Aerial Photography

Aerial Photography is generally the photos taken by

the camera fitted in an aeroplane.
Photogrammetry is the process involves using
specialized equipment (a stereo scope and stereo pairs)
to project overlapping aerial photos so that a viewer
can see a three-dimensional picture of the terrain.

The current technological trend in photogrammetry is

toward a greater use of digital procedures for map
compilation.

Aerial Photography: is generally the photos taken by the camera fitted in an

aeroplane. The camera is fitted in the aeroplane taking photo of the earth surface
depend upon the position of the axis of the camera.
Aerial Photo Interpretation: Deals with the examination of images for the
purpose of identifying objects and deducing their significance. Solid background
of training and experience is required.
Photogrammetry: It is the science of obtaining reliable measurements of
objects from the images. Measurement of tree heights, measurement of slope,
Determination of direction and measurements of scale. For such kind of
measurement, a specialized equipment (a stereo scope and stereo pairs) are used
for projecting overlapped aerial photos so that a viewer can see a threedimensional picture of the terrain.
The current technological trend in photogrammetry is toward a greater use of
digital procedures for map compilation.

Two Types of Platforms

1. Airborne using aircraft with some modification to bring sensors for
photography.
Balloons. Kites, aeroplane and air craft are using.
Photography is possible from 100m upto 30-40km.
2. Spaceborne Satellite are used.
Satellite are positioned in orbits between 150-36000km altitude.
For RS purposes, the following orbit characteristics are relevant.
a) Altitude: Distance of the satellite from the earth.
b) Inclination angle: Which is the angle between an orbit & the equator.
The inclination
angle determines the field of view of the sensor, which latitude can be
observed. If the Inclination is 600 then the satellite flies over the earth
between the latitudes 600 south & 600 north.
c) Period: Which is the time (in minutes) required to complete one full
orbit.
d) Repeat Cycle: Which is the time (in days) between two successive
identical orbits.

Types of Aerial Photography

Depend upon the position of the cameras axis
1.

Vertical Aerial photograph

2.

Oblique Aerial photograph

3.

Terrestrial or Horizontal Aerial photograph

Vertical

4.

Convergent Aerial photograph (2 cameras with both oblique)

5.

Trimetrogon Aerial photograph (3 cameras with one vertical & two

oblique)

Low Oblique

High Oblique

Horizontal

Vertical Photo

Vertical Photo

Oblique Photo

Oblique Photo

FLIGHT CONFIGURATION OF AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY

Suitable conditions for taking Aerial Photograph

1.

Period between morning & noon or noon & evening are preferable.

2.

Dry weather is good.

3.

Cloudy & rainy season accelerate reflection.

4.

The noon with scorching sun & the misty morning are also not favorable.

Aircraft with aerial camera

Film

Lens Focal length (f)

S c al e = 1/((H)/(f))

Ground elev ation

(terrain level)

Altitude of the aircraft

from mean sea level
as shown by the altimeter
in the aircraft

PHOTO 1

PHOTO 2

Flying height
(Camera height) (H)
Height above the ground

Lens

Over-lap
Mean sea level

Flight direction (path)

SIDE-LAP

flight direction

flight direction

OVER-LAP

FLIGHT CONFIGURATION OF AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY

FLIGHT CONFIGURATION OF AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY

Photo taken by Aeroplane

60% overlap

The flying for aerial photographs of the terrain has

been designed to meet the conditions with sixty to
eighty percent forward overlap between successive
frames of photographs along a straight flight strip
(flight line)
and
twenty percent lateral (side) lap between adjacent
flight strips.

The flight configuration of aerial photographs is

decided so that aerial photographs are to be
viewed stereoscopically to give the three
dimensional images.

Overlapping pair of aerial photographs creates the

apparent image displacement for the same object
along the flight course because the projected images
on the pair of aerial photographs are taken from two
slightly different locations.

clock

altimeter

fiducIal mark
Principal point

level
camera focal length

Photo Number

Relief displacement increases radically from the

centre of the aerial photographs because of the
central perspective projection.

The scale of an aerial photograph is a vital piece

of knowledge for your work. It is the ratio of the
distance on the photograph to its actual
distance on the ground. This ratio of
(photo distance) : (ground distance) is the
scale.

It is expressed usually in three ways.

The

descriptive scale is in common use. It is

a statement of ratio in familiar terms, such as 1

cm = 1 km. It is awkward, however, because two
different units of distance are used, one for the
ground and one for the photograph. Centimeters
on the photographs are related to Kilometers on
the ground.

The graphic scale permits direct measurement on

the photographs in a convenient unit (kilometers,

meters, centimeters). There is no calculation in its

use; hence it is rapid and easily used.

The representative fraction (RF) is the ratio of

photographs distance to ground distance with both

distances expressed in the same unit of measure.

Scale = (photo distance)/(ground distance) or

(PD)/(GD)

or

corresponds to

PD

GD

or

(1)/((GD)/(PD))

1: (PD) /(GD)
This is the basic statement of scale for all
map and photographs work. It is best
suited for calculations.

Example of a RF is
1: 100,000, which is the same as stating
1centimeter = 1 kilometer. Thus the RF
is really the familiar descriptive scale
with the confusion of two units of
measure removed.

Scale of an Aerial Photograph related to aerial

photography flight mission

The scale of an aerial photograph is

determined by two factors at the moment it
is snapped:
Height of airplane above the ground (not
the altitude of the plane) (H).
Focal length of the camera lens taking the
photograph (f).
The scale is calculated by the ratio (focal
length) : (height above ground) or (F) : (H).

Scale varies with the height of the

camera above the surface of the datum
plane (elevation at the reference plane).
It follows then that the scale varies
within each photograph with every
elevation. A tall building will have a
different scale at its base from that of its
roof. However, the effect of terrain
height on the photo scale is not confined
to such violent contrasts

Orientation of Photographs
Occasionally the terrain features of a photograph reverse themselves; that is,
the drainage appears as the highest points. Turn the photograph so that its
shadows fall toward you. This force the features into proper location. However,
some surveyors make a practice of working par-time with the relief reversed.
They keep the streams up above the country in the photographs for ease of
delineating drainage.

ILLUMINATION
DIRECTION

SHADOW SIDE

Direction is important. In northern latitudes the shadows in the photograph fall

toward the northwest if taken in the morning and northeast for those taken in the
afternoon. North is determined with greater certainty by comparing the photo
with a map of the area or orienting by compass. Photo- flights (flight lines) are
usually flown in cardinal directions - east-west or north-south with photoidentification uniformly presented at one end of the photograph - the west or
north side. Watch out for odd flights that vary from this or where two differently
AERIAL PHOTOGRAPH
oriented flights join.

VIEW FROM THIS SIDE

Guides to Interpretation of Aerial

Photographs
The vertical photograph is the most versatile of the aerial
photographs. Unfortunately, the relation of the camera to the
ground gives an unfamiliar aspect of familiar objects, often in
much reduced size. Too, there is an abundance of detail
because of the non-selective nature of the camera lens.
Important items may be subordinated.

Some of the photo image characteristics for

the terrain features interpretation are as
follows:

Shape
Size
Shadow
Tone/Color
Texture
Patter
Relation to surrounding
(Association)

objects

Guides to Interpretation of Aerial Photographs

Shape:
Shape may identify. The specific
shape of an object, as it is viewed
from above, will be imaged on a
vertical photograph. Therefore, the
shape from a vertical viewpoint
should be known. For example, the
crown of a conifer tree looks like a
circle, while that of a deciduous
tree has an irregular shape.
Airports, factories, and so on can
be identified by their shapes.

Guides to Interpretation of Aerial Photographs

Size:
Comparative sizes may identify. A
proper photo-scale (image resolution)
should be selected depending on the
purpose of the interpretation. The
approximate size of an object can be
measured by multiplying the length
of the image by the inverse of the
photo-scale.

Guides to Interpretation of Aerial

Photographs
Shadow:

Shadow is often a clue by

characteristic shape. Shadow
is usually a visual obstacle for
photo/ image interpretation.
However, shadow can also
give height information about
a
tower,
tall
building,
mountain ranges, and others,
as well as shape information
from
the
non-vertical
perspective - such as the shape
of a bridge.

Guides to Interpretation of Aerial

Photographs
Tone/Color:
Photographic tone or color is the characteristic
colors and/or gray shades of scenes and objects. The
continuous gray scale varying from white to black
is called tone. In panchromatic photographs, any
object will reflect its unique tone according to the
reflectance. For example, dry sand reflects white,
while wet sand reflects black. In black and white
near infrared photographs, water is black and
healthy vegetation white to light gray. Tone
denotes the spectral reflectance of the features.

Guides to Interpretation of Aerial Photographs

Texture:
Texture in aerial photographs is
created by the frequency of tonal or
color changes. Texture is a group of
repeated small patterns. For example,
homogeneous grassland exhibits a
smooth texture, coniferous forest
usually show a coarse texture.
However, this will depend upon the
scale of the photograph or image.

Guides to Interpretation of Aerial Photographs

Pattern:
Pattern is a more or less orderly
arrangement of manmade objects
or natural elements. Pattern is a
regular, usually repeated, shape in
respect to an object. For example,
rows of houses or apartments,
regularly-spaced
rice
fields,
interchanges of highways, and so
on, can provide information from
their unique patterns.

Guides to Interpretation of Aerial Photographs

Relat ion t o surrounding object s
( A ssociat ion) :
This might just as well be labelled
Deduction. Actually all interpretation
hinges
here
to
some
degree,
consciously
or
unconsciously.
A
specific combination of elements,
geographic
characteristics,
and
configuration of the surroundings, or the
context, of an object can provide the
user with specific information for image
interpretation.

Sample (key notes for the interpretation)

S.No
.

Class

Shape

Size

Keys
Tone/Colour

Pattern

Texture
Smooth

Thick Forest

Circular

Dimension*scal

White

Rows of houses

Thin Forest

Rectangular

Light gray

Regularly

Deciduous Forest

Oval

Medium gray

fields

Pine Forest

Square

Dark gray

Interchange highways

Agriculture

Cross

Terrace cultivation

(cropland)

Triangular

Dendritic

Agriculture (fallow)

Irregular

Trellis

Grass land

Parallel

Barren

Rectangular

10

Industrial Area

Radial

11

Urban Area

Centripetal

12

Sub-Urban Area

13

Flood plain
Water body

spaced

Moderate
rice Coarse

Ray Diagram for a Simple Stereoscope

Eye base

Normal vie win g distance

Lens

Lens

Photo1

Photo 2

Normal convergence of
lines of sight

Aerial Stereoscopic View and Principle of Height

Measurement
Eye base

Normal viewing distance

Lens

Lens

Photo1

Photo 2

Normal convergence of
lines of sight

A pair of stereoscopic
photographs or images
can
be
viewed
stereoscopically
by
looking at the left image
with left eye and right
image with right eye.
This
is
called
stereoscopy.

Stereoscopy is based on Porro-Koppes

Principle that the same light path will be
generated through an optical system if a
light source is projected onto the image
taken by an optical system. The eye-base
and the photo-base (flight line axis) must
be parallel in order to view at a
stereoscopic model. Usually a stereoscope
is used for image interpretation. The
advantage of stereoscopy is the ability to
extract three dimensional information, for
example, classification between tall trees
and low trees, terrestrial features such as
height of terraces, slope gradient, detailed
geomorphology in flood plains, massmovements on the terrain, dip of
geological layers and so on.

The principle of height measurement

by stereoscopic vision is based on the
use of parallax, which corresponds to
the distance between image points, of
the same object on the ground, on the
left and right image. The height
difference can be computed if the
parallax
difference
is
measured
between two points of different height,
using a parallax bar.

Aerial Stereoscopic View and Principle of Height

Measurement
B

O1

O2

f
a '2

a1

P '1

c 1 P '2

a2

P1

c2
P2

A
hC
hA
P1

P2
D a t u m P la n e

Parallax refers to the

apparent change in
relative positions of
stationary
objects
caused by a change in
viewing position.

Aerial Stereoscopic View and Principle of Height

Measurement
The figure illustrates the nature of parallax
B

O1

O2

f
a '2

a1

P '1

c 1 P '2

a2

P1

c2
P2

A
hC
hA
P1

P2
D a t u m P la n e

on overlapping vertical photographs taken

over varied terrain. The relative positions
of points A and C change with the change
in view ing position. P 1 and P 2 are the
principal points on the overlapping
vertical photographs. The true flight line
axis m ay be found by first locating on a
photograph the points that correspond to
the im age centers of the preceding and
succeeding photographs. These points are
called the conjugate principal points or
transferred principal points (for exam ple
P 2 ). A line draw n through the principal
points and the conjugate principal points
defines the flight axis. The parallax of any
point, such as A in the figure, is expressed
as: p a = P 1 a 1 - P 2 a 2

O1

O2

f
a '2

a1

P '1

c 1 P '2

a2

P1

c2
P2

A
hC
hA
P1

P2

For an overlapping pair of vertical

aerial photographs, height of objects
can be obtained more easily under
the mirror stereoscope from a
measurement of the difference of
parallax between the two points.
The horizontal distance between
exposure stations O1 and O2 is
called B, the air base. The geometric
definition
of
the
absolute
stereoscopic parallax at the point A
is given by

D a t u m P la n e

PA = a2 P1 + P1a1 = a2a1

O1

O2

f
a '2

a1

P '1

c 1 P '2

a2

P1

c2
P2

Since O 1a2 is parallel to O 2a2,

thus, from the similar triangles
a2 O1a1 and O 1AO2 one can
obtain:
(a2a1)/ (f) = (B)/((H)-(hA))
(a2a1) = ((f)* (B))/((H)-(hA)) = PA

A
hC
hA
P1

P2

Similarly , for the point C, the

parallax P C is given by

D a t u m P la n e

((f)* (B))/((H)-(hC)) = PC

T h e d iffe r e n c e in p a r a lla x b e tw e e n p o in t A a n d p o in t
C is g iv e n b y P A C
P

CA

= (((f)* (B ))/((H )-( h C ))) - (((f)* (B ))/((H )-( h A )))

= { (P C )* ((h C )-(h A ))/ ((H )-(h A ))}

L e t { (h C )-(h A )} = h
P

CA

CA

CA

CA*

CA

, th e n w e g e t

{ (P C )/ ((H )-(h A ))}

= P C A * { ((H )-(h A ))/ (P C )}

= P C A * { ((H )-(h A ))/ ((P A )+ ( P
= P

C A * { ((f)* (B ))/((

C A ))}

P A )* ((P A )+ ( P

C A )))}

h CA = P CA*{((f)*(B))/(( PA)*((PA )+( P CA)))}

Above equation is known as the parallax
formula and can be used to find the height
difference between the points. The difference in
parallax is measured by parallax bar under a
mirror stereoscope. The absolute parallax (PA )
can be measured directly form the aerial
photographs with a scale. If there is no relief
between two points, it is geometrically proved
that there is no difference in the parallax
between those two points.

Let us find out the height of a tower by using

parallax measurements:
All the distance measurement and heights are to be
made in meters.
n 1 = the nadir (principal) point of the photo 1
n 2 = the nadir (principal) point of photo 2
n1 = the transferred principal point n1 on photo 2
= ( the location on photo 2 of the ground point at
the nadir of the photo 1)
n2 = the transferred principal point n2 on photo 1
= (the location on photo 1 of the ground point at the
nadir of photo 2)
cc
1 2

Photo 1
a1

a1 a2

Photo 2
a2

c1
n1

c2
n'2

n2

n'1

b1

b2
n1 n2

H = flying height from the datum plane (aircraft altimeter

reading).
c = control point = let us assume the point correspond to the
base of the tower in consideration.
c1 = the location of the base of the tower on photo 1
c2 = the location of the base of the tower on photo 2
a = top of the tower of unknown height.
a1 = the location of the top of the tower on photo 1
a2 = the location of the top of the tower on photo 2
hc = height of the control point from datum plan (known
elevation point at datum plan)
c 1 c2
Photo 1
a1

a1 a2

Photo 2
a2

c1
n1

c2
n'2

n2

n'1

b1

b2
n1 n2

H = H - h c = flight height above the control point

= the vertical height of the camera above the
control point.
(n 1 n 2) = principal points on a pair of stereo photos
(n1 n2) = transferred points from each principal
points of the photos
(n 1 n 2) = principal distance
(c1 c 2) = distance between point c on a pair of
stereo photos
(a 1 a 2) = distance between point a on a pair of
stereo photos
c 1 c2
Photo 1
a1

a1 a2

Photo 2
a2

c1
n1

c2
n'2

n2

n'1

b1

b2
n1 n2

c 1 c2
Photo 1
a1

a1 a2

Photo 2
a2

c1
n1

c2
n'2

n2

n'1

b1

b2
n1 n2

Generally;
((n1 n2) + (n1 n2))/2 = (b1 + b2) / 2 = b = (for the area
of the flat terrain b = b1 = b2 ) P
= (the photo-base distance of the stereo-pair used in
making the measurement)
parallax at point c = P= ((n1 n2) - (c1 c2))
parallax difference between point a and c
= P = ((c1 c2) - (a1 a2))
= the parallax difference between the base and top of
the tower
obtained height = h = (((H) * (P)) / (P + P))

BASI CS OF AERI AL PHOTO I NTERPRETATI ON

Procedure
Keep transparency overlays over the aerial photographs.
Keep the photographs so that its shadows fall toward
you.
Orient the aerial photographs considering overlap of the
adjoining photographs.
Determine the principal points (P1, P2, and P3) by
connecting four fiducial marks on the sides of
photographs or four corner.

clock

altimeter

f iducIal mark
Principal point

lev el
camera f ocal length

Photo Number

Acquaint yourself with the mirror

stereoscope. Do not touch the
mirror of the mirror stereoscope
and handle carefully when you
work with the mirror stereoscope

 Place the left photo under the left side of the

mirror stereoscope and center photo on
the right side of the stereoscope
the
mirror
stereoscope
over
the
Place
photographs, lenses above the principal
points.
Viewed without magnification, the stereo model
should now appear satisfactorily over the
entire field of view.
View through the mirror stereoscope and get the
details of relief condition and try to
identify the terrain features on the aerial
photographs.

P1

Left photo

P2'

P1'

P2

Center photo

P3'

P2''

P3

Right photo

RAY DIAGRAM FOR A SIM PLE STERESCOPE

Eye base

Normal viewing distance

Lens

Lens

Photo1

Photo 2

Normal convergence of
lines of sight

Locate exactly on the left aerial photo the conjugate

principal point (transferred principal points) of
principal point P2 of center photo and mark as P2.
Locate exactly on the center photo the conjugate
principal point (transferred principal points) of
principal point P1 on the center photo and mark as
P1.
Similarly place the Center photo under the left side of
the mirror stereoscope and right photo under the right
side of the mirror stereoscope.
And locate exactly the conjugate principal points P2
and P3.
Draw lines along (passing through) P1 P2; P1 P2 P3;
P2 P3. These lines represent the exact flight line.
Draw lines perpendicular to the line P1 P2 P3 passing
through the points P1, P2 and P3
Draw the parallel lines 2.3 cm (10% side lap of the
photo area) below and above from the upper photo
margin and lower photo margin respectively.

The effective area for interpretation on the center

photo is within the rectangle of P1 to P3.

Note:

If you are right handed uses the areas between P1

P2 on the center photo and P2 P3 on the right
photo.
If you are left handed uses the areas between P1
P2 on the left photo and P2P3 on the center
photo.

Find out the scale of the aerial photo with and without
the help of reference map?
The scale of an aerial photograph is determined by two
factors at the moment it is snapped:
I st method
Height of airplane above the control points (not the
altitude of the plane) (Zc = Z-hc).
Focal length of the camera lens taking the photograph
(f).
The scale is calculated by the ratio (focal length) :
(height above ground) or (F) : (H).
Photo scale = f / Za

II nd method
Using the reference map the scale of the aerial
photographs can be determined and is defined as
the ratio of photographs distance to ground
distance with both distances expressed in the same
unit of measure.
Identify two ground control points on the
working area of the photographs and in the
reference map. The points should be extreme
apart as far as possible
Measure the distance on the photograph (PD)
and on the reference map (MD)
Calculate the scale of the photograph using the
formula
Photo scale = ((PD) * map scale)/(MD)

Procedure

LAN D

CO VER I N TERPRETATI O N

Determine the principal points (P1, P2, and P3) and orient the
photographs as in the Exercise 1.
Draw the reference point and lines (fiducial marks, roads and
drainages)
Now try to identify the terrain features on the aerial photographs
based on the keys to interpretations: Shape, Size, Shadow,
Tone/color, Texture, Pattern, Relation to surrounding objects
(Association), etc.
Identify and trace out the following features
Different types of Roads.
2. River / drainage.
3. Valley and hills.
4. Major land-cover types (forest, agriculture fields, urban, sub-urban,
etc.).
5. Quarry sites.
6. Flood damage (river bank erosion ?) area.
7. Any type of mass-movements.
8. Any other prominent feature on the photo.
1.

Sample (key notes for the interpretation)

S.No
.

Class

Shape

Size

Keys
Tone/Colou
r

Pattern

Texture
Smooth

Thick Forest

Circular

Dimension*scal

White

Rows of houses

Thin Forest

Rectangular

Light gray

Regularly

Deciduous Forest

Oval

Medium gray

fields

Pine Forest

Square

Dark gray

Interchange highways

Agriculture

Cross

Terrace cultivation

(cropland)

Triangular

Dendritic

Agriculture (fallow)

Irregular

Trellis

Grass land

Parallel

Barren

Rectangular

10

Industrial Area

Radial

11

Urban Area

Centripetal

12

Sub-Urban Area

13

Flood plain
Water body

spaced

Moderate
rice Coarse