Cold Environments 2014 3

COLD ENVIRONMENTS
SYLLABUS CONTENT
READING
TOPIC
What processes and factors give cold environments
their distinctive characteristics?
Identify a range of features associated with
erosion and deposition in cold environments,
such as cirques, aretes, U -shaped valleys,
waterfalls, lakes, moraines and outwash plains.
Identify and explain the processes responsible
for the features identified, stressing the impact
of climatic conditions, weathering, mass
movement, glacial erosions and deposition.
Understand the role of various factors in the
development of the identified landforms,
including rock type and structure, aspect,
glacier type.
Why are cold environments considered as fragile?

The impact of climate and soils on the natural
ecosystem.
The vulnerability of both flora and fauna to
damage resulting from human factors, such as
leisure activities, atmospheric pollution.
The vulnerability of both flora and fauna to
damage from physical factors and processes,
such as mass movement, erosion and
deposition.
The difficulty of regeneration in the harsh
conditions when damage has occurred.
What are the issues associated with the

development of cold environments?
Opportunities for development, including
resource exploitation, agriculture, recreation
and tourism.
Challenges to development, including
environmental constraints, remoteness and
associated costs, and conflicts with and impact
upon indigenous populations.
How can cold environments be managed to ensure

sustainability?
The need to balance socio-economic and
environmental needs.
The exploitation of cold environments for shortterm gain.
The need for sustainable development through
careful management techniques.
POINTS TO NOTE
Glacial and periglacial

environments, D. Anderson.
Glaciers and glaciation, I. Benn &
D. Evans.
Glaciers and glacial landscapes, P.
Knight (GA, Changing Geography
series).
Cold environments, G. Nagle & M.
Witherick, Chs 2-5.
Geofile 25(1), 527, A. Rae.
Features should be related

to one or more specific cold
environments.

D. Evans.
series).
Witherick.
Geofile 25(3), 545, P. Sheppard
(2007).
The fragility of the

ecosystem should be
studied in the context of one
cold environment, such as
an Alpine area, or a
periglacial region. Scale
could be from local to
regional.

D. Evans, D.
series).
Witherick.
Geofile 24(1), 503, G. Nagle (2005).
Geofile 22(3), 474, T. Bayliss & L
Collins (2004).
http://arcticcircle.uconn.edu/
Two contrasting cold

environments should be
studied to illustrate these
opportunities and
challenges; these could be
from different types of cold
environments, such as an
upland glaciated area and a
periglacial region or cold
environments dominated by
different processes, such as
and upland glaciated area
and a lowland glaciated
area.

environments, D. Anderson
Glaciers and glaciation, Benn, I. &
Evans, D.J.A.
series)
Witherick
http://arcticcircle.uconn.edu/
Management issues should

be studied in the context of
two contrasting cold
environments; contrasts
could be between physical
characteristics, levels of
economic development or
land use, or a combination
of these.
CASE STUDY REQUIRED
Locating Cold Environments

Glacial (Polar) Climates
Snow and ice all year round
Antarctic low temperatures all
o
year round, ranging from -60 C
o
on the ice sheet summit to -10 C
on the coast)
Winter temperatures vary from o
o
70 C to -25 C
Summer temperature range (-40
o
o
C to 2 C)
Considerable variation in
precipitation that falls in
Antarctica
Cold mountain winds blow out
from the center of Antarctica
towards the edge of the
continent (katabatic winds) from
as dense cold air flows down
from the mountains to the
lowlands, chilling the ground it
passes over)
Periglacial Climates
snow and ice cover, but not all year round
found in areas of high altitude or high latitude
characterized by large seasonal temperature
ranges
temperatures in calm, clear winter weather may fall
o
to -50 C
Spring temperatures may rise above freezing
o
Summer temperatures may rise to 20 C
These areas are cold because of
High latitude they receive a relatively small
amount of insolation (incoming solar radiation) due
to the low angle of the overhead sun
High altitude temperature declines on average 1
o
C for every 100m climbed
Albedo they reflect much solar radiation (average
absorption is 40%, on snow and ice 10-20%, on
dark soils 90%)
Precipitation levels are generally low due to the low air
temperatures, as cols air is only able to hold small
amounts of moisture. Plus many periglacial regions are
affected by high-pressure conditions that reduce the
amounts of rainfall.
- in the Artic, rainfall declines away from oceans, as the
westerly depressions progressively lose moisture as they
travel
Mountain (upland) climates

Areas which were once covered in ice, but are now free
from snow and ice
However, the landforms formed during the cold periods are
evidence and influence the lives of people living there
Many, but not all, are upland areas
E.g. the Alps and Himalayas
Some contain glaciers
o
Generally they are cool they loose about 1 C for every
o
100m (or 10 C per km) this is the lapse rate
They are wet often have relief or orographic rainfall
(rainfall produced as air is forced to rise over high ground,
such as a mountain barrier, it subsequently cools,
condenses, producing precipitation)
Classifying & Locating Cold Environments

A huge proportion of our globe could be classified as a cold environment - covering over 25% of the World's land
surface and are incredibly varied in their nature. Defining cold environments is therefore difficult because of the
variety of cold environments. In Britain, parts of Northern and upland Scotland are cold environments for at least part
of the year and there is regular snow cover in winter in Aviemore.
There are three types of regions we classify as cold environments
1. Polar Climates
2. Periglacial climates
3. Mountain (upland climates)
TASK:
1. On an A3 map of the world shade the 3 areas where we find cold environments, each in their own colour
(make a key)
2. Add names of countries or regions where we find cold environments
3. Using the information on Pg 2 of this booklet, annotate your world map to describe the different characteristics
of each cold climate zone. (you may like to add photographs)
Climate Characteristics of cold environments

GEOGRAPHICAL SKILL Analysing and interpreting climate graphs
1, Look at the shape of the graph. Is the temperature line
steep or gentle? Does it change throughout the year and/or
look almost flat?
2) Look for extremes quote the highest and lowest
temperature and rainfall and the month in which it occurs.
Remember to quote units, eg Celsius or millimetres.
3) Can you identify the seasons when most rain or least rain
falls? Or when the highest and lowest temperatures are
experienced?
4) Work out the temperature range by subtracting the lowest
figure from the highest figure.
5) Add the rainfall totals for each month together to work out
the total annual rainfall.
TASK: for one of the regions/ cities marked on your map find the climate graph (an atlas is useful here) and describe
the climate. Remember, you must use figures in your answer.
WHERE DO WE FIND COLD ENVIRONMENTS
1) Areas of high latitude
Latitude is fundamental in determining the climate of an area. High latitude, polar regions have a very low
average annual temperature due to the low angle of the suns rays which reduces the amount of solar energy
received. (The suns rays strike the earths surface at a higher angle nearer the equator, meaning that an
equivalent amount of solar energy is spread over a smaller area in tropical latitudes than polar areas.)
The suns rays must penetrate a smaller thickness of atmosphere near the equator than near the poles. As
the suns rays pass through they atmosphere they can be refracted and scattered back into space by clouds
and dust, or be absorbed by atmospheric gases. A shorter passage through the atmosphere therefore allows
more insolation (heat energy) to reach the surface.
These regions also have high albedo surfaces (snow reflects large amounts of solar radiation back into
space).
Areas of high altitude

As altitude increases, there is a fall in atmospheric pressure; this
results in an expansion in the volume of air which causes a
reduction in temperature.
Temperatures decrease by 1oC for every 100m increase in
altitude.
THE HISTORY & FUTURE OF COLD ENVIRONMENTS

The distribution of cold environments is not static and changes from place to place and time to time. The Earth has
gone through a series of warm and cold periods within its history and climate cannot be said to be static by any
means. Times when the temperature has dropped significantly are known as glacial periods, and are marked by
advances of the World's ice masses to lower latitudes and lower altitudes.
Times when temperatures are warmer for extended periods of time are known as interglacials and these periods are
marked by the retreat of ice to higher altitudes or Latitudes.
Glacial periods can be punctuated by short climatic events known as interstadials where there are short term retreats
in the extent of ice. Interglacials can similarly be interrupted by stadials where for a short period of time temperatures
drop and ice masses can advance.
CLIMATE VARIATIONS
Over the past 1 million years glacial periods have lasted longer that interglacial periods and that the temperatures of
glacials have dropped lower than the rises of the interglacials.
It should also be noted that the world is nearing the end of our current warming pattern, and what happens next to
global temperature is still the subject of much debate.
The difference in temperature between the mean global air temperature and a glacial period is as little as 2C colder
than the global mean, and that the difference from the mean to today's warm period is only 2-3C warmer. It therefore
takes only small changes in temperature to switch global climate from hothouse to ice house!
The last Ice Age

The last ice age to occur in the Quaternary period (which began 2 million years ago) started around 30,000 years ago,
peaked 18,000 years ago when ice in Britain reached as far south as Bristol and London and ended between 12,000
and 10,000 years ago. The impact of this ice age was marked in the British landscape and evidence can be seen in
the landforms that make up many of our much loved countryside areas.
There are many theories as to the cause of glacial cyles:
1. Milankovitch cycle changes in incoming radiation due to changes in orbit, tilt and position in space.
2. Variations in sunspot activity
3. Changes in the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
4. Changes in the movement of the ocean currents
5. Periods of extreme volcanic activity which put huge amounts of ash into the atmosphere
HelloGLACIERS
Glaciers are large, slow moving, masses of ice that deform and move down slope under their own weight. Glacial
landscapes are distinctive due to glaciers being powerful agents of both erosion and deposition. Approximately 10% of
the earth's surface is covered by glaciers. Large areas of glacial ice are found in high latitude areas such as
Greenland and Antarctica, however glaciers are also found in areas of high altitude (e.g. the Rockies).
WHERE DO WE FIND GLACIERS?

Cold regions!! Therefore:
Areas of High Latitude
o Polar regions (e.g. Antarctica and Greenland), where large amounts of snow fall
Areas of high altitude
o Glaciers are found in areas of high-altitude (mountainous regions), such as the Alps, Himalayas and
the Andes, due to very low temperatures.
Local scale factors such as relief and slope aspect (direction faced by the slope) also affect the distribution of glaciers.
For example, in the Northern Hemisphere, north-facing slopes are shadier and therefore more conducive to snow
accumulation and the subsequent formation of glacial ice.
HOW ARE THEY FORMED?

1. During the onset of a glaciation, more and more precipitation falls as
snow.
2. In addition, less and less snow melts each summer so that successive
layers of snow gradually build up until there is a year-round snow
cover in more and more places.
3. Fresh snowflakes trap much air and have a low density.
4. As snow becomes more compacted, the air is driven out and density
increases.
5. Eventually, this process forms neve or firn (compacted snow).
6. After 20-40 years the firn will turn into glacial ice which contains little
air and has a density of about 0.9.
7. Glacial ice can begin to flow downhill under the influence of gravity as
a glacier.
Glaciers are mainly classified by size:

The main types are: Corrie glacier (also called a cirque glaciers
or a cwm) these occupy small hollows mainly on the sheltered
north-facing slopes of mountains
Valley glacier these are linear masses of ice which move along
pre-existing river valleys in the mountains
Piedmont glacier these form when valley glaciers spread out on to low-lying areas
and merge to form a single ice mass.The Malaspina Glacier, Alaska is a classic
example of a piedmont glacier lying along the foot of a mountain range.The main
source of ice for the glacier is provided by the Seward Ice Field to the north which
flows through three narrow outlets onto the coastal plain.
Ice caps or ice sheets are these are extremely large ice masses which cover
whole mountain ranges or even whole continents e.g. Antarctica. Vatnajokull is
Iceland's largest ice cap. It covers an area of 8,100 km and is up to 1000 metres
thick.
GLACIAL BUDGET or GLACIER MASS BALANCE

It is hard to understand that Ice moves given that it is a solid, but it can and does. Ice can move at extraordinary
speeds, and glaciers in surge conditions are known to move at up to 300m a day. The Franz Joseph glacier in New
Zealand has been known to surge in the past.
Ice can move in many ways, the rate and type of movement is determined by :
the glacial mass balance
the temperature and
precipitation regime of the area the glacier is found within.
Where accumulation and ablation are equal the glacier is said to be in a steady state. This rarely happens, and 2
other states exist
Accumulation is greater than ablation leading to growth in ice mass and potential glacial advance down the
valley
Ablation is greater than accumulation leading to a loss of ice mass and the potential retreat of the glacier up
valley.
Over a year accumulation tends to be within the colder months and ablation within the warmer months.
The difference between accumulation and ablation for a whole glacier over a year is called the net balance (usually
measured over a year between periods of minimal loss).
THE GLACIER AS A SYSTEM
Rates of movement are determined by:

the amount of precipitation
the amount of ablation
the steepness of the ice
the thickness of the ice
the permeability of the surface upon which the ice sits
where in the glacial long profile you are positioned
proximity to the equilibrium or firn line
COLD & WARM BASED GLACIERS

There are 2 basic types of glaciers and these types massively determine the type of movement that takes place within
the ice:
Cold based glaciers (POLAR)
occur in the high Latitudes where the temperature of the snow fall is far below zero degrees and the ice of the
glacier remains at below zero throughout the year.
These glaciers therefore stay frozen to the bedrock all year and there fore there is little ice movement and
therefore little erosion.
Greenland and the Antarctic have cold based glaciers
Warm based glaciers or TEMPERATE glaciers
have water present throughout the ice mass and this water acts as a lubricant. This may be for a period of the
year or all year, and allows for much greater rates of movement and thus more erosion.
These glaciers are often found in mountain glaciers at lower latitudes but higher altitudes than polar glaciers
PRESSURE MELTING POINT
The melting point of ice is 0C at the surface of the ice, but this can vary within the ice profile because of the pressure
that the mass of ice exerts. This means that at the base of a glacier ice can melt at below 0C, allowing the ice to
move with the help of melt water even if the air temperature is below freezing point.
This is particularly relevant to TEMPERATE glaciers, but has no impact on POLAR glaciers
http://www.bbc.co.uk/learningzone/clips/12933.html
Cold based glaciers move mainly by internal deformation. These glaciers are frozen to the bed and therefore only
move 1-2cm a day. The ice crystals within the glacier orientate themselves in the direction of ice movement. This
allows ice crystals to slide past one another. Where the ice movement is fast enough crevasses may develop (this
process could also occur in warm based glaciers)
In internal deformation, there are different rates of movement within the ice mass, with the ice in the middle of the
glacier moving faster than that at the sides and the base.
Velocity of ice movement through internal deformation is strongly related to the gradient. As ice moves over a steep
slope, internal deformation may not be able to deform quickly enough. This results in the formation of crevasses as
the ice fractures. Where the gradient increases, the fractured ice accelerates forward becoming thinner (this is known
as extending flow). When there is then a reduction in the gradient, the ice slows and becomes thicker (compressional
flow)
Temperate glaciers move mainly through basal slippage. If the glacier moves, this can raise the temperature of the
base ice through pressure and friction. The basal ice can then melt, and this water helps to allow the ice to slip more
easily over its bed. This could move at 2-3m per day and pick up material with which it can use to erode its bed. This
is related to regelation, which is the phenomenon of melting under pressure and freezing again when the pressure is
reduced
Where an obstacle is encountered on the bed, pressure will increase. As the stress on the ice builds up as it tries to
overcome the obstacle the ice can behave like plastic and flows round or over the obstacle. The lower the
temperature the greater the pressure that is needed
Rates of Movement
The rate of movement of glaciers generally ranges between 3-300m yr-1. Rates of movement are affected by a
number of factors
Gradient of the valley floor is an important control on rates of glacial movement and rates of 1000-2000m yr-1 may be
reached where there are steep gradients! The Thickness of ice is also important as it impacts upon the pressure
melting point which can result in large amounts of melt water which help to increase speeds of flow.
10
PROCESSES OPERATING IN COLD ENVIRONMENTS

WEATHERING
Glaciers are found in cold environments so the dominant form of weathering is MECHANICAL OR PHYSICAL, since
biological organisms are scarce and the temperature is too low for chemical reactions to have any significant
effect. Thus, physical forces such as the wind, freeze thaw and frost shatter can have an impact
1) Freeze thaw is the weathering of rock which occurs when the water, which has penetrated the joints and
cracks, freezes. This process is, therefore, probably effective only in well-jointed rocks. Water expands by 9%
when it freezes, and it has been suggested that this expansion causes the rock to shatter. Freeze-thaw is
most active where there are a maximum number of temperature oscillations around 0C; it is therefore more
frequent in periglacial, rather than polar environments. This can break down rock which can then be
transported by the glacier
2) Wind Where sediments are exposed they can be blown by harsh winds, creating Loess deposits where this
material is laid down
3) Frost disintegration is the shattering of rock caused by the freezing of water in surface cracks and hollows,
and in the pore spaces. This is another term for Freeze thaw
4) Pressure release can cause physical weathering due to unloading. The
majority of igneous rocks were created deep under the earths surface at much
higher pressures and temperatures. As erosion brings these rocks to the
surface, they become subjected to less and less pressure. The unloading of
the pressure causes the rocks to fracture horizontally, with an increasing
number of fractures as they reach the surface. Spalling, the vertical
development of fractures, occurs because of the bending stresses of the
unloaded sheets across a three dimensional plane
PROCESS: MASS MOVEMENT

Cirque walls are continually being eroded and weathered (frost shattering). This
ultimately can result in rockfalls from the walls, and scree slopes
Mass movement of soil and regolith affected by alternate freezing and thawing.
Characteristic of saturated soils n high latitudes, both within and beyond the
permafrost zone.
11
EROSION (There are 3 main processes of glacial erosion).

ABRASION
This is where the bedrock underlying the glacier is eroded by debris

embedded in the base and sides of the glacier. As the glacier moves
over the bedrock, this material scrapes away at the rock like
sandpaper wearing it away. As it does so it leaves behind scratches
and grooves in the rock, known as striations. Where these grooves
are discontinuous but regular in occurrence they are known as
chatter marks. The depth of the striations will be dependent on
factors such as resistance of the bedrock, as well as the fragments
that are undertaking the erosion.
As the bedrock is eroded by abrasion, further material may become
entrained in the ice increasing the amount of abrasion that is able to
take place. Where fine material is embedded in the base of the
glacier it will act to 'polish' and smooth the bedrock below. Indeed as
abrasion takes place, rock material is ground down to produce a very
fine 'rock flour'. The characteristic blue-green color of glacial lakes
and streams (opposite) is due to the high concentrations of this rock
flour in suspension.
Rates of abrasion are greatest where: (factors affecting the rate of the process)
basal sliding can occur (cold-based glaciers do not abrade as they are frozen to the bed)
(however where there is excess meltwater under pressure, this may reduce the contact
between debris and bedrock reducing abrasion)
there is plenty of rock debris to act as 'cutting' agents in the abrasion process;
the rock debris is more resistant than the bedrock it is abrading;
there is a plentiful supply of debris at the base of the glacier
the glacier is travelling at a greater velocity across the bedrock;
the ice is thick, enabling the embedded debris to exert greater pressure on the bedrock below
PLUCKING
First, ice has the property of being able to freeze to rock. The glacier
uses this to adhere to part of the ground. Then, as the glacier forces
the ice frozen to the ground to continue moving down slope, the rock
may be pulled out of the ground and moved down slope as well
The process of plucking (also known as quarrying), results in the
removal of much larger fragments of bedrock than that undertaken by
abrasion. The process is most effective on well jointed rock and that
which has been pre-weakened by weathering processes such
asfreeze-thaw and pressure release. Plucking occurs where ice is at pressure melting point. As the
melt water produced refreezes (e.g. on the 'lee' side of a rock obstacle) it en trains material in the base
of the glacier. As the glacier continues to advance, the newly entrained material is prized out of the
bedrock. This material is then able to be used in the process of abrasion.
SUBGLACIAL
MELT
WATER
EROSION
Rates of plucking are greatest where: (factors affecting the rate of the process)
the bedrock is well jointed;
melt water is present enabling entrainment during refreezing
the ice is thick, creating greater frictional drag as the ice moves over the bed.
Melt water under the glacier is able to erode both chemically and physically. Melt water under the
glacier is often travelling under pressure and may fluvially abrade (same types of erosion as a river!)
the underlying bedrock using the sediment that it is carrying. This process is most effective where the
suspended sediment is coarse. Melt water may also be able to erode through the process of solution,
this is particular effective in areas where the bedrock is chalk or limestone, and minerals in the rock
becomes solutes, dissolved by the melt water
TASK: Summarize two processes operating in cold environments and the factors which affect the rate at which these
processes occur.
12
PROCESSES IN GLACIAL ENVIRONMENTS

Plucking
The ripping out of material
from the bedrock
The more fractured the bed
rock (as a result of freeze
thaw weathering) the more
effective plucking becomes
Occurs mainly at the base of
the glacier
Involves a downward
pressure caused by the
weight of the ice, and then
downhill drag as he ice
moves, slow enough for melt
water to freeze onto
obstacles
Once the material has been
prized out of the bedrock, it
can be used as a tool of
abrasion
Abrasion
Sandpaper effect
Erosion of the
bedrock by material
carried by the
glacier
The larger and more
angular the load, the
greater the potential
for erosion
The coarser
material will scrape,
scratch and groove
the rock, leaving
striations and
chatter marks; the
finer material will
smooth and polish
the rock
Freeze thaw weathering

Rock fracture occurs due to pressure
release , exfoliation and dilation.
The removal of the overlying glacier leads
to a massive decrease in the weight or
pressure pushing down on the underlying
rock with the reduction in pressure, the
rock expands upwards and outwards
leading to the formation of cracks and
weaknesses in the upper parts of the
underlying rock
Following rapid erosion, exfoliation may
occur (causing rocks to split parallel to the
surface). Freeze thaw will then cause the
expansion and contraction of joints
dilation which leads to their fracturing.
The fractured rocks are then more likely to
be attacked by a glacier in a future glacial
advance
Chemical weathering by meltwater

Chemical weathering below glaciers
is important, especially on carbonate
rocks (limestone). Carbon dioxide is
more soluble at low temperatures,
hence melt water streams have more
capacity to hold more carbon
dioxide. As the streams become
more acidic, they are able to weather
carbonate rocks more effectively.
Pressure release: a type of

weathering by which the rock is able
to expand outwards as a result of the
unloading of weight (pressure) and
as a result fractures, or cracks
appear in the rock as it expands
FACTORS AFFECTING THE RATE OF GLCIAL EROSION

LOCAL GEOLOGY
-areas will well fractured, jointed
bedrock are easily plucked
e.g. the carboniferous limestone
of the Burren in County Clare,
Ireland
VELOCITY OF THE GLACIER

Somewhat dependent on the
gradient- areas of faster flowing ice
leads to increased erosion
AMOUNT & CHARACTER

OF THE LOAD CARRIED
BY THE ICE
If the load is coarse, resistant
and angular, it will erode more
than a load that is fine, weak
and rounded.
TEMPERATURE OF THE GLACIER

Cold based glaciers are generally immobile
and consequently there is very little erosion of
the landscape beneath them e.g. the ice on the
plateaus in Antarctica
Warm based, valley glaciers can be highly
erosive as they are more mobile
13
PRESENCE OF DEBRIS IN BASAL

ICE
Pure ice is unable to abrade solid rock.
The rate of abrasion will increase with
debris concentration up to the point
where effective basal sliding is
restricted
ICE THICKNESS
The greater the thickness of the
overlying ice, the greater the vertical
pressure exerted on particles on the
glacier bed, and the more effective is the
abrasion. This is the case up to a depth
where friction between the particles and
the bed becomes so high that movement
is significantly restricted and abrasion
decreases.
RELATIVE HARDNESS OF DEBRIS

PARTICLES AND BEDROCK
The most effective abrasion occurs when
resistant rock particles in the glacier base
pass over a weaker bedrock. If the debris
particles are soft in comparison with the
bedrock, the debris particles are abraded
and little bedrock erosion is accomplished
SLIDING OF BASAL ICE

Ice frozen to the bedrock cannot erode,
unless It already contains rock debris.
The faster the rate of basal sliding, the
more debris passes a give point per unit
of time and the faster the rate of abrasion
MOVEMENT OF DEBRIS TOWARDS GLACIER BASE

Unless the particles at the base of the glacier are
constantly renewed they become polished and less
effective abrasive agents. Thinning of the basal ice by
melting or divergent flow (ice flows round an object
rather than over it) around obstacles bring fresh
particles down to the rock ice interface, and increases
abrasion
THE MAIN
FACTORS
AFFECTING THE
AMOUNT AND
RATE OF
ABRASION
DEBRIS PARTICLE SIZE AND SHAPE

Since particles embedded in the ice exert a
downward pressure proportional to their
weight, large blocks should abrade more
effectively than small particles. Angular
debris will therefore be a more efficient agent
of abrasion than rounded particles
BASAL WATER PRESSURE

The presence of water at the base of the
glacier, especially when at high pressure, can
reduce the effective pressure on particles on
the bed and therefore abrasion rates by
buoying up the glacier. However, sliding
velocities may tend to increase because of the
reduced friction
EFFICIENT REMOVAL OF FINE

DEBRIS
To sustain high rates of abrasion, fine
particles need to be removed from the
ice rock interface since they abrade less
effectively than larger particles
(assuming that larger particles are
continually being supplied from above)
melt water appears to be the main
mechanism for the removal of fine
(<0.2mm debris)
14
TOPIC 2: GLACIAL LANDFORMS, CREATED BY EROSION

Case study Cairngorms, Geofactsheet 197
Glaciers have a huge impact on landscapes. They exert colossal forces on the land and are responsible for dramatic
changes caused by erosion.
1) Corries, cwms or cirques

Corries, also known as cwms or cirques, are often the starting point of a glacier. The diagram below shows the
formation of a corrie, cwm or cirque.
1. Snowflakes collect in a hollow. In the Northern hemisphere, this tends to be on North West to South East
facing slopes as their aspect means they are protected from the sun, which allows the snow to lie on the
ground longer and accumulate. In these areas, snow accumulation is highest and ablation (melting) is lowest.
2. As more snow falls, the snow is compressed and the air is squeezed out to become firn or neve.
3. With the pressure of more layers of snow, the firn will, over thousands of years, become glacier ice.
4. Erosion and weathering by abrasion, plucking and freeze-thaw action will gradually make the hollow bigger.
5. The hollow is deepened by nivation (the combined effects of repeated freezing and thawing and removal of
material by melting snow)
6. Even though the ice is trapped in a hollow and unable to move down hill, gravity will still encourage it to move.
Further, the weight of the ice causes basal melting (the ice at the bottom of the glacier melts due to the weight
of the ice above), allowing the glacier to move This circular motion is known as rotational slip and can cause
the ice to pull away from the back wall creating a crevasse or bergschrund.
7. Ice freezes to the back wall and as it does it plucks debris from the back wall causes further erosion through
abrasion which deepens the corrie.
8. Freeze thaw and frost shattering above the hollow on exposed rocks, shattes the rock and delivers these rock
fragments down onto the ice as scree. This can then be used as further tools for abrasion
9. Some of this debris is deposited at the edge of the corrie, building up the lip.
10. At the front end of the corrie, the ice thins out as it speeds up on its journey down the valley, and crevases
form.
11. These processes create a characteristic rounded, armchair shaped hollow with a steep back wall.
12. When ice in a corrie melts, a circular lake is often formed at the bottom of the hollow. This is known as a tarn,
eg Red Tarn on the eastern flank of Helvellyn.
TASK: Draw a diagram of a corrie (or you might like to draw a couple google corrie for some examples). Add the
information above about how a corrie is formed as annotations onto your diagram(s)
15
Before
During Glaciation
After Glaciation
CASE STUDY EXAMPLE:

16
CASE STUDY EXAMPLE: Coire an t-Sneachda

http://www.landforms.eu/cairngorms/coire%20Sneachda.htm
This is a classic example of a glacial corrie or cirque.

In Gaelic, Coire an t-Sneachda is the 'corrie of the
snows' and it deserves its title. The hollow is north
facing and shaded from the sun. It receives large
volumes of snow blown from the plateau when the
winds swing to the southwest.
The long profile of the corrie is close to being

logarithmic in its curvature, as the sketch
below shows. The corrie shows many typical
features.
a) The headwall (a) is a cliff. The structure of the granite controls the detail of the cliff face, with buttresses in
b)
c)
d)
areas of widely-spaced joints and gulleys and chimneys between, a diversity that has created many
challenging climbs. This diversity also reflects glacial and periglacial activity, with intense frost-riving above
the latest corrie glacier and plucking of the backwall behind the glacier.
In the lower parts of the headwall (b), evidence of abrasion is seen. Here there are large, steeply inclined
slabs with chock marks.
The scree slope (c) has formed since the last glacier filled the back of the corrie - it continues to accumulate
today, as shown by the blocks resting on late-lying snow banks and the hazard to climbers of rockfalls.
The lochans (d) are ponded behind low moraines from the last glacier to occupy Coire an t-Sneachda. These
moraines are 1-3 m high and composed on large granite blocks, largely derived from the headwall and carried
on the surface of the glacier.
Identifying a Corrie on an OS map
17
2) GLACIAL TROUGH
EXAMPLE GLEN COVA, Cairngorms National Park
Glaciers cut distinctive U-shaped valleys with a flat floor and
steep sides. The glacier widens, steepens, deepens and
smoothes V-shaped river valleys, eg Great Langdale Valley in
the Lake District.
Just like rivers, glaciers have tributaries. As the main glacier
erodes deeper into the valley, the tributary is left higher up the
steep sides of the glacier. U-shaped valleys ending with a
waterfall at the cliff-face are called hanging valleys.
When a river erodes the landscape, ridges of land form in its
upper course which jut into the river. These are called
interlocking spurs. A glacier cuts through these ridges leaving
behind truncated spurs.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
A glacier flows in an earlier 'V'-shaped river valley.

The glacier plucks rocks from the sides of the valley making it steeper.
It also abrades the floor of the valley making it wider and deeper.
When the ice melts the valley has changed from a V shape to U-shape.
It has very steep sides and a fairly flat floor
Any later rivers are called 'misfit streams' because they are far too small to have cut the valley.
18
CASE STUDY EXAMPLE:Glacial troughs, Glen Avon, Cairngorms

Definition: a valley shaped by valley glaciers and ice streams within ice sheets that has a distinct trough
form. The trough head is enclosed by glacial cliffs and may be overlooked by a extensive snow-gathering
areas.
Glen Avon, looking south over Loch Avon and towards the trough
head
The Cairngorms include two fine examples of glacial troughs:
Gleann Einich and Glen Avon. The long profiles of these valleys
can be described as 'down at heel' - the terrain drops steeply
from the plateau down the trough head to a rock basin now filled
with a loch up to 40 m deep. The location of the trough head and
the basin reflects the convergence of ice flow and the way in
which the increased ice discharge has led to over-deepening.
19
3) Artes and pyramidal peaks

An arte is a knife-edge ridge. It is formed when two neighbouring
corries run back to back. As each glacier erodes either side of the ridge,
the edge becomes steeper and the ridge becomes narrower, eg Striding
Edge found on Helvellyn in the Lake District.
A pyramidal peak is formed where three or more corries and artes
meet. The glaciers have carved away at the top of a mountain, creating
a sharply pointed summit, eg Mont Blanc, The Matterhorn and Mount
Everest.
3) TRUNCATED SPUR
Definition: A blunt-ended, sloping ridge which descends from the flank of a valley. Its abrupt termination is normally
due to erosion by a glacier. Glaciers tend to follow straighter courses than rivers.
The Devil's Point in upper Glen Dee is perhaps the finest example of a truncated spur in the Cairngorms. The original
spur protruded into the preglacial valley of the upper Dee and its end has been truncated by the passage of ice down
the Dee valley. The glacial cliff is 400 m high
20
Valley floor landforms

As a glacier flows over the land, it flows over hard rock and
softer rock. Softer rock is less resistant, so a glacier will carve
a deeper trough. When the glacier has retreated, (melted)
water will collect in the deeper area and create a long, thin lake
called a ribbon lake. Many of the lakes in the English Lake
District are ribbon lakes, eg Windermere. The areas of harder
rock left behind are called rock steps.
During glaciations the glacier erodes some parts of the valley floor more than others (differential erosion). This could
be due to the:
varying strengths of the bedrock or
because there is thicker ice in one region of the glacier than another or
because there is more moraine abrading the ground in one region than another.
When the glacier melts water fills the depressions (holes) where the valley floor was eroded most. These lakes can
also form because melt water from receding glaciers is trapped behind Moraine, which is discussed below.
FJORDS
Where glacial troughs erode down to sea level or below and the either the ice retreats or the
sea rises because of Eustatic or Isostatic processes a Fjord can be created, as shown below at
Milford Sound in New Zealand
Roche Moutonnee
If the glacier hits a particularly resistant
outcrop of rock it will flow over and
around it. This leaves a rock mount
smoothed by abrasion from the

glacier. Roches moutonne often
have steep, jagged faces created by
plucking on the lee (far) side and a
gradual incline which is smoothed
and polished by abrasion on the
other (stoss) end. It may have
striations on it indicating the
direction of glacier movement.
As the glacier encounters the
obstacle pressure increases and
allows melting to occur. This allows
the ice to melt and basal sliding to
occur, rocks trapped in this ice
abrade the bedrock. This abrasion
on the up valley side of the glacier
can leave striations as pieces of rock
debris with ice were dragged across
the surface under great pressure.
On the lee side pressure falls and
the water refreezes and as the ice
moves downhill it pulls away masses
of rock; plucking the rocks
underneath. This leaves a steeper
sided more jagged Lee slope.
21
CASE STUDY: Rouches moutonnees, Cairngorms,

Cnapan a Mheirlich, Glen Avon
Roches moutonnes occur widely in the Cairngorms, both on the
granite and on the surrounding metamorphic country rocks.
The roches moutonnes vary greatly in size. Ice-moulded hills in
Strathspey, such as Ord Bn, and in Glen Dee, such as Craig
Leek, have a relative relief of 200-300 m. In contrast, the granite
roches moutonnes in the valley of the Garbh Uisge Mhor, on the
slopes of Ben Macdui, are only a few metres in height.
Crag and tail

Crag and tail is the opposite of
the roche moutonne (and tends
to be larger) as the ice hits the
steep resistant rock outcrop first.
This protects the lee (far) side of
the obstacle from erosion.
A Crag and Tail consists of a
large mass of resistant rock on
the STOSS (upslope side) and a
gently sloping tail (on the LEE
side) of less resistant rock. This
is a geological formation caused
by the passage of a glacier over
an area of hard rock and softer
rock.
A good example of crag and tail

is the rock on which Edinburgh
Castle is built. The Crag is
composed of a hard volcanic pug
of basalt whereas the Royal Mile
runs down softer sedimentary
rocks protected from erosion by
the Crag. Crags are formed
when a glacier or ice sheet
passes over an area that
contains a resilient rock.
The force of the glacier erodes the
surrounding softer material, leaving
a rocky block protruding. It is a result
from the abrasive base of a glacier
sliding on the land surface. A tail is
softer rock, Crags serves as a
potential shelter from a glacier.
However, usually the Tail has been
removed by glacial erosion
22
SUMMARY OF GLACIAL FEATURES
1) A pyramidal peak has steep, triangular faces divided by sharp ridges or artes.
2) An arte is a sharp ridge between corries.
3) A corrie is an armchair-shaped hollow with steep back and sides.
4) A corrie loch, or tarn, is a body of water which has gathered in the hollow in the corrie floor.
5) An alluvial fan is a fan-shaped pile of rock remains (alluvium) washed down by a stream and piled up where a
steep valley side meets the valley floor.
6) A ribbon lake is a long narrow lake in a part of the valley cut deeper by the glacier.
7) A truncated spur exists because a ridge has been cut off sharply by the ice that flowed down the main valley.
8) A misfit stream is so-called because it is far too small to have cut the valley.
9) A hanging valley is called this because the valley floor is much higher than the floor of the main valley.
10)
A U-shaped valley has steep sides and a nearly flat floor. (The other side of the valley is missing in this cutaway diagram).
23
PROCESS: TRANSPORTATION
Glaciers are capable of transporting very large volumes of material over very large distances. The rate of transport will
be dependent on both the supply of material and the velocity of the glacier.
As well as material added to the glacier as it erodes the bedrock at its base and sides, material may come from a
variety of sources, these include amongst others: rockfalls from weathering of the surrounding slopes; wind-blown
materials, including dust and avalanches
Material can be carried in
different ways.
Englacial
this is material carried within the glacier itself
Subglacial
this is material carried along in the base of the glacier. Much of this is likely to have been derived
from glacial erosion, however some may have been englacial material that has gradually worked its
way down through the ice. Surface melt water streams that flow down crevasses may also provide
material which becomes subglacial. Where compressional flow occurs, this material may however
be thrust upwards to become englacial or even supraglacial.
Taylor Glacier, Victoria Land, Antarctica, showing
the formation of subglacial debris (basal till) that
has melted out from the dark striped basal ice
layer.
Supraglacial
this is material carried on top of the ice e.g. that falling on to the ice from weathering of surrounding
slopes or that is wind blown. If this material is covered by further accumulation of snow or falls
down crevasses in the surface of the ice, it may eventually become englacial.
Supraglacial debris and ponds on the surface of
stagnating Khumbu Glacier, Nepal. The prominent
peak (horn) in the background is Pumori.
24
PROCESS: GLACIAL DEPOSITION

When does glacial deposition occur?
Deposition of material carried by the glacier occurs either as partial deposition as a result of a reduction in the velocity
of the glacier or complete deposition as the glacier retreats and melts. Glacial sediment is collectively known as drift.
Glacial Till deposited directly by a glacier, can be classified as either lodgement till or ablation till.
Lodgement till is where material beneath the glacier has become lodged in the bed as the glacier is advancing or
retreating, for example where a glacier is so overloaded with debris that it plasters it onto the valley floor. An
increase in ice thickness can also increase friction beneath the ice, causing lodgement.
Ablation till - where the ice melts and dumps large amounts of unsorted materials, leaving them behind.
Moraine This is the material produced by glacial erosion. The material tends to be unsorted (it contains really huge
boulders and at the same time a fine powder called glacial flour). It also tends to be very angular, as the processes
that form the material involve freezing and shattering.
Scientists study terminal moraines to see where the glacier flowed and how quickly it moved. Different rocks and
minerals are located in specific places in the glaciers path. If a mineral that is unique to one part of a landscape is
present in a terminal moraine, geologists know the glacier must have flowed through that area.
25
OTHER GLACIAL LANDFORMS, CREATED BY DEPOSITION

DEPOSITIONAL LANDFORMS : MORAINE
LATERAL
MORAINE
A lateral moraine forms along the sides of a glacier. Lateral moraines are a product of rock fall
onto the margin of a glacier. Rock fall is a result of frost weathering of the rock wall and of oversteepening of the cliff by glacial erosion, leading to rock slope failure. The rock debris is carried
along the glacier edge as it moves towards the snout. Melting of the glacier leaves a ridge or
bench made of blocky debris on the flank of the valley. Lateral meltwater channels may also be
developed
If a glacier melts, the lateral moraine will often remain as the high rims of a valley.
MEDIAL
MORAINE
A medial moraine is found on top of and inside an existing glacier. Medial moraines are formed
when two glaciers meet. Two lateral moraines from the different glaciers are pushed together.
This material forms one line of rocks and dirt in the middle of the new, bigger glacier.
If a glacier melts, the medial moraine it leaves behind will be a long ridge of earth in the middle of
a valley.
SUPRAGLACIAL
A supraglacial moraine is material on the surface of a glacier. Lateral and medial moraines can be
supraglacial moraines. Supraglacial moraines are made up of rocks and earth that have fallen on
the glacier from the surrounding landscape. Dust and dirt left by wind and rain become part of
supraglacial moraines. Sometimes the supraglacial moraine is so heavy, it blocks the view of the
ice river underneath.
If a glacier melts, supraglacial moraine is evenly distributed across a valley.
GROUND
MORAINE
Ground moraines often show up as rolling, strangely shaped land covered in grass or other
vegetation. They dont have the sharp ridges of other moraines. A ground moraine is made of
sediment that slowly builds up directly underneath a glacier by tiny streams, or as the result of a
glacier meeting hills and valleys in the natural landscape. When a glacier melts, the ground
moraine underneath is exposed.
End moraines, or terminal moraines mark the end of a glacier; several may run in arcs and
mark former positions of a glacier front. They are ridges of till, not usually higher than 20 m. In
plan, they often form a series of crescents, corresponding with the lobes of the glacier; a welldeveloped example indicating that the ice front was at that location for some time. Not all former
ice fronts are marked by terminal moraines; some may have been destroyed by meltwater.
TERMINAL
MORAINE
RECESSIONAL
MORAINE
these often run parallel to terminal moraines and these ridges of material mark the retreat of a
glacier. Each recessional moraine marks a point where the ice has been static long enough in
the glaciers retreat for material to build up.
PUSH
MORAINES
these are mounds of material found where a drop in temperature or increase in precipitation
allows glacial re-advance, and the glacier pushes previously deposited moraines forward into a
new landform. This can change the orientation of the stones found in the original landform
26
TASK: Play the Moraine game. Underneath each photograph, write the types of moraine shown.
CASE STUDY: Moraines, Cairngorms
27
Terminal and recessional moraines occur widely in

the glens and corries of the Cairngorms and on the
surrounding moraines.
The largest terminal moraines are those associated
with the readvance of the Strathspey ice lobe
around 15-14 thousand years ago on the margin of
Glen More.
This created a complex of moraines, meltwater
channels and landforms of meltwater deposition.
Large moraines formed at this time can be seen as
benches on the hillsides from Ryvoan, below the
ski car park and in lower Gleann Einich
Lateral moraines occur widely in the Cairngorms.

They tend to be quite small features and are often
best seen after light snowfalls, sloping downvalley. Good examples occur in middle Glen
Feshie and in the Lairig an Laoigh, by Fords of
Avon.
DEPOSITIONAL LANDFORMS: DRUMLINS & ERRATICS

LINK! Deposits laid down by ice are called till or boulder clay which is an assortment of material of various shapes
and sizes. Boulder clay can be found in areas of the UK such as Lincolnshire and East Anglia. It is easily eroded, and
is one reason why the Holderness coast is so vulnerable to wave attack.
ERRATICS
Definition: An erratic is a boulder transported and deposited by a glacier
having a lithology different than the bedrock upon which it is sitting. Erratics
are useful indicators of patterns of former ice flow.
Example: In the Northern Cairngorms, there is a significant carry of
metamorphic erratics on to the margins of the granite. These erratics reach a
maximum elevation of 800 m OD above Coire na Ciste. Some of these erratics
were carried by the late readvance of ice from Strathspey at around 14 ka BP
but others may have been deposited prior to this time.
DRUMLINS
What is a drumlin?
-
elongated hills of glacial deposits (compact, unstratified

glacial drift or till).
They can be 1 km long and 500 metres wide,
often occurring in groups. A group of drumlins is called a
drumlin swarm or a basket of eggs, eg Vale of Eden.
These would have been part of the debris that was carried
along and then accumulated under the ancient glacier.
The long axis of the drumlin indicates the direction in which
the glacier was moving.
The drumlin would have been deposited when the glacier
became overloaded with sediment. However glaciologists still
disagree as to exactly how they were formed.
28
29
HOW GLACIERS TRANSFORM ALPINE VALLEYS

The diagrams below summarise how glaciers transform river valleys in Alpine areas. V shaped river valleys with
sorted sediment and changed dramatically, with glaciers leaving behind a more jagged, dramatic and steep profile to
the valley. The photographs further down show how 2 areas of the Lake District, Easedale just outside of Grasmere
and Great Langdale have been shaped by previous ice
30
PROCESS: FLUVIOGLACIAL DEPOSITION

Meltwater is hugely important in allowing glaciers to move by basal slippage within Temperate or warm based
glaciers. It is also responsible for a range of other landforms, which are collectively known as fluvioglacial landforms
(recall fluvial is just a posh Geography word for rivers)
Where does the melt water come from?
surface melting (this is the most important source) - e.g. effects of solar radiation
precipitation - entering the glacial system as runoff from the surrounding slopes
geothermal heating - causing basal melting as temperatures rise
mechanical heating - e.g. as a result of increased pressure (reaching pressure melting point) as a glacier passes
over / round an obstacle.
Meltwater can create landforms through both erosion and deposition, and the environment is highly dynamic and in
constant flux
Meltwater moves in many ways through a glacier, water can move on the glaciers surface (supraglacial channels),
within the ice (englacial channels) and under the ice (subglacially). Subglacial water at the base (this is often
important as it may be flowing at high pressures under the glacier, cutting its own channel in the bedrock of the valley
floor). It is this water that helps to act as a lubricant facilitating the movement of a glacier.
Water that flows on the surface and then enters and englacial channel does so through a MOULIN
Streams known as proglacial streams are also created in front of a glacier carrying meltwater away.
Melt water streams are highly dynamic and highly VARIABLE both in terms of their discharge and sediment load.
Discharge can vary wildly over time; in winter, melt water discharge may even stop, as temperature may never rise
above the pressure melting point
Discharges also vary on a DAILY basis; this diurnal pattern, discharge is highest in the day when solar radiation
increases melting and low at night (albeit with a LAGTIME to allow the water to reach melt water channels. Extreme
floods or discharge events are known as Jkulhlaup events. These are frequent in places such as Iceland where
geothermal heat creates large amounts of melt water.
The processes associated with melt water channels are essentially river processes such as hydraulic action, abrasion,
attrition and solution. And the four processes of transportation traction, saltation, solution, suspention.
If deposition by melt water occurs within subglacial, englacial or supraglacial streams, this is known as ice-contact
stratified drift. Where meltwater streams flowing beyond the margins of the glacier carry and deposit material, it is
known as out wash.
Landforms of fluvio-glacial deposition may be formed in ice-contact situations under or within the glacier or as a result
of out wash ahead of the glacier snout
Material that is deposited directly by ice is known as till (or boulder clay), however, material may also be deposited by
glacial melt water, these deposits are known as outwash deposits. There is an important distinction between the
characteristics of glacial and fluvio-glacial deposits.
Differences in characteristics between glacial and fluvio-glacial deposits

Glacial Deposits
Unstratified (difficult to identify layers)
Material is angular, from physical weathering and
erosion (unaffected by water) and various shapes
and sizes (boulders - rock flour)
Unsorted (random sorting as ice melts and
deposits material regardless of size)
Fluvio-glacial Deposits
Stratified (vertical layering due to seasonal /
annual layers of sediment accumulation)
Material is smooth and rounded (due to attrition),
it is sorted and graded.
Sorted - larger rocks and boulders are deposited
first as the melt water looses energy.
31
FLUVIOGLACIAL (meltwater) LANDFORMS

Glacial meltwater (as a result of ablation) has the potential (like rivers) to create features through erosion and
deposition. Therefore, fluvioglacial processes have played an important part in shaping many glaciated landscapes.
Volumes of meltwater are highest in temperate glaciers, particularly in summer. Much of the water flows within and
under glaciers under pressure (hydrostatic pressure) and so behaves differently to surface streams. Meltwater
streams are capable of transporting huge volumes of material and consequently, mainly through abrasion, carrying
out large amounts of erosion. Deposition of the load occurs whenever there is a decrease in pressure and/or velocity.
Fluvioglacial landforms include:
melt water channels,
kames,
eskers,
varves,
braided streams and
outwash plains.
1) Meltwater channels or glacial overflow channels (created by fluvial erosion)

The major erosion landform created by melt water is Meltwater channels also known as
glacial overflow channels. These form as the original course followed by a river before
glaciation may be blocked by ice, or as an overflow from a proglacial lake (one that results
from melt water from glaciers). These huge releases of water had much energy to erode and
carve out deep gorges using processes such as abrasion and hydraulic action, which today
are occupied by streams too small to have created the valleys they flow in.
Examples are well documented Newtondale and Lake Pickering, Lake Lapworth and
Ironbridge Gorge
Meltwater channels have a number of characteristics which distinguish them from conventional river valleys. Although
sometimes exhibiting valley dimensions, they are channels rather than valleys which must at some time have been full
of water (bankfull stage).
They are relatively short in length and may be intermittent i.e. they display gaps along their length.
They tend not to widen downstream and in a modern non-glacial landscape are often dry, although some have
misfit streams along their length.
Newtondale in Yorkshire (UK) is a classic example of a meltwater channel formed by the overflowing of a series of
pro-glacial lakes.Newtondale is about 40 metres wide and 80 metres deep.
There are many alternative theories (other than overflow channels) for the existence of the meltwater channels.
Some are seen as marginal meltwater channels carrying water along the sides of glaciers at times of extreme
ablation, probably during deglaciation. Others are regarded as subglacial meltwater channels eroded to great depths
by the power of the hydrostatic pressure in these subglacial channels. Evidence of glacial lakes comes from the
strandlines created by waves breaking on the shores of these lakes. The Parallel Roads of Glen Roy in Scotland
provide some of the best examples in the UK. Meltwater streams often deposited vast quantities of material in glacial
lakes as deltas. These inland glacial deltas provide another valuable source of material to the quarrying industry.
CASES STUDY EXAMPLE: LAMMERMUIR HILLS

Complex systems of glacial meltwater channels form a striking
element in the scenery of East Lothian. The channels were cut
beneath and beside ice sheets and glaciers moving across the
Forth lowlands. As the ice thinned and the flanks and summits of
the Lammermuir Hills emerged, huge volumes of meltwater were
generated. New channels were cut and old ones reoccupied.
Enormous quantities of sand and gravel were transported and then
deposited to form a range of fluvioglacial landforms
32
Sandur or outwash plains (created by fluvial erosion and deposition)
Outwash plains are areas that may have been glaciated by ice
sheets and then affected by melt water or they may be areas in
front of the snout.
When melt water emerges from the snout, it loses its energy as it
is no longer flowing under hydrostatic pressure. Consequently,
the material it is carrying is deposited the largest first often
forming an alluvial fan at the end of the glacier. When a number
of these merge an outwash plain is formed.
The finest material is carried furthest, sorting the sediment by
size.
In addition these outwash plains are often stratified, because the
sediment is laid down in layers during annual flood events and
during periods of higher discharge (in summer when there is
more melting).
Braided streams are often found in these outwash plain, because the highly variable discharge of the melt water
streams and deposition cause the river to split into smaller streams.
Lateral erosion from these streams also helps to create this flat layered feature.
Outwash plains can be huge, many 10s of kilometres long and wide
CASE STUDY: Sandurs are most common in Iceland, where geothermal activity beneath ice caps speeds up the
deposition of sediment by meltwater. As well as regular geothermal activity, volcanic activity gives rise to large glacial
bursts several times a century, which carry down large volumes of sediment.
Braided Streams
On the edges of ice sheets, a large number of meltwater streams transport an

immense amount of sand, silt, clay and rock particles from the melting ice.
These streams merge, sometimes into a single tangle of waterways and the
discharge of the channels varies both diurnally and seasonally.
As a result, debris is constantly being picked up and deposited. Such streams
are referred to as braided or anastomosing streams.
Esker (created by fluvial deposition)

A long narrow ridge, often sinuous, composed of stratified sediment (sand and gravel) and marking the former location
of a glacial tunnel
Eskers are winding/sinuous ridges of often coarse sands and gravels that are deposited by melt water as it
flowed in a channel beneath/ within the glacier (subglacial or englacial meltwater streams).
Material is rounded due to water erosion and sorted/ stratified
They vary in height 5-20m for small eskers and length from a km to 400km (e.g. Munro esker in Canada is
250km long!)
33
Kames & Kame Terraces (created by fluvial deposition)

Definition: a flat-topped mound or hill composed of sorted sand and gravel deposited by meltwater in a former glacial
lake
Kames and kame terraces form when sediment accumulates in ponds and lakes
trapped between lobes of glacier ice or between a glacier and the valley side.
Typically, the sediment comprises well-bedded and -sorted sand and gravel.
In East Lothian, kames and kame terraces are often found at the outlets of major
meltwater channels (Rammer Cleugh). Other examples occur around the Tyne
estuary, where the kame terraces merge with Lateglacial raised shorelines.
Varves (created by fluvial deposition)

o
o
o
o
o
o
When meltwater streams flow into lakes, velocity is reduced and

deposition occurs.
The load volume is directly related to the time of year and in spring,
when discharge is greatest, lighter coloured and coarser deposits are
laid down on the lake bed.
Towards the autumn, discharge decreases and a darker, finer layer of
deposits is placed on top.
Each band of light and dark deposits therefore represents one years
accumulation.
The layers or varves provide useful evidence of the age of the lake and variations in climate from year to
year.
Glaciologists now take regular core samples from the lake sediments in glaciated areas to build up
information about the glacial history of the area.
Kettle holes/ lakes (created by fluvial deposition)

Definition: a hollow created when buried blocks of glacier
ice melt out. The name derives from an old meaning of
'kettle', as in a deep iron basin for heating water over a
fire. A 'kettle drum' has a similar derivation
A kettle hole is formed by blocks of ice that are
separated from the main glacier - perhaps the
ice front stagnated or retreated or perhaps ice
blocks were washed out from the glacier during
a glacier flood or jkulhaup.
If conditions are right, the isolated blocks of ice
then become partially or wholly buried in
outwash.
When the ice blocks eventually melt they leave
behind holes or depressions that fill with water to become kettle hole lakes.
CASE STUDY: CAIRNGORMS - Lochan Deo: a small kettle hole. The lochan lies within an area of eskers, kames and
meltwater channels. The dimensions of the lochan suggest that a 100 x 50 x 5 m ice block was buried by sand and
gravel as the last ice sheet retreated from Glenmore.
34
PERIGLACIAL PROCESSES
Periglacial areas as these make up approximately 25% of the worlds total land area!
KEY TERMS
Peiglacial
Areas with permafrost; where freeze thaw cycles dominate the landform creating process; which have
a distinctive ecosystem adapted to the periglacial environment
Permafrost
Permanently frozen ground where soil temperatures have remained below 0 C for at least 2 year
Continuous
Permafrost
Summers so cold that there is only a very superficial surface melting of the ground. It has been
estimated to reach up to a depth of 1500 metres. Mean annual air temperatures of below -5 C all
year, and as low as -50 C
Discontinuous
Permafrost
Found is slightly warmer areas so there are islands of permanently frozen ground separated by small
pockets of unfrozen less cold areas. Slightly warmer zones due to proximity of surface water (rivers,
lakes, and the sea). Mean annual temps of between -1 C and -5 C
Sporadic
Permafrost
Found when mean annual temperature is just below 0C and the summer temperatures reach several
degrees above but isolated pockets of permanently frozen ground remain below the surface
Active Layer
summer temperatures sufficient to melt the surface layer of permafrost. This layer can be very
mobile. It varies in thickness depending on latitude and vegetation cover
Talik
Any unfrozen material within the permafrost zone
Generally, as you progress from the poles Southwards (in the northern hemisphere) or Northwards (in the Southern
Hemisphere) the permafrost will change from continuous to discontinuous to sporadic to none. The depth of
permafrost will shrink and the depth of the active layer will increase. This is of course influence by local variations
such as mountain ranges, lakes and ocean currents
35
KEY TERMS
Nivation
The effects of snow on a landscape. These include abrasion and freeze-thaw. Furthermore, melted
snow triggers mass movements such as solifluction and slope wash. These processes may produce
the shallow pits known as nivation hollows. In time, these hollows may trap more snow and may
deepen further with more nivation so that cirques or thermocirques are formed
Frost heave
The upward dislocation of soil and rocks by the freezing and expansion of soil water. Frost push
occurs when cold penetrates into the ground. Large stones become chilled more rapidly than the soil.
Water below such stones freezes and expands, pushing up the stones. Frost pull can alter the
orientation of a large stone causing it to stand upright. This occurs when ice creeps downwards from
the surface. The growth of ice crystals on the upper part and the drying of the soil around the lower
part cause the stone to be pulled into a more vertical inclination
Solifluction
This is the mass movement of soil and regolith affected by alternate freezing and thawing. It is
characteristic of saturated soils in high latitudes, both within and beyond the permafrost zon
Hydraulic
pressure
the movement of water through a rock profile due to pressure
Hydrostatic
pressure
growth of an ice lens due to the attraction of water molecules
36
37
PERIGLACIAL LANDFORMS
The processes in periglacial areas give rise to a large variety of landforms. These landforms include ice wedges,
patterned ground and pingos. There is a full explanation of pingo formation and diagrams of the other major landforms
below, and you can research the explanations of the others yourself. The transect below also shows how climate, the
depth of the active layer and the type of permafrost vary across this zone;
38
PINGOS
Pingos are dome shaped hills that are commonly up to 500m in diameter and up to 50 meters in height. These land
features are common in periglacial areas that are characterised by permafrost and a seasonally changing active
layer. At the core of the pingo is an ice lens of varying size, and the surface layer is made of soil often topped with
vegetation. The surface can also contain cracks as a result of ground swelling.
There are 2 basic types of pingo, the open system type where water that forms the ice lens comes from outside of the
system, and the closed system type where the water required for ice lens formation is contained within the area where
the pingo is formed.
Closed system pingos are typical of the Mackenzie River Delta in Northern Canada on low lying areas where
permanent and continuous permafrost can be found. In this area of Canada there are hundreds of small lakes where
water is trapped in small depressions during summer because the ground underneath is permanently frozen and
effectively impermeable (wont let water through it). Over winter, ground water underneath the lake sediments within
the Talik (unfrozen ground) can be trapped by ice from the lake surface as the lake freezes, and advancing permafrost
within the ground. This decrease in temperature causes this ground water to freeze into and ice lens, which grows
over time as water freezes to the ice lens due to the increase in hydrostatic pressure. This causes the sediment
above to bulge upward into the characteristic pingo shape
Open system pingos occur in areas of discontinuous permafrost where there are interspersed areas of permafrost
(land frozen for at least 2 years) and talik. The active layer continually freezes and melts year on year above the
permafrost and talik. Over winter, as the active layer freezes down over water can become trapped between the
descending freezing plane of the active layer and the permafrost that surrounds it. This promotes the growth of an ice
lens which pushes the land up above it as it expands. Water underneath the permafrost can move through the talik
between the permafrost areas because of capillary action (the movement of water through the soil because of ) and
hydraulic pressure. This water migrates to the ice lens and freezes, swelling the ground above further.
39
Both of these pingos can rupture if they become too large, and if the ground cracks it exposes the ice lens to the
atmosphere and the suns energy. This can then melt the ice causing the pingo to collapse, leaving a ruptured pingo
with a depression in the middle that can fill with water and a lake, and a rampart around the edge that is prone to the
mass wasting process of solifluction. The collapsed pingo is known as an ognip
40
Ice is capable of transporting huge quantities of rock. Some rocks fall on to the surface of the ice from the valley sides
and are transported as supraglacial debris.
Some material finds its way into the ice via crevasses to be transported as englacial debris.
Where there is basal sliding, debris may also be pi

cked up below the ice and be transported as subglacial debris.
41
CASE STUDY: EXPLOITATION & DEVELOPMENT OF TUNDRA AREAS

The tundra is one of our most Northerly
ecosystems and covers a huge tract of land
running between latitudes of 50N (where
there is no modifying sea influence) to 80N.
Winters are long and cold, minimum
temperatures are very low, with some mean
monthly temperatures as low as MINUS 25C,
with little influence from the sea and ocean
currents. In some areas because of the tilt of
the Earth (23.5) they don't receive any
insolation throughout the winter
months. Moisture levels are very low,
precipitation levels are also low and much of
the moisture is unavailable to plants because
it is frozen. The resultant ecosystem contains
stunted trees, mosses and lichens, and
animals that can cover large ranges to forage
or hunt for food or hibernate.
These areas are often wilderness areas that
are extremely fragile, small perturbations
within the system can have catastrophic effects. However, there is enormous mineral wealth in the tundra, and the
potential for tourism, hunting and logging. It is for this reason that many of these areas are decidedly under threat
from EXPLOITATION. The Russian tundra has been exploited for mineral deposits such as phosphates, gold, tin,
natural gas; and most recently the Russian government has announced a plan to use nuclear powered oil rigs to
exploit oil reserves in the Arctic Ocean. The USA has the world famous Trans Alaska pipeline which traverses Alaska
from its hugely valuable oil fields near to Prudhoe Bay next to the Beaufort Sea in the North of the State southwards to
Valdez on the Pacific Ocean. In addition, North American tundra has reserves of gas, gold, silver, iron ore and copper.
The case of Old Crow Flats & The Vuntut Gwitchin

Old Crow Flats are in the north of the Yukon territories in Canada, right next to the Alaskan border. This means that
any developments that occur in the USA can have a direct impact upon the people of the old crow flats area, the
Vuntut Gwitchin. There are greater levels of environmental protection in the Ivvavik National Park in Canada than in
the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR) on the US side of the border. The land here is low lying and is composed
of peat bogs, whereas to the north are some woodland covered mountains. The area was not glaciated during the
last ice age; it was part of the Beringia, which was an ice dammed lake caused by impeded drainage. For this reason
the area has 7m deep of Lacustrine or lake bed sediments. The area is a permafrost area, and the soil at 50cm deep
and below is permanently frozen.
The Vuntut Gwitchin have adapted to this harsh environment, they number 300 people in the settlement of Old Crow
and some 7500 in total across the whole community. They are a traditional community, and originally they survived
by hunting and gathering. They trap Muskrat for their furs in the off season but their main activity is to hunt in
sustainable numbers the porcupine Caribou herd, so called because they cross the Porcupine River at Old
Crow. This occurs every spring and autumn as the Caribou travel to and from their feeding and breeding grounds in
Northern Yukon and Alaska. This area is prefect for the caribou because it is flat so they can see predators and a sea
breeze clears Mosquitoes which form during summer
In winter the herd moves south to forage for mosses and lichens in the less deep snow that exists in these
locations. The Vuntut Gwitchin uses these animals for
meat
hides for clothing and for tents
bones and antlers for soups and tools
Original hunting methods are sometimes still used, including using fences and herding the herd into shaped
traps. However, this traditional life is changing he Vuntut Gwichin are no longer nomadic, but are sedentary at a
strategic river crossing point of the Caribou migration
They use rifles not bows and arrows
They use snow mobiles not sledges
42
Other economies do exist in the area, but these are limited to limited market economies and service jobs for the
Vuntut Gwichin Council (a first nation government) including construction, water and fuel delivery etc
A quarry for gravel was started in 2003. The gravel has many uses including shoring up river bank erosion, and road
building. The quarry is in the side of Crow Mountain 6 km from the village and employs 12 men. Many young people
have moved away from the area in search of employment
The Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR) is home to 250 species of animal, including grizzly bears, caribou, wolves
and millions of migratory birds. It covers 8 million hectares and was established in 1960 to preserve the area. The
northernmost part of the refuge is an area known as the 1002 lands - a coastal plain between the Brooks Range and
the Beaufort Sea that is not covered by wilderness designated protection. It could hold valuable oil and gas reserves,
but is also a key calving ground for the Caribou. In January 2008 a proposal was put forward to open the lands up for
petroleum exploration and development. We will discuss and debate this issue via the different interest groups who
have a say on this issue. This would seriously impact the livelihood of the Vuntut Gwitchin, and could seriously
damage the environment
43
Case Study: Exploitation of the Southern Oceans & Antarctica

Antarctica is a large continent bigger than continental Europe that is
approximately centred on the South Pole. The origin of the word means the
"opposite of North", and the area is composed of huge ice sheets, continental
ice masses, Nunataks (mountain peaks with no ice on them) and ice shelves
(areas of floating sea ice). Some of the ice sheets are thousands of feet thick
and it is fair to say that on average it is the coldest, windiest and driest place on
planet Earth (under 250mm of precipitation per year).
The area has no permanent residents but a number of governments maintain
scientific research stations. The number of people living in Antarctica varies
from 1000 in winter to 5000 in the summer. The area has long been an area of intrigue for humankind, and the race
to the South Pole saw British explorer Captain Scott battle with Norwegian Amundsen to be the first to reach the
South Pole at the start of the 20th century.
Despite the harsh climate there is a large amount of life on Antarctica and in the Southern Ocean. Lichens and
mosses inhabit the land, and penguins, seals Krill and a host of other sea life is found in the oceans. Krill are hugely
important to the ocean food chain as they are the main source of food for many other sea creatures. They are 4-5cm
long crustaceans that are semi-transparent. They drift around in huge swarms and some observed swarms can have
as much as 2 million tonnes of Krill in them
PROTECTION
Antarctica is one of the last wildernesses on planet Earth and is protected by international law. The Antarctic treaty,
signed in 1959, put an end to many claims of sovereignty and set aside Antarctica as a scientific preserve where
military activity was banned. The Madrid Protocol of 1998 went one step further, and banned all mining activities in
Antarctica. This will be reviewed in 2048 and deposits of gold, iron ore, coal and oil have been discovered, although
they are currently uneconomic to mine.
EXPLOITATION & DEVELOPMENT
Tourism is the boom industry in Antarctica and threatens to damage many parts of this fragile environment. Numbers
of tourists who mainly arrive by boat are on the increase and pose a threat to the continent. Numbers of tourists who
mainly arrive by boat are on the increase and pose a threat to the continent. Indeed, tourist numbers have gone from
9,000 in 1992-93 to 46,000 in 2007-8 with over 100 companies being involved Visitors are mainly from rich nations
(39% American, 15% British) and tend to fly to New Zealand or Chile or Argentina and set sail from there.
Few visitors go on the ice as it is too hazardous, however, there are some very accessible sites and boats tend to stop
there preferentially. These are Honey pot sites and the animals get disturbed from their usual feeding and breeding
routines. In addition, many ships have run aground and had accidents and oil spills are an increasing hazard. Waste
44
from tourist boats is also a problem, and by law ships are required to discharge waste well away from the edges of
Antarctica.
Whaling and sealing have taken place for centuries in Antarctica and the Southern Oceans. The British and
Americans used South Georgia Island as a base and in summer the population there could rise to 1000
people. These animals were hunted for their fur meat and blubber, and products such as soap, margarine and oils
were derived from whale oil. A pre hunting population was estimated at 275000 whales prior to the 19th century, but
this had declined to fewer than 2000 whales by 1964. A ban on whaling has allowed whale numbers to
rise. However, Iceland, Japan and Norway would like a return to whaling and already have the right to whale under
the current ban for "scientific purposes".
SOLUTIONS
A ban on whaling has allowed whale numbers to rise. However, Iceland, Japan and Norway would like a return to
whaling and already have the right to whale under the current ban for "scientific purpose"
The Antarctic is protected in many ways, but people are concerned that tourism and its increasing numbers could
become unsustainable.
The IAATO (International Association of Antarctic Tour Operators) is an organisation which rules the companies and
tries to be environmentally friendly. They regulate the boat companies and try to ensure a sustainable future for the
ice continent.
Indeed, Boats are limited to 500 passengers which should reduce the impact of tourism.
In addition, Tourism has to follow the rules of the Antarctic treaty, signed in 1961, where many countries
promised to demilitarize Antarctica, to establish it as a zone free of nuclear tests and the disposal of
radioactive waste, and to ensure that it is used for peaceful purposes only;
to promote international scientific cooperation in Antarctica;
To set aside disputes over territorial sovereignty.
Visitors cannot visit SSSIs or Sites of Special Scientific Interest which often contain vulnerable wildlife,
again reducing the impact of tourism.
Permits must also be obtained to go, and these permits include sections on waste management, risk
management and how the applicant will minimise their Environmental Impact whilst in Antarctica. The
Antarctic Act of 1994 is a UK act, which supports the Antarctic Treaty of 1961 and makes environmental
damage in Antarctica by any British citizen punishable by law.
45
CASE STUDY: ANTARCTICA

Antarctica is the Worlds southern most continents. It is a land made up of mainly ice (99% of the continent is
covered in ice sheet) and is uninhabited aside from a few thousand scientific researches. It is a land mass with
mountains and volcanoes beneath and protruding above the ice, but it also has lots of sea ice which changes in size
and distribution throughout the year. The lowest ever temperatures recorded on Earth have been recorded here, at
Vostok, Antarctica, where it dropped to nearly -89.2 C
These temperatures make it a truly EXTREME environment, very dangerous for humans to visit and live. In addition,
for many months during the year there is 24 hours of darkness or 24 hours of light as the Earth orbits the sun. You
can also witness the Aurora Australis or southern lights here, and a huge range of wildlife from emperor penguins,
seals to whales.
The environment is also incredibly sensitive. It can take many hundreds of years for rubbish to decompose because
of the extremely low temperatures, and the food chain is also delicate because most of the marine life rely upon Krill
as their primary source of food.
Antarctica is becoming an increasingly popular destination for tourists. Indeed, tourist numbers have gone from 9,000
in 1992-93 to 46,000 in 2007-8 with over 100 companies being involved Visitors are mainly from rich nations (39%
American, 15% British) and tend to fly to New Zealand or Chile or Argentina and set sail from there.
Few visitors go on the ice as it is too hazardous, however, there are some very accessible sites and boats
tend to stop there preferentially. These are Honey pot sites and the animals get disturbed from their usual
feeding and breeding routines. In addition, many ships have run aground and had accidents and oil spills
are an increasing hazard. Waste from tourist boats is also a problem, and by law ships are required to
discharge waste well away from the edges of Antarctica.
The Antarctic is protected in many ways, but people are concerned that tourism and its increasing numbers
could become unsustainable.
The IAATO (International Association of Antarctic Tour Operators) is an organisation which rules the
companies and tries to be environmentally friendly. They regulate the boat companies and try to ensure a
sustainable future for the ice continent.
Indeed, boats are limited to 500 passengers which should reduce the impact of tourism.
In addition, Tourism has to follow the rules of the Antarctic treaty, signed in 1961, where many countries
promised to demilitarize Antarctica, to establish it as a zone free of nuclear tests and the disposal of
radioactive waste, and to ensure that it is used for peaceful purposes only; to promote international
scientific cooperation in Antarctica; to set aside disputes over territorial sovereignty.
Visitors cannot visit SSSIs or Sites of Special Scientific Interest which often contain vulnerable wildlife,
again reducing the impact of tourism.
Permits must also be obtained to go, and these permits include sections on waste management, risk
management and how the applicant will minimise their Environmental Impact whilst in Antarctica.
The Antarctic Act of 1994 is a UK act which supports the Antarctic Treaty of 1961 and makes
environmental damage in Antarctica by any British citizen punishable by law.
Violation of the USA permit system can result in a 1 year jail sentence or $11,000 fine!
46
CASE STUDY: Awesome mountains - Snowdonia

Snowdonia is another national park in the UK. It has the
same key aims as the Yorkshire Dales, but the physical
geography of the landscape is very different.
Looking at the physical geography of Snowdonia, it is a
mountainous area. There are four summits over 1,000
metres, and 15 are over 900 metres. The geology is
varied, with a variety of sedimentary, metamorphic and
igneous rocks being present.
Snowdonia is a glaciated upland area. Many features of
glacial erosion are found here. Snowdon is a (partly
formed) pyramidal peak. Crib Goch is a famous arte,
with a characteristic steep-sided ridge. Cwms (also
known as cirques or corries) are also found, such as
Llyn Llydaw.
Deep U-shaped valleys containing misfit streams and
ribbon lakes were also formed from the glaciers during
the last ice age.
Climate: temperature, rainfall and wind speed

The temperature of air decreases by approximately 1C
with every 100 metre increase. If it is 20C at sea level in North Wales, the summit of Snowdon may well be less than
10C. During the months of October to April there is often snow on the summit, even though it may not be snowing in
the valleys.
The predominant wind direction comes from the south west in the UK. As the moist air from the Atlantic is forced up
over the mountains, the air cools and condenses. This type of rainfall is called relief rainfall. When the air starts to
descend on the far side of the mountain, it is compressed and warmed and contains less water, so a rain shadow
effect occurs.
There are also fewer barriers for the wind, and therefore wind speeds are often stronger. The weather can change
rapidly.
47
What is the ecology of Snowdonia?

Moorland makes up 45 per cent of the national park and this is important as a store for gases connected with climate
change. The presence of woodland is dependent on , drainage and whether grazing occurs.
Agriculture has cleared many of the slopes which would have been covered in trees up to 500 metres.
Grazing of sheep on the higher slopes and cattle keep the return of woodland to a minimum.
There are 17 national nature reserves in Snowdonia some are coastal areas, others broadleaved deciduous
woodland and others are mountain ecosystems. Snowdon is a (Site of Special Scientific Interest). One reason is the
presence of Snowdon Lily. The ecosystem is fragile the thin acid soils take time to recover and scree is unstable.
In the water, the ecosystem is just as unique: deep glacial lakes contain rare fish.
The human geography of Snowdonia
The economy of Snowdonia used to be mainly based on primary
industry - for example quarrying the slate from the mountainside.
Now it is predominantly in tertiary industry, especially tourism.
Around 5,000 jobs have been created in tourism half of
Snowdonias working population.
There are 14 million people living within two hours travel time of
Snowdonia. Visitors bring many benefits to the area including:
creating jobs, eg in local hotels and restaurants
spending money on activities and goods
encouraging the policy-makers to update facilities to
accommodate visitors
Snowdonia also suffers from negative impacts of tourists:
Footpath erosion from feet widening and deepening the footpaths. This creates a scar on the landscape and
reduces grazing land for animals.
Congestion on roads as many people drive to the area. Emergency services experience difficulties accessing
areas via roads.
Difficulties parking during peak periods.
A seasonal economy.
House price increases, meaning local people may not be able to afford to live there. They move out leaving an
ageing population.
Snowdonia is a mountainous area. It attracts many outdoor enthusiasts. Within the national park many activities are
available, such as:
running
rock climbing
abseiling
walking
mountaineering
canoeing
fishing
windsurfing
mountain biking
scrambling
The coastline and settlements within Snowdonia also attract
visitors. Harlech Castle is a UNESCO world heritage site.
Is the Snowdon railway good or bad for the area?
The summit of Snowdon is a honeypot site. 350,000 people walk to it each year. 60,000 additional people access the
summit by train. Since 1896 it has been possible to access the summit of Snowdon via a train.
Positive impacts of the railway:
It allows those with limited mobility to gain access to the summit.
More people spend money which benefits the economy of the area.
48
Negative impacts of the railway:

60,000 extra people travel to the summit on the train each year, creating more potential damage to a sensitive area.
People may give less thought to different weather conditions found at the summit when travelling by train.
Hydroelectric power in Snowdonia
U-shaped valleys with steep-sided hanging valleys formed from glaciation are a good environment to create
hydroelectric power. Cwm Dyli is the location of a hydroelectric power station at the foot of Snowdon. Llyn Llydaw, a
corrie over 300 m above Cwm Dyli, receives high rainfall. Water flows down to Cwm Dyli generating hydroelectric
power.
Case study: Dinorwig Power Station
Dinorwig power station stores energy when there is an excess amount within the national grid. It releases the energy
back into the grid when there are peak demands. Glacial features of the area enable this pumped storage system to
work. It uses the corrie of Marchlyn Mawr and the ribbon lake of Llyn Peris.
How it works
Water is held in a reservoir of Marchlyn Mawr on the
Elidir Mountain. Llyn Peris is a larger lake, lower
down. Water released from the top reservoir creates
energy as it flows. This energy feeds the national
electricity grid at peak times. The electricity can be
supplied within 10 seconds of the demand. The
water is pumped back up to the top reservoir using
energy from the national grid. It is pumped up during
periods of low electricity demand, usually at night.
To minimise the visual impact, it was agreed that the power
station should be built inside the Elider Mountain. This
created Europes largest manmade cavern.
10 km of cables were laid under the valleys so the electricity
could reach the sub stations without disrupting the visual
impact of the area.
The two lakes already existed. They just needed to be
expanded.
Local stone and slate were used in the buildings, such as the visitor centre.
Managing Snowdonia
Snowdonia is managed by the Snowdonia National Park Authority.
The Authority is in charge of overseeing planning and policies within the area. They aim to balance the access and
facilities for visitors and residents with the conservation needs of the area. Around 75 per cent of Snowdonia is
privately owned.
The Snowdonia National Park Authority manages CAE a sustainable development fund worth over 200,000 each
year. This fund aims to:
protect the environment
meet needs of communities and make social progress
use natural resources efficiently and carefully
maintain high levels of employment and economic growth in the area
The Centre for Alternative Technology has benefited from this fund. The Centre for Alternative Technology is
concerned with sustainable and ecologically-sound technology and ways of living. Its visitor centre helps educate
people in this.
The Snowdonia Green Key project aims to make the transport network in Snowdonia more integrated. The project
aims to:
improve the existing transport system, making it easier to use buses and trains
reduce visitors reliance on cars
improve parking facilities for those who do drive
develop effective traffic management, eg improved information on public transport
improve and extend the cycle and footpath network
49

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COLD ENVIRONMENTS

Why are cold environments considered as fragile?

What are the issues associated with the

How can cold environments be managed to ensure

Glacial and periglacial

Features should be related

Glacial and periglacial

The fragility of the

Glacial and periglacial

Two contrasting cold

Glacial and periglacial

Management issues should

CASE STUDY REQUIRED

Locating Cold Environments

Mountain (upland) climates

Classifying & Locating Cold Environments

Climate Characteristics of cold environments

WHERE DO WE FIND COLD ENVIRONMENTS

1) Areas of high latitude

Areas of high altitude

THE HISTORY & FUTURE OF COLD ENVIRONMENTS

The last Ice Age

WHERE DO WE FIND GLACIERS?

HOW ARE THEY FORMED?

Glaciers are mainly classified by size:

GLACIAL BUDGET or GLACIER MASS BALANCE

THE GLACIER AS A SYSTEM

Rates of movement are determined by:

COLD & WARM BASED GLACIERS

PROCESSES OPERATING IN COLD ENVIRONMENTS

PROCESS: MASS MOVEMENT

EROSION (There are 3 main processes of glacial erosion).

This is where the bedrock underlying the glacier is eroded by debris

PROCESSES IN GLACIAL ENVIRONMENTS

Freeze thaw weathering

Chemical weathering by meltwater

Pressure release: a type of

FACTORS AFFECTING THE RATE OF GLCIAL EROSION

VELOCITY OF THE GLACIER

AMOUNT & CHARACTER

TEMPERATURE OF THE GLACIER

PRESENCE OF DEBRIS IN BASAL

RELATIVE HARDNESS OF DEBRIS

SLIDING OF BASAL ICE

MOVEMENT OF DEBRIS TOWARDS GLACIER BASE

DEBRIS PARTICLE SIZE AND SHAPE

BASAL WATER PRESSURE

EFFICIENT REMOVAL OF FINE

TOPIC 2: GLACIAL LANDFORMS, CREATED BY EROSION

1) Corries, cwms or cirques

CASE STUDY EXAMPLE:

CASE STUDY EXAMPLE: Coire an t-Sneachda

This is a classic example of a glacial corrie or cirque.

The long profile of the corrie is close to being

Identifying a Corrie on an OS map

A glacier flows in an earlier 'V'-shaped river valley.

CASE STUDY EXAMPLE:Glacial troughs, Glen Avon, Cairngorms

3) Artes and pyramidal peaks

Valley floor landforms

smoothed by abrasion from the

CASE STUDY: Rouches moutonnees, Cairngorms,

Crag and tail

A good example of crag and tail