the passage. For some of the questions, more than one
of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However, you are to choose the best
answer, that is, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question, and
blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.
2t is a &undamenta" tenet o& geophysics that the @arth6s magnetic #e"d can e8ist
in either o& two po"arity statesA a >norma"? state( in which north-see$ing compass
need"es point to the geographic north( and a >reverse? state( in which they point
to the geographic south. Eeo"ogica" evidence shows that periodica""y the #e"d6s
po"arity reverses( and that these reversa"s have been ta$ing p"ace at an
increasing rate. @vidence a"so indicates that the #e"d does not reverse
instantaneous"y &rom one po"arity state to another= rather( the process invo"ves a
transition period that typica""y spans a &ew thousand years.
Though this much is $nown( the under"ying causes o& the reversa" phenomenon
are not we"" understood. 2t is genera""y accepted that the magnetic #e"d itse"& is
generated by the motion o& &ree e"ectrons in the outer core( a s"ow"y churning
mass o& mo"ten meta" sandwiched between the @arth6s mant"e (the region o& the
@arth6s interior "ying be"ow the crust) and its so"id inner core. 2n some way that is
not comp"ete"y understood( gravity and the @arth6s rotation( acting on
temperature and density di1erences within the outer core Duid( provide the
driving &orces behind the generation o& the #e"d. The reversa" phenomenon may
6-6 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
be triggered when something disturbs the heat circu"ation pattern o& the outer
core Duid( and with it the magnetic #e"d.
evera" e8p"anations &or this phenomenon have been proposed. <ne proposa"(
the >heat-trans&er hypothesis(? is that the triggering process is intimate"y re"ated
to the way the outer core vents its heat into the mant"e. :or e8amp"e( such heat
trans&er cou"d create hotter (rising) or coo"er (descending) b"obs o& materia" &rom
the inner and outer boundaries o& the Duid core( thereby perturbing the main
heat-circu"ation pattern. 3 more controversia" a"ternative proposa" is the asteroid-
impact hypothesis. 2n this scenario an e8tended period o& co"d and dar$ness
resu"ts &rom the impact o& an asteroid "arge enough to send a great c"oud o& dust
into the atmosphere. :o""owing this c"imatic change( ocean temperatures drop and
the po"ar ice caps grow( redistributing the @arth6s seawater. This redistribution
increases the rotationa" acce"eration o& the mant"e( causing &riction and
turbu"ence near the outer core-mant"e boundary and initiating reversa" o& the
magnetic #e"d.
)ow we"" do these hypotheses account &or such observations as the "ong-term
increase in the &re-uency o& reversa"G 2n support o& the asteroid-impact mode"( it
had been argued that the gradua" coo"ing o& the average ocean temperature
wou"d enab"e progressive"y sma""er asteroid impacts (which are $nown to occur
more &re-uent"y than "arger impacts) to coo" the @arth6s c"imate su*cient"y to
induce ice-cap growth and reversa"s. 'ut theories that depend on e8traterrestria"
intervention seem "ess convincing than theories "i$e the #rst( which account &or
the phenomenon so"e"y by means o& the thermodynamic state o& the outer core
and its e1ect on the mant"e.
1. &hich one of the following statements regarding the #arth4s outer core is best
supported by information presented in the passage%
(A) )eat circulation in the outer core controls the growth and diminution of the
polar ice caps.
(B) 3mpact of asteroids on the #arth4s surface alters the way in which the outer
core 'ents its heat into the mantle.
(C) ?otion of electrons within the metallic fluid in the outer core produces the
#arth4s magnetic field.
() >riction and turbulence near the boundary between the outer core and the
mantle are typically caused by asteroid impacts.
(#) Cessation of heat circulation within the outer core brings on multiple re'ersals
in the #arth4s magnetic field.
2. The author4s ob<ection to the second hypothesis discussed in the passage is most
applicable to which one of the following e$planations concerning the e$tinction of
the dinosaurs%
(A) The e$tinction of the dinosaurs was the result of gradual changes in the
composition of the #arth4s atmosphere that occurred o'er millions of years.
LSAT 6-,
(B) The dinosaurs became e$tinct when their food supply was disrupted following
the emergence of mammals.
(C) The dinosaurs succumbed to the new/ colder en'ironment brought about by a
buildup of 'olcanic ash in the atmosphere.
() After massi'ely o'erpopulation the planet/ dinosaurs disappeared due to
widespread star'ation and the rapid spread of disease.
(#) After radical climatic changes resulted from the impact of a comet/ dinosaurs
disappeared from the #arth.
.. The author mentions the creation of blobs of different temperatures in the #arth4s
outer core (lines .0(.6) primarily in order to
(A) present a way in which the 'enting of heat from the outer core might disturb
the heat(circulation pattern within the outer core
(B) pro'ide proof for the proposal that 'entilation of heat from the outer core into
the mantle triggers polarity re'ersal
(C) gi'e an e$ample of the way in which heat circulates between the #arth4s outer
core and the #arth4s e$terior
() describe how the outer core maintains its temperature by 'enting its e$cess
heat into the #arth4s mantle
(#) argue in fa'or of the theory that heat circulation in the #arth4s interior produces
the magnetic field
0. &hich one of the following statements regarding the polarity of the #arth4s
magnetic field is best supported by information in the passage%
(A) ?ost/ but not all/ geophysicists agree that the #arth4s magnetic field may e$ist
in two distinct polarity states.
(B) Changes in the polarity of the #arth4s magnetic field ha'e occurred more often
in the recent past that in the distant past.
(C) )eat transfer would cause re'ersals of the polarity of the #arth4s magnetic
field to occur more "uickly than would asteroid impact.
() Beophysicists4 understanding of the re'ersal of the #arth4s magnetic field has
increased significantly since the introduction of the heat(transfer hypothesis.
(#) >riction near the boundary of the inner and outer cores brings on re'ersal of
the polarity of the geomagnetic field.
1. &hich one of the following can be inferred regarding the two proposals discussed
in the passage%
(A) ;ince their introduction they ha'e sharply di'ided the scientific community.
(B) Both were formulated in order to e$plain changes in the fre"uency of polarity
re'ersal.
(C) Although no firm conclusions regarding them ha'e yet been reached/ both
ha'e been e$tensi'ely in'estigated.
665 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
() They are not the only proposals scientists ha'e put forward to e$plain the
phenomenon of polarity re'ersal.
(#) Both were introduced some time ago and ha'e since fallen into disfa'or among
geophysicists.
2. The author mentions each of the following as possible contributing causes to
re'ersals of the #arth4s magnetic field #DC#@T
(A) changes in the way heat circulates within the outer core fluid
(B) e$tended periods of colder temperatures on the #arth4s surface
(C) the creation of circulation blobs of outer core material of different
temperatures
() changes in circulation patterns in the #arth4s oceans
(#) clouding of the #arth4s atmosphere by a large amount of dust
2nnovations in "anguage are never comp"ete"y new. ;hen the words used &or
&ami"iar things change( or words &or new things enter the "anguage( they are
usua""y borrowed or adapted &rom stoc$. 3ssuming new ro"es( they drag their o"d
meanings a"ong behind them "i$e Dic$ering shadow. This seems especia""y true o&
the "anguage o& the contemporary schoo" o& "iterary criticism that now pre&ers to
describe its wor$ simp"y and rather presumptuous"y as theory but is sti"" popu"ar"y
re&erred to as poststructura"ism o& deconstruction.
The #rst neo"ogisms adopted by this movement were signi>er and signi>ed(
emp"oyed to distinguish arbitrariness o& the term we choose. The use o& these
particu"ar terms (rather than( respective"y( words and thing) under"ined the
seriousness o& the naming process and its c"aim on our attention. ince in @ng"ish
>to signi&y? can a"so mean >to portend(? these terms a"so suggest that words
predict coming events.
;ith the use o& the term deconstruction we move into another and more
comp"e8 rea"m o& meaning. The most common use o& the terms construction and
deconstruction is in the bui"ding trades( and their borrowing by "iterary theorists
&or a new type o& criticism cannot he"p but have certain overtones to the outsider.
:irst( the usage suggests that the creation and critica" interpretation o& "iterature
are not organic but mechanica" processes= that the author o& any piece o& writing
is not an inspired( intuitive artist( but mere"y a "aborer who cobb"es e8isting
materia"s (words) into more or "ess conventiona" structures. The term
deconstruction imp"ies that the te8t has been put together "i$e a bui"ding or a
piece o& machinery( and that it is in need o& being ta$en apart( not so much in
order to repair it as to demonstrate under"ying inade-uacies( &a"se assumptions(
and inherent contradictions. This process can supposed"y be repeated many times
and by many "iterary hard hats= it is e8pected that each deconstruction wi"" revea"
additiona" Daws and e8pose the i""usions or bad &aith o& the bui"der. The &act that
deconstructionists pre&er to describe their activities as deconstruction rather than
criticism is a"so revea"ing. Criticism and critic derive &rom the Eree$ 0ritikos(
LSAT 661
>s$i""&u" in 5udging( decisive.? Keconstruction( on the other hand( has no overtones
o& s$i"" or wisdom= it mere"y suggests demo"ition o& an e8isting bui"ding. 2n popu"ar
usage criticism suggests censure but not change. 2& we #nd &au"t with a bui"ding(
we may condemn it( but we do not carry out the demo"ition ourse"ves. The
deconstructionist( by imp"ication( is both 5udge and e8ecutioner who "eaves a te8t
tota""y dismant"ed( i& not reduced to a pi"e o& rubb"e.
-. &hich one of the following best e$presses the main idea of the passage%
(A) 3mplicit in the terminology of the school of criticism known as deconstruction
are meanings that re'eal the true nature of the deconstructionist4s endea'or.
(B) The appearance of the terms signi+ier and signi+ied in the field of literary
theory anticipated the appearance of an e'en more radical idea known as
deconstruction.
(C) 3nno'ations in language and relations between old and new meanings of terms
are a special concern of the new school of criticism known as deconstruction.
() econstructionists maintain that it is insufficient merely to <udge a workE the
critic must acti'ely dismantle it.
(#) @rogress in the field of literary theory is best achie'ed by looking for new
terms like signi+ier and deconstruction that might suggest new critical
approaches to a work.
6. &hich one of the following is a claim that the author of the passage makes about
deconstructionists%
(A) econstructionists would not ha'e been able to formulate their 'iews
ade"uately without the terms signi+ier and signi+ied.
(B) econstructionists had no particular purpose in mind in choosing to use
neologisms.
(C) econstructionists do not recogni!e that their own theory contains inherent
contradictions.
() econstructionists find little interest in the relationship between words and
their referents.
(#) econstructionists use the terms signi+ier and signi+ied to stress the importance
of the process of naming.
,. &hich one of the following generali!ations about in'entions is most analogous to
the author4s point about inno'ation in language%
(A) A new in'ention usually consists of components that are specifically
manufactured for the new in'ention.
(B) A new in'ention is usually behind the times/ ne'er making as much use of all
the a'ailable modern technology as it could.
(C) A new in'ention usually consists of components that are already a'ailable but
are made to function in new ways.
662 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
() A new in'ention is most useful when it is created with attention to the
historical tradition established by implements pre'iously used to do the same
<ob.
(#) A new in'ention is rarely used to its full potential because it is surrounded by
out(of(date technology that hinder its application.
15. The author of the passage uses the word *criticism+ in lines 02(12 primarily in
order to
(A) gi'e an e$ample
(B) introduce a contrast
(C) undermine an argument
() codify a system
(#) dismiss an ob<ection
11. &hich one of the following best describes the function of the second paragraph
within the passage as a whole%
(A) 3t introduces a hypothesis that the author later e$pands upon.
(B) 3t "ualifies a claim made earlier by the author.
(C) 3t de'elops an initial e$ample of the author4s general thesis.
() 3t predicts a de'elopment.
(#) 3t presents a contrasting 'iew.
12. The passage suggests that the author most probably holds the 'iew that an
important characteristic of literary criticism is that it
(A) demonstrate false assumptions and inherent contradictions
(B) employ skill and insight
(C) be carried out by one critic rather than many
() re'eal how a te$t is put together like a building
(#) point out the superiority of con'entional te$t structures
1.. The passage suggests that which one of the following most accurately describes
the author4s 'iew of deconstructionist thought%
(A) The author is guardedly optimistic about the ability of deconstruction to re'eal
the intentions and biases of a writer.
(B) The author endorses the utility of deconstruction for re'ealing the role of older
meanings of words.
(C) The author is enthusiastic about the significant neologisms that deconstruction
has introduced into literary criticism.
() The author regards deconstruction4s tendency to focus only on the problems
and faults of literary te$ts as too mechanical.
(#) The author condemns deconstruction4s attempts to define literary criticism as a
LSAT 66.
creati'e act.
(The &o""owing passage was written in 198L)
The "egis"ation o& a country recent"y considered a bi"" designed to reduce the
uncertainty inherent in the ownership o& art by speci&ying certain conditions that
must be met be&ore an a""eged"y sto"en wor$ o& art can be rec"aimed by a p"ainti1.
The bi"" p"aces the burden o& proo& in rec"amation "itigation entire"y on the p"ainti1(
who must demonstrate that the ho"der o& an item $new at the time o& purchase
that it had been sto"en. 3dditiona""y( the bi"" creates a uni&orm nationa" statute o&
"imitations &or rec"amation o& sto"en cu"tura" property.
Testi&ying in support o& the bi""( Cames K( 'ur$e( a citi+en o& the country and one
o& its "eading art museum directors( specia""y praised the inc"usion o& a statute o&
"imitations= otherwise( he said( other countries cou"d see$ to rec"aim va"uab"e art
ob5ects( no matter how "ong they have been he"d by the current owner or how
"egitimate"y they were ac-uired. 3ny country cou"d enact a patrimony "aw stating
that anything ever made within the boundaries o& that country is its cu"tura"
property. 'ur$e e8pressed the &ear that "ead to ruinous "ega" de&ense costs &or
museums.
)owever( because such rec"amation suits have not yet been a prob"em( there is
"itt"e basis &or 'ur$e6s concern. 2n &act( the proposed "egis"ation wou"d estab"ish
too many un5usti#ab"e barriers to the "ocation and recovery o& sto"en ob5ects. The
main barrier is that the bi"" considers the announcement o& an art transaction in a
museum pub"ication to be ade-uate evidence o& an attempt to noti&y a possib"e
owner. There are &ar too many such pub"ications &or the victim o& a the&t to survey(
and with on"y this &orm o& disc"osure( a sto"en ob5ect cou"d easi"y remain un"ocated
even i& assiduous"y searched &or. 3nother stipu"ation re-uires that a purchaser
show the ob5ect to a scho"ar &or veri#cation that it is not sto"en( but it is a rare
academic who is aware o& any but the most pub"ici+ed art the&ts. Boreover( the
time "imit speci#ed by the statute o& "imitations is very short( and the re-uirement
that the p"ainti1 demonstrate that the ho"der had $now"edge o& the the&t is
unrea"istic. Typica""y( sto"en art changes hands severa" times be&ore rising to the
"eve" in the mar$etp"ace where a curator or co""ector wou"d see it. 3t that point(
the ob5ect bears no trace o& the initia" transaction between the thie& and the #rst
purchaser( perhaps the on"y one in the chain who $nowing"y ac-uired a sto"en
wor$ o& art.
Thus( the need &or new "egis"ation to protect ho"ders o& art is not obvious.
Rather( what is necessary is "egis"ation remedying the di*cu"ties that "egitimate
owners o& wor$s o& art( and countries &rom which such wor$s have been sto"en(
have in "ocating and rec"aiming these sto"en wor$s.
10. &hich one of the following most accurately summari!es the main point of the
passage%
(A) Carious legal disputes ha'e recently arisen that demonstrate the need for
legislation clarifying the legal position of museums in suits in'ol'ing the
660 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
repossession of cultural property.
(B) A bill intended to pre'ent other go'ernments from reco'ering cultural property
was recently introduced into the legislature of a country at the behest of its
museum directors.
(C) A bill intended to protect good(faith purchasers of works of art from
reclamation litigation is unnecessary and fails to address the needs of
legitimate owners attempting to reco'er stolen art works.
() Clashes between museum professionals and members of the academic
community regarding go'ernmental legislation of the arts can best be resol'ed
by negotiation and arbitration/ not by litigation.
(#) The desire of some go'ernments to use legislation and litigation to reco'er
cultural property stolen from their countries has led to abuses in international
patrimony legislation.
11. The uncertainty mentioned in line 2 of the passage refers to the
(A) doubt that owners of works of art often harbor o'er whether indi'iduals ha'e a
moral right to possess great art
(B) concern that owners of works of art often ha'e that their possession of such
ob<ects may be legally challenged at any time
(C) "uestions that owners of works of art often ha'e concerning the correct
identification of the age and origin of their ob<ects
() disputes that often arise between cultural institutions 'ying for the opportunity
to purchase a work of art
(#) apprehension that owners of works of art often feel concerning the possibility
that their ob<ects may be damaged or stolen from them
12. &hich one of the following is an e$ample of the kind of action that Burke feared
would pose a serious threat to museums in his country%
(A) the passage of a law by another country forbidding the future e$port of any
archaeological ob<ects unco'ered at sites within its territory
(B) an international accord establishing strict criteria for determining whether a
work of art can be considered stolen and specifying the circumstances under
which it must be returned to its country of origin
(C) the passage of a law by another country declaring that all ob<ects created by its
aboriginal people are the sole property of that country
() an increase in the ac"uisition of culturally significant works of art by pri'ate
collectors/ who are more capable than museums of bearing the cost of litigation
but who rarely display their collections to the public
(#) the recommendation of a :nited 9ations committee studying the problem of
art theft that all international sales of cultural property be coordinated by a
central regulatory body
LSAT 661
1-. According to the passage/ Burke en'isaged the most formidable potential
ad'ersaries of his country4s museums in reclamation litigation to be
(A) commercial dealers in art
(B) law enforcement officials in his own country
(C) go'ernments of other countries
() pri'ate collectors of art
(#) museums in other countries
16. The author suggests that in the country mentioned in line 1/ litigation in'ol'ing the
reclamation of stolen works of art has been
(A) less common than Burke fears it will become without passage of a national
stature of limitations for reclamation of stolen cultural property
(B) increasing as a result of the passage of legislation that aids legitimate owners
of art in their attempts to reco'er stolen works
(C) a serious threat to museums and cultural institutions that ha'e unwittingly
added stolen artifacts to their collections
() a signal of the legitimate frustrations of 'ictims of at theft
(#) increasing as a result of an increase in the amount of art theft
1,. &hich one of the following best describes the author4s attitude towards the
proposed bill%
(A) impassioned support
(B) measured ad'ocacy
(C) fearful apprehension
() reasoned opposition
(#) reluctant appro'al
25. &hich one of the following best e$emplifies the sort of legislation considered
necessary by the author of the passage%
(A) a law re"uiring museums to notify foreign go'ernments and cultural
institutions of all the catalogs and scholarly <ournals that they publish
(B) a law pro'iding for the creation of a national warehouse for storage of works
of art that are the sub<ect of litigation
(C) a law instituting a national fund for assisting museums to bear the e$penses of
defending themsel'es against reclamation suits
() A law declaring in'alid all sales of culture property during the last ten years by
museums of one country to museums of another
(#) A law re"uiring that a central archi'e be established for collecting and
distributing information concerning all reported thefts of cultural property
Unti" recent"y( &ew historians were interested in ana"y+ing the simi"arities and
di1erences between ser&dom in Russia and s"avery in the United tates. @ven
662 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
3"e8is de Toc-uevi""e( who recogni+ed the signi#cant comparabi"ity o& the two
nations( never compared their systems o& servitude( despite his interest in United
tates s"avery. Boreover( the a"most simu"taneous abo"ition o& Russian ser&dom
and United tates s"avery in the 18L0s!a riveting coincidence that shou"d have
drawn more modern scho"ars to a comparative study o& the two systems o&
servitude!has &ai"ed to arouse the interest o& scho"ars. Though some historians
may have been put o1 by the &orbidding po"itica" di1erences between nineteenth-
century Russia and the United tates!one an imperia" monarchy( the other a
&edera" democracy!a recent study by 9eter So"chin identi#es di1erences that are
i""uminating( especia""y with regard to the di1erent $inds o& rebe""ion e8hibited by
s"aves and ser&s.
So"chin points out that nob"es owning ser&s in Russia constituted on"y a tiny
proportion o& the popu"ation( whi"e in the southern United tates( about a -uarter
o& a"" ;hite peop"e were members o& s"ave-owning &ami"ies. 3nd a"though in the
southern United tates on"y 4 percent o& s"aves wor$ed on p"antations where more
than a hundred s"aves wor$ed( in Russia a"most 80 percent o& the ser&s wor$ed &or
nob"es who owned more than a hundred ser&s. 2n Russia most ser&s rare"y saw
their owners who tended to re"y on intermediaries to manage their estates( whi"e
most southern p"anters "ived on their "and and interacted with s"aves on a regu"ar
basis.
These di1erences in demographics part"y e8p"ain di1erences in the $inds o&
resistance that s"aves and ser&s practiced in their respective countries. 'oth ser&s
and s"aves engaged in a wide variety o& rebe""ious activity( &rom si"ent sabotage(
much o& which has escaped the historica" record( to organi+ed armed rebe""ions(
which were more common in Russia. The practice o& absentee ownership(
combined with the "arge numbers in which ser&s were owned( probab"y
contributed signi#cant"y to the &our great rebe""ions that swept across Russia at
rough"y #&ty-year interva"s in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. The "ast
o& these( occurring between 1777 and 177M( en"isted more than a mi""ion ser&s in a
&uti"e attempt to overthrow the Russian nobi"ity. Russian ser&s a"so participated in
sma""er acts o& co""ective de#ance ca""ed the volnenie( which typica""y started with
a group o& ser&s who comp"ained o& grievances by petition and went out on stri$e.
%on&rontations between s"aves and p"antation authorities were a"so common( but
they tended to be much "ess co""ective in nature than those that occurred in
Russia( probab"y in part because the number o& wor$ers on each estate was
sma""er in the United tates than was the case in Russia.
21. &hich one of the following best states the main idea of the passage%
(A) ifferences in the demographics of :nited ;tates sla'ery and =ussian serfdom
can help e$plain the different kinds of resistance practiced by sla'es and serfs
in their respecti'e countries.
(B) )istorians ha'e yet to undertake an ade"uate comparison and contrast of
=ussian serfdom and :nited ;tates sla'ery.
LSAT 66-
(C) =e'olts by =ussian serfs were commonly characteri!ed by collecti'e action.
() A recent study has "uestioned the 'alue of comparing :nited ;tates sla'ery to
=ussian serfdom/ especially in light of the significant demographic and cultural
differences between the two countries.
(#) e Toc"ue'ille failed to recogni!e the fundamental differences between
=ussian serfdom and :nited ;tates sla'ery which more recent historians ha'e
identified.
22. According to the author/ de Toc"ue'ille was similar to many modern historians in
his
(A) interest in the demographic differences between =ussia and the :nited ;tates
during the nineteenth century
(B) failure to undertake a comparison of =ussian serfdom and :nited ;tates
sla'ery
(C) inability to e$plain why :nited ;tates sla'ery and =ussian serfdom were
abolished during the same decade
() o'erestimation of the significance of the political differences between =ussia
and the :nited ;tates
(#) recognition of the essential comparability of =ussia and the :nited ;tates
2.. &hich one of the following assertions/ if true/ would pro'ide the most support for
Molchin4s principal conclusion regarding the relationship of demographics to
rebellion among =ussian serfs and :nited ;tates sla'es%
(A) Collecti'e defiance by serfs during the nineteenth century was confined almost
e$clusi'ely to their participation in the $olnenie.
(B) The rebellious acti'ity of :nited ;tates sla'es was more likely to escape the
historical record than was the rebellious acti'ity of =ussian serfs.
(C) 8rgani!ed rebellions by sla'es in the &estern )emisphere during the
nineteenth century were most common in colonies with large estates that
normally employed more than a hundred sla'es.
() 3n the southern :nited ;tates during the nineteenth century/ those estates that
were managed by intermediaries rather than by the owner generally relied upon
the labor of at least a hundred sla'es.
(#) The intermediaries who managed estates in =ussia during the nineteenth
century were in general much more competent as managers than the owners of
the estates that they managed.
20. The fact that :nited ;tates sla'ery and =ussian serfdom were abolished during the
same decade is cited by the author in the first paragraph primarily in order to
(A) emphasi!e that rebellions in both countries e'entually led to the demise of the
two institutions
(B) cite a coincidence that de Toc"ue'ille should ha'e been able to foresee
666 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
(C) suggest one reason why more historians should ha'e been drawn to a
comparati'e study of the two institutions
() cite a coincidence that Molchin4s study has failed to e$plain ade"uately
(#) emphasi!e the underlying similarities between the two institutions
21. The author cites which one of the following as a factor that might ha'e
discouraged historians from undertaking a comparati'e study of =ussian serfdom
and :nited ;tates sla'ery%
(A) ma<or differences in the political systems of the two countries
(B) ma<or differences in the demographics of the two countries
(C) the failure of de Toc"ue'ille to address the sub<ect
() differences in the si!e of the estates on which sla'es and serfs labored
(#) the comprehensi'eness of Molchin4s own work
22. According to the passage/ Molchin4s study asserts that which one of the following
was true of =ussian nobles during the nineteenth century%
(A) They agreed to the abolition of serfdom in the 1625s largely as a result of their
ha'ing been influenced by the abolition of sla'ery in the :nited ;tates.
(B) They became more directly in'ol'ed in the management of their estates as a
result of the rebellions that occurred in the pre'ious century.
(C) They commonly agreed to at least some of the demands that arose out of the
$olnenie.
() They had relati'ely little direct contact with the serfs who worked on their
estates.
(#) They hastened the abolition of serfdom by failing to de'ise an effecti'e
response to the collecti'e nature of the serfs4 rebellious acti'ity.
2-. The passage suggests that which one of the following was true of southern planters
in the :nited ;tates%
(A) They were as prepared for collecti'e protest as were their =ussian
counterparts.
(B) >ew of them owned plantations on which fewer than a hundred sla'es worked.
(C) They managed their estates more efficiently than did their =ussian
counterparts.
() >ew of them relied on intermediaries to manage their estates.
(#) The si!e of their estates was larger on a'erage than the si!e of =ussian estates.
LSAT 16 SECTON
T!"e 35 "!#$%es 27 &$es%!o#s
Directions: Each passage in this section is followed by a group of questions to be answered on
the basis of what is stated or implied in the passage. For some of the questions, more than one
of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However, you are to choose the best
LSAT 66,
answer, that is, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question, and
blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.
Unti" the 1980s( most scientists be"ieved that noncatastrophic geo"ogica"
processes caused the e8tinction o& dinosaurs that occurred appro8imate"y LL
mi""ion years ago( at the end o& the %retaceous period. Eeo"ogists argued that a
dramatic drop in sea "eve" coincided with the e8tinction o& the dinosaurs and cou"d
have caused the c"imatic changes that resu"ted in this e8tinction as we"" as the
e8tinction o& many ocean species.
This view was serious"y cha""enged in the 1980s by the discovery o& "arge
amounts o& iridium in a "ayer o& c"ay deposited at the end o& the %retaceous
period. 'ecause iridium is e8treme"y rare in roc$s on the @arth6s sur&ace but
common in meteorites( researchers theori+ed that it was the impact o& a "arge
meteorite that dramatica""y changed the earth6s c"imate and thus triggered the
e8tinction o& the dinosaurs.
%urrent"y avai"ab"e evidence( however( o1ers more support &or a new theory(
the vo"canic-eruption theory. 3 vast eruption o& "ava in 2ndia coincided with the
e8tinctions that occurred at the end o& the %retaceous period( and the re"ease o&
carbon dio8ide &rom this episode o& vo"canism cou"d have caused the c"imatic
change responsib"e &or the demise o& the dinosaurs. uch outpourings o& "ava are
caused by instabi"ity in the "owest "ayer o& the @arth6s mant"e( "ocated 5ust above
the @arth6s core. 3s the roc$ that constitutes this "ayer is heated by the @arth6s
core( it becomes "ess dense and portions o& it eventua""y escape upward as b"obs
or mo"ten roc$( ca""ed >diapirs(? that can( under certain circumstances( erupt
vio"ent"y through the @arth6s crust.
Boreover( the vo"canic-eruption theory( "i$e the impact theory( accounts &or the
presence o& iridium in sedimentary deposits= it a"so e8p"ains matters that the
meteorite-impact theory does not. 3"though iridium is e8treme"y rare on the
@arth6s sur&ace( the "ower regions o& the @arth6s mant"e have rough"y the same
composition as meteorites and contain "arge amounts o& iridium( which in the case
o& a diapir eruption wou"d probab"y be emitted as iridium he8aDuoride( a gas that
wou"d disperse more uni&orm"y in the atmosphere than the iridium-containing
matter thrown out &rom a meteorite impact. 2n addition( the vo"canic-eruption
theory may e8p"ain why the end o& the %retaceous period was mar$ed by a
gradua" change in sea "eve". :ossi" records indicate that &or severa" hundred
thousand years prior to the re"ative"y sudden disappearance o& the dinosaurs( the
"eve" o& the sea gradua""y &e""( causing many marine organisms to die out. This
change in sea "eve" might we"" have been the resu"t o& a distortion in the @arth6s
sur&ace that resu"ted &rom the movement o& diapirs upward toward the @arth6s
crust( and the more catac"ysmic e8tinction o& the dinosaurs cou"d have resu"ted
&rom the e8p"osive vo"canism that occurred as materia" &rom the diapirs erupted
onto the @arth6s sur&ace.
1. The passage suggests that during the 1,65s researchers found meteorite impact a
6,5 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
con'incing e$planation for the e$tinction of dinosaurs/ in part because
(A) earlier theories had failed to account for the gradual e$tinction of many ocean
species at the end of the Cretaceous period
(B) geologists had/ up until that time/ underestimated the amount of carbon
dio$ide that would be released during an episode of e$plosi'e 'olcanism
(C) a meteorite could ha'e ser'ed as a source of the iridium found in a layer of
clay deposited at the end of the Cretaceous period
() no theory relying on purely geological processes had/ up until that time/
e$plained the cause of the precipitous drop in sea le'el that occurred at the end
of the Cretaceous period
(#) the impact of a large meteorite could ha'e resulted in the release of enough
carbon dio$ide to cause global climatic change
2. According to the passage/ the lower regions of the #arth4s mantle are characteri!ed
by
(A) a composition similar to that of meteorites
(B) the absence of elements found in rocks on the #arth4s crust
(C) a greater stability than that of the upper regions
() the presence of large amounts of carbon dio$ide
(#) a uniformly lower density than that of the upper regions
.. 3t can be inferred from the passage that which one of the following was true of the
la'a that erupted in 3ndia at the end of the Cretaceous period%
(A) 3t contained less carbon dio$ide than did the meteorites that were striking the
#arth4s surface during that period.
(B) 3t was more dense than the molten rock/ located <ust abo'e the #arth4s core.
(C) 3t released enough iridium he$afluoride into the atmosphere to change the
#arth4s climate dramatically.
() 3t was richer in iridium than rocks usually found on the #arth4s surface.
(#) 3t was richer in iridium than were the meteorites that were striking the #arth4s
surface during that period.
0. 3n the passage/ the author is primarily concerned with doing which one of the
following%
(A) describing three theories and e$plaining why the latest of these appears to be
the best of the three
(B) attacking the assumptions inherent in theories that until the 1,65s had been
largely accepted by geologists
(C) outlining the inade"uacies of three different e$planations of the same
phenomenon
() pro'iding concrete e$amples in support of the more general assertion that
LSAT 6,1
theories must often be re'ised in light of new e'idence
(#) citing e'idence that appears to confirm the skepticism of geologists regarding a
'iew held prior to the 1,65s
1. The author implies that if the theory described in the third paragraph is true/ which
one of the following would ha'e been true of iridium in the atmosphere at the end
of the Cretaceous period%
(A) 3ts le'el of concentration in the #arth4s atmosphere would ha'e been high due
to a slow but steady increase in the atmospheric iridium that began in the early
Cretaceous period.
(B) 3ts concentration in the #arth4s atmosphere would ha'e increased due to the
dramatic decrease in sea le'el that occurred during the Cretaceous period.
(C) 3t would ha'e been directly responsible for the e$tinction of many ocean
species.
() 3t would ha'e been more uniformly dispersed than iridium whose source had
been the impact of a meteorite on the #arth4s surface.
(#) 3t would ha'e been more uniformly dispersed than indium released into the
atmosphere as a result of normal geological processes that occur on #arth.
2. The passage supports which one of the following claims about the 'olcanic(
eruption theory%
(A) 3t does not rely on assumptions concerning the temperature of molten rock at
the lowest pan of the #arth4s mantle.
(B) 3t may e$plain what caused the gradual fall in sea le'el that occurred for
hundreds of thousands of years prior to the more sudden disappearance of the
dinosaurs.
(C) 3t bases its e$planation on the occurrence of periods of increased 'olcanic
acti'ity similar to those shown to ha'e caused earlier mass e$tinctions.
() 3t may e$plain the relati'e scarcity of iridium in rocks on the #arth4s surface
compared to its abundance in meteorites.
(#) 3t accounts for the relati'ely une'en distribution of iridium in the layer of clay
deposited at the end of the Cretaceous period.
-. &hich one of the following/ if true/ would cast the most doubt on the theory
described in the last paragraph of the passage%
(A) >ragments of meteorites that ha'e struck the #arth are e$amined and found to
ha'e only minuscule amounts of iridium he$afluoride trapped inside of them.
(B) ?ost diapir eruptions in the geological history of the #arth ha'e been similar
in si!e to the one that occurred in 3ndia at the end of the Cretaceous period and
ha'e not been succeeded by periods of climatic change.
(C) There ha'e been se'eral periods in the geological history of the #arth/ before
and after the Cretaceous period/ during which large numbers of marine species
6,2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
ha'e perished.
() The fre"uency with which meteorites struck the #arth was higher at the end of
the Cretaceous period than at the beginning of the period.
(#) ?arine species tend to be much more 'ulnerable to e$tinction when e$posed to
a dramatic and relati'ely sudden change in sea le'el than when they are
e$posed to a gradual change in sea le'el similar to the one that preceded the
e$tinction of the dinosaurs.
2t has become something o& a truism in &o"$"ore studies that unti" recent"y the
"ore was more o&ten studied than the &o"$. That is( &o"$"orists concentrated on the
&o"$"ore!the songs( ta"es( and proverbs themse"ves!and ignored the peop"e who
transmitted that "ore as part o& their ora" cu"ture. )owever( since the ear"y 1970s(
&o"$"ore studies have begun to regard &o"$ per&ormers as peop"e o& creativity who
are as worthy o& attention as are artists who transmit their ideas in writing. This
shi&t o& emphasis has a"so encouraged a growing interest in women &o"$
per&ormers.
Unti" recent"y( &o"$"orists tended to co""ect &o"$"ore &rom women on on"y a &ew
topics such as hea"th and games. 2n other areas( as ;eig"e and :arrer have noted(
i& &o"$"orists >had a choice between a story as to"d by a man or as to"d by a
woman( the man6s version was chosen.? 2t is sti"" too ear"y to te"" how pro&ound"y
this situation has changed( but one can point to severa" recent studies in which
women per&ormers p"ay centra" ro"es. 9erhaps more te""ing is the &ocus o& the most
recent"y pub"ished ma5or &o"$"ore te8tboo$( The -ynamics of Folklore. ;hereas
ear"ier te8tboo$s gave "itt"e attention to women and their &o"$"ore( this boo$
devotes many pages to women &o"$ per&ormers.
Recognition o& women as important bearers o& &o"$"ore is not entire"y a recent
phenomenon. 3s ear"y as 1907( a &ew outstanding women &o"$ per&ormers were
the &ocus o& scho"ar"y attention. 'ur the scho"arship devoted to these women
tended to &ocus primari"y on presenting the per&ormer6s repertoire. Recent wor$s
about women &o"$ artists( however( have been more biographica""y oriented. Cuha
9enti$ainen6s study o& Barina To$a"o( a :innish hea"er and narrator o& &o"$ta"es( is
especia""y e8tensive and probing. Though interested in the prob"ems o& repertoire
ana"ysis( 9enti$ainen gives considerab"e attention to the detai"s o& To$a"o6s "i&e
and cu"tura" bac$ground( so that a &u"" picture o& a woman and her &o"$"ore
emerges. 3nother notab"e wor$ is Roger 3braham6s boo$( which presents a very
c"ear picture o& the signi#cance o& traditiona" singing in the "i&e o& noted ba""ad
singer 3"meda Ridd"e. Un&ortunate"y( un"i$e 9enti$ainen6s study( 3braham6s study
contains "itt"e repertoire ana"ysis.
These recent boo$s reDect the current interest o& &o"$"orists in viewing &o"$"ore
in conte8t and thus answering -uestions about what &o"$"ore means to the peop"e
who use it. <ne une8pected resu"t o& this "ine o& study has been the discovery that
women may use the same &o"$"ore that men use( but &or very di1erent purposes.
This rea"i+ation has potentia" importance &or &uture &o"$"ore studies in ca""ing
LSAT 6,.
greater attention to the type o& study re-uired i& a &o"$"orist wants tru"y to
understand the ro"e &o"$"ore p"ays in a particu"ar cu"ture.
6. &hich one of the following best describes the main point of the passage%
(A) 3t is only since the early 1,-5s that folklore studies ha'e begun to recogni!e
women as important bearers of folklore.
(B) A careful analysis of the repertoires of women folk performers has led to a new
disco'ery with important implications for future folklore studies.
(C) =ecent studies of women folk performers ha'e focused primarily on the
problems of repertoire analysis to the e$clusion of a discussion of the culture
within which the folklore was de'eloped.
() The emphasis in folklore studies has shifted from a focus on the life and the
cultural background of the folk performers themsel'es to a broader
understanding of the role folklore plays in a culture.
(#) A change in the focus of folklore studies has led to increased interest in women
folk performers and to a new understanding of the importance of the conte$t in
which folklore is produced.
,. The author of the passage refers to The !yna-ics o+ Folklore primarily in order to
(A) support the idea that it is too soon to tell whether or not folklorists are gi'ing
greater attention to women4s folklore
(B) refute &eigle and >arrer4s contention that folklorists prefer to collect folklore
from men rather than from women
(C) support the assertion that scholarship de'oted to women folk performers tends
to focus primarily on repertoire
() present an e$ample of the new emphasis in folklore studies on the performer
rather than on the folklore
(#) suggest that there are some signs that women folk performers are gaining
increased critical attention in the field of folklore
15. The focus of which one of the following books would most clearly reflect the
current interest of the folklorists mentioned in the last paragraph%
(A) an anthology of tales and songs collected e$clusi'ely from women in different
cultures
(B) a compilation of tales and songs from both men and women co'ering a great
'ariety of traditional and nontraditional topics
(C) a study of the purpose and meaning of a tale or song for the men and women in
a particular culture
() an analysis of one particular tale or song that documents changes in the te$t of
the folklore o'er a period of time
(#) a comparison of the creati'e process of performers who transmit folklore with
that of artists who transmit their ideas in writing
6,0 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
11. According to the passage/ which one of the following changes has occurred in the
field of folklore since the early 1,-5s%
(A) increased recognition of the similar ways in which men and women use
folklore
(B) increased recognition of folk performers as creati'e indi'iduals
(C) increased emphasis on the need for repertoire analysis
() less emphasis on the relationship between cultural influences and folklore
(#) less emphasis on the indi'idual performers and more emphasis on the meaning
of folklore to a culture
12. 3t can be inferred from the passage that early folklorists assumed that which one of
the following was true%
(A) The people who transmitted the folklore did not play a creati'e role in the
de'elopment of that folklore.
(B) The people who transmitted the folklore were not consciously aware of the
way in which they creati'ely shaped that folklore.
(C) The te$t of a song or tale did not change as the folklore was transmitted from
one generation to another.
() &omen were not in'ol'ed in transmitting folklore e$cept for songs or tales
dealing with a few traditional topics.
(#) The meaning of a piece of folklore could differ depending on whether the tale
or song was transmitted by a man or by a woman.
1.. Based on the information in the passage/ which one of the following is most
closely analogous to the type of folklore studies produced before the early 1,-5s%
(A) An anthropologist studies the implements currently used by an isolated culture/
but does not in'estigate how the people of that culture designed and used those
implements.
(B) A manufacturer hires a consultant to determine how e$isting e"uipment in a
plant might be modified to impro'e efficiency/ but does not ask employees for
their suggestions on how to impro'e efficiency.
(C) A historian studies different types of documents dealing with a particular
historical e'ent/ but decides not to re'iew newspaper accounts written by
<ournalists who li'ed through that e'ent.
() An archaeologist studies the artifacts of an ancient culture to reconstruct the
life(style of that culture/ but does not actually 'isit the site where those
artifacts were unearthed.
(#) An architect designs a pri'ate home for a client/ but ignores many of the
client4s suggestions concerning minor details about the final design of the
home.
10. The author of the passage uses the term *conte$t+ (line 15) to refer to
LSAT 6,1
(A) a holistic assessment of a piece of folklore rather than a critical analysis of its
parts
(B) a study that e$amines a piece of folklore in light of earlier interpretations
pro'ided by other folklorists
(C) the parts of a piece of folklore that can shed light on the meaning of the entire
piece
() the en'ironment and circumstances in which a particular piece of folklore is
used
(#) the location in which the story line of a piece of folklore is set
11. The author4s attitude toward =oger Abraham4s book can best be described as one
of
(A) wholehearted appro'al
(B) "ualified admiration
(C) uneasy ambi'alence
() e$treme skepticism
(#) trenchant criticism
C. E. 3. 9ococ$6s numerous investigations have a"" revo"ved around the &ruit&u"
assumption that a wor$ o& po"itica" thought can on"y be understood in "ight o& the
"inguistic constraints to which its author was sub5ect( &or these prescribed both the
choice o& sub5ect matter and the author6s conceptua"i+ation o& this sub5ect matter.
<n"y the occasiona" epic theorist( "i$e Bachiave""i or )obbes( succeeded in
brea$ing out o& these bonds by rede#ning o"d terms and inventing new ones. The
tas$ o& the modern commentator is to identi&y the >"anguage? or >vocabu"ary?
with and within which the author operated. ;hi"e historians o& "iterature have
a"ways been aware that writers wor$ within particu"ar traditions( the app"ication o&
this notion to the history o& po"itica" ideas &orms a sharp contrast to the
assumptions o& the 19/0s( when it was naive"y thought that the c"ose reading o& a
te8t by an ana"ytic phi"osopher was su*cient to estab"ish its meaning( even i& the
phi"osopher had no $now"edge o& the period o& the te8t6s composition.
The "anguage 9ococ$ has most c"ose"y investigated is that o& >civic humanism.?
:or much o& his career he has argued that eighteenth-century @ng"ish po"itica"
thought shou"d be interpreted as a conDict between riva" versions o& the >virtue?
centra" to civic humanism. <n the one hand( he argues( this virtue is described by
representatives o& the Tory opposition using a vocabu"ary o& pub"ic spirit and se"&-
su*ciency. :or these writers the societa" idea" is the sma""( independent
"andowner in the countryside. <n the other hand( ;hig writers describe such
virtue using a vocabu"ary o& commerce and economic progress= &or them the idea"
is the merchant.
2n ma$ing such "inguistic discriminations 9ococ$ has disassociated himse"& &rom
historians "i$e ,amier( who deride a"" eighteenth-century @ng"ish po"itica"
6,2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
"anguage as >cant.? 'ut whi"e 9ococ$6s ideas have proved &erti"e when app"ied to
@ng"and( they are more controversia" when app"ied to the "ate-eighteenth-century
United tates. 9ococ$6s assertion that Ce1erson6s attac$s on the commercia"
po"icies o& the :edera"ists simp"y echo the "anguage o& the Tory opposition in
@ng"and is at odds with the &act that Ce1erson re5ected the e"itist imp"ications o&
that group6s notion o& virtue and asserted the right o& a"" to participate in
commercia" society. 2ndeed( a&ter promptings by Tuentin $inner( 9ococ$ has
admitted that a counter"anguage!one o& rights and "iberties!was probab"y as
important in the po"itica" discourse o& the "ate-eighteenth-century United tates as
the "anguage o& civic humanism. :ortunate"y( it is not necessary to ran$ the
re"ative importance o& a"" the di1erent vocabu"aries in which eighteenth-century
po"itica" argument was conducted. 2t is su*cient to recogni+e that any interesting
te8t is probab"y a mi8ture o& severa" o& these vocabu"aries( and to app"aud the
historian who( though gui"ty o& some e8aggeration( has done the most to ma$e us
aware o& their importance.
12. The main idea of the passage is that
(A) ci'ic humanism/ in any of its manifestations/ cannot entirely e$plain
eighteenth(century political discourse
(B) eighteenth(century political te$ts are less likely to reflect a single 'ocabulary
than to combine se'eral 'ocabularies
(C) @ocock4s linguistic approach/ though not applicable to all eighteenth(century
political te$ts/ pro'ides a useful model for historians of political theory
() @ocock has more successfully accounted for the nature of political thought in
eighteenth(century #ngland than in the eighteenth(century :nited ;tates
(#) @ocock4s notion of the importance of language in political te$ts is a logical
e$tension of the insights of historians of literature
1-. According to the passage/ @ocock most clearly associates the use of a 'ocabulary
of economic progress with
(A) Aefferson
(B) >ederalists
(C) #nglish &higs
() #nglish Tories rural
(#) #nglish landowners
16. The author4s attitude toward @ocock is best re'ealed by which of the following
pairs of words%
(A) *fruitful+ (line 2) and *cant+ (line .,)
(B) *sharp+ (line 12) and *elitist+ (line 02)
(C) *nai'ely+ (line 1-) and *contro'ersial+ (line 01)
() *fertile+ (line 05) and *applaud+ (line 25)
LSAT 6,-
(#) *simply+ (line 00) and *importance+ (line 11)
1,. The passage suggests that one of the *assumptions of the 1,15s+ (line 1-)
regarding the meaning of a political te$t was that this meaning
(A) could be established using an approach similar to that used by literary
historians
(B) could be definiti'ely established without reference to the te$t4s historical
background
(C) could be closely read in se'eral different ways depending on one4s philosophic
approach
() was constrained by certain linguistic preconceptions held by the te$t4s author
(#) could be e$pressed most clearly by an analytic philosopher who had studied its
historical conte$t
25. The author of the passage would most likely agree that which one of the following
is a weakness found in @ocock4s work%
(A) the use of the term *language+ to describe the e$pressi'e features of se'eral
di'erse kinds of discourse
(B) the o'eremphatic denigration of the role of the analytic philosopher in
establishing the meaning of a political/ or indeed any/ te$t
(C) the emphasis on the o'erriding importance of ci'ic humanism in eighteenth(
century #nglish political thought
() the insistence on a single linguistic dichotomy to account for political thought
in eighteenth(century #ngland and the :nited ;tates
(#) the assignment of certain 'ocabularies to particular parties in eighteenth(
century #ngland without taking note of how these 'ocabularies o'erlapped
21. &hich one of the following best describes the organi!ation of the passage%
(A) A description of a thesis is offered/ specific cases are considered/ and an
e'aluation is gi'en.
(B) A thesis is brought forward/ the thesis is "ualified/ and e'idence that calls the
"ualification into "uestion is stated.
(C) A hypothesis is described/ e$amples that suggest it is incorrect are
summari!ed/ and supporting e$amples are offered.
() A series of e'aluations are gi'en/ concrete reasons are put forward/ and a
future direction for research is suggested.
(#) Comparisons and contrasts are made/ some categories of e'aluation are
suggested/ and a framework for applying these categories is implied.
2n 19LM the United tates &edera" government began attempts to e"iminate
racia" discrimination in emp"oyment and wagesA the United tates %ongress
enacted Tit"e F22 o& the %ivi" Rights 3ct( prohibiting emp"oyers &rom ma$ing
emp"oyment decisions on the basis o& race. 2n 19L/ 9resident Cohnson issued
6,6 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
@8ecutive <rder 11(4ML( which prohibited discrimination by United tates
government contractors and emphasi+ed direct monitoring o& minority
representation in contractors6 wor$ &orces.
,onethe"ess( proponents o& the >continuous change? hypothesis be"ieve that
United tates &edera" "aw had a margina" impact on the economic progress made
by b"ac$ peop"e in the United tates between 19M0 and 197/. 2nstead they
emphasi+e s"ow"y evo"ving historica" &orces( such as "ong-term trends in education
that improved segregated schoo"s &or b"ac$ students during the 19M0s and were
operative during and a&ter the 19L0s. They argue that as the -ua"ity o& b"ac$
schoo"s improved re"ative to that o& white schoo"s( the earning potentia" o& those
attending b"ac$ schoo"s increased re"ative to the earning potentia" o& those
attending white schoo"s.
)owever( there is no direct evidence "in$ing increased -ua"ity o& under&unded
segregated b"ac$ schoo"s to these improvements in earning potentia". 2n &act(
even the evidence on re"ative schoo"ing -ua"ity is ambiguous. 3"though in the
mid-19M0s term "ength at b"ac$ schoo"s was approaching that in white schoo"s(
the rapid growth in another important measure o& schoo" -ua"ity( schoo"
e8penditures( may be e8p"ained by increases in teachers6 sa"aries( and
historica""y( such increases have not necessari"y increased schoo" -ua"ity. :ina""y(
b"ac$ individua"s in a"" age groups( even those who had been educated at
segregated schoo"s be&ore the 19M0s( e8perienced post-19L0 increases in their
earning potentia". 2& improvements in the -ua"ity o& schoo"ing were an important
determinant o& increased returns( on"y those wor$ers who cou"d have bene#ted
&rom enhanced schoo" -ua"ity shou"d have received higher returns. The re"ative
improvement in the earning potentia" o& educated b"ac$ peop"e o& a"" age groups
in the United tates is more consistent with a dec"ine in emp"oyment
discrimination.
3n additiona" prob"em &or continuity theorists is how to e8p"ain the rapid
acce"eration o& b"ac$ economic progress in the United tates a&ter 19LM.
@ducation a"one cannot account &or the rate o& change. Rather( the coincidence o&
increased United tates government antidiscrimination pressure in the mid-19L0s
with the acce"eration in the rate o& b"ac$ economic progress beginning in 19L/
argues against the continuity theorists6 view. True( corre"ating &edera" intervention
and the acce"eration o& b"ac$ economic progress might be incorrect. <ne cou"d
argue that changing a"titudes about emp"oyment discrimination spar$ed both the
adoption o& new &edera" po"icies and the rapid acce"eration in b"ac$ economic
progress. 2ndeed( the shi&t in nationa" attitude that made possib"e the enactment
o& Tit"e F22 was in part produced by the persistence o& racia" discrimination in the
southern United tates. )owever( the &act that the "aw had its greatest e1ect in
the outh( in spite o& the vigorous resistance o& many outhern "eaders( suggests
its importance &or b"ac$ economic progress.
22. According to the passage/ Title C33 of the 1,20 Ci'il =ights Act differs from
LSAT 6,,
#$ecuti'e 8rder 11. 202 in that Title C33
(A) monitors employers to ensure minority representation
(B) assesses the work forces of go'ernment contractors
(C) eliminates discriminatory disparities in wages
() focuses on determining minority representation in go'ernment
(#) go'erns hiring practices in a wider 'ariety of workplaces
2.. &hich one of the following statements about schooling in the :nited ;tates during
the mid(1,05s can be inferred from the passage%
(A) ;chool e$penditures decreased for white schools.
(B) The teachers in white schools had more time to co'er material during a school
year than did teachers in black schools.
(C) The basic curriculum of white schools was similar to the curriculum at black
schools.
() &hite schools did not change substantially in "uality.
(#) Although the salaries of teachers in black schools increased/ they did not keep
pace with the salaries of teachers in white schools.
20. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) e$plain why an argument about black economic progress is incomplete
(B) describe the impact of education on black economic progress
(C) refute an argument about the factors influencing black economic progress
() describe black economic progress before and after the 1,25s
(#) clarify the current 'iew about the factors influencing black economic progress
21. &hich one of the following best states the position of proponents of the
*continuous change+ hypothesis regarding the relationship between law and racial
discrimination%
(A) 3ndi'iduals cannot be forced by legal means to beha'e in nondiscriminatory
ways.
(B) iscriminatory practices in education ha'e been effecti'ely altered by legal
means.
(C) Kegislation alone has had little effect on racially discriminatory beha'ior.
() Kegislation is necessary/ but not sufficient/ to achie'e changes in racial
altitudes.
(#) Kegislation can only e$acerbate conflicts about racially discriminatory
beha'ior.
22. The author concedes that *correlating federal inter'ention and the acceleration of
black economic progress might be incorrect+ (lines 16(25) primarily in order to
(A) strengthen the o'erall argument by anticipating an ob<ection
,55 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
(B) introduce another factor that may ha'e influenced black economic progress
(C) concede a point to the continuity theorists
() change the o'erall argument in light of the 'iews of the continuity theorists
(#) introduce a discussion about the impact of federal inter'ention on
discrimination
2-. The *continuous change+ hypothesis/ as it is presented in the passage/ can best be
applied to which one of the following situations%
(A) )omes are found for many low(income families because the go'ernment funds
a pro<ect to build subsidi!ed housing in an economically depressed area.
(B) A depressed economy does not cause the closing of small businesses in a local
community because the go'ernment pro'ides special grants to aid these
businesses.
(C) :nemployed people are able to obtain <obs because pri'ate contractors recei'e
ta$ incenti'es for constructing office buildings in an area with a high
unemployment rate.
() A housing shortage is remedied because the changing state of the economy
permits pri'ate in'estors to finance construction in a depressed area.
(#) A community4s sanitation needs are met because neighborhood organi!ations
lobby aggressi'ely for go'ernment assistance.
LSAT 17 SECTON
T!"e 35 "!#$%es 26 &$es%!o#s
Directions: Each passage in this section is followed by a group of questions to be answered on
the basis of what is stated or implied in the passage. For some of the questions, more than one
of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However, you are to choose the best
answer, that is, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question, and
blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.
:or the poet 9hi"ips ;hite"y( who was brought to co"onia" ,ew @ng"and as a
s"ave in 17L1( the &orma" "iterary code o& eighteenth-century @ng"ish was thrice
removedA by the initia" barrier o& the un&ami"iar @ng"ish "anguage( by the
discrepancy between spo$en and "iterary &orms o& @ng"ish( and by the 3&rican
tradition o& ora" rather than written verba" art. ;heat"ey transcended these
barriers!she "earned the @ng"ish "anguage and @ng"ish "iterary &orms so -uic$"y
and we"" that she was composing good poetry in @ng"ish within a &ew years o& her
arriva" in ,ew @ng"and.
;heat"ey6s e8perience e8emp"i#es the meeting o& ora" and written "iterary
cu"tures. The aesthetic princip"es o& the 3&rican ora" tradition were preserved in
3merica by &o"$ artists in wor$ songs( dancing( #e"d ho""ers( re"igious music( the
use o& the drum( and( a&ter the drum was &orbidden( in the perpetuation o& drum
e1ects in song. 3&rican "anguages and the &unctions o& "anguage in 3&rican
societies not on"y contributed to the emergence o& a distinctive '"ac$ @ng"ish but
LSAT ,51
a"so e8erted demonstrab"e e1ects on the manner in which other 3mericans spo$e
@ng"ish. Eiven her 3&rican heritage and her &aci"ity with @ng"ish and the
conventions o& @ng"ish poetry( ;heat"ey6s wor$ had the potentia" to app"y the
ideas o& a written "iterature to an ora" "iterary tradition in the creation o& an 3&rican
3merican "iterary "anguage.
'ut this was a potentia" that her poetry un&ortunate"y did not e8p"oit. The
standards o& eighteenth-century @ng"ish poetry( which itse"& reDected "itt"e o& the
3merican "anguage( "ed ;heat"ey to deve"op a notion o& poetry as a c"osed
system( derived &rom imitation o& ear"ier written wor$s. ,o p"ace e8isted &or the
rough-and-ready 3mericani+ed @ng"ish she heard in the streets( &or the @ng"ish
spo$en by '"ac$ peop"e( or &or 3&ricanisms. The conventions o& eighteenth-century
neoc"assica" poetry ru"ed out casua" ta"$= her choice and &ee"ings had to be
genera"i+ed according to ru"es o& poetic diction and characteri+ation= the
particu"ars o& her 3&rican past( i& they were to be dea"t with at a""( had to be
subordinated to the reigning conventions. 3&rican poetry did not count as poetry
in her new situation( and 3&rican aesthetic canons were irre"evant to the new
conte8t because no "inguistic or socia" &ramewor$ e8isted to rein&orce them.
;heat"ey adopted a &oreign "anguage and a &oreign "iterary tradition= they were
not e8tensions o& her past e8perience( but rep"acements.
Thus "imited by the eighteenth-century @ng"ish "iterary code( ;heat"ey6s poetry
contributed "itt"e to the deve"opment o& a distinctive 3&rican 3merican "iterary
"anguage. Iet by the standards o& the "iterary conventions in which she chose to
wor$( ;heat"ey6s poetry is undeniab"y accomp"ished( and she is 5ust"y ce"ebrated
as the #rst '"ac$ 3merican poet.
1. &hich one of the following best e$presses the main idea of the passage%
(A) >olk artists employed more principles of African oral tradition in their works
than did @hillis &heatley in her poetry.
(B) Although @hillis &heatley had to o'ercome significant barriers in learning
#nglish/ she mastered the literary con'entions of eighteen(century #nglish as
well as African aesthetic canons.
(C) @hillis &heatley4s poetry did not fulfill the potential inherent in her e$perience
but did represent a significant accomplishment.
() The e'olution of a distincti'e African American literary language can be traced
from the creations of African American folk artists to the poetry of @hillis
&heatley.
(#) @hillis &heatley <oined with African American folk artists in preser'ing the
principles of the African oral tradition.
2. The approach to poetry taken by a modern(day 3talian immigrant in America
would be most analogous to @hillis &heatley4s approach/ as it is described in the
passage/ if the immigrant
(A) translated 3talian literary forms into the American idiom
,52 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
(B) combined 3talian and American literary traditions into a new form of poetic
e$pression
(C) contributed to the de'elopment of a distincti'e 3talian American literary style
() defined artistic e$pression in terms of eighteenth(century 3talian poetic
con'entions
(#) adopted the language and forms of modern American poetry
.. According to the passage/ African languages had a notable influence on
(A) the religious music of colonists in 9ew #ngland
(B) the folk art of colonists in 9ew #ngland
(C) formal written #nglish
() American speech patterns
(#) eighteen(century aesthetic principles
0. By a *closed system+ of poetry (line .0(.1)/ the author most probably means
poetry that
(A) cannot be written by those who are not raised knowing its con'entions
(B) has little influence on the way language is actually spoken
(C) substitutes its own con'entions for the aesthetic principles of the past
() does not admit the use of street language and casual talk
(#) is ultimately re<ected because its con'entions lea'e little room for further
de'elopment
1. According to the passage/ the standards of eighteenth century #nglish poetry
permitted &heatley to include which one of the following in her poetry%
(A) generali!ed feelings
(B) Americani!ed #nglish
(C) themes from folk art
() casual talk
(#) Black speech
2. &hich one of the following/ if true/ would most weaken the author4s argument
concerning the role that &heatley played in the e'olution of an African American
literary language%
(A) &heatley4s poetry was admired in #ngland for its faithfulness to the
con'entions of neoclassical poetry.
(B) &heatley compiled a history in #nglish of her family4s e$periences in Africa
and America.
(C) The language barriers that &heatley o'ercame were e'entually transcended by
all who were brought from Africa as sla'es.
() ;e'eral modern African American poets acknowledge the importance of
LSAT ,5.
&heatley4s poetry to American literature.
(#) ;cholars trace themes and e$pressions in African American poetry back to the
poetry of &heatley.
-. 3t can be inferred that the author of the passage would most probably ha'e praised
@hillis &heatley4s poetry more if it had
(A) affected the manner in which sla'es and freed Black people spoke #nglish
(B) defined African American artistic e$pression in terms of earlier works
(C) adopted the standards of eighteenth(century #nglish poetry
() combined elements of the #nglish literary tradition with those of the African
oral tradition
(#) focused on the barriers that written #nglish literary forms presented to Black
artists
6. &hich one of the following most accurately characteri!es the author4s attitude
with respect to @hillis &heatley4s literary accomplishments%
(A) enthusiastic ad'ocacy
(B) "ualified admiration
(C) dispassionate impartiality
() detached ambi'alence
(#) perfunctory dismissal
<ne scienti#c discip"ine( during its ear"y stages o& deve"opment( is o&ten re"ated
to another as an antithesis to its thesis. The thesis discip"ine tend to concern itse"&
with discovery and c"assi#cation o& phenomena( to o1er ho"istic e8p"anations
emphasi+ing pattern and &orm( and to use e8isting theory to e8p"ain the widest
possib"e range o& phenomena. The paired or antidiscip"ine( on the other hand( can
be characteri+ed by a more &ocused approach( concentrating on the units o&
construction( and by a be"ie& that the discip"ine can be re&ormu"ated in terms o&
the issues and e8p"anations o& the antidiscip"ine.
The re"ationship o& cyto"ogy (ce"" bio"ogy) to biochemistry in the "ate nineteenth
century( when both discip"ines were growing at a rapid pace( e8emp"i#es such a
pattern. Researchers in ce"" bio"ogy &ound mounting evidence o& an intricate ce""
architecture. They a"so deduced the mysterious choreography o& the
chromosomes during ce"" division. Bany biochemists( on the other hand( remained
s$eptica" o& the idea that so much structure e8isted( arguing that the chemica"
reactions that occur in cyto"ogica" preparations might create the appearance o&
such structures. 3"so( they stood apart &rom the debate then raging over whether
protop"asm( the comp"e8 o& "iving materia" within a ce""( is homogeneous(
networ$"i$e( granu"ar( or &oam"i$e. Their interest "ay in the core >&undamenta"?
issues o& the chemica" nature o& protop"asm( especia""y the new"y &ormu"ated
en+yme theory o& "i&e.
2n genera"( biochemists 5udged cyto"ogists to be too ignorant o& chemistry to
,50 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
grasp the basic processes( whereas cyto"ogists considered the methods o&
biochemists inade-uate to characteri+e the structures o& the "iving ce"". The
renewa" o& Bende"ian genetics and( "ater( progress in chromosome mapping did
"itt"e at #rst to e1ect a synthesis.
'oth sides were essentia""y correct. 'iochemistry has more than 5usti#ed its
e8travagant ear"y c"aims by e8p"aining so much o& the ce""u"ar machinery. 'ut in
achieving this &eat (most"y since 19/0) it has been partia""y trans&ormed into the
new discip"ine o& mo"ecu"ar bio"ogy!biochemistry that dea"s with spatia"
arrangements and movements o& "arge mo"ecu"es. 3t the same time cyto"ogy has
metamorphosed into modern ce""u"ar bio"ogy. 3ided by e"ectron microscopy( it has
become more simi"ar in "anguage and out"oo$ to mo"ecu"ar bio"ogy. The
interaction o& a discip"ine and its antidiscip"ine has moved both sciences toward a
synthesis( name"y mo"ecu"ar genetics.
This interaction between paired discip"ines can have important resu"ts. 2n the
case o& "ate nineteenth-century ce"" research( progress was &ue"ed by competition
among the various attitudes and issues derived &rom ce"" bio"ogy and
biochemistry. Coseph :ruton( a biochemist( has suggested that such competition
and the resu"ting tensions among researchers are a principa" source o& vita"ity and
>are "i$e"y to "ead to une8pected and e8citing nove"ties in the &uture( as they have
in the past.?
,. &hich one of the following best states the central idea of the passage%
(A) Antithetical scientific disciplines can both stimulate and hinder one another4s
research in comple$ ways.
(B) Antithetical scientific disciplines often interact with one another in ways that
can be highly useful.
(C) As disciplines such as cytology and biochemistry ad'ance/ their interaction
necessarily leads to a synthesis of their approaches.
() Cell research in the late nineteenth century was plagued by disagreements
between cytologists and biochemists.
(#) 3n the late nineteenth century/ cytologists and biochemists made many 'aluable
disco'eries that ad'anced scientific understanding of the cell.
15. The passage states that in the late nineteenth century cytologists deduced the
(A) maps of chromosomes
(B) chemical nature of protoplasm
(C) spatial relationship of molecules within the cell
() role of en!ymes in biological processes
(#) se"uence of the mo'ement of chromosomes during cell di'ision
11. 3t can be inferred from the passage that in the late nineteenth century the debate
o'er the structural nature of protoplasm (line 21(2,) was most likely carried on
LSAT ,51
(A) among cytologists
(B) among biochemists
(C) between cytologists and biochemists
() between cytologists and geneticists
(#) between biochemists and geneticists
12. According to the passage/ cytologists in the late nineteenth century were critical of
the cell research of biochemists because cytologists belie'ed that
(A) the methods of biochemistry were inade"uate to account for all of the chemical
reactions that occurred in cytological preparations
(B) the methods of biochemistry could not ade"uately disco'er and e$plain the
structures of li'ing cells
(C) biochemists were not interested in the nature of protoplasm
() biochemists were not interested in cell di'ision
(#) biochemists were too ignorant of cytology to understand the basic processes of
the cell
1.. The author "uotes >ruton (lines 22(20) primarily in order to
(A) restate the author4s own conclusions
(B) pro'ide new e'idence about the relationship of cytology to biochemistry
(C) summari!e the position of the biochemists described in the passage
() illustrate the difficulties encountered in the synthesis of disciplines
(#) emphasi!e the ascendancy of the theories of biochemists o'er those of
cytologists
10. &hich one of the following inferences about when the en!yme theory of life was
formulated can be drawn from the passage%
(A) The theory was formulated before the appearance of molecular biology.
(B) The theory was formulated before the initial disco'ery of cell architecture.
(C) The theory was formulated after the completion of chromosome mapping.
() The theory was formulated after a synthesis of the ideas of cytologists and
biochemists had occurred.
(#) The theory was formulated at the same time as the beginning of the debate
o'er the nature of protoplasm.
11. &hich one of the following statements about cells is most compatible with the
'iews of late nineteenth(century biochemists as those 'iews are described in the
passage%
(A) The secret of cell function resides in the structure of the cell.
(B) 8nly by disco'ering the chemical composition of protoplasm can the processes
of the cell be understood.
,52 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
(C) ;cientific knowledge about the chemical composition of the cell can help to
e$plain beha'ioral patterns in organisms.
() The most important issue to be resol'ed with regard to the cell is determining
the physical characteristics of protoplasm.
(#) The methods of chemistry must be supplemented before a full account of the
cell4s structures can be made.
12. &hich one of the following best describes the organi!ation of the material
presented in the passage%
(A) An account of a process is gi'en/ and then the reason for its occurrence is
stated.
(B) A set of e$amples is pro'ided and then a conclusion is drawn from them.
(C) A general proposition is stated/ and then an e$ample is gi'en.
() A statement of principles is made/ and then a rationale for them is debated.
(#) A problem is analy!ed/ and then a possible solution is discussed.
There are two ma5or systems o& crimina" procedure in the modern wor"d!the
adversaria" and the in-uisitoria". 'oth systems were historica""y preceded by the
system o& private vengeance in which the victim o& a crime &ashioned a remedy
and administered it private"y( either persona""y or through an agent.
The modern adversaria" system is on"y one historica" step removed &rom the
private vengeance system and sti"" remains some o& its characteristic &eature. :or
e8amp"e( even though the right to initiate "ega" action against a crimina" has now
been e8tended to a"" members o& society (as represented by the o*ce o& the
pub"ic prosecutor)( and even though the po"ice department has e1ective"y
assumed the pretria" investigative &unctions on beha"& o& the prosecution( the
adversaria" system sti"" "eaves the de&endant to conduct his or her own pretria"
investigation. The tria" is views as a &orensic due" between two adversaries(
presided over by a 5udge who( at the start( has no $now"edge o& the investigative
bac$ground o& the case. 2n the #na" ana"ysis the adversaria" system o& crimina"
procedure symbo"i+es and regu"ari+es punitive combat.
'y contrast( the in-uisitoria" system begins historica""y where the adversaria"
system stopped its deve"opment. 2t is two historica" steps removed &rom the
system o& private vengeance. :rom the standpoint o& "ega" anthropo"ogy( then( it
is historica""y superior to the adversaria" system. Under the in-uisitoria" system(
the pub"ic prosecutor has the duty to investigate not 5ust on beha"& o& society but
a"so on beha"& o& the de&endant. 3dditiona""y( the pub"ic prosecutor has the duty to
present the court not on"y evidence that wou"d convict the de&endant( but a"so
evidence that cou"d prove the de&endant6s innocence. The system mandates that
both parties permit &u"" pretria" discovery o& the evidence in their possession.
:ina""y( an aspect o& the system that ma$es the tria" "ess "i$e a due" between two
adversaria" parties is that the in-uisitoria" system mandates that the 5udge ta$e
an active part in the conduct o& the tria"( with a ro"e that is both directive and
LSAT ,5-
protective.
:act-#nding is at the heart o& the in-uisitoria" system. This system operate on
the phi"osophica" premise that in a crimina" action the crucia" &actor is the body o&
&acts( not the "ega" ru"e (in contrast to the adversaria" system )( and the goa" o&
the entire procedure is to attempt to recreate( in the mind o& the court( the
commission o& the a""eged crime.
'ecause o& the in-uisitoria" system6s thoroughness in conducting its pretria"
investigation( it can be conc"uded that( i& given the choice( a de&endant who is
innocent wou"d pre&er to be tried under the in-uisitoria" system( whereas a
de&endant who is gui"ty wou"d pre&er to be tried under the adversaria" system.
1-. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the crucial factor in a trial under the
ad'ersarial system is
(A) rules of legality
(B) dramatic reenactments of the crime
(C) the search for rele'ant facts
() the 'ictim4s personal pursuit of re'enge
(#) police testimony about the crime
16. The author sees the <udge4s primary role in a trial under the in"uisitorial system as
that of
(A) passi'e obser'er
(B) biased referee
(C) unin'ol'ed administrator
() aggressi'e in'estigator
(#) in'ol'ed manager
1,. According to the passage/ a central distinction between the system of pri'ate
'engeance and the two modern criminal procedure systems was the shift in
responsibility for initiating legal action against a criminal from the
(A) defendant to the courts
(B) 'ictim to society
(C) defendant to the prosecutor
() courts to a law enforcement agency
(#) 'ictim to the <udge
25. All of the following are characteristics of the in"uisitorial system that the author
cites #DC#@T
(A) 3t is based on cooperation rather than conflict.
(B) 3t encourages full disclosure of e'idence.
(C) 3t re"uires that the <udge play an acti'e role in the conduct of the trial.
,56 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
() 3t places the defendant in charge of his or her defense.
(#) 3t fa'ors the innocent.
21. The author4s attitude toward the in"uisitorial system can best be described as
(A) doubtful that its <udges can be both directi'e and protecti'e
(B) satisfied that it has potential for unco'ering the rele'ant facts in a case
(C) optimistic that it will replace the ad'ersarial system
() wary about its downplaying of legal rules
(#) critical of its close relationship with the pri'ate 'engeance system
<utside the medica" pro&ession( there are various e1orts to cut medicine down
to si+eA not on"y widespread ma"practice "itigation and massive governmenta"
regu"ation( but a"so attempts by consumer groups and others to rede#ne medicine
as a trade rather than as a pro&ession( and the physician as mere"y a technician
&or hire under contract. ;hy shou"d physicians (or indeed a"" sensib"e peop"e)
resist such e1orts to give the practice o& medicine a new meaningG ;e can gain
some i""umination &rom etymo"ogy. >Trade(? &rom Eermanic and 3ng"o-a8on roots
meaning >a course or pathway(? has come to mean derivative"y a habitua"
occupation and has been re"ated to certain s$i""s and cra&ts. <n the other hand(
whi"e >pro&ession? today a"so entai"s a habit o& wor$( the word >pro&ession? itse"&
traces to an act o& se"&-conscious and pub"ic!even con&essiona"!speech. >To
pro&ess? preserves the meaning o& its Jatin source( to dec"are pub"ic"y= to
announce( a*rm( avow.? 3 pro&ession is an activity or occupation to which its
practitioner pub"ic"y pro&esses( that is( con&esses( devotion. 'ut pub"ic
announcement seems insu*cient= pub"ic"y dec"aring devotion to p"umbing or auto
repair wou"d not turn these trades into pro&essions.
ome be"ieve that "earning and $now"edge are the diagnostic signs o& a
pro&ession. :or reasons probab"y "in$ed to the medieva" university( the term
>pro&ession? has been app"ied to the so-ca""ed "earned pro&essions!medicine( "aw(
and theo"ogy!the practices o& which are &ounded upon in-uiry and $now"edge
rather than mere >$now how.? Iet it is not on"y the pursuit and ac-uisition o&
$now"edge that ma$es one a pro&essiona". The $now"edge invo"ved ma$es the
pro&ession one o& the "earned variety( but its pro&essiona" -ua"ity is rooted in
something e"se.
ome mista$en"y see$ to "ocate that something e"se in the prestige and honor
accorded pro&essiona"s by society( evidenced in their specia" tit"es and the specia"
de&erence and privi"eges they receive. 'ut e8terna"ities do not constitute medicine
a pro&ession. 9hysicians are not pro&essiona"s because they are honored= rather(
they are honored because o& their pro&ession. Their tit"es and the respect they are
shown super#cia""y signi&y and ac$now"edge something deeper( that physicians
are persons o& the pro&essiona" sort( $nowing"y and &ree"y devoting themse"ves to
a way o& "i&e worthy o& such devotion. Cust as "awyers devote themse"ves to
recti&ying in5ustices( "oo$ing up to what is "aw&u" and right= 5ust as teachers devote
LSAT ,5,
themse"ves to the education o& the young( "oo$ing up to truth and wisdom= so
physicians hea" the sic$( "oo$ing up to hea"th and who"esomeness. 'eing a
pro&essiona" is thus rooted in our mora" nature and in that which warrants and
impe"s ma$ing a pub"ic con&ession to a way o& "i&e.
9ro&essing onese"& a pro&essiona" is an ethica" act because it is not a si"ent and
private act( but an articu"ated and pub"ic one= because it promised continuing
devotion to a way o& "i&e( not mere"y announces a present pre&erence or a way to a
"ive"ihood= because it is an activity in service to some high good that insists on
devotion= because it is di*cu"t and demanding. 3 pro&ession engages one6s
character and heart( not mere"y one6s mind and hands.
22. According to the author/ which one of the following is re"uired in order that one
be a professional%
(A) significant prestige and a title
(B) *know(how+ in a particular field
(C) a long and difficult educational endea'or
() a commitment to political <ustice
(#) a public confession of de'otion to a way of life
2.. &hich one of the following best e$presses the main point made by the author in
the passage%
(A) ?edicine is defined as a profession because of the etymology of the word
*profession+.
(B) 3t is a mistake to pay special honor to the knowledge and skills of physicians.
(C) The work of physicians is under attack only because it is widely
misunderstood.
() The correct reason that physicians are professionals is that their work in'ol'es
public commitment to a high good.
(#) @hysicians ha'e been encouraged to think of themsel'es as technicians and
need to reorient themsel'es toward ethical concerns.
20. The "uestion posed by the author in lines -(15 of the passage introduces which one
of the following%
(A) the author4s belief that it is futile to resist the trend toward defining the
physician4s work as a trade
(B) the author4s dislike of go'ernmental regulation and consumer ad'ocacy
(C) the author4s in"uiry into the nature of the practice of medicine
() the author4s suggestions for rallying sensible people to a concentrated defense
of physicians
(#) the author4s fascination with the origins of words
21. 3n the passage/ the author mentions or suggests all of the following #DC#@T
,15 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
(A) how society generally treats physicians
(B) that the practice of medicine is analogous to teaching
(C) that being a professional is in part a public act
() the specific knowledge on which trades are based
(#) how a li'elihood is different from a profession
22. The author4s attitude toward professionals is best described as
(A) eager that the work of one group of professionals/ physicians/ be 'iewed from
a new perspecti'e
(B) sympathetic toward professionals who ha'e become demorali!ed by public
opinion
(C) surprised that professionals ha'e been balked by go'ernmental regulations and
threats of litigation
() dismayed that most professionals ha'e come to be considered technicians
(#) certain that professionals confess a commitment to ethical ideals
2-. Based on the information in the passage/ it can be inferred that which one of the
following would most logically begin a paragraph immediately following the
passage%
(A) A skilled handicraft is a manual art ac"uired by habituation that enables trades
people to tread regularly and reliably along the same path.
(B) Critics might argue that being a doctor/ for e$ample/ re"uires no ethical or
public actI thus medicine/ as such/ is morally neutral/ does not bind character/
and can be used for good or ill.
(C) ;ometimes the pursuit of personal health competes with the pursuit of other
goods/ and it has always been the task of the community to order and define
competing ends.
() 9ot least among the myriad confusions and uncertainties of our time are those
attending efforts to discern and articulate the essential characteristics of the
medial profession.
(#) &hen/ in contrast/ we come to physicians of the whole body/ we come tacitly
acknowledging the meaning of illness and its potential threat to all that we hold
dear.
26. &hich one of the following best describes the author4s purpose in lines 16(02 of
the passage%
(A) The author locates the *something else+ that truly constitutes a profession.
(B) The author dismisses efforts to redefine the meaning of the term *profession.+
(C) The author considers/ and largely critici!es se'eral definitions of what
constitutes a profession.
() The author clarifies the meaning of the term *profession+ by ad'ocating a
LSAT ,11
return to its linguistic and historical roots.
(#) The author distinguishes trades such as plumbing and auto repair from
professions such as medicine/ law/ and theology.
LSAT 1' SECTON
T!"e 35 "!#$%es 26 &$es%!o#s
Directions: Each passage in this section is followed by a group of questions to be answered on
the basis of what is stated or implied in the passage. For some of the questions, more than one
of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However, you are to choose the best
answer, that is, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question, and
blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.
The &airness o& the 5udicia" process depends on the ob5ective presentation o&
&acts to an impartia" 5ury made up o& one6s peers. 9resent the &acts( and you have
a &air tria". )owever( &act-#nding( especia""y &or interpersona" disagreements( is
not so straight&orward and is o&ten contaminated by variab"es that reach beyond
the "ega" domain.
3 tria" is an attempt to transport 5urors to the time and p"ace o& the disputed
event( to recreate the disputed event( or at "east to e8p"ain that event with
ma8imum accuracy. 3 tria" &a""s short o& this goa"( however( because it presents
se"ected witnesses who recite se"ected portions o& their respective memories
concerning se"ected observations o& the disputed event. These mu"tip"e se"ections
are re&erred to as the abstraction process. Jimitations in both perception and
memory are responsib"e &or the &act that the remembered event contains on"y a
&raction o& the detai" present during the actua" event( and the de"ay between
observation and recitation causes witnesses6 memories to "ose even more o& the
origina" perceptions. Kuring the course o& a tria"( a witness6s recitation o& the now-
abstracted events may reDect se"ected disc"osure based on his or her attitudes
and motivations surrounding that testimony. :urthermore( the incidents reported
are dependent on the "ines o& in-uiry estab"ished by the attorneys invo"ved.
3ccording"y( the recited data are a &raction o& the remembered data( which are a
&raction o& the observed data( which are a &raction o& the tota" data &or the event.
3&ter the event that "ed to the tria" has been abstracted by participants in the
tria"( 5urors are e8pected to reso"ve &actua" issues. ome o& the 5urors6 conc"usions
are based on &acts that were direct"y recited= others are &ound in&erentia""y. )ere
another abstraction process ta$es p"ace. Kiscussions during de"iberations add to
the co""ective poo" o& reca""ed evidentiary perceptions= nonethe"ess( the 5urors6
abstraction processes &urther reduce the number o& characteristics traceab"e to
the origina" event.
%omp"ication can arise &rom &a"se abstractions at each stage. tudies have
shown that witnesses reca"" having perceived incidents that are $nown to be
absent &rom a given event. %onverse"y( 5urors can remember hearing evidence
that is unaccounted &or in court transcripts. @8p"anations &or these phenomena
,12 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
range &rom bias through prior conditioning or observer e8pectation to &au"ty
reportage o& the event based on the constraints o& "anguage. 3berrant
abstractions in perception or reco""ection may not be conscious or de"iberate( but
re"iabi"ity is neverthe"ess di"uted.
:ina""y( de"iberate untruth&u"ness has a"ways been recogni+ed as a ris$ o&
testimonia" evidence. uch intentiona""y &a"se abstractions( however( are on"y a
sma"" part o& the inaccuracies produced by the abstraction process.
1. 3n this passage/ the author4s main purpose is to
(A) discuss a process that <eopardi!es the fairness of <ury trials
(B) analy!e a methodology that safeguards the indi'idual4s right to fair trial
(C) e$plain why <urors should 'iew eyewitness testimony with skepticism
() defend the trial(by(<ury process/ despite its limitations
(#) point out the una'oidable abuses that ha'e crept into the <udicial process
2. The author considers all of the following obstacles to a fair trial #DC#@T
(A) selecti'e perceptions
(B) faulty communications
(C) partial disclosures
() intentional falsifications
(#) too few abstractions
.. The author would most likely agree that the abstraction process occurs in the
<udicial process primarily because
(A) some <urors4 conclusions are based on facts rather than on inferences
(B) remembered e'ents depend upon an indi'idual4s emotions
(C) human beings are the sources and users of data presented in trials
() it is difficult to distinguish between deliberate falsehood and unintentional
selected disclosure
(#) witnesses often dispute one another4s recollections of e'ents
0. 3t can be inferred that the author belie'es the ability of <uries to resol'e factual
issues is
(A) limited by any indi'idual <uror4s tendency to draw inferences from the facts
presented during the trial
(B) o'erwhelmed by the collecti'e pool of recalled e'identiary perceptions
(C) unaffected by the process of trying to reenact the e'ent leading to the trial
() dependent upon the <ury4s ability to understand the influence of the abstraction
process on testimony
(#) sub<ect to the same limitations of perception and memory that affect witnesses
1. &ith which one of the following statements would the author most likely agree%
LSAT ,1.
(A) 3f deliberate untruthfulness were all the courts had to contend with/ <ury trials
would be fairer than they are today.
(B) Kack of moral standards is more of an impediment to a fair trial than human
frailty.
(C) The bulk of the inaccuracies produced by the abstraction process are
innocently presented and rarely ha'e any serious conse"uences.
() 3f the inaccuracies resulting from the abstraction process persist/ the present
trial(by(<ury system is likely to become a thing of the past.
(#) 8nce intentional falsification of e'idence is eliminated from trials/ ensuring an
accurate presentation of facts will easily follow.
2. The author4s attitude toward the abstraction process that occurs when witnesses
testify in a trial can best be described as
(A) confident that witnesses can be conditioned to o'ercome many limitations of
memory
(B) concerned that it may undermine witnesses ability to accurately describe the
original e'ent in dispute
(C) critical of witnesses4 moti'ations when deli'ering testimony
() indifferent toward the effect the abstraction process has on testimony
(#) suspicious of witnesses4 efforts to describe remembered e'ents truthfully
-. Bi'en the information in the passage/ the actual e'ent that is disputed in a <ury trial
is most like
(A) a group of <ob applicants that is narrowed down to a few finalists
(B) a sub<ect that is photographed from 'aried and increasingly distant 'antage
points
(C) scraps of fabric that are sewn together to make an intricately designed "uilt
() a pu!!le that is unsystematically assembled through trial and error
(#) a lie that is compounded by additional lies in order to be maintained
3 medica" artic"e once pointed with great a"arm to an increase in cancer among
mi"$ drin$ers. %ancer( it seems( was becoming increasing"y &re-uent in ,ew
@ng"and( Binnesota( ;isconsin( and wit+er"and( where a "ot o& mi"$ is produced
and consumed( whi"e remaining rare in %ey"on( where mi"$ is scarce. :or &urther
evidence it was pointed out that cancer was "ess &re-uent in some states o& the
southern United tates where "ess mi"$ was consumed. 3"so( it was pointed out(
mi"$-drin$ing @ng"ish women get some $inds o& cancer eighteen times as
&re-uent"y as Capanese women who se"dom drin$ mi"$.
3 "itt"e digging might uncover -uite a number o& ways to account &or these
#gures( but one &actor is enough by itse"& to show them up. %ancer is
predominant"y a disease that stri$es in midd"e "i&e or a&ter. wit+er"and and the
states o& the United tates mentioned #rst are a"i$e in having popu"ations with
,10 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
re"ative"y "ong spans o& "i&e. @ng"ish women at the time the study was made were
"iving an average o& twe"ve years "onger than Capanese women.
9ro&essor )e"en B. ;a"$er has wor$ed out an amusing i""ustration o& the &o""y in
assuming there must be cause and e1ect whenever two things vary together. 2n
investigating the re"ationship between age and some physica" characteristics o&
women( begin by measuring the ang"e o& the &eet in wa"$ing. Iou wi"" #nd that the
ang"e tends to be greater among o"der women. Iou might #rst consider whether
this indicates that women grow o"der because they toe out( and you can see
immediate"y that this is ridicu"ous. o it appears that age increases the ang"e
between the &eet( and most women must come to toe out more as they grow
o"der.
3ny such conc"usion is probab"y &a"se and certain"y unwarranted. Iou cou"d
on"y reach it "egitimate"y by studying the same women!or possib"y e-uiva"ent
groups!over a period o& time. That wou"d e"iminate the &actor responsib"e here(
which is that the o"der women grew up at a time when a young "ady was taught to
toe out in wa"$ing( whi"e the members o& the younger group were "earning posture
in a day when that was discouraged.
;hen you #nd somebody!usua""y an interested party!ma$ing a &uss about a
corre"ation( "oo$ #rst o& a"" to see i& it is not one o& this type( produced by the
stream o& events( the trend o& the times. 2n our time it is easy to show a positive
corre"ation between any pair o& things "i$e theseA number o& students in co""ege(
number o& inmates in menta" institutions( consumption o& cigarettes( incidence o&
heart disease( use o& N-ray machines( production o& &a"se teeth( sa"aries o&
%a"i&ornia schoo" teachers( pro#ts o& ,evada gamb"ing ha""s. To ca"" some one o&
these the cause o& some other is mani&est"y si""y. 'ut it is done every day.
6. The author4s conclusion about the relationship between age and the ways women
walk indicates he belie'es that
(A) toeing out is associated with aging
(B) toeing out is fashionable with the younger generation
(C) toeing out was fashionable for an older generation
() studying e"ui'alent groups pro'es that toeing out increases with age
(#) studying the same women o'er a period of time pro'es that toeing out
increases with age
,. The author describes the posited relationship between toeing out and age (lines 2,(
05) in order to
(A) illustrate a folly
(B) show how social attitudes toward posture change
(C) e$plain the effects of aging
() illustrate a medical problem
(#) offer a method to determine a woman4s age from her footprints
LSAT ,11
15. Bi'en the author4s statements in the passage/ his ad'ice for e'aluating statistics
that show a high positi'e correlation between two conditions could include all the
following statements #DC#@T
(A) look for an e$planation in the stream of e'ents
(B) consider some trend of the times as the possible cause of both conditions
(C) account for the correlations in some way other than causality
() determine which of the two conditions is the cause and which is the effect
(#) decide whether the conclusions ha'e been reached legitimately and the
appropriate groupings ha'e been made
11. Assume that there is a high statistical correlation between college attendance and
indi'idual earnings. Bi'en this/ the author would most probably agree with which
one of the following statements about the cause(effect relationship between
college attendance and income%
(A) ;omeone4s potential earnings may be affected by other 'ariables/ like wealth
or intelligence/ that are also associated with college attendance.
(B) ;omeone who attends graduate school will be rich.
(C) ;omeone who attends graduate school will earn more money than someone
who does not.
() ;omeone who attends college will earn more money than someone who does
not attend college.
(#) ;omeone who attends college will earn more money only because she does
attend college.
12. According to the author/ @rofessor &alker belie'es that
(A) women who toe out age more rapidly than women who do not
(B) most women toe out as they grow older because age increases the angle
between the feet
(C) older women tend to walk with a greater angle between the feet
() toeing out is the reason why women grow old
(#) a causal relationship must e$ist whene'er two things 'ary together
1.. The author would re<ect all the following statements about cause(effect
relationships as e$planations for the statistics that show an increase in cancer rates
#DC#@T that the
(A) Ceylonese drink more milk than the #nglish
(B) ;wiss produce and consume large "uantities of dairy products
(C) &omen of 9ew #ngland drink more milk than the women who li'e in some
states of the southern :nited ;tates
() @eople of &isconsin ha'e relati'ely high life e$pectancies
(#) @eople who li'e in some states of the southern :nited ;tates ha'e relati'ely
,12 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
high life e$pectancies
10. )ow would the author be most likely to e$plain the correlation between the
*salaries of California school teachers Uand theV profits of 9e'ada gambling halls+
(Kines 2.(20)%
(A) There is a positi'e correlation that is probably due to California teachers4
working in Kas Cegas on weekends to increase both their salaries and increase
both their salaries and 9e'ada4s gambling profits.
(B) There is a positi'e correlation that is probably linked to general economic
trends/ but no direct causal relationship e$ists.
(C) There is a negati'e correlation that is probably linked to general economic
trends/ but no direct causal relationship e$ists.
() There is a negati'e correlation because the element that controls Kas Cegas
gambling probably has agents in the California school system.
(#) The author would deny the e$istence of any correlation whatsoe'er.
2n most deve"oped countries( men have higher sa"aries( on average( than
women. Buch o& the sa"ary di1erentia" resu"ts &rom the tendency o& women to be
in "ower-paying occupations. The -uestion o& whether this occupationa"
emp"oyment pattern can be attributed to se8 discrimination is a comp"e8 one. 2n
&act( wage di1erentia"s among occupations are the norm rather than the
e8ception. uccess&u" ath"etes common"y earn more than ,obe" 9ri+e-winning
academics= gi&ted artists o&ten cannot earn enough to survive( whi"e mediocre
investment ban$ers prosper. Eiven such di1erences( the -uestion natura""y arisesA
ta"ent and abi"ity being e-ua"( why does anyone!man or woman!enter a "ow-
paying occupationG <ne obvious answer is persona" choice. 3n individua" may
pre&er( &or e8amp"e( to teach math at a modest sa"ary rather than to become a
more high"y paid e"ectrica" engineer.
ome peop"e argue that persona" choice a"so e8p"ains se8-re"ated wage
di1erentia"s. 3ccording to this e8p"anation( many women( because they p"ace a
high priority on parenting and per&orming househo"d services( choose certain
careers in which they are &ree to enter and "eave the wor$ &orce with minimum
pena"ty. They may choose to ac-uire s$i""s( such as typing and sa"esc"er$ing( that
do not depreciate rapid"y with temporary absences &rom the wor$ &orce. They may
avoid occupationa" specia"ties that re-uire e8tensive training periods( "ong and
unpredictab"e hours( and wi""ingness to re"ocate( a"" o& which ma$e specia"i+ation
in domestic activities prob"ematic. 'y choosing to invest "ess in deve"oping their
career potentia" and to e8pend "ess e1ort outside the home( women must(
according to this e8p"anation( pay a price in the &orm o& "ower sa"aries. 'ut women
cannot be considered the victims o& discrimination because they pre&er the "ower-
paying occupations to higher-paying ones.
3n a"ternative e8p"anation &or se8-re"ated wage di1erentia"s is that women do
not vo"untari"y choose "ower-paying occupations but are &orced into them by
LSAT ,1-
emp"oyers and socia" pre5udices. 3ccording to proponents o& this view( emp"oyers
who discriminate may re&use to hire -ua"i#ed women &or re"ative"y high-paying
occupations. Bore genera""y( subt"e society-wide pre5udices may induce women to
avoid certain occupations in &avor o& others that are considered more suitab"e.
2ndeed( the >choice? o& women to specia"i+e in parenting and per&orming
househo"d services may itse"& resu"t &rom these subt"e pre5udices. ;hether the
discrimination is by emp"oyers in a particu"ar occupation or by society as a who"e
is irre"evant= the e1ect wi"" be the same. :urther( i& such discrimination does
occur( women e8c"uded &rom certain occupations wi"" Dood others( and this
increase in supp"y wi"" have a depressing e1ect on wages in occupations
dominated by women.
11. &hich one of the following is the best little for the passage%
(A) &age ifferentials Between ?en and &omen
(B) &omen in Kow(@aying 8ccupationsE o They )a'e a Choice%
(C) ;e$ iscrimination in the &orkplace
() The =ole of ;ocial @re<udice in &omen4s Careers
(#) )ome 's. 8fficeE how oes the ?odern &oman Choose%
12. 3n stating that *;uccessful athletes commonly earn more than 9obel @ri!e(winning
academics+ (lines 15(11)/ the author4s primary purpose is to
(A) demonstrate that education has little to do with making money
(B) suggest that people with talent and ability should not enter low(paying
occupations
(C) show that highly paid occupations generally re"uire long hours and e$tensi'e
training
() imply that a person can be successful and still not make much money
(#) gi'e an e$ample of how certain occupations are better paid than others
regardless of inherent worth or talent re"uired
1-. &hich one of the following cases is least likely to in'ol'e se$ discrimination/ as it
is described in the passage%
(A) An employer hires a man rather than an e"ually "ualified woman.
(B) A woman chooses to enter a high(paying occupation that uses her talent and
ability.
(C) A woman chooses an occupation that is already dominated by women.
() A woman chooses a low(paying <ob that allows her to de'ote more time to her
family.
(#) A woman chooses to a'oid the pressure of being in an occupation not
considered *suitable+ for women.
16. @roponents of the *alternati'e e$planation+ (line 02) argue that
,16 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
(A) employers ha'e difficulty persuading "ualified women to enter relati'ely high(
paying occupations
(B) women choose undemanding <obs because they wish to keep their career
options open
(C) women will flood domestic occupations
() salaries in female(dominated occupations will decrease as more women are
forced into those occupations by their e$clusion from others
(#) women4s choice of occupation is irrele'ant since they ha'e always made less
money than men and are likely to continue to do so
1,. &hich one of the following statements is the best completion of the last paragraph
of the passage%
(A) &age differentials will become more e$aggerated and economic parity
between men and women less and less possible.
(B) >inally/ women will be automatically placed in the same salary range as
unskilled laborers.
(C) The "uestion isE how long will women allow themsel'es to be e$cluded from
male(dominated occupations%
() 3n the last analysis/ women may need to ask themsel'es if they can really
afford to allow se$ discrimination to continue.
(#) :nless society changes its 'iews/ women may ne'er escape the confines of the
few occupations designated *>or &omen 8nly.+
25. The author4s attitude toward se$ discrimination as an e$planation for wage
differentials can best be characteri!ed as
(A) critical of society4s acceptance of discrimination
(B) skeptical that discrimination is a factor
(C) con'inced that the problem will get worse
() neutral with respect to its 'alidity
(#) frustrated by the intractability of the problem
The starting point &or any ana"ysis o& insurance c"assi#cation is an obvious but
&undamenta" &actA insurance is on"y one o& a number o& ways o& satis&ying the
demand &or protection against ris$. ;ith &ew e8ceptions( insurance need not be
purchased= peop"e can &orgo it i& insurance is too e8pensive. 2ndeed( as the price
o& coverage rises( the amount purchased and the number o& peop"e purchasing
wi"" dec"ine. 2nstead o& buying insurance( peop"e wi"" se"&-insure by accumu"ating
saving to serve as a cushion in the event o& "oss( se"&-protect by spending more on
"oss protection( or simp"y use the money not spent on insurance to purchase other
goods and services. 3n insurer must compete against these a"ternatives( even in
the absence o& competition &rom other insurers.
<ne method o& competing &or protection do""ars is to c"assi&y potentia"
LSAT ,1,
purchasers into groups according to their probabi"ity o& "oss and the potentia"
magnitude o& "osses i& they occur. Ki1erent ris$ c"asses may then be charged
di1erent premiums( depending on this e8pected "oss. ;ere it not &or the need to
compete &or protection do""ars( an insurer cou"d simp"y charge each individua" a
premium based on the average e3#ected "oss o& a"" its insureds (p"us a margin &or
pro#t and e8penses)( without incurring c"assi#cation costs. 2n constructing ris$
c"asses( the insurer6s goa" is to ca"cu"ate the e8pected "oss o& each insured( and to
p"ace insureds with simi"ar e8pected "osses into the same c"ass( in order to charge
each the same rate.
3n insurer can capture protection do""ars by c"assi&ying because( through
c"assi#cation( it can o1er "ow-ris$ individua"s "ower prices. %"assi#cation( however(
invo"ves two costs. :irst( the process o& c"assi#cation is cost"y. 2nsurers must
gather data and per&orm statistica" operations on it= mar$eting may a"so be more
cost"y when prices are not uni&orm. econd( c"assi#cation necessari"y raises
premiums &or poor ris$s( who purchase "ess coverage as a resu"t. 2n the aggregate(
c"assi#cation is thus worthwhi"e to an insurer on"y when the gains produced &rom
e8tra sa"es and &ewer pay-outs outweigh c"assi#cation costs p"us the costs o& "ost
sa"es. @ven in the absence o& competition &rom other insurers( an insurer who
engages in at "east some c"assi#cation is "i$e"y to capture more protection do""ars
than it "oses.
;hen there is not on"y competition &or avai"ab"e protection do""ars( but
competition among insurers &or premium do""ars( the va"ue o& ris$ c"assi#cation to
insurers becomes even c"earer. The more re#ned (and accurate) an insurer6s ris$
c"assi#cations( the more capab"e it is o& >s$imming? good ris$s away &rom insurers
whose c"assi#cations are "ess re#ned. 2& other insurers do not respond( either by
re#ning their own c"assi#cations or by raising prices and catering main"y to high
ris$s( their >boo$? o& ris$s wi"" contain a higher mi8ture o& poor ris$s who are sti""
being charged premiums ca"cu"ated &or average ris$s. These insurers wi"" attract
additiona" poor ris$s( and this resu"ting adverse se"ection wi"" &urther disadvantage
their competitive positions.
21. &hich one of the following best identifies the main topic of the passage%
(A) reduction of competition in the insurance business
(B) classification of potential insurance purchasers
(C) risk a'oidance in insurance sales
() insurance protection and premiums
(#) methods of insurance classifying
22. The passage mentions all of the following as possible or certain costs of
classifying #DC#@T the cost of
(A) collecting facts
(B) conducting statistical analyses
,25 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
(C) selling insurance at different prices
() a decrease in purchases by poor risks
(#) larger/ albeit fewer/ claims
2.. &hich one of the following is closest to the author4s e$pressed position on
competition in the insurance business%
(A) 3t has a significant influence on most aspects of the insurance industry.
(B) 3t is a rele'ant factor/ but it has little practical conse"uence.
(C) 3t is a basic but not 'ery apparent element of the insurance business.
() 3t pro'ides a strong incenti'e for insurers to classify potential customers.
(#) 3t is influential in insurance marketing practices.
20. The passage suggests that if all insurers classified risk/ who among the following
would be ad'ersely affected%
(A) all insurance purchasers
(B) insurance purchasers who would be classified as poor risks
(C) indi'iduals who self(insured or self protected
() insurers who had a high proportion of good risks in their *book+ of risks
(#) insurers with the most refined risk classifications
21. Bi'en the discussion in the first paragraph/ what is the distinction/ if any/ between
*insurance+ and *self(protection+%
(A) There is 'ery little or no distinction between the two terms.
(B) 3nsurance is a kind of self(protection.
(C) ;elf(protection is a kind of insurance.
() 3nsurance and self(protection are two of se'eral alternati'e means to a specific
end.
(#) 3nsurance and self(protection are the only two alternati'e means to a specific
end.
22. &hich one of the following is most closely analogous to the process of
classification in insurance/ as it is described in the passage%
(A) de'ising a profile of successful employees and hiring on the basis of the
profile
(B) in'estigating the fuel efficiency of a make of automobile and deciding whether
or not to buy on that basis
(C) assessing an in'estor4s willingness to take risks before suggesting a specific
in'estment
() making price comparisons on potential ma<or purchases and then seeking
discounts from competing dealers
(#) comparing prices for numerous minor items and the selecting one store for
LSAT ,21
future purchases
LSAT 19 SECTON )
T!"e 35 "!#$%es 27 &$es%!o#s
Directions: Each passage in this section is followed by a group of questions to be answered on
the basis of what is stated or implied in the passage. For some of the questions, more than one
of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However, you are to choose the best
answer, that is, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question, and
blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.
Three $inds o& study have been per&ormed on 'yron. There is the biographica"
study!the very va"uab"e e8amination o& 'yron6s psycho"ogy and the events in his
"i&e. @scarpit6s 19/8 wor$ is an e8amp"e o& this $ind o& study and biographers to
this day continue to specu"ate about 'yron6s "i&e. @-ua""y va"uab"e is the study o&
'yron as a #gure important in the history o& ideas= Russe"" and 9ra+ have written
studies o& this $ind. :ina""y( there are studies that primari"y consider 'yron6s
poetry. uch "iterary studies are va"uab"e( however( on"y when they avoid
concentrating so"e"y on ana"y+ing the verba" shadings o& 'yron6s poetry to the
e8c"usion o& any discussion o& biographica" considerations. 3 study with such a
concentration wou"d be o& -uestionab"e va"ue because 'yron6s poetry( &or the
most part( is simp"y not a poetry o& subt"e verba" meanings. Rather( on the who"e(
'yron6s poems record the emotiona" pressure o& certain moments in his "i&e. 2
be"ieve we cannot o&ten read a poem o& 'yron6s we o&ten can one o&
ha$espeare6s without wondering what events or circumstances in his "i&e
prompted him to write it.
,o doubt the &act that most o& 'yron6s poems cannot be convincing"y read as
subt"e verba" creations indicates that 'yron is not a >great? poet. 2t must be
admitted too that 'yron6s "iterary cra&tsmanship is irregu"ar and o&ten his
temperament disrupts even his "a8 "iterary method (a"though the resu"t( an
absence o& method( has a signi#cant purposeA it &unctions as a rebu$e to a
cosmos that 'yron &ee"s he cannot understand). 2& 'yron is not a >great? poet( his
poetry is nonethe"ess o& e8traordinary interest to us because o& the p"easure it
gives us. <ur main p"easure in reading 'yron6s poetry is the contact with a
singu"ar persona"ity. Reading his wor$ gives us i""umination!se"&-understanding!
a&ter we have seen our wea$nesses and aspirations mirrored in the persona"ity we
usua""y #nd in the poems. 3nyone who thin$s that this $ind o& i""umination is not a
genuine reason &or reading a poet shou"d thin$ care&u""y about why we read
Konne6s sonnets.
2t is 'yron and 'yron6s idea o& himse"& that ho"d his wor$ together (and that
enthra""ed ear"y nineteenth-century @urope). Ki1erent characters spea$ in his
poems( but #na""y it is usua""y he himse"& who is spea$ingA a &ar cry &rom the
impersona" poet Seats. 'yron6s poetry a""udes to Eree$ and Roman myth in the
conte8t o& contemporary a1airs( but his wor$ remains genera""y o& a piece
because o& his c"ose presence in the poetry. 2n sum( the poetry is a shrewd
,22 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
persona" per&ormance( and to shut out 'yron the man is to &abricate a wor$ o&
pseudocriticism.
1. &hich one of the following titles best e$presses the main idea of the passage%
(A) An Absence of ?ethod. &hy Byron 3s 9ot a *Breat+ @oet
(B) ByronE The =ecurring @resence in Byron4s @oetry
(C) @ersonality and @oetryE The Biographical imension of 9ineteenth(Century
@oetry
() Byron4s @oetryE 3ts 3nfluence on the imagination of #arly(9ineteenth(Century
#urope
(#) Cerbal ;hadingsE The >atal >law of Twentieth(Century Kiterary Criticism
2. The author4s mention of =ussell and @ra! ser'es primarily to
(A) differentiate them from one another
(B) contrast their conclusions about Byron with those of #scarpit
(C) point out the writers whose studies suggest a new direction for Byron
scholarship
() pro'ide e$amples of writers who ha'e written one kind of study of Byron
(#) gi'e credit to the writers who ha'e composed the best studies of Byron
.. &hich one of the following would the author most likely consider to be a 'aluable
study of Byron%
(A) a study that compared Byron4s poetic style with Meats4 poetic style
(B) a study that argued that Byron4s thought ought not to be analy!ed in terms of
its importance in the history of ideas
(C) a study that sought to identify the emotions felt by Byron at a particular time in
his life
() a study in which a literary critic argues that the language of Byron4s poetry
was more subtle than that of Meat4s poetry
(#) a study in which a literary critic drew on e$periences from his or her own life
0. &hich one of the following statements best describes the organi!ation of first
paragraph of the passage%
(A) A generali!ation is made and then gradually refuted.
(B) A number of theories are discussed and then the author chooses the most
con'incing one.
(C) ;e'eral categories are mentioned and then one category is discussed in some
detail.
() A historical trend is delineated and then a prediction about the future of the
trend is offered.
(#) A classification is made and then a ri'al classification is substituted in its place.
LSAT ,2.
1. The author mentions that *Byron4s literary craftsmanship is irregular+ (lines 2-(
26) most probably in order to
(A) contrast Byron4s poetic skill with that of ;hakespeare
(B) dismiss craftsmanship as a standard by which to <udge poets
(C) offer another reason why Byron is not a *great+ poet
() point out a negati'e conse"uence of Byron4s belief that the cosmos is
incomprehensible
(#) indicate the most(often(cited e$planation of why Byron4s poetry lacks subtle
'erbal nuances
2. According to the author ;hakespeare4s poems differ from Byron4s in that
;hakespeare4s poems
(A) ha'e elicited a wider 'ariety of responses from both literary critics and
biographers
(B) are on the whole less susceptible to being read as subtle 'erbal creations
(C) do not grow out of or are not moti'ated by actual e'ents or circumstances in
the poet4s life
() pro'ide the attenti'e reader with a greater degree of illumination concerning
his or her own weaknesses and aspirations
(#) can often be read without the reader4s being curious about what biographical
factors moti'ated the poet to write them
-. The author indicates which one of the following about biographers4 speculation
concerning Byron4s life%
(A) ;uch speculation began in earnest with #scarpit4s study
(B) ;uch speculation continues today
(C) ;uch speculation is less important than consideration of Byron4s poetry
() ;uch speculation has not gi'en us a satisfactory sense of Byron4s life
(#) ;uch speculation has been carried out despite the ob<ections of literary critics
6. The passage supplies specific information that pro'ides a definiti'e answer to
which one of the following "uestions%
(A) &hat does the author consider to be the primary en<oyment deri'ed from
reading Byron%
(B) &ho among literary critics has primarily studied Byron4s poems%
(C) &hich moments in Byron4s life e$erted the greatest pressure on his poetry%
() )as Byron e'er been considered to be a *great+ poet%
(#) id Byron e$ert an influence on #uropeans in the latter part of the nineteenth
century%
The United tates upreme %ourt has not a"ways reso"ved "ega" issues o&
concern to ,ative 3mericans in a manner that has p"eased the 2ndian nations.
,20 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
Bany o& the %ourt6s decisions have been products o& po"itica" compromise that
"oo$ed more to the temper o& the times than to enduring princip"es o& "aw. 'ut
accommodation is part o& the 5udicia" system in the United tates( and 5udicia"
decisions must be assessed with this &act in mind.
Kespite the >accommodating? nature o& the 5udicia" system( it is worth noting
that the power o& the upreme %ourt has been e8ercised in a manner that has
usua""y been bene#cia" to ,ative 3mericans( at "east on minor issues and has not
been who""y detrimenta" on the "arger( more important issues. %ertain"y there
have been decisions that cast doubt on the va"idity o& this assertion. ome critics
point to the patroni+ing tone o& many %ourt opinions and the apparent re5ection o&
,ative 3merican va"ues as important points to consider when reviewing a case.
)owever( the va"idity o& the assertion can be i""ustrated by re&erence to two
important contributions that have resu"ted &rom the e8ercise o& 5udicia" power.
:irst the %ourt has created ru"es o& 5udicia" construction that in genera" &avor
the rights o& ,ative 3merican "itigants. The %ourt6s attitude has been conditioned
by recognition o& the distinct disadvantages ,ative 3mericans &aced when dea"ing
with sett"ers in the past. Treaties were inevitab"y written in @ng"ish &or the bene#t
o& their authors( whereas triba" "eaders were accustomed to ma$ing treaties
without any written account( on the strength o& mutua" promises sea"ed by
re"igious commitment and individua" integrity. The written treaties were o&ten
bro$en and ,ative 3mericans were con&ronted with &raud and po"itica" and mi"itary
aggression. The %ourt recogni+es that past un&airness to ,ative 3mericans cannot
be sanctioned by the &orce o& "aw. There&ore( ambiguities in treaties are to be
interpreted in &avor o& the ,ative 3merican c"aimants( treaties are to be
interpreted as the ,ative 3mericans wou"d have understood them and( under the
reserved rights doctrine( treaties reserve to ,ative 3mericans a"" rights that have
not been speci#ca""y granted away in other treaties.
3 second achievement o& the 5udicia" system is the protection that has been
provided against encroachment by the states into triba" a1airs. :edera" 5udges are
not inc"ined to view &avorab"y e1orts to e8tend states powers and 5urisdictions
because o& the direct threat that such e8pansion poses to the e8ercise o& &edera"
powers. 2n the absence o& a &edera" statute direct"y and c"ear"y a""ocating a
&unction to the states( &edera" 5udges are inc"ined to reserve &or the &edera"
government!and the triba" governments under its charge!a"" those powers and
rights they can be said to have possessed historica""y.
,. According to the passage/ one reason why the :nited ;tates ;upreme Court *has
not always resol'ed legal issues of concern to 9ati'e Americans in a manner that
has pleased the 3ndian nations+ (lines 1(0) is that
(A) 9ati'e Americans ha'e been pre'ented from presenting their concerns
persuasi'ely
(B) the Court has failed to recogni!e that the 3ndian nations4 concerns are different
from those of other groups or from those of the federal go'ernment
LSAT ,21
(C) the Court has been reluctant to curtail the powers of the federal go'ernment
() 9ati'e Americans faced distinct disad'antages in dealing with settlers in the
past
(#) the Court has made political compromises in deciding some cases
15. 3t can be inferred that the ob<ections raised by the critics mentioned in line 16
would be most clearly answered by a :nited ;tates ;upreme Court decision that
(A) demonstrated respect for 9ati'e Americans and the principles and "ualities
they consider important
(B) protected the rights of the states in conflicts with the federal go'ernment
(C) demonstrated recognition of the unfair treatment 9ati'e Americans recei'ed in
the past
() reflected consideration of the hardships suffered by 9ati'e Americans because
of unfair treaties
(#) pre'ented repetition of ine"uities e$perienced by 9ati'e Americans in the past
11. 3t can be inferred that the author calls the <udicial system of the :nited ;tates
*accommodating+ (line 15) primarily in order to
(A) suggest that the decisions of the :nited ;tates ;upreme Court ha'e been less
fa'orable to 9ati'e Americans than most people belie'e
(B) suggest that the :nited ;tates ;upreme Court should be more supporti'e of the
goals of 9ati'e Americans
(C) suggest a reason why the decisions of the :nited ;tates ;upreme Court ha'e
not always fa'ored 9ati'e Americans
() indicate that the :nited ;tates ;upreme Court has made creditable efforts to
recogni!e the 'alues of 9ati'e Americans
(#) indicate that the :nited ;tates ;upreme Court attempts to be fair to all parties
to a case
12. The author4s attitude toward the :nited ;tates ;upreme Court4s resolution of legal
issues of concern to 9ati'e Americans can best be described as one of
(A) wholehearted endorsement
(B) restrained appreciation
(C) detached ob<ecti'ity
() cautious opposition
(#) suppressed e$asperation
1.. 3t can be inferred that the author belie'es that the e$tension of the states4 powers
and <urisdictions with respect to 9ati'e American affairs would be
(A) possible only with the consent of the 3ndian nations
(B) fa'orably 'iewed by the :nited ;tates ;upreme Court
(C) in the best interests of both state and federal go'ernments
,22 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
() detrimental to the interests of 9ati'e Americans
(#) discouraged by most federal <udges in spite of legal precedents supporting the
e$tension
10. The author4s primary purpose is to
(A) contrast opposing 'iews
(B) ree'aluate traditional beliefs
(C) reconcile di'ergent opinions
() assess the claims made by disputants
(#) pro'ide e'idence to support a contention
11. 3t can be inferred that the author belie'es the :nited ;tates ;upreme Court4s
treatment of 9ati'e Americans to ha'e been
(A) irreproachable on legal grounds
(B) reasonably supporti'e in most situations
(C) guided by enduring principles of law
() misguided but generally harmless
(#) harmful only in a few minor cases
;hen catastrophe stri$es( ana"ysts typica""y b"ame some combination o&
power&u" mechanisms. 3n earth-ua$e is traced to an immense instabi"ity a"ong a
&au"t "ine= a stoc$ mar$et crash is b"amed on the destabi"i+ing e1ect o& computer
trading. These e8p"anations may we"" be correct. 'ut systems as "arge and
comp"icated as the @arth6s crust or the stoc$ mar$et can brea$ down not on"y
under the &orce o& a mighty b"ow but a"so at the drop o& a pin. 2n a "arge
interactive system( a minor event can start a chain reaction that "eads to a
catastrophe.
Traditiona""y( investigators have ana"y+ed "arge interactive systems in the same
way they ana"y+e sma"" order"y systems( main"y because the methods deve"oped
&or sma"" systems have proved so success&u". They be"ieved they cou"d predict the
behavior o& a "arge interactive system by studying its e"ements separate"y and by
ana"y+ing its component mechanisms individua""y. :or "ac$ o& a better theory( they
assumed that in "arge interactive systems the response to a disturbance is
proportiona" to that disturbance.
Kuring the past &ew decades( however( it has become increasing"y apparent
that many "arge comp"icated systems do not yie"d to traditiona" ana"ysis.
%onse-uent"y( theorists have proposed a >theory o& se"&-organi+ed critica"ity?A
many "arge interactive systems evo"ve natura""y to a critica" state in which a
minor event starts a chain reaction that can a1ect any number o& e"ements in the
system. 3"though such systems produce more minor events than catastrophes(
the mechanism that "eads to minor events is the same one that "eads to ma5or
events.
LSAT ,2-
3 deceptive"y simp"e system serves as a paradigm &or se"&-organi+ed critica"ityA
a pi"e o& sand. 3s sand is poured one grain at a time onto a Dat dis$( the grains at
#rst stay c"ose to the position where they "and. oon they rest on top o& one
another( creating a pi"e that has a gent"e s"ope. ,ow and then( when the s"ope
becomes too steep( the grains s"ide down( causing a sma"" ava"anche. The system
reaches its critica" state when the amount o& sand added is ba"anced( on average(
by the amount &a""ing o1 the edge o& the dis$.
,ow when a grain o& sand is added( it can start an ava"anche o& any si+e(
inc"uding a >catastrophic? event. Bost o& the time the grain wi"" &a"" so that no
ava"anche occurs. 'y studying a speci#c area o& the pi"e( one can even predict
whether ava"anches wi"" occur there in the near &uture. To such a "oca" observer(
however( "arge ava"anches wou"d remain unpredictab"e because they are a
conse-uence o& the tota" history o& the entire pi"e. ,o matter what the "oca"
dynamics are( catastrophic ava"anches wou"d persist at a re"ative &re-uency that
cannot be a"teredA %ritica"ity is a g"oba" property o& the sandpi"e.
12. The passage pro'ides support for all of the following generali!ations about large
interacti'e systems #DC#@TE
(A) They can e'ol'e to a critical state.
(B) They do not always yield to traditional analysis.
(C) They make it impossible for obser'ers to make any predictions about them.
() They are sub<ect to the effects of chain reactions.
(#) They are sub<ect to more minor e'ents than ma<or e'ents.
1-. According to the passage/ the criticality of a sandpile is determined by the
(A) si!e of the grains of sand added to the sandpile
(B) number of grains of sand the sandpile contains
(C) rate at which sand is added to the sandpile
() shape of the surface on which the sandpile rests
(#) balance between the amount of sand added to and the amount lost from the
sandpile
16. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the theory employed by the in'estigators
mentioned in the second paragraph would lead one to predict that which one of the
following would result from the addition of a grain of sand to a sandpile%
(A) The grain of sand would ne'er cause anything more than a minor disturbance.
(B) The grain of sand would usually cause a minor disturbance/ but would
occasionally cause a small a'alanche.
(C) The grain of sand would usually cause either minor disturbance or a small
a'alanche/ but would occasionally cause a catastrophic e'ent.
() The grain of sand would usually cause a catastrophic e'ent/ but would
occasionally cause only a small a'alanche or an e'ent more minor disturbance.
,26 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
(#) The grain of sand would in'ariably cause a catastrophic e'ent.
1,. &hich one of the following best describes the organi!ation of the passage%
(A) A traditional procedure is described and its application to common situations is
endorsedE its shortcomings in certain rare but critical circumstances are then
re'ealed.
(B) A common misconception is elaborated and its conse"uences are described a
detailed e$ample of one of these conse"uences is then gi'en.
(C) A general principle is stated and supported by se'eral e$amplesI an e$ception
to the rule is then considered and its importance e'aluated.
() A number of seemingly unrelated e'ents are categori!edE the underlying
processes that connect them are then detailed.
(#) A traditional method of analysis is discussed and the reasons for its adoption
are e$plainedI an alternati'e is then described and clarified by means of an
e$ample.
25. &hich one of the following is most analogous to the method of analysis employed
by the in'estigators mentioned in the second paragraph%
(A) A pollster gathers a sample of 'oter preferences and on the basis of this
information makes a prediction about the outcome of an election.
(B) A historian e$amines the sur'i'ing documents detailing the history of a
mo'ement and from these documents reconstructs a chronology of the e'ents
that initiated the mo'ement.
(C) A meteorologist measures the rainfall o'er a certain period of the year and
from this data calculates the total annual rainfall for the region.
() A biologist obser'es the beha'ior of one species of insect and from these
obser'ations generali!es about the beha'ior of insects as a class.
(#) An engineer analy!es the stability of each structural element of a bridge and
from these analyses draws a conclusion about the structural soundness of the
bridge.
21. 3n the passage/ the author is primarily concerned with
(A) arguing against the abandonment of a traditional approach
(B) describing the e'olution of a radical theory
(C) reconciling conflicting points of 'iew
() illustrating the superiority of a new theoretical approach
(#) ad'ocating the reconsideration of an unfashionable e$planation
)istorians have "ong accepted the notion that women o& @ng"ish descent who
"ived in the @ng"ish co"onies o& ,orth 3merica during the seventeenth and
eighteenth centuries were better o1 than either the contemporary women in
@ng"and or the co"onists6 own nineteenth-century daughters and granddaughters.
The >go"den age? theory originated in the 1940s with the wor$ o& @"i+abeth
LSAT ,2,
Ke8ter( who argued that there were re"ative"y &ew women among the co"onists(
and that a"" hands!ma"e and &ema"e!were needed to sustain the growing
sett"ements. Rigid se8-ro"e distinctions cou"d not e8ist under such circumstances=
&ema"e co"onists cou"d according"y engage in whatever occupations they wished(
encountering &ew "ega" or socia" constraints i& they sought emp"oyment outside
the home. The surp"us o& ma"e co"onists a"so gave women crucia" bargaining
power in the marriage mar$et since women6s contributions were vita" to the
surviva" o& co"onia" househo"ds.
Ke8ter6s portrait o& &ema"e co"onists "iving under conditions o& rough e-ua"ity
with their ma"e counterparts was eventua""y incorporated into studies o&
nineteenth-century midd"e-c"ass women. The contrast between the se"&-su*cient
co"onia" woman and the oppressed nineteenth-century woman( con#ned to her
home by stu"ti&ying ideo"ogies o& domesticity and by the &act that industria"i+ation
e"iminated emp"oyment opportunities &or midd"e-c"ass women( gained an
e8traordinari"y tenacious ho"d on historians. @ven scho"ars who have -uestioned
the >go"den age? view o& co"onia" women6s status have continued to accept the
paradigm o& a nineteenth-century dec"ine &rom a more desirab"e past. :or
e8amp"e( Coan )o1-;i"son asserted that there was no >go"den age? and yet
emphasi+ed that the nineteenth century brought >increased "oss o& &unction and
authentic status &or? midd"e-c"ass women.
Recent pub"ications about co"onia" women have e8posed the concept o& a
dec"ine in status as simp"istic and unsophisticated( a theory that based its
assessment o& co"onia" women6s status so"e"y on one &actor (their economic
&unction in society) and assumed a"" too readi"y that a re"ative"y simp"e socia"
system automatica""y brought higher standing to co"onia" women. The new
scho"arship presents a &ar more comp"icated picture( one in which de#nitions o&
gender ro"es( the co"onia" economy( demographic patterns( re"igion( the "aw( and
househo"d organi+ation a"" contributed to de#ning the circumstances o& co"onia"
women6s "ives. 2ndeed( the primary concern o& modern scho"arship is not to
genera"i+e about women6s status but to identi&y the speci#c changes and
continuities in women6s "ives during the co"onia" period. :or e8amp"e( whereas
ear"ier historians suggested that there was "itt"e change &or co"onia" women be&ore
1800( the new scho"arship suggests that a three-part chrono"ogica" division more
accurate"y reDects co"onia" women6s e8periences. :irst was the initia" period o&
@ng"ish co"oni+ation (&rom the 1L40s to about 1LL0)= then a period during which
patterns o& &ami"y and community were cha""enged and reshaped (rough"y &rom
1LL0 to 17/0)= and #na""y the era o& revo"ution (appro8imate"y 17/0 to 181/)(
which brought other changes to women6s "ives.
22. &hich one of the following best e$presses the main idea of the passage%
(A) An earlier theory about the status of middle(class women in the nineteenth
century has been supported by recent scholarship.
(B) =ecent studies of middle(class nineteenth(century women ha'e altered an
,.5 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
earlier theory about the status of colonial women.
(C) =ecent scholarship has e$posed an earlier theory about the status of colonial
women as too narrowly based and o'ersimplified.
() An earlier theory about colonial women has greatly influenced recent studies
on middle(class women in the nineteenth century.
(#) An earlier study of middle(class women was based on insufficient research on
the status of women in the nineteenth century.
2.. The author discusses )off(&ilson primarily in order to
(A) describe how e$ter4s theory was refuted by historians of nineteenth(century
9orth America
(B) describe how the theory of middle(class women4s nineteenth(century decline in
status was de'eloped
(C) describe an important influence on recent scholarship about the colonial period
() demonstrate the persistent influence of the *golden age+ theory
(#) pro'ide an e$ample of current research one the colonial period
20. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author would be most likely to describe
the 'iews of the scholars mentioned in line .2 as
(A) unassailable
(B) inno'ati'e
(C) parado$ical
() o'erly sophisticated
(#) without merit
21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that in proposing the *three(part chronological
di'ision+ (lines 25(21)/ scholars recogni!ed which one of the following%
(A) The circumstances of colonial women4s li'es were defined by a broad 'ariety
of social and economic factors.
(B) &omen4s li'es in the #nglish colonies of 9orth America were similar to
women4s li'es in se'enteenth(and eighteenth(century #ngland.
(C) Colonial women4s status was ad'ersely affected when patterns of family and
community were established in the late se'enteenth century.
() Colonial women4s status should be assessed primarily on the basis of their
economic function in society.
(#) Colonial women4s status was low when the colonies were settled but changed
significantly during the era of re'olution.
22. According to the author/ the publications about colonial women mentioned in the
third paragraph had which one of the following effects%
(A) They undermined e$ter4s argument on the status of women colonists during
the colonial period.
LSAT ,.1
(B) They re'ealed the tenacity of the *golden age+ theory in American history.
(C) They pro'ided support for historians/ such as )off(&ilson. &ho study the
nineteenth century.
() They established that women4s status did not change significantly from the
colonial period to the nineteenth century.
(#) They pro'ided support for earlier theories about women colonists in the
#nglish colonies of 9orth America.
2-. @ractitioners of the new scholarship discussed in the last paragraph would be most
likely to agree with which one of the following statements about e$ter4s
argument%
(A) 3t makes the assumption that women4s status is determined primarily by their
political power in society.
(B) 3t makes the assumption that a less comple$ social system necessarily confers
higher status on women.
(C) 3t is based on inade"uate research on women4s economic role in the colonies.
() 3t places too much emphasis on the way definitions of gender roles affected
women colonists in the colonial period.
(#) 3t accurately describes the way women4s status declined in the nineteenth
century.
LSAT 20 SECTON )
T!"e 35 "!#$%es 27 &$es%!o#s
Directions: Each passage in this section is followed by a group of questions to be answered on
the basis of what is stated or implied in the passage. For some of the questions, more than one
of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However, you are to choose the best
answer, that is, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question, and
blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.
Busico"ogists concerned with the >Jondon 9iano&orte schoo"(? the group o&
composers( pedagogues( pianists( pub"ishers( and bui"ders who contributed to the
deve"opment o& the piano in Jondon at the turn o& the nineteenth century( have
"ong encountered a &ormidab"e obstac"e in the genera" unavai"abi"ity o& music o&
this >schoo"? in modern scho"ar"y editions. 2ndeed( much o& this repertory has
more or "ess vanished &rom our historica" consciousness. Eranted( the sonatas and
.radus ad Parnassum o& Bu+io %"ementi and the nocturnes o& Cohn :ie"d have
remained &ami"iar enough (though more o&ten than not in editions "ac$ing
scho"ar"y rigor)( but the wor$ o& other "eading representatives( "i$e Cohann 'aptist
%ramer and Can Jadis"av Kusse$( has e"uded serious attempts at reviva".
,icho"as Temper"ey6s ambitious new antho"ogy decisive"y overcomes this
de#ciency. ;hat underscores the intrinsic va"ue o& Temper"ey6s editions is that the
antho"ogy reproduces near"y a"" o& the origina" music in &acsimi"e. Ba$ing avai"ab"e
,.2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
this cross section o& @ng"ish musica" "i&e!some 800 wor$s by M9 composers!
shou"d encourage new critica" perspectives about how piano music evo"ved in
@ng"and( an issue o& considerab"e re"evance to our understanding o& how piano
music deve"oped on the @uropean continent( and o& how( #na""y( the instrument
was trans&ormed &rom the &ortepiano to what we $now today as the piano.
To be sure( the Jondon 9iano&orte schoo" itse"& ca""s &or review. >choo"? may
we"" be too strong a word &or what was arguab"y a group uni#ed not so much by
sty"istic princip"es or aesthetic creed as by the geographica" circumstance that
they wor$ed at various times in Jondon and produced pianos and piano music &or
@ng"ish pianos and @ng"ish mar$ets. 2ndeed( Temper"ey concedes that their
>variety may be so great as to cast doubt on the notion o& a Rschoo".6?
The notion o& a schoo" was #rst propounded by 3"e8ander Ringer( who argued
that "aws o& artistic surviva" &orced the young( progressive 'eethoven to turn
outside 3ustria &or creative mode"s( and that he &ound inspiration in a group o&
pianists connected with %"ementi in Jondon. Ringer6s proposed Jondon 9iano&orte
schoo" did suggest a circumscribed and &air"y uni#ed group!&or want o& a better
term( a schoo"!o& musicians whose inDuence was &e"t primari"y in the decades
5ust be&ore and a&ter 1800. 3&ter a""( 'eethoven did respond to the advances o& the
'roadwood piano!its rein&orced &rame( e8tended compass( trip"e stringing( and
peda"s( &or e8amp"e!and it is reasonab"e to suppose that Jondon pianists who
composed music &or such an instrument during the critica" phase o& its
deve"opment e8ercised no sma"" degree o& inDuence on %ontinenta" musicians.
,everthe"ess( perhaps the most sensib"e approach to this issue is to de#ne the
schoo" by the period (c. 17LL-1877) during which it Dourished( as Temper"ey has
done in the antho"ogy.
1. &hich one of the following most accurately states the author4s main point%
(A) Temperley has recently called into "uestion the designation of a group of
composers/ pedagogues/ pianists/ publishers/ and builders as the Kondon
@ianoforte school.
(B) Temperley4s anthology of the music of the Kondon @ianoforte school
contributes significantly to an understanding of an influential period in the
history of music.
(C) The music of the Kondon @ianoforte school has been re'i'ed by the
publication of Temperley4s new anthology.
() @rimary sources for musical manuscripts pro'ide the most reliable basis for
musicological research.
(#) The de'elopment of the modern piano in #ngland influenced composers and
other musicians throughout #urope.
2. 3t can be inferred that which one of the following is true of the piano music of the
Kondon @ianoforte school%
(A) The nocturnes of Aohn >ield typify the Kondon @ianoforte school style.
LSAT ,..
(B) The #radus ad Parnassu- of ?u!io Clementi is the best(known work of these
composers.
(C) 9o original scores for this music are e$tant.
() @rior to Temperley4s edition/ no attempts to issue new editions of this music
had been made.
(#) 3n modern times much of the music of this school has been little known e'en
to musicians.
.. The author mentions the sonatas of ?u!io Clementi and the nocturnes of Aohn
>ield as e$amples of which one of the following%
(A) works by composers of the Kondon @ianoforte school that ha'e been preser'ed
in rigorous scholarly editions
(B) works that are no longer remembered by most people
(C) works acclaimed by the leaders of the Kondon @ianoforte school
() works by composers of the Kondon @ianoforte school that are relati'ely well
known
(#) works by composers of the Kondon @ianoforte school that ha'e been re'i'ed
by Temperley in his anthology
0. &hich one of the following/ if true/ would most clearly undermine a portion of
=inger4s argument as the argument is described in the passage%
(A) ?usicians in Austria composed inno'ati'e music for the Broadwood piano as
soon as the instrument became a'ailable.
(B) Clementi and his followers produced most of their compositions between 1-,5
and 1615.
(C) The influence of Continental musicians is apparent in some of the works of
Beetho'en.
() The pianist(composers of the Kondon @ianoforte school shared many of the
same stylistic principles.
(#) ?ost composers of the Kondon @ianoforte school were born on the Continent
and were drawn to Kondon by the work of Clementi and his followers.
1. 3t can be inferred that the author uses the word *ad'ances+ (line 0,) to refer to
(A) enticements offered musicians by instrument manufacturers
(B) impro'ements in the structure of a particular instrument
(C) inno'ations in the forms of music produced for a particular instrument
() stylistic elaborations made possible by changes in a particular instrument
(#) changes in musicians4 opinions about a particular instrument
2. 3t can be inferred from the passage as a whole that the author4s purpose in the third
paragraph is primarily to
(A) cast doubt on the usefulness of Temperley4s study of the Kondon @ianoforte
,.0 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
school
(B) introduce a discussion of the coherency of the Kondon @ianoforte school
(C) summari!e =inger4s argument about the Kondon @ianoforte school
() emphasi!e the comple$ nature of the musicological elements shared by
members of the Kondon @ianoforte school
(#) identify the uni"ue contributions made to music by the Kondon @ianoforte
school
-. The author of the passage is primarily concerned with
(A) e$plaining the influence of the de'elopment of the pianoforte on the music of
Beetho'en
(B) describing Temperley4s 'iew of the contrast between the de'elopment of piano
music in #ngland and the de'elopment of piano music elsewhere in #urope
(C) presenting Temperley4s e'aluation of the impact of changes in piano
construction on styles and forms of music composed in the era of the Kondon
@ianoforte school
() considering an alternati'e theory to that proposed by =inger concerning the
Kondon @ianoforte school
(#) discussing the contribution of Temperley4s anthology to what is known of the
history of the Kondon @ianoforte school
6. 3t can be inferred that Temperley4s anthology treats the Kondon @ianoforte school
as
(A) a group of pianist(composers who shared certain stylistic principles and artistic
creeds
(B) a group of people who contributed to the de'elopment of piano music between
1-22 and 16-.
(C) a group of composers who influenced the music of Beetho'en in the decades
<ust before and <ust after 1655
() a series of compositions for the pianoforte published in the decades <ust before
and <ust after 1655
(#) a series of compositions that had a significant influence on the music of the
Continent in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries
;hat is >"aw?G 'y what processes do 5udges arrive at opinions( those
documents that 5usti&y their be"ie& that the >"aw? dictates a conc"usion one way or
the otherG These are among the o"dest -uestions in 5urisprudence( debate about
which has traditiona""y been dominated by representatives o& two schoo"s o&
thoughtA proponents o& natura" "aw( who see "aw as intertwined with a mora" order
independent o& society6s ru"es and mores( and "ega" positivists( who see "aw so"e"y
as embodying the commands o& a society6s ru"ing authority.
ince the ear"y 1970s( these &ami"iar -uestions have received some new and
LSAT ,.1
surprising answers in the "ega" academy. This nove"ty is in part a conse-uence o&
the increasing inDuence there o& academic discip"ines and inte""ectua" traditions
previous"y unconnected with the study o& "aw. 9erhaps the most inDuentia" have
been the answers given by the Jaw and @conomics schoo". 3ccording to these
"ega" economists( "aw consists and ought to consist o& those ru"es that ma8imi+e a
society6s materia" wea"th and that abet the e*cient operation o& mar$ets
designed to generate wea"th. Bore controversia" have been the various answers
provided by members o& the %ritica" Jega" tudies movement( according to whom
"aw is one among severa" cu"tura" mechanisms by which ho"ders o& power see$ to
"egitimate their domination. Krawing on re"ated arguments deve"oped in
anthropo"ogy( socio"ogy( and history( the critica" "ega" scho"ars contend that "aw is
an e8pression o& power( but not( as he"d by the positivists( the power o& the
"egitimate sovereign government. Rather( it is an e8pression o& the power o& e"ites
who may have no "egitimate authority( but who are intent on preserving the
privi"eges o& their race( c"ass( or gender.
2n the mid-1970s( Cames 'oyd ;hite began to articu"ate yet another
interdiscip"inary response to the traditiona" -uestions( and in so doing spawned
what is now $nown as the Jaw and Jiterature movement. ;hite has insisted that
"aw( particu"ar"y as it is interpreted in 5udicia" opinions( shou"d be understood as
an essentia""y "iterary activity. Cudicia" opinions shou"d be read and eva"uated not
primari"y as po"itica" acts or as attempts to ma8imi+e society6s wea"th through
e*cient ru"es( but rather as artistic per&ormances. 3nd "i$e a"" such per&ormances(
;hite argues( each 5udicia" opinion attempts in its own way to promote a
particu"ar po"itica" or ethica" va"ue.
2n the recent !ustice as Translation( ;hite argues that opinion-writing shou"d be
regarded as an act o& >trans"ation(? and 5udges as >trans"ators.? 3s such( 5udges
#nd themse"ves mediating between the authoritative "ega" te8t and the pressing
"ega" prob"em that demands reso"ution. 3 5udge must essentia""y >re-constitute?
that te8t by &ashioning a new one( which is &aith&u" to the o"d te8t but a"so
responsive to and in&ormed by the conditions( constraints( and aspirations o& the
wor"d in which the new "ega" prob"em has arisen.
,. &hich one of the following best states the main idea of the passage%
(A) &ithin the last few decades/ a number of no'el approaches to <urisprudence
ha'e defined the nature of the law in di'erse ways.
(B) &ithin the last few decades/ changes in society and in the number and type of
cases brought to court ha'e necessitated new methods of interpreting the law.
(C) 8f the many interdisciplinary approaches to <urisprudence that ha'e surfaced
in the last tow decades/ the Kaw and Kiterature mo'ement is the most
intellectually coherent.
() The Kaw and Kiterature mo'ement/ first articulated by Aames Boyd &hite in
the mid(1,-5s/ represents a synthesis of the many theories of <urisprudence
inspired by the social sciences.
,.2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
(#) ;uch traditional legal scholars as legal positi'ists and natural lawyers are
increasingly on the defensi'e against attacks from younger/ more progressi'e
theorists.
15. According to the passage/ <udicial opinions ha'e been described as each of the
following #DC#@TE
(A) political statements
(B) arcane statements
(C) economic statements
() artistic performances
(#) acts of translation
11. &hich one of the following statements is most compatible with the principles of
the Critical Kegal ;tudies mo'ement as that mo'ement is described in the passage%
(A) Kaws go'erning the succession of power at the death of a head of state
represent a synthesis of legal precedents/ specific situations/ and the 'alues of
lawmakers.
(B) Kaws allowing income ta$ deductions for charitable contributions/ though
ostensibly passed by lawmakers/ were de'ised by and are perpetuated by the
rich.
(C) Kaws go'erning the tariffs placed on imported goods must fa'or the
continuation of mutually beneficial trade arrangements/ e'en at the e$pense of
long(standing legal precedent.
() Kaws go'erning the treatment of the disad'antaged and powerless members of
a gi'en society are an accurate indication of that society4s moral state.
(#) Kaws controlling the electoral processes of a representati'e democracy ha'e
been de'ised by lawmakers to ensure the continuation of that go'ernmental
system.
12. &hich one of the following does the passage mention as a similarity between the
Critical Kegal ;tudies mo'ement and the Kaw and Kiterature mo'ement%
(A) Both offer e$planations of how elites maintain their hold on power.
(B) Both are logical e$tensions of either natural law or legal positi'ism.
(C) Both see economic and political primacy as the basis of all legitimate power.
() Both rely on disciplines not traditionally connected with the study of law.
(#) Both see the practice of opinion(writing as a mediating acti'ity.
1.. &hich one of the following can be inferred from the passage about the academic
study of <urisprudence before the 1,-5s%
(A) 3t was concerned primarily with codifying and maintaining the pri'ileges of
elites.
(B) 3t re<ected theories that interpreted law as an e$pression of a group4s power.
LSAT ,.-
(C) 3t seldom focused on how and by what authority <udges arri'ed at opinions.
() 3t was concerned primarily with the study of law as an economic and moral
agent.
(#) 3t was not concerned with such disciplines as anthropology and sociology.
10. @roponents of the Kaw and Kiterature mo'ement would most likely agree with
which one of the following statements concerning the relationship between the law
and <udges4 written opinions%
(A) The once(stable relationship between law and opinion(writing has been
undermined by new and radical theoretical de'elopments.
(B) 8nly the most politically conser'ati'e of <udges continue to base their
opinions on natural law or on legal positi'ism.
(C) The occurrence of different legal situations re"uires a <udge to adopt di'erse
theoretical approaches to opinion(writing.
() ifferent <udges will not necessarily write the same sorts of opinions when
confronted with the same legal situation.
(#) Audges who subscribe to di'ergent theories of <urisprudence will necessarily
render di'ergent opinions.
11. &hich one of the following phrases best describes the meaning of *re(constitute+
as that word is used in line 10 of the passage%
(A) categori!e and rephrase
(B) in'estigate and summari!e
(C) interpret and refashion
() paraphrase and announce
(#) negotiate and synthesi!e
12. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) identify differing approaches
(B) discount a no'el trend
(C) ad'ocate traditional methods
() correct misinterpretations
(#) reconcile seeming inconsistencies
ince the ear"y 1940s( most petro"eum geo"ogists have &avored a biogenic
theory &or the &ormation o& oi". 3ccording to this theory( organic matter became
buried in sediments( and subse-uent conditions o& temperature and pressure over
time trans&ormed it into oi".
ince 1979 an opposing abiogenic theory about the origin o& oi" has been
promu"gated. 3ccording to this theory( what is now oi" began as hydrocarbon
compounds within the earth6s mant"e (the region between the core and the crust)
during the &ormation o& the earth. <i" was created when gasses rich in methane(
,.6 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
the "ightest o& the hydrocarbons( rose &rom the mant"e through &ractures and
&au"ts in the crust( carrying a signi#cant amount o& heavier hydrocarbons with
them. 3s the gases encountered intermittent drops in pressure( the heavier
hydrocarbons condensed( &orming oi"( and were deposited in reservoirs throughout
the crust. Roc$ regions de&ormed by motions o& the crusta" p"ates provided the
conduits and &ractures necessary &or the gases to rise through the crust.
<pponents o& the abiogenic theory charge that hydrocarbons cou"d not e8ist in
the mant"e( because high temperatures wou"d destroy or brea$ them down.
3dvocates o& the theory( however( point out that other types o& carbon e8ist in the
mant"eA uno8idi+ed carbon must e8ist there( because diamonds are &ormed within
the mant"e be&ore being brought to the sur&ace by eruptive processes. 9roponents
o& the abiogenic theory a"so point to recent e8perimenta" wor$ that suggests that
the higher pressures within the mant"e tend to o1set the higher temperatures(
a""owing hydrocarbons( "i$e uno8idi+ed carbon( to continue to e8ist in the mant"e.
2& the abiogenic theory is correct( vast undiscovered reservoirs o& oi" and gas!
undiscovered because the biogenic mode" prec"udes their e8istence!may in
actua"ity e8ist. <ne company owned by the wedish government has &ound the
abiogenic theory so persuasive that it has started e8p"oratory dri""ing &or gas or oi"
in a granite &ormation ca""ed the i"5an Ring!not the best p"ace to "oo$ &or gas or
oi" i& one be"ieves they are derived &rom organic compounds( because granite
&orms &rom magma (mo"ten roc$) and contains no organic sediments. The ring was
&ormed about 7L0 mi""ion years ago when a "arge meteorite hit the L00-mi""ion-
year-o"d granite that &orms the base o& the continenta" crust. The impact &ractured
the granite( and the wedes be"ieve that i& oi" comes &rom the mant"e( it cou"d
have risen with methane gas through this now permeab"e roc$. :ue"ing their
optimism &urther is the &act that prior to the start o& dri""ing( methane gas had
been detected rising through the granite.
1-. &hich one of the following statements best e$presses the main idea of the
passage%
(A) Although the new abiogenic theory about the origin of oil is deri'ed from the
con'entional biogenic theory/ it suggests new types of locations for oil drilling.
(B) The small number of drilling companies that ha'e responded to the new
abiogenic theory about the origin of oil reflects the minimal le'el of acceptance
the theory has met with in the scientific community.
(C) Although the new abiogenic theory about the origin of oil fails to e$plain
se'eral enigmas about oil reser'oirs/ it is superior to the con'entional biogenic
theory.
() Although it has yet to recei'e either support or refutation by data gathered
from a drilling pro<ect/ the new abiogenic theory about the origin of oil offers a
plausible alternati'e to the con'entional biogenic theory.
(#) )a'ing answered ob<ections about higher pressures in the earth4s core/
proponents of the new abiogenic theory ha'e gained broad acceptance for their
LSAT ,.,
theory in the scientific community.
16. &hich one of the following best describes the function of the third paragraph%
(A) 3t presents a 'iew opposed to a theory and points out an internal contradiction
in that opposing 'iew.
(B) 3t describes a criticism of a theory and pro'ides counter'ailing e'idence to the
criticism.
(C) 3t identifies a conflict between two 'iews of a theory and re'ises both 'iews.
() 3t e$plains an argument against a theory and shows it to be a 'alid criticism.
(#) 3t points out the correspondence between an argument against one theory and
arguments against similar theories.
1,. The passage suggests that the opponents of the abiogenic theory mentioned in the
third paragraph would most probably agree with which one of the following
statements%
(A) The formation of oil does not in'ol'e the condensation of hydrocarbons
released from the earth4s mantle.
(B) Karge oil reser'es are often found in locations that contain small amounts of
organic matter.
(C) The erupti'e processes by which diamonds are brought to the earth4s surface
are similar to those that aid in the formation of oil.
() ?otions of the crustal plates often create the pressure necessary to transform
organic matter into oil.
(#) The largest known oil reser'es may ha'e resulted from organic matter
combining with hea'ier hydrocarbons carried by methane gas.
25. &hich one of the following is most analogous to the situation described in the
final paragraph%
(A) A new theory about the annual cycles of breeding and migration of the
monarch butterfly has led scientists to look for similar patterns in other
butterfly species.
(B) A new theory about the stage at which a star collapses into a black hole has led
astronomers to search for e'idence of black holes in parts of the uni'erse
where they had not pre'iously searched.
(C) A new theory about how the emission of sulfur dio$ide during coal(burning
can be reduced has led se'eral companies to de'elop desulfuri!ation systems.
() A new theory about photosynthesis has con'inced a research team to e$plore
in new ways the 'arious functions of the cell membrane in plant cells.
(#) A new theory about the distribution of metals in rock formations has con'inced
a sil'er(mining company to keep different types of records of its operations.
21. According to the passage all of the following are true of the ;il<an =ing #DC#@TE
,05 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
(A) 3t was formed from magma.
(B) 3t does not contain organic sediments.
(C) 3ts ring shape e$isted 155 million years ago.
() ?ethane gas has been detected rising through it.
(#) 3t was shaped from the granite that makes up the base of the continental crust.
Bost studies o& recent outheast 3sian immigrants to the United tates have
&ocused on their ad5ustment to "i&e in their adopted country and on the e1ects o&
"eaving their home"ands. Cames To""e&son6s "lien ,inds e8amines the resett"ement
process &rom a di1erent perspective by investigating the educationa" programs
o1ered in immigrant processing centers. 'ased on interviews( transcripts &rom
c"asses( essays by immigrants( persona" visits to a teacher-training unit( and
o*cia" government documents( To""e&son re"ies on an impressive amount and
variety o& documentation in ma$ing his arguments about processing centers6
educationa" programs.
To""e&son6s main contention is that the emphasis p"aced on immediate
emp"oyment and on teaching the va"ues( attitudes( and behaviors that the
training personne" thin$ wi"" he"p the immigrants ad5ust more easi"y to "i&e in the
United tates is o&ten counterproductive and demora"i+ing. 'ecause o& concerns
that the immigrants be se"&-supporting as soon as possib"e( they are trained
a"most e8c"usive"y &or "ow-"eve" 5obs that do not re-uire @ng"ish pro#ciency. 2n this
respect( To""e&son c"aims( the processing centers suit the needs o& emp"oyers more
than they suit the "ong-term needs o& the immigrant community. To""e&son a"so
detects a &undamenta" Daw in the attempts by program educators to insti"" in the
immigrants the traditiona""y ;estern princip"es o& se"&-su*ciency and individua"
success. These e1orts o&ten have the e1ect o& undermining the immigrants6 sense
o& community and( in doing so( sometimes iso"ate them &rom the mora" support
and even &rom business opportunities a1orded by the immigrant community. The
programs a"so encourage the immigrants to shed their cu"tura" traditions and
ethnic identity and adopt the "i&esty"es( be"ie&s( and characteristics o& their
adopted country i& they wish to enter &u""y into the nationa" "i&e.
To""e&son notes that the ideo"ogica" nature o& these educationa" programs has
roots in the turn-o&-the-century educationa" programs designed to assimi"ate
@uropean immigrants into United tates society. To""e&son provides a concise
history o& the assimi"ationist movement in immigrant education( in which
@uropean immigrants were encouraged to "eave behind the ways o& the <"d ;or"d
and to adopt instead the princip"es and practices o& the ,ew ;or"d.
To""e&son ab"y shows that the issues demanding rea" attention in the
educationa" programs &or outheast 3sian immigrants are not mere"y emp"oyment
rates and government &unding( but a"so the assumptions underpinning the
educationa" va"ues in the programs. )e recommends many improvements &or the
programs( inc"uding giving the immigrants a stronger voice in determining their
needs and how to meet them( redesigning the curricu"a( and emphasi+ing "ong-
LSAT ,01
term "anguage education and 5ob training over immediate emp"oyment and the
avoiding o& pub"ic assistance. Un&ortunate"y( though( To""e&son does not o1er
enough concrete so"utions as to how these re&orms cou"d be carried out( despite
his own descriptions o& the comp"icated bureaucratic nature o& the programs.
22. &hich one of the following statements best e$presses the main idea of the
passage%
(A) Tollefson4s focus on the economic and cultural factors in'ol'ed in ad<usting to
a new country offers a significant departure from most studies of ;outheast
Asian immigration.
(B) 3n his analysis of educational programs for ;outheast Asian immigrants/
Tollefson fails to acknowledge many of the positi'e effects the programs ha'e
had on immigrants4 li'es.
(C) Tollefson con'incingly blames the philosophy underlying immigrant
educational programs for some of the ad<ustment problems afflicting ;outheast
Asian immigrants.
() Tollefson4s most significant contribution is his analysis of how ;outheast
Asian immigrants o'ercome the obstacles they encounter in immigrant
educational programs.
(#) Tollefson traces a gradual yet significant change in the attitudes held by
processing center educators toward ;outheast Asian immigrants.
2.. &ith which one of the following statements concerning the educational programs
of the immigration centers would Tollefson most probably agree%
(A) Although the programs offer ade"uate <ob training/ they offer inade"uate
#nglish training.
(B) ;ome of the programs4 attempts to impro'e the earning power of the
immigrants cut them off from potential sources of income.
(C) 3nclusion of the history of immigration in the :nited ;tates in the programs4
curricula facilitates ad<ustment for the immigrants.
() 3mmigrants would benefit if instructors in the programs were better prepared
to teach the curricula de'eloped in the teacher(training courses.
(#) The programs4 curricula should be redesigned to include greater emphasis on
the shared 'alues/ beliefs/ and practices in the :nited ;tates.
20. &hich one of the following best describes the opinion of the author of the passage
with respect to Tollefson4s work%
(A) thorough but misguided
(B) inno'ati'e but incomplete
(C) no'el but contradictory
() illuminating but unappreciated
(#) well documented but unoriginal
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21. The passage suggests that which one of the following is an assumption underlying
the educational approach in immigrant processing centers%
(A) There is a set of 'alues and beha'iors that if adopted by immigrants/ facilitate
ad<ustment to :nited ;tates society.
(B) &hen recent immigrants are self(supporting rather than supported by public
assistance/ they tend to gain #nglish proficiency more "uickly.
(C) 3mmediate employment tends to undermine the immigrants sense of
community with each other.
() Kong(term success for immigrants is best achie'ed by encouraging the
immigrants to maintain a strong sense of community.
(#) The principles of self(sufficiency and indi'idual success are central to
;outheast Asian culture and ethnicity.
22. &hich one of the following best describes the function of the first paragraph of the
passage%
(A) 3t pro'ides the scholarly conte$t for Tollefson4s study and a description of his
methodology.
(B) 3t compares Tollefson4s study to other works and presents the main argument
of his study.
(C) 3t compares the types of documents Tollefson uses to those used in other
studies.
() 3t presents the accepted theory on Tollefson4s topic and the method by which
Tollefson challenges it.
(#) 3t argues for the analytical and technical superiority of Tollefson4s study o'er
other works on the topic.
2-. The author of the passage refers to Tollefson4s descriptions of the bureaucratic
nature of the immigrant educational programs in the fourth paragraph most
probably in order to
(A) critici!e Tollefson4s decision to combine a description of the bureaucracies
with suggestions for impro'ement
(B) emphasi!e the author4s disappointment in Tollefson4s o'erly general
recommendations for impro'ements to the programs
(C) point out the irony of Tollefson concluding his study with suggestions for
drastic changes in the programs
() support a contention that Tollefson4s recommendations for impro'ements do
not focus on the real sources of the programs4 problems
(#) suggest a parallel between the comple$ity of the bureaucracies and the
comple$ity of Tollefson4s arguments
LSAT 21 SECTON
T!"e 35 "!#$%es 26 &$es%!o#s
LSAT ,0.
Directions: Each passage in this section is followed by a group of questions to be answered on
the basis of what is stated or implied in the passage. For some of the questions, more than one
of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However, you are to choose the best
answer, that is, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question, and
blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.
To many deve"opers o& techno"ogies that a1ect pub"ic hea"th or the
environment( >ris$ communication? means persuading the pub"ic that the
potentia" ris$s o& such techno"ogies are sma"" and shou"d be ignored. Those who
communicate ris$s in this way seem to be"ieve that "ay peop"e do not understand
the actua" nature o& techno"ogica" ris$( and they can cite studies asserting that
a"though peop"e apparent"y ignore mundane ha+ards that pose signi#cant danger(
they get upset about e8otic ha+ards that pose "itt"e chance o& death or in5ury.
'ecause some ris$ communicators ta$e this persuasive stance( many "ay peop"e
see >ris$ communication? as a euphemism &or brainwashing done by e8perts.
ince( however( the goa" o& ris$ communication shou"d be to enab"e peop"e to
ma$e in&ormed decisions about techno"ogica" ris$s( a c"ear understanding about
how the pub"ic perceives ris$ is needed. Jay peop"e6s de#nitions o& >ris$? are more
"i$e"y to reDect sub5ective ethica" concerns than are e8perts6 de#nitions. Jay
peop"e( &or e8amp"e( tend to perceive a sma"" ris$ to chi"dren as more signi#cant
than a "arge ris$ to consenting adu"ts who bene#t &rom the ris$-creating
techno"ogy. )owever( i& as$ed to ran$ ha+ards by the number o& annua" &ata"ities(
without re&erence to ethica" 5udgments( "ay peop"e provide -uite reasonab"e
estimates( demonstrating that they have substantia" $now"edge about many ris$s.
3"though some studies c"aim to demonstrate that "ay peop"e have inappropriate
concerns about e8otic ha+ards( these studies o&ten use -uestionab"e methods(
such as as$ing "ay peop"e to ran$ ris$s that are hard to compare. 2n contrast( a
recent study showed that when "ay peop"e were given the necessary &acts and
time( they understood the speci#c ris$s o& e"ectromagnetic #e"ds produced by
high-vo"tage power transmission we"" enough to ma$e in&ormed decisions.
Ris$ communication shou"d there&ore be based on the princip"e that peop"e
process new in&ormation in the conte8t o& their e8isting be"ie&s. 2& peop"e $now
nothing about a topic( they wi"" #nd messages about that topic incomprehensib"e.
2& they have erroneous be"ie&s( they are "i$e"y to misconstrue the messages. Thus(
communicators need to $now the nature and e8tent o& recipients6 $now"edge and
be"ie&s in order to design messages that wi"" not be dismissed or misinterpreted.
This need was demonstrated in a research pro5ect concerning the pub"ic6s "eve" o&
$now"edge about ris$s posed by the presence o& radon in the home. Researchers
used open-ended interviews and -uestionnaires to determine what in&ormation
shou"d be inc"uded in their brochure on radon. ub5ects who read the researchers6
brochure per&ormed signi#cant"y better in understanding radon ris$s than did a
contro" group who read a brochure that was written using a di1erent approach by
a government agency. Thus( care&u" preparation can he"p ris$ communicators to
produce ba"anced materia" that te""s peop"e what they need to $now to ma$e
,00 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
decisions about techno"ogica" ris$s.
1. &hich one of the following best e$presses the main point of the passage%
(A) =isk communicators are effecti'ely addressing the proliferation of comple$
technologies that ha'e increasing impact on public health and safety.
(B) =isk communicators should assess lay people4s understanding of technologies
in order to be able to gi'e them the information they need to make reasonable
decisions.
(C) #$perts who want to communicate to the public about the possible risks of
comple$ technologies must simplify their message to ensure that it is
understandable.
() =isk communication can be percei'ed as the task of persuading lay people to
accept the impact of a particular technology on their li'es.
(#) Kay people can be unduly influenced by sub<ecti'e concerns when making
decisions about technological risks.
2. The authors of the passage would be most likely to agree that the primary purpose
of risk communication should be to
(A) e$plain rather than to persuade
(B) promote rather than to <ustify
(C) influence e$perts rather than to influence lay people
() allay people4s fears about mundane ha!ards rather than about e$otic ha!ards
(#) foster public acceptance of new technologies rather than to acknowledge
people4s ethical concerns
.. According to the passage/ it is probable that which one of the following will occur
when risk communicators attempt to communicate with lay people who ha'e
mistaken ideas about a particular technology%
(A) The lay people percei'ing that the risk communicators ha'e pro'ided more(
reliable information/ will discard their mistaken notion.
(B) The lay people will only partially re'ise their ideas on the basis of the new
information.
(C) The lay people fitting the new information into their e$isting framework will
interpret the communication differently that the risk communicators had
intended.
() The lay people misunderstanding the new information will further distort the
information when they communicate it to other lay people.
(#) The lay people will ignore any communication about a technology they
consider potentially dangerous.
0. &hich one of the following is most clearly an e$ample of the kind of risk
perception discussed in the *studies+ mentioned in line 6%
LSAT ,01
(A) A skydi'er checks the lines on her parachute se'eral times before a <ump
because tangled lines often keep the parachutes from opening properly
(B) A person decides to "uit smoking in order to lesson the probability of lung
damage to himself and his family
(C) A homeowner who decides to ha'e her house tested for radon also decides not
to allow anyone to smoke in her house
() A person who often wea'es in and out of traffic while dri'ing his car at
e$cessi'e speeds worries about meteorites hitting his house
(#) A group of townspeople opposes the building of a nuclear waste dump outsider
their town and proposes that the dump be placed in another town
1. 3t can be inferred that the authors of the passage would be more likely than would
the risk communicators discussed in the first paragraph to emphasi!e which one of
the following%
(A) lay people4s tendency to become alarmed about technologies that they find
new or strange
(B) lay people4s tendency to compare risks that e$perts would not consider
comparable
(C) the need for lay people to adopt scientists4 ad'ice about technological risk
() the inability of lay people to rank ha!ards by the number of fatalities caused
annually
(#) the impact of lay people4s 'alue systems on their perceptions of risk
2. According to the passage many lay people belie'e which one of the following
about risk communication%
(A) 3t focuses e$cessi'ely on mundane ha!ards.
(B) 3t is a tool used to manipulate the public.
(C) 3t is a ma<or cause of inaccuracies in public knowledge about science.
() 3t most often functions to help people make informed decisions.
(#) 3ts le'el of effecti'eness depends on the le'el of knowledge its audience
already has.
2n 3pri" 1990 representatives o& the 9ico Sorea Union o& e"ectronics wor$ers in
'uchon city( south Sorea( trave"ed to the United tates in order to demand 5ust
sett"ement o& their c"aims &rom the parent company o& their emp"oyers( who upon
the &ormation o& the union had shut down operations without paying the wor$ers.
:rom the beginning( the union cause was championed by an unprecedented
coa"ition o& Sorean 3merican groups and deep"y a1ected the Sorean 3merican
community on severa" "eve"s.
:irst( it served as a ra""ying &ocus &or a diverse community o&ten divided by
generation( c"ass and po"itica" ideo"ogies. Bost notab"y( the 9ico cause mobi"i+ed
many young second-generation Sorean 3mericans( many o& whom had never
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been part o& a po"itica" campaign be&ore( "et a"one one invo"ving Sorean issues.
Bembers o& this generation( un"i$e #rst-generation Sorean 3mericans( genera""y
&a"" within the more privi"eged sectors o& the Sorean 3merican community and
o&ten &ee" a"ienated &rom their Sorean roots. 2n addition to raising the po"itica"
consciousness o& young Sorean 3mericans( the 9ico strugg"e spar$ed among them
new interest in their cu"tura" identity. The 9ico wor$ers a"so suggested new ro"es
that can be p"ayed by recent immigrants( particu"ar"y wor$ing-c"ass immigrants.
These immigrants6 $now"edge o& wor$ing conditions overseas can he"p to
g"oba"i+e the perspective o& their communities and can he"p to estab"ish
internationa" ties on a more persona" "eve"( as witnessed in the especia""y warm
e8change between the 9ico wor$ers and recent wor$ing-c"ass immigrants &rom
%hina. 2n addition to broadening the po"itica" base within the Sorean 3merican
community( the 9ico strugg"e a"so "ed to new a""iances between the Sorean
3merican community and progressive "abor and socia" 5ustice groups within the
"arger society!as evidenced in the support received &rom the %oa"ition o& Jabor
Union ;omen and "eading 3&rican 3merican unionists.
The reasons &or these e1ects "ie in the nature o& the cause. The issues raised
by the 9ico unionists had such a strong human component that di1erences within
the community became secondary to "arger concerns &or socia" 5ustice and
wor$ers6 rights. The wor$ers6 demands &or compensation and respect were
unencumbered with strong ideo"ogica" trappings. The economic e8p"oitation &aced
by the 9ico wor$ers underscored the common interests o& Sorean wor$ers( Sorean
3mericans( the wor$ing c"ass more inc"usive"y( and a broad spectrum o&
community "eaders.
The 9ico wor$ers6 campaign thus o1ers an important "esson. 2t demonstrates
that ethnic communities need more than 5ust a $now"edge o& history and cu"ture
as arti&acts o& the past in order to strengthen their ethnic identity. 2t shows that
perhaps the most e1ective means o& empowerment &or many ethnic communities
o& immigrant derivation may be an identi#cation with and participation in current
strugg"es &or economic and socia" 5ustice in their countries o& origin.
-. &hich one of the following best describes the main topic of the passage%
(A) the contribution of the Morean American community to impro'ing the working
conditions of Moreans employed by :nited ;tates companies
(B) the change brought about in the Morean American community by contacts with
Moreans 'isiting the :nited ;tates
(C) the contribution of recent immigrants from Morea to strengthening ethnic
identity in the Morean American community
() the effects on the Morean American community of a dispute between Morean
union workers and a :nited ;tates company
(#) the effect of the politici!ation of second(generation Morean Americans on the
Morean American community as a whole
LSAT ,0-
6. The passage suggests that which one of the following was a significant factor in
the decision to shut down the @ico plant in Buchon City%
(A) the decreasing profitability of maintaining operations in Morea
(B) the failure to resol'e long(standing disputes between the @ico workers and
management
(C) the creation of a union by the @ico workers
() the withholding of workers4 wages by the parent company
(#) the finding of an alternate site for operations
,. &hich one of the following is 98T mentioned in the passage as a recent
de'elopment in the Morean American community%
(A) Houng second(generation Morean Americans ha'e begun to take an interest in
their Morean heritage.
(B) =ecent Morean American immigrants of working(class backgrounds ha'e
begun to enter the more pri'ileged sectors of the Morean American community.
(C) Morean Americans ha'e de'eloped closer ties with acti'ist groups from other
sectors of the population.
() @re'iously nonpolitical members of the Morean American community ha'e
become more politically acti'e.
(#) The Morean American community has been able to set aside political and
generational disparities in order to support a common cause.
15. 3t can be inferred that the author of the passage would most likely agree with
which one of the following statements about ethnic communities of immigrant
deri'ation%
(A) ;uch communities can deri'e important benefits from maintaining ties with
their countries of origin.
(B) ;uch communities should focus primarily on promoting study of the history
and culture of their people in order to strengthen their ethnic identity.
(C) ;uch communities can most successfully mobili!e and politici!e their young
people by addressing the problems of young people of all backgrounds.
() The more pri'ileged sectors of such communities are most likely to maintain a
sense of closeness to their cultural roots.
(#) The politici!ation of such a community is unlikely to affect relations with other
groups within the larger society.
11. 3n the second paragraph/ the author refers to immigrants from China most
probably in order to do which one of the following%
(A) highlight the contrast between working conditions in the :nited ;tates and in
Morea
(B) demonstrate the uni"ueness of the problem faced by the @ico workers
,06 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
(C) offer an e$ample of the type of role that can be played by recent working(class
immigrants
() pro'ide an analogy for the type of acti'ism displayed by the Morean American
community
(#) compare the disparate responses of two immigrant communities to similar
problems
12. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) describe recent de'elopments in the Morean American community that ha'e
strongly affected other ethnic communities of immigrant deri'ation
(B) describe a situation in the Morean American community that presents a model
for the empowerment of ethnic communities of immigrant deri'ation
(C) detail the problems faced by the Morean American community in order to
illustrate the need for the empowerment of ethnic communities of immigrant
deri'ation
() argue against economic and social in<ustice in the countries of origin of ethnic
communities of immigrant deri'ation
(#) assess the impact of the unioni!ation mo'ement on ethnic communities of
immigrant deri'ation
1.. &hich one of the following most accurately states the function of the third
paragraph%
(A) 3t e$plains why the @ico workers brought their cause to the :nited ;tates.
(B) 3t e$plains how the @ico cause differed from other causes that had pre'iously
mobili!ed the Morean American community.
(C) 3t e$plains why the @ico workers were accorded such broad support.
() 3t e$plains how other ethnic groups of immigrant deri'ation in the :nited
;tates ha'e profited from the e$ample of the @ico workers.
(#) 3t e$plains why different generations of Morean Americans reacted in different
ways to the @ico cause.
2n recent years( scho"ars have begun to use socia" science too"s to ana"y+e
court opinions. These scho"ars have 5usti#ab"y critici+ed traditiona" "ega" research
&or its &ocus on a &ew cases that may not be representative and its &ascination with
arcane matters that do not a1ect rea" peop"e with rea" "ega" prob"ems. Qir$e" and
choen&e"d( &or e8amp"e( have championed the app"ication o& socia" science too"s
to the ana"ysis o& case "aw surrounding discrimination against women in higher
education emp"oyment. Their studies have demonstrated how these socia" science
too"s may be used to serve the interests o& scho"ars( "awyers and prospective
p"ainti1s as we"". )owever( their enthusiasm &or the >outcomes ana"ysis?
techni-ue seems misguided.
<& &undamenta" concern is the outcomes ana"ysts6 assumption that simp"y
counting the number o& success&u" and unsuccess&u" p"ainti1s wi"" be use&u" to
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prospective p"ainti1s. 3"though the odds are c"ear"y against the p"ainti1 in se8
discrimination cases( p"ainti1s who be"ieve that their cause is 5ust and that they
wi"" prevai" are not swayed by such evidence. 2n addition( because "awsuits are so
di1erent in the detai"s o& the case( in the -ua"ity o& the evidence the p"ainti1
presents( and in the attitude o& the 5udge toward academic p"ainti1s( giving
prospective p"ainti1s statistics about overa"" outcomes without ana"y+ing the
reason &or these outcomes is o& margina" assistance. <utcomes ana"ysis( &or
e8amp"e( ignores the &act that in certain academic se8 discrimination cases!
those invo"ving serious procedura" vio"ations or incriminating evidence in the &orm
o& written admissions o& discriminatory practices!p"ainti1s are much more "i$e"y
to prevai".
Two di1erent approaches o1er more use&u" app"ications o& socia" science too"s
in ana"y+ing se8 discrimination cases. <ne is a process ca""ed >po"icy capturing(?
in which the researcher reads each opinion( identi#es variab"es discussed in the
opinion( such as the regu"arity o& emp"oyer eva"uations o& the p"ainti1
per&ormance( training o& eva"uators( and the $ind o& eva"uation instrument used(
and then uses mu"tivariate ana"ysis to determine whether these variab"es predict
the outcome o& the "awsuit. The advantage o& po"icy capturing research is that it
attempts to e8p"ain the reason &or the outcome( rather than simp"y reporting the
outcome( and identi#es &actors that contribute to a p"ainti16s success or &ai"ure.
Ta$ing a s"ight"y di1erent approach( other scho"ars have adopted a techni-ue that
re-uires reading comp"ete transcripts o& a"" se8 discrimination cases "itigated
during a certain time period to identi&y variab"es such as the nature o& the
a""eged"y i""ega" conduct( the conse-uences &or emp"oyers( and the nature o& the
remedy( as we"" as the &actors that contributed to the verdict and the $ind o&
evidence necessary &or the p"ainti1 to prevai". ;hi"e the #ndings o& these studies
are "imited to the period covered( they assist potentia" p"ainti1s and de&endants in
assessing their cases.
10. &hich one of the following best e$presses the main idea of the passage%
(A) The analysis of a limited number of atypical discrimination suits is of little
'alue to potential plaintiffs.
(B) &hen the number of factors analy!ed in a se$ discrimination suit is increased/
the 'alidity of the conclusions drawn becomes suspect.
(C) ;cholars who are critical of traditional legal research fre"uently offer
alternati'e approaches that are also seriously flawed.
() 8utcomes analysis has less predicti'e 'alue in se$ discrimination cases than
do certain other social science techni"ues.
(#) Bi'en ade"uate information/ it is possible to predict with considerable
certainty whether a plaintiff will be successful in a discrimination suit.
11. 3t can be inferred from the author4s discussion of traditional legal research that the
author is
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(A) frustrated because traditional legal research has not achie'ed its full potential
(B) critical because traditional legal research has little rele'ance to those actually
in'ol'ed in cases
(C) appreciati'e of the role traditional legal research played in de'eloping later
more efficient approaches
() derisi'e because traditional legal research has outlasted its pre'iously
significant role
(#) grateful for the ability of traditional legal research to de'elop uni"ue types of
e'idence
12. &hich one of the following statements about Lirkel and ;choenfeld can be
inferred from the passage%
(A) They were the first scholars to use social science tools in analy!ing legal cases.
(B) They confined their studies to the outcomes analysis techni"ue.
(C) They saw no 'alue in the analysis pro'ided by traditional legal research.
() They re<ected policy capturing as being too limited in scope.
(#) They belie'ed that the information generated by outcomes analysis would be
rele'ant for plaintiffs.
1-. The author4s characteri!ation of traditional legal research in the first paragraph is
intended to
(A) pro'ide background information for the subse"uent discussion
(B) summari!e an opponent4s position
(C) argue against the use of social science tools in the analysis of se$
discrimination cases
() emphasi!e the fact that legal researchers act to the detriment of potential
plaintiffs
(#) reconcile traditional legal researchers to the use of social science tools
16. The information in the passage suggests that plaintiffs who pursue se$
discrimination cases despite the statistics pro'ided by outcomes analysis can best
be likened to
(A) athletes who continue to employ training techni"ues despite their knowledge
of statistical e'idence indicating that these techni"ues are unlikely to be
effecti'e
(B) lawyers who handle lawsuits for a large number of clients in the hope that
some percentage will be successful
(C) candidates for public office who are more interested in making a political
statement than in winning an election
() supporters of a cause who recruit indi'iduals sympathetic to it in the belief that
large numbers of supporters will lend the cause legitimacy
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(#) purchasers of a charity4s raffle tickets who consider the purchase a contribution
because the likelihood of winning is remote
1,. The policy(capturing approach differs from the approach described in lines 06(1,
in that the latter approach
(A) makes use of detailed information on a greater number of cases
(B) focuses more directly on issues of concern to litigants
(C) analy!es information that is more recent and therefore reflects current trends
() allows assessment of aspects of a case that are not specifically mentioned in a
<udge4s opinion
(#) eliminates any distortion due to personal bias on the part of the researcher
25. &hich one of the following best describes the organi!ation of the passage%
(A) A techni"ue is introduced/ its shortcomings are summari!ed/ and alternati'es
are described.
(B) A debate is introduced/ e'idence is presented/ and a compromise is reached.
(C) A theory is presented/ clarification is pro'ided/ and a plan of further e'aluation
is suggested.
() ;tandards are established/ hypothetical e$amples are analy!ed/ and the criteria
are amended.
(#) A position is challenged/ its shortcomings are categori!ed/ and the challenge is
re'ised.
3 &a$e can be de#ned as an artwor$ intended to deceive. The motives o& its
creator are decisive( and the merit o& the ob5ect itse"& is a separate issue. The
-uestion mar$ in the tit"e o& Bar$ Cones6s Fake@ The "ct of -ece#tion revea"s the
study6s broader concerns. 2ndeed( it might e-ua""y be entit"ed 4riginal@& and the
te8t begins by noting a variety o& possibi"ities somewhere between the two
e8tremes. These inc"ude wor$s by an artist6s &o""owers in the sty"e o& the master(
de"iberate archaism( copying &or pedagogica" purposes( and the production o&
commercia" &acsimi"es.
The greater part o& Fake@ is devoted to a %hrono"ogica" survey suggesting that
&a$ing &eeds on the many di1erent motives peop"e have &or co""ecting art( and
that( on the who"e( the &a$ing o& art Dourishes whenever art co""ecting Dourishes.
2n imperia" Rome there was a widespread interest in co""ecting ear"ier Eree$ art(
and there&ore in &a$ing it. ,o doubt many o& the scu"ptures now e8hibited as
>Roman copies? were origina""y passed o1 as Eree$. 2n medieva" @urope( because
art was ce"ebrated more &or its devotiona" uses than &or its provenance or the
ingenuity o& its creators( the &a$ing o& art was virtua""y none8istent. The modern
age o& &a$ing began in the 2ta"ian Renaissance( with two "in$ed deve"opmentsA a
passionate identi#cation with the wor"d o& anti-uity and a growing sense o&
individua" artistic identity. 3 patron o& the young Biche"ange"o prevai"ed upon the
artist to ma$e his cu"pture lee#ing Cu#ld "oo$ as though it had been buried in
,12 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
the earth so that >it wi"" be ta$en &or anti-ue( and you wi"" se"" it much better.?
;ithin a &ew years( however( beginning with his #rst masterpiece( the Bacchus(
Biche"ange"o had shown his contemporaries that great art can assimi"ate and
transcend what came be&ore( resu"ting in a who""y origina" wor$. oon his genius
made him the ob5ect o& imitators.
Fake@ a"so reminds us that in certain cu"tures authenticity is a &oreign concept.
This is true o& much 3&rican art( when the authenticity o& an ob5ect is considered
by co""ectors to depend on its &unction. 3s an i""ustration( the study compares two
versions o& a chi wara mas$ made by the 'ambara peop"e o& Ba"i. <ne has pegs
a""owing it to be attached to a cap &or its intended ceremonia" purpose. The
second( otherwise identica"( "ac$s the pegs and is a rep"ica made &or sa"e. 3&rican
carving is notorious"y di*cu"t to date( but even i& the ritua" mas$ is recent( made
perhaps to rep"ace a damaged predecessor( and the rep"ica much o"der( on"y the
ritua" mas$ shou"d be seen as authentic( &or it is tied to the &orm6s origina"
&unction. That( at "east( is the consensus o& the so-ca""ed e8perts. <ne wonders
whether the 'ambaran artists wou"d agree.
21. The passage can best be described as doing which one of the following%
(A) reconciling 'aried points of 'iew
(B) chronicling the e'olution of a phenomenon
(C) e$ploring a comple$ "uestion
() ad'ocating a new approach
(#) re<ecting an inade"uate e$planation
22. &hich one of the following best e$presses the author4s main point%(the te$t
begins by noting a 'ariety of possibilities somewhere between the two e$tremes.
These include works by an artist4s followers in the style of the master/ deliberate
archaism/ copying for pedagogical purposes/ and the production of commercial
facsimiles)
(A) The faking of art has occurred throughout history and in 'irtually e'ery
culture.
(B) &hether a work of art is fake or not is less important than whether it has
artistic merit.
(C) 3t is possible to show that a work of art is fake/ but the authenticity of a work
cannot be pro'ed conclusi'ely.
() A 'ariety of circumstances make it difficult to determine whether a work of art
can appropriately be called a fake.
(#) &ithout an international market to support it/ the faking of art would cease.
2.. According to the passage an artwork can be definiti'ely classified as a fake if the
person who created it
(A) consciously adopted the artistic style of an influential mentor
LSAT ,1.
(B) deliberately imitated a famous work of art as a learning e$ercise
(C) wanted other people to be fooled by its appearance
() made multiple/ identical copies of the work a'ailable for sale
(#) made the work resemble the art of an earlier era
20. The author pro'ides at least one e$ample of each of the following #DC#@TE
(A) categories of art that are neither wholly fake not wholly original
(B) cultures in which the faking of art flourished
(C) "ualities that art collectors ha'e pri!ed in their ac"uisitions
() cultures in which the categories *fake+ and *original+ do not apply
(#) contemporary artists whose works ha'e inspired fakes
21. The author implies which one of the following about the artistic merits of fakes%
(A) Because of the circumstances of its production/ a fake cannot be said to ha'e
true artistic merit.
(B) A fake can be said to ha'e artistic merit only if the attempted deception is
successful.
(C) A fake may or may not ha'e artistic merit in its own right/ regardless of the
circumstances of its production.
() &hether a fake has artistic merit depends on whether its creator is
accomplished as an artist.
(#) The artistic merit of a fake depends on the merit of the original work that
inspired the fake.
22. By the standard described in the last paragraph of the passage/ which one of the
following would be considered authentic%
(A) an ancient =oman copy of an ancient Breek sculpture
(B) a painting begun by =enaissance master and finished by his assistants after his
death
(C) a print of a painting signed by the artist who painted the original
() a faithful replica of a ceremonial crown that preser'es all the details of and is
indistinguishable from the original
(#) a modern reconstruction of a medie'al altarpiece designed to ser'e its
traditional role in a ser'ice of worship
2-. &hich one of the following best describes how the last paragraph functions in the
conte$t of the passage%
(A) 3t offers a tentati'e answer to a "uestion posed by the author in the opening
paragraph.
(B) 3t summari!es an account pro'ided in detail in the preceding paragraph.
(C) 3t pro'ides additional support for an argument ad'anced by the author in the
,10 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
preceding paragraph.
() 3t e$amines another facet of a distinction de'eloped in the preceding
paragraphs.
(#) 3t affirms the general principle enunciated at the beginning of the passage.
LSAT 22 SECTON )
T!"e 35 "!#$%es 26 &$es%!o#s
Directions: Each passage in this section is followed by a group of questions to be answered on
the basis of what is stated or implied in the passage. For some of the questions, more than one
of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However, you are to choose the best
answer, that is, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question, and
blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.
Bany "iterary scho"ars be"ieve that Qora ,ea"e )urston6s Their Eyes ,ere
,atching .od (1977) has been the primary inDuence on some o& the most
accomp"ished '"ac$ women writing in the United tates today. 2ndeed( 3"ice
;a"$er( the author o& the pri+e-winning nove" The Color Pur#le( has said o& Their
Eyes( >There is no boo$ more important to me than this one.? Thus( it seems
necessary to as$ why Their Eyes( a wor$ now viewed by a mu"titude o& readers as
remar$ab"y success&u" in its comp"e8 depiction o& a '"ac$ woman6s search &or se"&
and community( was ever re"egated to the margins o& the "iterary canon.
The detai"s o& the nove"6s initia" reception he"p answer this -uestion. Un"i$e the
recent"y rediscovered and ree8amined wor$ o& )arriet ;i"son( Their Eyes was not
tota""y ignored by boo$ reviewers upon its pub"ication. 2n &act( it received a
mi8ture o& positive and negative reviews both &rom ;hite boo$ reviewers wor$ing
&or prominent periodica"s and &rom important #gures within '"ac$ "iterary circ"es.
2n the aturday *eview of 'iterature& Eeorge tevens wrote that >the narration is
e8act"y right( because most o& it is dia"ogue and the dia"ogue gives us a constant
sense o& character in action.? The negative criticism was partia""y a resu"t o&
)urston6s ideo"ogica" di1erences with other members o& the '"ac$ 3mericans in
"iterature. '"ac$ writers o& the 19M0s be"ieved that the '"ac$ artist6s primary
responsibi"ity was to create protest #ction that e8p"ored the negative e1ects o&
racism in the United tates. :or e8amp"e( Richard ;right( the author o& the much
acc"aimed +ative on (19M0)( wrote that Their Eyes had >no theme? and >no
message?. Bost critics6 and readers6 e8pectations o& '"ac$ "iterature rendered
them unab"e to appreciate )urston6s subt"e de"ineation o& the "i&e o& an ordinary
'"ac$ woman in a '"ac$ community and the nove" went -uiet"y out o& print.
Recent acc"aim &or Their Eyes resu"ts &rom the emergence o& &eminist "iterary
criticism and the deve"opment o& standards o& eva"uation speci#c to the wor$ o&
'"ac$ writers= these $inds o& criticism changed readers6 e8pectations o& art and
enab"ed them to appreciate )urston6s nove". The emergence o& &eminist criticism
was crucia" because such criticism brought new attention to neg"ected wor$s such
as )urston6s and a"erted readers to )urston6s e8p"oration o& women6s issues in her
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#ction. The 3&rocentric standards o& eva"uation were e-ua""y important to the
rediscovery o& Their Eyes( &or such standards provided readers with the too"s to
recogni+e and appreciate the '"ac$ &o"$"ore and ora" storyte""ing traditions )urston
incorporated within her wor$. 2n one o& the most i""uminating discussions o& the
nove" to date( )enry Jouis Eates Cr.( states that >)urston6s strategy seems to
concern itse"& with the possibi"ities o& representation o& the spea$ing '"ac$ voice in
writing.?
1. The passage suggests which one of the following about )arriet &ilson4s no'el%
(A) 3t was written at the same time as Their Eyes Were Watching #od/ but it did
not recei'e as much critical attention.
(B) 3t greatly influenced Black women writing after the 1,05s.
(C) 3t was widely read when it was published but it has not recei'ed attention from
literary critics until recently.
() 3t was not formally published/ and the manuscript has only recently been
disco'ered by literary critics.
(#) 3t did not recei'e critical attention when it was published/ but it has recently
become the sub<ect of critical study.
2. The passage offers support for which one of the following statements about
literary re'iewers and Their Eyes Were Watching #od%
(A) Their Eyes was widely acclaimed by re'iewers upon its publication/ e'en
though it e'entually went out of print.
(B) The e'entual obscurity of Their Eyes was not the result of complete neglect by
re'iewers.
(C) ;ome early re'iewers of Their Eyes interpreted the no'el from a point of 'iew
that later became known as Afrocentric.
() Their Eyes was more typical of the protest fiction of the 1,05s than re'iewers
reali!ed.
(#) ?ost early re'iewers of Their Eyes did not respond positi'ely to the book.
.. &hich one of the following best states the main idea of the passage%
(A) )urston4s Their Eyes Were Watching #od had little in common with no'els
written by Blank authors during the 1,05s.
(B) >eminist critics and authors such as Alice &alker were instrumental in
establishing )urston4s Their Eyes Were Watching #od as an important part of
the American literary canon.
(C) Critics and readers were unable to appreciate fully )urston4s Their Eyes Were
Watching #od until critics applied new standards of e'aluation to the no'el.
() )urston4s Their Eyes Were Watching #od was an important influence on the
protest fiction written by Black writers in the mid(twentieth century.
(#) Afrocentric strategies of analysis ha'e brought attention to the use of oral
,12 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
storytelling traditions in no'els written by Black Americans such as )urston4s
Their Eyes Were Watching #od.
0. According to the passage which one of the following is true of Black folklore
traditions as used in literature written in the :nited ;tates%
(A) They are an aspect of Black American literature first recogni!ed and written
about by )enry Kouis Bates/ Ar.
(B) They were not widely incorporated into no'els written by Black Americans
until after the 1,05s.
(C) They were first used by a no'elist in Lora 9eale )urston4s Their Eyes Were
Watching #od2
() They were not incorporated into no'els published by Black Americans in the
1,05s.
(#) They are an aspect of Black literature that some readers did not fully appreciate
until relati'ely recently.
1. The passage suggests that Nati$e Son differs from Their Eyes Were Watching #od
in which one of the following ways%
(A) 3t recei'ed fewer positi'e re'iews at the time of its publication than did Their
Eyes2
(B) 3t is less typical of literature written by Black Americans during the 1,05s than
is Their Eyes2
(C) 3t is less focused on an ordinary indi'idual4s search for self within a Black
community than is Then #yes.
() 3t denies more aspects of Black American folklore than does Their Eyes.
(#) 3t has recei'ed more attention from feminist and Afrocentric literary critics
than Their Eyes2
2. &hich one of the following pro'ides the clearest e$ample of the kind of fiction
that many Black writers of the 1,05s/ as their 'iews are described in the passage/
belie'ed should be written%
(A) a no'el that focuses on the interrelationships among four generations of Black
women
(B) a historical no'el that re(creates actual e'ents that occurred as Black people
suffered from oppression and racial in<ustice in a small town
(C) a no'el/ based on biographical stories orally relayed to the author as a child/
that describes the de'elopment of traditions in a Black family
() a no'el that e$plores the psychological aspects of a relationship between a
&hite man and a Black man as they work together to organi!e protests against
un<ust working conditions
(#) a no'el that e$amines the different ways in which three Black children
e$perience their first day of school in a rural community
LSAT ,1-
-. The author would be most likely to agree with which one of the following
statements about the relationship between art and literary criticism%
(A) The long(term reputation of a work of art is less dependent on the response of
literary critics than on the response of readers and authors.
(B) #$perimental works of fiction are usually poorly recei'ed and misunderstood
by literary critics when they are first published.
(C) The response of literary critics to a work of art can be determined by certain
ideological perspecti'es and assumptions about the purpose of art.
() Kiterary critics do not significantly affect the way most people interpret and
appreciate literature.
(#) The ideological bases of a work of art are the first consideration of most
literary critics.
6. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) correct a misconception
(B) e$plain a reassessment
(C) reconcile two points of 'iew
() critici!e a con'entional approach
(#) announce a new disco'ery
Jega" cases can be termed >hard? cases i& they raise issues that are high"y
controversia"( issues about which peop"e with "ega" training disagree. The ongoing
debate over the comp"eteness o& the "aw usua""y concerns the e8tent to which
such hard cases are "ega""y determinate( or decidab"e according to e8isting "aw.
). J. 3. )art6s The Conce#t of 'aw is sti"" the c"earest and most persuasive
statement o& both the standard theory o& hard cases and the standard theory o&
"aw on which it rests. :or )art the "aw consists o& "ega" ru"es &ormu"ated in genera"
terms= these terms he ca""s >open te8tured? which means that they contain a
>core? o& sett"ed meaning and a >penumbra? or >periphery? where their meaning
is not determinate. :or e8amp"e( suppose an ordinance prohibits the use o&
vehic"es in a par$. >Fehic"e? has a core o& meaning which inc"udes cars and
motorcyc"es. 'ut( )art c"aims( other vehic"es( such as bicyc"es( &a"" within the
periphera" meaning o& >vehic"e(? so that the "aw does not estab"ish whether they
are prohibited. There wi"" a"ways be cases not covered by the core meaning o&
"ega" terms within e8isting "aws. )art considers these cases to be "ega""y
indeterminate. ince courts cannot decide such cases on "ega" grounds( they must
consider non"ega" (&or e8amp"e( mora" and po"itica") grounds( and thereby e8ercise
5udicia" discretion to ma$e( rather than app"y "aw.
2n Rona"d Kwor$in6s view the "aw is richer than )art wou"d grantA he denies
that the "aw consists so"e"y o& e8p"icit ru"es. The "aw a"so inc"udes princip"es that
do not depend &or their "ega" status on any prior o*cia" recognition or enactment.
Kwor$in c"aims that many cases i""ustrate the e8istence o& "ega" princip"es that are
,16 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
di1erent &rom "ega" ru"es and that )art6s mode" o& ru"es cannot accommodate. :or
Kwor$in( "ega" ru"es app"y in an a""-or-nothing &ashion( whereas "ega" princip"es do
not= they provide the rationa"e &or app"ying "ega" ru"es. Thus( because Kwor$in
thin$s there is "aw in addition to "ega" ru"es( he thin$s that "ega" indeterminacy
and the need &or 5udicia" discretion do not &o""ow &rom the e8istence o& open
te8ture in "ega" ru"es.
2t wou"d be a mista$e( though( to dispute )art6s theory o& hard cases on this
basis a"one. 2& )art6s c"aim about the >open te8ture? o& genera" terms is true( then
we shou"d e8pect to #nd "ega" indeterminacies even i& the "aw consists o&
princip"es in addition to ru"es. Jega" princip"es as we"" as "ega" ru"es contain
genera" terms that have open te8ture. 3nd it wou"d be absurd to suppose that
wherever the meaning o& a "ega" ru"e is unc"ear( there is a "ega" princip"e with a
c"ear meaning. Bost interesting and controversia" cases wi"" occur in the
penumbra o& both ru"es and princip"es.
,. &hich one of the following best e$presses the main idea of the passage%
(A) The law will ne'er be complete because new situations will always arise
which will re"uire new laws to resol'e them.
(B) The most difficult legal cases are those concerning contro'ersial issues about
which trained legal minds ha'e differing opinions.
(C) The concept of legal principles does not diminish the usefulness of the concept
of the open te$ture of general terms in deciding whether hard cases are legally
determinate.
() The concept of legal principles is a deleterious addition to the theory of law
since any flaws e$hibited by legal rules could also be shared by legal
principles.
(#) The inherent inconsistency of terms used in laws pro'ides a continuing
opportunity for <udges to e$ercise their discretion to correct defect and gaps in
the law.
15. According to the passage the term *legal principles+ as used by workin refers to
(A) a comprehensi'e code of ethics that go'erns the beha'ior of professionals in
the legal system
(B) e$plicit analyses of the terms used in legal rules indicating what meanings the
terms do and do not co'er
(C) legal doctrines that underlie and guide the use of accepted legal rules
() legal rules that ha'e not yet passed through the entire legislati'e procedure
necessary for them to become law
(#) the body of legal decisions regarding cases that re"uired <udicial discretion for
their resolution
11. &hich one of the following e$presses a 'iew that the author of the passage would
most probably hold concerning legal principles and legal rules%
LSAT ,1,
(A) Kegal rules are applied more often than legal principles when a case in'ol'es
issues about which legal professionals disagree.
(B) Both legal rules and legal principles are officially recogni!ed as 'alid parts of
the law.
(C) )art4s *model of rules+ has been superseded by a *model of principles+ that
sheds light on legal determinacy.
() Kegal principles are <ust as likely as legal rules to ha'e terms that ha'e both
core and peripheral meanings.
(#) Kegal principles eliminate the need for <udicial discretion in resol'ing the
problems generated by the open te$ture of legal rules.
12. 3n the passage/ the author uses the e$ample of the word *'ehicle+ to
(A) illustrate a legal rule that necessarily has e$ceptions
(B) show how legal principles are applied in the construction of legal rules
(C) represent the core of settled meaning of a legal term
() ser'e as an e$ample of a legal term with both a core and a periphery of
meaning
(#) pro'ide a countere$ample to )art4s concept of the open te$ture of legal terms
1.. 3t can be inferred that the author of the passage regards )art4s theory of hard cases
and the theory of standard law as
(A) e$hausti'e
(B) worthy of respect
(C) interesting but impractical
() plausible but unwieldy
(#) hopelessly outmoded
10. &hich one of the following is true of the term *legally determinate+ (line 2) as it is
used in the passage%
(A) 3t represents the idea that e'ery crime should ha'e a fi$ed penalty rather than a
range of penalties within which a <udge can make an arbitrary choice.
(B) 3t refers to a legal case that can be definiti'ely resol'ed in fa'or of one side or
the other according to the law in effect at the time.
(C) 3t describes a legal rule that re"uires <udges to limit their actions to applying
written law when deciding cases o'er which people with legal training
disagree.
() 3t refers to any legal case that in'ol'es terms with imprecise meanings and
thus relies for its resolution only on the determination of <udges.
(#) 3t refers to procedures for determining the legal outcome of comple$ issues in
difficult cases.
11. 3n the passage/ the author is primarily concerned with
,25 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
(A) outlining the problems that might be faced by a legislature attempting to create
a complete body of law that would pre'ent <udges from making rather than
applying the law
(B) <ustifying the idea that *hard+ cases will always e$ist in the practice of law/ no
matter what laws are written or how they are applied
(C) presenting e'idence to support workin4s idea that legal rules apply in an all(
or(nothing fashion whereas legal principles apply in more sophisticated ways
() criti"uing the concept of the open te$ture of legal terms as a conceptual flaw in
)art4s otherwise well(regarded book
(#) demonstrating that workin4s concept of legal principles does not form the
basis for a successful attack on )art4s theory of legally indeterminate cases
<ne way governments can decrease air po""ution is to impose a ta8 on
industria" carbon dio8ide emissions. 'ut why shou"d governments consider a
carbon ta8 when they cou"d contro" emissions by estab"ishing energy e*ciency
and conservation standards( by "egis"ating against coa" use( or by increasing
investment in nuc"earG The great virtue o& such a ta8 is that it wou"d provide
incentives &or industry to achieve emission reductions. 'ecause oi" emits more
carbon dio8ide per unit o& energy generated than does natura" gas( and coa" more
than oi"( a carbon ta8 wou"d vary with the type o& &ue". uch a ta8 wou"d induce
industry to substitute "ess-po""uting &ue"s &or those carrying a higher ta8 and a"so
to reduce the tota" use o& energy
)owever( it is not c"ear how high such a ta8 shou"d be or what its economic
and environmenta" imp"ications wou"d be. 3t #rst g"ance( it is not di*cu"t to
estimate rough"y the si+e o& the ta8 needed to e1ect a given "eve" o& emission
reduction. <ne writer estimates( &or e8amp"e( that a ta8 o& M1 percent on the price
o& coa"( 77 percent on oi"( and 4/ percent on gas wou"d reduce the United
Singdom6s emissions by 40 percent (using 1988 as the base year) by the year
400/( the target recommended by the 1988 Toronto %on&erence. 2t shou"d be
noted( however( that these numbers ignore the e1ect o& the ta8 on economic
growth( and hence on emissions( and assume that past responses to a price rise
wi"" be rep"icated in the &uture. These numbers are a"so based on the assumption
that a"" countries wi"" behave cooperative"y in imposing a carbon ta8.
There are very strong reasons to be"ieve that cooperation wou"d be di*cu"t to
win. 2& most countries cooperated( then any country that chose not to cooperate
wou"d be advantagedA it wou"d have no abatement costs( and the e1ect on the
environment o& its de&ection wou"d be re"ative"y sma"". 'ecause o& this >&ree rider?
e1ect( cooperation on a sca"e needed to reduce carbon dio8ide emissions might
prove e"usive.
hou"d countries act uni"atera""y to curb emissionsG 2& a country were to act
uni"atera""y( the bene#ts wou"d be spread across the g"obe( whereas the costs
wou"d &a"" so"e"y on the country ta$ing the action. The action wou"d reduce
emissions g"oba""y( and the e1ect o& this wou"d be to reduce the bene#t other
LSAT ,21
countries wou"d receive i& they reduced emissions. 3s a conse-uence( other
countries wou"d have "ess incentive to reduce emissions and wou"d probab"y emit
more carbon dio8ide than they wou"d have i& the uni"atera" action had not been
ta$en. The entire e1ect o& the emission reduction may not be "ost( but it wou"d
sure"y be diminished by this &ree-riding behavior.
12. According to the passage/ the si!e of the carbon ta$ le'ied on a gi'en fuel would
'ary with the
(A) amount of that fuel used by a particular industry
(B) amount of pollution caused by the fuel being ta$ed
(C) si!e of the industries using the fuel being ta$ed
() effect that the ta$ would ha'e on a country4s economy
(#) number of users of a particular fuel at a particular time
1-. The author mentions the estimates of *8ne writer+ (line 22) primarily in order to
(A) indicate in a general way the si!e that a carbon ta$ must be for it to be
effecti'e
(B) pro'ide the most accurate information a'ailable about the most practical si!e
for a carbon ta$
(C) suggest that the target recommended by the 1,66 Toronto Conference is an
unrealistic one
() undermine the argument that a carbon ta$ would pro'ide incenti'es for user4s
to achie'e emissions reductions
(#) show how the si!e of an effecti'e carbon ta$ can be calculated
16. &hich one of the following circumstances would most seriously undermine the
conclusion *;uch a ta$ would induce industry to substitute less(polluting fuels for
those carrying a higher ta$+ (lines 1.(11)
(A) The fuel ta$ed a the highest rate costs considerably less to buy than fuels ta$ed
at lower rates.
(B) The goal set by the Toronto Conference cannot be reached unless each fuel it
ta$ed at a much higher rate.
(C) The ta$ on coal represents a much greater cost increase than does the ta$ on oil
or gas.
() 3t is disco'ered that gas produces e'en less carbon dio$ide per unit of energy
generated than was pre'iously thought.
(#) 3t is disco'ered that coal produces e'en more carbon dio$ide per unit of energy
generated than are pre'iously thought.
1,. The passage is primarily intended to answer which one of the following "uestions%
(A) )ow high a ta$ should a country4s go'ernment impose on carbon dio$ide
emissions%
,22 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
(B) &hat issues should a country4s go'ernment consider before deciding whether
to impose a ta$ on carbon dio$ide emissions%
(C) &hat assumptions underlie a country4s decision to impose a ta$ on carbon
dio$ide emissions%
() )ow can the effects of industrial pollution on the #arth4s atmosphere be
decreased%
(#) &hat can be done to increase the effecti'eness of any ta$ that a country
imposes on carbon dio$ide emissions%
25. 3n response to the "uestion. *;hould countries act unilaterally to curb emissions%+
(lines 00(01) the author would be most likely to contend that a country should
(A) not act unilaterally because/ although that country would recei'e some benefits
from such action/ other countries would most likely be harmed by it
(B) not act unilaterally because unilateral action would ha'e no benefits for other
countries
(C) not act unilaterally because the cost to that country would not be <ustified by
the limited effect that such action would ha'e on industrial pollution
worldwide
() act unilaterally because that country4s economy would benefit from the
resulting reduction in industrial emissions worldwide
(#) act unilaterally because other countries might well be inspired to follow that
country4s e$ample
21. &hich one of the following is most parallel to the *free rider+ effect mentioned in
line 01%
(A) An industry agrees to base itself in a city where there has been little industrial
de'elopment only if the city will re!one the specific property the industry
desires.
(B) Because fares for public transportation are rising/ a commuter decides to
bicycle to work rather than to use public transportation in a city where auto
emissions are a problem.
(C) An apartment dweller begins to recycle newspapers e'en though no one else in
the building does so and recycling is not re"uired by law.
() 3n an area where groundwater has become polluted/ a homeowner continues to
buy bottled water rather than contribute to a neighborhood fund to combat
pollution.
(#) 3n an area where o'ergra!ing is a se'ere problem/ a shepherd allows his sheep
to continue gra!ing common field e'en though his neighbors ha'e agreed to
buy feed for their animals until regrowth occurs.
ome meteoro"ogists have insisted that the severity o& the drought in sub-
aharan ;est 3&rica and its "ong duration (near"y M0 years to date) must be a sign
o& a "ong term a"teration in c"imate. 3mong the theories proposed to e8p"ain this
LSAT ,2.
change( one hypothesis that has gained widespread attention attributes the
drought to a coo"ing o& the ,orthern )emisphere. This hypothesis is based on the
&act that between 19M/ and the ear"y 1970s( the average annua" air temperatures
over the "andmasses o& the ,orthern )emisphere decreased by about ha"& a
degree :ahrenheit (appro8imate"y one -uarter o& a degree %e"sius!a sma"" but
signi#cant amount). evera" meteoro"ogists have suggested that this coo"ing was
caused by an increase in atmospheric dust emanating &rom vo"canic eruptions and
&rom urban and industria" po""utionA the dust reDected incoming sun"ight( causing
the ground to receive "ess so"ar radiation and to trans&er "ess heat to the
atmosphere. The coo"ing seemed to be more pronounced in the midd"e and high
"atitudes than in the tropics( an observation that is consistent with the &act that
the un6s rays enter the atmosphere at a greater ang"e &arther north and so have
to pass through more dust-"aden atmosphere on the way to the @arth.
ince winds are set in motion by di1erences in air pressure caused by une-ua"
heating o& the atmosphere( supporters o& the coo"ing hypothesis have argued that
a growing temperature di1erentia" between the unusua""y coo" midd"e and high
"atitudes and the warm tropica" "atitudes is causing a southward e8pansion o& the
circumpo"ar vorte8!the high-a"titude wester"y winds that circ"e the ,orthern
)emisphere at midd"e "atitudes. 3ccording to this hypothesis( as the circumpo"ar
vorte8 e8pands( it &orces south other components o& "arge-sca"e atmospheric
circu"ation and in e1ect disp"aces the northward-moving monsoon that ordinari"y
brings sub-aharan rain. 9roponents have &urther argued that this change in
atmospheric circu"ation might be "ong-term since coo"ing in the ,orthern
)emisphere cou"d be perpetuated by increases in ice and snow coverage there(
which wou"d "ead to reDection o& more sun"ight away &rom the @arth( to &urther
coo"ing( and( indirect"y( to &urther drought in sub-aharan ;est 3&rica.
Kespite these are predictions and even though the current 3&rican drought has
"asted "onger than any other in this century( the notion that the drought is caused
by coo"ing o& the ,orthern )emisphere is( in &act( not we"" supported. %ontrary to
the predictions o& the coo"ing hypothesis( during one period o& rapid ,orthern
)emisphere coo"ing in the ear"y 19/0s( the sub-ahara was unusua""y rainy.
Boreover( in the ear"y 1980s( when the drought was particu"ar"y severe( ,orthern
)emisphere "ands actua""y warmed s"ight"y. 3nd &urther doubt has been cast on
the hypothesis by recent ana"yses suggesting that( when sur&ace temperatures o&
water as we"" as "and are ta$en into account( the ,orthern )emisphere may not
have coo"ed at a"".
22. &hich one of the following best e$presses the main idea of the passage%
(A) There is strong e'idence to support the theory that an increase in atmospheric
dust has contributed to the se'erity of the drought in sub(;aharan &est Africa.
(B) The suggestion that 9orthern )emisphere cooling is contributing to a decline
of rainfall in sub(;aharan &est Africa is open to "uestion.
(C) The e$pansion of the circumpolar 'orte$ has caused a dramatic shift in the
,20 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
atmospheric circulation patterns abo'e sub(;aharan &est Africa.
() The drought in sub(;aharan &est Africa represents a long(term permanent
alteration in global climate patterns.
(#) ?eteorologists cannot determine when the drought in sub(;aharan &est Africa
is likely to end.
2.. The author4s attitude toward the cooling hypothesis is best described as one of
(A) 'ehement opposition
(B) cautious skepticism
(C) growing ambi'alence
() guarded enthusiasm
(#) strong support
20. According to the passage proponents of the cooling hypothesis suggested that the
circumpolar 'orte$ is likely to e$pand when which one of the following occurs%
(A) The a'erage annual atmospheric temperature of the tropics is significantly
higher than normal for an e$tended period of time.
(B) The a'erage annual snowfall in the 9orthern )emisphere is lower than normal
for an e$tended period of time.
(C) The a'erage annual surface temperature of 9orthern )emisphere waters is
higher than the a'erage annual surface temperature of 9orthern )emisphere
landmasses.
() There is a significant increase in the difference between the a'erage annual
atmospheric temperature of the tropics and that of the more northern latitudes.
(#) There is a significant increase in the difference between the a'erage annual
atmospheric temperatures of the middle and the high latitudes in the 9orthern
)emisphere.
21. &hich one of the following can be inferred from the passage about the a'erage
annual temperature of the air o'er 9orthern )emisphere landmasses before 1,01%
(A) 3t was higher than it was between 1,01 and the early 1,-5s.
(B) 3t was lower than it was during the early 1,65s.
(C) 3t was the same as it was between 1,01 and the early 1,-5s.
() 3t was the same as the annual a'erage surface temperature of 9orthern
)emisphere landmasses and bodies of water between 1,01 and the early
1,-5s.
(#) 3t was higher than the annual a'erage surface temperature of 9orthern
)emisphere landmasses and bodies of water between 1,01 and the early
1,-5s.
22. &hich one of the following best describes the organi!ation of the passage%
(A) 8pposing points of 'iew are presented/ e'idence supporting each point of 'iew
LSAT ,21
is discussed/ and then one point of 'iew is de'eloped into a formal hypothesis.
(B) A theory is discussed and different points of 'iew about the theory are
discussed/ supported and then reconciled.
(C) A hypothesis is proposed/ contradictory e'idence is discussed and then the
hypothesis is amended.
() A theory e$plaining a phenomenon is proposed/ supporting e'idence is
considered and then the theory is disputed.
(#) A point of 'iew is presented/ a theory supporting the 'iew is proposed/
contradictory e'idence is presented and then a different theory is proposed.
2-. A proponent of the cooling hypothesis would most likely argue that the return of
the monsoon rains to sub(;aharan &est Africa would indicate that which one of
the following has also occurred%
(A) The amount of ice and snow co'erage o'er the landmasses of the 9orthern
)emisphere has increased.
(B) The a'erage annual temperature of the atmosphere o'er the middle and high
latitudes of the 9orthern )emisphere has decreased.
(C) The a'erage annual temperature of the atmosphere o'er the tropics in the
9orthern )emisphere has increased.
() 8ther components of large(scale atmospheric circulation besides the
circumpolar 'orte$ ha'e e$panded and mo'ed southward.
(#) The atmospheric circulation pattern of the high(altitude westerly winds has
resumed its normal pattern.
LSAT 23 SECTON
T!"e 35 "!#$%es 26 &$es%!o#s
Directions: Each passage in this section is followed by a group of questions to be answered on
the basis of what is stated or implied in the passage. For some of the questions, more than one
of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However, you are to choose the best
answer, that is, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question, and
blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.
;herever the crime nove"s o& 9. K. Cames are discussed by critics( there is a
tendency on the one hand to e8aggerate her merits and on the other to castigate
her as a genre writer who is getting above herse"&. 9erhaps under"ying the debate
is that &ami"iar( &a"se opposition set up between di1erent $inds o& #ction(
according to which en5oyab"e nove"s are he"d to be somehow s"ight"y "owbrow( and
a nove" is not considered true "iterature un"ess it is a tiny bit du"".
Those commentators who wou"d e"evate Cames6 boo$s to the status o& high
"iterature point to her painsta$ing"y constructed characters( her e"aborate
settings( her sense o& p"ace( and her "ove o& abstractionsA notions about mora"ity(
,22 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
duty( pain( and p"easure are never &ar &rom the "ips o& her po"ice o*cers and
murderers. <thers #nd her pretentious and tiresome= an inverted snobbery
accuses her o& abandoning the time-honored conventions o& the detective genre
in &avor o& a highbrow "iterary sty"e. The critic )arriet ;augh wants 9. K. Cames to
get on with >the more ta8ing business o& "aying a tric$y trai" and then &oo"ing the
reader?= 9hi"ip <a$es in The 'iterary *eview groans( >%ou"d we p"ease proceed
with the business o& c"apping the handcu1s on the $i""erG?
Cames is certain"y capab"e o& stri$ing"y good writing. he ta$es immense
troub"e to provide her characters with convincing histories and passions. )er
descriptive digressions are part o& the p"easure o& her boo$s and give them dignity
and weight. 'ut it is e-ua""y true that they &re-uent"y inter&ere with the story= the
patinas and aromas o& a country $itchen receive more "oving attention than does
the p"ot itse"&. )er devices to advance the story can be shame"ess and thin( and it
is o&ten impossib"e to see how her detective arrives at the truth= one is "e&t to
conc"ude that the detective so"ves crimes through intuition. 3t this stage in her
career 9. K. Cames seems to be "ess interested in the speci#cs o& detection than in
her characters6 vu"nerabi"ities and perp"e8ities.
)owever( once the ru"es o& a chosen genre cramp creative thought( there is no
reason why an ab"e and interesting writer shou"d accept them. 2n her "atest boo$(
there are signs that Cames is beginning to &ee" constrained by the crime-nove"
genre( here her determination to "eave areas o& ambiguity in the so"ution o& the
crime and to distribute gui"t among the murderer( victim( and bystanders points to
conscious rebe""ion against the traditiona" neatness o& detective #ction. 2t is
&ashionab"e( though reprehensib"e( &or one writer to prescribe to another. 'ut
perhaps the time has come &or 9. K. Cames to s"ide out o& her handcu1s and stride
into the territory o& the mainstream nove".
1. &hich one the following best states the author4s main conclusion%
(A) Because @. . Aames4s potential as a writer is stifled by her chosen genre/ she
should turn her talents toward writing mainstream no'els.
(B) Because the re"uirements of the popular no'el are incompatible with true
creati'e e$pression/ @. . Aames4s promise as a serious author has been
diminished.
(C) The dichotomy between popular and sophisticated literature is well illustrated
in the crime no'els of @. . Aames.
() The critics who ha'e condemned @. . Aames4s lack of attention to the
specifics of detection fail to take into account her carefully constructed plots.
(#) Although her plots are not always neatly resol'ed/ the beauty of her descripti'e
passages <ustifies @. . Aames4s decision to write in the crime(no'el genre.
2. The author refers to the *patinas and aromas of a county kitchen+ line .2) most
probably in order to
(A) illustrate Aames4s gift for inno'ati'e phrasing
LSAT ,2-
(B) highlight Aames4s interest in rural society
(C) allow the reader to e$perience the pleasure of Aames4s books
() e$plain how Aames typically constructs her plots
(#) e$emplify Aames4s preoccupation with descripti'e writing
.. The second paragraph ser'es primarily to
(A) propose an alternati'e to two e$treme opinions described earlier
(B) present pre'iously mentioned positions in greater detail
(C) contradict an assertion cited pre'iously
() introduce a contro'ersial interpretation
(#) analy!e a dilemma in greater depth
0. The passage supports which one of the following statements about detecti'e
fiction%
(A) There are as many different detecti'e(no'el con'entions as there are writers of
crime no'els.
(B) etecti'e fiction has been characteri!ed by e$tremely high literary "uality.
(C) etecti'e fiction has been largely ignored by literary critics.
() There is 'ery little agreement among critics about the basic elements of typical
detecti'e no'el.
(#) &riters of detecti'e fiction ha'e customarily followed certain con'entions in
constructing their no'els.
1. The passage suggests that both &augh and 8akes consider Aames4s no'els to ha'e
(A) too much material that is e$traneous to the solution of the crime
(B) too little characteri!ation to enable the reader to sol'e the crime
(C) too few suspects to generate suspense
() too simple a plot to hold the attention of the reader
(#) too con'oluted a plot for the reader to understand
2. 3t can be inferred from the passage that/ in the author4s 'iew/ traditional detecti'e
fiction is characteri!ed by
(A) concern for the weaknesses and doubts of the characters
(B) transparent de'ices to ad'ance the plot
(C) the attribution of intuition to the detecti'e
() the straightforward assignment of culpability for the crime
(#) attention to the concepts of morality and responsibility
-. The author characteri!es the position of some critics as *in'erted snobbery+ (line
1-) because they hold which one of the following 'iews%
(A) Critics of literature must acknowledge that they are less talented than creators
,26 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
of literature.
(B) Critics should hesitate to disparage popular authors.
(C) @. . Aames4s no'els should focus less on characters from the #nglish landed
gentry.
() etecti'e fiction should be content to remain an unambiguous literary genre.
(#) @. . Aames should be less fastidious bout portraying 'iolence.
6. &hich one of the follow "uotations about literature best e$emplifies the *familiar+
attitude mentioned in lines 1(,%
(A) *The fantasy and whimsy characteristic of this writer4s no'els "ualify them as
truly great works of literature.+
(B) *The greatest work of early #nglish literature happens to be a highly humorous
collection of tales.+
(C) A truly great work of literature should place demand upon its readers/ rather
than di'ert them.+
() *Although many critics are condescending about best(selling no'els/ 3 would
not wish to challenge the opinion of millions of readers.+
(#) *A no'el need only satisfy the re"uirements of its particular genre to be
considered a true work of literature.+
Bany ,ative 3mericans view the archaeo"ogica" e8cavation and museum
disp"ay o& ancestra" s$e"eta" remains and items buried with them as a spiritua"
desecration. 3 number o& "ega" remedies that either prohibit or regu"ate such
activities may be avai"ab"e to ,ative 3merican communities( i& they can estab"ish
standing in such cases. 2n disinterment cases( courts have traditiona""y a*rmed
the standing o& three c"asses o& p"ainti1sA the deceased6s heirs( the owner o& the
property on which the grave is "ocated( and parties( inc"uding organi+ations or
distant re"atives o& the deceased( that have a c"ear interest in the preservation o&
a particu"ar grave. 2& an archaeo"ogica""y discovered grave is o& recent historica"
origin and associated with an identi#ab"e ,ative 3merican community( ,ative
3mericans are "i$e"y to estab"ish standing in a suit to prevent disinterment o& the
remains( but in cases where the grave is ancient and "ocated in an area where the
community o& ,ative 3mericans associated with the grave has not recent"y "ived(
they are "ess "i$e"y to be success&u" in this regard. 2ndeed( in most cases invo"ving
ancient graves( to recogni+e that ,ative 3mericans have standing wou"d
represent a signi#cant e8pansion o& common "aw. 2n cases where standing can be
achieved( however( common "aw may provide a basis &or some ,ative 3merican
c"aims against archaeo"ogists and museums.
9roperty "aw( &or e8amp"e( can be use&u" in estab"ishing ,ative 3merican c"aims
to arti&acts that are retrieved in the e8cavation o& ancient graves and can be
considered the communa" property o& ,ative 3merican tribes or communities. 2n
Charrier v. Bell( a United tates appe""ate court ru"ed that the common "aw
doctrine o& abandonment( which a""ows the #nder o& abandoned property to c"aim
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ownership( does not app"y to ob5ects buried with the deceased. The court ru"ed
that the practice o& burying items with the body o& the deceased >is not intended
as a means o& re"in-uishing ownership to a stranger? and that to interpret it as
such >cou"d render a grave sub5ect to despo"iation either immediate"y a&ter
interment or[a&ter remova" o& the descendants o& the deceased &rom the
neighborhood o& the cemetery.? This ru"ing suggests that arti&acts e8cavated &rom
,ative 3merican ancestra" graves shou"d be returned to representatives o& triba"
groups who can estab"ish standing in such cases.
Bore genera""y( United ates courts have uphe"d the distinction between
individua" and communa" property( ho"ding that an individua" ,ative 3merican
does not have tit"e to communa" property owned and he"d &or common use by his
or her tribe. 3s a resu"t( museums cannot assume that they have va"id tit"e to
cu"tura" property mere"y because they purchased in good &aith an item that was
origina""y so"d in good &aith by an individua" member o& a ,ative 3merican
community.
,. The primary purpose of the passage is to pro'ide an answer to which one of the
following "uestions%
(A) )ow should the legal protection of 9ati'e American burial grounds be
enhanced%
(B) &hat characteristics of 9ati'e American burial grounds enhance their chances
for protection by the law%
(C) 3n what ways does the law protect the rights of 9ati'e Americans in regards to
the contents of ancestral gra'es%
() &hy are the courts concerned with protecting 9ati'e American burial grounds
from desecration%
(#) By what means can 9ati'e Americans establish their rights to land on which
their ancestors are buried%
15. 3t can be inferred that a court would be most likely to deny standing in a
disinterment case to which one of the following 9ati'e American plaintiffs%
(A) one who seeks/ as one of se'eral beneficiaries of his father4s estate/ to protect
the father4s burial site
(B) one who seeks to pre'ent tenants on her land from taking artifacts from a gra'e
located on the property
(C) one who represents a tribe whose members hope to pre'ent the disinterment of
remains from a distant location from which the tribe recently mo'ed
() one who seeks to ha'e artifacts that ha'e been remo'ed from a gra'e
determined to be that of her second cousin returned to the gra'e
(#) one who seeks the return of artifacts taken from the ancient burial grounds of
disparate tribes and now displayed in a museum
11. According to the passage/ which one of the following is true of cases in'ol'ing
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ancient gra'es%
(A) 8nce a plaintiff4s standing has been established/ such cases are usually more
difficult to resol'e than are cases in'ol'ing more recent gra'es.
(B) The distinction between indi'idual and communal property is usually an issue
in such cases.
(C) #'en when a plaintiff4s standing has been established/ property law cannot be
used as a basis for the claims of 9ati'e Americans in most such cases.
() 3n most such cases/ common law does not currently pro'ide a clear basis for
establishing that 9ati'e Americans ha'e standing.
(#) Common law is rarely used as a basis for the claims of 9ati'e Americans who
ha'e established standing in such cases.
12. The passage suggests that in making the ruling in Charrier $2 %ell the court is most
likely to ha'e considered the answer to which one of the following "uestions%
(A) Are the descendants of the deceased still ali'e%
(B) &hat was the reason for burying the ob<ects in "uestion%
(C) )ow long after interment had buried ob<ects been claimed by stranger%
() id the descendants of the deceased remain in the neighborhood of the
cemetery%
(#) Could the property on which buried ob<ects were found be legally considered
to be abandoned property%
1.. The author uses the second paragraph to
(A) illustrate the contention that common law may support the claims of 9ati'e
Americans to the contents of ancestral gra'es
(B) e$emplify the difficulties that 9ati'e Americans are likely to encounter in
claiming ancestral remains
(C) introduce a discussion of the distinction between indi'idual and communal
property
() confirm the contention that cases in'ol'ing ancient gra'es present unresol'ed
legal problems
(#) suggest that property law is applicable in most disinterment cases
10. &hich one of the following best e$presses the main idea of the passage%
(A) @rior to an appellate court4s ruling in Charrier $2 %ell/ 9ati'e Americans had
no legal grounds for demanding the return of artifacts e$ca'ated from ancient
gra'es.
(B) @roperty law offers the most promising remedies to 9ati'e Americans seeking
to reco'er communally owned artifacts that were sold to museums without
tribal authori!ation.
(C) The older the gra'e/ the more difficult it is for 9ati'e Americans to establish
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standing in cases concerning the disposition of archaeologically e$ca'ated
ancestral remains.
() 3n cases in which 9ati'e Americans can establish standing/ common law can
be useful in protecting ancestral remains and the artifacts buried with them.
(#) 9ati'e Americans are unlikely to make significant progress in the reco'ery of
cultural property until common law is significantly e$panded to pro'ide them
with standing in cases in'ol'ing the e$ca'ation of ancient gra'es.
;hen the same habitat types (&orests( oceans( grass"ands etc.) in regions o&
di1erent "atitudes are compared( it becomes apparent that the overa"" number o&
species increases &rom po"e to e-uator. This "atitudina" gradient is probab"y even
more pronounced than current records indicate( since researchers be"ieve that
most undiscovered species "ive in the tropics.
<ne hypothesis to e8p"ain this phenomenon( the >time theory? ho"ds that
diverse species adapted to today6s c"imatic conditions have had more time to
emerge in the tropica" regions( which( un"i$e the temperate and arctic +ones( have
been una1ected by a succession o& ice ages. )owever( ice ages have caused "ess
disruption in some temperate regions than in others and have not interrupted
arctic conditions.
3"ternative"y( the species-energy hypothesis proposes the &o""owing positive
corre"ationsA incoming energy &rom the un corre"ated with rates o& growth and
reproduction= rates o& growth and reproduction with the amount o& "iving matter
(biomass) at a given moment= and the amount o& biomass with number o& species.
)owever( since organisms may die rapid"y( high production rates can e8ist with
"ow biomass. 3nd high biomass can e8ist with &ew species. Boreover( the
mechanism proposed!greater energy inDu8 "eading to bigger popu"ations(
thereby "owering the probabi"ity o& "oca" e8tinction!remains untested.
3 third hypothesis centers on the tropics6 c"imatic stabi"ity( which provides a
more re"iab"e supp"y o& resources. pecies can thus survive even with &ew types o&
&ood( and competing species can to"erate greater over"ap between their
respective niches. 'oth capabi"ities enab"e more species to e8ist on the same
resources. )owever( the eco"ogy o& "oca" communities cannot account &or the
origin o& the "atitudina" gradient. Joca"i+ed eco"ogica" processes such as
competition do not generate regiona" poo"s o& species( and it is the tota" number
o& species avai"ab"e regiona""y &or co"oni+ing any particu"ar area that ma$es the
di1erence between( &or e8amp"e( a &orest at the e-uator and one at higher
"atitude.
3 &ourth and most p"ausib"e hypothesis &ocuses on regiona" speciation( and in
particu"ar on rates o& speciation and e8tinction. 3ccording to this hypothesis( i&
speciation rates become higher toward the tropics( and are not negated by
e8tinction rates( then the "atitudina" gradient wou"d resu"t!and become
increasing"y steep.
The mechanism &or this rate-o&-speciation hypothesis is that most new anima"
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species( and perhaps p"ant species( arise because a popu"ation subgroup becomes
iso"ated. This subgroup evo"ves di1erent"y and eventua""y cannot interbreed with
members o& the origina" popu"ation. The uneven spread o& a species over a "arge
geographic area promotes this mechanismA at the edges( sma"" popu"ations
spread out and &orm iso"ated groups. ince subgroups in an arctic environment
are more "i$e"y to &ace e8tinction than those in the tropics( the "atter are more
"i$e"y to survive "ong enough to adapt to "oca" conditions and u"timate"y become
new species.
11. &hich one of the following most accurately e$pressed the main idea of the
passage%
(A) At present/ no single hypothesis e$plaining the latitudinal gradient in numbers
of species is more widely accepted than any other.
(B) The tropical climate is more conducti'e to promoting species di'ersity than are
arctic or temperate climates.
(C) ;e'eral e$planations ha'e been suggested for global patterns in species
distribution/ but a hypothesis in'ol'ing rates of speciation seems most
promising.
() espite their differences/ the 'arious hypotheses regarding a latitudinal
gradient in species di'ersity concur in prediction that the gradient can be
e$pected to increase.
(#) 3n distinguishing among the current hypotheses for distribution of species/ the
most important criterion is whether a hypothesis proposes a mechanism that
can be tested and 'alidated.
12. &hich one of the following situations is most consistent with the species(energy
hypothesis as described in the passage%
(A) The many plants in a large agricultural tract represent a limited range of
species.
(B) An animal species e$periences a death rate almost as rapid as its rate of growth
and reproduction.
(C) &ithin the small number of li'ing organisms in a desert habitat/ many different
species are represented.
() 3n a tropical rain forest/ a species with a large population is found to e$hibit
instances of local e$tinction.
(#) 3n an arctic tundra/ the plants and animals e$hibit a slow rate of growth and
reproduction.
1-. As presented in the passage/ the principles of the time theory most strongly
support which one of the following predictions%
(A) 3n the absence of additional ice ages/ the number of species at high latitudes
could e'entually increase significantly.
(B) 9o future ice ages are likely to change the climatic conditions that currently
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characteri!e temperate regions.
(C) 3f no further ice ages occur/ climatic conditions at high latitudes might
e'entually resemble those at today4s tropical latitudes.
() =esearchers will continue to find many more new species in the tropics than in
the arctic and temperate !ones.
(#) >uture ice ages are likely to interrupt the climatic conditions that now
characteri!e high(latitude regions.
16. &hich one of the following/ if true/ most clearly weakens the rate(of(speciation
hypothesis as it is described in the passage%
(A) A remote subgroup of a tropical species is reunited with the original population
and pro'es unable to interbreed with members of this original population.
(B) 3n'estigation of a small area of a tropical rain forest re'eals that many
competing species are able to coe$ist on the same range of resources.
(C) A correlation between higher energy influ$/ larger populations and lower
probability of local e$tinction is definiti'ely established.
() =esearchers find more undisco'ered species during an in'estigation of an
arctic region than they had anticipated.
(#) ?ost of the isolated subgroups of mammalian life within a tropical !one are
found to e$perience rapid e$tinction.
1,. &hich one of the following inferences about the biological characteristics of a
temperate(!one grassland is most strongly supported by the passage%
(A) 3t has more different species than does a tropical(!one forest.
(B) 3ts climatic conditions ha'e been se'erely interrupted in the past by succession
of ice ages.
(C) 3f it has a large amount of biomass/ it also has a large number of different
species.
() 3t has a larger regional pool of species than does an arctic grassland.
(#) 3f population groups become isolated at its edges/ they are likely to adapt to
local conditions and become new species.
25. &ith which one of the following statements concerning possible e$planations for
the latitudinal gradient in number of species would the author be most likely to
agree%
(A) The time theory is the least plausible of proposed hypotheses/ since it does not
correctly assess the impact of ice ages upon tropical conditions.
(B) The rate(of(speciation hypothesis addresses a principal ob<ection to the
climatic(stability hypothesis.
(C) The ma<or ob<ection to the time theory is that it does not accurately reflect the
degree to which the latitudinal gradient e$ists/ especially when undisco'ered
species are taken into account.
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() espite the claims of the species(energy hypothesis/ a high rate of biological
growth and reproduction is more likely to e$ist with low biomass than with
high biomass.
(#) An important ad'antage of the rate(of(speciation theory is that it considers
species competition in a regional rather than local conte$t.
Two impressive studies have ree8amined @ric ;i""iams6 conc"usion that 'ritain6s
abo"ition o& the s"ave trade in 1807 and its emancipation o& s"avers in its co"onies
in 187M were driven primari"y by economic rather than humanitarian motives.
'"ighted by dep"eted soi"( indebtedness( and the ine*ciency o& coerced "abor(
these co"onies( according to ;i""iams( had by 1807 become an impediment to
'ritish economic progress.
eymour Krescher provides a more ba"anced view. Re5ecting interpretations
based either on economic interest or the mora" vision o& abo"itionists( Krescher
has reconstructed the popu"ist characteristics o& 'ritish abo"itionism( which
appears to have cut across "ines o& c"ass( party( and re"igion. ,oting that between
1780 and 1870 antis"avery petitions outnumbered those on any other issue(
inc"uding par"iamentary re&orm( Krescher conc"udes that such support cannot be
e8p"ained by economic interest a"one( especia""y when much o& it came &rom the
unen&ranchised masses. Iet( aside &rom demonstrating that such support must
have resu"ted at "east in part &rom widespread "iteracy and a tradition o& po"itica"
activism( Krescher does not #na""y e8p"ain how @ng"and( a nation deep"y divided
by c"ass strugg"es( cou"d mobi"i+e popu"ar support &or antis"avery measures
proposed by otherwise conservative po"iticians in the )ouse o& Jords and
approved there with "itt"e dissent.
Kavid @"tis6 answer to that -uestion actua""y supports some o& ;i""iams6
insights. @schewing Krescher6 s idea"i+ation o& 'ritish traditions o& "iberty( @"tis
points to continuing use o& "ow wages and Kraconian vagrancy "aws in the
seventeenth and eighteenth centuries to ensure the industriousness o& 'ritish
wor$ers. 2ndeed( certain notab"es even ca""ed &or the ens"avement o& unemp"oyed
"aborers who roamed the 'ritish countryside!an acceptance o& coerced "abor that
@"tis attributes to a preindustria" desire to $eep "abor costs "ow and e8ports
competitive. 'y the "ate eighteenth century( however( a growing home mar$et
began to a"ert capita"ists to the importance o& >want creation? and to incentives
such as higher wages as a means o& increasing both wor$er productivity and the
number o& consumers.
igni#cant"y( it was products grown by s"aves( such as sugar( co1ee( and
tobacco( that stimu"ated new wants at a"" "eve"s o& 'ritish society and were the
&orerunners o& products intended in modern capita"ist societies to satis&y what
@"tis describes as >nonsubsistence or psycho"ogica" needs.? @"tis conc"udes that in
economy that had begun to re"y on vo"untary "abor to satis&y such needs( &orced
"abor necessari"y began to appear both inappropriate and counterproductive to
emp"oyers. @"tis thus conc"udes that( whi"e ;i""iams may we"" have
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underestimated the economic viabi"ity o& the 'ritish co"onies emp"oying &orced
"abor in the ear"y 1800s( his insight into the economic motives &or abo"ition was
part"y accurate. 'ritish "eaders became committed to co"onia" "abor re&orm on"y
when they became convinced( &or reasons other than those cited by ;i""iams( that
&ree "abor was more bene#cia" to the imperia" economy.
21. &hich one of the following best describes the main idea of the passage%
(A) Although they disagree about the degree to which economic moti'es
influenced Britain4s abolition of sla'ery/ rescher and #ltis both concede that
moral persuasion by abolitionists was a significant factor.
(B) Although both rescher and #ltis ha'e "uestioned &illiams4 analysis of the
moti'ation behind Britain4s abolition of sla'ery/ there is support for part of
&illiams4 conclusion.
(C) Because he has taken into account the populist characteristics of British
abolitionism/ rescher4s e$planation of what moti'ated Britain4s abolition of
sla'ery is finally more persuasi'e than that of #ltis.
() 9either #ltis nor rescher has succeeded in e$plaining why support for
Britain4s abolition of sla'ery appears to ha'e cut across lines of party/ class/
and religion.
(#) Although flawed in certain respects/ &illiams4s conclusions regarding the
economic condition of British sla'e colonies early in the nineteenth century
ha'e been largely 'indicated.
22. 3t can be inferred that #ltis cites the 'iews of *certain notables+ (line .1) in order
to
(A) support the claim that British traditions of liberty were not as strong as
rescher belie'ed them to be
(B) support the contention that a strong labor force was important to Britain4s
economy
(C) emphasi!e the importance of sla'ery as an institution in preindustrial Britain
() indicate that the laboring classes pro'ided little support for the abolition of
sla'ery
(#) establish that laborers in preindustrial Britain had few ci'il rights
2.. &hich one of the following best states &illiams4 'iew of the primary reason for
Britain4s abolition of the sla'e trade and the emancipation of sla'es in its colonies%
(A) British populism appealed to people of 'aried classes/ parties/ and religions.
(B) Both capitalists and workers in Britain accepted the moral precepts of
abolitionists.
(C) >orced labor in the colonies could not produce enough goods to satisfy British
consumers.
() The operation of colonies based on forced labor was no longer economically
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ad'antageous.
(#) British workers became con'inced that forced labor in the colonies pre'ented
paid workers from recei'ing higher wages.
20. According to #ltis/ low wages and raconian 'agrancy laws in Britain in the
se'enteenth and eighteenth centuries were intended to
(A) protect laborers against unscrupulous employment practices
(B) counter the mo'e to ensla'e unemployed laborers
(C) ensure a cheap and producti'e work force
() ensure that the work force e$perienced no unemployment
(#) ensure that products produced in British colonies employing forced labor could
compete effecti'ely with those produced in Britain
21. 3t can be inferred that the author of the passage 'iews rescher4s presentation of
British traditions concerning liberty as
(A) accurately stated
(B) somewhat unrealistic
(C) carefully researched
() unnecessarily tentati'e
(#) superficially con'incing
22. The information in the passage suggests that #ltis and rescher agree that
(A) people of all classes in Britain supported the abolition of sla'ery
(B) the moti'es behind Britain4s abolition of sla'ery were primarily economic
(C) the moral 'ision of abolitionists played a 'ital part in Britain4s abolition of
sla'ery
() British traditions of liberty ha'e been ideali!ed by historians
(#) Britain4s tradition of political acti'ism was primarily responsible for Britain4s
abolition of sla'ery
2-. According to the passage/ #ltis argues against which one of the following
contentions%
(A) @opular support for antisla'ery measures e$isted in Britain in the early
nineteenth century.
(B) 3n the early nineteenth century/ colonies that employed forced labor were still
economically 'iable.
(C) British 'iews concerning personal liberty moti'ated nineteenth(century British
opposition to sla'ery.
() &idespread literacy in Britain contributed to public opposition to sla'ery in
the early nineteenth century.
(#) Antisla'ery measures proposed by conser'ati'e politicians in the early
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nineteenth century met with little opposition.
LSAT 2( SECTON
T!"e 35 "!#$%es 26 &$es%!o#s
Directions: Each passage in this section is followed by a group of questions to be answered on
the basis of what is stated or implied in the passage. For some of the questions, more than one
of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However, you are to choose the best
answer, that is, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question, and
blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.
The career o& trumpeter Bi"es Kavis was one o& the most astonishing"y
productive that 5a++ music has ever seen. Iet his genius has never received its
due. The impatience and artistic rest"essness that characteri+ed his wor$ spawned
one sty"istic turn a&ter another and made Kavis anathema to many critics( who
dep"ored his abandonment #rst o& bebop and then o& >coo"? acoustic 5a++ &or ever
more innovative sounds.
)aving begun his career studying bebop( Kavis pu""ed the #rst o& many sty"istic
surprises when( in 19M8( he became a member o& an impromptu musica" thin$
tan$ that gathered in a ,ew Ior$ %ity apartment. The wor$ o& this group not on"y
s"owed down tempos and &eatured ensemb"e p"aying as much as or even more
than so"os!in direct reaction to bebop!it a"so became the seedbed &or the >;est
%oast coo"? 5a++ sty"e.
2n what wou"d become a characteristic +ig+ag( Kavis didn6t &o""ow up on these
innovations himse"&. 2nstead( in the "ate 19/0s he &ormed a new band that bro$e
&ree &rom 5a++6s restrictive pattern o& chord changes. o"oists cou"d determine the
shapes o& their me"odies without re&erring bac$ to the same unvarying repetition
o& chords. 2n this period( Kavis attempted to 5oin 5a++ phrasings( harmonies( and
tona" -ua"ities with a uni#ed and integrated sound simi"ar to that o& a c"assica"
orchestra" pieceA in his recordings the rhythms( no matter how 5a++"i$e( are a"ways
understated( and the instrumenta" voicings seem muted.
Kavis6s recordings &rom the "ate 19L0s signa" that( once again( his direction
was changing. <n Filles de 0iliman=aro( Kavis6s re-uest that $eyboardist )erbie
)ancoc$ p"ay e"ectric rather than acoustic piano caused consternation among 5a++
purists o& the time. <ther a"bums &eatured roc$-sty"e beats( heavi"y e"ectronic
instrumentation( a "oose improvisationa" attac$ and a growing use o& studio
editing to create 5agged soundscapes. 'y 19L9 Kavis6s typica" studio procedure
was to have musicians improvise &rom a base script o& materia" and then to bui"d
#nished pieces out o& tape( "i$e a movie director. Roc$ groups had pioneered the
process= to 5a++ "overs( raised on the idea" o& "ive improvisation( that approach was
a vio"ation o& the premise that recordings shou"d simp"y document the musicians6
thought processes in rea" time. Kavis again became the target o& #erce po"emics
by purist 5a++ critics( who have continued to be"itt"e his contributions to 5a++.
,-6 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
;hat probab"y under"ies the intensity o& the reactions against Kavis is &ear o&
the broadening o& possibi"ities that he e8emp"i#ed. 2ronica""y( he was simp"y doing
what 5a++ e8p"orers have a"ways doneA reaching &or something new that was his
own. 'ut because his career endured( because he didn6t die young or record on"y
sporadica""y( and because he re&used to dwe"" in whatever niche he had previous"y
carved out( critics #nd it di*cu"t to de#nitive"y ran$ Kavis in the aesthetic
hierarchy to which they c"ing.
1. &hich one of the following best states the main point the passage%
(A) Because the career of ?iles a'is was characteri!ed by fre"uent shifts in
styles/ he ne'er fulfilled his musical potential.
(B) Because the career of ?iles a'is does not fit neatly into their preconceptions
about the life and music of <a!! musicians/ <a!! critics ha'e not accorded him
the appreciation he deser'es.
(C) Because the career of ?iles a'is was unusually long and producti'e/ he
ne'er recei'ed the popular acclaim generally reser'ed for artists with more
tragic life histories.
() The long and producti'e career of ?iles a'is spawned most of the ma<or
stylistic changes affecting twentieth(century <a!!.
(#) ?iles a'is4 'ersatility and openness ha'e inspired the admiration of most <a!!
critics.
2. According to the passage/ which one of the following true of the *&est Coast
cool+ <a!! style%
(A) 3t was populari!ed by ?iles a'is.
(B) 3t was characteri!ed by a unified and integrated sound.
(C) 3t was played primarily by large ensembles.
() 3t introduced a wide 'ariety of chord change patterns.
(#) 3t grew out of inno'ations de'eloped in 9ew Hork City.
.. The passage suggests which one of the following about the kind of <a!! played by
?iles a'is prior to 1,06%
(A) 3t was characteri!ed by rapid tempos and an emphasis on solo playing.
(B) 3t e"ually balanced ensemble and solo playing.
(C) 3t was a reaction against more restricti'e <a!! styles.
() 3t is regarded by purist <a!! critics as the only authentic <a!! style.
(#) 3t was played primarily in 9ew Hork City <a!! clubs.
0. &hich one of the following best describes the author4s attitude toward ?iles
a'is4 music%
(A) uneasy ambi'alence
(B) cautious neutrality
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(C) grudging respect
() moderate commendation
(#) appreciati'e ad'ocacy
1. &hich one of the following creati'e processes is most similar to ?iles a'is4
typical studio procedure of the late 1,25s/ as described in the fourth paragraph of
the passage%
(A) The producer of a tele'ision comedy show suggests a setting and general topic
for a comedy sketch and then lets the comedians write their own script.
(B) An actor digresses from the written script and impro'ises during a monologue
in order to introduce a feeling of spontaneity to the performance.
(C) A conductor rehearses each section of the orchestra separately before
assembling them to rehearse the entire piece together.
() An artist has se'eral photographers take pictures pertaining to a certain
assigned theme and then assembles them into a pictorial collage.
(#) A teacher has each student in a writing class write an essay on an assigned
topic and then submits the best essays to be considered for publication in a
<ournal.
2. &hich one of the following/ if true/ would most undermine the author4s
e$planation for the way ?iles a'is is regarded by <a!! critics%
(A) ?any <a!! musicians who speciali!e in impro'isational playing are greatly
admired by <a!! critics.
(B) ?any <a!! musicians whose careers ha'e been characteri!ed by se'eral radical
changes in style are greatly admired by <a!! critics.
(C) ;e'eral <a!! musicians who perform e$clusi'ely on electronic instruments are
'ery highly regarded by <a!! critics.
() The <a!! inno'ators who are held in the highest regard by <a!! critics had brief
yet brilliant careers.
(#) Aa!! critics are known to ha'e a higher regard for musicality than for mere
technical 'irtuosity.
'y the mid-&ourteenth century( pro&essiona" associations o& canon "awyers
("ega" advocates in %hristian ecc"esiastica" courts( which dea"t with cases invo"ving
marriage( inheritance( and other issues) had appeared in most o& ;estern @urope(
and a body o& pro&essiona" standards had been de#ned &or them. <ne might
e8pect that the pro&essiona" associations wou"d p"ay a prominent ro"e in en&orcing
these standards o& conduct( as other gui"ds o&ten did( and as modern pro&essiona"
associations do( but that seems not to have happened. 3dvocates6 pro&essiona"
organi+ations showed "itt"e &ervor &or discip"ining their erring members. ome
even attempted to hobb"e e1orts at en&orcement. The :"orentine gui"d o& "awyers(
&or e8amp"e( &orbade its members to p"ay any ro"e in discip"inary proceedings
against other gui"d members. 2n the &ew recorded episodes o& discip"inary
,65 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
en&orcement( the initiative &or discip"inary action apparent"y came &rom a
dissatis#ed c"ient( not &rom &e""ow "awyers.
3t #rst g"ance( there seem to be two possib"e e8p"anations &or the rarity o&
discip"inary proceedings. Bedieva" canon "awyers may have genera""y observed
the standards o& pro&essiona" conduct scrupu"ous"y. 3"ternative"y( it is possib"e that
deviations &rom the estab"ished standards o& behavior were not uncommon( but
that canonica" discip"inary mechanisms were so ine*cient that most de"in-uents
escaped detection and punishment.
Two considerations ma$e it c"ear that the second o& these e8p"anations is more
p"ausib"e. :irst( the @ng"ish civi" "aw courts( whose ethica" standards were simi"ar
to those o& ecc"esiastica" courts( show many more e8amp"es o& discip"inary actions
against "ega" practitioners than do the records o& church courts. This discrepancy
cou"d we"" indicate that the discip"inary mechanisms o& the civi" courts &unctioned
more e*cient"y than those o& the church courts. The a"ternative in&erence(
name"y( that ecc"esiastica" advocates were "ess prone to ethica" "apses than their
counterparts in the civi" courts( seems inherent"y wea$( especia""y since there was
some over"ap o& personne" between the civi" bar and the ecc"esiastica" bar.
econd( church authorities themse"ves comp"ained about the &ai"ure o&
advocates to measure up to ethica" standards and dep"ored the shortcomings o&
the discip"inary system. Thus the %ounci" o& 'ase" dec"ared that canon "awyers
&ai"ed to adhere to the ethica" prescriptions "aid down in numerous papa"
constitutions and directed %ardina" %esarian to address the prob"em. 2n @ng"and(
where medieva" church records are e8traordinari"y rich( simi"ar comp"aints about
the &ai"ure o& the discip"inary system to re&orm unethica" practices were very
common.
uch criticisms seem to have had a parado8ica" resu"t( &or they apparent"y
rein&orced the pro&essiona" so"idarity o& "awyers at the e8pense o& the en&orcement
o& ethica" standards. Thus the pro&ession6s critics may actua""y have induced
advocates to organi+e pro&essiona" associations &or se"&-de&ense. The critics6
attac$s may a"so have persuaded "awyers to assign a higher priority to de&ending
themse"ves against attac$s by nonpro&essiona"s than to discip"ining wayward
members within their own ran$s.
-. &hich one of the following best states the main conclusion of the passage%
(A) @rofessional organi!ations of medie'al canon lawyers probably only enforced
ethical standards among their own members when pro'oked to do so by
outside criticisms.
(B) @rofessional organi!ations of medie'al ci'il lawyers seem to ha'e maintained
stricter ethical standards for their own members than did professional
organi!ations of medie'al canon lawyers.
(C) @rofessional organi!ations of medie'al canon lawyers apparently ser'ed to
defend their members against critics4 attacks rather than to enforce ethical
LSAT ,61
standards.
() The ethical standards maintained by professional associations of medie'al
canon lawyers were chiefly laid down in papal constitutions.
(#) #thical standards for medie'al canon lawyers were not laid down until
professional organi!ations for these lawyers had been formed.
6. According to the passage/ which one of the following statements about law courts
in medie'al #ngland is true%
(A) ;ome #nglish lawyers who practiced in ci'il courts also practiced in church
courts/ but others ser'ed e$clusi'ely in one court or the other.
(B) #nglish canon lawyers were more likely to initiate disciplinary proceedings
against their colleagues than were #nglish ci'il lawyers.
(C) #nglish ci'il lawyers maintained more stringent ethical standards than did ci'il
lawyers in the rest of #urope.
() #nglish ecclesiastical courts had originally been modeled upon #nglish ci'il
courts.
(#) #nglish ecclesiastical courts kept richer and more thorough records than did
#nglish ci'il courts.
,. The author refers to the >lorentine guild of lawyers in the first paragraph most
probably in order to
(A) introduce a theory about to be promoted
(B) illustrate the type of action referred to in the pre'ious sentence
(C) underline the uni'ersality of a method discussed throughout the paragraph
() point out a flaw in an argument presented earlier in the paragraph
(#) rebut an anticipated ob<ection to a thesis <ust proposed
15. The author refers to the Council of Basel (line 0-) primarily in order to
(A) pro'ide an e$ample of the type of action needed to establish professional
standards for canon lawyers
(B) contrast the reactions of #nglish church authorities with the reactions of other
bodies to 'iolations of professional standards by canon lawyers
(C) bolster the argument that 'iolations of professional standards by canon lawyers
did take place
() e$plain how rules of conduct for canon lawyers were established
(#) describe the de'elopment of a disciplinary system to enforce professional
standards among canon lawyers
11. According to the information in the passage/ for which one of the following ethical
'iolations would documentation of disciplinary action against a canon lawyer be
most likely to e$ist%
(A) betraying a client4s secrets to the opposing party
,62 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
(B) bribing the <udge to rule in fa'or of a client
(C) misrepresenting credentials in order to gain admission to the lawyers4 guild
() spreading rumors in order to discredit an opposing lawyer
(#) knowingly helping a client to misrepresent the truth
12. &hich one of the following is most analogous to the *professional solidarity+
referred to in lines 12(1-%
(A) ?embers of a teachers4 union go on strike when they belie'e one of their
colleagues to be falsely accused of using an inappropriate te$tbook.
(B) 3n order to protect the reputation of the press in the face of a largely hostile
public/ a <ournalist conceals distortions in a colleague4s news article.
(C) ;e'eral do!en recording artists agree to participate in a concert to benefit an
endangered en'ironmental habitat.
() 3n order to e$pedite go'ernmental appro'al of a drug/ a go'ernment official is
persuaded to look the other way when a pharmaceutical manufacturer conceals
e'idence that the drug may ha'e minor side effects.
(#) A popular politician agrees to campaign for another/ less popular politician
belonging to the same political party.
1.. The passage suggests that which one of the following is most likely to ha'e been
true of medie'al guilds%
(A) >ew guilds of any importance e$isted before the mid(fourteenth century.
(B) ?any medie'al guilds e$ercised influence o'er the actions of their members.
(C) ?ost medie'al guilds maintained more e$acting ethical standards than did the
associations of canon lawyers.
() ?edie'al guilds found it difficult to enforce discipline among their members.
(#) The ethical standards of medie'al guilds 'aried from one city to another.
10. The author would be most likely to agree with which one of the following
regarding the hypothesis that medie'al canon lawyers obser'ed standards of
professional conduct scrupulously%
(A) 3t is untrue because it is contradicted by documents obtained from the
ecclesiastical courts.
(B) 3t is unlikely because it describes beha'ior markedly different from beha'ior
obser'ed in the same situation in modern society.
(C) 3t is unlikely because it describes beha'ior markedly different from beha'ior
obser'ed in a similar area of medie'al society.
() 3t is impossible to assess intelligently because of the dearth of ci'il and
ecclesiastical documents.
(#) 3t is directly supported by documents obtained from ci'il and ecclesiastical
courts.
LSAT ,6.
Bany birds that &orm Doc$s compete through aggressive interaction &or priority
o& access to resources such as &ood and she"ter. The resu"t o& repeated
interactions between Doc$ members is that each bird gains a particu"ar socia"
status re"ated to its #ghting abi"ity( with priority o& access to resources increasing
with higher status. 3s the number and intensity o& interactions between birds
increase( however( so increase the costs to each bird in terms o& energy
e8penditure( time( and ris$ o& in5ury. Thus( birds possessing attributes that reduce
the number o& cost"y interactions in which they must be invo"ved( without "eading
to a reduction in status( are at an advantage. 3n e8terna" signa"( such as a
p"umage type( announcing #ghting abi"ity and thereby obviating the actua" need
to #ght( cou"d be one such attribute.
The +oo"ogist Rohwer asserted that p"umage variations in >)arris sparrows?
support the status signa"ing hypothesis ()). )e reported that a"most without
e8ception birds with dar$er throats win conDicts with individua"s having "ighter
p"umage. )e c"aimed that even among birds o& the same age and se8 the amount
o& dar$ p"umage predicts re"ative dominance status.
)owever( Rohwer6s data do not support his assertionsA in one o& his studies
dar$er birds won on"y /7 out o& 7/ conDicts= within another( &ocusing on conDicts
between birds o& the same age group or se8( dar$er birds won L7 and "ost L4.
There are indications that p"umage probab"y does signa" broad age-re"ated
di1erences in status among )arris sparrowsA adu"ts( usua""y dar$ throated( have
higher status than 5uveni"es( who are usua""y "ight throated= moreover( 5uveni"es
dyed to resemb"e adu"ts are dominant over undyed 5uveni"es. )owever( the )arris
sparrows6 age-re"ated p"umage di1erences do not signa" the status o& individua"
birds within an age c"ass( and thus cannot proper"y be inc"uded under the term
>status signa"ing.?
The best evidence &or status signa"ing is &rom the greater titmouse.
@8periments show a strong corre"ation between the width o& the b"ac$ breast-
p"umage stripe and status as measured by success in aggressive interactions. 3n
ana"ysis o& &actors "i$e"y to be associated with breast-stripe width (se8( age( wing
"ength( body weight) has demonstrated socia" status to be the on"y variab"e that
corre"ates with stripe width when the other variab"es are he"d constant.
3n ingenious e8periment provided &urther evidence &or status signa"ing in the
greater titmouse. <ne o& three stu1ed titmouse dummies was mounted on a
&eeding tray. ;hen a "ive bird approached( the dummy was turned by radio contro"
to &ace the bird and present its breast stripe in >disp"ay?. ;hen presented with a
dummy having a narrower breast stripe than their own( birds approached c"ose"y
and behaved aggressive"y. )owever( when presented with a dummy having a
broader breast stripe than their own( "ive birds acted submissive and did not
approach.
11. According to the passage/ the status signaling hypothesis holds that the ability to
display a recogni!able e$ternal signal would ha'e the effect on an indi'idual bird
,60 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
of
(A) enabling it to attract a mate of high status
(B) allowing it to a'oid costly aggressi'e interactions
(C) decreasing its access to limited resources
() making it less attracti'e to predatory species
(#) increasing its fighting ability
12. The author refers to the fact that adult )arris sparrows are usually dark throated
(lines .1(.2)/ in order to do which one of the following%
(A) support the conclusion that plumage 'ariation among )arris sparrows
probably does not signal indi'idual status
(B) argue that plumage 'ariation among )arris sparrows helps to confirm the
status signaling hypothesis
(C) indicate that in light of plumage 'ariation patterns among )arris sparrows/ the
status signaling hypothesis should probably be modified
() demonstrate that )arris sparrows are the most appropriate sub<ects for the
study of status signaling among birds
(#) suggest that the signaling of age(related differences in status is widespread
among birds that form flocks
1-. &hich one of the following/ if true/ would most seriously undermine the 'alidity
of the results of the e$periment discussed in the last paragraph%
(A) The li'e birds all came from different titmouse flocks.
(B) The physical characteristics of the stuffed dummies 'aried in ways other than
<ust breast(stripe width.
(C) 9o li'e <u'enile birds were included in the e$periment.
() The food placed in the feeding tray was not the kind of food normally eaten by
titmice in the wild.
(#) #'en the li'e birds that acted aggressi'ely did not actually physically attack
the stuffed dummies.
16. &hich one of the following best describes the organi!ation of the passage%
(A) A hypothesis is introduced and studies rele'ant to the hypothesis are discussed
and e'aluated.
(B) A natural phenomenon is presented and se'eral e$planations for the
phenomenon are e$amined in detail.
(C) Beha'ior is described/ possible underlying causes for the beha'ior are
reported/ and the likelihood of each cause is assessed.
() A scientific conundrum is e$plained and the history of the issue is recounted.
(#) A scientific theory is outlined and opinions for and against its 'alidity as well
as e$periments supporting each side are compared.
LSAT ,61
1,. According to the passage/ which one of the following true of =ohwer4s
relationship to the status signaling hypothesis (;;))%
(A) Although his research was designed to test the ;;)/ his data pro'ed to be
more rele'ant to other issues.
(B) )e set out to confirm the ;;)/ but ended up re'ising it.
(C) )e set out to dispro'e the ;;)/ but ended up accepting it.
() )e altered the ;;) by e$panding it to encompass 'arious types of signals.
(#) )e ad'ocated the ;;)/ but his research data failed to confirm it.
25. The passage suggests that among birds that form flocks/ a bird of high status is
most likely to ha'e which one of the following%
(A) dark throat plumage
(B) greater(than(a'erage body weight
(C) offspring of high status
() strong fighting ability
(#) fre"uent in<uries
21. &hich one of the following can be inferred about )arris sparrows from the
passage%
(A) Among )arris sparrows/ plumage differences signal indi'idual status only
within age groups.
(B) Among )arris sparrows/ adults ha'e priority of access to food o'er <u'eniles.
(C) Among )arris sparrows/ <u'eniles with relati'ely dark plumage ha'e status
e"ual to that of adults with relati'ely light plumage.
() Au'enile )arris sparrows engage in aggressi'e interaction more fre"uently
than do adult )arris sparrows.
(#) )arris sparrows engage in aggressi'e interaction less fre"uently than do
greater titmice.
2n The -ynamics of "#ocaly#se( Cohn Jowe attempts to so"ve the mystery o&
the co""apse o& the %"assic Bayan civi"i+ation. Jowe bases his study on a detai"ed
e8amination o& the $nown archaeo"ogica" record. Ji$e previous investigators( Jowe
re"ies on dated monuments to construct a step-by-step account o& the actua"
co""apse. Using the erection o& new monuments as a means to determine a site6s
occupation span( Jowe assumes that once new monuments ceased to be bui"t( a
site had been abandoned. Jowe6s ana"ysis o& the evidence suggests that
construction o& new monuments continued to increase between 3. K. L74 and
7/1( but that the civi"i+ation stopped e8panding geographica""y= new construction
too$ p"ace a"most e8c"usive"y in estab"ished sett"ements. The #rst signs o& troub"e
&o""owed. Bonument inscriptions indicate that between 7/1 and 790( "ong-
standing a""iances started to brea$ down. @vidence a"so indicates that between
790 and 870( the death rate in %"assic Bayan cities outstripped the birthrate. 3&ter
,62 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
appro8imate"y 870( construction stopped throughout the area( and within a
hundred years( the %"assic Bayan civi"i+ation a"" but vanished.
)aving estab"ished this chrono"ogy( Jowe sets &orth a p"ausib"e e8p"anation o&
the co""apse that accommodates the avai"ab"e archaeo"ogica" evidence. )e
theori+es that %"assic Bayan civi"i+ation was brought down by the interaction o&
severa" &actors( set in motion by popu"ation growth. 3n increase in popu"ation(
particu"ar"y within the e"ite segment o& society( necessitated ever more intense
&arming. 3gricu"tura" intensi#cation e8erted stress on the soi" and "ed to a dec"ine
in productivity (the amount o& &ood produced through each unit o& "abor invested).
3t the same time( the growth o& the e"ite c"ass created increasing demands &or
ceremonia" monuments and "u8uries( diverting needed "abor &rom the #e"ds. The
theory ho"ds that these stresses were communicated!and amp"i#ed!throughout
the area as Bayan states engaged in war&are to ac-uire "aborers and &ood( and
re&ugees Ded impoverished areas. The most vu"nerab"e states thus began to brea$
down( and each down&a"" triggered others( unti" the entire civi"i+ation co""apsed.
2& there is a centra" Daw in Jowe6s e8p"anation( it is that the entire edi#ce rests
on the assumption that the avai"ab"e evidence paints a true picture o& how the
co""apse proceeded. )owever( it is di*cu"t to $now how accurate"y the
archaeo"ogica" record reDects historic activity( especia""y o& a comp"e8 civi"i+ation
such as the Bayans6( and a hypothesis can be tested on"y against the best
avai"ab"e data. 2t is -uite possib"e that our understanding o& the co""apse might be
radica""y a"tered by better data. :or e8amp"e( Jowe6s assumption about
monument construction and the occupation span o& a site might we"" be disproved
i& &urther investigations o& %"assic Bayan sites estab"ished that some remained
heavi"y sett"ed "ong a&ter the custom o& carving dynastic monuments had ceased.
22. &hich one of the following best describes the organi!ation of the passage%
(A) A method used to analy!e e'idence is described/ an e$planation of the
e'idence is suggested/ and then a conclusion is drawn from the e'idence.
(B) A hypothesis is presented/ e'idence supporting the hypothesis is pro'ided/ and
then the hypothesis is affirmed.
(C) An analysis of a study is presented/ contradictory e'idence is e$amined/ and
then a direction for future studies is suggested.
() The basis of a study is described/ a theory that e$plains the a'ailable e'idence
is presented/ and a possible flaw in the study is pointed out.
(#) An obser'ation is made/ e'idence supporting the obser'ation is presented/ and
then contradictions in the e'idence are discussed.
2.. &hich one of the following best e$presses the main idea of the passage%
(A) 3n The !yna-ics o+ Apocalypse/ Aohn Kowe successfully pro'es that the
collapse of Classic ?ayan ci'ili!ation was set in motion by increasing
population and decreasing producti'ity.
(B) 3n The !yna-ics o+ Apocalypse/ Aohn Kowe breaks new ground in sol'ing the
LSAT ,6-
mystery of the collapse of Classic ?ayan ci'ili!ation through his use of dated
monuments to create a step(by(step account of the collapse.
(C) 3n The !yna-ics o+ Apocalypse/ Aohn Kowe successfully uses e$isting data to
document the reduction and then cessation of new construction throughout
Classic ?ayan ci'ili!ation.
() Although Aohn Kowe4s study is based on a careful e$amination of the historical
record/ it does not accurately reflect the circumstances surrounding the
collapse of Classic ?ayan ci'ili!ation.
(#) &hile Aohn Kowe4s theory about the collapse of Classic ?ayan ci'ili!ation
appears credible/ it is based on an assumption that cannot be 'erified using the
archaeological record.
20. &hich one of the following is most closely analogous to the assumption Kowe
makes about the relationship between monument construction and Classic ?ayan
cities%
(A) A person assumes that the shortage of fresh produce on the shel'es of a
grocery store is due to the effects of poor weather conditions during the
growing season.
(B) A person assumes that a mo'ie theater only shows foreign films because the
titles of the films shown there are not familiar to the person.
(C) A person assumes that a restaurant is under new ownership because the
restaurant4s menu has changed drastically since the last time the person ate
there.
() A person assumes that a corporation has been sold because there is a new name
for the corporation on the sign outside the building where the company is
located.
(#) A person assumes a friend has sold her stamp collection because the friend has
stopped purchasing new stamps.
21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author would describe the method
Kowe used to construct a step(by(step chronology of the actual collapse of Classic
?ayan ci'ili!ation as
(A) daringly inno'ati'e but flawed
(B) generally accepted but "uestionable
(C) 'ery reliable but outdated
() unscientific but effecti'e
(#) uncon'entional but brilliant
22. The author of the passage would most likely agree with which one of the following
statements about the use of the archaeological record to reconstruct historic
acti'ity%
(A) &ith careful analysis/ archaeological e'idence can be used to reconstruct
,66 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
accurately the historic acti'ity of a past ci'ili!ation.
(B) Archaeological e'idence is more useful for reconstructing the day(to(day
acti'ities of a culture than its long(term trends.
(C) The accuracy of the archaeological record for reconstructing historic acti'ity is
dependent on the duration of the particular ci'ili!ation.
() The archaeological record is not an appropriate source of data for
reconstructing historic acti'ity.
(#) )istoric acti'ity can be reconstructed from archaeological e'idence/ but it is
ultimately impossible to confirm the accuracy of the reconstruction.
LSAT 25 SECTON
T!"e 35 "!#$%es 26 &$es%!o#s
Directions: Each passage in this section is followed by a group of questions to be answered on
the basis of what is stated or implied in the passage. For some of the questions, more than one
of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However, you are to choose the best
answer, that is, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question, and
blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.
9ainter :rida Sah"o (1910-19/M) o&ten used harrowing images derived &rom her
Be8ican heritage to e8press su1ering caused by a disab"ing accident and a
stormy marriage. uggesting much persona" and emotiona" content( her wor$s!
many o& them se"&-portraits!have been e8haustive"y psychoana"y+ed( whi"e their
po"itica" content has been "ess studied. Iet Sah"o was an ardent po"itica" activist
who in her art sought not on"y to e8p"ore her own roots( but a"so to champion
Be8ico6s strugg"e &or an independent po"itica" and cu"tura" identity.
Sah"o was inDuenced by Bar8ism( which appea"ed to many inte""ectua"s in the
1940s and 1970s( and by Be8ican nationa"ism. 2nterest in Be8ico6s cu"ture and
history had revived in the nineteenth century( and by the ear"y 1900s( Be8ican
indigenista tendencies ranged &rom a vio"ent"y anti-panish idea"i+ation o& 3+tec
Be8ico to an emphasis on contemporary Be8ican 2ndians as the $ey to authentic
Be8ican cu"ture. Be8ican nationa"ism( reacting against contemporary United
tates po"itica" intervention in "abor disputes as we"" as against past domination
by pain( identi#ed the 3+tecs as the "ast independent ru"ers o& an indigenous
po"itica" unit. Sah"o6s &orm o& (e3icanidad( a romantic nationa"ism that &ocused
upon traditiona" art uniting a"" indigenistas( revered the 3+tecs as a power&u" pre-
%o"umbian society that had united a "arge area o& the Bidd"e 3mericas and that
was thought to have been based on communa" "abor( the Bar8ist idea".
2n her paintings( Sah"o repeated"y emp"oyed 3+tec symbo"s( such as s$e"etons
or b"eeding hearts that were traditiona""y re"ated to the emanation o& "i&e &rom
death and "ight &rom dar$ness. These images o& destruction coup"ed with creation
spea$ not on"y to Sah"o6s persona" batt"e &or "i&e( but a"so to the Be8ican strugg"e
to emerge as a nation!by imp"ication( to emerge with the po"itica" and cu"tura"
strength admired in the 3+tec civi"i+ation. elf-#ortrait on the Border $etween
LSAT ,6,
(e3ico and the 2nited tates (1974)( &or e8amp"e( shows Sah"o wearing a bone
nec$"ace( ho"ding a Be8ican Dag( and standing between a high"y industria"i+ed
United tates and an agricu"tura"( preindustria" Be8ico. <n the United tates side
are mechanistic and modern images such as smo$estac$s( "ight bu"bs( and robots.
2n contrast( the organic and ancient symbo"s on the Be8ican side!a b"ood-
drenched un( "ush vegetation( an 3+tec scu"pture( a pre-%o"umbian temp"e( and a
s$u"" a""uding to those that "ined the wa""s o& 3+tec temp"es!emphasi+e the
interre"ation o& "i&e( death( the earth( and the cosmos.
Sah"o portrayed 3+tec images in the &o"$"oric sty"e o& traditiona" Be8ican
paintings( thereby heightening the c"ash between modern materia"ism and
indigenous tradition= simi"ar"y( she &avored p"anned economic deve"opment( but
not at the e8pense o& cu"tura" identity. )er use o& &ami"iar symbo"s in a readi"y
accessib"e sty"e a"so served her goa" o& being popu"ar"y understood= in turn( Sah"o
is viewed by some Be8icans as a mythic #gure representative o& nationa"ism
itse"&.
1. &hich one of the following best e$presses the main point of the passage%
(A) The doctrines of ?ar$ist ideology and ?e$ican nationalism hea'ily influenced
?e$ican painters of Mahlo4s generation.
(B) Mahlo4s paintings contain numerous references to the A!tecs as an indigenous
?e$ican people predating #uropean influence.
(C) An important element of Mahlo4s work is con'eyed by symbols that reflect her
ad'ocacy of indigenous ?e$ican culture and ?e$ican political autonomy.
() The use of A!tec images and symbols in Mahlo4s art can be traced to the late
nineteenth(century re'i'al of interest in ?e$ican history and culture.
(#) Mahlo used A!tec imagery in her paintings primarily in order to foster
contemporary appreciation for the authentic art of traditional ?e$ican culture.
2. &ith which one of the following statements concerning psychoanalytic and
political interpretations of Mahlo4s work would the author be most likely to agree%
(A) The psychoanalytic interpretations of Mahlo4s work tend to challenge the
political interpretations.
(B) @olitical and psychoanalytic interpretations are complementary approaches to
Mahlo4s work.
(C) =ecent political interpretations of Mahlo4s work are causing psychoanalytic
critics to re'ise their own interpretations.
() :nlike the political interpretations/ the psychoanalytic interpretations make
use of biographical facts of Mahlo4s life.
(#) Mahlo4s mythic status among the audience Mahlo most wanted to reach is
based upon the psychoanalytic rather than the political content of her work.
.. &hich one of the following stances toward the :nited ;tates does the passage
mention as characteri!ing ?e$ican nationalists in the early twentieth century%
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(A) opposition to :nited ;tates in'ol'ement in internal ?e$ican affairs
(B) desire to decrease emigration of the ?e$ican labor force to the :nited ;tates
(C) desire to impro'e ?e$ico4s economic competiti'eness with the :nited ;tates
() reluctance to imitate the :nited ;tates model of rapid industriali!ation
(#) ad'ocacy of a go'ernment based upon that of the ?ar$ist ;o'iet :nion rather
than that of the :nited ;tates
0. 3n the conte$t of the passage/ which one of the following phrases could best be
substituted for the word *romantic+ (line 20) without substantially changing the
author4s meaning%
(A) dreamy and escapist
(B) nostalgic and idealistic
(C) fanciful and imaginati'e
() transcendental and impractical
(#) o'erwrought and sentimental
1. The passage mentions each of the following as an A!tec symbol or image found in
Mahlo4s paintings #DC#@T a
(A) skeleton
(B) sculpture
(C) serpent
() skull
(#) bleeding heart
2. &hich one of the following best describes the organi!ation of the third paragraph%
(A) contrast of opposing ideas
(B) reconciliation of conflicting concepts
(C) interrelation of complementary themes
() e$plication of a principle4s implications
(#) support for a generali!ation by means of an e$ample
-. The passage implies that Mahlo4s attitude toward the economic de'elopment of
?e$ico was
(A) enthusiastic
(B) condemnatory
(C) cautious
() noncommittal
(#) uncertain
6. The main purpose of the passage is to
(A) criti"ue an artist4s style
LSAT ,,1
(B) e'aluate opposing theories
(C) reconcile conflicting arguments
() ad'ocate an additional interpretation
(#) reconsider an artist in light of new disco'eries
2n recent years( a growing be"ie& that the way society decides what to treat as
true is contro""ed through "arge"y unrecogni+ed discursive practices has "ed "ega"
re&ormers to e8amine the comp"e8 interconnections between narrative and "aw. 2n
many "ega" systems( "ega" 5udgments are based on competing stories about
events. ;ithout having witnessed these events( 5udges and 5uries must va"idate
some stories as true and re5ect others as &a"se. This procedure is rooted in
ob5ectivism( a phi"osophica" approach that has supported most ;estern "ega" and
inte""ectua" systems &or centuries. <b5ectivism ho"ds that there is a sing"e neutra"
description o& each event that is uns$ewed by any particu"ar point o& view and
that has a privi"eged position over a"" other accounts. The "aw6s -uest &or truth(
there&ore( consists o& "ocating this ob5ective description( the one that te""s what
rea""y happened( as opposed to what those invo"ved thought happened. The
serious Daw in ob5ectivism is that there is no such thing as the neutra"( ob5ective
observer. 3s psycho"ogists have demonstrated( a"" observers bring to a situation a
set o& e8pectations( va"ues( and be"ie&s that determine what the observers are
ab"e to see and hear. Two individua"s "istening to the same story wi"" hear di1erent
things( because they emphasi+e those aspects that accord with their "earned
e8periences and ignore those aspects that are dissonant with their view o& the
wor"d. )ence there is never any escape in "i&e or in "aw &rom se"ective perception
or &rom sub5ective 5udgments based on prior e8periences( va"ues( and be"ie&s.
The societa" harm caused by the assumption o& ob5ectivist princip"es in
traditiona" "ega" discourse is that( historica""y( the stories 5udged to be ob5ective"y
true are those to"d by peop"e who are trained in "ega" discourse( whi"e the stories
o& those who are not Duent in the "anguage o& the "aw are re5ected as &a"se.
Jega" scho"ars such as 9atricia ;i""iams( Kerric$ 'e""( and Bari Batsuda have
sought empowerment &or the "atter group o& peop"e through the construction o&
a"ternative "ega" narratives. <b5ectivist "ega" discourse systematica""y disa""ows
the "anguage o& emotion and e8perience by &ocusing on cognition in its narrowest
sense. These "ega" re&ormers propose rep"acing such abstract discourse with
power&u" persona" stories. They argue that the absorbing( nonthreatening
structure and tone o& persona" stories may convince "ega" insiders &or the #rst
time to "isten to those not Duent in "ega" "anguage. The compe""ing &orce o&
persona" narrative can create a sense o& empathy between "ega" insiders and
peop"e traditiona""y e8c"uded &rom "ega" discourse and( hence( &rom power. uch
a"ternative narratives can shatter the comp"acency o& the "ega" estab"ishment and
disturb its tran-ui"ity. Thus( the engaging power o& narrative might p"ay a crucia"(
positive ro"e in the process o& "ega" reconstruction by overcoming di1erences in
bac$ground and training and &orming a new co""ectivity based on emotiona"
,,2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
empathy.
,. &hich one of the following best states the main idea of the passage%
(A) ;ome legal scholars ha'e sought to empower people historically e$cluded
from traditional legal discourse by instructing them in the forms of discourse
fa'ored by legal insiders.
(B) ;ome legal scholars ha'e begun to reali!e the social harm caused by the
ad'ersarial atmosphere that has per'aded many legal systems for centuries.
(C) ;ome legal scholars ha'e proposed alle'iating the harm caused by the
prominence of ob<ecti'ist principles within legal discourse by replacing that
discourse with alternati'e forms of legal narrati'e.
() ;ome legal scholars ha'e contended that those who feel e$cluded from
ob<ecti'ist legal systems would be empowered by the construction of a new
legal language that better reflected ob<ecti'ist principles.
(#) ;ome legal scholars ha'e argued that the basic flaw inherent in ob<ecti'ist
theory can be remedied by recogni!ing that it is not possible to obtain a single
neutral description of a particular e'ent.
15. According to the passage/ which one of the following is true about the intellectual
systems mentioned in line 11%
(A) They ha'e long assumed the possibility of a neutral depiction of e'ents.
(B) They ha'e generally remained unskewed by particular points of 'iew.
(C) Their discursi'e practices ha'e yet to be analy!ed by legal scholars.
() They accord a pri'ileged position to the language of emotion and e$perience.
(#) The accuracy of their basic tenets has been confirmed by psychologists.
11. &hich one of the following best describes the sense of *cognition+ referred to in
line 0. of the passage%
(A) logical thinking uninfluenced by passion
(B) the interpretation of 'isual cues
(C) human thought that encompasses all emotion and e$perience
() the reasoning actually employed by <udges to arri'e at legal <udgments
(#) sudden insights inspired by the power of personal stories
12. 3t can be inferred from the passage that &illiams/ Bell/ And ?atsuda belie'e
which one of the following to be central component of legal reform%
(A) incorporating into the law the latest de'elopments in the fields of psychology
and philosophy
(B) eradicating from legal <udgments discourse with a particular point of 'iew
(C) granting all participants in legal proceedings e"ual access to training in the
forms and manipulation of legal discourse
() making the law more responsi'e to the discursi'e practices of a wider 'ariety
LSAT ,,.
of people
(#) instilling an appreciation of legal history and methodology in all the
participants in a legal proceeding
1.. &hich one of the following most accurately describes the author4s attitude toward
proposals to introduce personal stories into legal discourse%
(A) strongly opposed
(B) somewhat skeptical
(C) ambi'alent
() strongly supporti'e
(#) unreser'edly optimistic
10. The passage suggests that &illiams/ Bell/ and ?atsuda would most likely agree
with which one of the following statements regarding personal stories%
(A) @ersonal stories are more likely to adhere to the principles of ob<ecti'ism than
are other forms of discourse.
(B) @ersonal stories are more likely to de(emphasi!e differences in background
and training than are traditional forms of legal discourse.
(C) @ersonal stories are more likely to restore tran"uility to the legal establishment
than are more ad'ersarial forms of discourse.
() @ersonal stories are more likely to lead to the accurate reconstruction of facts
than are traditional forms of legal narrati'e.
(#) @ersonal stories are more likely to be influenced by a person4s e$pectations/
'alues/ and beliefs than are other forms of discourse.
11. &hich one of the following statements about legal discourse in legal systems
based on ob<ecti'ism can be inferred from the passage%
(A) 3n most &estern societies the legal establishment controls access to training in
legal discourse.
(B) #$pertise in legal discourse affords power in most &estern societies.
(C) Kegal discourse has become progressi'ely more abstract for some centuries.
() Kegal discourse has traditionally denied the e$istence of neutral ob<ecti'e
obser'ers.
(#) Traditional legal discourse seeks to reconcile dissonant world 'iews.
12. Those who re<ect ob<ecti'ism would regard *the law4s "uest for truth+ (line 11(12)
as most similar to which one of the following%
(A) a hunt for an imaginary animal
(B) the search for a 'aluable mineral among worthless stones
(C) the painstaking assembly of a <igsaw pu!!le
() comparing an apple with an orange
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(#) the scientific analysis of a chemical compound
Bany peop"e comp"ain about corporations( but there are a"so those whose
criticism goes &urther and who ho"d corporations mora""y to b"ame &or many o& the
prob"ems in ;estern society. Their criticism is not reserved so"e"y &or &raudu"ent or
i""ega" business activities( but e8tends to the basic corporate practice o& ma$ing
decisions based on what wi"" ma8imi+e pro#ts without regard to whether such
decisions wi"" contribute to the pub"ic good. <thers( main"y economists( have
responded that this criticism is Dawed because it inappropriate"y app"ies ethica"
princip"es to economic re"ationships.
2t is on"y by e8tension that we attribute the -ua"ity o& mora"ity to corporations(
&or corporations are not persons. %orporate responsibi"ity is an aggregation o& the
responsibi"ities o& those persons emp"oyed by the corporation when they act in
and on beha"& o& the corporation. ome corporations are owner operated( but in
many corporations and in most "arger ones there is a syndicate o& owners to
whom the chie& e8ecutive o*cer( or %@<( who runs the corporation is said to have
a #duciary ob"igation.
The economists argue that a %@<6s so"e responsibi"ity is to the owners( whose
primary interest( e8cept in charitab"e institutions( is the protection o& their pro#ts.
%@<s are bound( as a condition o& their emp"oyment( to see$ a pro#t &or the
owners. 'ut suppose a noncharitab"e organi+ation is owner operated( or( &or some
other reason( its %@< is not ob"igated to ma8imi+e pro#ts. The economists6 view is
that even i& such a %@<6s purpose is to "oo$ to the pub"ic good and nothing e"se(
the %@< shou"d sti"" wor$ to ma8imi+e pro#ts( because that wi"" turn out best &or
the pub"ic anyway.
'ut the economists6 position does not ho"d up (to continue in the same
condition without &ai"ing or "osing e1ectiveness or &orce >you seem to be ho"ding
up under the strain?) under care&u" scrutiny. :or one thing( a"though there are( no
doubt( strong under"ying dynamics in nationa" and internationa" economies that
tend to ma$e the pursuit o& corporate interest contribute to the pub"ic good( there
is no guarantee!either theoretica""y or in practice!that a given %@< wi"" bene#t
the pub"ic by ma8imi+ing corporate pro#t. 2t is absurd to deny the possibi"ity( say(
o& a paper mi"" "ega""y ma8imi+ing its pro#ts over a #ve-year period by decimating
a &orest &or its wood or po""uting a "a$e with its industria" waste. :urthermore(
whi"e ob"igations such as those o& corporate %@<s to corporate owners are binding
in a business or "ega" sense( they are not mora""y paramount. The %@< cou"d ma$e
a case to the owners that certain pro#tab"e courses o& action shou"d not be ta$en
because they are "i$e"y to detract (to diminish the importance( va"ue( or
e1ectiveness o& something= o&ten used with &rom) &rom the pub"ic good. The
economic conse-uences that may be&a"" the %@< &or doing so( such as pena"ty or
dismissa"( u"timate"y do not e8cuse the individua" &rom the responsibi"ity &or acting
mora""y.
1-. &hich one of the following most accurately states the main point of the passage%
LSAT ,,1
(A) Although C#8s may be legally obligated to ma$imi!e their corporations4
profits/ this obligation does not free them from the moral responsibility of
considering the implications of the corporations4 actions for the public good.
(B) Although morality is not easily ascribed to nonhuman entities/ corporations
can be said to ha'e an obligation to act morally in the sense that they are made
up of indi'iduals who must act morally.
(C) Although economists argue that ma$imi!ing a corporation4s profits is likely to
turn out best for the public/ a C#84s true obligations is still to seek a profit for
the corporation4s owners.
() Although some people critici!e corporations for making unethical decisions/
economists argue that such criticisms are unfounded because ethical
considerations cannot be applied to economics.
(#) Although critics of corporations argue that C#8s ought to consider the public
good when making financial decisions/ the results of such decisions in fact
always benefit the public.
16. The discussion of the paper mill in lines 02(02 is intended primarily to
(A) offer an actual case of unethical corporate beha'ior
(B) refute the contention that ma$imi!ation of profits necessarily benefits the
public
(C) illustrate that ethical restrictions on corporations would be difficult to enforce
() demonstrate that corporations are responsible for many social ills
(#) deny that corporations are capable of acting morally
1,. &ith which one of the following would the economists mentioned in the passage
be most likely to agree%
(A) #'en C#8s of charitable organi!ations are obligated to ma$imi!e profits.
(B) C#8s of owner(operated noncharitable corporations should make decisions
based primarily on ma$imi!ing profits.
(C) 8wner(operated noncharitable corporations are less likely to be profitable than
other corporations.
() 3t is highly unlikely that the actions of any particular C#8 will benefit the
public.
(#) C#8s should attempt to ma$imi!e profits unless such attempts result in harm
to the en'ironment.
25. The conception of morality that underlies the author4s argument in the passage is
best e$pressed by which one of the following principles%
(A) &hat makes actions morally right is their contribution to the public good.
(B) An action is morally right if it carries the risk of personal penalty.
(C) Actions are morally right if they are not fraudulent or illegal.
,,2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
() 3t is morally wrong to try to ma$imi!e one4s personal benefit.
(#) Actions are not morally wrong unless they harm others.
21. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) illustrate a parado$
(B) argue for legal reform
(C) refute a claim
() e$plain a decision
(#) define a concept
;hat it means to >e8p"ain? something in science o&ten comes down to the
app"ication o& mathematics. ome thin$ers ho"d that mathematics is a $ind o&
"anguage!a systematic contrivance o& signs( the criteria &or the authority o&
which are interna" coherence( e"egance( and depth. The app"ication o& such a
high"y arti#cia" system to the physica" wor"d( they c"aim( resu"ts in the creation o&
a $ind o& statement about the wor"d. 3ccording"y( what matters in the sciences is
#nding a mathematica" concept that attempts( as other "anguage does( to
accurate"y describe the &unctioning o& some aspect o& the wor"d.
3t the center o& the issue o& scienti#c $now"edge can thus be &ound -uestions
about the re"ationship between "anguage and what it re&ers to. 3 discussion about
the ro"e p"ayed by "anguage in the pursuit o& $now"edge has been going on among
"inguists &or severa" decades. The debate centers around whether "anguage
corresponds in some essentia" way to ob5ects and behaviors( ma$ing $now"edge a
so"id and re"iab"e commodity= or( on the other hand( whether the re"ationship
between "anguage and things is pure"y a matter o& agreed-upon conventions(
ma$ing $now"edge tenuous( re"ative( and ine8act.
Jate"y the "atter theory has been gaining wider acceptance. 3ccording to
"inguists who support this theory( the way "anguage is used varies depending
upon changes in accepted practices and theories among those who wor$ in
particu"ar discip"ine. These "inguists argue that( in the pursuit o& $now"edge( a
statement is true on"y when there are no promising a"ternatives that might "ead
one to -uestion it. %ertain"y this characteri+ation wou"d seem to be app"icab"e to
the sciences. 2n science( a mathematica" statement may be ta$en to account &or
every aspect o& a phenomenon it is app"ied to( but( some wou"d argue( there is
nothing inherent in mathematica" "anguage that guarantees such a
correspondence. Under this view( acceptance o& a mathematica" statement by the
scienti#c community!by virtue o& the statement6s predictive power or
methodo"ogica" e*ciency!trans&orms what is basica""y an ana"ogy or metaphor
into an e8p"anation o& the physica" process in -uestion( to be he"d as true unti"
another( more compe""ing ana"ogy ta$es its p"ace.
2n pursuing the imp"ications o& this theory( "inguists have reached the point at
which they must as$A 2& words or sentences do not correspond in an essentia" way
to "i&e or to our ideas about "i&e( then 5ust what are they capab"e o& te""ing us about
LSAT ,,-
the wor"dG 2n science and mathematics( then( it wou"d seem e-ua""y necessary to
as$A 2& mode"s o& e"ectro"ytes or @`mc
4
( say( do not correspond essentia""y to the
physica" wor"d( then 5ust what &unctions do they per&orm in the ac-uisition o&
scienti#c $now"edgeG 'ut this -uestion has yet to be signi#cant"y addressed in the
sciences.
22. &hich one of the following statements most accurately e$presses the passage4s
main point%
(A) Although scientists must rely on both language and mathematics in their
pursuit of scientific knowledge/ each is an imperfect tool for percei'ing and
interpreting aspects of the physical world.
(B) The ac"uisition of scientific knowledge depends on an agreement among
scientists to accept some mathematical statements as more precise than others
while acknowledging that all mathematics is ine$act.
(C) 3f science is truly to progress/ scientists must temporarily abandon the pursuit
of new knowledge in fa'or of a systematic analysis of how the knowledge they
already possess came to be accepted as true.
() 3n order to better understand the ac"uisition of scientific knowledge/ scientists
must in'estigate mathematical statements4 relationship to the world <ust as
linguists study language4s relationship to the world.
(#) &ithout the debates among linguists that preceded them/ it is unlikely that
scientists would e'er ha'e begun to e$plore the essential role played by
mathematics in the ac"uisition of scientific knowledge.
2.. &hich one of the following statements/ if true/ lends the most support to the 'iew
that language has an essential correspondence to things it describes%
(A) The categories of physical ob<ects employed by one language correspond
remarkably to the categories employed by another language that de'eloped
independently of the first.
(B) The categories of physical ob<ects employed by one language correspond
remarkably to the categories employed by another language that deri'es from
the first.
(C) The categories of physical ob<ects employed by speakers of a language
correspond remarkably to the categories employed by other speakers of the
same language.
() The sentence structures of languages in scientifically sophisticated societies
'ary little from language to language.
(#) 9ati'e speakers of many languages belie'e that the categories of physical
ob<ects employed by their language correspond to natural categories of ob<ects
in the world.
20. According to the passage/ mathematics can be considered a language because it
(A) con'eys meaning in the same way that metaphors do
,,6 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
(B) constitutes a systematic collection of signs
(C) corresponds e$actly to aspects of physical phenomena
() confers e$planatory power on scientific theories
(#) relies on pre'iously agreed(upon con'entions
21. The primary purpose of the third paragraph is to
(A) offer support for the 'iew of linguists who belie'e that language has an
essential correspondence to things
(B) elaborate the position of linguists who belie'e that truth is merely a matter of
con'ention
(C) illustrate the differences between the essentialist and con'entionalist position
in the linguists4 debate
() demonstrate the similarity of the linguists4 debate to a current debate among
scientists about the nature of e$planation
(#) e$plain the theory that mathematical statements are a kind of language
22. Based on the passage/ linguists who subscribes to the theory described in lines 21(
20 would hold that the statement *the ball is red+ is true because
(A) speakers of #nglish ha'e accepted that *the ball is red+ applies to the particular
physical relationship being described
(B) speakers of #nglish do not accept that synonyms for *ball+ and *red+ e$press
these concepts as elegantly
(C) *The ball is red+ corresponds essentially to e'ery aspect of the particular
physical relationship being described
() *ball+ and *red+ actually refer to an entity and a property respecti'ely
(#) *ball+ and *red+ are mathematical concepts that attempt to accurately describe
some particular physical relationship in the world
LSAT 26 SECTON )
T!"e 35 "!#$%es 26 &$es%!o#s
Directions: Each passage in this section is followed by a group of questions to be answered on
the basis of what is stated or implied in the passage. For some of the questions, more than one
of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However, you are to choose the best
answer, that is, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question, and
blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.
2t has recent"y been discovered that many attributions o& paintings to the
seventeenth-century Kutch artist Rembrandt may be &a"se. The contested
paintings are not minor wor$s( whose remova" &rom the Rembrandt corpus wou"d
"eave it re"ative"y una1ectedA they are at its very center. 2n her recent boo$(
vet"ana 3"pers uses these cases o& disputed attribution as a point o& departure
&or her provocative discussion o& the radica" distinctiveness o& Rembrandt6s
approach to painting.
LSAT ,,,
3"pers argues that Rembrandt e8ercised an unprecedented"y #rm contro" over
his art( his students( and the distribution o& his wor$s. Kespite Eary chwart+6
bri""iant documentation o& Rembrandt6s comp"icated re"ations with a wide circ"e o&
patrons( 3"pers ta$es the view that Rembrandt re&used to submit to the prevai"ing
patronage system. )e pre&erred( she c"aims( to se"" his wor$s on the open mar$et
and to p"ay the entrepreneur. 3t a time when Kutch artists were organi+ing into
pro&essiona" brotherhoods and academies( Rembrandt stood apart. 2n &act( 3"pers6
portrait o& Rembrandt shows virtua""y every aspect o& his art pervaded by
economic motives. 2ndeed( so comp"ete was Rembrandt6s invo"vement with the
mar$et( she argues( that he even presented himse"& as commodity( viewing his
studio6s products as e8tensions o& himse"&( sent out into the wor"d to earn money.
3"pers asserts that Rembrandt6s enterprise is &ound not 5ust in his paintings( but in
his re&usa" to "imit his enterprise to those paintings he actua""y painted. )e
mar$eted Rembrandt.
3"though there may be some truth in the view that Rembrandt was an
entrepreneur who made some aesthetic decisions on the basis o& what he $new
the mar$et wanted( 3"pers6 emphasis on economic &actors sacri#ces discussions o&
the aesthetic -ua"ities that ma$e Rembrandt6s wor$ uni-ue. :or e8amp"e( 3"pers
asserts that Rembrandt de"iberate"y "e&t his wor$s un#nished so as to get more
money &or their revision and comp"etion. he imp"ies that Rembrandt actua""y
wished the %ounci" o& 3msterdam to re&use the great Claudius Civilis( which they
had commissioned &or their new town ha""( and she argues that >he must have
ca"cu"ated that he wou"d be ab"e to get more money by retouching YtheZ painting.?
%ertain"y the picture is painted with very broad stro$es but there is no evidence
that it was de"iberate"y "e&t un#nished. The &act is that the "oo$ o& a wor$ "i$e
Claudius Civilis must a"so be understood as the conse-uence o& Rembrandt6s
power&u" and pro&ound meditations on painting itse"&. 3"pers ma$e no mention o&
the pictoria" dia"ectic that can be discerned between( say( the "essons Rembrandt
absorbed &rom the )aar"em schoo" o& paintings and the sty"es o& his native Jeiden.
The troub"e is that whi"e Rembrandt6s artistic enterprise may indeed not be
reducib"e to the wor$s he himse"& painted( it is not reducib"e to mar$eting
practices either.
1. &hich one of the following best summari!es the main conclusion of the author of
the passage%
(A) =embrandt differed from other artists of his time both in his aesthetic
techni"ues and in his desire to meet the demands of the marketplace.
(B) The aesthetic "ualities of =embrandt4s work cannot be understood without
consideration of how economic moti'es per'aded decisions he made about his
art.
(C) =embrandt was one of the first artists to de'elop the notion of a work of art as
a commodity that could be sold in an open marketplace.
() =embrandt4s artistic achie'ement cannot be understood solely in terms of
1555 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
decisions he made on the basis of what would sell in the marketplace.
(#) =embrandt was an entrepreneur whose artistic enterprise was not limited to the
paintings he actually painted himself.
2. According to the passage/ Alpers and ;chwart! disagree about which one of the
following%
(A) the degree of control =embrandt e$ercised o'er the production of his art
(B) the role that =embrandt played in organi!ing professional brotherhoods and
academies
(C) the kinds of relationships =embrandt had with his students
() the degree of =embrandt4s in'ol'ement in the patronage system
(#) the role of the patronage system in se'enteenth(century )olland
.. 3n the third paragraph/ the author of the passage discusses aesthetic influences on
=embrandt4s work most probably in order to
(A) suggest that many critics ha'e neglected to study the influence of the )aarlem
school painters on =embrandt4s work
(B) suggest that Claudius Ci$ilis is similar in style to many paintings from the
se'enteen century
(C) suggest that =embrandt4s style was not affected by the aesthetic influences that
Alpers points out
() argue that =embrandt4s style can best be understood as a result of the
influences of his nati'e Keiden
(#) indicate that Alpers has not taken into account some important aspects of
=embrandt4s work
0. &hich one of the following/ if true/ would pro'ide the most support for Alpers4
argument about Claudius Ci$ilis%
(A) =embrandt was constantly re'ising his prints and paintings because he was
ne'er fully satisfied with stylistic aspects of his earlier drafts.
(B) The works of many se'enteenth(century utch artists were painted with broad
strokes and had an unfinished look.
(C) ?any of =embrandt4s contemporaries eschewed the patronage system and sold
their works on the open market.
() Artists were fre"uently able to raise the price of a painting if the buyer wanted
the work re'ised in some way.
(#) =embrandt did not allow his students to work on paintings that were
commissioned by public officials.
1. 3t can be inferred that the author of the passage and Alpers would be most likely to
agree on which one of the following%
(A) =embrandt made certain aesthetic decision on the basis of what he understood
LSAT 1551
about the demands of the marketplace.
(B) The =embrandt corpus will not be affected if attributions of paintings to
=embrandt are found to be false.
(C) ;tylistic aspects of =embrandt4s painting can be better e$plained in economic
terms than in historical or aesthetic terms.
() Certain aesthetic aspects of =embrandt4s art are the result of his
e$perimentation with different painting techni"ues.
(#) ?ost of =embrandt4s best(known works were painted by his students/ but were
sold under =embrandt4s name.
Bedieva"ists usua""y distinguish medieva" pub"ic "aw &rom private "awA the
&ormer was concerned with government and mi"itary a1airs and the "atter with the
&ami"y( socia" status( and "and transactions. @8amination on medieva" women6s
"ives shows this distinction to be over"y simp"istic. 3"though medieva" women were
"ega""y e8c"uded &rom ro"es that categori+ed as pub"ic( such as so"ider( 5ustice( 5ury
member( or pro&essiona" administrative o*cia"( women6s contro" o& "and!usua""y
considered a private or domestic phenomenon!had important po"itica"
imp"ications in the &euda" system o& thirteenth-century @ng"and. ince "and
e-ua"ed wea"th and wea"th e-ua"ed power( certain women e8ercised inDuence by
contro""ing "and. Un"i$e unmarried women who were "ega""y sub5ect to their
guardians or married women who had no "ega" identity separate &rom their
husbands( women who were widows had autonomy with respect to ac-uiring or
disposing o& certain property( suing in court( incurring "iabi"ity &or their own debts(
and ma$ing wi""s.
3"though &euda" "ands were norma""y trans&erred through primogeniture (the
e"dest son inheriting a"")( when no sons survived( the surviving daughters
inherited e-ua" shares under what was $nown as partib"e inheritance. 2n addition
to contro""ing any such "and inherited &rom her parents and any brida" dowry!
property a woman brought to the marriage &rom her own &ami"y!a widow was
entit"ed to use o& one-third o& her "ate husband6s "ands. %a""ed >dower? in @ng"and(
this grant had greater "ega" importance under common "aw than did the brida"
dowry= no marriage was "ega" un"ess the groom endowed the bride with this
property at the wedding ceremony. 2n 141/ Bagna %arta guaranteed a widow6s
right to c"aim her dower without paying a #ne= this document a"so strengthened
widow6s abi"ity to contro" "and by prohibiting &orced remarriage. 3&ter 1474 women
cou"d a"so bene#t &rom 5ointureA the groom cou"d agree to ho"d part or a"" o& his
"ands 5oint"y with the bride( so that i& one spouse died( the other received these
"ands.
ince many widows had inheritances as we"" as dowers( widows were
&re-uent"y the #nancia" heads o& the &ami"y= even though "ega" theory assumed
the maintenance o& the princip"e o& primogeniture( the amount o& "and the widow
contro""ed cou"d e8ceed that o& her son or o& other ma"e heirs. 3nyone who he"d
&euda" "and e8ercised authority over the peop"e attached to the "and!$nights(
1552 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
renta" tenants( and peasants!and had to hire estate administrators( oversee
accounts( receive rents( protect tenants &rom outside encroachment( punish
tenants &or not paying rents( appoint priests to "oca" parishes( and act as
guardians o& tenants6 chi"dren and e8ecutors o& their wi""s. Bany married women
&u"#""ed these duties as deputies &or husbands away at court or at war( but widows
cou"d act on their own beha"&. ;idow6s "ega" independence is suggested by their
&re-uent appearance in thirteenth-century @ng"ish "ega" records. Boreover( the
scope o& their sway is indicated by the &act that some contro""ed not mere"y sing"e
estates( but mu"tip"e counties.
2. &hich one of the following best e$presses the main idea of the passage%
(A) The traditional 'iew of medie'al women as legally e$cluded from many public
offices fails to consider thirteenth(century women in #ngland who were
e$empted from such restrictions.
(B) The economic independence of women in thirteenth(century #ngland was
primarily determined not by their marital status/ but by their status as heirs to
their parents4 estates.
(C) The laws and customs of the feudal system in thirteenth(century #ngland
enabled some women to e$ercise a certain amount of power despite their legal
e$clusion from most public roles.
() uring the thirteenth century in #ngland/ widows gained greater autonomy
and legal rights to their property than they had had in pre'ious centuries.
(#) &idows in thirteenth(century #ngland were able to ac"uire and dispose of
lands through a number of different legal processes.
-. &ith which one of the following statements about the 'iews held by the
medie'alists mentioned in line 1 would the author of the passage most probably
agree%
(A) The medie'al role of landowners was less affected by thirteenth(century
changes in law than these medie'alists customarily ha'e recogni!ed.
(B) The realm of law labeled public by these medie'alists ultimately had greater
political implications than that labeled pri'ate.
(C) The amount of wealth controlled by medie'al women was greater than these
medie'alists ha'e recorded.
() The distinction made by these medie'alists between pri'ate law and public law
fails to consider some of the actual legal cases of the period.
(#) The distinction made by these medie'alists between pri'ate and public law
fails to address the political importance of control o'er land in the medie'al
era.
6. &hich one of the following most accurately e$presses the meaning of the world
*sway+ as it is used in line 25 of the passage%
(A) 'acillation
LSAT 155.
(B) dominion
(C) predisposition
() inclination
(#) mediation
,. &hich one of the following most accurately describes the function of the second
paragraph of the passage%
(A) pro'iding e$amples of specific historical e'ents as support for the conclusion
drawn in the third paragraph
(B) narrating a se"uence of e'ents whose outcomes discussed in the third
paragraph
(C) e$plaining how circumstances described in the first paragraph could ha'e
occurred
() describing the effects of an e'ent mentioned in the first paragraph
(#) e'aluating the arguments of a group mentioned in the first paragraph
15. According to information in the passage/ a widow in early thirteenth(century
#ngland could control more land than did her eldest son if
(A) the widow had been granted the customary amount of dower land and the
eldest son inherited the rest of the land
(B) the widow had three daughters in addition to her eldest son
(C) the principle of primogeniture had been applied in transferring the lands
owned by the widow4s late husband
() none of the lands held by the widow4s late husband had been placed in <ointure
(#) the combined amount of land the widow had ac"uired from her own family
and from dower was greater than the amount inherited by her son
11. &hich one of the following is mentioned in the passage as a reason why a married
woman might ha'e fulfilled certain duties associated with holding feudal land in
thirteenth(century #ngland%
(A) the legal statutes set forth by ?agna Carta
(B) the rights a woman held o'er her inheritance during her marriage
(C) the customary di'ision of duties between husbands and wi'es
() the absence of the woman4s husband
(#) the terms specified by the woman4s <ointure agreement
12. The phrase *in #ngland+ (line .5(.1) does which one of the following%
(A) 3t suggests that women in other countries also recei'ed grants of their
husbands4 lands.
(B) 3t identifies a particular code of law affecting women who were sur'i'ing
daughters.
1550 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
(C) 3t demonstrates that dower had greater legal importance in one #uropean
county than in others.
() 3t emphasi!es that women in one #uropean country had more means of
controlling property than did women in other #uropean countries.
(#) 3t traces a legal term back to the time at which it entered the language.
1.. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) e$plain a legal contro'ersy of the past in light of modern theory
(B) e'aluate the economic and legal status of a particular historical group
(C) resol'e a scholarly debate about legal history
() trace the historical origins of a modern economic situation
(#) pro'ide new e'idence about a historical e'ent
The debate over the environment crisis is not newA an8iety about industry6s
impact on the environment has e8isted &or over a century. ;hat is new is the
e8treme po"ari+ation o& views. Bounting evidence o& humanity6s capacity to
damage the environment irreversib"y coup"ed with suspicions that government(
industry( and even science might be impotent to prevent environmenta"
destruction have provo$ed accusatory po"emics on the part o& environmenta"ists.
2n turn( these po"emics have e"icited a corresponding bac$"ash &rom industry. The
sad e1ect o& this po"ari+ation is that it is now even more di*cu"t &or industry than
it was a hundred years ago to respond appropriate"y to impact ana"yses that
demand action.
Un"i$e today6s adversaries( ear"ier eco"ogica" re&ormers shared with advocates
o& industria" growth a con#dence in time"y corrective action. Eeorge 9. Barsh6s
pioneering conservation tract (an and +ature (18LM) e"icited wide acc"aim
without embittered denia"s. (an and +ature castigated @arth6s despoi"ers &or
heed"ess greed( dec"aring that humanity >has brought the &ace o& the @arth to a
deso"ation a"most as comp"ete as that o& the Boon.? 'ut no entrepreneur o&
industria"ists sought to re&ute Barsh6s accusations( to de&end the gutting o& &orests
or the s"aughter o& wi"d"i&e as economica""y essentia"( or to dismiss his eco"ogica"
warnings as hysterica". To the contrary( they genera""y agreed with him.
;hyG Barsh and his &o""owers too$ environmenta" improvement and economic
progress as givensA they disputed not the desirabi"ity o& con-uering nature but the
bung"ing way in which the con-uest was carried out. '"ame was not persona"i+ed(
Barsh denounced genera" greed rather than particu"ar entrepreneurs( and the
media did not hound ma"e&actors. :urther( corrective measures seemed to entai"
no sacri#ce( to demand no draconian remedies. e"&-interest underwrote most
prescribed re&orms. Barsh6s emphasis on &uture stewardship was then a wide"y
accepted idea" (i& not practice). )is eco"ogica" admonitions were in $eeping with
the @n"ightenment premise that humanity6s mission was to subdue and trans&orm
nature.
,ot unti" the 19L0s did a g"oomier perspective gain popu"ar ground. :redric
LSAT 1551
%"ements6 e-ui"ibrium mode" o& eco"ogy( deve"oped in the 1970s( seemed
consistent with mounting environmenta" disasters. 2n this view( nature was most
&ruit&u" when "east a"tered. Je&t undisturbed( Dora and &auna gradua""y attained
ma8imum diversity and stabi"ity. Kespo"iation thwarted the cu"mination or
shortened the duration o& this bene#cent c"ima8A techno"ogy did not improve
nature but destroyed it.
The e-ui"ibrium mode" became an eco"ogica" mysti-ueA environmenta"
inter&erence was now taboo( wi"derness adored. ,ature as un#nished &abric
per&ected by human ingenuity gave way to the image nature debased and
endangered by techno"ogy. 2n contrast to the @n"ightenment vision o& nature(
according to which rationa" managers construct an ever more improved
environment( twentieth-century re&ormers6 vision o& nature ca""s &or a reduction o&
human inter&erence in order to restore environmenta" stabi"ity.
10. &hich one of the following most accurately states the main idea of the passage%
(A) ?ounting e'idence of humanity4s capacity to damage the en'ironment should
moti'ate action to pre'ent further damage.
(B) The ecological mysti"ue identified with >rederic Clements has become a
religious con'iction among ecological reformers.
(C) Beorge @. ?arsh4s ideas about conser'ation and stewardship ha'e hea'ily
influenced the present debate o'er the en'ironment.
() The 'iews of ecologists and industrial growth ad'ocates concerning the
en'ironment ha'e only recently become polari!ed.
(#) Beneral greed/ rather than particular indi'iduals or industries/ should be
blamed for the en'ironmental crisis.
11. The author refers to the e"uilibrium model of ecology as an *ecological mysti"ue+
(liens 10(11) most likely in order to do which one of the following%
(A) underscore the fer'or with which twentieth(century reformers adhere to the
e"uilibrium model
(B) point out that the e"uilibrium model of ecology has recently been supported by
empirical scientific research
(C) e$press appreciation for how plants and animals attain ma$imum di'ersity and
stability when left alone
() indicate that the idea of twentieth(century ecological reformers are often so
theoretical as to be difficult to understand
(#) indicate how widespread support is for the e"uilibrium model of ecology in the
scientific community
12. &hich one of the following practices is most clearly an application of >rederic
Clements4 e"uilibrium model of ecology%
(A) introducing a species into an en'ironment to which it is not help control the
spread of another species that no longer has any natural predators
1552 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
(B) de'eloping incenti'es for industries to take correcti'e measures to protect the
en'ironment
(C) using scientific methods to increase the stability of plants and animals in areas
where species are in danger of becoming e$tinct
() using technology to de'elop plant and animal resources but balancing that
de'elopment with stringent restrictions on technology
(#) setting areas of land aside to be maintained as wilderness from which the use
of e$traction of natural resources is prohibited
1-. The passage suggests that Beorge @. ?arsh and today4s ecological reformers
would be most likely to agree with which one of the following statements%
(A) =egulating industries in order to protect the en'ironment does not conflict
with the self interest of those industries.
(B) ;ol'ing the en'ironmental crisis does not re"uire drastic and costly remedies.
(C) )uman despoliation of the #arth has caused widespread en'ironmental
damage.
() #n'ironmental impro'ement and economic progress are e"ually important
goals.
(#) =ather than blaming specific industries/ general greed should be denounced as
the cause of en'ironmental destruction.
16. The passage is primarily concerned with which one of the following%
(A) pro'iding e$amples of possible solutions to a current crisis
(B) e$plaining how conflicting 'iewpoints in a current debate are e"ually 'alid
(C) determining which of two conflicting 'iewpoints in a current debate is more
persuasi'e
() outlining the background and de'elopment of conflicting 'iewpoints in a
current debate
(#) demonstrating weaknesses in the arguments made by one side in a current
debate
Recent"y the &ocus o& historica" studies o& di1erent ethnic groups in the United
tates has shi&ted &rom the trans&ormation o& ethnic identity to its preservation.
;hereas ear"ier historians argued that the ethnic identity o& various immigrant
groups to the United tates b"ended to &orm an 3merican nationa" character( the
new scho"arship has &ocused on the transp"antation o& ethnic cu"tures to the
United tates. :ugita and <6'rien6s !a#anese "merican Ethnicity provides an
e8amp"e o& this recent trend= it a"so e8emp"i#es a prob"em that is common to such
scho"arship.
2n comparing the #rst three generations o& Capanese 3mericans (the 2ssei(
,isei( and ansei)( :ugita and <6'rien conc"ude that assimi"ation to United tates
LSAT 155-
cu"ture increased among Capanese 3mericans over three generations( but that a
sense o& ethnic community endured. 3"though the persistence o& community is
stressed by the authors( their emphasis in the boo$ cou"d 5ust as easi"y have been
on the high degree o& assimi"ation o& the Capanese 3merican popu"ation in the "ate
twentieth century( which :ugita and <6'rien be"ieve is demonstrated by the high
"eve"s o& education( income( and occupationa" mobi"ity achieved by Capanese
3mericans. 2n addition( their data revea" that the character o& the ethnic
community itse"& changedA the integration o& anseis into new pro&essiona"
communities and nonethnic vo"untary associations meant at the very "east that
ethnic ties had to accommodate mu"tip"e and "ayered identities. :ugita and
<6'rien themse"ves ac$now"edge that there has been a >wea$ening o& Capanese
3merican ethnic community "i&e.?
'ecause o& the socia" changes wea$ening the bonds o& community( :ugita and
<6'rien maintain that the community cohesion o& Capanese 3mericans is notab"e
not &or its initia" intensity but because >there remains a degree o& invo"vement in
the ethnic community surpassing that &ound in most other ethnic groups at simi"ar
points in their ethnic group "i&e cyc"e.? This comparative di1erence is important to
:ugita and <6'rien( and they hypothesi+e that the Capanese 3merican community
persisted in the &ace o& assimi"ation because o& a particu"ar"y strong pree8isting
sense o& >peop"ehood?. They argue that this sense o& peop"ehood e8tended
beyond "oca" and &ami"y ties.
:ugita and <6'rien have e8p"ained persistence o& ethnic community by citing a
pree8isting sense o& nationa" consciousness that is independent o& how a group
adapts to United tates cu"ture. )owever( it is di*cu"t to prove as :ugita and
<6'rien have attempted to do that a sense o& peop"ehood is a distinct
phenomenon. )istorians shou"d instead attempt to identi&y direct"y the &actors
that sustain community cohesion in generations that have adapted to United
tates cu"ture and been e8posed to the p"ura"ism o& 3merican "i&e.
1,. &hich one of the following best summari!es the main point of the author of the
passage%
(A) >ugita and 84Brien4s study pro'ides a comparison of the degree of
in'ol'ement in ethnic community of different groups in the :nited ;tates.
(B) >ugita and 84Brien4s study describes the assimilation of three generations of
Aapanese Americans to :nited ;tates culture.
(C) >ugita and 84Brien4s study illustrates both a recent trend in historical studies
of ethnic groups and a problem typical of that trend.
() )istorical studies of ethnic preser'ation among Aapanese Americans ha'e done
much to define the interpreti'e frameworks for studies of other ethnic groups.
(#) )istorical studies are more concerned with the recent de'elopment of ethnic
communities in the :nited ;tates than with the process of adaptation to :nited
;tates culture.
1556 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
25. According to the passage/ >ugita and 84Brien4s data indicate which one of the
following about the Aapanese American ethnic community%
(A) Community bonds ha'e weakened primarily as a result of occupational
mobility by Aapanese Americans.
(B) The community is notable because it has accommodated multiple and layered
identities without losing its traditional intensity.
(C) Community cohesion is similar in intensity to the community cohesion of
other ethnic groups that ha'e been in the :nited ;tates for the same period of
time.
() Community in'ol'ement weakened during the second generation/ but
strengthened as the third generation regained an interest in cultural traditions.
(#) The nature of the community has been altered by Aapanese American
participation in new professional communities and nonethnic 'oluntary
associations.
21. &hich one of the following pro'ides an e$ample of a research study that has
conclusion most analogous to that argued for by the historians mentioned in line 0%
(A) a study showing how musical forms brought from other countries ha'e
persisted in the :nited ;tates
(B) a study showing the organi!ation and function of ethnic associations in the
:nited ;tates
(C) a study showing how architectural styles brought from other counties ha'e
merged to form an American style
() a study showing how cultural traditions ha'e been preser'ed for generations in
American ethic neighborhoods
(#) a study showing how different religious practices brought from other countries
ha'e been sustained in the :nited ;tates
22. According to the passage/ which one of the following is true about the focus of
historical studies on ethnic groups in the :nited ;tates%
(A) Current studies are similar to earlier studies in claiming that a sense of
peoplehood helps preser'e ethnic community.
(B) Current studies ha'e clearly identified factors that sustain ethnic community in
generations that ha'e been e$posed to the pluralism of American life.
(C) Current studies e$amine the cultural practices that make up the American
national character.
() #arlier studies focused on how ethnic identities became transformed in the
:nited ;tates.
(#) #arlier studies focused on the factors that led people to immigrate to the
:nited ;tates.
2.. The author of the passage "uotes >ugita and 84Brien in lines .2(., most probably
LSAT 155,
in order to
(A) point out a weakness in their hypothesis about the strength of community ties
among Aapanese Americans
(B) show how they support their claim about the notability of community cohesion
for Aapanese Americans
(C) indicate how they demonstrate the high degree of adaptation of Aapanese
Americans to :nited ;tates culture
() suggest that they ha'e inaccurately compared Aapanese Americans to other
ethnic groups in the :nited ;tates
(#) emphasi!e their contention that the Aapanese American sense of peoplehood
e$tended beyond local and family ties
20. The passage suggests that the author would be most likely to describe the
hypothesis mentioned in line 0- as
(A) highly persuasi'e
(B) original but poorly de'eloped
(C) difficult to substantiate
() illogical and uninteresting
(#) too similar to earlier theories
21. The passage suggests which one of the following about the historians mentioned in
line 0,%
(A) They ha'e been unable to pro'ide satisfactory e$planations for the persistence
of #uropean ethnic communities in the :nited ;tates.
(B) They ha'e suggested that #uropean cultural practices ha'e sur'i'ed although
the community ties of #uropean ethnic groups ha'e weakened.
(C) They ha'e hypothesi!ed that #uropean ethnic communities are based on
family ties rather than on a sense of national consciousness.
() They ha'e argued that #uropean cultural traditions ha'e been transformed in
the :nited ;tates because of the pluralism of American life.
(#) They ha'e claimed that the community ties of #uropean Americans are still as
strong as they were when the immigrants first arri'ed.
22. As their 'iews are discussed in the passage/ >ugita and 84Brien would be most
likely to agree with which one of the following%
(A) The community cohesion of an ethnic group is not affected by the length of
time it has been in the :nited ;tates.
(B) An ethnic group in the :nited ;tates can ha'e a high degree of adaptation to
:nited ;tates culture and still sustain strong community ties.
(C) The strength of an ethnic community in the :nited ;tates is primarily
dependent on the strength of local and family ties.
1515 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
() )igh le'els of education and occupational mobility necessarily erode the
community cohesion of an ethnic group in the :nited ;tates.
(#) 3t has become increasingly difficult for ethnic groups to sustain any sense of
ethnic identity in the pluralism of :nited ;tates life.
LSAT 27 SECTON
T!"e 35 "!#$%es 26 &$es%!o#s
Directions: Each passage in this section is followed by a group of questions to be answered on
the basis of what is stated or implied in the passage. For some of the questions, more than one
of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However, you are to choose the best
answer, that is, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question, and
blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.
Bost o*ce wor$ers assume that the messages they send to each other via
e"ectronic mai" are as private as a te"ephone ca"" or a &ace-to-&ace meeting. That
assumption is wrong. 3"though it is i""ega" in many areas &or an emp"oyer to
eavesdrop on private conversations or te"ephone ca""s!even i& they ta$e p"ace on
a company-owned te"ephone!there are no c"ear ru"es governing e"ectronic mai".
2n &act( the -uestion o& how private e"ectronic mai" transmissions shou"d be has
emerged as one o& the more comp"icated "ega" issues o& the e"ectronic age.
9eop"e6s opinions about the degree o& privacy that e"ectronic mai" shou"d have
vary depending on whose e"ectronic mai" system is being used and who is reading
the messages. Koes a government o*ce( &or e8amp"e( have the right to destroy
e"ectronic messages created in the course o& running the government( thereby
denying pub"ic access to such documentsG ome ho"d that government o*ces
shou"d issue guide"ines that a""ow their sta1 to de"ete such e"ectronic records( and
de&end this practice by c"aiming that the messages thus de"eted a"ready e8ist in
paper versions whose destruction is &orbidden. <pponents o& such practices argue
that the paper versions o&ten omit such in&ormation as who received the
messages and when they received them( in&ormation common"y carried on
e"ectronic mai" systems. Eovernment o*cia"s( opponents maintain( are civi"
servants= the pub"ic shou"d thus have the right to review any documents created
during the conducting o& government business.
Tuestions about e"ectronic mai" privacy have a"so arisen in the private sector.
Recent"y( two emp"oyees o& an automotive company were discovered to have
been communicating disparaging in&ormation about their supervisor via e"ectronic
mai". The supervisor( who had been monitoring the communication( threatened to
#re the emp"oyees. ;hen the emp"oyees #"ed a grievance comp"aining that their
privacy had been vio"ated( they were "et go. Jater( their court case &or un"aw&u"
termination was dismissed= the company6s "awyers success&u""y argued that
because the company owned the computer system( its supervisors had the right
to read anything created on it.
2n some areas( "aws prohibit outside interception o& e"ectronic mai" by a third
LSAT 1511
party without proper authori+ation such as a search warrant. )owever( these "aws
do not cover >inside? interception such as occurred at the automotive company. 2n
the past( courts have ru"ed that intero*ce communications may be considered
private on"y i& emp"oyees have a >reasonab"e e8pectation? o& privacy when they
send the messages. The &act is that no abso"ute guarantee o& privacy e8ists in any
computer system. The on"y so"ution may be &or users to scramb"e their own
messages with encryption codes= un&ortunate"y( such comp"e8 codes are "i$e"y to
undermine the principa" virtue o& e"ectronic mai"A its convenience.
1. &hich one of the following statements most accurately summari!es the main point
of the passage%
(A) :ntil the legal "uestions surrounding the pri'acy of electronic mail in both the
public and pri'ate sectors ha'e been resol'ed/ office workers will need to
scramble their electronic mail messages with encryption codes.
(B) The legal "uestions surrounding the pri'acy of electronic mail in the work
place can best be resol'ed by treating such communications as if they were as
pri'ate as telephone con'ersations or face(to(face meetings.
(C) Any attempt to resol'e the legal "uestions surrounding the pri'acy of
electronic mail in the workplace must take into account the essential difference
between public(sector and pri'ate sector business.
() At present/ in both the public and pri'ate sectors/ there seem to be no clear
general answers to the legal "uestions surrounding the pri'acy of electronic
mail in the workplace.
(#) The legal "uestions surrounding the pri'acy of electronic mail in the workplace
of electronic mail in the workplace can best be resol'ed by allowing
super'isors in public(sector but not pri'ate(sector offices to monitor their
employees4 communications.
2. According to the passage/ which one of the following best e$presses the reason
some people use to oppose the deletion of electronic mail records at go'ernment
offices%
(A) ;uch deletion re'eals the e$tent of go'ernment4s unhealthy obsession with
secrecy.
(B) ;uch deletion runs counter to the notion of go'ernment4s accountability to its
constituency.
(C) ;uch deletion clearly 'iolates the legal re"uirement that go'ernment offices
keep duplicate copies of all their transactions.
() ;uch deletion 'iolates the go'ernment4s own guidelines against destruction of
electronic records.
(#) ;uch deletion harms relations between go'ernment employees and their
super'isors.
.. &hich one of the following most accurately states the organi!ation of the passage%
1512 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
(A) A problem is introduced/ followed by specific e$amples illustrating the
problemE a possible solution is suggested/ followed by an acknowledgment of
its shortcomings.
(B) A problem is introduced/ followed by e$plications of two possible solutions to
the problemE the first solution is preferred to the second/ and reasons are gi'en
for why it is the better alternati'e.
(C) A problem is introduced/ followed by analysis of the historical circumstances
that helped bring the problem about a possible solution is offered and re<ected
as being only a partial remedy.
() A problem is introduced/ followed by enumeration of 'arious "uestions that
need to be answered before a solution can be foundE one possible solution is
proposed and argued for.
(#) A problem is introduced/ followed by descriptions of two contrasting
approaches to thinking about the problemE the second approach is preferred to
the first/ and reasons are gi'en for why it is more likely to yield a successful
solution.
0. Based on the passage/ the author4s attitude towards interception of electronic mail
can most accurately be described asE
(A) outright disappro'al of the practice
(B) support for employers who engage in it
(C) support for employees who lose their <obs because of it
() intellectual interest in its legal issues
(#) cynicism about the moti'es behind the practice
1. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author would most likely hold which
one of the following opinions about an encryption system that could encodes and
decode electronic mail messages with a single keystroke%
(A) 3t would be an unreasonable burden on a company4s ability to monitor
electronic mail created by its employees.
(B) 3t would significantly reduce the difficulty of attempting to safeguard the
pri'acy of electronic mail.
(C) 3t would create substantial legal complications for companies trying to pre'ent
employees from re'ealing trade secrets to competitors.
() 3t would guarantee only a minimal le'el of employee pri'acy/ and so would
not be worth the cost in'ol'ed in installing such a system.
(#) 3t would re"uire a change in the legal definition of *reasonable e$pectation of
pri'acy+ as it applies to employer(employee relations.
2. Bi'en the information in the passage/ which one of the following hypothetical
e'ents is K#A;T likely to occur%
(A) A court rules that a go'ernment office4s practice of deleting its electronic mail
LSAT 151.
is not in the public4s best interests.
(B) A pri'ate(sector employer is found liable for wiretapping an office telephone
con'ersation in which two employees e$changed disparaging information
about their super'isor.
(C) A court upholds the right of a go'ernment office to destroy both paper and
electronic 'ersions of its in(house documents.
() A court upholds a pri'ate(sector employer4s right to monitor messages sent
between employees o'er the company4s in(house electronic mail system.
(#) A court rules in fa'or of a pri'ate(sector employee whose super'isor stated that
in(house electronic mail would not be monitored but later fired the employee
for communicating disparaging information 'ia electronic mail.
-. The author4s primary purpose in writing the passage is to
(A) demonstrate that the indi'idual right to pri'acy has been eroded by ad'ances
in computer technology
(B) compare the legal status of electronic mail in the public and pri'ate sectors
(C) draw an e$tended analogy between the pri'acy of electronic mail and the
pri'acy of telephone con'ersations or face(to(face meeting
() illustrate the comple$ities of the pri'acy issues surrounding electronic mail in
the workplace
(#) e$plain why the courts ha'e not been able to rule definitely on the issue of the
pri'acy of electronic mail
;hi"e a new surge o& critica" interest in the ancient Eree$ poems
conventiona""y ascribed to )omer has ta$en p"ace in the "ast twenty years or so( it
was nonspecia"ists rather than pro&essiona" scho"ars who studied the poetic
aspects o& the )liad and the 4dyssey between( rough"y( 197/ and 1970. Kuring
these years( whi"e such nonacademic inte""ectua"s as imone ;ei" and @rich
3uerbach were trying to de#ne the -ua"ities that made these epic accounts o& the
Tro5an ;ar and its a&termath great poetry( the -uestions that occupied the
specia"ists were directed e"sewhereA >Kid the Tro5an ;ar rea""y happenG? >Koes
the bard preserve 2ndo-@uropean &o"$ memoriesG? >)ow did the poems get written
downG? omething was driving scho"ars away &rom the actua" wor$s to periphera"
issues. cho"ars produced boo$s about archaeo"ogy( about gi&t-e8change in
ancient societies( about the deve"opment o& ora" poetry( about virtua""y anything
e8cept the )liad and the 4dyssey themse"ves as uni-ue reDections or disti""ations
o& "i&e itse"&!as( in short( great poetry. The observations o& the @ng"ish poet
3"e8ander 9ope seemed as app"icab"e in 1970 as they had been when he wrote
them in 171/A according to 9ope( the remar$s o& critics >are rather 9hi"osophica"(
)istorica"( Eeographic[or rather anything than %ritica" and 9oetica".?
2ronica""y( the modern mani&estation o& this >nonpoetica"? emphasis can be
traced to the pro&ound"y inDuentia" wor$ o& Bi"man 9arry( who attempted to
demonstrate in detai" how the )omeric poems( be"ieved to have been recorded
1510 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
near"y three thousand years ago( were the products o& a "ong and high"y
deve"oped tradition o& ora" poetry about the Tro5an ;ar. 9arry proposed that this
tradition bui"t up its diction and its content by a process o& constant accumu"ation
and re#nement over many generations o& storyte""ers. 'ut a&ter 9arry6s death in
197/( his "egacy was ta$en up by scho"ars who( un"i$e 9arry( &orsoo$ intensive
ana"ysis o& the poetry itse"& and &ocused instead on on"y one e"ement o& 9arry6s
wor$A the creative "imitations and possibi"ities o& ora" composition( concerning on
#8ed e"ements and inDe8ibi"ities( &ocusing on the things that ora" poetry a""eged"y
can and cannot do. The dryness i& this $ind o& study drove many o& the more
inventive scho"ars away &rom the poems into the rapid"y deve"oping #e"d o&
)omer6s archaeo"ogica" and historica" bac$ground.
3ppropriate"y( Bi"man 9arry6s son 3dam was among those scho"ars responsib"e
&or a renewed interest in )omer6s poetry as "iterary art. 'ui"ding on his &ather6s
wor$( the younger 9arry argued that the )omeric poems e8ist both within and
against a tradition. The )liad and the 4dyssey were( 3dam 9arry thought( the
bene#ciaries o& an inherited store o& diction( scenes( and at the same time high"y
individua" wor$s that surpasses these conventions. 3dam 9arry he"ped prepare the
ground &or the recent )omeric reviva" by a*rming his &ather6s be"ie& in a strong
inherited tradition( but a"so by emphasi+ing )omer6s uni-ue contributions within
that tradition.
6. &hich one of the following best states the main idea of the passage%
(A) The )omeric poems are most fruitfully studied as records of the time and
place in which they were written.
(B) The )omeric poems are the products of a highly de'eloped and complicated
tradition of oral poetry.
(C) The )omeric poems are currently en<oying a resurgence of critical interest
after an age of scholarship largely de'oted to the poems4 nonpoetic elements.
() The )omeric poems are currently en<oying a resurgence of scholarly interest
after am age during which most studies were authored by nonacademic writers.
(#) Before ?ilman @arry published his pioneering work in the early twentieth
century/ it was difficult to assign a date or an author to the )omeric poems.
,. According to the passage/ the work of ;imone &eil and #rich Auerbach on )omer
was primarily concerned with which one of the following%
(A) considerations of why criticism of )omer had mo'ed to peripheral issues
(B) analyses of the poetry itself in terms of its literary "ualities
(C) studies in the history and nature of oral poetry
() analyses of the already ancient epic tradition inherited by )omer
(#) criti"ues of the highly technical analyses of academic critics
15. The passage suggests which one of the following about scholarship on )omer that
has appeared since 1,-5%
LSAT 1511
(A) 3t has dealt e$tensi'ely with the )omeric poems as literary art.
(B) 3t is more incisi'e than the work of the @arrys.
(C) 3t has re<ected as irrele'ant the scholarship produced by specialists between
1,.1 and 1,-5.
() 3t has ignored the work of ;imone &eil and #rich Auerbach.
(#) 3t has attempted to confirm that the /liad and the 0dyssey were written by
)omer.
11. The author of the passage most probably "uotes Ale$ander @ope (lines 20(22) in
order to
(A) indicate that the )omeric poems ha'e generally recei'ed poor treatment at the
hands of #nglish critics
(B) pro'e that poets as well as critics ha'e emphasi!ed elements peripheral to the
poems
(C) illustrate that the nonpoetical emphasis also e$isted in an earlier century
() emphasi!e the problems inherent in rendering classical Breek poetry into
modern #nglish
(#) argue that poets and literary critics ha'e seldom agreed the interpretation of
poetry
12. According to the passage/ which one of the following is true of ?ilman @arry4s
immediate successors in the field of )omeric studies%
(A) They reconciled )omer4s poetry with archaeological and historical concerns.
(B) They acknowledged the tradition of oral poetry/ but focused on the uni"ueness
of )omer4s poetry within the tradition.
(C) They occupied themsel'es with the "uestion of what "ualities made for great
poetry.
() They emphasi!ed the boundaries of oral poetry.
(#) They called for a re'i'al of )omer4s popularity.
1.. &hich one of the following best describes the organi!ation of the passage%
(A) A situation is identified and its origins are e$amines.
(B) A series of hypotheses is re'iewed and one is ad'ocated.
(C) The works of two influential scholars are summari!ed.
() ;e'eral issues contributing to a currently debate are summari!ed.
(#) Three possible solutions to a long(standing problem are posed.
@ven in the midst o& its resurgence as a vita" tradition( many socio"ogists have
viewed the current &orm o& the powwow( a ceremonia" gathering o& native
3mericans( as a sign that triba" cu"ture is in dec"ine. :ocusing on the dances and
ritua"s that have recent"y come to be shared by most tribes( they suggest that an
intertriba" movement is now in ascension and c"aim the inevitab"e outcome o& this
1512 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
tendency is the eventua" disso"ution o& tribes and the comp"ete assimi"ation o&
native 3mericans into @uroamerican society. 9roponents o& this >9an-2ndian?
theory point to the greater &re-uency o& trave" and communication between
reservations( the greater urbani+ation o& native 3mericans( and( most recent"y(
their increasing po"itici+ation in response to common grievances as the chie&
causes o& the shi&t toward intertriba"ism.
2ndeed( the rapid di1usion o& dance sty"es( out#ts( and songs &rom one
reservation to another o1ers compe""ing evidence that intertriba"ism has been
increasing. )owever( these socio"ogists have &ai"ed to note the concurrent
revita"i+ation o& many traditions uni-ue to individua" tribes. 3mong the Ja$ota( &or
instance( the un Kance was revived( a&ter a &orty-year hiatus( during the 19/0s.
imi"ar"y( the '"ac$ Jegging ociety o& the Siowa and the )ethus$a ociety o& the
9onca!both traditiona" groups within their respective tribes!have gained new
popu"arity. <bvious"y( a more comp"e8 societa" shi&t is ta$ing p"ace than the theory
o& 9an-2ndianism can account &or.
3n e8amination o& the theory6s underpinnings may be critica" at this point(
especia""y given that native 3mericans themse"ves cha&e most against the 9an-
2ndian c"assi#cation. Ji$e other assimi"ationist theories with which it is associated(
the 9an-2ndian view is predicted upon an a priori assumption about the nature o&
cu"tura" contactA that upon contact minority societies immediate"y begin to
succumb in every respect!bio"ogica""y( "inguistica""y( and cu"tura""y!to the
ma5ority society. )owever( there is no evidence that this is happening to native
3merican groups.
Iet the &act remains that intertriba" activities are a ma5or &acet o& native
3merican cu"tura" today. %ertain dances at powwows( &or instance( are announced
as intertriba"( others as traditiona". Ji$ewise( speeches given at the beginnings o&
powwows are o&ten de"ivered in @ng"ish( whi"e the prayer that &o""ows is usua""y
spo$en in a native "anguage. %u"tura" borrowing is( o& course( o"d news. ;hat is
important to note is the conscious distinction native 3mericans ma$e between
triba" and intertriba" tendencies.
Triba"ism( a"though great"y a"tered by modern history( remains a potent &orce
among native 3mericans. 2t &orms a basis &or triba" identity( and a"igns music and
dance with other socia" and cu"tura" activities important to individua" tribes.
2ntertriba" activities( on the other hand( rein&orce native 3merican identity a"ong a
broader &ront( where this identity is direct"y threatened by outside inDuences.
10. &hich one of the following best summari!es the main idea of the passage%
(A) espite the fact that sociologists ha'e only recently begun to understand its
importance/ intertribalism has always been an influential factor in nati'e
American culture.
(B) 9ati'e Americans are currently struggling with an identity crisis caused
primarily by the two competing forces of tribalism and intertribalism.
LSAT 151-
(C) The recent growth of intertribalism is unlikely to eliminate tribalism because
the two forces do not oppose one another but instead reinforce distinct
elements of nati'e American interact with the broader community around
them.
() The tendency toward intertribalism/ although pre'alent within nati'e American
culture/ has had a minimal effect on the way nati'e Americans interact with the
broader community around them.
(#) espite the recent re'i'al of many nati'e American tribal traditions/ the recent
trend toward intertribalism is likely to erode cultural differences among the
'arious nati'e American tribes.
11. The author most likely states that *cultural borrowing is of course/ old news+ (line
0-(06) primarily to
(A) acknowledge that in itself the e$istence of intertribal tendencies at powwows is
unsurprising
(B) suggest that nati'e Americans4 use of #nglish in powwows should be accepted
as una'oidable
(C) argue that the deliberate distinction of intertribal and traditional dances is not a
recent de'elopment
() suggest that the recent increase in intertribal acti'ity is the result of nati'e
Americans borrowing from non(nati'e Americans
(#) indicate that the powwow itself could ha'e originated by combining practices
drawn from both nati'e and non(nati'e American cultures
12. The author of the passage would most likely agree with which one of the following
assertions%
(A) Though some belie'e the current form of the powwow signals the decline of
tribal culture/ the powwow contains elements that indicate the continuing
strength of tribalism.
(B) The logical outcome of the recent increase in intertribal acti'ity is the e'entual
disappearance of tribal culture.
(C) 9ati'e Americans who participate in both tribal and intertribal acti'ities
usually base their identities on intertribal rather than tribal affiliations.
() The conclusions of some sociologists about the health of nati'e American
cultures show that these sociologists are in fact biased against such cultures.
(#) :ntil it is balanced by re'itali!ation of tribal customs/ intertribalism will
continue to weaken the nati'e American sense of identity.
1-. The primary function of the third paragraph is to
(A) search for e'idence to corroborate the basic assumption of he theory of @an(
3ndianism
(B) demonstrate the incorrectness of the theory of @an(3ndianism by pointing out
1516 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
that nati'e American groups themsel'es disagree with the theory
(C) e$plain the origin of the theory of @an(3ndianism by showing how it e'ol'ed
from other assimilationist theories
() e$amine se'eral assimilationist theories in order to demonstrate that they rest
on a common assumption
(#) critici!e the theory of @an(3ndianism by pointing out that it rests upon an
assumption for which there is no supporting e'idence
16. &hich one of the following most accurately describes the author4s attitude towards
the theory of @an(3ndianism%
(A) critical of its tendency to attribute political moti'es to cultural practices
(B) discomfort at its negati'e characteri!ation of cultural borrowing by nati'e
Americans
(C) hopeful about its chance for preser'ing tribal culture
() offended by its claim that assimilation is a desirable conse"uence of cultural
contact
(#) skeptical that it is a complete e$planation of recent changes in nati'e American
society
1,. &ith which one of the following statements would the author of the passage be
most likely to agree%(3ntertribal acti'ities/ on the other hand/ reinforce nati'e
American identity along a broader front/ where this identity is directly threatened
by outside influences.)
(A) The resurgence of the powwow is a sign that nati'e American customs are
beginning to ha'e an important influence on #uroamerican society.
(B) Although nati'e Americans draw conscious distinctions between tribal and
intertribal acti'ities/ there is no difference in how the two types of acti'ity
actually function within the conte$t of nati'e American society.
(C) &ithout intertribal acti'ities/ it would be more difficult for nati'e Americans to
maintain the cultural differences between nati'e American and #uroamerican
society.
() The powwow was recently re'i'ed/ after an e$tended hiatus/ in order to
strengthen nati'e Americans4 sense of ethnic identity.
(#) The degree of urbani!ation/ intertribal communication/ and politici!ation
among nati'e Americans has been e$aggerated by proponents of the theory of
@an(3ndianism.
25. &hich one of the following situations most clearly illustrates the phenomenon of
intertribalism/ as that phenomenon is described in the passage%
(A) a nati'e American tribe in which a number of powerful societies attempt to
pre'ent the re'i'al of a traditional dance
(B) a nati'e American tribe whose members attempt to learn the nati'e languages
LSAT 151,
of se'eral other tribes
(C) a nati'e American tribe whose members attempt to form a political
organi!ation in order to redress se'eral grie'ances important to that tribe
() a nati'e American tribe in which a significant percentage of the members ha'e
forsake their tribal identity and become assimilated into #uroamerican society
(#) a nati'e American tribe whose members often tra'el to other parts of the
reser'ation in order to 'isit friends and relati'es
21. 3n the passage/ the author is primarily concerned with doing which one of the
following%
(A) identifying an assumption common to 'arious assimilationist theories and then
critici!ing these theories by showing this assumption to be false
(B) arguing that the recent re'i'al of a number of tribal practices shows
sociologists are mistaken in belie'ing intertribilism to be a potent force among
nati'e American societies
(C) "uestioning the belief that nati'e American societies will e'entually be
assimilated into #uroamerican society by arguing that intertribalism helps
strengthen nati'e American identity
() showing how the recent resurgence of tribal acti'ities is a deliberate attempt to
counteract the growing influence of intertribalism
(#) proposing an e$planation of why the ascension of intertribalism could result in
the e'entual dissolution of tribes and complete assimilation of nati'e American
into #uroamerican society
cientists typica""y advocate the ana"ytic method o& studying comp"e8 systemsA
systems are divided into component parts that are investigated separate"y. 'ut
nineteenth-century critics o& this method c"aimed that when a system6s parts are
iso"ated its comp"e8ity tends to be "ost. To address the perceived wea$ness o& the
ana"ytic method these critics put &orward a concept ca""ed organicism( which
posited that the who"e determines the nature o& its parts and that the parts o& a
who"e are interdependent.
<rganicism depended upon the theory o& interna" re"ations( which states that
re"ations between entities are possib"e on"y within some who"e that embraces
them( and that entities are a"tered by the re"ationships into which they enter. 2& an
entity stands in a re"ationship with another entity( it has some property as a
conse-uence. ;ithout this re"ationship( and hence without the property( the entity
wou"d be di1erent!and so wou"d be another entity. Thus( the property is one o&
the entity6s de#ning characteristics. @ach o& an entity6s re"ationships "i$ewise
determines a de#ning characteristic o& the entity.
<ne prob"em with the theory o& interna" re"ations is that not a"" properties o& an
entity are de#ning characteristicsA numerous properties are accompanying
characteristics!even i& they are a"ways present( their presence does not inDuence
the entity6s identity. Thus( even i& it is admitted that every re"ationship into which
1525 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
an entity enters determines some characteristic o& the entity( it is not necessari"y
true that such characteristics wi"" de#ne the entity= it is possib"e &or the entity to
enter into a re"ationship yet remain essentia""y unchanged.
The u"timate di*cu"ty with the theory o& interna" re"ations is that it renders the
ac-uisition o& $now"edge impossib"e. To tru"y $now an entity( we must $now a"" o&
its re"ationships= but because the entity is re"ated to everything in each who"e o&
which it is a part( these who"es must be $nown comp"ete"y be&ore the entity can
be $nown. This seems to be a prere-uisite impossib"e to satis&y.
<rganicists6 criticism o& the ana"ytic method arose &rom their &ai"ure to &u""y
comprehend the method. 2n re5ecting the ana"ytic method( organicists over"oo$ed
the &act that be&ore the proponents o& the method ana"y+ed the component parts
o& a system( they #rst determined both the "aws app"icab"e to the who"e system
and the initia" conditions o& the system= proponents o& the method thus did not
study parts o& a system in &u"" iso"ation &rom the system as a who"e. ince
organicists &ai"ed to recogni+e this( they never advanced any argument to show
that "aws and initia" conditions o& comp"e8 systems cannot be discovered. )ence(
organicists o1ered no va"id reason &or re5ecting the ana"ytic method or &or
adopting organicism as a rep"acement &or it.
22. &hich one of the following most completely and accurately summari!es the
argument of the passage%
(A) By calling into "uestion the possibility that comple$ systems can be studied in
their entirety/ organicists offered an alternati'e to the analytic method fa'ored
by nineteenth(century scientists.
(B) 8rganicists did not offer a useful method of studying comple$ systems because
they did not acknowledge that there are relationship into which an entity may
enter that do not alter the entity4s identity.
(C) 8rganicism is flawed because it relies on a theory that both ignores the fact
that not all characteristics of entities are defining and ultimately makes the
ac"uisition of knowledge impossible.
() 8rganicism does not offer a 'alid challenge to the analytic method both
because it relies on faulty theory and because it is based on a misrepresentation
of the analytic method.
(#) 3n critici!ing the analytic method/ organicists neglected to dispro'e that
scientists who employ the method are able to disco'er the laws and initial
conditions of the systems they study.
2.. According to the passage/ organicists4 chief ob<ection to the analytic method was
that the method
(A) o'ersimplified systems by isolating their components
(B) assumed that a system can be di'ided into component parts
(C) ignored the laws applicable to the system as a whole
LSAT 1521
() claimed that the parts of a system are more important than the system as a
whole
(#) denied the claim that entities enter into relationships
20. The passage offers information to help answer each of the following "uestions
#DC#@TE
(A) &hy does the theory of internal relations appear to make the ac"uisition of
knowledge impossible%
(B) &hy did the organicists propose replacing the analytic method%
(C) &hat is the difference between a defining characteristic and an accompanying
characteristic%
() &hat did organicists claim are the effects of an entity entering into a
relationship with another entity%
(#) &hat are some of the ad'antages of separating out the parts of a system for
study%
21. The passage most strongly supports the ascription of which one of the following
'iews to scientists who use the analytic method%
(A) A comple$ system is best understood by studying its component parts in full
isolation from the system as a whole.
(B) The parts of a system should be studied with an awareness of the laws and
initial conditions that go'ern the system.
(C) 3t is not possible to determine the laws go'erning a system until the system4s
parts are separated from one another.
() Because the parts of a system are interdependent/ they cannot be studied
separately without destroying the system4s comple$ity.
(#) ;tudying the parts of a system indi'idually eliminate the need to determine
which characteristics of the parts are defining characteristics.
22. &hich one of the following is a principle upon which the author bases an
argument against the theory of the internal relations%
(A) An ade"uate theory of comple$ systems must define the entities of which the
system is composed.
(B) An acceptable theory cannot ha'e conse"uences that contradict its basic
purpose.
(C) An ade"uate method of study of comple$ systems should re'eal the actual
comple$ity of the system it studies.
() An acceptable theory must describe the laws and initial conditions of a
comple$ system.
(#) An acceptable method of studying comple$ systems should not study parts of
the system in isolation from the system as a whole.
1522 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
LSAT 2' SECTON )
T!"e 35 "!#$%es 27 &$es%!o#s
Directions: Each passage in this section is followed by a group of questions to be answered on
the basis of what is stated or implied in the passage. For some of the questions, more than one
of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However, you are to choose the best
answer, that is, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question, and
blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.
<pponents o& compu"sory nationa" service c"aim that such a program is not in
$eeping with the "ibera" princip"es upon which ;estern democracies are &ounded.
This reasoning is reminiscent o& the argument that a ta8 on one6s income is
undemocratic because it vio"ates one6s right to property. uch conceptions o& the
"ibera" state &ai" to ta$e into account the intricate character o& the socia"
agreement that undergirds our "iberties. 2t is on"y in the conte8t o& a community
that the notion o& individua" rights has any app"ication= individua" rights are meant
to de#ne the "imits o& peop"e6s actions with respect to other peop"e. 2mp"icit in
such a conte8t is the concept o& shared sacri#ce. ;ere no ta8es paid( there cou"d
be no "aw en&orcement( and the en&orcement o& "aw is o& bene#t to everyone in
society. Thus( each o& us must bear a share o& the burden to ensure that the
community is protected.
The responsibi"ity to de&end one6s nation against outside aggression is sure"y
no "ess than the responsibi"ity to he"p pay &or "aw en&orcement within the nation.
There&ore( the state is certain"y within its rights to compe" citi+ens to per&orm
nationa" service when it is needed &or the bene#t o& society.
2t might be ob5ected that the cases o& ta8ation and nationa" service are not
ana"ogousA ;hi"e ta8ation must be coerced( the mi"itary is -uite ab"e to #nd
recruits without resorting to conscription. :urthermore( proponents o& nationa"
service do not "imit its scope to on"y those duties abso"ute"y necessary to the
de&ense o& the nation. There&ore( it may be contended( compu"sory nationa"
service oversteps the acceptab"e boundaries o& governmenta" inter&erence in the
"ives o& its citi+ens.
'y responding thus( the opponent o& nationa" service has a"ready a""owed that
it is a right o& government to demand service when it is needed. 'ut what is the
true scope o& the term >need?G 2& it is granted( say( that present ta8 po"icies are
"egitimate intrusions on the right to property( then it must a"so be granted that
need invo"ves more than 5ust what is necessary &or a sound nationa" de&ense.
@ven the most conservative o& po"iticians admits that ta8 money is right"y spent
on programs that( whi"e not necessary &or the surviva" o& the state( are
neverthe"ess o& great bene#t to society. %an the opponent o& nationa" service tru"y
c"aim that activities o& the mi"itary such as -ue""ing civi" disorders( rebui"ding
dams and bridges( or assisting the victims o& natura" disasters!a"" e8traneous to
the de&ense o& society against outside aggression!do not provide a simi"ar
bene#t to the nationG Upon reDection( opponents o& nationa" service must
LSAT 152.
concede that such a broadened conception o& what is necessary is in $eeping with
the ideas o& shared sacri#ce and community bene#t that are essentia" to the
&unctioning o& a "ibera" democratic state.
1. &hich one of the following most accurately describes the author4s attitude toward
the relationship between citi!enship and indi'idual rights in a democracy%
(A) confidence that indi'idual rights are citi!ens4 most important guarantees of
personal freedom
(B) satisfaction at how indi'idual rights ha'e protected citi!ens from unwarranted
go'ernment intrusion
(C) alarm that so many citi!ens use indi'idual rights as an e$cuse to take
ad'antage of one another
() concern that indi'idual rights represent citi!ens4 only defense against
go'ernment interference
(#) dissatisfaction at how some citi!ens cite indi'idual rights as a way of a'oiding
certain obligations to their go'ernment
2. The author indicates all politicians agree about the
(A) legitimacy of funding certain programs that ser'e the national good
(B) use of the military to pre'ent domestic disorders
(C) similarity of conscription and compulsory ta$ation
() importance of broadening the definition of necessity
(#) compatibility of compulsion with democratic principles
.. &hich one of the following most accurately characteri!es what the author means
by the term *social agreement+ (line 6)%
(A) an agreement among members of a community that the scope of their
indi'idual liberties is limited somewhat by their obligations to one another
(B) an agreement among members of a community that they will not act in ways
that infringe upon each other4s pursuit of indi'idual liberty
(C) an agreement among members of a community that they will petition the
go'ernment for redress when go'ernment actions limit their rights
() an agreement between citi!ens and their go'ernment detailing which
go'ernment actions do or do not infringe upon citi!en4s personal freedoms
(#) an agreement between citi!ens and their go'ernment stating that the
go'ernment has right to suspend indi'idual liberties whene'er it sees fit
0. According to the author/ national ser'ice and ta$ation are analogous in the sense
that both
(A) do not re"uire that citi!ens be compelled to help bring them about
(B) are at odds with the notion of indi'idual rights in a democracy
(C) re"uire different degrees of sacrifice from different citi!ens
1520 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
() allow the go'ernment to o'erstep its boundaries and interfere in the li'es of
citi!ens
(#) ser'e ends beyond those related to the basic sur'i'al of the state
1. Based on the information in the passage/ which one of the following would most
likely be found ob<ectionable by those who oppose compulsory national ser'ice%
(A) the use of ta$ re'enues to pre'ent the theft of national secrets by foreign
agents
(B) the use of ta$ re'enues to fund relief efforts for 'ictims of natural disasters in
other nations
(C) the use of ta$ re'enues to support the upkeep of the nation4s standing army
() the use of ta$ re'enues to fund programs for the maintenance of domestic
dams and bridges
(#) the use of ta$ re'enues to aid citi!ens who are 'ictims of natural disasters
Cames 9orter (190/-1970) was the #rst scho"ar to identi&y the 3&rican inDuence
on visua" art in the 3mericans( and much o& what is $nown about the cu"tura"
"egacy that 3&rican-3merican artists inherited &rom their 3&rican &orebears has
come to us by way o& his wor$. 9orter( a painter and art historian( began by
studying 3&rican-3merican cra&ts o& the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. This
research revea"ed that many o& the househo"d items created by 3&rican-3merican
men and women!wa"$ing stic$s( 5ugs( and te8ti"es!disp"ayed characteristics that
"in$ed them iconographica""y to arti&acts o& ;est 3&rica. 9orter then went on to
estab"ish c"ear"y the range o& the cu"tura" territory inherited by "ater 3&rican-
3merican artists.
3n e8amp"e o& this aspect o& 9orter6s research occurs in his essay >Robert .
Kuncanson( Bidwestern Romantic-Rea"ist.? The wor$ o& Kuncanson( a nineteenth-
century painter o& the )udson River schoo"( "i$e that o& his predecessor in the
movement( Coshua Cohnston( was common"y thought to have been created by a
@uro-3merican artist. 9orter proved de#nitive"y that both Kuncanson and Cohnston
were o& 3&rican ancestry. 9orter pub"ished this #nding and thousands o& others in a
comprehensive vo"ume tracing the history o& 3&rican-3merican art. 3t the time o&
its #rst printing in 19M7( on"y two other boo$s devoted e8c"usive"y to the
accomp"ishments o& 3&rican-3merican artists e8isted. 'oth o& these boo$s were
written by 3"ain JeRoy Joc$e( a pro&essor at the university where 9orter a"so
taught. ;hi"e these ear"ier studies by Joc$e are interesting &or being the #rst to
survey the #e"d( neither addressed the critica" issue o& 3&rican precursors= 9orter6s
boo$ addressed this issue( painsta$ing"y integrating the history o& 3&rican-
3merican art into the "arger history o& art in the 3mericas without separating it
&rom those -ua"ities that gave it its uni-ue ties to 3&rican artisanship. 9orter may
have been especia""y attuned to these ties because o& his conscious e1ort to
maintain them in his own paintings( many o& which combine the sty"e o& the genre
portrait with evidence o& an e8tensive $now"edge o& the cu"tura" history o& various
LSAT 1521
3&rican peop"es.
2n his "ater years( 9orter wrote additiona" chapters &or "ater editions o& his boo$(
constant"y revising and correcting his #ndings( some o& which had been based o&
necessity on &ragmentary evidence. 3mong his "ater achievements were his
de#nitive rec$oning o& the birth year o& the painter 9atric$ Reason( "ong a point o&
scho"ar"y uncertainty( and his identi#cation o& an unmar$ed grave in an :rancisco
as that o& the scu"ptor @dmonia Jewis. 3t his death( 9orter "e&t e8tensive notes &or
un#nished pro5ect aimed at e8p"oring the inDuence o& 3&rican art on the art o& the
;estern wor"d genera""y( a body o& research whose riches scho"ars sti"" have not
e8hausted.
2. &hich one of the following most accurately states the main idea of the passage%
(A) Because the connections between African(American art and other art in the
Americas had been established by earlier scholars/ @orter4s work focused on
showing African(American art4s connections to African artisanship.
(B) 3n addition to showing the connections between African(American art and
African artisanship/ @orter4s most important achie'ement was illustrating the
links between African(American art and other art in Americas.
(C) espite the fact that his last book remains unfinished/ @orter4s work was the
first to de'ote its attention e$clusi'ely to the accomplishments of African(
American artists.
() Although showing the connections between African(American art and African
artisanship/ @orter4s work concentrated primarily on placing African(American
art in the conte$t of &estern art in general.
(#) &hile not the first body of scholarship to treat the sub<ect of African(American
art/ @orter4s work was the first to show the connections between African(
American art and African artisanship.
-. The discussion of Kocke4s books is intended primarily to
(A) argue that @orte4s book depended upon Kocke4s pioneering scholarship
(B) highlight an important way in which @orter4s work differed from pre'ious
work in his field
(C) suggest an e$planation for why @orter4s book was little known outside
academic circles
() support the claim that @orter was not the first to notice African influences in
African(American art
(#) argue that Kocke4s e$ample was a ma<or influence o @orter4s decision to
publish his findings
6. The passage states which one of the following about the 1,0. edition of @orter4s
book on African(American art%
(A) 3t recei'ed little scholarly attention at first.
1522 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
(B) 3t was re'ised and impro'ed upon in later editions.
(C) 3t took issue with se'eral of Kocke4s conclusions.
() 3t is considered the definiti'e 'ersion of @orter4s work.
(#) 3t e$plored the influence of African art on western art in general.
,. Bi'en the information in the passage/ @orter4s identification of the ancestry of
uncanson and Aohnston pro'ides conclusi'e e'idence for which one of the
following statements%
(A) ;ome of the characteristics defining the )udson =i'er school are
iconographically linked to &eston African artisanship.
(B) ;ome of the works of uncanson and Aohnston are not in the style of the
)udson =i'er school.
(C) ;ome of the work of #uro(American painters displays similarities to African(
American crafts of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.
() ;ome of the works of the )udson =i'er school were done by African(
American painters.
(#) ;ome of the works of uncanson and Aohnston were influenced by &est
African artifacts.
15. &hich one of the following can most reasonably be inferred from the passage
about the study that @orter left unfinished at his death%
(A) 3f completed/ it would ha'e contradicted some of the conclusions contained in
his earlier book.
(B) 3f completed/ it would ha'e amended some of the conclusions contained in his
earlier book.
(C) 3f completed/ it would ha'e brought up to date the comprehensi'e history of
African(American art begun in his earlier book.
() 3f completed/ it would ha'e e$panded upon the pro<ect of his earlier book by
broadening the scope of in"uiry found in the earlier book.
(#) 3f completed/ it would ha'e supported some of the theories put forth by
@orter4s contemporaries since the publication of his earlier book.
11. &hich of the following hypothetical obser'ations is most closely analogous to the
disco'eries @orter made about African(American crafts of the eighteenth and
nineteenth centuries%
(A) Contemporary )aitian social customs ha'e a uni"ue character dependent on
but different from both their African and >rench origins.
(B) @opular music in the :nited ;tates/ some of which is based on African musical
traditions/ often influences music being composed on the African continent.
(C) ?any no'els written in Canada by Chinese immigrants e$hibit narrati'e
themes 'ery similar to those found in Chinese folktales.
() #$tensi'e 3ndian immigration to #ngland has made traditional 3ndian foods
LSAT 152-
nearly as popular there as the traditional #nglish foods that had been popular
there before 3ndian immigration.
(#) ;ome ?e$ican muralists of the early twentieth century consciously imitated
the art of nati'e peoples as a response to the ;panish influences that had
predominated in ?e$ican art.
12. The passage most strongly supports which one of the following inferences about
@orter4s own paintings%
(A) They often contained figures or images deri'ed from the work of African
artisans.
(B) They fueled his interest in pursuing a career in art history.
(C) They were used in @orter4s book to show the e$tent of African influence on
African(American art.
() They were a deliberate attempt to pro'e his theories about art history.
(#) They were done after all of his academic work had been completed.
1.. Based on the passage/ which one of the following/ if true/ would ha'e been most
rele'ant to the pro<ect @orter was working on at the time of his death%
(A) African(American crafts of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries ha'e
certain resemblances to #uropean folk crafts of earlier periods.
(B) The paintings of some twentieth(century #uropean artists prefigured certain
stylistic de'elopments in 9orth African graphic art.
(C) The designs of many of the "uilts made by African(American women in the
nineteenth century reflect designs of #uropean trade goods.
() After the mo'ement of large numbers of African(Americans to cities/ the
African influences in the work of many African(American painters increased.
(#) ;e'eral portraits by certain twentieth(century #uropean painters were modeled
after e$amples of Central African ceremonial masks.
'etween Cune 1987 and Bay 1988( the bodies o& at "east 7M0 bott"enose
do"phins out o& a tota" coasta" popu"ation o& 7(000 to /(000 washed ashore on the
3t"antic coast o& the United tates. ince some o& the dead anima"s never washed
ashore( the overa"" disaster was presumab"y worse= perhaps /0 percent o& the
popu"ation died. 3 do"phin die-o1 o& this character and magnitude had never
be&ore been observed= &urthermore( the do"phins e8hibited a start"ing range o&
symptoms. The research team that e8amined the die-o1 noted the presence o&
both s$in "esions and interna" "esions in the "iver( "ung( pancreas and heart( which
suggested a massive opportunistic bacteria" in&ection o& a"ready wea$ened
anima"s.
Tissues &rom the stric$en do"phins were ana"y+ed &or a variety o& to8ins.
'reveto8in( a to8in produced by the b"ooming o& the a"ga Ptychodiscus $revis( was
present in eight out o& seventeen do"phins tested. Tests &or synthetic po""utants
revea"ed that po"ych"orinated bipheny"s (9%'s) were present in a"most a"" anima"s
1526 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
tested.
The research team conc"uded that breveto8in poisoning was the most "i$e"y
cause o& the i""nesses that $i""ed the do"phins. 3"though P. $revis is ordinari"y not
&ound a"ong the 3t"antic coast( an unusua" b"oom o& this organism!such b"ooms
are ca""ed >red tides? because o& the reddish co"or imparted by the b"ooming a"gae
!did occur in the midd"e o& the a1ected coast"ine in <ctober 1987. These
researchers be"ieve the to8in accumu"ated in the tissue o& #sh and then was
ingested by do"phins that preyed on them. The emaciated appearance o& many
do"phins indicated that they were metabo"i+ing their b"ubber reserves( thereby
reducing their buoyancy and insu"ation (and adding to overa"" stress) as we"" as
re"easing stores o& previous"y accumu"ated synthetic po""utants( such as 9%'s(
which &urther e8acerbated their condition. The combined impact made the
do"phins vu"nerab"e to opportunistic bacteria" in&ection( the u"timate cause o&
death.
:or severa" reasons( however( this e8p"anation is not entire"y p"ausib"e. :irst(
bott"enose do"phins and P. $revis red tides are both common in the Eu"& o& Be8ico(
yet no do"phin die-o1 o& a simi"ar magnitude has been noted there. econd(
do"phins began dying in Cune( hundreds o& mi"es north o& and some months ear"ier
than the <ctober red tide b"oom. :ina""y( the speci#c e1ects o& breveto8in on
do"phins are un$nown( whereas 9%' poisoning is $nown to impair &unctioning o&
the immune system and "iver and to cause s$in "esions= a"" o& these prob"ems are
observed in the diseased anima"s. 3n a"ternative hypothesis( which accounts &or
these &acts( is that a sudden inDu8 o& po""utants( perhaps &rom o1shore dumping(
triggered a cascade o& disorders in anima"s whose systems were a"ready heavi"y
"aden with po""utants. 3"though breveto8in may have been a contributing &actor(
the event that actua""y precipitated the die-o1 was a sharp increase in the
do"phins6 e8posure to synthetic po""utants.
10. The passage is primarily concerned with assessing
(A) the effects of a de'astating bacterial infection in Atlantic coast bottlenose
dolphins
(B) the progress by which illnesses in Atlantic coast bottlenose dolphins were
correctly diagnosed
(C) the weaknesses in the research methodology used to e$plore the dolphin die(
off
() possible alternati'e e$planations for the massi'e dolphin die(off
(#) relati'e effects of 'arious marine pollutants on dolphin mortality
11. &hich one of the following is mentioned in the passage as e'idence for the
e$planation of the dolphin die(off offered in the final paragraph%
(A) the release of stored bre'eto$ins from the dolphins4 blubber reser'es
(B) the date on which offshore dumping was known to ha'e occurred nearby
LSAT 152,
(C) the presence of dumping sites for @CBs in the area
() the synthetic pollutants that were present in the fish eaten by the dolphins
(#) the effects of @CBs on li'er function in dolphins
12. &hich one of the following is most analogous to the approach taken by author of
the passage with regard to the research described in the third paragraph%
(A) A physics teacher accepts the data from a student4s e$periment but "uestions
the student4s conclusions.
(B) An astronomer pro'ides additional obser'ations to support another
astronomer4s theory.
(C) A cook re'ises a traditional recipe by substituting modern ingredients for those
used in the original.
() A doctor prescribes medication for a patient whose illness was misdiagnosed
by another doctor.
(#) A microbiologist sets out to replicate the e$periment that yielded a classic
theory of cell structure.
1-. &hich one of the following most accurately describes the organi!ation of the last
paragraph%
(A) 8ne e$planation is critici!ed and different e$planation is proposed.
(B) An argument is ad'anced and then refuted by means of an opposing argument.
(C) 8b<ections against a hypothesis are ad'anced/ the hypothesis is e$plained
more fully/ and then the ob<ections are re<ected.
() 9ew e'idence in fa'or of a theory is described/ and then the theory is
reaffirmed.
(#) iscrepancies between two e$planations are noted/ and a third e$planation is
proposed.
16. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author would most probably agree with
which one of the following statements about bre'eto$in%
(A) 3t may ha'e been responsible for the dolphins4 skin lesions but could not ha'e
contributed to the bacterial infection.
(B) 3t forms more easily when both P2 bre$is and synthetic pollutants are present in
the en'ironment simultaneously.
(C) 3t damages li'er function and immune system responses in bottlenose dolphins
but may not ha'e triggered this particular dolphin die(off.
() 3t is unlikely to be among the factors that contributed to the dolphin die(off.
(#) 3t is unlikely to ha'e caused the die(off because it was not present in the
dolphins4 en'ironment when the die(off began.
1,. The e$planation for the dolphin die(off gi'en by the research team most strongly
supports which one of the following%
15.5 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
(A) The biological mechanism by which bre'eto$in affects dolphins is probably
different from that by which it affects other marine animals.
(B) &hen P2 bre$is blooms in an area where it does not usually e$ist/ it is more
to$ic than it is in its usual habitat.
(C) 8pportunistic bacterial infection is usually associated with bre'eto$in
poisoning in bottlenose dolphins.
() The dolphins4 emaciated state was probably a symptom of @CB poisoning
rather than of bre'eto$in poisoning.
(#) &hen a dolphin metaboli!es its blubber/ the @CBs released may be more
dangerous to the dolphin than they were when stored in the blubber.
25. The author refers to dolphins in the Bulf of ?e$ico in the last paragraph in order
to
(A) refute the assertion that dolphins tend not to inhabit areas where P2 bre$is is
common
(B) compare the effects of synthetic pollutants on these dolphins and on Atlantic
coast dolphins
(C) cast doubt on the belief that P2 bre$is contributes substantially to dolphin die(
offs
() illustrate the fact that dolphins in relati'ely pollution(free waters are healthier
than dolphins in polluted waters
(#) pro'ide e'idence for the argument that P2 bre$is was probably responsible for
the dolphins4 deaths
21. &hich one of the following factors is e$plicitly cited as contributing to the
dolphins4 deaths in both theories discussed in the passage%
(A) the dolphins4 diet
(B) the presence of P2 bre$is in the Bulf of ?e$ico
(C) the wide 'ariety of to$ins released by the red tide bloom of 8ctober 1,6-
() the presence of synthetic pollutants in the dolphins4 bodies
(#) the bacterial infection caused by a generali!ed failure of the dolphins4 immune
systems
2n @ng"and be&ore 1LL0( a husband contro""ed his wi&e6s property. 2n the "ate
seventeenth and eighteenth centuries( with the shi&t &rom "and-based to
commercia" wea"th( marriage began to incorporate certain &eatures o& a contract.
)istorian have traditiona""y argued that this trend represented a gain &or women(
one that reDects changing views about democracy and property &o""owing the
@ng"ish Restoration in 1LL0. usan taves contests this view= she argues that
whatever gains marriage contracts may brieDy have represented &or women were
undermined by 5udicia" decisions about women6s contractua" rights.
i&ting (to go through especia""y to sort out what is use&u" or va"uab"e >si&ted
LSAT 15.1
the evidence? o&ten used with through >si&t through a pi"e o& o"d "etters?) through
the tang"ed detai"s o& court cases( taves demonstrates that( despite sur&ace
changes( a rhetoric o& e-ua"ity( and occasiona" decisions supporting women6s
#nancia" power( de#nitions o& men6s and women6s property remained inconsistent
!genera""y to women6s detriment. :or e8amp"e( dower "ands (property inherited
by wives a&ter their husbands6 deaths) cou"d not be so"d( but >curtsey? property
(inherited by husbands &rom their wives) cou"d be so"d. :urthermore(
comparative"y new concepts that deve"oped in con5unction with the marriage
contract( such as 5ointure( pin money (pin moneyA money given by a man to his
wi&e &or her own use)( and separate maintenance( were compromised by pecu"iar
ru"es. :or instance( i& a woman spent her pin money (money paid by the husband
according to the marriage contract &or wi&e6s persona" items) on possessions other
than c"othes she cou"d not se"" them= in e1ect they be"onged to her husband. 2n
addition( a wi&e cou"d sue &or pin money on"y up to a year in arrears!which
rendered a suit impractica". imi"ar"y( separate maintenance a""owances (stated
sums o& money &or the wi&e6s support i& husband and wi&e agreed to "ive apart)
were comp"icated by the &act that i& a coup"e tried to agree in a marriage contract
on an amount( they were admitting that a supposed"y indisso"ub"e bond cou"d be
disso"ved( an assumption courts cou"d not recogni+e. @ighteenth-century
historians underp"ayed these inconsistencies( ca""ing them >"itt"e contrarieties?
that wou"d soon vanish. taves shows( however( that as 5udges gained power over
decisions on marriage contracts( they tended to &a"" bac$ on pre-1LL0
assumptions about property.
taves6 wor$ on women6s property has genera" imp"ications &or other studies
about women in eighteenth-century @ng"and. taves revised her previous c"aim
that separate maintenance a""owances proved the wea$ening o& patriarchy= she
now #nds that an oversimp"i#cation. he a"so cha""enges the contention by
historians Ceanne and Jawrence tone that in the "ate eighteenth century wea"thy
men married widows "ess o&ten than be&ore because coup"es began marring &or
"ove rather than &or #nancia" reasons. taves does not comp"ete"y undermine their
contention( but she does counter their assumption that widows had more money
than never-married women. he points out that 5ointure property (a widow6s
"i&etime use o& an amount o& money speci#ed in the marriage contract) was o&ten
"ost on remarriage.
22. &hich one of the following best e$presses the main idea of the passage%
(A) As notions of property and democracy changed in late se'enteenth(and
eighteenth(century #ngland/ marriage settlements began to incorporate
contractual features designed to protect women4s property rights.
(B) Traditional historians ha'e incorrectly identified the contractual features that
were incorporated into marriage contracts in late se'enteenth(and eighteenth(
century #ngland.
(C) The incorporation of contractual features into marriage settlements in late
15.2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
se'enteen(and eighteenth(century #ngland did not represent a significant gain
of women.
() An e$amination of late se'enteenth(and eighteenth(century #nglish court cases
indicates that most marriage settlements did not incorporate contractual
features designed to protect women4s property rights.
(#) Before marriage settlements incorporated contractual features protecting
women4s property rights/ women were unable to gain any financial power in
#ngland.
2.. &hich one of the following best describes the function of the last paragraph in the
conte$t of the passage as a whole%
(A) 3t suggests that ;ta'es4 recent work has caused significant re'ision of theories
about the rights of women in eighteenth(century #ngland.
(B) 3t discusses research that may "ualify ;ta'es4 work on women4s property in
eighteenth(century #ngland.
(C) 3t pro'ides further support for ;ta'es4 argument by describing more recent
research on women4s property in eighteenth(century #ngland.
() 3t asserts that ;ta'es4 recent work has pro'ided support for two other
hypotheses de'eloped by historians of eighteenth(century #ngland.
(#) 3t suggests the implications ;ta'es4 recent research has for other theories about
women in eighteenth(century #ngland.
20. The primary purpose of the passage to
(A) compare two e$planations for the same phenomenon
(B) summari!e research that refutes an argument
(C) resol'e a long(standing contro'ersy
() suggest that a recent hypothesis should be ree'aluated
(#) pro'ide support for a traditional theory
21. According to the passage/ ;ta'es4 research has which one of the following effects
on the ;tones4 contention about marriage in late eighteenth(century #ngland%
(A) ;ta'es4 research undermines one of the ;tones4 assumptions but does not
effecti'ely in'alidate their contention.
(B) ;ta'es4 research refutes that the ;tones4 contention by pro'iding additional
data o'erlooked by the ;tones.
(C) ;ta'es4 research shows that the ;tones4 contention cannot be correct/ and that a
number of their assumptions are mistaken.
() ;ta'es4 research indicates that the ;tones4 contention is incorrect because it is
based on contradictory data.
(#) ;ta'es4 research "ualifies the ;tones4 contention by indicating that it is based
on accurate out incomplete data.
LSAT 15..
22. According to the passage/ ;ta'es indicates that which one of the following was
true of <udicial decisions on contractual rights%
(A) Audges fre"uently misunderstood and misapplied laws regarding married
women4s property.
(B) Audges were aware of inconsistencies in laws concerning women4s contractual
rights but claimed that such inconsistencies would soon 'anish.
(C) Audges4 decisions about marriage contracts tended to reflect assumptions about
property that had been common before 1225.
() Audges had little influence on the de'elopment and application of laws
concerning married women4s property.
(#) Audges recogni!ed the patriarchal assumptions underlying laws concerning
married women4s property and tried to interpret the laws in ways that would
protect women.
2-. The passage suggests that the historians mentioned in line 1 would be most likely
to agree with which one of the following statements%
(A) The shift from land(based to commercial wealth changed 'iews about property
but did not significantly benefit married women until the late eighteenth
century.
(B) espite initial <udicial resistance to women4s contractual rights/ marriage
contracts represented a significant gain for married women.
(C) Although marriage contracts incorporated a series of surface changes and a
rhetoric of e"uality/ they did not ultimately benefit married women.
() Changing 'iews about property and democracy in post(=estoration #ngland
had an effect on property laws that was beneficial to women.
(#) Although contractual rights protecting women4s property represented a small
gain for married women/ most laws continued to be more beneficial for men
than for women.
LSAT 2002 SECTON
T!"e 35 "!#$%es 26 &$es%!o#s
Directions: Each passage in this section is followed by a group of questions to be answered on
the basis of what is stated or implied in the passage. For some of the questions, more than one
of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However, you are to choose the best
answer, that is, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question, and
blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.
The myth persists that in 1M94 the ;estern )emisphere was an untamed
wi"derness and that it was @uropean sett"ers who harnessed and trans&ormed its
ecosystems. 'ut scho"arship shows that &orests( in particu"ar( had been a"tered to
varying degrees we"" be&ore the arriva" o& @uropeans. ,ative popu"ations had
converted much o& the &orests to success&u""y cu"tivated stands( especia""y by
means o& burning. ,everthe"ess( some researchers have maintained that the
15.0 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
e8tent( &re-uency( and impact o& such burning was minima". <ne geographer
c"aims that c"imatic change cou"d have accounted &or some o& the changes in
&orest composition= another argues that burning by native popu"ations was done
on"y sporadica""y( to augment the e1ects o& natura" #res.
)owever( a "arge body o& evidence &or the routine practice o& burning e8ists in
the geographica" record. <ne group o& researchers &ound( &or e8amp"e( that
sedimentary charcoa" accumu"ations in what is now the northeastern United
tates are greatest where $nown native 3merican sett"ements were greatest.
<ther evidence shows that( whi"e the characteristics and impact o& #res set by
native popu"ations varied regiona""y according to popu"ation si+e( e8tent o&
resource management techni-ues( and environment( a"" such #res had mar$ed"y
di1erent e1ects on vegetation patter than did natura" #res. %ontro""ed burning
crated grassy openings such as meadows and g"ades. 'urning a"so promoted a
mosaic -ua"ity to ,orth and south 3merican ecosystems( creating &orests in many
di1erent stages o& eco"ogica" deve"opment. Buch o& the mature &orest"and was
characteri+ed by open herbaceous undergrowth( another resu"t o& the c"earing
brought about by burning.
2n ,orth 3merican( contro""ed burning crated conditions &avorab"e to berries
and other #re-to"erant and sun-"oving &oods. 'urning a"so converted mi8ed stands
o& trees to homogeneous &orest( &or e8amp"e the "ong"ea&( s"ash pine( and scrub
oa$ &orests o& the southeastern U.. natura" #res do account &or some o& this
vegetation( but regu"ar burning c"ear"y e8tended and maintained it. 'urning a"so
inDuenced &orest composition in the tropics( where natura" #res are rare. 3n
e8amp"e is the pine-dominant &orests o& ,icaragua( where warm temperatures and
heavy rain&a"" natura""y &avor mi8ed tropica" or rain &orests. ;hi"e there are
primari"y grow in coo"er( drier( higher e"evations( regions where such vegetation is
in "arge part natura" and even prehuman. Today( the ,icaraguan pines occur
where there has been c"earing &o""owed by regu"ar burning( and the same is "i$e"y
to have occurred in the pastA such &orests ere present when @uropeans arrived
and were &ound on"y in areas where native sett"ements were substantia"= when
these sett"ements were abandoned( the "and returned to mi8ed hardwoods. This
succession is a"so evident e"sewhere in simi"ar "ow tropica" e"evations in the
%aribbean and Be8ico.
1. &hich one of the following most accurately e$presses the main idea of the
passage%
(A) espite e$tensi'e e'idence that nati'e populations had been burning 9orth
and ;outh American forests e$tensi'ely before 10,2/ some scholars persist in
claiming that such burning was either infre"uent or the result of natural causes.
(B) 3n opposition to the widespread belief that in 10,2 the &estern hemisphere
was unculti'ated/ scholars unanimously agree that nai'e population were
substantially altering 9orth and ;outh American forests well before the arri'al
of #uropeans.
LSAT 15.1
(C) Although some scholars minimi!e the scope and importance of the burning of
forests engaged in by nati'e populations of 9orth and ;outh American before
10,2/ e'idence of the fre"uency and impact of such burning is actually "uite
e$tensi'e.
() &here scholars had once belie'ed that 9orth and ;outh American forests
remained unculti'ated until the arri'al of #uropeans/ there is now general
agreement that nati'e populations had been culti'ating the forests since well
before 10,2.
(#) &hile scholars ha'e acknowledged that 9orth and ;outh American forests
were being burned well before 10,2/ there is still disagreement o'er whether
such burning was the result of natural causes or of the deliberate actions of
nati'e populations.
2. 3t can be inferred that a forest burned as described in the passage would ha'e been
K#A;T likely to display
(A) numerous types of hardwood trees
(B) e$tensi'e herbaceous undergrowth
(C) a 'ariety of fire(tolerant plants
() 'arious stages of ecological maturity
(#) grassy opening such as meadows or glades
.. &hich one of the following is a type of forest identified by the author as a product
of controlled burning in recent times%
(A) scrub oak forests in the southeastern :.;.
(B) slash pine forests in the southeastern :.;.
(C) pine forests in Buatemala at high ele'ations
() pine forests in ?e$ico at high ele'ations
(#) pine forests in 9icaragua at low ele'ations
0. &hich one of the following is presented by the author as e'idence of controlled
burning in the tropics before the arri'al of #uropeans%
(A) e$tensi'e homogeneous forests at high ele'ation
(B) e$tensi'e homogeneous forests at low ele'ation
(C) e$tensi'e heterogeneous forests at high ele'ation
() e$tensi'e heterogeneous forests at low ele'ation
(#) e$tensi'e sedimentary charcoal accumulations at high ele'ation
1. &ith which one of the following would the author be most likely to agree%
(A) The long(term effects of controlled burning could <ust as easily ha'e been
caused by natural fires.
(B) )erbaceous undergrowth pre'ents many forests from reaching full maturity.
(C) #uropean settlers had little impact on the composition of the ecosystems in
15.2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
9orth and ;outh America.
() Certain species of plants may not ha'e been as widespread in 9orth American
without controlled burning.
(#) 9icaraguan pine forests could ha'e been created either by natural fires or by
controlled burning.
2. As e'idence fro the routine practice of forest burning by nati'e populations before
the arri'al of #uropeans/ the author cites all of the following #DC#@TE
(A) The similar characteristics of fires in different regions.
(B) The simultaneous presence of forests at 'arying stages of maturity
(C) The e$istence of herbaceous undergrowth in certain forests
() The hea'y accumulation of charcoal near populous settlements
(#) The presence of meadows and glades in certain forests.
-. The *succession+ mentioned in line 1- refers to
(A) forest clearing followed by controlled burning of forests
(B) tropical rain forest followed by pine forest
(C) #uropean settlement followed by abandonment of land
() homogeneous pine forest followed by mi$ed hardwoods
(#) correct the geographical record
6. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) refute certain researchers4 'iew
(B) support a common belief
(C) counter certain e'idence
() synthesi!e two 'iewpoints
(#) correct the geographical record
2nte""ectua" authority is de#ned as the authority o& arguments that prevai" by
virtue o& good reasoning and do not depend on coercion or convention. 3
contrasting notion( institutiona" authority( re&ers to the power o& socia" institutions
to en&orce acceptance o& arguments that may or may not possess inte""ectua"
authority. The authority wie"ded by "ega" systems is especia""y interesting because
such systems are institutions that nonethe"ess aspire to a pure"y inte""ectua"
authority. <ne 5udge goes so &ar as to c"aim that courts are mere"y passive
vehic"es &or app"ying the inte""ectua" authority o& the "aw and possess no coercive
powers o& their own.
2n contrast( some critics maintain that whatever authority 5udicia"
pronouncements have is e8c"usive"y institutiona". ome o& these critics go &urther(
c"aiming that inte""ectua" authority does not rea""y e8ist!i.e.( it reduces to
institutiona" authority. 'ut it can be countered that these c"aims brea$ down when
a su*cient"y broad historica" perspective is ta$enA ,ot a"" arguments accepted by
LSAT 15.-
institutions withstand the test o& time( and some we""-reasoned arguments never
receive institutiona" imprimatur. The reasonab"e argument that goes unrecogni+ed
in its own time because it cha""enges institutiona" be"ie&s is common in inte""ectua"
history= inte""ectua" authority and institutiona" consensus are not the same thing.
'ut the critics might respond( inte""ectua" authority is on"y recogni+ed as such
because o& institutiona" consensus. :or e8amp"e( i& a musico"ogist were to c"aim
that an a""eged musica" genius who( a&ter severa" decades( had not gained respect
and recognition &or his or her compositions is probab"y not a genius( the critics
might say that basing a 5udgment on a unit o& time!>severa" decades?!is an
institutiona" rather than an inte""ectua" construct. ;hat( the critics might as$(
ma$es a particu"ar number o& decades reasonab"e evidence by which to 5udge
geniusG The answer( o& course( is nothing( e8cept &or the &act that such
institutiona" procedures have proved use&u" to musico"ogists in ma$ing such
distinctions in the past.
The ana"ogous "ega" concept is the doctrine o& precedent( i.e.( a 5udge6s mere"y
deciding a case a certain way becoming a basis &or deciding "ater cases the same
way!a pure e8amp"e o& institutiona" authority. 'ut eh critics miss the crucia"
distinction that when a 5udicia" decision is bad"y reasoned( or simp"y no "onger
app"ies in the &ace o& evo"ving socia" standards or practices( the notion o&
inte""ectua" authority is introducedA 5udges reconsider( revise( or in some cases
throw out in the reconsideration o& decisions( "eading one to draw the conc"usion
that "ega" systems contain a signi#cant degree o& inte""ectua" authority even i& the
thrust o& their power is predominant"y institutiona".
,. &hich one of the following most accurately states the main idea of the passage%
(A) Although some argue that the authority of legal systems is purely intellectual/
these systems possess a degree of institutional authority due to their ability to
enforce acceptance of badly reasoned or socially inappropriate <udicial
decisions.
(B) Although some argue that the authority of legal systems is purely institutional/
theses systems are more correctly seen as 'ehicles for applying the intellectual
authority of the law while possessing no coerci'e power of their own.
(C) Although some argue that the authority of legal systems is purely intellectual/
these systems in fact wield institutional authority by 'irtue of the fact that
intellectual authority reduces to institutional authority.
() Although some argue that the authority of legal systems is purely institutional/
these systems possesses a degree of intellectual authority due to their ability to
reconsider badly reasoned or socially inappropriate <udicial decisions.
(#) Although some argue that the authority of legal systems is purely intellectual/
these systems in fact wield e$clusi'ely institutional authority in that they
possess the power to enforce acceptance of badly reasoned or socially
inappropriate <udicial decisions.
15.6 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
15. That some arguments *ne'er recei'e institutional imprimatur+ (line 22(2.) most
likely means that these arguments
(A) fail to gain institutional consensus
(B) fail to challenge institutional beliefs
(C) fail to conform to the e$ample of precedent
() fail to con'ince by 'irtue of good reasoning
(#) fail to gain acceptance e$cept by coercion
11. &hich one of the following/ if true/ most challenges the author4s contention that
legal systems contain a significant degree of intellectual authority%
(A) Audges often act under time constraints and occasionally render a badly
reasoned or socially inappropriate decision.
(B) 3n some legal systems/ the percentage of <udicial decisions that contain faulty
reasoning is far higher than it is in other legal systems.
(C) ?any socially inappropriate legal decisions are thrown out by <udges only
after citi!ens begin to 'oice opposition to them.
() 3n some legal systems/ the percentage of <udicial decisions that are
reconsidered and re'ised is far higher than it is in other legal systems.
(#) Audges are rarely willing to rectify the e$amples of faulty reasoning they
disco'er when re'iewing pre'ious legal decisions.
12. Bi'en the information in the passage/ the author is K#A;T likely to belie'e which
one of the following%
(A) 3nstitutional authority may depend on coercionI intellectual authority ne'er
does.
(B) 3ntellectual authority may accept well(reasoned argumentsI institutional
authority ne'er does.
(C) 3nstitutional authority may depend on con'entionI intellectual authority ne'er
does.
() 3ntellectual authority sometimes challenges institutional beliefsI institutional
authority ne'er does.
(#) 3ntellectual authority sometimes conflicts with precedentI institutional
authority ne'er does.
1.. The author discusses the e$ample from musicology primarily in order to
(A) distinguish the nothing of institutional authority from that of intellectual
authority
(B) gi'en an e$ample of an argument possessing intellectual authority that did not
pre'ail in its own time
(C) identify an e$ample in which the ascription of musical genius did not
withstand the test of time
LSAT 15.,
() illustrate the claim that assessing intellectual authority re"uires an appeal to
institutional authority
(#) demonstrate that the authority wielded by the arbiters of musical genius is
entirely institutional
10. Based on the passage/ the author would be most likely to hold which one of the
following 'iews about the doctrine of precedent%
(A) it is the only tool <udges should use if they wish to achie'e a purely intellectual
authority.
(B) 3t is a useful tool in theory but in practice it in'ariably conflicts with the
demands of intellectual authority.
(C) 3t is a useful tool but lacks intellectual authority unless it is combined with the
reconsidering of decisions.
() 3t is often an unreliable tool because it pre'ents <udges from reconsidering the
intellectual authority of past decisions.
(#) 3t is an unreliable tool that should be abandoned because it lacks intellectual
authority.
2n e8p"aining the &oundations o& the discip"ine $nown as historica" socio"ogy!
the e8amination o& history using the methods o& socio"ogy!historica" socio"ogist
9hi"ip 3brams argues that( whi"e peop"e are made by society as much as society is
made by peop"e( socio"ogists6 approach to the sub5ect is usua""y to &ocus on on"y
one o& these &orms o& inDuence to the e8c"usion o& the other. 3brams insists on the
necessity &or socio"ogists to move beyond these one-sided approaches to
understand society as an entity constructed by individua"s who are at the same
time constructed by their society. 3brams re&ers to this continuous process as
>structuring?.
3brams a"so sees history as the resu"t o& structuring. 9eop"e( both individua""y
and as members o& co""ectives( ma$e history. 'ut our ma$ing o& history is itse"&
&ormed and in&ormed not on"y by the historica" conditions we inherit &rom the past(
but a"so by the prior &ormation o& our own identities and capacities( which are
shaped by what 3brams ca""s >contingencies?!socia" phenomena over which we
have varying degrees o& contro". %ontingencies inc"ude such things as the socia"
conditions under which we come o& age( the condition o& our househo"d6s
economy( the ideo"ogies avai"ab"e to he"p us ma$e sense o& our situation( and
accidenta" circumstances. The ways in which contingencies a1ect our individua" or
group identities create a structure o& &orces within which we are ab"e to act( and
that partia""y determines the sorts o& actions we are ab"e to per&orm.
2n 3brams ana"ysis( historica" structuring( "i$e socia" structuring( is mani&o"d
and unremitting. To understand it( historica" socio"ogists must e8tract &rom it
certain signi#cant episodes( or events( that their methodo"ogy can then ana"y+e
and interpret. 3ccording to 3brams( these events are points at which action and
contingency meet( points that represent a cross section o& the speci#c socia" and
1505 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
individua" &orces in p"ay at a given time. 3t such moments( individua"s stand &orth
as agents o& history not simp"y because they possess a uni-ue abi"ity to act( but
a"so because in them we see the &orce o& the speci#c socia" conditions that
a""owed their actions to come &orth. 2ndividua"s can >ma$e their mar$? on history(
yet in individua"s one a"so #nds the convergence o& wider socia" &orces. 2n order to
capture the various &acets o& this mutua" interaction( 3brams recommends a
&our&o"d structure to which he be"ieves the investigations o& historica" socio"ogists
shou"d con&ormA #rst( description o& the event itse"&= second( discussion o& the
socia" conte8t that he"ped bring the event about and gave it signi#cance= third(
summary o& the "i&e history o& the individua" agent in the event= and &ourth(
ana"ysis o& the conse-uences o& the event both &or history and &or the individua".
11. &hich one of the following most accurately states the central idea of the passage%
(A) Abrams argues that historical sociology re<ects the claims of sociologists who
assert that the sociological concept of structuring cannot be applied to the
interactions between indi'iduals and history.
(B) Abrams argues that historical sociology assumes that/ despite the 'iews of
sociologists to the contrary/ history influences the social contingencies that
affect indi'iduals.
(C) Abrams argues that historical sociology demonstrates that/ despite the 'iews of
sociologists to the contrary/ social structures both influence and are influenced
by the e'ents of history.
() Abrams describes historical sociology as a discipline that unites two
approaches taken by sociologists to studying the formation of societies and
applies the resulting combined approach to the study of history.
(#) Abrams describes historical society as an attempt to compensate for the
shortcoming of traditional historical methods by applying the methods
established in sociology.
12. Bi'en the passage4s argument/ which one of the following sentences most
logically completes the last paragraph%
(A) 8nly if they adhere to this structure/ Abrams belie'es/ can historical
sociologists conclude with any certainty that the e'ents that constitute the
historical record are influenced by the actions of indi'iduals
(B) 8nly if they adhere to this structure/ Abrams belie'es/ will historical
sociologists be able to counter the standard sociological assumption that there
is 'ery little connection between history and indi'idual agency.
(C) :nless they can agree to adhere to this structure/ Abrams belie'es/ historical
sociologists risk ha'ing their discipline treated as little more than an interesting
but ultimately indefensible ad<unct to history and sociology.
() By adhering to this structure/ Abrams belie'es/ historical sociologists can shed
light on issues that traditional sociologists ha'e chosen to ignore in their one(
sided approaches to the formation of societies.
LSAT 1501
(#) By adhering to this structure/ Abrams belie'es/ historical sociologists will be
able to better portray the comple$ connections between human agency and
history.
1-. The passage states that a contingency could be each of the following #DC#@TE
(A) a social phenomenon
(B) a form of historical structuring
(C) an accidental circumstance
() a condition controllable to some e$tent by an indi'idual
(#) a partial determinant of an indi'idual4s actions
16. &hich one of the following is most analogous to the ideal work of a historical
sociologist as outlined by Abrams%
(A) 3n a report on the enactment of a bill into law/ a <ournalist e$plains why the
need for the bill arose/ sketches the biography of the principal legislator who
wrote the bill/ and ponders the effect that the bill4s enactment will ha'e both
one society and on the legislator4s career.
(B) 3n a consultation with a patient/ a doctor re'iews the patient4s medical history/
suggests possible reasons for the patient4s current condition/ and recommends
steps that the patient should take in the future to ensure that the condition
impro'es or at least does not get any worse.
(C) 3n an analysis of a historical no'el/ a critic pro'ides information to support the
claim that details of the work4s setting are accurate/ e$plains why the sub<ect of
the no'el was of particular interest to the author/ and compares the no'el with
some of the author4s other books set in the same period.
() 3n a presentation to stockholders/ a corporation4s chief e$ecuti'e officer
describes the corporations4 most profitable acti'ities during the past year/
introduces the 'ice president largely responsible for those acti'ities/ and
discusses new pro<ects the 'ice president will initiate in the coming year.
(#) 3n de'eloping a film based on a historical e'ent/ a filmmaker conducts
inter'iews with participants in the e'ent/ bases part of the film4s screenplay on
the inter'iews/ and concludes the screenplay with a se"uence of scenes
speculating on the outcome of the e'ent had certain details been different.
1,. The primary function of the first paragraph of the passage is to
(A) outline the merits of Abram4s conception of historical sociology
(B) con'ey the details of Abrams4s conception of historical sociology
(C) anticipate challenges to Abrams4s conception of historical sociology
() e$amine the roles of key terms used in Abrams4s conception of historical
sociology
(#) identify the basis of Abrams4s conception of historical sociology
25. Based on the passage/ which one of the following is the K#A;T illustrati'e
1502 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
e$ample of the effect of a contingency upon an indi'idual%
(A) the effect of the fact that a person e$perienced political in<ustice on that
person4s decision to work for political reform
(B) the effect of the fact that a person was raised in an agricultural region on that
person4s decision to pursue a career in agriculture
(C) the effect of the fact that a person li'es in a particular community on that
person4s decision to 'isit friends in another community
() the effect of the fact that a person4s parents practiced a particular religion on
that person4s decision to practice that religion
(#) the effect of the fact that a person grew up in financial hardship on that
person4s decision to help others in financial hardship
<ne o& the greatest cha""enges &acing medica" students today( apart &rom
absorbing vo"umes o& technica" in&ormation and "earning habits o& scienti#c
thought( is that o& remaining empathetic to the needs o& patients in the &ace o& a""
this rigorous training. Re-uiring students to immerse themse"ves comp"ete"y in
medica" coursewor$ ris$s disconnecting them &rom the persona" and ethica"
aspects o& doctoring( and such strict"y scienti#c thin$ing is insu*cient &or
grapp"ing with modern ethica" di"emmas. :or these reasons( aspiring physicians
need to deve"op new ways o& thin$ing about and interacting with patients.
Training in ethics that ta$es narrative "iterature as its primary sub5ect is one
method o& accomp"ishing this.
3"though training in ethics is current"y provided by medica" schoo"s( this
training re"ies heavi"y on an abstract( phi"osophica" view o& ethics. 3"though the
conceptua" c"arity provided by a traditiona" ethics course can be va"uab"e(
theori+ing about ethics contributes "itt"e to the understanding o& everyday human
e8perience or to preparing medica" students &or the mu"ti&arious ethica" di"emmas
they wi"" &ace as physicians. 3 true &oundation in ethics must be predicated on an
understanding o& human behavior that reDects a wide array o& re"ationships and
readi"y adapts to various perspectives( &or this is what is re-uired to deve"op
empathy. @thics courses drawing on narrative "iterature can better he"p students
prepare &or ethica" di"emmas precise"y because such "iterature attaches its
readers so &orce&u""y to the concrete and varied wou"d o& human events.
The act o& reading narrative "iterature is uni-ue"y suited to the deve"opment o&
what might be ca""ed De8ib"e ethica" thin$ing. To grasp the deve"opment o&
character( to tang"e with heightening mora" crises( and to engage onese"& with the
story not as ones own but neverthe"ess as something recogni+ab"e and worthy
o& attention( readers must use their mora" imagination. Eiving onese"& over to the
ethica" conDicts in a story re-uires the abandonment o& strict"y abso"ute( invio"ate
sets o& mora" princip"es. Reading "iterature a"so demands that the reader adopt
another person6s point o& view athat o& the narrator or a character in a story!and
thus re-uires the abi"ity to depart &rom one6s persona" ethica" stance and e8amine
mora" issues &rom new perspectives.
LSAT 150.
2t does not &o""ow that readers( inc"uding medica" pro&essiona"s( must re"in-uish
a"" mora" princip"es( as is the case with situationa" ethics( in which decisions about
ethica" choices are made on the basis o& intuition ad are entire"y re"ative to the
circumstances in which they arise. uch an e8treme"y re"ativistic stance wou"d
have as "itt"e bene#t &or the patient or physician as wou"d a dogmatica""y
abso"utist one. :ortunate"y( the incorporation o& narrative "iterature into the study
o& ethics( whi"e serving as a corrective to the "ater stance( need not "ead to the
&ormer. 'ut it can give us something that is "ac$ing in the traditiona" phi"osophica"
study o& ethics!name"y( a deeper understanding o& human nature that can serve
as a &oundation &or ethica" reasoning and a""ow greater De8ibi"ity in the app"ication
o& mora" princip"es.
21. &hich one of the following most accurately states the main point of the passage%
(A) Training in ethics that incorporates narrati'e literature would better culti'ate
fle$ible ethical thinking and increase medical students4 capacity for empathetic
patient care as compared with the traditional approach of medical schools to
such training.
(B) Traditional abstract ethical training/ because it is too hea'ily focused on
theoretical reasoning/ tends to decrease or impair that medical student4s
sensiti'ity to modern ethical dilemmas.
(C) 8nly a properly designed curriculum that balances situational/ abstract/ and
narrati'e approaches to ethics will ade"uately prepare the medical student for
comple$ ethical confrontations in'ol'ing actual patients.
() 9arrati'e(based instruction in ethics is becoming increasingly popular in
medical schools because it re"uires students to de'elop a capacity for empathy
by e$amining comple$ moral issues from a 'ariety of perspecti'es.
(#) The study of narrati'e literature in medical schools would nurture moral
intuition/ enabling the future doctor to make ethical decisions without appeal to
general principles.
22. &hich one of the following most accurately represents the author4s use of the term
*moral imagination *in line .6%
(A) a sense of curiosity/ aroused by reading/ that leads one to follow acti'ely the
de'elopment of problems in'ol'ing the characters depicted in narrati'es.
(B) A faculty of seeking out and recogni!ing the ethical contro'ersies in'ol'ed in
human relationships and identifying oneself with one side or another in such
contro'ersies
(C) A capacity to understand the comple$ities of 'arious ethical dilemmas and to
fashion creati'e and inno'ati'e solutions to them
() An ability to understand personal aspects of ethically significant situations
e'en if one is not a direct participant and to empathi!e with those in'ol'ed in
them.
(#) An ability to act upon ethical principles different from one4s own for the sake
1500 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
of 'ariety.
2.. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author would most likely agree with
which one of the following statements%
(A) The hea'y load of technical coursework in today4s medical schools often keeps
them from gi'ing ade"uate emphasis to courses in medical ethics.
(B) ;tudents learn more about ethics through the use of fiction than through the
use of non(fictional readings.
(C) The traditional method of ethical training in medical schools should be
supplemented or replaced by more direct practical e$perience with real(life
patients in ethically difficult situations.
() The failing of an abstract/ philosophical training in ethics can be remedied
only by replacing it with a purely narrati'e(based approach.
(#) 9either scientific training nor traditional philosophical ethics ade"uately
prepares doctors to deal with the emotional dimension of patients4 needs.
20.
21. &hich one of the following is most likely the author4s o'erall purpose in the
passage%
(A) To ad'ise medical schools on how to implement a narrati'e(based approach to
ethics in their curricula.
(B) To argue that the current methods of ethics education are counterproducti'e to
the formation of empathetic doctor(patient relationships.
(C) To argue that the ethical content of narrati'e literature foreshadows the pitfalls
of situational ethics.
() To propose an approach to ethical training in medical school that will preser'e
the human dimension of medicine.
(#) To demonstrate the 'alue of a well(designed ethics education for medical
students.
22. The passage ascribes each of the following characteristics to the use of narrati'e
literature in ethical education #DC#@TE
(A) 3t tends to a'oid the e$treme relati'ism of situational ethics.
(B) 3t connects students to 'aried types of human e'ents.
(C) 3t can help lead medical students to de'elop new ways of dealing with patients.
() 3t re"uires students to e$amine moral issues from new perspecti'es.
(#) 3t can help insulate future doctors from the shock of the ethical dilemmas they
will confront.
2-. The author4s attitude regarding the traditional method of teaching ethics in medical
school can most accurately be described as
(A) un"ualified disappro'al of the method and disappro'al of all of its effects
LSAT 1501
(B) reser'ed <udgment regarding the method and disappro'al of all of its effects
(C) partial disappro'al of the method and clinical indifference toward its effects
() partial appro'al of the method and disappro'al of all of its effects
(#) partial disappro'al of the method and appro'al of some of its effects

GMAT RC 117Passages
GMAT New 63Passages
Passage 1 (1/63)
1. B 2. # .. C 0. A 1. C
2. B -. # 6. C
Passage 2 (2/63)
1. A 2. B .. C 0. # 1. B
2. C -. B 6. C ,.
Passage 3 (3/63)
1. # 2. B .. A 0. # 1.
2. A -. B 6. B
Passage 4 (4/63)
1. 2. B .. C 0. B 1. A
2. B -. A
Passage 5 (5/63)
1. # 2. .. B 0. C 1. B
2. A -. # 6. ,. A
Passage 6 (6/63)
1. A 2. .. B 0. A 1. #
2. C -. 6. B ,. A
Passage 7 (7/63)
1. # 2. C .. 0. B 1. B
2. -. C
1502 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
Passage 8 (8/63)
1. A 2. C .. A 0. 1. #
2. A -. # 6. ,. C
Passage 9 (9/63)
1. # 2. A .. C 0. C 1. B
2. # -. 6. A ,. B
Passage 10 (10/63)
1. 2. .. 0. A 1.
2. # -. B 6. B ,. A
Passage 11 (11/63)
1. B 2. # .. # 0. C 1. A
2. C -. B
Passage 12 (12/63)
1. A 2. .. C 0. C 1. C
2. B -. B 6. # ,.
15.
Passage 13 (13/63)
1. 2. .. C 0. 1. C
2. -. # 6. B
,. 15.
Passage 14 (14/63)
1. # 2. # .. 0. # 1. A
2. B -. C 6. ,.
15.
Passage 15 (15/63)
1. 2. C .. A 0. 1. C
2. -. C 6. A
,. 15.
Passage 16 (16/63)
1. A 2. C .. B 0. B 1. C
2. -. B
6. ,. 15.
Passage 17 (17/63)
LSAT 150-
1. A 2. # .. # 0. B 1. C
2. -. C 6. A ,. #
15.
Passage 18 (18/63)
1. 2. .. B 0. C 1. B
2. C -. # 6. A ,. B
15.
Passage 19 (19/63)
1. # 2. .. B 0. C 1. B
2. -. A 6.
,. 15.
Passage 20 (20/63)
1. C 2. A .. 0. A 1. A
2. C -. B
6. ,. 15.
Passage 21 (21/63)
1. 2. .. B 0. A 1.
2. # -. C 6. A
,. 15.
Passage 22 (22/63)
1. B 2. .. # 0. 1.
2. B -. C 6. A
,. 15.
Passage 23 (23/63)
1. 2. C .. A 0. # 1. C
2. B -. C 6. A
,. 15.
Passage 24 (24/63)
1. B 2. .. A 0. # 1. #
2. C -. A
6. ,. 15.
Passage 25 (25/63)
1. B 2. # .. B 0. C 1. A
2. C -. A 6. C
,. 15.
Passage 26 (26/63)
1. # 2. C .. # 0. # 1. B
2. -. 6. A
,. 15.
1506 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
Passage 27 (27/63)
1. B 2. C .. # 0. C 1. B
2. # -.
6. ,. 15.
Passage 28 (28/63)
1. B 2. B .. 0. 1.
2. C -.
6. ,. 15.
Passage 29 (29/63)
1. # 2. C .. C 0. A 1. #
2. -. B
6. ,. 15.
Passage 30 (30/63)
1. B 2. A .. 0. B 1. A
2. C -. # 6.
,. 15.
Passage 31 (31/63)
1. 2. # .. # 0. C 1. C
2. -. B 6.
,. 15.
Passage 32 (32/63)
1. B 2. C .. C 0. C 1. A
2. B -. B 6.
,. 15.
Passage 33 (33/63)
1. B 2. A .. B 0. 1. B
2. C -. B
6. ,. 15.
Passage 34 (34/63)
1. C 2. .. 0. B 1. A
2. C -. C
6. ,. 15.
Passage 35 (35/63)
1. B 2. # .. C 0. 1. #
2. A -. 6. #
,. 15.
Passage 36 (36/63)
LSAT 150,
1. B 2. A .. C 0. A 1. A
2. # -. B 6.
,. 15.
Passage 37 (37/63)
1. C 2. B .. # 0. C 1. A
2. C -.
6. ,. 15.
Passage 38 (38/63)
1. C 2. B .. A 0. C 1. #
2. # -.
6. ,. 15.
Passage 39 (39/63)
1. C 2. .. # 0. B
1.
Passage 40 (40/63)
1. 2. # .. A 0. 1. C
2. B -. A 6. A
,. 15.
Passage 41 (41/63)
1. # 2. A .. # 0. C 1. B
2. C -. 6. A ,. A
15.
Passage 42 (42/63)
1. C 2. .. C 0. # 1. B
2. #
-. 6. ,. 15.
Passage 43 (43/63)
1. A 2. B .. 0. B 1. C
2. C -. 6. #
,. 15.
Passage 44 (44/63)
1. B 2. C .. # 0. 1. A
2. C -. # 6. A
,. 15.
Passage 45 (45/63)
1. C 2. B .. B 0. # 1. A
2. A -. C
6. ,. 15.
1515 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
Passage 46 (46/63)
1. 2. # .. 0. 1. C
2. A
-. 6. ,. 15.
Passage 47 (47/63)
1. 2. C .. A 0. C 1. #
2. B
-. 6. ,. 15.
Passage 48 (48/63)
1. C 2. .. B 0. C 1. A
2. B
-. 6. ,. 15.
Passage 49 (49/63)
1. B 2. C .. # 0. C 1. #
2. C -. C 6. A
,. 15.
Passage 50 (50/63)
1. B 2. A .. C 0. B 1.
2. A -. C 6.
,. 15.
Passage 51 (51/63)
1. 2. A .. # 0. B 1. C
2. # -. A
6. ,. 15.
Passage 52 (52/63)
1. B 2. A .. B 0. B 1.
2. #
-. 6. ,. 15.
Passage 53 (53/63)
1. C 2. B .. # 0. C 1.
2. A
-. 6. ,. 15.
Passage 54 (54/63)
1. 2. .. C 0. # 1. B
2. #
-. 6. ,. 15.
Passage 55 (55/63)
LSAT 1511
1. C 2. B .. # 0. # 1. #
2. A -. A
6. ,. 15.
Passage 56 (56/63)
1. # 2. .. A 0. 1. B
2. C
-. 6. ,. 15.
Passage 57 (57/63)
1. C 2. .. 0. A 1. #
Passage 58 (58/63)
1. C 2. .. # 0. 1. B
Passage 59 (59/63)
1. A 2. .. B 0. # 1. B
2. C
-. 6. ,. 15.
Passage 60 (60/63)
1. C 2. B .. B 0. B 1. #
2. A -. C
6. ,. 15.
Passage 61 (61/63)
1. B 2. A .. A 0. # 1. C
Passage 62 (62/63)
1. B 2. .. B 0. 1.
2. C -. A
6. ,. 15.
Passage 63 (63/63)
1. B 2. C .. A 0. 1. #
2. B
-. 6. ,. 15.
GMAT 22Passages
Passage 64 (1/22)
1. # 2. # .. 0. C 1. A
2. B -. A 6. B
,. 15.
1512 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
Passage 65 (2/22)
1. A 2. # .. C 0. 1. B
2. B -. A 6.
,. 15.
Passage 66 (3/22)
1. C 2. A .. B 0. A 1. C
2. C -. 6. C
,. 15.
Passage 67 (4/22)
1. A 2. C .. # 0. A 1. C
2. A -. # 6. B ,.
15.
Passage 68 (5/22)
1. C 2. B .. # 0. A 1. B
2. B -. C 6. A ,. A
15.
Passage 69 (6/22)
1. C 2. B .. # 0. A 1.
2. # -. C 6. B ,. B
15.
Passage 70 (7/22)
1. # 2. A .. # 0. A 1. B
2. C -. # 6. A ,.
15.
Passage 71 (8/22)
1. C 2. B .. A 0. A 1. B
2. # -. A
6. ,. 15.
Passage 72 (9/22)
1. C 2. # .. B 0. B 1. A
2. # -. 6. C ,. B
15.
Passage 73 (10/22)
1. # 2. B .. A 0. # 1. C
2. B -. 6. C ,. A
15.
Passage 74 (11/22)
LSAT 151.
1. C 2. B .. # 0. 1. A
2. C -. # 6. A ,.
15.
Passage 75 (12/22)
1. C 2. A .. 0. # 1. C
2. B -. 6. #
,. 15.
Passage 76 (13/22)
1. B 2. # .. 0. A 1. A
2. -. C 6. B
,. 15.
Passage 77 (14/22)
1. C 2. # .. C 0. B 1. B
2. A -. C 6. C ,. B
15.
Passage 78 (15/22)
1. A 2. A .. B 0. A 1. #
2. C -. 6.
,. 15.
Passage 79 (16/22)
1. C 2. # .. A 0. C 1.
2. -. # 6. A ,. B
15.
Passage 80 (17/22)
1. B 2. .. C 0. A 1. B
Passage 81 (18/22)
1. # 2. .. B 0. # 1. C
2. C -. B 6. A ,.
15.
Passage 82 (19/22)
1. C 2. B .. 0. A 1. #
2. A -. # 6. ,.
15.
Passage 83 (20/22)
1. A 2. # .. C 0. 1. B
2. A -. C 6. A
,. 15.
1510 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
Passage 84 (21/22)
1. B 2. A .. B 0. C 1. C
2. C -. 6. # ,. #
15.
Passage 85 (22/22)
1. 2. # .. A 0. A 1. C
2. -. B
6. ,. 15.
GMAT 15Passages
Passage 86 (1/15)
1. 2. B .. B 0. # 1. A
2. C -. # 6.
,. 15.
Passage 87 (2/15)
1. B 2. C .. B 0. A 1. #
2. -. B 6. C
,. 15.
Passage 88 (3/15)
1. C 2. A .. 0. B 1. C
2. A -. B 6. ,. C
15.
Passage 89 (4/15)
1. B 2. A .. B 0. # 1. C
2. # -. B 6. C ,. A
15.
Passage 90 (5/15)
1. C 2. # .. # 0. # 1.
2. C -. B 6. ,. 15. A
Passage 91 (6/15)
1. A 2. A .. A 0. B 1. C
2. A
-. 6. ,. 15.
Passage 92 (7/15)
1. # 2. B .. A 0. 1. A
2. # -. B 6. C ,. #
15.
LSAT 1511
Passage 93 (8/15)
1. A 2. C .. # 0. C 1.
2. B -. # 6. B ,.
15.
Passage 94 (9/15)
1. B 2. .. 0. # 1. A
2. # -. C
6. ,. 15.
Passage 95 (10/15)
1. B 2. C .. 0. # 1. C
2. # -. # 6.
,. 15.
Passage 96 (11/15)
1. B 2. # .. A 0. # 1. C
2. -. 6. A ,.
15.
Passage 97 (12/15)
1. C 2. B .. A 0. A 1. A
2. C -. B 6. A
,. 15.
Passage 98 (13/15)
1. 2. C .. A 0. # 1. A
2. B -. A 6. C ,.
15.
Passage 99 (14/15)
1. C 2. C .. # 0. B 1. B
2. A -. # 6. A
,. 15.
Passage 100 (15/15)
1. # 2. .. B 0. 1. #
2. B -. B 6.
,. 15.
OG 17Passages
Passage 101 (1/17)
-.. C -0. # -1. A -2. --. C
-6. A -,.
65. 61. 62.
1512 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
Passage 102 (2/17)
65. B 61. C 62. 6.. A 60. A
61. 62. C 6-. #
66. 6,.
Passage 103 (3/17)
1.1. B 1.2. 1... B 1.0. # 1.1. A
1.2. C
1.-. 1.6. 1.,. 105.
Passage 104 (4/17)
1.-. 1.6. A 1.,. # 105. C 101.
102. B 10.. #
100. 101. 102.
Passage 105 (5/17)
100. # 101. C 102. C 10-. C 106. #
Passage 106 (6/17)
2.1. # 2.2. B 2... 2.0. 2.1. A
Passage 107 (7/17)
2.2. C 2.-. 2.6. B 2.,. # 205. B
Passage 108 (8/17)
201. C 202. A 20.. A 200. C 201. B
202. # 20-. # 206. B
20,. 215.
Passage 109 (9/17)
20,. B 215. 211. C 212. B
21..
Passage 110 (10/17)
21.. 210. B 211. # 212. C
21-.
Passage 111 (11/17)
21-. B 216. A 21,. B 225.
221.
Passage 112 (12/17)
221. 222. B 22.. B 220. B
221.
LSAT 151-
Passage 113 (13/17)
221. B 222. A 22-. A
226. 22,.
Passage 114 (14/17)
226. 22,. 2-5. # 2-1. C
2-2.
Passage 115 (15/17)
2-2. 2-.. B 2-0. 2-1. #
2-2.
Passage 116 (16/17)
2-2. C 2--. B 2-6. 2-,. B 265. C
261. 262. #
26.. 260. 261.
Passage 117 (17/17)
26.. 260. B 261.
262. 26-.
GRE RC (No. 2 No. 9)
No. 2-1
SECTION A
1-. B 16. C 1,. 25. # 21. A
22. C 2.. # 20. B 21. # 22. A
2-.
26. 2,. .5. .1.
SECTION B
1-. A 16. C 1,. 25. # 21. B
22. C 2.. A 20. C 21. # 22. C
2-. B
26. 2,. .5. .1.
No. 2-2
SECTION A
1-. B 16. C 1,. 25. 21. #
22. # 2.. B 20. C 21. # 22.
2-.
26. 2,. .5. .1.
1516 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
SECTION B
1-. A 16. B 1,. 25. C 21. B
22. B 2.. # 20. 21. # 22. #
2-. C
26. 2,. .5. .1.
No. 2-3
SECTION A
1-. 16. B 1,. # 25. C 21. A
22. # 2.. 20. B 21. 22. C
2-. A
26. 2,. .5. .1.
SECTION B
1-. # 16. 1,. B 25. 21. B
22. A 2.. C 20. A 21. C 22. #
2-.
26. 2,. .5. .1.
No. 3-1
SECTION A
1-. 16. C 1,. C 25. 21.
22. C 2.. A 20. # 21. 22. C
2-.
26. 2,. .5. .1.
SECTION B
1-. C 16. A 1,. B 25. # 21. A
22. 2.. C 20. 21. B 22. A
2-. A
26. 2,. .5. .1.
No. 3-2
SECTION A
1-. A 16. B 1,. C 25. 21. A
22. # 2.. C 20. 21. # 22. C
2-. C
SECTION B
LSAT 151,
1-. # 16. 1,. # 25. 21.
22. # 2.. C 20. 21. A 22.
2-. #
26. 2,. .5. .1.
No. 3-3
SECTION A
1-. C 16. 1,. C 25. B 21. C
22. B 2.. A 20. C 21. # 22. A
2-. #
26. 2,. .5. .1.
SECTION B
1-. 16. B 1,. C 25. 21. C
22. A 2.. B 20. A 21. C 22.
2-. #
26. 2,. .5. .1.
No. 4-1
SECTION A
1-. C 16. B 1,. A 25. B 21. C
22. 2.. B 20. B 21. A 22. #
2-.
26. 2,. .5. .1.
SECTION B
1-. 16. B 1,. A 25. 21. C
22. A 2.. C 20. 21. A 22. C
2-. B
26. 2,. .5. .1.
No. 4-2
SECTION A
1-. B 16. C 1,. A 25. 21. #
22. C 2.. A 20. # 21. 22. #
2-. #
26. 2,. .5. .1.
SECTION B
1-. # 16. A 1,. 25. B 21. C
22. # 2.. B 20. 21. C 22. A
1525 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
2-.
26. 2,. .5. .1.
No. 4-3
SECTION A
1-. # 16. 1,. C 25. # 21. #
22. B 2.. 20. A 21. # 22. A
2-. A
26. 2,. .5. .1.
SECTION B
1-. A 16. # 1,. C 25. C 21.
22. 2.. 20. A 21. # 22. #
2-. B
26. 2,. .5. .1.
No. 5-1
SECTION A
1-. 16. B 1,. # 25. # 21. C
22. A 2.. 20. A 21. # 22.
2-. B
26. 2,. .5. .1.
SECTION B
1-. B 16. A 1,. # 25. A 21. #
22. 2.. B 20. 21. A 22. #
2-. B
26. 2,. .5. .1.
No. 5-2
SECTION A
1-. 16. 1,. B 25. C 21. #
22. B 2.. A 20. C 21. B 22. C
2-.
26. 2,. .5. .1.
SECTION B
1-. A 16. C 1,. # 25. B 21.
22. B 2.. C 20. A 21. B 22. #
2-. A
26. 2,. .5. .1.
LSAT 1521
No. 5-3
SECTION A
1-. B 16. 1,. A 25. C 21. B
22. A 2.. # 20. C 21. A 22. B
2-. #
26. 2,. .5. .1.
SECTION B
1-. # 16. B 1,. # 25. C 21. #
22. 2.. B 20. C 21. # 22. A
2-. #
26. 2,. .5. .1.
No. 6-1
SECTION A
1-. B 16. A 1,. B 25. A 21.
22. A 2.. # 20. B 21. C 22.
2-. #
26. 2,. .5. .1.
SECTION B
1-. B 16. B 1,. A 25. # 21. B
22. 2.. 20. A 21. 22. #
2-. #
26. 2,. .5. .1.
No. 6-2
SECTION A
1-. # 16. 1,. C 25. A 21.
22. B 2.. C 20. # 21. C 22. #
2-.
26. 2,. .5. .1.
SECTION B
1-. C 16. C 1,. A 25. A 21.
22. # 2.. # 20. B 21. # 22. C
2-.
26. 2,. .5. .1.
No. 6-3
1522 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
SECTION A
1-. C 16. C 1,. A 25. C 21. #
22. C 2.. A 20. C 21. A 22.
2-. A
26. 2,. .5. .1.
SECTION B
1-. B 16. # 1,. 25. A 21.
22. B 2.. C 20. A 21. C 22. C
2-. B
26. 2,. .5. .1.
No. 7-1
SECTION A
1-. A 16. # 1,. 25. A 21.
22. B 2.. B 20. C 21. C 22. #
2-. #
26. 2,. .5. .1.
SECTION B
1-. A 16. C 1,. B 25. B 21. A
22. 2.. C 20. 21. A 22. #
2-.
26. 2,. .5. .1.
No. 7-2
SECTION A
1-. C 16. A 1,. C 25. A 21. A
22. C 2.. # 20. C 21. 22. A
2-.
26. 2,. .5. .1.
SECTION B
1-. 16. A 1,. B 25. 21. C
22. # 2.. B 20. C 21. 22. B
2-.
26. 2,. .5. .1.
No. 7-3
SECTION A
LSAT 152.
1-. C 16. B 1,. # 25. 21. C
22. 2.. # 20. A 21. B 22.
2-. #
26. 2,. .5. .1.
SECTION B
1-. 16. # 1,. C 25. B 21.
22. 2.. A 20. C 21. C 22. B
2-. #
26. 2,. .5. .1.
No. 8-1
SECTION A
1-. 16. # 1,. C 25. A 21. B
22. # 2.. A 20. C 21. C 22. #
2-.
26. 2,. .5. .1.
SECTION B
1-. C 16. A 1,. 25. # 21. C
22. # 2.. B 20. 21. A 22. #
No. 8-2
SECTION A
1-. C 16. 1,. B 25. 21. B
22. A 2.. 20. 21. B 22. #
2-. A
26. 2,. .5. .1.
SECTION B
1-. 16. B 1,. A 25. # 21. B
22. 2.. A 20. A 21. B 22. C
2-.
26. 2,. .5. .1.
No. 8-3
SECTION A
1-. C 16. B 1,. 25. A 21. B
22. # 2.. B 20. A 21. C 22.
2-. A
26. 2,. .5. .1.
1520 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
SECTION B
1-. B 16. # 1,. C 25. C 21. A
22. B 2.. C 20. C 21. A 22. A
2-. B
26. 2,. .5. .1.
No. 9-1
SECTION A
1-. 16. B 1,. B 25. B 21. B
22. A 2.. 20. # 21. 22. A
2-.
26. 2,. .5. .1.
SECTION B
1-. B 16. 1,. A 25. 21. C
22. 2.. A 20. B 21. B 22. B
2-. C
26. 2,. .5. .1.
No. 9-2
SECTION A
1-. B 16. B 1,. A 25. 21. A
22. B 2.. # 20. C 21. 22. A
2-. B
26. 2,. .5. .1.
SECTION B
1-. 16. C 1,. # 25. B 21.
22. # 2.. A 20. A 21. # 22. C
2-.
26. 2,. .5. .1.
No. 9-3
SECTION A
1-. A 16. # 1,. B 25. B 21. #
22. # 2.. C 20. # 21. C 22. C
2-. B
26. 2,. .5. .1.
SECTION B
LSAT 1521
1-. B 16. 1,. B 25. 21. #
22. A 2.. # 20. C 21. A 22. B
2-. B
26. 2,. .5. .1.
No. 9-4
SECTION A
1-. A 16. 1,. 25. B 21. B
22. 2.. A 20. # 21. B 22. C
2-. B
26. 2,. .5. .1.
SECTION B
1-. B 16. B 1,. C 25. A 21. #
22. C 2.. B 20. 21. C 22. A
2-. B
26. 2,. .5. .1.
No. 9-5
SECTION A
1-. C 16. A 1,. 25. # 21. A
22. 2.. B 20. # 21. A 22. A
2-. B
26. 2,. .5. .1.
SECTION B
1-. C 16. 1,. # 25. A 21.
22. B 2.. A 20. B 21. A 22.
2-. #
26. 2,. .5. .1.
No. 9-6
SECTION A
1-. B 16. # 1,. A 25. B 21. A
22. C 2.. B 20. C 21. # 22.
2-. B
26. 2,. .5. .1.
SECTION B
1-. # 16. C 1,. 25. A 21. A
22. 2.. A 20. # 21. B 22. C
1522 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
2-.
26. 2,. .5. .1.
GRE RC
1990 04
SECTION A
1-. A 16. C 1,. C 25. C 21. B
22. A 2.. B 20. C 21. # 22. A
2-. #
26. 2,. .5. .1.
SECTION B
1-. C 16. B 1,. A 25. B 21.
22. C 2.. C 20. 21. # 22. A
2-.
26. 2,. .5. .1.
1990 10
SECTION A
1-. C 16. B 1,. A 25. C 21. #
22. 2.. 20. B 21. A 22. #
2-. B
26. 2,. .5. .1.
SECTION B
1-. A 16. 1,. B 25. 21. B
22. A 2.. B 20. C 21. 22. A
2-. C
26. 2,. .5. .1.
1991 02
SECTION A
1-. A 16. B 1,. # 25. A 21.
22. # 2.. 782 E 21. # 22.
2-. C
26. 2,. .5. .1.
SECTION B
1-. B 16. # 1,. # 25. B 21. B
LSAT 152-
22. A 2.. 20. A 21. C 22. C
2-.
26. 2,. .5. .1.
1991 04
SECTION A
1-. 16. C 1,. B 25. A 21. A
22. C 2.. B 20. A 21. # 22. #
2-. #
26. 2,. .5. .1.
SECTION B
1-. C 16. B 1,. # 25. B 21. C
22. 2.. 20. B 21. C 22. A
2-. B
26. 2,. .5. .1.
1991 10
SECTION A
1-. A 16. B 1,. # 25. C 21. B
22. C 2.. 20. A 21. 22. #
2-. B
26. 2,. .5. .1.
SECTION B
1-. 16. # 1,. 25. # 21.
22. B 2.. 20. A 21. C 22. B
2-. #
26. 2,. .5. .1.
1992 02
SECTION A
1-. B 16. C 1,. B 25. # 21.
22. A 2.. A 20. A 21. B 22.
2-. #
26. 2,. .5. .1.
SECTION B
1-. B 16. A 1,. # 25. 21. B
22. 2.. A 20. # 21. B 22. B
2-. C
26. 2,. .5. .1.
1526 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
1992 04
SECTION A
1-. # 16. 1,. # 25. A 21. #
22. B 2.. C 20. 21. C 22. B
2-. C
26. 2,. .5. .1.
SECTION B
1-. B 16. B 1,. 25. A 21. B
22. B 2.. # 20. C 21. A 22. A
2-. B
26. 2,. .5. .1.
1992 10
SECTION A
1-. A 16. # 1,. 25. B 21. C
22. 2.. B 20. C 21. 22. #
2-. C
26. 2,. .5. .1.
SECTION B
1-. # 16. 1,. C 25. B 21. A
22. 2.. # 20. 21. B 22.
2-. #
26. 2,. .5. .1.
1993 02
SECTION A
1-. 16. # 1,. B 25. A 21. #
22. C 2.. # 20. B 21. 22. B
2-. A
26. 2,. .5. .1.
SECTION B
1-. C 16. A 1,. A 25. 21. A
22. 2.. B 20. B 21. B 22.
2-. A
26. 2,. .5. .1.
1993 04
LSAT 152,
SECTION A
1-. 16. B 1,. A 25. C 21. #
22. # 2.. A 20. C 21. C 22.
2-. #
26. 2,. .5. .1.
SECTION B
1-. B 16. 1,. A 25. B 21. A
22. C 2.. B 20. # 21. # 22. C
2-.
26. 2,. .5. .1.
SECTION C
1-. 16. # 1,. 25. # 21. A
22. B 2.. 20. B 21. # 22. A
2-. A
26. 2,. .5. .1.
1993 10
SECTION A
1-. C 16. 1,. B 25. A 21. B
22. # 2.. C 20. # 21. # 22. A
2-. B
26. 2,. .5. .1.
SECTION B
1-. 16. A 1,. B 25. # 21. #
22. C 2.. 20. A 21. C 22. #
2-. #
26. 2,. .5. .1.
1994 02
SECTION A
1-. B 16. # 1,. B 25. C 21. C
22. B 2.. B 20. 21. A 22. #
2-. #
26. 2,. .5. .1.
SECTION B
1-. B 16. A 1,. 25. # 21.
22. A 2.. B 20. # 21. A 22.
2-. B
26. 2,. .5. .1.
15-5 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
1994 04
SECTION A
1-. A 16. 1,. C 25. # 21. B
22. A 2.. B 20. 21. # 22. C
2-. B
26. 2,. .5. .1.
SECTION B
1-. B 16. 1,. C 25. # 21. A
22. 2.. B 20. # 21. C 22. #
2-. B
26. 2,. .5. .1.
1994 10
SECTION A
1-. C 16. A 1,. B 25. B 21. A
22. 2.. # 20. B 21. C 22.
2-. A
26. 2,. .5. .1.
SECTION B
1-. B 16. # 1,. A 25. A 21.
22. B 2.. 20. 21. 22. A
2-. C
26. 2,. .5. .1.
1995 04
SECTION A
1-. # 16. A 1,. C 25. 21. B
22. A 2.. # 20. A 21. # 22. B
2-.
26. 2,. .5. .1.
SECTION B
1-. B 16. 1,. 25. # 21. C
22. # 2.. A 20. 21. 22. B
2-.
26. 2,. .5. .1.
1995 10
LSAT 15-1
SECTION A
1-. C 16. B 1,. # 25. 21. C
22. A 2.. # 20. # 21. # 22.
2-. A
26. 2,. .5. .1.
SECTION B
1-. C 16. 1,. C 25. C 21. B
22. # 2.. A 20. B 21. C 22. C
2-. #
26. 2,. .5. .1.
1996 04
SECTION A
1-. # 16. C 1,. 25. 21. #
22. 2.. 20. A 21. C 22. B
2-.
26. 2,. .5. .1.
SECTION B
1-. C 16. A 1,. 25. B 21. #
22. # 2.. # 20. B 21. C 22. A
2-. A
26. 2,. .5. .1.
1996 04
SECTION A
1-. # 16. C 1,. C 25. 21. C
22. 2.. B 20. 21. A 22.
2-. C
26. 2,. .5. .1.
SECTION B
1-. 16. C 1,. C 25. A 21. C
22. C 2.. A 20. A 21. C 22. #
2-. #
26. 2,. .5. .1.
1996 10
SECTION A
15-2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
1-. # 16. C 1,. B 25. B 21. C
22. B 2.. A 20. C 21. A 22.
2-.
26. 2,. .5. .1.
SECTION B
1-. 16. # 1,. C 25. B 21.
22. A 2.. B 20. C 21. A 22. A
2-. C
26. 2,. .5. .1.
1997 04
SECTION A
1-. C 16. # 1,. C 25. # 21. A
22. A 2.. A 20. # 21. B 22. A
2-. C
26. 2,. .5. .1.
SECTION B
1-. C 16. A 1,. B 25. C 21. #
22. 2.. # 20. A 21. 22. B
2-. A
26. 2,. .5. .1.
1997 11
SECTION A
1-. 16. 1,. # 25. 21.
22. A 2.. A 20. B 21. B 22. C
2-. C
26. 2,. .5. .1.
SECTION B
1-. B 16. A 1,. 25. # 21. #
22. C 2.. C 20. 21. C 22.
2-. B
26. 2,. .5. .1.
1998 04
SECTION A
1-. B 16. C 1,. C 25. C 21. A
22. # 2.. B 20. # 21. C 22. A
LSAT 15-.
2-.
26. 2,. .5. .1.
SECTION B
1-. C 16. B 1,. # 25. 21. C
22. B 2.. B 20. C 21. # 22. A
2-.
26. 2,. .5. .1.
1998 11
SECTION A
1-. B 16. C 1,. B 25. A 21. #
22. A 2.. # 20. C 21. A 22. B
2-. C
26. 2,. .5. .1.
SECTION B
1-. # 16. 1,. B 25. C 21. B
22. C 2.. A 20. # 21. A 22. A
2-. B
26. 2,. .5. .1.
1999 04
SECTION A
1-. A 16. A 1,. # 25. # 21. C
22. B 2.. B 20. 21. 22. #
2-.
26. 2,. .5. .1.
SECTION B
1-. A 16. # 1,. B 25. # 21.
22. C 2.. A 20. C 21. A 22. C
2-. B
26. 2,. .5. .1.
LSAT 01 SECTON
1. B 2. .. # 0. A 1. A
2. C -. C 6. A ,. B 15.
11. B 12. A 1.. 10. 11. B
12. B 1-. B 16. # 1,. # 25. A
21. B 22. 2.. A 20. 21. #
22. A
2-. 26. 2,. .5.
LSAT 02 SECTON
15-0 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
1. C 2. B .. 0. B 1. A
2. -. # 6. B ,. B 15. #
11. C 12. 1.. A 10. 11.
12. A 1-. A 16. B 1,. # 25. C
21. A 22. B 2.. # 20. B 21. B
22. C 2-. A 26.
2,. .5.
LSAT 03 SECTON
1. B 2. C .. A 0. C 1. C
2. -. # 6. # ,. 15. B
11. B 12. A 1.. C 10. 11. C
12. B 1-. 16. A 1,. # 25. B
21. B 22. C 2.. C 20. A 21.
22. 2-. #
26. 2,. .5.
LSAT 0( SECTON )
1. A 2. .. 0. # 1. #
2. C -. 6. A ,. C 15. C
11. C 12. B 1.. # 10. B 11.
12. B 1-. # 16. # 1,. C 25. B
21. A 22. C 2.. # 20. B 21. #
22. C 2-. C
26. 2,. .5.
LSAT 05 SECTON
1. # 2. .. A 0. C 1.
2. C -. C 6. C ,. # 15. C
11. 12. A 1.. 10. A 11.
12. # 1-. # 16. 1,. B 25. A
21. # 22. A 2.. C 20. 21.
22. C 2-. B 26. B
2,. .5.
LSAT 06 SECTON
1. # 2. C .. A 0. # 1. B
2. -. # 6. ,. A 15. A
11. 12. 1.. 10. A 11.
12. B 1-. B 16. 1,. 25. C
21. C 22. A 2.. C 20. # 21. #
22. A 2-. #
26. 2,. .5.
LSAT 07 SECTON
1. # 2. .. C 0. B 1.
2. A -. A 6. ,. A 15. B
11. C 12. C 1.. # 10. 11. B
12. 1-. C 16. # 1,. A 25.
LSAT 15-1
21. C 22. C 2.. 20. # 21. B
22. B 2-.
26. 2,. .5.
LSAT 0' SECTON
1. A 2. # .. A 0. C 1. B
2. A -. A 6. C ,. A 15. C
11. # 12. B 1.. 10. A 11.
12. B 1-. 16. # 1,. C 25.
21. B 22. B 2.. # 20. 21. C
22. B 2-. B 26. #
2,. .5.
LSAT 09 SECTON
1. 2. A .. 0. A 1. #
2. B -. A 6. ,. B 15. A
11. B 12. C 1.. C 10. 11. #
12. B 1-. 16. A 1,. C 25. B
21. C 22. 2.. A 20. # 21. B
22. 2-. #
26. 2,. .5.
LSAT 10 SECTON
1. B 2. A .. 0. # 1. C
2. # -. C 6. A ,. A 15. C
11. B 12. A 1.. B 10. B 11.
12. C 1-. A 16. 1,. B 25. B
21. C 22. 2.. C 20. C 21. #
22. C 2-. #
26. 2,. .5.
LSAT 11 SECTON
1. A 2. .. B 0. # 1. C
2. B -. # 6. ,. B 15. C
11. B 12. # 1.. A 10. C 11. #
12. # 1-. B 16. A 1,. 25.
21. 22. B 2.. 20. # 21. B
22. A 2-. #
26. 2,. .5.
LSAT 12 SECTON
1. 2. # .. B 0. # 1.
2. C -. C 6. A ,. # 15. B
11. A 12. B 1.. # 10. 11. C
12. C 1-. 16. A 1,. # 25. #
21. # 22. B 2.. B 20. # 21. B
22. 2-.
26. 2,. .5.
LSAT 13 SECTON
15-2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
1. 2. # .. B 0. C 1. B
2. # -. # 6. # ,. C 15.
11. # 12. A 1.. A 10. C 11. #
12. # 1-. 16. A 1,. C 25. A
21. A 22. A 2.. B 20. A 21. #
22. C 2-. #
26. 2,. .5.
LSAT 1( SECTON
1. A 2. .. B 0. C 1.
2. A -. C 6. C ,. # 15. B
11. A 12. 1.. 10. # 11.
12. # 1-. B 16. C 1,. A 25.
21. A 22. 2.. 20. C 21. B
22. A 2-. #
26. 2,. .5.
LSAT 15 SECTON
1. C 2. # .. A 0. B 1.
2. -. A 6. # ,. C 15. B
11. C 12. B 1.. 10. C 11. B
12. C 1-. C 16. A 1,. 25. #
21. A 22. B 2.. C 20. C 21. A
22. 2-.
26. 2,. .5.
LSAT 16 SECTON
1. C 2. A .. 0. A 1.
2. B -. B 6. # ,. # 15. C
11. B 12. A 1.. A 10. 11. B
12. C 1-. C 16. 1,. B 25.
21. A 22. # 2.. B 20. C 21. C
22. A 2-.
26. 2,. .5.
LSAT 17 SECTON
1. C 2. # .. 0. 1. A
2. # -. 6. B ,. B 15. #
11. A 12. B 1.. A 10. A 11. B
12. C 1-. A 16. # 1,. B 25.
21. B 22. # 2.. 20. C 21.
22. # 2-. B 26. C
2,. .5.
LSAT 1' SECTON
1. A 2. # .. C 0. # 1. A
2. B -. B 6. C ,. A 15.
11. A 12. C 1.. 10. B 11. B
12. # 1-. B 16. 1,. A 25.
LSAT 15--
21. B 22. # 2.. 20. B 21.
22. A
2-. 26. 2,. .5.
LSAT 19 SECTON )
1. B 2. .. C 0. C 1. C
2. # -. B 6. A ,. # 15. A
11. C 12. B 1.. 10. # 11. B
12. C 1-. # 16. A 1,. # 25. #
21. 22. C 2.. 20. C 21. A
22. A 2-. B
26. 2,. .5.
LSAT 20 SECTON )
1. B 2. # .. 0. A 1. B
2. B -. # 6. B ,. A 15. B
11. B 12. 1.. # 10. 11. C
12. A 1-. 16. B 1,. A 25. B
21. C 22. C 2.. B 20. B 21. A
22. A 2-. B
26. 2,. .5.
LSAT 21 SECTON
1. B 2. A .. C 0. 1. #
2. B -. 6. C ,. B 15. A
11. C 12. B 1.. C 10. 11. B
12. # 1-. A 16. A 1,. 25. A
21. C 22. 2.. C 20. # 21. C
22. # 2-.
26. 2,. .5.
LSAT 22 SECTON )
1. # 2. B .. C 0. # 1. C
2. B -. C 6. B ,. C 15. C
11. 12. 1.. B 10. B 11. #
12. B 1-. A 16. A 1,. B 25. C
21. # 22. B 2.. B 20. 21. A
22. 2-. #
26. 2,. .5.
LSAT 23 SECTON
1. A 2. # .. B 0. # 1. A
2. -. 6. C ,. C 15. #
11. 12. B 1.. A 10. 11. C
12. # 1-. A 16. # 1,. 25. B
21. B 22. A 2.. 20. C 21. B
22. A 2-. C
26. 2,. .5.
LSAT 2( SECTON
15-6 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
1. B 2. # .. A 0. # 1.
2. B -. C 6. A ,. B 15. C
11. A 12. B 1.. B 10. C 11. B
12. A 1-. B 16. A 1,. # 25.
21. B 22. 2.. # 20. # 21. B
22. #
2-. 26. 2,. .5.
LSAT 25 SECTON
1. C 2. B .. A 0. B 1. C
2. # -. C 6. ,. C 15. A
11. A 12. 1.. 10. B 11. B
12. A 1-. A 16. B 1,. B 25. A
21. C 22. 2.. A 20. B 21. B
22. A
2-. 26. 2,. .5.
LSAT 26 SECTON )
1. 2. .. # 0. 1. A
2. C -. # 6. B ,. C 15. #
11. 12. A 1.. B 10. 11. A
12. # 1-. C 16. 1,. C 25. #
21. C 22. 2.. B 20. C 21. A
22. B
2-. 26. 2,. .5.
LSAT 27 SECTON
1. 2. B .. A 0. 1. B
2. C -. 6. C ,. B 15. A
11. C 12. 1.. A 10. C 11. A
12. A 1-. # 16. # 1,. C 25. B
21. C 22. 2.. A 20. # 21. B
22. B
2-. 26. 2,. .5.
LSAT 2' SECTON )
1. # 2. A .. A 0. # 1. B
2. # -. B 6. B ,. 15.
11. C 12. A 1.. # 10. 11. #
12. A 1-. A 16. # 1,. # 25. C
21. 22. C 2.. # 20. B 21. A
22. C 2-.
26. 2,. .5.
LSAT 2002 SECTON
1. C 2. A .. # 0. B 1.
2. A -. 6. A ,. 15. A
11. # 12. B 1.. 10. C 11.
12. # 1-. B 16. A 1,. # 25. C
LSAT 15-,
21. A 22. 2.. # 20. 9JA 21. #
22. C 2-. #
26. 2,. .5.