I.

Theoriginsoflifeandevolution
A.Fossilsarehowweknowaboutspeciesthatareextinctinthepresent
B.Biologicalevolutioninvolvesthechangeinapopulationsgeneticmakeupthrough
successivegenerations.
C.Naturalselectionwhenindividualsofapopulationhavegeneticallybasedtraitsthat
increasetheirchancesofsurvivalandtheirabilitytoproduceoffspring.
D.Adaptionanyheritabletraitthatenablesanorganismtosurvive.
II.Biologicalfactors
A.Coevolutionwhentwodifferentspeciescoexisttoanextentthatonespeciesgenes
changetoadapttotheotherspeciesgeneschanging.
B.Naturalselectionlimitstheadaptionthatcanoccur.
III.Geologicalprocesses,climatechange,catastrophes,andevolution
A.ThecontinentshavemovedinpositionsinceitwasPangaea225millionyearsago.
B.changesinclimatethroughouttheearthshistoryhasshiftedwhereplantsandanimals
go.
IV.Ecologicalnichesandadaption
A.ecologicalnicheaspecieswayoflifeorroleinacommunityorecosystem.
B.fundamentalnichethefullpotentialrangeofphysical,chemical,andbiological
conditionsandresources.
C.realizednichewhenspeciesoccupyasmallerpartoftheirfundamentalnicheto
surviveandavoidcompetition.
D.species

 Generalistspecieshavebroadnichesandcanliveinmanydifferent
places.
Specialistspeciesoccupysmallernichesandliveinonlyonetypeof
habitat.
V.Speciation,extinction,andbiodiversity
A.speciationtwospeciesarisefromone
B.Isolation
Geographicisolationspecieschangebecausetheyareseparatedfromeachother
Reproductiveisolationmutationandchangebynaturalselectionoperate
independentlyinthegenepoolsofgeographicallyisolatedpopulations.
VI.Geneticengineeringandthefutureofevolution
A.Artificialselectionrequiresselectivebreeding.
B.genesplicingadding,deleting,orchangingofthegenes.

Summary:Chapterfoursummarizesevolutionandspeciesinteraction.Thischapterdiscusses
naturalselectionandallofthedifferentwaysthatindividualsinapopulationcanchangeand
becomenewspecies.Thiscaneitherhappenthroughgeographicisolationorreproductive
isolation.Thechapteralsodescribesallofthedifferentrolesthatspeciesinanecosystemcan
serve,suchasindicatorspecies,keystonespecies,andfoundationspecies.Thechapteralso
mentionsthefactorsthatgointomeasuringbiodiversity,likespeciesrichness,speciesdiversity,
andspeciesevenness.Therearedifferentwaysthatspeciesinteractwitheachotheraswell.

Therearefourmainkindsofinterspecificcompetition:predation,parasitism,mutualism,and
commensalism.Chapterfouralsoexplainsecosystemsandhowthingsworkwithinthem.