1.

Excretory System
a. Liver convert excess nitrogen into urea. Converts many wastes into
bile.
b. Colon reabsorbs water and ions. Can actively transport ions into feces.
c. Skin can sweat by temperature and sympathetic system.
d. Kidneys can excrete urea, sodium, bicarbonate, and water.
i. Also maintains constant solution concentration and constant pH.
ii. Maintains constant fluid volume.
e. Step 1: Filtration
i. Fluid get picked up by the Bowmans capsule. Blood cells and
plasma proteins stay in the blood vessels.
f. Step 2: Selective Reabsorption
i. Some nutrients, ions, and water gets reabsorbed in the PCT.
Most of the water gets reabsorbed here. Selectively reabsorbs
ions and nutrients as much as possible.
ii. In DCT, reabsorption is regulated by hormones.
g. Step 3: Secretion
i. Takes place in the collecting duct and DCT.
h. ADH allow reabsorption of water in the DCT. Also drop of blood
pressure will trigger ADH.
i. Aldosterone increase reabsorption of Na+ by distal nephronincreased
water retention which will raise blood pressure (raise blood volume).
j. Loop of Henle is a countercurrent multiplier that makes the medulla
saltyfacilitates the water reabsorption from the collecting duct.
k. Vasa recta reabsorbs water from the filtrate.
l. When blood pressure decreases, juxtaglomerular cells release renin
and this allows angiotensinogen to convert into angiotensin 1 and then
converts to angiotensin 2 by ACE in lungscauses
vasoconstrictionrelease aldosterone and then indirectly release
ADH In the end, blood pressure increases and glomerular filtration
rate increases.
m. Decreased urine osmolarity in distal tubule allows the macula densa to
dilate the afferent arteriole and increase blood flow and pressure in
glomerulusincrease glomerular filtration rate.
n. For blood pH, high pH equals excretion of bicarbonate and low pH
equals excretion of H+ ions. Takes a while to readjust pH.
o. MEMORIZE CHART ON PG. 300
2. The Digestive System
a.