631

!
APNDICE VI. LA TEORA GENERAL DE LA RELATIVIDAD

APNDICE VI A. LA CONSTRUCCIN DEL TENSOR MTRICO!

!
!!"#!#$!%#$&'($)*+,!-%!#$!.%'(/$!0%,%($#!1'&(%!#$!*,-%2%,-%,)*$!-%!#$1!#%3%1!4/1*)$1!)',!(%12%).'!$!
#'1! 1*1.%5$1! -%! )''(-%,$-$1! 3! #$! )',1%)6%,.%! *,7$(*$,8$! -%! %1.$1! #%3%1! )6$,-'! 6,! 1*1.%5$! -%!
)''(-%,$-$1!1%!.($,14'(5$!%,!'.('9!"#!$"%&'(!)*$(+,'!:6%0$!6,!2$2%#!*52'(.$,.%;!"1.%!.%,1'(!
!
<=>>
4'(5$! 2$(.%! -%#! .%,1'(! -%! "*,1.%*, ;! ",! %1.$! 1%))*+,! ?6*%('! -%5'1.($(! )+5'! 1%! )',1.(63%! %#!
.%,1'(!5@.(*)'!$!2$(.*(!-%!-'1!%)6$)*',%19!$!1$&%(9!"#!$"%&'(!-"!$(.%&/'().,+0%!-"!-+/"("%,+.#"&!
A?6%!1%!61$!%,!#$!.($,14'(5$)*+,!-%!1*1.%5$1!-%!)''(-%,$-$1B!3!#$!%)6$)*+,!-%!#.!+%1.(+.%2.!-"!
#.!#'%3+$4-!-"!.(,';!C(*5%('!1%!)',1.(63%,!%1.$1!-'1!%)6$)*',%1!3!-%126@1!%#!.%,1'(!5@.(*)'9!$!
2$(.*(!-%!%##$1;!!
!
I. Coordenadas cartesianas y esfricas
!
!!!"52%8$5'1! )',! 6,! %:%52#'! (%#$.*7$5%,.%! 1%,)*##'! -%! #$! .($,14'(5$)*+,! -%! 6,! 1*1.%5$! -%!
)''(-%,$-$1!)$(.%1*$,$1!%,!6,!1*1.%5$!-%!)''(-%,$-$1!%14@(*)$1;!
!
"#$%&'()!*++#,-.(,(/!'(#0-/&(.(/!1!-/%2#&'(/!,-!3.!43.0+!-.!5(!/34-#%&'&-!,-!3.(!-/%-#(!

!!!D$1! )''(-%,$-$1! )$(.%1*$,$1! -%#! 26,.'!

G
;! D'1! F,06#'1! 1',H!

! 1',!

! %1.F,! -$-$1! 2'(H! A$B!

G!!!A-B!

;!

!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

<=>>

!")6$)*+,!IJK9!E2@,-*)%!LM!N!

!
! ! 3! !
G! ! A&B!

;! E-%5F19!
;! D$1! -*1.$,)*$1!
G! ! ! A)B!

632

!!!"#!$%&!'!$(&!)*+#,#-)./!$0&!
'! (#! $3&! )*+#,#-)./! $4&!

1!!(#!$*&!'!$(&!)*+#,#-)./!$2&!
1!!
5! 67! 89,+)!
! #,! 3)):(#,%(%.! #.;<:=3%.! #./!
5!

!
!!!>):!7)!+%,+)!#7!?#3+):!
!#,!!""#$%&'$'()!'#*%(+'&'(!#./!
!
$@A&!
!!!!!!!!!'!#,!!""#$%&'$'()%(,-#+!'(/!
$@B&!
!
!
II.A. Diferenciales
!
!!!"#:=?%,()! #7! ?#3+):! $@&! '! (#(93=#,()! #7! (=;#:#,3=%7! (#! 7%! (#:=?%(%C! )*+#,#-).C! 8%:%!
3)):(#,%(%.!3%:+#.=%,%./!
$D&!

!!!

!!

$D!B&!!

!!!
'!8%:%!3)):(#,%(%.!#.;<:=3%./!
$E&!

!!!!!!

!!!!

$E!B&!

!
II.B. Transformacin de los diferenciales de diferentes sistemas de coordenadas
!!!F).! ().! (=;#:#,3=%7#.! .),! =G9%7#.! #,! 39%7H9=#:! .=.+#-%! (#! 3)):(#,%(%./!
+%,+)C!*#'&(,"#.'&$")/'()!""#$%&'$'()!'#*%(+'&'()%&)%(,-#+!'(C!)*+#,#-)./!
$I&!

5! >):! 7)!

$J&!

$K&!

!
!!!!L#.9-=#,()! 7%.! #39%3=),#.! $I&C! $J&! '! $K&C! )*+#,#-).! %/) *%&("#) $%) *#'&(,"#.'!+0&) $%)
$+,%#%&!+'/%(!H9#!#.!9,!+#,.):!(#!8:=-#:!:%,G)!'!.#!89#(#!#.3:=*=:!(#!7%.!.=G9=#,+#.!-%,#:%./!
$0MA&!

!1!

!!!!7%!#39%3=N,!$0M!A&!+%-*=<,!.#!#.3:=*#!.=,!.=G-%/!!

633

"#$!%&!

'!

!!!!(!)*+,-./!01!2*!3-45-1/)1!+*/16*7!
"#$8&!

9!

'!
'!
'!
&!
":%!!!
!
III. El coeficiente mtrico
!
!!!;<6! 2*! -45*20*0! 01! "=>&! (! "=%&! <,)1/1+<3! 12! ?1@)<6A! B51! 31! C5101! 1DC613*6! 01! 0-E161/)13!
+*/16*37!
!
"##!>&!
!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
!!!!01!+<0<!B51!2*!+*4/-)50!137!

!!
!"/<)*!#FG=&!

"##!%&!

!
!!!H1@<601+<3!12!)1/3<6!01!)6*/3E<6+*@-I/!"1@5*@-I/!#$&7!
"#$&!

!
!!!;<01+<3! 013@<+C</16! 12! )1/3<6! "#$&! 1/! 353! )613! @<+C</1/)13! (! *C2-@*6! 2*! -45*20*0!
61C6131/)*0*!C<6!2*!1@5*@-I/!"##&7!
!
"#J&

K!

!!!!!!!K!!!
!

"#G&!

K!

!!!!!!!!!K
!
"#=&!

!
!

!!!!!!!!!K
!
!!L21?*+<3!"#J&A!"#G&A!(!"#=&!*2!@5*06*0<7!

K!
!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

#FG=

!M1<641!>6EN1/!O!P*/3!Q1,16A!!"#$%&"#'(")*!%#$+,-*.+/*0$1-'('-#-A!=)R!10-)-</!"#SST&7!##U!

634

"#$%!

&!

!!!!!!!!!&!!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!'!
!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!
!!!! !
!
"#(%!!
!
!
!!!)*!+,-*,./0!"#(%!012!3*!+4!,-*35*31!3+4!3.6+5+0,.*4!+0!+4!,*21!3+!4*2!,1153+0*3*2!+2675.,*28!94!
:75;.01!*0:+2!3+4!3.6+5+0,.*4!,-*35*31!2+!44*;*!!"#$%!%#&'#()*'+%!"! 8!!!!
!
!!!<15!41!:*0:1=!
"#>%!
!!!!!
!
!!!?+!"#(%!@!"#>%A!1B:+0+;12=!
"#C%
!
!
IV. Los vectores tangentes y el factor de escala! !!
!
!!!D+,153+;12!"EF%!
!
!
!!!)12!:5+2!,#!'"+#-('.&/#&'#-!
+0!,*3*!G-0:1!3+!4*!+26+5*!210=!
"#H%!!

"IJ%!

"I#%!

!
!!!92:12! K+,:15+2! :*0L+0:+2! G+5;.:+0! ,*4,-4*5! #0( $.!'"+( 1#( #-!.0.!
,#!'"+('.&/#&'#8!
"II%!

!!!!!!!!!"

%!!!

A! M-+! +2! 0.( )./&%'21( 1#0(

"IN%!

"IE%!
"I$%!
!
!!!!D+,153+;12!+4!!"#$%!%#&'#()*'+%!"!

!
!
=!

635

"#$%!
!!!!!
!
!!!!&'! ()! *+,-! .(! *--/.('+.+,! -/0-1-'+)(,! "*+/0(,2+'+,3! (,45/2*+,3! *2)6'./2*+,! 7! -0/+,%3! ('! .-'.(!
!8(9-,3!:7(!()!4+*0-/!.(!(,*+)+!(,!)+!/+6;!.()!*-(42*2('0(!950/2*-<!
"=>%!
!
!
!!!&,!4?*2)!*-//-@-/+/!:7(!)-,!8(*0-/(,!0+'1('0(,!"#A!+!=#%!,-'!-/0-1-'+)(,3!.+.-!:7(!()!B/-.7*0-!
(,*+)+/!.(!(,0-,!8(*0-/(,!(,!*(/-<!
"=$%!

!
!

!!!!!C
!!!!!C

C!
!

"=D%!

!!!!!!!!!
!!!!!!!!!C!

C!!
!

"=A%!

!!!!C!
C!
!!!!C!
!
!
V. Los vectores tangentes unitarios
!
!!E-,! !"#$%&"'( $)*+"*$"'( ,*-$)&-%'! ,(! -@02('('! +)! .282.2/! )-,! 8(*0-/(,! 0+'1('0(,! ('0/(! ,7!
9+1'207.3!(,!.(*2/<!!
"FG%!

!!!"

%!

!
!!!H(!"FG%!,(!*-//-@-/+!:7(!()!8(*0-/!0+'1('0(!(:728+)(!()!B/-.7*0-!.()!8(*0-/!0+'1('0(!7'20+/2-!I!
)+!9+1'207.!.()!8(*0-/!0+'1('0(<!
"F#%!!
!
!!!!
!!!J-/!)-!0+'0-<!
"F=!K%!
!!
!!!!!
!!!!!C
"F=!L%!!
!
"FF!K%!

C!
!
!
!

636

"
"
#$$!%&
!
#$'!(&!

"!
!

!
!

!!!!!!!!!!!"

"!

!!!!!!!!!!!"
!
#$'!%&!
!
!
!!!)*!+,-./!-011020131!456!/0*!76-8016*!839:6986*!59.831.0*!*09!0180:093/6*!#6-53-.096*!$;<!$$!=!
$'&<!39,/0:3>6986!3!/0*!76-8016*!839:6986*?!
!
#$@&!
!!
#$A&!
!
#$B&!
!
!
!
!
!
VI. La invarianza de la longitud de arco
!
!!!C5D09:3>0*! 456! 8696>0*! 593! /E963! -5173F3! 69! 6/! 6*D3-.0G! H/3>3>0*! ! 3! /3! >3:9.85F! F6/!
31-0<! 6*! F6-.1<! /3! F.*839-.3! 69816! F0*! D5980*! 69! 6*83! -5173G! )/! !"!#!$%&' (!' ")$!*!
! 6*! 6/!
-53F13F0!F6/!F.+6169-.3/!F6!6*83!F.*839-.3G!I6-01F6>0*!/3*!6-53-.096*!#@&!=!#A&?!
#$J&

!
!!!K6+.9.>0*!6/!-53F13F0!F6/!F.+6169-.3/!F6!/3!/09:.85F!F6!31-0?!
#$L&!
!
!
!!!M0>2.939F0!#$J&!=!#$L&<!028696>0*?!
#'N&!

!!!!!!!!

!!!!!!!!!!

!!!!!!!!!!

!
!
!

637

"#$%!!

!
!!!&'()! *+,! -'! -)./01+(! (,! '23)! .)! (,4,.(,! (,-! 5051,6'! (,! 3))2(,.'('57!
! ,5! 0.8'20'.1,! ,.!
3+'-*+0,2!5051,6'!(,!3))2(,.'('59!
"#:%!
!!!!
!
!!;)6<0.'.()!"#$%!=!"#:%7!)<1,.,6)59!
"#>%!
!
!
VII. El tensor mtrico y la transformacin de un sistema de coordenadas en otro
!
!!!?+,2,6)5!3).512+02!!"#$!%&'(#)*$(+,'!*+,!5,!2,42,5,.1'!4)2!+.'!,3+'30@.!1,.5)20'-!(,!5,/+.()!
2'./)A!B51'!"#$%#&'(!)"*+!,+-&./!0%*%*!-%!1*%()2/*3%#&'(!."!#$%-4$&"*!)&)1"3%!."!#//*."(%.%)!
"(! #$%-4$&"*! /1*/! )&)1"3%! ."! #//*."(%.%)! "5,'.! 5051,6'5! (,! C! 3)64).,.1,57! 5,'.! (,! $D!
3)64).,.1,57!5,'.!(,! !3)64).,.1,5%A!!
!
!!!E,!3).512+=,!,51,!1,.5)2!6F1203)!'!4'2102!(,!-'!0.8'20'.G'!(,!-'!-)./01+(!(,!'23)!"'4'21'()!H%!=!
-'5!-,=,5!(,!-'!12'.5I)26'30@.!(,!(0I,2,.30'-,5!"'4'21'()!JJ%A!
!!!
!!!K,,5320<06)5!-'!,3+'30@.!"#>%!3)6)!50/+,9!
"##%!
!
!
!!!K,3)2(,6)5!1'6<0F.!,-!1,.5)2!(,!-'!12'.5I)26'30@.!(,!(0I,2,.30'-,5!",3+'30@.!$L%9!
"$L%!

!!!M!!!!

!
!!!E+5101+06)5!-'!"$L%!!,.!-'!"##%9!
"#N%!!

!!!
!!!E+5101+06)5! -)5! O.(03,5! 6+()5!
2,54,3108'6,.1,7!4'2'!)<1,.,29!

! M! !

"#D%!!

"#Q%!!
!
!!!&'()!*+,!
"#R%!!

!
7!(,!"#Q%!5,!50/+,!*+,9!
!

! ,.! ,-! 1F260.)! '-! -'()! (,2,3P)! 4)2!

! M!

638

"#$%!

!
!!!!&'! ()! *+,)+-.'! "#$%! /,/0-0,-12/! ! 3! ! /-'! 4)55)! 625! ! 3!
/,/0-0,-12/!(2/!:';-+*/! !3! !625! !!3! 7!3! !3! !625! !3! <!
"=>%!

! +2'! 4)55)7! 3! 8-+*98*5/)7! 3!

!!!

!
!!!&'!(2/!)6)50);2/!?@!3!@7!+2552425)12/!A,*!()/!+225;*');)/!*/BC5-+)/!/2'!2502D2')(*/E!F)5)!()!
05)'/B251)+-.'!;*!;-B*5*'0*/!/-/0*1)/!;*!+225;*');)/!A,*!/*)'!2502D2')(*/7!*(!0*'/25!1C05-+2!/*!
/-16(-B-+)7!;);2!A,*!
E!G!+2'0-',)+-.'!5*652;,H+27!)!12;2!;*!*I*16(27!()/!1)05-+*/!
;*!(2/!+2*B-+-*'0*/!1C05-+2/!;*!(2/!/-/0*1)/!;*!+225;*');)/!+)50*/-)'2!3!*/BC5-+2<!
"=J%!

!
"=K%!

!
!!!!F25!(2!0)'027!"#$#!%&%'()#%!*(!+,,$*(-#*#%!,$',.,-#/(%01234!*(!0*'/25!1C05-+2!5*65*/*'0);2!625!
()!*+,)+-.'!"=>%!/*!5*;,+*!)!()!"=L%<!
"=L%!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
JML=

! F)5)! ',*8*! +)/2/! 6)50-+,()5*/! ;*! /-/0*1)/! ;*! +225;*');)/! 2502D2')(*/7! 8C)/*! N,55)3! O6-*D*(7! !"#$%&%&'''
()*+,-%.$!"K>>=%<!JLM9J#J!

639

!
APNDICE VI B. LA CONSTRUCCIN DE LA GEODSICA Y EL TENSOR DE
EINSTEIN
por Juan Auping Birch con la asesora de Alfredo Sandoval Villalbazo

!
!!!"#! $%&$! '()#*+,$! (-$%$#&.! /'! 0.-1'! 1'&$12&+,'! *$! /'! &$.-3'! *$! /'! -$/'&+4+*'*! 5$#$-'/! *$!
"+#%&$+#6!$#!*+$7!%$,,+.#$%8!
!
A. LOS SMBOLOS DE CHRISTOFFEL
9:;!<=%$-4',+.#$%!(-$4+'%!
9>;!?31=./.!*$!@A-+%&.00$/6!(-+1$-'!$%($,+$!
9B;!?31=./.!*$!@A-+%&.00$/6!%$5C#*'!$%($,+$6!*$-+4'*'!*$!/'!(-+1$-'!$%($,+$!
9D;!E'!F*$-+4'*'!,.4'-+'#&$G!
9D;:;!E'!*$-+4'*'!,.4'-+'#&$!*$!C#!&$#%.-!,.4'-+'#&$8!
9D;>;!E'!*$-+4'*'!,.4'-+'#&$!*$!C#!&$#%.-!,.#&-'4'-+'#&$8!
9H;!?31=./.%!*$!@A-+%&.00$/!$#!$,C',+.#$%!,.#!&$#%.-$%!*$!-'#5.!%C($-+.-!
B. LOS TENSORES DE RIEMANN Y DE RICCI
I:;!J$-+4',+K#!*$/!&$#%.-!*$!L+$1'##!
I>;!"/!&$#%.-!*$!L+,,+!
IB;!"/!$%,'/'-!*$!,C-4'&C-'!
ID;!"/!&$#%.-!*$!L+$1'##!M!/'!,C-4'&C-'!*$/!$%(',+.!
IH;!N*$#&+*'*$%!*$!I+'#,A+!
C. EL LMITE NEWTONIANO DE LA ECUACIN DE LAS GEODESICAS
C1. La geodsica del espacio curvo
@>;!J$!/'!'(-.O+1',+K#!*$!,'1(.!*)=+/!!'!/'!5-'4+&',+K#!P$Q&.#+'#';!
@B;!9(-.O+1',+K#!*$!,'1(.!5-'4+&',+.#'/!*)=+/!

@D;!E'!5-'4+&',+K#!P$Q&.#+'#'!
@H;!J$!/'!1)&-+,'!'!/'!&$.-3'!P$Q&.#+'#'!

D. LA GRAVITACIN NEWTONIANA EXPRESADA COMO TEORA DE CAMPO

J:;!@'1(.!5-'4+&',+.#'/!#$Q&.#+'#.!('-'!C#'!%./'!('-&3,C/'!
J>;!"/!,'1(.!5-'4+&',+.#'/!('-'!C#'!*+%&-+=C,+K#!*$!1'%'!'-=+&-'-+'!
E. EL FLUIDO PERFECTO
F. EL TENSOR DE EINSTEIN
R:;!",C',+K#!*$/!,'1(.!*)=+/!
R>;!",C',+K#!*$!,'1(.!5$#$-'/+7'*.!
G. LA MTRICA FRIEDMANN-ROBERTSON-WALKER
H. ALGUNAS CONSECUENCIAS DEL CAMBIO DE SIGNO EN LA MTRICA
I. LA SOLUCION DE SCHWARZSCHILD A LAS ECUACIONES DE EINSTEIN
K. EL MODELO LEMATRE CON!
!Y CONSTANTE COSMOLGICA!
!
!
A. LOS SMBOLOS DE CHRISTOFFEL
!
A 1. Observaciones previas
!
Primera observacin: los ndices
!!!"/!,2/,C/.!&$#%.-+'/6!M!$#!('-&+,C/'-!$/!&$1'!!*$!/.%!%31=./.%!*$!@A-+%&.00$/!+1(/+,'#!$/!1'#$S.!
*$!1C,A.%!3#*+,$%6!,.1.!*+S.!C#!'1+5.!13.6!T$/!,2/,C/.!&$#%.-+'/!$%!%+1(/$1$#&$!C#'!,.1(/$S'!

640

"#$%#!"&!'$"()&*+,!-#%.$!/0-!1#!)2#1!&*!)0$3&$(&$4&!/-(5&-0!60-521#-!#172$#*!-&71#*!82&!9#$!"&!
-&*/&4#-*&!/#-#!$0!)05&4&-!&--0-&*:!
!
#;! <#"#!!"#$%&'($)*&!"&=&!0)2--(-,!+",'-.(,'/&01'&"'%,#,'+".'#&'(.-'23*4$".-!"&!2$#!!
!!!!!!&)2#)(.$,!>!-$&45*&'&"'(,'4$-4,'5.-$%$6"!?)03#-(#$4&!0!)0$4-#3#-(#$4&;@!
=;! <2#$"0! +"' !"#$%&' 4+#.! 0)2--&! &"' +"' 23*4$".! "&! 1#! &)2#)(.$,! #*0)(#"0! #! "(6&-&$4&*!
6#)40-&*! "&1! 4A-5($0,! .%+**&' #.-' /&%&-1' "$' 47-1' "$' 4&".-8' 9,' 5*&-&"%$,' #&' 2*&-' !"#$%&-'
*&5&2$#.-1' ,-.%$,#.-' ,' 2*&-' #$:&*&"2&-' :,%2.*&-' #&(' 4$-4.' 23*4$".1' ((&/,' ,' +",'
%."2*,#$%%$6"1' %.4.' ,' %."2$"+,%$6"' %.45*.),*3,! #"&5B*! "&! *&-! ($)0$*(*4&$4&! )0$! 1#!
)0$3&$)(.$! "&! '$"()&*! 52"0*! 82&! *&! #"0/4#! )05C$5&$4&@! D2/0$7#50*! 1#! *(72(&$4&!
&E/-&*(.$! 4&$*0-(#1:!
@! F#"0! 82&!
! &*! 2$! &*)#1#-,! *&! *(72&! 82&:!
@! G90-#! =(&$,! &1! 4A-5($0! "&1! 1#"0! (%82(&-"0! 4(&$&! 2$! '$"()&! 1(=-&! >! 2$!
'$"()&!52"0!#*0)(#"0!#!10*!6#)40-&*!"&1!4A-5($0!>,!/0-!10!4#$40,!&*!2$!3&)40-!?2$!4&$*0-!"&!
/-(5&-!-#$70;,!/&-0!&1!4A-5($0!"&1!1#"0!"&-&)90!4(&$&!"0*!'$"()&*!1(=-&*!>!&*,!/0-!10!4#$40,!
2$!4&$*0-!"&!*&72$"0!-#$70,!10!82&!(5/1()#!)0$4-#"())(.$@!!
);! H*40!$0!82(4#!82&!*'!/2&"&$!&E(*4(-!4-&*!'$"()&*!52"0*!#*0)(#"0*!#!2$!5(*50!0=I&40,!/0-!
&I&5/10,!
@!
";! H$! )#*0! "&! 82&! &1! '$"()&! $0! (5/1()#! 2$#! *25#40-(#,! *'! /2&"&! 9#=&-! 4-&*! '$"()&*! 52"0*!
#*0)(#"0*!#!4-&*!6#)40-&*!"&!2$!5(*50!4A-5($0,!/0-!&I&5/10!
@!
&;! ;+,"#.'-&'-+-2$2+<&'+"'!"#$%&'4+#.'&"'+"'23*4$".'5.*'.2*.1'".'"&%&-,*$,4&"2&'-&'=,%&'
(,'4$-4,'-+-2$2+%$6"'&"'(.-'#&47-'23*4$".-'#&'(,'&%+,%$6"@!
!
Segunda observacin: los tensores:
6;! J0*!/-0"2)40*!#17&=-#()0*!"&!4&$*0-&*!*0$!%."4+2,2$/.-1!&*!"&)(-,!
!
7;! H$!40"#!&)2#)(.$!4&$*0-(#1!*&!/2&"&$!)#5=(#-!1#*!3#-(#=1&*!)0$!=#--#!/0-!1#*!3#-(#=1&*!*($!
=#--#!>!3()&K3&-*#!>!*(72&!*(&$"0!3B1("#!1#!&)2#)(.$@!
9;! <2#$"0!/&$*#50*!&$!2$!4&$*0-,!"&=&$!)0$*4#4#-*&!4-&*!)0*#*!(5/0-4#$4&*:!!
L@K!H$!82A!&*/#)(0!&*4#50*@!J#!)0$3&$)(.$!&*!2*#-!'$"()&*!1#4($0*!&$!&*/#)(0*!"&!M!0!N!
"(5&$*(0$&*!&!'$"()&*!7-(&70*!&$!2$!&*/#)(0K4(&5/0!"&!O!"(5&$*(0$&*@!
M@K!H1!-#$70!"&1!4&$*0-@!H1!-#$70!"&/&$"&!"&1!$C5&-0!"&!'$"()&*!1(=-&*:!2$!4&$*0-!"&!)&-0!
'$"()&*! &*! 2$! &*)#1#-P! 2$! 4&$*0-! "&! 2$! *010! '$"()&! 1(=-&! &*! 2$! 3&)40-P! 2$! 4&$*0-! "&! 4-&*!
'$"()&*!1(=-&*!&*!2$!4&$*0-!"&!-#$70!4-&*!2!0-"&$!4-&*,!&4)A4&-#@!
N@K!F&=&!($"()#-*&!*(!&*!2$!4&$*0-!#-=(4-#-(0,!*(5A4-()0!0!#$4(K*(5A4-()0@!H1!#-=(4-#-(0!&*!1#!
*25#!"&!2$!*(5A4-()0!>!2$!#$4(K*(5A4-()0@!Q0-!&I&5/10:!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!O!"(5@RLS!)05/@!!!N!"(5@RT!)05/@!!!!O!"(5@!R!LS!)05/@!
G-=(4-#-(0!!!!!!!!!!!!!!U!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!T!($"&/@!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!LS!($"&/@!
D(5A4-()0!!!!!!!!!!!!!!LV!($"&/@WS!"&/@!!!!!S!($"&/@WN!"&/!!!!LV!($"&/@W!S!"&/@!
G$4(K*(5A4-()0!!!!!!!U!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!N!($"&/@WS!"&/@!!!!S!($"&/@!W!LV!"&/@!
!
Tercera observacin:!&1!4&$*0-!5A4-()0!&*!*(5A4-()0,!&*!"&)(-!
!!!X&)0-"&50*!82&:!
?L;!

!?*0$!)0$524#4(3#*;,!/0-!10!4#$40:!
!

@!Q-2&=#:!

641

!
"#$!

!!!!!!%!!!!

!!!

!!!&'!"($!)!"#$!*'!+,-.'/'0!
"1$!!

!!!!
!!!!&'!"#$!)!"1$!*'!+,-.'/'0!
"2$!!

"3$!!
!
!
Cuarta observacin0!!
!!!4/!'5!678/9.:'!;/-'<.+<!9'<.=8!'5!-'/*+<!>8-<.:+!7;<;!:++<9'/;9;*!:;<-'*.;/;*!)!'*?8<.:;*!)!'5!
!"#$%&' ()!&*+%' ,#*-"&$./! "':@;:.A/! #2! 9'5! 678/9.:'! BC! 6$D! E'-+>+! ;F@G! 5;! 7;<-'! 9'5! -'/*+<!
>8-<.:+!@/.='<*;5D!!H;!9'<.=;:.A/!9'!'*-'!-'/*+<!'*-I!,;*;9+!'/!9+*!*@7@'*-+*!";!)!,$0!
!!!!!!
!!!!!;$!5;!./=;<.;/J;!9'!5;!5+/K.-@9!9'!;<:+0!
"L$!
!
!
!!!!!,$!5;*!5')'*!9'!-<;/*?+<>;:.A/!9'!5+*!9.?'<'/:.;5'*0!
"M$!

!!!%!!!!

!
!!!&'!"L$!%!"M$!+,-'/'>+*0!
"N$!!

!!!
!!O/+! 9','! -'/'<! :@.9;9+! 9'! /+! >@5-.75.:;<! ;>,+*! -8<>./+*! 9'! "N$! 7+<! @/! -8<>./+! 9'! 5;! ?+<>;!
P!7+<F@'!'/-+/:'*!@/+!+,-'/9<G;!@/;!'Q7<'*.A/!'/!9+/9'!!"#$%&'()*#$+,'"#$"),--*&$.-*#$
/*)*#! " ! %! ! '/! '5! 5;9+! .JF@.'<9+R! ! %! ! '/! '5! 5;9+! 9'<':S+$D! 01-1$ */(.1-$ *#.1$ "2*-1)(3&$
(--*4,!1-5$ +*6"-$ #*$ '*#1--"!!*$ !1$ 2-,*71$ )"+"$ #(4,*5$ 1$ 21-.(-$ '*$ !1$ +(#+1$ *),1)(3&$ 89:;$!!!
T@*-.-@.>+*! 5+*! G/9.:'*! >@9+*! ! %! ! ! '/! '5! -8<>./+! ;5! 5;9+! 9'<':S+! 7+<! ! %! !
<'*7':-.=;>'/-'P!7;<;!+,-'/'<0!
"U$!!
"(V$!!
!
!!!&;9+!F@'!
"(($!!

!
!
P!*'!*.K@'!F@'0!
!

642

!!!!"#! $%! &'(%')*#! +,,-! .(./)/()01.! ! 2! ! .)#! 3%44%! 514! ! ! '1#! 3%44%6! 2! 7)'&87&4.%6! 2!
.(./)/()01.!$1.!9#:)'&.! !2! !514! !2! 6!!2! !2! !514! !2! 6!%4%!13/&#&4!!"#$!%&'(#)*$(+,'#
-%+.!(&/";!
+,<-!!

!!!=>">?>!

!
A2. Smbolo de Christoffel, primera especie
!
!!!"$!.9031$1!:&!@A4)./1BB&$!:&!54)0&4%!&.5&')&!.&!:&B)#&!'101!.)C(&;!
+,D-!

!
!!!E*/&.&!F(&!$1.!:1.!54)0&41.!9#:)'&.!$)34&.!&#! !.1#!.)0G/4)'1.6!&.!:&')46!

>!H)!(#1!

A%'&!$%!54(&3%!2!/10%!&#!'(&#/%!F(&!&$!/&#.14!0G/4)'1!&.!.)0G/4)'1!+
-6!'105413%4I!F(&!
%031.!.9031$1.!:&!@A4)./1BB&$!$$&7%#!%!$%!0).0%!:&B)#)')*#!+,D->!?&B)#)01.!$%!.)C()&#/&!$&2!:&!
/4%#.B140%')*#;!
+,J-!!

!
!!!K&'(&4:%;!
+,<-!!

!!!

!!

!!!!

!
!!!?&!+,<-!.&!13/)&#&;!
+,L-!

!!!!

!
!!!?&!+,J-!2!+,L-!.&!13/)&#&;!
+,M-!!

!
!!!H%'%#:1!$%.!:&4)7%:%.!5%4')%$&.!:&!$1.!/4&.!/G40)#1.6!2!/10%#:1!&#!'(&#/%!F(&!514!$%!4&C$%!:&!$%!
'%:&#%6!!

!!13/&#&01.;!

!
+,N-

+,O-

643

"#$%

!
!!!&'()*! +,-./! 0(.! 1.*! 2123,310,4.! 5-! 6.5,0-2! 715(2! " ! 8! %! -.! -9! 2-:1.5(! 3;)7,.(! 5-9! 9*5(!
5-)-0'(! 5-! "#<%/! ;23-! =! -9! >),7-)! 3;)7,.(! 5-9! 9*5(! 5-)-0'(! 5-! "#$%! 2-! *.19*.?! =/! 0(.! 1.*!
2123,310,4.!2-7-@*.3-!-.!-9!>),7-)!3;)7,.(!5-9!9*5(!5-)-0'(!5-!"#A%/!;23-!=!-9!2-:1.5(!3;)7,.(!
5-9!9*5(!5-)-0'(!5-!"#$%!3*7+,;.!2-!*.19*.B!C()!9(!3*.3(/!2,!2123,31,7(2!"#<%/!"#A%!=!"#$%!-.!"#D%/!
(+3-.-7(2E!
"FG%!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

!
!!!I(3*7(2! 9(2! 6.5,0-2! 715(2!
(+3-.-)E!

! -.! -9! 2-:1.5(! =! 3-)0-)! 3;)7,.(! 5-9! 9*5(! 5-)-0'(/! >*)*!

"F#%!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

!
!!!!!!&'()*!5-J,.,7(2!1.!.1-K(!267+(9(!5-!L'),23(JJ-9/!*!2*+-)E!
"FF%!

!
!!!L(7+,.*.5(!"F#%!=!"FF%/!>(5-7(2!5-J,.,)!
"FM%!

"0(.!+*))*%!-.!3;)7,.(2!5-! "2,.!+*))*%E!
!

!
!!!!N2!0(.K-.,-.3-!0(7-.3*)!*9:1.*2!0*)*03-)623,0*2!5-!-23-!(+@-3(B!
*%!
!-2!1.!>2-15(O3-.2()/!>()P1-!2,!+,-.!-2!0,-)3(!P1-!*9!9*5(!5-)-0'(!5-!"FM%!*>*)-0-!!
!!!!

/!0(7(!-2!>)(>,(!5-!1.*!-01*0,4.!3-.2(),*9/!3*7+,;.!*>*)-0-!!

!!!!
!
+%!

/!9(!P1-!.(!-2!>)(>,(!5-!1.*!-01*0,4.!3-.2(),*9B!
!-2!1.!>2-15(O3-.2()!!"#$%&"'(/!>()P1-!

"#R%!!
!!!!
!!!!!!&.S9(:*7-.3-E!

/!0(7(!2-!0(7>)1-+*!*!0(.3,.1*0,4.E!

644

"#$%&!

!
!!!'()*+! ,-./0! 1+1)! 23.! .4! 5./6)*! 785*-9)! .6! 6-785*-9)0! 9)7)! 6.! 9)7:*),;! +**-,+! ./! 4+! 5.*9.*+!
0!.5985.*+&0!9)/65+!23.!!
=
>!
),6.*<+9-;/!"
9&!

!6.!:3.1.!*.:*.6./5+*!:)*!3/+!7+5*-?!9@,-9+!9)/!A$!9)7:)/./5.60!1.!4)6!93+4.60!!
!!!!!:)*!6.*!3/!:6.31)B5./6)*!6-785*-9)0!C$!6)/!-/1.:./1-./5.6!
!
A3. Smbolo de Christoffel, segunda especie, derivada de la primera especie
!
!!!D.93.*1+E!
"CF&!

!
!!G!5+7,-8/E!
"C$&!

!
!!H4!6I7,)4)!1.!J(*-65)KK.4!1.!6.L3/1+!.6:.9-.!6.!1.K-/.!9)7)!6-L3.E!
"CM'&!

!
!!!H4!6I7,)4)!1.!J(*-65)KK.4!1.!6.L3/1+!.6:.9-.0!.6!6-785*-9+0!+4!-L3+4!23.!.4!1.!:*-7.*+!.6:.9-.!
"<8+6.! +**-,+&0! .6! 1.9-*0!
>! '/N4)L+7./5.0! 9+7,-+/1)! 6)4+7./5.! 4)6! I/1-9.60!
#OFA
),5./.7)6 !
"CM%&!
!
!
!!!H65.! 6I7,)4)! 1.! J(*-65)KK.4! 5-./.! 4+! 6-L3-./5.6! 9+*+95.*I65-9+6E! +&! .6:+9-)B5-.7:)! 1.! 93+5*)!
1-7./6-)/.6P!,&!5*.6!I/1-9.60!9+1+!3/)!1.!4)6!93+4.6!9)**.!1.!#!+!$P!9&!4)6!1)6!I/1-9.6!1.!+,+Q)!6)/!
6-785*-9)6P!1&!(+G!A$!9)7:)/./5.60!23.!6.!:3.1./!*.:*.6./5+*!./!3/+!7+5*-?!9@,-9+0!1.!4)6!93+4.6!
C$!6)/!-/1.:./1-./5.6!G!$R!1.:./1-./5.6>!
!
!!!S+1+!4+!*.L4+!"L&!+**-,+!1+1+0!:)1.7)6!.69*-,-*!4+!"CM'&!9)/!,+**+E!
"CMJ&!!!
!!
!
!!!G!5+7,-8/E!
"CMS&!!
!!
!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
#OFA
!T+/6!U5.:(+/-0!!"#"$%&'("&%)*+*),-'C/1!.1>"#VVR&E!M0!.93+9-;/!#>#A!

645

!
!!!"#$%&%#'()*+!,-./!0!,-1/!()!,-23/4!+5%()(6+$7!
,-8/!!

!
,-9/!

!
,-:/!

!
!!!;)!(<!=>&6(>!%?>6&)+!*(<!<@*+!*(>(AB+!A@65&@6+$! !=+>! !!
!

,-C/!!
!
,.D/!!

!EF;FGF!

!
A4. La derivada covariante
!
A4.1. La derivada covariante de un tensor covariante:
,.H/!
!()!*+)*(!
!$+)!<&5>($!'! !!($!6#*+!
!
!!!I(A#(>*@!(<!+5J(%+!,H./!'!<@!<('!*(!%>@)$K+>6@A&L)!,.D/7!
,H./!

!0!

,.D/!

!!!"(!6#<%&=<&A@)!@65+$!<@*+$!*(!<@!(A#@A&L)!,.D/!A+)!
,.-/!!

,../!!!

,.1/!!!
,.2/!!

!
!

!
I(A+>*@>!M#(!#)!%()$+>!A+N@>&@)%(!$(!*(K&)(!A+6+!$&O#(7!

646

"#$%!!

!
!!!&'!"#(%!)!"#$%*!+,-'.'/+01!
!!!

"#2%!

!
!!!345678/+0! '.! '5! 95-6/+! -:;/6.+! 58! ;'<58! ='! 58! 78='.8! )! 0>0-6->6/+0! '.! '5! 95-6/+! -:;/6.+! !!
"?>'!'0!/>=+%!4+;! !)!'.!'5!4;6/';!-:;/6.+!='5!58=+!=';'7@+!0>0-6->6/+0!
"#B%!

!4+;!

A!

!!!

!
"#C%!!

!
!!!D.! '5! 58=+! 6E?>6';=+! ='! '0-8! '7>876F.! -'.'/+0! -:;/6.+0! 7+.! ,8;;8! )! '.! '5! 58=+! =';'7@+!
-:;/6.+0!06.!,8;;8G!H+;!'5!I87-+;!!

!'.!'5!58=+!=';'7@+!J'/+0!?>'!0'!-;8-8!='!>.!-'.0+;G!

K+0! -:;/6.+0! 7+.! ! '.! 8/,+0! 58=+0! 0+.! !"#$ %&'(")*#$ +*$ '"))*'',-.! ?>'! -+/8.! '.! 7>'.-8! 58!
7>;J8->;8! ='5! '04876+G! L6! '0-+0! I87-+;'0! I>';8.! 7';+*! 7+/+! '.! '5! 780+! ='5! '04876+! 458.+*! 58!
'7>876F.!0';M8!58!06<>6'.-'1!
"NO%!

!
!!!K8!'7>876F.!"#C%!0'!'07;6,'!-8/,6:.!='!58!06<>6'.-'!/8.';81!
"NP%!

!
!!!3@+;8!,6'.*!4+;!='I6.676F.1!
!
"NQ3%!
!"7+.!+!06.!,8;;8%!
!
!!!R+/,6.8.=+!"NP%!)!"NQ3%!+,-'.'/+01!
"NQS%!

!
!!!D0-80!0+.!7+.J'.76+.'0!?>'!8!J'7'0*!85!4;6.76468.-'*!7+.I>.='.!/T0!='!5+!?>'!5'!8)>=8.*!4';+!
@'/+0! ='! ;'7+.+7';! '0-+0! -:;/6.+0! 7>8.=+! 5+0! '.7+.-;8/+0*! 8>.?>'! 4+='/+0! 8,0-'.';.+0! ='!
>08;5+0G!

647

!
!
A4.2. La derivada covariante de un tensor contravariante:
!!!"#$%&'(&!)*#!*+!,#+-%&!$%+,&(.(&/(+,#!-#!'#0/+#!$%1%!-/2*#3!
4567!!

!
!!!89:/$(1%-!:(!&#2:(!'#!:(!$('#+(!(!:%-!'%-!;:,/1%-!,<&1/+%-!'#!:(!#$*($/=+!45673!
4557!!!

!
!!!"#$%&'#1%-3!!
!

46>7!!
!
!!!8+?:%2(1#+,#!4$%1%!#+!#-9#@%73!
45>7!!

45A7!!!

!
!!B+! #:! ,#&$#&! ,<&1/+%! %C-#&.(1%-! )*#!
&#$%&'(1%-E!('#1?-E!

! D! :*#2%! -*-,/,*/1%-!

! 9%&!

! D!

!D!#+!#:!$*(&,%!,<&1/+%!-*-,/,*/1%-! !9%&! 3!

45F7!!

!!

!
45G7!!

!!

45H7!!!!

!!!

!
!!!I#0/+/1%-!:(!'#&/.('(!$%.(&/(+,#!'#!*+!,#+-%&!$%+,&(.(&/(+,#!$%1%!-/2*#3!
4>J87!
!4$%+!%!-/+!C(&&(7!
!
!!!K%1C/+(+'%!45H7!D!4>J87!%C,#+#1%-!:(!:#D!'#!,&(+-0%&1($/=+!'#!:(!'#&/.('(!$%.(&/(+,#!'#!*+!
,#+-%&!$%+,&(.(&/(+,#!3!
4>JL7!

!
A 5. Smbolos de Christoffel en ecuaciones con tensores de rango superior

648

!
!!!"#$#!%&%'()$!*#+!&('#(),-&+!%&!*#!$&*#.)/)%#%!0&-&$#*1!+&!$&2')&$&-!.&-+,$&+!%&!$#-0,!+'3&$),$1!
$#45-!3,$!*#!('#*!#!(,-.)-'#()5-!#-#*)4#$&6,+!&+.,+!,78&.,+9!:-%&3&-%)&-.&6&-.&!%&*!-;6&$,!%&!
<-%)(&+!=&*!$#-0,>!%&*!.&-+,$1!&*!+<67,*,!%&!?@$)+.,AA&*!+)&63$&!.)&-&!.$&+!<-%)(&+1!%&!*,+!('#*&+!
*,+!3$)6&$,+!%,+!+,-!+)6B.$)(,+9!!
!
!!!C&(,$%&6,+D!
=EFG>!
!=(,-!,!+)-!7#$$#>!
=HIG>!

!=(,-!,!+)-!7#$$#>!

!
!!!?,6&-.&6,+!&+.#+!%,+!%&A)-)(),-&+D!
#>! J,+!<-%)(&+!*)7$&+! !K! !+)0'&-!&-!&*!6)+6,!*'0#$9!
7>!
! K! !
! +,-! ('#%$)/&(.,$&+1! 3&$,! &+.,+! ('#%$)/&(.,$&+! &-! &*! A#(.,$! %&! (,$$&(()5-!
(#67)#-!+'!<-%)(&!*)7$&!3,$!'-!<-%)(&!6'%,!=

!K!

>9!

(>! J#!3,+)()5-!%&*!<-%)(&!6'%,!&+!*#!6)+6#!2'&!%&*!<-%)(&!*)7$&!=
!K!
%>! ",$!!"#"$<-%)(&!*)7$&!%&!'-!.&-+,$!&L)+.&!'-!A#(.,$!%&!(,$$&(()5-!=(,-! >!
!
!!!M&#6,+!#*0'-,+!&8&63*,+D!
!
=HN>!(,/#$)#-.&!+&0'-%,!,$%&-D!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

9!

=HF>!(,-.$#/#$)#-.&!+&0'-%,!,$%&-D!!!!!!!

=HO>!6)L.,!+&0'-%,!,$%&-D!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

=HE>!6)L.,!.&$(&$!,$%&-D!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
!
!
!!!J#!%&$)/#%#!3#$()#*!%&!'-!+<67,*,!%&!?@$)+.,AA&*1!(,-!7#+&!&-!=FH>!&+!*#!=HH>D!
=FH>!

=HH>!!

!
!!!P+.&!,78&.,!=HH>!+&!'+#!&-!&*!.&-+,$!%&!C)&6#--Q?@$)+.,AA&*1!&-!*#+!&('#(),-&+!%&!*#!$&*#.)/)%#%!
0&-&$#*9!
!
!!!P-!6#.&$)#!%&!.&-+,$&+!%&!$#-0,!+'3&$),$!+,-!)63,$.#-.&+!%,+!.&,$&6#+D!
!
:9Q!P*!.&,$&6#!%&*!(,()&-.&9!R)!+&!6'*.)3*)(#!'-!,78&.,!%&+(,-,()%,!3,$!'-!.&-+,$!"%&'(%"%')! =%&!
('#*2')&$!$#-0,>!K!&*!$&+'*.#%,!&+!,.$,!.&-+,$! 1!&-.,-(&+!+&!+)0'&!2'&!.#67)B-!&*!,78&.,!&+!'-!
.&-+,$9!P8&63*,+D! !K!
!+,-!.&-+,$&+!#$7).$#$),+9!
=HS>!

649

!
"#$%!

!
&&'(!)*!+,-./*+*!01/*-.*23,!+,!04*564.,-!3,271-!893-.01! !"64,:!;1-!+,<.2.0.=2!,7!+,5!-*2>1!+17%:!
7,!018;1-3*!0181!5*!+,-./*+*!+,!42*!01273*23,!?:!;1-!51!3*231:!,7!0,-1'!@A,8;51B!
"#C%!
!
!
!!!D-4,E*B!
"#F%!
!
!!!G,01-+,817B!
"HH%!

!
!!!IJ1-*!E.,2:!012!E*7,!,2!"HH%!1E3,2,817B!
"KL%!!

"KM%!!

!
!!!N,!"KL%!?!"KM%!1E3,2,817B!
"KH%!

!
!!!N,!"#F%!?!"KH%!1E3,2,817B!
"KO%!
!!!!P'@'N'!
!
!!!N,!,73*!/,-+*+!"
%!7,!+,+40,!42*!0120547.=2!.8;1-3*23,:!2,0,7*-.*!;*-*!5*7!,04*0.12,7!
+,! 5*! -,5*3./.+*+! >,2,-*5:! *! 7*E,-:! 64,! 7,! ;4,+,2! E*A*-! ?! 74E.-! Q2+.0,7! ;1-! 8,+.1! +,5! 3,271-!
893-.01:!;1-!,A,8;51B!
!
"KR%!
!
!
B. LOS TENSORES DE RIEMANN Y DE RICCI
B 1. Derivacin del tensor de Riemann
!
!!!!!I5! 0127.+,-*-7,! 5*7! 7,>42+*7! +,-./*+*7! 01/*-.*23,7! 0-4S*+*7! +,! 42! 3,271-:! 7,! 1E3.,2,! 5*!
,T;-,7.=2M$O$! ,2! +12+,! !
! 7,! 55*8*! "#! $"%&'(! )"! *+",-%%'! I! 0123.24*0.=2! 7,! 01273-4?,!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
M$O$

U*27!V3,;J*2.:!!"#"$%&'("&%)*+*),-'H2+!,+'"MFFL%B!#R:!,04*0.=2!K'R!

650

"#$%&'()*+",)"!"-)"!./0").!1!-"!"#$%('*,!*%23,*-!4"!-3-!$5.$("4*4"-!63,4*+",)*%"-7!8-)"!)",-.5!
"-!4"!-3+*!(+$.5)*,'(*!",!%*!)".5&*!4"!%*!5"%*)(9(4*4!2","5*%7!
!
!!:"'.54"+.-;!
<=>?!!

<'*+/(*,4.!/*55*!1!,.@/*55*?!

<A>?!

!
!!!BC.5*!-3/(+.-!%*!"'3*'(D,!*!3,!.54",!-3$"5(.5;!!
<AA?!
<AE?!!

!
!

!!!!!!!!!F

!
!!!B$%('*,4.! <A>?! ",! "%! -"23,4.G! '3*5).! 1! H3(,).! )I5+(,.! 4"! <AE?G! ./)","+.-! <5"'.54"+.-! H3"!
!-.,!&,4('"-!%(/5"-!1!
!-.,!&,4('"-!+34.-?;!
<AJ?

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

F!

!
!!!B253$*+.-! %.-! )I5+(,.-! 1! -3-)()3(+.-! &,4('"-! +34.-! $.5! .)5.-7! 8,! "%! $5(+"5! )I5+(,.! 4"%!
$5(+"5!253$.!-"!-3-)()31"! !$.5! ;!
<AL?

!
!!!8,!"%!-"23,4.!)I5+(,.!4"%!-"23,4.!253$.!-"!-3-)()31",! !$.5! G! !$.5!
)"5'"5!)I5+(,.!-"!-3-)()31",! !$.5! G! !$.5! !1! !$.5! ;!
<EM?

F!

!!!!!!

F!

!!!!!!

!1!

!$.5! G!1!",!"%!

N!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !

651

!
!
!!!!"#!$%!&$'($'!)'*+,!-*-&.&*./,-!$#!$%!-$)*#0,!&1'/.#,! !+,'! 2!
&$'($'!&1'/.#,! !+,'! 4!
5678

9!

!!!!!!!

9!

!!!!!!!

!!!

!+,'! 2!3! !+,'!

!3!$#!$%!

!
!!!;*/<#0,!5=>82!56?82!56782!,@&$#$/,-4!
56A8

!!!!!!!9

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

!!!B#C%,)</$#&$!-$!0$0*($!D*$4!
56E8

!!!!!!!!9

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

!
!!!F<0,! D*$! 56A8! 3! 56E8! -,#! 0$'.G<0<-! ,'0.#<'.<-! ('*H<0<-2! 3! 0<0,! D*$! 0$'.G<0<-! I*#(.,#$-!
('*H<0<-! (,#&.#*<-! -,#! .)*<%$-2! -$! -.)*$! D*$! 56A8! /$#,-! 56E8! $D*.G<%$! ($',J! F<0,! D*$! %,-!
&1'/.#,-!$#&'$!+<'1#&$-.-!0$%!K%&./,!&1'/.#,!0$!56A8!$D*.G<%$#!<!%,-!&1'/.#,-!$#&'$!+<'1#&$-.-!0$%!
K%&./,!&1'/.#,!0$!56E82!$!.#&$'(</@.<#0,!%,-!L#0.($-!/*0,-! !3! !$#!$%!-$)*#0,!&1'/.#,!0$%!
%<0,!0$'$(M,!0$!56E8!$%!'$-*%&<0,!0$!$-&<!'$-&<!$-!$%!-.)*.$#&$4!
56N89!O56A8P56E8Q9

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

!
!!!BM,'<!@.$#2!0$I.#</,-!0,-!!"#$%&"$'("')*"+,##2!R+<'<!#,!$-('.@.'!&<#&,S76ET4!
56U8!
!
56=8!

!!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
76ET

!!V<#-!;&$+M<#.2!!"#"$%&'("&%)*+*),-'A#0!$0J57>>?84!WXY!3!UE2!$(*<(.Z#!=JE!5-*-&.&*3$#0,!$#!56E8!$%!L#0.($!/*0,!
!+,'! 8!

652

!
!!!"#$!%#!&'(&#)!*+*&,&+-.(/#!0123!-!0143!.(!0153)!#6&.(.7#*8!
0113!

!!

!
!!9+%&,:%,;'7#*!'76#*!&<$7,(#*!;#(!
01=3!

8!
!!

!
!!!>'/#!?+.8!
01@3!

!!

!
!!!>.!01=3!-!01@3!*.!#6&,.(.8!
0=A3!

!
!!!BC#$'! 6,.()! *,! ;#7:'$'7#*! 0123! -! 0=A3! 0*+*&,&+-.(/#! .(! 0123! ! :#$! 3)! #6*.$D'7#*! ?+.!
'76'*!.;+';,#(.*!/.E,(.(!
)!!"#$%&$'()"#*("#+,-.#"!#(&#/"&!%0#1"#02&3%#$(2/0%#)#/4"&"#5-6#
$%78%&"&/"!9#:"#8("1"#120#"&#;%072#74</2#%#"&#;%072#$%=2042&/">#
0=F3!
!
!
!!G(!&.(*#$!/.!H,.7'((!&,.(.!'%I+('*!:$#:,./'/.*8!
0=J3!!;#(7+&';,K(!*,7<&$,;'8!
!0L4!;#7:#(.(&.*!,(/.:.(/,.(&.*3!
0=L3!!;#(7+&';,K(!'(&,M*,7<&$,;'8!

!0JA!;#7:N!,(/.:N3!

0=53!!;#(7+&';,K(!;O;%,;'8!
!
!
B 2. El tensor de Ricci
!!G*!:#*,6%.!.*&'6%.;.$!,/.(&,/'/.*!:'$'!%'!7<&$,;'!
!;#(!6'*.!.(!%'*!:$#:,./'/.*!/.%!&.(*#$!/.!
H,.7'((!-!7P*!*,7:%.7.(&.)!;#(!"'#/"&!%0#1"04=21%#1"#'2#$%&/02$$4?&#1"'#/"&!%0#1"#@4"72&&#
*("#!"#''272#/"&!%0#1"#@4$$4N!"#$!%#!&'(&#)!.%!/"&!%0#1"#@4$$4!*.!/.$,D'!/.%!&.(*#$!/.!H,.7'(()!
;#(&$'-.(/#!O(/,;.*NF1L@!Q#%'7.(&.!.R,*&.!+('!;#(&$';;,K(!,(/.:.(/,.(&.)!?+.!&,.(.!+(!D'%#$!(#!
;.$#)!?+.!%%'7'7#*!.%!&.(*#$!/.!H,;;,8!!
0123!
!!
0=2!B3!

!!!

!
!!!>.!0=2!B3!#6&.(.7#*!"'#/"&!%0#1"#@4$$4#0%'!=13!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
F1L@
!S'(*!Q&.:C'(,)!!"#"$%&'("&%)*+*),-'J(/!./N0F@@A38!TUV!-!21)!.;+';,K(!4NJF!

653

!
"#$%&!!

"#'&!

"#(&!)*!+)!,*+-./!01+!!
!
!
B 3. El escalar de curvatura
!!!23-3! +4! +).354+,*6*+7./! 8+! 43)! +,13,*/7+)! 8+! 9*7).+*7:! )+! 1.*4*;3! !"# $%&'("$$)*&# +,!# ',&-%(#
.)/'%#+,#0)$$):! <(=>?!!94!,-$"!"(#+,#$1(2"'1("#+,#0)$$)!)+!8+@*7+!,/6/!+7!"##&!A!.*+7+!34B173)!
C-/C*+838+)!01+!+7,/7.-36/)!+7!43!+,13,*D7!"#E&F!
"##&!
!
"#E&!
!
!
!!!97!43!"E>&!+4!C-*6+-!A!.+-,+-!@3,./-!)/7!*B134+):!8+!6/8/!01+!C/-!"#(&!)+!)*B1+!01+F!
"E>&!
!!
!
B 4. El tensor de Riemann y la curvatura del espacio
!!!G+@*7*6/)!43!8+-*H383!)+B1783!,/7.-3H3-*37.+!8+4!.+7)/-!
"E<&!

!,/6/!

!F!

!!

!
!!!I+,/-8+6/)F!
"EJ&!

"EK&!

"E=&!
!
!
!!!L1).*.1*6/)!"EJ&:!"EK&!A!"E=&!+7!"E<&:!C3-3!/5.+7+-!"E$&!A!37M4/B36+7.+:!"E'&F!
"E$&!

!!

"E'&!

!!

!
!!94!C-*6+-!.N-6*7/!8+4!438/!8+-+,O/!8+!"E$&!+)!*B134!34!C-*6+-!.N-6*7/!8+4!438/!8+-+,O/!8+!"E'&P!
.365*N7!+4!.+-,+-!.N-6*7/!8+4!438/!8+-+,O/!8+!"E$&!+)!*B134!34!,13-./!.N-6*7/!8+4!438/!8+-+,O/!8+!
"E'&:!A!3)Q!)1,+)*H36+7.+!+4!,13-./!.N-6*7/!"E$&!A!+4!.+-,+-/!"E'&:!+4!)+R./!"E$&!A!+4!)+R./!"E'&:!A!
+4!)NC.*6/!"E$&!A!+4!)NC.*6/!"E'&?!2/-!4/!.37./!"E$&!6+7/)!"E'&!7/)!83F!
"E(&!
!
!
!!!SO/-3!5*+7:!-+,/-8+6/)<(=<F!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
<(=>

!T37)!L.+CO37*:!!"#"$%&'("&%)*+*),-'J78!+8?"<EE>&F!$(:!+,13,*D7!'?JJ!
!T37)!L.+CO37*:!!"#"$%&'("&%)*+*),-'J78!+8?"<EE>&F!UVW!!

<(=<

654

"#$%

!!!!!!! !
!!
!
!!!&'()*)'*+,(!"#$%!-.!"#/%0!1232!,4)-.-35!
!
"##%
!
!!!&*!
0! -()2+,(! -.! -6! -(127*,! 8-! 9*.:,;(:*! "(*.! 72+1,! <32=*)27*,.26%0! 7,.! -6!
(>+4,6,! 8-! ?@3*(),AA-6! *<'26! 2! 7-3,! "7,,38-.282(! 723)-(*2.2(%! B! 8*A-3-.)-! 8-! 7-3,! "7,,38-.282(!
-(AC3*72(!,!7*6>.83*72(%D!&*!
0!-()2+,(!-.!'.!-(127*,!7'3=28,!<32=*)27*,.26+-.)-0!
7,.!-6!(>+4,6,!8-!?@3*(),AA-6!8*A-3-.)-!8-!7-3,D!
!
B5. Identidades de Bianchi
!!!E23)*+,(!8-!62!(*<'*-.)-!*8-.)*8285!
"FGG%
!
!
!!!9'6)*16*72+,(!6,(!)C3+*.,(!7,.!
5!
"FGF%!
!
!
!!!H27-+,(!'.!*.)-36'8*,!1232!7,+13,423!I'-!
"FGJ%!

5!

"FGK%!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

!
!

!
!!!L-! 6,(! (*-)-! )C3+*.,(! 8-6! 628,! 8-3-7@,0! -6! 13*+-3,! 2.'62! 62! ('+2! 8-6! (-<'.8,! M! I'*.),N! -6!
)-37-3,!2.'62!-6!(C1)*+,N!M!-6!7'23),0!-6!(-O),D!E,3!6,!)2.),5!
"FGP%!
N!
!
!!!Q.R6,<2+-.)-!(-!1'-8-!8-+,()323!I'-5!
"FGS%!
!
!
!!!Q@,32!4*-.5!
"FGT%!
!
"FG/%!
"FG$%!
!
!
!!!U,(!)C3+*.,(!"FGT%0!"FG/%!M!"FG$%!(,.!6,(!8-!62!-7'27*B.!"FGF%!M0!1,3!6,!)2.),5!

655

!
"#$%&!

!
!!!'()*+,)+-./01!*0201!)01!*34/+501!-05!
"##$&!

6!
!

"###&!

!
!

"##7&!
"##8&!

"##9&!

!
!

!
!

"##:&!
"##;&!!

!!!
!!!!!"#$"%&#$&%'('&)$(%*&+%,"-()"'.&)$(%'"$&'/$.0(1%&+%(23&$(%&)$,&%4",5)$&#.#%&)%+"%&06"0.7)%
8891%"%#"2&,1

1%,&4,&#&)$"%+"%:&('&$,;"%06,<"1%"+%.:6"+%=6&%+(#%$&)#(,&#%*&%

>.&'")% ?@A% B% @9C% &+% $&)#(,% *&% >.00.% ?D@C% B% &+% &#0"+",% *&% 06,<"$6,"% *&% >.00.% ?DDC1% =6&% )(#%
++&<",()%"%+"%?889CE%F+"'&'(#1%4(,%"G(,"1%"+%$&)#(,%*&%H.)#$&.)%
1%"0+",")*(%=6&%&#$&%(23&$(%
$(*"<;"%)(%$.&)&%).):I)%#.:).J.0"*(%J;#.0(E%
!
C. EL LMITE NEWTONIANO DE LA ECUACIN DE LAS GEODESICAS
C1. La geodsica del espacio curvo
1. La ecuacin de Euler-Lagrange
!
!!!<)! 20/+5+0! 2=! ).! >(5-+05.)!

=1! =)! -05?(5*0! 2=! >(5-+05=1!

@!<5!=)!-.10!,.4*+-().4!2=!

B!1=!1+C(=!D(=!!
@!

!
!!E.!F>(5-+05.)G!1=!))./.!F.--+H5G!-(.520!=5*4.!=)!>.-*04!*+=/,0@!
"##I&!

B!!

!!!=5!2052=!
"##J&!!
"##%&!

!K!
!

@! A5! =?=/,)06!

656

!!!"#$%! &'(! ! ()! '*#! +'*,-.*! $(! /! )(! )-0'(! &'(! (*! ,'#1&'-(2! 3'*4%! $(1! 4-(53%! /! 1#! +'*,-.*!
4-(*(!'*!6#1%2! !$(4(25-*#$%!3%2! !
789:;!!
!
!
!!!<=%2#!>-(*/!>'),#5%)!'*#!
!4#1!&'(!
!)(#!'*!(?42(5%/!5@?-5%!%!5A*-5%B!
7898;!!

/!!

!!!C!%42#!+'*,-.*/!,(2,#*#!#!1#!5A*-5#/!,%5%B!
!
7899;!!

!!!(*!$%*$(B!
789D;!!
!$(+-*(!1#!$()6-#,-.*!$(!1#!2'4#!5A*-5#!
789E;!! !()!(1!+#,4%2!(),#1#2!&'(!$(+-*(!1#!5#0*-4'$!$(!1#!$()6-#,-.*!
789F;!!
!
789G;!!
!
789H;!!
!
!
!!!I*!!"#$%&'(%)"#! !C! !$(!1#)!$%)!,'26#)/!J)4#)!,%53#24(*!(1!5-)5%!6#1%2/!$(!5%$%!&'(!#11AB!
789K;!!
!
789L;!!
!
!
!!!M#!#,,-.*! !4-(*(!*+$%&'(%)"!(*!! !)-!
78D:;!

!
!!!"(!7898;!C!789L;/!%>4(*(5%)B!
78D8;!!

!
!!!N%2!1#!2(01#!$(!1#!,#$(*#!$(!'*#!+'*,-.*!&'(!$(3(*$(!$(!$%)!6#2-#>1()B!
78D9;!!

!
!!!"(!789F;/!789G;!C!78D8;/!%>4(*(5%)B!
78DD;!

!
!!!"(!78D:;!C!78D9;/!%>4(*(5%)B!
78DE;!!

657

!
!!!"#$%&%#$'%#(%)%#(%!$%!*+!,#(%-'+-.!&+-!$%/'#'0'1#2!
34567!!

!
!!!89:('(9')+:!34567!%#!345;72!
345<7!!

!
!!!=>+-,!?'%#.!!
345@7!!

345A7!!

!
!!!89:('(9')+:!345A7!%#!345<7!&,-,!+?(%#%-B!
345C7!

!
!!!=>+-,!?'%#.!%:!')&+-(,#(%!+?:%-D,-!E9%!%#!F%#%-,*2!
34;G7!!
!
!
!!!H%!345C7!I!34;G7.!+?(%#%)+:2!
34;47!!

!
!!J%0+-$%)+:!0+#!?,:%!%#!34K67!I!34K<7!E9%.!:'!
34;K7!!
!!!L!
34;57!!!
!
!
!!!M+)?'#,#$+!34;47.!34;K7!L!34;57.!+?(%#%)+:2!
34;;7!!

!!!

!
!!!N,!34;;7!%:!*,!%09,0'1#!$%!O9*%-PN,F-,#F%.!E9%!#+:!$,!*,:!0+#$'0'+#%:!#%0%:,-',:!I!:9/'0'%#(%:.!
&,-,!*,!D,*'$%Q!$%!

B!O*!:%F9#$+!(R-)'#+!$%!34;;7!%:!*,!N,F-,#F',#,B!

!
!"#$%#&'()%*+'%#,-(#+./)%#0*)/0#&.(#12*).(#0*#2*#13%*.#
#
!!!J%0+-$%)+:2!
34;67!!

658

"#$%&!

!
!!!'(!)*+)!,-*.!"#$%&/!

!)*!*.0-1)(+)!2(-!32(,45(!6)!

"#$9&!

"#$:&!

/!6)!1.6.!72)8!

!
!!!;<.=-!->04,-1.*!0-!),2-,45(!6)!'20)=?@-A=-(A)8!
"#$$&!

!!!

!
!!!B-6.!72)!
"#$%&!

!
!!!C2*+4+2D)(6.!"#$%&!)(!"#$$&/!.E+)()1.*8!
"#$F&!!
!
!!!H),.=6)1.*8!
"#$%&!

!!G!

"#IJ&!!

!
!!!C2*+4+2D)(6.!"#IJ&!)(!"#$F&/!.E+)()1.*8!
"#I#&!!
"#IK&!!

!
!

"#IL&!!
!
!
!!!@-!32(,45(!"#IL&!=)>=)*)(+-!2(-!=),+-/!0.!72)!,.1>=2)E-!72)!0-!64*+-(,4-!1M*!,.=+-!)(+=)!6.*!
>2(+.*!)(!2(!>0-(.!)*!2(-!=),+-N!
!
!"#$%#&'()%*+'%#,-(#+./)%#0*)/0#&.(#12*).(#0*#03#0(1%+'.#+2/4.#5&0#+2%)/.#&',0*('.*0(6#
#
7(1%+'.#13%*.#58#&',0*('.*0(6###7(1%+'.#+2/4.#59#&',0*('.*0(6#
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!"#I$&!
#

659

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!"#$$%!!

!!"#$%#&$'#&#(!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!"#$&%!!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!"#$'%!!

!!!)*+,%-"#$%#&$,(!

()*+,-).,+/!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!()*+,-).,+/!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!"#$0%!!

!!+#.$,/012'3#(!

!
1.2)34/!
"#$5%!

!!

!
"#&6%!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

!!!!
!!!!!!!!!)7!8+78)!,+*!9.)*!:4;9+.)*!8)<)78)7!8)! =!
!
"#&#%!

!
!!!1+.!8):>7>;>?7/!
"#&@%!

!!

!!!)7!8+78)! !)*!27!<4.AB)9.+!;24,C2>).!

!
!!!D+B3>7478+!"#&#%!E!"#&@%F!+39)7)B+*/!
"#&G%!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

!
!!!D+B3>7478+!"#$'%F!"#$5%!!E!"#&G%F!E!B2,9><,>;478+!9+8+*!,+*!9H.B>7+*!;+7!
"#&I%!
!
!!!JK+.4!B2,9><,>;4B+*!9+8+!<+.!

!!!!
/!

!+39)7)B+*/!

660

"#$%&!

!
!!!'()*!+,-./012+-3!.4!5+-!65782+-!9+-!7:/284+-3!)4!;1<7+/!9.571!
?1/1!+,7.4./@!

!=!/.1>/)?12+-!5+-!7:/284+-3!

"#$$&!

!
!!!A4!.5!7./<./!7:/284+!
3!<12,812+-!5+-!*498<.-!2)9+-3!?1/1!().91/!<+2+!
/.<+4+<.2+-!.5!-8>)8.47.!-*2,+5+!9.!BC/8-7+;;.5@!
"#$D&!

!=!

!
!!!E)-787)=.49+!"#$D&!.4!"#$$&3!+,7.4.2+-@!
"#$F&!

!
!!!'C+/1!/.<)./91!9.!"#%G&!=!"#%%&!().!
"#$J&

H!!E8!?1/12.7/8I12+-!<+4! !9.!

!-.!-8>).!().@!

!
!!!B+2,84149+! "#$F&! =! "#$J&3! +,7.4.2+-! !"# $%&'()*+"# <+4! 9./80191-! -+,/.! 51! 5+4>87)9! 9.! 1/<+!
3# 712,8:4! <+4+<891-! <+2+# ,!")# %+-"+*&.%)# '%# +"/'"# !*01%23#DGK! ! <)149+! 51! ;)./I1! ().! 1<761!
-+,/.! .5! +,L.7+! .-! <./+H! A5! 7:/284+! 9.5! 519+! 8I()8./9+! /.?/.-.471! 51! 1<.5./1<8M4! 4.N7+48141! 715!
<+2+!51!<+4+<.2+-!.4!51!.<)1<8M4!
H!A5!7:/284+!9.5!519+!9./.<C+!")4!BC/8-7+;;.5!
2)578?58<19+! <+4! .5! ?/+9)<7+! 9.! 51! 0.5+<8919&! /.?/.-.471! 51! 1<.5./1<8M4! 198<8+415! 9.,891! 1! 51!
<)/017)/1!9.5!.-?1<8+3!?1/1!91/4+-!51!"#DO!P&@!!
"#DO!'&!

!!

"#DO!P&!

!!!

!
!!!'C+/1!,8.43!/.<)./91!().@!
"#D#&!

!!!.4!9+49.!!

!=!

!-+4!8401/8147.-3!!15!8>)15!

().!51!0.5+<8919!9.!51!5)I! H!Q+2149+!.4!<).471!"%G&!=!)-149+!51!/.>51!9.!51!<19.413!+,7.4.2+-@!
"#DK&!

!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
#DGK

!E7.0.4!R.84,./>3!!"#$%&#&%'()#(*)+',-'.'/0!"#JDK&@!#F%3!.<)1<8M4!FHGHK!

661

!
!!!"#$%&%#'()*+!,-./0!()!,-.10!'!2#3%&43&56)*+!%+*+$!3+$!%782&)+$!5+)!
$%&'()*+"#+&,#'%-*."'")#)&/-%#%!#0*%12&#2-&2*&# 3#
,-.;0!

9!+:%()(2+$!!"#

!
C 2. De la aproximacin de campo dbil a la gravitacin Newtoniana!"
!
!!!<(5+8*(2+$!36!(5#65&=)!*(!36$">(+*7$&56$!!()!#)!($465&+!5#8?+@!
,-.;0!

!!!!!

@!

!
A6$!5+24+)()%($!($465&63($!*(!36!(5#65&=)!6)%(8&+8!$(!*($58&:()!4+8!
!!

,-.B0!

!
'!36!5+24+)()%(!%(24+863!4+8!
,-.C0!

!!!

4"-"#5,"#2"-06+5!"#'%#/"7"#.%!&+*'"'!,)+D8(36%&?&$%6@!

09!$(!4#(*(!$#$%&%#&8!

!4+8!

!()!,-.B09!4686!+:%()(8@!
,-.E0!

!!!!

!
!!!F)! ($%6! 648+G&265&=)! 36$! 5+24+)()%($! ($465&63($! *(! 36! 5#6*8&?(3+5&*6*! $+)! *($48(5&6:3($!
5+24686*6$!5+)!$#!5+24+)()%(!%(24+863@!
,-..0!

!
!!!H(!,-.E0!'!,-..09!+:%()(2+$!!
,-.I0!

"
#"$!%"&'()*+,-.+/0"12".-,')"3(-4+5-.+)0-6"178+6"

!!!<(5#(8*6!J#(@!
,-.K0!!
,-I10!!

!
!

662

!!!"#$%&'()(*#%! +,#)+! -$! .+*/#! 0)+1&2+.&#$+3! '45&36! 7$! (%2(! .+%#! 3+! *42)&.+! /-('(! (%.)&5&)%(!
.#*#!3+!*42)&.+!'(!8&$9#:%9&;!
!;!*<%!-$!=+.2#)!
!>-(!)(/)(%($2+!(3!.+*/#!0)+1&2+.&#$+3!
'45&3?!
@ABAC!
!!

!!

@ABDC!

!
!!!E#)!.#$%&%2($.&+!2($(*#%;!+!/+)2&)!'(!@ABAC?!
@ABFC!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
!
!!!G#5)(!(3!.+*/#!0)+1&2+.&#$+3!

!!

!!
!,+.(*#%!(%2+!,&/H2(%&%?!3#%!.+*5&#%!2(*/#)+3(%!'(!

!%#$!

*-.,#!*<%!/(>-(I#%!>-(!3#%!.+*5&#%!(%/+.&+3(%6;!(%!'(.&);!!"#$%&'()"%"#$%&$
!$*+,$'&#-&*.+$"!$
.(&/-+$#+,$%&#-'&*("0!&#$&,$*+/-"'"*(1,$*+,$#2#$%&'()"%"#$*+,$'&#-&*.+$"!$&#-"*(+?$
@ABJC!

!!!
!!G-%2&2-&*#%!@ABAC!K!!@ABFC!($!@ABLC;!/+)+!#52($()?!
@ABMC!
!
!!N+%! '()&1+'+%! '(!

!
! %#$! '()&1+'+%! '(! .#$%2+$2(%! K;! /#)! 3#! 2+$2#;! .()#! K! 3+%! '()&1+'+%! '(! 3#%!

=+.2#)(%!'(!.#))(..&H$!.#$!)(%/(.2#!+3!2&(*/#!
'()&1+'+!(%/+.&+3!

!K!

!%#$!'(%/)(.&+53(%!.#$!)(%/(.2#!+!3+!

6!E#)!3#!2+$2#;!'(!@OPPPC!#52($(*#%?!

@ABQC!

!
!!!73!R32&*#!24)*&$#!'(!@ABQC!(%!'(%/)(.&+53(!($!.#*/+)+.&H$!.#$!(3!/)&*()#!K!/#)!2+$2#!
@ABSC!

!
!!!"#*5&$+$'#!!@ASBC!!K!@ABSC;!#52($(*#%?!
@ABBC!

663

!
!!"#$%&!'()*+!

!),!-*!.)*,$%!/0.%(1$!1$*.%&2&%(&*.)+!

!),!1$2&%(&*.)+!3$%!4$!.&*.$!

,)!.%&*,5$%/&!)*!1$*.%&2&%(&*.)!3$%!/)6($!6)!4&!,(7-()*.)!$3)%&1(8*9!

+!!4$!:-)!*$,!

3)%/(.)!,(/34(5(1&%!;<==>!3&%&!$'.)*)%9!
;<=?>!

!
C 4. La gravitacin Newtoniana
!
!!!@)A)/$,!&#$%&+!-*!/$/)*.$+!&!4&!)1-&1(8*!6)!4&,!7)$60,(1&,+!3&%&!%)1$%6&%!&47-*$,!)4)/)*.$,!
6)!4&!.)$%B&!7%&2(.&1($*&4!6)!C)D.$*E!F%(/)%$!6)5(*(/$,!)4!1&/3$!7%&2(.&1($*&4! +!&!,&')%+!4&!
&1)4)%&1(8*!6)'(6&!&!4&!5-)%G&!7%&2(.&1($*&49!
;<?H>!

;<?<>!

!
@)!;<?H>!I!;<?<>!$'.)*)/$,9!
;<?J>!

!
!!!K)! 3-)6)! 6)/$,.%&%! :-)! )4! 2)1.$%!
),1&4&%+!),!6)1(%+!!
;<?L>!
!
!
"#$%&!'()*+!!
;<?M>!

! ,)! 3-)6)! ),1%('(%! 1$/$! )4! 7%&6()*.)! 6)! -*! 3$.)*1(&4!

!
!!F)%$! !)*!*-),.%$!1&,$!),!-*&!5-*1(8*!,$4$!6)! !I!3$%!4$!.&*.$!
;<?N>!
;<?P>!

E!O$*,)1-)*.)/)*.)!
!

!
!!!O$/'(*&*6$!;<?J>!I!;<?N>+!$'.)*)/$,9!
;<?Q>!

!
!!!R*!*$.&1(8*!.)*,$%(&4!4&!)1-&1(8*!6)!/$2(/()*.$!:-)!(*14-I)!)4!1&/3$!7%&2(.&1($*&4!60'(4!),!!

664

"#$%&!

!
!!!'()*+,(-*.!/0*+/!1/.!)*-2*3(34(.!(.2/)5/1(.!,(!1/!6(*,7.5)/!!
"#$$&!

!
!!!8(!)*-2/+/+!"#$%&!9!!"#$$&!)*3)1:5-*.;!
"<==&!

!!!
!!!"#$! %#&'()*(+&,+! -.'! %#/0#&+&,+'! +'0.%(.-+'! 1+! -.! +%*.%(2&! 1+! -.! )+#13'(%.4! +&! -.'!
.0$#5(/.%(#&+'!1+!%./0#!136(-!7!6.8.'!9+-#%(1.1+'4!'+!$+1*%+&!.!-.!+%*.%(2&!1+!/#9(/(+&,#!
0.$.!-.!)$.9(,.%(2&!:+;,#&(.&.!'(!<.%+/#'!-.!(1+&,(=(%.%(2&!1+!-.!+%*.%(2&!>?@@AB!
!
!!!8(!"#%#&!9!"<==&!*>4(3(-*.;!
"<=#&!

!
!8(!"#$?&!9!"<=#&!*>4(3(-*.;!
"<=<&!

!
!!!@*3!>/.(!(3!4*,*!1*!/34(+5*+A!*>4(3(-*.!1/!-74+5)/!2/+/!:3/!2/+4B):1/!,(!>/C/!D(1*)5,/,!(3!:3!
)/-2*!6+/D54/)5*3/1!,7>51;!

"<=E&!

!"4(3.*+!-74+5)*!(3!)/-2*!6+/D54/)5*3/1!,7>51&!

!
C5. De la mtrica a la teora Newtoniana
!!
!!!F/+45-*.! ,(! 1/! -74+5)/! "<=E&! 9! (.4/-*.! (3! 1/! /2+*G5-/)5H3! ,(! >/C/.! D(1*)5,/,(.! .53! 0/)(+!
(G21B)54/!,(!2+53)525*!1/!052H4(.5.!,(1!)/-2*!6+/D54/)5*3/1!,7>51I!J/.!)*-2*3(34(.!3*!3:1/.!,(1!
.B->*1*!,(!@0+5.4*KK(1!!2/+/!1/!-74+5)/!"<=E&!.*3;!
"#%=&!
"<=L&!

!
!

665

"#$%&'#(%)!*+)!$%(,%-#-.#)!#),+$/+*#)!'#!*+!#$0+$/1-!'#!*+!2#%'3)/$+!,+&+!0-+!,+&.4$0*+!'#!
5+6+!7#*%$/'+'8!
9:;<=!

!
>#!9:;<=!?!9@AB=!)#!%5./#-#8!

9@AC=!
!
!!!D0)./.0?#-'%!
9@AH=!

!!#-!!9:E;=F!)#!$%-$*0?#!G0#8!
!

!
!!!I)$&/5/(%)!#).+!J*./(+!#$0+$/1-!#-!K%&(+!7#$.%&/+*8!
9@A;=
!
!
!!L%(%!

!#)!K0-$/1-!)%*%!'#! #-.%-$#)!

9@A<=!

!?!

F!

!
!!!M%&! *%! .+-.%! N#(%)! 7#&/K/$+'%! G0#! *+)! $%(,%-#-.#)! #),+$/+*#)! '#! *+! #$0+$/1-! '#! *+! *+)!
2#%'3)/$+)! $%-! *+! (3.&/$+! 9@AO=! $%&&#),%-'#-! +! *+! #$0+$/1-! '#! (%7/(/#-.%! '#*! $+(,%!
2&+7/.+$/%-+*!P#Q.%-/+-%R!
!
!!!S+!$0+&.+!$%(,%-#-.#!'#!*+!2#%'3)/$+!#)8!
9@AE=!

!
!!!>#!9:<;=!?!9:E;=!?!9@AA=!)#!%5./#-#8!
9@:A=
!
!!!>+'%!G0#!!
9@::=

!
F!)#!)/20#!G0#8!
F!*%!G0#!#&+!'#!#),#&+&)#!'+'%!G0#!

!
!!!T-.#&,&#.+$/1-8!I).%!)/2-/K/$+!G0#!
F!$%-!
!?!
R!S+!$0+&.+!$%(,%-#-.#!'#!*+!
#$0+$/1-!'#!*+)!2#%'3)/$+)!/-'/$+!G0#!*+!7#*%$/'+'!'#!*%)!K%.%-#)!'#!*+!*0U!#)! R!
!
!!I-!V/-W%Q)W/F!!
!

666

"#$#%!

D. LA GRAVITACIN NEWTONIANA EXPRESADA COMO TEORA DE CAMPO

!

!!!&'()*'+! ,-,.(/,'0! *.! 1,)2+! 3',4(5,1(+-,.! 607(.! 2,',! 8-,! 9+.,! 2,'5:18.,! ";<$%! =! 6*92809!
3*-*',.(/,'*)+9!*.!,->.(9(9!2,',!8-,!6(95'(781(?-!6*!),9,!,'7(5','(,!";<#%<!!
!
D1. Campo gravitacional newtoniano para una sola partcula
!!!@*1+'6*)+9!.,!A8*'/,!3',4(5,1(+-,.!=!*.!1,)2+!3',4(5,1(+-,.!6*!.,!5*+':,!-*B5+-(,-,!
!

"#$C%
"#$D%
!!!"#! $%#$"!
9,"!

E!
! "&! "'! ()*+%! $"! ,#)! +)-./(,')! (%#! *)&)! 0! '%()'12)$)! "#! "'! +,#.%!
!3')!4,"#."5!6!*"$1*%&!"'!()*+%!7-)81.)(1%#)'!"#!"'!+,#.%!
$"!*)#"-)!
!6!
!

!
!!!!!F2.(1,)+9!,G+',!*.!5*+'*),!6*!H*.)G+.5/!,.!1,)2+!3',4(5,1(+-,.!6*!.,!2,'5:18.,E!,!2,'5('!6*!
"#$D%I!
"#$J%!!

!=!!!

!
!!!K-5'+681()+9!.,!6*.5,!6*!;(',1!
),9,! I!
"#$L%!

!
!=!.,!6*-9(6,6!6*!),9,!

!,9+1(,6,!,!8-,!2,'5:18.,!1+-!

"#$M%!

!
!!!N895(58()+9!"#$L%!=!"#$M%!*-!"#$J%!2,',!+75*-*'I!
"#$O%!
!
!
!!!&+'!+5',!2,'5*!
"#$P%!

!!=E!2+'!.+!5,-5+E!2+'!"$JP%!=!"$LC%I!
"##Q%!
!!
!
D 2. El campo gravitacional para una distribucin de masa arbitraria
!!!R8,-6+!S8*'*)+9!3*-*',.(/,'!,!2,'5('!6*!8-!1,9+!2,'5(18.,'E!G*)+9!6*!9,1,'!.+9!6(A*'*-1(,.*9!=!
.8*3+!(-5*3','<!N,1,)+9!*.!6(A*'*-1(,.!6*! E!,!2,'5('!6*!"#$D%I!

667

!
"##$%!

!
!!&'(!)*+,-,.,/-0!12!)*-3,)2)!)*!4232!*35!
!!!!!!!!!!!!"*-!)'-)*! !*3!*1!6'174*-%!

"###%!

!!!!
!!!8739,97,4'3!"###%!*-!"##$%0!:2(2!';9*-*(5!
"##<%!

!
!!!=>'(2!,-9*?(24'35!
"##@%!

0!*-!)'-)*!

!!!!
!!!A392! *.72.,/-! "##@%! (*:(*3*-92! !"# $%&'(# )*%+,-%$,(.%"# /01,"! :(')7.,)'! :'(! 7-2! ),39(,;7.,/-!
2(;,9(2(,2!)*!4232! B!=:1,.2-)'!-7*624*-9*!*1!9*'(*42!)*!C*14>'19D0!2>'(2!2!12!"##@%5!
"##E%!

!
!!!!F*4'3!G7*!12!"#$H%!*3!,?721!2!12!"##E%0!:*('!12!)*-3,)2) !*-!*1!:(,4*(!.23'!*3!12!)*!12!4232!
)*!7-2!3'12!:2(9I.7120!J!*-!*1!3*?7-)'!.23'!12!),39(,;7.,/-!2(;,9(2(,2!)*!7-2!4232B!=!.'-9,-72.,/-!
,-9*?(24'3!12!"##E%!3';(*!
5!
"##K%!
!
!
!!!&'(!*1!9*'(*42!)*!L27330!.'-392!G7*5!
"##M%!!
!
!
!!!8739,97,4'3!12!"##M%!*-!12!"##K%!:2(2!';9*-*(!12!"##H%5!
"##H%!!
!
!
!!!A39*! (*37192)'0! 1'! :')*4'3! .'((';'(2(! ,-)*:*-),*-9*4*-9*0! (*3'16,*-)'! 12! ,-9*?(21! )*1! 12)'!
,DG7,*()'B!N*.'()*4'3!*1!6*.9'(!)*!:'3,.,/-!*-!.''()*-2)23!:'12(*3!*3+O(,.235!
"##P%!!
!!
!
!!!&'(!1'!92-9'5!
"#<Q%!
"#<$%!

!
!

668

!!"#!$%&'(!)!$%&*(+!,-.#/#0,12!
$%&%(!!
!
!
!!!3#4,56#0,1!.70-89/!:;#2!
$%&&(!!

!
!!!<=,57!-8#/2!
! !!
!
$%&>(!!
!
!!!?;1.8.;80,1!$%*>(+!$%&&(!)!$%&>(!#/!!$%%@(2!
$%&A(

!
!!!BC!DC;E,+!#1!6#485+!!"#$%&'(#'()#*+'!),-$-!+!#1!F5,F,548,/7C!7!C7!0717!:;#!#1.G!#/!#C!4#/.5,!6#!C7!
#1D#57H!!3#4,56#0,12!
$%&I(
!
!
!!!!"#!$%&I(!,-.#/#0,12!
$%&J(
!!!
!
!!!3#4,56#0,1!C7!6#D8/848K/!6#!C7!.%'"%$-%/%#0!"#$%&'(#/!12(/-%/(3!
$%&@(!

$%*@(!
!
!!!
!!!!"#!$%&J(+!$%&@(!)!$%*@(!,-.#/#0,1!C7!#4;748K/!:;#!5#F5#1#/.7!"%#!$+%$-4/#0!#5(-**(/#'%)%#!"#
'(2!/$-%"#6)%7-2%$-(/%"3#
$%&L(!
!
!
E. EL FLUIDO PERFECTO
!
!!!M/! DC;86,! F#5D#4.,! #/! C7! 5#C7.8N8676! O#/#57C! #1! 6#D8/86,! 4,0,! ;/! DC;86,! /,! N814,1,! )! :;#! /,!
4,/6;4#!47C,5H!?#!5#F5#1#/.7!F,5!!"#2!/*()#!/!)68%9&(&!/2(!
+!#/!6,/6#! !#1!#C!0,0#/.,!)!
! C7! 1;F#5D848#+! #1! 6#485+! 1#! .57.7! 6#C! DC;E,! 6#! C7! 4,0F,/#/.#! 6#C! 4;7658N#4.,5! 0,0#/.,!
! 7!
.57N91!6#!;/7!1;F#5D848#!6#! !4,/1.7/.#2!
$%>'(

669

!
!"'()*!!%+$,&!

"#$%&

!!-'!.'!/0/)12*!31!4((531'*3*/!1'!516(/(7!
/*:15;!
%&! -<!)1'/(5!
/.61590401!
#&! -<! )1'/(5!

7!

7!

!8!

!51651/1')*'!4(/*/!309151')1/7!*!

!1/!!"#$"%&'#(!#")#*'+,'-!-.!#*%)./'#(!"#+'+!-.'7!

!*!)5*=>/!31!<*!

?4('/)*')1!8!51651/1')*!<*!(!-01()(#(!#!-!/23)4#
! 1/! !"# $"%&'# (!# ")# *'+,'-!-.!# *%)./'# (!"# +'+!-.'7!

7! *! )5*=>/! 31!

.'*! /.61590401! ?4('/)*')1@! -'! 6*5)04.<*5!

! 6.131! 51651/1')*5! <*! 1'15AB*! 40'>)04*! (#
*'-(%**15-#(!#*)"'/4!
,&! -<! )1'/(5!
! 1/! !"# $"%&'# (!# ")0# *'+,'-!-.!0# !0,)*1)"!0# (!"# +'+!-.'! ! 7! *! )5*=>/! 31!
.'*!/.61590401! ?4('/)*')1!C.1!1/!.'!6.')(!1'!1<!)0126(@!
#!0#!6%17)"!-.!#)#
#6(5!
<*!/021)5B*!31<!)1'/(54#!
$&! -<! )1'/(5!
! 51651/1')*! 1<! !"#$!!%# *! /*:157# ")0# $%!/8)0# (!# $/1**15-# !-./!# !"!+!-.'0#
)(9)*!-.!0#(!"#$"%&':#,'/#!&!+,"'#")#710*'01()(@!D1!)5*)*!31<!9<.E(!31!<*/!4(26('1')1/!31<!
2(21')(! !*!)5*=>/!31!.'*!/.61590401! ?4('/)*')1@!
!!!!
FG(5*!:01'7!1'!.'!9<.03(!615914)(7!<*/!51/614)0=*/!14.*40('1/7!*!6*5)05!31!"#$%&!"8!)(2*'3(!1'!!
!4.1')*!C.1!!-#%-#010.!+)#+'+!-.;-!)+!-.!#!-#/!,'0'!
7!
7!
!!8!!
C.1!
!8!
&7!/(';!
"#$#&

!!!

%+$$

!"1/)*!4(26('1')1!!

!!!!!!!!!!31<!)1'/(5!1/!0'3161'301')1&@!
"#$,&

"/0'!4('3.440H'!31!4*<(5&@!!

"#$$&
!
!
!!!I*3(!C.1!1/)*2(/!1'!1<!/.6.1/)(!31!516(/(7!<*/!6*5)B4.<*/!'(!4G(4*'7!31!2(3(!C.1!<*!14.*40H'!
"#$$&!1J651/*!C.1!'(!G*8!1'15AB*!40'>)04*7!1/!314057!'(!G*8!4('3.440H'!31!4*<(5@!
"#$K&
!" !1/!<*!31<)*!31!L5('14M15&@!!
!
!!!N*! 14.*40H'! "#$K&! 1J651/*! C.1! '(! G*8! =0/4(/03*3@! -/)1! )1'/(5! )01'1! .'*! 4(26('1')1!
0'3161'301')1! "4.*'3(! G*8! =0/4(/03*37! 1'! A1'15*<! /('! O! 4(26('1')1/! 0'3161'301')1/&@! N*/!
14.*40('1/!"#$#&!*!"#$K&!51651/1')*'!!"#012%1!-.!#.!-0'/#<=>?@#(!#!-!/23)A+'+!-.'#
#,)/)#!"#
*)0'# ,)/.1*%")/# (!# %-# $"%1('# ,!/$!*.'# 9# /!").1710.)@! -/)1! )1'/(5! 1/! /02>)504(7! 1'! 4.*)5(!
3021'/0('1/7!4('!#!4(26('1')1/!0'3161'301')1/@!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
%+$,

!P*'/!D)16G*'07!&$'$#()*+$)(",-,".%*#'3!13@"%QQR&;!S,T!D)1=1'!U10':15A7!&#(-,"(",/'*('0*1/!2/)/3.*"%Q+#&;!
$+%7!14.*40H'!%K@%@%#T!VW!U10':15A!1/)*'3*50X*!<*/!14.*40('1/!4('!
7!31!2(3(!!C.1!
!1'!U10':15A!1/!
!1'!20!*6>'3041!

%+$$

!P*'/!D)16G*'07!&$'$#()*+$)(",-,".%*#'3!13@"%QQR&;!S,7!14.*40H'!S@S$!

670

!
!

"#$%&!

!
!
F. EL TENSOR DE EINSTEIN
F1.- Ecuacin del campo dbil
!
!!'()*+,(-*.!"#/0&1!"#/2&!3!"#$#&4!
"#/0&
"#/2&
"#$#&!
!

!
!
!

!!!5(!

!3!"#/0&1!"#/2&1!3!"#$#&!*67(8(-*.4!

"#$9&

!!

!
!!!5(:;8;-*.4!
"#$0&!

!!!!
!!!5(!"#$9&!3!"#$0&!*67(8(-*.4!
"#$2&!
!
!
!!!<.7=!(.!>=!()?=);@8!,(!)=-A*!(8!(>!>B-;7(!8(C7*8;=8*1!(8!,*8,(!(>!7D+-;8*!=>!>=,*!;EF?;(+,*!
+(A+(.(87=!>=!G(*-(7+B=!3!(>!7D+-;8*!=>!>=,*!,(+()H*!>=!-=.=I!!J=!()?=);@8!"#$2&!8*.!,;)(!F?(!>=!
-=.=! +(A+(.(87=,=! A*+! >=! )*-A*8(87(!
! ,(>! 7(8.*+! ,(! (8(+GB=K-*-(87*!
! *+;G;8=! >=!
)*-A*8(87(!
! ,(! >=! -D7+;)=! =.*);=,=! =>! )=-A*! ,D6;>! G+=L;7=);*8=>! =! L(>*);,=,(.! 6=M=.1!
)*-A=+=,=.! )*8! >=! ,(! >=! >?EI! J=! )*-A*8(87(!
! G(8(+=! ?8! )=-A*! G+=L;7=);*8=>! *6.(+L=6>(1!
+(A+(.(87=,*!A*+!(>!L()7*+!!
"#NO&

!
!!!P*-A=+(-*.! >=.! ()?=);*8(.! "#/2&! 3! "#$2&! 3! .(Q=>=-*.! F?(! =-6=.! :@+-?>=.! =,-;7(8! ?8=!
;87(+A+(7=);@8!,;:(+(87(I!
"#/2&
!!!

671

"#$%&
!!!
"#'(&
!
!
!!!)*! +,-*,./0! "#%1&! 2.,+! 3-+! 4*! 5*6*! "7+87+6+09*2*! 8:7! +4! +6,*4*7! &! 87:2-,+! ! -0! 8:9+0,.*4!
;7*<.9*,.:0*4! "7+87+6+09*2:! 8:7! +4! +6,*4*7! &! 3-+! *! 6-! <+=! ;+0+7*! -0! ,*58:! ;7*<.9*,.:0*4!
:>6+7<*>4+!"7+87+6+09*2:!8:7!+4!<+,9:7!
&?!
!"5*6*!:>6+7<*>4+&!! !!!! !"8:9+0,.*4!0:!:>6+7<*>4+&!!!!! !! ",*58:!:>6+7<*>4+&!
!
!!!)*!+,-*,./0!"#$1&!:7.;.0*2*!+0!@:75*!*87:A.5*2*!8:7!4*!9+:7B*!2+4!,*58:!2C>.4D!!8+79+0+,+!*!
4*6!9+:7B*6!2+!*,,./0!.069*09E0+*!*!2.69*0,.*!"3-+!8:69-4*0!3-+!,*-6*!F!+@+,9:!6:0!6.5-49E0+*6!+0!
+4!9.+58:D!4:!3-+!<.:4*!+4!87.0,.8.:!5+9*@B6.,:!2+!4*!,*-6*4.2*2!"4*!,*-6*!87+,+2+!*4!+@+,9:&G!H6!
.58:79*09+!0:9*7!3-+!+0!4*!9+:7B*!;7*<.9*,.:0*4!2+4!,*58:!2C>.4D!4*6!@-0,.:0+6
!",:58:0+09+!
2+!4*!5C97.,*&!F! !",*58:!:>6+7<*>4+&!!2+8+02+0!+0!@:75*!*87:A.5*2*!2+!4*!8:6.,./0!F!0:!2+4!
9.+58:G!I*5>.C0!+6!0+,+6*7.:!6->7*F*7!3-+!+0!4*!*87:A.5*,./0!2+4!,*58:!2C>.4D!+4!9*5*J:!2+!4*6!
5*6*6!FD!8:7!4:!9*09:D!2+!4:6!,*58:6D!9.+0+0!-0!4B5.9+?!
!"5*6*!:>6+7<*>4+&! !!
!",:58:0+09+!2+!4*!5C97.,*&! !! !",*58:!:>6+7<*>4+&!
!
!!!K.0! +5>*7;:D! 6.! +4.5.0*5:6! 4*! 7+697.,,./0L6.584.@.,*,./0! 2+!

D! +09:0,+6! 4*! 9+:7B*! 2+4!

,*58:!;7*<.9*,.:0*4!2C>.4!8+79+0+,+!*!4*!9+:7B*!;+0+7*4!2+4!,*58:!;7*<.9*,.:0*4!,:0!87:8*;*,./0!
@.0.9*!2+!,*-6* +@+,9:!"4*!<+4:,.2*2!2+!4*!4-=&D!4*!,-*4!0:!<.:4*!+4!87.0,.8.:!2+!4*!,*-6*4.2*2G!H0!
+69+!M49.5:!,*6:!4*6!+,-*,.:0+6!2+!,*58:!6:0!+,-*,.:0+6!2+!:02*D!F!4*!"#$1&!6+!97*06@:75*!+0!
"#'#&?!
"#'#&!!

!
!!)*! +,-*,./0! "#'#&! +6! !"# $%&"%'()# *$# +)*"# $)# ,$)$-"!.# /')# $!# !01'2$# )$32+)'")+.! 2:02+! +4!
9C75.0:!*4!4*2:!.=3-.+72:!7+87+6+09*!+4!,*58:!2C>.4!F!+4!9C75.0:!*4!4*2:!2+7+,N:!4*!5*6*G!
!
F2. Ecuacin de campo generalizado
!
!!!!4"#$%&"%'()#56789#/&,'$-$#&)"#,$)$-"!':"%'()#;"-"#%"1;+/#)+#*<='!$/#>#"!2"/#?$!+%'*"*$/D!4*!
,-*4!8:27B*!+6,7.>.76+!,:5:?!
"#'%&
!!!
!!!
!!!+0! 2:02+! +4! 9+06:7! 2+4! ,*58:! ;7*<.9*,.:0*4!
! 7+87+6+09*! *4! ,*58:! ;7*<.9*,.:0*4! "4*!
;+:5+97B*&D! F! +4! 9+06:7!
! 7+87+6+09*! *! 9:2*6! 4*6! +0+7;B*6! F! 5:5+09:6! "+A,+89:! 4*6! 2+! :7.;+0!
;7*<.9*,.:0*4&G! O><.*5+09+D! ;"-"# %"1;+/# *<='!$/# ># ="@"/# ?$!+%'*"*$/# /$# *"# !"# /',&'$)2$#
-$*&%%'()A#
.#!+#B&$#'1;!'%"#B&$#$!#-"),+!1CD'1+#*$#!"/#*$-'?"*"/#%+)#-$/;$%2+#"#
*$=$#/$-#>#$/#*$#*+/E!

!*$=$#/$-#&)#2$)/+-#3-+!<*!*!,:0697-.76+!,:0!+4!9+06:7!2+!P.+5*00!

672

!
"!#$%!&%'&()*+(,#&-.&!(/-!&0!.&-%/1!2&!3+((+!

!4!&0!.&-%/1!2&!(516,.51,!

"!75&!%/-!

0,%!8-+(,%!(/-.1,((+/-&%!+-2&'&-2+&-.&%!2&0!.&-%/1!2&!3+&#,--!
9!:/2&#/%"!&-./-(&%"!;,(&1!
0,!%+<5+&-.&!!"#$%&'"'()#*+#,&'%-.(#-*-(&/(%&0'+*(1&(2"0'%&"0!= !>! !%/-!(/-%.,-.&%?@!
=ABC?!
!
!
!!!2/(%&0'+*(
(&'(0&3&'-*"-4&0%&('"45%*"3+"!'/175&!0,!%5#,!2&!2/%!.&-%/1&%!%+#D.1+(/%!&%!5-!
.&-%/1!%+#D.1+(/!4!0/%!.&-%/1&%!
=ABB?
!
=ABE?

!!4!

!%/-!%+#D.1+(/%@!
!

!
!!!F&!=ABC?"!=ABB?!4!=ABE?"!/G.&-&#/%!0,!=ABH?!75&!&I'1&%,!75&!
=ABH?

(&%!%+#D.1+(/@!

!!!!
!!!J;/1,!G+&-"!1&(/12&#/%!0,!+2&-.+2,2!2&!K+,-(;+@!
=ABL?

!
!!!F&!=ABL?"!/G.&-&#/%@!
=ABM?!

!
!!F&!=ABC?!/G.&-&#/%@!
=AEN?

!
!!:,1,!75&!
=AEO?!

"!(/#/!2&G&!2&!%&1"!/G.&-&#/%"!,!',1.+1!2&!=ABM?!4!=AEN?@!
!

!
!!!F&!=ABC?!4!=AEO?!/G.&-&#/%@!
=AEA?!

!
!!!F&!=ABP?!4!=AEA?!/G.&-&#/%@!
=AEP?

!
!!!:,1,!2&.&1#+-,1!&0!6,0/1!2&! "!0,!&(5,(+Q-!=AEP?!&-!0,!,'1/I+#,(+Q-!2&0!(,#'/!2DG+0!4!G,R,%!
6&0/(+2,2&%"!2&G&!1&25(+1%&!,!0,!*/1#,!75&!4,!6+#/%!,11+G,@!
=ACM?
!

673

!
!!!"#!$%&'()!*+,#-#.*/0!
!

$%&1(
!
!!!23!4*.5*-#-,#!!

!6#!#/,3!#473489-!#/0!

$%&:(

!!!!
!!!;-!<3!35=*>8.3489-!6#<!43.5*!6?+8<!@!+3A3/!B#<*48636#/0!
$%&&(

!
!!!C*.+8-3-6*!$%&:(!@!$%&&()!*+,#-#.*/0!
$%&D(

!!

!
!!!EF*=3!+8#-)!#<!,?=.8-*!
!#/,G!H*=.36*!6#!/7.3-6*/!I7#!/*-!5=*674,*/!6#<!43.5*!6?+8<!@!
/7/! 6#=8B363/! @! 5*=! <*! ,3-,*)! /#! 57#6#! 8J-*=3=)! <*! I7#! ,=3-/H*=.3! <3! $%&D(! #-! <3! /8J78#-,#!
#473489-0!
$%&K(

!
!
!!!EF*=3!F3@!I7#!43<47<3=!
!@!
CF=8/,*HH#<!@!#<!,#-/*=!.?,=84*OD1:!!
$%&P(

L!M#4*=6#.*/!#<!,#-/*=!6#!M8#.3--)!<*/!/N.+*<*/!6#!
!

$%DQ(

$%DO(
$%D%(

!
!

!
!!!R3=3! *+,#-#=! !"#!$ #!%"&'$ !%$ "($ )*'&+,-).,/%$ )0$ .)-*&$ 123,0)! F#.*/! 6#! ,*.3=! #-! 47#-,3!
3<J7-*/!57-,*/0!
3LS!#<!,#-/*=!6#!M8#.3--! !#/,G!4*-/,8,786*!5*=!/N.+*<*/!6#!CF=8/,*HH#<! T!
+LS!<*/!/N.+*<*/!6#!CF=8/,*HH#<!#/,G-!4*-/,8,786*!5*=!,?=.8-*/!4*-!6#=8B363/!6#! !
4LS!<*/!,#-/*=#/!.?,=84*/! !#/,G-!4*-/,8,786*/!5*=!<3!4*-/,3-,#! !6#!<3!.?,=843!6#!!
!!!!!U8-V*W/V8!@! !
6LS!<3/!6#=8B363/!6#!<3!4*-/,3-,#! !/*-!4#=*T!!
#LS!<*/!5=*674,*/!! !/*-!#-!X<,8.3!8-/,3-483!5=*674,*/!6#!6#=8B363/!6#! !@)!#-!#<!43/*!!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
OD1:

!Y3-/!Z,#5F3-8)!!"#"$%&'("&%)*+*),-'%-6!#6L$OPPQ(!

674

!!!!!"#!$%&'(!")*+,!-!*%.%!/#,($+"%"0!'1#"#2!3#4!+52(4%"%36!
!-!
0!#:$):#4%0!:%&*+)2!3(2!$1%"4;:+$(3!-!'1#"#2!3#4!!
789!,(3!:)4&+2(3!
!!!!!+52(4%"(3!'(4!,%!&+3&%!4%<=2!#>'1#3:%!#2!#8!
589!'%4%!2(!#3$4+*+4!:%2:(0!3#!13%!,%!3+51+#2:#!%2(:%$+=2?!
!!!!!

6!!!-!!!

@89!@%-!A1#!4#$(4"%4!

6!!!!-!!!!

6!#:$):#4%!

+89!@%-!A1#!4#$(4"%4!A1#!
!!!!"%"(!A1#!
.89!

6!

0!"#!&("(!A1#!

0!3#!3+51#!A1#!
!

!!-!!

B89

,89!,%3!"#4+/%"%3!3(*4#! !3(2!$#4(!
&89!13%&(3!,%!3+51+#2:#!&):4+$%?!

CDEDF!

!
!!!G2!,%!%'4(>+&%$+=2!"#!$%&'(!")*+,!#,!:#23(4!"#!H+#&%220!#2!:)4&+2(3!"#! 0!#3?!
CDEIF

F!

!
!!!J1*+&(3!#,!K2"+$#! !#2!,%!#$1%$+=2!CDEIF?!
CDELF
!
!!!M(2:4%#&(3!CDELF!@%$+#2"(!
CDEPF

F!
NELO

!!-!(*:#2#&(3!!"#$!%&'(#)!#*+,,+-!
F!

!!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

NELO

!Q144%-!J'+#5#,0!!"#$%&%&'()*+,-%.$'/'0".'%"+-,10**%2"'.$'."#$%&%&'+)"&,-%.$'CDRRPF?!NOS0!2(8!L!

675

!
!!!"#$! %&! '()*+! ,! -#.&$/#! 0$! 120$-&! 320! %&4! /0567&/&4! 4#850!
:!!1&%12%&.#4!

! 4#$! 105#! '92$-#! %+:! ,! 320!

!,! ;!
!!!

'()<+
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

!!!!

!
!!!=&5&! 1&%12%&5!

:! 501#5/0.#4! 0%! 92$-#! >! ! ,! %&! 012&16?$! '()(+! 320! /610! 320

! ,!

;!
'())+
!
!!
!!!"#$! '()*+! ,! '())+! ,! -#.&$/#! 0$! 120$-&! %#4! 92$-#4! '8+! @&4-&! '%+:! 1#$4-526.#4! 0%! 041&%&5! /0!
1257&-25&! ;!
'()A+!

B!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!

B!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!

!
!!!C0&.#4! 9#5! 409&5&/#4! %#4! -504! -D5.6$#4! /0%! %&/#! /0501@#! 0$! %&4! 46E260$-04! 012&16#$04! '()F+:!
'(AG+!,!'(AH+;!
'()F+!!
!
'(AG+!!

'(AH+!!
!
!
!!!I#4! -504! -D5.6$#4! /0%! %&/#! /0501@#! /0! '()F+! ,! 0%! 956.05:! 326$-#! ,! $#70$#! -D5.6$#! /0%! %&/#!
/0501@#! /0! '(AH+! 40! &$2%&$J! I#4! 4064! -D5.6$#4! /0! %&! '(AH+! 320! 320/&$! 40! 920/0$! 46.9%6>61&5:!
9#5320!

:!/0!.#/#!320!'()F+:!'(AG+!,!'(AH+!40!42.&$!1#.#;!

'(A(+!

!
!!!K24-6-2,0$/#!%&!'()<+!,!%&!'(A(+!0$!%&!'(<A+:!#8-0$0.#4;!
'(AL+!
!
!!!M01#5/0.#4;!
'(N(+!
!

676

"#$%&!

!
!!!'(!"#%)&*!"#$#&!+!"#$%&*!,(!-./0(1(2!
"#%$&!

!
!!!3(4-56(7-,!89!:9;8940919!;959!(8!497;-!1(</-1091-2!!
!
"#)=&!
!
!!!'(!"#)=&!+!"#%$&*!-./(1(7-,2!
"#%>&!
!
!
!!!3(4-56(7-,!"#?#&!+!"#?)&2!
"#?#&!

"#?)&!

!
!!!@A,/0/A+(16-!"#%>&!(1!"#?#&!+!"#?)&*!-./(1(7-,!!"#$!%&'(#)!#*+%&$!+%2!
"#%?&!

!!

!!!

!
!!!:9!(4A940B1!"#%?&!(,!!"#$!%&'(#)!#*+%&$!+%,CD$D!@01!(7.95E-*!;5(,(1/97-,!(1!89!,(440B1!F!6(!
(,/(!9;G1604(!(8!7-6(8-!:(79H/5(!4-1!4-1,/91/(!4-,7-8BE049!;-,0/0I9!+!
*!;959!(1/(16(5!89!
(,(1409!6(!(,/9,!(,;(4A8940-1(,!,-.5(!89!4-1,/91/(!4-,7-8BE049J!
!
!!!@0! ,9497-,! "-# )!(+.-)-# /'%$(-.-(+-%$!# )!# "-# !/0-/+1%# )!# *+%&$!+%# 234567# .!(+8+/-9'&# "-#
/'%&+&$!%/+-#:!'9;$(+/-#)!#!&$-#!/0-/+1%#/'%#"-#+)!%$+)-)#)!#<+-%/=+#2>>56#?#"-#/'%&+&$!%/+-#
8@&+/-# )!# "-# 9+&9-# !/0-/+1%# )!# *+%&$!+%# /'%# !"# -A+'9-# )!# "-# /'%&!(.-/+1%# )!# "-# !%!(:@-B
9'9!%$'C#
"CC?&!
"#%D&!!5(,A8/96-!E(-7G/504-2!

!
!

"#%%&!#5(,A8/96-!KL,04-2!
!
!
G. LA MTRICA FRIEDMANN-ROBERTSON-WALKER
#
##D(+%/+E+'# /'&9'"1:+/'2! A10I(5,-! (,! M-7-EG1(-! "01I95091/(! (1! /59,8940-1(,&! (! 0,-/5B;04-!
"01I95091/(!(1!5-/940-1(,&J!
!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
CD$D

!N(1-,!89!4-1,/91/(!4-,7-8BE049!

(,/(!!!!!80.5-!

!OA(!-70/07-,!9OAL!;-5!,A!,/9/A,!(,;(4A89/0I-2!IG9,(!89!@(440B1!C>!6(!

677

!!!"#$%&$&'%!#$!()*$+%,-+!.(#!/+,0(1%'!2!(#!*1,+3,*,'!3'%&'#-4,3'!(+!/+$!%'#$!(3/$3,-+5!
!
6789:!
!!!!
!!!(+! .'+.(!
! (%! #$! &$4+,;/.! .(! #$! $3(#(1$3,-+! 6<()*$+%,-+:! 2!
1(*1(%(+;$! #$%! ;1(%!
3'&*'+(+;(%! (%*$3,$#(%=! >/(! .(?(+! .(! ;(+(1! &@),&$! %,&(;1A$! 6*'1! (#! *1,+3,*,'! 3'%&'#-4,3':! 2!
3/$#>/,(1!3/10$;/1$!6B=!C=!D:E!
!
!!!!!F$2!0$1,$%!&$+(1$%!.(!3$#3/#$1!
!3'+!(%*$3,'!3/10$!2!&@),&$!%,&(;1A$E!G+$!&$+(1$!(%!#$!
%,4/,(+;(5!
679D:!
!
!!!!
!!!.'+.(5!
$:! !2! !*/(.(+!3'11(1!.(!H=!7=!I!EEEEEE!+!
?:!(#!;J1&,+'!
!(%!#$!K#;,&$!3'&*'+(+;(!(%*$3,$#!6+'!(%!#$!3'&*'+(+;(!;(&*'1$#:=!!
!!!!*'1!(L(&*#'!#$!;(13(1$!'!#$!3/$1;$!
3:!

.:!
!(%!#$!.(#;$!.(!M1'+(3N(1!
(:! !(%!/+$!3'+%;$+;(!>/(!;,(+(!>/(!0(1!#$!3/10$;/1$!.(#!(%*$3,'!
!
!!!O$!(3/$3,-+!.(!/+$!(%P(1$!(%5!
679H:!
!
!
!!!Q(%*(L$&'%!(+!679H:! 5!
6797:!!
!
!
!!!Q(1,0$1!6797:5!
679I:!
!
!
!!!Q$.'!>/(!
679R:!!
!
!!!Q(!679R:!%(!.(%*(L$!
679S:!

=!!%(!%,4/(!>/(5!
!
!
!

!
!!!T/%;,;/2(+.'!6797:!(+!679S:=!'?;(+(&'%5!
679U:!
!
!!!T/%;,;/,&'%!679U:!(+!679D:5!

678

"#$%&!

!
!!!'()*!+,-!

.!/--01/2324*0!"#$%&!1*4*5!
!

"#$6&!
!!7--01/2324*0!"#$6&!1*4*5!
"#$$&!

!!!'-82924*0!,9!9,-:*! !!!"#$%&$'#(#$)&%*"%'+,-#$)&%$#.$ $/%0#,+&,;!

"<==&!

!!!

!
!!!>*/!?*!@(9@*5!
"<=A&!
"<=#&!
"<=<&!

!!!"1(0*!)-?!,92:-/0*!1-//()*&!
!!"1(0*!)-?!,92:-/0*!(32-/@*&!
!!"1(0*!)-?!,92:-/0*!B?(9*&!

!
!!!C-!0,0@2@,D-!"<==&!-9!"#$$&5!
"<=E&!

!
!!!!"# $%&"%'()# *+,-.# /$0/$1$)2"# 3"# 0"/2$# $10"%'"3# 4$# 3"# 562/'%"# 4$# 7/'$45"))89:;$/21:)8
<"3=$/;!>(/(!@/-0!)24-902*9-0.!?*0!F9)21-0!1*//-9!)-!A!(!<!!"4GA.!#.!<H!9GA.!#.!<&5!
"<=I&!

!
!!!>(/@24*0!)-?!0,B,-0@*!)-!1**/)-9()(0!-08J/21(0.!1*9!@/-0!)24-902*9-0!-0B(12(?-05!
"<=K&!
.!!!
!
"<=%&!
.!!!!
!
"<=6&!
.!!!!!!!!!!
!
!
"<=$&!

679

!
!!!"#!$%&'()!$%&*(!+!$%&,(!-#!./01#2#2!$%3&()!$%33(!+!$%34(5!
!!
$%3&(!
$%33(!

$%34(!
!
!
!!!6#!-7-0107+#!$%3&()!$%33(!+!$%34(!#2!$%&8()!9:;:!./0#2#;5!
$%3%(!

$%3<(!

!
!!!!=>1-0#2!0;#-!9.-1/1?1@:@#-5!!
$%38A(!
!
$%38!B(!
!!
$%38C(!
D!
!
!!=?!E:-.!@#!
!;#9;#-#20:!#?!#-9:E1.!9?:2.)!-12!E7;F:07;:)!#7E?1@1:2.)!E.2!-1G#0;H:!#-IJ;1E:
$%3'(!

!
!!!=?! E:-.!
! ;#9;#-#20:! #?! E:-.! @#! 72:! E7;F:07;:! 9.-101F:)! #?! 721F#;-.! E#;;:@.)! 0:G/1J2! E.2!
-1G#0;H:!#-IJ;1E:)!9#;.!2.!@#/#!E.2I72@1;-#!E.2!72:!9#?.0:!E#;;:@:5!
$%3*(!
!
!!=?!E:-.!

!
!;#9;#-#20:!#?!721F#;-.!:/1#;0.)!E.2!E7;F:07;:!2#K:01F:!+!-1G#0;H:!L19#;/M?1E:5!

$%3,(!

!
!!!A!E.20127:E1M2!#-E;1/1;#G.-!!"#$%&'()"#*'(+,$"--./01+'&20-.3"!4+'#+-#50'$"#)0$6!+&"D!
61!-7-01071G.-!$%3<(!#2!$4,N()!./0#2#G.-!#-0:!GJ0;1E:)!#2!@.2@#!
!;#9;#-#20:!?:!#>9:2-1M2!@#?!
721F#;-.!+! !?:!0.9.?.KH:!.!K#.G#0;H:!$:/1#;0:)!E#;;:@:!.!9?:2:(5!
$%3N(!
!
!!!=-0.! 1G9?1E:! O7#!
E:G9.)! #2! @.2@#!

!
)!

! +!
)! +!

! @#9#2@#2! @#!

! +! D! P.?F:G.-! :L.;:! :! ?:! #E7:E1M2! @#!

! ;#9;#-#20:! ?:! G:0#;1:Q#2#;KH:! $:?! 121E1.! @#?! !"#$ !%&#! -#!

0;:0:/:!@#!97;:!;:@1:E1M2R!L.+!@H:!#-!G:0#;1:Q#2#;KH:(D!

680

"#$%&!

!!

!
!!!'()*+,!)-+.)!!"#"$%&#%!'!()&#%!#!*+$#!(,$(-.//!0(1+.2(*+,!3+!241-+!,+5.(!(3!63742+!8(.6(19+!
!;<:=!!>!

"$:;&!

;<:?
"$:$&!
!!
!
!!!@AB3+C)*(A9(D!8+.!"$:;&!,(!+594(A(A!

"#$;&!

!;<F%!!!

"#$$&!

!!"#$;&!>!!

!"#$$&E!

!
!!G+2+!(3!7A4H(.,+!(A9(.+!(,!7A!,4,9(*)!1+*IH43/!JA!7A!,4,9(*)!1+*IH43D!,(!+594(A(!K7(

"#$#&!!

!
!!!!L+.!3+!9)A9+D!

"#$:&!!
D!2(!*+2+!K7(!
!
!
!!!M(!"#$$&!2(.4H)*+,D!9+*)A2+!(A!17(A9)!K7(!

D!

"#$F&!!

!>!

E!

!!!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
!
!
!!N),!(17)14+A(,!"#$:&!>!"#$F&!A+,!2)A!3)!,4C74(A9(!*)9.4OE!
"#$P&!

!!

!
!!!!'()*+,!)-+.)!3)!3(>!2(!1+A,(.H)14IA!2(!(A(.CQ)R*+*(A9+E!
"#$<&!!
!
!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
;<:=

!S)A,!T9(8-)A4D!0!/!'$"#1!"$+-2-+34#$A2!(2/";??%&E!=#!!!
!S)A,!T9(8-)A4D!0!/!'$"#1!"$+-2-+34#$A2!(2/";??%&E!=#D!(17)14IA!=/=:!
;<F%
!S)A,!T9(8-)A4D!0!/!'$"#1!"$+-2-+34#$A2!(2/";??%&E!=#!!
;<:?

681

!
!!!"#$!%&'()(*(+),!
!!!!
-./01!!
!
!!!2&34#5!6$(4&$#!&7!6$(4&$!89$4()#!%&7!73%#!%&$&*:#,!
-./;1!!

!!!

!
!!!2&34#5!3:#$3!&7!5&<=)%#!89$4()#!%&7!73%#!%&$&*:#>!23?34#5!6#$!63$8&5,!
!
-..@1!!
!?!!!
-..A1!!

!!!!

!!!!&)!%#)%&!

!!!

!!
!!B&!-..@1!?!-..A1!#C8&)&4#5!&7!5&<=)%#!89$4()#!%&7!73%#!%&$&*:#!%&!-./01,!
-../1!

!!!!

!
!!!2&34#5!3:#$3!&7!8&$*&$!89$4()#!%&7!73%#!%&$&*:#,!
-...1!!

!!!

!
!!!D=58(8=(4#5!-./;1E!-../1!?!-...1!&)!-./01E!63$3!#C8&)&$,!
-..F1!!

!
!!!B&!-..F1!#C8&)&4#5!!"#$%&"%'()#*$#+"!")%$#*$#,"-".$)$/01"2!
-..G1!!

!
!!!H)!&58&!4#4&)8#!%&!73!:(58#$(3!%&7!=)(I&$5#E!73!%&)5(%3%!?!73!6$&5(+)!5#)!4=?!C3J35E!%&!4#%#!
K=&!6#%&4#5!$&&5*$(C($!73!-..G1!*#4#,!
-..L1!

!
!!!B&!-..L1!#C8&)&4#5,!
-..M1!!

!
!!!N)8&<$34#5!-..M1!?!#C8&)&4#5>!
-..01!!

682

!
!!!"#$%&'#(%)!*+,-./!
*+,-.!

!!!

!
!!!01)21!13%&1!3#(%)!45)2%!#6!61'%!'#&#$3%!'#!61!#$71$589!*:+;.<!=#1(%)!13%&1!#6!61'%!5>?75#&'%!
'#!61!(5)(1!#$71$589!*:+;./!
*::@.!

!!

!
!!!A%(19'%!#9!$7#921!?7#!

B!'#!*:+C.!)#!%D25#9#/!

*:E;.!

!!!!!!!!

!
!!!F1'%!?7#!

!!

B!)#!)5G7#!?7#/!

*:EC.!

!
!!!H7)25275(%)!*:EC.!#9!*::@.B!I1&1!%D2#9#&/!
*:E+.!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

!
!

!
!!!!"#$%&'#(%)!*+--.B!*+-@.!J!*+K;./!
*:++.!
*:+L.!*

!
!M!

!!M!

.!

!!

!!!!!!!!!!

*:+-.!

!!!

!!

!
!!!H7)2527J#9'%!*:+L.!J!*:+-.!!#9!*:E+.!%D2#9#(%)/!
*:E:.!

683

!
!!!"#$%&'#(%)!#*!+#,)%&!'#!"-$$-!.!#*!)/(0%*%!'#!12&-)+%33#*!'#!*4!)#56,'4!#)7#$-#89:8;!
!!
<9:=
<>:=!

!!

!
!

<?:@=!
!!!!
!!!A2%&4!0-#,B!(6*+-7*-$4(%)!#,!<9:=!4(0%)!*4'%)!$%,!
<CDD=!!

;!
!

!
!!!!E,! #*! $4)%! '#! 6,! 6,-F#&)%! 2%(%5G,#%! #! -)%+&H7-$%B! *4)! '#&-F4'4)! )%0&#! #*! #)74$-%! )%,! $#&%B!
'4'%!I6#!#,!#)+#!)676#)+%!
!)%,!$%,)+4,+#)B!'#!(%'%!I6#!)%*4(#,+#!I6#'4!
J!A2%&4!
0-#,B! !"# $%&'(# &!"# )*'+!$,(# ,!# &!-'*!# .(/(#
0! 6,! 34$+%&! #)$4*4&! I6#! )%*4(#,+#! '#7#,'#! '#*!
+-#(7%J!K)4&G!*4!)-56-#,+#!4,%+4$-H,;!
4JL!
!#)!#*!&4'-%!'#*!6,-F#&)%M!%+&%)!46+%&#)!6)4,!%+&%)!)/(0%*%)B!7%&!#N#(7*%!A**'4.!6)4! !.!!
!!!!!O+#724,-!6)4! M!
0JL!P4!'#&-F4'4!'#! !#)!6,4!'#&-F4'4!)%0&#!#*!+-#(7%;!
$JL!P4!)#56,'4!'#&-F4'4!)#!#)$&-0#!$%(%!
'JL!Q4&4!%0+#,#&!*4!(G+&-$4!'#!
!
!!!!P4! (G+&-$4! $%,!

M!
J!

!24.!I6#!+#,#&!#,!$6#,+4!I6#!

J!!

! 4'I6-#&#! *4! )-56-#,+#! (4+&-R! <!"#$%&!'()* +()* )!,"()* -$* +.* '/&%!0.!

! '#! S8BS8BS8BL8! ! 4! ! L8BL8BL8BS8B! 1.%.* 0("2(%'.%* "3$)&%.* '/&%!0.* .* +.* 3).-.* 1(%* +.*
'.4(%5.*-$*+()*+!6%()*-$*&$7&(M!4*!-,F#&+-&!*%)!)-5,%)!'#!*4!(G+&-$4B!)#!)-56#,!%+&%)!$4(0-%)!I6#!)#!
#T7*-$4,! #,! #*! 474&+4'%! U! '#! #)+#! 47G,'-$#B! 7%&! #N#(7*%!
M!
)#!&#3-#&#!4!*4)!$%%&'#,4'4)!#)3G&-$4)!.!
!

* 4*

9!U4.!I6#!+%(4&!#,!$6#,+4!I6#!#,!*4!)-56-#,+#!(G+&-$4! !
!4*!&4'-%!'#*!6,-F#&)%M!4!74&+-&!'#!4I6/!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

89:8

8*

!U4,)!O+#724,-B!:$"$%.+*;$+.&!#!&4<*?,'!#'J!<8VVW=;!XYZ!.!:B!#$64$-H,!8J8[!!!

;!!

684

"#$%&!

!!

!
!!'()*!+(!!"#$%&'()"#*+#,'(+*$"--#./0+'&1/-#2"!3+'#+-#)//'*+-"*"1#+14%'()"1#)/-#)5'6"&5'"#
7+!#4")&/'# 89!!!
!
!!!!!!,-.*/0-!+/!12+/)*!)-0-!+()-3!4!5*16+/0-!+7!879+:;*!/+1+(*;6*3!-:)+/+.-(<=%>!!
"#$?&!

!!!

!
!!!!@-/!:*(+!+/!"#$%&!4!"#$?&!-:)+/+.-(A!

"#$=&!

!!!!!
!!!B*16+/0-!+7!879+:;*!)+/(-;6*7!/+1+(*;6*3!-:)+/+.-(A!
"#$C&!

!
!!!D2:6+/0-!2/!E/061+!+/!
"#$H&!

!-:)+/+.-(!+7!)+/(-;!0+!F6116!.6G)-!

"#%I&!

!
!!!J+!"#%I&!-:)+/+.-(A!
"#%<&!
!
!!!J*0-!K2+!7*!0+7)*!0+!L;-/+1M+;!+(A!!
"#%>&!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
<=%>
!B*/(!D)+N5*/63!!"#"$%&'("&%)*+*),-'>/0!+0O"<HH?&A!>??3!+12*16P/!>?O$!

685

!
!
!!!"#!$%&'#(#)!*$+%'(,(-$!./012!3!./0425!
./0/2!
!
!
!!!6$+%'(,(-$!./782!3!./0/2!$%&#(#+$95!
./072!

!
!
!!!!:#*$;-#+$9!.4742)!.4782)!./40!3!/4<2)!.//=2!3!./7<25!
.4742!!
!!
.4782!!!

!.>9'?($!@$9'&'A$B2!

./40!3!/4<2!.4<=!3!4CD2!

!!!

.//=2!!
./7<2!

!!!!!
!

!
!!!E#!.//=2!$%&#(#+$95!
./002!

!
!!!"F9&'&F'+$9!.4782)!./40!3!/4<2)!./7<2!3!./072!#(!./002!3!$%&#(#+$95!
./0<2!

!
./0C2!

!
.($&,!1C0/2!

./082!
!
!!!:#*$;-#+$9!./7/2!3!./7<2!3!.47825!
./7/2!
./7<2!!

!
!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
1C0/

!G(!"&#A#(!H#'(%#;?)!!"#$%&#&%'()#(*)+',-'.'/0).1=C425!7C4)!#(*$(&;,+$9!

#9!I$!+'9+$!9'!&$+,+$9!#(!*F#(&,!JF#!H#'(%#;?!#9&,(-,;'K,!I,9!#*F,*'$(#9!*$(!
!#(!I,!#*F,*'L(!./082!#9!'?F,I!,!

!#(!H#'(%#;?!

)!I$!JF#!
)!-#!+$-$!JF#!I,!*$(9&,(&#!

686

"#$%&!!

!!
!!!!'()*+*,-.!"#%/&!0!"#12&!0!3.4*,-.!5,!6)5,3*!"71#&8!!.935,54.:;!
!

"<=1&!!
!
!!>5!"<=1&!:5!.93?5,5;!

",.3*!7/=$&!

"<@2&!
!
!!!!>5A?,?4.:;!
!

"<@7&!

!!!0!-5!"<=%&!0!"<@7&!.935,54.:;!
"<@#&!

!
!!!>5A?,?4.:!+*!-5,:?-*-!6BC3?6*!0!5+!A*63.B!
"<@<&!!
"<@$&!!

!*!D*B3?B!-5!

;!

!
!

!!!0!*:C8!!-5!"<@<&!0!"<@$&8!.935,54.:;!
"<@=&!!

!
!!!>5!"<@#&!0!"<@=&8!.935,54.:;!
"<@@&!!

!
!!!E5!-5A?,5!
"
!!!!
!!E5!:?()5!G)58!!

!6.4.!+*!6)BF*3)B*!-5+!5:D*6?.8!G)5!D)5-5!:5B!D+*,.!
&H!!I!65BB*-.!"

8!*9?5B3.!

&!

"<@/&!!!:?

;!),?F5B:.!*9?5B3.!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
7/=$

!J,!E35F5,!K5?,95B(8!!"#$%&#&%'()#(*)+',-'.'/0)"71/#&;!$/#8!5,6.,3B*4.:!

5:! +.! 4?:4.! :?! 3.4*4.:! 5,! 6)5,3*! G)5! K5?,95B(! 5:3*,-*B?L*! +*:! 56)*6?.,5:! 6.,!
!5,!+*!56)*6?I,!"<@2&!5:!?()*+!*!

!5,!K5?,95B(!

8!+.!G)5!
8! -5! 4.-.! G)5! +*! DB5:?I,!

687

"#$%&!!!'(!

)!*+(,-.'/!012+/!
)!*+(,-.'/!4-..25/!

"#$3&!!!'(!
!
!!!6-4/.5-7/')!
"#8%&!!

!
!!!'(!

"#9:&!!
!!!'(!

!
!

"#9;&!!
!!'(!

!!

!
!

"#9<&!!

!
!!!!=/>!/?'-.,27/'!@*-!
!>!5-!"#9:&!>!"#9;&!'-!5-5*4-!@*-!-+!-1!42'/!5-!!
!02.2!!"#"$!%&'("A!B!)%&'(*&!
!B!)%&'(*&!
5-!7/5/!@*-!02.2!
C2?.D!*+2!-E02+'(B+!5-1!F+(,-.'/!02.2!'(-70.-G!
!
!!!6-4/.5-7/'!@*-)!
"##%&!!
! !
"#9#&!

!/!
!/!

A!
A!

!
!!!H/.!1/!I2+I/A!-+!-1!42'/!5-!

"#9J&!!

!
!!!K!02.I(.!5-!"#$:&A!/?I-+-7/'!"#98&)!
"#98&!!

!!!>!5-!"#98&!/?I-+-7/')!
"#9$&!!

!"4/120'/!5-1!*+(,-.'/&!

!
H. ALGUNAS CONSECUENCIAS DEL CAMBIO DE SIGNO EN LA MTRICA
!
!!K!1/!12.L/!5-!-'I-!20M+5(4-!C-7/'!0/5(5/!0-.42I2.+/'!4B7/!-1!427?(/!5-!'(L+/!-+!12!7MI.(42A!
5-! NANANAO! ! 2! ! OAOAOAN! B! ,(4-O,-.'2A! I(-+-! 202.-+I-'! 4/+'-4*-+4(2'! 02.2! -1! 5-'2../11/! 5-! 12'!

688

"#$%&%'(%)!%*+,*#-'%).!,+'/+%!'-!*,01#,'!2,)!%*+,*#-'%)!$+'",0%'(,2%)!"%!2,!$3)#*,4!5+,'"-!+'!
,+(-&!-!6&-$%)-&!6,),!#',"7%&(#",0%'(%!"%!+',!08(&#*,!,!-(&,.!)%!*&%,!*-'$+)#9'!:!*-'(&,"#**#9'.!
(,'(-!%'!%2!,+(-&!*-0-!%'!%2!2%*(-&4!;%,0-)4!
!
"#$%&'(!!)*!)*!)*!+!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!"#$%&'(!!+*!+*!+*!!)!
"#$%&'(!,-!"&./012/&!<%*+,*#9'!=>!"%2!,68'"#*%!"%!2,!&%2,(#7#","!%)6%*#,2?!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

!
"#$%&'(!,-3!'(450!6%(7&$('&0.(3!,#8&3@!

<ABA?

!!!!!!

!
9':('&;.!,-!<0&220.=!
<ACD?!!!
<E%F(-'?!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
<AGB?!!

!<E%F(-'?!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

!!

!
!!H%!"%$#'%@!
<AGI?!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

!
!!!JK)!,"%2,'(%!7%&%0-)@!
<AGA?!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
!!
!
!!!L-&!%2!*,01#-!"%!)#M'-!"%!<AGB?!:!<AGI?.!*,01#,!%2!)#M'-!"%!<AGD?@!
<AGD?!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

!
"#$%&'(!,-!>%&-,4(..+!?08-%$20.+@(3/-%+A-4(B$%-!

689

"#$%&

!!!!!

!!

!
"#$%&'#%!(#!#$#')*+,-&-#$.&!
"'$(&

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

!
"#'(&!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

!
"'$'&!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
!
"#'%!)&!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
!
!!!*+,!-.!/012+!304-,-25-!3-!"#'%!)&6!789:08!-.!/012+!3-!"#'%!;&<!
"#'%!=&!!!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
"#'%!;&!!!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
!
"#$%&'#%!(#!/0110!

"#$>&

!!!!!!!!!!!!!

!!!

!!!

!
!

690

"#$%&

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

!
!!!!"# $%&'()&# *+,"-(.(/-"# 0+,# *"0(1# 0+,# %&(.+*/1# 23456! &1# '"78("# 0+# /(9&1'! ()*+! ,-! ./012/! 3/!
.+0(+4)45)! 5)0(+*/3! 6)3! 5)4,+*! 0275+! 6)! 82..2! "#9#:&'! /;4<;)! 4+! ./012/! 3/! .+0(+4)45)!
5)0(+*/3!6)3!5)4,+*!.+=/*2/45)!6)!82..2!!"#9#!>&?!
"#9@&!
"#9A&!
"#9#:&!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

"#9#!

!
!

>&

!!!!!!

!!!!!
"#9B&!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

!
!!!:1#'"78("#,"#$%&'()&#0+,#+/'","*#0+#'%*."-%*"#23;3#<#3;46=#
"#$#&!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
"#$9&!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

!
!!!!>"&-1#+,#,"01#(?@%(+*01A#'171#+,#0+*+'B1#0+#,"#+'%"'()&#0+#C(&/-+(&#'"78("&#0+#/(9&1#23;DA#
3;E# <# 3;F6A# ,1# @%+# *+/%,-"# +&# %&# '"78(1# &+-1# &%,1# 0+# /(9&1# +&# -10"# ,"/# +'%"'(1&+/# 233F6# "#
23DG6=#
"##C&!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

"#$$&!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

!!!!!
!

691

"#$%&!

!!
!!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
"#$'&

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

"#$(&

!!!!

"#$)&!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

"#%*&!!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

"#%+&!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

"#%,&!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

!
!
!
!
!
!

!
!!!-.!/0!102/0!031.4564!7.!8.794.38.!:;.!/67!1<4=5367!076>50867!0!/07!=<145>07?!9;.8.3!>0=2504!8.!
75@36?! 9.46! !"#$ %"&'()")*#$ +,*$ '(*&*&$ #(-&(.(%")/$ .0#(%/$ #/&$ (&1"2("&'*#$ %/&$ 2*#3*%'/$ "$ !"$
#(-&"',2"$ )*$ !"$ 45'2(%"6$ 964! .A.=9/6! /0! B;.31.! 8./! >0=96! @40C510>5630/! ",#)&?! /0! B;3>5D3! 8./!
40856! 8./! ;35C.476! "#E(&?! /0! B;3>5D3! 8.! /0! >;4C01;40! 8./! .790>56! "#$#! F! #$E&?! /0! .>;0>5D3! 8.!
G5371.53!"##)&?!/07!>6=963.31.7!8.!/0!.>;0>5D3!8.!G5371.53!"#$$!F!#$%&?!F!/0!>6371031.!8.!H;22/.!
"#$(?!#%+?!#%,&I!
!
I. LA SOLUCION DE SCHWARZSCHILD A LAS ECUACIONES DE EINSTEIN
!
!!!J63! 4.79.>16! 0! /0! 8.B535>5D3! 8./! 15.=96! 946956?!
?! ! K.=67! 8.! 16=04! .3! >;.310! :;.!
76/0=.31.!.7!>644.>10!.3!./!.790>56!8.!L53M6N7M5?!8638.!/67!62A.167!7.!=;.C.3!753!0>./.40>5D3!
>0;7080! 964! 0/@O3! >0=96! @40C510>5630/I! P0! 8.B535>5D3!
! .7! ;3! >076! =;F! 90415>;/04?!
964:;.!@.3.40/=.31.!/67!62A.167!7.!=;.C.3!0>./.40867!6!B4.30867!964!>0=967!@40C510>5630/.7?!/6!
:;.!367!//.C0!0!/0!1.64Q0!8.!/0!4./015C5808!@.3.40/I!!
!
!!!R.>648.=67!:;.!.3!./!.790>56!8.!L53M6N7M5!./!1.3764!=<145>6!.7!75=9/.S!
"#''&!!

!!!!T64!.76!9;85=67!621.3.4!/0!8.B535>5D3!75=9/.!8.!
"#'(&!!

!.3!./!.790>56!8.!L53M6N7M5S!
! !

692

"#$%&!!
!!'!!!
!
!
!!!()! *+,-./! .0/.+/! 1,! 2,3+4,! 5/-/! ,)! *+,-./! 2,! 64! /78,*/! 96,! 4/! 1,! -6,:,! 5/4! 0,1.,5*/! ;)!
/71,0:;2/0<!,1!2,5+0<!,)!*+,-./!,4!,)!0,)/8!2,)!.0/.+/!/71,0:;2/0=!>6496,!,1*,!*+,-./!.0/.+/!4/!
1,! 2+1*/01+/4;! ./0! );! *0;413/0-;5+?4! 2,! @/0,4*A! "2,7+2/! ;! ;)*;1! :,)/5+2;2,1&<! ,4! 64! 5;-./!
B0;:+*;5+/4;)!36,0*,<!,1*,!*+,-./!.0/.+/!1C!1,!2+1*/01+/4;!./0!);!36,0A;!B0;:+*;5+/4;)!/!;5,),0;5+?4!
.0/.+;=! D/0! )/! *;4*/<! );! 2,3+4+5+?4! 5/-.),*;! 2,)! *+,-./! .0/.+/!
! +45)6',! );! ;*0;55+?4!
B0;:+*;5+/4;)! 2,! 64! 56,0./! ,13E0+5/! 5/4! -;1;! ! ,8,05+2;! 1,BF4! );! 5/41*;4*,! B0;:+*;5+/4;)! !
1/70,!64!/78,*/!,4!64!.64*/!D<!!36,0;!2,)!56,0./<!;!64;!2+1*;45+;! =!!
!
!!!G;2/!96,!,4!,)!H*+,-./!.0/.+/I!,1!5/-/!1+!,1*6:+E0;-/1!-/4*;2/1!1/70,!);!.;0*C56);!96,!:+;8;<!
1,!,)+-+4;!);!2+1*/01+?4!./0!);!;)*;!:,)/5+2;2!2,!);!.;0*C56);=!(4!,)!5;1/!5/4*0;0+/<!);!,56;5+?4!2,!
);! -E*0+5;! +45)6',! );! 2+1*/01+?4! ./0! ;)*;1! :,)/5+2;2,1=! (4! );! 1+B6+,4*,! ,56;5+?4! 2,! J,+114,0K
L/021*0M-! "#NO&P$QQ<! );! .;0*,! ,4! 5/05R,*,1! S===T! 0,.0,1,4*;! );! 5;0B;! ,)E5*0+5;! 2,)! /78,*/=! (4! !"#
$%&"%'()#*$#+$',,)$-./0-*,1-234!;!2+3,0,45+;!2,!);!2,!U,00!"P%V#&<!1,!R;5,!,)!16.6,1*/!2,!96,!
,)!-/-,4*/!;4B6);0!"
&W!
"#XY&!!

!
!!!!5"-"# 6","-# *$# !"# $%&"%'()# *$# +$',,)$-./0-*,1-23# "# !"# *$# 7%89"-:,%8'!*4# 8"%$30,# $!#
,&6&$,10# "*'%'0)"!# *$# ;&$# !"# %"-<"# $!=%1-'%"# *$!# 0>?$10# $,# %$-0# @
A<! )/! 96,! 1+-.)+3+5;! );!
,56;5+?4W!
!"P$QV&!

"#XP&!

!
!!!@/1! 56;*0/! *E0-+4/1! ,4*0,! .;0E4*,1+1! 5/41*+*6',4! )/1! 5/,3+5+,4*,1! -E*0+5/1<! 96,! 864*/1!
2,*,0-+4;4!,)!*,41/0!-E*0+5/!2,!Z5R[;0A15R+)2!,4!64!,1.;5+/!*0+2+-,41+/4;)<!,4!2/42,!);!-;1;!
!4/!,1!.,96,\;W!

"#XN&!!

!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

P$QQ

!];41!Z*,.R;4+<!!"#"$%&'("&%)*+*),-'N42!,2=!"P%%V&W!PNV<!,56;5+?4!PN=P!"!Z*,.R;4+!*/-;!^_5_P&!
!(1!);!-+1-;!,56;5+?4!96,!,45/4*0;-/1!,4!];41!Z*,.R;4+<!G+,*00+5R!!U0;-,0<!`;)5/)-!`;5a;))6-<!a/04,)+61!
]/,41,);,01! b! (26;02! ],0;*<' ./%0)' 12&3)*2#4' 25' .*#4)"*#64' 7*"&8' .93%)*2#4' "NYYV&W! N##<! ,9=! PQ=NP<! .,0/! ,1*/1!
;6*/0,1!*/-;4!,1*;42;0+A;4!5/4!!
!'!
!'!'/!4/<!!'!'/!*/-/!);!5;0B;!,)E5*0+5;!2,)!Z/)!5,0/<!
!'!,))/1!
4/<!
!!!
P$QV

693

!!!"#!$%&#%'()!*!$+!,$)-./!0$!1%23#/4-%2'+0!-$!-'56+'7'%#)!,.0#89#!5:-;!-'!-$!,/#,#!0$!!"#$%&'()*#
+),)-$"%)*"'./#$%#,$()0/#!"#&.'"*/#(*-*/#&*0#$1$-&.*/#.*%#&.'"*%#,$#.'%#20+)3'%#,$#.*%#&.'"$3'%#
4!$#5)0'"#'.0$,$,*0#,$.#6*.<!=)!$-,$!%#-.;!0#0.!>&$!
;!-$!-'?&$!>&$!
;!*!
@!
ABCBD!

!!ABCED!

!
!
!!!!"#$%&'!()!*+$*$!&),!*-)./'!/+'/-'0!$!($1)+0!,$!2'%&#2*$!&),!+),'3!&),!/+'/-'!'1()+4$&'+0!&)!
.'&'!5#)!
!6!),!'1()+4$&'+!()!)%2#)%*+$!)%!#%!2$./'!7+$4-*$2-'%$,!8#)+*)!9
:;!
ABCFD!

!
!!!G$!ABCHD!-$!.I,'$)$!+#!$%&#%'()!0$!1%23#/4-%2'+0;!0$+!,'$56.!6/.6'.@!
ABCJ!KD!

!
!!!G#0.!>&$!#+?&).-!&-#)!+#!5L,/'%#!!M;!M;!M;!N;!!+#!$%&#%'()!%#5I'#!%.)!+#!5L,/'%#!!N;!N;!N;!M!
ABCJ!OD!

!
!!!<,! '13)*'!

! )(! #%! )(2$,$+! 4$+-$1,)! (-%! &-.)%(-'%)(;! 6./>&$! +#-! 0'7$/$),$-! &)'0#0$-! -$!

%#)%$+#);!%.5.!-$!0$5&$-,/#!$)!+#!ABCPD@!
!
ABCPD!

694

!!!"#$%&'()*(+! ,-.&'()*(! ,%!

+!

+! /(0-! ,%! (.! -#1(*-! ,(! ()23()*0&! ()! (.! 2&'/-!

40&$%*&2%-)&.!5(.!23(0/-!2-)!'&,&!
+!.&,!2-,&,!2&'#%&)!0&5%2&.'()*(+!6!!(.!$&.-0!)3'70%2-!
5(!
! 5(1&! 5(! ,(0! %)$&0%&)*(+! &3)83(! .&! (,*032*30&! 5(! .&! .(6! 9:;<=! ,%43(! ,%()5-! %)$&0%&)*(>! ?)!
@&2*-0! !(,!'&6-0!()!.&!'(5%5&!83(!
!6!
>!!A(&'-,!.-,!,%43%()*(,!*0(,!2&,-,B!
!
9:;;=!

(.!*%('/-!/0-/%-!$%0*3&.!5()*0-!5(!3)!C-6-!!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!)(40-D!
!
9:;E=!

FG

!!()!(.!C-0%H-)*(!5(!($()*-,!5(.!C-6-!)(40-+!(.!*%('/-!!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!/0-/%-!,(!/&0&D!
!
9:EI=!

!.&!5%.&*&2%J)!5(.!*%('/-!/0-/%-!()!2&'/-,!!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!40&$%*&2%-)&.(,!K)-0'&.(,L>!
!
!
K. EL MODELO LEMATRE CON
Y CONSTANTE COSMOLGICA
!!!M(2-05('-,!&.43)&,!(23&2%-)(,B!
9N;O=!

!!!!!

9:OI=!

9:P;=!

!
!!!!Q(!9:OI=!6!9:P;=!-#*()('-,+!0(,/(2*%$&'()*(B!
9:EG=!!

9:EN=!!

!
!!

!
!!Q(!9:EG=!6!9:EN=!,(!5(532(!83(B!
9:E:=

!
!!!!RC-0&!%)*0-532%'-,!.&!2-),*&)*(!2-,'-.J4%2&>!?%),*(%)!.&!%)*0-531-+!/&0&!'&)*()(0!(,*&#.(!,3!
'-5(.-!(,*S*%2-!5(.!3)%$(0,->!T&!9N;O=!,(!*0&),@-0'&!()!.&!9:EU=BG<P<!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
G<P<

!!V*($()!W(%)#(04+!!"#$%&#&%'()#(*)+',-'.'/0)9GE<N=B!OG:XOGO!

695

!
"#$%&

!!

"#$'&

(!)*!+,*+)-!

"#$.&

!
!!!!!/*01,234)*5)-67'8!
"#$7&

!!!9!!!

!
!!!:));<=>?>4,;!"#$@&!<,*!13!<,*;53*5)!<,;4,1A2><3!)*!13!)<B3<>A*!"#$7&-!
"#$8&

!!

!
!!!C)D>*>4,;!)1!5E=4>*,! -!
"#$$&

!
!!!F,4?>*3*+,! "#$8&! 9! "#$$&(! 9! 5,43*+,! )*! <B)*53! GB)! )*! )1! 4,+)1,! +)! H)43I5=)-! !
9
!9!
-!
"%JJ&

"%J6&!!

!
!!!!K)2L*!M)>*?)=2(67'$!!"#$%&"'()*'#+)$'$#(,#+"("#-.')-"#<B3*+,-!
"%J@&
!
!!!!!
!!!!9!;>2B)!N,=!B*!N)=O,+,!);53<>,*3=>,!40;!,!4)*,;!13=2,!)*!;B!P31,=!4O*>4,Q!HB)2,!PB)1P)!3!
3<)1)=3=;)(!R3;53!GB)!5)=4>*)!+)!3<)=<3=;)!31!=);B153+,!+)!C)!K>55)=-67.J!
"%J#&!
!!!!!9!!!
"%J%&

Q!

!
!!!FB3*+,!);50!$'#(,#&$/.010#$(+"2)0'"/)0(!N,=!13!"#$7&(!13!"#$.!S&!;)!5=3*;D,=43!)*-67.6!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

67'8

!T<B3<>,*);!6.Q@Q'!)*!K5)P)*!M)>*?)=2(!3/"4)+"+)0'#"'1#50(-0!067#"6$7@&-!.6%!
!K5)P)*!M)>*?)=2(!3/"4)+"+)0'#"'1#50(-0!067#"6$7@&-!.6'!
67.J
!T<B3<>,*);!6.Q@Q6#!9!6.Q@Q6%!)*!K5)P)*!M)>*?)=2(!3/"4)+"+)0'#"'1#50(-0!067#"6$7@&-!.6'!
67.6
!K5)P)*!M)>*?)=2(!3/"4)+"+)0'#"'1#50(-0!067#"6$7@&-!.6'!
67'$

696

"#$%&

'

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
,-./

!01!234567!

!08!*36436!*96:5()7!;)6!8+!"<=-&!31!436)>!

!"()*+!,-./&!

697

!
APNDICE VI C. LA ROTACIN DEL PERIHELIO DE MERCURIO
por Juan Auping con la asesora de Alfredo Sandoval

!
"#! $%&$! '()#*+,$! (-+.$-/! *$-+0'-$./%1! '! ('-&+-! *$! 2'! 3$/*)%+,'! *$! "+#%&$+#! 4! 2'! .)&-+,'! *$!
5,67'-8%,6+2*1!2'!$,9',+:#!$;',&'!*$!2'!-/&',+:#!*$2!($-+6$2+/!*$!,9'2<9+$-!(2'#$&'!<9$!&+$#$!9#'!
:-=+&'!$2>(&+,'!'2-$*$*/-!*$2!5/2!?@A!B!CDE!29$3/!/=&$#*-$./%1!,/#!='%$!$#!2/%!*'&/%!$.(>-+,/%!
'%&-/#:.+,/%!',&9'2$%!?@A!B!FD!4!2/%!+#%&-9.$#&/%!.'&$.G&+,/%!6/4!*+%(/#+=2$%1CHIJ!!2'!%/29,+:#!
!"#$%#! *$2! ($-+6$2+/! *$! K$-,9-+/! 4! ,/.('-'-)! $%&$! -$%92&'*/! ,/#! 2/%! 6$,6/%! ?@A! B! JDE! 29$3/!
,/.(-/='-$./%! <9$! "+#%&$+#! /L-$,+:1! ,/./! %$M'2'! &'.=+)#! N6'#+'#1! 9#'! O&'()$*+,#./'"*0#1#2PCHIQ!($-/!#/!%/2'.$#&$!$%&/1!%+#/!<9$1!'*$.G%1!#3)&%+-&)&-!$)#$*',!&-1'&-4!$!&2-&*,5#&!-!,-(#-67&*$#-'-(#&-0#%!08%*$#&-1!(-$#&'2-.#/#-'5%!,!/-!(-/!&)(%#1'-!0.7/*$'-1!&!#1'-?@A!B!
QDRCHIS!"#!,/#%$,9$#,+'1!,/#,29+-$./%!<9$!&)-&'()$*+,-!&!$'0.#%*5(!-$',-(#-%!'/7#-9!,!/#(-1!-(#/!(#%*4*1#12-.!/'-,'-(#-$'//'5'/#R!!
!
VI C 1. La rotacin del perihelio de planetas del sistema solar derivada de la geodsica y
la mtrica de Schwarzschild
!
T/! <9$! "+#%&$+#! 4! 2/%! '9&/-$%! ./*$-#/%CHII! &+$#$#! $#! ,/.U#! $%! <9$! ('-&$#! *$! 2'! 3$/*)%+,'RCHIH!
5+#! $.='-3/1! $#! CVCS1! "+#%&$+#! &/*'0>'! #/! ,/#/,>'! 2'! .)&-+,'! *$! 5,67'-8%,6+2*1! <9$! )%&$1!
$%&'#*/!$#!2'!L-$#&$!-9%'!*$!'!W-+.$-'!X9$--'!K9#*+'21!*$-+0:!*+-$,&'.$#&$!*$!2'!&$/->'!3$#$-'2!4!
(-/(/-,+/#:!'!"+#%&$+#!$#!CVCHR!Y%&$!2$!'3-'*$,+:!%9!%/29,+:#!$#!&)-.+#/%!,G2+*/%Z!O:),$#-&!-0!'$)//*+- ;)!- ),- %/#%#0*!,%'- /*9)/'&'- 1!(- ./'5(!0#- &!/7#- %#,- &*0.(!<PCHI[! T'.$#&'=2$.$#&$1!
"+#%&$+#! #/! '(-/0$,6:! 2'! .)&-+,'! *$! 5,67'-8%,6+2*! ('-'! ,/--$3+-! 2'%! '(-/;+.',+/#$%! 4!
O!//'/!&PCHIV!*$!%9!$#%'4/!*$!#/0+$.=-$!*$!CVCSR!\!('-&+-!*$!2'%!$,9',+/#$%!*$!2'%!3$/*)%+,'%!4!
2'!.)&-+,'!*$!5,67'-8%,6+2*1!/=&$#$./%!(#-/'%#$*+,-1!(-.!/*=!(*'-1!-$)#(;)*!/-.(#,!%#-;)!-9*/##(/!1!1'/- 1!(- >'(R! 5$3U#! 2/%! *'&/%! $.(>-+,/%! *$! 2'%! 0'-+'=2$%! *$! ,'*'! (2'#$&'! ?%$.+$]$! .'4/-1!
$;,$#&-+,+*'*1!*+%&'#,+'!.>#+.'!4!.G;+.'!*$2!5/21!4!.'%'D1!%$!/=&+$#$!2'!-/&',+:#!*$2!($-+6$2+/!
*$!,'*'!(2'#$&'!$#!('-&+,92'-1!(/-!$]$.(2/!*$!K$-,9-+/!
!
!!!T'!$,9',+:#!*$!2'%!3$/*)%+,'%!$%Z!CHH^!
?CD!

!
!!!_$-+0'#*/!%/=-$!$2!&+$.(/!(-/(+/!*$2!(2'#$&'!$#!:-=+&'!%$-GZ!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

CHIJ

!W-/3-'.'!?#%=!0#%*$#!*$!`/2L-'.!
!a'#%!N6'#+'#1!@*,&%!*,A&-0*&%#B!&!?F^^[DZ!FQS!
CHIS
!\2=$-&!"+#%&$+#1!O";(2'#'&+/#!/L!&6$!W$-+6$2+/#!K/&+/#!/L!K$-,9-4!L-/.!&6$!X$#$-'2!b6$/-4!/L!c$2'&+0+&41P!$#Z!
CD,*9(*$=-E/!)&&*&$=!-FB#1!0*!-1!/-G*&&!,&$=#6%!,<->*%H),9&5!/*$=%!!?CVCSD1!&-'*9,+*/!'2!+#32)%!$#Z!I=!-J'((!$%!1-G'/B&-'6-F(5!/%-@*,&%!*,2-0/2R!I!?CV[VDZ!CCFdCCI!
CHII
!@)'#%$!a'#%!N6'#+'#1!K/#4*%#%*',-#,1->.#$!%*0!!?CVHFDZ!F[^dFVFE!B6'-2$%!K+%#$-!e!/&-/%1!K/#4*%#%*',-?CVHJDZ!
CCC^dCCCIE! c/#'2*! \*2$-! e! /&-/%1! L,%/'1)$%*',- %'- K!,!/#(- M!(#%*4*%N! ?CVHSDZ! CVVdF^VE! 5&$0$#! `$+#=$-31!
K/#4*%#%*',-#,1-J'&0'('9N!?CVHFDZ!CCVQdF^C!
CHIH
!",9',+:#!CH^!*$2!\()#*+,$!@A!f!
CHI[
!B+&'*/!$#!a'#%!N6'#+'#1-@*,&%!*,A&-0*&%#B!&!?F^^[DZ!FQI!
CHIV
!a'#%!N6'#+'#1-@*,&%!*,A&-0*&%#B!&!?F^^[DZ!FCS!%$M'2'!<9$!6'4!$--/-$%!($-/!#/!*+,$!,9G2$%R!T/%!%$M'2'-)!'!!
!!!,/#&+#9',+:#!$#!$2!&$;&/!*$!$%&$!'()#*+,$R!
CHH^
!",9',+:#!CH^!*$2!\()#*+,$!@A!f!
CHIQ

698

"#$!

!!!
!!!%&!'(&'%)!
!"&(+,!!-..-$!

!"*$!

!
!!!/0! 10%&! %2! 30%4+(! 56%! 7,! 8,2,! '%7! /(7! %2! 3(&20'%4,17%9! %&! %7! 3,2(! '%! :%43640(9! %7! ;,3+(4!
! %2! +,&! <%56%=(9! 56%!
%&+(&3%29!62,4!7,!,<4(B08,30C&!
%7!3,2(!'%7!+0%8<(!<4(<0(!'%!:%43640(9!
!
!!!F,!%36,30C&!'%!/3GH,4I23G07'!%2)-..#!

>! ?2+@! A62+0;03,'(9!

>!D,'(!56%9!<(4!'%;0&030C&9!
>!

"J$!

9!2%!20E6%!56%9!%&!

!!!%&! '(&'%! 7(2! +K480&(2! %&+4%! <,4K&+%202! 4%<4%2%&+,&! %7! +%&2(4! 8K+403(! '%! /3GH,4I23G07'>-..*! L!
3(&+0&6,30C&!4%<4('6I3(!%2+%!+%&2(49!%&!'(&'%!

"M$!

)!

!!!!
!!!LG(4,!10%&9!','(!56%!+%&%8(2!%&!7,!E%('K203,!J!3(8<(&%&+%2!"*!%2<,30,7%2!N!6&,!+%8<(4,7$9!%7!
O&'03%! !'%!7,!%36,30C&!"#$!P,4O,!'%!-!,!J9!N!56%!
9!
9!
!N!
>!Q(4!7(!+,&+(9!
7,!E%('K203,!'%!7,!%36,30C&!"#$!3(&+0%&%!7,2!20E60%&+%2!36,+4(!%36,30(&%2)!
"R$!

".$!

"S$!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
-..-

!?36,30C&!*SR!T!'%7!L<K&'03%!UV!TW!
!?36,30C&!*S-!'%7!L<K&'03%!UV!T!
-..*
!?36,30C&!*S#!'%7!L<K&'03%!UV!T!
-..#

!N!

699

"#$!

!
!!!%&'&!'()*+,('!()-&)!./&-'*!(./&.0*1()2!3(4*)!5(!-*4&'!(1!./(1-&!+*)!)06/0(1-()!7/1-*)8!
9$! :1! (+! .&)*! 5(+! -(1)*'! 5(! ;.3<&'=).30+52! 7*'! )('! ()>?'0.*! (+! )0)-(4&! 5(! .**'5(1&5&)8!
2!
2!
!!!@!!
A!
B$! 7*'!+&!4?-'0.&!()>?'0.&2!(1!-*5*)!+*)!.&)*)!(1!5*15(!
!)(!)06/(!C/(!
A!
D$!

!&!

!5(7(15(1!5(! "!@!

!&5(4E)!5(! $2!5(!4*5*!C/(!+*)!5('0,&5*)!5(!

)*F'(!(+!-0(47*! !@!(+!E16/+*! !)*1!.('*8!

!@!

!&!

A!

8!
A!
G$!
H$! ./&15*! +&! ()>('&! .*+&7)&! (1! /1! 7+&1*2! .*4*! (1! (+! .&)*! 5(! +&! I'F0-&! 5(! /1! 7+&1(-&!!!!!
&+'(5(5*'!5(+!;*+2!)(!)06/(!C/(!
!@!
A!
J$! (+!K150.( !,&'K&!5(!9!&!G2!7('*2!7*'!(+!7/1-*!H2!
A!
9LLG
L$! /1!)K4F*+*!5(!M3'0)-*>>(+!)(!5(>01(!.*4*8 !!!!
!!!!!

!
"#!$%&'%()(*)!(+&),%!-!!!"
"#$!

$!

!
!!!:+!K150.(! !,&'K&!5(!9!&!G8!
"9N$!

!
!!!!O&5*!C/(!
!"7/1-*!H$2!(+!-('.('!-?'401*!5(!+&!"9N$!()!.('*2!5(!4*5*!C/(!C/(5&1!5(!
+&!"9N$!)*+&4(1-(!./&-'*!-?'401*)8!
"99$!

!!

!
!!!!:1!.&5&!/1*!5(!+*)!-'()!-?'401*)!5(+!+&5*!5('(.3*2!5().&'-&4*)!
"7/1-*!H$P!Q&!"99$!)(!-'&1)>*'4&2!(1-*1.()!(18!
"9B$!
!!!!!!!!

!
!

!
!

!
!!!;0!)/4&4*)!+*)!-?'401*)!5(!+&!"9B$2!*F-(1(4*)8!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
9LLG

!:./&.0I1!BH!R!5(+!S7?150.(!TU!R!

2!7*'C/(!

!!

700

"#$%!
!!!!!!!!&

&

&

&

!
!!!'()*+(,!)*,-..(//-.!0-)-!12(!)*!/(,!,3+4(/(,!)*!56.7,8(99*/!)*!/-!*01-07:2!"#$%!*2!8;.+72(,!
)*/!8*2,(.!+;8.70(<!'-.-!/-!0(+=(2*28*!
>!,*.?!0(+(!,7@1*!"=(.!*/!=128(!A%B!
"#C%!

"#D%!

"#E%!

"#A%!

"#F%!

"#G%!

"HI%!

!!!J!0(+472-2)(!/-!"G%!J!/-!"#D%!-!/-!"HI%>!(48*2*+(,!/-!*01-07:2!)*!/-!01-.8-!0(+=(2*28*B#AAD!!!
"H#%!
!
!!!!K-)(! L1*!

!
! J!
>! ,*! ,7@1*! L1*!
>!)*!+()(!L1*!/-!"H#%!,*!8.-2,9(.+-!*2B!

"HH%!

! J!

!
"#!$%&'%()(*)!(+&),%!-!"
"F%!

%!

!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
#AAD

!5(7207)*!0(2!M-2,!N6-27-2>!!"#$%&#&%'()#(*)+,#-.&%/.!"<<<<%B!HFA>!*01-07:2!O$CP!

!!HF$>!!*01-07:2!OFP!

>!8(+-2)(!*2!01*28-!L1*!

!<!

!*!747)*+B!!

701

"#$%!

!
!!&'! ()*+)*! (,*-./0! )1! +)*02! 30*45)!
10'7-)/()!+57(*0!(,*-./019!
"#:%!

2! 6)! -060! 45)! 45)67/! 6)! '7! )+57+.8/! "#$%!

!!

!
!!!&/!+767!5/0!6)!'01!(*)1!(,*-./01!6)'!'760!6)*)+;02!)'!</6.+) !=7*<7!6)!>!7!:2!3)*0!6)1+7*(7-01!
2!30*45)!
?!@7!"#:%!(.)/)2!)/(0/+)12!>A!(,*-./01B!
"#C%!

!!!!!!!!

!!

!
!!!D.!15-7-01!'01!(,*-./01!.E57')1!6)!'7!"#C%2!0F()/)-01?!
"#G%!

!!!!!!!!

!
!!!&/!)'!+710!6)!

2!30*!)'!35/(0!I2!)'!1<-F0'0!6)!J*.1(0KK)'!1)*L9!

"#I%!
"#M%!

!
!

"#N%!

"$A%!

"$>%!

"$#%!

"$$%!

!
!!!J0-F./7/60!"#I%!7!"$$%2!0F()/)-019!

!!!

702

"#$%!

!
!!&'(!)'*!+,-.'*!$!/!01!

2!&'(!3*'!)4!"#$%!*3!.(4-*5'(64!3-7899:!

"#0%!

!
!"#$%&'%()(*)#(+&),%#-#"
!"9%!

%#

!
!!!;4(<4-='! !=3!8!4!$1!'>.3-36'*7!
"#:!%!

!
!!?)! +(<63(! /! .3(@3(! .A(6<-'! @'-.<3-3-! )4! =3(<B4=4! =3)! C-D,)'!
1! E,3! 3*! @3('1!
"
%1!=3!6'='!E,3!E,3=4-!=3!)4!3@,4@<F-!"#:%!*')463-.3!.(3*!.A(6<-'*7!
"#9%!

!!

!
!!!?-!@4=4!,-'!=3!3*.'*!.(3*!.A(6<-'*1!3)!G-=<@3 !B4(G4!=3!8!4!$1!+3('!=3*@4(.46'*!
2!H4!"#9%!*3!.(4-*5'(641!3-.'-@3*1!3-7!
"#I%!

!!!!!!!!

1!+'(E,3!

!!
!

!
!!!J<!*,646'*!)'*!.A(6<-'*!=3!)4!"##%1!'>.3-36'*7!
"#K%
!!!!!!!

!!!!

!!!&'(!3)!+,-.'!91!3-!3)!@4*'!
"$O%!

1!3)!*G6>')'!=3!MN(<*.'553)!4=E,<3(3!)4!*<D,<3-.3!5'(647!
!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
899:

!P'64-='!3-!@,3-.4!E,3!3-!3)!+)4-'!

!!!!Q4-*!RN4-<4-1!!"#$%&#&%'()#(*)+,#-.&%/.)"8K9S%7!SI91!3@,4@<F-!T##U7!

1!3*.4!3@,4@<F-!@'<-@<=3!@'-!!
!

703

"#$%!

"#&%!

"#'%!

"##%!

"#(%!

"#)%!

!
!!!!*+,!-.!"#$%!.!-.!"#)%/!-.!"0%!12!,23452!.!
!
!
"#!$%&'%()(*)!(+&),%!-!!"
%!
")%!

!6!7+!54278.9!

!
!!!:-!;73<52! !=.,;.!32!$!.!#>!
"#0%!

!
!!:-!82,52,!8?,@<7+!21!52,+/!32!@+3+!A42!A423.7!32!-.!"#0%!12!1<@B-<C<5.!5+@+!-.!"#D%>!
"#D%!

!!

!
!!!:-!;73<52 !=.,;.!32!$!.!#/!B2,+!3215.,8.@+1!
"#E%!

/!B+,A42!

!!!!!!!!

>!

F!

!
!!!G<!14@.@+1!-+1!8?,@<7+1!32!-.!"#E%/!+H8272@+1>!
"(I%!
!!!!!!!

!!F

!!!*+,!2-!B478+!0/!2-!1;@H+-+!32!JK,<18+CC2-/!27!2-!5.1+!32!

!21>!

!!

704

"#$%!

!
!!!&'(!)'!*+,*'-!
"#.%!

"#/%!

"#0%!

!
!

"##%!

"#1%!

"#2%!

!!
!!!&'(!)+!"#.%!+!)+!"#2%3!)+!"#4%!56!*(+,57'(8+!6,-$222!
"#9%!

:!

!
!!!!;6(<=+,>'! '?*6,68'5

@$229!

CD,*'!03!!56!5<ED6!FD6

! A!

B! &'(! 6)!

B!!G',!65*'5!>+*'5!)+!"#9%!56!FD6>+!H'8'-!

"#I%!

!!!!!!!!
"14%!

:!!

!
!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
$222

!J'8+,>'!6,!HD6,*+!FD6!6,!6)!C)+,'!

!A!!

3!65*+!6HD+H<K,!H'<,H<>6!H',!L+,5!MN+,<+,3!!

!!!!!!"#$%&#&%'()#(*)+,#-.&%/.)"$I2.%-!.923!6HD+H<K,!O/$P!-!
$229

!&'(!)+!(6E)+!>6)!H'H<6,*6-

!!!

705

!
!"#$%&'"(# #)(*(#+'%),-%#./"#01.,(# #
!!!"#! $%#&'$($)! *+$! &,'$! '-.+-(/#'$! 0'! 1/2(1('#&/! 0'! .#! 3*+#'&+! '#! 4,5(&+! '#! '*! -+13/!
6,+2(&+-(/#+*! 0'*! 7/*)! 0',(2+0+$! +! 3+,&(,! 0'! *+! 6'/08$(-+! 9! *+! 18&,(-+! 0'! 7-:;+,<$-:(*0)! $/#! *+!
=>>?)!*+!=@A?!9!*+!=BC?D!
!

=>>?!
=@A?!

!!!!

=BC?!

!
!!!F:/,+! 5('#)! */! G.'! G.','1/$! '$! '*! H#6.*/! ! -/1/! I.#-(4#! 0'! J! K+,+! */6,+,! '$&/)!
1.*&(3*(-+1/$!3,(1',/!*/$!&8,1(#/$!0'!*+!'-.+-(4#!=@A?!-/#! !9!/5&'#'1/$D!
=BL?!

!!

!
!!!"*!1/1'#&/!+#6.*+,!$'!0'I(#'!-/1/!

)!0'!1/0/!G.'!'*!&8,1(#/!

1/1'#&/!+#6.*+,!0(2(0(0/!'#&,'!*+!1+$+!0'!M',-.,(/)!'$!0'-(,)!
+#6.*+,!'$!-',/)!0'!1/0/!G.'!'*!1/1'#&/!+#6.*+,!'$!-/#$&+#&'D!!
=B>?

!,'3,'$'#&+!'*!

!J!N+!0',(2+0+!0'*!1/1'#&/!

J!!!

!
!!!N+!=BL?!$'!&,+#$I/,1+!'#!!
=B@?!!

!!!F,,(5+!2(1/$!G.'!

J!!

!!!F:/,+! 2+1/$! +! &,+#$I/,1+,! *+! '-.+-(4#! =BC?J! K/,! *+! ,'6*+! 0'! *+! -+0'#+! 9! *+! =B>?!
=BO?

=BA?!

!!!!

706

!!!"#$%&%#&'($! )*(+)! ,-! .)! /012!

!!!5!!

! 3(+!

4!

! 3(+!

4!

! 3(+!

!!3(+!67!!5!(8%,-,'($9!

!!
/002!

!!!!!!!!!!

!
!!!;(+!.)$!'&$')$!$#$%&%#<&(-,$7!.)!/==2!$,!%+)-$>(+')!,-9!!!!
/==2!

!
!/0?2!

!
!!!"#$%&%#5,-@(!.)!/0?2!,-!,.!%,+<,+!%A+'&-(!@,!.)!,<#)<&B-!/002!5!(8%,-,'($9!
!/0C2!

!
!!!D,)E+#3)'($!).E#-($!%A+'&-($9!
/0F2!

!!!
!!!G#.%&3.&<)'($!%(@($!.($!%A+'&-($!<(-!

!!

/?12!

!!!H)<,'($9!
/?62
/?I2!
/?J2

!!

!/?=2!

!!!!5!
!!

707

!!!!!!!

!
!!!"#$%&%#&'($!)*+,-!)*.,!/!)*0,!12!)*3,!/!4561'($!

)*7,!

)*8,!

!!

!
!!!9561'($!(%:5!$#$%&%#6&;2!<1!=5:&5>?1@!
)**,!

!
!!!"#$%&%#&'($!?5!)**,!12!?5!)*8,@!
)*A,!

!
!!!B2%1C:5'($@!
)*D,!!

)A3E,!

!!

)A3F,!

)A3G,!

)A3H,!

!
!!!H1$I1J5'($!
)A+,!

!/!?#1C(!&2%1C:5'($-!%('52<(!

-!5?!&2&6&(!<1!#25!;:>&%5!
!!

708

"#$%!

!!!
!!!&'!()*+!(,-+,./'0!(1!2'3-14! !5(65()('*+!7(8.4!,.,14!8(!1+!/59.*+!(1:6*.,+!8(!;(5,-5.40! !"1+!
<(14,.8+8!8(!1+!1-=%0!! !(1!,-+85+84!8(1!747('*4!+'3-1+5!645!-'.8+8!8(!7+)+0! !!-'+!,4')*+'*(!
645! 8(*(57.'+5>! &'! 1+)! (,-+,.4'()! 8(! &.')*(.'! )41+7('*(! ?.3-5+'! 1+)! ,4')*+'*()! ! "(1! )(7.(@(!
7+A45! 8(! ;(5,-5.4%0! ! "1+! ,4')*+'*(! 8(!
! ('! 1+! 7B*5.,+! 8(! C,DE+5=),D.18%0! A!
!
F

! ! A!

>! G+84! H-(!

! A!

>! G+840! +8(72)0! H-(!

>!I45!14!*+'*4!

0! ! )(! ).3-(! H-(!

! A!

! )(! ).3-(! H-(!

>!!J):!648(74)!5((),5.9.5!1+!"#$%!,474!).3-(K!

"#L!J%!

!
!!M48+<:+!'4!*('(74)!!"#$%"&'#(!#

)!!N4!648(74)!49*('(5!+!6+5*.5!8(!1+!(,-+,./'!"#O!P%K!

"#OP%!

!
!!!!G+84! H-(!

0! )(! ).3-(! H-(!

! ,-+'84!

0!

!!A0!645!14!*+'*40!49*('(74)KQRRS!

>!&'!()*(!,+)40!
"#OT%!!

!
!!T4'!()*(!5()-1*+840!1+!(,-+,./'!"#L!J%!)(!*5+')?457+!('!1+!"#L!P%K!
"#L!P%!

!
!"#$#%&#'()#*+,(-.)#/.#,+)#0(1)2+12.)#3#*+-4+5,.)!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
QRRS

!!!!

! A!

>!&1!?+,*45!!
!()!8()65(,.+91(>!

709

!
"#!
*#!

!!$%&"!'"()"*+,!-,!.,/0,1(2"!-,!+"!,+)34,#!
!$0/0,&1/!"&.%+"(#5678!

!!

9#!

$0/0,&1/!"&.%+"(!3/(!%&)-"-!-,!0"4"#!

-#!
,#!
:#!
.#!
=#!
)#!
@#!
A#!
+#!

!!$!"#$!"+!9%"-("-/#!
!

!!$9/&41"&1,!.("')1"9)/&"+#!!!!!!
! !$0"4"!;/+#!
! !$0"4"!<,(9%()/#!
!$',+/9)-"-!-,!+"!+%>#!
!$,?9,&1()9)-"-#!
!$4,0),@,!0,&/(#!
! !$-)41"&9)"!02&)0"!3+"&,1"!"+!9,&1(/#!
! !$-)41"&9)"!0B?)0"!3+"&,1"!"+!9,&1(/#!!

0#!

$9/&41"&1,!-,!+"!0C1()9"!-,!;9=D"(>49=)+-#!

&#!

/#!

!$)&',(4/!-,+!("-)/!0B?)0/#!

3#! !

$4,0),@,!0"E/(#!

F#!

!!

(#!
4#!
1#!

!$)&',(4/!-,+!("-)/!02&)0/#!

$("-)/#!

!$)&',(4/!-,+!("-)/#!!!!!!
!!$"(9/!4,.%&-/4#!
!$3,(2/-/#!
$&/1"5675#!

%#!
'#! G&!,+!"(129%+/!-,!G)&41,)&H!
D#! G&!,+!"(129%+/!-,!G)&41,)&H!

!
!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

5678

!IC"4,!+"!,9%"9)J&!6K!-,+!L3C&-)9,!MM!4/*(,!N,3+,(!E!O,D1/&!

5675

!G+!:"91/(!!!!!

!,4!-,43(,9)"*+,P!

710

!
"#! $%!&'!()*+,-'.!/&!$0%1*&0%2!

!
!
VI C 3. La solucin emprica de esta integral para el caso de Mercurio
!
30!,.%!&'!4).5)(6(!!"#$%&"#'("!/&!7.'8)(6!1(,(6.1!&1*(!0%*&5)('!%-69)0,(:!%.!.;*&%&6.1!&'!
<('.)!&14&)(/.!/&!=>?@?AB>>>!C !6D1!('5.#:!10%.!=>?@?=B!C !)(/0(%&1#>
$1*.!%.!&1!1.)4)&%/&%*&:!
4.)E-&! &"01*&! -%(! &"*)&6(! 1&%10;0'0/(/! (! '(1! ,.%/0,0.%&1! 0%0,0('&1>! F0! '(1! .;1&)<(,0.%&1!
&64+)0,(1! /&'! 4&)0G&'0.! /&! H&),-)0.! %0! &'! <('.)! /&! '(1! ,.%1*(%*&1! 4-&/&%! 1&)! *(%! 4)&,01(1:! E-&!
)&('6&%*&! 1&! 4-&/(! 4)&/&,0)! &'! <('.)! &"(,*.! /&! '(! ).*(,0I%! /&'! 4&)0G&'0.! /&! H&),-)0.>! J)*"+
&,*'&"+ -".'"('/*+ 0%+ 1"2+ 0%('&"1%2+ 0%+ "134*"2+ (5*2#"*#%2+ (5&5+ 1"+ -%15('0"0+ 0%+ 1"+ 146+ 7+ 1"+
(5*2#"*#%+ 3."-'#"('5*"1+ 7+ 1"+ &"2"+ 0%1+ 851+ 7+ + %1+ 2%&'%9%+ &":5.+ + :+ 1"+ %;(%*#.'('0"0+ + 0%+
!%.(4.'57+3%*%."+-".'"('5*%2+%*+152+.%241#"052+<5.+%*('&"+5+<5.+"="95+0%1+-"15.+0%+ +."0'"*%2>+
K-%E-&! ,.%.,&6.1! ,.%! ,0&)*(! 4)&,010I%! '(! <&'.,0/(/! /&! '(! '-L! M! '(! ,.%1*(%*&! 5)(<0*(,0.%(':! '(!
6(1(! /&'! 3.'! CE-&:! (/&6D1:! 1&! )&/-,&! ('! (N.! &%!
! O0'.1! ?PQR#:! &'! 1&60&S&! 6(M.):! M! '(!
&",&%*)0,0/(/!1.%!&1*06(,0.%&1!,.%80(;'&1:!4&).!,.%!,0&)*.!6()5&%!/&!&)).)>!$1*&!6()5&%!/&!&)).)!
&1!1-80,0&%*&!4()(!0%8'-0)!/&,010<(6&%*&!&%!'.1!)&1-'*(/.1>!T!)&('6&%*&:!&1*.!%.!&1!1.)4)&%/&%*&:!
/(/.!E-&!-%(!I);0*(!,.64'&*(!/&!
!)(/0(%&1!,.%*0&%&!?:RBU:VVV!(),.!1&5-%/.1!&%!-%!(N.!/&!
H&),-)0.!CQQ!/+(1#:!M!&1*(6.1!;-1,(%/.:!4.)!'.!*(%*.:!-%(!(/0,0I%!(!&1*&!6.%*.!/&!
!(),.!
1&5-%/.1:!&1!/&,0):!1.'(6&%*&!V>VVVVVQVV?A@=!W!(/0,0.%('>!!
!
$0%1*&0%!.4*I!4.)!-%!,(60%.!/08&)&%*&>!$%!&'!105-0&%*&!(4()*(/.!<&)&6.1!,I6.!9'!1064'080,I!'(!
&,-(,0I%!&%!8-%,0I%!/&'!)&1-'*(/.!&14&)(/.>!8'*+%&=".357+%1+$%($5+0%+?4%+@'*2#%'*+"942#/+%2#"+
%(4"('/*+ -".'"2+ -%(%2+ %*+ A4*('/*+ 0%1+ .%241#"05+ %2<%."05?PQ=+ 2'3*'A'("7+ 1/3'("&%*#%7+ ?4%+ 1"+
(5'*('0%*('"+ 0%1+ .%241#"05+ 5=#%*'05+ (5*+ 1"+ .5#"('/*+ %&<,.'("+ 0%1+ <%.'$%1'5+ 0%+ !%.(4.'57+ !"#
$"%%"&"%'# ()# *+"%,-# .+!+%-/0# (1!"# ("/-2+!*+# 3+2"(*%'# /-# $"24-*1&1/13-3# 0%+ %2#%+ .%241#"05+
%&<,.'(5+(5*+24+#%5.,"5#30!'(!1.'-,0I%!/&!'(!&,-(,0I%!&"(,*(!C'(!%-&1*)(#!%.!/(!&'!)&1-'*(/.!&"(,*.:!
6&%.1! '(! 1.'-,0I%! /&! '(! (4)."06(,0I%! /&! $0%1*&0%>! X('! <&L:! &1*.! G(M(! E-&)0/.! /&,0)! Y();()(!
Z'0%&:!,-(%/.!/0S.!E-&!1&!*)(*(!/&!-%(![%2("2"+-%.'A'("('/*\>?PQ@!
!
!
VI C 4. Einstein elige las aproximaciones en funcin del resultado esperado
!
H&/0(%*&!-%!4).,&/060&%*.!&"(,*.!.;*-<06.1!&'!D%5-'.! :!&%!&'!*)(%1,-)1.!/&!6&/0.!,0,'.:!/&!
!!(! :!/&!'(!I);0*(!/&!H&),-)0.!C&,-(,0I%!Q=!Y#>!!!
CQ=!Y#!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
?PQR

! Z(/(! 1&5-%/.! 1&! *)(%18.)6(%! AQ@! 60''.%&1! /&! *.%&'(/(1! /&! G0/)I5&%.! &%! -%.1! AQV! 60''.%&1! /&! *.%&'(/(1! /&!
G&'0.:! *)(%18.)6(%/.! -%.1! @! 60''.%&1! /&! *.%&'(/(1! /&! 6(1(! &%! &%&)5+(>! ](! /0160%-,0I%! /&! '(! 6(1(! /&'! 3.'! &1:!

&%*.%,&1:!!"1+"B5!
!!
!^9(1&!(!,.%*0%-(,0I%!'(!3&,,0I%!^_!Z!=!
?PQ@
!Y();()(!]>!Z'0%&:!C52+(.%"05.%2+0%+1"+*4%-"+A,2'("!C?BP=#2!RBA!
?PQ=

711

!
!!!"#$!%&'#(#)!*)'+%,'+-#).!/+$)'*+$!#0'1-#!!"#$#%&'()*#+),"!)*%*2,$'*!,3!4*)13',(#!*5,6'#!7!
*)'+%8!',%0+&$!*3!-,3#4!(*! !93,!*61,6+8$!:;<=!>?:@!!!
!9:;<!

!
!!!!!A$-+'#!,3!3*6'#4!,!B1*!6#%C,4*!3,!*61,6+8$!*5,6',!9:D!E<!6#$!3,!,C4#5+%,(,!(*!/+$)'*+$!9:;<=!
F3!6#%C,4,4!3,!*61,6+8$!*5,6',!93,!:D!E<!6#$!3,!,C4#5+%,6+8$!(*!/+$)'*+$!93,!:;<.!,C,4*6*$!3,)!
)+G1+*$'*)!(+H*4*$6+,)I!
!
!"#$%&"%'()#$*"%+"#,-.#/0####################################!"#$%&"%'()#"123*'4"5"#5$#6')7+$')#,-80#
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!>!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
J>=KKKKKK>KL@;M:@>L!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
>MLM=:>!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! JNM@;=?>!
J>=KKKKKKK@D>:KLD?;!!!!!!!!!!
J>=KKKKKK>KL@;M:@>L!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
J!D=LKL>>;:>LL:>O
!!!!!!!
JD=LKL>>;MK:@>;>O
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

!
!!!P,!(+H*4*$6+,!*$'4*!>!7!>=KKKKKK>KL@;M:@>L!C,4*6*!C*B1*Q,.!C*4#!+$-+'#!,3!3*6'#4!,!4*6#4(,4!3#!
B1*! ,6,0#! (*! (*6+4! ,44+0,.! ,! ),0*4.! R!"#$ ,&-).#$ +'*%/0.#$ 10$
$ &#1)#"02$ +'".)0"0$ 345674888$
#&+'$209!"1'2$0"$!"$#:'$10$;0&+!&)'$<==$1>#2?4$@$02.#*'2$-!2+#"1'4$%'&$/'$.#".'4$!"#$#1)+),"$#$
02.0$*'".'$10$
$#&+'$209!"1'24$02$10+)&4$2'/#*0".0$8A88888=883BCD$E$#1)+)'"#/=S!/)',!
%T$+%,!(+H*4*$6+,!*$'4*!>!7!>=KKKKKK>KL@;M:@>L!*5C3+6,!%U)!#!%*$#)!3,!4#',6+8$!(*3!C*4+V*3+#!
(*!W*4614+#.!B1*!/+$)'*+$!*)'U!01)6,$(#=!F3!,Q,(+4!
!,!3,!1$+(,(.!&3!,21)',!3,!*61,6+8$!
*$!H1$6+8$!(*3!4*)13',(#!(*)*,(#=!
!
!!!P,! (+H*4*$6+,! *$'4*!
! 7! ! *)! G4,$(*.! C*4#! %13'+C3+6,(#! 6#$!
! 9617#! -,3#4! *)!
-,4+,03*.! C*4#! '#%,%#)! )1! -,3#4! %U5+%#! *$! *)',! 6#%C,4,6+8$<.! 3,! (+H*4*$6+,! 33*G,! ,! )*4!
4*3,'+-,%*$'*!C*B1*Q,.!,!),0*4.!
!7!
=!!
!
!!!"#$! '#(#.! *)',! *61,6+8$! (*! /+$)'*+$! *)! !"#$ %&)*0&#$ 2)*%/)F)+#+),"$ @$ #%&'()*#+),"! (*! 3,!
*61,6+8$!*5,6',=!
!
!!!!!X#(*%#)!H,6'#4+Y,4!3,!*61,6+8$!9:;<!C,4,!#0'*$*4I!
9:@<!

!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
>?:@

!F30*4'!/+$)'*+$.!R/5C3,$,'+#$!#H!'V*!X*4+V*3+#$!W#'+#$!#H!W*46147!H4#%!'V*!Z*$*4,3![V*#47!#H!\*3,'+-+'7.S!*$I!
GH")9/)+I$J&0!22)2+I0$KL#10*)0$10&$M)220"2+I#F.0"A$N).O!"92-0&)+I.0!9>M>@<.!'4,(16+(#!,3!+$G3&)!*$!PI0$Q'//0+.01$$
M'&L2$'F$K/-0&.$R)"2.0)"4$-#3=!L!9>M:M<I!>>L!

712

!!!!!"#! $%&'%()(! *(+,-)(+./(! 0-! 1&#2%()! $3-0-! -4(#3(%! -5+(! .6+-'%(#! 63)7%./()-6+-! 8!
'%(2./(%#(9!"6!#(!5.'3.-6+-!'%:2./(;!-#!:%-(!<(=&!#(!/3%4(!%-$%-5-6+(!#(!-4(#3(/.>6!0-!-5+(!.6+-'%(#;!
0-! !(! ;!-5!0-/.%!-#!$-%.,-#.&!0-!*-%/3%.&!?)-0.&!/./#&!@! A!):5!53!0-5$#(B().-6+&!$&%!-#!
/()$&!'%(4.+(/.&6(#!0-#!C&#!? !@!D9DDDDDEDDFGHI!J!0-! AK!
!
!"#$%&'()*+"%,+-%.)/+)0+"&1"%.)2#3)-')".4'&%56)/+-)7+"%,+-%.)+6)2+/%')5"8%4')

!
!!!!
!!!L&0-)&5! 5.)$#.2./(%! #(! -/3(/.>6! ?EGA;! 35(60&! -#! +-&%-)(! 0-! #(5! 5-%.-5! 0-! M(8#&%;! (! 5(<-%;!
!!
!
!!!"6!63-5+%&!/(5&K!
?EN!OA!
!!!!P@DA!!
!!!!P@FA!

!!!!P@QA!
!!!!-+/7+-%(!

!!!

!
!

713

!
!!!!!!"#$%&'(!)%!*+,-.!/!*+,0.!/!*+,1.!/!2222/!*

.3!(456&6$(7!8!

*9:!;.

!!!!!!!!
!!!!!!<(=!)(!5%&5(3!)%!*9>.!76!5=%&7?(=$%!6&!)%!*9@.8!
*9@!A.!

!!*&(5%!0@9:.!

*9@!;.!!

/!

!
!

!
!!!B=%56$(7!%C(=%!%$4(7!D&56E=%)67!F(=!76F%=%'(8!
*99!A.!
!
*99!;.!G,
!*99!H.!I,

!
!

!
!!!!!<=D$6=(!=667J=D4D$(7!6)!5K=$D&(!J($L&!%!%$4(7!D&56E=%)67!6&!6)!'6&($D&%'(=8!
*9M.!
!,!!
!!!!!!!!

*M-.!

!!!!
!!"#75D5#D$(7!)%!*M-.!6&!)%!*99!;.!N!)%!*99!H.!F%=%!(456&6=!)%!*M0.!N!)%!*M1.8!
*M0.!!G,

*M1.!!I,

!
!!O6(='6&%$(7!)(7!5K=$D&(78!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
0@9:

!A)46=5!PD&756D&3!QPRF)%&%5D(&!(?!5C6!<6=DC6)D(&!S(5D(&!(?!S6=J#=N!?=($!5C6!T6&6=%)!BC6(=N!(?!O6)%5DUD5N3V!6&8!
!"#$%&$'()*+,-..$.'(,)/012,3$,)2,+)4$..,#.'(156,#7)8$69-#%.:,+$'(6,!*0M0>.3!5=%'#JD'(!%)!D&E)K7!6&!;(,)<=&&,'6,2))
4=+0.)=5)/&:,+6)>$#.6,$#?)U()2!:!*0M9M.8!00:!

714

"#$%!!&'

!"#(%!!)'

!
!!!*+,-.!/-,01213,4!0,5!65!0.378,!21!9.-8.7:14;!
"#<%!

!!

!!

!
"#=%!
!
!!!>64?8?683,4!"#<%!@!"#=%!15!"#$%!@!"#(%!/.-.!,7?151-!"#A%!@!"#B%;!
"#A%!&'

"#B%!)'

!!

!
!!!C1D8583,4!E;!
!"##%!E'

!!!!!!!!!!!!'

'!

'!

!!!!!
!!!!F,3785.52,!"&G!E%H!,7?1513,4!&&;!
"IJJ%!!&&'"&GE%'!

715

!
!!!"!#$%&'($!)"!*!+,-!$.#/'/%$0!""1!
!

)232,!!""4!)"5+,4

!!!!
!!!67$8&!.9/'-!:$%.9'&'($!);;!6,-!)233,!<!)232,-!$.#/'/%$01!
)23=,!
!!!!!!!!!!
!
!
!!!>&?&%$0!@'&!'@/A&!0@0#9#@:9B'!(/!A&89&.C/01!
!!

)23D,!!
)23E!6,!!
)23E!F,!!

!!

!
!!!G@0#9#@9%$0!)23D,!<!)23E!F,!/'!!)232,1!
)23H,!""4!

!
!!!G@0#9#@9%$0!/'!)23H,!!

!!<!!

)23J,!""4

-!I&8&!$.#/'/8!)23J,1!
4!!!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!4

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!4

!
!!!K/:$8(/%$01!
)233,!LL4!

)23M,!LL4!

!
!!!/'!($'(/!

716

!
!!!"#! $%&'(! )*! +,#-)./,0#! *-! 1#! $%&2(3! 4/,! 1#! 5-+*6,#758-! 9*! :-#! .:-758-! +,56/-/0;+,57#!
5-<*,)#=%'2'!
$%&2(!>>?!

?!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!?

?!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!?

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

!
!!!@*-*0/)!9/)!/475/-*)=!A(!*1!)56-/!4/)5+5</!$B(!#-+*)!9*!1#!,#CD!/!E(!*1!)56-/!-*6#+5</!$F(!#-+*)!
9*!1#!,#CDG!"#!/4758-!A!-/)!9#=!
$%&H!A(!>>?

?!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!?

$%%&!A(!>>?!

!!!!
!!!"#!/4758-!E!-/)!9#=!
$%&H!E(!>>?

?!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!?
$%%&!E(!>>?!

!
!

!
!!!IJ<5#0*-+*3!1#!/4758-!E!$*7:#758-!%%&!E(!7/-!*1!)56-/!4/)5+5</!*)!1#!J:*-#G!K*7/,9*0/)=!!
$%&L(!MM?&!
!!
!!!N/,!1/!+#-+/3!7/-!J#)*!*-!1#!$%&O(3!$%&L(!P!$%%&!E(3!/J+*-*0/)=!
$%%%(!
?!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

%'2'

!Q;#-)*!EG!N*5,7*!R!K/-#19!S/)+*,3! !"#$%&'"()*+,"%-"./',0&)+13!T+U!*9G!$%HVL(=!*7:#758-!%W&3!4X6G!OOY!!P!K/-!
"#,)/-!R!E,:7*!Z9[#,9)3!23+45+%!$O&&L(=!+*/,*0#!VG%'3!4X65-#!W2&!

717

!
!!!!!!!!!!

"!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!"

"!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

"!

!
!!!#$%&! &$! &'! (&$)'%*+,! +&! -&+.*! /(0.%*1! 2*(*! ,0%&3&(! )3*! /(0.%*! 4,-5'&%*! 6
-)'%.5'.4*(!4,3!:!;!'*!(,%*4./3! !+&'!5&(.9&'.,!&$<!
6==:7!

78! 9&-,$! +&!

!
!!!>*+,!?)&!
8!$&!$.@)&!?)&!&3!)3!*A,8!'*!(,%*4./3!+&'!5&(.9&'.,!&$<!
6==B7!
8!
!
!!!;!+*+,!?)&!)3!*A,!+&!C&(4)(.,!$,3!DD!+E*$8!'*!(,%*4./3!+&'!5&(.9&'.,!&3!)3!$.@',!%&((&$%(&!&$<!
6==F7!
!
!
!!!!"# $%&'"()*+# +,(%-.*+# *%# /0# )$1+# &%2'-*+&# -+# 1+.-1.*%# %3)1()4%-(%# 1+-# "+&# 56# )$1+#
&%2'-*+&# %&7%$)*+&# 7+$# !.-&(%.-8# 9:+$);# <"# )='&()# &'&# %1')1.+-%&# 7+$# &%2'-*)# >%?;# 7)$)#
+,(%-%$#%"#$%&'"()*+#%&7%$)*+;#7)$)#@'%*)$#1+4+#&.2'%<!
63,%*!!=HDD71!

6==G7!!!

!!!!!!#3! '*! -I%(.4*! 6J8! J8! J8! K7! ?)&! #.3$%&.3! )$*8!
=HDL

71!M+&-N$8!O

!"!

63,%*!

!#$%#$&$'()'!*+&!,)*+#$&!#$-.%#+-+&!/$!*)!/0&()'-0)!12301)!"!1.'01)!/$*!

4+*5!#$&%$-(0,)1$'($5P=HLQ!&$!+&4.(8!!
%I(-.3,!

8! $&! $.@)&! ?)&!

!!;!!

63,%*! =HL=71!#'!

! &$! &'! $&-.&R&! -*;,(! ;! ! &$! '*! &S4&3%(.4.+*+! +&! '*! /(0.%*! &'E5%.4*1! T*4.&3+,! '*!

$)$%.%)4./3!+&!

8!$&!,0%.&3&<=HL:!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
=HDD

!670/$1<!==U8!&4)*4./3!6=B7!
!VI*3$&!'*$!&4)*4.,3&$!F!;!G!+&!&$%&!*5I3+.4&!
=HLQ
!M'0&(%!#.3$%&.38!O#S5'*3*%.,3!,W!%9&!2&(.9&'.,3!C,%.,3!,W!C&(4)(;!W(,-!%9&!X&3&(*'!Y9&,(;!,W!Z&'*%.[.%;8P!&3<!
89'0:*0-;!<#$=&&0&-;$!>?)/$10$!/$#!@0&&$'&-;)A($'B!40(C=':&7$#0-;($!6=L=G78!%(*+)4.+,!*'!.3@'I$!&3<!D;$!E+**$-($/!!
@+#?&!+A!>*7$#(!F0'&($0'5![,'1!U!6=LDL7<!==U!
=HL=
!VI*$&!'*$!&4)*4.,3&$!!6==B78!6==F7!;!6==U7!+&'!M5I3+.4&!\\!$,0(&!]&5'&(!;!^&_%,3!
=HL:
!M'0&(%!#.3$%&.38!O#S5'*3*%.,3!,W!%9&!2&(.9&'.,3!C,%.,3!,W!C&(4)(;!W(,-!%9&!X&3&(*'!Y9&,(;!,W!Z&'*%.[.%;8P!&3<!
89'0:*0-;!<#$=&&0&-;$!>?)/$10$!/$#!@0&&$'&-;)A($'B!40(C=':&7$#0-;($!6=L=G78!%(*+)4.+,!*'!.3@'I$!&3<!D;$!E+**$-($/!!
@+#?&!+A!>*7$#(!F0'&($0'5![,'1!U!6=LDL7<!==U8!8!&4)*4./3!6=:7!
=HDL

718

!
"&'()!!#*+,%-!

!!!"##$%!!!

!!!!
!!!./!012(/32/4)0'5!)06'5!2)7'5!4'&!89!'6(:&:0'5!1&)!;<6/()!4'032:()!" %9!0=5!)2>'!:?(<)9!)!
5)6:<9!:2!7:532)@)0/:&('!7:2!3:</A:2/'!:&!1&)!;<6/()9!7:B/&/7'!3'<!C/&5(:/&!4'0'! D!E!"#$%&#'!"'
%()'*+,-.)'/01$2".)3'"2'$"+-4"2-0')5)(6)'/0(FD#*+G!
"##H%!

!!!!

!!!!
!!C&!5:>1/7)9!C/&5(:/&!/&(<'714:!:2!3:</'7'!'<6/()2! 9#*+$!#-('!"/-+'7%"'$)+)'"#.0'%#)'2)'."+/"+)'
2"8'!"'9"$2"+'"('#%':0+1)')$+0;-1)!)D#*+H!
"##*%!

!
!!!I1&J1:!C/&5(:/&!&'!2'!7/4:9!4'&!:5()!:41)4/;&!3'7:0'5!<:7:B/&/<!:2!(K<0/&'!
515!:41)4/'&:59!)!5)6:<D!!
"##L%!

!3'<!K2!15)7'!:&!

!
!!!./!515(/(1/0'5!!

!:&!

9!'6(:&:0'5!2)!M2(/0)!:41)4/;&!7:2!)<(N412'!

7:! C/&5(:/&9! 4'&! 2)! 41)2! 3<:(:&7:! 4)2412)<! 2)! <'()4/;&! 7:2! 3:</A:2/'! 7:! O:<41</'! :&! 1&! 5/>2'! P!
4'<<'6'<)<!51!(:'<N)!>:&:<)2D#*+*!
"##+%!

!
!!./!:2!2:4('<!0:(:!2'5!Q)2'<:5!:03N</4'5!7:!2)!;<6/()!7:!O:<41</'!)!2)!:41)4/;&!7:! 9!5:!('3)!4'&!
1&)! 5'<3<:5)! 7:5)><)7)62:-! <0' #"' 0,.-"("' "2' +"#%2.)!0' "#$"+)!0-! =)' +)6*(' "#' 7%"' >-(#."-(' !)3'
-1$2?/-.)1"(."'@(0'20')/2)+)A3')2'.&+1-(0' '!0#'5)20+"#'"(."+)1"(."'!-#.-(.0#B'C&!:2!(K<0/&'! !
J1:!Q/:&:!7:!2)!(:<4:<)!2:P!7:!R:32:<9! !(/:&:!:2!Q)2'<!7:!
9!3:<'!:2!(K<0/&'! !
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
#*+,

!I26:<(!C/&5(:/&9!EC?32)&)(/'&!'B!(A:!S:</A:2/'&!O'(/'&!'B!O:<41<P!B<'0!(A:!T:&:<)2!UA:'<P!'B!V:2)(/Q/(P9F!:&D!
9C(-D2-/4'E+"%##-#/4"'FG)!"1-"'!"+'H-##"(#/4):."(B'I-.6%(D#,"+-/4."!"#+#$%9!(<)714/7'!)2!/&>2K5!:&D!J4"'K022"/."!''
H0+G#'0:'F2,"+.'>-(#."-(3'Q'2-!H!"#+L+%D!##H9!:41)4/;&!#,!
#*+G
!I26:<(!C/&5(:/&9!EC?32)&)(/'&!'B!(A:!S:</A:2/'&!O'(/'&!'B!O:<41<P!B<'0!(A:!T:&:<)2!UA:'<P!'B!V:2)(/Q/(P9F!:&D!
9C(-D2-/4'E+"%##-#/4"'FG)!"1-"'!"+'H-##"(#/4):."(B'I-.6%(D#,"+-/4."!"#+#$%9!(<)714/7'!)2!/&>2K5!:&D!J4"'K022"/."!''
H0+G#'0:'F2,"+.'>-(#."-(3'Q'2-!H!"#+L+%D!##H!
#*+$
!I26:<(!C/&5(:/&9!EC?32)&)(/'&!'B!(A:!S:</A:2/'&!O'(/'&!'B!O:<41<P!B<'0!(A:!T:&:<)2!UA:'<P!'B!V:2)(/Q/(P9F!:&D!
9C(-D2-/4'E+"%##-#/4"'FG)!"1-"'!"+'H-##"(#/4):."(B'I-.6%(D#,"+-/4."!"#+#$%9!(<)714/7'!)2!/&>2K5!:&D!J4"'K022"/."!''
H0+G#'0:'F2,"+.'>-(#."-(3'Q'2-!H!"#+L+%D!##H!
#*+H
!WK)5:!2)!:41)4/;&!!"#,H%!7:2!I3K&7/4:!XX!5'6<:!R:32:<!P!Y:Z('&!
#*+*
!I26:<(!C/&5(:/&9!EC?32)&)(/'&!'B!(A:!S:</A:2/'&!O'(/'&!'B!O:<41<P!B<'0!(A:!T:&:<)2!UA:'<P!'B!V:2)(/Q/(P9F!:&D!
9C(-D2-/4'E+"%##-#/4"'FG)!"1-"'!"+'H-##"(#/4):."(B'I-.6%(D#,"+-/4."!"#+#$%9!(<)714/7'!)2!/&>2K5!:&D!J4"'K022"/."!''
H0+G#'0:'F2,"+.'>-(#."-(3'Q'2-!H!"#+L+%D!##H9!:41)4/;&!"#G%!

719

"#$!%&$'$!($!)#!$*#+*&,'!-./0!($1$!$234$)+4)$!$'!+4*5!)$6#'(5)7!+!)+1$4!
7!($!85(5!
"#$9!
-.:;0!
!
!
!!!<+!=58+'(5!$'!*#$'=+!=5(5!$)=57!51=$'$85)!>+!45=+*&,'!($>!3$4&?$>&5!($!@$4*#4&5!$'!#'+!)5>+!
,41&=+!($! !4+(&+'$)9.ABC!
!D!,41&=+!
-.:.0
!
!!!!E+(5!"#$!#'+!,41&=+!($!@$4*#4&5!(#4+!CAFCB:!(G+)7!?$85)!($!=4+')H548+4!$)=$!4$)#>=+(5!3+4+!
51=$'$4!>+!45=+*&,'!($>!3$4&?$>&5!$'!#'!)&6>5!=$44$)=4$9!
-.::0!

D!)&6>5!

!
!!!E$! ?$*?57! $)=5! '5! $)! >+! 45=+*&,'! $83G4&*+! ($>! 3$4&?$>&5F! I+! 45=+*&,'! =5=+>! $)! JAKLL! +4*5!
)$6#'(5)!354!)&6>5F!E$!$)=5)!JAKLL7!#'5)!J/.LL!)$!($1$'!+!>+!&'H>#$'*&+!($!>5)!($8M)!3>+'$=+)!($>!
)&)=$8+!)5>+47!*585!N+!?+1G+!*+>*#>+(5!O$P=5'F!!"#$%&'("#)%*%'"+#%,-+./"#+"#'&$"/.0*#"1./.&*"+#
23%#4"+$"5"6!$)!($*&4!K/LL7!*585!Q>!8&)85!(&*$9!
!
!!!R7+#/8+/3+&#"''&9"#-"'"#%+#-+"*%$"#:%'/3'.&#3*#";"*/%#1%+#-%'.<%+.&#1%#=>??#-&'#@.)+&6#/3"*1&#
+&@# "@$'0*&A&@# "-3*$"*#
-&'# @.)+&# /&A&# +"# 1.4%'%*/."# *&# %,-+./"1"# %*$'%# @3@#
&5@%';"/.&*%@#B#+"#$%&'("#*%C$&*."*"D#!"#$%&'()*#%+$&+,%-*#%-$.#,&/01%$)/%+$%#2%#),3%'2&#,&+#
1)-#&4-%'5),"&+%-SF!.ABB!
!
!!!T&!1&$'!$)!*&$4=+!$)=+!*5'*>#)&,'!($!U&')=$&'7!?$85)!*583451+(5!$'!$)=$!$')+N5!63%#-%#$')$)#2%#
3+)# ,&/0)$"4"1"2)2*# +&# 2%# 3+)# ,&''&4&'),"7+8! U'! )#! +4=G*#>57! U&')=$&'! ?+*$! =+'=5)!
8+>+1+4&)85)7!"#$!N5!'5!*4$5!"#$!>5)!8&$8145)!($!>+!V$+>!W*+($8&+!($!X&$'*&+)!($!Y4#)&+7!$'!
'5%&$814$! ($! .B.J7! '&! >+)! 3$4)5'+)! "#$! ?5N! (G+! )$! (+'! >+! 3$'+! ($! *5')#>=+4! $>! +4=G*#>5! ($!
U&')=$&'7!?+N+'!4$*5')=4#&(5!)#!4+Z5'+8&$'=57!4+Z,'!354!>+!*#+>!5H4$*&85)!+>!>$*=54!&'=$4$)+(5!>+!
4$*5')=4#**&,'!>>$%+(+!+!*+15!$'!$)=$!$')+N5F!
!
!!!!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

.ABC

!U>!4$)#>=+(5!*5&'*&($!8M)!5!8$'5)!*5'!$>!51=$'&(5!354!T=$%$'![$&'1$466#E'";.$"$.&*#"*1#F&@A&+&)B!-.BA:09!
.BC7!+!)+1$47!
!
.ABB
!W>1$4=!U&')=$&'7!RU23>+'+=&5'!5H!=?$!Y$4&?$>&5'!@5=&5'!5H!@$4*#4N!H458!=?$!\$'$4+>!]?$54N!5H!V$>+=&%&=N7S!$'9!
GH*.)+./<#I'%3@@.@/<%#JK"1%A.%#1%'#L.@@%*@/<"4$%*D#M.$N3*)@5%'./<$%!-.B.J07!=4+(#*&(5!+>!&'6>Q)!$'9!O<%#F&++%/$%1#
L&'K@#&4#J+5%'$#7.*@$%.*6#%5>F!^!-.BCB09!..^F!8&)!'$64&>>+)!

720