Non-meat Eaters and Endurance Athletes

Non-meat Eaters and Endurance Athletes

The Effects of Not Eating Meat as an Endurance Athlete

Carlie Rider
Student of Ohio University

Nutrition 2200 with Professor Branan

November 25, 2013
Thursday 5:15-8:15
GA: Amanda Culley

Non-meat Eaters and Endurance Athletes

The Effects of Not Eating Meat as an Endurance Athlete

The benefits of consuming the different categories of a vegetarian diet are being
investigated on athletes and how well they perform physically in their athletic capabilities. Other
nutritional concerns are also being discussed and noted throughout research. In order to be
classified a vegetarian, one must not eat animal products that are obtained by the destruction of
animal life. The term vegetarian has been incorrectly used to describe a diet where red meat is
excluded. Typically endurance athletes, exclude red meat from their diet as they believe it is high
in fat and cholesterol (Burke and Read,1987, 142). This way of eating (only avoiding red meat),
has been referred to as quasi-, semi-, or part-time vegetarian. There are lower mortality rates of
coronary artery disease, certain forms of cancer, and lower risks of obesity and diabetes among
vegetarian populations (Snowdon & Phillips 1985, 508; Levin et al. 1986, 452; Burr & Butland
1988,431; Burr & Sweetnam 1994, 875; Giovannucci et al. 1994, 2391).
Researchers agree that eating a well-rounded and better structured diet can help boost
athletic performance, however, they have drawn different conclusions on being a vegetarian
addressing the following questions:
1. What are the Effects of a Vegetarian Diet on Exercise Performance?
2. Are Nutritional Considerations for Vegetarian Athletes Met (via Energy, Protein,
Iron, Calcium, Zinc, Riboflavin, and Creatine)?
3. How Serious are the Effects of a Vegetarian Diet on Females and how is this
Related to Amenorrhea?
4. What are the Key Nutrient Concerns for Vegetarian Athletes, Including
Dietary Strategies to Address Those Concerns?

Non-meat Eaters and Endurance Athletes

This review of the literature on athletic performance and non-meat eaters are focused on
the four questions (above).
What are the Effects of a Vegetarian Diet on Exercise Performance?
In an influential article, Cox (2000) argued that a vegetarian diet appeared to maximize
exercise performance for athletes during training and competition. Cox believes that strict
vegetarians follow the guidelines of eating less fat and more carbohydrates. Endurance athletes
need a minimum of 70% of their diets to be carbohydrates. The high-carbohydrate content
usually consumed in vegetarian diets is conducive to restoring and maintaining adequate
glycogen stores in athletes in hard training programs. A well-planned (and well followed) lactoovo-vegetarian diet and vegan diet will meet the nutrient requirement in most athletes.
Vegetarians reported intakes that were usually higher in carbohydrates than non-vegetarians,
containing adequate protein, iron, and calcium (p.670).
Nieman (1988) suggests that athletes who practice a near-vegetarian diet are more likely to
meet current recommendations for carbohydrates. Fat intakes appear similar to those of meat
eaters; however, some studies have reported lower fat intakes in female vegetarians. There are
numerous studies that have investigated the health benefits of a vegetarian diet, but there are very
few that have examined exercise performance differences between vegetarians and nonvegetarians (p.758).
Researchers, Hanne, Dlin, and Rotstein (1986) reported no significant differences in
aerobic capacities of 49 athletes (29 males and 20 females) that were lacto-ovo-vegetarian and
lacto-vegetarian athletes compared with 49 (29 males and 20 females) non-vegetarian athletes.
Lacto-vegetarian excludes animal foods and eggs. This type of vegetarian diet does however
include milk and milk products. Lacto-ovo-vegetarian excludes all animal foods; however, it

Non-meat Eaters and Endurance Athletes

does include milk, milk products, and eggs. In this study, there were no significant differences in
maximal oxygen uptake between the two different subject groups. Hanne, et al also reported that
when vegetarian female athletes are properly nourished, menstrual cycle function is normal as
compared to matched control subjects (p.182).
The researchers, Goldin, Adlercreutz, and Gorbach (1982) believe that their needs to be
more studies experimenting and comparing vegetarians and non-vegetarians during ones athletic
training and competition. They have also stated that female vegetarians were found to have a
decreased level of estrogen in their enterohepatic circulation perhaps because of their intake of
higher levels of fiber and lower levels of fat intake. It is also believed that female runners dont
consume an adequate amount of calories to support the amount of training they perform
(p.1545).
Are Nutritional Considerations for Vegetarian Athletes Met
(Through Energy, Protein, Iron, Calcium, Zinc, Riboflavin, and Creatine)?
Energy
Another study conducted by Nieman, Butler, Pollett, and Dietrich (1999), analyzed and
compared various standards of dietary quality in marathon runners. The intake of the 347 (291
men, 56 women) runners exceeded two-thirds of the Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA)
for all nutrients except vitamin D and Zinc in female runners. Energy and nutrient intake levels
in the marathon runners were higher than those of the U.S. population except for, vitamin B-12,
and zinc. In general, runners consumed healthier diets and their heavy endurance exercises
significantly correlated with a better quantity and quality of nutrient intake than found in the
general population (p.572).

Non-meat Eaters and Endurance Athletes

It is difficult to collect large amounts of data regarding dietary intake on vegetarian or

vegan athletes. In particular, a small amount elite-level athletes are vegetarian or vegan. Pritikin
(1984) suggests that vegetarian athletes could consume sufficient kilojoules, even when daily
energy requirements are high. Textured vegetable protein and commercially prepared meat
analogues, help increase energy density (p.129).
Protein
Daily protein requirements are slightly higher for athletes (1.2-1.5g/kg BM/d) than for
sedentary people. Vegetarian and vegan athletes need to especially meet this protein requirement.
Plant food sources of protein often contain low levels of one of the essential amino acids and
may have low digestibility compared to animal sources of protein. An insufficient level of amino
acids in plant foods will result in inadequate protein intake. Vegetarian diets can provide
adequate protein without the use of supplements or special foods, if daily energy demands of the
athlete are met (American Dietetic Association 1997, 1318).
Iron
Several reports suggest that athletes, especially runners, may be prone to iron
deficiency because of increased hemolysis, decreased iron absorption, and increased iron loss in
sweat, feces, and urine. Particularly female endurance athletes are at greater risk of low iron
stores than non-athletes. Among athlete populations, where iron requirements are increased, it is
still unclear whether vegetarian diets can provide adequate bioavailable iron (Clement DB, 1982,
39).
Iron is arguably the nutrient most at risk in a vegetarian diet. When people consume
meat products, they are consuming sources of heme iron, which is absorbed more readily and
effectively than non-heme food sources. Non-heme food sources come from grains, vegetables,

Non-meat Eaters and Endurance Athletes

and legumes (non-meat sources). Vitamin C can help enhance the non-heme sources become
more readily absorbed in the body. It is recommended that vegetarians eat their non-heme food
sources vitamin C to absorb more iron in the body to steer clear from iron deficiency or anemia
(Deakin, 2000, 280).
Calcium
Obtaining the sufficient amount of calcium can be a challenge for those vegetarians not
consuming dairy foods. Poor calcium intake can increase the risk of low bone density, thereby
increasing the risk of fracture (Sports Dieticians Australia, 2000). Regular physical activity is
also directly associated with skeletal health by increasing bone density. Maximizing peak bone
mass and the amount of stress one puts on their bones is very important in the younger years
(especially as a female). Athletes who are vegan or athletes that refuse to drink milk and milk
products can drink calcium-fortified soymilks. Sources of calcium should not be taken with nonheme and heme iron sources. Caffeine and calcium are believed to interfere with iron absorption
(Nicholas, Sanborn, Essery, 2007, 1002).
Zinc
When endurance athletes are following a vegetarian diet, it is more difficult for them to
consume zinc into their diets versus the general population. Cereals are the primary zinc source
in the vegetarian and vegan diet. Higher intakes of dietary fiber are regularly reported in
vegetarian diets which may negatively impact zinc status (Lattaa & Liebman, 1984, 145).
Inadequate zinc intake may compromise immune function and the healing of wounds.
Meat, chicken and fish are the major dietary sources of zinc, and thus the vegetarian athlete
needs to consume alternatives such as whole grains, nuts and seeds, and legumes (Clarkson,
1991, 141).

Non-meat Eaters and Endurance Athletes

Creatine
It has been demonstrated that vegetarian and vegetarian athletes have lower body
creatine pools than non-vegetarians. Creatine is an important supplementation because it is likely
to increase muscle stores and vegetarians muscle creatine stores are initially low. For vegetarian
athletes competing in sports involving repeated bursts of short-term activity, creatine
supplementation may therefore be beneficial. Creatine is more beneficial for anaerobic athletes
(power lifters) rather than endurance aerobic athletes, for example, long-distance runners,
swimmers, cyclists (Maughan, 1995, 42-52).
How Serious are the Effects of a Vegetarian Diet on
Females and how is this Related to Amenorrhea?
The perceived nutritional concerns of vegetarian diets are more relevant to females than
males (inadequate iron and calcium intake). Athletes who practice vegetarian diets, especially
restrictive vegan diets may be at special risk for potential negative effects, particularly secondary
amenorrhea and iron deficiency. Amenorrhea is the absence of a menstrual period in women of a
reproductive age (before they reach mid 40s-50s for menopause). Amenorrhea among female
runners and other endurance athletes is approximately 20%, but can be as high as 50% in
competitive athletes (Goldin, et al, 1982, 1544).
According the University of Colorado, the researchers noted that most female runners
with amenorrhea were vegetarians. In their analysis of 26 females (11 of them had amenorrhea
and 15 regularly menstruating runners), the 15 females who were regularly menstruating, ate five
times more meat than the 11 amenorrheic group of females. Of the amenorrheic group, 82% of
the females were vegetarians versus 13% of the regularly menstruating females were vegetarian.

Non-meat Eaters and Endurance Athletes

The researchers reasoned that hormonal precursors and essential minerals such as Zinc and Iron
could be affected by reduced intake of meat, especially in female runners (Nieman, 1988,758).
What are the Key Nutrient Concerns for Vegetarian Athletes, Including
Dietary Strategies to Address Those Concerns?
A healthcare professional should assess an endurance athlete who has recently converted
themselves into a vegan or a vegetarian to ensure the athlete is eating properly. Hopefully, the
athlete themselves, will seek for help first to help maintain their previous energy intake needs.
There are strategies to address such as assessing daily energy intake, examining sources of
protein, stressing the importance of meat alternatives, assessing calcium intake and assessing
iron status (Hanne, 1986,182).
Assessing daily energy intake is important because newly converted vegetarian athletes
may have a difficult time finding energy-dense, low-bulk foods to help assist an increase in
energy intake. Examples of such foods include gluten meat alternatives, textured vegetable
protein, tempeh, tofu, fruit juices, dried fruits, peanut or nut butter, honey and jams. Low-fat
milk and other low-fat dairy products are also low in bulk and are energy dense (Cox, 2000,
667).
Examining sources of protein at the midday meal is important because vegetarians and
primarily vegans may fail to use suitable protein alternatives. Athletes often have limited time
for making meals themselves and tend to take the easy route and skip those calcium fortified
foods. Ready-prepared black beans are an excellent source, along with nuts, seeds, peanut butter
spread, and almonds spread. Ready-made luncheon meats, derived from wheat gluten are also an
excellent sandwich meat alternative (Hanne, 1986, 667).

Non-meat Eaters and Endurance Athletes

It is important for dieticians to assess calcium intake of vegan athletes. The types of soy
milk consumed are recommended to be calcium-fortified varieties. Other suitable non-dairy
calcium rich alternatives include tofu, soy yoghurts, custards, vegetables such as broccoli, bok
choy, and kale (Burr, 1988, 831)
A healthcare professional should check and assess iron statuses of athletes following a
vegetarian diet. Vegetarians and vegans will eat non-heme food sources of iron which is all nonmeat sources. The meat sources that come from animals are the sources that will absorb the best
in the human body. Non-heme sources may have as many grams as iron in them; however, the
human body is unable to readily absorb the non-heme sources. Non-heme absorption can be
assisted by adding vitamin C to the meal or snack. Examples of non-heme sources paired up with
vitamin C sources (to get the most out of your meal), may include whole what pasta with
spaghetti sauce, whole wheat bagel or toast (no cream cheese) with orange juice, and nuts/seeds
paired with a cantaloupe or berries (Cox, 2000, 669).
Although the research of whether or not vegetarian diets affect endurance athletes
performance continues, researchers have shown over the past 33 (if not more) years, that getting
the proper amount of nutrition consumed for each endurance athlete is crucial. There is minimal
information available containing both endurance athletes and vegetarian diets, but the research
on both of those topics conclude that high-carbohydrate content usually consumed in vegetarian
diets is conducive in restoring and maintaining adequate glycogen stores. A well-planned lactoovo-vegetarian and vegan diets will meet the nutrient requirements of most athletes. Well
monitored vegetarian diets can also provide the athlete with adequate levels of all known
nutrients while also providing a reduction in cardiovascular disease risk factors. The lower
protein and calcium dense diets of a vegetarian diet are a potential concern for high-mileage

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endurance athletes. Iron deficiency, anemia, and amenorrhea have also raised concerns to
athletes on strict vegetarian and vegan diets. Future research is required to determine any
possible benefits and potential risks of consuming a vegetarian diet for the vigorously exercising
endurance athlete.

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