Why exchange gases? A. Respiration the act of breathing B. The relationship between cellular respiration and breathing During activity, your cells (ex: muscle cells) need energy 2 RScolutor respiration converts energy in nutrients (ex: sugar) into ATP, the process requires a steady supply of oxygen (as final electron acceptor for the electron transport chain) and generates carbon dioxide as a waste product 3. Less exertion and rapid breathing (respiration) during activity ensures that you have enough oxygen C. The circulatory system also works with the respiratory system 1. Itextracts oxygen from air in your lungs > carries and supplies oxygen to each cell > picks up carbon dioxide for release in lungs D. Focus Questions How does breathing support cellular respiration? What does a lung look like, and how is it adapted for gas exchange? How do aquatic animals respire? How does the human respiratory system work? How is our breathing controlled? awn What are some evolutionary adaptations for gas exchange? ‘A. Gas exchange in all organisms rely on diffusion 1. Cellular respiration depletes oxygen levels and increases carbon dioxide levels > concentration gradient is created > oxygen can diffuse into cells while carbon dioxide diffuses out B. Common features of animal respiratory systems 1. Respiratory surface must be moist (gases must be dissolved in water during diffusion) 2. Celistning the respiratory system must be thin (to fcifate fusion of gases through ern) 3. Respiratory surface must have a large surface area (more contact with environment for gas exchange) C. Some animals in moist environments lack specialized respiratory structures 1. These animals can exchange gases without special respiratory structures because of these adaptations: ) The outside of their bodies have enough surface area for diffusion of gases (1) Thin and flat animals produce a larger area for diffusion b) In small animals, gases only need to diffuse short distances to reach all cells (ex: microscopic roundworms) 6) Inlarger animals, if energy demands are lou, the slow rate of gas exchange would still suffice (1) Injellyfish, cells that are far from the respiratory surface require little oxygen d) Some animals can bring the environment closer to their cells for direct gas exchange (ex sponges) (1) In sponges, sea water is circulated through channels in their body, allowing it to come in contact with all cells €) Other animals combine large skin surface area with a complex circulatory system (1) In earthworms, gases diffuse through moist surface then are distributed throughout the body by the circulatory system D. Respiratory systems facilitate gas exchange by diffusion 1. Most animals have specialized respiratory systems that work closely with their circulatory system to exchange gases between cells and the environment2. Gas exchange occurs in stages that alternate bulk flow with diffusion ) Inbulk flow, fluids or gases move in bulk through relatively large spaces, from regions of high pressure to regions of low pressure b) In diffusion, molecules move individually from regions of high concentration to regions of low concentration 3. Stages of gas exchange in respiratory systems a) The bulk flow of air or water (high in oxygen, low in carbon dioxide) past a respiratory surface (this is usually facilitated by muscular movements) b) Oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged through the respiratory surface by diffusion (1) Oxygen diffuses into capillaries of circulatory system (down concentration gradient) (2) Carbon diffuses out capillaries of the Circulatory system (also down concentration gradient) ¢) The bulk flow of blood transports gases from the respiratory system to the tissues d) Gases are exchanged between tissues and circulatory system by diffusion (1) Oxygen diffuses out capillaries of circulatory system (down concentration gradient) (2) Carbon diffuses into capillaries of the circulatory system (also down concentration gradient E. Gills facilitate gas exchange in aquatic SeKcs, FGURE29-2 An overview of gos exchange environments 1. Gills are the respiratory structures of many aquatic animals a) Found in mollusks and amphibians a b) They are adapted to have a large flow ‘surface area (1) Itconsists of numerous projections of ves ~ the body surface into the (eperculum) | ™ ae ‘surrounding water ‘ (2) Elaborately branched or folded c) Insome animals, gill size is determined ! by availability of oxygen in surrounding Ze | water bony sipports / (1) Salamanders that live in stagnant {operculum water have larger gills than those ranted living in welkaerated water (with lots FIGURE 29-3 _ Gills exchange gases with water of oxygen) ‘he gill reaches its greatest complexity inthe fish, whhow tit d) Gills have copilaries beneath their outer fost Lin nk coowerlgsel wot sll membranes so that blood is closer to ‘over the gil by pumping weter through the mouth «vi vl lip the surface where gas exchange occurs ) How are gills protected? ‘pening Beneath the Hap. (1) The surface of a fish's body protects the gill membranes (2) Fish can create currents over their gills by pumping water intotheir mouths then ejecting it through openings behind the gil (they can increase the flow by swimming with their mouth open) f) Gills collapse and dry out when outside of waterF. Terrestrial animals have internal circulatory respiratory structures 1. Terrestrial animals are land-dwelling where there is air (which has a higher concentration of oxygen than in water) 2. Extracting oxygen from air is challenging because it dries out external respiratory surfaces (which need to be moist) > land animals evolved respiratory structures that are moistened, supported, and protected from drying G. Insects respire by means of tracheae 1. Trachea- a system of elaborately branching tubes which convey air directly to the body cells ) Reinforced with chitin (which also supports the insect's external ‘ skeleton) b) Subdivides into smaller channels, called tracheoles (1) Tracheoles penetrate the body tissues and allow gas exchange \ trashene (2) Every body cellis close toa \ ‘pies fracheole > minimizes diffusion distance ¢) Spiracles- series of openings where —F.GURE 20.4. Insects brecthe vie rechoae air enters trachea The racheoe of insees, suchas this beale, branch incall (1) Located along each side of the throughout he body end open t the air trough spiracles i ‘abdomen eben wa HEIN hy ep oran (2) Have valves that open/close Cian (8) Some large insects use muscle movements of abdomen to enhance air movement through trachea H. Most terrestrial vertebrates respire by means of lungs 1. General description of a terrestrial lung a) Lungs are chambers containing moist respiratory surfaces that are protected within the body, where water loss is minimized and the body wall provides support b) The first vertebrate lung probably appeared in freshwater fish (1) Consisted of an outpocketing (turning inside out) of the digestive tract (2) Gas exchange in this simple lung helped fish survive in water where oxygen is scarce c) Amphibians use a combination of methods to exchange gases (gis, skin and lungs) - evidence for evolutionary relationships (1) Amphibians are in the boundary between aquatic and terrestrial animals (2) They use gils in the larvae stage, lungs in their terrestrial adult form (ex: tadpoles. ‘exchange gills for lungs when they turn into frogs) (9) Frogs and salamanders also use their moist skin asa supplementary respiratory surface d) Reptiles have scales that... (1) Reduce water loss through skin (2) Allow reptiles to survive in dry environments (3) Reduce the diffusion of gases through skin > lungs are better developed than amphibians | TIGURE 29-5 Amphibians and reptiles have different respiratory adaptations | [ithe bullfiog, on amphibian, begins life as a fully aquatic tadpole with feathery exiernal gills that will later be- BME yesssed re ociecine charie:(b] Dusky wetvncrphis nie en-ck meat ngiad hog, he alle are el | 1oplaced by simple sactke lungs. In both tadpole and adult, gos exchange also occurs by diffusion through the Ni), which must be kept moist fo function as a respiratory surface. (e) The fully terrestrial reptile, such as this mon- pve sno, iscovered wih dy scales tht restrict gos exchange through the skin. Repiion lungs ore more efficient 1 10 those of amphibians. QUESTION. How do the respiratory adoplations of amphibians influence the range of which omphibions are found?@) Birds and mammals are exclusively lung breathers (1) Birds have adaptations that allow very efficient gas exchange and support ‘enormous energy demands of fiying in high altitudes where oxygen is scarce (2) Special adaptation for birds is the air sac (8) Bird breathes > draws oxygen in lungs > oxygen is extracted and simultaneously pulled into air sacs (that are located beyond lungs) > bird exhales > oxygenated air from air sacs is forced back out through lungs > bird can extract oxygen even during exhalation (4) Bird lungs are filled with parabronchi (hollow, thin-walled tubes) which allow air to pass through them in both directions Lrypieatory syst (2) Parsoroneh nung tseue bird espralory sytem i extremly officers sir cs in tion oe longs hallow noe efi! gos ‘acon. bis, argos gon coed parsrench low oie tow ently voagh th lung ond fom fhe ai so Il How does the human respiratory system work? A. Two parts of the human respiratory system and other lung-breathing vertebrates 1. Conducting portion - consists of a series of passageways that carry air in and out of the gas ‘exchange portion 2. Gas exchange portion - where gases are ‘exchanged with the blood in tiny sacs in the lungs (alveoli) B. The conducting portion of the respiratory system carries air into the lungs 1. Apparatus- makes speaking possible 2. Conducting structures and the path of airflow ) Air enters nose or mouth and passes through the nasal cavity/oral cavity b) Air enters the common chamber pharynx then into larynx (the voice box) (1) Opening of larynx is guarded by the epiglottis Dopey (@) Itis a flap of issue supported by enone sm cartilage (F298 The Heimlich monewver can save lives (b) When breathing - it tilts upward to allow air to flow into larynx (c) When swallowing- it tits downward to cover the larynx so food can go to the esophagus (d) The heimlich maneuver i chong on eo anther obo od wale nich never panos upword ene v's fou thaw br foi Se(2) In the larynx are vocal cords (bands of elastic tissue controlled by muscles) (a) Muscular contractions cause vocal cords to obstruct the opening in larynx (b) Exhaled air causes vocal cords to vibrate > produces speed/song (stretching the cords changes pitch) ) Air goes past larynx into trachea (flexible tube with walls that are reinforced with semicircular bands of stiff cartilage) d) Trachea splits into two bronchi (single: bronchus), one leading to each lung e) Bronchi branch into smaller tubes called bronchioles f) Bronchioles lead to microscopic alveoli (single: alveolus) 3. Cleaning process ) Airis warmed as moistened as it passes through the conducting system b) Dust and bacteria in air is trapped in mucus secreted by cells lining respiratory passages ) Mucus is swept upwards by cilia (that lines bronchioles, bronchi, and trachea) towards pharynx d) When it reaches the pharynx, the mucus is coughed up or swallowed ) Smoking interferes with this cleaning process by paralyzing cilia 4. Asthma occurs when muscle tissue in bronchioles become hyperexcitable and mucus production increases (due to allergy/airborne substance like pollen) > bronchioles FIGURE 29-7 The human respiratory system {al Air eniers through the nasal cavily ond mouth and passes through the pharynx ond the larynx nto the trachea. The epiglots proven food from going down the Wachea, The trachea splis into two lorge branches, the bronchi, which lead into the hwo lungs. The smaller branches of the bronchi, he bronchioles, lead to the microscopic alveoli (which are enmeshed in copillares), where gas exchange oc) The pulmonery artery corties deoxygenated blood [i blue tothe lungs: the pulmonary vein corties oxygenated blood {in red back heart. (b] Closeup of aloo (hei interiors are shown inthe cutaway section) and ther surrounding capillaries. QUESTION. The novo| sages of mammals fend te Follow long, complicated, winding pathways, Why are nasal passages so convoluled? spasm and reduce diameter of airway > difficulty in exhaling because reduced air volume allows mucus-clogged passageways to collapse C. Gas exchange occurs in the alveoli which are adapted for gas exchange 1. Lungs provide enormous moist surface for gas exchange 2. Alveoli are clustered around the end of each bronchiole like grapes a) Twolungs have about 300 million alveoli b) Gives lung tissue the appearance of pink sponge ¢) Provide large surface area for diffusion (143 square meters) d) Capillaries cover 85% of their surface3. Walls of alveoli consists of a single layer of epithelial cells ss ssn: colagen capt endo q) It forms the inner portion of the i respiratorymembrane (gas @ exchange occurs across this, @ membrane) shea (1) The respiratory membrane er! consists of the alveolar 0,8 epithelium and layer of ia endothelial cells (2) The endothelial cells form airin the innermost walls of each aneots capillary and the outer wall co, of the respiratory o @ membrane e (3) Alveolar epithelium and capillary endothelial cells, ‘are fused together by FIGURE 29-9 Gas exchange between alveoli and capillories collagen fibers Th ol on cota wa oly eal ick ond oe (4) Alveolar wall and capillary Gholi joss iw daseeo snd fare sell boxrean walls are one cell thick> the lungs and crclotory #ysom diffusion distance is minimized 4, Alveoliare lined with surfactant ) Surfactant is an oil secretion that reduces surface tension and prevents the collapse of alveoli during exhalation 5. Lung disease emphysema caused by smoking causes alveoli to rupture > reduces surface area for gas exchange 6. Health Watch a) Tobacco smoke contains toxic substances like nicotine and sulfur dioxide that paralyze the cilia lining the respiratory tract > cilia can’t clean the particles inhaled > particles stick to the walls of the respiratory tract and enter lungs b) Carcinogens - cancer causing substances) ¢) Smoke impairs white blood cells that defend the respiratory tract > more bacteria, dust and smoke particles enter lungs d) The respiratory tract produces more mucus in response to smoke > with no cilia the mucus builds up and obstructs airways > “smoker's cough” ) Smoke particles also accumulate in alveoli > lungs are blackened > tissues are ‘exposed to carcinogens > higher chance of cancer f) Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) includes... (1) Chronic bronchitis ‘ung infection, coughing, swelling of respiratory tract, increase in mucus production, decrease in activity and number of cilia > disease in airflow to alveoli (2) Emphysema- occurs when toxic substances in smoke cause body to produce substances that lead to brittle and ruptured alveoli > lung loses spongedike ‘appearance and looked like black swiss cheese, loss of alveoli (oxygen deprivation of tissues), difficulty in breathing (3) Carbon monoxide is present in smoke and binds to red blood cells in place of oxygen > reduces blood's ability to carry oxygen > increases workload for heart (can also lead to reproductive problems because it deprives growing fetus of oxygen) (4) Smoking also promotes atherosclerosis (thickening of arteries) > smokers are more likely to die of heart disease (5) Smokers take longer to heal, their skin also develops wrinkles prematurely (6) Secondhand smoking causes bronchitis, pneumonia, ear infections, coughs, colds, and decreased lung capacity (a) Children are more likely to get asthma (7) Smokers who quit begin healing immediately and reduce their risk of diseases7. During exchange of gases a) Deoxygenated blood is pumped to the lungs by the heart b) Blood around alveoli is high in carbon dioxide and low in oxygen (because body tissues used oxygen up and create carbon dioxide as waste) ¢) Carbon dioxide diffuses out blood and into alveoli d) Oxygen diffuses from alveoli and into blood ) Oxygenated blood returns to heart and gets pumped to the rest of the body D. Oxygen and carbon dioxide are transported using different mechanisms 1. Oxygenis transported by binding loosely ©! TsnsPert of owsen (9) and reversibly with hemoglobin (large, © Oya tro Do aihes cage iron-containing protein in redblood cells) | trasavitny nat tere ao a a) Hemoglobin can bind to four een molecules of oxygen (eight oxygen Oo cases e atoms) ° b) Nearly all oxygenin blood isboundto en, hemoglobin se a ¢) By removing oxygen from plasma, é hemoglobin maintains concentration ° 2 @ gradient that favors the diffusion of o | fe ‘Oxygen into blood a 74 ° d) Hemoglobin lets us carry 70 times I more oxygen than if oxygen were carried by plasma e) Hemoglobin changes when it binds to = oxygen ; °@ (1) Oxygenated blood - bright cherry red ial (2) Deoxygenated blood - dark oo maroon red and bluish through e? skin ° 2. Cartoon dioxide transport a) 70% of carbon dioxide reacts with s. water to form bicarbonate ion (HCO) | @ c0xataes cuss (1) Bicarbonate ion diffuses into 7 plasma FHGURE 29-10 The chemistry ond mechan of gos exchange (2) Reduces concentration of carbon dioxide in blood and increase the gradient for carbon dioxide to flow from tissues toblood b) 20% of carbon dioxide binds with hemoglobin that has released oxygen (1) Hemoglobin that is bound to carbon dioxide is returned to the lungs (2) Reduces concentration of carbon dioxide in blood and increase the gradient for carbon dioxide to flow from tissues to blood )_ 10% of carbon dioxide remains in plasma E. Carbon monoxide (CO) s a toxic gas produced by combustion when fuel is not completely, bumed to form carbon dioxide 1. When carbon monoxide levels are high, it binds to hemoglobin and competes with oxygen 2. Hemoglobin bound to COs bright red like oxygen bound hemoglobin but cannot transport oxygen 3. People with asphyxiation have bluish lips and nail beds because their hemoglobin lacks ‘oxygen but people with carbon monoxide poisoning have lips and nail beds that are brighter red than normal F. Airis inhaled actively and exhaled passively 1. Breathing depends on a airtight chest cavity (if the chest is punctured it can collapse) 2. Outside lungs, the chest cavity is bounded by neck muscles and connective tissue on top and by the (a dome-shaped, muscular) diaphragm on the bottom Ce tes tough tue spay vale3. Breathing has two stages ) Inhalation - air is actively drawn in lungs b) Exhalation- air is passively expelled from lungs 4. Role of diaphragm and ribs in expanding the chest (inhalation) ) Inhalation happens by enlarging the chest cavity b) Diaphragm muscle and rib muscles contract > diaphragm is drawn downward and ribs are lifted up and outwards > chest cavity expands > lung expand as well because a vacuum holds them tightly against the inner wall of the chest > increased volume as lungs expand creates a partial vacuum that draws air in lungs 5. Role of diaphragm and ribs in collapsing the chest (exhalation) ) Exhalation occurs automatically when muscles that cause inhalation relax b) During relaxation, diaphragm domes upward and ribs fall down and inward > chest cavity decreases in size > air is forced out of lungs > additional air can be forced out by abdominal muscles contraction c) Lungs still have air after exhaling > prevents collapse of alveoli and fills space in conducting portion 6. During exercise, your deeper breathing can move several times more air through your respiratory system (2) lation (©) xhatation compress FIGURE 29-11. The mechanics of breathi [res from tho brain stimulate the diaphragm to contract {pulling it dove {01 During inhalation, rhyme nore m hr celine moscls satounding te bs fo contac [moving Pm up and curward). The owt an incioaso Inthe Teo ofthe chet coviy, coucing a tosh yf) Roloxcton of hese muncles exheotin) ellows the diaphy ‘dome upword and the fib cage to calapse, forcing air out of the lungs. QUESTION. Imagine that: Sealevel tovels 19 a high mountaintop, ond there males with @ muscular cortraction of exact th hed been hor habit whia at rast in her searlevel home, Would the resulting inhalation contcan a vok vos longer, smaller, or he some as a! sea level Why? G. Breathing rate is controlled by the respiratory center of the brain 1. Breathing occurs rhythmically and automatically 2. Muscles used in breathing are not seff-activating like heart muscles; they are stimulated by impulses sent by nerve cells in the respiratory center 3._ The respiratory centers locatedin the medula, part of the brain just above the spinal cor 4. Respiratory center receives input and adjusts breathing rate and volume to meet changing needs5. Respiratory rate is regulated to maintain levels of carbon dioxide in blood ) Carbon dioxide receptors in medulla monitors carbon dioxide levels in blood (when they detect higher levels of carbon dioxide, the receptors stimulate an increase in rate and depth of breathing) b) These receptors are very sensitive to increase in carbon dioxide c) Respiratory rate is less affected by changes in oxygen levels because normal breathing already supplies a lot of oxygen (1) Ifoxygen levels drop, receptors in aorta and carotid arteries stimulate respiratory center to increase the respiratory rate 6. When beginning strenuous activity (ex: running) an increase in breathing rate happens before any change in blood gas levels because when higher brain centers activate muscles they also stimulate the respiratory center to increase breathing rate