Biology

Animal cells have: A nucleus that holds genetic material controlling the activities of the cell
Cytoplasm where most of the chemical reactions, controlled by enzymes, take place
Cell membrane holds the cell together and controls what goes in and out
Mitochondria where most of the respiration reactions take place, respiration releases energy that the cell needs to
work
Ribosome where proteins are made in the cell
Plant cells have the same and: Cell Wall made of cellulose, supports the cell and strengthens it
Permanent (large) vacuole contains cell sap, a weak solution of sugar and salts
Chloroplasts where photosynthesis takes place, making foods for the plants, these contain chlorophyll
Yeast is a microorganism, a yeast cell has a nucleus, cytoplasm and a cell membrane surrounded by a cell wall.
Bacteria cells are single celled microorganisms too, they have cytoplasm and a cell membrane, surrounded by a cell
wall. The genetic material floats in the cytoplasm because they have no nucleus in the cell.
Diffusion is the gradual movement and spreading out of particles from an area of high concentration (lots of particles)
to an area of low concentration. Diffusion happens in both solutions and gases. Perfume and different gases diffuse
through each other - while a clump of perfume particles may be together in a corner, they will spread evenly between
the oxygen particles. Hence why you can smell perfume through the air in a room. The bigger the difference in
concentration, the faster the diffusion rate.
Dissolved substances can move in and out of cells by diffusion. Only tiny molecules can diffuse through cell
membrane though, like; oxygen, glucose, amino acids and water. Big molecules like starch and proteins cant fit
through the membrane.
Particles flow through the membrane from where theres a high concentration (a lot of them) to where theres a low
concentration. Theyre moving about randomly so go both ways, if there are a lot more particles on one side of the
membrane, theres a net movement from that side.
Palisade leaf cells are adapted for photosynthesis because they contain lots of chloroplasts and are crammed at the
top of the cell, which is nearer to light. Tall shape means a lot of surface area exposed down the side for absorbing
CO2 from the air in the leaf. Thin shape means that you can pack loads of them in at the top of a leaf. Palisade leaf
cells are grouped together at the top of the leaf, where most of the photosynthesis happens.
Guard cells are in a special kidney shape, which opens and closes the stomata (pores) in a leaf. When the plant has
lots of water, the guard cells fill it and go plump and turgid, making the stomata open so gases can be exchanged for
photosynthesis. If a plant is short of water, the guard cells lose water and become flaccid, making the stomata close,
this helps stop too much water vapour escaping. Thin outer walls and thickened inner walls make the opening and
closing work. Theyre also light sensitive and close at night to save water without losing photosynthesis. Guard cells
are thus adapted to their function of allowing gas exchange and controlling water loss within a leaf.
Red blood cells are adapted to carry oxygen, their concave shape gives a big surface area for absorbing oxygen and
helps them pass smoothly through capillaries to reach body cells. Theyre packed with haemoglobin, which absorbs
oxygen. They have no nucleus to leave more haemoglobin room. They are an important part of the blood.
Fertility cells are specialized for reproduction. The main function of an egg cell is to carry the female DNA and nourish
the developing embryo in the early stages. The egg cell contains huge food reserves to feed the embryo. When a
sperm fuses with the egg, the eggs membrane changes its structure to stop letting any more sperm come in, this
makes sure the offspring end up with the right amount of DNA. The function of a sperm is to get the male DNA to the
female. Its long tail and streamlined head help it swim, there are lots of mitochondria to have the energy needed,
sperm carry enzymes in their heads to digest through the egg cell membrane.
Differentiation is the process by which cells have become specialised, it happens during the development of a
multicellular organism, these specialised cells form tissues which form organs which form organ systems. Large
multicellular organisms have different systems inside them for exchanging and transporting materials.
A tissue is a group of similar cells that work together to carry out a particular function, it may include more than one
cell type. Muscular tissues contract (shorten) to move whatever its attached to. Glandular tissue make and secrete
chemicals like enzymes and hormones. Epithelial tissue covers bigger parts of the body, like the inside of a gut.
An organ is a group of different tissues that work together to perform a function. The stomach is made up of muscular
tissue to churn up the food, glandular tissue to make digestive juices to digest the food and epithelial tissue to cover
the outside and inside of the stomach.
An organ system is a group of organs working together. The digestive system contains glands which produce
digestive juices, the stomach and small intestines which digest food, the liver which produces bile, the small intestine

which absorbs soluble food molecules, the large intestine which absorbs water from undigested food, leaving faeces.
The digestive system takes in nutrients from the environment and releases substances like bile.
Plants are made of organs like stems, roots and leaves, these are made of tissues. Leaves are made of mesophyll
tissue where most of the photosynthesis occurs, xylem and phloem transport water, mineral ions and sucrose around
the plant and epidermal tissue, which covers the whole plant.
Photosynthesis equation: Carbon dioxide + water sunlight, chlorophyll glucose + oxygen
Photosynthesis is the process in chloroplasts that produces food in plants and algae, the good it produces is glucose.
Chloroplasts contain chlorophyll, which absorbs sunlight and uses its energy to convert carbon dioxide and water into
glucose, oxygen is also produced as a by-product. Photosynthesis happens in the leaves of all green plants.
The rate of photosynthesis is affected by the intensity of light, volume of CO2 and temperature. Plants need water for
photosynthesis but when a plant is so short of water, it becomes a limiting factor in photosynthesis. This means that
photosynthesis is weakened at night and winter.
There are three important photosynthesis graphs. Not enough light slows down the rate of photosynthesis is because
light provides the energy for photosynthesis so as the light level raises, so does the rate of photosynthesis up to a
certain. point. Beyond that will depend on temperature and CO2 level.
Too little Carbon dioxide also slows it down. Like light, it speeds up photosynthesis if there is more of it up to a certain
point where other limiting factors change it. To control CO2 amounts, dissolve different amounts of sodium hydrogencarbonate into the water, which gives off CO2.
The temperature cant be too low as enzymes are needed for photosynthesis to work, however if the plant gets too
hot (45o) the enzymes are destroyed. You can test this by controlling the temperature of a flask in a water bath.
Greenhouses create the ideal environment, they help trap the suns heat and make sure temperature doesnt become
too limiting in the winter and use shades and ventilation to make sure it isnt too hot in summer. Farmers can use
artificial light to stop the effect of night. As a paraffin heater burns, it makes carbon dioxide as a by-product, so this
also helps. Pests are less of a problem, farmers can put fertilisers to the soil to help it grow healthily. Sure, this is
expensive, but it also produces a quick and decent crop which can be harvested more often and sold.
Plants manufacture glucose in their leaves, they use some of this for respiration, which releases energy, which
enabled them to convert the rest of the glucose into useful substances to build new cells and grow. They may need a
few minerals to produce these substance.
Glucose is converted into cellulose for making strong cell walls.
It is combined with nitrate ions form the soil to make amino acids, which are made into proteins. Its turned into lipids
(fats and oils) for storing in seeds (sunflower seeds for example, we make oil and margarine from), these store
starch. Glucose is turned into starch and stored in roots, stems and leaves, ready for use when photosynthesis isnt
happening - like winter. Starch is insoluble, which makes it better for storing than glucose - a cell with a lot of glucose
in would draw in loads of water and swell up. Potato and parsnips store a lot of starch underground over the winter, a
new plant can grow from it the following spring, we eat the swollen storage organs.
A habitat is where an organism lives. The distribution of an organism is where an organism is found. This is affected
by environmental factors such as the temperature, availability of water, oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients and amount
of light. An organism may be more common in one area than another due to environment factor differences. You use
quadrats to compare the distribution of an organism sample. Put a quadrat on the floor and count the organisms
within in, work out the mean and do the same thing for another area, then compare.
To work out the population size of an organism in one sample area, work out the mean number organisms per
then multiply the mean by the total area of the habitat.
Using a transect line, you can see if an organism becomes more or less common because of a certain factor - like if
theres a hedge. You collect data along the line by counting all the organisms that touch the transect line, or you can
collect the data using quadrats.
Quadrats are good at finding out how an organism is distributed, but results must be repeatable and reproducible to
make them reliable, to make them more reliable, increase the sample size by using more transects and quadrats. For
results to be valid, they must be reliable and have controlled variables. You want to know whether a difference in
distribution between two sample areas is due to a difference in one environmental factor. If you dont control
variables, you wont know this as it could be because of a different variable. Use random samples, if all your samples
are in one spot and everywhere else in that area is different, it isnt valid.
Living things have loads of chemical reactions inside of them, these need to be carefully controlled to get the right
amounts of substances. Reactions generally speed up if temperature is increased, this increases the rate of both
useful and unwanted reactions, they can also damage cells if the temperature is too high. Living things therefore

produce enzymes acting as catalysts, they reduce the need for high temperatures. A catalyst is a substance which
increases the speed of a reaction, without being changed or used up in the reaction. Enzymes are all proteins and all
proteins are made up of chains of amino acid, which fold into unique shapes. Proteins also act as structural
components of tissues, hormones and antibodies.
Enzymes usually only catalyse one reaction because the enzymes only works if the substance has to fit its special
shape, if the substance doesnt match the enzyme's shape, the reaction wont be catalysed.
Changing the temperature changes the rate of an enzyme catalysed reaction. If the temperature is too high, some of
the bonds holding the enzyme together break, destroying the enzymes special shape so it wont work and will be
denatured, human body enzymes work best at 37o. If the pH is too high or low, it interferes with the bonds holding the
enzyme together, changing the shape and denaturing the enzyme. All enzymes have an optimum pH that they work
best at - normally the neutral 7, but the stomach ones at 2.
Starch, proteins and fats are too bigger molecules to fit through the walls of the digestive system. Sugars, amino
acids, glycerol and fatty acids are much smaller so can fit through the walls of the digestive system easily, the
digestive enzymes break down the big molecules into smaller ones.
Amylase converts starch into sugars like maltose, amylase is made in the salivary glands, pancreas and small
intestines. Protease converts proteins into amino acids, protease is made in the stomach, pancreas and small
intestine. Lipase converts lipids (fats and oils) into glycerol and fatty acids, lipase is made in the pancreas and small
intestines.
Bile is produced in the liver, its stored in the gall bladder before its released into the small intestine. The hydrochloric
acid in the stomach makes the pH too acidic for enzymes in the small intestine to work properly. Bile is an alkaline, so
it neutralises the acid and makes conditions alkaline, enzymes work best in these conditions. It emulsifies (breaks
down) fats into tiny droplets, giving a bigger surface area of fat for the enzyme lipase to work on and speeding up
digestion.
Enzymes used in the digestive system are produced by specialised cells in glands and the guy lining. Different
enzymes catalyse the breakdown of different food molecules.
The gallbladder is where bile is stored before its released through the small intestine, the gullet is oesophagus and
the stomach pummels food with its muscular walls, produces the protease enzyme, pepsin and produces hydrochloric
acid to kill bacteria and give pH for the protease enzyme to work.
The salivary glands produce amylase enzyme in the saliva, the liver is where bile is produced - which neutralises
stomach acid and emulsifies fats. The large intestine is where excess water is absorbed from the food, the rectum is
where the faeces (mostly indigestible food) is stored before it goes through the anus, the pancreas produce protease,
amylase and lipase enzymes, which are released into the small intestines. The small intestine produces protease,
amylase and lipase enzymes to complete digestion, digested food is absorbed here out of the digestive system into
the blood.

Respiration involves reactions that are catalysed by enzymes. Respiration is the process of releasing energy from
glucose which goes on in every cell. Aerobic respiration is respiration using oxygen, its the most efficient way to
release energy from glucose (anaerobic respiration exists too but doesnt use oxygen and is less efficient), it happens
in plants and animals all the time, usually inside mitochondria. Glucose + oxygen carbon dioxide + water + energy
Energy released by respiration is used for: building up larger molecules from smaller ones (protein to amino acids),
allowing muscles in animals to contract (move), for mammals and birds it keeps their body temperatures steady so
they are constantly warm and in plants to build sugars, nitrates and other nutrients into amino acids, which are then
built into proteins.
Muscles are made of muscle cells which use oxygen to release energy from glucose (aerobic respiration) which is
used to contract the muscles. An increase in muscle activity requires more glucose and oxygen to be sent to the
muscle cells and carbon dioxide needs to be removed from the cells. For this to occur, the blood has to flow quickly hence why physical exercise increases deeper breathing rate to get more oxygen, and increase the speed that the
heart pumps.
Some glucose from food is stored as glycogen, this is mainly stored in the liver but each muscle also has its own
store. Vigorous exercise causes muscles to use glucose rapidly so some stored glycogen is converted back to
glucose to give more energy.
When you do vigorous exercise, you do anaerobic respiration - without oxygen - glucose energy + lactic acid.
Downsides: lactic acid builds up in muscles, which gets painful, you also get muscle fatigue (tired muscles so they
stop contracting efficiently), less energy is released as aerobic respiration but its useful in emergencies and you keep
using your muscles for longer.
You have to breath hard after anaerobic respiration to get more oxygen into your blood. Blood flows through your
muscles to remove the lactic acid by oxidising it to harmless CO2 and water. The brain is aware of the high levels of
CO2 and lactic acid so breathing rate and pulse stay high.
Microorganisms produce enzymes which pass out of their cells and catalyze reactions outside. They are the
biological ingredients in detergents and washing powders, mainly protein-digesting enzymes (proteases) and fat
digesting enzymes (lipases). Because the enzymes break down animal and plant matter, theyre great at removing
food and blood stains, they work effectively at low temperatures.
The proteins in some baby foods are pre-digested using proteases so theyre easier for the baby to digest.
Carbohydrate-digesting enzymes (carbohydrases) can turn starch syrup into sugar syrup. Glucose syrup can be

turned into fructose syrup using an isomerase enzyme, its sweeter so you need less of it and is good slimming
food/drink.
Enzymes are great in industry as they speed up reactions. Theyre specific to catalyse the reaction you want them to
and using lower temperatures/pressures makes the cost lower and saves energy. Enzymes work for a long time so
you can continually use them and they are biodegradable, causing less pollution. However, some people have
allergies to the enzymes and they can be denatured by a small increase in temperatures, theyre susceptible to
poisons and changes in pH so theyre conditions must be controlled, they are expensive to produce and
contamination of the enzyme with another substance affects the reaction.
DNA stands for deoxyribonucleic acid, its contains instructions to put an organism together and make it work. Its
found in the nucleus of animal and plant cells and is in long molecules called chromosomes.
A gene is a section is DNA that contains the instructions to make a specific protein. Cells make proteins by stringing
amino acids together in a particular order, only 20 amino acids are used but they make up to thousands of different
proteins. Genes simply tell cells what order to put amino acids in. DNA determines what proteins the cell produces haemoglobin, keratin, which determines the type of cell - red blood, skin.
DNA is unique, unless you are an identical twin. DNA fingerprinting is a way of cutting up DNA into small sections
then separating them, fingerprints are unique unless you are a clone, so you can tell people apart by comparing DNA
samples. In forensic science, DNA from hair, skin flakes, blood and semen is taken from a crime scene and
compared to the DNA of suspects. Paternity testing tests to see whether a man is a father of a particular child.
Body cells normally have two copies of each chromosome, one from the mother and one from the father. There are
23 pairs of chromosome, but the 23rd pair is different. When a body cell divides (mitosis), it makes new cells identical
to the original cell - same number of chromosomes. Mitosis is when a cell reproduces itself by splitting to form two
identical offspring.
In a cell that isnt dividing, the DNA is spread out in long string, if it gets the signal to divide, it duplicates the DN, so
theres one copy for each new cell. This is copied and forms X-shaped chromosomes, each arm is an exact duplicate
of the other. The chromosome line up at the centre of the cell and cell fibres pull them apart, the two arms of each
chromosome go to opposite ends of the cell. Membranes form around each of the sets of chromosomes, these
become the nuclei of the two new cells. Lastly, the cytoplasm divides, making two identical cells.
Some organisms reproduce by mitosis, like strawberry plants, this is asexual reproduction as the offspring has
exactly the same genes as the parent, without variation.
Gametes (sex cells) combine to during sex, they only have one copy of each chromosome, so you can combine one
cell from the mother and one from the father and still end up with the right amount of chromosomes in body cells; like
humans have 46 chromosomes - 23 per parent. The new kid has two sets of chromosome mixed, inheriting features
from both parents and variation.
Meiosis produces cells which have half the normal number of chromosomes. Like mitosis, before the cell divides, the
DNA is duplified. In the first division of meiosis, the chromosome line up in the centre of the cell, the pairs are pulled
apart so each new cell only has one copy of each chromosome, some of the mother and father. In the second
division, the chromosomes line up again in the centre of the cell and the arms of the chromosomes are pulled apart.
You get four gametes, each with only a single set of chromosome in it. After the two gametes join at fertilization, the
cell grows by repeatedly dividing by mitosis.
Stem cells are undifferentiated and can develop into different types of cell depending on what instructions they are
given. They are found in early human embryos and have the potential to turn into any kind of cell at tall, adults have
them too - only in certain places like bone marrow though and these arent as versatile as embryonic stem cells (they
cant turn into anything!).
Stem cells can cure disease, like blood diseases (sickle cell anaemia) can be treated by bone marrow transplants as
bone marrow contains stem cells that can turn into new blood cells. Scientists extract stem cells from early human
embryos and grow them, these can replace faulty cells for sick people - making a beating heart muscle for people
with heart disease, insulin producing cells for diabetes, nerve cells for people paralysed by spinal injuries.
To get cultures of one type of cell, researchers are trying to control the differentiation of the stem cells by changing
the environment, mixed results so far.Some people disagree with the research as the human embryos have the
potential for human life, others say that the cures from stem cells can stop suffering and the embryos are unwanted
from fertility clinics so research should go on. Stem cell research is banned in some countries, not the UK though.

The 23rd pair of chromosomes decide gender, men have XY chromosomes, women have XX chromosomes. When
making sperm, X and Y chromosomes are drawn apart in the first meiosis division, theres a 50% chance it gets a Y
chromosome.The same thing happens for eggs except the original cell has XX so eggs have one X chromosome.
Gregor Mendel noticed characteristics in plants were passed on from one
generation to the next. His results and research on tall pea plants and a dwarf
pea plant were published in 1866, becoming the foundations of genetics Mendel
had shown that the height characteristics in pea plants were determined
separately inherited hereditary units passed on from each parents, the ratios of
tall and dwarf plants in the offspring showed that the unit for tall plants, T was
dominant over the unit for dwarf plants, t.
Mendel reached these conclusions about heredity in plants: Characteristics in
plants are determined by hereditary units. Hereditary units are passed on from
both parents, one unit from each parent. Hereditary units can be dominant
or recessive, if the individual has both the dominant and recessive unit for
a characteristic, the dominant characteristic will be expressed. His work
wasnt significant till after he died as he didnt know about genes.
Alleles are different versions of the same genes, in genetic diagrams,
letters are used to represent alleles. If an organism has two alleles for a
gne the same, then its a homozygous. If the two alleles are different, only
one can determine what characteristic is present, the alle for the
characteristic thats shown is called the dominant alle and uses a capital
letter, the other is a recessive and uses lower case. For an organism to
display a recessive characteristic, both its alleles must be recessive cc, for
it to be dominant it can be either CC or Cc, the dominant allele overrules the recessive one if the organism is
heterozygous.
This means that if one parent is crazy, the gene will be genotype bb and the sane will be BB, making all offspring Bb,
this offspring may have kids with a likewise other offspring, this means the genotypes will be Bb and Bb, making the
result of either BB, Bb, Bb or bb - if its bb, the offspring's phenotype will be crazy.
Cystic Fibrosis is caused by a recessive allele, its a genetic disorder of the cell membrane that results in mucus in
the air passages and pancreas. The allele which causes the cf is a recessive allele f, carried in 1/25, as its
recessive, people with only one copy of the allele wont have the disorder, but they will carry it. Both parents must be
carriers or sufferers to have the disorder, theres a chance of the child having it if both parents are carriers.
Polydactyly is a genetic disorder where the baby is born with an extra finger or toe, its caused by a dominant allele D,
and can be inherited if just one parent carries the allele, the parent that has it will therefore also be a sufferer, so
theres 50% chance of a child having the disorder if one parent has the disorder.
During in vitro fertilisation, embryos are fertilised in a laboratory then implanted into the mothers womb. More than
one egg is fertilised, so theres a better chance of the IVF being successful. Before being implanted, its possible to
remove a cell from each embryo and analyse its genes as many genetic disorders (C.f) can be detected this way.
Embryos with good alleles would be implanted into the mother and bad ones destroyed. This helps to stop suffering
and there are laws that stop it going too far - like picking gender, screening allows the selected embryo to be healthy,
the embryos wouldnt be used anyhow and treating disorders costs lots. Unfortunately, people say it may come to a
point where parents want only the cleverest and prettiest boy, it also implies people with genetic problems are
undesirable which increases prejudice and is expensive, the rejected embryos are destroyed when they could have
been humans.
If you cross two dominant alleles thats normal (BB) with two recessive alleles that are crazy (bb) all offspring are
normal Bbs. If you cross two normal dominant alleles (BB) with a dominant and recessive allele that are normal (Bb),
the offspring would all be normal - BB, BB, Bb, Bb.
Hh = H and h, hh = h and h for genotypes, a dominant allele H caused long hair and a recessive allele h caused short
hair, the genotypes H, h, h and h cause Hh, hh, Hh, and hh.
Fossils are the remains of plants and animals from: Gradual replacement by minerals (teeth, shells bones which dont
decay easy are replaced by minerals as they decay, forming a rock like substance, the surrounding sediments also
turns to rock but the fossils remains distinct. Casts and impressions (an organism is buried in soft materials that
harden, like clay, then the organism decays, leaving a cast of itself). Preservation in places where no decay happens

because the conditions are unlivable for decay microbes (in amber and tar pits where theres no oxygen or moisture
or glaciers where its too cold or peat bogs where its too acidic).
No one knows how many species have evolved over millions of years, the hypotheses cannot be provided because of
the lack of valid and reliable evidence, mostly because the scientists believe early organisms were soft bodied and
soft tissues tend to decay away completely, they might have been destroyed by geological activity. Some think life
formed from a primordial swamp under the sea on Earth, simple organic molecules were brought to Earth on comets.
Dinosaurs and mammoths became extinct because they couldnt evolve quick enough. Species become extinct if the
environment changes too quickly, a new predator kills them, a new disease kills them, they cant compete with
another species for food, a catastrophic event like a volcanic eruption occurs that kills them or a new species
develops.
A species is a group of similar organisms that can reproduce to give fertile offspring. Speciation is the development of
a new species, it occurs when populations of the same species become so different they cant breed to produce
fertile offspring.
Isolation is where populations of a species are separated due to a physical barrier like floods or earthquakes,
geographically isolating individuals. Conditions on either side of the barrier will be slightly different (climate) because
the environment is different, the characteristics will become more common in each population due to natural
selection:
Each population shows variation because they have a wide range of alleles. In each population, those with
characteristics that make them better adapted to their environment will breed successfully, so the alleles that control
the beneficial characteristics will probably be passed on to the next generation. The species on the barrier sides will
be too different to breed.
Chemistry
The mass number is the total of protons and neutrons, its the larger, upper number. The atomic number is the
number of protons, meaning you can subtract it from the mass number to get the number of neurons. Protons and
neutrons have a mass of 1, electrons arent counted in mass because their relative mass is too small.
Compounds are formed when atoms of two or more elements are chemically combined, like carbon dioxide. Its hard
to separate the original elements out again.
Isotypes are different atomic forms of the same element, which have the same number of protons but a different
number of neutrons. Isotypes must have the same atomic number but different mass numbers and thus neutrons, if
they had different atomic numbers, theyd be different elements.
Ionic bonding is losing or gaining electrons to form charged particles called ions, which are strongly attracted to each
other. All atoms in group 1, 2 and 3 have 1, 2 or 3 electrons in their outer shell, they want to lose these to make their
final shell full. Group 5, 6 and 7 have 5, 6, or 7 electrons in their outer shell, if they gained 3, 2 or 1 electron in their
outer shell, itd be full. So, take a sodium atom with one electron in its outer shell and give it to the chlorine atom with
7 electrons in its outer shell, this makes the sodium positively charged and the chlorine negatively.
Ionic compounds always have a giant lattice as the ions form a closely packed regular lattice arrangements and have
strong electrostatic forces of attraction between oppositely charged ions in all directions.
Ionic compounds all have high melting points and boiling points, due to the strong attractions between the ions that
takes a lot of energy to break. When ionic compounds melt, the ions are free to move and carry electric current. They
dissolve easily in water as the ions separate and are free to move in the solution, so theyll carry electric current.
Atoms that have gained/lost electrons are called ions, they have the electronic structure of a noble gas and the
elements most readily form ions are in group 1, 2, 6 and 7. Group 1 elements form ionic compounds with non-metals
where the metal ion has a 1+ charge. Group 6 and 7 are non-metals and gain electrons to form negative ions and
group 7 elements (halogens) form ionic compounds with the alkali group 1 metals where the halide ion has a 1charge. The charge on positive ions is the same as the number of electrons they need to lose/gain, the ones that
need to gain are negative. Any positive ions can combine with negative ones.
Ionic compounds are made up of a positively and negatively charged part, making the overall charge of any
compound 0, so all the negative charges must balance all the positives.

Sometimes atoms makes covalent bonds by sharing electrons with other atoms, they only share electrons in their
outer shell (highest energy level). This way, both atoms feel they have a full outer shell, so they feel as happy as a

noble gas. For hydrogen, this is shown as H - H or H

Chlorine is therefore Cl2, C - C, draw only the outer rings in a dot and cross diagram. Methane is
H
CH4, outer ring of chlorine is drawn with the H on the outside, next to the dots from H.
H-C-H
H
The atoms form very strong covalent bonds to form small molecules of several atoms. The forces of attraction
between these molecules are very weak. The result of these feeble intermolecular forces is that the melting and
boiling points are very low as the molecules are easily separated.. Its the intermolecular forces that get broken when
simple molecular substances melt or boil - not the much stronger covalent bonds. Most molecular substances are
gases or liquid, but they can be solids, they have no ions and dont conduct electricity.
Giant covalent structures are macromolecules, they are like ionic lattices except there are no charged ions. The
atoms are bonded to each other by strong covalent bonds and have very high melting/boiling points, they never
conduct electricity. Examples of these are:
Diamonds: each carbon atom forms four covalent bonds in a very rigid giant covalent bonds, this makes diamond the
hardest natural substances.
Silicon Dioxide: silica is what sand is made of, each grain of sand is one giant structure of silicon and oxygen.
Graphite: each carbon atom forms three covalent bonds which creates layers that are free to slide over each other,
so graphite is soft and slippery. The layers are so loosely held together, they can be rubbed onto paper (pencil), this
is because there are weak intermolecular forces between the layers. Graphite is the only non-metal which is a good
conductor of heat and electricity, each carbon has one free electron and its these electrons that conduct.
Metal bonds involve free electrons which produce all the properties of metals, these delocalised (free) electrons come
from the outer shell of every metal atom in the structure, these electrons are free to move through the structure so
metals are good conductors of heat and electricity. They hold the atoms together in a regular structure, there are
strong forces of electrostatic attraction between the positive ions and negative electrons, they allow the layers of
atoms to also slide over each other, allowing metals to be bent and shaped.
Pure metals arent as good as alloys - which are mixtures of two or more metals, they have more properties. Different
elements have different sized atoms, so when another metal is mixed with a pure metal, the new metal will distort the
layers of metal atoms, making it harder for them to slide over each other and the alloys harder.
Type, Melting point, Boiling point, Good electrical conductor
Simple molecular, -200, -180, No

Giant metallic, 1500, 2700, Yes

Giant covalent, 1400, 2300 No
Giant ionic, 800, 1400 When molten
Smart materials act differently, depending on conditions like temperature. Nitinol is a shape memory alloy, its half
nickel half titanium but when its cool, you can bend it, if you bend it too far it stays bent. If you heat it above a certain
temperature, it goes back to a remembered shape. This is helpful for glasses and braces as they spring back into
their shape when in your mouth or a glass of hot water.
Nanoparticles are tiny particles 1-100 nanometres across, they contain a few hundred atoms and include fullerenes molecules of carbon shaped like hollow balls or closed tubes. The carbon atoms are arranged in hexagonal rings,
different fullerenes contain different numbers of carbon atoms. A nanoparticle has different properties from the bulk
chemical its made from. Fullerenes can be joined together to form nanotubes 0 tiny hollow carbon tubes. All covalent
bonds make carbon nanotubes very strong and can be used to reinforce graphite in tennis rackets.
Using nanoparticles is known as nanoscience, new uses of nanoparticles are being developed: They have a big
surface area to volume ratio to make new catalysts, you can use nanoparticles to make sensors to detect one type of
molecule and nothing else - these are specific and used to test water purify. Nanotubes make stronger, lighter
building materials and conduct electricity so can be used in tiny electrical circuits for computer chips, nanoparticles
make new cosmetics like sun than cream and deodorant as they dont leave white marks. Nanomedicine is an idea in
testing that tiny fullerenes are absorbed more easily by the body than most particles so they could deliver drugs right
into the cells where theyre needed, lubricant coatings are also being developed using fullerenes, these coating
reduce friction a bit and can be used in gears.
Strong covalent bonds hold the atoms together in long chains, but its the bonds between the different molecule
chains that determine the properties of the plastic. Weak forces - individual tangled chains of polymers held together
by weak intermolecular forces that are free to slide over each other. Strong forces - some plastics have stronger
intermolecular forces between the polymer chains, called chains called cross-links, that hold the chains firmly
together. Thermosoftening polymers dont have cross-linking between chains, the forces between the chains are
really easy to overcome so its easy to melt the plastic. When it cools, the polymer hardens into a new shape, you can
melt these plastics and remould them however many times you want. Thermosetting polymers have cross-links which
hold the chains together in a solid structure. The polymer doesnt soften when its heated as they are strong, hard and
rigid.
The starting and reaction conditions affect the properties of a polymer. Low density polythene is made by heating
ethane to 200oC under high pressure, its flexible and used for bags and bottles. High density polythene is made at a
lower temperature and pressure with catalyst, its more rigid and is used for water tanks and drainpipes.
Disposable materials need to be cheap, things containing hot substances need to have high melting points, if they
have chemicals in them then they need to be resistant, if they are clothing, they need to be able to be made into
fibres.
Relative atomic mass (heavy) is the same as mass number, the biggest number of the element.
If you have a compound like MgCl2, you add the relative atomic masses to make relative formula mass, this would be
24 + 35.5x2 (because of the little two) which is 95.
The relative formula mass (A or M) of a substance in grams is known as one mole of that substance. Iron has an A of
56, so one mole is 56g. If you have 42g of carbon, you divide the mass by the M of the element which is 42/12 = 3.5
moles.
Percentage of an element in a compound =
Percentage mass =

Na2.CO3 = (2x23)+12+(3x16)=106.

x 100 = 23x2/100 = 43.4%

To find the empirical formula from masses or percentages, list all the elements in the compound and their
experimental masses or percentages. Divide each mass/percentage by the A for that element. Turn the numbers you
get into a ratio by multiplying both numbers (10 is usually good) dividing them to get the ration in its simplest form,
you then write it out - Fe2.O3
To calculate the mass in a reaction, write out the balanced equation and work out M for the two bits you want then
divide to get one and multiply to get all. For example, mass of magnesium oxide is produced when 60g of magnesium
is burned in air?
2MG+O2 2MGO, 2x24 2x(24+16), 48 80, 1g of mg 1.7, 60g of mg 100g
The amount of product you get is known as the yield, the more reactants you start with, the higher the actual yield will
be. The predicted yield of a reaction can be calculated from the balanced reaction equation: Percentage yield =

x 100. 100% means you got all the product you expected to get, 0% means no reactants were
converted into product.
Yields are always less than 100%. A reversible reaction is one where the products of the reaction can themselves
react to product the original reactants. A+B

C+D, like

ammonium chloride ammonia + hydrogen chloride, this means some of the products are always reacting together
to change back to the original reactants and will mean a lower yield. Like filtering, you usually will lose a bit of the
product, there can be unexpected reactions. Product yield is important for sustainable development - not using
resources faster than they can be replaced so future generations can survive, a higher yield means resources are
saved and its sustainable.
A food colouring may contain one dye or be a mixture. Extract the colour from a food sample by placing it in a cup
with a few drops of solvent (water, ethanol, salt water), put the spots of the colored solution on a pencil baseline on
filter paper (pen would dissolve into the solvent). Roll up the sheet and put it in a beaker with some solvent, keeping
the baseline above the level of solvent. The solvent takes the dye with it as different dyes form spots in different
places. A chromatogram with four spots means at least four dyes are there, there could be five or more.
Advantages of using machines are its very sensitive and can detect even the tiniest amounts of substances, they are
very fast, tests can be automated and theyre accurate.
Gas chromatography can separate out a mixture of compounds and help you identify the substances present. A gas
is used to carry substances through a column packed with a solid material, the substances travel through the tube at
different speeds, so theyre separated. The retention time (time to reach the detector) can identify the substances.
The recorder draws a gas chromatograph, the number of peaks shows the number of different compounds in the
sample. The position of the peaks shows the retention time of each substance, the gas chromatography column can
be linked to a mass spectrometer, this process is known as GC-MS and can identify the substances leaving the
column accurately. You can work out the relative molecular mass of each substance by reading it off the molecular
ion peek.
The slowest reaction is rust, a moderate speed reaction is a metal and acid reaction to make bubbles, a fast one is an
explosion, where its over in a fraction of a second. The rate of reaction depends on temperature, concentration,
catalyst and surface area of solids, though theres pressure for gases and size of solid pieces too. Quick reactions
have a steep lines on graphs.
An increased rate could be because of an increase in temperature, concentration, pressure or a catalyst added and
solid reactants being crushed up.
Rate of reaction =

, there are different ways that the rate of a reaction

can be measured. Precipitation is when the product of the reaction is a precipitate which clouds the solution, observe
a mark through the solution and measure the time to takes for it to disappear. This only works if the initial solution is
translucent and the result is subjective as other people might not agree on the exact point the mark disappears.
Physics
Speed is how fast youre going with no regard to the direction. Velocity must have the direction specified - like 30 mph
North.
If a distance time graph is gradually increasing, its at a steady speed, if just the time changes, its stationary and if its
gradually decreasing in distance, its going backwards steadily. If theres a curve which gets steeper, its accelerating.
On the graph, you can work out the speed in real time by drawing the tangent to the curve at the point and then
calculating the gradient then dividing the distance by time. If the gradient increases, it is speeding up, gradient =
speed.
Speed =
Acceleration is the change in an objects velocity, it has a direction too as negatives are deccelerating (backwards).
Acceleration
Gradient =

=
= acceleration

Velocity changes because of acceleration, the same as gradient. Velocity tells you speed and direction. Flat sections
in velocity time graphs show steady speeds, the steeper the graph, the greater the (de/a)cceleration, uphill is
accelerating. The area under any section of the graph is equal to the distance travelled in that time interval. A curve
means changing acceleration.
Distance travelled = velocity x time

This is the area underneath the velocity time graph, like if you worked out distance travelled from 80-100mph, itll be
100-80 = 20x time which may be 50, making 1000m.
Gravitational force is the force of attraction between all matters, it gives everything a weight and on Earth, objects
accelerate towards the ground. Weight is caused by the pull of gravitational force in Newtons, mass is the amount of
stuff in an object in KG - its the same on the moon as on Earth. Weight = mass x gravitational field strength
The resultant force on an object is the sum of all the forces acting on an object. It gives a resultant direction. Forces
acting in the same direction add up, forces acting in the opposite subtract.This causes the object to change direction,
speed up or slow down.
If the resultant force on a stationary object is zero, it will remain stationary. If there is no resultant force on a moving
object, itll keep moving at the same velocity. If there is a non-zero resultant force, the object will accelerate in the
direction of the force. If theres an overall force, it will always accelerate.
Air resistance and friction both act together against gravity (hence why brakes work so well - they just about top the
resultant force, making the car unbalanced and decelerate), the greater the slope equals the more force needed. If
the forward force is greater than the other, the object will accelerate forward, if they are the same, the object will
continue at a constant speed. However, if the total force in the negative directions is greater, the object will slow down
and eventually stop.
Resultant force (N) = Mass (kg) / Acceleration (
) F=ma, a=F/m
The greater the (de)acceleration, the more quickly, something (or slows down if de) speeds up. The acceleration is
greater if the mass is smaller.
Acceleration is inversely proportional to mass.
Force is in newtons (N), one newton is required give a mass of one kilogram an acceleration of one
.
If the mass stays the same, the greater the force and acceleration - as force and acceleration are proportional. If the
force stays the same, the greater the mass, the lower the acceleration. Therefore acceleration is inversely
proportional to mass.
Newton said: When two objects interact, the forces they exert on each other are equal and opposite. For example,
when seated the weight on you pushes you down and the chair legs push down on the floor, but the floor pushes up
on the chair legs.
Friction is always there to slow things down as it acts in the opposite direction to movements. Most resistive forces
are caused by air resistance, in reducing resistance (drag) in fluids you have to keep the shape of the object
streamlined.
Drag increases as speed increases because frictional forces from fluids increase with speed, the engine thus has to
work harder to maintain a steady speed at 70mph then 30mph.
Resistant forces on a moving car are mostly air resistance and friction, the resultant force is zero. When it brakes,
friction increases and the resultant force is negative so the car slows down, the faster a car moves, the more kinetic
energy it has so the harder the car needs to brake. Work done by friction between the wheels and brake pads
transfers this kinetic energy to the brakes by heating up the pads. When a car brakes, its brakes become warmer.
Stopping is how far a vehicle goes before it stops, it is the sum of thinking distance and braking. Thinking distance is
the distance a vehicle travels while a message transfers from the drivers eyes to the brain and then to the foot on the
brake pedal. Braking distance is the distance a vehicle travels while it is slowing down, after the brake pedal pressed.
Thinking time is slower if the driver has taken drugs or alcohol or if there are distractions. It can be calculated:
Thinking time = speed x reaction time
The braking distance depends on its speeds (doubling it increases braking distance by four), the mass of the car
(heavier cars travel further before stopping because they have more kinetic energy to transfer), the condition of the
tyres and brakes as these give smaller friction force and therefore longer braking distance - hence why MOT tests
brakes and tyres with too little tread are banned. Weather and road conditions, like wet or icy surfaces, may also
decrease the friction force by 2 or 10.
Aerodynamic cars are shaped in a way that air flows easily and smoothly past them, minimising their air resistance.
Cars reach their top speed when the resistive force equals the driving force provided by the engine, so less air
resistance equals a higher top speed.
When you go faster, air resistance increases because you have to push more air particles out of the way each
second. Eventually, air resistance and friction added equal the forward force of driving so there is no resultant force.
This is called terminal velocity. Terminal velocity is dependent on the size of the upward force (air resistance) and
downward force (weight).
Weight (N) = mass (kg) x gravitational field strength (N/kg)

As an object falls faster, air resistance increases. The object stops accelerating when the air resistance equals the
weight. This is when the object is falling at its terminal velocity.
Forces can make an object change shape or break instead of moving. Stretching elastic objects does not work, so
the work done by the force transfers energy to the elastic object, where its stored by the new shape, this is stored as
elastic potential energy and is converted to kinetic energy when the force is removed.
If the force stops stretching the object, the object returns to its original shape and the elastic potential energy is
transferred away. Elastic objects do not just keep stretching as your apply more and more force, they will eventually
break. Hookes law says that the extension of a stretched string is directly proportional to the force applied.There is a
maximum force that the elastic object can take and still extend proportionally, this is known as the limit of
proportionality.
Force (N) = Spring constant (N/m) x extension (m)
Energy stored in a moving object is called kinetic energy, energy can not be created or destroyed due to the law of
conservation of energy. Energy is transferred to us by food,cars by fuel, water in a solar fountain has its energy
transferred by the sun using electromagnetic radiation.
Moving objects can transfer energy away too. The kinetic energy of a moving loudspeaker is transferred as sound
waves. A crashed car transfers its kinetic energy as work done to damage the car. This is why crumple zooms are
made - to make the impact of energy transfer to the passengers not be so big. The cars kinetic energy is converted
into other forms of energy by the car body as it changes shape, they increase the impact time and decrease the force
produced by the change in momentum
Friction does not help, to overcome its forces, a lot of energy is wasted. As heating the car and the air around it is
used to get past crashing badly, this can make tyres too warm and pressured or aircraft expand due to heat against
air resistance.
Brakes reduce the kinetic energy by transferring it into heat and sound. Regenerative brakes use the system that
drives the vehicle to do most of the braking, the brakes put the vehicles motor into reverse, running the motor
backwards means the wheels are slowed. Kinetic energy is converted into electrical energy thats stored as chemical
energy in the vehicles battery. They store energy instead of wasting it.
Side impact bars are strong metal tubes fitted into car door panels, they direct the kinetic energy of the crash away
from the passengers to other areas - like the crumple zone. Seat belts stretch slightly, increasing time for the wearer
to stop and reducing the forces acting in the chest. Some of the kinetic energy of the wearer is absorbed by the seat
belt. Air bags also slow you down more gradually and prevent you from hitting hard surfaces within the car.
Flywheels are heavy, fast spinning wheels that store kinetic energy for short periods of time. Heavy flywheels store
more energy than light ones but they have the same air resistance as lighter wheels with the same diameter. This
means they transfer and waste a smaller amount of their energy as work against air resistance.
You feel tired/hungry after transferring a lot of energy to the object you are moving/lifting.
Work done = energy transferred
Work is done and energy transferred every time a force makes something move.Gravitational potential energy is a
way of storing energy in an objects position.
The amount of work done and energy transferred depends on the force used and the distance the force moves an
object.
Work done (J) = Force (N) x Distance (M)
The direction an object moves must be measured in the direction of the force. Gravity acts vertically, when two equal
masses are being lifted through the same vertical distance, they do the same amount of work against gravity and
transfer the same amount of energy, stored as extra potential energy in the mass they lift. Using a ramp actually
wastes more energy due to friction, however, it feels easier.
Gravitational potential energy is energy is stored in an object because of its position. The higher the object, the higher
the gravitational potential energy. Kinetic energy increases when the mass of an object and its speed increases.
Gravitational potential energy gained = weight x height lifted
Change in GPE (J) = mass (kg) x gravitational field strength (N/kg - usually 10) x change in height (m)
Work done = gravitational potential energy transferred
Kinetic energy (J) = x mass (kg) x speed
(m/s) 1/2m =Fxd
Kinetic energy transfer = work done by Kinetic energy gained = potential energy lost
Some of this Ek is transferred into heat and sound (Ep is turned to Ek). When meteors enter the atmosphere, they
have high kinetic energy - friction because of collisions with particles in the atmosphere transfers some of their kinetic
to heat energy and work is done. The temperatures can be too hot to get to the earth without burning up totally, only

big meteorites hit. Space shuttles have heat shields made from materials which lose heat quickly, so they dont burn
up when the shuttle re-enters the atmosphere.
When something does work, its transferring energy; something is powerful if it can do a lot of work in a short time
and transfer energy at a high rate. Power is calculated by finding out how much energy something transfers per
second:
Power (watts or joules/second) = energy transferred or work (joules) / time taken (seconds)
One watt is the same as one joule per second.
Work done (J) = force applied (N) x distance moved in the direction of the force (m)
Work done (W) is the same as energy transferred (E).
Momentum describes how hard it would be to stop a moving object. Objects with a greater momentum are harder to
stop.
Momentum (kg m/s) = mass (kg) x velocity (m/s)
Momentum increases when mass or velocity increases, as heavier or faster objects are harder to stop. Momentum is
always in the same direction as velocity - but they are not the same, neither is kinetic energy. Energy is a scalar
quantity as it only has size and not direction; you cannot have negative energy. Momentum is a vector quantity, it has
size and direction.
There are two types of collision:
- elastic collisions; two objects collide and bounce apart again
- inelastic collisions; two objects collide, stick together and remain together after the collision
When two objects collide or one explodes, the total momentum doesnt change, provided its a closed system with no
forces acting on the objects - the law of conservation of momentum state.
This can be used to find the speed of objects after a collision. Momentum before and after is the same. When a gun
is fired, the momentum of the gun in one direction is the same as the momentum in the opposite direction, this is
because the bullet has a much smaller mass than the gun and moves with a much greater velocity. The momentum
before and after is zero.
Air or hot gas rushing out of one end of an object is the same as the momentum of the object in the opposite
direction. The mass of the object (aeroplane) is greater than the mass of the exhaust gases, the object moves more
slowly than the gases do.
If two skaters embrace, skater ones weight x velocity is added to the weight x velocity of skater two, this creates total
momentum before collision. After collision, add both weights together and times by velocity, make this equal to total
momentum before and youll find its 0.5 or something to one direction.
When some insulating materials are rubbed together, negatively charged electrons will be scraped off one and
dumped on the other, leaving a positive charge on one and negative on the other. Electrically charged objects attract
small objects placed near them. Rubbing polythene rods makes electrons jump from the duster to the rod, making the
rod positive and cloth negative. Acetate rod makes electrons move from the rod to the duster, making the rod positive
and cloth negative. Charges are caused by the movement of electrons and dont move. Positive static charges are
caused by electrons moving away while the material that loses the electrons lose some negative charge and is left
positive.
Two objects with opposite electrical charges are attracted, objects with the same repel each other. These forces get
weaker the further apart they are. Electric charges move easily through some materials called conductors, like
metals.
Current is the flow of electrical charge in ampere round the circuit, it only flows through a component if there is a
potential difference across that component. Potential difference is the driving force pushes the current round in volts.
Resistance slows down the flow in ohms. The greater the resistance across a component, the smaller the current
flows for a given potential difference across the component.
Current is the rate of flow of charge. When current (I) flows past a point in the circuit for a length of time (t) the charge
(Q) that passed is given in this formula:

current is in amperes, charge in coulombs and time seconds.