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INTRODUCERE

1.1.DEFINIbIE:

B aza de date reprezint o coleccie de date integrat, bine structurat, avnd o desc
riere ct mai exact a structurii _i a relaciilor dintre date.
Microsoft Access este o puternic aplicacie de date relacionale, care permit crearea 
unor baze de date simple sau complexe.
Spre deosebire de Excel, Access va permite s stocm _i s administrm volume mari de date, o
rganizate n unitci numite nregistrri. n sens exact o baza de date reprezint o coleccie de
nformacii stocate, date corelate ntre ele _i memorate pe suport extern (dispozitiv 
de stocare). Cel mai simplu _i uzual exemplu de baz de date este cartea de telefon.

1.2.  ISTORIC
T ermenul de baz de date apare n 1967 _i reprezint o coleccie de informacii corelate desp
re subiectul studiat, relaciile logice dintre aceste informacii _i tehnicile de pre
lucrare corespunztoare (sortare, regsire, apreciere, _tergere, adugare, inserare, modif
icare). 
La nceputul anilor 90, firma Microsoft Corporacion a lansat  aplicacia Access, apli
cacie care se bazeaz n  mare parte pe logica de stocare a sistemului FoxPro.
V ersiuni:
A ccess:
2 .0; 
7;
97; 
2000;
2002;
2003; 
MS Office Access 2007; 
MS Office Access 2010; 
MS Office Access 2013.

2. SISTEME DE GESTIONARE A BAZELOR DE DATE (SGBD).
2.1. DEFINIbIE: 
SGBD reprezint un  sistem de programe care faciliteaz _i supervizeaz introducerea de in
formacii n baze de date, actualizarea _i extragerea din baza, controlul _i autorizar
ea accesului la date. El reprezint o interfac ntre utilizator _i sistemul de operare.
Orice SGBD contine:
limbajul de descriere a datelor (LDD) = permite descrierea structurii BD, a comp
onentei, a relaciilor dintre componente, a drepturilor de acces a utilizatorilor 
la BD;
limbajul de cereri (LC) = limbajul n care se  scriu programele pentru  realizarea
prelucrrii datelor;
limbajul de prelucrare a datelor (LPD) = permite operacii asupra BD, cum ar fi nca
rcarea  BD, nserarea , _tergerea, cautarea sau modificarea unui element, realizare
a de statistici.

Administrarea BD presupune coordonarea lucrrilor de proiectare a BD, secur
itatea (proteccia) informaciei, dezvoltarea BD. Aceste funccii sunt ndeplinite de ca
tre Administratorul BD (ABD). El define_te obiectele sistemului, elaboreaz principi
ile de proteccie a datelor, rspunde de alegerea _i implementarea SGBD, asigur funcciona
rea  normal a sistemului. De proiectarea unei BD se ocup: anali_ti, programatori, adm
inistratori de recele.

 EXEMPLE DE SGBD.
C ele mai rspndite sunt :
Oracle.
I nformix.
S ybase.
M ySQL.
Interbase.
Access.

2.2. FUNCbIILE SGBD.



Un SGBD trebuie s ndeplineasc urmatoarele funccii:

de descriere, care rezid n definirea structurii datelor, a relaciilor dintre acestea
_i a condicilor de acces la informaciile concinute n baza de date;
de actualizare, care presupune nserarea, redactarea _i suprimarea datelor;
de interogare a BD, care permite obcinerea diferitor informacii din BD conform uno
r criterii de cutare;
d e obcinere de date noi, care const n prelucrarea informaciei iniciale n scopul obcineri
i unor totaluri, medii etc.;
de ntrecinere, care const n crearea copiilor de rezerv, compaletarea BD _i repararea ei n
cazul deteriorrii;
de securitate a datelor, care rezida n protejarea BD mpotriva accesului neautoriza
t _i n atribuirea drepturilor de acces. 


3. PROIECTAREA BAZELOR DE DATE


Proiectarea unei BD se face prin alegerea unui model de BD.

3.1. MODELE DE BAZE DE DATE.

Infunccie de modul de organizare a informaciilor, exist mai multe tipuri de 
baze de date:
m odelul ierarhic (arborescent);
modelul retea;
m odelul relacional.

Modelul ierarhic = cu ajutorul modelului conceptual ierarhic, schema baz
ei de date poate fi reprezentat sub forma unui arbore n care nodurile exprim coleccii 
de date, iar ramurile reflect relaciile de asociere ntre inregistrarile colecciilor d
e date superioare _i inferioare.

Accesul la inregistrrile colecciilor de date inferioare se face prin traver
sarea arborelui, adic se parcurg toate colecciile aflate n subordonare ierarhic dintre
coleccia  rdcina _i coleccia cercetata. Unui element superior i pot corespunde unul sau
mai multe elemente inferioare, iar unui element inferior i corespunde un singur 
element superior.

 n modelul ierarhic se foloseste nociune de element virtual, care nlocuie_te 
dublura unui element prin adresa elementului respectiv, fiecare lement apare ast
fel o singura dat n baza de date. 
Modelul retea = modelul recea se aseamn cu cel ierarhic, diferenca constnd n aceea c unui 
element inferior i pot corespunde unul sau mai multe elemente superioare.
ntr-o recea, nodurile corespund entitcilor _i relaciile sunt reprezentate prin sgeci ntre n
oduri: sgeci simple _i sgeci duble.
Operaciile cele mai frecvente pentru modelul recea se mpart n doua categorii:
cutarea unor elemente ale unor entitci cu anumite proprietci sau cautarea unor  informaci
i prin utilizarea  legturilor ntre entitci;
navigarea n receaua de date.
Modelul  relacional = este cel mai rspndit model de baze de date. Acest model are o 
singur structur de date: tabelul sau relacia. Access creaz o categorie special de baze de
date, numite baze de date relacionale (BDR). O baz de date realcionale mparte  infor
maciile n sub-seturi diferite. Fiecare sub-set grupeaz informaciile  n funccie de o anu
mit tem, ca de exemplu informacii despre pacienci, despre vanzare, despre produse. n Ac
cess aceste sub-seturi  de date se gsesc n tabele individuale .
Access permite stabilirea de relacii ntre tabele. Aceste relacii se bazeaz pe un cmp c
are este comun unei perechi de tabele. Fiecare tabel trebuie s concin un cmp numit che
ie primara . Cheia primar trebuie s identifice n mod unic  fiecare nregistrare din tae
l. A_adar, cmpul cheie primara este, n mod caracteristic, un cmp care atribuie o val
oare numeric unic fiecrei nregistrri (fr duplicate n tabelul respectiv).
De exemplu, un tabel numit Clienci (Customer) poate concine un cmp Identificator Cl
ient (Customer ID) care identific fiecare client pe baza unei valori numerice unic

e - de exemplu codul numeric personal (CNP).

P n _i o baza de date simpl este alcatuit din numeroase tabele corelate.
3.2. PRINCIPII DE PROIECTARE A BAZEI DE DATE
Structura bazei de date poate fi considerat ca modul n care va arta tabelul fr nici o inf
ormacie n el (aspectul tabelului). Pentru a descrie structura tabelului trebuie s _ti
m:
numrul de cmpuri (coloane ) din tabel;
numele cmpurilor (titlurile coloanelor);
tipul de date al fiecrui cmp.
nainte de a crea o baz de date, este foarte important planificarea ei. 
Cnd planifici o baz de date trebuie s cii cont de urmtoarele aspecte: aceasta nu este co
nceput numai pentru a introduce date, ci _i pentru vizualizarea _i raportarea datelo
r incluse n diferite tabele care alcatuiesc baza de date. 
Determinarea tabelelor.
Tehnic vorbind, avem nevoie de un singur tabel pentru a alctui o BD. Deoarece Acce
ss este un program de baze de date relacionale, este conceput pentru manipularea 
unui numr mare de tabele _i pentru crearea de relacii ntre acestea. De exemplu ntr-o B
D care cine evidenca paciencilor pot fi incluse urmatoarele tabele:
pacienci;
z ile de spitalizare;
analize efectuate;
c osturi totale,  etc. 
Determinarea formularelor:
Formularele sunt utilizate pentru  introducerea datelor nregistrare dup nregistrare.

D eterminarea interogrilor:
Interogrile sunt folosite pentru a obcine informacii utile de care avem nevoie dup inf
ormaciile stocate n baza noastr de date, ex: dac pacientul este sau nu asigurat, anali
ze efectuate, costuri etc.
Determinarea rapoartelor: 
Un raport este utilizat pentru publicarea datelor din BD. Acesta insereaz datele nt
r-una sau mai multe pagini, ntr-un format u_or de citit. Rapoartele sunt menite a 
fi tiprite, spre deosebire de tabele _i formulare, care sunt de obicei pe ecran. De
exemplu, dorim un raport despre paciencii sub 18 ani sau unul despre paciencii ca
re sufer de boli cronice.
Un raport poate extrage date din diferite tabel simultan, poate efectua calcule 
cu aceste date _i poate prezenta rezultate frumos formatate, foarte utile pentru 
cei care nu stau alturi de noi n faca calculatorului.
Lansarea n execucie a programului Access se face n funccie de modul n care l-am insta
lat:
Clic pe Start, apoi opciunea All Programs, apoi clic pe Microsoft Office Access 2
003.
Prin crearea unei pictograme de acces rapid (Create Shortcut), efectum dublu clic 
pe pictograma respectiv.
Obcinem o fereastr asemanatoare cu cea din figura de mai jos:


Figura 1.

C rearea / accesarea unei baze de date
Crearea unei baze de date Microsoft Access 2003 se realizeaz fie pornind de la o b
az de date blank, fie de la un _ablon de baz de date pus la dispozicie de aplicacia Mic
rosoft Access 2003.

Crearea unei baze de date blank 
Access 2003 consta n:
n caseta de dialog File New Database, la opciunea Save in: se selecteaz locacia unde 
va fi salvat fi_ierul bazei de date; denumirea fi_ierului bazei de date este intro
dus la opciunea File name, iar salvarea pe disc are loc la apasarea butonului Creat
e. 
 Pentru a crea o baz de date nou, n zona Open a ferestrei (figura 1) alegem opciunea C

reate a new file, iar n caseta urmtoare - opciunea B lank Database. Putem, de asemene
a, utiliza comenzile de creare / accesare a bazelor d e date din meniul File.



 Figura 2 . 

  
Pentru a deschide o baz de date existent n zona Open a ferestrei reprezentate
n figura 1 executm un clic pe denumirea uneia din bazele de date utilizate recent 
sau selectm opciunea More pentru a accesa o baz de date amplasat pe un dispozitiv de me
morie auxiliar. n caseta de dialog care apare indicm numele bazei de date.
                                       
COMPONENTELE FERESTREI ACCESS.



Figura 3.
F ereastra Database (figura 3) furnizeaz o lista cu pictograme, situate n partea sta
nga, pentru obiectele Access:
tabele ( Tables) - obiect definit de utilizator n care sunt stocate datele primar
e;
interogri (Queries) - obiect care ne permite vizualizarea informaciilor obcinute pri
n prelucrarea  datelor din unul sau mai multe tabele _i /sau interogri (ne permite 
s punem ntrebri bazei de date; rspunsul se poate folosi la manipualrea datelor din tabe
l, precum _tergerea nregistrrilor sau vizualizarea acelor date din tabel care satisf
ac numai anumite criterii); ifd modul de definire _i rezultatul acciunii interogrile
pot fi: interogri de seleccie, de sortare, de excludere a unor inregistrri din BD, d
e obcinere a unor informacii rezultante n cmpuri noi (ex. aflarea costului spitaliza
ri068:i 
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totaluri sau  medii si interogri ncruci_ate;
formulare (Forms) - utilizat la introducerea, editarea _i vizualizarea  datelor d
in tabel, nregistrare dupa nregistrare;
rapoarte (Reports) - permite rezumarea  informaciilor din baza de date ntr-un form
at corespunztor pentru tiprire;
pagini de acces la date ( Pages) - obiect care include un fi_ier HTML _i alte fi_ie
re suport n vederea furnizrii accesului la date prin intermediul browser-ului Inter
net;
macrocomenzi (Macros) - obiect care concine o definicie structurat a uneia sau mai m
ultor acciuni pe care Access  le realizeaz ca  rspuns la un eveniment;
module (modules) - obiect care concine proceduri definite de utilizator _i scrise n
limbajul de programare Visual Basic.

Aceste obiecte distincte sunt cele care vor compune baza  de date. Fieca
re obiect trebuie avut n vedere la planificarea unei noi baze de date.
Butoanele din bara cu instrumente sunt utilizabile numai dac am creat sau deschis 
o baz de date. Access este diferit de celelalte aplicacii Office prin faptul c dispun
e de o bar cu instrumente pentru fiecare obiect din baza de date. n unele cazuri, p
entru fiecare obiect exist  mai multe bare cu instrumente, de exemplu: tabele  Acc
ess au  dou bare de instrumente:
Table Datasheet (foaia de date a tabelului ) = pune la dispozicie  instrumente ca
re faciliteaz introducerea _i manipularea datelor din tabel;
Table Design (proiectarea tabelului) = permite manipularea parametrilor de proie
ctare a tabelului.

U n tabel este alcatuit din rnduri _i coloane. Access stocheaza fiecare con
semnare n baza de date n propriul su rnd; aceasta se numeste nregistrare. Fiecare nregi
strare concine informacii precise referitoare la datele nregistrate n baza de date.

F iecare nregistrare este mprcit n componente diferite de informacii, denumite cmp
ri. Fiecare cmp este reprezentat ntr-o coloan separat din tabel. Fiecare cmp concine o in
formacie distinct, iar toate cmpurile dintr-un rnd alctuiesc o anumit nregistrare.
 
C rearea unei baze de date Access 2003 pe baza unui _ablon: se realizeaz pri
ntr-o aplicacie wizard inclusa in Microsoft Access 2003. Operacia const n:
deschiderea panoului de sarcini New File prin seleccia comenzii New& din meniul 
File; shortcut-ul pentru aceasta operacie este CTRL+N;
din panoul de sarcini New File, grupul de opciuni Templates, se selecteaz referinca 
hyperlink On my computer& ;
n caseta de dialog Templates, se selecteaz eticheta Databases care permite accesul 
la _abloanele de baze de date ncluse n aplicacia Microsoft Access 2003; butonul Temp
lates on Office Online permite verificarea existencei altor _abloane pe site-ul we
b Microsoft;
selectarea tipului de _ablon dorit _i salvarea fi_ierului bazei de date n caseta de 
dialog File New Database prin apsarea butonului OK; sunt introduse locacia fi_ierulu
i n opciunea Save in: _i denumirea sa la opciunea File name;
se lanseaz aplicacia wizard Database Wizard care permite setarea caracteristicilor 
bazei de date prin parcurgerea pa_ilor predefinici.

Aplicatia Database Wizard:
modificarea obiectelor din baza de date (Tables, Queries, Forms, Reports, Pages,
Macros, Modules, Favorites) din Database Window.
Accesul la datele stocate n tabele _i utilizarea lor se realizeaz prin opciunile pred
efinite n fereastra Main Switchboard.
Dup ce am deschis o baz de date, putem crea diferite obiecte n oricare din clasele no
minalizate. Dar deoarece fiecare din clasele Queries, Forms, Reports, Pages, Mac
ros _i Modules se definesc n baza tabelelor, acestea trebuie create n primul rnd. Cu
alte cuvinte, dac o BD nu concine cel pucin un tabel, crearea altor clase de obiect
e devine lipsit de sens.
 
 Pentru a crea un tabel nou selectm clasa de obiecte Tables, apoi actionam
butonul   . Caseta de dialog New Table care apare ne ofer 5 moduri de definire a s
tructurii tabelului.

             
             Moduri de definire a structurii unui tabel.
D ac selectm opciunea Design View _i actionm butonul OK, obcinem o fereastr n care definim c
urile tabelului _i caracteristicile lor.


Definirea cmpurilor tabelului. 

Caracteristicile cmpurilor.
 Pentru fiecare cmp al tabelului se specific 3 caracteristici, _i anume:
Field Name (denumirea cmpului, obligatoriu);
Data Type (tipul cmpului, obligatoriu);
Description (descrierea cmpului, opcional).
  
Stabilirea cheilor primare
  
 Daca valorile unui camp sunt unice (nu se repeta), putem semnala acest 
lucru, pentru a evita introducerea accidentalaa dou valori identice. Aceasta procedu
ra poart denumirea de stabilire a cheii primare.
 
C heia primar poate fi stabilit _i pe cteva cmpuri. Pentru a stabili cheia prima
r, selectm cmpul respectiv, apoi executm un clic pe butonul        din bara cu instrumen
te. Ca rezultat, n partea din stanga a cmpului respectiv apare semnul cheii. Dup nche
ierea procedurii de descriere a cmpurilor _i de stabilire a cheii primare, salvm tab
elul (descrierea lui), selectnd comanda Save din meniul File _i indicnd numele tabe
lului. Dac nu am stabilit o cheie primar (acest lucru nu este obligatoriu), sistemul
ne va avertiza, sugerndu-ne stabilirea cheii pe un cmp de tip AutoNumber. Pentru 
a confirma, accionam butonul Yes. n acest caz sistemul stabile_te automat cheia pri
mar pe un cmp AutoNumber (dac el exist) sau creeaz suplimentar un asemenea cmp (dac el nu e
ist), stabilind pe el cheia primar. Pentru a renunca la stabilirea cheii primare, act
ionam butonul No. ions and tutorials for IT&C development.
nchiderea / redeschiderea bazei de date.
nchiderea unei baze de date poate fi facut prin executarea comenzii Close din meniu
l File sau prin accionarea butonului  din bara de titlu a bazei de date. De regul, l
a nchidere, sistemul salveaza automat baza de date mpreun cu toate obiectele pe care
le concine. nchiderea unei  baze de date nu nseamn _i nchiderea aplicaciei MS Access, a
stfel nct putem deschide o alta  baz de date sau crea o baz de date nou, n modul descris 
mai sus.
O baz de date este memorat n unul sau mai multe fi_iere. Fi_ierul care concine baza de d
ate va avea extensia  .mdb .
Ie_irea din Access.
Ie_irea din MS Access poate fi fcut n unul din urmtoarele moduri:
se apas combinacia de taste Alt+F4;
se execut comanda Exit din meniul File;
se accioneaz butonul  din bara de titlu a aplicaciei.

3.3. TIPURI DE DATE UTILIZATE N BD.

Tipurile de date utilizate la definirea cmpurilor ntr-o tabel Access 2003 sunt:
T ext: este tipul de date implicit; este stocat orice tip de caracter, inclusiv c
ifre; proprietatea Field Size stabile_te numrul maxim de caractere care se stocheaz _i
are valori cuprinse ntre 0 _i 255 de pozicii (numere care nu urmeaz a fi  utilizate n
calcule);
Memo: este un tip similar cu tipul Text, dar stocheaz pn la 64.000 de caractere;
N umber: este utilizat pentru stocarea valorilor numerice; proprietatea Field Siz
e precizeaz dimensiunea _i tipul valorii numerice;
Date/Time: este tipul de date utilizat pentru stocarea unei date calendaristice 
valide _i a timpului orar; formatul de reprezentare a datei calendaristice _i a ti
mpului orar este precizat n proprietatea Format;
Currency: este utilizat pentru stocarea valorilor monetare n vederea efecturii de c
alcule _i comparacii monetare (diferite valute);
Autonumber: este tipul de date utilizat pentru stocarea unei valori unice asocia
t pentru fiecare nregistrare adugat n tabel; numeroteaz n mod  secvencial fiecare nregist
;

Yes/No: este utilizat pentru stocarea unei valori din maxim dou posibile: true sau
false, yes sau no, on sau off conform setrii din proprietatea Format;
OLE (Object Linking and Embledding = legarea _i nglobarea obiectelor): este tipul 
de date utilizat pentru stocarea unui obiect OLE: foaie de calcul Excel, documen
t Word, imagine, sunet, animacie nserat prin comanda Object& din meniul Insert;
H yperlink (hiperlegtura): este tipul de date utilizat pentru stocarea unei hiperle
gturi ctre o locacie a unui alt obiect din baza de date, document Office sau pagina W
eb; hiperlegtura se nsereaz prin comanda Hyperlink& din meniul Insert; permite trece
rea  de la  cmpul curent la informacii situate ntr-un alt fi_ier;
Lookup Wizard: acest tip de cmp  _i alege valorile dintr-un alt table; permite exec
ucia aplicaciei wizard Lookup Wizard care asist utilizatorul n operacia de conversie a
cmpului ntr-unul de tip lookup; inicial, cmpul trebuie s aib asociat tipul de date Text
, Number sau Yes/No.


3.4. PA^II URMAbI N PROIECTAREA UNEI BAZE DE DATE.



Crearea tabelelor:
s tabilirea numrului de coloane, dimensiunea (numrul de caractere) _i tipul datelor (t
ext, number, date / time, currency etc).
Definirea cheilor primare:
pentru a evita introducerea accidental a dou sau mai multe valori identice alegem o 
cheie primar. Ex: ntr-un tabel cu pacienci putem alege codul numeric personal (CNP) 
drept cheie primar, CNP-ul fiind unic.
Specificarea valorilor mplicite. Ex: valoarea TVA - ului de 9% pentru majoritatea
medicamentelor poate fi valoare mplicit.
Stabilirea unor condicii de validare pentru valoarea fiecrui cmp.
Editarea formularului pentru achizicia de date (ncrcarea bazei de date).
Editarea rapoartelor utilizate pentru consultarea bazei de date (ex: sorcm din BD n
umai paciencii cu vrsta pn n 18 ani, sau pe cei care nu sunt asiguraci, lista medicamen
telor compensate etc).
Interogarea BD - extragerea anumitor informacii din BD, astfel nct s obcinem un grup r
estrns pe care l scoatem cu un titlu (o list restrns).
Etape:
selectm o parte din BD pe baza unei condicii logice, obcinnd o BD mai redus;
s ortarea = indicm cmpul dup care se face  sortarea _i ordinea (alfabetic, dup vrsta, etc);
filtrarea - se aplic diferite filtre care au ca rol eliminarea unor nregistrri (a uno
r linii din tabel), obcinnd o reducere a BD pe vertical;
aplicarea de m_ti (mascarea) anumitor coloane = se obcine scurtarea BD pe orizontal;
alte operacii: subtotaluri, medii aritmetice, medii geometrice, funccii financiare
, interogri ncruci_ate, etc.;
mecanisme de intrecinere a SGBD ( back  up = salvarea periodic a datelor n funccie de
importanca lor, repararea BD = cu chei de control, rendexarea = schimbarea concinu
tului prin eliminarea unei pagini - se execut periodic) _i de securitate a SGBD (pr
otejarea BD mpotriva unui operator neautorizat sau mpotriva pierderii accidentale 
de date).























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