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Giao Trinh Cam Bien Cong Nghiep
Giao Trinh Cam Bien Cong Nghiep
i hc nng
Trng i hc bch khoa
----------------------------------Th.S. Hong Minh Cng
Gio trnh
- Nng 2004 -
****************************************************************
Li m u
Cm bin c nh ngha nh mt thit b dng cm nhn v bin i cc
i lng vt l v cc i lng khng mang tnh cht in thnh cc i lng in
c th o c. N l thnh phn quan trng trong mt thit b o hay trong mt h
iu khin t ng.
t lu cc b cm bin c s dng nh nhng b phn cm nhn v
pht hin, nhng ch t vi ba chc nm tr li y chng mi th hin vai tr quan
trng trong k thut v cng nghip c bit l trong lnh vc o lng, kim tra v
iu khin t ng. Nh cc tin b ca khoa hc v cng ngh trong lnh vc vt liu,
thit b in t v tin hc, cc cm bin c gim thiu kch thc, ci thin tnh
nng v ngy cng m rng phm vi ng dng. Gi y khng c mt lnh vc no m
khng s dng cm bin. Chng c mt trong cc h thng t ng phc tp,
ngi my, kim tra cht lng sn phm, tit kim nng lng, chng nhim mi
trng. Cm bin cng c ng dng rng ri trong lnh vc giao thng vn ti, sn
xut hng tiu dng, bo qun thc phm, sn xut t ... Bi vy trang b nhng kin
thc c bn v cm bin tr thnh mt yu cu quan trng i vi cc cn b k thut.
i vi sinh vin ngnh c in t cng nh cc ngnh t ng ho trong cc
trng i hc k thut, mn hc cm bin cng nghip l mt mn hc bt buc trong
chng trnh o to, nhm trang b nhng kin thc c bn v cm bin hc tt cc
mn hc chuyn ngnh. Gio trnh cm bin cng nghip c vit cho chuyn ngnh
c in t gm 10 chng, gii thiu nhng kin thc c bn v cm bin, cu to,
nguyn l hot ng, cc c trng c bn v s mch o ca nhng cm bin c
s dng ph bin trong cng nghip cng nh trong th nghim, nghin cu v c
sp xp theo cng dng ca cc b cm bin.
Do ni dung gio trnh bao qut rng, ti liu tham kho hn ch v trnh c
hn ca ngi bin son nn chc chn gio trnh khng trnh khi sai st. Tc gi
mong mun nhn c s gp ca bn c v ng nghip gio trnh c hon
thin hn. Cc nhn xt, gp xin gi v Khoa C kh Trng i hc Bch Khoa, i
hc Nng.
Tc gi
Chng I
Cc Khi nim v c trng c bn
1.1. Khi nim v phn loi cm bin
1.1.1. Khi nim
Hin tng vt l
- in t
- Quang n hi
- T in
- Nhit t...
- Bin i ho hc
Ho hc
- Bin i in ho
- Phn tch ph ...
- Bin i sinh ho
Sinh hc
- Bin i vt l
- Hiu ng trn c th sng ...
- Ph
- Tc truyn sng ...
- in tch, dng in
in
- in th, in p
- in trng (bin, pha, phn cc, ph)
- in dn, hng s in mi ...
- T trng (bin, pha, phn cc, ph)
Quang
- Tc truyn
- H s pht x, khc x
- H s hp th, h s bc x ...
- V tr
- Lc, p sut
- Gia tc, vn tc
- ng sut, cng
- M men
- Khi lng, t trng
- Vn tc cht lu, nht ...
- Nhit
Nhit
- Thng lng
- Nhit dung, t nhit ...
- Kiu
Bc x
- Nng lng
- Cng ...
- Kh nng qu ti
- chnh xc
- Tc p ng
- phn gii
- n nh
- chn lc
- Tui th
- tuyn tnh
- iu kin mi trng
- Di tn
- tr
- Phn loi theo phm vi s dng ( bng 1.4).
Bng 1.4
- Cng nghip
- Nghin cu khoa hc
- Mi trng, kh tng
- Thng tin, vin thng
- Nng nghip
- Dn dng
- Giao thng
- V tr
- Qun s
- Phn loi theo thng s ca m hnh mch thay th :
+ Cm bin tch cc c u ra l ngun p hoc ngun dng.
+ Cm bin th ng c c trng bng cc thng s R, L, C, M .... tuyn tnh hoc
phi tuyn.
1.2. ng cong chun ca cm bin
1.2.1. Khi nim
ng cong chun cm bin l ng cong biu din s ph thuc ca i lng in
(s) u ra ca cm bin vo gi tr ca i lng o (m) u vo. ng cong chun c th
biu din bng biu thc i s di dng s = F (m ) , hoc bng th nh hnh 1.1a.
si
mi
a)
b)
s
s2
s1
m1
m2
a) Chun n gin
Trong trng hp i lng o ch c mt i lng vt l duy nht tc ng ln
mt i lng o xc nh v cm bin s dng khng nhy vi tc ng ca cc i
lng nh hng, ngi ta dng phng php chun n gin. Thc cht ca chun
n gin l o cc gi tr ca i lng u ra ng vi cc gi xc nh khng i ca
i lng o u vo. Vic chun c tin hnh theo hai cch:
-
u vo m cn ph
lng o u vo.
-
Lp li qu trnh o vi cc gi tr gim dn t gi tr cc i.
Khi chun nhiu ln cho php xc nh ng cong chun theo c hai hng o tng
dn v o gim dn.
1.3. Cc c trng c bn
1.3.1. nhy ca cm bin
a) Khi nim
s
c gi l nhy ca cm bin.
m
s
S=
m m = m
(1.3)
Gi tr ca i lng cn o m v tn s thay i ca n.
s
ri =
m Q
(1.4)
T (1.4), ta nhn thy t s chuyn i tnh ri khng ph thuc vo im lm vic Qi v
ch bng S khi c trng tnh l ng thng i qua gc to .
c) nhy trong ch ng
nhy trong ch ng c xc nh khi i lng o bin thin tun hon theo
thi gian.
Gi s bin thin ca i lng o m theo thi gian c dng:
m(t ) = m 0 + m 1 cos t
(1.5)
s(t ) = s 0 + s1 cos(t + )
Trong :
- s0 l gi tr khng i tng ng vi m0 xc nh im lm vic Q0 trn ng cong
chun ch tnh.
- s1 l bin bin thin u ra do thnh phn bin thin ca i lng o gy nn.
- l lch pha gia i lng u vo v i lng u ra.
Trong ch ng, nhy S ca cm bin c xc nh bi t s gia bin ca
bin thin u ra s1 v bin ca bin thin u vo m1 ng vi im lm vic c xt Q0,
theo cng thc:
s
S = 1
m1 Q
a=
N. s i .m i s i . m i
N. m 2i ( m i )
s i . m 2i m i .s i . m i
b=
2
N. m 2i ( m i )
c) lch tuyn tnh
i vi cc cm bin khng hon ton tuyn tnh, ngi ta a ra khi nim lch tuyn
tnh, xc nh bi lch cc i gia ng cong chun v ng thng tt nht, tnh bng
% trong di o.
1.3.3. Sai s v chnh xc
Cc b cm bin cng nh cc dng c o lng khc, ngoi i lng cn o (cm
nhn) cn chu tc ng ca nhiu i lng vt l khc gy nn sai s gia gi tr o c v
gi tr thc ca i lng cn o. Gi x l lch tuyt i gia gi tr o v gi tr thc x
(sai s tuyt i), sai s tng i ca b cm bin c tnh bng:
x
.100 [%]
x
t
s
s0
0,9
0,1
t
tdm
tm
tdc
tc
Tng t,1.3
khi i
lngnh
o gim, thi
gian tr
khi gim t l thi
gian cn thit i
Hnh
Xc
cc
khong
thi
dc
(M2)
T1
(M1)
T2
T1
(M2)
d) Hiu ng cm ng in t
h) Hiu ng Hall
Khi t mt tm mng vt liu mng (thng l bn dn), trong c dng in chy
qua, vo trong mt t trng B c phng to vi dng in I trong tm mt gc , s xut
hin mt hiu in th VH theo hng vung gc vi B v I. Biu thc hiu in th c
dng:
VH = K H .I.B. sin
Trong KH l h s ph thuc vo vt liu v kch thc hnh hc ca tm vt liu.
S
B
Trn bng 1.1 gii thiu cc i lng cn o c kh nng lm thay i tnh cht
in ca vt liu s dng ch to cm bin.
Bng 1.1
i lng cn o
Nhit
Bc x nh sng
Bin dng
V tr (nam chm)
c trng nhy cm
Bn dn
T thm ()
Hp kim st t
Vt liu t in tr:Bi, InSb
1.5. Mch o
1.5.1. S mch o
Mch o bao gm ton b thit b o (trong c cm bin) cho php xc nh chnh
xc gi tr ca i lng cn o trong nhng iu kin tt nht c th.
FC
(1)
D
(2)
My in
PC
(4)
(5)
ADC
(6)
PA
(3)
CPU
(7)
Mn
hnh
Ura
K
+
Ura = K.Uvo
U ra = A(U + U ) = AU
U1
R2 10k
R3 10k
R
10k
Ra
1k
R
10k
U2
U3
u ra
R2 10k
R3
190k
U
. Cc in p ra t KTT U1 v U2 phi bng nhau v bin nhng ngc pha.
Ra
2R R 3
A = 1 +
R
a R1
c) Kh in p lch
714
4
- 9V
R2
100k
1
5
R3
10k
u ra
R1
1,01k
u vo
d) Mch lp li in p
714
4
- 9V
u vo
u ra
R3
U
+
R2
R4 = R(1+)
Vra
U K
.
R (1 + k )2
Chng II
Cm bin quang
2.1. Tnh cht v n v o nh sng
2.1.1. Tnh cht ca nh sng
lc
0,750
0,650
0,575
0,590
0,490
tm lam
vng
cc tm
0,455
0,395
0,75 m. Trn hnh 2.1 biu din ph nh sng v s phn chia thnh cc di mu ca ph.
da cam
hng ngoi
(m)
0,1
cc tm
h.n.ngn
trng thy
0,01
10
30
hng ngoi
100
h. ngoi xa
v=
c
n
v
.
Trong l tn s nh sng.
(2.1)
a) n v o nng lng
dQ
dt
(2.2)
- Cng nh sng (I): l lung nng lng pht ra theo mt hng cho trc ng vi
mt n v gc khi, tnh bng oat/steriadian.
I=
d
d
(2.3)
- chi nng lng (L): l t s gia cng nh sng pht ra bi mt phn t b
mt c din tch dA theo mt hng xc nh v din tch hnh chiu dAn ca phn t
ny trn mt phng P vung gc vi hng .
L=
dI
dA n
(2.4)
Trong dAn = dA.cos, vi l gc gia P v mt phng cha dA.
chi nng lng o bng oat/Steriadian.m2.
-
d
dA
(2.5)
ri nng lng o bng oat/m2.
b) n v o th gic
0,5
(m)
0
0,3
0,4
0,5
0,6
0,7
0,8
max
lumen
V = 680 V( )
1
d()
d
d
lumen
i lng o
n v th gic
n v nng lng
lumen(lm)
oat(W)
Cng
cadela(cd)
oat/sr(W/sr)
chi
cadela/m2 (cd/m2)
oat/sr.m2 (W/sr.m2)
ri
oat/m2 (W/m2)
Nng lng
lumen.s (lm.s)
jun (j)
- in t
- in t
h
+ l trng
+ l trng
chiu sng
V
A
L
Vng dn
Wd
Vng ho tr
qWd
a = exp
kT
(2.6)
Trong q l tr tuyt i ca in tch in t, T l nhit tuyt i ca khi
vt liu, k l hng s.
S in t ti hp vi cc nguyn t b ion ho trong mt n v thi gian t l
vi cc nguyn t b ion ho n0 v nng in t cng chnh bng n0 v bng
r. n 02 , trong r l h s ti hp.
dn 0
=0
dt
a a 2 a.N d
n0 =
+
+
2.r 4 r 2
r
Suy ra:
1/ 2
(2.7)
dn trong ti c biu din bi h thc:
0 = qn 0
(2.8)
Trong l linh ng ca in t.
Khi nhit tng, linh ng ca in t gim, nhng s tng mt in t t
do do s kch thch nhit ln hn nhiu nn nh hng ca n l nhn t quyt nh i
vi dn.
Khi chiu sng, cc photon s ion ho cc nguyn t donor, gii phng ra cc
in t. Tuy nhin khng phi tt c cc photon p ti b mt vt liu u gii phng
in t, mt s b phn x ngay b mt, mt s b hp th v chuyn nng lng cho
in t di dng nhit nng, ch phn cn li mi tham gia vo gii phng in t. Do
vy, s in t (g) c gii phng do b chiu sng trong mt giy ng vi mt n v
th tch vt liu, xc nh bi cng thc:
g=
(2.9)
Trong :
G
1 (1 R )
=
.
V A.L
h
mt photon b hp th).
R - l h s phn x ca b mt vt liu.
- bc sng nh sng.
- thng lng nh sng.
h - hng s Planck.
Phng trnh ng hc ca ti hp trong trng hp ny c dng:
dn
= a (N d n ) + g r.n 2
dt
1/ 2
(2.10)
dn tng ng vi nng in t iu kin cn bng:
= qn .
(2.11)
T cng thc (2.9), (2.10) v (2.11) ta nhn thy dn l hm khng tuyn tnh
ca thng lng nh sng, n t l vi 1/2. Thc nghim cho thy s m ca hm
nm trong khong 0,5 - 1.
2.2.2. T bo quang dn
a) Vt liu ch to
- n tinh th: Ge, Si tinh khit hoc pha tp Au, Cu, Sb, In.
SbIn, AsIn, PIn, cdHgTe.
CdS
CdSe
CdTe
PbS
PbSe
PbTe
Ge
Si
GeCu
SnIn
AsIn
CdHg
0,6
0,2
4 5
10
20
30
, m
b) Cc c trng
- in tr : Gi tr in tr ti RC0 ca cc quang in tr ph thuc rt ln vo hnh
dng hnh hc, kch thc, nhit v bn cht ho l ca vt liu ch to. Cc cht
PbS, CdS, CdSe c in tr ti rt ln ( t 104 - 109 25oC), trong khi SbIn,
SbAs, CdHgTe c in tr ti tng i nh ( t 10 - 103 25oC). in tr Rc
ca cm bin gim rt nhanh khi ri tng ln. Trn hnh 2.6 l mt v d v s thay
i ca in tr cm bin theo ri sng.
in tr ()
106
106
104
102
0,1
10
100
1000
ri sng (lx)
R co R cp
R co + R cp
(2.12)
Trong :
Rco - in tr trong ti.
Rcp - in tr khi chiu sng: R cp = a .
(2.1)
Trong :
- Gco l dn trong ti:
Gco = 1/Rco.
(2.15)
i vi lung bc x c ph xc nh, t l chuyn i tnh:
I V 1
=
a
(2.16)
V nhy:
I
V
= 1
(2.17)
T hai biu thc (2.16) v (2.17) c th thy:
- T bo quang dn l mt cm bin khng tuyn tnh, nhy gim khi bc x tng (tr
khi =1).
10
5
0,5
0,1
-150
-100
-50
0
50
Nhit (oC)
nhy tng i
100
50
30
10
10
5
1
10-1
5
10-2
1
1
Bc sng (m)
10-3
300
400
500
Nhit vt en tuyt i (K)
a)
Hnh 2.8 nhy ca t bo quang dn
b)
S ( ) =
I
( )
(2.28)
nhy ph ca t bo quang dn l hm ph thuc nhit ngun sng, khi
nhit tng nhy ph tng.
Khi bc x khng phi l n sc, dng Ip v do nhy ton phn ph
thuc ph bc x (hnh 2.8b).
c) c im v ng dng
c in chung ca cc t bo quang dn:
- T l chuyn i tnh cao.
- nhy cao.
- Hi p ph thuc khng tuyn tnh vo thng lng.
- Thi gian hi p ln.
- Cc c trng khng n nh do gi ho.
- nhy ph thuc nhit .
- Mt s loi i hi lm ngui.
Trong thc t, t bo quang dn c dng trong hai trng hp:
-
ca n gim ng k, cho dng in chy qua ln, c s dng trc tip hoc qua
khuch i ng m rle (hnh 2.9).
-
Thu tn hiu quang: dng t bo quang dn thu v bin tn hiu quang thnh
xung in. Cc xung nh sng ngt qung c th hin qua xung in, trn c s
c th lp cc mch m vt hoc o tc quay ca a.
+
2.2.3. Photoiot
a) Cu to v nguyn l hot ng
Xt hai tm bn dn, mt thuc loi N v mt thuc loi P, ghp tip xc nhau. Ti
mt tip xc hnh thnh mt vng ngho ht dn v ti vng ny tn ti mt in trng
v hnh thnh hng ro th Vb.
Khi khng c in th ngoi t ln chuyn tip (V=0), dmg in chy qua
chuyn tip i = 0, thc t dng I chnh l dng tng cng ca hai dng in bng nhau
v ngc chiu:
- Dng khuch tn cc ht c bn sinh ra khi ion ho cc tp cht (l trong trong
bn dn loi P, in t trong bn dn loi N) do nng lng nhit ca cc ht dn c
bn ln vt qua hng ro th.
- Dng ht dn khng c bn sinh ra do kch thch nhit (in t trong bn dn P,
l trng trong bn dn N) chuyn ng di tc dng ca in trng E trong vng
ngho.
Vng ngho
Vng chuyn tip
Ir
Vng ngho
Vb
Hnh 2.10 S chuyn tip P - N v hiu ng quang in trong vng ngho
kT
= 26 mV 300K), chiu cao hng ro th
q
+
N
b) Ch hot ng
- Ch quang dn:
S nguyn l (hnh 2.12a) gm mt ngun Es phn cc ngc it v mt in
tr Rm o tn hiu.
Ir
-40
Thng lng
Vd
+
ES
Rm
VR
-30
-20
ES
50W
-10
0
20
100W
40
150W
60
200W
a)
b)
Ir
(2.40)
Trong Ip l dng quang in:
Ip =
q(1 R )
0 exp( X )
hc
(2.41)
qV
Khi in p ngc Vd ln, thnh phn exp d 0, ta c:
kT
I R = I0 + I P
E
V
+
Rm Rm
- Ch quang th:
Trong ch ny khng c in p ngoi t vo it. it lm vic nh mt b
chuyn i nng lng tng ng vi mt my pht v ngi ta o th h mch V0C
hoc o dng ngn mch ISC.
o th h mch: Khi chiu sng, dng IP tng lm cho hng ro th gim mt
lng Vb. S gim chiu cao hng ro th lm cho dng ht dn c bn tng ln, khi
t cn bng Ir = 0.
Ta c:
qV
I 0 exp d + I 0 + I p = 0
kT
Rt ra:
Vb =
I
kT
log 1 + P
q
I0
I
kT
log 1 + P
q
I0
kT I P
.
q I0
I
kT
log P
q
I0
0,4
0,2
0
0,1
10
100
Thng lung, mW
20
10
0,1
0,2
Thng lng, mW
c) nhy
i vi bc x c ph xc nh, dng quang in IP t l tuyn tnh vi thng
lng trong mt khong tng i rng, c 5 - 6 decad. nhy ph xc nh theo
cng thc:
S ( ) =
I P q(1 R )exp( X )
=
hc
Vi s.
nhy ph ph thuc vo , hiu sut lng t , h s phn x R v h s
hp th .
S() 1,0
S(P)
0,6
0,4
0,2
0,1
0,04
0,4
0,6
0,8
1,0
1,2
(m)
0,4
T2
0,3
T1
0,2
0,1
T2>T1
0
0,3
0,4
0,5
0,6
0,7
0,8
0,9
1,0
(m)
1 dI P
.
I P dT
c gi tr khong0,1%/oC.
d) S ng dng photodiot
- S lm vic ch quang dn:
c trng ca ch quang dn:
+ tuyn tnh cao.
+ Thi gian hi p ngn.
+ Di thng ln.
Hnh 2.16 trnh by s o dng ngc trong ch quang dn.
S c s (hnh 2.17a):
R
V0 = R m 1 + 2 I r
R1
ES
CP1
R2
R1
Rm
Ir
V0
R1
Rm
ES
R2
R1+R2
V0
C2
b)
a)
Hnh 2.17 S mch o dng ngc trong ch quang dn
in tr ca iot nh v bng
R1 + R 2
K
R 1C pl = R 2 C 2 .
R2
Rm
_
IOC
+
_
Vco
V0
R1
V0
R1=Rm
b)
a)
2.2.4. Phototranzito
a) Cu to v nguyn l hot ng
Phototranzito l cc tranzito m vng baz c th c chiu sng, khng c in
p t ln baz, ch c in p trn C, ng thi chuyn tip B-C phn cc ngc.
in th
|
+
a)
b)
c)
C
B
E
q(1 R )exp(X )
0
hc
b) nhy
Khi nhn c thng lng 0, iot baz-colect sinh ra dng quang in Ip,
dng ny gy nn trong phototranzito mt dng I cp = ( + 1)I p , trong gi tr ca Icp
c rt ra t cng thc ca Ip:
I cp =
( + 1)q(1 R )exp( X )
hc
I c
ph thuc vo 0.
0
S() 100
S(p)
(%) 80
60
40
20
0,4
0,6
0,8
1,0
(m)
c) S dng phototranzito
Phototranzito c th dng lm b chuyn mch, hoc lm phn t tuyn tnh.
ch chuyn mch n c u im so vi photodiot l cho php s dng mt cch trc
tip dng chy qua tng i ln. Ngc li, ch tuyn tnh, mc d cho
khuch i nhng ngi ta thch dng photoiot v n c tuyn tnh tt hn.
- Phototranzito chuyn mch:
Trong trng hp ny s dng thng tin dng nh phn: c hay khng c bc x,
hoc nh sng nh hn hay ln hn ngng. Tranzito chn hoc bo ho cho php iu
khin trc tip (hoc sau khi khuch i) nh mt rle, iu khin mt cng logic hoc
mt thyristo (hnh 2.21).
+
+
I c (t ) = I c 0 + S.1 (t )
a)
b)
V
I D = I DSS 1 + GS
VP
K
A
A
K
Ia
4,75 mW
4
E
3
2,37 mW
2
0,95 mW
Rm
1
0
a)
20
40
b)
60
80
100
120
Vak (V)
=
dVak
2.10-2 lm
1,5.10-2 lm
10-2 lm
0,5.10-2 lm
20
40
60
80
100
120
nhy tng i
Ia (A)
8
6
4
2
0
20
40
60
Vak (V)
80
Vak (V)
1
2
Chng III
Cm bin o nhit
3.1. Khi nim c bn
Nhit l mt trong s nhng i lng c nh hng rt ln n tnh cht vt
cht. Bi vy trong nghin cu khoa hc, trong cng nghip cng nh trong i sng
hng ngy vic o nhit l rt cn thit. Tuy nhin vic xc nh chnh xc mt
nhit l mt vn khng n gin. a s cc i lng vt l u c th xc nh
trc tip nh so snh chng vi mt i lng cng bn cht. Nhit l i lng ch
c th o gin tip da vo s ph thuc ca tnh cht vt liu vo nhit .
F ( 1 )
F ( 2 )
(3.1)
T1
T2
(3.2)
Thang Celsius (Andreas Celsius - 1742): Thang nhit bch phn, n v nhit
l oC v mt Celsius bng mt Kelvin.
Nhit Celsius xc nh qua nhit Kelvin theo biu thc:
T(oC)= T(K) - 273,15
(3.3)
( )
5
T o F 32
9
( )
9 o
T C + 32
5
T oF =
{( )
(3.4)
( )
(3.5)
Celsius (oC)
Fahrenheit (oF)
-273,15
-459,67
Hn hp nc - nc
273,15
32
Cn bngnc - nc - hi
273,16
0,01
32,018
Nc si
373,15
100
212
Nhi
im 0 tuyt i
Chng ta hy kho st trng hp o bng cm bin tip xc. Lng nhit truyn
t mi trng vo b cm bin xc nh theo cng thc:
dQ = A(Tx Tc )dt
Vi: - h s dn nhit.
A - din tch b mt trao i nhit.
T - thi gian trao i nhit.
Lng nhit cm bin hp th:
dQ = mCdTc
mC
= , gi l hng s thi
A
gian nhit, ta c:
dTc
dt
=
Tx Tc
Tx
T1
Tc = Tx ke
0,63Tx
3.2.
Nhit k gin n
a)
2
b)
Nhit k kim loi - kim loi: gm hai thanh kim loi (1) v (2) c h s gin
n nhit khc nhau lin kt vi nhau theo chiu dc. Gi s 1 > 2 , khi gin n nhit
hai thanh kim loi cong v pha thanh (2). Da vo cong ca thanh kim loi xc
nh nhit .
Nhit k gin n dng cht rn thng dng o nhit di 700oC.
3.2.2. Nhit k gin n dng cht lng
Nhit k gm bnh nhit (1), ng mao dn (2) v cht lng (3). Cht lng s dng
thng dng l thu ngn c h s gin n nhit =18.10-5/oC, v nhit k bng thu
tinh c =2.10-5/oC.
Khi o nhit , bnh nhit c t tip xc vi mi trng o. Khi nhit
tng, cht lng gin n v dng ln trong ng mao dn. Thang o c chia trn
v theo dc ng mao dn.
Di nhit lm vic t - 50 600oC tu theo vt liu ch to v bc.
3.3. Nhit k in tr
3.3.1. Nguyn l
R(T ) = R 0 1 + AT + BT 2 + CT 3
(3.6)
(3.7)
(3.8)
Trong :
R =
1 dR
R(T ) dT
(3.9)
1 R
R Ro
min
R
R0
, do
min
V d nu
R
R0
1 dR 1 d 1 dl 1 ds
=
+
R dT dT l dT s dT
1 dl
1 d
; l =
;
dT
l dT
s =
1 ds
s dT
R = + l s
Vi
s = 2 l
ta c: R = l
nh.
- H s nhit in tr ca n tt nht l lun lun khng i du, khng trit tiu.
- C bn c, ho nhit lm vic.
- D gia cng v c kh nng thay ln.
Platin :
+ C th ch to vi tinh khit rt cao (99,999%) do tng chnh xc
Nikel:
+ C nhy nhit cao, bng 4,7.10-3/oC.
Cu
Ni
Pt
Tf (oC)
1083
1453
1769
3380
c (JoC-1kg-1)
400
450
135
125
(WoC-1m-1)
400
90
73
120
l x106 (oC)
16,7
12,8
8,9
x108 (m)
1,72
10
10,6
5,52
x103 (oC-1)
3,9
4,7
3,9
4,5
b) Cu to nhit k in tr
bc trong thu tinh hoc gm v t trong v bo v bng thp. Trn hnh 3.4 l cc
nhit k dng trong cng nghip bng in tr kim loi platin.
1
7
5
- Nhit k b mt:
- Di nhit s dng:
Silic tinh khit hoc n tinh th silic c h s nhit in tr m, tuy nhin khi
c kch tp loi n th trong khong nhit thp chng li c h s nhit in tr
dng, h s nhit in tr ~0,7%/oC 25oC. Phn t cm nhn nhit ca cm bin
silic c ch to c kch thc 500x500x240 m c m kim loi mt pha cn
R()
2400
R T = R 0 1 + A(T T0 ) + B(T T0 )
2200
2000
1800
1600
Trong R0 v T0 l in tr v nhit
1400
1200
1000
800
tuyt i im chun.
600
400
-50
50
100
ToC
mc thm mt in tr ph.
3.3.4. Nhit k in tr oxyt bn dn
a) Vt liu ch to
1 1
T
R(T ) = R 0 exp
T
T
T
0
0
(3.11)
+b
T2
V nhy nhit:
R =
B
T2
(3.12)
Phng php o nhit bng cm bin nhit ngu da trn c s hiu ng nhit
in. Ngi ta nhn thy rng khi hai dy dn ch to t vt liu c bn cht ho hc
khc nhau c ni vi nhau bng mi hn thnh mt mch kn v nhit hai mi
hn l t v t0 khc nhau th trong mch xut hin mt dng in. Sc in ng xut
hin do hiu ng nhit in gi l sc in ng nhit in. Nu mt u ca cp nhit
ngu hn ni vi nhau, cn u th hai h th gia hai cc xut hin mt hiu in
th. Hin tng trn c th gii thch nh sau:
Trong kim loi lun lun tn ti mt nng in t t do nht nh ph thuc
bn cht kim loi v nhit . Thng thng khi nhit tng, nng in t tng.
Gi s nhit t0 nng in t
t0
Hnh
nguyn l cp nhit
3.
(3.13)
Hay:
e BA ( t 0 ) = e AB ( t 0 )
(3.14)
E AB = e AB ( t ) e AB (t 0 )
(3.15)
Nh vy:
(3.16)
Trong trng hp a:
E ABC ( t, t 0 ) = e AB ( t ) + e BC (t 0 ) + e CA (t 0 )
V:
e AB (t 0 ) + e BC (t 0 ) + e CA (t 0 ) = 0
Nn:
E ABC (t, t 0 ) = e AB (t ) e AB (t 0 )
t0
C
t0
t0
2
3
B
t1
3
A
Trng hp b:
E ABC ( t, t 1 , t 0 ) = e AB ( t ) e AB (t 0 ) + e BC (t 1 ) + e CB ( t 1 )
V:
e BC ( t 1 ) = e CB ( t 1 )
Nn:
E ABC ( t, t 0 ) = e AB ( t ) e AB (t 0 )
C bn c hc v ho hc nhit lm vic.
D ko si.
Gi thnh r.
Hnh 3.10 biu din quan h gia sc in ng v nhit ca cc vt liu dng
ch to in cc so vi in cc chun platin.
Ed
6
7
8
9
11
10
Cp Platin - Roi/Platin:
Cp nhit Chromel/Alumel:
Cp nhit Chromel/Coben:
Cp nhit ng/Coben:
E
J
K
b) Cu to
6
7
8
1
Hnh 3.12 Cu to cp nhit
1) V bo v 2) Mi hn 3) Dy in cc 4) S cch in
5) B phn lp t 6) Vt ni dy 7) Dy ni 8) u ni dy
o.
a) S mch o dng milivn k
- S :
Trn hnh 3.13 biu din s o thng dng s dng milivn k t in.
mV
mV
2
A
t0
t0 3
t0 4
t0
A
1 t1
t2
1
Hnh 3.13 S mch o
Hnh3.14 S o vi sai
E AB ( t, t '0 )
A
B
A
B
A
E AB ( t '0 , t 0 )
toC
Hay:
E AB (t, t 0 ) = E AB (t, t '0 ) + E Ab (t '0 , t 0 )
Gi tr E AB (t, t '0 ) l lng hiu chnh xc nh t thang chia ca cp nhit ngu
dng theo gi tr o nhit u t do t0.
Di y trnh by mt s phng php b nhit u t do.
-
Dng dy b:
V e(t0) = 0, nn:
E = e AB (t ) e AB (t 0 )
t0
3
t0
t0
t0
C
1
2
D
1
t
0
Hnh 3.17 B nhit u t do bng dy b
3
4
B
t
Dng cu b:
Trn hnh 3.18 gii thiu s dng cu b t ng nhit u t do.
t0
F
t1
mV
t0
D
A
R1
Rd
t1
R2
R3
t
B ngun
3
t1
Rd
t0
B
Rt
1
t
Gi:
Rt l in tr ca cp nhit.
Rd l in tr dy ni.
RV
Rv l in tr trong ca milivn k.
Khi in p gi hai u milivn k xc nh bi cng thc:
Vm = E AB (t, t 0 )
RV
Rt + Rd + R V
Rt ra:
R + Rd
E AB (t, t 0 ) = Vm 1 + t
RV
(3.17)
nh hng ca RV : Rv = Rkd + Rf .
Trn hnh 3.20 trnh by s o bng phng php xung i, da theo nguyn
tc so snh in p cn o vi mt in p ri trn mt on in tr.
E
E
Rc
iC A B
Rd
EX
-
+
Rx
t
iP
RG G
Rc
RM
i0
EM
P
K
EX
D
a)
Hnh 3.20 S o bng phng php b
b)
Nu
E X I 0 R AB
R AB + R d + R X + R G
bng gi tr EX cn o.
Ta c:
R AB =
l
R
L
EX = I0
l
R
L
Ho k
Cc cm bin quang thuc loi cm bin o nhit khng tip xc, gm: ho k
bc x ton phn, ho k quang hc.
3.5.1. Ho k bc x ton phn
(3.18)
4
1
5
a)
5
b)
Trong s hnh (3.21a): nh sng t ngun bc x (1) qua thu knh hi t (2)
p ti b phn thu nng lng tia bc x (4), b phn ny c ni vi dng c o th
cp (5).
Trong s hnh (3.21b): nh sng t ngun bc x (1) p ti gng phn x (3)
v hi t ti b phn thu nng lng tia bc x (4), b phn ny c ni vi dng c
o th cp (5).
B phn thu nng lngc th l mt vi nhit k in tr hoc l mt t hp cp
nhit, chng phi tho mn cc yu cu:
+ C th lm vic bnh thng trong khong nhit 100 - 150oC.
+ Phi c qun tnh nhit nh v n nh sau 3 - 5 giy.
+ Kch thc nh tp trung nng lng bc x vo o.
Trn hnh 3.22 trnh by cu to
ca mt b thu l t hp cp nhit. Cc
cp
nhit
(1)
thng
dng
cp
1
2
1
khi Tdo = 4 .Tdoc . Thng thng xc
Tc
v en ca vt o (hnh 3.23).
theo en
3.5.2. Ho k quang in
C1
(3.19)
C2
5 RT
e 1
IT
T1
cn o v sng ca mt n mu trong
T2
T3
0,65m
mA
Rb
K
Hnh 3.25 S ho k quang hc
1) Ngun bc x 2)Vt knh 3) Knh lc 4&6) Thnh ngn
1
=
ln
Tdo C 2
Cng thc hiu chnh: To = Tc + T
Gi tr ca T cho theo th.
Ngoi ra sai s ca php o cn do nh hng ca khong cch o, tuy nhin sai
s ny thng nh. Khi mi trng c bi lm bn ng knh, kt qu o cng b nh
hng.
Chng IV
in th k in tr
a) Cu to v nguyn l lm vic
l
Rn
L
(4.1)
Rx =
Rn
M
(4.2)
Trong M < 360o khi dch chuyn trn (hnh 4.1b) v M > 360o khi dch chuyn
xon. (hnh 4.1c)
Rx, l
1
1
Rn, , L
a)
2
1
1
2
Rn
Rn
c)
b)
Hnh 4.1 Cc dng in th k
1) in tr 2) Con chy
Rx
Cui ng chy
Khong chy c ch
u ng chy
bi mt bng quang dn rt mnh lm bng CdSe trn c con tr quang dch chuyn
khi trc ca in th k quay. in tr ca vng quang dn gim ng k trong vng
c chiu sng to nn s lin kt gia bng o v bng tip xc.
4
2
1
in tr
~20 ms
Thi gian
R1
R
ES = 1 ES
R1 + R 2
R
(4.3)
Trong R1 l hm ph thuc v tr ca trc quay, v tr ny xc nh phn ca R1 chu
nh hng ca t trng cn R = R1 + R2 = const.
2
Vm/ES
R1
70%
Cm bin in cm
2
XV
XV
R
2
a)
3
b)
c)
Trong :
W- s vng dy.
R =
L
L
ds +
d
Vi lng thay i hu hn v s ta c:
L =
W 20
W 2 0s0
s
0
( 0 + )2
(4.4)
nhy ca cm bin t cm khi khe h khng kh thay i (s=const):
S =
L
=
L0
0 1 +
0
(4.5)
nhy ca cm bin t cm khi thay i tit din khng kh ( = const):
Ss =
L L 0
=
s s 0
(4.6)
Tng tr ca cm bin:
W 2 0 s
Z = L =
(4.7)
T cng thc (4.7) ta thy tng tr Z ca cm bin l hm tuyn tnh vi tit din khe
h khng kh s v phi tuyn vi chiu di khe h khng kh .
Z, L
L = f()
Z5000Hz = f()
Z500Hz = f()
a)
b)
Hnh 4.8 Cm bin t cm kp mc theo kiu vi sai
c)
L
L1 = f()
L1 - L2 = f()
L2 = f()
Hnh 4.9 c tnh ca cm bin t cm kp lp vi sai
b) Cm bin t cm c li t di ng
l0
XV
lf
l
T thng tc thi:
iW1 iW1 0 s
=
R
XV
XV
3
3
4
2
4
a)4
b)
c)
XV
XV
XV
2
~
)
d)
~
e)
d t
W W s di
= 2 1 0 .
dt
dt
W2 - s vng dy ca cun dy o.
Khi lm vic vi dng xoay chiu i = I m sin t , ta c:
e=
W2 W1 0 s
I m cos t
W2 W1 0 s
s
I = k
dE =
E
E
ds +
d
s
E = k
Hay
ks
0
( 0 + )2
(4.8)
nhy ca cm bin vi s thay i ca chiu di khe h khng kh (s = const):
S =
E
=
ks
1 +
0
2
0
E0
0 1 +
0
(4.9)
Cn nhy khi tit din khe h khng kh s thay i ( = const):
SS =
E k E 0
=
=
s 0 s 0
(4.10)
E0 =
ks 0
- sc in ng h cm ban u trong cun o W2 khi XV = 0.
0
Ta nhn thy cng thc xc nh nhy ca cm bin h cm c dng tng t
3
1
~
Cm bin in dung
4.4.1. Cm bin t in n
0 s
- hng s in mi ca mi trng.
0 - hng s in mi ca chn khng.
s - din tch nm gia hai in cc.
- khong cch gia hai bn cc.
XV
XV
a)
b)
XV
c)
C=
0 s 0 r 2
=
.
360
(4.11)
2 0
.l
log( r2 / r1 )
(4.12)
Xt trng hp t in phng, ta c:
C=
dC =
C
C
C
ds +
d
d +
s0
0s0
+ 0 s
0
0
( 0 + )2
(4.13)
0s0
C
=
( 0 + )2
(4.14)
C 0
=
s 0
(4.15)
C s 0
=
0
Nu xt n dung khng:
Z=
=
C s
Z
Z
Z
ds +
d
d +
dZ =
a v dng sai phn:
Z =
s 0 ( 0 + )
0 (s 0 + s )
s +
0 s 0
s 0 ( 0 + )
(4.17)
S Zs =
0 (s 0 + s )
(4.18)
S Z =
1
0 s 0
(4.19)
v hng s in mi thay i nhng phi tuyn khi khong cch gia hai bn cc thay
i.
-
Bin thin dung khng ca cm bin t in l hm tuyn tnh khi khong cch
gia hai bn cc thay i nhng phi tuyn khi din tch bn cc v hng s in mi
thay i.
Ngoi ra gia hai bn cc khi c in p t vo s pht sinh lc ht, lc ny cn
phi nh hn i lng o.
4.4.2. Cm bin t kp vi sai
XV
A2 A 1 A3
XV
A1
A2
A1
A2
XV
A3
a)
A3
c)
b)
Hnh 4.14 Cm bin t kp vi sai
A2
A1
A3
Ura
eS ~
C0
Ura
R
a)
b)
4.5.
Cm bin quang
Tu theo cch b tr u thu quang, ngun pht v thc o (hoc i tng o),
cc cm bin c chia ra:
-
Cm bin quang phn x (hnh 4.16) hot ng theo nguyn tc di phn quang:
u thu quang t cng pha vi ngun pht. Tia sng t ngun pht qua thu knh hi
t p ti mt thc o chuyn ng cng vt kho st, trn thc c nhng vch chia
phn quang v khng phn quang k tip nhau, khi tia sng gp phi vch chia phn
quang s b phn x tr li u thu quang.
1
Vr1
3
1
Chu k chia
2
5
Vr2
Tn hiu chun
6
a)
4
b)
Khi thc o (gn vi i tng kho st, chy gia thu knh hi t v li chia)
c chuyn ng tng i so vi ngun sng s lm xut hin mt tn hiu nh sng
hnh sin. Tn hiu ny c thu bi cc t bo quang in t sau li chia. Cc tn
hiu u ra ca cm bin c khuch i trong mt b to xung in t to thnh tn
hiu xung dng ch nht.
Cc t bo quang in b tr thnh hai dy v t lch nhau mt phn t chia
nn ta nhn c hai tn hiu lch pha 90o (hnh 4.17b), nh khng nhng xc nh
c dch chuyn m cn c th nhn bit c c chiu chuyn ng.
khi phc im gc trong trng hp mt in ngun ngi ta trang
b thm mc o chun trn thc o.
u im ca cc cm bin soi thu l c ly cm nhn xa, c kh nng thu c
Tc truyn sng n hi v trong cht rn ~ 103m/s. Thi gian truyn sng gia
hai im trong vt rn cch nhau mt khong l xc nh bi biu thc:
tP =
l
v
4.18.
Thi gian truyn sng tP t khi tn hiu xut hin my pht n khi n c tip
nhn my thu c o bng my m xung. My m hot ng khi bt u pht
sng v ng li khi tn hiu n c my thu.
ng h
My m
My thu
l
My pht
Khi :
(4.20)
V
a)
b)
c)
u thu
l
My pht xung
4
l
v
(4.21)
Chng V
Bin dng : l t s gia bin thin kch thc (l) v kch thc ban u (l).
=
l
l
(5.1)
1 F 1
=
YS Y
(5.2)
F - lc tc dng, kG.
S - tit din chu lc. mm2.
- ng lc, =F/S.
n v o moun Young l kG/mm2. Moun Young ca thp ~ 18.000 - 29.000
kG/mm2.
- H s poison : h s xc nh bin dng theo phng vung gc vi lc tc dng.
= ||
(5.3)
Trong vng bin dng n hi 0,3.
b)
a)
Hnh 5.1 S cu to ca u o kim loi
a) u o dng dy qun b) u o dng li mng
Hp kim
Thnh phn
H s u o K
Constantan
45%Ni, 55%Cu
2,1
Isoelastic
3,5
Karma
2,1
Nicrome V
80%Ni, 20%Cr
2,5
92%Pt, 8%W
4,1
6
7
R=
l
S
(5.4)
Phng trnh sai phn:
R l S
=
+
R
l
S
Bin dng dc l ca dy ko theo bin dng ngang ca tit din, quan h gia bin dng
ngang v bin dng dc c dng:
a b d
l
=
=
=
a
b
d
l
Tit din ngang ca dy S = ab hoc S = d2/4, ta c:
l
S
= 2
S
l
Mt khc, i vi u o kim loi:
V
=C
V
C - hng s Bridman.
V - th tch dy.
V V = S.l, ta c:
V
l
= (1 2)
V
l
V:
l
= C (1 2)
l
Vy ta c:
R
l
l
= {(1 + 2 ) + C (1 2 )} = K.
l
l
R
(5.5)
H s K c gi l h s u o, gi tr xc nh theo biu thc:
K = 1 + 2 + C (1 2 )
(5.6)
V 0,3, C 1, nn u o kim loi c K 2.
5.2.2. Cc c trng ch yu
-
= 4,1.
quan h tuyn tnh gia in tr v bin dng. Ngoi gii hn n hi, khi l/l > 0,5% - 20%
tu theo vt liu, h s u o K 2.
K (T ) = K 0 {1 + K (T T0 )}
(5.7)
K0 - h s u o nhit chun T0 (thng T0 = 25oC).
K - h s, ph thuc vt liu. Vi Nichrome V th K = -0,04%/oC, constantan K =
+0,01%/oC
10-2mm. Cc mu ct c dn trn
P
N
P
N
N
Si-N
Si-P
R l S
=
+
R
l
S
l
= = Y
l
Trong l h s p in tr, l ng lc tc dng.
Vy:
R
l
= {(1 + 2 ) + Y}
R
l
(5.8)
v h s u o:
K = 1 + 2 + Y
(5.9)
Thng thng K = 100 - 200.
5.3.2. Cc c trng ch yu
i vi u o bn dn, pha tp l yu t quyt nh n cc c trng ca chng.
- in tr:
nh hng ca pha tp: khi tng pha tp, mt ht dn trong vt liu tng lnv in
tr sut ca n gim xung. Biu thc chung ca in tr sut c dng:
1
q ( n n + p p )
(cm)
(cm)
n, p - linh ng ca in t v l trng.
7
6
1014
10-1
5
4
1016
10-2
101
1020
10-3
1014
1015
1016
-100
400
500
ToC
Hnh
S ph
thuc
ca
in
trhn
sut120
vooCnng
pha tp
nhit
tr dng v
nh hng
ca5.5
nhit
: khi
nhit
nh
h snhit
invtr
c gi
gim dn khi pha tp tng ln.
K
240
200
180
160
120
80
40
-100
(hnh 5.6).
5.1018
1017/cm3
3.1019
1020
400
500 600
ToC
K = K1 + K 2 + K 2 2
Tuy nhin vi bin dng di mt gi tr cc i no c th coi K khng i.
nh hng ca nhit : Khi nhit tng h s u o gim, tuy nhin khi pha tp ln
(c Nd = 1020cm-3) h s u o t ph thuc nhit .
5.4. u o trong ch ng
Khi o bin dng trong ch ng, u o phi tho mn mt s yu cu nht nh
nh tn s s dng ti a, gii hn mi.
5.4.1. Tn s s dng ti a
Tn s ca u o khng ph thuc vo vt liu ch to, silic c th truyn khng suy
gim cc dao ng vi tn s ln hn 106 Hz. Tuy nhin tn s lm vic li ph thuc vo
phng php gn u o v kch thc ca n.
cho cc bin dng o c gn nh ng b trong phm vi ca u o, chiu di l
ca cc nhnh phi nh hn nhiu ln bc sng ca dao ng c hc. Quan h gia kch
thc l v chiu di bc sng phi tho mn iu kin:
l 0,1
Chiu di bc sng ca dao ng c hc c xc nh bi cng thc:
v
f
(5.10)
Trong v l vn tc truyn sng v f l tn s dao ng.
v=
Y
1
.
d (1 + )(1 2 )
Y - l mun Young.
- h s poisson.
d - trng lng ring vt liu ch to dy.
Vy tn s cc i fmax ca dao ng khi chiu di nhnh ca u o l l bng:
f max =
v
10.l
5.4.2. Gii hn mi
cu, ng hm ...
Cu to ca ng sut k dy rung gm mt dy thp cng gia hai gi gn vo cu trc
cn nghin cu bin dng. Khi c bin dng, s cng c hc ca dy ko theo s thay i tn
s dao ng N ca dy, bng cch o tn s dao ng ca dy c th bit c ln ca bin
dng.
Tn s dao ng ca si dy xc nh theo cng thc:
N=
1 F
2 l Sd
(5.11)
l - khong cch gia hai im cng dy.
F - lc tc dng.
S - tit din dy.
d - khi lng ring ca vt liu ch tody.
Di tc dng ca lc F, di dy bin thin mt lng l xc nh t biu thc:
l 1 F
=
l YS
(5.12)
Do tn s dao ng ca dy:
N=
1 Y l
2l d l
Suy ra:
l 4 l 2 d 2
=
N = K.N 2
l
Y
(5.13)
Gi s l0 l ko di ban u v N0 l tn s tng ng khi cha c bin dng:
l 0
= K.N 02
l
Khi c bin dng, ko di tng cng ca dy l l1 v tn s l N1, ta c:
l1
= K.N 12
l
V ko di do bin dng l = l1 - l0, suy ra:
l
= K N12 N 02
l
(5.14)
o N0 v N1 ta c th tnh c bin dng ca cu trc.
Chng VI
Cm bin o lc
6.1. Nguyn l o lc
F - lc tc dng (N).
M - khi lng ca vt (kg).
a - gia tc ca vt (m/s2).
Theo cng thc (6.1), khi mt lc c cng F (N) tc ng vo mt vt c khi
lng M (kg) s gy ra gia tc a (m/s2).
Nguyn tc o lc l lm cn bng lc cn o vi mt lc i khng sao cho lc tng
cng v momen tng ca chng bng khng.
Trong cc cm bin o lc thng c mt vt trung gian chu tc ng ca lc cn o v
bin dng. Bin dng ca vt trung gian l nguyn nhn gy ra lc i khng v trong gii hn
n hi bin dng t l vi lc i khng.
Bin dng v lc gy ra bin dng c th o trc tip bng cm bin bin dng, hoc o
gin tip nu mt trong nhng tnh cht in ca vt liu ch to vt trung gian ph thuc vo
bin dng.
Ta cng c th xc nh mt lc bng cch cn bng n vi mt lc bit. Theo cng
thc xc nh trng lc ca mt vt trong trng trng tri t:
P = Mg
Trong mi trng c g bit trc, cn khi lng M ca vt ta c th xc nh c
trng lc ca vt , ngc li nu s dng mt vt c khi lng bit s c c mt lc
xc nh. y chnh l nguyn tc chun cm bin bng my o c khi lng treo.
Trong chng ny nghin cu cc b cm bin o lc ph bin nh cm bin p in,
cm bin t gio, cm bin da trn php o dch chuyn, cm bin xc gic.
6.2. Cm bin p in
6.2.1. Cu to v nguyn l hot ng
Thch anh
thm
thu
11=4,5
in tr
sut
(.m)
1012
Modun
Young
(109 N.m-2)
Y11=80
ng lc
cc i
(107 N.m-2)
10
Nhit
lm vic
Tmax (oC)
550
Mui
11=350
>1010
Y11=19,3
1,4
45
L.H.
11=5,6
>10
10
46
1,5
75
PZT5A
11=1.700
1011
Y33=53
7-8
365
Vt liu
seignette
Y22=30
b)
a)
+
+
c)
d)
a)
+
+
+
+
+
+
c)
+
b)
Trng hp ghp song song hai bn p in (hnh 6.2a), in dung ca cm bin tng
gp i so vi trng hp mt bn p in. Khi ghp ni tip (hnh 6.2b) in p h mch v
tr khng trong tng gp i nhng in dung gim xung cn mt na. Nhng nguyn tc
trn p dng cho c trng hp ghp nhiu bn p in vi nhau nh biu din trn hnh 6.2c.
6.2.2. Cm bin thch anh kiu vng m
Trong cm bin loi ny, cc vng m thch anh c ct theo cc hng khc nhau,
khi chng ch nhy vi mt hng xc nh ca lc.
z
y
x
a)
b)
c)
dQ
dt
Rg
Cg
dQ
dt
Rg
dQ
dt
Cg
RS
CS
a)
b)
c)
1
1
1
=
+
R s R g R1
C S = C g + C1
dQ
dt
dQ
dt
Ceq
Vm
RS
Req
Vm
CS
Re
Ce
1
1
1
=
+
R eq R S R e
Cm bin v cp ni
C eq = C S + C e
Tr khng vo v
khuc i in th
Vm =
Q R eq C eq P
.
C q 1 + R eq C eq P
c) S khuch i in tch
B chuyn i
in tch
Chun nhy v
khuch i vi sai
u vo (in tch)
a)
B khuch i
u ra
B
lc
u ra (in p)
Cr
+Q
dQ
dt
RS
CS
V0
b)
trng bi mt mmen t. gim thiu nng lng tng cng, momen t ca cc nguyn t
trong cng mt min t ho t nhin (domen) phi hng theo mt hng chung. Hng
chung ny nh hng theo mt s hng u tin ca mng tinh th gi l hng d t ho.
Hng ca cc mmen t trong cc domen cnh nhau khng trng nhau.
Khi c t trng ngoi H tc ng, s nh hng ca m men t trong mt domen
theo mt hng chung tng dn. Khi H nh, cc vch domen t dch chuyn v kch thc ca
cc domen t c hng t ho thun li trng vi hng ca t trng bn ngoi tng ln. Khi
t trng ngoi tng ln n mc no xy ra hin tng o hng ca cc domen theo
hng t trng ngoi. Khi t trng ngoi mnh s lm quay hng d t ho ca cc
domen t theo hng t trng ngoi dn n bo ho (hinhd 6.8a).
- Hin tng t tr: Sau khi t ho ln u n bo ho (H = Hm), nu vn gi nguyn phng
t trng v thc hin mt chu trnh khp kn (Hm,0,- Hm,0) ta nhn c ng cong t ho
nh hnh 6.8b gi l ng cong t tr vi t d Br l khng t Hc.
B
B
Br
H
Hc
b)
a)
B(Wb/m2)
=20N/mm2
=0
th thay i, cc hng d t
ho thay i dn n lm thay
i nh hng ca cc domen.
Hin tng ny gi l hiu ng
t gio nghch.
Trn hnh 6.9 biu din
H (A/m)
6.3.2.
dB r
dB d
=K r
dt
d dt
I0
a)
I0
I2
I1
b)
I0
Chng VII
cm bin vn tc, gia tc v rung
7.1. Cm bin o vn tc
7.1.1. Nguyn l o vn tc
d
dt
dF(x) dx
dx dt
Sut in ng ny t l vi vn tc cn o.
-
- Tc k dng mt chiu:
S cu to ca mt tc k dng mt chiu biu din trn hnh 7.1.
1
N
Stato (phn cm) l mt nam chm in hoc nam chm vnh cu, roto (phn
ng) l mt trc st gm nhiu lp ghp li, trn mt ngoi roto x cc rnh song song
vi trc quay v cch u nhau. Trong cc rnh t cc dy dn bng ng gi l dy
chnh, cc dy chnh c ni vi nhau tng i mt bng cc dy ph. C gp l mt
hnh tr trn mt c gn cc l ng cch in vi nhau, mi l ni vi mt dy chnh
ca roto. Hai chi qut p st vo c gp c b tr sao cho ti mt thi im chng
lun tip xc vi hai l ng i din nhau.
Khi r to quay, sut in ng xut hin trong mt dy dn xc nh theo biu
thc:
ei =
d i
dt
- vn tc gc ca dy.
r - bn knh quay ca dy.
Biu thc ca sut in ng xut hin trong mt dy:
e i = rlB iN
N 0 = nN 0
2
(7.1)
Nguyn tc ni dy l ni thnh hai cm, trong mi cm cc dy mc ni tip
vi nhau, cn hai cm th mc ngc pha nhau.
b) Tc k dng xoay chiu
- My pht ng b:
S cu to ca mt tc k dng xoay chiu kiu my pht ng b biu
din trn hnh 7.2.
Thc cht y l mt my pht in xoay chiu nh. Roto (phm cm) ca my
pht l mt nam chm hoc t hp ca nhiu nam chm nh. Phn ng gm cc cun
dy b tr cch u trn mt trong ca stato l ni cung cp sut in ng cm ng
hnh sin c bin t l vi tc quay ca roto.
e = E sin t
(7.2)
1
N
S
S
N
U=
RE
(R + R i )2 + (L i )2
RK 1
(R + R i )2 + (K 2 L i )2
(7.3)
Ve
em
2
2
S
a)
b)
7.1.3. Tc k xung
ng vt, mt phn x.
a) Tc k t tr bin thin
2
Khe t
S lng l trn a.
sin
cos
U0sint
UU0sintsin
cos
t
UU0sintcos
a)
b)
4
3
X
Cg = Cr
(7.4).
vi Cr = k (k l h s n hi ca l xo) v Cg = H ( H l mmen ng hc ca
rto). Thay cc gi tr vo cng thc (7.4) ta c cng thc xc nh gc :
H
k
(7.5)
Gc quay ca khung ng ca con quay hi chuyn t l vi vn tc gc cn o.
tin cho x l, gc quay c chuyn i thnh tn hiu in nh mt in th
k.
Cc thng s ca my o nh sau:
- Di o t 7o/s n 360o/s.
- Sai lch khi tuyn tnh < 1,5% ca di o.
b) i hng k quang
i hng k quang gm ngun pht chm tia laze (1), cun dy si quang (2) c
chiu di L qun thnh vng bn knh R quay vi cng vn tc gc vi vt quay.
4
3
Chm tia xut pht t ngun pht (1) qua bn phn tch (3) to thnh hai chm
tia truyn theo hai hng ngc nhau trong si cp quang. Khi ra khi cp, do qung
ng truyn sng khc nhau, hai tia lch pha nhau, lch pha gia hai chm tia
bng:
=
4 RL
c
(7.6)
Trn u thu (4) ta thu c h vn giao thoa ca hai chm tia. Bng cch m s
vn giao thoa Z b dch chuyn do cp quang quay, ta c th tnh c tc quay
theo cng thc:
Z =
2 LR
c
(7.7)
rung t ti hng trm Hz. Cm bin gia tc thng dng l cm bin t tr bin thin,
u o bin dng kim loi hoc p in tr.
-
gp khi vt c khi lng nh. Cm bin gia tc s dng l loi p tr hoc p in.
-
trong my mc. o rung gip cho ngi qun l nm c tnh trng mn ca chi
tit t c k hoch bo dng, sa cha kp thi.
rung c c trng bi dch chuyn, tc hoc gia tc cc im trn
vt rung. Bi vy khi o rung ng ngi ta o mt trong nhng c trng trn.
Cm bin rung c th l cm bin dch chuyn, cm bin tc hoc cm bin
gia tc nhng c th m t nguyn l hot ng ca chng bng m hnh h c hc c
mt bc t do nh trnh by hnh 7.11.
Cm bin gm mt phn t nhy cm (l xo, tinh th p in... ) ni vi mt khi
lng rung v c t chung trong mt v hp. Chuyn ng rung ca khi lng M
tc ng ln phn t nhy cm ca cm bin v c chuyn thnh tn hiu in u
ra.
z
4
M
b
b
a
h
h0
dz
d2h
=
F
Cz
dt
dt 2
Cz - phn lc ca l xo.
F
dz
- lc ma st nht.
dt
d2h
- lc do gia tc ca khi M gy nn.
dt 2
Hay:
M
d2h0
dz
d2z
=
+ F + Cz
M
2
2
dt
dt
dt
(7.9)
Cm bin o tc tng i.
Hoc:
p 2 02
z
= 2
h0 p
p
+ 2
+1
2
0
0
Vi:
C
= 2f0 l tn s ring ca M trn l xo c cng C.
M
0 =
=
F
l h s tt dn.
2 CM
m
s
s
= 2.
= S 1 .S 2
m1 m1 m 2
Trong :
S1 =
m2
l nhy c ca i lng o s cp.
m1
S2 =
s
l nhy ca cm bin th cp.
m2
1
2
3
4
M
b
b
m2
p / 02
z
=
= 2
m1 ph 0 p
p
+ 2
+1
2
0
0
1 dz
R dt
7.2.3. Gia tc k p in
a) Cu to v nguyn l hot ng
1
M
b) c trng ca cm bin
Q
= S 1S 2
a
Trong :
a - gia tc ca cm bin.
Q - in tch c to ra khi cm bin rung vi gia tc a.
S1 - nhy c ca h thng khi lng rung.
S2 - nhy in ca cm bin.
Gi tr ca S1 v S2 xc nh nh sau:
S1 =
z
=
a
1
2
2 + 2
0
0
02
Q
= dC
z
S2 =
1
1+ 0
Trong :
d - hng s in mi.
c - cng ca phn t nhy cm.
=
1
- tn s tt di ca h thng cm bin - mch o.
7.2.4. Gia tc k p tr
3
2
G
1
V
S = S 1S 2 = . m
a
- nhy in ca cu Wheatstone S1: v 4 u o u c cng mt bin dng nn
in p ra Vm ca u o bng:
Vm = e s
R
= e s K
R
Suy ra:
S 2 = Ke s
Trong :
es - in p nui cu (10 - 15 V).
K - h s u o p tr.
R - in tr mt u o.
- nhy c S1 ca h thng c kh xc nh theo biu thc:
S1 =
02
1
+ 2
2
0
0
Yle 3
4 L3 M
be
L3
Chng VIII
vi din tch ca n:
p=
dF
ds
(8.1)
i vi cc cht lng, kh hoc hi (gi chung l cht lu), p sut l mt thng
s quan trng xc nh trng thi nhit ng hc ca chng. Trong cng nghip, vic
o p sut cht lu c ngha rt ln trong vic m bo an ton cho thit b cng nh
gip cho vic kim tra v iu khin hot ng ca my mc thit b c s dng cht
lu.
Trong h n v quc t (SI) n v p sut l pascal (Pa): 1 Pa l p sut to bi
mt lc c ln bng 1N phn b ng u trn mt din tch 1m2 theo hng php
tuyn.
n v Pa tng i nh nn trong cng nghip ngi ta cn dng n v p sut l
bar (1 bar = 105 Pa) v mt s n v khc.
Bng 8.1 trnh by cc n v o p sut v h s chuyn i gia chng.
Bng 8.1
n v
pascal
bar
p sut
(Pa)
(b)
10-5
1,02.10-5
105
9,8.104
kg/cm2
atmotsphe
mmH2O
mmHg
mbar
0,987.10-5
1,02.10-1
0,75.10-2
10-2
1,02
0,987
1,02.104
750
103
0,980
0,986
104
735
9,80.102
1,013.105
1,013
1,033
1,033.104
760
1,013.103
1mmH2O
9,8
9,8.10-5
10-3
0,968.10-4
0,0735
0,098
1mmHg
133,3
13,33.10-4
1,36.10-3
1,315.10-3
136
1,33
100
10-3
1,02.10-3
0,987.10-3
1,02
0,750
1Pascal
1 bar
1 kg/cm2
1 atm
1mbar
(atm)
(8.2)
Do vy o p sut cht lu thc cht l xc nh lc tc dng ln mt din tch thnh
bnh. i vi cht lu khng chuyn ng cha trong mt ng h t thng ng, p
sut tnh ti mt im M cch b mt t do mt khong (h) xc nh theo cng thc
sau:
p = p 0 + gh
(8.3)
Trong :
p0 - p sut kh quyn.
(8.4)
p sut tnh tng ng vi p sut gy nn khi cht lng khng chuyn ng, c o
pd =
v 2
2
(8.5)
Trong l khi lng ring cht lu.
Khi dng chy va p vung gc vi mt mt phng, p sut ng chuyn thnh
p sut tnh, p sut tc dng ln mt phng l p sut tng. Do vy, p sut ng c
o thng qua o chnh lch gia p sut tng v p sut tnh. Thng thng vic o
hiu (p - pt) thc hin nh hai cm bin ni vi hai u ra ca mt ng Pitot, trong
cm bin (1) o p sut tng cn cm bin (2) o p sut tnh.
cm bin
2
cm bin
1
2
pt
nh c tit din f (hnh 8.3). Cht lng lm vic l thu ngn hay du bin p. Khi o,
p sut ln (p1) c a vo bnh ln, p sut b (p2) c a vo bnh nh. trnh
cht lng lm vic phun ra ngoi khi cho p sut tc ng v mt pha ngi ta m van
(4) v khi p sut hai bn cn bng van (4) c kho li.
Trong :
g - gia tc trng trng.
Suy ra:
h1 =
p2
p1
6
4
1
.(p p )
(1 + F / f )( m )g 1 2
7
(8.6)
Khi mc cht lng trong bnh ln thay
h2
3
2
h1
1
p2
p2
dx
B
dH
p1
dy
p1
a)
b)
Khi p sut trong bung (A) v (B) bng nhau th np chung (1) v tr cn bng
(hnh8.4a), khi c bin thin chnh p d(p1-p2) >0 th chung c nng ln (hnh
8.4b). Khi t cn bng ta c:
d(p1 p 2 ).F = (dH + dy )f .g( m )
(8.8)
Vi:
dh = dx + dy
d(p1 p 2 ) = dh( m )g
fdy = f .dH + ( F )dx
Trong :
F - tit din ngoi ca chung.
dH - di chuyn ca chung.
dy - dch chuyn ca mc cht lng trong chung.
dx - dch chuyn ca mc cht lng ngoi chung.
f
d(p1 p 2 )
f .g( m )
Ly tch phn gii hn t 0 n (p1 - p2) nhn c phng trnh c tnh tnh ca
p k vi sai kiu chung:
H=
f
(p1 p 2 )
f .g( m )
(8.9)
khng.
8.3. Cm bin p sut da trn php o bin dng
J2
J4
J3
2
a)
b)
Trong :
p - p sut.
Y - m un Young.
- h s poisson.
r - bn knh trong ca ng.
e - chiu dy thnh ng.
chuyn tn hiu c (bin dng) thnh tn hiu in ngi ta dng b chuyn
i in (th d cm bin lc).
b) L xo ng
N
A
2b
Nr
R
2a
p
p
b)
a)
c)
Hnh 8.6 L xo ng
1 2 R2
.
Y
bh
b2
1
a2
+ x2
(8.10)
Trong :
- h s poisson.
Y - m un Young.
R - bn knh cong.
h - b dy thnh ng.
a, b - cc bn trc ca tit din van.
4
sin
+
sin
.
cos
+
x
Lc hng knh:
b 2 48s
cos
N r = pab1 2
.
= k2p
2
a + x sin . cos
(8.12)
N = k 12 + k 22 .p = kp
(8.13)
Vi k = k 12 + k 22 = f(a, b, h, R, ) .
Bng cch thay i t s a/b v gi tr ca R, h, ta c th thay i c gi tr ca
, N v nhy ca php o.
L xo ng mt vng c gc quay nh, tng gc quay ngi ta dng l xo ng
nhiu vng c cu to nh hnh (8.6b). i vi l xo ng dng vng thng phi s
dng thm cc c cu truyn ng tng gc quay.
to ra gc quay ln ngi ta dng l xo xon c tit din van hoc hnh rng
kha nh hnh 8.6c, gc quay thng t 40 - 60o, do kim ch th c th gn trc tip
trn u t do ca l xo.
L xo ng ch to bng ng thau c th o p sut di 5 MPa, hp kim nh
hoc thp di 1.000 MPa, cn trn 1.000 MPa phi dng thp gi.
c) Xiphng
p
r
2Rb
2Rng
dng ca p sut. Trong gii hn tuyn tnh, t s gia lc tc dng v bin dng ca
xiphng l khng i v c gi l cng ca xiphng. tng cng thng
ngi ta t thm vo trong ng mt l xo. Vt liu ch to l ng, thp cacbon, thp
hp kim ... ng knh xiphng t 8 - 100mm, chiu dy thnh 0,1 - 0,3 mm.
dch chuyn () ca y di tc dng ca lc chiu trc (N) xc nh theo
cng thc:
= N.
1 2
n
2
Yh 0
A 0 A1 + A 2 + B 0 h / R 2b
(8.14)
Trong :
h0 - chiu dy thnh ng xiphng.
n - s np lm vic.
- gc bt kn.
- h s poisson.
A0, A1, B0 - cc h s ph thuc Rng/Rtr, r/R+r.
Rng, Rtr - bn knh ngoi v bn knh trong ca xi phng.
r - bn knh cong ca np un.
(R ng +R tr )2 p
5
(8.15)
d) Mng
p
Hnh 8.8 S mng o p sut
3
pR 4
1 2
16
Yh 3
(8.16)
a=
b 3 pR 4
+
=
h h3
Yh 4
(8.17)
D 2
.p
12
(8.19)
Vi D l ng knh mng.
i vi mng do tm cng, lc di chuyn to nn tm mng xc nh bi biu
thc:
D 2 + Dd + d 2
N=
.p
12
(8.20)
Khi s dng cm bin o p sut bng phn t bin dng, chuyn i tn hiu
c trung gian thnh tn hiu in ngi ta dng cc b chuyn i. Theo cch chuyn
i ngi ta chia cc b chuyn i thnh hai loi:
- Bin i s dch chuyn ca phn t bin dng thnh tn hiu o. Cc chuyn i
loi ny thng dng l: cun cm, bin p vi sai, in dung, in tr...
- Bin i ng sut thnh tn hiu o. Cc b chuyn i l cc phn t p in
hoc p tr.
a) B bin i o p sut kiu in cm
Cu to ca b chuyn i kiu
in cm biu din trn hnh 8.10. B
chuyn i gm tm st t ng gn
p
1
W2
l tb / (S tb ) + / ( 0 S 0 )
(8.21)
Trong :
W - s vng dy ca cun dy.
ltb, Stb: chiu di v din tch trung bnh ca li t.
S0
bin i cm ng:
L = W 2 . 0
S0
kp
(8.22)
o t cm L ngi ta dng cu o xoay chiu hoc mch cng hng LC.
B bin i p sut kiu bin p vi sai (hnh 8.11) gm mt l xo vng (1) v phn
t bin i (2). Phn t bin i gm mt khung cch in trn qun cun s cp
(7). Cun th cp gm hai cun dy (4) v (5) qun ngc chiu nhau. Li thp di
R1
I1
R2
Ur
Nguyn l lm vic: dng in I1 chy trong cun s cp sinh ra t thng bin thin
trong hai na cun th cp, lm xut hin trong hai na cun dy ny cc sut in
ng cm ng e1 v e2:
e1 = 2f .I1M1
e 2 = 2 f .I1M 2
(8.23)
(8.24)
max
2 fI1M max
max
(8.25)
p1
p2
3
1
a)
b)
s
+ 0
(8.26)
Trong :
C1 C 2
= K( p1 p 2 )
C1 + C 2
(8.27)
bin i bin thin in dung C thnh tn hiu o lng, thng dng mch
cu xoay chiu hoc mch vng cng hng LC.
B cm bin kiu in dung o c p sut n 120 MPa, sai s (0,2 - 5)%.
3.2.4. B bin i kiu p tr
R4
60o
R1
R3
R2
JT
a)
b)
I
(R1 R 2 + R 3 R 4 ) = IR
4
(8.28)
B chuyn i kiu p in, dng phn t bin i l phn t p in, cho php bin
i trc tip ng lc di tc ng ca lc F do p sut gy nn thnh tn hiu in.
D
d
Trc in
Trc quang
a)
b)
Q = kF
Vi F = p.S, do :
Q = kpS
Trong :
k - hng s p in, trong trng hp thch anh k = 2,22.10-12 C/N.
4dh
D d2
2
(8.29)
Trong :
D, d - ng knh ngoi v ng knh trong ca phn t p in.
h - chiu cao phn ph kim loi.
Gii hn trn ca cm bin p sut dng b bin i p in t 2,5 - 100 MPa,
cp chnh xc 1,5;2. B bin i p in c hi p tn s rt tt nn thng dng
o p sut thay i nhanh, tuy nhin chng c nhc im l nhy cm vi s thay i
nhit .
Chng IX
Lu lng cht lu l lng cht lu chy qua tit din ngang ca ng trong mt
n v thi gian. Tu theo n v tnh lng cht lu (theo th tch hoc khi lng)
ngi ta phn bit:
- Lu lng th tch (Q) tnh bng m3/s, m3/gi ...
- Lu lng khi (G) tnh bng kg/s, kg/gi ...
Lu lng trung bnh trong khong thi gian t = t2 - t1 xc nh bi biu thc:
Q tb =
V
m
hoc G tb =
t
t
(9.1)
Trong V, m l th tch v khi lng cht lu chy qua ng trong thi khong
gian kho st.
Lu lng tc thi xc nh theo cng thc:
Q=
dV
dt
hoc
G=
dm
dt
(9.2)
m trc tip th tch cht lu chy qua cng t trong mt khong thi gian
xc nh t.
Cng t th tch o th tch cht lu chy qua cng t bng cc m trc tip
lng th tch i qua bung cha c th tch xc nh ca cng t.
S nguyn l ca cng t th tch kiu bnh rng hnh van trnh by trn hnh
9.1.
Cngt gm hai bnh rng hnh van (1) v (2) truyn ng n khp vi nhau
(hnh 9.1a). Di tc ng ca dng cht lng, bnh rng (2) quay v truyn chuyn
ng ti bnh rng (1) (hnh 9.1b) cho n lc bnh rng (2) v tr thng ng, bnh
rng (1) nm ngang. Cht lng trong th tch V1 c y sang ca ra. Sau bnh
rng (1) quay v qu trnh tng t lp li, th tch cht lng trong bung V2 c y
sang ca ra. Trong mt vng quay ca cngt th tch cht lng qua cngt bng bn
ln th tch V0 (bng V1 hoc V2). Trc ca mt trong hai bnh rng lin kt vi c cu
m t ngoi cngt.
V2
V1
a)
b)
c)
Hay:
F
(N 2 N1 )
(9.8)
k
F t2
Vi N 2 N1 = ndt
k t1
Cng t tc tuabin hng trc vi ng knh tuabin t 50 - 300 mm c phm
vi o t 50 - 300 m3/gi, cp chnh xc 1; 1,5; 2.
o lu lng nh ngi ta dng cng t tc kiu tip tuyn c s cu
to nh hnh 9.4.
Tuabin cng t (1) t trn trc quay vung gc vi dng chy. Cht lu qua
mng lc (2) qua ng dn (3) vo cng t theo hng tip tuyn vi tuabin lm quay
tuabin. C cu m lin kt vi trc tuabin a tn hiu n mch o.
V=
a) Nguyn l o
Cc cm bin loi ny hot ng da trn nguyn tc o gim p sut ca
dng chy khi i qua mng ngn c l thu hp. Trn hnh 9.5 trnh by s nguyn l
o lu lng dng mng ngn tiu chun.
Khi chy qua l thu hp ca mng ngn, vn tc cht lu tng ln v t cc i
(W2) ti tit din B-B, do to ra s chnh p trc v sau l thu hp. S dng mt p
k vi sai o chnh p ny c th xc nh c lu lng ca dng chy.
Gi s cht lng khng b nn, v dng chy l lin tc, vn tc cc i ca dng
chy ti tit din B-B c xc nh theo biu thc:
1
2
(p1 p 2 )
W2 =
2
2
Trong :
p1, p2 - p sut tnh ti tit din A-A v B-B.
- t trng cht lu.
- h s tn tht thu lc.
m - t s thu hp ca mng ngn, m = F0/F1.
- h s thu hp dng chy, = F2/F0.
F0
F1 A
B F2
W1
C
W2
p1
p2
p
p1
p1
p
p3
p2
p2
2m2
v lu lng khi lng ca cht lu:
G = W2 F2 = W2 F0 =
2
(p1 p 2 )
2m2
F0 2(p 1 p 2 )
Hay:
G = F0 2(p 1 p 2 )
(9.9)
Vi =
gi l h s lu lng.
2m2
T cc biu thc trn v F0 = d2/4, ta nhn c cng thc xc nh lu lng khi
(G) v lu lng th tch (Q) ca dng cht lu:
d 2
G=
2(p 1 p 2 )
4
(9.10)
d 2 2
(p1 p 2 )
Q=
(9.11)
4
Trong trng hp mi trng cht lu chu nn, th khi p sut gim, cht lu
gin n, lm tng tc dng chy so vi khi khng chu nn, do phi a thm
vo h s hiu chnh ( < 1), khi cc phng trnh trn c dng:
G = c (p 1 p 2 )
(9.12)
1
Q = c (p 1 p 2 )
(9.13)
y:
c = 2 / 4 l hng s.
- t trng cht lu ti ca vo ca l thu hp.
i vi cc dng cht lu c tr s Reynol nh hn gi tr ti hn, khi o khng
th dng mng ngn l thu hp tiu chun v khi h s lu lng khng phi l
hng s. Trong trng hp ny, ngi ta dng cc mng ngn c l thu hp c bit
nh mng ngn c l cn (hnh 9.6a), gicl hnh tr (hnh 9.6b), gicl cong (hnh 9.6c)
... Trn c s thc nghim ngi ta xc nh h s lu lng cho mi l thu hp v xem
nh khng i trong phm vi s Reynol gii hn.
c)
b)
a)
b) S h dng
thngo
o lu lng dng chy cht lu c s Reynol nh
Tu theo yu cu s dng, ngi ta c th s dng h thng o thch hp. Trn
hnh 9.7 trnh by s khi ca mt s h thng o dng mng chn.
1
5
4
3
7
a)
b)
c)
4
6
1
Q
10
11
3
4
6
12
7
9.1.5. Lu lng k in t
3
4
6
d)
4B
Q
D
(9.14)
Trong :
B - cng t trng.
W- tc trung bnh ca dng chy.
D - ng knh trong ca ng.
Q - lu lng th tch ca cht lu.
Khi B = const th E sc in ng cm ng t l vi lu lng th tch Q.
Lu lng k in t vi t trng khng i c nhc im l trn cc cc xut
hin cc sc in ng ph (do phn cc) lm sai lch kt qu o. khc phc nhc
im trn, ngi ta dng lu lng k in t dng nam chm in xoay chiu, tuy
nhin t trng xoay chiu li lm mo tn hiu ra.
Lu lng k in t c dng o lu lng ca cht lng c dn in
khng nh hn 10-5 - 10-6 Simen/m. Chng c u im: o lu lng khng cn phi o
t trng cht lng, cc phn t ht, bt kh v tc ng ca mi trng (nh nhit , p
sut, ...) nu chng khng lm thay i dn in ca cht lu s khng nh hng
n kt qu o.
Lu lng k in t vi ng knh ng t 10 - 1.000 mm c th o lu lng
trong t 1 - 2.500 m3/gi vi vn tc dng chy t 0,6 - 10 m/s vi cp chnh xc 1;
2,5.
9.2. Cm bin o v pht hin mc cht lu
9.2.1. Mc ch v phng php o
Mc ch vic o v pht hin mc cht lu l xc nh mc hoc khi lng
cht lu trong bnh cha.
C hai dng o: o lin tc v xc nh theo ngng.
Khi o lin tc bin hoc tn s ca tn hiu o cho bit th tch cht lu cn
li trong bnh cha. Khi xc nh theo ngng, cm bin a ra tn hiu dng nh phn
cho bit thng tin v tnh trng hin ti mc ngng c t hay khng.
C ba phng php hay dng trong k thut o v pht hin mc cht lu:
- Phng php thu tnh dng bin i in.
- Phng php in da trn tnh cht in ca cht lu.
- Phng php bc x da trn s tng tc gia bc x v cht lu.
9.2.2. Phng php thu tnh
Phng php thu tnh dng o mc cht lu trong bnh cha. Trn hnh 9.9
gii thiu mt s s o mc bng phng php thu tnh.
2
2
3
p0
h
5
h
1
Trong :
P - trng lng phao.
h - chiu cao phn ngp trong cht lu ca phao.
S - tit din mt ct ngang ca phao.
- khi lng ring ca cht lu.
g - gia tc trng trng.
Trn s hnh 9.9c, s dng mt cm bin p sut vi sai dng mng (1) t st
y bnh cha. Mt mt ca mng cm bin chu p sut cht lu gy ra:
p = p 0 + gh
h
hmin
a)
b)
c)
b) Cm bin t in
Khi cht lng l cht cch in, c th to t in bng hai in cc hnh tr
nhng trong cht lng hoc mt in cc kt hp vi in cc th hai l thnh bnh
cha nu thnh bnh lm bng kim loi. Cht in mi gia hai in cc chnh l cht
lng phn in cc b ngp v khng kh phn khng c cht lng. Vic o mc
cht lu c chuyn thnh o in dung ca t in, in dung ny thay i theo mc
cht lng trong bnh cha. iu kin p dng phng php ny hng s in mi
ca cht lng phi ln hn ng k hng s in mi ca khng kh (thng l gp
i).
Trong trng hp cht lu l cht dn in, to t in ngi ta dng mt
in cc kim loi bn ngoi c ph cch in, lp ph ng vai tr cht in mi cn
cht lu ng vai tr in cc th hai.
9.2.4. Phng php bc x
Cm bin bc x cho php o mc cht lu m khng cn tip xc vi mi
trng o, u im ny rt thch hp khi o mc iu kin mi trng o c nhit ,
p sut cao hoc mi trng c tnh n mn mnh.
Trong phng php ny cm bin gm mt ngun pht tia (1) v b thu (2) t
hai pha ca bnh cha. Ngun pht thng l mt ngun bc x tia (ngun 60Co
hoc 137Cs), b thu l mt bung ion ho.
ch pht hin mc ngng(hnh 9.11a), ngun pht v b thu t i din
nhau v tr ngang mc ngng cn pht hin, chm tia ca ngun pht mnh v gn
nh song song. Tu thuc vo mc cht lu (3) cao hn hay thp hn mc ngng m
chm tia n b thu s b suy gim hoc khng, b thu s pht ra tn hiu tng ng
vi cc trng thi so vi mc ngng.
ch o mc lin tc (hnh 9.11b), ngun pht (1) pht ra chm tia vi mt
gc m rng qut ln ton b chiu cao ca mc cht lu cn kim trav b thu.
a)
b)
Hnh 9.11 Cm bin o mc bng tia bc x
a) Cm bin pht hin ngng b) Cm bin o mc lin tc
1) Ngun pht tia bc x 2) B thu 3) Cht lu
Chng X
Chc nng thu thp s liu o t nhiu i lng o khc nhau vi cc khong
o khc nhau.
-
Tin hnh tnh ton a ra kt qu o khi thc hin cc php o gin tip hay
hp b hoc o thng k.
-
M ho tn hiu.
C kh nng t ng khc .
S dng P c th thc hin cc php tnh nh: cng, tr, nhn chia, tch
phn, vi phn, php tuyn tnh ho c tnh phi tuyn ca cm bin, iu khin qu
trnh o, iu khin s lm vic ca cc khu khc nh: chuyn i tng t - s (A/D)
hay cc b dn knh (MUX)...
i tng o
S1
S21
CCH1
CCH2
MUX
..
.
Sn
CCHn
A
D
Chng trnh thu thp d liu: khi ng cc thit b nh ngn xp, cng thng tin
Chng trnh giao din: a hin th ra LED hay mn hnh, my in, c bn phm
v x l chng trnh bn phm, a kt qu ra cng thng tin hay truyn vo mng, hay gi
cho my tnh cp trn.
10.3. Cc khu chc nng ca cm bin thng minh
CCH
Thay cc gi tr u vo v u ra ca CCH ta c:
0 = y 0 + kX 1
Y = y 0 + kX 2
Gii ra ta c:
X1
y 0 = Y X X
2
1
Y
k =
X 2 X1
(10.1)
y = Y
X1
Y
+
x
X 2 X1 X 2 X1
(10.2)
0.
thc hin vic tr i gi tr ban u ngi ta thng s dng khu t ng b tn
hiu u vo hoc thay i h s phn hi ca b khuch i.
Ta xt v d sau y s CCH s dng cp nhit, c u ra l p mt chiu (hnh
10.3).
tx
V0
Vra=0Vx
-V0
C-K
C-A
R1
Rt
-P
R2
R3
4 mA
4 - 20 mA
CCH
23
22
B
bin i
K7
Phng php trng s: vic so snh din ra cho tng bit ca s nh phn.
DC INPUT 3
9
14
+ 2V
+ 5V
- 5V
2
24
VI
DU
EOC
VRREP
CIK2
OR
Q0
17
7
0,1C
4
CIK1
Q1
MC1443
Q2
Q3
13 1
10
11
15
330K
20
21
22
23
u vo
8 knh
VCC
+ 5V
G
IN0
IN1
IN2
IN3
IN4
IN5
IN6
IN7
REF +
REF
22 ALE
10
Clock
START 6
ENABLE 9
23
ADD -C
24
ADD -B
ADD -A 25
D0
D1
D2
D3
ADC 0809 D4
D5
D6
D7
15
17
14
18
8
19
20
21
u ra
8 bit
START
Clock
K
thi gian
8 knh
vo
MUX
SAR
Cht
So snh
a ch
A
B
C
B kho
cy
a ch
8 bit
u ra
knh
ALE
OE
256
RESTOR
B chuyn i A/D 0809 l mt chip gi theo tiu chun 28 chn ch to theo cng
ngh CMOS. ADC 0809 khng c mch b zr ph v mch chnh full-scale. ADC
0809 c u im l d dng kt ni vi P hay C v c cung cp cht a ch knh
v cht TTL - TRISTATE u ra, c tc cao, chnh xc cao v t ph thuc
vo nhit , tiu th cng sut nh.
10.4. Cc thut ton x l trong cm bin thng minh
x()
x*()
0
x()
0
0
x0 c nh vo RAM ca P.
gi tr 1 ta c x1.
x1 c nh vo RAM ca P.
gi tr 2 ta c x2.
x2 c nh vo RAM ca P.
im x0 v x1:
( 2 , 0 ) =
x2 x0
2 0
x1* (1 ) = x 0 + ( 2 , 0 )(1 0 )
gi tr 3 ta c x3.
Nh x3 vo RAM ca P.
x3 x0
3 0
x *2 (1 ) = x 0 + ( 3 , 0 )(1 0 )
x *2 ( 2 ) = x 0 + ( 3 , 0 )( 2 0 )
im k ta c xk m a thc ni suy s l:
x *k 1 ( ) = x 0 + ( k , 0 ) 0
Vi
( k , 0 ) =
x k x0
k 0
M ta c:
( )
( )
k 1 j = x j x *k j 0
Vi j l mt im no nm trong khong 0 n k.
-
Vi php ni suy tuyn tnh qu trnh hi phc s c tin hnh theo cch
x k x0
( 0 )
k 0
x i +1 x i
( i )
i +1 i
(10.3)
Khi tnh ton sai s ngu nhin, ngi ta thng s dng cc c tnh ca chng,
l k vng ton hc v lch bnh qun phng. Cc c trng thng k ny
nh gi sai s ca kt qu o. Vic tnh cc c tnh s ny l ni dung c bn trong
qu trnh gia cng kt qu o.
tnh k vng ton hc v lch bnh qun phng ta phi c s lng php o
rt ln. Tuy nhin trong thc t s lng cc php o n l c hn, v th ta ch tm c
c lng ca k vng ton hc v lch bnh qun phng m thi. Thng cc c
lng ny i vi cc i lng o vt l c cc tnh cht c bn l cc c lng c
cn c, khng chch v c hiu qu.
Nu gi * l c lng ca c tnh thng k th:
lim P * = 0
(10.4)
th c lng * c gi l c lng c cn c.
-
(10.5)
2
2
M *i > M 1*
(10.6)
[ ]
1 N 1 N
M m *x = M X i = M X i
N i =1 N i =1
=
(10.7)
1 N
1
M[X i ] = .N.m x = m x
N i =1
N
[ ]
M D *x = D x = 2x
(10.8)
xi
n
(10.9)
i =1
Trong :
x1, x2, . . . , xn - kt qu ca cc php o ring bit.
n - s cc php o.
c lng k vng ton hc ca m *x ca i lng o s bng X .
(10.10)
Vi vi l sai s d.
Sai s d c cc tnh cht sau y:
-
vi
=0
i =1
v 2i
= Min
(10.11)
i =1
Nhng tnh cht ny c s dng khi gia cng kt qu o kim tra chnh xc
ca vic tnh X .
Theo tng bnh phng ca tt c cc sai s d ngi ta xc nh c lng lch
bnh qun phng *, tiu biu cho mc nh hng ca sai s ngu nhin n kt
qu o.
Theo l thuyt xc sut vic tnh * c thc hin theo cng thc Besel:
* =
v 2i /(n 1)
(10.12)
i =1
Vic chia tng bnh phng sai s d cho (n-1) thay cho n c th chp nhn c v
kt qu gn bng nhau v n cng ln th s sai lch cng nh. c lng lch bnh
qun phng * c trng cho chnh xc ca mt dy php o v c xc nh
bi mt tp cc iu kin o (cc c tnh k thut ca dng c o, cc c im ca
ngi lm th nghim, cc yu t bn ngoi nh hng n php o). c lng *
c trng cho phn tn ca kt qu o xung quanh gi tr trung bnh i s ca n.
V gi tr trung bnh i s cn c mt sai s ngu nhin no , nn ta a ra khi
nim c lng lch bnh phng ca gi tr trung bnh i s:
(x i x )
n
*X =
i =1
n (n 1) )
v 2i
i =1
n(n 1) )
*
n
(10.13)
n.
c lng im ca sai s php o khng hon chnh bi v *X ch th hin khong
(10.15)
0,5
0,9
0,95
0,98
0,99
0,999
1,000
6,31
12,7
31,8
63,7
637
0,816
2,92
4,30
6,96
9,92
31,6
0,765
2,35
2,35
4,54
5,84
13,0
0,741
2,13
2,78
3,75
4,60
8,61
0,727
2,02
2,57
3,36
4,04
6,86
0,718
1,94
2,49
3,14
3,71
5,96
0,711
1,90
2,36
3,00
3,50
5,40
0,706
1,86
2,31
2,90
3,36
5,04
10
0,703
1,83
2,26
2,82
3,25
4,49
12
0,697
1,80
2,20
2,72
3,10
4,78
14
0,694
1,77
2,16
2,65
3,01
4,49
16
0,691
1,75
2,13
2,60
2,99
4,07
18
0,689
1,74
2,11
2,57
2,90
3,96
20
0,688
1,73
2,09
2,54
2,86
3,88
25
0,684
1,71
2,06
2,49
2,80
3,74
31
0,683
1,70
2,04
2,46
2,75
3,65
41
0,681
1,68
2,02
2,42
2,70
3,55
61
0,679
1,67
2,00
2,39
2,66
3,46
121
0,677
1,65
1,98
2,36
2,62
3,37
0,674
1,64
1,96
2,33
2,58
3,29
(n / 2 )!
1
.
(n 1).[(n 1) / 2] (1 + t 2 / n )n / 2
(10.16)
t = X X 0 / *x .
n - s ln o.
Trng hp n ( thc t n 20) th phn b Student s tin n phn b chun,
lc hst c th thay th bng h s k nh biu thc 10.14.
Nh vy kt qu o vi c
Bt u
'
1,2
n php o xi
K vng ton hc M[x ] = X
Sai s d v i = x i X
n
Tnh
vi
i =1
v2
=0
Khi tnh ton cc sai s ngu nhin ca php o gin tip cn phi nh rng i
lng cn o Y c quan h hm vi mt hay nhiu i lng o trc tip X1, X2, . . . ,
Xn, tc l:
Y = f (X 1 , X 2 ,..., X n )
(10.20)
Y
Y
X 12 +
Y =
X 1
X 2
Y
X 22 + ... +
X n
X 2n
(10.21)
v sai s tng i ca kt qu o s l:
Y
Y
X
=
= 1
Y
Y
Y X 2 Y
+
X 1 Y X 2
X Y
+ ... + n
Y X n
(10.22)
Y 2 Y 2
Y 2
X +
X + ... +
X
=
X
1
21
n
1
(10.23)
Y
X l sai s ring ca php o gin tip th i.
y
X i
i
bng 10.2 trnh by biu thc tnh sai s tuyt i v sai s tng i ca mt s
hm Y thng gp nht trong cc php o gin tip.
Bng 10.2
Sai s tuyt i Y
Hm Y
X1 + X2
Sai s tng i Y =
(X 1 )2 + (X 2 )2
X1
X2
[X (X )
2
1
+ X (X 2 ) X
2
X 1 X 2
+
X1 X 2
4
2
n(X / X )
nX n 1 X
Xn
+ (X 2 ) / (X 1 + X 2 )
2
2
2
X 1 X 2
+
X1 X 2
X 12 (X 2 ) + X 22 (X 1 )
X1.X2
[(X )
Y
Y
10.4.5. B sai s
a) B sai s cng tnh
Trong cm bin c sai s cng tnh, ta c:
YX = K X X + Ya
KX =
Vi
(10.24)
Yi +1 Yi
.
X i +1 X i
CB
CB
YX = KXX + Ya
Y
Yi
Xi
Ta c:
Yi = K i X i + Ya
(10.25)
(10.26)
YX = XK X (1 k )
YX
CB
(10.27)
Y0
X0
(10.28)
X=
Nhn c
Y K0
X0
Y0 K X
(10.29)
c) B sai s do cc yu t nh hng
Mt trong nhng sai s kh loi tr nht trong cc cm bin l sai s do cc yu t
nh hng (hay cc yu t khng mang thng tin). Khi nghin cu cc cm bin,
ngi ta cng a vo cc bin php loi tr nhng yu t n nhng trong nhiu
cm bin nh hng
nhau cng mt cng ngh ch to, nh hng ny cng khc nhau, v th trong cc
cm bin thng minh ngi ta thng b nh hng ca cc yu t khng mang thng
tin ngay trn cm bin s dng. T phng trnh bin i ca cm bin ta c th vit
sai s:
Y =
F
F
F
X +
a +
b + ...
X
a
b
(10.30)
Trong
F
a l nh hng ca yu t a n kt qu o Y. Nh kh nng x l ca
a
X1
X2
A1
11
12
A2
21
22
Xj
Xn
...
1j
1n
...
2j
2n
...
Ai
i1
i2
...
ij
in
Am
m1
m2
....
mj
mn
Mc lc
Li m u
3
Chng I. Cc khi nim v c trng c bn
1.1. Khi nim v phn loi cm bin
5
1.1.1. Khi nim v cm bin
5
1.1.2. Phn loi cm bin
5
1.2. ng cong chun
7
1.2.1.
Khi nim
7
1.2.2.
1.3. Cc c trng c bn
9
1.3.1.
nhy
9
1.3.2.
tuyn tnh
11
1.3.3.
Sai s v chnh xc
12
1.3.4.
1.3.5.
1.5. Mch o
20
1.5.1. S mch o
20
1.5.2. Mt s phn t c bn ca mch o
21
Nhit k in tr
52
3.3.1. Nguyn l chung
52
3.3.2. Nhit k in tr kim loi
53
3.3.3. Nhit k in tr silic
56
3.3.4. Nhit k in tr oxyt bn dn
56
3.4.
Ho k
67
3.5.1. Ho k bc x tom phn
67
3.5.2. Ho k quang in
68
4.2.
in th k in tr
71
4.2.1.
4.2.2.
4.3.
Cm bin in cm
75
4.3.1.
Cm bin t cm
75
4.3.2.
Cm bin h cm
78
4.4.
Cm bin in dung
81
4.4.1.
Cm bin t n
81
4.4.2.
Cm bin t kp vi sai
83
4.4.3.
Mch o
84
4.5.
Cm bin quang
84
4.5.1.
4.5.2.
4.6.
nh ngha mt s i lng co hc
90
5.1.2.
Phng php o
bin dng
91
5.2. u o in tr kim loi
91
5.2.1.
Cu to v nguyn l hot ng
91
5.2.2.
Cc c trng ch yu
93
5.3. Cm bin p tr
silic
94
5.3.1.
Cu to v nguyn l hot ng
94
5.3.2.
Cc c trng ch yu
95
5.4. u o trong ch ng
96
5.4.1.
Tn s s dng
ti a
96
5.4.2.
Gii hn mi
97
5.5.
ng sut k dy rung
97
8.1.1. p sut v n v o
126
8.2.1.
8.2.2.
8.3.1.
131
8.3.2.
Cc b chuyn i in
135
Lu lng k in t
149
163