GUIDE TO STABILITY DESIGN CRITERIA FOR METAL STRUCTURES Fifth Edition Eaited by ‘THEODORE V.GALAMBOS 00239925" ® JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC. Mow York - Chichester -Welnholm- Brabane Singapore Toronto\ nase “Thon iri on pe thn Cae ‘Saar ed Ss a ech 1 Gl Ses Cap ho att ‘tre pce en manos Pato stn gpa SS rey ea ear 3 end rs en MA etme covered Is sold wth he wading tht the pe hot emg So ‘Snir sng oh pst aes hg ec of ee be teue he ero omar tal row les Lr of Cine Cap i Pain Dts 4-703 191 mn CONTENTS FOREWORD NOTATION AND ABBREVIATIONS (CHAPTERONE INTRODUCTION u 2 3 ‘4 Le The Mat Colum Scope and Summary of he Guide Mechanica Properties of Stactaral Metals Definitions Postboeklng Behavior Credits for the Chapters in the Fifth Eton ofthe SSRC Gade (CHAPTERTWO STABILITY THEORY n 2 Introduction Iifsreaton Bkling Limit Load Beekling (CHAPTERTHREE CENTRALLY LOADED COLUMNS uM a as a6 Introduction sate Clans Bulk Cotumas Mil Building Colmes Giuyed Towers Research Neos ‘CHAPTER FOUR PLATES 4“ 2 ao 4a 4s 46 Introduction Local Bacling and Postbucking Strength of Paes Interaction Between Plie Emons ‘Local Buckling and Postbucklng tenth of Stoned Plates Bucking of Onbotropic Plates. Lately Loaded Pats Commpreion 12 1 15 1st 19 ipCHAPTERFIVE BEAMS 52 Elute Latra-Trsonal Buckling 53 tncatieLatrl-Torional Buckling 554 Bracing Requirements 55. Design of Lately Unsupported Beams 61 tnvoduction (62 Web Buckling as a Bass for Design 163. Shear Strength of Pte Gide: 464 Ginders with No Intermediate Ssfeners 165. Sto Plate Shear Walle {66 Bending Strength of Pte Girders {61 Combined Bending and Shear (68 Plate Girders with Longitudinal Sienes 169. End Panels {610 Dain of Steers 6.11 Panels Under Edge Loading 61 Fatigue 6.13 Design Pinples and Philosophies 614 Girders with Corugated Webs 615 Research Nesds CHAPTERSEVEN BOX GIRDERS. 1 ntodtion 72. Rass of Design 13 Bucking of Wide Flanges TA Bending Sength of Box Girdes 1S. Shear Suength of Box Gide 16 Combined Bending and Sher Strength of Box Girders {LT nvenoe of Torsion on Strength of Box Girders 19. Unsilfened Diaphragms 710 Siiened Daphras ZL Research News a0 28 m ma 20 2 251 26 26 a nm 20 21 ae 2a 2 a 9 34 36 CHAPTEREIGHT BEAM-COLUMNS 1 etodction 2 Seength of eam Columas 3. Uniasal Bending: n-plane Strength 4 Uniaxial Bending: Latera-Torsional Buckling 85. Bguivalent Uniform Momeat Factor 6 Biaxial Bending 87 Design of Beam Cums KS Speci Topics CHAPTERNINE HORIZONTALLY CURVED STEEL L-GIRDERS 91 ntodetion 365 92 Analysis Methods 366 92 Stability of Curved Cinder Bridges x 94 Ukimate Strength sod Design Recommendations mm 95 Diaphragms, Cross Frames and Lateral Bracing mm 946 Concading Remarks mm CHAPTERTEN COMPOSITE COLUMNS AND STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS. 383 101 Introdostion 30 102 Cros-Ssctonal Suenath of Composit Sotions a7 103 Fore Transfer Betucen Concrete and Stel se 104 Othe Considerations for Coss Sectional Srength es 105 Length Ems 395 106 Design Approaches ao 10.7 Databases and Cabration 06 108 Suucturl ystems and Connections for Compost and Hybrid Stroctares 08 109 Summary 40 CHAPTERELEVEN STABILITY OF ANGLE MEMBERS a0 1 neoduction a8 112 Review of Experimental and Analytical Research 419 13 Single Angle Compresion Members roy 114 Curent Indsy Practice for Hot-Rolled Single-Angle Members inthe United Sates 915. Carer Inds Praise Oui the Unies State forthe 147. ytinds Sbjct to Combined Loadigs sa Des of Hot Rod Ange a 148. ‘Stengh apd Behavior of Damaged and Reps Tabular 16 Dasa of Aly Losded Colt Formed Sige Anges. 6 cums ser eee eee a (CHAPTER FIFTEEN MEMBERS WITH ELASTICLATERAL 11.8 Multiple Angles in Compression 438 —— 119) Ange in Pure a 151 Imgodsction 152, Metin ofthe Compresion hors ssi ee er ane 15.3 Effect of Secondary Factors on Buckling Load 586, oe as 4 aii Chel Beenie sn 122 trek 6 fo eee a ee cee a 156 Plate Girder with Flstcally Brace Compresion Flange sa 124 Rett Bae for Columns or rates ‘si ee a 126 Continuous Cohan ang pt CCHAPTERSIXTEEN. FRAMESTABILITY 204 127 Leann Stems 6s eee mn 128 Columns Braco on One ane io ee = 120) eum Hocking snd ene “ ods bd 1240 Bem Big o 18a Pome Suiy Dg sing Sn Oner Ans s an enim : 16.5 Overview of Current Code Provisions 652, (CHAPTER THIRTEEN THIN-WALLED METAL CONSTRUCTION 479 166 Concluding Remarks on 181 tnoduction ” CHAPTER SEVENTEEN ARCHES eso 132, exual Mees “0 TTA InPline Sait of Arches «@ 133 Compreson Manters * 172 IPlane Liner Silty om 134 Disphapm Action of Thin Wal Pols soe 173 InPlane None Ele tbiy oa 133 rong Regrets sos 7a tlie iat Lo o 136 Stine Sil Satara Meer: sou 115 Dasgn of Arche or I-Pae Silty as 127 Aluminum Meters 510 128. Ovea-Pane Sty of Arches oss 11 Out Pane Bucklg of Cer Assos or eueaete te laeeeee ater eee sea 17.8 Qut-of-Plane Buckling of Parabolic Arches 90 11 son 1 179 Breed Arche ed Resumen or Reig Sytem oo 142. Duvpdon of Backing Bebavor a 1740 Uta tng of Sit Artes Subj o Unlorly 143 Unsiiffened or Heavy-Ring-Stiffened Cylinders 28 Distributed Vertical Loads m 144. General nai Ring ited ides 0 "711 Una Suegh of ie Ach Bags Subj © Uno 143. Stinger or Ringand Stinger Steed Cyr ss eee 146 Effets on Column Buckling 359, 12 Ultimate Strength of Steel Arch Bridges Subjected fan! Lateral Uniform Loads os(CHAPTEREIGHTEEN DOUBLY CURVED SHELLS AND ‘SHELL-LIKE STRUCTURES 182 The Bac Problem 184 Design Codes 1K6. Reticulated Stl TK7- Design Trends and Research Needs (CHAPTER NINETEEN SELECTED TOPICSIN DYNAMIC 19.1 tnteodution 192 Parametric Resnanse 19.3 Stability of Impulsiely Loaded Columns 194 Dynamic Soap-Thvough of Stallow Suuctures 19.5. Flow-induced Isabity 1946 Soddenly Loaded Stractures (CHAPTER TWENTY STABILITY UNDER SEISMIC LOADING 201 tntoduction 202. Overall System Stability (P-4 Eet) 203. Member Instability 204 Loci! Buckling 20S. Concluding Remavks (CHAPTER TWENTY-ONE. STABILITY ANALYSIS BY FINITE ELEMENT METHOD 211 ntodoction 212 Weighted Residual Formulation 213. Variational Formulation 214, Eigenvalue Analysis 218. Second nd Higher Onder Analce 214 UncerintiesinStabiity Analy 217 Comper Sofware BIR Valdtion Problems 708 aw na ne m mm 70 8 18 18 188 71 74 1 co 2 193 196 19 APPENDIXA GENERAL REFERENCES OM STRUCTURAL APPENDIX TECHNICAL MEMORANOUMS OF STRUCTURAL 1 The Basic Columa Formula o 12 Notes on the Compresion Testing of Metals a 13. StubColuma Text Procure sie [Ba Procedure for Testing Cetally Loaded Colums m 1S General Principles forthe Stablity Design of Metal Stractres 36 6 Determination of Reidal tess a8 7 Tension Testing ww BA Standaré Methods and Definition for Tess for State Vielé Stes si 9 Fuel Teng 39 'B10 Statistical Essustion of Test Data for Limit tates Deen 866 APPENDIXC STRUCTURAL STABILITY RESEARCH ceouneit ove NAMEINDEX esa ‘suesect INDEX oorFOREWORD Since its founding in 1944, the pial obpetves ofthe Srctra Stabity Reserch Counc former the Column Research Coan) have ee foster resarchon he tehvior of compronive components of mt structures aod of Sireciral systems, an fo astm the developeent of maproved despa oe (rdare Tee Counel provides guidance to pacing engineers and wars of ‘Sevgnspecfcatons, codes, and standards in ofleing both siplied aad reine procedures appiaic to design and asin te ato. “Te nal utine ofthe side was prepare in 1986 hy Lyn S. Bewleand Jonathan Jones The fst cin, published in 1960, was dedicated tothe (Couns fis chirman with thee words “As fat Charan of Cora Resareh Coun, Shortie Hardesty gave fly for twelve yeas his ine, Aevotion, and material snestance. His mind grasped both the pasta po ‘heme a enpsaring appiation so the fandamental knowledge noes) 10 Rewarch Cove” “Tin isthe Bh eition ofthe pues eseatily an evolutionary extn- sion ofthe previous eons, which were pushed about every decade ince ‘eft ein in 198, Thi th ition has the same mambo oF chapters ‘he fourth dito. However, a punter of ae chaps ave replaced previous ‘hpes, and most ofthe chapters which weee feline under theme tie Inve been exensily revised o ently reriten so that new fesearch resus ‘oul be presented and evliate The eiely new chapters ae: Horzomally Chesed Se! Grd (Chapter 9), Compote Colas and Sirctra Systems (Chapter 10), Stbliy of Angle Atembers (Chapter 1), Bracing (Chapter 12, Frame Stbiliy (Chapter 19, Doubly Curved Shel: and Shellie Siracret (Chapter 18), Salty Under Seimic Loading (Chaper 20), apd Stay Analisis by Fnte-loment Method (Chaper 22). I witon, three new “Tehmseal Memoranda were add to this new eon, “The Cone was fortunate in having Bruce G. Johnston as etr ofthe st thre eitons of he guide ad is indebted to him forthe te ad ort he has “voted to this work. Ava rest of, Jstos guidance, npn, aad ‘example the Task Groups of the SSRC have prodioel the word's fear. ‘Soleton of ess and ffortion onthe subject of the stay of metal Structures in the fist theses ofthe guide. The fourth and ih eitons ‘were shepherded though te pubbeaton proces by th caren eto “Te concept tit the Task Groups ofthe SSRC would have the repons laity for most individual chptere was ruined alo inthe Ath chin Adaiional substantial contributions were provided by others, who wrote Aratsof chapters or who rvewed manasenpt at anou sage completion‘ofthe guide| sincerely thank ll thse who bad a hand in this fort, (See the fu of Chapter Ifo st of thase pinay responsible foreach shaper) Special thanks go to Dr. Brice G, Johnston for Preparing the inde fo the fourth ein, “The fst elon of the pide recived special snes support from the Enginzring Foundation andthe Assoation of American Raoods. Costs ‘im preparing the cond ston were bone joiny by the American Tstiate ‘€ Ste Consroton and the Colunn Reserch Cousel Preparation of the rd edition wan sport by the National Soence Foundation and he “Amtian Ist of Sel Construction. The preparation ofboth the fourth and fith elions was suppried by a grant from the National Seca Foundation. The Counc futher exjoys the nancial support of many org zations, sted in Appevd C, which provide for its continuity and make posible fo sponsor publeaton of the guide. Through the members of thee ‘xpnizatons we also maintain the Wal eretv inerac on between ssa fnpinering practice and research “he Stutual Stbiy Research Coun an the eitor dap tank all ‘hose who have poviddintelletal and financial sopport for thi eon of the Guide. Spenal gratitude w to the National Sdeace Foundation for ‘encouraging the dsemination of research rss onthe ably of meal Structures othe profesonl and esearch oma. T.¥. Galambos, Etr may at NOTATION Aa coetient a6 of eons ton; Rexural silbess of arch ross festion about axis ae lengths Aina wen of eld tbe Ty exteral art of eindea tube 4 See ofall battens within one Batten spacing Tek compression fangs, are of longa in aed or batened member Ay agen of diagonal na laeed member ‘A. ate oferos section raining ast; reuired aren of plated ‘nd plate aq liv aren ina tinal scion sch hat P= oy Grew of ange Th, grow are of composite columa 4 Stew of ine stiffener pls total are of shell erween small sie. 8 eee 8) arr of ste ina compost column area of stiffener ro section ‘ate of sal sence pus ttl sell aca betwen stiffeners are of intermediate seer fro of tenon Bg fro of plate Bering stilener fre of web Tength of se of sien pate: length of perforation in perf ‘ated pits: torsion bending constant for en Teton; coethoent AkeGning sable region under dynamic load: tance between Pisteprder silenrs cect coetsien in postbckling plate formula cote to ‘ore for t one-sided sillenes flexural sae of an arch shout pass ficient in postbckling pate formals ‘Stent in Ges formal forsluminum colurns ‘Steffen in dein formula fr akmnum aly pats ‘Sntbated bending stifes in» eno plate about (ais width of etangular cos scton with of pate; wih of pony- truss bog eener-tocener of tases: nth of short se of {box tcon, center ocenter of long sides; length of side of Silene plate eases tance Toe ee of perforation to nearest ine of foniudial fstenescotisentdetiing sable region under dynamic loud wid of compression ange ‘dh of Binge of W shapec ‘width hetwcen centr of fangs in a wide-fange lum 4 coefcient transiene ponytrass bridge frame spring ens, farucul the ast one tronal ny cen in oul Ir design of onesidd atifeners cfc for lateral-torional bucking of beam cfcens in gneaized slope defection equations membrane affine of send ender ‘Stfsent for a tral anspor bent bea; bending sie ‘fa slfeed yin cafe for tapered beam ‘ol formula coon cefcent 10 determine equivalent uniform moment in 2 beam required transverse pony rss bride frame spring constant {orsona warping constant stance to exteme fiber of eam or cola section in bending “stance center to-ceater of perforations in a prorated plate ‘stance rom mide plane of chanoel web tocenrowd of tion ‘ance from sens to asumed lostion of plastic hinge in ‘lateider Mange Sexuality of pt per unt with; mean saunter of pin alte ceficet in design formula fr aluminum cola ‘fet indesign formula fr alana pistes {depth ofa sation diets occur crows wetion; long sie of ‘ox Sion, centeriocaner of short sides tramierse dite exween lines of longtadinal fasteners im 4 psforted pate slllenee spacing ors tiene pte meter of este portion of ciel eos Section depth of tapered member modulus of sasticiy Teded modulus tect dul Strain-tardning modus iti {angent modulus stance om centroid of gid cross secon 10 shese center (pos: ve shea enter le between centro! and compres Mange, ‘otherwise negate stance frm shea center to the mille plne of a channel woh; with of end pos a plate de, 4” a ce scent of end oad ina tam-columa, Inia out-of rnd ‘es ofan nailed shell assumed guiabentecenity representing dfs et.) allowable average compresive srs ia axially faded members Slowable sen fora column ving aro slenderness ato Sllomable compose bending sues ‘imum allowable compresive Suess on ustifened clement “als rita thst loud applied tends of an arch ‘Slowable ste for ste! la composite column; axa fore in 8 transverse pater sens Yield post of structural set. Factor af sty erage compresive ses de o axa load ‘ompreive teat due to tending moment sverape sear ses in a Beam web ompreniv stength of coments sterape compres srength af concrete at ultiate lad elastic shear modus Joint being sins aio (aburips apply to respective nds of the clu) eflctive shear modulus of phragm Searing strain haedeing modal it) Aistanee from shear center of ger 10 point of application of Transverse oad (positive when load is below shea ene, other- wise negative) egubalen-length fstor in a fapered team: bd patel ength of plate der ‘orion component of ach that; strbutedtoniomlslfoss ina sifleno pate ronal fore ats mulstory fame or lever sy ore in mlistory fame due to verti Loads ‘pth ofa rectangular cross section; clear dep of plate pier or Team web between flanges: depth of pony tus tts veri, Imeasted fom cone of Boorbeam 0 center of top chor Kong betncen beam: orgie lange centonsrae of arch a ele {ieength acorn tapered are sistance 1o compression ange earl rm cent of section tdstance beeen Range centroids sat of story in bulge effective length ats i tapered beams fistanc o Tension flange centro rom centroid of tion epi webJoxlSor) i Bu Ke Kacy x x, ‘ kits w & moment of neti of rst section ‘moment of net of Hooream in «pony ruse ‘moment of ina of column ers Seton moment of inertia of Compression flange about the jas momo nevi of truss Serta nu pony tse; moment of ietn of longi! com Ponent of spaced calume: moment of inert enon ofan eh moment of ners of tare seer pl effestive with of shell ‘moment of inert of ose section resin ase ‘yuvalent uniform moment of pert fr backing fs nomuiform ‘ch ‘lf that makes he large ig tiener in shell oguivalet to bulked ‘moment of neti of ide cross section oat moment of eta about sear enter; moment of nets of ‘segment of ilfened plates moment insti st snl end of tapered beam polit momento inertia of crs setion about eenid ‘moment of inert of anavere sleet ‘moment of tet of enson fang about ais ‘moment of inertia of ross section, x and y denoting the coordinate effective moment of nests about ais ‘moment of neta of compression an tension portions of setion bout axis parallel fo the we, respectively torsion constant eoefient jp AASHTO formula for transverse ‘fer desipn totsion constant of stiffeners in X(V) diction Interltorional buckling caesar; mame of panes in iene pte fftive or equivalentlengh acter: ping constant cote in geloading analysis o' pater web modibed ellestvelengh factor ‘cooients i Sevuraltorsionl busking ffctivedengt actor in tapered beam ‘verge ellesivelength factor of all pune ngth compression hors iba pony ts tate suppst retin coesint for a sallow arch; horizontal laste suppoet coeteient fora arch coeficien of propordonaliy coef apie in plate buckling ‘taste Foundation modulus, /P7ET offices in design formals for aluminum aly plates Toc bucking parameter or box eolumas bckling coefsen for spate in pe shear RE TRRESEEEDS F 5 Tocl buckling parameter for wide Menge columas [eogi of member, particule laterally uabeaced length length of all cen Palkbeade lunbraced length ofa clue ‘Sve width of hel acting as pat of «seer fenterocenter spacing of age shel iffenes| enteeloceter spacing of lene ings ‘braced Teagth ofa ger pal math ina pony tu ridge ‘olational stifness of near end of member wih frend fed or inged especie, but ith no end teenlation rotational sfess a nea end of member with for end fixed or hinge, spectively, but with aca end randationaly retained tyra bear oping moment at 4B acting on member 4B nd omens sling ons Ream clurm at ends ad, ripest ‘ntcabendig moment fend moment fora raed column ‘huivalent uniform moment i 4 beam column Fasting moment by testo plate ser sede moment conebutd by Manges yauimum-bending moment ‘ppbe-end moment ‘momeat is beumcolumn without eg oom ‘dteson plastibending moment lst beading moment modied by axial ore 5 eased by plate resting moment about indicted ais ‘heoreteal plategndrfssing moment timate hebting momeat ofa plate gd; limate bending ‘moment inthe absepe of ana ea i ately unsupportd encour ‘My My maximum moments resisted bya bitily loaded beam-, snd the curve in Fig. 22h: b <0. ‘hase tho cases corepond to models whose springs boone ser sfer ot "ot Beate with cretsine tera eeton Ina smile manner he sis ‘fm atu srcture mayer meee or deci subunquent the onset fucking. nother words, the loud requied to exp th structure in a Aeformed configuration may either inerese or decrene athe deformation Sneeanes in maida I the loud ha he sroctre can spor sibmegient"=a Fig.22_ Symmeric buckling of fron mde she pntbacking cane (6) tothe ont of bsking increases wit increasing deformation st shown in Fie 2a hestrctare snd to have a sable prtucKling ere By compan it ibe load dares, as indented in Fig 22h, the member asa sabe pt buckling ee “An auallycompeesed pate i an example of structure with & suble postbucling curve. As the plate uct, the bucking deformations give ee totense membrane stees which increase the sifnes of the plate and ge i the capt esis ints he oad By comparison, he Eujed tower in Fig. 23 has am unstable postbucling cure. Aste top ofthe tomer defects Ineraly some ofthe cables ae sete, eausing them o pa down on he post AS a eonsequeoe, the external load feguld to muting ‘Scenes withthe mapnite ofthe lntraldeiscton. The most notoroes ‘tample ofa aractare with an ansable ostbckling crv the sly com Pres clindral shel, However, his stem doesnot buck is a symmetric Inner and its beavsor i therefore not fal describe by Fg 22h To slate the behave of tutes tat Behave tm asseamcrc man ner, we et b= 01m Eq, 25. Thus Pa Palma) en ‘The ludefton eure comesponding 0 Eq. 27is shown in Fig. 24. Une te symmetric stem, the uniymmetnie ane becomes sie if defects ae ‘vay and more exit dees the opposite ws "The simple frame in Fig. 250 an etme of ucts that has an symmetric pstbuckling curve If the fine buckle shown ia Fi. 238, Secondary tension force inde nthe vera member A a onsaquence {he excrma Toad P thatthe strutre can ppt creases wth itessng ‘eformations. By comparison. if the rame buckles as inicate i Fig 2 Se 8 Secondary compesion force induced i the vera member ad the ves ‘nee ofthe system to sppied loads decenss with nce dlermations Fe 23. Guns ove “Te forspuing slyly pit behavior of the eae in Fig. 2 hasbeen ‘ried experimentally by Roars (1965) 2.22 Iiialy impertect Systems ‘he poutbuckling curve of am inl pefict sytem docs nt by itl eve sufient infomation to allow oae te deiermine when Fare takes place: To Sin that infermation, one must abo conser the inal imperfections of Shape and coerce of nding ths re preset al ea soca. Assuming that our mode! hasan inital deformation yas indicated in ig 226, Eq 2 takes the form Resa) = hye ke the) ey were n/a iw of 9,23, the relation above can te rowriten 36 6320 — [ralip 25 Buckling of a Laka fae recat) em Yor mma hr a and pale) e19 tad symm ei Oa pica) en “The lood-etion cus comesponding to Eg. 2.10 and 21 ae shown 3s ashe nein Fig. 27 Is eve fro these curves tha ll nl mp fesons do not significantly aetth Behvir of spstems with stable pest bucting carver, These members can continue to resis increasing J above he eri oa, and fale take place only after ling of he materi has cur, “The amount of postbusting strength that system with x able post: ling curve posses depends on two factor: the texpocs ofthe ponbacing urs, and the elative magnitude ofthe etal load and th lad a shih Yielding bogie For example, axl comprened plates poms 4 relthely Seep postbckling carne and as «consequence often exhibit abe postbuck Uingstength: Fale lois thre ofr times a rp sth cial oad have1g. 27 Poabucking caves of ily inert wate, been obianed (Gerard, 1957). By comparison the slope ofthe posturing uve of an axialy loaded column is extemely stall and the alr load of ‘och member therefore coincides, ery nary, ith the cial oad In addon wo posesing a ralatvely steep postbocling curv, ston must have a ied fad tats consderably i exces erin Toa ithe ‘stem isto ethibt sinieantpostbucling strength. A very rough estimate of ‘he postbocking tenth ofan aly eopressed pais given bythe expr. £-(R)" en here i he etic loud, he flue load, and, the loud when yielding feumnences. According to Bq” 2123 plate pone eniant postbuckling Seng when P/>; comely smalr fam amity. Hence ony hin ples fan te expected to display sizable postbucking strength ‘Whereas sal inital inpecections have only egiible fst on the thavor of stems with stable postbukling cures, they Rave avery mated ‘et on ystems with stable postbuckling carves, A ndcated by the cures in Fig. 27 the peeseace of sulla mperecions wil ease systems with Usable postbucling cartes to flat fads Blow the cra! lod These Strostres ate acolyte Io as beng imperfection sent By scting dPjde = for Egy. 210 and 21 he following approximations ofthe maximum load Py can be obtained. For the sym sam ith peo, ey spd forthe asymmetic stem, ee ew ‘Bquatons 2.13 and 2.14 indicate thatthe larger te ntl ingestion and thestepe the postbukling ere (Le, the lage ao” 8) the smal wl fe the tuto of Po P- Axilycompreed cylindric! shel tht have a vey step postbuctling uve have Geen found to flat leds sigeeunly below the Est Toad Brash and Abmrth, 1975) Using both theory and tas i as oer denoted hat inal pertactons whose magnitude only 10% of the sel tikes can rest in nim oad whose magitae 6% ofthe ‘el lod (Hutchinson and Kets 1970) Convers, by manufactaring od {Esing nearly perfec sel specimens, are Toads only sghiy below the {sta load hate heen stained (Tennyson, 1968) In-covelsion, teint tat the Reo of real imperfct members ca be preted fom the shape ofthe postbuckting curve Fr perfect ems. embers with sable posting curves wl ila lads egal oof above The cia load, whereas newer with unstable postbukling curve wil fal Toads Blow the etal oa, 2 LIMTTLOAD BUCKLING aching that anointed with tration of equilibrium i atthe only form of stably tat can occur A socnd wpe of inability that cin ake lace is ustrate by the model in Fig 28. The model coasts of a snple sch formed by wo caste ars hinged to eachother and tothe supports. AS the foud P aching on the model iereass, legs AB and BC shorten by an fmount 8, and point B moves down distanced The ail fore F induced ‘nthe brs byte applied load Ps equal pps Fane 3d enw ‘nd the ail sbortning ofeach bari ven by pte a6, caer Jn which $= V2 5d—2dh is the length of the compre bars end K SABIE testo othe bars Sabatston of = ES 0B. 216en the ise the arch i ss to be small compared to L, Bg, 217 M0 as —38 4) ew p= Besa) aun in which = ah The lod-defcton elation corresponding to Eq 2.18 is depicted by the solid curve in Fig. 29.11 evident tht no baton of equim ext Instead, the load and deformation ince smiltancody uta esi of limi loud is waco (point 1) hevond which the ste besoresunstae erie ofthe mode is ange enough compared fo he ail forest the es may each thei eral fod. using the es Io ake ts hinged hinged columns Before the entire ters caches i mt ond at point Ich. ‘ise bucking ceusa.zevalt f« furation of gunna point 3 onthe The beivior of archer and spherical shells subject to uniform external peste i imilr 10 that deserted hy the curves th Fig. 29° Ashes and Shes eaps with lage fsetospan rato fin a synced yt "esl of tarcaton bug, wheres shallow arches ad perc ap a ‘symmetric mode, du to iioad kl. "Am extensive talent of sil and tore complex elastic say phe omens presented by Thompuon snd Hunt 1988) Bru DO ad Abroth BO, (1979), Bulg of Bar, tes nd Shl Men ‘cians, B, and Hutchinson, JW (1960), “Dynami Bucking of Imperfection Seth Bt Pr ih ip Meh Mh ey Compt Emon NACA Teoh Note No S84 Aa at S18 he epg Ht of Ta Cer Cha St Koi W710, "On he Sabi of Ei Ege” Fck Rp Ne APL Rona. Ae gh Dis abortion, Wr Puen A Foe Roi 095), “Sty of Strate wih Seal Inpetons.” ASCE JE. ‘Tennaon, RC, 60, An Fagrinental evestgton of he Baking of Cui ‘ltl Sil nA Compose Lng he Patol Tees” Ae. ‘Nona nt f Asoc ener, Unies of Toran, Tent, Ons,CHAPTER THREE CENTRALLY LOADED COLUMNS 34 mTRODUCTION. ‘The comerstone of column theory isthe Euler column, «mathematically sag prismatic, pended, perectycetaly Inde stat that sleet Enough te buckle witout theses a any point inthe eo ston exseding the proportional limit ofthe maternal. The buckling oad or eta Toad oF bration load (ee Chapicr 2 Tora discussion of the nigneance of thee terms) is defined as on where 1 the cate stiffness and Lethe length ofthe clu, The Euler Toad Pr sth reference vale to which te stent fatal column aly Tend conditions othr than perf fictonls pins canbe defined math ‘email, he rita Toa is expressed by 62 luhore KI i an fc loath dining te portion of the defied shape TRineen posts of sro carvture In other wont, KE ithe lng of an ‘Suraca pnvnded column bucking a these ond asthe nd ested column, For example, for clums in which one end of the member pre ‘hte oon transiting with respect to the other end, Kea take 08 als ‘ging fom 0 fo I, depending om te end restaie “he tle column Ha theoreti concept i arly exis in practice, Lata cola forms pact of seucural fame abd 1 stabi r= felted wth be sublty of th ete soso. The stactreemposes no aly ‘hal foros ballon restraints and Renal sn torsional Tres ob he tno, Thitterlationship treated benno any prt of his guide ‘Ths chapter reste ony the volte column becuse (1) many strctura design Sittin are dealin sch tht elements ca be bought ofa centrally loaded Solis fetus members) and (2) te centrally Toadedcolmn satis point ithe mathernatalspace defining the interaction betwsey aul abd Bewiral forcs sna mamber ina structure. Ths an understanding ofthe Strona finda entra loaded columns seen To the development ‘of doign eter for compression members in weer Columns are mae in avait of os Satons and by several process, pending on tc sie und shape, Mont stl columns ae prismatic Ge, the {sov ston the sane feo edt end) These ae cd in Section 3.2. ‘iraly all old shapes can by sa acon although wore ae mach ‘more fn than others Bau of sich ators the ao ofthe overing mom of las tthe weight por nt length the rauo ofthe rad of [Draton about perpendicular aes, dosble or se symmetry oF asymmetry fa he eros sevton: an the propensity toward torsional or trsonal-Rexral cline ‘Seton 33 deals with tapered columns, generally faba by welsing fangs pstes to taper web pate. These fad much use in rgd moment ‘esting el frames where they act, of couse, as beam- doa » Mm >i ) ‘stm Fe 33 Reuss dstbeton in ole wide Mang shape. The fet of sel grade on the esidual ses distribution is nota ret as ‘theft of geometry (Tall, 960. Residual sues measurements in he Bangs ‘fsa shies made of len steel grades sow that thedstibtions and ‘gnitade ofthe esd sires ae slr adits bare te anges that sta sees havea msjr eft onthe column strength of Heshaped sx ‘Calculated rsoad comm curves seo the rsd stress ound Jn the ve parclar shapes of Fig. 3.3 ate ple in Fg. 3.5 for bucking shout the minor at alongwith mskimum tenth column curves dete mieeneoe Te. 34Residabaes diibaton n WH 790 shape by computer analyses and based on a combination of the measured residual Scsses and am itl corre eg othe maximum tolerated by the ASTM Ae stands “Toyntereae the residual stress ad intial curvature fet systematically ‘xcesine coum suena analyses were made at te University of Michigan (Batten and Fohnston, 1967). The stodis ined yi tresses of 36,60, and 10s (28, 14 and 649 MPa) maximum compressive esa ree of 10, nd 20k (0, 68, and 138 MPa) Fie carvattes eoresposing te ital ‘mngth out-of straightness ranging fom Oo O08: and lenderess ais aging om 20 to 240. Empans was om bucking abot the minors hd ‘heres ofthis condtio ate presented graphically nthe work by Baterman tnd Johnston (97), pemittng maninum-stength eahaton within te ‘ange ofthe parameters ced. On the bss of asim resi sex ofHg S-Citcalnd cares or sagt clues compare with maximum stegh 134s) GMP), whic i the scl average maaiwum for the five tions shonin Fig. 3 opether with sel sess of 6% 248 MPa) the ma ‘um som stenath peated by Bateman and Johnston is shown By the {Oli Ses on Fig 24 The sold cares are rom an analy nepectng the Ire, Although the shapes und vidual res disbaton re dierent there ‘pod corelation between the two independeny developed amas pose- Sura These finding arc also corroborted by those of weaning ives tieston of corn strength (Bjorhoede, 1972), which examined the behavior tnd srogth of large and dere numberof tual shapes. The comput tinal procedures very acute but requires knowdg ofthe results tnd the obtobsenighines. tn the sy performed at Lehigh Univesity (Gorhonde 1972) the fll range of structural te grades aod shapes Was ‘amined aswel as 4 number ef weed bulp bor and Hsp "The rts obtained by the sta of Bateraan and Jokason (1967) and Bjrhowde (197) show ley tat 1. The separate effets of eid stress and nil curvature camot be ao gine goo apposition af the combined eect onthe maximurn slum stength Thaw tm some cass and for rome slendenes ais, the ‘Sombined set se than the sum of the parts Gnlemedate senders feta reson se). other este combined ec i nore thas the smn othe prt The later aps Uo the intermediate senders rao range forheay hotel shapes in al ts! grades and for weld built-up He ‘hopes HU erphasied that the migitder of the masimum compressive {eae steses ma large numberof these shapes were SMe or move ofthe ik! tes of the Sea seh 2, Resa sts as ite effet on the manu strength of very slender cols. ier straight oily eroked, which hve sang approaching the Euler lod, However, such elem made ofthe ugh sng sss can Tokrate moe grater lateral dteaion before ied or before becoming ‘nade 3, Srength are hy underestimated in. commute ansyss when based ‘onthe assumption tat an nial roads the shape halon wane ‘masa halsine wave during farther fading. “4 Difeences in column strength cated by variations inthe shape ofthe resid stress patie are smal fo etal’ crooked columns tha Tor italy straight corns More seen daa onthe residual tess of very hey hotolled shapes one he indings of Boze eta 1970) and demorsrsed rb that the rive masimum column stengt (ie, computed maxima strength ‘vided bythe yield load) eaehs& minimum for Aung thickasaee around 3 o in (75 to 100m) The aie strength increase the ange tikes ‘xc thin magne (Bjorovde 1988191), Welded But-up Comms. Reid! sees sling she rom weing tom the anfacture of the sompont ps hae pice fens on he seng of weed Hoy Focsnonclunes Tx mano er ‘Sil sues at a weld orn row roe ade! ta ane ge aus for greta the i ses ofthe pas (Apt and Tall, 19h Metts and Tall 197; Alpsen 972: Beat 19: Br hoe etal, 1972) Weng moe he por eal ses dee Bane cating or coke Tigre 36 shows hl tbe strengths of need columns made of ber sngh stl appen tobe iene ate es tl ss than 2 the seg of sir clus uae flowering see Knee 2,1 Bjrnod, 1972) Isc te ifn sen sof ‘eiums with the msimam pcmsable ial tekednes ae ke a the Sites nea ods finaly sagt colon es Fig. 83) At showa in Fig. 3, per ith silo ge ones al pla ve compres results ate pat cg ners anes Ne ‘ive tne eal stees a Ihe nap shapes ade ‘eral lieth weg il ares he ompresie se th ay ps eran th eo of compe rid ser and pve asa the column stenath Thun outed In Pa. an fests cole nae irom fame pits wl bane favored sees a the fangs‘vies ‘mtumumstrength curves for milly curved members (Kishima eal 196%, Berton, — == = » EA Ae cas = ig 37 Quslsne compan of weil ares nase ad tern ‘Shc and xan! per: () aera al pte @) ope Pine oe = send SESE ie y eee: © 1g 34 Cooparson of cls caves fr WWIO 2 (AT se} ith aera ll ‘a oxyeneat pls Boro 1972). ps. therefore ents restr clu strength than tht of clan ofthe Same secon with Manges conssing of universal mil plate in which bal roll eer are ried It alo soon tht for shor welded columns te ama strength a intl curved eoaran may im somes cates be greater than the eel fad o sight column. Obvious tbe maximum stent ‘ofa nally stright column al always be pene thn the eral oad of the Segthdifercnees between box section columns made of univers ail ‘and fame-ct plates ae elaely sal, cause the edge welds overade the rida srs inthe component plates (Bjorhowde and Tall, 197). The sequence of welding can bea significant lator for nck solemn, parcel Forthone wih large wes (Bernd Tal, 1970) ‘Several investigations have conser the fet of om i. ts ben sown (Kishina et aly 1963; Alpsen and Tall, 1970; Broz el, 1970, Bjorborde etal, 1973), that welding has &gresterinfuence on th overall ebtion of residual stress in small and mediums shapes than inthe ‘te of hey shapes. ‘The dition of esd ses in heavy plates and shapes no niform Uhroug the thickness (Brome et ak 19704 Alten and Tall, 1970), A ess increases, the dilleence betwen sueace ad nit reste mry be as much at Lk (69 MPa). Ava camp, Fig 19 shows an ote: ‘Sgr fora hay welded shape made fom Mamet plates However, has been found that eluate rt! lade nd manor column strengths ae only ew percent lea when based the complete resdual tess diFe-39 hostess dpa or WH23 8 wd bap shape ess in ps er ‘Saracen nd Tal. 1970, tions a compare wit se that assume testes tobe constant through the thickness qua othe surface masa sid ses, ‘in general shapes sue from fame cut plates exhibit higher strength haa shapes that rents from uve ml plates, Tiss amonstatd by the Saves in Fig, 4.10 Silay, fame ct shapes tea to have songs that are ‘Somparabe ath thos of sar roll shapes wheres uietsal mil shapes tend to be compartivey weaker (Fig. 310). igure 3.1 compare the stengths of two epcal welded columns with famecut fangs plates and one Beng dtinclyBevir tha the ote. Tis ‘Saat the heavier shape teas oe relatively tong than the itr one Thus even more accentuated for shapes that ae wee from universal mill ‘te forthe th semgth ofthe itr shape wil be sigaian lower than Theheany one (Bavbonde aod al, 1971; Bjorovde, 192). This the reason the Canaan Standards Associaton ia 8 imitates dsipn standard as hoe 914 requ that welded biltup shapes can only be made fom ‘me-a platcs tna major stds, Choraako and Kenedy (1991) examined [owas xeon tn sg 1100 (og 318 Colac rh an wet weg ae Bok fe 841 Conan fen es fr WOE 3 (A A th ee annie rns wes. ide ange tps In ain forming maximumstregth computations for columns with 3 varity of Ahshsten dntbuions and outotstaghtnse. the Woek abo examined Satna data materia and other properties. Ressanse factors for ise Sth URFD cntess fr weld come were sevslaped Its shown that‘urent approaches wee comervatie, AS a coneguenc, these shapes were ‘sled fhe higher ofthe two column curses in the 184 etn of the CSA, standard (CSA, 1938). “The sequence of welling and the numberof welding pasos ate factors intuecing the distabution of residual renee Other Welling parameter suchas voliage, speed of welding, and tompertur and areas of preheating han es nance (Brozzts et al, 1970) Stes aneatng 6 the com Ponent plates prior to welding ofthe shape ries column stength ery sl ‘cantly ty reducing the magatud ofthe rnd stress, eventhough lowers the eld tess of the tet Figure 3.10 compares the clus carves for shapes made fom famnecut and universal mil plate, long with curve forthe Same shapes made fom stessieved plates Columns. Cold srighenng of structral sions 9 ‘net fleranses for cmber and sweep induces a redisibutin and rection ff theresa sreses that were cased by ear rong and costing, In ‘current mil practice, ether ells or gg press ate used to staghten sre "ural shapes Brockenbrough, 1992) roe sani (ocala fang the shape i passed through esinof rol that bend the member hack and forth with progressively diminahing deformation, In gg sal fering, concentrate forces ace appli locally along the lent of the mer ‘to Bend it fo approximate srghnes The procs ised on srl shapes ofall ses ‘The eller straightening process reistruts and rede the iil sida stress inthe anges, assbowa in Fig. 212 ln ag saghening. moment, ‘hat approximate the fil plastic vale My ate prodused tthe pate hore ‘he forest applied, andthe cooling resales ace therfore tet ‘don ator ear pins oF lading nthe sl eve of gap sah. o Femove sep Curate abut the weak (y-) ai of wide fangs shape ange in residual ses feom compression fo tension aks place locally (he ‘lacs on the ideo th ages wher he oad is applied. gure 3 shows the ‘esl stress measred ina WS x 3 shape (Huber, 1956) er gsi ning about the wsuk sais ‘The strength ofa colsraghened column iin general gre than that ‘ofthe corresponding soled member (Fey, 1963; Alpten, 1970), because of ‘he improved straightness and the restbution of resualstse. Roller Staining produces greater improvement than exe righting nd, Scoring to theoretical analysand experimental rests ima Incsese the col stengh by 8 mach as 20% when compared atthe sxe sla ns rato and inal out-of staighiness Alpen, 1970 1973). ‘The strength and behavior of caldstrsighene columns stl hve not been documented satisfactory and resatch shoul be andetken to dtl of ‘he inca inuences Sad esc Thn ie pbeulty important in ow of te fact that almost al hotrod wide ange shape are strlen i the lo mec strghtne reget bk = Fg 22 Resales in ol stighend shapes. LEA] oone Lon] eo soe na etnies ot oo enkaFor tabular shapes the situation i ome iferent. The final mil pro ‘ss in mot assis cod forming rll, producing sll ial ov f= ‘aishnes followed in some lls y aria ses relieving (Bere 1977 Bjorhovde ad Bukemoe, 1973). Their alto the cane for weed alap wide fangs columns (Chetnenko and Kennedy. 191) 323 Outotstraighiness Seton 3.2.2 deals the latuens ofthe residual stress, one ofthe peimary Column sength factors. nether factor f the ial etosaghines aso fefered to as ina eroledess or inal cara) The behavior of the inal cooked column has aleay been examined i he content of cial ea theory: in beet any geometric inpertecton changes the stably pele From one of tifuretio to one of pe bending ‘Some ofthe characteris of he Behavior ao stegth of inast iniialy ‘ured columns have already been dscaned inthe elution rsa tess Tinea: the two parameters interac in many ways, Thus the explanation of ‘he ranges of sendermes ratios and colum ‘ype, for shih the combined ‘effec of residual sires and inital rookies noe than thes of te arts, emphasizes the comple ofthe pcan, The analyses that have been made of the sength of inlet, nitty ‘curved Corns have cite made wae of assumed values and shapes othe inal ouvofstraphines. or have wed actly teased data: The former inby far the mos comrnon. mostly bean the measurement ha arava for colutms are sere. This applies in particular to the ragntade of the maximum outotaaighiness, normally sumed to coc at midhight the merier a well athe shape of the Bet member The late uly ‘hought to be tht of » all sine wave (Bsterman and Joston, 196% Bjrovde and Tal 1971; Bjochode, 1972. Te real configuration ofthe ‘nial ou-ofstaighiness of «column may be very complied, feo presto 4 snullaneoss cookedaes about both Pini asc of the ross etion. Systematic mevstrements ave ben made insoles ia conjunction wih testing programs (xe and Schits, 197; Burbonde, 1972, 1977, Bothovde and irkemoe. 197: Fakumo, 1983, Eset sad Kennedy, 1993) but very few dita ae aval for clus in atl sre "uns (Tomonaga 1971: Lindner and Geel, 198), Cherenko and Kenedy (1991) measured the ou-ostaightness of welded wide ngs apes a the cl mil, [Magnitude and Limitations. he waste of the msn ini out ofstughins limited hy the stutual ste dine speciation (e [ASTM AG in the United Statens CSA G20 fn Cana) and normoly ec Presed a6 faction ofthe leath of the member Hold wide Range Shapes afereqsed to havea masimum inital caskednes of L750 (ce ‘ured ins (Smm) i 10 Sm) of eat. Whch aly gen a £1000 for comenons, Tubular shapes re reured to met a straightness tolerance ‘errand commoniy ven 1/00. There are current no sequent. Fhe weled bl shapes "the measures tha aZe avg show tht ost hotrod W:shapes| tendo hone vals toward the maxima permsuble, wih an average of ‘Gprosimatc’ 1/1500 (Wjorhove, 1972) although Dux and Kitipornekst (Ube and Essa and Kenney (1993) give» mean ve the maim inital {etction of 1/340 and 1/200, respectively for widetange shapes of ngs Grete 10m. Tobuar members typealy exit values nancy smaller ‘hm the spoienton limitations, with autofstaighinsses on he oder of Too wo 7/00, with an average of £76300 (Bjochonds 1977, Bjorkowse [Ai pikemoe, 19) Tae dita for welded wide Range shapes inate sal ital tte vas wh an of apie 330 Cherenko {in Kennedy 1991). On te bole theefre it are to encoun columns {ib ou -sightesss are than he maximo permited. Such clus Iie saishtend before shipment ‘te declopment of ealume stegth criteria such asthe SSRC cures (Bjorbowde 1972) and the ECCS curves (Beer and Seultz. 1970), the max mum permissible vals ofthe nial crookednese were iz. This wa done for enral easons, the primary ot being that 7100 consisted the upper tito! what acspabe fr actualy delivered members and therefore cout be ropuned es a comervative mes. On the oter hand, ine mean char ‘tern war ued or the other tong parameter scan ranaly be ‘roe tht the mein erookednes also sould e uliaed. This was done by Berhone (1972) in paral wth his developnent ofthe erigial SSR curves, ‘ing the rea of £140 that was determined through stata evasion, ‘The suing mail corm curve are shown a Fag 3.14, whete the curves [sed as IF 3P, and SPhave wad L470, For comparison the SSRC cures Ive Been inion the Heue thse have used a intial exo straightness of 1/1000 The mathematical equations for both ses of curves are pen in Section 3127 ‘Variations nthe magnitude ofthe ini crooksnst were considered in he ody by Bjorhowde (1972). Te strength ofthe 112 columns that were sade inthe ivetigton ws examined wang asim itl oso £50, 1/2000 nd LIAN the rent forthe Ban of column stent ‘suves are poem in Fag 3.15. (The ures that ae shoe cade ony the data For £/$00 fo 12000 The esl ofthe sts oa the ania sength of ‘lumns emphsize the need for incorporation ofthe inital out stright ino column strength mcs whic Frm the bass for design stra, 3.24 ntuonce of end restraint Extersive sts on the insnce of end restraint onthe strength an tehaior Ff columns have ben conduced Bs Chen (1980, Joes etal. (1980. 1982), Razzag and Chang (198), Chspus and Gams (1982, Vint (1082Fae Fig. 314 Conparion of maki colume cures dlp othe i men ct fsiighne (0/14) ad asim Permilewa Seema rh) Permishe ostaraphnc 0/180) Fig. RIS Colum bands ‘ Mana IH Samant rc wes enone 193, 180d Shen an Lu (98, song ten ation the i ot fame th seid coaions has sn et wih nea {bea tf an, Roms Soa Po ad cri 1975; Ackroy, 1: and Chen, HB Rett ak 9, Got 1995 Kip and Chon, 9 LH Ko ea, Tas e The coun inept tne eine er pc Sed tenbor bho pes Stone ntoce ob 1, Type of teamtocelumn connection 2, Lena of eolum 4. Magniide and distbuton of residual sess, 4 nial outofstrighnes “The fame analysis sts have cau on elution of he dit charac etn frames wth est tha lly i eomsoctions in par prompted by ‘Shiy by Duque (17S), However, frame-clated subjects ofthis kind are ‘Sond the spe of this cpt. fat. conection Beniblity and member Behayaeclosy related nd th nrstioneectscan hae signa Intense on the overall performance ofthe frame IAs woul be intel expected, the sine ofthe eseaning connection insinaofator One ltstaton of he infuence x er Wythe A-gcures in Fi Te another by the lou dfetion curve for columns with dierent end Fetal that ar showin Fig. 3.17 (Jones eal, 1982) A Bish widenge ‘ape was wd forthe dat operat fr Fig 3.47 incorporating a nil out Shatvighinos of Z/ 1010, The carves that ae shown appl fora sendemess uo of 120.131, bot sar dala wete developed for lngsr as well as Short columns, Other investigators have povided aditional oud-eeton ‘hres the primary frees between the individual sods re found inthe fethods of column analysand stdestant modeling, but the resting “uve are very similar ones al 1980, 1942; Raszag and Chang. 1981) {Segimota and Chen, 192) Traute 17 so inser ths loaedfestion cave fra pi-ended clu. [Asiserenl the preter the connection retain, the sir wil ete initial ‘opus of the column, and the restr th maximus loud tat canbe arid ‘compared to. pended clan. The same relative pute emerges forall Slender rt although the mapntode of the sceaseDecomes sal for Values of Lr 3 and es ’ forth llstation ofthe nfsence of nl strains gven by the dat in Fig 3.1% which show column srength curves for members wh a vary of tnd condions (Jones ly T9K2: Las sd Chen, 1983). The effet of the eanestion types gal vient as th fat that he nience ies Tor ‘hone comms, A nla athe gues the Eler cre, a well asSSRC uve? Bjorbowde, 972, Tei rps ht the connocions that were wed to develo the eolrmn cars in Fig 18 areal ofthe “simple ype The potent forthe strc onomies that maybe prned by iocorporating the ed ait ino the alum dxgn procedure clear although thereat ranges fr the values ‘1 must be home i mind ad te posible se of Bracing to reduce frame ‘itis dsgnng semi fames wth Bessle as ons must be considered The ranges fox # ave been delat in Fi. 3.18 for tse with ld ees, of 36 and SOksi 248 and SMPs). Comsequenty the Yry lage clu Strength increases that have been reported by several esetches ae ralee bi ead y= 000 tne woe1I0 a, (Chon, 1980; Jones et al. 1980, 198: Razzaq and Chang. 198; Sugimoto and {Chem 1982 Li and Cen, I9K3b), bt they sce Tor sides ait dye in exces of practical values (jorhonde,I98I: Ackroyd and Byron, 981), Overall end estat lay teases strength emonsrte the appiation of end restraint to the desigh of calumny in wa SFE ig 348 Column cures for members with irene en esi Frames (Biorhowde, 1984; Chen sa La, 1991; Chen an Sob 1998: Chen et 1, 1996 Taking ino account atl connecton snes and he iafunce of eat effective eng actos for clunns in frames have ben deelope. The ithodinsorpoate th we of the mel know ligament cae forthe eT tke length of amd clus and recogni hat buckling of cum in 8 frame in nfucncl by thc en-rextaint eave alles dstsbution Tater. = Eel Ea a9 o, eee ¢ wire Cte tc resin ht affords 1 clu ia a Sad coun schasenbag, sng cmmectns whose ial ihe = tal ope tthe rome! Teaton cave, raat Chen (99) sate that ‘the mil conn sin should bead forthe deen of giao in acl fact cat conmecon fas fed one tn cons be wd for columns nuts rae “he G, procedure can incorporate dette dag sggeions a wall svptcatont of tase aco pp, ts Gece by Yrs (91 ‘Shane fy Diu (1973 se by Brat nd Chen (1990) ie ‘Bese in Chen and La (91 ania Chen ta (109), Pract ose ‘Seaple rte the potas for sian sacral osomesHower, it isemphasizs that nal hse methods of nays the data forthe ‘cil ender characters ofthe comteton af euied: Spill, {he Cale mst be own “Aung amount of escrch has hen reported o metho of accounting for the connection Heit providing llecuve end festaint to Tramed cl- nine An extensive review of wa! rserch on the Behavior and modeling ‘tconneton s provided ia Cho (1987, 1988. Chen ang Lui (199). Bede {ovaj and Chen eal (986). Bast on te evlation of leet connection rods saa he ert, a three parameter conection power mode romsed by Kab and Chen (1980), together wah is large database (Kish a {Chen 1986; Chen and Kishi 1989) ad design ais (Kishi etal, 198) cam be ‘evommended for general se. 225 Effective Length of Columns “The effsiveength fctor,K, was discus bly when iooduced in Ea, 212 The coverage of festive column length ee ts chapters mie to certain ideas cases and to certain special ststons that eccr in compresion Inembers of tases. The eflectveleath concept has alba Been applied 10 nem of nominiform cio action, whereby they are converted 10 a8 uve pinendad member with an effective moment of nea tha r= ned to a pra lstion of he noniniorm member. igure 319 sve theoretical K sales for sine condition in which the rotational andor translational estan tthe ends ofthe elu are ether {lor are aonenistent, At the bse, shown Bed for codons a Bc abe Fig 1% the condition of fll ity approached only when the eon ‘nshowel securely 4.2 footing for which the rotation is negligible. Restraint ‘Sondions cand fa the top are ppreacbed when the top of the cluma Framed tgs to spre many times ore igi han elf Colusa om {on cis the same tw ecep thu tational estat ether absent OF nial a the tp. Condition fi te same asc exept that thee ru tional retain t the bottom, The esonnende design valves of Kae mod ications ofthe eal vals aking into account the fc that neither prec. fit nor perfect exis tained in practice “The mre general determination of K fous compression member as part of ny framework regis he application of methods of indeterminate strstr Stupid to take it accoun the sffsts of via Load and inelastic ‘ehaniocon the rity ofthe monters, Gasset plate lfcts can be itelude For cw exten chats for modi pe seftion equations, and for moment asiibuton sles and earyover factors, respectively, have bes ‘Eoloped (Goldberg. 1984, Michlos and Louw, i951) Thess peossres ‘enor actly aplcbl io rotine design, tu tey canbe dod te dterine ‘ho esants snd eu sod fete lege ofthe component mem is of umework Sermo as | ow | 12 | 10 | am | 20 F ¥ | enone. ttn nt 3 + In triangulated frameworks (russes), the loss ae usualy appli atthe Joins. Thus fhe juts are tly puted, the members are anal loaded Detesione of the ois andthe tre a4 whole are caused by the ex formations of the membre. The anges btwoen meses meeting. a 2 Joint ao change bese ofthese deformation the members are comectd {Opec a the joins by welds or bol the agle changes cause secondary Tading steer Io be snlroduced. The have Le effet on the buckling strength (ad ten seat) ofthe uss members, Because of local yelling ‘exe fers ofthe members near the Joa 9 the tras loaded mate the sesndary somes gradually spate, They ca therfore be elt inthe buckling ata (Karol eta. 180), ‘When a ras i designed apd loaded unde a particular lading condiion such that all members reach thet toed restos simula nome ‘esis anyother Theeore te fltive lng actors fr comesion ¢hotd membss and compression diagonals would be 0 for iplanebkling foo rss of constant or mer) constant depth and where the compres ‘Son chords the same cose sion forthe fle ofthe ss this Joc ot occur and K maybe akon 49 09-Ina continuous ss, Kimay be taken as {255 forthe eompreson chord connected othe ont where tbe ors inthe hung to compression,Wren the mapatude ofthe fore in the compression ehont chanssat a ‘pas ot tht ot braced oral to the lane othe mainte (Fs 320) he ellectv-ength for fr chord hacking normal othe pl the mai rs canbe apposite rom the wo comple foray Fra Pe Tolows 75+029(%) oo where Ps

26 616) SSRC cure 2 1 ForOei201s ane, 2 ForOIS=h=10 op mai(h0d— 018%. ~ 0.2061) S Forl0=k=18 gy mai(-0198+080m% 0086-9} 17) 4 Forts=2232 (008 081829) s Fork= 32 SSRC curve 3 For Cthe Euler form Figures 3.33 and 3.3 compare the fregins formals withthe revats of ‘sts on aminum columns (Clark and Rolf, 1966) The tes pecs ere onidered to have fied ends (Sat ends on rigid platens. andthe deviations Hom sighs were te than DIVE, The sfloiveongth fasion Ka Sued tobe in potng te test ots ‘Allowable trees for ung design nthe speciflstions ae obtained by appbing constant factor of sey of 195 to the sraightline and Eulet Formulas. Ths the specications do not diety consider the inl rooked- ness, hich spied by the Aluminum Aveoction a L880 fr stand ‘trvctral shapes but a L960 for most ther erred shops, Rater and Slinsion (1967 showed haa sal ital erokednesscanappesahy rece the factor of safety. especially in the labaton repon between cise and Isste buckling Figure 3.38 states the els of alelations for clumns ‘of GO-TO alloy with hy =OD012. tn a dacusom of the speciation, Farina and Click (1963) motel ha the elect of sl tuts ital ‘rookedes recent) maybe offi bythe we of conservative vals of ‘he cquialenfenthfctor as tsi forthe speaton formals. Tos {exe this, Battermin and Jonson (1967 consdeed te bypothetal ease os Column with pel material properties ad ens sestine sus that out ‘ut Toading (0 maximum sient, the column sept beeen infection Dnt is always 090. For beading aboot the weak (3) ania aia Srookednes of 0.01, the theoretal sat actor i pote in Fig, 3.36 both foethiseaseand forth exe of pinned ends Ths for eainely sight amount fend restraint, the safty factor tare om vases liply above 22 tothe ‘hort cola rage 0.4 minimum of 1.99 mt r= 6 I then Increases 0 Sighs above 22a L/r= 120. The effec of he ntl erookednes i rein.5 OO01E (Sater ed Jest, 1987) A samne | the safety factor from 1.98 to 1.67 thus oft if the column is restrained at the ends sich that st aca K value of 09 i prodosed. Inthe load a03 resistance factor design version ofthe Aluminum Asocation (AA, 1998) spe ‘eatin. arable resistance factor sts to aoount forthe effets of iti ‘rookednes European Design Practice. An eur British code (SE, 1962) adopted the Port Roterton formula, wich can be expressed as Ww) Gam lensed Ut tnt a8 “The factor i hase st ess (Baker and Roderick 1948) ad thus incorporates al sures of mpefetion and monies rez the es ‘Two tales ae ae 0.005 for Beat teat abd 0.00)? Tor non-heat fret aloe In 9 tr code (SH, 19) signe forms fhe typ sed in Noah America wore adopted Areant Brish stats design spe- Seaton, BS S118 (SAA, 19) provides curves relating the etal ses a feibe slederness aio Le for the reeesctative alma alos Tor Se by designers ‘Research by Mazzolani and Frey (1980) ad Berar et al (1973) povided «ne shroud iforation om inpefetion, dal sess, and the i= ne af wade, nich led othe preparation of the ECCS eecommendations ECCS, 197%), wch rene event i the Eazocde rales. The Rambere ‘Orenod forma was od o modal the tessa lationship in the Form «=$r00n(2) 625) Steins spe (171) tht i gu 1 he vale of the yd stent AVG per lone aren wih fe re a cote {hart te shape of the srs cone). “Tne canes have ten adopted, tng vale of wf 2,15, and 10 0 repeat the varios aly type Toxada the compute cvaltion Wee [Bil imperictonsof toh orator and ania at wll ay unsyome tal scons The carves esa ig 37 The aperture fr Sle. J dl u are" Fig 237. columa-bckng curves (ECCS shou tc)hcatrete, symmetric. open o sali etons, withthe lowest curve fr all tallow sections dalle sections ole hn symetic open Solid ssctons. Ths lowest cure lis stay below thous oer sta ands a i repesents am extreme combination of adverse ian 22.8. Stainloes steel columns Stiles stl has heen usd primary in noastoctrlappiitions, ssh as the foo" shceing ofthe chapel af the US. Air Fore Academy in Colorado Springs Colorado, and the covering sed forthe Gateway Arch in St. Lous Misr, Stainless tel as ao ben sed in many el frmes sel sta tures applications, and a design specicaon han ben developed for such purpose (ASCE. 193) ‘The post several yeas have seen increasing attention being paid to the poten uses ste or strata purpose Although the aay ‘tplates ad hotrod shape products sil imie, sb arent production ‘ony by afew mil in Japan and South Af, the ood for high coroson ‘ste sretral ements in mas) ifantructaresppisations inte that he i lily to grow substantially. Albough eos ie major ieee cre structural inl ste pies reflect an appronnate rao of $1 somes (0 ean and ether sete it roxy consvablethat certain wet ay Sis the higher peice Research and development work for suns ts strut sents i lied at ths tne and has teen conducted primary at Rand Afiaans University in Jobannesbug, South Ass. The folowing dexerntions therefore raft a sate theat assessment of mates and wht i koe about he Performance of stiles ts cums. Stainoas Sto! Materia, Sls lithe comion mame apple to « range ef wonbuse alloys whowe prime corroson-essting eleven! 1 cht. ‘ium. The minimus chromium content appoitely 11% the maimem ‘atound 30%. Carbon conten ranges fom 0.2 t0 012%, which i another Feason stanss scl sgnifcamy diferent fom the wus stuctural sel ‘whee carbon coateat typically es around 0.15 0 025%. In on, pss Fe stainless seas ube alling elements sch ae manganese, tcl a ‘nium. The stale steels ae typcly characteriza ther atone oF Jerre a define by tht alo (eryain) trace, Te astenitic sels have high chfomiua snd mike coptents the fern ses contin, ‘mali fo low contents af eam (1110 T8%s) ad steno nike. ‘type stestrain curve forsee sat shown in Fag. 238, Ht sted tat there sno yi plateau: the curve refs sel that saves Ineeasinlynonpeae lnm: andthe over ct generally very igh {congations at roptre are commonly 0% and more). Pure 138 docs not ‘ect an additonal snportan property of tunes: Unite carbon see here at ear dierencsin the provers associated With langle Fg, Typical soviet tel (ra do Merwe and van der re 180, and compresion, as wall as with transverse tesion and compression, ‘Nevertheless, the ape sn characteristic properties of al staness sel ate svistrated the Beare Representative vale of ek and imate tense (compressive) steses and the modulus of sat ae ae follows (am den Brg and van et ‘Merwe, 192: Bredekamp ct al. 199 Yn resem: 40 10 ksi (278 to 380 MPA) 1 Yat srs compression: 45 to 654i (10 to 480MPa) Until mods of lacy 29 0004s: 200GP) Staines tel type 3CRI2 is crey ting vege for we in ot soled shapes (Dreenkup sta 108} kr stars sharacerts ae “Sra dere om the wal anti ad fee ea sated iy ha 39 ppt th hay se ge pe aed tee apes {tes det ye peu: The segs yt onl sengts ae 40 snd Su teand sifaPay and he acrge Evalue 04a OPS) The Clongnton a pte sponte 5% ‘Residual Stresses. Dats on skal sess in hotrod and welded Saeup stank sel struct shapes ar ery bred this ine. Most of the work that has heen done has Fein om welded shapes (Brdenkamp et a 1092; Hesenkamp and van den Berg 1998) work on hot olled shapes isin progres (Bredeakamp ol, 198) Figure 5.40 pve an example of he esd tes ditbaton sn a wee wide Range ape with [90> 6mm Fnge (7 fia) and 90> 4 Smm web SL gin), and Fig 41 shows heFg. 239 Ania stein carves for pe SCRI2 del (Brenham al 1 stu column curve fr the sme shape (Bredenkamp ct a 198). The magi tudes ofthe residual stessey are Comparable to sila carbon ste, tlle shapes: however, the range of ease fesponse ofthe tu column i Resdustates dstibation data for hotrolled shapes are not avilable ately in the form wed forthe welded shape in Fig. 30" Theo ata are avaale for one spel rolled shape (Bredenkamy ota 194), ‘he cos section had SS 4mm Bangs (24> Sin) and 89 3mm ne depih web GO] Sin). Column Strength. No inital outofstrighines data are ssiabe oa. ‘ently (197) for welded or botrolled shapes It x therefore not posse 10 ffahte the maximum strength of stiles steel cola. On the other hand, experimental data are svalube (Bredeakamp etal. 1992, 1998, Bee- esamp and van den Berg. 199) these have been competed with predic tions using the SSRC cures, the Perry Robertson cure, anda tangent ‘modulus soton. AB example is given in Fig. 342, showing the column ‘tat for the otolled shape in 3CRI2 stiles steel appears tht the tspen-mods hase solution ves the best prediion ofsiregth, but he data onthe toting peosorendcate hat a uniform stan Sligament as used forthe specimen. Tis would refs te response of 3 Pfc straight column, ees the good corclation with tangent-modals ‘hor. Hower ia te absence of additonal data, the eaten recommends ‘do or stainis tel colnet ue the tngent-maduls approach ea de ‘Mere and van Jen Berg. 1992, ASCE, 1991) ab freak formed clus. meee] ig 40 Resales pt for wel eso ahape (Beaexkamp st Sra 8 Pe, M41 Anaya) resin ces for a welded tas ste) sane (Greenkampea, 183, 32.9 Development of Column Strength Criteria ‘The foloming gives a desertion of data and computational echnigues that rconeded forthe development of masimam-stength comm cures abd ote ‘als for pinned end cota logdd column. Farber dts can be found Inthe referees of Baterman and obnston (967). Borhovde (1972, 198 1931), Chen and Atta 1978) Chen and. Han (985), Cernenko nd Kennedy (991), Kennedy and Gad Aly (1980), and Albert a (1995,zg : s Seen ee ‘When dette stength and performance dat ate not available or specie cola shape, spose forndvalrecrchers or ode-wnting bods {ivlop column cures of type that av iar to thse that have Been pe ‘emednths pide The following sve et eatin ofthe assmptons hat ‘Sou he ese the type of dats hat ze reuied, and the compton technique that suitable for these ype of problems Data That Ave Needed The flowing dat re nested forthe computation of the maximo sagt of clus 1. -Type of mate and ts mats properies Ge elses 9 Mia modu ote) a Darnton of he esl sre isthe ro section, ining" ftom tough he ck he shape age or eh Navneet tes in, Th et See lared conc orca, thy rsa he nomial popes nese te pte of pe of ge hat ext solar ses Msh’cheawersic es ule tls comple pe! SE ‘strain curve is required, a ‘5, Maximum vale of te tal ou ofthe ‘assumptions forthe Anaya. Te lloingassmpions are normally con Aer wath ihe res that compte column sengis ar lly ‘Sioa Teo than those ota in seta tts: 1, Matra inet lati, perf plat 2. the inland al sebuegoent defection shapes of the coir can be ‘Serb hy al sine wave 5 Thevrndal stress ate constant i am element of he rss ston lng the fl length ofthe coma, 4, Sesion that ae eiginaly plane rman 4 for he range of deestions that sale for colon ste 5, Yield ers inthe eos sexton wi lod estically Teper nay vary cos th with ap tzough the thickness of Fee et puts ofthe cre wc but doesnot vary along He Tenth ofthe elu 1 tetne with sso 2, ony srs and strains at miei ofthe ‘om ae considered i the tabs sould te pointed out that if dete ilies and other materia data ane ete te elements inthe cross sein, the rns of stab aa a it used this snot ial, tension et ess for rots can Sty canbe sd, the proper fo tz the computations “ho hen Ge based on weighted scree ‘Computational Technique. Masini column stength requires the sot Came eemmuaie, montnear problem. It best aciewd though 30 i seat Kerne computaion alzothm. Intral fore: and amet Sim ve eaiabtshed for every Toad and defexion evel, abe see tine cross section fo determine when individual hers ik wes" orsuutnse to fod. The computations ate carted to evel Whee rans ocean ake any atonal Toad when an ational amount of Fee pose ts consiues the masta sength fev, i cert te the inoreentaton prwsdure be hase on deestion ie” earn an Toad, doo the convergence problems that may be Bete atthe mania lad approached when Toad inreents a SINS procedure above Ids tothe development ofthe Jaden ce Te Bouman wi given senders ratio or length. To btn TERRE Golam core, Heimat be repeated for range of ents a eae Gon of the bast stp inthe column stenahcompotons PUREE qowenart that Infictes the neeemary major parts of He8.9. TAPERED COLUMNS. Tapered structural members are beams, columns, beam-columns which have 1 continously varying eros ection lon ther longtoinal ates Such {ural components ae wd in many appleations in practise such at gable frames omer, ad architecturally exposed stl eons in stows, hall. or Aion Baus ofthe vanaton ofthe Mex xl apd torsion sins ‘the member, the sabia aay consderably more compliated faa ‘Sate prinmaiie members One of the care slations to the probe of backing of tapered columns i de to Tmonbenko (1908), Since then a ast mount of reseatch bas een performed on te any aspects of tapered ele ‘Mitte thi setion the stay sfaily lsd tapered colums. acting hho indivi or a members in a igi frame, disuse [Design eniner have ample lforation to dcermine the else load tapered clu of ptf geometry. Considerably Iss known souk fhe effets of inal egsTstions end residual sess on bucking im the ‘relate range ln doin the muximem eolums capac Is usually aban 1) ft ealelng the elas ral lod of the tapered column nxt deter nine the length of primate panalad Euler couran which buckles under the same cna Toad and finaly. eluting the felt capac by the Splcable column stength equation with this effective length (AISC, 1953, Sicha column eation includes the effects of Both matenal and geometric eninanty The pertinent promcnc properties of the taper column are {kena the leet cross scion o the tapered column. Ths approach con ‘Sou snc tastes the sume extent fying inal other cos sections, ‘Son though they ae of largr area than the smallest reference seston. 232 Elastic CritcalLoad of Tapered Columns The csc bucking of tapered eolumas can be determined y solving the Areata oqeton of linear buckling wher the moment of inert san zebra Function af the longtadinal coordinate af the esember. This anal fsiy exact slisionf pouble onl for special cases ofthe aration ofthe ‘Somont of ita andi svovesconsidershe mathematical manipulation, ‘Ts only the simpler problems re soled by ths approach ie teetbooks Sich ss those hy Timosbenko and Gee (196 or Bch (1952). This mathematically ‘act method na ato ud by Gere and Carer (1962) and Ermopoutos (1986) to desl exemive charts and formolas for et use by dein engines. Fogsl and Ketter (1943) sls developed extensive carts forthe stenath of tapered ea-colum. withthe ist ss the anit state "Te other methods of soliton forthe lac buckling lod of tapered Colanie ae the numerical apd energy methods The energy methods are pe Scott in many textbooks, suchas thal by Tamosbenko and Ger (196) or ‘ample The numesalsuthods ae the numerical integration chad (a Known av the method of tccetsie eprovimatio, of Newark metho) (Gere and. Carter, 1962; Wang, 1967), the fie dfferece method (Ginjavelabhan, 1969, and the fine ingral uhod (Kitiporcha and “rar, 1072), Moser methods of solution empl the fine elomen method. Acreting the mere ito many penmati ements (Lae et a 1972),sing trapezoidal eam ements (Gallagher. 1975; Karabals and estos, 1983: Chan 199 Bradford and Cab 1988), There are many furor fferenes on the buckling of tapered cola, beams, and beum-olumns. Maay of thee ae summarize inthe Fags ed tion of the Japanese Handbook of Siraana Stabiiy (CRC. 19H), whikh pss very enesive cart an fabs for many diferentes tons oudry condition, and per configurations. Additions fol sa tales fate gven in Formulas for Sires and Sra (Roark and Young. 1913) The ‘arts in Gere and Carter (1962) apply to ight pe a com section and to four kinds of boundary conditions Ample dats are ths sable he trate tothe design engineer forthe dtemination othe east ext oad ‘Findivies tupred sums The elastic Duckling of rgd frames containing tapered colunas has ao acted considerable research atlenion, by Wang (967), Lee at (1972, land othes (ae CRCJ, 1970, The work of Lee and is associates tthe Universiy of New York at Bulle eomered in more deta inthe nent ‘The problem of the nls bucking of tapered columns has ese fel sly tle atetion, with one exception. App apd Smith (1968 solved the ‘se of taped alumina columns ‘ith a Ramberg Ossi type ef ses sain care by «poner sere solution of the ferential equation of boeing ‘They aso conducted tests on 4 piensa found excelent cretion with the theoretical pediion. More research sede op the inelastic Boring apecity of tapered sel columns, 33. Buckling of Web-Tapered -Section Steel Columns Following sa dscusion of esearch conduct for about a decade tarting at 196 by Lee and his associate at the Univeray of New York at Bulato TH ‘esearch vasa eontinuatio of exer work at Colambva Unvest) under the tiestion ot Baler (Bute and Anderson, 1963; Bats, 1946). Boh of thee projects were under the tcc! gadance of a joint ommitee of the Siructurl Sabity Reserch Coun (SSRC) and the Welling Reseach ‘Counc (WRC), The Broad assignment of this rach was to develop desi ‘riers for rigid frames composed of webtageral sie] memes. A mae tensive dicuson of the rly of ths work. Heclading the sabi of ‘rams, teamcolumns, columns, and frames, spoon a Chap 9 ofthe fourth edition of hi pide For the lineal tapered member, the depth at sty stance from the sale end cas be expressed a=4(143) 25 er dy fers he mallet depth a == 0, andy represents he tapering tno. Fora ptsmate member, y=. for ameter how pth tthe age nds tees that of ts een. y= 2 Ts eomety ened oF Since i found toe vray imposible to pondimenionaie the many tg ve male end cros-aectonl dimensions sven nF, 345 Ths cover Al te range of ered member tli present day practice. Other variables ofthe solatons were bined for member lath, moment rato, tape ts, a 4ea0en i Fg 44) Grey fy aed ham (6, ae cont, Hany ig 348 The osu og on sn suppor ay apr eanIr centres. exia oads, and end moments These ate describ by Lee 972, B40, Sera wenves of approach are availble for the development of design approximations. Fist, sing mulvrbecurveiingtcngus, polynomial ‘tpesione conaning llth aah could be developed. A second epproach oul start from the assumption that adoquate solutians ae ow avaiable for ‘ismatic members. Then mdi Tats could be developed apd intro {ato the prema formiln Te factor can be casted fron strenuth of tapered member Siengit oF prmatic member ofthe smal cow ton ‘Hird bstomst) @21 it the restrtion that when 7 = 0 pismati), f= 0. ‘Although both approaches sequie curring techniques, the scond approach offs two eppealng advantage to the designers First they wil te sing the same formulas (AISC. 199) for prsmate members bu wih factor. Second, the factor wll give an icutive feng for the increase “There are two modes of general fate co be onside in the design of silly faded tapered members of doubly symmeuteal cross section (I) Strog-axs buckling nd @) wenkaxs Backing ‘Consdeing late bing. Tuetion FUE, 327) rage, such that Page = Pa tb .0) 62 — Sine columnype buckling can osc about citer the song of weak ai of the crow sation the function wil be drat fr each case Obsing that the vanatin of te weneans radius of gyration along the length of wb tapered member (ange width is constant is smal, no mention ctor i pesary. Ths iron EB ok - Wshememberis brace agsinst weak-anis buckling then buckling wil occur owl the strong aus For this eas, le = Ie" that bl, en (aly 620) uation 3.20 implies thatthe Bling foal for a tapered column of length ‘an be consredesivaleat¢o that of prac column having 8 cos Seton egal fo tht the sled of the tapered cara a ength ‘xl to (Fi. 3.40), Note tht for aly loaded tapered columns be cite Stew always oer a the slr end nd theses il darease toward ‘he linger end ‘Seking anton of mpl form with elatvelysnalleror and assuming cure ie othe data = a ——— Sab Tegretol_ 2 Vs, where the sections indicated in Fig. 3.48 were used to establish the range of Taration, Afr examining the resulting fied fancton, the fllowing ss hosea Ge Le et al 1972) = 1000-03757 + 00m4(Lo00 —00775)) GK) In general, thin lst formulas ate aplizable For slenerness ratios pester ‘hat certain ing rai. For members with leer senders aon buck ling wa oscur in th nla range and thera wil onerredil the ee load Since there are aalable ths date no neta solutions, one pose ‘prosodre fr slvng problems ia tha ange is owe the AISC oly eae (ea. 3.19) wah an efecave length ithe calm i retained at eer or both ends, the busking fad as developed above wil be dire restated clu of eight T at be ‘Sondre pied coum of ength J where ks the flee lent factor, In ths consideration the fonction x has ben absorbed sto the fective length ctor K,. Thos K, interpreted relating a etaned tapered earn hight 10 pn ended pram column of lng “The lec length i determined by omen 4 canguae iid frame (Fig 347 compose of prismatic ben nd apres columns, The tp bat e247 Ranga ume sro of ina taper shied columns and pe Inc Pham lt ere tev clu eng a 20 ics) th sumed to havea moment of neta J: the bottom Beam, Jp. The oad are ‘Sotued to at atthe centroid ofthe Columns The frame has 140 suppert onion athe pane ofthe fame (supported at A. Band C (sey ‘vented and () soporte at and desea permite). Finally is 0 understood tat omy bucking athe plane of the rame ic onsdere (.. ‘ronnie bacling ofthe upered columns “The lective length Ky was casted from VPP where Pa ste eral load ating onthe frame in Fi 347. Thas Ea 3.3008 een to nade end rstaits, 0s oan (Curves eating ca estan othe efeive length actor Ky ar ven in Fg SAS ean bor y=. Addtooal charts of this Kind are probe in he omensntary tthe AISC allowable tres design speiestion(AISC, 198} Tn miny singleton pd fame te girders are designed to be multe tne ember for etaons of economy” Typical rae shown in Fig 3. The design af sucha rae rogues addons inforttaton Piet determine the end esata the top of he colar, tis nest to eine the 1. cof the srr Secor ifthe pier 4 et be checked the llective ent factors ints ote encstsnt parameter mes lo Be povided DDasign information for both thse his ben developed by Le tl (979). ‘That uppcatin ie design may’ be ound inthe book by Law eal (198), 34 BULT.UP COLUMNS 2.44 Introduction ‘The eet of shear uit. columns es apart the design ofthese members ftom that of other comes. The empotance of designing the elements com ‘eting the main longitudinal components for shear was tagaly demon Stated bythe fae af the fest Quebec Bridge during consrotion in 197 Bridge design practice in the United States today ret theless eared ‘om she exemve reset tat Followed tht Ilae. Wy (1980) coneladed that aboet three furs ofthe erly Tales of laced columns rested fom Incl rather tha genoa com filre Morever the etal oad fora ba Upolu se than tha fs comrable soid coluon because the eft of ‘hero defense much peste for the former Thus the hea in BasleupFe, te (0 Efliveseath far for apr clu iemay prevent olurns eas 10 be etluted to (1) determine the posible rauction i the Duckling oad, and (2) dep the icing hur, batons and ther connectons ae used who the Toads to be caved ate lage oF when a “Kas wi ‘member or member sith about the same ra of gyetion in oop ‘hretion is desired. Laced or “lated” columns (Fig 3500) are regent ‘hed in yet steona towers in derrick booms, and in space exploration ‘hice, In modem bridge consrecion, perforated verplated cours (Wie 30) are ely to be wed rather than laa columas. OF the thee, attend columns (i. 0) are the ast esistant to shear and may expe nce an aprecible eduction i sual strength. They ae ot severly Wed fr 288 - ste pte ae ig 349 Typ gl ame with doubly a rateri OL ‘iter bride or bung construction in the United States. Box columns with Ferforated cover pts desiged to speication rues regute no spel co $ration for seu fet. "Engr (1891) comidere tees of shear onthe redaction ofthe Euler loa ofa su lade olann This as tren rovalated by ile (1982, Bch (1952) and Tamoshesko and are (1961 dca both aspects of the sear effets. Additonal rlereces ae ges in the thd euiton ofthis side (ohnstn, 1976 "The sca na olan may be cause by 1. Lateral loads om wind, eartuake, gaity, o other asses 2. The slope of the column with respet to the lise of thrust due bo {o unintentional iil curvature and the iactesed catatre dug buckling 5. The end eset of the fad dc to citer end connetions ofa sition imperetions The shear due to ltrs combined wih he estimated allowance forthe seas caused by the othr facts. The pele is mont smportant fo sender Columns and the cenit eft fr short columns. Word, the desi equirememts for sbear in buit-up columns vary widely (Beedle 199), The Enrocode 3 (ECS, 1993) recommends ealustng esr othe sf the fd slope de to speied ntl ou-fstraighness, magnified by the eft ‘tas lod and ded tothe rane hear duet the spied Tod ‘The AASHTO and AREA bridge specications provide an empl fr nul for aber $0 he added to that de to the meight ofthe member or the ‘nora for parole Wr a = To a+ 10* 330000 = norma seating forse, 1 (N) Pm allowable compres ail lad on members 1b (N) 1 length of merter i (a) rads of gyration of cton about the axe ‘perpendicular to plane of ain or peorated ple.) 1 tat of gyration of ston about the aus perpen to pane of| lacing oe perforated plat, in.) 'F = snced minimum etd point of type fs! Being wed, pi (MP) ‘Wh the veld suengh sexpresed ia MPa, the coefsent 3300 becomes 2 “The AISC specication fr bung (1924 cal fo the clelton of an incest enderes ato for use i he corn Frm to account forthe ‘ear effet The design formu is bused onthe ssuch by Zandoa (983) ‘nd Aslan and Goel (991). 1n Canada highway bridge specifications (CSA, ISs0 rere shear fore of 2 Seo he aa ors oe ade otha Boe 0 lateral oad 3.42 Etoctot Shear Distortion on Critea load Shear distortion reduces the aval compessive capacity of built up colums. ‘The shear Nesbit of buen or Ice start members can be chatter inl by the sear Rexbity parameter. (Lin et al, 1970). The ptamcer 4 takes account ofthe added distortion due to axial fore or bending in the web slements It's assumed thatthe ed stay plates donot contribute the shear outty. The fet sharon the ase ceil load depicted in Fp. 3.5 For these band conditions 1. Both ends hinged (subsp A) 2 Oneond fined, one hinged (bsp f ) 3. Both ends aed ub), (One enters Fig. 3.5 wih schoen oy and cele shar parte value ofp The load fall P/F can then be read Tor the appropriate ed ‘Sondidons aftr which the egeelenemph facor may be acute by the ‘yuatonFie 251. ital lone clu aso en onde, cost sea fl "iy and gl ay pts YPe In Ea. .38 and Fig 3.81 P, the ast erica load ofthe given ope-veb or open-Bangecolums, and P= °£1/L* the Euler lod for asobi-walcluen ‘th both cade hiage, Compressive resistance is then obtained Tr 8 gen Spestiation as function of Lr by formula or ble K 035) 243 Laced Columns Fora typical laced member (Fig. 3.50, consisting of two main Fog! ‘ements wo planes of agonal lacing and tranere strats, Lin et (1970) ‘rode the following formol forthe shear Roy factory reeQefel-G)] see] om “The notation wn Eq 3.36 described by Figs 3500 a 3.52 The hid tion ofthis gide Johason, 197) provides am iksratve example ofthe Srvlicuton of Eq, 3.360 pial denen a view ofthe val small ele of shea i acd columns, Blich (1982 178) hs soegtd tha conservative estimate of te inlence of or 45 Fecine as gone sped in ide design practice can be made by may ing the ellectvelength factor K (determin bend restrain oon) fo et facor Ks flows xf for Ktjr> 40 . VF ay Lik for Kr = The shange in Kis sigicant only for small KE/e vals, ia whieh ease thee lite change nthe sompresive rent Bridge design practic inthe United Sates (AASHTO, 1996, AREA. 199) rete thatthe lenders rai of he pron of he Mange betwee acing tar conection have a enderes rato of no more tha 40 or more han two ‘hide that ofthe entire member Canadian bridge spstications (CSA, 1980) ‘hing the foregoing lint o 0 ad the fourth, respective. "he lacing hrs and thir comsetions must be dened 1o act ether in tension of sompreson. and the rule for geet colunn desien apply 10 ‘thom aswell eeepional eases, such as vey Tags members, double diag ‘onal cam be dened a tesion members andthe toss system complet By ‘Sompasion struts The inrtace of adeguate an tight lacing bar conn ‘ons as been demonstrate by test Hartmann et, 193), ‘Cane booms aguetl consist of tied columns. Vroonland (197) ana Iya nonuniform booms andr combo lateral sn ax fads and pela theetfects of eitions and termediate neal suport. Brolin el. (1972) tested four Booms, varying from 40 to 2004 in Tenth, o desteucon. The Saal —— [So re yearn ent iG in Sfailure loads were in go aprooment wth he analyses of Veoonland Fares, ‘ccd when the compressive Fore vam indvdual coed member reaghed ‘he flr load preted Torte unsuppored length between brace pons, Inert in Iagod members hs recy bec enews By the eds of the pce inst for misma wig sare carry very sl ods Figure 35 isentes a member with thee ngitainal tuboae chords (ngeross) ‘ith tension diagonals sa tansene compreson srs. The overall and ‘hon senders are abo he sme and ae ery age Miler nd Hedgepeh (199) sued tbe deetenows effec of nil out strghiness of the tourna ast whole combined with that of the chords tree strats They promt cht hat profi the mat basting load toa featon ofthe Euler tfurction load ofa perf sieht member. For Slendemess ato of both the meter and chord of about 27, the maxim Tow sf than 8% ofthe Ese load, Craviord and Benton (1980) sid Similar members and got comparable resus. These studies init that for Inte members wth very large slenetnest asthe inraction of local and ‘veal outoFsraighnes the dominating factor, not the effet of sear. 2.44 Battened Columns Figure 3 shows thease clement of attne column consisting of 0 Iman longitudinal chords sgly conngced by batlens in one, two, of ore Panos The battens att the web and tans shar from one chor 1 the Uther by Bexar acon in combination Wath local Bending ofthe cons Fe ASS Trang hatin clans ie. 35¢ Typ panel bated rca mabe) poi cone (Forse Chk inate named pt eon ‘A bend column i more Aside in sea than thr Ise eon oF en colum with pevforated cover pas. I ats sa Vewendel tas The ttt of shear dstrions can be iain and should be considered in cl fulting the comprenive tena ofthe column. Bltened curate gener tly not allowed in erent US. design speceations but ares Canada AS ‘sl Batten columns are egoenty se fr antenna towers and on oason for secondaty members. The over portion of clus i mill Bulg that support cane ruay ides nay look ike bleed columns, at boats the ‘connections of the Baten othe chords ret ily famed they relly ae Spaced eolumas, a dicuned n Sstion 3S “The tye unit of atened solr bas sens center to center of ‘aan ad a width between seni f the chord. The properties of the ‘ettened coli are characterize byte ke shape Factors ad moments inert of the Stns nd chords Tn deeioping the shear Rexiiy ect for the highly redundant batened meter, Line a (1970) asus point of niston for symmetric members ‘The amulyisiconeratve bean the overall comity of the lngitiinal Imenbersneleod. The thar feta parameter then sven by8G] oe “The nomenclature for Eg, 338 is shown in Fig. 254 and (addins) Ac dy = ast spl ongituinal ad al batten ements within a length spectively rot = fais of gyration of longitudinal an baten cements, espetnly shim = shear shape factors forthe longitudinal apd batten elements espe ‘ey. where the shear shape factor Is the ratio of the Total eee Sectional urea tothe shear are (Timosbenko and Ger, 1961) 1 = length of column beeen end pats gation 3.38 account for the aplication of defetion inthe column se ‘nents between bane, Tse may be aged if the slendernese rato of te ‘howd sent beeen htens, a, doesnot exceed SDF whee, tbe "rage stein Kaa the specie J eve. Ths itera more ‘tringent than the Batten spacing reuements some spesicatons. Because itty to be impractical to determine the paral rity of emg atten Sonnsctions experimen recommended that whebever semi co ‘etons exis the coun he considered to be a spaced column, Esample 2.4: Rated Caluna_ssowa in the Fig. 355, ten Range ti ners have been included fo iminate local web distortion and to nse that SSS pn See i te canis = a ig 388 Eel dea he ates are fully estive sch seers werent provide, the olan W535 20 donstina) A= in? W188 (ates) Aen in? nan = 148%, For the combined cross ston, SUE a 9 185108 [iss r= (EB = nasin cr, Substiting Ea. 3.8 lids [rose (7%) ] Has “2(8)] 1) +26%07 «1.6“The crite oad rai for tree we of en conditions i obtaine from Fig 15 and he ssi dength factor evaluat from Ha. 3.35. The rest are then in Table 31 Taw reducion were mde, the value of KL? for the Fined bing ase would be 0/123 = 8. ‘lich (1982) aes the following approximate formals forthe effective lengths bttned col with Both ends hinge ETE - Hale) om tee 1h des at ft column» wl ie Meta oto chord conerseeves obs sh timate hat ‘A ostog ment of sel china haga ff of 1 ered ‘Sons nben sje = andy peer aun rar ais of, or ce Lay, 73S 0 ad 99 pe whichis lower han the 2. determined By Ege 3.38 and 335, "The unconservatve sumption hae sen made ht the alton of 0 tay pues gives the ond eons al igity with espe! shat AC the same ie. The checive Kiet alighty dernsed rae of the increase in bending Fenstane du tthe tay pls the end regions. The two eects ate fle ‘Sting and nay be aeglete, The desig af the chords ad the atten pls tnd thar sonnections shoud ake aeount of the local tending esting fom ‘ecied shear foes. “The ttn lates and their connsstions to the hon ae designed For the combination of ser Qa/ab and moment atthe connection of m= 40) TABLE Rests or Hxampbe FASO 0S) where (she shear required by specication lus shear de to any tamer Teanga the dance cnterto-center of bates ana the numberof parallel planes of bates. The stegth ofthe chords shoul te eheke forthe combination oF aia toad based on he strengin for zr length, andthe bending moment 20 Mae ean 3.4.5. Stay Plates and Spaced Columns End sty plates in bttned cols may contrite scanty to the hick ling suength Thee snportance reveled by the stay of speed colon ded erin as the iting ease ofa attene column n which the Rates Sse tached to the longitudinal olun elements by hinged connections The utes en act simply as spaces with ao seat vansmited between the ongitainal ements Without end tay plates, the bucking suena of such speed colamn sn greater han the sun ofthe era loads ofthe indi tal longitudinal component ofthe buitsp member. The strengthening fst tthe end tay patna from tro sours (I) 3 shortening ofthe lent ‘ithin which the colin components can fend aot ther wn ses, and) the forcing ofthe longi components to buckle n 2 modied sons ‘mode she and thus have an clastic bucling coon that my appr ‘mate four ime that ofthe fe mode, The bskl oad spe alma with end tie plates i Tower bound ro the bucking load of the battened ol a ithe pes) But wth Jw oF uncertain moment resistance the connections beween battens andthe fongtucnal components Such col ‘uns are sommes aed im mil baling consrction, Tn aio to their onteibution To olen stensth, end i plates perform thir sal foe of “Sstrbuting he apple ores or ome to the component cleats of ether laced or tiene column. They also provi means of transiting load 0 tothe member of toa footing With regard othe distance alone the ol ‘renee space clement the sme re or bales sould provide a Sm servatve bi for desig, xanple 3 involved a tte ola. I the ifn plates 0 prove rigiiy ofthe baton connetonsnete nd the behavior would approach ‘te conditions assed forthe spac column became heathen of he tutes tothe column wes wool not trast mocha lei ‘Using the potation adopted for battens the momen inertia of the wo lange about they att would ean Example 3.1were isthe moment ofineta of one of the nid onits ments "incre 1) mil ding coi sully at lest 40 and could be rere an (40, to es ea parameter forthe determination of he ‘tcking toad ofa spac column wih en eats ora of ching for spaced columns without sdesway are treated ia Johsign (107), a stata tn Fig. 3.36, Spaced columns with sideways emit aio are teat re Tati biagstend condition the spaced eon wih end stay pats buticseuher in Seunatre (nose A) (Fig. 36a) of in mode B curate Fass depending onthe rales of J, and y/L 1 wl bs noted tha in eescin tht ao ferent change of eth of the two Jongtuina! a comapoacats between the end plates; thus they buckle unde iden SSIS an he cea load is independ ofthe rato 1/, When the "Shun baci in mode B curvature (Fig 60) the component onthe co Seem atin come) shortens ore thas on the convex; thus there arises Se inset resister dso the diference io she dtc component fre Free aed to the seperate moments inde inthe componen as result of Fan eatute The cial loads for S-curatore buckling couk be ess rae er mae Beurture beste rato 7 relavely sland ay Share We tice, the bse of column wil sly be fine to a footing. and S ‘eannrare buckling cannot take place Bucking wil bein mode Ca iotratd RINE a soe, 1 es vg wl tad toward these wth bo nd ‘edonsrated in Fig. 3S ied-end ocklng Fi 3 asin mode eth ment sexitane is smply the sm ofthe moments in the component ‘Aeediecontibuon due to ferent forss asin Fig 3500 te. 186 Stn etn tackling ode (emo A ings tne() ode Te Sane) made Ching fed) mode D, ined fd ‘The fned-end case isthe smpht to eat, since the eral load is simply {is he eitsal fod of fonda component, length I with both ets ha thts te Els Toad with sn equivalent length of 0 atid by 2. S\ided moment esitance npc om due diferent changes component mgt occas oly we the end rotations ae dierent n mag ‘2kPand or sense_asin Fig 3Sebande- Wain gt eten the elses Above sno shear rane bstween Inga; hence he eierentil dist {ean the retng Iaoment at they contribute must remain constant sw "Athough Jolrston (1971) sve criti loa éformaton fora variety of cod condition including the four sve i Fig 3.5, dbase and hinge {Op cases Fg St is ponubly of grentest practical apptation, In terms ofthe ‘in which € is temed the easti-bucklingeoefien. For the determination of| “pgrosimte cial loa in he nel ane oF for vation of compe ite 'Sregths by cokima-dsgn formu. i convenient to deere tbe ‘Metin length factor K fora inthe easton 6a) were nf oy sti beklngcoeficiets Cfo the hingod- fined eas are plot a Fig 5.57, whos we wl now be lustre. Example 22 \entcl with Example 3.1 but omiing btten-ange sens fin consi he design a pac clan rom Fig. 3.57, C= 10. By Ba. 3.44,peeeeve ss Fig, 457 Elasic hocking coefciems, one end hinged, one end find (mode © of P30, cone Kangen oss Kt_0.88 600 7 eo (Note hat i now eferenced to Lr, nt Lr) By ASC speieaton (988, “Tables 3nd 3 5, “Sc Col Baten ramp 3.) In a inited numberof test of spaced columns (Freeman, 1973) the max mur ace Tous el shore ofthe predicts, dai pr to open hls in he tote spcimens and to deformation of the end stay pats, Pending ft {te ita esommended that oly half of he length ofthe ead tay lates te Considered effective and that 90% ofthe theoreti ae loads be Wed as @ Ios for design 34.6 Columns with Perforated Plates White and Thsimann (1986 provide (in addition the es of thie own roar) digest of tvesiaton tthe National Bureau of Sandra (Stang ind Grstapan, 1948) and give recommendation forthe design of clans Shh perforated over pate. The following deve stgzstins for sich ca Uh ar derived rom the White Thm say aad from AASHTO spe- ‘Seaton (1936) When prorated cover lates af sed the allowing provisions povern thei esi 1. Theratoof ng in direction of stress, to wid of perforation should rot exes 2 21 The lear distance Seton perforations in the destin of ses should tot be esta the diane etmeen pmo suppor fie (e—a) = in Fig. 3 Sta). 3. The cla distance fetmeen he end perforation and he ed ofthe over plate shoud ao be ls than 125 times the stance between pals oF Support 4. The point of support shuld be taken a the ier ine of fstenes oF filet welds conmeting the perforated plate to fhe fanes. For pats ‘tele to the fangs oe of roll segnents the point of suppor ray be taken a the weld whenever the rato ofthe outstanding ange frdkh to Binge thickness of the rolled sepment is bss than 7 (Otherwise the point of support should he taken as the root of the ‘ange of the elle segent 5. The periphery of the perotion tall pins shoud ave minimum rads of ta GS). {6 The twansvese distance fom the edge ofa perforation to the mars line of lonpttina tener divided bythe plate thicken thal the br tio ofthe pat adjacent to » perforation (ce Fig. 3.5) should ‘conform Yo minim speci regents fo Paes in mal Sompression membersFe 351 Coline with pera we 3.8 MILLBUILOING COLUMNS 2.54 Introduction Mil bing are industrial strates within whieh machinery o products are nove abou by ever raving eranes. The cranes tel on uy i {Eas tht ave sported by column rackets o by stepped clus ‘il bling ceumas are deigned by a rarely of serpin! prsedures| whic, on te bss of experience, hve produced generally satisfactory rest ‘The dsion rocace peated heen bused on a modieation of AISC Thing specisation rosedures, Hf ausured thatthe wer ofthis chapter Sho has avaible the AISE Technical Report No. 13 (AISE, 1979), which lasses mil bung srctre,sugsisdesighTond combinations, defines terms and prone desig information sucha the equivalent gt factor of Stepped eluras, Some common ype af ail bung columns are Musa in Fig 3.53 Figure 19 thows column of nar section for the ene [Engh with the crane ranay pers supported by eofumn brackets. Figure [Shp shows steppe column, ith below shaft mingle any wideange Section The upper shaft. supporting the fo stature iva lighter wide sang> shape Tre 38 reqesets, in the lower sha. cher abated column or x space clu, difleremiated in Socton 3. The batten colin Ione in tic the two longitudinal column elements ae connected by atens with Thomert-esating end eonnestion Those are to be spaced cose enough and ‘esioed ith saint suength ad riiity as to make the two longtinals Sc vey neu sents singe seton and thus achieve integral Bem ‘olumn action But sine mil balding columns, the bates are tle more than spor, ad the ongtdial elements ae simply fore to deflect inthe ‘aie curve Thr efeive lng ar separate columas are, Hever, apps shy sed by ene plates (ee Seton 3. Figure 3 Sd shows a lacs column, offen used between evo cane ats With adouat ing bre the two lower sft segment act substantial with intgrl acon (ee Section 34). Lacing is partelary appropriate when the ‘engin elements are spaced some distance apart in which eas een ‘ofload maybe large However, any ofthe sypes usted in Fig 3239 maybe ‘ed for eit interior exterior cols "Tae detemiation of inema moments, shears, and diet frees i pre- Tina to the deen of «stepped column. For manual analysis, Maray snd Gram (1957) have deschoped widely a method in which es assumed for ene loading, tht the column is hinged a te top. miiay between prints of tachment to the roof structure. The eget of top rotational taint iosteaes the ealelated moment atthe fotng, which i assumed fed ad ths somapensatse roughly fr sideseay that may take pleat the ‘op. Huang (dh) has developed grap that facia nays bythe Mura) ‘procedure Alterativey, th complete bent may Be analyzed by the slopedetection oF momentdstribution procedures, for which coefcients for Seppe meters are given by Maugh (1963). Amore complete analysis ‘must ake acount ofthe fit that individual bets ae not ie 0 say ioe- Pendent ut ae parally restrained by thei eighbors through cos bracing Im the plane of the tot. Usually for wind loud the colunas are elie sumed rotationally Ste atthe top or comsidered to be supperta by 80 Ingo a shown is Fig 19, th the hinge nsmed to ave equal sideways placement ‘Gnen an analy of tending moments rvling fom particule oad onion, the design chek may Then he made by 3 modieton of the [NISC interaction frmala for combined tess dae eompreson and baa ending I assured hei thal inlgral calm action achieved in the tower shaft by means ofa continuous web pate oF by properly designed ton or lacing Steped spaced columns om he other hand, 60 not achieve ‘meprl acto, tut nevertls can provide an economical and satisctory {Dluon fre biking pphaton, epi adequste end aly lates are introduce to rede the elective length ofthe components se Secon 3) 282 Effective Length ot Stopped Columns, Ts fstive lng, oF more propery the euvalent enh of 2 uniform oF pramtie colin having the sume backing characteris as that of the SNepped column speed fo dsterine the axl compressive resistance and the Fler baking la for potential modes of fale by bucking or Pending shout the a as (ce Fig 3.60), Tables to termine efetive kn ators te provid inthe AISE pe (AISE, 1979) for a range ofthe tee pur Instr define in Fig 3.60 forthe eases when the cola bas iter fed ingot spd the solu tp i binged The parameter the rato of he length fie upper (luce) segment he oa length. The parameter Bis the rato ‘ofthe moment of ier (about the centroid xr axes) of the combined (Gower) column cross seton to that ofthe upper section. The parameter D/P, is the eat of the al Tce acting the upper seamen (00! sod “pet wal ads) to that apie to the lower seamen (crane aver reactions ‘ahaa allowance or lower wal ond nd the clan weight) Other notation ison in Fig, 360 4 well The AISE tbls give ranges for fom 0.100 (0h for B rom 1.0 100, abd foe, (Py from DO to 0.25. Muang (1968) provider values ofthe effeive length factors tb graphs over a somewhat “erent ange of parameters or stepped columns with ted bases ad hinged tops and for values of Py/P, up to 10 Fare values tabulated forthe fe: tiedength factors fr stoped colamps are given in Timorbenko and Gere (096), the Eagshetion ofthe Japanese Hondbook of Sica Sabiy (RCI, 1971) and in Roark and Young (1975), among many ether sures, 3.5. Design Procedure for Stepped Columne ‘The interaction equations wed for the design of stepped columns depend on the potential made of File and therfore on how the clams are Dace. Stppat colin are waa lterlytnsipported over the etre nat ro top to bottom for bsklne or Pending thou the vate For backing about {he wet, pans, aera support tly provided athe velo he crane runway gid seat, location Bi Fig 1.40, Therefore, the follwing pote Fare modes exit: 1. Bending ofthe overall columa in-plane about the x ai 15 foe his ase that the uae ogth or the stepped colander ‘eermins! 2 king about the -y ani of te lower segment,nae AR “ie! ii er p60 Notion fe Seppe cons (AISE, 19. ‘Ysding ofthe eros sation of the lower segment 48 Buckling about the »-y ais of the upper (edved) segment of the cohmn. 5. Yielding ofthe eros section of the upper segment “The interaction equations for ail compresion and bisa bending ae: Eest(te le) <0 raion 02 04s) nt (Aietane) <19 werlon soz Gas where as) no hee parallel er for By elated to te yy axis \Volus forthe various terms are nde. It is conservatively assumed that the moments M,, doe to esene eae pier reactions areal taken by the Hower manent cd thorere the moments about the 9-9 as i the upper Following the AISC-LRED procera modes |, 2, and 3a om sidered together eae modes $d 5 When sing the ATSC-LIRD equations foe toure modes 2, and 3 comPsee, the fllowing vals are sugested. The Fecored sil loud; Pris P,P ad My 0 Mae tbe maxium ms {od factored monn within he length, Basel on AISE (1979), Cy taken 1085 when al bois re under smaltansous wind loud with sda. For ‘fanelond combinations, with only one beat under consideration, tke Ci unl #098, Besuse thor bon ssumed that the fer spent ikl che moment about they aus Cy, = 06 when the bse ped and 04 when {he ase ee soot the -y aus, The compressive rexistnce ithe ast of (Bao the equivalent columa sn 9? ofthe botor Segment aking, a this SNC Pos ite tas considered tobe fall ed. and K'= 1.03 the bse ipeonsdeed tobe pinned Te factor moment resstaos is sed on the pow of lateral torsional bucking and fy My he ul os-setonal tong. Ths bring the ease, oth factors By and By as given peviusy are Tits ou vale of 100 or geate. The vale of Py as determined fr the {aualent column and Py is sas on 0 ofthe lower segment or a fixed base Sh 1 ofthe Tower sient the Bae singed. Wheo using the AISC~ ERED exuation for fare mods # and 5 combined forthe upper pment. the valessugesad pal thon forte lower segment with the exceptions that there are memes only abot the asad Cy Jepends diets on the shape of the moment dag, “Thee lure modes cold ak be checked independent when the vaes for checking ace ae follow: For bending fare about the sx ai fle ‘mode I (ie predominant moments ae about te ax) the factored xl Toad is PhP andy and My. are the maximum modied factored ‘ornts wii the length, Cay i taken 085 when all Pets are under ‘iulkanous wind lond with Sdesway. For crane Joa combinations, with only one bent under conaderation, take Cy equal 1909 Because i has teen sumed tat the lower semen takes all the moments about they is Cy = (6 when the bse pinned and 4 when the bas sed aboot ‘he pps, The vale of Bi at resid. The compresiveestanc isthe It of gf, of the equtalent column apd @Ps of the boom segment with Koss ie awe taken tobe fly fxd, a th K'= 10 i the Base is {akon as pinned. The factored moment restanes dy Max 306 My ae te Futeronectonal siregthe The value oP, a eermined forte equae lent colin and Py ase on 08 ofthe fower pment fora ud bse ab ofthe lower segment if the base hinged "The tales for hecking the ls four peta allure modes, mods 2105 independemy, for yy ais bucking and for cross-sectional Sengih areas {lows The actor fore effects, PM, ad May ae toss fr the approPilate segment. When checking for cross-sections strength, the sesame ‘Py Mord At ae the fl factored eon sectional tenets for te app ‘eset. When choking for jy aus bucling, Pe bse om srs {ud conditon or he sepment being considered, Thelin length he al Ieogth 4 forthe upper sepment the lngth BC for the lowe eee s Tull ty doesnot ext and O80 ofthe gta BC al fd tthe base. I 4.348, ys the appropiate lateral torsonal backing strength taking the spe af the momen Sapam ito acount, ad Mf the al eros setona Strength. Cyr aod Cy have minim sales of 1 beau the variate of ‘moment has ben accu frin ning the moment estan, The vale of Pe ethat determine forthe evant lun and P, taken os tht for the 3.544 Design tends and Research Mood An LRED approach othe design of cane columns bas en presente, had fn AISE modicatins tothe AISC-LRED specfestons. that apnea to tnembes for which the io lonpttinal components of th owes gent in te considered vo at atgrally. When bot these components etry ry ge ods and te thetfore Bey ay be economical to design the lowe se mont asa spaced column. The us of adequate nde pate ost uscd Column reduces the effective ngs and increases the hacking Toad Of the "The desipn of column with constant cro setion subject 0 laterlloads and moments appli at Drckt st shown in Fig Sy as bon sonseed by dans 91, Th wpe and oc Sees eet pate Inthe example given bere the aera suppor provide bythe ps tached tw one ange othe colum has not bees considered. Horne Ajman 1971) snd Alfert et al (195) tae this into account. Research i need int the tet ofthe dyoanie component of te erae loath on the Bena of ill bing column, 38 auvepyowsns Goyed toners ate usd for communication sacar etc tranamison structures (ASCE 1972) and more sal for compl osbore platforms {nd wind energy conversion stems. They coast fs must supported a one ‘or move level by guy cals that ar anchored atthe base," mts ae ‘sora three dimensiona sel trusses of ether tranglar or square eons Scion, bul ecstnaly, ay be of cela eon actin. The loading om ‘pet Cover oy ial 1. Settweia 2. nial uy tensions (lo call uy pretensions) 3. Wind, ee and earthquake lads 44 Load de to fling is, siden rupture of gay cables, condactom, ‘ound wie, and 50 08 5. For conmniaton tower, loads on antennas (6 For eeetncal transmission ower, loads on conductors and ground 1. For compli ofthore platforms, operations los and wave loading 1 Transportation and ection loads “The annual fale rat of exiting towers was estimated by Magu et a (9985 tobe $5100, This conser fo be high non compared Io ote ratte, Conary to most ster sirdtues fr sich the dead als the ‘nar lad wind loads and combined wind and ce loads are the major loads ‘on mers (Wate a, 199), “ine complete design of guyed lower includes consideration of vibration sige phenomena in which ieconered cables tend o viet wth large Sinpltades perpendicular tothe decton of wind. Galloping genera reals from some form of ing om the eas when here suet ee) 10 ro uns large osllaions ad fle of the tower may result Saxena eta. (1989) ‘eported that here were aay inients Whee some orm fe storms acon Fal with modsrte wid post ka to the clase of several rane {in communication tomes, Considerable work has teen done othe prose thn of dynamic Behavior and thee of wind and season sch towers (MCatrey and Harman, 1972; Nowk etal, 97S Nakamoto and Chis, Ts85; Satena et al, 1989), Simplified methods for estimating the dynamic rerpome ning serie of state path lads have been developed (Gers fd Daveapnt, 1986: Davenpor: and Spring. 1992). MeClue eta. (193) ‘Meni stem sessing and euthguates some af he oer cass of "The folowing deals only with ockling aspects of gaye tower design. Althout istaity may mot be the fare mode ofall guyed towers. the Posty of pnerlisabity of guyed tower should be ines By ‘he designer (Hu, 1962; Goldberg and Gaus, 197% Williamson, 1973: Chajes, nd Chen, 197%; Chajs an Ling. 198; Cost and Philp. 1983, ‘Because the governing equilsium equations ae not linear bomogencous sustions insta no ifercaton problem ut occurs a a age defor Ioenced pinay by (1) the crossctionalazea of guy cables) the second moment of fea (omeat of beta) ofthe ess section of ast and (6) the ini tension inthe gy cable For the case of bucking of « guyed tower thea flee of the gy cabs perp, more important than the ending wines of the mst The bucking dad can be ints let BYIncreasing the eros setonal ares of gu cables up tthe pia where the mast ‘would buckle na mumber of al-naes equal to the mune of uy lvls To Ineese the bucking ld further the second moment of re (ie the Desig fife) ofthe watt must be acess. An crane gy precios be oth betel nd detvimenal eflets on the stably of gujed tower An ince gy pretensions seni ait restored defections of the ‘ast nthe eter hand an inerens In gy pretensions i ethimental a it Increases the compessive force om th mast, thus rong it reaance 10 bcling. tiny. the increase in guy peteasons vss in am reve in Drckling load, because of reduced rover deacons. However ale xian ‘Stag. he pease the bokling loud produced y intesing uy reensions ‘nb more than fet hy the decreas nthe basking load ds nese Compre oreo the mat The analysis o's gujed lower i complicated bac ofits pomercaly online lave evo at low lead lel. This aonlieaiy t due to the increas avi sis f gu cables with increasing tension a te decease inthe ending sites of the mas dt he reise compesive fines. A swe towers asalyanayzed by approximating i san equivalent conti Sous beam-column on norlnear ela supports (Coben and Petia, 19 Rowe, 1984; Dean 196; Livesey and Posi, 968, Goldberg and Meyers, 1968; Oley, 966 Williamson and Macpoin, 1946; Rosenthal and Shop, 380. Ekhande sad Madapua, 1988). econ, fsa and Avent (981) preted 3 Iaetod to obtain the foro in ald members of the mal rely by the We af dices fk mechanics ehnigus, Sometimes the analytical mode forthe guyed tower analy may bea nite eament epesaation ang Dean ‘olu clement forthe mast an cale came forthe puss ASS, 198) "Two base approaches are urd forthe second-order elastic ale (00 etre nonlinear analysis) the sabiiy fonction approach and the geomet Sifoess approach. Ths ype of analysis inloes both Pa (ehoré rout) snd 75 (ember curvature) effets, thus eannaing the eed for moment Smpliiation factors. The ane of member ftv length factors (factor) Isao not regia when denn sari out in ascorance with CAN CSA S16.198 (CSA, 1994 As all he foes resutnts ating om the ends of the embers are eablshed fro the sssond-orer analyst the member design ‘bused ons actual length The members designed aasning that X= 1. The tower legs canbe designed as beam-colums the wal manne. eis generally accepted thatthe research ofthe lst halentury has shown that the masimum-stengh citron isthe soundest bass fr the assessment of {olumn srengins ad tcrefore for the development ef column curves sre inal a snican ody of opinion that multiple column curves can Peter rele th eal stent of columns Because ofthe rece Sater when fever taresor feos sons are seo pater ce onomy REET Uhinel nie minaiing even neesng ay. weer mh ofthe dats tat om he es or eaten con ares cs eed fr masiting protest ay be ose. Changs EES Gtr ice thin the cheney of teste and inthe roses for evs ane With computer ton mma ae pow eo ol bth the chemistry andthe ralig proces tos) nothing ofthe “Sot protests eran then eretfore No doa te con Sinead he rata sn stengie and pometc proper tht extend ¢Surafsighinens and cen pebbled ees. Te ated {Gon sets tobe are te sit nthe an coe, ind a therfore oie hat arent stl ate ated the vate fat properties es sng, lima seg ahd ‘leblanc toga wih i onan foe ropes. Thee tena come sy wih orn ata on ouofsraghneses ond ‘tShat suo vara, totr of Wich tay ako have changed doe to “hanes ote manufotring posal he whe making Fl eo “Sut smuatons Kenedy sad Cherenkn 1981). The result could ws werner eam carves iy wats tse tha er pede the acl ‘Shun ading sineinsouly f ncremed and eahaped Unesandng ‘Sonoma ey "On arte Tom, compar acs soul be apple 0 members and francs So tht sony anal eas based On simpied mod ‘Stren on th emis hat cn be cnsiered, wuld n longer essary For eae dl coi be ope oases the seg of ‘oppo cecum arbitrary hap ude ray lag wibot th tenho espn rt adh nen Sega sina and en thot the ue of con equations. Advand tha fanaa ar ound fo ihe evn arse apatons AA 1990, San AASHTO (196), Stndod Syetin for Highway Bis 6h et, Ameen “Anos of Ste Highest Tracer Oc, Washo, DC [Adonis MH. (19%, "Nonna nse Sas of Fn Conan Pe Se Ackroyd MH, and Bros RBH) "Eet of Send Consens on Stel ‘Cann Soph" (Onc), Ca Stet Res Ln) Va 03.90. [Adan PF, (970, “Sonesta Design of Ste en- Columns Pe, Con. Sat “oe Cans Front, Ontar, CoaSCY Sst te en abi ad rio Sra So [AISC (1980, Seren fr Srl Ste! Bag: Awe Sets Dein od Poe Di, At ns Sos Comeion, Chae AISC (1999, aad and Reisner Fac Basten Spectator Sina Sl ung. American Ite of Stel Conran, Cac ‘ert C, Sima Py Reams. Jy and Rents DJL. (999, “nic ‘Dror Smth of St eaneColume” In CSc Stab Desi. (et 0 Nov 1, Asal Isat of Set Coston Ste. Absa, Alpen, G. A. (1970), “Resa Sues and SteyThof ColéSKapheed Wie "Fang Sap” Jonker a, 8.138 Gn Swe. nl Shpe ot Cane 14BSE: Paap May 1 ANipten, GA. (1972), Resa Seen, Yield Ste an Cola Ste of Vole nd Ror Srihtna Sil Shapes olin, Cal Steg Pas ‘ten GAs and Tal L190) Res Sees in Hey Weld Shape” Wale "Columns," ASCE J. Bg. Mech Di, Vol 88, No, EM2. pp. 588-558 AREA (1979). Sint for Se! Ray’ Bres, AREA Manu fo Rally nuns. Amen Ral Engng Aste, Cheap, Chap. 1. ASCE (1972), “Guide forthe Design of Alumina Team Towers” Task ‘Commies on isola Aloe he Commitee om eae othe Stra Don, Aen Sito Ch Emp Proc ASCE Val 3, No. ST ASCE (1. Speen for he Desi of Coli ered Stamles Siel Siaal ‘Momier, ARSIASCE Sunda’ No. ASCESN, Amen Sosy of Ci ‘ai Ftd Gl, $C. 11990, "An Aaah Cites fo Bung Stent of Bake and Rodeo. J. W. 19H, “The Seago Lisa Ally Stas.” Res ura tA. ad Chee W. F190), "Pratl Anas of Sembee Fram “USC Bop fel 27. No.2 pp 58. Sutcman, RH. an Jbmston, BG (M67, “Behavior ad Min Suengih of ‘Mol Colma" ASCE! Sar Ve 9 No, ST 9p 3 290 lL. 99D, Sail of Meal Snare A Wav Ve, Scar Sab el L$ a (8, Sma Comins So Fame, Cnn on Tall Tigi Urban Habs, Metraw il New York Te. Labs Bop. No 37.7 Leben Unversity, Bebe, a De ea, Ay Foy, FD, Jy and Manone ©1919, “Resch the ikl Bennor of Attn Cm” TABSE Mem, Val 3. 901-39 (or Freeh ‘Sota Shoes” Sho Sacer Under Sut and Dyn aa, ra $a Calg Wasingon, DC rice, PLT) "Devogmet of Coan Cue Fae HSS." Simp. olin Sins. Ser CIDECT. Toren, Onroad snl 92, Deeside Aro he Se a Brows. R(T). “Suenth and Behavior of Cokt-Formed HSS, Columns ‘ut Eg Rep Ho. 6 Certs a Alert Eon Ae, Cana, De pte.) "he Safle of Sd Couns ASCE. Sutin, Na 10, ort, R90), "Rewarch Newt ia Stability of Meu Stree” ASCE J Worhowe, R (198), “End Restaint and Column Stbiliy”(ixuson), ASCE J apni AISC Bag, J, WoL, Noe Bowne. R 565, “Colamae: Frm Theory To Pras” ASC Bg. J Vol 2, oon (991, “The Seng Henry Clues." J Can Sl Re N19 rnd. (1992) “Compson Men” in Centra Sel Deg: An crm Ge (PD, Heng and. Btovde), Eee ‘oid Sens Lando, Chap 23. Wr Rs ad Bem, “Lit Sater Desi of HSS, Coe oe. Rand Ta, L (1972, “Maximum Coluna Sent an se uigle "Com Cirve Comey Pris Eng Ea ip Ne 38%. Legh Unser orhnde, Rot Alpen GA apd Tall (1972, “Resin in "Took Wee a Woda 31. No- Be pp 9249. ich F952, ki Stroh of Meal Sac McGra Hl New Yor, Pid M.A ad Cok, (194, "Eae Backlgof Tpeed Monosmeatsic Tea” ASCE J. Snr ap, Vol LG No 5 pp. 977-9. Predera, Pan van den Berg, G99), “The Sine of Stiles ‘Sel Buic-p FSeao Colmar Con Std Rats Val No.3rvtenrough RL (1992, “Matera Bhai” a Cmca! Sl Den An Tne Cu (od P1 Donte. Harding. oR: Bahan), Eat pnd Sane London Ciape La 12 Solin, ©-A. Daher, HE. abd Sra, G. (173), Desai Testing a Cee Seo, Alpen, A. and Tal (97s) “Rel Sess Hey Rollo Shag TT Pg Lah RN 177 Utigh Uy, Bebe rast Alpe G. A nd Tal L, (19%, “Welling Parcs, Thick Per. ‘id Column Sites” Pri Bg Lak. Rep. No. 13721. igh Univer, rgb Jad Chk J. (10, “Sent of Walled Alun Cotas 1st (991, Simca Use of dina, BS SBI, Bish Sands tstuon, ater. (1960), “Eli Buckling Tet om Lately and Toso Bcd "Tpeed Bea! Wot Re Spl Wa 45 No Bute, D. J, and Andon, (96), “The Elsie Buin of Taper Beam Colas” Wel er Sp, Nol #2. No. Chae Aan Chen WS. (199) “Sbliyof Gaye Tones ASCE Sct Di VoL 10S.NO. ST. pes Ti ‘has An Ling. D981). "Pon tucking Ashe of Gael Tower,” ASC J (Chae SL. (890, “Baking Anas of Strstres Compost of Tapert Meer Chapa 1. and Gaambos TV. (19%, “Resin Coss Auinu Colm “ASCA Sinar Dt, Va 10, No STDs py 31-530 ‘Chen, W. F.1D, “End Rest an Clan Sig ASCE J. Sit Di, Vo 08, No STI. pp. 227-2295. ‘Chen, W. (I87, Si ley in Skt Frames,” Spc! ete, J Cant ‘Chen. W. Fe (188, Stl Boam so Cla Bug Comets, Ekle Appd Cg WF and Att T (990, Ts of Brn, No 1 MG ‘Chen, W, Fs and Han D.C. (989, Tar Mtr Ore Src, Pa ‘Chen, WF, and Kish, N. (1989), “Semi Se Bem-o-Colunn Cones: ite Bis an Modeling." 49CEJ Sra By ol TIS. N0. 1p. 111 (Chen, W. Fad Lt EM, (985), Sealy Desi Cite fo Stel Mrs ant Frm tbe Untied Staten" Cnt Sel Re, Val No.1 pp. S38 (hun, W- Fan La EM. 991, Staly Deg of Stel Famer CRC Pes Bo ‘cen WF ad Sol 1S, (199, Plate sigan Seon On Anat of Set rae, Songer New York. (Can W- Gt, Yaad Lien YR (196), Stabe Dein of Semi Prams ‘Chere, D.E and Kennedy. L191), “An Aa ft Peformance of ‘Waled Wise Fsge Caan” Can 1 Coil Be Vol 18 9p. 557 398 (Car Wand lt RL 96) "Buckng of Aumisu Cols, Ps aod Thame” ASCE Som Di, Vl 9 No ST pp 1) 38 ig” ASCE Sat Dit, Nak 8, No SS. pp. 380 a 139629 Colina Research Comte of lapse (971, Mantas of Seta Sai Cola And Pips 1 W-(9E, “Poovey Bear af Gre Toner” CCmfords RF td Boson, M.D. (190, “Stenth of Inly Wary Late 34 108, spin fr Dr of Hay re, CAND SMT Coton (C34 (980) Lint Stns Dep of Se Sinner CANCSASI6194, Canaan ‘Sard Acton, Rouse Ontario, Cond Deseo, A. Gand Sting, BF (1982, "Dynami Gat Reon Factors for ‘Gufl rwern” 1 Wid king. Id doin Vol tp 287208, tan, DL 6h "Sine and Dynamic Anas of Gay Cable,” ASCE J. Sot. ‘iv, VoL 87 No.STie pp 2 Dafa, and Mart, (14, “Clema Sait in Type 2 Contain TASC Bug Js VoL No.2: pp 60-7 Diu, A 0,103), “lac Kear in Colm sgn." AISC Brg, Yo. 10 ‘No 2 op. 3338 Dagu,R (1979, "Dison Moment Congeione: A Prope Dosen Method ‘tr Unbaeed Se Frame" USC BV 12 Nop L-I8 Dns Ean Wale, 9, “Cit ai be Pe Sree Dux. Pad Kirn S981, "Ines Ream Baking Esperia” Re ep. No. CE2. Dearne! of Chit Engen, University of Quer. St CCS (1978) Firpean Recommend fr Aan Scr, Commitee T2, [CCS 978), Freon Recent or Stel Sacre, Europes Convene for Coston! Sesbot, Base, Ben CS (199), Favre J. Dee of St Scie, Baap Comite for Standrdaton, rose, lg "ree Deena! Ceyed Tomer” Compa Sat Vl, No.9 a ASEnsen ¥ (9D, “De RUICG e Sth” Zora Ror Ermopoaes J.C (580, “Buclig of Taped Bars Under Sep AN! Lay “SCE Siac aps Vol 12 No.6 pp. THOS “Se: Eg ey 1. Dapartneto Ci Engesing- Unser o ls, Fog, CM and Ket L192) “lt Strength of Tapered Clana." ASCE "Sinai, Wl th, No, St, io, ap. OL pp 67108 Fran BG (1973 "Te Pate Eft Westy Baten! Colm” PhD di ‘Satin, Dearne of Cl peng. Uninet of Arsoes, Tes, Ane Fry, F099), let of the Cosa of Hage Roded Sil Sines on “olan Seat 48S Moms Na 29 pp 01-13 on Fan. Fae MJ and Moms, GA, (195), "Anayit of Flay Conmaed Sel Frame “a JG bg Wo 3 No. 3p. 20 Fakumota Y. Nether, DA al Galanos. (1989),“Eypeinenal Dat fo {he Bacang of Sn Srctucs NDSS Suis of Mtl Sats Po. Gategher RH. (979, Fite Elon Fema, rise Hl, Upper Sale “TSCEA Sins Vol S8,Ne. STs roe Pp ts py. ‘Get Ped avert AG. (186, °A Spite Ms or Dyan Anais Gap Nass Wind. er, No. 339. 88-0 Gijaratathan, CV. (1949), “Backing Loc f Noam Colm” ASCE J Gothers. (198, tes Carts for Guts Mees Under Axi Loa (Gers. 1. Ean Gaus, T1979) Stab of Gane Towers" ASCE I. Sirac ‘Dial 9, No. p74, (Gers. JE and Meyers V1 (165 °A Stay of Gye Tones" ASCE. Sra "Dn al i, No Stapp 1-6 (Goa, Suki, and Chen, W.F, (1999, “Silty Bevo of Soil Sway rnc” gS, Vol iS. No.5 ap 20027 at, D-H. (9), Propont Stl Column Design Cri” ASCE L Sine. Dn "Val it No. S14 pp 69-6 Mn 8 tt Baie Shp! Aim os” PD "Ep, Lond, Joe 1-12 The Aluminu Faden Marmano, EC, Moore R. Ly ané Halt M. (9), “Mode Tes of Late ‘Scales sa Re Lat er Pap. 2 “Cumann dunn Sears Ren Rear ant Dome, Enel ‘pid Soe London see MR, sn Ajit) (191, “Dus of Calas Resi Wy Sie Ra ine Pocusting chat tery Resse Chums", Vo Ne omar E198) Some Res ofthe Tes Sst Claas ia Progen he "Wiesonn Anema" Pes 3 AP, Nol p38 oan H(i, “The Ds f Ml Balding Clans Stel Bx, Vl, Hone H.C 968, “Deseminon of Senden: Raton for Ds of Hey Mi Tuling Supp Cau” a St Bg, Va A, No Ip. 1. ber A.W. (950, “Te he f Real Stenson he asaty of Calas” dst tsigh Une Been. Po May ‘al. Ft (196) “Sty Anyi of Matis! Gaye Towers” ASCE. Sat Dit Vl 8 No ST2 pp 61-9 1ASS (98), Recomm for Gaye Maus, Wording Gro 4 nets! ‘Neosat fo Sh nd Spt Sasa Mad Spi. 10 pp ISE (MRD, Repro the Stacia Use of Amin Ison of Stu RA and Ate, RR. (90, “Macompaer Aas of Gye Towers ot, BG 196) Baclig Heanor Above the Tange! Mls Lou” Zh 99. No. EMS pp. 3A : Joba, BG: 41971), “Spc lel Columns.” ASCE J Sie, Dit Vo: 87. No Step 6s. otsom BG. (1916, Gale Say Ds Cera for Meta Straus, 3 ‘Wis. New York: Jones $M, Kihy, PA and Net, B_A. (1980, “Eft of Soni "Conmetons on Sil Cohan Scag” J. Cou St! Riss Vo. I. Nol me Jone. W. Kt, PA and Nether D. A. (1982), "Clu with Semi "ous" ASCE Sra Ds, Va Tbs No SIZ. pp 60372. ara D, Ltd Bs, DF), "Stas, Byam a tbiy Anas of Siractes Compu of Tape bums” Campa, Se Val BN. 009 73- ‘Kato, 4977, “Comm Cures or Cll Formal and Welle Tabular Members. hi Colg Sah Sit Sats Lge Began pS. Keats, D-IL and Gad Ay AE (AD, “Lan Stes Design of Sel Strctes King, W'S and Chen W.F (983,“LRED Andhs or Seiipd Mame Desi. King, WS. and Chen, We (1986), "Practical Son Order Ire Amal ‘Senopd Frames ASCE! Sic. ye VOL T30,No. 7p 2156213Kit and Chan, WF (186, “Dat ae Se Ream -Caama Canton” Sou yep Ne aT, Sl Ch Ere Pie Connon ith Ape" ASCES Siac gs Vat IU No pp MA Kis Che, WF Goa and Matoks, KG. (83) "Dotan Ai of Sk ad Connon or Pe Ama” a0SC Bg 2, Vat Ne pp. M10 Ki Goo, Ce W. Fan Matioka (1990), “Asay Prot for Kitna V. Alpin, G. Aa Tall (96) “Rel Soe Wee Shapes Fame Cot Pte in ASTM ASTI) Set" Pit gL ep. aP Uti Unies. Bech Po ane iupraca Sand Trai, N.S. W972, “Ee Sub of Taper Bun” Koro: EM, Raster, Aad Hagar D. (18, "On Pinay and Sens Stross Tange Trane Con Sr Res. Vo pp. 183 a, Yo FW. apd Neth D. A. (92) “Stegeth of Alamiim Menbers G:C, Mort, ML and Keer, RL (97D, "Das of Tapered Membr” eG. Chen ¥. Cand Hi, T- (97), “Awa Aa Sr of Retina ‘Muon Tapered Roo! Gir” Wet Ae Cum lM 28, a6 Roe a TL Th ef Sap er Rel ioc. J. and Gina. R. (98h, “Inperiinsnaehnen fr Steel: ss A a Pet. (1963), "Stacal Ana Gye Mas” Pra Tt of Chl Eg. Lm) Vo 24 pp. 33 oor, R (990, "A Simple Equation for Asiy Land Set Colum Dain “Cini Can J. Cit Eg om i EM. and Chen, W. FBR) “Steneth of H.C wth Small End Rene” Soup, Vol 1B, No, 1 Put pp. 1-28 Us EB. and Chen, WF (988, “Eod Resa and Column Design Use RFD fg Jim Ys St Com, NOL 30. No. hp. 9-9, Lai EM, and Chen, WF 198) “Spl proc to te Aras nd sen ‘Calas wth peony’ AIS EnV 2, No 299.91 1a E Mead Chem WF (980, Babi of Brad and Ural Semi Magu, MH Ban M- al Bosh (5, “Eatin of Den Big V I6.NO. Sp TS Tres" Q pp Math Wot Ilo 4p. 3S Mala FM (985), min iby Src Pita, Mase Mas Maral FM. and Fey, F197, “Bock Bevo’ of Aluminio Alloy tse Monies 2a fr Calg, Sa Sw So, Lee, Baum, p85 Muza F Map Fe, 98) "The se of he arora Resnanendaies McCay Ra Hartman, A. (972) "Dynami of Cape Towers” ASCE [McFall RK atd Tall L170)" Sy of Weed Clans Manus om Meclre, G, Guevara, Ea Li, 8.193), “Dynamic Ams of Amen Sopporine Towers” Proc dom. Coy Cans Sac Ch Bats Sie 8-1, ‘Misha, nd Lou, JM, (95, "Proprio Nae Ana of Gnd "meals" Pd Rate Boga, VO S89 Mi, RK and Heda) M199), "The Buti Lato Cans with ‘Shs petns Sou St, Nol. 13 pp. 7-86 May JJ and Grab, TC (95, "The Design of Meigs” oe Se ois AN 1 89, neti of Wa on Oe Nar D_ A. ad Chen W. F198), "Eft of Conectiom on Colm Can Sa es, Nal 1p 291-2 (ty, E.G. “Ana of High Guy Tone” ASCE Src. BVO 92 ‘vga WC USSD, “The et of Resa Ses Cou Suegth” Pa Fst 105. Na: Congr ppl Mechs ne. 5 Raza, and Ch. 1-0. (198) “Puriay Reseed Inpertt Cotuas” Poe ‘Gen do Sr Sr, Tie, Eng. pe ah Po Cheb oar, RJ ad Yous W.C. (979, Fomor Sir an iain, MG Hil Ronin, K. M, an Saramant, C.V. 19%, "Anas of Frame ith Part ‘Concho Righty" ASCE Sou iy Vo BN STI pp. 20 20, Ronda J and Magoo. (179), “Single Bquton for SSKC Colman Sieagih Rose Fata Stop. R980, "Gaye Tore Under Aten Lad" ASCE ous Mio Mule Came Canes by Maing Far ASCE Jong (98, Amps f te eee Oa ome ‘SA Ausiian Stand 197), Ras fr th ef Amn Sats ASG ‘Sanlu Amocaton of Aaa Not Syn. New Sou Wal, Absa Sinens R, Popplewel, N, Trainor, P. GS. abd Sh. A, (189), “Vibration of ‘Compe Covel Toneat Pr ASME fh Bowe Cn Meh. Vis Ne Monta Qs, Case, See Hepp 1. sexo, D (97), “Experimental Bao he European Clan Cures Cs, ‘Turopen Goosen or Consol Ststwrk, Brose Bim Stay, PMU “ase Col Thon J Aero Ses Vol Hk No sharp M1 (199, shor and Desi of Amina Sac, McGraw New hey 2: an LL, a of iy Cs Fa Resid Shean, R00, Tein Cr fr Stepan of Sel Tes Sey sop PU h S) 8 5 Stensur,G. (1971, “Aina in Eanes Contin,” Abana, No.7 Sut an hn, (98) "Sal Ea Rota lenin Stee “al. clos "Reset Dsopments inthe Sty of Cn Bevo." fe. Ee Visi Vol 38,No-T2 Tal 196), Wek Bly Clune” Fits Lab Rep. Me 202, Ligh Tide H.R (1985), "Renal Cola Dein Equations.” Proc SSAC Arm Tick Seto, Clea Oba Ape 17 Tinos. 8 (508. "Bung Barf Vari Crow Son.” Bl Pech “imotonk, SP and Gere, JM. (M60, They af Hae Stab, 2nd eG New York ng" Prd Rp. CP. Des Tal ld Toyo, Se “Tea NS 097), The Bloor nd Des of ted Src, Chapman & Hall, ‘apn Ce Sel Bo Be ‘pid Ss, London a der Mere, ya erg. -192) Desoto tis Ste ‘rcs! Meters” Pr Cn pS Set 2. Ska, Sede ‘nas, 5.1982 Pr Seng f Rests Bean-Conns" ASCE Sac “hal tm No ST. 9p. 26-256, Vontnn, $1583), “Pana Sent of Drstnaly and Rotaonay Resales ‘Se! Clana” Prowl Ir Cola Sud Mer Sich Troms Mas 7p. 81 Vina, $1984, “Cate ASCE Sec Dir Vol 118, No, STE pp 8S, Watts, YMC Modus ME KS. abd Monfovion . R (88D, Combined Wang CK. (196, “Say of Rig Frame wa Nowanform Members ASCE ‘Wnt M, Wand Thdimann. 8 (955, "Stay of Com wih Peo Cover, Wilson, R.A. {173}, "Say Say of Gaye Toners Under Laad ASCE Win Aa Mi, MN (6) Sr Hi es of Ona Wyly LT (1940, “Bre Review of Stel Column Ts" J. West, So, B., Val Yang, Bob, LS and Jono BG. (192), “Resa ies a he Vek ‘Seng Ses Beis Je Syl al py. 23428 Yo, WW, (92) Cala Fam Ste! De. 2, Wy, New York ‘Yar J A, 091}, The Ete Legh Colum in Used Frames” ASC Zande, R185). Saby of Compact Baep. Sats sprint ‘eh, H. (982, “Argus fo nd Ait Engen Baking For” “rch VoL Sp T0113.CHAPTER FOUR ———— PLATES 44, mtopueTION Figure 4 shows umber of erowesctional shapes for metal compression oF exw members Except Tor th low ender (i410 allof the members are composed of conawsted sements which, for purposes of analysis and ‘dsign can be uated fat pats When plate ment subj to dee Compression, being, shear, or combination of these sess ts pans, theoretical ical loads may be vated neat at he plate may boc Tocaty before the member as a whole Bovomes wrsable or before the ye ‘Noto he mater eahed Such havior character by distortion of ‘cero ncn ofthe membes The amos inetable presence fit Out ‘tplanenes may rst na prada growth ofcrosssetonal orion with to sudgen divontinty in el bebasoe a he theoreti rial Toad The teortea erica load fra pat not pees satisfactory bass for deen. since the ulate srngth can Be much preter than the rial bucling load. For exami, «plat lode ia unawaleompession, wit both Tonsiadinal edges suppor wil undergo ses redsiiution as well tinelop anes tee membrane stress fer buckling that provide post bucking suppor Tus sdtinna lad may often be applied without true Tat dnap,tilimperteton sch plate may case bending to bein tetow the baking ond ye uo an aly perfec cola, he plate ‘sui loads pester thu the theoreti buckling lsd “Tis haper considers loa buckling theory and poxtbuckting behavior for ‘sats thor wibout lf which are wed sn Open sections made up of OUlT = - Rods TFL Le rit pate elements and rectangular tes. Inaction between pat ements in a Sesto dacs. ltracton betwen loa late Buckling ad veal ne ter bckling i tetod in Chapter 13. Basking of blow lingers wih oF ‘without sees treated in Chapt 14, Design applictions of thin-walled foetal constuction ate covered in Chaplet 13, and plate Duckling and pos Bes bins i elton Wo ate ders box pe a edi 4.2 LOCAL BUCKLING AND POSTBUCKLING STRENGTH OF PLATES. An eminaton of the buclng behav of snl pte spore longi ies isa ewe peininay step toward the understanding of fc back ing tehavor ot plate ascmbics, The boing sess ae obtained fom theconcept of iftcaton of an inlly perfec steer: fn practic, he response ‘ie suture i comtngous, de othe inevitable presence of ii per Tetons Thus the ssa stra st he viewed 352 useflindexto the bebo ‘ior, and plates can continue to city addtional loads wall afer sits bocking Portbucling revstanee im plates i due tthe redisibuton of {hel compressive sess and, to Jer exe, 9 the membrane tension fd shear that accompany the out-oplane Pending of the plate i Doth the Tonpitodnal and teanwere dictions The lng sre tend 0 on otras the sity of the Fongtadnaly supported eps, whic ar the Sf puts ofthe backed pate Asa resule yedig bens along tie ees, Which lini the lead arning pact. 14.24, Uniaxial Uniform Compression ‘Bucking Strength, lang Roctanguar Plates. In 1891, Bryn (1891) peeseated the analysis ofthe ‘Sst ert sts fora rostangiar pit spl supprted along al elses. Sn subpvtod to uform lpia! compress ses. The ste eta Stes of log plate spent i deerined by the plate width tricks Tato bt bythe resran conditions long the longtoinal boundaries, ad by the este material proper. t expresed an in whic & is buckling cflentdsermined by a thera esta oad nals tr fancthon of plate gsometry and Boundary condos such as howe shown in Fig 42 "Wen the member cos section f composed of various connected ements (sce Fig. 1) a loner bound of he elses eas e detribed by assum Ing for ach pste met simple suppor condition fo each eg attached toranothe pie elsent or rex condition fr any edge not so atached. The “atest value ofthe etal ses Tound for any of the elements lower ond f the tical stese forthe exon sein. This tes wl be conservative ‘ecu the lent povding the lower bound wil be estaine bythe more Sable ajning plate cements i longitudinal ee ants provide eflecve ‘Sntinaty. More complete iafoemation on factor at inoenced hy the ineration between pute components cane found iw number of refer- {hse (lh, 198 (Stowsl et ab 1952 Gord and Becker, 1957/1954, “Timoshenko and Gee 1981. Shot Plates, When plate clement i ela sort in the dition of the ompresive tess ef T) the crieal strom my be consrvately est ‘mats by suming that un wih of pate beaves ike neal. TEPEPEP ATE 3 stp ra 5 nna tn eae Inelastic bucking. Bich (952) generalized the expression fr the cits! sires of a at plate under uniforms compresie srs nether the esti oF incase ange i the folowing manner PEA a= samt in which = E/E. This modiieation of Bg. 4.1to adap ito a srs hither ‘than the proportional iit comervative approximation othe clution of ‘omplex probe that voles continuous Updating ote conse rela tons depending onthe axial secre (Stowal 19; Bilan, 149,150),Poetbuckling Strength Loci buckling causes & los of stiles and a te Astibution of sees. Uniform eg compression in the fonpitadinal dire tin reste im nonaniform ses Sbuton afer buckbng (Fi 4.3) and the bckled plate eies amoral of i alles from he ong ge Elst postbuching stiffness is measur in terms of he apparent moguls of elasty 2" (the rato of the average sites caved by the plate To the "erage struin) (oe Figs 44) ‘The vals of for oo pate (8) for tome typical lonsteinal edge conditions are gen by Allen and Buon (Hoi The values given below are ulcny acute upto twice the ea! + Simpy ported omit edges Sides suaght bat fee 19 move later ae a se a9) Sides fo to move Foam 1130) + Clape longitainal eae. Ses tight ut fee 19 move laterally Fg 43 Detain of ine wt Fig AA, Rothig ssf pts hv sin spor ps ae an F ome (as) {One loniunal ee simply supported, te ote ie aoa ao A very important semiempiiel method of estimating the maximus sucngh af putes bythe ue ofthe effecie wlth cnsep. The fst that ‘muh ofthe oad scart bythe reaion ofthe it in the os vty of the ‘ges suet the sph asempion thatthe maim de srs ts Uformiy over two arpa” of late and he central repon we sntencd (Fi 445) "Ths only 2 fracon ofthe width considered effective in resting awpled compression. The conep of effactve mth however not Confined to takeultion of ponbucking sgt fui compres plates ut hes ‘come the meas of allowing fr lel Buckling fos in clans. pac, or Alexuce member that hve he dl fenton of supporting load and acing 3 wal, partons, ulead. ors, o rot decking In lt str, tof the eflective with ads oan eee cos ston coming pons of tember meting log jnction Is ea hse junctions that he pistes Wl into yield preceding Tare “The efetivewih cozy has ben asd in dsen speieations fr many ears, Specicaton ofthe AISI 990), he Alsou Asoton (198) andthe AISC (192 permit the we fa five wih in he doen of Inebes hing plat ements wth etn peter tun the ite al etnene Tc efitvewih comsp stems to av ad ign i the dso tp plating hry 196) rbd ten foud hat lng ending momen Ieatps cued eae econ tan thw ented in ston prope {Cane on th ou ate ofthe lengtte ember Deleon ol Be ‘Sted or secre y consieing on tp of ator eae sti Coe basnga with fo plate snes tee acing wth he Scere esingfonpal bending “ie advent of alm sine comrction provided anats ppotity forthe ws of he eine wih compe nt na advanagou 00 Siler sone of he sta si sn oe ing pat fhe ier Incituning he sneha conaponente, Cosford members insted buling ato proc ie apo of silent hs sont ton A dveutdon oft ence id cont apd co oa se Sgn asta propre y Wit (183) “Few Schuna andBick (190) of plats sop in Voth tons thir lade eps demons th for plo fhe sane thc, Inrange ae wth pond acta ah ch net incre tea ioe the pt ould sport wus sere th wer pss sel 35 trough nao sde onion or eve lon-ayig tes ook on he IGSSENCnci (03 and thes were prompted fy thes te deeper ‘Sons for te iat seath of sch ptr The rte the eect Comet handing this pote war von Karman (1983) He dried Sroroinate ful fot eflene wih spy soporte pt, a inn appends hs pape, Secs tad Donel ved ante formals acd lu ehiy eat supa, Soveqni any fer ete. INiihtonmane bane oem dn soe empl aed on sponte eats and some elo he epe dehy pat Sedig hc emp ing aying dogs of ee rer ‘plates under uniform compression, stiffened along both edges parallel tothe deton ofthe apie Compesion tc, Yon Kimi (1932 deve ‘ped che Tolling appre orm or else with, od om The ‘SSampton thet tro iy song hes, cach onthe sng of Peking. ‘hry the ni a “5 Combining Eas 44 and 4.1, fo" =4 (impo eee supports). the forma Sieseved by Ramberg et (1839) obtained ee Fig. 49 for Bolton}: Bee as From Fg, eae se ‘Substiing Ba 4.5 nto, 46 with the ade stress 0th eld stress (@,= 6, es A an ‘Asa ros of many tests and sas of posthacling strength, Winter (1987) hd Winter ea (195) suggested the formula for ffstive witht was ‘Rpt nth 1986 through 1963 eons of the AIS] specications fr kit ‘a colored seh 1 fk -ows/E ) as) or alate nthe rm of E45, 4. B(i-oa5f2) “9 quatons 48 and 49 are hasiall the same as Eqs 44 and, spectively but include a coreton coefent determined fom tests and eactng The tou effect of rove imperections.insuding inl deviations from ple test Eauation 48 was fund tobe saisactor also fr austenite stiles sel in the annealed and fatened condition Johnson and Winter 1966) and for ‘are and hlhard type 301 sane tc (Wang 1968. Wang et a, 1979, Introducing the octet 8 = 6, 7E. Winter's formua, Eq 88.can Be 190030 te _ 190990 10) ‘A formula proposed by Conley et al (196 is neat the ame tat proposed by Winter and ean be exes an‘A asefl form of Ea, 4.100 4.11 abi by introducing the mater yell Song nto the dimensonkss parameter B 1 Bs defined 38 pan a? Pe aan fe=t aug Vo IVE ay and if os sated for bb nd bath ses of he equation ae ml Pls y/o, Bat can be writen BY ne 7 a By introducing diet vals of Hato Ea 418, and relationships shown in Fig 4.5 tetwoon 7/0) and oJ, for B vals greater than 1.0 were de. Inind I mae aetna tht the would be o lw of plate effectiveness for alos of Be .0 and thus the staight ine fom (0,0) '0 (1.0, 1.0) was dawn for B10. Lines of constant B when pote fly ae tangent wo the B= 10 nea on tei upper portion ar shown Thus for any sven tegth eel ial ‘ol 3) J y dd J gh 4 wel Stam L. oa} Z| fey ae d L of pt sel, relationship eaween average tes after buckling and the ‘matumum or edge sess af the pate panel esabishe at fncon of the "tual ratio. This elatonsip sai Tor sien plein which he aio. ‘sf stone eros sectional ae fo pital const ar all TE the eos secon af strata member ncess busted pt the elestiver ‘wth approach should be used ve computing deletions i determining the Toction fhe neta aus, or i relations where the effestive moms oe or radar of sation of the mehr i portant, Inthe 1968 and ltr eitions of he AISI speciation fr cold orm set ‘meters (Amica ron and Stes Insti 186), the cotinine £3 and 49 were educe shah, ving the following expressions for eectne width berolf E(va-vesfEs) (say f= E (9-02, ‘Thelin vale of when al ofthe with i omer tobe fine ‘ane by sting equa to. The AISI value thas bland rom E4148 (0/tye = 221/Ve" ATSC values of fective with (1978) are shghly more Ter dha hose of ATS ‘Considering that Bg, 4 4 i an appepsat formula for determining the fein dsgn wid of siened compression elements with va of 40,3 brecalzd formula for fern stiffened compression eels vith various Fottional ede vestrains cam te writen lows (es) ‘ans (soon () fas Use of Eq. 414 or sinarexpresions involves the concept of effective seston properis varying with the re eel The igniisunc of thi di ced in Chapter 13 nthe ealeultion ofthe uimate compression lsd for piss supported long the wo unloaded gs, taken egal to the compres Yl ses forsee For aluminum alloys and magnesium ays oe taken a0 tines ‘he yi strength as determined ty the offset method However ithe uke ling testo, ecees 0.7 times the ied stent the Yad spat ae dete tine y inelastic plate bucling sna may Be taken abn Wh ‘kecrmined by Ea, 42 andthe eect with eed not be alate’. The seofthe wma compressive buckling loadin sections for ain tre- fave dacs tr in this scion, Tegation 414 can he yoo to determine a ondimensionl umate- steenth curve fr sel pls inthe postbucking range. The average sess She plate at uimate lad, aos the ultimate lad divided By the ttl ae, From Ba. 4145, ) 416) tn Fig 46 the average stress at imate loud by Eq 416 scompared with he tiforaedgs compression sce to catse buckling. A method for predicting the rene of sip supported plate taking nt axount nial oa of a ess rien by Adel Sayed (1969) and Danson and Waker (1972) Outol- Antes edt sis, and tan hardening ae coniered by Dwight and Race 1968). For plate saportd slong only one longtsinal es, the lloctve with tas teen experimentally determined by Winter x » an ta een Vo Aibene vies (02/9) & & ee Re 46_Nondincasionl bung carve fr pas wir win te open (Ghape Pom brcketrogh nd Joheston, 178, “This equation hs alo been confirmed by an analysis cared ost by Kalyanaraman (Kalyanaraman et aly 197% Kalyanaraman and Pek, 1978) The verge sen at ukimate oad enn then he expe Z as 8) , = 0.30, sng [quation 4.18 sao shown in Fig 46, This curve scl fale above and 19 theaght of Eg 416 butt must be remembered hati the ast ange for 2 plate supported on both loagiudinal ees about eight times sarge as That forthe sume pate supported along only one longi ee “Ar sats stay ofthe salable txt dats, Linde 197) sages | compact eresson forthe elective witha ultimate Tod he form a9) au thi formula as bee incorporate int the Canadian peitations (SA, 1974), This canbe compared to von Kinin’ expression (Eq 44) developed in 1982 wih cote of L9 fsa of Les v0. sod in subguenk stork by Roords and Venkstaraaih (1979, the available experimental ta ‘tos reworko and it was contigs tht Winky fective width eqstion ‘tse more appropiate. The sunent CSA spcienton {CANSIM M8) sex gd frcalelston of fective with forsee ompression sements ‘nth = 4.0 nfo need compresion cements wih k= 0 In he ese ‘st ustfned compassion clement although es acarate than Eg 17s the ‘ule ae considered adeyaate for despn. Kalyanaraman et (1977) ound “ombock and Clr (1962) ht 1 fective forms, slong wth hee Sources and dca the asmptions on which they are hase. Sine te eos ‘vee concep alo well developed incuen speciation and commen Tare it sige tha elerence be mae thereto for fre formation ot this opie ‘Ae at alernative to the efectve-widh concep for wide, thin pls, another approach to use the average ses at fread the actual nee lee) plate with, This the Bas forall sre on thin scion ‘he Aluminum Associaton spsieations (AA. 199) to apling these Spee Seatons the designer dows nt general culate an efecvewih but wes instead an allowatie ste that hs een dried by app ator of sty {o he average tess at fale for pat eleents For pate ha ache he "neu tas range the average srs fare conser fo beth ae the locl-bucklng ses since plates of tee proportions have Iie post. Sucking rents Jombock and Clark, 1969) Ines acl backing sreathfor aluminum plates i represented inthe specifies by the following raightline appronimation to Eq, 1 (Clark and Rol, 196) 420) where For luninur alloys that are atily ape emper designations begin sing wih TS. 6,17, TS oT), y= ILA!” ROMP") and fy 10 For other aluminum aly (emper designations being with 0. TIT 13, oF TH) fy = 76K" (S24 MPa”) and ky = Hy Equation 420 has been shown to ace well with the reals of ets on umn plat clement (Clark and Rol, 1966; Jombock and Clark, 196), or plates that buckle lastly, te average tess tale represented for purposes ofthe alumiaum spceation at 0 = OR 2p uation 421 conesponds 19 Fg, 47. Jombock and Clark (1968) demon ‘ate that the edge sts a flr 0 for amin pltes could be repre ested by faction ofthe inereept Bin Eq 420. Tis rests na simple ‘elatonship betwen the uimate strength ures corespoading to clase and Indate backing. Gencraly, thi edge tesa ale for lunoum alloys shout 0. “The formulas wd in the Aluminum Assocation specications (AA, 198) ae ilsiatd in Fig. 4.7. Comparisons with tt resus were publ by Sonic and Clark (1968. The us hee spestons of the verge sess aire for hin sections resus in some impieston, sins the designe dows ot have to calulte an effective wath. However, series some of the Aeuiility of the efetve-waih approach and dos not give as accurate Picture ofthe te psa Rehavor For example, the average steseat false ‘method doesnot eat the change in moment oferta of «member wha is ‘ompression cements aes the poxtucking rags and hence dacs ot fend {if oclclation of detections, Therefore the Aluminum Associaton Spe os ty ae ay ae tor Fp. 7 Eaton: fr baling ate amd smatesength of ass wed a Ainum ASoctn spcisiton (AA, 19), sieatons nce an eeive-with formula to be wd in clelatng diss: Sons inthe postbeklng range ‘Certain ow girde-bidge suctural [are inthe cry 1970s ave inter deca a warning defo designers of plat tractars that many aspects fie {raion aad farther investigation. For exam the consepi of eftne lth and average ste a alle conser plate strains ony op to the ma ium plate espacty tat the ukimat lwd charsteriae by reaching the yd test at the ede. Research hs shows th asic sains beyond the point may lead to sudden and subst eduction of the lates oad ‘ring capacity (Dwight and Moxbam, 196, ight, 1971) 42.2 Compression and Bending ‘Bucking Strength. When compression plus Beading loads are api o = sinctural member, plate element ofthe meniber cathe subjeted to i lane stsies hich vary along the loaded eds ofthe plate, from ma ‘mum compresive sires, 0 4 miu ses, a shown a Fig For this station, elastic cial plate sees ate dependent on the eg pert conden and the ratio of bending ses to unfor comesson sires. Vales off that ease subsite for kia Eq 41 ae taba’ Ih Fig. 48 fr several cae. For intermediate sts ratios o/s of ‘use etimated by linear interpolation. For plates with fe cg the ke values vary spay with Poison rao. In teint sang, an estimate ‘ofthe buckling ses canbe obtained by using for in Ea 42. Diagrams Tor buckling soefisens Tor eetangular pits unde combined tenn 4ndWebe e eee (Grokenbeoue an Joon 198 ud 19. ompresive stress in two perpendicular drestions ae given by Yosbizuka tnd Narwke O97. Postbuckling Strength. Pte cements and chanel sections sated 10 probed Indy and dpacement ccoontety have ben studied BY Rhodes and Harve (1971, 1970, Thee solution, re ass om the ae tion of a Sxed buckling ode and are ths, in principle, resid in their applzabiiy To the immediate siiaity of Bfucaion, but forthe cise of Single ples have bon shown to hein rasonale agreement with exper in the eas of spy supported plates under escenrc loading , the fue bya simple expression ofthe form (Rhodes and Harey. 197), D~ Rejby +088 CS here Dm FA /12( ~ v4), 6 =o 681/°D), and eis the distance From the tof loud application to the remote ee of the plate ' study has teen cased out by Usa (1942) on late pontbucling of plates in compression and benling sing sompatibihty eguatinns aid the Energy method. awed on the aural eultreffertne mith formula ‘combined comprevson and tending hive be devel I fs shown that Winer’ formals (Eq 418) forme 8 good lowse oud, Based oo Caan reults, the folowing empirel formula wa propose o pest the postback fine strength, ta fifecono-o2 samme] a in wich &, = 0 for pure compression and 20 for pare benng. andy ca be Ssleslted From sa ats coo 10313986, +11.392 for LOK 220 for rem wrometic boundary conditions. This equation roles to Winter's "sustion with = 0- I he patel, abetted foro bec {eluate res ofthe plate Based on an exptinetal sto, LaBoube and Ys (1982) have found that ‘he postbucking strength of em web cements subi to pure bending stress funtion of web senderness ratio, th Bening ste rato 0 the tb. the width Lohicknes rato of he compression ngs and ld pit the ste. The effective depth equations for eam web hve bes developed "ivough statistical anasto rei te limate ending capac 0 foxmed sil beams whe used it eonuncion withthe asst bending tes sinution, “The Aluminum Assocation specications (AA, 1988) teat postbusking sens of webs im fending by meass ofan aerape ures approach sae to that used for pats in compression, This approuch compared wih est resls by Jombock nd Clark (1968), 423 shear ‘Strength, Whea 2 plate is sabjcted to oge shear srees shown in Figs sid to Bei state pure ser Tension tnd Som Dean ses es inthe plat. etal magni tote she tesa ‘nied at 45 The destabilizing inuen> of somprenive ses is eedH Ei I ig 49 Bocce for pte pares (Se bite st ie) by tele stresses in the perpeniclar ditestion, Unie the case of ge compression, the bucking mode is composed of « combination of several ‘waveforms and this part of the ety in the hikling analy for these The etal shear stsies cam be obtained by sbstitating and, fr and bin Eq 41 in which, the bucking oecent fr sear bacling tes Cita tres cocfcent for plates subjected to pur shear ave boty ea lsd fr tre onions fede support In Fig 49 theseare pote with the ‘Se ha sed in Ea. always sumed tobe shorter than ude Ths i tay greater than andy ploting kn term of Ite comps rane ot {ean be shown a the manitde of remain rnagenic for small vals sa, However, for ppiation to plite-sider eign tis convenient to define b {Orin plate-irder appicatons) the verti dimension ofthe plte-lder trop for's orion pirdr. Thon e may be ereaor oss tha uni and Cinna forma ork, togetr wi source data ae as follows ‘Plato Simply Supported on Four Edges. Solutions developed by Tinoshenko (0910), Bergmann and Resour (1933, and Syd (1933) are approximate by fas 4240 sd 42, which = ah _ 249 348 ret ae) Pate Ciamped on Four Edges. In 1924, Southwell and Skan obtain ‘= 898 for the case ofthe fafiely long rectangular plate with camped lass For the aesength rectangular plate with clamped cdg, Mobet (193) obtained 56288 tenet asso) son088 ust 259 Plato Clamped on Two Opposte Edges and Simply Supported on the Othar Two Edges. Solution for this problem as been given y Ich (1058) for the neal eae, and by Lege (9) Tr the ese of the sare pate. Cook tnd Rockey (1963) ater blaine solitons considering the antisymmetric bucking mode which ws not considered by Tech The expression blow ‘ete obtained by iting polynomial equation othe Cook and Rockey resus 1 shown in Fig. 236 af the book by Bula (970). For lng ees camped, "satan rect am _ Ctand for short edges camped, Sq 231 IM 830 forect (2%) fora>t (2m ‘Curves for a ate plated in Fig 49 the predicted crcl stein shear it "restr than the proportional Lin of the mate the backing wil be inl Postbuckling Strength Theil mode of busking in pure sear, which {ates the form of half wave fa the tension diction and st east oe full ‘wave inthe compresion dretion (Fig 4102) undergoes a change i the ‘vanced postbcking range eventual taking the fem ofa Tay of das ‘nal ols (Fig. 4.10). These Tolls cary sigatcan tease steses develops {the postbukling range andthe daplacerent pater i ale 8 eon fel The maximum she load that can be ape Meare fire curs da to.2 Iyeukdown of the mate i the tension Bld, andi x ifloened by the Faiity ofthe olge members supporting the plate Ths prob dealt with in greater detain Chapter 6. For plate with inti edge members te Iatimim sear song can he estimated hy the formals (Allen and Buon, ros) Powrtt+fontr 29 O75 = 1S: provided that «<0, Sic and Manue (198) presented buckling and poxtbucklng resis for plates Toaded by in-plane shear The bucking rls Had Ben plated 1 show the fee of thickness on the ste coffers for sluminum plates, Ress were {pven for various kogth-o-with sain. Poutbucling ess for thin plates trih waneversesbsuing fexibity were compared to rele frm clin! theory. The plats wee considered ohelong wih side edges simpy suppted, ‘th various in-plane edge contions and the pats were suet to 3 com: ‘San shesring dplcement along the se ede lingo and Prose (1982) eared oot a numerical investigation, wing nie clement buckling analsslo determine the cial shear sess of fat rectangular plates with swe oppete eds fe. Pate ses and the boundary ‘ondiuons athe wo edges lode i sear ware the prameters onetered ia tha stad Rent showed comsderable ference he basing sent ‘s' Fig 410 Shera eon fas are ate of plats if the in-plane displacement normal to the loaded edges were esrain ithe atone oF a Both of thse eas. 4.24 Combined stresses Shear Combined with Direct tress. The cis of shear combi wth Tnptudinal compreson, with all det mpl supported, war Wented Byauch (193). His results are approximated by the folowing interaction stustion, ako shown graphically m Fig. 4.1 42m) ‘whereof and ef denote crises respectively. under compression o shear uation 429, shown in Fig. 4s for ats of o/b greater than nity. Batdor and asostes (Bion and Houbol, 146; Bator ad Sti, 194) hive show that when the loaded side bis more than wie as long at +429 tuoomes overly comersatve. Ths sation the exception im aca race. and Eg. 4.29 maybe accepted for engineering design purposes a itt al ‘The work of Stowell (1949) and Peters (1984) may beefed to with regard to buckling inthe ica ange under combined compressive and Sea tes For louds applied in constant ratio Peters fund that scree steato Intertton formals ar exprened hy Hg 43 has conservative abd aresd eter with ou eu than Eq 429 (430) ‘Shear Combined with Bending. For 4 pats snply supported on four ‘Sey, under combined Sending and pure sar, Tinoshenko (1934) caine ‘role asa function of «fe for values of ¢=08, 08, and 0, whore tthe cial shearing ste and i the bucking srs for poe shar. This problem was abo solved by Sten (1936) and Way (1980), whose ress for Tour values of w are pote in Fig. 4.12, Chala (19340) sugested the following approsimatefnteaction formals, which ageet well with the GG aay For a plate simply supported on four sds, under combined bending und vst sires a the dso densionB), combined with shat an approximate ‘shton ofthe ees combined load is obtained by use of three pat Jmeracton formula, Ey. 432 (Gerard and Bosker 1957 1958). eee) ‘The foregoing problem, wih the further ation of vet compressive force along the top and bottom edges ‘of length bas een eae by McKee (196) woth sul gen inthe form of iteration graphs. The resus ae ia good agasenent with the spc eae of Eq. 432. Ittaction ‘ution 432, valid when ob greater than unt. i shown graphically 0 Fie 413, a8 present in Brockenbvough and Jka (1974). Tnformation on te postbucling sagt f plate ements Subject to the ‘ombined action of her and compression is imited. A semicmpiral method forthe determination of srs levee st whieh permanent buckles ssc fn 8 Tong pte wth simply supported aes unde the combine action of uform ‘aa compresion und shear has Been sugested by Zender and Hall (1960), Some ait! information on pontbcking seme af plates subjected the combined ection of shear and ending ca be Foun in Chapters 6 and 7. a9)4.25. effects of Perforation on Buckling Strength Desiges ffequonly find i nceszy wo ntadace openings in the webs of sirder and otber large plate traces The nituction of an opening ‘hangs the stress dstbuton within the ener and wl in any insane ko change the mode of fare, Busting ia ky ssp inthe behavior of Ob ‘tates in Compression. The problem ofa square plate with a cent hole faving etter ump supported oe clamped edge conitons hasbeen stad by Levy etal. (1947), Kuma (1952), Slack (1960), Kawas and OStsbo (Ube) aod Fut et ai (1970). alg 2 owl a ee Vasa Figure 414 ss the ration of the buckling cote of snlysepported square plates with cca Bokes (kan square oles (y/o the eo Seat of uapefoatd plates Fora pensive of perforation, the retion in ‘he eral lsd for apa ving sure Moe rater tha that ith 4 ‘eur hole (Yang. 1969), has Ben dtnonstated that by stably rf fing the hoe it pone to fntese the cia tes beyond that of he ‘npertorated plate (Levy ct a. 194). Clampeedge conditions have heen onsadered by Seack (1964) and Kuma (1982). The bucking behvior of perfor plat elments with oly one longi ‘ina edge supported (compression Dang) perforated by cela hon as bee invested by Yiand Davis(1973) On the bs of bt erpeieta ‘uly, tens eduction fators have bon recommended Forth dup felig, 14 Bucking of awh hoe (et of 4 ato on bukit anicomparsonof est dts ih hee aking concents (lea ha) ‘ck ecient nd copurson ott ith het sie cones Bose on test data, a modi equation fefetive width was presented by ‘Yu snd Davis (1973) to account forthe postuckling strength of compression flange supported ong two longa! eps, That equation simi fo he ‘ial eetve-wiih equation, wih see additonal parameters ke io count the eet of perforation ‘May and Gana (1988) ted the fine semen anasto determine the clot bekling Lats for plate with and wathout openings. The frmsston ‘based on Mindin plate thor). The cghtnode trendy clement wa th to model the membrane behavior ofthe plate to detemine the i Plane stress distribution throughout the plae du tothe edge loading The eters plate bending element war vs in formilation ofthe governing vations of the sty protons. The ease buckling las for plates ‘eth and without openings td ileent edge loading conditions were deer- tol. The openings comidred were crelar and squire locited atthe Centr of the pst ‘Nemeth and Michel (1990) peste am experimental stay of the bac nd postbcking bebavir of square and rctagulr compression Hada l nia ples wath etal oated itl square and eliptia cutouts The ‘els ated that the plates exit ovecll ends of increasing Bulag Sain and decreasing inital posing ines with isrteng cutout th. Results showed thatthe redaction minal postbkling sss Se {oa cutout generally decreases av the pate spt rat eens. Also the ‘are plates with elisa etouts having large cwtout with ple with rato encrlly low prebuckling nd intial posbucking stiffness asthe cutout eight Brown (190) presented results for concentrated lauding ap to pel ‘ated plates of diferent aspect ratios. Two diferent in-plane resist cond. tions Sn Tour ge conditions bad teen aalyed. The reste had ben bie by the aplication of conjure lot-dnlacment tha felsic Stability anal, and show how simple mdietons 0 pate goon, Par- cular with spect to perforation aspect rata snd support condition, can eft aor ehangs 16 the eae cries oa ‘Square Plates in Shear Ths bucking of 3 agua pate with» conte ci ‘lr cutout bas ben eaminod by Rockey eta (1969) wing the nite ment method The relationship between the buckling sie ofthe plate and the relate sizeof the hole (/) was obtained fr bath simpy sported and canpe-ede condivons. Roskey’s work sugges a simple neat rer Uinnship between the etal ses and the fb rai inthe for u=e(-3) a where tp and ae the nical sess for the perforated pate nd unpefo- tated pte, respectively. The retationhip hol good for both clamped andsimply supported end contons (Fig 415). The behavior of plas wih ut tute enforced by 2 ne formed by a proine pons was sso studi by Rockey. oth analytically and experiently (Rockey. 1980). Tt was found thatthe bucking sou ipereass with 1/4 the ai ofthe depth of the ip tothe late thickness ar th apr the ol the rete must eth 1/0 to achieve a buckling stength equal to tht of the uaperforated plate. The ‘magni ofthe eka stress formed in th ipa inthe plate aca 0 {he ole increas, however, wh the dep of the ip and this tends to reduce ‘oth the Buckling and lua stat: and this the rato between 2 ul mate and the bucking loads snot sgicay affected as 4/1 I oteased evan eran va ‘Shar bucking of square perforated plates was also investigated by Growhur tal (1976) sing the Brite element approach. They considered the case of wiform shear deformation ist of urform shar sts and ‘obtained ital sees that were in cloner sgrement with hough higher than. the experimental valves, ‘Shear Webs with Multple Hole. The problem of logs shar we ith oes as reccal some allen i the erature. Based on the alah dit, Miche (1960) has suggested seminpical expressions for the erieal fires in terms of dja and eb (tation inated in Fig 416), These ae ‘are ig.A48_ Simpy suppor nd camped ate wth ole under ea dng Rey Poted graphically in Fig. 416 and are applicable forthe web ed slong the top and bottom edges Webs with Holes Under Combined Loading. Redwood and. Uenoys 0915) ve ivesipted the problem of webs with hole sebjeted to com Unc bending and shear. Unis the Bit clement approach forthe sation ofthe plane ses problem and a Rayeigh-Ritr procedure for the buckling flat they stad the problem of shear webs with spect ais Tome 1S {o 28 with Gaelar or rectangular oles They sugested an neracion Formula for & and (ral valu of the masa sear and bending sess respetily) i the fora _ inwhich tad op ae the pure shear an pure Hendin crite sree ofthe plate with the hole These. nr canbe exes in ems ofthe covespong Ing eral tees af pte tot holes (of) andthe latin ies of the boks wih respect othe late dieasions. With the notation nt t Fie 4117 the expos for pas ith etal Boles tke the form reo}o feaehoss a » fe I. | 1 _ SS * = [102 004(4) oa buten 38) 4359) a) co=[us-u@)fe mee 8 re isthe eas of he hoe "The values of fy and can be obtained rom a knowles of the aspect rato and ound condition of the pte For cxampl, Tor spy sup Poted plate wih anaes aio of 2, thse sess ace piven with sufcent ocracy hy the following expressions 23900 (3m) 63907 437) ona) 4.2.8 Inelastic Buckling Analyse of Plates Law and Hancock 1999) presented method of ineastc buckling analysis ‘ttn walled srctural merers sod plates. The method wae ase te Spline Sit strip method of strstr anajss The anal ook ito account th aolincar material stesestun proper, sun hardening, and resi "ess. The lati theories in he ty were the Nov hers of plasty ‘nd the datomation theory of pists The method of ieasie Boling tages was applied Lo a varity of sab problems, needing pats, ‘i Treed colunns, hotles coms, and weld Teton bears ‘Azhar and Bradford (193) presented complex cignvalue Rte sip swsthod of alsin tht includes inlay. The eetbod can handle shat [ests as wall asthe How and eformtion tore of pls, The method. ‘roused fo sudy the Hit lc Bling of at plates with and wou! endl stress sing bot the flow and deformation theories A method for existing the rotation capety of plate hrge before the onset of Incl hocking 38 ao given. 4.27. Plastic Bucking of Plates Inoue eta (193) stat a asic! evaluation of the efeive pane bear ‘ols offal ied splits af he nt of Duclns I as sumed that elding of lest wast Follow the Trans sh esteion and Hat plastic ‘hformation of set plate was tote ctsed by spe, The Tosa yer: ton provide lover being sles than those obtained fom the von Mies $id entrion, bt doesnot lower the plastic shear modulus of the material any point onthe yield plateau. They propos new theory that asus a ‘onunifort dtbution of spe depending onthe erenaion ofa nite ‘umber of posible ip planes at eth pom inthe ste The twining of the plat hen accompante by distortion ois sein shape, and this mode of ‘cing is shown to provide a consierable reduction in the effective pase eae mode Appising these sowioalsilfese and soliag lentil ‘suliriam eqution leds to lower treatin sang, wich provides ‘etch beter cotelatons with experiment reste thar hose of PrevOUS pee batons 4.28. Blasally Compressed Patos Pavlove and Baker (199) presenta an exact solution for the stability of & rectangular plate unde bial compyesion. The case when oth lng Sd wansversesesses wee urform aswel a tring pois to investigate the much mere complex probe of part loading onto opposite css. A parametric study was cated out covering diferent plate rome, hod Fos and varying eps ents ovr which the pied load aed. The sting ‘iss of Yer} lng sd ery ide plats were comrade study a8 asthe Problem in which wo oppose edges wee subjected to coneateted frees, Ts nd Hidenori (198) presented ne, unified approach othe tate song of basil compresed rectangular plats ia the stops ang: Fors given tain ratio in tno dren compreed axially the catoplasc bucking tenth obained rom the castplase material behavior and the‘sda sees in wo ditstions, Then slasopatcukimate strona spre ‘dct in tem of the npefation sent the ighborod of the fparsculur pun, wbete the cstoplasie postbuclig carve interests the ftologcal falare mschamin curve The wtinate strength wat found fo be Im god agreement with previous mamerial esis, Sakumaran eta (109) stud the postbuklig behavior and the ul ‘mate seagh of snp) supported tha etal stl plats subjected to Paral Bail compressive fads. The aalytal echnigueacounted for large ‘etzctions elisto-perecy pase material bcbavog, residual sess. and intl out-of plane eectons. The method of anal was sed om the pis {pe of minima potential enczy and the Raleigh Rie solton procedure “The solution procedure ha boc app i an ocremenal step step mat be. The nen of ital imperfections suchas out-of plane deectons and Feds ai he late widhoickcs ation thebabavoe and te imate stength of su plates had een discuss, and the ress of the Pareto sy were presented in papi form and smaried by simple tsp cares. 44.1 INTERACTION BETWEEN PLATE ELEMENTS Inthe pooling scion, tention has en cone to the behavior ofa singe at cement sipported along one or hot of longitu edges. The Suc> {ural sections employed in practise (Fig. 4.1) are composed of plate elements ranged in a variety of configurations It cea thatthe Pebavior ofan sembly of pits would be governed by an interaction Between the pate omponents In this section the mechanic of sch infraction and ts ph ation in desig ae seus by 4.34, Buckling Modes of Plate Assembly Unlike a singe plate element supported along the unload elses, a plate sembly cam burke in one of several posible modes. For the case oF sual Compression the bacliog mode ca take ooe ofthe fling forms 4 Made 1 This i the purely local buckling mods disused esr. The ‘mode invotes ost of plane deformation af the component plates vith the junctions reining ewentialy sight, and st has wavelength of| the tame order of mapa asthe wis ofthe plate ements 1+ Made I. The bwskling process may involve in-plane tending of one ot ior of the content patra wel a» out-of plane being ofall he ‘omens asia purl lal node, Sich a bickling moe refered to none backing mode, lca torsional mode, or orharopie mode ‘Seponding on the context The assasatd wavelengths are comida) rater than those of mode I, but ther is hl-wavlegth st which he 4 Mode I The plate steucure may buckle a8 a column in Aesual ‘Sevoraltorinal made with or without interact of lal buckling Aveaton in this chaps will open onthe mode I ype of baling. Column behavior ode I) sod interaction between lea nd overall modes ‘of baclig are treated in Chapter 13 and eewhore io this aie 4.3.2, Muckling of «Plate Assembly ‘A prismatic plate structure sft viewed imply as consing of fone and tered plate elements. The former ae pate clements suppored om both of ‘hes Tonsil ges hy ite of thelr connscton to adjacent element. while the later are thos supported ony along one of the Tonsil {Kgs Thus the cel lal bucking stesso plate assembly may he ‘akon asthe smallest of the elses ofthe plate element cach ted as smpiy sapped song junctions wth athe plates Hower sh Eatelton mst he os ith ction for the fllowing reson |. Theresls can be undly conservative when the ple sriture consists of eements with widly varying senders Tht ithe rest of alsin the rtational restraint tthe Tartions 2 The ress are inapplicable us teased that al the plate ee ets buckle fel (he junctions eemain eset sigh). ‘tthe ater hand, mode Io I iype of busking cial the esl ‘of such a simple cleulton woul! be on he uns side “The intervention of fener busking (se Mis ssl ave in prctice by designing “out” the stiffener Buckling mode bythe provisan of stifencs (Gige or intermediate) of adequate ris. "This appropriate ecause ofthe limited postbcking resstanc assousted with he mode ype of busking. A struction considered to be ost important in practice, that that shown in Fig 434. Tasca of unstiffene rectangular plates under combined compres ineand shar sees as heen penta io Seton 42.4 which showed that ‘Snple parabolerelaonsip ofthe form of Eq. 89 was satstory for Snuicring parents forall anges of etic raat fom fee rotation 10 “Comte ft. Te cations takes the for RoR=I ae whee, the rato of compose srs who buckling esis in combined Sher and ec ss to company steve when Bokig xt i pa omprsion a fy she at sar ses when bucking ests ico ‘She shar ancestor ses hen cting ss in pute hea Toto (1957 eat th robo ng pnts wth one nd to sin ces ated by sl compress an sheng sr The sie Were Some to bate being sen ony nd the resin eacion cares Show dcutinaite which refeet the mode ito whch the pate Ble ‘ea th toning sips ooh lee ota teats (1/40) Sow. the be gos though he ile However, hen the iis a increased so that nol nr orang the ser length, bok aks Plows withor efecto log ht sles Inthe cne ster eracon ‘Raton ests btneen mpi and sharing tees. Another some tore ted stay othe intracton won ofits wide steed Pls wner compen ashing seme ne reported by Hari ad Pik (00. sty the Be dement method wane Thelen strate to ban oth endg a torn sis ad he i ee ‘Sor inl na ls fo Beane to eee aca sty. The Fess ‘Toma in Fi 428 wee compared tothe pars expesion (Eq, 49). Fg 424 Longiusinaly sien pe under combion! compresion at sari | metelth 3 3 | on cute a, (oe eol e Except for the case of sumed are torsional ailfnes ratio (6D » 10) the nates pins follow the paabaeeltionship very wl, ‘Bucking inthe inelastic Ranga. Analytic prediction ofthe intersction rel ‘oship fr stifened anes which buckle i the isla range wader cox ‘ie compression and shear ae practcaly nonexistent in the erate. One such computation reported by Hats and ko (196) was made foram ile tral afer panel made of skint 20247351 and having the diensoos Shown is Fig. #26 The predicted interaction curse are shown nth gue for both the elastic ese, which arcs very wll withthe parable relitonstip Fig 426. Ansa pee ac andi imtracon caso a egy Sis prt (Eq 44), andthe inelastic backing ease. Bocas ofthe Lite nate of the ‘kat, ao gent tclatonship forthe inane hocking case eam be devived However, should he noted from Fig 426 thatthe cca aos es hove the nasties! curve of he inelastic horny cae Postbucking trongth. Postbucklne behavior is comple, and ext tee ‘tent ofthe problem fas not yet been achive. Bocuse ofthe importance ‘of preting the srength of sen pal loaded beyond iil buckling Inthe icra industry semiemparal methods have been in existence fr many years Inthe ease of light sled plates under combined compression Sd sear, besirveture wil usualy ake considerable Toad i excess of the intial bucking load of the plate. Chapter 6 covers the design aspects of ling these postbckling or tensioned theories: hence no scion of then method is mae hee, 45 BUCKLING OF ORTHOTROPIC PLATES Problems utd to setangular plies wth sfeers parallel to one or Both Dis of ses ean be soled approxima by methods aplcabl a orbotto-ie plate theory. An orthotopic plate is one whose material propenics are ‘sethogonalyanisrops; a unformy sifened plate irdeto hs cas by eectvely “smearing” the fies characters of i alone one in domain ofthe plate Cleaty the they is est spice when he spi of Usenet snl, The calelation of boclingstresth of orthotropic plates is based on the solution ofthe fotoing diferent uation govern the stall ees 09) ofthe bueki plate te ty cay Pe sage Paget MEEHN EE aN, 9 4s Dy= HD, + d+ 260,, in whi N,N. atd Ny are in plane forse er ut wid (Fig 427, (1), ‘nd (ED, ae Rexurl sts, per unt wih of am stps inthe and > ietons, respectively apd, ate Berral Posson rai and 4G), tk Imetsure of torsional slice, ‘Theoretical bucking data for several cats of ectangulr plates with sep ported edges (» =O) under uniform inpane loadings, Ar Ny aad Ny Sppled singly or in certain combiaations ae preente. The flowing ae tome ofthe addtional notations tha wl be ployed and he the ong fof plate nt and y drstons, respectively (se Fig. 127) mitene) the umber of buckles oe halfwaves inthe elretion when the buckle Patera is sinsoidal in that diction: and integs) e the numberof buckles or tll. ‘aves in he yetion when the buckle patter sso nthe yo Case L Uniaxial Compression In s-Diection, Leaded Edges Simply ‘Supported, Unloaded ages Elastically Restrained Against Rota: tom. In this case tcferag to Fig 427, i the only loading, he eles 0, a Fe simply supported, and the ees =O. base each casa Stain against rotation by festaining mea whowe nfs (nomen ett length per radian of rotation) = K The quantity kh/Ds toe de s0ted by will be ed as dintenlonlese ease ofthis sities. An ex 5 Sluion for this en leads tothe following fora dining the valle of 2, that can stain bueke pattern containing m snus alf-wnes 0 the restion By- Gi) oe2((R)R) where fs the onto plat in Fi. 4.28, (amd an be ety closely approximated by the formla GE) Bersuns (tt) Pn as where fam fare the Function plod ia Fig. 4.29. The king oad the sulkst 1, sbiained by substituting ferent iteper vate of im (orm 1.2.3.) ino Bg. 431 of, it appli Eg. 452 In performing this ‘minimization. ote shoul take into acount theft that for mos patie estraing media the slfoes Kis oot fed but is function ofthe hall ravelngth om of the ege rotation. K may ls depend onthe eval load in the restraining mem. therefore on N,, nesestting tand-eor ‘elution to determine Ny for any Slated. Neptive vals of Rane Bhysialy posible but are cicuded from consideration in Figs 426 ad 438. Unequal restraints long the edger += O and can be handed sppron Iatcy by fost asuming the yO constant o be resent at bh es hen the y= constrain, and averaging the tre vals of N, hus ean,be ol outa eset ype (ym ie 428 Fusion fn By 651 6 ig. 29 Fantons anf 52 case Mh. Blaxlal Compression, Al Edges Simply Supported. Whs0 Sifout edge ae simply supported, combinations of Sy and Ny th ean ‘Matin buckle pttern of raven hlfwaves nthe ection and» ‘iStnidtbaeeves nthe aiecton ave dened exacts bythe interaction Bae) aa I using Ha. 4.3, one mst subsite diferent combination of and wut ‘at combination ound whieh misinies N, for gen N,N, fora given en Sehe and X, umultancously fora giver eto beween them. 1 can Be ‘Hou dove, 1983) that thew nia wll occur wit a est oe of te 60 ‘Mapu eget to unity. Therefore, ony the combinations m= Iyn= 1.2.3 dnt m3. oad to be tre. The eondiion Mey so 0; ts sft ko ensure that m1 wil govern. otha cas, with een w"dhen, Wick (1932) has shown that tbe N, required For Bocling & Sat hy NS enn) (i 22)" ass) SF easo-af P(t “| ss where Kis the faeton pote as cure (2) Fig, 4.30, The ese of the Tail fog plate (= oo) of intrest a te Hinting case of very long. pte "For that cow st cam be dedoc from Eq. 453 that if Ni/Dy <2. th longitu compresion Isto salto tsi a multi= Toho bake pattern andthe pte il buckle n 2 elindriel mode Gi a8 inde plstecolummn of length) wen Ne /x°Ds = 1. On the otber ban, if uti feDy = 2 the backs pattern wl be sinsoial Ted in the wietion tik hal-waveleneto-wdth rato of a0) the bkling wil ocr when Nab, satis Ea 455 with set egal 0 ‘Pintimerscton curve of Fg 4 31 surmarzes the eu jot given for she case a/b=e431 Inert cue for ontop ae (Case i. Compression in s-Diection Appliod to Clamped Edges, Limited Compression hv y-Direction Appled te Simply Supported Edges. Refering to iy 337. and comderng th casein ich the ees, f= 0. ate clumped, the ess =O, bare snl supported, Ny ean Sng sass the inequality (Ea, 484). The, with Ny regarded as gen, the valve of required to cause buckling ie defn by Eq. 435 with en Tam curve) of Fig 480 «Wittck, 1952) Case 1V. Uniaxial Compression, Loaded Edges Simply Supported, Un- loaded Edges Clamped. Here X, the only loading, the sper t= and ‘are singly support, and the oir two edge are ped. The eats “ion for tht cise i sontind in the subse «-— so of eae L An approx mate salution sven by Wick (1952) nthe form aig (1B) as where ¢=24 and is taken frm curv () of ig. 4.30, Equation 4.57 is ‘irl equivalent to Eq. 432 and must therefore be ube tothe sae resto, amb (Da/Dy) > 04) ‘Case V. Uniaxial Compression, All Edges Clamped. Wick (1952) ges sn approximate slaton fr th cae inte for of E457 with ¢ 246 tin Laken fron curve (of Fis 430, (Case Vi Shear, Various Boundary Conditions. Thsostal dst forthe Seat ow Ny eau fo cause batting of rectangular orbotopi plates he teen cote y Joba (971). Thee of i grape are reproduced in Fig. 432. They appl, espectily tothe boundary conditions of (0) ll edges simply suppor) edgss y= 0 andy = simply supported, the ther tw ee i and (0 ledges camped. Ia ia 432k, stan Foyt SDD To make use ofthe bucking data peseted above, one mast of ote, ‘now the vale of tela constants appeasing in Eg 40. These constants snc best determined experimental. by ests such as those described by Libowe ‘hn Baldor (1948) an Hecker and Gerard (963) I the plese a ine ‘tough contraction, the constants can aso be ele theoreti. For ‘tune fora shee of thickness fap shear modulus G orthogonally stifned by ase silleners of toon snes Cy spe diane pra wise tienes of torsional sfc Cy sped danse apart, (ED) hy Be taken a the Reals ofthe compose Beam consisting of one sleet and its asociated with bof sheet, divided by by ole (2D, is ‘compote i an anulogous manner ting a mie sifener and eased Ind of sheet. For such plates» and may anally be akan a er ith Title ron and then rare, = 4 (Si4 Sd) as (The Factor {in this formals is sometimes eeonsouly omit) Plate with Integral Walteke sulfening may abo be modifed ar orthotropic patsie, 432. Shear bucking csc fo omhoog ates. Adapt fom Johns ent Baal tan tn peomsooe of Her Majesty tansy Oke] povided tht the siblings ae so ont as to create ans of eae Sm rey pra tothe pe ges formulas for estimating the eat, cm aa ee ch plates ate deed by Dow et al. (1958), Corugated core are k fats wth the cousins pura to thew oF» ais ean si BERS LRtey a ortotrope platen aad formals for tee clastic constant sae oped ty Litowe and ba (1951. howeter, for sic sandwich wai stbeaions doe to tanec seat, agi th present ics re etcmines be important 1 common practice 10 eat 2 rr cee ate ahs an erthottoie pute, and. the appropriate elastic eau uber the profit ofthe plate i snsoial are discussed by La oat Homes thre are infcaios (Peal and Love, 1978) that model Herne Sorustad plate as an orthotropic Pate may kd to an unde ‘Stinate of i shear buckling strength, ‘he sehr plate model has an addtional shortcoming when applied to sited platen mal ts nei of any coupling betwen pane Fores ad USE tne defccons Tht i ondeing Eg. 430 i the tsi assumption see ees ra eernce plane in which the forces Ny, 8 and Ne, CM BE cra eho prodcing any cueatres of astm the cae of est with are aeieg on both odes tte dos ofcourse exis sc ple it i Bedale suri of the sect the slfening s onesie, HOMEYE, i TBeain'ox onset find fereoe pla tat wil eliminate completly eee nttctreen in plne free ad out-of plane destin tas been ‘Sea Gwhny and Leia, 1968-Jones, 1975) that sich couning scursingin ‘pe eonext oF tomposte lminaed plates, can have a marked fc onthe ae ae ge Theft very Hy hai meal plates with onesie Uinta can abe havea ried effect onthe buckling foods, A thorowsh ntsugtton ofthe, sing am appropriately generale orthotopi pate theory, would ba worth sje for tre rear ain onhotrpis Rate theory is incapable of modeling teal boeing that king in whch the Du wavelengths are ofthe same ode the vlc spss or the wis of the pt elements of which the stiffeners sreeterplad Witch and Horsington (194) have developed more cefned Mfprouchos that caw account for Toe! buckling and moves of Puekling 8 “TRE eat and overall deformations =ppearinconjneion. Their methods wee ble oats with nideetional stifening posesing ceiain iouadary conditions and subjected to combinations of shear and Waal comprestion 4.0 LATERALLY LOADED PLATES IN COMPRESSION Pats with tienes inthe dietion af the axial fod that ate abo subject 10 kbd letra load are commonly encountered the bottom ps Ann ay tase on a large deflection pstbucling theory (Supe 980) teh ntl premre procs effets lar fo nial geomet mpet-‘ection with long bucking wavelength. I sown tht salient high ‘rssuie indo stable pstbucling i he longwave mode “The affened pling supported on heavy tanec stra menbers ‘which may Be assumed Co berg. The panes have widl-tosengt rato of ‘shout 25 to 40, and there is essentially po intraton in the tasverse die ‘ide bea-colusn under ail and eal loads Is convereat tole one Tongtinalsitfener ogee with late a he with eq to he spacing of the siflenes, band to consider tha all thr silent behave i 4 snr manner Sich» eam-

= 50a, 81m) = 610, 0.700) ‘an Sean be deed simi Homes, the derision of formas or spacing ‘of transiersesifencr (an ler pl becuse ofthe dependence of kom the sgt ratio a= ah (Gaylord and Gaylord, 1972. AREA nepecs this dependence and ase ala Spe frm ofthe ame forms Eg 8.2 a #10509 7-0 (4) where is the average cll serviceoud shear ses np. AASHTO, by suming that f= S14 1/a) for al ales of ls the allowable shear Stes fom web buckling in woh panel to Pew sVe) 1g Taye 40) Equation 64 canbe reriten in the flowing Forms 28a (oa) Fa nsniene Equations 6b and 6.4 contain he een of wb deple-o thickness aio, and these equations should therefore provide move ure resus than “The procedures gen above for contol of web sendestes sre generally comeretie and, i some cae, exavapan, Besse thy neg the post Duckling tenth ofthe mob 6.2. SHEAR STRENGTHOF PLATEGIRDERS Incralatng the behvior of ple ide subjected to sear itis assumed chat. the web is plane apd the materia is elasicpasic. Such web buckles at fies that ca be predcedteortcly. The ba at the tage coeespond 0 the Beam-acton strength ofthe girder, Subequent o buckling th ase dietsbution inthe web changes and considerable poubucking strength maybe reaed erase ofthe diagonal lesion tat develops. Ths called the em ‘ofl acto, Even witout tanveae lillenrs a plate girder an develop ‘heat sues atte ultinate oad which s several times the sear bucling ses Figure 6.1 shows te general dstibution ofthe tension fil tht develops ina lt ide wth transverse stiffeners. Theses dsrbtion hs en werd xpenmenaly(Besler etal, 1960; Cask and Sharp, 197; Stnhardt and Schroer. 197, "Th eso ld nthe ide wth stisfeners is anchored bythe Bangs and steer. The esoling ler oud onthe fangs stated i ig 2 nd isto that this causes the anges to bend inward. Therefore, the mature of the tenon eld is inuened by the ending stifles of the anges. For example ithe stiffs ofthe anges lage fli tothe web, the tension ld may be uform over the etre pate With continued cease i load the tem membrane snss combine wth he shear buclig ses toate Yi ing ofthe web and are ofthe pans cccrs upon Tormation of a mechan Shows three oss fare modes, involving (I) eam mechanism in each Mange (2) panel mechanism, and (3). combined mechanism. The adtoal ‘hear asocated ith the formation ofa flue mechanism involving psi Inge inthe Bangs called the fame ation (Csctto eta 1981. ‘Wagner (1981) used complete, uniform testo Bald to determine the strength of piel in pre dea, The anges are attmed to be rgd and the web very thin. This model corresponds to that shown in Fig. 6.0 except "hat there ae no plastic hinges, since the ages arene il. The Wepner lysis as re found tote que satisfactory for ara ucts, ‘Biser and Thurlimann (Rise. 1968) wee the ist Frmulatea sce model for plate ides of the type sein el ngincering structures. They sue ha the Manges re too flexi to support tera loading fom the et Temion lt acon Re 62 Panes essa Faroy eee prey ‘coson fd, so that the yi band shown in Table 61 determin the shes Strength. The inclination nd wth ofthe yell hand ae dined by the sng, whichis chosen soso maine the sb srength. The sea tes or he Spinal vale of # as found oe Hors, 63) here the shear bucking ses the fron ses, and dy he angle ‘pane gona wth Hang, Combining the be sear ad the posthack lng tension and subsiuting the ets nthe Mins cl coaion gies y= ~Heqsin20+ oh Ga he 66 ‘The maximum value ofr hen found by substituting fom Ba, 6 ito E65 “To obi simpler solution Rass sums that 9 and are ative, they woud bei etd at 4 and wes the eultingcombation of prin sess in iar approximation ofthe Mise sid conten. Ths es, mer peh ein f he pes ie f @, wnTABLE 61 Vara Toon Fi Tori fo Pate Gir re andy ar he we yield stress in tension and shea, espetvey Values oF, by ths approximation are less than thowe by Eq, 66 Bu an investigation of gids wih 4 wide range of eoporions showed tht the ‘wotenn | wannon [esses] Uae] gnome er asc” | ta tum aifteme ms san Uh" Sng Ey ne = = borers J = reton(1-22)sine “ a Est} 2 Basler assumes that inelastic buckling will occur if, exceeds 0.85. and mos . toe te inn kg yt Sf ff | | aston) te YBa O85 Ste 1h y cy eae Fra) wm | tay | “This values tobe substituted forty in Eq 68 - Ia shown sty Gap (53) and ery a9) an See (197 hat Bar's ralph she steph for op ee Sema rq! = |» | i ented fhe eb of Tal The ca ol tte co 4 tte on otto lS ES] | oe | oe | om | nateton(I-f) (10) 3 : | Three, Hse’ oma oem hse see of ger whose aes, adj = |= |» Asa neat seportng tl ad fn een Ba ea ny vrs fe ponring ra a ee veloped Sie Benim Tan sh Thin son a poal.Te pcp cats ot omens | KOR] | a] ef ow tot ofthe a sown Taba add he falling po Ba oe) | {Ea The be hos te oon eh pts fh ps pe EB i thy aml els heen stam compan Pages rales |= |. ster bucing te ide ear elton al ees ep he os Hf Fi and Herp mo these cig sng a othe ee Somponet ofthe enon eo eh cnn thew oh shea bese Sena he ge pe ca w fom | ow Tae (et) appa han chef a wane forthe fect offange silos ofthe yield 208 inthe web, He lost the boundaries fhe tension ld at the distaees ead rom diagonally poste connor ‘ofthe pane Table 6). These ditanses were sumed proportional To te respecte flange sifoesses jy and Ya and were chown to manmize the Sear srength However shear stents determined in ths ay ete ot fn sd agrement with et els Kons , 1969), Lew and Tope (198) ‘sed this model in ther investigation of hybrid pate piers ad detained bya formals eatablshed tote agreement with salle tot eeFj (1968.8) assumes a tension eld encompassing the whole pane together wath bem mechani each fangs with he neo nse a fa able 61 The web compression i the dection perpendicular to the ‘iia tension sume egal to the compression in tat detonate Intaton of buckling Tres sl condition then wed co deine the ngito ofthe tension If the Ranges can ress the butary web tess with the mci the ie) condition, the wah yids uniformly oer the pane. but i they cannot, ther fv eeia band of yeling with sale tension dl 0 {hat which the Bang can suppor isthe outer triangular portions, Inelsic Shar BocKing of the meb fp ssumed to eg alt =D, and 0 vay Parabolic fom that pont tomy aL hf =. The theory Wis extended 10 Fle unsyminetrialgders (Fuji. 197) ‘Kont (1971) ees formulas or four mods of fae, Fair inthe is mode nvurs inthe manner show in Table 6, where tbe inner bund yi Aner te comin action of he boc ses abd the posbuklingfenson eM, hie the smaller tension inthe ater bands isthe value that can be Sepperte bythe girder Range ae am mechanism withthe interior hinge Milbe distance dcermined by am empicl formula based on tes. The inclination ofthe ye and fe deteribed s a to maximize the seat a8 0 slr soeton bt te optima nctination mst be dtenined By ilo the second mode, which sa ming ese of the st mo, the menor Binge {isclopr an mudpanel and te me eds ufo hvoughoa The ping. In the thd mode ff the Mange are assumed to vera lic wile low Ine complete iting of the web. An optimum vlc ofthe tension inl futon man ao e found by ta forts cive The fourth eave iting {nein which a Wagner fil develops slong wih panel mechanism ofthe anes. ‘Chern and Oxtapenke (1969) proposed the tension eld show in Table 6:1 wtze the princi! and i determined by yang aking ato account he Shes tha Suse atbokling Apna mechan assed 4 develop in he ftanges The ruling uate seat strength Vi ven os A ode + bodin2e (1 ene (= pcos 28 ewe) a suber is the ratio of outer handtesson 4 inneand tension. 9 Tthz renting moment of botlon and top Hasge and atthe pel ase ‘Mio Fgaton 6 Is wad to determine, In computing my the Aang i ‘Soumed to act with afte ith of web ven by ners) x08 or (os) “Two categorie of shear tkling ae wt to determine in Ea. 66 (1) esti Thing suming te wh pel Bed the Banas ad inp supported at the ifleners and (2) inelastic Pocling i, fr cst using exceeds 05, {The authors diferente V, wih respect to # C0 develop a formul forthe rinum vat of 2 which ust be solved By ta “the tension fel of Porter el. (97S) show ie Table 61 consists of | singe band and 4 development of one suggested carle by Rockey and ‘halo (1973 in which the tension band was taken in the ietion of the prt! diagonal The tense membrane tess together with the Buckling tess ‘tis len. and fore ncus when hinges form nthe anges to produc Swine mechani that elas the yeld zone ABCD. The veralcompo- ent ofthe enon ede added fo the shear at hocking and combined wth the frame action shear. The resulting timate shear tength is “The coordinate eof he paste hinge 2, | o (6 JayE oeeee wu Inkee mi th plastie moment of resistance of the Ange. The Mange i {sine act than fete wth of we , given by wi(t-2i2) Eos (615) Formulas to see for the fect of the ange axial Fore ane sven The tuthorssuget Eq fr determining The elas shea buckling ses i Calclted with the forages ofthe pana simpy supported but i this vate ‘sad Ory inca Buklng assumed C9 oir, With fy sven by Laas 10 “The maximum vale of st be found by tial, Homer fora gen pane @ inthe ony independent varabl in Eq 6.1, andthe mani not diet todetrminepurculry since the optimal rae ually Hes eee 2 tnd 4S and fy snot senaine to smal changes fro the optim of. AN ‘Ssumption of = 0.67% wil ge eer «very los approximation or an Sineretmation ofthe alte fad ibe anges cant develop moment. then my =0 and Fa 614 is « Substitting this vale ia Eq 6 3 and maximizing by dierentting ‘sn rxpect to the tre Baer toltion (Eq 610) resus Wis shown byPore (1975) that a 6.13 ince sve other exting Sluions us speciale, A procedure fr evalating the eet on Vf the reduction nm, Ae to fangs aaa Toe is abo given Hogund (97148, 1973) has develope theory for girders without ine mote tansvers fener which was ater extended fo girders wilh ter. rete stiffener Hews thera of bare show nthe aurea Table 61 {2 model ofthe neh. The compression hari this pte ae perpendicular tothe ension bars When the anaes between the esto Bars athe Hanes is desease, the shat-bucktig loud forthe system is increased If the loud Ufo dite, 8s vane along the prder cause the shear vari Calculated stresses in the fat stem are it Bood agrement with sees Incase in test pdere The sear tenn Vs pen) (iM) mem, on V=sar strength of web (Table 62) ES e.28+ rd he = plat moment of web (= eo) ‘= moment in panel Mj = ange orient oy Arh TTAMLE2 Vas of Vf Ba 617° [End Stileners Rigi) End Silene Noni a be oer 275 ] oe one 275 over 125 hi Seem cmp fom By AI ein om Sectgrelving ee The em involving M/ My sosounts forthe eduction in he Mang ome m and will Sepend ona meta vale of 1, bt Hound suse thatthe pest Sale teased to simpy te probe, Ie wil be noted that V, depends on the nature of the end sien End sulfners ean be considered pd Eas 18 are sid (ce aha Fi 64), e20.ish 2000 oth ees Ap0the 1) ap tennat 1 le the second of thee equntions isin login persue enimeer an in ceaimeters The erm Ji enti with height de of Ey. 6. 1S the lnermaliatenener area required t0 develop the tension felt in the djcet panel "He2o$ (19744) take the boundary ofthe eso fel rm mish of ‘he pael a the silfeners to the pls hinges in the anges Table 6.1) The siance cis based onan sterage, relive flange sas to allow for al ‘anges, and w chart developed rom a tay of varios txt ult, partly those reported by Rockey and Staload (948), gen to dtemine i. He ives thre rlaively simple forms forthe atte shar oe foreach of ‘ree ranges of panel aspect rata together wit w coetiient by which the ‘sls are toe multiple to aecoust fra ongtinal tiene, ‘Clark and Sharp (1971) ed Sharp and Clark (197) proposed tension eld for thinswebed aluminum sides which consis ofa Baler fed on which sperimposed compete tension fel incline 5" (Table 61). The Ranges "sumed to be steams cominuous over the silenrs nd ste 0 —— Fp 64 End wire4 unio oad fom the 4° ld. The ssa strength the sum of he yeti ‘ont ot the two tension fk and the sear at buckling. Bar's ‘Spousal ofthe von Missy condition i used to determine the com ‘ton or eb sess tha suse yling In geteral,ther proved gives Conse reall when compared th fests (0 ulate foad resus i {hd on govoral yeking of he web. Hower, it hasbeen noted tha alu um ides generally not develop plastic ings in the Ranks an (re tly ants by Hage or llenc Dckling on rietd ad bie Bes, ‘harcks developing at web holes bss ofthe diagonal tension. ‘Stand and Schrdr (197) have aso sugcsed a tension fel for a nin pders Table 61). The tension eld Bap is he diecton of the pn! dagonal a is Roundare erst themida! pois ofthe Range ‘Te temuoe filing on the Range assume to vay sisal with a ‘maximum ralve tthe aifenen. Asumig flange bending to be clastic the ‘raponding tensioned stration shorn ithe figures drives. The ‘era sea sound by ing the verti crmponent of she tension eld {Sine shear buckling. The theory was extended to girders of unsymmetscal “Thies 634 and 630 give omparsons of pedi shar strengts second ing to Bader Fup Osapenko, Hoplond, Rocke nd Koma with resus ti tcuy fom a numberof sources computing the vals a axbfore ‘vcton the Range paste moment is Taken ini ascount by Hoglund in Rockey bat not by Fuji, Ontapenko, and Kematsu,Fartberore othe fe cass Table 6.9 when M/M;excnds unity Holo hay reed is otcahea tlves by Basler’ shearnomentieaction forms, Two piss "ow he Kept ind vain the rosin hee table: (1) dfations wEuiinte eng dir among ivestptos, and (2) even gers that ae ‘ena nJougy and fabosutin cin ier consiteably in altima teagth, For exanpe the lomate segths of TOL and TGT in Table 630 were (51 ful IHGZEN, tesqetnely, yt those mere sts on presumably ental hes ofa single itr. "The routs in Tables 6.34 and 6.38 are surmarzed in Table 6 Hale's formate pes the Ines range of values bowever. the oes do ot ier Hom Buse signee. Cher and Ostpenko' formulas tad 0 overeti Ima sher strength mote than the eters: ths is due par tothe neglest of ‘eseamoment interaction, All but oe othe st 10 girdrsn Table 638 were {thet ofa are eoment, abd wen they wee compared by Cherm and ‘Srenonko (1970) mth the Chern Ostapenko sear-soomen inaction foe Caine tbe iowing vale of Ps were obllad 090,092,092, 097.027, Dos LO. 09e amd O91, The verge of these 1D vas 5 095; the 10 values fn Table 63A average 091 THogund’ formes ive the mow conservative result, ariel forse et ws Table 9B Hh conseretam explained in part hy he at hat be fs the move rection sa Mange plastic moment (Eq, 6.17) om the Besant inthe pont Rockey ues an average Sane sressin ompoting ABLE G34. Shar Steph of Pate Gers see | ae FopP_ omy Wi hist and Base found beste oration ia proditions of shsar-momest Intracton wen he ied a edued momert (Baler, 1967). esog presen in papa form a comparsoa of shear srengths by hi orm with rus of tet by others, nding alo thon Table G3 find 638 The mean valve of the ato, LONG. Hower, the standard ‘Ervimion is 0.16, and in one tt (Oot in Tables 63) Voy i EAL. while igh’ formia ges 08 “The smest formas ae Basle’, Mbpand’s and Herzog, and ofthese Hogue’ ves te ont consent renal excep fr slender web (i > 30, Fuji formes tnd Konaas ao ite good really ut they ae more Simplest. The formas by Rockey, Evans, and Porter give good eel fut route the optimum snation ofthe lento Held fo be determined by‘TABLE AB Stee Sra fPate Ges J Numer EF “Ratey Hot Kom ‘Shia fou tee tm Ly 1 Sat To eas ‘GRTGrendscon oink Ed io sca Hip 18) ARLE 64 Compr of Tost Rete Taller 624 al 638 Sundae Range of Ratio aver Men —_Douton "Vnjby_HihesiLowst Bae Tes oom at ro tm bm mon La Mopeadcrebeeds) Maas LOG 137 Mogel tesa) Bak ae Aria Cher and Ostapesko's formulae compat and alo ree tial, {Eseomination of the optimom feinaion of the tension Be ‘Yonerava otal (978) proposed an ulkimate shear strength theory for pint sors with mabe dagonalysifened Getween vera stiffeners. Hi Gaumed thatthe ulate sev tenth const ofthe sum of contnibutions fom tee sousce the Beam shea force V, taken by the diagooall send tte the aur force faken By the tension Bel in the web, and the sess Tore Phen by the dingo seer Buckling colZets. ced rom ‘ie iferensslution of the dierent quation fra buckled web wl ‘Mlagona slfner under sear, are eeented forthe computation of the iim shear force, Cotes for panes with both compreston and teasion type aillenes with efter fied oF pinbed pate boundaries aren, preions for the lesion Beld contrition are based on the work of FRowkey eal The shear owe taken By the diagonal see i determined by taking the vera component ofthe for: ating on Te sine, Tests on {vo plite girder showed pood agreement between heretic and experimen {il ufinae lds tudes om diagonal sillened web were alo pesormed a ge eter 1988). Th the case of tapered plate ders, the axial Fores he icine anges have verti components Thee component of ore may either increase of fisvense the shea fore cated by the med depending om the direction of taper and om the direction of the applied shear Shetr buckling of simply ‘ipported plates of tariable dep have been investigated by ft clement Suis ad charts Yor the backing soecest & have been prepared by say (1979), "Two investigations ave been reported on the ukmate shear strength of taper web dey Fally and Loe (1976) have proposed a method for est trating timate shear strength tot onthe Bask method. Tei method i Timed to smal tapers ad doesnot account forthe eft on shear of the xia ond inthe iio ange, Davis nd Manda (1929) extended Rock's en- nid model othe ev of tered web pide. Their tear) 20 ited to unl tapers and tes ito ancount the uene of the axl force in the Sonne Mange” Good agreement is ained Between theoreti petitions SJ eapeinentl collar londe. Th tory is applable 1 loading conditions “thee the ide loaded witha the Ui the intersection pia ofthe fae) However it sppear tht moistions most be mae othe theory order 10 Act withthe more common lading case aeocated With connuous plate irder ith tapered Webs a the suppor 64 GIRDERS WITH NO INTERMEDIATE STIFFENERS, Pate gies with bearing stifencrs a the supports but with no intermediate ‘Seer ncpt for bearing stifle at heavy concent loads ae of pace list mero The powbuckling tenth of och gers ean be sgnean. Theshear stress timate fad in thes tents with web andere 210, 210, an 300 (BI, KI and BA of Tale 65) were 3.49, $00, and 6 ins the ‘eoreteal shear buckling sev asain pel boundaries simpy supported. ‘oglng’s formula (6.17), whien wan developed orginally for such Bde, isin good agreement wth test rls (Table 63) “The formulas by Ostapeake and Cher aren goo grr wth els on pers wth pnel aspect tos of 85M the tensioned somtbution i ssa Yo by ro (Table 6.5 other words, the inate sear he Sam the etal shear assuming the web fixed a th Ramps, an the flange Pstchingecontibuion 65 STEEL PLATESHEARWALLS Althouph the postbucklng strength of ste! plates unde ate ads as been investigated for over hala cent, tht ae few iany sts ofthe poste buckling Hetatior of thin ste plate under cyte looting, Tess were or dvd atthe Universiy of Alber Trompotch and Kos, 198), the University of Maine (Easy et at, 19a and 1993s), and atthe University of Wales in Cardiff (Roberts and Sabour, 99) to ternine the hysteretic ‘haractristis of thin set ptes under ese shear loading. All ist reals inate that the behavior ofthis se ple which are adel supported slong thei boundaries nd are subjeed Lo eee shea loading table in the TABLE GS StearSrnt Gr with Long Pas Tern ¥ “Chern a soe 5 7 gon Oar? iia ss to Oa LLL postucling domain, Kula (1985) modeled the thin se plate by series of faced tension sips. The ange of cation of thee ss fenton of {he panel width aod eight plate thicaes,crosssecuonal aca of the sue rounding beams aod colunas, and the moment af teria of the clams: fd it can be determibed using the patie of eat work The sesestas ‘tosh forte diagonal tension sup Was assure to be easc-pertets plas, Test specimens Wee analyzed wing this mode i was ound that the ‘ode was able to prec onl the ital etaor andthe alimate capa 0 2 reasomabe dears of accuracy (Elaaly et al. 19936). ‘A complete agonal tension Held was assumed by Elgal et ab (19958) and he web as replaced by leston rp nthe agonal diction, wth an ange ‘of ciation that vanes between 40 and 45° To ebuain a good correlation euten the anata and experimental rests, was detemined tht linea stress elatonsip forthe tension strips should be used (Fig. 63). sal eta (1995s) noted rom tei fest esl that the tan station slong the lent ofthe squalene stipe not urn ihe tsi tere casted near the ends rather than eat the eater af the pat, Tis Aue tothe fact hat the equiv compression stp rosing the tension sti tthe ends are shorter in length abd wil ot buckle a erly the longer ‘ompession sis near th eta ofthe pat Hence, an analy mode wat Aeveloped based on von Kira’ lve with concep (932), and yilsng tra atom to tr atthe end ofthe tension sip und propagates ovat tS “The ince stesstrain (or loud -longaton curve derived by Elealy ta (0985) is wien by 9,1 = (44 B/D, = 0 where 4.65 Toa od (area) Sipe! arin cureFe 1438, shear buckling eoeisen for a clamped square pate thine ofthe plate 5, = yl ses in shear (= 0, V3) length of tran member (,—9,)E/o,0+ BY~ oy Yield tes in easton Youngs moduls of easy 1B = ratio of maximum sain to the sain ld (51015) lgaaly et a (1995) found tha ithe plate panels bolted othe suround- ing beams and columns, a is sully the ease the linea Toad elongation or Stress) reitionshp ofthe tension sip willbe inueced bythe eke ff the bold conpoction. I the fad that cases slippage of te bled on tection ies tha the oad tha causes iitation of elding athe eds of he tension member, he ead that cass slippage wl conto In other words, in Fig 6 should be taken asthe smal value of Pj; =o member cosssetionl area and Pi = mO.7MAs) where nthe auaber of ols tone end of an equivalent stip the oe ‘eat of fin, 0.33 0, Fg the bat ulimate tena in tension am As the are ofthe bt, “The ulate load Ps contol citer by fall yeding ofthe member a¢ ven before forthe welded plat. ering ofthe plats atthe bol hoes, seat fare of he tote The dtestion Ayn shown i Fig includes the eonga tin ofthe the snnaige athe connection, so fhe ang deforaton of the plate andthe bolts The elongation ofthe stp duet elastic and pase ‘elormation ean be aproximated by 0,(2+ 8/31. The slippage a the ‘onnocion fora standard size hot ole can be taken as 0.125im. and the Tearing deformations can be taken as D2 W D3 tines the bolt diameter (Kola et al, 1987, Fustherre Eel et (1995) ind 9 rfuction nthe tines of the stip ina baled plat panel da to the centric of the lt with respect to the bs of the Surrounding beams and columas. The lfects of residual srs and local buckling of the compression ange ofthe surrounding beams nd colimn were ako conser in the axial and moment stiffs and ‘Spas of thee members ‘Comparsoas between Egualy et al (19910, 193) experimental oad plasment envelopes and thar eal! resls ng theses sai oo. ‘Songation) relationship, gen above, for welded and bole specimens ae sven in Fig 6. As can te noted, the arerent betwen the analytical and ‘Experimental ruts are very good 0.6 BENDING STRENGTH OF PLATE GIRDERS [Apt ide subjte primariy to fending moment usualy fs by later ‘oronal buckling lvl busing of tbe compression Mange, o ing of one for oth flanges. Buckling ofthe compression flange ilo the web (vera Pking) has een obser Sn many fests athe Flowing limiting value Shibe web tender 0 pstde th mode of fale has brn developed by Bsr and Tariana (963): be 068 te tie fe 9) gesass He bBo Staton] Fe 66 Esernenal and raya nad placement cures (Weld wall. (Py oed mawhere 4y isthe area of wed, Ay the af of one fangs, and, theresa tension hat ust be overcome to achieve uniform eld in compmeson ‘ets which has been observed, vere bucking has occurred oy afer seneral ieling ofthe compression flange inthe panel Testor, E19 tay be oo camera, oF een unos for Siders of practel propor: ‘ons. Hower, web senders most elit o facia abet ad to von fatigue cracking unde repeated ade dc to out-of plane web hein. ‘Asin the cas of shear, bucking of he we dt bending does not exh ‘he panel capac. However, th dtebation ofthe ending sess chang it ‘he postuckling range andthe web bcome x cent. The elton to this peoiem by most vestpntor i Baed on the ssumpon tha porn ofthe tte becomes infective. Base and Takia assume «Hosa dstbtion {of sues on the elective cross pain show In Fig 6, withthe altimate ‘moment being cached won the extreme iter someon reaches des ‘ra erica sess if some form of buckling cont. These wth ‘sie to ber fora web with t= 3, This he linting senders cording t0 Eq, 619 with 4,/4,—DS, 0, = 33KH, and 7, ~ 165k, Bending strength is then ase 10 increase ner fom the vale fo jBrer show web can reach yi srs i bending without buckling. This Sssumplion sien (20) where Cis a constant ad (ithe web senders hit permis ying Feding without bckling le price the following formula was sug 20) Fe. 67 Bening sess ‘The vale of), in this form somewhat larger than the theoretical value for hinge-dged parce and was chen to ive the lang slendrocs 170 Inch was prsebed at that Ue, for set with oy = 304s) @28MPa) by TieAASC specication, Equation 631 has hen foun oben goo agreement i test ests (Bsr apd Thurman, 196%; Maeda, 1971; Cooper. 1971) Sik ides with i= 38%, 448, an 51 Hig (1979) ase te eve width bn Fi. 67 woe 0764/7 si constr a adsonal sip of web of Ltr En, imme! above the neal ans to belfcie The eoingforala forthe ellie ston todas was dive sa=sfinoaste(s-anp/2) Beas [E where Sig isto effective section modulus and S ithe seion modulus of oredued cost svtion, This equation was found to give sgh larger ‘olustion than’ Eq, 62), and mas in good agreement with Illes 1096 < Myf 1.04) For hy gies Sy ould he decreed by the oy ren uj’s formas (1968, 1971) for the limite moment are more compl ‘ate and re resretd to laterly supported grr. They solve he par Ince (Hh Ejay ofthe HOgland fora ad ts web bend-buckling tse [Amliplyng ccTient for hybsi ides is en. A comparison of predicted Talics with resus of tests on 1D noabybnid ders gave OM = Mog/ My UL ‘Chen and Ostapenko (1970) have developed formulas for yb ses with uneguat Ranges The utimate moments he sum ofthe meb-bucling ‘moment besed on an effete wid sma to Basler’. The pstbucking ‘moment determined by viking of the tasion fang of by lateral oF Heal Ducking of the compresion ange. Aeomparison of predic talus with ‘esl of tess gave 095 < May/M = 18 for 14 oohybid ides and 86-© Mag/ Aha = L13 for 10'hybnid gies. Ina ter report (Osapenko al, 199) the felling mediation of Bae’ ormla wae popes————s—“_SSSS ‘omen of inert of we about cotoil axis of cross tion {Eman from neta ax compression elge of web A, area of compresson Dange oS eompresion ange buckling ses % san fF “This equation hasbeen found to ge good corelaton with fest ssl. The ‘Mlvate moment eta he tension ange wa where th istnce from the perl ans othe tension eg of the web. Wesabe (17S, 19H) ves formula for the general ease ofthe uray sit'pybe pine ith one or more togitudtl silleners wich incu ‘ope Yeducto costes for vera lal, amd tera Bukling of the ‘ompresonHnge The uimate moments pen by Alu’) ¥ eed el 625) In Eq, 626, 6 sand Siy compression ange tension Hanes ona tual sen ad web respect and yand fare dent in Fig. 66. The (Entamce ote compresuon edge ofthe webs vaste ‘A compusion of pected vals by Eq 626 with resus of tess on 2 ids are ulm sifens gave O91 = Magy/My 119, with a mean TNO ons and stupdard deviation 0.09. Comparisons wit xt on 26 long Tetaalysatencd dew pave 030 Mag/Mg 1-16 with = mea vale Mone and standard deviation 0.105. wom (07 COMBINED BENDING AND SHEAR, “Asuming the shea in gir tobe carta only by the we, os io Bases Ae ea rmairum ben the web is ibe uniformly oF i shea atin eta muller sta, hen has fully developed tension eld okey cesar ndepenent of th ending momento be pel along #8 he roe ea than yoy, ich te moment that ean be ari Maangt alone (48th Fig a)-Any larger amount us be rested part ara gc reduc te shar en he seat capt fall Boome pone pre being (AC in Fi, 680) I the Range conteibution (0 2a ot Afantgnxount avin the more erent theories of sear strength, 4B serie Sass at corct breast Nang aia Fre from the enomet in eect ange pti moment mon which the Mange cod Ire Peal: This condition represete by ine 48, whisk canbe Seto {Gecuample by Hoplun’s forma (Ea. 6.17) ea actin diagram (9635) show io Fig. 68h. The sesment BC, ota stomata ven, corespond to BC in Fig. 60 with Ma = Mp ra dnd ob ra for thinewedbed pers when cxcents M.S aa ig. 68 Shear moneat teraction dar.segment Ccan be taken tobe stsiht ine Crelton with stress was fed with AF taken at 2 fom the high-oment ead of the panel at rane ia = Herzog (1974.8) asumes a wncar digi simi to Base’. Fu’ imeracion diagram ts sbowa ia Fig 68, whore the. addtional point {i} For the ease oF a Mange with no healing resitance (i 1971. ‘Chern and Osapenko (9700) assune he alimate pact il be diated by flue ofthe web nat of the compression fang. or lingo the tension Mange The complet intercon behaviors eps chemi by theiteracion curve Fig ha Curve Q--Q,-0, reset far the ‘veh curve Or-Qs epesets bucking ofthe compresson Hangs ad cue (e-Os represents sing ofthe ean fangs ‘When web flare contol (epon Qs-O.-Q, of Fp. 682) the toa she 2) inwhich Hy the beams shear, Vi the tension ld shes ad Vg the ffameaetion sear The subse eindists tht thee sears ae asst sth combine seve in the gid. The beacon she i oop fom Vig = Ae o> In which is obtained from the iteration exuation (2) H5E() +15 (%). ) aCe)“ S@) inch sth rat of teagan the nso compression a the ‘tome eso th min Pending ses nthe we, iy thea buckling ses nthe web unr pre Renin. “Teese sea fn 628 comput ing he oon erm a. GIL wip ={ and, epics y The onion Ald soy found by wing the combined sees renga seu an Beagle cen. AS was done forthe eam pues Keaton pose nad {ein he maximum va of Pe ‘The frameacton shee compet sng he se fame nshais a fo she pre sbear ue he thro ne 61) Te ange pte mets the combed car tad bending ee, However wil seed te st fees nthe Manges Te Folge aca shee (620) vend onstmetms tne) (sn) in which mand are the plastic moment in the compression ange athe Ie and ight sides of he pl and my adm are the comesponding pase ‘moments inte tension flange All of hese moments ae media forthe eet (ail ore in the fangs ‘The ether conditions for which lure oss are depicted by cues OQ sd Oe Qs of Fp 8d. Cuve O--Os represents the eat were hacling a tbe ompeesson Mange cools i which case a completly developed tension eld al mot have formed In the regio represented By curve QO, the teasion Mange starts ein before the web plate reaches ulimat sear stent ‘Vielding wl penta nt the cos seston and the paste stngih ofthe jer panel wil be the ulna capacity The mode pontulatd by Rockey cal, (Rockey, 197ah; Rockey and Staloud 172! Rockey etal, 197 Porter eta, 1975) for predicting the Seng of girders without ongiudial sillenes under bending and shear include thre adsiona factory not sade tn the pure bending std pure Seat models. These ctor ar (the redustion nthe Sear buckling ses of the eb due to the preseeeofPeding ses, (2) the ibene of he in-plane bending ste on teva ofthe dagonal sion ses a fale and 3) the redoton of the magne ofthe plate modula of the Manges resuling From the al comprenste and tee sength The buclig sts eduction andl By wsing the nersstion equation to determine the excl shear ses under combined Bending and sts. [Note that Eq 6.2 fr the cue ofa symmetric eros section, wtih i 8 spesal case of Eq, 630 wthC= 1 “Alles the pe! has hice the tenson-eld sear x computed y wing | psthacklig bear force mie ticle the ect of combine Bending find shear Thi volves modying the tension fel tes ot cade both being and seat sees othe el erterion apd ao voles ng am interaction equation to find the ange pase moments my when ai sss reiting from Bendiog acts inthe Manges. The equations presouly given lor pure shear are then wed with an eration approach to dear the tenth othe pide panel. ox) (68 PLATI-GIRDERS WITH LONGITUDINAL STIFFENERS. ‘Longitudinal uilfeners (Fig, 69) can areal incense the Beading strength of| plate ier This aon strength canbe ettebutd to contol ofthe aera ‘election ofthe web which cence te festa sess the web can erty an also improves the bending resistance f te ange duet rcter web rstFg 69 late irs wit ng sine, Rockey and Least (1962) have determined that the optimus action for & Jonpstutina stifenee wed to inereas the Reorl buckling rss an 'S022 ies the web deh from the compression Range if he web sumed to be Bxed at the Manges and simply seppreed tall our ces, Acorns. (020 ofthe depth has been adopted early universally by design spciextions 25 the acepted locaton fora longtaina ener, Where longitudinal Steer at 020 of the web depth rom the compression ange f proved, {he value of in the pate Buckling formls i increased frm 289 to 12 ‘which means tat the lati ential fending teste mor than fe its a lage s fora per wih no lonsial stiffener Since an silfened web of ‘ld ste witha Senderes of about 170 declps yc-stss moment ithe four bucklag. “a silened web can do. the same. with a akendernote 10 /TI39/29, or abost 400, Tess show tht an adesussy proportioned longiutina siener a0 2 rom he compression Mang lint he bend Ducking tos in srr with wed slendrnescs as age as 450, sth the timate moment as determined by compresion-Dange bung sient it attsned (Cooper, 1967). Girders wih larger snderes re hay To require ‘voor more Tonitudial tienes oelinate the web hend-bcklg os. OF ous, the increase Bening sucngth of longtudaly steed thi we ‘eer is uraly small because the web contribution to ening stength Stall: However fongitdial stiffeners canbe important in a ge subysted {o repented loads Because tho) reduce or eminate the transverse bending of the web, which ince resistance o falgbe cracking a the webto nae nctare and allows more slender wots to be usd (Yen abd Mush. 196) “The optimurn focation of a fongitodinal sifene that is wsed to inerease ristint to sear Ducklings st mdepth. Inthe ean te to spele Doce simultaneous and the increase cial tes can be stata For example, k= 9.34 and 6.34 fora square panel and the comesponding ‘bane espestily, and the senders rao 4 ofthe aguas panel ‘ce that of the sbpnl, Testor, the cast shu backling ses for the ‘ubpoel is 27 times sarge as fo the guar panel Ofcourse tna we ih Tongan sffener not at middepth the age subpana bucks est and at Smale crial stress than forthe sient at midepth ‘he pstbuklng shear strength of lonpitinaly sine girders has been saluted wo Ways Cooper (1967) assume that each sebpanel develops ‘en tetsion Fl afer Duckling, while Poteet (978) assume thal ony one tension Bel ie developed between the anges and transverse sien een Tonstadnasileer are wed Teich supane develops sown tension field as sugested by Cooper, the tension fi shears fr a Bde siened as shown in Fp 610 are sie a oy ive in which and; ate the depths ofthe subpar, 9 aide the diagonal tension ses nthe spas, ad ada the pet ats a/b ad abs, spc: Cooper poet ont devsop the otal shea tenth afer employ Inga mode form ofthe von Mies il condition to evaluate the diagonal tension sueses. Chor and Ostapenko (1971) extended Cooper's model to Include fame action of the Banger and ofthe lonatadinal stifener, The model ued by Rockey et (197) was supaested aller st war oberved rom fens that an onrall enson eld develops in the we, Figure 61 shows test der a fre. The insincdsrows painted onthe seb show the predicted ange ofthe tension ld nd ae in good upement tit the ates ofthe eke in both subpuses. The predicted pontons ofthe ange paste hinges, also pained onthe ger ae good agreement withthe scl postions. Te longitu stieners wee ath rom the compression ange tothe nehthand panel aire was inthe righthand peel. ht e610 Type! ogra sient pane611 Longton sine ier a uimateload inser Rosy ta 1978, lear thatthe oter panel was ot far behind. To obtain he tension ll sb ‘istice of longtially fener the same approach uss for an Unsifeed ger, bo in computing the tension Bld sts associated with fale the eral beacon she conesponding to busking of the gest subpunl sod inthe ik rte, ‘Where lonptainlsifenes ae sad nthe panel he sha strength under combina shear and bondiag i tated hy Chem and Ostapeio al by Rockey eta in much the sme way a8 the panel were under pure she Howevee, modieations tothe bucling tess, tone ss ad Paste moments nthe Ranges to account forthe combine srs eles ate include. AS poet previous}. Chern and Ostapenkoiacle the contin from the longi stienr ie computing the Trame-acton nength nd include the modification of the sillner’s pac moment capac to ascounk forthe combi ses eft this ese, Tnteroction equations to compute the esl buckling ses for es ub panel are pesnted by Chern and Ostapenko. These estions ae similar Eg. 630, The subpar! tenon field resos are then computed sing the ate fst in eich sbpanel wth the yield enterion. Finally an erative proach Sed toi the sear sent. Rockey etal omput the Buckling seis in the subpanss by a nection approach appl each subpanel ses coniton sx shown ia Fig 612. The state of stress in subpael is therefore hea rest pare Bending tes nan anal sre The Basking coo ae(® ‘The postbucking strength of the panel is determined 9 i no longi ‘Combined sear snd bending of longitainally siened girders with neq fgss hasbeen vetted by Cherm and Ostapenko 1971, Thee anal for shea has on th tenon field dbo fo ides witha itnginal tenes with each subpane ete independents ain Coopers sly nd taking nt acount the psi moments the Pages and lener and the avabfonce reduction in Alege plc moment. The dsr sirngth i dterminal hy shea util the shaestrength cue inert the ure for bending steagth (Fg. 68). The anal ivoles some enghy eration so that not stl or hand omptation, (OF the thre analyses disuse a this chaper Cooper’ i the most co Seratve and the easiest to use. Rockeys method regres tak sod-ror to ese sgt loading, desde his chapter "Reseach work by Hero. Skalowd, and Elsaly reported by Elen (1983) insta th llowing forma can be used to dtennine eduction factor FR vtich shold be mol by theultimate capaity ofthe me under edge Toating to inde the et of the pisnce ofl plane Pending ne -s6 ee the oil ploha ending tess. Research work by Elly (1979) Indie tht the presence of global bea wll reduce he uma pacity of the meh unr dec edge compressive loads. Thi was based the esis ftom I8 fests conducted om slender webs (f/ ~ 325 and 200) with jd equal {0 02, General recommendations 1 estimate the reduction inthe siping Strong dc tothe presence of lb sen exnnot Be made duet the ited Tents that ae vail, Mone resarch work op heel of the presence of [Boba bending andr she onthe imate capa of the web unde ee Somprenve lode i aeded. The AISC specication does ot edess the ‘sof the psc of lob bending andor shear on the espn lad ‘apacy of th web -Recentre Loads. Essences with respect 0 the plane ofthe web a un ‘Seosble in price, Therefor, the steagih of the web under cate Toads ads to he examined. Research work was conducted atthe Univesity ‘of Maine to sady the effet ofthese pose ceenicties (lay and Ne an 1989, Egaly ot al 198, Elgaly ta 1b 1992) The maximum ce ‘irc that was considered is equ to onesinth times the width of the Tings "The study includes Doh exernemal and anata work. From the test rolls twas found tht there is no redaction i the ulimate capacity toe fo the easy whon the ond was applied trough tick atch plate lace esc with reget to he plane ofthe web boweve, reductions fccuted when the load wae sped tough 3 clindea al as shown io Fig 618, Toaaniiy the section inthe wren du to the econ, ‘evel ole and bulls stone were tested. ad nite clement models for Ihore beams were anaes. Ar sown in ip 619, the sedscton was found {Orbe function Of tea vesicle and Dy ar the ‘Seentty snd the ange wth, respectively i a Ope e618 cet ads ith rps 1 he plate fhe wb, cs ie. 619 Reducon in okt capacy dt od eau, ‘A teducton factor Ran be calculated ing the forma mS "Bas(t) e4ss(2) 1005 «cua“The stghttine equations forthe reduction factor R are shown in Fig 19 together withthe tet res, ine thereto factor equation empiri sould be uel only wathin the range ofthe te (experimental and naga odes) data: nay fy gual 1 0 4 and ey les han on-sth. ‘Bearing Sttteners. I. appa hat no research Work Ws publhed on the [ehuvorofsflenct mehr under concentrated compressive lows, The AIS specication reuies Wat stiller 10 prevent med crippling bold be Aoublesided apd extend atleast oneal the we depth. According 10 the Speciation, seers under concentrated compressive lads shoal be de ‘Seed a xily loaded cours witha effeive Fngth equ fo 075 ofthe eb dep. Furthermore, the eros ection of sucha solu shoud be takes 3 composed ofthe pu of stiller anda sap of the web having a width ‘aual io 25 ties the web thickness “Tessin ite element anal were conducted to stay the bev ofthe sitfne webs under concentrated eo lous (Elgaly eal 1992 and Esaly tnd Eash, 1993). The lod was applied onthe op fangs using roll, apc Pate, ora Weshape 3s sbowa in Fg. 620. wns found thatthe Bebavor of the eb and the are loads were almost wenn he ets whee the oad ‘was apps though roller or the W shape nome txts the ond was applied ih small exceatity ywith espe tothe vertical ais ofthe sient 19 theese where the lad was apled through path pt, theese had . 4p: r ag | i a t 6.620 sett td pion reglpile eet om the sul. The scent, however hd an et on the Tale oa andthe web behavior when the lad wae api trough ole, Tn the cae of dep stiller» 075), tare was de tothe buklng ‘ofthe seer (ost global It appears thatthe eecive with ofthe we, Sshich sets together with the seer, varies song the pth ote sien Spd its bigger eat the lod. The redoton sn the fare la de to a0 fscetcity OF Sin, was found tobe abost 15%, Inthe case ofthe sallow fener (fd <0) failure was te to lca bcklng of he tener, back ling ofthe ne low the sifene, or ombiation tec The rico in the faire lad de to 30 Sn. csency ws found Yo Be about 6 for ‘hin to thick sien epee. ‘The foquiemens inthe AISC speciation regarding the design of end stieners, subjected (© concentrated Toads, ae sla to the requsemens forthe design of en intermediate sifeer The only recs iin the stp dh ofthe web, whic to be considered efsctve with the sifent. The Svat this rip inthe cave of end tener only 1 tne the we thick ‘ase of 25 ines the me thik inthe ce intermedi iene ‘total of 3 tests were conduced to examine the baron of the stiffened wc ows the support (gal ta, 192 and Elsa and Fash, 1993) In few tests the suppoet nas ect ih espot the ceotrtin fthe sien Tn Fig 621, te fale loads are pled the dopth ofthe silence rate (0 ‘he beam depth id for stilton theknes cult din, Asean be no fe E me & wo Fg. 621_ Web nth ond serait cect Fanon fdnoted fom the Hour, the uimate capaci of the sien web reached 3 maximum value ata stifener depth ous! to 0.78, and this maximus Salus wat idependent of the siflener thickness I as toe noted th the Ulumate capac coreponds othe web panel shir capy Investigations hve shown thatthe uate strength of hin-ve plat girders under static lod not affected by inal outf-atnes of the web (Sheketenko eta, 1970). On the ster hand, ftigue cracks may develop a ‘he me dange jnctre de to a ateal beading ofthe Web uber peated loads (Maeda, 197; Patron a, 190). The map of the nil dl td ofthe web ad te exet to which the epested stress eno he Buckling stes appear tobe the princps acters sauening the development of thee {eas Paterson eal, 970 Pasanjad and Ostapenko, 1970) The ators ae functions ofthe we slenderness andthe pul aspect ao ‘According tothe AASHTO speciation fo load factor design, web with: cut longtial sieers most Rave saderes ha stil the fora $m on che girder has unequal anaes inthis equntion replat by 295, wht i the potion of the web in compeesion This limit may he somcwht cone Seratve (Che, and Ostapesko 19703). Despite she genera ecogniton thi the sass buckling theory fan nade quate guide 10 the prediction ofthe eng of ples pore in shea oF ompesio, it aust abn Beveled that cmprshenive timate strength modes are nt yet fly developed. A situation evs heer, where some oun have opel to make we of lima sent theory ben josie, hile oer prt orl in vaying degrees on thew ofthe cls nat theory of plate buckling Conaguancumen deve eter for plate ers ‘ary wily depending onthe philowphy of design I's ineresting to compare the dsign provisions for plate seers adopod im various cous. "The curent AISC spetifcation andthe allowable sts and lea factor 08h, insite buckling will rue and the inate buckling Sct cin be edelated by to) =(DBt yy Met fn = Th lca buckling sence were cul forthe tet specimens with the LUPIN, UX and UFEX corugtion configurations, assming two Bound ty conditions: simply supported slong the longer edges od clamped long the ‘hover edges rand cpa long al four edges ty. The ele sess {even in Table 612 and ae compared withthe corresponding sexes fom ‘he finite element analysand te st esl An average lol backline Theat tq) wascaedtd for lhe specinens ans incloded in the table As canbe wot the average loa! Buckling ese ace enor iy wl wih he conresponding stress from he nite clement aay the trerope tao t/t, war calf oe L018 forall he values ven in Table on ‘When shal buckling conta, the buckling stress an be calculate for the nie corrugated neh pacing orthotropic plate backing thor. The at estic Backlog ses cam be eel fom 40.00," ignet 2 a , 7, = 2h 2? + 6a 1, 5 bokling coe, uals 31.6 for simply suppor Boundaries and ‘32 for cumpol boundaries 1 corrugated plate thickness Jigen @ at 3 shonin the Fire piven Table 61 In the aforementioned, wh ry > OR inlasis bockling wil occur and the inde backing sts, ce elated hy tn = (OSE Ps ete “The obal bcklng sess forthe tx pesimens mae ofthe US corr ation wee cleat sing the bucking formal or the toto plat thd {buckling coticent ky egal to 59 The rls are piven in Table 613 together with the expermenl rss a he resus Tom the fit element Iman. The sverge val of the aio between the finite clement aa {ess and thew obtained or the enthottop pl theory 5/% LOS ‘eam and ides saith corrugated Wes ae economia fo se amd ean lyon the aesthetic ofthe structure, The Beams manefatared ad wd a Germany for buings have webs wth Righttotcknes ao of 180 (0 21a, The coca webs ofthe two Brides it a ance wete Ba tick ‘nthe wa igh-tothcknese ati wan nb range 220 378, Such seer ‘eee fail i to backing, oe anor iba For orgie webs suet to shar the strength ca be seated 10 ec) good depee of sourey, ung the buklng ses formulas for Rat 0- {topic o orthotopic pits, When he corrugation couse, Se capacity ofthe pret wil beconeled by loa bucking othe a seers of he corozation, tnd the corrugation becomes dense, pabal bucking ofthe whole panel a5 a ‘mhotope plate controls. For practical sppiations ii eeommended tal Toc and global buckling vgs Be causal ad the slr value cone 1. Combined shear, moment an ava force. Pate ides in cablestayed inde ges seFanchored suspension Bedgen aches, ad ipl frames te Subjected to axa compresion or tension ip adon fo shea and moment Some of the anasses duced ths ehaptr came extended cove" tSsituation, but thre it or no experimental search onthe utiate strength (f plategirer panels under combined. shear. moment, and anal fore {Consideration of meltipelongtdinalsifencr would be Snipa ase ots etch 2 Longitudinal stiffener. Dean proces fo longitutinally sili ders should be sted wth 3 view to simplifying the iate strength nals that show good corcation with tet resis, These lvesgaiont Soul cover mali onan stfenes, 3. Sufferers Current methods for analyse an design of sine ae prob ably adoquat, ba further investigations would be worthwhile 4. Poel with variable depth. More work is require 0 develop gees sign procedutes for he ultimate strength of pane with Yrubl dept, 5. Webs with holes. The bucking sreneth of thin square plate with 3 central ciculat bok clasped at ta adpes and suet fo pure shat were (etminedanalysely and experimentally by Groskurh et al. (197) Subiy of webs containing cela o etangola middepth ols was vee ‘ated by Redwood snd Venoy (1979) The postuckling strength af wehe ‘ith holes needs to be metipte Nora and De-Avanesan (1985) che seven references on this topc and eer to over 7D tests perfor at the Univesity of Cara 6. Fag eter knowledge of the fatigue Behavior of ender me plates is seeded 10 take full advantage of ltmatesteagh design of plategiver ridges and ern srders, partly thos with corrugated webs 1. Coated wes, Vertally corrupted webs maybe an coool ae ‘ative to thin webs. Thee fo theoretal or experimental information on te ‘imate strength of such panes ure patch looding 8. Composite girder. The asumpions on which the anaes for shear and being 9 plate aiter puns are basa canbe exposed to pl compost Bidets The lage sifless and lw female strength of conree sab Sx pred oa tel Mange, may el some diferences inthe Poel bso "Therefore, ss on thin-nebbed composite pdr are nosed. Sch et ate recenuly buen conde tthe Univer of Ten a Attn by Frank, ASC (188, Set for Sata Sel Baling Allowable Ses Dein en Pate Ds Amaia eo Sl Comicon, Cage AISC (999, Loa! and Risnam Fac Der Shetinion for Sitar Sel ‘Duns Amer nate of Sel Covctin, Ca, ‘Aer 3M. Lact ad Easy 0. (18) "Medea eto psiue be age DK. apd Reckey. K-C.(1999, Ponting Bair of Wb Pte Under ar tg Pr hi Spo Pame Si So eyo Boe K. 19630 “Sent of Pte Ges ie Shea” Teo ASCE, ol 128 Pat ser K- (9690), “Sth of ie Giders Unde Combed Reig nd Shea ‘hm ASCE Vo 13h Pan Thy 1 so a (a) “Cen Cnc f Ph it RSE ker Kan Tran, B90, "Buckling eso Pte Gide. AAS eh ue Kad Tema, (1960), °Sength of Pate Gina Hedi” Tras “ESCH Vou (2 Parti pS se. Yer 8 Mule. apd Thana, (1) “Web Desking Tate on Wed Pe Gide Wold Res Come Bal Nove, See, (1971, “Sten sd Tes on Sener Pte Cinders Wiha iene Tasco Des Pte Box Gor: Uae Steh Lanta eel, A (1976, “The Beou ed Dosen Ser Webs Un Pr! Elpe ating tn Co Se ltd Srat. peri Cole, Leno. ee, A. 1989). Gide We Steiger Patch Laing” Pl S81, Canes foe, A and Hiv (168) "Thi Walled Dap Plt Gide Une Sate to" ABBE Si Caner il Rep New Yok, ower, TW, an Osten, A (967, “Baking od Uline Lads for Pte ‘ines Web Pies Unter ae Loong” Fs Eng Lah ep. No. 318, Lehigh BS (82 te Comer and Compote ride. Bs Sundar BS SA: Past 5, ‘Ce of Pcie for Design Stel Bes, Bis Slant, London. Cans, (6 “Sa aking of Ue Hy Be" ASCE (cota Magut and Masanet C9)“ Ordnaater ucomporent ising espera ime pine som ache,” Caer Met-NO 1 pp. 27. Cte 8. (980, “De of Wee und Silene a Plate and Bon ier" ‘CoD Se! Bier Cail. Wal (nen Cd Onaga, A. (14), "Uma Seng ate Ge der Stra Tri ne Lah Rep. No 3087 Lehigh Unies eich Pa A (em, Cand Onapenks, A (19a, "Bending Seneh of Unmet Pe "Gude Ps Ea. Lb, Rp Ne 18, Laie Unter, Bao, Po SP (hen. Cand Osten, A. 9M. “Usymcril Pte ders Une Shes ad ‘not re Eng... No 20% Leah Uni, Seem, Pr Ox Cen Cal Otomo, A (97, “Singh of Longin Pie ‘Srp, Laaton ‘Crk Me, Sharp, ML 197, “Lit Design of Aamir Shee We TMS Coy Pi Bo Cs Uta Seg,ee eee creep cog, (000, “eg an SiS of Lengua ile ati ata ances once oe Tin ns or ut ie Soe Toe Longitudialy Sifened Pate Girder.” Wel. Res. Counc. Ball No 117, Oct. te Gea Ma 8% Oe Compe ame ror Pm “Ss it Wi it etn i i es Sh cn be Sen Cf St Ra ae Cae i an Ln en nae Pd Se aes ean re ease ge toca bran © (Oth “A cmt Deang Sect ey” HRS nt 3 “ome rn st a cing To” Pr ‘Si aa a Ecce Ce fey, MAG Dag ae Ps nr Po Se” re Can ga M1, “Flo Mele Mee each tg Sa lan ey rd a ne AP rE ea enpeg rete mah t-te Cosr Lat ASC eh ty yD, (9 “Bad rt Creed ee Ts Sink Se Lah tens tence ap ty wl Ba Me) “Captngat reo Eo or st Sati fated Stas Pie Pua Mans Reso Nae Gh Co tag: Hendin (9) autor ld eee We Un Ec Bi taro c ora eee Ce a nt aly M, an Saar. (991, “Blair of Wes Unk Fanti Compe Te Lao,” Cnc Laing nf oval iets Thrall Pied an Sh Siac [UTAM 180 Symes Pre, Sige Ver. Bein xual Mat Saar. (991), "Web Cp Under Ede Lang” Proc 198) HSE Nt Se Cote Con pay, Mz and Sahar, R. (092) “Web Rebar a UkinteCapasty Under be aay. M. Stu J. and Nie. W198), “Sb of Pes Unter Exec lly M. Cassese, Vand Chr, “Cys Bair of Ustiened Tis py. M Sar nD, (9819, "Atariel Say of Web Coppinger "eae Compreive Lau Po. Sh Caaf Cana Fup. Meat, Monte, (acts, Cand, Elie, New Yok "Webn” Proc 192 NSF Siac. Gmech Bui St, Groncer” Co, San anh, Hey. M. Cares, Val MartinD (98), “Experimental nvetition of he pay M, Case, Va Da C938), "Pacing Behavior of kl Pte ‘Seat Wall Under Che Lads” ASCE Sct Fg. VO 11, No ST? pays M Lis, ¥ a Case, ¥. (1995), “Thin Stel Pe Sbur Wal, Rew Torti.” Proc Cn) Resch Toufored int Prac ponent of ASP Hays ML Sotads A, and Hamtion, RW. (99%), “Heams with Couple "Weta Rewarch to Drce” Prac Can Resch Trango it Prt Ingman of NSF Rear, ASCE Pes, New York. Folly, WE, and Le. G. (1976), "Tension Fle Dep of Taped Webs Am FHWA U9, “Prpod sgn Speen for Stel Hot ike Bde” Rep. a Faarsebots US Det of ramp eke Ty Frank, KH and eg, TA. (98), “Bucking of Webs in Unemmetric Pate ‘ire USC fp, No 3, p85 Fai T (968, “Onan Improved Theo for De. Bases Theog.” ABS sk a TC," Une Sotho Fie iden Jp Shi Mar Eg. inthe Unite Sar Sth of te io 483 Calg Pi er Cylon EH 96 Dicusonof K er Sten of Pte Gide Shae?™par EM ad Gn © N93, Di of Se! Ses a Girkmana K. (1996), "Die Subilt der Scghsde voduandine Taser be Terhlhipa ee Lanta" ASE ed Cong i! ap, Retin, Cranks, C- 8. {1980, “Tot on Gir with Thin Web Pax” Rap 32 Tnstiony or Breede, Chimes Tenis Mepis, Goths Steden in Swe) garth Whi Nad Gli 00 She Bag ofS Handing, JE and Hobbs RE (1979), "The UinateBehasoar of Box Giger Web Pane Sac Hp SB, No, ergy M. (193), “De Talat vere, ond Blase uterine. Teeang enh Vrhen" aang, So chou enter nem Suh und Schuh it apna Vora Meroe. M. 19a “Uhinate tngh of Pte Ger Ts" ASCE. Sat Newop. M. (Te), “Di Kells hr donor Vollandigestege nc "Votuchen Sian, Vol) pp 2028 "Ra Tso ul, No.9 So a Sona ‘gud. (1971, "Spy Supported Thin Pate des Without Web Seine Sibjse to init Fame Load” ARSE Cot, Der Pate on Gs lane Seah, London, ‘Mog (979), "Den of Thin P Gin in Shear nd Benin.” as Tell No, 9, Sel Mogul (98), "Loe Bucking of Stel ede ike Wed Ding Latin ‘Cac! Loming ad Loa Afr Thal Pid od Shel Sra: IUTAM 1990 Spon Pap, Sponge et. Btn, Hoge M.R. (98D, “ae Cont in the Dein of Webs” Fl Co Det. Sl "bie, Cari Wake ‘eter, (9, “Contato sta soln de robe arses ai ans Tard pots mettoue” Cll Pa Pep Lage Ne. evans, K. aed Yamakonh, M. (969, “On te Bacting of Simpy Sapo Rectangular Pcs Unoe Uniform Compeeson and Bening” J. So Aa. ‘rhe West Joe V3 69 han, M. Zand Wale, AC (97D, “Buc of Paes Subjected to Located Ege Lanting” Soc, Es, Vol 0; No pp 226-28, han M,Z, Sons KC. and Haya, B97), “Boing of Pats wth Paral Leaded Eipn” ASCE J. Sut By Vol 103, NO SE bp. 5-398 ge Aan Shr. Aire tr Rte Win isp K- Wagan, CH, (1860) “Been sins che unter sinter “Gnichtectnt" Stab, Vo 3s pp 31630 ori ta 989, "Thone an Experiment on he Loa Caryng Cac of nt ine" Apes. Care Se! Poms Wel Kal DI ‘a P(190) Sie le Arf a Sh Scares, McG, New York. Kila, ©. 1985, "ebao f St Pte Shear Wal” Proc AISC B.S, ala, G. LF, J We and Stra 1. HA IS5), Gade 0 Dain Crt or umenove 1, Selo. M. Jus Kad Lown, 0 (1980, “Utne Load ekawee sf LongtayStiflned Ste! Wbe Subject io Paral ee eating” Coma Loadny ond La! cs Thin Waled Pla ond Sho Siro IUTAIMY 190 Spas Prue, Spe ety Be Le Scand Topas, A. 86H "Ste Sen of Hy Pate Grr” SFR Mach, . (97, "Uta State Suen a Fugue Behavior of Legally Sto der Beng BSE Cl Br Pl Bo Gr hate Magu Jeter, P, Mason Cand Stl M, (193), "Cal iment ‘ancients ons” Con ler NO 49.1528 Masons, (162, “Say Consens inthe Ds of St Pate Gide Nangunin, R, DorAvaneitn, N-G-¥. (1989), "Design of Sr Web Having Rectangular Hoke” ASCE Sie fg, Vol I Nop 77778 ‘nen iss Buy Lab up No 2410 Lain Unnery tltem, Pr De ‘Onspeko, A. Yen BT and Boul, L (16, “Reach on Pi Ger at ibih Uniery" ABS St Cog Pat ep Papa Sand Ose. A (197), "On the Fuge Steath of Use Pesce P.Comd.1. A. Haag.) Sand Ye, 8.190, "Fagu an Stati ‘Giders Loaded in Sbear” Siac, Bg. ol, $8, No, 8, pp. 313-325, ooo J Scaler, ad Tot, (1981) “Tes Basing of Pa Sabet Tepne Pach Leung Camact Lng and La ects Tia Paste ‘nd Sh race TOTAM 190 Spon m Prag Sperge Vea. Bei, Redo R. Lynd Ven, M. (17), “Ceiba Lads for Webs wth Hole" ASCE 2 Sic iW 18, Ne ST. p38 2068 Robern TM USA “Slender Pa Ges Sj Ed Loaing” Pe. st ‘in Bg Part Rober, TM. and Chon. CK. (196), “Colapes of Pate Gres Under ae‘Capac Lane of Ser Pats idee When Sabato Inpne Pach Roper TM Stour S191. “Hysteee Carcass 6 Usenet Pate esky, K€ (1010) "An Uae Lond Mad for he Dono ae Gide ost. KC (970). Ltt Led Melo of Ds for Pte ike” Pre ‘Can Der Bre Der Cm Crosby Locke een esky. K Cd Bags D_K (97, "Bake of Pte Gider Webs Unie Faia ge Laningn" a Mk Set, Vol 12 Rockey. KC. and Lept D.M A 2) “The Buckling of «Pate Ger Web Unker Pr ene Wien Rent Si Longa Sie” Pra Rocke, K-C. an Slaoud M969), “Yahaens of Flange Sites pon the Lond Rockey, KC, and Shad M (972) "The Una Lond Beha of lite Gio aio in Shen” St op, Vol $0 ostey KC. lua. Mand Rap, . (972), “Fol of Thi Wales Sn We Sail nS Bee" Pr Caf Sl Btn, Rocks, KC Ens, HR and Pot, D. M. (994) “The Unio Seth Tehave ofLoeptialy Sifened Reorder” Symp Aoinear ‘cual, Wand Otapento. A197), "Tet op Taney Sid anon ‘onetnaly Seed Ursymetrial Pate Gide” Wel Re Come. Bull No Sater, A. (1978). “On he Shear Capa f Gide Webs” Un. Tran Rep ‘i Wl St pp 19-108. Sletanko, LP Dusky V. Man Boon V. (170, “nsesiaton of the Tete of Lint Web Deon ote Ut Seg of We Pte Gers Se! Compo Supra Beer No 7%, Tenor. Mow Simi. 8. Yatun, HL nd Yori, 5. (160), “A Cope Mol for Patch Simin. Hor Sand Yoon, S. (989) “The Cope Meche of Pt ‘Shinira, 8, Hor, Sy and Yoh, S. (99D, “Beano of Stead Web Pues. Sivsted to Puy Loh Cotas ag a acl fs a Waid Salou M. (54, “Design of Web Pact of Se Gide with Rear to te Totbocing air (Amica Sloe). Sor Vl a NT. 0 Salo M. (1971, "Unt Lond and Fare eshi of Thi Web in St TABSE Co Des Plas Bax Gin Ulta Sth Loon Salou ML and Noa, P1972} Ponce Bea and Ista Cola ‘ar Wet Subj to. Conese Lead” MBSE Di Cage Pin, Pal Spins Rao a Viget. M.(199“Paaet Sty oP Gites ‘ites to Patch teadng Cont Lang ase Ess Th Wald Pd an Shel Src: TUT 190 Spor Pre, Seger Veg Sten Mand Fre. W: (9), “Crit Shear Se fell Long Sing “Gader wit Tramere Sifter” JARSE Calg Dis Plow Boe Grr Take (86) “nvestatin of he Load Caring Capa of Pate Gis MS thous, Uae of Ks in Jape) “Trompouh Wand Kul GL (17) “Cyc ad Sit Behr Thi Pc ‘Sel Pte Shear Wall Sat. nop Na 14S, Dearest of Ci oa Kimi T Sac. -F and Donel 192) Steg Thin Paes [Wagner 0191), °Fa Shot Meal Ge th Very Thin Met Web" WACA Tech, ‘Waren W- (969, "Zar Beach urbe Spc,” San, Vol sp 28 Wilken, FW: (1960, “Stegbebeslang si Lingandbitng” Saha, Vl Win. JM. (186 "On Speciation fr Set fl Bie” Tr ASCE "al Pat pp #-W08 89-9, Yen, BT ans Bae, K (162, “Sake Caran Copsty of Stl Pte Gide Tighe Br rs Va. Yen, BT ant Mute, J. (140, "Faigu Tes of Lare-Sze Weed Pate ‘Gis Weld er Coe Bul No. HRN oe HM Das Ms, (09 Shar Segoe Zen (855, “Ele Ste of ee Une Ele Log Pro. ASCE,CHAPTER SEVEN BOX GIRDERS Box giver are ul extensively for bides (Fig. 7.1, heavy industria bail ings fhe platforms uncer structres were large loads are reauetly ‘onsidersbie torsional stiffs. Alhoagh hox ides ay Aare a vary of ‘oseseconal ships (Fig 72) ranging fom a deep narrow box 48 wie Shallow bor (perhaps th asiay web, se sloping) those covering most freguetly have fangs whish re wider and more sender than pte iret contruction. The webs om the other hand, mae of comparable sender ees to thoi of ple ges. Howeer it the exensive we of ender plate Tn thik chapter aspect ofthe sat of box pindes and thei componsas Which are edltional to those desibed in Chapter 6 are discus. Most of thes adonal problems ae consguence ofthe se of wie Ranges, tht, the ialences of shes lag tnd lateral lading on the bucking of willened onpestion plates, Obes rat othe ne o provide dhaphragns within 8 tons not ony to flan the bo shape but ako to dsiibute forest the suppont bearings. theese of Box ges 5 opposed to pte ides the beings may ot be pond diy Benth apd mine wth the web ‘Much ofthe information on web ably provided sedis the context of piste ders i appliable to box prs, Hat there are smportant dierences which ae discussed, Some ofthe unresolved probs relating to box gers 72 BASESOF DESIGN Up ul he eo of the 19605 the design of box ites a8 ot ified in etal in any country. Although a wide variety of approaches ws wed forthe ‘sin of tox girder bridges th ass peal doped was to uses loro ‘sty onthe bucking sss, more often than mot the rc elatic Buckling sess, ofthe component being designed. These Tacos of sey vated fom county to country and were inte to cover ot only the aul concn, but also conditions met during consrcton fn smn cases they alo rected n appreciation ofthe ponbocking reserve of plac with lower factors of sfeiy being usd than Would be the ese where no such rece was ani “Tice major collupacs that oscurist during the erection of box gre bridges at Mitord Haven (198). West Gate (1970), and Keene (971) (Gig 73), eased the emir basin ofthe dsign of bow ides to te reewed (GCE, 1973; "Toque." 1973) not onl ix Eacope buts the Used Statestogether, now well understood and bas bees incorporated fate the ecu ‘Ssign methods produced to pdt the inl Dsklngstength of Patol Scrosttes. The weakening eet of hese imperfection is mos pronounced in the range of itemediste senders, hat thove sendemess at Which ‘he cial buckling stress and the yd srs ate rvehly equal (Prez eta, 1975). The Knockdown in strength mow marke or pc of intermediate Senderness sugested to compressive suesing and & lest pronounced for ‘Shear-loaded ass Being practaly nelle fr rectangular plates in pure hese ‘tenth carves or plate panels sd for dsgn have normaly ben sled sith allowanoes made for peat eombiations of eases and initial Imperfections Ulimate fad design methods fr silenerso stiffened ples the normaly incorporate the elles of imperfections i lhc expetons, Typically level af compressive oud! sis ofthe onder of 10% ofthe eld ses, witha ial geome ipefotion which rated to Fabrice tion tolerances, may Be adopted by code drafters In oer eases a geometric Itiperfoston se shosen whic sconidered onthe bass of theoreti or exper ‘ental evidence to incorporate the combined weakening effect of redual ‘Mrs and praccal ial tortion has Bon shown that povided that the magne ofthe nal itrton chen it ig enough and this often of. the sme one a speted faction tolerance) the additonal weakening ‘fet of even th Inet residual compressive sucsses is smal Tor pects Plates “The option of sping levels of residual sess to be calulated by Signet and measured by bricators Is nota realistic one i tes ofthe ‘ssonomics of normal abated box gies an is woied in specications. As {ret of the efforts ade to reconsider the base of design for box pers, ew rales were produced in the United Kingdom, the United States. and Germany. among other counts. The fist to be filly codified were the Brtsh rules! as of 1997 those of the United Stats were stil in propos form (Wolehuk and Mayebout 198), Fo ths reason the bass ofthe design approach comaned in BS $400: Part 3, Design of Set Bridges (HS, 1983) mma rein more dtl than devoted to the other ues 173. BUCKLING OF WIDEFLANGES or gr fangs are normaly send in bth the ln and tans ‘ere dretons Fig. 7.4). The ansiened ages of rarow box ees can {ented a plats as deed in Chapter by ung edd lesive wid scout forthe ees of bukling Possible modes of buckling occuring in an ‘rthogonaly sled pate ate itrsed fa Fig. 7.5 Test ince overall bucking ofthe silent ange, buckling ofthe longa sien pals Fig.74 Sample tnt patel compen ne) betwen tasverse clement, various forms of fs plate and sien buck- ling. and various combinations of thee tnd, “he liner clastic buckling a siflened Ranges with one or more stiffer ‘covered in Chaper and formed thesis ofearler despa sth. Indeed, many codes sila use today are hae om hese methods foster with the se t satty factors determined rom ts eats. Ths are reviewed Wy Rockey ‘nd Evans (980), In thischaper emphasis placed om methods dese 0 | ‘rdit the uate senph of sch Manas, a hee ae being used to ep | ‘he las methods I should be rcopized, however, that even now the new | fles for sills eompresion Manges ate aot based entsy on lint strength considerations, sponte out by Dowling Rockey and Evans, 1980) Tn considering the incase bucking of wide seed Banas, thro Ba ppt ca ope. Ta eng oer of compe the ans an1 A ser of donned sats 2. Anontotropic plate 3A creel stent plate For ios sited anges he srt approach is sulin acurate andi suitabe for design pasposes Who the age sien riper than nora ‘Miantge can Be taken ofthe postckling reser of he stllened plate and many methods have bec prodocd Sued on thin type of modeling tay ‘hose of Massonnet and hisco-mokers (Magoo ad Massonet, 17; Jeter, 1983) However the ange omer rl joss such an approach in prac ‘hs and the sot approse wil many ease, produce safe desis, The ds ‘ey slfened pate sproach i of atest manly a5 an aid to undestanding the Mange boar rather tha aa desi although athe cae age send by only one or tienes tun be ud nthe absence of sper Spproache, to proportion compression flanges Each of thee methods is ‘Secsted in te below, 134. TheSteut Approach ‘The bass ofthis approach sto wea plate send by several equally spaced longitlina! fener as series of unconnected compresion members "ut, cach of which consist of seer sting together with ap asocaed Sven of plate that represent he ple Retwcce snes (Fig. 7.0). Whee anveresifenes are preset they ate digned tobe sie si ‘ue that they provide nodal Hines aking a spe rotationally fee supports {othe ends ofthe onstuinalsrte. Thus the equivalent ockling length of the fongtdina steers nelly the distance Retwoen tener Ines Suh an approuch was suggste hy Ostapenko and Vol (1987) and Dowling and hisco orks, Moon aad ChatereeDiht and Lite, 196) Dowling and Chater, 1977 Dowling et al, 1977; Chater, 1979). Apa From the oneal kl of the longtodinal slfenes Bete UaBSe= centroid of stiffener section - Pray = +" |wacteox||}" Vou 76 Carats ox te sufleers towance i made for seduction in efectveness duet Buckling of the plate between sioner ‘Where ths longitudinal fees ar open sections sich a at Bars, tes, oF ang imitations are laced on thir cre setonsl gon to eure tat Icclbocting ofthe sfeners doesnot precede the asin ofthe utente ‘rong af the fangs Inthe caseload vcctons sh a ough ot ‘sed a oethtropie steel deck construction, th tation on eros sectional comets are adjusted talon for hening i he pane of the sien malls nd to ensue That economical ae of ret thin walled sctony isnot precded Limitations of stlfene cot sections ae based on catlng the apled sree under ulinate load wo values that ate fictions othe slit crcl buckling stress. In BS 400th safety factor wed 2.25, which was deed 8a sulabe vale fr fat tienes but has bon ppb toll eho ype of Stlening The intatons impose in the pooposed US. coe (Wok aad Maythou, 1980) are somewhat dierent nd corepond to the requirement ‘hat the torsional buckling ses should be geste than the yell stress, ith ‘elution to allow for “thinning oa” the seers in low-tszone. Thee ‘vo sets of ea lead 19 the flowing restos Dat US. Rules eg { VERE Mim 20 o += | oa 7 5 FEE Son £05, oy asimum factored compression ses Metin senders eodcent for fats (233) for wes oranges (7.38) oo 185 5400, For tas,09 ‘or less than or eyusl to a higher value obtained from Fig, 77a when byjay738 = 0. For anaes h, 0 or les than oF equal to a higher value obtained from Fig. 7.76 when (Uy a7 = 80 To these formals (ee Fi 78), hy = sttfene dept 2b, = with ange oy ee ING NE Fg 77 (0 Limiting lenders or at tienes: (6) Sting senders Fora “BIA EUSP ES 4g 74 ange ad we sine, lof t= sence tikes 1 plate thickness seb = spacing of siffiners Span of sllener between sopporting members 1 = eas of eration of sient (thou plate) bout axis normal to late oy = Hild ses of sever Nim? (7 = sald stress of plate, Nin “Thos the design model estes to an orthogonally send ange in which te contig buckling made enviar bockling of th onstuialy tllened lite betweca tasers stiffeners which mayor ay not beacon Hy foal plate bucking between tifenes, However, ol Buckling of th sien |S suppressed, together wth any partition ofthe tasvese ners inthe veal buckled mode Tn aecouning for the hacking ofthe repsting combined tfeneiplate “strat allowance ca be made forthe eff of nal datortons an read stresses cated by welding the seers tothe plate. The extensive amount of ‘dats now avaTabe on plte suength ea be ust Io account for interiene Plate bucking using eter an eifeive wih og efletve sss approach, ‘Normal, single effective width approach swe 4 asoant for both he eed srength and stiffens ofthe compress pte Alou there ae "pproxmations invlied in selecting art one width fo account fr sles ‘twa ob tenth the ai in aceuracy which ould he obtained sing ore Somes approach sao considered Yo hence for dese "The effete wath used in BS 5400's erined fom the eva of pra trie stay und uses 4 stengh-baedefletve with which account for Practical lees of inal nperficuons and compenve residual ste, Figure 79 gies cures Irom BS S40) whith ray te wed to cleat the Wl of ple considered 10 ac eet th iene, Knowing the ‘osssectional properties ofthe sit the ekultion ofthe bucking sen ‘ofthe srt ean be obtained from clum bucting formula of the ertyNa: The te Be de ihr hs tnd gt (ce fret, wh (0) ewe sims "(wi avy ete ier ae were w= Par <1, tems (may ae ee Roberson type which relates pin-sodod, inlly crook, aval lade siflenosh foo | on imitng aphid axial stress om effec srt section er tres of efletive strut 1, = aualube yield sess of eomprenive extreme fiber =, when sheckng Siler; ye an ellie yl tres alowing forthe pesos of sca) when checking ange oe atm nia inpesection Y= distance from entoid to eompresive exon fe ‘= radius of gration of efetive ston abot ais pra to pate As the cro section is asymmetric, tbe possibilty of fie in the tw sitions (one causing compresive fale of the le, the other esng ‘oanpreive ying of these tip) must be chcked. The magnitude of the inital erookedness in thse two dretons may well be dierent although Jn BS 400 the Bow i the decion causing compression i he tne pi {akon o he asin as that inte oppote detion, This alows forte it ‘hat compressive residual stesss eatsedy welding may Be pete the silfener tip. which ae otherwise Unacounted Tor the deagn procedure The effet ofendecentrty of loging over the fener plate set i ee sete by aterm in. given By 2 Here yy ithe ace from the stroid othe ete sient section tothe esta ais ofthe crs eton ‘tthe complete Beam “The desin ofthe itfened ange checked to cnr that 425ty <1 os <2 0% sing the cures pote in Fig. 7.10. The fst of thse expressions checks for Fate hy ving of he sulle ipa the scond ck for backing ot {elling oF the plate panel, I the longitudinal srs vase along the length of ‘he silent cn the expressions above i taken «pot a fom he eh, whee the es peter Tn thee Formasig. 740 Paractefrhe dsinf lngtl ang in longitudinal stress at cetoid of fective stiffener section in-plane sca sess ange plate duet torsion ld ses of slleer materi fy, = ffeive yl trem of fangs plate materi alloing for prcene of shear pacing of exons bem 1 [A method proposed by Wolehuk and Mayebou! (980) i the proposed AASHTO code for box Bder ne format sed on a Geran prose (DAS, 1978) fr clelaung sient ange strength, Repodied in Fig 711, ‘the matod allows designe to check chosen scons rap nd ha the added dvantige tht i gies despners a god fet for the paomenon conling ‘he strength Ge plte oF slfenee bucking). The alate ange strength computed as Py Fa, oF Fy. whichever ee, here Fe TAL Stengel in pres. cross-sectional area of iene fangs lkiate strength of stiener stat ener wth fall with of ase ated pling ‘modified uimate steagth of sliver rot under combined compre. Fy, for 201756, Lostaft= HE fo f= O15, = pong er ee ne Design mathods based primal onthe res of tess om stiffened panes have moc recently hee tgs by Japanese authors sd were reviewed in the US-Japan Seminar or ease fstablty of Ste Sttuer and SKructural Elements held in Tokyo (Fut and Calambos, 181) One such oposad strength cure iver by Las asi ow) whereAVE te a0 nd k= 49? (ning the numberof plate panes shoul be ated thats fengih cure chown to apres with the naam of he ts sls obtained in Japan as shown in Fig. 712 Inthe ease of sien Manges not subjected to normal ang, transverse sles are deine to provide safle! sins to snsue tal thy act a8 ‘nports which are effectively ii pins movements normal othe plane of the lunge pate but fer ie estan to rotation of te lpia se rsa thi junctions. Ths they ese thatthe Tete basking mat of the inher dows nt exon tt span Between ase fnnevere members, Wher Manges orm the deck of box ger bas which has tocar aera losing the eros ides ave primary proportioned to resist the lateral loading and ‘sl orally ave more than lsc ity to constrain he siened panels inthe manner eninge. ‘The tines ogurement for ransverse member stipulated within BS 400: ast i based oo litt experimental observations ad provides factor of safety of 3 apt overall nar elastic Buckling The approximate expression Produced for the minimum second moment of ara equed of a Wane ieee and its fete wth of attached ange x {4 Kee Pat ig 72S pate ts nd roped eng cane Soja? hey aay 4, = longitudinal compressive tress in ngs “a = spacing of mebs of main bea 44 = crossteun spine 4 erowesoction eh per unit width ofthe Mange 1, = second moment of area per uit width of he ange 1K = 24for sermons heen nero Webs ef main beams ands determi from Fig, 713 notte cases.addition, the transierse member mast be designed to carry any lslly ‘plied late loading a wal a the normal component of inplane loading in the Range caused by lck of alignment of the wansverse members. Two Smplifed loading cass, selected to cover the late effet, ae stipulate 1. A unfocmlydstriated oa per ani width of 64/200 2A conte load ata eualever ip of 94/160, where Af the rosssetonal area of the longitu stiening member a the cant lever tp und 4, are ia ST uns) In the proposed US. ode the destaizing eft of age goometi per fectione i take nto account hy assuming te ravers sllnes or cro frame members to be loaded by a uniformly distibuted load of 1% ofthe average factored compressive Fore in the Mange. The rity requirement is ‘gun coverol by an expression forthe minimum momento eri died ftom a lina este sublty analyse of sprinpaportd compression tas Dut substiuting ficlored apple sul stes forthe exiles ow ay ae ony moment of neta of taneverse member including an eetve with of| Tangs pste spacing between webs A= crosestctonal tea of compression ange 4 = factored ail sex in compression ange f= spacing of tansverse embors E = Youngs moduli 73.2 Orthotropic Plate Approach ‘where thre are several seers more than thre) ina ange, vantage can {taken ofthe orthotrape pate elation in which the atl dcr sllfened pate replace by an athogoally anisotropic plate of constant ‘hikes fn which the silos ofthe send plate spread unorly over | width. The potential advantage of thi method i hat the akon pate tion ignore bythe tut approach eam be mobi. Thi ofcourse, has prscular advantage the postbucking range when transverse tense me [rane stresteninthe pate resin the rate of growth of ono pte dfextions tthe lle As the equaios deserting potbucling behavior are son Sowa. the slations gone involve ah Henive procedure 1 produce the inate stongth, The lle is assed t be reached when partic lupe eriteron i atid. Cllpse nea sugested cade the onset of eld atthe lange)wch anton, the mean sts along tat edge reaching td uk {St sullener tip athe ame ofthe Bane, npn yl inthe plat it the ‘ie elon. These methods have teen doerial i some detail ny Mag and Massonet (1971) and Jeteur (983) and are evewa inthe Book Achaia au Desi of Sie! Placed Soucares, sued by the ECCS (Dubus and Geb, Toke. Thay suffer rom the dadatape tha a erative procedure ended forthe slution,althouph in some cases this has Bon ety iS by the provision of doign chart. 783 DiscretelyStitfoned Plate Approach Anatytcl sts have been made of siened panes in which aecoust has ten ken ofthe dnrete nur ofthe stifling and whish incoeporate non lnc geometrical nd material effets. Both ite dferee and ie cls ‘numeral formulations have ben ted for thi purpose. The rests, although ‘Bung insight into the interactive hacking of plat and sien, have aot fen wed to produce general design method, although the anya tech gues ean be uss to analyze any particule design. Sklood and Novotny (165) ives the Beekground for some avalable sales Intuonce of hear Lag oN Flange Buckling. Shest lg arses bucase the fncplane shear tenting of flange causes these pats most rerote foo Web to fog ohind thove inthe vic of the web (Fig. 714) I it most taeda beams whose fangs ae relatively wide compared to tit ngth land therfore preter importance in ox pier than in plat sr cm Struton. [tesa in a sonuniform dintnbution of longi stews ‘oss the lange wih, with hgaer ston ecuring aear Bang ve jane tions and smaller ons ithe reins farthest moved from such jonetons. ‘The addon of slifenes to a wide Nange rele ia the nonifrmty te: coming even more pronounced, even though the taximum steer ay be Feduce. A systema sty ofthe factor ineacing shear la box sider flanges has bea reported by Momte and Dowling (97S, 1996) apd forms the bass af the elvan rales in the proposed US dein speciation (i. 1715) ad in the ew Beis code. Simarstades have Been opt by Abs he oye (196) and others 1s the nonuniform dstibution of in plne stress ina bo ger ange hich so interest om the point of view of srctral stabi. This frm of “sribtion an increase or decrease the average srs caing eae bucling ‘ofthe Mange compared withthe aniformly compresed cise pening o te “egeeof stenigg in the plat. On the other and, tx kar tha once tion of the applied suesies near the lousituialy compressed edae of the late will encourage a eter ons of sel atthe edge than woul ufos ftresingacos the ange width The interaction of tse two ests compsLongitusine! stress Freelena Paint toads aeformotion and, inde, is complicated farther bythe capacity af the senor ad pate [anasto redstite ood Tests (Dowling eta, 197; Fries and Dowling, 199) have shown, however, that for most praia cae set Ig eat Be ‘ord in caletlating the ulin compresive strength of sine oe unt ened flanges. This conesion has ben supported By the nual sae of Lamas and Doviing (1980), Jeteur ec a (198), and Burg apd Dosing (0985) Thus ange may’ normally be considered to te loaded uniormly ost width. Onin he as of anges with patra aspect aos ‘oe particulary slender edge pando illness necessary to conde the ange sayin preter deta “The iis ptenn BS S00) ar 3 for nein soar lin the ealelaion of the strength of wsiflened ange i for anges where the maxing tuginal uss is more than 1.67 tmes te msn longitudinal sts For eases which this lit ercnded the evieabiy lini stat sto he checked by Tncuding the fects of shear lg inthe eulclation of appli sess, Wolk, nthe proposed US. cod. suggest tht sen ng may e nore ‘tthe peak sess does nt excel the aera ies hy mote than 20% and ifr stress disibuin i asumed forthe calculation ofthe witimate ange strength, Where hese lis ue exons ts suggested tha he Rang apa he web be need to aoommodate a adtional foc, comp eth foad-actored ses i cncens of 120% ofthe average see rulipied by the ‘ange are ered bythe ese, SE UE" Gqoomts gt reno mowenr ert) | teed | q a Lm, | a sigggess stetuton acnass ¥ roo SRE marrenga WongIntuence of Lateral Loads. Lori ods ca be of atest te conte bridges where the dock consis he top ange of te box pre Whee the borin question isa marine srt sacha shi oF a shore st form, the ateal loading may be hydrostatic In such ene the guetion See ing is What is the effet ofthe Lateral leadiag on the siabity of the slfenad plate ating a compression fang to «bok ide? ats such at thve used bride docks to resist tf loading ae 00 rally stocky and designad primary Yo lt efitions unde he acral load ing tery smal acceptable ales). The presence of in plane stresns Se to parcpation ofthe plate a8 part of the box ger Mange magni the seetions and bending stesses by 2 Tctor of approximately 1/1 4/4) I the same way allowance ean be made forthe magifistion of ses in compre siflensd dk carrying Ira ending by ale ieressng the Sires due tothe momens, wes propriate by this aplication Tater. Tn BS $40. Par llenedcompreson flanges wed to cary lca wheel loud, suchas sel bridge ess, may e designed for he wma mit sale ignoring the presence o he oa loads This baud mn experimental ers ff relatively ited naire However. thse one ofthe fe case for whch t ‘saecesary to cary outa serceabiitychsk using clastic aba, This check is dome to ensure tha ying under working load prevented. The sts both the dock pate and the seer are checked, icing lel ess, such a6 sear ug torsion, and snplane siesing of the plat doe to les ending ofthe stead plate under whee loading. Ln calulatng the sieet strmes #ditintion is made Between the zones of bogging moet in he Tongan siffener ver transveretembe andthe sagpng amen ee fing between transverse member, Whsets nthe liter cae the all ampli Stremes det in-plane loading and local bending ate combine, the oer fon th in plane sre are apie and add othe ld ering tees ‘ccrrng at he lonatainl to taser sine intessstion, “The approximate expressions ied fo chek the stifles design ar as fol lows: Over aniere members Bitte 42m ow and betwen transverse member, 4 25k Tac os) whore fis the sess due 1 Toc Yeading at poi sener farthest fom ‘ange pte. othe tes at midplane of flange pate de oles! Hendin Sndihe other symbols ae at define ei nti secon, The proposed US. ade calle tention to the need 0 sonsier tess of xa compression in the dak, combined wih te effets of teaing ud Intra! oaing, when ayng out the ds of rtotrpe det on he laste ‘ss but oll no aidan on how this may be done 74 BENDING STRENGTH OF BOX GIRDERS [A box ginersabjcted primarily to bending moment wil normally fil by bucling ofthe compression flange Unie pate per tal orca ack ling easy governs for practical box ger. Methods descebed in Sacion 73 at fe use to eaculate the comprenion ange tenth. Tn the simplest case the bending strength of box pire can be asumed to be combed bythe flanges alone abd the momen of restanoe can be Ealeulted on he hase o the design force muted by the stance seprating the Mange eantroids. Sach an approach slow within BS S40 Pat 3 and reat simplifies dein “To caleulate the suengh ofthe ox is, allowing forthe contribution of the eb, lea distbuton of tree over the depth ofthe cos ston ay beassmed. Ets of bucking inthe web can be represented by using tectve its of web adjacent othe sifener an outed n Chapter 4. The Bish Code'BS S00 also allows the use af the elfleivethiskness approach for des, whit his the advantage hat mo seseuation ofthe postion ofthe era ans msde as the case with the elective wth approch. Coopers ‘xpresion for bending stength (1967) ised Logie the elaine thik for Uunstifeed webs, andthe ll thickness we for webs slfena by elective Toogdinalwifeers File ie demod to hve ocared hn the exe her Mange stress reachss the cleulted timate ste of te compression ange oy rth yess of he tension Bungee, whichee is the cial tern Thin BS S400 My=2q04 08 Zu 16) where Zand 2 ae the elastic modal ofthe fective seston for the exten Compesion and tetsion bert, respi 15 SHEAR STRENGTH OF BOX GIRDERS ‘The ey ifeense between plate und box ges which may inane the shat strength of the webs heute of rately thin angen bon gars a he boundaries of the webs, Caution i need n applying avalatetnson eld ‘odes, dented and vere nthe conto late per nebo te doa of the webs of ox gird. OF major concern tthe rite anal aout ‘ppt agnint plane movement which aye fonda tte web bythethin Mange of w box ster compared wih he restraint fered bythe hicker tnd narrower ange fw corresponding pate gr Inthe ater ese the out plane bending ity annie extension igi of the Mige to eas. ovement perpendcult to and paral! Yo the ange veh junction, epee tess mre efetbely mote thas i he as thi ned x ids 754 Box Girders Without Longitudinal Stfeners In BS S40: Part 3 (BSL, 1983) th eson-feld mode of Rockey ad his co Worker (Porte ta, 193) has bees odie for eppcation o both plat an box winders without longitudinal leners (ee Chapter 6). Th or bo ‘Bers with unsillenad Bangs twit tamer stiles lathe webs (or Fanges)a form of onsiacion serociated with rltivly smal bores vantage en be taken of postbuckling strength ing tenson-eld mode, mites eis made ofthe plastic frxne mechanism action i the tension Red to Kp shear deformations whi th hts forthe whole pire To do this ‘the maximum pose shear capaci) i ited wo the she it apacy of the web alone the ese ofa Box with hin ustiffened ange, the with of ange taken as etTcive 10, 357 cach se ofthe we, when te ange projets Pevond the we. Where no sich proton acu the fet of frame ‘ction negketed inthe eaelton of tension al capac (Harding and Dovng 1981. ‘Wiolchuk an Mayrbourl (1980) sigs n applying the esion ld mode to the transesly stflened webs of bo gids, the slut of Base (196), ‘hich is based of the assumption of nelle ange ending sy. Ths Corresponds roughly 1 neglecting the Frame ation inthe Rockey sition and ‘eft the auton needed for box girders, where the Bangs re gnealy more Sender than in pte ges. Thus the proposed US. coe sugges hut on cs) ay = depth of web between fangs, measure along Web = tanwere seer separation = dy web hicks: Stel aektng sear sess Fy = tensioned stress 152 Box Girders with Longitudinal Stitfeners 1n the case of box gers with Ionita tenes very fit experimental evidence is avaiable to underpin the aplication of tensions teas 10 teed design, Code drafters ace therefore doubly cations on aecount of the Uke interaction fence thin lng send webs and thin Bos Sil ke advantge of pstbckling reserve aot oa eer extent than mil be posible wth fl aston al stent Inthe Brith coded metho (BSI, 1983) he tiene web is checked on | putey-pel bans. The devin prosadure consis of calelting the lg final srs ung spl bending theory and gros aren Shes foro ae ‘sumed to he sirbated niormly down eos setion Ech panel hen ‘he ineraction form (esane ai(Z)= 020) sd for bactling ng steel) Gays! om where 4, = man longitudinal stress 1 = mania longitudinal tres du 1 plane ening ca, = Sl stro of woh materi 1-5. Ky — eoficent for uma plate stength In checking yeling. any proportion of he langues 9 a0 9, 99 Yo 60% maximum ia pone eam be abe tothe Ranger while mini ‘veal eqllfvium. a checking stably. up to 60% af thane stems can be ‘Shed rom te restrained ines puss but nove cas be sed from outer panel ‘which are coniered 0 be unrestrained. "The proposed US. code ues the time approach a for webs sift ‘ramsey only exept thal Fs now cleat foreach span! Bounded by font! and wansvese seine and assumes the lowes vale‘78 COMBINED BENDING AND SHEAR STRENGTH OF BOX GIRDERS 704 Box GirdersWithout Longitudinal Sttteners the bending and shear stents have oo cle without any consbu- tions rom the web and ange, respite. there seine fo segs thet frders an sey rest these magnitudes of ment Ay and shat yal Simultancool sono eteration ne ob conse For box girs wath Manges and webs unstffnedlongitainaly this approach provides 4 snp ‘omserratne etn of combined ening and she strength ever, more often webs wl have been considered fo muke some com lsbution fo the bending strength Mp, and it the ese where we have been designed to ake advantage of pontbsking sens, fangs may have be ‘omsidred to contrite to the shear strength Vp through tee ring ton, 1S 540 proposes the we of am interactive diagram (Fig. 7.19) which can be sed for ox gids with no fongitadina silleners The proposed US. (Wolchak and Mayrbourl, 1980) speciation for rans ‘ere siflned web of box pers uses an iteration sation to sala the eral buckling stess for combined shear, bending. ad commpreson in ‘ers of ratios of the individ stzess components to thir ctl buckling ‘aluc when acting alone Ths omy However, the stess components are inerdepedent and may be related as follows ve where ate yale i Jie = governing axial compresive ses at longi edge of mob poe ‘= Boal sess at oppose ee of pane f= govening sear sues = V/D, “These sree restated in Fig. 7.17. Fs Fy Fate big sree "Am addtional flange force AF is added to the Range forces computed in cordance wth cate ana. It nes tht portion which most Be tran fered to the anges from the chs ater hocking, a well as portion elated {o the tie of tensioned action for the wabs Those are fr compresion ange ky Fg.717 eon of and for anne ud anne weona (-E ‘lin Podersvucotgag} 029) and for tension ange: My YVucorGo] 7.28) lactone sear fre ating ois! with maximum moment Ef ~ mf buckling shar opi of al webs at rss tbe Sonate renin cemprsion ad ten fang, espn suming tully participating webs many. rs nmin es oment of inet of cos eton ‘Ae4y = Sompresson and tension Mage ae, reste) 1, = ane fncnation of cb panel Gagne oe hota 76.2. Box Girders with Longitudinal Stteners For box girs with lngtanaly stifled anges and webs the sustion is complicated by the scarey of research inferaton, in parca the lack of ‘perimental data Some zeistbation of the longitudinal sires eased by ‘ening or compresion ia web alowed within BS SAD Pre 3, op noted ‘Section 75 onthe design of lonstuinlysilencd webs fr shear The ‘slant ses dstibuton ater sack shedding mst be sch that he whole oF the aplied fending moment and ail fre Gf ay) transite a exe ium is sinned. The pteatage seston in sires inthe neh ple Patcipating so the shedding can tary Somn pal fo pane but asus to te uniform wih anyone pane. Ne shedding permit rm pan cot tuning holes larger than» specifi sz Siar, tess that cvs lg ‘ofthe tension lang, bt not buckling o ying ofthe compression Mange maybe redistributed within certain restrictions oti ia BS D0 Pare 3 In summary therefore, interaction between moment and sean bo ee ers with longitudinal seer is deat wath by reg the wed of sme of the lonptdinlydesabiizing compresive stresses causa by bending and 1S With nae interpoation for intermediate values (tee symbols ae dimensions deine in Fis 7.18 sd 7.20 ‘he reasoning behind the bucking check above thatthe reactions app to the diaphragm shoald not exceed 30% of the reactions causing eka bretling, The bss on the results of rumeiel parametric studs which ‘ope tat powded the average tes above the Bearing is consid, no further king de to backing wl cco in ther arts unt the iaphragm Toaded yond 70% of the ei ond. The tess the vii ofthe ea ings may attain verge yc wrens when the ple loaded well below eta but is educa a the tee appaches te eat Fevel of 70% of eral loud (oe Fig. 722) 790 STIFFENED DIAPHRAGMS “The bas forthe dsign of stsfeneddaphrapms ies from that of the “npc” unsilfened dphragme Ho thatthe being iene are signed not only to oust any otto pine moments hut ah To acta load-bearing “cnr, n conjunction with haerow asc widths of daphag plate, to on F o6| A Ei eesnce stron orton of ® A Fig. 722 Sto nis in sine pie dpa ‘canst vert ons othe beatings. The plate panels are thon designed for scar and trnsiee srs ony. Secondary stllenes ar wed to sali he late by subdviing into appropriately Sd subpael. Boundary tienes may alo be provided atthe nebldiuphrag junctions wo help res tension fl fore i the webs of to Wansmitreactione from cfs gids or Hoot ems, ith oe wathoat camievers, nt the aphrap, 7404 Limitations on Diaphragm Geometry he initaton on tenes to conte slencr buckling ae the sane a those for unsifted dhaphrapms. Looi-bearagsillenes are not rie be symmetrical and san be welded oa sng side, allbourh they ae il aus {0 he fll hight. Unsiened openings suchas might be uted in wstillenad aphrapms may be eelace by tare hoes rad by silent deine to vst detabiinng for, 140.2 Analysis of Diaphragm Stresses ‘ational analysis such as rite cement anal often sed to determine sss tifned diaphragm, Such an ali would mode the pre of silfenes and opeings th soft atcuracy for design purposes. ‘Aeratively use cam be made of the simplified nays to determine te Pane transverse stsss sn the diaphragm ple. Sanday sens ae ‘ynore in caging diphrapm properties. Steses mist be ected the cores of cach pate panel and any in-plane being stenes dae to Vierndel scion around large opesingr mst be ale separately added 10 the other in-plane steses Lond bearing. steer icing ‘dh of plating no more than 1 times the diaphragm hcknes ae deen ‘cary instiy varying anal stresses computibi th the assumption of un om shear flows and wut pane moms thst dsrase near ith eh 740.3 Design Chocks on Diaphragm Yielding and Buckling Pate panes are check for yeaa crcl prs, ignoring vet ses, “The pans ave checked for bucking wing ultmte strength itracton for. ‘las orgy devised for ue the dein of fontaine webs Panes in the viity ofthe bearings are proportions 0 that eral i reeds Duckling Oter pn redesigned for buckling ‘Los-tering stfenes ae designed a tats arn the case of longitu tly iene panels. A yi ceck te made for al scons, with Some over. Ses, 1386 yn permed at the points of contact with bearings, Buckling ‘hocks arecofin to the mide third ofthe beg. wher destin ees ‘ne greats in iene of constant sation, The detabing fers of ans. ‘ere ple trees ae accounted for by ebeans oan anal sto oad Inthe fener Ths oad taken9) where the horizon sis ia the mile thi Fength the ng of Silene Retween pias of efcctve estat an dg te spacing of veri Sulenes is found fom Fig. 79 using T= nero aieners ae seme tobe free of axl steses ad apd moments and are proportioned to rest the destbiian elect of wants Sn shear sree nthe cae of erases and shear sires aloe inthe ‘Ste of horizontal sles. A sina approach i wed for tifenes Fain large holes, in whch ape the destabzng Lem ae calculated astming the tl ob ant, Despite the enormous smount of rescarch cared out on box gtr in the [90s there are all many pet ofthe stability of box gees eeing Farther attention, ome of which ae summarized Belo. ‘ange Bucking Design rules are oad for anges sillened by one oF two seers ‘The strut approach may not be appropriate in sich cases, as it nests the trier sige ofthe ple amis 3 poor model for 2 male see. + Thelinitatons on crose-stional shape to prevent lol buckling af open sin lowe seers nt Yo be deine mare ascii «There isa nse fra simpler aprosch than thove able forthe buck lng of lily sifend Ranges ih lows the ostbucklng reserve of| the sifend ang o be taken into acount, {The limitations om rdntbtion of szesses caused by sa lag inthe ange need t be dtined more cary for bt imply and continuously supported bot ide ‘= Amore rational list load est for the design of ater loaded fangs neds to be evolved Web Bucking = Simple tension ld design methods need to be develope for aplication tobox pee which sn ince longitudinal slfenes and the ntraction mong sear, Reinga axl sess inthe Web + The application of corner sifening to botes san aid to stailzng the see and een could be weflly vestigated. Diaphragms ‘ Simpliation ofthe dsige approach to unified diaphragms should be sought eon further sec, | Methods fr the design of haphagins shou be prodused to coer the cases af shew diaphram and twi-wale duphragms- 1 The effects of meractons among lapse, fang, and web need more Behavior of Boxes ‘The strength of longitusinaly send bones under combined bending and shear nets closer testo in he Fate The strength of sien boxes under combine hending shat an or son ao neds stenton REFERENCES: Abd Sy 6. 0, “Ete With f Sel Das in ie” ASCE ue, (6, Seng ae Gin Sr ASCE Smet Bi ob 119), Sa, int al Comat Bris, Bsh Sar BS SD Pa 3, oof Pt for Den Sel rt ei Str ion Looe apn B.A. and Donn.) (9) The Cole Bar fox ie ‘amos Fuge Nance Medlin of Exe Ree” CEC fb ntl Cte ey inn ‘Cote (370, “Unte Lad Aaa ad Deg of Sie Paes ‘npr PLD tho npr Cap Une ot London, ogg (7, Sh Longa Sed Pe Ge” ASCE a Sub (9TH, “Bachan Pe” DAS) Rin 12 DeichrAtub ru Ca, Gey Doning ff ad Chae, 97. “Deseo Box Gide Comeesn ta Sl CB Epon’ Conon for Conn Dowie, Maing. Es an oe PA (17) Sl ad Sas “ha ConIncal aea Cry Loto Lae ‘Seti ter Copia pe Lu” Can Se Se iSermoan ECCS acme Bi Nr 0 a Come ‘tesco Sedo, bres agDwight J Band Lt, G. 1976), “Sows Ste Campetion Flnge: A. ‘Conpienioa Runge siffenen Under Promsunced Sher Lag Conon CESLIC hop. npr Coleg, Unversy of London Fi, A, Bing P Dead Hoi RE. G97, "Parente Stay of Pts “Compoeion” CESLIC fap RO peril Coleg. Uaerty a Loon ta, Ys and Caso. fe (98h “eae Ibo tetas Marking J a Down P.1 (8D "The Bao he Propo New Dein Rules Torte Scho Wi Paes nd Other atl bjt Complen Fe Loni 12'Subiy Prom Eng Sates nd Compo. Res thls Appi’ Sens Pur aking Een, Egan. 5S CE (97, "Sl Bow Cinder ees.” Pn Cif of Ci Engines Inga et the Has of Design Ned of Eton of Se ox Gide Bigs” "Gor, Report fe Commer anf jpn HM. Stoney Ot London, Sater. (8), "A New Ds Mio for Sen Comes Flaps Bos “Germ Wald Sracres(3. Rhoes and AC. Walk Gana, Jetcur, Po’ al (94), lnerction of Stest Lag with Phe Bucling i Toney Sire Corpse Flsngen” ea Tec CSAY, No. p76 Laman ARG a Downe, PJ. (98D, "Ea of Sher Lag of he Ineasic king Bcsvour of Tao Wae Scares” sn The Stace 3 ge ant Mace 7,“ nie nits Mott KR and Dowling, #1 (1975. "Sher Lap Sel Box Gide Brie.” ‘Sct Eg VO $8 Mota K. Rand Dowling (1976, “Dicuon” Src. rp. Vo 84 p85 COnapenko, A and oj). F (1967), “Uline Sent Deg of Lemp ‘SitenedPae Pane ih Large Nr" Ps Ba Lab op No 20818, Lehigh Por. B. M Rockey, K, nd Ent H.R. (17S), "The Clap Bebaiut of mie Gdn Shear Sa, Ege Wal 5,313 Rooks, KC ad Fas ee (980, “Desig of Stel Bie” Pro. "ConiUnrsy Cobos Cari Grama, London Salo My and Nova. K. UBS "Ubersite Vern ie aningh ke meh Sehvrme pete, in Ser ite mit ener Intppe seston Wee. Rand Mayo RM, (1980), Proposed Design Spcieon for St Them Gicr dps ip. No. FATS. soaus. US. Deparment of Trusptin Peder Highay Admins, Washington, DC CHAPTER EIGHT BEAM-COLUMNS, ‘84 merRooUCTION ean columps are define as members set to a combination of xl fone and bending moment, They therefore provide ink berwee the clu under te asia lod discussed in Chapter 3 andthe Beam ouded ony by mernens, tic waste rojet of Chap Inde, aan ca be made for cosiering al meer frame structs a Dea-columes, with columns and beam ting the seca cases that est wen oe load component Becomes ney ‘Ssall The bonding moments in beacons say e neste srs ‘tans loading ating Bete the member sens rom fading on aint embers in rig faad states or by the eccentity of rencons and ‘sominal eilfres in sil Vramed statues, When considering the bei ‘ior of beam- 10% reste C866, "Eapecinents on H-Colanns Under Bini Being.” ASCE J 'Srct-ir Val 9 Ro S10 9p 309 25, dfn, M.A. GBH, “Lat Sabi of Tapered Beam Columns wih late esti Sact ng. Volt No. pp oa ak MA Tl, XSi, ln king of Bam th‘Coluins" ASCE J. Smwet-Exg, Vol 2, No.3, pp. 538 58. Bradford MA. Ca Ey Gasol M, Ay td Tai S987), Ti Tate fucking of ReanCols” ASCE Sine Bg. Vol TIS, No It pps Mater, D3 and Andonoa GC. (96), “The Fae Baking 0 Tapered Bs Clue" Wold J er Sap, Vek #8 No (Ca, C'S and Chen, Wa. (191, “Fer Verona Hen-Colan Seth Bunn” ASCE J. Sine. ag Vo 7, No.2 pp. S01 IS (Campa F and Mauonet, (1939), “Reseces srl bent de slnnss (Cha SL. Kiprnt Sad Aba FG. 099) “Euto-Pate Arai ‘ox esn>Catms Instn Laval Bobng Ect” ASCE Se Eg. Vol P.M. pp. 6-12 (en, WF (928)."Anproiate olono e Column” ASCE. Sit. i Vol 97, No. STD 48781 (en, WF. (1971b "Fart Sts of tas Ren Colum Pl.” ASCE (Coen, WF (1979, “Ther of Beam Clana: The State At Rein” Pr Cn Sab SES Dy Fa SORCASCE. Wine, (Gen. WF (1977. "Dasg of Box Colts Under Ba Being” 2d, Cla ‘Sl Se! ier Pen, Rp Li ep (Cen, W.F (88, "ReweatAdnes Ip Atl and Designo St Bees Coles BUSA Pr Um Sem nn lel Sct Br eye (en, W. (952 “or pe Cyndi Claas Under al Being in Aly ‘Conpened Scars: Sty an Song e. RNarpan, Apple See Pattee Btn, Es, Engen, Chap. 3, (ten, WF and Att T- (192s), “Iason gations for Basa Lond ‘Sina ASCES. Sat Dir VoL Nv ST 9p TOS-1082 (Cen, W.F.and Asi, T (1972), "Colume-Curatare Cure Mea or Anas ‘i Bee Colmn SinE, Va 5 No (hen, WF and Asa, (74 “Interaction Cre for Sel ations, Unde Ait (Cen, WF. As, T(IBTD, Tey ea Cols Vo, Land 2 McG (Cen, We Fad Cheong Sia Moy. FAD, Ln Stereo Sel Bra ‘Cima, Sot Mocs Arche, Vo Nord eres Pan {oye the Nehari (Cen, Wa Han, D198, Tar onder Opin Snes ‘hen, W. Fond La EM. (1983, “Des of Beam Cama in Now Ameri "ro Sd Coli Sib. Met Sr Tern (Chen, W. Fan Satatadaorn,S. (969), “Revew of Colm, aknviur Unde "nal Long” ASCE Scr Din, Va 94, No. S13 9p 299 3a. (Cheong it-Moy,F (198). °A Met of Anas of Later Lauded Clu “ASCE Somer Dr, VO 10), No STS tr Pap 048 py. 98.9% ‘Cheong iM, F. (1974), “Gee Ars of atealy Loe Hem Claas ‘ASCE 1 Sime Dir, Vol 10; No ST Pro Pap 1085p. 1M 12h ‘Cheong ia-Moy, and Dos T. (98, "New Interacon Eauaton fr Stl ‘Cole Desi." ASCE Sic ir Vo Io NO STS pp. Li (Chutkin. G. ML (199, “Experimenta Hears on Sty af Thi Pe Stl ei et Ba Esc” tt Wf Sod ore (Cr 1. W_(1959, “Ese Leaded Atma Conn From, ASCE, Vl SA 1980, Lm Sue Den of Sil Siac, CANYCSASSIG-9, Cnaian “Sundnds Amociton, Rendle, Ont, Canna (ok Pad Tea, NS (98), "Ese eng of Ream Claes with Une End Moment i ng Pros. ng rs Vl CESS, Nov Cur CG. (Ita, Est Solaion of he Baal ending Equi” ASCE ‘Calver.G.(196 “al inperoson in Bi Being" ASCE Sr Dis Coe, GC. aad Px Me 96, He Sait of Tape Bas Daly H. (71, "La Be da a Sete: CTIOM Rep, Mar Dy M97), “Cale dea sans ine der ares Basement rin Dy, H. (1975) “Cal de stance wie es ams comps this” Dean and Chon. WF. (199), “Design lntetonFgaton for Se Rem ‘Chins ASCE Sct ng Vo, No pp 25-10, Dean, Land Ch WF (190), “Doign Irion Equation for Cyndi Tubslr Ben Colua” ASCE. Sac xp, Wal 116 Nop TOES Duan, Sol 1. an Chen. WF. (9), “Op Rea-Calena Moet ‘Apion Fair." 4USC Bi. J Vo. 26. No.4 pp. 3-13. Daye TA a Galion TN “a ean of Tbr Re CS (1988), arc 3 Deg of St! Smtr, European Prana ENV Fokus, abd Gali. T¥ (1980), "nate Later Tron! Bang of‘Guanbos TV W950, “Combined Bening ad Compre in Seat! Sl Dose Tall Rol Pes New Yo alunos. TV. 88), “Ream Caan” ASCE Com Now York, May Galante, TV. and Kee, RL (6, “Colas Under Combined Bening nt ‘erat ras ASCE al 126 Pat pp 28 alintos,T.¥. and Prasad 3 (192) "Unite Stengih Tale for Beane Cotes” Wei es. Coe al i. 8 ae Satumtos TV Adams Fad Fata, ¥. (1945), Furr Sas onthe [era Torsoal Bucking of Ste! Bam-Comay” Fr vp La ep No [MS Lech Unies, Beshen Pe ‘Gent, A Rand Sen TK (197 "Te Pas Deformation Capac o Cos ‘High "Atl Leads” Prt, Rp. 2nd It Calo. St Se! Se Lge ei, ikon, an Cost, , (182), “perineal Reeth on he Rang of Alec “Matrant st Tsoi de Stretaren Unrate Li, Lise lou ‘an, D.and Chen W. (19) "Beso of Poland Su Type of Bean Cotes BS VOLS 8-38, "an D Jn and WF (986, “cng an Cnc Au of Sel Table Hancock, G3 ((97, "te ac Analys of Thin. Wal Cros Soon.” oh “ht Cn Mech, Src Mater, Cich, New Zein A 1H. Nand Ck, J-W. (951 "Lata asking Emly Loe and ‘Seton Clu” Prat. If Noll Cong dp Mach, ASME, New Yorks Hi. N, and Crk JW. (981), “Late Bulg of Exetily Lond Sten Clune" Tn ASC Ee Wor 16.1. Hil HN. Harman, EC, asd Cla. W198, “Dg of Aluminium Athy ex-Cams” Tow. Su Cr Bp, Yl 1 ome, M. R88), "Toe Feral Torna Basing f Members f Syst Scion Unt Combined Tat apd Uni Teva Moments 2.7 Meth, ‘pl Math, No. tT. Led Le... 9, “Deno Bean-Colmns wih Lat Tosional En Reta Weld Ri Coue Bul No 272 No 150 (990, Stl Simeuet: Marie anf Den, Delt ISOPTC 67SC 1 Insrational ryan for Stunt as Jinging Lan G. ad Shot, C1988), Bern of Taser Lae ‘ims, 861976, Gide Sty Desc Cra for Mtl Sri ‘obnson, BG. and Che, L194), “St Calamaro Raed Wide Fane Stun Prop Rep No, Ass Ine Sl Coste Chg New Kanha Tanda, LW (199), "Atais and Desig of Famed Camas nd Minor ae Deine apm Br. Se Conard ee oop. A. R198) "Slender Links Nom the Paneer "Clee in Pc Den" JC Snel eval 4 pp. 1S 130 ‘Coleme:The Conan Appont and Some Comparsens” J Cont Se er eter, 1 (6) "Fate Stas of te Stonth of Beem Com” Trou A ‘Se Ci Bay ol 7, Put pp 230-466 eter RL Bea eh Joon, B. (982, “Cola Stent Under ‘Combi Bening ad hes” Wet Rex Sup Wl 3, No I. Kee. Kaminsky FL abd Bl, S198), "Pasi Deformation of We ange cam Coin” Fs SC Ee VoL 18 p10 porch 8 ant Wine CME (9H), “Ou ane Bucking Foro Beam ‘Clemo Te Beams" ASCE Src. WoT No. opp 2778-288 lbp Ks and Basa, W. (1973, “Vere mam Kept! Subtle de KibppeK- and. Wiemann, (190) “Espeinetie und teortice UUniesucngen Gher de Traglot Yon ecg sane gee ‘Sth Seat, Vole 3 ous AN sn Luis C1980 “Lateral ot baking Anas of et “Coles” ASCE fg Mack. Vl Ia, No. py. 88-Ne Lay, MG. (999, Sas Aon forth Aran Stl Sues Cade ASI90, ‘use tt Stel Cotton Sey, Antal tay MG sed Glanton, TV. (SK, “The Experimental Bebo of Reed "Clu" Wri Cae No 10, NOW Ln. LC. ant La, LW. (97, “The Stench an Behr of Lay ‘supped Colma” fee np. Lah. Rap No V5, Lath Un Lota 1197), “Theoret Isegtons of Cann Under Bail Long Prox In oly. Calin Sih, IABSECRE-ECCS. Pars nos. and Ge, 1982) “Design of Bal Ladd Se Beam Canes Rep. st ese Unierty of Bet, Now nos and Gita (3), “Dscson eect gation for Member ‘a Canpresion ad Benn” Pac Sn It Colla Sab Met St Pas Nov dos and Kurth, (198) Zam Reger Vou Sn ne, Se 9 “Sai ot Sh Undo I and Wier, G. (1970, “Zar Banesng se90 Beinn “eiray Feud Ou Sanh 0 nhs, Teh Hochst, Dao La LW, and Kaman, H. O946, “Lima Suen of Lately Landed 1 LW, Shen, ZY and Ha, X (199), eit Fay Reh Lich ‘erity tay and Pate Clio Ste! Sracars (lL. Morty ‘Magus Ran Ron (1982), “Sra ce porate poutes cole” A Tar Pas Bl No.3“Colum,” ASCE J Siac. Div, Vol 6, No. ST, pp 187-888 gn, FFP and Wt, GS “ly Lok, gd aowtel C76, “Fry Yeas of Rea o Btn” Sl Mick Maoane, Cand Save Me (169, Panic Ana and Design, Vol, Beams and “rams Bul, Now York. Teche eipineia et saation” Jn Cal, Sa Me Sie, Pee eps Pa Mnbers Pre Sut nd Werk Prop tC Su er Sra Prim Rep. Pars MLeln ER nd Ads P-F-(197)Deson f Ste Cre Comms Clans Site o Lata Lani” IC Ton, Val 1. No Minds, C. and Ojo, Mt 965,“ Le Toronl Buckling of Beam (Cole “ASCE Fs Merk ie Val BI, No EME. p21 3 Monit GA. and Fens, S.J (198), “Approimate YeltSuice Egutons ating, M1980, "Nataon of Duty Caaf Sel Bn-Colme™ Nakashima, SL, Takamash Kd Kato, H. (19D, "Tes of Set Beam-Clumns| ‘Sit to ies ASCE J Scag. Nl i 8 p26 29 Nett, D. A. (5K), “aimon of tracion Equa for Use in Design Spain Wevssn Faye” Pr nf I Ca SMe. Sa ho. Md Fat, ¥. 942) “Namegrahs forthe Solon RoC Opperman, HP. (983, Refined Be Coluan Anas" Po. 2d, Clo. Sah Yan Tai NS (92 "big arin ad Lat aig FRY Land Taha N.S (1992), PrebackieDeformatins and Ltt Bd Appa” ASCE Sime ap, Vol IRN pp 29S 1. Ys en Tae, S19) “Nati de Ana of Sl Be Land Thar. N. 8.988) "Nontinsr Ise Ana of ied Bea otis Apa” 49CE Sat. Wl 13 Np. 3002-5 Pill. U- $1970, “Revew of eet Reseach othe Rene of Beaman thd Bil Bonde.” tt Cal Con Ce a Ta Pi U. 8180), "Compariono Text Reus wih Design Punto fr Bi ane So Beam Clans A Cal Can DC Be es op No BO ‘Pa, st ohn Asean of CS Sanit Fans fr Baoan ajslaven, (197), “Fine Element Method for Paste Beum-Coluns” Theary "fem Coed. WF Chen and tah Gam l New Yt Chap, Beam ucts ih Thin Wail Crom Scion sng Ft lent Ped Ine Cll Sih Met Sac. Prim. Rep Pare Ruz 2.and Mevien, W-W (1982) “Rear Tabul Stel Clans Loa Rok, Ke abd Bergmann, R (97, “Sel Corn Desh” Pin. Rep. 2 Calo, Sh St Sts Lage, Bago Rod, K_ and Kiam. (198) “Desig of Simply Suporte Meme by Meas ‘fucpean Bung Cus for Uae Beng winamp Peli Re Sod Cay. Sa Met Sse, Fae Rik, K. and Wagenkacat, R (975. “Tagaidgrsine sar Benesang von ‘race mi oppetiymmtcen Quits Bata" KI Bo, Yot3 Vata Vous. Een, Geman Nos DA ad Ces W- F976) “Des Cl fr Sts Cohan Une Ais wd abd Basal Bening” Can JE Vl 3 No 2 Sado MG. (186) "Laterl Boing of Easel Lode -Clumas” ASCE Ssntthdapors, Sand Chen, W. F197, “aeration Cursor Soon Under ‘Comics Bil Bening an Avil Foe” eld. es Canal, Fe SAA), Auirafn Sion Sie! Stree, AS AOD, Sands ‘Ascii of usa, Noh yey, Ne South Wales, Asa Sten, Za Zhang Q. (91), "ntetton of Lc ad Oval Hsaty of {Compre Box-Cous" ASCE Sat En, Vol. 11,No. spp. 387-5. Soin 1 Sa Chen, W-P_ (198, Local al Poth bo of Table Sha Sand Shed NA. (1992 "Indi Ampito aso for Dein of Se ‘eaCoims” ASCE Sime ag, Vol IR Nop. HD 189, ‘Spt 19) Har ofS He Clu Design” 9B. Sr Eg Vo Teele, Nand Chen, W, F974, “Deen Cotta for Se H-Clumas Under Trai NS. (98, Fea Tsang of Str EREN Spon, London ‘Chap Ta NS ad Andi M.A Dh vi De of Se an Kuen, nd Galo T¥ (96, “Beamon Exerinens ASCE “Shc i Vol 90 Nov ST pp 239988,Vianakos, 8.1977 “ne fers Mod for Pate eam Cotans in Thy of tanh Phd Aisa isi Row Vo, Chi. id KS. (ORD, “Des of Cina and Resanglar Hollow Sesion Couns Wang, Ct, nd Khiporec, 8. (180, “New Set of Backag Parameters for Mosman Bah CE St. re Va 8 Wale DW. and Carte M197, “Desig of eam Cousin Se Frames iin nd ccs ASCE 1 rate We NT [White DW. and Crk, M. J. (197, Design of eum Columns ia Sel Fane ‘Conpaion of Stands, ASCE of Sac! Engicorng, Va. 12, NOt ‘Youn. W (979), “Teo Pan Fare f Sl Bat Cols" Sic. rg, Va, (CHAPTER NINE HORIZONTALLY CURVED STEEL |-GIRDERS During the past quarter century, there hasbeen a notable increas in the umber of hoszontlly cued sel brides constructed throughout the Work This is due primarily to the everiecresing emphasis on esthetics ‘coupled with land andor transportation alignment restcons, Despite their txtensne we, aural prediction af the behavior of horizontal curved sel ‘rer remain» sk of formidable compleny. Resa onthe ali nd Ses of horizontally carved pres began wth Sant Vena’ (1813) memo Since then, thovsands of pages of tecnica papers reports ad books have te pith nthe Hertore onsering rns ppcations he ells of sii mechani and asrospace entering. Despite the considerable progress begun almost «century and fal 3g, serous suds pertaining to th anal and design of horizontally carved Stet briges began oly a quarier ofa century ago. whee im 1963, the Federal Highway Adminisation formed the Consortium of Univesty Reearch Teams (CURT). This team comsitad of Carnegie Mello Unineraty, the Univers of Pensa, the University of Rhode Island, and Syracoe Unieriy, whose rsarch efforts, long with those atthe Uninet of Marsand, reste in he nitaldeslopment of working sree sign err and tentative don specications. Te American Society of Chi Engeers and’ the Amer’ Awoeiion f State Highway and ‘Transporation Oia (ASCE-AASHTO) Task Commitee on” Cured Gide (1977) comple the role of most ofthe sarc effort peor to1916 and presente a single sours st of recommendations petining to the ign of cured Fer bridges The CURT notch activiy mas followed ‘Shorty by the development ofthe load factor design citer Stgmann ant Galanos, 1976: Galambos. 197) adopted by AASHTO (180), song with ‘he working tes desipn itera tm the fst sud peieaton for hovizon- tally curved hghnay badges (AASHTO, 198) A survey of most published works praia wo horizontal carved bigs as ist prescited by MeManas et (196), whowe oprah lst cone ‘ain 202 references, fut of which dealt ony with ox girder, MeMur's Duper was dacused hy other authors who added adonal efeenes tothe ‘nn (Ketcheck 1965; Tan et ly 198% Pundit 17. Nive yas ter {he ASCE AASHTO task Commitee on Curved Gide (1978) presented stateof heart repoet hat pea 106 geleenes dling pry wth hor luonaly curved Box girders The erste aso preted rele of suey Periaining tothe geometry. desig, deta constrution, aad pformance of for-gdet badges comsrated in the United States Cana, Europe, and Japan (ASCE-AASHTO Task Commitee on Cured Gidery 1°80), The sariey was am update ofa more limited sires publish! hy the AASHTO. ASCH Commitee on Flexural Members (1979) Nakai stad Yoo (108) pub Ist a book that offers competence iting of ramerous papers, with pcr tention othe Janse Metre ‘The current AASHTO guide secon Ior horizontally cored bighway bridges (AASHTO, 1998 [based prinaiy on revere work sont pee to 197K. Since then, a spnient amount of work has been onde to thane the speciieations and to flr destin the Behavior of cured fers, A review ofthe berate was published by Zunch ea (1993) ‘The analismethodsdevsapd ths for broly curved sel members can bela nto no mor ere appont sd eed meh ‘he sro mde tute mina ming leo pr the leer and hn ar adequate fr pcr aac and design pups. ‘hoe nla ne 1 The plane si method 1 The space frame method The Vlod meta The refned methods, onthe other hand, are somewhat more elaborate computationally tense. and time consuming in terme of mang Therefore. the methods tht fll inthis lane should he wed for the al ot lead aaaleer Examples of uch tts nla: + The inte cement method The Gite stp method 1 The sie irene method = The slope defection method A bref description of each ofthese analytical methods i presented below foc forthe detail te ear refered 10 Zarek ea (1993), 1924. Approximate Methods Plane Grid Method. The srt of this mstod is modeled 3 an ase Dupe of two-dimensional pri members with one transationl and wo rota thonal degrees of freadom. The method dct ot soit for monn Towson (warping) and heme canbe ws ony fo itil members Space Frame Method. This method was intodused in 1973 by Berna and Mandel forthe analysis of open and closed curved members. The caved Ieee are tealrd se thrcmensonal stght members, whe the dia phruoms and neal icing are asin rstike members that cn try ‘nly ail fads The effects of warping is pt ustllyinctded inthis aly. ‘Slack makes this method petal or nil Ses purpose. Vetoad Method. This method uss equialet straight pres with span Tents equal to th ate Tents instead of the individual eure der by ‘ding srequlibating vert shes Toes (eting on diaphragm locations) that tke the curvature ito account These loads ae dependent of the r= dias of carota, Bridge wih, and Gaphrgn spacing (oct, 1987 leche etl, 1987), 9.22 Refined Methods Finite Bloment Method This sproach dicreizes the stature ato sal, ‘visions (ements) where each element is dened by a spied number of nodes The fehavor of each element (and ultimately the sttue) ia Sumed to be a fancion of it modal quintites (daplacement. andor Sess). which serve as the peimary sno inthis formulation, The i fone ofthe most general and scurte methods 0 uae sine it does Rot Pt ‘ny litation onthe peomety load, or boundary coadtons, and can he ‘pple to openicloed ides al tate anddymamic analy, Additonal the sructre's respons can sways be improved by ening the meh sc tnd by increasing the number of moder (or depres of freedom) foreach ‘ment, Howeve, te rather involved modshng and analy efor requiredby this method may im vome cases make it impractical for pretiminary Fite Strip Method In tis nunescal method, the cursed bide did Into narow stipn sn the chcumferenta diction whi ate supported the rad dvection. The anaissicades bending sal treme scons 8 well as warping and dstorional affect (Hs, 1989, Although th ‘method provides vome simpy cher the fase elment method teetse of the smaller number of snknowns rite if doer not fr the Reibiy ad versity ofthe later metho Finite Difference Method Is ths method, pid suprimpo on the Structure, an the poverning deena equations are replaced by alge Areas equations that ae slid foreach pi pa, Solution to the Governing Differential Equations (QDE). In his cls 1m analytical sluton to the GDE i obtained. The sluton & usally 8 ‘oud Form ora convergent seis soluon, sch a Fourie sss. ‘Slope Detection Method. In tis approach the parties sau tins are esas in terms of slopertion equations and the solution isasumea to be a Fourier series The ana nudes the ccs of curv tor, nonuniform torsion. and siaphragms, However, the soltion ss wsaly pple toa certain numer of sane and omits. 192.3 Remarks onthe Anaytieal rom the pubis erature on the aalss methods for posing he bea ‘oe of horizontally curved scl bridge gers (Zarisk tt, 1998) can be Sid that the plane grid and space fame mcthods treat chrvod miners ‘aig members and hence re recommended to he wed only fo siinasy design purposes. The Vload method, which was applied to lide aly. underestimates ier girder susses and doesnot consider the bring eit inthe plane of the Hotom Ange In adlton, th sty ofthese esas ‘ependent on the selection of the taneere lnedoad dibuton facors (Poet. 1987). Thus the Voad method can only be recommended for pe Tar analysis “Aone the ied method, the finite element tho i prouly the mos lnvolved and tne consuming” However, sil the most gener 8d co ‘rchensve technique that hasbeen spied othe static and yam casi. Sind icase unas with dierent meshanial and thea odin. Many sevral-parpose ite clement ane tare do incorporate + raph is {ace to the ensting computer codes, whch expedite modeling and dreting ofthe srctre and allow the we to view resi and mod) the loading, oundary conditions, andor configuration The eter rind methods ar as ‘pod the ite men esd bt re nite to etn conisatons and Boundary conditions, and they are generally more cumbersome 1 se 9, STABILITY OF CURVED -GIRDER BRIDGES 9.34 Flange-Slenderness Requirements ‘The combination of beading and warping in an Isaped curved girder rests in nonuniform distribution ofthe ses actos the compression flange woth Therefore, the outse part ofthe lange wl buckle ata sires ale illret fiom that othe side prt, To stay the king problem ofa cured shape {er Frampton (1968) snd Culver and Frampton (197) examined analy Silly the chstie backing case, in wich each lf of the Mange was tated Separately as an swotopie stor plate fee on one edge and fotationally ‘eraind along the other edge by the web andthe otber hal f the Mang. The fundamental equation of bucking Was then writen im ola coordinates abd solved aumevially sig definite dierence method. This investigation ‘tas Inter extended by Culver and Nas (199, 1971) to coker not ony the laste but also the inelastic Range lea! Wocling behavior. Inthe inela Tangs the mathemati! model was Based the assurpion of emthowopie tehvior Their merical eal showed thal tesellunc of curate is ery sal for fang curate ration 110" = / =O, whee bythe bal tlh ofthe Mange and isthe rads of he cared ide, and that ing Speeds across the Dans, ba the Buc ses ard the buckled wavelength ‘tease. The den recommendations resin rom his toy suggested tha the widbtoshickaess rato be limited to tht set fort in the 1969 ATSC Speciation for stright roll compact beams (yt = 1650/VF, where F, tein pl and isthe exh of al ofthe fangs) Culver (11) peeled & fummury of his research related to proportioning the compression Barge 3 horizontally cored Lprer tn printed ot thatthe toll ses (apg ls teing) tthe fangs tip mst fe itd to SF. ithe AASHTO Bye it Torstriaht pers ned forcurved srr such case. the factor of aety giost lea buckling for hot sight and curved girs becomes ese aly the sane regardless of the rao of bending Yo warping sss. THe tpproach hae besn adopted in the AASHTO guide seston, where the Aang: Teal bacling criterion 5 based ony onthe ati. This appreach seas lenge recently by Kang ad Yoo (190), who sed theft element ode MSC NASTRAN to demonstrat that in cared idr, eal Bucs ofthe Mange salsted not only by the widths ati ut als by the Ina euratuve and the warping nol tess. Komatsu ad Kitada (181) ‘se an elasoplaste ie displacement analysis to study the ultimate strength touanding se! plates Wath nl iniperfectos. Rests of ths stay were salto propose a senderes ratio fora compact ange a follows (Naka an Yoo, 1988; Ktada el, 1988, 193)fi» fama. Fen i\ oa =O on eg in Uniting age eter a: . [E sean 2 0 Agu it shouldbe remind tha isthe width hal the long, vis Poisson's ‘io, and the modula of elastic 9.3.2. Web-Slonderness Requirements “The web-slendernest requirements fr # curved gine ifr from those of suuight girders. These eguirements ae often based onthe bending Bbavoe, the shea behave a combination ofthe wo, andthe web our oF ne dee tions. Experimental data pertaining to th behavior of carved ides with tnsiened webs ae limited 103 depthstostickness ratio af 10 Theefore, tod sel For crear CPTs omescr the bane point ends oe higher in ‘heal loo sus than that of a comparable SRC or ectangular CT ston. In addition, for CFTs the ifecac a moment eapcitybetwe the balance and no axa oad points tend oe higher sth concrete tenth icreanee andor the tbe slenderess increases because the adiion of il oad Increases the contribution ofthe coneete compression Bock. These dieses ae ilustated, schematic, bythe “east” CFT and "exat” SRC cies Fig. 103.1 should also be nod that for CPTs the est ofthe wall sender: ss (D/t rato as signin pt om the pong sng the sx load lee increases (Bedge and Webb, 1999), Whe the presence ofthe nll, omeree fends to incease the resistance o Ina king By factor of up 0 {Subove that of hollow scons (Mate and Tsuda, 987, flues contol by concrete ershing tend to be very brite sine the ene fst of the onfierent provided by the stl cannot be maintained. For squte hollow ‘ection, Bridge nd O'Sea (1996) found tht the cert ail provided. restraint to inward acl buckling that nance the te strength ovr tat for noo bar stl tube and tha he enhancement cou be taken to acount “sng ste design spetieation and codes tat lowed forthe reas the lest Toa bukling coeficentasotted with the change in buckling moe Contrary to some other research, O'Shea snd Bridge (196) found thatthe once inl di ot eahanc the ail Seen of cca ul a the backs lng mode was predominanty outa Most analy ois show tha the drecesbetwcen the resus of hit type of “exact” approach and those sve hy a splifed theoryesing ie ‘lst stress locks such ax those shown in Fig 104 ave small and ini ‘eam fr dsgn (Rik and Bergman, 1992). This i shown schematically in Leone, Fe Ti ft L (1 ioc capsey (ae A) mo {Balance pit Poet)ig. 103, The axl and Rexura strengths ar determine by assuming noon Sell songts forthe ste and 0.45 ofthe elinder strength fr the conte Forcncse shapes, Fig. 104 shows the plastics detrbtion for sever of the points inte mterution surface shown ia ig 103. Th ana strat, P, iste 1040) Pe DBSLdD~ 4, ADE AR, + Aig 0) coneret einer suength Yield strength of tee shape ld strength of lonptedinal reinforcement rea ofthe ee shape ‘es of longitudinal riforcement | simple and elegant solution for other important pins in the intracton ‘aclae forthe rsd pase ease cane found by following the prosslure proposed by Rotk and Bergmann (98,1982), Consider the typi cae of Sn encased shape tent abou! st major axa and having only four Baty Tongitudnal rsbforeement. If one assumes that the ner ai es 0 the tke ofthese! Bea, the plist tess dstabutins for pnts thou D in Fi. 103 correspond tothe sess dstibutions ia Fig 108 thou Points Band C corespond, respi othe case of no aval lad ao tn apparently array pont inthe imruton diagram abn the bul Point Tn fat points Band C correspond tothe sane moment beause the Ses blocks Ing within the iste yin hoth Fig 10. and ¢ have thir ‘eid tthe pase neural axa and thus do m0 contnite to the plate tending capa ofthe elim. In ation, it weds to be rscomiced from both Figs 1048 ade that the axial foro fom te reinforcement and the ‘had potions ofthe forces fom thes shape cancel ou, Tone weve to add the stress stations in Pips 10 and cad consider ‘vil loads only. the tot axl ld (Pq) would lb that at pot © From ‘sperimposng the tes blocks, this ial oad wil be that given by the cow ‘rete secon sone under x uniform tes af OA” since the contebutions From the sts shape within the distance hy so cancel out. Ths ” B00 4,4) 002) ‘The depth of he compresion bloc, can then be calculated fom Fig. 1040 ty sisi thatthe compresive force inthe contte equ to the ene fore inthe we ofthe te! shape within the datance Mh. This en 0 tal oss, 03) ‘A direc caution for Ay, ower, can be made by subtracting te sues ‘So nt Bem tied adequately and oth aaltal and experimental Aton heen this are. Fly, theres a now to beter cordate te “hous Joign approaches proposed by dierent organizations. The desi of Compose eae should esl in # mame iteration between reinforced & conc eds, sen or concent ls ‘Maiioz and Hsu (1997). » ACLS ng odor eo Con a Came AC A. MF 00, “A Ds Eno an Cn Can” MS AU GE Src Caan f Sl Reforms Src, ‘paling Ansan inno St Catantiow Cage ‘one (1980) "Propo Spsiaina for Sisal i Rea wit Web Opsenes” ASCE J Sot ag NO TI No. Tepy 3S Tat ASCE Ts Comte o Dei Crt i Cnn Stra Sel exe Cote Coma” ASCE Snes Bags Wal LD Ne ST, ASCE Task Commitee on Deen Cites fr Compose Straus in Ske an ‘Chace "hop en Cen or Conse ss ASCE Tak Grupo Hn en 9), ft Loh on el Ld “ee ring Tam Ings ian ed Ds ene tar Devin Aaa Sty 6 CM asa, A and Stier W. (196), "Deron f Formal othe Dain of acangar Conon Can” nC Sul Vl Peso. ed M.A (“Dag gt Coat Pe ene te ‘Beadord. M.A. and Gilbert R990. "Tite Dependent Analysis and Dy cima ln ASE Stl Hah Sp ids RQ (97) “Compete Colmes Unde Suan Loh ACE Sr Dr, 8) The Lane Tem Beir of Compote Cate Cagn Scere Erona Now Yop. aba Mt Ws Ansan Bog Q and OShes MD, (Ma), Local Bung Sse Thi Walle Sit Tee Pg nt a lS iy Rocked, RQ, and Wah, 00), “Tn Wale Cr Conc Fld Se Ensen and W MK. Reds, Amen Sosy f Cl Ene, New Yor, yon. 0 0d Mate, RG (979) “Sufse Canon Eto Bond Stet "it Bam En in Cote” ACT VoL 9, No 7p. 39-46 Buck, CD. apd Stahovs, 8d (197), Compote Consrain Sel nd oi, SoH 10," Unt Sengh of Concrete Fie Take Coun in Capo ‘Corton i Se Comes D- Backer and M. Ves, Amen Scorer Coa Eeicon New York 72-1 Cleo K, Epson, Band Grr M. (9%, High Stent Cone Ui in ‘Comp Cla Pron Som. Uae Hise Cnr WT Never bet. CaBE pp. 19528 (Cen, W- yan Chen (197), “Ana of Cont Fil Stel Table Beam "Clos" ARSE Pl S309. gC. Atv A Ml, 1 (“ir an ee ah ‘sone High Stag Conn Cine V 1 No p27 3 Destin, GG (1089, “Aa Once of he 184 NEHRD Recomended Ponsons forthe Scnmic Dean Cogan Sren” Pr Seat Come X(N Sinai, Nop. 105s Desin GG, and Lave, RT. (199) “Design Cite for Compote Se ‘Conte Sites Curent Sats ad Future Nos” m ACL SP be ond ‘Compe Sats 8B Sasa GS Ame Conte Isine Dein G. Shih TM. Yar. As and Sow, 0. (1989), Beano ome! Cooectons er Compote Fry, Pe” ASCE Sac og, VO THS)No. STI, py. 28772886 Dekke, NW. Kern A: Ry abd Tico, P1995), “Fars Ilene th ‘Seveh of Comtouons Compote Bans ix Nepate Beading” J Cau Stl Dobra Av and Ping, E98) "Demin edhe ue se ‘ton dae ex e outs mts comptes un ro etal naked ‘on Rep MT 241, CRST ras Belen, Dan, Land Chen, WF, (99, “Dag nen auton for da Ese WS nd Ros, WM 1, Compe Cmrcon St 15198) irc Dern of Compre Se and Coc Sir, Buoy ‘Commas fr Staton Bra, Bap ‘ Tami 8, Suc, C.F an Deen, (199) “Eratation of ACL IS ‘nd AISC (LR) Sienth Provo for Compose Re Clans Car, eo ase {LRFD) Strength Provisons for Composite Columns” J. Cas See! sons RW: (6"Stegih of Steel End Conte Beam Clans" ASCE. Fane RW. (96), "Desg of Se Esse Consete Rent Cols” ASCE J. aon RW. (979, “Concre Ec Stel Bm Clim: Dosen Tai ‘ASCE J Stoct. Dt, Vat 100, No Sp. 6S Ta atone RW. (189), “Can Rae of ACY SSLC, and LRFD Comput" ASCE “Sat ng Va 109, No STS pp 2575-256 atone RW. 196), "Steal Caste Compote Cola" n Ste Coneree pre Sree. Nata hv Api Se, Nw York Sie Tbe 417, Vl 64, No egy. OE (Gal 8. Cuan Yanai (193), "Prosdigs the 192 US-lpan Deen fC adm Fag. Uae) of Mihi ‘Gourley. Haj 1-980, "Cpe Now ear Ansys Conte Fil Enencng Unity of Minenot, Minerps Mn our. 8 C. aj. a Sei, PH (999° Sop f Stas 0 Monaosc id Cie Betevior of Cnc ile Se Tue Bes. Cohns fap ho ST925, Depend Mita Ewing Uae ‘rane, M. (190, "Compose Colts of Holo Stl Seton Fil with High ‘Steep Conte” Pl 922 Don of Coccte Sct Canes Unters of Testolgs Gteor, Soden, Gris LG. 196). "Some Deen Consens fot Compote Frame Sse “MISC Bp. VoL28"No- spp S04 ‘eit, G95, “Composte Fane Contes,” in Contraction Sa Bese (ed P Dowling etal) ver Appel Some, Landon pps 5 ris LG, (193), “Land and Resse Factor Deon of W Shapes Ease i {Conte 4ISC Des Cue 6 DOH), Ama fe Se! Conan, cap. 212 pp Moje Mich, Cink, W. D, an Rao, 6 ‘asic Behavior of Coneret Filed Stel Ciel Causa” Pro ded It Cont (09), “SeeSint Concrete Compa, Sto M, Wakabayashi), Fukuoka, Jy, pp. 13 Jison, Tz ak (198), SieeCamrte Conpaste Stace, Pc 5. EXPERT Setaon BG (97), le Stal Deg fr Met Stacie) Wey, New omaon RP. (1980, “Satis Calton o Sy Faso for End Carte ‘Chin Compe Cora Se and Conroe od Joann, RP, and HopeMcGil, M. (1972) "Semirid is ia Composite Ahem RP. an Mays. M198), “Tes on Rewind Composite Colas Keio, B. and Tag J (9KD, "Beido-Calane Conscion of a Compe “Sin Campo and Med Caco es. Roel, Amereas Knowles Rand Perk R199), “Sionth of Conte File Stet Tabular Columns ASCE. Sct Exp, Vol No. ST p. 268 237 Kone, eB ad Pak (97D), “Aa Lod Desig for Cone File Stel ‘ute ASCE J St Exp, VoL 96.No STUD pp 2128 283 Lov, Compote Semi "Sel Ds ed Dominga) noir sens ater New York. ps Braces” ASCE J. Swat. Emp. Vl. 14, Ne. 7. pp HHH-1306 Later J (1999, “The Reb of Composte Coins nd Re Calas Siac Fg. Rp 83-2 Dequrtnent 0 Cans Mineral Epc Une of Manes Maespal, Mit Macs, . (1989, "Deg of Slnbr Core Coleman Revista” ACH Main, Sand Berea, ¥. (1977), RCCOLA: 4 Comptr Program or RC. Coa “imi Users Maal an? Ducane, Dearne 9€ Cul agers. ‘Srey of Calor, Bey. Ca ~ Mai Cand Tai, K. (SEP, “Suenth aed Beir of Cnet “Suive Tuba Cans wth Large With Tks Raton” Pro Pc Conk El ng 2, Wb ow Pin Mira, S.A. and Strabek, BW. (1992), “Statscal Analy of Slender Composite “Cooma Sng ASCE J. St. Dis, Vo 1K, No. SE, pp STE Moro, Ubi, and rah, M98, “Expert St of he Bor of Re Baam-olemy Subst Yo Bll eng Conte Comin Moro, 8 Kamae J Yara, C. and Kank 8.199, “Bain of tay. Aera Sty of Ci poses New Yor ny TL Maser, PR. nd The, CT. T. (98D, "Billy Loaded Cote Based ‘Compose Cotas Design Eaton” ASCE 2 of Src! VO 1 ‘ala H Kuti Aa ios (190, “AB Expeiet Shiyon rept Cone bed Set ip Proc id Ci St Cae Comp Sar [NENRP (930, "Conponte Stet nd Concrete Ste Des Reitenents"in UY en vs Rr ewes FEMA Neo PK, Sen HK and Chap). C (99), Conse Tab Se lumen Vode ast Lod Sct Ee. Wak. No 5 p81. (eh, Dan Bran MA. (99. Conor Ste! ad Gee Stata Mon: Fanon er, egaon Pls, NY Tab Conse Sac Caonte Consucon tlanl Conc (oD, ener and LM. Vis), Amenan Sosy Cl Bape New Yor (O'Shea, MD andi, R (1994 “The Dg Cros Conse Fi Stee “hh Pr SEC tao of ees aa Sy (O'Shet, MD. and Bs, RQ (1989, “Cle Thiel Toes with Hh Seca Cone ti img Cn Sel nd Coc i, JM and Paton, (984, “Stra eran ofS ns ide, J-My and Popo. EF U9). “Compre Asn in Esa Brace Ste, Renforced Concrete and Composite See Concrete Clues in the URRobin, Ht, and Nang, KS. (18, “Sp and Ui Es in Compo TEM ve) Acar Soy of Chil Empey, Now York pp i707 Rone © Wf (985), Cngont and ied Const, Amara Sxl of oad, CW. (185, "or Stew f Eola Stet Shapes Conte” in “Cope and Mid Conran © Rosle 227-20. Ro, Kad Berman, R85) “Corpoie Couns: Design and Exams fo Rok, Rand ergs, R. (196), “Report on uroode 4 Cae 48 an 43— ‘Composte Colas C461, Minne for Reumordeag Bosse. thd ‘Stats der Bureplc Devin, RS 1410960, Boon. Gera. Roi, Ke and Bergmann R- (992, “Compose Cots” in Cancion Set ‘sed. F Dongs l) Envir Soe Por, New Yr pp. 1-170. SinePson, C.F. (92), "Bebair of Compote Column CroveSectons Under “inl Being M Se thes, Crmll Une, NY. Shatrne, BM Renter, ME. and Oi, F (193), “Sismic Digs ant ‘formance of Corp Shar Wal” ASCE J Sr Bg Vol 18, No Salih, H. (19, “Ste Consrete Compost Clames: "in Se Conese ‘Compost Since (oR Noa, Eker App Scene. New Yok SuhirKholl Hy and Mui, M. (9%), “Punter Tees om Conceetie Rs Haw Soon Csirans Sat. Vl ASA Shakil Rand Zaphice, 2-98), "EepeintlBelaie of Conseil 1" Mament Connections for Composite Frames, Pat,” ASCE J. Stae. Di, Vol SSK Tatk Group 30 (197, "A Spoication for he Deipn of Sc-Conet ‘Compose Catan” ASC Eg. VOL Wo No pp IIS stevens HF (19), "Encanto" St Bap, VoL, No.2. pp 39-6. Ta, AN and Lord AR (192). "Tess of Clana An Imei of the Wale of Comets a Reniocement for Sarl Stat Cams” Bul 3 ‘Uist flies EnsicengExpermet Son Champaran, Th “Torn LJ, Klik Gane Menigamery C.J 198)" f Sel Pate “Ser Wal Sout Eng. No 107 Ute bora, Elontn, ABE Vist M Coico, P, Fle RW. Gi. Leon R-Tand Wylie LA. ‘Gino, Compe Conte Drsg for Bag, ASCE McGraw 1, New Vid KS, and Dning P3197). The Uninae Seng of Composite Caan tin Bein” PC, Eng Pa 2, Val SS. pp. 21-27 ih 8 ed Dig, 70." Ue Dei Mod fr Come ed KS Dg 1.8,“ Shin Con Si Tes Watatyash Mi, “Stade or the Deg of Cart Ena St and ‘Conrail Tr Stato apn ros US toon Se Comp Siac lao SoS, Cho Sopp, Tako, pp. A ‘Wim. Aan Lee #198), “Phot Tess om nbd Sl Paes” Pa CON 2, Be Poe Fee de Lane Latanee, Send ‘Win, J. Ay and Lede I (9800, “Test othe Aplaon af Fos 09 She. \Componie Clann Pit 1COM 3 Ee Pogue Feed Lae, [tne Satan Yamuna Hy Main, A Gel. Cy and Nigam 1. (999, "US fue Cox pers Eatguske Reach Program on Compont ans Hybi Sines Pr 182 8 Jopn Worshap Caper Hyd nc, US Japan Csoprne(CHAPTER ELEVEN STABILITY OF ANGLE MEMBERS ‘4 iwrRooUCTION Single anges in compresion are we in many apleations, such 8 web mem tere im set joste and irae, members of Intel ramon Towers oF ‘communication sractre, semen af bultup clara, and being Me bor Bolted or welded members made of single ange are commen in Sis plante to support pipe, cable rye and Meing, venting 2d condoning systems Single angle ere popuir besause they cn easily be connected 10 other stratara embers, They are tnost always connected excel) at heir fds. In mont pact sppliatons, angle are loaded throws one le oy. th itroducing sxe with respec fo the eno ofthe cos seo, It the sine tine retaining motets atthe ends ofthe member ae also ‘sent dt tothe Hexoral nity ofthe connected cements. In rational ‘sign phosonhy therfore he detent effet ofthe end cece) and the advantageous fect ofthe ed estat onthe compression capacity othe tvs member shouldbe nesed Further, dc othe anymmetry ofthe Shwe toss section, the determination ofthe compression capacity under Kcentc fading along wth sd etait is complex. The end exentscies ‘Snes Regal deformation of the sut at any give Toad ths the problem is that of load-tormation response. Double anges are ao tre {vents woe as meer in russe and se bring members The ase wi ‘whch eoonetons cn be made comtbate tothe popula) of Ce we Desa often wed as teams in was, ack, stipe! sopport ames, ie suppor systems plus other ight lade framing. Anges wed in joists tu ses ae olen subjected Toes from tases oa To ths chapter, single and maltipleagle members subjected to compres: son andlor Rexure are adresse. Experimenta and aly research ad andar industry practice inthe Unie Stats and abroad at lo discus ‘142 REVIEW OF EXPERIMENTAL AND ANALYTICAL RESEARCH ‘The cals tts on anges in compresion in North Amica were pformd by the National fsens of Standards (192). Aer a gup of 24 yar, Foch! (Ubi) reporto tess om seven sinle-anpl steel colina One ep atthe end ‘Sch ofthese columes was webdal tothe sem of sri ee ecto, thes Simulating the acrngenea i the web af ong spun jst. The main ects ofthese ets wer to deteine the elev sendemet ration thes cour Sod te asertia which ep ofa unequal ep angle shouldbe peed perpen abr othe plane of the tas was conclude that the one fey shouldbe ‘lcd inthis poston. At Washinaton University total and experimental Investigations were cared out-on singleanglecolunas under ial ese lading (raat 1969; Usa 1970: Uti al Glan, 1971 Ligh nd Galambos, 1972). The est pocinens were representative the web neers used in standard long sa se! jst wth the eds welded 10 stroctral Tzetins to silat th coeds such ssn ancl inves “gation was catia out by acsoming tat the column is made ofan else. perfectly paste materi nd representing the out-of plane en een by Slisi-plstc rotational sping and the t-plae ed restrain bp an eastc Tottiona sing: god eorelation betwen the there and experimental ‘els was obuined Usa and Fakumeto (1972) sie the Behvior of ‘mle members it was found tat the ff of rekalsesaes was nt se sant conctson which agro oth the salir fing of hia (1988) Te ‘as recommended thatthe maxumem low ofan esse) Touded angle bracing member ean te aken a 5% othe maximum loa of sonesponding concntallyhaded member The nfuence of nd connections om the fa-aeying capac of web ange ‘members was eneinentally sued by Lorin and Cle (197) They found ‘hat incesing the yield strength ofthe gust plated ot ica the oad ‘artyingeapacyof the merber however, doubling the tikes he eet ne fom Bin, to OBin-snrased the backing led by approximately 1 [E-Tayem and Goel (1986) reported on ets performed on tons eaing ‘sem made of ieleangle mens. Only one alo the compreion di al bucked about the weak prinspal as A theoretical model aching the ‘ubresraint effec ofthe gusct connection and the restraint effet of the tension diagonal, was ao presented to dpi there of the tate The ‘trl on the eapucty ef the compretson diagonal mst compared with "he AISC speciation (1989) compression capacity uning the weak inpais slenderaes rato and one-half the length of he compression digooa. The ‘ule indicate thatthe use ofan effectvedength factor K equal 10088 i Sceplable without inctaing the eect ofthe nd centric in the comput tion ofthe allow loads, ‘Works by Culver (1966) sn Dabrowski (961) canbe ato prt the laste capa of eeenrly connected single angle sts The elect of “eer end esrait (vey the sme end retain 8 bot ends of the ‘Nu vas ivetgnted by Trbi (1909) for he sate ese, Bodh ual and Unequal eg anes were init inthe sty. The applicable quien ‘Sustions mere solved ising the rite integral method, The nd condton Somidered is shown io Fig. IL-1. Line 4B in this gure represents a knife ‘Slge support; load i assumed to be appli nywhere slong pe 4B. The rule ofthe analysis were compared wih tet by Fol (198) and good ‘green! was found between the analysis and test rests It has to Be noted that th nvetigaton di notice the ees of ial deformations on he Toad-carying capacity ofthe angle stats “The ess of tess condaced by Elsaly et al (1991 1992) indicated that the design speciation fr single angle members (AISC, 1989) can Be com Servatve wile the ASCE (1988) design rewmmendations for transmission tomers cam be unconsatve, Based on avaible test rel, Ad and ‘Madugus (1992) raced the sume sonlusions with respest to the require: ‘mons ofthe AISC specications, Fite element soaysis provide genera “eos Rete mysmy80") e-TL1- ose leaded single nae st (Tabi, 196 Ly too forthe determination ofthe laadcarrying capacity of cocentricaly com hevied angle sus. Two base sleratves are ataiabe. The stat snd ite ‘Shumscons ean be modeled wing plate ements. Ths type of models as the advange of incldig local pte bicklng and erosional distortion tlle. Honever, the modeling and computational efforts avaied i sich a tai can Be jostied only for lated ut problems. The second appre ‘isso the beucolumn theory of the open eos ection fa this method them elements are ss which makes i poe to model elie large frame asebles with minimum modeling sod computation efor. Chunmes {Ib studied the inelastic Bling of single ange stat ning age deform tin plate element soap, The snl ets wer In good agreement with teen, "Agzteral nite beam cement solution devlopedat Lehigh Universi Huet 211982; Let al, 198) was used to predict the stengt of ungualeg ange ‘utsloaded troigh guest plates inthe centro the otsading ke. Figutes 2 and 113 show the esl from ana of «3% 2 [in ange for to ‘ass, mith the Tong leg outtanding and with the short lg outstanding A Comparison ofthe ress indicated that the lng ey oustanding arangement isnot always the more fovorabicarangement Th fit, higher ulumate epoot maybe blaine withthe shor eg oustanding arangement forties shoet 342% hin ange 42 in te gusset Camber srt E312, smash nan de hog i pa hr3x20 hin ange amber drt + ane 1.3, mse og nn st ro a members, The ess ho indicted that end estan an sgiScay incense the strong of an centrally ded single-angle srt: Kiiponshat ond {Chon (987) presented inte beam element analysis for singloangle cost section the ean range End scents apd end esraits were ded Inthe nabs. The formulation wed the conventional beam stifes tn Slog with a aoometry matrix spciclly derived for tbe angle cos eton “The equim equations were solve i loud spe accounting forthe PS. lec, the rls thus oblased were compared with the ress of Tebait [0965 which did oti the Pa etlet Figure 114 shows tht the ‘let cam have a significant infuence op the load-carrying expat of the ‘Sooty cometd sigloangle srt. 114. Elastic Behavior Ths sate bohavoe ew spi cae of the stability of thin-walled members (Bich 1990, Chap. Vino. 196, Chap. 6 Timoshenko and Gere, 961, {Chap 9) Sic the shar ceteris cated the intersection of he two am Ieee there praca no wauping pity and the warping constant Cc : + “7 Geometry Hot Uodtaa = ctomary Upsates ig. 114 icing of ently had snd resnined gl bemclumns be assumed to be suo. Angle members loaded through the centro by a ‘omprsie aia force wl buckle earl buckling aoa the min rn ‘pl ani ofthe cross eton ora torsonal-lexrl mode. The erie Tad 2 Galarbon, 1968) ite lowest roa ofthe eaton, (PIP. — PU, PU, =P any where ay aay) aia“The tems in these equation are defined in Fi. 1.5, and ithe lng ofthe column For equal leg angles =0 and Bg. can be redeasto Pa min.) as po lten ba lih a Pal aPe ll) ot 3 = 7A) Equations 11.2 and 11.3 apply only for pended columns. neal some resi i ntodoced by the method a allachment ofthe angle other tremors ofthe structure. Bocase thi stahnent i often toon eg oy, the ‘modsing ofthe end stain fc bosoms complicated, Only few sluions fre avaiable (Trahal, 1969, Kapornchal and Lee. 986). An aceptable ‘sign fice solution fe the use of effectvelength factors 0 that Egy 112 and 113 ae ee, p= Tele aun igo eee ans) where K.L and Kate the eee length i thew and = dietons, resp they. [Equations 11:2 and 113 or Eg 1.7 and 11.8 ae valid only inte esi. range Ineisic havior of angle colunes has been investigated by Kitporsckat and Ler (986) using the finite cement method somewhat les eaborate solution tt replace the elastic modulus Evo Eqs 11.2 and 11 (or Ege 1. and 118) byte tangent mode, The sear modus Gin [Eg 4 remains unchanged. Approximate tangent modulus represetaions for scl nd aluminum are given in Chapter 3 of ts guide. Use of the ange ‘modulus is complicated hy the nec for teraion. A simpler approximation & ‘commended in Append ES ofthe AISC-LRFD speciation (AISC, 1959) td is desea Follows 1, Determine the slat eral oad P by Ea. 11 oF 1.62 appropri - seem: Wetted Se emeees Acomars creme), erames-cemen) Fe: 11S. Dssion of oman prope, 2 Compute a equivalent slenderness parameter nil) ee aus) 4. Determine the buckling load using the formula in Section E2 of te AAISC:LRED spesifstion, Kitoencai (1985) suppl the following approximations fr the suis let sendernese ratio from curve-fitingslutns to Equations 1.1 1h. For equabies aegisau) heey = D/B and as = By “Teas performed hy Kennedy and Murty (1972) on hot angles sowed that this method provided 9 stinfacory prediction ofthe tenth, Si entation has ben provided by Marsh (196), who found that bi ets fnslender equa kg aluminum anles wah single and double ball connections Were adequately predicted by ay oom win, anny Oey au ‘Upner mis of 0.0, (ing bots) and 67, (double bts) wee ple om POM, AP). 1134 Eccentric Loading ‘The exact ste solution of a ale with revtrsined ends ad eset comm presse load 5 complied, and numerical mathods must be emploved (Trahai, 196, Kipovochal and Chan. 108), Exact solutions for axl loaded columns with equal end essences canbe bene by the method then by Culver (1968) If ach columns hive ite ends, simple seluton fan te obtained by assuming the defied shape to be a al sine wave {Dabrowski 961. Thi method is strated in Fig 116 and 11.7, ad he omputations will result im midhepht deformations, from which deflation ‘When the axial eompresve lo is applied with eset and e, (i 11avtbe problem tno Tongr a tfreton proba seas deformation all ‘cau with any aa loa theo feomes news oder the real Stesc, whi nay Become amplifies orperaps even rede, was found Forsineeanle beams by Thomas etl (973) eto the destin and tes. ifthe section The problem af extra loaded sl end etsned ape anh owt | ina: Layee rie Sent Sola Wray. fom sonny tee satan eons n° Pet) ro) oon) re ol ss) ta] [Plena] [eerie wo ott wedetanin be end actos nt st ‘seca ce cee fengle struts forthe spoil case of end retin provid by te stubs, which pproxiate the double-angle chord ofa ts, was examined forthe ease ‘Se by Trubs (190) forthe lint sate an nd or he nla cae by ‘Unmi and Calanbor (1971), Tear conpared it rene with te per omed by Foch! (948), and Usim and Galanos (1971) reported compar. ‘Sons wih saris of tess performed by than and with Foes test Ta Boh ‘Sosy, pod corltion wa achive tween tt and prediction. In cis of ‘npblnbed papers hy Usa (1970), nd Ligh ad Onlambos (1972) tes the strength of Sagleangle stein webs ia tse were reported, tl the ‘ele rom the interaction equation, Fo Ml FIR Wat 1 any TR ‘ere compared tots renls and theoretical preictons. Kt was found that, Tid gave a satsactory if somewhat eonseratine prediction ofthe acta aac, provided that the end sorties were reduced To A600u8 oe fu retina foe the other web members ening the pel ott. Py and ‘Pring 11.4 are defined by Egy. IL-2 and 113. ey ad ete te cceaiies sown in Fig. 1.6 and fy and May ae the moments required o produce ompresive yield in the exiee ier when P= 0. Eqetion 1.14 has also been recommeed for the design of singleangle web members oF tases whos ends ae connected tothe chords by weing or by wing multiple ote onnetions(Woskcock and Kitiporeha 1980, 1986), Cares pendad nds ‘ng on approprie end moment vale if these ret Bot the eet of he lord een accurately. A modifeation of Ba. 1-14 containing a ad ‘onal toon term fs oon stapes by Marsh (1972), wh found Dat it five good preitons of is tess om equal anges under bial excenti Joading While further cretion ofthe appication of Eq 1114 would be sol the evidence salable sugrats hast consti a easonabl basis for the design af ales required to luction 3s beamclumes The other alternatives git iret, and torn wth he designers of transmision ower. Thisaleratve appli to sagl-anle tus connects at her ens on one ep by bos or by weg. The axa fod is thus apod ‘Sceatcaly, andthe end reread. For the dsign solution the dene ss vatlo is moied for use im an ppropete column forma so a8 1 scount empirically for both the ed eccentricity andthe end retrain Examples ofthis approach ae pen hy both the ASCE (988, 1992) ECCS (1916) esommendations. Thee methods ave been reviewed by Kenney and Madan (1982), Sspport forthe possible extension ofthis approach 10 8 wider range of structures has boen provided by Haare al (1981) on te Tn of dead inte lemon easton for angles Loaded (and restaine®) through oe Te To suo. peset information on sscentricly loaded single angle tt applicable for daign ofce wenden he uzaion ofthe iateractonegut+ si (mod by the Q-factor redetion scheme ofthe AISC speieaton for Ite bucking, where sppicabc) in peer, andthe eof an empire ee the eng torn particular fr tangulatl tower are appropriate Theory ttc has bee valted by tests avaiable to bused forthe detelopnet of Tove ecirate design ere \4_ CURRENT INDUSTRY PRACTICE FOR MOT-ROLLED SINGLE ANGLE MEMBERS IN THE UNITED STATES. {1.44 ASCE Manual 10-00: Designof Latticed Stoo! Hansmiasion For sinpe-anale members sed in tranumision toners the ASCE (1985, 1992) reognias the imporance of the etoentnaty of had and the rotten festins atte connectoos on the sual load-carrying capoclty. An efote Tenth Tato & cade to accommodate the various end conditions of Sngleangle member, Bad on a reviow of many gear of tower indy “apricnce andthe reso aboratory an fllacae tower tert the ASCE. ‘Sign standard provides the folowing recommendations regarding ees of A. For members with senders aisles han 120, the end escent a the most predominsot role Conver). compressive capac of ige- Inge members with lenders ratios greater tha 20 laced primary bythe end eotational rsa For members paral esate agalast ros ‘io at only one en, mosore(in faa aay For members partly restrain aginst rotation at both ends, (i V2. Also fisted these two tubo are the sinplifed roles fom ECCS on the design of ang ‘rember: inate tansmaion towers which gto be wed nthe ial es ‘Thon cn stents, en resin, and mest conta canbe be deine TABLE 1h arpa Prats for Desig Silage Cenprsion Members? i ‘Grometie Ac ag ‘Cots (97) CS “Retmudntos fr Lats Cone2 Empean Pati for Desig Single-A Compreion Members with Bd Retin Picking Abo srr mie E ' & é 1068 “Resomenttion for La clery. Noe thatthe hai approach of ECCS ver similar to those flowed {ihe ASCE 1090 standard nd ia Eurocde 8 (ECS. 1992), For singleanal tts connected toa gusset or dely another member at ‘Scteen! by tho or more fastener in ine along the ange oF by am equivalent ‘eked connection, te Senders ai, should be taken as not es han ssh 4. 07 +30 aay whe he nv of gyration abot the minor pina axis and ithe Talis of gration aboot the au paral tothe plane ofthe pune or the Sppertng ember. Consideration ofthe rotational ent peri the ws fam flute engi facior of 88 whe the end eecentey elle akon into nxount nthe out plane buckling it's spe fener end connection is wd at each cod of the snge-anple stu, Li sould be taken a nt fe than £ oe ork 430 ain {a other words, the rotational estrsin eet senor inthis ae. In 0% ofthe compeenion reatance of commending conceal faded 1452 Australian Practice [A design approach wae proposed by Wookck and Kitipornsha (1986) to ‘sign singlvange wed members, Bray, they coon the combs ‘tes interaction equation fo be wed for bucking and ending i he plane Perpendicular to the tase. The out-of plane Bending momen at heen of ch srt i azul considering theese of the connection a the lnlence of adjceat web members. The uments standard AS 4100-1990 tho fallow thi approach, 1154 Japanese Practice The Design Standard for Stel Stactres ofthe Architectural Intute of| Japan recommends that sngeanle web compyesion members of tus be signed as pn-endel centrally comprened member, mojeted t busking "hou the minor pencil ans. Where the en conseton of web member 'ecomplshe hy single fastener, the allowable compress sets thesernembss shal ered by half 0 account forthe fest of end esenticty fod Tore of ead restraint ‘110 DESIGN OF AXIALLY LOADED COLD-FORMED SINGLE ANGLES “Te proviéons ofthe ANSI-ASCE Standard 1090 (Design of Laced Sie! Tron Strats) (ASCE, 1992), the Catala COA-S136MB9 (Cold Poomed Stel Stata! Montes) (SA, 1989) and the ECCS recommends thn ar suiarized in th section ‘1151 ASCE Standard 10-00 1092) Mistrial, most transmission atures have en abit from hotrod sk anger The svat of thiner otolled sections limited, Cold formed anges ae more sey available in thinner and Smale sections ‘They provide s ful lems for more economical suuctres. An excel Tent summary onthe dein of ool-formed angie or tansmisson tower is [pven by Gaslord and Wile (985). rik hotlld sctions,colformed anges are availble in more vat ‘tif shapes Tre ofthe more commonly wed configurations are 0” angle, {a angi, and ppd angle. The commended desi ete for compression ‘member wing coléforned anges are covered by the updated version of ASCE Manual 52, ented as ANSI-ASCE 1990. ‘Desig of ok orme lin angles Meni that of ho old anges cep at he Mat wth shuld be fake ete es wide minus the thik ‘minis 2 maximus ine bend rave of two times the angle thekwes. The [ASCE sanded (ASCE 10-9) rue the meer to fe ehecke for xara tn local backing, The vali of tase desig eieia have een ered trperimentally for cokforned angles concentcally or exentill loaded {Giylod and Wilko, 1989. or symmetrical ip angi the meer mast be checked for Reara and torsional evar bucking This is Dou the Heal bukling stent of th lipped eng Ie isnot eau o forsona buckling. The torsional Bexar ‘cing svength can be determined bythe ATSC specication forthe design of oi formed sls stucurl member, oF wing a equivaent rai off re where = equivalent sade of gration for torsional bucking 1 = YE OAH, C. = barping constant {= StVenunt torsional constant KL © elev ength p= polar moment of nein of crs scion about shea centr 7, © fads of gyrtion of cross section about Os 1, © distance between centro and she center Vint = polar rai of gyration about sear enter In ain, the edge sfc should consist of singe lip beat at ht angle tothe seed clement and meet 2 minimum ip depth fequieent valstion of torional-Rexarat bung reques dtemination of cern feometical properties wich are aot eaeountersd in Sexialeeklng Frecdurs or computing the torsional constant, the warns constant The Renin a he shear cet, por moment of nein about the shear cen and ots proper of oles etons are sen in the AISI Col Formed Set Deson Monat (AISI 196) aod sp Madapula and Ray (988). 116.2 Canadian Standard C5A-5196-Ma9 1904) Coktformod anges are dsignd ax axialy loaded columns. The design of ‘oncetrly load col-foned member i ews further in Chapter 13 ‘116:3 lS Specification forthe Design of Cold-Formed Steal Structural Members AISI 996) In tis peieation colored ahs ae tobe designed for both axial oad and fen se Chapter 13 foe dtu ofthis prod) The Avs cold omnes stl standard ssa othe AISI sto M64 European Practice ‘The ail trength of cold formed angles is detemined in the same way a8 for hoc angles according to BECS recommendation (197) exept tat the dus of elastiy of Cll formed stew taken av 210GPa. Based the ‘work of Madugul tl (1983 and Madugua abd Ray (19840) the computes fare loads using ECCS recommendation are teres than or very lose 10 ‘he experimsntal ale lone or eesentealy owded eod-formed ange for tslenderes saos. They ae generally more conserva than hose ven in ‘ASCE 10:90 (1992) Further, the ECCS reeommendstin pvr cnet) the ane ulate ASCE i050 forthe conti ed eaomed117 CONCLUDING REMARKS ON THE COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH (OF ECCENTRICALLY LOADED SINGLE-ANGLE MEMBERS ‘The compresive strength of score loaded sngl-ange memes as been tae over the ear both nately and experimentally. Where ad ‘stains and econ ar lel Sef, the strength of he elm ea ‘be prdicted with god sceuracy unin ether nicl stabi aa the ft element method. The ater method as eld very poo resus bth the ele and nels online range Hoth the experimental nd analy stole show that dhe compresve steagth af singleangle members is weakened by end secentiiy in the lower senders rao rage It as alo ben sonaded tht the end rstri ‘insignificantly incese the imate strength of snpeanglemenbers of Figherslendrnese ration. One ofthe mow felt tak for designers 6 (0 {age orto determine the end retsnt ad ecentty condition for thir Specie application Fare to conse the restalnt effact could Id to a9 ‘economia dean, On the otfer hand ignoring the end sxcnty may Sometimes esl im an unsafe denn. To case a safe and economia design ofa sete made of sngleamsle members, designers mist Pa steton {0 ‘nimiingfamingexsatcty i dtalng angle connections nie the bet ‘ial efets of rotational retains whore ppicable sho note ior “Te empl approach to ince the flat of ed testa and jin secentrces by medihing the members effective slendernes aio soch #3 ‘Mopted by ASCE Standards 109, ECCS recommendations, tn BS 3950 fe tery convenient to vse. Hower, applicition of these design criteria 16 Strctre ith uncrain end restraints or more econ scents should [eeereed with reat cure Whore end restraint poor and jit eseatrsies ae lave, centres most be taken nt consideration by consiering aia ending. For thse cass the tration equation i he AIS spieation is recommended Tt appeat that more research i mee to develop a general method for ‘quniyng the ees of end ecentraty and end rere on the member Strength Results would be useful to help designer to elute singleangle rember with exe eemrctes or With cad etn tht are not CO re bythe various desi peiiation. ‘119 MULTIPLE ANGLES IN COMPRESSION 4194. introduction ‘Several difesntconizbatons of double ale are posible, The fist, noe ted most Uequeny is wih the anges eran in back-to-back compu ton, Rasy forming tee section, Fig 180A second configuration, now ed less equendy with the eds of the angles connetd to form boxed Beesato-teck Cs Sterres Angl °@ Duvbleanl congassection, Fig, 18h. The tie configuration, which sms 10 begining opus the sited angle comproson member. Fig. 11 8. The advan Togs and nadvaniage of enc sonigration sould be considered efor 8 pressive ses long the leg saorm compression on along pate clement tit one long cee and he other inged has plate Dckling ceca of [BAR a noted ip Table II. Ae the compression sess condition across the ‘lement besos lest severe, the Backing coefiet incest sige Rotational restuint atthe supported edge wll acscase te BucKDg ste foreach cue Each casein Table 11.3 eam Be oblaind for angles in oxure ‘hiuted. For ang eg the AISC- ERED speciation (AISC 193) ss the ‘Sia elastin t D S340 Tei Ut used for axial load and for eno lading when th tp ofthe anges he asin ses. This appears to he unconsrvative for ail load compared tothe 0.39 value fom Table 113. Homeve. the use of octal eg length for bathe additional torsional sts di the ide rads of otros angles seease the atl cap Sty above the there In addition, fr unequabeg angles the shorter eg TABLE 1.3 Plate Racking Coc for Ege Anges owe Sivas Vatioa Kock Sl? _Ovetion T fh 2 pao aww : ee ‘ ee ee provides restrain to the cial longer es, wheres the theoretical wales con Sc ig athe supported edge ‘As wih all structural members jn fexuse,deflcton may bea controling ‘eign condita fora enter. The defn limiting Lb rao varies signi ‘Get wth ocean of the hending sais and wth ender conditions Forsinply supports spans with L/175defetion iit nd major sas bending ‘fan evap angle. Zh can reach a value of about SO before detection ‘onto oversee for A36 se I total defection of L340 is wed for ‘equi og angle beat abouts minoe aus, destion wil contra whe L/6 freee about 1 ‘ten, angles ate lade parallel to one of thei es fsck an angle tse unbrace, it wll deflect not only the drction af he load ut aso perpen to tht dotion. The total debacton wil be lace than that fr 1 tery braced angle Foe an equaeg angle ha trllyunbraced the ‘leeton in th loaded ston i Se ties ht ofthese gl when tis ‘raved In adition the unbrcedcqualeg ang wll See perpen to the load deton 60% ofthe loaded drstion amount Te eatin ree. ‘ents an 2% lager dtstion than the Interly brace nae “Twisting of angles can nko feof concern, The sear center at dhe iter section of fhe angle ps. Obviowly, neresng fond event and sig thi ‘Soule ep wil erase angle rotation. Ange rolaon, in tar, ca increase the rome ste ar demonstrated by Lagh nd La) (1989) for aes bent about {nats parallel tos ep Hever, fr angles bent about a grometicaxs i £/t kept ow S00 for A sc, no prea i tess fa wit Will SU 11.95 Lateral torsional Buckling ‘The general cae is that of an unequal angle that can be bent bout any sis. This luseated io Fig 11.5 with moment applied at angle @ fom the ‘is. For the eas of uniform bending moment My abd ignoring the warping Shins such tha the warping constant C, 20, the general equation Fr [btera-toronal bekling becomes ores enaonr-nacinno(set. tt) mesoit (11) 9 aia dagen ) For the case af equsteg angles the value of i becomes 220. Typically 1 1. and) are expressed in terme of and # ce Fig. 1.3 for deintions). 12/3. Jo) /12, J 2003, an B= VB, by approximating thesetiga as wo rectangular ares ofegth® and with fn this ase te souton ‘oF. 1125 cam be expres in the fllowing for [won Ma eer OEP sine] 2p (129 te terms of ecical maximum bending ress Fy for ens ahs, uing 1, given above and B//3 athe distance fom the neta wi GE 29 «29 In the case of unogualeg angles teat about the pial wan (0 = 0, ‘sing the eric! moment rom Eq 1124 the ee moment fp booomes mot [eal whee the section propery died in Fig. 15s vale sould be taken {8 polve when the shorter ange eg ength D) isin compression and negative ‘when the loge ample lp Vength 8) im compresson Equations {126 ad 11-27 bo ef the combined fects of lateral an orion Heit of He ange ‘fie, angles are ent about one of the prometrc axes (x oF 9) I his ending proces comprenon a! the tp ofthe anal lp lateral toon ‘sabes remains 4 potential problem. In ip, 115 the situation cars when 8= 4 oF 290" fle, wham Alp apple about the w= oF ja ‘Produce compression athe tp of the angle shown, “The etl moment for equal ep ales can ead be evaluated using Ea. 1124 sting #48 and an be expressed a ss] am 129 “The crcl nteral-torsonal moment can ao be aaa fom Eg 11.28 for neal gang bent about sax 18 = 907th ps ofthe es wl en Sompresion Eading 0 iy, = SE a ives ( [ane _ y “The equations and provadures above are th bse or the eit of both the allowable sts denign andthe lod and resistance factor design ete of the AISC specications for sngleanple members (AISC 1994. 1998) In the fecastic ange of bucky a anston rations ews: Wha MyM. M, cL (2-on)u, and when My > Mf, ee Af the nominal moment capt. Mf, the yield moment, and Mo he Hlasie lteta-torsionl Hocking moment dtenined Ir the egetions shove For allowable sires desipn te traston equations ae sealed down tnd ansormet nt tse uations, sy Ad SM us Malaga, MK. (192), “Esesly Loa Stl Ange Sirs” A0SC Bev. Val 3. No) pp. 39-66 AISC (Oa) Sjuiton fr Abate Srv Den of Slee Members ‘Amer ns of Sl Cotton, hago -AISC (99) Spain or Sra Si! Bs Alloa Sess Dep ad AISC (994, Load and Revs Far Deen Spa for Stel Sa ‘alia, Arran Itt Sos Conaon Chea AIBC 9, Spin fr Lal an Rin Far i of Sl 1 (1), Cosme Sl Dusn Mana. Awan ot a Ste ats, ASL 5), Spite or the Ds of Cot Formed Ste! Sats, Amin Tro aod Se tae, Watton, BCASE CD Set ra Tner, ACE Mai ne Pa. ASCE 1992, esi of Lats Stet Troms Str ASCE Stands 10, Asuteh, A and Gael 5. C96, “Cyce Inne Bing of Double Anse ‘rang ASCE Sac Dh. Vol. 10, No. SE, Dp. 536-365. ih (95D, cdg Sr of Meal Stars McGea-H, New Yor, ‘Brand, GD. (88H, Fexual-Tosonal Bucking for Pa of Angle Used A ‘olunts” ASC Bg. arte. 1185, Scale of Seer ing, B95, Pt Bish Stars coms, G, (8), “Fustoptanis Bucking of Sage Ange Columns” ASCE J ‘Sic Egy Vol 10. No.6 9p. S-L9S (CSA Canin Stands Asocition (195), Ca Formed Stel Sucre Members (CSA Canaan SundisAvexion (190, Land Stes Deg of Se Seti, Cave, CG, (1966, “Exast Soliton of th Basia! Bending Equations,” ASCE J. ‘Sa Vol Depp. 386 CS (182), Dun of Se! Sac, Eup Coats of Suntan, ‘Basle, ECCS (176), "Mal of te Stuy of St Stats” In Clo. Sid. Sal ‘Sine European Coen fo Cocoa Sexvek, Lg, Bla ECCS (19, rape Renna Stl Cnn, Europ Convention {or Conseco Sor, rs, Bp ECCS (885, Recent fo Aer Lae Trasin Towers, apean zal, My ath H, and Divs, W, (091) "Bokvir of Single Angle “Conipean Members” ASCE! Sint De gay, M, Davie Wa Dap, H. (1982) “Nonseader Sal Ale Sisy [ayen, Ay and Goo SC. (186), eine Length Factor orth Design of X- ‘rang Sema” AISC Eg, st gure Foxh FP. (8th, “Direct Method of Desig Single Ange Sits in Weld “russ Den Boo Molo, Lala ete Co. Cieen, OM. Saunton TY. (1960 Sct Members and Frm, Pes Hal Upper Sale Gaylord, E. 1, and Wathoite, G. M. (1985), “Transmissoe Towers Design of Col Forel Angin” ASCE? Smet Bx Vo LN 8 ajer ©, Casasan, D.$; and Gr, M.A (98D, “Basen Lod Test of "Arc Conn Sms win MSC Nan Fis ment Program,” ProcSSRC ‘i Bam Coane ty te Fe Een Mind” Pre Co Pe ‘ome! Neth, Sang. Chin, Vat 2p 32-7 eis A (969, “Expermentl Stay on Colame Carving Cpacy of SHY Stl "An Foe Teck Repo. 8, Dp. Sb4 BS BD 4, Yaa lo Kero J By ad Mado M. KS. 098, “Bago Sige and Compost "Anbs"to valyComprened Since Siabny and Somph Ninvisan, App Sons Pushes Basking Ene. Eng Cap Keno) By and Morty, MK. S172 "Bulg of Ses Angle and Tee Sr pra $ (9K, “Tosonal xara cling of Anges: A Para Stay." ipo San Chan (95), "Nonna Fe Elen! Anal of Ane ted Te Beason" ASCE J. Sat Bap Vit Nop. 71-7. KiiporctS. and La. HW. (1986), Inte Bulg f Sng Anal Te ant ‘Boule Arp Ste" J Cir S er Vo No pp 80. Leigh JM and Gales, TV (972, The Dep of Compson Was or Tegan Se Jose Res. ip. No 2, Depart of Cl Eating ‘Wasigton Univer, Se Los Mo Leigh J Mand Ly, M.G, (969, “The Dien of Lately Unseported Ang” ‘HP Tach ul (Mahou, No 3, Vl Us Ana No. Lito, (98) “Spey Coons Bp Clean” ASCE J. Sn. ir, Ved TIL No. St pp. 09-27 Loi, Mand Ci, J. (977, "An aperitif the Infos of be ‘Constons othe Tessmisoe Toner Web Member on Th Boke Resse” Price Calg. Suh Pl Rep Lee. Bag pp. 84-4 La LW, hea ZY and Ha, XR.) "hea sty Reser Ligh ‘Unierity" Mika! R Hare Int Co tah Paste Calpe Se! So Univers of Manche, Eg Madupula, M.A. ant Ray, SK. (1984) “Ciom Seto Prope of Cle ord Angles” Can 1h rp, Voll No Madu, M. KS, ad Ray, SK. (198%) “Ua Steg of Fen Tadd Caldari! Angi” Gn Ch Eng Val th No 2. Madania, M.S. Pb TS. and Temple MC. (185, "Uiate Seng of Cotcennly Lode Colt Forned Ang Can CEng Wl 1, No Mat, C (96), “Sage Angle Member a Tenn apd Compson” ASCE J Sac iol 38, No STS, 10 Map, C172 *Ltetl Sty of Single Ange Beam- Cons CSSIC Pr 7, Sir George Wins ener Monta, Qe Chin Mar atonal Bue of Sadar (92, "Rel of Sone Conpesion Tes of ‘Scr Se Ang” Tosh Pop N87, US. Govern Ping Othe SAA (19, Se Scr, AS 10, Stndads Asuciton of Aca, Noth Sida, Now Sth Wa Ar,S969 Sad StL Teta eth Tas Se a Temple, M. C90, “Common or Doe Ang Intrenet Bates “Tempe M,C and Ta; (969), "Ines of Wily Speed An" Con. Ti gal 16 No App 3 9) empl, MC Schepens. J AL ad Kenny, DJL, (989) “nerconscton of Temple. MC Meo, D.C. and Clee 1M (947), “The nersonnion tse Ane Core ote” Car Co gs Nl 1, Np 3 “Tomy BP Lh 1M. and Lay MO. (97 “The Bear of Lata ‘ested Ang” CEng ras. Aca Timosheka SP and Gar M196) They of Elec Stain, Engieting ‘es Monogap, Mew New Yr, oka NS. (960, Resend Esc Bean-Cohen ASCE J. Sct. Di, VoL 5 No. STI pp ot {sam T. (90, "Retin SigleAnl Coles Unc isl Being.” Re ‘ep eh tatie pres Wann nee. Se Lo "Smt ih Anges Ts Sta” Sas ag Wt 3 Dr. 3 Jaane : : si Tad GalimbonT¥.17D, "sen Loads Sle Angle Clem ARSE Pal esp 13-14 Muon, V. 2. (960) Tina aie Bos, el Poa for Sie “rao or NS. Jah ria! Ras on 99). Wooc, 5.7, and Ksgrnca 5 (98, "Toe Dosen of Sle Angle Sty, Ser ConirVol No Wookoek 5-7, snd KiprnchaS. (1K), “Desin of Single An Web Statin Trams" ASCE Sia Nol 112'Ne opp LOPS CHAPTER TWELVE, BRACING 24 imrpoouction A gureral desi guide for stability bracing of columas, beams and frames i ‘sented. The focus on simplicity, not act formulations. The design ‘ecommendationy covet four pene types of bracing sytem rite, d= ree, cominos. and Kanon. ay ital in Fig. 12 Acai brace Congo the relve movement of djacnt stories oF of adjaceat points long the length ofthe com or Beam. Ha ct everywhere along the Broad ‘mene pass tough the bvace isl the brace ste ellie, a lu trned by iagonal bracing, shear was, or tas Bracing. A dsc Brace Contos the movement only at that particule race pot For example, in Fi 12.the coum braced at pot I Wy eone eam A tt the clu smiight dows oc pas through amy brace 0 te brace stem not ela burs dserte. Two adjacent beams with diaphragms o ros frames ae dit feely brace atthe eon rae leans. Continuous bracing i evident ‘hee is ao unbraced length The spec cases of dlphragm-race columns and beams are dheused in Chapter 13. A beam or olan that rhs on Adjacent sitarl members for support is braced in a leanon sytem, Suctural members tht are adorned sogether such that buckle the member would segue aujcen member o kl withthe sine aed cement characterise leavom stems showin Fig 2d I the uy ‘mode, member Aisne on mtbr 8 "An adequate brace system regures both sucogth and stlfinss (Winter 1960). A simple trace den formulation, nich at designing the race fOr[ereentinscas| e121. Types ac sens of the member compressive fore, addresses only the strength ition, “The mnsgnitude ofthe ial ul-ofstaghtes of the members tobe beac asa diet et onthe bracing force. THe Brace tiffs alo ae the brace fe, Many ie atom prove es ezomnendation ot for ‘sft sight sacl systems Such recommendations shold nok Be {hed ciety design Because very linge bre forse ma rest as wll Be shown sobuguenty 122 wacKanouND A seen dicusson of staiity bracing for Beams, columns, and frames Bis teen provided by Trahair and Nethreot (198), Chen and Tong (1984), and ‘ars (1995) Before presenting te various bracing recommendations sme ‘hckground mater on the importance of iia outo-staghines, cone ‘om ies, and mene nasi om racing elects discussed along with the nitation ofthe dean enter 42.24 Member Out-f-Straightness Winter (1960) developed the conept of dul cieia for being design rengih and slifgese and he derved the interelationship between them {ting sple model: He showed that the bre force fsa function of the tia uron outostrightnen, Ay, ahd the race stifles, The coneep i S- trated forthe reaive brace system shown in Fig. 12.2, wha the race, repre ota By the spring athe tp of the ear, conse the movement atthe umn top. Arete to the column hase, Summation of moments aboot Peas A gies Py = BLS ~ ay) where dy A+ dy If.g O(a nly ‘eft pln meter), thea Py fbi nnte ht th a incre, rile bre sie. The brace sie rue in the say mde Lo reach ‘he fad cortesponding to Euler bucking Betneen rice plats Py called the el ses. where f= Pin this ce, For the out-of plumb column, the relationship bewsen PR and is pote in Fig. 12.0.1 fmf, Py canbe reached oly the way dflstion ts sry lrg. Unfortunatly, such large displacement roe large brace fore, Fi since Fy = Bl. For prota design, must be Kept sal at the tmatimum actor oad level. This an be acemplaed by speiing b= For etample i f= 2, then A = Ay at Poa shown in ig 123. The larger the brace stifhes, the small the Brace force. For very si bre yes the brace free approaches Fy = Pay. The brace force lies fuetion of ‘he ial out-o¢plumbacss The commendations given ate will sme parteular outaFSaighisess and a brace tills tle twice the Tal ig. 12 le final ottpumbons12.2.2 MomberInolatiity Most resarch on bracing requteints for srwtres are fused on elastic. ‘concepts (Trahar and Nether, 1984). However, the desea requrements for velatve traces ae merely Tontion of the lad on the tore a the ‘stance beeen bass a israte above, ot colin lascty oct ‘i, For discrete racing stems Pincus (1960) wed simple theoreti to demonstrate that he rating tiffin eirments or nls clus ae tester than thse fr cstic colus: However, enpeinenis by Gi (986) on Inelastic columns witha mispan dserete brace showed no fest of eal inclastty onthe bracing requirements. Also, Aly and Vers (1983) cust doubt fm the Pincus solution, and ther experinents om dete Bracing fie beams verified Winters approach. Nakamura (DSS) pens ew beth ‘experiments which also appear to folow the tends supped by Winter's Spprouch. Wang and Netheeot (1989) conducted 4 theoretical study of brace snes and strength reciente for hss with concent load st mispun- Ther sy verified the Winter approach, expel on the ned fo seat leas tc thee Fl Bracing sas ore the brace frees The ace forest were lve than 1% of the fae free when the secommended stillness was proved The resulls appear to veel Winter’ approach for ie with inate ums, butte loading condition coset invlved ony 2 sll amount of ils nes idea, or beams inthe istic Yage, mest research has heen concern ith the sping ofthe braces, not the proper of the Braces The Commentary ‘on Plate Desig in Sted (ASCE. 1971) gives requirement fr bracing st ‘lstichinge leations. In the ASCE recommendation the lateral Brace mus ave axial stength, ail tls, and Reroral sie. Experts on simply sipprted beams do nt very the need for Rexra sis the Iaterl brace A design example drain both Winter’ approach ad the ASCE approach (nepletiag the Reraral sles requirement) even iO Salmon and Johnson (199). oth approaches give the sunesie Brace in the example The fe documented studies on discrete brasng reguirmsus for inl beams and columns cited above inte tht ala nthe ln nembers doesnot ale the bracing equrement. Undocumenta bacig ares of {est setups in experiments when instaity oss he inl age, aS contre to the notion that inate srctres regu larger broes than slate stratares Homeve, when tral racing fare cus ina lo est into the inelastic ange, usally happens oer & eal fang or web bake ‘occurs, which eae the W-sape beam to Become unsyametec. The los of Ssmmety ofthe seston cae shit and inclinations of he principal bending ‘hs which cn case very substantial atral and orsonal foros. much Ie Those chan! Seto not loaded though te shear centr. Lata bracing Fores causa after eal hocking ocr are vey substantial but are beyond thescope ofthis preetaion. However, ice mort local buckling oar nthe plate range, bracing fires are afte ats wth nasty rather than Foal hock ny continuous and kano brace systems, the bre regimens ae based onthe ease andr inelase stl ofthe member oe race a wl be jee ater In these stably problems the eet of member clastic onthe fuctling solution can be rensonably approximated by using the tangent mo toe sess By iste ofthe clatie malls, £ The incl silos y= TE, wher #5 the inlatc sifee rutin factor. The sane range idee bythe axial test in the meme, ot the akaderness ratio A ‘member wih lw sendrnes ratio (/?) wil epond elastcally ithe sal, ‘resi ov. la the ATSC LRED specication an anal sires fess O33F paces ‘econ ate ctic range The AISC-LRFD manual (ATSC. 1993) abe Ines the lifes ston factor fr vasious Pt sess kvl: In LRED, =738(7/7,) lo 176P/P). where P isthe Lactred column loud snd 2, i the ied Toad, FA, The poten axial bucking spac of cola [HOST BY /UKEY for P= | For PY, |= 10. Ths factor wll feted in some of the example problems 12.23 Limitations The brace requirements presented wil enable @ amber to reach the Euler buckling Toad between the brie points ce. use R=). Ths no the sae the nosy buckling Toad ay steed in Fig 12. forthe brass antler. The ideal brace sifess LOP,/L,comesponding 10 K= U0. A brave ve times this hess necessary 10 reach 95% ofthe K=07 ln, ‘Teoria. an infinitely st Wace equ 0 reach the no-anay imi In addition, basing required 1 reach specie rotation capacity or daily Tims beyond the scope ofthis chapter Neadeany = 207 & = Tenesdain BUR Fig. 4 Bes cane,1224 Brace System Stitiness hey ae fib, brave connections shoul! be considered inthe cralantion of ‘he Bracing sins flaws: aos ey “The brave spite sles Aly is es than the smaller of the connection sins, on theese brs Pye When evaluating the racing {rows of olmns or bets consdestion ts be gen othe accu the brace forts long the length of the bra, which resus a ferent Akplacement a each bao clu Leation. Medd and Seetin (1979) Sind Tone and Che (108) have tui itrbraced sracres. The scltions ‘fairly complex for desig. In gener, racing Forces can be inimized by Ibsreaang the numberof raced bays and wing tif Beacs. Chen and Tong (G98) recommend bracing a est chery ght Bays. 423. SAFETY FACTORS, FACTORS, AND DEFINTIONS, “The recommendations presented are has on sitinate strength. Column and ‘rum fade ae sumed toe factored lode For race sila formulations, a alue of @ 0115 tecommended in LRFD. I the load eaeulation ae than on service lade as ASD, fator of safety of 20 can Be appli 10 the factor load sess reqiements The seth reguireents ws the bain sale focors or # Tacors within each despn specication. It ERED. the desig brace fore wile hase om factored loads an compar tothe dvign strength ofthe brace apt connections Ip ASD the brace free wil ea fiction ofthe app serie loads and hs foe wil be compared {othe allowable brie fds and connection caput. “The dplacement for clave ae dsete aces i deine with ese to the dance terween advent races a shown in Fig 125 1n frames P'S the sum of the column Inds in ory to be tabi bythe brace nthe <5 tf dst rae for a member, P would be the average ed in the compres Son member above and blow the brace point. The intial diplacement i Small dspacement from the sight ponton atthe Brace outs caused ‘ures ober than te eriiy loads. orcompresive Cores. For example, Se INould bea dpacement caused y wind or other ltl forces, rio 1 ‘ance (nl oufplun).and v0 om nal eases, the brace fore eo ‘endatons ae besed on sm aned Ay DOD For oher Ap vals © ‘Trect proporton. For torsional bracing of earns or beams, an ii tw Ihrot 1 wsd, For casey whore n ols, each with random By, are BE ‘aie bya base rystm, Chen and Toag (998) recommend a NSF a ava — ie. 128. Deion, 14) =0.0021/ 4 ve, to aeount Fr the variation in inal ou strait Design recommendation: LRFD.6 =025 e2et 62075 aga = Et The design recommendation i based on an inital outof-plumtnes 14, = O002L and a brace stiffs twin the Meal value how in Fig. 124 ample 12 ast the Wc Sigs, Ech ace ms as 150 lips The floors asmed fo act as «Fi dlaphragm and ally are equal. The cos functions are mcewar to convert the diagonal bras om eae ‘race perpendicular othe colar) Sills controls the den in this ese ag ier rom 0.0022, change Fy in dsc proportion co the atl Ay Ie race ties provided, Aiea fom aca Be oie stolons 7 ones, ce FFs‘Example 12.1: Relative Brace Temon Sem typical brace must tbilioe thon et The fore fad foreach Ben 1 150 4250+ 100 = 500 kips Desian recommendations ase that Fy and & are perpendicular 10 the 180k 280k 100k Brace forse HE * 50) — 559 gg [pin threaded od OK 1 Bre siiaess AE cp 2% 50 Kis) ieee eee te Jody = asi 42.8 DISCRETE BRACING SYSTEMS FOR COLUMNS sign commendation 75 2F pone LRFD.G=05 Pags=Nigy Fe = factor load, £~ requir brace spacing, = number of bees wed cee raving systems canbe eset by the mode sown inf. 2.6 for {fre memes bacss The cast slum foe fom Timoshenko and {Gore (Dat shows the slop betnon Py andthe brace sis With bo bang Py EN/aLF" At lw ase ses te cine fad Ine sbsionty wih he hate shape a gl ito) wave A tebe fe mene he led say han dona at Sips tees ts eceve Fu bracing cere at La 381 =, TS warssSitentonnne stim aco 8 vanes for sql spaced bret Sexe Rbtorone bows we 40 fers tare number of races Ts 40 ean Be (Sod crt fora eas The design recomend ofl Bing naming the lond at Pe it a dee purr, The discrete brace force requirement (Yur, 1983) was developed intily from Winter's ried member model assuming 0 moment a the node points tic ste Fic = DAYP from wltions sna to those show in Fig. 123 Tot and Chon (1987) and Plast (993) showed that Winter's mods was nconsrative fr the cae of single Brace at miepan Fi recommended. This force assumes that a Brace finest tice the el vale iste. For otber brace ifs, the adjustment ficor given in a, 122 em tensed ‘Typical, P may be less than, x0 is conservative to we the atl column fad to derive the design sfcss represented by the dashed ine in Fig 126. Note hat the egured brace tes inversely proportional to the brace spacing In many applications there are more potential rae points than neces Yo support the member fores requ. Closespaced bass requte more sles sna the derations ase tht he unas nah Provided is just scent to support the clams Toad. For example, sy that thre gets re available to prodewesk-ans bracing oth coum, S thst the column load is such tht onl sng fll brace at dsp would sfc Then he rete ies ofthe thee brace arangemat could be conse ‘ly estimated by wing the permisuleubrace length athe brace iss vation eather tan the ata unbracd legth. Te continuous bracing fo Ila given in the next section more accurately epesnts the rue sponse af Fig 126 for ls than fall acne. “The dsign ezommendation i as on te he Mls to sssount for inta outafatesahines Example 12 state the Sesgn pred or "single dsrete brace a the esr midheiaht. The vale of i sed on faut brace pacing and i unconservative for unequal spacing: For ane ‘pacing. N can he derived simply By ting aga bar nol between bres (Vara 98s) For» single dcrete trace any losstion alo the column "ent th the longest seen dein as Land the shorter serena, ‘Nc be determine lmsExample 12.2: Dict Brace at Midheght cross member bres he weak Suis of Wi6 26 at mdheabe Factor loads are shown 24720) 7320 Skip, 333120) 9.000 Try a5 x67: 121120, 201120) = 12kips 5 oi 103k OK 126 CONTINUOUS COLUMN BRACING. For colunn braced continuous, Timoshenko and Gere (1961 give (esd8) where isthe mamber of half ie waves the Buckled shape as shown by the ‘std linen Fig. 127. As the Brace sles per unten ints, he brctling loud apd yao pees, The sit in ckling modes foreach ‘ccs when ls /="F, = n+ 1 Substituting this expression for mito Eq (21) shes pe EN, ws ee eee tag. armmm pt em te oe ai a a Fin Re Equation 12.5 can aso be used for dstete braces by defining = Bx numberof brace and by Uiting Py = B1/P, where 1s the distance exweenbeaces. Tis approach aut for 0 or ore bres Fo example if thre ae wo discrete Brags, the el discrete brace sills is f= Py where = L/3 and fy = B1/P Using E25 with i 2GP/D/L ses Pom Lote), - “The bracing despn recommendation gen below x based on. 12.5 th 3 djs by ator of 2 nt the eae forsale of 075 and Using #5 = 0850877) rP, which the AISC-LRFD cola dein tenth The bre strength equement Fy = "PA, /L2, where Lyi the maximum loreal braced length tht cto support the clumn lod, was developed ‘by Zak (198) Taking Ay = 2 snd y= O02Ly gs Fy — 040) ly, Dosen recommendation ERED @.P = Py + Un 246 BP Fe = O080/Ey whore Py = 840877} Pf, = 085,44, = 075 127 LEAN.ON SYSTEMS ‘When some memes lean on adjacent meters stability seport (bracing), ‘he SP concept (Yura, 1971) cane ved to deg he nembers. The approach lb explatod using the problem shown a Fig. 128 in which com A is« o/s toad P with thre connecting beams attached betnsen coma A and By ‘There ae so pencpal Buckling moe for this suet, the o-say aad ‘say modes Ifcolamn Bis suffcenty slender, the str wil bake the ‘ay mode shown by the dotdah net Fig 1280 Inthe shay mode the Docking strength ives the sum (EP) of the buckling capacity f each oomn that sways bases each coma bas the same defomation pater “The nem tale eth say modes the sum ofthe applied loads CP) it les than the Pe Ths sures that lhe colunins have the sme eight IE ‘Solum B ts sullen sti the backing capacity may be contol By the o-may mode shown dashed Both modes mart be checked ‘An exat anes, dsvlopsd wth the ANSYS computer program, stows that st fp ioeeises, Py eres inealy in the say mode AL ity 2183. caluma A buckles inthe sway mode The fy value reuied {0 descop fl bracing canbe approximate sing the EP eons Inte say he, the ane capaciee of columns Avand B are 7 #L,/@L) and ITEIq/SL}, rerposvey. The desred.P coresponding tothe 00-34) Thode it x'B74/E° Eguating the sum ofthe shay capaies 0 the Pin the PALA _ py ye? 26, ny v0 Jy = ISL, whichis clos 0 the exact slation of Ip = 1537 tthe Incas rage yi wed where based the axial oad in ech colo, 2 Ther cam be ail oad oll he columns. Example 123, wich i slr to 2 problem solved by Lutz and Pater (0985) shows « WI = 40 yas weak asin plane sppored by am adjacent olan WI2 x 26 with the strong xine, The sams hve shearonly vay sles ofthe tem. Sway is prevented atthe op ofthe earns. The ‘WI 40 hasbeen sud tasod on Duklng between the supports L= 8 I Thecalultions show tat the eat WID x 26adhacet column brace the “rena col, which im the inet rnge, A WI2 19 seton woukd ho te staactoy Example 123: Lean-On Systeme AAISC-LRFD spesticton, Fy ~ 36k actor lous. the WI2 26 cap- hot bracing WI2 ‘rom the AISC manl,@P, = 317 hips for wiagg Bona Wi ah sox \ 317k Wid. 26.4 Y bx i gr Colume A: PA = si1j36% 118) a He OMG} ne al ihe 5-730) 130249 = 0315 seas gp, = 28503210877205.00 448) : oar iM =35shis ny : ee mote 4 DESO 9.000208) _ on mee 2p ur 0 28 COLUMNS BRACED OM ONE FLANGE. Doubly symmetric columns wll ick in xara mode betwen bre points ithe Braces prevent Soh ist and placement I the race dtl doesnot Prevent wis such as rod racing framing ito the cnr of the web the ‘oma can hacks na toronal mode. Another common bring deta that 25 ret tit ofthe ton shown im Fi. 129. Gite fume into the ‘umn ange which rain weak-anis Iter dsplacement nea the ange tTir ‘taal ace stfange BY Bu shape ig 129" Bung aout esa ne the gs are dicontinoou, they will not provide ny torsional restraint andthe Eelam may bocleby twisting abo the aera brace pein as shown it Fis 129, The tonal busking oud, Py, for'a column With Tatra etait (Cimoshenko and Gets, 161) 8 ee won hee is he distance betwen the restsne asi and the cen sche Up ofthe cow sation, and Phe Ever load based on the colar ength teteccn points with ro tis, Other lems are as defined in Chapter 5. An ‘afin si literal raven the Brace plat (2 displacement) was assumed inthe drivin of Eq 127. To compensate for Brit stifles che maxim Faeored column oad should at exceed 90% of Py. More and Ajmani (971, 1073) suid the more complex problem of beam-columns rac oF oe ange ‘What the applied factored loud i greater than. trsonal racing ust te provided. Pwo tpl racing schemes re show in Fig. 12.10. When ‘oment conaecon fuss aptly we seer recommended ‘revert we dstortion. The dein reine or he torsional races fo ‘iety from the dscrte column approach given in Seton 12. A aerat trove force Fis ape to the unrestrained ange in Fi. 12.96 resing ia 3 torso! moment fy ~ Fi. Each Bange assumed tobe supporting hal te toa coum oud. The angle of ti 8 =a Thetefore he onsional bac sine, y= My/0= Far/S ~ Ba, where isthe dst brace stiffens Tench fom Section 125, wil P equal 19 oneal the col oud ‘The tostonal brace moment for an asuhd nal twist = 1" 001758. 129 BEAMBUCKLING AND BRACING ‘Before presatng the bea brscingresommendatons, the suitability of ss ing the fsion pont a Brace pot in restrained beams vo deine L wil N / Fate ‘eer 1) Sous B) Moment coun ws Fg, 1210, Typical sonal ae deta. ives. In many cous where this fe ised te op ange i erly towed by the sab or jot ll long the spa the Boor Range is Unbroce An insti point cama considered brace porta sated ty the example sbown in Fig 1211 One beam haa momett at oe eo (G,= St) with y= Lan the othr bea bas inti poi st ie Span (Cy = 23) wih Zp = 2t, The 2Lspan wth he nfton pon wl buckle lad that 68% of the beam with pan LI the infetion pla ia brace Point ty erat moment ofboth Beams would be the sume. The Buel ‘ape ofthe 2 bea shows that te Top fing apd Bottom Bangs move the tafecton poi dos ot prove lle racing idan (Yura, 13 Some common ess of teams wit op ange ate racing but negitng torsonal trait were soled nga fie element comer program sad pproimate formulas developed as gen in Fig 1212. These Cy vals can bes indesign with Ly = span length ews ponte onal only at the supports Two general ens ae derived, top ange ltraly braced wih top fg eras Wading aod op ange braced wth uploading Ess and g cesar 8 YM diag. ee T Bae! =m buckled shape Fig 1211 eae with tion oiaes AS SS My * Sno ye (CASED. Top ange nso onion aiaen| eee) _ ee roe Me 1g 12126 for bce bam conc (195) ve rtd Se car for spend contrat hich ‘Cone he onal tat powel by p sched t e fop Tange ‘There ate two general types of am brsing, ates and torsional. Bracing systems for beams mst prevent the rele Gaplacament ofthe top and bot tom flanges (wit ofthe section). Lateral Bracing Goss atached to te fnmpression flange of spy suppored beam) abd tosonal brane (8 frame or daphragm betwseh adjacent gitdem) cam effectly contol Ps Some bracing syseme restsin Intra] movement and twist simultaneously Gu stached to the top Mange with shear studs). Mutton and raha (0973) and Tong and Chen (988) have shown tat combined lateral and ngs more efetive than ther aera of torsional rang ating lone for beams under uniform moment. ‘A general dicuson of beam tring and te development ofthe desin recommendation erin are peste ehewhere Yaa 1993). The ons ‘le wo doubly and singly symmete members load nth lane ofthe ‘ee. Lateral bracing canbe rane, drt, cotiuous ot aon oon ‘racing can be ether relate or dcrete- Only ative and dite itera ‘racing requtements are preseted here. Continuo bracing i adres by Traburand Netecot (988) and Yura and Philie (1992). Beams That ate like tetera on each othe and theta eklng co ceca he links unl all the meters eke In hs eae the beans i the seta ‘stem cant hucke Un the sum of the tanamsm monet ea Bem ‘tees the sum of the individual bockling eps ofeach ea Yur e. fl, 192) Biking ofan individual baum can our only bein the ross, ‘rember in lesson stem. NO ational racing regents Ace ‘Seyi len-on syne two adcentBemsareintreonpecel bya propery designed cros fame or alpagm at midspan. that point can he considers tess point whee ‘lating he beam buckling stength. Since the eas can move ately at Isp, the eectvenes of sucha racing sjlem Ws sometnes queoned. As longs the tw Manges move laterally the sme amount thee wl eo ‘sms is preverted he beam an be eta raced Tests theo) oie tis aproach (Fit 19S, Vara eta 1992). 12103, Lateral Bracing ‘The efetvens ase ofa lateral brace depends on its action on the toss ‘ecto, the moment diagram, the numberof derele bracts inthe sand he location ofthe lod en the eo section (Yura 1993), Tes factors ave een incu inthe ecendatons, Lateral bracing is ost eet bon 'Usattached to he compression lange: The exception fo tsi or cane, here op (ension ange rai fective, Lateral bracing net the cet the eos scion i ieee ‘The relative and discrete race design provisions peste, which are based ‘28 Win’ approgeh are appliable ony Tor brising attached nea the top Mange. The provisions abo assume tp Mange lading. which & wore case and can be used for any number of dete braces, Tt compressive fore onseratvely approximated a Mh Wha the beam has ato ps "seal racing must be atached to both ange and the slo regis te grater aspen by the Gy Tats inthe brace requirements For example for Beam in reverse curvature 3b shown it Fig 12 TI brave on both the tp and hotom flange at mid-spao vl eqie twice as much soe for ech brace simi lngth beats wth compresion on oly one nge The ace force provisions are similar to those for slums (Sexton T24 nd 123), A ‘brace Shes of tice the dl vale his be wel inte developmenLateral brace design recommendations LRED, Roteve Discrete SMCe toss sities: p= 2S B= Sy ommamcs pois Stengin: 5, =2M4MECE pg, SOU here Afi the maimum moment; his eam depth he utraed net {nd €,-_ 10 sng curvatre 20, revere curvature te acng provisos ae iste a Example 12.4 whe top tang tne bre ss see uf srt compresion Aang $e 'Shtrveton of the compote pte der fach truss See Sout oa oneal gras Theatr baa od {osuppon temo ot. Example 12-4: Relative Lateral Brace Systeme 7 Du he dagonls ofthe wp ange boiontal rus to tabi the five 84 ft withthe factored moments shown. F, = 64s 000k 3i4x8 eae 2x48 of yas eee nem #88 nox P= Drs asMT6 x 1 = 425 hpi. for eck sider 525 gids = 10.6 s/n i) 412102 Torsional Bracing ros frames or diaphragms at discrete loatons or continues bracing pro ‘ed bythe Boor stam in through des or pony tess, oF by metal Becks SIM sabe represent torsional bring stems Inthe development of the ‘dsign rcommenditions (ura, 193), which are based on the mork of “Taylor and Ojo (196) twas determined that factors ha ad Spun «secon ateal racing hd a substantial reduced ee o torsional racing ‘Tae eet of te umber of braces top Mange leading and bac Teton On the cross section ae relatively urmportant when sizing torsional brace. A tocsional brace i eqully ete iti atachel to the tesion Mang o the compression Range. A moment diagram with compression in Both anges (eevee curvature) doesnot ale the torsional brace requirements ‘On the oter hand the eotvenes of torsional brace grt affected by erossscton distortion atthe bace psn, a stated in Fie 1213. The top ange is prevented fom twisting by the osional bac, butte we die tortion permis a relative displacement betwee te two anges. A seer at the brace locaton ean be used to prvet the distortion. The design tho ‘considers web ditoton and ay flees roe ‘Discte bras ad continuous bacag us the sae basi deen formula “The continuous racing silos Ay = By /L, where By = darts brace sll os = number of braces, and = span length and fy dened 35 the tovtonalefeces of the direc snd coninooa tracing tyre, eect thaly. The stem silfes i ratod primary to the snes of the Trace, fad he sins ofthe we pls ny seme Px BY Bm th «psy The vale for diaphragm systems even in Fig. 12.14. The dicot web- sttfener detail can vary ovr the web shown in Fig 12.15. The sills of ‘ich portion of the web I ven by torsional brat we Hp 1213. Web sinorion,ae ip. DM Daag ig 1215. Party stead weds ater E(A) FEET can whee 1/8 = 2(/f) ab isthe tices ofthe sites. For cominuows Tracing replace 13h with ip. and megs he ter if there no sien, ‘The potion ofthe web within fy ean be considered nite tif: Equations 12nd 129 wore developed from Miner and Ro (1978) aad nite clement ‘beckling progr tht consider crousesional Gatorton (Akay etal, 1979, For rolled sections hy = 0) eos seo dtertion wil ot be signin ‘tbe diprspn connection exes atleast oneball the web depth oe olga ee wi eriersormron ene taigtane tena For singly symmetric section an fy ae the out-of plane moments of Incr a the compresion and enn Aang, respectively the cro section ‘doubly symmetn, oy eco The 24 acorn the lines requiem coms fom using twice the ial tes ad an ational 20% nres 10 count for top Hangs ioading The brace srenath provision, yy sums 4 nial Twist of 1 (2017S ra) and coment with iit clement sts (Heine et a, 1999, Tn Example 28 2 digpragm torsional bracing stem i ed for the probe lem gent Example 12.4. The C9» 13 daphragm wll ot rae the pee ia Sener i ot wd. Ehon a much anger phragm cannot work without tic steers eeause ofthe web dstorton. Simla example robles Ung. {ross ames ae given eaewhore(Yers, 1993). Example 125: Torsional Beam Beacing Sameas Example 2-4 but sete phragm system sown Mya = 1000 Epi Cy = 10: four bracts Fy = 36 6. 1S. L=0 1 The pide properics tea fol =o i150 1a 1750 fe =320 fy =380int fg = + The sents given by 0.040 12,0000» 127 409 0002011.0F Set = 9) x 5) 9 nips 616i “The sls of the diaphrapns on the exterior ges is 6E,/S. Since thor ate diaphragms on both sides of each intr sitder, the ales i DearS. The average sillese avaible “to each pink eer 3 x 12S = 90S. 2s 12,0000 127 (075}409.00023941.07 1594006) 037000 Prog 50intSch f20 25 > 6164, Ty Ox 345, p= 2209 «50 ipsad a 17900 otis 1 2240 (9) [seme er! Ti [a se 3m steer see FAULTY DETAILS, "Nurerous suc flres have occured tsa of the tract aang ‘ment shown i ig 1216. The eam (or ros) x continsons over thet of fe Column. The cecal component are: column in compression, compresson ‘he Botom ange ofthe beam or chord of the tans, and no Bottom Hane te oa ij baci pointe ad possibly points, The svay atthe top of the column shown in section BB can resul n a sctor mich preter thin 20. The bottom Mange of the Beam can pos provide bracing tothe top tthe columa if thee are brace at points bad conseraton 1 en to the com reson nthe Cange when ctaluatig ites Inger. race, such av fostom chord extension rom the jo should be wo at pot Bean web stent at he column Teation will ao be efsineunlesebeitonn ange Inert Bucliagi cia ‘AISC 1995, Mama of Sto! Contin: Loaded Renan Far Bese YO Dad Amar nt of Stel Conant, hen ‘Ay HU ohn CP ad Wi, KM, (97 tate and Loc go ‘Als JM and Yor, J. (199), “Bracing Design or Inet Straten” Prac 'SSRC Caf 7 Yor Sacre Sua Brave" Miwa Wa, Ape p29 ASCE (1971, Cmmamerson Pac Dein Sl, ASCE Manual Noi 2d mean Soc Cl Enc, New York (Cee an Tone. G. (199), "Design for Stay: Cont Use of Brass Se! ‘Sine Singapore Sac Se See Val S.No. pp 1528, ‘sy HLS and Keane, D. JL (195) “Dein of Ste! Beams a Cantilo Sopot Csaion CE Smt iy V1 Nl. Pin, A,B. (881, “The Suit of fra Loaded Thouah Senay Mabe” (Go Puc Wars Rin, VolM No. S78 pp TS TT 2-3 (i, (199, “racng Regen ols: Stl Memers PhD. sean, Hatnig TA. Yara A, and Frank eH.) “ace Foes in Dasagns ‘and Coss Frmex rae SORE: Ca Yow Sine Sua Brae Minsube, Wiss Apespp 3-10, ome, Aman) L. (97) “Den Clues Renin by Sie Rais Shae Bop, Vol Nos pp 9 ere MR Abn 1 (97) “Fae of Clams ately Suppor ot tou: yi Fie) “A Un Agneh for Sy Brag Mea 1 Cand Sen, © M, (97), te Fos i Ince Caen Mier H.R. and Rao. §. N.(1978),“Suength and Sines of Moment Resting lon 8 dT NS. 7 if Regen or Late Being”Tinoosbenko, Sand Gee J (1961), Ther of Batic Stabs, MeGraw-Hi, New See eee ere CHAPTER THIRTEEN —_— THIN-WALLED METAL CONSTRUCTION 134 wrropucrion Thincalled mctal merbers are usd framing for ight constuction ads sstonaty member in hy constuction Tiwi metal pels sa decks a widely used 8 ors roo and was. The laud we of cold frmed ‘el members is refed in the exten of design specications i Austin Chins, East Europe, Japan. Noth Amer, and Wet Europe Beedle, 191) "New developmensnvesarh, dg and consrction ate presented in the boceedings of international spay eonferences wich meet peroicly to ‘scuss advances inal spect of eoldformed tec situa tes (Rove, fad Walker 1979 Yu ad Laoube, 192) “Thinaled sel members ae sully cokt-formed Io shape from hot oe ‘oll sect, stp, or plate. Aluminom setons ae oneal extaded fold-ormed. Coktfrming 10 shape muy ince the yield tad alse Strength ofthe member because of strain hardening and svi apg (Karen tnd Winer, 196%: Uribe and Winter, 197), Ths sls ima ghey strength forthe material in the more severly ok! worked Zone, sich a2 ‘nets, and in gaa yelng behavior of tos ection tnd a sen ‘hough ‘the virgin materal may exhibit sharp yelling chaarterinioe. The ‘tengthening ff of ol forming can be deermned by et or sy mente and speieations contin provisions for aaltcaly determi the arene increase de to cold forming of olor carbon and lwalty atl seas ern Whether teing or ara cused, the doin appro To myoninay procedures o permit ution of his nese in strength, regi Ing the Gad service intends This chapter soves the havior of Bera and compreson members that ‘is unigee to wal sonsrotion, Bocase ofthe tnpes ofthe member ‘Senet, acl bucking a important consieration, and emphasis en to tapos of bockling that fet member bebo, $22 FLEXURALMEMBERS 19.24 Introduction “Thin-waled ston sh ae ubula members Fig, 4.6), section (Fi 18), Channels Zions, at sections (Fig 41. Tsection (Fig hm, and panels (fig tt peqvate often cud ena member in thi-alled constriction, {Tae depth af such members generally range om to 129. ad the chines trmteialranges rom about 012 f9 about 0 in. thicker. Inthe dvgn of thw Sera members consideration shoul e given tothe following (Yu. 19 # Moment sssting capacity and ies of the member Web even 1 Beacing egurements 43.2.2 Moment Capacity In thin-walled sca construction, the moment-esisting capacity of «flexural ‘members gosrned by one or combination ofthe following factor 4 Yielding of materi 1 Lowi buckling of eompresion Mange or web 1 Lateral bucking ‘When the section geometey and loading rl ia bending in the plae of toading and when lel busking of Inteal buckling dos not cxcur,Rexaral Mildng nthe iting fcr abd traditional sign cone apply. However ihe widthovhicknst rte ae frequently grett enough to res i sa ucling fore the ubimate fond racked altenton mst be ge 0 tron secon in which the normal sexe tution ita plane perpendicular {ote lonitinal nae the member vais because of focal bkling, Oe ‘hay citer cnsic the cial re ithation and sort othe fundamental ‘Rigale governing Noxural bbe or place te acta dstbuton wah ‘Toumal oul wha il pve he same result ‘Where ol buckling of nda ompeeson elements experienced, erent approaches hive Been wed fo Tctate design one bse on ee tive wilt the other based on average reduced Suess destibed In Chapter 4 For each approach, the Segre of ge retrsint infaences the ehutior, and therfore the calculation procedure Calculation procedures fe gennily bed oo either untied or edgesiffned compresion ee ‘perl AD unsffened compression clement is one that stiffened at oly ‘ae ede pra tothe drecton of apled stress. A siened compression ‘mente iflened a both edges prabie 1o the direction of applied res ad {sttee athe other edge. Many of the design spesication ve based on the ‘sfeesve width approach (Bee, 1990), Equation 415 ts used tthe bas for determining the efi width of locally bucked ements This equation is expressed by te Following pond enon form mao a» where 1, = eat wit 1 = at wi of plate 2 = tf)" 1% = Tor ahiatestength calculations, the maximum stesso the plate Slement compute forthe moment casing ie eld nthe effin ‘ron section for delton cautions, the maxim stress de 0 sere lode coy ~ plate buckling sess dened by Eq. 4.1.12. PE (ay r= here the modus of elastic (E = 29,500 ksi fr col-formed ste)» the Poisson's ratio (00.3), 1 the plat thikoes, abd the pate-bucklog vent (f= for iene elements k= 04 for unsifned semen, for Pally stfu elements an stemndiate vale for fi alee). ‘When 8 = 1 0.53, which rhe intingslendernese parameter flow hic the efecive wt egal tothe atl Bat wih The fective ith Ertera inthe 1986 AISI specication are thus expres by the following uations torr 2603 (33 pb fords 08 338) whereLe022 aa) te ws) ‘This equation drives from Foy. 13. and 13.2 with v= 0.3. Equation 13.638 ‘ena othe fllonng formals in the 1980 AISI specication ee o he ses due sevice ands and £ = 29.00 ks, v = 0.3, k tnd the factor of safety i} Equation 138 the effective orm for feed element ands the samen oth the 198) andthe 986 versions of te Ast spesifeations An asrage reduc allowable ses ed for untied flement othe AD and ere rls, wie un fee vith eiron (oth F043) wed i the 1986 sion The exesion of the effete kh approach is basa on esac by DeWotf etal. (1979), Kalyanaraman tl (1979), Kalaoaramun and Poke (0979), Pek etal. (19814, Malan ae Pek (983) and Lah (185). A Sempistion of this resctc is presented by Pokdr (1987) Yu (981) alo presets hackgrovnd dcssionreanding the development of etive-with Research has been conducted on the iacastic reserve stenath of cold form tel bean whose compresion anges at silene slong both long ‘dial edges. Rests mda tat this nclasti eseveatength de to pata Pssucstion of the ern section can he signin for many pratcl shapes {Weck et a, 1975). Dean provisions nthe AISI speciation permit we of ths secre in design. Additonal incase revere cay dt the et- Ubi a moments in tats ndterminte Pesan pol desks wa Studied by Unger (1973, Yene and Pek (198, Ya 19RD ad Biya and each (1984) The potocalbackingbxhanor of contndous Bate is Se ‘sed by Wang aa Yeh (1978. Sloping ee sifleners of beams have Bee ‘Studi by Pek and He 1981, Lagu (1983), and Cohen and Pek 1987) fad are the subj of eure Tarte eacrch In addon to sieding and lsal buckling, as dscusod previous, the ‘moment reiting cacy ofa thitwalle Bxtral cuber fay be led ‘by lateral bucking ofthe eam between lateral supports Theoretical and ‘Stperimental weatnens for tral buckling of otal shapes nd bul up members were dicuse in Chapter 5. Foe thin-walled metal constrctin, {he cial tess for lnteral buckling of an -bear ving une anges ca ‘be determined hy the towing formula (Winter 1943, 1990) = £84 (.-nonfi 1 compresive section moduli of the ete ston about the major Ins) = moment of neta ofthe compression and esion potion espe ‘ively fasion abouts centroid ais ural Yo the web ‘modi of eastiy Sear module losional constant ofthe ston Septh of the section ‘bred Jeng For thin-walled stl section, the first tim unr he ral in B. 137 sly exceeds te second tern by a considerable margin (Winter 194) he second tem somite and comiering that, fy #7 te following eau oo (Eq 138) can he obuind for termini etl ses for ater buckling inthe clase rang (3s) hte C, is» bending coeicens that can conservatively be tke ws nity of abel from Cy = 1.754 108 a4) +038 / MSF bat ot mote tan 2B. Mer My My and the rato of f/f is postive wha Mand My have the same sgn (eese curvature bending) snd epative when they ao opp site Sins (ingle curate bending), Inthe AISI specication the tera bucking strength for Helin beams io the clic ranges based on Eg 138. For Zsstion teams, Ey 138 dived ‘by 2. To acount for lca beklag on the overall ara sali of team, "he followings sugested (Peko. 198; AISI, 1989 1991. es te MS a9) here M, isthe ultimate ltera-trional buckling moment, the ese Sesion nodules of te fll reduced section forthe tures fompeeon fibcrand', he cast wetion medals ofthe fective won alateses M/S th extreme compreson fiber. The enc moments de ‘ind flows Myx MEAT (319) 10), 10M) a4, foe 278M, > M,> 056M, (1311) tm rea where Af the moment causing ying atthe extreme compression he {he fl sition an My the tne creat moment (Eg. 13.8 times 5) “ine sold cure in Fp. 13.1 shows the variation of the erica! moment Mf withthe unbracl length. The curve conasts of thes epons:yeing (Eq Tht, inate bvekling (Eq. 13.12, and este boskling (Eg. 13.1). CSA (989) uses sma approach to aera buckling exept hat the scond tem Under the radical in Eq, 13.7 i retained. Previous study has indicted that ‘Sustions developed fr -beams can sls be ted for chanel wih reasonable ‘Secuacy (Hil, 1984) For channels and ther singly symmetric shapes, the Toke AISI spect ha dled the eld patna ora given Ly ratio, Z-sestion wil acl tral at a ower sess than will an rheun oft channel seion A conservative design approach has tc wo in the AIST speifcation (988, 0 whic the real moment for ‘Sito in the lsc ange are opera f those permed for Pheams oF fz [JR ve e181 Adio somprnie sts for ater cling of ams (Wie, 17, hsnnds withthe same Lf ratio, Te tera buckling cure for Zshaped teams i shown ae the dashed ine in Figs seed on sts of the tron eral buckling of colored scl sections under ecenic load (PekSz and Witer, 196), the erie late hckling srength for both singly and. doubly symmetric acns bending shout the symety a perpen 10 the wei en by Moe = Cred OH cay wher t= bP and ry ate ratio eration ofthe exo ston out the trial pencil anis is the dstance rom the shear cater 10 the centroid along the principal scan taken ae neptve ite fall sos Sesto aeh ey ato are dln low KL Gas Re NK) ‘ffecie length factors for bending about the xian for twining = unbraced eng for bending about the yas and or twisting ‘To acount fo inate behavior of such ection, the citi Backliog moment ‘computed by te following equation wen Mn, = D4; #) eo Latrllyunbraced sta box sections with ength-o-nidth rai up to 2500, and with web plates no les than 6 apart can be sod bens ihout any stress reduction Tor lateral buckling bse the Se. Venaat tr Sonal tiie of ox sections i ih and the J/J< nti higher than fo Seon (Winter, 970, Forlateraly nbraced bat secon bent about the xi noses duction is necessary i> Z,Pcase there no tency to barkle. When J < fet onsriative estimate ofthe eral last sts nay be determined by ren ing the compression postion ofthe sexton a a independent ru, whch ees RE . a «1s where sthe radia of gyration about the vet xis thi poston of the ‘at section which iis compresion A mere scurte analy or sich Ba shaped sections and for any othe singly Syametr section to we thetions sven in Chapter 5. This i the approach regia in the 1986 AISI Stentin forthe design of sigh symmetne son TReorly complet work by Senet and Pek (1982) present a tion to the proble a the unbraced compression flange by using the coneps of {stromal Buckling ofthe eros son, 19.24 Distortional Buckling | mode of faa of thin- wall tons in comprnon ae ending which hinge of shape of the tos soon ad tel sor losonal moverens ‘fear smulapeusy roy tc psy in sotons compose of he Sronath ste Thode o fe sale dort butig The st itn mde bucking scar a ngs al waceagts than fel busing in invlvs menbranédisplcemonts of he ceo iterate sles termi the svn oof comple fangs. Te Gorton xing odes, Son sth ts kl andthe Rsura-toronal rade are sown fru ak ‘Sebo compton and hana! sonin henge Has 132and 133, pst orth Tack ston shown in Fig 13.2, singe dtortonal mode seus at an itrmedtetlfaysegth, However forth han ston show in Fip"t3 oo dfeca pp of toon odes ec. Te et ozs a ‘Sener halfnnsonghs snd inl oat he ange about te flange Sep hmcton, This mos sometimes gen the name sf bk The onTocus at longer hallevecgts nd ingles distortion of the web peeteeuae i pc {2 i i Fie, 183. Chane ston: hcg Ses Wes meen for major vena and ansvesse bending of the Bagge I is lose i fren w Bexura torsional buckling anda method for is anal when ppbed to purl eseaned by Sewing has been provided by Pek and Soroushian (982). The distortonal ‘node dcused in deta inthis section isthe type occuring at shorter hall soclenghs Reset in the distortions] mode of buckling bas atracted considerable attention in recent years Distortonl buckling i ste! storage rack tions ‘sit dase by Hancock (1983), where ple design chats for compu Ing the buckling ses ere presented. Further rescareh felling teste by {wand Hancock (198, 1990) read ina preininary st of Gig curves ‘sed on the Jobson parabola (1976) for disotomal buckling These desi ‘har and cures have feeatly been icorptated inthe Austallan sel Sorape rack stndard (SAA. 1993) Sinplifled Formulas for computing the ‘taste ditional boeing ses of Setions with edgestiened ements ‘ere alto provided by Law and Hancoek (1987) Chravarichbonkarn and Potro (992) have mie the Formals fr sas Dicling to pre the dstortional buckling sees of Zseton columns. They have wed the same sign curves as proposed by Lau and. Hancock (1988) The mcthod ccurasy pected the dstortional hosing song of Zon columns ‘in compresuon. In nether the method of Lau and Hancock nor that of CCharovarnichboakarn and Poyzis allowance made for the postbuslng ‘reserve of strength inthe dstortional model ary work on he tortional buckling mode in edgestillened laments an Itemedite sere elements was ecormed by Desmond eal 19810) 19these two papers the buckling move was given the mame sioner bucking nade in cases where the seer es not adequate to preven x deformation {i pane normal fo the came that supported. Ths the same mode OF thsking stat refered to a dstorttonal Buckling in thi section The dein methods proposed for ede and intermediately sieved ements by Desmond {al have been incorporated inthe ASI specetin (198). They account for {he inst of the sllener to prevent dintrtional backing by rein the local buckling coefieet forthe plate cement supported by the sifener below ‘0 apd tho inluing this redued bucking oesent i the Winter eTstie- ‘dn Formula sed to compute the srength ofthe plate element. The design ‘method donot acount forte retrain to dtornal backing provided The web of he section, The se of te Wine efletive-wdth formu llows for postbockling inthe dortonal made. However, ab discussed in Kwon and Hancock (1992) the design metho in tbe AIH specication s unconsrative for disontonl bucking of chanel setons in compresion composed o ih ‘trength test of yl tres 550 MPs, lterative dvgn methods ae exes ‘ryt design spit tortion buckingn th case Furie, anced Berard et (1993, the design ath i the AIST speciation (198) may be uncomservative or dstortional buckling of decking pal with intemetate sitfenes composed of hghstegth ste of yi tes fat east $50 MPa 50 ternative desien methods are neces 0 design agaist dstortional Back Ting in this case 'Analterttive approach bas Been to account forthe disortonal mode af buckling of edge and interment fener ab commend siut onan elie Foundition where the cate foundation represent ya spring that depends Spon the bending aifnen of adjacent parts of plane cements and en the oundary conditions of the element This procedure has been adopted in Eurocode 5, Part) (ECS, 192), The deign sient of the stillene fused on ihe conventions! compresion member design curve ia the Eurocode with = 013. The method accounts fr the elastic rertrsit ofall ‘ements inthe section, icdig the webby incorporation of theif ‘he ease spengsestaint. Howeve, the method does at allow Tor an pest ‘oucking reserve i the ditoroal buckling mode. A detailed discussion of ‘his method applied to channel scsons ste in Baga tal (1982) ‘Reeat tests by Thooa et al (1983) apd Seah et al (193) have provided furter daa on dtrtonalbacling oF intermediately send late elements ‘nd ipstifend element In thse papers the distortion buckling mode hat ‘een cabo seer buckling, The reviteofThoon et al arefor ste with il ‘res I1-5 1943 MPa, a the of Seah etal are for sel of yield srs ringing fom 226810 3376 MPs ' reat problem stat of the busing of the unsupported compression ‘ngs of pane uns decks with vere aptands eo provide ierock- ing betwen jcent panei). The dstortioaal buckling mode voles otaon ‘tthe web ange stement about the aun ofthe web and tenon ange. The ‘mode i clser in for otha ecu at longer half vaveengh in Fi 133 A dein procedure for this ype dtetona buckling as ben prov ‘Serrette and Pekbz (1992), oe = old "tale est program ona rang of hn wale color tet tions bas bn performed atthe Une of Syn) etm th scat of Sets fig nthe ure dora baeing tose or the donna Docking moe nercing wih al bucking (itd mode. The eo the tes ae desi for at canne snd rage Yack sens hs Stes th range 20 MP to 480 MPa io Lau snd Hancock 984, 1990), or Shunt! seion wih an iho intermediate we sles ot id oe inthe range 85 MPa to 6H MPs hy Kno a asset (192, 1928) and for traperidatdecting seston with irate slew an el os {50 MPa by Berard ea 19924 199) Bae on he river of Sy fry, o iferet design cus ve been ropa The hist ter 2 mean ofthe ected formu os 025/40) 9, =x o2sih) 1.69 pe (316) were u=(2) (316) ‘a ithe buklng stot fr caste distortion buckling For sections in compression, fy sapped to all meting ps For exon in bending. am elective secon modulus Z, x computed to pve the umate moment spac Ay Manz, «aan, ‘The fetve section modus is ot based on the efctine width of he in ‘iu elements bat ven by 25160 th 2 ep in mt te Espa lnBae) cuzte 03 sfoos(Z,->9) Comparison of Ea 118 with he compresin est resus of ehansel sections ‘Sten in Kwon and Hancock (1992) Toca behing en osursnulancouly with distortion bucking. o ta higher or tower lod Th testy Kom and Hapock (1923.0) were designed tordstermise whetor avers infraction oecured if eal and distorts bucking ere simultaneous or fearlysmltaneous No adverse interaction tas found heween lol and sitorional bucking fr the channel sexton {Sted a thi te cistron! buckling strength canbe assessed independent tt wheter lee buckling occuring smultoneous. ‘The tests of trapezoia dnks by Berard et al (9924, 19934.) incloded seco tha andesent cl cing efor and after dsiotional buckling orton wth Vtffeners dsortonal bucking ocuring before ov in the ppcouimate rsnity of local busking could be pratt wsng the desi TBenuls proposed for dstoronsl bucking alone. However, sections that Anderwent cal bucking wel Before distortion buckling nsded to be {dined sing conventional methods ascout fr lea bucking s reported nerand eta 1992, 1926) Fr the sects wth that sifleners when {storonal buckling oewre s,thedeniga method (Ba. 13.17) adegotey| frets the srength ofthe ston, However. scons that underwent oe ck before dstotional buktng could oi be predicted conservatively By Tar IS ey and modified ellene ection method has ben propos By Berard et a (19829) Feo st «ni 13.25 Design of Webs “Te dsin of webs of thin-walled teams is semen ferent than for bot Tolle memes beste te sth totbiknes aio of webs of thin-waled Incofers is ually legend the ose of beating sillenrs i in most cases Impact Neves deen provision for webs wth transverse tienes reinloged the AIST spss (ATL 1986: Nguyen and Ys, 197, Tithe deen of webs. somsdration shoud be given (1 shea segs (2) lal bucking due to bending stein the web) fect of combined ‘Rha and sar (8) web cpping. ad (3) combined ending and web Coppin For webs having sol wite-totisknes aos, the bes strength sree wit be governed hy the sed stesso shear dete’ by Oe encky-vom Miss Sel eriterions tha a «329 es eto, the tenth ofthe web may he poverned by shear buckling The ‘hort rel sher-backling fre la te ease range can be eterna se tha en Ep 240 and 439, For bon sed 29500 ks and» 03), ky _ oso? cl a cD wheres the at width of he web and ete web thickness. or iase shear buckling. Baler (1961) pasete the flowing equation: whee ty, the shear proportional lini, ~ Os, By sebuaing the vale {tom Eg 1320 and 1321 for andthe fling equation can be dived for inane shear backing: ossyRee, a «2 Doan spitetons (AFSL. 99,19; CSA, 98) app appropri factors hey org tain to Ege N20, Bale ad 1320 6 arte mt nine eign engine vet ecm il nn ha et fh cm cove sr ctl by bending For Denne th the etal aio {Seb ucklng ston can Be dermal by Bg. ih E289, Poe eben oe ae 03.23) Aout anh late may sles ts nes gn by Ea 1323, he Iaarg cpa fhe pt ny not texted ast and Ya (1983) expermenaly sted the bho bch cts ib pre ‘ein deine homer potg sete so raistisandnafincuonat fu hy prunes tee sence 2) "io af maxim compress bending ew fo atin cr ng Sie Reh te td en ns to and (ya aa ese a Suse cach {Coke fnd Pe GBH) ded mappa tne ea appssing Bq, 15, which Being iid by deen specications ie North ‘When high ending sirses and high sear esses act simultaneous 80 catlover bets and at supports of ontinaoos teams, he webs of beams well ‘bck a fomer stress than only one sires nee prose. Fors combiation lof tending and shear Eq. 30 cane sed to predict Duckling were the atl compressive streat he onion f Mange and web the acl average she sess and of and © are the eal sess for tending and she, respecte, as determined above. Equation 13.28 has een apie for deugn by replacing thecal stresses Tor bending and sear soth perminble dsgn stengh values. The equation has als been presente i's toad format by replacing the sear sues th shear Fre and ending tse with bending moment Qs nas where Mand ¥ are the pied moments and shears and M, and V are te ‘eb with iranvers lene ao ae teat inthe AIS spcifetion “The economy ofthe thin at webs rede bythe fabrication cos associated vith ataching sileers aecesary to prevent premature local buckling. The the of “slfstieped™ corrugated webs could reduce faction costs and provide increased material efficeny. Design guidlines for both local aad fverall shear buckling are given by. Shiney (965) and. Mert and Mastin (1970) A stody ofthe optimum attachment for scoragted ed tothe bem ange ws conde by Shen and Fisher (1971) and Havacek {iota Conmpated webs are dane farther i Chaplet 6 "The we of web iffeners is frequent pac s eol- formed te om siruction, and without sch tenes thin webs of beams ay eripple de 10 the bigh focal sree cated by conned loads or reactions. Figure 134 owe the pe of delormation that cur due to cppling of nresained Sine web and retuned double webs. Theoretic analy of me rpg 1 father compat (Bakker et al, 1990). Expermeat investigations (Winte nd Pan, 1046, Rocke e aly 1972 Hetakol and Ye, 1978) have ndcatad thatthe web ripping street of hin nid eum: depends on Vf Yt, tn oy, wbere the web tks N te arn length, the at wath of ‘he toy the i ses ofthe steel a the side bend eas, The web “ripling strength of muliwed deck sections was sitally investigated by Y8 (Gato) and extended by Wing (981 ocd the eet of varying web lope (329) tii Fig 134 Web crip of beans and also the infuonce of lege bend radi fo-thisknesralis, More recent ‘work by Santaputa eal (I88) ads he web pling bhava of ih Strength (ie, rapping rom 30 to 16S ks) cldformed ste! Beams ad ‘eck 122. COMPRESSION MEMBERS, 19.34 Introduction ‘Thinalled ope sections are suscep o Sexura- torsional Macling and in some unusual cases, torsional iastbiy, whereas ths mode’ of Behior Father exception in hota stl consrction, Dut to the thine of the enponent plate ements the fe of esl bukling my be of eal por {ance Another problem pecarto thin-wll constraton i the sxty tovimpefaction in bath the member andthe sonetns. perfection ia fomnetons may lead 16 les! ening an! hence rede the overall ow Carrying capaci). Fortunately, a Uncut in Chapter 4 such members my hie considerable pstlocalbucling strength With rear to orl etal buckling the tehavor of oléfomed carbon and low-lloy sol members Simla to that of hotols! scons. The bchavion, which scaed bythe Presents of skal cooling sss ie hotrod eton, sought ao by Uh effets of col forming, which ests ie serena ye seat a aed 2ones such corners. Tis ss ia ak apparent gradual ding eho 8 ‘Gkcssed in Section 13.1 Homer a complction ls tly dele wth ay be the presence of throuahthewalresdul sus around The periphery of the section (MeDesnt 98) 193.2 Flesural Buckling ‘Sender compression members that re nt suscep torsion or exaal- ‘orsionsl backing wil lose thet stay By flexural beklng Doubly sys ‘cre sections and closed sections, aul loaded, Jo not ave an end 10 ‘ist they are of dimensions common sed in suacures. Open secuoms maybuckle Rexall itr dimensions areas dicused in Section 1335 off they ae estan against twist, "leur busking of a strght member oscurs at an average tes of 2, xe 0829 ‘The tangent modules isthe lope ofthe stestaindingram atthe bucking ses, The cast shape ofthe stesesirin disgram “hence the ‘arition the tangent modi with the sizes evel depens om the proces ‘offorming the ston ts well a the proper he vig atl. Ths iis Impowsble to pedis he deta ofthe shape ofthe sues-saindagram for {otdormed members. For col of small moderate senders aos {Ge hon the bucking sess isa aleve where the stessstrain relationship online simple bat sisi accurate approach hes hen lle Tarts the CRC hase column curve treatment othe alunos of sil cok ing steses in horrlled column behavao, Easy tes (Karten and Winter, 1967) ave stem that for the range of slenderness ratios in gestion, the flesural buckling ts for cabon and fw-allystel merbers an be appro ‘mated by et) wm sender enough to buckle at sues eel whew the sess he bucking tess can te obalned fom re wei? 2» The ining valu ofthe senders eto (KL termining whieh ype behavior so be expected can he found by equating the buckling esses coaling to Eqs. 1327 apd 1328. Thus Oe ‘Because coldformed thin-walled! clumas are sestive 1 imperfections and nud eccntoites rnting from conncton dt, dean sastcaons se rally requis larper magi of sty for dean, (a rg factor of ae ‘rsa fats). The He verson of th AISI spcietion recognized the Unperecion sestety exiy and adopeed the now column equations (EG fe re) Ve 5.9) whic nce an nil amperesion of hight Si heir evelopment nd which ate as in the AISC LRED Speccaton (ASC. 1993). ‘Staies (Pek, 1980. Dat and Pek OAD, Weng and Pekéz, 198) have shown that fo etn tons Ba. 13.27 may overesimae the strength. 1 was found that even though the ebiforming incre held tes, the prope ‘ol imicis lowered and hence the bucing lod somered. Da and Pek {G80 ge column curves based on analytical and etyerimentl studs iv ‘ing cold Tomes! columns. Weng and Pek (987) present a design pro Celie that recognizes the reduced sffnese of ol-fred ste clon, Sthich rel from the Torming procs sil on the work of Dat and Pek (1980), the RMI speciation (1979) requires greater design factors of safety. Guia (1974) apd Iagtarson (1978, 1977) present the rls of resurh on cold formed tabula setons Reset sud of elindia tubular ‘Sections i summarized by Yu (991) and in Chapter juekling on Column Strength Ress of ay sts on iteration between acl and overall buckling were poset by ard and Faber (9528) More een this problem hs ‘ei sigifcat amount of attention Craver Sih (198) treat the pot Tocabucking behavior within the Scope ofthe are defection pate theory ‘nd ascounts for the inasicty efers both lea and oer. The overall bckling load is computed sing the tangent module approach buss othe Stes ofthe Jal kl plate clement. Although the mchod ss ‘ally general he author treats only the case of a square tubular coluna, Hagcock (981) and Sridharan and Benito (198) have iventpte the ner. ‘ton problem ug th fmt rip method Thomasson (197) and Koni and ‘Thomarion (1940) teat the post oc bucling behavior wth afte width approce and the clam strength determined om the bass of 3 ni ‘olan erection, The una load i defined a te the loud that causes Yielding ofthe masimum load that can be sisained. Muligan and Poke (0983 sid singly sme colu. “The freeing approaches aecessate computer cautions. computa ional simpler spproach is presented by DeWolf etal (1974, 1974) and Kalyanaraman eta (1977, In these des an efetve wih approach ‘elo find sie that depend on the vale oF the ail lod The sti esis this baie are used with mode tangent mule spproch ‘hain the overall king loud A more seat cxpenmetal dy presented by Braham ta (1980), [A Simple Hat comervatie treatment i provided by th use a frm ator as recommeded bythe AISI seston (980 Sections consisting of te Sens sections consisting of ustfned elements nd combinations of these avo tp of section exh diferent gps of behavior. This method

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  Évaluation : 4.5 sur 5 étoiles

  4.5/5 (122)
• A Man Called Ove: A Novel

  

  D'Everand

  A Man Called Ove: A Novel

  Fredrik Backman

  Évaluation : 4.5 sur 5 étoiles

  4.5/5 (4610)
• Wolf Hall: A Novel

  

  D'Everand

  Wolf Hall: A Novel

  Hilary Mantel

  Évaluation : 4 sur 5 étoiles

  4/5 (3811)
• Brooklyn: A Novel

  

  D'Everand

  Brooklyn: A Novel

  Colm Toibin

  Évaluation : 3.5 sur 5 étoiles

  3.5/5 (1938)
• The Perks of Being a Wallflower

  

  D'Everand

  The Perks of Being a Wallflower

  Stephen Chbosky

  Évaluation : 4.5 sur 5 étoiles

  4.5/5 (2104)
• Little Women

  

  D'Everand

  Little Women

  Louisa May Alcott

  Évaluation : 4 sur 5 étoiles

  4/5 (104)
• The Art of Racing in the Rain: A Novel

  

  D'Everand

  The Art of Racing in the Rain: A Novel

  Garth Stein

  Évaluation : 4 sur 5 étoiles

  4/5 (4201)
• Manhattan Beach: A Novel

  

  D'Everand

  Manhattan Beach: A Novel

  Jennifer Egan

  Évaluation : 3.5 sur 5 étoiles

  3.5/5 (792)
• A Tree Grows in Brooklyn

  

  D'Everand

  A Tree Grows in Brooklyn

  Betty Smith

  Évaluation : 4.5 sur 5 étoiles

  4.5/5 (1929)
• Her Body and Other Parties: Stories

  

  D'Everand

  Her Body and Other Parties: Stories

  Carmen Maria Machado

  Évaluation : 4 sur 5 étoiles

  4/5 (821)
• Sing, Unburied, Sing: A Novel

  

  D'Everand

  Sing, Unburied, Sing: A Novel

  Jesmyn Ward

  Évaluation : 4 sur 5 étoiles

  4/5 (1104)
• The Constant Gardener: A Novel

  

  D'Everand

  The Constant Gardener: A Novel

  John Le Carré

  Évaluation : 3.5 sur 5 étoiles

  3.5/5 (104)